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Lorsque le document est trop grand pour dtre reproduit en un seul clich6, il est film6 d partir da Tangle supdrieur gauche, de gauche d droite, et de haut en bas, en prenant le nombre d'images ndcassaire. Les diagrammes suivants illustrent ia m^thode. by errata ned to lent une pelure, faqon d o 32X i 1 2 3 1 2 3 4 5 6 I A W POLYSYNTHESIS IN THK LANGUAGES OF THE AMERICAN INDIANS BY .; jf Ni^RT' HEWITT (From The Ai.ierican Anthropologist, October, 1393) WASHINGTON, D. C. JUDD & DKTWKII.ER, PRINTBRS 1893 n f rt \ i( -^ ■liii., ■■<>■ ^^. \t' ^ /inTHHUPOtOGiCAL ^JOCltTV OF WASHINGTON. U.uJ [Trom Thu American Anthropologist i'or Octoukr, 1893.] i POLYSYNTHESIB IN THE LANOUAOES OF THE AMERICAN INDIANS. r.Y J. N. n. HEWITT. In tlic early part of this century I'eter S. Duponreaii annoiiiiced his conviction, obtained from a cursory study of tiie scanty and imperfect linguistic material accessible to him, that the grammatic phenomena of the known tongues of the American Indians arc characterized by a common ground plan, or, adopting a i)hrase of Maupertuis, a "plan of ideas." This plan he called polysynthetic or syntactic, and defined it as follows: "A polysynthetic or syntactic construction of language is that in which the greatest number of ideas are comprised in the least number of words. This is done principally in two ways. i. By a mode of compounding locutions which is not confined to joining two words together, as in Greek, or varying the inflection or termination of a radical word, as in most European languages, but by interweaving together the most signifi- cant sounds or syllables of each simple word, so as to form a compound that will awaken in the mind at once all the ideas singly expressed by the words from which they are taken. 2. Ry an analogous combination [of] the various parts of speech, particularly by means of the verb, so that its various forms and inflections will express not only the jirincipal action, but the greatest possible number of the moral ideas and physical objects connected with it, and will combine itself to the greatest extent with those conceptions which are the subject of other parts of speech, and in other languages require to be expressed by separate and distinct words. Such I take to be the general character of the Indian languages." * He elsewhere says : " I am inclined to believe that these forms are peculiar to this part of the world, and that they do not exist in the languages of the old world." t In an essay, which won, in 1833, the Volney prize of the Insti- tute of France, he says : "A I'aide d'iuflexions, conime dans les langues grecque et latine, de particules, affixes et suffixes, comme dans le copte, I'hdbreu et les lan- gues dites sdmitiques, de la jonction de particules significatives, comme •Transactions of the Historical and Literary Committee of the American Philo- sophical Society, held at Philadelphia, for promoting useful knowledge, vol. i, p. xxx. tLoc. cit., p. 370. 882 TIIK A.Mi:i!I('A\ ANTIIK<)l'()l,()(iIST. [Vol. VI. O dans le chiiiois, ct cnfiu dc syllabcs ct souveiit dc simples Icttrcs iiitcr- cal^es i\ I'dTL't de rdveiller une id<je de Tcxpressiou de huiiiLlle c-ette k'ltre fait partie, :\ qiioi il faiit ajouter I'ellipse, ([iii fait soiisentendre, Ics Indieiis dc rAnit-riquc sout parvenus ;\ former des lanj,'iies (jui comjjrcu- neiit le plus graml nomhre d'idees dans Ic plus petit nombre dt, mots possible. Au moyen de ces proi-e<k's ils peuveiit chanjjer la nature de toutes les parties du discours ; du verbe, faire un adverbe on \u\ nom ; de I'adjective ou du substantif, un verbe; enfin, tons les nuteurs qui out (■crit sur ces lan^ucs avec conuaissance de cause, depuis le nord jusqu'au snd, adiruient que, dans ces idiomes sauva^cs, on pent former des mots a I'inlini."* If a general principle of the kind here described could be estab- lished it would be of the utmost importance to the students of com- parative grammar. This, however, can be done only by a careful and thorough analysis by the modern methods of linguistics of every language concerned, an analysis wliich has not yet been made. For such an analysis trustworthy and sufficient data must also be at hand. The lexic and syntactic material relating to these languages is, in some instances, quite extensive, consisting mostly of short vocabu- laries, translations of the Holy Scriptmes or portions thereof, and more or less pretentious lexicons and grammars ; but, for the pur- pose of comparative or other study, these are so faulty and mislead- ing and so warped by erroneous theories and misapprehensions tliat they are of small value and of precarious utility in morphologic study. The learned Father Cuoq, equally well-versed in Iroquoian and Algonquian speech, says : "Que penser de certaines traductions des Stes. :ficritures? Ceux qui out taut soit pen dtudid les differeutes portions de la Hible traduites dans les langues indicinies de I'Amdrique par les soins de certaines Socutcs Bibligues, en trouveiit la traduction— il m'est pdnible de le dire— vrai- ment pito3'able. Ce n'est rien nioins qu'une profanation de la parole dc Dieu ; et je suis assurd pour ma part que les menibres eux-iiienies de ces societds seraieut les premiers h repudier leurs i)auvres publications et k les condamner aux flammes, s'ils conuaissaieut les in corrections, les in- exactitudes, les solccismes, les barbarismes, et les contrc-sens dout elles fourniilleiit." f Duponceau had no ready means of testing the work of his chief authorities, and so was compelled to accept their unsupported state- O * M^Miioire sur le systdme grammatical des langues de quelques nations indiennes de I'Amcrique du uord. Paris, 1838, p. 89. t " Jugement errou(S de M. :ernest Renan sur les langues sauvages," p. 105. • n4 .XJJ ■■ ■Mka 1ST. [Vol. VI. dimples Icttrcs inter- on (Ic liuiiiclle c-ctte fait soiisenleiKlrc, Ics iiiij^ues ((iii coini)rcn- L'tit noiiihrc dt mots chaiijjer l;i nature de .•erbe ou lui noin ; de les nilteiirs qui out puis le lionl jusqu'au ;ut former des mots d l)cd could bo cstab- lio students of com- e only by a careful linguistics of every i)t yet been made, lata must also be at lese languages is, in ly of sliort vocabu- rtions thereof, and s ; but, for the pur- faulty and mislead- sajjprehensions tliat ty in nior[)hologic versed in Iroquoian icritures? Ceux qui 1 nible tradnites dans de ccrlaines Socictcs il)le de le dire — vrai- ation de la parole de es eux-memes de ces res publications et eX incorrections, les in- ontrc-seus dout elles 2 work of his chief unsui)ported state- iies nations iiuliemies de uvages," p. 105, Oct. iSyj.J I'OI.VSYNTIIKSIS IN INDIAN l-ANdlAUKS. OiSli nients and deductions. He drew his information of the Irocpioian language from the works of /eisl)ergcr and I'yrlacus, chielly those of the former. A careful and unbiased examination of Zeisberger's work sliows tiiat tlie wurtliy missionary had at b(;sl only a super- ficial and precarious knowledge of that language, for he lacked the very elementary acipiainlance with it which would have enabled hini invariably to dislinguisii its words from their derivatives and from its sentences and phrases. 'I'iie method of inllections, which is common to European and other tongues, need not tletain us; the method of intercalation or interweaving vocal elements claimed to be peculiarly characteristic of tlie poiysynthetic scheme demands some consideration. Had it a substantial basis of fact it would indeed serve to mark off from all otiiers those languages in which it was found t(j ])revail. The use of a process so singular and abnormal in its oijcralion can be established only by the evidence of unecpiivocal facts 'I'lie data adduced as proof that such a method of combining vocal elements is one of the most characteristic traits of all known Indian tongues are of the most <piestionai)le character. This process is not a part of Irocpioian grammar, nor lias a satislactory example of it been cited from Aigoncpiian speech, and Rev. J. Owen Dorsey stales that it does not find a place in the Siouan grammatic processes ; hence it follows that the languages of these three great stocks are not poiysynthetic within the meaning of this term as used by Du- ponceau, because they do not use the so-called "artificial elements" nor the alleged process of " interweaving together" or " intercala- tion" of vocables, which alone constitute the characteristic traits of the supposed " poiysynthetic construction." This raises the pre- sumption that carefid study will show that other less-known Indian tongues, which, like the three named above, have been classed as p(jlysynthetic by Dui)onceau and his disciples, are not founded on that theoretic plan ; because wherever the syntactic and morphologic processes have been ascertained from accurate and sufficient data they have been found at variance with the poiysynthetic processes, and thev likewise differ greatly among themselves in their ground plans. It lias, in fact, been found that those Indian languages whose le.xic and .syntactic phenomena have been thoroughly analyzed have not, as Duponceau maintained, a peculiar construction of language, in which "the greatest number of ideas are c(miprised in the least number of words," which is the motive or object of his conjectured ground plan or " plan of ideas." © ^W^ OHl TIIK AMi:itl(AN A.NTllltOl'Ul.OdlST. [Vol. VI. Diiponrcan further says: " I.i's Iiulicns, surtout ccux qui sont chasseurs ct nomadcs, u'unt pus urn- li'le hieii aii.ilytique. lis se sont biLMiL.'u einl)r(>uill<:-s dans la forma- tion <k- linirs mots : reci'vanl kurs i.lijes en troupes, aiiisi ((ue la nature nous les prcsente, ils onl voulu les exprinicr il la fois avec toules leurs parties, tcllcs qu'lls les ai)ercevaient.''- Ont-ils voulu, pir exemplc, (loiiucr uii noni a uii certain arhre, ils n'ont pas pense i\ le d^-sijjner sim- I)lenieiil par le IVuil, on par (jueliiue autre apjuireuee unicpie ; niais ils onl ait: I'arbre portaiil tcl /mil ct dont les fcnillcs irssfinblciil u telle chose, et ils out elierche :\ exprinier tout eela par uii seul mot. Mais conmHul faire ? vS'ils joiniiaient tons ces mots ensemble, ils en auraient un nouveau d'uue longueur enorine ; et puis, leur nouvelle lant,nic, abon- daut en consonncs, u'ctait pas hcureusemcnt formee pour une pareiHe jonetion. Mors ils ont pris qnelque chose de chaque mot, et par la r(5unlou el I'inlercalalion des syllables, et meme de sons simples tirds de la phrase (pi'ils avaient choisie, ou plulot des mots incolierens qui la liresentaient rl leur esprit, ils ont iorm^ un nom propre compose de ces (IKTerentes parties d'idees ; et pour celles qu'ils n'ont pu y faire entrer, lellipse est venue il leur secours. * ■•■ * Ce qui nous parait le plus probable, est ([ue les langnes, comnie le monde, ont commence- par le chaos, et out acquis de la r(?},'ularit(J plus tot ou plus tard, sous une forme ou une autre, selou le jjfdnie des peuples, leurs situations ou leurs besoins. Celles (les ludieiis de rAuiericjue du nord ont retenu beaucoup de ce genre chaoti(iue (jui a du presider il leur formation. I^es parties du dis- cours y sont entremOlees d'une maniere qui fait croire qu'elles n'ont pas toiijours dtd soumiscs aux rb^Xufi qui les jjouverneut actuellement et qui, introduites pen a pen, n'ont pu que ino<lirier, sans le detruire, le systime de fonualion des mots qui parait avoir prevalu des le commencement. "Ce systeme polysynthdtique est ce qui caractt-rise les langues algon- (juiues, aiusi (lue toutes celles de I'Aiuerique, et iuflue udcessairemeut sur leurs formes grammaticales, qui ne different que dans les ddtails." To this he adds the following foot-note: " La plus forte jjreuve qu'ou puisse donner du melange d'iddes qui a exisld au temps de la formation de ces langues, e.st le nombre de mots (|u'elles ont pour exprinier la meme chose, selou les circonstances qui l'accnmpai,'uent. II y a un verbe pour dire ' j'ai euvie de manger de la viandc,' et nn autre pour 'j'ai envie de manger de la soupe ou de la bouillie;' un mot, pour une plaie faile avec uu instrumeut tranchaut ; uu autre, pour une plaie faite avec uu instrument coutoudant ; ces lan- gues gdudralisent raremeut." t In support of these striking statements Duponceau has produced no trustworthy proofs. He has adduced only the most fanciful ♦This is in substance the doctrine of holoplnasis, to which attention wiU he given hereafter. fMCmoire, pp. Ii8-i20. >OIMT. [Vol. VI. ■i nomacli's, u'otit pim •ouillds dans la foriiia- L'S, aiiisi ((UL' 111 iialure fois avcc tonics linirs vouUi, pir excMiiiilc, 2\\iiC i\ Ic (li^'signer sim- ciu-c uiiiciue ; iiiais ils //(W irssfinblent u Idle ir nil seul mot. Mais icmble, ils en auraient iiouvelle laii^uc, ahoti- uce pour line parcille jluique mot, et par la e sous simples tirds de ots iucoliciens qui la propre compose de ces 'out pu y faire entrer, [ui nous parait le plus out comniencd par le IS tard, sous unc forme itions ou leiirs hesoius. letenu heaucoup de ce II. Ia'S parties du dis- -oire qu'elles n'ont pas lit actuellement et qui, le detruire, le syst^me s le commencement, rise les langues algon- influe udcessairement ue dans les ddtails." melange d'iddes qui a est le nombre de mots 1 les circonstances qui envie de manger de la r de la soupe ou de la inslrument tranchant ; t contondant ; ces lau- )onceau has produced ily the most fanciful lich ■^UentioIl will lie given .1S.^> Oct. 1893.1 l'()I,YSYNTni:slS IN IN1>IAN I,A Ndl' AdKS. reasons t.. supp-rt his roMvi<:ti<m that tlie In.liiiM languages slill preserve the "cliaotic style" which « seems to have i.revailed from the beginning." 'Die intermixture of the parts of speech docs not follow from the fact that a iangu.ige can in a word-sentence say, <' I desire meat," or " I desire soui)," and can distinguish between a " cut " and a " bruise." Such word-sentences arc governed by certain fixed laws of position and se<iuence of stems. Tiie usual method of obtaining a vocalnilary from an unlettered peoi.le is largely responsible for tl>e doctrine that Indians rarely generalize. A savage is asked, Mow do you say " I cat meat, or «' I drink soui)?" and, if he understands the question, he replies by llie appropriate sentences (not words, as many tliiivk), meaning, in his own vernacular, " I eat meat," or " I drink soup." He can distinguish between a cut and a bruise, and shows it by his laug.-age, but must it be inferred from this that he cannot generalize, or tliat he does it but rarely? Tlie materials of the language of the Iroquois consist of notional words, namely, nouns, verbs, and adjectives ; representative words, namely, prefixive and independent pronouns ; relational words, adverbs, conjunctions, and suffixive prepositions; and derivative elements, namely, formatives and flexions. The distinctive nature and cliaracteristic functions of these ele- ments cannot be changed at will by any speaker, for the good and sufficient reason tliat a language does and can do only what it is in the liabit of doing. In the category of notional words, the class of elements called noun -stems may not indifferently assume the func- tions and the flexions peculiar to either the verb-stems or the ad- jective-stems, neither can the verb-stems nor the adjective-stems indifferently assume the functions and the flexions peculiar to either of the other two classes of elements in that category ; hence Du- ponceau's sweeping statement concerning the general character of the American Indian languages, that - they can change the nature of all parts of speech ; of the verb, make an adverb or a noun ; of the adjective or substantive, a verb," is not true of the Iroquoian ton-rue The elements of its lexicon have acquired their individual values by virtue of a series of historical changes, and they severally retain these values solely at the behest of conventional usage, being subject at all times to further mutations of form and signification as this usage may decree. The stems of words and word-sentences are not divided for any 50 l\* nso TIIR AMKBTCAN A NTH lioroi.oiilST. [Vol. VI. purpose wIiatevLT. Tlic rompomul stems of word-seiUciices in:iy, by liistorical ( hanges, Ik-coiiu! parts of si)ee(;h — notional terms — denotive of tlie lliin(,'S descrilnd l)y llic \vordscnten<es from wliidi tliey are derived, and tliey (an be so considered only wluii tlu- lin- guistic sense has come to disregard the separate meanings of the elements thus com!)ined. Tiiis h /<,viisv/i//i<-.u's:^' A prolific sonrre of much error concerning the natnre of the grammatic jjroce.sses prevailing in this language is the fact that these word-sentences are mistaken for words, for a word-sentence mi^l, it is repeated, nndergo certain historical cluinges of form and fimction before it Incomes a word — a i)art of speet li. Conventional usage alone is the arbiter in this, as it, is in all things linguistic. To exemplify lliis the following concise analysis of the stems of a verb and a noun is given. 'I'iie verb-stem selected is -/ir"s-)Y", from the word-sentence ni-/id"s'-yP", " lie hears, untlerstands (by hear- ing)," and the noun stem is -th'ctc-hra-hoc, from iit-hiic-hnt'-kioc, " a chair, seat." These two steins have been chosen solely for the reason that their constitutive elements have not yet undergone that degree of effacement which would render tliein quite irrecognizable to any but an accom|)Iished master of the language. The full and original form of ut-hili:-hm'-kwc was ut-h'ctc-h'i- hra'-kw'f, which was evidently derived from the word-sentence yi''t-hctc-h'hhnt'-khwa\ "one (some one) uses it to support his but- tocks," in which the i)ronominal element is jv7- (which is the re- flexive form of -j(i'-, " one or she "), meaning " one-his " or " she- her," the reflexive i)erforming a possessive and not a reflexive office ; the noun-stem is -ht'tc-h't, from u-hctc'-lu-, "buttocks, fundament," and, lastly, the verb -//y/vi-X'/zn',}', " to support with," "to use for supporting," or "to use to sujiport." Tiiis verb-stem is from the word-sentence rii-lu/n'i'-k/muV, "he uses it for supporting (it) " or "he supports it with (it)," in which the " it" enclosed in paren- thesis is understood. These two notional stems, -helc-lii (funda- ment) and -Juird-khwa' (to support with, use to support), then form the compound stem of the word, ut-h'cfc-hqni'-kioc, "chair, stool; " but both stems themselves may be still further reduced to show the original ideas v,-hich combined to form them. The verb-stem chosen is -kP'-syc", from the simple sentence ru-hc"' -syU^ , " he hears it," or simply, "he hears, understands (by hearing)." The com- * The formation niul derivation ofa word from a compound. Ui.'^' »«»- » - ^i "i^i i "ilST. rv..i. VI. Oct. iS.jj] lMir,V.sYVTIIi;s(s IV IVniAV I. VVfil' AMI-:,' 3S7 Iword-seiitciucs may, 111 — Motional terms — scntciufs from wliif li [■(1 only whtii llu' liii- alL' meanings of the s.-'- A prolific source k'rammatic processes \<v word-sentences are It is repeated, undergo |i before it becomes a alone is the arbiter )sis of the stems of a ctcd is -///•",f-_)v'", from iderstands (by hear- r () m iit-hctc- lira' -hoc , chosen solely for the I yet undergone that 1 <|in'te irrecognizable Mage. 'I'-hcr was iit-lutc-h'i- n the word-sentence t to support his but- ;v""/- (which is the re- "onc-his " or "slie- notare/lexive office; iittocks, fundament," t with," " to use for ■erb-stem is from the r supporting (it)" or " enclosed in paren- ;ems, -hNc-lie (fimda- > support), then form hoc, "chair, stool;" er reduced to show icm. The verb-stem i-hc"'-syl'\ " he hears aring)." The com- a compound. ponents of liiis stem are -///"j- and -yi^ ; •fic'^s- is the steni of the ar( haic ii-hc"'-sc, " the e ir," and -jv" is the verb " to enter " of the sentence ra'-yc", "he enters." Hence, "to hear" is made up of tlu' ideas " to enter-car," but belnre these two notions cou Id 1) rendered by " hear" usage had to disregard their several and sepa- rate meanings. Moreover, the stem -//.//•</ /Jac'r' , meaning as a morphologic imit, " to support with," " to use for siipiiorting," or "to use to support," is in its more literal meaning itself the result )f the forgetting of the elyuK elements of a compound. It is mad e up of the stems -/ici/r, from la'-hiqr, " he puts ( it) upon," and the au.\iliary ■khwCi' , " to do, make," hence, "to use," the object of the auxiliary being always " it" understood, its object being of course indicated by the context. 'I'he pronominal elements prefi.ved to the stems of words and word-sentences perform one of two offices: first, they may lie pre- fi.xed to noun-stems for the purpose of indicating gender or posses- sion ; and, second, they may name determinatively the things of which it is reipiired tiial notional stems be made names or predicates. In Iro(iuoian speech all the developments of the language ex- pressed by the terms word-sentence, stem-formation, and inilection, are based i)rimarily on the well-known principle of juxtaposition and a more or less intimate fusion of elements, but the living and traditional usage of the language has established the following mor- phothetic* canons, which determine the nature and the relative posi- tion or sequence of elements that may be combined into words, l)hrases, and word-sentences, namely : First, The simple or comi)ound stem of a notional word or of a word-sentence may not be employed isolated ly without a [)relixed simple or complex [jcrsonal pronoun or a gender sign or fiexion. Second. Only two notional stems may be combined in the same word-sentence, and they nuist not be of the same part of si)eech. Third. The stem of a verb or adjective may be combined with the stem of a noun, and the stein of the verb or adjective must be placed after and never I'cforc the noun-stem. Foiirtli. An adjective-stem may not be combined with a verb- stem, but it may unite with the formative auxiliary -tha\ to cause or make, and with the inchoative -(. ♦ From morphothesi.s, the principle or law fixing not only the sequence but also determining tho kind and number of elements which may be cuilwdied in a word- sentence, and also the morjihology thus established. rr V 388 TIIK AMKKICAN ANTlIllorOLOOIST. [Vol. VI. 7v'/?//. A qualificative or other word or element may not be inter- posed between tlie two combined stems of notional words, nor be- tween the simple or compound notional stem and its simple or complex pronominal prefix, derivative and formative change being effected only by prefixing or suffixing suitable flexions and forma- tives to the forms fixed by the foregoing canons. The following formulas, witii examples, chiefly from the Mohawk and Onondaga dialects, will show the application of the preceding canons in the building of words and word-sentences: Simple Words. (I.) Pronoun -f verb-stem. In the following examples the pronominal element is separated from the stem by a hyplien. ka'-riks, it bites (it); yo'-riks, it bites it ; ye'-riks, she bites (it) ; ra'-riks, he bites (it) ; shako'-ryos, he kills them ; ka'-ke", it sees (it) j yo'-ke", it sees it \ ye'-ke", she sees (it) ; shako'-ke", he sees them ; ra'-ya'ks, he breaks, cuts it. The final "s" in some of the examples is the sign of customary action and not a part of the verb-stem. (II.) Pronoun -}- noun-stem. In these examples the hyphen divides the pronominal element from the notional stem. or ka-no"'sa', a house ; house; o-ro^'hya' , or ka-ro"'iiya', sky, the sky ; o-qsi"ta', a foot, the foot; o-ko°'sa', or ka-ko'''sa' , a face or mask ; o-ron'ta', or ka-ron'ta', a tree or log ; o-hne'ka', water ; liquid. (III.) Pronoun -f- adjective-stem. In these examples the hyphen separates the pronominal element from the stem. ka-hofl"tci, it is black; ka-no'ro"', it is costly, dear; scarce ; deplorable ; wa-katc'te', it is durable, lasting ; (w)a'-se', it is new ; green ; iw'-es, it is long; (w)a-ka'yon', it is old, ancient ; w-i'yo, it is fine, beautiful; (y)o-ya'ne', it is good; proper. *1H OGIST. [Vol. VI. Oct. 1S03.] I'OIASYNTIIKSIS IN INDIAN I.AMlUACiKS. 389 ent may not be inter- )tional words, nor be- em and its simple or rmative change being e flexions and forma- ins. efly from the Mohawk ition of the preceding itences : I element is separated sees (it) ; sees it i e sees (it) ; , he sees them ; lie breaks, cuts it. the sign of customary 2 pronominal element or a face or mask ; or , a tree or log ; water; liquid. e pronominal clement , it is costly, dear ; deplorable ; it is new ; green ; on', it is old, ancient ; ;', it is good J proper. Compound Notional Stems. (IV.) Pronoun + noun-stem + verl)-stem. In the following examples the pronominal, nominal, and verbal elements are separated (jne from another by hyphens, ra-rofll'-ya'ks, he cuts, breaks, ra-no"s'-C'fiti, he is building a the tree or log ; house ; ra-hy-uskwas. he plucks fruit ; ye-the'tcr-oflnis, she makes flour; ka-heq'na-ne"s'kwas, it poaches wu-skwi'-yiVks, it crosses the on the field ; l"-'^lg^' 5 ye-'waliri'saks, she seeks meat; ye-no"kwa'tcra-yenteri, she un- is looking for meat ; derstands medicine. (V.) Pronoun + noun-stem -f adjective-stem. The hyphen is used in tlie following examples as it has been in those under preceding formulas, to separate the elements of the compound or word-sentence. wa-hya'-ksC-n, (it) fruit is bud ; wa-hya-he"s'tci, (it) fruit is black ; ka-ne":ui' kwast,(it) house is good ; yo-qsa'-hni-ro", its foot is firm ; yu-heq na-kwast, its crop (field) yu-qsa'-ksCui, its foot is bad. is good ; ka-no"s'-iyo, (it) house is large ; The pronoun // enclosed by parentheses is a gender sign only or is understood. Being definitive, it may often be rendered by ''the:' These morphothelic rules establish and govern the morphology or ground-plan of Irocpioian words and word-sentences, and any violation of tiiese rules by a speaker in forming combinations of vocal elements necessarily produces a meaningless assemblage (.f ■irliculale sounds. For instance, to combine two nouns,two verbs, or two adjectives in the same compound would not constitute tiie one noun, verb, or adjective a predicate or (lualifier of the other member of the combination. In speaking of what he is pleased to call the origmal structure of the American Indian tongues and of the numerous novel forms with which he claims they abound, Duponceau says : " It is impossible to resist the iuipressiou which forces itself upon us that we are among the aboriginal inhabitants of a Nezu World. We find wm 390 Till'; AMKUICAN ANTIIUOI'UUJGIST. [Vol. VI. tJ a naa nia.uicr of coiupoundi.iK words from various roots, so as to strike the ...iiul at once with a whole mass of ideas ; a >,cw manner of express- ing the cases of substantives, by iutlecting the verbs which govern them ; a „rTa nn.uber (the particular plural) applied to the declension of nouns and conju^^ition of verbs ; a ;/,7c- concordance in tense of the eonjvnctiou with the verb. We sec not only pn.nouns, as in the Hebrew an<l some other lanuiuiKt-s, but adjectives, conjunctions, and adverbs co.nbined with the principal part of speech and producing an immense variety of verbal forms." * Tliis alleged new manner of compounding words, the so-called polvsyntlictic sclienie, lias already been shown to be erroneous and unfounded in liict, since the morpliologic processes of those Indian languages which have been critically analyzed do not correspond or accord with the theoretical processes distinctive of the scheme, nor do the morphologic processes jirevailing in one tongue accord with tliose common to anotlier in so marked a degree as to warrant the inference that they are based on a common principle or ground- plan differing essentially from fundamental principles common to languages of the old hemisphere. Concerning the new manner of exp^ressing the cases of nouns by inQecting the verbs which govern them, it may be said that it is not true of ilie Iroquoian tongue ; besides, such a process would imply that there exists a provision for what is still undeveloped and non-existent in many of the Indian languages— a nominal case-ending; the fact being, in most in- stances, that the noun is in apposition with an objective pronoun forming an integral part of the person-endings of the verb; by this means the relation of the noun to the action of tiie verb is indicated. In otlier instances the position of a noun in a word-sentence de- termines its "case;" in others it is determined by the pronoun with which it is in apposition. In regard to a ne7u number, the particular plural, it will suffice to say that it is both Asiatic and l':uropean, and to tiiat extent not a distinctive trait of the American Indian languages. It is thus evident that this array of new methods and novel means is the product of misai)prehension and insufficient investigation. Duponceau's fundamental error lay in tlie fact that he attempted to classify all known Indian tongues under a hypotlieti- cal system based chiefly on a superficial study of Algonquian morphologies, before he had made a thorough investigation of the morphologies of the other Indian tongues involved. His whole ♦Transactions, p. xxxviii. tptaiM "JflMliaiL." ilST. [Vol. VI. roots, so as to strike re manner of cxpress- wliich govern them ; declension of nouns se of the conjr notion he Hebrew and some Iverbs eoinbineil with ense variety of verbal words, the so-called :o be erroneous and sses of those Indian o not correspond or ; of the scheme, nor tongue accord with .'e as to warrant the )rinciple or ground- inciples common to the new manner of verbs which govern : Iroquoian tongue ; exists a provision for many of the Indian being, in most in- 11 objective pronoun of the verb ; by this tlie verb is indicated. a word-sentence de- ned by the pronoun ) a new number, the is both Asiatic and traitof the American array of new methods nsion and insufficient ir lay in tlie fact that les under a hypotheti- itudy of Algonquian , investigation of the nvolved. His whole Oct. 1893.] VOLY.SYNTITKSIS IN' INDIAN I.ANdf A( JKS. ^'^l conception of language was erroneous. For instance, speaking of Indian speech, he says : <'L' organisation interieure du mot est :\ la discraion dc rinventcur. S'il a des rC-gles a suivre, ce sont des regies de goilt et uon de gramman-e. rresqu' enticremcnt, c'est I'oreille qui en decide ; les changemens et transpositions de svllabes et de sons restent tl sa disposition, comme les inversions des motsde la langue latino sont tl celle de I'homme qui parle ou dcrit dans cet idiome." * No critical linguistic student could consistently hold sucli views of language and its processes. This statement, besides, is scarcely in accord with what he had previously remarked in his Report, where he says : "Nor can this class of languages be divested, even in imagination, of the admirable order, method and regularity, which pervade them ; for it is evident that without these, such complicated forms of language could not subsist, and the confusion which would follow would render them unfit even for the communication of the most simple ideas. A simple language may be, perhaps, nnmelhodical ; but one which is highly com- plicated, and in which the parts of speech are to a considerable degree interwoven with each other, I humbly couceive, never can." t The former of these assertions, making the interior form of a word the plavthing of the caprice of every speaker's whim and fancy, represents his opinion after more than ten years' study of the lan- guages, and the latter after not more than three, sliowing tiiat the longer he studied, the less clearly did he comprehend them. Many students have adopted the Hiww polysynthctic as a designation of the Indian languages, but, api)arently, without taking the precaution to learn the exact sense in which Duponceau himself employed it, or to ascertain whether such a scheme of classification was warranted by the grammatic facts of these languages. In exi)lanalion of his use of it he says that the Indian languages belong to "the class which I have denominated polysynthdic merely for tlie sake of desig- nation and without meaning to affix any other importance to the name." f It thus appears that he employed the term without direct refer- ence to its etymologic meaning and merely as a tag or label for a theoretic scheme of classification, which he believed epitomized the »M6moire, p. 145. top. cU., p. xxvii. top. cit., p. xxxvi. ^ r ; I M > 1 ; I 1 no2 TIIK AMIOTUr'AX ANTintOl'OT.ndlST. [Vol. VI. fundamental princii)les of morpliology underlying tlie stnictnrcs of the American Indian languages. It should be discarded, since its further use only perpetuates liis errors. In an essay, entitled " Polysynthesis and Incorporation as Char- acteristics of American Languages," Dr. P. G Brinton attempts to show that F. Miiller, L. Adam, and others fail to comprehend what he himself believes to be Duponceau's conception of a " poly- synthetic construction of language." He says: "Ihelicve that for the scientific study of language, and especi.illy of American languages, it will be profitable to restore and clearly to differ- entiate the distinction between polysynthesis and incorporation, dunly perceived by Duponceau and expressed by him in the words already quoted. With these may be retained the neologism of Lieber, /lo/o- phrasis, and the three defined as follows : "Polysynthesis is a method of word-building, applicable either to nom- inals or verbals, which not only employs juxtaposition with aplueresis, syncope, apocope, etc., but also words, forms of words and significant phonetic elements which have no separate existence apart from such compounds. This latter peculiarity marks it off altogether from the processes of agglutination and collocation. "Incorporation (Einvcrlcibung) is a structural process confined to verbals, by which the nonnnal or prononnnal elements of the proposi- tion are subordinated to the verbal elements, either in form or position ; in the former case having no independent existence in the language m the form recpiired by the verb, and in the latter case being included within the specific verbal signs of tense uid mood. In a fully incorpo- rative language the verbal exhausts the syntax of the grammar, all other parts of speech remaining in isolation and without structural con- uection. "Ilolophrasis does not refer to structural peculiarities of language, but to the psychological impulse which lies at the root of polysynthesis and incorporation. It is the same in both instances-the effort to express the whole proposition in one word. This in turn is instigated by the stronger stimulus which the imagination receives from an idea conveyed in one word rather than in many." * * * "As the holoplirastic method makes uo provision for the .syntax of the sentence outside of the expression of action (/. e., the verbal and what it embraces), nouns and adjectives are not declined. The 'cases' which appear in many grammars of American languages, are usually indications of space or direction, or of possession, and not case-endings in the sense of Aryan grammar. "A further consequence of the same method is the absence of true rela- tive pronouns, of copulative conjunctions, and generally of the machinery of dependent clauses. ' ' »k. " "^ibat fi . HI** odisT. [Vol. VI. lyiiifr tlie stnictiircs of be discarded, since ilb ncorjjoration as Char- G Tlrinton attempts s fixil to comprehend onccption of a "poly- ys ; ^uagc, and especially of )ie and clearly to diffcr- id iiicorporalion, dimly II in tlie words already logisni of Ivieber, //ina- pplicable cither to nom- josition witb aplutresis, )f words and significant stence apart from snch off altogether from the ral process confined to elements of the proposi- Iher in form or position ; ence in the langnage in ler case being inclnded ood. In a fully incorpo- ax of the grammar, all 1 without structural con- iliarities of language, but ■oot of polysynthesis and es— the effort to express :urn is instigated by the es from an idea conveyed siou for the syntax of the c, the verbal and what it ined. The ' cases ' which es, are usually indications case-endings in the sense is the absence of true rela- euerally of the machinery Oct. 1S93.] roTA-SYNTlTKSIS IX INPTAN I.AN'mTAOT.fl. -03 All this doubtless has a certain plausibility so long as it is tested solely by the faulty and equivocal works of the pioneers in Ameri- can Indian philology ; but, by the light of the facts of language which are gradually being made available, these polysynthctic dogmas are being dissipated. Dr. Brinton's definition of polysynthesis is clearly defective and incomi)letc. There is an omission of the name or names of the elements subject to "juxtaposition," and also of the term co-ordi- nate with "juxtaposition " and expressive of a process contrary or co-relative to that of "juxtaposition," two very important omissions in a definition designed to " clearly differentiate the distinction be- tween polysynthesis and incorporation, dimly perceived by Dupon- ceau." But, as Dr. Brinton was merely recasting and remoulding the first sectionof Duponceau's definition of a polysynthetic construction of language, the omitted process, judging from this fact and from other parts of Dr. Brinton's essay, is that affirmed by Duponceau to consist in the "intercalation" or "interweaving together the most significant sounds or syllables of each simple word " and the various "parts of speech, particularly by means of the verb. The alle^^ed process of intercalation or interweaving together of vocal elements has already been shown to be mere hypothesis and unfounded in Uie known facts of Indian languages. Moreover, Dr Brinton tells us that agglutination and collocation differ from polysynthesis in not using "words, forms of words and significant phonetic elements which have no separate existence apart from such compounds." If this statement were substantiated by facts, it would pass unchallenged ; but it is to be doubted that " agglutina- tion and collocation " do not employ, in the polysynthetic sense "words, forms of words," which have no existence outside of compound forms. Even in the English, which is agglutinative in some of its forms, such nouns as sooth and wise are practically obsolete in current speech, although in use in compound forms; hence, must it be inferred that they never had an independent existence in the language? Not at all. In the obsolescence of words and forms they will maintain an existence in certain quaint or striking phrases or compounds when they have lost their adapta- bility for current and new formations. It may be stated that "significant phonetic elements " form no part of the linguistic material of Indian languages any more than they do of that of the Indo-European languages. Words and sounds 51 ft 394 THE AMERICAN AXTimOPOrOOTST. [Vol. VI. in Indian as in otlier l:insiiages have no intrinsic si^'nification apart from that imposed on tliem by tiie common usage of the com- munity. Tile apparent abbreviation of nouns in derivative words aid word- sentences which has given rise to some of these misleading designa- tions may be explained by tlie fact tliat those who attempted to define the methods of derivation and combination of vocal elements took noun-stems from prepositional and other phrases or from word- sentences wlierein those students have percliance found the stem for which they sought, overlooking the fact that language does not make decomposition an antecedent condition to other composition. Again, in some languages the gender-sign is usually discarded from the noun-stem when the stem is united with another to form a new compound. From Dr. Brinton's definition of incorporation— the process of intercalation or interweaving together of Duponceau— it follows that where no conscious or artificial mutilation of notional stems takes place in the compound there is no subordination, and so to that extent no incorporation ; that where no modal or tensal flexions are affixed to the word-sentence in such manner as to give the pro- nominal and nominal elements— the person-endings and the noun- stems— the appearance of being infixed or enclosed between those elements and the verb stem, there is likewise no incorporation. These changes are not made in the sinii)le tenses of the Iroquoian indicative mode, showing that the combination of the notional stems is a condition antecedent to the affixion of modal and tensal flexions to the word-sentence. Tiie fatal error of this doctrine of incorporation lies in the fact that it places flexions and formatives on an equality with notional stems in the expression of thought, making flexions and formatives an integral part of the semasiologic difference between two expressions or word-sentences composed of unlike notional stems, for it is not the flexions but the notional stems which, from the standpoint of morphology, give to every word-sentence its semasiologic individuality. So that testing the question by Dr. Brinton's definition of what constitutes incorpora- tion as he conceives it was dimly perceived by Duponceau, there is in the ground-forms of Iroquoian words and word-sentences no trace of incorporation ; for it is not a question of the affixion or suffixion of elements to a root or stem, but merely the use of a system for that purpose. mtmii p* ■■■■•%. ^ OflTST. [Vol. VI. Oct. 1893] I-OI.YHYNTIIICSIS IN INUIAN I,AN(ir AdKS. 395 isir si}j;nification apart )n usage of the com- 'ative words aid word- se misleading designa- ose who attempted to ition of vocal elements ■ phrase.s or from word- nce found the stem for lat language does not 1 to other composition, usually discarded from inother to form a new oration — the process of onceau — it follows that )f notional stems takes [nation, and so to that odal or tensal flexions mer as to give the pro- -endings and the noun- Miclosed between those vise no incorporation, tenses of the Iroquoian nation of the notional on of modal and tensal rror of this doctrine of flexions and formatives expression of thought, part of the semasiologic -sentences composed of :xions but the notional phology, give to every ty. So that testing the it constitutes incorpora- by Duponceau, there is word-sentences no trace ■ the affix! on or suffixion the use of a system for The statement that the word-sentence exhausts the syntax of the language .n which the principle of incorporation prevads, that no rovisions for the syntax of the sentence outside o the expression of action (/. .., the verbal and what it embraces)" are made, ■ unwarranted so far as the Iroquoian, Siouan, Atiiapascan, and Algonciuian languages are concerned. The employment by these languagesof correlatives, relative and coordinate pronouns and coi - nctio,.s, and prepositional phrases is ample refutation of such cm Fa. is like these show on what an unsubstantud basis wa erected the l,ypothetical polysynthetic scheme of Duponceau and ''' uf Brinton affirms that incorporation consists in subordinating the nominal and pronominal elements of the l-P-^'- °^^^ verbal in one of two ways: first, by a mutilation of form, and Lond, by position. In the first case the noun or pronoun n.ust as ume a Lm which it does not have apart from such -".pounds ad in the second it must be placed between the signs o mode and t^i e on the one hand and the verb-stem on the other In Sanscn t a Indo-European language, the person-endings which are adm.t- :dl .ronominal in origin do not have the form of the pronmu s vhen apart from the compounds to which they are affixed. Mme- over, tiey may be inserted between the verb and its adveibial qualifiers in the proposition. _ In section 249 of his Sanscrit Grammar Prof. Max MuUer says . "The comparative is formed by tara or iyas ; the superlative hytcnna better (Pan., v. 3, 57) ; pacUatita,na>n, he cooks best (1 an., v. 3- 5 ) Here the pronominal elements, the person-terminations and ?he aboriginal American tongues? If modern instances of th.s q» 11^ l-il ! r I 806 THK AMKltlCAN ANTllUOrOLOOIST. [Vol. VI. "incorporation" and the synthetic capacity for comi)oiinding words be necessary, let us turn to the abundantly synthetic structure of modern Russian, which exemplifies the important fact that in the Indo-European family, of which the Russian is a me.nber, the tendency has not been "everywhere and in all respects downward, toward poverty of synthetic forms, throughout the historic period." Of the structure of this language Prof. W. D. Whitney says: " The Russian of the present day possesses in some respects a capacity of synthetic (kvclopnient hardly, if at all. excelled by that of any ancient tongue. For example, it takes the two independent words bcz Boira '' without God,' and fuses them into a theme from which it draws a whole list of deriv.atives. Thus, Orst. by adding an adjective sunix, it gets the adjective /;f^*o-//««)', 'godless;' a new suffix appended to this makes a nomi, bczbozlmik, 'a godless person, an atheist;' the nonn^ gives birth to a denominative verb, bczbozhnichat, 'to be an atheist;' from this verb, again, come a number of derivatives, giving to the verbal idea the form of adjective, agent, act, and so on : the abstract is be-bozhnichestvo, ' the condition of being an atheist ; ' while, once more, a new verb is made from this abstract, namely bczbozluiichesivovat, literally 'to be in the condition of being a godless person.' A more intricate synthcti-. form than this could not easily be found in Greek, ],atin, or Sanscrit ; but it is no rare or exceptional case in the language from which we have extracted it; it rather represents, by a striking instance, the general character of Russian word-formatiou and deriva- tion."* This, Professor Whitney holds, shows the futility of attempting to maintain that there has been "an miinterrupted and universal reduction of the resources of synthetic exprer>sion among tlie lan- guages of the Indo-European fiimily," demonstrating conclusively that even the members of a linguistic family differ in synthetic capacity. These examples of the synthetic power in the Sanscrit and Rus- sian languages show that the synthesis of a large numl)er of elements into the form of a word is not a trait peculiar to the Indian lan- guages; Duponceau and his followers maintiMn not only that this exuberant synthetic capacity prevails in all known Indian tongues, but also that all these synthetic forms are based on one common model distinctively peculiar to these aboriginal languages; but, if Dr. Brinton's definition of what constitutes incorporation be ac- cepted, then the Sanscrit and the Russian may be confidently said • lyanguage and the Study of Language, p. 281. lUKiJST. [Vol. VI. :ity for compounding fntly synthetic striRtiirc Jiinpoitant fact that in Iissian is a int-.iil)er, tlie Jail respects downward, lit the iiistoric ])eri()d." f). Whitney says: some respects n capacity xcelled by that of any independent words bt's lenie from wliicb it draws in^ an adjective sufllx, it V suffix appended to this I, an allieist ; ' the noun chat, ' to be an atheist ; ' ;rivatives, giving to the nd so on : the abstract is lieist ; ' while, once more, 1 e 1 y bczhozh n ich estvo vat, godless person.' A more ;asily be found in Greek, onal case in the language •cpresents, by a striking )rd-formatiou and deriva- e futility of attempting iterrupted and universal prer^sion among the lan- lonstrating conclusively iiily differ in synthetic n the Sanscrit and Rns- rge number of elements liar to the Indian lan- t.'-in not only that this known Indian tongues, based on one common :inal languages; but, if J incorporation be ac- nay be confidently said ge, p. 281. Oct. i«.j3,] IMtl.YSYNTHKSIS IN l.VDI.VX r.AN(iI ACKS. 007 to form their words and word-sentences on the theoretic ground- plan conjectured to be the pattern of all the grammatic structures of the American Indian tongues. Can it, therefore, be asserted tiiat the Sanscrit, tiie Russian, and their congeners belong to a family of languages based on a model common to that of the .Vmerican Indians? As there is no ground- plan comn. )n to all the well-known Indian tongues, such an assertion cannot well be made. They, like the languages of the old hemis- phere, hare traits which are found in the majoiity of languages and they also individually have otliers which are idionutic. Again, Dr. Brinton says: "As the effort to speak in sentences rather than in words entails a con- stant variation in these sentence-words, there arises both an enormous in- crea.se in verl)al forms and a mulliplicalion of expressions for ideas closely allied. This is the cause of the apparently endless conjugations of numy such tongues, and also of the exuberance of their vocabularies in words of closely similar signification. * » * I^angunges structurally at the bottom of the scale have an enormous and useless excess of words. The savage tribes of the plains will call a color by three or four dilTerent words, as it ajjpears on different objects. The Kskimo has about twenty words for fishing, depending on the nature of the fish pursued. All this arises from the ' holophrastic ' plan of thought." But Dr. Brinton does not show this by the convincing method of citing unequivocal facts of language. He evidently overlooks the impossibility of speaking in words without the use of sentences. What evidence has he adduced to prove that the structure of any one Indian tongue is the product of an " effort " to speak in some specific manner. The truth of the matter is that the speakers of Indian languages are just as powerless consciously to change the habits of their several idioms as are the speakers of Indo-European and other tongues. The statement that certain Indian tongues call a color by three or four different names as it appears on different objects is due to erroneous information. The exi)lanation of this difficulty is tiiis: the three or four different names or words are not names of only one color, but rather of as mafty colors, or, strictly, as many shades of the same color as have received appellations in the language in question. In the English, one says "a gray horse," but "a dun cow;" "a bay horse," but "a red apple;" " a yellow dog," but "a hazel eye," etc. .'5!)8 Tin; AMKltlCAN ANTII IlortMAHilrtT. [Vol. VI. II* The otiicr remark, stating tliat tlic Kskimo possesses twenty words for falling, "(le|KMi(lent on tlie nature of the fish pinsned," is to he exphiiiK'.l in a similar nuinner, beeaiise it is ojjvioas that the dijfi'ratt mnins and mrt/uhh of fisliing necessarily recpiire diffe>ei>l words for their desi-iuUion. In like manner the Missionary l!ntri<k, who praedcd Jarvis and Pickering, staled llial the Mngnage of the Ciitrokees, owing to its incapacity for generalization, has fourteen veri)s to denote wasiiing different things, hut no verb to denote washing in general. An analyzUion of the fourteen examples given shows that they are not all verbs denotive of washing ; some signify "to swim," others " to soak," others " to wet or sjjrinkle," and still others " to boil," which, of course, it would be folly to classify among the verbs meaning to wash or lave. Thus, a rational expla- nation is sui)i)lied for what appeared to be an anomaly in language. In speaking of the elements used in polysynthesis and incorpora- tion Dr. Hrinton says {pp. cit.): "As polysynthetic elements we have the inseparahle possessive pro- nouns which in many languages are attaclicd to the names of the parts of the body and to the words foi near relatives; also the 'generic forma- tives,' particles which are prefixed, suffixed, or inserted to indicate to what class or material ot)jects belong ; also the 'numeral terminations' afiixed to the ordinal numbers to indicate the nature of the objects counted ; the negative, diminutive, and amplificative particles which convey certain conceptions of a general character, * * * but are generally not words themselves, having no independent status in the language. They may be single letters or even merely vowel-changes and consonantal substitutions, but they have well-defined siguificauce." Again (t>/. cit.), he says : "Although in polysynthesis we speak of prefixes, suffixes, and juxta- position, we are not to understand these terms as the same as in connec- tion with the Aryan or with the agglutinative languages. In polysyn- thetic tongues they are not intended to form words, but sentences ; not to express an idea, but a proposition. This is a fundamental, logical dis- tinction between the two classes of languages." In Irocpioian and Algoncpiian speech the names of the parts of the body are not inseparably connected with " possessive pro- nouns," nor do they enif)loy " numeral terminations'! to indicate the "nature of the objects counted." Dr. Brinton endeavors to make a distinction between "prefixes, suffixes, and jn.Ktaposition," when used in reference to Aryan and agglutinative languages and when they refer to flexions in Indian languages, on the erroneous M^p'ip^^^^''*"Mtr. 'ol.dcilsT. [Vol. VI. Oct. |S93."| I'OI.VSYNTFIKSIH l\ IN'HI.W I, ANdl' A»ii:.s. :\w 111) possesses twenty words he fish |)iiisiu-(l," is to 1)0 |obvio;is that \.\\^ iiiprcnt |<Hiiii' (iiffi-ri-i't wouls for Missionary Ihitrick, who li;it the laiigiiayt: of the fieralization, has fourlieii but no vcrlj to denote le lonrtccn examples given 1)1 wasiiing; some signify to wet or sprinkle," and would 1)0 folly to classify Thus, a rational expla- an anomaly in language, ysyiithesis and incorpora- iiiscjjarahlc possessive pro- to the names of the parts s; also tlie 'generic fornia- , or inserted to indicate to he 'miiiieral terminations' the nature of the ot)jects iplificative particles which laracter, * » * but are independent status in the ;ven merely vowel-changes well-defiued significance. " refixes, suffixes, and juxta- is as the same as in connec- ve langnages. In polysyn- words, hut sentences ; not a fundamental, logical dis- le names of the parts of 1 with " possessive pro- rminations'.' to indicate •r. Brinton endeavors to ixes, and juxtaposition," Intinative languages and uages, on tlie erroneous ground that in polysynthetic tonj/ucs their fmiction is " unt to form words, hut sentences; not to express an idea, but a i)r(iposi- tion." A more misleading statement or a more lamentable confu- sion of terms regarding the function and use of llcxioiis in language it would be difficult to equal. There is nothing in the use and historii al development of (lexional and formative elements in tliofn: Indian langnages which have been thoroughly studied by the scien- tific methods of modern linguistics to warrant the assum|ition that formatives and flexions are em|)loyed solely for the purpose of form- ing sentences, and that they do not compose essential parts of words. Such a contention can rest solely on the tremendous as- sumption that every Indian necessarily knows the etymology — the component i)arts or constitutive elements — of each word he employs. The science of language stands o])posed to such fanciful assmup- tions. Moreover, this is another proof, if such be needed, that the doctrine of i)olysyntbesis rests on a fimdamental misconception of the phenomena of linguistic growth and development, for its methods and means of lingm'stic growth do not conform to those established by the science of language. In a science so well con- stituted as is that of comparative linguistics, groundless assumptions should be avoided. In a science of this character, research to be fruitful of substantial and trustworthy results must converge toward a self-sustaining and continuous development. The findings of to-day must enlarge without overturning the conceptions of yes- terday, and thenceforward there must be " system, but no systems ; " facts and reasons must take the place of authorities. Hut, in the fruitful field of American Indian linguistics, there appears to be no common method or system of study, and for this reason every important question pertaining to these tongues is in dispute, with no recognized criterion by which tlie accuracy and trustworthiness of any result, system, or conclusion may be tested. This is the soil in which controversy flourishes. It is too much the custom to quote authors rather than to give facts, although the authors quoted may or may not have known a reason for what they wrote. After citing from T^acombe's Cree Grammar an analysis of a nominal compound-stem, Dr. Hrinton remarks, in referring to the constitutive elements thus found : "Not a single one of the above elements can be employed as an inde- pendent word. They are all only the raw material to weave into and make up words." h too Till", AMi;itI('AN ANTMItol'OI.fHJiST. [Vol. VI. And, from Katlicr Monloya's Ti-u>ro dc /<; f.cn;^iit GuiViini, lie a(l()|)ls tliL- following,' rrmarkahlc statement : "The fduiulatioii of this laiiKiinKi' consists of jjarticleH, which frc- (luciitly have no mciininjj if tnken alone ; Imt when conij)ountU<l with the whole or parts of others (for they cnt them ii]) a ^real tleal in composi- tion) tliey form sij^nificant expressions ; for this reason there are no inde- peiident verhs in the lan^naj^e, as they are built up of thcBC particles with nouns and jirononns." Then Dr. Uriuton says: "This analysis, which Montoya carries much further, remimls us for- cihly of the extraordinarily acute analysis of the Crcc ( Alj^onkin ) hy Mr. James Ilowse. lIiuloul)tedly the two toujjues have been built up from significant particles (not words) in the same manner." * 'I'liis species of " extraordinarily acute analysis" amniiiits virtu- ally to this, tiiat it finds in certain languages "significant expres- sions," formed by compounding together certain meaningless par- ticles with fragments of other equally meaningless particles, and this, it is claimed, is tlic method of word-forming jiervading the Indian languages. This is romance and not comparative grammar. Words can be modified by other words only. Relations of ideas must necessarily be indicated by words which, by the tropic action of nictajihor, will eventually be formatives and flexions. Abandoning his first but truer impressions of tliese Indian tongues, expressed ten or twelve years earlier in his report, Duponceau, in his Memoire, adopts the fiillacious doctrine since called holophrasis. Here (p. 249) he says : "The grammatic forms of these languages are in perfect liarmony with the method in which they form their words ; the same system rules everywhere ; and everywhere one sees the ahseuce of the spirit of analysis, [l^c had believed at one time that analysis should precede synthesis ; but more profound researches and deeper rejections have con- vinced I's that the synthetic forms that characleri/e these idioms result from the inability of those who formed them to analyze the concrete ideas which presented themselves to their imagination, and they have sought to express them en masse, as they have perceived them." This, in short, is the foundation of Dr. Lieber's doctrine of holo- phrasis and adopted by Dr. Brinton. It is due wholly to a con- founding of the analytic mode of expre. n with mental analysis. ♦p. 83. ItsT, [Vol. vr. \r»i,'iii GuiViJui, he |iartiples, whlih frc- iiii]ii)iiiiik(l with the \\-,i\. (leal in I'oiiipdsi- oii tluTf an- IK) inde- liil) of these i)arlick'8 Irtlier, ri'iniiids us for- I'c (Alj^oiikiii) t)y Mr. e l)feii built up from LT."» siH " aiiioiiiits virtu- sign ifnaiU exprt's- lin meaningless par- glcss particles, and niing pervading the (jmparativc grammar. Relations of ideas by the tropic action ll flexions. these Indian tongues, eport, Diiponceau, in ce called holophrasis. •e in perfect harmony rils ; the same system ihseuce of the spirit of <talysis should precede er reflections have coii- izc these idioms result analyze the concrete illation, and they have rceived them." er's doctrine of holo- hie wholly to a con- ith mental analysis. Oct. 1893 1 I'or.vKYNTirRsrH in* indi.w r.ANorAoFH. toi In argiiini( from n theoretic NtaMd|H)iiit against tlic doctrine of a primitive oligo- or monosyllabic stage of dcv(lo|»ment in the Iiulo- Mnropcan family of lan^^nages, the late M, Kenan follows the same line of aignmcnt that Dr. I, ieber adopted in support of holophiasis. M. Renan says (^Origin of I,angiiag(', seventh chapter): "Another characteristic which the progress of comparative philology authorizes us to atlritnitc to primitive language, as in general to crea- tions of the iirimilive liuin.in mind, v:. the Hyiitlicsi?- ami exiilu-raiieeof its forms. It is too often imagined llial simplii ily, which, relative to our analytic processes is anterior to complexity, is also anterior in the order of time. This is a vestige of the oM usages of the scholastics nii<l of the artificial method which logicians employ in psychology. * * * I'ar from this heginning I>y analysis, the (irst act which it (the mind) proposes is, c 11 the contrary, complex, oliscurc, synthetic ; all is heaped together and indistinct. » » * The idea is expressed at first with its entire <rt»;7^X'''' "'"determinatives and in a perfect unity. • * • " The history of dilferetit systems of conjug.ition gives place for analo- gous considerations. In our modern languages the subject, the verb, and the several relations of time, mode, and voice, arc expressed by isolated and independent words. In aiuifiit languages, on the contrary, these ideas are most often comi)riscd in one single word ; ainabor contains the idea of lo love, the indication of the first person, that of the future, anil that of the passive. » » * "Agglutination must have been the dominant process of the language of primitive men, as synthesis, or rather syncretism, was the characteristic of their thought." The criticism of these views by tlie distingiiislied linguist, Prof. W. 1). Whitney, is cogent and effective ; and since the argument of Professor Whitney embodies the writer's views on the subject of holophrasis as defined by Dr. Lieber, it will be given here entire. Professor Whitney says: "The synthetic fonns which we are asked to regard as original have uot the character of something indistinctly heaped together ; they con- tain the clear and express designation of the radical idea and of its im- portant relations ; they represent by a linguistic synthesis the results of a mental analysis. The idea is, indeed, conceived in unity, involving all its aspects and relations ; but these cannot be separately expressed until the mind has separated them, until practice in the use of language has enabled it to distinguish them, and to mark each by an appropriate sign. In a.: or, the {I<atin) word cited as an example of synthesis, are con- tained precisely the same designations as in the equivalent English analytic phrase, "I shall be loved;" auta expresses "loving;" bo unites future-sign and ending designating the first person ; and the r is 52 99 402 THE AMF.RTCAN AXTITKOFOT-OntaT. [Vol. VI the sign of passivity. Who can possibly maintain that a system of such forms, gathered about a root, exhibits the results of experience, of < e- veloped acut-ness, iu thought and speech, any less clearly thaii the analytic forms ol our English conjugation ? The two are onl- different methods of expressing the same 'array of determinatives.' Ihe first synthetic mental act, on the contrary, is truly represented by the bare root : There all is, iudeeu, confused and indiscrete. . . M. Renan, in short, has made a very strange confusion of analytic style of expression with mental analysis: All expression of relations, whether by means that we call synthetic or analytic, is the result and evidence of analysis. This reasoning thoroughly dissipates the position taken by Dr. Lieber in support of the doctrine of holophrasis. Although written in view of the languages of the Indo-European family, it applies with equal force to the languages of the American aborigines, the word-sentences of which are the same in kind with those of the former. . , , , i- The comparison of linguistic forms to ascertain probable lin- guistic aiifinity can be used with extreme caution and to a limited extent only. The information and data for such a study must be accurate and trustworthy in an unexceptional degree ; even then its results must, in a measure, be necessarily of doubtful value, since the scientific melliod of the science of language demands that no human nature different from the one we know be made a factor in the problem, and the human organism, under like conditions, acts with more or less uniformity. Linguistic classification by means of morphologies— grammatic and syntactic accordances alone, like that by the genetic method— the historically traceable identity of elements— is, of course, incom- petent and of no force to affirm or to deny identity or possible cor- respondences among the ultimate elements of some or all linguistic groups-accordances antedating all, even partial, grammatic devel- opment, because its right to.be rests on the development of the parts of speech and their flexions—the derivative and the syntactic processes ; beyond these, the tokens of the grammatic period, it cannot take us. This is of course true, because in every language the earliest records of men can carry us back only to a point far distant from the genesis of its peculiar structure and still more dis- tant from the beginnings of human speech. • Op, cit., pp. 285, 286. rOLYSYNTIIKSIS IN INDIAN LANGUAUKS. 403 L0GI3T. [Vol. VI itn that a system of such ilts of experience, of de- ny less clearly than the iie two are onl- lUffereut tenuiualives.' The first represeulstl by the bare lete. . . M. Renaii, in alytic style of expression IS, whether by means that jviileuce of analysis." * '. position taken by Dr. ■asis. Although written )pean family, it applies merican aborigines, the kind with those of the ascertain probable lin- aution and to a limited or such a study must be jnal degree ; even then ' of doubtful value, since nguage demands that no now be made a factor in Jer like conditions, acts .orphologies — grammatic by the genetic method — Its — is, of course, incom- ■ identity or possible cor- I of some or all linguistic [)artial, grammatic devel- the development of the ivative and the syntactic he grammatic period, it jecause in every language back only to a point far ucture and still more dis- li. Oct. 1893] „iS„t, in order .0 ascerta.n »•■«""•■' *°f";;,\„j A,,u,.a«:an what I liad round in th« languaRcs of the S.'uan a"" ' familic. In consequence of .h« -"T'^^^l^rl.. re- .„ U.e cone,u.on U,a. ^^Z^^^^ "»^"-"J. '" snectinL' the structure of Indian iant,ua^c Z^L S-,oua,, and A;-.— ;S:-;r:,r'at ..rt:,,. r;t;:r.;;:;T,>?;i„';:;;et-eof,,.co„c,n.on. on Lage . . , of Duponceau's Memo.re ,t ,s sa,d . ..Chacu,, fai. „u moid. a „.,n.™, ,«'il -ompaS". ^e =,g»es, =• versation. ^^y a t.me ha-^^^^^^ e^uld be seen, and yet his lage on a dark mght, when no es ^.^^^^ ^^^^.^^^ words have been understood by ^^^^.f^f^^^ ^^ ,„,,form to fixed could " make a word in his own way , he haU laws, else his speech could not be understood. On page 1 1 8 the same v, riter observes : ..Outilsvoulu.parexemple.donnerunnom^ :r^r:?nti:;^?^="X..^^^ lesfeuiUesressemblent a telle chose.' I2i ' r 404 THE AMERICAN ANTHROPOLOGIST. [Vol. VI. Many other tree names could be given, in most of which the name fsZZa by the simple juxtaposition of the elements. 1 he al eg^d expression of case by the inflection of verbs governing nouns doe no "xi t n Siouan Lguages, unless it applies to the .nstrumental orm of the verb (as .an in, he was wounded w,th or by an ro. ,nan, arrow; i-, instrumental prefix to the -vb , ., o v nd whirh sometimes has r locative force, as in dhte dhan m, lit xvas ded t^e side. On the contrary, in the Biloxi, the nomina- ive and objective signs are suffixed to nouns and pronouns mstead of >e t attTcbed to the governing verb. There are no instances o the .< particular plural" in the languages which I have recorded :ithrugh tie dual often appears in the verb and some other par s o s ech In Dakota, Dhegiha, etc.. there is a first person dial n e V b ; in the Tutu and cognate Athapascan languages of Oregon, veb hasadual in all three persons, and so has the pronoun D ponceau speaks of "a new concordance of tense oi the conjunc ^on with the verb." This does not appear in Siouan languages. A I Cree compound is given as an example of polysynthes.s in no"n; and this word is declared by so high an authority .s D D G B inton to be a fair example. We should not be content wi'ti?a si gle example, especially when that word (the name for loss) seems to be a modern word, introduced after the arrival of r missionaries. Just here let me quote Dr. Brinton. On page .x of his article on Polysynthesis and Incorporation he says : « While the genius of American languages is such that they permit .„d m^m of them favor the formation of long compounds which express r Zl of the sentence in one word, this is by no means necessary M^fof the examp of words of ten, twenty or more syllables are no g^:I nlli^elrds. but novelties manufactured by the missionaries. I know by experience how difficult it is for a missionary to con- ve to the minds of his hearers certain religious ideas. Again aiid ..!^in did 1 try when missionary to the Ponka Indians to find the ;?o er Indian word for kin,do,n, in order to make even an approx- Vate translation of the petition, " Tliy kingdom come." 1 he Ciee Trd o cross (if it be,^s I suspect, a modern word) s as poor an lustration of what the author contemplated as is the Mexican name or ."/ given by Dr. Whitney on page 348 of his work entitled ''Language and the Study of Langunge," as there is no species of goat indigenous to the Western hemisphere. Any one who has Uved among Indians knows the worthlessness of adducing modem [Vol. VI. Ihich the name The alleged Ing nouns docs le instrumental Ir by an arrow: |«, to wfiiind), j/ian iiii, lie was <i, the nomina- jnouns, instead e no instances have recorded, e other parts of person d :al in ages of Oregon, s the pronoun, of the conjunc- an languages, of ])olysyn thesis authority as Dr. not be content I (the name for ;er the arrival of t»n. On page 21 e says : that they permit nils which express means necessary. ; syllables are not :he missionaries." issionary to con- gas. Again and ians to find the even an approx- tne." The Cree d) is as poor an e Mexican name s work entitled is no species of y one who has iducing modern ''/" Oct. 1893.] POr.VSYXTirKSIS I\ indiax laxguaoks. 40.5 names (/. e., names of objects introduced among the Indians since the arrival of the white race on this continent) for the purpose of illustrating the structure of an Indian language. As far as I can judge from such illustrations of polysyntliesis in nouns, no such pro- cess occurs in the Siouan languages, nor can I recall any instance of it in the Athapascan languages of Oregon. Dr. Brinton refers to "generic formatives," by which, I suppose, he means classifiers. These classifiers are found in the Athapascan and Siouan languages, and they perform several functions : some- times they indicate to what classes objects belong (the sitting, stand- ing, reclining, etc., of the Athapascan and Siouan; the earthy, mushy, watery, stony, etc., of other languages); sometimes they distinguish between the subject and the object of an action, etc. Numeral terminations, indicating the nature of the objects counted, are unknown in the Siouan languages; but in the Athapascan lan- guages of Oregon there are two series of numerals, the human and the non-human. We are told that polysynthesis is a characteristic which distin- guishes American Indian languages from those of the old world. Is there nothing of the nature of so-called polysynthesis in the Aryan languages? In Greek, thittu^aiiuuv is explained by 6 mui Saiituvai iistTfii ; int)^at/)iic'ilc<"i by <» roii KuKoti ^eitixuiputv ; KaHnHaiiiMv by 'o KUKov SainiiMii 'iyutv ; hOsot; by '« rijv Oio'v 'ei' iauToj e^uiv (Kiihner, Greek Gr., New York, 1864, p. 296). The Sanscrit was especially distinguished by its power of forming compounds of any length, and one of the greatest difficulties of the language lies in the finding out the exact relation of the different parts. Thus, a Hindu could speak of a man as being " tiger-king-handsword-killed " (a very moderate compound). This would mean " killed by a sword in the hand of a king who was like a tiger."* On pages 16 and 17 of the article on polysynthesis and incorpora- tion Dr. Brinton says : "As the holophrastic method makes no provisions for the syntax of the sentence outside the expression of action («". e., the verbal and what it embraces), nouns and adjectives are not declined. The 'cases' which appear in many grammars of American languages are usually indications of space or direction or of possession and not case-endings in the sense of Aryan grammar " •Peile, Philology, N. Y.. 1877, pp. 77, 78. 406 THE AMERICAN VNTIIKOPOLOGIST. [Vol. VI. m What are case-endings in the sense of Aryan grammar? Killnier informs us tliat "all the relations whicli the Greek denotes by the genitive, dative, and accusative were originally considered relations of spaced * Tiie relations of time and causality also were regarded as relations oi space. Whitney remarks that out of the seven cases "three of them distinctly indicated local relations: the ablative denoted the relation expressed hy/roni; the locative that expressed by in; the instrumental that expressed by with or /y." f To these Peile adds the dative, denoting the relation expressed by io or io7iHinis.X Can any one explain away these words of Kiihner, Whitney, and Peile? The learned author of " Polysynthesis and Incorporation" in- forms us that "a further consequence of the same method " (/. e., his method of polysynthesis) " is the absence of true relative ])ro- nouns, of copulative conjunctions, and generally of the machinery of dependent clauses." In Siouan languages there are copulative conjunctions. That there are words which perform the functions of relative pronouns may be seen from the following sentences: Mazhan dhan ankikandhai te andhia tangatan ebdhegan — I Laud the we desire for the we fail we shaU I think ourselves (which) think that we shall fail to obtain the land which we desire for our- selves. Nuzhinga dhii dhinke e azhi ha. Panka azhi Boy gave it he who that one another . Ponka another gave it to you shange tan horse the standing ihan his mother tan the standing adhin has aka he who (subject) gdhizai took (aforesaid) his own shangetazhinga — The youth who gave it to you is not the one (who colt now has the stray colt). He who has taken it is the Ponka who has the colt's mother. Unless one has before him one or more series of sentences, such as occur in myths or epistles, he is hardly in the position to sjjcak with authority, at least so far as dependent clauses are concerned. § *Op. cit., p. 373. fOp. cit., pp. 271, 272. X Op. cit., pp. 102-106. gFor examples of dependent clauses in the Siouan languages see my Madison address, "The Biloxi Indians of Louisiana," p. 16, and " Coutributions to North Ameri- can Kthnology," vol. 6, pp. 582, 585, et passim. B V4^ B ML i EJ,>>JlJJ Wi- « ! " I ■ — • a i Xi [Vol. VI. mar ? Kiilnier denotes by tlie idered relations I were regarded the seven cases 5 : the ablative .' that expressed '."t To these •essed by to or ds of Kijhner, rporation " in- nethod " (/. c, je relative ])ro- the machinery are copulative ;he functions of ntences : 1 ebdhegan — I I think desire for our- Panka azhi Ponka another e t one esaid) gdhizai took his own •t the one (who he Ponka who sentences, such sition to speak re concerned. § oc. ,8,3.] ™,vsv>-TnK«. .N ,Nn,AX ,,a™i>a.k». 407 On page .6 Dr. Prison say, tl,a, " U>e ..lOo.. ^ -f '.f,;,^'::, „„„„ iL5„aral,l, connected or, a. east, "'f*;; 'j^^ ;,',,„. ,,„... anrl ^" '!« -= -f^^J ■. ;,;; 'sio,*: ;:;U«. in randl ntnan, near *e '^:^X.^r^ ,. •• My the first person would have the vowel /. ^„ rmr"— In Tome VI, No. lo, 1893, of .;,r,:reraT,:L2-n.a:.c.^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ J r r FllU describing the custom of measuring the neck, ine Scaliger, E^l'^'.'^^'"'^' f „„. ^^^^^^ .'Soci^te d' Anthropologic de .Aiez une eguillee de fil blanc -^^ ^^^J^^^.fvL en ferez cou de la raie, puis vous doublerez ""f "^'.^^.drez ladite tenir les d.ux bouts . la ^^^ ^^^ ^,^1,^, elle mesu. . pour fa.re passer sa tfite, si la ^^^^ P^ ^ ^^ ,.elle est estcorrompue; si elle ne 1-^^, ^"^ I'f'JjXrJi/^^^^ .ii<. ' • 'Secrets merveilleux de la tnagie naturelie ei cau ' pucelle. Secrets merv ^ ^^^ ^^^ ,^^^^y ^f FeHt Albert, etc., i743. 21 P- Among ^" > according to the young men is determined solemnly in this manner, ^^^^^^ S „ ^ . 1 f MM Hnnoteau and Letourneau, La Kaoyiie. excellent work of MM. Honoteau aim ^ ^ ^ Hewitt. 5 see my Madison ns to North Ameri- . *V H^ >. f lf?i te °V" S ! ^^ ySi^!,ii 'jtg^' ''' y:!-jli