IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) 4 i^ ./.. s 1.0 1.1 I^|2j8 |2.5 15.0 *^^ M^HI 12.2 i25 iu 2.0 1.6 150mm & / . ^> (^M '/ >?PPLIED^ IM/flGE . Inc ^^= 1653 East Main Street r^ Rochester, NY 14609 USA r.i= Phone; 716/482-0300 = Fax: 716/288-5989 1993. Applied Image. Inc.. All Rights Reserved 4. ^N <^ %^ '^^O- O^ ■4!V^'

^ The removal is irtade once a week by the town authorities, and the material stored under waterproof sheds, where it undergoes a gentle fermentation, and is then sold for I anure. It is said to be quite as inoffensive in appearance and odour as barn-yard snanure. PRIVY USED IN THE UNITED STATES. A, Excrement Tub ; B, Tub of Dry Earth or A.he. ; C, Hinged portion of B«Jc of Privy. A modified form of the dry-wh closet has been used successfully in some parts of the Umted States and Canada. In it two pails are used-one under the seat to receive the excrement and the other in some convenient position for the ashes. F*ch time the closet IB used a quantity of ashes is thrown in with a scoop. Where pails are used, that for the excrement may be cut out of a petroleum barrel and should, for ordimiry families, contain about ten gallons. In isolated cases a soap box will answer the purpose. The ash-receiver should be larger and may be rectangular m form. * The principal advantage in the use of pails seems to be in the convenience attend- ing the removal of their contents. They are also less liable to be injured, and can be more easily repaired than masonry receptacles. The above closets are all out of doors. 2. The Dry Earth System. This system is substantially the same as the dry-ash system above described with the exception that earth is substituUxl for ashes. The earths best adapted for the pur pose are moulds and loams. Pure sand possesses little or no deodorizing power while .1 parts of receive ime the I barrel, i a soap angular attend- can be i * f \ i ■ « i I, with le pur- , while pure clay ia tUfli''ult to bring into the proper powdery condition, and has a tendency to absorb too much water. It in not nocoBsary that thit earth should be abaok' bely dry, the drying that it re- ceives from exposure to the atmosphere being sufficient, For uae it must l>e free from lumps and in a powdery condition. This is best ofTocted by screening H. After being used it may be placed in h barrel, where it wilt undergo a slight heat- ing and fermentation, after which it may be thrown out on the tloor of the shod and ex* posed to the air in order to dry, iind may then be used again. It is said that tbia process may be repeated ton or a dozen times with the same earth before it becomes otfeuHive. This, however, is not recommended, especially in a country like ours, unless for the manurial value of the product; but it shows the value of dry earth as an absorbent and deodorizer. An- thracite coal a.shcs have been found to answer in this respect fully as well as loam. Wood ashes act much more powerfully than coal ashes as a deodorizer. When it is considered no longer desirable to use the material it is sold for manure. House-closets on the dry earth system have been found to answer the purpose very well. They are usually constructed with some patent device for throwing the earth on the fiBCOs each time the closet is used. One of the principal objects of their inventor, the Rev. Henry Moule, was to find a substitute for the water-closet in dwellings, factories, schools, etc. With dry earth the soap box or barrel, with a scoop, may be used as in the cose of the ash system, and will answer every purpose. Some excellent automatic earth closets, not very extravagant in price, are, however, made in this Province. The addresses of various manufacturers of them may be obtained on application to the Secretary of this Board. The principal objections to the earth closet are the large quantity ot ciarth required (estimated at from 4 to .5 lbs. per diem for each person if used only once), and the executive difficulties in applying the system to a large population. It has proved a success under private management, or where regulations can be en- forced, as, for instance, in barracks, factories and various public institutions. 3. The Roclidale Pail System This system differs from the dry ash-pail method before described principally in the fact that no absorbents are used. The pails are frequently removed, being fitted with tight covers, and clean pails left in their places. The removal of dry refuse, ashes, etc., forms a part of the system. The excrement and the ashes are brought to a depoti where the latter are spread out on the floor to a certain depth. The excrement is then emptied into trenches formed in the ashes and treated with a small quantity of dilute salphurio acid ; the whole is then thoroughly mixed, becomes, after a few weeks, quite inodorous, and forms a valuable manure. . The removal and subsequent treatment has of course to be carried out by the municipal authorities. Mr. Badclifie reports as follows : — " That the system had been thoroughly approved by all who had had experience of it, and that it had not failed under the most varied circumstances, having proved equally It need M, be „en.i,„ed th« thi. ,ysi^„ U suited t, „„Wo.r oio^te o.l,. one tho^nd te!^ 17 ""°'" '° "'"'"'"" '"» «»" "' "» "■»-" «f *« "-ment „l "iil!||||iii;|!!il"|!ii!"|«ii„j 1 ll 1 1, ll I [_ 1 d — T -r T-T 1 ROCHDALE PAIL CLOSET. A, Excrement P«il ; B, Ash-tub : C, Seat Cover rraisArll • n t,„„ r- n u , In this Closet ashes are not mixed with the excrement. Mr, Badcliffe makes the following estimate of the cost of the dry earth bW.,« . . be 730 tons of manure selling at seven shillings per ton. In Hull the removal is made by contract. The contractor, in addition to receiving the matenal he collects and which he sells Tor such profit as he can ob Jn is LrbtT sanita^ authority from two shillings to three shillin; yearly for each htl In ^dSrt out arfitd^irrshTth.^ ^"'''-'^ ''- -'' ''-'■''- ^-^^ ^^ ^'--^^^^ ^^^^ * » •use, where osets only, orement of was ^19 ; aring it. into Pail Pail tern ap- tr earth let will ceivmg by the listrict. ileaned In many country towns and villages there is suflScient garden space to enable the ex- cretal manure to be utilized ; wherever this is not the case the removal and disposal of the excreta should be undertaken by the municipal authorities, and in all cases they should have an efficient system of inspection carried out. Liquid Bbfusb. In any of the proposed methods of dealing with solid excreta, the kitchen and cham- ber slops must on no account be mixed therewith. Wherever practicable a system of pipe sewers should be devised for the purpose of disposing of these and should be connected with the house yards by properly arranged traps. The entrance to these pipes should be under cover, but should not be within the walls of the house. Si^jce the volume of this concentrated sewage will in general be small, the pipes should be smaller and laid with steeper gradients than those used in con- nection with the water-carriage system. They should also be provided with flushing pipes at intervals, rising to th'^ street surface so as to admit of periodical flushing by means of a hose to be connected with the street watering-cart.. It v be advisable also, for the same purpose, to connect the sewer, at a few points, with the drains and gutters Vhich carry ofl" the rainfall during storms, but great care must be taken to make the connection in such a manner as to prevent the entrance of mud and other street debris. The sew- age should not, on any account, be allowed to flow into any open-jointed water-drains, since at particular points in these, and during some seasons of the year, the level of the sub-soil water may sink below the drain, in which case the sewage would soak out into the surrounding soil. Lamp-holes and man-holes, for the proper examination and re- moval of accidental obstructions, and ventilating-shaf ts should also be constructed at pro- per points. Any urinals on the, premises should be connected with the sewer and not with the closet. It is almost unnecessary to remark that no sewerage system should be constructed without the superintendence of a competent engineer. It may be incidentally pointed out here that the trenches in which the tight pipe sewers are laid act as blind drains to a great extent in carrying off the sub-soil water. The disposal of the liquid sewage when it has reached the outlet of the seWer system presents many difficulties. It may be allowed to flow into large bodies of water, such as our inland lakes, or into large streams, the water of which is not used for drinking pur- poses, and in which it is so diluted as to be comparatively harmless. There are, how- ever, many objections to the latter method of disposal. If, from the situation of the town or village, neither of these methods is practicable, it may be collected in a large tank, from which it is periodically removed, and used as liquid manure, for which, on account of its concentration, it is peculiarly adapted. This removal may be automatic or otherwise. Intermittent Downward Filtration, In some places where it has been found impracticable to use it as manure, the follow- ing method has been adopted : A small quantity of waste land is under-drained at a depth of from four to six feet ; the surface is then intersected with open ditches, which are so arranged that when the sewage is poured into them it flows only over a portion of the land at a time. By the action of the air contained in the soil and of the roots of 10 andbv J' .^"7'"°rf"^«P«''*«'»»'^o^l»er portion of the laad ana then on another ^dXt^^nrrLetet ^"^^^^^^ ^^ *-*«^ ^ this .anne, the first portn ; sioner^mTa^t "'"^ "' T''""' ""' ^^ ""'^^^^'^ '^ *^« ^^^ P«''"*- Commis- sioners (England), is one acre drained to a depth of six feet for every 3 300 of fh. n lation but this ratio must var, according to the nature of the soil ' ' '°'"" The soil should be porous and have an easy slope. Irrigation, m surfal^'" T "" "'""° *^' ^''^' ''' ""^"""^ ''''^ '^« "1-d. either by means of orl? 7r- T'r "^'^^^^ ^--*"« pipes. laid about a foot be ow the surface The ZITX V' '''"P"' ""'"^"'"^ '^^^'^^^ '« --'»*-" it i"^ good work rorl; r:::fitt;:-::;::::s -ii::- — ppiiedL-.te-t; ntnce! r^^^^^^^^^ ^l'"' *'^^ ""^ '"^^'^ "P^"^ ^ "-^ -*«-- as public nuisances, yet of late years, with increasing experience and resulting improved methods hey have been gradually growing in public favour. It seems fo be the L" lue ' timony of medical men, chemists and other, that, when properly managed thefrLno' such T'Z": ''' 'T ^' *'^ P^°P^« '"^ *•»« neighbourhood and fha he p^Xe of such farms, both animal and vegetable, is fully as wholesome as that of any o her On a sewage farm there should be at least three sets of fields, viz. : one for summer ^d^r:r-r^ water passes though the sewers, when the volume of sewage is too great "^ulTon ItTair ——dual irrigation are bfst kept if gra.1" ra^L" During the winter the sewage is directed on to another set of fields, -hese are addition of sewage : that received during the winter generally proving sufficient even Tn "'T r '^^'^ °" ''' ^*'*" ''^ ^'^^^ *»«^* --*- ligation is possible even in a cold climate. The mercury is said to fall to 6° or 8' bdow zero Tvl winter and in the winter of 1874-5. when it reached 17» below zero, theTrilZ was interrupte only three times, and only for a few days each time. "The Z^7 usually frozen to a depth of three or four feet for about three months ; the sno^ is"oLn several feet deep. The sewage flows out under the snow through the many Zows pt « » « 4 f t « ^ : t f * t < pared for it, leaving a thick crust to be ploughed into the land in the spring. About thirty feet fro* the conduits the sewage often freezes. During the months of extreme cold, though the sand is so porous that the sewage sinks into it readily at all times, filtration alone can be depended upon. Nevertheless,, if the plots of land are large and frequently changed, the purification of the sewage is, even in winter, more complete than can be accomplished by any of the chemical processes." The experience of the State Insane Asylum, Augusta, Maine, has further tested the practicability of this method of sewage disposal in winter. " When the mercury stood at nearly 0° Fahr., and the ground was frozen hard, the sewage was found to disappear very soon after it was put on the land. In the spring the early rains wash any refuse that there may happen to be deep into the soil and no offensive odours are noticed. The sur- face of the ground is then sometimes found covered with a brownish scum." In the smaller towns and villages of Canada, where there is usually a suificient sup- ply of garden space attached to each house in the suburbs and outskirts, similar methods to those described above may be employed on a small scale by householders. Care must be taken to lead the sewage by a tight drain pipe through the ground where there is any danger of its contaminating the drinking-water ; it may then be discharged into the garden by a system of open-jointed drain-pipes, placed ten inches or a foot below the surface. If the soil is not very porous it should be under-drained. In the winter it may be discharged on the surface of the ground if the underground drains are found to choke with ice. Any method of disposal on the surface of well under- drained ground provided it be at a sufficient distance from the house is better than depositing sewage in cesspits, which experience has shown to be almost invariably in a leaky condition. The central and more thickly populated portions of the town should be sewered as previously described. If in any case a cess-pit is considered an absolute necessity it should be built of brick laid in cement with both bottom and 'top arched. It should be surrounded with a clay puddle and lined inside with a coating of cement. The drain emptying into it should be well trapped, and both drain and pit ventilated at a safe distance overhead. The pit should not be more than six or seven feet deep and should be emptied periodically by the odourless process. In some public institutions in England where earth closets are used the slops are collected in tanks and sold as manure. In bringing this subject to a close it may be well to recapitulate some of the facts upon which the above proposed methods of sewage disposal are founded. These are as follows :— SoUd organic refuse if kept sufficiently dry does not undergo a putrefactive and offensive decomposition. Coal and wood ashes and most kinds of earths possess great deodorizing properties, and when mixed with solid faeces in the proper proportions will in a short time, through a process of inoffensive fermentation, form a valuable manure. Soils may be repeatedly soaked with liquid sewage provided they are well underdrained and a sufBdeat time is permitted to elapse between each application so as to allow the soil to fill up again with air, which of course takes the place of the water as the latter filters through. This air oxidises the organic portion of the f . a,je, and if the under-drains are Th. action or the ^r m.y be IZZ , 1" '"''°« °' ™'''"S P"'P»»«- n.»~7 return.. The most that can 6e hopedTortt u„7 "^ '"""°'""' '^ *"«' do-n ,„ ,on,e degree th, „e<,«„„ expenL otX T'*" " °"°""' " '»'='•' -. o, a not „nd.e ontU, there .i„ .e goo^ tit 3^ IC" ' " '""'•■' " "' n._THE W .TEB-CARRIAGE SYSTEM. «gme„t ita di„e„.ion., and manv . ohTai , , "'"'°"'*''- ^° ''° " "»»'■' ""-l-ly ".net Of neoeseit, pre.„;po« tb, ^e ""nd"^^^^^ ''«"' """ "' "" '""J"' -"'"^ Thepan,ph,et „i„ ther^orS t. J ^ l"" 3"2"''™« f • P-«.nal engineer. pre.u..bl,„„„e under the notice .' an Ll^/Z „ '"*.°"^ °»' nece.»rily or The pn„.ry <,„eati<,„ <,( j,„yj *■ « "■•«»»»■ "^ It. in.port.nce beC^rj^in^^ C:'',"'' '° "" '='" "«'»" »' "» P'-P'- too atrongl, insisted upon ° "» ""' •"■"""ction of „»e„ cannot be «rX~rdt:ii:*ttbtr'^'^'\'""*"'^'-''- -■ -■» -».^7. •'■»-"' ^ »»- ; or, inaide „f should be ailed with lead and caulked nL ^^'' '" ''"°'- '^^ J""" ■" "■««« be left exp»,ed to view. I„ H ^1. th?. •'? """ '''"™ ■*"""' '"'™ P"-"., the ba^ment wall. Any J" '1 h' tl " ,""""' "' '^ """""« '"^ «'"! died. !«. p_.,„ j^ true^oi ai^iiiz::;:;™'"'' "^ "•- " »- '^ -' .reth„::rh:S"oT.r "^'"•■"''«-'"« "°^«' "»«».. detHmentaU. health ESTBAHO. OF SeWJB GlSffl ,„„ H„„,„ by the'i: 7^r '""' -' '" "^"" °' "™ *- "»' *ey cannot be perceived Some injurious m-ibb revpoi +h-^--i xb»o,a.eare„i.diouVintLf:;::::rro:rc:r^'r:rt 18 d to pass into purposes. the roots of sewage farms. rises by direct . ure is to keep s object of all :ured at the would need 3uld unduly bject which al engineer, cessarily or which are for outfall ;he pamph- cannot be fco, as also !e of using oon break t, as they ey should But for a inside of of these possible, 3m along be reme- o health irceived do not. es, the baneful results which ensue from living in houses under which water lodges and becomes stagnant may be referred to. There are few medical practitioners who have not witnessed these results. The miasmatic poison of ague is similarly inodorous, or has no necessarily unpleasant odour. In like manner sewers have sometimes very little unpleasant smell. In some cases we have a smell somewhat similar to that produced by those burning-fluids into the composition of which fusel-oil enters. People living in a house become so accustomed to these faint odours as to take little notice of them ; and with some people the sense of smell is not very acute. Hence we must ^e very careful how we accept negative evidence as to the presence of noxious gases. And hence, too, we must be all the more careful to avoid their existence and presence, and to devise means to this end. It is plain that to prevent the constant accumulation of noxious gases, we miist in the first place get rid, as far as possible, of decomposable material before it begins to de- compose j and, secondly, we must see that the noxious gases from any decomposing material which has evaded our care do not reach us. . These two propositions may seem very simple, but in practice we often find that they have not been carried out. As regards the first of them it has become an acknowledged desideratum amongst sanitarians that all decomposable material entering sewers should pass out of the sewer- system within twenty-four hours. For the accomplishment of this object many points need careful consideration, such as the materials of which drains and sewers are to be constructed, their course, their slope, their bed or foundation, the construction of their joints, the course of their junctions, the facilities for flushing them, etc. Some details in connection with these points have been referred to above ; others will necessarily come under the direct superintendence of an engineer. It will be found that with all possible care in carrying oflT rapidly the material thrown into the drains, we cannot entirely prevent the collection of a certain amount of noxious gases in them. We find that such gases are in practice disposed of in three princi- pal ways : 1. In a very large number of cases they are allowed to escape into the inside of dwellings. To such an extent is this the case that some sanitarians advise us to abolish sewers altogether, an advice which is not practicable under existing circumstances. 2. In some instances they are supposed to discharge through gratings in the centre of the road bed. But in many cases they discharge at the edge of the sidewalk through the traps of gdllies emptied by evaporation. Examples of this may be seen at many street corners in winter time. The ventilating gratings of sewers are often so clogged with dirt that they are of little value in disposing of the total amount of sewer-gas. In winter they are very often completely closed. 3. In a few cases the sewer-gas is discharged above the house-tops. Very little con- sideration will suffice to show that this is the proper method. It is surely safer to dis- charge it away above our heads than at our very feet. This method is illustrated in the diagram on page 14. i\ DUGKAM.-ninstrating points in house-drainage, Including a mode of geruring a current of air in the soU-plpe, by pipes so plwed as to be subjected to different temperatures. ^'s^^^:^'^^'!^^^^^^^^^:^^:^ ¥ i 18 >g points ludlng a int of air )o plMed different # hav ing a Sani- It ia almost superfluous to say that every precaution should be taken to prevent sewer gas from disposing of itself in the first mode, — by finding its way into houses ; and yet a very great deal of carelessness exists on this point. It will be necessary then to consider how sewer-gases obtain entrance into houses : — 1. In some cases there is no " trap " interposed between the drain or sewer and the interior of the building served by that drain or sewer, no attempt at any mechanical impediment to the return of sewer-gas. This, of course should not be the case. Some form of trap should be placed as near as possible to the commencement of every waste- pipe. 2. Where there are traps they are liable to be forced. Some persons think that if they have a trap all is right, but a trap without a vent is of hardly any practical value. A trap with a protecting depth of water (commonly called the " seal ") of three inches, (a three inch seal), only resists a pressure of some two ounces to the square inch. Any person can readily convince himself of the insufficiency of a water trap yrithout a vent by filling such an one and blowing through it. Without any great exertion he can displace the water and force his breath through the trap. If he now make a vent between his mouth and the water he cannot displace the latter no matter how hard he blows. Let us next consider what influences are at work to force gas back through traps : — a. The expansive force caused by pouring water into a drain : two bodies cannot occupy the same space at the same time, and if the lower part of the drain be full, or its mouth be closed by water in the sewer into which it empties, then the sudden pouring in of water will cause the confined gas to burst its way back through the trap. b. Storm-water suddenly filling the sewers has the same action. c. The expansive force of hot water entering increases the temperature and con- sequently the bulk of the air. If raised suddenly from 50° to 150° the result would be a pressure equal to nearly seven feet head of water. d. Direct affiation through the sewer : the wind blowing up the sewers will force the sewer-gas backwards. Some engineers have proposed flap gates at the mouths of sewers. But it is better to let the fresh air blow up, and make sufficient vents for it to sweep through and purify the sewers. e. Partial choking of the drain gives rise to confined air constantly increasing, ex- panding and being displaced. A vent allows the escape of all gas which would other- wise force the trap. 3. Again, sewer-gas may be admitted on accoun'. of the trap being emptied by syphoning. If to the end of the trap a tube bent downward be added, it forms the long leg of a syphon, the portion of the trap to which it is added being the short leg ; if a full stream be poured through the trap, the water will syphon out of it, leaving the seal broken, as may be proved by actual experiment. An opening or vent at the arch of the syphon will of course prevent this. 4. A large body of water rushing full bore down a pipe into which a trapped tube empties will suck the water out of the trap. This, again, will be prevented by a vent pipe. , 16 1 k 5. Alterations may leave some pipe open or unsealed. 6. Disuse of a trap for a long time will allow evaporation and emptying of the trap, givmg room for free passage backwards of gas. 7. Corrosion of pipes and traps, or bad workmanship in joints, will often allow escape of gas. 8. By absorption through the contents of traps, gas is often taken up and given off. Dr. Fergus, of Glasgow, experimented with ammonia, and found it transmitted through an ordinary trap in about twenty minutea This may be obviated by having a second main ventilating. tube, and these two will form a circulation (as shown in the tubes A and B in the diagram), preventing foul afr from accumulating— stagnant — at the trap. In a system of house-drainage, one of theso two tubes may be secured by running a 3 or 4 mch pipe (B) from the sewer, just outside the house wall, up to the roof clear of cornices, chimneys and windows ; whilst the other will be obtained by continuing the soil- pipe (A) up through theroof. A difference of tempe. Uure in the pipes will cause the air to circulate through them. The last named pipe (A) will save the traps opening into it from being forced by gas from the sewer and drain. The traps of the baths and lower closet- all traps in fact below the uppermost one-must be saved by their own vents (v v v v ) from being syphoned by sudden liberations of water above. These vents may open into the extended soil-pipe above the highest trap. In the diagram, pipes (k, k, k,) will also be seen rising from a point below the hopper of the closet, a little above the water in the trap. These pipes may serve a double pur- pose. By branches from the water-closet tanks they may act as flushers to the water- closet-traps, and they may also ventilate the water-closets. They may lead to the outer air or the chimney-flue of an isolated kitchen in constant use, but never into a bedroom chimney or any other not used comtantly in the strictest sense of the word. And never should any tubes v,hich have direct connection with the drain open into the chimney of a dwellinff-hottae, " As for the trap shown between the house wall and the street sewer it might be left out, were the system to become generally adopted (as it should be by by-law) the drain being then carried directly to the sewer as shown by the dotted lines ; for, as remarked before, a pomt away up thirty feet or so above our heads is surely the best place to dis- charge the gas from our sewers, and not at our feet. But if the plan were not general then It would not be advisable for the individual to make his ventilating tubes the means for ventilating the whole sewer of his street; though even that would be better than ventilating the whole sewer by a grating opposite his hall door and sitting-room windows. The best plan even in a general system would be to leave the trap in the position shown and have a third ventUating pipe running up on to the roof from a point just outside of the trap and between it and the sewer. We would thus lessen the danger of even diluted sewer-gas finding its way into apartments through corroded pipes or defec- tive plumbing, whilst at the same time overhead ventilation of the sewers would be secured. \ i 17 ■la- ying of the trap, will often allow ip and given off. smittcd through I these two will i^enting foul air 1 by running a e roof, clear of tinning the soil- cause the air to ing into it from 1 lower closet — mts (v, V, V, V,) may open into 'low the hopper 9 a double pur- to the water- i to the outer into a bedroom d. And never chimney of a might be left pw), the drain as remarked it place to dis- e not general bes the means Id be better, sitting-room le trap in the from a point (n the danger ipes or defec- ers would be BEAT VantHolln^ Tube * In no case should weeping-drains, wastes from refrigerators or other tike appliances have direct connection with the drains or drainage pipes of the house. Dry-traps are not to be relied upon, as they do not »!ntirely prevent reflux of gas. Great care must be taken to prevent the contamination of drinking-water by the gas or "foul air" of water-closets or drains. For this reason closets should be supplied by pipes from a separate tank, and never from the general system of water supply. Epi- demics of Typhoid Fever have arisen from neglect of this caution ; and also from con- tamination by interchange of contents through leaky pipes carrying respectively water and sewage. Watbr Closets. It may be well here to utter a warning against that very common form of closet, the pan-closet, of which a diagram is here shown. The passage from the bowl into the receiver, is closed by the pan, holding water and preventing the constant passage backward of gas when the closet is not in use. But when the handle is drawn up the pan is deflected downwards so as to discharge its contents into the receiver, as shown in the diagram; and, as two bodies cannot occupy the same space at the same time, we have forced up from the receiver the gas rendered doubly foul by the repeated coatings of fsecal matter adhering to its wall as it is dropped on to it from the pan. There are good forms of patent closets, but the simple hopper with a good swirl of water to keep its walls washed clear of faeces whils: in use, and with an occasional flush, will meet every sanitary requirement and will be free from the objections to which many forms of patent closet are open. The hopper should be of glazed earthenware or porcelain : metal fouls more readily. Its trap should be placed above the floor so as not to leave a long tube between the bottom of the hopper and the surface of the water in the trap. This lessens to a minimum the surface for filth accumulation. The trap is also more accessible in case broken tumblers or other impediments should get into it. A foul odour often proceeds from the fact of a space being left between the seat and the top of the hopper of water-closets, through which urine or other water may slop over. Latrinbs. It now seems to be no longer a matter of doubt that the water-carriage system may be employed in this country in connection with out-door closets and latrines. In the densely populated districts in which the water-carriage system is established, these should be made to supersede the privy-pit. When numbers of persona of vai-ioua classes have to use closets, they cannot be relied upon for care and cleanliness. Hence it becomes necessary se latrines, which LBAD TRAP. ^aOtSa • FlO 2. 18 rsca. lilVERPOOIj TROUGH-CLOSET may be attended to by some servant of the corporation, or other person, who ahaU, from time to time, change their contents, and supply them with water. Of the various forms of these latrines, the following may be mentioned :— ]. The TAverpool Trough Cloaet.—"Thif( may bo described as consisting of a se^es of closets communicating with a long trough [T], pit- uated beneath and behind the seat [C], which receives the excreta from each closet in the series The lower end of the trough communicates with a drain [D], leading to the sewer by an opening [K] which is closed by a plug fP]. Behind the back wall of the closet there is a small space [X] to which no one has access but the scav- enger, and from which alone the plug can l)e raised by means of a handle. The scavenger > visits daily, empties the trough, washes it out IS' ^^^'^ ^ ^°^® connected with a hydrant [A], and '■■^' again charges it with water. As much water is let in as will cover the excreta received during twonty-four hours, and so prevent any smell. The closets are kept clean by the users." S. The Bristol Eject.—" ThkcomiBtB of a strongly constructed dip-trap, interposed between the privy-trunk, as the receptacle is termed, and the drain It thus admits of the ready extraction of foreign matters which may be thrown in ; it is not easily broken • and, as it is flushed and kept clean by the servants of the corporation, it is found to answer much better than ordinary water-closets among the poorer classes of large towns." S. Other forma of Latrines, on the same principle, are thus spoken of in Wilson's " Hand-book of Hygiene : " — "For barracks, prisons, etc., water-latrines of a much simpler construction than either of the above answer exceedingly well. An open metal trough, roofed in, and with the necessary partitions and doors, receives the excreta, while its anterior upper margin constitutes the seat. In order that the excreta may be constantly covered, the trough should be kept one-third full of water. It should also be well flushed at least twice daUy, and the contents allowed to run ofi" into a drain connected with a sewer. A plug or flap-door, at the lower end of the trough will be required to prevent the water from' draining ofi" during the intervals. « There is a f uther advantage, common to all closets of the trough system, which may hei-e be pointed out. In the event of an epidemic of cholera or enteric fever raging in the crowded courts where these closets are in use, it will be an easy matter to throw dis- infectants into the troughs, and thus destroy the infectious power of the alvine discharges " In some latrines water does not stand in the receptacle, but is admitted daUy to sweep out the contents with a sudden flush. Those in which the fwces are received into 19 (rson, who shftU, from intioned : — I Closet.— "Thig may of a sefies of closets ang trough [T], fit- 1 the seat [C], which «h closet in the series h communioates with sewer by an opening lug fP]. Behind the Eire is a small space access but the scav- lone the plug can Iw die. The scavenger •ough, washes it out a hydrant [A], and As much water is reta received during prevent any smell, y the users." I dip-trap, interposed It thus admits of is not easily broken ; itioii, it is found to Bses of large towns." )ken of in Wilson's construction than roofed in, and with lerior upper margin covered, the trough ished at least twice 1 a sewer. A plug, '^ent the water from system, which may eric fever raging in latter to throw dia- ler of the alvine a admitted daily to !8 are received into the water, the whole being suddenly let off and flushed ar» t^h.r.n.9 a i. ceptacle can be placed at a depth sufficient to pr t cUt Trom^ro 7 ^T^o ^^ •ri'j^rr tir^;r:i:r ■■-•-;■"— »". how„.r, need, to be »„rci.«l . "*""""°"')"° ««'•'»'«'■ »•«.•.. an„e .re irC;7n*:r'- '^'°"«"""^ -»"«^ •■ """ *■"••■ - "— "-ed. „<, daily fl«.hed wUh wZ Ttt,.tl Zo * r'"*' °' "" """"'"''"'' "' "°« .e....,...„..e,e.rr.:rr,iL;;rrr;;:r.^^^^ Some plMes, ,„ch „ («,t„ri„ „„ n, ,„„^ „, „„ h. „ , .bly ...o.^ „ to .How „, .„„,b. with . co„ti„„o„, e J„ , wlZ. . "ta™"" regard. outt.U, m„.t be exo,oi.ed i„ connection »i.h thi. pnieice i"^ " ' " it^ZrT^r*"'^ — ' -^ -.rLerrrceTt.:: Frinals. Urinals become offensive through want of proper provision for preventing fJ,« • tat,on of them with deposits from the urine, and of proper means ofTq^eX?^^^^^ or removing surfaces which collect the droppings. A tfay of ashes orT^;^"? of. and beneath, the urinal will meet this latter requirement the con^I , T being frequently changed. For the first mentionedlse Jf 'ff^^Jentt Im "^' sary to hav. a flow of water washing the urinal, whilst in use Znw' ''*^- should also be used. .wnustmuse. Disinfectant contrivances Intercbpting Tanks. In many places where the natural facilities for outfall are not verv a .. mixed contents of sewers are r«>ceivod int-* Ur' f r , ^ *"^' *'>« tk 1- -J .. " receuod into tauss, tne aohd portions allowed to »«+fl^ the hquid portion removed and disposed of in the methods described in coZl t' hqu d refuse in the first part of this pamphlet, and the solid sett^l r Iv T "- rith earth, ashes or chemicals, and used for manure '^' '"''^ I'