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Some apology may appear necessary here for the use of a term, regarded by many geologists as calculated to perpetuate false ideas as to the character and origin of the series of rocks which it comprehends. The object of the following paper, h,Qwever, being merely to point out certain analogies, and possibly, differ- ences, between certain groups of rocks in Norway, and their equivalents in Canada, the name given them is of minor import- ance ; and when it is considered how diiBcult it is to choose among the various terms which have been proposed and used for designating the&e formations, the one adopted in the above title may appear excusable, and not perhaps be deemed unserviceable on this occasion. The groups of rocks, whose equivalents in Norway I propose in some measure to describe, are here known as the Laurentian system, the Huronian knd the Metamorphic Silurian series. The first of these is generally designated the Primitive Gneiaa , formation, [Urgneiss Formation) in Germany and Scandi- . navia, while the two last mentioned groups make up what is termed there the Primitive Slate formation (^Urschiefer For- m0iQn)» I pro|»ose to describe tUe«e groups of spcjts m ihfj >'i^ >■:" ^.v.^ ■"« -;i; n 2 Macfarlane on the Primitive Formations occur in Norway, principally in regard to their pelrograpbical and economic characters. I shall follo'v the order in which they are mentioned above, inserting at the end of each description, a few remarks on their development in Canada. The various facts related in the following descriptions are principally derived from such authorities as Naumann and Keilhau ; my personal obser- vations of the districts under notice, having only served to im- print on my mind the descriptions of these and other philoso- phers. The particulars narrated as to the various mining estab- lishment'?, are to a great extent however, the results of my own experience and observation. As to the various features touched upon with regard to Canada, my principal source of information has of course been the reports of the officers of the Geological Survey. I. The PEiMrrivE Gneiss Formation. In Keilhau's "First attempt towards a Geological Map of Norway," as yet the only complete geological map of the coun- try published, there are distinguished three geographical divisions, belonging to the Primitive Gneiss formation, separated from each other by groups of rocks, belonging either to the primitive slate, the eruptive granite and syenite, or to the Silurian series. The first of these is situated high up in Finniark, its most north- ern point being the North Cape. The second stretches from Beiern-fiord, north of Trondhiem, along the whole coast of Nor- way, southward to Christiansand, and from thence north-east- ward to Kragero. To this division, the gneiss districts of Kongsberg and Modum also belong. The third division is that lying to the eastward of Christiania-fiord and lake Miosen. These three divisions form only the most westerly parts of the great Primitive Gneiss formation, which extends through Sweden to Finland, and which is the characteristic feature of Scandina- vian geology. The rocks which constitute this formation are the following : — 1. Gneiss in many varieties, the most common being what is called by Keilhau, characteristic gneiss, and which be thus de- scribes. " The rock consists of white or reddish white feldspar, (orthoclase), grey quartz and black mica; the feldspar and quartz being combined with each other granularly, and the mica ar- ranged in this mass in parallel layers ; so that the structure is more an alternatively granular and slaty one, than a regularly glaty structure, with quite equal distributions of the three con- ^^ \ in Norway and in Canada. 3 the 1 stituents. In this way, there is cansed a characteristic streaked appearance, sometimes with broad black or dark grey bands, and sometimes with the same streaks, narrower an 1 farther from each other, according as the mica is more plentifully or more sparingly distribnicd In the rock. The grains of feldspar, quartz and mica, are mostly rather small in this variety of gneiss, so that it seldom becomes coarsely granular." Gcea Norvegica^ p. 251. Through a gradual disappearance of the feldspar ; the gneiss sometimes changes into mica schist, and through a gradual change in the position of the laminae of mica, from that of parallel layers, to being irregularly distributed, the gneiss often passes into granite. Of the many varieties of gneiss, one deserves special notice ; it has been called Porphyroid gneiss, and differs from the characteristic gneiss in containing lenticular-shaped aggrega- tions of feldspar in a fine schistose matrix. It is this variety which has sometimes been called Eye gneiss. 2. Hornblende gneiss, differing from the characteristic gneiss in having exchanged the scales of mica for crystals of hornblende, arranged parallel with each other according to their longest axis- Sometimes however, the hornblende has only partially supplanted the mica, in which case intermediate varieties are formed between the hornblendic and common gneiss. Through gradual disap- pearance of both quartz and feldi^par, the hornblende gneiss often changes into hornblende schist, and sometimes through a change in the structure of the rocks from schistose to granular, syenitic and greenstone rocks are formed. 3. Granite of the usual composition. It often occurs as a very coarse grained aggregation of dark red orthoclasc with sparingly distributed quartz and mica. 4. Mica schist, composed of quartz and mica, with a schistose structure, and often containing garnets. It exhibits transitions into hornblendic schist as well as into gneiss, &c. 5. Hornblendic schist, forming transitions into greenstone, and when the structure continues coarse grained, into diorite and diabase. 6. Chlorite schist, consisting principally of chlorite and a little feldspar ; here and there interwoven with fibres of hornblende. 7. Talc schist, mostly quartzose. 8. Quartz, as granular quartz rock, forming layers and zones ; sometimes slaty, forming quartz slate. 9. Euphotide, consisting of brown diallagc and white feldspar. $ i Macfarlane on the Primitive Formations Other rocks allied to Ibis, have been discovered in a good many localities, and described as gabbro. 10. Serpentine, sometimes occurs iu such considerable masses as almost to entitle it to be regarded as a member of the formation. It is generfiUy of a light yellow colour. The well known de- posit of noble serpentine, occurring in the parish of Snarum, comes under this head. 11. Granular limestone^ as marble, in layers and irregular masses. 12. Conglomerates and breccia, mostly the latter. One is de- scribed as " a grauite-like combination of gneiss and granite," another "angular pieces of gneiss united by a gneissoid cement ; " a third consists of '^ a gneissoid or granitic matrix, enclosing small fragments of other gneissoid rocks." Besides the rocks above enumerated, there occur numberless varieti'^8, forming transitions between these types of rock, some of which have been already adverted to. Sometimes, as Naumann teraarks, '* within small spaces, one and 'the same specific com- position shews characters so quickly and so frequently changing, than we soon get accustomed to seek what is similar, only in the specific identity of the constituents, and not at all in the way or qviantity in which they are combined." Beitrdge zur Kentniss Norwpgens, I. 188. As the name Primitive Gneiss formation implies, the most widely distributed rock is the gneiss, either in its characteristic form or its varieties. Tlie next most freq'iently recurring rocks are granite, mica schist and hornblende schist, or rocks related to these types. Some otuer rocks which I have enumerated, such as chlorite and talc schists, granular limestone and quartzito, occur in comparatively small quantity, while the remainder of those mentioned must be looked upon as uncommon occurrences. As to the mode in which these rocks are associated with each other, the whole of them are arranged in parallel layers or zones, side by side, underlying or overlying each other. Hitherto no regular succession of rocks has been marked; they api)ear to be interstratified with each other without rule. The granitic masses are partly conlbrraable with the parallel masses of the schistose rocks, and partly occur irregularly. . It has been remarked that when the granite becomes raoie or less gneissoid, its masses ara regularly interstratified with the other schistose rocks ; but where the granite is totally free from all traces of gneissoid texture, the 1 V in Noruoay and in Canada, form in which it occurs deviates more or less from that of layers or beds. A remarkable instance of this is described by Keilhau, as occurring near Norefield. There he saw a mass of granite, which on the whole, was gneissoid and bedded, gradually change at a certain place into a perfect granite, and then, in complete uninterrupted continuity, pierce the rock in the form of a dyke. Another instance is mentioned of a granite rock occurring in the schistose rocks, " partly in very reguhir layers, partly as isolated knolls and lumps, and partly as a multitude of veins ; which in several places run through large portions of the neighbouring mountain as a close net-work." In spite of this however, this granitic rock showed in many places, a gneissoid structure. The relations of the hornblende schists and greenstones resemble those of the granite. The hornblende schist is regularly inlerstratified with the gneiss, mica schist and other rocks. Where its texture be- comes less slaty, the layers or zones are not so continuous, but form, in the direction of the strike, elongated nuclei, which, with their hard masses, often stand out from the general surface, and thus form well distinguished peak«, such as Johnsknuden near Kongsberg, and Fagerlidknatten south-east in Nedenaes. In- stance's of crystalline araphibolites cutting the strata, occur in the most northern gneiss district, but these appear to have been formed much later than the gneiss. Mention is also made of a diorite, or feldspathic hornblende rock, occurring in veins in a granular mixture of quartz, feldspar and garnet, which latter rock appeared to form a transition into the gneiss. One of the most striking features seen in the structure of this group of rocks, is the foldings and contortions, which the strata exhibit in all the divisions of the group. This is observed as well where no granitic masses are seen, as in the neigh- bourhood of such. On the high road from Hougsund to Kongs- berg, and shortly before reaching the latter place, the traveller can observe, without dismounting, the most wonderful bends an-i contortions in the structure of the gneissoid rocks occurring there. Scheerer, in describing these contortions, compares them to the windings figured upon marbled paper. Naumann, in remarking on the same phenomena on the north-west coast, expresses him- self as follows : " It is usually said of gneiss, that it is always clearly and regularly stratified. This assumes that the parallelism of the masses, of net too great extent, has a relation to one plane ; that the positions of the planes of structure 6 Mac/arlane on the Frimitive Formations '1 within small distances, are only subjected to small, and generally gradual and continuous alterations; that these do not frequently shew sudden faults, or leaps in the most varied directions, within a few paces. If we however examine much of the gneiss of northern Bergenstift, we find exactly the opposite of this. Lot one only observe the profiles which the play of the waves keeps so clearly and distinctly exposed on the mcky banks of Evenig- fiord, Outer DalsfiorJ, and especially of Sondelvsfiord. In what absolute indefiniteness, in what indescribable confusion is the structure of the masses exhibited 1 And yet there reigns the most unequivocal parallel structure within those thousand-fold mean- dering windings of the single zones, in which no rule, no law is evident, for the wonderful windings appear so lost in each other that neither drawing nor description is able to follow them." In the presence of such contprtions, and of local foldings on a larger scale, it is of course diflBcult to ascertain the general strike of the strata. It seems however, that in all the principal gneiss regions of Norway, the rocks run most generally north and south, or at least N.N.E. and S.S.W., and this, although there are nume- rous exceptions, appears to be the general strike. It seems also that a generalisation is possible as well with regard to the dip, as to the strike of the rocks constituting this group. The strata are almost always vertical or nearly so. This is the distinguishing character of the formation, and, en passant, let me remark the great diflSculty hitherto experienced in all theorizings as to its origin. Horizontal and less inclined strata have indeed been remarked in several places, but they must be regarded as exceptional. The dip is almost always over 45°, generally 60*^ to 80°, while per- fectly vertical strata are often observable. These much inclined strata may be traced continuously many miles on the above men- tioned north-easterly strike, and taken together, strike and dip, form a remarkable feature in the architecture of these rocks. As Keilhau remarks, " there lies spread out before us an area of many thousand square miles, which shews only in a few places, any other than steeply inclined strata. In a great many, and indeed we may say in the most and greatest portions of this area, we see these steep strata following some law of regular course. We find them stretching away ten, twenty and often many more geographical miles, according to the same lines, and it ap- pears to us that there where new fields of strike begin, it is still the same parallel masses which we have previously observed, and in Norway and in Canada. 7 which have only changed the direction of their strike." Goea Norvegica I, 8Y6. The landscape features in the gneiss region vary much. We find in it sometimes tame bills, flat undulating plateaux, in which only the valleys cut into it, have exposed more rugged forms ; but sometimes we find zigzag ridgos, sharp peaks, and other remarkable mountain shapes. In the gneiss districts of the south, long-drawn, broad massive mountain ridges are most common, but on the north-west cuast, the gneiss rises in rugged and fantastic forms above the surface of the water, in the numer- ous and intricate fiords of that region. The mineral deposits of these districts are neither few nor un- interesting. Some of these are worked, and produce silver, copper, cobalt, nickel and iroji, while others capable of yielding some of these metals or other minerals, remain unwrought or undeveloped. Foremost among the modes of occurrence of metals in this region, must be noticed the so-called fahlbands. These are not exclu- sively confined to the south of the Fields which run north-east- ward across Norway at its broadest part, but it is there, and espe- cially in the district of Buskei'ud, that they have experienced their greatest development. From a point to the west of Kongsberg, and near the junction with the so-called Tellemarken group, after- wards to be described, north-eastward to Tyrifiord, or to where the gneiss formation in Modum is overlaid by Silurian strata, there occurs a series of parallel zones of rock, having the same strike and dip as the rocks enclosing them, but distinguishable from these by the decomposed appearance and reddish-brown color which they present on the surface. This peculiar appear- ance, to which, according to Bobert, they owe their distinguishing name (from/aA/ orfaul, rotten, as the German miners, who first were employed in their exploration, termed them,) is attributable to the metallic sulphurets which they contain, and especially to iron pyrites ; the ferric oxide and the sulphates produced in the oxi- dation o( this being the coloring and decomposing agents. The quantity of metallic sulphurets necessary to produce this color- ing and decomposing etiect, is exceedingly small, and indeed it is sometimes scarcely possible to distinguish them, so finely dissem- inated are they through the mass of the rock constituting the fahlband. The sulphurets most generally present are common and magnetic iron pyrites, and copper pyrites ; although blende and galena have both been mentioned as impregnating materials, i ! 1 1- i) 8 Macfarlane on the Primitive Formations they are ooraparatively rare. Besides these, cobalt glance, co- baltiferoua arsenical, and iron pyrites, nickeliferous naagnetio pyrites, and argentiferous iron pyrites characterise peculiar lo- calities. The impregnation seems to be altogether independent of the nature of the rock; gneiss, mica schist, hornblende schist, Ac, being alike found constituting fahlbands. The continuity of these impregnated zones is frequently astonishing, some of them hav- ing been traced in the direction of their strike, nearly north and south, upwards of ten miles. Their course is often marked by depressions in the rocks, caused by their greater pronencss to de- composition, and these depressions are frequently occupied by marshes and lakes. The thickness of these bands varies from a few feet to several hundred, and they have been fre- quently observed to split up and throw off side bands, some of which seem to connect with other similar zones. Although, as in the case of the glance cobalt and cobaltiferous mispickel, the impregnating material is sometimes the object of mining enterprise, it is generally on the veins or irregular masses occur- ring in these fahlbands, that the mines of the district are situ- ated. Concentrations of metallic sulphurets or other minerals in fissures parallel with or crossing the strata, are by no means un- common, and in some instances have given rise to very profitable mining. The metallic deposits which I propose to notice in con- nection with those fjihlbands, are the silver mines of Kongsberg, the copper mines of Eker, the cobalt mines of Skuterud, and the nickel mires oi Hiiigerike, all of which are at present being worked. The rocks in which the fahlbands of Kongsberg occur are gneiss, mica schist and hornblende schist ; other rocks, such as granite, talc schist and ehlorite-schist, granitic gneiss and green- dtQues occur also in the immediate neighbourhood. Seven differ- ent fahlbands or groups of fahlbands have been recognized as existing in these rocks around Kongsberg, on every one of which, at some time or other since the year 1623, more or less mining has taken place. The two fahlbands which have been most mi- nutely examined, have an average thickness, respectively, of 200 feet and 1100 feet. The impregnating sulphurets are iron pyrites, magnetic and copper pyrites ; some of which appear to be argen- tiferous, since the fahlband itself contains one-eighth of an ounce silver per wt. These fahlbands are intersected throughout the whole extent, about six miles, by numerous veins containing gen- I I 1 M 1 in Norway and in Canada. § erally ca'cppar, fluorspar, qnartz and metallic silver, and more sparingly, bitterspar, stilbite, prchnite, harn.otome, laumontito, anthratiite, fibrous pyroxene, cbrysotile, asbestus, actinolite, axinite, adnlaria, and perhaps ulbile, auriferous silver, metallic j?old, horn silver, metallic arsenic, silver glance, red silver ore, galena, blende, magnetic, iron, and copper pyrites. These cross veins are exceedingly well developed within the fahlband, but beyond its limits they exhibit little distinctness or regularity, and moreover are totally destitute of silver. They do not however, while intersecting the fahlband, uniformly contain that valuable metal ; on the contrary its occurrence there is almost as uncertain as that of a valuable ore in any other lude, but only within the limits of the fahlband can one expect to find it. The only rule which seems ^ have been ascertained to exist with regard to its distri- bution in the vein, within the f'ahlbands, is this — that where the latter is most strongly charged with the impregnating sulphurets, the vein at that point is richest in silver. Such are the characters of the Kongsberg silver veins, striking examples of the influence which the wall-rock? exert on the con- tents of metallic lodes, and little liable to be neglecied in theories regarding the filling of such. The connection between the pyritous impregnation of the falilbands, and the argentiferous con- tents of the veins, necessitates the deduction that the silver has been denved from the pyrites, and as these have been found to be argentiferous, the deduction assumes the character of a fact itself. As to the mode in which the silver has been secreted various opinions may exist ; the most probable appears to me to be the following : — Through gradual contact with the waters containing oxygen» percolating through the rocks, tho sulphurets, especially the iron pyrites, were decomposed, sulphates of protoxide and peroxule of iron, and sulphate of protoxide of silver being the results. The first named salt would be produced in the earlier stages of the decomposition, and removed ; the two latter salts, pro- duced towards the end of the process, can exist simultaneously in solution. On reaching the fissure thus, in solution, they were met by some agent capable of precipitating the silver of the sul- phate. The agent which seems to me to have accomplished this, is the sulphate of protoxide of iron, already alluded to as a pro- duct of the decomposition of the pyrites. The precipitation of silver salts by a solution of copperas, is a well known chemical reac- 10 Mac/arlane on the Primitive Formations ? ;■; ii ! « hi tion, the products being metallic silver and sulphate of peroxide of iron. The number of veins intersecting the fahlbands at Kongsberg is very great iuJeed. While the mines belonged to the Danish government, almost the whole of them received some share of attention, an extensive but rather desultory system of mining thus resulting. Since the Norwegian government undertook the working of the mines in 1812, a different system has been pursued, rather the other extreme, of working at too few points. Only three veins, those of KongerCs Grube, Armen Grube^ and Gottes Hillfe-in-der-Noth^ have been the subject of raining ex- plorations. However this may be, the mining of the last twenty to thirty years has been eminently successful, and a source of considerable revenue to the Norwegian government. On account of the shortness of the veins, their exploration is pursued chiefly downwards, but as yet, in going downwards, n* dimi- nution in richness has been observed. On the contrary, largo masses of metallic silver, similar to those which obtained for the mines their celebrity in earlier times, have been recently found. Tiiese large masses are of course the exception, the most of the silver which is produced being separated from the vein-stone, in breaking it up, after its extraction .rom the mines. A large portion is also obtained in the stamping and washing of middle and poor ores at the mines, and in the same operations considerable quantities of more or less argentiferous schlichs and slimes are produ"ed. The whole of these products are farther treated in the smelting-house in Kongsberg. The poorer slimes and schlichs, containing from f to 1^ oz. per cwt., are smelted with about one-and-a-half times their own weight of a basic slag, containing very much ferrous oxide, from a subst'^uent smelting, and about half their own veight of iron pyrites. The re- sulting products are a regulus of sulphuret of iron, containing 3^ or 4< oz. of silver per cwt., and slags, containing ^V oz. silver, which are set aside as useless. The raw regulus is roasted in heaps, and then smelted with one-and-a-half times its weight of rich slags from subsequent operations, (containing from 8 to 9 oz. of silver. The regulus from this operation, as it is drawn off from the fur- nace into the crucible outside, is there stirred up with molten lead, poor in silver. From this results argentiferous leail (which is used over again in the same way, until it contains from 8^ to 10 per cent silver,) and a lead regulus (sulphurets of iron, lead and I ^ 4 ■■,-• in Norway and in Canada. 11 roxide of )ng8berg Danish share of mining ■took the las been V points. m6c, and aing ex- it iwenty ource of 1 account pursued n» dimi- iry, large lined for recently tion, the .ed from .vom the ping and he same mtiferous products rg. The per cwt., veight of ibstquent The re- aining 3^ er, which )aps, and ich slags of silver. I the fur- h molten 'which is 8^ to 10 lead and I silver), containing of silver, 14 oz., per cwt. The slag from this second operation is what is used in the raw smelting. The lumps of metallic iron formed at the same time, and called iron . swine, are worked up with the lead regulns, by being smelted I together with the litharge and the hearths from the cupellation of the argentiferous lead. This operation produces lead containing only from 1^ to 2 per cent, silver, which is used in the treatment of the argentiferous regulus, as described above. The lead regulus from this last smelting, which contains from 6 to 20 oz. of silver per cwt. is again smelted with lead, and its silver content is thus brouirht down to 4 or 6 ounces. It is then roasted and smelted with its own weight of poor slags containing 6 to 8 oz, of silver, when there results lead containing 4 to 5 lbs. of silver per cwt,, which goes to the second operation ; togetlier with slags which are used in the first operation ; and a copper regulus, containing 1 per cent silver, and 20 to 30 percent copper. The latter is repeatedly smelted and treated with poor lead, until it contains not more than ^ oz. silver per cwt., when it is roasted and smelted to black copper. The lead from the second operation, containing from 8^ to 10 per cent of silver, is cupelled in a German cupellinghearth, in which operation, hot air is used with great advantage. The resulting silver, and ttie rich silver ores from the mines, are reffhed in a furnace some- what like the English cupelling furnace, the hearth of which rests on a well-arranged carriage, on which, after the operation is completed, the hearth is lowered on the one side, and the silver poured into the moulds standing prepared for it. The sweepings of this re- finery, and the furnace hearths, are carefully smelted in a small furnace, and the products worked up, according to their contents in silver, in one or other of the operations already des- cribed. The Eker copper mine consists of an irregular mass of iron and copper pyrites, situated on the strike of a fahiband, part of the impregnated rock of which is found to be so richly impregnated with copper pvrites as to be worth smelting. The ores are brought up by hand-picking at the mines, to about four per cent. They are then carted about four miles to the smelting liouso, where they are roasted in heaps. The roasted ore, with the addition of a little limestoni^, is smelted in shaft furnaces. The resulting re- gulus, of about ! 6 per cent, is concentrated by being again roasted and smelted, yielding a regulus of from 40 to 60 per cent. This Ill u ! I' ii f !l I f ii i:) i 13 Macfarlane on the Primitive Formations when aajain roasted and smelted produces black copper, which, being refined on the small hearth to gahr copper, is sold in Chris- tiania or Hamburg. The cobalt mine of Skuterud occurs on a fahlband, which has been traced about five miles, the rock being a qnartzose mica schist. Layers of impregnated hornblende and actinolite schists are also of frequent occurrence. The rocks run north and south, and have a dip nearly vertical ; sometimes inclined slightly to the east, sometimes to the west. In these recks the following metallic minerals have been observed; magnetic, iron and copper pyrites, characterising the fahlband ; cobalt glance, cO" baltine, cobaltiferous mispickel, magnetic iron ore, graphite, and molybdenite are found more sparingly, impregnating the fahl- band at certain places. These latter minerals do not occur in veins, but they are sometimes associated with quartz. They seem to form rather a succession of small layers, running parallel with the foliation of the rock. They are by no means generally distributed through the fahlband, and it has only been by taking out the whole mass of this, that the cobaltiferous portions have been got at hitherto. The fahlband itself has a breadth of from one to five fathoms, and it seems, toward the north, to be divided into two different bands, separated from each other by a large mass \)f dead rock. The mines were discovered in 1T72, and have since been uninterruptedly worked, notwith- standing an extraordinary decrease in the value of the products. The treatment of the ores, as at present pursued, is as follows. The rocks are broken and sorted into rich and common ores. In the treatment of the smalls by means of a fall wash-work, washed ore of a very small size is produced, besides the above sorts. The whole of this ore is so finely disseminated, that it can only be advantageously treated by stamping and washing. The stamping mill is of the construction used in Saxony. The resulting stamp meal and slimes are concentrated first on percussion and then on sleeping tables. The rich ore treated in this manner yields per ton 86 ^ lbs. oi achUchy contain- ing 17.96 lbs. metallic cobalt. The aommon ore yields per ton 29 lbs. of schlich, containing 1.88 lbs. of cobalt. The poorer achlichs are further concentrated by being partly roasted, anl smelted with an addition of some limestone and slag. The resulting slag is set aside. The reguliis (sulpharseniurets of iron, cobalt and copper,) containing about 22 per cent metallic I i I i. jK, in JSorway and in Canada. 13 er, which, in Chria- which has zose mica lite schists lorth and gd slightly 3 following iron and glance, cO" aphito, and (T the fahl- not occur irtz. They ing parallel IS generally \ by taking »U9 portions IS a breadth the north, from each discovered ed, notwith- le products. \ as follows. i common s of a fall iced, besides isseminated, amping and ion used in concentrated ri.e rich ore /cA, contain- elds per ton The poorer roasted, and slag. The rseniurets of sent metallic cobalt, is roasted in reverberatory furnaces, and being mixed with the riuLer schlichs, which have also been calcined in the same way, forms what is called zatfre, containing about 30 per cent cobalt oxide. This is sent to market in England, where it is raa- nutautured into cobalt oxide and smalt. A small quantity of the former product is manufactured on the spot in the humid way, but this quantity does not exceed one sixth of the whole amount of tlie cobalt oxide here produced in mauufactured and unmanufac- tured products. The fahlbands in the neighbourhood of Ertelien, and Ringerike, have not been so carefully studied as those of Kongsberg and and Skuterud ; nevertheless it admits of no doubt, that the nickel mines of the former locality occur on impregnated zones of rock like the falilbands. The deposits are irregular masses of magnetic iron pyrites contuining two per cent of metallic nickeU Akiiougli a definite veinstone is not observable, it appears from the presence of selvages in various places, that the deposits par- take of the nature of veins. Besides the nickeliferous pyrites, copper pyrites is produced at the mines in some quantity, but 80 contaminated with the former, as to be altogether useless as a copper ore. Occasionally, beautiful crystals of iron pyrites (peiuagonal dodecahedrons), have been found, containing two per cent of metallic cobalt. The nickeliferous pyrites is sorted out at the mine, very pure, almost entirely free from rock. It is then roasted in heaps, and smelted in a shaft furnace with the addition of a little limestone. The resulting products are a very heavy slag, with is a basic silicate of ferrous oxide ; a regulus ofsulphuret of iron, containing about six per cent nickel, and iron swine, which collect in the interior of the furnace during the smelting, and interfere very much with its proper working. The regulus is again roasted in heaps and smelted, a more con- centrated regulus with thirty per cent of nickel, resuUing. The regulus, as well as the iron swiue produced in both smeltiugs, are farther refined on a hearth similar to that used on the continent for refining copper. A farther scorification of iron takes place in this operation, and a regulus with fitly per cent of nickel and fifteen per cent of copper results, which after being ground to powder, is sent to market. It is mostly sent to Hamburg and sold to Ger- man nickel refiners. These mines were formarly wrought, and the pyrites roasted for the manufacture of copperas ; it is only during the last fourteen years that they have been wrought for nickel. 14 f-i m •V t I' 'I ' il:' Macfarlane on the Primitive Formations Besides the four establishments here described, which are in full operation, there are a good many deposits connected with fahlbands, which are either abandoned, or have not as yet been worked. Of these the following may be mentioned — the cobalt mines of Svartefield, very similar in character to those of Skuterud, the copper works in Sognedalen, and on Kobberbergselven. There are also numerous localities of pyrites containing small quantities of nickel or cobalt, or both. The magnetic pyrites from Hoiassen contains tliree per cent of nickel and six tenths per cent of cobalt; that from Rustand, six tenths per cent of nickel and one per cent of cobalt; that from Olafsbye one per cent of cobalt, and the iron pyrites from Satersberg one per cent of cobalt. There are however other deposits of pyrites in this formation, whose connection with fahlbands is more uncertain. Such localities for instance are those of Meinkier Grube, containing copper pyrites, nickeliferous magnetic pyrites and oobaltiferous iron pyrites ; and Steenstrup's Kiesgrube, on Lyngdalselven, con- taining the same minerals. Dahll* looks upon these as contact de- posits, and connects them with the intrusion of so-called gabbro. Close'y allied in nature to the falilb>»uds above described are certain other zones of impregnated rock, occuring in this forma- tion. The imprejinating material, however, is magnetic iron ore, the bands containing which scarcely possess such a length in the dirertion of the strike, as the fahlbands. Moreover the mngnetic iron ore, besides occurring in this finely divided state, forms considerable beds in the impregnated zones referred to. It is from these deposits that the iron works of Sweden and Norway are supplied with the material from which their celebrated iron is prepared. These deposits are of frequent occurrence in the south of Norway, especially in the neiglibourhood of Arendal, where there exist eighteen different beds of ore, which well repay the cost of working them. They are situated in a narrow straight zone, which runs parallel with the coast for a distance of six miles. The prevailing rock is gneiss, which graduates into mica and hornblende slate. The ore is magnetic oxyd, usually without any admixture of ferric oxide. The minerals most fre- quently accompanying it are augite, hornblende, garnet, epidote, calcspar, and the three essential constituents of the gneiss, espe- cially ruica. Besides these, about thirty other minerals have been mentioned as having been found in the deposits, but these are i '% 'vT I Om Kongsberg's Erts District ; Christiana, 1860. I'l. ^ in Norway and in Canada, 15 hich are cted with yet been lie cobalt Skuterud, jrgselven. ng small rites from )er cent of id one per It, and the Formation, 1. Such containing )a]tiferou8 liven, con- ontact de- id gabbro. cribed are lis ffirma- iron ore, length in Bover the ded state, d to. It 1 Norway ed iron is (he south al, where repay the r straight ce of six into mica usually most fre- epidote, iss, espe- als have these are of rarer occurrence. The masses of ore appear flattened, almond-shaped, and drawn out parallel with the foliation of the enclosing rock. In the direction of the strike, they thin out, or branch off and disappear. Their average thickness is from two to six yards, but it sometimes reaches twenty yards. The iron works of Ulefoss, Possum, Froland, Nas and others, are all more or less dependent on these deposits for their ores. The si- tuations of these iron works seem to have been chosen, loss with a view to economically transporting the ore, than to taking advan- tage of the magnificent water powers, which exist everywhere in Norway. The fuel is charcoal, mostly from pine, and it has also to be carted considerable distances. The blast furnaces used, are partly similar to those used in Sweden, and partly to those used in Germany. They are thirty feet high, from four to four and a half feet wide at top, and from seven to eight at their widest part. The percentage of metallic iron contained in the mixture to be smelted, ranges from 25 to 42 per cent, and the average production of raw iron from a furnace is 2^ tons daily. l| tons of charcoal are consumed in the production of one ton of iron. The refining takes place on what are called " frisch hearths," and hammers are used in the further mechanical treatment of the resulting lumps of malleable iron. The iron produced, is like the Swedish, celebrated for its purity. It is shipped to Hamburg, and from thence mostly to America. Large quai\ti(ie8 of titaniferous iron ore occur at Ekersnnd and Snarum ; that from the former locality contains 43 per cent of ti- tanic acid. Phosphate of lime has also been worked and exported from the neighbourhood of Kragero. With these I must close this sketch of the economical minerals of the primitive gneiss formation of Norway, and turn to compare it in its various features with *hat of Canada. The parallelism of the Laurentian formation of Canada with the g "''^8 of Scandinavia was long ago pointed out by Sir William Logan, and in the more recent reports of the Geological Survey, especially those of 1853-56, we find the features of the Canadian formation fully described. The rocks there occurring are essen- tially the !-ame as those of Norway. Keilhau's characteristic gneiss corresponds to the granitic or micaceous gneiss of Canada, and the hornblende gneiss of Norway is the syenitic or hornblen- dic gneiss of the Laurentian formation. Even the ej/e gneiss variety appears to exist here, and from the description, to be syno- 16 Macfarlane on the Primitive Formations ■hi- it ^m nymous with the reticulated gneiss. In corroboration of this I take the liberty of quoting the following remarks of Sir William Logan : — " In the Reports of the Survey, the Laurentian rocks have been described in general terms, as gneiss, interstrutiiied with important masses of crystalline limestone. The term gneiss, strictly defined, signifies a granite with its elements, quartz, feldspar and mica, arranged in parallel planes, and con- taining a larger amount of mica than ordinary granite pos- sesses, giving to the rock a schistose or lamellar structure. When hornblende, instead of mica, is associated with quartz and feldspar, the rock is termed syenite, but as there is no distinct specific single name for a rock containing these elements in a lamellar arrangement, it receives the appellation of syenitic gneiss. Gneiss rock then bccom«s divided into two kinds, granitic and syenitic gneiss, and the word gneiss would thus ap- pear rather to indicate the lamellar arrangement than the min- eral composition. Granitic and syenitic gneiss were the terms applied to these rocks in the first Reports ; Sut as granite and syenite are considered rocks of igneous origin, and the epithets derived from them might be supposed to have a theoretical re- ference to such an origin of the gneiss, while at the same time it appears to me that the Lauientian series are altered sedimen- tary rocks, the epithets micaceous and hornblendic, have been given to the gneiss in later Reports, as tiie best mode of de- signating the mineral composition and lamellar arrrangement, without any reference whatever to the supposed origin of the rocks. (Report 1 853-50, pp. 49 and 50.) Further " The space between them (the bands of limestone) is occupied by gneiss, the banded structure of which is vis- ible in a vast number of places, but a large part of the rock is coarse grained ; the feldspar being in individuals, frequently at- taining an inch and sometimes more in diameter, while the mica- and fehe quartz, often accompanied by hornblende, and the former sometimes replaced by it, are distributed among the feldspar in such a manner as to give a reticulated aspect to the surface. Beds of this character are sometimes thin, but when thick and massive, which they usually are, they might upon a first inspec- tion be mistaken for igneous instead of altered rocks. Upon a careful study of the case, however, it will be perceived that this reticulated structure is accompanied by an obscure arrangement of the meshes of the net-work, into parallel lines, which are found in Norway and in Canada. 17 this I take William tan rocks rstratified rhe ttirm elements, and con- luite pos- structure. uartz and 10 distinct nents in a f syenitic no kinds, I thus ap- tUe min- ;he terms anite and e epithets retical re- aine time sedimen- ave been de of de- ngement, n of the imestone) is vis- e rock is aeutly at- tlie mica- he former jldspar in > surface, hiuk and st itivspec- Upon a that this iugement are found I to be conformable with the more distinctly bandied portion of the strata." (/6/rf, p. 9-10.) Besides gneiss, the following rocks are mentioned as occurring in the Laureiitian system. A crystalline aggregate of feld- spar and quartz, granite in veins, mica and hornblende schists, chlo- ritic gneiss, quartz-rock or quartzite, hypersthenite, serpentine, crystalline limestone, greenstone, hornblende rock, besides syenite and porphyry, which latter intrusive rocks however belong to a later period. These rocks are, on the whole, the same as those occurring in the primitive gneiss formation of Norway. Granite however does not seem to occur in masses running parallel with the other rocks, unless we include under this denomination the above mentioned crystalline aggregate of feldspar and <}uartz. The Iiyperstbcne rocks described by Mr. Hunt in his inte- resting Report 18i5, seem to be of a character similar to those occurring in Norway, and there described as gabbro and euphotide, however nuich the latter rocks, in their true types, differ from hypersthenite. The confusion existing among mine- ralogists regarding the nature of these rocks seems still to prevail^ notwithtanding the able and exhaustive work of Mr. Hunt on the subject. As a proof of this, T may refer to a recent paper by Dahll ou the ore district of Kongsberg, where there is a rock described as gabbro, which is composed of " violet or brownish labradorite and dark green hornblende. The color is that of the hornblende, consequently dark. Diallage, which is known by its shining lustre, is perhaps oftcner present than has hitherto been demonstrated ; ilracnite is characteristic ; and magnetic pyrites oc- curs frequently ; with these, a little brown mica is frequently re- marked." Om Kongsherg^s Erts District^ p. 16. Gabbro is commonlv described as " a crystalline, ijranular or sometimes schistose mixture of feldspar or saussurite with diallage orsmarag- dite ;" Cotta : Gesteinslehre, p. 53. ItisdiflBcult to conceive how the above described rock resembles gabbro ; unless as Dahl furth- er remarks concerning it, " labradorite is decisive of gabbro."* (Editor's note, by T. Stkrry Hunt.) * The name of gabbro, originally employed by the Italians to desig- nate a dialiagic serpentine, i3, by most modern authors, applied to a rock composed of a tricliuic feldspar (such as labradorite) with pyroxene. When the latter is of the variety called hypersthene, the rock takes the name of liyperite or hypersthenite, but when it assumes the form of dial, lage or of smaragdite, the name of gabbro is given to the rock. In smar- B # 18 Macfarlane on the Pfimtive Formations m ^v- 'M The serpentines of the Laurentian formation, are described by Mr. Hunt as of a paler colour than those of the metamorphic series. He failed to detect either nickel or chrome in them,and in his exam- ination of a serpentine said to be from Modum in Norway, (proba- bly that of Snaruni, from its being associated with ilmenite), these metals were also absent. This is consequently another point of resemblance between the serpentines of the Laurentian formation and those of the Norwegian gneiss formation, distinguishing both of them from the serpentines of the metamorphic series. The crys- talline limestones of the Laurentian formation appear to be much more frequent, and more regularly interstratified than those of the Norwegian gneiss formation, and this is one of the features in which a difference is remarkable between the two formations. In the Laurentian, as in the Norwegian gneiss formation^ the gneiss is the prevailing rock, and interstratified with most of the rocks above mentioned. The strike of the strata of the Lau- rentian formation is most generally N. E. and S. W; or W. N. E^ and S. S. W, and the dip much inclined, though perhaps gene- rally less so than those of the Norwegian gneiss formation. With regard to the economic minerals of the Laurentian form- ation, the existence of fahlbands similar to those of Norway seems to be nticertain. Still we find in the Geological Reports, descrip- tions of red-weathering rocks, which bear no slight resemblance to them, and should they be found to possess the character of fahlbands, a search for economic minerals in connection with them, would most likely be successful, because the metalli- ferous area is limited and well defined The colour of the rock would assist in tracing it along its strike, ami any veins cros- sing it or occurring in it would he easily recognised. Whether the pyrites of Daillebout occurs in connection with a fahl- agdite we have au intimate mixture of pyroxene with hornblende, afford- ing a transition to rocks composed of triclinic feldspars and hornblende ; in other words to diorite and diabase. Those rocks which consist of such feldspars, with diallage or hypersthene, I arrange under the generic name of dolerite. When the feldspar in these predominates, and is gran- ular or compact, including masses of diallage, the rock has been in- correctly called euphotide. This name was originally given by Haiiy to a mixture of diallage or smaragdite with what he called saussurite, a mineral which by modern lithologists has been strangely confounded with compact feldspar, from which it is distinguished by its much great- er gravity and hardness, and is, as I have elsewhere shown, a compact joisite or •pidote. The true epidotic euphotides however sometimes in- ^ ■■*» in Norway and in Canada. Ad 8(1 by Mr. hie series, his exam- y, (proba- ite), these her point formation hing both The crys- I be much ose of the eatures in trmations. brmation ih most of the Lau- W. N. E, laps gene- in. tian form- vay seems , descrip- emblance iracter of tion with raetalli. the rock eins cros- Whether fabl- ie, aflford- rnblende ; consist of le generic d is gran- been in- by Haiiy aussurite, nfounded eh great- compact times in- 1-^ I >;■' J band is uncertain ; looking to the character of the mineral, which contains nickel and cobalt equivalent to 0*55 per cent of the oxides of these metals, I think it is very probable. The cobalti- ferous pyrites of Brockville seems, on the other hand, to be an in- dependent deposit, seeing that it occurs in such extraordinary quantity. I found the compact variety to contain metallic cobalt corresponding to 0.50 per cent cobalt oxide. This result was con- firmed by Mr. Hunt, who found 0*52 per cent. In the neighbour- hood of the copper mine of Escott, I found no traces of anything resembling fahlbands, so that I am inclined to parallelize this locality with the pyritiferous deposits above described as oc- curring at Meinkier and Lyngdalselven, independent of the fahl- bands. In no particular docs the Laurentian formation so much resemble the primitive gneiss formation of Norway, as in containing those enormous deposits of magnetic iron ore, which occur in the townships of Madoc, Marmora, Crosby, Hull, «fec. In extent however, the Canadian deposits far surpass the Norwegian, In like manner, the deposits of titaniferous iron of Bay St. Paul far surpass in extent those of Snarum and Ekeisund. The phosphate of lime of Burgess and Elinsley, differs from the deposits of the same mineral in Norway, in being associated with crystalline limestone, and in occurring in far greater quintities. I have thus endeavoured, as far as my knowledge of Canadian geology permits, to parallelize the various features of the Lauren- tian and primitive gneiss formations. Doubtless many who are more intimately acquainted with the geology of this country will be able to recognize further points of resemblance, and in view of this possibility, I have described the Norwegian formation at greater length. I shall be guided by the same considerations in describing the two other groups of rocks which I have yet to compare with their Canadian equivalents. I cannot however elude triclinic feldspars, and thus pass into diallagic dolerite or gabbro. The foldspatbic rocks of the Laurentian system, above referred to, consist of labradorite,andeaine, or some relatedfeldspar, and often include pyrox- ene, which from a variety like sahlite, passes into hypersthene and dial- lage, giving rise to hypersthenite, and to the incorrectly named gabbro and euphotide of most modern lithologists. The rock from Kongsberg, as above described by Dahll, except in the substitution of hornblende for pyroxene, agrees closely with a variety of diallagic dolerite common in the Laurentian series. For further illustrations of this subject, see a paper on Euphotide and Saussurite, in the American Journal of Science for March 1859. 90 Macfarlane on the Primitive Formations ' ! leave this division of my subject, without referring to one impor- tant difference which exists between Norway and Canada, in re- gard to the economic minerals of this group. In the former country, despite its comparative poverty, those deposits are well developed. In Canada they remain dead and unproductive. Wiiy they should be so, it is difficult to say. Canada has the advantage of Norway in having richer mineral deposits, better means of transport by its canals and railways, and a much greater command of capital. With regard to fuel, both charcoal and imported coal, it is equally as well situated as Nor- way, and although labour is much dearer than in the latter country, there is every prospect of this disadvantage becoming less considerable. The severity of the winter pres'iiits no greater hindrances to mining in Canada than in Norway, and Canada is rapidly acquiring the skilled labour essential for successful rain- ing. Ill view of these considerations therefore, one may hope that the great accumulation of economic minerals in Canada will soon become one of her most important sources of national wealth. II. The Primitive Slate Formation. A : The Quartzose Grovp. The district in which the above-named group of rocks is prin- cipally developed is that of Tellemfirken, in the south of Norway, celebrated by tourists as containing perhaps the most wild and picturesque scenery in the north of Europe. There exist also northward from Trondhiem, some districts, where the same group seems to prevail, but these cannot be compared with that of Tellemarken, either in extent or economic importance ; nor have they been studied or described so minutely.* Naumann entitled this district, the Nummedal and Tellemarken Quartz Formation; Keilhau described it as the Goustafjeld Rogion, from the mountain which is its most distinguished topographical feature; while Dahll somewhat indefinitely calls it the Tellemarken Slate Formation. The rocks which constitute this group are the following : 1, Quartzite or quartz slate. This, the most widely distributed rock of the group, occurs in the most multifarious varieties. Pure quartz, with a granular structure and glassy lustre, of con- • According to Keilhau, tlie district in West Fintnark and Qusenanger, in which the Alten Copper Mines occur, belongs to this group. It is probable also, that another district to thv' east of the North Cape is of the same formation. .« I t i ?M Norway and in Canada. 21 -1 I I sidcrable transparency, atul of a white or greyish-white colour, ia to be found in bods of great thickness. Fine-grained quartz, with a fatty lustre, and rose-red or flesh-red in color, is also observed in equally powerful beds. The most common varieties are however the splintery, grey, and slightly micaceous quarlzites, which are known as quartz slates. Amongst the more impure varieties, talcose, feldspathic, and hornblendic quartzites are to be distin- guished. 2. Mica schist, differing considerably in general character from that which occurs in the Primitive Gneiss Formation. The broad- leaved very micaceous variety, with garnets, which is common in that formation, has not been observed at all in this quartzose series. In the constitution of the mica schist belonirinir to the latter, quartz greatly preponderates, and the rock difters from quartz slate, only in containing a somewhat larger quantity of sil- ver-white or brownish-black mica. 3. Gneiss may bo also said to occur in this group, but of a character widely different from what is usually understood by this term. It is finer grained and less slaty than the characteris- tic primitive gneiss, wdiilc the feldspar and quartz, and especially the latter, greatly preponderate in quantity over the mica. This latter mineral, which plays such an important part in the compo- sition of ordinary gneiss, is very little developed, and hornblende is never found replacing it ; so that nothing resembling hornblendic gneiss is found in this group. 4. Hornstone and hornstone porphyrij , passing into jasper, often occur, and seem to consist of the same minerals, and in the same proportions, as the two last named rocks, but so fine grained that the species are no longer recognizable. The mica schist is seen in some places to pass into a grey, coarse, splintery, quartzose hornstone ; while the gneiss gives a red or brown licrnstone, with fine splintery, and nearly smooth fractures. 5. Hornblende slate. 6. Talc slate. Y. Chlorite slate. 8. Clay slate. 9. Limestone has only been remarked at one place in the whole group, where a thin bed of granular yellowish-white limestone, occurs in the quartzose gneiss. 10. Greenstone and diorite, composed principally ofalbiteand hornblende, occur in large and important masses. \-:'; 22 Mac/arlane on the Primitive Fgrmations 11. Granite does not seera to occur intcrstratified with the members of this group, but frequently intersects them in the form of veins, and also forms irregular masses. 12. Conglomerates and breccias occur in suoh quantity, and of such peculiar characters, as to constitute a distinguishing feature of the formation. The whole of the rocks already named as forming part of this group, but especially the quartz'tos, often contain beds or irregular masses, having the aspect ri' conglo- merates ; which are made up of fragments of the respectively en- closing rocks, cemented togetlier either by a micaceous or talcoae substance. The fragments are more or less rounded, and ofteu of oblong forms ; thoy generally lie parallel with each other, but \ery often oear little resemblance to boulders. The rocks just enumerated, form layers, often of enormous thicknes3,which alternate with each other, forming parallel groups, in which one or the other of them (generally the quartz), predo- minates. The fine and coarse grained greenstones or diorites of the formation, are most generally in layers running parallel with the other rocks. They sometimes however occur as veins cutting these, and more frequently as irregular masses. The greenstone beds are often of great extent, and pass through gradual transitious into the neighboring rocks. A layer of diorite occurs in the parish of Skafse, having a thickness of 1000 feet. In the middle it is granular, but towards each side, it gradually assumes a slaty texture. It has also been remarked of other greenstone layers in the group, that they assume a slaty structure, as they approach the rocks above or below them. Keilhau has the following re- marks with regard to the extent which these greenstone or diorite rocks occupy in the series before us, '* We may obtain a good idea of the extent to which this member of the group is de- veloped, from the district west of Bandag Lake. On the road to Mo church, we are surrounded by rugged mountains about 2500 feet high, and these from the bottom of the valley to their sum- mits, consist of the same mass of diorite, which has here a breadth of about two geographical miles." The conglomerates, of which mention has already been made, have such an important bearing on the question of the origin of the primitive slate formation, that I may be excused for inserting here, at length, a translation of Keilhau's description of them. These conglomerates have been observed : 1. above Hjserdal church ; 2. on the road from Fladdal to Manddal ; and, 3. on *:- ,■'1 ^ I in Norway and in Canada, fa 7 ^^■ the road from Guldnaes to Herge, in Morgedal. *'The first loca- lity in wliioli tlie coiiglotnt'ratu quartzitea occur in repeated alter- nations with hornblende rock (diorite), has been described by Naumann (Beitnige I, 79). The quartz layers there consist of what often appears to be a very fine-grained niioaceoua sandstone ; in which harder round or oval concretions, sorautinics feklspathic, sometimes (juartzose, and sometimes of still more varied natures, are imbedded. The softer cementing matter is frequently worn away, so that the harder masses stand out from the rock, like hemispheres. The smaller and more varied in their nature these concretions (which appear formed exactly like boulders) are, the more talcose the enclosing mass becomes ; whereby the slaty texture of the quarzite becomes undulating and confused." The second ttt the above mentioned localities is on the Mandoela, a short distance bcfwe it falls into the Sillegjord. The bluish- grey, very pure and crystalline quartzite which here occurs, is for a considerable distance around, apparently unstratified, and cannot strictly be defined as quartz-slate. It forms powerful masses, in the midst of whi(;h large and indistinctly limited por- tions, are more or less thickly impregnated with small rounded portions of quartz of the most different shades of color, from white to red and dark-grey. Some of these are quartz, others jasper, while others resemble hornstone; but all of them, even those which most closely resemble their qiiartzoee matrix, are sharply de- fined, and appear like pebbles cemented into it. The tact that these portions are not arranged as sejjarate layers, but spread out as irregular areas, in the massive and crystalline quartz, is to be regarded as unfavorable to the opinion of the me- chj^nical origin of these conglomerates." " At the third of the above mentioned localities, the conglomerate is also enveloped in a large group of quartzite, which contains besides, only a few isolated masses of greenstone. The perfectly boulder-like con- cretions of the conglomerate bed, which range from the size of a hazelnut, to that of the human head, are here of the same sort of greyish-white splintery quartz, which forms the strata of the whole surrounding group. A few of them only a"*** reddish, and remind one of the jasper-like masses which appear to be gene- rally associated with these conglomerate quartzites. At the Hjserdal locahty, already described, Nauraann found whole layers of jasper, close *r; the conglomerate. The cementing material of the con- glomerate betwixt Guldnois and Bergc is argillaceous, and small 24 Macfarlane on the Primitive Formations A' I ■ •■ ■ij,i:i in amount ; and is certainly to be regarded as analogous to the small beds of clay slate, which occur as regular layers between the thick quartz strata, at other points in this neighborhood. Al- though the foliation of the pure quartzite is retained in the con- glomerate, which is many fathoms thick, this nevertheless, like that below Manddal, does not appear to oc upy any well-defined horizon in the stratification. In place of forming a continuous zone along the strike, it appears rather to be a comparatively short and irregular mass. Occurrences of this sort, which may be regarded as belonging at once to the quartz and to the mica schist, are found to a con- siderable e>"*",ent on the northwest of Sillegjord Lake. Here, on the bounf'ary of the primitive gneiss formation, at several points where the quartzite begins to replace the mica-schist, we find layers in which the quartz occurs in the shape of long cylinders as thick as the finger, and rounded off" at both ends, as elongated almond-shaped masses ; or in the form of boulders, im- bedded in a cement of mica schist. Some time since, Naumann directed attention to the fact that the amount of talc contained in the cement is greater, the more the conglomerate is varied in its composition. I have often confirmed this, and have moreover remarked that the talc seems to stand in some intimate connection with these problematical rocks. This may be the reason why they have nowhere been found more fre- quently than on the road between Berge in Brunkeberg, and Qvale in Hoidalsmo ; where the quartz beds are associated with other rocks, and especially with those of a talcose nature. The most re- markable conglomerate of this district, as well on account of its composition, as its thickness, is splendidly exposed in a narrow ravine called Ormebraekjuvet, which cuts across the conglom- erate, inclined at an angle of 70°. A road and a rivulet here pass through the ravine, and the rocks are seen in profile on both sides. In a coarse mass ofquartzose tale-slate, sometimes more or less micaceous or argillaceous, different varieties of quartz are im- bedded ; which have the form of small boulders, or are elongated in the direction of the stratification. Besides these, there may be remarked in the slate, a multitude of red and very fine-grained feldspathic concretions, which betray here and there a gneissoid nature, caused by dark mica-like streaks. These feldspathic con- cretions are the more remarkable, aince hitherto, no rock far or near,has been discovered bearing the slightest resemblance to thenit in No7'waij and in Canada. 25 gous to the between the hood. Ah in the con- ss, like that veil-defined continuous nparatively belonging :1 to a con- Here, on eral points it, we find i of long h ends, as ilders, ira- ct that the more the confirmed to stand ks. This more fre- itid Qvale ith other ! most re- Jnt of its narrow onglom- lere pass >tli sides. e or less are im- ongated sre may -grained neissoid hie con- c far or ;o them» •« although thoir oval form, in some parts, and the fact that they are sometimes bent in the direction of the undulations of the sur- rounding mass of slate, would favor the view that they are pebbles from an older rock. They become still more remarkable when wo observe them repeatetl at very distant points. Exactly similar gneissoid concretions with those of Tellemarken, of which we here speak, have been remarked in the conglomerate rocks of North Trondhjems Aint. The boulder-like fragments in the rock of Ormebrrckjuvet, attain the size of a closed fist, and lie usually so near to eacli other, that tlu'y constitute the gi eater part of the whole rock. Eastward from Llolvig, towards Vaa;, tlown in Vest- fjorddalen, conglomerate talcose rocks also are found. Here, in a talcose slate, a layer was observed including larger and smaller kernels of quartz, sometimes almond-shaped, at other times more irregular; and one part, apparently segregations from the slate it- self. The foliated portions of the rock are bent and rolled around these masses. On the weathered surfaces of the rock, these ir- regular, and. as it were, imbedded portions, have a lighter color than the surrounding mass. There is probably some feldspar present in these, as well as in the gneissoid concretions already mentioned, and their lighter colour may be due to kaolin from its decomposition. Southward from Holvig, a layer of similar rock occurs, which belongs to the clay slate." " Conglomerates which belong to the chloritic rocks in this district, are found at various places in the u[>per part of Vest- fjorddalen, in the ueighborhood of the cataract Rjukanfoss. From Vaio, over and beyond Maristigen, a hard chloritic slate predominates; which appears often as if it had been torn in pieces, and then joined together again, and which contains other very curious aggregations. There may be observed masses like ser- pentine, portions of grccMistono, &<•., combined in the must varied manner with the siato ; while many phenomena render this place suitable for a more minute study of these conglomerates," *' Farther on, at several points in the neighbourhood of Aamdal, it may be observed that the mica schist contains concretions having the appearance of imbedded fragments, and with an aspect, froM which one must believe that it has once been broken up, .and its piect . afterwards irregularly joined together. For ex- ample, there is exposed between Aamdal Copper-work and Skafse church, a large area of tliis character. The rock is a lino slaty quartzose mica schist, which, as if by an internal breaking-up, 26 Macfarlajie on the Primitive Formations m iriiL II has acquired a well marked brecciated structure. Only a few of the recemented pieces have roundea angles, the most of them being sharp-cornered. The whole rock, but especially the frag- ments, contain some feldspar. I will mention one other instance, from which it appears that hornblende schist may also some- times contain fragments of foreign masses. This is the case on Skafseberg, over which the road leads from Mo to Skafse church. Here the concretions are again feldspathic, and even gneissoid, but most of them resemble rather the rudiments of small bent layers or beds, than fragments cemented into the horn- blende schist."* As before remarked, the quartzites or rocks allied to them, such as the quartzose mica schists and gneiss, constitute by far the greatest portion of the group. Next in frequency and extent, the greenstones or diorites may be placed ; after these the horn- blende, talc, and chlorite schists, avd the clay-slates ; and lastly, the conglomerates. Foldings of the strata in the quartzose group, have been ob" served in various places, but they do not approach, in intricacy, to the contortions of the gneiss formation. The strata are seldom found horizontal, and generally have a dip of more than 45" ; although they do not seem, generally, to be so near to the vertical as those of the gneiss formation. The direction of the strike varies much more than in the latter, but parallel groups have been traced upwards of eight geographical miles, on the strike. In some places, an approach to a regular succession of the rocks has been observed, but the particulars related are by no means conclusive. As before mentioned, the scenery of this district is of the most wild and rugged nature. The Fjelds, consisting of quartz rock, sometimes present mass; e peaks, rising in the shape of terraces one above the other ; whi.^h latter form is caused by the outcrops of the highly inclined quartz beds. Goustaijeld itself, is a huge peak, rising to the height of 7000 feet, and presenting from a distance, a peculiar furrowed appearance, the cause of which is thus explained by Keilhau : — "The upper part of Goustaijeld is formed of two varieties of quarlzite, one of which is the prepon- derating, and the other the subordinate constituent. The former belongs to the purer varieties of the quartzite, and resists de- I ■,■*■ '■'i t 1 I 'I I * Geaa Norveglcs, I. 430. in Norway and in Canada. 87 composition. In the latter, which easily disintegrates to a coarse sand, particles of feldspar are more or less abundantly disseminated. From that part of the mountain where these rocks are found in situ, which is about 300 feet perpendicularly beneath the sharp ridge forming the summit, going upwards, there is observ- able only a succession of very regular beds, having a dip of from 20° to 30°. The mountain is here so sharply peaked, thai the beds crop out, as well on the side of the direction of the dip, as on the opposite side. If now the relations of the rocks were as usual, the feldspathic quartzite would be found to form more or less isolated layers, between the strata of the preponderating rock; but in place of this, the feldspathic quartzite extends in an entirely opposite direction through the mass of the prevailing rock. It goes right across the strata, and that without in the least (like veins) interrupting the continuity of the several beds, because these otherwise different rocks, at their junction, run into each other, the pure quartz gradually becoming feldspathic. The con- sequence of this remarkable relation is very striking. On account of the feldspathic quartzite being so easily disintegrated, and the pure variet}', on the other hand, resisting so well, there are produced, where the former crops out, cuts on the ridge, and fur- rows on the sides of the mountain. On account of the height of the mountain (7000 feet), these furrows renuiin filled with snow throughout the whole year, and are recogni.sible from a great dis- tance. Thus Goustafjeld preserves the marked features which distinguish this surprisingly furrowed peak, for those who view it from the heights of Hallingdal or Hadeland." *' It is a characteristic trait of this group, as well as of the other sections of the country, analogous with it in geological character, and worthy a mention at the outset, that it is especially well sup- plied with copper ores."* This great prevalence of cop- per ores has given rise, since the beginning of the 16tl\ cen- tury, to the establishment of six different copper works or mining establishments ; all of which however, with but one exception, that of Aamdal, are abandoned. In describing the various mineral deposits, I shall only refer to those of most importance, neglecting altogether the innumerable localities of less value. The mines about to be described are those belonging to the copper works of Guldnais, Aamdal, Hvideseid, Sauiand and Hovindbygden. • Gese Norvegica I, 44J. 28 Macfarlane on the Fr'mitive Formations Tho deposit on wliioh the Guldna55 mines occur, is probably tbe most important of the whole district. Tt is situated on the southwest side of Snndsbann Lake, in the parish of Sillegjord, at least 1600 feet above the sea, and inaccessible, unless to the foot traveller. Tt has the form of a layer, and lies between a bed of quartzite, and one of clay slate. It has a length of about 100 fathoms, and a breadth of about 100 feet, and is composed of a flesh-red and sometimes greenish-white aggregation of quartz, feldspar and talc ; in which purple copper and copper pyrites are more or less abundantly disseminated. The ore is found in irregular nests and veins, quartz accompanying it in the latter. These irregular bunches of ore are frequently found in such quantity, as to render the whole mass of the layer worthy of excavation. There is not much of the rock with finely dis- seminated mineral, and the ore is much more suited for be- ing dressed by means of crushing and jigging, than, by stamping and washing. The latter processes were nevertheless those em- ployed when the mines were being worked, and this may partially account for the unsuccessful result. The copper ores occurring here are argentiferous ; the metallic copper resulting from their treatment, containing one per cent, of silver. The mines belonging to the Aamdal copper works are very nu- merous; the most important of them being HofFramg mine, Naes- mark mine and Mosnap mine. The works themselve-^, are situated 1300 feet above the sea, on the river called Vierkselvcn, in the parish of Skafse ; which is subordinate to that of Mo. Iloffnung mine lies about 150 feet higher, near the junction of a gneissoid gran- ite, of eruptive origin, with the primitive slates. The two lodes containing the ore, occur on both sides of a layer of hornblende schist ; which varies from two to six feet in thickness, and has a fall of from 50° to G0° to the W.N.W. They run parallel wi^h the strata, and tho lode underlying the hornblende schist is the most important. It has a tliickness of from four to thirty inches; the vein-stone is quartz, and is well filled with copper pyrites, generally massive, seldom finely disseminated. In the deeper workings, the lode almost contains as much purple copper as copper pyrites, with no admixture of iron pyrites, or other mineral, except a little feld- spar. The ore, on being excavated, was crushed by flat-faced hand hammers, brought up, by jigging, to 30 per cent., and then smelted or sold. Naesraark mine is like Iloffnung, situated in the immediate neighborhood of the work, on a granite vein, li i in Norwaij and in Canada. 29 two fathoms tliick, which intersects primitive slates. In this vein, (from which also side veins shoot out into the adjoining slates,) there occur, running in a direction at right angles with its line of strike, numerous lodes of from two to six inches thick, tilled with quartz and copper glance; the latter containing six oz. of sil- ver per cwt. The granite in the neighborhood of these quartz veins is also impregnated with copper glance , to such an extent, as to make it amply worth stamping and washing. Tliis mine is a most promising opd ; is altogether now, and the granitic vein has been discovered at a di>tance of throe miles from it, at licrgland mine; where it bears copper glance in exactly the same manner as at Nfcsmark. The ore from the quartz lodes of this mine was brought up by hand-jigging to 70 per cent., and then either smelted or sold. The tinely divided ore was worked by stamping and washing. Mosnap mine is about 10 miles distant from the work, and probably lies 2000 feet above tiie sea. The ro(;ks in the neighborhood are the gneiss, mica schist, and hornblende schist, peculiar to the ([uarlzose group. The mine itself is situ- ated on a granitic vein, which contains irregular quar;/, layers. Cop- per pyrites, purple copper, and molybdenite are disseminated through it, bnt are more especially associated with the quartz. The vein itself has a thickness of several feet, and wcie it more conveniently situated, would doubtless be considercil a very valu- able deposit. It is only very lately that the ores from these mines began to be treated by crushing and jigging, and then sent to market. They were previously >tamped and washed, at least the poorer sorts, and the products were smelted at the works, alonsr with the richer ores. The sint'lting, however, ev(>n alter the discovery of a vein of thior spar, which was used as flux, was carried on but with inditlVrent success, nn account of the highly 'quartzose natures of the ores. After the introduction of jigging, the ores were treated as follows, at the smelting works : — The copper glance from N;esmark was ealcitu'd in a reverberatoiy furnace, and the sdver extracted according' to Ziervogel's method; by treating it with water, and afti-rwaids precipitating the dis- solved silver by metallic copper, The lixiviated residue from this process, was then smelted together with the rieh co[iper py- rites and schlichs from the Ilotfiuuig mine, (previously calcined in a reverberatory furnace), in a small shaft, fnrnace, f'rom this operation, there resulted a slag, very rich in ferrous oxide, which was rejected ; a regulus with 5.3 per cent, of copper, aud a small 30 Macfarlane on the Primitive Formations quantity of coarse copper. The regulus was roasted and again smelted ; coarse copper, and a small quantity of thin regulus being produced. The coarse copper was then refined on the small German galir hearth. The two most important mines belonging to Hvidcseid copper- works, occur in the parish of Ilvides, and are as follows : Haukum mine, situated beneath BrokeQeld, in the neighborhood of a powerful granite vein, wherein orthoclasc and oligoclase are observable. This vein intersects primitive slates, and is accom- panied by several irregular granitic masses, on the largest of which the mine occurs. The granite mass is more or less impreg- nated with purple copper, and this is occasionally accompanied by metallic silver in fine threads; which occur in small cavities, with crystals of laumontiteand stilbite. The crystals of laumon- tite form fan-like groups, which are coloured green by the oxyd of copper A very small scale of gold has been found in this mine. The following minerals are also met with : mag- netic iron ore, molybdenite, garnet, epidote, and traces of cop- per pyrites.* Bandag mine is situated on the precipitous south side of Bandag Lake. The surrounding rock bears a strong resemblance to granitic gneiss, but nevertheless differs from it in having a larger quantity of quartz, and, as a consequence, a lighter colour. The ore deposit lies parallel with the stra- tification of this rock, and consists of a granular mixture of quartz, mica, copper pyrites, purple copper, highly argentiferous galena, zinc blende, and a little feldspar. Metallic silver in threads, has also been remarked in this mine. The ores from these, and 0(1. i;r rain«is, were for a considerable time smelted at the ITvidoseid works, and altlioiig'li the smelting was ultimately aban- doned, the operation was more successful here than anywhere else in the district, being carried on for a longer time. The Sauland smelting works were built for tlie copper ores occurring at (ruli, in the parish of Sauland, which is subordi- nate to Hjserdal. The lode, which occurs in a coarse grained dioritc, is sometimes of considerable thickness, and consists of quartz w<:ill cliarged with i)ur{)lo co[)per, Here, too, the smelting was unsuccessful, even more so than elsewhere in the district. The ore deposits near llorindbygden in the parish of Tin, are described by Keilhan,+ and are the following: I. That of Rodsoe * Dahll, Om Telemarkeu'a Geologic, p. 27. t Geae Norvcgica, p. 442. ill Norway and in Canada, 31 consists of a layer of quartz, containing partly massive and partly disseminated copper glance. The thickness is about three feet, the strike north and south, and the dip vertical. It is traceable over a length of 200 feet. II. That of Daarudberge contains also some copper glance in a quartz bed, two feet thick, but appears less rich tlian that of Rodsoe. III. That of Vashoed is a quartz layer of six inches thick, witii a strike north and south, and con- tains some purple copper. The adjacent rock is full of magnetic iron ore, disseminated, and crystallized in very small octohedrons, A deposit of iron ore has been described by Dahll,* as occur- ring in Nissedal, between the farms Aarhuus and Sofdestad. It appears to be a vein, and runs from north to south over the hill called Grubcaasen. It dips 30® to .50° towards east, and has a thickness of nine feet on an average. It is exposed for a distance of 210 fathoms, between two small valleys. In the deepest por- tion, it consists of magnetic iron ore, but on ascending the hill from both sides, the magnetic ore becomes mixed with iron glance, (specular iron ore); the quantity of which gradually in- creases, until, at the highest part, iron glance alone is present. The surrounding slates are mica schist, containing a little hornblende, hornblende schist and feldspar, and containing portions havinir a granular structure. The vein is more distinctly separated from the side rock, where it consists of magnetic ore, than when the iron glance is present. Tlie latter ptMietrates into the side rock, where it replaces the feldspar. It is thus possible to rind hand spe- cimens consisting only of iron glance and hornblende. Quartz and desmine are present in the voiii. It is imjjossible to deter- mine with certainty the age of this licposit, but it is intersected by granite veins. In concluding this description of the quartzose division of the primitive slate formation, and of its economic minerals, as fleve- lopcd in Norway, 1 think that the following features may be mentioned as characteristic of the group. I. The preponderance of quartzose rocks; II. The presence of conglomerates of a pecu- liar character ; 111. The prevalence of copper ores, of a high per- centage, unmixed witii iron pyrites; the veinstone accompanying them being quai tzose, and therefore dilHcultly fusible ; IV. The presence of iron glance in the few deposits of iron ore occurring in the group. The equivalent of these rocks in Canada appears to be the *0m Telemarken's Geologie, p. 31. 33 Macfarlanc on the Primitive Formations Iluronian formation. Tii support of thi- view I shall avail myself of the minute descriptions of the latter to bo found in the Reports of the Geological Survey, and particularly in Sir W. E. Loo-an's Report on the north shore of Lake Huron. The rooks of the Iluronian formation are, by these authorities, described as fol- lows : " The quartzites have sometimes the aspect of sandstones, but at other times lose their granular texture, and become a vit- reous quartz. Not unfrequenlly the quartzite is thin bedded, and even schistose in its structure, and it sometimes holds a little mica, passing into a variety of mica schist. " These quartzites often become conglomerate, enclosing pebbles of quartz and various coloured jaspers. These pebbles are some times arranged in thin layers among fine grained beds. At other times, the conglomerates form thicker beds, which swell into moun- tain masses; including great portions which contain blood-red jaspers in a white matrix, constituting a very beautiful ruck, *' In addition to these, there are conglomerates of a distinctly ditFerent character, belonging to this formation. They are composed chiefly of syenitic pebbles, held in a irrey argillo-arenaccous ce- mentjWhich is more frequently of agrijcuish color, from the presence of chlorite. The pebbles, which are > f reddish and grey colors, vary greatly in size, being sometimes ii < larger than swan shot, and at others, boulders ratiier than pebbles, measuring upwards of a foot in diameter. " The quantities in which they are aggregated vary much. They sometimes constitute nearly the whole mass of the rock, leaving but few interstices for a matrix, and sometimes on the contrary, they are so sparingly disseminated through con- siderable portions, as to leave spaces of several feet between neighboring pebbles ; which arc still, in such cases, often several inches in diameter. With the syenitic pebbles, are occasionally assoc' .led some of ditierent colored j:ispers. The matrix ap- pears often to pass on the one hand, into the grey quartz rock, by an increased proportion of the arenaceous particles ; and on the other, inlo a thin bedded greenish tine grained slate, which is sometimes very chloritic. In a third form, the matrix is scarcely distino'uishable from a fine "''"fiiiied jifreenstone In the slate, the stratification is often marked by slight differences of color, in the direction of which, it is occasionally clcavable. The batiils in olhiir instances, are firmly soldered together, but in both cases, i?i Norway and hi Canada. 33 joints UHually prevail, tlivi.liiigr the rock into rliomboidal forms, which are somotimcs very renilar." These slates sometimes approach to argiilites, but often, throiiirh the chloritic varieties, appear to pass into greenstone or ruce, Wellington, and iluron Bay mine's. The ores are here yellow and purple sulphuret, in veins of quartz, which cut the diorites of the region. According to Sir W. E. Logan's careful examination of the Brace Mines, made in. 1848, about 3000 square fathoms of the lodes were computed to contain, on an average, (5 J per cent, of copper. Since then, about 9000 tons of 18 per cent, ore have been raised from the mine, which has been opened to a depth of 50 fathoms. Attempts were made to smelt the ores, in a furnace erected on the spot, but they are now shipped to Groat Britain or to the United States. •The adjacent mines appears to be yielding even larger quantities of ore than the Bruce. Copper mining has been attempted also C 34 Macfarlane on the Primitive Formations at Root River, at Eibo Lake, and in tiuiny other localities in this foiiiKition ; whi(;h, like its Norwegian ♦■qiiivalent, appears to be eminently cupriferous. At the Wallace mine on Lake Huron, copper pyrites occurs, with an arsenical sulphuret of nickel, but the deposit has not been much exatuined. In the same vicinity, Mr. Murray has described a bed of specular iron or red hetnaiitic ore, and he has shown that the imtiiense deposits of thi>* ore now so extensively wrought at Maiquette, in Northern Michigan, be- long to the Huronian formation. From this sketch of the Huronian formation, I think it will appear evident that the same particulars characterize it as the cor- responding group in Norway, viz: I. The preponderance of quartBose rocks. H. The presenc^e of conglomerates of peculiar character. HI. The occurrence of great masses of interstratilied diorites or greenstones. IV. The beds of hornstone or chert. V. The presence of copper ores of a high percentage, unmixed with iron pyrites ; the veinstone accompanying them being of quartzose. VI. The presence of iron glance (specular iron ore) in the few deposits of iron ore occurring in the group. In the absence of organic remains, it seems to me that the only means left of identifying the same group in remote localities, is to compare minutely their petrographical and other physical characters. If this view be correct, there can be little doubt but that the quartzose division of the primitive slate formation in Norway, and the Huronian formation of Cana la, are identical. In conclusion, I have to remark with regard to the development of the mineral resources of both formations, that more appears to have been accomplished in this respeCu in Canada, than in Norway; seeing that the copper mines on the north shore of Lake Huron have had more permanency than those of Tellemarken. Greater progress is probably attributable only to the greater amount of capital which has been invested in the former mines. The ob- tacles met with have been substantially the same in both coun- tries : the remoteness and inaccessibility of the region from the ordinary markets. and the difficulties in the treatment of the ores. These However have been overcome in this country, and the prin- cipal mines on Lake Huron are now well established, and pro- fitably wrought. in Norway and in Canada. 35 11. THK I'UIMITIVK Sl.ATK FoiiMATION. r> : Thu SchisfOHC Group. Tlie sccori'l or '•lii>;i 'S.- ilivi~i .u pf ilie I'l wuitive Slat'' Fortii'i- tioii in Norwav mi\ \> s i'l ti> fxist, with certa niv, in two liis- titici !ir(;as, tlit> niic n tiic I oitli«*:is' and ft "ii'lii-jisr of Vesi fjord, in tho Vol' il iiiilfl. 'I 1 t iC'itli •'• o the iiortlif iftt, wi'st, 90iit,lif> ist, ii i Boutii or Tronllij in. Kn Inn t-c dpf.- tin- t'ormp'r of ihi'se i"- gi"iis a^ " Til'' Ml a Sciii>i di->ii '> "f Tronisn , and Senj-'ii. " TIk} lati r rogioii li iiii'liiilc- ii wliai lie fU'itl'-- " Tlio No'Wf i ti po tiiiii ot the ii-riMal tr.i wituMi t.'Ttorv I't' tlio Scandina". an Poiini-*iila," l»''('!iH".- i i iici s, ii- ii,'ii 'i:i i>i i »iis, to ^tan ' ni int ina 1' (Mill) I'.t ')n w 'itli f .■- i i*'.M'()i Silurian strata, wm li ar< <|ivt'lo|)fil :i (>ii> •> u.'; ti s tf* onu' vorv 'h i >;- tine,', nevei'tlie •>>, ' •> ; •i.-ti v . iinia i 'ii - '.vixti-n'-t! wii !>■ found in most (' is x, ■ • Ic if •ninon-ir i i>ii,"* I have ;issimih i, with h m, thai lilt' -Mata 'f Mio las! iiu'U iniic i roLjion heloii^s to ('. Schist '-" ')f w II. !i tir,- ai" I'o npo '•'I ar • iriveu in the fol- ^owiii^ list, in I I • Dfd r 'I' thi- fr- |nen(;\ of \>'\- occurrt'ncH 1. Mat ,sr/iist, ''a shir> .rystallitie nnxtiire ot" mica find quar /. "f ocmi i'^:^' ,ii.»! f '•'|ii'*i!t'y and cliaiacteristic in the di- tric s ot'Troms'-n an.l S,- ij(.'n. h is. how^v.-r, often fonn I of a moi'c iinivoi'a. chaiai't !■ nil i-- llicii cade I micaceous schist. It t)rtsi-nt> iimu''oii- •raii'-iii 'Us iino ilie otiier -idiistose ror,k~ of i!k! gron|i. Thus L;raludl\ l)''cli'", (M' ai'iill icHoiis iiiicaschist,and by rhi' disa|i|ioaranc<' of ihcmTi. ilnou^h ijuartzos.' mica schist, into quaitz sial.ti. Siiuiiariy, wln'n chlorneand talc occur in it, it oficn becomes a chloriiic o- talcosn mica schist; the former of these b'-iiiir the most trequtnt 2. Clrciicr;iily of a ijrc\ ish. greenish, or bluish col- or,";|| appears lo be, ncxl to mica schist, thf most frequently occur- ring rook. It IS however, more developeil in the districts aiound Troiidhjera, and is of a morti variable charactt-r than even the mica schist. Besides the many varietit-s iha; may be iindiided • Lehrbuch der Geognosie II, 281. fCotta: Gesteinslehre, p. 140. X Idem, p. 147. 30 Macfarlanc on the Primitive Formations under tlio cjonenil torm of argillarooiiH sljito, which is frcfjucntly appliod to tliese rocks, ihore occurs a clay slato, dcacribcd as bo- iiiij both micaceous aiul chloritic, (UhloritiscluT Thotiu;liirnner- Hchiefer) ; from vvhidi it appears that, even mechanically, the same aubstHncus are distini^uishabio in some ch\y shites, which Sauvas^o found by chemical analysis to be present in the slates of the Ar- dennes ; viz., a chloritic mineral which was decomposed by hy- drochloric acid, with a micaceous mineral decomposable by sulphuric acid, and quartz.* 3. Chlorite schist, " a soft schistose, mostly greenish colored rock, consisting principally of chlorite. Quai tz or feldspar, or both together, are however frequently mixed with the chlorile."f It is often found in its characterisiic form, but is also frcijuently described merely as chloritic schist, and occurs principally in the districts around Trondhjem. 4. Limestone corner next in frequency. It is developed espet^ially in the districts of Tromsen and Stnjen, where its texture varies from granular to impalpable, and its colour from white to dark grey. The limestone of thv. districts around T rondliji.'in, is mostly yellowish-white, and of an iujpaipablc, sometimes slaty struc- ture. 5. Quartz slate and Quartzite, appear as transitions from mica schist, m the manner above referred to. 6. Gneiss^ more or less characteristic, occurs in the group, es- pecially towards the junction with the Primitive Gneiss Forma- tion. 7. Hornblende schist, occurs in the Trondhjem region, and also in more northern districts. In both, it is connected with, and forms transitions into diorite. 8. Diorite and other Greenstones. Diorite is " a crystalline, granular mixture of hornblende and albite, sometimes alsD slaty or porphyritic."J; Most of tlio greenstones in this gioup seem to be dioriies. They arc, h .wever, often of very variable characters, and by the substitution of diadage for hornblende, graduate into a species of diabase. 9. Granite and Syenite, arc also eruptive rocks occurring in the group, sometimes inlimaiely associa'ed with the diorites. Hornblendic granite, a connecting link between granite and syen- ite, and granuUte are also mentioned. • Ann : dea Mines VII, 441. I Ootta : Ge3teinlehre, p. 145. JCotta: Gesteinlehre, p. 57. in Nortvay and in Canada. 37 10. Serpentine fsoinotimos oficurs in oonsiilcM-altle misso^ Tt is cotitliu'il to the 'ioliistose ilistricts south of Trotdhjom, ainl con- fiists of tlio coinmori tliirk-coloiirol v;iri(3ry, ilitFrnirix alto ^^fhor from ih(! liijht colounMl serponfiti^* of thu Priinit,iv.i (riioiss For- mation. (.^Iiroinif iron oro invariaMv aoriion of this pai>(T, ?>. 17, it will b<; s^en that it is to be r(>rr;ini.'d as a iviiid of diiihasu, ami distinct from the trno on[)ho- tides of th<' Alps. 12. 7\ilc schist. 13. Stiitfite or Softpstonc. This, toijcthor with the rocks yet to 1)1' onuinerari'd, is otComp;iratlvtdy rare oocurrenco. 14. Ddlomite. 15. ('o»f/f(imrrnf('fi an'r a'so in [ictrojrraphical cliaiat'l*'!'-;. Tli<' tir«l is tlif> oin> alrcvidy nicnlioncd, of Tnnnson ami Si'iijcn, wlii-rc I In* incpondcratini^ rock is micii schist ; with whii'li linH'stont\ more or less grannlar, is very tfoncrallv intcr- RtratiKed. Ucsi'lcs these, inor« or loss (•,iiar.icforis'i(; irn-'iss. horn- bloixlH, chlo'ite, and talc schist ticnr as snlifjrdinatc conslitnciits. Well detino"! clay slate is of coinpMiativcly ran^ occiiriciicc, al- thoiii;'h tic' mica schist often assumes an firnfillaceons character. Tlii' second rei^ioii is iliat spread out to a <-onsiileraMe distince, in the 'lire<'tions liefore mentio'ierpeiitinc ; which latter rock mav he said to be chaiacteristic ot the se<'ond distiict, es|u'iM;il!v of that j.art cd it which ciinstitntes ilie I) c,icrj.ld Mountain-; Tic: ^cip'-ntine m;is-es seem to lie iri'eo'iilariv interstraiilied \\\\\\ the slaies, and sometimes to i^radiiat" into them. The oTcen-loiies and irriiniies. besides oc('iirriner is priiu'ip;illy sohl for lioine cuii- sumption, but part is also sent to the Uainbuig market, where it is known as " Drontheimer" coppei'. Tne chromic iron mines of lloiaas in Sundal, and in Les-oi', have been, and still are wroujrbt with very consicjerable success. They all occur in serpen 'tie, and in ona year as many as 100 have been worked. Some <.f these are largo and reijiilar deposits, and others are of iess extent. The most important of them are sitii- ateil in the districts to tlie east of Riinias, Roliammeriie, and Vk'v- agsfjidiiene, and are owned ami worked by the proprietors of ihe chromate of potash manufactory nt Lerei.. Three ilitleient worked u|) into biehromite of poia-h at Leren ; No. 3 is a still poorer qualitv, which is stamped and w.islied, the prodm-ts hiding also used in the inanufacnire of bichroinatt'. At the inanu' .ciory, the ore in fine p )wder is sirfij.ly igniied in a reverbera'ojy furnace, with about 30 per cent, of cal- cined potash, and liitle or no saltoetre. The resultino; mixture yields, on lixiviation with wetter, a solution of neutral chromate of potash, which Separates as a ixranular salt on evaporation, li 's I'edissolved, and the solution is tieated wiih a certain (piantiiy of sulphuric acid, whoi crvstallized bicuromate of potash is ob- tained. The sulphuri<' acid is in inufaciured in the same est iblisli- nitMit. One hundred parts of ore yiehl about thirty-seven of bi- chromaie, so thai the orc^ nsj'd must contain only idtout twenty per cent, of chromic oxiiie. The nickel mines of E^pe'lal, which are now abandoned, fur- nished a.i ore mucli of the same character ;is those of Erteli<'n in Riiiijerike, described in the tiisl [lart of this paper. The mode of treatment was also similar. The ro 'ks of the two areas just ile-^ciibcd, offer, as we ha\e seen, very considerable litholoe-ical uitlerences. 'I'ho.^e o'' the northern region , but the region about Trondl Jem strongly resembles that of the Eastein ^own:^hi[)s of Canada, and 40 Macfarlane on the Primitive Formations ftf^rfies with it in the very points in which it differs from the mica schist roi^ioii of Tromsen and Senjen. Among these arc the |»re- domiiiauce of clay slates, the presence -of serpentines, with (diro- mic iron, and the occurrence of ores of copper disseminated in the schists. These rocks of Eastern Canada have heen traced from the Mne of the state of Verincmt, for 140 miles north-east- ward to the Chaudiere River, and tlience, at interval*, as far as Gas[>e. As described in the Jxeports of the (Jeoloiiical Survey, thev consist in great part of mica sclrists, passing into a gneiss, sometimes nrranitoid, on the one hand, and into clav slates on the other. Hooting slates are abundant in this series, and beds of steatite and chloriie slate are not uncommon. Quartzites, some- times conglomerate, are met with, and limestones, which are very often maonesian, and weather of a reddish or brownish color from the presence of iron or manganese. They are s(Mnelintes re- placed by carbonate of magnesia. Beds of serpcniine are an important Feature in this series; they are often mingled with lime- stone, dolomite or majjnesite. and alwavs imnreo-nateil with chrome and nickel. These serpentines are sometimes associated with diallage and with felds]iath;c rocks, which constitute varieties of diorite and diaba e. These same rocks are traced southwards in the Green Mountains, through a hirge part of the Uiiited States. All of them find representatives in the Norwegian grou[) around Troinlhjem, and in the Dovrrfjeld. This resemblance is still further traced in the metMlliftM-ons depi s'ts of the two regions. In the Eastern Townships of V'.m- ad'i, copper sometimes occurs in the native stite, in clay slate, but much more frequently in the form of yellow and vari' gated sul- plmrets, or of copper glance, dissetriinated in micaceous (>r chloritic slates, or in limestone. 'Ihese deposits are of the nature ot' fahl- bands. Those of Sutton and Ascott, especially the latter, have a strong resemblance to that of lUiraas. The copper ores of this re- gion are generally subordinate to the stratiticaiion. The short and iricgular veins of (juart/. and biiter-spar, which traverse these co[i]ier-l)earing strata, sometimes however carry rich ores of cop- per, oci asionally with gold. lion schists, which consist of scaly peroxyd of iron, iutermin- gleil with various proportions of quart/, and < hio;ite, constitute important beds of iron ore in some parts of this series, as in the township-; of l?rome and Sutton, where they were Ibrmeriv wronght to a small extent. These schists resemble the itabiiiteof l>:a/;il. I* I in Norway and in Canada. 41 Chromic iron accompanies the serpentine in Canada, as in Nor- way. The deposits of this ore occnrrincf in the townsliips of South Ham, Bolton, and Melbourne, jrreatly exceed those of Nor- way in richness and extent. The deposit in tlie first named township has been worked, producing an ore containing forty- three per cent of chromic oxide. As far as regards the developement of the mineral resources of the group, Norway is in advance of Canada. Not only has the mining of copper and chrome ores been long established, but the manufacture of the valuable products obtainable from these, has been long and profitably pursued. Tlie mmes of Riiraas arc be- ginning to^sufter from the scarcity of fuel at the great height. (2080 feet above the sea,) and the chrome mining and uianufacturing lias had to contend with expensive cartage, and often with high prices for potash, which is to a great extent im[)orte(l from Russia. In Canada, around the mines of the Eastern Townships, the settler destroys ai^res of timber, the softer sorts of which he might burn to chnrcoal ; and manufactures tons of potash, which the chrome miner miijht buv, and use to manufacture his ore into chromate of potash, at a rate alike profitabl*^ to i)roducer and con- sumer. 1 am not aware of any district where greater advantages exist. May they soon be appreciated, and talcni advantage of, as the}' deserve. These crystalline rocks in tlie Eastern Townsln'its are re- garded by the Ceological Survey of Canada, as a meta- morphosed portion of the Quebec group, which belongs to the inferior part of the Lower Silurian series. This view of their age coincides somewhat with that of Keilhau, relative to the similar formation around Tron