IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) 4. 1.0 li^iM II 1^ 111 1.1 2.2 2.0 1.8 1.25 1.4 1.6 ^ — ^ — ^ 6" ► V] <^ ^ /a ^l * '/ /^ Photographic Sdences Corporation 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER NY. 14580 (716) I '72-4503 CIHM/ICMH Microfiche Series. CIHIVI/JCiVIH Collection de microfiches. Canadian Institute for Historical Microreproductions / Institut Canadian de microreproductions historiques Technical and Bibliographic Notes/Notes techniques et bibliographiques The Institute has attempted to obtain the best original copy available for filming. Features of this copy which may be bibliographically unique, which may alter any of the images in the reproduction, or which may significantly change the usual method of filming, are checked below. L'Institut a microfilm^ le meilieur exemptaire qu'il lui a 6X6 possible de se procurer. Les details de cet exempiaire qui sont peut-dtre uniques du point de vue bibliographique, qui peuvent modifier une image reproduite, ou qui peuvent exigor una modification dans !a mdthode normale de filmage sont indiqu^s ci-dessous. □ Coloured covers/ Couverture de couleur n Coloured pages/ Pages de couleur □ Covers damaged/ Couverture endommagee •/ Pages damaged/ Pages endommag^es □ Covers restored and/or laminated/ Couverture restaurde et/ou pelliculie D Pages restored and/or laminated/ Pages restaur^es et/ou pellicui^es D Cover title missing/ Le titre de couverture manque I I Coloured maps/ Cartes giographiques en couleur D P»^:.a discoloured, stained or foxed/ Pages d^colordes, tachetdes ou piqu^es Pages detacheci/ Pages d^tach^es □ Coloured ink (i.e. other than blue or black)/ Encre de couleur (i.e. autre que bleue ou noire) ,/ Showthrough/ Transparence D D Coloured plates and/or illustrations/ Planches et/ou illustrations en couleur Bound with othar material/ Relid avec d'autres documents D D QuaSity of print varies/ Qualit^ in^gale de I'impression Includes supplementary material/ Comprend du materiel supplementaire □ Tight binding may cause shadows or distorticn along interior margin/ La reliure serr^e peut causer de I'ombre ou du U distortion le long de la marge intirieure D Blank leaves added during restoration may appear within the text. Whenever possible, these have boen omitted from filming/ II se peut que certaines pages blanches cjout^es lors d'une restauration apparaissent dans le texte, mais, lorsque cela dtait possible, ces pages n'ont pas 6td film^es. D D Only edition available/ Saule Edition disponibie Pages wholly or partially obscured by errata slips, tissues, etc., have been refilmed to ensure the best possible image/ '.es pages totalement ou partiellement obscurcies par un feuillet d'errata, uns pelure, etc., ont 6t^ film^es i nouveau de facon i obtenir la meilleure image possible. D Additional comments:/ Commentaires suppl^mentaires; This item is filmed at the reduction ratio checked below/ Ce document est film^ au taux de rMuction indiqu^ ci-dessous. 10X 14X 18X 22X 26X 30X y 12X 16X 20X 24X 28X 32X The copy filmed here has been reproduced thanks to the ganercsity of: National Library of Canada L'exemplairp filmi fut reproduit grdce d la f 6n6rosit6 de: Bibliothdque nationals du Canada The images appearing here are the best quality possible considering the condition and legibility of the original copy and in keeping with the filming contract specifications. Las images suivantes ont 6t6 reproduites avoc le plus grand soin, compte tenu de la condition et de la nettetd de I'exemplaire film6, et en conformity avec les conditions du contrat de filmage. Original copi'ss in printed paper covers are filmed beginning with the front cover and ending on the last page with a printed or illustrated impres- sion, or the back cover when appropriate. All other original copies are f'llmed beginning on the first page with a printed or illustrated impres- sion, and ending on the last page with a printed or illustrated impression. Les exemplaires originaux dont la couverture en papier est imprimde sont film6s en commenpant par le premier plat et en lerminant soit par la dernidre page qui comporte une empreinte d'impression ou d'illustration, soit par le second plat, salon le cas. Tous les autres exemplaires originaux sont filmds en commenpant par la premidre page qui comporte une empreinte d'impression ou d'illustration et en terminant par la dernidre page qui comporte une telle empreinte. The last recorded frame on each microfiche shall contain the symbol — *- (meaning "CON- TINUED "), or the symbol V (meaning "END "), whichever applies. Maps, plates, charts, etc.. may be filmed at different reduction ratios. Those too large to be entirely included in one exposure are filmed beginning in the upper left hand corner, left to right and top to bottom, as many frames as required. The following diagrams illustrate the method: Un des symboles suivants apparaitra sur la dernidre image de cheque microfiche, selon le ces: le symbole — ^- signifie "A SUIVRE", le symbole V signifie "F''^'". Les cartes, planches, tableaux, etc., peuvent dtre film^s d des taux de reduction diffdrents. Lorsque le document est trop grand pour dtre reproduit en un seul cliche, il est film6 d partir do Tangle supdrieur gauche, de gauche & droite, et de haut en bas. en prenant le nombre d'images ndcessaire. Les diagrammes suivants illustrent la mdthode. 1 2 3 1 2 3 4 5 6 OUTLINES OF aEA^EEAL HISTORY. I( BY W. F. COLLIER, LL.D., ADTIIOR OK "UISTOBY OF THE BttlTIsn -ririRE," " A IIISTOXH OF ENOUsa LITKKATURE," ETC. -<►- TORONTO: JA-MES C^MmiCLL AND SON 1869. BIBLIOTHECA ■'■'■t.i.' .. \t V/^ PREFACE. In the following work I have aimed at giving, of course in mere outline, a connected narrative of the principal facts in the History of the World. I have endeavoured to group them in such a manner as may help to indi- cate their relative importance, and show the bearing which one event or age has upon another. In my book entitled " The Great Events of History" I have described in succession the great landmarks of the Christian Centuries. The present volume takes a wider sweep, for it aims at filling up the gaps necessarily left in following out the plan of its predecessor, and thus presents a complete summary of General History. It is needless to enlarge upon the uses of such a work in small compass. We must know the history of our own country first and best : then should follow the his- tories of those adjacent lands, which ^;.ave influenced JV PREFACE. Great Britain most ; but it is also needful for every per- son of education to possess, in general outline, a know- ledge of the History of the whole Civilized World. And such knowledge can be obtained most conveniently from an epitome like the present volume. W. F. 0. Kdinbcroit, February 1868. ^ f CONTENTS. ANCIENT HISTORY. Adam to Babel, ... Abraham to Josepb, History of Egypt, ... The Hebrews, Cbaldoea— Assyria— Baby loi>^ Medo-Persian Empire, Other Ancient States, History of Greece, The Macedonian Empire, ... History of Rome, ... Chief Dates of Ancient History, THE MIDDLE AGES. FIRST PERIOD (176-814 A.D.). The Byzantine Empire (476-867 a.d.), Italy (476-774 A. D.), Persia (226-651 A.D.), Arabia to 753 a.d., The Franks to 814 A. D., The British Isles (449-827 A.D. ), SECOND PERIOD (814-1291 A.D.). The Mohammedans (753-1250 a.d.), The Crusades (1096-1291 a.d.), I'sgt 11 11 14 16 19 23 26 32 36 61 65 68 70 71 73 75 77 80 vi CONTENTS. Germany (814-1273 A.D.) France (814-1323 A.D.), Italy (774-1305 A. D.), Byzantine Empire (867-1261 a.d.), England (827-1399 A. D.), Scotland (843-1329 A. P.), States Rising into Strength THIRD PERIOD (1291-1453 Germany (1273-1'*'^3 /..d.), Italy (1305-1500 A.^.), France (1323-1483 A. D,), England (1399-1485 a.d.), Scotland (1329-1487 a.d.), Spain (1212-1492 A.D.), Portugal to 1498, Scandinavia, Poland— Prussia— Hungary— Russia; Byzantine Empire (1261-1453 a.d,), Asia in the Middle Ages, ... Chief Dates of the Middle Ages, A.D). 82 80 90 94 9U 100 102 105 108 112 115 118 123 124 125 120 128 130 133 i^ MODERN HISTORY. EUROPE. Britain from 1485 A.D., France from 1483 a.d., Holland and Belgium, Denmark from 1397 a.d., Sweden ar.d Norway, Germany Trom 1493 a.d., Prussia fmm 1525 a.d., Austria and Hungary, Switzerland from 1481 a.d., Spain from 1492 a.d., Portugal from 1498 a.d., . Italy from 1600 a.d., Turkey from 1453 a.d., . • •I ••• • !• 138 • •■ 156 !•• 172 • •# 178 • •• 181 ... 186 • I* 197 t.a 203 • •• 204 flit 207 • •• 216 • ■t 221 •ft 230 "^ Greece from 1820 A.D., Poland from 1370 A.D., £ussia from 1462 a.d., 0ONTKNT3. Vll P»g« 245 248 253 India from 1525 A.D., Persia from 1502 a,d., Ciiiua and Japan, ... ASIA. 265 272 274 NORTH AMERICA. United States, ... 13ritiah America, ... Mexico, ... ... ... ... Central America and West ladies, ... 277 290 292 295 Nine Republics, Braiiil, ... Guiana, ... SOUTH AMERICA. ••■ ••• 293 iJO-2 303 Australia, Tasmania, New Z calami, AUSTRALASIA. S04 305 r.0G Barbary Slates, Cape Colony, AFRICA. 307 ^ i I ■ I i .1 OUTLINES OF GENERAL HISTORY. We divido History into three portions : — 1. Ancient History, extending from the Creation to tlio Fall of Home in 47G a.d. 2. Mediaeval History, extending from the Fall of Rome to the Fall of Constantinople in 1453 a.d. 3. Modem History, extending from the Fall of Constantinople to the present time. ANCIENT HISTORY. The nations, that played the most prominent part in Ancient History, were Egypt, Phoenicia, the Jews, As>yria, Babylon, l*ersia, Greece, and Rome. ADAM TO BABEL. The Bible is onr oldest book of History. The first twelve chapters of Genesis narrate almost all we know of the 2000 years between the Creation and the time of Abraham. The date generally assigned to the Creation of Man is 4004 years before the Birth of Christ. Eden.— We learn from the Bible that our first parents were placed in a beautiful garden, probably among the mountains of Armenia; and that their disobedience of God's command not only caused their expulsion from Eden, but laid the whole human race ^nder sentence of death, as the doom of sin. 10 ADAM TO nABEIi. Deluge. — In tlio days of Noali God sent a great Flood to destroy the wicked inhabitants of the earth. Only eight persons were saved alive, being shut, with the various lower animals, in a great ark of gopher-wood, that floated above the mountain- tops and was laid by the subsiding waters on Mount Ararat. Almost every nation on earth preserves the tradition of an ancient Flood. This Dolnge, which lasted about a year and did not necessarily cover the whole earth, is said to have begun in the year 2349 b.c. Babel. — About midway between the time of Noah and that of Abraluim occurred that revolution Avdiicli dispersed the human race. Some descendants of Ham began to build a great tower of brick cemented with bitumen on the site of the city Babylon ; but God so confused their language that they could not under- stand one another, and they therefore stopped building and went away in different directions. Thus arose the varieties of race upon the earth. Each son of Noah was the jjarent of a great division of mankind, which has had its turn in leading civilization. The children of Ham began the great work, reaching their highest development in Egypt. Of the descendants of Shem the Assyrians, the Hebrews, and the Phcenicians played the chief part. But it was reserved for the sons of Japheth to rise into tho greatest nations of History. The Japhetic languages, otherwise called Aryan, are spoken from the Ganges to the Thames, and have lately ovei'spread nenrly all America. The Semitic tongues l)elong chiefly to the basin of Euphrates and Tigris, Syria, and the Arabian peninsula. The five great varieties of man are : — 'W I 4 ,1 1. Caucasian, inhabiting India, Western Asia, Northern Africa, and nearly all Europe. Colour chiefly white. 2. Negro, inhabiting Central and Southern Africa. Black. 3. Turanian or Mongolian, represented by Tartars, Chinese, and Eskimo. Yellow or olive. 4. Malay, scattered ever Polynesia. Chiefly brown. 5. American. Colour, copper-red. HISTORY OP EGYPT. 11 'f f 4 ABRAHAM TO JOSEPH. Origin of Hebrews. — A great Chaldrean Empire in Mesopo- tamia — a great Egyptian empire by the Nile — a Syrian centre of power called Damascus — and numerous strongholds of the Canaanites and Philistines existed, when Abram the Hebrew, born in 1996 b.c, was told by God to leave Ur of the Chaldees and travel westward with his family. Resting at Ilaran for a time, ho left it in 1921 b.c, being then seventy-five, and journeyed into the land of Canaan. There he grew rich in cattle, and was recognized as a powerful prince. So powerful did he become, that after the battle of Siddim — the f "st recorded in history — ho was able to measure his strength with the Chaldean victors, from whom he rescued Lot. Every reader of the Bible knows the story of Isaac, Jacob, and tJ oseph ; and can trace the wonderful thread of Providence in all that befel these men and their kindred, until the itimily — now increased to seventy souls — was led down to Egypt, to undergo a stern discipline of suffering, from which they were destined to emerge — the nation chosen of God, 1 HISTORY OF EGYPT. Mizraim. — Before the call of Abraham a great Hamitio power had grown up in the valley of the Nile. One of the early names of the nation was Mizraim, the name of one of Ham's sons, and a dual word, representing the division of the country into Upper and Lower Egypt. Memphis became the capital of the latter ; Thebes of the former region. Menes (about 2717 b.o.) is regarded as the first king of Egypt. But several dynasties rose and fell in the obscurity of early times. They have left, how^ever, monuments engraved with hieroglyphics, and vast stone pyramids, the tombs of their kings, to tell dimly the story of primeval grandeur. The pyraniids of Ghizeh com- memorate the monarchy of the Fourth Dynasty. 12 KISTOrvY OF EGYPT. Shepherd Kings. — In tlie Twelftli Dynasty an invasion of Semitic warriors, probably Arabs or Phcrnicians, >ver- 2080 tlirew tlie power of LoAver Egypt and seized Memphis. B.C. These conquerors are known in history as the Shepherd Kings. It was during their domination of about five hundred years that the history of the Jews tame first in contact with tliat of Egypt. Some scholars maintain that Abraham visited Egypt in the reign of Salatis, first of the Shepherd Kings ; and that Joseph was raised to distinction by Assa, fourth of the line. Exodus. — At a date variously given between 1491 b.c. and 1652 B.C., the Israelites, increased from a family to a nation, made their Exodus from Egypt. After having dwelt with their flocks in the land of Goshen, along the eastern edge of the Delta, for more than two hundred years, they found a champion and leader in Moses, who conducted them into the wilderness, after God had smitten the cruel Egyptians witli plagues that humbled them for a time. It may be noted that Pharaoh is a name common to a great number of the Egyptian kings. Thebes. — There lay in Upper Egypt on the Nile a city, said to have had a hundred gates, each of which could give egress to an army and its chariots. The traveller, who now views its ruins at Karnak and Uksor, beholds pillared temples and statues of a size so vast as to seem like the work of giant hands. This was the celebrated Thebes, queen of the Upper Nile ; and from this centre issued the power that finally expelled the Shepherd Kings. Sesostris. — The Greeks related the deeds of a great Egyptian king, Sesostris , but they seem to have ascribed to him deeds which were achieved by many heroes of the Nile. The monarch, whose renown is brightest and who best deserves to stand as the original of the legendary Sesostris, was Rameses II., a 1327 king of the Nineteenth Dynasty, who began to reign about **^* 1327 B.C., and reigned sixty-one years. He waged war 1266 ^^^^^^ *^^^ H'ttites, and carried the sword, some say, even to Thrace tnd Scythia. He ruled also over Ethiopia. He planned and began a Suez canal, decorated Thebes with temples, 1 msTORV OP EOYtT. 13 1 especially the Rameseum, and placed colossal statues of himself throughout the land. Egypt and Assyria. — ^The great empire of Assyria came into collision with that of Egypt, to the loss of the latter. Tiglath- pileser I. claimed to be the conqueror of Egypt about 1120 b.c. ; and an Assyrian dynasty probably occupied the throne for a time. Shishak, who defeated Rehoboam and took Jerusalem in 971 B.C., was the first of this race. Psammetichus. — In Psammetichus (6G4-611 b.c.) the glory of Egypt gave a bright but dying flash. When the oracle had announced that he, of the Twelve Princes, who should pour wine from a bronze cup, should rule the rest, this prince, standing last, and to whom no golden cup was given, filled his helmet and made libation. Another oracle promised him success with the aid of brazen men ; and they appeared, says the legend, in the shape of brass-mailed lonians, driven ashore by a storm. Forming an army of Grreek mercenaries, he faced the Assyi'ians, from whom he took the city of Ashdod, a frontier fortress in the Philistine country. The siege lasted twenty-nine years. His love of Greek and the Glreeks cost him dear ; for the Egyptian soldiers deserted him in a mass and went to Ethiopia. Later Events. — Necho, the next king, took Carchemish on the Euphrates, slew Josiah at Megiddo, and made Jehoiakim vassal- king of Judsca. But Nebuchadnezzar, King of Babylon, a new power risen on the ruins of Assyria, soon made Jerusalem his own. Under a later king, Pharaoh-Hophra, this conqueror is thought to have ravaged Egypt and reduced Thebes. A new conqueror from the East appeared in the Persian Cam- byses, son of Cyrus, in whose hands the capture of Polusium, the key of Eastern Egypt, left all the valley of the Nile — 525 b.c. A period of revolt followed ; but the final bloAv was dealt on Egypt by the Persians about 353 b.c, when Nectanebo, last king of the Thirtieth Dynasty, fled up the river into Ethiopia. Tn 332 B.C. Egypt fell imder the dominion of Alexander of Macedon, who founded on its shore the great sea-port and literary centre called Alexandria. One of his generals, named Ptolemy, 14 HEBREW UISTORY. received Egypt aslils fragment of the divided empire in 323 B.C.; and thenceforth for three centuries the Ptolemys were kings by the Nile. Hov; Egypt became a Roman province in 30 B.C. will be narrated afterwards. THE HEBREWS. Moses. — Prepared by forty years' residence at the court of Pha- raoh, and forty years' shepherd-life in the wilderness, Moses entered on his task of leading the Israelites towards the Promised Land. Miracles like the dividing of the Red Sea, the pillars of cloud and fire, and the sending of manna testified to God's special care of His chosen people. They halted for nearly a year by the dark mountains of Sinai, where amid thunders they received the Law; and they then wandered in the wilderness for nine-and- thirty years, partly as a punishment, but also as a means of teaching them reliance on Grod, and of enabling them to forget the idolatries of Egypt. The miraculous passage of the Red Sea inaugurated this long journey; the miraculous passage of the Jordan closed it. Moses caught only a distant glimpse of the land : it was reserved for Joshua to lead the now consolidated nation into the region of promised rest. Conquest of the Land. — The Canaanite races were defeated in two great battles : one fought in 1451 b.c. at Bethhoron, when the sun stood still — the other in the following year near thj Waters of Merora. But it took seven years to complete the con- quest of the land. The country was then parcelled out among the tribes — a region clad with green pastui-es, its hill-sides di'cssed with vine and olive, its forests full of honey. Judges. — Joshua died in 1426 b.c. ; and then began the period of the Judges, which lasted for 330 years. It was a troubled time, a succession of lapses into idolatry and fierce attacks by Philistines, Ammonites, Moabites, Midianites, and other foes, which called forth champions like Gideon and Samson. Samuel was the last of the Judges. "When the people demanded a king, he '-inointed Saul, a man ot great stature and dark vindictive spirit. J' I i HEBREW HISTORY. 15 i: 4: Kings. — Theocracy thus gave place to moiiarcliy. TIiC suc- cessor of Saul was David, the great lyric-poet of the Hebrew race, who, distinguishing himself at an early age by his combat with Goliath, was hunted by the unceasing jealousy of the king, on whose throne he was destined to sit. Having held his court at Hebron for more than seven years, David assumed the sceptre of the whole land in 1048 B.C., and fixed his capital at Jerusalem. His power finally extended from Egypt to the Euphrates, and from Syria to the Red Sea. He held an alliance with Hiram, King of Tyre, a city of Phoenicia which was already rising to commercial greatness. Greatest Splendour. — The reign of Solomon (1015-975 b.c.) was the most splendid period of the Hebrew history. His ships rode both on the Mediterranean and the Indian Ocean. His wis- dom attracted eminent visitors from the limits of the known world. And, as if to crown his reign with a surpassing splen- dour, for him was reserved the privilege of building that great Temple of God, whose cedar-work and gold, lilies and pome- granates are described with loving minuteness in the Book of Kings, and the prayer of whose dedication went up to heaven with the smoke of countless sacrifices. If the splendour was great, great also was the shame of Solomon's reign ; for, allured by his idolatrous wives, this wise king forgot his Avisdom, and set up strange altars in the land. The division of the kingdom followed the death of Solomon, Disgusted with the insolence of Eehoboam, Solomon's son, ten tribes followed Jeroboam, who established him- 975 self at Shechem, as King of Israel. To Rehoboam were B.C. left but two, forming the kingdom of Judah. Israel. — The history of Israel is a tale of b'ood and sin. The wickedness of her kings culminated in Ahab. whose wife Jezebel outdid her lord in crimes. His capital was Snmaria. Wars with Judah and Syria cost Israel much ; but a worse foe arose in the East. Tiglath-pileser, King of Assyria, carried into exile the tribes east of Jordan ; but a final blow fell on Israel, wlien her last king Iloshca yielded to the Assyrian Shalmancser ; and the 10 IITSTOUY OF JCDAII. ten tribes -wore carried into captivity — 721 B.C. The land was peopled with Baliylonian settlers, who, coalescing witli a few Hebrews, formed the luiclcus of the Samaritan race. Judah. — The kingdom of Judah held out during 135 years longer. Three reigns shine bright in its annals. The wise reforms of Jehoshaphat were somewhat tarnished by his fatal alliance with Ahab. Hezekiah, fired by the clo(|uence and wisdom of the prophet Isaiah, restored the ancient worship. And the pious Josiali contributed to advance the same good work. It was in Hezekiah's reign that the army of Sennacherib, King of Assyria, was destroyed in a single night, probably near Pelusium. Nebuchadnezzar, King of Babylon, was the evil genius of Judah. Reducing Jerusalem in 005 B.C., he carried off the flower of the Jewish youth into a captivity Avhich lasted for seventy years. Shadowy vassal-kings reigned for a time in the city of David; but the end soon came (586 n.c), and the popu- lation of Judah were all torn from their homes to pine in Babylon. The restoration of the Jews by the edict of Cyms. in 536 B.C., will form a new starting-point in their history. CHALDiEA -ASSYRIA-BABYLON. We have already mentioned great kingdoms that rose in the basin of Euphrates and Tigris — the cradle of the human race — and connected themselves closely with the liistory of both Egyp- tians and Jews. The twin streams, rising on opposite sides of Mount Niphatcs, enclose a great triangular plain, which became the seat of three successive monarchies. Of these the oldest was ChaldsBa. It Avas founded bv Nimrod, son of Gush, whose name is still attached to the great pyramidal heap of ruins called Bits Nimnul, built of bricks stamped with writing in wedge-shaped characters. Babylon was chief in the tetrapolis, or system of four cities, founded by this Hamitic dynasty. Chedorlaomer, defeated by Abraham, was a leading Chaldrean king. We owe to this ancient people the rudiments of arithmetic and astronomy. In 1518 B.C. a coalition of Arab I •*'» i < % hw HISTORY OP ASSYRIA. 17 4*4 ^1 y f # tribes swept, like a destructive simoom, from the desert, and overtlnew the Chaldeean power. Assyria. — This, the second of the great monarchies of tlio East, was fomided by Asshm", who left Chaldroa and marked out the site of Nineveh, near where the Great Zab joins the Tigris. Names bright with ancient romance meet us at once. Revolt- ing from the King of Babylon, say Greek legends, Ninus Avent on a career of victory, until he came to Bactra. Then the conqueror was conquered. For Semiramis, wife of a Bactriau noble, displayed such courage in the capture of the city, that she won the love of Ninus and became his queen. He soon died ; and outside the walls of Nineveh, which he had built, she raised a pyramid to his memory. And then the widow surpassed in military renown the husband she had lost, until a great defeat in India brought her to a check. The building of Nineveh was ascribed to him : to her, the decorations of Babylon. After a line of worthless descendants, the myth describes the extinction of the dynasty in Sardanapalus, an effeminate prince, who lived in his harem, dressed in woman's clothes, until the approach of Arbaces, satrap of Media, stung him to action. The effeminate monarch displayed the courage of a soldier, and, when liope was gone, heaped his treasures into a vast funeral-pile, and died amid its flames with all his wives. Assyrian history falls into two periods : the Upper Dynasty (1273-747 B.C.)— and the Lovrer Dynasty (747-625 b.c.) These periods arc divided by the Era of Nahonassar, who effected a revolution in Babylon in 747 b.c. After Nin, the head of the list, Tiglath-pileser (Tiger Lord of Asshur) and his son Asshur-dani-pal (the original of Sardanapalus, but totally unlike that mythic prince) are notable among the kings of the Upper Dynasty. To this time belong the winged bulls and lions, and the sculptured palace walls, which have been dug from the mounds by the Tigris. , In the records of the Lower Dynasty we find the names of another Tiglath and Shalmaneser, two kings already mentioned as the conquerors of Israel. But the most glorious reign in (1S7} 2 f 18 HISTORY OF ASSYRIA. Assyrian history was that of Sennacherib (702-G80 b.c). Besidos beautifying Nineveh with a magnificent palace, he turned to deeds of war. He fought with Babylon and with the nations of the west. Crossing Euphrates, he advanced until confronted by the Egyptians ; and then, turning upon Hezekiah, who had been encouraged to revolt, he laid siege to Jerusalem, exacted a tribute, and stripped the Jewish King of some territory. The sudden destruction of his army probably occurred during another move- ment upon Egypt. Some time later he was murdered in the temple of Nisroch by his sons. The vast Assyrian Empire, never better than a loosely tied bundle of petty states, then began to fall to pieces. And behind the mountains of Zagros, on the table-land of Lan, a power was growing, destined to smite it with destruction. Nineveh was rather a cluster of fortified palaces and temples, with occasional fringes of meaner dwellings, scattered along the bank of Tigris, than what is now understood by a city. For about sixty miles mounds of ruin exist by the river ; and out of some of these remarkable works of art have been dug. But the heart of the vanished city seems to be represented by ths heaps which are opposite Mosul, In 625 B.C., when Saracus was king, an allied force of Medes, Chaldteans, and Babylonians, the latter headed by Nabo- 625 polassar, a revolted Assyrian general, marched against B.C. Nineveh. The king resisted the siege. Until a flood of tlie Tigris swept a part of the wall away and admitted the foe. He then set fire to his palace ; and a great flame con- sumed his city and himself. Sabylon. — Babylon, which had never lost a cei'tain degiee of independence, and which had undergone a favourable change under Nabonassar in 747 B.C., now revived with new vigour. Nabopolassar (625-604 B.C.), having received this city for his services in the overthrow of Nineveh, set himself to consolidate his empire, But the clasping arm of Media was always round him on the ..ast and north. It was under his gi-eater son, Nebuchadnezzar, that the empire i HISTORY OP BABYLON. 19 V • readied its height of glory. Having in earlier life proved tho sharpness of his sword upon Egypt, he, during his reign of forty- thne years (604-561 B.C.), undertook other wars, in which the siege of Tyre and the sieges of Jerusalem stand out as conspicuous achievements. The former lasted for thirteen years ; the final destruction of the latter city took place in 58C b.c. Babylon, whose site was in the vicinity of Hillah, a modern Arab village, was a square city, at least five times as large as Lou- den, and traversed by the Euphrates like a diagonal. Its walls — ■ 338 feet high and 85 feet thick — w^ 3 studded with towers and pierced with brazen gates. Its palaces and its hanging gardens — a system of terraces formed, to please a Median queen, in imita- tion of mountain scenery — were among the wonders of the world. In 608 B.C. Nebuchadnezzar, among other Jewish captives, car^ ried off a youth named Daniel. To him we owe our most vivid knowledge of this great king. His di'eams and their meaning — the golden idol and the fiery furnace — and that terrible insanity of seven years, during which the greatest monarch in the world fancied himself a beast, are familiar stories of our childhood. Then came four kings, the last being Nabonadius. He made his son Belshazzar a partner of his throne ; and, when the sire fled before Cyrus to Borsippa, the foolish and arrogant son held sway in Babylon. One day, in a fit of unusual folly, he brought the sacred Jewish vessels, taken by Nebuchadnezzar, into the banquet-hall, and used them in revelry and idolatrous libation. A hand traced upon the wall words of doom, which the Hebrew prophet alone could read. That hour these words 538 were in process of fulfilment . Setting the Persians to turn B.C. the Euphrates from its bed, Cyrus made his way to the quays. The river -gates were not shut. The foe poured in ; and in the carnage Belshazzar was slain. Thus fell the Babylonian power in 638 b.c. MEDO-PERSUN EMPIRE. Medes. — On the table-land east of the chain Zagros dwelt a hardy Japhetic race, the Medes, with whom are always associated 20 IIISTOUY OF MEDIA. the Persians, who seem to have been the flower of the Aryan Btock. At first the Mcdcs were supremo, their kiiigdoh T>eing founded by Cyaxares about 633 B.C. This monarch achieved two things — he destroyed Nineveh in 625 B.C., and he extended the Median power to the river Halys in Asia Minor. Lydia. — There was then in Asia Minor, between the Hermus and the Meander, a powerful state called Lydia, a tenitory rich in gold and other mineral wealth. With Alyattes, King of Lydia, the Median monarch came into collision ; and for six years a war Avent on, until an eclipse of the sun, occurring in the midst of a battle, friglitened the combatants into a peace. Persians. — Astyages the Mode was dethroned in 558 B.C. by Cyrus the Persian. The Persians Avere a hardy yet poetic race of mountaineers, akin to the Modes. They worshipped the elements : their priests were the 3Ia(ji ; their great prophet was Zoroaster, who taught the worship of Light. Divided into ten tribes, they mustered a splendid force of cavalry and a host of skilful archers. From sucli came Cyrus by the father's side. Cyrus. — Both Herodotus and Xenophon exalted Cyrus into the rank of a hero of romance. The following is the current story of his early life. Astyages, having dreamed that his daughter's son should con- quer all Asia, entrusted to a courtier, Harpagus, the task of killing the little Cyrus, whose father was a Persian noble. Harpagus gave the child to a herdsman, who promised to expose it on the mountains. But the herdsman was led to substitute his own dead baby for the living prince, who grew up in a humble station. The secret was disclosed, when Cyrus began to lord it over his play-fellows, and beat them. A noble's son complained to the king; and the royal boy was recognized. Astyages took a bar- barous revenge on Harpagus, by cooking the courtier's son and g ser\ing up the flesh for the fiither to partake of. Cyrus B.C. '''''^^ ^^^^ *° ^^^ father ; and Harpagus bided his time of reprisal. When the time was ripe, he sent a secret mes- sage to Cyrus, who invaded Media, was welcomed by crowds «i f cJ i CR(E8US AND CYRTJfl. 21 it 'f. of deserting troops, and by tlicir aid overturned the Median tlirono — 558 B.C. Croesus. — This last King of Lydia was the most famous. The name of Croesus (5G8-554 ii.c.) became a proverb for groat wealtli. He it was wlioso boast of happiness was rebuked by Solon tho "Wise, with the words, " that no man can be called happy till ho dies." Extending his dominion eastward to the Halys, he was rash enough to measure his strength With Cyrus. The Persian suddenly appeared before the towered rock of Sardis, and put the Lydian cavalry to flight by forming his front line of camels, an animal hated by the horse. The siege of Sardis thci. began. A Lydian, who had dropi ed his helmet over tho edge of the rock and was climbing down for it, was seen by a Mede, who ascended by the same path ; other soldiers following, the citadel was taken, 554 b.c. When Croesus was mounting the funeral- 554 pile, to which Cyrus condemned him, he uttered Solon's n.c. name thrice in a mournful tone. Cyrus asked the meaning , of the exclamation ; and on hearing the story of Solon's rebuke granted life and favour to the fallen king. Asia Minor in general soon acknowledged the supremacy of Cyrus. Jews Restored. — The second gi-eat event in the reign of Cyrus was the conquest o TBabylon, already described. An immediate re- sult of his success was the celebrated Edict of 536 B.C., by which he restored the captive Jews to their own land, providing them with food and money for the journey, collecting their sacred vessels from the Babylonian temples, and even adding offerings for the Temple. Such was the fulfilment of the prophetic words, in which Isaiah uttered the very name of this king, so favoured of God. Death of Cyrus. — The twenty-nine years of Cyrus* reign closed in a war with the Massagetae, a Scythian tribe dwelling east of the Caspian. Tomyris, the barbarian queen, wreaked a brutal revenge on her dead enemy by dipping 529 his head in a skinful of gore, " to give him," she said, b.c. " his fill of blood." The sword of Cyrus extended the Persian Empire from the Indus to the Hellespont, from the Jax- 22 THE PERSIAN EMPIRE. nrtcs to the Syrian slioio. Egypt was tlio only important territory afterwards added to it. Cambyses. — 'J'lie son of Cyrus succeeded liini, and reigned for Bcvcn years (.')2()-r)2"J n.o.). The chief event of Canihyses' reign was his invasion of Egypt in 525 b.c. Led by a mercenary guide across tlio desert between rhilistia and Egypt, ho took Meinpliis, and soon afterwards forced the Egyptian king Tsani- meuitus to drink poison. Among liis efforts to extend his power in Egypt was the despatch of an army of 50,000 to destroy the temple in the Oasis of Ammon, now called Siivah; but the ex- pedition perished — probably in a simoom, although the current story asserted that they were whelmed in a sand-storm. Cam- byses gave way in Egypt to his wantonness and cruelty. He shocked the Egyptians by stabbing a calf, which they regarded as sacred. On one occasion, when a courtier told him at his own request that popular rumour blamed him for drinking to excesf^, he proved the steadiness of his hand and eye by piercing the heart of that courtier's son with an arrow. He also murdered his brother Smerdis, But a Magian impostor, professing to be Smerdis, proclaimed himself king; and, when the news reached Cambyses, ho went to mount his horse, and was accidentally wounded in the thigh with the point of his own dagger — 522 b.c. Darius I. — A few months saw the death of Smerdis, upon which Darius Hystaspes, a monarch second only to Cyrus in fame, ascended the Persian throne. Ilia reign lasted for thirty-six years (521-485 b.c). He organized the vast empire, making roads to every part, and so binding the distant provinces to the great centres of Persian power. These were Susa, the spring residence of the king; Ecbatana, his summer abode; and Baby- lon, the Avinter quarters. The power of the Satmj^s, as the governors of provinces were called, was checked by frequently giving the command of the soldiers and the administration of law to hands independent of them. Darius v/aged important wars in opposite corners of his realm. He sent soldiers into India, and he went in person across the Danube to fight with the Scythians. It was here that tho I IITSTOnT OP PIKENTCIA. 23 I :' Greeks kept guard over his bridge of boats, and Miltiadci* pro- posed to destroy tlie Persian army by breaking it up — a proposal foiled by the craft of Histiama. While Artaphernes, brother of Darius, was ruling the western provinces, Ionia revolted from the Persian King (501 n.c). This brought Greece and Persia into collision; and on the plain of Marathon (490 B.C.) the despot of tlie East learned a lesson, of Avhich more shall afterwards be said. He was preparing fur a second invasion of Greece, when a re- volt in Egypt turned him from the project. His death took place in the following year — 485 B.C. Later Events. — Nearly all that is striking in the history of ancient Persia henceforth interweaves itself with the story of Greece, and shall be more fully set forth there. Xerxes — the Ahasuerus of Esther * — who reigned from 485 B.C. to 465 B.C., recovered Egypt, but underwent terrible defeats at Thermopylaj and Salamis. He wus nmrdered by conspirators. Artaxerxes Longimanus (464—425 b.c.) and Darius II. suc- ceeded; but greater events happened in the reign of Artaxerxes Mnemon, to whose time belong the Retreat of the Ten Thou- sand and the campaigns of Age.silaus. It was Darius Codo- mannus who fought with Alexander the Great at Aibela in 331 B.C., and was slain by Bcssus, Satrap of Bactria, OTHER ANCIENT STATES. Phoenicia. — The land called Phoenicia, from the Greek Phoenice, " land of the date-palm," was a strip between Lebanon and the sea. Its shore, rich in good anchorage for ships, came to be the seat of great sea-ports, of which Tyre and Sidon were the most celebrated. It is probable that the population, originally Hamitic, was overwhelmed by a Semitic wave. Growing strong in com- merce, Phoenicia rose to bo the great colonizing power in the ancient world. The first step was naturally to Cyprus ; but it is easy to see how the rakish fifty-oared galleys would dart across • * Ahasuenis was a name applied to several Persian monarchs. In Daniel it repre- sents C} axares — in Ezra, Cambjrses — in Esther, Xerxe?. 24 HISTORY OP PIICENICIA. li to Asia Minor, visit the Grecian shores, cross to Sicily, from that centre reach Africa by way of Malta, and Spain by way of Sar- dinia and the Balearic Isles, and would even venture through the great gate of the Mediterranean and breast the waves of the Atlantic. In later times her ships reached the Canaries and the southern shores of Britain. Among their earliest colonies we find Gades (Cadiz) in Spain, and Utica in Africa. The legend of Cadmus, a Phoenician emigrant, v;ho founded Thebes in Boeotia, and taught the alphabet to the Greeks, is based on some early colonizing expedition. Sidon and Tyre existed — the former having the greater power — at the time that Canaan was divided among the tribes. These cities were included in Asher, but were not subdued by the Hebrews. A blow inflicted upon Sidon by the Philistines raised Tyre to higher power. W^ien Hiram, the friend and ally of David and Solomon, was king, the commerce of Tyre was very extensive. Her ships sailed to Tarshish (the south of Spain), and on another sea sought the gold of Ophir along the eastern coast of Africa. Phoenicia grew rich also by exports, of which the chief were the embroidery a) i glass of Sidon, and the Tyrian purple, a dye yielded by the local shell-fish, in the shape of a single drop of cream-coloured juice from each mollusc. There was also an active slave-trade. The marriage of wicked Ahab, King of Israel, with v/icked Jezebel, daughter of Etlibaal, Kin,:^- of the Sidonians, brought misery on the former land. This Ethbaal Avas a priest, who had suc- ceeded in overturning the dynasty and founding a sacerdotal power. The greatest of the Phoenician colonies was Carthage — the New City — founded near Utica on the African coast, in a central commanding position. Tlie legend runs as follows : — Pygmalion and his sister Dido were the great-grandchildren of Ethbaal. Dido's husband, a wealthy priest, was murdered by Pygmalion, who hoped to secure his i-iches. But Dido carried off the treasure, and sailed away with a retinue of discontented Tyrians. They finally landed on the African coast and built the citadel Ihjrsa, from Avhich grew Carthage. The story concludes \ I HISTORY OP ARAM. 25 i 4 by describing the suicide of Dido on a vast pyre, in order to escape from a marriage with the Libyan king. Tlie foundation of Carthage is assigned to the year 878 b.c. A probable conjec- ture supposes the real origin of this great city to have been the building of a factory by the merchants of Utica, to whom aid came from the mother-city. Tyre underwent several sieges, the most noted being those by Sargon the Assyrian (721-717 b.c.) — Nebuchadnezzar, King of Babylon (598-585 b.c.) — and Alexander the Great (332 b.c). The Persians under Cyrus gained ascendency in Phoenicia, and for a considerable time the Phosnician navies formed a far-stretch- ing arm of Persian power. The land of Phoenicia then came to be a prize contested by Syria and Egypt, falling to the latter in the days of Antiochus the Great — 198 b.c. Neither the foun- dation of Alexandria as a rival port, nor the subjugation of Syria by the Romans destroyed the commercial greatness of Tyre ; for she still gathered into her ships the riches of the East, and sent them abroad through the Great Sea. It was not until the Middle Ages that her light went out : and she became a " place for the drying of nets." Aram. — The descendants of Aram, one of the five sons of Shem, occupied the highlands of Syria and Mesopotamia. The city of Damascus and the state Hamath appear frequently in the history of the Jews. King David achieved a great victory over T-Iad- adezer, King of Zobah, and defeated also a great army from Damascus, which reduced that city to a tributary condition. Rezon, a servant of defeated Hadadezer, maintained a guerilla warfare among the mountains, and in the days of Solomon suc- ceeded in re-establishing the power of Damascus. Henceforth Israel liad a formidable foe to contend with on the north. Benhadad I. troubled Israel with war. Benhadad II. fought with Ahab, and received a terrible defeat at Aphek. Hazacl, servant of this Syrian monarch, smothered his master by laying a wet cloth on his face, and thus became king. He carried off the sacred vessels from the Temple at Jerusalem. But the end came, when Rezin was King of Damascus and that state had existed as a 26 STATES OP ASIA MINOR. kingdom for 235 years. Tiglatli-pileser of Assyria came against Daraascui?, killed the king, and carried off the people into cap- tivity — 740 B.C. Syi'ia rose into new splendour after the death of Alexander the Great, when one of his generals, Seleucus, estab- lished a dynasty, to which the celebrated Antiochus afterwards belonged. But the closing pages of Syrian history belong to the annals of Eome. States Jn Asia Minor. — Very early in history we find in the peninsula of Asia Minor the names of certain kingdoms, which are connected with the poetry and fable of the Greeks. Such was Troij or Ilion, besieged for ten years by a host of confederate Greeks under Agamemnon, King of Mycenoe. The fall of Troy is assigned to the year 1184 b.c. In the centre of the peninsula was Fhryr/ia, whose peasant-king, chosen in obedience to an oracle as he jolted in his waggon into the market-place, placed the cart in the temple. Tlie twisted piece of bark, joining the pole to the axle, formed the celebrated Gordian Knot, severed by the sword of Alexander. Midas, whose gold-creating finger and ass's ears are familiar to every reader of Greek mythology, was the son of Gordius. But far greater than these realms was the kingdom of Lydia, of which some account has been already given. The western coast and islands of Asia Minor became Greek at an early period. The ^olian Greeks settled in Lesbos and on the adjacent shore, where Smyrna for a while was their most important city. The lonians, an offshoot from Athens, occupied the two great islands of Chios and Samos and the coast between Hermus and Meander. Ephesus and Miletus were the chief Ionian cities. The Dorians held Caria and the adjacent islands, especially Rhodes. These Grecian States became tributary, for the most part — at first to Lydia under Croesus, and afterwards to Persia. HISTORY OP GREECE. Colonization. — From Egypt, Phoenicia, and Asia Minor colo- nists passed over the sea to Greece, and laid the foundation of her earliest cities. The story of the Trojan War is the first I HISTORY OF GREECE. 2T 3f occasion on whieli the Greeks appear prominently in history as warriors. The ten years' siege of Troy, closing in 1184 b.c, afforded brilliant material for early poetry : the great Epic poet Homer founded his Iliad and Odyssey on certain incidents and consequences of this war. The Return of the Heracleids — a movement of northern Greeks upon the south — was the second great event in Grecian history. Starting from Epirus, they descended into Thessaly, and afterwards conquered Boeotia. This was called tli.j JEolian Migration — 1124 B.C. A band of Dorians from the north slope of Parnassus moved, twenty years later, towards the Peloponnesus, and, crossing the strait, overspread the peninsula — 1104 b.c. Sparta. — Of the Dorian States, thus founded in the Pelopon- nesus, Sparta soon shot ahead. She owed her organization to the great lawgiver Lycm'gus, who commenced his patriotic toil in 884 B.C. To make the Spartan youth into brave and hardy soldiers, was the great object of his system of education. When his work of legislation was complete, he exacted an oath from the Spartans that they would make no change in his la»vs, until he returned from his travels : and he then left his native land for ever. Messenian Wars. — Sparta soon came into collision with Mes- senia, a grassy tract lying to the west. The invaders seized Amphea, whereupon the Messenians fortified Ithome. The first war lasted for twenty years (743-723 B.C.) ; the second, in which Eira was the Messenian stronghold and Aristomenes the Mes- senian hero, lasted for seventeen (685-668 b.c). The result was a dispersion of the Messenians in various colonies, of which one — Messina in Sicily — retains its name to this day. Athens. — As Sparta had her Lycurgus, so Athens had her great statesman Solon, who gave laws to the flower of tlio Ionic race. When Codrus, King of Athens, sacrificed his life to save his city from her Dorian assailants (1068 e.g.), the name of King was abolished, and Athens was ruled by Archons. Confusion took place ; and Draco issued a code of laws so severe that they were said to be written in blood. But it was upon Solon, a native of Salamis, that the great task of shaping the Atlienian Constitution 28 HISTORY OP GREECE. devolved. Named Arclion in 594 B.C., he relieved hopeless debtors, abolished most of Draco's laws, and organized the government. Before his death, which took place in 559 B.C., he saw the beginning of a revolution, which ultimately raised Pisis- tratus to the head of Athenian affairs. As Tyrant, which in its earlier sense simply meant a democratic usurper, he ruled wisely for many years, encouraging literature, and especially distinguish- ing himself by collecting in writing the scattered Homeric lays. Upon his death in 527 b.c, his power devolved upon his three sons ; and the survivor of these, Hippias, was expelled from Athens with the aid of a Spartan force, 510 b.c Persian Wars. — Greece and Persia soon afterwards came into warlike collisicr We have already seen how the great Eastern monarchy, founded by Cyrus and built up by Cambyses, was consolidated by Darius Hystaspes., who became king in 521 B.C. First War. — The aid given by Athens to Aristagoras of Mile- tus, who had taken up arms against the Persian monarch, drew down the wrath of Darius upon Greece. After a preliminary failure in 492 B.C. by Mardonius, a great Persian fleet sailed across the ^gean, under the command of Datis and Artaphernes. Hippias was on board. After reducing several islands, a descent w^as made on Euboea, when the town of Eretria fell. But th.3 plain of 3Iarathon was the final scene. There, between tlu; mountains and the sea, one of the greatest conflicts in history took place. The Athenians had no aid except six hundred men from Platiea. Their leader on the day of battle was Miltiades, who as Tyrant of the Thracian Chersonese had already 490 become acquainted with the Persians during a campaign B.C. of Darius in Scythia. Permitting the Asiatics to pierce his centre, this skilful general closed his wings upon them, and inflicted a decisive defeat, which brought the war to an end — 490 b.c. Second War. — Xerxes, the son of Darius, resolved to avenge the Persian loss at Marathon. After .spending four years in preparation, he crossed the Hellespont with a force of nearly two millions. Athens and Sparta united their strength to resist him. a HISTORY OF GREECE. 29 a Leonidas, with three hundred Spartans and five thousand others, withstood the Persian host at the pas, of ThermopyJce, between the sea and a ridge of precipitous cliffs. The defence was suc- cessful, until a traitor led a band of Persians by a path across the mountains, and thus enabled them to attack the Greeks in the rear. The Spartans died almost to a man : seven hundred brave Thespians shared their fate — 480 B.C. 480 The Persians, hov/ever, sustained a great defeat in the B.C. narrow stroit of Salamis, where the wily Athenian, Themistocles, forced the allied G-reek fleet to give them battle. Xerxes then hurried back to Asia, leaving Mardonius with 300,000 men to continue the war. This general was defeated and slain by the Greeks at Plata?a ; and on the very same day a victory, won by the Greeks on the promontory of Mycale in Asia Minor, filled Xerxes with alarm that these invincible Europeans might think of striking at the heart of his own em- pire in reprisal for his invasion. A colleague of Themistocles in the war against the Persians was Aristides the Just, the great political work of whose life was the formation of a vast Ionian Confederacy, at the head of which stood Athens. The Third Messenian War (464-455 b.c), and the formation in 445 B.C. of a Thirty Years' Truce between Athens and Sparta^ carry us on to the age of Athenian splendour under Pericles. Age of Pericles. — The leaders of parties in Athens now came to be Cimon, head of the aristocratic faction, and Pericles, who represented democracy. The banishment of Cimon left Pericles without a rival. Under him art and literature flourished exceed- ingly at Athens, and the foundation was laid of that intellectual supremacy, which Athens maintained over the ancient world. Peloponnesian War. — Before the death of Pericles, the rivalry between Athens and Sjxarta had broken out into a contest, known as the Peloponnesian War (432-404 b.c). Sparta, a military power, represented the aristocratic principle; Athens, a naval power, represented democracy. The Thirty Years' Truce was only half expired at the outbreak of hostilities. The immediate occasion of the war was a conflict between 30 IttSTORY OP GREECE. Corinth and one of her colonies, Corcyra. Sicling with the hatter, Athene excited the wrath of the Dorian Confederacy; and a Spartan army invaded Attica (431 B.C.). AVhile Pericles lived, his plan of warfare was followed; namely, the concentration of Athenian force within the city, and the devastation of the enemy's coasts with Athenian ships. But he died in 429 B.C. ; and his place was but poorly filled by the noisy Cleon. The revolt of Leshos from Athens, and the brave defence of Plakca against the Spartans were great events iv the earlier part of the Avar. The affair at Sphactcria, where the blockaded Athenians were relieved by Clcon ; and the defeat of the Athe- nians at Dellum in Uoeotia were also notable. Brasidas, the famous Spartan general, and Cleon the Athenian were both slain at Amphipolis, the victory remaining ■w'ith the Spartans. The Peace of Nicias (421 b.c.) then gave a temporary rest to the combatants. Though made for fifty years, it lasted only a few months. Alcibiades, a handsome dissolute pupil of Socrates, induced the Argives to renew the war. He then persuaded the Athenians to send an expedition against Syracuse^ a G-reek colony in Sicily. The command of the armament was given to Nicias, Laii^achus, and Alcibiades ; but the last-named, being recalled to Athens on a charge of impiety, contrived to escape to Sparta. The Syra- cusan expedition was a total failure ; and the attempt of the army to escape by land ended in ignominious surrender. These events of the Sicilian campaign occurred in 415-413 b.c. Alcibiades passed from Sparta to Sardis, where he made a friend of Tissaphernes the Persian satrap. By the recovery of Euboea, and some brilliant naval victories, he secured a triumphal return to Athens, when tears of joy welcomed him. But the intrigues of a hostile faction drove him into a second exile. Athens, with the madness that precedes ruin, executed six of her generals ; and a fatal blow fell, when Lysander surprised their beached galleys at iEgos-potami in the Hellespont (405 b.c). The siege and surrender of Athens in the following year brought tlio war to an end. We owe our knowledge of this contest chiefly to Thucy- HISTORY OF GREECE. 81 ditles, who wrote the history of its first twenty-one years : Xeno- phon narrates the events of the remaining six. Thirty Tyrants. — Thirty magistrates, called the Thirty Tyrants^ ruled Athens with the aid of a Spartan force, until Thrasybulus seized the Pineus, and deposed the rapacious archons. A Council of Ten was then elected. Athens stooped to receive Persian gold for the rebuilding of the Long Walls and the ramparts of the Piraius, which Lysander had destroyed. This was but one of many prcimrations, that were making throughout Greece, to curb the overbearing pride of Sparta. The expedition of Cyrus (401-400 b.c.) afforded to the v/orld a fine example of G-reek prowess and fortitude. Starting from Sardis, 13,000 Greeks, under Clearchus, a Spartan, marched to the Euphrates, and fought the battle of Cunaxa victoriously; but Cyrus was killed. Then began the Retreat of the Ten Thousand^ in which the historian Xenophon was their leader. Through Media and Armenia they struggled on to the shore of the Black Sea, whence they made their way home. The ascendency of Sparta was well maintained by Agesilaus. But a naval defeat at Cnidus (394 b.c.) shook her power ; and soon the Peace of Antalcidas was concluded (387 b.c), giving up the Asiatic cities to the Persian King. Sparta and Thebes. — As the power of Sparta shook, that of Thebes grew bright and strong. The two rivals sc on engaged in war. Phoebidas, a Spartan general, seized the Cadmea, or citadel of Thebes ; but the foreign garrison was expelled by a band headed by the brave Pelopidas. Athens sent assistance to Thebes ; and Pelopidas, chiefly with the aid of the famous Sacred Band, consisting of 300 chosen Thebans, secured the supremacy of Thebes in Boeotia. But Athens then deserted her ally ; and Thebes maintained the struggle alone. Cleombrotus the Spartan, with 10,000 men, was signally defeated at Leuc- 371 tra by Epaminondas and Pelopidas, who led only 6000 b.c. soldiers to battle, 371 B.C. The Thebans then began to invade the Peloponnesus ; but they were not successful in reducing Sparta. Arcadia, at first 32 HISTORY OF MACEDOX. their friend, broke off, ns Alliens had done, from their allianco. Pclopidas fell in a Thessalian war ; and at 3Ianlinca, facin.cc a, confederate host of Spartans, Arcadians, and Athenians, the great Epaminondas died of a spear-wound in the breast — 862 b.c. THE MACEDONIAN EMPIRE. Origin. — A fourth claimant for supreme power now arose in the north, where the kingdom of Macedon had been growing for about three centuries. Its territory was separated from Thrace by the lliver Strymon, and from Thessaly by Mount Olympus. A population of lUyrian and Thracian tribes, with a mixture of Hellenic settlei's, occupied the soil. Philip. — The residence of Philip, son of Amyntas, in Thebes, wl-'orc he was detained as a liostagc, afforded him an opportunity of studying Greek literature and politics. And, when he 359 ascended the throne in 359 B.C., he organized an army, L.c. which in liis skilful hand proved to be a weapon of victory. He began by seizing Amphipolis, and estab- lishing the military station of Philippi. Choosing a time when the Athenians were embarrassed with a Social War, which cost them the control of many islands, he interfered in the Sacred War, -which had arism in 857 b.c. between Thebes and Phocis. A victory over the Phocians left liim master of Thessaly : and he then laid vigorous siege to Olynthus, which he took and levelled to the ground. Meanwhile the great Athenian orator Demosthenes had been uttering the thunder of his voice in warnings, which his countrymen took but tardily. The conquering Northern then overran Phocis, and received a seat in the Amphictyonic Council. It was at Perinthus and Byzantium in the north that the Macedonians and Athe- nians first came into collision. The Athenians under Phocion forced liim to raise the siege of these cities. His sudden seizure of Elatea brought about an alliance between Athens and Thebes. But victory crowned the Macedonian arms at Chceroiiea (838 b.c); and Athens gladly accepted the humiliating terms of peace offered ALEXANDER THE GREAT. 33 "by the conqueror. A Macedonian garrison occupied Thebes. All things augured success to Philip, until an assassin named Pausanias slew him at Mgsd during the procession of a marriage — 336 b.c. Alexander the Great, aged twenty, then ascended the throne. Braced uith campaigning in Scytliia and Illyria, he fell sud- denly on Thebes, which had revolted against the Macedonian garrison, and put the inhabitants to the sword. Athens trem- hled in expectation of similar treatment ; but a plan for the conquest of Asia filled the mind of the ambitious youth. Leaving Antipater as regent in Macedonia, he crossed the Hellespont with a small army, and advanced to the Gmnicus — 334 B.C. A Persian army, lining the banks of this stream, could not v/ithstand the charge of the phalanx, •which Alexander led in person. He then passed victoriously through Asia Minor, among other achievements " cutting the Gordian Knot," which fastened the pole of a Phrygian car at Gordium. Meanwhile, the Persian king, Darius Codomannus, had been getting his ponderous army into marching order, and moving towards the scene of action. The monarchs of East and West met in conflict on the narrow plains of Issus, where the vastness of the Persian army proved to be worse than useless. The rout was complete. Darius fled with speed, leaving his mother and his wife as captives — 333 B.C. Alexander's next achievement was the reduction of Tyre. The siege cost him seven months ; but he built a pier across the strait, half a mile wide, which separated the island-city from the mainland, and thus gained access to the ■walls, which were battered and carried by storm. He then reduced Gaza, paid a visit to Jerusalem, and passed into Egypt, Avhose people desired to throw off the Persian yoke. The foundation of the great sea- port Alexandria, on the site of a village called Racotis, was a result of his sojourn in that country. But the invasion of Persia called him eastward. Effecting the passage of the Euphrates at Thapsacus, he marched through Mesopotamia, and then struck down the Tigris. Darius chose the plain of Gaugamela, twenty miles from the town o^Ai-hela, as the arena on which the decisive battle was to be fonght. The result (187) 8 i«1H 84 ALEXANDER THE GREAT. 331 B.C. was the same as that of Issus. A million of Persians were scattered by less than fifty thousand Greeks. Darius fled ; and Alex- ander, then aged twenty-five, was lord of Western Asia — 331 B.C. The murder of Darius by Bessus, Satrap of Bactria; the assumption of the Persian dress and manners by Alexander ; the foundation of other Alexandrias, still surviving in Heni and Candahar, followed, as the victor fought his way through Asia, past the Caspian, to the Jaxartes. He soon invaded Northern India. Crossing the Indus at AttocJc, he pushed on to the Hydaspes (now the Jhelum), and forced his way over that stream to fight with Porus, whose elephants lined the opposite hank. The monstrous animals, being goaded to madness by the Greek horse, broke loose ; the phalanx let them pass, and then pierced the Indian lines — 826 B.C. The Mace- donian King advanced to the Sutlcj ; but then turned back, and built a fleet to float down the Indus. The voyage took seven months, after which, leaving the boats to Nearchus, Alexander marched through the terrible desert of Gedrosia, and made Susa the head-quarters of his Persian luxury. There remains but little to tell. Bathing incautiously after a fit of hard drinking, he took a fever, which carried him off at Babylon in the very noon of his fame— 328 b.c. Agis of Sparta opposed Antipater, Regent of Macedonia, in vain. The Athenians, too, entered on the Lamian War (828-322 B.C.) to no purpose. A Macedonian ganison was forced upon Athens. Partition of the Empire. — The generals of Alexander con- tended fiercely for the fragments into which his great empire fell. The treaty of Triparadisus made the following division, B.C. 322 :— 1. Seleucu3 received ... Babylonia. 2. Antigonus )) ... Asia Minor. 3. Lysiraachus ... » ... Thrace. 4. Antipater >> ... Macedonia and Greece. 6. Ptolemy Lagns, » ... Egypt. I .(: ■it Asia Minor.— The kingdom of Asia Minor, soon after the HISTORY OP OREECK. 89 battle of Ipsm (301 B.C.), "broke into several indepemlcnt states — Bithynia, Pontus, Cappadocia, Pergamos, Galatia ; but these were gradually absorbed into tlic spreading Empire of Rome. Syria will be referred to under Roman history. Later Events. — The later history of Macedon was very changeful. After the death of Autipater, Polysperchon and Cassander contended for the mastery. Demetrius Poliorcetes, son of Antigonus, who called himself King of Asia Minor, de- feated the latter and relieved Athens more than once. A great defeat at I20SUS in Phrygia, where Antigonus was 301 killed, checked the career of Demetrius for a while, but B.C. he ultimately made himself King of Macedon. He was supplanted by Pyrrhus, King of Epirus, who himself gave place to Lysimachus ; but Antigonus Gronatas, son of Demetrius, re- covered the Macedonian crown, and founded a dynasty that lasted for more than seventy years. Philip V. and Perseus were the last kings of Macedon, which became a Roman province in 108 B.C., after the battle of Pydni. Achaean League. — The later history of Greece is a confused jumble of changing names, fruitless wars, intriguing and blood- shed. But two names shine out clearly, Arat'is and Philopoemeny both connected witli a patriotic confederacy called the Achcean League. This w'as a democratic association, originating with four towns of Achaia, but ultimately spreading over nearly all the Peloponnesus. Its main object was at first to withstand the Macedonian power. Aratus, a native of Sicyon, expelled the tyrant from his birth-place, and secured that city for the League. Being made Stndegus in 245 B.C., he was reappointed seventeen times ; and under him the Achiean League gained the adhesion of Corinth and Megara. Sparta, however, opposed the League ; and Cleomenes took the field and fought victoriously, until Aratus called in Macedonian aid. The battle of Sellasia (222 B.C.) ended disastrously for the Spartans. It was at this battle that Philopoemen, a young soldier of Megalopolis, first won distinction. He, too, became Strategus of the League several times ; and in the exercise of his duty razed the walls of Sparta, 86 OnUClAN COLONIES. and fovced the people to nbnii Hamilcar, father of the celebrated Hannibal. When Hannibal, aged twenty- nine, was elected to the command in Spain, he pushed the Car- thaginian dominions up to the Ebro, and besieged the city of Saguntum, an ally of Home. The city fell after eight months; and the Romans declared war. Hannibal resolved upon a daring movement- a march from Spain to Italy. Turning the eastern point of the Pyrenees, he crossed the Rhone, marched up the valley of that river 218 to the island of the Allobroges, north of the Isere, as- B.c. cended that river to the valley of Chambery, and climbed over the Alps by the pass of the St. Bernard. The march took about four months, and cost him 33,000 men — 218 B.C. Once in Italy, he lost no time. A cavalry skirmish on the Ticino — a battle on the Trebia, near Placentia — left him master of Northern Italy. In spring he passed into the basin of the Arno and routed the Romans in a fog by "reedy Trasimem" — 217 B.C. The citizens of Rome expected an immediate attack; but he turned in among the Apennines, from whose heights the cautious Fabius watched and harassed his movements. A disaster worse than any yet undergone awaited the Roman arms. On the bloody field of Cannce, strewn with the golden rings of Roman knighthood, Hannibal won a signal victory — as Mil- tiades had won Marathon — by permitting his weak centre to be pierced, and then enclosing the exhausted assailants with his wings — 216 B.C. So far all things smiled on Hannibal's enterprise. He met his first check at Nola, where Marcellus repulsed him in a sally. A winter at Capua disorganized his army and weakened his soldiers. And the Carthaginians would send him little or no aid. Several years of desultory warfare followed, during which the Romans gained gi-ound, taking Capua and Tarentum from Hanni- bal, who was hemmed into the toe ot the peninsula. ^ HISTORY OP ROME. 43 de. Meanwliile in Spain a young Eoman soldier — Publius Scipio— ■ was inflicting severe loss upon Carthage. Taking the Punic capital there, he reduced Spain to the condition of a Roman pro- vince — 206 B.C. Hasdrubal, the brother of Hannibal, escaped from the peninsula, and entered Italy by the same route as his illustrious brother had followed. Intercepting him on the Me- tauriis, a Roman general defeated and slew him; and the first intimation Hannibal received of his brother's arrival in Italy was the sight of that brother's bloody head tossed if! contempt into his camp— 207 b.c. Scipio then carried war into Africa. Forming a naval camp, he lay there for a winter. lie then defeated the Carthaginians at the Great Plains so sort^y that they called urgently to Hanni- bal to return. He came; and ou the plain of Zama the £nal battle of the war was fought. In vain Hannibal reserved his Italian veterans, and at a critical moment launched 202 them against the Roman lines. The victory went against B.C. him; and Carthage gladly sued for peace — 202 b.c. Forthis glorious termination of the war Scipio received the nan, iA/ricanus' Macedonian Wars. — When Philip V. of Macedon made a treaty with Hannibal, he put himself in opposition to Rome; and war speedily ensued. The first war (215-205 b.c.) was barren in great events. But in the second Flamininus com- pletely broke the Macedonian power at Cynosceplialce in Thessaly — 197 B.C.; and in the following year there was a great public demonstration in the amphitheatre at Corinth, upon which occa- sion the Roman Consul proclaimed that Greece ivas free. Per- seus, the successor of Philip, entered on the Third Macedonian War in 171 b.c. After some campaigns, which deluded Perseus with gleams of success, the battle of Pydna took place in 168 b.c. This triumph of the Roman arms overturned the Macedonian throne for ever. Syrian Wars. — In 280 b.c. Seleucus Nicator founded a dynasty, under which Syria flourished and grew great. An uneventful period passed away, until, in 223 B.C., Antiochus III., or the Great, ascended the throne. A great object of this monarch's ambition 44 HISTORY OF ROME. I was the conquest of all Asia Minor; and in alliance with Philip of Macedon he engaged in operations hurtful to Rome. The reception of exiled Hannibal at Ephesus placed him in more open hostility; so that when the -^tolians, discontented with the Romans for preference shown towards the Achasan League, invited him into Greece, he was nothing loath to go. He seized EuboRa, but in the following year was defeated at Thermopylte, and driven into Asia, whither the two Scipios followed him. He made a sta#d at Mwjnesia in Lydia; but was totally defeated there. The chief terms of his submission were the surrender of all his territory north of Taurus, and the giving up of Hannibal to tlip Romans. Hannibal, however, had time to escape to iiithynia, where he killed himself with poison. Third Punic War. — Cato the Censor, a stern foe to the luxury that was creeping into fashion at Rome, as a result of intercourse with the East, excited a Third Punic War by ending all his speeches with the words, " Carthage must be destroyed." The liumbled Carthaginians made several concessions; but. when Rome proposed to raze their city by the sea and send them to live inland, they prepared for v/ar. The Sle(je of Carthage (149-146 B.C.) was the one event of this final struggle. The women gave their tresses to make bow-strings; the men poured out their blood in vain. Under the command of Scipio, the adopted son of the elder Africanus, the Roi^ians gained entrance to the city; and at length reduced the Citadel. This success formed the Carthaginian territory into a Roman province, under the name of Libya, In the same year— 146 b.c. — the Roman Consul Mummius, having gained the battle of Leucopetra, committed Corinth to the flames. Thus Rome became supreme on nearly every shore of the Mediterranean. Spain and Sicily.— It took time and trouble finally to sabdue Spain. Cato the Censor smote the people with an iron hand. Sempronius Gracchus made a treaty with them in 179 b.c. But under Viriathi;s they mjiintained warfare in Lysitania (Portugal), WIJ PW WH "^ W" t' HISTORY OF ROME. 45 to n-liilc tlic Coltiberians of Castile collected their strength in Nu- uiantia, which defied the Romans, until Scipio Africanus the younger reduced it in 13o u.c. An insurrection of slaves in Sicily, who fixed their stronghold at Enna, also created much anxiety at Rome, until suppressed by Rupilius. The Gracchi. — Class was once more arrayed against class in Rome. The Optimafes, or new nobility, contended bitterly with the Populares, or masses of the people. Tiberius Gracchus, being elected Tribune, proposed an Agrarian Law, to Hniit the quan- tity of land held by individuals, and to divide tne surplus land among the poor. Octavius pronounced the veto; but Gracchus, too strong for him, secured a vote of the Tribes expelling Octa- vius from the tribuneship. But at the Capitol, having raised his hand to his head, the action was interpreted to mean that he sought a crown; and, a mob of Senators rushing out with clubs, he was beaten to death — 133 B.C. Ten years later, his brother Caius was made Tribune. He harped ceaselessly on the death of Sempronius, but also proposed many laws for the benefit of the people. His arch-foe Opimius, being made Consul, excited the Patrician fury against him, and a conflict took place, in which the ex-Tribune was slain — 121 n.c. Jugurthine War. — Jugurtha having usurped the entire king- dom of Numidia, the Romans entered on a war with him. Metellus held the chief command; but his lieutenant Marius dis- placed him. The capture of Jugurtha, however, which ended the war, was due to a young officer of cavalry named Sulla. Here we find, in close connection, the names of two men, whose later contest for supremacy deluged Rome with blood. The Jugurthine war lasted six years — 111-105 B.C. Gallic and Servile Wars. — A great movement of Grallic tribes — the Teutones and the Cimbri — upon Northern Italy was baffled by the victory of Aix, won in 102 b.c. by Marius ; and that on the Raudian Plain near Vercellje, won in the following year. A second Slave War, crushed by Aquillius, belongs to the same time. Social or Marsic War. — When the Roman franchise was re* 40 IIISTOUY OF HOME. i 1 fused to tlic Italian Allies, tlio latter, among whom tlic foremost were the warlike JMarsians, fixed on Corfinimn as a rival capital, and took the field, at first with much success. The Julian Law, granting the franchise to some, .allayed the hostility a little; but some of the allies held out, until Sulla brought the war to a close (90-88 B.C.). Marius and Sulla. — A contest between Marius and Sulla for the command in the Mithridatic War caused the latter to lead his soldiers to Borne, whence Marius fled. After some perils on the Italian coa* the old man found his way to Africa. Sulla meanwhile besieged and burned Athens. Taking advantage of intestine struggles, Marius, upon the invitation of an expelled Consul, returned to Italy, and entered Rome. For a week a dreadful massacre continued — 87 u.o. Marius and Cinna became Consuls without election; and, a fortnight later, the fonner died. Sulla, having enriched his soldiers with the spoils of Asia, conducted his army across Greece and landed at Brundusium. His chief opponents were Carbo and young Marius. The array of the former, leagued with the Samnites, was defeated by Sulla at the Collinc Gate of Rome, and the fall of Pra?neste drove Marius to suicide. The blood of massacre then flowed a second time — in a yet greater stream. Lists of proscription were pub- lished every day; and the porch of Sulla's house w.'is full of heads. Calling himself Dictator, Sulla then proceeded to reform the State after its ancient constitution. Of the changes he made, the Criminal Code Avas the most successful. Previous to his death (78 B.C.), he passed two years in luxurious ease at Putcoli. Sertorian and other Wars.— The boldest stand for the Marian cause was made in Spain by Sertorius. Pompey opposed him ; but with little success, until the brave Spaniard was murdered. A war, kindled by Spartacus a gladiator, who had escaped from Capna, was crushed by Crassus ; and Pompey swept the Mediterranean clear of pirates, especially by a blow inflicted at Coracesium on the Cilician coast. Mithridatic Wars.— A Second Mithridatic War took place (83-81 B.C.). The Thn-d, arising from an interference of the JEWISH HISTORY. 47 Pontic King with Bithynia, began in 74 B.C. LucuUus took Sinopc; and Mithrirlates fled into Armenia. But Lucullus was soon supplanted by Pompey, who continued the Armenian War. Mithridates took poison in 63 B.C., previous to which Pompey made Sjo-i?. a Roman province, and devoted three months to the siege of Jerusalem. This is a conveiSient place to take up the thread of Jewish history for a time. Jewish History (536-37 b.c.).— The Edict of Cyrus brought a portion of the nation under Zerubbabel back to Palestine, where after some years a new Temple (the second) mose — 515 b.c. From the time of Cyrus to that of Alexander the land was a part of the Persian Empire, its affairs being ruled by high -priests. A Jew named Mordccai was made prime minister at the Persian court of Xerxes, as related in the story of Esther; and in the time of Artaxcrxes, two Jews — Ezra, a priest, and Nehemiah, cup-bearer to the King — distinguished themselves by refonning and organizing the Jewish people, and putting Jerusalem in a state of defence. The chief trouble of the restored nation came from Samaria, which was occupied Avitli a mixed population of Babylonians and renegade Israelites, who set up a rival temple on Mount Gerizim. Alexander the Great visited Jerusalem, and, it is said, offered sacrifice in the Temple. "When Alexander's empire wa,4 torn to pieces by his generals, Ptolemy the son of Lagus took Palestine, which remained under the rule of Egypt for a century, enjoying a peaceful prosperity for a considerable time. It then became a subject of contention between Egypt and Syria, and fell into the power of the latter in 198 B.C., when Antiochus the Great defeated the Egyptians at Panium near the source of the Jordan. The struggles of an Egyptian and a Syrian faction then con- vulsed the nation, which began to be affected too by influences from Greece. When Antiochus IV. took Jerusalem by storm, lie offered up swine on the altar, in order to destroy the Jewish veneration for their religious rites. This and other oppressions roused the Jews to a struggle for independence. The publication of an edict commanding uniformity of worship '' 48 JEWISU IIISTOlir. after the Syrian fashion excited a priest named Mattathias, then dwelling at Modin, to revolt. He slew an officer of Antiochus and pulled down the heathen altar. The Jews rallied round him, and the work of reformation spread. But Mattathias, old and feeble, died in 107 B.C., leaving the war to his five sons. The third of these was the famous Judas Maccabaeus,* from whose surname the whole family received the name of Maccabees. They were also called the Asinonccan line, from Chasnion an ancestor. In a succession of victories — at Betlioron, Emmaus, and Bcthsura'judas routed the Syrian armies, and won an entrance into Jerusalem. There he restored the sei"vice of the Tcmj)le. When the successor of Antiochus IV. marched to relieve the Syrian garrison of Mount Zion, Eleazar, one of the ]\Iaccabees, crept under an elephant and stabbed it. The deed cost him his life, but taught the Jews, previously terrified by the monsters, that elephants were not invincible. The victory of Adasa — IGl b.c, — Avon over the Syrians by Judas, all l)ut secured the independence of the insurgents. The Maccabee then sought alliance with Kome, which the Senate granted. But at this critical time, in face of a Syrian army, the Assida?ans, or adherents of the Law, deserted the standard of Judas, and left him to die at Eleasa with 800 followers. Jonathan, the youngest brother, continued the struggle for independence, which was formally acknowledged by Syria in 143 B.C. This was the first year of Simon's rule. The peace and prosperity conferred on the land by this last of the Macca- bivan brothers was ill repaid by his murder at a banquet at Jericho in 135 B.C. John Hyrcanus relieved Judtea from the Syrian yoke, which had been almost replaced — 128 B.C.; and lie succeeded too in con- quering Samaria and Idumtca. From the tumults of this time sprang the Pharisees and Sadducees, sects whose names aro familiar to us in the Gospels. The Asmona^ans then exchanged the mitre for the crown, the bloody Aristobulus being the first king — 106 b.c. * Maccabaus probably means a hammer. Compare the name of diaries Martct, HISTORY OF HOME. 40 Wlicn Ponipcy inviulod Asia, tlicrc Avas a contest for tlio tlironc of Judtva botwcou two brotlicrs, Aiistobulus II. and Ilyr- caiius, tlic latter of wlioin was guided by tlic counsels of a wily Idunia?aii noble, named Antipater. Tlie adbovcnts of Avistobulus defied tlic ]{oinan battering -engines in Jerusalem fur tbree months — G3 u.c; but Pomi)cy Avas finally victorious. In order to preserve the connection, it may be well here to glance forward a few years. Out of the tumults of the time Antipater shaped a way for liimsclf, and became Procurator of Judiva. His £ e ^ s 8 1 3 signalized by tho erection of a new capital, where Byzantium stood by the Bosporus. On the day of dedication in 380 A.D. the name of New Home was given to the city: 330 but this was soon exchanged for Constantinople {Stam- a.d. loul). There is a tendency to call Constantino the first Christian Emperor of Rome ; but he gave little evidence that his profession of the Christian faith was sincere. The reign of Julian (361-363 a.d.) is notable for his unavailing efforts to o'.eriurn Christianity and restore the worship of the old Roman idols. It was a complete failure ; though he applied to the task all the philosophy that the works of Plato could teach him. His name — Julian the Apostate — was bestowed owing to his public renunciation of Christianity, while ho was governor of Gaul. AVhile Valens and Valentinian reigned, the Roman Empire was finally divided into East and West — 364 a.d. The fall of the latter half closes the record of Ancient History. It was a fatal day for Rome when Valens permitted a million of Goths, pressed hard by the Huns, to settle in 376 a.d. south of the Danube, which had hitherto been the great barrier of the Roman Empire on tho north. In two years he was engaged in war with them, and was soon slain near Adrianople. And in exactly a centiny after this blunder Rome fell. Theodosius, becoming Emperor in 379 a.d., fixed his camp at Thessalonica, whence he assailed and repelled the Goths. But his death in 395 a.d. left two feeble sons, Arcadius and Honorius, to face a task too strong for them. Honorius abandoned Rome and hid himself among the swamps and pine-trees of Ravenna, Avhen he heard that a great chieftain of the Goths, named Alaric, who had wrested from Arcadius the sway over Illyricum, was coming into Italy. There was indeed a Roman general, Stilicho, al)le to withstand the invader : but Honorius killed him ; and the Goths swept round Rome, clamouring for the destruction of the ancient city. In 410 a.d. the capital of the Caesars was for a week a prey to the ruthless barbarians. Genseric, at the head of the Vandals, overran Africa; and a worse ij i i ¥ go KND OF ROMAN HISTORY. than eltlicv Aliuic or Genseric appeared iu the person of Attiln tlie Ilun, who invaded Ganl in 451 a.u. Tlie decisive battle of Chalons, won by Aetius and Thcodoric, checked his career for a time ; but he turned into Italy and menaced Home, until the prayers or the offerings of Bishop Leo induced him to spare the city. The next miserable event in the story of Eome is the sack of the city in 455 a.d. by the Vandals and Moors. Leo tried to soften the barbarous heart again; but failed this second time. The glories of art were strewn in shapeless pieces through the streets. In the later days of Home, Count Ricimer, son of a Suevian chief, made and unmade nionarchs as he pleased; and in 472 A.D., a month or so before he died, he gratified his instincts by plundering Rome. Romulus Augustulas, whose name might have kindled some spark of the ancient fire in the breast of him who bore it, was the last of the Roman Emperors. Odoacer, 476 chief of the Heruli, a Gothic tribe, was proclaimed King A.D. of Italy in 47(3 a.d., when Augustulus was pensioned off, and went to live at Misenum . Thus ended Ancient History. Eastern History. — The kingdom of Syria, even before tho time of Antiochus the Great, Avas beginning to break asunder. Arsaces declared liimself independent in Parthia in 256 B.C.; and one of his successors, Mithridates I., conquered Asia between the Euphrates and the Indus. The Mithridatic Wars of Rome have been already mentioned. It was in Parthia, fighting against Orodes, that Crassus was slain ; and there was a grim Immour in the victor's rebuke of avarice by pouring melted gold into tho mouth of the dead Roman. The Parthian cavalry were difficult to subdue, owing to their method of shooting arrows backward as they fled. Phraates IV. defeated Antony iu 35 B.C. : and later kings came in collision with Nero and with Trajan, by the latter of whom Parthia was reduced. In 226 A.D. a new Persian Empire was established on the over- thrown Parthian Kingdom by Artaxerxes, son of Sassan ; from whom a dynasty, reigning more than four centuries (226-651 a.d.), was called the Sassanides. The second of tiiose monarchs — Sapor I. — took prisoner the Roman Emperor Valg.'ian ; but was I AXCIEN'T CHRONOLOGY. Gl RUlidued ill turn by Auiclian. Another — Sapor II. — was sue* cessfnl against Constantino, and extended his conquests to India Armenia too broke off from Syria in two parts — Major and Minor. Tigrancs, ruling Armenia Major, joined Mithridatcs against the Romans — 80 B.C. Dejotarns was raised Ly Pompey in G4 B.C. to tlie throne of Armenia Minor, wliich afterwards was probably joined to Major. Armenia became a llonian province in 114 A.D. : and was conquered by Persia in 412 a.d. I CHIEF DATES OP ANCIENT HISTORY. The Deluge (TJssher), ... ... ... ... ... Kjiypt invaded by the Shepherd Kings, ... ... Call of Abraham, ... ... ... ... Chaldasa overrun by Arabs, Exodus of Israelites from Egypt (Ussher), ... Period of Hebrew Judges begins, ... Rameses II. (Sesostris) reigns in Egypt, fall of Troy, JEolian migration in Greece, Dorian i^igration, Death of Codrus at Athens, David King of all Israel, ... ... ... Reign of Solomon, ... ... ... ... ... Foundation of the Jewish Temple, Division of the kingdom into Israel and Judah, ... Probable foundation of Carthage, ... Legislation of Lycurgus, ... Reputed foundation of Rome, Era of Nabonassar, ... ... ... ... First Messenian War, Captivity of Ten Tribes— End of Israel as a kingdom, Reign of Sennacherib in Assyria, ... Reign of Psamraetichus in Egypt, ... Destruction of Nineveh by Cyaxares, Reign of Nebuchadnezzar at Babyl n, ... ... .» SIXTH CENTUli: Solon Archon at Athens, ... Kingdom of Judah overthrown, Revolution of Pisistratus at Athens, Cyrus founds the Persian Empire, Reign of Croesus in Lydia, Cyrus takes Babylon, B.C. B C, 2349 2080 1921 1513 1491 142(J 1327-1266 1184 1124 1104 1063 1048 1015-975 1012 975 884 878 753 747 ... 743-23 721 ... 702-680 ... 664-611 625 ... 604-661 594 686 660 658 633 r I 62 ANCIENT CHRONOLOGY. Restoration of Jews bj' Cyrus, Death of Cyrus, ... Pisistratids expeileil from Athens, Tarquins expellctl from Rome, ... ... ••• FIFTH CENTURY, B.C. First secession of Roman Piebs, First Persian invasion of Greece under Darius I., ... Battle of Marathon, Invasion of Greece by Xerxes, Dattles of Thcrmopyloe and Salarais, ... ... Twelve Tables at Rome, ... ... ... ... Alliens under Pericles, ... ... Peloponnesian War, ... ... ... ... Battle uf Dclium,... ... ... ... ... Peace of Nicias, ... ... ... ... ... Siege of Syracuse, ... ... ... ... . Battle of Cunaxa, FOURTH CENTURY, P.O. Death of Socrates, Sack of Rome by the Gauls, ... ... Theban War, ... ... ... ... ... Liciuian Rogations passed at Rome, Reign of Philip of Macedon, Reign of Alexander the Great, Battle of Arbela, ... ... ... ... ... Surrender of Romans at C^udine Forks, ... ... Battle of Ipsus— Third partition of the Macedonian Empire, THIRD CENTURY, B.C. Defeat of the Saranites at Sentinum, Pyrrhus defeated at Beneveutum, ... First Punic War, Aratus head of the Achsean League, Siege of Saguntum, ... ... .*. Second Punic War, Battle of Cannaj, ... Battle of Zama, ... SECOND CENTURY, B.C. Philopoemen abolishes the laws of Lycurgus, Cato Censor at Rome, Battle of Pydna overthrows Macedonian Monarchy, ... Fall of Carthage and of Corinth, ... Time of the Gracchi, Marks made Consul, , 8.C. «•• 636 • •• 629 • !• 610 • •• 609 • •• 494 • I* 492 • •• 490 ... 480 • •• — • §■ 460 • •• 415-29 • •• 432-Oi • *• 424 • •• 421 • t« 415-13 • •• 400 tt» 399 «*• S90 • •• 332-62 • •• 367 • •f 359-36 ■ •• 335-23 • •• 331 • •• 321 ■ •• 301 • *• 295 *•# 275 • ■• 263-41 • •• 245 ■ *• 219 *>• 218-02 ... 216 tffi 202 • ft 188 • *• 184 «•• 168 • •• 146 • •• 133-121 • •• 107 ANCIENT CHRONOLOGY. 63 FIRST CENTURY, B.C. B.C. Marian massacre at Rome, • •• ... • •• t«* • !• 87 Proscriptions of Sulla, • •• «•• • «• • !• • 1* • •• 82 Coiiapiracy of Catiline, • •• #•• • •• • ■• • tt • *• 63 First Triumvirate, • •• • •• • *• • t* ft* • •• 69 Julius Cajsar in Gaul, • «• .*• 1.. • •« • •• ..• SS His invasion of Britiin, • ta t*« • •• • •4 • •* 6.1 He crusses the Kubicou, • •• • •• • •# t.« ... • •• 4i) Battle of Pli;ii>;alia, • •• • •• ■ •• ... . •* • •• 48 Murder of Cicsar, • •• • *• • «• • •• • •• • It 44 Second Triumvirate, • •• • ■• • •■ ..* • •• 43 Battle of riiilippi, «*• • •t «•• • »• • •• • t • 42 Battle of Actiura, «•• «•• • •• #•• • •• • »• 31 Accession of Augustus, • •• • *. • 1 • ■ •• ... • •■ 27 Birth of Jesus Christ, • •• ... • !• • •• ta« ■ •« 3 THE CHRISTIAN ERA. FIRST CENTURY, A.D. Defeat of Varus in Germany, Death of Augustus, Praetorian Guards quartered at Rome, The Crucifixion, ... Claudius invades ^Jritain, ... Kero persecutes the Christians, Siege and destruction of Jeru.^aleui, Agricola in Britain, Reign of Trajan, • •• • •• • ft • •• • •• SECOND CENTURY, A.D. Trajan conquers Dacia, Edictum Perpetuum publi.shed by Hadrian, Jerusalem restored as ..'Ella Capitolina, The Einpiio sold by auction, THIRD CENTURY, A.D. Severus invades Britain, ... Sapor of Persia takes Antioch, ... ... ... Palmyra taken by Aurelian, Division of the Roman Empire under Diocletian, Fourfold division of the Empire, ... FOURTH CENTURY, A.D. Christians persecuted by Diocletian, Reigu of Constantine, A. p. 14 23 30 43 64 70 73-84 98-117 101 131 137 103 203 261 273 280 292 303 ... 324-337 # w 64 ANCIENT CIIIIONULOGT. Conntanlinoplc made Capital of the East, ... Valcns and Valentiiiian divide tlio Empire, ... Goths alloweil to settle in Tlinice, ... Paganism abolished by law, An. y30 im 376 391 l\ * FJFTII rKNTURY, A.D. Aiaric the (Jotli sacks Koine, ... ... llomiins abandon Britain, ... ... .,. f/'artlia^e seized by the Vandals, Teutonic invasions of r»ritain begin, ... ... r.atlle of Clialons, rill;i;;e of Rome by the Vandals, ... Fall of llouic before Odoacer— End of Ancient Ilistorv, dlO 44i) 451 455 47tJ THE MIDDLE AGES. The liistory of tlie Middle Ages extends IVom the Fall of lloiiio ill 476 A.D. to the Fall of Constant iuople in 1453 a.d. — a '^criod of very nearly one thousand years. Of these ten centuries the first six have heen called the Dark Ages, from the ignorance and harbarisni which overspread the -world, submerging almost all the traces of ancient civilization. The IMiddle Ages jnay for convenience he divided into three portions : — I. From 470 to 814 — the Death of Charlemagne. II. From 814 to 1201— the End of the Crusades. III. From 1291 to 1453— the Fall of Constantinople. ^ FIRST PERIOD OF THE MIDDLE AGES. FROM 47(J A.D. TO 814 A.D, The leading events of this Period were the conquests of Jus- tinian's reign ; the growth of Mohanunedanism ; the foundation of Charlemagne's empire ; the establishment of a Teutonic king- dom in England ; and the origin of the Papal Power. THE BYZANTINE EMPIRE (476-867 A.D.). Religious Strife. — The downfal of Rome left Constantinople mistress of the world. Zeno was then Emperor of the East (474-491 A.D.). Previous to his time a great controversy regard- ing the nature of the Saviour had been convulsing the Eastern (187) 5 i 66 BYZANTINE IIISTOIIY. Oliurcli, in spite of several General Councils called to decide upon tlic (piestions in dispute. Tlie publication by Zcno of an Edict of union called Ilenot'ron availed little to calm the storm. The rival factions — the orthodox wearing line, their opponents green — often met in deadly conflict, strewing the streets with dead. Tlie Persians and the Huns were the chief foes of the Byzantine Empire at this time. JuBtinian (527-505 a.d.). — After Anastasius and the peasant- born Justin had reign^^d, a nephew of the latter attained the crown. He Avas called Justinian — a name c<^>nnected honourably witli the great taslc of reducing the chaoic Roman laws into a jiniple and orderly system. Justinian Avas fortunate in possessing a general named Belisarius of famous military genius. Having in 503 A.D, conquered Gelinier the Vandal King, and taken from Carthage the vessels of the Jewish temple, this great soldier crossed the sea, and overran Southern Italy, until he was master of Home, The Ostrogoths, who then held Italy, mustered to be- siege the daring \ ictor in Rome ; but he repulsed them, took Rav'nna, and Avas thus master of Italy. In later years he inflicted signal defeats upon NushirAan, a distinguished monarch of the race called Sassanidcs, avIio held the Persian throne from 220 to 051 A.D. In spite of these glorious services, he was recalled for uttering some rash Avords against the Empress, and Avns disgraced. This Avas partly due to the intrigues of his rival Narses. His campaigns in Italy against Totilas the Goth, and his repulse of the Avild Bulgarians, Avho crossed the frozen Danube to menace Constantinople, Averc his later achievements. After this, Avorse disgraces Avere inflicted on him. Narses, hav- ing in 553 overthroAvn the Ostrogothic kingdom in Italy, became the flrst Exarch of Ravenna. Justinian's system of laAV, compiled Avith aid from Tribonian, consisted of — 1. The Co(f<', an J'jpltonie ; 2. The Jiiytitule.'i, ar Elements ; 3. The Di'jeal, or Pandects, containing the Roman jurisprudence ; 4. The Noieh, or Justinian's new Liavs. The religious riots and massacres still continued : one in 532 • • -\ BYZANTINE IIISTOIIY. 67 A.D. called Nika, Avas specially notable. Justinian died in 505 A.D. Decline of Power. — Under Justin II., successor of Justinian, Narses invited tlio Lombards under Alboin into Italy. Origi- nally from the Baltic, tLey no^v came out of Pannonia, and established themselves in the jilain that bears their name — 668 A.D. The Persians, too, began to assail the Empire on the east. Nor was it until Heraclius the African gained the By- zantine throne, l.iy means of a revolution which overthrew the vicious Phocas, that the tide turned. Chosroes II. was then King of Persia. Antioch, Jerusalem, even Tripoli fell before him ; and a Persian camp lay for ten years in sight of Constanti- nople, on the opposite side of the Bosporus. Heraclius con- cluded a peace and promised tribute. But he then made a mighty effort, and sacceedcd in driving the Persians back over the Euphrates, and expelling Chosroes from Ctesiphon. He reigned from GIO to 640 a.d. Of the twenty-two Byzantine Emperors, who filled the throne between the death of Herarlius and the beginning of the Mace- donian Dynasty in 867, but few deserve mention. The seat of the Eastern Empire was threatened by Bulgarians and Arabians, especially the latter, against whom in the great seven years' siege (668-675 A.D.) the famous Greek fire was used with telling effect. During this time a controversy about the worship of images began to convulse the Cliurch. Gregory III. in Kome de- nounced the sin of image-breaking, after Leo III. at Constanti- nople had interdicted the worship of images. The successors of tlie latter continued to forbid the idolatry ; until Irene, mother of Constantine VL, assumed power as Regent, and soon caused her son to be blinded and afterwards slain. By her exertions the Council of Nica3a in 787 declared the worship of images good and right. But the Eastern Church never accepted the reconciliation with Home, opened by this change. The idolatries of the East grew so great as to call forth the Synod of Frankfort, held in 794 by Cliarlemagne, at wliich all image-worship was distinctly forbidden. Irene was dethroned in 802 a.d. 08 IIISTOHY OF ITAI.y. Under Theodora, mother and <,'uardian of Michael III., tlie vcmeration of imai^es, hut not tlieir worship, Avas resto^-cd in the East by a Council of Nicjea, liehl in 842 a.d. In 8f)7 the Macedonian Dynasty was founded by Basilius, a man of humble extraction. Ak Italy and Persia have been named frequently in the fore- ign »in,L,' sketch of Byzantine history, I now take up the thread of events in these countries, before proceeding to describe the strnnge doing's in Aral)ia under Mobammed. ITALY (476-774 A.D.). Odoacer. — Tliis chief of the Ileruli ruled in Italy as PiUricius over the Komans, and Kinn of bis own Goths until 493 a.d. He permitted the Visifrotbs to hold Southern Gaul and the Vandals to occupy Sicily. But it wms from Constantinople that danger came. Zono saved the Eastern Cajiital from a menaced siege by inducing 'I'heodoric the Ostrogoth — a gallant prince, who as a liostagc had resided long at the Byzantine court — to turn his arms against Italy. Defeated at V»>rona, Odoacer retired to Ravenna, and was soon afterwards slain at a feast — 493 a.d. Theodoric. — The reign of Tlieodoric (493-520) Avas peaceful and ])ros]">erous. New buildings arose, and the land was culti- vated. Though a bolder of the Arian tenets, which denied the divinity of Christ, he tolerated other creeds. The Italians held most of the civil offices ; but he retained military posts for the Goths. Cassiodorus the historian Avas his prime minister. In addition to Italv he ruled over Ebaetia, Illvricuni, and Sicilv ; and by the marriage of his daughters extended bis influence into Spain and Gaul. In bis latter years be became suspicious of intrigues formed against him at the court of Constantinople; and among the victims of his fears Avas Bo'cfhius, Avho, being im- prisoncil at Pavia, A\Tote a Avell-knoAvn book, De Comolatione rhilosophitv. Theodoric died in 020 a.d Decline of the Ostrogothic Kingdom. — The Greeks under Belisarius, a general already named, soun im^aded Italy. Vitiges t MMi IIISTOKY OP ITALY. 69 the Ostrogotliic King was defeated, and Ronae was wrested from him. The Franks also took Milan. Nor was Totilas, the next King of the Ostrogoths, able to withstand the anus of the Byzantines, when diiected Ly Narses, the successful rival of Beli- sarius. Having shun Totilas, the conqueror, as Exarch of Ravenna, administered the affairs of Italy wisely for a time. A disagreement between Narses and Justin II., the Byzantine Emperor, led the former to invite Alboin, King of the Lombards, to invade Italy. Lombard Invasion of Italy. — The Lombards or Longobardi, whose oriirinal seat probably was the bank of Eilbe, were then seated in J' iionia ; and Alboin was rejoicing over the discom- fiture of the Gepidte, from whose king's skull he had drunk blood after the fashion of those brutal times. In 568 568 A.D. he led his whulo nation over the Alps ; and a.d. descended into the basin of the Po. There Pavia became his capital. The Byzantine power shrank before this invasion into Ravenna, Rome. Naples, and a portion of the coast-line. Lombard Rule in Italy. — The Lombards treated the Italians with great cruelty. After the murder of Alboin and Cleph, thirty-six Dukes held the power for ten years (574-84). Re- siding in the towns, they extended their ravages on every side. Among the results of such oppression was the flight of various Roman families to the islands and lagoons at the head of the Adriatic, m liere, engaging in a seafaring life, they laid the foun- dations of the Venetifin State. After the Dukes had held power for ten years, electivt aonarchy came into favour again; and the Lombards engaged in struggles with the Popes, now rising into prominence at Rome. The most noted Lombard King was Jinfharis^ who i)ublished in C44 a.d. a code of written laws. Another able lawgiver was Luitprand, whose successor Aistulf subdued Ravenna, and overthrew the Exarchate. His designs on Rome sent the Pope to the Franks for aid ; which Pepin granted, defeating the Lombards. The la~,t Lombard King was Desiderius, who was made prisoner by Charlemagne in 774 a.d. Origin of the Papacy. — Side by side with the Lombard King- 70 IIISTOIIY OV ITALY. ,1 1 '4 ! .1 dom and the Exarchate, a power had boon growing up at Rome, destined to a life and influence incalcuhddy greater than these. This was the Papal Power. From very early times the Bishop of Home became a leader in the Christian Church. The first great pontiff was Innocent, who, wliile Ilonorius cowered in Ravenna, was head of Rome, and who, when Alaric Backed the city, raised it from its ashes. The controversy between Augustine and Pelagius, regarding origins '. sin, raged during his time : and he sided with the great African. Leo I. (440-461 a.d.) was the Pope, who headed a procession of priests to the camp of Attila the Hun, and prevailed upon the barbarian to spare Rome. He was less successful with Genseric the Vandal. Meanwhile men like Jerome, Ambrose of Milan, and Augustine of Hippo were shaping the doctrines of the grow- ing Church. Gregory the Great (590-604 a.d.) wrote a well-known letter to the Patriarch of Constantinople, objecting to the use by that pontiff of the title. Universal Bislwp. It was under this Pope that Augustine wa? despatched to Britain in order to bring that distant island within the pale of the Church. He saw the fierce Lombards also yielding to the softening influences of Chris- tianity. Under Gregory II. (715-731 1 the controversy about the wor- ship of images, already referred to, arose between Rome and Con- stantinople. The beginning of the temporal power of the Pope dated from the gift by Pepin the Short to Pope Stephen II. of the Exarchate, taken from the Lombards (755). PERSIA (226 A.D.-651 A.D.). The Sassanides. — By the overthrow of the Arsacides in 226 A.D., Parthia became a new Persia, with an Artaxerxes on its throne. This monarch, and his successors — the Sapors — waged victorious war against the Romans; and, when Rome had fallen, the Sassanides measured their strength again and again with the generals of the East. In particular, Chosroes or Nushirvan If' r k4 " TKRSTA AND ARABIA. 71 f (531-579 A.D.) contcndctl with Belisnriu.s fiercely and not with- out result. Under thi« great monarch Persia extended its borders from the Mediterranean to the Indus, and from the Jaxartcs to Arabia. Chosroes II. engaged in war with Heraclius the Byzantine Emperor ; hut, after a career of victory in Syria, Palestine, and Asia Minor, lie yielded to superior genius, re- treated hcyond the Euphrates, and was expelled from Ctcsiphon. Tlie last Sassanid monarch was Yezdejerd III., whose empire saidc in 051 a.d. Lefore the Arabs. 'i i ' k ARABIA to 753 A.D. Two Races. — In addition to the Bedouins, claiming descent from Ishmael, who wandered among the oases of Arabia, there was a coast population, busily engaged in commerce and the arts. Spices, jewels, and rich clotlis were the articles of their trade. The centre of their worship was the Caaba at Mecca, rebuilt about 440 by the head of the family Koreish, which henceforth acted as guardians of the sacred place. In 525 a.d. a conquering army from Abyssinia taught Christianity in Yemen, the south- western angle of the peninsula ; but these were expelled by a Persian force in 575 a.d. Mohammed. — The great founder of Islam was born at Mecca in 571, from parents of the noble race Koreish — the guardians of the Caaba. After forty years spent in mercantile life, he pro- claimed his system and his mission (611 a.d.). The preaching of his doctrines excited his own tribe against him to such a degree that nothing but a speedy flight from IMecca saved his life. The date of this escape— July 16, 622 a.d.— 622 forms the Hegira, from which Moslems reckon the years a.d. of their history. Medina was the place of Mohammed's refuge. From a theorist on religion he became a fierce warrior, announcing that " the sword is the key of heaven and hell." Warring both with the Korcish and the Jews settled in Northern Arabia, he won the great battle of Honein. And af; Muta near the Dead Sea he met the Byzantine troops, and sig- •■ 72 MOIIAMMKD. ,1! \'i nnlly (Icfcated them. In 029 a.d. lie occupied Mecca Avith liis soldiers, and strewed the Cuaha witli the iragmonts of tlirec hun- dred and sixty idols. His lieutenant took Akaba on the Red Sea : and he was goin,;:,'' to Damascus liimself, when he felt the approaches of death, and returned to iMedina, where fever cut him off in 082 A.D. Omar. — After Abu Beker, one father-in-law of Mohammed, had reigned I'or two years as CaJ'qjU or successor, Omar, another father-in-law, took the caliphate. He in 637 conquered Jeru- salem, wheie a mos([ue with his name soon rose to replace the Jewish temple. The conquest of Syria followed. In Egypt Amru took Alexandria ; in Persia another lieutenant defeated the last >Sassanid King at Kadesia and took Madayn his capital. Omar wns assassinated in 044 a.d. Othman and Ali. — Under Othman the conquest of Persia was conq)leted, and the power of the Arabs extended to Tripoli in Africa. Il.aving built a fleet, the Emir of Syria took Cyprus and Rhodes, in the latter place breaking to pieces the brass Colossus or statue of the Sun. In order to curb the pretensions of men, who strove to interpret the Koran after their own fashion, Oth- man publislied a new edition of the book, altered to meet his views of government. 'J'he murder of Othman made Ali caliph; but discord was beginning to break up the central power of Islam. Two great factions arose — Sonnllcs or Orthodox, and Shiilcs or Schismatics (as their foes called them). The former opposed Ali : and the division thus begun runs through the whole history of Mosleraism, separating to this day the Turks, who are Sonyv'tef, from the Persians, who are Shiites. TJie murder of Ali in GfVl elevated Moawyah, Emir of Syria, to the caliphate, lie was the first of the Ommiyades, who held power until 749 a.d. Dynasty of the Ommiyades. — This race took their name from Ommiyah, one of the Koreish, who governed Syria under Omar. Moawyah, the first caliph of the line, fixed his capital at Damascus, as more central than Mecca, and, with a fleet on the Mediterranean under an Amir-al-3Ia (captain at sea, the original MOSLEMISM. 73 \l of our word admiml), lie exteiuled his territory widely. His lieutenant AlcLah conquered the northern shore of Africa as far ns Tunis, south of whicli he founded Cairouan. At two points — ■ the Bosporus and the Strait of Gibraltar — Europe almost touches another continent : and at these the Arabs made fierce invasions. For seven years (668-675) they carried on a siege of Constanti- nople, but Avere repelled by the Greek fire. Another attempt in 717 was still more signally foiled. Uut these defeats were counterbalanced by success in Africa, where Cyrene, Tripoli, Carthage yielded in succession ; and the Moslems poured on in a resistless flood to the headlands oj^posite Spain. It was during the caliphate of Walid that Turik, a lieutenant of Musa the Saracen leader, led an army across the Strait of 710 Gibraltar to the peninsula, where a great Visigothic king- a.d. iloui had been existing since before the fall of Home. Roderick, " last of the Goths," was defeated on the field of Xeres — Musa secured the conquest — and the Moslems soon established themselves iu Cordova as a centre. But Spain did not content them. Crossing the Pyrenees, they attempted the conquest of France also ; but a defeat at Tours, inflicted in 732 a.d. by Charles Martel, drove them southward beyond the mountain- wall. Discontent grew into rebellion at the centre of Moslemism. Ibrahim rose against Mervan II., last of the Ommiyad Caliphs ; and, when the rebel was slain, his more successful brother took u\> his sword, and drove IMervan in fliglit to Egypt, where he was killed in 750 a.d. Tliis ended the Ommiyad line in the East : tlie Abbasides now began to hold the caliphate. Although this does not bring the history of Moslemism down to the time of Charlemagne, it is convenient to drop the thread at this point, and turn to the history of the Franks. THE FRANKS to 814 A.D. Clovis. — When the feeble hand of Rome let go, in her decay, the possession of Gaul and Germany, a great nuinber of wild 74 niSTORY OF FRANCK. ! hi ' in t f .' tribes reipnod riotously in tlio dark forests of tlicsc laiuls. But the Franks (frak, free) rose to the lioad of affairs, cspeeially when Clovis, a captain of the Salian Franks, who at first occupied Belgium, fixed his station at Lxdetia or Paris, and set up a show of royalty with a crown and mantle, sent to hint from Constan- tinople— 511 A.D. This man, whose softened name is fiimiliar in French history as Louis, founded the Frankish monarchy. Merovingian Dynasty (511-752).— The race of Clovis had already heen called the Merovingians, from Meroveg, a sea-warrior, who was third of their chiefs. This name specially belongs to the dynasty founded by Clovis, and lasting from 511 to 752 a.d. An immediate result of Clovis' death was the division of his kingdom into foui- parts; — 1. Austrasia, east of R.hii.e; 2. Neustria, north of Loire; 3. Aquitaine, from Loire to the Pyrenees; 4. Burgundy, in the centre. There was a redistribution under Clotaire I. ; but the strong hand of Dagobert I. (622-G38) seized the whole monarchy. After his time the Merovingian Kings sank into mere puppets — ro is faineants — who cherished their grert fleeces of hair, but loft the affairs of government to a prime minister, known as Mayor of the Palace. Pepia of Heristal, Mayor of Theodoric III., ruling from G87 to 714, made this influential office hereditary. Pepin's son was the great Charles Martel (the Hammer), who ruled in Austrasia. France, and indeed all Western Europe, owed much to his prowess ; for, when the Arabs came pouring through the gorges of the Pyrenees upon the fertile river-basins of France, he met them on a plain near Tours (732 a.d.), and inflicted on them a decisive defeat. Pepin the Short succeeded his father as Mayor. Having given his aid to Pope Zachary, he was repaid by that pontiff by being put on the throne of France, to the exclusion of Childeric III., who went to a convent. This brought the Merovingian Dynasty to a close in 752 a.d. The Saxon Winifred — afterwards made Archbishop of Mayence — gave Pepin important assistance in con- trolling and Christianizing his subjects. Charlemagne. — Pepin was the first monarch of the Carlovingian I I pi CIIARLEMAONE. 75 lino. Dying in 708, he left two sons — Carloman and Charles. Tlie death of the former left Charles — better known as Charle- magne — monarch of an extensive realm, comprising portions of the two countries wo now call France and Germany — 771 a.d. Charlemagne waged a great and tedious war with the Saxons, who dwelt chiefly round the "Weser. They had a bravo warrior, Wittikind, who appeared in arms again and again, until ho was finally defeated at Bethmold. This war lasted from 772 to 804 A.D. A shorter war defeated Desiderius the Lombard King, whose final stand was made at Pavia — 774 a.d. Charlemagne then assumed the iron crown of Lombardy. The remembrance of the field of Tours excited Charlemagne in 778 a.d. to lead an army into Spain, where the Emirate of Cor- dova — a Moslem power independent of the Abbaside Caliphs — had grown into strength. The capture of Saragossa laid Aragon and Navarre at his feet. But the disaster of Roncevalles, where in a defile of the Pyrenees his rear-guard was destroyed by the Basques, took some brightness from these laurels. Charlemagne having engaged in a war with the Avars, his son penetrated Hungary, and took the Ring at Buda, a fortress stored with riches. The proudest day in this great monarch's reign was the Christmas of 800, when Pope Leo III. crowned him in 800 St. Peter's at Rome as " Charles Augustus, Emperor of a.d. the Romans." With sad foresight Charlemagne feared the Norsemen. His own empire, whose centre was Aix-la-Chapelle, was safe enough, while he lived; but the gentle Louis, who was to succeed him, was ill fitted to cope with foes so fierce. Charlemagne died in 814 a.d. i THE BRITISH ISLES. ENGLAND (449-827 A.D.\ Teutonic Conquest. — It is said that three ships, led by Hengist and Horsa, came to Thanet in Kent in 449 a.d., and landed 76 Tin: imiTiPii islks. I I! hands reprosoutin,£,' throe Teutonic tribes — Angles, Saxons, and Jutes. During the next century and a half seven kingdoms, called the Saxon Heptarchy, were founded along the eastern and Boutliern coasts, and in the centre oi South Britain. TV.ese yyQYQ; — LKcutj 2. Susscx; 3. Wcssox; 4. Essex; 5. Northum- bria; G. East Anglia; 7. Mercia. Various men of" power arose in the wars which convulsed these tjtjvtes ; — such as Edwin of Deira; Ina, the lawgiver of AVessex; Pcnda and Offa, fierce men of war, who ruled in Mercia: but the tendency of every change was to centralize all power ultimately in Wesscx, which extended its bounds irom Hants and Wilts until it occupied the whole land. The wars, which fused the Seven States into the single realm of Erujhmd, blended the various, though kindred, races of the early settlements into the Anglo-Saxon nation. During the progress of this change, the coming of Augustine as a missionary from Rome in 597, and the beginning of Danish invasions at Dorchester in 787, were n table events. Egbert, King of Wessex, wlio attained to supreme power over all England in 827, was a contemporary and friend of Charle- magne, who gave him shelter for fourteen years, during which a usurper held the throne of hi^ rightful kingdom. SCOTLAND. North Britain was at first inhabited by the Caledonians, or "people of the woods," who are regarded as being of Gothic de- scent. The tribe Scoti, who ultimately gave a name to the country, emigrated early in the Christian era from the north of Ireland to Argyll, where they founded a kingdom called Dal- riada. A nation called tlie Pict$ held the districts north of Forth and Clyde, while a small independent realm, Reged or Strathclyde, occupied the basin of the Clyde. The same process of conquest as ex-janded Wessex into England, made Kenneth MacAlpin, King A Dalriada, sole monarch of the northern part of the island in <^43 a.d. But the name of Scotland was not in use for at least u -lentury afterwards. u _^ -_■! THE MOHAMMEDANS. 77 •wkl L Scotland was Chvistianized hy an Irish monk, Columha, nho jiussfd from Doncgjil to lona about 5fj8 A.n., and whoso disciples — the CuMccs — spread the knowledge of the Gospel even into tho north of England. IRELAND. The position of Ircl nd in the extremo west, as its name signi- fies, gave it peace from oxternal foes, while Kngl md and Scotland were in the throes of national construction. The present condi- tion is a sad reverse of the picture. [Tnder the llomnns it was a. last refuge of the Druids, who lixed their ,L;reat temple at Tara in 3Icath. But St. Vutrick, who was a native of Strathclyde, crossed the narrow sea to preach Christianity in what afterwards was called " The Island of the Saints." Leoccaire MacNcill was first of the Christian Kings. Religion and learning prospered side hy side in this island; and some of the arts also tlourished. At last the Danes found their way to the coasts, and obtained a footing in the sea-ports, where they were called Ostmen. SECOND PERIOD OF THE MIDDLE AGES. FROM 8U A.D. TO 1201 AD. The reign of Alfred the Great (871-90IV, the reign in Ger- many of Otho the Great (962-973); the conquest of England hy the Normans in 10(36; the Papacy of Hildehrand; the career of Jenghi/i Khan; and tho Crusades, eight in number and extending over two centuries (1096-1291), form the most notable features of the Second Period, into whicli I have divided tlic Midille Ages. ■^ THE MOHAMMEDANS (753 to 1250 A.D.). In Asia. — We hive seen that Abul Abbas •^■^tablished the Moslem dynasty of the Abbasides in 753 a.d. To his successor Al-Mansur was due the foundation of Bagdad, which became a centre of Eastern splendour. But the Caliph, who inost adorned his station and wielded the widest influence iu the world, waa i 786 A.D. due. Jg TIIK MOHAMMEDANS. Ilaroun-al-Raschitl (Auvou tlio Just), the cuiitcmpumi)' of Oluiile- inugne. DistiiiguislitHl ill early life fur valuur ilispluyed in wars against the Greeks, Haroun, becoming Calipli in 78(5, began to eneuurago arts and letttns. In tlie story-l>ook called The Arahinu Ni'iihtH we find a picture of tlic eity he ruled, and the lilo he lived. In a war of some length he obliged the Hy- zautine Kinperor, Nicephorus I., to pay tribute that was One stain rests on the name of Ilarouu — a wild revengo lie took upon his Barnieeidc vizier, of whom he became giound- lessly jealous. Haroun died in 808, while coiulueting an expedi- tion against the rebel satrap of Khorasan. Contests for the Caliphate wore out its strength; and Mo- taseni (833-42) formed a body-guard of Turks— natives of bleak '' rkestan — who had been converted to the Moslem faith. These g. crds gained an ascendency at Bagdad similar to that of the rnetorians in Rome; and at length secured the right of electing their own captain. One province after another then broke off from the Caliphate, until it shrank almost to Bagdad alone, and the power of the Caliphs was delegated to an officer called Emir- (iJ-Omra (i.e., Captain of Captains), who resembled somewhat the French Mayor of the Palace. By this arrangement the Caliph became a mere cipher, exercising a nominal rule as High- Priest of the Mos(|ue. The Emirate, becoming a source of contention, Avas held in turn by the Jhu'ilcs, a lamily who had conquered Persia, and the SeJJiiJcs, a Turkish race, who gained the position in 105G. The Turks were already beginning to grow strong. One of them named Achmed conquered Egypt in 868; and the Sultan IMah- nioud, subduing Central Asia from the Sea of Aral to the Ganges, established the dynasty of the Gaznavules, who took their name from Gazna, the Sultan's residence (about 1000 a.d.). Togrul Beg, ruling the Seljuk Turks at the time of tho Norman Conquest of England, wrested fiom the Caliph both Bagdad and the dignity of Emir-aJ-Omra. His nephew Alp Arslan warred with the Byzantine Emperor successfully; and I ♦ THE M0IIAMMKDA\3. 79 t It * r. .s I Maick Shah, tin; sou ol" tliis warrior, ruduced Syria aiul ralcstino \iiulcr Turkihli (luiiiiuioii in 1070 a.u. Tliis oveiit brings the history of tlio Kast and tlio AVcst into floso cunncftiun, tor from tho brutal treatment of Christian pilgrims by these Turkisli masters oi" Jerusalem arose tho anger whieh kindled tlie Crusades. In Africa. — The 3I()slem dominions along the Barbary shoro broke into two kingdoms. The Ai/hihitcs governed from Egypt to Tunis during the ninth eentury; the Edrisitcs ruled in Ceuta, Fez, and Mauretania. But both UA\ in 912 before the prowess of the Fatiiiiitcf<, who claimed descent from Mohammed's daughter Fatima. The Fatimites then ruled from the Atlantic to the lied Sea, and, lixing their scat of power at Cairo, extended their sway over I'alestino and Syria. But dissension produced decay here too ; and in 1171 the last Fatimite yielded to the Sultan Saladin. In Spain. — In 755 Abd-el-Bahman, of the Ommiyad line, fled from Asia to Spain, and, placing the centre of Ids power at Cordova, erected in the I'eninsula an independent Emirate. CharlemaLnie and the Goths troubled him on the north. Abd-el-Bahman III. extended the Moslem power in Si)ain, and made the land rich in ciops and the cities rich in learning. His successor Al-IIakem also encouraged literature. There soon arose in the north a formidable foe — Alphonso YI. of Castile — to -withstand whose attacks the Arabs, or Saracens, as they were called, invited over to their aid Joseidi, King of Morocco. Ho came and defeated the Castilian; but he took occasion to estab- lish a jMoorish Empire in Spain by the conquest of those who had invited him to come — 1087 a.d. In these wars Diaz de Bivar, known as the Cid, displayed his valour. The battle of Navas de Tolosa, won over the jMoors in 1212 by Alphonso IX. of Castile, who commanded an allied force of Christian soldiers, Avas fatal to the extension of 3Ioslem power in Spain. The advantage thus gaine 1 was improved, until in 1250 the Moorish dominions had shrunk to the single province of Granada. f 80 I w Uii IIISTOUY OK TIIK CJlUSADt^. THE CRUSADES (1096-1291 A.D.). Tliere were eight Crusades, or Wars of tlie Cross. Peter the Ilcnnit, a native of Aiiiion! , having ohtained leave from Pope Urban II., travelled throngh Italy and France, calling upon all true Christian soldiers to light for the rescue of the Holy Sepulchre from the Infidels. 1. The Fi'St Crusade set out in 1096 under Godfrey of Boulogne. It took them nine months to march across Europe to Constantinople. The siege of Nice, and a victory at Dory- lanun over the Turkish horse marked their progress through Asia 3Iinor, from which they did not emerge without much suffering during their passage through Taurus. The siege of Syrian Antioch then detained them; hut at last they 1099 reached Jerusalem, wdiich fell in five weeks. Godfrey, A.D. elected King of Jerusalem, defeated the Sultan of Egypt in the battle of Ascalon. 2. St. Bernard of Clairvaux was the apostle of the Second Crusade, which began in 1147. Following the path of the earlier Crusadeis, Louis VII. of France and Conrad III. of Ger- many passed across Europe and Asia Minor. The army of the latter Avas destroyed in Cappadocia; and, though Louis struggled on to Jerusalem, the Crusade was an utter failure. 3. More romance gilds the story of the Third Crusaao (1189-92). Richard III. of England, Philip Augustus of France, and Frederic Barbarossa of Germany assumed tlie Cross. Frederic, starting first, pasped victoriously into Asia Miioi ; but was cut off by death in Cilicia. The fortress of Acre, opposite Mount Car- mel, and regarded as a key of Palestine, had fallen into the hands of Saladin, the Tu.kish Monarch, who had made liimself master of Jerusalem in 1187. Saladin, who had raised himself from being Vizier of Egypt to the Turkish throne by the overthrow of the last Fatimite Caliph, was a great soldier with a chivalrous heart. There was much delay in the transport of the English army ta > ••ti^mmm^^mw IIISTOUV OF THE CRUSADES. 81 ■ >■ f: I I \ rftlcstiiie. Pliilip reached Acre long before llicliard; but it waa not until tlic Lion-heart arrived that Acre IcU. But this was abnost all that the English King achieved. He won a battle at Joppa, advanced within twenty miles of Jerusalem, ami then made a truce with Saladiu before returning to Europe. 4. The events of the Fourth Crusade (1195-97), undertaken by Henry VI., Emperoi of Germany, were the capture of Beirout, and the ignominious flight of the Crusaders from the siege of Thoron. 5. The soldiers of the Fifth Crusade never reached Jerusalem. Dandolo, Doge of Venice, who was to supply transports, induced them to retake for him the city of Zara in Dalniatia, which had revolted. They then accepted an invitation to restore Isaac, the dethroned Emperor, to his position in Constantinople. Dandolo, though blind, lent them valuable aid oven in 1203 actual fight; and the fall of Constantinople (1203) caused a.d. the usurper to vacate the throne of the Byzantine Empire. C. Frederic II. of Germany headed the Sixth Crusade. A feud with the Pope, Gregory IX., however, caused the clergy to look coldly on his successes iu Palestine. These were rather works of peace than of war; for he secured by treaty the pos- session of Jerusalem and Bethlehem (1229). 7. The Seventh Crusado was led by Saint Louis IX. of France. Ilis principal exploit was the reduction of Dainietta; but a defeat at Mansourah prepared the way for his capture at Minieh. The rcstoratioii of Damietta and the j)aymcnt of a largo sum in gold purchased his release, after which he spent four use- less years at Acre previous to his return to France. 8. Saint Louis went upon an Eighth Crusade to Africa, where pestilence cut him off. Edward I. of England, then only Prince Edward, afterwards led his Crusaders to tlie Holy Land, but achieved nothing of consequence there. The fall of Acre in 1291 before Sultan Khalil and his Mamelukes may be regarded as closing this great series of wais. il I (187) 6 I Wit.y 82 illcTOUY OF GERMANY. P GERMANY (814-1273 A.D.). Division of Empire. — Louis Ic Debonnairo, .1 gentle monkisli scholar, who succeeded his father Charleiunq'iic in 814, felt the task of governing so much beyond his strength, that he divided his empire among his three sons, giving a lu-elbrence to Lothaire the eldest. This made Louis and Cliarlcs disconter led ; and after their father's deatli, which occurred in 840, they united their strength and defeated Lothaire at Fontcnaille. Two 843 years after this battle, a treaty was concluded at Verdun A.D. (843 A.D.), by which Louis received Gcriaany, and Charles France, while Italy was left to Lothaire. Charles the Fat, a son of Louis^ bc„c le Emperor of all in 884; but his feeble rule ceased in 887, and out of the Fvankish monarchy grew four States — France, Germany, Italy, and Bur- gundy — of which three are still represented on the map of Europe. THE SAXOy EMPEROllS. Carloviiigians ruled in (reraany until 911, when Conrad of Franconia was raised to the throne. At this time five Dukes became prominent, possessing a power largely independent. But of the five — Saxon, Suabian, Bavarian, Franconian, Thuringian — the first gained the supremiicy, and Saxon Emperors began to rule in Germany. These, five in number, held the Imperial throne for more than a century. Henry I. (the Fowler). — The union of Saxons and Franco- nians placed Henry, a Saxon, on the throne in 019. Ilis first task was the subjugation of certain Dukes, who opposed his elec- tion. But the irruption of Hungarians from the east gave him most trouble. He built fortified castles on that frontier, equipped a fine cavalry force, and so withstood the fierce Magyars, that he broke their power for a time in the battle of Merseburg in 938. Before his death, in 930, he had attained the position of being the greatest monarcl- 'n Europe. Otho I. (tho Great) succeeded his father. A victory on tho I -J I . HISTORY OF GERMANY. 83 «>/ Lechfold near Augsburg relieved liis territory from Hungarian inroads; and he then formed an Eastern district — the nucleus of Austria — to guard his frontier. Having married Adelaide, widow of Lothaire, King of Italy, he apjilied to the Pope for the crown of the "Western Em})ire. He received it in 9G2 from Pope John XII., having Leen previously dignified with the 962 iron crown of the Lombards at Milan. Italy much a.d. needed the strong hand of a reformer. The Pope, sur- named Infamous, was forced to give place to an honester man. The lawless nobles were stripped of power, which was given to the bishops; and beautiful Italy felt again the breath of freedom. Otho II. married Theophano, daughter of the Byzantine Emperor, Romanus II., who gave him as a dowry the domi- nion of Lower Italy. 13nt his efforts to secure his power there were baffled by a defeat at Ilossano. He died in 983, leaving a son, three years old, to succeed him. Otho III., brought up by his mother and grandmother, who acted as regents, took a sharp revenge, when he came to liave the feelings of a man, upon Rome, whose factions had been hostile to his father and himself. The Consul Crescentius, who had been the leader of the opposite party, suffered death. But the Italian air and his Roman troubles combined to cut off the Emperor at the age of twenty-two — 1002 a.d. Henry II. of Bavaria was then elected to the empire, and ruled un; 11 1024, when the line of Saxon Emperors ended. 1 i FKANCONIAN EMPERORS (1024-1125 A.D.}. Conrad II., Duke of Fianconia, was then elected Emperor. Under him Burgundy was added to the empire. lie died in 1039. Henry III., his son, in order to relieve his people under famine and oppression, promulgated the I'ruce of God, which obliged all nobles to observe peace from Wednesday evening to Jlonday, and during tho seasons called Advent and Lent. Ever since the time of Otho the Great, the Emperors had been 84 ! HISTORY OF GEllMANY. ;l H: I i accustomed to wield ,2;reat influence in the papal elections, until the llomaii nobles, wlio desired to sell the office, hcgan to claim the right of interference. Henry put this firmly down, taking the election of I'ope into his own liands (lO-l(i). He also curbed the German dukes, and disposed <»f their duchies in various ways. Henry IV. succeeded his father. During,' his nona.u^e there were contests as to the care of his person ; but lie fell into the hands of Adalbert, Archbishop of Urenien. wlio encouraged him in luxury and vice. The most striking event of his reign was connected with a sori(»us quarrel that broke out between him and Pope Gregory VIT., earlier known as the Monk Hildebrand. The grand aim of this pontiff being to make the papal power supreme over all Christendom, he issued a decree that all the clergy, who had been appointed by laynien, should resign. This was specially levelled at Henry, uho, instead of submitting, appointed an Archbishop of Cologne. Tli(> Emperor, moreover, convoked a synod of German bishops, Avho dindared that Gregory had no right to the tiara. The roj)e retaliated by 1077 cxco'nniunicating Henry : and in 1077 the greatest A.D. temporal monarch in the world was forced to stand barefoot on the frosty earth at Canossa l"or three day.s waiting for admission to the presence of Gregory, who withdrew his direful edict only on condition of comjjlete snVtmission. ]3ut Henry failed to keep his promises: lludolf of Suabia was elected Emperor: and a war began between the rivals. In 1080 lludolf died of a wound. The tide then turned. Henry besieged Rome, which fell in three years. Guido of Ravenna, under the name of Clement III , Avas made Pope, Gregory liaving been driven into exile at Salerno. Then died Hildebrand in 1085, almost with his last breath uttering maledictions on Henry and the Pope of his election. The last days of Henry were troubled by tlie rebellion of his sons, and continual struggles with the Dukes and Counts of the Empire regarding whether the succession should be elective or hereditary. They supported the former plan ; lie fought for the latter. In 1105 the old Emperor resigned the crown of a realm which under him had been torn with e:"i.!es.i I .i iiistohy of omiemanv. 85 n •I civil (liscoiLl ; and in the followiiit,' year he died suddenly at Lie<,^e. Henr" V. continued the War of Investiture:; until the question was compromised betAveen the Emperor and the Pope by the Con- cordat of Worms, in 1122. Another and fiercer struggle was meanwhile growing to a head. This was the war between the Guelphs and the Ghiliellines, to which further allusion will be mao})le. Simon Montfort, father of the founder of our Englisli House of Commons, was the leader of the crusading forces for ii long time; \\\\'\U) Raymond of Toulouse, and his brave ne})hew Raymond Roger, fought for the Albigensiau cause. This secured for France the IMcvliterrnnojui shore. In 1214 the Emperor Otlio, tlohn u( Englan. O^ 23 WIST MAIN STRE«T WEBSTcR.N.Y. 14580 (71 A) 872-4503 ^^ fe \ ^ f 92 HISTORY OF ITALY, It was under Urban II. that the Crusades began. The quarrel about Investiiures was not settled until 1122, under Pope Calixtus II., when a compromise was made, assigning to the Pope tlie right of investing bishops with ring and crozier, and to the Emperor the conferring of the sceptre in sign of temporal power. The language of the Popes thenceforward grew more autliori- tative, reaching even the point of speaking of Germany as a Papal fief. When Adrian IV. granted Ireland to Henry II., he did so on the ground that all islands were the property of St. Peter. Innocent III. (1198-1216) vastly increased the Papal power. He forced the Imperial Prefect at Rome to swear allegiance to him. He set on foot the Crusade that crushed the Albigenses. He humbled King John of England, and imposed a tribute upon him. In fact he claimed to be Sovereign of Europe — an earthly King of kings. The extirpation of heresy and the exaltation of the tiara over everv diadem in Christendom — these were the objects he pursued with unflinching rigour. This g^'e&t Pontiff died in 1216 at Perugia, after having raised the Papacy to the greatest power it attained. To his time was due the institution of monastic orders — the Dominicans or Blackfriars, and the Franciscans; and after his deatn the terrible machinery of the Inquisition was put in force. The greed of the clergy for money, combined with the corrup- tion of the Roman Court, excited anger in many lands ; but the ^^opes tried to wield a still more despotic power. The quarrel reached a crisis between Boniface VIII. (1294-1303) and Philip the Fair of France. It was like the contest between Henry IV. and Hildebrand. Philip forbade the French clergy to pay any- thing without leave. He arrested the Papal Legate, and burned the Papal bulls. Bonilace excommunicated him, and conferred France on the Emperor Albert I. Philip retorted that the Pope's election was illegal; and, going furtlier, sent Nogaret into Italy to seize the sacred person of the Pontiff. A fever, arising from rage, killed Boniface ; and his successor, yielding the point, can- celled the bull of excommunication. Southern Italy.— xifter the death of Charlemagne the Arabs I 'J 1, I # HISTORY OF ITALY. 93 I , I- conquered Sicily, took Bari, and plundered Rome. Malta fell into their power in 870 ; but in the following year Louis II. ex- pelled them from Bari. The Arab and the Greek were then engaged in constant wars, until the Othos of Germany sought to subdue the southern peninsula ; this caused a union against the common foe between the recent enemies, who triumphed. A band of Norman adventurers did good service, soon after the year 1000, in repelling Saracen pirates from Salerno. They soon made a lodgment for themselves in this luxurious country. Kobert Guiscard, and his brother Roger, two handsome daring Normans, subdued Apulia and Calabria. In battle with the Byzantine troops the former won the field of Durazzo. The latter took Sicily from the Moslems. Roger II. succeeded his father Robert as King of Naples and Sicily, and fixed his capital at Palermo. He drove both Greek? and Arabs from his realm. The crown of Naples and Sicl^v was transferred from the Normans to a prince of the Hohenstaufens by the marriage of the Emperor Henry VI. to Constantia, daughter of Roger II. AVhen she died. Innocent III., for his own purposes, became guardian of young Frederic II. This prince made Naples his capital. After the reign of Conrad there was a struggle for the crown of Naples between Manfred, Frederic's illegitimate son, and Charles of Anjou, the nominee of the Pope. Tlie deatli of Manfred and the execution of Conradin, the last heir of his name, led to a struggle between Charles of Anjou and Peter of Aragon, who had married Manfred's daughter. Naples declared for the former; Sicily for the latter: and before the year in which both died (1285), the island and the mainland had become separate realms. A striking incident in Italian history is known by the name of the Sicilian Vespers. The execution of the handsome Conradin by Charles of Anjou, the French conqueror of Naples, festered in the hearts of the Italians, with whom the vendetta is often an hereditary duty. This feeling blazed out into massacre on the 30th of March 1282, at Palermo. It is said that a Frenchman insulted a lady in the cathc- yoimg 1282 A.D. 94 TUE BYZANTINE EMPIRE. dral. However that may have heeii, the first notes of tlie vesper- bell had scarcely rung, when every stiletto leaped from its sheath ; and by next dawn there was scarcely a Frenchman alive in Sicily. Venice. — On the lagoons at the mouth of the Brenta a colony of fishermen and salt-makers built a city, over which ruled a Doge. Its patron saint was Saint Mark ; its foundation dated from 809. And when the Crusades caused the silks, gems, and spices of the East to flow into Europe, the commerce centred in this Queen of the Adriatic. Genoa grew rich from the same source. One of the most celebrated of the early Doges was " blind old Dandolo," who, at the age of ninety, ir spite of his blindness, led the successful attack of the Crusaders upon Constf atinople in 1204, and refused the Imperial crown, which they offered him in admiration. Venice gradually acquired Dalmatia, the Morea, Candia, and Cyprus. For a time she monopolized the East Indian trade. It was about this time (1275) that Marco Polo, a great Venetian traveller, crossed Asia, visiting Kublai Khan in Chinese Tartary, and having passed through China to the Pacific, sailed by Ceylon back to the Persian Gulf. THE BYZANTINE EMPIRE (867-1261 A.L.). The Macedonian Dynasty (867-1056).— This dynasty was founded in 867 by Basilius I., who reigned from 867 to 886. His successor was Leo VI. (886-011), surnamed the Philosopher. But John Zimisces (969-975) was the most famous of the line. The empire was then pressed by foes on three sides — Arabsj Bulgarians, and Rusrians. During John's reign the last, under a savage leader named Swastoslof, penetrated as far south as Adrianople ; but the Emperor drove him back upon the Danube. This was a splendid period in Byzantine history. The silks and woollen cloths of Constantinople w^ere prized everywhere ; and the gorgeousness of the Court struck wonder into envoy.s from the infant states of the West. Basil II., who conquered the Bulgarians, left the throne in >■ THE BYZANTINE E3IP1KE. 95 \ 1028 to his daughter Zoe. She murdered lier liushand to raise u Paphhigonian to the throne; but this favourite, in a fit of remorse, rejected the guilty splendour. Zoe then made his cousin Michael Calaphates emperor ; but his disobedience cost him a throne and his sight. Her last choice was Constantine Mono- machus. Theodora, sister of the wicked Zoe, was the last of the Macedonian line, which closed in 1056. The Comneni (1057-1185).— The wise but infirm Isaac Com- nenus was elected to the throne by the army. His retirement led to the appointment of Constantine Ducas, against whom the Seljuk Turks made successful inroads from their capital of Ico- nium in Asia Minor. His widow Eudocia married a soldier of fortune named Romanus Diogenes, who was made prisoner by the Seljuks. When released, he found his wife in captivity and his throne occupied. He was then blinded. The Seljuks of Asia and the Normans of South Italy were pressing the empire so hard that Isaac and Alexius, nephews of Isaac Comnenus, v^cre placed in command. The latter of these became Emperor in 1081. It was in his reign (1081-1118) that the sons of Tancred the Norman vrrested from the Greeks the last remains of the Ex- archate in Italy. One of them, indeed, Robert Guiscard, carried the war across the Ionian Sea, and besieged Durazzo ; where, in spite of the brave Varangians — a Norman body-guard of the Byzantine Emperor — the victory rested with the invaders (1081). Great was the dismay of Alexius, when the half-million of wild warriors, bound on the First Crusade, came trooping into Con- stantinople ; and great was his relief, when he saw them safe in Asia, engaged with the Seljuks. The succeeding Comneni — John II. and Manuel I. — held their own, although the latter was pressed in 1148 by Roger of Sicily, because he tried to thwart the movements of the Second Cnisade* The murder of Alexius II. by Andronicus was punished in 1185, when Isaac Angelus dethroned and slew the murderer. House of Angelo (1185-1204). — Isaac was dethroned and blinded by his brother Alexius ; whereupon his son Alexius IV* i 96 THE BYZANTINE EMPIRE. I nought the aid of the Crusaders, then engaged in warring on be- half of Venice against Dalmatia. The French and the Venetians banded together against Constantinople, to which they sailed. From Scutari the mailed knights crossed the Bosporus, while tho Venetian galleys assailed the entrance of the Golden Horn. Dandolo led the attack, and in eleven days the city fell. The murder of Alexius IV., which the Crusaders pretended to avenge, prepared the way for a second siege. Baldwin, Count of 1204 Flanders, was elected Emperor; and the remainder of A.D. the Byzantine territory was parcelled out between Venice and the French— 1204. Latin and Greek Empires. — There Avas then a divided empire for half a century ; the Latin portion centreing in Constantinople, the Grecian in Nic£ea. There was also a Comnenian Emperor at Trebisond, and another in Thessalonica. Matters continued to be troubled and divided until Michael Palajologus, in 1261, with the aid of the Genoese, took the city of Constantinople in one night. ENGIAND (827-1399 A.D.). Early Saxon Kings. — Egbert Avas the first Saxon King of Wessex, who ruled over all England. The reign of his grandson Alfred (871-901), was the brightest period of Anglo-Saxon his- tory ; for the Danes were defeated both at Ethandune and at Ware upon the Lea, and an example of devotion to literature was set by the wise and good King. About half a century after the death of Alfred a priest named Dunstan acquired supreme power in England, making and unmaking kings at his will. He was the great champion of the Benedictine monks in their struggle with the English clergy, as to whether priests could marry; and at a certain assembly in the town-hall of Calne, the fall of part of the floor deprived a number of his enemies of life. In the reign of Ethelred the Unready (978-1017) occurred the foolish massacre of Danes on St. Brice's Day (1002) ; which roused the Avrath of Sweyn, King of Denmark, against England, and led to tlie cstab- i ! . IIISTOllY OP ENGLAND. 97 ^li lishment on the English throne of a short-lived Danish dynasty, of which Canute was the chief representative. In 1041 the Saxons recovered the throne in the person of Edward the Confessor. The most powerful nohle in England then was Earl Godwin, between whom and the King a quarrel broke out. The son of Godwin, Harold, was elected King, at a time when England was threatened by two foes — Hardrada, King of Norway, and William, Duke of Normandy. The former was defeated and slain at Stamford Bridge; the 1066 latter conquered and slew Harold upon the decisive field of a.d, Hastings (1066). This brought the Saxon line to an end. Early Norman Kings. — William of Normandy ruled England under the title of William I., surname^ the Conqueror, for twenty- one years (1066-87). The siege of Exeter and the desolation of Yorkshire and Durham secured his hold upon the island. The fiercest stand in the Saxon cause was made by Hereward, who in his Camp among the marshes of Ely defied the Normans until 1071. Waltheof of Northumbria, last of the great Anglo-Saxons, was executed for engaging in a plot with some discontented Nor- mans. William II. (1087-1100) was suniamed Rufus. The First Crusade set out in his reign, his gallant but thriftless brother Robert being among those who assumed the Cross. Then came the reign of Henry I. or Beauclerc, who in the battle of Tenchebrai deprived Robert of Normandy. The same question of Investitures, which caused hostility betAveen Pope and Emperor, was fought out in England between Anselm and Henry. The encouragement of learning was a favourable feature of this reign (1100-1135). The reign of Stephen (1135-1154) was occupied almost entirely with a civil war, between the King and Matilda, Henry's daughter, whose second husband had been Geoffrey Plantagenet, the boyish Count of Anjou. This war, of which the battle of Lincoln and the siege of Oxford were principal events, was concluded in 1153 by the Treaty of Winchester, which appointed Henry, Matilda's son, to be Stephen's successor. (187) 7 i 08 HISTORY OP llNGLiiND. The Plantagenet Line (1154-1485).— During sixteen years of the reign of Henry II. (1156-1189), Thomas ii Beckct, who rose from the rank of a merchant's son to be Chancellor and Primate, was the central figure in English history. A rupture took plaee between Henry and Becket, owing to the demand of the former that priests taken in crime should be tried before lay tribunals. A great council, held at Clarendon to settle the dispute, failed to do so; and Becket went into exile in France for six years. Retm'n- ing in 1170, he was murdered at Canterbury by four retainers of Henry. Another great e^'cnt of Henry's reign was the Norman in- vasion of Ireland in 11 09, which !-esulted in a partial conquest of the island. Richard I. (Creur de Lion) reigned next (1189-1199). De- voted to the Tliird Crusade and certain wars in the heart of France, he spent in England only a few months out of ten years. During his reign the London citizens rose in riot under Fitzos- bcrt or Longbeard. The reign of John (1199-121G), owing to weakness and folly on the part of the sovereign, was fruitful in good to the nation. The French King stripped him of Normandy and other posses- sions. He quarrelled with the Pope about the see of Canterbury, and after the imposition of an Interdict, submitted to a disgraceful humiliation at Dover, when he swore to hold England as a Papal iicf. These things and his personal oppression roused the barons of England against him. Appearing in arms, they forced him to grant them a Great Charter (Ilagna CJiarta) of liberty, which was signed at Runnymede by the Thames in 1215. Louis VIII. of France made an invasion of Eng- land, during the course of which John died at Newark. Henry III., son of John, reigned for fifty-six years (1216-1272). During his minority there was a struggle for the regency between De Burgh and De Bodies, of whom the latter was successful. There were some weak invasions of France, But the facts most important in the reign are (1) the confirmation and remcdelling which occasion 1215 A.D. i f I I Magr upon Henry ! .1 lUSTOUY or ENGLAND. 99 J^irliumont for money; and (2), forty years later, the formal Ibmi- ilation of the English House of Commons in 1265. Simon Montfort put himself at the head of the angry harons. The Provisions of Oxford were enacted in 1258 ; war broke out l^etween the King and his nobles ; at Lowes in 1204 Henry was defeated and made captive ; ai.d then Sir Simon the llighteous issued writs, which added to the lords, clergy, and kniglits of the shire, two hiiryesses from every borough. The great career of 31ontfort closed on the field of Evesham (1265), where he died, defeated by Prince EdAvard. The energies of Edward I. (1272-1307) were devoted to the conquest of Wales, Avhich he achieved in 1282, slaying Llewellyn; and the invasion of Scotland, then troubled -with a disputed succession. The events of this struggle belong to the history of Scotland. Edward died in 1307, leaving a reputation as the greatest of the Plantagenets. Edward II. (1307-27) was a Avcak prince, much under the The most notorious of these was barons combined. He suffered death near Warwick. Before his execution a council of twenty- one peers to manage the King's household had been appointed, under the name of Ordainers. Edward's wife was Isabella of France, who excited a movement against him, until he was killed mysteriously in Berkeley Castle. Edward's signal defeat ut Bannockburn will be afterwards noticed. In the reign of Edward III. (1327-77), after a Scottish war, during Avhich was fought the battle of Halitlon Hill, disastrous to the Scots, a claim, founded upon the fact that Edward was t; grandson of Philip IV., was made upon the crown of France (1337). The English won a naval victory at Sluys ; but a more im- portant triumph at Crecy (1340) afterwards crowned their arms. A successful siege of Calais followed. The Prince of Wales, known as the Black Prince, held Bordeaux as a centre of his power for years ; and, in 1350 penetrating the heart of France, won the battle of Poitiers, where King John of France was made dominion of vicious favourites Graveston, against whom the 100 III3T0UY OP ENGTiANn. prisoner. The Treaty of Bretigny in 1360 closed the war. Tlio Black Prince then invaded Spain, where ho -won the field of Navarretta, and laid the foundation of the debt and disease which brought him prematurely to the grave. It was during this reign that John Wyrlifte the Reformer was cited for heresy. Richard n., son of the Black Prince, resembled Edward II. in his nature and his fate. His reign was troubled with discontent among the Commons, which blazed out into an insurrection headed by Wat Tyl'. The deatli of the rebel, who was struck to the ground in Srnithfield by Walworth, the Lord 3Iayor, ]nit an end to the rising. The jealous struggles of the King's uncles formed another .^^ource of trouble. In this reign Wycliffe's disciples, called Lollards, began to preach vigorously against the Church of Home. Piichard was deposed by Henry Duke of Hereford, son of John of Gaunt ; and in a few months was murdered at Ponte- fract Castle. With him ended the direct Plantagenet line in 1399. . SCOTLAND (843-1329 A.D.). The story of Duncan and Macbeth derives from the play of Shakspere an interest greater than it really has in Scottish his- tory. Duncan was certainly slain; but it was in daylight at Bothgowan — a smith's hut, as some consider the word to mean. His son Malcolm Canmore, escaping to England, got from Ed- v.'ard the Confessor aid, which enabled him to recover his father's throne. Malcolm HI, (1056-93) married a Saxon princess, Margaret, who ilid much to soften the barbarism of the Scottish people. Tlie shires of Northumberland and Cumberland tlien formed a district contested fiercely between Scotland and England. Dur- ing an incursion southward Malcolm \.as killed at Alnwick. In the reign of David I. (1124-53) was fought the battle of the Standard. Espousing the cause of Matilda Plantagenet, David met an English army on the Moor of Northallerton, and was signally defeated (1138). David founded many religious r , 1 IIIST-.JIV 01'- SCOTLAND. 101 . houses, among which were the al)heys of Ilolyrooil niul Meh'ose. Ill 1153 he was found dead in bud with his hands joined, as if in prayer. After the reign of Malcolm the Maiden (115.3-05), wlio ceded to England all right over Cuniherland and Northumberland, William the Lion ascended tlie Scottisli tlirone. His reign — the longest in Scottish history (1165-1214) — is chiefly notable for his submission to the English King Henry II., whose prisoner he became at Alnwick in 1174. In order to obtain his freedom, he agreed to hold Scotland as a fief of the English Crown, surrender- ing at the sametlnie five castles — Edinburgh, Stirling, Roxburgh, Jedburgh, and Berwick. Long before William died, Richard I. of England, who was gathering in money on every side to meet the cost of a Crusade, restored the freedom of Scotland for 10,000 merks. Alexander II. was chiefly engaged in wars with the Celts and he English. His successor, Alexander III., played the same part m repressing Norwegian incursions as English Alfred had played in repelling the Danes. Haco, King of Norway, having passed from the conquest of Bute and Arran to the Ayrshire coast, was defeated at Largs (1263) and deprived of the Hebrides. Alexander curbed the nobles and administered a purer justice to his subjects. His death left the crown to Margaret his grand- daughter, the Maid of Norway ; but she died at Orkney in 1290. Robert Bruce and John Baliol, both descended from David I., then claimed the crown. Edward I. of England, reviving the cancelled vassalage of Scotland, put Baliol on the throne, but soon found a pretext for removing him and invading Scotland. At this crisis William Wallace arose. Having successfully stormed several castles, he met the English at Stirling Bridge (1297) and completely routed them. Next year he was 1297 defeated at Falkirk; and was soon afterwards betrayed a.d. into the hands of the English, who hanged him. The great Bruce, grandson of Baliol's rival, now came iilto prominence. The sacrilegious blow, by which Bruce laid Comyn his rival bleeding on the altar-steps jit Duiftfries, oost him many i I 102 SCOTLAND AN'P IISKL.VNn. friends; but lio was crowned in loOd. Tlio news excited old Edward to a nortluvard movement ; but lie died on the Cum- brian slioro. The battle of IJannoclcbnru (June 24, 1;j14) Avas the central event of Bruce's reign. The Phiglish cavalry floundered 1314 into pits dug in front of the Scottish linos; and a band A.D. of sutlers, running fror. the hills, frightened the Eng- lish into a disgracefid flight. Edward II. besieged Berwick vainly in 1310; in 1328 an English Parliament acknowledged the independence of Scotland : and in the follo^v•ing year Robert Bvuco died. IRELAND (1000-1318 A.D.). The great opponent of the Danes in Ireland was King Brian Boru, who fought twenty-five battles, the last and most glorious being at Clontarf in 1014. He was slain in his tent that day. The Danes, however, obtained a footing, particularly on the east shore. Ireland was then divided into five petty kingdoms, which in time of emergency elected one ruler to be supreme. A Norman knight, Fitz-Stephen, landed at the Bann in Wexford in 1169 to assist Dermot the exiled King of Leinster. Strong- bow, Earl of Pembroke, following in two years, took "Waterford and Dublin. And Ilonry II. then crossed to secure his conquest. The Synod of GasJiel laid Ireland partly under English law in 1172. The Lords of the Pale, a district of the south-east, in which the English settlers lived, opened the first Irish Parliament in 1295. Edward Bruce tried to conquer Ireland; but he was slain in 1318 at Fagher near Dundalk. STATES RISING INTO STRENGTH. Spain. — We have noticed the Moslems in the Iberian Penin- sula. After some centuries of conflict the fragments of the Visi- gothic kingdom reunited into new states. Of these Aragon and Castile were chief, the former including Navarre, the latter Leon. I r STATES RISINO INTO STIIKNOTII. 103 Alplionso VI. of Castile resigned Portugal to liis cousin, Henry of Burgundy, in 1005, The Saracens received a decisive blov/ at Tolosa iu 1212 ; and were soon reduced to the })OSsession of only Granada. Switzerland during the ninth century belonged to the king- dom of Bn gundv, hut was afterwards attached to the Ilomano- Gernianie Knipirc. Among its small, semi-independent Cantons, those round the head of Lake Lucern rose to prominence. Ono of these, Schyinz, gave its name to the whole country. Northern Europe. — The Norsemen appear in history as pirates about the time of Egbert. In Davinh history Gorm the Old shines out, as ruler of Jutland and the Dan'sh Isles in 8G3. IIo was virtually the founder of Denmark. Harold Ilaarfager of Norway was a contemporary of Alfred. After the death of Canute, who added England to his realm, Sn'cyn Estritson in 1047 established a new dynasty in Denmark. Of this the most powerful was Waldemar I. (1157-82) and Canute VI., under whom Pomerania, Holstein, and Esthonia Avere subdued. But in 1227 the defeat of Bornhovede cost Denmark all these new possessions. The Kings of Norway turned much of their force upon the British Isles, where they came to possess the 11 "brides, Man, and even Cantyre. King Olav introduced Christianity into Norway, whence it spread to Iceland, and even to Greenland about 1000 A.D. This caused a great contention in Sweden, where the Pagans of Upsala elected a Swerher king in opposition to the Stenhil king of the Christians. The latter were soon extirpated. The great power of Russia was founded in a little nucleus called Novgorod, by Ruric in 862. His daughter-in-law, Olga, established there the Christianity of the Greek Church. But it was Waldimir the Great who, about 1000, planted this creed firmly in Russia. Prussia. — The fierce Borussi having troubled Poland, a mili- tary brotherhood, called the Short-swords, instituted by the Bishop of Riga in 1201, were sent against them in vain. A 104 STATES RISING INTO STKENGTU. Btvongev force was then summoned — the crusading order of Teutonic Knights, wlio from their capital of Thorn waged a fierce and successful war against the native tribes for fifty years. When the conquest was complete, the Order fixed their capital at Marienberg. These soldiers ruled Prussia until 1466. Poland. — The duchy of Polonia, ^'nhabited by the Sclavonians, expanded into the kingdom of Poland about 1025 under Albert of Prague. For a time its existence was a ceaseless struggle with Germany. Its cliief city was Cracow. Hungary. — Pannonia, conquered ])y the Magyars from Mount Ural, grew into the kingdom of Hungary. Stephen the Sr.mt taught the nation Christianity about 1000, and organized the state. Tlieir worst foes came from Asia in the person of invad- ing Moguls, who in 1241 reduced the basin of the Theiss to a desert. THIRD PERIOD OF THE MIDDLE AGES. FROM 1291 A.D. TO 1453 A.D. The leading events and features of the Third Period of the Middle Ages consist of, — 1 . The brilliance of Italian literature and power, especially at Florence and Rome. 2. The successful struggle of Switzerland against Austria ; a contest in which infantry proved victorious over mailed knighthood. 3. The struggle for one hundred years between England and France, resulting in the almost complete expulsion of the former iiom the Continent. 4. The beginnings of the Reformation, as shown in the lives of Wycliffe, Huss, and Jerome. 5. The Asiatic conquests of Timor the Tartar. 6. The invention of Printing. 7. The fall of the Byzantine Empire. 8. The successful pccomplishment of two gi'eat voyages— that of Columbus in 1492, opening the "West — that of Vasco di Gan)a jn 1498, opening the East, to commerce. J) I UISTORY OF GERMANS. 105 i ¥i \ GERMANY (1273-1493). THE HAPSBURGS AND OTHER EMPERORS. Budolf I., who took his name of Hapsburg from the Hawk's Castle on the river Aar in Switzerland, was chosen Emperor in 1273, when he was engaged in the siege of Basle. His domin- ion extended over the Aargau and other portions of Switzerland. Pope Gregory X. acknowledged him as Emperor, the more readily since Rudolf gave up all jurisdiction over Rome, Ancona, and Spoleto, retaining only the right of investing new bishops. His chief opponent was Ottocar of Bohemia, from whom he wrested Austria, Styria, and Carniola, which he made over to his son Albert, thus founding the dominion of the Austrian Empire. Rudolf ruled Germany wisely with a strong hand, devoting himself to the reduction of robber-nobles, and the encouragement of commercial towns. He died in 1291. A struggle between Adolf of Nassau, and Albert, Rudolf's son, resulted in 1298 in the success of the latter. Albert I. was the Duke of Austria under whose oppressive rule the Svvis^ Cantons made their remarkable rising for independ- ence. The Three Forest Cantons — Schweitz, Uri, and Underwal- den — were those in which the flame broke out. And it centred at first in the case of William Tell. Refusing to bow before the ducal cap of Austria, set on a pole at Altorf, Tell was forced to try his famous shot. And, when he was being carried in chains across the lake, and was bidden to steer the boat in a squall, he contrived to leap ashore. Gesler fell a victim to a bolt from his deadly cross-bow after a time (1308). When Albert heard of this, he hurried to Switzerland, where he met his death. Having crossed the Reuss in a boat without his guards, he was murdered by his nephew, John of Suabia (1308). Death prevented Henry of Luxemburg, the next Emperor, from securing Italy w'tli a firm grasp : pnd his successor, Louis of Bavaria, who gained the Empire by the victory of Muhldcrf 106 HISTORY OP GERMANY. over Frederic of Austria, continued to struggle with the Pope and the King of Naples. The Pontiff used the old weapons of curse and interdict : but six of the German Electors united at Reuse (1338) to maintain the cause of Germany against Italy. The principal event in the reign of Charles IV. of Bohemia, who next secured the imperial crown, was the publication at Nuremberg of the Golden Bull (1356), which settled the number of Electors and the laws of election to the German Empire. The Seven Electors were : — 1. Archbishop of Mainz. 2. Archbishop of Treves. 3. Archbishop of Cologne. 4. King of Bohemia. 5. Count Palatine of the Rhine. 6. Duke of Saxony. 7. Margrave of Brandenburg. The reign of Charles lasted for thirty-one years (1347-78). After a jDcriod of thirty-two years, during which Wenceslaus of Bohemia, Frederic of Brunswick, and Rupert of the Rhine reigned in succession, the Empire devolved on Sigismimd King of Hungary (1410-37), a younger son of Charlefi IV. Sigismund underwent reverses of fortune, before he attained to the Empire. He was not popular in Hungary, and a defeat by the "VN^allachians and Turks at Nicopolis (1396) drove him as an exile to Rhodes, Constantinople, and Venice. When he returned to Hung iry, the discontented nobles imprisoned him ; but he escaped, defeated his foes, and resumed the crown. He ruled over Bohemia too ; and becoming Emperor, secured Moravia, Brandenburg, and Silesia. The story of John Huss, a disciple of our English Wycliffe, casts a dark stain on Sigismund. As rector of the university of Prague, this man preached against the Pope, purgatory, and indulgences. The Archbishop of Prague tried in vain to silence him. Exco imunication drove him from Prague, but he after- wards returned bolder than ever. He was then summoned to attend the Council of Constance ; to which ho went, armed with AUSTRIA ANT) STTITZERLAND. 107 a safe-conduct from Sigismund. There lie was arrested and burned. Jerome his disciple soon shared his fate. Sigis- mund paid dearly for his treachery, for a Avar flamed up 1415 in all Bohemia, where Zisca led the Hussite armies and a.d. defeated the imperial troops in many battles. Peace was not concluded mitil 1437, when with much difficulty the Council of Basel effected a compromise. Procopius led the Hussites after the death of Zisca. Sigismund visited France and England. His death in 1437 caused the Empire to pass to the Austrian line. AUSTRIAN EMPEEOES PROM 1437. The short reign of Albert II. was followed by the long reign of his cousin Frederic III. (1440-1493), who had been Duke of Styria. This prince, who was more devoted to the study of botany and alchemy than to the toils of empire, had views so ambitious that he inscribed on his palaces the vowels, A. E. I. 0. U. : for Austria est iinperare orhi vm'verso. But his powers fell short of his plans. He managed so badly that he was kept in constant trouble by wars in Hungary and Bohemia, and in- testine feuds throughout the Empire. But he succeeded in cementing one of the most important marriages of mediasval history, when he secured jMary of Burgundy, the rich heiress of Charles the Bold, as a wife for his son Maximilian (1477). It is notable also that the invention of printing took place in Germany or Holland during this reign. In 1486 Maximilian war, made King of the Romans. SWITZERLAND (1264-1481). The Hapsburg family inherited the possessions of Kyburg in 1264, and soon afterwards, by the election of lludolt to tho Empire, as already narrated, gained ascendency in Europe. I>uke Albert's oppression of the Swiss, and the resistance of Tell have been spoken of. This was only a beginning. Duke 108 SWITZERLAND AND ITALY. Leopold, Albert's son, went into Switzerland in 1315 to punish the rebels ; but he was caught with his array in the narrow pass of Morgarten, and utterly defeated by the mountaineers. Then was formed a league, which was a revival of the old coalition of Uri, Schweitz, and Underwalden ; and soon after 1350 the list of the Eight Cantons was complete. There was, however, another battle to be fought : it took place at Sempach in 1386, when Arnold of Winkelried devoted his life to his country. The victory of Nefels followed ; and in 1393 the Sempach Convention united more firmly the cantons, now free from the Austrian yoke. In the following century Switzerland gathered strength ; but it was severely tes^ted in 1436 by a civil war, in Avhich the cantons allied themselves against Zurich. The siege of Zurich was formed ; an<^ then the French came to the aid of the citizens. In 1452 the Austrians lost their hold on Switzerland, which was soon afterwards engaged in a fierce struggle with Charles the Bold of Burgundy. In this contest the Swiss shepherds es- tablished their character as soldiers, especially in the battles of Granson and Morat (1476), in both of which Charles was defeated. A heap of bones, covered with grass, long continued to mark the scene of the latter. The Duke of Burgundy fought his last field in a winter-storm at Nancy in 1477, when the Swiss were again victors. His body was found among the trampled and bloody snow. Henceforth Burgundy was powerless either against France or Switzerland. The Convention of Stanz admitted Soleure and Freiburg to the Helvetian Union. ■« ITALY (1305-1500). The history of Italy divides itself into several branches, which must be taken in succession, including Milan, Tuscany, Genoa, Savoy, Venice, the Paioacy, Naples, and Sicily. Milan, which was the leading republic city in central Lom- bardy, was ruled for c"».e hundred and fifty-nine years (1288-1447) k HISTORY OF ITALY. 109 by a family named Viscontl, of which the founder was Matteo. Having ■svrested the power from the hands of the Delia Torre faction, he incurred the wrath of Pope John XXII., by appoint- ing his son Giovanni to the see of Milan. The bull of excom- munication was recalled by another Pontiff ; but it finally broke the spirit of Matteo, who died in 1341. Francis Sforza, a soldier of fortune, who married Biaaca the daughter of the last of the Visconti, made himself nif.ster of Milan in 1450. The Sforzas ruled this capital of Lombardy for half a century, soon after which it became an Austrian possession. Ludovico Sforza, surnamed the Moor from his dark complexion, having a quan-el with Ferdinand of Naples, invited the French to his aid, and Charles VIII. invaded Naples. But Ludovico soon saw the necessity of driving out the foreign soldiers. Louis XII. of France took Milan in 1499 ; but a i evolution restored the dukedom to Ludovico. The defection of his Swiss guards placed II Moro in a French prison, where he died. In Tuscany Florence and Pisa were the centres of power and splendour at this time. Pisa equipped a fleet, and embarked in war with Genoa, until the naval engagement off Meloria in 1264 crippled her power, and rendered her an easy prey to Florence. Florence fell in 1250 under a democratic magistracy called the Si'/noria. The Guelph faction then split into the Bianchi and the Neri, or White and Black. "Walter Brienne, Duke of Athens, a leader of Free Lances, seized the city in 1342. But out of all change and trouble sprang the illustrious house of Medici. The first of these to rule the state, though under no distinct name of authority, was Cosmo di Medici, son of Giovanni, the money-changer. He died in 1464, honoured with the title of " Father of his country." Lorenzo, frustrating a conspiracy of the Pazzi, then became ruler 'of Florence, in room of his grandfather. A lyric poet and student of Plato, Lorenzo encouraged art and letters. He spent much money and care in the collection of Eastern MSS.; and afforded aid and refuge to the scholars of Constantinople scattered by the fall of that learned city. In many ways he earned hia no HISTORY CF ITALY. ti name of tlie Maijnificcnt. A few years before his death, Avhich happened in 1492, the Italian reformer Savonarola, afterwards burned for heresy, began to preach at Florence. Lorenzo's second son Giovanni transferred the family splendour to Rome, Avhen he became Pope as Leo X. The Florentine re- public came to an end in 1587, when one of the Medici was made Puke. Genoa. — After having crushed Pisa as a rival by sea, Genoa came into collision with Venice. This was partly caused by the favour shoAvn to the Genoese by the Byzantine Empire. Owing to aid given in the wresting of Constantinople from the Latins, Michael Pala}ologus permitted the Genoese to occupy the suburb of Pera, whence they extended their trade into the Black Sea. Genoa at one time (1878) was so near victory that her ships were in the lagoons of Venice, and her soldiers camped upon the islet of Chioggia. But Venice made a desperate effort, besieged the island, and forced the Genoese to an ignominious surrender. At home Genoa was troubled with Guelph and Ghibelline feuds, in which the Pieschi on the one side and the Doria on the other were the principal contending families. The latter have given more than one great name to Italian history. The defeat at Chioggia and the fall of Constantinople were among the chief causes of the decline of power in Genoa. The influence of Milan prevailed there for a long time. Venice. — The rise of Venice has been already noticed. Her golden period of commerce was now past : and that darkly romantic time had come, when the Council of Ten (1825) and the still more terrible and mysterious Three (1454) held the threads of life and death in Venice. The dagger — the poisoned flower or ring — the close gondola — the still deep canal were all at hand as the instruments of secret execution wrought upon those whose names were branded with suspicion. Marino Faliero, who was beheaded in 1855 for conspiracy against the State ; and Francesco Foscari, under whom Lombardy was conquered, but who died an exile, were among the great Doges of this period. IIISTOIIY OF ITALY. Ill Venice did good service to Europe by defeating the Turkish fleets in the Mediterranean. Her decline may he dated from the voyage of Vasco (1498) and the League cf Cambray (1508). Papal Power. — For seventy-two years (1305-77) the Popes dwelt at Avignon in the south of France. Home Avas meanwhile convulsed with internal feuds among great families such as the Colonuas, the Savelli, and the Orsini. Out of these struggles arose Rienzi, the last of the Tribunes. This scholar, a man of humble birth but a friend of Petrarch the poet, took advantage of Stephen Colonna's absence to seize the chief power in Rome. The nobles being expelled, he ruled •for about seven months, until his vanity estranged the citizens, and, when a time of peril came, none gathered to his side. Escaping from Rome, he died in exile. His revolution occupied the summer of 1347. The Papal exile, beginning with Clement V., ended with Gregory XI. There was then a schism in the Papacy for thirty-nine years (1378-1417), during wdiicli rival Popes dwelt at Rome and at Avignon. The fifteenth century is noted for its ecclesiastical councils. The Council of Pisa (1409), by deposing the tw'o existing Popes in favour of a third, made the schism worse ; for none of them ■would yield, and there were therefore for a time three Popes. The Council of Constance reduced the number to one by electing Martin V. There vrere then several temporary ossemblies in various places, until at Basle a council sat (1433-49), which abolished the tax called annates^ and the reservation of bishoprics, two impositions of the gi'asping Pontiff, John XXII. A ten- dency to oppose Papal exactions was then rife in all Europe, and the Popes were forced to confine their interference in political matters henceforth to the Italian peninsula. The JJorgias, a Spanish family, became at this time prominent in the history of Rome. The father Alfonso was made Pope in 1455 as Calixtus III. His second son Ca}sar was a profligate and daring man, who flung aside the cardinal's robe to be a leader 112 ITALY AND FRANOK. of mercenaries, and who aimed with the assistance of the Pope at making himself master of Romagna and Umbria. The death by poison of Alexander VI. in 1503 destroyed his hopes, and he died as a volunteer in Spain. His sister Liicrezia Borgia was not the very wicked woman that the French drama represents her as having been. Under Julius II. St. Peter's Church was begun, and the League of Cambray was formed in 1508 against Venice. His successor Leo X., a learned and polished member of the Medici family, was Pope when Luther began his work of Reformation. Naples and Sicily. — These states continued separate from about the time of the Sicilian Vespers (1282), until they were united in 1435 under Alfonso V. of Aragon. But Sicily separated again in 1458. The conquest of Naples by Charles VIII. has been already referred to but there was another claimant of Naples in the person of Ferdinand the Catholic of Aragon, who had inherited Sicily. The latter succeeded in 1 504 in expelling the French ; and until 1 700 Naples and Sicily Avere dependejicies of Spain. FRANCE (1328-1483). HOUSE OF VALOIS (1328-1589). ' , " The House of Valois, represent sd by Philip VI,, were scarcely settled on the throne of France, when Edward III. put in his claim as a rival for the crown. That claim was founded on his mother's rights as a daughter of Philip le Bel. The war between France and England that thus arose is called the Hundred Years' War, though it lasted longer (1337-1453), A naval victory at Sluys in 1340, and, yet more decisive, that victory at Cregy, won chiefly by the English archers, in 1346, gave the English power predominance. The capture of Calais in 1347 afforded to the islanders a firm footing in France. The ravages of the Black Plague then caused war to languish for a time. The struggle centred for a time in Southern France, until John the next King was taken prisoner at Poitiers, where the French HISTORY OF FRANCE. 113 KuffcMcd ft great defeat at the hands of the Black Piince in 1356. The captive monarch was conducted with rnuch ceremony to Lon- don, where he lived in the Savoy. Edward concluded the Treaty of Bretigni with France in 1360, but John found his people so turbulent that he left them to the Dauphin and returned to his prison, where he died in 1364. Charles V. (1364-80), Avho succeeded John, was surnamed the Wise. lie had to aid him against the English the sword of Bcrtrand du Guesclin, one of the greatest soldiers France has produced. During this reign t»ie Black Prince crossed the Pyrenees to fight for Pedro of Castile, to the aid of whose brother Du Guesclin had come. The decisive battle was at Navarretta (1307), where the French soldier was taken prisoner. Afterwards ransomed, Du Guasclin was made Constable of France, and fought with such vigour that in a little while, of all Bretagne, Brest alone remained under English power. Du Guesclin and the King both died in 1380 — events which postponed for a time the fall of the English Empire in France. Charles VI. (1380-1422) being a boy of thirteen at his father's death, his three uncles, the Dukes of Anjou, Berri, and Burgundy, struggled for ascendency. The insanity of the King left the contest ultimately between Burgundy and Orleans, the brother of Charles. The assassination of Orleans left the field seemingly clear, but his father-in-law Armagnac headed the Orleans party, which took his name. Matters grew worse, until the massacre of the Armagnacs brought a lull of desolation to the troubled land. France was invaded in this reign by Henry V. of England, who won the glorious iield of Agincourt (1415), and by the conquest of Rouen gained possession of Normandy. The Treaty of Troyes (1420) arranged that Henry should succeed Charles on the French throne, and he continued the war against the Dauphin for two years more. Charles died in 1422. Charles VII. (1422-61) at the age of twenty came to a throne which seemed scarcely worth the having. The infant Henry of England had been already crowned King of France. Bedford, the English Regent, won the great battle of Verneuil, and the (137) 8 114 HISTORY OV FIIANCK, territory of tlic French King shrank so much that there wns ht tie mockery in calling him, as he was called, " King of Bourges." The struggle between France and England at last centred in Orleans, to which Salisbury and Talbot with an English host laid siege. The siege became a blockade; and the hopes of France, wasted almost to despair, were saved by a peasant-girl, the famous Joan of Arc, who, riding on a black horsr with a holy banner in her hands, led a strong reinfurcement into tli(3 city. She then fulfilled her destiny by crowning Charles at 1429 Rheims (1429). This turned the tide. Joan, made pri- A.D. soner by the English, Avas burned at Rouen (1431); but the work she inaugurated went on steadily to success. Burgundy became reconciled to the King — he had previously supported the English — and Charles ruled in reality after 1437. This monarch created a standing army, and turned it to so good account, that, in spite of all that valiant John Talbot could do, Bordeaux fell in 1453, leaving England no footing in France except Calais. The rebellion and wickedness of the Daup^hin embittered the later life of Charles, who died in 1461. Louis XI. (1461-83) was a strange mixture of craft, cruelty, and superstition. He ha'^. not been long on the throne until the nobles, perceiving that the monarchy was fast verging to a des- potism, took up arms against him in the War of the Pullic Good (1465). The niling spirit of this league was Charles the Bold, Count of Charolais, afterwards Duke of Burgundy. The war ended by the concession on the King's part of all the points in dispute, especially those regarding remission of taxes. An inva- sion of France by Edward IV. of England was staved off by Louis, who bribed so skilfully that he obtained the Treaty of Pecquigny. Louis had removed previous foes by poison: he was now strong enough for a public revenge ; and the head of the Constable St. Pol, who had been among the rebel nobles, fell under the headsman's sword at Paris in 1475. How the Swiss rose against the Duke of Burgundy and defeated him at Granson and Morat ; and how, to the great joy of Louis, Charles the Bold lost his life at Nancy (1477), have been already narrated. , i I IIISTOIIY OP FRANCE. 115 Tlio liantl of Mary of Buvguiuly, the heiress of Charles, was a great prize, for besides Burgundy she ruled all Flanders and th j Low Countries. Louis resolved to marry her to the Dauphin, pro- posing to take possession at once in liis son's name of her terri- tories. But she prei'errcd Maximilian, the Emperor's son, to whom she was married in 1477. After this Louis 1477 prepared to tiy his dead vassal, Charles of Burgundy, a.d. for treason, for the purpose of confiscating his estates. The trial was abandoned ; but IMaximilian took up arms. The battle of Guinegate ae;nded nothing, but taught Louis the neces- sity of training a large infantry force for war. As Louis grew old, his superstition and cruelty increased. He used to wear little lead images of saints in his hat, and would often take them out and implore them Avith fervent prayers. In 1478 he caused the Dul^e of Nemours to be beheaded, and under the loose planks of the scaffold he placed the five children of the sufferer, that the dripping of their father's blood upon their heads might teach them the duty of submission to a King. Loui3 XI. died in 1483. His reign is a turning point in French history, marking tl o close of the Middle Ag^s. ENGLAND (1399-1485). The history of England under the rival Houses of Lancaster and York, into which the Plantagenet family divided in 1399, is included in the present period. Henry IV. (1399-1413) was the first Lancastrian King. He was the sou of John of Gaunt, third son of Edward III. His reign was troubled with plots and levolts, of which the most formidable was the alliance between the Percys, a great Northumbrian family, and Owen Glendower, a gentleman of Wales, whose learning caused men to believe in his complicity with Satan. Hotspur, the son of Northumberland, was slain in the battle of Shrewsbury, in which Henry broke the power of the rebels (1403). In this reign a persecution arose against the Lollards, or disciples of 116 IITSTOnV OF KNOLAND. Wycliffo, one of wliom, namotl Suwtro, a London tlcrp^yman, was burned. Henry died in 1413. HenryV. (1413-22), the "Prince Hal " of Sliakspcre, disap- pointed all his boon coini)nnions by turning wise and steady after his accession. He continued the Lollard persecution, committing to the flames a leader of the sect known as Sir John Oldcastle, or the Lord of Cobhani. But his campaigns in Franco represent the central interest of his reign. Sailing from Southampton in 1415, he took the fortress of Harfleur at the month of the Seine, and then marched along tlio coast towards Calais. The Sommo was guarded by the French, but he crossed it at a ford liigh up, and won the battle of Agin- court. Ho then returned to IJngland. In 1419 he took Rouen, which made liim master of Normandy ; and theTreaty of Troyes was then concluded, appointing Henry King of France in succession to Charles. The Dauphin kept up a show of hostility with some aid from Scotland ; but the fall of Meaux destroyed all his hopes of resisting Henry. In this liour of victory the English King died. Henry VI. (1422-61) was a child not yet a year old. England was placed under Humphrey of Gloucester, while the great Duko of Bedford governed the English possessions in Franco. So long as the latter lived, the English power remained unbroken ; and the victories of Crevant and Vcrncuil crippled the resources of the Dauphin, who claimed to be Charles VIII. It was deter- mined to cross the Loire, and as a preparatory step, the English besieged Orleans (1428). Then appeared that strange peasant girl, a native of Domremi in Lorraine, who is known as Joan of Arc or La Pucelle. In white armour, on a black steed, she entered the besieged city during a storm, anu in nine days drove the English from its walls (1429). She fulfilled the second part of the mission she believed to be divine by causing Charles to be crowned at Rheims. Taken prisoner at Compiegne, she was imprisoned for a year, and in 1431 was burned at Rouen. Tlio English rule in France thenceforth grew weak. The Treaty of Arras (1435) did not succeed in procuring peace. The death of Bedford left England almost without a leader in France ; and in UISTOKY OP ENGLAND. 117 a few years, tin Ima been already snid, the English pofisessions had dwhulliul to the single town of Calais. At homo, during the reign of Henry, who wns a weak-minded, prince, there were many plots preceding the great Civil War. The rebellion of Jack Cade, who with a rabble held London for a few days, ended in the death of the leader. But this was only a beginning of troubles. In 1455 that great 1455 civil war, known as the Wars of the Roses, from the op- a.d. posing sides wearing white and red roses as emblems, began at St Albans. It arose from the Duke of York, who had been Protector during the insanity of the King, disliking to let go his powei". The Lancasters, as represented by Henry, were descended from John of Gaunt, third son — the York family, as represented by Richaid, Duke of York, from the fourth son of Edward III. After some battles ^iad taken place, the great con- trolling spirits on the contendiiig sides came to be Margaret of Anjou, the wife of the Lancastrian King, and that great Earl of Warwick, known to history as the King-maker. Six years of war resulted in the accession of Edward IV., son of Richard, Duko of York. HOUSE OF YORK. Edward IV. (1461-83).— The first years of Edward's reign were spent in meeting the efforts of Margaret, who was joined in 1466 by Warwick. But at Barnet in 1471 this great soldier was killed ; and the field of Tewkesbury shattered all Margaret's hopes a few weeks later. The secret murder of Henry in the Tower and the open murder of his son Edward left the crown in the hands of the White Roses. During these troubles William Caxton, an English mercer, brought the art of printing into Eng- land (1474). How Louis XI. cajoled Edward into the Treaty of Pecquigny has been already noticed. Edward V. (April to June, 1483). — Seized at Stony- Stratford after his father's death, young Edward was placed in the Tower, while his crafty uncle, Richard of Gloucester, schemed his way to the throne. Lords Hastings and Rivers, friends of the youth- ful King, were removed by execution. I 118 mSTORY OF ENGLAND. [ 1 , ; 1 Richard III. (1483-85). — While Ricliarcl was on liis way to York, making a royal progress through the land, the rumour spread that young Edward and his little brother had been murdered in the Tower, The story forms a mysterious page in English history. If it was true, an avenger soon appeared in the person of a Lancastrian Earl of Richmond, who in France pre- pared for the invasion of England. The Duke of Buckingham, to whose efforts on his behalf Richard mainly owed the crown, re- belled against the King, but was taken and executed. Then came the last scene, llichmond landed at Mil ford Haven : Richard took his post with a treacherous army in the centre of his king- dom. On Bosworth Field in Leicestershire they met ; 1485 and a skirmish took place, which closed in a rush by A.D. Richard in his despair upon the guards that encircled Henry. The vain brave effort ended in his death. With him ended, in 1485, the Yorkist branch of the Plantagenet Dynasty in England ; and the same date may be fixed as closing the History of the Middle Ages in this country. SCOTLAND (1329-1487). David II. (1329-70).— -Robert Bruce left a son aged six to succeed him. During the minority Edward III. of England attempted to make Edward Baliol King of Scotland; and de- feated the Scots at Halidon Hill (1333). But they adopted a plan of laying Avaste the country, which baffled his attacks, and his designs on France turned his energies in another direction. While Edward was in France, in 1346, the year of Crefy, David invaded England, and was met, about a mile from Durham, on the field of Nevil's Cross, by Queen Philippa, and was made prisoner. Ransomed after eleven years, he returned to his native land to intrigue with the Englisli against its interests. He died in 1370. THE STUART DYNASTY. Robert II. (1370-90) was the first Stuart King of Scotland. This celebrated but hapless family took its name from the fact r niSTOUY OP SCOTLAND. 119 r that Marjoiio Bruce married Walter the Steward of Scotland. Robert's reign was unmarked by any great event. The turbu- lent nobles, regardless of rale or law, engaged in private wars. During this reign the battle of Otterburne (1388), depicted with some fictitious incidents in the ballad of Chevy Chase, wag fought. It was a contest between the Percys and the Douglases. Bobert III. (1390-1406) was really called John, but changed liis name, lest it might prove a bad omen. He was so indolent that he left the government chiefly in the hands of his brother, whom he made Duke of Albany. A qii irrel arose between this crafty man and his nephew, Robert's eldest son, the Duke of Rothe- say. The young prince was found dead in Falkland, starved, it is said, by his uncle; through fear of whom King Robert sent his surviving son James, aged twelve, away in a ship bound for France. Off Norfolk the ship was taken, and the prince was carried a prisoner to England. This broke the King's heart (1406). James I. (1406-37) was a poet — author of the " King's Quhair." While he continued for nineteen years in custody in .England, chiefly at Windsor, Albany was for the most part Regent of Scotland. During this time the seeds of Protestant- ism be,p"an to be sown in the northern kingdom ; and John Resby a disciple of Wycliffe, was burned at Perth for preaching. In 1411 a fierce battle was fought at Harlaw between the Earl of Mar and the Lord of the Isles, resulting in the defeat of the Highlanders, who had mustered under the banner of the former chieftain. The death of Albany in 1419 allowed the nobles to grow more disorderly; so that when James was released in 1424 he had a hard task be^^^^e him. He executed some of the lawless nobles; established the Parliament on a better foundation; made good laws; and kept the wild Highlanders in check by timely severity. He was slain at Perth by conspirators in 1437. James II. (1437-60), surnamed of the Fiery Face, was handed from one nonle to another during his minority; but of all the nobles the Douglases were most powerful. He met this ascen- dency in a treacherous way by inviting the Earl of Douglas to dinner at Edinburgh, and then causing him to be beheaded. tf 120 HISTORY OF SCOTLAND. This device was repeated at Stirling some years later, when another Douglas fell after dinner under the dagger of the King himself. James II. was killed in 1460 by the bursting of a cannon, while he was directing the siege of Roxburgh Castle, a fortress which had been long in the hands of the Eng- lish. James III. (1460-88), also a minor, fell into the hands of the Boyds, who allowed him to grow into a dissolute and idle man, taking pleasure in the society of low favourites. The chief of these was a builder, named Cochrane, whom he made Earl of Mar. When the arrogance of this man grew intolerable, the nobles, then assembled in arms to fight with England, seized and hanged him at Lauder Bridge, after which they kept the King in prison for a time. Some time later, they proclaimed Prince James King, and defeated the father near Bannockburn. While galloping from the field, James fell from his horse, and, while lying stunned in a mill, was stabbed to death by a man pretending to be a priest. James IV. (1488-1513) was a gay and politic monarch, who wisely kept on good terms with his nobility. He created a Scottish navy, of which ijn- Andrew Wood of Largo was the great ornament. James IV was united in marriage to Margaret Tudor, daughter of Heny VII. of England. This wedding, which took place at Lamberton on the Border in 1502, is i^otable as being the event on which hinged afterwards the deiitinies of the Scottish crown in relation to England. In this reign Walter Cliapman introduced printing into Scot- land. A quarrel between England and Scotland resulted in an invasion of England by a Scottish army. James pitched 1513 his camp on Flodden, a hill jutting from the Cheviots. A.D. Surrey, who commanded the English host, made a move- ment which cut off the retreat of James. Setting fire to their camp, the Scots rushed on in the smoke, but were finally broken, with the loss of their King and the flower of the nation. James V. (1513^2) was the " King of the Commons," the Fitz-James of Scott's poetic romance. Again the curse of a // I f jpi ^, I HISTORY OP SCOTLAND, 121 royal minority troubled Scotland. But in 1524 James, a lad of sixteen, who had been trained under the care of the poet. Sir David Lindesay, escaped from Falkland, -where the Douglas family kept him in ward, and reached Stirling. King James re- duced the Border — always a troublesome region — to order, by the execution of Johnnie Armstrong and other freebooters. He also established the Court of Session. The beginnings of the actual Keformation belong to this reign, in which Patrick Hamilton, an abbot of noble blood, was burned at St. Andrews (1528) for his Protestantism. "His smoke infected all it blew on;" and the poet Lindesay added his satiric verses to the influences and aids of the Reformation. James of Scotland, whose second wife was Mary of Guise, refused to meet Henry VIII. of England at York; and war began between the potentates. Oliver Sin- clair commanded the Scots on the Border ; but the army disliked this royal favourite, and three hundred English horse under Dacre and Musgrave scattered an army of ten thousand men. This was the rout of " Solway Moss." It broke the heart of James V., who died at Falkland of wasting fever, leaving his crown to a little " lass," aged not many days. Mary (1542-67). — The Regency was now contested between Cardinal Beatoun and the Earl of Arran, of whom the latter gained the prize. But both united to resist Protestantism, which was supported, even to the length of warlike invasion, by England. John Knox and George Wishart then appeared as preachers of the Reformation. The latter was burned at St. Andrews in 1546 in view of Cardinal Beatoun, who was murdered, three months later, by conspirators in the castle of the same old ciiy. The story of John Knox was a most changeful tale. After lifting a bold voice in St. Andrews, he was made prisoner by a French armament, and condemned to the galleys, in which he toiled at the oar for two years. Meanwhile, Henry of England had been pushing on a marriage treaty between his son Edward and Mary, the young Scottish Queen. The Scots, in the succeeding English reign, were so averse to the match, that the Regent Somerset sent into Scotland ' 122 HISTORY OF SCOTLAND. an army, whicli routed the Scots at Pinkie, but did not succeed in bringing the marriage affair to a successful termination. Every month advanced the Protestant cause in Scotland. Knox came home from Geneva, filled with a zeal which inter- course with Calvin had sharpened. The young Queen, as the wife of tlie French Dauphin, was learning to cling to the Catholic foith. In 1561, her husband being dead, she came back to Scotland, to spend seven years of trouble and wretchedness. She married Lord Darnley, with whom she did not agree v'ell, and at one time she showed special lavour to a musician, named Rizzio. Him certain men slew in Holyrood, having dragged him from tho Queen's supper-table. Tiie Earl of Bothwell seems to have acted out the Queen's revenge ; for shortly afterwards Darnley was killed, a lonely house near Edinburgh in which he then resided being blown up. Three months later, Mary mar- ried Bothwell. This roused the nobles to arras ; and Mary sur- rendered at Carberry Hill, only to be placed in confinement at Lochleven. Escaping thence, after eleven months' captivity, she raised an army and met the Regent Moray at Langside. Being utterly defeated there, she fled to England; and, after being detained by Elizabeth in various prisons for nineteen years, was beheaded at Fotheringay in 1587. James VI. (1567-1603) was only a year old when his hapless mother abdicated the throne. The country prospered under the Begency of Moray; but in 1570 he was shot in the street of Linlithgow by Hamilton of Bothwellhaugh. Lennox, Mar, and Morton then governed the unhappy land ; until James, growing up under the tuition of George Buchanan, was old enough to reign. In 1572 John Knox, to whom most of all Scotland owed her Piotestantism, died. In 1600 occurred that strange transac- tion known as the Gowrie Conspiracy. James reached Gowrie House in Perth, and dined there. After dinner the Earl of Gowrie and his brother were killed — in self-defence, for they meant to murder him, the King said. On the death of Elizabeth the Stuarts ascended the English throne, and the history of Scotland merges in that of Great Britain. f { IRELAND AND SPAIN. 123 IRELAITD. The history of Ireland during this period presents only rebellion on the part of the natives, and repression on the part of the English. In 1495 Poymngs' Law gave tlie English Sovereign complete control over the Parliament of Ireland. Henry VIIT. raised Ireland to the rank of a kingdom in 1541. But the actual conquest of Ireland was not completed until the reign of Eliza- beth, when in both south and north the rebellious chiefs were defeated. Hugh O'Neill, Earl of Tyrone, the most formidable of these, was finally crushed in 1602 by Lord Mountjoy. I SPAIN (1212-1492). After the battle of Tolosa in 1212, the Mohammedans declined in power, and two kingdoms — Castile and Aragon — grew great steadily. Castile occupied the centre of the peninsula, and under Ferdinand III. absorbed Leon, Estremadura, and Murcia. The reign of Alfonso X. was distinguished for advance in science and law, but was troubled with conspiracies. Greater trouble convulsed the realm under Peter the Cruel, a contemporary of Du Guesclin and the Black Prince. Henry, a brother of Peter, having seized the throne, by means of aid from France, Peter offered Biscay as a bribe to the Black Prince, who invaded Spain, won the great victory of Navarretta, and restored the deposed tyrant. On the retirement of the English prince, however, Henry slew Peter. The smaller kingdom of Aragon owed much to James I. (1213-1276), who conquered Valencia and the Balearic Isles. Sicily, Naples, and Sardinia also became appendages of this realm. Disputes for the crown produced great troubles ; but at last it passed to Ferdinand the Catholic, who, in 1469, had been married to Isabella of Castile. This union of the crowns of Aragon and Castile, which took place in 1479, may be regarded as the beginning of the greatness of Spain. I 124 SPAIN AND rORTUGAL. These two great monarchs set themselves to perform the task that lay before them — the uprooting of the Moorish power in Spain. The war of Granada began in 1481 by the surprise of Zahara. The sack of Albania, regarded as the key of Granada, occuiTed in the following year. Malaga and Baza fell ; and in 1491 Ferdinand pitched his camp by Granada. Famine at last forced the gates, and on the second day of 1492 the keys of the Alham- bra were sun jndered. This great year, 1492, was further signalized by the discovery of America by Columbus, an Italian mariner, to whom 1492 the Spanish Queen Isabella gave the use of three ships. A.D. The expedition sailed from Pales, and in less than three months saw the low green shore of Guanahani, or San Salvador, one of the Bahamas. Navarre, lying close to France, had come by various marriages to belong to such great French houses as Evreux, Foix, Albret ; but the Kings of Aragon contrived to lay their hands on a great portion of the territory. 'I I PORTUGAL. The kingdom of Portugal was an off-shoot from that of Castile. In 1095 Alfonso VI. of Castile made over this maritime district to his son-in-law, Henry of Burgundy, whose son Alfonso as- sumed the title of King in 113i. For many years there was a fierce contest with Castile. The Pope gave a weighty decision in favour of Portugal possessing a separate regal dignity. In 1290 the University of Lisbon was founded. The kings had much trouble in checking the poAver of the Church at this time. Beatrice of Portugal being married to John I. of Castile, the crown of Portugd seemed in danger of returning again to the latter power. But a revolution, excited chiefly by John, Grand Master of Avis, overturned the Castilian hopes; and the battle of Aljubarrotto (1385), in which the Castilians were signally defeated, confirmed the crown to the Master of Avis, SCANDINAVIA. 126 Then began an era of discovery, ■whicli much advanced the maritime power of Portugal, and by opening the command of the sea saved her from the extinction that must otherwise have teen the result of her vicinity to a neighbour so powerful as Spain. The coast of Africa was traced, chiefly under the direc- tion of John's son, Prince Henry the Mariner. Madeira and the Azores were seized for Portugal. And under John II. (1481-95) Diaz, a Portuguese captain, caught sight, in 1486, of that notable Cape, whose storms baffled his attempts to sail past it, and to which on his return, he gave, at the King's suggestion, the name " Cape of Good Hope." The " good hope " was re- alized by Vasco de Gama, who doubled the Cape in 1498, and opened a sea-route to India. This voyage and that of Columbus, six years earlier, revolutionized the history of commerce and of the world. SCANDINAVIA. The stream of history in Denmark, Nonvay, and Sweden inins in three separate currents until the close of the fourteenth century. Prom the proximity of the countries the history of Norway touched that of Scotland at certain points. The " ?»Iaid of Nor- way " and the " Battle of Largs " have been already noticed. Margaret, daughter of Waldemar III. of Denmark, married Haco of Norway in 1363. Margaret's son, Olav, who had been recognized King of Denmark, and her husband Haco, having both died, she becarie Sovereign over the two countries. But this did not content the ambition of the *' Semiramis of the North." There was a party in Sweden unfriendly to Albert of Mecklen- burg, whom others had invited to the crown. Seizing this opportunity, Margaret made war on Albert, whom she took prisoner. The price of his release, after seven years of captivity, was arranged to be the formal recognition of Margaret as Sovereign of Sweden. In 1397 the Estates of the three kingdoms assembled at Calmar 120 UISTORY OF POLAND. :l in Sweden, where was framed the celebrated Union of Cahnar^ constituting the triple monarchy elective. The union did iiot last long. On the death of Margaret in 1411, her grand-nephew Erik became King, but was expelled in 1439 in favour of Christopher of Bavaria. The House of Oldenburg, in the person of Christian I., Count of Oldenburg, now (1448) obtained the Danish throne. This prince acquired Holstein and Schleswig by inheritance from his mother. In Norway he was acknowledged King; but the Swedes under Karl Knutson, and Sten Sture, Administrators, maintained a desultory independence for a time. POLAND. The ancient dynasty of Polish Kings — the Piastif Avho had ruled the rich corn-land for five hundred years, terminated with the reign of Casimir the Great (1333-70). This prince was the son of a great warrior, Vladislav II., who worsted the Teutonic Knights in the battle of Plowco in 1331 ; and the son well upheld the father's fame, though in a more peaceful way. Making concessions to Bohemia and the Teutonic Order for the sake of securing peace, he devoted himself to the improvement of agriculture. The angry nobles, curbed from oppression by his strong hand, nicknamed him The Peasant King, To him Poland owed its earliest code of laws. Louis of Hungary succeeded Casimir, but quite neglected Poland. His daughter married Jagello, Duke of Lithuania, Avho became after baptism, for he was a pagan, King Vladislav. Under his rule was fought in 1410 the battle of Tannenberg, which broke the power of the Teutonic Order. Vladislav III., also elected King of Hungary, fell in the battle of Varna with the Turks in 1444. Casimir of Lithuania -was then made King. A revolt of the Prussian provinces led to a war with the Teutonic KnightSj which closed in 1466 by the Peace of Thorn assigning a portion of Prussia to Poland. Before the long reign of Caaimir closed rnUSSIA AND HUNG Ally. 127 111 1402, an arrangement was made to divide Poland into electoral districts, each of which returned a representative to an assembly, which Avas to deliberate independently of senate or nobles. Vladislav, son of Casimir, became King of Hungary and Bo- hemia PRUSSIA. The Knights of the Teutonic Order, who conquered Prussia between 1231 and 1283, gradually extended their sv»'ay over Livonia and Courland. Prosperity engendered luxury, and luxury begot vice. The aid of the Poles was called in to repress the tyranny of the Order. The battle of Tannenberg, in which the Knights suffered a signa^ defeat (1410), was a heavy blow, from which they never recovered. In 1511 Albert of Brandenburg was Grand Master of the Order. Under him the struggle with Poland was continued, until about 1525, when Eastern Prussia was assigned to this prince as an hereditary ducal fief of Poland. HUNGARY. During the closing centuries of the Middle Ages, Hungary was ruled by various sovereigns, amongst Avhom Charles Robert of Naples, Louis the Great, Sigismund of Bohemia, and greatest of all, Matthias Corvinus, were prominent. The war with Naples led the Hungarians to become more civilized, and amongst other improvements the cultivation of the vine was introduced at Tokay. Louis united in his person the monarchies of Hungary and Poland. Sigismund (1386-1487) was defeated by the Turks at Nicopolis in 1396. It may here be noticed that Europe owed much at this and later times to the Hungarians, who manned the banks of the Danube and repelled the incessant attempts of the Turks to penetrate Central Europe. What the Pyrenees and the Franks 1' id done at an earlier date to restrict the Moslems to the Spanish ; I 128 HUNGARY AND RtJSSIA. peninsula, wlicnce they were at last expelled, this gallant nation and this broad current did for Europe now. Matthias Corvinus, son of John Huniades, a distinguished general, who was victorious over the Turks at Belgrade, was the greal-^st King of Hungary. His conquests extended towards the Black Sea and the Adriatic. He gained possession of Vienna for a time (1485). The feeble Vladislav permitt'^ he Austrians to secure a finii hold of Hungary, and certain outlying portions of the kingdom broke off — Dalmatia seeking protection from Venice, and Moldavia falling under the power of Poland. After 1527 the kingdom of Hungary wa« ruled by the House of Hapsburg. RUSSIA. The vast and bleak plain of Russia was thinly tenanted at first by wandering tribes of Slavi. The first germ of government appeared in 862, when Ruric the Norseman fixed his residence at Novgorod. And a further great advance was made when Vladimir the Great was baptized a Christian in 986. The in- cursions of the Moguls troubled Russia for a long time, and it lay in subjection to these savage Asiatics, a nominal Grand Duke holding his court at Moscow, while the real masters of the soil desolated the country in the collection of their tribute. Timur the Tartar overran Russia, as will be seen further on; and it was not until Ivan Vasilovitch (1462-1505) became Czar that the Russian State can be regarded as fairly consolidated. It did not come into prominence as a Great Power in Europe until two more centuries had passed. BYZANTINE EMPIRE (1261-1453). After 3Iichael Palaeologus had recovered Constantinople in 1261, he united the Greek and Latin Churches in the hope of pleasing the Pope. His feeble successor dissolved this union, and the time and strength of the Greeks were wasted in vague religiou.s disjmtations. BYZANTINE IIISTOUY. 129 'St Meanwhile the Turks were pushing their approaches nearer. During the reign of John V. Paltuologus, Othnian having fixed his camp at Prusa in Bithynia, the Emperor's guardian, John Cantacuzenus, was forced to appease tlie infidel by pemiittmg his daughter to marry liim. Another humiliation was endured in 1870, when the representative of the ancient Roman purple, ter- rified by the fall of Adriauople before the Turks, agreed to pay tribute to these Asiatic invaders. Amurath the Emir of ihc Turks, who took the name Osmanli or Ottomans from Otliman, created a military band called Jania' saries, by devoting to warlike duties one-third of the Christian youths taken captive. By their aid he won the battle of Cassovia. Meanwhile discord was weakening the Byzantines. A quarrel arose between John the PJmperor and his son, and the latter with the assistance of the Genoese shut his father in prison for two years. Bajazet, now the Turkish Sultan, met a great allied force, in which the French fought under the banner of Sigismund, King of Hungary, and defeated them at Nicopolis (1396). Manuel Palreologus then submitted himself to the Turks, consenting to f>ay tribute and to build a mosque in Constanti- nople: but this did not avail; the Turks began a siege; and throughout all Europe he could get no aid. At this juncture (1402) Timur, whose career will be sketched in the section upon Asiatic History, threatened Aela Minor, and compelled the Turkish Sultan to turn aside from Constantinople. Defeated at Angora, Bajazet was carried as a captive in a litter latticed with iron, until he died of shame and vexation. The Greeks now ventured to raise their heads again, in the hope that the Turkish power was destroyed. They broke down the mosque, and proceeded to retake several places near Constan- tinople. But the final blow was only delayed. It fell in 1453, a date which may be regarded, thongh it is hard to fix an exact date that will suit all countries, as closing the History of the Middle Ages. ' . Tall of Constantinople. — Mohammed II., the Sultan of tho {187} 9 130 FALL OV CONSTANTINOPLK. ii Turks, giitliei'cd nil Jirniy of 70,000 for tlio reduction of Con- stantinople. Within tlie oity Constantino XI., last of the Pala'o- logi, couhl muster only 6000 soldiers for the defence, and there were no foreign allies except 2000 Genoese. The Turks 1453 had 320 ships; the Greeks only 14, which were chained A.D. within the harbour of the Golden Horn. The walls were assailed with stones and arrows, and a rude cannon- ade. Fiercely the defenders fought, and at first with success. Five ships from Chios forced their way through the Turkish lleet, and bore food and men into the harbour. But the Saltan carried some galleys across a neck of land, launched them in the harbour, and bombarded with such effect that a practicable breach was made in the central rampart. Then came the final assault, the triumph of the Turks, and the death of the Emperor Constantine — last of the Cajsars — who was slain in the struggle by some unknown hand. Thus the Turks obtained a firm footing in one corner of Europe, to which they have been restricted. ASU IN THE MIDDLE AGES. The chief Asiatic races, which came in contact with those of Europe and left a name in history during the Middle Ages, were the Turks and the Moguls or Mongols. We have already noticed the deeds of the former, of whom two branches were especially prominent — the Seljuks and the Otto- mans. For a time it seemed as if the power of the Mongols was to obliterate all other Asiatic dynasties. The cradle of the Mongol race is still called Mongolia — a portion of Chinese Tartary. There, upon a vast table-land, walled in and intersected by mighty mountain-ranges, they lived the restless life of nomads. The Mongol chief who achieved most in Asia at this period was Zenghis Khan (Greatest Khan), who assumed this title in- stead of Temugin, his oiiginal name. Diiven from his father's kingdom, while yet a boy, he found a refuge with Oungh Khan ASIA IN TIIK MIDDLK AOES. 181 — tlio KUpposoil original of Prester Jului, a inyHtcrioua Chiistian nioiian.'li •){ Asia, in whom early popes, travellers, and navigators believed, and who kept his court near the Amour, north of tho Chinese Wall. Zenyhis Khan repaid tho protection and confidence of Oungh, who had given him his danghter to wife, by stealing tho affections of his soldiers and defeating him in battle. Then at the Selingatho daring chief caused a great assembly of Mongols and Tartars to proclaim him under his jn-oud title (1205). An old seer confirmed his election by describing a vision he had seen from heaven, wherein tho monarch was proclaimed by tho en- throned Deity. After making laws and organizing an army, Zenghis proceeded on his career of conquest. His first acquisition was China; ho then overran in succession Tibet, Cashmere, and parts of Persia and ITindostan, laying in the last named country the foundation of a great Mogul Empire, which afterwards centred at Delhi. Mohanmied Kothbeddin, the Turkish Sultan, attempted to with- stand his approach towards Western Asia ; but in vain. The battle was fought in 1218 near the Jaxartes; and resulted in the ultimate victory of Zenghis. Having marched in triumph into the great cities of Cari/me, Herat, Balkh, Candahar, Bokhara, and Samarcand, he found himself master of a vast conglomerate empire, extending from the Volga to the Pacific, from the Altai to the Persian Gulf. Zenghis Khan died in 1227. The sons, and more especially the grandsons, of Zenghis, ex- tended and completed his conquests. His grandsons, Batu, Hoolagoo, and Kublai, devoted themselves to different portions of the Eastern World. Batu, son of Joojee, invaded Russia, defeated the great Alex- ander Nevski, and exacted tribute from the House of Ruric. Not content with this, he advanced into Poland, burned Cracow and Breslau, and so threatened Central Europe that a great gathering of nations imder Henry of Silesia met him at Nollstadt near Liegnitz in 1242, and were defeated. Nothing could then have saved Europe from being overrun but the inability of the Mongols to take walled cities. They did not know the art of besieging. 132 ASIA IN THE MIDDLE AGES. Hoolagoo, another grandson of Zenghis, reduced Bagdad, tl.e capital of the Moslem Caliphs, in 1258 ; and followed up his vic- tory hy the invasion of Syria and the Holy Land. But the Mamelukes expelled the Mongols from the latter. Kublai established the Mongol power firmly in China in 1279, by overthrowing the Sony dynasty, and conquering the province Quaivj-tong. He died in 1294. The four divisions of the empire then were : — 1. Iran, or Persia. 2. Zagaiai or South-eastern Asia. 3. KaptschaTi., a part of Russia bordering on the Caspian. 4. China. The power of the Mongols grew to yet greater prominence under Timur (i.e., Iron), a descendant of Zenghis Khan and a native of Zagatai. He is otherwise called Tamerlane, a corrup- tion of Timur-lenk, or Timur the Lame. This soldier of fortune secured his position, like Zenghis, by an act of ingratitude. Turning against Husein of Khorassan, he defeated him, took the throne of Zagatai, and fixed his capital at Samarcand. His first important conquest was Great Tarcary, or Turkestan, and part of Siberia, which he took from the Getes. The storming of Herat, whose beautiful iron gatt he carried off, laid Khorassan at his feet. Persia, weakened by the contention of its petty princes, then became his prey, though not until a war of five years had wasted it. He then pushed his way towards India, conquering Bagdad as he went. His prudence as a general may be judged from the fact that, when he took this city he emptied all the wine-skins in the place into the Tigris. The year 1398 witnessed l.is famous campaign in the north of India. Penetrating the Hindoo-Koosh by means of the passes, lie reached the Indus, which he crossed at Attock, where Alex- ander of Macedon had also made the passage. Before he crossed the Sutlej, as he was passing across the Punjaub, he collected so many captives, that he deemed it necessary to slaughter them all in one great pile, lest they might rise in mutiny against him. Near Delhi, which with its vast treasures fell into his hands, he defeated the Indian army. i f ASIA IN THE MIDDLE AGES. 133 Turning then to Asia M'uor he came in collision with the Ottoman Turks, whose city of Siwas (Sebaste) he took, and whose Sultan's son he murdered. Sultan Bajazet (i.e., Jit/htning, from the swiftness of his marches), met Timur at Angora in Asia Minor, and there sutfered a most signal defeat. 1402 Having made the Turkish Sultan captive, the Tartar a.d. chief carried him with his army, wherever he went, but only in a palanquin, not in an iron cage, as the legend used to relate. In 1405 Timur, while on his march to China, died at Otrar on the Jaxartes. Persia after the death of Timur fell under the dominion of the Turkish tribes, whicli were called Black Sheep and White Sheep from the emblematic devices on their standards. It will afterwards appear how Baber revived the splendours of the Mogul Empire in Northern India. CHIEF DATES OF THE MIDDLE AGES. .D. FIFTH CENTURY, A.D. Teutonic invasion of England, Z«no reigns at Byzantium, Clovis rules the Franks, ..■ Death of Odoacer in Italy, SIXTH CENTURY, A Roign of Juf^tinian, ... NarseH Exarch of Ravenna, St. Columba lands at lona, Lombards invade Italy, ... Birth of Mohammed, Papacy of Gregory I. (the Great), Mission of Augustine to England, ... SEVENTH CENTURY, The Hegira, ... ... Death of Mohammed, Omar .kes Jerusalem, Law. of Rotharis the Lombard, ... The Arabs besiege Coi)st«otf|iople, ... A.D. Uf A.D. • •• 449 • •• 474-91 • •• 486-511 • •• 493 527-65 553 563 568 571 590-604 597 • •• 622 ... 632 • •• 637 • •• 644 ••• 668-75 131 -MEDT.T-VAL CIIRONOLOOT. I! I EIGHTII CENTURY, A.D. Saracens invade Spain, Battle of Tours, ... Merovingian Dynasty (Franks) ends, Dynasty of Abbasides established. Reign of Charlemagne, Charlemagne defeats Desiderins the Lombard, lleign of Caliph Haroun-al-llaschid, Danes begin to invade England, Charlemagne crowned at Rome, NINTH CENTURY, A.D. Irene dethroned (Byzantine), Venice founded, ... Egbert reigns in England, Treaty of Verdun, Kenneth MacAlpine rules all Scotland, Ruric founds the Russian Empire, Gorm the Old unites the Danish Isles, Alfred reigns in England, ... TENTH CENTURY, A.D. Rollo the Norseman settles in France, Reign of Otlio the Great in Germany, Otho crowned at Rome, Reign of John Zimisces (Byzantine), Capet Dynasty begins (France), ELEVENTH CENTURY, A.D. Massacre of St. Brice (England), ... Battle of Hastings (England), Papacy of Hildebrand, Seljuk Turks take Palestine, Henry IV, of Germany excommunicated. Siege of Dura' ■ by the Normans, ... Moorish Empire established in Spain, Portugal separated from Castile, ... First Crusade begins. The Eight Crusades continue. TWELFTH CENTURY, A.D. Battle of the Standard (England), ... Flantagenet.s begin to reigu in England, The Lombard League, A.l>. ••• 1 710 • •• 1 732 • •• I 762 • *• 753 • ft .. 771-814 • •• 774 • •• .. 786-808 • •• 787 • •• 800 • I* • 802 • •• 809 ... .. ■ 827 ... 843 *•• • *• 862 ... 863 ... .. 871-901 • ■• 911 • *• .. 936-73 • •• 962 «.« .. 969-75 ... 987 1002 • •• 1066 . .. 1073-85 ... 1076 ... .. 1077 **• 1081 • ta .. 1087 • •• 1095 ■ •• 1096 • •• 1096-1291 1133 • •• 1154 ft* .. 1167 I. 1 A.D. 710 732 752 753 1-814 774 ,6-808 787 800 802 809 827 843 911 936-73 962 969-75 987 1002 1066 073-85 1076 1077 1081 1087 1095 1096 56-1291 1138 1154 1167 h [ MEDIiEVAL CHRONOLOGY. Saladin conquers the Fatimiios in E.atypt, ... The English occupy Ireland, Battle of Legnano (Italy), ... PJiilip Augustus reigns in France, ... Third Crusade, ... THIRTEENTH CENTURY, A.D. Crusaders (5th) take Constaniinople, Zenghis Khan proclaimed. Battle of Tolosa (Spain), ... Magna Chaita signed, Teutonic Knights conquer Prussia, Battle of Liegnitz, Hansa League formed, 'Moors in Spain possess Granada only, Latin Empire of Constantinople overthrown, Battle of Largs (Scotland), Rudolf of Hapsburg emperor, Sicilian Vespers, ... Wales conquered, FOURTEENTH CENTURY, A.D. Popes at Avignon, llobert Bruce reigns in Scotland, ... WillianiTell, Battle of Bannockburn, ... Battle of Morgarten, Council of Ten at Venice, ... Casimir the Great rules in Poland, Beginning of Hundred Years' War, Battle of Cre?y, ... Eevolution of Rienzi, Marino Faliero beheaded, ... Battle of Poitiers, Battle of Navarretta, Stuart dynasty in Scotland, Genoese defeated at Chioggia, Convention of Sempach, ... Battle of Nicopolis, Union of Cahnar, Timur the Tartar takes Delhi, FIFTEENTH CENTURY, A.D. Timur defeats Bnjazet at Angora, ... Battle of Shrewsbury, 135 A.D. 1171 1172 1176 1180-1223 ... 1189-92 1203 1205 1212 1215 1228-81 1242 1247 1250 1261 1263 1278 1282 ... 1305-77 ... 1306-29 1307 1314 1315 1325 ... 1333-70 1337 1346 134^ 1355 1356 1367 1370 1378 1393 1396 1397 1398 1402 1403 ( 136 MEDIJSVAL CHRONOLOaY. Battle of Agmcourt, Martyrdom of Huss at Constance, ... Siege of Rouen by the English, ... ... Orleans relieved by Joan of Arc, ... Council of Basle, ... Invention of printing about. House of Oldenburg reign in Denmark, Francis Sforza takes Milan, ... ... Constantinople taken by the Turks, Council of Three at Venice, War of the Roses begins, ... Reign of Louis XI. of Fiance, Cosmo di Medici dies. War of the Public Good (France), ... Printing introduced into England, ... Battles of Granson and Morat, Mary of Burgundy marries Maximilian of Austria, Battle of Bos worth, Granada wrested from the Moor.s, ... Columbus discovers America, Vasco de Gama doubles the Cape, ... A.O. • »• • •• • •• 1415 • •• • ■• ■ •» 1415 §•• • •• • •• 1419 • •• • •• • •• 1429 • •• • •• • •• 1433-49 • ■• • •• • •• 1440 • •• • •• • •• 1448 • •t • •• • •• 1450 • •• • •• • •• 1453 • •• • •• • •■ 1454 • t« #•• • •• 1455 • >• • •• • •• 1461-83 • •• • «• • •• 1464 • •• • t* • •• 1465 »t* • •• • •• 1474 • •• • •• • •• 1476 • •• .<■ • •• 1477 ... * • •• • •• 1485 ... .. • •• 1492 1497 i-> iiji<'..t T MODERN HISTORY. In undertaking an outline Sketch of Modern History, embracing every event of striking importance that took place during this period in every country of the World, it seems best to give up the plan, hitherto adopted, of making the various histories run, as I'ar as possible, in lines abreast of each other, and to fall back upon a plan which, in dealing with a multiplicity of details, will be less confusing. Henceforth, when the thread of a country's history is taken up, it will be followed to the present time. The order adopted, based upon relative importance or geographiccd position, will be as follows : — EUROPE. 1, British Empire. 2. Adjacent Countries : i.e., France — Belgium — Holland — Denmark — Sweden — Norway. 8. Central Countries: i.e., Germany — Pnissia — Austria — Switzerland. 4. Southern Countries : i.e., Portugal — Spain — Italy — Greece — Turkey. 5. Eastern : Russia. 1. Colonization of Asia. 2. India. ASIA. 3. China and Japan. 4. Rest of Asia. NORTH AMERICA. 1. Discovery and Colonization. 2. United States. 3. British America, 4. Mexico. 5. West Indies. 6. Rest of Nortji iLTPeric^, 188 HISTORY OF ENGLAND. SOUTH AMERICA. 3. Chili. 4. Rest of South America. Australia, — Discovery and Colonization. Africa, — Colonization and Exploration. 1. Discovery and Colonization 2. Brazil. HISTORY OF ENGLAND. THE TUDOR SOVEREIONS (1485-1603). Henry VII. (1485-1509) Avas a cautious and economical man, who by his marriage with Elizaheth of York, representative of the White Roses, managed to unite the parties whose wars had convulsed the land. His reign Avas full of conspiracies. First came Sininel, a b aker's son, pretending to be the Earl of Warwick, a son of Clarence. The battle of Stoke crushed his claims. Then aj^peared, also in Ireland, Pcrkin Warbeck, who announced himself to be Richard Duke of York, the younger of those princes whom popular rumour regarded as having been smothered in the Tower by Richard III. A landing at Deal — a visit to Scotland, Avhere James IV. received him kindly — a fruitless invasion of England on the north — and a Cornish insur- rection, after Avhich Perkin deserted his army, only to be taken prisoner, were the leading events of this imposture. In 1502 took place the wedding of the Rose and the Thistle — the marriage of James IV. King of Scotland to Margaret Tudor, daughter of Henry VII. Upon this union rested the claims of hapless Mary Queen of Scots to the English throne, and the succession of her son to the same royal seat. Henry VII., who saw how England might rise to an extended commerce, built ships, and encouraged maritime enterprise. Under his patronage the Cabots sailed from Bristol and dis- covered Labrador (1497). Henry VIII. (1509-1547) had for his minister during twenty years the celebrated Thomas Wolsey, who raised himself by IIISTOIIY OF ENGLAND. 139 force of talent fiom a humble station to be Archbishop and Cardinal of York, High Chancellor of England, and Papal Legate. Henry won two battles early in his reign ; — one in France at Guinegate, known as the battle of 1513' Spurs ; the other at Flodden, where SuiTey defeated and a.d. slew James IV. of Scotland (1513). When Henry VIII. heard of the doings of Luther in Germany, he (or Wolsey) wrote a treatise defending the seven sacraments of the Romish Church. For this the Pope rewarded him with the title Fidel Defensor. But it soon happened that Henry, enamoured of Anne Boleyn, wished to obtain a divorce from Catherine of Aragon, his first wife. Wolsey, acting under the Pope's influence, delayed the gratification of this wish, and so lost favour with his royal master. In 1529 the Cardinal was banished from court, and in the following year he died at Leicester Abbey. Sir Thomas More succeeded him as Chancel- lor, but lost his head in 1535, because he refused to acknowledge the King's supremacy as Head of the Church. During the remainder of his reign Henry was engaged in attempts to force on the English people a religious system of his own, the details of which he often changed. He embodied his doctrines in a set of Acts in 1539, which he called the Six Articles, but which the people came to call the Bloody Statute. In addition to this, he suppressed and plundered the monasteries, but rather for the spoil they yielded than from a religious mo- tive. He was fickle in his choice both of wives and of ministers. Of the former he married '.n all six ; and of these two — Anne Boleyn and Catherine Howard — were beheaded. Of the latter four were prominent ; and of these two also — More and Thomas Cromwell — went to the block. His great contemporaries in Europe were the Emperor Charles V. and Francis I. of Franco. His intei*view with the latter in 1520 near Calais was called the Field of the Cloth of Gold. The last victim of Henry's ferocity was that accomplished Earl of Surrey, who wrote the first blank verse used in English poetry, and whose only crime was the adoption of the arms of Edward 140 HISTORY OF ENCLAND. i :i the Confessor on liis sliiekl. Henry died in 1547, being then aged fifty-six. Edward VI. (1547-1553) reigned for only six years, but they were years teeming with great results. Under the Protector Somerset a war with Scotland began. An English army invaded Scotland, and defeated the Kegent Arran at Pinkie, not far from Edinburgh (1547). Yet this did not force the Scottish people to marry their little princess Mary to young Edward. An enemy to Protector Somerset arose in the person of Warwick, afterwards Duke of Northumberland, through whose intrigues the Protector came to the scaffold in 1552. But the greatest event of the reign Avas the foundation of the Anglican Church in a Protestant forn., and the publication of that beautiful Liturgy — the Book of Com- mon Prayer — which came forth in English under the superin- tendence of Archbishop Cranmer. The death of Edward 1552 at the age of sixteen caused Lady Jane Grey, to whom A.D. Northumberland had married his son, to assume the crowii, which she can scarcely be said to have worn, for in ten days a stronger party set Mary, daughter of Catherine of Aragon, on the throne. Mary I. (1553-1558) brought the history of England into con- tact with that of Spain by marrying Philip II. This was a step in the great task she devoted herself to — the restoration of the Roman Catholic faith in England. Cardinal Pole came to Eng- land as Papal Legate at her invitation ; and a solemn ceremony took place in 1554, for the purpose of reconciling the estranged daughter to forgiving Mother Church. A fierce persecution of Protestants ensued, beginning in 1555 with the martyrdom of Rogers at Smithfield. Latimer, Ridley, and Cranmer were the most notable sufferers. , ■ The last year of Mary's reign was marked by the loss of Calais, which the Duke of Gruise attacked in the middle of winter, hav- ing crossed the frozen marshes which enclosed the town. Thus ended — happily for England, though the loss was sorely feU at first — the dream of an English dominion in France. Elizabeth (1558-1603), daughter of Anne Boleyn, was the last T s HISTORY OF ENGLAND. 141 i of the royal Tudors. The first years of her reign, afterwards so brilliant, were disturbed by a schism in tlie newly founded Church; from which in 1566 a section, calling themselves Puritans, Receded. The distinctive principles of this body were founded mainly upoa doctrines imbibed at Frankfort and Geneva, whither some of them had fled during the recent persecutions. Elizabeth owed much to her statesmen, of whom tho chief were Cecil, afterwards Lord Burleigh, and Francis Walsingham. The latter had much to do with the unhappy affairs of Mary Stuart. Driven from her Scottish throne, this rash, perhaps guilty, woman fled in 1568 to England. There the Duke of Norfolk — the leading lloman Catholic noble — sought her in mar- riage. It was a perilous time ; and the air was charged with ter- roYs of conspiracy and massacre. The frightful carnage of St. Bartholomew in France (1572) added to the terror; and, when one plot after another arose to set Mary on the throne of England and kill Elizabeth, it was deemed necessary to bring the Scottish Queen to trial for connivance in Babington's conspiracy. Tried at Fotheringay, she was found guilty : alter some reluctance, real or pretended, Elizabeth signed the death-warrant; and the grey head of once beautiful Mary was struck off in Fotheringay Hall (1587). In the following year Philip II. of Spain, having resolved, as the champion of the Roman Cf.tholic cause, to crush Elizabeth, a defender of Protestantism, sent out that great fleet of 132 ships, known as the Invincible Armada. The Duke of Parma also col- lected an army at Dui:kirk, ready to invade England. The English fleet, 191 strong, bijt composed of small and light ships, was under Lord Howard of Ethngham. The foes 1588 came in sight near Plymouth, and for eles'en days (July a.d. 19-30) the active English vessels followed the heavy castles that bore the Spaniards up the Channel, fighting as they sailed in pursuit. Eight little ships, filled with combustible materials, were sent in among the Spanish fleet as they lay at anchor near Calais ; and the Armada scattered in terrified flight. There was no way open except that to the north ; so that the remnant of the fleet was forced to sail home by the Pontland Firth. 142 HISTORY OP OnEAT BRITAIN. During the reign of Elizabeth tlio conquest of Ireland, begun by Strongbow under the first of the Plantagenets, Avns completed. In the south of the island Desmond was conquered in 1583; an event not without a literary interest, for Edmund Spenser re- ceived from the forfeited estates of the chief Kilcolman, where he wrote the Faerie Queene. But a more serious rebellion — that of Hugh O'Neill, Earl of Tyrone — was crushed in 1602 by Lord-Deputy Mountjoy. Elizabeth died in 160*5. Her reign is remarkable for success in maritime enterprise both in war and exploration, and for bril- liance in literature, especially in a dramatic form. GREAT BRITAIN. THK STL' ART SOVEREIGNS (1C03-1714\ J?.mes I. (100o-lG25), the son of Mary Queen of Scots, suc- ceeded Elizabeth on the throne of England ; and henceforth he ceased to be known as James VI., his Scottish title. A number of plots arose at once ; of these the most remarkable was that in favour of Arabella Stuart. Sir "Walter llalcigh, being involved in this, was sent to the Tower. A more serious conspiracy followed — the Ginqiuwder Phtt of 1605, set on foot by discontented Koman Catholics, who, by laying barrels of gunpowder below the House of Lords, prepared to blow up the assembly of both Houses. An anonymous letter, advising Lord Mounteaglo to stay away, caused a search to be made, and Guido Fawkes was taken in the cellar. With several others he perished for his crime. James endeavoured to establish Episcopacy in Scotland; he planted new settlements in the north of Ireland, Avhich greatly promoted the prosperity of Ulster. In England he was influenced much by favourites, of whom the chief were Carr and Villiers, better known as Somerset and Buckingham. Sir Walter Raleigh, after many years in prison, which he devoted to his '• History of the World," was released that he might point out a gold mine he knew of in Guiana. Sailing to V V HISTORY OF GREAT BRITAIN. 143 the Ormoco, he attacked the town of St. Thomas, and on his return to Enghmd was beheaded (1G18), in order to up[)ease the wrath of Spain. The disgrace and deposition of Lord Chancellor Bacon, another star of English literature, occuncd in 1621 as a fitting punish- ment for accepting bribes. A marriage between Prince Cliarles and the Spanish Infanta was proposed, which led the Prince and Buckingham to travel in disguise to Spain. But the match was broken off; and Henrietta- Maria of France became the wife of Charles. Charles I. (1625-49) was the only monarch of England that perished on a scaffold. From the very beginiiing of his reign he strove to force a system of illegal taxation en the people. But the Parliament resisted ; and men such as Oliver Cromwell, John Eliot, and John Hampden joined its ranks. The Parliament of 1628 wrested from Charles the famous Petition of liiyht, levelled against illegal taxation and unjust imprisonment, whereupon in a rage the King dissolved the assembly, and for eleven years called no new Parliament. Wentworth, Earl of Strafford, and Archbishop Laud then directed the counsels of the King. The former ruled Ireland by the cruel system which he called Thorough ; the latter prepared a Liturgy for Scotland, which, on its first reading, excited a riot in St. Giles's, Edinburgh, and led to the signing of that document called the National Covenant (1638). The imposition of ship-money^ illegally levied in the time of peace on inland towns, excited the resistance of Hampden, a Buckinghamshire squire, whose case was tried in the Court of Exchequer ; but the decision was given against him (1687). The Short Parliament sat for less than a month of 1040 ; in the autumn of the same year met the famous Loarj Parliament. Then the struggle began. Strafford was impeached and executed. The King madly tried to arrest five leading members, among wh"m were Pym and Hampden ; and in a short time a civil war began. It lasted about three years (1642-45). At first the Cavaliers, as the Boyalists were called, had the advantage. The indecisive 144 IIISTOUY OF aUEAT IJKITAIN. i ■Hi battle of Edgehlll was the first cngngomont. Cliailes fixed his head-quarters at Oxford, and took Bristol. But he was foiled in besieging Gloucester ; and the Roundhead cause soon achieved a splendid triumph at Marston Moor, chiefly owing to Oliver Cromwell and his Ironsides (1644). The battle of Nasoby, also a Roundhead victory, decided the result of the war. Charles fled from Oxford to the Scots at Newark, where a Covenanting army was encamped. The Scots gave him up to the moderate English Presbyterians, but he was seized and im- prisoned by order of Cromwell. This ilaring genius then marched against the Scottish Royalists under Hamilton, whom he defeated at Preston. Then, returning to London, he placed soldiers round the Parliament House, to keep out the moderate Presbyterians, and thus reduced the assembly to about forty Independents 1649 devoted to his cause. Charles was then tried at West- A.D. minster Hall for levying war against his people ; and on the 30th of January 1649 he undauntedly bowed his head under the axe in front of the Banqueting Hall of Whitehall Palacf The Commonwealth (1G49-1660) then began. It consisted of three periods. 1. From Charles' death to the appointment of Cromwel) as Lord Protector (1649-53). 2. The Protectorate of Cromwell (1653-58). 3. The interval of anarchy (1658-60). During the first period Cromwell reduced Ireland to subjection with great severity. He then went with Monk to Scotland, where he won the battle of Dunbar (1650) and secured the sur- render of Edinburgh. Charles IL, appearing in the following year in Scotland, invaded England at Carlisle, and penetrated southward to Worcester, where Cromwell defeated him — 1651. Meanwhile a naval war with the Dutch had been progressing, Blake being opposed to the Dutch admirals Van Tromp and De Ruyter, whom he defeated. In 1653 Cromwell with his soldiers expeli xl the Long Par- liament, and soon, hy the Iiistrumeiit of Government, was made Lord Protector. Under his firm rule the name of England grew great abroad. Jamaica, one of her chief colonies, was taken from Spain in 1655; HISTORY OF GIIEAT DRIXAIN. 145 and ill 1657 Bluko defeated the Spaniards at Tenoriffe. At home he endured many troubles from Levellers, Fifth Monarchy men, Quakers, and other strange growths of Puritanism. lie selected preachers by means of examiners called 2'i'iers, and for a time kept England under the military dominion of ]Maj or -Generals. His later life was embittered by fears of assassination, and by the reproaches of his favourite daughter, who died before him. lie breathed his last at Whitehall on the 3rd of September 1058. Richard Cromwell, Oliver's son, succeeded as Protector, but held the oftice for only eight months. Then followed a year of anarchy, until Monk came from Scotland with an army; the Long Parliament dissolved itself; and a Convention of Cavaliers and Presbyterians invited Charles II. back to the throne of his father. Charles II. (lGCO-85) entered London on the 29th May, 1660. For a time, like Koman Nero, he promised well, but his dissolute liabits soon became apparent. The cmpanion of his exile, Edward Hyde, was made Lord Chancellor, with the title of liord Clarendon, but in 1667 he lost favour and was deposed. Before this time England had suffered a great degradation at the hands of the Dutch, who, under Admiral De Ruyter, sailed into the estuary of the Thames and burned the English shipping. During this reign bitter persecution was inflicted on the Scottish Covenanters, who, rising in arms, were defeated in 1666 by Dalziel near the Pentlands ; but in 1679, after the murder of Archbishop Sharp at Magus Muir, gained a victory over Graham of Claverhouse at Drumclog. The government of Charles after Clarendon's dismissal rested with five men, called the Cabal from the initial letters of their names. These were followed by Danby, and then by Temple and Halifax. The chief political event of the reign was the passing of the Habeas Corpus Act (1679), by 1679 which the detention of a person in prison after a cer- a.d. tain time w^itliout trial is forbidden. Towards the end of the reign, the Whigs, led by Russell and Sidney, formed a plot to put Monmouth, a natural son of Charles, on the throne. This, called the Bye-house Plot, was crushed by the execution of the chiefs. Charles died in 1685. (187) 10 i 14G HISTORY OF GREAT BRITAIN. t ill :<''nmesll. (1(385-88), previously Duke of York, succeeded liis brot ;r ou the tlirone. Monmouth landed in Dorsetshire, and wab uefeated at Scdgcmoor within the year (1685). He suffered on the scaffold ; and Jeffreys, in what was called the Bloody Assize, inflicted capital punishment on more than three hundred of his followers. With bl'nd obstinacy James attempted both to act indepen- dently of the laws, and to force the Koman Catholic religion upon Englanu. He published on his own authority a Declara- tion of Indidrm of government always dear to the Puritans, by whom the thirteen States had been chiefly founded (1783). A war with France and Spain was chiefly notable for the great siege of Gibraltar (1779-82), which was bravely defended by Eliott, and relieved by Admiral Lord Howe. The reign of George III. was fruitful in colonial history. The vast island of Australia may be said to 1 we been now joined to our empire through the enterprise of Captain Cook and other heroes of discovery ; and in India the work of conquest and annexment, so well begun by Clive, was continued by Warren Hastings, who, however, on his return home in 1788, was brought to trial for tyranny. On this occasion magnificent orations were made by Sheridan and Burke. About midway in the roign the French Revolution occurred, 150 HISTORY OF GREAT BRITAIN. and out of its bloodshed and confusion rose Napoleon Bonaparte, one of the greatest foes with whom Britain has ever contended. She was fortunate in possessing two defenders, who proved their right to be regarded as her greatest sailor and her greatest soldier. To Horatio Nelson, who destroyed the French fleet in 1798 at the Nile, and in 1805 died at Trafalgar, -svliere he in- flicted a terrible defeat upon the navies of France and Spain, belongs the glory of the former name ; Arthur, Duke of "Welling- ton, "the hero of a hundred fights, who never lost an English gun," taught the Corsican to respect a nation, whose soldiers could withstand and repel the bravest troops of France. In 1798 a rebellion broke out in Ireland; it was crushed at Vinegar Hill in Wexford : and in 1801 took place the Union, which merged the Irish Parliament in that of the British Empire. In 1806 Pitt and Fox, two rival statesmen of the greatest eminence, died. Th'" earlier career of Napoleon I. will be sketched afterwards. It was in 1808 that he tried to make his brother Joseph King of Spain. Britain resisted this, and war began. For six years (1808-14) the Peninsula was the scene of deadly struggles, in which Wellesley — afterwards Wellington — step by step drove the French marshals back, until the final triumph of Vitoria (1813) sent them flying across the Pyrenees. During these years politics at home were troubled by discus- sions about a Regency ; for George HI., ever since 1788, had been showing symptoms of insanity. In 1809 an expedition of English troops to Walcheren ended in miserable failure ; and a short American War (1812-14) took place, during which Canada was invaded, and the Briti h burned part of Washington. The escape of Napoleon om Elba in 1815 called Europe once more to arms. Wt llington commanded a British force 1815 in Belgium, where on the 18th June 1815 was fought A.D. the decisive battle of Waterloo. On this eventful day, aided by the Prussians, the British utterly defeated the si)lcndid army of the Emperor, and deprived him of every hope. The few remaining years of King Georg^e's life were barren u} HISTORY OF GREAT BRITAIN. 151 it , 'I i events. Lord Exmouth boml)arded Algiers, and crushed that pirate-nest in 1816 ; and in the following year the hope of tho nation — the Princess Charlotte, daughter of Prince George and ■wife of Prince Leopold, died. The reign — which had been a Regency since 1811 — came to an end in 1820. George IV. (1820-30) had already' been Regent for nine years. He was profligate and extravagant. A great scandal arose when Queen Caroline, whom he had treated badly, was repulsed from the door of Westminster Abbey on the day of the coronation. The ill-used princess died a few days later (1821). George Canning was the great statesman of the reign. In 1827 Britain took part with France and Russia in forcing Turkey to acknow- ledge the independence of Greece ; and the battle of Navarino was fought. The last year but one of this reign witnessed the gTeat political struggle, which resulted in the emancipation of the Roman Catholics from injurious penal laws. This measure, passed under the ministry of Wellington and Peel, received the royal signature in 1829. George IV. died in the following year, aged sixty-eight. William IV. (1830-37) had been a sailor by profession ere he succeeded his brother. The first railway — running from Liver- pool to Manchester — was now opened, but the triumph was marred by the sad accident of Mr. Huskisson's death. This eminent statesman was killed by a passing engine. The first Reform BiU, proposed by Lord John, now Earl Russell, was passed in 1832. By this measure the franchise was extended in towns to tenants paying £10 of rent, in counties to tenants paying £50, or freeholders of £10. Another political achievement of the reign was the Ncf/ro Emancipation Bill, by which, through the efforts chiefly of Wilberforce, all slavery was abolished throughout the British Empire. William IV. died in 1837, aged seventy-one. Victoria (1837) has now reigned for more than thirty years. Her accession caused the separation of Hanover from the British crown, since the Salic law prevailed in that state. Errly in her reign violent Radicals, calling themselves Chartists, disturbed 152 HISTORY OP GREAT BRITAIN. k the peace at lioiue ; while abroad there was rebellion in Canada, and soon afterwards war in Syria, Afghanistan, and China. The last, ending in 1842, was effective in opening many ports to liritish connnerce. In 1843 a number of ministers and laymen seceded from the Church of Scotland, and founded the Free Church. This event was named the Disruiotion. The conquest of Scinde (1846) and the Punjaub (1849) in- creased our Indian territory by the addition of the basin of the Indus. Napier and Outram were the leaders in the former struggle; Gough and Ilardinge in the latter. A great domestic event was the liejjeal of the Corn Laws in 1846. Lancashire was the cradle of the movement — Richard Cobden its ruling spirit. Certain classes, interested in English agriculture, were for Protection — i.e., laying heavy duties on corn from abroad. But Sir Robert Peel, at first resisting the measure, yielded at last, and the Bill was passed, reducing the tax on foreign grain. The following year (1847) witnessed much loss and trouble from wild speculation in railway shares. In Ireland a blight of the potato crop was followed by famine and fever ; and the agitation for a repeal of the Union broke out iu 1848 into a feeble rebellion. This was but a vibration of the revolutionary throes which, as will be seen, shook all Europe during this year. In 1851 the first International Exhibition of Arts and Manu- factures was opened in the Crystal Palace in Hyde Park. The experiment has been repeated several times since, especially in 1862 in London, and in 1867 at Paris. About this time England lost two of her greatest men ; — Sir Robert Peel, who was killed by a fall from his horse in 1850 ; and the Duke of Wellington, who died in 1852 at the age of eighty-three. Bom in 1769, the latter was forty-six when he won Waterloo : the rest of his long life was given to peace. In 1853 the Russian War began, excited by the occupation of Moldavia and Wallachia by the Czar. France and England ^1 1 >, HISTORY OF GREAT BRITAIN. 153 'I Bided with Turkey. There was fighting on tlie Danube and in the Baltic ; but the chief scene of tlie struggle was the Crimea. The Allies, liaving forced the passage of the Alma, foi'med the siege of Sebastopol (Oct. 17, 1854). Close by, were fought the great battles of Balaklava and Inkermann — the former memorable for a daring charge of the Light Cavalry. Bitter were the sufferings of the troops in the trenches during the winter ; nor was it until Sept. 8, 1855, that the French troops took a fort called Malakoff, the key of the defence. Peace was signed in 1856. A little later occurred the Indian Mutiny. After its outbreak at Meerut in Northern India (May 10, 1857), the native troops or Sepoys seized Delhi, which was besieged by the British (June 4-Sept. 20). Another centre of the struggle was Lucknow on the Goomtee in Oude, where the British were besieged in the Residency by yelling mutineers, until relieved by the gallant and pious Havelock. But he too w^as locked up by the approach of a yet greater swarm of Sepoys ; and it was not for many weeks that a second relief was effected by Sir Colin Campbell, who was aftenvards created Lord Clyde for his services in stamping out the mutiny. The massacre of Cawnpore (June 27, 1857) was the most tragic of all the terrible scenes enacted during this outbreak. During -he years 1856-57 a second Chinese War was proceeding. An important result of the Indian Mutiny was the transference of the government of this greatest of our Asiatic dependencies from the East India Company to the British Crown. This was accomplished by the India Bill of 1858 ; and Indian affairs are now controlled by a special Secretary of State. During a third Chinese War, in 1800, Pekin was entered by a French and English force. In the following year began that American War, between North and South, of which a sketch will be afterwards given. Britain remained neutral ; though for a time, owing to the seizure of two Southern envoys on board of a British steam-boat, there was fear of entanglement. The war acted indirectly upon Britain by stopping the supplies of cotton from the Southern States, upon which the mills of Lancashire then mainly depended ; and the 154 ijRiTisn cimoNOLonY. % work-people were reduced for a time to want durin,^ tliia Cotton Famine. The death of Prince Albert in 1861, and the marr'ago of the Prince of "Wales in 1863 were important events in the Royal Family. In 1866 the Electric Cable was successfully laid between Ireland and America : and a cable, laid previously in 1858, was recovered by grappling, and made fit for use. The futile and foolish attempts of the Fenians to subvert Her ]Majesty's Government in Ireland ; and the passing of the Second Reform Bill, giving the franchise in boroughs to every house- holder paying poor-rates, and in couuties to tenants rated at £12, have been the most notable circumstances of 1867. MODERN BRITISH CIIRONOLOGY. Accession of the Tudor Sovereigns, Perkin Warbeck's imposture crushed, SIXTEENTH CENTURY, A.D. Marriage of James IV. of Scotland to Mary Tudor, ... Sattle of Flodden, Wolsey a Papal Legate, Death of Cardinal Wolsey, Act of Supremacy passed, Suppression of the Monasteries complete, ... Battle of Pinkie, ... Anglican Liturgy completed. The Spanish marriage, ... The Marian persecutions, ... Loss of Calais, ... ... ... ... Puritan secession, Execution of Mary Queen of Scots, Defeat of the Spanish Armada, SEVENTEENTH CENTURY, A. P. Accession of Stuart Sovereigns, Gunpowder Plot, Execution of Raleigh, Disgrace of Bacon, Petition of Right, Trial of Hampden, National Covenant signed, Long Parliament meets, ... / Y. A.D. 1485 ... 1497 Henry VII. 1602 ... 1513 ... 1518 Henry VII. 1 Henry VIII. 1 1530 - 1 1534 1539 — 1547 ... Edward VL 1552 — 1554 ... 1555-6 Mary I, 1558 — 1566 ... Elizabeth. 1 1587 _ * 1588 — 1603 ... James I. 1605 — ( 1618 — 1621 — 1628 ... Charles I, 1637 — ' 1638 ¥ 1640 1 BRITISH CIIRONOLOQY. 155 Civil War, ... ... Execution of Charles I. Battle of Dunbar, Battle of Worcester, ... Long Failiament expelled, Cromwell Protector, ... Death of Cromwell, ... Bestoralion of Stuarts, Habeas Corpus Act, ... Battle of Sedgemoor, ... Trial of the Seven Bishops, Second English Hevolution, Battle of the Boync, ... Massacre of Gleucoe, ... A.D. ... lGi2-5 ... Charles I. 1C49 — 1650 ... Oliver Cromwell. 1661 — 1653 — 1658 — ... 1660 ... Charles II. 1079 — 1685 ... Juhies II. 1688 — ... 1688-91 — 1690 ... William III. 1692 — EIQBTEENTU CENTURT, A.D. Act of Settlement, Battle of Blenheim, ... Scottish Union, Treaty of Utrecht, First Jacobite Rebellion, South Sea Bubble, Battle of Detvingen, ... Battle of Fontenoy, Second Jacobite Rebellion, Battle of Culloden, Battle of Plassey, Canada taken. The Stamp Act, American War, Trial of Warren Hastings, Battle uf the Nile 1701 1704 1707 1713 1715 171^0 1743 1745 William III. Anne. George I. George II. 1746 — 1757 - 1759 — 1765 ... George III. 1775-83 — 1788 ~ 1798 — NINETEENTH CENTURY, A.D. Irish Union, ... ... Battle of Trafalgar, ... Peninsular War, Battle of Waterloo, Catholic Eraancipatio' , First Reform Bill, Repeal of Corn Laws, ... Russian War, ... Indian Mutiny, The India Bill, Atlantic Cable laid, ... Second Reform Bill, «.• • •t • •• George III., 1801 1805 — 1808-14 — 1815 — 1829 ... George IV. 1832 ... William IV, 1846 ... Victoria. 1853-56 — 1857 — 1858 — 1866 — 1867 - 15G HISTORY OP FRANCE. BISTORT OF FRANCE (1483 to the Freseut Time). HOUSE OF WLOia—cuntinued. Charles VIII. (1483-98).— Of the twelve sovereigns of the House of Valois wlio governed France, seven reigned after Louis XI. His son, a feeble child, came to the throne as Charles VIII. The sister of this boy, Anne of 13eaujeau, and Louis of Orleans, next heir to the crown, contended for supremacy, which the former gained. This stern and sagacious woman forced her brother, in spite of his betrothal to the little daughter of 3Iaxi- niilian of Austria, to marry Anne of Bretagne, a powerful heiress, for whose hand Maximilian himself was seeking. Ambitious to be classed among conquerors like Caesar and Alexander, Charles invaded Italy in 1494, and swept victorious through Tuscany, Home, and Naples, But there his course was stayed by the coalition of Venice, Milan, the Pope, and Maximilian, who united against him, obliged him to retrace his steps, and in spite of his victory at Fornovo over the Venetians, stripped him of all his conquests. The chief result of his campaigning was the love of art he imbibed in Italy. An injury, received by knocking his liead against a beam while showing a now tennis-court to the Queen, caused his death in 1498. Louis XII. (1498-1515). — Louis of Orleans, casting the ser- pent's skin he had worn but retaining the wisdom ascribed to that reptile, now succeeded as Louis XII. Obtaining a dispen- sation from the Pope to put away his wife, he married Anne of Bretagne, the widow of the late sovereign. Claiming* the two Sicilies, he, in conjunction with Ferdinand of Aragon, invaded Italy, and in 1499 forced Frederic of Naples to surrender. But a quarrel arose between France and Spain regarding the partition of the conquest, and the superior craft of Ferdinand induced Louis to weaken his forces, so that, in spite of the devotion of the Chevalier Bayard and others, the Spanish Captain Gonsalvo drove the French from Naples. Louis had engaged to marry his daughter to the grandson of Ferdinand ; but an assembly of the French people, convened at Tours, absolved him from the ueces- .: 1 IirSTOHY OK FRANCE. 167 Kity of fulfilling this promise, and gratefully calling liim " the Father of his People," requested him to bestow the hand of the princess on the Duke of Angouleme, afterwards Francis I. Julius II., more a warrior than a Pope, after vainly striving to rid Italy of foreigners hy embroiling tlie French and Spaniards, joined the Emperor and them in the Lc/kjuc. of Gamhray against Venice (1508). Louis overthrew tlie Venetians at Agnadello, but the defeated Italians made submission to the Pope, who won the Si)aniards over and turned against the French. Then, like a bright but fleeting meteor, came the splendid campaign of Gas- ton de Foix, who conquered Italy in a single season, and died in a blaze of victory at llavenna in 1512. The success, however, melted into nothing ; for the French could not keep Italy. "When death deprived him of Anne of Bretagnc, Louis married the Princess Mary of England, sister of Henry VIII., a gay young creature of sixteen, who loved dances and shows ; and in three months his death left her a widow. Francis I. (1515-47) is prominent in history as the contem- porary of Henry VIII. of England and Charles V. of Germany. Lured by the deceitful lustre of Italian conquests, he invaded that land in 1515, won the battle of jMarignano, and reduced Milan. His vanity was sorely hurt in 1519 by the election of Charles of Spain to the Empire ; for he had sought that high station himself. Francis and Charles, thus pitted against each other, courted Henry of England. Francis met him at the Field of the Cloth of Gold ; Charles negotiated more quietly and cheaply in England, and bribed Vf^olsey by promising to use Lis influence in the next election for Pope. Francis made an enemy of the Constable do Bourbon, who fled from France and intriguod with the Spaniards and Italians. The renegade drcAV the sword in Northern Italy. To him was opposed Bonnivet; but this leader was driven across the Ticino. In the battle at the bridge, the celebrated Bayard, last of the Knights, was killed by a bullet in the side. Francis chased Bourbon, who had reached IMarseilles, back into Italy, and with a splendid army laid siege to Pavia. There in 1525 he suffered 158 nisTonv OP franck. a terrible defeat from the ImpcriulistH, losin^jf too liis freedom ; for he was made prisoner. Ilis despatch to his motlier 1525 has made famous the words '' All is lost but honour." In A.D. about a year the signature of u paper, making concessions, gained his release from Charles ; but the people of France refused permission to carry out the concessions thus extorted. In 1529 the Emperor and the French King agreed to peace at Cambray. It was called " The Ladies' Peace," being negotiated by their sisters. In 1536 Charles attempted the invasion of France ; but was forced to retreat by the desolation of a wastoil land, which supplied no food; and most of his soldiers perished miseraldy among the Alps. The fourth war between Charles and Francis, in which Solv- man of Turkey was the ally of the latter, and Henry of England the ally of the former, caused France to be invaded both from England and from Spain. But the combatants ceased from strife and made a treaty at Crespy (1544), in order that tliey might together turn against Protestantism. The Pope sum- moned the great Council of Trent; and Francis let loose the terrors of persecution on the Albigenses. The end came in 1547, a year which saw both him and Hf ■) -y of England die. Henry II. (1547-59) persecuted the Protestants relentlessly. His leading generals were the Constable Montmorency and the Duke of Guise. The latter taught Charles V. a severe lesson at Metz, round which the Emperor poured his legions in vain in 1552. It was during this reign (1558) that Mary Queen of Scots was married to the Dauphin. Ere this Spain and England — limited by the marriage of Philip II. to Mary I. — had defeated Montmorency at St. Quentin (1557). But the capture of Calais from the English, which Guise achieved in mid- winter by crossing the frozen marshes (1558), amply atoned for this defeat. Henry was killed at a totrrnament held in honour of the marriage of Mary to the Dauphin. While tilting with a Scotchman named Montgomery, a splinter of his opponent's lance passed through his eye into his brain. HISTORY OP I'nANCE. 159 )in Trancis II. (1559-GO) roigncd nomiimlly for seventeen niontlis, during which the Guises, uncles of the Scottish Queen, ruled buprenie, and persecution raged against the Protestants. The Huguenots, as French Protestants were called, had lately received into their ranks the King of Navarro, Coudo his brother, and Admiral Coligny ; and preparations were made by the Guises for trying some of them, when Francis died suddenly. Charles IX. (1560-74), a younger son of Catherine dc !Medicis, then became King ; his Italian mother acting as Regent. The struggle between Protestants and Roman Catholics now grew to a crisis. Catherine moved like a dark spirit between the factions of Guise and Condo, pretending ti < grant privileges to the Hugue- nots but secretly hating them with a bitter hatred, following them, as has been said, " as a shark follows a vessel through calm and storm expectant of its prey." Orleans became the head-quarters of Conde ; but he was soon made prisoner in the battle of Dreux (1562). The siege of Orleans was interrupted by the assassination of Guise. Mont- morency fell in 1567 at St. Denis ; and the Huguenots lost their great leader Conde in 1569 at Jamac. The Peace of St. Germain en Laye (1570), giving certain privileges to the Protestants, cast a deceitful gleam of hope on their affairs ; but the shadow of a tragedy, more terrible than any that had yet befallen the cause, was darkening on the horizon. This was the Massacre of St. Bartholomew's Day (Aug. 24th 1 572). Instigated by his mother, Charles sent soldiers at midnight, who, beginning with Coligny, murdered 10,000 Huguenots in Paris during the succeed- ing week. In the rest of France 70,000 perished. Eighteen 1572 months later, Charles, who was tortured with memories a.d. of this carnage, died at the age of twenty-five. Henry III. (1574-89), formerly Duke of Anjou, had a year earlier been elected King of Poland. He now stole out of his palace, and rode off to be King of France. » He was an effeminate and dissolute man. The Huguenots recovered spirit and strength, when Henry, King of Navarre, who had been in custody since the massacre, escaped and rejoined their ranks. Then was formed 160 HISTORY OF FRANCE. : ! '. The Holy League (1576), to extirpate thi Huguenots and place Henry of Guise on tlie throi-o when a vacancy occurred. The struggle that ensued has been called the War of the Three Henrys — Henry the King, Henry of Guise, Henry of Navarre. Pari.s having declared for Guise, the cruel King enticed him to a con- ference at Blois, where he was murdered at the door of the audience-chamber. The King, deserted by his disgusted people, was now joined by Henry of Navarre, who forthwith besieged Mayenne in Paris. Into +he besieging camp came a Jacobin friar, named Clement, with a knife in his sleeve ; and, seeking an audi- ence of the King to deliver letters, he gave the monarch a mor- tal stab (1 589). Thus perished the last of the royal Valois race. HOUSE OF BOURBON. Henry IV. (1589-1610) was the first monr.rch of the Bourbon branch of the Capet line. Before he could consider his throne focure, there lay before him the task of crushing the League, of which dark Mayem.e was now the great soldier. His victories at Arques and Ivry rhattered its power. The latter 1590 victory (1590), which has been celebrated in Macaulay's A.D. stirring verse, displayed conspicuously the personal valour of the King, whoso white plnme was a star of hopn to his soldiers. In order to gain over the partisans of Home, Henry, acting on Sully's advice, recanted his Protestantism. But he did not forget those whose ranks he had deserted. In 1 598 he published the Edict of Nantes, granting right to hold office and liberty of worship to tlic Protestants. The Peace of Vervins closed his war with Spain. The rest of his reign — twelve years — was given to reforms in taxation and general government. In the former his great aid was Sully. The intrigues of Biron, a favourite marshal, who deservedly forfeited his life for hia treason, scarcely marred the general calm. ' His later years were given to the formation of a grand *' Politi- cal Benign" which was to produce a balance of poAver in Europe IIlSTOnV OF PnANOE. 101 by slioariiit; the overweening greatness of tlic ITapsburgs, who in vSpaiii and Germany swayed the destinies of more than half Europe. A vacancy in tlic dukedom of Cleves set the King and tlie Emperor in opposition, Henry supporting a Protestant candiihite. But the dagger of Ravaillac, wIjo stabbed him tlu'ougli tlie glass of liis carriage-window, on the eve of liis departure for the llliine to liead his army, cut sliort his mighty schemes for ever. He was only iifty-sevcn. Louis XIII. (1010-48) was only nine when his father died. His mother, Mary de Medicis, was appointed llegent, and by the departure of Sully from court, was lelt to depend upon favourites, Elcanora Concini and her husband gained the supremacy, and the young King was kept a sort of isoner in the gardens of the Tuilerics, where De Luyncs taught him to fly hawks. The nobles, headed by Condc, formed an association for the Puhlic Good. In 1G17 Concini was murdered ; the tpicen-mothcr was sent to IJlois ; and Elcanora, supposed to be a dealer in witchcraft, was torn to pieces by the Paris mob. De Lnyncs Avas then first favourite. But one of the greatest men France has produced soon appeared. This was Cardinal Richelieu, otherwise Jean Armand Du- plcssis, who when Bishop of Lucon had attracted attention by a speech he mnde in 1014 at the meeting of the States-General. He was then twentv-nine : at thirtv-scvcn he was a Cardinal, and at thirty-nine (1024) he was ruler of France! His chief domestic object was the crushing of the Huguenots. IFc paralyzed their power for a tin>e by the taking of La Bochellet their stronghold, whose harbour, imitating ^facedonian Alexander at Tyre, he blocked up with a strong dike of stone. The principal aim of his foreign policy was the humiliation of Austria. This he accomplished partly by giving his aid to Gustavus Adolphus in the Thirty Years' War : and after the death of that hero France took the field directly as one of the combatants of the struggle. The power of the nobles was always hostile to Kichelicu ; but liis stern resolve and deep craft thwarted all their schemes against 162 HISTORY OF FRANCE. ' I liiiu. When lie got them in his grasp he did not spare as Mont- luorency, Cinq-Mars, and De Thou — all of whom were executed for plots against him — bitterly experienced. In 1642 this great Cardinal died. He was the founder of the French Academy and the Palais Royal. Five months later died the nobody who wore the crown. Louis XIV. (1643-1715) occupied the throne of France for tlic extraordinarily long period of seventy-two years. But of these about fifty-four may be regurdctl as forming the actual reign (1661-1715). Another Cardinal, Mazarin by name and an Italian by birth, became the Prime Minister of France. His share in the Thirty Years' War was marlced with two defeats of the French armies — at Diittlingcn and Friburg. The civil war of the Fronde began in 1648, and lasted for six years. It was a struggle between the court and the people : the great Condo sided for a time with the King ; and there was much changing of sides, but Mazarin finally trium|)hed (1653). France at this time was engaged in a Spanish war, in which Marshal Turenne opposed Conde, wlio had sold his sword to Spain. During the struggle, which desolated the Low Countries, Dunkirk was taken by the French and given to Cromwell as a recompense for the aid he had afforded. The defeat of Louis in 1658 in his aspirations towards the Empire filled his heart Avitli liatred of Austria. The death of Mazarin, who left cninmous wealth, occurred in 1661. A great financier named Colbert then undertook the management of affairs. The ambition of Louis soon involved Europe in war. Claim- ing the Spanish Netlierlands, he invaded Belgium, and frightened England, Sweden, and Holland into foiniing the Triple Alliance. But a soldier — William of Orange — was growing up to oppose him. With Conde and Turenne Louis invaded the Low Countries in 1572; but he was met by the foaming waters, which rushed through the opened sluices over the land. The Peace of Nime- guen was made in 1678, and tlien there Avas a lull for eleven years. In 1685 Louis XIV. revoked the Edict of Nantes ; and the IIISTOUY OF FRANCE. 163 fierce persecution that nYosa drove tlie Huguenots with their in- dustry and skill to enrich other lands. The war re-opened in 1080, after William of Orange had been called to the English throne. Admiral Tourvillc defeated the Dutch and English ships off IJeacliy Head, and the French took Namur. But in 1002 Russell inflicted a terrible defeat upon the French navy off Cape La Hogue. Though heaten hy Luxembourg at Steinkirk and Neerwinden, William III. of England ultimately took Namur, and forced Louis into making tb" Tnali/ af Ryxicid^ (1G07). There was a mother great war, in which Louis was the moving spirit — ihe War of the SiJCinish Succession, The French King named Philip of Anjou as the successor of Charles II. of Spain : the Archduke Charles of Austria appeared as a rival for the throne. In the course of this war, which raged in Belgium, Spain, and Bavaria, as well as by sea, Marlborough won those great victories already named in the reign of Queen Anne, while the victory at Vigo and the capture of Gibraltar added new laurels to those won by England at sea. The Treaty of Utrecht closed the war (1713) ; and in the following year the Peace of Batitadt, completing the European arrangements, was concluded. Louis XIV., whom his ilalterers called Lc Graiul^ died in 1715. Moliere, Corneille, Bacine, and a host of other eminent literary men lived di "iig his reign. It was a time of artificial manners : and this inliuence spread beyond France, affecting even our English life and letters for the better part of a century. Louis XV. (1 715-74) being only five years of age, the ilegency fell into the hands of the dissolute Duke of Orleans, whoso minister was the Cardinal Dubois, a fitting associate. These rulers were attracted by a golden scheme, devised by a Scotch adventurer called John Law, who proposed to issue paper money on the security of certain mines by the Mississippi. All Franco went mad with s}K.*culation : but the Mississippi ]^ubble burst (1719), as the South Sea ]iubblo burst in England in the follow- ing year, and thousands were ruined. 104 HISTORY OP FRANCE. The deaths of Orleans and Duhois in 1723 k'ft Louis ruler at the age of fourteen. Louis of Bourbon, the new minister, caused the King, having sent back a princess of Spain, to marry INFarie, daughter of Stanislaus, the discrowned King of Poland. Cardinal Fleury soon became minister, and cherished peace until 1733, ■when the fiery young blood of Fn ace, fevered by the witty writings of Voltaire and others, found occupation in a war, undertaken to place Stanislaus on the throne c' Poland. But three years' fighting ended in France guaranteeing the succession of Maria Theresa, in whose favvmr her father, the Emperor Charles VI., had revoked the Salic Law by an Act called the Prat/mafic Sanction. But when the Emperor died (1740), in the war which arose to wrest Maria Theresa's dominions from her, France forgot her guarantee, and opposed the Princess, whose story shall be told afterwards. England, defending IMaria's rights, defeated a French army at Pettingen, when our King George IT. was under fire (1743) ; and, two years later, Louis was present at the victory of Fontenoy, won by his troops over the English under the Duke of Cumber- land (1745). In America England was meanwhile seizing Cape Breton and other French possessions ; an'^ in India, Dujjleix, Governor of Pondicherry, was dreaming of imperial power in India — a dream never to be realized. The Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (1748) gave rest to Europe for n time. But soon the Sercn Ycars^ irtn- (1750-63) broke out. It belongs rather to Prussian historv. France however Avas embroiled in it chiefly as the antagonist of England, whose schemes against French power in India and North America were beginning to wear the colours of success. With the excei)tion of the capture of Minorca by Richelieu (1750), the French arms enjoyed no success in this war, which I'aged, so far as France was concerned, chiefly in North America and along the Rhine. She lost Canada and hor West Indian possessions ; her armies were .!riven back over the Rhine by the English and the Hanoverians ; and in 1759 were signally defeated at Minden — a battle which saved the Electorate of Hanover, HISTORY OF FRANCE. 165 int 3.1 10, hi lo, to in 0(1 lit est 00, (Is. at Tlio Peace of Paris (1763) left France shorn of great possessions, anil heavily laden with new taxes. Tlie remaining eleven years of the r(Mgn were filled with iniqui- tous jobs to raise money, which was squandered in vice. In 1769 Coisica became a French possession, its struggle for liberty under Paoli having come to an end : and in that same year the rocky island gave birth to a child, whose fate v,as bound up with the future history of France. Louis XV. died, worn out with debauchery, in 1774. Louis XVI. (1774-1793), — We now reach the most temble and tragic period of French history — although that history is by no means barren in tragedy. The splendid habits of the young royal couple — Louis and his wife Marie Antoinette, Maria Theresa's daughter — were extremely unfavourable to the pay- ment of the enormous debt left by their predecessor on the throne. Minister succeeded minister — Necker, Calonne, Brienne, Necker again ; but all in vain. The national difHcultios grew v.'orse, and in 1789 exploded in Revolution. The French Revolution (1789-95) began, when the tiers etat, refusing to bo separated in the meeting of the States-General from the nobles and bishops, formed themselves into the National Assemhli/. The mob without, hearing that soldiers were coming to dissolve this body, rose, and stormed the prison called Bastile (July 14, 1789). In October a mob sacked the palace at Ver- sailles. Next year (1790), acting chiefly under the sway of Mirabeau, the As^-3mbly reorganized the Constitution; but the death of Mirabeau (1791) brought chaos. The Constituent Assembly gave place (Oct. 1, 1791) to the Legislative Assembly. But Austria and Prussia marched to the rescue of the French King. This kindled the mob. The Tuileries was stormed, and the King imprisoned. Meanwhile, Dumouriez defeated the advancing armies at Jemappes (1792). Before this France had been made a Republic — the Assembly giving place to the National Convention, of which Danton, Marat, and Robespierre were the leaders. A time of blood and tewor was inaugurated by the execution of Louis XVI. by the 166 HISTORY OP FRANCE. guillotine (Jan. 21, 1793). The Jacobins turned on the Girondists, and slew without mercy. The Queen was beheaded : and the mob glutted their cruel eyes with the spectacle of bleeding heads. Meantime the Royalists were in arms in Vendee and the south. At Toulon the cannon of the Republic were successfully directed by Colonel Bonaparte. The death of Robespierre by the guillotine marks the end of a period, justly called Tlie Jleifjn of Terror. Louis XVII. died in the Temple, wasted by suffering and privation, at the age of ten (1795). In that year the Convention was succeeded by the Directory, during the establishment of whicli Napoleon JJonaparte, 1795 being placed in charge of the artillery, tore a hostile crowd A.D. to pieces with grape-shot. The peal of this cannonade may be regarded as the knell of the Revolution Period. Henceforward for twenty years Napoleon Bonaparte, to whose birth in Corsica allusion has been made, is the central figure in French history. In 1790, appointed General of the Army of Italy, he achieved in that and the following year a succession of the most brilliant victories. And yet he was only twenty-six. Lodi, Areola, Rivoli were among the battles, in which he scattered the Austrian armies. Having overthrown the Government of Venice, he made the Treaty of Campo Formio (1797). His next military expedition was to Egypt, en route as he fondly hoped to India. But Nelson destroyed his fleet at the Nile, and he was repulsed from Acre. Returning home, he overthrew the Directory, clearing the hall with soldiers, and he then became First Consul (1799). Remembering the national passion for military glory, it is easy to understand how this great military genius became the idol of the French nation. Austria was at first his great foe. Undertaking a second Italian cam- paign, he crossed the Alps in 1800, emulating Hannibal's achieve- ment ; and inflicted a great defeat upon the Austrians at Marengo. Beaten in the same year (1800) at Hohenlinden, HISTORY OP FRANCE. 167 10 e )y r m they were glad to conclude the Treaty of Luneville (1801). In the following year the Peace of Amiens, between France and England, enabled Napoleon to gather new strength. In 1804 he assumed the title of Emperor with the consent of the nation. Recognizing in Britain the rival ho had most cause to dread, he revolved a plan of invading that island, but was baffled chiefly by the vigilance of Lord Nelson, who guarded the Channel with eagle-watch. The star of Napoleon shone brightest in the victory of Austerlitz, where he defeated a host of Austrians and Russians (Dec. 2, 1805). Under his control the ancient 1805 Empire of Germany was then merged in a new Empire a.d. — that of Austria — which l)egan to exist in 1806. In order to secure his hold on various countries, he placed friends and relations on the thrones. Joseph was made King of Naples ; Louis, King of Holland ; Murat, Grand Duke of Berg. Having subdued Austria, he set himself to humble Prussia. The battle of Jena (1806) crushed the power of that nation, and opened a path of triumph into Berlin. Thence he issued decrees ordaining that no British goods were to be received into the ports of the Continent. In the battles of Eylau and Friedland he repulsed the Russians (1807) : but in the following year his attempt to place Joseph on the throne of Spain excited the Peninsular War, in which the Duke of Wellington so signally defeated his most skilful generals. The Emperor wa^ so much occupied elsewhere, that ho left this war almost entirely to his marshals. A last hostile effort of Austria to resist the conqueror's power ended in utter prostration at the village of Wagram near Vienna (1809); and the humbled Hapsburgs were glad to give this Corsican soldier of fortune a wife from their princely ranks. Divorcing the faithful Josephine, he married Maria Louisa in 1810. His annexment of the Papal States and seizure of the Pope soon followed. But retribution came. In 1812 he invaded Russia, intending to winter at Moscow; but, when he reached that central city, it 108 UlSTOllY OF FRANCE. broke into flame, and lie was forcocl to order a retreat. History has iiotliing more terrible tlian the story of that struggle with the horrors of a llussian winter. Of more than halt' a million, he could nmster only a few thousands, as the frontier was repassed. At Loipsic in 1813 he made a final stand against the allied hosts, sternly gathered to crush his overweening ambition; and in 1814 by a movement of the Allies on Paris was forced to abdi- cate, and was imprisoned in the small Italian island called Elba. After ten months in Elba Napoleon escaped. Landing near Cannes, he pushed on to Paris, whence Louis XVIII., who had returned to the Kourbon throne, fled to Ghent. A Congress was sitting at Vienna, which from its central position has been often selected for such meetings ; and the task of reconstructing the map of Europe, so rudely shaken and altered by the ex- Emperor, was going merrily on, when this news came. It is said to liave been greeted by the assembled diplomatists, first with a silent stare of incredulity, and then with a roar of laughter. But Napoleon was in Paris, levying troopti : action must be prompt and decisive, iiesolved to deal first with the armies near- est to him, Napoleon invaded Belgium, where Welling- 1815 ton and Blucher lay. And there at Waterloo — a field A.D. which the French call Mont St. Jean— he was signally and finally defeated by the British and the Prussians (18th June, 1815). In the October of the same year he was landed on the island of St. Helena, where he died in 1821 of an ulcer in the stomach. His last words, spoken as he lay dying amid the crash and glare of a tropical thunder-storm, were suggestive : " Tcte d'armee.^' Louis XVni. (1814-24). — The nine years between Waterloo and the death of this King were spent in efforts to establish a parliamentary government in France. Magnificent orations shook the House of Assembly with the thunders of applause they drew forth ; but there was an element of change and storm still brooding. The only military enterprise of note was a successful expedition into Spain under the skilful Dnke d'Angou- leme for ^hp purpose of reinstating the ping Ferdinand, who had IIISTOUY 01-' FKANCU. 109 >ry \hh lie Id. lied in kli. Ibu. tear |ind ress ecu bet'n dethroned by a revolution of Liberals. Louis XVIIL died in 1824, and was succeeded by Charles X. (1824-30). — Absolutism now set in. Laws were prepared to alter trial by jury and to crush the liberty of tho press. Li vain the people expressed their opinion by shouts of " No Censorship ; " they were scornfully rebuked by the King, who was possessed of an obstinate blindness to results that reminds us much of tho Stuart infatuations. While the struggle between despotism and freedom was proceeding, with an ever- growi)ig Liberal majority in the Chamber of Deputies, an expe- dition was successful in wresting Algiers from the pirates, who had been long the scourge of the Mediterranean. The Second French Eevolution (1830) deprived Charles X. of liis throne. Excited hy three foolish Ordinances, repressing liberty of speech and freedom of election, the people of Paris mounted the tricolor cockade, tore up the pavements to erect barricades, and made themselves masters of the city. The Duke of Orleans, Louis Philipi)e, was elected King of the Frencli, while Charles found refuge in Holyrood at Edinburgh Louis PhUippe (1830-48).— The Citizen King, as the n^'vly- electcd monarch was called, gradually acquired position, especially by the recognition of England. The rising, excited in favour of her son by the Duchess of Berri, failed. But the life of the King Avas attempted more than once, notably by Fieschi, who caused the explosion of a shell on the Boulevards, killing fourteen persons, but not injuring the King. A nephew of the great Emperor, by name Louis Napoleon, the son of the King of Holland, now began to be heard of. IIo had one fixed idea — that he was destined to be Emperor, as his unclfi had been. In 1836 he made an attempt to excite insurrec- tion at Strasbourg ; but it failed, and he was permitted to go to America. After a residence in England he made a second effort — this time at Boulogne ; but he was arrested, tried, and com- mitted to prison at Ham. After six years he escaped to England, whence he retunied alter the Revolution had opened his way tc the throne, 170 HISTORY OP FRANCE. The roijjfn of Louis Philippe, whose avarice was insatiable, (liasatisfied the people, and estranged, by political trieker . Britain and other nations that had been friendly at first. At last the growing discontent came to a head ; and he was expelled from the throne (1848). The Third French Bevolution was excited by a refusal of tlio Government to permit u Reform banquet on George "Washington's birthday. The King found a refuge in England, where he died. Louis Napoleon, elected for the department of Seine, was voted President of the Republic in 1848. Three years later (Dec. 2, 1851), by a coup d'etat — that is, a massacre by military force and a midnight an'estmcnt of his opponents — he gained possession of Paris, which was only a step towards his election as Emperor (Dec, 1852). In 1854 the French and the English uiv' "d in the Russian War. The siege of Sebastopol was carriel on l-y them in conjunction; but the chief gloiy of reducing this great stronghold belongs to our Gallic neighbours. The decisive coup was the storming of the MaJalioff on the 8th Sept. 1855. Marshal Pelissier was then in command of the F'-ench forces — St. Araaud having died, and Canrobert having resigned. "While Britain and France united in a Chinese war in 1858, a conspiracy, of which Orsini was the leader, aimed unsuccessfully at the life of the Emperor by the explosion of sin. lis. In 1859, war having arisen between Austria and Sardinia, the French Emperor in person took the field in Northern Italy as the ally of the latter state. Humbled at Montebello, and on the greater fields of Magenta and Solferino, Austria sought peace, which was concluded at "Villafranca. The province of Lombardy was ceded to France, and by that nation transferred to Sardinia. But as a recompen ,e, France received Savoy and Nice. In the autum'i of 1860 Pekin sun-endered to the combined forces of Englan-l ,a(\ France, which had already gained several victories over the Chinese ; and in 1864 the same allies, in con- junction with the Dutch and the Americans, forced the Straits of Simono in Japan. Such expeditions have tended greatly to open pe, lAt led tl.o Ill's J31I. jvas Iter MODKUN FRENCH CIIUu.VOLOaY. 171 to tlio influences of civilization those remote Oriental countries, wliicli have been sealed up aj^ainst foreign conimereo by tlio jealousy of their rulers. In the spring of 1867 a rupture Rcemorl imminent between Franco and Prussia, 1 'garding Luxendiourg, which IloUaud proposed to sell to France. Prussia wouKl not withdraw her garrisons, until the neutrality of the state was guaranteed. MODERN FRENCH CHRONOLOGY. SIXTF.KNTU CENTURY, A.D. A. p. League of Cambray, ... ... .*• • t* loUS ... Louis XII. Gaston de Foix killed at Ilavoniia, • *. ... 1512 — iJattle of Tavia, ... • *• «.• 1525 ... Francis I. Defence of Metz by Guise, ... ■ *■ .•• l.'J.W .. Henry II. Battle of Janmc, ... • •• • ** 15C9 ... Charks IX. Massacre of St. Ikr.' oloraew 'rf Day ... • •• 1572 — The Holy League, • ■• • *• • *• 1576 ... Henry III. Battle of Ivry, ... • 1. • a* 151)0 ... Henry IV. Edict of Nantes, • •• • *. • *• 1598 — SEVENTEENTH CENTURY, A. P. Ascendency of Richelieu, .*• «t. 1624-42 ... Louis XIII. Siege of La Roclielle, ... • •• .•• 1628 -9 — Reign of Louis XIV., **• .«• 1643-171 ... Louis XIV. Peace of the Pyrenees, • !• ... 1659 — Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, ■ •• • *• 1668 — Peace of Nimeguen, ... ... • •• 1678 — Battle of La Hogue, ... • I. ... 1692 • Treaty of Ryswick, ... ... • •• 1697 — EIOnTEENTn CENTURY, A.D. f i War of Spanish Succession, ... • •• ... 1701-13 ... Louis XIV. Treaty of Rastadt, ... • •• ... ... 1714 — Misgissippi Bubble, ... ... ... ... 1719 ... Louis XV. Battle of Dettingen, ... • •• .(• 1743 — Battle of Fontenoy, ... ... ... ... 1745 — Second Treaty of Aix-la Chapelle, • .• ... 1748 — Seven Years' War, ... .*• • •• .*• 1756-63 — Peace of Paris, • •• ..* ..• 1763 — Great French Revolution, ... • •» ... 1789-95 ... Louis XVI. France a Republic, ... ... • *. *i« 1792 > — Execution of King Louis XVI., ... ... 1793 — Reign of Terror, • •■ • •• • «• 1703-4 ... Anarchy. Ilapoleon First Consul, #•• • *• tat 1799 — 172 MODKHN FHKNCII CIIKONOLOaV. NINETKKNTII CENTURY, A.D. *.T) Peace of AiuieiiB, 18U2 ... Anarcliy. Napoleon I. becomeH Kinperor, 1804 ... Napoleon I. ]')!iltlf of Austerlitz, ... 1805 — Disastrous llussiiiii Carupuign, 1812 — Dattle of Leipsic, 1813 — Napoleon in Klba, ... ISU-l.l ... Louis XVIII. linttle of Waterloo, 1815 — Invasion of Spain, 1823 — Socond Frcnoli Revolution, 1830 ... Cliarles X. Tiiird Frenoli Revolution, 1848 ... Louis I'liiiippe. Louis Najjoleon Kniperor, 18r)2 ... Na])oleon III. Full of Sebast(»poI, 1855 — Campaign of Al.ngeuta ami Sol.'eriuo, 185y — i HOLLAND AND BELGIUM. In the earliest centuries of the Christian Era the swamps and sand liills of the Netherlands were held by three tribes — Batavi, Belgw, and Frisii, names which still exist in Hatavia (capital of the Dutch Asiatic colonies). Belgium, and Friesland. These wild people lived a seafaring life as fishermen and pirates. About the sixth century the Franks overran the country ; and it was unide in 843 by the Treaty of Verdun a part of Germany. Petty princes, among whom the most powerful were the Bishop of Utrecht and the Counts of Flanders, ruled it for the period (1000-1300), after which it was absorbed into the spreading Duchy of Burgundy under Philip the Bold, Philip the Good, and Charles the Bold. Its cities — such as Brussels, Ghent, Mechlin, and Antwerp — had already begun to grow rich and sti'ong by trade and manufacturing industry. We have seen how Charles the Bold, the last Duke of Bur- gundy, fell in battle with the Swiss; and how his daughter, Mary of Burgundy, married Maximilian of Austria. The latter event brought the Netherlands under the dominion of Austria in 1477. When the great Emperor Charles V., who was Maximilian's grandson, reigned, the Seventeen Provinces were, by virtue of an arrangement called the Pragmatic Sanction (1548). annexed to IIISTOnV OF TIIK SKTHKULANDS. 173 the Gorman Ktnpiro iiiuler the imnic of the Circh of Jhivt/nnrh/. It wns however uihUt Philip II. of Spain, tlio son nnd successor of Charles, that the provinces emerged into great historical pro- minence. I'ho princi[)lcs of the Rofonuation having taken firm hold in the rich and frccdom-loving cities of the Netherlands, Philip, who was a bigot of the worst type, attempted to crush the newly-born Protestantism by introducing the terrors of the Inquisition. 'J'lio Dutch nobles — whom scornful courtiers nicknamed the licf/yars — protested; and the people soon secured their protest by insurrec- tion. The Duke of Alva repressed the rising with massacre, Counts Egmont and Horn paying for their patriotism with their heads. This braced the spirit of the Dutch, who found n worthy leader in William of Orange, called in history the Silent. The defence of Leyden, which was saved by cutting the dikes and flooding the Spanish trenches (1574), was a great blow to Spanish pride and power. William Avas made Stadtholder of the Republic, and Protestantism was established, the Union of tlic Provinces being accomplished by the rocijkotion of Ghent (157G). The struggling Dutch were enabled to confirm their constitution in 157!), when the Uvion of Utrecht 1579 formed the seven northern i)roviuccs into the Dutch Re- a.d. l)ublic under the j)residency of William as Stadtholder. This great prince was, by a base subterfuge of Philip, assas- sinated at Ghent in 1584 by a pist(d-shot. Maurice (1585-1625), liis second son, was elected in his stead. The war with Spain continued to rage in the southern pro- vinces, Avhere the Duke of Parma made himself master of Antwerp. The decay of prosperity in this city was beneficiid to the commerce of Amsterdam. Aid was given to the Re- public by England in this war. The Earl of Leicester led an army to Zutphen, near which Sidney received his mortal wound. In IGOO Maurice defeated the Spaniards at Nieuport. Then was formed the siege of Ostcnd (1C01-1G04), a city which Spinola, the Spanish General, took with great difficulty at the cost of much blood. His experience in this hopeless war induced 174 IllSTO: ' OF THE NETHERLANDS. I i 1 . liiiu to represent the impossibility of subduing the Dutch ; and in 1609 a twelve years' truce was made, recognizing the r;ghc of the Dutch to carry on a trade Avith India, which they had estab- lished, and from which they already were deriving great profits. A Dutch East India Company had been established in 1002. A religious dissension troubled the Dutch Kepublic after this time, when L' .rnevoldt, an advocate of Arminianism, was opposed to Maurice, who upheld Gomer, a champion of Calvinism. The Stadtholder, having convoked a National Synod at Dort. caused his opponent to he executed for " vexing the Church of God." Tho extension of colonial dominion in the Eastern Seas brought English and Dutch into collision at Amboyna, one of the Molucca Islands, rich in cloves. So hot did the contention grow that a number of English v/ere seized, tried, and executed, for an alleged conspiracy to expel the Dutch from this island. This alfair has been dignified by being named " The Massacre of Amboyna." Maurice died in 1C25. Under Frederic Henry (1G25-47) the Spanish war went on, in conjunction with Dutch conquests in South America and Ceylon. In 1C39 the Admiral Van Tromp gained a great naval victory over the Spaniards in the Channel. WiUiam II. (1G47-1050).— The Peace of Westphalia (1648) secured the final acknowledgement of the independence of the Dutch Republic by Spain. The ten provinces in the south (Belgium) remai'icd under the rule of Spain, until the Treaty of llastadt transferred them to Austria. After the death of William II. (1650) the office of Stadtholder was abolished for the time. While Cromwell ruled England, the English and Dutch fleets contended at sea, Blake being opposed to Martin Van Tromp and De Buyter. An Act having been passed to exclude the House of Orange from holding supremo power, and the control of the provinces being vest( 1 in the States- General, which were swayed entirely by John ile Witt, Grand Pensionary of Holland, Charles II. of England engaged in a war, nominally in behalf of his little kinsman, afterwards Wil- liam III. of England, really however to secure the chance of some IIIST-^'Y OF THE NETHERLANDS. 175 money for his own pleasures. In this war (1064-07) a great disgrace fell on England, -when I)c lluyter entered the Thames and burned the shipping at the Medway. Charles after this was only too glad to make the Treaty of 13reda (1007), by which the possession of New York (^previously called New Amsterdam) was secured to Britain. At this time De Witt induced the States-General to pass the rerpetual Edict (1007), abolis'iiing for ever the oflice of Stadt- holder. He also formed the Triple Alliance with Enghmd and Sweden, being alarmed at the mrbition of Louis XIV. Charles of England however changed sides, and Louis overran the Dutch provinces (1072); upon which the Perpetual Edict was repealed, and William of Orange (son of William II. and afterwards King of Great Britain) was made Hereditary Stadthoider. This triumph of the Orange party was stained by the massacre of the Dc Witts. Cornelius being imprisoned on a charge of aiming at William's life, John, his brother, resigned his office, and went to receive his brother as he came out of prison. The mob set upon the carriage in the streets of the Hague, and murdered both the brothers (1672). William III (1072-1702) found himself at once obliged to face Louis le Grand, Avho crossed the llhine in 1072 ; and for a time it seemed likely that the Dutch would be forced to open the sluices and flood their fields in self defence. They had, however, a refuge in tiicir navy, suppose the worst should come. Though seldom victorious, William contrived to hold his own, and to im- press the French King with a feeling, like that which Spinola had expressed, that it was impossible to crush the spirit of these sturdy mariners. The Treaty c>f Nimeguen was made in 1078. When William of Orange became in 1088 King of England, he rejoiced in tJie opportunity of exercising greater resources in the opposition of Louis. The war, in which the battles of Stein- kirk and Necrwinden, and the siege of Namur were the most notable events, ouled in 10'J7 by the Treaty of Byswick, after having proved fruitful in nt)thing but the display of William's military genius and the establishment of our giganticNationalDebt. A 176 HISTORY OF THE NETIIEHLAND?. i : i For some time after William's rlcatli there was no StarlthoMer, the share Avhich Holland took in the War of the Spanish Succct?- sion being directed by the Grand Pt'.sionary Heinsiiis. The Treaty of Utrecht and the Barrier Treaty of 1715 gave to Hol- land a line of frontier fortresses, -which were afterwards taken by the French. From this time Holland sank into the position of a secondary European State. In 1747 the office of Stadtholdcr was revived in the person of William IV. (1747-51); but he d>d not enjoy it long. William V. (1V51-05). — During t' ? minority of this prince, Holland, by maintaining a wise neutrality in the Seven Years' War, grew quietly rich and prosperous. But after 1766, when William assumed power, the republican or anti-Orange faction, which had never died, became most troublesome. Their svm- pathics, in the yimerican War, lay against Britain, with which country a war took place !u consequence. By means of a Prussian army (William had married a Prussian princess) the House of Orange was reinstated after having been driven from the Hague. But the success of the French Revolu- tion kindled the flame of republicanism in the Netherlands high and bright. Pichegru and Jourd.an, leading the army of the French Republic, overran Holland, drove the family of Orange from the land, and opened the way for the erection of the Jiota- vian JRejmUic (1795). This drew down the wrath of Britain, by whom Holland was stripped of some valuable colonies such as the Cape of Good Hope, Ceylon, and Denwjrara; and in 1797 Admiral Duncan in- flicted a severe defeat on the Butch navy off Camperdown. The English r.nd the Russians then seized the shipping at tlie Texel, after which a convention at Alkmaar arranged terms for the evacuation of Holland by those triumphant enemies. Holland, after the rupture of the Treaty of Amiens, was forced — ns a weak neighbour may be forced by a strong — to side with Napoleon in his schemes of conquest. This of course put the Dutch in opposition to the British, who continued to strike at lllSTOllY OF THE NETllEllLANDS. 177 tlio most vital part of the strength of Tin] land — her rich anil nuiuorous colonies. In ISOfi tlic Batavian Rcpuhlic was dianged into tlic Kingdom of Holland, on the throne of which Napoleon put his brother Louis. But in 1810 Louis, wliosc government was too liberal to please his iron brother, abdicated in favour of liis son ; an ar- rangement however wliich did not suit Napoleon's plans, Hol- land was therefore for u time annexed to France. In 1813, when Europe was breaking tlic Napoleonic chains, Holland rose in revolution, and recalled the House of Orange, making William Frederic ruler with the title of S<>veiei>/n Princr ; under whom, after the French had been beaten at Antwerp and a treaty of peace, with some restitution of conquests, had been made with Britain, the Congress of Vienna (1815) decreed tin? union of the Seventeen Provinces (Holland and Belgium, which had been separated for two centuries) under the name of the Kingdom of the Netherlands. This union lasted for fifteen years ; but in 1830 the Belgians, who arc French in their language and their manner of life, fol- lowed the example of France, and by a revolution established their independence. After Louis Philippe of Franco had refused to permit his .son to fill the throne of the new kingdom, the honour was oiVered to Leopold, a Gennan prince, who held the crown until 1865, when his son Leopold 11. succeeded him quietly. The N«^therlands (as the Kingdom of Holland is now called) are ruled by William III.; and enjoy quiet, untroubled, money- getting existence. MOPEHN CIIRONOLOaY OF HOLLAND AND DKLGIUM. A.D. Mary of Burcjunily marries M.Tximilian of Austria, ... ... 1477 Revolt in the Northern Provinces ... ... ... ... 1566 Union of Utiecht — Dutch RepuMic constituted, ... ... ... 1.179 William tiie Silent a.ssassin.ated, ... ... ... ... ... l.'JSl Spain declarer the Dutch independetit, ... ... ... ... 1603 The Perpetual Edict, ... ... ... ... 1667 Murder of the De Witts, ... ... ... ... ... 1672 William of Orange hereditary Stadtholder, ... ... ... 1674 (187) ' 12 i 178 HISTORY OF DENMARK. William Becomes King of England, French under Pichegru overrun Holland, Catavian Republic formed, Battle of Caraperdown, ... Kingdom of Holland under Louis Bonaparte, House of Orange restored. Receives the title of King, Belgium made au independent Kingdom by a Revolution, A.t>, 1689 1793 1795 1797 1806-10 1813 1815 1830 DENMARK (to the Freseut Time). The Union of Cahnar (concludetl in 1397) was dissolved, by the triumph of Swedish struggles for independence, in 1523, when Frederic I., Duke of Schleswig and Holstein, was made King of Denmark and Norway. Under his auspices the prin- ciples of the Lutheran Ilclormation spread in Denmark. His son. Christian III., besides obtaining from Norway an acknowledgrment of the supremacy of Denmark " for ever," an- nexed the DuchicH of Schleswig and Holstein to the Danish crown (1533). A code of law, styled the lieccss of Kolding, belongs to this reign. The reign of Christian IV. (1588-1648) derives importance from the share he took in the struggle of the Thirty Yeais' War. There had grown up a keen rivalry between Denmark and Sweden — all the keener because they were such close neighbours, and because both claimed a right to take toll from passing vessels at the Sound. Now there was need of a Protestant champion ; and Christian hurried to arms in order to be beforehand with the Swedes. He was opposed at first by Tilly, who defeated him at Lutter in Hanover (1626), and afterwards found the peninsular l")ortion of his country overswept by the Imperial forces under Wallenstein. So complete was his humiliation that he gladly acceded to the terms of the Perce of Luheck (1629). Later in hi'^ reign (1643), Christian joined the war on the opposite side, in order to check the encroachments of Sweden; ^mt the Swedes, under Torstcnson, aided by the Dutch, f. ^ccd luui. i.o a peace, and to make various concessions — giving to "^v.-edeiy m HISTORY OF DENMARK. 179 tlic islar-ls of Gotlilaiul and Ooscl — to IIollu.. 1, u reduction o! the Sound duties. Frederic III. (1G48-70) engaged in wars with Sweden, tho disasters of which, coupled with the tyraniiy of the nobles, in- duced the Danish people, assembled in the National Diet of 1660, to confer absolute and hereditary powers upon the Sovereign. The troubles of Danish histut at the opening of the present century, Denmark, whose chief strength lay in her navy and her position as gate-keeper of the ]Jaltic, became embroiled Avith England, then beginning to be engaged in her deadly struggle with Napoleon. In 1800 Britain, exercising a right she claimed of searching certain ships, tO(»k a Danish frigate, which had resisted. The vessel was afterwards released; but Denmark joined with Eussia, Prussia, and Sweden, in a paction called The Armed Neutrality of the North, formed against the naval power of Britain. Admiral Nelson retorted, on the part of Britain, by attacking the Danish fleet in the Itarbour of Copenhagen, under tho fire of the batteries on shore, and destroying it at a blow (1801). In 1807 the Treaty of Tilsit contained a secret article, pro- mising to give up the Danish fleet to the victorious Napoleon. Having heard of this, the British Government resolved to be beforehand \\ith those trying to outwit them ; and, accordingly^ .III 180 IirjTOUY OF DKNMAUK. Gambier and Catlicart Lonibardod C()pcnlia,f;;cn, until the fleet of tliirty-tlnoc slii'ps was siirrendercd. A war ensued, in ■which Denmark was strippoil of several colonies; hut the Peace of Kiel (1814) restored all but the islet Ileli^'oland, still in possession of the British. At the same time Deuinark received Pomerania instead of Norway; but in 1815 she yielded this ])rovince to Prussia, receivincj in lieu of it the Duchy of Lauenburg. As the present century giew older, it became more and more evident that Denmark and the Duchies must separate ; for the laws of royal succession differed in the two countries ; and the people of the Duchies were in language and national sympathies far more German than Scandinavian. The year 1848, which kindled revolutionary fire through all Europe, excited the Ducliics to struggle for their independence, in aiming at which they received aid from Prussia. 33ut Austria threw her weight into the opposite scale, and thus the day of separation was postponed. It came in 1864, when Prussia and Austria in alliance crossed the Eider into Schleswig and drove the Danes from a rampart called the Dannewerk. The fortress of Diippel was also taken ; and so much loss inflicted on Denmark that she consented to part Avith the three Duchies, which were incorporated with Prussia. The war of 18G6, afterwards described, may have consoled Den- mark somewhat. The marriage of the Prince of Wales in 1863 to Alexandra, daughter of the Danish King, Chrih ! • m IX., united Denmark to England, as the countries had been previously united twice ; for James I. married Anne of Denmark, and Queen Anne married Prince George also of that countvj . The present royal family of Denmark indeed h.as since been suddenly lifted from semi-ob- scurity : for George, the brother of the Princess of Wales, was elected in 1863 to the throne of Greece ; while Dagmar (now Maria) has lately been married to the Czarcwitch, the heir of Russia. The Princess of Wales was wrongly styled by Tennyson, in his Ode of Welco^ne, a " daughter of the Sea-Kings : " she is a German princess of the House of Oldenburg. HISTORY OP SWEDEN AND NORWAY. 181 MODERN CHRONOLOGY OP DENMARK. Union of Ciiliuar dissolved, Chiistiau IV. joins in tlie Tliirty Years' War, Danish crown made absolute and hereditary, Holsteiu and Schleswig taken by Frederic IV., Copenhagen bombarded by Nelson, Second bombardment of Copenhagen, Kevolt of the Danisli Duchies, Denmark loses the Duchies, A. P. 1524 1625 1660 1716 1801 1807 1849 1864 SWEDEN AND NORWAY (to the Present Time). Tlie deliverance of Sweilen from the tyranny exorcised by Christian 11. of Denmark was wrought by Gustavus Erickson, commonly called Gustavus Vasa. In 1521 Christian, who had imprisoned Erickson, massacred the flower of the Swedish nobles, among them slaying the father of his captive. But Gustavus escaped from prison, and wandered among the mountains of Dalecarlia, workijig as a miner, and undergoing perils of death and capture. Once, when he was hidden in a cart of straw, the Danish soldiers plunged their spears into the straw, and, though a point pierced his thigh, he never moved ; so they passed on. Collecting an army, he soon moved towards Stockholm, which he took after three sieges (1523). Gustavus refused the crown at first; but at length, seeing political intrigues still rife, he a.ssumed the state of a monarch (1527). His reign of thirty-three years (1527-60) was signalized by the adoption of the Lutheran doctrines, and the raising of Sweden to a high place among the powers of Europe. Four names — the cruel Erik ; John, favourer of Catholicism ; Sigismund, who was also King of Poland through his mother; and Charles IX., elected in room of the last named King, who was deposed by a civil war — carry us on to the glorious reign of Gustavus Adolphus (1611-32). This great prince, whose measures were aided and carri(?d out by his minister, Oxenstiern, at first engaged in war witii Russia 182 IIISTOKY 01' .SWKDKN AND NOKW.VY. and Polniiil, wliicli lie stripped of valuable })osse.ssions. lint it was as Captain of the Protestant cause in the Thirty Years' War, after the failure of Oliristian IV. of Denmark, that his genius displayed its full lustre. Having, perhajis with some presentiment of his coming fate, committed liis little daughter, aged four, to the care of the assembled States of Sweden, he crossed the Baltic to Rugon (1630). The battle of Leipsic — a glorious victory i'or Sweden — a disastrous defeat for the Austrians under Tilly — secured the IVcedom of Germany (1G31). But the following year was fatal to the Swedish hero. "VVallenstein pitched his camp 1632 by Lutzen; and there Gustavus attacked him. The A.D. Swedish victory was signal and complete ; but the Swedish King, riding Avitli careless courage too near the enemy, was shot dead (1682). Christina (1632-54) was educated like a man — taught from earliest childhood to listen without fear to the roar of cannon. She studied Hebrew, Greek, and politics ; and rode, shot, and hunted in the dress of a man. Oxenstiern managed the Regency wisely : in 164 1 she took the reins herself. She engaged in a Danish war (1643-45) ; and by the Peace of Westphalia (1648) obtained Pomerania, Rugen, Bremen, and other territories. She then devoted herself to the profuse patronage of art and litera- ture ; but tired of " splendid slavery," she abdicated — being then only twenty-eight — in favour of her cousin, the Count Palatine of Deux-Pont«. She lived to the age of sixty-three, principally at Rome and in Franco, engaging in political intrigues and literary pursuits. She put her master of the horse, Monaldeschi, to death, for some fault, alleging her power as a Queen to do as she pleased with her servants. Her change to Roman Catholicism greatly dis- pleased the Swedes. Charles Gustavus X. (1654-60) fought with Poland, but gained most distinction by his movements against Denmark. Marching from Poland to Holstein, and crossing the ice of the Belt (1657), he inflicted such loss on Denmark as led to the HI.STORY OF SAVKDl-^V AXT) NOUM'AY 183 Peace of lioi'sl-ild (105K), wliieli mndc him mastor of Scania, and otlior portions of tlic Scandinavian jtoninsnla held by tlio Dani's. lint a rcpnlso at (Vtpcnhagon, wlicre Prussians and Dutch assisted the Danes to resist liini, is said to have hastened his death by niortifyiiii,' his anii»itioii and vanity. Charles XL (1000-!>7), when in 167li ho becaciK' free from the control of guardians, ruled with wisdom. In tho first year ot Ids rei^Mi (ICdiO) the Peace <>/ Olint put an end to a war of succession, which had been ra^inr, inter. mttently for sixty years. 'I'iie Swedes acipiired Livonia, whih^ tli' I'olcs nave up all claim to tho crown of Swedoi. (.Miailes was involved by the craft of Louis XI\'. — that arch-distml>er of Euro[>ean ptnice dm !l^• his own century — in a war witli I'russia, by wliich he was stripped of Pomerania -a territory, l»i>wev"r, restored by the peace of Fontainebleau 0*'»7U). An inji)ortant do>m>stic chanp;e reached its crisis during this reign. A struggle between the King on tho one hand, supported by the masses of the people, and the Senate and nobles on the other, ended in ItiOo, when the Diet by a formal jul declared (Miarles absolute. Ilis Avhule reign was ])rosperous--debt was lessened, nninufacturcs improved, and foreign trade much advanced. lie dieil in 1G07. Charles XII. (1097-1718), surnamcd " The Madman of the North," succeeded his father at the age of liftcen. His history is that of a monarch, so devoured with a passion for military glory, as to forget the higher duties of a crown. Charles, however, was forced into his first war by tho coalition of Dennnirk, Poland, and .Russia, to dismend)er and share amongst them his kingdom of Sweden. This was called The Nmihtrn War. He first de- feated the Danes, and then inllictcd a great defeat upon the Russians at Narva near tho Gulf of Livonia (1700). Augustus, Elector of Saxony, was tlien King of Poland ; and as a revenge for the share wliicli this prince had taken in tlie scheme against Sweden, Charles, during three campaigns, dethroned him, and crowned in his stead Stanislaus Lec/Jnski (1704). The invasion of Saxony by Charles completed the humiliation of Augustus. Then began a great struggle between the two heroes of tho 184 lliJsTOIlY OV SWEDKN AND NUllU AV. m North— Cliarh's XII. of Sweilen, ftiid Peter tlie Grejit of Russia. Of the latter more will be sjiiil in a. succeeding chapter. Cliarle.«j in 1707 invatlcd Russia with 80,000 men, resolved, as he boast- fully said, to " treat with Peter nowhere but at Moscow." Peter laid waste the land, and waited. Snow, icy winds, hunger, sickness hara.ssed the Swedish army on their march; 1709 and, when their number was reduced to 18,000, and these A.D. were engaged in the siege of Pultowa, Peter came up with fresh troops, and utterly routed the Swedes (1709). Charles took refuge in Turkey; and at first the Sultan made war with Russia on his behalf. But he afterwards quarrelletl with his host, and yet refused to leave Turkey. Meanwhile, Peter secured Livonia and Finland, while Prussia and Denmark took possession of the Swedish provinces south of the Baltic. The last exploit of Charles, in which his former foe Peter was an ally, was an attack on Norway. But at the siege of Frederick- shald (1718) he was killed instantly by a shot striking his head. He was only thirty-seven years of age. The sister of Charles XII. was elected Queen; but in 17*20 she resigned her throne to her husband, Frederic of Hesse-Cassel (1720-51). Under this sovereign Sweden lost her position as a great power in Europe. The Treatij of Nystudt (1721) made over a considerable pirtion of territory to Russia. Domestic politics were troubled by a contest between two factions — the Jfats^ a party with French leanings ; and the CapK^ inclined to Russia. Nevertheless the country flourished, and the researches of Lin- nffius in botanical science added lustre to the reign. The Hat party having gained the upper hand, there was a war with Russia (1740-4'>j, which country, at the Peace of Abo, obtained part of Finland. The reign of Adolphus Frederic (1751-71) gave rise to com- mercial companies, trading to the East Indies and the Levant. No war of consequence occurred except the embroilment of Sweden in opposition to Prussia in the Seven Years' War. This was owing to the influence of the Hats. Gustavus in. (1771-92) overturned the old constitution by IlISTOUV OF PWKDEN AND NoUWAV. 185 military ft»rco. Tho States woro to iiuiki* laws, but tlu'.'-' wore to ori^'inato with tlio TInune. However, in a Kussiaii Mar, wliieh uiose ill 17SS lor the nssiHtancc of the Turks, the oflicer.s uuitiuied, because their orders to take the i'nt\d had not proceeded from the States, 'i'his event caused the Diet to confer on tho King a power of nuiking war nt his own discretion; the Senate was abolished at tlie sanie time, (justavus III. was assassinated in 1792. Under Oustavus IV. (1702-lSOO) Sweden sufU-red su.li re- verses at the hands of France and Russia, especially in 1SU7-8, tiiat a number of military ofHcers combined to etlect ins dethron(!- ment. This was easily effected, as he had shown signs of mental derangement. Charles XITI. was then nnide King (1809-18). In 1809 the Peace of Fnderic/^sludiun, made with Russia, stripped Sweden of I'^inland and Botlinia. The circumstances of the country were such that it became necessary to appoint an heir to the tin-one, who shouhl govern with vigour. Tho States se- lected Bernadotte, Prince oi Ponte-Corvo, one of Napoleon's marshals, lor this high jjosition, which he accepted, and became Crown Prince of Sweden (1810). He was a native of Pan, had fought at Austerlitz and AVagram, but Iiad attracted notice in Sweden chiefly by the wise and temperate use he made of his comnumd in North Germanv. Henceforth Rernadottc was the real ruler of Sweden. Napoleon made immediate demands upon Sweden, Avldch, in the interests of the country he had come to govern, Bernadotte re- fused to grant. This led to a rupture. In 1812, French troop.q invaded Swedish Pomcrania, upon which Bernadotte entered into alliance with Britain and Russia. At the head of '' the Army of the North" the Crown Prince, during 1813, defended Berlin by defeating Oudinot and Ncy, and took a prominent share in the decisive battles of Leipsic. Ho then defeated Bavoust and the Danes, forcing the latter to the conclusion of the rcace o/ Kiel (1814), by which Sweden obtained Norway. An effort on the part of Norway to establish independence under Christian Frederic of Denmark was subdued; and in 1814, Norway, re- 4!] IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) /. ^/ f^^.4 :/. it U.x '^ 1.0 1^ I.I if Vik 1.25 1.4 KM 1.6 6"

% y /: y ^ Photographic Sciences Corporation \ q V •s? \\ % N ^ 33 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, NY. 14580 (716) 872-4503 o^ S ! 186 IIISTOllY OP SA7EDEN AND NOIITVAY. taining the rank of a separate kingdom with its own constitution, was formally joined to the Swedish crown. Charles XIII. died in 1818, when the Crown Prince succeeded as Charles XIV. (1818-44), — Having been solemnly crowned at Stockholm and Trondjhem, this ex-marshal of France, trained in the camp, and used to war from his boyhood, beat his sword into a ploughshare, and devoted himself to Avorks of peace. Indeed in his opening speech, when appointed Crown Prince, he had indicated his sense of the miseries of war in the impressive words, " No conquest can console a country for the blood of its children shed in a foreign land." Swedish commerce and agriculture flourished greatly during the twenty-six years of this reign. The Gota Canal ^ uniting the Baltic and Black Seas, was opened in 1832. Oscar I. ^^1844-59), the son, and Charles XV., the grandson of Bernadotte, have reigned since his death. The latter now oc- cupies the throne of Sweden and Norway. MODERN CHRONOLOGY OF SWEDEN AND NORWAY. Revolution under (Justavus Vasa, (i^ustavus Adolphus killed at Lutzen, ... Abdication of Christina, Peace of Oliva (Sweden and Poland), Reign of Charles XII., Battle of Narva, Battle of Pultowa, Treaty of Nj'stadt (Sweden and Russia), | Finland ceded to Russia, Bernadotte made Crown Prince, Treaty of Kiel places Norway under the Swedish crown, Bernadotte made King, He dies, A.D. 1521-3 1632 1664 1660 ... 1697-1718 1700 1709 1721 1809 1810 18U 1818 1841 GERMAN if (1493 to the Present Time). Maximilian I. (1493-1519), the husband of Mary of Bur- gundy and the son of Frederic III., became Emperor of Grermany in 1493. To the wisdom of this prince Germany owed much. He divided hi? empire into six Circles — Franconia, Bavaria, HISTORY OF OEllMANY 187 A.D. 1521-3 1632 1654 1660 697-1718 1700 1709 1721 1809 1810 1814 1818 1844 Suabia, tlio Khine, Wcstplialia, and Saxony ; to which were after- wards added four other Circles — Austria, Burgundy, Lower llhine, and Upper Saxony. He also organized a standing army, with the three branches of military service — horse, foot, and ar- tillery — in complete equipment. But what gives its chief interest to the reig'i of this Emperor is the beginning of the Reformation in Germarjy. Martin Luther, a native of Eisleben in Saxony, while at college ut Erfurt, found in the library a Latin Bible, which gave light to his mind. Afterwards appointed Professor at Witten- berg, his anger was roused by the sale of indulgences, issued by Pope Leo X. for the purpose of raising money to build St. Peter "s Church at Home; and (1517) he nailed ninety-five Theses on the church door at Wittenberg, attacking these papers as impostures, utterly unavailing to save the soul. At I''''psic (1519) he dis- puted with Eck ; and in 1520 he burned a Papal bull, issued against him by x.'^o, casting the document into a fire of wood in presence of man} people of Wittenberg. Charles V. (1519-58). — Summoned to the Diet of Worws (1520), Luther appeared before the Emperor Charles V., who had succeeded his grandfather Maximilian in the previous year; nor could all the wrath and scorn he was subjected to shake the courage of the monk, though sickness had assailed him on the way, and the terrors of persecution for heresy loomed dark before him. It may be well, in order to avoid the chance of confusion, to state shortly the other leading events of the Reformation in Ger- many, though in so doing many years of the reign of Charles V. must be anticipated. The friendly arrest of Luther, after the Diet of Worms, and his confinement at Wartburg, it is supposed, by the Elector of Saxony, afforded hini an opportunity of translating the Bible into German. In 1525, his marriage with a nun severed him still more widely from the Church of Home. The Protestants first received their distinctive name in 1529 at Spires, when ih.ey pro- tested against a Roman Catholic decree. And at Augsburg in 1530 they published their Confession of Faith, a document drt wn 188 IIISTOllY OF GERMANY. \ip by Lutlier and Melanctlion iointly. They thon at Smalcald formed a league, whicli showed such doterinination that the Em- peror, bent upon warlike schemes, cancelled his earlier edicts against them. Charles V. had been for three years King of Spain, with the title of Charles I., when he was elected to the Empire. Be- sides Spain, he possessed Austria, the Netherlands, and Naples. Ere long he engaged in war with Francis I. of France, who had been a candidate against him for the Empire. A sketch of this war has been already given. About 1524 'he Peasants' Wiw, caused by the Anabaptists, desolated the Rhenish provinc3s; and in 1535 there was another Anabaptist outbreak, of which the centre was Munster, called by them Mount Zion. Charles V. did good service as -the opponent of the Turks, who, having seized Belgrade and other forts on the Danube, had in- vested Vienna — 1529. In 1535 he defeated the pi. ate Barbarossa at Tunis; but at Algiers in 1541 he underwent great loss and disgrace. Th3 great Council of Trent, M^hich was convened against Pro- testantism, and in whose discussions the new sect called Jesuits took a leading share, began its sittings in 1545, and continued to sit for eighteen years. Towards the end of Charles' reign he published an edict called the Interim, which was offered as a settlement of the religious troubles rending the nation. But it did not succeed. The Pro- testant cause w^as upheld by Maurice of Saxony, once a deserter from its ranks, who, however, now concluded an alliance with France, and took up arms against the Emperor. By a quick movement upon Innspruck this active prince almost made Charles a prisoner. The Treaty of Fassau (1552), confirmed three years later by a Diet of Augsburg, secured the safety of Protestantism. In 1556 the Emperor Charles V. resigned his sceptre to his brother Ferdinand, and retired to the cloister of St. Yuste in Spain, where he died in 1558. Ferdinand I. (1558-64) asked Pope Paul IV. to crown liim; HISTORY OF GERMANY. 189 3malcalcl tlie Em- edicts *vitli the re. Be- Naples. 'vlio had of this baptists, another ■ailed by ks, who, had in- irbarossa loss and inst Pro- 1 Jesuits ontinued ct called religious Phe Pro- deserter ice with a quick I Charles •ee years itantism. e to his ruste in vn him; but the Pontiff refused, because Charles had abdicated without Papal consent. Paul's successor acknowledged Ferdinand as Em- peror; but the dispute had the effect of causing the Electors to abolish the custom of asking the crown from the Pope's hands, instead of which a letter of compliment was to be forwarded to the Vatican. Ferdinand endeavoured to act as mediator between the Protestant party and the Council of Trent; but the elements were incapable of union. It may be noted that after the resigna- tion of Charles V. the House of Hapsburg divided into two groat branches, one of which, descending from Charles V., ruled in Spain, while the other, tracing their lineage from Ferdinand, held sway in Germany and Austria. After the wise reign of Maximilian II. (1564-76), whose tem- perate treatment of both sides soothed the religious animosities of the time, came Rudolf II. (1576-1612), under whom Avere sown the seeds of a great European war. This Emperor Avas under the influence of the Jesuits; and the feeling between Catholics and Protestants soon took a hostile shape in the forma- tion of two associations — the EuangeJical Union under Frederic of tlie Palatinate, and the Catholic League under Maximilian of Bavaria (1610). Under Matthias (1612-1619) a contest for the crown of Bohemia caused that great struggle, The Thirty Years' War, to begin. The claimants for the vacant throne were Frederic, Elector Palatine, Avhom the people of Bohemia, very Protes- tant in their feelings, had elected; and Ferdinand, Duke of Styria, one of the Ilapsburgs, whom the Emperor wished to foist upon the unwilling land. The war opened in 1618. Ferdinand II. (1619-37) gained a great advantage by his ele- vation to the imperial throne. The first battle— at the White ^Mountains near Prague (1620) — almost annihilated the hopes of the Protestant cause. For a time Mansfeldt held out for Frederic, but the Bavarian general, Tilly, defeated him. As already de- scribed, Christian TV. of Denmark took an unsuccessful part in the war as the champion of the Protestant cause. His great foe AYallenstcin, who had conquered the peninsula .'^1 E 'f I 190 IIISTOIIY OP GERMANY. M ' of Denmark, was dismissed by tlic Emperor tlirougli tlic in- trigues of Richelieu, avIio artfully induced Gustavus Adolplius of Sweden — nothing loath to undertake the task — to assume the command of the Protestant armies. TIio campaigns of Grustavus contain the central interest of the war. Landing at Rugen (1630), he made his way to Frrtukfort, which he took. Tho massacre at Magdeburg by Tilly — an act oi brutal vengeance — soon followed. At Leipsic, however, this cruelty was punished by Gustavus, Avho there defeated tho perpe- trator most signally (1631). After taking Frankfort and Mentz, the Swedes invaded Bavaria and took Munich: the Saxons had already seized Prague. Then Wallenstein was called from his retirement and invested with the supreme command of the armies of Spain and Austria. After watching each other at Nuremberg, within which the Swedish King intrenched himself for some time, the armies met on the memorable field of 1632 Lutzen, twelve miles from Leipsic. There the Swedes A.D. obtained a glorious victory; but the triumph was sad- dened by the loss of their King (1632). Oxenstiern, chancellor of Gustavus, then took the conduct of the Avar. Wallenstein was assassinated at Eger (1634); and in the same year the Swedes suffered a great defeat at Nordlingen. The time now seemed to Richelieu fit for his movements; and he took the field against Spain, besides aiding the Swedes in Germany. Ferdinand III. (1637-57) succeeded his father; and the war still lingered, Bernard of Weimar fighting on the Protestant side, Banner and Torstenson leading the Swedish armies. The French suffered a great defeat at Diittlingen (1643). The war was ended in 1648 by the Peace of Westphalia, which was signed at Munster. Among the terms of this treaty, which was the basis of our map of Modern Europe, were these : That the French should hold Alsace — that Holland should be free — that the Swiss Cantons should be also free. The war had desolated Germany — the treaty stripped the German Empire of its old power and splendour. HISTORY OF GEllMANY. 191 Leopold I. (1658-1705) reigned for nearly half a century. llis principal wars were witli the Turks and Franco. In a con- tcHt with tlio former (16G1-G4), the Imperial general Montecuculi gained a decisive victory at St. Gothard. This captain was afterwards matched against Turenne and Condo in the wars Avhich arose with Louis XIV., and he dispLayed a masterly caution, which often saved him from ruinous defeat. The peace of Nimeguen gave a little rest to tiie armies of France and the Empire. In 1683 a great host of Turks, Avhom Louis XIV. had in- cited to an attack upon Austria, gathered round Vienna, from which Leopold fled. The heart of the Empire was endangered. But John Sobieski mustered an army and marched to the Danube. The Turkish intrenchments seemed to his despairing eye too strong to be attacked with any hope 1683 of success; but, Avlien the Polish King saw the Vizier a.d. calmly sipping coffee at his tent-door within the seem- ingly impregnalde line, his wrath was roused ; a rush of Polish lancers cleared the Avay for the infantry, and the camp was taken by storm. Having thus relieved Vienna, Sobieski chased the Turks back to the country they had made their own. In 1688-9 the French ravaged the Palatinate with fire and sword; and an array of allies, among whom was Germany, were arrayed against Louis and his marshals. This was the war in which William III. of England took so prominent a share. It was closed by the Treaty of By s wick. Prince Eugene of Savoy was the great soldier of the Empire at this time. Having fought at Vienna in the relief just described, he commanded against the French in Piedmont. At Zentlia on the Tlieiss he won a gi-eat victory over the Turks (1697), which resulted in the Peace of Carlowitz. But he took a still more prominent part in the W.ar of the Spanish Succession. After two campaigns in Piedmont against the French, he was worsted in the battle of Luzara ; but his share in the success of Blenheim, where he led the imperial troops, atoned for this. The Emperor Leopold I. died in 1705. m IttSTOtlV OF QERMAKY. h! I Joseph I. (1705-11) reigned for six years, during which the great wnr of the Spanish Succession continued to rage. Eugene, commanding in Italy again, ^von tlic battle of Turin (170G), which obliged the French to evacuate Piedmont. He afterwards fought at Oudenarde, Lille, and Malplaquet, receiving a wound in the last-named field. Charles VI. (1711-40) was the last of the Austrian Haps- burgs. He had contested the crown of Spain, when Archduke Charles, with Philip of Anjou, the nominee of the Bourbons. The Treaty of Rastadt, a supplement to the Treaty of Utrecht, waived the claims of Charles to Spain, but gave him Naples and Sardinia. In 1716 the Emperor joined Venice in a war Avith the l\irks. Here Prince Eugene once more distinguished himself by defeat- ing the Ottomans and taking Belgrade. The Peace of Passaro- witz (1718) terminated this war. In 1724 Charles publislied a will called the Pragmatic Sanction ; but it must be noted that this name is applied histori- cally to certain other laws. This document decreed that, male issue failing, the inheritance of the Austrian dominions should, after Charles' death, revert to his daughter Maria Theresa. Most of the European powers, except France and Spain, agreed to this arrangement. Charles VI. engaged in two other wars. In a Polish Wai in 1733 he upheld the claims of Augustus of Saxony to the crown of Poland, in opposition to Stanislaus Leczinski, who -was supported by France. The Peace of Vienna (1735) confirmed the succession of Augustus, making Stanislaus ruler of Lorraine, A Turkish War, in Avhich Belgrade, Servia, and Wallachia were lost to Austria, began in 1738, but was closed in the following year by the Treaty of Belgrade. Charles VI. died in 1740. Immediately upon the death of Charles, states, which had guaranteed the Pragmatic Sanction, forgot the fact that they had done so. There was a general movement to strip Maria Theresa of her dominions. Britain alone remained faithful to her. Prussia demanded Silesia; Bavaria desired to have Bohemia and tha HISTORY OF GERMANY. 103 purple. A war of the Austrian Succession began (1 740). Frodevic of Prussia defeated the troops of Maria at !Molhvitz and Czaslau, and obliged her to yield Silesia. The Elector of Bavaria in 1742 became Emperor as Charles VII. (1742-45), and, with aid from Franc*, advanced within a short distance of Vienna. INlaria Theresa fled to Presburg, the ancient capital of Hungary, and there flung herself upon the loyalty and pity of the Magyars. Dressed in mourning, Avith her baby in her arms, she came into the hall where the Diet was assembled, and told the Hungarian nobles that she had no resource but their loyalty. With ono accord they drew their swords and shouted, " Moriamur pro rege nostra Maria Tlieresa ! " This turned the tide ; the Bavarians and French were driven back. But Prussia, anxious to save Silesia from re-capture, camo again into the field, invading Bohemia. Frederic, however, made the Peace of Dresden with Maria in 1745. Dettingen and Fon- tenoy, which have been already noticed, belong to this war, in which Britain upheld, while France opposed, the cause of the Austrian princess. Charles VII. died in 1745, when the husband of Maria Theresa, Francis of Lorraine, Grand Duke of Tuscany, was elected Emperor. Francis I. (1745-65). In spite of the successes of France in the Netherlands, affairs tended towards peace ; and the proba- bility of aid from Russia being afforded to Austria, cuascd the conclusion of the Treatij of Aix-Ja-ChapeUe (1748). The Seven Years' War (175G-63) occupied a great part of Francis' reign. This contest has been already alluded to, but this is the fittest time to detail the events of the campaigns. In 1756 the Prussians, invading Saxony, occupied Dresden ; they also defeated the Austrians at Lowosita. The second was the greatest campaign of the seven. Its leading events were the battle of Prague, a Prussian triumph ; and the two great vic- tories also won by Frederic at Rossbach and. Leuthen. In 1758 the Prussian King defeated the Russians at Zorndorff ; in 1759 they repaid the loss by routing him at Kunersdorf, The fifth (187) 13 i' I I ' 198 UISTOllY OF PRUSSIA. actions of Walleustein during the Thirty Years' War. After reducing abuses and restoring order, he turned to his neighbours. From Pohmd he obtained an acknowledgement of his title as Hereditary Duke of Prussia, that province being as yet in sub- jection to the Electorate of Braudenbui'g. This was confirmed by the Treaty of Wchlau, concluded with Poland in 1657. Oliver Cromwell was so conscious of tlie services rendered by the Great Elector to the Protestant cause that he sent letters of congratulation and compliment to Prussia. Li 1672 Frederic William formed an alliance with Holland against Franco. In 1675 Louis XIV. induced those old foes of Prussia — the Swedes — to invade Pomerania, in order to make reprisals on the Elector. But the invasion called forth Frederic's highest powers. A secret and sudden march brought him, with only 5000 men, face to face with a host of Swedes, numbering 11,000, whom he defeated at FehrheUin (1675). Four years later, he carried his army in sledges over the frozen Frische Haff, and, attacking the Swedes in their winter-camp, expelled them from the land (1679). His devotion to the Protestant cause made his dominions the grand refuge of those Hugucxiots, who were exiled by the revoca- tion of the Edict of Nantes. He also protected the Waldenses. Frederic III. (1688-1701) was the last Elector of Branden- burg. He aided William III. of England in his contest with Louis XIV., and the Emperor in a struggle with the Turks. When the War of the Spanish Succession began, he bargained with the Emperor to supply certain aid to the Austrian cause on condition of obtaining the crown of Prussia. This was consented to; and in 1701 Elector Frederic III. became King Frederic I. of Prussia, — an event which he commemorated by the institutiou of an order called " The Black Eagle." PRUSSIA A KINGDOM (1701 to the Present Time). Frederic I. (1701-13) enjoyed for twelve years a crown, to purchase which he had engaged to give assistance to Austria in HISTORY OP PllLSSIA. 199 her wars, and always to vote for Austria in tlie Diet. The former part of the promise was redeemed by his sending soldiers, who won laurels at Blenheim and other great fields. Ho died in 1713. Frederic WiUiam I. (1713-40) was a stern economist, and hater of luxury. The Prussian army owes to him the iiTstitution of its admirable drill ; and he surrounded himself with a body-guard of giants, whom he spared no expense — stopped at no means — to secure. A war with Sweden (1715) was one of the most im- portant public events of his reign. His natural savageness of temper vented itself upon his son, who hated cordially the father. And yet that father, by drilling and disciplining a magnificent army, was preparing the means of making Prussia one of the greatest military powers in Em-ope, — a reputation she at present seems anxious to increase. Frederic II. (1740-86), surnamed the Great, was twenty-eight years of age when he succeeded his father. He was so ill- treated in early life by his father, that with the aid of Katt and others he tried to escape to England. Being taken, he was imprisoned at Custrin, and poor Katt was beheaded — a fate which, they say, would have befallen the prince also, but for the entreaties of the Austrian ambassador. He lived in retirement, chiefly at Rheinsberg, until his father's death. Voltaire was one of his chief coiTCspondents. He was scarcely settled on the throne, when the unprotected con- dition of Maria Theresa led him into the Silesian "War (1740-42). A second war took place (1744-5). The third and greatest is knowai as the Seven Years' War, of which a sketch has been already given. Out of fourteen battles he won imie, fighting against the combined strength of Austria, the German Empire, Russia, France, and Sweden. After he had set the domestic affairs of his realm in order, he turned his attention to Poland, then as always rent with internal dissensions, and therefore all the more liable to fall a victim to foreign greed. Forming an alliance with Russia, he took a share in the First Partition of Poland C1772), by which he gained the < I If 200 mSTORY OP PRUSSIA. I tl ii i greater part of Polish Prussia. It is said that this scheme was first formed by Frederic I. in 1710. The Emperor, pleased with the results of this wholesale rob- bery, called in diplomatic phrase " partitioning," cast his eye on Bavaria as a likely spot for a repetition of the process. But Frederic stepped in, and by the Treaty of Teschen saved Bavaria. It became necessary, however, for Frederic afterwards, in order to secure that land from the Emperor's schemes, to unite the German princes in a league called the Furstenbund.. Frederic the Great died in 1.786, aged seventy-five. Thomas Carlyle has written his History, selecting him as a hero for the characteristic reason " that ho managed iv>t to be a liar and a charlatan as the rest of his century was." Frederic William II. (1786-97) was a decided failure as a successor of his great uncle. A foolish war with Holland — a couple of treaties with Austria — Reichenbach, 1790 — Pillnitz, 1794 — carry us on to his share in the Second and Third Partitions of Poland, by which Prussia gained large accessions of territory. His war with the Republic of France was closed by the Treaty of Basle. Frederic William III. (1797-1840) had a long eventful reign. At first he sided with France, intending to add some of the smaller German states to his dominions. And in this he was partially successful, for the Treaty of Luneville gave him Hildesheim, Paderborn, and part of Munster. He joined the Armed Neu- trality, which however was broken up by the murder of the Czar Paul. By negotiation with France, Hanover was made over to Prussia, which led to a war with England. But Napoleon heaped so many insults upon Prussia that there was a loud cry for war, which began in 1806. Within a month Jena was fought and Berlin entered by the French. Prussia then got aid from Russia; but this merely delayed the catastrophe. The battles of Eylau and Friedland sealed the fate of Frederic's kingdom : Napoleon entered Konigsberg — the ancient capital — and by the Treaty of Tilsit the victor consented to give back to the defeated monarch part pf hi^ pouq.uere[l kipgdom. Thjs wqs ft terrible blow tq HISTORY OP PRUSSIA. 201 Prussia. Out of portions of the conquered territory Napoleon forraeil the Kingdom of Westphalia, and the Grand-Duchy of Warsaw. For five years Prussia continued in subjection to Napoleon, and furnished a body of troops for the Russian campaign : but in the heat of conflict during the retreat the Prussian General Yorck made a truce with the Russian leader to whom he was opposed. In 1813 Frederic William issued a proclamation of war against France, announcing tlie resolve of Prussia to obtain either honourable peace or glorious destruction. He had previously made an alliance with Alexander of Russia. In this war the name of Marshal Blucher becomes prominent. So unbending was the courage of this now veteran soldier, that his King could find no better emblem to commemorate his deeds than an iron cross, with which he was accordingly decorated. Though Napo- leon gained some successes at Lutzen and Bautzen, the Allies, among whom Blucher and his Prussians were foremost, defeated him in a series of battles, which culminated at 1813 Leipsic, 1813. The great semicircle of veterans, which a.d. Napoleon drew round this city on the north to cover it from the approach of tlie foe, was crushed, bent, and broken in three days of incessant fighting. It was Blucher who urged the Allies to push on to Paris, which he would have sacked with no remorse, had not milder counsels prevailed. By the Congress of Vienna Prussia received part of Saxony, the Grand-Duchy of Posen, a large tract of Germany along the Rhine, and the province of Swedish Pomerania. Blucher, the Prussian Marshal, was Wellington's ally in the three days' Belgian campaign. The veteran of seventy-three, fighting at ten in the evening at Ligny, had liis horse shot, and was trampled under the hoofs of charging cuirassiers, so that a report of his death spread, much to the delight of No];^sleon. Nevertheless he led his Prussians from Wavre to Waterloo on the fA'lorious 18th of June, and aided to complete the final defeat o^ Napoleon. Blucher died in 1819. Devoted to peace, Fyederig William spent the jrest gf his reign \r\ : ! «• I 1 1 \h 202 IITSTORY OP PRUSSIA. endeavouring to repair the ravages Prussia had undergone during the desolating wars described. In 1815 he had made a promise to give a representative constitution to his whole kingdom ; but this ho never performed, although the people of Coblentz and other places remonstrated with him on the subject. He meant to do it, he said, when the right time came. He greatly advanced both German commerce and the influence of Prussia by the insti- tution of that commercial league among the States, known as the Zollverein. He died in 1840. Frederic William IV. (1840-61), a pupil of Niebuhr, suc- ceeded his father. When a revolutionary movement arose during the troubles of 1848 at Berlin, he delighted the people by pro- posing a union of all German princes and peoples, with himself for guide ; and, though this was not carried out, he calmed the tumults by appointing a popular ministry. Like his father, he objected to conferring a representative constitution on Prussia : " No piece of paper," said he, at a meeting of the United Diet for the first time, " shall come between me and my people." And, though he was led to make certain needed changes, he always tried to evade anything which would clash with his own despotic desires. He died in 1861. William I., the present King of Prussia, succeeded his brother in 1861. The Danish War of 1864, already described, and the Six Weeks' War of 1866, have been the principal incidents of his reign. In June 1866 Prussia and Italy declared war against Austria. For a time Austria had tolerable fortune. The Italians were defeated at Custozza by the Archduke Albert. But the Prus- sians, armed with the needle-gun — a breech-loading rifle of new construction — invaded Bohemia under the command of their King, and inflicted a signal defeat upon the Austrians, under Marshal Benedek at Sadowa, near Konigsgratz. Austria was obliged to sue for peace, which was concluded at Prague in August. The Princess Royal of England, eldest daughter of Queen Victoria, is the wife of the Crown Prince, or heir to the Prussian crown, having been married to him in 1868. UISTORY OF PiiUSSIA. 203 PRUSSIAN CIIRONOLOay. Duchy of PruBsia joined to the Electorate of Brandenburg, Poland acknowledges the independence of Prussia, ... Battle of Fehrbellin, Prussia made a kingdom under Frederic I., Reign of Frederic the Great, Silesia acquired by Prussia, Seven Years' War, Peace of Hubertsburg, Defeat at Jena — Bonaparte in Berlin, Treaty of Tilsit, ... ... Battle of Leipsic, ... ... ... ... ... Waterloo, ... ... ••■ «*• ... Revolutionary movement at Berlin, War with Denmark, ... ... War with Austria (Needle-gun), ... 1594 1657 1675 1701 ... 1740-86 17.2 ... 1766-63 1763 1806 1807 1813 1815 1848 1864 1866 AUSTRIA AND HUNGARY. As we have seen, Austria becaiiie au Empire in 1806. The House of Hap.sburg had held sway over Hungary since 1527, although the free bold spirit of the nation, which had made it invaluable as a bulwark to defend Europe against the encroach- ments of the Turks, rebelled against the despotic rule of the Austrian dukes. Until 1711 Hungary was much troubled with Turkish wars and civil commotions ; but after that date she enjoyed comparative repose, until kindled by the revolutions of 1848. When the news of the successful revolution in France reached Hungary, the people cried out for greater concessions than they had been already asking. Hungary and Transylvania were made one kingdom; and other changes followed, which roused the anger of Croatia. T'lc Croats invaded Hungary — it is thought, with the secret good-\N ill of the Emperor, who desired to play off the rival races against each other, weakening both. But Count Lemberg, a royal commissioner, was murdered at Pesth, which broke off all terms between Austria and Hungary. The Magyars appointed a Committee of Defence, with Kossuth as ita 204 AUSTUIA AND lIUNGAttY. president. War began, Gorgei acting as general of one part of tlie patriotic army ; while Bern, a Pole, commanded in North Transylvania. Both there and on the Theiss victory crowned the arms of Hmigary ; but discord among the leaders of the patriotic movement proved fatal to the cause. In 1849 Kossuth caused the independence of Hungary to be proclaimed ; a measure which displeased the Hungarian officers, and excited Hussia to join in alliance with Austria — for in Poland Russia had also a Hungary to be kept down. Gorgei refused to lay down the command of the army ; and Kossuth, unable or unwilling to remove him, gave up his position and fled to Turkey. Upon this Gorgei surren- dered his army ; but many of the soldiers escaped to Turkey, where, through the interference of Britain and France, they were allowed to remain. A cruel round of executions succeeded ; the land was placed under military rale ; and only of late has the Austrian rigour begun to relax. i: ;■ MODERN HUNGARIAN CHRONOLOGY. Albert of Austria succeeds to the crown of Hungary, Battle of Mohacs : Turks victorious, Duke of Lorraine relieves Buda from the Turks, Hungary faithful to Maria Theresa, Protestants allowed to build churches in Hungary, ... Hungarian Revolution under Kossuth, Battle of Temeswar, Emperor of Austria crowned King of Hungary, A.D. 1437 1526 1686 1740 1784 1848 1849 1867 SWITZERLAND (1481 to the Present Time). In 1513 the admission of Appenzell completed the Thirteen Cantons that formed the Swiss Confederation. A war with the Emperor Maximilian had previously taken place, resulting in his defeat (1499). Switzerland took a prominent share in the Eeformation. At Einsiedlen, Ulrich Zwingle, excited, like Luther in Germany, by the sale of indulgences, preached against those who sold them, fefu^ing the nionlc Samson admission into the Abbey Church. HISTORY OF SWITZERLAND. 205 A.D. 1437 1526 1686 1740 1784 1848 1849 1867 At Zurich lie made a yet bolder stand. There, in the Town Hall, he defended the doctrines of the Reformation against Faber with such effect that the Canton soon formally embraced Pro- testantism (1523). Bern, Basle, Schaffhausen followed, with parts of Glarus and Appenzell. In 1529 Zwingle met Luther and Melancthon at Marburg ; and they signed fourteen articles of faith, differing only about the Eucharist. The interference of Zurich with the territory of the Abbot of St. Gall afforded the Homan Catholic Cantons an opportunity of declaring Avar against those which had embraced the Reformed doctrines. The Five Cantons by Lake Lucerne sent out eight thousand men, who met the Zurichers, under Zwingle, at the village of Cappel. Passing through a wood, the Catholics came upon the rear of their enemies ; and in the struggle Zwingle fell mortally wounded. A soldier, when he refused to confess or pray to the Virgin, ran him through: and his body was after- wards burned and scattered to the wind (1531). The Synod of Bern afterwards published the Helvetic Confession of Faith. As the residence of John Calvin, the Reformer, who was of French birth, Geneva became a centre of the Reformation. From it spread the Puritan feelings, which so strongly impressed the Church of Scotland, and caused secessions of the gravest kind from t'-^e Anglican Church. Calvin died in 1564. In 1533 Geneva established its independence cf Savoy; whose dukes, however, did not acknowledge this until 1603. The Peace of AYestphalia acknowledged the independence of the entire Helvetic Republic. In 1653, and again in 1712, the Protestant and Catholic Cantons engaged in Avar; but the Treaty of Aarau (1713) put an end to such (destructive dissensions. Meanwhile Switzerland received an acccst ion of great importance to her manufactures and industrial arts in the Huguenots, whom persecution had driven from France. In 1798 the French armies overran Switzerland; but were expelled from the central cantons in the following year by Austria r 206 HISTORY OF SWITZERLAND. and Russia. After the Peace of Lunovillc, First Consul Bonaparte proposed his Act of Mediation (1802), which constituted Swit.'ier- land a Confederation of nineteen cantons, under French protection. Valais, Geneva, and Neuchatel were then annexed to France. Wlien Napoleon's star waned, Switzerland permitted the Allies to approach France through her territories ; and, when the Con- gress of Vienna sat, the affairs of this mountain-land were placed upon the old footing, as they had been before Bonaparte's inter- ference. The Confederation then contained twenty-two cantons. The questions of " Universal Suffrage," and " Education Inde- pendent of Clergy," have caused much excitement during the present century. Out of the latter arose a clamour from Aargau and other can- tons for the expulsion from Switzerland of the Jesuits, who directed education in many places. In order to secure this object bodies of armed men, called Free Corps, invaded Lucerne, one of the Catholic Cantons ; and this movement roused the Seven Catholic Cantons to form the Sonderhmd, a league of defence. In Geneva a revolution took place, giving the power to the anti- Catholic party, by whose means the Diet decreed that the Sonder- hiind was illegal, and that the Jesuits should be expelled. Then began a war (1847). Two victories of the Federal troops — at Freyburg and Lucerne — obliged the Catholic Cantons to submit, wherfinpon the Jesuits were expelled from Switzerland. In 1848 was formed a New Constitution, vesting the supremo power in a Federal Assembly of two Chambers, whose place of meeting was fixed at Bern. MODERN SWISS CHRONOLOGY. Protestantism of Zwingle adopted at Zurich, Charles of Savoy tries ia vain to take Geneva, Treaty of Westphalia declares Helvetia independent, Peace of Baden closes a civil war, ... Treaty of Aarau, ... French form Helvetian Eepublic, ... Act of Mediation, Congress of Vienna makes Switzerland independent, Sonderbund War, ... ... ... ... A.I>. 1523 1602 1648 1656 1712 1798 1802 ••• 1816 •#• •tt 1847 HISTORY OF SPAIN. 207 SOUTHERN COUNTRIES. who this A.D. 1623 1602 1648 1656 1712 1798 1802 1815 IU7 SPAIN (1492 to the Present Time). The marriage of Ferdinand of Aragon and Isabella of Castile has been already noticed. It laid a solid foundation for the mon- archy of Spain. When Isabella died in 1504, her successor in Castile was the Archduke Imilip of Austria, who had married her daughter Joanna; but this prince died in 1506. The most prominent and celebrated man in Spain at this time was Cardinal Ximenes, whom the Spaniards call Cisneros. By an austere life, and a princely expenditure of his revenues as Archbishop of Toledo, he acquired a great reputation, which his deeds as a statesman did not belie. On the death of Philip ho became Regent of Castile, and contrived to repress a nobility noted for turbulence. Charles I. (1516-1556). — When the son of Philip and Joanna, best known in history as the Emperor Charles V., became King of Spain by the death of Ferdinand, Ximenes assumed the reins of government until the King should arrive. He silenced the grandees, who objected to his Regency, by showing them a train of cannon from his windows in Madrid. He also conquered Navarre : and such services Charles, who Mngered long in Flanders, repaid by an ungrateful dismissal of this faithful minister, even when the old man was worn with mortal suffering (1517). As the reign of Charles belongs rather to the Empire of Ger- many than to Spain, and has been already sketched under that head, we may pass on to that of his son. Philip II. (1556-98). — This monarch began his reign when Spain stood prominent as one of the great powers of the earth — a land whose enterprise had added the New World, with all its untold treasures of gold and silver, to the old European kingdom. He ruled Spain, the Netherlands, the Sicilies, and Milan. Before 208 HISTORY OF SPAIN. I ho ceased to reign, tlio splendour of liia realm had been irrc* coverably tarnished, and its strength fatidly injured. When Philip ceased, by the death of Mary his wife, to have any hold upon England, he devoted hrmself henceforth to Spain, leaving the Netherlands to rulers, of whose tender mercies we have already learned the extent. His pitiless cruelty directed all the machinery of the Inquisi- tion against those whom he called heretics : and the auto-da-fe blazed red in the land. One of the monument, of his reign is the palace of the Escorial near Madrid, built as a token of grati- tude to St. Lawrence for the victory of St. Quentin (see page 158). In compliment to the saint the building took the form of a grid- iron. He thenceforth made Madrid the capital of Spain instead of Toledo. A war with the Moors, ending (1571) in the extirpation or banishment of most of those that survived, was one of his re- ligious undertakings. He also succeeded in subduing Portugal (1580), which continued for sixty years to be a Spanish possession. His career of ambition and conquest was checked in 1588 by the defeat of the Armada, " that great fleet invincible" which ho sent to reduce England to submission. That he had somo 2 588 philosophic composure in his character may be judged A.D. by his words on receiving the tidings of the blow: " I sent my fleet to fight with the English, but not with the elements." A dark story belongs to the reign of Philip. By his first wife, Mary of Portugal, he had a son, Don Carlos, who displayed a rash and violent temper. This young man was suddenly arrested on a charge of aiming at the life of the King his father ; and in a few months he died mysteriously in prison (1568) — poisoned, some say, by his father's command. Philip died in 1598, aged seventy-two, after having seen all his schemes of aggrandizement end in utter failure. Philip III. f 1598-1621) was an indolent prince, who sub- mitted to the rule of a favourite attendant, afterwards raised to be Duke of Lerma. During his reign a trice was concluded with the Dutch Republic (1609) which virtually acknowledged •1. HISTORY OP SPAIN. 209 all tlie Independence of the revolted provinces. But a more serious tiling for Spain was the expulsion of the Moors (1610). Umler charge of hypocrisy in their alleged conversion, and of intrigues with their friends in Africa for the reconquest of Spain, the pro- vince of Valencia was stripped of a population, who had bright- ened its gardens with delicious fruits and flowers, and had sent forth from their looms textures of the richest silk. It was like the old fashion of bleeding a sick man; professing to bo a cure, it really exhausted the patient's strength, in many cases fatally. Philip III. died of fever in 1621. Philip IV. (1621-1665) was controlled in liis government for a long time by a favourite culled Gaspar Guzman, Count-Duke of Olivarcz. This nobleman, whoso great aim was to aggrandize the House of Austria, found himself matched with two minis- ters, Buckingham in England, and Richelieu in France, the devoted foe of the Hapsburgs. But the schemes of Olivarcz came to nothing but despair. The rebellions in Catalonia and Portugal, the latter of which secured its independence under the Duke of Braganza (1640), cost him his post as minister; he was succeeded by Haro. The Peace of Wesiphalia (1648) secured independence to the Dutch Republic by a last and formal recognition. Before this end was gained the ships of Holland had more than once proved a match for those of the country whence the invincible xVrmada had sailed. The relations between Spain and England were interrupted in 1625, on account of the marriage between Prince Charles (Charles I.) and the Infanta having been broken off. The episode of Masaniello belongs to the iiistory of Italy, but may be related here; for Naples was then under Spanish dominion. The Spanish viceroy, Duke D'Arcos, having laid a tax on fruit and vegetables in Naples, the people, headed by a young fisherman, Toraraaso AnicUo (contracted into Masaniello), rose in revolt. The spark which kindled the flame was the flinging of a bunch of ligs in the face of a magistrate. The revolt was suc- cessful. In his fisher-dress Aniello sat with a drawn sword dis- (187) 14 210 HISTORY OF SPAIN. pensing justice. His power over the luob whh wonderful: the lifting of his finger was suflicieut to rouse thcni to fury or reduce them to statue-like silence. IJut his mind gave way; his speeches began to provoke laughter ; and, as he reposed in one of the con- vent cells after an exciting harangue, soldiers came in and shot him (1G47). Philip IV. made frantic efforts to recover Portugal; but in vain. Grief at his failures is said to have hastened his death (1G65). During his reign there was a protracted war with France, which produced no result to Spain but loss and disgrace. The struggle was closed by the Trcnty of the Pi/rcnees (1659). As a seal of this compact the daughter of the Spanish King, Maria Theresa, was given in marriage to Louis XIV. of France. Upon this union hinged important results. Charles II. (1665-1700) was involved in several wars with Louis XIV., whose over-reaching ambition troubled all his neighbours. For some years the Queen-mother acted as Kegent, her opinions being controlled by a priest named Neidhard. This state of affairs resulted in misery to the country; and the feeling grew so strong that the favourite was banished. All the treaties of this age saw Spain stripped of territor}'', France being an especial gainer by the Treaties of Aix-la-Chapelle and Nimeguen. The plan of Louis XIV., during all his reign, was to secure the succession of Spain to the Bourbons. He accord- ingly induced the Spanish King before his death to settle the crown upon Philip of Anjou. Before this, France, England, and Holland had signed a Partition Treaty, which proposed to give Spain, America, and the Netherlands to the Electoral Prince of Bavaria; Naples and Sicily to the Dauphin; and Milan to the Archduke Charles (1698). The death of the Electoral Prince left a Bourbon and but one Hapsburg to contest the crown. Philip V. (1700-1746) was appointed King of Spain by the last will of Charles II., and was supported in his claim by all the power of his grandfather Louis XIV. of France. From 1702 to 1713 the War of the Spanish Succession raged IITSTOIIY OP SPAIN. 211 : tlie educe jcchcs 3 con- l shot but in death France, , Tho As a , Maria Upon •8 with all his Regent, This I feeling crritorj'', hapelle ign, was accord- 3ttle the and, and 1 to give ?rince of n to tho d Prince kvn. in by tho im by all ion raged in consequence of thin claim. Spain was for the Uourbon; En;^^- land declared against liiin. A part of tlio war affected tho Spanisli peninsula. At Vigo (1702) Sir George Rooke destroyed a Spanish fleet. In 1704 the same ofTicer carried tlio Rock of (rihraltar hy storm. But Mordaunt, Earl of Petcnhorough, was the most promincMit ac^tor on the Spanish stage of this struggle. lie succeeded (1705) in storming the ramparts of Barcelona, long regarded as imprcgnahle; and in tho following your occupied Madrid as a centre of military operations. But tlion he was 80 disgusted with the slowness of the Archduke, that he resigned his comnutnd, leaving the English armies under the incompetent Lord Galway. The battle of Almanza, a town in Murcia, and the fall of Lerida before the victorious Berwick decided the issuo of the war in Spain against the Ilapsburg candidate. The preten- sions of the Bourbon were ratified by the Treaty of Utrecht (1713). When Philip's first wife died, he placed his confidence in a favourite of hers, who sent an Italian priest, Alberoin*, to nego- tiate for Elizabeth Farnoso, daughter of the Prince of Parma, as a second wife for the King. The first acts of Elizabeth, when the marriage was accomplished, was to dismiss this favourite, and to make Alberoni Prime Minister. Dissatisfied with the Treaty of Utrecht, this intriguing Italian set himself to kindle a war, which might overturn its arrangements and give back to Spain some of her lost territories. But these schemes alarmed Europe. The Qua(lrui)Je AUicnice, including England, France, Austria, and Holland, was formed against Spain; Sir George Byng de- feated a Spanish fleet off Passaro ; and tho King, influenced by tho Duke of Parma, consented to the dismissing of Alberoni, which saved Europe from war (1719). In 1724 Philip resigned his crown to his son Louis; but, that prince having died of small-pox, he was forced from his seclusion in the convent of Ildefonso to take the helm of state again. The twenty-two years of his second reign (1724-1746) wero uneventful. He managed to secure possessions in Italy for his two sons by Elizabeth Farnese, — Naples for Don Carlos, Parma and Piacenza for Philip. Philip V. died in 1746. 212 IIISTOIIV OF SPAIN'. During the veigii of Ferdinand VI. (1740-50) was concludeil tlio Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle. llis successor, Charles III. (1759-88), was forced by the treaty among tlic Bourbons, called the Fumily Compact^ to begin a war with England. The great siege of Gibraltar belongs to his reign. It began in 177i). For three years the Spaniards rained cannon-balls iijion the llock; but all in vain, for within Eliott directed the defence, and from without aid came with the fleet of Lord ITowe, which relieved the garri- son (1782). Charles IV. (1788-1808) warred at first with France; but he afterwards concluded a peace with that country, in conjunction with which he turned his arms against England. The naval vic- tory of St. Vincent, in which J<'rvis commanded the English licet, and Nelson distinguished himself greatly, was gained in 1797. In the same year the British took Trinidad, second in size of our West Indian possessions. The Peace of Amiens confirmed this conquest; and for a time there was peace between Great Britain and Spain. But in 1804 some interference on the part of the former with Spanish treasure- ships kindled the flames again. The Spaniards and their French allies verc totally defeated at sea off the sand-hill of Trafalgar (1805). The counsels of Charles IV. were for some years directed by Godoy, who formed a league with France for the partition of P< itugal. The scheme was, that a French army marching through Spain, and acting in conjunction with a Spanish force, Avas to seize the coveted country. Godoy was to be made Prince of Algarve for his services. It happened that the Prince of Asturias, eldest son of Charles IV., being dissatisfied with Godoy's administration, addressed Napoleon by letter, requesting the French Emperor to afford some protection against the favourite's tyranny. Godoy, con- struing this into a plot against both the life and crown of Charles, caused the Prince to be arrested. But the people declared for Ferdinand; Napoleon took possession of some fortresses in Spain; and the Court were seriously contemplating a flight to Mexico* t IIISTOUY OF SPAIN. 213 wlien tlie soLHors revoltoil at Aranjucz : Godoy was scut to prison, and Charles abdicated in favour of his son (1808). Ferdinand VII. (1808-33) found hiniselt in trouble at once. His father, recalling his abdication, appealed to Napoleon as umpire ; who nothing loath, for the situation favoured his own schemes regarding Spain, invited father and son to a conference at Bayonne. There Ferdinand was forced to restore the royal power, which Charles at once made over to Napoleon. They were both kept in honourable custody in France. Then began the '. 'ar of the SjitDiish Patriots (i'SOS). Goaded to rage by the sight of Joseph Bonaparte seated on the throne of Spain, the people rose under Castanos, who soon obliged a large French army under Dupont to surrender at Baylen. The heroic defence of Saragossa, which was held against tlie French by Palafox for nine weeks, was a great achievement of the war. But Bona- parte's arrival on the scene turned the tide of events. The Spaniards were beaten at Tudela; and the contiueror entered Madrid. A second siege of Saragossa resulted in the sickness of Palafox and the downfal of the stronghold, of whose people 54,000 are said to have perished. The events of the Peninsular War, already referred to in pre- vious chapters, may now be briefly sketched. It arose from a desire on the part of Britain to afloril succour to Portugal when threatened by Napoleon ; and British aid was afterwards given to the cause of the Spanish patriots. It consisted of six campaigns (1808-13). 1808. — Landing at Mondego Bay in Portugal, Sir Arthur Wcllcsley with a British force defeated the French at Rolica and Vimiero. He was then displaced by Sir Hew Dalrymple, Governor of Gibraltar, who concluded the foolish Convention of Cintra, permitting the French to leave Portugal with their baggage {i.e., their plunder). Sir John Moore then advanced into Spain from Coimbra; but the news of Napoleon's march with four armies to entrap and crush him, forced him to ii retreat of misery and loss. 1809. — Chased by Soult, he stood at bay by Corunna, forced to 214 HISTORY OP SPAIN. fight by tlio non-arrival of the ships that were to carry his men to a place of safety. The British victory, won at Corunna, was saddened by the death of Moore (1809). "Wellesley, reinstated in his comroand, signalized a year thus nobly begun by seizing Oporto, driving Soult out of Portugal, and inflicting a terrible defeat upon Victor at Talavera. 1810. — In the spring of this year the French, having reduced the frontier-fortresses of Cuidad Rodrigo and Almeida, invaded Portugal under the conduct of Massena. Wellington defeated them at Busaco, and then retired to the lines of Torres Vedras, behind which he spent the winter. 1811. — The retreat of the French from Portugal was counter- balanced by the loss of Badajos, which now surrendered to Soult. But three victories crowned the British arms — one won by Graham at Barrosa, and the others won by Wellington at Fuentes d'Onoro and Albuera. Two attempts of the English to retake Badajos failed. 1812. — The earnest desire of Wellington now realized itself. At the cost of much brave blood he made himself master of Cuidad Rodrigo and Badajos, and with these as a base of operations he invaded Spain. At Salamanca he defeated Mar- raont, and entering Madrid held it for a time. 1813. — When he gained the supreme command of the Spanish armies, Wellington made such a disposition of his troops as drove the French northward. He followed and defeated them at Vitoria, in the crowning and decisive battle of the war. In 1814, having driven the French over the Pyrenees, the victor defeated them in the battles of Orthez and Toulouse. The latter was an unnecessary fight, for Napoleon had abdicated some days earlier. The conclusion of peace in 1814 restored Ferdinand VII. to his throne; but, claiming the power of a despot, he placed himself in opposition to the Cortes, which he ultimately dissolved, abolishing the liberty of the press, and re-establishing the Inqui- sition. In 1820 a revolution broke out near Cadiz, directed by two Colonels — Quiroga and Biego. The Free Constitution of 1812 T HISTORY OF SPAIN. 215 was revived, and sworn to by Ferdinand. But his heart was fixed on despotism, and he found a worthy assistant in Louis XVIII., who sent his nephew, the Duke of Angouleme, into Spain with a large anny to overturn the Constitution and deliver Ferdinand from his bondage. The French troops occupied Madrid; and near Cadiz, which they besieged, Ferdinand made an arrange- ment, by which he was permitted to return to the capital. Quiroga fled to England, but Riego was executed. Ferdinand VII. died in 1833. Isabella II., who succeeded her father, is at present Queen of Spain. Since the Salic Law, though not a part of the original consti- tution of Spain, had been introduced by the Bourbons and con- firmed by the Cortes of 1812, a claimant for the throne, in oppo- sition to Isabella, appeared in the person of Don Carlos, her uncle, who, as Ferdinand's brother, had always regarded himself the heir, until the edict annulling the Salic Law was published. A war, lasting four years (1836-40), arose between the Carlist and Christino factions. The priests, the peasantry, and especially the Basque provinces, supported Carlos. The struggle was conducted with great ferocity. Cabrera, the most prominent of the Carlist generals, avenged the murder of his mother by causing the wives of thirty Christino officers to be killed. Hav- ing taken Valencia, he filled it with slaughter. The scale of war was turned, when a British Legion under General Evans came to the aid of the young Queen. Don Carlos, hopeless of success, fled to France; and in 1843 Isabella, declared of age, assumed the sceptre for herself. Spain has not been happy under her rule, as several revolution- ary movements have testified. MODERN SPANISH CHRONOLOaY. Ferdinand of Aragon marries Isabella of Castile, Charles I. King, afterwards Emperor (Charles V.) of Germany, Spanish Armada defeated, ... ... ... ... Kxpulsion of the Moors (Philip III.), ... ,,r. A.D. 1469 1516 15S8 1610 Mlk?l i 11 216 HISTORY OP POUTUGAl. Fortu(;al regains independence. • •■ • •• • •• • •• A.D. 1640 Peace of the Pyrenees, • •• • •• • •• • •• 1659 War of the Spanish Succession, ktf ... • •• • •• 1702-13 Capture of Gibraltar, • •• • •• ■ ■• • •• 1704 Battle of Almanza, • •• • •• • •• • *• 1707 Treaty of Utrecht, • •§ • •• • *. ««• 1713 Great siege of Gibraltar, • •• • •• • •• «•• 1779-82 Battle of St. Vincent, • •• • •• • •• • •t 1797 Battle of Trafalgar, • •• %•• ... • •• 1805 Joseph Bonaparte made King, • •• • I* «•• • •• 1808 Defence of Saragossa, • •• • •• • •• • •» — Peninsular War. ... • §• • •t • II «•• 1808-13 Battle of Vitoria, • ■• • •• • •• • •• 1813 Kevolution of Riego, • •• • •■ ■ •• • •* 1820 Carlist War, • •• • •• • •• • f • 1836-40 PORTUGAL (1498 to the Present Time). Under Manuel the Great (1495-1521) maritime discovery went on so rapidly and successfully that Portugal rose to he one of the most considerahle of European States. Vasco de Garaa, rounding the Cape of Good Hope, made good his landing in India (1498). A lucky storm drove Cahral to the coast of Brazil ; while Ceylon and Malabar were explored and colonized by other enterprising Portuguese sailors. John III. (1521-57) was the next King of Portugal. During his reign the Inquisition was introduced, being intended at first to repress the Jews ; but after they were driven from the land, the terrible engine was retained for other uses. This monarch also permitted the Jesuits to find a home in Portugal, and gave his grandson, Sebastian, into the care of these monks to be educated. Sebastian III. (1557-78) grew up wholly under Jesuitical influences ; a youth whose brain teemed with crusading fancies and ideas of chivalrous warfare. His great desire was to subdue Africa; and accordingly, in 1574, he undertook an expedition against the Moors, which resulted in nothing. However, a dis- pute regarding the succession to the crown of Morocco afforded him another opportunity. With a force of 15,000 men, he crossed the sea to Arsila (1578), and in a short time met the HISTORY OF PORTUGAL. 217 A.B. 1640 1659 r02-13 1704 1707 1713 779-82 179T 1805 1808 Moors in battle pt Alcazar, wlioro ho -was defeated. Sebastian, his Moorish ally, and his Moorish foe, all perished, either in or after the battle. For many a day the Portuguese could not believe that their prince was gone. They fondly hoped that he ■was still lingering in captivity among the Moors ; and several impostors, claiming his name, played upon this feeling. After Cardinal Henry, an uncle of Sebastian, who had been appointed Regent during the absence of tliat monarch, had held power as Henry I. for two years (1578-80), Philip II. of Spain, wdio is thought to have encouraged the Moorish expedition in the hope of creating a vacancy in the Portuguese succession, seized Portugal, which he made a dependency of Spain (1580). Then began a miserable period of sixty years' subjection, affording in its gloom and suffering a strong contrast to the golden ago of Portugal under Manuel, only a century before. The Spanish yoke galled sorely ; the country was unmercifully taxed ; extortion and ill-treatment were the lot of the people. But this came to an end in 1640, when a re* 1640 volution set Portugal free, placing on the throne John a.d. IV., Duke of Braganza. John IV. (1640-1656) was not acknowledged King by the Pope. He waged war with Spain and Holland. The former was angry at the loss of Portugal ; the latter found in Portugal too powerful a rival in her colonial seas. The Dutch secured a footing in Ceylon ; but were in 1654 expelled from Brazil. From this reign dates an alliance which has long existed between Britain and Portugal, and which produced many important results ; such, for example, as the Peninsular War. Alphonso VI. (1656-67) was much controlled by the Jesuits. The war with Spain continued ; but victory was declaring plainly for Portugal. In the second year of Peter's regency — he succeeded his deposed brother — Spain finally acknowledged Por- tuguese independence (1668). Peter II. (Regency, 1667-83 : Reign, 1683-1706) arranged a treaty with Holland, by which the conquests of the Dutch in the East Indies were secured to them. The discovery of rich mMilWMWW T 218 HISTORY OP PORTUGAL. III gold mines in Brazil created a considerable interest, not only in Portugal, but in other lands, anxious to participate in the profits of trade to this Eldorado. In 1703 Britain obtained the advan- tage of a treaty with Portugal ; and this alliance caused the Por- tuguese to withdraw the aid and countenance they had been previously giving to Philip of Anjou in the Spanish Succession War. The long reign of John V. (1706-50) was productive of few events of consequence. A colony — San Sacramento, on the Kio de la Plata — though assigned to Portugal by more than one treaty, especially the Peace of Utrecht, caused disputes with Spain. The building of the monastery at Mafra and the estab- lishment of the Academy of History belong to this reign. John, whose devotion to the Pope and obedience to the clergy were rewarded wutli the title ^' Bex Fidel issimus" died in 1750. Joseph I. (1750-77) sinks into insignificance in history be- side his minister, Don Carvalho, afterwards Marquis of Pombal, to whom the revival of Portugal among the nations of Europe is justly ascribed. This statesman, who came to power owing to a fancy which the Queen of John V., an Austrian princess, took to his wife, improved manufacture, agriculture, and learning, and taught the Brazilians to cultivate coffee, sugar, cotton, rice, and indigo. He made many enemies among the nobles, whose rapacity he repressed with an unsparing hand ; and in curbing the power of the Inquisition and banishing the Jesuits he dis- played V. pitiless resolution. His contest witli this powerful order formed the central event of the reign. With unwearied industry they had been pushing their emissaries everywhere, aiming at the control of States and the direction of households. One of his strokes of policy was the removal of Jesuit confessors from the royal household ; and when, in 1758, an attempt was made upon the King's life — a crime ascribed to the jealous rage of the order — he put to death some of the leading nobility and priests, winding up his work by the expulsion of the Order of Loyola from Portugal (1759). This embroiled the King in dis- putes with the Pope. [ HISTORY OF PORTUGAL. 219 nly in profits idvan- e Por- cession of few lie Rio an one 5S with } estab- John, jy were I. ;ory he- Pombal, urope is ing to a took to ng, and >n, rice, whose curbing he dis- 30werful iwearied rywhere, iseholds. onfessors npt was .8 rage of ility and Order of g in dis- The great earthquake of Lisbon, killing 60,000 persons and laying the city in ruins, occurred in 1755. The taste of Pombal directed the rebuilding of the city. Maria Francisca Isabel (1777-89), daughter of Joseph I., deposed Pombal, — an event which gladdened the nobles and clergy, for it removed the wholesome curb which had checked their ill deeds. The gloom of affairs was deepened by the insanity of the Queen, in whose room the Prince of Brazil, her eldest son, was nominated Regent (1789). The secret compact for the partition of Portugal, entered into between France and Spain, has been already referred to in sketch- ing the Peninsular War. In 1807, Marshal Junot, the general of Nvipoleon, who had declared that the reign of the House of Braganza had come to an end, because Portugal would not con- fiscate the British goods in the country, crossed the frontier. The royal family of Portugal sailed away to Brazil, where they fixed their Court at Rio Janeiro, leaving Lisbon to the French. What befel the French in the ensuing five years has been already related. Upon the death of Maria in 1816, her son, who had been Regent with full powers since 1799, became King, with the title of John VI. ; but he coi: tinned to reside in Brazil. In 1820 the fire of revelation, kindled in Spain, inflamed Portugal also. Beginning at Oporto, the movement spread, without bloodshed, however, or riot, until a Provisional Govern- ment was established, and the Cortes of 1821, under the Arch- bishop of Braga, proclaimed the liberty of the press and the sovo . reignty of the people. This recalled John from Brazil, where he had been for i..early fourteen years. Not until he promised that he would observe the new constitution was he allowed to land. There was, however, an attempt on the part of Don Miguel, the King's second son, to restore despotism. John, who was not permitted to see any of the foreign ambassadors, was obliged to seek refuge on board of an English ship then 1^ .ng in the Tagus. He then deprived Don Miguel of his command, and " gave him leave to travel." J! 1 I: 220 HISTORY OP PORTUGAL. Jolin VI. died in 1826. He Imd in tlie previous year acknow- ledged his eldest son, Don Pedro, as Emperor of Brazil ; and that monarch, preferring a transatlantic throne, nominated his daughter. Dona Maria da Gloria (1826-53), sovereign of Por- tugal. This princess, now only nine years old, was sent over to Europe ; hut owing to the intrigues of Don Miguel, her uncle, who assumed the title of King, she was carried to England as a place of safety (1828). Don Pedro then took up anns in the cause of his daughter, — an enterprise in which England afforded him cordial assistance. Sailing from the Azores (1832), his troops seized Oporto, where the Miguelites hesieged him in vain. Lishon soon afterwards yielded, and then the young Queen came from England to resume her throne. The subjugation of Don Miguel, achie^red by the reduction of Santarem, resulted in the Convention of Evora, which expelled the usurper (1834). In the same year Dona Maria, declared of age, assumed her full royalty. On her death in 1853, Pedro V., her son, became King. His promise of usefulness being cut short by a premature death in 1861, his brother, Louis I., ascended the throne. PORTUGUESE CHRONOLOGY. Voyage of Vasco de Gama, The Brazils discovered by Cabral, .. Battle of Alcazar, Portugal a province of Spain, John of Braganza made King, Dutch expelled from Brazil, Independence acknowledged by Spain, Earthquake at Lisbon, Jesuits expelled from Portugal, ... Portuguese Court emigrate to Brazil, Vimiero— Convention of Cintra, Landing of Wellesley, Battle of Busaco, ... Revolution at Oporto, ... Return of the Court, Brazil declared independent. Contest between Miguel and Haria, • •• A.D. • •• 1497 #•• 1500 • •• 1578 • •• 1580-1640 • •• 1640 • •• 1654 • •• 1668 • •• 1755 • t« 1759 • •• 1807 • •• 1808 • •• 1809 ^•* 1810 • •• 1820 • fl* 1821 • •• 1825 f«t 182P-34 HISTORY OF ITALY. 221 ITALY (1500 to the Present Time). The history of Modern Italy is o most complicated narrative. In order to preserve as much clearness as possible in the follow- ing sketches, the history of Northern Italy— including Milan, Genoa, Sardinia, Venice, and Tuscanj' — is taken first. Then folloAv the Papal Territories, and the Two Sicilies or the King- dom of Naples MILAN. TVe left the French masters of Milan after the death of Ludo- vico Sforza. The defeat of Francis I. of France, at Pavia, left the Dnchy in the power of the Emperor Charles V., under whom Francis Sforjca held it. Andrea Doria, who may be called the Admiral of Charles V., for he commanded the fleets of that monarch against the Turks and the pirates of the Barbary shore, distinguished himself by his patriotic deliverance of his native Genoa from the French who had seized it. Appearing with his ships before the city, he expelled the intruders (1528), and, under the protection of the Emperor, erected Genoa into an independent aristocratic republic, of which he became one of the Censors. The plot of Fieschi (1547) troubled his old age, which he devoted to Genoa; he died in 1560, aged ninety-four. Before that time ]\Iilan had passed into the possession of Philip II. of Spain, under the dominion of which government it continued until 1700. The Farnese family — a noble Boman race — had now become prominent in Italy, owing to the election of Cardinal Alexander Farnese to the Papal chair, under the title of Paul III. (1534). This Pope conferred Parma and Piacenza, over which Milan exercised a claim, upon his natural son, Peter ; but that dissolute man was murdered by conspirators two years later (1547). Hia grandson, Alexander Farnese, revived the fame of the family by hia military genius, which he displayed in the Spanish Nether* 222 HISTORY OF ITALY. ! lands figlitinj^ for Spain ngninst tlic Prince of Orange. We recognize in him the Duke of Parma, who was prepared to take a share in the triumph of the Spanish Armada, by launching an army into England across the Strait of Dover. In 1713 the Treaty of Utrecht made ever Milan and Mantua to Austria, which afterwards acquired Farma and Piacenza. This caused a revival of enterprise in Lombardy, which had declined under the Spanish rule. It was, howevei", in the reign of Maria Theresa that the progress was most marked. Until the shock of the Napoleonic wars, Austria continued to rule the thriving ]irovince ; but the ambitious Corsican grasped it, with Venetia, and made a so-called Kingdom of Italy by imitiug them. But 1814 saw Austria again mistress of Milan, Mantua, and Venice. In 1848 the people of Lombardy, aided by their Sardinian neighbours, rose in revolt against the rule of Austria. A few cigars kindled the rising ; for the Milanese, being resolved not to use tobacco in order to injure the Austrian revenue, felt them- selves insulted when the soldiers of the Austrian garrison smoked them in the streets. The war was at first favourable to the cause of Lombardy, which was ultimately annexed to Sardinia, then under Charles Albert. But the vigour of Radetzky, and especially the battle of Custozza, between the Mincio and the Adige, turned the scale so completely that a Sardinian force was obliged to capi- tulate at Milan. In 1859 hostilities broke out once more between Austria and Sardinia. When the troops of the Emperor, by crossing the Ticino, committed an overt act of war against Sardinia, the Emperor of the French, Napoleon III., came to the aid of the invaded state. Landing at Genoa, he repulsed the Austriana at Moutebello, Palestro, Magenta, and Solferino, and by the Peace of Villafranca forced Austria to cede Lombardy to him. He forthwith made it over to Sardinia, receiving as the guerdon of his aid the territories of Nice and Savoy, lying close to the French frontier. Genoa gradually declined, like Venice, after the voyage of ' HISTORY OP ITALY. 223 and Vasco do Gama had opened a channel for the trade of the Indies, ■which did not draw wealth to Mediterranean ports. Ilcr con- stant struggles with the Turks had early stripped her of all licr possessions on the Levant and the Black Sea. In 1769 she made over to France Corsica, the last fragment of the external domi- nion her galleys had won in the Middle Ages. A French garri- son within the city under Massena stood a terrihle siege in 1799 by a combined army of Austrians and English ; and when it afterwards fell into the hands of Bonaparte, ho annexed the state to France. It was however united to Sardinia by the Congress of Vienna (1815). Savoy and Sardinia. — The Kingdom of Sardinia grew out of the Duchy of Savoy. The transition took place in 1720, when Victor- Amadeus II. wore the ducal coronet (1675-1730). This most distinguished ruler took an active share in the wars of the Louis XIV. period, siding, whenever he could follow his own inclinations, with the Allies, who withstood the ambitious encroachments of the French. The Treaty of Utrcclit gave him Sicily, and he afterwards acquired the island of Sardinia with the title of King. The successor of Victor- Araadeus, Charles Emanuel III., in conjimction with the French, tried to wrest the Duchy of Milan from Austria ; but in spite of his victory at Guastalla he ditl not succeed in doing so. This monarch, taking part with Maria Theresa in her distress, fought bravely against the French and Spaniards. At the Col de TAssiette the Piedmontese defended their intrenched camp with such telling effect that the French did not invade their valleys for many a year again (1747). The storms of the French Revolution affected Sardinia, which foil into the hands of the French, Savoy becoming the depart- ment of Mont-Blanc for a time. In 1799 the King (Charles Emanuel IV.) was obliged to take refuge in the island of Sar- dinia ; but the Court returned to Turin in 1814. In 1821 Charles Albert of Carignano was made Regent by a revolution ; but the King, Charles Felix, secured the ascendency owing to aid from Austria. After wandering and lighting in 224 IIISTOUY OF ITALY. I i Spain and elsewhere, Charles Albert bccainc King (1831-49). He raised the Italian banner against the Austriaiis in 1848 ; and, as wo Imvo seen, at first with some succosa. But the surrendei of 3Iilan was a serious blow. And yet more decisive was the battle of Novara (1840), which in the following year caused the King to abdicate in favour of his son, Victor Emanuel, the pre- sent King of Italy. Under this dashing soldier Sardinia became the ally of Franco and England during the Crimean War, in which her soldiera fought with much courage and success, espcicially at the Tchcrnaya. Then came eventful days, Avhicli changed the little Kingdom of Sardinia into the Kingdom of Italy. Joseph Garibaldi, " the hero of the red shirt," issuing from the rocky islet of Caprero, where ho had spent some time in retirement, landed in May 1860 at Marsala in Sicily, proclaiming himself Dictator for Victor Emanuel. Storming Palermo, tho capital of Sicily, and defeating the troops of the King of Naples at Melazzo, he then invaded the mainland, forcing Reggio to capitulate. The King of Naples took refuge in the maritime fortress of Gaeta, while Garibaldi entered tho capital, and nomi- nated a provisional government. Tho troops of Sardinia soon invaded the Papal States, whose Armies they defeated, and whose seaport of Ancona they forced to capitulate. Other victories followed. Victor Emanuel entered Naples, and the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies became a depend- ency of Sardinia, or rather a part of the newly organized King- dom of Italy. By vote or revolution all the other States, except the Papal territories and the Austrian province of Venetia, were amalgamated into an Italian Kingdom, whose first capital was Turin, where the first Parliament met 'n 1861 . But Florence has since been chosen as a fitter capital of Italy. The evacuation of Venetia by Austria, and the withdrawal of French troops from Rome are noteworthy points in the recent history of Italy. Venice. — During the decline of Venetian commerce and power, consequent upon the discovery of the sea-route to India and the East, that state was engaged in a great struggle with the Turks, HISTORY OP ITALY. 005 A* Aril/ Indeed Europe, at a critical period of her history, owed much to the sliips of Venice even during tlio time of that romantic repub- lic's decay. During the sixteenth century the Ottomans took possession of the Morea and Cyprus, although their navy sustained an almost fatal blow in 1571, when Don John of Austria defeated them at Lepanto. During the century that followed the Peace of Westphalia (1048-1740) Venice engaged in three distinct wars with Ttnkey. The first war (1045-69) resulted in the concj^uest of Candi i b/ the Ottomans : the second (1683-99) closed with the Peace of Carlowitz, and left Venice again mistress of the Morea : the third (1715-18) cost her that peninsula, which the Treaty of Pas- sarowitz obliged her to give up in return for some border-towns in Dalmatia. The close of the eighteenth century saw Venice in the iron grasp of that Corsican despot, avIio made wild havoc among the ancient States of Europe. After the brilliant cam- paign of Rivoli and Mantua (1797), Napoleon, who had penetrated to within eight days' march of Vienna, turned and threw himself upon Venice, whose forces had been threatening his rear. Dire was the revenge he wreaked, carrying off the bronze horses of San Marco, and reducing the golden-decked Bucentaur to the condition of a bare dismantled hull ; in a word, humbling Venice to the very dust. Nor was this all. The Treaty of Campo Formio (1797) decreed that the ancient Venetian territory should be partitioned. Austria got the districts lying within the sweep of the Adige, including the capital. The western portions were added to the Cisalpine Republic, which was formed chiefly of the Milanese and Mantuan possessions. And to France went the ships — glory of the ancient sea-port — the Ionian Islands, and certain parts of Albania. How Napoleon, in his frenzy of ambi- tion, cut and carved upon the political geography of Italy may be judged from the facts that the Cisalpine Republic was changed in 1802 into the Italian Republic, which in 1805 became a King- dom of Italy. The Genoese territories, previously called the Ligurian Republic, were made then a part of France. But the Congress of Vienna undid all this arrangement, which (187) 15 I! 226 HISTORY OP ITALY. lost its cohesion when tlic strong grnsp of Bonaparte grew weak. Venice, in combination with tlie Valteline, Mantua, and Milan, was erected into the Kingdom of Lombardy and Venice under tlie sway of Austria. It has been already scon that Austria lost Lombardy in 1859, and in 1867 she evacuated Venetia, which now forms a part of the Kingdom of Italy. TUSCANY. "Wc have already glanced at the period of Florentine brilliance imdcr tho Medici. It was interrupted by a time of anarchy at tlie beginning of the sixtccntli century, when Machiavelli — whose name lias beccme a by-word for stealthy and far-reaching intrigue — pulled the threads of Floicntinc politics, and visited the Courts of France and Germany as envoy and diplomatist. The Florentine Republic merged in the Grand-Duchy of Tus- cany in 1537, when Cosmo I. was elected to the chief station. Tie was descended from a branch of tlie gr^at liouse of Medici. It was owing in a great measure to tlie powerful protection of Charles V., Emperor of Germany, *hat this prince owed liis influence and position. He drew the chains of despotism tight round Florence, the poison-cup and the stiletto being often the ministers of his arbitrary vengeance. But of administrative power and application he had a considerable share. When to the territories of Florence and Pisa, tlie latter of which had been conquered, he added Siena, which was given him as a fief by Philip II. of Spain, the dominions of the Tuscan Grand-Duchy were complete. We find tho tragic story of two of Cosmo's sons adapted dramatically by Alfieri. The current rumour was that John the Cardinal had been slain by his brother Garcia, whom Cosmo the father then struck dead in the fury of his wrath : the mother of the young men died a short time afterwards. The suspicious proxi- mity of the deaths may have given rise to the story. Cosmo's policy with regard to Tuscany was very successful in prev :ing that State from becoming a prey to the foreign dominatiDU and HISTORY OF ITALY. 227 gi'CAV weak, and Milan, enice under dy in 1859, ns a part of nc brilliance I anarchy at velli — whose ling intrigue id the Courts lehy of Tus- ;hief station. JO of Medici, protection of CO owed his potisni tight ig often the ministrative When to the ch had l)ecn as a fief by rand-Duchy ons adapted lat John the n Cosmo the nother of the )icious proxi- y. Cosmo's n prev :ing ninatiDU and intestine troubles which have been in modern times the banc of Italy. He refused at first to accept Siena as a fief from Philip II., on the plea that he was an independent Sovereign, and would be vassal to no man : and he refused also to become master of Corsica, offered to him by the insurgents of 1564, because he foresaw that the rocky island would be a perilous and turbulent possession. Passing by Francis I. (1575-87), Avho was rather an East Indian merchant than a Sovereign ; and Ferdinand I. (1587-1608), who also made money b> merchandise and improved Leghorn vastly, wo reach the reign of Cosmo II. (1608-1621), during which Florence derived lustre from the astronomical discoveries of Galileo, whose surname Avas Galilei. This distinguished native of Pisa incurred the anger of the Jesuits by joining in the poli- tical movement which caused their expulsion from Padua. They accordingly set the terrible machinery of the Inquisition in force against him, and after some preliminary attacks, the discoverer was summoned to Homo, where, an old man of seventy, he ap- peared before the assembled priests at the Convent of Minerva. There, for declaring that the sun is the centre of its system, and that the Earth moves, not only round this central sun, but also with a diurnal motion on its own axis, he was committed to prison, and obliged to recite at intervals the seven penitential psalms. As he rose from his knees, after having signed an abjuration of his errors — a step whicli alone could have saved him from worse penalties — he is said to have whispered in a friendly car, ^''E pur se muove" (It moves, nevertheless). Galileo died in 1642, aged seventy-six. After a period of about a century, during which the degenerate Medici were swayed by monks and Jesuits, and the decline of Tuscany was continuous, the State received a new lease of exisiencj by being transferred, after the death in 1737 of John Gasto, last of the Medici, to Francis Stephen, Duke of Lorraine. This prince is well knoAvn in history as the husband of the celebrated Maria Theresa. But the State of Tuscany, after ho became Emperc r (1 745), found the disadvantage of being ruled 228 HISTORY OP ITALY. :: by a Sovereign whose thoughts were absorbed by the gigantic interests of an Empire. It was therefore arranged that when lie died, liis eldest son should receive the Empire, while his second inherited the Grand-Duchy of Tuscany. This son was Leopold I. (1765-90), to whom Tuscany owes a debt of deep gratitude. While he improved the laws, abolished monopolies, and drained marshes, he devoted himself to a task more difficult than any of these — the purification of the monas- teries, and the restraint of the power of the Pope within Tuscany. His chief coadjutor in this work, which of course drew thunder- bolts of angry flame from the Vatican, was Ricci, Bishop of Pis- toia, who certainly deserves an honourable name among Italian reformers. AVhen Leopold, as had happened with' his father, was called to the imperial throne (1790), his second son, Ferdinand III., succeeded him in Tuscany. While he ruled, following the wise footsteps of his father, the hand of Bonaparte was laid on Italy; and the Grand Duke, finding French troops filling his dominions, was forced to retire to Genuany. During the fifteen years of Napoleon's ascendency (1799-1814) Tuscany underwent more than one change. In 1801 the conqueror erected it into the Kingdom of Etruria, over which he placed Charles Louis, heredi- tary Prince of Parma. In 1808 he united it to the French Empire in three departments — Arno^ Omhrone, a.nA3Ie(literranee. And finally, in 1809, he restored it to the form of a Grand-Duchy under the sway of his sister Eliza. This work ^i is of course all undone by the Congress of Vienna, by which Fet*.Uii!nd III. was recalled to his Grand-Duchy. By a further arrangement of the Congress, ^laria Louisa of Spain, who had been ruling Etruria as Regent for her infant son, received the little Duchy of Lucca, which in 1847 reverted to Tuscany. During the long peace that succeeded Waterloo, Tuscany under her Grand-Dukes enjoyed a progressive prosperity, that made it one of the happiest States in Italy. This was rudely shaken in 1848 — the year of revolutionary earthquakes — when the Grand- Duke was expelled and a Florentine Eepublic formed. But the HISTORY OF ITALY. 229 le gigantic it when lie his second ,ny owes a , abolished to a task he monas- n Tuscany. IV thunder- hop of Pis- )ng Italian was called inand III., ig the wise I on Italy; dominions, jn years of went more it into the uis, heredi- the French editerranee . and-Duchy E course all nd III. was iient of the ing Etruria y of Lucca, scany under hat made it T shaken in the Grand- l. But tho I Austrian soldiers stepped in to restore the former state of things; which, however, did not last long. For, in the year succeeding the campaign of Magenta and Solferino, another revolution expelled the G-rand Duke, and made Tuscany a part of tlie newly-estab- lished Kingdom of Italy. By a recent arrangement Florence, both as being more central than Turin and richer in historical '.nemories, has been selected as the new capital of Italy. There are three names, which float conspicuously upon the surface of Italian history during the present generation, and of which a few words must therefore be said. These are Cavour, Garibaldi, and Mazzini. Count Cavour, born in 1810 at Turin, was educated for a soldier, but settled down to a farmer's life afterwards. He felt a great admiration for the English Constitution ; and, both by his work as a journalist and by his speeches in the Chamber of Deputies, he advised a close alliance with England in opposition to the Democratic party. He was Prime Minister of Sardinia from 1852 to 1859, but resigned his office after the Peace of Villafranca. Made Premier again in 1860, he was cut off prema- turely by death in 1861, just after Italy had been made a kingdom. Joseph Garibaldi, born at Nice in 1807, has had a most event- ful and wandering life. After making some voyages as a sailor, he engaged in plots with Mazzini against Charles Albert of Sardinia. Escaping from the perilous consequences of these, he carried his sword to South America, where he fought against Brazil on behalf of Rio Grande. On his return to Europe he aided in defending Eome against the French (1848). Another turn of Fortune's wheel — and he appears as a soap-boiler and candle-maker in America ; then is transformed to a farmer in the rocky islet of Caprera. In the campaign of Magenta he headed a band of volunteers called the Alpine Hunters. His campaign of 1860 has been described : that over, and Italy a kingdom, he retired to Caprera. But in 1862, haunted by a desire to plant the flag of Italy on the Castle of St. Angelo at Home, because the intervention of the Papal territories cut the new Italian kingdom in two, Garibaldi 230 HISTORY OP ITALY. : 1 i -- ! ! ,; : 11 excited a rising in Sicily, and crossing into Calabria, came into hostile collision with the royal troops at Aspromonte, where a bullet wounded him in the anld'^. The tedious suffering consequent on this injury combined with other causes to keep him quiet for a time; but in 1867 an insurrectionary movement in the Papal States, from which the French garrison had been recently withdrawn, excited him to action, and he now lies in prison for appearing in arms against the royal Italian troops. Mazzini, born at Genoa in 1809, was actively engaged as a journalist in Italy, until his arrest on a false charge of being a Carhonaro — that is, a member of a certain secret society — drove him into exile, which he spent in France, Switzerland, and London, always writing and intriguing and hoping for a Republic in Italy. In 1849 he went to Rome, where as one of the Tri- umvirs he defended the city against Oudinot, whose success drove him again into exile. PAPAL STATES. The document, upon -vhich rested the first esta'jlishment of the temporal power of the Popes, as sovereigns independent of the Emperors of Grermany, consisted of letters patent issued in 1278 by Rudolf of Hapsburg to Pope Nicholas III. (Cardinal Orsini). These defined the Papal territories as extending from Radicofani to Ceprano, and from the Mediterranean to the Adriatic, includ- ing the Duchy of Spoleto, the March of Ancona, and die Romagna. But the last named was not annexed until the dayf; of the warlike Julius II (1513). Leo X. (1513-21) was a polished and learned member of the great family Medici. His pontificate of eight years was noted for the beginning of the Reformation under Luther, already described in the history o ■ Germany. But his age was memorable for the literary and artistic brilliance that shone in both Rome and Florence. These were the days of Michael Angelo and Raffaelle — of Ariosto LAd Machiavelli. Under Pope Clement VII., who was the ally of Francis I. of HISTORY OP ITALY. 231 France, Rome was sacked by the troops of the Constable Bourbon (1527), who was shot in scaling the wall. Paul III. has been already named as one of the Farnese family. He assembled the last of the General Councils at Trent in 1546, and he was dead long before it closed its sittings in 1563. The order of Jesuits, a most active and enterprising brotherhood, was founded during this pontificate. The fomider was Ignatius Loyola, a native of Spanish Biscay, who, lying on a bed of pain — his legs having been injured by a cannon-shot at the defence of Pampeluna against the French — conceived the idea of establishing a fraternity of monks. At Montserrat in 1522 he hung his swore' on the altar, and kept vigil, previous to entering on a life of spiritual -"-arfare; and in 1534, with Peter Faber and Francis Xavier, he took the oaths in the chapel of Montmartre. In 1540 and 1543 the Pope gladly caught at a novelty, which would infuse new vigour and enthusiasm into a system already much weakened by the assaults of the Protestant Reformers ; and by bulls the Order of the Jesuits r^ eived a formal sanction from St. Peter's chair. Ere long the members of the order were pushing themselves and the doctrines of the Roman Catholic Church even into such remote regions of the world as Japan and Para- guay. Gregory XIII. (1572-85), influenced by the Cardinal of Lor- raine, held public rejoicings at Rome for the massacre of St. Bartholomew. He enjoys in history a more attractive renown as the reformer of the calendar, which by following the Julian cal- culation was much astray. By appointing every fourth year a leap-year, which is to be omitted once in the century, he reduced the error of time to the smallest possible amount. This — called the New Style. — has been adopted in all the countries of Europe except Russia. T!ie territory of Rome was increased by the additions of Ferrara, annexed in 1597 ; Urbino, purchased by Urban VIII. iu 1631 ; and Castro, added in 1650. There arose in France a religious sect called Jansenists, from tlie name of their founder Jansen, once a Professor of Divinity at 232 HISTORY OF ITALY. Louvain. This body set themselves in opposition to the Jesuits, and were condemned by the Popes of the latter half of the seven- teenth and the beginning of the eighteenth centuries. But it was Clement XI. (1700-21) who hurled a fatal thunderbolt, called the Bull Unigenitus (1713), which condemned certain pro- positions of a book written by a Jansenist, Quesnel. The followers of Jansen, a small community at Port Iloyal, were ultimately crushed by the weight of an opposition which num- bered the eloquent Bossuet in its ranks; but they had many sympathizers in the Parliament of Paris. By Clement XIV., whose pontificate lasted only five years (1769-74), a bull was issued for the abolition of the Order of the Jesuits (1773). The Pontiff died in the following year, but the sus- picions of poison, excited by his sudden death, were not confirmed. Pius VI. (1774-99) witnessed the bursting of the storms which shook Europe, and Italy not least, in the days of the French Revolution and the campaigns of Bonaparte. The antag- onism between this Pontiff and the Tuscan Ricci, who held Jansenist opinions, has been already noticed. Among other works of peace, Pius VI. drained a large portion of the Pontine marshes. So keenly did this Pope feel the evil deeds of the Revolution- ists in France that he issued a Bull of Exccmmunication. When Napoleon invaded Italy, he took possession of four districts, known as the Legations, namely, Bologna, Ferrara, Ravenna, and Forli, which he annexed to the Cisalpine Republic. But worse was yet to come. In 1797 a number of Roman republicans, among whom was Duphot, a French officer, when hot with wine after dinner, went through the streets with the tricolor flag. When the Papal soldiers came to disperse the crowd, they fled into the house of the French ambassador, and Duphot was shot. A French army under Berthier then entered Rome and expelled Pius VI. from the Vatican (1798). The Pontiff, now eighty years of age, would not abdicate his temporal sovereignty. [Prought to France, he died at Valence in 1799. Pius yp. (1800-21) at first found Napoleon easy and pleasant HISTORY OP ITALY. 233 to deal with ; and a Concordat, or religious treaty, was signed between France and Rome in 1801. Three years later, Bonaparte used his power over the Pope to secure the presence of the Pontiff at Paris, when Pius crowned him in the Cathedral of Notre-Dame. But in the following year the Pope refused to perform the same ceremony at Milan. Then began various troubles between the Emperor of France and the Pope. French soldiers took Ancona and Civita Vecchia. Peremptory orders came from France, demanding that the sub- jects of all countries at war with Napoleon should be expelled from Rome. And in 1808 matters came to a arisis by the seizure of Ancona, Urbino, and other provinces, which were joined to the Napoleonic Kingdom of Italy. In 1809 Napoleon issued a decree annexing the Roman States to France ; and the Pope, who published vain bulls of ex- communication, was obliged to take his Breviary, ascend his car- riage, and leave Rome. He was detained at Grenoble, Savona, and afterwards at Fontainebleau. In the Ipst place Napoleon visited him to extort a new Concordat (1813), and in their talking often forgot himself so far as to speak roughly and sternly to the re- presentative of St. Peter. In 1814 the Pope was reinstated by the Allies, his territories being restored. He took an early opportunity to restore the Order of the Jesuits. In 1846 Pio Nono (Pius IX.) was elected Pope. He showed a great desire to be liberal, and reformed the State exceedingly ; but the revolutionary mania of 1848 inflamed the Roman populace with i desire for a republican form of government. His minister Count Rossi was murdered at the door of the Chamber of Depu- ties ; and he remained a prisoner, until he managed to escape from the Quirinal in the disguise of a footman, and repaired to Graeta, where he lived under the protection of Naples. In 1849 Marshal Oudinot with a French army, aided by tlip King of Naples, assailed Rome, which fell before the besiegers (July 3), and was garrisoned by French troops. The Pope re- turned to the Vatican in 1850. As already indicated, the French garrison has been recently 231 HISTORY OP ITALY. withdrawn from Rome; an insurrectionary movement is afoot; and it is not improbable that the coming generation may see an end of the Pope's temporal sovereignty. KINGDOM OP NAPLES, OR THE TWO SICILIES. (1700 to the Present Time.) The War of the Spanish Succession, ending with the Peace of Utrecht, caused Naples to pass into the hands of Austria, and Sicily into the power of Savoy. In 1720 Austria negotiated an exchange of Sardinia for Sicily, and thus became possessor of both Naples and Sicily. But in 1735 Don Carlos, son of Philip V. of Spain, wrested Naples from the Austrians, and was formally appointed King of the Two Sicilies, on condition that that realm should not again be united to the monarchy of Spain. Thus began the line of Bourbon monarchs in Southern Italy. During the Napoleonic wars Ferdinand IV., son of Carlo Borbone, as Don Carlos was called, was twice forced by a French army to take refuge in Sicily. After the second of these occasions Joseph Bonaparte was raised by his brother to the throne of Naples ; but, when he was called to a higher throne in Spain, his place was supplied by Joachim Murat, "Ze beau sahreur" who assumed the dignity in 1808. This dashing soldier accom- panied his imperial brother-in-law into Russia, where he com- manded the cavalry; but a quaiTcl between the Emperor and the King embittered the disasters of the retreat. Murat joined Napoleon in his final struggle at Leipsic, but then deserted to the Allies. However, alarmed by the delay which the Congress of Vienna seemed to use with regard to Naples, this impetuous monarch took arms again for Napoleon. An Austrian army de- feated him near Tolentino (1815) ; and in the following year, after the return of Ferdinand to the throne of Naples, a wild descent from Corsica upon the Calabrian shore ended in the ruin of Murat's hopes and the extinction of his life. Arrested at Pizzo, he was condemned and shot by his Neapolitan captors. A decree of 1816 declared Ferdinand IV. King of the United HISTORY OF ITALY. 235 13 afoot; ly see an Peace of stria, and tiated an ssessor of I, wrested [ King of not again le line of of Carlo • a French of these ,er to the throne in sahrcur" ler accom- he com- leror and at joined Ited to the ingress of Impetuous army de- |ing year, d descent ruin of |at Pizzo, Kingdom of the Two Sicilies. A secret society, called Carbonari^ had for some time been striking its roots deep and wide through Naples. One source of dissatisfaction was an exorbitant land-tax. The smouldering fire burst into a mutiny of cavalry, which grew into a revolution of the Carbonari (1820). They demanded a constitution like the Cortes of Spain, which was established: and a rising at Palermo — the Sicilians demanded a separate parlia- ment — was quelled. But after a conference at Laybach, to which Ferdinand was summoned, an Austrian army entered Naples and restored the old despotism. Ferdinand IV. of Naples, and I. of the Two Sicilies, died in 1825. Ferdinand II., nicknamed Kimj Bomha from his tendency to resort to the convincing arguments of artillery in dealing with an obstinate city, became King in 1830. The Sicilians still cr jd for a repeal of the union ; but their desires took the shape of panic in 1837, when an alarming outbreak of cholera desolated the island. Crying out that the wells were poisoned by the Neapolitan government, the ignorant and frenzied mobs rose and plundered the palaces, flinging physicians and their families into the sea. Suppressed by military force, and tlie execution of the ringleaders, the revolt ended with the complete abolition of Sicilian independence, the island being declared merely a pro- vince of Naples. In 1848 revolutions broke out in both Naples and Sicily. Messina and Palermo were the centres of revolt in the island, where a parliament, voting the deposal of the Bourbons, prepared to establish a monarchy. But at Naples the King had let loose the lazzaroni upon tii9 revolutionists and had secured quiet. He was therefore free to think of Sicily ; and accordingly Filangieri entered the island, which he subdued city after city, until Palermo fell, and despotic rule, accompanied by relentless cruelty, was restored. The tyranny of Bomba after this excited indignation in every part of Europe, where freedom was cherished. But he held to his doctrine that " liberty was fatal to the Bourbons," and set before him the Hapsburgs as a model to be imitated. 236 HISTORY OP ITALY. How Garibaldi, in the campaign of 1860, drove the Bourhon from Naples, has been told already. The fortress of Gaeta, where King Ferdinand and his wife held out for five months (Sept. 1860 to Feb. 1861), was their last stronghold of defence. Naples and Sicily were then added to the now Kingdom of Italy. MODERN ITALIAN CHRONOLOGY. Naples and Sicily provinces of Spain, Sack of Rome by Constable Bourbon, Doria makes Qcnoa independent, Jesuits acknowledged by the Pope, ... Cosmo I. made Grand Duke of Tuscany, Pope Gregory XIII. corrects the Calendar, ... Revolt of Masaniello at Naples, Kingdom of Sardinia founded, Milan vested in the House of Austria, Sicilies given up by Spain, ... Italian Republic under Bonaparte as President, Bonaparte crowned King of Italy, Joseph Bonaparte King of Naples, ... Murat King of Naples, Papal Territories annexed to France, French evacuate Italy, Murat shot, ... ... Austrians restore despotism in Naples, Siege of Rome by Oudinot, ... Campaign of Magenta, ... Garibaldi lands at Palermo, ... New Kingdom of Italy formed, A. 9. 1504-1700 ... 1527 ... 1528 ... 1543 ... 1669 ... 16S2 ... 1647 ... 1720 ... 1748 ... 1769 ... 1802 ... 1805 ... 1806 ... 1808 ... 1809 ... 1814 ... 1815 ... 1821 ... 1849 ... 1869 ... 1860 ... 1861 TURKEY (1453 to the Present Time). Mohammed II. (1451-81), the conqueror of Constantinople and the founder of the Turkish dominion in Europe, was a wise and active prince. His military activity was incessant. He reduced Servia and Trebizond, became master for a time of the Peloponnesus, and alarmed the potentates of Central Europe by his assaults upon the countries lying round the Danube, but especially by his conquest of Otranto in Italy, achieved by Ahmed Keduk in 1479. He ruted with stern cruelty at hoine, but established many seats of learning. IlISTOUY OF TURKEY. 237 BouvLon 2ta, wliero hs (Sept. e. ngdom of 1504-1700 ... 1527 ... 1628 ... 1543 ... 1569 ... 1532 ... 1647 ... 1720 ... 1748 ... 1759 ... 1802 ... 1805 ... 1806 ... 18CS ... 1809 ... 1814 ... 1815 ... 1821 ... 1849 ... 1859 ... 1860 ... 1861 itantinople was a wise sant. He ime of the Europe by anube, but by Ahmed home, but After the reign of Bajazet II., who was troubled with civil wars, led by his brother and his son, and who lost Otranto, Selim I. (1512-20) became Sultan. After clearing away by execution a number of the near relatives, who might contest the throne, he commenced a career of Asiatic and African conquest, which added to his dominions portions of Persia and Armenia, along with Syria and Egypt. Having overthrown the last Caliph of Cairo (1517), he returned in triumph to Constantinople with 1000 camels laden with Egyptian treasures. A noteworthy fact is his formation of a Turkish navy, which for many generations contested the domiiiion of the Levant and the Ionian Sea with the galleys of Venice. An overdose of opium caused Selim's death. Then began the rtign of Solyman the Great (1520-66), who was undoubtedly the most celebrated of the Ottoman monarchs. When scarcely seated on the throne, he reduced the great Danu- bian fortress of Belgrade, and the island of Rhodes, in defence ol which the Knights of St. John fought with a valour all in vain (1521). His next exploit was the subjugation of Hungary, where, in the battle of Mohacz, Louis, King of the country, was slain (1526). The conqueror strode on to Vienna, his brain burning no doubt with visions of a European sovereignty; but the Western Powers put forth their strength to stay his career, and he besieged the Austrian capital in vain for four seasons (1529-33). A successful struggle with the Shah of Persia, and a second war in Hungary (1541), excited by Ferdinand's seizure of the Hun- garian crown on the death of Zapoyla, the vassal of Solyman, filled the central years of the reign. The latter contest ended in victory for the Sultan, to whom the Austrian ceded the Hungarian ter- ritory round Buda, and promised to pay tribute for the rest. During this reign the Turkish navy became most fonnidable. There Avere fleets on the Mediterranean, sweeping its shores to Gibraltar, and on the Asiatic Seas, contending with the Portu- guese beyond the gate of Babelmandel'. Elated by a victory over the ships of Spain and Italy at Jerba, Solyman resolved to attempt the reduction of Malta, whose fortified rock was now 238 HISTORY OP TURKKV. occupied by the Knights of St. John, to whom the Emperor Charles V. had given the island after their expulsion from Rhodes ; but the expedition failed after a siego of live months (1565). Solyman, like our own Edward I., even in old age and weak- ness could not resist the blast of the battle-trumpet. Ho died in his tent in Hungary, while engaged in the siege of a town. Under his reign the Ottoman rule extended from the Danube to the Tigris, from the Falls of Dnieper to the Falls of Nile. Under Selim II. Yemen, Cyprus, and Tunis were added to the Turkish Empire; but an almost fatal blow was received by Turkey, when her fleet under Ali Moczziu was all but annihilated at Lcpanto by Don John of Austria (1571). Signs of growing importance, however, were visible at this time in the relations of Turkey towards the rest of Europe. Though war was still raging with Austria, the most formidable obstacle to Turkish encroachments in th' ' eart of Europe, yet a commercial treaty was concluded betw Turkey and England in the reign of Murad III. (1574-95.) Ahmed I. (1603-17) was no match for the European Rudolf II., who defeated the Turks in many battles, and relieved Austria from the ignoble burden of a tribute for Hungary, exacted by the strong hand of Solyman. During the supremacy of Osman II. and Murad IV. the Janis- saries took the upper hand in Turkey, which they long main- tained. Osman was strangled by them; and they proclaimed, but afterwards deposed, his uncle Mustapha. Bagdad was taken by the Persians in the reign of Murad, but was ceded by treaty in 1639. Mohammed IV. (1648-87) had a long and troubled reign. After many losses in Candia and elsewhere, after enduring severe defeats from the Venet.'anp by sea, the administration of Koprili restored Turkey to some strength and prosperity. Candia was re-taken in 1669. Podolia was wrested from the Poles, who were menaced under the very walls of Lemberg. And a gleam of success — brighter than any of these — shone on the Turkish arms, HISTORY OP TUnKEY. 239 limperor )n from months id wcak- Ho died a town, anube to 3. jd to the 3ived by nihilatcd e at this Europe. irmidable )pe, yet a England Eudolf Austria cd by the ic Janis- g main- oclairaed, as taken ed reign. Qg severe Koprili ndia was who were gleam of ish arms, when in 1682 Kara Mustaplin, Seraskcr of the Turkish army, led liis forces into Hungary, and encamped under the walls of Vienna. The fate of the city seemed to bo 1683 sealed, and the Crescent for a time outshone the Cross. a.d. But an army, in whicli John Sobicski led the Polish legion, came to the rescue; Mustapha was completely routed and chased into Ilungnry, wliich in three years was swept clean of the turbancd hosts. This was only a beginning of reverses. The Venetians forced the Turks to evacuate Greece : and a re- volt of Janissaries — wlio played in modern Turkey the role of the Prtetorians in ancient Eome — dethroned the Sultan. Turkey even now appeared to be breaking up into that sicknepa, Avhich seems to deepen every century. The luxurious debauchery of some Sultans — the turbulent insolence of the Janissaries — the loss of some frontier provinces, and the difficulty of maintaining her ground in Europe in the face of enemies like Austria, Russia, and Venice — coml uied to increase the troubles of her national exist- ence. While Mustapha II. (1G95-1703) was Sultan, Peter the Great concluded an alliance with Austria to curb and repress the Turks. Azov was taken : Prince Eugene inflicted a signal defeat upon the Turks at Zevtha by the Theiss (1C97) ; and the Peace of Carlowitz dismembered the Turkish Empire, giving the districts between the Danube and the Theiss to Austria, the Morea to Venice, Podolia to Poland, and Azov to Russia. Ahmed III. (1703-30) was the host of Charles XII. of Sweden, when that monarch came, a beaten refugee, to seek safety in Turkey after the disasters of Pultowa. The Sultan declared war against Russia on behalf of his impracticable guest. Peter the Great, neglecting a lesson he might easily have learned from his own successful tactics against Charles XII., crossed the Prutli into Moldavia, and suffered himself to be cooped up in a position with no outlet. After three days' fight- ing, the cause of the Russians seemed hopeless, when the Czarina Catherine bought off the Grand- Vizier by collecting all the plate and jewels in the camp, and sending them to him with a letter. 240 HISTORY OF TURKEY. In 1714 the Morea was taken f)*om the Venetians by Turkey in a single campaign ; and the possession of this peninsula was confirmed by the Treaty of Passaroivitz (1718), by which great concessions of territory in Wallachia and Servia were made to Austria. In the reign of Ahmed III. the art of printing was introduced into Turkey. During the reign of Mahmud I. (1730-54) there was unsuc- cessful war in Persia; and the game of "give and take" was continued between Turkey and Austria, the latter of whom, by the Peace of Belgrade (1739), ceded that fortress, with the pro- vinces of Servia and Wallachia. The growing strength of Bussia, and the proximity of that gigantic territory to Turkey now made it the most formidable foe of the Ottomans. Peter's dream of making the Black Sea a Russian lake involved the conquest of Turkey; and the succes- sors of that great Czar made many attempts to realize that por- tion of his plan of conquest. A six years' war between Russia and Turkey began in 1768. On the part of the Russians, Rumanzow overran the Crimea; and in 1770 a Russian fleet, sailing round from Cronstadt, destroyed the Turkish fleet in the Bay of Chesme — a name to be ranked with Lepanto and Navarino among the disasters of the Ottoman navy. The war continued under Ahmed IV. ; but it v/as not until Kamenski penetrated to the passes of the Balkhuii that Turkey sought peace. The treaty, signed at Kuchuk-Kainarji (1774), gave important possessions and privileges to Russia, among which were the fortresses of Azov, Kertch, and Yenikale — all the country between the Bog and the Dnieper — the free navigation of the Black Sea, and a right of passage through the Bosporus and Dardanelles — and the protectorship of all the Greek churches in the Turkish Empire. A vain attempt to recover the Crimea from Russia was made in 1787. Selim III. (1789-1807).— A second war with Catherine of Bussia broke out in 1787. Austria was in alliance with Russia r IIISTOllT OP TURKEY. 241 'urkey la was . great ade to oduced , unsuc- e" was lom, "by he pro- ' of that rmidable ck Sea a e succes- ihat por- in 1768. nea; and destroyed je ranked Ottoman not until tt Turkey ji (1774), ong which he country ion of the iporus and hurches in he Crimea itherine of rith Russia against the Turks. Potemkin, the favourite of Catherine, as- sumed the chief command, in which he enjoyed the aid of Su- warow. At the battle of Kinburn (1787) the last-named general ordered his infantry to fling away their knapsacks and charge with the bayonet ; and, when the Cossacks fled before the strongly posted Turks, he turned them to victory -with the taunting words, " Fly, cowards, and leave me to the mercy of the Turks." A complete defeat of the Turks at Fokshany took place in 1789. The siege of Ismail was left to Suwarow. Promising his soldiers the plunder of the town, and ordering no quarter to be given, the general gave the signal before daylight by crowing like a cock, and the stormers advanced. Twice the Kussians shrank from the cannonade, but returned to the attack. The 1790 slaughtered, after the assailants succeeded in scaling the a.d. walls, literally lay in iicaps along the streets. Suwarow's despatch ran thus : " The fort is taken ; and I am in it." This extraordinary general, who was wont to summarize the whole art of war in three words, " Advance and strike," won the affection of tlie soldiers by bearing their hardships — sleeping on straw under a sheepskin, and eai>g black bread. He cultivated a rough address, and gave his orders i. blunt laconisms. This war was concluded by a peace made at Szistowa with Austria, and the Treaty of Jassy with Russia (1792). In 1798, France being then at peace Avith Turkey, Bonaparte suddenly invaded Egypt. The Mamelukes withstood his march to Cairo; but their brilliant cavalry charges could make no impression on the French squares, and they were scat- tered in the battle of the Pyramids. Nelson destroyed 1798 tlie French fleet at the Nile; and the declaration of war a.d. against France by the Sultan o-oited ua insurrection at Cairo. This Napoleon disposed of with his usual pitiless deter- mination, blowing open with cannon the doors of the Great Mosque, where the insurgents had taken refuge, and staining its pavements with the blood of massacre. Then marching into Pales- tine he besieged Jaffa, where a great massacre of prisoners took place among the sand-hills. But at Acre, the key of Syria and the U87) 16 ^i^n' im WLWWM»« !a» wi » m i «mij ij| I 242 HISTORY OF TURKEY. East, Bonaparte was repelled by the united efforts of the Turks under Djezzar Pacha and some English ships under Sir Sidney Smith. After fifty-four days he raised the siege and went to Egypt ; and, as he marched, one of his marshals Avrote : " The whole country is on fire .behind us." Homestead and harvest alike blackened in his destroying path. England retook Egypt from the French under Mcnou by the battle of Alexandria, which cost her a brave general. Sir Ralph Abercromby. And, when Cairo ^ capitulated, the province was made over to Turkey once more. By a compact with Russia, Turkey now acquired the protector- ship of the Ionian Islands, newly formed into a republic. French influence grew strong at the Porte, so much so that Russia and England cc nbined (1806) in a hostile movement against Turkey. Admiral Duckworth, forcing his way through the Straits, threatened a bombardment of Constantinople, but was obliged to hasten back to a more open sea. Selim had been reforaiing the army and other portions of the State ; but the defeat of the Turkish arms on the Danube, w^ich the populace ascribed to these changes, excited a revolt ot ..he Janissaries, by whom he was dethroned. The reign of Mahmud II. (1808-39) was fruitful in great events. A devoted vizier, Mustapha Bairaktar, saved the Sul- tan's power by blowing up himself and a number of the revolted Janissaries. But at first every province of the Empire seemed suddenly smitten with the desire of revolt. Most formidable of the insurgents were Ali Pacha of Janina, who revolted in Epirus ; and Mehemet Ali, who in Egypt aimed at securing hereditary power. The Peace of Bucharest (1812) was a necessity, for troubles were thickening. How the Gr'^eks won their independence will be narrated in a separate section. The battle of Navarino (1827) humbled Turkish pride, and secured the independence of Greece. The destruction of the Janissaries was one of the most im- portant achievements of Sultan Mahmud II. The origin of this famous military body, first organized by Amurath, has been HISTORY OF TURKEY 243 already noticed. They soon learned to abuse their power. By rising in revolt, they could turn the scale of the Empire ; " could demand the head of an unpopular Vizier, and depose or murder an unpopular Sultan." The attempt to restore their old disci- pline cost Selim his life. But Mahmud waited for a fit- ting time. When he was ready, they mutinied, only to 1826 find themselves ringed round with shotted cannon. The a.d. Atmeidan flowed with the blood of 20,000 Janissaries ; and the name disappeared from the list of existing corps. It was a terrible but necessary blow. In 1828 war began between Russia and Turkey. Two cam- jxaigns, in the second of which Adrianople and Erzeroum fell, led to the Treaty of Adrianople (1829), by which Russia acquired Kars near the Caucasus, and secured an independent administration for Moldavia and Wallachia. The rebellion of Mehemet Ali, Pacha of Egypt, against the Porte originated in the desire of this ambitious prince to be possessor o^ Syria, which he accordingly invaded. His son, Ibrahim Pacha, had advanced in 1832 with a victorious army to Kutayah, little more than one hundred miles from Constantinople. But the interference of Russia averted the danger that menaced the Turkish capital. A renewal of the war, after Syria had been ceded to Mehemet, took place in 1839, a short time before the death of Mahmud II. The Turkish army was defeated by Ibrahim and Nezib — the Turkish fleet under the Capudan Pacha had deserted to the Egyptian side — and nothing seemed surer than the overthrow of Constantinople itself, when again intervention turned the scale. An allied fleet, Austro-English, cannonaded se^^ ' a\ of the Syrian ports. Acre amongst them; and the rebellious pachas were compelled to make terms, resigning Syria on condition that the Pachalic of Egypt should be made hereditary in their family. During these events Abdul-Medjid (1839-61) became Sultan. His Vizier, an eminent statesman, named Reschid Pacha, whoj by residing as a diplomatist in Western Europe, had acquired wider notions of government than those prevailing in Turkey^ 244 HISTORY OF TURKEY. framed a system of reform called the Tanzimat, which was pub- lished in 1839. The principal objects of this decree were 1839 — (1) the control of the cruel and despotic pachas who had A.D. hitherto bought their posts by auction, and (2) the relief of the Christian subjects of the Porte from certain penalties and grievances. This document kindled a flame of opposition among the old Turkish Conservatives, who regarded the measure as aimed directly against the Moslemism of the State ; and the conditions of the measure have been very imperfectly carried out. Russia, as the head-quarters of the Greek Church, to which the Turkish Christians belonged, after a time demanded the pro- tectorate of the Holy Places at Jerusalem, and occupied Mol- davia and Wallachia, the Danubian principalities, in order to secure what is called " a material guarantee." This brought on what is known as the llussian War, in which England and France gave aid to Turkey. The incidents of the struggle have been already narrated. The bravery of the Turks was signally displayed in their defence of Silistria on the Danube, where their operations were directed by the British officers Butler and Nasmyth. The massacre of Sinope, where a Russian squadron from Sebastopol destroyed a few Turkish frigates and slew two thousand men, excited much anger throughout Europe. In the negotiations that preceded the war, the Czar Nicholas referred to Turkey under the metaphor of " a sick man," whose possessions lay ready for spoliation and partition. Upon the death of Abdul-Mcdjid in 1861, his brother, Abdul- Aziz, who now holds the throne, became Sultan of Turkey. MODERN TURKISH CIIRONOLOQY. Constantinople taken by the Turks, ... Conquest of Greece, ... ... ... Turks gain a footing at Otranto, Solyman the Great takes Belgraile, ... Battle of Mohacz, ». Turks repulsed at Vienna, ... Battle of Lepanto, ... Turks acquire Bagdad, Turks defeated at Vienna by John Sobieski, ... A.©. 1453 1468 1480 1520 1526 1529 1571 1039 1683 HISTOHY OF GREECE. was pub- cree "Nvere ; who had le relief of penalties >pposition 3 measure ; and the Tried out. to which I the pro- pied Mol- order to rought on ^land and iggle have IS signally he, w'herc Sutler and squadron [ slew two In the eferred to )ossessions 2Y, Abdul- key. A.D. 1453 1458 1480 1520 1526 1529 1571 1639 1683 Peace of Carlowitz, ... Peace of Passarowitz, Turkish Heet burned at Cheume, Ismail BtoriD'jd by Suwarow, Battle of the Pyramids (Egypt), Ali Pacha of Janina revolts, War of nreek Independence, Siege of Missolonghi, Destruction of the Janissaries, Battle of Navarino, ... llussians at Adrianople, First war with Mehemet Ali, Publication of Tanzimat, Second war with Mehemet Ali, War with Eussia (Crimean War), Defence of Silistria, 245 A.D. ... 1699 ... 1718 ... 1770 ... 1790 ... 1798 ... 1820 1821-30 1825-6 ... 1826 ... 1827 ... 1829 ... 1832 ... 1839 1839-40 1853-6 ... 1854 6EE£C£ (1820 to the Present Time). The rebellion of Ali Facha in 1820 gave the Greeks an oppor- tunity of doing what they had long been desirous to try — rising in revolt against their Turkish masters and oppressors. This Albanian chief, who had seized the pachalic of Janina, and who ruled all Epirus, with par' of Albania, Thessaly, and Western Greece, became so formidable to the Porte that a muster of the provinces was made and the usurper was deprived o*" Janina and his freedom (1822). His head was then cut off. The sparks of Greek patriotism had already begun to grow to flame. In Moldavia Ypsilanti made a movement for freedom, which was drowned in blood. But the Greeks met at Epidaurus, when jMavrocordato was proclaimed president. One of his best helpers was Marco Boz- zaris, a Suliote chief, who commanded a remnant of that brave race, which had escaped from the butciieries of Ali Pacha. There are two sites in modern Greece, round which the chief interest of this war of independence centres — Missolonghi and Navarino. The former was defended at first by Bozzaris, who held out until the Turks had raised the siege. On the approach of another 246 HISTORY OF GREECE. ii -I force he sallied out to meet thorn ; and, organizing a night attack on their camp, carried it out successfully, but received mortal wounds in the encounter (1823). His name is honoured as the greatest hero of the war — the Leonidas of modern Greece. Mis- solonghi also derives a mournful interest from the death of Lord Byron the poet, who was cut off there by fever, brought on by his efforts in behalf of Greece (1824). But the actual siege of Missolonghi, which may be called the central event of this Greek war, did not begin till 1825. The place was badly fortified, and its ramparts had but poor cannon to oppose the Ottoman artillery; nevertheless, when Keschid Pacha opened his fire, it was answered with spirit, and sally after sally bore witness to the dauntless courage of the defenders. A Turkish fleet, coming to blockade the city by sea, was beaten by the Greek ships under Miaulis. The Sultan then gave the chief command to Ibrahim Pacha of Egypt, who drew a new army round the devoted place. Hunger gnawed the hearts of the garrison, yet they had no thought of surrender. Ibrahim rained shot upon the place, and rushed at the breaches all in vain, until the end came. When famine had reduced the garrison to the necessity of eating rats and cats, they 1826 resolved to cut their way tl rough the Turkish h)st. A.D. But a traitor disclosed their pi.n; and, when they issued forth upon their last sally, it was to find the whole Egyptian force ready to receive the assault. Five hundred of the heroes died ; some escaped, but the great bulk were made prisoners. This event roused the sympathy of Europe; and in particular, England, Russia, and France, induced by Canning, formed a league to aid Greece in the unequal struggle. The appearance of the Egyptians on the scene had turned the scale completely in favour of the Turks, who, in spite of a brave effort by the army of Karaiskaki, made themselves masters of Athens. At this juncture, however, the Allies already named interfered — Russia, actuated by hatred towards Turkey, England and France by sympathy for Greece, and a desire to preserve the balance of power. HISTORY OF QREECE. 247 Sir Edwavcl Codrington, in command of a British squadron, in conjunction with ships from France and Russia, took up his position outside the harhour of Navarino, in which 1827 the united Turkish and Egyptian fleets hiy. His plan a.d. was merely passive; but a Turkish vessel fired on a boat, which drew a volley of musketry back in reply. A cannon- ball then struck the ship of the French admiral, and out blazed the fight in full fuiy. In a few hours the wrecks of the Turkish and Egyptian ships strewed the Larbour. This battle, which took place on the 20th October 1827, obliged the Turks to evacuate the Morea. After the victory of Navarino, Count Capo d'Istria, a native of Corfu, was formally installed as President of Greece. In 1829 the Conference of London proclaimed the independence of Greece ; but it was not acknowledged by the Sultan, until the advance of the Russians to Adrianople so menaced the capital of Turkey that a treaty, embodying this condition, -was agreed to by the Porte (1829). The next task of the intervening States was to find a fitting ruler for this troublesome little corner of the Continent. Capo d'Istria had distinct leanings towards Russia, which did not please the v/estern statesmen. The throne was accordingly offered to Prince Leopold of Saxe-Coburg, who afterwards became King of the Belgians ; but he, induced by letters from Capo d'Istria, and by his own misgivings as to his popularity and comfort among a nation so fickle and deceitful as the modern Greeks, resigned the honour after holding it for a month or two. Otho I. (1832-62), a prince of Bavaria, then accepted tlio vacant crown. He found a land pinched with poverty, torn by civil dissension, infested by brigands — a sad contrast to the glo- rious Greece of ancient days. The presence of German troops and Bavarian officials was a sore grievance with the Greeks, who forced the King to send them away. One ministry succeeded another, Russian intrigues adding to the native complications. In 1836 Otho took to wife a princess of Oldenburg, who displayed 9, warlike spirit, that led her husband into trouble. In 1854 her 248 HISTORY OP POLAND. support of tlie insurgents, wlio raised war in tho adjacent pro- vinces of Turkey, brought the soldiers of England and France to Athens, for the purpose of binding King Otho down to a promise of neutrality. Otho abdicated in 1862, when a Provisional Goverament was appointed. And in the following year Prince "William of Denmark, brother of tho Princess of Wales, was elected king under the title of George I., King of the Hellenes. MODERN GREEK CHRONOLOGY. Revolt of Ypsilanti, Death of Bozzaris, Siege of Missolonghi, Battle of Navarino, Treaty of London, Election of Otho I., Election of George I.^ X.D. 1821 1823 1825-6 1827 1829 1832 1863 ^i POLAND (1370 to the Present Tim:). The ancient Polish dynasty of Piast, which had its capital first at Gnesen and then at Cracow, ended in 1370, as has been said, with the death of Casimir the Great, who acquired Galicia. Tho marriage of the beautiful Queen Hedvige, daughter of Louis of Hungary, with Jagello, Duke of Lithuania, united that province to Poland (1382), and began a dynasty, which continued until the death of Sigismund Augustus in 1572. Under tho reign of Jagello the power of the Teutonic Knights was crushed at the battle of Gunwald by the allied armies of Poland and Lithuania. "While Casimir III. was King, the Treaty of Thorn in 1462 united the Prussian pro vine s with Poland ; and Danzig was soon acquired as a seat of commerce. Sigismund (1506-48) came into collision with the Russians, whom he d'^feated, although they managed to retain Smolensk, which they ha J taken. In conjunction with his minister Bonar, he reduced the i'ingdom to order and rule by curbing the tur. I! HISTORY OF POLAND. 249 nit pvo« vance to promise lent was lenmark, nder the A.©. 1821 1823 1825-6 1827 1829 1832 1863 ^pital first 3een said, icia. lighter of mited that continued Under the as crushed oland and of Thorn nd Danzig Russians, Smolensk, ter Bonar, ig the tui"' bulenco of the nohles, who impeded both the arn'ere Ian or gene- ral levy and the imposition of necessary taxes. Owing to his Queen, Bona, a beautiful but dissolute daughter of the Milan Sforzas, the Court of Poland, by the introduction of refinement and courtesy from Italy and Spain, became one of the most brilliant of the period in Europe. Under Sigismund the doctrines of the Reformation began to spread in Poland. He died in 1548. Sigismund Augustus (1548-72) received the voluntary submis- sion of Livonia, anxious to save itself from absorption by Russia. In his reign also occurred the Union of Poland 1569 and Lithuania, cemented at the Diet of Lublin (15G9). A.D. The Reformation took a yet firmer hold of the higher classes of Poland during this reign ; although the King did not openly declare in favour of the Protestant doctrines. When Henry of Valois, a French prince, who, after holding for a few months the throne to which he had been elected, escaped in disguise to France, and Stephen Bathory, a self-made Hungarian soldier, had reigned in succession, Sigismund III. (1586-1632), the son of the Swedish King, was elected to t le throne. It may be noted in passing that this system of electing Kings proved ultimately most injurious to Poland, for it kept the emberi^ of civil war always alive among the discontented and disappointed factions. Sigismund III. was completely under Jesuit control, a cir- cumstance which excited great dissatisfaction tliroughout Poland. In a great war which he undertook against Russia, he at first succeeded so brilliantly that his troops, assisted by the Swedes, entered Moscow, and extorted a treaty by which Vladislav, his sun, was 'iiade Czar of Moscow. But the renewal of the war ended in advLutage to the Russians. Vladislav was foiled in a siege of the Russian capital. Under Vladislav, when he ascended the throne, Poland enjoyed a long peace, until trouble arose from a revolt of the Cossacks of the Ukraine. The war with these semi-savages continued under John Casimir (1648-68). ■J 250 HISTORY OP POLAND. The reign of this prince was unfortunate, in spite of his good reputation as a soldier. Ho was rasli enough to dispute the throne of Sweden with Cliarlcs Gustavus, in consequence of which a Swedish army overran Poland, taking both Cracow and Warsaw, and driving the King into Silesia. The land lay bare and desolate ; and yet it had a hold upon Polish hearts, which roused them to a great effort for its liberation. But they woro at first inclined to make Charles Gustavus King, until his taunt " that a conqueror needed none to elect him monarch " 1660 stirred them into a war to curb his pride. John Casimir A.D. was restored ; and in 1660 the Peace of Oliva was con- cluded. By this treaty Esthonia and Livonia were transferred from Poland to Sweden, and the independence of Prussia was confirmed. A disastrous war with Russia, ending in the loss of Smolciisk and the Ukraine, filled the remainder of Casimir's reign, which closed in 1668 by his abdication. The election of Michael Wisniowitski to the throne by the minor nobility then took place. He was forced by the same power that compelled him to the throne to pass a law forbiddiiig the voluntary abdication of Polish Kings. Then came the reign of the great soldier John Sobieski (1674- 96). The son of the Castellan of Cracow, this eminent man served in the mousquetaires of Louis XIV. for a time, but soon returned to his native land to use his sword against the insurgent Cossacks in John Casimir's reign. As Grand Hetman he led an army of 20,000 against a Tartar force of five times the size, and by the destruction of the hostile hordes saved Poland. In a Avar with the Turks he reduced the hitherto impregnable fortress of Kotzim. The result of such fame was that, when the Diet met to elect a successor to Michael, the cry arose, " Lot a Pole reign over Poland," and John III. was accordingly proclaimed. His first duty Avas to redeem the regalia, then in pawn with the Jews ; his next, to raise an army and face the Turks. Surrounded in Lemberg by a great force of Ottomans, he took advantage of a snow-storm, and charged the blinded besiegers with decisive success, And in 1676, intrenched on the banks is good lite tho 3nce of lovv and ay bare 1, which ey ^vorc is taunt )narch " Casimir ras con- ia were t Prussia the loss Jasiraiv's by the he same L-biddivig L (1674- n served i-eturned 'ossacks army of i by the var with Kotzim. to elect ign over wn with he took jesiegers le banks IIISTORy OP POLAND. 251 of tho Dniester, with a tremendous Turkish liost in front, led by a pacha of Damascus, who was surnamed the Devil, from his ferocity, he kept up a twenty days' cannonade, 1676 and then with his handful of men charged the couple of a.d. Imndred thousand turbans, who fled, shrieking with terror at tho appearance of the " Wizard Sobieski." This pro- duced peace. At home dissension was eating away the strength of Poland. A dangerous weapon — the power of pronouncing a veto upon the sit- tings of the Assembly — lay in the hands of the nobles, who did not hesitate to use it when the deliberations went against their views. All movements of reform were met by this engine of anarchy. How Sobieski saved Europe, when the Turks lay round Vienna under Kara Mustapha, has been already narrated (1083). The death of Sobieski, who strove in vain to stem the tide of faction and turbulence among the Polish nobles, took place in 1696. He looked sadly towards the future of his country, whoso battles he had gained from time to time, but whom ho was power- less to save. Augustus II. (1697-1704) was Elector of Saxony previous to his promotion to the Polish throne. Forming a close alliance with Peter the Great of Russia, he entered into projects of war with Sweden. Invading Livonia, he formed the siege of Riga — a proceeding which called into brilliant action the military genius of Charles XII. of Sweden. The Polish cause grew worse and worse, until a battle near Clissow completed its overthrow. This failure roused such opposition that a faction raised Stanislaus Leczinski to the throne of Poland (1704). Stanislaus enjoyed this position — if any enjoyment there was — until the battle of Pultowa, overthrowing Charles, recalled Augustus to the throne again. Upon the death of Augustus II., Stanislaus made a second attempt to hold the Polish throne. Ho was besieged in Danzig by a Russo-Saxon force; and, when hope failed, he fled from the seaport in disguise. His own skilful pen gives a narration of his romantic and perilous escape. Stanislaus had a firm friend in France, for his daughter Maria • i -.1 252 llli^TOIlY OK rOLAND. ' «' I 3 was married to Louis XV. Accordingly, upon tlio conclusion of the Treaty of Vienna, 1735, he was presented with the Duchy of Lorraine, whither ho retired to live a bhuneless life of devotion to his subjects, and quiet literary occupation. During the feeble reign of Augustus III. Poland was com- pletely under Russian influences. He was succeeded by Stanis- laus Augustus (1704-93), the last King of Poland. Known as Poniatowski before his accession, this handsome and accomplished man was raised to the throne by the influence of a powerful family named the Czartoryskis, who were strongly supported by Russia in their schemes. These enlightened re- formers, who wore actuated by patriotic motives, aimed at abolish- ing, and succeeded in greatly limiting, the aristocratic privilege of dissolving the Diet by the veto of a member. But Russia, seeing these reforms tending to the strength of Poland, threw her weight into the other scale. In 1768, a patriotic bishop named Krasinski formed a con- federation at Bar, a town of Podolia, for the purpose of 1768 securing Poland against the foreign influences, which had A.D. been coiling round her for many years back. But it was too late. The troops of Russia easily defeated the raw levies of the patriotic league. And when Turkey, coming to the rescue o ' an ancient foe, through dread of a more terrible present and future enemy, was defeated, Poland was torn asunder by her three strong neighbours, who carried off each a large tract of ter- ritory. This act of oppression, known in history as the First Partition of Poland, made over to Austria Galicia and Lodomiria — to Prussia all Polish Prussia and the territory of the Netze — 1772 to Russia the districts between the Dwina, Dnieper, and A.D. Drutsch. The Polish King was left with only the shadow of his power — the real authority being exercised by a Russian envoy resident at "Warsaw. A new Constitution was forced upon the land; but this became distasteful to Prussia, who promised to assist the Poles in framing a better, which was pro- mulgated in 1791. It abolished the veto, and declared the 1II8T0UY OF POLAND. 253 usion of Duchy Icvotiou as com- Stanis- omo and nee of a strongly enecl re- ; abolisli- priviloge ; Russia, id, threw d a con- urpose of rhich had ut it was the raw ng to the present Qv by her ,ct of ter- ?artition liria — to Netze — eper, and le shadow ised by a ition was issia, who was pro- ared the throne of Pohind licioditmy in the Saxon lino. But the Kussians stirred up a conl'odcracy against this system. It niot at Targowit/.a. Secrotly joined by both the King and the Prussians, Russia then pntcoedoil to a Second Partition (ITOIJ), which gave her 4000 additional square miles, and made Prussia possessor of the important Ilanseatic towns of Danzig and Thorn. Then arose in the person of Thaddeus Kosciuszko one of those patriotic souls, which shine out like sudden stars when the night of history grows darkest. The presence of insolent Russian troops in Poland, especially after the Second Partition, excited a wiile-spread discontent, which easily fanned itself into the flame of rebellion. The fittest leader that could be found for the national party was Kosciuszko, who had learned in the battle-fields of America to use his sword and his brain. Putting himself at the head of a hastily-raised force, many oi whom liad no better weapon than a scythe tied on a pole, the hero made Cracow a centre of operations. His 1794 first important collision with the Russians at Jiaclavice a.d. resulted in a decided victory, although the enemy were stronger in number. Encouraged by this success, the people of Warsaw expelled their Russian masters; and for two months, lying in an intrenched camp before the capital, Kosciuszko kept at bay a host of Russians and Prussians. Then Suwarow came down like a vulture on the swoop, leading an overwhelming mass against the doomed city. Kosciuszko, nothing daunted, met him with a small force at Macziewice, about fifty miles from "Warsaw. The odds were too tremendous. After a struggle of the fiercest, the gallant Poles gave way, and their leader, bleeding and cap- tive, cried, " This is the end of Poland." The suburb of Praga, commemorated by Campbell in his stirring verses, was then stormed by Suwarow, and the Polish capital surrendered. Kosciuszko, after being taken as a prisoner to St. Petersburg, was released, and for many years wandered in America, France, and Switzerland. In the last he died (1817) from the effects of a fall from his horse. 254 IIISTOIIY OP rOLAND. 1 ' i i In 1795 Poland was finally dismembered, tlio shares of her remaining territory, soaked with patriot blood, going to 1795 the same three spoilers as before — her neighbours, A.D. Russia, Austria, and Prussia. The King, Stanislaus Poniatowski, was permitted to live on a pension at St. Petersburg. During the Napoleonic Wars the hopes of Poland revived more than once. Tliese grew bright, Avhen the French defeated the Prussians at Jena and elsewhere ; but the Treaty of Tilsit clouded the skv of Poland once more. Polish Prussia was formed into the Duchy of Warsaw, under a representative constitution and a French code oi laws. This was imsuccessfully invaded in 1809 by A'istria. The Congress of Vienna arranged the affairs of Poland. Prussia received the Duchy of Poscn, a portion of the Duchy of Warsaw; Austria received certain territories; Cracow was made a republic; and the rest was erected into the Kingdom of Poland under the Czar of Russia. Splendid promises of liberty and respect for Polish nationality were made by Russia, but such were too favourable to take the shape of performance. The cloven foot of tyi'anny peeped out in many ways, but especially in the affairs of education. In 1808 an eminent Pole, Prince Adam Czartoryski, had been made Curator of the University of Wilna, where he strove to foster a spirit of nationality among the students. Some of them were charged with sedition, being provoked to such by the despotism of the Grand Duke Constantino of Russia, who acted as viceroy of Poland. The system of repression, with regard to speech and writing, was put forcibly in action. Many of the rash youths went to work in the mines of Siberia for their patriotism; and Czartoiyski resigned his office in the university. Matters grew to a crisis, when, in 1830, a spark from tlio barricades of Paris fell upon Poland, charged with a most inflammable people. The students of the mili- tary school joined the students of tlie university, and the two effected a union with the Polish troops. The Belve- 1830 A.D. HISTORY OP rOLAND. 255 devo Palace at Warsaw, Avitli all its girdling inouts, eoukl scarcely protect Constautine, who owed his escape to some friendly soldiers. After a while the whole Polish army de- clared in favour of the insurgents, and Constantino , was per- mitted to Avithdraw his troops and guns from Poland. Adam Czartoryski was made President of the National Government. But the Russian army poured in ; Prussia, though not actively liostilc, watched tlio frontier, and would permit no supplies of any kind to enter the country. Tlic battles of Growchow, and, yet more signal, Ostrolenka, resulted in favour of Russia; (1831); ammunition and hope were both well-nigh exhausted by the end of the campaign; and at length Warsaw opened lier gates once more to the despot. If P' ^'\nd had suffered ten« of injuries before the Revolution, she suitered hundreds after it. Everything was done to crush the national spirit, which had caused the insurrection; and this unhappy land, whose destiny of misery somewhat recalls Italy to the mind, felt that there was indeed an iron hand under the velvet glove, with which Russia had at first begun to mould her disorganized affairs. Wilna and Warsaw lost their universities; the libraries and museums were carried away to Russia; and many of Poland's most eminent and active spirits found a home in foreign lands. Amongst them was Czartoryski, who went to reside in Paris. Tlie little republic of Cracow, which had been left independent only because the spoilers could not decide which of them should possess it, became in 184G a focus of insurrection, which, how- ever, was speedily trampled out. Cracow was then annexed to the Austrian Empire. There was a collision in 18G2 between Poland and Russia. Led by Langiewicz, the insurgents were beaten near Gagoscie, after which the chiefs of the patriotic party crossed the Vistula, and surrendered to Austria. ^ 25G niSTOUY OF RUSSIA. modei:n polish ciiuonology. Union of Lublin, ... Peace of Oliva, Battle of the Dniester, John Sobieski, Massacre of Protestants at Thorn, Confederation of Bar, First Partition of Poland, Second Partition of Poland, Revolution under Kosciuszko, Defence of Warsaw, Third and final Partition, Revolution under Czartoryski, Battles of Growcliow and Ostrolen Made a part of Russian Empire, ka, A. p. 1569 1660 1676 1674-96 1724 1768 1772 1793 1794 1794 1795 1830-31 1831 1832 RUSSIA (1462 to the Present Time). The emancipation of Russia from the Moguls, and the founda- tion of the Russian monarcliy as one of tlio powers of Europe, must be ascribed to Ivan III. (1462-1505), who conquered Nov- gorod. The grasp of liis strong hand drew together the numer- ous petty states into whicli the great plain was parcelled out. The reign of Ivan IV. (15.S3-84) -was remarkable for the many seeds of future prosperity sown during its lapse of fifty years. The introduction of printing — the establishment of a trade between England and Archangel — the reform of the laws — the institution of a corps of archers called the Strch'tza^, notable as the first germ of the Russian aiTny — were among the events of the rtign. Personally, Ivan the Terrible, as this chief was called, was a savage of brutal ferocity, who struck his eldest son dead with a blow of his own hand; but the terror he excited had a wholesome influence on the country. With Feodor Cllioodore) died the royal line of Ruric (1598). It had existed for 780 years, and numbered 5G sovereigns. After fifteen years of confusion, during which two impostors, a monk and a schoolmaster, personated Demetrius, the murdere*! brother of Foodor ; and Vladislav of Poland, who sought the I HISTORY OP EUSSIA. 257 tlirono himself, penetrated to Moscow, the unanimous voice of Kussia called Michael Bomanoff to the head of affairs. During this reign (1613-45) Russia enjoyed a strength -giving rest, which Michael secured by wise concessions to Sweden and Poland. He was forced to restore serfdom; but, by concluding commercial treaties, he advanced the prosperity of Russia. The reigns of Michael's two successors — Alexis, who was troubled by a revolt of the Don Cossacks, and Feodor, under whom occurred the first war with Turkey — carry on the narra- tive to the time of Peter the Great (1689-1725), to whom, be- yond question, Russia owed her sudden rise from semi -obscurity to commanding influence. Ivan and Peter, two sons of Alexis, were crowned jointly, under the regency of Sophia, sister of the former, who, having the Strelitzes on her side, aimed at absolute command. But a revolution in favour of Peter overthrew her schemes, and made liim sole Czar (1689). He was then only seventeen. Reign of Peter the Great. — When Peter found himself master of Russia, he began to make his army what it ought to be. Assisted by Le Fort, a native of Geneva, who had been his tutor, he dressed and drilled a couple of regiments in the European fashion, and, when the engine he had been improving and strength- ening was ready, he tried it with great success against Azov, which he took from the Turks (1696). In this a flotilla, built upon the Don, and noted as being the rough nucleus of the Russian navy, aided him much. His visit to Western Europe is well known. For about two years ho resided in Holland and England, devoting himself to the study of ship-building and ccvtaiu branches of engineering; and in order to gain a true insight into the nature of the work he de- sired to understand, he hired himself as a common carpenter, and went through all the details of the mechanical labour. A revolt of the Strelitz Guards recalled him from this tour, and he at once saw the necessity of abolishing a corps which might come to be as troublesome as the Janissaries were for centuries at Btantinople. (187) 17 Oou- 258 HISTORY OP RUSSIA. I M f I I The introduction of European fashions and life among his sub- jects also engaged his attention upon his return homo. The leading events of liis reign are connected with Sweden, with whose King, Charles XII., he engaged in fierce conflict for nine years. The great temptation that allured Peter into the Swedish war was the desire to improve his sea-coast. At first Charles was victorious. The battle of Narva af- forded proof to Peter that there was yet a weak- 1700 ness in his newly- organized army. But, as he philo- A.D. sophically said, " Those Swedes will soon teach us to beat them." While Charles was engaged in his Polish war, Peter occupied Ingria and Carelia. Signs of advancement in arts and comfort were visible everywhere in Russia. A new capital — St. Peters- burg — was founded in 1703 ; the University of Moscow was established ; and the sound of the printing-press became frequent in the land. All the while, too, Peter was gathering strength for another struggle with Charles of Sweden; and at last all was ready. Charles invaded Russia — a fatal step (1707). As he marched on, leading his men deeper and deeper into the deadly wilderness, which Peter had prepared for bis reception, every step was a new ueal of death. When he was sufficiently far, and his men were reduced by frost and famine to a crew of spectres, attempting the siege of Pultowa, Peter surrounded them with a 1709 fresh army of 70,000 men. The result, in spite of des- A.D. perate valour on the part of the Swedes, was a total rout. Charles fled to Turkey. The Swedish King must have derived a pleasant consolation, two years later, from the disgi'ace which fell on the Russian aims by the Priitli, when Peter and his army were saved from an over- "ivhelming mass of Turks, who had surrounded them, only by the craft of ttie Clzarina Catherine, who bought off the vizier with her Jewels. This disaster cost Russia also Peter's first conquest, Azov, which was restored by treaty to the Turks. After another tour of Europe, Peter found himb^lf obliged to HISTORY OV RtSSlA. 259 liis sub- Sweden, iflict for into the arva af- a weak- le philo- cli us to occupied L comfort t. Peters- scow was 3 frequent rength for 3t all was inarclied ifilderness, was a new men were tempting na with a ite of des- as a total insolation, ssian aims n an over- nly by the sr with her .est, Azov, obliged to try and condemn his son Alexis on a charge of conspiracy. The young man died in prison ; but it is uncertain whether by fair or foul means. The death of Charles XII. at Frcdericshald caused the Swedish war to lose its energy ; and in 1 721 was concluded the Peace of Ni/stadt, by which Kussia became possessed of Livonia, Esthonia, Ingria, and part of Carelia. Soon afterwards Peter assumed the title of Emperor. His last expedition was to Persia, where he gained some territory aiong tho Caspian Sea. He died of fever in 1725. Peter's widow ruled for two years as Catherine I. She had been originally a peasant girl of Livonia, and her first husband Avas a sergeant of dragoons. Prince Menzikoff, the favourite minister of Peter, who had also risen from the lowest station, maintained complete ascendency during this short reign. Under Peter II. (1727-30) Menzikoff was sent to Siberia, and the Dol- goraki family rose to supreme influence in the State. They in their turn fell under Anna (1730-40), during whose reign the Persian conquests of Peter the Great were abandoned. A revolution now placed on the Ilussian throne Elizabeth, tho daughter of Peter the Great and Catherine (1740-G2). During her reign we find Russia for tlie first time assuming distinct pro- minence as a great miMtary power in Europe. As the result of a war with her ancient foe Sweden, she acquired the greater por- tion of Finland (1743). But her share in the Seven Years' War, m the ally of Austria, won greater glory on a more conspicuous field. Though bloodily defeated in 1758 at Zorndorff, the Rus- sian soldiers, engaging Avith the troops of Frederic the Great, gained two signal victories at Gross JayersdorJJ^ and Kuncrsdorff, and shared in the occupation of Berlin (1760). Elizabeth died before the conclusion of peace. The dethronement and imprisonment of Peter III., after a reign of six months, during which this prince made peace with Prussia, led to the accession of his wife Catherine II. (1762-96), an ex- tremely profligate woman, who was not ill-pleased to hear that her husband had been strangled in his cell. 260 HISTORY OP RUSSIA. Her domestic policy was stern but salutary ; her foreign policy aggressive, especially in its relations with Poland and Turkey. Prince Potemkin, a soldier of fortune, who had b''"n instrumental in securing the throne for Catherine, was for a time her favourite, and always maintained a great influence over the Empress, who built the Taurida Palace for him at St. Petersburg. We have already seen how Poland, distracted by the conflicts of the Dissidents and the Roman Catholics, and fatally injured by the evils of her own Constitution, fell a prey to Prussia and other States. The Polish war entangled Russia, nothing loath, in a war with Turkey, which gave aid to the revolted Catholics of Poland. This contest, ending with the Treaty of Kainarji, secured the independence of the Crimea from Turkish rule, and gave Russia a hold upon the Black Sea. In 1784 the Russians took a further step and added the Crimea to their own Empire. A second Turkish war broke out in 1787. Potemkin and his lieutenants, prominent among whom was Suwarow, defeated the Turks so completely at Oczakow, Ismail, and elsewhere, that they were glad to conclude the Treaty of Jassy (1792), by which the frontiers of Russia were advanced to the Dniester. Potemkin died in 1792, and Catherine in 1796. Paul I. (1796-1801) succeeded his mother Catherine. His kind treatment of Kosciuszko and other Poles seemed to promise well ; but he soon showed his real nature in petty tyrannies re- garding dress and etiquette and more important remodellings in the various departments of the State. At first he engaged in war with Fiaace. Suwarow, who had been dismissed for sneering at the greased queues and tailed coats in which Paul, imitating German fashions, had dressed the Russian soldiery, was recalled to command. With a combined force of Austrians and Russians he fought brilliantly in Italy (1799), where among other victories he inscribed upon the Russian ban- ners the words Cassano and Novi. In Switzerland he was less successful. Crossing the St. Gothard to the assistance of Kor- sakov, who was threatened by Massena, ho found himself too HISTORY OP RUSSIA. 261 policy 'urkcy. mental rouritc, ss, who ;onflicts lived by id other rar with Poland, ired tho Russia a , fui'thcr I and his ■atcd tho pre, that J which ic. His promise nnies ro- llings in who had ed coats Russian force of (1799), jian ban- was less of Kor- nseU too late, and was hemmed in by a French army in the valley of the Reuss. However, by leading his men in single file over tho mountains by a chamois-path, he escaped this peril. The Em- peror, fickle in all he did, recalled the veteran, who reached St. Petersburg only to die (1800). The combined fleets of Russia and Turkey had meanwhile taken the Ionian Islands. Napoleon, who read character quickly, gained the good opinion of Paul, after the battle of Marengo, by sending back all the Russian prisoners in France, with a supply of new clothing and muskets. A speedy result of this was the seizure of all English ships in Russian harbours ; and the conclusion of the Convention of the North Avith Sweden and Denmark, }iy which these nations, forming an Armed Neutrality, resolved to resist the searching of their vessels by Britain. The secret of Napoleon's desire to be on friendly terms with Russia lay in the fact " that Russia held the keys of India." A secret expedition to India, by way of the Caspian Sea and Persia, was actually planned, when two events broke the alliance between Russia and France. One was the dissolution of the Northern Convention by tho bombardment of Copenhagen (1801), and tho other was the death of Paul. On the night of the 24th March a number of officers appeared in his apartments, and insisted on his signing a deed of abdication on the ground of mental incapacity. He violently refused ; and in the struggle that followed was strangled. Alexander I. (1801-25) maintained a peace with Franco until his indignation was roused by the murder of the Duke D'Enghien and Napoleon's elevation to an imperial tlirone. Ho joined Austria, and had a share in the disasters of Austerlitz, at which field he was present in person. After Prussia had been humbled at Jena, Napoleon pressed on to meet the armies of Russia under Bennigsen, wliom he defeated at EyJau and Fried- land. The Treaty of Tilsit, concluded between Napoleon and the Czar on a raft in the middle of the Niemen, added Russia to the adherents of the French Emperor. The common ground, upon which these lately rival potentates agreed to forget their differences, was " hatred of England." I ii \ I 262 HISTORY OP RUSSIA. In accordance with this treaty Russia made war on Sweden in 1808, which ended in the complete conquest of Finland. A Turkish war went on intermittently for six years (1806-12); but ceased for a time during the existence of friendly relations between France and Eussia. But it was not natural that these friendly relations should continue. Russia was obliged to accede to the " Continental System" of Napoleon, which exercised so blighting an influence on her commerce, owing to the stoppage of all connection with England, that a cry of discontent arose. The seizure of Oldenburg by Napoleon, against which Alexander pro- tested, hastened the crisis, and war broke out in 1812. Napoleon in Bussia.- —Assembling a force of French, Germans, Poles, Italians, and Prussians, amounting in all to nearly 500,000 men, Bonaparte crossed the Niemen into Russia (Juno 25th, 1812). Ere he left Wilna, his head-quarters in Lithuania, a foretaste of terrors to come displayed itself; for disease already laid its grasp upon the invading force. The Russians fell back ; Napoleon followed, sensible that to advance was his only hope of keeping so enormous a mass of men together. As it was, 100,000 were lost by sickness or desertion during his march through Lithuania. At Smolensk there was a battle (Aug. 16) ; but the Russians evacuated the city. A more terrible conflict occurred at Borodino (Sept. 7). Although the Russians left the invaders masters of the field, so great was Napoleon's loss that he might well regard it as a victory of most doubtful gain. A week later, the French entered the open gates of Moscow, and marched through silent streets, with only here and there the figure of some prowling thief. A fire, which broke out in the coach-builders* street, excited little attention, after it had been extinguished. Napoleon took up his quarters in the ancient Kremlin. But that night the red glare was seen again, bursting forth in many places, and the wind caused the flames to spread with such fury that even the French Emperor in the Kremlin incurred some danger. It was currently stated that this conflagration was purposely kindled by the Russians, who wished to bm*n vhe invaders out of Moscow. But Rostopchin, the governor of Moscow, flatly denied this^ HISTORY OP RUSSIA. 263 stating that the fire was due to the drunken French soldieiy, and also to such inhabitants as preferred burning their houses to let- ting them fall into the hands of the invaders. The French, unable to obtain food, lived for weeks upon salt horse. On the 19th October, the weather being deceit- fully fine, the retreat began. Harassed by clouds of 1812 Cossacks under the Hetman Platoff, the invading army, a.d. now reduced to 120,000, struggled homewards : but how few were to see that home ! Then earlier than usual (Nov. 6)' the Russian winter descended with sleet and ice. By the time the army reached the Beresina, over which they had to fight their way, only 12,000 remained. At Smorgoni, Napoleon, leaving the army to Murat, hurried forward in a sledge; and issued a bulletin, telling Europe of the complete destruction of his army. When the spring thaw came, more than 300,000 dead bodies were collected and buried along the track of that dreadful march. Alexander of Russia, joining in the coalition against Napoleon, was present at the battles of Dresden and Leipsic, and was one of the Allied Sovereigns who entered Paris in triumph. Accom- panied \j the King of Prussia, he visited England, and was greeted with enthusiasm. After Waterloo he formed a league with Prussia and Austria, to which was given as a name Tlie Holy Alliance^ its object being the preservation of peace and the suppression of revolutions on Christian principles ! During the remaining years of his reign, Alexander made various tours through the different portions of his vast Empire. On one of these journeys he was seized with fever at Taganrog, where he died (1825). There were whispers of poison : but the rumour seems to have been groundless; although it has been epigrammatically said " that assassination is the natural death of a Russian Czar." Nicholas I. (1825-55) succeeded his brother. Sketches have been already given, in the proper places, of the revolution of 1830 in Poland, and the successful campaigns in Turkey, which resulted in the Treaty of Adrianople, 264 HISTORY OP RUSSIA. Tho relations hetweeu llussiti and Gioat Biituin wore imperilled in 1838, when a Persian army, officered by Ruasiana, advanced against Herat, tho position of which in tlio north-western anglo of Afghanistan causes it to be icgarded as one of the keys* of India. But the attack failed. The suspicion, that Piussia looks with a covetous eye upon India, caused some pooplo to trace the beginnings of tho Indian Mutiny to the intrigues of Russian emissaries. The interference of Russia, when she gave aid to Austria in crushing the Hungarian rising of 1848, has been already indi- cated. In 1849 Gorgei surrendered at Vilagos near Groswardein to the Russians, who had already won several battles. The dispute which led to tho Russian War, as it is called in Britain, concerned the Holy Places at Jerusalem. Tho monks of the Greek and Latin Churches contended about tho templo and tho sepulchre ; and the Turks, who were masters in the city, made arrm ements for repair which pleased neither side. Men- zikof* wei.i to Constantinople to demand redress of the Greek Church grievances ; and, when none that Russia would accept as satisfactory was offered, ho declared that the Czar would seize a "material guarantee." Russian troops then entered "Wallachia ''July 2nd, 1853). That no concessions on the part of Turkey would have satisfied Russia Avas evident from a secret proposal made by Nicholas to Great Britain to effect a partition of the Turkish Empire, of which the British lion's share was to be Egypt. The events of tho late Buss i an War (1853-56) have been already alluded to. During its progress the death of Nicholas (1855) raised to the throne his son Alexander. Although the title of Czar has been used more than once in the preceding pages to distinguish tho Sovereign of this great Empire, it may be noted that the fuller title, since the days of Peter the Great, has been " Emperor and Autocrat of all the Russias." An indirect connection has recently arisen between Britain and Russia by the marriage of Dagmar, Princess of Denmark, to tho Czarowitch or eldest surviving son of the Emperor Alexander, IITSTOUY OF RUSSIA. 265 ITiia lady, who wft.^ received into the Grook Church as Maria Feodorowna, giving up her own prrtticr name of Dagniar, is the sister of the Princess of Wales. MODERN RUSSUN CIIRONOLOOT. Line of Ruric ends, ... House of Romanoff from ... Reign of Peter the Qre.'\t, ... Battle of Narva, ... Battle of Fultowa, ... Peace of Nystadt, Crimea Lecomes a Russian dominion, Suwarow's campaign in Italy, The Armed Neutrality, ... Murder of Czar Paul, ... ... Battle of Austerlitz, Treaty of Tilsit, Napoleon's Russian Campaign, War with Turkey, War with Poland, The Russian War (Crimean), A.D. 1593 ... 1613 1G89-1725 1700 1709 ... 1721 1784 1709 1800 1801 1805 1807 1812 1828 1830 ... 1853-5S ASIA IN MODERN TIMES. General Features.— Tho history of Asia during the last four centuries — /. iJaluuna Islands. Five years later (1407) Sebastian Cabot, a A'enetian, sailint? from l*)istol in England, discovered Labrador and Newfoundland. Tliese voya<(<'S rank with that of Vaseo de \nu\ in importance: for they oj^ened to European conciuost an^l eomiwerce a New World in tiie West ; as lie, l>y doubling the Onpe of Go. ! Hope, found an ocean-path to India and the Kwst. In 1517 Cordova discovered the penin- suhy of Yucatan. Jacques Cartier, of St. Malo in France, sailed Up tho Ki.-er St. Tjawrenee, which lie entered on the day in 1535 consecrated to that saint ; but it was not nntil 1608 that Cham- plain established a French colony on the site of Quebec. The countries of North America, in the order of tin ir historical importance, arc tho United States; British America, especially Canada ; Mexico ; the West Indian Islands ; and the Republics of Central America. THE UNITED STATES. Foundation of States. — Between 1585 and 1732 thirteen British colonies, wliich formed the original Thirteen States of the Union, were founded along the North American shore. A list of them is subjoined : — 1. North Carolina was first colonized in 1585 by settlers sent out by Sir Walter Raleigh ; but it was uot permanently occupied until 1650, and did not receive its name, given in honour of Charles II., until after the Restoration. 2. Virginia, so called in honour of Queen Elizabeth, who dis- dained to marry, received its white population in 1607. 8. A number of English Puritans, sailing from Delft in the Mayflower, landed at a port which thejr named Plymouth, and 278 IIISTOllY OF THE UNITKD STATES*. I \ thus founded, in 1620, tho Stato of Massachusetts. Those first colonists are called in America tho Filgrim Fathers. 4. The first settlement of Ncio Ilamijshirc dates from 1623 ; "but contests with tho Indians retarded its advancement for many years. 5. 3fari/Jaml, so called fruui tlu! wife of Charles I., was colo- nized in ICo-l: by Lord Kaltiiuoro, who selected it as an asylum for persecuted Toman Catholics. 0. Mode Island was founded in 1636, by a Puritan preacher, named Roger Williams, who incurred persecutiou for maintaining tho doctrine of unlimited toleration. 7. Connecticut was a branch from Massachusetts, founded in 1635. 8. New York was not acquired by England until 1664, when it changed its orighial name of New Amsterdam, in compliment to the King's brother, James Duke of York. It was previously a Dutch colony on tho river discovered by and named after Henry Hudson. 9. New Jersey, colonized in turn by Danes, Swedes, and Dutch, passed under British rule in 1664. It was afterwards purchased by a Quaker company. 10. Delaware had a similar history. It took its name from Lord Delaware, governor of Virginia. 11. South Carolina originated in the foundation of Charleston in 1680. 12. Pennsylvania^ acquired by Charles II. from Holland, was granted to William Penn in 16S1. This eminent Quaker pur- chased land from the Indians, and made regulations so wise and liberal as to draw many settlers to the colony. The French made Fort Duquesne (Pittsburg) a stronghold in the chain of fortresses they strove to build between Canada and the Gulf of Mexico. 13. Georgia was formed in 1732 by General Oglethorpe, a8 an asylum for debtors and religious refugees. French and English. — When the existence of the great river Mississippi was discovered, the French hastened to build at its IIISToUY OF TUK UNITED STATK9. 279 first from eston mouth tlio city of New Orleans, ns tlio nucleus of a torritoiy which was called LouislaHa. Tlio Mississippi Sciicme, projected by John Law, drew much ittontion to tho place; but after tho collapse of that great imposturo tho French crown resumed tho land, which had been assigned to the company. Tho British Colonies, lyin.t^ b(!twoon two sots of Frenrh possessions, repre- sented by Louisiana and Canada, needed to be alert, active, and self-reliant ; for tlio French treacherously allied themselves with the Luliaus, whom they encouraged to assail the outlying British settlers with tomahawk and s()1 Canada is tho most important of our North American Colo- nies. Its history dates from the voyage of Jacques Cartier, who sailed up tho St. Lawrence in 1535. A French fur-trading station soon sprang up at llic inoutli of tlie Saguenay. An enterprising naval ofliccr named Champlain then assumed the position of governor; and tho colony was troubled long with contests between the Frcncli and thoir neighbours, whether Iroquois Indians or New England settlers. The spirit of the British, always at this period ready on the least provocation to kindle into hostility against the French, took fire at the proceedings of Marquis Duquesne, who built a chain of forts along the Ohio in order to join the Frcncli colonics on tho St. Lawrence to those at the mouth of the Mississippi. The attacks of the British upon this line were at first unsuccessful ; but after 1758 a brilliant change occurred. General Wolfe, planting cannon on Point Levi, and landing his troops on Orleans Island, began tho siege of Quebec. After nearly two months of useless ae^ault, a path was discovered, leading up the precipice on which the Plain of Abraham lies; and British soldiers, having climbed by night to this position above the city, fought a battle next day, in which IMontcalm and the French were defeated. Thi;> victory gave Canada to Britain. During the American War of Independence the insurgents attacked Canada (1775). Montgomery, leading an army from Lake Champlain, occupied Montreal; and then, being r -nforced by Arnold, assailed Quebec. But the besiegers retreated after four months of blockade. In 1791 a Constitutional Act was passed, dividing the two Canadas. The troubles that have arisen in the colony have been mainly owing to the discontent of the semi-French population, some of whom not even the Act of Quebec (1774), appointing tho French laws as the basis of all property transactions, could satisfy. In 1837-8 there was rebellion in Canada. Its beginning at Montreal under Papineau was soon crushed. Mackenzie in Upper Canada vainly tried to seize Toronto ; but was defeated 1759 A.D. 292 HISTORY OF MEXICO. by Colonel M'Nnb. A second outbreak under Dr. Nelson waa quelled by Sir John Colborne. In 1840 the Canadas were reunited under a single constitu- tion; and a valuable treaty between the States and Britain — the Reciprocity Treaty of IS 54 — opened the navigation of the St. Lawrence and its cabals to the States, while it secured for Cauac'a the free use of Lake Michigan for commerce. The seat of government was transferred in 1866 from Montreal to Ottawa. During the same year there was an unsuccessful in- vasion of Canada by the Fenians of America, who crossed the Niagara River at Fort Erie, but Avere easily defeated. MEXICO. Mexico, which derived its name from 31exitli, the Aztec god of war, rose under that ancient American tribe to considerable splendour. The Aztecs built cities Avliose ruins still strike Avitli awe the traveller who penetrates the forests that overgrow them : they had their orators and poets, as well as their architects and sculptors. Cordova was the discoverer of Mexico; but Cortez was its con- queror. Landing on the shore of the Gulf (1518) he founded, near tlie site of Vera Cruz, the town of A^illarica ; and, before he pro- ceeded into the heart of the country, he broke his ships up, in order that his companions might have no hope but in vigorous fighting. Montezuma, the emperor of tlie Aztecs, admitted the Spaniards to his capital — a kindness which Cortez repaid by detaining him in forcible custody, until he should acknowledge himself a vassal of Spain. In a riot Montezuma was afterwards slain, and a victory over the Aztecs at Olnmha, coupled with a successful siege of Mexico (1521), completed the reduction of the country. Mexico continued to be a Spanish possession for three cen- turies (1520-1820). Numerous Spaniards emigrated thither; and their descendants, Creoles, born in Mexico, felt bitterly to- wards the mother-land, when it became the policy to exclude HISTORY OF MEXICO. 290 »t r from the offices of State, including commissions in the army, any but native Spaniards. The hostility, however, of the ^lesfizos, half-bloods between Spanish and Indian, kept the Creoles from very decided action. When the Peninsular War began to trouble Spain, Mexico felt the stirrings of desire for independence. In 1810 Hidalgo^ parish priest of Dolores, headed a rebellion of Mestizos against the Government, until he was taken prisoner and shot. Morelos, another cura, was more successful, for he succeeded in establishing a Junta or Central Government (1813); however, he met with the same fate. The Viceroy crushed the various chiefs who sprang up, and, ere the restoration of tranquiility, caused to perisli Xavi'cr Mina, a Spanish guerilla, who had come to restore the cause of insurrection. Taking advantage of the troubles of 1820 in Spain, Iturbide proposed a plan by which IMexico was to have a resident sove- reign, either tlic King of Spain or his brother. This the Viceroy accepted conditionally, upon the reception of the royal assent ; and Iturbide took possession of tlie capital. He then proclaimed himself Emperor, with the title of Augustus I. (182*2); but, after 'luarrelling with the Congress and the army, he abdicated and sought safety in Europe, Venturing to return in 1824, lie was arrested at Padilla, and shot. The army, now in the ascendant, modelled the government into the form of a Federal llepublic, after the fashion of the govern- ment of the United States. Then began a period of ceaseless intrigue and revolution among various military generals, who struggled for the supreme power. General Santa Anna, the most prominent of these, was continually in the extremes of success and adversity — one month sitting in the presidential chair, armed with almost despotic power — the next a refugee and exile. He happened to be President in 1816, when General Taylor invaded Mexico with the United States army, and though with superior forces, retired before the invader, after a two days' battle ; *hu8 permitting the loss of much Mexican territory. In 1862 the French Emperor, resolving to interfere in the 294 IIISTOEY OP MEXICO. affairs of Mexico, sent General Forey thither \nth. an army. The city of PuehJa, with some difficulty, fell before the invaders (Miy 18, 1863); and Juarez then evacuated Mexico, which was occupied by the French. Mexico, with the title of Emperor, was then offered to the Archduke Maximilian, a brother of the Emperor of Austria; and he accepted the dignity in 1864. The tragedy which followed is still fresh in the public mind. Driven from his throne by an insurrectionary movement of the Republican party, headed by Juarez, the Emp3ror Maximilian, Avith two of his devoted generals, was made captive, and shot at Queretaro on the 19th of June, 1867. ! ' NORTH AMERICAN CURONOLOGY. Columbus discovers the West Indies, Cabot discovers the mainland of America, Cordova discovers Mexico, Mexico conquered by Cortez, Cartier explores the St. Lawrence, North Carolina colonized, Jamaica taken by Britain, Georgia colonized, completing the Thirteen States, Volunteers from Boston take Louisburg, ... ... Conquest of Canada, ... ... ... ... Siege of Havannah by the British, Stamp Act issued. Tea-riot at Boston, Outbreak of American War, Declaration of Independence, .«. ... ... Acknowledged by Great Britain, Constitution of United States formed, Negro Empire established in Ilayti, ... ... Second War between United States and Britain ... Mexico shakes off the Spanish yoke. Central America shakes off the Spanish yoke. War of Mexico with United States, ... ... Civil War in United States, ... ... ..• Frei.oh expedition to Mexico, ... Ma imilian of Austria made Emperor of Mexico, Ati.iutic Cable successfully laid, ... ... •.. Federal Union of British provinces, ... ... Maximilian shot at Queretaro, ... ... ••• ... ... ... ... A.I>. 1492 1497 1517 1521 1535 1585 1655 1732 1745 1759 1762 1765 1773 1775 1776 1783 1789 1801 1812-U 1820 1823 1846-8 1861-5 1862 1864 1866 1866 1867 A. p. 1492 1497 1517 1521 1535 1585 1655 1732 1745 1759 1762 1765 1773 1775 1778 1783 1789 1801 312-U 1820 1823 1846-8 1861-5 1862 1864 1866 1866 1867 ■ i HISTORY OF CENTRAL AMERICA. CENTBAL AMERICA. 295 While the Spaniards held an empire in America, the greater part of the isthmus formed the Kingdom of Guatemala — a region where, deep in the tangled tropical forest, were massive ruined Aztec cities, displaying wonderful skill in architecture and me- chanics. After the revolution of 1821 this was attached for a time to the Mexican Kingdom of Iturbide ; but his fall left it free. Then (^1823) the four States of Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, and San Salvador formed a federal union under the name United States of Central America. The union did not cohere long ; and the various States became independent repub- lics — Costa Rica forming a fifth. A district called Honduras, on the eastern edge of Yucatan, belongs to Britain. Columbus discovered it in 1502; but the British occupied it, and after much delay on the part of Spain, it was ceded by treaty in 1763. The story of the Darien colony, mentioned in the reign of William III., belongs to the history of Central America as well as to that of England, The Mosquito Kingdom is an independent Indian State under British protection. A proposal to join the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans by a route passing up the San Juan River and through Lake Nicaragua, led to a settlement, chiefly American, at the mouth of the river under the name of Grey town. It was bom- barded by an American ship in 1854. THE WEST INDIES. Discovery. — ^The first part of America seen by Columbus in 1492 was the low green shore of Guanahani, or San Salvador, one of the Bahamas. Most of the islands were afterwar anil Maypu had been gained that independence was secured. In spite of political con- flicts, the prosperity of Chili has ster.dily increased. The jealousy of Spain tov/ards her old possession has been displayed frequently ; and recently (1866) in the bombardment of Valparaiso. 2. Peru, after Pizarro 's conquest, was made the chief seat of the Spanish Transatlantic Empire. Tho capital, Lima, rose to such splendour as to be styled " The City of the Kings." Occa- sionally a flash of the old Peruvian spirit blazed out, as in 1780, when there was an attempt to take La Paz by siege. During the war of independence in Peru, Chili remained tolerably tranquil, owing to the strength of the Spanish rule there ; but in 1820 San Martin came from Chili with an invading army and secured the position of Protector of Peru (1821) — a position, however, which he retained for only a short time. The most remarkable man in the history of the struggle which shook off the Spanish yoke in South America, was Simon Bolivar, born at Caraccas in 1783. What he achieved in Columbia will afterwards be described. At the request of San Martin he entered Peru, and took possession of Lima (1822). Appointed Dictator, he led a Columbian and Peruvian army against the Spaniards, who were defeated at Junin, and more signally at Ayacucho(1824). lie then resigned the Dictatorship. The Code or Constitution l:\' 800 HISTORY OF SOUTH AMEllIOA. framed "by Bolivar was accepted, but afterwards rejected by Peru, which in 1827 established a Federal Republic after the model of the United States. Continual revolutions have formed the lato history of Peru ; for transition is always a time of trouble. 3. Bolivia, the southern province of Peru, was formed in 1825 into a separate republic under Bolivar, whose name was given to the country. But the Bolivians rejected the Code of Bolivar very soon ; and, like Peru, have lived a life of storm since. 4. Venezuela owed its prosperity, though a Spanish colony, rather to the efforts of the Dutch in Cura^oa, who promoted the cultivation of cacao. The war of liberation, springing from the troubles of Spain during the Peninsular struggle, began in 1811, when the Spanish flag was cut down, the tricolor hoisted, and a patriot army under Miranda, with Bolivar as one of his colonels, took the iield. The insurgents were at first successful ; but the earthquakes of 1812 so appalled the superstitious people that the royalists got the ascendency once more. Bolivar, aiding in the arrest of Miranda, accused him of intrigu'.ng with Britain ; after which he was delivered to the Spaniards, and died in a European dungeon. In conjunction with Bibas, Bolivar raised a new aiiny, which victoriously occupied Caraccas (1813). The chief then assumed the titles of Dictator and Liberator. So hopeless was the cause of Spain at this crisis that it was proposed to arm even the negro slaves ; and a " war of death " began, the royalists murdering pris- oners by scores — acts of cruelty which Bolivar was weak enough to retaliate by shooting eight hundred Spaniards in La Guayra and Caraccas. The defeat of La Puerta (1814) cast a cloud over the fortunes of the patriots ; and for two years Bolivar lived as an exile in Jamaica and Hayti. But the struggle was renewed. The Liberator entered Bogota ; and in tlie decisive battle of Carabobo defeated the Spanish General La Torre. The fall of ^uerto Cabello, the strongest fortress of Venezuela, completed the expul- sion of the Spaniards (1823). 5. 6. New Granada and Ecuador (the ancient Kingdom of Quito) achieved their independence by the same war. By th^ HISTORY OF SOUTH amehica. 301 which Convention of Cucuta in 1821 tlic States in tlic north of South America formed themselves into the Republic of Colombia. But in 1831 there was an amicable separation, which dissolved the union into the three States, Venezuola, Ecuador, and New Granada. 7, 8, 9. Argentine Confederation ; Paraguay ; Uruguay. Tlie River Plate (La Plata) was explored in 1530 by Sebastian Cabot, who, being then in the service of Spain, ascended to the site of Asuncion on the Paraguay, which was afterwards founded by Mendoza. The Spaniard Garay founded the city of Buenos Ayrcs in 1580; and these colonies were attached at first to the Vice- royalty of Peru. To this distant place the enterprising Jesuits penetrated, and they fonned out of the converted Guaranis, wlio dwelt on the Parana, a thriving settlement. But in 17G8 the Jesuits were expelled. Rising in revolt against Spain, like the other States of South America, the Argentine Provinces threw off the yoke in 1810; but the desire of Buenos Ayres to obtain an ascendency over the other States led to much discord among them. United in 182G, they dissolved their union in the following year; and then a Avar with Brazil complicated their troubles. In 1835 Rosas became Captain-general of the Confederacy, and under his iron hand anarchy was crushed for a time. But his efforts to secure for Buenos Ayres the sole right to the naviga- tion of the River Plate excited the anger of Paraguay and Uru- guay, which applied for help to Brazil. Great Britain and France, whose merchants had a strong interest in this land of hides and cattle, offered to mediate in the quarrel ; but Rosas re- jected the proposal. An Anglo-French fleet then (1845) forced its way up the Parana, destroying the batteries of Rosas, and convoying some merchant ships which had been prevented from ascending. At San Lorenzo, on the return voyage, Rosas opened a heavy fire on the fleet; but a rocket-brigade soon silenced his guns. After England and France had withdrawn from the blockade, Brazil resumed the war ; end in 1851, on tlie plains of Moron, 302 HISTORY OP SOtTTH AMEIIIOA. the army of Rosas was finally defeated. The chief escaped in disguise as a peasant, and soon sailed for England. Urquiza then rose to the head of the Confederation, but in- surrection and anarchy have prevailed in the State since. Paraguay sprang from the ^fissmis of the Jesuits, \vho founded a settlement, which thoy jealously guarded from all intrusion, being armed by a royal order from Spain forbidding Spaniards to visit the district Avithout permission. This State, after the breach with Spain, refused to submit to the dominion of Buenos Ayres, and became independent under a lawyer named Dr. Francia, who was Dictator for twenty-six years (1814-40). Lopez, the successor of Francia, adopting a more liberal policy, showed a desire to open Paraguay to the influences of foreign commerce. Uruguay, or Banda Oriental, was a subject of contention be- tween Brazil and Buenos Ayres until 1828, when, by the media- tion of England, the Seven Missions were ceded to Brazil, while the southern part was erected into a separate republic. BRAZIL. Discovered in 1500 by Cabral, a Portuguese sailor, Brazil was afterwards explored by Amerigo Vespucci, a Florentine in the service of Portugal. Thus it was that a comparatively unknown explorer, who had the good fortune to publish a description of this region with a map, came to enjoy the honour of having a continent, discovered by Columbus, called after him. When a trade in dye-wood sprang up, and tlie French be- gan to send ships for this article. King John III. of Portugal planted a settlement by granting large tracts of the Brazilian coast to some of his richest nobles. In 1549 Baliia was founded as a centre of the colony. Resenting an attempt made by some expatriated Huguenots to establish themselves in the bay of Rio Janeiro, the Portuguese then founded the city which forms the capital at present. A vigorous attempt was made also by the Dutch, who possessed themselves of all Brazil north of the San HISTORY OP SOUTH AMERICA. 303 1 Francisco, fixing their baso of operations at Pcrnambuco; but they too were expelled (1654). Tlio Brazilians groaned under two grievances of their govern- ment by Portugal ; one was the jealous policy of forbidding foreign commerce, whicl." discontented the merchants ; the other, the honours and gifts showered upon new emigrants from Portu- gal, to the exclusion of the descendants of old settlers. When, in 1808, Napoleon declared war with Portugal, the royal famMv of Braganza quietly took ship at Lisbon, and sailed away beyond his reach to Brazil. This visit was most beneficial to the American possc-^sions, where printing and free commerce took late root. The Portuguese King, when Napoleon fell, assumed the additional title of King of Brazil, and lingered in that seductive land until, in 1820, the disturbed state of Portugal recalled him to Europe. Before embarking he proclaimed his son Pedro Regent of Brazil ; but the dread of being again placed under Portugal in a subordinate and crippled condition, led the Brazilians to de- clare their independence under Pedro as Emperor (1822). Except at Bahia, there was no bloodshed ; for the Portuguese garrisons of Maranhao and Para were glad to sail away to Europe. In 1825 Portugal acknowledged the independence of Bra7il. When John VI. died in 1826, the Brazilians feared lest his son might prefer the crown of Portugal to that of Brazil. But he sent his daughter Donna Maria to ascend the throne of Portugal, while he remained in South America. The war with Buenos Ayres, ending in 1828, has been already noticed. A dis- pute with the Chamber, resulting in a popular riot, which the soldiers refused to cjuell, led to the abdication of Pedro in 1831. Pedro II., who attained his majority in 1841 at the unusually early period of fifteen, was Emperor during the struggle with Bosas, of which some account has been given. GUIANA. Guiana, discovered in the sixteenth century by Vincent Pinzon, was colonized in turn by the Dutch, the French, and the English, sot HISTORY OP SOUTH AMEUICA. i who still divide its territory among them. Tlio Butch (1500) occupied the lower basin of the Demerara; the French took Cayenne; while the English planted at Bcrhice and Surinam colonics, which they afterwards, in the days of Charles II., yielded to the Dutch. But during the American, and yet more decidedly during tho Napoleonic wars, Britain retaliated on the Patch for siding against her by seizing these, with other colonies. In 1831 Berbice, Essequibo, and Demerara were united into British Guiana. The chief troubles connected with these colo- nics have arisen from negro insurrections. SOUTH AMERICAN CHRONOLOaY. Cabral discovers Brazil, ... ... ... ... ... Cabot explores La Plata, ... ... ... Pizarro conquers Peru, ... ... ... ... Dutch expelled from Pernarabuco, ... Jesuits in Paraguay, fiirlh of Simon Bolivar, ... ... ... Chili, Venezuela, and the Argentine Provinces throw off the Spanish yOKGt "*" *■* *** *** ■** *** British Guiana finally acquired, ... ... ... ... Convention of Cucuta— forms Colombian Republic, ... Brazil made an Empire, ... Independence of Venezuela secured by the fall of Puerto Cabello, Battle of Ayacucho secures independence of Peru, ... War between Brazil and Buenos Ayres, Roi^as Dictator of Buenos Ayres, ... ... ... ... Britain and France at war with Buenos Ayres, ... ... A.n. 1600 1530 1533 1654 1690-1768 1783 ,.. 1810-11 1814 1821 1822 1823 1824 - 1826-28 ,.. 1835-51 ,.. 1845-48 AUSTRALASIA. In 1608 the crew of a Dutch yacht caught sight of Cape York in Australia, but saw it vanish without having the least idea that a vast continent, as the huge island may be called, was attached to this projecting point. The coast was gradually traced, especially by the English Captain Cook. The name New Holland, given by its Dutch discoverers, was superseded after 1814 by the present appellation, Australia. i UlSTOnV Ok' AI'STUALIA. 305 AT). 1500 1530 1533 1654 0-1768 1783 The history o{ tlio Inland consists entirely of the settlement of the varions British colonies, now nuniherincf five. 1. In 17HS a convict scttlomont was planted at Botany Bay on Port Jackson. This was tlio nnclens of New South Wales. Under governors like Macqnario and Bonrko, the colony, chiefly devoted to pastnriiii,' sheep, prospered well. A new vein of in- dustry and wealth was opened in 1851, when llargravcs dis- covered gold at IJathurst. 2. In 1820 was founded West Australia, or Swan River, a colony which has never thriven well. 3. South Australia dates from 18o4. No sign of activity was, Imwovcr, manifest until the discovery of copper in 1842. For a time this caused an influx of emigrants; W'ho, however, wore soon turned aside l)y the news of gold at Bathurst. 4. First colonized in 18'}5, Victoria, or Australia Felix, grew rich in wool and sheep, unfil a desire for colonial independence arose. This was achieved in 1851 hy separation from New South Wales, The sudden growth of Melbourne, its capital, has been a wonder of modern life. Where in 1835 a party of squatters pitched a few tents among the gum-trees, in 18(51 stood a city of 108,000 inhabitants. This sudden change was largely due to the discovery of gold at Ballarat and Bendigo. 5. In 1859 Queensland was separated from the northern part of New South Wales. Cape least was lually New after TASMANIA. The island once called Van Bieman's Land, but now Tas- mania, was discovered in 1G42 by a Dutch sailor named Tasman. A convict colony M-as planted there in 1803, but it was not separated from New South Wales until 1825. Its prosperity as a great pastoral region may be ascribed to Colonel Arthur, who acted as governor for twelve years (1824-36). (188) 20 306 HISTORY OF NEW ZEAL/.ND. \ ^ NEW ZEALAND. Every one knows the prophetic sentence, penned by Macaulay in one of his Essays, which dechares that the time may come " when a traveller from the great Empire of New Zealand shall stand on a broken arch of London Bridge and sketch the ruins of St. Pauls." The probability of Ncav Zealand ever becoming the nucleus of a great empire is based upon the possession by this antipodean group of many characteristic features which have combined to make Britain great — mineral wealth, a temperate climate, insular form, and occupation by the Anglo-Saxon race. In New Zealand the missionary was followed by the merchant. But it was not until 1839 that the colony was xecognized. There have since been several wars with a cunning tribe of much mili- tary skill and daring, called the Maoris. These wars arose from disputes regarding the title to purchased lands, for one chief cannot sell in certain cases without" the consent of the other leaders of his tribe. A recent war arose (1863) out of the Waitara purchase, afterwards abandoned. William King was the leading chief of the natives, who in their stockaded forts or pahs defied our troops for a time. Our loss was especir Uy severe in officers, for the Maori marksmen fired from rifle-pits with deadly aim. Though defeated by Cameron at Taurauga (1864), the natives are not yet subdued ; in fact, a kind of smouldering war is chronic in the colony. t\ AUSTRALASIAN CHRONOLOGY. Discovery of Australia, ... ... Discovery of Tasmania and New Zealand, . Coast explored by Captain Cook, ... . Convict settlement at Botany Bay, Victoria first colonized> ... New Zealand recognized as a colony, Discovery of gold at Bathurst, Victoria separated from New South Wales, , Recent Maori wars iu New Zealand, A.t). • ■• «!• • •t 1608 • !• «at • •• 1642 ■ •t • !• • •• 1770 • •• «!• «•• 1788 • •• • •« • tt ns • •• • •« • •• 1839 • ■• • •* • ft 1851 ... * •• 1 •• 1861 • •• • •• lai 1860-64 HISTOBY OP AFBICA. 307 •s AFRICA. With the exception of Egypt, the Barbary States, and the Cape of Good Hope, Africa can scarcely be said to have any his- tory beyond the record of scattered settlements on the coast and adventurous explorations into the interior by following the course of the great rivers — Nile, Niger, and Zambesi. Egypt in 1382 was ruled by a Circassian slave, who founded a Mameluke dynasty that lasted until 1517. The country then fell before an invasion of the Turks under Selim I., who, without destroying the entire influence of the Mamelulces, made Egypt a tributary republic. The government of the Porte was often re- sisted by these turbulent warriors ; but the Ottoman sway remained undisturbed until 1798, when Napoleon invaded Egypt. How the English fleets and armies crippled his powers there has been already told. In 1811 Mehemet Ali crushed the Mame- lukes by one cruel and sudden blow, having invited the principal officers to a feast in the citadel of Oiiiro. By introducing Eu- ropean arts and industry into Egypt Mehemet Ali improved his Pachalic greatly ; and by his conquests he so greatly extended his power as to excite the jealousy of the Turkish Sultan Mahmud II. War accordingly arose between Turkey and Egypt (1832), in which Mehemet's son Ibrahim Pacha defeated the Turkish armies and menaced Constantinople. The strife was closed by the intervention of the European powers. A later war had the same result (1840) ; and, by the treaty which followed the bombardment of Acre by an Anglo-Austrian fleet, Mehemet was stripped of his Asiatic dominions, but the government of Egypt in subordination to Turkey was made hereditary in his family. The Barbary States, with the exception of Algiers, owe a nominal obedience to the Sultan of Turkey ; but over Morocco, which has been governed by the dynasty of the Sherifs since 1514, the Porte has never claimed any sovereignty. Morocco and Southern Spain were at one period of history closely linked 808 HISTORY OP AFRICA. together, especially when Yusef of the dynasty of the Almora- vides established a dominion at both Cordova and Morocco. Algiers, Tunis, and Tripoli acquired an unenviable notoriety for piracy. The brothers Barbarossa, in the days of the Emperor Charles V., acting as admirals of the Turkish flag, swept the Mediterranean with their galleys and ravaged the coasts of Italy and Spain. The Emperor in conjunction with Admiral Doria assaulted Tunis in 1534, and drove Barbarossa II. thence. But the corsair took to the sea, and continued his career of devasta- tion. Tunis received a sharp lesson in 1655 from Admiral Blake, who battered Porto Farina and Groletta to pieces ; but the piracies were not abandoned until 1816, when Lord Exmouth threatened to bombard the town. Algiers was the principal pirate-nest for several centuries. Seized in 1516 by Horusli — the elder Barbarossa — it passed under the power of his brother, who, submitting to the Ottoman Porte, was made Regent, and provided with a body cf Janissaries. The failure of Charles V. in 1541 in an attack upon Algiers, owing to a ^ 'rible storm that scattered his fleet, gave this seat of pirates extraordinary powers of increasing their mischief. Following +he example of English Blake, the various strong commercial States of Europe wrested forcibly from the Alger- ines a promise — never well kept — of abstaining from piracy. But Italy was the chief sufferer among the weaker States. At last so crying did the evil of Christian slavery become that the Congress of Vienna resolved to put it down. Lord Exmouth, accordingly, taking advantage of an insult offered to the British flag at Bonn, bombarded Algiers (1816), and set free more than a thousand white slaves. In 1827 the Dey of Algiers struck the French Consul in the face with his fan : a burst of temper which cost him his office ; for an expedition crossed the Mediterranean, and reduced the territory to the condition of a French colony (1830). Since then the French have engaged in several wars with the Arabs, both for the purpose of securing the colony and of training their armies to face an enemy. , HISTORY OF AFRICA. 309 Tripoli was held for twenty-one years (1530-51) by the Knights of St. John, who after their expulsion from Rhodes were placed in Malta by the Emperor Charles V. But the Turkish corsairs having taken it, it became a hot-bed of piracy. A Moor named Haraet Caramanli seized the Pachalic in 1713, and his family kept it until 1832, when the former practice of send- ing a pacha from Stamboul ^vas resumed. Wk. CAFE OF GOOD HOFE. Diaz, a Portuguese sailor, Avas beaten back by storms from the Capo of Good Hope in 1487 : in consequence of which he named it the Cape of Storms. Vasco de Gama succeeded in doubling the extremity of Africa in 1497. In 1620 a band of English- men took formal possession of the shore, which derived great value from its position half-way to India. But in 1652 the Dutch laid the foundations of Capo Town, and held the colony, amid ceaseless native wars, until 1795. It then fell before an assault by the English; was restored; and was retaken finally for Britain in 1806 by Sir David Baird and Sir Homo Pophani. What the Maoris are to the English in New Zealand, the K, ffirs have proved to our colonists at the Cape. Always ready to break into war, when in action they fight with a vigour and tenacity that render them no despicable foes. The most serious of these outbreaks occuiTed in 1851. Sir Harry Smith directed the operations against the Kaffirs; and the war did not close until 1853. Discovery and Colonization. — ^Tlie Mediterranean coast of Africa was well known to the ancients. The Carthaginians and llomans probably traced the western coast as far as Senegambia, and knew something of the interior and the southern outskirts of the r hara. The modern discoveries of the African coast began with Prince 310 HISTORY OF AFRIOA. )| I Henry of Portugal, a younger son of John I., who sent out ships that reached Cape Bojador (1415). From Cape Blanco to Cape Verde — thence to the Azores — the progress of discovery ad- vanced before Henry's death, which took place in 1463. The Guinea coast was next traced ; Fernando Po discovered the island bearing his name ; Diego Cam entered the Congo or Zaire River, and sailed southward to Cape Cross (1484). The voyages of Diaz and De Gama have been adverted to. The French, having formed an African Company, began to plant settlements on the coast of the continent, which was already studded with Portuguese colonies, vigorously engaged in prose- cuting a trade, among other articles, in negro slaves for the Ame- rican plantations. The Dutch, Danes, and English followed the example. To the last-named nation is chiefly due the honour of penetrating the heart of this sealed continent and making known its inner mysteries to the world. Exploration. — The River Niger attracted Mungo Park, Den- ham, and Clapperton. Rj,ehard Lender, a., servant of the latter, discovered the mouth of ^he great stremO.^Sruce traced a tribu- tary of the Nile to its sdurte fe<^^ liighlamjfiffSJ^byssinia ; but more recently Speke, GrWt^^d T/m^/^rve dicen|ined that the main stream flows from twTj^^ge lakes^jjjjidi havAbeen named the Victoria and the AlbertX^Tp^^jgigstoneTTi^^^^fe *^6 Zam- besi, has discovered on it the grfe«^^|ifc^j|fall in^e world, and has dispelled the idea that Southerlisy^^kji^^'^^^®^*' ^^^gion. As a great cotton-field inner Africa may yet come to have an important history. The influences of civilization nave penetrated it last of all, owing to its lack of inlets or gulfs. The cruelty of an Abyssinian King, who has detained in captivity some British subjects, is now drawing the influences of warlike invasion towards the highlands of a land hitherto unexplored except by adven- turous hunters of the lion and the elephant. Whatever bo the other results of the expedition, it will serve to increase our knowledge of inner Africa. niSTOrvY OP AFRICA. 311 MODERN AFRICAN CHRONOLOGY, Traciiig of coast under Prince Henry, Voyage of Bartholomew Diaz, VojTige of Vasco de Gam a. Knights of St. John in Tripoli, C];arles V. defeated at Algiers, Sherif dynasty in Morocco begins, Journeys of Mungo Park, ... Cape of Good Hope taken by the British, Suppression of Mamelukes in Egypt, Lord Exmouth bombards Algiers, ... The Landers discover the Niger mouth, Algiers made a French colony, ... Livingstone explores the Zambesi, Speke discovers the Victoria Nyanza, Baker discovers the Albert Nyanza, A.D. f. 1415-63 ••• 1487 • •• 1497 • ff* 1530-51 • •* 1541 • .. 1544 1< '95-1S05 • •• 1806 • *• 1811 • t* 1816 • >• 1830 • ** 1830 ■ •• 1856 • •• 1858 tl» 1862