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A 
 315.^25 
 
 Dk. PFm. SMiTirs English Course. 
 
 A SCHOOL MANUAL 
 
 OF 
 
 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 WITH COPIOUS EXERCISES. 
 
 ^ WILLIAM SMITH, D.C.L., LL.D, 
 
 PXTOB OF THE CLASSICAL AND LATIN DICTIOKAB.'^A 
 
 iNI> 
 
 TllEOPniLUS D. HALL, I^F.A., 
 
 FELLOW oK LNlVKBSITr rOLLKQB, LONI-CS, 
 
 FOURTH EDITION. 
 
 TORONTO: 
 JAMES C A M P B K L L & SON 
 
 WDCCCLXXVII. 
 
i!Htrrfdaccord,nrj to Art of the rarllament .f <^;<'^'^^^J'Xf^J,]'': ^ 
 Thon^dud Euiht Hinvlnd mid iievenHi-ux,hy James Cami^eU d, .b^K 
 in Uu Ojjkc of the Miuidcr of A'j.y^Jiure. 
 
 KOJW 
 
 have 
 
 pract 
 
 and : 
 
 clear" 
 
 tical 
 
 pliilo 
 
 bhoii] 
 
 consi 
 
 G ran 
 
 have 
 
 the i: 
 
 IlWKMR, noSB & Co., Printers, Toaorrr) 
 
 At 
 featu 
 
 1. 
 servic 
 dcfin 
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 torici 
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 boHH 
 its Ci 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 e Yevr Or. 
 
 NoTWiTHSTANDiMG tlio numoroiis English Grammars thai 
 have reoently appeareil, it is acknowledged that a more 
 practical one is still wanted for general use in uj^per 
 ajid middle schools ; which should exhibit concisely and 
 clearly the existing grammatical forms and chief syntac- 
 tical rules of the language, and, without entering into 
 pliilological details suitable only for advanced students, 
 should yet give the subject a fuller treatment than is 
 consistent witli tlio design of a purely elementary 
 (jlrammar. Tliis want the authors of the present Woik 
 have endeavoured to supply — with what success it is fur 
 the intelligent teacher to determine. 
 
 Attention may be directed to the following distinctive 
 features in the Work : — 
 
 1. The writers have aimed throughout to make it a really 
 serviceable working school-hnok. To tliis end, all rules and 
 definitions have been presented in the simplest terms, 
 and examples freely added dealing with all the principal 
 difficulties attending their application. A strictly his- 
 torical treatment a])peared ill adapted to the use of boys 
 and girls, needing lirst to bo well grounded in the rules 
 and principles of English as it exists. At the same time 
 the essential unity of the Innguago has been constantly 
 borne in mind; and characteristic forms adduced from 
 its earlier stages, wbonever th(!y appeared calculated to 
 ^irow light upou its present condition. A very copious 
 
 6'^0'^"] 
 
 a '^ 
 
IT 
 
 PREFACE. 
 
 body of Exercises and Quostions has been added, intended 
 to form a complete praxis of graminatical Ktymologv, 
 Syntax, Vu. ng. Analysis of Sentences, and riinctuatiun. 
 A Key is fuinished, to Teachers only, to facilitate the 
 somewhat tedions process of correcting written exercises. 
 
 2. It presents a more complete and systematic treatment 0/ 
 Enijlish Sijntax tJian is to he met with in other works of tlie hind. 
 It is hoped that no important use of any one of the Parts of 
 Speech hits been overlooked, and each has been illustrated 
 by carefully selected exain}>l(.'s. Some uses are, it is be- 
 lieved, liere noticed for the first time in a work of the kind ; 
 such as the regular employment Ity Elizabethan writers of 
 adjectives as adverbs — without the addition of Jy — bef(jre 
 other adjectives (§ 226, obs. 2); the use of the Impersonal 
 I'assive by I^Iilton (§ 120, ohs. 2); and some others. Under 
 the head of the Sultjunctive Mood some valuable sections 
 have been in part derived from the admirable SJuihspearian 
 Grammar of Mr. E. A. Aljbott. 
 
 Explanations of idioms and Ubcs of less frequent 
 occurrence are given in smull type ; and these portions 
 of the work may with advantage be omitted by younger 
 students. 
 
 3. The use of examples manufadured for the occasion has 
 been studiously avoided. It is difficult to coin such as shall 
 bo neither inane nor affected ; and even when coined, 
 they lack authority. On the contrary, the citation of illi s- 
 trative words and passages from such authors as Shak- 
 spoare, Milton, Pope, Giblum, Goldsmith, Scott, Thackeray, 
 not only serves to establish rules, but is also fitted to 
 relieve any dryness inherent in the mere theory of gram- 
 mar : and it 13 believed that the committal of such quota- 
 tions to memory will pro\e a valuable help towards the 
 formation of a correct and elegant style. The exam})les 
 have been expressly selected, for this work ; a few only 
 having been adopted, after careful verification, from othey 
 critical aud grammatical works, 
 
 'it 
 
 k 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 'luied 
 
 litiun. 
 e the 
 
 ises. 
 
 lent of 
 e kind. 
 avt« of 
 itrated 
 
 is be- 
 ! kiud ; 
 tors of 
 -1 )ef(jre 
 :'rsoiiul 
 
 Under 
 ,ections 
 2)earian 
 
 equent 
 lortions 
 ouuger 
 
 ion has 
 US bluill 
 coined, 
 l)f ilh s- 
 1 Sliak- 
 ckeray, 
 itted to 
 gram- 
 quota- 
 rds the 
 camples 
 AV only 
 nil othe? 
 
 4. Tt drah with the English lawjurtge as eomrthing exit^l'ng, 
 the lavs of which are to he ascertained hy careful consultation 
 of its great' st masters, instead of being prescrilted bi/ gram- 
 marianf'. At the same time, care has been taken to di.s- 
 tinfiiish the sound and deliberate iisat^e of classical 
 writers, from the mere loose and careless modes of expres- 
 sion so frecpiontly to be mot with even in authors of ac- 
 knowledged position. 
 
 5. In addition to Grammar strictly so called, chaj^ters 
 have been added treating of the Anah/.^is of Senfoices (with 
 numerous illustrations)— the Eolations of English to other 
 Languages — Prosody — and Punctnatiou. The chapter 
 on the JRclaii'.ms of English to other Languages has been 
 strictly limited to the statement of the elementary facts 
 of the suljject. So much as is Jiere given ajtpears needful 
 to any completeness of general instruction : pursued beyon<l 
 these limits, the su.bject expands into Philology proper, 
 and must be pursued with the help of works specially 
 devoted to it. 
 
 The authors would specially express their indebtedness 
 to the learned and critical v )rks of Miltzner, Koch, and 
 Fiedler and Sachs ; I\lr. Earle's Philology of the Engli-h 
 Language ; Dr. IVIorris's Historical Outlines cf English Acci- 
 dence ; JNtessrs. Abbott and Seeley's English Lessons for 
 English iteoide ; Sir Edmund Head's Shall and Will; with 
 P»ishop Lowth's, Dr. Adams's, and other English Grammars, 
 of which a list is given below (p, vi). 
 
 • i 
 
( Tl ) 
 
 LIS? OF GRAMMATTCAT. AND OTHER WORKS CONSULTED 
 Oil REFEUKKD TO IN THE TEXT. 
 
 •'? 
 
 AniiOTT, Shakspeariao Grammar, 1S70. 
 
 AitiJOTT AND Skeley, English Lessourf 1871. 
 
 Adams, Kiii^dish Grammar: Larger aad SnialhM- pd'U 
 
 Anol's, Handbook of Kngli.sh Tongue, 1808. 
 
 Bain, English Grannnar, 1863. 
 
 Bitiuox, Modern English Literature, 1857. 
 
 CfiAUKK, Cowden, Concordance to Sliakt'si)eare, 1870. 
 
 COHHKTT, English Grammar. 
 
 CliAiK, English Literature, 2 vol. ed. 
 
 Eaklk, Philology of English Tongue, 1871. 
 
 KiKDLioii and Sachs, Enghsche Grammatik, 18r)0-Cl. 
 
 Flkming, Analysis of the English Tongue, 18G9. 
 
 Grimm, Deutsche Granimatik, 1819-40. 
 
 Hi;ad, Sir Edmund, "Shall and Will," 2nd ed. 
 
 Koch, Historische Grammatik der Euglischen Sprache, 3 vols., 18'")3--0i 
 
 Latham, Handbook, 18G2. 
 
 LowTii, Bp., English Grammar. 
 
 Marsh, Lectures on the English Language, 1872. 
 
 ;Ma.sox, English Grammar, new ed. 
 
 Maktznhr, Englische Grammatik, 3 vols., 18G0-65. 
 
 Mkiklkjohn, Easy English Grammar for Beginners, 4 p*.*, 
 
 MoRKLL, English Grammar, 18GG. 
 
 Morris, Historical Outlines of English Accidence, 1873. 
 
 Morris and Skeat, Specimens of Early Englisli, 1872. 
 
 Narks, Glossary, 2 vols. 8vo, 18f)7. 
 
 Rask, Anglo-Saxon Grammar, trans. Thorpe, 18:')<). 
 
 RusilTON, Rules and Cautions in English Gi-aniinii-, 181)9, 
 
 Tancock, English Grammar ami Reading Book, 1872, 
 
 TiiUlNO, Elemc'uts of English Grammar, 18G7. 
 
 3. V 
 
 f 
 
 % 
 
TAP>LE OF CONTENTS. 
 
 5ULTED 
 
 «l 
 
 Intiiodvction. Ilistoriciil Development of il»c Engli.-^h I.anguago. 
 
 The Alphabet. 
 
 BKCTIOXS. 
 
 1, 2. Small Letters and Capitals. Use 
 of Capitals. Lost Letters. 
 
 3. Vowels and Consonants — true 
 
 sounds of Vowels. 
 
 4. Consonants — the names of the 
 
 letters. 
 
 5. Classiticatiim of Consonants. 
 
 6. Liijuids — wiiy so called. 
 
 7. Mutes — their tlassitication and 
 
 diliercDt sounds. 
 
 SF.CTKiNS. 
 
 «. 8il)ilants: Palatals. Nature of 
 
 letter X. The letter;. 
 9. Semivowels ir and y. 
 
 10. The letter q : its appearanc e in 
 
 Kn.:lish Alphabet. 
 
 11. The letter /i. When silent. Pro- 
 
 nunciation of ich ; of />, s, tf 
 followed by h. 
 
 12. Diphthongs: real and apparent. 
 
 13. 14. Syllah'.es: their divi>iiin. 
 15. Accent : its tendency in English. 
 
 1*ART I. — EtY.-MOLOGY. 
 
 3-04 
 
 16. Nature and extent of Etymology. 
 
 17. The Parts of Sp^jch. 
 
 Nouns. 
 
 18-20. Nouns Proper and Common. 
 
 21. Classitication of Common Nouns. 
 
 22. Collective Nouns ; Abstract 
 
 Nouns ; Names of Materials. 
 
 23. 24. Gkndkr. 
 
 25. Distinction of Masculine and 
 Feminine in Knjj^lish. 
 
 27. Modes of distin;4uishing Mascu- 
 
 line and Feminine : 
 
 1. By inHexiou. 
 
 2. By diflereut words. 
 
 o. By a word significant of 
 Sex. 
 
 28, 29. Artificial Gender : Personi- 
 
 fication of inanimate objects. 
 Rhetorical advantage of English 
 over other languages in this 
 respect. 
 Artificial genders existing in the 
 oldest form of English. 
 
 30. Number. 
 
 81-33. Loss of former plural ter- 
 minations: existing law. Eu- 
 phony. 
 Plurals of Nouus in o. 
 
 34. Pluiiils of Nouns in/,/e. 
 
 35. Plurals of Nouns in //. 
 
 36. Pemains of old Plural in- 
 
 flexions. 
 Plural formed by internal chiinge. 
 Plural in ?t or in. 
 Plural same as Singular. 
 
 37. Double Plurals with dillerence 
 
 of meaning. 
 
 .18. Nouns used only in Singular. 
 
 ;J9. Nouus used only in IMural. 
 
 40. Doubtful or apparent Plurals : 
 alms, amcnd.'^, cace-', ?/jt'a//,s, 
 pdiiis, riches, tidinijs, n(i</cs, 
 Tlie names of sciences : phi/sicSf 
 
 41 
 
 mcc/uoiics, tSiiic. 
 
 42 
 43 
 
 Objective' 
 
 Foreign Plurals. 
 Cask. 
 
 Definition of Case. 
 The five Cases. 
 44—40. Nominative — 
 
 Dative. 
 
 47-50. Possessive. Its formation. 
 Poetic omission of '& in the case 
 of singulars ending in s. 
 Possessive of complex jihrase* 
 
 nouns. 
 Use of the Apostrophe modern. 
 Phrase "Tliomas his book." 
 51. Vocativ«. 
 
Vlli 
 
 ENGLISU GUAM MAR, 
 
 y, 
 
 i 
 
 Adjectives. 
 BF.crrioNs. 
 
 52. I>L'liiiition of Adjective. 
 
 63. Classificiition : — Aiijoctives of 
 
 Quality, Quantity, Number, 
 
 Distinctioa. 
 
 54. Adjectives of Quantity used as 
 
 Nouns. 
 
 55. The |)h r:\se many a . . . 
 
 56. This, thaty strictly Adject iv&s, 
 
 not Pronouns. 
 
 57. The Ordinals Adjectives of Dis- 
 
 tinction. 
 h?,. Litt'e, a little ; few, a few. 
 59, (50. Comparison of Ailjectivcs. 
 Gl. The (,'omparative Degree. How 
 
 used by Spenser. 
 G2. The Superlative Degree. How 
 
 used by Milton. 
 
 63. What kinds of Adjectives have 
 
 Degrees of Comparison. 
 
 64. Comparison by -er and -est. 
 
 65. Comparison by more and most. 
 
 Obsolete formations. 
 
 66. 67. Disyllabic Adjectives com- 
 
 pared by more an 1 ino^t. 
 68. Irregular Comparison : older ixni 
 eller, oldest and eUcd ; lesser, 
 
 Articles. 
 
 70, 71. Force of the Definite and 
 
 the Indefinite Artl k. 
 12. Use of an or «: authoritie?. 
 
 73. An or a used with i'lural ex- 
 
 pressions. 
 
 Pronouns. 
 
 74. Use and peculiar force of Pro- 
 
 nouns. 
 
 75. Kinds of Pronouns: Personal — 
 
 Jli'flexivc — Demonstrative — 
 Interrogative — Relative — In- 
 definite. 
 
 1. PliRSOXAL PjRONOUNS. 
 
 76. Meaning of 1st, 2nd, and 3rd 
 
 Persons. 
 
 77. Inlhxion of Personal Pronouns. 
 
 Use of forms ye, his, its, it. 
 
 78. Possessive Cases used as Adjec- 
 
 tives. So-called Possessive Pro- 
 nouns: luniriipriuty of the term. 
 
 2. RsrLKXIVE pRONOUSg. 
 
 BrcrioNs. 
 
 79. Meaning of the term. Obsolete 
 
 forms hissclf, their selves. One 
 self or one's self. 
 
 80. Reflexive forms used not re 
 
 Hexively, but 8imi)ly for eiu 
 phasis. 
 
 3. Demonstrative Pronouns. 
 
 81. These properly Adjectives. Cas^ 
 
 in which this, that, are used v 
 Pronouns. 
 
 4. Intkuuogative Pronouns. 
 
 82. Use of Jiho as Interrogati^ 
 
 earlier than its use as Heiativ, 
 
 83. Inflexion of v:ho. 
 
 84. Diil'erence in use of intorroga 
 
 tives vho, uhirh. 
 
 85. Use of what iuterrogativelv aai 
 
 bv way of exclamation. 
 80. Whether. 
 
 87. Whereof, whereat, &c. 
 
 5. Relative Pronouns. 
 
 88. Peculiar fi)rre of the Relative. 
 
 89. Examples of its connecting power. 
 
 90. Inflexion of nho: the Possessive 
 
 Case vhose not limited in its 
 use to persons. 
 
 91. Which formerly used of persons. 
 
 92. Repetition of antecedent with 
 
 Relative. 
 
 93. Use of Relative that. 
 
 94. 95. Use of Relative what. 
 9t!. What used as Adjective. 
 
 97. That used to include the Ante- 
 cedent. 
 08, 99. Whoever, whichever, &c. 
 
 100. The Adverb as used with force 
 
 of Relative after such. 
 
 101. The Adverb as used with force 
 
 of Relative after same. 
 
 102. Whereof, whereto, whereby, &c. 
 
 G. Indefinite Pronouns. 
 
 103. Enumeration of Indefinite Pro- 
 
 nouns. 
 
 104. Uses of one as Pronoou. 
 
 105. Xn and none, 
 
 lUG. Everybody, somebody, nobo ly. 
 
 •BofroNl 
 
 .07 
 
 .4 
 
 .08 
 
 L 
 
 
 ■ 
 
 109 
 
 £ 
 
 11 0, 
 
 
 
 ill 
 
 T 
 
 ilJ. 
 
 Sa 
 
 113. 
 
 H% 
 
 ;i4. 
 
 De 
 
 Ao. 
 
 Tr; 
 
 IIG. 
 
 Th 
 
 117. 
 
 Th 
 
 118. 
 
 Int 
 
 
 0/ 
 
 he 
 
 .19. 
 
 IntI 
 
 120. 
 
 Ad 
 
 
 Acl 
 
 
 Pi 
 
 
 Us 
 
 ;2i. 
 
 122, 
 
 123. 
 
 U.se 
 
 
 ti\ 
 
 124. 
 
 Imp 
 
 
 sh( 
 
 125. 
 
 Sub 
 
 lo\ 
 Di: 
 
 126. Infir 
 
 »27. Gen 
 
 Gei 
 
 Ph: 
 
 Gei 
 
 Part 
 
 Inip( 
 
 cipl 
 
 130. Com] 
 
 1*^. Natu 
 
 \'%. A^re.s( 
 
 tint 
 
 plia 
 
 l.)3. Prese 
 
 uses 
 
 134. Prese 
 
 135. Past 
 
 1-3 
 136-139. 1 
 and 
 
 128. 
 129, 
 
TABLE OF CONTENTS. 
 
 !x 
 
 >NOUSd. 
 
 Ti. OhsolcU 
 selves. One 
 
 scd not re 
 ijtly lor eiu 
 
 •honouns. 
 
 ctives. Cas^ 
 (, are used v 
 
 'RON'OUNS. 
 
 Iuterrof;ativ 
 e as Kelativt 
 
 of iuterroga 
 
 i^afively am 
 itioa. 
 
 N'OIIKS. 
 e Relative. 
 
 c I'dssnssivft 
 inited in its 
 
 of persons, 
 oedeut with 
 
 rh'tt. 
 
 :ivt,'. 
 
 e tiie Antc- 
 
 vcr, &c. 
 
 with force 
 
 ■h. 
 
 with force 
 me. 
 lereby, &.C. 
 
 SOUNS. 
 
 eduite Pro 
 
 Q. 
 
 , iioho ^y. 
 
 •r/'ffONB. SKCT 
 
 >^'ome'H)dy used as Noiui. I'.icry ' 14u. 
 
 us«d without Noua expressed. 
 .07. Axujlit, na iijht[nou,jht'\. 141. 
 
 i08. E'lch ; C'lch u7ie ; each ot'icr. , 142, 
 
 So-called 1,'e iprocul J'ron u/is. 
 109. Lithi'r, lutithcr : dual words. 
 1 1 yj. Other, othcr.^. 
 
 Ml. Ttie line, the other ; < ne, another, 
 112. Sam'' used as Pronoun. 
 il3. Such u.sed as Pronoun. 
 
 The Verb, 
 
 ',14. Definition. Otlior definitions. 
 
 »15. Transitiveand liitransitiveVerbs. 
 
 116. The Subject. 
 
 117. The [DireeJ] Object. 
 
 118. Intransitivi; Verbs classified : (1 ) 
 
 of action, (2) of bcituj, (3) of 
 
 becomin;}. 
 »19. Intieiion of Verbs. 
 120. Active ami iVssive Voice. 
 
 Active Voice used intransitively; 
 
 Pa.ssi\-e of Intransitive Verbs 
 
 used iniperssnallv (Milton). 
 '.21, 122. Mood. 
 
 123. U.se of Indicative Mood ; affirma- 
 
 tively and ictcrrf)i;,itivelv. 
 
 124. Imperative M'lod: Use of /tf and 
 
 shdil. 
 
 125. Subjunctive Mood : usually fol- 
 
 lows hypothetical Conjunctions. 
 Disu.'^e of Subjunctive Mood. 
 
 126. Infinitive Mood. 
 i27. Gerund. Nouns in -in') and 
 
 Gerunds in -ing : examples. 
 Phrases like a-goinff, a-'j-'iiting. 
 Gerundtal compounds. 
 
 128. Participles. Verbal Adjectives. 
 
 129. Imperfect and Perfect Parti- 
 
 ciples. 
 
 130. Compound Participial forms. 
 1"1. Nature of Tkxsi:. 
 1''"'2. x'resent, Past, Future time: dis- 
 
 tmctions of these. Forms in ! 161. 
 do, did, not necessarily em- ! 
 phatic. 102. 
 
 l.)3. Present Tense Indefinite : its 
 u.ses, 1-G. 
 
 134. Present Tense Complete. 
 
 135. Past Tense Indefinite: its uses, 
 
 1-3. 
 136-130. Futura Tease ; uses of shall 
 
 ani uill. ' 163 
 
 143 
 144 
 
 145 
 146 
 147, 
 
 H8, 
 149, 
 150, 
 
 151. 
 152. 
 153. 
 154. 
 
 155. 
 
 1.56. 
 
 l,-.7. 
 158. 
 
 i:.9. 
 
 160. 
 
 to»s. 
 
 NiMiiKR. Lost Plural termiaa- 
 tion.->. 
 
 Pku.son. 
 
 Couius;,ition of V»rb. Strong 
 and Weak Verbs. Compl.-(e 
 Paradi'j;m of Active Voice ; 
 showing Strong and Weak C<«u- 
 jugations [tn icrit'-, to /.(.v], 
 Used cj^irnvitive/g, negatively, 
 and internMjativelij. 
 
 The Verb to he. 
 
 Conjugation of Pa.ssive Voice: to 
 be hiiitrn 
 
 The Verb to have. 
 
 The Verb tn do. 
 
 \\ i I : represents two Verbs in 
 
 0. L 
 
 Shall: its proi)able etymology. 
 
 Mag . 
 
 Can: intrusion of I in c uld. 
 Cnco'ith. 
 
 Mist: earlier form mot. 
 
 Dare, durst ; dare, dared, 
 
 Xeed. jS'eeds an Adverb. 
 
 O^Je, uugfU : its pr<d.able ety- 
 mology. 
 
 Other hefectire Verbs: 
 
 1. Quoth; 2. u-'t; 3. vortk ; 
 4. me-thin'.s ; 5. me-Usti ; 
 6. >'hist; 7. ydejt; 8. hi.jht ; 
 9. dight. 
 
 Classification of Verbs according 
 
 to Inflexion: — four Classes. 
 Strong and VVeak \'erbs. 
 Distinction of Class IV. from L, 
 
 II., III. 
 i'ast Participle in -en. 
 Complete lists of Verbs according 
 to Cla.s;,es I., II., III. 
 I. Root vowels : a or ea ; e or 
 0e ; for t ; o, oo, O'r ; >/ ; y. 
 II. Arranged alph;ibetically. 
 III. Arranged alidiabeticaily. 
 General character of Verbs be- 
 
 Icnging to Class IV. 
 Veriis of Cla.>is IV. li;iving some 
 peculiarities : — 
 ('<) Verbs ending in d with 
 
 p. -part, in -t. 
 (Jj) Verbs having p. -part. 
 
 in -en. 
 ('-•) Certain contracted Verbs, 
 V^erb to be not classified. 
 
 ■w ■ 
 
ENGLISH GRAMMAK. 
 
 Adverbs. 
 
 ■Kcrioss. 
 
 I'U. Uses of All V.J rbs. 
 
 1*)5. Etynioln;^'y of Ailvsrbs : (1) from 
 obsolete Cases of Nouns, (2) 
 from Pronouns, Q\) from Ad- 
 jcf'tives, (4) from Preposi- 
 tions. 
 
 166. Classification of Adverbs : (1) of 
 Time, (2) of Place, (:}) of Se- 
 qi.t;nce or Order, (4) answering 
 the question " Hwo man;/ 
 times'^" (i")) of Manner, (6) of 
 Deijree, (7) of Inference and 
 Argument, (8) of Negation. 
 y'es and No not Ail verbs. 
 
 16*. Adverbs in -///. Termination o{ 
 Adverbs in 0. E. Adverbs like 
 briijht, fair, lend, &o. 
 
 IG8. Comparison of Adverbs : forms 
 like ;i i.'llier. 
 
 109. Defective Comparison. 
 
 170. Plirase Adverbs: at random, 
 
 pell-mell. &c. 
 
 Prepositions. 
 
 171, 17-'. Function of Prepositions. 
 
 173. Kinds of words with which Prc- 
 
 jtositions establish relations. 
 
 174. Classification of I're])ositions: (1) 
 
 Simple ; (,J) Compounil and 
 Derived ; (3) Phrase-preposi- 
 tions. Ktymological remarks. 
 
 Conjunctions. 
 
 175. 17'). Function of Conjunctions. 
 
 177. Peculiar function oi and. 
 
 178. Conjunctions conduce to brevity. 
 I7y. Classification of Conjunctions: 
 
 (1) Simple connectives; (2) 
 ("ausal; (.'?) Adversative; (4) 
 Ilypoliietical ; (5) Temporal j ■ 
 (G) Comparative. 
 
 Inierjections. 
 
 180. Interji'ctions word-sentences. 
 
 Formation of Words. 
 
 181. Simple words. 
 18'J. Complex words. 
 183. Compound words. 
 
 .SF.crioNs. 
 
 IS 4. Derived words. 
 
 185. Compound words taken eutK» 
 
 from other languages. 
 
 186. Compound-Derived words. 
 
 187. Compound VVoitus. 
 
 188. A. Compound Nouns compounde/ 
 
 of: (1) two Nouns; (2) Ad 
 jective and Noun ; ('>) Tran 
 sitive Verb and Noun; (4) Ad 
 verbial prefix and V^erbal Noun 
 (5) Miscellaneou.s. 
 
 189. B. Compound Adjectives: cors 
 
 pounded of (1) Noun and Ad 
 jective; (2) Adverbial pretn 
 ami Adjective ; (3) Two Ac 
 jectives. 
 
 190. c. Compound Verbs: formed b; 
 
 means of prefixes. A jg^t 
 formed from a Noun and ♦ 
 Verb. 
 
 191. Other compound words: n* j 
 
 cellaneous. 
 
 Dkuivativios. 
 
 192. 'Principal modes of Derivation 
 
 (1) by a prefix ; (2) by a sullix ; 
 (.3) by a change in the body of 
 the word. 
 
 193. Words applied in ditferent use» 
 
 without change. 
 
 194. Common English prefixes : '«, 
 
 he, en (cm), for, mis, un ( - not ), 
 un (Germ, ent-), and, (jain, 
 vith. 
 
 195. Princii)al English Suffixes: — 
 
 A. Of Nouns : ar, ar, or, i/rr^ 
 ster, ce, ecr, ier, th, ness, Ian, 
 ling, ock, et, let, io (y), ricp 
 duin, hood or head, ard, art, ry, 
 ship, aije, t, le, el. 
 
 190. B. Of Adjectives : /«/, ish, less, 
 some, ji, en, ///, ett, able, ible, 
 le, fold, vard, th, ing, d, et/, 
 em, fast. 
 
 107, 198. c. Of Verbs: en, le, sr, 
 ster. 
 
 199. Latin and Greek Prefixes aod 
 
 Sudixeii 
 
 200. Words differing in acceu'. "ply, 
 
 according to their use. OtliM 
 similar ditlereuce.':. 
 
 BFCTIOXS. 
 
 201 
 
 Noni 
 
 
 pea 
 
 202. 
 
 p.. sit 
 
 203. 
 
 Ever 
 
 
 to s 
 
 204. 
 
 Comp 
 
 
 tob> 
 
 
 "It 
 
 205. 
 
 Com 1 
 
 
 Pa.'^ 
 
 206. 
 
 Nomi 
 
 in !i 
 
 207 
 
 . Denot 
 
 208 
 
 Comj) 
 
 209 
 
 Doubl 
 
 
 &c. 
 
 210 
 
 Object 
 
 211. 
 
 Object 
 
 
 [•' Co 
 
 212. 
 
 Object 
 
 
 dura 
 
 213. 
 
 Object 
 
 214. 
 
 Denote 
 
 21.5. 
 
 Dative 
 
 , 216. 
 
 Dative 
 
 217. 
 
 Now u> 
 
 
 phr;is( 
 
 
 trail;. 
 
 218. 
 
 Ellipsis 
 
 
 u-or/i i 
 
 219. 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 220. 
 
 II. 
 
 221. 
 
 Noun ii 
 
 
 sent en 
 
 
 III. 
 
 222. Attribul 
 
 223. Cumpari 
 
 
 oA 
 
TABLE OF CONTENTS. 
 
 XI 
 
 xken eutK» 
 
 ;es. 
 
 k'ords. 
 
 compoumU/ 
 iS ; (2) Ad 
 ; (.'■) Tian 
 un; (+)Ad 
 'erbal Noud 
 
 tives : com 
 un and Ad 
 jrbial prehi 
 J) Two Ac 
 
 : formed b' 
 es. A ^e^■^ 
 S'oun and ♦ 
 
 words : eu > 
 
 Derivation 
 t) by asutlix ; 
 , the bodv of 
 
 itferent use* 
 
 Paht II. — Syntax. 
 
 pi 
 
 efixes : 't, 
 urt( - not), 
 
 iffixes: — 
 
 ,,,', or, iior^ 
 
 7i, ness, Ida, 
 
 ie {y\ ric, 
 
 anl, "rt, rtj, 
 
 'id, ish, k'SSf 
 
 I, able, ibl', 
 
 ing, d, ed, 
 
 en, le, sr, 
 
 'riWixes and 
 
 l4S0. OtllM 
 
 I. TiiP. C\sr.s. 
 1. Nmninntive. 
 
 8FCTIONS. 
 
 201. Nominative as subject : — re- 
 
 peated 
 
 202. T' >sition of Noniinati . e. 
 
 203. Every Nominative must belong 
 
 to some Verb. 
 
 204. Ci)mplementary Nominative at'ter 
 
 to be, &c. Such exjtressions as 
 " It is me." 
 
 205. Complementary Nominative after 
 
 Passive Verbs. 
 
 206. Nominative Al)solute. Objective 
 
 in this construction. 
 
 2. Objective. 
 
 207. Denotes the Direct Ohj ri. 
 
 208. Complementary Object. 
 
 209. Double Object, after to teach, 
 
 &c. 
 
 210. Objective after Pa.ssive Verbs. 
 
 211. Objective after Intransitive Verb 
 
 ['' Cognate Accusative "]. 
 
 212. Objective used to denote extent, 
 
 duration, &c. 
 
 213. Objective with Imj)ersonal Verbs. 
 
 3. Dative. 
 
 214. Denotes Indirect Object. 
 21.5. Dative after lifie, unli'.e. 
 
 216. Dative with Impersonal Verbs. 
 
 4. fossessire, 
 
 217. Now used onjv of Persons. Such 
 
 phnises as uit's end — an huur's 
 tcalL 
 
 218. Ellipsis : ''St. Paul's ;" "a 
 
 uvr/i of the Laureate^." 
 
 219. 5. Vocative. 
 
 220. II. Apposition. 
 
 221. Noun in Ajtposition to an entire 
 
 sentence. 
 
 III. Adji;ct»vks. 
 
 222. Attributive and Predicative use. 
 
 223. Comparison indicated by as, than, 
 
 of. 
 
 SECTIONS. 
 
 224. An Adjective preci'ded by l^e. 
 
 used to denote a class. 
 22.'j. Adjectives become Nuuns. 
 
 226. Adjectives apparently use<I ad- 
 
 verbially. Some Adverbs not 
 ditVerent in form trom Adjec- 
 tives. Adverbial use of Adjec- 
 tives before other Adjectives 
 in Shaks])eare, &c. 
 
 Articles. 
 
 227. Article, when repeated. 
 
 228. Article, when in it repeated. 
 
 229. Article rejieated fur sake of em- 
 
 phasis. 
 
 230. Definite Article irives to an Ad- 
 
 jective tlie force of an Abstract 
 Noun. 
 
 231. T/t' = by so much, an Adverb. 
 
 IV. Pronouns. 
 
 232. Use of ',o« nnl t'.on. 
 
 233. Uses of Relative: (I) restrictive; 
 
 (2) conjunctive. 
 
 234. Concord of Relative. Poetic li- 
 
 cence: "0 Thuu who ^ «c/- (■./." 
 
 235. Relative and Interrogative Pro- 
 
 ncuns precidcil by the V^erbs 
 which govern them. 
 
 236. Who - he who. 
 
 237-8. That preferred to vho or uhich. 
 
 239. Omission of Relative: when 
 
 allowable. 
 
 240. Peculiar concord of Verb after 
 
 Relative : '' If thou becst he who 
 didst." 
 
 241. "Than 'horn." 
 
 242. Antecedent implied in Pronomi- 
 
 nal Adjective. 
 
 243. Antecedent an entire .'•entence. 
 
 244. Uses of Pronoun it to repre- 
 
 sent (1) coming subject ; (2) a 
 history to be related; (.3) flie 
 cause of natural phenomena; 
 (4) state or condition ; (T)) action 
 of Verb of which it is Object; 
 (0) in questions. 
 
 245. Kach, everij, either, neither, take 
 
 Singular concords. Ob.solet* 
 uses of tliese word.s. 
 
Xll 
 
 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 I 
 
 V. The Verb. 
 1. Concur J of Predicate. 
 
 iECTIONS. 
 
 246 Croneral Rule. Former incorrect 
 use, '^ yo'i was." Apparent 
 breach of concord in the case 
 of Plural titles of books: real 
 breacli of concord due to con- 
 fusion of thou.;ht. 
 
 247. Two or more .Siui^ular Subject.; 
 
 followed by Plural Verb. Ex- 
 ceptions. Quasi - compounds : 
 two and sixpence. Use of with 
 IS and. 
 
 248. Fvevf Verb must have a Subject. 
 
 249. (\) either . . or; (2) neither . . 
 
 n>r. Exceptions. 
 
 250. Concord of Collective Nouns. 
 
 2. The ''Subjunctive Mood. 
 
 251. Follows if, unless, Sec. 
 
 252. Needs no such Conjunction when 
 
 it precedes Subject. 
 
 253. In indirect questions. 
 
 254. Used to denote a command or 
 
 "■/>'/). 
 
 255. In lmi)erativ8 or Optative sense. 
 
 256. After that, S'> thit, lest. 
 
 ?57. All hypothetical sentences do not 
 require Subjunctive. 
 
 258. Se(iueuce of Tenses. 
 
 3. The Infinitive Mood. 
 
 259. Infinitive without to; when used. 
 
 Passive Infinitive without to. 
 
 260. Infinitive as Subject. 
 
 261. Infinitive as Object. 
 
 262. Peculiar use of Past Infinitive. 
 263-266. Comi)lementary Infinitive; 
 
 after (1) a Verb; (2) an Ad- 
 jective ; (3) a Noun ; (4) an 
 entire sentence, 
 
 267, Tsed in exclamations. 
 
 4. Geruiui, 
 
 268. (1) As Subject ; (2) as Object ; 
 
 (3) after an Adjcctiv; (4) go- 
 verned bv a Preposition. 
 260 The Gerund of a Transitive Verb 
 can govern an Objective Case. 
 
 SECTIONS. 
 
 270. Nouns in ing (un./)d\stinc;uishe(? 
 
 from Gerunds. Irregularities 
 in older writers. 
 
 271. Rule respecting tlie and of with 
 
 Gerund. 
 
 272. Gorun 1 preceded by n Posses.sive 
 
 Case. 
 
 273. Compound Geruudial forms. 
 
 Piirtiijilei — 
 
 Are Verbal Adjectives. Classi- 
 cal idioms with Participle in 
 Milton. 
 
 Referring to an entire sentence. 
 
 274. 
 
 275. 
 
 276. Used Adverbially. 
 
 VI. Advkrhs. 
 
 277. Their position. Erroneous posi- 
 
 tions exemplified. 
 
 278. Adverb referring to an entire 
 
 sentence. 
 
 279. Adverbs like, unlike, with Dative. 
 
 280. Adverbs same in form as Adjec- 
 
 tives. 
 
 281. Etfect of double negatives. 
 
 282. Adverbs used A Ijectively. 
 
 283. Adverbs cen, onl;/ ; apparently 
 
 quali tying Nouns. 
 
 284. Adverbs not, jut, exactly, modi- 
 
 fying entire phrases. 
 
 VII. Piu.i'GarriONS. 
 
 285. Govern Objective. 
 
 286. Save, except, &c. : when Prepo- 
 
 sitions and when Conjunctions. 
 
 287. 288. Preposition at the end ; 
 
 esp. with li(d,itive omitted. 
 
 289. Virtual compounds: to laugh tt, 
 
 VIII. CO!^JUNCTI0K3. 
 
 290. " Link-words." 
 
 291. How to determine Case of Noua 
 
 following, Errors. 
 
 293. Corresponding Conjunctions. 
 
 294. But : Ailverb, Preposition, oi 
 
 Conjunction. 
 
 295. 296. Parsing. Specimen. 
 
 m 
 
 I 
 
 329- 
 
 333. 
 
 334. 
 
 335. 
 336. 
 337. 
 
 338. 
 
 839, 
 
TABI-E OF CONTENTS. 
 
 X111 
 
 rregulai'ities 
 and of with 
 ;' Possessive 
 ill forms. 
 
 ives. Classi- 
 Partici[ile in. 
 
 ire sentence. 
 
 'roneous posi- 
 
 to an entire 
 
 , with Dative, 
 nil as Adjeo- 
 
 Tatives. 
 3tively. 
 ; apparently 
 
 ■X'lCtl^jf modi- 
 es. 
 
 ONS. 
 
 when Prepo- 
 Coujunctidus. 
 it the end; 
 
 omitted. 
 
 : ^0 laugh it, 
 
 IONS. 
 
 Case of Noun 
 s. 
 
 junctions, 
 eposition, oi 
 
 cimen. 
 
 Part III. — Analysis of Skniences. 
 
 IKCTIONS. 
 
 297-oUO. Sentences Simide and Com- 
 plex. 
 1. A)iit/i/sis of ^^'iinji/e Sentences. 
 
 301. Con.^tltuciit parts ot Sentences. 
 
 302. Tlie Subject : its varieties. 
 
 303. Tlie Predicate. 
 
 304. The Object : Direct and Indirect. 
 
 305. Enlargements: — Adjectival in 
 
 tlieir nature. 
 3U(i. Extensiiins .- — Adverbial in their 
 nature. 
 
 307. E.xainples of An;ilysis of SiMi'LK 
 
 StIMKNCES: Nos. 1-8. 
 
 308. Co-ordinate Sentences; — Con- 
 
 tracted Sentences. 
 
 SECTH'NS. 
 
 2. Analysis of Complex Sentences. 
 
 309. Mode of disintegrating Complex 
 
 Sentences. " Principal Sen- 
 tence," 
 
 310. Classification of Subordinate 
 
 Sentences. 
 
 311. Noun Sentence. 
 
 312. Adjectival Sentence. 
 31.'^. Adverbial Sentence. 
 
 314-. Mode of dealing with the de- 
 tached parts of a Com ]> lex 
 Sentence. 
 
 315. Lxami)les of Analysis of Com- 
 plex Sentences; 1, 2. 
 
 Part IV. — Eef-afions of English to other Languages. 
 
 816. Families of Languages. 
 
 317. Indo-European or Aryan Family. 
 
 318. Branches of Indo-European Fa- 
 
 mily ; (1) Indian ; (2) Persian ; 
 (3) Gra<o-Latin, including Ro- 
 mance languages ; (4) Slavo- 
 nic; (5) Tcutcnic; (0) Keltic. 
 
 Certain European languages not 
 Aryan. 
 
 English a Teutonic language; 
 High and Low German. 
 
 Sources of English Vocabulary. 
 
 319 
 
 320 
 
 321, 322. Relation of English and 
 Latin elements. 
 
 323. Latin-English words : direct and 
 
 indirect Latin. 
 
 324. Latin vocabulary indispensable 
 
 to scientific language. 
 
 325. Keltic element, 
 
 326. Greek element. 
 
 327. Miscellaneous elements; Arabic, 
 
 Ilebiew, Italian, Sjaiiish, 
 Gaelic, Hindoo. 
 
 328. Works dealing with this subject. 
 
 Part V. — PivO.sody. 
 
 329-332. Verse :— Rhythm, Ehyme, 
 Allitcralion. 
 
 333. Single, Double, and Treble 
 
 'ihymes. 
 
 334. luivnies coincident with rhyth- 
 
 mical beat. 
 
 335. True and apparent rh vines. 
 
 336. Feet. 
 
 337. Measures, DitTerence between 
 
 Latin or Greek and English 
 feet. 
 
 338. Teiluiical terms: Monom(;ter, 
 
 Dimeter, Sic. \ Catalectic, Hy- 
 permeter. 
 839,340. lanihicMiti'Ps: Specinu^as. 
 
 341, 342. Trochaic Metres: S]iecimen3. 
 
 343. Anapastic Metres : Specimens. 
 
 344. Dactylic Metres : Specimens. 
 
 345. Dactyls combined with TrochccJ. 
 
 Sl'ICFAI. MKTuns. 
 
 340. Heroic Couplet. 
 
 347. Blank Verse. 
 
 348. Ballad M<'tre. 
 
 349. Elegiac Stanza. 
 
 350. Alexandrine Verso. 
 
 351. Spenserian Stanza. 
 
 352. Ottavit Ji'inot. 
 
 353. Sonnet (true). 
 
 ;<54. Sliakspearian Soiiaal. 
 
XIV 
 
 TABLE OF CONTENTS. 
 
 BKrrioNS. 
 
 355. Combinations of Verse. ' skcti 
 
 366,357. Alliteration; oLce an im- 3(52. 
 
 port;mt principle of English 3G3. 
 
 Versification. 364-. 
 
 358. Rliy me previous to the Conquest. ; 365. 
 
 359. Transition from Alliteration to ' 366. 
 
 Kiiyme. I 367. 
 
 360. Metre of the Virinn of Piers ' 368. 
 
 J' o m n. 369. 
 
 361. Alliteration still retaindl for 370, 
 
 special eliect : — KxampL^s. 372. 
 
 English Exkhcisls .... 
 
 PUNCrOATlON, 
 
 uNS. 
 
 i'oints or Stops. 
 Period or Full Stop, 
 Colon : rules for its use. 
 Semicolon ? rules for its use. 
 Comma: rules for its use. 
 Note of Interrogation. 
 Note of Excl.iination. 
 The Dash. 
 
 371. Curve. 1 and Square bracked 
 Quutatiua Marks. 
 
 • • • . 176 
 
 4 
 
 APPENDICES. 
 
 I 
 
 I. Additional Examplks of Pausinq ... . 241 
 
 II. A Dll FKRENT MODE OF EXHIIUTING THE AKALVSIS OF SeNTKNOKS 243 
 
 III. On the Interchange of Consonants, as si;en by compaiuson 
 
 OF WORDS HI'.LONGINO TO THE NATIVE ENGLISH N'OCAUri.AHY' 
 
 (.See i>. 156) with cokrksi'Onding words in the Greek and 
 Latin languages (Gra;co-Latin branch of the Arvan 
 ou Indo-Euuopean Family) ...... 246 
 
 A15BREVIAT10XS USKU CIIIKFLY IN Tlii: EXKIICISI S. 
 
 A. = Alison. 
 
 B. = Byron; Br. = Brougham 
 (Life); E. B. = Eliz. F.rowning; 
 R. B. -- Robert Browning. 
 
 C. = Camidjell ; Co. = Coleridge. 
 
 D. = Oickens ; Dr. = Drvden. 
 
 E. or G. E. = George Eliot ; E. V. = 
 EnLrlish Version of the I>i})le, 
 
 F. and S. = Fiedler and Sachs; F. Q. 
 = Faiiy Queen. 
 
 G. = G(ddsmith; Gi. = Gibbon ; Gr. 
 = GiMv ; also Greek. 
 
 He. = Ilemans. 
 
 lb. = ibidem, >' w poyfinn of an 
 
 a'lfhor ; id. = idem, sitmc at'ior, 
 J. C. = .lulius Caesar (Sliaks.). 
 K. - Keats; K. J. = Eing .Tohn 
 
 (Shaks.). 
 
 L. = Lamb; also Latin; Lo. = 
 
 Longfellow. 
 1. c. = locus citat us, j)7SS '(/^ iilrcaihj 
 
 cited. 
 M. = Milton; Ma. = Macaulay (H. 
 
 E. = Hist, of England 5 vols.). 
 Newc. = Newcomes ('i'hack.). 
 0. E. = Oldest form cd" English. 
 P. = Pope; P. L. = Paradise Lost, 
 S. or Sc. = Scott; S. orSh. = Shak- 
 
 speare; Sp. = Spenser; Si>. of 
 
 Spec. = Spectator (Addison's) ; H. 
 
 S. z=. Horace Smith , S S. = 
 
 Sydney Smith. 
 T. = Tennyson ; Th. =: Thackeray , 
 
 also Tliomson. 
 W. t:z \Voi'd.>\vorth. 
 
 V. 
 
 f 
 
 (The other abbreviations are sulFicii'iitlv (divious.") 
 
N. 
 
 s use. 
 or its use, 
 its use. 
 ion. 
 )n. 
 
 j;ire bracked 
 
 176 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 • 
 
 4ri-r A 
 
 'KNCKS 
 
 243 
 
 UUSOK 
 
 
 I'l.AHV 
 
 
 K AND 
 
 
 kUVAN 
 
 
 246 
 
 Hcisi s. 
 
 in ; Lo. = 
 
 <ss 'jit already 
 yiacaulay (H. 
 
 ■) vols.), 
 ack.). 
 In^lish. 
 radise Lost. 
 Sh. = Shak- 
 iscr ; S]>. or 
 adison's); H. 
 
 , S-, S. = 
 
 Tliarkevay , 
 
 HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 The English Lmguago is the langiia^o of the Engli.-h people. 
 
 The J alecti Oiit ot' wiiich it has been develnpe 1, were brought over 
 into Britain by tlio tri!)e3 of Jutes, Saxaiis, ami Angl'3 — all of 
 Teutonio ra^'e— who euec^ssively beitled in the islaMd from abiut 
 l.'O A.D. to iib'iit ooO A.D. ; and liy the union of whoni the Eiigii>h 
 pcoitle was forme 1. Pr.vinus to thi'so soitl- inents, K Itic dialects 
 prevailed tliroughout Biitain; t xn^piing hO far as they had bu'en 
 displactd in South Britain by J.atiii, the lunguago of its Roman 
 masters. 
 
 The English language was not formed by a blending of the speech 
 of the conqnering 'I'eut ins with that of the cttniiuend Kelts. Its 
 earliest remains — some of which d;ite from a period anterior to the 
 conquest — are reniarkal)ly free from Keltic words. The lingnnge 
 spoken by the new settlers ilis[>lafid the old Keltic dialects, just as 
 Jutes, Saxons, and Angles displaced the Britons. (See, however, p. 
 159.) 
 
 The dialects spoken by those tribes were closely related to eai-h 
 other: and were all alike Low-Oermaii. (Sec § 319) It is not now 
 /)ossil)le to trace more than two of tlnm -a Xorthein and a Soiitherti 
 iiiloct; and even between these the difFi rences are not v^ry cleurly 
 nuirked.* It cannot, however, be doubteil that various iirovincial 
 lialects existed, although not p( rpi tnated in the Oi<m] ar.itively seanty 
 remains of the literature of the period; nor that tl> ■• were th».> 
 narents of those which are kn^wn to have existed subsequently, and 
 some of which still, to a certain extent, li' M their ground. 
 
 The language as written and siKiken during the seven or eighv 
 
 See Rn»\r, A. S. Gr., ' Of iMatpcts. ' csp. ^ 460 
 
XVI 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 centuriea immediately following the first Teutonic settlement in Kent, 
 has hitherto iisuiilly been raljid Aii<^do-Siixon, — i.e. the language oJ 
 the people consi.-ting(fhiefly) of Angles and Saxons. But more rccciii 
 authors have {ireferrcd to m;irk the continuity of the 1 iotory of both 
 people and Lmgiiage by calling it English. Nor is this a new way of 
 speaking, but lather a return to the old; for Saxons and Angles are 
 iilike includid under the general name (T 'Angli' or Angles, i.e. 
 English, by Bada, so early as the eighth century. Baidn, it is true. 
 Avas a Northumbrian ; and therefore, as being himpelf an Angle, more 
 likely to use tiie name of Angles in a comprehensive way. But this 
 use of the term is not peculiar to Northumbrian writers; and Kiug 
 Alfred, himself a West-Saxon, calls the language in which he writes 
 neither Saxon nor Anglo-Saxon, but Enolish. This prevalence of the 
 name 'Angle,' t'r 'P^nglish,' mtlicr than 'Saxon.' was doubtless due in 
 great measure to the earlier and more striking literary development 
 of Anglian than of Saxon Britain. Not only Bseda. the first English 
 historian, but Cajdmon, the ' father of English poetry,' was also an 
 Anglian. 
 
 Speaklrig brradly, there are three i>rincii)al stages in the develop- 
 ment of the I 'n>;li.sl> language : — 
 
 I. Old-English (or Anglo-Saxon). 
 
 II. Middle Enc.lish. 
 
 III. Modern English. 
 
 I. The first of these stages extends from the earliest monumenta of 
 the language to about the close of the contemporary ' Saxon * or 
 ' English ' Chronicl s, 1154 a.d. 
 
 Old-English (or Anglo-Saxon) is no longer intelligible to the ordinary 
 reader; but requires special study, as mucli as Fr< nch or German. 
 The following are the main points in which it difiVrs from the pretent 
 form of the language. 
 
 1. The inflexional system is much more elaborate and complete ; 
 offering a general eorreupondence to that of Modern German. 
 
 (A concise view of the inflexious of Old-English or Anglo-Saxon is pre- 
 sented in the Student's Manual of the English Lanjvuige, pp. 283- 
 291.) 
 
 2. It 1ms no I atin element, but is pure English. 
 
 The exceptions are few nml of a special nature : as ceastei, Lat. castrum, 
 a fort or caste; stra't, Lat. strain (via), a highvay ; engel, Lat, 
 angelus, an angel; bisceop, Lat. episccpus, a bishop; niunuc, Lat. 
 monachus, a rnoiik. 
 
 3. The vocabulary comprises a large number of words wliich 1 avt 
 iiuce become obsolete, their places having been in most cashes take u by 
 
 I 
 
INTKODUCTION. 
 
 XVII 
 
 jnt in K»iit, 
 laiiguaf^e oi 
 more rccciii 
 tory of both 
 new wav of 
 Angles are 
 Angles, i.e. 
 , it is true. 
 Angle, more 
 . But tills 
 : nnd K.ng 
 'h he writ< H 
 Icnce of tlie 
 jtless due in 
 kvelopment 
 irst Engliah 
 vas also an 
 
 he develop- 
 
 inuraents of 
 Saxon ' oj 
 
 he ordinary 
 |r German. 
 :hc pretcni 
 
 complete ; 
 
 ixon IS pre- 
 1^, pp. 283- 
 
 It. castrum, 
 leiigel, Lat. 
 lunuc. Lat. 
 
 Iiieli 1 avt 
 tak( u hy 
 
 other words borrowed directly or indirectly from Latin. Such are, 
 here = army (Fr. aruje'e; Lat. armata [acie.s]); hc = C(>rpse (Fr. corps; 
 Lat. corpus); wsostin =/ru/< (Fr. fruit; Lat fructus) ; driht=/ioase- 
 hold ; Drihti-n, the Lo^d, A:c. 
 
 4. Thj orthography often ditfcrs con^Mcrably from that of Modern 
 Eiiglish, even in words which are obviously identical. Thus OE 
 hrcdd = reed; h\y8si = whal; rec or reac = ree/i; (smoke); leolit = it^/ii; 
 &c. Sue"*, diflerences sour times represent dialectic vaiiatioua whic'.i 
 may &td) be tracrd in provincial English. 
 
 5. The metrical system hi neither syllabic nor rhyming, but allitera- 
 tive. (See p. lt)!3.) 
 
 It has aln aJy heen stated that the earliest specimens of Old-English 
 date from a time prior to the settlement of Jutt-, Saxon, or Angle in 
 Britain. Such are the *Tale of Beowulf,' and the ' Cile:man's Song.' 
 These and other layo were handetl down by tradition before tie art of 
 writing was introiluccd. The first great English work — properly sc 
 called — is the Scriptural poem of Ccedmon, who was a monk of Whitby, 
 about GOO A.D. Portions of this have been preserved ; and the 
 following brief passage may serve to convey some idea of the character 
 of our language in its^r*^ stage. 
 
 THE CREATION OF LIGHT. 
 
 Jia wacs wuldor-torht 
 heofon-weardes g.ist 
 ofer holm borea 
 niiclum speduin : 
 iVletod engla htibt 
 lifes Brytta, 
 leoht for<5-cuman 
 ofer riimne grund. 
 Ra^e was gelyllod 
 heah-cyuitfges has ; 
 him wses hilig leuht 
 ofer westeniie, 
 Bwa se VV^yrlita be-heid. 
 
 (See Student's Specimms 
 
 Then was (the) glorionsly-bright 
 
 heaven-guardian's sjurit 
 
 over ocean borne 
 
 with great «i)eed (pi.). 
 
 (The) (,,'reator of angels bid — • 
 
 [he who is] Life's distributor — 
 
 Light come forth 
 
 over (the) spacious abyss. 
 
 >»cou was fulfilled 
 
 the High-King's behest; 
 
 for him was holy light 
 
 over (the) waste 
 
 us the Maker bid. 
 
 of Enij'ish Lit., p. 1.) 
 
 As illustrating the points before noted, here mark — 
 
 (1.) The lost inflections, -a of Gen pi. (engl-a); -o of Dat. sing 
 (westenn-e) ; and -um of Dat. pi. (micl-um sped-um],; with tin; 
 Ace. masc. ending -ne of Adj. (rum-ne) 
 
 (2.) The solitary non-Teutoide word eng<l = Lat. augelus. (The 
 German engel of course comes from the ."^ame source as the English.) 
 
 (3.) The wholly obwdete words wuldor (ghry^ glorious), and torht 
 bright ; also holm, in sense of ocean. 
 
 i 
 
XVlil 
 
 INTliUDUCTlON. 
 
 (4) Tlie disguising effect of ortlingraphy in 8a< '^ words as licofon = 
 heaven ; K olit = litjht ; hiilig = ^ot'^', vVc. 
 
 The l)iilk of the word::) h(nvtver ri main in sonic form or other, as 
 weafi 1 = uanZ, ;;uar(Z ; raitod = lie who meifci \_^ meted <>ut haven with 
 the Bpan,' Is. xl. 12]; brytta = h« who spreads Si-broad [(Jenn. vcr- 
 hreit(jt] ; r{m. = room^ roomy ; wyrhta = w"n(//i<, as in whcel-it'ny/'* ; &c 
 
 Tliis period may be characterized as the foundation period of oui 
 ]ani,'uage. Hero wo trace the firm ground-plan of the noble idifice of 
 lMigli.-<h speech, into wliit h were to be subsequently wrought material? 
 of so rich and highly diversiliod a character. (Comp. p. 157, ^ 321.) 
 
 II. The next stige of the language is called ' Middle English ' or 
 M'^aily I'iiiglish.' It extends onward to about a.d. loOO. T..-; torn) 
 'Early Engli-h' should be used only in speak, ng of the earlier part 
 of this p riod. 
 
 'ihe literature of thi.^ period is far more copious and varied than 
 that of the {'receding. No single extract could give,' any correct idt a 
 of the general character of its ilictioii. It is pre-eiu nently a period of 
 growth. At its eonuneiicemiiit the language was coniparati\ely rude; 
 at its close it had matureil into an instrument of expressioa eruul to 
 the highest requirements of the human mind. 
 
 The great characteiistio process of this period is the fusion of the 
 English and Norman-French elements. As a consecjuence of tliu 
 Norma; 1 Conqueat, French Ixcarae the langiinge of the upper classes 
 of society. It wai em])loyed in courts of law and in public business 
 generally; and boys in grammar-scliools were r.iade to construe their 
 Latin into French, (llallain, ' Lit. Hist.' I. i. § ;V2 ) On the other hand, 
 'h>' mass of tlie I'.ngiish clung all the more clos' ly to their native 
 langnage, and for about a century after the Con(iue.>c appear to lave 
 u.sed it almo;?t exclu.sively. l*>ut from the time of Henry J.L, when the 
 two races began to blend, the vernacular Englit-h was increasingly 
 aft'ecteil liy tho influence of Normnn-French, lArgc numbers of 
 \orman-French words were taken up into its vocabulary, and its in- 
 llexional ^y8tem — espi eially in the ca. 3 of Nouns ond Adjectives — was 
 gradually broken down. 
 
 The most remarkable works belonging to the earlier part of this 
 p riod are the long [oem of liiiyamon, entitled Firut, i.e. Hrufus (the 
 mythical founder of J?;-*'/ ain), cir. 12()0 ad., and the 'Rhyming 
 Chrohicle' of Robert of Gloucester, cir. IMOO A.n. A sl.ort passage; 
 from the Inttf-r will show what rapid s rivlea the langi age waa now 
 making in tlie modern direction: — 
 
 t 
 
 Vor 
 
 And 
 Ac [ ■ 
 
 And 
 
 pat 
 
 Of le 
 And 
 .So J-a 
 Ac icl 
 
»NTK(>l>UCTION. 
 
 XIX 
 
 3 Iicofon = 
 
 other, as^ 
 
 ttven with 
 
 ;eriii. vcr- 
 
 ri<jl * ; &c 
 
 ud of oui 
 
 edifice ol 
 
 material? 
 
 ,^321.) • 
 
 i 
 
 nglish ' 01 
 
 Tw'! term 
 
 irlier part 
 
 iiicd til an 
 
 irruot M< a 
 
 1 peril id of 
 
 \tly rude; 
 
 Q eriiul to -^ 
 
 '1 
 
 ,s 
 
 ion of the f 
 
 ce of the 
 
 er classes ';' 
 
 c business | 
 
 itrue their | 
 
 her baud, | 
 
 sir native 1 
 
 r to lave | 
 
 wiieii the ;| 
 
 M'l asingly | 
 
 ml)ers of »« 
 
 id its i li- 
 
 ves — was 
 
 ■t <if this 
 
 utus (the 
 
 Rhyming 
 
 rassnge ;i 
 
 vaji uow ^ 
 
 THE NORMAN CONQUi:ST. 
 (For the power- of the obsolete letters, see Cr. p. 1.) 
 
 )^us, jo! le Engli»>e fnlc" vor no^t [wntght'] to gruutnle com 
 
 Vor a I'.ils king, pit miiliie [ = ue hadde, /k/c/ noi] uo riU tu Je kinedom, 
 
 Ami come to a nywe louerd • ]>nt more ir rijte was. 
 
 Ac {jii't] hiir fo/ tUrin'] noj.er {jieither'], as me [ = ont] may i-se l_5^<?] • in pur 
 
 rijte nas [ne was]. 
 And 1 us was in Normannes [gen, sing.] bond • ])at lond i-hrojt iwis [see 
 
 Gr. p. 70, ohs.'], 
 )?at an.iunter [it is (t c/V/ric-] jif evermo • keveiinge [recoveivig'\ ]>€rof is. 
 Of [e Normans be]) heyeiiien • ]at be]) of Engelunde, 
 And jje lowemen of Smoiis ■ as i<;li undcrstonde, 
 So j'at je sej) iu eij er side * wat rijte jc abbej) j erto ; 
 Ac ich undcrstonde, J«it it was • poru [thnAijJt] (iodes willo y(l<>, 
 
 (I'lom Alurris and Skeat, ^>eo. /;. Lnj., 1208-139;5.) 
 Hero mark — • 
 
 (1.) The iiHidcrn uiiinflected forms the ()io), a (an), im, have taken 
 
 the place of tlie older and fully inflect, d so, iiii, nan. 
 (2.) The Adjeelives fals, n\ we, \>uv, nr>- without indixioa, 
 (3.) The jdural form Normans: Old Kngli.-,h, Noi th -wien-j. 
 (4.) was instead of 0. E. wais. 
 
 (5.) The Nomi wille (will), has lo.^t its iiillexion : will-e, will-a^^ 
 (6.) ydo = E. gc-don (i.e. ihne). 
 
 7.) fals, pur, fni-aunter '^=on adviutnre or chance): ISoniian- 
 Freueh words. 
 
 Tnde d, t^ gri at' r part of tie 'Rlnming Chmniclf,' when written 
 as modern Eugdsh, is t'iii.'ly iiit» lligibk^ to the modern ri ad. r. (See 
 Student's Spec of I'ng. JAt. p. 7.) The j oem of TiWyamon (T.n'nmov.), as 
 might be expoctid from its being a century earlier, lotprres a larger 
 .niount of special study. To the mithile of this p( riod l;)cl(.nc the 
 Vision of Piers the Plowman, and Chaucer. The Pa.-ton r.etters*— a 
 collection of family coiTt spondence (I42.S-15ur)) — furnish an interej^tini.' 
 illu.-trati'i of the ordinary familiar English of its (lose. When once 
 the ditlicnlty of the .sjielling has been surmounted, tlie.-e letters may 1)0 
 read with case, without special study. 
 
 Tiie fiillowing pas.-age from a Itter, dated Oct. 2S, 1 ) .\ i y .-ervo 
 AS a spocimi n : — 
 
 *' Please it your maistership to wete .... Here be many marraylous 
 tales of thinggs lliat shall fall tiiis next moneth, as it is seyd ; for it is 
 
 • Issued in Aibcr'r- Rep Ints, eiiitpj by .huni's Gainlner. 
 
 
XX 
 
 INrRODUCTION. 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 ♦,alkil that ooq (oae) Doktor Grene, a preest, hath k:ilked {cilcalatedV 
 aaU reporteth, th;it byfure Seynt An Ireu iJay next comyiug sliall be thf 
 grettest bataill tli.it was sith the bitiiill of Shrewisbury, ami it shall fall 
 bytweene the iiisshoppes lane of Salesbury and Westminster Barres, an^ 
 there stiall <leye vij Lords, whereof iij sliuld be bisshoppes. Althis ant* 
 meche more is * .Iked and reported. I trust to God it shall not fall so,' 
 .... (ArbeJ » .i'yO.) 
 
 The p <t'try «.. telton (cir. loOO) may also be inslanced a3 cl.arao 
 teristically incdorti butli in ltd diction, and in its rapid, (fa.sl.ing btyls 
 (See Student's Spc. of Kng. Lit. p. 35 ; Smaller do., p. CI.) 
 
 The clianj^cs wliich hud been gradually Ijrought about during th» 
 [Mjriod of •' Mi'ldle English " m;iy be thus summed up : — 
 
 1. The inflexional system of Old English had been brok' n down 
 and a much simpler system had taken its place. 
 
 This iaseen in the following particulars: — 
 
 (1.) The general abandonment of all Case-endings of Nouns 
 
 excepting that of the Possessive [Genitive] bingular. 
 (ii.) Tlie general ;i l<)ptiij:i of a plunl ending in s. 
 (lii.) A!)andonment of all iutlexion for adjeeti\cs, 
 (iv.) Loss of sundry verbal iullexions: as the Infinitive in -e?i; the 
 
 Imperative plural in -eth [used in Chaucer, and f<»und in the 
 
 Paston Letters: i. p. 121, a.d. 1450]; the prefix ge [first softened 
 
 to y] of Perfect Participle, &o. 
 
 2. A simple system of Genders — making all names of things without 
 life Neuter (§ 29, Obs. 2) -had taken the place of the artificial 
 system prevailing in Old English. 
 
 3. A very large number of Norman -French words had been intro- 
 duced ; some taking the place of Old English words (see p. xviii. 3 , 
 and others forming an actual addition to the vocabulary (e.g. bee/, 
 mutton, veal, pork; by the si le of ox, sheep, calf, sicine, &c.). 
 
 4. The old alliterative and accentual metrical system had given 
 place to rhyming verse, with lines each containing a fixed number 
 of syllables. 
 
 The period thus comprised under the designation ot • Middle 
 English,' being essentially one of transition, exliihits n. any subordinate 
 stages. Thus thi Brut of Lavam m and the ('rmulum (a Gospel para- 
 phrase in verse, also dating abait 1200 may be re;:arded as marking 
 one stage ; the ' Rhyming Chronicle ' of liobeit of Glou-e-ter, another ; 
 the writings of Chaucer and Cower a tliird : and the poems of Skelton 
 a fourth. But such classificitions arc of little importance, provided 
 the real nature of the change which the lan;';uige was i)a-sing through 
 is clearly apprehended; the nsult of which was to transform Anglo- 
 Saxon into Modern En:lish. 
 
 S 
 
 J» V 
 
 X.>r 
 tici 
 
 IOV» 
 of /, 
 
 nav 
 siui 
 [)ro 
 lite 
 the 
 
{calculated }] 
 
 •siiall be thf 
 
 it shall fall 
 
 Burres, ani 
 
 Althis an:' 
 
 not fall 80.' 
 
 1 as ci.arao 
 si.iiig btyla 
 
 during th» 
 ok< n down 
 
 of Nouns 
 
 in -en ; tbo 
 uiid in the 
 rat softened 
 
 igs without 
 artificiul 
 
 jcen intro- 
 x xviii. 3 , 
 ^ (e.g. heef, 
 &c.). 
 
 lad given 
 L-d number 
 
 ' Middle 
 aljurdinate 
 )spel para- 
 s marking 
 
 another ; 
 f Skelton 
 
 provided 
 g through 
 ra Anglo- 
 
 i 
 
 INTHODUCTIUN. 
 
 XXI 
 
 S'voral di;d' cts are tract a1>le in the written works of tlic thirttenth 
 i» vl t'lurtc" ntii centnrirs. (Sio 'Specimens of Karly English,' hy 
 Morris and Skcat, pt. II. Iiitnxl.) Tlu-se are broadly disitinguislK d a.'^ 
 Northern, Midland, and Southern. 'Jhc Northern dialect in i)aiticulnr 
 •s distinguishud l)y its U3'' of the termination -and of the Present Par- 
 ticipl', and of a plural torin in 8 in the prisent Tense of vdhs: a-, we 
 iove« ; also by the plural forms of the verb to be, aron, am, are, instt ad 
 of ben or beth. In this last instance a Northern form — it.-elf of Scandi- 
 iiiivian (origin — has become the recognized one, and diapluced the O.K. 
 niud, fymim [cf. Lnt. sunt] ; while other dialt otic forms btill burvive us 
 provincialisms. By the close of the fifteenth ciDtury a common 
 literary language had developed and estublibhed itself for the wliole of 
 the country. 
 
 III. The third stage is M .dern English. It dates from the time 
 when— aided by the art of Printing— the great revival [' Ilenaibsanee 'J 
 of classical literature began to exert its intluence upon the language. 
 The copious Norman-French elements, which had alieady been incor- 
 porated, t■u^ni^hed a bond of affinity between the Englit-h language and 
 the new lejirning ; and the Latin words already in possesaion of a hccure 
 place in the vocabulary, paved the way for the introduction of many 
 more, which required but a slight change of termination to naturalize 
 them. 
 
 The process of naturalization was so ca-y and tempting, when Latin 
 was to so large an extent a living language, thai it was carried to 
 excess, lufett lid of bi-ing judiciously ■ leeted, words wt re transferred 
 wholesale from the Latin and even t'.e Greek vocabulary ; and many 
 good old Engli.-h words were expelled to niake room for the more 
 smooth and euplionious intruders.* Sir Thomas Browne niay be 
 mentioned as an example of the length to whi'jh fcueh an aflectati' n 
 might be carried by a really noble writer. 
 
 Very many of the Latin words thus introduced, failed to obtain a 
 permanent place in the English vocabulary ; and since the close' of the 
 eighteenth century a strong reaction has &et in, in favour of a return to 
 a purer J<]ngli&h diction. The dilfcrcnt funetions of the two constituent 
 elements have become better understood aid reci gnised (p. 324^; and 
 tiiou_di other fluctuations of taste and judgment will probably occur, 
 the full development of the language as an instrument of expression 
 may be consideied as readied. 
 
 • the following >p cinieiib of superfluous coinage are given by Trench, nn)on(r«t 
 inany oihiT.s : " Torv.^ and leiric = stern, tcvere (I-'ull< r) ; cf^cUy =blindness (Iluolver); 
 insuls' ^ tasWess (Milton); facinjiuus = guilty (\)oi\nc)\ siifflaniiniite = to put the 
 diuy on (Banow); nioliminout-ly = vith epoit (Cudworih); ininiarccBcibie = un/adiig 
 (Bj. Hall); ludt»»iousiy=t/r(Xi'Ti^ light (lirowr.)."— i:hyl sh. fait and Present, p. 69. 
 
 J 
 
I 
 
 §1. 
 
 six lot 
 as capi 
 
 SniaJ 
 
 Capi 
 
 Obs. 1 
 of » 
 med 
 cent! 
 
 66». 2. 
 time 
 Gree 
 like, 
 
 §2. J 
 
 new sei 
 at the 
 persons, 
 with a 
 and so ; 
 French, . 
 
 The I 
 terms u 
 as, Astm 
 Indicativ 
 
 The ]i 
 as capit; 
 are usna 
 to (iod. 
 Grace, ai 
 

 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 I'll 10 ALrilADET. 
 
 rr 
 
 f 
 
 § 1. The inodorn English Ali>hiihct consists of twenty- 
 six letters, which are written both us smuU letters and 
 as ca])ituls : 
 
 Sniall : abcdcf<?hijkl 
 qrstuvwxyz. 
 
 Capital: AP. CDEFGIIIJKL 
 N P Q R S T U V W X Y Z. 
 
 m n o p 
 
 M 
 
 Obt. 1. In ihe tliirtconth wntury three otIuT letters were in use : \>, ^, the souiida 
 of which are now ropresrnted by th [^ 7, Obs. 2], and ?;, wliich had an inter- 
 mi'iiate Bound between g and y [^ 9, dhs.]. The letter |> was retained till re- 
 cently under the form of y in the words y« = the, and y' = that. 
 
 (ybs. 2. In adilition to the above, the double letters a", cc (= oe and oe) are pome- 
 tinn'S found in words borrowtd from forcij^n laiifruat^es: as, .Kginn (an island rif 
 Greece), sub-pa na (a law term). Tiiey are pronounced in English exactly 
 like ee. ' 
 
 § 2. A capital letter is used at the 1 eginning of every 
 new sentence, and of every lino of poetry ; also generally 
 at the beginning of a quotation. >ianies of individual 
 persons, places, and things (Proper Names) are wrii^ten 
 with a capital in whatever part of a sentence they occur ; 
 and so also are the words derived from them : as, France, 
 French, Frenchified ; America, American, Americanize. 
 
 The names of the arts and sciences and the principal 
 terms used in them are also often written with a capital : 
 as, Astrononnj, Theology, Political Econoniy ; Active, Passive ; 
 Indicative, Snhjiinctire, 
 
 The pronoun I and the interjection are always written 
 fls capital letters ; and the words thou, thine, thee, he, his, him, 
 are usually written with a ca})ital letter when they refer 
 to (iod. Also in such expressions as, Her Majesty, His 
 Grace, and iu titles generally, capitals are used. 
 
 li 
 
2 ENnLTsn 01^ A M:\rAK. 
 
 Of'S. Kiijilisli writers vary a good deal in tlnir use of capitals, some employing 
 tticni uiiicli more frc<iuiiitly tlian otliers. Words are oftiii writttii uitli a capital 
 on nwoiintof lln-ir iiiipnrtiince whore tliey occur. Sometimes entire words and 
 plirasea are wrilti'ii with cajiitals for tlie Hame rfason; thus — 
 
 " And it is named, in m: inory of tlie event, 
 Tiio I'ATII OF rKHSKVKHANCE." 
 
 (Wiuilsuorth, J-Jrrurnnm, bk. vi.) 
 
 § 3. Tlio letters are divided into Vowels and Consonants. 
 
 Tlio roirds can be fully soinided by themselves, and 
 without altering the position of any part of the mouth or 
 throat. -1 hey are live : a, e, i, o, u. 
 
 Note. — V/ and y are soiaetiiucs used as vowels [see § 9]. 
 
 OL: I. Wiien the sound of a vowel is dwelt upon in pronunciation, it is said to be 
 lonj;, as a in f a -the r, fate. When the voic- i'alls at once upon the letter following, 
 tlie vow(d is said to !);> sliort: as, fat. Sc i.ho vowel e is long in mi it,a.i\i\ short iu 
 nift; i is long \njine and short mfm : o is long in o-cian and eliort in vtltr; u is 
 long in music and sliort in sugar and in mutter. 
 
 Ohs. 2. The true long sound ot <; is however that of a in mate (French and Con- 
 tin 'iital -■); and tlie true long ^oiind of i is that of ee in vieit (Fri nch and v.'onti- 
 ncntal (). In nootlir Fuiropean language are these letters pronounced as they 
 are pronounced in Kiiglish. 
 
 Olm. 3. E is generally silent at the end of a word, wlicn it is c^alled e mute : but in 
 such cases it usually lengthens the precfMling vowel ; as,p(/(', mite, liide, note 
 acute. It sometinus has the same ell'i ct iu the middle of a word: as, unijrutej'ul 
 
 § 4, The Consonants cannot be fully articulated with- 
 out a vowel sound i;^.on<^ with them, nor without some 
 change in the position of the organs of speech. Th.ey are 
 b, c, d, f, g, j, k, 1, m, n, p, q, r, s, t, v, x, z. (The 
 letters h, W, y, arc treated separately : see §§ l>, U.) 
 
 Ohs. The jiropor sound of a letter must on no account bo judged of by its name. 
 The names of tiie letters are to a great extent arbitrary; and though it is con- 
 venient to know them, yet they must bo put asid' b.lore we can tell what the 
 real {lower of a letter is. '{"his is < H\y cially the case with the consonants and h. 
 In onlor to judge of the sound of these letters, they should be urticulatv.d ^\ith 
 till' dillVreiit vowels iu such ssion ; as, 
 
 ba 
 
 be 
 
 bi 
 
 bo 
 
 bn 
 
 (ty) 
 
 ca 
 
 ce 
 
 ci 
 
 CO 
 
 on 
 
 ivy) 
 
 ba 
 
 be 
 
 hi 
 
 ho 
 
 hu 
 
 (by). ^^ 
 
 § o. Consonants may be divided into Liijulds, Mufcs^ 
 SihilantH, and Soiiicoici'ls. 
 
 § (). The Liquids are 1, m, n, r. These run smoothly 
 And easily into the sounds of certain other consonants, 
 'i'hus the sound of m unites readily with that of & or of ;>; 
 Jiie stmnd of n with that of d or of t ; and the sounds of 1, 
 £^< with those of many other letters. Kxam])les : ]ier-rt7»?>- 
 4''*i ^r, «)/(^>//-itheatre ; (nid, a/(/-imony ; dd-cr, elm, Els-move, 
 
 I 
 
 57 
 class* 
 chic 
 tals, 
 
 toot 1 1 : 
 
TIIR Al.rHMlET. 
 
 '6 
 
 imo employing 
 II with aiapital 
 itire words and 
 
 c. vi.) 
 
 3T1 sonants. 
 
 L'lves, and 
 
 mouth or 
 
 , it is Haid to be 
 ettcr following, 
 i(<,and short io 
 irt iu otkr; u is 
 
 rcnch and Con- 
 ' mil and *.onti- 
 lounciid as they 
 
 e mitte : but in 
 
 'lite, bide, iiOte 
 
 as, unijrulej'ul 
 
 I tod with- 
 
 lout some 
 
 Tl'.ey are 
 
 z. (The 
 
 11.) 
 
 by its name. 
 lugh it is con- 
 
 tiil what the 
 sonants and h. 
 tieuUlwd with 
 
 (h, Mutes, 
 
 smoi ithly 
 
 )nsoiiant8. 
 
 /> or o{' j) : 
 
 iinuls of 1, 
 
 Els-'nwie, 
 
 5 7. The Miitts or Dmnh Ij'itcrs are dividi d into tliroo 
 classoB, according to the j^art of the niuuth or throat 
 chit'Hv ii«ed in jironoiincing i]\vn\ ; namely, Lnhiids, DiU' 
 tals, and (iiiiturals. (Latin: labium, lip; dens [dent-isj, 
 tooth ; guttur, throat.) 
 
 T.abials . 
 Dentals . 
 Gutturals . 
 
 Hard. 
 
 rn.isjiir.it: d. 
 
 Soft. 
 
 Aspivatid. UiiiiP])ir.it('d. Aspiiafid. 
 
 P 
 t 
 
 1: (.) 
 
 f [ph] 
 
 [thl 
 (.fis in thing) 
 
 fas in luch ) 
 
 b 
 d 
 
 [thl 
 
 (as in ///s) 
 (?asin liiiHjh) 
 
 Obs. 1. The Mntosjj, (, c, fc aro pronoiin"pd with a hardfr and thinner sound than 
 b, d, g licncc tho fornior ar • iMlioii Hard Mittm, and tho latter Su/t MuttS. They 
 are sometini 'S called r<"*p'ctively Sliaip and /• I'd Mutes. 
 
 Obs. 2. The sound of <A was formerly represented by two characters, |) and ^ ; the 
 former being more frequently used at the beginning of a word or syllable, and 
 tho latter at the end: as, jies smiT), this s^ni'th. It has been supposed that )• 
 represented the bard sound, as in tliin, th'u'c, and ^ the soft sound, as in thine, 
 or wife versa. But the two characters appear rather to have been us< d as inter- 
 changeable forms of the same Utter Compare the (.ireek S, ^, and (T, S. 
 
 Obs. 3. '^' has a guttural or fc-sound Ix'foro a, o, ii ■ as, mil, rod, rut ; and a sibilant or 
 
 5-8ound before e, i, >/ : as, cell, vitij, cynir. In old I'jiglish r was alwjiys pronounced 
 
 '^ as a guttural, and k was a supeilhious letter. The 5-sound of c before* and i was 
 
 ■^ introduced by French iutiuenee after the Norman coiKpiest. 'I'he fc-sound of c 
 
 before e iind i tlu'ii came to be rei)resented by k, ana c in such cases disappeared ' 
 
 as, keen, k ikj. 
 
 Obs. 4. <w lias always a guttnial sound b'fore a, n, u : a."*, (jmv, got, nun. FVTore 
 
 e and i it has sometimes a guttural sound : as, net, //iiv ; and sometimes z siliilaiit 
 
 ^ or_;-Bound : as, tj'm, nciwrous, giont, gilie. This j-sound of y is owing to l-'rcncli 
 
 "^ Influence, and occurs in words of French or Latin origin. 
 
 I 
 J Obs. 5. Ch and <ih are now used as aspirates only in T.owiand Scwcch. ('h is now 
 
 usihI in two ways: (H it is silent, as in plough, through, daughter; (2) it is 
 
 Bounded lilte/, us in enough, laughter. On ch see J 8, 
 
 i § 8. Tho SihUmifs are s (^h), x and z. (Soo also § 7, 
 
 fhs. '^.) They are oalhid Sih!J<inf8 or hissiiK/ letters, from 
 the Latin word sihihtrr, "to liiss " Ch and j have also 
 a sihilant sound, ch Ikmul;' soundod nearly as tsh {chin), 
 j nearly as dr.h (jrnf) ; hut rh and / are more oorreotly 
 callrd PnJ(ffalft, heiiig bounded with the j'alatc (Latin. 
 pahUiun, " palate 'j. 
 
 n2 
 
ENGLISH fJUAMMAR. 
 
 Ohs. 1. Zis not found in the earliest foim of our alphab-!t. 
 
 06s. 2. The IcttfT j is only anoflier form of i', whicii in old^r EnccHsli is usr-d for 
 it: as Io!/e= joy ; Jut- =i\ncQ. The p.vliital soiuiu ot _;' (,= i/ suit) was first 
 introduced into English in Norman-Fronch words : as, jtst (gost), jealous 
 (zealous), jofo-w.'/. in early MSS. this sound is sometimes represented by the 
 now ')bsokte letter, J. 
 
 § 9. Tho SemiroweJs or Half-vowels are W and y, wliicli are 
 so called becaus(3 they are u.sed both as vowels and as con- 
 sonants. At the l)eginning of a word or syllal)le, or 
 before a vowel in the same syllable, they are consonants : 
 as, //ellow, yield, un //ielding ; printer, i/'orld, im-icorldly; 
 irine, tmna ; witdi, s/citeh. At the end of a word or syllable 
 thuy are vowels : as in try, trying (^here y = i) ; coio^ 
 co/o ard, few (here w = u), 
 
 obs. y was originally a vowel only, and was first used as a consonant after tho 
 Korman eonciuost. It reprrsent: d an initial (/-sound in words which were losing 
 their guttural; as, year instead of year. While this transition in souiul was 
 taking place, that is, from the twelfth to the fourteentli centmy, a separate letter 
 was used, Js» which had an intermediate sound bLtwccu y and y. 
 
 § 10. Q is a siiperihioiis letter. It is always followed 
 by n. in the oldest English the sound of qu was ex- 
 pressed by cw : as, ciren = (jucon ; cn-ic = (|iuck (living). 
 Q was first introduced in French and Latin words after 
 the Xoriuan conquest : as, qnnit, quarrel, quarry. 
 
 § 11. H niu>t be classed ])y itself Tt is not a vowel, 
 nor is it properly a consonant. l*»ut it resembles a con- 
 sonant in that it cannot be articulated by itself. Its 
 sound is produced by forcing out the breath in the act of 
 pronouncing a vowel: as, ha, he, ho! Hence h is often 
 caUed tho aspirate, from the Latin word axpirdre, " to 
 breathe upon." 
 
 In some words h is not sounded at all, and it is thon 
 said to be silent. It is silent in h''n\ heiress : hour, hourhj ; 
 honour, honourable, honest, honest t/, «lis-honest; hostler. 
 
 In a few words it is doubtfid, being sounded by some 
 persons and not sounded by others. Such are herb (pro- 
 nounced i)y some 'erl). and by oth(>rs //erb) ; humble (/nimble 
 or 'umbloj; /u>.s^///«/ (usually pronounced 'ospital). 
 
 Ohf. 1. IT was originally a f.'uttural, but has entirely lost this sound except in the 
 north of Kngland and in Scotland. 
 
 Obs. 2. Wh- is sounded like hxv- : as, who (h-wo'), vhat (h-waf). 'rhes(^ words 
 wen- originally written with hw- [hva, hvnC^. but wh^n the guttural ^ound of A 
 was droppeil, and the u'-souud thus became mojv i)iomiaeiit, the position ol the 
 two letters woe chanyc<i. 
 
 i 
 
THE ALrilABET. 
 
 ;lisl) is U5nd for 
 soft) was first 
 (gi'st\ jealous 
 
 resented by the 
 
 , wliich are 
 111(1 as con- 
 y liable, or 
 iiisonaiits : 
 n-iforldly ; 
 or syllable 
 = i) ; co'o, 
 
 joTiant aftor the 
 Uich wore losing 
 n in sound waa 
 a separate letter 
 
 ^s followed 
 u was ex- 
 (livinji;). 
 v'ords after 
 
 i a vowel, 
 es a coii- 
 sclf. Its 
 :he aet of 
 1 is ot'tc'n 
 rare, " to 
 
 it is tbon 
 )nr, lionrhj ; 
 r. 
 
 by some 
 hcrh ( pro- 
 /(' ( Aiuiible 
 
 a.). 
 
 d except in the 
 
 'I'lies(> wiirds 
 mil s(j\ui(l <it'A 
 pu^itiou of the 
 
 Oht. 3. Ph, when soiindrd like f, as in PhiUp; sh. as in shhir. : and th, as in thin 
 tlunc, must be lookeil upon as single letters. The proper sound of /i f<aiowiii>;^, 
 s, or t, as a separate letter, may l)e perceived in tlie words ihtup-lwok, <jrais- 
 hopjer, mast-head. 
 
 § 1 2. A Diphthong Tor doiil»le sor.nd) is the blended sound 
 of two vowels meeting in one syllable, 'ihe true di}»li- 
 thongs are ay, OW, oy, as in the words oj/e, hoii\ hni. In 
 these dijihthongs each of the two vowels may be distinctly 
 heard, especially if the syllablj be articulated slowly. 
 But very often two vowels are written where one c»nly is 
 pronounced. This is the ease with the words he<u\ hoar, 
 maul, mien, scam, sieve, (jawje, (joat, and very many others. 
 kSuch combinations of vowels are not true diphthongs. 
 
 li})S. 1. The lon^' sound of i (in such words as hinl,fin'l) is a true diphtiion^,, bnnR 
 tlie same as that of tiie word ai/i', oidy pronouiiC' d more briskly. It is idniposcd 
 of the sounds of « (_as in fiitlur) ami ;/ {ns in lad;/), the two beinp proiiouneed as 
 closely togi'ther as possii)le. In worils like iikiiiI, rrmrl, the vowel sound heard 
 is that of a only ; «or «; being added on ly to indicati' t hi' broad sourui i>f that vowel. 
 
 Ois. 2. The -combinations of thp pomivowels to and ij with various vowrls, as ic 
 ue, yo.vh;/ ; yjio (same sound as in u-nit, du-ty), yahc, ;/i)iitli ; api)roacli very 
 nearly to the nature of true diphthoiijj;s. But in such cases, the sound of w 
 or y is net a pure vowel Kound, but partakes oi the nature of u Consonant 
 
 § \'.\. A Si/llahle consists of one or more letters pro- 
 nounced together, and has only one vowel sound. 
 
 In breaking up a woi\\ into syllables, it is usual to 
 make the division after the vowel, and to carry on the 
 consonant following to the next syllable: as, hn-mid, di- 
 vi-si-(m, rhe-to-ri-Ciil, S:c. ^\ hen there are two consonants 
 together, one usually goes with the former s_> liable and 
 the other with the following one : as, nnyhn-e, nwm-her, il'c. 
 
 But regard must be liad to etymology ; the syllables 
 being divided so as to show the composition or derivation 
 of a word as far as possible ; as, threat-en (not threa-tenj, 
 assist- anee (not assis-tance), re-strain (not res train J, &o. 
 
 § 14, A word of one syllable is called a Monosylla})le ; 
 of two Rvllables, a Disyllabic; of three syllables, a 'iri- 
 syllable ; of more than three syllables, a Polysyllable. 
 
 § 15. Accent is the sti-ess of the voice upon a syP ule ; 
 as, humid, nurtnrc. There is ordinarily one jn'incipal accent 
 in every word : as, algebra, multitude, extraordinary, rejuirtee. 
 
 Ohs. The tendency of the llnglish language is to throw the accent back, towards 
 the beginning of a word. Many words whicli were formerly acceided on the 
 last syllable or the last but one, have undergone a change of accent : as, virtur, 
 formerly virdie (Ciiaucer, prol. Cimt. Tali-K) ; dspect, formerly nfj^i'ct (Milt, 
 F. L. Iv., 540 ; doctrinal, foriuerly d(^.tnnal CJohnson's Diet.) : Ate. 
 
(t 
 
 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 PART L— ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 of St 
 
 Arti 
 
 § 16. Etvmologv treats of Words, nrraiisjiiig thai t in 
 classes, and explaining their structure and change* of 
 form. 
 
 NoTK. The two most important parts of Etymology are In flexion 
 
 and Derimiio^t. 
 
 Inflexion [Latin, inttcnto, iloxi. llexuni. in hoid or chnnrii'A mrans 
 soiiio additinn to, or chani;.' in, a word to denote a iiiodi:i<'atii)n of 
 meaning 'J'lie inflexional chinig's of words aru ex]>iaiiicd in cou- 
 nt'Xion with tlicir classili ation. 
 
 Dkuivatiun is treated si'parately, p. 90. 
 
 Parts of Speech. 
 
 § 17. Words are divided into clashes, according to tlic 
 dilfcrent purposes wliicli tliey answer in speech. 
 
 i here are eight chisses of words, or, as they are com- 
 monly called, I'Aiirs OF Si'EECir. These are — 
 
 1 Noun. 
 
 2. Adjective, to which the Articles belong. 
 
 8. Pronoun. 
 
 4. Verb. 
 
 6. Adverb. 
 
 f). Pre])o>ition. 
 
 7. Conjunction. 
 
 8. interjection. 
 
 The Noun. 
 
 § 18. A Noun is a word which is the name of something. 
 
 There are two lands of nouns ; Proper Nouns and 
 Connnon Nouns. 
 
 § 1 9. Phopkr Nouns arc^ sncli as denote only one ])ers()Ti 
 or thing of a kind : as, Adam^ Noah^ Alexander, William (lie 
 
ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 g ther 1 in 
 
 are Inllcikm 
 
 lnllqfi^ means 
 n(li;icatii>u of 
 lined ill cou- 
 
 Wu'j: to the 
 y arc com- 
 
 ong. 
 
 lomotliing. 
 owuH and 
 
 )iie person 
 ViUiam I he 
 
 ^a 
 
 Conqnrrnr ; Th(wv's, Aeon : Virforif, C/// of Glnsgnir ('names 
 of ships) ; Excidibar ( name ot" the fabulous .sword of King 
 Artlmrj. 
 
 Oh!:. 1. The saiiv propi'r naino may bi> jjjivcn toanunilxr of imlividiiuls. Tims 
 tlitTO are many Joiiiis. Williams, &c. ; several rivers called Avon ; and more 
 tiian oil'' town named l?(jston. Still tiusi' names are suietly Proper >s.'Uiis, since 
 tliey have Ix-en in each case separately given, and do not belong to all objects of 
 the same kind. 
 
 06s. 2. Proper Nani'S are sometim'S ns 'd to den()te a class or group: as, Uui 
 Casars ; the family of the Scipios ; the Ifowards : meanini? all those bearing; 
 the same proper name. Or the name of a well-known individual may bo aiii>!ic d 
 toothers possessing sitiiilar features: us, thi: modern Solon; the lUJdnt ."mi^^./io. 
 In such cases lie I'roprr Name is u-^id as a ' ommon one. 
 
 Many t 'ommon Nouns have in this way b.'i'n formed from I'mper Nouns : as, ipievre 
 from Epicure or Epicurus, the philosopher; Academy, from a gynniasium at 
 Athens so named. 
 
 § 20. Common Nouns. — All nonns Avhich arc not Frojier 
 are Common 'i'licy denoto the same kind (if thinij; uiuk-r 
 ■whatever eircumstanees it may he found : as, tiuin, city, 
 river, ship; air, water, tjold, iron; hcautij, inuh, iime, space. 
 
 § 21. Three kimis of Common Nouns reipiire to \n\ s; : 
 cially noted : Collective Nouns or Nouns of j\Jultitude. 
 Abstract Nouns, and Names of Materials. 
 
 §22. (1) Collc'ciire Nouns. — A ( 'ollective Noun dencjtes 
 a number of persinis or thiiiL;s forming one body: as, a 
 croicd of persons ; a (/rcjip of states or siars ; a connnifire, a 
 j(iri/,aparU(ivicnt ; lier Majesty's Government ; the Ministry. 
 
 Ohs. 1. CoUeciive Nouns are soni' times used ^o as to r^ fer to th" individuals com- 
 posing: the griiup rather tlian to the proup itM'lf. Tbus\\e i-i\\\ the cionil (\\\Ai 
 is, the people in the cnnvd) verc iioiiiy ; the jury (that is, the men cumposiny '.he 
 jury) ve.re not agreed. See ^ 250. 
 
 Obs. 2. Collective Nouns arc Neuter, aliliougU tbey denote an aggregate of 
 persons male or fi'nuile; as, army, mo'i. 
 
 (2) Ahstrnrt Nonns. — Ab- tract Nouns are the names not 
 of objects but of ideas. 
 
 'i'he following kinds of Abstract Nouns may be enu- 
 merated : — 
 
 1. Names of qualities: as, ichiteness, hlachicss, hitter- 
 ness, height, depth, breadth, length, wisdom, foolish7ic.s};, 
 stupidity. 
 
 2. Names of states or ccmditions of things : as, life^ 
 death, time, space, eternity, sovereignty, reign, regency, 
 
 friendship, leadership, orphancy, loidowhood, minority. 
 
 3. Names of passions and powers of the mind: as, 
 love, jealousy, hatred, memory, imagination. 
 
8 
 
 ENGLISH GRAMIVTAR. 
 
 4. Names of actions or jo-occsscs : as, rca(lin(j. icrifh'f, 
 iiinlliplicntion, juslijiru(i<m, pviiishment, co}\'iudi<in, ah- 
 d' cation. 
 
 6. Names of arts and scienceis: as, j)^^ctvy^ sculj^tiire^ 
 astrononiy, chi'inidi'ij^ zoohxjy. 
 
 Obs. Tho word (ihf tract is d rived from tlii' Latin word ahstractiis (ahdraho), rlrann 
 off; implying that ii quality (jr i-tatn is tlioiiLclit of by itself, and di taemd from an 
 olyeet. Tims wlun we speak of the size of a globe, attrntioii is dinttid to it8 
 size only, without regard to the colour, weight, or material of the globe. 
 
 (3) Names of I\Iaterials : as, (/(^Id, siJcir, icoud, stone, 
 § 23. Nouns liave Gender, Number, and C'aso, 
 
 <ui 
 
 a 
 a 
 
 ai 
 au 
 
 I. GENDER. 
 
 § 24. Tliorc arc two genders properly so called : Mas- 
 culine and Feminine. 
 
 'i'he distinction of male and female in nature is called 
 sex. The distinction l)et\veen Masculine and Feminine in 
 words is called Gender. 
 
 obi. The word (iender comes from the Latin word genus, generis, a sort or kind. 
 
 § 25. The Enp;lish language, unlike most others, ap- 
 plies the distinction of Masculine and Feminine only to 
 the names of persons and animals: as, man, woman; boy, 
 girl; lion, lionet^s. Nouns which denote things without 
 animal life are said to be Neuter or of Neuter Gender, 
 from the Latin word neuter, neither (i,e, neither masculine 
 nor feminine) : as, iron^ stone, river. 
 
 The only exception to this rule is when inanimate 
 things are represented as persons : see §§ 28, 29. 
 
 Obi Ci'll'ctive Nouns nre Neuter though denoting collections of male or female 
 objects: as, army, committee, sistterhood, 
 
 § 26. When the same name is used for male and fom^vle, 
 it is said to be Conunon or of Common Gender: as, bird, J sh, 
 parenty sovereign, friend. 
 
 § 27. ^ Tlierc are three ways of indicating difference of 
 Gender in Nouns : — • 
 
 1. By inflexion. 
 
 2. -By using a word indicative of sex. 
 
 3. By distinct words. 
 
Etymology, 
 
 i 
 
 iKtlicn, ah- 
 
 , sculjdnre^ 
 
 trfrahn),(lran'n 
 taciicd from an 
 < (iiriet((! lo its 
 globe. 
 
 stone. 
 
 led: Mas- 
 
 i is called 
 iininiiio iii 
 
 sort or kind. 
 
 thers, ap- 
 le only to 
 man ; boy, 
 without 
 Gender, 
 iiasciiline 
 
 nanimate 
 
 uile or female 
 
 d fomf>.le, 
 bird, J sh, 
 
 3rcnc( of 
 
 I. The Gf-nder distinguishkd by I.vflexion. 
 
 1. I'iio feminine is usually distinguished from the mas- 
 culine l>v the ending -ess . as, — 
 
 MiiHtuline. 
 
 Feminine. 
 
 Masculine. 
 
 Fiminine. 
 
 al)l)ot 
 
 a^jhess 
 
 lion 
 
 lioness 
 
 a iiir 
 
 a 'treriS 
 
 niari|ui3 
 
 niarcl lioness' 
 
 adiiltorer 
 
 ailultoreris 
 
 njaster 
 
 mistress 
 
 author 
 
 authoress [late] 
 
 mayor 
 
 mayoress 
 
 
 (or author) 
 
 monitor 
 
 monitres.s 
 
 baron 
 
 l)ar<)ness 
 
 murderer 
 
 murderess 
 
 iK'iu't'aL'tor 
 
 I'vUetactroas 
 
 negro 
 
 iiegress 
 
 canon 
 
 canonrss 
 
 1 atron 
 
 patroness 
 
 count 
 
 countess 
 
 peer 
 
 peeress 
 
 (laupliin 
 
 d:iupliineS3 
 
 pot't 
 
 poetess (or 
 
 deacon 
 
 dea'ouess 
 
 
 p( let) 
 
 duke 
 
 duchess' 
 
 preceptor 
 
 preceptress 
 
 elector 
 
 electress 
 
 ])riest 
 
 priestess 
 
 emperor 
 
 empress 
 
 ])rior 
 
 prioress 
 
 eiiciuuiter 
 
 enchantress 
 
 jtrophet 
 
 j)rophetess 
 
 I'ouuder 
 
 foundress 
 
 proprietor 
 
 proprietress 
 
 ^'iaut 
 
 giaiitt;ss 
 
 
 (trix) 
 
 god 
 
 goddess 
 
 protector 
 
 protectress 
 
 governor 
 
 governess 
 
 S( amster 
 
 senrpstresa^ 
 
 heir 
 
 heiress 
 
 shepherd 
 
 thepherdess 
 
 liost 
 
 hostess 
 
 songster 
 
 yongstress^ 
 
 hunter 
 
 liuntress 
 
 sorcerer 
 
 sorceress 
 
 in.siructor 
 
 instruct r(^s3 
 
 tiger 
 
 tigress 
 
 inventor 
 
 in ven tress 
 
 traitor 
 
 traitress 
 
 Jew 
 
 Jewess 
 
 Viscount 
 
 vitcountess 
 
 Notes. — Tlie ending -€.<s comes through the French from the Latin 
 endiUf^' -ix. (See below, 2.) 
 ' liichess is Iroiu Fr. ilnrhi'Si'e. 
 
 ^ ^hirrhioiiess from late l.utin marcliio, inavhionism. 
 ' iSevipdress (seamsties.s) and soiKjstreas, see below, No. 2 '3). 
 
 Ohn. Many fominine forms bosidos the above are occasionally to be met with, 
 csjv cially in our older authors: as, vktorens, or victress (Sjx'iiHor, Sluikspcart, 
 Joiison) ofTcndi-fss (Shaksprare) ti/roniK^s (Akcnside). [Miitzm-r, i. j)]). '244, 
 245.] But the prfsent tendency of tiio language is to reduce the numbt>r of such 
 words by using the masculine form as common, as in the case of author, pwt, 
 elector (except when used as a sovereign title). , In the case of official titles ihe 
 feminine form is carefully preserved. f!overnor = ruler is common : yoverness 
 = instructress. 
 
 2. A few isolated instances of other feminine endings 
 occur: — 
 
 (1.^ -trix, in a few Nouns talc en directly from the 
 Latin : as, — 
 
 M. F. 
 
 ndministrntor administratrix 
 
 exmitir exccntrlK 
 
 testator testatrix 
 
10 
 
 ENGLISH GRAMMAH. 
 
 (2.) -en, an old feminine suffix of wliicli only one 
 pure I'Jn^Iish example remains: vixen (<). E. fixen ; 
 Germ, fuchsin), she-iox ; nence, a spitcjul woman. 
 
 HI 
 
 rv 
 
 To this head belong also- 
 
 M. 
 
 horo 
 
 ]a'i(li^ravo 
 
 margriive 
 
 F. 
 
 heroine (fircok) 
 landgravine ((iornuin) 
 mar^U'avine (Gerinan) 
 
 0^.<. Land-.7rat)i/'t', msir-gravivc : German •grufii. The suffixes -cv, -in, -iie, are 
 identical in origin. 
 
 (3.) -ster, an old English ending, of which only one 
 example is now in nse as feminine : spinster — (lit. 
 she thdt sjnns ; viz. with the sjtiniting-wheel) ; an un- 
 married woman. Also sonrj-sfer was originally 
 feminine, so that song-str-rss has tAvo feminine 
 endings. In like manner semp-str-rss from the verb 
 seam, has two feminine endings. 
 
 O//."!. But tlie termination -ster came to be used as a masculine. 
 eucb old words as brewster, huckster, maltster, tapster. 
 
 (4.) -a in a few Komance words : — 
 
 This appears in 
 
 So- 
 
 ]M. 
 
 don 
 
 infant 
 
 signer 
 
 sultan 
 
 F. 
 
 donna Italian) 
 infanta (Spnni.sli) 
 signora (Italian) 
 
 Bultana 
 
 Obs. The Romance languages are those spoken in the countries which were onco 
 provinces of the Roman Empire, and are derived i om Latin. See ^ 318, 3. 
 
 II. The Gender in Common Nouns distinguished by a 
 Word significant of Skx. 
 
 Common. 
 
 Masculine. 
 
 Feminine. 
 
 ass 
 
 he-ass (jack-ass) 
 
 she-ass 
 
 bear 
 
 he-boar 
 
 she-bear 
 
 bird 
 
 fcock-bird 
 \male-bird 
 
 lien-bird 
 
 female-bird 
 
 calf 
 
 bull-calf 
 
 cow-calf 
 
 elepliant 
 
 bull-olopliant 
 male-ck'i)hant 
 
 cow-elepV.int 
 female-ek'phaHt 
 
 fox 
 
 dog-fox 
 
 bitch-fox 
 
 goat 
 
 he- goat 
 
 b1 j-nat 
 
 pi?,' 
 
 boar-pig 
 
 poA-pig 
 
 rabbit 
 
 bu(!k -rabbit 
 
 (loe-r!)bbit 
 
 ^% /~i %•% r ^% %*% 9 
 
 man-servant 
 male-servant 
 
 mai(l-8(r\nnt 
 
 servant 
 
 fcmale-servaut 
 
 ajmrrow 
 
 CO k-irpuno\v 
 
 keu-bpaiiow. 
 
1 
 
 '15 
 
 ETYMOLOGY, 
 
 11 
 
 nly one 
 ]. fixcn ; 
 lan. 
 
 
 
 in, -ive, are 
 
 (Illy one 
 er — (lit. 
 ; an un- 
 iginally 
 ^'niinino 
 ;he verb 
 
 appears in 
 
 wore onco 
 18,3. 
 
 BY A 
 
 DlSTIXCTlOM OF 
 
 Si 
 
 :X INDICATEO BY 
 
 Distinct Wcmbs: 
 
 (Where a commou form exists, it 
 
 is supplied.) 
 
 Masculine. 
 
 
 rcminine. 
 
 Common. 
 
 baclit'lor 
 
 
 niu d, bpiuitor 
 
 
 boar 
 
 
 hOW 
 
 bng. swine, pig 
 
 boy 
 
 
 girl 
 
 child, youth 
 
 bridogvoom 
 
 
 bride' 
 
 
 brothiT 
 
 
 sister 
 
 
 buck 
 
 
 doe 
 
 
 hart 
 
 
 roe 
 
 deer 
 
 stag 
 
 
 hind 
 
 
 bull 
 
 bullock, ox, steer 
 
 
 cow 
 
 heifer 
 
 ox, neat 
 
 cook 
 
 
 .icn 
 
 fowl 
 
 colt 
 
 
 fillv 
 
 foal (also colt) 
 
 dog 
 
 
 bitch 
 
 dog, h(mnd 
 
 drake 
 
 
 duck 
 
 (duck)^ 
 
 drone 
 
 
 bee 
 
 bee 
 
 earl 
 
 
 coinitess 
 
 
 f..thor 
 
 
 mother 
 
 parent 
 
 gartVr' 
 
 
 gammer* 
 
 
 gander 
 
 
 goose 
 
 (goose) 2 
 
 gentleman 
 
 
 lady 
 
 
 horse, htullion 
 
 
 mare 
 
 horse 
 
 husband 
 
 
 wife 
 
 spouse (poet.) 
 
 king 
 
 
 queen 
 
 sovereign 
 
 lad 
 
 
 lass* 
 
 
 lord 
 
 
 lady* 
 
 
 man 
 
 
 woman* 
 
 man 
 
 monk, friar' 
 
 
 nun 
 
 
 nephew 
 
 
 niece* 
 
 
 papa 
 
 
 mamma 
 
 
 ram 
 
 
 ewe 
 
 sheep 
 
 sire 
 
 
 dam® 
 
 
 sloven 
 
 
 slut 
 
 
 Bon 
 
 
 daughter 
 
 child 
 
 uncle 
 wizard'* 
 
 aunt 
 witch 
 
 Notes. — ' The masc. is here formcil from the fern. ; tl'O suffix groom, 
 O. E. guma, meaning *' man," i.e. " the bride'd man." 
 
 " Only in these two words is the fem. form used as common, So in 
 compounds, eider-duck, uihl-diick ; sohtn-goose. Gavder and goose are 
 not strictly distinct words, the masculine being formed from the ieminine. 
 ^ Shortened from grandfather.^ grandmother. 
 Lasn, probably a cot traction of lad-ess. 
 Ladii, etymologically feminine of lord, by inflexion. 
 \y<yman., i.e. wife-man (Germ, ireih). ' Friar, i.e. hrother. 
 
 Nepheir, niece, from I-at. nepos, neptis, through the French. 
 Only Tised in speaking of the {)arentage of animals. 
 Wizard O. E. ioit>a a wise man : witch, a sorceress. 
 
 Obs. A fpw forcipn mapnilinpR and fcniininos, (H-cosionally used in English, may b« 
 ••iilwi: iKau, belle; monsieur, madame, mademoitelU. 
 
 4 
 
 s 
 
 ft 
 
 8 
 
 I) 
 
 10 
 
12 
 
 ENGLISH OllAl\lMAn. 
 
 § 28. Common ohjcots without life are often per-(mified, 
 and the Nouns duuotinj^ them are then treated as mas- 
 culine or as feminine. I'hus the Sun is u>ually spoken 
 of as he; and the Moon (also a ship or a balloon) as she; 
 while the names of the ])lanets (Mercury, Venus, Mars, 
 Jupiter) are masculine or feminine according to their sex 
 in mytholoj^y. 
 
 § 2!>. More )ver in poetry and rhetoric many f)ther in- 
 animate thino-s and (qualities are personified and treated 
 either as masculine or as feminine, ilius in CoUins's " Ud(S 
 on the l*assi(jns," Fear, Anr/er, Despair, are masculine; and 
 Hope, Mclanrhohj, Cheerfulness, feminine. So Heaven, Time, 
 Death, Summer, Winter, Autumn, are often masculine ; and 
 Sjirintj, Poetry, Sculp' ure. Astronomy, Art^ Nature, feminine. 
 
 Obs.l. Thia nsiiRC piv( s EnsHsli an advantapp ovor most other languapi's in the 
 poetical anil rlietoricul style: for when nouns naturally neuter are converted into 
 masculine or feminine, the personification is n.'>re distinctly marked. 
 
 " A thousand years tlieir cloudy winps expand 
 Around me, and a dying glory smiles 
 O'er the fair times, when many a subject land 
 Looked to the winged Lion's marble piles 
 ■Where Venice sat in ulate, throned on ueu hundred isles.** 
 
 (jChilde liar old, iv.) 
 
 " Freedom, driven from every spot on the Continent, has sought an asylum in 
 a country wliicii she always chose for /ler favourite abode; but */ie is pursued 
 even here and threatened with destruction." (Robert Hall.) 
 
 Ohs. 2. Jn the earliest form of English, as in Latin, Greek, French, &c., the names 
 of many things without life are masculine or feminine: an,sanne (sun), ./Vm. ; 
 mona (moon), masc. ; tunge (tongue), fern. These artificial genders would 
 probably have remained in force till now, had it not been for the intiuence of 
 the Norman Conquest ; which gave so violent a shock to the language as to 
 obliterate many of its characteristic features. 
 
 fore 
 
 IIOTI 
 
 mat 
 telcij 
 
 Til 
 
 II. NUMBER. 
 
 § 30. When a Noun denotes a single object, it is said to 
 be Singular or ot" the Singular Numhsr : as, ?//aw, sun. 
 
 When a Noun denotes more than one object of the kind, 
 it is said to be Plural or of the Plural Number : as, men, 
 suns. 
 
 Cls Number is thus the (irnmmatlcal distinction between nouns or names of 
 things, corresponding to the natural distinction of one or more than one in the 
 things themselves (unity and plurality). In 0. E. a Due' Number is found ib 
 the case of the 1st and 2nd Personal Pronouns. See ^ 77, Note, 
 
 § 31. The Plural of Nouns is formed from the Singular. 
 In the oldest form of the English language, several olural 
 endings existed. Of these one only remains in active 
 
FTYMOT.OrrY. 
 
 13 
 
 r.-onified, 
 as mas- 
 y spokon 
 ) as she ; 
 us. Mars, 
 their sex 
 
 other in* 
 d treated 
 is's " lido 
 ine ; and 
 irn, Time^ 
 line ; and 
 miininc. 
 
 guagt'S in thu 
 converted into 
 d. 
 
 an asyhim in 
 is pursued 
 
 ., the names 
 
 (sun), fern. ; 
 niers would 
 iiiHuence of 
 ;uage as to 
 
 M 
 
 force in modern English, namely t'.io ending s or es. 
 Hence when a new word arises, we at once, and as a 
 matter of course, form its plural in this way : us, trhtjram, 
 ieU'ijuDiis. 
 
 § '52. liegnlar Plnrals in es, s. Whcu tho s sonnd can 
 l;e conveniently attached witliout in.tkiiii^ an additional 
 syllable, s only is used : as, bt'ij, hoys ; ,jirl, (jirl-s ; lion, 
 Uon-8, elephant, elephants; Cwmr, the Cocsars ; Pitt, the Pitti 
 
 § X). Vmi when tlie s sound '-an not bo conveniently 
 (euphoniously J attached without making an additional 
 syllaV'le, es is used: an, fox, fox-es ; church, church-cs. 
 'ibis is the case when the nouii already ends in a sound 
 of s ; viz. s, sh, ch, X, z ; as, gas, (jat^-cs ; fonnmons, sum- 
 Wivs-cs ; lass, lass-cs ; Jish.fish-es ; birch, hi rch-es; box, b(<x-cs; 
 t(j)a/., topaz-es ; Fitz, the Fitz-es (Mac. //. E. n. I 0). When 
 ch is sounded as k, s only is added : as monarch, monarchs. 
 Tlie pound of th \& softened before s: ;is, month, mouths; 
 jjath, paths. Also s is softened in house, houses. 
 
 Note.— Convenience and eas-e of articulation aro in {grammar m- 
 cliuU'd under the term niphon!/. (Greek d [t'ul. in II : and (pwpit \ tone], 
 a voice. souu<i.) Any elian<re in a word made for greater ease of arti- 
 culation K said to be made /or the mice of enphuny, 
 
 Obt. To the above add many nouns in o : as, potato, potato-es ; and one in », 
 alkali, alkali-es. The following lists of nouns in o may be useful : — 
 
 1. -0 with plural -oes. 
 
 s said to 
 
 buffalo 
 
 ailico 
 
 carpo 
 
 domino 
 
 echo 
 
 flamingo 
 
 hero 
 
 mafrnifico 
 
 manifesto 
 
 buffaloes 
 
 calicoes 
 
 carfrors 
 
 dominoes 
 
 echoes 
 
 flamingoes 
 
 heroes 
 
 magnificoes 
 
 manifestoes 
 
 miisfiuito 
 
 motto 
 
 mulatto 
 
 nrjiio 
 
 no 
 
 potato 
 
 tomato 
 
 tornado 
 
 volcano 
 
 mosquitoes 
 
 mottoi's 
 
 mulattoes 
 
 ncf^roes 
 
 noes * 
 
 potatoes 
 
 tomatoes 
 
 tornadoi s 
 
 volcanoes 
 
 * I.e. persons voting "Ko" as opposed to 'Jye." 
 
 J). 
 
 e kind, 
 as, meiif 
 
 2. -0 with plur.il of. 
 
 )T names of 
 n one in the 
 is found ill 
 
 ingular. 
 ')lural 
 acti\o 
 
 bravo 
 
 canto 
 
 cento 
 
 duoilt cimo 
 
 emhiyo 
 
 grolto 
 
 octavo 
 
 portico 
 
 quarto 
 
 braves 
 
 ciintos 
 
 centos 
 
 duodecimos 
 
 embryos 
 
 grottos 
 
 octavos 
 
 porticos 
 
 quartos 
 
 rondo 
 
 solo 
 
 stih tto 
 
 tyro 
 
 virtuoso 
 
 folio 
 
 nuueio 
 
 oratdi'io 
 
 poittolio 
 
 ro" <io8 
 
 80i..., 
 
 still ttos 
 
 tyros 
 
 virtuosos 
 
 folios 
 nuncios 
 oratorios 
 porliulios 
 
 It will be observed that those which take a plural in -of are mostly for 
 imperfectly naturalis. d. A few fluctuate in the spelling of their pi 
 calico, innuendo, mosquito, mulatto, portico (-«« and -ots), etc 
 
 Ivvith 
 otii rs 
 in -to 
 
 ■i(.'n words 
 urals: m. 
 
14 
 
 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 § 34. Nouns in f. fe. and If. — Tlicse as a general rule 
 cliange the f into v Ix'foro tiio plural ending : as, leafy 
 leaves ; wife^ wires ; life, licrs ; vu>lt\ wolves. 
 
 But nouns in ief, oof, ff, rf, usually take simple s : as— 
 
 hoof hoiifs t ciiir ci ill's 'Iwurf dwarfs 
 
 rfK)f roofs ( t-kiil' sIviiKs murf sciiri'd 
 
 proof proofs I whilf wiiiils turf turla 
 
 brief })riff8 
 chief chiefs 
 grief griefs 
 
 Staff however makes dares ; and icliarf, senrf, turf, some- 
 times take a plural in -ves (wharrrs, srarrcs, turres). Thief 
 makes thieves ; fife, fifes ; and strife, strifes. 
 
 § 35. Nouns in y. — Final y not immediately preceded 
 by a vowel is changed into ies : as, ladi/, ladles. 
 
 But when a vowel immediately precedes, tiie y remains 
 unchanged: as, boi/, hoi/s ; day, days; ehimnn/, ehimneifs ; 
 attorney, attorneys. In'ouhs ending in quy take ies: as, 
 sililoquy, soliloquies. Proper names in y do not usually 
 change the y; as, the three Marys (but also Maries, Diet. 
 Bi})lo, ii. 258). So also guy makes guys. 
 
 Ohs. Such spellings as chimnies, attornies, although frpquontly used, arc accord- 
 ingly to bi' avoiUud. 
 
 § 36. A few remains of other plural formations exist : — 
 1. Inflexion by change in the body of the word : — ■ 
 
 man 
 
 m- n 
 
 gnoso 
 
 geese 
 
 lonse 
 
 lice 
 
 woman 
 
 women 
 
 tooth 
 
 teeth 
 
 mouse 
 
 mice 
 
 foot 
 
 feet 
 
 
 
 
 
 [Seven Nouns.] 
 
 See also under (2) : brethren, Vine, 
 
 2. Plurals in n or en : — 
 
 ox oxen 
 
 eye eyne ( = eyes : Spenser, 
 
 Shnkspeare.) child 
 
 shoe shnon ( = shoes : Sir W. 
 
 Scott.) 
 brother brethren (where there is 
 
 internal change be- 
 sides.) 
 children (Old English, 
 childer, a form commcju 
 in Lancashire.) 
 
 To these may be added — 
 
 cow kine (= cows) : internal change besides: (). E. ey, i.e. l:ye 
 liose hosen (Dan. iii. 21). 
 
 [Seven Nouns.] 
 
 Obs. Swine is fiometimes quoted as a plural form, from sow. This is not po. Tlie 
 plural of sow is soics. The n of swine belongs equally to the singular and the 
 plural (German, schwein). 
 
ETYMOT.OC.Y. 
 
 15 
 
 neral rule 
 : as, leafy 
 
 le s : as — 
 
 Ajirf d war fa 
 url' scari'a 
 irf turfa 
 
 tiirf Roine- 
 es). Thief 
 
 ■ preceded 
 
 y remains 
 chimneijs ; 
 3 ies : as, 
 )t iisnally 
 tries, Diet. 
 
 ed, are accord- 
 
 s exist : — 
 ord : — 
 
 lice 
 mice 
 
 ianj?e be- 
 
 luipflish, 
 rin conimcm 
 re.) 
 
 J/, i.e. lye 
 
 not po. Tlie 
 rular and the 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 3. riiiral sanio as .sin;j;iil;ir ; in suiue oasos uwinji; to 
 loss ut" liual vowel or otlior sijjju of tlio jjlural dis- 
 tinutioii : sheep, shfep ; deer, d.er ; swint, sirine. 
 
 Obs. 1. The words ik<T, ahirp, awint; are witliout sign of plural in the dldost 
 form of Kn(,'lish also, but tlioy retain it in Mod -vn (li'rni in. 
 
 Obt. 2. The iianii'S of nmst fishfs and of Hoine birds are used in the piiiRTilar collee- 
 tivi'ly; IS, ti) fish fur timit, sahimn, inm ki n I ; to simot (jtiinfi-, sti j i , wilil-ilutk. 
 
 Ill the s.une way are us"<l the nouns Imi'l, Ih'ikt, dnzin, [mir, (imi h, yuki', fi o}x, 
 liundint, fic: as, so many head of deer; twenty hnue of partridj^es; a dozen 
 ^(ur of gloves ; twelve i/oir of oxrn; and in 8[»eakinn of ships, suii; uf*, ten rait 
 of the I nc. Also vnnnnn, th»t : as, they captured tliirty cunnon : the (it rnians 
 b (;an to fire red-hot shot into the citadel. SUi/U only ol number of times of 
 sliooting. 
 
 Chs. 3. In such oxpresBions as lOO.OOO/no^, 10,000 horsr, the noun soldiers is oniitt( d 
 for brevity, 
 
 Olis. 4. Some ('afliculty is presentid by a few compound words, tlio elements of which 
 Lave not perfectly coaliseed. When the latter element is an Adjective, (pialilying 
 a preceding Noun, the plural sign is usually attached to the Noun : as,— 
 
 court-martial courts-martial 
 
 kuinht-erraiit kiii^'hts-erraiit 
 
 Statfs-lieneral 
 
 Court-martials, only of different sittings ot a court-martial. 
 
 "Where two titles are nnitid, the last now usually takes the plural, as major- 
 generals ; a few old expressions sometimes occur in which both words, fullnwintr 
 the French idiom, take the plural, as knii/hta-lnnplars, lords-lieuttnaiils, lants- 
 justices." (Morris, p. 100.) 
 
 § 37. Double Plurals. — The following double furnis are 
 used with a dilFereiice of meaning : - 
 
 brotlu-r: brothers, children of the same parent* hrefhren fold 
 form), now used in iimirutivo tstiise; nii mljcns of a hociety. 
 
 die: dies, for stainpinji^; din', for play. 
 
 penny : jic^/z/e*', tiie coins so called; 2"'"cp, of sums of money. 
 
 genius: (jeniuscs, highly gifted men ; genii (see § 41), super- 
 natural beings. 
 
 index : in<l';xex, to a book ; indicex, in algebra. 
 
 pea (a late word), peas, sepiirato seeds; pease, collective. [The 
 s is part of the root : Latin pisum.] 
 
 § 38. Nouns used onhi in Sinf/ular. — Some nouns, owing 
 (.0 the nature of their meaning, are used only in the 
 singular numher. Such are the names of materials or 
 substances : as, ivine, mater, oxij<jen, <jold, silver ; and of 
 qualities : as. hraveri/, hardness, wit, humour. 
 
 When such nouns take a ])hiral, it is in a different 
 eense from the singular ; for exam})le : — 
 
 1. Denotino; different sorts of the same thinci;: thus 
 the nouns wine, brand j/. .vKjar. marb e. have no plural 
 as denoting the substances or things ro called; 
 but we may speak of wines, brandies, snnnr^. marbles. 
 in the sense of diflerent sorts of wine, brandy, &c. 
 
16 
 
 ENGLISH GT^AMMAR. 
 
 2. Names of qualities may ho "nsed in tlio plural to 
 denote repeated instances of any particular t|iiality, 
 good or bad: thus, ne<jU(jences (Common I'rayerj 
 denotes instances of negligence; ^eaw^/es, points or 
 featui OS of beauty ; animosities, hostile feelings, &c. 
 
 § 89. Nouns nsed only in the Plnral. — Otlier nouns exit 
 only in the ])lural, the tilings themselves! having a kind 
 of plurality about them. Such are : — 
 
 1. Names of many common instruments which havo 
 two })arts forming a kind of pair : as, belloivs, scissors^ 
 pincers, shears, hnnjs, speeiades. 
 
 2. Names of certain articles of dress formed in a 
 similar manner : as, trousers, draicers. breeches. 
 
 3. Names of diseases and ailments, showing them- 
 selves by many marks or symptoms : as, measies, 
 mum'>s, sta(i(jers (in animals). 
 
 4. Names of games : billiards, draughts, fees, S:g. 
 
 5. Others arc miscellaneous : as, Commons (House of), 
 obsequies, nuptials ; matitis, vespers ; proceeds (of a 
 salej ; thanks; dumps; (]n<:^h.) jinks, &c. 
 
 § 40. Bouhtful. — A few nouns hang in suspense between 
 singular and }>lural. J^uch are : — 
 
 Alms: properly singular; the s being part of tlio 
 original word (O. K. leluusse, (ik. eAer/pxri'iT/): "who 
 asked an alms," Acts ii. M; -'much alms," Vk x. 2. 
 Now perhaps oftener plural. 
 
 Amends : really a plural ; but also used as a sin- 
 gular ( = Fr. amende) : — 
 
 " To make an aniends." {Temj An.) 
 
 Eaves : really singular (0. E. efese), but often used 
 as plural. 
 
 Meeins : in senso of manner, expiedi nt : strictly pluii' ; 
 
 but also used as singular : — 
 
 *' yl menus to do tli( itriucc my master irnod." 
 (Sliakrf. W'tiittr'ti Tah', iv. ;-i.) 
 
 rs])ecially in the phrases "by this means;" " a means 
 
 to an end" (in common use). 
 But the word can be used as ])lural when it denotes 
 
 a number of acts or ex})edients : — 
 
 "Tlntu hast sliowii me tlie uimiit of: revenge and be assured I will 
 embrace them' ( Ir(iuh(i>\ eh. xxvii.) 
 
 I he singular mean is also used. 
 
ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 IT 
 
 plural to 
 r quality, 
 L I'rayerj 
 points or 
 iiigs, (fee. 
 
 iiTis ex it 
 g a kind 
 
 lich havo 
 s, scissors^ 
 
 led in a 
 
 ies. 
 
 ig them- 
 
 >, vic'dsles, 
 
 fee. 
 
 louse ofj, 
 ds (of a 
 
 1 let ween 
 
 rt of ti.o 
 /): "who 
 i>>. X. 2. 
 
 IS a sin- 
 
 ten used 
 V pluii' ; 
 
 a means 
 ilenotes 
 led I will 
 
 -4 
 1, 
 i 
 
 1 
 
 i 
 
 News : that is, ti(1i}>ns : formerly used either as sin- 
 gular or as plural : — 
 
 •* lliis news hath made thoc a most ugly man." 
 
 (iShakspt-are, K. John. iii. 1.) 
 
 "Ten days ago I drowned these newx in tfar^^.'' 
 
 (Id. Jltnry VI. Part III. ii. 1.) 
 
 Now always singular : — 
 »* 111 nev/sjlies apace." (Proverb.) "The lat '^t news is . . . " 
 
 Pains: in sense of ejforf. hihour : strictly ])lural, hut 
 used rather as a collective singular: thus we now 
 say, much pains, great jiains, a great deal of jiaiiis 
 But tlie plural also occurs : — 
 
 "Your pains are registered . . . ." (^haks. Murlielh, i. .'?.) 
 
 Riches : properly singular, the s Leing jiart of tho 
 original word (Fr. riches u-): — 
 
 I\iph(\s tiiielcss [endless] is as poor as winter 
 
 To him that ever t\ ais lie shall be poor." (."^hulis. OlhcUo, iii. 3.) 
 
 Now always plural : — 
 
 " IJiehes .Trt' not for ever,'' (Prov x.xvii. 21.) " Lichen mahx i!i)iH- 
 idles \vin-,s." (i6. x.viii. 5.) 
 
 Tidings : plural, but in older writers used also a 
 singular : — 
 
 "To bring this tidings to the . . . king." (Sli. Bich. III. iv. 3.) 
 
 Wages: strictly i)lural,Lut formerly u.sed as singuliti', 
 as: — 
 "He earneth wages to put it into a bag with hulca." (//«[/. i. 0.) 
 
 The singular wage is also used. 
 
 Ol'tt. The names of coit:iin Fcicnrcs d(Tiv('cl from Grrek avo plural in fdiin in 
 Knelish as in Pircolv, but now coMinmnly tn ati d as HJii^Miiar. Such aro } Ivisks, 
 met<i}ih;/sics, di/namics, mechanics, hyiiraulics, h;iilioUatii f, iiv innntics : - 
 " Mathematics hcromes the iustruniont of Astronomy and I'iiysics." (Lcwrs.) 
 "Alcchaiiics is tlie Hcicncc in which are invcstit;at<d the atlioiis of bodies on 
 one another." (Nat. Cycl.) 
 Ihit some of these, especially vHithematics, viclojihijsics, physics, are also trcati d as 
 plural : — 
 
 " His [Plato's] metaphysics arc A a nature to frit;htci' away all but tlir most 
 d tcrininrd students." (,I>o\vcs.) 
 
 "The uiatluinatics lead us to lay out of account all that is not proved " 
 
 (Sir W. Hamilton, j:smijs.) 
 
 It U easy to sec that in the last example but one, the plural Is required; but 
 only a mature judiimrnt ran ilecidc whether iu each cose tliut occurs the singular 
 or the plural is luuio jiropur. 
 
 a 
 
13 
 
 ENGLISH GRAMMAU. 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 § 41. A num"l)er of nouns Lorrowed from foreign Ian-: 
 pna<;es without change, retain their proper plurals. 'I'iie 
 following are of frequent occurrence • — 
 
 phenomenon (Gr.) -a 
 genus (L.) genera 
 
 axis (L.) axes 
 
 ellip.^is (G.) -es 
 
 inetaiiiorpliosis (Or.) -vs 
 parenthesis (Gr.) -es 
 
 index (L.) indices 
 
 [see § 37] 
 vertex (L.) vertices 
 
 a])pcndix ' L.^i appeniUces 
 cherub (Hebr.) cherubim 
 ( also cherubs ) 
 Berai)h (Hebr.) seraphim 
 (8erui)hs) 
 
 [bandit] banditti (Ital.) 
 
 beau (Fr.) beanx 
 
 bureau bureaux 
 
 llambeau (Fr.) fhimbeaux 
 
 savant (Fr.) savants. 
 
 Ol'g. 1. All such words must ha rogarded as imperfectly naturalized, since tbcy still 
 follow the laws of the languages from which they are derived. 
 
 Oli!>.2. .Some foreign viords in use exist^iii the plural only: e.g. litfivati (Lat.), 
 aboriyi7ie!i (l;at.), anti^<i''!i (dr.), landcs (Kr.), i.e. sandy plains; af/nida (Lat.). 
 i.e. business to l>f tranbuctod; e})hancra, creatures of a day; viltiut'ae, small 
 rici ties (of criticismX 
 
 formu'a (h.) 
 
 -ae 
 
 larva ( L.) 
 
 -ae 
 
 nebuhi (^li.) 
 
 -ao 
 
 focus (Tj.) 
 
 -i 
 
 genius (F..) 
 
 -i 
 
 [see § :}?] 
 
 
 [maj^iis (L.)J 
 
 -i 
 
 radius (L.) 
 
 -1 
 
 terminus (Ia) 
 
 -i 
 
 tumulus (L.) 
 
 -i 
 
 addendum (T..) 
 
 -a 
 
 iinimalculum (1;.) 
 
 •a 
 
 (latum (L.) 
 
 -a 
 
 desideratum (T,.) 
 
 •a 
 
 dictum (L.) 
 
 -a 
 
 edluviiuu (Ij ) 
 
 -a 
 
 erratum ( L.) 
 
 -a 
 
 memorandum (L.) 
 
 -a 
 
 stratum (L.) 
 
 -a 
 
 automaton ((ir.) 
 
 a 
 
 Obt\ 
 
 ml 
 wl 
 V| 
 
 §4- 
 sen tell 
 we art 
 man ; 
 dent 7 J 
 
 §45) 
 the dif 
 t Id veil a 
 diatel'' 
 Case 
 
 NoTli 
 
 IIT. CASE. 
 
 § 42. 'J1ie name of (\\.sks is given to tlic difTorent fonuR 
 which a Noun (or IVoiioun ) assumes to denote its relations 
 to other words in a sentence. 
 
 Obn. Hy the relation of one wor.l to another is meant its cuniieelion with it. and the 
 way in whicli the one is d.pindent upon the other. Thus Id tlie following 
 sentence - 
 
 " 'J'lie tear dnwn ehiUlhood's cheek that flows 
 Is like the dew-drop on the rose," 
 
 the Wdril that is relatiil to the word tear ft^ar that flows] ; and the word rln'til- 
 liooii'x is related to tiic word ilirek ; auil auain the word is in the second line 
 is related to the word t •■ r [the tear in like the dew-drop], kc. 
 
 § 4;». 'J'lierc are Five Cases in English, the Nominatue^ 
 OhJcctii(\ Dative, Posscssli-c, Voaillvc, 
 
ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 19 
 
 Ob$, The term Case is usoil '^vcn tliouKh tlioru bo now no liifTorenco of form to 
 m:irk certain liistinct relations in whicli a Noun or rronoun ni;iy stand to other 
 wiT'ls. Thus tht! l>ative is now idi ntical in form with the Objective, and tlie 
 Vot'ativo will) tlie Nominatise. 
 
 § 44. 'J he Nomina 11 vi-; is the Case of the Suhject of tlie 
 sentence, ami denotes tin; jxirson or tiling ahout which 
 we are speaking: as, Lord Ndsun was the son of a ck'rgy- 
 nian ; the mole is a laV)orious creature ; icasj'S sting ; Presi- 
 dent Lincoln was assassinjited. 
 
 § 45. The Ortkctivk Casl: follows the Verb, and denotes 
 the direct o])ject of an action : as, the robhers attacked tlui 
 tiaceller ; Ignitus stahlied desar. Also all nuiuis ininu^- 
 (liately de])endent upon I'repositious are in the Uljectivo 
 Case : as, from London to York. 
 
 Note. — The Objective Case of Nouns is tlic same as the Nominative. 
 
 § 46. The Dative Case also follows the Verh, and de- 
 notes the person to whom a thing is given or On- tchom 
 a thing is done. It denotes the Indirect Ohject, and 
 may always be known by its being possible to supply to 
 or tor before it: as, (live we (i.e. to me) the daggers; the 
 sailor made his n<'phein a ship (i.e. mndv, a sliip for his 
 nephewj. Here }ne and nejiheto are Datives. 
 
 NoTK. — Tiio Dutivt! Case of both Nouns and I'lnuouns is iJt ntical 
 in form with the (Jl)jt ctivo. 
 
 § 47. The PossKssiVE Case denotes the ]>erson who ])os- 
 sesses something: as, a soldier's knajisack, Coliban's master, 
 Goliath's sword. 
 
 Obf. 1. It is not the Possessive Taso unl ss thi' ronn of th" word itself diii(if( s 
 l)oss('Ssion. In the hcuIi'Iicc, " My uncli' owns a laini in Chishirr," mult: is i.nt 
 the Toss ssive but the Nominative. Hut in Ihi' si iit' nee, "My mirk's I'arni 
 is in Clieshiri'," uudt's is the l'ossis.sive, the form of the word itself [V] di noting 
 possession. 
 
 Cbf. 2. In such a jihrase as th • rays o'the sun, fidi is not the Poss, ssive hut tho 
 Oljectivc, binji drpind nt upon the Pn position <;' $ 15]. 
 
 § 48. The Possessive Case Singular is <brm(>d liy adding 
 '« to the Nominative Singidar ; as, tiitDi. )ii(in.^; hoj/, h<n/'.s. 
 The Possessive Case Plural is formed by adding '« or ' 
 only to the Nominative Plural : as, men, mens; hoys, hoiis\ 
 
 When the ]dural of a noun ends in s already, the i*os- 
 Bessive Plural is indicated ])y an apostrojdic only, without 
 any dillerence whatever Ix^ing nnide to the i'tir : as, l<t<lies 
 gloves ; /o.tr.s' holes ; />/yv/.s' eggs. When the plural doey 
 not (>nd in s, the lull Ibrm is used : as, men's and itonicn'% 
 apartmeuta i sheet's cluthinj^' (Matt. vii. 15j. 
 
 C2 
 
 , ( I 
 
 4 ; 
 
 I i 
 
 i ) 
 
 I 
 
20 
 
 ENGLISH GllAMMAR. 
 
 Ob$. In poc'try the samo usii^jo is also fouiiil in tlm cas^ of siiipulars ondinR ins: 
 as, " J'h(vbux' stcocis," " I'hccbus' fire," " Phcebus' car ; " " /irutus' statue," " Jirutus' 
 love," " Brutus' sake " (Shaks.), So cspr-cially in such phnis s as, " for tliy i/<xjd- 
 nefs' sake " ( 1*8. xxv. 7) ; " for rightcousncfx' sake '" {ib. cxliii. 11 ) ; " for juitice' 
 fiak ' " {Julius Oas. iv. 3) ; for conscicnre [witiidUt ' ] sake (1 Cor. x. 2K) ; whicii, 
 thouKh bcltinRing to the elevated style, are adinissil'le in pror.f. The s is some- 
 times omitted after proper names endin<; in .s ; as " Mr. Ahrris' poetry " {Specta'or 
 Journal). Hut tli'Te is no suflicient justification for tliis practice. In the ca.se 
 of Fniich names of persons ending in silrnl s, the INj.sscs.'iive .sliould be written 
 with an additional s .• as M. Thiers's government ; Dunias's works. 
 
 § 49. The following table shows the formation of the 
 Possessive Case, Singular and Plural ; — 
 
 Sinfrular. 
 
 Nominative 
 Possessive 
 
 Singular. 
 b( ly 
 boy's 
 
 niiin 
 man's 
 
 Plural. riural. 
 
 Nominative , • . boys men 
 
 IVwscssive . . . bo)s' men's 
 
 § 50. Tn the case of a name or title eonsistiiig of several 
 words, the sign of tlie Possessive is attached to the last : 
 as, "the J)uke of Savonifs nephew" {Mercliaht of Venice, 
 i. 2 ) ; Messrs. Sotheran and Oo.'s warehouse, etc. 
 
 Also when two Nouns are closely connected by the 
 Conjunction nml, the sign of the Possessive is put 
 witii the latter only: as, "Mr. and Mrs. Walinsley's 
 conipliinents ;" "Jane and Emily's kind invitation." Ihit 
 when the persons are (piite distinct and independent of 
 each other, the Possessive sign must be used witli each : as — 
 
 "... the pope's and tlio Jang'a pleasure." (Hume, ii. 177.) 
 
 Obs. 1. The use of the apostrophe is a moilern practic". Alilton writes mans 
 disobedience (/'. L. 1. 1\ anmls kenii (ib. 5!)\ Sions d;uiirht(>rs (i^. •l.'':i\ n"'' f'o 
 always [rickcrino's Kdition]. In the early forms of English, when the Noun 
 ended in a consonant, -es was the sign of the Po.sse.ssive Case : as, Ood-^s. Th? 
 apo.stroplie marks the elision of tli(^ vowel. In wonls ending in .« tlie vowel is 
 still proiidunc .d, though not written: a.s, Thomas')^ bimk. Tlie -(." of the Posses- 
 sive is still retained in the word Wcdn-es-day, i.e. Wodenes-cirrflf, or Woden's day. 
 
 O?),?. 2. It was once f ilsely supposed that the ','; of th ' I'oss 'ssive T'as" was an abbre- 
 
 1 in the Liturgy, "(.'hrist 
 
 viation of his : hence was written " Tlminas his book 
 
 am 
 
 /n'.>.' sake." So AddiscjTi writ' s (.*>";«'c^i/or, No. Ktfi): "'I'iie same single letter [.'] 
 on many occasions does tiie oflice of the whole word, and ri'pn s'^n.s the his and 
 hir of our forefathers." Hut how can 's ad<l('d to f< niinin • nouns repnsi'nt t^rri 
 Tliere can be no doubt tliat 's is an abbreviation of the old Kuglish genitive -rs. 
 
 ^ 51. 'J^he VocATivF, Cask stands by itself, and denotes 
 the ])erson or persons addressed : as — 
 " Fi'ieuih, lidinani*, voHuirnmm^ lend me yoin- ears." (/. Civs. iii. 2.) 
 '' Soih thou art ever with me." (T^uke xv. HI.) 
 C/ti Thj V'oCiitive Ib sometimes call d the Nominative of Addr <M. 
 
 I 
 
 fi 
 
ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 21 
 
 ending in s: 
 UP." " Brutus' 
 for tliy i/wkI- 
 
 " for juitice' 
 :. 28); which, 
 "lie .f i8 soiue- 
 y " (•'■''pecta'or 
 In the case 
 Id bo written 
 
 Q of the 
 
 f fsovoral 
 the last : 
 f Venire, 
 
 l>y tho 
 is put 
 
 Imslcy's 
 
 I." liut 
 
 ideiit of 
 ;li : ns — 
 
 177.) 
 
 rites mans 
 5:0, and BO 
 n tlio Noun 
 od-<'S. Til? 
 lio vowel is 
 till' T'ossps- 
 'udoti's (lay. 
 
 \s an al'brp- 
 rtjy," Christ 
 \o letter [f] 
 the /((.v and 
 iri s lit /.f7' ? 
 litive -cs. 
 
 denotes 
 
 vs. iii. 2.) 
 
 Adjectives. 
 
 § 52. An Adjectivk is a word iisod with a Nonn to 
 specify soino quality or particular of the thiiij^ spoken of: 
 aa, a icise man, a sioift steamer, a ntone bridge. 
 
 Ob!'. 1. 'I'lie Adjective denotes th" ((uality of the thiv;i, i' t nf Jhe Xohti. Thus, if 
 we say, " a go mI horse," the Aiijictivi; yoinl sp cities w -'irt of n /o) .sv is nieMiit, 
 not what sort of a Noun the word hoise is. 'I'hL' huise is "goixl"; the Nduii 
 " house " ia common, masculine. 
 
 01$. 2. The 1'os.sessive Case of a Noun approaches very nearly to the character of 
 an Adjective. Thu.s, if we say, " John's horse," "John's" is a word vseil vitli the 
 yoiiti iiorse to s)wcif!/ saine particular about the horse. And it will ])» seen 
 bell W that the i'ossessive Cases of tin; Personal I'roiit'iins pass into Adjdtiv.s 
 (see ^\ 78). The word cujuHfO, uni (le/ios''), is an instance of a Genitive Ca.se in 
 Latin which ha;, undergone a similar change. 
 
 Obs. .3. Some Nouns are used as Adjectives without cliange of form : as, calico, silk, 
 cotton, iron, steel, silcer, gold (~ golden), brass (= brazen), etc. See K\. bO. 
 
 NoTK. — Tn O. E. Ailjectives aro iiifli cted for fJctnlcr, Niimlicr. and 
 Case, as in mo Icni (ieimati. Thuhe inllectiousbadentirL'iy di.-ai)pL'ari'(l 
 bcforo the Eli'.aljetlian period. 
 
 § 53. Clas-iijication of Adjectives. — Adjectives may bo 
 classified as followi'' : — 
 
 1. Adjectives of Quality [Latin, qualis, of what sort ?] : 
 as, )Jo(kI, had, indifferent ; fine, coarse, ihicJi, thin, yreat, 
 Utile ; Emjlish, French, SjMuish, Turkish. 
 
 IF. Adjectives of Quantity [Lat. quantus, how great?] : 
 as, 'iii.aeh, liu . enough, some, any, no (nunc). 
 
 Ol)S. 1. All Adj'ctives of quantity are indel'nite. Delinite quantities are expres.sed 
 
 by nouns : as. i bushel of wheat ; a pound of sugar ; a cubic./ eof of water. 
 Obs. 2. Several .\dj dives of quantity are used also of number [see b low]. 
 
 111. Adjectives of Number : viz. — 
 
 1. Tiie Cardinal Numerals, denoting an exact num- 
 ber : as, one (an, a), two, twenty ; also the word hotJi. 
 
 Obs. The words hiiwhrd, thousand, million, are nouns, as apin'ars from tin ir 
 taking the Adjective n before tliem, and bi'ing capable of forming a plural, hini- 
 drtids, tlioKHiiids, millions. Hundred and ])tisend are nouns in the oldest form 
 of I'lngiish, with regular plurals. Accordingly, one (a) hundred men = one 
 hundred o/' men, &c. 
 
 2. Indefinite Numeral Adjectives : as, many, few, 
 enough, some, all, any, no (iione), sacral, sundry, 
 certain. 
 
 IV. Distinguishing Adjectives, or Adjectives of Dis- 
 tinction. — These serve to single out an individual 
 from a class : as, this man. not thaf man ; this blue 
 cloth, not that blue cloth. They include the fellow* 
 injj; kinds of words :— 
 
22 
 
 ENGLISH GRAMMA n. 
 
 1. PcmnnstrativG Adjectives : tJiis, fiiat, with their 
 plurals these, those ; ijoniJ, i/on, yonder; tiic. 
 
 NoTK. — The ami an or a are usiuiUy call' ..kticles. [See § G9.] 
 
 2. Ordinal Numerals: as, yZrs<, second, tenth, thoip- 
 sandth. 
 
 3. iJistributives : as, each, every, either, neither, 
 
 4. The word same with its compound se^f-.-^ame, 
 
 § 54. ?.rost of the Adjectives of Quantity arc capable of 
 being used substantively ; as — 
 
 " Much have I seen and known . . . . " (Tennyson, lUyss.) 
 ^^ Li I tie of this great world ran 1 speak ..." (^Otk. i. H.) 
 " Knoiiijh is as good as a fea.st." (Trov.) 
 
 Ol'S. Mull, little, enough, are also used as Ailvi il>s. 
 
 § 55. The Lii^eiinite Numeral Adjective many is often 
 used with an or a for the purjiose of denoting a number 
 of persons or things looked at individually ; as — ■ 
 
 " Many a man and man;/ a maid." (L' Allegro.) 
 
 It then takes a singular Verb : as — 
 
 " Full ni'iiiy a flower is born to blush unseen." (Gray, Llrgy.) 
 
 Vbs. The expivssion a many also occurs in familiar language — 
 
 " Shed a mauij t ars." (Tciniyson.) 
 
 Mann lias here a noun force : like a few, a little (^ 50), a hundred, a thouMud. 
 (^^53, IH. Obs.) 
 
 § 50. Little, a little ; few, a few. — With the Adjective 
 an or a [see § 55, Ohs.], these words have a positive sense; 
 with(mt it, a negative one : as — 
 
 " Thou hast a little [= some] strength, and hast kept my word." 
 
 (liev. iii. 8.) 
 " To make much out of little" [= hardly anytliing]. 
 
 (Arn. R. H. i. 102.) 
 
 " I have a few [= some] things against thee." (Rev. ii. 14.) 
 
 " 1\hi or none of their ships were taken." (Smollett, //. C.) 
 
 § 57, The Demonstrative Adjectives this and that, with 
 tluiir plurals these and those, are often used without a 
 Noun. In most cases, however, a Noun is understood, and 
 may be at once su]>plied : a^:, Tliis book is cheaper than 
 t,hat [^book ] ; these [booksj than those [booksj. 
 
ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 23 
 
 But Romctlmos a Xoun cannot, bo so supplied, and they 
 luubt then be regarded as l*roiio>.»ns. iSee ^81. 
 
 § oS. Tho Ordinals, Ji)\sf, scmud, tllnl, are commonly 
 classed as Adjectives of (^Miantity or Number. J>ut this 
 appears to be incorrect. Adjectives of ^s umber answer to 
 the question, IJow many? — Answer, one, two, a hundred, 
 none. Adjectives of Distinction servo to single out one of 
 a class, and answer the (piestiou, Which one? — Answer, 
 thejird, second, hundredth. 
 
 Comparison of Aojkctivks. 
 
 § 50. In com]Kiring objects together, certain forms aro 
 used to denote the possession of a quality or attribute in a 
 higher degree by one object than by another, or than by 
 all others : as — 
 
 " Groat Britiiin is a lartje ialaud." 
 
 " Borneo is a lanjer ialanJ than Groat Britaiu.** 
 
 " Australia is tlio largest island in the world." 
 
 These forms are called Tegreos of Comparison. 
 There are Three Degrees of Comparison: the Positivo, 
 tho Comparative, and the Superlative. 
 
 § 60. The Positive Degree does no more than denote 
 tho possession of a certain (piality: as, a black Bpot; a 
 u-hite skin; a loise saying; a hijh temperature. 
 
 Obs. Strictly speaking, thorefore, the Positivo is not a DeRnx' of Couipiirif^uii, but for 
 the sake of convenience it is always reckoned as such in Grammar. 
 
 § 01. The Comparative "^.jgrco is used to denote that 
 one thing possesses a certain quality in a higher degree 
 than another: as — 
 
 "Tho Gulf-strcani has a highr temperature than that of the air." 
 
 (IVo.) 
 "[Words] sweeter than honey and the honeycomb." (Pa. xi.\. lU.) 
 
 "Tho priestess replied that no other man \Nas tvit<er than Sokrates." 
 
 ((J rote.) 
 Obs. Spenser uses the (^anparalive Pe^iree in the sense oftoo much fo : lUy u mhxr 
 novice, i. e. t<w vcak (Prol. /'. VO » wliosc dryer brain, i. e. tw dry (/•'. Q. i. A'J.) 
 This is a Latin usage, 
 
 § <)2. The Su})erlativo Degree is used to denote that 
 one thing possesses a certain (juality in a higher degree 
 than idl the other objects with which it is com[)ared : as — 
 
 "Ilcr faee, it is i\\i) faireat 
 
 That e'er tiic auu ishonc on." (Son^.) 
 
 . • ) 
 
24 
 
 ENGLISH GT^AMMAR. 
 
 *' Adam the (loo^lllest man of nion .siiipf Imrn 
 lli.s sons, the fnireKt of l»or (Uuii^fliturs Eve." (P. L. iv.) 
 
 t^s. 1. in tlif last fniotiil example, Milton has followed a Greek idiom. "Of" 
 
 here — romjjund vilh. 
 CI'S. 2. The Sniift lative is occasionally UFcd in comparing two oMerts only ocno. 
 
 ciuliy in poelry, as : — 
 
 " Whose f!o(l is strongest thine or mine ? " (Milt. Jr/on.) 
 
 § 03. Only Atljoctives of (iuiility and Indefinite Adjec- 
 tives of (v'uantity and Nuniljer are capable of conipari.son. 
 hncli Adje(;tive.s as oic, tivo, three—Jiy.l, second, thin! — this, 
 tlmt— do not admit the possibility of more so and less st». 
 The case is the same with some Adjectives of (^>uality: 
 as, shiffle, double, rv/ht, left, tup, hotoiUy extreme, siiyieiue, 
 alini'jJiti/, chief, he.caijonal, trian<jnhir. 
 
 Vhs. Adjr^ctives, havinir in themselves a Siiponative signification, sometimes have 
 the Superlative form superadded, espfcialiy in poetry : — 
 
 •* Whosoever of you will he chirfcxt, shall bo servant of all." (_Mark x. 44.) 
 
 " Hut first and 'liii'fu^t with thee bring 
 Hlni, that yon soars on ffoldrii wing, 
 • iuidiiiii the liery-wheeled throne, 
 The Cherub contemplation." (Milton, H Penseroso.) 
 
 " That on the sea'a ea;<?-eJrt('S< border stood." (Addison.) 
 
 § 64. Formation' of Comi'arativk and Supkrlativk. — 
 1"ho Comparative is formed by adding -er, and the ^iuper- 
 lative by adding -est, to the Tositive: as — 
 
 Positive. Comparative. Superlative. 
 
 Bwct't sweeter pvveetest 
 
 bright brighter briglitest 
 
 Ch^. 1. If the i'ositivc end in -e, -r and -!<t only are added: as — 
 
 brave braver bravest 
 
 VUs. 1. If the Positive end in a single consonant preceded by a single vowel, t\e 
 consonant is doubled before -tr and -ed : as — 
 
 big bigger biggest 
 
 hot hott'T hottest 
 
 grim grimmer grimmest 
 
 OU. 3. Final y, when not preceded by a vowel, is changed into i before -tr and -tst. 
 as— 
 
 tlry drier driest 
 
 but 
 
 c«y coyer coyest 
 
 § 65. Only Adjectives of one and two syllables are 
 compared ])y -er and -est. In other cases comparison is 
 expressed by more and most : as- 
 
 beautiful 
 mnisual 
 
 more beautiful 
 more mi usual 
 
 most beautiful 
 most unusual 
 
 Ohs. 1. In older English, polysyllabic Adjectives were also compared by -tr and 
 •eft. Tims we read : — 
 " no men amrouser [more avarous, i.e. avaricious] than hii [they]." 
 
 {I'iers rlowman, i.) 
 " the mai veJloincst nietils [dream]." (iV. viii.) 
 
ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 25 
 
 Alfw. "willlngfr" (P. L. \\. 382); " violentfH" (Sh. Cor. iv. 6); " rev€renJC$t'* 
 (id. Tivi. V. 2); «• rirtuousfjif " (/*• L. viii. 550); &c. 
 
 But as early as tlip Vginnins of the seveateonth contury, such fonns had ceaspd 
 to b- generally used. Haoni (AV.vny.*) appears always to pnlVr mure and must. 
 Some modern writers (as Cariyle) have gone back to the old forms: " ):tw,r- 
 fullest" (fV liev. i. Ih): "frudJ'uUti" (^Ib. 'J59); " iiijlamviahku" {lb. 30;{), &c. 
 — N. B. Not to be imitated. 
 
 Ohs. 2. In the older writers such double forms as " more braver " ( Temp. 1. 2\ '' most 
 iiiikinilest " {J. C iii. 'Z\ "most straitf st " (Acts xwi. 5), were not UMcomnion, 
 and are &inctione<l by B. .Jonson in his Kmjlish Grammar: — 
 
 " Furtherniore, these adverbs moie and viogt are added to the comparative and 
 superlative degrei'S themselves, which sliould be before the positive. This is a 
 certain kind of English Atticism or eloquent phra.se of si>eech, imitatiiii; tlie 
 manner of the mo.^t avei'V/is-t and fine.':t (Jrecians, who for more emphasis and 
 vehemence's sake ust.'d so to speak." (N'are.s, (Jluss. Sh. s. v. Sri'inr,.\ri\ i;.) 
 
 § G'). In the case of Adjectives of two syllaMes, tlie 
 u^e of the forms in -er and -est, or of more and most, 
 is a tpiestion of euphony. 
 
 The following fre(j[nently add -er and -est: — 
 
 I. Those ending in -y (which is changed into -i he- 
 fore -er and -estj, -ble, -er, and -ow : as — 
 
 happy 
 
 hapjiior 
 
 hai)i)iest 
 
 lovely 
 
 lovelier 
 
 loveliist 
 
 aide 
 
 abler 
 
 ablest 
 
 noble 
 
 nobler 
 
 noblest 
 
 bitt<!r 
 
 bitterer 
 
 bitterest 
 
 tcTider 
 
 tenderer 
 
 tonderest 
 
 Tiiiirow 
 
 narrower 
 
 narrowest 
 
 bhallow 
 
 shallower 
 
 shallowest 
 
 [But proper 
 
 viore proper 
 
 most 2>V(iper^ 
 
 II. Adjectives of all terminations in which the accent 
 is on the second syllable : as — 
 
 polite politer politest 
 
 divine diviner divinest 
 
 coinj)le'te completer conr)letest 
 
 cornipt corruptest 
 
 uncouth ■ unconthest 
 
 exact exactest 
 
 § 67. Other Adjectives of two syllahles for the most 
 part take more and most. Such are those in -ed, -id, 
 -ic, -ive, -ful, -ous, -some, -ent, -ing : as — 
 
 learned 
 
 Btiipid 
 
 traffic 
 
 active 
 
 awful 
 
 jealous 
 
 gladsome 
 
 decent 
 
 cunning 
 
 more learned 
 more stupid 
 more trai^'ic 
 more active 
 more awful 
 more jealous 
 more gladsome 
 more decent 
 more cunniiigf 
 
 most learned 
 most stujiid 
 most tra,t,'ic 
 most active 
 most awful 
 most jealous 
 most fjladsome 
 most dec<'nt 
 most cunning 
 
 I i 
 
20 
 
 FNOLISII GRAiiTMAR. 
 
 On the Oilic* hand, plrnftnnf often takes itlenmntor. pjpa 
 mnfr.^t ; ai;<l lianlsomr. hniuisomcr, handyoinest. .Also many 
 forms in -er and -est are to be met \vith in modern 
 authors, even jf Adjectives included under tlie al)ove rule. 
 Tliey are mob't common in eoll(j(juial language, and tlie' 
 Superlative forms are more |)lentil'ul than the Comparative. 
 
 §08. Irroijniir Comporhnn. — A numher of importanl 
 words are irregilarly compared: — • 
 
 Positive. 
 
 
 Conipurative. 
 
 Superlative. 
 
 good 
 
 
 better 
 
 be.-st 
 
 evil 1 
 bad f 
 
 
 worse 
 
 worst 
 
 little 
 
 
 leas 
 
 lea.st 
 
 iimcli 
 
 
 more 
 
 most 
 
 niatiy 
 
 
 more 
 
 most 
 
 old 
 
 
 older, elder 
 
 oldest, elilest 
 
 far 
 
 
 fartlier 
 
 farthest 
 
 [forth, adv."] 
 
 
 fiuthcr 
 
 fdrtliest 
 
 fore 
 
 
 fonni;r 
 
 foremost, first 
 
 hind 
 
 
 hinder 
 
 hindmost 
 
 r- n (inside 
 [m, prep.] |j^^^^^^,.^j 
 
 ■ 
 
 inner 
 
 inmost, innermo;;t 
 
 r i. IT (outside 1 
 [cut, adv.] |o,jt,,^,.j} 
 
 outer, utter 
 
 outmost, utmost, 
 uttermost 
 
 late 
 
 
 later, latter 
 
 latest, last 
 
 ncath, prep.'] 
 
 
 nether 
 
 nethermost 
 
 up. prap.] 
 
 
 upper 
 
 upmost, uppermost 
 
 ni,^'h 
 
 
 nigher 
 
 Highest, next 
 
 [top, 7lOU7l] 
 
 
 
 topmost 
 
 Obs. 1. Tly irr.frular comparison of Adj'^ctivcs is meant the formation of the Com- 
 parative or Superlative degree from a (iilTercnt root from that of the Positive, or 
 l)y a process no longer in use. Thus the words bi'tto; hist, have no etynioloKical 
 connexion whatever with good; and in like maimer the words worse, uwst, 
 Lave no etymological connexion with evil (^tlie oUIer form of the I'ositive) or 
 had. 
 
 On the other hand, elder, eldest [0. K. yldre, yldest], are regularly enough formed 
 from old, but by an ol)solete process. (Compare Germ, alt, iilter, iiltt&t.) 
 
 Obs. 2. Old^r and oldest are used of both persons ami thmgs. /.7(?i'r and eldest 
 are us.d of persona only, and chi fly with reference to members of tlio same 
 family or company : as, "his ciiZer son" (Luke xv. 25); "the three eldest sons of 
 Jesse" (1 Sam. xvii. Ki): but also, "an elder soldier" (J. C. iv. 2"), where tho 
 reference is not to members of a family. 
 
 Obs. 3. Concerninp; the etymology of /nW/ter and /ini/icr, see Advf.ubs. Farther 
 is rare as Aiyective. 
 
 Obs. 4. Less and voise have in some writers further comparatives lesser and 
 Korser [not so frequent] :— 
 
 " The lesser light to rule the night." (Oen. i. 16.) 
 
 ** Attend to what a lesser Muse indites." (Addison.) 
 
 •* Chang'd to a wprser Hhape thou canst not be." (Sli., Hen. VI. Pt. J. r. 3.) 
 
 The ll 
 
 iie(ui\ 
 (... 
 
 Ohs. 
 adl 
 
 la.<l 
 
 but ar* 
 
ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 27 
 
 •* A dreadful quit t felt, and vomrr far 
 TUati anus, a sullfti iiittTval of war." (Drydi'ti.) See ^ 65, Obs. 2. 
 
 The form ki^.^cr has istaMishid itsi'lf in H'^noral uso in the piiiase Ijtsser Asia, 
 riearer is also a doui)le Comparative. Original forms : I'ositive, mnh, lOmp. ruarre 
 (i.e. near). Sup. )),»/.>•■<, nihft. 
 
 Obs. 5. WiiiTc two forms of the Comparative or .Superlative e.xi.st, there is uMi.iUy 
 a (litTcrence of meaning b twei n thmi. '1 liis is Me case with UtUr, latter ; lutiil, 
 last ; far cmod,JiiU i untir, utti r (^iittci inofl) : nnjiiist, ntzt. 
 
 AUTICIES. 
 
 § no. The and an or a are usually called ArtiC-GS, 
 but are properly Adjoctivcs: see § a;), 1\^. 
 
 Ohs. Article cohk'S from Latin (r)-</<((/((,«, " a small joint :" a term applied to sub- 
 ordinate words and conmetives g.n'Tally. 
 
 § 70. The is called the Dkfinue Autict.e. Its prin- 
 cii)al use is Vo indicate tJiat some particular individual 
 of a class is reic-rred to: as, ///<' (.^luccn (of ]']n<2;land) ; the 
 United Kin}j,d')iii (of (ireat liritain and Ireland;; ilte ^day- 
 ground (belonging to sonie particular school j. 
 
 Ohs. On tJie same pritieiple must be exidainid the uw of the word the to denote 
 an entire class if ol)jics, as in Natur.il History. Wlien we s^pcalt of thi- lion, the 
 elephant, //k; Vi>Si\ the. daisy, ^j ■ diamond, it is in order to distinguish that par- 
 tieular species from other np c cs. 
 
 § 71. An or a is called the TNiti:ii\riE Auticie. It is 
 a weakened form of tlie numeral adjective one, but it 
 is used when we do nt.t wish t') lay the same stress on 
 the idea of number. A or an shows that it is one thing 
 of the kind, leavina" it uncertain icJiich : while the deter- 
 
 mines u 
 
 h'u'h 
 
 one it is, or, in the case of more than one 
 
 whiclt fJicj/ are, ^J'hus a inrDt means S'liie one of mankind 
 indetinitely, the man meai.s dellnitely that imnicular man 
 who is spoken of. 
 Exam})le : — 
 
 ^^ Man was made for society, and oii;;lit to extc^id his goodwill to 
 all men ; but a man will naturally euteitain a more ) artieulur kiiidne.sH 
 lor ilte man with whom lie liiis the iiif>.st i'reiiueiit intereoursf ; and 
 cuter into a still olnsi'v nninii with the niru who.se trm|)er and di.spo&i- 
 tion suit best with his own," (l.owtli.) 
 
 § 72. An becomes a before consonants in(duding ii\ //, 
 also before h as]n" rated, and ( usually ) befoi'e n ('i'Jfj wlien 
 Bounded yu. Otherwise an is used. 'I'hus we ^ay, an 
 eagle, rt?i hour, an umpire; but n man, a woman, a yew- 
 tree, a history, a unicorn, a European, 
 
28 
 
 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 Oht. 1. Whrn a word b^KinniiiK with h nspinitfd h.is the accent mi the second 
 Hyllahli', an is usually prtlVrnd to a. Uwt Uith ubagts aru touiid in good 
 uutliui's : as - 
 
 " An historical fact." (Grote, Greece, i. 270.) 
 
 •♦ -In hyiMith .sis." (7/>. 477 ; Sir W. Ham. /•.sn. 66.) 
 
 "'I'lic inipartiality of«n historian." (Am. //. I{. imf.) 
 
 "An historical narrative." (Ilallani, Mid. Ages, pri'l.) 
 
 "^n historic character." (Hawl. //trwi. i. 382.) 
 
 •• vln historic fact." (P. Smitli, Ho)7./, i. 318.) 
 
 ••.l?i historical paralkl." (Mac. [IJain].) 
 
 " .171 iRTttical prince." (D'lsr. Curios. Chas. 1.) 
 
 And on tho other hand — 
 
 " A hist(jrian." (Mac. H. E.i. 283.) 
 
 "A hisi .ical chain." (Lewis, Cred. i. 7.) 
 
 " .1 historian." (V6. 15.) 
 
 " A historiciil account." (P). 270.) 
 
 •' .(1 hi.storical picture." (^Har.', (i'«<ssej, i. 388.) 
 
 Obs. 2. In older English an is used before h aspirated, as an liost (I's. .\xvii 3), and 
 before II = ]iu : as, " an unicorn " (I's. xcii. 10). In the latter case it is not unfrc- 
 quently used by niotlern writers and speakers. Macaulay writes, " an European 
 adventurer" (tiit'e); "an European warrior" (^Haslinys), &c. 
 
 
 • § 73. A or an can be joined only to Nonns in the 
 Singular number : the may be joined also to Tlurals. 
 
 obs. There is an apparent exception to this rule in the use of the Indefinite Article 
 with the Adjectives few and man;/ (the latter chiefly with the word i/reat 
 before it), even though joined with plural nouns: as, a few men, a great many 
 men. But this is to be explained by the fact that the number is taken colli ctively, 
 and therefore the idea of a whole, that is, of unity, is conveyed. Few and lut, 7iy 
 are in fact used as Nouns, like hundred, thousand, kc. : $ 55, obs. 
 
 The Pronoun. 
 
 § 74. The word Pronoun means for-a-nottn. A Pronoun 
 is a word which stands for a Koun, and does tlie work of 
 a Noun. 
 
 Obs. The Pronouns are short handy words, and their use prevents the necessity for 
 
 continually rei>eating the i,..uu's of persons or things. 
 Besides this, the two principal Pronouns / and thou express in a peculiar manner 
 
 the idea of personality, since they imply that the one person is speaking lo the 
 
 other. Thua the u»e of tliem gives to language a kind of dramatic lorce. This 
 
 is seen in the following examples : — 
 
 •• / will arise and go to niy father." (Luke xv. 18.) 
 
 "Jam a man more sinned against than sinning." (Shaks. Khg Lear, iil. 2.) 
 
 •And Nftthan said to David, ' Thou aut the man.' " (2 Sum. .\ii. 7.) 
 
feT\MOLOGY. 
 
 2\i 
 
 § 75. Kinks of PitONOUNS. — rronouiis arc divided into 
 the following claSiScs : — 
 
 1. I'orsonal Pronouns, 
 
 2. I.clicxivc Pronouns. 
 
 3. Demonstrative Pronouns. 
 
 4. Interroj^ative Pronouns. 
 
 5. Pelative Pronouns. 
 
 6. Indelinite Pronouns. 
 
 1. Personal Pronouns. 
 
 § 76. Tlie Personal Pronouns arc I, thou, he fshe, it). 
 I is called the pronoun of the First Person ; Thou tlie 
 ])ronoun of the Second Person; and He the pronoun of 
 tlie Third Person. The first ( 1) denotes the person speak- 
 ing; the second ftliou) the person sjjoken to; and the 
 third a person spoken of 
 
 66s. / and th<iu, with their pliirMls ve, ye or v"", nro the only criKinal Personnl 
 Pronouns. The I'ronoun /it wa.s originally a Dcnionstrative Adjictivo. 
 
 § 77. TJie Pronouns I and thou arc inflected for number 
 and case only ; tlic Pronoun he for gender also. 
 
 2.) 
 
 
 Singular. 
 
 riural. 
 
 
 Nom. 
 
 I 
 
 we 
 
 ' 
 
 ( >l)i. 
 
 me 
 
 ns 
 
 First 
 
 Dut. 
 
 me 
 
 us 
 
 1 Person. 
 
 I'O 8. 
 
 my, mine 
 
 our, ours 
 
 J 
 
 Nom. 
 
 thou 
 
 ye, you 
 
 ) 
 
 Ohj. 
 
 thei 
 
 you, [ye] 
 
 1 Second 
 
 V\\\ 
 
 thee 
 
 you 
 
 Ptrson. 
 
 Poss. 
 
 thj. thi-te 
 
 ycur, yours 
 
 
 \oc. 
 
 thou I 
 
 ye, you ! 
 
 . 
 
 
 Maso. 
 
 F, m. 
 
 Niiit. 
 
 
 
 
 riural: all "iendcrh. 
 
 Nom. 
 
 be 
 
 she 
 
 it 
 
 
 
 
 they 
 
 01.). 
 
 him 
 
 her 
 
 it 
 
 
 
 
 them 
 
 Dat. 
 
 him 
 
 her 
 
 it 
 
 
 
 
 them 
 
 Toss. 
 
 his 
 
 her. hers 
 
 its (o 
 
 1(1 En 
 
 ?1 
 
 ish. 
 
 his) tl.eir, theirs 
 
 Obt. 1. Tho .Serond pciponal pronoun only can have a Vocative cast, since it \t llM 
 ODiy Pronoun that can be usid in speaking to a prrsou. 
 
30 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 Obf. 2. The Pronoun ' has no plural in the strict srnso oftlio word. Tbero can bA 
 but one f. Tl)p nlural I'c (lonot< s not several /'h, but / and some one else : iUJ, 
 You and I ; my broMier and 1 ; my fellow-townsmen and I {i\\\ = nr). 
 
 Ohs. 3. In the oldt .t torm of Knglish ye is used only in the Nominative, never in the 
 Objective case. But in the elevated style, ye is not unliequently used as an 
 Objective: as— 
 
 " Tlie more shame for ye : holy men I thought ye." (Shakspcarc, Ifeny VIII.) 
 
 " Vain pomp and glory -"f this world. I hate ye I" (lb.^ 
 
 " His wratli, which one day will destroy ye both." (Milton, I'ar. Lust, ii. 734.) 
 
 Obt. 4. Its is a modem form ; the oricinal Possessive being hit. His continued to 
 be the r 'ilar form until the seventeenth century : a^ - 
 
 " LeamiuR hath hin infancy, when it is but h< ginning, and almost childish ; then 
 his youth, when it is luxu.iant and juvenih' ; then his strcUKtli of years, when it 
 is solid and reduced; and lastly his old age, when it waxeth dry and exhaust." 
 (Hacon, Kssoy 58.) 
 
 Jlis, the old Possessive of it, is regularly used in the English Bible : — 
 
 " Thou shalt make a Ciindlestiek of pure gold: . , . '()'.<! shaft, and his branch's 
 hit bowls, his knops, and his llowers, shall be of the same." (Exod. xxv. 31.) 
 
 "If the salt have lost his savour ..." (Matt. v. 13.) 
 
 Th' uninflected form it was also s<:-.ietimes used for the Possessive: Abbott, 
 Sh. Gr. § 22H. This usage still prevails as a provincialism. [Lancashire.] 
 
 No'iio. — In O. K. the rrnnouiis 7^ and thnn have also Dual fonns: 
 loit =•- ve two, git — yo t'^so; which arc fully inllcL'tuil tor case. 
 
 § 78. Pronominal Adjtrt ivcs.— Tho I'ossessivo cases are 
 now often used (juitc aa Adjectives, and may be pari^ed aa 
 such. 
 
 my, mine 
 
 thy, thine 
 
 his, her, hers, its 
 
 our, ours 
 your, yours 
 their, theirs 
 
 The forms mim\ ihiiu\ ours, ijours, hira, tJwlys, arc used 
 only in tlio predicate of a sentence : as, *' the fault 
 is mine;" ''thine is the kingdom;" "deathless fame is 
 theirs.'' The forms viy, thi/, her, our, ]/i>rr, their, are used 
 iittrilmtively (§22:'): as, " it is ?«// fault;" " %'kingdom is 
 evet lasting;" "deathlei:s is their ianie." 
 
 Sometimes, especially in the elevated language of poetry 
 and oratory, the forms mine and thine are used attribu- 
 tively, but only before a Noun beginning with a vowel :— 
 
 '* Ilast thou found nu', O mine enemy ?" (1 Kinj,'s xxi. 20.) 
 " Givo every man thine oar, but few thy voioe." {IlamUt, i. .'?.) 
 "Thou ehalt love thy nei-;hl)our and h:ite //u'/jc enemy." (IMuf, v. 13.) 
 Thine anguish will not let thee skep." (T»niiyson, Tuu Voces.) 
 
 it 7'i 
 
 Cbs. 
 w 
 
 fiU 
 0l( 
 
 The 
 Tl 
 
 Bi 
 
 § 70 
 reflect^ 
 \vhich 
 the do 
 used \^ 
 
 Thei 
 
 also or 
 
 •Ikn 
 
 " bovc 
 
 " Boas 
 
 " Vaul 
 
 N.B.- 
 
 < ccur in 
 
 " That 
 perpetual 
 
 On the o 
 onc« now 
 
 The fo 
 
 T] 
 
 fcjo iu the familiar expression, " Mine host." (Scott.j 
 
 le W( 
 
 Obs. 1. 
 noun 
 
 Obf. 2. 
 
 tei/: 
 
 «T 
 "It 
 
feTYMOLOGY. 
 
 SI 
 
 Chs. In all lanRuages of tho Indo-Europpan family, a'ijPCtlvpB donoting possrssion 
 wre early 1'ormt.d from the Personal I'ronouns. (.'oiiipare the Latiu meus, tiiu.s 
 fimiP, noster, vester; the German moin, niiinigo, dein, diinige, kc. So in the 
 oldest form of English, min, mi -. thin, thi. 
 
 The term "Possessive Pronouns" commonly applied to these words is illopical, 
 There exist in most languaRcs aiijective forms derived from nouns, denoting 
 ftossession : e.g. in Latin, Homi'ileus, PriameiuR, belonging to Romulus, to I'riam, 
 But no one has ever proposed calling th se Possessive Nouns, 
 
 (I 
 
 It 
 is 
 ■.I 
 is 
 
 3.) 
 
 2. Reflexive Pronouns. 
 
 § 70. TKc word lieflexive comes from the Latin Verl\ 
 reflecto, Ihendhnch. There arc certain pronominal forms 
 M'hicli are used to denote the comintjhaclc of an action ujxm 
 the doer. I'lie.sc are called Keflexive IVonouns, and are 
 used when we speak of doing something to or for oneself. 
 
 These are — 
 
 Singular. 
 myself (ourself ) 
 thyself (yourse.f) 
 himself, herself, itself 
 
 Plural. 
 
 ourselves 
 
 yourselves 
 
 themselves 
 
 also oneself, which has no phiral. Examples :— 
 
 *I know niyarl/now . . ." (81iaks. Ilrnry VllL iii. 2.) 
 
 " T/>ve thysiU last . . ." (//>.) 
 
 "lioast not Ihyfelf of tomorrow." (Prov. xxvii. 1.) 
 
 " he that wroiii^s his friend 
 Wrongs himself move. . . " {Ttiuiyaon, Sea-ilrean)i^.) 
 
 " Vaultinj? ambition which o'-'ileaps ilfilf . . ." (Sliak.-s. Much. i. 7.) 
 
 y.B.—Thr. forms ///s-.S(//, their-selceti, r:"e not now UHcd ; but Ihcy 
 ( ccnr in older writ' r.s : — 
 
 ''That tli<y would willimj;ly and of lln hyilnn ondonvour to ku p a 
 p('r[t(tiial cha.stity." (*S/(j/. li (ind ',> luJiranl 17. eh. xxi.) 
 
 On tlie othor liand the jdural forms oiinth'fSy yoursdvcs, are the only 
 ones now in U8(^ This is an anomaly. 
 
 The form ourself hclon^a to the Koyal style :— 
 
 " We . . . did give (mrfelf 
 To barbarous licence." (Sinks. /,'«». V. 1. 2.) 
 
 The word scU, wlicn standins? alone, is a Xoun : — 
 
 "To thine own S(7/'1h' true , . ." (Slinks, llaniht, 1. ^.') 
 
 Ohs. 1. In the earliest form of Kll^'lish, ,"f(7/" is an Adjective, agreeing with the Pro- 
 noun to whieh it is iittaehed, as in Modern (ierniati. 
 
 Obf. 2. (hxeseJf is a comparatively motlern form. Ilacon writes inst ad a m<\n't 
 till : ftS — 
 
 " To praise a vmn'a s. J/ rse ipsuni laudare] cannot b" decent." ( h^mviii. Pmifr.) 
 **lt is a str.ing(.' desire to seek power o*'cr others, and to lose power ovlt A 
 iw«'* jt//." 0.\>. of (utat rouxr.) 
 
^2 
 
 ENGLISH GKAMMAit. 
 
 It is not includnl by Johnson among the conipounds of sc//, but occurs in writ- rt 
 cont inporary with him written i\s two separate words : as— 
 
 " To mind the inside of a Ijook is to entertain one'i self with thi forced product 
 of another man's brain." (Cibber, Jielapse.) 
 
 " Ruining ont's S'lf with one's eyes open." (f!pect. No. 398.) 
 The analogy of himself , themselves, is in favour of the orthography mic."!*// (rather 
 than one's self), [T. K. Arnold, RushtonJ and this form is perhaps the more 
 common in the present day. 
 
 § RO. Sometimes these forms arc not reflexive, but are 
 used for the sake of emphasis. Examples: — ■ 
 
 " Tie that hides a dirk soul find foul thoucrlits 
 Bf*nic!;htcd walkd lifiicath tlie mid-day sun; 
 Him elf is his own dungeon." (Milton, Comus.') 
 
 *' Myself will to St. James's go." (Scott, Ltuhj of the Lake!) 
 
 §82. 
 TTsed in 
 whethe 
 
 obs. ir 
 
 oldest 
 Kelat 
 
 §83. 
 declined 
 
 3. Demonstrative Pronouns. 
 
 § 81. The Demonstrative Pronouns this and th^t, witli 
 their Plurals these and those, are pro])orly Adj(;ctives. 
 See § oli, IV., § 57. 'ihcy are used as Pronouns in the 
 following cases : — ■ 
 
 (1.) When that, with its plural those, is used to pre- 
 vent the repetition of a preceding Noun ; as — 
 
 " The castle of Stirling is such another as that of Ed'nburgh " 
 
 (Smollett, H. C.) 
 
 *' The public inns of Edinburgh are still worse than those of 
 London." ilb.) 
 
 (2.) When this and that are equivalent to the 
 one .... the other ; this referring to the latter of 
 two things mentioned, and that to the former : as — 
 
 **.... reason raise o'er iiustinct as you can, 
 lu this 'tis God directs, in thdt 'tis inan." (Pope, Esmy.) 
 Ohs. Oecimion.iily tkis is made to refer to the former, and that to the latt(>r, bnt 
 only when the sens.- is unmistakeable. Koeli quotes th.i following example from 
 Sir Walter Scott: — 
 
 " Your eyes contradict your tongue. That speaks of a protector, willing and 
 able to watch over you ; but these tell me you are ruined." (h-enilwovth.) 
 
 (3.) This and that often refer to the whole of q 
 preceding sentence : as — 
 
 **See Falkland dies, the virtuous and the ju.st 1 
 See gn<llike Turenne prostrate iu the dust ! 
 See Sidney bleeds amid tlu^ martial strife! 
 Was. 'Ills their virtue, or contempt of life ? " (f*"?*"- ?^w(//, iv. ) 
 
 ** To bo or uot to he— that in the (iuebtion." (Sliaks. I laud. iii. 1. j 
 
 Cb$. WJt 
 if evei 
 vhoiii: 
 John, i 
 
 § 84. \ 
 per.^ons ( 
 tive whj 
 and both 
 the widci 
 class or ^ 
 (Bain). 
 
 « Who 
 
 M 
 
 *And 
 
 "Stay, 
 
 " Which < 
 to his statu 
 
 " Which ^ 
 
 ^ § 85. T 
 tively an 
 always Ti' 
 to Loth p( 
 
 " WJiat is 
 
ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 33 
 
 of 
 
 r, but 
 from 
 
 IV. ) 
 
 u.l.i 
 
 4. Interrogative Pronouns. 
 
 5 82. Tho Tiiterrooativo ]V)noTiiKS tiro tliose wliicli are 
 Ttscd ill askiii<5 (juustioiis. 'i liey are who, which, what, 
 whether. 
 
 Obs. \no, which, what, were Tntprvogatives before they became Relatives. In tlio 
 oldest form of Ki)),'lisli tlie I!' lativo Pronoun is thnt, thf. Wlm fust oicurs as ,i 
 Kelutive in Oini, a wiiter ot tin' tliiiteeiitli o iitury. (.Kocli, ii. ^ 35G.) 
 
 § 83. Who is the only one of tlu'se proiioiins wliich is 
 declined. It is the tsaiuc in the singular and the plural: — 
 
 Singular and I'lural. 
 Noni. who 
 
 Ohj. whom 
 
 Poss. whose 
 
 Cbt. VHtom was originally a Pativo [liwani, Masc. and Xorit.] ; but it is now rarely 
 if ever used excejit as an Objcitive. Instead of the 8imj)le Dative we use to 
 vhoin: as, " To whom did you give it?" not " Whom did you give it?" (Rleikle- 
 jobn, i. p. 26.) 
 
 § 84. The TntciTogative who is used with refcronoe to 
 persons only, and always sulistantively. 'J he Interroga- 
 tive which is used both substantively and adjectively, 
 and both of persons and things. Who asks a question in 
 the widest and most general manner ; which supposes a 
 class or gronp out of which one or more are to bo selected 
 (Bain). Examples ; — 
 
 " Who \ln the world] rails so load?" (Rmueo and Juliet, v. 1.) 
 
 **.... n-hirli lof the pair'] is tht; Tinttiml man, 
 Aiul tell ((■]'. the spirit? U7(o dec ijihcrs them?" 
 
 {Coniedi/ of Frron, v. 1.) 
 
 "Stay, btand apart; I know not which is which," (Ih.) 
 
 " T17t/(7( of you (ihc. difripJes) by taking thought can add one cubit 
 to his stature?' (IMatt. vi. 21.) 
 
 " Which way went (ho) from me to speak to thee?" 
 
 (1 Kinofs xxii. 21.) 
 
 § 85. The Interrogative what is used lolh substan- 
 tively and adjectively. AVhcn used sul stantively, it ih 
 always 
 to both 
 
 neuter ; when nsed adjectively, it may bo applied 
 persona and things. Examples: — 
 
 « 
 
 What is sweeter than honey ? What U stronger thnn a linn .■'* 
 
 (Judges xiv. 18.) 
 
 1) 
 
 ;i 
 
 J] 
 
34 
 
 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 " Wherefore rejoice ? What conquest brings he home ? 
 
 What tributaries follow him to Koine ?" (Julius Cxsar^ i. 1.) 
 
 " What kirifj, going to war airain.st another king, sitteth not down 
 Gr..t uud conaulteth ? ..." (Luke xiv. lil.) 
 
 The Interrogative what is often used by v/ay of eX' 
 clamation : as — 
 
 " What infhiite lioart's ease must kings neglect 
 That pri\ati.' men enjoy 1" {Henry V. iv. 1,) 
 
 " What dignity, lohat beauty, in this fliange 
 From mild to angry, and from sad to gay ! " (Words. Excurs. iii.) 
 
 § 86. Whether = iciiich of two? — It is used in the Nomi- 
 native and Objective, without it. 'exion. Whether is 
 rare as a Pronoun in modern English, but occurs fre- 
 quently in earlier English : as — 
 
 " Whether of them twain did the will of his father?" (Matt. xxi. 31.) 
 " Show whether of these two tliou ha^t chosen." (Acts i. 24.) 
 
 In modern English whether is chiefly used as a Con- 
 junction. 
 
 § 87. Whereof, whereat, wherefrom, &c.— These com- 
 pounds are precisely equivalent to of wliati at w/iatf from 
 whd ? They are nearly olisolete. [Compare section ou. 
 their use as Relative Adverbs: § 102 J 
 
 "Thi 
 deliven 
 
 "Ble 
 godly . 
 
 But 
 
 must 1 
 
 They 
 he— thi; 
 
 Tlie ] 
 he — the 
 
 She t] 
 
 Blesst 
 
 Ko ( 
 
 may b 
 ] 'once 
 lvMati\ 
 nouns. 
 
 Note.- 
 Autecede 
 
 § i'O. 
 and is ( 
 
 5. Relative Pronouns. 
 
 § 88. A Relative Pronoun is one that relntos to a Noun 
 going before. But oilier Pi'onouns Ixvsido the Relatives 
 do this; and the name is confined to such as, in addition, 
 serve to connect tlu; clause Avhicli they introduce to the 
 former ])art of the sentence. 
 
 Tlie Relative iVonouns are who, which, that, what, 
 with their compounds whoso, whosoever, whichsoever, 
 whatsoever, cV-c. 
 
 § 89. 'Vha connecting power of the Relative is seen in 
 the following examples : — 
 
 "They were soim joined by Fiont de lUeuf, who had been disturbed 
 in his tyrannical cruelty." \lniti, c. xxv.) 
 
 " She threw open the latticed window ichich led to the bartizan . . ." 
 (16. XX iv.) 
 
 The 
 used on 
 applical 
 general] 
 
 Exam 
 
 "Go tc 
 unto heav 
 
 " TIk 
 "On 
 
 a 
 
 • • • I 
 
 and namej 
 
 "I canii 
 nuiiice u'hi 
 
ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 85 
 
 1 in 
 
 irbed 
 
 "Tlie lottcr being folded was dcliverrd to the squire, ami by liim 
 delivered to the mesaengt r, whu waited without . . .' {lb. xxv.) 
 
 •' Blessed is the man that walketh not in the counsel of the un 
 godly . . ." (I's. i.) 
 
 P>ut for the use of a Relative all the above son ten cos 
 must have been broken up into two separate parts : thus — 
 
 They were soon joined by Front de lioiuf. Front do Bauf [or, 
 he— this man] had been disturbed, to?. 
 
 The letter was delivered to the messenger. The messenger [ur, 
 he — the latter] waited without, A;e. 
 
 She threw open tlie window. 'J'his led, &c. 
 
 Blessed is that man. That man walketh, ic. [But see § 233.] 
 
 No other rronciun has tliis power : so that a L*elativo 
 may be descrilied as I'ronoun and Conjunctidn in one. 
 Tence it has lieen ])rop()S('d to do away ^vit]l the name 
 K«.;ative, and call these words instead Conjiii-ictivc Pro- 
 nouns. 
 
 Note. — The Xoun to whieh a Relative Prctnoun relates is called tin 
 Antecedent (Latin antece'dtre, "to go before"). 
 
 § VO. Who is tlie same in the .-^inoular and the Plural, 
 and is declined like the interrogative ; — ■ 
 
 
 Singular ami I'lunU. 
 
 Nora. 
 
 Obj. 
 
 Uat. 
 
 Poss. 
 
 who 
 
 whom 
 
 [whom^ 
 
 whose. 
 
 The Nominative who and Objective whom are now 
 used only of persons. The Possessive whose has a wider 
 application. It is used in speakino- of living creatures 
 generally, and even of things without life. 
 
 Examples : — 
 
 "Go to, let us build us a city and a ioiccr whose top may reach 
 unto heaven." ((ien. xi. 4.) 
 
 " There stood a hill not far whour gri(>sly top 
 Belched lire and rolling smoke." (Milton, rdrndiso, Lost^ I.) 
 
 "On a rock ichose haughty brow . . ." ((iray, Hard.) 
 
 ** ruined hHlldiini^ irliouc walls jireserve divers inscriptions 
 
 and names." (Pope, (ruanliau, iv.) 
 
 " I cannot coneludr without tiiking have of the luauty of the Greek 
 nuinCB whuse etymologies ucnuaint us with the nature of the .sjiorts." 
 
 (id. Mart. i>crih. ch. iv ) 
 D 2 
 
86 
 
 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 glitters 
 
 '* This morning I saw fhr. rfuhJencriAul vren, icliose crown 
 like biirnlsluHl gold." (Wliite, iStlborne, Letter xvi.) 
 
 " Tlie reasoning /ucw///,) is that vjhose cultivatinn is cliiclly to ba 
 encouraged in an univeraity education." (hsir VV. ilauiilt(jn, Eslsay8^ 
 p. 260.) 
 
 "... a period vhoftp. history is clearly founded upon contemporary 
 evidence." (Lewis, It. JI. i. 11'.) 
 
 " The adjectives whose eompaiatives and .superlatives are irregularly 
 fornaed are in every language the most ancient." (U. liogers, Easays, h.) 
 
 On the other hand, Macaulay writes : — 
 
 •' Society . . . has great reason to rejoice when a cl/iss, of ichirh the 
 Influence is moral and intellectual, rises to ascendency," 01. E. i. 7.) 
 
 Obs. There is no etymological reason I'or objecting to the use of whose with reference 
 to other nouns besides those denoting persons. lu the oldest form of KiiKlish 
 this word [/ic f(rs = whose] was of all genders, and as such it has been used by 
 standard Enulisii authors in all periods. This application of it, however, savours 
 of a somewhat more elevated siylo than that proper to LOnversation. 
 
 § 01. Which was formerly used of persons as well as of 
 things. Hence in the Jjord's Prayer, "Our Father ivhicn 
 art in Heaven." As a Eehitive Pronoun, it is now used 
 only of animals and things witliout life. 
 
 Which also differs from who in being frequently used 
 as an Adjective. 
 
 Examples : — 
 
 " Which things are an allegory.** (Gal. ill. 2L) 
 
 ** Wliicli pilhtge they [the bees] with merry march bring homo 
 To the tent royal of their emperor." (Henry V. i. 2.) 
 
 § 92. Sometimes theantecedert isre^ieated with which, 
 to avoid ambiguity : as — 
 
 " Ho replied by pointing to the idle legend of INIahomet's pigeon . . . 
 which legend [not v^Jtirh pigeoii] hiid been accredited and ado])ted by 
 Grotius." (Do Quincey, Gonf. p. 47.) 
 
 " He offered no defence for the ridiculous fable of tlie pigeon ; ichich 
 pitieon [nut ivhich fable'] on the contrary he represented," &c. (lb. 
 p."48.) 
 
 § 93. That, strictly a Demon strati vp Adjective, is of 
 more ancient use as a Relative than oither who oi ichich. 
 It is tlie same for Singular and Thiral. and may refer to 
 either persons or things. See Sj'ntax, § 237. 
 
 5; 94. What is etymologically the neuter of who. 
 
 As a Relative, it is used only of things, and always 
 without an anteced(>nt expressed. Tliu.s it is practically 
 equivalent to that n-hi.ch, the thing which. 
 
 §05 
 Singul 
 
 (Xom 
 
 (Obj.) 
 
 Obs. 
 
 witl 
 rul( 
 
 § 00. 
 Adiecti 
 
 " What 
 Lay b( 
 
 ou. c 
 
 niiig 
 corri 
 and 
 ordii 
 « km 
 
 § 97. 
 also use 
 
 "IX)1 
 
 **nat 
 
 §98. 
 soever, 
 resembl 
 anteced( 
 ralising 
 
 Whoi 
 the Sin| 
 
 8 99. 
 
 mon us< 
 &c., are 
 
ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 n? 
 
 )h, 
 
 by 
 
 of 
 to 
 
 § 05. What is u.sed in the Nominative and Objective 
 Singular only : as — 
 
 (Norn.) '■ What is one man's moat is another man's jioison." (Piov.) 
 
 (Obj.) " What I have written I have written." (John xix. 22.) 
 
 Obs. It will be seen (^ 23G) that the Relative who is soiuetinrs used in like manner 
 without an antecedent expresseil. But that which is exceiitional with uho is the 
 rule with ^vllut a-^d its compounds. 
 
 § 06. The Relative what is occasionally found as an 
 Adjective, but in poetry alone : — 
 
 " What time tlio splendour of the setting? sun 
 Lay beautiful on Snowdons sovereign brow." (Words. E.rcnrs. vii.) 
 
 ( What time = at the time at ichich : Lat. quo tem[)ore.) 
 
 Ohs. Care must be taken not to confound subordinate interrogative clauses begin- 
 ning with 1(7(0 or uhat with relative clauses. In tiie sent "nee, "I know what is 
 correct" (Rushton, ^ 242), vhat is not used as a relative, but as an interrogative; 
 and is not th(?re to be explained by that which. " What is correct" is u sub- 
 ordinate interrogative sentence, and forms aa a whole the object of the verb 
 •* know." [Noun sentence.] 
 
 § 97. In older English, the Relative Pronoun that is 
 also used as implying its own antecedent : as — 
 
 •• liO I there thou hast that ( = that which) is thine." 
 
 (Matt. XXV. 25k) 
 
 ** I^iat [that which] thee is sent receive in bnxomuess " * 
 
 (^Good Counsel of Chaucer.') 
 
 § 98. Whoever, whichever, whatever; whoso, who- 
 soever, whichsoever, whatsoever. — These compounds 
 resemble the Relative what in being used without an 
 antecedent. The suffixes -ever, -so, -soever, have a gene- 
 ralising cflbct. 
 
 Whosoever is the only one declined : it is the same in 
 the Singular and the Plural. 
 
 Nom. whosoever 
 Obj. whomsoever 
 Poss. whosesoever. 
 
 ? 99. Whoever, whichever, whatever, are of com- 
 mon use. The forms with -so, as whoso, whosoever, 
 &o., are nearly obsolete. They occur frequently in older 
 
 ♦ Submissivencss. 
 
S8 
 
 ENGLISH GRAMMAn. 
 
 Enolisli, and aboimd in tlio Aiitlioriscd Version of tlie 
 Scri})tures : — 
 
 " Whoso tlig.!:?oth a i)it shnll fall therein." (Prov. xxvi. 27.) 
 
 " Whosesoever bins ye remit, they arc remitted. (John xx. 2?>.) 
 
 " All thinv^a ichatsoever ye wnnkl that men should do to you, do ye 
 even so to them." (Matt. vii. 12.) 
 
 " Whosoever will be saved . . . . " (Church Service.) 
 
 § 100. As. — The Advorl) as lias Roinctimos the force of a 
 Helative, csi)ecially after the word such : as — 
 
 " Tears such a.s angclrf weep . . . . " (!\Iilt. P. L. I.) 
 
 "He scarce had finished when such murmur filled 
 Tlie assembly, (is wh< n hollow rocks retain 
 The sound of blustering winds ..." (7/* ii.) 
 
 06*. In ol(kr English, a true Ueliitive Pronoun is ofttn used after stdh .- as— 
 
 " A Rdodly (1;iy not to koop house with yiich 
 Whose roof '8 as low as ours," {C'yinh. iii. 3.) 
 
 •• Such I will have ivhom I am sure he knows not from the enemy." (.iZi'i 
 Well, &c., iii. 6.) 
 
 " . . . . with looks 
 Downciist and sad yet such wherein [see ^ 1 02] appoared 
 Obscure some glimpse of joy." (^raradisi' LoU, i. U'12.) 
 
 § 101. Tlie word as is also used with a l?elative force after 
 same, especially when no Verb is ex})ressed after it : as — 
 
 " Jeshuah .... the same as Jeshua." {Did. Bible.) 
 
 " Jcsiiih is the S(xme as Jcshiah." (/6.) 
 
 " It chirrups much in the name btruin as the other " 
 
 (White, Selh. Xolcf, p. 77.) 
 
 But not often so when a Verb follows : — 
 
 " Art thou then afcard 
 To be the same in thine own act and valour 
 As thon art in desire?" (Macb. i. 7.) Lltushton.] 
 
 Obs, 1. In this laat example, modem idiom would prefer, "the same that thou art 
 in desire." 
 
 Ohs. 2. Tlie use of as for nho or that after Nouns and Pronouns [" the man as told 
 me the story"] is a simple vulgarism. 
 
 § 102. Whereof, whereto, whereby, &c. — These com- 
 pounds of where are virtual Relatives : — 
 
 whereof 
 whereby 
 whereto 
 
 of which 
 by wliich 
 to wliich 
 &0. 
 
ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 Sd 
 
 Examples : — 
 
 " Alas ! how can wo for our ooiintry pray, 
 Wkert'to we lire liouiul. t<iiri tlur with thy victory, 
 Wh'v to we are Ijouml ':" (^Cor. v. 3.) 
 *' Lethe, the river of oblivion, rolls 
 Her watery labyrinth, tchcreo/ who drinks 
 Forgetd both joy and grief, pleasun^ iuid pain." (P. L. ii.) 
 
 They are nearly obsolete except in legal phraseology. 
 
 Obs. In tho same miuiner thereof, thereby, thcrtto, &c., are equivalent to of it, by 
 it, to it, &c. 
 
 6. Indefinite Pronouns. 
 
 § 103. These are one, none, somebody, nobody, aught, 
 naught, each, either, neither, other, another, same, 
 'such. 
 
 (jbs. Tho wonls aU, an>i, every, fome, aro oft"n classi'd as Inilrfmit-' Pninouns. 
 liut it is more logiail to treat tlicm as Acljictivc?, since tlity are always used 
 will) a Noun eitlier expnsseil or capable of b ing supiiiied. 
 
 § 104. One. — The indeiujite Pronoun one has the fol- 
 lowing uses : — 
 
 (1.) It is used like the French on. and the German 
 
 man (man), to denote an individual as reprewent- 
 
 ing people in genei'al : as — 
 
 '• One can say to oh'j'.s i'riond the thi)i.:s that stand in need of pardon, 
 and at the same time be sure of it." (l'«ipf, Lrtl, rs.) 
 
 "To see the way in which he tip]ii d ehildrun made one almost long 
 to be a boy ag.iiu." (Thack. Newc. vi.) 
 
 " A (piiet conscience makes one so serene." (liyron.) 
 
 l\eflexive form : oneself, ones self: § 79, Ohs. 2. 
 
 Ohs. 1. In this sense oue is sometimes derived [Masim, Morcllj from the Fr. on 
 (i.f. honime), but it is undoubtedly the eauie word as the Numeral. (Koch, 
 ii. 284; Mtitzner, iii. 246.) 
 
 (2.) It serves to prevent the repetition of a Noui< 
 already used. In this sense it has a plural : — 
 *' Yon srcm to be a close ohserver^ Sir."—" Necessity has made me 
 one." (Cooper, Spy, iv.) 
 
 "The longest life, if a good one, is the best." (rope, Ltllers.) 
 " Thou must take measures— i^pevdy ones." (Coleridge, Fic.rol.) 
 
 (3.) TJie one . . . the other, used by way of distinction 
 as — 
 "Two men went up into the Tetnjde to pray ; the one a Pharisee, 
 and the other a publican." (Luke xviii. 10.) 
 
 (4.) = a person, crmture, he ing : as — 
 " Thine Holy (Me." (Ps. xvi. 10.) 
 " Take heed that yo despise not one of these little ojjc/s." 
 
 (Matt, xviii. 10.) 
 
40 
 
 ENOl.lSll GUAM MAR. 
 
 'ft 
 
 
 (i),) = a certain person 'T.at. quidam] : as — 
 " Oiii'. ill a ccrtarin place testiticth . . . . " (llebr. ii, 6.) 
 
 (0.) Any one. some one. no one, ench one, every 
 one. — 'J licsumay ljor',i'fir(k(l as coiiijiniuuls of one, 
 and iu parsing treatetl as single woixls. 
 
 § 10."). None. — None is tlio stronger form of no, anil is 
 
 used when the noun to 'vvliieli it refers is omitted : as — 
 
 " Can iiiuiL^ht ))nt 1»lo nl our i\\u\ atono ? 
 Are tiic'ie no iik iuis? "— "No, stranger, rjo?i(!." (Srott, L. L. v.) 
 
 "Then none liave I oiTondeil" (Julius C-esar, iii. 2.) 
 
 " Hoed not though none sliould call thou fair." (Wonhsworth.) 
 
 Chi>. In oilier Englisli none is used aiijectively before a word bri^'itiiiiiig with a 
 vowi'l : as — 
 " yiiiic other name under heaven." (Acts iv. 12.) 
 
 § ion. Everybody, somebody, nobody. — Tlieso words 
 are synonymons with rrcrif one, some one, no one (no huvt)^ 
 but are more collocjuial and familiar: as — 
 
 "What is ere.rijhoihfs bu.siness is nohodi/s biLsiness." (Trov.) 
 
 ^^ Somehoihj has been sitting in my chair." (Fairy TaJf.) 
 
 Obs. 1. In a secondary sense, Kninehmli/ — a pnsnn of importance, and nohody,a 
 j/erson of no importance. In this sense they may take a plural : — 
 
 " Before those days rose up Theudas, bo;isting himself to be somchodi/." 
 
 (Acts V. 36, 
 « Titled nobodies::' (Thack. Xc%vc. xvl.) 
 
 Ohs. 2. Every was formerly much used as a I'ronominal form standing by itself: as— 
 
 " Uq prnposeth unto G(«i their neci'ssities, and they their own requests, for 
 relief in every of them. (Hooker, v. 39.) 
 
 We now should say, every one. (Lowth.) 
 
 Obs. 3. The phrases some one else, some body rise, etc., may be treated as com- 
 pounds, with Possessive, some one's else or some one else's. The latter seems 
 preferable. 
 
 § 107. Aught, naught. — These nearly oh.soleto forma 
 ai-e equivalent to (nn/thlng, notliinfj. In modern English 
 they are chiefly confined to ^^oetry. 
 
 Examples : — 
 
 " Nothing extcnnate 
 Nor set down avrjlii in malice." ^ ((/thello, end.) 
 
 ^^1? nnught in lovolintss comjiare 
 
 With what thou art to me." (Wordsworth.) 
 
 Chs. The true spelling Is aiipht, naught [0. E. 6wht, ilht; mtwht, naht]. Bu< 
 nuiylit, especially, is often spelt with o, as in the latter of the above examples. 
 
 § 108. Each signifies all taken separately. It is strictly 
 an adjc^ctive, but is very fretpiontly used without a noun, 
 when it may he regarded as a rionoiin : as — 
 
 E: 
 
ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 41 
 
 **L('t each his adamantine coat gird well." (T. L. vi.) 
 
 ** Tljut p<u:h wlio seems a separate wliole 
 
 ISliould move his rounds . . . . " {In Mem. vi.) 
 
 Each one may Le rc^'arded as a compound form. 
 
 Each other i.s Ktiictly an elliptical oxjni'ssion. They 
 l(A'e each oihn- = tlicy lovu, carh { loves ) i}ir otln r ; enrh lu^ini; 
 Kom. and oihtr Obj. But the two woids are now usually 
 treated as a compound, and as such tliey may be most 
 conveniently parsed. (Compare Gr. dAAr;/Wi'= uAAot uAAwr.J 
 
 Exam})les : — 
 
 "In charaeter they resembled rwh other very little." (^lac. //. F.) 
 
 " They plai-e the feathers in such a manner as to rellect a lustre on 
 each other." (I'ope, Letters.) 
 
 So with one another : — 
 
 "Wt" saunter to one anolher^s {aWrjXwv'] hahitations and daily assist 
 each other in doing nothing at all." {lb.) 
 
 N.B. — The forms each other, one. another, denoting mutual action, 
 are commonly culli.'d liecipioeal Pronouns. Tiie expression one aiiothrr 
 is incorrectly used where only two iH.rsons are spoken of. bee §111. 
 
 § 109. Either, neither.— These may he called duai 
 words, and signify respectively one of the two, not one oj 
 the two : as — 
 
 " Spirits when they please can cither sex assume." (P. L. i.) 
 
 " Truth may lie on both sides, on either side or on neither." 
 
 (Carlyle, Fred.) 
 
 Ob.«. It is incorrect to uso cithev and veither where there are several alternativi b. 
 Kither of the ten [Webster] is bad English. This error is more ctnnnion in 
 South Britain thaa iu Morth. The follrwing quotation exemplifies tlie correct 
 usage :— 
 
 " If either of the parties to be tried [plaintiff or deft ndant] can pain over one 
 of the twelve jurors, he has secured the verdict in his favour." (Smollett, //. C. 223.) 
 
 « 
 
 Either and neither occasionally take a Possessive form : 
 as — 
 
 " So parted they ns elther's way them led.** (Shaks. in F. and S.) 
 
 "Where cithers fall determines both their fates." 
 
 (Kowe, Lucan.) [lb.'] 
 
 § 110. Other is used hoth adjectively and as a Pronoum. 
 As a Pronoun, it is declined thus : — 
 
 II 
 
 
 Sinpular. 
 
 Pbiral. 
 
 Nom. and Obi 
 Puss. 
 
 other [another] 
 other' »■ [another's] 
 
 otliers 
 others'. 
 
42 
 
 ENGLISH Gn.VMMAO. 
 
 Examples : — 
 
 " Xo in, in cm sorro two mastors: for oitlicr he will linfo tJiP nnp, and 
 lOve the other ; or tlse lie will hold to the one, and ilcspiM' tin' oth>)" 
 
 (Luke xvi. 13.) 
 
 " liCt no man seek his own, but every man niKdher's wealth." 
 
 (1 Cor. X. 24.) 
 
 "A man tlmt hath no virtue in himself ever envieth virtue in otfipri^; 
 tor meu's minds will e'tlicr Iced up.ju their own gfx)d or ujKjn olhers' 
 evil." (Bacon, Ksmya.) 
 
 § 111. The one . . . the other servo to distinpiish two 
 persons or things ; one . . . another are nscd when a 
 greater nuniLcr are spoken of. Compare § K>H, end. 
 
 § 112. Same, self-same. — Same is often nsed with the 
 Definite Artiele, to prevent the. repetition of the Noun to 
 wliich it refers. It in then a true I'ronoun. 
 
 This way of speaking is very comnion iu legal phrase- 
 ology : as — 
 
 " . . . . that no man liereaftcr be compelled to make or yield any 
 gift, loan, benevolence .... or bo confine i or otherwise molested or 
 disi^uieted couccruing the xame or for refusal thereof." 
 
 (^I'etitiun of Rijht.) 
 
 § 113. Such. — Such is also used to represent a pre- 
 ceding Noun, when it has a pronominal foreu : as — 
 
 " This, I conceive, their productions show to be the opinion of the 
 authors themselves ; and this must l)e the opinion of their nadirs, if 
 indeed there be any such" [i.e. any readers]. (Fielding, T. J. ix. 1.) 
 
 *' Friends he has few .... 
 
 Who dure be suchy (Drydcn, Ahs, and Ach.") 
 
 The Verb. 
 
 § 114. A VerL is a word by means of wliicli wc state 
 nothing : as — 
 
 " The sun is bright.** 
 
 ** Birds singy 
 
 " Charles I. icas leheaded.** 
 
 Note. — Verb comes from the Latin verhnm 'word,' the Verb being 
 the chief word of the sentence. 
 
 Obs. 1. But it does not follow that a Verb is used only to make a statement. 
 The imperative Mood for exanipli' states nothing, but indicatcB a command or 
 wish. Sec also Infinitive Mood [A laoj. 
 
fiTYMOl.OOY. 
 
 43 
 
 Of*. 2. A Vprb is rottii tiims (UfiriiMl as a word which slKiiifi 8 being or doing. Unt 
 thore stH-nis to be no propriety in brinKiiig into a, jjiUtTal definition tlie ni ■;i!iiiiK3 
 of piirtie\ihircl;ififi sol Verbs. A difiiiiti.in ought simply tntinfic ' Jiat isconiinou 
 to all. AK.iiii, tiike the scntenc", Diiki' Willi, mi I'ikuwi- kini^ of Kn riaiid:— tlie 
 word 6trume \a ctrtainly a Verb, yi t it il nn s neither being nor doing, 
 
 § 115. Verbs are cluKisiiied as follows : — 
 
 1. Transitive Ykui'.s, ^v]lich donote an action not 
 confined to the doer, but taking ellt'tt upon some- 
 thing else : as — 
 
 "Iron xliarpendh iron." (I'mv. xxvii. 17.) 
 
 " A soft answer tnrnith away wratii." (7/^ xv. 1.) 
 
 rT;at. triinsin; "to j)as3 over"; because the action iia.sscs from the 
 agi'iit to the oKjict.J 
 
 Note.— Transitive Vcrlns are nho nscd RvJlcxiviJij : as, 1 nfrike 
 inijsilf, He loves Itimsclf; nnd lleciprorulli/ : as, Tlwij (oce one anofher. 
 
 2. iNTRANSii'iVK Vkuhs, ^vllic•h denote hcinij or he- 
 comiuij ; also any action confined to tlie doer, and 
 not taking efl'ect upon anything else : as — 
 
 ** Snow ?.s white." , 
 
 *' Water //•etze.s- at a tcniiKiatuio of H'i" Fahrenheit.** 
 " The cold greto nioie ai:d more intense." 
 
 *' TllC SUM 8/t/<i<-«." 
 
 " The dervishes sjx'h round and round.'' 
 
 §lir), TiiK SiMUKCT. — The Koun or Pronoun coming 
 jmmediately before the Yerl), and denoting tlie ]icrson 
 or thing ai)out wiiich something is stated, is called the 
 bUBJKCT : as — 
 
 " Tlie icay was long." (Scott, Lay.) 
 " Day set on Norhani's Ciistled steep." (Id. Marni.) 
 " His chosen raptdins also are di owned in the lied sea." (Ex. xv. 4.) 
 
 The Subject is always in the Nominative Case. 
 
 § 117. Tin: Oihect. — The Koun or Pronoun coming 
 ii'ixt after a Transitive Verb, and denoting the })orson or 
 thing ujjon which an action takes efiect, is called the 
 [Direct] Oiueot : as — 
 
 " I\Tacbeth docs murder sleep" (Miub. ii. 1.) 
 " Time and tide wait-for (§ 190) no man. 
 
 (Pr 
 
 ) 
 
 Mau marks tJic taith with ruin." (Uyron, C. U. iv.) 
 
 ^'I'i 
 
44 
 
 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 Tlic Direct Object is always in tlie Oltjective Case. 
 Only Transitive Verbs can have a Direct Object. 
 
 § 118. iMriiANSiTiVE Vefirs. — Tlicsc may be divided into 
 three classes : — 
 
 1. Tliose which denote doing somcthhuj : as, I walk, 
 I hxii'jli, 1 weep, I rcjuice. 
 
 f/hf. Such Vorbs iirc soiiiftimos calltd Activc-Iiitraiislcivra. To avoid confusion, 
 however, the term Active is best used ooly to li; note voice. 
 
 2. Those which denote simply hring or being in a 
 certain ataie : as, / am, 1 exist, 1 lice, I sleep. 
 
 0J>!>. Such Verbs a^di'i; hIiij), may porliaps rather b'long to Class 1, as they imply 
 the liiscbarKf of certain i.atural functions. 
 
 3. Those which denote a jHisifing from one date to 
 another: as, I become (Gr. ytyj/o/xai)» I aicalce, I am 
 born, I die, I cease. 
 
 § 119. Verbs have Voioo, ^lood, Tense, Number, and 
 Person. 
 
 (tl 
 
 Voice, 
 
 § 120. Transitive Verljs have two Voices — the Active 
 and the Passivk. 
 
 A Verb is said to be in the Active Voice when the 
 Subject denotes the doer of the action : as — 
 
 *' David slew Goliiitli with a sHng and a stone." 
 
 Here the subject David denotes the agent, and slew is said 
 to be in tbe Active \ Oice 
 
 Ihit a \'crb is said to lie in tlie Passive Voice wIkmi the 
 Subject denotes the person or thinj;" acted upon : as — 
 
 " Goliath was tilahi by David with a sling and a stone." 
 
 Here the Subject Goliath denotes the ])erson to whom 
 tlie tliinsj: was dt»ne ; and ivas slain is said to bo in the 
 Passive NOice. 
 
 The ]*assive Voice is formed by ]nefixinf2; to its Past 
 Participle tbe dilferent tenses of the \ frb to be : as — 
 
 " Goliath wm ^/d/n." (See p. Gl .) 
 
 Ohs. 1. Besides tlie n p\ilar use of the Active and Passive Voices, the Active is some- 
 timeB xised in u kmhI of intransitive way, esjH'ciully in familiar speecli • iia — 
 
 " If tlie cakes at tea oti' sliort and crisp ..." ( I'm nr of W. ch. xvl.) 
 
 " This Bcutcnce does uot read well," •'^ '" Murell.) 
 
 4i 
 
ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 45 
 
 AIjo w>Tnf- Verbs arc rr gularly used both as TranpitivpB and IntransHivpB. Such 
 are, to vioce, to optn, to sweep; to tatte, to feel, to smell. Thus w<? my: to 
 mooe the earth, and, the earth moves ; he opened the door, und, the door opened, &c. 
 
 Ols. 2. Milton occasionally tisos the Passive of Intransitive Verbs impersonally, 
 with or \s ithout the mention of the agent : as— 
 
 " Forthwith on all sides to his aid was run 
 
 By angels many and strong." (/'• /- vi. aa.').) 
 " Meanwhile ere thus was sinneii audjudijed on earth." Qlb. z. 2'.0.' 
 This is a Latin idiom: ci. iiuynatuin eit, iic. 
 
 Mood. 
 
 § 121. The simplest use of a Vcrh is to state something 
 [§ 114]. But a Verb may also Tie used to express a cum- 
 mand or UHsh, or to iinlicate something as possilde or 
 conceivable. The dilVerent forms of A'erbs cm])loye(l in 
 BO expressing ourselves are called M< *)ii.s. [Latin, mudus^ 
 " manner.'"] 
 
 § 122. There are five jMocds— the Indicative, the 8ub- 
 junctixe, the Imperative, the Infinirive. and the rarticipial. 
 To the Inlinitive belong the Gerundial forms. 
 
 § 123. Inpicative Moon. — When we make a direct state- 
 ment, we are said to use the Indicative Muud [Lat. indicare^ 
 ** to point out "J : a^s — 
 
 " Najioloon I. dinl at St. Helena." 
 
 " 1 u'ill arim and f/o to my I'lillitr." (Luke xv. 18.) 
 
 " Young Arthur is alive." (SliuKa. A'. J. iv. 2.) 
 
 Chi. We are aho said to use thr^ Indii itive .'Mood in asking a question us— 
 
 " Doth Arthur live f " (A'. J. iv. 2.) 
 
 " Breathes there tln' n\an with soul so dead 
 Who never to himself hath said . . . ?" Ccott, Lay, prol.) 
 
 All lamruagps appear to agree in using th ■ Indicative M'lod for dinct (]Mistions. 
 The interrogative nature of a sentenee is in som.' langii.ig s indicatid only by the 
 tone of voice. 
 
 § 124. Imi'i RATIVR Mood. — When wc order anything to 
 l)e done, we are said to (>mph)y tlie Imperative ^lood 
 [I-at. impcrarc, " to coninumd "J : as — 
 
 " Co! mnrl: him well !" (Scott, Irnj.) 
 
 The same form is used to express a prayer or wl.-h; as— 
 
 " Forsnhe me not thus, Adam !" (/'. L. x.) 
 ** Give Ub this duy our diiily hi ad." 
 
40 
 
 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 
 Oht. 1. Tlio Itnpfnitivp Moo<l can strictly bo used only in the 2nd Focson : since 
 tho person cKiiiniaiilrd must br tin- piison spoki ! to [^ 76]. Rut in tho 1st and 
 3nl IVrsons, an ;uialo(;ous sense is expiTssed by tii-- use of tUe auxiliaiy Verb let, 
 fjlloned by tiie Objective Case of the virtual .Subject: as— 
 
 " Ixl til re be light !" (< Jen, i. 3.) 
 
 •• Lot us then be up and doing." (T jngfellow.) 
 
 In parsing such sentences the Verb let is best taken separately. [See ^ 259, 2.] 
 
 Obs. 2. Besides the above forms, nn imperative sense is conveyed by the verb shall, 
 in the 2nd and ard Persons Kingular and plural [Future Imperativ : as— 
 
 " 'I'hree times thoii shalt keep a feast unto nie in the year." (Kxwl. xxiii. 14.) 
 
 " Thou Shalt not steal." (/^. xx. 15.) 
 
 " Ye shall not afflict any widow or fatherles.'; M." (/?>. xxii. 22.) 
 
 " If thou buy an Hebrew servant, six years ^hail he S' rve; and in the seventh 
 he shall go out free for nothing." (/^. xxi. 2.) 
 
 This fonn is most used in proliibitions, and is now nearly obsolete. 
 
 § 125. SiTRJUNCTivE Moon. — The Siiltjunctivo is never 
 used to make a direct tstateinent like the liulietitive, Init 
 always expivKses some kind of condition or hyjuitlicsis. 
 [Lat. Hubjintijtre "to join to."] It usually follows sueh 
 words as if, unless, that, lest, although, provided, &c. 
 
 Examples : — 
 
 " if tho iii-ht 
 
 Have trathorod au^'ht of evil, or rdiiftiilcd, 
 
 DisiKT.sc it, as now h'ght diispcls tlio dark ! " (P. L. v.) 
 
 "Got on your !n<i;ht<,'o\vn. lest oceaision call us and shoiv us to be 
 watohors." (Macb. ii. 2.) 
 
 " Confess thy treason ere thou /?/ tho re aim." (Jh'rh. IT. i. 8.) 
 
 " It ii'irii ill Ihtt Aymcr saw tho lady Rowcna" (Tnnihop, ch. \i.) 
 
 '• Tho hutidjlost painter, be he ever so poor . . ." {Newe. oh. x.\xviii.) 
 
 The Sul)jiuietive IVIood liiis gradually ffillrn more 
 and more into disuse since the ap) of (.uecn Kli/aheth. 
 instead of tho simple Sultjunctive, we now more (tften use 
 either the Indicative, or a c(Mn})ound form with may, 
 might, should. This tendciujy of the language is seen 
 in sueh examples as the following: — 
 
 ** alike in iu^noranoo, hi,^ reason 8Uoh, 
 
 \\ htthir ho ihiiihx h o little or too luueli.'' (I'opo. />-■. 2.) 
 
 *• .\ man ••an never eome up to (he perfeetion of his nature hefori' he 
 in huiried (.IV the .staiie." (^'y«r^ No. 3.) 
 
 *' 'I'lie juuid will ask her mi.'«<r(\><s irluthi'r tho gentlemnn u ready 
 to <;() to dinner." (Specf. No. I'J.) 
 
 " Wliethtr I fhaU turn out to he the luro of my own life, or irhdlni 
 that btaliou tcill be luil hy any one clbo, these paLzcs will .show." 
 
 (biclit'iib, D'lv. C. i.) 
 
ICTYMOLOGY. 
 
 47 
 
 ^ If it should appear from anything I maij set down la tbia iiaria- 
 tlvo . . . ." (^Ib. 2.) 
 
 " And thnn as if tliis was not enough . . , . . she marries a second 
 time." (/6. 13.) 
 
 Ohs. "When the words mni/, m'jJit, shnuhl, nro usod to m.ike a diroct Btatfinont, 
 tlieyare indicatives, and must bo parsed separately from tlie \'erl) following; ;i3 — 
 
 "Of every tree of the Kirden, thou mayist freely eat." (< J ti. ii. U.) 
 ** You may [do so], if you choose." (l)ickens, Ijav, r '. ii.) 
 •* You have done that you should (= ouykt to) be sorry /or." 
 
 (Shiika. j: C. !▼. 3.) 
 " If he is but half a monk, he should not ho wholly unreusonahle." 
 
 [^Ivav. th. ii.) 
 
 § 126. I.NfFixrriYE ]\roor). — The Iiifinitivo Mood makes 
 no stutemcut whatever, but simply conveys tlio notion 
 C'.\[)ressud by tlio \'erl> in tlio most f^'eiKTu' way. [La\. 
 tiijinifiis, " unlimited." J It is now usually ''iiowu by the 
 Jireli.x^ to : as, to Jove, to hif'^, to h<ice luted, to be Lvccd, tv be 
 hated, tj have been haled. 
 
 The Infinitive is a Verbal Noun. See § 127, Obs. 2. 
 
 06«. In 0. E. the infinitive onded in -an or -en, as Germ, licb en, afterwards changed 
 Into •«, which was linally dropped altogether. 
 
 The Infinitive has an Indennito, an Incomplete, and a 
 Complete form : as, to write, to be writmj, to have wrilten. 
 
 § 127. Gruund or Vkubai, Noun. — The word Gerund 
 signifies carrijin<j on or behyj ennitd on. [Lai. gereie. 
 to carry on] The Gerund is similar in meaning t(» tiie 
 Infinitive Mood, and is also a Verbal Noun. It has tlii' 
 ending -ing, and may bo used both actively and |iassively. 
 It most fre([uently ibllovvs a Pre})osition : as, (of) Inciwi, 
 (^of) beiufj luvcd ; (by) harin-j seen, (by) haciuy been se*n. 
 
 ohs. 1. Ill oliliT Kn^'lish, these forms in inij (also earlier, vvn^ are in every re>p(ct 
 Nouns, and not imlud'd in thf Verbat all. (Compare nuHliTn ( ierman, nchxiuhii 
 di'wkiniij, kc.) They never took after tliem a illrett object, but were follov\eU 
 Instead by the F'npositioti of: as — 
 
 " .Adam consented to We eating j/the fruit." (Ch.mecr, Prsone's Tale.) 
 " In holding o/'griMt nuyne" [i.e. ntate, pomp], {lb.) 
 " 'I'liey left bi'atliig of I'aul." (Acts xxi. 3'.'.) 
 
 And this way of speaking still lurvivca ns a vulgarism in various parts of the 
 country. Hut owing to tlie at ti\e force reHidinu' in tlie Verbal Noun, ami pfrhujis 
 also to somi' ii-nlnsioii bftween it and tin' iiiipirrt(t I'arttipb, ihi' \'erbMl Noun 
 from about the sixte.'uth (''ntuiy ln'ian to b.- more ami more used without a 
 ?r»-position, bo as to govirn a Mreit (.)bject, like anyoiliir inllected form <if tlie 
 Verb : as— 
 
 "For mine own part 1 durst not laugh, for fuur of opening my lips and 
 reoeiviug the bad air." (ShaU J. V. i. 'i.) 
 
 I- 1 
 
48 
 
 ENGLloH GRAMMAP.. 
 
 In tho caso of tlic Indefinite form of tho Gomnd an 
 Objective following may btill Le explained as dependent 
 npon tho Preposition o/ understood. But this explanation 
 will not apply in the case of the Complete or rcrlect form : 
 as, conscious of having dune a good action. (See Syntax, 
 § 273.) 
 
 Obs. 2. In stich phrases as a-gning, a-v^aiting, a-mnnivg, wo havo a Gerund 
 or Verbal Noua precedud by a rrrposiiiou. 'I'lius d-going = on, in, or at 
 Koing, &c. 
 
 Examples:— 
 
 " In the days of Noah, while the ark was a-preparivg." (1 Pet. iii. 20.) 
 " Simon Peter said unto them, I go a fishing." (John xxi. 3.) 
 «* Whitlier were you a-going f {lien. VIII. i. 3.) 
 " There came throe ships a-sailing." (Old rhyme.) 
 
 Obs. 3. The name Gerund has also been Riven by grammarians to a particular form 
 of tiie 0. 10. Inrmitivc Moixi, prciidcd by the I'rt JHl^ition to, and dmotlng o 
 puriiose lilte the Latin Supnie, or an i/bligulin^i like the Latin Gerundive: as— 
 
 " lie is to lufigcnne = he is lit to be loved." (Lat. "amandus est.") 
 
 The Gerund as treated in the present work, is a formation belonging exclusively 
 to modern English. 
 
 Obs. 4. Very many Compound Nouns are formed from Gerunds or V( rbal Nouns : 
 as, walkiiig>tiek, i.e. slick for ivalkiiig , dra\\ing-ro"m, i.e. room for uith- 
 draivii g to, niso fur drawing in: bo, "church going bell" (L'owper), ix: bell Jo.- 
 church-going. 
 
 § 128. rARTiciPLKs. — A rarticiplu is a Verl)al Adjective, 
 as a Gerund is a Verhal jSouii. Accordingly all Parti- 
 ciples icfer to Nouns about which they specify something 
 see def. of Adj. § 52]: as, shi])S sailin'i, boys i)laylnii, 
 uma roaring, water Jlotcing ; books printed, hoases built, 
 streets iiaved^ roads macadamised. 
 
 § 120. There are two Particijdes properly so called : — 
 
 1. The [.Mi'EiiFEcr Participle, which ends in -ing, and 
 specifics some incumi)lete action or state of the Noun 
 to which it refers: as — 
 
 ** I see men as trees imUcinij.^' (INIar. viii. 24.) 
 
 *' Hero it runs npnrldhuj, 
 'I'licrc it lies darlilimi. . . ." (Soiithoy, Loilore.) 
 
 **'I'lio L'icy-i'yod morn fsmilcs on tli('/r(»/r/i//i[/ iiii^ht, 
 ahcckerinij tho eastern eloudd with ■ trcaks of lit^ht . . ,' 
 
 {Urn. and J. ii. 3.) 
 
 "Now Morn htr rosy steps in tlie eiist rn eliino 
 Adcaucing, utreweU thy eaitU with uiiciit pe;irl." 
 
 (.i'. L. V.) 
 
ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 49 
 
 2. The Perfect Participle, wliich has various endings, 
 and specifies some completed action or statu of tha 
 Noun to which it refers : as — 
 
 *'.... like the snow-flake on the river, 
 One moment white, then <jone for ever." (Burns.) 
 
 *' The ides of March are come.— 
 
 Ay, Caesar, but not (/one." {J. C. iii. 1.) 
 
 ** Ye mind me of departed joys, 
 Ik'parled never to return ! " (Bums.) 
 
 " How like a deer stricken by many ])rinces 
 Dost thou here lie ! " [J. C. iii. 1.) 
 
 •' Millions of fl;imini> swords drairn from the thighs 
 Of mighty Cherubim . . ." (Milt. P. L. i.) 
 
 "The sons of 
 'BqIvjH Jloum (i. e. winged, elated) with insolence and wine." 
 
 ilh.) 
 
 N.B. — The Perfet: Participle of Transitive Verbs lias 
 always a passive sense. 
 
 § 130. Compound Participial Forms.— Pesides the Im- 
 perfect and Perfect Partici[)les, several other compound 
 forms are used : as — 
 
 1. An Active form, compounded of the Perfect Parti- 
 ciple and the word haviii;/: as, haviiu/ lived, harhiq 
 co,.quer(>d, having departeil. This is called tiie Cum- 
 pound I'trfed FarUciplc Actirc. 
 
 2. A kind of Future form both in the Active and the 
 Passive Voice, expressed by the phrase aliout io : as 
 about to die, about to sail, about to be bdicodcd. 
 
 Oh-^. After tlie Verb to he a similar sense Is conveyed by tbe \)\\t^,^v fjitiivj tn : aa, 
 Hoiiig to rain, the bill is nut goinij to be brought forward. [(Ji)ll<iqiiial. | 
 
 3. An Incomplete Participle Past:ive, expres.sed by the 
 word being : as, beirir/ built, being adniouuihed. 
 
 C's. This usage is of late introduction into our laniruayre. The Incomplete senw 
 was formerly expiressefl by means of a Preposition and a Verlial .Vonn ; "'nie 
 bouse is in or on building." Hence, by aubreviation, "The house iaa-build.- 
 ing," or Anally, " The house is buildintj." 
 
 4. A Compound Perfect Participle Passive : having 
 been taught, having been rejjiuved. 
 
 Tense. 
 
 § 131. The word Tense comes from the Latin tempus 
 (l"r. tcnijis), " time." The verb is the only kind of word 
 
i50 
 
 ENGLISH GRAMMXR. 
 
 M 
 
 wliicli Ly its own tliirrrent forms is capaliU^ of indicatiiiji 
 Time. (Ilcucu its (Jorman designation Zeltworty '•Time- 
 word.") ' 
 
 'J'here are three natural divisions of Time — Prescrit, 
 Fast, Future; each of which is represented in Grammar 
 by a eurre>])ondin^ Tense : as, tlic bun shines, the sun 
 shone, the sun will shine. 
 
 § 132. Each one of tlie thivie main Tenses — Pjesent, 
 ra>t, Future — has tin ee forms : thus — 
 
 §1 
 
 of USI 
 
 
 liidu'liiiite. 
 
 Inc(jin|il(>t('. 
 
 Comfileto. 
 
 Fresent 
 
 I write 
 (or do write) 
 
 I am writing 
 
 I have written 
 
 Fast 
 
 I wrote 
 (or did wiito) 
 
 I was writing 
 
 I had written 
 
 Future 
 
 I shall write 
 
 I shall be writing 
 
 I shall have 
 
 written 
 
 N.B. — The forms called Incomplete aud Complete are also called 
 Imperfect and Perfect respectively. 
 
 In addition to tiiese three principal forms there is in 
 the Active Voice a Fouith, which may be called rerfecl- 
 Inc(jm[)leto : thus — 
 
 Present Tirfed-lncomiiltte I have been writing 
 
 Fast „ „ I Had been writing 
 
 Future „ „ I shall have been writing 
 
 But these forms being of less fiequent occurrence, are not 
 given in the Paradigm of the Verb. 
 
 Ofis. 1. The forms witli do, did [I il> write, I did write], have been called the 
 Present ami Past i.mj'hatic rcspccUvtly. But. the cnipliu.sis lies rather in tbo 
 stress of voice tlian in tlu; form itself, as may bo seen from the following examples 
 in wliich the wonis do, did, are Ity no moans empliatic:— 
 
 '• Hejoicc with them tliat do rejoice, and weep with them that weep." (Rom. 
 
 jiil. 15.) 
 
 " You all do know \h\> mantle . . ." (Shales. J. C. iii. 2.) 
 
 •' I only speali what you yourselves do know." (lb.) 
 
 " Tiiey set. bread Ijefore him, and he did eat." (2 Sam. xii. ao.) 
 
 " When tlie child was dead, tliou didd rise and e.it l)read." (/6. ver, 21) 
 
 The forms witli itn are now i liielly u.'-ed in questions and in n^ gativc sentencrs. 
 Thus ue now .siy, l>o you think.? ratlu r than, Tliink you .■' (" ..uw think ye?" - 
 Matt, xviii. i'2); j did imt deny you, rather than, "1 denied yciu not" fShakp. 
 J. ('. ill. 2); Do our sul>jects revolt.? ratlier tiian, " Revolt our sidijectsf " ^'Shaks. 
 Kich. III. iii. 'I). [Comp. Abbott, Shaks. (Jr. ^ 306.) 
 
 Ohs. 2. The forms do, did, arc also used to avoid the repetition of a Verb : M— 
 " Strike as tliou didst at Cxsar . . ." (Shuks, J. C. iv. 3.) 
 
 Ohs. 3. If the sentence bo negative, the Adverli vot is plaeed after tlio Auxilhiry, 
 or after the Verb itself when It lias no Auxiliary: as, " It diil nd tnucli him ;" 
 or, " it louched him nut." The older writers freiiuenily place the uegative befor* 
 the Verb: as,— 
 
 " She not d«ni.« it." (Suaks. Much Ado, iv. 1.) 
 
 " For men 
 Can counsel, and f,ivp comfort to that prief. 
 Which liiey themselves nut fiel." [10. v. I.) 
 
ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 51 
 
 § 133. Present Tense Indejinite. — This Tenso has a variety 
 of uses : — 
 
 1. It describes what is actually taking place : as — 
 " Now fades the gliinniering liiiid.scapo on the sight, 
 
 The hawing herd icimh alowly o'er the lea." (Gruy, Ehgy.) 
 
 2. It indicates what hahitiially or regularly takes 
 j)lace : as — 
 
 liirds fly— libhea swim— rejitiles creep. 
 
 3. It is occasionally used for the future, of that wliicH 
 is fixed and near at hand, or vividly anticii)ated ; 
 as — 
 
 " The boys come back next Saturday week." (Arnold, Letters, xsxii.) 
 
 •' If from this hour 
 Within thcso hallowed limits thou aj'pear, 
 iJaclc to tlio infernal pit I drag thee ehaiuod, 
 And 8<al thco so." (Milt., P. L. iv. iitJO). 
 
 4. It is sometimes employed in poetry and otlicr 
 imaginative writing instead of tlie Past Indelinite, 
 to give greater vividness to a narrative : as — 
 
 " Day dun-itx upon tlic moiuitain's sid(^ : — 
 'J'here, iScotlaud, lay tliy bravest pride . . ." (Marmion.) 
 
 "The wind fhi/fs to tho we.st . . . The advaneing houis mahc it 
 Btroni;: by midnight, all sleejiless watdurs licur and fear a wild soutli- 
 wcst storm. — That storm roared frenzied for seven wcnks." 
 
 (C. Bronte, VUhtlc.) 
 
 Obs. Whin a narrative write r proceeds to use the I'nsont 'i'tiiso in.stoad of tlie 
 Past, ho pass'S in SMloinK from narration to description, and portrays the scene as 
 if it were actually before his eyes. Our best prose writers are sparing of this us ■. 
 
 6. It is used of an autlior saying or stating anything in 
 his works, whetlier he himself be living or not: as — 
 
 *' Barnes niiij< Ilomcr is Solomon ..." (Ca-dmis.) 
 
 "Thus lierudutus sjpealis . • . saijs I'litiy . . . Polybins mijs . . ." 
 
 (Arnohl, Jiovie.) 
 
 6. It i.^ used instead of the Future when tho reference 
 
 to future time is clear from the remainder of tho 
 
 sentence : as — 
 
 ** . . . wlien I am for;j;(itt('n, ns I sliall bo, 
 And sleep in dull ooM marble, wheri; no nionti"n 
 Of me more mus^t be hearil of . . ." (Ih n. \ III. iii. 2.) 
 
 " No longer mourn for me when I am dead." (Shaks. ^'o?»n. 71.) 
 
 Obs. Tiiis use is found only in complex S'littMiecs, where tlio tinn.' of (jno i en»- 
 l>r is t!io key to that of the other. In Latin the Future- I'erfect wou\ v« 
 ctuploycU. 
 
 £2 
 
t2 
 
 ENGLISU GRAMJiAit. 
 
 i 
 
 § 134. PresPTi* Cotmtlde. — The rrcscut Complete I lave 
 written may pcrlii'ps seem at first to liclong rather to tlio 
 I'abt ToriSGS, siiieo it speaks of the aeti(ju as liiiished. But 
 we must UTider^tand by present time, not merely the im- 
 metliato instant, but also any portion of time reachin;^ 
 up to and including it. Thus the statement, "I have 
 lived in London seven years," implies that the sjK'aker is 
 still livinf^ in London, and the period of time referred to 
 reaches up to the moment of speakinj^. 
 
 So, if a ])erson says, " I '//are once seen a total eclipse of 
 the sun," the sense is, once in iny life; and the circum- 
 stance is referred as before, to a period of time still cou- 
 tinuinji; and jn-cstnit. 
 
 On the o-Iur hand, "when a person says, "I saw a tota? 
 eclips' ^ tjio sun in the year 1851," he distinctly ref^r^ 
 the e\ \ t . a period (the year 1801) altogether de 
 tached ii, .ii the •'^escnt, and past. 
 
 § 135. Past Indejiniie Tense. — This Tense has three 
 uses: — 
 
 1. To indicate in the most general way that some- 
 thing was done or took i)laco in the past : as — 
 
 " III the beginning God created the heaven and the earth." 
 
 (Cien. i. 1.) 
 
 ** Yon (ill did see that, on the TiUporcal, 
 J tliiico fircneiiffil him a kingly crown, 
 AVhich ho did thrice lej'uso . . ." (t^huksj. J. C. lii. 2.) 
 
 2. To denote what was usual or customary at scaji» 
 former period : as — 
 
 "Hia sons went and feasted in their houses, every one his day . '. 
 
 (Job i. 4.) 
 
 *' He horromcd without scruple, and after his return from exile wair 
 ulaiosit cunatuntly in debt." (Forayth, Cicero.) 
 
 3. It is also used with the force of the Past Incom 
 plete, especially in older English : as — 
 
 " Wlule ho yet spale (= was speaking), behold, a briglit cloud ovei* 
 bhadoNYed thoni." (Matt. xvii. 5.) 
 
 •' While the bridegroom tarried, they all elunihercd and utept." 
 
 {lb. XXV. 5.) 
 " About them friaking iihtyed 
 All beasts of the eaith ... 
 Sporting the lion ramjied, and in his paw 
 Landltd the kid . . ." (i'. L iv. JIU- Jli.) 
 
 a, d 
 
ETYMOLOr.Y. 
 
 6r? 
 
 § loO. Future Tcme. — Tliis Tense einploys in all its 
 (^)rms the two auxiliary \ orbs shall and will, but with 
 a ditfereiice of meaniug. 
 
 § 137. Shall strictly denotes oUhjatun, autliorlty, or 
 constraint ((ier. sullen) ; and it retains tliis sense in tho 
 Second and Third Persons Singular and I'lural : as — 
 
 " Thou shall not steal." [Prohilntion.J (Kxod. xx. 15.) 
 
 ** The man that hath done this thing shall surely die.' [Threat.] 
 
 (2 Sam. xii. 5.) 
 " No Italian priest 
 Shall tithe or toll in our douiiuiona." [Prohibition.] 
 
 (A'. Jclin, iii. 1.) 
 "Ye shall not eat the blood; ye ^7ia?Z pour it upon the cartli as 
 Water." [Comn)and.s.j (Ucut. xii. !♦!.) 
 
 •'And ye shall bo his bride, ladye." [Promise or consent.] (Soni-) 
 
 Hence it is used in the language f propbeoy, the very 
 idea of which implies the decision of i si. jrior Tower; as— 
 
 " lie bIuiU not strive, nor cry." (Matt. . i. IG.) 
 
 "Ye shall not surely die." (Gen. iii. 4.) 
 
 " This story shall tlie good man teacli his i on ; 
 And Cri.spin Crispian shall ne'er go by, 
 From this day to tin- ending of tlic orld. 
 But we in it t^hall bo rememhered." (Henry V. iv. .'].) 
 
 Obs. The Interromitive loinis shalt Uiouf shall youf are used with a simple 
 Future sensu. 
 
 § lo8. In the First Person Singular and Plural shall is 
 dsed for tho simple Future; but here also its proper foico 
 aiay often be traced, though less strongly marked : as— 
 
 " I shall go to him " (2 Sam. xii. 23.) 
 
 "A', lien. (^ood old knight, 
 
 ("oUeet them all together at my tent. 
 I'll be before thee. 
 Erp. I shall do it, my lord.'* (Henry V. Iv. 1.) 
 
 Here the use of shall implies that the actions to bo 
 done are not dependent uy)on the will of the 8})eaker. 
 8o shall serves to indicate a definite resolution ai' the 
 speaker, by %vhich he considers himself to be bound : as— 
 
 " I shall send mv letters open, that you may lake ro])ioa . . ." 
 
 (({(.Idsmith. C/t. 2.) 
 
 "J fhall trnee the course of that revolution whieli teiininnted the 
 long struggle bet\\een our sovertigns and their parliiinifnts." 
 
 (Mae. H. E. i.) 
 
 "Tlie two propositions whieh I shall endeavour to e.>tul»lish aio 
 these ..." (Pale J , Kv.) 
 
54 
 
 EXCjr.TSri GKAMMAT!. 
 
 § 1.^0. Will in tlie First Person Siiip;iil.ir or Plnral of 
 llio Future iin})lies tliat the action is dependent upon 
 the will of tlie speaker : as — - 
 
 "... b'cuuHc tliiri wi'low troiiMftli ino, I in'U a\^r\^v hor." 
 
 (I.uk« xviii. /).) 
 '• Wfi in'U bo avoim'od . . , We'll hear him, icc'll follow liiin, iccUl dio 
 witli him." (Shaks. J. C. iii. 2.) 
 
 But in tlie Seeond and Third Persons Singular and 
 l^lnral will usually implies nothiii*::; more than futurity, 
 without any reference to iho will of the agent ; * as — 
 
 ** Tlnj (]hins will show thoe liow thy beauties wc;ir." (Sli;iks. Sonn. 77.) 
 *'• Thine on'juixli ii'ill not let tlieu .sht p." (Tenuysun, Iwo Voicof.) 
 " Vow vuU find the just sum in a silken purse, within the Icathn-n 
 poucli," (Scott, Icnn. eh. xi.) 
 
 § 140. Number. — The Y»rh, like the Noun, has two 
 num>)ers, Singular and IMural. Jn modern English, dislinct 
 riural forms are found only in the Verb /o be: see p. o9. 
 In all other Verbs the Plural is without inflexion. 
 
 Obf. In tho olilfPt form of Erifjlisli the Plural sufTix for tlio Prosrnt Tnisp Indicative 
 of Ilrfjuliir X'crbs is -ath : us, we lujiath ~ we love, in the time of Kdwanl 111. 
 tills termiimtioii had friven way to -en (u-e loirn), which is the rigular one io 
 Chaucer, and is occasionally to be met with in tlie Kli/.abetiian writers. 
 
 § 141. Person. — Verbs are also inflected for Person, 
 rSee § 78, concerning the distinction of First, Second, 
 and Third Persons.] But this inflexion is conflned to 
 
 the Singular Number. 
 
 See Paiadigms. 
 
 * The following piMotienl 
 in; found useful. (lit ad, p. 
 
 rules for the use of Wn.i- and Shall will 
 119, with iilt( liitions.) 
 
 To F.xrnicss 
 
 1. A Hiiiipli> future ) 
 
 2. An UMceriainty 5 
 
 3. A (lueslion . . 
 
 4. An intention or a 
 
 liabit. 
 
 r active 
 6. A promiat' I 
 
 I passive 
 
 6. Musty as a future . 
 ?. A •)'"ty or necessity 
 
 First 
 I'eison. 
 
 Second and 
 'I'liird I'i'rsoiis. ' 
 
 EXAMl'LKS. 
 
 shall 
 
 8haU 
 will 
 
 will 
 
 shall 
 snail 
 
 Wiil 
 
 shall, will 
 will 
 
 shall 
 
 shall 
 shall 
 
 shall 
 
 w. 
 
 I rhnll be there to-nmrrow. 
 IV'rlKips you vUl think of it. 
 ;j. yhdil I p'o? 
 Slii\U voii po? 
 WiU licKo? 
 
 4. I ir,ll (it is my ivtfvf'on to) 
 PC lid you sonii'tliiiiji to-mor- 
 row. Jle uill (i.e. it is hit 
 habit to) sjH'nd lioius to- 
 gether in their comiiaiiy. 
 
 5. I vill certainly call lor you 
 You chilli have the money. 
 He shdll Ije punished. 
 
 6. He says I fhnU (viiisl) (to. 
 
 ( 1. ("Jiid and :!nl per-oiis only.) 
 < Tlmu tkitli not strjil. 
 ' He *7ui/i surely die. 
 
 IS 
 
 to 
 
 I 
 th( 
 call 
 
ETYMOLOfiT. 
 
 55 
 
 § 142. Conjugation. — The com})leto infloxionof a Verb 
 fs calleil conjii;::af ion. f Ti.'it. (•(ntjinjiirr, " to yoke foo-ethor."] 
 
 Vcrlis arc divided into two |irincip<il classes,* acrordiug 
 to their maimer of forming tl^c Pust Tense : namely, — ■ 
 
 (1.) YcrLs which form tho Fast Tense hy a cliant;o in 
 the l)ody of tlic word : as, write, wrote. 'i'hese aro 
 called SrnoNO Vkrbs. [Sometimes called Irregular X'erha. ] 
 
 (2.) Vcrhs which form tho Past Tense hy adding d (ed) 
 or t to the Present : as, love, loved ; leap, leapt. These 
 are called Weak Vluls. [Sometimes caUed iiegular Verlis.] 
 
 COMPLETE PAPiADIGM OF THE ACTIVE VOICE. 
 
 STRONG AND WEAK CONJUGATIONS AT ONE VIEW. 
 
 TO WRITE.— TO LOVE. 
 
 Principal Parts • \ '^^^*®' ^rote, written [Strong], 
 irincipal iarts . j ^^^^^ ^^^^^^ ^^^^^ [Weakj. 
 
 N.B.—1\\fi Pronouns am put inadiirmnt typo in ordtr to remind the leuruiT tbat 
 they form no part of the Verb. 
 
 INDICATIVE MOOD. 
 
 PiiKsKNT Tensi:. 
 
 jl, ^ (Sing. I write or do write riur. We write or do write 
 
 I w j Tliou writest or dost write Ye or yuu write or do 
 
 write 
 He writes or does write They write or do write 
 
 Interrogative form : Do / write ? Dos* thoii write ? &c. 
 
 Negative form : / do not write ; thou dost not write, &c. [Sec } 123, 0&«.] 
 
 [/ love or do love ; Do / love ? i do not love, &c.] 
 
 «5 
 5?: » 
 
 p- a [Sing. 1 am writing 
 
 Thoit art writing 
 
 He is writing 
 
 riur. We are writing 
 
 Ye ..[ you are writing 
 They are writing 
 
 8 w 
 
 Interrogative form: Am 1 writing? Artttow writlnp?? &c. 
 Negative form : / am not writing ; thou art not writing, && 
 
 [Tarn loving; Am /loving? /am not loving, &c.] 
 
 ji, w [Si tig. 1 have written Phir. We have written 
 
 w < Thou hast written Ye or you have written 
 
 •* 2^ I He has written They have writtea 
 
 Interrogative form : Have / written ? Ilast thou written ? kc. 
 Negative form : / have not written : thou hast not written, ko, 
 
 (/ have loved ; Have / loved ? / have not loved, &c.] 
 
 • Ifor a more complete (laj^sificntioii, boo p. 72, /o8. 
 
56 
 
 EXGLISP C.RAMMAK. 
 
 VMf: TENdK. 
 
 
 |'<S'/7igr. 7 wrote or did writo 
 I'lioii wrotest or didst 
 
 write 
 lie wrote or did wr te 
 
 riur. We wrote or did writs 
 Ye or ynu wrote or did 
 
 write 
 Th'j wrote or did writ* 
 
 Jntf rrof^ative form : Di'l / writo ? J'Sil.''t Ihnn writo ? kc. 
 Ist'j;iitive form : / diil not write ; thou ili<lst not write, &c. 
 
 [/ loved or did lovo, Thou lovcdst, Ac. ; J)id 7 love ? /did not love, &c.] 
 
 g M ( Si'ng. I was writing 
 £ w I Tlioii wast writinff 
 
 i/e was writing 
 
 ^S 
 
 PZwr. Tl^'e were writing 
 
 Ye or ;/o« were wntiug 
 Tluy were writi^ 
 
 IntcrroR.itive form : Was / writing ? Wart thou writing ? &c. 
 Negative form : / was not writing'; ; tliou wast «ot w riling, &c 
 
 [/ was loving ; Was / loving ? / was rv)t hi >ig, &c.] 
 
 5 ^J •' 
 
 
 7 had written 
 
 77/. -7( hadst written 
 
 He had written 
 
 P/ar. We had written 
 
 IV 01 you Lad writte* 
 27i( ]/ had written 
 
 Intorrogativc form : Had / written ? IT id ^t thou written, &c. 
 ><'gative form : J Lad nut written ; thou hadst uot wiitteu, Sm. 
 
 [I had loved ; Had I loved i J had uot loved. In.} 
 
 Future TaxjiB. 
 
 
 i H I'^m;?. 
 
 
 /shall write 
 Tliou wilt write 
 He will write 
 
 i'/ur. Wc shall write 
 
 1 6' or you will Uritl 
 37/ (7/ will write 
 
 Interrogative form : Shall / write ? Slialt ^/iok write ? AVill Ae write? && 
 Negative form : /shall not write ; thou wilt not write, &c. 
 
 [/shall love; Shall /love? /shall not love, &c.] 
 
 H 
 M 
 
 o 
 o 
 
 >5 
 
 o '^ 
 V. s 
 
 (S'/ng. I shall be writing 
 
 77/(>» wilt be writing 
 Jle will be writing 
 
 Plur. We shall be writing 
 
 I'e or you will be w,"il\f 
 They will be writing 
 
 Interrogative form : Shall /be writing ? Shalt <?iou be writing ? &c. 
 Negative form : / shall not be writing ; thou wilt not be writing, &c. 
 
 [/ shall be loving ; Shall / be loving ? /shall not be loving, &c.] 
 
 u 
 
 (Sing. I shall have written 
 
 !^ ^ 1 Thou wilt have written 
 
 C H 
 
 ^ ' Jle will have written 
 
 J7ar. We shall have wrj.tten 
 Tc or you will have 
 
 written 
 They will have writt3r 
 
 Interrogative form : Shall / have written ? Shalt thou have written ? &c. 
 Negative form : / shall not have written ; thou wilt not have written, &0. 
 
 (/ shall have loved ; Shall / have loved ? / sliall not have loved, io.J 
 
ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 67 
 
 mPERATTVE MOOD. 
 Present Tense. 
 
 Sing. 2nd Pers. Write thou Pltir. 2)id Pers. Write ytt 
 
 [Love thou. Love ye.] 
 
 FuTuuE Tense. 
 
 Sing. 2nd Pert, Tlion shalt Plur. 2iul Vers. Ye or i/nu shall 
 
 write write 
 
 3rd Per 8. He shall write Brd Vers. Tiny shall write 
 
 [Thou sbalt love. Te ehall love.] 
 
 K SB 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 
 
 Pkesent Tense. 
 
 Sing. [If, though, &c.] 7 write Flnr. [If. though, <Src.] wr write 
 y) </;o« ^ j^r or //M»j 
 
 write Wi'iie 
 
 iheij 
 write 
 
 M 
 >^ 
 
 o 
 
 O 
 
 n /te write ^ 
 
 Compound or Periphrastic Form: If 1 should write 
 
 If titon shouldst write ♦ 
 If he should write, tic. 
 
 [If, though, &c. / love or should love, Ac] 
 
 Sing. [If, though, &c.] I he Vlnr. [If, though, i^c] u-e he 
 
 writing writing 
 
 II thou be jj «/. or //(»;< 
 
 writing tc writing 
 
 II /(e be II ///' V be 
 
 writing writing 
 
 Camp. Form : If I should be writing, ito. 
 [If, tliouRli, &c. / should be loving, fcc] 
 
 H 
 
 (Sing. [If, though, &c.] /have Plur. [If, though, ilc] /(v have 
 
 written written 
 
 ///n» have II ye nr >j(iu 
 
 written have 
 
 written 
 
 I I, Tir have „ /A// have 
 
 [ written written 
 
 Com p. Form : If I should have written, &o. 
 / should have lo\ ec 
 
 [If, tiiougii 
 
 ••J 
 
 * Obferve that after " if, though, kc," i^hould is rrtaincd in all por?ona ,1 not 
 
 ^^npi'd to ivoiild in the 2iid or 3rd. Soinetimcs, liowtvcr, tliis form of tin- .Siil taive 
 
 \f\ used in the Principal sentence without any (.'onjunctiou : uud then it is .; ..-ct«<] 
 QlUB : 1 ihould (vvritc, kc,). Thou wouldst, lie would, kc. 
 
53 
 
 ENTJI.ISII GRAMMAR, 
 
 
 8 
 
 Past Tkxse. 
 
 Sinrj. [If, tliniiu:!!, Ac] /wrote /7»r. [ff, tl»nu<,'h, il'c] ?pfl wrots 
 }i </""< „ y<' or _yr»fi 
 
 wrotest wrote 
 
 he wrote 
 
 theij 
 wrote 
 
 [If, thoui^li, kc. I lovcii, fcc] 
 Sinrj. [If, tlinii;,'!!, ^to.] 7 T/ere Vlur. [If. tlionj.'^h. ..tc] ire were 
 
 »» 
 
 vvnting 
 V. f>'i we it 
 writing 
 
 » 
 
 , writing 
 yt' or yim 
 
 were 
 
 writing 
 Ih) If were 
 
 wriMr.g 
 
 H 
 
 ff ?;»' were ^ 
 
 writing 
 flf, though, A:f. / wi re loviiiR, &c.] 
 
 '-S'iz/j;. [If, th.n-h, &c.] /had Vlur. [If, tlimi-h, &c.] .ca had 
 
 written written 
 
 )l tll<U ^ 7/r or IJOU 
 
 hadat had 
 
 written written 
 
 O „ //r had „ I In 1/ had 
 
 written wiitt m 
 
 [If, though, kc. J UmI loved, kc"] 
 
 Ohs. 1. In the oftrHor fDnns of our LinjniaRo, Hv Siilijunctlvo Mond has all i\\o throe 
 Persons Sinsuliir u'.iki-, hoth iu tho rresent aii<l thi> I'ast Teliae. Later on, the 
 Past Su'yunctiv'c Ik fouiid infji eted with -si in tho 'Jiid iVraoa Singular; c,y.~ 
 "If thou kncwed the giflof (iod . . , ." (John iv. 10.) 
 " If thou hailst hccn here, my brother had not died." (Jolm xt. 21.) 
 
 Ohs. 2. IJesldes shoulil, Rpveral otiior auxiliary vi-ihs are used in tho compound oi 
 poripliraKlicSulijun'tivo: as, vi<u,, m'.'//i<, <'^I»iiaily alter the conjtimtions llmt, 
 lest ; and xmiili in the conclusion of an hypothetical Bontmco. For exaniplos 
 ice Syntax, '^ 258. 
 
 Obs. 3. Tiiere ia no special Future Suhjunctivc ; the Present tenses of the Suhjuno- 
 tive Mood having a future sense. The same is the case in Greek and in Luin. 
 
 INFINITIVE MOOD. 
 
 Indefinite : To write. [To Jove.] 
 iNUoMi'MiTii: To be writing. [To bo lovitij^.'] 
 Complete: To have wiittcn. [To have lovi d.] 
 Geudni), Indefinite : Writing, [of] writing, [by] writing, &c 
 
 [loving, onovinp, •;, Icvintr, Aic.J 
 „ CoMi'LETE : Having written, [of] having written, &o. 
 
 [having lovwl, o/ having loved, ic.j 
 
 PARTICIPLES. 
 
 Inoomi'IiETe: Writing [Imporfnot Participlo.] [Lovirif?.] 
 Complete : Having written [Coinpourt! Perfect.] [Ilayiny loved.] 
 Past : Written [Perfect Particii)!.',] [Loved.] 
 
 nc 
 
 I 
 
 u 
 

 ETYMOT.OGY. 
 
 Qd 
 
 TiiK Verb TO BE. 
 
 § 143. Before proceeding to the Passive Voice, it id 
 Decessary to give the i*ara(ligm of tiie \ ci b to be. 
 
 INDICATIVE !\IOOD. 
 
 PlltaKNT TkN.sk. 
 
 i ^ S^"0- 
 
 / am 
 
 rz«r. 
 
 Wf are 
 
 7y 
 
 ^ £1 
 
 Tlion art 
 
 IJr is 
 
 
 l'< or 111,11 are 
 Tiieij are 
 
 , y Hing. 
 
 7 have been 
 Tlinii hast beea 
 i/e has beou 
 
 P/ur. 
 
 He have been 
 
 }'♦■ or ijoit have been 
 
 They have been 
 
 
 Past Tense. 
 
 
 i w Sing. 
 
 /was 
 Thou wast 
 
 riur. 
 
 TF* were 
 
 Yi'. or »/»<« were 
 
 
 i/c was 
 
 
 77/('?/ were 
 
 ogj 
 
 7 had been 
 Tlioii hadst been 
 He had been 
 
 riur. 
 
 UV had been 
 iV (tr //'/'( had been 
 They had been 
 
 
 FuToriE 
 
 Tense. 
 
 
 
 7 shall be 
 Thou V'ilt be 
 lie will be 
 
 riur. 
 
 nv shall be 
 
 Yi or vrw( will be 
 
 They wUl be 
 
 5i:< 
 
 -S/nj/. 7 shall have betn 
 
 7'//o)t wilt have been 
 lie will have beei. 
 
 T> 
 
 7(a-. 11 V shall have been 
 
 )V (»r jimi will have been 
 Thiy will have been 
 
 IMPKUAVIVE MOOD. 
 
 Fkesent Tense. 
 
 Sing. 2n(l Vera. Be th 
 
 'lOU 
 
 rinr. 2n(1 7Vrs. Be 
 
 ye 
 
 KfTrijK Tense. 
 Sing. 2ud /Vr,-*. Thnn shalt be I'l;'r. 2ntl i'en. Ye shall be 
 
 '6ril I'll 8. He shall bo 
 
 ill Pen. 77*(;i/ shaU be 
 
 sni,ii;NCTivi-: mood. 
 
 I'lesent Tense. 
 
 I (Sing. [If, thongli, A'c.j / be Plur. [If, tlmugh, Ac] wt be 
 few 
 
 »♦ 
 
 ihou be 
 he be 
 
 » 
 
 » 
 
 ye or j/on 
 be 
 </<(y be 
 
 Ckmip. Form : If 7 should be, If Ihou shouldst be, (Jc, 
 
60 
 
 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 Sing. [If, thougli, Sec.} I have Plur. [If, though, 5:c.] w ha«e 
 ^* j been been 
 
 w J „ thou have 
 
 x 
 
 a 
 
 ft 
 
 been 
 
 he have 
 
 been 
 
 y C)l' IJOH 
 
 have be.n 
 
 //jc// have 
 
 been 
 
 Ckmp. Form : If 7 should have been, If thou shouldst &c. 
 
 Past Tense. 
 I (Sing. [If, though, &c.] 7 were VJiir. [If, tlmugh, Ac] »(? were 
 
 n 
 
 thou were 
 he were 
 
 n 
 
 i/c or you 
 were 
 ///r// were 
 
 i5/)igf. [If, tliough, &c.] 7 had riar. [If, thougli, itc.j ire had 
 
 been been 
 
 „ thou hadst ti I/P or ynu 
 
 been had been 
 
 y he had „ ///^'y had 
 
 been 
 
 been 
 
 INFINITIVE MOOD. 
 
 Indefinite: To be. 
 Complete : To have been. 
 
 Gervnd, Ini>efinite: Being, [of] being, &c 
 
 n Complete: Having been, [of j having been, Jlrc 
 
 I 
 
 pahticiples. 
 
 Incomplete : Being. 
 Cojipletk: Having been. 
 Pajt : Been. 
 
 Obt. 1. This Verb conUvlns three root.'*, ah, iik, was. Aa nppcars in am = at-m: 
 ar-t — as t : u shortei;) li lor as are — as-e. Was Is In O.E, ues-an " to l>e." 
 
 Cbs. 2, Tlie root be was formerly iiifleetcil for the Preseiu Tciiw Iiiillcativo. 
 Milton uses 'i pers. sinp. Inrst (/'. /.. i. st); and the plural teen or bin it. of 
 frequent oecurrtiu'e in the Kllxalxtliiin writers. 
 
 Obs. 3. Ilie forms u'a St (Indie.) and ^^ ert (SiihJ.^ nro lK)tli eonipanilively modem. 
 In O.K. ware is usi^ as 2 pcrs. t>ing. I .ih in the liulieativc and theSuoJunctive. 
 
 § 144. TiiK Passive Voice. — Tho only form of a Verb in 
 Kiiglitih wliicli has a Passive sciiso, m tlio last rarticiplo 
 in en, ed (d) c- t: as, beaten, lovid, lost. Hut a Cdinpleto 
 Passive is foriuod \>y ])ii!i.\iii«;' to this I'uriicipio the 
 various ronsoa uud fonus ol" the \'cvb lu be. 
 
teTYMOLOGY. 
 
 u 
 
 lOH 
 
 ! n 
 
 IV9 
 
 re 
 you 
 
 ere 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 ijnu 
 ad 
 
 PARADIGM OF THE PASSIVE VOICE. 
 TO BE BEATEN : Past Part. Beaten. 
 
 INDICATIVE MOOD. 
 
 Present Tenhr. 
 
 IrfPFFTN'TTR : / am beaten, A<^. 
 Incomplete : / am bein^ beaten, Ac. 
 Co.Mi'LETE : / have been beaten, «S:c. 
 
 Past Tknsk. 
 
 Tndefinitr : / was beaten, '^> •• 
 Incomplete : / was being beaten. *c. 
 CoMPLKTE : / had been oeaten, &.c. 
 
 Future Tense. 
 
 Indkfinitf. : / shall be beaten, '^•' . 
 Complete .- / ghall have been beaten, &o. 
 
 IMPERATIVE MOOD. 
 
 Present Tensr. 
 
 2nd Pers. Shuj. and Phir. : Be beaten. 
 
 Future Tensr. 
 
 Ind Pers. Sinj.: Thnn shalt be 2/a/ Pars. Pi- Vr or ynu shall be 
 
 beaten beaten 
 
 3r(i '' " He shall be 3/c/ '* " r//.// shall be 
 
 beaten beaten 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 
 
 Present Tense. 
 
 iNDEFiNrPE: [If, thougli, i^c.l / be beaten. 
 Complete : [If, though, &c.j / have been beaten. 
 
 Past Tense. 
 
 Inmekinitr : [If thr)iit;h, &<\1 / wero beaton. 
 <:'ompletr : I If tli()u.u;h, .Kc j / hiid been beaten. 
 
 Compound Form: If / should be beaten, &o. 
 
 INFINITIVE MOOD. 
 
 Indefinite : To be beaten. 
 c*)MPLETE : To have been beaten. 
 
 r.ERUXD. 
 Being beaten, [ofj being beaten, [by] being beaten, &c. 
 
 PAHTICIPLES. 
 
 Tnt>kfin(tr: Beaten- 
 Ino.mplete : Havin-r beaten. 
 CoMPLfciTK : Having been beaten. 
 
62 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 IRREGULAR AND DEFECTIVE VERilS. 
 
 § 145. 1. HAVE. 
 
 Priucipal Parts : Have, had, had. 
 
 INDICATIVE MOOD. 
 
 TKJiJfE.NT TliNSE. 
 
 • M {Sing. lii&v 
 
 have 
 hast 
 He has 
 
 
 H a ( Sinrj. I am having 
 8 u \ Thou art having 
 
 ^ S! I lie 13 having 
 
 I w iSi7ig. /have had 
 ? a I Thou hast 1 
 
 had 
 lie has had 
 
 Plur. Wc have 
 
 Ye or you have 
 They have 
 
 PZur. IFe are having 
 
 Ye or i/oM are having 
 They are having 
 
 PZar. We have had 
 
 iV or you have had 
 27i(;</ have had 
 
 w S 
 
 Sing. 
 
 /had 
 
 nr>»/ hadst 
 /ie had 
 
 Past Tknse. 
 i7wr. 
 
 o ^ 
 
 u 
 
 u < 
 
 z'- r^ 
 
 Sing. I was having 
 
 Thou wast having 
 //c was having 
 
 ji, g j /SVnr/. / had hat' 
 
 o w < Thon hr.dj, iP.d 
 
 ^ si I Ue had had 
 
 PZwr. 
 
 Piwr. 
 
 We had 
 
 I'c or //oM hac. 
 
 They had 
 
 ITe were baving 
 
 Ye, or ?/o,t were having 
 
 Th( y were having 
 
 We had ha J 
 
 i'« or i/(iH had had 
 
 JVk // had had 
 
 FlT' 
 
 Tense. 
 
 In!>kfinitf,: T shall have, thou wilt have, &oi, 
 lNt:o.Mn,i:ii;: / shall he having. &o. 
 Gouri.Ki K : 1 shall have had, t&o. 
 
 BIPERATIVE MOOD. 
 
 PuLSKNT InUEPINITE. 
 
 2nd Pcre. Sing, and I'lur. Have. 
 
 FuTtnE. 
 tnd Vers. Sing. Tk n shalt have 2nd Vers. PI. Ye or yj\ shall !uifi 
 
 ?: a 
 
 I: 
 
 N 
 K 
 W 
 
 is 
 
 h 
 
 a 
 
 o 
 y. 
 
 H 
 
 i\ 
 
 \ 
 
V. '5 
 
 KTYMOLOGY. 
 SUBJUNCTIVE JIOOD. 
 
 PbLSFNT Ti.KSfc, 
 
 ■^nq. [If, tiiough, &c.j 7 have Vlur. [if, though; &c.] trs have 
 
 »> 
 
 tkou. have 
 
 ^ j/« or you 
 
 have 
 
 /(c have „ ihc>j hava 
 
 Compound Form: If f should have, If th«n shouldst have, itc. 
 Incomplete. [If, though, \c.J i be having, vVc. [Sot used.] 
 
 'Sing. [If. thougli, &c.] T have I'lur. [If, though, &c.] vr have 
 
 had had 
 
 </t(>// have „ ye or you 
 
 had 'have had 
 
 he hav« „ they have 
 
 had had 
 
 »> 
 
 » 
 
 F 
 
 ti 
 
 
 Past Tense. 
 
 a |S/«if. [If, thongli.&c] / had i7«r. [If, tliOtigh,&c.] j/v had 
 
 /Aou hft(i*it „ ije or ?/ou 
 
 had 
 he had „ ///(i^ had 
 
 '6ui(j. [If, though, &c.] i n^ere rinr. [If, though, <'t<\j tre were 
 
 having having 
 
 „ i}.-u wert „ ye or you 
 
 Auving were 
 
 having 
 
 „ /^ were „ f/jc// wt re 
 
 y having having 
 
 Saiq. [If,tliough,*<' ^ I had had i'/Hr. [If, though, &c.] u-e i ^ 
 I hac 
 
 Vimt hadst „ ye or . ■« 
 
 had hac .'d 
 
 ht had „ tliii/ Yr^i 
 
 had hau 
 
 S \ 
 
 C3 
 
 5 
 
 
 i>(FiNrnvK M()()D. 
 
 iN'jT'yitK: To have. 
 In(X)Mim,i<:te: To be having. 
 (JoMi'MirK : To have had. 
 
 ^RjiiiKB., Tndkfinite: Having, [of] having. Ac 
 
 ^ Oo.\iilete: Having had, [ofj having had, »Sto, 
 
 rARTinri.ES. 
 
 fNroMri.KTR Having 
 CoMi'LETE. Having had. 
 Past : Had. 
 
6« 
 
 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 §146. 2. DO. 
 Principal Parts : Do, did, done. 
 * INDICATIVE MOOD. 
 
 PPESENT I-VDEFINITE TeNSE. 
 
 Sing, /do Piur. We do 
 
 Thou doest or dost ¥>- or you do 
 
 Jle does, doeth, or doth 'J^f^cy do 
 
 (The rest is inflected regularly. ) 
 
 Ofts 1. The Verb do is used both as a Principal and as an Auxiliary. But the old 
 
 inniis doest, doetJi, are limited to the former use. 
 Examples ; — 
 
 " If f hou doest well, shalt thou not be accepted ? " (Gen. iv. 7.) 
 
 " Whatsoever he doeth shall jirosper." (Ps. L 3.) 
 
 In both which cases tlie Verb is a Principal. 
 But a-s auxiliary forms— 
 
 *' Dost thou open tliine eyes upon such an one?" (Job. xiv. 3.) 
 
 " All things living he doth feed." (Miltun.) 
 
 Obs. 2. SonietiincH to dv~to anmrer the purpose, to be mtiRfactortf : as, "Thin 
 wih never do." It is then a dilYorent word froin do— act, carry on, and derived 
 Irom a totally distinct root. ((>. E. ditgan ; Germ, tauyan.) 
 
 3. WILL. 
 
 § 147. This Verb is also used both as a Principal (= to 
 he loUlivg ; to exercise the will) and as an Auxiliary, lb 
 .share.) with shall the peculiarity of forniinjj; the 2ii<i. })ers. 
 sing, in t instead of st. [Compare also the forms ar^, wcrt.] 
 
 INDICATIVE MOOD. 
 
 Present iNDEFiNrn: Tkn.se. 
 
 Sinj. /will Plur. He will 
 
 T/iou wilt or wiliest y>' or i/ou will 
 
 i/e will, willeth, or wills T/if>/ will 
 
 Past iNDEFiNrrB Tense. 
 Sing. J *V0Uld Plur. We would 
 
 fiou wouldest or wouldst y*"- oi- yon would 
 
 ^if would They would 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 
 
 Past IrDEFiNii -^ Tknse. 
 Sing. 1 would, *c. (same as Indicative). 
 
 01 
 
ETYMOLOGt. 
 
 ct. 
 
 INFINITIVE. 
 Present Indefinite : To wilL 
 
 t>b$, 1. Concerning the use of will in the Future Tense, see ^ 139. 
 
 Obs. 2. The twofold tonus, wilt and wiliest, will and irilltih Cor u'ilb\ art- proljaVy 
 tu be explainod by the existtiice of two Verbs in the eariiebl form ol Kuglisu, «t 
 ■imilar meaning :— 
 
 (1) Willan ; pros, ic willo, ])U (thou) wilt, he wile, J:c., to be willini;. [Primi- 
 tive and strong Verb.] 
 
 (a) Wilni.in; p. :3. ic wilnigo, Jm (thou) wilnast, he wilnath, &c., to dtttre. 
 [Derivative ami weal; Verb.] 
 
 The forms vtilkst, ivillilh, an- not used as Auxiliaries. 
 
 Obs. 3. In the sense of to exerciie the will (volition), to will is porfcttly regular: 
 as — 
 
 "* It is not of bim that willdh, nor of him that runneth . . ." (Rom. ix. 16 ^ 
 
 " A man that sits still is said to be at liberty, because he can walk if he vji'li 
 it." (Locke, Joknaon, s. v.) 
 
 " How rarely does it meet with this time's guise. 
 When man was willed to love his enemies." (Shaks. Tim. of Alh. Iv. 3.) 
 
 
 '■] 
 
 4. SHALL. 
 
 § 148. Shall is rarely nsuJ cxoci)t as an Aiixiliury* 
 [See §§ lo7, lo8.j 
 
 INDICATIVE MOOD. 
 
 PlU "jr.NT IliDEFlNlTE ri'.NSt. 
 
 Sing. I shall 
 
 Thou Shalt 
 lie shall 
 
 Plur. U> shall 
 
 }V iir ijnn shall 
 TUto siiaii 
 
 Past iNDEFiNrric Tensio. 
 
 Shig. I should i'lur. We snouH 
 
 Titou shouldcst or shouidjt V'' or ;/'"' sliould 
 
 Me should Tlicy should 
 
 SUrJlNCTIVE MOOD. 
 
 Past Indefini'ie Ti asc. 
 
 Sing. I should (Mime us in Indicative). 
 
 Ola. 1. For the prnppr sense of shall and its use us an Au.\iliary in trie Fr.t;it« 
 indicative, sec | \3H. 
 
 Ctm 2. Sometimea fhoiild — on(}ht, n« wh^n wo <«ny, " ynu fhoiild nut <ln that. 
 Should is then a I'rinriiMJ Verb, not an Auxiliary. liut in sucli u sentrticp «• 
 this " If you rhnuld fee my frii-nd .\., please tell him !<o-imd-8o" thould see u « 
 peripiiruHis fur the simple SuLuuuctivu. [Compare ^ 125.J 
 
C6 
 
 ENGLISH GUAM M All. 
 
 Oh$. 3. Acronling to Grimm, ahall, in its Gothic form skitl, is n prctorile of a lout 
 present ficild, " 1 kill or wound," and so shall - 1 have i;illrd or wounded, and 
 I iini therefore liable to pay the lin • or uergdd ;" hence " 1 uni under an ohli- 
 };allon, 1 must." Shall in used in the sense of " owe " in early English wi'.li jt 
 case after it, as in Chaucer's Court of Love, " For hy the faithe 1 tihall to God." 
 (Head, p. 77.) 
 
 5. MAY. 
 § 140. May is used Itotli as a rriiitipal Verb and an 
 
 Auxiliary, 
 
 INDICATIVE 
 
 Pur.t-KNT Indki-'imi 
 
 Sing. I may 
 
 Thou mayest or raayst 
 lie may 
 
 MOOD. 
 K Tknse. 
 
 Flur. We may 
 
 )'(' or yoti may 
 Th^y may 
 
 Past Ixiefixite Tense. 
 
 Sing. T might 
 
 Thou mightest ni mightst 
 He might 
 
 riur. We might 
 
 Ye or ijou might 
 Thnj might 
 
 SriUlNCTIVE MOOD. 
 
 Past Im>i:imnhi;. Ten.se. 
 
 (Kaiiic lis ill fiiilicativc.) 
 
 Oht. 1. When used as a I'rimip.il Verb, wik)/ denotes permi.-ision or libi ify to do 
 Bomething. " Vou niiii/ f,'o " = You are at lil>erti/ to go. (Lat. licet.) Hut in 
 such a sentence as this, " It is pdssilile that I viin/ he mistaken," vtai/ he is 
 simply a periphrasis for tin- Subjunctive, and in Latin would be expressed by » 
 sinj^Ie word (Vereur n ■ f.iNus .sk/i'). 
 
 Obf. 2. In may, y rejiresenis an mi^'inal g (couip. Gcvni. mi'g-en): ncucc fucteriu 
 
 6. CAN, 
 
 § 160 Can, could, is never a liiere Auxiliary. 
 
 INDICATIVE MOOD. 
 I'uEiJENT Indefinite Tense. 
 
 Sing. T can 
 
 Thou canst 
 lie can 
 
 i'lur. Wc can 
 
 Yf or IJOU oui 
 Tltcij can 
 
 Pa.st Indefinite Tense. 
 
 Sing. ToDnld riur. H^ could 
 
 ']'linu cnuldest or c^uldst V-' or i/nn could 
 
 ii(; could 77(1^ could 
 
ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 67 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 
 
 Present and Past Indefinitk Tlnses. 
 
 (Same as in Indicative.) 
 
 Obi. 1. In tlip carlior forms of Knglisli, conhl is sptlt cutlip, couthe, condf, witliotil 
 liie li ttt-r /, wliicli huR no ctyuiologiail right to Ix; inserted. It owis its 'niMirlion 
 to a false aiiiilc;,'}', making cuuld correspond witli uould and should, where the 
 letter I belongs to the root. 
 
 Ois. 2. " The old i>.ust participle" koutio: k;i i-.vn. occurs in Chaucer, Prol. Cant, 
 Tales, 1. 14 : wluiice un-'outh (0. E. unti((/t) - unknown, strange. Cuniiitiy =; 
 knowing, is really a present participle of can. 
 
 m 
 
 7. MUST. 
 
 § 151. Must is ahvays a Principal Yorh = T am ohJhjrd 
 (to do soiuetliiiiii;). It is not inilecteJ, but is the same iu 
 all Persons and Tenses. 
 
 Tlio original forms are — 
 
 Present Tense. 
 
 SlnQ. I mot (niHsf, am able) 
 Thou iiKJot ({.e. must) 
 He Uiot 
 
 riur. nu'ton 
 
 (lor all persons) 
 
 Past Tense. 
 Slug, moste (for all persons) Phir. nioston (for nil persons) 
 
 "Whence it a]>])eari-; that tlic letter .s- is an intruder in 1st 
 and ord pers. siiiLC. i lil<o tlie I m eoiild ). 'JMie lonn inof oi 
 mote occurs in Knglish of tlie reign of (Juccn Elizabeth : as - 
 
 " Fiaelirfsa was aa fair us fair mote (could) be." 
 
 (Spenser, F. Q. i. 2, 37.) 
 
 It is also occasionally used by modern writers in imitation 
 of the old style : as — 
 
 •' 'Whnte'er this grief mote be, which he couhl not cuncejil.'* 
 
 {Cliilde n. i.) 
 
 8. DARE, pnst-indcf. DURST [to have courage^ venture]. 
 
 § 152. This Verb sometimes omits the s of 3rd pers. 
 sing. pres. indie. : e.g. — 
 
 " The Puke 
 Jkire no more stntch this tintrer of mine 
 Than ho dare stretch his own." (Mra^nrc for M. v. 1.) 
 
 " For I know tlmn ilan'.'^t, 
 But Ihie thng [Calil^anJ (fare not." (leinpcd, in". 2.) 
 
 V 2 
 
G8 
 
 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 Obt. 1. Accoi(linf5 to Mr. Abbott, dare in the Subjunctive = vould [not] dare, !.«. 
 urtilfr any circumftancet. (Shaks. Gr. ^ 3C1.) And it is cortiiin tliat wlicre on 
 indicative senBo is absolutoly reqtiircd, the form daret \s preferred: as— • 
 " I dare do all that may brcomc a man, 
 
 Wiio dares do more is none." (.»/acJ>. i. T.) 
 " Who daret receive it other?" (/&.) 
 
 " What my tongue dares not, tliat my heart shall say." (Rirh. IT. v. 5.) 
 But the original form of 3rd pers. sing, is without s, as in the case of may, can, 
 
 shall, will. (Koch, i. 351.) 
 Obs. 2. l>are, to chalknye, is perfectly regular: hence. preterite dared. 
 
 9. NEED. 
 
 § ir.3. TluH Verb resembles dare in sometimes omitMT>g 
 the s of Ih'd ]>ers. sin^. })res. indicative. I3ut this nncly 
 occurs, except when it is followed by another \'crb, in 
 wliich case it is apparently regarded as a kind of Auxi- 
 liary, like may, can, mud, &c. : as — 
 
 ** , . . as virtuously given as a gentleman need to be." 
 
 (ifen. IF. Pt. I. ill. 3.) 
 
 " To fly from need not be to hate mankind." (Byrnn, C. H. iii. <>!).) 
 
 Obs 1. Thr old English form is iteedeth, which is invariably used in tiie Authorised 
 Vrrsion of ttie Bible: as — 
 
 " He will riee and give him as many as ho needeth." (Luke xi. 8.) 
 ••.... to give to him that needeth." (Eph. iv. 23.) 
 " .... a workman that needeth not to be ashamed." (2 Tim. ii. 15.) 
 8o Chaucer — 
 
 " . . . . What needeth wordes mo [more] ?" (^Knit/ht's Tale.} 
 " It needeth not to pyne [punish] you with tiie cowl." ( /b.) 
 
 Mr. .Mibott, however, remarks that "the imixjrsonal nuils often drops the .«," In 
 which case " it is sometimes hard to say whether u'hat is an adverb and need a 
 ▼erb or what an acijective and need a, noun " (6'A. Gr. ^ 297) : as — 
 
 " What need the bridge much broader than the flood i" QMuch Ado, i. 1.) 
 In the well-known epitaph on Shakspeare, Milton writes— 
 
 •• AVhat needs my Shakspeare for his honoured bones 
 The labour of an age in piled stones?" 
 where what is adverb and needs dearly a verb. 
 OU. 2. This use of needs must not be confounded with that of the adverb need$ :— 
 " So stooping down as ncedi he must 
 
 Who cannot sit upright." (John Giljoin.) 
 
 10. OWE, OUGHT. 
 
 § 154. The original meaning of the Verb owe is to 
 posHcss, in which sense wo now say to own. It is so used by 
 Shakspeare : — 
 
 " I am not worthy of tho wonltli T nice" 
 
 {All's Well that Ends Well ii. 5.) 
 
 ** Not pnppy nor ni(iii(h'airnra 
 
 f^hall ever medicine tlier to that sweet .';l('<>r> 
 "Which thou uw\ht yesterday." {Othdl.i, iii. 3.) 
 
 IS Si 
 
 Ii 
 oblii 
 ro(p^ 
 
 i( ' 
 undol 
 
r.TYMOLOOT. 
 
 cd 
 
 Ought is tlio rcr^ular weak prctorito of to owe, and 
 
 Ih so used by kShakspcarc : — ■ 
 
 "He said the other day you oit'jht him a thnnsand pnunds.* 
 
 {Ucn. IW rt. 1. iii. 3.) 
 
 It is now used 'ts a prosont, in the sonso of moral 
 obligation. To express a i)ast sense the \ erb following 
 ro(j[uire8 to be past : as, 
 
 "These things oHfjht yo to have done, and not to leave tlio other 
 undone." (Mutt, xxiii. '2'.',.) 
 
 Owe, to he in drht, is regular. The two sciisos of tho 
 Verb occur in the following i)assage of Sliakspcuic:— 
 
 lie pleased then 
 
 To pay that duty whit-h you truly aire 
 To hini who niirs it." (^Kiwj John, ii. 1.) 
 
 That is, "pay tho h'mafje which you owo to tho prince to whom it 
 beluugs." Ikiid, p. 1U;J.) 
 
 06s. According to (Jrinim, ove, in its flotlilc form aih, 0. E. ah, I hav(\ i,« tlic pa-ot 
 tens*' of Jill inlinitivr »'/f/(ni, to labour : whence owe oiiniiMlly .si^-tiititii, J lmvr» 
 work' il, 1 liavo canifd, licnce (n) i possess, have, {p) 1 huve it oa a duty, 
 1 ouijlil. (Compare ilorris, llist. Outlines, p. Ib8.) 
 
 11. OTHER DEFECTIVE VERBS. 
 
 § 155. Quoth, wot, worth, me-thinks, me-lists, 
 whist, yclept, hight, dight. 
 
 1. Quoth : 1st and 3rd j^crs. sing, past indef. = said (I), 
 said (hej. 
 
 This Verb is no longer in common use, but is still 
 omploA'od in verse, where the style is homely or humorous. 
 It always precedt'S its hu] \\vct - quoth /, ry/f/A lie, and is 
 introduced parenthetically, like the Latin impdt: as—- 
 
 ** ' Cood laok,' qtinlh he, ' yet l>rinp: it to me. 
 
 My leathern belt lilcewise.' " (./<»//« (lllpin.) 
 
 Ohf. Quoth is from 0. K. nrdh-an (inlin.X to say; from wliich is derived also thp 
 repuitir verb he-queath, U> assiy7i hy xcill. 
 
 2. Wot, wit, icis : same as German irjVscn, " to know." 
 This Verb is now obsolete, but occurs in the Authorised 
 Version of the l>ible, and in our (dder v riters. 
 
 The following forms are to be met with : — 
 
IMAGE EVALUATION 
 TEST TARGET (MT-3) 
 
 1.0 IfriM IIIIIM 
 
 I.I 
 
 1.25 
 
 •^ IIM 
 
 II: iM 
 
 1.4 
 
 IIM 
 
 1.6 
 
 y 
 
 A 
 
 // 
 
 
 .> <# 
 
 jS* 
 
 
 W^ 
 
 y. 
 
 C/j 
 
 m 
 
 (/. 
 
 w 
 
 
 V] 
 
 <^ 
 
 /} 
 
 / 
 
 '^1 
 
 <m 
 
 
 
 / 
 
 '/ 
 
 /A 
 
 Photographic 
 
 Sciences 
 Corporation 
 
 23 WEST MAIN STREET 
 
 WEBSTER, NY. 14580 
 
 (716) 872-4503 
 
 t 
 
 ^ 
 
 k 
 
 .•V 
 
 iV 
 
 \ 
 
 \ 
 
 /^ 
 
 ^\^ 
 
 '^ 
 
 
 
 
 6^ 
 
 % 
 
 ^^ 
 
 <> 
 
 % 
 
 ri>^ 
 
 a^ 
 

 L-c'r 
 
 f/j 
 
 ^ 
 
 (/. 
 
 ^ 
 
 
70 
 
 EXGLlSIl GRAMMAR. 
 
 )! 
 
 INDICATIVE MOOD. 
 
 Pre ENT Indefinite Tense. 
 
 Bing. 1 wot, vi^ 
 
 Thou wottest 
 lie wotteth 
 
 J'lur. We wot 
 
 Ye, or 1/(1)1 wot 
 Tliey wot 
 
 Past Indefinite Tense. 
 Wist (of all Numbers and Persons). 
 
 INFINITIVE MOOD. 
 Indefinite Form : To wit. 
 
 PARTICIPLE 
 
 Incomplete: Witting, wotting (both in Sliulcspeare) 
 Examples : — 
 
 ♦' I wot not \\lio liatli clone this thin?:." (Ocn. xxi. 2o.> 
 
 " My master icoiteth not what is in the liousc." (i6. xxxix. 8.) 
 
 " There b(! fools alive, I irix, 
 Silvered o'er." {Merck, of V. ii. 9.) 
 
 ** lie ^oist not what to say, for they were sore afraid." (ATark ix. 6.) 
 
 Obs. The form / wis, soinctiniPH used as t'lo 1st pors. sing, prcsont of this Vi'ib, ia 
 due to a mistake. It lias uviscn out of tUe old adverb ywis [Germ, ycwins], 
 surely. 
 
 3. Worth:— 
 
 Tliis verb occurs only in 3rcl pors. sinpj. pros. suLj., 
 with imi)erativo or optutivo force. Woo woith = woo 
 befall or hajivt'ii to ; a form of execration. (0. E. wcorthan 
 = Germ, ivanlen, " to become, como to pass.") 
 
 " Woe worth the day !" (Ez.ek. xxx. 2.) 
 
 "Woe worth tlu' chMso, woo nv>rlh the day 
 That cost thy life, my gallant gri'y." 
 
 (Scott, L<t(hf of the L. i.) 
 
 Note.— In such phrases the noun whiih follows irorlh is a dative 
 case, as in incsecnm, m(7/(/ii/.>', or in iroc. ix nic. (Coiu[). " Mo scemeth 
 then it is no policy." (i/c». \'I. Pt. 11. iu. 1.) 
 
 t 
 
 r 
 
 it 
 ti( 
 
 4. 
 
 Me-thinks : — 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Tl 
 
 lis expression h 
 
 i Romot 
 
 mcs 
 
 crroncMJusly 
 
 snpp 
 
 oRod to 
 
 ()0 an un.!j;rammati('i 
 
 il form 
 
 for 
 
 I think. V»\\ 
 
 t thinlis is 
 
 hero 
 
 an Imiiersoiial 
 
 Ver)^ = 
 
 :(it 
 
 } reems ; and 
 
 mo 
 
 is the 
 
 ♦lat.ivo case : (it) 
 
 HCCIiiS 
 
 io 
 
 me = Jiat. miki 
 
 vidctur^ 
 
 (O. 1 
 
 <1 \>incimy " to seem.") 
 
 
 
 
 
ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 71 
 
 Tte only forms in use aro 
 
 Present Indefinite, 
 
 J^/e-thiuks. 
 
 Past Indefinitb, 
 
 J/e-tliought. 
 Examples : — 
 
 " My father — me-ihinJis I see my father !*' (ITaml. i. 2.) 
 
 *' Mi-thowjht I saw my late espoused saint 
 Brought to me like Ahiestis from the grave." (Jlilt. Sonnet,") 
 
 Milt'on has also the form him thought : — • 
 
 " Him thought he by the brook of Chcrith stood." (P. It. ii. 2GG.) 
 
 5. Me-lists: — 
 
 This is also an Impersonal Verb : me-lists = it lileases me, 
 
 " Ambling palfrey when at need 
 Him lisU'd ease his battle tteed." (Marmiou, i.) 
 
 Ohs, It is to be observed that Shakspoare invariably usea list as a personal verb : 
 as— 
 
 " . . . . conquers as she Ihis" {Tlcn, VI. Pt. I. i. 6.) 
 •• Do as thou list." (^Corioi iii. 2.) 
 " That's as u'e list to grace him." {Lear, v. 3.) 
 ". . . . if we list to sppuk . . ." {Ham. i. 5.) 
 
 [i;.\anii)lL'8 from Cowdtjn Clarke, Concord. Shala^ 
 In 0. E. the verb [lystanl is used both personally and inipertionaliy. 
 
 6. Whist:— 
 
 This is properly an Tnterjeetion callinj^ for silence, but 
 it is nsed both by Shakspeare and Miltuu us tl.o past par- 
 ticiple of a Verb : — 
 
 " Come unto these yellow sands 
 And tlien take hands ; 
 
 Curtsied when you liave. and kist, 
 The wild waves w//i.s7." (V( »ij>. i. 2.) 
 
 **The winds with wonder whid 
 Smoothly the waters /:/>/." 
 
 (Milt. Hymn on Kaiiv!) 
 
 Oht. Compare the fonnntion of the pnsnnt f vi.t out of the adverb ywis [No. 2]. 
 Tiie Hamo Intcrji'ctiun {whitt .') has also bctume a Noun, giving name to the 
 popular game so called, 
 
 7. Yclept: — 
 
 " IJiit e^)me thou, goddess f:'ir r,m\ free, 
 J.U heuven ycljit Kiiphrosyue. . . ." (Milt. L' Allegro.") 
 
72 
 
 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 Yclept is tlio past parti(;ii»]e of tlio old Verb (O. E.) 
 diipiiia, " to call." The prolix y is identical with tho 
 ge of the same participle in Geriuan, as yeumcht, ijc- 
 hraciii, &c. 
 
 Obs. Forms like y-clnd (clothod), y-drad Olrcadcd), are froqunnt in Ppcnsor, wlio 
 was fuml of avcliaisins. Sliakspcare docs not employ tlicui, which proves that 
 they weri! obsolete in his day. 
 
 8. Hight:— 
 
 " The city of the Groat King h'aht it well 
 (i.e. it is well named so) 
 Wherein eternal peace and happiness doth dwell." (Spenser, F. Q.} 
 
 Hight is the ])ast indefmite of an oljsolete Verb, hntnn^ 
 " to be named " (German, hei.^scn). 
 
 Ohf. 1. Tho 2iid pers. sinp. of thig trns.' occurs in tho fnllowlnj; coiiplot, citfd as 
 ont of the earliest recoided f^pccinicii^ of Kiiirlisli after the C.'ontiuest: — 
 
 " Ifateft thou [art thou iiamedj Urse ? 
 II.ivo thou God's curse." 
 {Malediction of Archbishop Aldred, obt. 1069. [Craik, i. 193.]) 
 
 Obt. 2. TTifiht is also used as a participlo : — 
 
 " This prisly [horrible] boast which by name Lion hifjht 
 Tlie tru>ty Thisbo, cominf; first by irli^ht, 
 Did scare away . . ." (^Mids. N. />. v. 1.) 
 
 9. Dight:-^ 
 
 This is a defective past participlo = to he declccd, adorned, 
 (0. E. dihtan, " to order, to arrange,") 
 
 "And storied windows richly (Ji<iht 
 Shedding a dim religious light." (J7 Peuseroso.') 
 
 Classification of Verbs according to Inflexion. 
 
 § 156. It has been seen that Verbs are classified accord- 
 in<5 to their mode of forming the Past ^."ense (§ 142). 
 
 I. Some form the Past Tense by a change of the 
 vowel in the root: as, sing, sang; climb, clomb 
 (Milton); crow, crew; blow, blew; come, came; 
 lead, led. 
 
 II. Some have not only a change of vowel, in the Fast 
 Tense, but also tlio snllix d or t : as, tell, t-^ld; 
 craep, crept ; teach, taught ; bring, brorght j 
 cleave, cbt'c, 
 
ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 73 
 
 III. Some use the same form for hotli Trcsent and Past ; 
 as, cast, cast; put, put; shut, shut; spread, spread; 
 thrust, thrust. 
 
 Ohs. This is the case only with Verbs already in the Present Tense endiiip in d or < ; 
 in wuicli the ed of the past forms has coalesced with the final con^^onant. 
 
 IV. Very many form the Tast Tense by tlie addition 
 of d. (ed after a consonant j or t : as, love, 
 loved; admire, admired; adorn, adorned; atlrij;ht, 
 artVighted ; slip, slipped and slipt ; spill, spilled 
 and spilt. 
 
 Obs. A single final consonant preceded by a slnple vowel is doubled before -ed (also 
 before -cr, -i",'/\ when tlie accent is upim it: as, draR, dni/y'ped. dr;iy'(;inf;; uilot', 
 allotted, all(ii7ing. Also I is usually doubled indi pi udt iitly of the accent: as, 
 travel, truviiZed, traveiicr, travtiiing. 
 
 § 157. Strong and Weak Verhs. — Vcrhs helonging to Class 
 I. are Stkonu \'kkhs (§ 142j; those helonging to Classes 
 IIT. IV. are Weak Veijus. Tlu.se of Class II. partake of 
 both formations, and may lie called Mixed Veubs. 
 
 § 158, The first three classes comprise most of the old 
 monosvllabic ver])al roots, lielono'imr all of them to the 
 original vocabulary of the language. The ftmrtli class — 
 far more numerous than the other three togetlier— com- 
 ])rises the more modern ^vords, including all Verbs adopted 
 from other languages. 
 
 The following table shows the general difference be- 
 tween Verbs of the first three classes and those of the 
 fourth : — 
 
 Classes I, II. III. 
 
 pivo, sjavo 
 btaiul. .stood 
 ont. ate 
 drink, drauk 
 feed, fed 
 briii<:;, brought 
 get, pot 
 run, ran 
 prow, prow 
 know, knew 
 freeze^ frozo 
 
 Class IV. 
 
 present. ])n\sciitod 
 establish, e.'^tabli.vlicd 
 con.sunie, ronsiinied 
 nb.sorb, al).'^<'rb('d 
 digest, digested 
 rimvcy, ronvcyed 
 ol)tain, obtained 
 hasten, hastened 
 • inerease, inenased 
 aseertain, ascertained 
 eongeal, congeaUd 
 
 Here observe, the Verbs in the left-hand column are 
 among the very simplest words, and would be understood 
 and correctly used by every person speaking English as 
 his mother tongue. Those in the right-hand column are 
 less common words, belonging rather to the language >f 
 bool^s than of common conversation, and ret^uiring m, 
 
74 
 
 ENOLISII GRAMMAP.. 
 
 certain amouTit of education to enable anyone to under- 
 stand and use them properly. 
 
 § 1 59. Formation of the Past ParticijjJe. — The Past Par- 
 ticiple has one ending which belongs to itself alone, 
 namely, -en : as — 
 
 I'lTsont. 
 
 fall 
 beat 
 Bhake 
 break 
 
 Past. 
 
 Past Participle. 
 
 fell 
 
 fall< u 
 
 beat 
 
 beatru 
 
 shook 
 
 shaic^H 
 
 broke 
 
 brok' /t 
 
 This ending is rarely found except in Verbs of Class T. 
 In (Jlasses 11. 111. IV. tlie Past Participle is mostly 
 the same as the Past Indicative: e. g. — 
 
 
 Prosont. 
 
 Past. 
 
 Past P.ii tiL-iple 
 
 Class U. 
 
 tell 
 
 teach 
 
 buy 
 
 told 
 
 taught 
 
 bouglit 
 
 t..Id 
 
 tiiUght 
 
 bought 
 
 Cla.<s III. \ 
 
 put 
 Khut 
 
 l)Ut 
 
 bhut 
 
 put 
 
 bhut 
 
 Class IV. • 
 
 lovo 
 adorn 
 
 loved 
 adorned 
 
 loved 
 ailorned 
 
 Obs. M.my Vfilw of ('lasses I. II. III. liad originally a Past Particijile in <'?i, as 
 doiiihcn, foiii/litin, siin;'en, diW:r., bonten (liin)ft), wliicli has b. cdnie olisulcto. 
 Also some otiicis, wliilo ritainiiig tin' iiaiticiiiic in <n, have lost tlie stiong 
 form of the Past Indicative anil subslilutnl lor it a form in ti or t as - 
 
 
 
 Proscnt. 
 
 Past. 
 
 Past Participle. 
 
 Mod. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 cn-f,'ravn 
 
 en-gra.'ed 
 
 en-graven 
 
 0. K. 
 
 
 gi'afan 
 
 - y>of 
 
 grafen 
 
 Moil. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 hew 
 
 hewed 
 
 hewed, hewn 
 
 0. M. 
 
 
 heawan 
 
 heow 
 
 heawen 
 
 Moil. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 lade, load 
 
 loaded 
 
 loadrd, laden 
 
 0. K. 
 
 
 hladen 
 
 hlod 
 
 hla'den 
 
 Moil. 
 
 Eng. 
 
 rive 
 
 rivid 
 
 riven 
 
 0. E. 
 
 
 rive 
 
 ■roj- 
 
 riven [Koch 1. 292.] 
 
 § 1()0. Complete List of Verbs belonging to Classes L 
 
 31. III. 
 
 (A.) Class I. 
 
 (a) Root Vowel a or ea. 
 
 Prea^^Bt. Past. 
 
 1. awidcc awoke. aw;dcod 
 
 I wnke Avok((. waived 
 
 i», bear r.irry, bring bare, boro 
 
 Past Participle. 
 
 awaked 
 wakod 
 boirue, born 
 
ETYMOl.OGV. 
 
 75 
 
 
 Present. 
 
 Past. 
 
 Past Participle. 
 
 8. 
 
 break 
 
 brake, broke 
 
 broken 
 
 4. 
 
 clcavt' [diUiPre'] 
 
 clave, cleaved 
 
 deavi'd 
 
 5. 
 
 cleave Iqditj 
 
 clave, clove, elcft 
 
 •^loveii, cleft 
 
 i). 
 
 draw 
 
 drew 
 
 drawn 
 
 7. 
 
 eat 
 
 ate 
 
 eaten 
 
 8. 
 
 fall 
 
 fell 
 
 fallen 
 
 'J. 
 
 forsako 
 
 for.snok 
 
 forsaken 
 
 10. 
 
 go 
 
 
 gone 
 
 11. 
 
 hang, tmns. 
 
 hniig, hanged 
 
 liung, hanged 
 
 
 luiiiji;, tHtraHS. 
 
 hung 
 
 hung 
 
 12. 
 
 hravo 
 
 hove, heaved 
 
 heaved 
 
 13. 
 
 read 
 
 read [red J 
 
 read 1 red] 
 
 14. 
 
 isliakd 
 
 shook 
 
 sliakeu 
 
 }i). 
 
 shear 
 
 si lore, sheared 
 
 shorn 
 
 h',. 
 
 slay 
 
 slew 
 
 slain 
 
 17. 
 
 speak 
 
 sjtake, spcjko 
 
 spiiken 
 
 18. 
 
 stand 
 
 stood 
 
 stood 
 
 li). 
 
 steal 
 
 stole 
 
 stolen 
 
 20. 
 
 swear 
 
 swiirc, swore 
 
 sworn 
 
 21. 
 
 take 
 
 took 
 
 taken 
 
 22. 
 
 tear 
 
 tare, tore 
 
 torn 
 
 23. 
 
 tread 
 
 trod 
 
 trodden, trod 
 
 24. 
 
 wear 
 
 ware, wore 
 
 Worn 
 
 25. 
 
 weave 
 
 wove 
 
 woven 
 
 L 
 
 Notes and Obsi;u\ atioxs. 
 
 1. AwnJce and vnke are used both transitivrly and intransitively. In the Past 
 Tense, ai'W<rij is now preferred in intraiisitivi' sense, and airuki'd in triuisilive 
 Bense. Sliakspoare, liowever, always uses aivalcitd, mtkcd, never awoke or voke. 
 Tlie forms aicuke, voke, belonj^ exclusively to tlie I'ast Tense Indicative, tiioufiii 
 eometinies incorrectly used as l'articij)k'S. 'I'he derived Verbs waktri and 
 awaken are p.'rfectly regular. 
 
 2. Bare is now obsolete. Born is used only after the Verb to be, and as a kind of 
 Adjective (= Lat. natus). J^lsewiiere burnt is used : e.j. — 
 
 " Would 1 had died .... 
 And never seen thee, never borne [not born] thee son." (//in. VF. Pt. III. I. 1.) 
 
 3. Brake, obsolete. Shakspeare frequently uses broke as a Participle— 
 
 " Most sacrilegious murder iiatli broke ope 
 Tlie Lord's anointed temple." {.Uacb. ii. 3.) 
 Byron— 
 
 " The idols are broke in the temple of Baal." 
 
 But this use is now of rare occurrence. 
 
 4. Clave, obsf)lete. 
 
 6. Clave, obsolete. Cleft, preferred Twth in Past Tense and Participle. 
 
 7. Koch gives eat as an alternative fVirni in Mddein Kngli8li,botli in Past Indicative 
 and Participle, and cites the Ibllowing examples : — 
 
 " The baron eat like a famished soldier." {IVaverley, xi.) 
 
 " He might have eat his part." (AT. John, i. 1.) 
 
 But this is neither the usage of the present day, nor is it founded on the original 
 forms of the language. (0. E. at; Orm. iW. Koch, i. p. 274.) 
 
 8 The collateral Verb tofdl belongs to Class IV., and is perfectly regular. 
 
 A. Shakspeare xmes f oraook as I'artieiple — 
 
 " Ilia re*! colour b^t^h/omwk his cheeks." (^likh. III. U. IJ 
 
76 
 
 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 10. Co.— The Past Tfnsc of this Verb has been lost, and its place supplied by that 
 of the Verb to wend. 
 
 11. In tlie sense of to injlict death by hanging, tliis Verb takes Past Tciisr and 
 Participle hanged rather t! hung : as — 
 
 " If he be not born to be hanged , . ." (^Temp. I. i .) 
 
 " Ho went and hanged himself." (Matt, xxvii. 5.) 
 
 Otherwise hung is preferrcfJL. 
 
 12. Ifnve (to) is a sailor's phrase. Otherwise alwaye heaved. 
 
 13. Ilede, to interpret (as in "rede me the riddle"), is an obsolete form of the 
 sanie word. 
 
 14. Sliakspoare frcquontly uses shook as Participle— 
 
 " Hadst thou but shook thy head." (A'. John, iv, 2.) 
 
 17. Spake, obsolete. Spoke as Participle : Shakspeare often. The compound 6e- 
 fpeak currently takes f).spofce as Participle in commercial langu^ige. 
 
 19. Stole as Past Participle — 
 
 » 
 
 " On him who l:vl stole Jove's authentic fire." (i*. L. iv.) 
 
 20. Sirare, obsolete (E. V.). 
 
 21. J'o.jA; as Participle — 
 
 " He that might the vantage best have took.'' (^Meas.for M. ii. 2.) 
 
 22. Tare (E. V.), obsolete. 
 2:{. Trod as Participle — 
 
 " Mischance hath trod my title down." (jaen. VI. Pt. III. iil. 3) 
 
 So not unfrequently in modern poetry. 
 
 1 
 2 
 2 
 2 
 
 Prestiit. 
 
 (h) Koot Vowol e, ee. 
 
 Post. 
 
 Past Participle. 
 
 bled 
 bred 
 fed 
 
 frozen 
 gotten, got 
 met 
 
 seen 
 
 80 Idtn, seethed 
 
 Bped 
 
 NoxnS AND OBSnUVATIONS. 
 
 4. So provincially, squteze, squozc, squozen (Lane). 
 
 5. Gat, gotten, obsolete. Compound /or(7e^ same principal parts. 
 
 9. This Verb is nearly obsolete, except in figurative sense : as, the seething water*. 
 Also sodden in sense oi' ivet through. 
 
 1. bleed 
 
 
 bled 
 
 2. breed 
 
 
 bro 
 
 3. feed 
 
 
 fed 
 
 4. freeze 
 
 
 froze 
 
 .5. ffot 
 
 
 gat, got 
 
 meet 
 
 
 met 
 
 7. [cmth-an, 
 
 § 155, 1] 
 
 qnoth 
 
 8. see 
 
 
 saw 
 
 9, seethe 
 
 
 8od, sectb-jd 
 
 10. speed 
 
 
 eped 
 
 (c) i long, as in drive, i short, as in "begin. 
 
 Present. Past, Past Participle. 
 
 1. abide abode abode 
 
 (bide) 
 
 2 bind bound bounden, bound 
 
 3. bito bit bitten, bit 
 
fiTYMOLoar. 
 
 n 
 
 
 Prfsrnt. 
 
 Past. 
 
 Pant Parliiiple. 
 
 4. 
 
 cliido 
 
 chndo, chid 
 
 oliiddiii, chid 
 
 5. 
 
 climb 
 
 cluiub, climbed 
 
 cliinl)ed 
 
 G. 
 
 (Irivo 
 
 drave, fhove 
 
 drivn 
 
 
 fi-ht 
 
 fought 
 
 fou-htcn, fought 
 
 8. 
 
 lincl 
 
 fduud 
 
 found 
 
 i>. 
 
 }.,'rin(l 
 
 ground 
 
 ground 
 
 10. 
 
 liido 
 
 hid 
 
 hiJd"n, hid 
 
 11. 
 
 lie 
 
 lay 
 
 lien, laiu 
 
 12. 
 
 rido 
 
 rode, rid 
 
 ridden 
 
 13. 
 
 rise 
 
 rose 
 
 ri.sen 
 
 H, 
 
 shine 
 
 shone, shiued 
 
 fall ne, shintnl 
 
 16. 
 
 shrive 
 
 shrove 
 
 shriven 
 
 10. 
 
 slidu 
 
 slid 
 
 sliddcn, slid 
 
 17. 
 
 sniito 
 
 smote 
 
 smitten 
 
 18. 
 
 strike 
 
 struck 
 
 struck, stricken, strueken 
 
 19. 
 
 strive 
 
 strove 
 
 8triv( n 
 
 20. 
 
 thrive 
 
 throve 
 
 thiivt'n, thrived 
 
 21. 
 
 wind 
 
 wound 
 
 wound 
 
 22. 
 
 write 
 
 wrote 
 
 written 
 
 Notes and Observat.ons. 
 
 1. The simple Verb hide has lost its Past Tenac and Past Participle. 
 
 2. Bounden only used as Adjective, as bounden duty. Bound, prepared for, ready 
 to go to (Icel. buinv), is from a dietinct root. 
 
 4. Chode (Gen. xxxi. 36), obsolete. 
 
 6. t7om^, obsolete. It occurs in Milton— 
 
 " So dumb this lirst grand thief into God's fold." (/'. L. iv.) 
 
 6. Drave (Exod. xlv. i .'>), obsolete. 
 
 7. Fou(/hten is occasionally used in ttit^ pliniso, a "\\<\\ fotuilden field." 
 
 11. Lien (Ps. Ixviii. 13), obsolete. Liin (Lat. ligamtn), as a law term, is a distinct 
 
 word. 
 14. shined, obsolete. 
 
 17. Xnio<« occurs also rarely as Participle. (Sliakspeare.) 
 
 18. Striivh'M (Shaks.), obsolete. 
 
 19. Strove is Participle, Shaksp^are. 
 
 20. Thrived, Participle, .Sliakspeare, who does not use throve, 
 'iA. H'*c/ie I. s Participle, Shakspeare. 
 
 Prescnk 
 
 1. begin 
 
 2. 
 
 bi.l 
 
 3. 
 
 clinflf 
 
 4. 
 
 diu- 
 
 K 
 
 drink 
 
 6. 
 
 lliii;^ 
 
 7. 
 
 give 
 
 8. 
 
 ring 
 
 9. 
 
 shrink 
 
 11. 
 
 ."^ink 
 
 11. 
 
 bit 
 
 i sliort. 
 
 P.ist. 
 
 began, begun 
 
 bade, bid 
 
 clung 
 
 dug, diirgt'd 
 
 draidv, druuk 
 
 fiung 
 
 pave 
 
 rang 
 
 shrank, shrunk 
 
 sank, sunk 
 
 sat (sate) 
 
 I'ast Particinle. 
 
 begun 
 
 }ji(ld< n, bid 
 
 clung 
 
 t.\\\\i:, fligged 
 
 drunk, drunken 
 
 Hung 
 
 given 
 
 runir 
 
 shrunken, shrunk 
 
 sunken, sunk 
 
 Bitten, sat 
 
n 
 
 ENQLISU OKAMMAtt. 
 
 rrcscnt. 
 
 Post. 
 
 Past Participla, 
 
 12. sliri!* 
 
 slung 
 
 slung 
 
 i:{. slink 
 
 slunk 
 
 slunk 
 
 14. spin 
 
 KiKin, spun 
 
 spun 
 
 15. spit 
 
 spat, spit 
 
 Bpittcn, spit 
 
 l(j sprin;5 
 
 hpniiig, f^pniug 
 
 sprung 
 
 17. Aick 
 
 stuck 
 
 stuck 
 
 18. 8tini» 
 
 stung 
 
 stung 
 
 1!). stink 
 
 stiiuk. stunk 
 
 stunk 
 
 '20. swim 
 
 swam, s\\ lua 
 
 swiuu 
 
 21. swing 
 
 swung, swung 
 
 swung 
 
 22. win 
 
 Avon 
 
 won 
 
 23. wit (§ 155, 2) 
 
 wi.st 
 
 
 
 24. wring 
 
 ■wrung 
 
 wrung 
 
 NOTKS AM) OliSEUVATION'S. 
 
 1. Berjun as past indicative : Siial<spi>are, Popo, &c. 
 
 Obs. Tlie original form of tlio Past lYnse of sucli verbs as begin, drink, ding, sing, 
 ring, was in singular a witli plural in u : us - 
 
 Sing, ic [I] on-pan [l)i>pan] J'lur, we on-gHnnoa 
 
 „ ic (ininc [drunkj „ wc druiu'on 
 
 M ic R<(iip „ wc s((np(.n 
 
 „ ic liraiip [rang] „ we hrwiigoii 
 
 In several verbs tlio a lias b'M'n lost altofjctlicr, liaving given place to the n sound 
 of the plural and of the I'.ist I'articipli'. Thus we say, clt/ii;.', stf/ng, swung, 
 instead of clang, stung, swrmpr. in other verbs both Ibnns exist side by side, us 
 drank and drunk, slirank aii'i slir^nik, rang and r«iig, kc. 
 
 The forms in a should not be usul as participh'S. 'J'hus "he had dronk ducply" is 
 incorrect and contrary to etymology. 
 
 9, 10. Sunken, shrunken, only used adjcctively : as, a sunke7i reef, shiuiiJcLn limbs. 
 
 11. Sitlen, obsolete. 
 
 21. Sivang, obsolete. 
 
 Present. 
 
 1. blow 
 
 2. chooso 
 
 3. coino (become) 
 
 4. cr<nv 
 6, grow 
 «. hoUl(bchoiaj 
 
 7 know 
 
 8 shnnt 
 9. throw 
 
 (cl) Eoot Vowel o, 00, ow. 
 
 Past. 
 
 blew 
 
 cho.se 
 
 ciirne 
 
 crew, crowed 
 
 grew 
 
 lU'ld 
 
 knew 
 shot 
 til row 
 
 Past Participle! 
 
 blown 
 
 chf'.sen 
 
 coino 
 
 crowed 
 
 grown 
 
 held. holJen 
 
 known 
 
 el lot 
 
 thrown 
 
 Notes anu Obsi:bvation3, 
 
 4. Crew, nearly obsolete. 
 6. Uolden, nearly obsolete. 
 
 Present. 
 1. run 
 
 (e) One "Wn-b in u. 
 
 Past. 
 
 ran 
 
 Past Participla. 
 xuu 
 
ETVMOLOGTr. 
 
 70 
 
 Present. 
 
 1. fly 
 
 (/) One Verb in y. 
 
 Past, 
 flew 
 
 Past Participle. 
 
 flown 
 
 (B.) Class II. 
 (Arranged Alphabetical! v 
 
 Present. Past. 
 
 1. Ijeicave bereft 
 
 2. lieseech besouj^Iit 
 
 3. bring brouglit 
 
 4. buy bought 
 
 5. etui [ken] could 
 
 6. catcli ca!i<.;lit 
 
 7. clothe clail, cloUied 
 
 8. creep crept 
 
 9. (h^al dealt 
 
 10. d(r did 
 
 11. dic.ira dreamt, dreamed 
 
 12. feel felt 
 
 13. ilco Ihd 
 
 14. hear heard 
 
 15. keep kept 
 10. leap leapt, leaped 
 
 17. kave left 
 
 18. lose lost 
 
 19. may might 
 
 20. mean meant 
 
 21. owe ought, owed 
 
 22. say said 
 
 23. seek sought 
 
 24. .soil sold 
 2o. shall should 
 20. shoe shod 
 
 27. sk'ep Bh'pt 
 
 28. sweep swept 
 
 29. tench taught 
 
 30. tell • told 
 
 31. think thought 
 
 32. weep we])t 
 
 33. will would 
 
 34. woik wrought, worked 
 
 Notes akd Ouskuvations. 
 
 1. Bereaved: Gen. xlli. 36, "me liavc ye beixaved of my cLilUrcn :" so often in 
 
 literal sense. In figurative sense bereft is preferable. 
 
 6. (an, sec ^ 150. 
 
 7. Clad, as past indiciitive, olwoloto. 
 
 8. Creep. ]'a.st tense cro^ie, Laucasliire. 
 19. May, see ^149. 
 
 Past Participle. 
 
 bereft, bereaved 
 
 be.-ought 
 
 brought 
 
 bought 
 
 [couth] 
 
 caught 
 
 clad, elf)thed 
 
 crept 
 
 (I alt 
 
 done 
 
 dre.imt, dreamed 
 
 felt 
 
 11.(1 
 
 hi ard 
 
 kept 
 
 li apt, K aped 
 
 left 
 
 lost 
 
 meant 
 ought, owed 
 said 
 
 sought 
 Sold 
 
 shod 
 
 8l('J)t 
 
 swept 
 
 tanght 
 
 told 
 
 thought 
 
 wei)t 
 
 wrought, worked 
 
80 
 
 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 21. Ought, only in distinct Binso of duty or ohligation. In epraking of dcbU, 
 
 always owed, spo ^ 154 
 25. .S'Aafi, see ^ 148. 
 
 33. H^i«, Wft $ 147. 
 
 34. Wrouyht, now littlo used, cxcrpt afl Ailjodivc, wrought iron. 
 
 (C.) CLA.S.S III. 
 
 (Arranged AlphaLotically.) 
 
 § 
 beet 
 
 PrpRont. 
 
 Pil.St. 
 
 Past Participle. 
 
 1. l)rat 
 
 beat 
 
 beaten, beat 
 
 2. burnt 
 
 hiinst 
 
 hur.st 
 
 3. oast 
 
 east 
 
 casst 
 
 4. cost 
 
 cost 
 
 onst 
 
 I), cut 
 
 cut 
 
 out 
 
 G. hit 
 
 liit 
 
 hit 
 
 7. hurt 
 
 hurt 
 
 hurt 
 
 8. knit 
 
 knitted, kuit 
 
 knitted, kult 
 
 9. let 
 
 let 
 
 let 
 
 10. i»ut 
 
 put 
 
 put 
 
 U. lid 
 
 rid 
 
 rid 
 
 12. set 
 
 set 
 
 set 
 
 13. shed 
 
 shed 
 
 shed 
 
 14. shred 
 
 shred 
 
 siired 
 
 15. shut 
 
 shut 
 
 shut 
 
 IG. slit 
 
 slit 
 
 slit 
 
 17. split 
 
 split 
 
 split 
 
 18. spread 
 
 sj)read 
 
 spread 
 
 19. aweat 
 
 Bweuted, sweat 
 
 sweated, sweat 
 
 20. thruat 
 
 thrubt 
 
 thrust 
 
 N0Ti:S AND OliSERVATIONS. 
 
 9. Let, fo allow [rierm. lasfen] ; ami lot, to hinder, arc from distinct roots. T*3ft 
 latter is connected with adjective late (O.E. lai): compare Lat. tardo, retarao. 
 
 Obf. Verbs of Class 111. have in some cases lost their strong forms. Thus, an old 
 past ti nse of cut occurs, kitte [Angus, p. 213] ; and an old past tense of sutatt 
 sivatte [Morris, p. 311 J. 
 
 (D.) Class IV. 
 
 § IGl. This Class is far too extensive to admit of all the 
 Verhs belonging- to it being enumerated. Moreover, it is 
 continually being enlarged by the formation and intro- 
 duction of new words, while the other classes continue 
 limited in number. Among late additions to Class IV. 
 may bo mentioned the Verbs to elcctrifi/, to galvanise, to 
 tt'Ji'iiraph, to j/Jtotograph, to stcreoti/pc, to frafcrnisc, to gniU 
 loiiiw, to lynch, to garotte — all forming their I'ast Tens© 
 in d or ed. 
 
ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 8i 
 
 Obt. Jnst M In Nouns the plural rndinR j has bocomo the rrpnlar one [J 31] •© In 
 VerUi llio adilitiijii ol the Biillix d or ed lias 1« tDnic the n ii'ilar niuili' nf roiiniug 
 the I'aflt Tense. All the other processes are ul)>()l(te. iiiit thi* .■^Iro";/ Kirmi 
 [^ 158] Rhould not l)c looked upon us irreniilar, sinse they conrurm to what was the 
 Uw of the lungiiuge ut the tiuiu when tiny arose. 
 
 § 102. Tlio following Veils of Class IV. arc cininieratcd 
 because of their having peculiarities of forniation : — 
 
 (a) Verl)S ending in d, in which the Tast Tense and 
 I'ast I artici})le are forinccl by a simple change of 
 
 d to t :— 
 
 Present. 
 
 1. bond 
 
 2. blend 
 8. build 
 4. gild 
 
 6. sif'l 
 G. lend 
 
 7. rt'tid 
 
 8. send 
 y. spend 
 
 10. wend 
 
 Past. 
 
 bont 
 
 blciidod, (Mont) 
 
 (buiM.'d). built 
 
 gilded, '/,\\t 
 
 girded, girt 
 
 lent 
 
 rent 
 
 sent 
 
 spent 
 
 wended, went 
 
 PiLsi I'articiple. 
 
 bont 
 
 bl.iidod, (blent) 
 (luiildcd), built 
 gilded, gilt 
 girded, girt 
 lent 
 
 relit 
 
 Bent 
 
 spent 
 
 wended 
 
 The forms hent, hicnt, huilf, gilt, girt, &c. have arisen 
 out of bended, blended, builded, &c. by contraction. 
 
 (b) Verbs which have adopted the suffix -d or -ed 
 in the Past Tense in lieu of the stromj formation 
 [| 158], but which retain the ending -en in the 
 rarticiple : — 
 
 Present. 
 
 Past. 
 
 Past Participle. 
 
 1. bake 
 
 baked 
 
 bakon, baked 
 
 2. grave 
 
 graved 
 
 graven 
 
 engrave 
 
 engraved 
 
 engraved, engraven 
 
 3. hew 
 
 hewed 
 
 hewn 
 
 4. lade, load 
 
 laded, loaded 
 
 laden, loaded 
 
 5. mow 
 
 mowed 
 
 mown, mowed 
 
 6. rive 
 
 rived 
 
 riven 
 
 7. shape 
 
 slia}ied 
 
 shapen, shaped 
 
 8. shave 
 
 shaved 
 
 shaven, shaved 
 
 9. show 
 
 showed 
 
 shown, showed 
 
 10. BOW 
 
 sowed 
 
 sown 
 
 11. strew 
 
 strewed 
 
 strewn 
 
 [See § 159, Obs.] 
 
 r^ 
 
 NOTKS AKR OmiERVATrONS. 
 
 I. Baleen : " a cake ImTccti on the coals *" (1 Kiiiss xi.ic. 6) - obsolete. 
 4. Lade, laded, laden, now used specially of slii[)3. Laden also in figurative sense, 
 according to Matt. xi. 28, " ye that labour and are heavy laden." 
 
 J 
 
82 
 
 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 7. Shapcn, Ps. li. 5. Now only atjjpctively, rspecially in con.pouiid8, mis-Bhnppn 
 
 ill-sliapon. 
 3. s/iavm, nearly obsolete, except in adjectival Bcxuie, as a ^lose\y shaven bear4 
 
 The only form used in E. V. 
 
 Ohs. ilso saw, sivu l)oth Ftrictly weak verbs, bav» participial forms sawn, iewn 
 which are prol>ably due to the analogy at' sow. 
 
 (c) Certain contracted forms : — 
 
 Present. 
 
 Past. 
 
 Past Participle. 
 
 1. have 
 
 2. inaivO 
 
 had [= havod] 
 made [= inaked 
 
 had [= haved] 
 nuicJo [= makod' 
 
 ?,. lay 
 
 laid 
 
 laid 
 
 4. pay 
 
 5. bay 
 
 paid 
 said 
 
 paid 
 said 
 
 Ohs. So afraid is strif tly Past Participlo of the verb " to affray. " to frighten 
 alarm. .Stay is ref^ular, ttaij, stayed, stayed. Staid ii* Adjrclive, 
 
 § 1G3. Tlie Verl am, was, been, cannot be classified, 
 as each of these forms ])eli)n<2;s to a so})arate root (§ 143, 
 OI»i. I ). So in Latin, s-um [for es-iimj and fu-i arc formed 
 from totally distinct roots. 
 
 Adverbs. 
 
 § lfi4. Adverhs are v^ords used with VerT-s, Adjectives, 
 and other Adverbs, to juality or limit their application in 
 some way : as, to speak eloqucntlij (Adverb qualifying 
 Verb); he shouted aloud (Adverl) qualify in<i^ Verbj ; 
 very good (Adverb qualifying Adjective^ ; too soon (ono 
 Adverb qualifying another j. 
 
 Obs. An Adverb of time is sometimes used Adjectively for 'Jie sake f brevity: as, 
 the then Mayor, ^ 28'.J. 
 
 § 1<!5. Ftj/molofiy of Adrerhs. — ["nlilce the other parts of 
 spc'H'li, Adverbs arc almost without exception derived from 
 other words. 
 
 1. Some Adverbs are derived from Nouns: as. nerds, 
 sidewaifs, Jniiithiniys, (]>robably once I'ossessives) ; 
 whilom (at times, some tinu; ago : old Dative I lural ) •, 
 j)ieeenteal, i.e. a piece at a time (rtiai, "time," 0. E. ) ; 
 ahre/ist, ashore, away, across, aside {i.e. on-breast, on- 
 Bhore, &c.) ; perhaps, betimes^ &c. 
 
 • Others are derived fi\»in TVonouns : as, here, hencCy 
 hither ; there, thence, thither ; ichere, whence, whither, 
 whereon, tchereirr ; thus, than, Sec. 
 
 d 
 
ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 83 
 
 Ohg. Thoso Adverbs that are derivod from the Relative Prononn, an vherf, whev, 
 xchence, vfureos, kc, retain th.e cotiiiective power wliicli li'lmius to th'' Kilatfve 
 itself (^ x9). The same is the case with the AdverM while or whiht, as, than. 
 Each of tJRse words is Adverb and CoiijuiKtioa in one. 'I"hus, in the line — 
 
 " I know a bank | whereon the wild thyme [rrows " (Mids. X. Dr.) 
 
 we have really two Bentonccs. But they are so connected by tlie Relative Adverb 
 vhiiieon as to for one complete sentence. Substitute tlie h.nionstrative 
 Adverb Ihtnun for Ltnon, and the two simple sentences remain distinct;— 
 
 I know a bank. Thereon the wild thyme grows. 
 
 This connective force is still more apparent in such sentences as the following: — 
 
 " I ci»9t my eyes towards tlie summit of a rock . . . ivhere I discovered one in 
 the habit of a slieplierd . . ." {Visiuti oj Mirzah): 
 
 i.e. and tlu:ie 1 ill>co\en d, &'c. 
 
 " She fmi"i( d tliat siie saw her first husband coming towards her .... vfhen 
 in the mid-i ol tlie pleasure which she expressed .... he reproached lier in the 
 followini; manner . . ." {Sjucct. No. 110); 
 
 i.e. and then he reproached her, &c. 
 
 {Compare ^ 233, on the twofold use of the Relative.) 
 
 3. Tory many are derived from Adjectives; as, hndly, 
 heauti/nlli/, ii onderfulhi ; once, ticicc, thrlrc ; first, se- 
 coiuUy, tliiriUif, S:c. lii other cases, Adjectives are 
 used as Adverl s witlioiit 1 eiu^' made to undergo 
 any change: as, ///re (to sing liliC a liird) ; late (to 
 arrive too late) ; in-dtij (lirtiiij good) : see § 1(37, 
 OhH. 3. 
 
 4. Others are derived from Propositions : as, to and 
 fro (tVom) ; too ( = thereto) ; olj ; iqnnmJs, downvmuh^ 
 tl-c. In other cases Prepositions are used as Ad- 
 verbs without l)eing made to undergo any change: 
 as, ahore (to dwell above); d<:ini (the clock has run 
 d^Mcn) ; in and out ( in sense of at home, abroad). 
 
 § iihS. Classlficnfion of Adrerhs. — A dverlis may Lo classi- 
 fied ^<:'eoiciing to their meanings, as follows: — 
 
 N. i'. — The following clissifird li.its of words aro not intondod to bo 
 ooniiv.fltod tin ini<'inory, but Hiiiiply to cntibk! tlio nupil more rtudily to 
 distil, i^iiish tiis ;^;ciit vuriity ol' Adverba t'roiii (dliur kind.s of wonla. 
 
 1. Advci-hs of TiMK .; as. when (interrogative and rela- 
 tive i, mm, then. n'hih\ vliiht. nliilon, before, after- 
 tcards, soon, jneseii III/, hnniediafcJi/, since, afjo, to-morroiu, 
 yesterday, iJiOiiys, ever, never, by-and-by, &o. 
 
 2. Adverbs of I*IaCK: as, where, ichence, whither ('in- 
 terrogative and relative), with their com])oundH: 
 i»s, wherever. er<'rymn"re, nowhere, n-hithersoerer. itu. ; 
 hence, thence, hither, thitlier, altove, belon-. n-iililn, wiih" 
 out, around, upicards, doumwards, to and fi\;, ivo. 
 
 2 
 
84 
 
 ENGLTSTI GRAMMAR. 
 
 3. Adver1;)8 of Sequence or Ordicr : as, first (firstly)^ 
 secondly, thirdly, lastly. 
 
 4. Advorljs answering the question, " ITow many- 
 times ?" as, once, twice, thrice, often, seldom. 
 
 6. Aclvcr])s of Manner: as, hoio (interrogative and 
 relative), ivelL ill, badly, wisely, foolishly, riyht, riyhtly, 
 aright, aloud, ifec. 
 
 6. Adverbs of Degree : as, very, too, almost, quite, 
 rather, altogether ; much, little, no (with a Compara- 
 tive or Superlative : as, much better, little better, 
 no better); also the before a Comparative [§ 231]; 
 more, most, less, least. 
 
 7. Adverbs of Inference and Argument : as, ichy 
 (interrogative and relative), therefore, accordingly, 
 hence, thence, whence [" whence it follows . . ."]. 
 
 8. One Adverb of negation : not. (In 0. E. also we.) 
 
 Ohs. 1. First is bettor than firstly. The latter is not given by Jolmson at all, being 
 of later date than the appearance of the Dictionary. The following instances 
 show the usage of our standard writers :— 
 
 " First, metals are more durable than plants ; secondly, they are more solid 
 and hard ; thirdly, they are wholly subterraneous." (Bacon, in Johnson, s. v.) 
 
 So Hume, Fssays, i. 16 ; i. 96 ; &c. :— 
 
 "First .... secondly .... thirdly." 
 
 "FHrst .... secondly." (Berkeley, WbrJcs, p. 7.) 
 
 Obs. 2. Yes and no are sometimes called Adverbs. Tliis is incorrect. They are 
 substitutes for sentences, and not parts of sentences at all. Tims, in tiie (luestion 
 and answer— Are you willing? -I't'S the word yes is equivalent to the sen- 
 tence, I am willinij. The same may be said of the words called Interjections - 
 oh, O, ah, alas, &c. They are compendious expreasious, each etjuiv aUnt to a 
 sentence. IWord-Sentenccs.} 
 
 § 107. Adverbs in -ly. — Adverbs of Manner and Sequence 
 are usually formed by adding -ly to the Adjectives from 
 which they are derived : as, beautiful, beautifully ; bad, 
 badly ; wise, wisely. 
 
 Adjectives ending in y not preceded by another vowel 
 change y into i before -ly : as, pretty, prettily ; hasty, 
 hastily. But coy, coyly. 
 
 Adjectives ending in -le simply change the e into y : 
 as, single, singly ; able, ably ; terrible, terribly. 
 
 Ohs. 1. Gaily is now spelt thus, with t. In Johnson's time it was spelt cither Railj 
 or fini>]y. (Diet. s. v.) Shyly is spelt thus, with y. 
 
 Obf. a. Some Ai^iectives are also used as Adverbs without the addition of -^y ; It 
 tuay be, with adiilcrcnce ol' meuuiug. Thus y<v say, the bud Bbinou biiijht. 
 
 (>, 
 It 
 
ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 80 
 
 %pU as brightly (especially in poetry) ; to bit any onn hard (but in different sonae, 
 to be hardly— x.a. severely or uvjuftly - used) ; j)ntty well (but with a Verb, 
 prettily : as, prettily dressed); to aim high (but " hnjlily displfastd," Acts xii. '20) ; 
 " lie ealled so loud" (P. L. \.), but. in ordinary lanj^uagc, to speak lomdy. 
 Tlio usu of Adjectives as Adverbs is frequent in poetry, and that in tlie case of 
 words which could not be so usjd in prose. 
 
 Obs. 3. The 0. E. Ibrmation of Adverbs is in e. So harde (/'. I'lonman, 1. 42) ; 
 Btreyte, i.e. straitly (_ib. 5'J); fain', i.e. fair, fairly (ih. ii. 407), &c. In tlie 
 Elizabethan period the e had in such cases become lost, and tiius the form of 
 Adjective and Adverb became in many cases identical. The current Adverbial 
 ending in -ly ( = lilie) is properly an Adjectival ending (0. E. -lie, adv. -lice ). 
 
 Obs. 4. In the case of Adjectives ending in -ly, tlie same form is sometimes uwd for 
 the Adverb: as,"to live ijolly" [tor godlily], (2 Tim. iii. 12); "to act Uaiy" 
 [like life], {Two Gent, of V. iv. 4); "lovely fair" {0th. iv. 2): ij 22C. Vbs. 2. 
 Likely is in coaimon use both aa Ailjective and as Adverb. 
 
 § 168. Comparisoji of Adverbs.— ~Moi<.t Advcrlis are com- 
 pared by more and most : as, su'cdli/, more sivccllt/ most 
 sicectly. But some take -er, -est : a.s, soan, saonir, soonest ; 
 often, of tetter, oftenest ; hard, harder, hardest ; loud, louder^ 
 loudest, &c. See also Obs. 3. 
 
 A low are irregularly conqiared : — 
 
 Positive. 
 
 
 Comparative. 
 
 •Superlative. 
 
 well 
 
 
 
 b(!itcr 
 
 best 
 
 badly, 
 
 ill, evilly 
 
 worse 
 
 worat 
 
 mucl) 
 
 
 
 more 
 
 mnbt 
 
 littlo 
 
 
 
 less 
 
 least 
 
 far 
 
 
 
 farther 
 
 farlht at 
 
 [forth] 
 
 
 
 further 
 
 furtlicst 
 
 nigh, near 
 
 
 111 ar 
 
 nearest, next 
 
 lato 
 
 
 
 lati.T 
 
 latest, last 
 
 Ohs. 1. Farther, farthestt, are altoL'etlier anomalous forms. They are corrupted 
 from ferthir,ferthest, tiie old ( 'omi>arative and Superlative oi forth (Koch, ii. 2(i3), 
 and have taken the place of the old Comparative and Superlative ot far, which 
 Lave become obsolete \J'erre,fiirriH, Cliaucer], 
 
 Farther, farthest, are now used in comparison of distances; further, furthest, with 
 reference io position in advance, forwardness, or progress :^ 
 
 " He went a V^nh\fnr(hrr" [away]. (Matt. xxvi. 39.) 
 " Farlht.H from Ilim is best." (/'. L. i.) 
 "/'aj-<.'n.'.«i from perfection." (Hooker, in i/'«?inv?on.) 
 1 it- 
 
 " Hitherto shalt thou cnme, but no further." (Job xxxviii. 11.) 
 
 " I will proceed nnfnrlher." {lb. xl. 5.) 
 
 " When they had further threatened them." (Acts iv. 21.) 
 
 Obt. 3. AVar is itself strictly th.e Comparative Degree ; so that nearer is an iiistauce 
 of double formation. 
 
 Olt. 3. The Adverb early is compared 
 
 early earlier earliest 
 
 like the Adjective, And in poetry, some other Adverbs In -ly are occaslonully 
 compared by -<-/■ and -est: as, " yladlier" (/'. L. vi.); " ricihtUer" (/'. /.. xi ); 
 "vioreproudlier" (Sh. f'oriol. Iv. 7\ an Instance of double comparison; "kan- 
 Iter" (^Tennyson, In Mem. 04); "fro^hlier" {ib. 114); "yladlier" (id. An. 
 
86 
 
 EN(JL1SH GRAMMAR. 
 
 Comparative. 
 
 Supprlative. 
 
 lutlier 
 [ere | 
 liefer 
 
 [rathesf, obs/ 
 er«t 
 Uefist, adj. Sh.' 
 
 Ardi-rC); " qukklleft" (Wonls. Excurs. iii.). In thp older prose writers, thea« 
 forms were trequently used : us, 
 
 "Touching things which generally are leceivcd, — ve are hardVrH able to 
 bring such proofs of their certainty, us may satisfy gainsayers." (lloolver, v. 2.j 
 " Tliat lie may the stroiKjlici- provide." (Hobbes, Li/e of Tkmyd.) 
 
 " The things highliest important to the growing age." 
 
 (Shaftesbury in Lowtb._) 
 
 § 1G9. Defective Comparison : — 
 
 Positive. 
 [rathe^ adj. obs.J 
 
 lief 
 
 Ohs, Rathe, early (obs.), was originally an jAdJ.: " tlie rathe primmso " (Milt. 
 Lycidas). Ilathe ripe (a spei'ics of apple, ,Su.s.slx) = early ripe. Kre used only 
 as Conj. : erst — infot-nier days, vnce. As Adverb: " Powers that erst in Jleaven 
 eat on thrones" '". L. i.). 
 
 AYe is found in erewhile (once,formevh/). 
 
 Lief=zwillin(jly: " 1 had as liej Ww tuwii-cricr spuke my lines" {IlamJd, iii. 2). 
 
 § 170. Phrase Adverhs. — Snch. are, at random; in thodarh; 
 at a loose twc? (collcjq.) ; spick and njian (coUoq.j; at lar[je ; 
 upside down; topsy tiirveij (collotj[. j ; pell-mell; at cross pur- 
 poses. 
 
 Prepositions. 
 
 § 171. A Preposition is a word wliich sliows tlio rela- 
 tion of Olio Kouu to aiiotlier : as, a man (\f lioine, a man 
 in liomo, a man from Ix'ome, a man joiirneyinj;" toirards 
 Kome; a treatise hy Milton, a treatise on Milton, a treatise 
 against IMilton. 
 
 Here of in, from, hy, on, against, are Prepositions. 
 
 § 172. Pre]iositions are usually put lielore ^ jn-ir-iHsitin, 
 " ])1acin^ betbro"] IS'ouns and Pronouns wliieli they eon- 
 ncet with some preceding ISoun, Adjective, or Verb : as — 
 
 ♦• I saw a smith st:ui(l with hi.s hnmiuer tluis." (7i. /. iv. 2.) 
 [Noun connected with Noun.] 
 
 " Poor soul ! hi.s eyes aro red with ii'erpiiuiV (J. Crt-.. iii, 2.) 
 [Verbal Noun conneett d witli Adjective.] 
 
 ** A old man hrohn with the sfomm of state." (Hen. VIII, iv. 2.) 
 [Noun connected with rarticijilo of Verb.] 
 
 Obs, Occasionally a Preposition comes after the Noun to wliich it belongs : 08— 
 
 " His sjvar- to equal which the t:\ll"st jiine 
 Hewn on Norwepian hills were l)Ut a waud— 
 He walked wrrii . . ." (i*. L. i.): 
 
 ix. Tie walked with his spear. 
 
 I 
 
 t 
 
 t 
 
 t ■ 
 
 o 
 
 H 
 
ETYMOLOQT. 
 
 87 
 
 § 173. Wlien a Preposition connects Noan with Xonn, 
 the relation is between one ohject and another = [smith 
 with hammer I ; wlien it connects a .Nonn with an Adjec- 
 tive, the rehition is between an object and the (.nality 
 expressed by the Adjective [red with weeping]; wlieu it 
 connects a Noun with a \ erb, tlie rehition is between an 
 object and an action [broken icith storms^. 
 
 OliK. It lias bpen maintain, d [Muikl John, i.] tliiit a I'rcposition always connects 
 Nuun witli Xiniri passing over any inteinitdiatc wonls. This mode of ex- 
 planation does not aiip ar satisfactory in all cas.s. In such a sentence as the 
 following — 
 
 The man is ignorant of his own language, 
 
 the noun langionje stands in no grammatical nlaticjii to the nonn man, Imt is 
 the olijrct of tlie verbal atijectivc /( unnntt. in all cases where an A'lJ < ti\e or a 
 Verb takes after it a preposition-plirase as complenK nt, the ^raTninatieal con- 
 nection is between the iS'oun and the Verb or Adjective, not between the Sunn 
 and some other Noun preceding bulh, 
 
 § 174. I'rcpositions may be classified as follows :— 
 
 1. Simple {'repositions. 
 
 2. Compound and Derivative Prepositions. 
 
 3. Phrase-Prci^sitions. 
 
 1. Simple PiiErosiTioNS. 
 
 at 
 
 for 
 
 of, off 
 
 to 
 
 by 
 
 from 
 
 on 
 
 up 
 
 down 
 
 in 
 
 through 
 
 wi( 
 
 « 
 
 2. Compound and Di:rivativf, PiiEPosMTONs. 
 
 above 
 
 bef(iro 
 
 into 
 
 since 
 
 about 
 
 bi'low 
 
 viaugre 
 
 thmu^'liout 
 
 across 
 
 l)OTi(ath 
 
 near 
 
 till 
 
 after 
 
 beside, -a 
 
 notwithstanding 
 
 to\\ar(l(b) 
 
 nfj;aiiist 
 
 betwcL-n 
 
 outsido 
 
 under 
 
 along 
 
 betwixt 
 
 over 
 
 underneath 
 
 anufl, -st 
 
 bevoiid 
 
 . past 
 
 until 
 
 among, -st 
 
 but * 
 
 respecting 
 
 ll])ou 
 
 aiietit 
 
 concerning 
 
 sans 
 
 wiliiiit 
 
 (a)roun(l 
 
 during 
 
 save, saving 
 
 without 
 
 athwart 
 
 except, -lug 
 
 
 
 according to 
 along with 
 on account of 
 
 3. PiiuasI'-Prkpositions. 
 
 because of 
 in behalf of 
 by means of 
 
 by reason of 
 for the sake of 
 instead of, &o. 
 
 • In sense of except : as, nothing hut water : comp. § 286. 
 
 *• 
 
88 
 
 ENGLISH GRAMMA n. 
 
 Cbf. 1. SoTT.fi of tho above words are usrd both as Adverbs and as PrrpoRitions: ai^ 
 aiiove, hdoiv, up, down, since, &c. Tlicy are Adverbs when used alisolutcly, ai,d 
 without either a Nouu or a part of a sentence -Inpendent upon t'lcm. Thus, in 
 tlie Rfntence, " he has since left the country," since is an Adverb nodilyiits 
 tlie Verb lejt: but in this -"since his departure, the matter has been allowed tu 
 nst "—smcc is a Preposition. Again, since may also be used as a '"onjuuction - 
 since he left the country. [See below, "Conjiinctions.'*] 
 
 Ohs. 2. Anent, i.e. concerning : a Scotticism, often used in colloquial language^ 
 
 Obs. 3. In after, over, uniler, the -er is the Comparative sufRx. 
 
 Ohs. 4. Concerning the etymology and uses of hut, see ^ 294. 
 
 Ols.^. licsiile (not besides) where place, is denoted: as, "beside the «tin waters'" 
 (Fs. xxiii.) ; so, to sit down hesidi niiyone. licside also in sense of out of the wcnj 
 of : ."s, " beside the mark" (Cowper); " thou art beside thyself" I'Acts xxvi. 24). 
 Either beside or besides in sense of over and above, in addition : as, " beside all 
 tliis " (T,uke xvi. 2(3 ; and so always as Preposition in E. V.); " besides all these" 
 (Arnold, Horn. 11. ii. 229'). Both forms arc used adverbially. 
 
 Obs. C. Maugre (obsolete) : F/. malgrc, in spite of :— 
 
 "Shall lead Hell captive maugre Hell." (P. L. iii. 256.) 
 
 Ohs. 1. For tlie etj'niolosy of near, see ^ G8, Obs. 4. 
 
 Obs. 8. Notwithstanding is used as Adverb (1 shall go notwithstanding); and less 
 frequently as Conjunction : sec ^ 286. 
 
 Obs. 9. Sans (Fr. obsolete), without : — 
 
 " Sans teeth, sans eyes, sans taste, sans everything." 
 
 'Sh., As Ton TAlce It, ii. 1.') 
 
 Obs. 10. Save, saving : nearly obsolete, e.xcept in poetry. Save, except, are some- 
 times usLd as Coiyunctions : see $ 2B6. 
 
 Conjunctions. 
 
 § 175. Conjunctioris are words which connect sentences 
 together. Tims they sustain the same relation towards 
 sentences which rrepositions Giistain towards single words. 
 Examples : — 
 
 " Cromwill died, ojuHhc Stuarts were rocalkd." 
 
 •* We siiall not all sleep, hut we shall all be changed." 
 
 (1 Cor. xv. 51.) 
 " 7/'lio «lo 1)1('0(1. 
 I'll gild the faces oftlic fj^rnoms withal. 
 For it must seem their guilt.'" {Macbeth, ii. 2.) 
 
 § 17G. rVrnjunctions being thns the links or bonds be- 
 tween sentences, wlicn these are removed, the separate 
 members of a complex sentence appear in a detached form. 
 Thus in the last of the above exaiu])les we have a cuiu]»lex 
 sentence consisting of three membt.'S : — 
 
 (1) lh^ bUHHl(s). 
 
 ('2) I'll gild the facf^s of the grooms withal [with the blooilj. 
 
 (3) It nnust soein tlieir guilt. 
 
 1 
 
 \ 
 
Etymology. 
 
 SO 
 
 )sitions: aa, 
 oliitcly, !\hd 
 1. Thus, in 
 ) nodityitiK 
 1 allowed tv 
 nj unction - 
 
 iguage. 
 
 ill waters '• 
 I of the jra;/ 
 3 xxvi. 24). 
 " Reside all 
 s all these" 
 
 ); and less 
 
 «, li. 1.) 
 
 are some- 
 
 itences 
 owards 
 words. 
 
 51.) 
 
 ds he- 
 )iirato 
 fonii. 
 
 in])Kx 
 
 I- 
 
 ( 
 
 " Neither oxy.2;cn nor hydroi^on'i 
 alone is litteJ for respiration " j 
 
 § 177. Tlie Conjunction and sonictiincs unites single 
 words, i.ot sentences : as, " two and [ = icith] two are four." 
 Hero and does the work of a rre])osition. tSo in the ad- 
 verbial phrase, " [to walkj two and two." 
 
 § 178. The Conjunctions and, either, or, neither, nor, 
 conduce to brevity of expression. Thus — 
 
 " Ciosar and rompey were b thi _ 1" Caesar was a i,'r. at niiin ;" 
 great meu" / ~ \" Tonipey wad a j^'riat Jiiaii." 
 
 I" Oxy<^en alone is not lilted for 
 respiration;" 
 "Hydro. in alone ifl not fitted 
 ( ior r(si)ii alien." 
 
 Such sentences are called contracted sentences. 
 
 § 179. Classif ration of Ccnjinictiojis. — Conjunctions may 
 be classitied as follows : — 
 
 1. Simple connectives, positive or ik j^'ative: and, or, 
 nor, neither, nor, either, or, both . . . and. 
 
 2. Causal Conjunctions, which denote a cau.so or 
 reason : because, therefore, for, since, whereas, 
 seeing that, in order that, that, lest. 
 
 3. Adversative Conjunctions, implying opposition 
 or contrast between two statements : but, 
 yet, however, notwithstanding, nevertheless, 
 though, although, granting that; except, save 
 (saving), (rare as Conjunctions). 
 
 4. Hypothetical Conjunctions : if, so, provided, un- 
 less. 
 
 5. Temporal Conjunctions, expressing relations of 
 time : before, after, as soon as. when, while. 
 
 6. Comparative Conjunctions : as, than. 
 
 Obt. CoDceniing when, uhere, while, &o., soe ^ 165, Obt. 
 
 Interjections. 
 
 § 180. Interjections are words used by way of exclama- 
 tion, to call attention or to express surprise, pain grief, 
 exultation, vexation, ttc. : as, O ' oh ! ah ! heigho ! alas ! 
 hurrah! &c. They rarely stand in any grammatical rela- 
 tion to other words, being in fact word-sentences, like 
 Yes and No [§ 16G, Ohs. 2]. 
 
 OfiK. Sump IntorJcdioiiP .ii.' moi'o iiiaiticulatprrirs: as, ofc.' ah! ha! haha ! he, he! 
 * Otlins liaveaiist 11 fioin tin' rorriiptinn of entire sciiteiiccs or phrases: as, marry I 
 
 (Shaka.) = [/ sivear'] by St. Mary ; zounds ! (obsol.) = by O'od's ivounds, he. 
 
90 
 
 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 Formation of Words. 
 
 Simple and Complex Words. 
 
 § Ir^l. Sim PL K Woiins are such as cannot Lc traced 
 back to any more jlenientary forms in the language. Sucli 
 are — 
 
 1. The Pronominal Forms J, ?«c, thou^ he, icho. 
 
 2. The Numeral Adjectives one . ... ten 
 
 3. A large nnmlior of conimon Nouns helonging to 
 tlie ohh.'st typi) of English : as. m<ni, hoy, <jirl, drnj, 
 cat, fitin, moon, mrtli, sUtr, loatcr, Jire, &c. 
 
 4. A large number of common monosyllabic Ad.ikc- 
 TiVKs. also liclonging to the oldest type of English ; 
 as, f/o dy had, loii'j, short, hlack, ivhite, /ed. hlae, sweet, 
 hiijh, low, clear, dark, rouijh, hard, soft, cold, &c. 
 
 6. A cry many common monosyllabic Vkriss, also be- 
 longing to the oldest ty2)e of English : as, he, is, <jo, 
 come, lice, die, sj)eah, see, hear, feel, smell, freeze, thaw, 
 blow, flow, &c, 
 
 6. The simple PiiKPOsmoNS : as, in, out, up, doion, &c. 
 
 7. A few Adverbs and Conjunctions ; as, now, not, andt 
 for. 
 
 § 182. Complex Words are such as are formed from 
 other words by Comi'o.sition or Derivation, or by a 
 combination of both processes. 
 
 § 183. Compound Words. — Words formed by the co- 
 alescing* of two or more distinct words are called Com- 
 pound Words: SLS,rainhow, walking-sticJc, corn-fleld,foreseef 
 not withstand imj, nevertheless. 
 
 Wlien the coalescence is complete, the Compound is 
 written as a single word, as hlacMlrd, sunflower, railway. 
 
 When the coalescence is less complete, a hy})hen is used 
 to tie the component words together : as, Will-d'-the- Wisp, 
 homeward-hound, rosy-fingered, pcnny-ivise, pound-foolish, man- 
 of-war, grass-plot, field-hotany. 
 
 «. It is often difficult to decide whctlior a given combination of words should 1j« 
 regarded as a Compound or not. Take as examples, " monntain-rnniir" " .wo 
 inlets," "liind-drainat/e," "land-u-ind," "coast-line," "lip, tooth, and ihrncV\ 
 consontnts," "old Jfiifh Ditth," " .\ew High Diitcn," "the yoini-'pouji," "the 
 Adjective (jroitp," " demonstrntivc-irhitive," " pronoun-adrerh" {''\uh\ Phil, of 
 £nglish Tongue'). The beet test is the accent. If thero is only one dominant 
 
 • Lat. coalescC're, to qtuic into one. 
 
 wo 
 ad( 
 
 all 
 
 .M A ] 
 
ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 91 
 
 I 
 t 
 
 accent, we have boforo us a true compound, even thoufrli the fcniponnd words 
 are written without any hyplien. Ttius, lip-romon>int, lnvth-cunfonunt, throat- 
 aimonint, are true conipcunds, howevrr written, the aect iits on tiie ty'ilablfs 
 !(/», toiiDi, throat, ilouiiuating over thf entire word ; and tiic same may be sait\ 
 for tlic piiiloloijical terms, O'ld Jliyh Dutch, .\ew Iliijh Dutch. 
 So, blackbird (.Lat. merula, "tlie merle"), b.'ing a true compound, has but one 
 accent; whereas, if in descrihinK a crow or raven, we were to speak of it af a 
 black bird, each word would bear its owr separate accent (Latiiam). Uut tiio 
 ear may often leave us in doubt aftjr all. 
 
 § 184. Dkrived Words. — Words formed from other 
 vvoi-ds by sonio change of form in thomselvos, or l>y tlio 
 addition of .some element never found standing by it.self, 
 are called Dkkivkd Words or Dkri vati v i;s. Sneh 
 are, man-///, man-i-lin, man-/«>or/, ?iw-man, fiom the Koun 
 MAN; .spoke. .speak-tT, speak-/«7, 6(?-s])eak, from the Verb 
 bi'i'jAiv; king .//, king-(^o///, king-,s7//j9, tiu-king-cd, from kino. 
 
 Obs. It is som tini' s possible to trace baei^ a formative element to a di>tiiict word. 
 Tlius, the ending -ly tomes from tlio Adjeetive '•kc. Rut Bina- -ly is tiot u^' d as 
 a separate word, Atijectives and Adverbs iu -Ij must be regarded as Derivatives 
 ratiier than as Oonipounds. 
 
 § 185. When a Compound word has been taken bodily 
 from another language, it is for us simply a J)erivod word, 
 although in tlie language from v/hich we have borr(,)wed 
 it, it may be a true coni})ound. Tlius economi/ is for the 
 English student. a Derived word, being in fact the (J reek 
 (iiKin'ofxia CL'dt. (iconomiaj transferred to our language by a 
 simple change of termination. The comjtosition of the 
 Greek word jlKovofua belongs to Greek etymology. 
 
 § 186. Co M 1 ou X D-I) K R I V v: 1) W o R D s. — S< )me words arc 
 at once compound and derived, being formed IVoni two or 
 more words by the addition of an inllexional element :* 
 as, grey-hair(v/, white-rober/, web-foot(-'(/, long-leg;/^''/, hun- 
 dred-hande(/, "many-fountainVr' ( Tennyson j, "full-face'/" 
 (ih.), iron-jointt't?, " su|)ple-sinewt'd " (^6.); heart-rend///f/, 
 money-gt '/m/, " many-twinkl/j^y " (Byron, Keble;, " hol- 
 low-sound/z-r/" (HemansJ, all-personify m/, " all-govern/»f/" 
 (Grote); old-maid/s/i, " screeeh-owLWi " (Carlyl; ,. " old- 
 iricmli^h-ncss" (Q. Hev., example in EarleJ ; ' , .'und- 
 grinder" (Carlyle); " ill-odoroW6'," i.e. having ah. .u-odour 
 (E. 13. Browning). 
 
 * "In suih in.-tances the inflection reacts upon tlie wliolc oonipniMid 
 witli a cnn^olidiitinej force. . . . Wliorn the la>t member rif n l.iiktil 
 coiiipos-te I. as an mtlcctinn, it iseinis to run 1 ack p<>rv.'i(liii;.,'ly lliioii<jfh 
 i\\v. otlicrs, supplying tliC whol<i with a thread of cuhcroncc." (Kaile, 
 p. 512.) 
 
92 
 
 ENGLISH GRAWMAll. 
 
 fFoi tl.o inflexional elements employed in such ATorda, 
 sec § 1 110.] 
 
 § 187. The most muncrous and imjiortant Compounds 
 are — 
 
 A. WJWinHl NoHVfi. 
 
 B. vonnd Adjrctlvcs, 
 
 C. Conqyoiind Verbs. 
 
 
 A. CoMF'ouND Nouns. 
 
 § 188. (1.) The great mass of Compound Nouns are 
 formed by the simple juxt;i position of twoNouns,tho 
 former of which modiiies the latter: as, sony-tJiritsh, 
 rnisscl-lhrnsh, rosc-fn'c, trcc-rcsc, rin</-Jin<jcr, fmgcr-riwj, 
 totcn-hall, j^arisJt-church, railicay, j)rintinfj -press, etc. 
 
 N.'P. — Tliis class of Compound Nouns fur outnumbers all the rot 
 put together. 
 
 (2.) In some cases an Adjective has coalesced with a 
 Noun from heing frequently joined with it in 
 a particular sense: as, freeman, nohhnnan, hlaek-eocky 
 hhiihird, cff'side and on-side (in foot-ball j. 
 
 (3.) In a few other cases a Noun appears preceded hy 
 a Transitive \'erh, of which it is the Object: as, 
 dare-devil, picl'-jwclfet, iarn-sj)it, ffpit-fire. (Here com- 
 mon phrases have been made Nouns of.) 
 
 (4.) Also a considerable number of verbal Nouns are 
 found in composition with adverbial prefixes : as, 
 /ore-sight, _/f'>r-thonght, a/Vt'r-thought, «/V(^r-math 
 (that wliieh is mowed after the first croji), afler-giow, 
 o/Ver-etfect, <tc. 
 
 (5.) A few miscellaneous Noun Compounds remain to 
 be noted : such are, godsend, ivind-fall, fore-noon, 
 after-noon, neer-do-icell, forget-me-not, hread-and-hntter, 
 no-hall (u\ cricket ), &:c. These again are instances 
 of common plirases which have been made Nouns of. 
 
 B. Compound AojiiCTivis. ■ 
 
 § 189. (1.) Themostimportantclassof Compound Adjec- 
 tives consists of those in which the meaning of an 
 Adjective is modified by a Noun prefixed : as, snow- 
 white (wliite as snow), blood-red {red. ashlood), ice-cold 
 {cold as ice), sea-green ((fa greenish hue resembling the 
 
FTYMOI.OOY. 
 
 93 
 
 
 grrrn of thr srn)^ sky bhio ibhic as the /jZ/zX pitch-<1iirk 
 (dark as pitch), breast-lii«^h (vp to the breast), Sec. 
 
 (2.) Anotlier class consists of those in which tlio 
 nieaiiiug of an Adjective is modified by an adverbial 
 prefix : as, rf//- powerful, «/-iiiighty, oier-tiinct, over- 
 precise, ?to7<-resident. 
 
 (3.) Sometimes two Adjectives are br(ni<i;ht into 
 juxtaposition, wlien tlie former n\odifies tlio latter 
 as, bhuvblack, Tilne-gToen, vellowish-whitc; "grim 
 white" (('arl\lo), " miscellane(nis-hist(»rical " {(l().\ 
 "mysterious-terrific" (</".); "silent-bare" (K- H. 
 Browning), "innocent-wild" ((lo.). Such combina- 
 tions are often used liy autlntrs v\ ithout any idea of 
 their becoming i)ermanent words. 
 
 Obs. Wlifcii tlio two Adjectivos are of Latin or iirtck origin, tiioy aro often tied 
 togotticr by tiio vowel u [st iii-vowelj : as, ' tlieusopliico-ni' tupiiysicul " (Curlyle), 
 "concavo-convex kiis " (,<ialbriiitli aiul liauyhtonj. 
 
 C. Ct'MPOUNi) Vi i;hs. 
 
 § 100. C'^mpound A'erbs are formed by means of Pre- 
 fixes : as, /ort'-tell, diit-do, oi't-r-do, ct^r-lay, orrr-Vw, inider- 
 lie, ?//>-rise. i^'C. [Compare lists of l*relixes, English and 
 Latin, §§ 194, 199.] 
 
 ]\Iany Verbs are really Com]) .nds which have their 
 meaning modified by a I'rejtosi.ion [Adverbj following: 
 as, to call nut, drive haih\ pull doini, laugh at, root up, 
 &c. In such cases the I'rejiositioJi [Adverb] adheies to 
 the Verb in the Passive Voice: as, he was called-out 
 (cliallemjcd) ; the house was pulled-down; to be laughcd-at, 
 rooted-up, driven-back. 
 
 Obs. A few Conijiound Verbs are fornn il from a Noun and a Verb: as, to ?«</>; bite 
 (i.e. to bite or snarl at a person behind his back)', to {>rojf-beat ("to depress with 
 tevere brov'S and stern or lofty tanks" — .Jolinson"); to ^)^^(lress {dress or vkiiuih' 
 soil at the top); to hni-pt^ck (Veib form d i>y false analogy from participial 
 adjective henpecked), &c. 
 
 § 191. Compounds of other Parts of Sjieeeh. — These are 
 mostly of a miscellaneous character. For Comjtound Pro- 
 nouns [ichoso, whosaever, t^'c], see § 98, foil. ; C(uni)ound 
 Relative Adverbs [irJierchy, icherein, &c.\, sec § 105, Obs.; 
 Compound Prepositions, § 174. 
 
 Cbs. Other compound Adverbs are of various growths: take as examples, Aead- 
 foreviost, upside-doum, strai(jhtiray, e/tsnones [= presently : obsol.], in-doortt 
 «;)-.<<rti>j(, "plunged elbow-deep" (K. B. nr<pwiiiiig),_/or.><«*//i, somehoic, somewhere, 
 somewhtn [rare] ; Tiowise, otherwise, by-and-by, of -yore, &c. 
 
94 
 
 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 Derivatives. 
 
 § 192. There are tliree principal modes of Derivation : — 
 
 1. Vy a IVolix : aa, do, iin-do ; say, (jain-8-dy ; daub, be- 
 d;iul), il'e. 
 
 2. By a SuHix or ending: as, good, good ness. 
 
 3. I'y a change in the body of the word itself: as, 
 sing, song; gold, g/ld ; break, breat'A ; dig, d'llch. 
 \N.B. — The nicest iinj)ortant class of words formed 
 bv internal ciianijre consists of the Past 'I onscs of 
 primary \er])S, wliich are not usually classed as 
 Derivatives: see § 15().J 
 
 § 103. Also in many cases Verbs have been formed from 
 Nouns for vice versa) and Adjectives, witli(»ut any change 
 whatever: compare, fish, and to fish; weed, and to weed 
 [a garden j ; air, and to air [clothes;; dust, and to dust 
 [a room ; black, and to black boots]. In the earlier stages 
 of our language the \ erb-fornuition would be marked by 
 a termination (-inn, -an, -en). 
 
 As instances of Verbs used as Nouns, take the following : 
 to run, and r/ run; to struggle, and a strug«j;le; to cry, 
 and a cry. 
 
 § 19-i. CoM.MOX English PuErixEs: — 
 
 a-bed, a-side, a-loft, rt-Held, a- 
 ^- ^■' °" wait, a-bide. 
 
 / 5e-neath, &^-fore, he-s,'de — often 
 serves to form Verbs from 
 >>ouns or other Verbs: as. he- 
 nighted, orertaken by niglit; 
 ?>t:-clouded. covered over witJi 
 cloud; ?>e-(iizen, todizenaZ/orer; 
 
 \ tc'-daub, to daub all over, &c. 
 
 I. be-, neaVy upon, over I 
 
 3. for-, complctelij, so as 
 to wake an end of 
 
 4. fore-, before 
 
 /or-lorn [quite lost : Germ, ver- 
 loren]; /'or give, /or-wandt red 
 [that has wandered and h)st 
 his way : Fiers Plowman. ] 
 
 /on-tell, /ore-warn, &c. 
 
 N.'n. — Fnrr- in fnr^-cro./ojv-d* 'fn r'(i'n\ forr-^ond, bolonp^s to No. 3, 
 in s|)ite of tlio spelliiiji,-; iiidrcd thesr llirco words 0((ylit ratlicr to bo 
 •writtuu wiLkuut Ihc c cjcc NVcdj^woud, Diet. art. /or. 
 
 or 
 
 at 
 
 thi 
 
FTYMOLOr.V. 
 
 05 
 
 .• ^;« - «.,•<,- J ws-ileod, m/x-chance, w.-i'-sliaiicn, 
 
 »', IP1S-, a-mis8 .. .. < • 1 xi. f ^ 
 
 7. un-, not (with Ad- ) 
 
 »n-wisc, un kind, ttc. 
 
 jectives) .. 
 
 [Karely fmind with Nouns : " M7i-rcst " (Shaks.), 
 " WH-reasuii " ( Scottj.j 
 
 t. un-, with \'erl»s, to | 
 
 denote undinnn I i, « ,, , , - • . 
 
 whit his been «w-roll,«7i-f(,ld,»m-l,cna.u«-twist. 
 
 done : Germ, ent- ] 
 
 The following fall meaning, against, in oj^j^osition) occur 
 only in isolated words : — 
 
 and- [Gr. uiti-] : answer [" swar-ian," to swear, affirm'^. 
 
 gain-, i.e. against : gain-^ay. 
 
 icith- [ef. Germ, tcider-^ : w*///i-stand, ?r////-hold. 
 
 N.B.— A list of Latin prefixes, separable and inseparable, is f^iven 
 at § 199. 
 
 § 195. Principal English Suffixes. — The following are 
 the Principal English Suffixes :— 
 
 
 a- 
 
 A. Op Nouxs. 
 
 N.B. — Suffixes in Italics, French naturalised. 
 
 1. -er, denoting the agent or doer : as, paint-er, speak-cr, 
 
 writ-er, &c. 
 
 This Suffix also appears in the forms -ar, -or. 
 -yer : as, beg-g-ar, sail-or [i.e. a seaman : hut 
 eail-er, a ship that uses sails], law-y^r, sawyer 
 [these two, according to others, are augmenta- 
 tives : Angus, p. lo3J. 
 
 2. -ster, denoting a female agent : as, spin-s^er, she that 
 
 works at the spinning-wheel; hence, an unmarried 
 woman. See p. 10. 
 
 3. -ee [Lat. -atus, Fr. -e], person to ichom a thing is done : 
 
 passive correlative to -er, -or : trust-ce, mortgag-ee, 
 pay-ee, nomin-ee. 
 
 4 «6T, -ier [Lat. arius], characterizing a person by what 
 he has to do with : as, mountain-eer, mutin eer ; 
 halbard-i'er, cash i'er. 
 
OG 
 
 ENGLISH QRAMMAIl. 
 
 [derK^tinpj al)stract Nouns : as, length, br©ad<7i, 
 ^vasdth [ btr'ictly, locllbcing^; good-iiess, sweot- 
 ness, hitter-ness, &c. 
 
 7. ing, jiatronymic : AthiA-ing : and in names of familirs 
 and places, Pilk-i/?(/-ton, Penn-m^-ton, &c. 
 
 8. -kin, Germ. 
 
 -chcn 
 
 9. -ing, -ling 
 
 10. -ock 
 
 11. -€t, -l-et 
 
 12. -ie*(-y) 
 
 
 Diminutive terminations : as, lamb-Wj, 
 
 Pcter-Zc/w, niaii-i-Z:m ; 
 farth-m/ (fourth partj, tith-i/i^, gos-Z/wj; 
 
 duak-ling ; 
 bull-oc/c, hill-oc7c ; 
 
 pock-e<, tick-e/, \ock-et, Luok-ui, flask-c^ ; 
 , stream-Ze/, leaf-/e^, root-tV^ 
 
 1.'3. -ric[Gcrm. Belch, kingdom], domain, place of authority 
 as, l)ishop-ric, archbishop-nV. 
 
 14. -dom, termination of abstract Nouns [Germ, -thum] 
 
 al«o, concrete, nil that belongs to a title or office : as 
 wis-dom, free-dom, king-dom, duke-dom, hali-rfom 
 [boly state]. 
 
 15. -hood, state, condition [Germ. -Jieit] : as, hoy-hod, 
 
 girl-hood, maiden-Ztoor/ 
 
 IG. -head, same as -hood: God-head; Old Eng. drov/si- 
 hed (drowsiness), [SpeniserJ. 
 
 17. -ard,\ -art : characterizing a person by some habit or 
 
 other peculiarity ; often by way of contempt : as, 
 eow-anZ, drunk-a)v?, bast-rt/YZ, loll-ar<Z (old form, 
 loll-er) ; bragg-ari, swcfct-(he)ar< (nothing to do 
 with heart, organ of life), Spani-arcZ, Savoy-ard. 
 
 18. -ry, collective, [Germ, -rei], all that belongs to any given 
 
 notion : as, ^ne-ry, chival-ry, herald-ry, knight- 
 QYYiiut-ry, peasant-ri/, Jew-r?/. 
 
 19. -ship, state or office [Germ, -schaft]: as, friend-sZiip, 
 
 lord-ship. 
 
 * -tV is Lowlnnd 8ootoh in orifriTi, hut much used in fnrniiup: dinii- 
 nnt'vcs of (Midcarmont : ns, bird-?V, h\mm-ie, dogg-ie ; o.-pccially from 
 proper iiamos: as, Will-tV, Aiin-/c, Jvss-ie, A'c. 
 
 t 'I'liis suffix is commonly spoken of an Eiifrlif^h. Dr. Morris iden- 
 tifies it with llie Adj. hard (Hist. Outlmes, p 219V It is of fre()uetii 
 o cunenoe in Frencli words : oomimre hdtard. harard, hlafard, hraillardt 
 ronard, kc. Tlu^ d is in some words a mere aeeietion : roiupnre flio 
 viilfi;ar pronunciation srholar-d. Tliis terniiiiaticn aiij'ejiis also in 
 names of tilings: aa, staud-ard, toh-urd, glzz-crd, in which the d k 
 au uccx'otiuQ. 
 
 
nil- 
 i(ini 
 
 mi, 
 
 flio 
 
 in 
 
 2 id 
 
 ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 97 
 
 20. -2.ge,* ilint wliich ia ilte result or product of «or.c at'twri: 
 
 ton-n-a'je, pouiid-rt^^, iiO\v-(ujc, lover-a^/e, bond-a^c, 
 milv-aje. 
 
 21. -t, passive termination, that which is made or done: as, 
 
 wet-< [weave], drif-/ [drivej, gif-/, elef-/, diaii!j;h-^ 
 [diawj. 
 
 22. -le, -el, nsnally nn iusfrumrnt ; as, gird-Zr, liand-Ze, 
 
 hnrd-'*; shov-t-Z, \nk-el [I jiuic. 2>itchjork^ 
 
 [See also feminine terminations. § '27J. 
 
 The following words exhibit sutlixes of less frequent 
 occurrence: langh-<er [dlerm. Gchichter]; ball-oon, gall-row 
 [-owe, Italian augmentative i ; sea-)Ai [from sew : the -m has 
 perhaps tlie same force as the (Ik. -/j.n, cf. Trpay-fja, 8£/)-/iaJ, 
 hood I Germ. Fluthj ; wed-Zoc/.-, know-ZccZ^c [0. E. lac, " gift," 
 
 § 1!»(). B. Of Adjkctivks : — 
 
 1. -fill, luwinrf much of something: liopo-/«<?, wratli-/MZ, 
 
 duti^/ifZ. 
 
 2. -ish, rather so : rcd-d-ish, wliit-?s7<, green-/s7i, fair-/*^. 
 
 3. -less [Germ, -los], void of: hope-Zcvs.-?, feavdess, god-Zt'ss. 
 
 [N.B. — Nothing to do with Adjective less.^ 
 
 4. -some [Germ, -snm'], partcling of a certain qnalifj/ : 
 
 glad-soiiie, light-so)/ie, lithe-some. So, flot-sa;yi and 
 jet-scn/i. 
 
 6. -y, -ey, of the nature of: ic-y, snow-?/, frost-y, clay-«?y. 
 
 6. -ly, i.e. liJce : god-Zy, man-??/, spright-Zy. (Also such 
 
 Adjectives as, god-like, raan-Z//i'c, are used.) 
 
 7. -en, made of: wood-e?i [0. E trc-t'?i], flax-c?', gold-cTi. 
 
 8. -able,t -ible, that may he done : esit-ahle, drink-aZ>Ze, 
 
 honour-«Wf, aud-/6Z».'. 
 
 9. -le, denoting a tendency [T^at. -?V?'.'?] : brit-t-Zc (easily 
 
 hrol-en: bryttan, to break), fick-Ze, id-le.J 
 
 10. -fold, denoting multiplication : two-/jZ(Z, three-/oZcl, 
 mani-/oZtZ. 
 
 • -ngf,, of T-atin oriirin, hut naturaliHcil and in cnmninn us©, 
 f -a"///r' irt a I.titin ti riuinatinii luituniliHtd. 
 
 X Nohle, subtle, douhk, hutribla, j'ragilc, uud othcra ccuic direct rrom 
 the Latin. 
 
98 
 
 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 11. -ward, denoting direction [Lat. versus] : east-icard, 
 
 west-ivard ; io-ward, i'ro-irard [from-ward j ; earth- 
 ward, hiidYnn-ioard. (Almost all used as Adverbs 
 also.) 
 
 12. -th, ordinal : four-/7«, fif-/A, six-<^. 
 
 13. -ing, Tarticipial Adjoctivo active : pleas-27i^, try-ing 
 
 [ = vexatious], ininoy -ing. [N.B. — This termina- 
 tion is much used in forming Compound-Deriva- 
 tive words : as, truth-tell-m^/, law-abid-m</, Leart- 
 rend-m{/, &c. See § 186.] 
 
 14. -d, -ed, Participial Adjective passive : educate-^, learn- 
 
 ed, gift-ed. 
 
 Some Adjectives in -d, -ed, are formed immediately 
 from Nouns : as, horn-e^, v:'mg;-rd, honnet-'^rZ, boot-e^, 
 money -fid!, land-^vi [gentry], talent-«i (a word of doubtful 
 authority). This termination is also much used in form- 
 ing Compound-Derived words : as, bright-eye-d, silver- 
 ioot-ed, golden-hiiir-6'<i, rosy-fin ger-fi^i [See § 186.] 
 
 The following words exhibit suffixes of less common 
 occurrence: north-crn, south-er/z, &c. [cf. Lat. hes-t-ernus, 
 ae-t-enms] ; right-eows (properly " right-wise," *S^/. Manual 
 Eiirj. p. 217) ; sted-/«si, shame-/acefZ (corrupted from 
 shame-/rts<, owing to a false notion of its meaning^, sooth- 
 fast (obsoL) = truthful [fast =Jirm], 
 
 C. Of Vkrrs. 
 
 § 197. (1.) The most general English suffix for Verbs is 
 -en = to malce : as — 
 
 black, black-e?» 
 dark, durk-ert 
 
 thick, thick-en 
 dead, dead-en 
 
 (2.) The suffix -le h;is a kind of diminutive force [com- 
 pare Lat. canto, cant-illo] : — 
 
 crack, ciack-7fl 
 drip (?), av\h-h-h 
 dab, diil)-l)-/fl 
 
 (?drip), trick-?^ 
 crninb, crmnb-'e 
 drag, drag-g-/e 
 
 § 108. Some other verbal suffixes, occurring less fre- 
 quently or in less defined senses, may be noted : e.g. -se (to 
 maJie), aa in clean-,«fi, rin-.sc ; -er (perh. freqiientative or 
 intensive), as in glim-m-er, ehim-m-er, sim-m-er, shiv-er, 
 stut-t-er, mut-t-tr, &g. 
 
 ■tor, 
 -ant 
 -tioi 
 -inei 
 -t 
 
 wou 
 
ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 99 
 
 
 1 199. Latin" and Gi;eek Prefixes and Suffixes. 
 
 A. Latin Prefixes. 
 1. Inskparable. 
 
 con-, CO- [=cnm-], iogcther 
 di-, dis-, apart 
 re-, red-, hack, again 
 BO-, sed-, apart 
 
 ro/t-viviiil, co-rxn\ eom-vn'ittoe 
 (//-vision, dis-scnt 
 re-tiirn, re-gain, renf-cniption 
 ee-cede, sed-ition, sc-p;iiiito 
 
 a'H-, a^s-, /;'o;n, atrnij 
 ad- , io 
 
 ante-, he/ore 
 circuni-, <irnin>d 
 oi.s-, on tlii.'i xitb' of 
 centra- (couutm;, against 
 dc-. <lowii 
 
 e-, ex-, out of 
 
 extra-, out.tide of 
 
 in-, in, into 
 
 in- (en-, cm-, Fr.), »». into 
 
 inter-, Iwiircjui, aiuuug 
 
 intra-, vithin 
 
 iutro-, in, within 
 
 ob-, againd, over 
 
 per-, ihroiigh 
 
 pof-t-, a/tar 
 
 prsB-, before 
 
 prajtor-, beside, contrary to 
 pro-, forward 
 sub-, under 
 subtcr-, iinder 
 super-, over, above 
 supra-, above 
 trans-, across 
 ultra-, beyond 
 
 Separakle. 
 
 a?<s-ent, n^^s-tinent. fr7)-dneti(in 
 uJ-vent, ar-cvss, (c/'-tinity, <tg- 
 
 fi:reij^ate, a/-liivial 
 n)i^.-datc, anti-cipiiio 
 circuiu-jacvut 
 Cis-n\[)'un\ c/s-F eitlian 
 cou/n(-dict, cniiufer-iict 
 d('-sci-Ui\, di'-oii\u()\}s 
 t-diicite. r>liiiiiiiate, t/-ficacy 
 e.'/ra-ordiniiry 
 
 «;<-duee, /»-sert 
 
 «(/-du(M', / »-slavo. fT«-balm 
 
 inter-wne, //i^er-cept 
 
 ««<ra-iuural 
 
 intro-ducc 
 
 oj)-po«ite, 0/7-tain 
 
 2)^'r-vadt', per-u\ii)io 
 
 ]iost-\Hn\(', jj(»it-diil\i 
 
 pre-kr, ]>re~\'eui, pe-ludo, pre- 
 
 lli!^tulic 
 2)re/er-nutuial 
 
 jiro-dnce, pro-tract, pro-long 
 ^((//-tcrratieau 
 «y/6/er-t'uj';e 
 
 «Bper-exc( llent, sitpeJ'-natural 
 SM/)ra-mun(!ano 
 <n/7i8-alpine 
 tti^ra-montane 
 
 B. Latin Suffixes. 
 1. Of NoiNS. 
 
 -tor, -trix (-tress) ; 'SOy\ 
 -ant, -ent ([)art form) j 
 ■lion, -siou \ 
 
 -Mient* / 
 
 -t 
 
 do 
 
 ir 
 
 adion 
 thing done 
 
 ( cxecu-for, ac-^or, spon-crr 
 I int'orni-rot/, btud-cn< 
 (nio-//"?i, asccn-.s/oH 
 I moM-imnt, elia«tise-mcn< 
 tac-/, jea-/, ertec-< 
 
 * To some extent n.ituralived and used with En^j;lish roots: as, 
 vfouder-nient, bew ild( r-//(t'ut. 
 
100 
 
 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 -ty, -acity, -osity 
 
 •tude 
 
 •our, -or 
 
 -cy 
 
 •ce [-fia] 
 
 -ance 
 -ence 
 -ioa 
 
 -escenco 
 
 -cy [-tus] 
 -uiony 
 
 -ary [-arius] 
 •ary [^-arium] 
 
 •tory 
 
 •icle* 
 
 -cule 
 
 -ciilum 
 
 -cle 
 
 -le 
 
 -el 
 
 -tro (i.e. -trum) 
 -c/tro (i.e. -crum) 
 -biile, -ble (i.e. -bul 
 -ole (i.e. -culum) 
 -brum 
 -meut 
 
 •acooua 
 
 -ate 
 
 -an, -ano 
 
 -ine 
 
 -ic 
 
 -ique 
 
 -il, -ile 
 
 -al 
 
 -(HIS 
 
 -ose 
 -lent 
 
 uni-<*/, tcn-acify, pomp-os<7y 
 abstract forti-<a(Ze, recti-/ !<(Z« 
 nouna val-our, col-our, urr-or 
 priva-ci/, secre-ri/ 
 ,justi-ce, mali-ce 
 
 Ivigil-ance 
 pres-ence, pati-ence 
 relig-j'on, opiii-Ztm, domin-iori 
 
 I '^^owmjjf woj e r ^j^ j_^^^^^^ Tantr-escence 
 \ and more so j * *^ 
 
 {slate, office, Jmagistra-cf/.cura-cj/ 
 condition [i&tr i-mony, matri-wjony 
 
 ( one loho pur- ) < . i • i 
 
 ( sues a crajt ) at t- v 
 
 diminutives { 
 
 urn) 
 
 instrument 
 
 (in a few 
 
 worda) 
 
 parti-cift', cnti-«Z(; 
 
 Yed-nde, iininial-r:«te 
 
 iimnml-c^idum 
 
 corpus-cZe, mus-'to 
 
 circ-^e 
 
 \ih-el, satch-eZ 
 
 'acep-tre, spi c-tre 
 Bepu\-chre 
 \esii-hulc, std-bJe 
 tenta-rZ^-, whi-cle 
 candila-?Ar)n>i 
 escapc-?/ie7ii 
 
 2. Op Adjectives 
 0/ the nature 
 
 of 
 
 made of tu- 
 with 
 
 helontjIiKj to ' 
 
 argill-aeeoua 
 
 laure-a<e 
 
 hum-an, hum-nne 
 femin-me, fel-me 
 civ-/c 
 
 iin-Z^Me, ant-Zr/ne, oh\-ique 
 civ-/Z. juven-/7e 
 [rcg-al 
 
 oner-OM«, oopi-ojfs, aque-ows 
 full of < verb-ose, o\h'v-okc 
 
 v\ru-leut, turbu-/enf, pesti-/f'?i< 
 
 " I.'i-c?e must not be vofcried to this ob^ment. The 0. E. form if 
 \6-giol (y tj.rel = Germ. /w<yc7, " rcmml ball "> 
 
ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 101 
 
 -id 
 
 •cund 
 
 •jicioua 
 
 -ive 
 
 -tory 
 
 -able 
 -ible 
 
 .fio 
 -bund 
 
 -rscent 
 
 -and, -end 
 -endous 
 
 -ate, -ite, -it 
 -fy 
 
 •esoe 
 
 1 having a cer- (ac-id, stinp-id, luc-/d 
 j tain qualiUj \]0-cuHd, Yxxhi-cund 
 
 do. (actively :ic()ntum-acioUj!, aud-ac/cH« 
 tht>tir.st<>t'ten<exprt>!s-i<7<', intt'n.s-jr<; 
 in liuil .s(.'iise)|iutlaninia-/c(r/,-, satiff:'.c-/ory 
 
 Vidi mm/ be { i i ? * i 77 
 J /-ff ioi« )port-a/yfe, toler-aWe 
 
 No 8) |^ud-/We, nens-ible 
 
 maliinij beati-^r-, omni-/c 
 (intensive) uiori-bund 
 
 (hecomliig moreina-srent, CdXiiic-srent conval©" 
 \ and more so j scent 
 i requiring to jmuUiplic-arK/, divid-cnrZ 
 / be done (stnp-e;i(/ous,* iiLUi-endous * 
 
 3. Of Verbs 
 act or do fluctu-a<e, ed-i/?, ind-Z/f, t d-t< 
 
 { ("cataSve) \^-"''-S'J' ^^"'--"J' '"'^-fV 
 
 < heco^ne more U^ efferv-e.<» 
 ( and more ) ' 
 
 C. Giii;i:k Pukfixes. 
 
 an-, a- (av, a) 
 
 (negative) 
 
 amphi- (afxtpi) 
 
 twofold 
 
 ana- (^am) 
 
 up, according to; 
 in pieces 
 
 anti-Ca^Ti) 
 
 against 
 
 apo- (airo) 
 
 au-ai/ from 
 
 arch- (apx^) 
 
 head 
 
 auto- (avTo-) 
 
 self 
 
 cata- (Kara) 
 
 (down^ according 
 \ to 
 
 dia- (5id) 
 
 through 
 
 dys- (5 us-) 
 
 ill 
 
 ec-, ex- (e'/c, f'O 
 
 out of 
 
 en- {h) 
 
 in 
 
 Cpi- (eTTt) 
 
 upon 
 
 en- (eu-) 
 
 Will 
 
 hcnii- (7V'-) 
 
 half 
 
 homo- (ri/x"*) 
 
 ihf. mine 
 
 liypor- (virfp) 
 
 over, beyond 
 
 hypo- (in 6) 
 
 tinder 
 
 m< ta- (fJLiTOL) 
 
 chmige 
 
 illOUO- (yUOl/O-) 
 
 single 
 
 pan- (ttoj^-) 
 
 all 
 
 fi„jU' (napd) 
 
 beside 
 
 an-archy. a-pathy 
 aniphi-hionti, aiuph /-theutre 
 
 [a7ia-basis, ana-logy ; ((wa-lysia 
 
 «ji/i-Chiist, aH/-arotio 
 apo-gee. a/^-helion 
 arc/t-bi.shop, ort7<-tiend 
 aMfo-griipli 
 
 tcata-vact, mMiolio 
 
 d/a-gonal 
 t?j/s-p<psia 
 ec-centric, cj-orcise 
 jcH-cyclifal, en-demio, em-pirio, 
 \ ^'Mipsis 
 Cj>/-deinic, epi-eyc\e 
 c?(-pliony, ea-logy 
 /?,f//)i-sphuio 
 //owo-t;(mt ons 
 hijper-h. \r, //j/^^er-calvinist 
 /(//y>o-cr to 
 i//« <«-niorpyiosi8 
 «ion-arcliy 
 ^jfjM-thei.sni 
 para-hle, p<ira-phTas6, _par-helioii 
 
 Jlicao words arc properly passive, y?/ to be amazed at, &o. 
 
' 102 
 
 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 peri- (irtpO 
 phil- (ff)tA.o-) 
 poly- (ttwAu-) 
 ^-»r> (irpo) 
 pror"- (rpos) 
 pseudo (jpfv^o-') 
 
 round |)er/-goo (opp. «/)o-gce) pa-t-mcter 
 
 loving ])hilo-a()\)\iy, /V//Z-a(leli)liia 
 
 many J'oly-nv^iin, ^"•'///-thoihiu 
 
 he/ore, forth pni-hh in, j^ro-phct 
 
 toKvtnh prosody 
 
 false pseiuL martyr 
 
 with isyn-ihcaiH (opp. analysis), «t/m- 
 l patby, 8(/Mogism, *<j/-stem 
 
 D. Greek Suffixes. 
 
 -te (-^"i ^^ 
 
 -at* \^-c". 1) A 
 
 -siij 
 
 -m-a 
 
 -siu, -asm, .'si^ 
 
 -ad 
 •id 
 
 •y 
 
 -isk 
 -ic, -ics 
 
 'ic-i-an (ran,li'^^ 
 -tery 
 
 -ic,-ic-a?(-a^,Lat, 
 -i(l-aZ „ 
 
 -tic, -tic-a? „ 
 -stic, -stie-aZ „ 
 
 -oid, -oid-ai ,, 
 
 (fitlile-fe, hypocri-/e, come-f 
 I? 
 
 { ^ ]gyiiina-,s7, antagoni-s/. dramati-*^ 
 
 action, prore.ts iinaly-s/,s-, «yntlic-«/8 
 
 1 thiiifj made ov nianora-///a, i)aradig-m, fi)igra-int 
 
 ) doiti! I spa-sw, pleon-asm, auachrau-isin 
 
 '^""^'•f /'"^7'''iniou-a(^.tri-ad 
 
 men<o/an/c/ea; iii.,,^ .-Ene-z^Z, Dunci-orZ 
 
 .^abstract, esp. of i ^^^.^^^^^ j^j^^^ philosopli-w 
 ( sciences) ) "^ ^ i sf 
 
 ([diminutive) a.stor-/.«7i; 
 (n\mos vi sciences) log-i'c, aritlimet-zc, phys-eca 
 
 ■v.'C'fc^ u'n enqaqes ] ... ... ,., . . 
 
 h <n a science jantlnnet-utaH, polit-?a-yn 
 
 ■>„ .- r ^ • « (bai)tis-/€?-w, pbalans-Ztrv, niona*' 
 2^<xr i;f doing ^ J^^^ ^' *^ •" 
 
 
 )| o/.'fte Aifvft t/ (Hellen-/c, angeU'c, sv;o.er-tca? 
 
 j ^ ' (s^)pu^ she, sophi-ti/icaZ 
 
 i »/aZ«..ja |t.vpho.'<J, cyct-wd, cycl-otdaZ 
 
 d 
 
 •ize 
 
 (active) 
 
 bapt /ce, bctit'a-jM 
 
 § 200. Nouns and Verbs differiTag only m a:cx«nt;— » 
 
 Vcrbe. 
 
 Nouns. 
 
 Verlxt. 
 
 Ncutis. 
 
 abstract 
 
 dbwtract 
 
 coinprr8«i 
 
 coin press 
 
 (leee'nt 
 
 iiceent 
 
 conee'i't 
 
 oonetrt 
 
 ull'ix 
 
 litlix 
 
 comlutt 
 
 eonduot 
 
 augment 
 
 augment 
 
 confine 
 
 cunfco 
 
 colh'iigue 
 
 colleague 
 
 conilict 
 
 conilict 
 
 collect 
 
 collect 
 
 conserve 
 
 conservj 
 
 compact 
 
 (dmpact 
 
 consort 
 
 conuort 
 
 compound 
 
 C()mi)ound 
 
 construct; 
 
 CiMlBtirO^ 
 
 * Analyst, for owdjixer, is strictly a false formation 
 I Telegram formed by false analogy. 
 
ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 103 
 
 Verbs, 
 contract 
 contnibt 
 cnnve'roe 
 ecu vert 
 desert 
 iltscunt 
 digest 
 essay 
 export 
 extract 
 fenncnt 
 f refluent 
 iiiiport 
 inipre'sa 
 incense 
 insult 
 ol)ji.ct 
 perfume 
 
 Nouns, 
 contract 
 contrast 
 converse 
 convert 
 desert 
 descant 
 digest 
 p'ssay 
 export 
 extract 
 fe'riiicnt 
 frequent 
 napoit 
 impress 
 incense 
 insult 
 object 
 perfume 
 
 Verbs, 
 permit 
 pervert 
 prefix 
 premise 
 
 presage 
 
 prestnt 
 
 Idofluce 
 
 jirojtct 
 
 protest 
 
 rebel 
 
 re( ord 
 
 refuse 
 
 sul)ject 
 
 survey 
 
 torment 
 
 transfer 
 
 trail:- port 
 
 Notini. 
 permit 
 pervert 
 prefix 
 premise [more 
 
 free}, premiss] 
 presage 
 pn'sent 
 produce 
 pniject 
 protest 
 rebel 
 rt'corJ 
 refuse 
 
 Slibji'Ct 
 
 survey 
 torment 
 transfer 
 transport 
 
 The following differences may usefully be noted here : — 
 
 Verbs, 
 devise 
 advise 
 practice 
 
 ^ouns. 
 device 
 advice 
 practice 
 
 Verbs. 
 
 diffuse [s = z] 
 separate [long a] 
 precipit.Ue 
 Consummate 
 discriminate 
 determinate 
 reprobate 
 elaborate 
 &0. 
 
 Verbs. Nouns, 
 
 prophesy [// long] proi»hecy [y short] 
 
 use [s = 2] use [s = c] 
 
 abuse „ abuse 
 
 n 
 
 11 
 »» 
 n 
 
 n 
 » 
 
 Adjectives, 
 diffuse [s = c] 
 srparate [a as in a(] 
 
 pn'cijiitate, „ 
 
 consummato „ 
 
 in-di.vcriminilte „ 
 
 (leteiminate ff 
 
 reprobate ,9 
 
 ekil lorate ^ 
 
 &0. 
 
104 
 
 ENGLISU v311AMM:AU, 
 
 PAET II.— SYNTAX. 
 
 Syntax treats of tlio grammatical relations of "woida 
 to each other in smtciiccs. 
 
 I. NOUNS: THE CASES. 
 1. Nominative. 
 
 § 201. Tho Komi native Case is tho Case of the Suhjoct 
 [see § 4-iJ : as, the sun .shines ; Icings reign. 
 
 Obs. The Nominative of tho Subject is BomPtimes repeated in a pronoa.liial form; 
 mostly for ihe s .Ice of t-uiphasib:- as — 
 
 " The Lord, he is tlie Goi." (1 Ivings xvii'. 3D.) 
 
 •• Y'^iir after year my slock it grew," (Wordsw.) 
 
 * The bliipper, he blew a whilT from his pipe." (Longfellow.) 
 
 Analogous to this is tlie repetition of the Qlject in a pronominal form : as— • 
 
 " The loIiy city, he layeth it low." (la. xxvi. 6.) 
 
 § 202. The Nominative Case ■a>nally come.s before the 
 Verb, and in the ca.su of Tiausitive \ erbs that position is 
 necessary to distinguish the Nominative Case of a Noun 
 from the Objective [§ 207] : as, — 
 
 * Alexander [^Subje' f] conquered Darius lOIy^'ecf].** 
 
 But the Nominative Case may come after an Intran- 
 sitive Verb, since no ambiguity can then arise from its 
 position: and this airangement is often adopted when an 
 Adverb or an Adverbial phrase precedes the Verb : as, — • 
 
 " Tlien rose from sea to slcy the last farewell." (Byron.) 
 
 " The same day came to him tho Sadducees." (ISIiitt. xxii. 23.) 
 
 " Upon thy riglit hand did stand the Queen in gold of Opliir." .(Ps. 
 xlv. 9.) 
 
 ( bt. Occasionally, for the salCG of poetical effect, the Verb is j, .ced at ^'le very 
 h ginning of a sentence: as — 
 
 " Fkij^hed all their sabres have, 
 ilwilitd as th.y turned in air." (Tennyson, Light Brigale.) 
 
SYNTAX. 
 
 105 
 
 )r(Ia 
 
 GCt 
 
 ornie 
 
 he 
 
 is 
 
 in 
 
 n- 
 ,n 
 
 
 3. 
 
 § 203. Every Nominative Case, except tlio Nominative 
 AbsolutG (§ 20<)), ])elongs to «onie Verh, either exprejssed 
 or implied ; as in the answer to a (question, — 
 
 " Who wroti3 the Task ?"— " Cowper ": that is, " Cowpir icrote it." 
 
 Or whore the Verb is understood : as, — 
 
 " To whom tlu'is Ailaiu" (Milton): that is, spaJce, 
 
 Obt. IIi'iii'*' sucli an cxprissioii as the following is incorrect : — 
 
 " Tr/t(.7i rule, if it bad been oliserved, a neifilibourins? prince would have 
 wanted a great deal of tlia-. incense, which hath been offered up to him by liis 
 fadorers." (Attcrbury, vol ' ="rni. i.) 
 
 The Pronoun it is here the Nominative Case to the Verb observed ; and iihuh rule 
 is left by itself, a Nominative Case without any Verb lollowing it. (Lowth.) 
 
 § 204. Complcmentarii Nominative. — The Verhs to be and 
 to become, with some. others, take a Nominative alter as 
 well as belbre them : as— 
 
 " And Nathan said unto David, Tliou art the man." (2 Sam. xii. 7.) 
 
 "He liad been bred a rreshtjtvrian, but tlie rrcsbytciiuns liad 
 cast him out, and he hud become an Inde})cndenl." (Muc. II. of E. 
 i. 531.) 
 
 " My Lord dies a rrutestaut." {lb. p. 5G5.) 
 
 Tlie Noun following in such cases is descriptive of the 
 Subject, and therefore agrees -with it. 
 
 Obs. In colloquial language such expressions occur as the following:— 
 ♦• Tho oog is me. and I am myself." (Shaks. Two Gent. ii. 3.) 
 •* It's nie." (^Felix Holt, ch. xxii.) 
 * That 8 him." (Jackdaw of Rheims.) 
 " Impossible, it can't be me." (Swift.) 
 But in dignified language, such expressions are inadmissible. Compare — 
 " It is 1 1 be not afraid !" (Mark vi. 50)- 
 where the use of the Objective would be fatal to the majesty of tL-i expression. 
 
 § 205. The Complementary Nominative is also used 
 after Passive Verbs of naming, making or appoint- 
 ing, deeming, &c., being still descriptive of the Sub- 
 ject: as — 
 
 " Cliurehill had been made a haron of EnglamL" 
 
 (Mac. n. E. i. 521.) 
 
 " Titu.s Antoninus has been justly denominated a second Numa." 
 
 {Decline and Fait., ch. iii.) 
 
 "Tie mounted the soaftukl, where the rude old guiHotiue of Scotland, 
 culled Uie Maiden, awaited him." (Mac. II. E. i. i/o3 ) 
 
loo 
 
 ENGLISH G :AMMAII. 
 
 Often tliu adverl) as is intioduced without affecting tli«» 
 Syntax of the following Nouu : as — 
 
 " Younp; Numcrian with liis absent brother Carinns wore [of. § 247, 
 OJ)S, ii] unuiiiiiKiusly ackiutwledgad as Koman Emperors." 
 
 (Dcd. and F. eh, xii.) 
 
 ** Diocletian may be consider d as the founder of a new empire." 
 
 {Ih. ch. xiii.) 
 
 § 200. Nominative. AK^ihifc. — The Nominative Case may 
 }il.s() 1)0 nscd with a Portiriide, forming with it a clause 
 grammatically indcpeiident of the rest of the sentence; 
 as — • 
 
 *' Then T shall be no more, 
 " And Adam, we<idcd to another Eve, 
 Shall liv(j with lur enjoying — 7 extinct." (P. L. ix.) 
 
 *' I shall not Vx^ behind, nor err [m/6'8] 
 The way, Ihcr^ leading." (lb. x.). 
 
 " fJoil from tbi* mount of Sinai, whose ,£^rey top 
 Shall tremb!e. He descend i7icf, will himisclf, 
 In thunder, lii^htning, nnd loud trumpet's sound, 
 Ordain th-ise laws.' {lb. xii.) 
 
 "The guide trotted on before, Mr. Burchtll and / bringing up the 
 rear." (Vicar of W. ch. iii.) 
 
 Obs. In Latin tVe Ablative is used a.s the case absolute, and in Greek the Oenitiv?. 
 In 0. E. tie Dative is so used. (Adams, $ 493.) In the following exainpies, 
 the pronowis may be parsed either as Datives or as Objectives: — 
 
 " Do you, that presumed 
 If. ovecfAroii'n, to enter lists with Heaven ..." (Samson Ag^ 
 
 "... so, him deitroi/ed. 
 Or won to what may work his utter loss, 
 For whom all this was made, all this will Booa 
 Follow . . ." (P. L. ix.) 
 
 a1 
 
 all 
 ]i 
 U 
 
 2. The Objective. 
 
 § 20 J. Direct Object. — The Objective Case depends upon 
 a Traiuiitive Verb, and denotes the Direct Object of an 
 action. It is also used after a Preposition. See § 45. 
 
 The Jbjective Case usually follows the Verb fsee § 202). 
 But vrhon the Objective differs in form from the Nominative, 
 as in the case of the Personal Pronouns, it may stand 
 before the Verb without causing any ambiguity : as, — 
 
 " Me he restored unto mine oflioe, and him he hanged." (Gen. xl. 13.) 
 
 *' Tliin the Almii;hty Power 
 Hurled headlong flaming. . . ." (P. L. i.) 
 
 *^IIim answered then the goddess ample-eyed." (Cowper, II. i. G77) 
 
SYNTAX. 
 
 107 
 
 § 2''>8. Conijil'mrnfnrij Ohjrri. — Verl)S of making or 
 appointing, also of calling, naming, thinking, tako 
 alter tlieiii two Objoctivt'S. 7'lif iormcr of tlicso s tlifi 
 ] liic'ct ( »l)ject,tlio latter is called flu; r\jniji]#'iiifMitarv( >l>joft, 
 Loiiig necessary to complete the lacjiiiing of the \ erb : as 
 
 *' Of all these bounds 
 
 We muko thre [Direct Obj.] lad;/ [Coni}>l. Obj.]" ' Lmr, I 1.) 
 
 "Thuyhiiiled/ti//t [Direct Obj.]/<j//i''r [< "mjil. ()!)j.J(»f ii iiiic of kliip^n." 
 
 {Mach. iii. Jj 
 "I'll call fh'f' [Direct Obj."!, Jfomht, 
 Kintj, father, liuijul I ane [iill Compl. Obj.]" (llninA. t.) 
 
 Obs. 1, The ('iinn>Icm'>iit of -lu-h V^i-rhs, whotlK-r in ilio Activo or tlu> Passive 
 V'oico, Is very n. till :iii Ailj rti\-f: a>, to niak • (o!ic) iciic, to ba made n ise. 
 y iiiilarly al'tfr tlu' Viib.-< to be, btcoim; . sto ^ i;oi. 
 
 § 2i)0. Also the Verbs teach, ask or hep, forgive, aii«l 
 less fre(|ueiitiy banisl'. forbid, ^vith some others like 
 them, often take a second Objective: as — 
 
 '' Tiii'Ai me thy .4afHl< a" rP.s. cxix. lU.) 
 
 " I a.><k you jmrdon ! " (Ofh. v. 2.) 
 
 *' ForL^'ivo us (lur irespasKoi I " 
 
 *' Wi.' ban'sh yon our territnri'x." (liirh. II. i. 3.) 
 
 Obj. Sometini'^s it i> iifficult to say vMn'tiicr tlip forin.r N'T.ii f-r Prcnouiiy should 
 be regarded ..s uu Oiycitivt; or a Dative. 'I'iius in the s ntoiice — 
 
 "Toach vu; tby etatuto'," 
 mc may ]).' eitlior a Dircet or an Indirect Oiiji ct of Vne \'(i'h kuuh. In tlie latter 
 case nie — to mc, as in 0. K. On tlie otlier hand, Verbs tA' teach wj take in Latin 
 and in (Jerman a douljle Obj ctive, so thi't the word me may without impiopriety 
 be parsed as an Oljjeetivi.'. 
 
 § 210. Ohjedice after Passive F(/7>.s.— The A'erbs men- 
 tioned in the precedinj*; section, nvith some otlurs, are 
 capable of taking an Objective Case after them even in 
 the Passive Voice. In such cases, the one Objective be- 
 comes the Subject of the sentence, and the relation of the 
 other to the Verb remains unaffected : as — • 
 
 " Were you wilJ served, you would be tauglit your d 'v." 
 
 (Itich. III. i. 3 ) 
 
 "Rawdon was denied the door." {Van. Fair, ch. xvii ) 
 
 " The dead were refused Christian burial." (Goldsmith.) 
 
 §211 Objective after Intransitive Vcrhs. — Intransitive 
 Verbs often take after theni an Objective Case similar in 
 meaning to the Verb itself. This is called the ('(giiato 
 ri^at. CiHjuataSt *' akin "j Objective. This construction is 
 
108 
 
 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 most frequent when there is an Adjective of Quality used 
 with the ^loun : as — 
 
 " Well liast thou fought 
 Thehetkr Jbjhiy (P. L. vi.) 
 
 "Thoro lay Argyle on the hod, sleeping in hid irons the iiHaciil sleep 
 of iii/anry." (INlac. Jl. E. i. ."Hjo.) 
 
 " lie luuglicd his (jrnd hiwjh" ('riiiick. Esmond, eh. xiv.) 
 
 " The wind had hlown a gnh' all Jay." (Southcy.) 
 
 Ohs 1. In all siirli casos tliori^ is a, transitive force in the Verb: thus, to droam a 
 dream = to lutvc or iinoi/iiie a (In am ; tu liulit a li^lit = to cam) on or enijngi 
 in a, lif;lit; kc. Tlin Oiyict is not always strictly of cognate sitrnitication to tlif 
 Verb, but it must bear some analogy to it : thus, to rain lire and brimstone = U 
 icnd down lire and brimstone like rain; "to weep millstones" {likh. III. i. 4J 
 = to nhal millstones from the eyes/wr tixirs, 
 
 Olis. 2. Under tiiis rule come sueli e.spressions as "to trip it" {L'Allegro), i.e. to 
 trip the dance; to light it (.the ti^'ht) out. kc. See ^ 244, 6. 
 
 § 212. The Objective is used after Intransitive Verbs 
 and after Adjectives to denote extent, duration, age, value : 
 as — 
 
 *' His other i)aits hesides 
 
 " Lay floating many a rood ..." (/'. L. i.) 
 
 "And Noah was (loO yeas old when the AodJ of waters was upon 
 the oartli." (Geu. vii. G.) 
 
 " Siie is not worth thee." {Twelfth Night, ii. 4.) 
 
 "... make us temples worthy Thee" (Hymn.) 
 
 Also in such expressions as, ten years ago, this day wcel\ 
 not many days hence, the Is'ouns denoting time are to 
 be regarded as Objectives. 
 
 § 21;^. TJic OhjiH'tive with Impersonal Verhs. — The Objec- 
 tive demotes the virtual though not the grammatical 
 Subject aftei' some old Impersonal Verba : as, it re- 
 penteth, it behoves, it becomes or beseems : as — 
 
 " It ropenteth me that I have made them." (Gen. vi. 7.) 
 " Behoves me keep." (jCymh. ill. 1.) 
 
 Obs. The number of Impersonal Verbs was once considerably greater than at pre- 
 sent. Compare vuthinks, meseems, melists, melikes. The vie in these words is a 
 Dative. See ^ 155, Nos. 4, 5. 
 
 3. The Dative. 
 
 § 214. The Dative denotes the Indirect Object, and may 
 c'ways be explained by to or for: as, "Give me the 
 daggers," i.e. to mc ; "Heat me these irons hot," i.e. for me. 
 
 m 
 
 be 
 
 b( 
 
 § 
 
 tl 
 li 
 
 s] 
 r( 
 h 
 
SYNTAX. 
 
 lOf) 
 
 Cbl. 1. AlthouRli nil distinction of form between the Objt ctive iin«l tin- l»ativp lias 
 long been lost, yi t the fumtions of the two cases iire m) ilifl.nat that it m im- 
 possible to parse or analyse a seutcuco properly without noting the distinction. 
 
 Examples: - 
 
 " Solomon built Ilim [ = for Him] an house." (Acts vii. 47.) 
 
 •* Heaven send the I'rincc a bitter conip.iiiion !— Heaven send the companion a 
 better prince !" (^Jltn. JV. I't. 11. i. 2. t.xamplu in .Mi iklejolm.) 
 
 "The dwarf dealt one of the chainpions a most an.'iy blow. ... It did thf. 
 Saracen but very little injury." (riV. oj Wnhj. .\iii._) 
 
 •• Villain, 1 say, knock vie [ = for me] at this gate." (Taviinfi of Shrm; i. 2.') 
 
 "He plucked »ne [ = for me: but the ['ronoun is liere iijiomatiraily rf.liiiidaiit] 
 ope his doublet, and oflcred Ihtm his throat to cut." (y. C'us. i. a.) 
 
 Ob$. 2. The Indirect Object is often indicated by a Preposition : as — 
 " He left Normandy and Maine to liohcrt." 
 
 Here Robert is the Indirect Objnct, and in Annh/sis is rlassifird as such (Ben 
 $ 304.) But in parsing, it is treated simply us an Objective Case, gov erned by the 
 Preposition to. 
 
 § 215. The words like and unlike, nigh, near (nearest, 
 next), are followed by the Dative : as — 
 
 ** Oh for breath to utter whiit is lik(! thee!" 
 
 (Shaka. i/<.'». IV.Vt. I. ii. 4.) 
 
 *rew in millinns 
 Can speak like ua." {Temp. ii. 1.) 
 
 fN.B. — This use of the Dative aftur the Adverb lihe is scarcely to 
 be imituttid.J 
 
 **, . . Chao.s umpire 6it.5, 
 . . . ncrt him \i'vX^\ i;vl)i!(r 
 Chance governs till.'' (i'. L. ii.) 
 
 Obt. When used aa a Preposition, near is said to govern an Oluective (5 207). 
 
 § 216. The Impersonal Verbs thinks, seems, lists, take 
 before them the Dative of the rerssonal rronouii. [tee 
 § 155, Kos. 4, 5.] 
 
 4. The Possessive. 
 
 § 217. The Possessive Case denotes possession, and is 
 therefore rarely used excc})t wlicre tlie Noun denotes a 
 living thing : as, Milton's poems, u neriros skin, an cleilmnt'ii 
 skull, a hutterflya wings. Tlie use of the Tossessive with 
 reference to things without life belongs to imaginative 
 language, objects being there freely personified : as — 
 
 *'.... the cannon's mouth." (Shaks. As you Like itj ii. 7.) 
 
 " Mountains above, Earth's, Ocean's plains below." 
 
 (C/i. llaruld, ii. UO.) 
 
 " Alike the Armada's pride and spoils of Trafalgar." (i6. iv. 184.) 
 
 **.,.. Siiowdon's sovereign brow." (^Excursion.) 
 
110 
 
 ENGLISH GT^AMMAR. 
 
 Obs. 1. Also the Puss ssivc is idininatkally us d in sueli plirasos as, a month's notice. 
 dddi/'a \vaf,'ia, liallan /loar'j; wallt, &c. So, "at their wit's end" (Fs. cvii. 27). 
 Tliis a|,'r.c8 witli tli<! original use of tlie Case, wliich was a Cjeiiitive, having a 
 much wider appliciition than tiie present Possessive. 
 
 Obs. 'I. Sometimes for t! •; sake of euphony the Possessive 's is omitt' d : as, /or 
 •/t'SHx' mke, "for conscience sake" (I Cor. x. 27). This siiouUl nut, liowever, l« 
 doni! in tlie case of names of persons ending in s. We say, lluss's ale, not 
 Bass' ale ; Chambers's Cyclo^uedia, not Chambers'. 
 
 § 218. Ellipsis. — In familiar laiigiiago tlio rossos.sive 
 Case is often used alone, and tlie Noun upon which it 
 depends omitted, being readily understood : as, St. I'anls 
 ( Cathedral j, the Princess's (Theatre), the Queen's (Hotel), 
 a bookseller's (shopj, Tattersall's fofficej. 
 
 On the same principle must be explained such ex- 
 pressions as, a work of Bacons {i.e. one of I'acon's works) 
 a poem of tlie Laureates (i.e. one of the Laureate's poems) 
 a painting of iSiv Edwin Landseers (i.e. ono of his paint 
 ings;. 
 
 5. The Vocative. 
 
 § 219. The Yocative Case is used both with and withou' 
 the Interjection O. Its function is chiefly to attract thr 
 attention of the person to whom we are speaking : as — 
 
 " Br. What, Tmrins ! ho ! 
 Lug. Cftlkd you, my lord 9** (/. Crs. ii. 1.) 
 
 **I should be much for open war, O pcers.'^ (/'. L. ii.) 
 
 *' Tho.se are tliy glorious works, Parent of good, 
 Almiyhti/!" (Ib.\.) 
 
 Obt. Often, however, the form of address is suited to convey a compliment Off 
 invective : as — 
 
 •• speak again, hri[/ht angel !" (Horn, and J. ii. 2.) 
 
 *• Go, baffled coward, go ! " (.S'anis. Ag.) 
 
 " \a light)) lad)/ ! 
 These hairs, which thou dost ravish from my cliin, 
 Will quicken, and accuse thee." (Lmj iii. 7.) 
 
 *ileua', home, you idle creatures !" (o. ('as. i. 1.) 
 
 II. APrOSITION. 
 
 § 220. Any Noun or Pronoun may have another "N"oun 
 or Pronoun attached to it without any conn rtive, when 
 referring to the same [jcrson or thing. ^J'ho latter word in 
 
SYNTAX. 
 
 Ill 
 
 hon said to ha "n ajyjwsifion [(qyjwcitus, "placed near " or 
 '■ by the side o/' | and agices witli the former iu Case ■ as — 
 
 '" He enjoyp, heti.mcr [Norn.'', a gliiiip.se of the glorious nmrtyr'is very 
 o«ly." (Carl. FaU and l'iei<iuit, ii. IG.) 
 
 " Old John of Gaunt, timc-hmonrtd Lanca icrl" [Vno.j 
 
 Oinh. II. i. 1.) 
 ** Yea mm of Anp;!' rs. opon wide your plates, 
 
 Aiid let young Artiiur, JJukc of Brclajut [Ohj.], in !" 
 
 ' (K.John, il 2.) 
 
 *• lYayfnrers [Noin.] tlirough tlic world, ire mod now and again with 
 r;S!(li purity . . . ." (Thack. j.Vt»;c. ch. xx.wiii.) 
 
 Ctls. 'I'lic sign of tlip I'osst'ssive is not usuall}' n'in'iitrd witii the Noun in Appo- 
 sition : cf. Slmlvs. A'. John, i. 1 — 
 
 " And put tlie same into young Arthur's liand, 
 77i// 111 jihi'tr, iind right roy.d sovereign." 
 
 Tlie following example of tlie contrary usage is cited liy ^liitznor :— 
 " At Albin's house, the jcicdler's." (B. Jons. I'ott. i. 1.) 
 
 (fn ordinary language — 
 
 At Albin the jeweller's house : cf. $ 49.) 
 
 [So Th.-xck. .Veifc. ch. xii.— " Hers and our other relation's, 3trs. Mason;" i.e, 
 Mrs. Mason's.] 
 
 § 221. Sometimes a Xor.n stands in apposition to an 
 entire sentence : as — 
 
 "There were seven of tluni, and they were drawn with seven omngos 
 — a thing quite out of ta.ste ..." ( !/'•*(/• of IT. oli. xvi.) 
 
 '* They not only tore the lead from the roof of the miignifioc tit 
 Cathedral to make bulletrt, — an (id for whioii (hey might fairly plead 
 the necessities of war, but wantonly di'faced the ornaments of the 
 buiUUng." (aiac. H. E. i. GOl.) 
 
 III. ADJECTIVES. 
 
 § 222. An Adjective placed immediately before or after 
 I Noun is said to lie nsed }tttril>utively : as, a unse man, a 
 luminous tail, a total eclipse, '' my hiyli-blown pride . . . has 
 loft me wrarif and <>hl with service ..." [Hen. VITI. iii. 2.) 
 
 J3ut wiicn tiio \'erl) to he or any similar Verb intervenes, 
 it is said to ije used predicatively : as — 
 
 " Oh, how IlirrfrJii il 
 
 Je that poor mail who hang.s on princes" hivours." (JLn. VTII. 1. c.) 
 "It ia twice Lied . . .'' iMtichdnl of l'. iv. 1.) 
 
112 
 
 ENGLISH GRAMr.TA.R. 
 
 § 223. Wlicn tlio sanio quality in diHl'Vcnt things is 
 ccnu[)ared, tlie Adjective in the Tositivo has after it the 
 Coniniietion as, in the Comparative the Conjunctioii ihanp 
 and in the Superlative the rreposition of: as,— 
 
 *' White o8 snow." 
 "Wiser tJian Solomon." 
 « Greatest 0/ all." 
 
 § 224. After the T^cfinite Article the, an Adjective h 
 often used with a Noun understood but not expressed, td 
 denote a class of objects : as, — 
 
 " Tlie ivicked ( = wicked men) flee when no man pursueth." 
 
 (Prov. xxviii. 1.) 
 
 "Cowards die many times before their deaths : 
 The valiant never taste of deatli but once." 
 
 (Shaks. J. a u. 2.) 
 
 ** They gathered the good [fish] into baskets, but cast the bad away." 
 
 (Matt. xiii. 48.) 
 
 § 225. Some Adjectives have actually become Nouns, 
 and as such may be used with an Adjective before them. 
 1 his is the case with the words good, evU, and a few 
 others : as, — 
 
 " Foil bo thou my good." (Milt. P. L. iv. 110.) 
 " All partial evil, universal good" (Pope, Ess. 1.) 
 
 In this way are used Adjectives denoting colour: as, 
 blcicl', white, red, Ac. 
 
 N.B. — Occasionally the use of the Definite Article before an Adjective 
 gives to it the force of an Abstract Noun. Thus, the bcuntijul — beutUy 
 (Oik. rd Ka\6i>)\ the S!<W/»/<e = 8ubiiuuty {rd uv|/7jAoj'); bo,— 
 
 " From grave to gay, from livdij to severe." 
 
 (Pope, Epist. iv.) 
 
 § 22n. Adjertlvrs irlth Verbs. — Adjectives sometimes ap- 
 pear to be attac^hed to A'erbs, and so to take tlie jdaco oi 
 Adverbs. Thus we say, to ki't'p a thing sdj'c, to serve 
 diiim>r u]) liot, to stand Jirm, to look ^fierce or (in<irj/, t'dc. 
 But in all these examjdes, tlie Adjective really belongs, 
 to the Noun and not to the Verb. 
 
 0!)R 1. Soinn Adjoctlvcs ivro ff '.ly used as Advorbs. Tliia is the Ciiae with the 
 word briylit, ;md otln rs: cl'. Hymn, ^^h. Unrohl, iii. 21 — 
 
 " . . . . 1111(1 liri(jht 
 Till' lamps shone oVr fair wotm n uiid brave niou."* 
 
 See ^ 167, ubi. 3, coucuriiiug tUu luimatiou ul' Adverbs. 
 
SYNTAX. 
 
 113 
 
 'din 2. Hpfore an Adjective or an Adverb the Tnt^nVthfin wrftera rarely use the 
 
 fmni in -lit. Tliu?', Sliaks-po-iire wriit-« "indifferent lold" "' indifftient red," 
 " mdijtnnt bonebt," " xndifferent "dl " [once only " indiffaenllii well," Hen V. 
 i. 2] : so always ' exceeding ' not " exceedingi j " Ixfore an Adjective In tho 
 Kng isb Bible, Hut wiih a Verb the form in Aij is preferred ;— 
 
 " I will look on death indifferently." (Shaks. J. ('as. I. 2.) 
 
 " And the wat rs prevailed exceedingly." (Gen vii. 19.) 
 
 So "maivellous sweet," "mai-velloM little," "marvellous witty," tec. (Shaks.), 
 but " ith a \'erb— 
 " Believe me, you are marvcUoiishj changed." (Merch. of V. i. 1.) 
 "God tl.uiukretli m.nvellously witii his voice." (Job xxxvii. 5.) 
 Wiitois of tlie au'c o! Qin't'n Anne nfien ust^ Adjectives iidverhially with Verbs: as, 
 "I bhall endeavour to live hereafter suitable to a man in my stati<.!i." 
 
 (Addison, ^;/;«;c^ No. 530.) 
 
 "Tho Queen having changed her ministry suitable to her own wisdom." 
 
 (Swilt, J.xam. So. 21.) 
 
 " Till' assiTtions of this author are easier detected." 
 
 (Suift, I'ublic Spirit of the Wlngs.) 
 
 [N.B. — Ibis latter usage must on no account be imitated.] 
 
 )ng'ft, 
 
 tb tb« 
 
 THE AUTICr/ES. 
 
 § 227. ^Vhcn scviral Xoniis dcnotin;^ di-tinct thi'ncra 
 coiiie t l;"<''1iu. in ounnit'ratious, the .suiuu Aitic'u is usually 
 pi.iccd butb.e oacii ; as, — 
 
 " [IliulriiUj p'l.s.si^si'd ll.e vfirioiis {rIi tits of the soldier, the atitLsaian, 
 uud tkc bciiDiur." (jiibbini, I), and l\ i.) 
 
 " A vacuut bpai-e was lei't between ike tents and the raui^iai t.' (76.) 
 
 '• TUc use of the spade and the pickaxe." (76 ) 
 
 " 'I'ho ancient dialects of Italy, the Sabine, the EdusCiui, and tht 
 Veneuun, bunk into oblivion." (76.) 
 
 " In Nonio of these lields, the rye, the jirn.so, and the oats were high 
 enoiigb to eouceal a man." (Mac. it. E. \. 61 tj.) 
 
 " Our streams . . . yield nothiiijj; but Uif bull's litad or mill rs tlinnib, 
 the Irout, Vie eel, Vie luiiiperu, uulI the slicklednick. * (White, tSdb, 
 Letter H.) 
 
 " 'I'beir more useful arms ronsisfccd in a helmet, an oblong aliield, 
 light boots and a coat of m:dl." (Gibbun, 1. c.) 
 
 " The necessity of anuiscment nmdo mo a carpenter, a birdcage- 
 maker, a gardener." (tSuuthey'a Coi^Jtr, iv. p. 5.) 
 
 § 228. But. when the ohjocts are represented not as per- 
 fc'tly distinct, but as closely connected with eacli oihui', 
 tho Artielo is not repeated : as, — 
 
 *' 77t' forenfn avd wf)nf«8''.<J of Ciern any were filled with a linidy race 
 of barbariaus." (CJibbon, D. and F. i.) 
 
 f 
 
Ill 
 
 ENGLISH GRAMMA?.. 
 
 " The rerrnilG and yoniig soldiers were constantly trnincfl in tli' 
 miming find tiiC cvcuiuji^-." {lb.) 
 
 " T/ie Prince and Princess of Orange had now ceased to regard liijr 
 as a rival." (Mac. IT. E. i. 5:10.) 
 
 " among the pots and pans.''* (lb, 331.) 
 
 " 'I'lie willow-wrens arc Imnid pests in a garden, destroying (he pease 
 th<'rri<s, curra)ifs, &c." (Wh'.le, ^'e/6. LeUer iG.) 
 
 *' Its craw was filled with the hgs and a-iiij.io[ bettles." 
 
 iib. Letter H.').) 
 
 Somotiiiics the Article ai'ipi^ivs to be omitted merely for 
 tlie sake of" l)revitv : e;:v,(,'oi;illv in such coiuuioii expresisious 
 as " from head to foot," " f]'om sm lit to tail," '• from top to 
 bottom," " from 'J'weod to 1 ay " (Bain). 
 
 Cbs. When a;iy .'unbituily would result fiom the omission of the Article, it must 
 be rcpcati'd : as, — 
 
 *' Till' (juoiMi Stilt fur the Secretary and :hc Treasurer," (Cobbctt.) 
 
 Cobbett correctly roni.iiA-i liiat if tlie second the were omitti d, it \v(,i\ild not be clear 
 whether " the Secretaiy and Treasurer " were two persons or one only.* 
 
 § 229. Sometimes the Article is repeated even befdro 
 Koiins denoting thiiip;s closely connected with each other; 
 when it serves to call attention to each sej^arately : as, — 
 
 *' Tlicre were the nitnlats at wliii h the corn, the (nttle, the wool, nnd 
 tlie lioji.s of the surrounding country were exposi d." (.iMue. //. J'.', i. 33i).) 
 
 *' The banlcers, the merchants, and the c' icf i?hoMkeepcrs repair thither 
 on bi.K nmrniiigs of every week." {[It. 'M)2.) 
 
 " the fireside, the nursery, the social table, the quiet bed, are not 
 
 there." (//>. 353.) 
 
 " T'lebeddinir. the tuvestrv, above nib the abundnnoe of clean and fine 
 linen, was a miiL!er of woudv ." {lb. ikSJ.) 
 
 "And when the Queen of Slirla hal seen all Solomon's wisdom, and 
 the house Ih'.st he had biiiit, and the meat of liis labjf, and the attcndanoo 
 of ills nlini.^ter,s, smd tucir apjtaivl, . . . there was no mure ."-pirit in 
 lur." (I Kings X. 4.) 
 
 " And Ibzchiah . . . sliowcii tlioiii the 1 ons" fif his precious thing.-t, 
 the .si'vcr, and the gold, miil the .spiee.s. a'll the pn'cious ointment . . . 
 and all that waa found iu liio tiv.isuris." (Is. .\xxix. 'J.) 
 
 § 2;)0. The ]\>fiiuto Article tl'^e is sometimes used to 
 give to an Adjective the forco of an Abstract Noun. See 
 § 225, Ohs. 
 
 • This rule Is disregarded by MaciUilay in the following passage;— 
 
 "Crannier held that bis own siiiritual funetions, like the sceular functions of (h6 
 
 ChanrcUiir aud Trenxinrr, were at one,' determined by a demise ol Die ciowu," ^Zi Jlk 
 
 !. f)ti.) 
 
 AU ambiguily L the reault. 
 
StNTAX. 
 
 115 
 
 § 231. The word the - hu 8o much, nppa "before the Com- 
 parative ])c,L!;reo, is a ditVerent word from the Definite 
 Article. It is the old AMative or Instrumental case of the 
 Demonstrative Adjective the, that (0. 1]. se, «co, that), and 
 must bo parsed as an Adverlj : as, — 
 
 " But (he more they afflicted them, the more they mnltipliid and 
 grew." (Ex. i. 12.) 
 
 " The nearer the bone, the sweeter th • ivrr^.t." (Piov.) 
 [Compare Latin, Quo . . . eo.J 
 
 "I love not man the less but Nature more." (Byron, Ch. Harold.) 
 
 led fo 
 
 See 
 
 IS of iKi 
 
 IV. PI10!:0UNS. 
 
 § 232. Thou and you. — The Pronoun thou, which 
 strictly denotes a single person sjtoJa'U to, is now rarely used 
 except in the elevated style of jjoctry, clo(|Uence, or devo- 
 tion; its place i'eing elsewhere taken hy the plural you. 
 
 Ohs. A still eli.tiig'T corruption ha.s taken plaio in the German langiiaRo, in which 
 a person is conunonly addressed as theij t^i^'c). liiitii this, and the En^:lisll uso 
 of you, owe their origin to an an.xiety to sjn ak to superiors in tonvs of deference 
 and a shrinking from straightforward familiarity. 
 
 Thou, thee, thine, are still the current loiuis wiih the labouring classes of Lan- 
 ciishire, YorkshiP', and ()tlier counties. 
 
 § 23;>. The lieiativo Pronouns who, which, that, have 
 a twofold use : — 
 
 1. To limit and define the antecedent, which would 
 otherwise express too much or too little : as — 
 
 ** I dare do all— that may become a rtKin.^' (Mid. i. 7.) 
 
 ** The rest is labour— ir/(/f7t is not used for you.'' (Ih. i. 4.) 
 
 •' Ts this a dai?gcr — ichich I see heforo mei" (lb. ii. 2.) 
 
 " Have you u llowor-pot like that — [ivhich] I bought Kome weeks 
 ag«?" (IJuhver, Ca.rtont^, i. 4.) 
 
 Note. — This is called the rcdridive uae of the Kdiitivc. 
 
 2. To introduce some additional statement when the 
 principal sentence is complete already : as — 
 
 " We had be.st begin our aeeount of oin- hi^ro with his family hiatory 
 •—which hiiUihj in not very loinj." (Thack. Scire, ii.) 
 
 " He bowed to tlu; Colonel politely over his glass of brnndv-and- 
 water — of which he, alisitrbed a liltle in his customer's honour,'' {fb. i.) 
 
 " My father suddenly disrovered that there was to ])o a bf)ok-.sa]n, 
 twenty miles olf, — u-hich irould l(tt<t j'o r dni/x." {('ajf. i. ',',.) 
 
 NOTB. - XUib may bo culled tht- conjunctive ubo of the Ilf'idive. 
 
 I 2 
 
116 
 
 ENGLISU GRAMMAR. 
 
 This douole use sometimes causes ambiguity, as in the 
 following instance : — 
 " The loftiest mountain in Britain which I hav.^ i.mbed . . ." 
 
 This ambiguity may be removed by punctuation . 
 § 330, Ohs. 
 
 § 234. The Relative agrees with its Antecedent in 
 Kunil)ur and Person : its case is determiiiP/1 by some word 
 in its own sontence : as — 
 
 •' You iTiiiv easily imajrine to yourself what appearance I made n'ho 
 AM pretty tail ..." (Sped No. li:i.) 
 
 *^ 1 that speak in ri^hteousncsa." (Isaiah Ixiii 1.) 
 
 " O She])honl of Israel, Thou that leanest Joseph like a flock; Thou 
 thai direllcst b tweeii the Cherubims." (Ps. Ixxx. 1.) 
 
 "And ehiefly Thou, O Spirit, that dosf prefer 
 Before iiU temples the uprifj;ht heart and pure . . ." (P. L. i.) 
 
 ** Ue that hath bent him o'er the dead . . ." (Byron.) 
 
 "... he is p^one 
 Ere eensod the inhuman shout which hniled the xcretch fObi ] 
 who [Nom.] won." (C7t. llarohl, iv 140.) 
 
 ** Scots [Voc] whom [Obj.] Bruce hath often led . . ." (Burns ) 
 
 Ohs. For the sake of euphony tlio tormination -,«< of tlio '2ii<l pers. ping, of the Pasi 
 Tense is sometimes omitted in poetry ulier a Kelutive Pronoun : as, 
 
 " Thoi ny voice Inspire, 
 Who touched Isaiah'd hallowed lips with fire I " (Pope Messiah.) 
 
 " And Thou, who never yet of human wrong 
 Left the unbalanced scale, great Nemesis." (C% ITarold. iv. 132.) 
 
 ••0 Thoit. whojwuretZ the patriotic tide." (^Cottcr'i Sat Night.) 
 
 §, 235. The Relative and Interrogative Pronouns differ 
 fr(»ra oiher words in preceding the Verbs which govern 
 them instead of following them : as — 
 
 "... tohom the fables name of monstrous size." (P. L. i.) 
 "... whom no man hath seen nor can see." (I Tim. vi. 16.) 
 " What went ye out for to sec 1 " (Luke vii. 20.) 
 " Which but the Omnipotent none could Imva foiled" (P. L. 1.) 
 
 Ohi, 1. In familiar language who is sometimes incorrectly u.o.ed for whom in asking 
 a question: ns, " Who did you meet at the party?" "I know luho you mean." 
 This should be carefully avoided, though the usage frequently occurs, even ia 
 good writers : as, 
 
 " Those who he thought true to his party." (Clarendon.) 
 Whx) should I meet the other night but my old friend.' {Sped No. 32.) 
 Who should I Bee in the I'd of it but the Doctor .'" 
 
 {S^ect. No. 67.) (.Examples from Lowth.) 
 
n tlie 
 
 ition . 
 
 nt in 
 word 
 
 ide loho 
 
 c; Thou 
 L. iO 
 
 k [Obi 1 
 
 rns) 
 
 )f the Pasi 
 
 differ 
 govern 
 
 LA.) 
 
 I in asking 
 ■oil nn'aii." 
 i>i, fvun ia 
 
 No. 32.) 
 Lowth.) 
 
 SYNTAX. 
 
 117 
 
 tht. 2. Such a s ntenee as the following is ungrAmraatlca! :— 
 
 " Whom do men any ti. .1 1 am r" (Mark viii. 2T.) 
 
 For whom read ivho. Tlie claus^, do men say, is parentlictica!, and vJin !« the 
 JJoniinativc, agreeing in case with tlie I'nnioun /, according to ^ 204. If tlip V'lrb 
 were in tlie Intinilive mood, ichom would be correct, agreeing with the Pronouu 
 tnc, " Whom think ye, or do ye think, me to be r" 
 
 § 236, Who is sometimes used briefly for lie whc, cr 
 h9 that, especially in poetry : as — 
 
 •* Who steals my purse, steals tra«li ...,*» (J)lhelh, iii. 2.) 
 
 " . . . . Who overcomes 
 By force, hath overcomo but lialf his foe." (P. L. i.) 
 
 ** So fail not thou icho thee implores." (/'. L. \'i\.) 
 
 ** I flare do all that may become a mm : 
 Who dares do more, is none." {^MuoJh, i. 7.) 
 
 § 237. That IS prefevred to w7io or whicJi when the anf;o- 
 cedent is incomplefce, rc^iiirinj^ to bo dciined hy tiio 
 liulativc clause (sec § 2 .u, i) : as — 
 
 " Blessed is tlie man that walkcth not in tho conn.sci of Hio un- 
 godly." (Ps. i. 1.) 
 
 "... the thoii>;and natmal shocks 
 That flesh is heir to." {liamltt, iii. 1.) 
 
 **IIo that goes a-borrowing goes a oonownig. 
 
 (PiOV.) 
 
 §238. Hence it is often used after Superlatives; affor 
 the words all, same, any, none, notliinj ; and after tho inter- 
 rogative ii'Jio : as — 
 
 *' IMammon, the leaaf rrer' a spirit that fell 
 From heaven. . ." {F. L. i.) 
 
 *'An is not gold that glitters." (rrov.) 
 
 ** 'J'liat fiice is thine ; thine own 8\v( ct snile I see. 
 
 The same that oft in cliihUKMxl solactnl mo." (Ojv/p'^r.) 
 
 •*.... he will ncvrr follow auijthinn 
 That other men begin." (J Cusar, ii. 1.) 
 
 "Fiance had iw infiuitry //utf dared to face tho English bows a'ld 
 bills." (lAIao. 11. K I 1'.).) 
 
 " . . . . who hatest uolhing that Thou hast made." (Collect.) 
 
 " Who is among you that feareth the Lord? " (Is. 1. 10.) 
 
 § 230. Omhsion of the It'lnfivc. — (1) When aT\oluti\''G nf-n- 
 tence servos merely to delino the antecedent \JicHlrirlive 
 twe of Kelativo, § 233, 1], tho lielativo Troiioun is of tea 
 
118 
 
 ENGLISH GIJAMMAR, 
 
 oniitti.'d — not liDwevor whon it would 1)0 either in thft 
 Isoiniiiiitive ur tliu IVkssossivc Case: as — 
 
 "The lal)onr/NWC deliglit in pliy^iies pain." (Mdch. il. 3.) 
 
 "He proseiitod hi.s cliiMreii to Lis sovoroign as the most valiia'jTo 
 offering /she had to bestow." ( Vicar of \V. ch. J.) 
 
 " He is tlie most attentive man ^I ever saw." (Niclwlaa N. ch, xlix.) 
 
 "The hours a we pnss with hippy prospects in view aie moro 
 pleasing tiian tiiose croivned with fruition." {Vicar of IT. ch. x.) 
 
 Ohs. 1. " In tlip Kntilisli Hihlo tlio Relative is not onci' omitted; in Jlilton, seldom; 
 in Sliiikspparo, oltt n." (Kocii, ii. p. 274.) 
 
 Obs. 2. Soniotinips a Preposition is omitted, as well as the Relative : as,— 
 
 "In tlie temper of mind a he was then." (.Addison, S2}ed. No. 549.) 
 
 " In tlio posture a I l;>y." (Swift, Gulh'vci; Part I. ch. vii.) 
 
 It would b ■ b tter to say "in the temp r of mind in uhich ho was then ;" " in the 
 posture in tchich I lay." 
 
 01:". 3. In th.-> poetry of .Shakspeare, the Relative is sometimes omitted even in the 
 Nominative; us— 
 
 " I have a brother [who] is condemned to death." (Measure for Jd. ii. 2.) 
 So occasionally in later prose authors, but not those of the present day : as — 
 
 "Mr. I'rince has a genius a would prompt him to better things." (^Fpect. 
 Ko. 4Ge.— Steele.) 
 
 "If the calm, in which ho was born, and [which] lasted so long, had con- 
 tinued." (Clarendon, JAfe, p. 4,'5.) 
 
 " Tills I filled with the feathers of several birds I hud taken with sprinpr s 
 made of Yahoos' hairs, and [which] were excellent food." (G'iiJiu'ef, ch. i..^ 
 (.See Abbott, Sh. Gr. $ 244.) 
 
 [N.H. — Tliis usnge must on no account be imitated.] 
 
 (2) r>nt Avlion the Relative sentence specifies some ad- 
 ditional and independent circumstance about the ante- 
 cedent, the rrunouii can never be omitted. Compare tlio 
 following examples : — 
 
 "IVIyseond boy]\roses, — whrim J dafgn^dforhnmiess, — ^roeeivcJ a 
 sort of miscellaneous educiition at home." (iVmr of W. ch. i.) 
 
 " Wlien Sunday came, it was indeed a day of finery, — which all my 
 sumptuary edicts could not restrain." (J6. ch. iv.) 
 
 " The eartli is covered thick with otiiev c'ay, — 
 ]\'hich her own clay ishail covir," {Ch. Harold, iii. 28.) 
 
 Tn each of these Ecntenccs the Telativo is indis- 
 pciisaltlo. 
 
 § 2 If), "When a TJelativo sentence defines a Nonn or Fro- 
 noiin connected by the \ oi b i<> he to a I'ronoun of the 
 Ist or 'Jnd 1 erson, the \ orb in the Relative sentence is 
 
SYNTAX. 
 
 119 
 
 acl- 
 nte- 
 
 tho 
 
 diS- 
 
 ofton mfitlo to agree in Person with the preceding Pro- 
 noun : as — 
 
 "Art not (hou Uiat Egyptian which before these days yuailest an 
 uproar . . . ?" (Acts xxi. ;iS.) 
 
 *' If thou l)('('st ho, but O liow fallmi, how changed 
 From him who . . . rlidst out.-^luTK^ 
 INIyriads though briglit . . ." (i'. L. i.) 
 
 *' I am no orator as IJriitu.s 'i<^ 
 ]»ut as yon know uif all, a {ihiin blunt ninii 
 Tluit lure my friend . . ." (J. C,r>t. iii. 2.) 
 
 P>nt t]io 3ril Person is also used : as — 
 
 " Art thou ho tliat tmnlhth [not troiihlesp^ Israel ? " (1 Kin. xviii. 17.) 
 
 " Oil, a cliorubim 
 llion wast that (//(/ [not didsf] iircsorvo me." (Shak. Temp. i. 2.) 
 
 § 241. "Than whom." — The liulaiivc Pronoun who is 
 used in the Olijcctivo Case after tho Conjunction than 
 where any other pronoun would bo in the jN'oniinativo 
 Case : as — 
 
 "Belial came last, than whom a sjjirit more lewd 
 Fell not from heaven." (P. L. i.) 
 
 " Beelzebub, fhnn n7iOWi, 
 Satan except, none higher sat." (/'. L. ii.) 
 
 "Than whom a fiend more fell nowhere is found." (Caf^lle of I ml.) 
 
 "The old martiid stock, than loltom better men never did and never 
 will draw sword for king and country." (Scott, N(<jel, ch. xxvii.) 
 
 Ohs. In older English the Objective is found after than in the case of other Pro- 
 nouns besides who : as — 
 
 " A stone is heavy, and the sand weighty, but a fool's wrath is heavier than 
 them both " (Prov. xxvii. 3) — 
 
 a construction founded on the Latin [Ablative after the <.'omparatlve Decree]. 
 [N.B.— Not to be imitated.] 
 
 § 242. Sometimes the Antecedent to a Relative is ira 
 plied in a I'ronominal Adjective : as — 
 
 " This rural politeness is very troublesome to a man of my temper, 
 who generally take the chair that is next me," &c. {Sptct. No. 111).) 
 
 § 243. Sometimes an entire sentence forms the Ante- 
 cedent : as — 
 
 " Ilo-ti himself — ivhfch was the more remarkable — instead of chastising 
 Uis son, seemed to grow more indulgent to him than ever." (Lamb, Llia.) 
 
 Compare § -21, Ajijiositlon, 
 
120 
 
 ENOLisn GnA:\:MATi. 
 
 § 244. The "^renter rronomi it is nscd in a pornliar man- 
 ncr without any loregoing Moun to vviiich it cau lio rclrnvd. 
 
 1. It is usf;(l before tlic Vero to he when tlie Sul>j(.'ct 
 fuUows, and it tlien scrveB as a kind of tenipuiary 
 or provisional Subject : us, 
 
 « It'isl; be not tfrai.b" (Mark vi. 50.) 
 
 *' It is more })Usseil to give than to rec( ivc." (Acts xx. 35.) 
 
 " Tt was tlic scliootifr Hesperus 
 Tliat fcailt; I tlio wintry sea." (Tiongfellow.) 
 
 Real Subjects : (1) 7, (2) to give, (:>) the schooner Jle/ipcrus. 
 
 Oha. 1. The I'ronoun it is sometimes used even when a Tlural subject followa; 
 
 "I did hear 
 Tlie Ralloping of horse : who was it came by ? "— 
 •« "/Vs two or thre<\ my F.ord, tluit bring you svuid, 
 Wacduir is Hid to England." (Shaks. Macb. iv. 1.) 
 
 [i.e. the sound you Iiear IS . . . .] 
 
 "it vas the. J-.'nf/lish, Kaspar cried, 
 
 Tii:it put the Kreneli to rout." (^^outbey.) 
 In the same way the (Jeimuus say es sind, and tlie French ce sont. 
 
 Ob!'. ". In the samn way is used the Adverb there, which thus has a kind of 
 Pronominal force : as, — 
 *' There was a Brutus once." (Shake. J. C. i. 2.) 
 •• There are more tilings in noaven and earti;, Horatio, 
 Tlian are dreamt of ui your pliilosophy. ( Id. Hamlet, I. 5.) 
 
 2. In like manner tlie Pronoun it is employed to 
 represent a circumstance or history to bo related : 
 as, — 
 
 " And it rame to pass. [i. e. the following; circumstance came to pass] 
 at the end of two full years, tliat rimraoh dreamed, and behold ho stodd 
 by the river." (Gen. xli. 1.) 
 
 " It happened on a solemn eventide, 
 8non utter He that was our surety died, — 
 Two bosom friends, each pensively inclined, 
 The scene of all those sorrows left behind." 
 
 (Cowper, Convers.') 
 
 " 'Twas at the royal feast for Persia won 
 By Philip's warlike son." (Dryden.) 
 
 8. The Pronoun it is used as the Subject of Verbs 
 denoting natural phenomena : as, it rains, it snows, 
 it freezes, &c. 
 
 Oia. In (7rcek the subject of such Verba as to rain, to unoic, is tlie name of the 
 
 deity ref?arded as the author of such phenomeim: — Zeus vet, yi<f^i,, Zeus raitH^ 
 tliows, <Scc, 
 
 IK 
 ai; 
 
 t 
 
 tl.i 
 
 "I 
 
SYNTAX. 
 
 121 
 
 
 4. Tlio Prononn it is also nsocl to roprcsont state or 
 condition in the most indcllnite manner potssiblo: 
 as, — 
 
 " How 18 X my nohlc lord ?" (Rhaks. ITam. i. 5.) 
 LGt-rm., wie gelit C8?] 
 
 5. After an Intransitive Verb, it is nsod to denote 
 tlie action of the \'erb in a general way: as, — • 
 
 " Come and trip it as wo go." (L'AUigro.) 
 
 ** I cannot daub it further." (Shuks. Lear, iv. 1.) 
 
 [i.e. continue my foriner dissmildiiig. 
 
 Abbutt, Sh. Or. § 22);.] 
 
 6. In asking a question, it is used of that winch is 
 altogether unknown : as, \\'ho iy it '? what is it i 
 
 § 245. The Indefinite Pronouns each, every, either, 
 neither C^^^.'*^'^'*). ^^^ followed by Nouns, Pronouns, 
 and A'erbs, ^Ae Singular Number only : as, — 
 
 "The king of TsTael and the king of Judah f-at, earh [king] on /a's 
 tlirone, having \hot]i\ put oa ttieu* robes.' (1 Kings xxii. lO.j 
 
 " EKtnj tree is known by his own Iruit." (Luke vi. 44.) 
 
 " Lepidi;.s flatters both. 
 Of both is flattti'd : hut lie Jieither loves, 
 Nor either cares for hiiu." (Shaks Ant. and Clcop, ii. 1.) 
 
 "Unless the Plural Noun used after ihcm convey a Collective Idea: 
 
 •^- 
 
 of the 
 rains^ 
 
 ' That every twelve years there should be set forth two ships." 
 
 vliacon.) 
 
 Cls. 1. In the oldrr writers earh, hoinfc < quivalcnt to holh oi alt taken singly, is 
 Bomctimes found with a Plufal V. ib [so I.at. uterquel: as, 
 
 " I.'ach in her sleep .\.emselvcs so beautify'' (Shaks. I.ucr.) • 
 
 "Let each [plur. in the Oreek onginalj i.-steen) other betie/ than themselves." 
 (Phil. ii. 3.) 
 A construction not admissible in modern English, 
 
 Cbs. 2. Either prope- ly signifies one of two, txclustve of the other. By the older 
 writers it is Fomfiimea wrongly uscii m the sense olearh or both: as, — 
 
 " Nadiib and Abihu, th« bouh of Aaron, took either [each] of them his censer." 
 (Lev. X. 1.) 
 
 "They crucified hiui, ana two other with him, on either side one, and Jesus 
 In the midst." (John x-lx 18.) 
 
 " On either side of tMe river was there the tree of life." (Rev. xxii. 2.) 
 
 '' Pro|)08al8 for a trxwe between the ladies of cither p irty." 
 
 (Addison, Freeholder, contents of No, 88.) 
 
 CFrom Lowtb.) 
 
122 
 
 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 V. THE VERB. 
 1. Concord of Predicaie. 
 
 § 24n. A Verl) .agrees with its Sulijcct in XnmV^r fimd 
 Penson : as, man mmfs or irttuhth, mtii inuif ; tiiou nasQiiest^ 
 thuy reason ; if i wcic, il" tliuu wcrt^ i*cc. 
 
 Ohs. 1. In consofjuonc • of yon li.iviii;; t ikcn tlu> pl.icf <if //)o», tlio Vorb is 'sc'n; limct 
 iii'-'ont'Ltly put ill tlic Sint^uLir with ijdu as its siiljcct. Tims sum • of olIi b^iit 
 writers, ot'tlie a^i! ofl^uccii Aiini', usu you ivas iiisti-ad oi you wert : as,- > 
 
 " Knowing that you was my old must .r's good IVicnd." 
 
 (Addison, yprr?. No. Sir.) 
 
 " Would to G d you was witliin Imr rfac li." (I'.olingbioii..' to Swilt, Litter -16.) 
 
 " If you rros licrc." (I»itto, l.'tt'r .}7.) 
 
 •* 1 am just now as well, as when you vus h ro." 
 
 op^' to Swift, P.S. to I.dti' ?6.) 
 
 0?).^. 2. An apparent violation of concord takes place with titles of Ijooks -u tl . 
 plural : as — 
 
 " Tlio Charactfiriftics [of Shaftesbury] .... coTi^^**^* colLction of di* 
 qiiisitions." (('railv, ii. 2iA.) \ ^ ^ 
 
 "The Bones cj" Josfij^h is an introduction to the Talmnfl^l/f 
 
 {\)'umirxirios. Onvitnj.) 
 
 "The Memoirs of the Most Famous GamcHers . . . apjycars to be a Look- 
 ■oiler's job." (Ih.j 
 
 " The rleasures of Memory was published in 1792." (Example in Biin, p. 174 ■> 
 
 In such cases we speak of the work as a. whole, and cons '(lucntly as one tiling, 
 not many. Hut having regard to the cont nts, we sliould s.iy — 
 
 " These Memoirs are [not is] forcibly writtin." 
 
 Similarly in speaking of sums of money: IQOl. wiis spent, &c. 
 
 Ohs. 3. Owing to confusion of thought, a Verb is sometimes made to ngree with 9 
 word wliicli is not its real Subject : as,— 
 
 "The richness of her arms and apparel were [was] conspicuous in the foremost 
 ranks." (Gibbon, D. and F.) 
 
 " The terms in which the sale of a patent to Mr. Hine were [was] communi- 
 cated to the public." (Junius's Letters.') 
 
 " It is in such moments .... that the immortal superiority of genius ard 
 virtue most strongly upj)ear [appears]." (Alison, Jissay on Chateaubriand.) 
 
 These are simple blunders : see Breen, p. 17, where more examples are given. 
 
 § 247. Two or more Nouns in the Singular NuinLer, 
 with or without a Conjunction, take a \ erb in the Plural 
 Number: as — 
 
 " The evening and the mornin"; vcre the first day." (Gen. i. 5.) 
 [llubrew : the evening was — the morning wa-^.J 
 
 " Thy prayfT, thy pvai.so, thy life to vice nnknown, 
 In sweet memorial rme . . ." (Parnell, Utniiil.) 
 
 **No sooner said, but from tin; hall 
 • littsh cha],)laiu, butler, doo-.s, and all." (Poj^e.) 
 
«TNTAX. 
 
 123 
 
 i. 5.) 
 
 
 Oh*. 1. f >■ ncWmf'". tlio ViTb Is madi' to iifrrpi^ with the ?uhjprt noxt to it alone, 
 'je'ii'-. Ill Mtally sii|iiili((i with i\\>: ii st. This is tf^pLxially the i^sc win u yuo 
 •"o'-j ct htuiids out in some way hy its If: as — 
 
 " Both d( ath and lam found . ttrn il." (/'. L. x.) 
 
 " To rive wiiat (iotli and Turk and Time luttlt spared." (r/j. llnrold, II.) 
 
 Also frequently when tho Verb stands first : as — 
 
 "2^'ow vns: there bustle in the Viair's house 
 And earnest cxjMit.ition." i^rnur?. i\.) 
 
 Or when two Nouns connected by ami are so nearly synunyir uh t to su^Kcst 
 
 but one idea : as — 
 " Wherein dulk sit tho fear and dreail of kiiicc'?." (Mcrrh. . •'. .v. 1.) 
 " Hostility and livil tumult jvi'gfMs . . ." (A'. ./«//m, iv. 2.) 
 
 Obs.2. Soniitinies two nouns cduiiect d by (Di I tbini iv sort of rompouiid noun, 
 wliich is then regarded as Singular. Sucli are -Inrad awl liutta-, I'uiidi mil 
 Jiidi/, two an I airpiwe, a cnrriajt and pair, also, a huv an I ( ry. in tin su cases 
 the \'erb is SliiiiuKir; as — 
 
 " The liuf and cry of heaven ;<)/)■.«»'.« him." (IHyd ii, .1 Piram.) 
 Ohs. 3. W'Uh is sonietinies to be met with used in the same way as and : as — 
 "... tiedaliah, who icith his suns and his brethren were tw<l\e." 
 
 {I chroii. XXV. 9.) 
 "Your poor gamekeeper vith all his laiiie family .... have been perishini^. 
 
 (_I''ielcliiig, 7'. J. iii. S.) 
 [A'./?.- This should be avoided: use rather anl.] 
 
 § 248. Every Verb, except in tlio Infiiutivo or the I'ar- 
 tioiple, has its Nominative Ca.se, eitlior e.xpresscd or implied : 
 as, — 
 
 " Awake [ye], arise [ye], or be [yo] U>y ( ver full'ii." (P. L. i.) 
 
 § 249. (1.) (Either) . . . or. — Winn two Singular Sub- 
 jects are connected by (eitherj . . . or, the \ orb renjains 
 Singuuu* : as — 
 
 "... a faint sfrcam nu'u'lit bo lioard. as a lover, a brotber, or a 
 husband, icas struck from lii.s lior.sf.' {lean, xii.) 
 
 Obs. 1. Such sentene s belong to the class of contracted sentences (tj 308). The 
 Verb expressed belongs to the latter subject ami agrees with it, being understood 
 with the former : us,— 
 
 " Either you or he is to blame." 
 
 The words " are to hlame " are understood alter " i/nn." 
 
 Obs. 2. The Plural is occasionally to be mit with : as — 
 
 " It must be confessed that a lampoon or a satire do not carry In them robbery 
 or murder." {Spixt. 'J:!. — Addisou.) 
 
 [A'.B.— Not to be imitat. d.] 
 
 (2.) Neither (nor) .... nor. — The same rule is 
 ksually observed with neither . . . nor : as — 
 
 "... Where neither moth nor rust doth corrupt." (^Nlatt. vi. 20.) 
 
 " Neither tbe modern drav-horse nor the niodtrn race-horse was then 
 known." (Miic. //. E. i. ;Ut;.) 
 
 •• Nor man nor fiend hath fallen so far." (Byron, Napoleon.) ' 
 
124 
 
 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 " Nor obvious hill 
 Nor strait.ininj? valo vnr wood nor stream dividet 
 Tlioir peacpful ranks." (f. L, vi.) 
 
 P»nt tho riaral not seldom occurs, especially when 
 several .Siiigulars are connected by nor . . . nor . . . 
 nor: as — 
 
 " Neither physic nor law are to be practically known from books." 
 
 (i^ieliiing, T. J. ix. 1.) 
 
 " Neither be nor Broadhem smolce." (riccadiJ'ij, p. 31.) 
 
 " I^'or wood nor tree nor bush are there." (Scott, Waterloo.') 
 
 Especially in the case of the Personal Pronouns : as — 
 " Ncitlicr you nor / are in fault." (jM'Culloch, in Mdtzner.) 
 
 [Compare Terence, Andria, i. 2, 23 — ■ 
 
 " Ilajc si ncque ego neque tu /ecmMs."] 
 
 § 2.':i0. Collective Nouns. — These are sometimes followed 
 by the Singular and sometimes by the Plural. The Sin- 
 gular is preferred wlien tho Subject is regarded as a 
 wliole ; the Plural, when attention is directed to the indi- 
 viduals composing it. 
 
 Examples : — 
 
 Singular. 
 
 " An English mob is often contented with tho demolition of a few 
 wiii.luwa . . ." (H. Smitli, i. 19.) 
 
 " Tiio government has begun to turn its attention . . ." {Ih. p. 30.) 
 
 " Tiie congregatiuu was dispersing . . . ." (F. Holt, ch. xiii.) 
 
 " In the same ranks was found the whole hodi/ of Nonconformists." 
 
 (Mac. n. E. i. 103.) 
 
 " Tho grand jury cnnsiMs ordinarily of twenty-four grave and sub* 
 fitin'tial yeomcu." (Ccvvell, in Johnson.) 
 
 Pn RAL. 
 
 •' The nssomhhj of the wicked have, inclosed me." (Ps. xxii. 16.) 
 
 "The jury were right in finding the lu-isoiier guilty . . ." 
 
 (S! Smith, ii. 114.) 
 " Imitate the starry choir 
 Who .... lead . . ." (Comus.) 
 
 " TTow are the raiilnment in ])o awakened from tliat dust in which 
 th<-y ri'poso?" (8. Smith, ii. ('.■_>.) 
 
 "... all tho I'-orld go by them." (Tennysou, Will. W.) 
 
SYNTAX. 
 
 125 
 
 2. The Subjunctive Mood. 
 
 § 251. The cliief use of the 8ul>jiinctive Mood is in 
 l)V|)()tlietical sentences. It then nsnally lolKnvs sncli 
 Conjunetions as if, unless, except, altiiough, albeit, 
 notwithstanding, whether . . . or : a« - 
 
 " Wlmt matter where if I he istill the same ? " (/'. L i.) 
 
 *' Now this, tlio'itih it make the unskilful laugh, cannot but make the 
 judicious grieve." {I [ami. iii. 'J.) 
 
 " No man can do these miracles ejcccpt God be witli him." 
 
 (Julin iii. 2.) 
 "... if the scale th turn 
 But in the estimation of a hair." (Mack, of V. iv. 1). 
 
 It also frequently follows such exi)ressions as provided 
 (that;, suppose (^supposing;, &c. : as— 
 
 "... so we will, provlihd tluit he win her." {Tantimj of S. i. 2.) 
 
 " Suppose you were to take a little journcty now . . ." 
 
 (Dickens, David C eh. xix.) 
 
 § 2h2. Sometimes the A'erb in the Suhjunctivo IMooil is 
 placed before its ISuhjcct, and no Conjunction is then 
 used : as-— 
 
 "... ?<v )y; I [ = il' I were] iJrutus, 
 And Brutus Antony, there were an At)tony 
 Would rulllv) tip your sjiirits . . . ." (,/. C. iii. 2.) 
 
 " llVre I th(' IMoor, I would not he lugo." {OH,, i. !.) 
 
 "Oh, \rert i\\o\\ ( = ifth(m irrrt) in tlio cauld liliist . . ." (Burua.) 
 
 "//>■(/ Bertnuid llisinghivui [ — ifhe led j the hearts 
 That countered there on adverse parts, 
 No superstiiiniis fool had I 
 Sought Eldorados in the .-ky." {Uohihy^ i.) 
 
 O^.v. Such scnti'ncos as the hist an.' not uiiioiniuuii in our oldi-r writers. Sp« 
 Al'lwtt, N/t. (.';•. i>. l!Ul 
 
 § 2o3. The Suhjnnotive is also used in indirect (pies- 
 tions after if, whether, and in tlie case of douKle 
 ([uestions {i.e. where tlicj'c are two alternatives^, alter 
 whether (if; .... or: as — 
 
 "Tell mo, moreover, hast tliou souniled liiin, 
 //'he apfirnl the didie (.n ancient malice 
 Or worthily." {link. II. i. 1.) 
 
 "Look //your helpless father yet mrvin." (Dryden, /7wi. ii.) 
 
 § 254. The Subjunctive ]\lo(td is also used in dejicinh'nt 
 sentences to denote a vntumtDid or icUh. It is then olLcn 
 introduced by the word that. 
 
12f5 
 
 tlNGLTSH GRAMMAlt. 
 
 Examples :— 
 
 ** Hoat me these irons liot ; and look thou 8t<t7ul 
 Within the arras." (A". J. i^. I .) 
 
 " The ldni:;'8 fnitlier pleasure is 
 That such a writ he seri'eil again.st you." (//. VIII. iii.) 
 
 *' And ere our comino: see thou shake the bag 
 Of lioiirding abbots." (/v. J. iii. 3.) 
 
 *• I would that I icere low laid in my grave." (i6. ii. 1.) 
 
 § 255. Hence arises the use of the Subjunctive Mood in 
 an Fmperative or Optative [wishing : Lat. " opto," I wisJi] 
 Ben.se : as — 
 
 **Now, good digestion limit on appotit^^ 
 And health on both ! " (Much. iii. 4.) 
 
 ** Never harm, nor spell nor rhann, 
 Couie our lovely lady nigh," {Mah. N. D, ii. ?,!) 
 
 Cbs. Or those Verbs may be si'.id to be in the Iiiiponitivp Mood. In Latin and 
 French also tlie oulyunctive is used with an hnperative sense. 
 
 § 256. The Subjunctive is likewise used, especially in 
 our older writers, after tlie words that, so tnat, lest, 
 to denote a purpose or consecpience of something to bo 
 done : as, — 
 
 " Take heed, thai Ihou gpea/c not to Jacob." (Gen. xxxi. 24.) 
 
 ♦' Come, thick Ni,t;ht, 
 That iny keen knife nee not the wound it giv( s." (Much. i. 5.) 
 
 *' Ho that sniiteth a man, so that ho die, shall be suiely i)ut to 
 dcatli" (Kx. xxi 1'2) 
 
 "And if a man .smite the eye C(f liis servant . . . thd it perish; ho 
 shall let him go free for his eye's s-ake." {Ih. ver. 2lj.) 
 
 " Let him that standcth take heed, lest ho /all:' (1 Cor. x. 12.) 
 
 "Get on your night-gown, lest occasion call ns, 
 And shoiv us tn be watcliers." {I\Ia<b. ii. 2.) 
 
 § 257. It must not be supposed t1iat all Verbs used in 
 Iiy|»ot]ietieal seiitenecs arc necessarily in the Sulijuiietive 
 Mood. Tlie Indicative is used after if in speaking of 
 what is jtrL'sent at the time 
 
 Exam})les : - 
 
 *'If I am to l»e a b(\<:;gar fas appears likelyj, it sliall inver maki; me 
 a rascal." {V. of Wahijhhl oh. ii.) 
 
 "And though my portion is but .-.cant, I give it witli good will." 
 
 {II). di. viii.) 
 
 The Indicative is also used in liyiKdbctical sentences, 
 where thero is uo real contingency or doubt : us, — > 
 
lood in 
 I wisJi] 
 
 Lutin and 
 
 [ally in 
 t, lest, 
 5 to bo 
 
 1) 
 
 i. 5.) 
 put to 
 
 ?r/*7t ; he 
 
 12.) 
 
 nso(1 in 
 iiictivc 
 :iiig of 
 
 n;ik(! me 
 
 ill." 
 viii.) 
 
 tenees, 
 
 SYNTAX. 
 
 127 
 
 ^ though he wctt rifch, yet for your siikcs he hccarne poor." 
 
 (2 Cor. viii. 9.) 
 
 A \so, the Inclieativo is sometimes used in preference to 
 the tSnbjunctive for the sake of greater energy of ex- 
 presfcion. Compare the following examples :— 
 
 " If thou s^peahd falrse, 
 Upon tUe next tree shult thou Imng alive." {Much. v. 5.) 
 
 "... if thou culst more 
 Than a just pound .... 
 Thou dilst . . . ." {March, of V. iv. 1.) 
 
 Obt. Tim use of tlie Indicative and the Subjinu live Mood, in the same sfntonce, 
 and in tlie sami' conntction, thuiigli cither of tiieni might 8' pa rate ly be right, 
 is not to be justified : as, 
 
 " 7/" there be but one body of l(>Kislators, it is no bettor than a tyranny; (/"there are 
 only two, there will want a casiing voice." (Addison, Sped. No. 'JS7.) 
 
 "Therefore if tlion '»•/«// thy gilt to thenitar, and there remembcrent that thy brother 
 hath aught agaiii.xt thee." (Matt. v. 2:i.) 
 
 § 2r)8. Scrjiinice of Ten rs.— May, shall, will, are ro,i2;n- 
 larly used in subordinate sentences after Irescnt and 
 Future Tenses in tlie Trincipal sentence ; and mi^Jht, 
 should, would, after Past Tenses : as, — 
 
 1. Scntiiiocs ( xi)r( ssiiii^ a Pin-poso. 
 ^ .^ (i il come, am coming , , . \ that I matj aic, &c. 
 
 M 
 
 \n 
 
 l; -J o 
 •fi H A 
 t ■ ■ 
 
 have come ...,,.) „ thou muyif, &o, 
 
 c;^£l shall come / „ he moy, &c. 
 
 Iha^. I initjhl see, &o. 
 
 ,, tlioti miijlth^t, &0. 
 
 • • • 
 
 w >5 . / I came, was coming 
 
 .'. a. o 1 
 
 ^ '^ v-, ] 
 
 " ?■ iti had come 
 
 *< 2 ^' V •' jj 1^6 mi(jht, &G. 
 
 2. Senti nros rxpr< ssing a Coiiscqiu'iuMS 
 f y^ (-* / I fear, am f( aiing . . . . i timit I Wiiy or «/<((/Z sec, &o, 
 
 Q l: • ( [have feared*] . . . . l* ,, tlioii //an/.!)/ or (iw//, &o. 
 
 ^'''AiV shiiU ft ar .......' „ he ma// or (c/V^ i\:n. 
 
 ; I I IV'ured, wnn loaiing . , . i that I )m'<jht or bhoulil se<>, &c, 
 
 h'ii'.'-i had tVared J> ,, i\ion inlijh 1st ov loouhht, kc. 
 
 „ he miijld or would, &o. 
 
 
 * The Present Coniiiletc I have feared is more naturally foil vvrd by mif)ht, ^hnnhU 
 or ironht, lit'Laiiwc it nniplit -? tliat the loiisr'-^ii.'ncc feared belongs to tlir fast. " 1 lmv8 
 (OiUcd lliul i inifjU i^iihoidd) fall into danger, &:c." 
 
128 
 
 ENGLISH GUAMMAIU 
 
 3. The Infinitive Mood. 
 
 § 259. The Infinitive Mood is in modern Eny,lish nsnally 
 indicated l>y the prefix to. PMit the ohl form without to 
 is us;ed Jil'ter the foRowing ehisses of Ver])s : — 
 
 1. Some which .serve as Auxiliaries in forming various 
 Tenses and ."Nhxids : viz, do, shall, Will; to whieli 
 may he added, may, can, might, could, would, 
 should. 
 
 2. The folhnving old root-vcrLs : bid, dare, have, 
 make, let, must, list, neec. 
 
 3. ]\lany Verbs denoting the operation of the senses, 
 as, see (behold, watch, mark, &q.), hear, feel. 
 
 Examples [2 and 3] : — 
 
 (•J) " Bid mo tear the bond." (mrrh. of V. iv. 1.) 
 
 " Dar'st Ihoii. Cassias, 
 Leap in witli mo . . . V" (,/. C:ixnr, i. 2.) 
 
 " We oi'tuii had tlio traveller or stranger vUit us . . . ." 
 
 {Vicar of W. i.) 
 "It \Yas miiU! art 
 When I arrived and heard th<'0, that mn'h (jape 
 Tlio pine and Id th( c out." {Tenip. i. 'J.) 
 
 "I will not let thee (jo . . ." ((Jen. xxxii. 20.) 
 
 "It must seem Iheir deed . . . ." (Mach. ii. 2.) 
 
 " Ainhlinu; piiltVcy when at need, 
 llim listed rase \di l)attle ssteid." {Mann, i.) 
 
 "Thi'y need not depart; give ye them to eat." (]Matt. xiv. 10.) 
 
 "Nor with less dr(\id tht; lou<l 
 Ethereal trumpet from on high <jnn blow." (P. L. vi.) 
 
 (A purely poetical construction.) 
 
 (3) " I see before mc the gladiator lie." {Ch. Harold, iv.) 
 
 ''I feel 
 The bond of Nature draw me to my own." (Z\ L. ix.) 
 
 Ohs. 1. Moat of tlic Verbs inchidpd undor (2) fttid (3") BoniolitiK's iidmit tho In- 
 finitive with to ftftor tlicin. Tims, dare [Present Tense] oirurs a few tiines in 
 Slijiiisjicaiv followul by In, ami luith dared, h, I dared, in pvcry case po, wliero 
 tlicy occur. Hid is also ponietinies followed by to, and likewisp have, make, 
 hi^t, need. Lei is occasionally foUowed by to : — 
 " Wliich sliall wc let to triumph for ourselves ? •* {iyeivcomes, cb. xxxvii.) 
 
 Hut this construct m sliould be avoided. The use of to after the Verb see \i 
 obsolete : — 
 
 " To see so many to make so little cousclencc of so proat a sin—" 
 
 ri'iUutsuu, vol. i. derm. 1L\ 
 
SYNTAX. 
 
 129 
 
 iv. 1">.) 
 vi.) 
 
 ) 
 
 ix.) 
 
 lit tho Tn- 
 
 \v tiincs in 
 
 80, wliive 
 
 ,u'c, ma Ice, 
 
 cxvil.) 
 To lb see ll 
 
 Ltui. 22.> 
 
 Obt, 3. Th'> PasRivp Infinitive aft"r somp of those Verbs is in d.ngor of being 
 confounded with th ■ simple Past I'articiplc: us— 
 
 " 1 heard the lull toll'd on thy burial day." (Cowper, Lines.') 
 
 Here, toll'd = to be toll'd. 
 
 Obs. 3. Outfit was formerly often f jllowed by the Infinitive without to : q,— . 
 
 " What, know you not. 
 Being niPchanieal, you otniht Tint wall:. 
 Upon a labouring il.iv, wittiout the fti.L'n 
 Oi your prollssion r" (Sh. Jul. Cies. i. l.^ 
 
 § 2(50. The Infinitive with to is often the Siihject of a 
 sentence; especially liefore the \'erl) to be: as — 
 
 '' . . . to be wt'ak is iuis('ral)lc, 
 Doing or sull'friiig . . ." (/'. L. i.) 
 
 " To reign is worth ambition." (i6.) 
 
 -''T/s sweet to hear the watcli-tlog'a honost li iris 
 Bay tkrp-innuthed weLoiuo . . ." (Bynni) 
 
 [I.e. to hear is sweet : tee § 211, No. l.J 
 
 " To be coutt-nts his iiatiirul desire." (Pope, E.<s. i.) 
 
 Obs. 1. Such a sentence as this— 
 
 " Better dwell in the midst of alarms," 
 
 is probably to bo explained as elliptical = one had bHter dwell. 
 
 66s. 2. In Sentences like the following, the Infinitive is to be regarded as the 
 Subject ; — 
 
 " This was all thy care, 
 To stand approvi d in llie siglit of ( loil." (P. L. vi.) 
 
 § 2(31. The Infinitive not unfrequcntly denotes tho 
 Object, especially after Verbs ex})re,ssing the action of 
 the MIND or WILL : such as, to mean, purpose, intend ; 
 expect, hope, fear; wioli, desire, love, hate; learn, 
 remember, forget : as— 
 
 " Cromwell . I did not thlnh to shrd a tear 
 In all my miseries . . . ." (lien. VIII. iii. 2.) 
 
 *' V/liieh [will], nardon rne, I do not mean to read." (J. Cits. iii. 2.) 
 
 " The Countess of Kow purposes to stay here this evening." 
 
 (At'd'f. eh. XX XV iii.) 
 
 " By that sin frll the angels ; how can man then, 
 The imago of his Maker, hojw iv win by it?" (lien. VIII. iii.) 
 
 "I like u thou.^and times better to think of KupliiuTs loving spirit. 
 
 {.\eicc. eh. xxxv.> 
 
 "I should like to have known that gooil Samaritan . . " 
 
 {lb. ch. xxxviii.) 
 
 " Cease to do evil, lenrn to (h> wi 11." (Ts. i. 17.) 
 
 "Such groans of roaring wind iiml niiii. I never 
 liemeinber to hace heard." (Lki/-, iii. 2.; 
 
130 
 
 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 § 202. PfcuUar Use of Past Lijimtirc.—Tho, Past Infini 
 five [to have . . , to have been . . .] is sometimes used by 
 a kind of attraction after a Verb in the Past Tense : 
 as, — 
 
 " I thitu!:;ht to have slain him where he stood." (Scott, Marm.) 
 
 "I should Imvo eortninly endeavou^nd to have executeil [incorrect" 
 it sliould be, to execult] vcugcunce ou his baseness." (Fielding, T. J. 
 viii. It.) 
 
 "My purpose was . . . to hare withdrawn ray health to a safer 
 country." (Johnson, Rambler, 120.) 
 
 § 2GD. Comjjlementary Ivjinitive. — The Infinitive, when 
 not the Object of the Verb, is often its Complemknt, serving 
 to define its a])plication in some way. This is especially 
 the case with Verbs of commanding, compelling, persuading, 
 teaching, &c., which do not convey a complete sense by 
 themselves. Also the Infinitive often expresses the Pur- 
 pose of the action denoted by the \ erb. 
 
 Examples : — • 
 
 " Claudius had commanded all Jews to depart from Rome.*' 
 
 (Acts xviii. 2.) 
 
 " He vfus forced to depart, so as to be within Grey Friars' gate before 
 ten." {Newc. ch. xii.) 
 
 " I wrote this morning . , . to have all my horses sold . . .'* 
 
 (lb. ch, xxxvii.) 
 
 *'IIe invoiced Heaven to witness tlie sincerity of his proffssion^;." 
 
 (:\rac. H. E. i. 110.) 
 
 ^^ Teach mo to live that I may dread . . .** {Ei\ Hymn.) 
 
 *• God spoke and gave us the word in Iceep . . ." 
 
 (Rob. Browning, H. Cross Day.) 
 
 "I come to bury Cresar, not to praise bin) . . ." (/. Cflis. iii. 2-) 
 
 "Hi' spoke, and to confirm his words owi jlevo 
 Millions of llaiiiing swords." (P. L. i.) 
 
 The Compl mentary Infinitive of Purpose is often intro- 
 duced by so as to, in order to, and in older Euijjlish 
 by for (to) : as — 
 
 " I\Tax gave up a costume and a carriage so as to help Paul." 
 
 (Newc. ch. xxxviii.) 
 
 "A dia^^oon was a soldier who vsed a horse only in order io arrive 
 with more speed at the place where military sorvici' was required." 
 
 (Mac. H. E. i. 2U6.) 
 
 " What went ye out Jor to see i " (Matt. xi. 9.) 
 
^ } 
 
 SYNTAX. 
 
 131 
 
 Tnfini 
 
 ised by 
 Tense : 
 
 ncorrrrt • 
 iiig, T. J. 
 
 ' a safer 
 
 , when 
 serving 
 pecially 
 suadiiKj, 
 Bnse by 
 tie Pur- 
 
 nil 2.) 
 
 ite before 
 
 f 
 
 xxvii.) 
 
 ms." 
 I 110.^ 
 
 I Day.) 
 .2.) 
 
 I intro" 
 ^ni;lish 
 
 
 § 204. The Infinitive is often the Complement of an 
 A.(ljective [Adverbialj : as — 
 
 "Swift to hear, sloio to speak.** (Jas. i. 19.) 
 
 " Things hard to he understood." (1 IVt. iii. 16.) 
 
 " Kaqer to he pleased and to phai^e . . ." (Xeicc. ch. xxxviii.) 
 
 *' A body of members anxious to preserve and eager to refarm . . .'* 
 
 (Mac. ILK. i. 00 ) 
 
 *^ Desirous to erect a commonwealth." (7&. 117) 
 
 § 205. The Infinitive may also be the Comjilenient of a 
 Konn [Adjectival j : as — 
 
 "A time to icecp and a time to laxKjh . . .** (Eocl. iii. 4.) 
 
 "The .'iight c>^ means to do ill dccila 
 IMakos ill d«H>(ls done . . ." (K. John, iv. 2.) 
 
 "Ilasit thou a charm to sfiti/ the morning star?" 
 
 (Coloridgo. Uymu.') 
 
 " A crime to he expiated by blood." (INIac. U. E. 1. 100. j 
 
 "A house to let;" " Chairs to mend" &c. 
 
 § 2*^r>. Sometimes an Infinitive IMood is attaohod as a 
 Complement to an entire sentence [Adverbial] : as — 
 
 " In politics, the Independents were — to use the phrii.--e of their time 
 ■ -root and brincli men . . ." (Mae. //, A', i. 117.) 
 
 " Not favoured spots alone, but the whole esirth 
 The beauty wore of i^romitie,— thut wliieh sets 
 {To take an imarfe which wiis felt no doubt 
 Amnmr the bowers of Paradi.'^e itself) 
 The budding rose above the lose full-blown." (Wordsworth.) 
 
 T'nder this head come all such parenthetical expressions 
 as, to he hriej\ so to speak, to return to the point, not to make a 
 long story of it, not to mince matters, &c. 
 
 ^ 267. Sometimes the Infinitive is used by way of ex- 
 clamation : as — 
 
 " Thus to roh me of my child ! " (Viear of W. xvii.) 
 
 " To think tliat there she is in the market . . . ! " (Newc. xxxvii.) 
 
 xviii.) 
 
 to arrive 
 red." 
 . 206.) 
 
 4. Gerund. 
 
 § 268. A Gerund is a Verbal Noun, and may be used in 
 most of the constructions of a Noun. Thus it may be the 
 Subject or the Olject of a Verb, and it may be under the 
 government of an Adjective or of a Prepohitiou. 
 
 £ 2 
 
 fi 
 
132 
 
 ENGLISH OnAMMAR. 
 
 1. Gi'.RUND AS Subject. 
 
 " The leaving a noiglibourhood in which we had enjoyed so many 
 hours of tranquilhty, was not without u tear." (Vicar oj \V. ch. iii.) 
 
 *' Banning to see fireworks alone is dreary work." 
 
 {Neu'c. eh. xxxviii.) 
 
 " It is not (hjing for r. faitli that ii hard . . ." {Esmond^ ch. vi.) 
 
 " The aea begins, and there is no more jumping ashore." 
 
 iF. Holt, ch. xxvii.) 
 
 2. Gerund as Object. 
 
 " Thou resppotst not i^piUing Edward's blood." (Bich. II. ii. 1.) 
 " He contemplated marr>jing Esther." (F. Holt, ch. xxxvi.) 
 
 3. Gerund after an Adjective. 
 
 " If it bo vorth stoopinj? for." (Tirelfth N. ii. 2.) 
 
 " Whether it is truth worth my hnowing is another question." 
 
 (/''. Hull, ch. xxviii.) 
 
 4. Gerund governed bv a Preposihox. 
 
 "Cannot but h'n annihilating die." {P. L. vi.) 
 
 *• . . . Wlio (T.n liold a iir.' in hi.s hand 
 Hy thialing on the frosty Caucasus? " (Rich. IT. i. 3.) 
 
 Obs. Sucli oxpiTssicins as the following are occasit)naUy to be nu't with in writers 
 of the present day: — 
 
 " W Jo not dance for dancing'.'! sake." (Standard, Feb. 9, 1872.) 
 
 "To go for f/oini)'s sake. (Smida;/ Maij.) 
 
 Here the Possessive forms are to l)e paiseil as Nouns, not as rierntuls. See 
 ^ 127, Obs. 1. (_Hut it is better to say, " I'or tin', sake q/danciui:;, yoinj," itc.) 
 
 § 200. TliG Gcmiul of a Transitivo Verb retains the 
 same power of <j;overning the Olijective Case as the Verb 
 to which it beknig's : as, 
 
 '* The year was spent in rinting om* rich neighbours and relieving 
 8U(7t as were poor." (\'i<ar of M.cii. i.) 
 
 " I determiucd to increase my salary by managing a little /f/r/»." 
 
 (lb. iii.) 
 
 § 270. It must be l)orno in mincl that the original use of 
 the forms in -inf| ( also -un^ ) was that of Nouns, the Gerund 
 beino- a totally distinct thinp;. (See § 127, Ohss. 1 and 2.) 
 And they must still lie parsed as Nouns when they have the 
 full construction of ^ouns; admitting an Adjective or 
 
> many 
 1. iii.) 
 
 cviii.) 
 1. vi.) 
 
 :xvii.) 
 
 .1.) 
 
 XVIU.) 
 
 ill writers 
 
 iiiuls. 
 
 See 
 ) 
 
 lis 
 
 the 
 'erl) 
 
 Irelicving 
 
 U>. iii.) 
 
 |l \isc of 
 
 Jeiuiid 
 
 Luul '2.) 
 
 live tho 
 
 :,ive or 
 
 SYNTAX. 
 
 i:j3 
 
 Arti(^lc l)efore them, and lieiii^ followed Ity the Preposition 
 of. This is the ease in the following examples ; — 
 
 " Tlio niiildle station of life sofm.s to 1k' tlic most ndvantai^cnusly 
 situatiMl for the (jaininij [NouiiJ oi' wixloni. I'ovcrt y turn.- tmr tliouLrlits 
 too inuoh upon the sui'iihjlini ( N'oiiiij (>f our wants, ami riclic-s upon 
 enjoying [dienindj our siipfrtluitit's." (A(Mi;-on, iSjwit. No. -{[A.) 
 
 " The plant inij [NuuuJ of woodci." (Fuller, Holy St. ii. 9.) 
 
 " The attainiiuj [Noun] of Imppincsij." (it. 10.) 
 
 " The mahinrj [Noun] o/ saluabh; drugs." (K Holt, eh. xxxvii.) 
 
 " The tolUiKj [Noun] of tlie curfew." (Ivunhoe, cli. iii.) 
 
 " The hnrdiiKj [Noun] of a night storm."' {Ih. ii.) 
 
 " TJu! po'iinij [Noun] of figures and dra[)ery ; the dexterous copyiinj 
 [Noun] of tlie liuf." {Xacc. eh. xxxviii.) 
 
 " The smohitKj [Noun] of a certain number of pi[i('s." ( Ih.) 
 
 " A giu at wliuchiiKi [Noun] of whips, Ulow'uuj [Noun] of horns, oiul 
 whirriiuj [Noun] of wheels . . ." (-//>. xxxvii.) 
 
 Ohs. Our older writers show an irregularitj' in tlio use of the forms in -ivg. Sonic- 
 
 .tinius-(l) Tlic'se furnis, even when ni:uk''d as Nouns by hiivinp; an Adjirtivc 
 
 or Article pretixed, are followed by an Objective Casu : at otlier times ( '2), altliough 
 
 not marked in this way as Nouns, they are followed by the rrej)o.sition qf : as,— • 
 
 1. Adjective or Article preti.xed and Objective following. 
 "God, who . . . didst tiacii tlie hearts of tiiy faithful ifople, by the tending 
 to them the light of Thy Holy Spirit." (('ollect, Whitsunday.) 
 
 ♦*. . . no tyranuical penance, jioK7u/|piJif/tlienisc4ve8." (Fuller, //o/y.S'(.i. 11.) 
 
 " 77(« giving a bookseller a^irice for his book has this advantage." (Selden, 
 In Morris, p. l"«.) 
 
 " The leaving a neighbourhood in which we had enjoyed so much happiness, 
 was not without a tear." ( Vicar of W. iii.) 
 
 2. No Adjective or Article prefixed and Preposition o/" following. 
 
 •* Sent to prepare tlie way . . . 6^^>-eacAin(7 o/ reiKutance." 
 
 (Collect, St. .!ohn liaptist.) 
 
 •• Quoting of authors is most for matter of fact." (Selden, in Morris, p. 178.) 
 
 •• . . she can make the sun rise by liglding of a candle." (Fuller, 1. c 1.) 
 
 •* To prove him, in defending of myself, 
 A traitor to my (iod, my king, and me." (Sh. Rich. II. i. 3.) 
 
 N.B. — Thete constructions are now obsolete. 
 
 § 271. The following is the modern rule for the use of 
 6gft Verbals in -ing :— 
 
 When the precedes, of must follow ; or both the and 
 
 of must be omitted together : namely, — 
 Either,— 
 
 " By the sending of tho light.* 
 **By the preaching (»/ repentance.* 
 
134 
 
 ENGLISH GRAMMAE. 
 
 Or,- 
 
 l-ji 
 
 •* By sending the light." 
 " Dy proacliin;/ r. jtontance.** 
 
 In the former case the forms in -ing are parsed t&« 
 Kouns, in the latter case, as Gerunds. 
 
 § 272. A Gerund is often preceded l)y the Possessive 
 Case of a Noun or Pronoun, denoting the JSuhjeet [com- 
 pare Latin, ^^uhjective Genitive] : as — 
 
 " The gooseberries were of h-r (fathering" (Vicar of W. eh. xvi.) 
 
 " I remember his polnliiKj with the wooden sword." (licut. ch. ii.) 
 
 "If you do not disapprove of Miss Lijou\'i (jrmttimj iis this favour." 
 
 (F. Ilolt, ch. XXXV lii.) 
 
 " Who gave you knowk'dge of your wife's being there? " 
 
 ()i. Jons, in ]Mutz.) 
 
 Oha. It. tlir throe last of tlic ab<n-o rxanijil s the s.niv sinsc rniuiit l)i' cxiniss..! Iiy 
 means of a I'aititiple in agreement witli tlie Nuun or i'ronoun {jrcteding. 
 Tlms- 
 
 I remember his pointing [<;i'r.J 
 niiglit be— 
 
 I remember Aim pointing [Part.], &c 
 
 Compare the following exuniplis :^ 
 
 " Cedric, though surprised .... at his ward [not ward's] appearing in public 
 on this occiision." (/run. ch. iv.) 
 
 "When we had din' d, to prevent tlie ladiea [not ladies'] leaving us, I generally 
 ordered the table to be removed." ( Vicar of ir. ii.) 
 
 (In the last example, it would have boen more correct to s.iy, "to prevent the 
 ladies/rof/i leaving.") 
 
 § 273. ThecompoundGcrundfonnswitli having, being, 
 having been, are used in the same way as the simple 
 Gerund : as — 
 
 " 1 si. all cheerfully bear the reproach o{ having dcsrendcd belf)w the 
 dignity of history . . ." (Mac. H. E. i. 3.) 
 
 *' You cannot be in their company a moment without hing made to 
 feel . , . tiiat yon are not the object of this prefer, nee." (Iamb, Ass.) 
 
 " Doulitless the phasure is as great 
 Of being cheated, as to cheat." {IIudil)r. II. iii.) 
 
 "It was that mixture of pushing forward and heir\g pushed foricard, 
 which is a brief history of most human things." (F. Holt, cli. xxxiii.) 
 
 " His being involved in the riot, and his futul tiicouuter with the 
 constable . . ." (76. xlvi.) 
 
 [N.B.— This laat couatruotion ia scarcely ekgant.J 
 
SYNTAX. 
 
 135 
 
 rsed 
 
 Urn 
 
 ^sessl ve 
 b [com- 
 
 xvi.) 
 
 ch. ii.) 
 
 favniir." 
 Lxviii.) 
 
 ^liitz.) 
 
 piettiliug. 
 
 f/ in public 
 I generally 
 
 rovcnt the 
 
 being, 
 (simple 
 
 )clt)w the 
 
 1 
 
 wade to 
 ll), /'.'ss.) 
 
 forward, 
 xxxiii.) 
 
 witli tlio 
 
 5. Participles. 
 
 § 274. rarticiplcs arc VrrLal Adjec^tivos, and attach 
 *;licin!sclveH to Nouns and I'rcuouns in tho saniu niunucr as 
 ordinary Adjectives: as — 
 
 " ()ri'rcom>' l»y rcinorso, <\tjii endeavoured to atono for Lis crime oy 
 liberality tu the Churcii." (lluuiu.) 
 
 " 7/t' ended /rojc«/ur/, and liis look tlenounced 
 Desperuto revenge." i^i'. L. ii. i 
 
 "Tlico /revisit now ■with Ixilder wing 
 Escaped the IStygiiiu pool." {Ih. iii.) 
 
 C^is. 1. In the foUowinB f.\.ini|)ii s, .Miltnti, \vhil<' rt'tiiininR tho proper gnimmalical 
 construttiou ol ihc I'ariiiipl'', lias follKwnl a Gr(< k idliiu; — 
 
 •• [.S'/ie] knew not eatitiu death." (./'. L. ix. 7U2.) 
 
 Compare Gr. e\a6e ({>ayovaa. 
 
 "Knowing as needs / must by thee hitniyid." (Saws. SfO.) 
 
 Olg. 2. Sometimes a Participle rekrs to a Is'ouu or Pronoun implied in a pro- 
 nominal Adjective: as— 
 
 "Tlius rf)»ih<d, nnr fimil hopo 
 Is flat iie.-pair." {!'. 1.. ii.) 
 
 (/.e. the Lope of us thus repulsed.) 
 Ohs. 3. It is sometimes dillicult to decide wli tlier a form in -xvq should be 
 regarded as a I'articiple or a Verbal .Noun, i Ins is tlie ease in such s' nie ices 
 as, lie lay ^U'citiiuj, iliey came Jh/iiii,; kc. Jtcparded a.s a Verbal Noun or 
 Gerund, i<ke]>i)i<j, Ihjinij =: in sleeping, in flying;; in which case It L an Ad- 
 verbial phrase. Ibjrardi d as a rart:ciplc, it in ol course Adjc. tival. 
 
 § 27'). A rarticiplo sonutimcs refers to an entire 
 stiitence: as — 
 
 " Owing tn tho numcrons atteni))ts whieh have heon made to find a 
 X.E. or N.W. piissairo to India, tin'- Arctic Oann has hern mnch mure 
 tliurtujldij cxidonxl than the Antarctic." (Clyde, (Uog. p. 20.) 
 
 tbs:. The phrase owing to might pcrliaps b" reganbd as a rrejiovitlon. l;k(> 
 accordinj to. If not actually u rrei-osiiion, it is at least in a fair way to become 
 one. 
 
 § 276. An Tmperfeot Participle is Bonictinies \ •<• 
 adverbially, at the heginninj^ of a sentence: as — 
 
 *^ Gene rail II sjirahing, these peculiar orgies ohtainod their adnds.sion 
 at periods of distress, disease, puldic cidaniity, and dauirer . . . ." 
 
 ((^rote, i. ;}G.) 
 [I.e. to one spcaliing gencralhj the case appears to: comp. Gr. ws 
 
 " No literature, not excepting oven that of Athens, lias ever pr3senteJ 
 Buch a . . . theatre of life . . ." (De (4uiucey, v. 51 ) 
 
 *VI. ADYEKBS. 
 
 § 277. An Adverb usually stands as near as possilno 
 to tho word which it modifies. Its ordinary pla**^ ir 
 
13G 
 
 ENGLISH GUAMMAtt. 
 
 i I 
 
 hr/orc an Afljcttivc of otlicr Adverb, and after a Verb, 
 as, — 
 
 E.rcet(h'iiylij ^reat. 
 
 Exot'i iliiujlij well. 
 
 To i>i'(j«per e.rct<<liniiJy. 
 
 But tlie Adverb Tuay precede the Verb wlionevor it is 
 intended to be at all enn»liatie : as, — 
 
 " lie fell through . . . into tJie tiilu and /mmff/m/^/// (U.^appcaied," 
 
 (AtMiijon, Vision oj Muzak.) 
 
 *' England has had many hcioo.-;, hut uivcr one who si> enfinhj pos 
 8:'S.><f(l till' lovt.' of his Iclldw-conntrvnirn as Nelson. '' (Stilhey.) 
 
 *' Iniii'jcina'ion /''I, <(//// stnops tn trace 
 'J'he l)arh»iU' sjth ndoiirs of tliut festive |ilaf'e." 
 
 ((icldsniith. l>es. T'i7/.) 
 
 ** Mrrrili/, meinh/, hound.-, the hark. 
 Ik-fore the gulo she hound.s." (Scott, Lord of the Tshs.) 
 
 Obs. 1. A fri'ciuciil po!*ilion for the Adverb is Intwieii the Auxiliary and the 
 Verh: as,— 
 
 " Whiit mean thoso fllfxhts of hinls tlial are jicrplndlli/ Iioveriiig about the 
 bii(l;.i;e?" (AtliiiM)n, /. c.) 
 
 " Tlie 8ra was uradualhi gaining on the bniliiings, wiiieh at length almoBt 
 entirely disapinanil." (Mac. //. /;. i. 3-Ui.) 
 
 "The city had ai/ain risen with a Cf'lcrity . . ." (/"/(. p. ;!52.) 
 
 Oha. 2. The Adverlw onh/, not, even, are particularly liable to be misplaced, and 
 when this is the case, an uuibiguity is cau.iod : as, — 
 
 " (ne wretched actor villi/ deserted his sovereign." (( tifford in Rreen, p. 50.) 
 
 "r/fte specie.s of bread of coarse quality was onZi/ allowed to be baked. . . ." 
 
 (Alison, ih.) 
 
 (It should be In each case, " Onhf one . . .'") 
 
 "... follies thataro on^/ to be killed by a constant and assiduous culture." 
 
 (Addison, Spect. No. 10.) 
 (Better— " that arr to be killed onTi/ hij a covstnnt and assiduous culture.") 
 
 " The law , of this country . . . are not contained in fewer than fifty folio 
 volumes." (i'aley. Morals, i. 4.) 
 
 Better—" are contained in not [luj] fever than . . ." ) 
 
 Obs. 3. Such misplacements of the Adverb as the following arc frequently to be 
 met with in inaccurate writers: — 
 
 " The honour and dignity of Her Majesty reluctantly com2)el her to withdrav 
 from the ari)itration." (Daily Paper.) 
 
 iliould 1)0—' 
 
 (It 
 
 npel 
 
 ') 
 
 § 27!^. Sometimes an Advcrl> bclonirs to an entire ser 
 tcace, and it tlien usually stands at the liejjrinninir : as, -■ 
 
 \ 
 
 i) 
 
 til 
 ml 
 
 lu> 
 
SYNTAX. 
 
 1:;? 
 
 1, and 
 GO.) 
 
 ft 
 
 ih.) 
 
 re." 
 10.) 
 
 folic. 
 
 to 1h' 
 diav 
 
 \ 
 
 \ 
 
 * T'ufnifniKifrhi, tho nl.l IL ics of tho .streets had hecn to u gn at c-xtiMit 
 i>-- ■.>.■!• vr, I. ' (Mac. //. R 1. :{.">•_>.) 
 
 ' I'erhdps, cried be, tlieic may b»j sucii inoa^tt is ns you df.-crilio."' 
 
 ( \ i'ar of 11 . ell. xv.) 
 
 § 27'.). 'J'lic Adverbs like, unlike, are followed by tho 
 I);itivG Case (see § 215). Also some otiier Adverbs have 
 tlie same eoustruetioii as tiie Adjeetives from which they 
 (ire derived : as, — • 
 
 " iVcr/(*'/.s/f/ <o the bill last passed in favnnr of tbr Catholirs . . , 
 i]ui opinion- of the nio.st celebralud of foreign I iiivcTsiticEt were takuu.'' 
 ^b. Suiitli, r. liijm. iii.) 
 
 •'What .Sitga-.ty <a i enablo a man, jtrn-ioush/ to le;;';! iiivosti}.;aMoii, 
 ... to guard again.>t dceeptiou in jsiich a euao r" (.ler. lieiilham, 
 Follaciis.) 
 
 "The po.sition of London, nltttinhj In the other lown.s of tilt: tiiipiie, 
 was far higher than at pri'seiit." (Mae. IL E. i. Ml'J.) 
 
 ♦'They may lo "k into theallairs of Judea and Jerusalem, aj/PfdW/) to 
 lb .1 wliieli is ill the law of tlie Lord." (1 Ksdras, iii JohiKsoii.) 
 
 § 280. Some Adv&rljs do not differ iu form from tlio 
 Adjectives to which they correspond: as, Juad, fair, In-'ijlit, 
 in't'tiy [with Adjectives or Adverbs], loud, etc.: see ^ 1G7, 
 Obs. 2. 
 
 § 281. Two negatives occasionally come togetlii/' in 
 pootry, whon they neutralise each other : as, — 
 
 '' Aor did they not perceive the evil plight 
 lu wbiek ibey were, or tlie fierce paina not feel." 
 
 (.Milt. 1\ L. i. 3r,r).) 
 
 [A T.atinised expression : ne(|ue illi non sentiebant.] 
 This is not the case in earlier writers. Chaucer con- 
 stantly uses double negatives : as, — 
 
 " There wa.s also a Doitour of riiy.sik, 
 In all the world ne was there noiie him like.** 
 
 (P/o/. Cant. Tales.) 
 
 [Comp. French, ?i'etait prts.] 
 
 " Wyd was his pariseh, and houses fer osondur. 
 But he in: lefte [faibnl] not for reyne ne thoudur 
 In sikness ne in mischief to visite 
 The ferrest in bis pariscb, moch and lite" 
 [great and little]. {Lh.) 
 
 k^(^ Shakspeare : — 
 
 " Give not, me counsel 
 Nor let no comforter delight mine ear." (Much Ado, v. 1.) 
 
 Ohu In the a^e of Cliaucer the noyativo Ailvorl) nc ol'tun coiiiMucs witli parts of 
 tUc Verb to l>e : as, nis = is not: n.'« =: wiis not, etc. 
 
108 
 
 ENQLISIl GKAMMAU. 
 
 § 282. Some Adverbs of Time are occasionally used r^ 
 Adjectives, for the sake of brevity : as, — 
 
 "Use a little wine for thy stomach s sake and thine oftni inlirmiti'S 
 
 (I Tini. V. 2:{.) 
 
 "... wars, of which they hope for a i^non and prosperous issuo. ' 
 
 (Sidney in Johnson.) 
 
 "G.ind .wm/;//mfi queen. . ." (Shales, liich. II. v. 1.) 
 
 " In my ihcn circumstauces." ('rhiick. I'aris Sk. Ilk.) 
 
 " In the thn condition of my mind." (Dickens, D. C. eh, xix.) 
 
 S I oftiMi, "the tfien mayor,'' Sec. Compare in Greek, ol nWe Uepircti 
 I'ut tiie.sci nsai^es a'u in Eni!:lish either obaoiete, ur iuadmi.;tiible in 
 v.riting which pMfefcBcs to be accurate. 
 
 § 283. The Adverbs even, only, appear sometimes to 
 liKMlify a Noun or Pronoun, as in such sentences as tlio 
 ioUowing : — 
 
 " Even Homer siunetimes nods.'* 
 
 " I, even /only [only, Adj.'], am left." (1 Kin<,'s xix. 10.) 
 
 " Eren a fool, when he holdeth his peact', is countetl wise." 
 
 (Prov. xvii. 28.) 
 " Only a fool would act so." 
 
 ])Ut it is clear that the emphasis laid npim the Noun or 
 Tronoun in each case depends lor its signilicance entirely 
 upon the Predicate ; and the Adverbs even, only, must be 
 reo-iirded as bolonoinj^ to the whoLj sentence, tliouoh serving 
 at the same time to call special attention to the Subject. 
 
 Obs. In the lost of the above cxiimplea— " r n?,v f/ooJ," — "only" should perhaps 
 be parsed as an Ailjective, which it frequently is in older writers: as,— 
 
 "Noah only remained alive and they that were with him in the ark." (Gen. vii. W.) 
 
 Modern English would prefer : Noah alone [Ai^.]. 
 
 § 284. Some Adverbs, as not, just, exactly, arc used to 
 modify entire phrases, especially phrases consisting of a 
 I'repositiou and a Noun [" Prepositional I'hrases "] : as, — 
 
 " Thus twice before a,rn\ jump li.o. just, exactly] at this d<ad hour" 
 
 {Uaml »• 1.) 
 " Iinniortnl Amarant. a flower which onoe 
 In Taradise, /asi by tiie tree of Life, 
 Bepui to bloom. . . ." (1: L. iii.) 
 
 So often, not in vain, not without reason, &o. 
 
SYNTAX. 
 
 13!) 
 
 VII. PKEFOSITIONS. 
 
 § 285. Prepositions govern tlie ()])je(,'tive Tase : ns. with 
 me; witJiout thee ; concerning us; fruni Lmtdnn to lOik. 
 
 § 281). Save, except, but ( - excrj)!), notwithstand- 
 ing.— It is sdinetimcs dil'licnlt to dcM-ido wlu'tlicr tlicso 
 \v(»v(ls arc to l>c regarded as Prepositions or as {"(injunc- 
 tions. They may however lie parsed as Pre]M»sitions wlien 
 followed ]ty a iSoun or I'rnnoun which is not the Suljc^t 
 of a \'erl); as in the f(»ll'>wing examples: — 
 
 " , . all. t^ari' tlii'( , 
 I 1(11 with ciirM'.,." (Slinks. 77///. iv. :{.) 
 
 " Alaiiy of lilt' ImsI respect ill Iidinc 
 Excipt inimoitul Cietiiir." (M. ,/. C. i. 2.) 
 
 "... all hat till) wakeful iii^'litin^^'ale." (/'. /.. iv. (102.) 
 
 "I swear th;it ii" one was tc ''lamr Imt ;;/'." (Tliaek. I'.xin. cli. xiv.) 
 
 *^ Nota-itlutuiuUiKj this, they were all gocnl tVii mis in fjjtii»nil." 
 
 (I Mrkens in IMuI/.ih r.) 
 
 Ol>s. 1. Tlio ii'«' of tin: Oljiilivc <'asi' of ii I'itsoimI I'loiioiiii after any of tlii; aliovo 
 wokN is ti) 1)1' avoiilrd. hi Sliaksin'iiic, Dntli .'-■(/ iv and hut ( = fxcojit) are 
 ordinarily lullowid l>y tln' Noininati\i' (.M)!)!!!!, .^7/. (ir. \<. HI.): us, — 
 
 " All the cuiisjtirator.';, nave only lo ." (J ('. s Jin ) 
 
 "Savcthtiii." (Sonn. KiO.) 
 
 So, " Tliuiv i.s none other that tiglititii fur ns, but only Tiion, Loni." 
 
 (^Kng. Service.) 
 
 '• 1 he Lord of Hosts and none but //c 
 The Kint' of Ulory is." (^.Siouish I'salter.) 
 Also Hyron : — 
 
 " Where notiiiiif: savi' tlie w«ves and / 
 Shall hear our mutual murmurs swecji." ((,•/.•. Iloril.) 
 
 And Hiilwer:— 
 
 " Who hut /ran seal tlie HjtH of those InLiw." (CaxtunF, jit. xvl. 1.) 
 (Compare Latin Jiii<i: Greek ei fxi}.) 
 
 Vbs. 2. AotwithsUiniUng thit, Rtrictly = hex: non ob>tant.', .Mil itive Ab.solutw. See 
 Johnson's Diet. s. v. 
 
 § 287. In Tntcrrogalive and JJclative sentences, the Pre- 
 jtosition instca<l of coming 1 el'ore tlio Pronoun is very 
 often placed at the v\u\ : as, — 
 
 " n'hat eoukl it prwoo I frmnf ([.amh, Ksx. p. 188.) 
 [iiDiteail of, " From what could it jiroceod ? "] 
 
 "Was this the face lohich I had so ofU n niadi! nurry irilhf* 
 
 (/«/. p. 214.) 
 [instead of " icilh which I lisid so often," &c.] 
 
 M 'r-ivn AT,,,,,,,, Indies whom I liave sonio knowledijro o/".* 
 
 y< 
 
 [instead ui' • of whoiu I have." &o.] 
 
 (Vicar u/ W. eh. X7.) 
 
140 
 
 ENGLISH (iliAMMAtl. 
 
 Tlii.s arranj^emeut is specially adapted for an easy, familiat' 
 stylo. Ill liiiislied and dignilied laiiL^ua^e, tlio l*rep(Ksitiou 
 is more suitably placed before the I'roiiouii : as, — 
 
 "I will sliow you to whom lie i.s like." (Luke vi. -17.) 
 
 " ihukr what capliiin serve youV" (Sli. llm. V. iv, 1.) 
 
 "... a vietiiii over wliom Providence holds the srourgc of ita 
 rcHentmeut." (Vicar <>/ IT. yh. vi.) 
 
 " I was not displeased tliat we were rid of a gucst /rom whom we had 
 nuioli to fear." {I'l. < h. xiiij 
 
 OI'S. Wlicii the pivcriiin;^ l'ir|)()>iti()n fnllows, the rronoun is sometimes oiri'lcssly 
 alli>\v('(l to stiiiui ill the Ncimiii.itive <'iise: as, — 
 
 " Who do you spciiU to:'" (Siiaks. As you Like it, v. 2.) 
 
 This shoulil on no aidniiit \»- iiiiitatcil. 
 
 § 2SS. The IVepositioii is most frecpieiitly })laced at tlio 
 end of the sentence, when the Kelative Pronoun is omitted 
 (see § 2;i{») : as,— 
 
 "We had at la-t <h(^ satisfaotiDii (if seeiii;; him ni<mnted up )ii the 
 eolt, with a de;d-l)ox heliue liini ,-. to bring limine groceries /u " [i.e. in 
 tchi'h ti» bring, \'e.] (I'mi;- a/ W. eh. xii.) 
 
 " It was a thing a I was used to" [i. e. to whirh I was used J. (Ih. xx.) 
 
 "I had no pence a to console him with" [1. e. irith n-hiHi, iVc. | 
 
 (Lamb, AV«. p. I'J.").) 
 
 § 2h9. In very many instances a Preposition, thon^h 
 remainino- separates iVoiii the \'erl). Conns with it a virtnal 
 compound : as, to hwijJi <(t, to sec through, to plvh up, to inert 
 u'lili, to (it/rer, to, ttc. These ex])res^ions must ho parsed as 
 sino'lo words, and hoth in tlie I'assivo Wdco and in 
 Ikclativo s(Mitenoes tlio Vorh and i'roposition are kepi 
 to,i;etlier ; as. — 
 
 " Moses, on thi^ contrary, gave him a question or two from the 
 ancients, for which In; had the .>5alisfaction of being liOKjhid at.'* 
 ( Vicar of \V. ch. v.) 
 
 " U appi>ared t> nie one of the vilest instances of unprovoked in- 
 gratitude I that] 1 had ever luct with.'" {lb. xv.) 
 
 "... those little recreations which our retirement would admit of." 
 
 {I Ik xvi.) 
 
 "A 8tick 'uid a walh t wern all the nioveahle things npuu this earth 
 Hint he conld bund (*/'." {lb. xx ) 
 
 VIII. CONJUNCTIONS. 
 
 § 200. Conjinu'ti«)ns are the liid<s hy which sim])lo 
 ficntonees are united to^^ethcr and formed into complex 
 ones. 
 
SYNTAX. 
 
 U\ 
 
 Conjunctions have thoroforc no power of govorin'nc; a 
 Case, tlie Case of every >^'oim or Pronoun being dependent 
 upon some word in its own sentence. 
 
 ExcEin^iON. — The Conjunction than ia followed by the Objective 
 CsLne of the rronouu who : see § -11. 
 
 § 291. When a Conjunction is followed hy a Noun or 
 Pronoun without a Verb, the .sentence is incomplete; and 
 the Case of the Noun or Pronoun ciin he determined only 
 hy supplying the \'erl) which is understood. This is often 
 the case with as, than. 
 
 Examples : — 
 
 " His fiice (lid .<liine as llie sun." OTatt. xvii. 2.j 
 [Supply, shines: so tlui.' •'sun" is Nnni.] 
 
 "No country suftVred so much from these invaders ns Knirli'id." 
 
 (Mac. J I. K. i. 10.) 
 [Supply, suffered: so that '• England" is Nom.j 
 
 " I shall be pardoned for calling it by so har.-h a name as madness." 
 
 (I,( eke in Maizncr.) 
 [Supjdy, ts; "madness" is therefort; Nem.] 
 
 *' I like the one ns well ns the other." . 
 
 [Sui.ply, / lih-G (the other): " the other" is therefore Obj.] 
 
 "You are a much gnnt'r lo.ser than vo liy his ilrath." 
 
 (Swift in TiOwth.) 
 [The sense is, "than T din:'" '' »u' " is therefore incorrect. It 
 should have been " /."] 
 
 "If the kiuL' gives us leave, you or 1 mav as lawfully preach n" tin in 
 Chut do." (Ilol.be.s, /7*.) 
 
 [The sense is. "as tliev preach :" so tjuit ''them" is iiieomiu. 
 It sliould have been "//u//" or "those."] 
 
 OliK. 1. Tliis incorrect umi of an Olji ctivo faso iiftLT (h(tn is pn)l).iMy .lU' to tin' 
 iniiucncc of Latin [Ablulivo al'tcr ConiiKinitivcJ. 
 
 Oin, 2. The following pussago from Milton Ih rightly ikfi.'nd>.'d by Lowtli;— 
 
 " Nor liopo to bo myself less niiserablo 
 ity what 1 Hi'( k, liiit others to maUe riUch • 
 
 As I." U'- ^- ix- l-tJ) 
 
 "The Syntax," says Dr. nciitloy, "rociuires ' nnUi' nncii as mi.'" On thn con- 
 trary, the Syntax necessarily reqnires, ' in.ik«'H H>ich a.s /;' lor It is not, • I iiope 
 to maki' i)thi'rs such a-' to in.iUi' hk;;' the i'roiiouti is not K'>vciiiw1 iiy tlic NCi h 
 make, but is tlie Nominative Ca.se to llie Veihitm understood: "to inuiie otheis 
 such tt.s i uin." 
 
 § 292. On the use of the Conjunctions if, provided, 
 unless, that, lest, etc., with the isul jiinelivo Mood, 
 eeo^S 251, foU. 
 
142 
 
 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 § 293. Some ( onjunctions form pairs ; one member of 
 the pair precodiiii^ and prcparinj^ the way for the other. 
 These are called L'orrespc^nding Conjunctions : as, — 
 
 neither . . . 
 either I 
 whether ) ' ' 
 as .... so 
 
 nor 
 or 
 
 although . . 
 though . . . 
 notwithstanding 
 
 I ) 
 
 yet 
 
 still 
 
 nevertheless 
 
 because therefore 
 
 Obt. 1. Concerning the Syntax of neither, vor, see ^ J 19. 
 
 Obs. 2. In poetry nor sonietimps ajip^ars without a i)rcce(linp nrlther : as,— 
 
 " Simois nor XautliuH shall be wanting there." (!»ry(k'ii.) 
 also instead of neither . . . nor, occur sometimes nor . . . nor : as,-^ 
 
 " Stout Deloraine nor sighed nor prayed." (Stott, Linj.) 
 
 Obs. 3. As . . . so. 
 
 "As a war should be undertaken upon a just motive, so a priiire ouplit to con 
 sider tlie condition he is in when he enters on it." (Swift in Jolmson, " So." ) 
 
 This usage is nearly obsolete. 
 
 In the phra.se "as white as snow," the first as is an Adverb and the second a 
 Conjunction. 
 
 § 2P4. But. — The word but may he a Preposition, an 
 Adverb, or a ('onjnnction. Its use as a IVeposition has 
 been alrcidy explained (§ 286). It is in certain casrs 
 dillicult to decide whether it is to be regarded as ii 
 Conjunction or as an Adverb, especially in some faiuiliar 
 iaionis : as, — 
 
 " I cannot hut think . . .** 
 "There is no one hut knows . . .* 
 
 These expressions are elliptii-al : "I cannot hiif ...** = 
 "I cannot do otherwise, but [i.e. only] . . . ;" "there is 
 no one hut . . ." = "there is no one ehc, but [i.e. only] 
 (he) who . . ." As introducing a new member of the 
 sentence, hut is in these cases best parsed as a Conjunction. 
 
 Obs. 1. But is strictly \iy-out or perhaps be-out. [O.K. btttati = bi-vtan or be-utan: 
 and so = witUout, except, only.] 
 
 Obs. '2. luit is sometimes found in the place oi than; especially after the words 
 " no nooner. . ." 
 
 " No sooner said, but from the hall 
 Rush chaplain, butler, dogs, and all." (Pope.) 
 This use of but Is matter of rhetori'* rr-fher than of grannnar. It serves to pivo 
 greater vivacity to the construction. (Compare Lat. vix . , . et, instead of vi.s 
 quuiu: \'irg. Aen. v. 807.) 
 
PAIISING, 
 
 143 
 
 PAESTNG. 
 
 ^ 205. To F ARSE %vords is to state what part of spoccli 
 .4icy each are. to explain tlieir form, so far as iii^le.viou is 
 viiiceriied, and to show their grammatical relations. 
 
 § 296. Exampl:: of Parsing. 
 
 " A kiii'jc sat (in tlio rooky brow 
 'i'hiit looks o'er aca l><>ni Salaiiiis. 
 And !>i»ip8 in tlinu.-auilpi kiy Uluw." (Byron.) 
 
 «, arlj. of number, oallfd Trnhjinite Article: belongs tit noun ^^kijig." 
 
 king, noun com.'niasc, sing. noni. ; subjort to verb *^sat." 
 
 sal, verb intrans. strong cnnj., "sit, sat or sate, sat :" indie, mood, past 
 . ndof. tense, sing. 3; ; pers. ; agreeing with subject '/»//(</." 
 
 on, prep, governing n])j. case " hroic." 
 
 the, adj. of di.stincti«n, railed Definite Art ide : belongs to noun ^'hroio." 
 
 rocky, adj. of quality, belongs to noun "fcroir." 
 
 brow, noun com. neut., sing. obj. ; governed by prep. " on." 
 
 that, rel. pron., sing. nom. ; refers to anteeedent '' hrow : subjoet to 
 verb " looks." 
 
 looks, V b intrans. weak conj., indie, mood, pres. indef. tense, sing. Hid 
 pers. : agreeing with subject '* tlmt" {= brow). 
 
 o'er, prep, governing obj. case " S(d(tini.<" 
 
 sea-born, adj. of quality, not eonqiared ; belongs to noun '^ Sulamis." 
 
 Salamis, noun prop, neut., sing. obj. ; governeil by " ou." 
 
 and, ^;<mi. conneeting sentence, " Sliips in thou.^aiids," &c., to sentence, 
 " A king sat," &c. 
 
 fthips, noun com. neut., plnr. nom. ; subject to verb "/a^." 
 
 in, i)rep. governing noun " thousdiKls." 
 
 thousands, noun com. neut., plur. obj..; governed by " /»." [Than- 
 S(iit<i>i is a noun, as is seen by its taking a jilinal form : .so, do:.'n, 
 dvzius; hiindn d, hiDtilrrds ; million, mill tons.'] 
 
 lay, verb mtrans. strong conj. " lie, lay, lain ; " indie, mood, post indef. 
 tense, plur. iird pers,; agreeing with subject '' ships.^' 
 
 wlow, adv. mudit'ying " lay'* 
 
 (Sco also Appendix No. 2.) 
 
144 
 
 ENGLISH GPAMMAU, 
 
 PART III.— ANALYSIS OF SENTENCUi 
 
 § 207. To analyse a sontcnce is to take it to pieces, and 
 show its constituent parts. 
 
 § 298. Sentences are either SiMrLi: or Complex. 
 
 § 290. A Simple Sentence lias only one Subject and 
 one Predicate: as — 
 
 "Swift [Subject] wrote [Predioatc] the Tal of a Tub." 
 
 § 300. A r()ni])U'X Sentence is made up of several simple 
 sentences, united togetlier by means of connectives : as — 
 
 '• It is said tliat one day, in the latter part of liis life, Swift, after 
 lookin-; ovt'r the Tale of a 7'((/> for some time, suddnily shut the hook 
 and txehiiiiicd, ' What a genius 1 had wheu I wrote that!'" (Craiic, 
 K. Lit.u. 222.) 
 
 Here are no less than j^i-e Simple Sentences : — 
 
 (1)1 [Swift] wrote that [Tale of a Tniq. 
 (2) Wh it a -eniuri I [Swiff] had (then)! 
 
 (;{) Swift one (hiy in the hittt r part of liis life, after looking over the 
 Talc of a Tub for some time, .sudilcnly shut tlie hook. 
 (4) Swift t xclaim«'d [What a genius, tScc.] 
 (;")) It [this story] is .-aid. 
 
 These siiiiph.' scntcnees are linked together by the con- 
 Qectives ///(//, (tud, iclien. 
 
 1. Analysis of Sbiplk Si:nm'kn'cr<?. 
 
 § 301. Tlie constituent parts of a Simple Sentence are 
 Jiese : — 
 
 (a) In all ( 1. Sul.ject: 
 
 Hentcnecs \ 2. rrrdicute. 
 
 j :». < )t)icet ; 
 
 (fc) Not III all I t. ('omi)l(iii('Tits: 
 
 seni •net's I o. Mnlar.;' nicuts; 
 
 ( (J. Extensions. 
 
 § 2()2. The Snn/Kcr .lenotes fhat vvhi(di is spoken ol 
 
Analysis of frgNTENCES. 
 
 l45 
 
 3n ol 
 
 It iinist therefore always ho ^ Noun or some word eqniva- 
 Liiit to a Noun. Thus the Reljject may be : — 
 
 1. A Noun ; 
 
 2. A Pronoun ; 
 
 H. All Atljoctive used substantively or with a Noun unilcr^tood ; 
 
 4. An luiinitive M(X)(1 or Cj«rund ; 
 
 5. A I'aitii'ipli! with a Noun undcr.-tood ; 
 fj. An entire iihraau ov sentence. 
 
 Examples : — 
 (1) '' A soft answer tnrtieth away wratli." (Pruv. xv. 1.) 
 
 " Tho huugry sheep lo.>k up and an; not fed." (.Milt. LyrJd.) 
 (•J) '* Thou art the man." (2 Sam. xii. 7.) 
 
 " Il'e shall not all sloop." (I Cor. xv. 51.) 
 
 (:') '■ Tho ivil that nion do lives after them. 
 
 Til'' good is oft interred with their bonoa." (J. C^m. iii. 2.) 
 
 " Oh, Sir ! fhc good die fu\st I " (E-mirx. i.) 
 
 (4) " To he contents his natural de.sire." (Pope, 1-J.<s. i.) 
 
 ^^ Seeing is believing." (Prov.) 
 
 [See also Examples, ■§ 2GS.] 
 
 (a) " Tlie deeiniig ami the dead are but a.s images." {Muh. ii. 2.) 
 
 " The living, the Ucing hej shall pra se Thei'." (Is. .\xxviii. I'.t.) 
 (6) " To he or not to he [thiitj is the question." (I[>imf. iii. 1.) 
 
 § .^03. TiiK rnK.nicATF, is lliat wliidi is stated of tlie 
 Snhject. It must therefore [see § ll4j alwaya be a Verb, 
 either alono or with some other word or words. 
 
 1. Predicate a Verb l)V itself; 
 
 The sun shines, winds hloin , the grass is groiring ; tho .-troiiin is 
 fluaing ; all is not lod • we come, wo roine ! 
 
 2. Predie.ite a Verb with its Complement. — 'i'liis eeeuis 
 in the case of Verbs wliich do not convey a complete sense 
 by themselves (§ 204) : namely — 
 
 (rt) Verbs si^-nifvin^ to hr, to become, tu be calkd^ to 
 be ajqMinted, to be considered, ttc. • as — 
 
 " The way iras long . . ." (Scott, Laij.) 
 
 *' Kollo, abjuring his pagan gods, hecatne a Christian." 
 
 (I fume, p. 79.) 
 
 " Harold was croioned Icing by Aldred, archbi.>hop of York." 
 
 (7/>. p. CG.) 
 
 (6) All those Verbs which re(|uire an Infinitive 
 Mood to follow them [see ^§ 2oVS 261]: as 
 
HO K:;tii.isii cjijammah. 
 
 " I (lid nut thhtl: to I'hed a ttar . . ." (//. 17//. iii. 2.) 
 
 " What conscieuct; dictaten to lie done . . ." (Tope.) 
 
 " No living wipjlit 
 Jf(td dared to croini tin; tlinslutld-.stouc," (Scott, Lay.) 
 
 [For more Exampk-s, nee §§ 259, 261.] 
 
 Obs. 1. Tiie OhjeKl of a TraJisitivc \'.rlj is strictly a coniplftiinnt, sinw the sorso oi 
 tlip Verbis incdinplttf witliout it. i5ut on account of its iniiKHt.incc ami dis- 
 tinctive cliaracttT, tlic OI)ji 1 1 is trcatnl as a scparatf ni nihiT of a si iiti'nt'o. 
 (//',«. 2. The t'-nn I'n'ilicati- is strictly aiiiilicable only to sentences containing a 
 direct state;nent. IJut its application is extended to sentences of all kiu Is, 
 includini; those which express .i qu stiun or a conunaiid : as — 
 " Whence cavi' ^l tiiou .' " [Predicate, cannd.] 
 " 'Jdl me not in mournful numlwrs." [Predicate, telt.} 
 
 ? 104. "^UK Onurv may bo either Direct or Indirect. 
 r»oi. p.ra very ol'teii eoiiibineil in the «anie sentence [see 
 § 214J. 
 
 The Indirect Oltjcct may he indicated eitlier by a «ini|>lo 
 Dative or by tlie JVejiosition to or for: as — 
 
 (five me [bid. (»l»j.] Ike buulc [Uiree't Obj.]; or, Give the buuh [Direct 
 Obj.] to mt [bid. Olij.]. 
 
 [For other P^xamjde.s, see Syntax.] 
 
 § r)05. E.NLAi!(ii;.Mi;NT.<i. — All ^vt)rds attached to Xonns. in 
 whatever jtoisilion in the ^Sentence, are called EnlaijAC- 
 mcnts. 'i'lu'V are so named because they enhir<;e our 
 knowledge of the thing spoken of. An enlargement may 
 be— 
 
 (1) An Adjective: nd huow: 
 
 (2) A Noim in Apixisition : Williiiin the Conqueror; Bacon the 
 8cn!i>l(ir. 
 
 (;J) A Noun ill tlie Postjc.'^.sivt! ("asc. or n \otin iiiidtT flio <:;oV( rn- 
 iiunt of a rn'iio.sjtioii [I'rrpo.-^itioiiJii phnisr]; ix poita cut; tha 
 niiiii ill ilic, iin nil : a iiioidvcy toithont n tail. 
 
 (4) An Adjt'ctivui i^entencc : see § 312. 
 
 N.B. — An Enlargement is either aTi Adjective or .^ome 
 word or phrase having the nature of an Adjective. 
 
 § 300. Extensions. — The term Extension is applii.'d to 
 all words and jihrases which attatdi th»>mselves to the 
 Verb or Tredicate. An Extension is tliercibrc either an 
 Adverb, or some word or ])hra.se partaking of the nature 
 of an Adverb. Thrs it may ha: — 
 
ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 
 
 147 
 
 (1) An Adverb : cut bohllij. 
 
 (2) A rrtpositioiiiil pliiaso [AJvcrbiiil plimso] : cuit with Iiohlncss. 
 
 (;?) A Noiniiijitivc Absolute : — 
 
 " The North-east sjiemls lu.s Pa.^c; hn now shut up 
 Within his iron ca2:o, tlie cUusivo Sf)nt!i 
 Warms the wide air . . ," (Thomson.) 
 
 " Vfsnvius eanie in view ifi^ ffrcal shape shimmen'ntj bliw in Jie 
 ditifiinl hme." {S'eirc. ••h. xxxviii.) 
 
 (4) An Adverbial Sentence: see § ;;i;j. 
 
 -ome 
 
 led to 
 I) tho 
 vv an 
 
 laturu 
 
 § 307. For llio .sake of clcanioss the Analysis of Sen- 
 
 toiices is nsiially pnsented in a talnilar form. Tho 
 
 foUovvin*^ may servo as examples of the treatment of 
 iSimple tSentenees : — 
 
 1. " By sunrise we all assembled in our common apnrtnient." 
 
 ( I '/car iff W.) 
 
 Sulycct. 
 
 Kiiliiri:! Tiuiit I, 1- » 1 f . ■ 
 
 Wo 
 
 ;dl 
 
 assembled 
 
 (1 ) by sunrise 
 
 (2) in our <'(iunnon j 
 apurtineut 
 
 2. " His harp, his sole remaijiint; joy, 
 
 Was euiried by an ()r|iii,tn boy." (Scott, T"//.) 
 
 Stilj ct. 
 
 Kiil.i -' Hi ir.H of 
 
 Mil'!' ' t. 
 
 Prf'dioate 
 
 K.xliiisiun. 
 
 Harp i (1) bis 
 
 (•J) his .-oie re- 
 niaiuiug joy 
 
 wu.s eurried 
 
 I by an nij.ium 
 I Ijoy 
 
 M. "At fi small distanee freni the house, my |.ie<l( eo.«sor lind niiuio 
 a siat overshadowed by a lieili^e ot hawthorn and bout y.-ueKlc." 
 
 O'/xc- <>J \y.) 
 
 Suld ct 
 
 Enliirni'- 
 
 JlU'llt i)f 
 
 Siiliji'ct. 
 
 PrcdUalo. 
 
 Object. 
 
 Knl.ivL'rniont Extonsion. 
 
 ofOljiit. I 
 
 Predecessor 
 
 my ' liad made a si at overshadownl at m sn nil 
 
 I liv a hed-'- di-taiiec 
 
 ohnwtbnrn !'" •" <'■" 
 
 ! ami honey- hotis«; 
 sll''l<l(; 
 
 f 
 
118 
 
 ENGLISH GHAMMAn. 
 
 !l 
 
 Same Sentence : Simi-lek Schemb. 
 
 Subjort with en- 
 larBim«nt. 
 
 Predicate. 
 
 Ol^ect with Knlargcment. 
 
 Extension. 
 
 My predecessor 
 
 had made 
 
 a seat nversliadowed by 
 a hedge of hawthorn 
 and honeysuckle 
 
 at a small dis- 
 tanct! from the 
 house 
 
 4. " It was my constant rule in life never to avoid the conversation 
 of any man." ( Viair 0/ H.) 
 
 Sulijcct [Phrase], 
 
 Predicate. 
 
 Never to avoid the conversation 
 of any man 
 
 WU3 my constant rule in life 
 
 [I'z-as, Verb of inconiidcte 
 
 predication] 
 
 N.Ii. — Here the word it disappears in analysis, being only a lomm 
 tenens for the real Subji-ct. !So likewise there in No. 5. (See § 244.) 
 
 Tlie real Subject may be ascertained by putting the qui'stion. What 
 ■WMs myr.nstunt rule . . .? — ^l/itficer, Never to avoid the conversation 
 of any man. 
 
 5. " There is no place like home." (Song.) 
 
 Sllbjpct. 
 
 P^nliirnomcnt 
 of Sulijcct. 
 
 Predicate. 
 
 Place 
 
 no 
 
 is like home 
 
 [is, Verb of incomplete 
 
 predication] 
 
 C}. " The couracjcous dwarf dealt one of the champions a most angry 
 blow." {Vicar 0/ H.) 
 
 Sulijcct. 
 
 Enlargement 
 of Sulyict. 
 
 Prodicato 
 
 Ol^octs. ofOly.ct. 
 
 The dwarf 
 
 courageous 
 
 dealt (1) a blow [Direct] most an^ry 
 (2) one of t!io 
 i champions [In- 
 direct] 
 
ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 
 
 149 
 
 nsion. 
 
 7. •' The potent rod 
 
 Of Amram's son in I Egypt's evd day 
 Waved round the coast u[i (ailed a pitchy cloud 
 Of locusts, warping on the eastern wind." (/'. L. I.) 
 
 lidl dis- 
 ;iom the 
 
 ivcrsation 
 
 in life 
 plete 
 
 Snljoct. 
 
 Enlarsemfnts 
 of Subjt-ct. 
 
 Predicate. Object. 
 
 EnI'irEf>nient8 Kxtension of 
 of Object. j I'redicate. 
 
 The rod 
 
 (1) potent 
 
 (2) of Am- 
 ram's si n\ 
 
 (3) waved 
 round the 
 coast 
 
 Up called 
 
 a cloud 
 
 (1) pitchy 
 (L*) of locusts 
 warpiui:: on 
 tie (iistorn 
 wind 
 
 in Ky:ypt'a 
 evil day 
 
 Same Sentence: Simpler Scheme. 
 
 ly a loi'um 
 J § --'44.) 
 
 ion. What 
 ivertation 
 
 ost angry 
 
 Lire inrtit I 
 )fOluitt. 
 
 st an;;rv 
 
 Subject with Enlarge- 
 niwit-s. 
 
 Prediaite. 
 
 Object with Enlarge- 
 ments. 
 
 Exti'iiojon of 
 I'l.duatc. 
 
 The potent rod of 
 Amiiim's Son waved 
 round the cuuat. 
 
 up called 
 
 a pitchy cloud of 
 locusts warping f)n 
 the eastern wind. 
 
 in Iv.'vpt's 
 evil day. 
 
 8. " But me, scarce hoping to attain that rest, 
 
 Alwiiys from port withheld, always distressed, — 
 I»Ie howling winds drive devious, — tempest-tossed, 
 Sails rent, scams opening wide, and compa-ss lo.^t. 
 
 (Cowper, Linets.') 
 
 Subject. 
 
 EnlarRement ^.^^i „,/. 
 of Subject, ^ed'cato. 
 
 Object. 
 
 Eiilargen)ont3 of 
 Objict. 
 
 Extensidus of 
 Pndicute. 
 
 Winds 
 
 howling 
 
 drive 
 devious 
 [devious 
 is here 
 Coiupt. 
 of Pred.] 
 
 me 
 
 (1) scarce hoping 
 to attain that 
 rest 
 
 (•2) always from 
 port withheld 
 
 (3) always distrest 
 
 (4) tempest-tossed 
 
 (1) sails rent 
 
 (2) seams 
 opening 
 wide 
 
 (3) compass 
 lost 
 
 [Nominatives 
 Absolute] 
 
 i 
 
if 
 
 1.30 
 
 ENGLISH GIJAMMAn. 
 
 § .'JOR. Co-nriliiwir Srufnirrs. — AVlien two or more dis- 
 tinct KtatciiK'iits [SiiMj)l(' SciitciiccsJ, not <U'j)rii(]cnt ii])ou 
 e.'icli otluT, aro l»i<iii;i,tit toj^-ctticr by iiicuiis of and, or, 
 nor, tlu'V are said tu be Co-ordinate, aiul arc analy.sed Jis 
 iSiinplf Sentences. 
 
 A Sentence ina«l(! up of Co ortlinatc SentencLS is somo- 
 tiines calbd a ( 'onipoimd Sentence. 
 
 Kxunijiles: — • 
 
 (1) "My fircliard wiis often rolilird ]»y sehoull toys, and my wife's 
 cu.stiirdrt plundered l»y tlie cits." ( Vicdr of \V.) 
 
 Anulvsc: — 1. Mv orchard was nt'teii rnlilieii hv srlioollKivs. 
 
 2. My wile's custards were el'ten i»linidered l>y the cats. 
 
 (2) "The giant and the dwarf were frientls, and kept t<igether." (//*.) 
 
 Analyse;—!. 'I'lie ;,'iant and the dwarf were friends. 
 2. The giant and the dwarf ki'pt toi^t ther. 
 
 ('^) "They Were all very joyful at this viotory. and the damsel .... 
 fell in lov»; with tiie giant, and married him." (/A ) 
 
 Analyse: — 1. They wore all very Joyfid af this victory. 
 2. The damsel fell in love with the giunt. 
 ii. The damse'l married him (the giant). 
 
 (4) " We hail no revolutions to fear, nor fatigues to undergo." (i6.) 
 
 Analyse: — 1. We had no revolutions to fear. 
 2. We had no fatiguo to undergo. 
 
 A^.J?. — ScTiteiices in wliicli llio repetition of Subject or 
 Fred i( ate is avoided by tlie use of a (.'unjnuetion,are ealled 
 Contracted Sentenecs. 
 
 Ohi>. Siiinciiincs tho won! oti'f has rifhor t^f fnrco of a Proposition than of a Poii- 
 jiiiu-iii'ii; ;iii(l tlion tilt' Nuiiiis iiiiiiiccii'<l l>y it must br treated lis til'' c'.iyii'/fi 
 .'^'ul.jirt iir i/lfji'vt. '\'\i\^ i> tjio ra.'«t' in siicii si-ntences us llio lnllowing: J, rend 
 at'd hiillir is wliilcxiiiift far>'; tnitnnd tuDiwc Icnir; copjit'r, siin:, u7id calaiui7i6 
 stunc tuiui bra.-s ; tUe book costs tnu and sixittmc. 
 
 2. Analysis of Complex Skxie.nce.s. 
 
 § '109. Tbo first thinj:!: to bo do!»e is to break r.p a 
 Complex Senteiiec into Simple ones: as in the following; 
 example : — 
 
 A. Complex Sentence. 
 
 " Of man's first disoltedionoe and tlte fruit 
 ('f that forhidden tree who.se mortal tasto 
 ]<iought death into our world, and all our woo, 
 ^\'ith loss of Kden, till one greater Man 
 ]{estore us and regain the blissful seat, 
 8ing, Heavenly Muse." 
 
 r>. Tetaebed Sentenres uf wbieli tlio above Complo/ 
 Sentence consists ; — 
 
AN'ALVnS OF SEXTEXf rs. 
 
 lol 
 
 w]^ a 
 
 1. Sincr, TToiivonly ^Tiis.\ of tnnri's fir.-t (lisohcili.iipp. 
 
 2. Siiiir. llijivciily Muse, of tilt' fruit of tluit forlti«l(l«n trro. 
 
 .'{. Wlio.sf iiiortiil tii.>tr broiiLrlit lit utli into our world, <iiiil ; 11 our 
 
 woe, with lo.i-s of I'Mcji. I ("titruclt'il M-iittMici'.] 
 4. [till] cix\(- "_'n'iitrr Man [sliillj rcstoro us. 
 t. [till] r)iit' i;niiti^r M:in [sliullj r(.';j;iiiii tlif hlissfnl .si at. 
 
 The iiro])osiii«in first in order (»t' tli<tnL;lit, and on wliidi 
 tf o> otlirrs d(']»ond, is cillcil the I'kincip \i, Skn i knck. 
 
 [liero, " Sino; IFeavenly Muse "j 1'lie otliers aro 
 
 calleil Suhordinate Sentences. 
 
 § ',\\0. Tlio Siihurdiuate Seiitoncos whirli go to luako 
 U|> a (Juniplex Sentence are chissilied thus : — 
 
 1. Xonn PcJitcncos. 
 
 2. Adjtcjivnl Stiifcnnog. 
 
 3. Advcrliial SintcncrH. 
 
 § 311. A Noun Skntkn'.'K is ono lliat stands in the ])laco 
 of a Noun. A Noun Sentence' is usually citlior iho Suiijcct 
 or the Ohject of a Verb. It may also stand in apposition 
 to a Noun. 
 
 Examples : — 
 
 " How I c;iiao to overlook so obvious an objection is to mo surpria- 
 hi.^'." ^':,:H,of ir. eh. XX.) 
 
 [Noun S., "How I caiuf .... objcctinn." Subject to Verb " is."] 
 
 " Aft< r a few questions he foiuid I was lit for everything in tho 
 world." {Ih.) 
 
 [Noun S., " th;it I was fit for evervthing in tho world," Obje( t of 
 Verb " found."] 
 
 "Tho fact that ^lonniouth was in anus ac!;ainst tno government was 
 so notorious . . . ." (Mac. U.K., i. o8(i.) 
 
 [Noun S., " that Monmouth . . . ." in apposition to Noun " fact."] 
 
 Ohs. Noun Scntencos vory oftfn follow Vrrbs of snffinrf and thi'nkint/ [" \'iil);i sen- 
 ticndi ft rtccliirandi"], aiul mcur whoro in Latin wo should have ih.' cuii- 
 etructiun, Acrtisative aud Infinitice. 
 
 § 312. An Adjkctivat. Siixtknck is one that attaches 
 Itself to a Nonn, and docs tho work of an Adjective. 
 An Adjective Sentence is always introduced hy a lielativo 
 Pronoun or Adverb. 
 
 Examples :— 
 
 " He was known in our neighbourliood by tlie cliaractir of the poor 
 (ontlomau that wouM d() no good whi'u he was young." 
 
 ( Vicar (if '> ch. vi ) 
 
 [Adj. S., "that woidd do no good .... young," attaei.i g itself to 
 Noun "gen'li u.au."] 
 
152 
 
 ENGLISH GRA]\mAit. 
 
 " I waa happy at fiixlinsr h placo whoro I rould lose my fears in 
 desperation." (76, ch. xx.) 
 
 [Adj. S., " whore (= in wlilrh) T conUl lose myself in desperation," 
 atta''hing itself to "Souu "place."J 
 
 ths. Sentences serving in tliis way tu deliiu! a Noun might from another point of 
 view be called Scntt.*i-,yA(ljativts. 
 
 § 313. An A^v^i;BIAT. Skvtknck is one ilint does the 
 Work of ail Adsorb, ir-idifying in sonic way the ap}Mica- 
 tion of a Verb, ^n Avijectivu, or an Adverb. 
 
 Examples :- - 
 
 '■The severitr of this remark 1 bore patiently, beeause I knew that 
 it Wiiri jii.st." (Kfrtr (if \i . eii. XX.) 
 
 [Adv. Sent., ••Beeause J. knew . . . jiu-t," attai-liing itself to V( rb 
 " bore."] 
 
 " Wlu'never ( approached a peasant's house towards nij;]ittall, I 
 playt.'d one of my ninst merry tuneM." ( //>.) 
 
 [Adv. Sent., " Whenever . . . nightl'all," attacliitig it.-elf t(; Verb 
 " played."] 
 
 "'I'ears such as angels weep burst forth . . ." (I\ L. i.) 
 
 [Adv. Sent., "as angels weep," attaching it-clf to Adjective "such.") 
 
 "'I'he picture was so very largo thut we had no placo in tlie house to 
 fix it." O'icnr of W. rli. xx.) 
 
 [Adv. Sent., "that sve ha I . . . tf) fix it," attaching itself to Ad- 
 verb " so."J 
 
 T'snally, however, an Adverbial Sentence attaclics itself 
 to the Piedieate. Tlie word.s sitcli, *•'», are exeeptional 
 
 § 314. After a r'(mi]d(»x Sentence has lieen liroken np 
 int(j Simjdc^ Sentences, each (»f these nmst l)e assioncd to 
 its ])n)iier class, as Nonn Sentence, Adjci-tival Sentence, 
 or Adverbial Sentence. All that then remains is to ana- 
 lyse the Subordinate Sentences according to the method 
 already explained. 
 
 In ])rescntino- a tabular analysis of a. Complex Sentence, 
 the conuecting worda aro dctaclied and placed iu a column 
 by themselves. 
 
ui.si; to 
 ,0 Ad- 
 
 ! itself 
 
 >T1 lip 
 
 led to 
 
 ('lice, 
 
 iiin- 
 
 jtluul 
 
 tclU'O, 
 
 ilumu 
 
 Vi 
 
 I 
 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 A 
 
 
 
 'f- 
 
 ^^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Yj 
 
 
 1"^ 
 
 W 
 
 ? 
 
 'o' 
 
 O 
 
 — ^ 
 
 
 z'. 
 
 "^ 
 
 c 
 
 u 
 
 03 
 
 •>* 
 
 H 
 
 03 
 
 h^ 
 
 5?; 
 
 (4-1 
 
 ^^ 
 
 K 
 
 O 
 
 
 W 
 
 c 
 
 •• . 
 
 VI 
 
 
 O 
 
 Id 
 
 "T" 
 
 s 
 
 1 
 
 O 
 
 5 
 
 ;ih 
 
 <x> 
 
 
 
 -Ul 
 
 c 
 
 
 
 >•> 
 
 a 
 
 o 
 
 8 
 
 ^ 
 
 72 
 
 0) 
 
 o 
 
 
 ■•- 
 
 -« 
 
 >< 
 
 4J 
 
 ^ 
 
 <1 
 
 
 y. 
 
 a 
 
 D 
 
 < 
 
 en 
 
 rC 
 
 
 03 
 
 Tl 
 
 HM 
 
 fej 
 
 CI 
 
 o 
 
 t— ( 
 
 d 
 
 r/3 G 
 
 a> 
 
 W -2 S 
 
 'J <!' 3 
 
 s » 
 
 01 d 
 
 « .tJ a 
 
 to 
 
 fco 
 
 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 
 
 c-a 
 
 ts i .• 
 
 4) 
 
 0) 
 
 B 
 S 
 
 a 
 
 •s 
 
 (5 
 
 c - - 
 
 
 ^ g 
 ^ a 
 
 i> 
 
 ^ 3 
 
 f-i CI 
 
 
 
 Tv 
 
 
 ^ t: 
 
 
 .ti *^ 
 
 
 s s ■•-. 
 
 • 
 
 . - a 
 
 • 
 
 ^^•^ 
 
 • 
 
 
 
 ^'y 
 
 
 Si . 
 
 
 
 
 
 4d 
 
 s T . 
 
 O 
 
 c* S 'r? 
 
 a 
 
 ♦^ i. "* 
 
 
 -. -r ^ 
 
 73 
 
 .s tT'*^ 
 
 C3 
 
 £•3 
 
 if 
 
 © o 
 
 E 3 
 
 'c *J 
 if 
 
 
 3. § 
 
 £ - 3 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 03 
 
 m 
 
 CO 
 
 C 5 
 
 U. r. 
 
 y. 
 
 yy 
 
 •rs 
 
 
 a s 
 
 3 
 
 fcr 5 
 
 
 00 
 
 ? 
 
 ^ eS 
 
 9) 
 
 D 
 
 c " 
 
 
 a CT" 
 
 a 
 
 o 
 
 I.! 
 
 « 3 
 
 ^ a. 
 
 ^a 
 -£8 
 
 15n 
 
 95 
 
 
 a. 
 
 
 a) 
 
 c 
 a 
 o 
 
 CO 
 
 1/ 
 
 
 •>3 
 
 (U 
 
 <D 
 
 'S 
 
)51 
 
 ENnUSTT GIlAM-^lAn. 
 
 
 /«4 1 
 
 
 '■^ .O 
 
 
 '•■' - -4 
 
 
 -f y, 
 
 
 ft r. 
 
 
 *.' !*^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ■^ a 
 
 
 - rt 
 
 
 
 
 » 
 
 
 
 
 t ^ 
 
 
 ^"i 
 
 
 « c; 
 
 
 c = 
 
 
 •^* *» 
 
 
 ^ ^ 
 
 
 s -^ 
 
 
 
 
 c -a 
 
 
 u t< 
 
 
 "^3 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 "* 
 
 .c c 
 
 
 
 •"!«* 
 
 
 ■*— 
 
 
 5 
 
 ■^ :j 
 
 (J 
 
 
 
 n «j 
 
 
 
 '/J 
 
 el L" 
 
 o 
 
 CK^ 
 
 y. 
 
 ^ £ 
 
 u 
 
 
 
 c- -—4 
 
 v. 
 
 /J ■•-' 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 u 
 
 Em 
 
 ^.?:? 
 
 
 
 
 
 V; 
 
 
 t/J 
 
 i -^ X 
 
 >" 
 
 
 >-l 
 
 
 
 
 
 ♦J -^ Cj 
 
 •. 
 
 -^ 
 
 A - X 
 
 b 
 
 *' c-5 
 
 
 
 c 3 r 
 
 ^1 
 
 ii"^ -^ 
 
 -^^r^ 
 
 -<> 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^■^ w /. 
 
 
 w t;; i/ 
 
 
 n 5 - 
 
 
 
 
 _ *> j:; 
 
 
 c -»-> 
 
 
 c «*- — 
 
 
 .S O a; 
 
 
 
 
 en 4> !* 
 
 
 V »-. -1 
 
 
 >- C - 
 
 
 pj 2 S5 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1) : — 
 
 
 -3 J -. 
 
 
 t-si 
 
 c>» 
 
 
 
 >. a 2 
 
 
 
 
 y "* 
 
 3 . 
 
 
 ^^ ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 13 
 
 
 ~^ to 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 ^1 
 
 
 
 a, tf- a) S ^ 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 ««3 
 
 
 
 -H 71 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 _ 
 
 p. . 
 
 
 
 — 5 
 
 
 
 ■ 
 
 c 
 
 (—1 
 
 
 "^1 
 
 
 
 
 7i 
 
 ^ § 
 
 
 • 4, 
 
 
 
 a ft 
 
 C5 »H 
 
 ■^ " 
 
 
 '^5 
 
 
 
 OP 
 
 
 
 
 c .^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 1 
 
 
 jj 
 
 
 
 ■♦J 
 
 '•■' 
 
 
 - -— *■■ 
 
 
 iM^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 •J 
 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 c 
 
 ro4 
 
 4> 
 
 is 
 
 "3 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 g 
 
 ■^ 
 
 
 -^ 
 Q 
 
 
 
 
 •«^ 
 
 ♦i^ 
 
 w 
 
 
 
 A' 
 
 Tb 
 
 
 »-4 
 
 a 
 £ 
 
 i 
 
 
 'i- 
 
 
 
 1 1 
 
 
 fcf 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 r— 1 
 
 
 /= 'i ' 
 
 i. - 
 
 "^ -< I 
 
 rp 
 
 t » 
 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 1' - o 
 
 
 •+^ 
 
 .^j 
 
 •« 
 
 '^ I 
 
 •f— ,^ 
 
 I'r, {.-^ 
 
 •-—■ " 
 
 1 1^ 
 
 /. 
 
 a 7" 
 
 . a 
 
 ■n 
 
 0) 
 
 
 .i "^ 
 
 2 
 
 q- 
 
 »fc- a 
 
 
 -^ ^ 
 
 '■c ~ "^ " -£ 
 
 ^ i 
 
 O 
 
 ♦J 
 
 c l*^ 
 
 t^ — I 
 
 «-< *-H 
 
 ^'^ ~ — 
 
 
 J ^ 
 
 i 
 
 , r] ■*•" 
 
 ■'"^ 
 
 H 
 
 
 -^ 
 
 -t-i 
 1 1 
 
 •to" 
 
 •tj 
 
 :; 
 
 
 
 
 
 .iC 
 
 
 d 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ♦-» 
 
 
 ij 
 
 *>*J 
 
 a 
 
 ^•«. 
 
 w 
 
 
 
 ■^ « 
 
 
 
 ^^ 
 
 
 5 
 
 • 
 
 "S 
 
 f^ 
 
 ■ti' 
 
 fe( 
 
 '^ 
 
 .-> 
 
 
 
 
 i-2 
 
 % 
 
 -J M 
 
 
 '■J 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 •-4 
 
 « 
 
 1 
 
 o 
 
 
 o 
 
 • 
 > 
 
 o 
 
 cr: :f :o 
 
 o." a 
 
 < 
 
 M 
 
 
 T? 
 -? 
 
 
 
 5i 
 
 
 T"' 
 
 ^'« ir' yj 
 
 ,1:; a 
 : e 
 
 
 o 
 
 «^ 
 
 ■« 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 1.1 
 
 
 ••«. A) 
 
 
 'u 
 
 
 _a; o ' 
 
 
 'A<^\^ 
 
 :J 
 
 3 <:> 
 
 "3 
 
 il 
 
 a 
 
 7} 
 
 ■« 
 
 2 ^ -1 ♦J 
 
 <»-i - J. 's ^ 
 
 1— ni— a 
 
 1 — 1 4) 
 
 ^■■3 
 
 1? 
 
 (S — 1 
 
 "" a 
 
 
 '. 
 
 o 
 
 £ H - ^ 
 
 
 ' ^13 
 
 f i 
 
 1= C ^ 
 
 
 
 
 Ii3 
 
 rt J5 
 
 .a *^ 
 ^^ -1 
 
 
 
 
 c-t 
 
 1 1 
 
 f 
 
 1 1 
 
 1 — 1 
 
 
 (N 
 
 CO 
 
 tei 
 
BELATIONS OF ENUMSII TO OTIIKK I.ANCUAGK.S. K'»5 
 
 
 c! _i 
 
 is 
 
 c.l"^ 
 
 C3 
 
 • »-* 
 
 C VI 
 
 
 2: •: -sJ 
 
 i '.' -'i 
 
 ci:^ a 
 
 tS o 
 
 1 J 73 . 
 
 *3 :i -^ 
 
 «: •- ■-' 
 
 - i^ :^ 
 
 s: t( a 
 
 cc 
 
 PART IV.— RF.LATTOX^i OF EXGLI^^IT 
 TO OTIIKIi LANGUAGES. 
 
 § .'110. liaii'iUiij'T's art' anaTii'VMl in FiiiiiiUcs acL-ortlinu; to 
 rt'sciabliiiM'O in tln'ir (iiaimiiar ami N'lM'altulai'v. 
 
 §317. Till' iiiosi itiijuirtaiit l"'amily i'^ iIm- I \i (i-1'!i'i;()|'i:an, 
 HO (';ill((l fVdiii its coinpi isiiiLi' iIm- i^rtitcr iniinl cr di" laii- 
 ^•ua;:,\'s that arc (ir liav(5 li»' n s|i(>l<(ii Iimiii hidia to tlio 
 wi'stcni liinitw ol Ijiiopo. 
 
 Jt is also called tlu.' Ai;van * Family, IVoiii an ancient 
 Asiatic ra( c of that nanio. 
 
 § 318. TJic Iiidn-Europcin Family is divided into oronpK 
 of lan^nasi'cs hcarinj;' ninrc intimate rela linns to caeh nt he)-. 
 Amonj.;; these ufoiijis (or " l>ranchc.s '" 1 the loUowin;;' ai'o 
 the most imjioi'tant :— - 
 
 1. Indian incbidinu" Sanskrit, the classic lanp,"iia<i'0 
 of India. This lan;ziiajj;e cxhihits the Indo-IOuro- 
 ]>(!an (Jrammar in its most jieifcct tnini. 
 
 2. Persian the earliest littraiy I'orin of wliieh is 
 called /end. In tlnir ohhst inscriptions tho 
 Persians call tlifmsehcs Arxans. 
 
 3. (Jra'co-Latin- imlinlinu; (ireik and Latin, with 
 the so-called loimaiic" l;i;imia;jfs deti\ed fr^m 
 I>atiii. These arc six in nnin'ir I'liiicji, Jlali ^n. 
 »S|>ainsh. I'ortn^iiese. \\ .illachian. anil ioaimanch 
 or liomanci'.e, sjiok, n in the (irisons in Switzer- 
 land. 
 
 4. Slavonic ineliidinji; IJiissiaii. I-i tt ish. Tilhnanian, 
 I'i'lish, l»oliemiiiii I ( '/,e('hi>ii , Ac 
 
 6. Teutonic- inelndin;jf tho (Jernian and Scandina- 
 vian l>ran<!lies. the latter com|»risini^ the Icelandic, 
 iSwcdish, Kor\vi'u,ian, and Danish. 
 
 * IJuot AU-, Uicaniiig hriircy udtU'. H< tu'c, "Ap-'vv, ap-»»^, 
 
156 
 
 ENGTISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 6. Keltic — divided into two Lraiicu'^", "fhi Oac-lic and 
 Cymric; the Gaelic comprising the Irish or Erse, 
 the Scottisli Gaelic, and tlio Manx of Hi'^ Isle 
 of .Man ; and the Cymric incluiung the Welsh, 
 tlie Cornish (now extinct), and the Armorican of 
 ]>rittany. 
 
 N.B. — Amono; Enroponn languages, ITnngarian [i.e. 
 ]Ma<j;var], Einnisli, and Tni-kisli, are of a totally distinct 
 family, having hecn introduced from Central Ayia in com- 
 paratively modern times. 
 
 § olO. Enolish belongs to the German division of the 
 Tentonii' In'ancii of the Aryan or Indo-European family 
 of languages. In its oldest form (O.K.), it was brought 
 into Eiigl.ind by German tribes speaking Low-German 
 dialects ; that is, German dialects spoken on the coast of 
 the German Ocean. The term Low-German is used by 
 way of distinction i'rom High-German, which denotes the 
 kind of German spoken in the interior. 
 
 § ;)20. The vo;abulary of the English language has been 
 largely enriched from l^atin and other sou.rees- 
 
 Of the foreign elements, the Tiatin is Sf> extensive and 
 important as to render all the others insignilieant in com- 
 parison. 
 
 § 321. The attempt has been made to show the rchitivo 
 im]tortance of the Teutonic and Latin elements by com- 
 puting the number of Eiiulish words belonging to each. 
 
 Such calculations a;'.- misleading. The ditference })e- 
 tween the two elementi; i& one oi' function, not of quantity 
 or number. Thus — 
 
 L The grammar of the language is entirely Teutonic, 
 not liatiii. 
 
 2. The Pronominal Forms, the Auxiliary Verbs, the 
 ]*re])ositions, and almost all the Conjuncticms — • 
 without which we could nt)t frame a single sen- 
 tence — are a'U Teutonic. 
 
 3. .Nearly all the most common and necessary Nouns 
 are Teutonics : such ar(\ (i(td, man, father, mother, 
 hroihr, sister, sen, (hiioiJiler ; t<iiu. moon, ftor, wind, 
 rniv front, snow, water, fire [not aiVJ; bird, Jiah^ 
 
•11 
 
 1?1t!.AT10NS OF ENGLISH TO OTHER LANGITAOES. l57 
 
 4. "Nearly all the most coTumon and nc^f 'R.ir,v Ar-.M:c- 
 'li\'i<:s are IVntonic: us, j/i/or/, ha J^ hot, (•(•til, fnoif, 
 soft, loii\], short, hhtch, icJdtc, rrd, <jrven, hitter, .sinwt, ilx'. 
 
 5. Nearly all the most coinmon and nt'ccssary \"iur-; 
 are Teutonic: as, live, lore, cat, drink, braUhc, y : , 
 hear, swell, feel, speak, tell, si)i<j, cry, 1*1:0. 
 
 §322. The Kn-rlish Teutonic ["Saxon"] Vo< ahalarv 
 l)elonj»;s to a juriod uf h'ss advanced civilisation tluin tlio 
 present. It is almost en tindy viojuisiilahif, and the \vortls 
 are of a simple and homely character. 'I'he conversation 
 of country folk is almost entirely 'J'cutonic; and \v(»nN 
 derived from Jiatin are used by such 2)eo]de >vith Ics.i 
 propriety and accuracy. 
 
 § 132;]. The Latin-English words are of two classes: — 
 
 1. Those taken direct froni Latin. 
 
 2. Those which have (Mmic to us through the medium 
 of French [French-Latin]. 
 
 (1) I'he former are easily recof^niscd as Latin, th«> only 
 chan*^-e for the most ]>art being in the termination : as — 
 
 luM''itlIilf t'liJin InlijiitlKlo 
 
 (It'lrct.ililc 
 hrllico.-iU 
 
 (liltct;il>ilis 
 Lclli 
 
 CIOII.S 
 
 ('<|ii!il from {iHiUiilis 
 t'ijuality „ ie»iiialitii.s 
 iVc. &c. &c. 
 
 (2) The French-Latin words are often nnn-h more diflicult 
 to recognise as Latin, having undeignnc tl-e v\(,ii' ;i,d 
 tear of tlu; speech of another nation before b»; -i;^;' trj'iib- 
 ferred to ours. fcSuch are — 
 
 iMiulisli. 
 
 Fniuii. 
 
 Latin. 
 
 rliicf 
 
 i-li.f 
 
 iiiput 
 
 clliU'lll 
 
 rliiirmo 
 
 purm-cn 
 
 clear* 
 
 rlair 
 
 oliir-iiH 
 
 jdiiriiiil 
 
 jdunifil 
 
 (liiini-ua 
 
 lioiinsh 
 
 lidiinir 
 
 inUriro 
 
 jvior 
 
 ])iuivro 
 
 InniltiT 
 
 piiwdor 
 
 poiuiro 
 
 JllilvtT- (,«''' tu) 
 
 (Si'iii. piih i,-) 
 
 raufjom 
 
 ran(;oii 
 
 {Sorn. rrilciiiptio) 
 
 BJOgO 
 
 Bic'gO 
 
 B('(l-frt', heti^io 
 
 Bir 
 
 Biro 
 
 Bt'IlidT 
 
 tria.son 
 
 tiuhison 
 
 triiditidu- (xtnu) 
 
 
 
 {\om. tuiciitiit) 
 
 ♦ No (lo!il>f funiHMly proTKiiiiiccd cluir: aa iu Cluro-niout, St. Clair 
 Sinclair. Cuinpartj Karlc, p. iju. 
 
1 58 
 
 KNGLISII GKAMMAR. 
 
 OO"- riio ditfic'ilty of rciciii^iiisiriK French-Latin words as I^itin is Rrently ii)creaj«r<' 
 by tliiir liaviiig bcLU iu many casus developed from words unknown topuie 
 Lutiiiity: e.(j.— 
 
 tnj;li.sh. 
 
 • M.iino 
 
 ]ii>ni,it;<> 
 parliament 
 
 French. 
 
 blfuner 
 
 hominaRe 
 
 parknieiit 
 
 T^atc Latin. 
 
 blaspliiniare* 
 boinaKJiim (homo) 
 parlaiiiintum 
 
 § 324. vSoiiie l)()(>lvs ooiitiiiu few liosidrs 'i'cuttinic word.s. 
 In otluMs ilio Jiatiii woi'ds ulxnuid. 'I'liis ui'iscs ])artly 
 frniii dillrmicc of siilijcct and partly from dilfL-ivnce ol 
 stylu. 
 
 A work .such as Darwin's Oruj'ni of Spcctcs, or lkus]\in's 
 MixhTii Pdinfcrs, could not bo written without frc([uent 
 recourse to the liatin Vocal )nlary. J hit a Fairy Tale, or 
 any siiuj»!(» nari'ative, may he wi-jttcn in almost pure 
 Saxon. Compare the two folio wiui:; paraj;ra[)hs : — 
 
 A. SoiEvi'irii; P.vssArac ki;om 
 'Tut' Oitijin of t'^picics, [). l<iU. 
 
 " If imdiTr/tir /»'///<(/ fiDlih'finiiHoi 
 V\f>'. nrii'tui'' Lcini^s iin-<iiit imlirt- 
 (lii((l ilitj' r<'iiri-K ill iili /Hf/7s iiftliiir 
 xfnirtitn . iiinl lliis caiiiinL In; ili's- 
 Itiilcil ; if liicrt! I)c, owill.^ to tilt! 
 Jii^'li <jiinii' Iri'nl rutio t»f iiirridxt; 
 of ciii'li .s/«v/i«, a ^■^(v•/^' .><tn\;^',!:;lo 
 fcr life !ifc HDiiit' mil', Hi'itxim, nr 
 y<';i:', Mild iliiM rc'iiiiiiih/ i-aniioi iic 
 ilitijnih.il, till 11 citn>ii<lrrhiii tlu! /;(- 
 Jiiiili; cinn{t'e.rilii of tilt; rihitimi of 
 all nrijiiiiir Ikmml,'^ to eicli fttlur 
 atid ti) ilio.r i;,,i<iitii»t>i of life 
 Citusi.iij an iiijliiitii idrersiti/ in 
 Hlrn-lnri\ C'lnxlthilimi, a'ld li ihltx 
 t^> lie (ulrniihai' oils to tlnMi. it 
 wniild 1),' H III ist ixlraitrili iinrij 
 fiu'l if no vnn'iiliouH ovur nrrnrnil 
 »« •■ fill to ('it'll !K'iii'j"'.s own wcl- 
 far:'. hi till! .>aint! ni'tnuir as ,s(» 
 nuiiiy ;".(/v'((//'i,(,s liavi; urcarral 
 u.s-i'fn! ! . nmu." 
 
 L. \A!;!;Arivi; pAssAfiK fiiom 
 ^ilan Munii r, diai). xii. 
 
 " Tliih nioriun,^' he liatl licon t<ild 
 liy siMiic (if jiis iM'i^iiliDiir.s that it 
 \v:i.s New Viar'.s l'".Vf, and that luj 
 must .sit up and hear tliu old ymr 
 iiniL,' out iind tho new riin'^- in, 
 \nriiiisi' thai was <;(i(id luck, and 
 Mii.irlit hriiiu; hi.-i imnti i/ haclc a^ain. 
 This was (inly a friendly Kavt-'loe- 
 way (if,/<.</iii!^ with th«' half cnizy 
 dddititi.-i of a nn'sri\ hot it had jirr- 
 hiilis help. (I t(» throw Silas into a 
 iiKirc than umhilh/ iX'ilnl xfutr. 
 Siiict! tin; (iii-coiiiini,' nf twili;:;hl 
 he had opciiid his d lor airain and 
 a,i;aiii, thouirh »iiily to .-hnt it /m- 
 iiinh'itfihi at sfciin; all (/iV/c.vr 
 riil'il hy th(> fallinu; snow. Uiit 
 the last tini" lie opcni d it the 
 sniiw had i'ii(.-< il. the (doud.s were 
 jKoVing here and tluru." 
 
 Hettin.^ aside the oornmon element of iln se oxtraetR — 
 Tronominal forms, Anxiliarv Vcrhs, rrejiosit ions, (*on- 
 ju'ictions, t^-e.-j- it will he seen tliat tlu^ vocal ulary of 
 the scientific iK,ssi<j;e is almost entirely Latin, Avhile tho 
 
 • Ta'v'en dinctly from Cretk RXaa^-i^jxtli'. Man)' uthwr Grcuk wcrda 
 have cohie to ns thronuh iii«> t.atiu. 
 f " Liuk-wunU " (.Kurlcj. 
 
rtu.ArluNs uF kngmsii to oiiiku LAN(JUAr;i:s. 1')!) 
 
 Con- 
 i\' of 
 (•' tho 
 
 wcrda 
 
 Ktaplf of the iiariativu ])a.ssago is Saxon, though with a 
 iu'u interniixturc of Latin. 
 
 Tara^ajths may without difficnlty he found in tlio 
 Kniilish ]>il»lo, and in tlie writiniis of Defoe and lUmvan, 
 eoiTtsisting almost entirely of Saxon words. 
 
 § 325. Keltic Elciuent. — Before the Saxon Contiuest. tlie 
 language spoken by the i)et)})le of IJritain was l\(ltic. 
 J>ut tlie lanj:;uai;c of the liritons was foiiijilrtely displaerd 
 Ity tliat of tJit'ir coiKjUerors ; .'nul, with thf cxcrption <>f 
 names oi plaees, rivi-is, and mcjuntains. fuw Kt-ltie Avords 
 appear to have maintained tlieir groiuul. 
 
 i'rohahly some portion of the orii;inal inliahitants — 
 espeeially Ijiitish women^ — were ])r('served alive by the 
 Sa\ons, and kept in a menial condition. 'J'his is rendtic^l 
 in the hi^'licst degree pi'obable by thf fact that many ot 
 the Keltic words preserved are names of implenients with 
 which serfs and menials would have most to dji. i>\n-\i 
 are the nouns ?a(.s7ivY, chmf, crorl,-, jhtsl.ct [^ci hi ml of htnjr 
 cldthrs-hasl'tf'^, iiinp^ un((t(icl\ ^uiil^pun* 
 
 Among Keltic geoi^rajdiical names may be menti<»ned, 
 Kent, Thames, Il\e. Avon [ //vf/c/-!, ( )uso ^alsit tr<{fif , 
 J>ee, Herwent, Man ^\s\{i of, i'en-y-gant, Iblvellyn, 
 Abei'deen, iVx*. 
 
 § ;'.2<). Gnrl' FJriiinif. - \ very large number of our 
 ]>]nloso]thical, eccle^siastical, and scieiitilic Wdrds are fi'om 
 the Greek : as, Im/ic, >iu(afthiixlcs, j>lnisl<-ft, jthilosoj))///, rthics. 
 (istroiKnitij, vhi'triciiff, hudrcxtatit's, li}/<h'<inll<s, siatiiK, thrarii, 
 jiyoJiJi})!. (Udif'.'dm ; hitmojK jnli'st, rhnii/, lnii>tl.'<tii, * iirhdn'sl, 
 ihunh, iiioiKisfcr!;, S:v. .^blliy of these have et»me to us 
 tliroiigh the Latiii, 
 
 Also tlie terminations -ize, -ism, liave be« n natura.lise.l 
 from tlie Greek : see ^ I'.M). 
 
 § .127. MittrrJhiiu'nHs Eh))Hiifx.- Almost every lacguag'- 
 in the world has eontributeil some wt»rd or words to oisr 
 Aocabnlary. Thus the word fulmo comes linm the .''•anil- 
 wich islands: the word /"' is ( hinese; the [di rase i-mmk 
 (to run a-niuck ) is Malay, iVe. t^'e. 
 
 ♦ S.-0 Mr fJanifti's list, StU'Imf'^ Mninml Kii[i I.timj. p. 4*); lUi.l 
 Morriw, Hint. ( I'ifJiii'K, p. 'irtl. S<iiu(^ (A tin sc wunls. iiri rlimt. cri>rl., 
 exist in the ohUnt t'nriii of l■;l\•_'Ii^ll. They nrc, liowcvfr, known in i»o 
 iv'ilif fr"iii tli« ir lieiiiy; willmut I'Mgnutea in tiie etlitr Tciit'Miii' (lukcta 
 t'M>>i'ns, L c. ). 
 
ICO 
 
 ENGLISH GIJAMMAR. 
 
 
 Some of tho miso(41ancou8 contributions arc importiin^ 
 enoii^li to l)e noticed yuparately : e.g. — 
 
 Arabic: algebra, almanac, alcohol, alembic, isbun 
 tanflf, zero, zenith, nadir, talisman, coffee, sugar, 
 
 ]fthr(vn : anion, hallelujah, hosanna, cherub, f.crajih, 
 jubilee, sabbath, Mesfsiah, Satan, Soc. ; with \Gry 
 niaiiy Projirr Naiiu's, as Adam, Abraham, J 'avid, 
 John, Matthew, Mary, Elizabetii, ifec. A:c. 
 
 Ildlian : stanza, opera, sonata, punchinello r])unfh) 
 bullbon, ])anti^l()on, banditti, maccaroni, bankrupt, 
 agio, folio, quarto. Sic* 
 
 Garlic : tartan, plaid, claymore (hruadswonlj, slogan 
 (war-cnj), pil)roch, elan. 
 
 Sc<uu1in<irinn : by (toirn), as in Whitby, Kirk by ; fell 
 ( mountain ), tarn, dale, &c. 
 
 S^Htiii.sh : ]»unctilio, alligator, armada, matador, galleon 
 (or Italian), hooker (a kind of ship), embargo, 
 cargo, eldorado, tornado, renegado (renegade), 
 albino, ])eccadillo, &,c. il'c. 
 
 Dutch : schooner, sloop, sheet (sail-cable), skipper, 
 smuggle, yacht. 
 
 Hindoo: calico, muslin, bungalow, rupee, lac, brahmin, 
 sepoy, thug, suttee, kc. 
 
 § 32>^. For a fuller treatment of tho subject of this 
 chapter, si>o Student's Man. Emj. Lit., es]iecially Lectures 
 i. and ii. , liatham's IfandhaoJc, chapters i. xix. xx. ; 
 ^lax Miiller, vol. i., Tieeture v. ; ]']arle's Philohujy of the 
 Euijlish Lawjuaije ; Trench, Ewjlish Past and Frescut. 
 
 * Also the BuiYwos -ese, -C8t]ue : Miilt-ese, Joliiiaou-cac, Ciiigal-eae(?); 
 Arab-eaywe, grot-t'«(^ut', pictur-et't^ue, iio. 
 
FROSODt. 
 
 IGl 
 
 )orL?.ni 
 
 
 h vei-v 
 ] 'avitl, 
 
 ninrli) 
 iknipt. 
 
 >y; fell 
 
 p;,'illc(m 
 u])ar.ij;(), 
 
 ilvipjKT, 
 
 aliniin, 
 
 of this 
 ecturos 
 V. x\. ; 
 / of the 
 
 il-tae(?); 
 
 PART Y.- PROSODY. 
 
 § 329. rrosody treats of the laws of Verso. 
 
 § 330. Englifsh Yersificatiou is based on two princi- 
 ples : — 
 
 1. KnY ruM. 
 
 2. lillYMK. 
 
 To tlicsG must l)e added, for the earlier periods of 
 English, Alliteratiiii. 
 
 § 331. L'hytfim (Gt. pvOfioi) consists in the recurrence of 
 accent or stress of voice at regular intervals. 
 
 '' I spnin;^ to till' sti'rru|i. and J<iris niid lio, 
 I galloiH'd, Dirck gallo})e(l, \Vf gallopcil uU tlin'r." 
 
 (li. IJroAPini;.) 
 
 Iiliythm in verso nuiy le niaihcd hy haifs as in M Msic 
 See further ^ 3:!G, foil. 
 
 § 332. RiiVMK consists in a land of chiuiir.^' of syllal hs, 
 one syllahle or conihination of syllables following u[i and 
 in a manner eclioing another. 
 
 " Thf^ fair lueczc, Jih'w, the wli.tc hiwn jle'tp, 
 The fiirrnw tollowcil /Vt't' ; 
 Wo W<lr tllf/'w.-7 tliat I'VCI- hi'li.-<t 
 
 Into that biliiit m<." (Coleriil^o, Anrient ilfrir.) 
 
 § 333. A Single Rhyme is a ihynie in one syllable ; 
 as, blew, Jlew ; free, see ; first, hurst, 
 
 A Double Rhyme is a rhyme in two syllables : — 
 
 " And (jrumbliiKj and nnithliuij and fiiiuhliiKi" (Soullicy.) 
 
 A Treble Rhyme is a rhyme in three syllables: — 
 *' And cluUeriiKj and hdttcrituj and shdlterhuj" (Soiithey.) 
 
 Oht. Trcblo rliynirs are raru, and usually of a giotosciuo kind. Sec ImjolWyy 
 Legends, pagHiia. 
 
 § 334. Rhymes usually orcuf oniy at the end of lines, 
 aiid always coincide with the rhythmical beat. 
 
1G2 
 
 ENGLISH GKAMMAIJ. 
 
 *' To form a pcrfoot rliymo, three tilings arc essential : — 
 
 1. That the vowel scnind, and the parts follovvin<^ it, 
 be the same: [H-a-rAr, sh-a-r/c; h-ou-nds, h-uu-ruls ; 
 1-cc, Tir-et'.J 
 
 2. That the parts preceding the vowel l»e different : 
 [So that da-c-euw, ru-c-eive ; aa-ts-ent, con-s-ent, ure 
 no true rhymes.J 
 
 3. That the rhyming syllaLks be accentcil alike." 
 (Angus, p. ;>4.*).^ ICdryOf ciiibdnjo ; stiijnndouii, tre- 
 mendous, j 
 
 § 335. lihymo is addressed to the ear not the eye, 
 an<t therefore is independent of oi-thogruphy. Thus mw 
 rhymes with phnn/h, hut not witli low; lost ihymes vith 
 croHHcd, hut not with (/Imst or iimsi. Ihit owing to tlie 
 diirunilty of finding ]i(il<'ct rliynu-s in every casu, im])('i- 
 feei ones are admitted more or less lVe<pieiitly by all 
 \vriters of verse. 
 
 (jl'S. Many woitl.swliiili rnriiiciiy rlivnicd, no kui^'iT do so ; one or lliv otlar luiviiig 
 uiulciKonc a cliaiific ol'inun ticiatiDii (tomjuro ^ 12, Obs. li): — 
 
 •* Yet \vi8(lf»m wiiriit'M, whilst foot is in tlic ytilr. 
 
 To Htay llic sti'p, viv foired to rdrule " [i.e. rctrrat]. (/•'. Queen, I. 1, 13.) 
 "Ife'or ainbilion did my l'an<y tlitnl 'J jjioii. c/iuiYJ 
 
 Witii any wish so mean as to bu great." (Cowley: P^aiU', p. 153.) 
 •• HiTo thou, Rrcftt Anna, wliom thicc roalnis o'» y, 
 
 Dost soiuetiuius couiLsel take, and sonKtinies (ea " [lay]. {Rape of Lock, I.) 
 
 § S.'.O. Fnivr. — Verse is usually Avritten in linos con- 
 taining a uniform numl-er of syllables as wrW as of 
 rlivthmic beats ; and Ihu lines may then be divided into 
 s\llabic measures. 
 
 These syllabic measures are called fi;i;t. 
 
 § 337. The ordinary syllabic measures or feet used in 
 Kiiglish vcisifieation arc these: — 
 
 Iiiiii1'U.s, as a\v:iy, li(\L''()iip : 
 
 'J'rochro, „ I'lirwMrd.s, liglitly; 
 
 Aiini)ii'.st, „ l.dcliinviir; 
 
 Dactyl „ nuTrily, wearily. 
 
 Those names of feet refer properly to Quantity or 
 length of syllables, and are not therefore strictly ap]di- 
 calde to Englisli v(M'sitieation, which is based on Accent. 
 A(!cent and (Quantity do not always eoineide. Thus tlio 
 word A'Jiu^ consisting of two long syllables [ ], is iu 
 
PROSODY. 
 
 lf)3 
 
 ial : — 
 
 in<; it, 
 u- III Is ; 
 
 urent : 
 it, uie 
 
 uliko." 
 m, tre- 
 
 e ovo, 
 
 Ills (vm; 
 8 ^^■ith 
 to tho 
 iiu|H*i - 
 by uU 
 
 iicr having 
 
 .13.) 
 
 .ock, 1.) 
 
 -8 coll- 
 as of 
 1(1 into 
 
 iscJ iu 
 
 :itv or 
 ap])li- 
 \ceeiit. 
 ins tlio 
 
 L^itin versifR'atiou a sjiomloc ; wliercas in Enj^lish it is 
 a tiocliuo, luin;^ accontoJ on the first Hyllablo. So 
 Ctirlups is in Enj^lisii a tioclieo, whereas iu its original 
 Grocic foiiu it is an iambus, Ki'k/Wi/t [ _^ — J. 
 
 Obs. Two other thrc syllable feet are somf tinii's given :— 
 
 Aiupliibracliys [^ — v^] : believing | deoiivinR. 
 
 Anii>liini,icir )r^^ — 1 • ^ " '"■t'a«ltnl gleaiUH, 
 or Oreticus )" L ^' i I jNiu:i1 screams." (Popo.; 
 
 But linos containing eitiier of these rhytlmis tan always be seanm-it in some other 
 
 way : e.g. — 
 
 So the lines— 
 
 " TLo' losses and crosses [Ainphibr. Dim.; or Dactyl, jiiiii. 
 
 Catal. with Auacruais.J 
 Be le.ssou8 rfght severe, [lamb. Trim J. 
 here's wi't then-, ye'll nii there, 
 Ye'll find nae other where." (.liunis.) 
 
 three 
 
 
 Trimeter. 
 
 t« un- 
 
 
 Tetrameter. 
 
 live 
 
 
 ]*('!» tameter. 
 
 8ix 
 
 
 lle.vameter. 
 
 .seven 
 
 
 lleittanieter. 
 
 eij;ht 
 
 
 Octometer. 
 
 •• Drt'-ailful kUmuis, 
 DiKHial scrciuus," 
 
 are usually scanned as Trochaic iJim. f^'atal. 
 
 § o38. A lino consisting; of one foot is ) ,|■ 
 . i, v i r r HI Monometei 
 m hiiu,lish versineation ealk-d ( 
 
 A line eonyisting of two feet is called Dimeter. 
 
 ♦♦ 
 
 >» 
 »» 
 >» 
 it 
 
 Tillies eliding in an incomplete foot are called Cataieetio 
 or truncated : as, — 
 
 "T.i the I docan | n.Iw I ] ///." (Milt. Cnmnx.) 
 (Sec also § 344, Dartylic Mdn,^.) 
 
 Tjines having a syllable over are called Ilypermeter ot 
 IJypermetrical : as, — 
 
 " HeiK^c I ath f'd ]M(' l.iuch '>fii 
 IMiilst h'jr|rid bli.'oc'ti, | iiiui bliricks | and sight.s I niiln'' ///.'* 
 
 (Milt. L'AHiijro.) 
 
 § \\?t^. Iambic Mhtki."?.— Iambic is tlie prevailing rhythm 
 in English verse. It is etjually adapted to light and to 
 giave subjects. Thus while the Imilesrpie poem oi' IJik I i- 
 has is written in Iambic verse (Tetrameter j — 
 
 * Tn Hreek V(r>iliiiiti(in. two iamlt.s, tro li u.-i, or anii|iM'>ts. tr.> to u 
 OH. tn.' ; but uuly one Duclyl. 
 

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 IMAGE EVALUATION 
 TEST TARGET (MT-3) 
 
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 1.25 
 
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 IIM 
 
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 1.6 
 
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 Sciences 
 Corporation 
 
 23 WEST MAIN STREET 
 
 WEBSTER, NY. 14580 
 
 (716) S72-4503 
 
 ^J 
 
 y 
 
 A 
 
 
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164 
 
 KNGLIStt GRAMMAlt. 
 
 i^i 
 
 " Wlicn civil (liidgeou fiist grew high, 
 And men full oiit they know not why; 
 When pulpit, >lrum ecck'siiistic, } ■„■ . 
 
 Was beat with liht instead of d btick "— f ^m^^^i^' 
 
 80 also is the elevated and romantic poem of Marmion— 
 
 " Day diiwncd on Norham's castlfd steep, 
 And Tweed'a fair river, broad and deep." 
 
 § 340. The following stanza exemplifies a variety of 
 Iambic measures : — 
 
 *' Now thiit the lioiirth is eiownod with smiling fire, [I'ent.] 
 X And some do drink and «6nic do diince, [Tetram.j 
 Some ring, [Monom.] 
 Some si'ng, „ 
 And sill do strive to' advanoe : [Trim.] 
 Wnurefore should I' [Dim.] 
 Stand silent by, „ 
 
 Who not the least ., 
 Both love the cause and author of the feast?" [Pont.] 
 
 (B. Jonson.) 
 
 Obs. Monomcter and Dimrt^r are found only in combination with otlur m'.trcs. 
 Thi'y are now rarely employed, 
 
 § 341. TiiociiAiG Me IRKS. — These are far loss ficqncnt 
 than the Iambic. The absence of an Anacrusis (Gr. avd- 
 K^ouo-ig, up-beat), or unaccented starting note, gives to the 
 Trochaic rhythm a kind of briskness which renders it 
 •well adapted to lively subjects. 
 
 " H;isti' th( 0, Nymph, and bring with theo [Troch. Tetram. Catal.] 
 Jest and youthful jdllity, 
 Qu'ps and cranks and wanton wiles, 
 No Is and becks and wn atlied smiles." (V Allegro^ 
 
 Trochaic metre is seldom used in poems of any con- 
 siderable length. 
 
 N.B. — Trochaic linos arc, oftener than not, Catalectic or 
 truncated ; and may thus be regarded as Iambic without 
 
 the Anacrusis. 
 
 « 
 
 § 342. Examples of Trochaic Metre : — 
 
 (1) "Turning [Monom.] 
 Burning, 
 Changing, 
 Biinging, 
 Fiill of grief and full of love." [Tetram. Patal.] 
 
 (Addiooii : exanipU' in Angus.) 
 
 (2) "Rhymo the nick of fm(>st wi'<s, [Tetram. Catal.] • 
 
 That expre'sseth biit by f ts 
 
 Tr lie conceit ; [Dim. Catal.] 
 
 » 
 
PROSODY. 
 
 165 
 
 lermeter. 
 on— 
 
 ricty of 
 nt.] 
 
 fonson.) 
 IhtT mt-trcB. 
 
 frequent 
 Gr. avd- 
 
 s to the 
 dirs it 
 
 m. Catal.] 
 
 iny con- 
 
 leotic or 
 without 
 
 gU8.) 
 
 Ppoi'linj^ sonsos of their troiisniv, 
 Cozening judgment with a nieiisuro, 
 liut tuLse weifirlit , . .' 
 
 (B. Jonson.) 
 
 (3) " Comrades, leave mo here a little, while as yot 'ti.s eiirly morn ; 
 Leave; me here, and whrii you want me, sftuiid upon the biigle 
 horn." [Oetom. Catal. J (Tunnydon.) 
 
 § .'>43. Anap^istig Mkfrks. 
 short lyric pieces : — 
 
 These are used only in 
 
 [Dim.] 
 
 >» 
 
 (1) " Where the .siin loves to pause 
 
 With so fund a delay, 
 Tliat the niulit oidy draws 
 A tliin veil o'er thu day." 
 
 (2) " I am monarch of all I survey, 
 
 ^Ty right tliere is none: to dispute; 
 From tho ce'iitrc all round to the si a, 
 1 am lord of the fowl and the briite. 
 
 (Moore.) 
 [Trim.] 
 
 
 (Cowper.) 
 
 
 (3) " The Assyrian came down like a wolf on the fold, ['l\ tram.] 
 And his cdiiorts wtre gh'aming in purple and ijold ; 
 And the Bhe'en of (heir spe.irs was like stars "ii tlic .sea 
 When the bliie wave rolls nightly on deep GuliU'e." 
 
 (Byron.) 
 
 § 344. Dactylic Mhiriis. — These occur only in lyric 
 poetry, where their occasional introduction — es})ecially as 
 a variation from the Trochaic rhythm — has an enlivening;' 
 effect. 
 
 •' Wiiere tlic bee sneks, there suck I', 
 
 I'n a ciiwslip's bell I lie : 
 
 Then; I coiicli when owls do cry. 
 
 On the bat's back I' do tly 
 
 A'ffer summer merrily. 
 Merrill/, 7n^rrilij, shiill I lire ndiv, 
 Under the hlvtisoin that hdiKjn on the howjh" 
 
 Trochaic 
 
 Tctram. 
 
 Catuh.'ctic 
 
 lie 
 
 \ Dactylic 
 
 ) Tctram. Catal. 
 
 (Shaks. I'dnptHl.) 
 
 Sir W. Scott's spirited lyric, Pibroch of Donuil Dhu, its 
 ivritton throughout in Dactylic metre : — 
 
 " Pibroch of D.inuil Dim, [Dim. Dactyl] 
 
 Pibroch of Donuil ; ( Dim. Catahictic] 
 Wiike thy wild voice anew, 
 
 Summon Clan ('onuil ! 
 Come away, come away, 
 
 Hark tit the Biimmnns, 
 Cnmo in your war array 
 
 (lentlcs and commons." 
 
 ^ 345. Sometimes Dactyls arc introduced witli goocj 
 efl'ect at xhe beginning of Tiuuhuic lines : — 
 
nfimm 
 
 166 
 
 ENGLI8II GRAMMAR. 
 
 "Merrily, morrily, 1>oini(l.s tlio ]);'irk, [Trnoh. Totrnm. Catal.] 
 Bufnro the gale she boun-ls." [Iamb. Trim.] 
 
 (Scott. Lord oj the Isles.) 
 
 Obt. Tho fio-called Etiijllsh ITexameter, formod in imitation of that of Homer aii 
 Virgil, is not discussed liore, as not being naturalised. 
 
 , ( 
 
 SPECIAL METRES. 
 
 § 340. Heroic Couplet. — This consists of Iambic Penta 
 meter lines rhymed in couplets : — • 
 
 " Ili'avtn from all cn-aturos hides the book of fate, 
 All but the iMgQ j)re.s('nbed their present state" (Pope.) 
 
 Occasionally a TrijJct (three lines rhyming) is intro- 
 duced into this kind of verse : — 
 
 " Now n )j:ht's dim shades ajfiiin involve the ski/, 
 Again the wanderers want a jihice to he, 
 Agiiin they search and find a lodging nigh" (Parnoll's Uermit.) 
 
 In this metre are written Chaucer's Canterhuri/ Talei 
 (greater ])urt), the Absalom and Achitoi)liel of iJryden, 
 l*ope's Iloiiter, &c. 
 
 § 347. Blank Verse. — The same [Ilcrou'] measure mw- 
 rliijmed is called Blank Verse. 
 
 E.XAMi'LK.s. — Milton's Paradise Lost and Paradi.^e lie 
 gained ; ( V)wper's Task ; Wordsworth's Excursion ; Tenny- 
 son's IdijlU, ifec. 
 
 Blanlc Verse is best adapted to grand suljeets. li 
 requires elevation of thought aiid a sustained liow oi 
 sonorous and impressive language. 
 
 § 348. Ballad Metre. — This consists of rhj'ming coujdets 
 of Iambic Ifeptameter. Each line divides naturally after 
 tho fourth foot ; and the couplet is now commonly written 
 as a stanza of four lines : — 
 
 " Gdd pr(isi)er hing our miblo king, onr lives anji safeties all, 
 A wufnl hunting once there dni in Clievy Ciuise befiil." {Ballad.) 
 
 Macaulay's Armada and Battle of Ivry are in this metre : — 
 
 " Now list ye lill who hive to hear onr Udble K'nglund's jmiise, 
 I tell of the tlirice famous deeds slie wrought in ancient days." 
 
 § 349. Elegiac Stan::a. — This consists of four lines of 
 Iambic rentamcter, rhyming alternately. 
 
 K<AMi»LK8. — (jlray's Eleyy ; Sir John Davies's Nosce 
 Teipsum [publ islied 'l iVJOj. 
 
ratal.] 
 
 Isles.) 
 lomer dii 
 
 Penta 
 
 ape.) 
 i iiitro- 
 
 Jlermit.) 
 
 y Tain 
 
 Dry den, 
 
 lire un- 
 
 'i.^<> Be- 
 Teiiny- 
 
 cts. li 
 How oi 
 
 louplets 
 ly after 
 written 
 
 1, 
 
 {Ballad.) 
 
 letrc : — 
 
 iiso, 
 lays." 
 
 lines of 
 Nosce 
 
 PPO.SODY. 
 
 1C7 
 
 § 350. Aleu-nmln'ne Verse. — This is Tamliio IToxamcter. 
 It is used in the final line of tlic Spi-nserian S'an/a 
 r>? 3")!]; and ocf-Msionally as tlie wind-np to a ]ias.-;i_i2,<' in 
 Heroic verse. The hist line of I'opes JZo-^/tt/i is au Alex- 
 andrine : — 
 
 " Tlie seas sliall waste, the ski'es in .snidko decay 
 Kocks full to (lust, anil mniintaius melt away; 
 lint fixed liiri word, His savinjjj |»()W('r remains 
 Thy realm for ever lasts, thy uwn Mess ah nii^ns." 
 
 Drayton's Poli/olhion, a poem in thirty books descriptive 
 yf Lnji'land, is in this metre. [Mich. J)rayton, oh. I«i31.] 
 
 '■ 3Iy native eciuntry the'n which so brave spirits* ha.-t hrt'il. 
 If thc're 1)0 virtues yet remaininijf m thy (artli. 
 Or any ^^(M of mine thou hnd'st into my hirtli, 
 Acci'pt it iis tliino own, while now I si'ni; of thee, 
 Of all thy later brood unwoithiest tho' 1 be ! " 
 
 § 351. Sjmiserian Stanza (nine lines). — This consists of 
 piil'ht Heroics, followed by one Alexandrine, rhymed. 
 There are only three ditfercnt rhymes in a single stanza, 
 arranged in tho following; manner ; — 
 
 " He there does now enjdy eternal rtfst 
 
 And hajtpy ease. Avhii'h thuu dost wJnt and 
 And further from it daily wunder- ^st. 
 
 What if some little pain \\\v. pas>ap;o 
 That makes frail llcsli to fear tlie Intter 
 Is nut short pain well borne that brings long 
 And lays the soul to bleep in quiet 
 Sleep after toyle, port after stormy 
 
 Ease iiftoi 'rre, death after life does greatly 
 
 crave^ 
 
 hive, 
 leave ; 
 
 grave ? 
 
 (F. (2. i. y, 10.) 
 
 Here note : lines 1, 3 rhyme together. 
 
 „ 2, 4, o, 7 „ 
 
 6, 8, 9 
 
 » 
 
 § 352. Otfara Ttlmn ('eight-line stanza).— Consists of six 
 ITeroics, rhyming three and three alternately, followed by 
 an Heroic Con plot. 
 
 " 'Tis sweet to hear the watch-dog's honest hdrh 
 
 Bay deep-mouth'd welcome lis we near our home; 
 
 'Tis sweet to know Ihen^ is an ('ye will ituir]: 
 
 Our coming, and look l)righter when wo wme; 
 
 'Tis swe'et to be awaken'd by tho lurk 
 
 Or liill'd by falling watirs ; sweet the Jum 
 Of bees, tho voice of girls, the song of birds, 
 The lisp of children lind their earliest tro'n/s.'* 
 (Hyiou.) 
 
 * i'oruierly pronounci d ajnlqliis: compare udj. ^itrujhihj. 
 
108 
 
 E\fJLISTI ORAMMAn. 
 
 Byron's Brppn anfl Don Jvnn aro in tliis stanza ; •which, 
 as the name implies, is Lorrowcd iVom the Italian. 
 
 § 353. Sonnet (fourteen lines). — The Sonnet also is of 
 Italian ori[!;in. In its perfeet form its rhyme-system is 
 very clabi)rate. Only two different rhymes arc allowed in 
 tho first ei^ht lines ( which arc arranged in two (jnartets); 
 and two, or sometimes three, in the remaining six lines: — 
 
 hide. 
 
 si>(fnt 
 
 Wnt 
 sent 
 
 " When r consulcr how my h'ljclit is 
 
 Isro liiilf Miy (liys, in tli s dark wuvhX and 
 And til it one tiilent wliwh is dciith to 
 Lodi^'d with mo u.st'lea.s, thougli my sonl more 
 
 To si-'ive thorowith my INhiker. and pie- 
 
 My triic ariiunt, \vA hr' niturnin,' 
 
 Doth (iod cxiiot <lay hiltoiir, f^'ht de- 
 I loudly ask; but Paticiifc, to pn;- 
 
 Tliat miirmnr. soon replies, C»o<l doth not 
 Eitiic'r man's work, or h s own 'jfifts, wlio 
 I5('ar h.s mild yoko, they .serve him be&t, his 
 Ts ki'n<;ly. Thon.-anls ft his biddinjj; ape:d 
 
 And ptJst o'er land and occ^an without rest 
 
 They also serve who only stand and 
 
 i-h ''lie, 
 lu'cd f 
 
 need 
 
 ( ('nt 
 
 bi^st 
 
 3' ate 
 
 wait.' 
 
 (:\IiIton.) 
 
 Milton followed his Italian models with p:reat fidelity; 
 and he has in every case maintained the exaet correspond- 
 ence between the rhymes of the first and second (juartet. 
 In tho arrano'oment of the rhymes of tho concluding six 
 linos, greater variety is allowed, hut they ruust not run 
 in couplets. 
 
 The nu)st successful wriiers of the pure Sonnet :n 
 English iiiterature are Milton, Wordsworth, and E. B. 
 Browning. 
 
 § 35-1. Shalcsprarmn Sonnet.— In its less ^iroper form thr 
 Sonnet is simply a poem of fourteen Heroic lines, rhymed 
 alternately and ending with a Couplet. 
 
 The Sonnets of Shakspeare belong to this class. 
 
 § 355. Comhinations of Verse. — liyrie poetry admits of 
 the most varied combinations of verse, the transitioiiK 
 being adapted to the turns of thought and emotion. 
 Thus tho Ij AJleqro of Milton presents the following; 
 
 yarietes 
 
 pre! 
 
PROSODY. 
 
 1(^0 
 
 E. B. 
 
 1. IxmbicTiim. . . . "Tn Stypfian oavo forlorn." 
 
 2. do. do. ITyporm. "Hence hiiitlied Mclaiicliuly." 
 
 3. lo. Tetrani. . . " IJut odnio, thou •:;i>(l(l<'ss fair and fn'o, 
 
 In ht'avon yoU'j)t luiphiosN iic." 
 
 4. 'lo. Pcntam. , . *'Of Ccrljcriis and Markfst ni dnifrlit l)orn, 
 
 Wlicre brooiling darkncas spri'aila hi.s 
 raven wings." 
 .*». do. do. Hyporm. " Midst lnii rid shapes and shrieks, and sight.-? 
 
 nuh6]y." 
 G. Troeh. Tetiam. . . ** There to rome in spite of sorrow, 
 7. do. do. \vith\ K 1 i ' 1 ui 1 ' »i 
 
 Anacrusis . . . ) "^^ ' '"^ window bid good niorrow. 
 
 8 do. do. t'atuL " Come and tnp it lis yoii go 
 
 O'n the hght fantastic toe." 
 
 For additional exam])los of such comldnations, sco 
 Collins, ()(!(•■ on the Passion.s ; Ci ray's Proyrcss of Poetry ; 
 Prydon's Alexander s Feast, &c. 
 
 § 350. Allitkratiov. — This consists in the recnrrence 
 of words or syllahles licginning with tlic same letter; as 
 *n the well-known line — 
 
 -' By apt alliteration's irrtful aid." 
 
 (Cliurchill, I'roph. of Famine.) 
 
 § 357. Alliteration is now only occasionally nsed. It 
 ■was once an important ])rin('i)ilc of English versi(i(;ation. 
 Anglo-Saxon poetry, like Icelandic, is entirely alliteiative : 
 and it is not till about the besiinning of the thirteenth 
 century that alliteration begins to give place to rhyme. 
 
 § 358. The often quoted lines — 
 
 " IMerie [swe tly] siingen tlio niunechcs binnen Ely, 
 
 Tha 'Jnut chiiig rcw there by : 
 Kowetii, cniiites, noer thi lant, 
 
 And here we these muiieches sa'ng " 
 
 (Cuiik, i. p. 195.) 
 
 are proof that rhyme was not unknown previous t<» the 
 Aorman Conquest ; and in the Jiriif [l>rutus] of Layanion 
 [I'JOi* .A.D.] rhynung cou]dets aie of i're([uent occurrence. 
 But it is not till about the year 13< that our liteiature 
 can boast of any extensive poetical work written through- 
 out in rhyme. Tho Clironiele of liohert of Gloucester is in 
 fourteen-syllable rhyming verse. 
 
 § 359. The change from alliteration to ihyme was no 
 doubt due in great measure to the influence of French 
 vcr«ihcation, which has always been bused on rhyme. The 
 
170 
 
 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 old allitci'ativc motlKtd niaintaiiKid iis gro'.md amonp; the 
 masses of tLo people, ' nd can boast the Ctarliest great 
 work of iinagiiiatioii iii our literature— T//e Vision of 
 [i.e. concerning] Piers IHoicman. I'his is the earliest of the 
 throe groat allegorical Avorks which have successively 
 gained the ear of the English people.* 
 
 § 3G0. The Vision is wiitten in lines of from ahout tori 
 to twelve syllables. Each line readily divides itself into 
 two hemistiehs. and is often so written. 
 
 There are four accents or rhythmic beats [§ 831 ] to each 
 lino; and the words or sylLibles on wliich the tirst thi'eo 
 at lenst of these fall, Ix'gin with the same letter :— 
 
 " J /ran (roary lor-iOilinlerrd. ami in'-ur. lue to rest 
 I'lulcr a ^u'cjod ^ank by a />ilr,i('.s .sido ; 
 And as I /.iy and h'.icd and /ookod on tl'O waters, 
 1 .■dumlKTcd into a sk'pini;, it swayed t so mury." (Pass, i.) 
 
 § 361. Soon after the date (>f the Vision [latter half of 
 the fourteenth century] the alliterative method fell into 
 disuse. Jhit though abandoned as a princi[)le of versifica- 
 tion, alliteration has C(Uitinu(id to be more or less omploye(^ 
 by almosu all our jioctical wi'iters. Scarcely a stan/.a of 
 the Fairy Quern is free from it; and Shaks])eare. Milton, 
 ]*oj)e, and others occasionally introduce it with very 
 pleasing eifect : c.<j. — 
 
 " /Sweet slumbering dew the wliich to sleep thcni bids." 
 
 (F.Q.i. b^G.) 
 " A 7;old ^ad man, that Jared to call by name 
 (?reat G^orgon, prince of ('arkncss an I ile.nl nighc; 
 At which Cocytus (/wa'.-es and Styj; [x — /..s] is put to flight." 
 
 C//>. 88.) 
 " This precious stone set in the silver sea." 
 
 [i:x. in Kaile.] (Sh. nich. U. ii. b) 
 
 " It ?ra3 tlie printer n-ild )^ ^ 
 
 iriicn the lieavi'ii-lidin child | ■*" 
 All meanly wrapt in tne rude manger lay." (Milt. .Witic.) 
 
 '♦ And /raving ■jcide her myrtle ?rand." (Ih.) 
 
 " The sound must si em an eclio to the sense." (Pope, Tr/V.) 
 
 " PulT:-, jjowders, 2>atohes, iJiblcs, ?>illet-doux." (Id. liape of L. i\ 
 
 * Piers ricwman ; Fa'rtj Qnrrn • Piltfriiits Proffese. 
 
 t Swayed so miny souikIkI so SL^athj. 
 
 i These two lines avo exactly rftfr the manner of the Vuion^ 
 " It t«il3 the joi'iitpr ici'ld, i/'Ih'mi tiu' liwiven-boni ^lu'lil." 
 «• In a Juminer season, whan siJlte was the Sonne." C''- ^'- ''"^ lO 
 
rUNCTUATTON. 
 
 171 
 
 mp; the 
 b great 
 'si on of 
 t of the 
 issively 
 
 out toTi 
 oH" into 
 
 to o;u'h 
 it thico 
 
 ^ass. i.) 
 
 half of 
 all into 
 Drsifica- 
 nployet^ 
 aii/.a of 
 jMilton, 
 h vd'Y 
 
 1, no.) 
 
 it." 
 Ih. 88.) 
 
 '. ii. 1.) 
 
 c.) 
 
 t.) 
 
 of L. I ) 
 
 non J 
 
 "The ?)nokfnl Mnckliond isiioraiitly read, 
 V»'ilh loads f)t' Aarued iiiiiiliLr iti liw licad." (Id. Dune.') 
 
 *' A /ife of //aiii, the /o.ss of //cuco 
 For every touch that wooM it.s stay 
 IJatli /ynislicd its /<n^lite.-t lines away, 
 Tid chaiin and hue and /nuiity gone, 
 'Tis h'ft to/ly or /all alone. 
 H'ith irounded tt'ing and bleeding ?>nast.** (Byron, S. of Corinlh.) 
 
 ** Ciive ua long rest or death, dark death, or dreiunfiil ease ' " 
 
 (Tennyson, Lotos-Katirx.) 
 
 PUNCXrATION. 
 
 § 302. PoTNTS or Stops are used to mark the divisions of sentences. 
 The t'ulluvving are the principal stops:— 
 
 1. Period or Full Stop ( . ) 
 
 2. Colon C : ) 
 
 3. Reinicolon ( ; ) 
 
 4. Coinina ( , ) 
 
 5. Note of Interroiration (?) 
 
 6. Note of Exclaniati jn ( ! ) 
 
 Other marks in common use are the d;,sh — ; parent! lesis ( ); 
 inverted commas or Quotation marks " "; brackets [ ] <'r ( ). 
 
 § 3G3. A Full Stop or Period marks the end of a sentence, 
 whether simple or comp^jx. 
 
 § ,'^C4. A Colon is used after a member of a sentence which makes 
 
 a complete and independent sense liy itself: especially when the 
 
 Kucceedin<2; membtjr is not linked to it by a Conjunction: as — 
 
 "The fifth racp, which sucrcods to the Heroes, is of iron : it is Uie race to which the 
 poet himself belongs, and bitterly does he rci^'nt it." ((irute, HiH. d'r. i. "JO.) 
 
 " Among the Commons there was a Htruiif,' (i]i]V)sition, consisting partly of avowed 
 Republicans, and partly of concealed Royalists : but a Iar«e ami .'Steady majority ap- 
 pi>ared to be favourable to the plan of reviving the old civil constitution under a new 
 dynasty." (Mac. H. E. i. p. 142,) 
 
 " But Mr. Pendennis wanted to sec In'm, and becrced him, with a smile, to enter: 
 whereupon Mr. 7oker took off the embroidered tarboosh or fez . . . and advanced, 
 bowing to the gent'.inen and smiling on th.in graciously." {I'endennis, eh. xiii.) 
 
 " How she bcame Madame Fribsby, nobody knows: she left Clavcring to go to a 
 milliner's in London as Miss Fribsby . . ." {^Ib. ch. xvi.) 
 
 It is sometimes difficult to decide whether a Cohm or a Full Stop is 
 more appropriate: but the Colon is pref.rable whenever the succeed- 
 ing m 'niber is closely connected with tlie foinier one. 
 
 A Colon is used before a quotation ; often with a dash ;— »• 
 
 -**l 
 
172 
 
 i:NaLTRn ot^ammah. 
 
 " Tho most sonsibln thine said in the House of Commons, on tliis Suhjoct, camo frop 
 Sir William (Joventry: — ' Our ancostors never did dniw a line to circumscribe preruga 
 tive and liberty.' " (Mac. U. E. I. p. 223.) 
 
 § 305. A SicMicoLON marks a less complete pause tlian a colon. T 
 is used— 
 
 (1) After a member of a pentencc which, while it makes f 
 comjilete sense by itself, is yet closely comiected with a suc- 
 ceeding one, the co niection beiug usually marked by a C<iu* 
 junction : as — 
 
 " In this morass the Roman army, after an ineffectual strupgle, was irrecovoraMy 
 Vost ; nor could the l>ody of tlie emperor ever be Ibund." (( iibljon, cli. x.) 
 
 " Tlio conflict was terrible ; \Jur] it was the combat of despair aijainst j^riif and 
 rage." (//..) 
 
 " His pride was flattered by the applause of the senate ; and m dais are still extant, 
 representing liira with the name and attributes of Hercules the Victor and nt Mars tiio 
 Avenger." (/(j.) 
 
 " Tiie pike had been gradually givinp place to the musket ; ami. at tlic close of the 
 reign of Charles the Second, most of his Foot were musketeers." (Mac. H. K. i. 297.) 
 
 (2) Between the co-ordinate members of a sentence combining 
 a number of statements : — 
 
 " The Samaritans were condemned ; the leaders of the insurrection nc^udged to death ; 
 tlie rest of the peoj,le expelled and interdicted from settling again in Naplous; and, l>y 
 a strange edict, the Samaritans were no longer to inherit the property of tlicir fathers." 
 
 (Milm. //. ofJc.irit, iii. Of).) 
 
 " The fir.^t line of the Goths at length gave way in disorder ; the second advancing to 
 sustain it sliared its fate ; and the third only remained entire, prepared to dispute the 
 passage* of tlie mora.ss, which was iniprudi-ntly attciniited by the presumption of the 
 enemy." ((iibbon, ch, x.) 
 
 " He attended his beloved master during the trial; undertook to plead his cause; 
 ind'cd, h'gan a speech which the vioh nee of the judges would not allow him to con- 
 tinue ; and pressed his nia.ster to accept a sum of money sufiicient to purchase iiis life." 
 
 (Lewes, I'lato.) 
 
 § 366. A Comma is the slightest pause of all. It serves to mark 
 off members of a sentence which do not make a complete sense of 
 themselves. A comma is used — 
 
 (1) Before and after oil phrases and sentences enlarging the 
 Subject or other Noun : as — 
 
 " His father, the Marquess of Aryylc, had l^een tlie head of the Scotch Covenanters." 
 
 (Mac. //. K. i. .037.) 
 
 " Tlie court, sick of the importunities of txvo parties, ... at length relieved itself 
 from trouble by dictating a compromise." (//>. 188.) 
 
 "Dunkirk, icon by Oliver from -Spain, was sold to Lewis the Fourteentli, king of 
 Franci." {lb. 191.) 
 
 Faith is one of these [words], which was fonued upon the French foi, Anglicised 
 feij." (Karle, p. 207.) 
 
 "The aristocracy, ic/u'e/i van held in ijreat honour by the middle elasF (ml by 
 populace, lia<l put itself at Mie IwiV^ of the movement against Charles the First . . ." 
 
 (Mac. U. A", i. 187.) 
 
t»UNiDTtlATION. 
 
 173 
 
 V 't wlioii the. Adjritival Bcutciice is merely didiiing and restrictive (} 'i'Xi), 
 coiniiios urp not used ; as - 
 
 "Tlic (Ifsinn was disapproved by every Scotchman whose judymeitt was enlilkd to 
 r-:iii»rL" {ih. 185.) 
 
 (-) When two or more A<lvcrl)S or Adverliinl i)]ira.>cs come 
 togctlar, to mark olV un-j Iruin the other: as — 
 " Then, at lenyth, tardy justice was donu to the memory of Oliver." {Ih. 192/) 
 
 " lAiMy, in our own days, Mr. Finlaison, an actuary of (niiin iit skill, sulijtetcd ttie 
 aiici lit parochial registers of inarriages, baptisms, and l)urials, to all tlif ti sts which 
 the modern improvcm nts in .^uitistical science enabled him to apply." (//>. ^81.) 
 
 (3) Before ami after any single Adverhial j)]irase when let into 
 the body of a sentence tviid brought betbre the Verb to wliich 
 it refers : as — 
 
 " Such inquiry, according to him, wius out of their province." {lb. 196.) 
 
 " Hut, hiith in puhlic and in the closet, he, on every o^rasion, e.xpres.sed his concern 
 t'mt ^'entl^m<'n so sincerely attached to nionarcliy should unadvisedly encroach on the 
 pr. rugative of the monarch." (/(/.) 
 
 " Everywhere it was remi nibcred how, ^rhen he rided, all foreign powers had trembled 
 at the name of England." {Ih. l'J3.) 
 
 " But, though shi; had rivals on the sen, she had not yet a superior." {lb. 201.) 
 
 t?f But a comma is /t needed when the Adverbial comes at the end of the 
 sentence : as — 
 
 " The Chevalier was paciiip; down below in the hall of the inn when Pen descended 
 from the drawing -room." {I'endtnnis, cli. x.wii.) 
 
 " I will keep what 1 had to siiy till you come home." {lb.) 
 
 The same rule is usually observed in the cate of the Conjunctions 
 then fore, however: as, 
 
 " The Long Parliament, however, had passed ordinances which had made a complc te 
 revolution in church govi rnment," (Mac. //. A', i. \W.) 
 "These ordinances, thenfore, were never carritd into lull execution." {lb. 189.) 
 
 (4) When more than two Nouns or other words are brought 
 together in the same conuectiuu, a comma is phiced after 
 each one excepting the last: as — • 
 
 " livery where men niat;nilicd his valour, genius, end patriotism." {lb. 193. 
 
 " And a/tei three day*. Jeous iaketl; I'etir, James, and John his brother . . 
 
 (Matt. xvii. 1.) 
 
 "To loee, hononr. and succour my rathf>r and mother . . ." (^Catechism.) 
 
 " With un humble, imcl^.pen-Ueni, ma sibcCieiii heait . . ." {('. I'rayer.) 
 
 Similarly, when words are rvrrang'jd in pairs, each connected 
 together by and, a comma is used after each pair. 
 
 "... that peace and happiness, truth and justice, religion and piety, may be esta- 
 blished among us for all generations." {C I'rayer.) 
 
 ■ Temperance and abstinence, faith and devotion, are In themsclves[,] perhap8[,J as 
 laudable as any other virtues." {Spect. No. 243.) 
 
 (5) After various impersonal phrases followed l»y a Xouu- 
 aentoiicc which is the real Subject : sla — 
 
J 74 
 
 ENGLISH GUAMMAH. 
 
 " ft was an ancient tradition, that wlien the Ca]iitol was founded .... tho Rod 
 Terminus . . . alone . . . refused to yield his place to Jupiter himstHf." (Gibbon, cli. i.) 
 
 " It is true, that suiu sligliter compositions might not suit the severer genius of our 
 friend Mr. Oldbuck." (.Scott, Ivanhoa, pref.) 
 
 (G) A comma is often used to mark the end of a lenii;thened 
 
 Moun-sentence or Infmitive-phrase forming the Subject to 
 
 a Verb : as — 
 
 "The SfjphistH are a much calumniated race. That they should have been so for- 
 merlyl,]* is not surprisiiiK; that tlietj should he so still, is an evidence that historical 
 criticism is jet in its infancy." (Lewes, /iioij. /list, j'.'hil.) 
 
 " To match an English and a Scottish author in the rival task of nnlmlyinif and 
 reviviny the traditions oj' their resjjcctivc muntriis, \vOUld be, you alleged, in the highest 
 degree uuLquul and unjust." (Scott, Ivanhue, pref.) 
 
 § 3G7. Tlie Note of Inteuhocation is put after all questions: 
 as — 
 
 "... where are they ? and where art thou, 
 My country .'" (Byron.) 
 
 Ohs. 1. The Note of Interrogation is not used after an indirect or reported question, 
 as — 
 " He had been asked // he came on busimss, and had answered No." 
 
 {David C. ch. Ixiii.) 
 
 " ITow could ho make a more honourable entry on the liustling scene, than 
 sent by, ami aetin.;; in beiiair of, one of the noblest liouses in England; and 
 should he," &c. {/'cveril, ch. xviii.) 
 
 Vbs. 2. E.xclamatory sentences, such as the following — 
 
 " 0, what a fall w..r; there, my countrymen ! ** 
 
 must not be confounded with Interrogativcs. 
 
 § 3G8. Ihe Note of Exclamation is used after Interjections and 
 
 similar expressions; also, usually, after the Vocative Case, and alter 
 
 entire sentences lu'oiiouneed as with a sudden emotion : as — 
 
 " llarkl 'tis the twan^ring liorn o'er yondiT bridge — " (Cowjier, Tusk.') 
 
 " This folic of four iiag s, happy xcorkl 
 Which not e'en critics criticise." (/''•) 
 
 " £aHh! render back from out thy breast 
 A remnant of our Spartan d 'ad I 
 Of the three hundred grant but tiiree. 
 To make a new Thcrniopyla; ! " (iJyron.) 
 
 .The of address, often used beibre the Vocative Case, is not 
 vritten with ( !); but this sign is very often \n\t after the Noun 
 itself: as — 
 
 " Scotia ! my dear, my native soil ! " (nurns.") 
 
 But the Interjection or oh, denoting a burst of feeling, is 
 Usually written with ( ! ) when it stands by itself :t as — 
 
 • It is not easy to see why a coumia is not placed here as weU as after the second 
 parallel Noun-sentencp. 
 
 f Concerning the difference between O and oh, see Earle, p. ICI. [The dif^tinrtion 
 nppfars to be modern: Milton always uses o; and in the Globe Shidispeare ia i.'riutc4 
 iu the most impassioned places ; see ' thdlo, act 5.J 
 
 s 
 
 V 
 
 D 
 
 t, 
 
 q 
 
 
 
PUNCTUATlOK. 
 
 175 
 
 liei 
 
 " Oh 1 why hiis worth so sljort a date . , ," (HiimB) ; 
 m Ihc siga ( ! ) stuiuis nt the end of the sentence : as— 
 
 " will n, rising from the Ixd of death, 
 O'crwliflniPd with Kuilt and f<ar, 
 I set! my Maker face to face, 
 
 Oh, how shall 1 appear ! " (Addison.) 
 
 § 3^)9. The Dash is used rather as a liilj) to the reader, than as a 
 Stop properly so called. It denotes a sustaining ol' the thouglit and 
 voice, as in the following passage: — 
 
 " He looked - 
 Ocean and earth, the solid fraiui' of earth 
 And ocean's liijuid mass, in ),i,idric ss lay 
 IJeneatli him : - Far and wide tlie clouds were touched, 
 And in their silent faces could be read 
 Unutterable love." (Words. Jixcursion, i.) 
 
 Tlie Dash is niucli used by modern writers in long sentences, con- 
 taiidnj; many co-ordinate members. (,See Vt (.iuinwy, jiansim.) 
 
 § 370. Curved brackets ( ) are nstd to isolate a i>hrase or 
 sentence which is introduced into tiie body of another sentence 
 Q)aienthesis] : as — 
 
 •* Thn meek intelligence of those dear ryes — 
 (Hli'.st lie the art tliat cm immortalize. 
 The art tliat balllis Titn 's tyrannic claim 
 To quench it !)— liere shines ou me still the same." (Cowper, l.inti.) 
 
 § 371, Square brackets [ ] are used for various purposes : as, fur 
 example, to enclose the date of an event, the ex{.lanation of a 
 peculiar word, or a runinii'j; commentary, &c. The student wdl 
 readily find examples of these uses. 
 
 § 372, Quotation maiks are only used when the actual words of 
 the speaker or writer are uivtn. When a quotation occurs within a 
 quotation, the inner quotation is usually indicated by single, instead 
 of double, commas : as — 
 
 " Is this," the gray-haired Wanderer mildly said, 
 
 " The voice, which we so lat«ly uverle'ard, 
 
 To that same child, addressing tenderly 
 
 The con.solations of a hopdul mind? - 
 
 • His bodu is at rctt, his sonl in haiLrn.' " (/.■.T'itr*ion.) 
 
 Obs. When a quotation is introduced by siuli expressions as, sni'l.}ii\ rrpUnl he, 
 &c., let into the sentence pareuth(jtit;ally, the parenthes;.? Jb pointed oil \MtU 
 coBuuua. 
 
 t 
 
176 
 
 teNOLISri GUAMMAUi 
 
 ENGLISH EXEECISES. 
 
 [Tlio Numerals in thick type, profixod to the Exeicises, rrfcr to the 
 r otions in the Gramnmr which the Exercises are intended to 
 illustrate.] 
 
 The Alphabet : Syllables. 
 
 Exercise 1. 
 
 §§ 1, 2. (1/) Wliat letters no loncjcr in nso are em- 
 ployed in earlier stages of our languaoe ? 
 
 (2.) Write out the following paragraplis with the 
 proper Capital Letters : — 
 
 1. iuna is the sacred isln id of tlio Scottish nation, heinp: indf^cd 
 the crudie of iiortli british ciiristiiiidty. it wiis iier*' that the iri-h 
 Kiitit, coluiulm, lixed his iicnuiiiieiit alxide when < iignged in his inirf- 
 fiioiiary op rntlons. for a full account of his mission, see mr. burton's 
 'history of Bcotland.' 
 
 \ it was at, ronio on fho inth of octohor, 1704, ns i sat musing 
 lumaig the ruins of the capitol, wliilc the liarc-t'odtcil friars were singing 
 vespers in the tenipUi of jnpller, that the idea of writi the decline 
 and fall of the city first started to my mind. 
 
 3. John gilpin was a citizen, 
 
 of crcilit anil renown. 
 a tra'nband captain eke was he 
 of famous london town. 
 
 Exercise 2. 
 
 §3. (1.) TMark tlie vowel in the /ns/ sylhihlc of each of 
 the following -words, according as it is long (-) or 
 short ('): — 
 
 notice 
 
 accidoLt 
 
 splendid 
 
 ovnic 
 
 fther 
 
 fable 
 
 decent 
 
 tyrant 
 
 timbrel 
 
 temple 
 
 tumbler 
 
 ominous 
 
 liost le 
 
 tidings 
 
 curious 
 
 hutnour 
 
 calling 
 
 caLludio 
 
 
 fiugax 
 
H^.a 
 
 O. 
 
 cr to tli« 
 nided to 
 
 ire em- 
 
 ith tlie 
 
 p indood 
 
 the iri-h 
 
 lii.i iiiirf- 
 
 . burton's 
 
 t niusinf? 
 le decline 
 
 cacli 
 
 of 
 
 ,'(-) 
 
 or 
 
 ic 
 
 
 lit 
 
 
 nona 
 
 
 imu' 
 
 
 xt 
 
 
 EXERf'ISES. 
 
 177 
 
 (2.) Fow may the true Ion-; sound of i be repre- 
 sented ? What ditibrence exists l)etween Continental 
 nations and ourselves in the pronunciation of lonn- 
 
 e and long i ? 
 
 Eaercise 3. 
 
 §§ 5-8. (1.) Iloware the Consonants divided? Arrange 
 all the Consonants accordingly ? 
 
 (2.) Into what three classes are the Mutes divided? 
 Arrange them accordingly. 
 
 (3.) Write down five words containing th hard and 
 five containing th soft. 
 
 Exercise 4. 
 
 §§ 9-11. (1.) AVritc out the following words, under- 
 lining w and y whenever they are vowels ;— 
 
 wait 
 away 
 
 window 
 
 yes 
 
 yellow 
 
 unyoke 
 tory 
 toy 
 town 
 
 trvinor 
 
 will 
 
 unwillini; 
 
 twill 
 
 unyielding 
 
 cow 
 
 coward 
 
 yitcLt 
 
 annoy 
 
 a}e 
 
 annoying 
 
 (2.) Write out all the words you can think of con- 
 taming h silent. (Compound and derivative words 
 included.) 
 
 EXEKCISE 5. 
 
 § 12. (1.) Write out all the words in. the following list 
 containing true diphthongs. (Undeiline the diph- 
 
 thongs.) 
 
 gown 
 
 beat 
 
 gauge 
 
 frown 
 
 boy 
 
 threaten 
 
 maid 
 
 sieve 
 
 believe 
 
 deoi ivo 
 
 haul 
 
 noun 
 
 crawl 
 
 strait 
 
 quit(3 
 
 yeoiiiiin 
 
 jeoiiardy 
 
 ayo 
 
 employ 
 
 contrive 
 
 rougii 
 
 raw 
 
 Europe 
 
 renown 
 
 (2.) Write out all the woi-ds in the same list which 
 contain apparent diplitliongs only ; and add in each 
 case the vowel which alone is actually sounded. 
 [Thus : beat {e).] ^ 
 
 N 
 
 i I 
 
BCfistesB(sit!&B)0eE:ii!9n 
 
 178 
 
 ENGLISH GRAMMAK, 
 
 Exercise 6. 
 
 §§ 13-15. (1.) Divide tho following words into syl 
 lablcs : — 
 
 purpose 
 
 history 
 
 ]^nj^land 
 
 second 
 within 
 memory 
 
 recount 
 
 errors 
 
 alienated 
 
 gentry 
 
 priestliood 
 
 revolutioa 
 
 accession 
 terminated 
 
 liviui^ 
 people 
 
 loyal 
 reigning 
 
 Btrugt^le 
 dynasty 
 
 (2.) Write down five Polysyllables, with four, five, 
 six, seven, and eight syllable.'^!. 
 
 (3.) Place the accent on the proper syllable of each 
 word in (1) 
 
 The Noun. 
 Exercise 7. 
 
 §§ 19, 20. (1.) What is the difierence between Proper 
 !Nouns and Common Nouns ? 
 
 (2.) Write down in two columns tho Proper Nouns 
 and tho Common Nouns in the following list : — 
 
 Adam 
 
 man 
 
 ship 
 
 
 cotton 
 
 3'>e 
 
 ■NVilliam 
 
 mouth 
 
 
 Kn'j;land 
 
 boy 
 
 citv 
 
 I'ortsmonth 
 
 'i'iber 
 
 pill 
 
 Yoi'k 
 
 defence 
 
 
 I'aris 
 
 Thames 
 
 ball 
 
 IMyiuou 
 
 th 
 
 paper 
 
 eoldier 
 
 Thomas 
 
 8eiuo 
 
 
 b'orae 
 
 David 
 
 bat 
 
 war 
 
 
 Rhine 
 
 sailor 
 
 London 
 
 peuco 
 
 
 Danube 
 
 Severn 
 
 Dublin 
 
 ExE 
 
 Fiancd 
 ICISE 8. 
 
 
 mountain 
 
 § 19. (1.) ^\rito down in four columns the Proper 
 Nouns in Exercise 7, according as they are the 
 names of persons, countries, towns, or rivers. 
 
 (2.) When are Proper Nouns used in ihe Pluial? 
 Write down five euch Nouns. (iSoo Ohs. 2.) 
 
 Exercise 9. 
 
 §§ 21, 22. (1.) Define Collective Nouns and Abstract 
 Kouns, and write down five examples of each. 
 
to syl 
 
 tliood 
 ution 
 
 .sty 
 
 ir, five, 
 
 of each 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 170 
 
 1 Propel 
 
 r Kouns 
 
 st:— 
 
 ")n 
 
 land 
 
 r 
 
 s 
 
 3r 
 
 16 
 
 ne 
 
 mbe 
 
 lutain 
 
 Proper 
 are tlie 
 
 rs. 
 
 riuial? 
 
 ) 
 
 Abstract 
 kch. 
 
 (2.) "What other name is given to Collective Nouns ? 
 
 (3.) Enumerate five kinds of Abstract Nouns, and 
 write down three examples of each kind. 
 
 (4.) Write down in three columns the following Com- 
 mon Nouns, according as tliuy are Collectivt) Nouns, 
 Abstract Nouns, or Names of Materials : 
 
 wit 
 
 committee 
 
 council 
 
 gas 
 
 jury 
 
 quicksilver 
 
 wisdom 
 
 water 
 
 club 
 
 painting 
 
 valour 
 
 crowd 
 
 reign 
 
 Ltfiiiture 
 
 comnurce 
 
 chemistry 
 
 duty 
 
 goverument 
 
 geometry 
 
 education 
 
 
 EXKRCISE 
 
 : 10. 
 
 
 §§ 24-26. (1.) ITow many Genders are there, properly 
 60 called? 
 
 (2.) What is the meaning of Neuter Gender ? 
 
 (3.) \\ hat is the meaning of Common Gender ? 
 
 (4.) Write down in four columns five Masculine 
 Nouns, five Feminine Nouns, five Neuter Nouns, 
 and five Nouns of Common Gender. 
 
 Exercise 11. 
 
 § 27. (1.) Mention the three ways of indicating differ- 
 ence of (jiender in Nouns, and write dowu five 
 examples of each way. 
 
 (2.) Explain the origin of the forms duchess, marchio- 
 ness, sonystress, sempstress, vixen, bridegroom, lass 
 
 (3.) Write down in four columns the following Nouns 
 according as they are Masculine, Feminine, Ncut,er, 
 or of Common Gender : — 
 
 emperor 
 heroine 
 parliament 
 executrix 
 
 John 
 sheep 
 Maria 
 deer 
 
 peeress 
 
 ape 
 
 hind 
 
 stag 
 
 elector 
 
 fish 
 
 Bovereign 
 
 enake 
 
 goat 
 
 pig , 
 wizard 
 
 friend 
 
 crowd 
 
 lass 
 
 witness 
 
 drone 
 
 sititer 
 
 house 
 
 cousin 
 
 ball 
 
 wid(jw 
 
 child 
 
 ewe 
 
 heiress 
 
 fox 
 
 heifiT 
 
 ox 
 
 fool 
 
 gander 
 boor 
 
 ablics-j 
 
 infanta 
 
 
 N 2 
 
 )f 
 
180 
 
 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 §§ 28, 29. (4.) ^^ hen are names of things Tvithout 
 life treated as Masculine or as Feminine ? 
 Write down ten examples of such Masculine 
 Kouns and ten examples of such Feminine !Nouns. 
 
 EXKRCISE 12. 
 
 §§ 31-33. (1.) When is -s added to form the Rural, 
 and when is -es added to form the Plural ? 
 Write down ten Plurals ending simply in -s, and ten 
 Plurals ending in -es. 
 
 § 34. (2.) Write down ten Xouns in which f in the 
 Singular i^ changed into v in the Plural. 
 Write down ten Nouns in which f in the Singular 
 remains unchanged in the Plural. 
 
 § 35. (3.) When docs y remain unchanged in the 
 llural, and when is it changed into i ? 
 Write down ten Plurals in which the y remains un- 
 changed, and ten I'lurals in which it is changed 
 into i. 
 
 EXKRCISE 13. 
 
 § 36. (1.) What are the other Plural formations hesides 
 -s and -es ? W^rite down seven examples of each. 
 
 (2.) Write down ten Nouns which make no change 
 for the l^lural. 
 
 ii| 
 
 Nouns : — 
 
 woman 
 
 wife 
 
 brother (2) 
 
 hero 
 
 Bumnions 
 
 monarch 
 
 oinaibus 
 
 potato 
 
 folio 
 
 Exercise 14. 
 
 
 3 down the Plurals of the fol' 
 
 fox valley 
 
 deer 
 
 hoy chimney 
 day Bpray 
 «ky story 
 leaf drama 
 strife child 
 thief chief 
 
 sheep 
 
 toy 
 
 lass 
 
 lurch 
 
 gas 
 
 fief 
 
 echo roof 
 quarto fife 
 
 grisf 
 pouy 
 
 Exercise 15, 
 
 §37. (1.) Distinguish between pennies, pence — dies^ 
 dice- -geniuses, (jinii — indexes, indices. 
 
£XEUC1SES. 
 
 181 
 
 S 38. (2.) Write down ten Nouns whicli. owing to the 
 nature of tlieir meaning, are u.scJ. only in the 
 Singular. 
 
 (3.) Wliat is tlie meaning of such Plurals as wines^ 
 brandies — siujars f 
 
 (4.) What is tlie meaning of such Plurals as follies — 
 
 negligences — omisaiuns i 
 
 % 39. ih) Write down twon^ Loans used only in the 
 Plural. 
 
 Exercise 1G. 
 
 § 40. (1.) ^^'ritc down any Xouns Plural in form, but 
 Singular in meaning. 
 
 § 41. (2.) Write down the Plurals of the following 
 Kouns: — 
 
 datum 
 
 oniniiilculum 
 
 autoiiuitoQ- 
 
 cherub 
 
 bureau 
 
 axis 
 
 ellipsis 
 vertex 
 flairiboau 
 teimiuus 
 
 index (in 
 
 iil.i^ebra) 
 radiua 
 seraph 
 formula 
 
 genius (2) 
 
 etHuvium 
 
 phenomenon 
 
 genus 
 
 metamorphosis 
 
 Exercise 17. 
 
 §§ 42-51. (1.) Explain the meaning of the five Cases 
 —Nominative, Objective, Dative, Possessive, Vocative, 
 
 (2.) What is the ending of the Possessive case? What 
 was the original ending? (§ 50, Ois. 1.) J low did 
 the mistake of " Thomas his book " arise ? C§ 60. 
 Ohs. 2.) "' ^ 
 
 (3.) A^'rite down the Possessive Singular and I iural 
 of the following Nounc ; — 
 
 man 
 
 boy 
 
 wife 
 
 sister 
 
 lady 
 
 queen 
 
 king 
 
 ehiof 
 
 emperor 
 
 attorney 
 
 tihecp^ 
 
 &tih 
 
 deer 
 
 witch 
 
 ox 
 
 duck 
 
 bird 
 
 bear 
 
 fox 
 
 mouse 
 
 (4.) Correct the following : — 
 
 1. Mens' and womcns' clothing. 2. Both masters* and servants 
 have their duties. 3. A boys' hat. 4. Several boy's hats. 5. The 
 niae luens morrice 6. Kings crowns'. 7. Peasants cottageg' 
 
 f 
 
182 
 
 ENGLISH GRAMMAU, 
 
 Exercise 18. 
 
 (Cases continued.) 
 
 Arrange the l^ouns in italics in three columns, a> 
 Kominative^, <Jl)jcctives, Vocatives: — 
 
 1. Tom never disobeyed h\s father. 2. Morjrji'e lioarti a xfep on th© 
 stairs. 3. Jane, you must come down. 4. WiUiam and Mary siiw the 
 comet. 5. So cndi'd the sorrows of this ilai/. G. The hoy knew all 
 about icorms and Jish and such tlmujs. 7. Henry thought this sort ol 
 Jnioitledge wonderful. 8. Edward an<l Elizabeth were on their way 
 to the Round Pool. 9. Look, look, Richard! 10. Edward dicw on*, 
 the /me and brought a larg(^ tovh bouncing on the (jraxs. 11. The (jiii 
 Mk&i fishing very much. 12. Life changed for the buys. 
 
 Exercise 19. 
 
 (Cases continued.) 
 
 (1.) Make four sentences each containing a Nomi- 
 Tiutivc and an Objective. 
 
 (2.) Make four sentences each containing an Objective 
 and a Vocative. 
 
 (3.) Make four sentences each containing a Vocative 
 and a, Nominative. 
 
 Exercise 20. 
 
 (Cases continued.) 
 
 Arrange in four columns Nominatives, Ohjcc'iues, Datives, 
 and Possessives : — 
 
 {N.B. — Only the Noims to he done.) 
 
 1. Give every mnn thine ear but f<w thy voice, 2. Plappy is the 
 bride the sun shines on. 3. Meat and msitins hinder no man s journey. 
 4. One man's breath is another man's death. 5. April tilu)wers bring 
 fortii May llowers. 6. Give a dog a bad name and hang him. 7. One 
 g(xxl turn deserves another. 8. Give a rogue his due. 9. Eejiroot' 
 never does a wise man harm. 10. Tenterden steiple is the cause of 
 Goodwin Sands. 11. The burnt child dreads the fixe. 12. Set a thief 
 to cateli a thief. 
 
 EXEKCISE 21.. 
 
 (Cases continued.) 
 
 (1.) Make four sentences each containing an Objec- 
 tive and a Dative. 
 
 (2.) Make four sentences each coniaining a Possessive 
 and an Objective. 
 
EXERCISES. 
 
 183 
 
 IS, a^ 
 
 on the 
 jiiw the 
 lew all 
 
 sort ol 
 ?ir UHitf 
 lew out. 
 L'lie yiil 
 
 Nomi- 
 jectivo 
 jcative 
 
 Datives t 
 
 >y is the 
 jouriuy. 
 rs bring 
 7. One 
 lloproof 
 fiuisi; of 
 t a thief 
 
 Objec- 
 
 (3.) IMakc four sentences each containing a Vocative, 
 an Objective, and a Dative. 
 
 EXKRCISE 22. 
 
 (Cases continued.) 
 
 Arrange the Xouns in italics in the following 2)assago 
 in jive columns, according to Case : — 
 
 '•'■WoUey was as liii,'h in station ns it wiis possihle for any Eiifjlish 
 Bulpjtct to be, but this did not conti'nt him. He wiintcd to rlinil) 
 liiulior still and be I'ope. lu the nieuntinie lie surrounded hiniadt' 
 with pomp and mafjnijicence, and tlie sons of the noblest funiilies in 
 Kngland rendered the great CariliiKil >icn-,ce ;is pai^cs in Ids j)alact'. 
 Kvcu his daily progress to Westminster Hall t'lirnislud tiit' imildtiule, 
 u Kpi'ctarJe to ga/t! at. In front went his (jentltvieu-uxhern l)are-head((l, 
 calling out, ' Make way, my lords and vi<t><ter,<, give th(^ /.on/ Cardinid 
 room.' 'I'hen came the tallest piut^ta that could be found in the king- 
 dom, riding oii horses which were clothed in .searkt, and bearing in 
 tiu'ir hands great silver cw.<sfs. They wen; followed by gentlemen 
 who carried silver pillars, to denote tliat their nuixter was a i)illar of 
 the CInirch. Behind these rode a long train of gentlemen Hj)lentli(ily 
 apparelled, and in tlie midst was the great vudi him-self in his rol>es of 
 scarlet or crimson satin, mounteil on a mule with trapi)ing8 of gold. 
 A hun >ed servants attended him and prevented the croicd horn press- 
 ing too closely round their master." 
 
 Exercise 23. 
 Exercises on Gender, Number, and Cace, 
 
 Correct the following errors : — 
 
 1. The vallies of Switzerland have innumerable beantys. 2. lU 
 has a place among the Alexanders, the Ca'.'jars, the l.ewi.^', and the 
 Charles'. 3. These news were as unexpected iS they were unwel- 
 come. 4. Thesf^ things were done by the two Charles's. 5. I'roper 
 names are sometimes used to denote clas-es, or groups : ns, the two 
 Pompey's. 6. Court-martials are hehl. 7. I saw a hirge herd of buf* 
 falos grazing. 8. Never ask any bodies leave to be honest, i). INK 
 ^lorris' poetry is atlnured by some per.sons. 10. lie slept in the mcuA 
 ai)artments. 11. He bought many ladies gloves. 12. Dr. Watts' Aof/.c 
 may still be read. 13. Mens happiness dep( nds for the most part upon 
 themselves. 14. He tilled his head with suitable idea's. J5. He wa!> 
 unid)le to account for the phenomenas. 10. He couUl not learn the 
 formula of logic. 17. Simon, the witch, was ftjared by the common 
 j)eoi)le. 18. He married a wife, who had lived at Crete, but was a 
 Jew by birth. ID. Some writers have confined their attention to 
 minutia of style. 20. Similies should, even in poetry, be used with 
 moderation. 21. Three days time was requisite to prepare matters. 
 22. The sun pours her bright light upon the tields. 23. The water 
 abounds in animalcuhe. 24. It is necessary to learn the order of 
 the Btratas. 25. The Loid'u umcudmeuts' were cuusidered by the 
 Commous. 
 
ammt 
 
 18^ 
 
 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 i 
 
 The Adjective.' 
 
 EXKHCISK 24. 
 
 § 52. (1.) Befino an Adjective. 
 
 (2.) ^^'rito dcnvn the Adjectives in tlie following sen- 
 tences, and opposite each Adjective the Noun to 
 which it Leloiigs ; — 
 
 1. The gor)d l)f)y h;is a bliu^k lu)r.-e. 2. Tlie pretty t,Mil has n mnslin 
 frock. H. The wise man lias ninny bonkri. 4. Cotton grows in tlie hot 
 ficiiLj of tile youth. 5. Jolm aini Jane have tl;c sunie fatlicr aii<< Ihe 
 same moihcr. ♦!. Tl.e iione.^t pf-'asant cnjoysi a warm I. earth and a 
 good meah 7, Thirty horses aie in the italih- of the -ieh man. 8. 
 The book stands on the fc.(M'(jM(l shelf ()f th. lii^iary. 9. This book is 
 ivritt'm on ])ar('hment. 10. Thf».se books are jirintcd on tine paper. 
 11. There were many lakinrers on the farm. 12. There were tew 
 women in the scltlement. i:!. The suhliers marched tlie whole day. 
 14. Ail men despise ni; an actions. 15. The tirst book of ramdise 
 Lost contains many line passages. 
 
 Exercise 25. 
 
 §§53-58. (1.) Enumerate the 
 Adjectives. 
 
 different classes of 
 
 (2.) A\'rito down in four columns the Adjectives of 
 Qnality, Quantity, Is umber, and Distinction in the 
 
 both 
 
 tenth 
 
 Spanish 
 
 brown 
 
 those 
 
 same 
 
 (3.) Write down three sentences containing Adjectives 
 of (Quality, three sentences containing Adjectives of 
 Quantity, three sentences containing Adjectives of 
 ]S umber, and three sentences containing Adjectives 
 of Distinction. 
 
 folio Vv in g 
 
 list : 
 
 
 hard 
 
 each 
 
 little 
 
 soft 
 
 white 
 
 any 
 
 much 
 
 some 
 
 hot 
 
 French 
 
 yonder 
 clack 
 
 enoup^h 
 
 thirty 
 
 ' sandy 
 
 this 
 
 every 
 
 all 
 
 '-•» 
 
 Exercise 26. 
 
 §§ BO-S*^'. (1.) Wh;it Adjectives of two syllables form 
 tlie Comparative in -ec iind the Supcr.lative in 
 
 est ? 
 
tXEUClSKS. 
 
 is:, 
 
 (2.) Write clown the Comparatives ami SiiiKrlatives 
 of ten Aclit'otivcs of two nyllables taking the lo^ms 
 -er and -est. 
 
 (3.) AVrito flown the Comparatives and Sri]ierlatives 
 of ten Adjectives of two syllables not taking the 
 forms -er and -est. 
 
 (4.) Write down tlie Comparatives and Superlatives 
 of the following Adjectives :- — 
 
 pretty 
 
 sly 
 
 wniidorfu! 
 
 iiol)lu 
 
 red 
 
 sweet 
 
 bitter 
 
 active 
 
 ioyt'nl 
 
 leiinied 
 
 stupid 
 
 (lillVult 
 
 (':i.sy 
 
 lonely 
 
 roy 
 
 hoi. 
 
 dry 
 
 big 
 
 free 
 
 wealtliy 
 
 decent 
 
 divine 
 
 COiil])k'tO 
 
 of 
 
 E^KRcisio 27. 
 
 § 68. (1.) Write down the Comparatives and Super- 
 Ottives of the following Adjectives : — 
 
 good evil little much many 
 
 (2.) Write down the Comparatives and Snj)erlatives 
 of Adjectives formed from the following Adverbs 
 and Prepositions: — 
 
 forth in out late up nijrb 
 
 C3 ) Mako four sentences showing the difference in 
 meaning between older, oldest, and elder, eldest. 
 {Obs. 2.) 
 
 (4.) Mention some instances of Double Comparatives 
 or Suj^erlativcs. 
 
 Articles. 
 
 EXERCISK 28. 
 
 §§ 60-73. (1.) Write down the proper form of 
 Indefinite Article before each of the folio 
 words ; — 
 
 host 
 
 hotel 
 
 hero 
 
 Kuropean 
 
 imit 
 
 heir 
 
 hour 
 
 heresy 
 
 herb 
 
 history 
 historical event 
 
 hermit 
 harp 
 
 yew-tree 
 unicorn 
 
 mg 
 
 ini patient 
 
 eulogy 
 
 heretical doctrine 
 
 humble man 
 
 hypothesis 
 
 (2.) Make four sentences in wliich a is used with the 
 words few and many. (§ 73, Obs., and § oC.) 
 
186 
 
 ENGLISH GRA>rMAU. 
 
 The Pronoun. 
 
 ncisE 29. 
 
 §§ 74-78. (1.) " rronouiis aro used to avoid r\ui 
 repetition of tlio same Nouns." Is this the onl;- 
 T2se of Pronouns ■•' (§ 74, Ohs.) 
 
 (2.) Which is tiie only Pronoun used in the Vocativo 
 Case? Why so ? 
 
 (3.) Wlicn are tlie forms mine, thine, hers, yours, theirs. 
 preferred to my, thy, her, our, your, their i 
 
 (4.) What is meant by First, Second, and Third 
 I'erson ? 
 
 (5.) Write out the Dative Singuhir and Plural of all 
 the i'ersoiial IVonouns. 
 
 Exercise 30. 
 
 (Personal Pronouns continued.^ 
 
 Write down the Personal Pronouns in the following 
 sentences, arranged in five columns, according to Case :-- 
 
 1. Lend me a penciL 2. I will j?o with yoii, Tom. 3. They ga\3 
 :is leave to encer. 4. Ye blind guides! 5. Me ho restored unto my 
 oftice and h'.m he hanged, 6. It is ill playing with edged tools. 7. 
 He was wiser than you. 8. Lead her gently along, you fellow. 9. 
 Have patience with me, and I will pay thee all. 10. He gave thera 
 sixpence apiece. 11. Thou great first Cause, least understood I 12, 
 Come near, all ye people, and hearken unto me. 
 
 Exercise 31. 
 
 (Same continued.') 
 
 (1.) Make five sentences with different Personal 
 Pronouns in the Objective Case. 
 
 (2.) Make five sentences with different Perso^ial 
 Pronouns in the Dative Case. 
 
 (3.) Make five sentences with Personal Pronouns in 
 the Vocative Case. 
 
 Exercise 32. 
 §§ 79, 80. (1.) What is meant by Reflexive PronouuT? 
 
EXERCISES. 
 
 1S7 
 
 (2.) Make six sentences, each containing a licflexivo 
 Pronoun. 
 
 (3.) Make six sentonoos, each containing one of tlio 
 Pronouns wj//,sv//', thijst'lf, i.Vu., used not rctiexivuly 
 but for the sake of emphasis. 
 
 Exercise 33. 
 
 (^Same contninal.') 
 
 In the following sentrnres. point out where the forms 
 in ft'lf are Jvclicxives, and wliere they are simply em- 
 phatic : — 
 
 1. Love tliysolf last. 2. HiinsLlf i.s Ins dwii duiiiioon. 3. She 
 prided luTM'lf on lieiiiti^ an oxctlleiit (•ontrivcr in liouj^-Ut cpiiif?. 4. I 
 j)uhlirihid s iiiK.' tiiict.i upiin tho sidijcct niysilf. 5. Do tli\self no 
 liiirm. 0. I wnip myritlf np in my own intc^'rity, 7. WV; dtccivc 
 ourselves with words. S. 'J'hc Stoics allowed n man to kill hinisi If in 
 ixtreniity. '.*. I Am Dihorali hcr.srlf .s {lued to share the <^Ir»ry of tho 
 day. 10. You for^'ft yourself. II. You wroiiired your.-elf to write 
 in KUch a case. 12. He himselt" fetched hiuiaelf water from tho 
 spring. 
 
 ExEllCLSE 34. 
 
 § 81. (1.) To what class of Adjc ives do the words 
 this, that, strictly belong ? 
 
 (2.) Make four sentences with this, that (singular 
 and plural) used Adjectively. 
 
 (3.) Make six sentences with this, that, used as 
 Pronouns. 
 
 Exercise 35. 
 
 §§ 82-84. (1.) How was the Pronoun who originally 
 used? 
 
 (2.) Make three sentences ^^•ith who as Interrogative 
 and three with who '),s Eelative. 
 
 (3.) "What is the difference between who and which 
 when used interrogatively ? Give three examples 
 to iPustrate each use. 
 
 "C::eticise 36. 
 
 §§ 85-87. fl.) Make three sentences with what used 
 interrogative ly, and three with what used by way 
 of exclamation. 
 
188 
 
 ENGLISH GliAMMAlI. 
 
 (2.) Wliat 16 the exact meaning of whether? How 
 is it now used ? Give an i-xauiple. 
 
 (.'i.) ]\Iakc three wnteiices introdueing the Compound 
 Interrogative Adverbs whereto P whereat ? &c. 
 
 § 
 
 Exercise 37. 
 
 § 88. Write down all the I^lativo Pronouns in tlio 
 iollowing scsntences in one column, and in a parallel 
 column their Antecedents opposite to them. 
 
 1. Oil the fifth (lay of the niooii, whidi, accordiiif? to the custom of 
 my fiiiheiri, 1 always keep lioly, I asciiKh-d the hi^'h hills of liagdad, 
 ill ord( r to pa-s tiie rcat of tlie (hiy in niCiUtatinn and itniycr. 2. 
 Whilst I was thus musing. I ca.-t my eyes towards the siimniit of a 
 r<ick thnt was not far from me, on which 1 discovered one in the habit 
 of a sl.cjpherd, but who was in nality a Ixing <»f superior nature. 3. 
 He sm.led upon me with a look of compassion and alfability that 
 faiiiiliaiiz( d iiini to my inia'jrinatiou, and at once dispelled till tl.e fears 
 with which I approached him. 4. The vnlley thut thou scest is the 
 Viile of niisi ry, and the tide of water that tiiou seest is part of the 
 great tide of cteriiily. 5, What tliou seest is that portion of eteiuity 
 which i.s calh;.! time. 0. K.\amine this sea that is bounded wiih dark- 
 n(;.-s, i.iid tell me what thou discoverest in it. 7. I f »nnd tliat the 
 bridge consisted of three score and ten entire arches, which added lo 
 ti.oac that were entire, made up the number about a hundred. 
 
 Exercise 38. 
 
 § 88 (continued), 89. (1.) What is meant by the con- 
 necting poAver of the Relative? By what other 
 name may lielative I'ronouns be called ? 
 
 (2.) Write down in a column the Relative PronouTis 
 contained in the following sentences, and place on 
 the right and on the left the sentences connected 
 by them (see specimen : p. 189) : — 
 
 1. This sp^rt.siran was the sqnire"s clia])lain, who lad shot one of 
 the blnckbirds. 2. The two ladies, who were apprehensive of catchmg 
 cold, moved to l)icak up the liall. 3. lljion onr return to the hcuso, 
 we found a very elegant cold siqiper, which Mr. Thornhill had ordered 
 to be brought with him. 4. I was very soon soriy for the warmtL 
 with which I l,a 1 spoken, 5. My wife had the most agreeable dreaina 
 111 the world, which she took care to tell us every morning. 6. Mr. 
 Burchell, who was of the party, was always fond of seiing some 
 innocent amusement going forward. 7. Tiiere is the colt that hot 
 been in our family these nine voars. and his companion 151aokber/T, 
 that has scarcely done an earthly thing for this month past 
 
EXEKCISES. 
 
 13ii 
 
 How 
 
 Sjpeclmcn 9/ the manner of doing the above Exercise : — 
 
 Sentence. 
 
 Iltlativo 
 
 Sentence. 
 
 No. 1. 
 
 Tin's flportsiuan was the 
 H'iuiro's c'hupluia. 
 
 who 
 
 (He) hM(l riliot o!i(» nf 
 the bliickbirda. 
 
 Exercise 39. 
 
 S§ 90-92. (1.) What is the difftTonco lictwoen who 
 and which ? Make two suntunct.'S to illustrate tho 
 use of each of these lielatives. 
 
 (2.) \N rite out any sentences from Exorcise 38, iii 
 which the Antecedent may MJtliont imjirojjricty ho 
 repeated with the Kehitive ; putting in tiie repeated 
 Antecedent in brackets. (See § 1*2.) 
 
 (3.) What change has taken place in tho use of the 
 Relative Pronoun which ? 
 
 (4.) Which is the most ancient Eelative in the 
 
 English language ? 
 
 Exercise 40. 
 
 §§ 93-97. (1.) Make three sentences with what as a 
 
 Eelative. 
 (2.) Make three sentences with that as a Eelative. 
 (3.) W^hat Relative is used without any Antecedent 
 
 expressed ? 
 (4.) Point out in which of the following sentences 
 
 who, what, are Relatives, and in which tliey are 
 
 Interrogatives. (§ 1>6, Obs.) 
 
 1. Tell me who thou art. 2. He was called upon to say what he 
 knew of the aiUiir. 3. "NVliat thou seest is the vide of human life. 
 4, Give mfe what thou wilt. fi. What is past cauuot be recalled. G. 
 I know who was present and what was done. 
 
 Exercise 41. 
 
 §§ 98-102. (1.) Enumerate the compounds of who, 
 which, and what: 'vuderlining those which are 
 still in common use. 
 
190 
 
 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 (2.) "What Adverb has often the force of a Relative? 
 After what words ? (One sentence to exemplify 
 each.) 
 
 (3.) What are the Relative Adverbs whereon, 
 wherewith, whereby, equivalent to V 
 
 (4.) Write out any sentences in Exercise .37 in wliich 
 a Preposition and Relative may be expressed by 
 one of the Relative Adverbs. 
 
 Exercise 42. 
 
 §§ 103-107. (1.) Enumerate the different uses of the 
 Pronoun one. Make one sentence to exemplify 
 each use. 
 
 (2.) What is the diffca-ence between no and none P 
 Mah two sentences to exemplify the use of each. 
 
 (;].) What difference is there between the words 
 everyone and everybody ? Make one sentence 
 to exemplify each. 
 
 (4.) Which is the more correct spelling, naught or 
 nought.^ Why so? 
 
 Exercise 43. 
 
 §§ 108-111. (1.) Correct the following sentences : — 
 
 1. Eiicli of till' three prrcat Epic pocta have distinguishod thenisdvoa. 
 2. It embraces live great periods, ench of which hiive stamped their 
 own peiiiliiir impress on the ehiiracter (if the people. 3. Every oiu- of 
 this gr(ite.<qiie fumily were the creaures of genius. 4. Either of the 
 tlireewilldo. .*). If either of the jurors disagrees with the opinion of 
 the rest, no verdict can be giveu. 0. i'iach of these great poets havo 
 their puculiiir beauties. 
 
 (2.) Parse the woids in italics in the following 
 sentences : — 
 
 1. Bear ye one ancOie/s Iturucns. 
 
 2. The cliiklren loved each o'her tenderly. 
 
 (3.) What is meant by Reciprocal Pronouns? 
 
 Exercise 44. 
 
 {Pronouns.^ 
 
 Write out the following paragraph, underlining all the 
 PronounB. 
 
EXERCISES. 
 
 101 
 
 elative V 
 cemplity 
 
 hereon, 
 
 in which 
 2ssed V>y 
 
 ** Eiglidh history iI(m?8 not record a moro darinj^ action than tliat 
 of Ktlward Stanley, an P^nglish otlicor who attacked one of the forts of 
 Zutphen, in the year 158(1. 'J'lutH,' hiindrid Spaniards defended tlie 
 fort, and wiicn Staidcy appro;. ched it, out- of tht in tlniiist a pike at 
 liini, to kill him. Stank-y seiziMl hold of itwitli tucli force that the 
 SpaiuardB, unable to wreat it from him, drew him up into the fort lie 
 instantly drew his sword and d spersed all tl.nt were present. Tliis so 
 astounded the Spaniards, that it irave Stanley's followers time to 
 Btuiui the fort, and estaldish themselves in it." (/Vrcy Aiit<dotcs.) 
 
 (2.) Write out the same pawsage with Nouns suh- 
 stitutcd for Pronouns wherever it is possible. 
 
 cs of the 
 xcmplify 
 
 I none ? 
 
 »f each. 
 
 le words 
 sentence 
 
 aught or 
 
 ices : — 
 
 themselves. 
 
 mped their 
 
 very one of 
 ler of the 
 opinion of 
 poets have 
 
 The Verb. 
 
 Exercise 45. 
 
 §§ 114-115. (1.) Write out all the Verlis contained in 
 the narrative passage given in Exercise 44. 
 
 (2.) Give the derivation of the word transitive, and 
 explain its use in Grammar. 
 
 (3.) Write down twelve Transitive Verbs and twelve 
 Intransitive ones. 
 
 Exercise 46. 
 
 § 116-119. (1.) Make six sentences, each contain- 
 ing Subject and Object ; underscoring the former 
 with a single line,' and the latter with a double 
 line. 
 
 (2.) Write down twelve Intransitive Verbs wliich 
 denote some kind of action, and twelve wliich 
 denote a state of being. 
 
 following 
 
 11 g all the 
 
 Exercise 47. 
 
 § 120. (1.) Express the sense of the following sen- 
 tences by means of the Passive Voice : — 
 
 1. Cain killed Abel. 2. Romulus founded Rome. 3. flandilinp; has 
 mined many. 4. Our habits n\n\<Q us slaves 5. A grape-stone 
 Bull'ocated Anacreon ; a tile crushed the skull of Pyrrhua. 
 
 (2.) ]\Iake six sentences in whii h tlio Active Voice of 
 a Transitive Verb is used intransitively. (Ohs. 1.) 
 
 (3.) Write down twelve ^'crbs used both transitively 
 and intransfitively. 
 
li)2 
 
 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 Exercise 48, 
 
 §§ 121-126. (1.) Make four sentences, eacli containing 
 a Verb in the Indicative Mood. 
 
 (2.) Make four sentences, each containing a Verb in 
 the Imperative Mood. 
 
 (3.) Make four sentences, each containing a Verb in 
 the Subjunctive Mood. 
 
 (4.) IVIake four sentences, each containing a Verb in 
 the Infinitive Mood. 
 
 Exercise 49. 
 
 §§ 127, 128. In the following sentences note when 
 the form in -ing is a Gerund, and when it is an 
 Imperfect Participle. 
 
 1. You see how little is to be got by attempts to impose upon the 
 world, in coping with our betters. 2. But come, Dick, repeat the 
 fuble you were reading to-tUiy. 3. The Saracen, lifting up his sword, 
 fairly struck off the poor dwarf's arm. 4. Three .>^atyrs were carrying 
 away a damsel in distress. 5. Instead of reasoning more forcibly, he 
 talked more lf)udly. 6. Thus saying, he took up his hat, nor could 
 (jur united efforts prevent his going. 7. We doul)ted wliat were the 
 best methods of raising money ; or, more proi)erly spiaking, what we 
 could most convei\ieutly sell. 8. Wandering from villac^o to village, 
 he supported himself by painting signboards. 
 
 Exercise 50. 
 
 (Same continued.^ 
 
 (1.) Make eix sentences, each containing the Gerund 
 of a J'ransitive Verb. 
 
 (2.) Make six sentences, each containing the Gerund 
 of an Intransitive Verb. 
 
 (3.) IMake six sentences, each containing a Participle 
 in -ing. 
 
 Exercise 51. 
 
 (Same contimied.) 
 
 (l.) Explain the phrase " When he was a-dying." 
 
 (-•) Write down ten words compounded of a Kouo 
 and a Gerund. 
 
rxiaicisiiis. 
 
 103 
 
 lining 
 erb in 
 erb in 
 erb in 
 
 when 
 t is an 
 
 ipon the 
 peat the 
 id sword, 
 
 carrying 
 eibly, he 
 )or could 
 viTC the 
 
 ^vhat we 
 village, 
 
 Gerund 
 Gerund 
 irticiple 
 
 (3.) Di.stiuguisli between tlio Abstract Kouns in 
 -ing and the Geruiuls in the following sentences. 
 Arrange in columns. 
 
 1. Residing and writing? are indispon aVilo. 2. The art of printing 
 was iiivonted iu (Jerniany. ;>. Ili- sp nt hours in cnrrccting and 
 piilishiiig a single C(<u|il('t. 4, I iiitfud liuiiding a house 5. 'J'he 
 gro.iuiu;; of pr..soiiois and tlie clanking of chains weic hcuid. fj. The 
 bee was employed in cloansing hi.s wing.s and disengaging them from 
 the ragged riinnants of the cobwel>, 7. " I hope you will heneelorh 
 take waruiug." 8. "Sirrah," rt plied tlie .-^pnler, "if it were imt lir 
 breaking an old custom m our f; inily, I should coiuo to teach you 
 better manuerj}." 
 
 Exercise 52. 
 
 §§ 129-139. (1.) In what respect does a Participle 
 resemble an Adjective ? 
 
 (2.) Write down ten Imperfect Participles and ten 
 Perfect Participles, each with a Jvoun to which it 
 belongs. 
 
 (.'].) Express tbe meaning of the following sentences 
 by means of the Gerund : — 
 
 1. While the horses are bein<j: changed, v^v take some refreshments. 
 2. The ark was then being built. '6. While all this was being done, 
 the travellers were fast asleep. 4. I saw three pieces of ordnance being 
 made. 5. We came in just as the minutes of the last meeting were 
 being read. 
 
 Exercise 53. 
 
 §§ 131--133. (1.) Wbat are the three natural divisions 
 of Time, and what subdivisions have they iu 
 grammar ? 
 
 (2.) Enumerate the different uses of the Present 
 Tense [IndefiniteJ, giving one example of each. 
 
 (3.) Distinguish between description and narration. 
 Write one short paragraph of description and one 
 of narration. 
 
 
 » 
 
 a KouD 
 
 Exercise 54. 
 
 §§ 131-139. Write out all the Verbs in the following 
 sentences, stating what Tense each is : — 
 
 1. Tord Aiiiot snarcely spoke a woid. 2. He had ptr formed his 
 comm ssion faithfully. 3. H'j did not f^r a moment doubt the <'orr(>ct- 
 ueaa oi" her ladyship's caiculationB. 4. The ship is yoing stiaij^ht 
 
 O 
 
194 
 
 ENGLISH GT^AMMAR. 
 
 upon the rock. 5. She was fif^hting for her life. G. Then he saw that 
 tlie end had come. 7. The Wnrren Jrlastinizs had gone down in fifteen 
 fiUhoms. 8. The time will never return again. 9. Three months liad 
 (lapsed since the foregoing events. 10. The players have often men- 
 tinned it as an honour to Shakspearo that he never blotted out a lino. 
 11. In Kix day.s we shall he crossing the mid-Atlantic. 12. We bhaU 
 not have finished our tutsk by the time appointed. 
 
 Exercise 55. 
 
 (Same continued.) 
 
 (1.) Make thrc^' sentences, each containing a Verb in 
 the Present Complete Tense. 
 
 (2.) Make tliree sentences, each containing a Ygy\s 
 in the i'ast Indefinite Tense. 
 
 (;>.) Make three sentences, each containing a Verb in 
 the Past Incomplete Tense. 
 
 (4.) Make three sentences, each containing a Verb in 
 tlie Present Indefinite Tense used. Interrogatively. 
 
 (5.) jMake three sentences, each containing a Verb 
 in the Past Tense Indefinite used Negatively. 
 
 i ( 
 
 Exercise 56. 
 
 §§ 137-139. Explain the force of shall in the follow- 
 ing sentences : — 
 
 1. Thou shnlt do no murder. 2. You shnll hear from me once a 
 week. 3. The lion shall lie down with the lamb. 4. We shall reach 
 I'^dinburgh in nn hour. 5. There are two things which I shall seek to 
 prove. (5. I shall never forget that day. 7. lie shall take of the blood 
 iMid sprinkle it upon the lintel. 8. T shall attend to your orders. 9. 
 I shall be ten years old next June. 10. There thou shalt lack nothing. 
 
 Exercise 57. 
 
 §§ 140-142. (1.) Trace the historical changes in the 
 form of the Plural Number of the Present Indefinite 
 Tense. 
 
 (2.) What is meant by Strong and Weak Verbs? 
 (jive ten examples of each. 
 
 Exercise 58. 
 
 § 142. (1.) Write out the Indicative Mood of the Verb 
 to admire. (First Person Singular only.) 
 
EXERCISES. 
 
 105 
 
 9 saw that 
 in fifteen 
 onths liac] 
 >tteu men* 
 ut n lino. 
 Wti bliaU 
 
 Verb ia 
 
 a Verb 
 
 Verb in 
 
 Verb in 
 itively. 
 
 a Verb 
 
 (2.) Write out in full the Future Indefinite of to go, 
 as used affirmatively, interrogatively, and nega- 
 tively. 
 
 Exercise 59. 
 
 (Same continued.) 
 
 (1.) Write out in full the Teriphrastic form of the 
 Present Indefinite Tenso, Subjunctive Mood, of 
 the Verb to speak. 
 
 (2.) \Vrite out the Imperative, Subjunctive, and 
 Infinitive ]\Iuuds, with the Gerunds and Participles, 
 of the Verb to declare. 
 
 Exercise 60. 
 
 § 143. (1.) Write out the Past and Future Tenses 
 Indicative of to be in the Intcrro<iative form (in 
 full> ^ 
 
 (2.) How many roots are employed in the conjugation 
 of the Verb to be? Name them. 
 
 e follow- 
 
 me once a 
 hall reach 
 ill seek to 
 f the blood 
 orders. 9. 
 'k nothing. 
 
 }s in the 
 ndefinito 
 
 : Verbs? 
 
 the Verb 
 
 Exercise 61. 
 
 § 144. Write out the Passive Voice of the Verb to beat 
 according to Paradigm. 
 
 Exercise 62. 
 
 §§ 145, 146. (1.) Write ou;; the Past Indefinite and 
 Future Indefinite of ^o have: Jntei-rogativc form. 
 
 (2.) Enumerate the four diifercut uses of tlie ^'orb to do. 
 [See also § 13 2, Obs. 2.] Which of them belongs to 
 a distinct root ? 
 
 EaErcise 63. 
 
 §§ 147, 148. (1.) ^\ hich forms of icill are never used 
 as Auxiliaries? 
 
 (2.) Mention all the Verbs wliieh form tlie Second 
 Person Singular l»y adding -t only. 
 
 (3.) Make four sentences in which shou'd is a 
 Principal Verb. 
 
 02 
 
196 
 
 ENr.nSH GRAMMAR. 
 
 (4.) What is sin)posc(i by Grimm to have hcpn the 
 original meaning of sliall ? In what senye is it 
 found in earlier authors ? [Ohs. 3. J 
 
 Exercise 64. 
 
 §§ 149-151. (1.) IMake three sentences in whicb. may 
 is a Principal Verb, and three in which it is an 
 Auxiliary. 
 
 (2.) Account for the appearoiice of the letter 1 in 
 could, 
 
 (3.) Give the etymology of vMcoutJi. 
 
 (4.) What is the old form for (/) must, Present In- 
 dicative ? 
 
 Exercise 65. 
 
 §§ 152-154. (1.) Enumerate all the Verbs which have 
 the same form for First and Third Person Singular, 
 Present Indicative. 
 
 (2.) Write out the Past Indefinite of dare to venture, 
 and dare to challemje, in full. 
 
 (3.) Parse need, needs, in the following sentences : — 
 
 1. T must needs be friends with thee. 2. Needs must I like it well. 
 15 It Tie. d not be so. 4. Need he go away ? 5. What need we tear 
 who kuowa it? G. Good wine needs no bush. 7. Muat ho needs die? 
 
 (4.) Explain the following : — 
 
 " I will not touch thine eye 
 For all the treasure that thine uncle owes." 
 
 ** Will you with those infirmities she owes. 
 Unfriended, ncw-adoplcd to our hate . . . 
 Take her or leave her ? " 
 
 Exercise 66. 
 
 (/C. John, iv. 1.) 
 
 {Lear, 1. 1.) 
 
 §155. (1.) Write out the Present Indicative of to wit^ 
 Interrogative ft)i*m. 
 
 (2.) Explain tlie origin of the forms I ivis and whisi 
 (Past Participle). 
 
 (3.) Parse and explnin fully the words in italics in 
 the following sentences :— 
 
EXEac'ISES. 
 
 197 
 
 en the 
 e is it 
 
 1. 
 
 cj. may 
 t is an 
 
 er 1 in 
 
 2. 
 
 a 
 
 4. 
 
 (Si»enscr,) 
 
 ^V<>t' uv-r/A the n?an 
 lh:it first did teach the cursed ateei to bit* 
 111 hid own llefch." 
 
 ''Me .^eemcth goi.d, that with bom- little train 
 iortliwiih horn Lndluw the young prince he f( toh^ d." 
 
 (Shaks. liich. III.) 
 " Whih.m [.sec § 105, 1], ns olde .stories telhn m 
 
 1 liere was a duke that hnjUte Theseus." (Chaucer ) 
 
 "Ho ronqncred all the ngne [realm] of Funynye 
 1 Hat whilom was j/-cZt'^e-< Scythia." /-/j ) 
 
 5. Rethinks I see in my mind a nohlo and puissant nation rn.mi„rr 
 
 hj..ch like a strong man alter .hep, and shaki^ hSlv;;;:;;;;i:zj;^ 
 
 ent In- 
 
 ch have 
 ingular, 
 
 venturfi^ 
 
 5es : — 
 
 ke it well. 
 hI we fear 
 leeds die ? 
 
 ^hiy iv. 1.) 
 
 i. 1.) 
 
 of to tcit^ 
 ind lokisi 
 talics in 
 
 E.VEiuisE 67. 
 
 §§ 156-158. (1.) Arrancre Verl.s in f.,ur classes, ac- 
 cordino; to tlieir formation of the Taat Tense. 
 Mention ten Verbs of each class. 
 
 (2.) W hat general difference mav he traced between 
 the meaning of Verbs of tlie lir.st three clashes 
 and that of most Verbs of the fourth chiss ? 
 
 (3.) Draw out a further table of twelve Strono- Verbs 
 compared with the same number of Weak Verbs 
 resembling them in meaning. [As in § 157.J 
 
 ExHucisE G8. 
 
 §§159 160. Write out the Trincipal Parts of the 
 following Verbs : — 
 
 teach 
 
 steal 
 
 seek 
 
 weave 
 
 deal 
 
 knit 
 
 shoo 
 
 win 
 
 teethe 
 
 freeze 
 
 climb 
 lay 
 
 wend 
 thrust 
 
 driak 
 
 sit 
 
 rivo 
 sow 
 He (2) 
 
 hew 
 shine 
 
 cut 
 
 thrive 
 
 bid 
 
 ExEucisE 69. 
 (Same conlinued.) 
 Write out the Principal Parts of the followino- Verbs :— 
 
 break 
 
 shako 
 
 awake 
 
 eat 
 
 fall 
 
 fell 
 crow 
 hang (2) 
 bleed 
 speed 
 
 ring 
 begin 
 
 blow 
 shoot 
 
 lose 
 flee 
 will (2) 
 
 rove 
 
 drive 
 
 shrink 
 
 call 
 know 
 tread 
 escape 
 cleave (2) 
 
198 
 
 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 Exercise 70. 
 Correct the following «eiitencos :^ 
 
 1. Ill' liad spoke only a few words when he was intcrni])f((l. 2. 
 TheiG kit liiiii lay ! 3. This cloth is wove of two (iillVroiit. kinds of 
 thrcixl. 4. On recovering hi& s(.'n.s< 8 he drinik eagerly a dranghf, of 
 water. 5. Ho was froze to dcatli. 6. "VVe asked at the station, nut 
 they had not yet eanie. 7. All the statues had had parts of them 
 broke nff during the night. 8. He had never saw such a sigiit before. 
 !>. Fir^t it fieczed sliarply, and then as .suddenly it thew. 10. As soon 
 as lie was awoke, he ro.se his head from the pillow. 11, The letter was 
 wrote with invisible ink. 12. The water was drew from a deep well. 
 ]:{. After lie had eat a I'tlle food, he laid down on the sola. 14. Corn 
 was grounded in hand-mills for daily use. 15. She had sank with all 
 on board. 16. Wo had not yet cho.se our berths. 17. The (iguro w;is 
 8(pioz('u completely out of shape. 18. After laying for .some time in- 
 .s<MisibIe, he at length opened his eyes. 19. With great eftbrt he had 
 sawed the beam in two. 20. Tiie ground was .strewed witli llowcrs. 
 21. The legs and arms had been h(!Wed olf. 22, The king had, with 
 some excess of vanity, show(d Solon the whole of his tiea-iUf- . 23, 
 Till! brig was lo.ided with tiiuljcr and tar. 24. He lia<l no sooner 
 sowed his seed, than u swarm of simill birds alighting cut up eveij 
 grain. 
 
 The Adverb. 
 
 ExHiicisE 71. 
 
 §§ 164, 165. (1.) Make six sentences, each with an 
 Adverb modifying a Verb. 
 
 (2.) Make six sontencos, each with an AcH'^crb modi- 
 fying an Adjective. 
 
 (3.) Make six sentences, each with an Adverb modi 
 fying another Adverb. 
 
 Exercise 72. 
 
 § 166. (1.) Make two sentences illustrating each of the 
 eight Classes of Adverbs given. 
 
 (2.) Show that the word yes is not an Adverb. 
 
 (3.) Explain what is meant by Word-Sent(^TCC8* 
 
 Exercise 73. 
 
 §§167,168. (1.^ What was the oripnal Adverbial 
 termination in English? f§ 1G7, Ohs. 3.] Mention 
 six Adverbs which formerly hud this termination, 
 
fiXEUC'ISES. 
 
 109 
 
 modi 
 
 of the 
 
 but now arc tlie same in form as tlio Ailjectivcs 
 from which thoy arc derivecl. 
 
 (2.) Form Adverbs from ahlr, nohle, free, muihtij, (lai/y 
 coy, hd^fi/, dutiful, hurrihlcy cxceediiuj, inhdnjn'hdjlc, 
 eternal. 
 
 (3.) Compare the Adverbs prcff^lif, ftph-udidli/. ivischf, 
 much, ill. trrU, (jladhj, proudbj. freMij. IMciitioii any 
 of tlu^se wliicli are occasionally found with Com- 
 parative in -ier. 
 
 ExERCiSE 74. 
 
 Write out all the Adverl)S in the followinfjj sentences, 
 prranginj^ tlicni in columns according to the Classes to 
 which they belong [§ 100] : — 
 
 1. To-iiinrrnw I coiniiicncc i-rhonl-life iiirjiin. 2. Ilr lodkcd tlmtiLht- 
 fnlly towards the gliiiiiiicrin^; st a-lim?. ;{. Our littlr hiiliitatif)i> wn* 
 situated just at tlio bottom oi" the hill. 4. IMy ilt or i.s open still. T) 
 lie was a very tall sliMuMiu.L,' youth willi a east in his eye. (5. 'J'lie 
 blow (lid the Saracen very little injury. 7. ^■o truth ])e in the Held, wo 
 do injuriously, by lieensinj; and prohiDiting, to misdoubt her stretii^th. 
 8. Aftor you had i»assed several courts, you came to the centre, where n 
 you might behoM the constable hiuiselt". K. 'ihrice the liell .<ound( d 
 loudly : ard presently there was a running; liither and thither. 10. 
 The r( a son why 1 cannot lell. 11. Not a* drum Wiis heard, not a 
 funeral note. 12. Hit him hard, he has no tri'^nds. l'^. lie called so 
 loud tiiat all the hollow deep of hell resoTUided. 14. Again and agaiu 
 the dull sound was heard below. 15, 1 Jjcse 1 may call pretty goo(i 
 out not thoroughly good. 
 
 The Prepo'iition, 
 
 ExEiicfSK 75. 
 
 §§ 171, 172, Write out the Tiepositions contained in 
 the following sentences in a column, and riglit and 
 left of each Preposition place the Nouns or I'ro^ 
 nouns connected by it. (See specimen on p. 200 j :-^ 
 
 1. Cold is found in the sands. 9.. The moth continued fluttering 
 round the light. 3. The clouds go up the lull. 4. Tluotigh the valley 
 tlows a clear brown stream. 5. lu tiie large hall is a splendid picture 
 of a sea-tight, by a Dutch puir-tcr. 0. We were walking away froiu tho 
 villau'e when we thought we were walhing towards it. 7. I'nderneatli 
 this hall is a miserable duJigeon. ^i. From nothing nothing can come. 
 V. \Vi*hcut favour, ait is like a windmill without wind. 10. In timo 
 of progpority frieuJa will be plenty; in time of adversity not one 
 ftmoiv:';st twevity. 
 
 ♦ Uear iii miud that the so-called Aiticlca are really Ai^jcctivef. 
 
200 
 
 ENGLISH GRAMMAn. 
 
 Specimen of the mode 
 
 of world iKj this Exercise. 
 
 
 Noun or Pronoun. 
 
 Preposition. 
 
 Noun or Pronoun. 
 
 No.1. 
 
 Gold 
 
 in 
 
 sands 
 
 Exercise 76. 
 
 § 173. Write ont in column the Prepositions contained 
 
 in the followiiij^ Exercise, placing on \\w riglit 
 
 hand of c.'ich Preposition iha Noun or i'ronouii 
 
 following it, and on the left the Koun, Pronoun, 
 
 "Verb, or Adjective to which the governed word has 
 
 relation. 
 
 1, With long travel I am stifTand weary. 2. Patunce is stale antl I 
 inu weary of it. 3. The f^'iirJcncr ])rcsfntly di.-iiatclicd the intruder witli 
 Lis hoe. 4. Tlie sky bucainu jirrfu-tly Mack with clouds aiid tlio rain 
 |)Our(;d down in torrcJits. 5. 'J'lio labour we dcli,u:ht in physics pain. <J. 
 A public iiiootiiij^ was licld to iirntist a.Lrnin.st the change 7. Twixt 
 cup and lip tin ic's many a slip. 8. Tlironghout tliis trying inarch, the 
 captain was untiring in his endi avours to cheer and a;j3iot his men, 
 
 i). Of tlicso the fals.} Achitopliel was lirst; 
 
 A name to al! succording generations curst: 
 For closu designs ami crooked counsels lit, 
 Sagacious, bold, and turbulent of wit. 
 
 10. In that fair clime, the lonely herdsman stretched 
 
 On the soft grass through half a sumuier's day. 
 With music lulled his indolent repose. 
 
 Exercise 77. 
 
 § 174. (1.) l\Like ten sentences with doivn, near, since, 
 through, beyond, round, by, along, below, within, used aa 
 I'repositions. 
 
 (2.) Make ten sentences with tho same words used as 
 Adverbs. 
 
 The Conjunction. 
 
 Exercise 78. 
 
 §§ 175-179. (1.) Make six sentences with for, but 
 since, notwithstanding, except, because, used as Con- 
 junctions. 
 
 (2.) Make six sentences wi th tho same words used ittt 
 Prepositions. 
 
Exercises. 
 
 201 
 
 Exercise 79. 
 
 Arranp;o in throe columns tlio AflvcrTjs, rTcposition.>, 
 
 ind Conjunctions in the foUowing sent/fhcos '.— 
 
 I. It is uu\v bixttt'ii or seventeen years since I m.^ <!ic qurcn of 
 FiiiMCL', tlii'ii dauphiutss, at Vursiiillos . and surely n« vrr li^'litrd cm 
 tliis orb, wliich slir hardly secmod to t uioh, a innro d(li;^'htlid visiioii. 
 
 2. i ♦hen turned again to tho vidon ^vhich J had Ihvii jio long ci>n- 
 t mpinting; l>ut instead of the rollin;; tide, tlit iif'.ht d hr'nlge, and tlie 
 h;ipi)y islands, I nxw nothing hut the lung valley of IlagfUul, wiih 
 iixeu, shctp, and camels grazing upon it. 
 
 3. Tliee I revisit now with bolder wing 
 K^caped tla- Stygian pioj. though long drtained 
 III that obscnre sojourn, while, in my lli-ht, 
 
 1 h rough utter and through middle darknesjj borno 
 To other notes than to the Orpliean lyru 
 1 buujj of Chuod and eternal Night. 
 
 ADDITIONAL EXERCISES DISCRT:\riXATING 
 THE TAliTS OF S1»EEC1I. 
 
 since. 
 
 ; hut 
 Con- 
 
 EXERCLSE 80. 
 
 Arrange in columns the words in Italics as Nouns or 
 
 i.djectives : — 
 
 1. A large chestnut-troe stood on tho village (jrecn. 2. The jiol'ce 
 regulations were rigorously cnforci'd. 3. Our liberties are protected by 
 ouv jiolice. 4. 8ea water has a (/rf^ 71 tint. 5. There was great di.stress in 
 the cotton districts. 0. Cotton is a valuable article of commerce. 7. 
 The fjolil crown was lost in the wavt s of tho Wash. 8. His watch is of 
 pure ;/o/rf. 9. Our hearts beaty'«/;e/aimarciies. lU. He stayed till after 
 Uarkia's funeral. 11. H«;r home is on the deep. 12. In deep waters. 
 13. The colour of the L>\ouutain peaks was a delicate j^wr^;^. 14. Ail 
 b one dreary Uvel. 
 
 Exercise 81. 
 
 (1.) Mal<e twelve sentences with the following words 
 used as Nouncj • — jd^in, icild, black, level) lujlit, ^alm, 
 evil, nmnd, salt, plane, ijood, sound. 
 
 (2.) Make twelve sentences in which the same words 
 are used as iVdjectives. 
 
 Exercise 82. 
 
 Arrange in columns tho Nouns and Verhs in italics : — 
 S. He counselled (0((r. 2. Vain it is to var with Heaven. '.\. He 
 iil-2s the laujp with a waxen liyht. 4. Ferry me over tl.e river. 5. 
 
202 
 
 ENGLISH r.RAMMAn. 
 
 rn row thee o'er the ferry. 6. The eagle eym liis prey. 7. Th'^j 
 hc'h hiul liri-^'ht twinkling (;»/e«. 8. 'Z In- lirflierineii jnau the life-lKuil 
 iititl pu^li oil" to the rescue. iJ. Our lueA is the sorot. 10 I need no/ 
 tell you that. 11. One motv idunge ami out. 12. That nuui ayen fat. 
 
 Exercise 83. 
 
 (^1.) Make twelve seiitunccH with the following worde 
 used as Nouns: — jxi//, tifjht, order, Jly, hear, spimj^ 
 plou'jh, icall:, wonder, mark, cook, bridle. 
 
 (2.) iMake twelve sentences in which the same words 
 are used as Verbs. 
 
 I 
 
 Exercise 84. 
 
 Arrange in columns the Nouns, Adjectives, and Verhn 
 in italics : — 
 
 1. In our street tliere are none but hriilc houses. 2. He would b; 
 ever douhh both in hid words nud ni'aniii.u:. J?. Who wms tilt- lirst to 
 (ZonWc Cape Horn ? 4. C;Oaar's .-sol licrs carried r/ro/nc/ meal. .'i. They 
 sliall be gmund to pinLulnr. ♦>. Men used to ponvh'v their hair. 7. 
 "N'DW, tread we a measure. 8. The mensural tread of tlie sentiuid. 9. 
 Idle men seldom hitter their eondition. 10. lletler it ia not to idle. 
 II. The light is so intense as almost to })li)id you. 12. To order myself 
 lowly and reverently to all my Jwttcrs. 13. Better half a loaf than no 
 bread. 14. .The voice returns again to childish treble. 15. In thli 
 way you will sucu treble yuur capital. 16. No, not for treble the sum. 
 
 Exercise 85. 
 
 (1.) Make twelve sentences with the following words 
 used as Adjectives : — still, plaiie, salt, rest, lame, 
 round, left, smooth, free, near, awake, fine. 
 
 (2.) Make twelve sentences in which the same word«J 
 are used as Verbs. 
 
 Exercise 86. 
 
 Arrange in columns the Adjectives and Adverbs ia 
 italics : - 
 
 1. My /r.'if master will succeed me. 2, Stdl waters run deep, 3 
 A second time he failed, but stdl persevered. 4. He came by the late 
 train. 5. iMy late (espoused wife. 0. Csill me earhj mother dear. 7. 
 The early and the latter rain. 8. Deep drank Lrtrd Marmion. 9. Tin* 
 winds blew holloto friui the hills. 10. The hollow winds whistle 
 tlu'cugh the biiltkinei:.ts. 11. rouriug a na! ion's bloud Z/A-e water. 12. 
 
EXKIUISES. 
 
 203 
 
 J. 'Ih^j 
 
 leel no* 
 yen fit-'t. 
 
 ; worde 
 spin J ^ 
 
 i words 
 
 1 Vertj! 
 
 would b; 
 u- hrst to 
 
 5. They 
 hair. 7. 
 tincl. 0. 
 if to idli'. 
 lev inysiilf 
 f than m 
 ). In thin 
 
 ,hc sum. 
 
 T words 
 f, loMB, 
 
 le wordo 
 
 rerhs in 
 
 V the late 
 doar. 7. 
 9. Tlie 
 Is whistle 
 ,atcr. 12. 
 
 Thnn wast too 7//.-« a drenm of licavcn. 1^. Flo nmdn i>tr(tiiiht for the 
 coppice. 11. Vol! have ii ijiiich lar. IT). Tiiis will pieicu iiim tu tiio 
 (^uto/s. 10. Quick, (luick, Itur uotliing ! 
 
 Exercise 87. 
 
 (1.) l\Iakc twelve soiitcnces witli the following; words 
 used us Adje<!tives : — wide, kss, cheap, ]Ji'<^tii/, J'd^it, 
 ill, lomj, loll?, like, yonder, hiijli, loose. 
 
 (2.) Make twelve sentences in wliicli the same words 
 arc u.sed as Adverbs. 
 
 ExEUcisE 88. 
 
 Arrange in colunnis I'repositions and Coninnetlons : — 
 
 1. She took uotliing tor two du^s hut toM.^t-aiid-watcr. 2. Conio 
 twice ii! tlio Week, but not ol'tt ncr. H. The Lord of Ho>ts, and none 
 but Hf, the King of (iloiy is. 4. After ling, ring for half an hour ov- r 
 tile tire, we went upstairs, o. Aittr dinner I n.-olved to go to tho 
 ]>liiy. G. After I had written to my aunt, we went to see a panorama. 
 7. Tiie book of murtyr.s Imd b( en nntlinmbed since my days. ^>. 
 Dais he call you I)ai.-y hccan.^e you are young and innociiit .-' '.». 
 Hecau.st; of her importunity I will do it. 10. Since you '.vish it, I will 
 attend to the niiitttr. II. It wii.s not long hefore he came. 12. Kxcept 
 ye repent, ye shall all likewise jxrisa. 
 
 EXEIICISE 89. 
 
 (1.) IMake ten sentences witli the followino- words 
 used as Trepositions : — for, hut, except, till, uutd, 
 before, after, because ("/), noticitlistandinii, tdnce. 
 
 (2.) Make ten sentences in which the same words 
 are used as Conjunctions. 
 
 ExEunsE 00. 
 
 Write out the following sentences, stating what Parts 
 of Speech the words in italics are. 
 
 [Thus: 1. To think that (Conj.) it should come to this]: — 
 
 1. To think that it should come to this ! 2. Ye.s that's tho way. 3. 
 Whoxc fault is thatf 4. Do you remember irhat Stecrforth said? T). I 
 could not conceal //ja< I had done it. <j. I don't l)rood over nil that 
 I want. 7. I had you in my thoughts many times ihut day. 8. What 
 could I think, but that you had fallen into bauds that coiUd mai'iige 
 you? 9. What I found out, led me to suspect something wrong. 10. 
 I can't spare irJiat powers I liave. 11. No one can fill that jdiiee that's. 
 empty. 12. Solomon himsolf was not as wise a-s' these men. .'3. Tom 
 could only chew the cud of reseutment. 14. We salt fish witii salt ttj 
 make them sail. 
 
20-4 
 
 ENGLISH GRAMMAB. 
 
 EXERCISES ON COMPOUND AND DERIVED 
 WORDS, PREFIXES, AND SUFFIXES. 
 
 Exercise 91. 
 
 §§ 181-186. (1.) What is meant by Simple Worils 
 and what is meant by Complex Words? Write 
 down ten examples of eacli. 
 
 (2.) W'hat is meant by Compound words ? Ten 
 examples. 
 
 (3.) What is meant by Derived Words ? Ten 
 examples. 
 
 (4.) What is meant by Compound-Derived Words? 
 Ten examples. 
 
 (5.) Arrange in three columns the following words 
 as Compound, Derived, or Compound - Derived 
 Words : — 
 
 V'inilow 
 gate 
 
 gritidhtone 
 leapfrog 
 
 blackish 
 
 enslave 
 
 kirigdoni 
 boyliood 
 
 Imninn 
 honeybee 
 windbag 
 longheaded 
 
 murd(;rer 
 beggar 
 drunkard 
 Bnubuosed 
 
 unkind 
 misdeed 
 mistress 
 twohanded 
 
 hedgehog 
 bltiodkound 
 whipcord 
 ivyclad 
 
 
 Exercise 92. 
 
 
 §§ 187-189. (1.) Write down ten Compound Nouns 
 formed by the union of one Noun with another. 
 
 (2.) Write down and explain the meaning of ten 
 Compound Adjectives formed from an Adjective 
 with a Noun prelixed. 
 
 (3.) Which is regularly the modifying element in a 
 Compound, the. former or the latter of its com- 
 ponent parts ? — Apply your answer to the Compound 
 Nouns, applc-trce, pear-tree^ lap-dog, song-thrush, ring' 
 dove, screw-steamer. 
 
 Exercise 93. 
 
 §§ 190, 191. (1.) IIow are Compound Yerbs formed? 
 \N rite down ten Compound Verbs with dilicront 
 Prelixcs. 
 
 
EXERCISES. 
 
 20- 
 
 ED 
 
 Words 
 Write 
 
 ' Ten 
 
 Ton 
 
 Words? 
 
 :; words 
 Derived 
 
 gdom 
 
 liood 
 
 [tli'lioo; 
 
 ^dkound 
 
 ipcuid 
 
 L-lad 
 
 (2.) Write down ten Compound VerLs having the 
 Preposition written as a distinct w^ord. 
 
 (3.) Make ten sentences with the same ten Verbs. 
 
 (4.) Mention ten Compound Adverbs. 
 
 (5.) Mention ten Compound Prepositions, 
 
 Exeucisp: 94. 
 
 Form Abstract Nouns in -th or -ness from — 
 
 lioly 
 
 broad 
 
 merry 
 
 long 
 
 deep 
 
 "widtf 
 
 hard 
 
 weal 
 
 sick 
 
 dry 
 
 hi-h* 
 
 gofid 
 true 
 d;irk 
 kind 
 
 steal 
 
 ruo 
 
 grow 
 
 blue 
 
 strong 
 
 dear 
 
 meek 
 
 tJUTiey 
 
 great 
 
 N.B.- -When both forms exist, give them. 
 
 Exercise 95. 
 
 (1.) Fonn Nouns in -head, -hood, or -ship from— 
 
 (ifod boy girl oompaniun kin 
 
 g;eneral hardy fellow child king 
 
 maiden apprentice Bitter lord widow 
 
 worth lady likely knight friend 
 
 (2.) Point out the force of tlie ending in those formed 
 from hoy, comjjiinion, friend, hiight. 
 
 \ Nouns 
 ther. 
 
 ■r of ten 
 Adjective 
 
 lent in a 
 its com- 
 om pound 
 -mil, ring' 
 
 formed ? 
 dilicront 
 
 
 E, 
 
 vERCISE 96. 
 
 
 
 (1.) Form Nouns in 
 
 -y, -ry, or 
 
 -dom from — 
 
 
 Berf rook 
 
 
 rival 
 
 wise 
 
 Binith 
 
 free master 
 
 
 gnn 
 
 revel 
 
 u.artyr 
 
 Btiitioner knave 
 
 
 heathen 
 
 mason 
 
 jewel 
 
 flntt'T king 
 
 
 musket 
 
 I)ensant 
 
 fine 
 
 Christian groe r 
 
 
 cutler 
 
 potter 
 
 Jew 
 
 (2.) Point out the force of the endings in those formed 
 from serf, rook, marhjr, mamn, jewel, yroccr. 
 
 Exercise 07. 
 (1.) lorm Nouns in -age or -t from — 
 
 b'nd 
 porter 
 wi ave 
 (in-)herit 
 
 shiivo 
 bliiZti 
 broker 
 rive 
 
 eleuvo 
 bnak 
 drive 
 
 post 
 
 p:itron 
 draw 
 eiirry 
 bluive 
 
 8ue 
 ton 
 
 weiyli 
 
 fly 
 
 Height, formerly spelt hiyhth, as always by Milton. 
 
206 
 
 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 (2.) Point out the force of the endings in those forme(? 
 f I'om. ^porter, cleave^ rive, draw,Jl^, iceave. 
 
 Exercise 98. 
 (1.) Form Nouns in -er, -or, -ar, »yer, -ee from — 
 
 lie pay visit rcicr saw 
 
 consign (in-)herit trust idle brew 
 
 sail (2) law inortp:an:e d\^^ boj? 
 
 swim 
 
 direct 
 
 collect 
 
 cdininit 
 
 gun 
 
 (2.) Point out the force of the endings in those formed 
 from pay (2), visit, heg, trust, mortyaye (2), refer. 
 
 Exercise 99. 
 
 Form Nouns from the following phrases: — to deal in 
 horses — catch birds — deal in pidnres — survey land — make 
 dresses — -jit gas — found [east \ iron — paint portraits — make 
 brushes — manufacture cotton — loeave silk — ;/)«/) J houses — rejine 
 sugar — edit a newspaper — collect taxes — gauge spirits — make 
 shoes — work iron — gaze at the stars — hunt after fortunes. 
 
 Exercise 100. 
 
 Form Diminutives from — 
 
 man hill ' lamb 
 
 bull leaf 
 
 corse duu 
 
 bill poke (bag) 
 
 gooso 
 
 butt 
 
 duck 
 
 owl 
 
 cover 
 
 dear 
 
 lance 
 
 lad 
 
 cat (2) 
 stream 
 pup 
 
 Exercise 101. 
 
 Point out the force of the ending in each of the follow- 
 ing words : — 
 
 baker 
 
 B[iiiis<er 
 
 exovnlrix 
 
 nvMwuhin 
 
 h'dWoon 
 
 weft 
 
 8tream?e< 
 
 confectionery 
 
 lordship 
 
 Heam 
 
 be^'>rar 
 
 comuiitte€' 
 
 \m\uJuiii, 
 
 y\ilUe 
 
 cnshi'cr 
 
 hi<XiJ^ard 
 
 g'uMiood 
 
 han(l/<} 
 
 satchel! 
 
 gos 
 
 Bweetheorf 
 
 loUard 
 
 saih'r 
 
 l('veraf/0 
 
 bi.shoprto 
 
 shiii't 
 
 Exercise 102. 
 (I.) Form Adjectives iu -y, -ey, or -ly from- 
 
formed 
 
 m — 
 
 saw 
 
 brew 
 
 bog 
 
 gun 
 
 i formed 
 fer. 
 
 deal in 
 
 \ ■ — maho 
 Is — make 
 8 — refine 
 ts — make 
 
 S8, 
 
 lad 
 
 cat (2) 
 etream 
 pup 
 
 e follow- 
 
 Wxeart 
 rd 
 
 lok 
 (uje 
 
 't 
 
 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 
 fo<? 
 couriin 
 
 storm 
 stone 
 
 clay 
 like 
 
 rock 
 era Of 
 
 air 
 
 dew 
 
 thorn 
 
 sky 
 
 brother 
 
 grass 
 
 shado 
 cloud 
 man 
 
 kind 
 bono 
 bog 
 
 207 
 
 neighbour 
 love 
 
 wator 
 
 woman 
 
 soldier 
 
 (2.) Point out the force of the terminations in six of 
 the Adjectives given. 
 
 Exercise 103. 
 (1.) Form Adjectives in -ish, -ful, or -some from— 
 
 meddle 
 
 glad 
 
 slave 
 
 b(jy 
 hand 
 
 joy 
 
 jrraee 
 fever 
 full 
 
 fear 
 
 red 
 
 white 
 
 knave 
 
 frolic 
 
 hurt 
 
 (2.) Point out the force of the endings in those formed 
 from boy, fear, fever, white, hurt. 
 
 Exercise 104. 
 (1.) Form Adjectives in -en or -ed from — 
 
 wood rag flax wing honey 
 
 wall gold leatlier earth wheel 
 
 wool brass beech feather wheat 
 
 (2.) Point oiit the force of the endings in those formed 
 from loood (2), brass, flax, earth, icheel, beard. 
 
 Exercise 105. 
 
 (1.) Form Compound Adjectives from the following 
 phrases : — 
 
 Four feet— golden hair— web feet— the heart of a lion— clear head— 
 flight from afar— golden mouth— deep thought— many voices— brawny 
 aiiu— low roof— [a monater with] a hundred hands. 
 
 (2.) Form Adjectives in -ing from the following 
 phrases :—to rend the heart— subdue the son! -p*^mt to 
 the stars— mal'c merry— Smj jmdms — hear talcs— abida 
 by the laws — lauijh aluud— never to fail. 
 
 Exercise 106. 
 
 (1.) Form Adjectives in -able from — 
 
 h've charity charge 
 
 rely (upon) bear 
 
 eat 
 utter 
 
 drink 
 agroo 
 
 change 
 
208 
 
 ENOIXSH GRAMMAR. 
 
 (2.) Explain the force of the ending in each of the fol 
 
 lowing Adjectives: — 
 
 wlienten friemUy v/raihful blithesom« 
 
 reiidt.s/t clay*'// cragt;-// Mrish 
 
 howneleits porta/*/e mnc/old n'mth 
 
 t'cathered ataadfad upicard flaxen 
 
 mtless treen [Obsol.] tvnthful moody 
 
 
 Exercise 107. 
 
 Form Verbs vith suffix -en, or prefix be- or en- (em- > 
 from — 
 
 glad 
 body 
 straight 
 trap 
 
 bitter 
 black 
 daub 
 Bweet 
 
 fool 
 rich 
 bosom 
 height 
 
 Exercise 108. 
 
 red 
 
 fresh 
 wide 
 able 
 
 dew 
 cloud 
 frieud 
 fat 
 
 Form Adverbs from 
 
 
 
 
 wise 
 gracoful 
 pompous 
 late 
 
 careful 
 iniglity 
 fouitli 
 two 
 
 hearty 
 safe 
 single 
 comfortable 
 
 Exercise 109. 
 
 silly 
 wide 
 surly 
 handsome 
 
 one 
 
 moody 
 chrery 
 
 kingly 
 
 Form as many Derivatives and Compounds as possible 
 
 from the following words : — 
 
 two 
 
 sit 
 dig 
 
 sew 
 
 do 
 
 man 
 
 stand 
 woman 
 
 turn 
 give 
 run 
 
 grace 
 
 bciir 
 
 see 
 
 Exercise 110. 
 
 Toint out the force of the Prefix in 
 wordy, and say to what language it 
 fixes to be written separately.) Also 
 
 obstacle 
 
 superfluous 
 
 oxtrn mural 
 
 circumnavigate 
 
 npogce 
 
 hypercritical 
 
 })Ostnatal 
 
 dysphony 
 
 ultramaiiiie 
 
 autdcri'py 
 
 Mulipalhy 
 
 antichrist 
 
 antediluvian 
 
 pre natal 
 
 sublunary 
 
 conhavene 
 
 jia'iislavism 
 
 archdt a 'On 
 
 psrudo-ni!iriyr 
 
 pol)hedrou 
 
 each of the following 
 belongs. { Tlie I re- 
 explain the words. 
 
 anngram 
 
 lilt teinp.sychusis 
 
 flmpliilheatre 
 
 percolate 
 
 depend 
 
 cisatlantic 
 
 abstemious 
 
 diameter 
 
 sympntl'V 
 
 philology 
 
' I 
 
 the M 
 
 \esome 
 sh 
 
 h 
 dy 
 
 rIoiuI 
 frieud 
 ['at 
 
 one 
 
 moody 
 chiery 
 luiigly 
 
 teXERCISES. 
 
 Exercise 111. 
 
 200 
 
 I omt out the force of the Suffix in each of the followinn: 
 tvords, and say to wliat language it belongs, ('riio Suffixes 
 to be written separately.; Also explain the ords — 
 
 pastor 
 
 ekction 
 
 physics 
 
 dormitory 
 
 ccmetijry 
 
 oouilui t 
 
 pknilude 
 
 deodorize 
 
 sylvan 
 
 htToi« 
 
 primal 
 
 vtrl io.se 
 
 BjihiMoid 
 
 «]H(!iiluna 
 
 rirtify 
 
 Lusiud 
 
 pocsis 
 
 pocra 
 
 divine 
 
 acrid 
 
 rnpaeious 
 
 siihtralicnd 
 
 taii;,ablo 
 
 Itouiuo 
 
 a< itic 
 iiisupcrablo 
 curricle 
 iridesoonco 
 rapacity 
 eltjctrif'ian 
 harpist 
 eikucu 
 
 EXERCISES ON THE SYNTAX. 
 Exercise 112. 
 
 §§ 201-203. (1,; Take the sentences of Exercise 81 
 and arrange in parallel columns the Nominative 
 Cases and the Verbs to y\hk'\i they beloiK'- 
 
 (2.) Tnder what circumstances may the Verb stand 
 before the Non ' utive Case ? 
 
 possible ' 
 
 grace 
 
 bear 
 
 Bee 
 
 Dllowin^ 
 riie I re- 
 words. 
 
 jjiosis 
 tro 
 
 Exercise 113. 
 
 §i 204, 205. (1.) Construct six sentences, each con- 
 tinuing a Complementary Nominative after the 
 Verb be or hecomc. 
 
 (2.) C(mstruct six sentences, each containing a Com- 
 plementary Nominative after a Passive Verb of 
 uam'uKj, ajjjjointing, thinlciny, &g. 
 
 Exercise x14. 
 
 {Same cuntinueih) 
 
 Write out the following sentences, underlining the 
 Complementary Nominatives : — 
 
 1. Thou sitt'st a q noon. 2. Rome was the capital city of T.atium. 
 '.l A.S a con.soi|ueuco ut" thi.s rovoliitiou lioiiu' bcruino a n puliLc. 4. 
 Ivvilos go we h(>nc(', not crimiuala. 5. Sir Uol)t;rt Pool waa niado 
 First T-ord of the Troasury. <). Addi.son was doomed a .succes.sfid 
 drainiitic author on tho stnmu'th of this play. 7. Ciuoinnatns \v..s 
 Jpp lilted dictutur. b. Fiugality of luauuera la tho nouri.sunitnt and 
 
lamm 
 
 210 
 
 ENGIJSII C.RAMM.Vn. 
 
 fctrcrif^lh of liodif's pnlitic 0. riiilosojiliy and rrlijxi'P may bo railed 
 liie ('xcrcirtcs of tlm laiHl. 10. TJic youii^i/.st .sou h itt'ly enlislcd 
 as a s 1 Her. [Disregard a^.J 11. Sinil)(am.s oi\ mountiins with 
 Khailowa in their train .seemed Orcad.s; while withered b »nghs gro- 
 lesqiie were lurking Satyrs. 12. llo sought rather to be than to 
 a|i|)c.ir good. 
 
 EXERCISK 115. 
 
 § 206. (1.) What is meant by the Nominative Ah- 
 suluto? 
 
 (2.) ]\ral<:e .six; sentences with a Nominative Ahsolntvi 
 introduced in each, 
 
 (13.) What Case does IMilton sometimes employ in this 
 construction ? llow is this to he accounted for ? 
 
 DXEIICISE 116. 
 
 § 207. (1.) Talvc the sentences of Exercise 173 and 
 write out in parallel C(^lumns the 01>jective Cases, 
 and the V^crhs or Prepositions by which they are 
 governed. 
 
 Specimen of tlic mode of worhing litis Exercise. 
 
 
 Verbs. 
 
 Prepositions. 
 
 No. 1. 
 » 2. 
 
 had -oil 
 covered 
 
 ^\ith 
 
 Objective Cases. 
 
 hat 
 
 eyes 
 lumd 
 
 (2.) j\Take six sentences with the Objective Case 
 comin-i- before the A^erb. 
 
 J'U 
 
 Exercise 117. 
 
 § 208. (1.) W^rite out the followino; sentences, under 
 lining the Complementary Objectives ; — 
 
 1. Tlioy crowned Kohtud king of tlie feast. 2. Cromwell made 
 IMilton Ills sceretary. ;!. IMako tlie good only thy bosi mi friends. 4. 
 Jn tlii.s inferiuil vale lirst met thou eall'fct me lather. 5. Deem thou 
 the wise and good alone true heroes. 
 
 (2.) Make five sentences, each containin<i; a Comple- 
 mentary Objective. [I'sc A'erbs vied, (qpoid^ 
 nomiuak, inslaU, hold = iliinl-.] 
 
bo railed 
 ' cnlislc'l 
 ins with 
 ighs gro- 
 than to 
 
 ive Ab- 
 
 Vbsolntvi 
 
 y in tliis 
 for? 
 
 173 and 
 
 vo CaBCH, 
 
 tliey are 
 
 ivo Casts. 
 
 I 
 
 :s 
 ;ld 
 
 ive Case 
 
 I'S, under 
 
 well mado 
 •ieruls. 4. 
 Deem thou 
 
 Comple- 
 
 tXElit'13 
 
 Exercise 11, 
 
 211 
 
 §§ 209, 210. (1.) Make five sentences, racli containing 
 a Verb of teachiiuj, asking, tfec., followed by two 
 Objective Cases. 
 
 (2.) In the following sentences arrange all the Nouns 
 and Pronouns in coluimis according to Case. 
 
 1. At this K'hool I w;:s ta'ii^ht 1/ t'n and aiitinnctic. *2. The two 
 iiiiked were banirihed the Icin.L^iiiun. ;». i iLt't!>e you iKrmitsiou. 4. 
 i fori^uve thoo all tiiat del)t, because thou dc^siitdsit Jno. 5. lie W;ia 
 rLl'iiaed uduiittauce at the deor. 
 
 Exercise 119. 
 
 §§ 211-213. (1.) Explain the term Cognate Objective. 
 Give six examples. 
 
 (2.) In the following sentences arrange all the Nouns 
 and Pronouns in columns according to Case. 
 
 1. These reasons are not woith a straw. 2. Hew many miles have 
 you walked? :> The park wall is w mile loiijjj. 4. Ho ylept the sleep 
 of" death. ;"). Methinks the wain was very evil led. f<j 21.-}, Oi«.J G. 
 And .Joseph dreaiiKMl yet another dream. 7. They shall weep tears 
 of blood for this, said he. b. The river was about a mile wide at the 
 broaile.>t part. 
 
 ExEkcisE 120. 
 
 § 214. (1.) How may the Dative Case always be ex- 
 plained ? 
 
 (2.) Alako six sontcnces w!di both an Objective and 
 a Dative. The ( •bjeetives to be undei'seored with il 
 sinolu line, and tlie Datives with a double one. 
 
 (3.) Arrange in columns the Objectives and Datives 
 
 in the following sentences : — 
 
 1. The servant handed his ma-ter the card. 2. He oilers no salary, 
 o. 'Ihese conneet'.ons did ns no ;.',reat hoi.our. 4. (iive your brother 
 some cherries, Tom. 5. I shall not yield thee one inch of the soil, 
 t). The dwarf dealt the cham])ion an aiii^ry blow. 7. Villain, I say, 
 rap me the door ! 8. Ihaven grunt his majesty good advisers I 
 
 E:^ERCisE 121. 
 (Ohjective and Daiirit cmit'inncd.') 
 Parse all tho Nouns and Pronouns in the following 
 sentences : — 
 
 1. Heaven send tho i^rinee a better cftni a'lion ! -• ^'^'^'^ thmi 
 thunder like Him? o. The end i.^ uot worth the means. 4. (i ive ma 
 
 i'2 
 
m 
 
 212 
 
 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 
 
 neither poverty nor riches. 5. Tlioc I revisit safe, escaped i. . ^typian 
 pool. 6. It behoves us to act well our part. 7. Heat me .Ae^-e irons 
 hot. 8. Nothing can compensate for a wounded conscience U. Writo 
 me word without delay, 10. Give every man thine ear, but not iu/ 
 voice. 
 
 N.B. The reason for the Case of each word is to be given. 
 
 Exercise 122. 
 
 §§ 217, 218. (1.) Construct sentences, introducing 
 each of the following words and expressiojis in the 
 Possessive Case Tsee also § oOj : — men — hrofhcrs- -mif 
 lord Cnrdinnl — His Grace the DuJce of Devonshire — the 
 Archbishop of Cantfrhury — His IToIiness the Pope — 
 the Speaker of the House of Commons — Messrs. Sj^endh 
 and JorJiins — Charles JUicJcens — the Emperor of the 
 French — Truman, Hanhury, and Buxton— the Lords. 
 
 (2.) Explain the expressions — a picture of Turner 8^ 
 a poem of Milton's. 
 
 Exercise 123. 
 
 § 219. (1.) IMake three sentences, each containing a 
 Vocative and an Objective. 
 
 (2.) IMake three sentences, each containing a Vocative, 
 an Objective, and a Dative. 
 
 (3.) Make three sentences, each containing a Vocative, 
 an Objective, and a Possessive. 
 
 (4.) Make three sentences, each containing a Nomi- 
 native, a Vocative, an Objective, and a Dative. 
 
 Specimen of the mode of icorJcing this Exercise, 
 (1.) Guard [Voc], unlock this carriage [Obj.], 
 
 Exercise 124. 
 
 (The Cases continued.') 
 
 Parse all the Nouns in the sentences of Exercise 175. 
 
 Exercise 125. 
 
 §§ 220, 221. (1.) IMake sentences with suitable A p. 
 positions attached to the following Nouns : — 7>/'/.e 
 William -— 3Jalilda — Olicer Cromicell - Charles II. — . 
 
EXET^nSES. 
 
 213 
 
 ^eso irons 
 
 [), Writo 
 
 ,t not iujf 
 
 ven. 
 
 IIS in tlio 
 hers- -mif 
 ihire — the 
 5 Pope — 
 (. Sj^endJf 
 or of the 
 Lords. 
 
 \rncr8—' 
 
 ainmg a 
 
 Vucative, 
 
 Vocative, 
 
 a Noini- 
 tivo. 
 
 '0, 
 
 10 175. 
 
 taMe Ap- 
 s : - h'lle 
 .lies II. — • 
 
 the Earl of Strajfunl —Lord Bitron — the elephant — the 
 seal —Great Britain — Au'^trilia. 
 
 (2.) ]\Iako two sentences, each with a Xoim in Ap^ 
 position to an entire sentence. 
 
 Exercise 126. 
 
 )§ 222-226. (1.) Make six sentences with Adjectives 
 used Attributively. 
 
 (2.) Make six sentences with Adjectives used Pre- 
 dicutivoly. 
 
 (3.) Mention six Adjectives which are used as Nouns. 
 
 (4.) Correct or justify tlio following sentences : — 
 
 1. Till* rolls were served up hot tipoii the table. 2. I h"pe you will 
 arrive home ^atu and sound. I!. The nn-ssfn^er uctcd c'linfoiiiiahlc to 
 his instructions. 4. His smile was extiaordinary .^wift. o. 1 assiiri; 
 you it was niiglity amusing, (j. Ui.spatch you as tpiick as possddf. 
 7. lie did not act at all manlv in tliat allUir. 8. 'i'iie wlncLs were 
 vxceoding high. i). Not nt ar so handsome as slu; wa.-s. 10. Wiio calls 
 Bo loud? 11. JIow bright tiie stars shine to-night! 12. f^tiike hard 
 5r not at all. IH. lie !«tood triumphant on tho sunuuit. li. Live 
 ,happy ! 15. Cuuie, ])lay fair ! 
 
 EXERCLSE 127. 
 
 §§ 227-230. Correct or justify the repetition or omis- 
 sion of the Article in the following sentences : — 
 
 1. The spider and fly are natural enemies. 2. The spid. r beholding 
 the chasms, tlii iiiins, and the dilapidations of his fortress, was very 
 near at his wit's end (§ 229). 3. I visit nil the tlowers and blossoms 
 of the field and garden. 4. The decline and fall of the Koman empire. 
 5. The eastern frontier was faintly marked by the mutual tears of the 
 Germans and the Saiinatians 6. In the time of Ciesar the rein-deer, 
 ns well as the elk a-id the wild 1»ull. was a native of the Hereynian 
 forest. 7. The.se rude fortitleations were designed to secure the women, 
 children, and cattle. 8. Kach barbarian fixed his haljitatioii on a 
 spot to which a plain, a wood, or a .stream of fresh water had induced 
 him to give the preference. 9. The heavy jav<'lin and sword were 
 the shnple weapons by which the Koman legionaries won so many 
 fields. 10. The ox, shec]), ass, and camel must hav<; been domoticated 
 at an earlier period than the hor.se. 11. TJie lagle, horse, hippo- 
 potamus, and crocodile are impressively desi-ribid in the liook of Job. 
 12. The farrier was to be heard of at t\w sign of the Axe and 
 Cleaver i;>. The meeting re(iuested the secrcitary and treasurer to 
 brinu' the subject lu'fore the authorities. 14. i^'rom grave to guy, from 
 live ly to severe, 
 
214 
 
 ENGLISH GUAMMAR. 
 
 11 
 
 ExE'.icisE 128. 
 
 §§ 231, 232. (1.) When is the an Adverb? Mako 
 five sentence s by way of illustration. 
 
 (2.) Wliat Xu.nbor is the rronoun you? When is 
 the Singular !hou preferred to yon ? 
 
 (3.) Make three sentences in Avhicli thou is moro 
 appropriate thi^n iioii ; and three in which you is 
 more appropriate than thou. 
 
 ExEiicisE 129. 
 
 § 233. (1.) Distinguish between tha Restrictive and 
 the Conjunctive use of tlio Kelative. 
 
 (2.) State in which of the following sentences the 
 Relative is used restrictively and in whicli it is used 
 conjunctively : — 
 
 1. ITo tint <^()03 a-borro\ving goes n-sorrowin;::. 2. Blrssod is tho 
 man that '.vulkitli not in tho counsel of tho nn;^'o(lly. 8. 'I'he polico- 
 jnau brought the delinquent before the niagistrate, wlio inipo.sed upon 
 him a line of five shillingn. 4. The sportsman was the S(iuire's chap- 
 lain, who had .shot one of the blackbiid.s tliat so agreeably entertained 
 us. 5. The morning arrived on whicli we were to entertain our young 
 landlord. (5. ^My wife insi.st(,d on entertaining them all; for which, bji 
 the bye, our family was jiinched for three weeks after. 7. Tiiis t^tyk 
 of remark had a very dilferent elfcct upon Olivia, who mistook it fojt 
 humour, 
 
 S. No Hocks that range tho valley free, 
 
 To slaughter I condemn. 
 
 9L Alas I the joys that fortune brings 
 
 .\re tritiing. and decay; 
 And those who prize the paltry things 
 More trilling still than they. 
 
 (3.) Make three sentences in which the Relative is 
 used restrictivelv, and three in which it is used 
 conjunctively. 
 
 A 
 
 EXERCLSE 130. 
 
 §§234, 236. (1.) Parse all the Relative Pronouns 
 occurring in tlie following sentences: — • 
 
 1. We are the deliverers of the commonwealth, who ease every man 
 ot his burden. 2. A mutiny brolce out which all the vigour of Crom- 
 well could hardly quell. 3. I did send to you for gold, which you 
 denied me. 4. You have done that you should be .sorry for [see § 1'7J. 
 •>. After this I allotted to v.uU of th^ faualy what they were to d« 
 
? Make 
 
 VVheu is 
 
 is moro 
 h you is 
 
 tivo and 
 
 'iices tho 
 it is used 
 
 sscd is the 
 
 The police- 
 
 iposod upon 
 
 [uiie's oliup- 
 
 •nU'itiiincd 
 
 II our younj^ 
 
 • wliich, Ity 
 
 'I'll is f'tyli! 
 
 i&took it to/ 
 
 Relative is 
 it is used 
 
 Pronouns 
 
 ?e every man 
 -»ur of Ciom- 
 l, which vou 
 ,see § i>7J. 
 were to d^ 
 
 EXERCISES. 
 
 215 
 
 >r 
 
 G. I can't help wonfloiinoj wliat you could see in my face, to think me 
 It proper mark for di-ccption. 
 
 7. Like w),orn the fahles name of monstrous size, 
 
 Titan luu or earthborn that warreil on .love. 
 
 8» Whom I nw'.st hnt'd livinp^, tLou hast made mo 
 
 Witli thy nii^tMus trutii and honesty, 
 Now in hid ashed honour. 
 
 (2.) Correct the following, and givo reasons for you^' 
 corrections : — 
 
 1. I wonder who tliey have asked to tho party. 2. Whom do you 
 think was there ? ;>. The. man whom you thou;,dit was a |thilanthro- 
 pi.-t turns nut to he a scoundrel. 4. Wlio .dimdd you think 1 met at 
 the concert i* J. Tell nic whom you suppose it was. 
 
 Exercise 131. 
 
 §§ 237-239. (1.) Which Eelativo rronoun is most 
 lie(iuentiy usccl rostrictively ? 
 
 (2.) Make six sentences in which that is pre feral )lo to 
 li'ho or ichich. 
 
 (3.) When may tho Relative without impropriety "be 
 omitted ? CJivc three examples. 
 
 (4.) Correct the following sentences : — 
 
 1. The remonstrance he had lately received from the Commotis ar.d 
 was dispersed throuirhout the kintj^dom. 2. A man wlmse inclinatioiis 
 led him to he corrui)t, and had gn at alnlities to manaf^e and defend 
 his corrnptions. 3. Hero is a person denies all you have said. 4. 
 Omit notliing may <?ive us aid. 5. ISIarket-j^'ardenin^ was no longer 
 the piolitable business it had been. C. There are bomany grutilicationa 
 attend this public sort of obscurity. 
 
 Exercise 132. 
 
 §§ 241-244. (1.) Before what Pronoun docs the Con- 
 junction thill p-overn tho Ohjcctive Case? Mako 
 two sentences containing this construction. 
 
 (2.) Parse the PJehitives in the following sentences : — 
 
 1. " Nothing could have exceeded my surprise, who had been led to 
 form the most brilliant expectations. ' 
 
 2. " All this time the sharpshooters- which was most trying to the 
 morale of inexperienced soldiers — liarassed tliem with a galling fire." 
 
 (3.) Enumerate tho different uses of tho Pronoun t^ 
 giving one example of each. 
 
213 
 
 FNGLTSII GHAM^TAR. 
 
 Exi:i!<i,sE 133. 
 
 § 245. Correct the following; sentences : — 
 
 1. Ivioli of tlui8«^ per.soi!iifjj.s couio fnm <lili(,'ront provinces in the 
 IniiJ of pmitoiiiiiiK!. 2. livery one of this Krotcscjue family wr-rf 
 the crciituns of national {jjeiiiiis. H. Kveiy one of these polysyllaMr.s 
 still ke,ei» their f»roini(l. 4. Kverythinj^ that paintinjt?, music, and • vni 
 pliiec furnish, were talleil iti to interest tlie iiiidience. T). Kach of thetu 
 went their own way. <>. Let eaeh t ike care of thimselves. 7. There 
 WHS ft row of limes on either sidi' f)f the drive. iS. How happy it is 
 that neither of us were ill in tiie HelnidesI i>. Xeitlier of them hear 
 any sif^n of casir at all. 10. Xeitlier •)f the workmen had their tnul.-, 
 with tiK'm. 11. When eon.sider Imw eaeli of these professions are 
 (!r(»wded .... 1*2. They jtereeive the lion and the enf,de, each of them 
 pursuing their prey, towardrf the ciihti rn gate of Paradise. 
 
 Exercise 134. 
 
 §§ 246-250. Correct or justify tlic following sen- 
 tences, giving your reasons in each case : — 
 
 1. A lampoon or a satire do not carry in thera rol)l)ery or mur-^'r. 
 2. One <»f the popes refused to accept an edition of a saint's works, 
 which were presenttid to him. 8. To heij^hten the cidnmity which the 
 want of these usi ful labours make every literary man feel .... 4. 'i'he 
 j)ronunciation of tlie two vowels have been nearly the .■<r.me. ."). The 
 use of fraud and periidy were often subservient to the ])roi)agation of 
 tlie faith. (>. Thomson's ' Seasons 'is now comparatively Utile read. 7. 
 At present the trade is thought to be in a deprcs, ed state if less tlian 
 ft million of tons are produced in a year. 8. There sleep many a 
 Homer and Virgil, legitimate heirs of their genius. 9. In su( h a sub- 
 ject nothing but clearness and simfdicity are desirable. 10. A few 
 hours of mutual intercourse dispels the alienation which years of 
 separation may have produced. 11. We have alnady made such pro- 
 gress, that four or five millions of reduction in our expenditure has 
 taken place. 12. The logical and historical analysis of a language 
 generally in some degree coincides. 
 
 
 ji 
 
 Exercise 135. 
 (Same continued.) 
 Correct or justify the following expressions : — 
 
 1. Either the one or the other are mistaken. 2. Neither Charles 
 nor his brotiier were qualified to support such a system. 3. This 
 Tliyre, with her twelve children, were notorious robbers. 4. Concern- 
 ing some of them little more than the names are to be learned from 
 literary history. 5. Half a million human h. inga was crowded into 
 that labyrinth. 0. There was now a large; number of waverers. 7. 
 Ti.ere are always a set of worthy ard moderately gifted men. ^. t 
 am by no means sati-fied tliat the jtu-y were right in finding the 
 pri&ouer guilty, i). 'Ihe House of Commons dtcliucs to accept th^ 
 
EXERCISES. 
 
 217 
 
 in the 
 ly vrorf 
 yllal.l.'.s 
 
 11(1 < Vt!l 
 
 of tlutn 
 . Tlicic 
 ){)y it is 
 •in Ix'ur 
 
 I'ir tnols 
 
 ions nit 
 of thfUi 
 
 [/^•-'.V nmoTiflmrnts. 10. Thore wero nn imnirnsc rrowd asaoniMod 
 Ofli.-t' tilt' «i(M»r.s. 11. Tho ooni^ngatinn wt re t xcctdiu^'ly utttutivc 
 ih. The committee were sitting at the Town Hall. 
 
 Exercise 136. 
 
 (Collective Noun.^ continued.^ 
 
 (1.) Make six sentences with difTerent ' '-'''tvjtivo 
 Nouns iuUowcd ])y Singular Verlis. 
 
 (2.) Make six sentences with dilTerent CoUectivo 
 Nouns followed by Plural Verbs. 
 
 N.B.— The same six Collective Nouns may be used in (2) as in (1). 
 
 {cr sen- 
 
 C5 
 
 • mni" "1*. 
 
 's works, 
 
 yhich the 
 
 . 4. The 
 .^. The 
 
 gat ion of 
 read. 7. 
 
 less than 
 niuny a 
 
 |u h a sub- 
 }. A few 
 years of 
 ■;ueh pvo- 
 iture has 
 language 
 
 IT Charles 
 3. This 
 
 Concern- 
 irned from 
 Iwded into 
 Verers. 7. 
 Inon. '^'. I 
 Inding tho 
 
 :ceiit th^ 
 
 Exercise 137. 
 
 §§ 251-258. (1.) ^^'bat is the principal use of tho 
 Subjunctive Mood ? Make six sentences with 
 Yerl)s in the Subjunctive Mood, preceded by six 
 ditferent hypothetical Conjunctions. 
 
 (2.) Mai" three sentences with fthonhl as a Principal 
 Verb, and three Avith should forming a I'eriphrastic 
 Subjunctive. 
 
 Exercise 138. 
 
 (Same continued.^ 
 
 (I.) " See thou do it not !" AVhat part of the Verb is 
 do, and why ? Quote the liule. 
 
 (2.) "Did I tell this .... who would believe me?" 
 What Mood is did I tell f Express the same by 
 means of a hypothetical Conjunction. 
 
 (3.) Make three sentences in which the Subjunctive 
 is used Optatively. 
 
 (4.) When must the Indicative be used after if, 
 althoiKjh, Szc. ? Make three sentences by way of 
 illustration. 
 
 (5.) What is meant by the sequence of Tenses ? Give 
 two examples. 
 
 Exercise 1o9. 
 § 259. (1.) Make six sentences with the Verbs hid. 
 
218 
 
 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 have, icafrh, hear, feci, dare, followed by the Infini' 
 tive Activo without to. 
 
 (2.) Miiko six .S('iit(;nces with thcYerhs have, see, hear, 
 folio \vu(l l>y the Inlinitivo rassive without to. 
 
 (3.) " I saw the flowers cut for tho bride's bou'^uet." 
 I'arse cut. 
 
 (4.) " A soothsayer bids you beware of tho Ides of 
 
 ^larch " Wliat .Mood is beware f Is there room 
 
 for a (litrereiico of opinion on this pointy If so> 
 bIiow why. 
 
 i ' 
 
 Exercise MO. 
 
 §§ 260-262. (1.) i\Iako six sentences with an Infmi- 
 tivo Mood as Subject. 
 
 (2.) ]\!;ike six sentences with an Infinitive Mood as 
 Object. 
 
 (3.) Account for the use of tho Past Infinitive in tho 
 foiiowini; sentence : — 
 
 " Tli>', <jjracolt'.ss youlh ])ull('(l tlio old griitlnnan by the bcanl, tind 
 had like to have kiiurlcctl liid bniiu.s out." — tSpeet. No. 351). 
 
 EXERCISID 141. 
 
 Take the scntcMices of FiXercise 170, and point out tho 
 lufiuitives with the Verbs upon which they depend. 
 
 Exercise 142. 
 
 §§ 263-267. (1.) What is meant by the use of tho 
 Infinitive as Complement ? 
 
 (2.) V/rite oiit i:ho Compleniontary Infinitives in tlie 
 foUowiiij!; sentences, with the wor<ls upon which 
 they depend. (^See s[)ecinien ou p. 21U.J 
 
 1. I will do nnytliirif]; til s(M've you. 2. Tlu* Governniciit decided to 
 withdrinv tlie Hill. 'A. We resolvc^l to aiivrt iit once, so na to st etire our 
 beitln wit.lioiit losH ol" time. 4. Tli'io \v;is nt leiist ati atteuipt to 
 execute the Older. 5. In short, to .siuu up everylhinj:^ iu a word, ho 
 wiM im utterly unscrupulous man. (i. Hnth quick to lieur and ea.:er 
 to obey. 7. In s|>it,e of nil our protestutioiis we wero bij^inniiiii; to {'< ol 
 d( cidedly quuluiish. 8. We took care to provide ourselves with all tho 
 proper tMckliuu^, not fbrjjjettinij^ a net to liiiid our i ri/es. [). Ceaso to 
 do evil, learn to do veil 10. Not to inaku a htujj story of it, Ids ita- 
 portuuity at loat prevailed. 
 
6 Infini- 
 
 lee, hear, 
 to. 
 
 ouquct." 
 
 s Ides of 
 re room 
 ' If so» 
 
 u Iiifini- 
 Mood as 
 re in the 
 
 out til a 
 id. 
 
 c of the 
 
 'S in the 
 II which 
 
 il(>oiilod to 
 si ouro our 
 ittcnipt to 
 I word, ho 
 and oa';or 
 iiiL^ to fi el 
 itii all tlio 
 , Cm so to 
 it, liis im- 
 
 EXEHCrSKS. 
 Specimen of mode of icorJciug this Exercise. 
 
 219 
 
 No. 1. 
 » 2. 
 
 Complementary Infinitive. 
 
 to servo 
 to withdraw 
 
 dependent upon veib ' do.' 
 
 'deeded.* 
 
 » 
 
 Exercise 143. 
 (Same continued.) 
 
 Take the sentences of Exercise 180 and parse all the 
 Inhnitivcs occurring in them. 
 
 Exercise 144. 
 §§268-273. (1.) ^^ hat is a Gerund? 
 
 (2.) Make three sentences with a Gerund as Suhject • 
 three with a Gerund as Ohj^ct ; and three with a 
 Gerund under tlie government of a 1 'reposition. 
 (3.) AVlien are the forms in -ing to ])o reoarded 
 as Nouns, and when are they to be regarded as 
 Gerunds ? 
 
 Exercise 145. 
 
 (Same coniimivd.) 
 
 (1.) Correct the following exj^ressions : • 
 
 1. That oommandmont wliieh forl.id.s the doinr. nmrder 9 Tl.n 
 
 notion of attempting of a con.,)ron.ise . . . 'A, The K.mnlimVour;, Iv 's 
 from universal disalfeotion by poh^ee . . . A Mneh ien ul^ nn 7 
 posin,j figures and drapery/ 5^ The ^^L^"n:^Xt^,^^l 
 almost a.s hlaniahle ns the exoeutin- of thm. «> IF „f I 
 
 rnakin. of .Ueahle drug. 7. In strne/^g^ind de ^t ;?o c Z.^ 
 
 ters. A\erner. indeed. i« little Lett, r ih.n a m.nneni N "in n j '^ 
 of poetry, above nil, what foroe.s, throngh this iguoranoe, are l! J ! ' 
 
 (2.) .Make six sent(Miees in which forms of the Gerund 
 compounded with be, have, ai-e introduced. 
 
 Exercise 146. 
 
 §§ 274-276. (1.) Distinguish clearly hotwcen th^ 
 Aartiuiplo in -ing and tho Gerund in -ing. 
 
220 
 
 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 (2.) Make six sentences with Participles' in -ing and 
 six with Gerunds in -ing. 
 
 (3.) Explain the use of the Imperfect Participle iu 
 tlie following sentence : — 
 
 '• Lookiiif? at tlin whole circumstances of the case, the following 
 jccuts the widest coursfc." 
 
 Exercise 147. 
 
 §§ 277-284. Correct the following sentences : — 
 
 1. Homer f'scnl).;>s this river agreeable to the vulgar reading. 2. 
 No one ever fteil nobler or more ssuitablo to a great emergency. 8. 
 Faction only tills the town with pamphlets and greater subjects are 
 forgotten. 4. The dead are only happy. 5. Tii<! miuistiT was unwill- 
 iii-;iy induceil to accept the amendment. (5. Siberia even has some 
 pla(!<;s where Natun; smiles. 7. The sublime Loiiginus, in somewhat 
 a later period, preserved the s])iiit of ancient Atlu iis. iS. Always tin; 
 new agi; brings with it new men. il. Still going i'arther and faiiber 
 back, we arrive at tlie name of Paul. 10. ilis expo.sitiou was so clear 
 as even to be plain to the dullest. 
 
 Exercise 148. 
 
 § 286. (1.) Malco three sentences with except used 
 as a Preposition and three with except used as a 
 Conjunction. Show that in each sentence the rula 
 given is observed. 
 
 (2.) How are the so-called Prepositions save, hut, used 
 in yhakspeare ? 
 
 (3.) Make three sentences with noticithstanding used as 
 a I'repositidii, and three with the same word used 
 as a Conjunction. 
 
 Exercise 149. 
 
 §§ 287-289. Alter the arrangement of the following 
 sentences so as to itring the Trepositions to the end. 
 
 1 The letter-case was quickly known to belong to I^Ir. Ihirclull, with 
 whom it had been seen. 2. A least was |)rovideil for our n C('|)tion, to 
 whicli we at once sat down, 3. Tlu! little republic to which I gave 
 laws was regulated in the following manner. 4. lie gave Tom a box 
 in which to keep his tools, and a purse in which to k(>ep his money, 
 when he gnt any. 5. Whence come,-t thou? <>. Whereof art thoji 
 compounded y 7. Of what is brass made? 8. We were the happiest 
 family on which the sun evir shone. 9. From what does this jiroceed? 
 10. This Is the famous digging from which the mouatcr nugget was 
 obtained 
 
fiXEIlCISES. 
 
 221 
 
 g and 
 pie iu 
 
 illowing 
 
 ing, 
 
 2. 
 ncy. 3. 
 jocts nro 
 utiwill- 
 iis some 
 mu'what 
 vays tht! 
 1 faitlicr 
 so t'ltar 
 
 )t used 
 !(1 as a 
 lie rulo 
 
 d, used 
 
 used as 
 il used 
 
 lowing 
 
 11, with 
 ptioii, to 
 
 I t?nvo 
 a box 
 
 nioiu3y, 
 
 art thou 
 
 hajipiost 
 
 >ro('('t'(iy 
 
 get was 
 
 111 
 
 Exercise 150. 
 (^Same continued.) 
 
 Alter the arrangement of the following sentences so as 
 to ])ring the Trepositions before the Pronouns which tliey 
 govern. 
 
 1. What country comcst tliou from? 2. It is Imrd to be without a 
 Biuj^lc person to talk to. 'S. You know not whom you sit beside. 4. 
 The laliour we (blight in phy.-ie.s jiain. 5. The yrar Xapol. on was 
 born in was also the birth year of WLllington. 0. This was somewhat 
 ditlicult to accomplish in the posture 1 then lay in. 7. What port are 
 you bound tor? 8. The shore we hope to land on only by repoit id 
 known. 9. The subjects which I shall have to touch on are as interest- 
 ing as they are varied. 10. I saw her just above the horizon, deco- 
 rating and cheering the elevated sphere she just began to move in. 
 11. Here are principles to live by, here are hopes to die witli ! 12. 
 You have now heard the principles which Mr. Hastings governs British 
 India upon : you have heard who the peisous were whoae authority 
 be leliea on. 
 
 EXEIICISK 151. 
 
 § 290, 300. Break up the foUowing complex sentences 
 and paragraphs into Him})le sentences, beginning 
 each simple sentence with a new line. 
 
 1. These resolute )nen fiared neither the rage of ocean, nor the hard- 
 shijis of uncivilized life, neither the fangs of savage beasts, nor the 
 tomahawks of more savage men. 
 
 2. All crimes shall cease, and ancient frauds shall fail, 
 Ivetnrning Justice lift aloft her s'-ale, 
 
 Peace o'er th(^ world her olivewaiid extend, 
 And white-robed Innocence from heaven descend. 
 
 3. As tlu> ears of Isaac received tl e hopes of escape, which this speech 
 iiitimatc(l, he began gradually, and inch by inch as it were, to raise 
 himself up from the ground, until he fairly re.^ted nj)on his knees. 4. 
 The clouds still re>tcd on one hall' of the tide, insumnch that 1 could 
 discern iiotlui.g in it : but the ( ther appeared to me u vast ocean, 
 planted witli innumerable islands that were covered with fruits and 
 llowers, and interwoven with a thousaud little .^-billing s' as that ran 
 nmoiig them. T). These; are the nian,-i<>ns of gcod mm after death, wi:o, 
 a<'c()i<ling to the degrees aud kinds of virtue in wlii<'h they excelled, aie 
 di>triliut((l aiuoug these several islands, which abound with pleasures 
 of dilfereiit kinds and degrees, suitable to the relisiies and jJerfectioTis 
 of those who are settled on them : so that every island is a ])anid'se 
 Hccommodatcd to its respectivi' iidiabitaiits. 
 
 Exercise 152. 
 §291. (1.) Correct t)r just! fv the fdllowing sentcn-jos, 
 
 g 
 
 iiving vour reason in each case ;- 
 
222 
 
 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 1. Anioiij^st all the cliam|)i()iiri there was none so (lou}i:htyas lie. 2. 
 Tiinkcst thou tliat thou art wi^r thau me? ;{. I think quitt; as 
 highly of hia hrothor as he. -i. Thia id good enough for such as him. 
 5. 1 would see all nieu such as thee ! 
 
 (2.) Point out Avliat part of Kpeech the word hut is in 
 eacli of tlio folluwiiii^ sentences. 
 
 1. The man is good Imt not wine. 2. Speak but the word and 
 thousands are ready. 3. This is nothhig but tlic merest jealousy. 4. 
 I eannot but liop(3 well of onr^ whose im|iulse.s are so generous. .5. 
 Heaven forbid but I should ^till be true to him. 6. There; is no man 
 but hates me. 7. There's iie'er a villain dwelling in all Denmark, but 
 he's an arraiit knave. 8. It cannot be but lam pigeuu-livcred (i.e. 
 fainthearted). 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES IN SYNTAX. 
 
 Exeuci.se 153. 
 
 Correct or jiistifv the following expressions, giving in 
 eacli case a reason for your decision. 
 
 1. "Who's it for, eh V ^7).) 2. One and another has made his bed and 
 so nnist he lie on it. (77/.) IJ. No one wns to blame but me. (27/.) i. 
 There was oidy three of u,s txlay. ( 77/.) T). Drennis are instances of tluu 
 agility and pirfeetion which is natural to the faculties. (Sp.) (■. la 
 relation to a fortune which they are never likely to come at. (Sjt.) 7. 
 AVlien folly or .super.itition .>«trike in. Sp.) 8. In proportion as cither of 
 the.'^c (puiiiti(!.s are wanting. '.>. Half u million human beings was 
 crowded into that labyrinth. (Ma.) 
 
 10. AN' here nothing save the waves and I 
 
 Bhall hear our mutual muinuu's creep. (/?.) 
 
 ExEltClSE 154. 
 
 (Same continuvd ,) 
 
 1- There arc so ncmy grnlificat'ons attend this public sort of ol> 
 equity. (N/).) 2. All that stuo 1 at that bar, save him alone, are gone. 
 (.!/</.) :{. He has an uncle will have him Mime thous. ids. (8y>.) 4. Let 
 her as well as I, taste of the tortures. (.sV.) 5. The question is 
 whether any (me or all of these symptoms sulMccs. (>. They were all 
 vouiiger than her. 7. Sparta hath many a worthier son than he. (/?.> 
 S. A diiiiuond iH'cklace, with pendants of inestimable value, were by 
 this nu ans made more cons])icuou8. (Nc.) 9. Ihit Fcrdinaid did not 
 t\r> this, and heuee 1 a • arisiu bnnndbHS calamitie.s to his countrv. (4.} 
 10. Of Huch who, he observed, were good at heail. (^^.> 
 
KKEIICISES. 
 
 21^3 
 
 he. 2. 
 
 Liitf. &,4 
 as bim. 
 
 i IS in 
 
 )rd and 
 usy. 4. 
 niis. ^^ 
 110 niiiii 
 ark, but 
 red (i.e. 
 
 AX. 
 
 ving m 
 
 bod and 
 IT It.) 4. 
 csot'thiu 
 
 \,.) •■.. In 
 (SyO 7 
 citlu-r <»t 
 
 lings 
 
 was 
 
 It of ob- 
 
 Inrt' p;'iii<'- 
 •1. I -it 
 
 Icstion irt 
 were nil 
 lie. (/?•> 
 
 INVITO i)y 
 
 did lu^t 
 Itrv. C^-) 
 
 Exercise 155. 
 (^Sai)iG continued.^ 
 
 1, Net upon suf'h as thou. (Sc.) 2. "When I consider how cacb of 
 tli'j profes-sioiis aie crfiw<led . . . {Sp.) 3. 11' it weri' me, I would iicccpt 
 ... 4. llavin;jf aro.se . . . (S}).) 5. llavin.uc drove . . . (Sp.) G. 
 Xcitliiif lie nor his brotlier smoke. 7. It is not for such as we to sit 
 with the prinet'S of tlio land. (S'-.) 8. Me and (loorLi:!' should not }iart 
 ill iin-er. (Th.) 1). ()li, a chcrubiin thtii wast that tlid j)r.servi' nn' ! 
 (<S'.) 10. Why shoulil all the world be hapjiy but me? 11. About 
 4 A.:\i.. 1 felt rather ehilly, and .u;ot u|> and i)ut on an overcoat, and then 
 liiid down on tiie car seat. I'J. Tlie .splendour of the furuilure, tho 
 decorations and the pictures, were perfectly dazzling. 
 
 Exercise 1o6. 
 
 (Same continued.) 
 
 1. At last there roniainel only CJodfrey and mo. 2. C'>rrnpfinj5 
 Mch tilt ir way. (M.) I?. Whieli is thinnest, ihine or mine? ('/'.) 4. I, it 
 
 00 olay tricks and kick the straw, n<>t I. (G.) 5. There's no man 
 morv inilepindt nt than me. (G.J''.) »I. Tn onr rxtrcnic^t lit. (A'.) 
 
 •'J'he very chirfest apostles. (AM.) 7. There arc always a srt of worthy 
 rien . . . (iS'.<S'.) 8. A protestant panel may conduct tlu'm.selvi s . . . 
 (S.lS.) 9. 'J'he battle of I'.ylau shonld have l)een the si;;nal for tl:o 
 
 1 ontracting the closest alliance with the liussiau governmeut. (A.) 
 0. Whose God is strongest, thine or mine V {M.) 
 
 Exercise 157. 
 
 (Same continued.) 
 
 1» My robe and mine inteirrity to b( avcn 
 
 Is all 1 dare now call my own. (>'.) 
 
 2. Tlie congregation were dispensing. .'5. Tie system and organization 
 of the ring is virtually unknown. 4. Where the Saxons were in the 
 luibit of going. (7a) f). Ti( t yon ami I pray that it may aidtnate onr 
 I'lnglish hearts. (7A) (J. IJajiine of every kind wert^ the privilegi s of 
 the I'eudal lords. (/>.) 7. I prefer dying ratlur than to save my life 
 by a moital sin. 8. Xeither my father nor my brotiier were tlicn in 
 Westmorland. (Br.) i>. In conseipienco of the spite and unfairness 
 that runs throngii them. (/</.) lU. lli.i lirniULSS and decision waa 
 deiivtd Irom his mother. 
 
 Exercise 158. 
 
 (S<tmc CDiitinncd.) 
 
 1. Such, and no loss is he 
 
 On whom deju'nd the sum of things. (Dr.) 
 2. Tn sayhig "ay" or "jjo" the safety of onr coiuitry and tlio .sum of 
 onr Well-being lies. H. It is the only .sect that have ncjver persecuted. 
 (llr.) 4. To this lady ho present (1 David as his mother. C'^) •'»• Are 
 you sure it was me"? (D.) 0. I"",ither a pestilence or a famine, a victory 
 or a defeat, an oracle of the gods or the eloiiuence of a daring li ad«r, 
 Were suil'-ueut . . . (C«j.) 7. ** I.uws " of couxao ia T^" Irom having tUo 
 
221 
 
 ENGLISH GRAMMAll. 
 
 charm of " Repiiblic." (E. Rev.) 8. The first and second pirt (Co.) 
 9. Before the dagger or cup of poison were brou^^ht in. 10. Either 
 the cue statement or the other are false. 
 
 Exercise 159,* 
 (Same continued.) 
 
 1, You will soon fiid sucli poaoc which it is not in the jiower of the 
 world to give. 2. Ho wus no sooner out of the wood but lie belield a 
 f?lorious tccne. 3. Otlicr gcmiuses I put in tlie sefotul class; not as I 
 tliink thorn inferior to the first, but f(»r distinction's sake. 4. I\Iany 
 writers employ their art in propagating of vice. 5. You liuve weakened 
 instead of strengthened your case. 6. The Chinese laugh at Euro- 
 pean institutions wliieh are lain out by rul(> and line. 7. It bears borne 
 remote analogy with what I liave described. 8. When we look iit 
 English comedies, we woiikl think that their authors do not care to 
 brand the vices they describe. J. You are in no danger of him. 
 
 Exercise IGO. 
 
 (Same continued.) 
 
 1. It is quite true, what you say. 2. The latter solution is more 
 preferable. .3. We guard d Sir Walter in the same manner that wo 
 brought him to the playhoust;. 
 
 4. What shall we say, sitir-e silent now is bo. 
 
 Who when he spoke, all tilings would silent be. 
 
 5. Of all others he is the ablest man they have. G. The Thames is 
 derived from the Latin T imesis. 7. I am afraid you will be displeased 
 with my meddling, whii'h I should un no account have dared to do 
 had not the alt( ration been small. 8. There are often a great variety 
 of causes at work. 
 
 Exercise IGl. 
 {Same continued.) 
 
 1. Kvery thought and feeling are opposed to it. 2. ISIi thinks I see 
 a mighty nation renewing her youth. 3. I had wrote to him tiiC day 
 before. 4. It was sang at the rhilharmonie last year. 5. Ill would it 
 fare with your lordship and I, if such a law should pass in i>arliameut. 
 (i. Such a perioilical as Arnold would have loved and Coleridge promise 
 to contribute to. 
 
 7. 
 
 No other river such fine salmon feed. 
 Nor Tuff, nor Tay, nor Tyne, nor Thames, 
 Nor Trent nor Tweed. 
 
 8. You may take either of the nine. 9. The porch was the same 
 width with the temple. 
 
 • Kx(>rciscB 159-165 Bclcctcd from the Matriculation Tapers of the Uuivcrsity ot 
 Louduu. 
 
 T). 
 
t. (Co.) 
 I. Either 
 
 er of the 
 
 behold !v 
 ; not aa I 
 4. Many 
 kvcakcnt-d 
 at Euro- 
 ears boine 
 I look !lt 
 
 t care tu 
 im. 
 
 n IS more 
 r that vvo 
 
 'hamos is 
 
 isph'ascil 
 
 (1 to flo 
 
 at variety 
 
 nks I soe 
 tlic day 
 wouhl it 
 
 irliamoiit. 
 to pioinibe 
 
 the same 
 
 livcrsity ot 
 
 EXERCISES. 225 
 
 ExEiicisK 1G2. 
 (Same continued.) 
 
 1. It is most likoly that luitlier of these is tho correct vrr^iion. 2. 
 rhia man and that man was horn there. 3. la mtnleni Enj^liah two 
 lugatives (le.-troy one etlier. 4. Every one lias tliuir faults, o. 'rh(» 
 adniiiation of his pocni was unaiiinuius. 0. The boats were drawn 
 ashore, liaviiif? tirst taken out the cargo. 7. He tru.-ted to have 
 equalled the Most II''!;h. y. The Duke of Wellhi^tou is not one of 
 those who interferes with matters over which he has no control, y. 
 We know little, individually, (jf his hearers. 
 
 Exp:r(Ise 1G3. 
 
 (Same cuntinucd.) 
 
 1. Let each ost< 'em other bettr than theniselvos. 2. Are either of 
 these mi'n your friend? '.\. It is not me who he is in love with. 4. Who 
 shall 1 give it to? 5. They will never believe but what I have Ijeeu to 
 blame. (I. Neither preeept nor dibeipline are so forcible as example. 
 7. The thunder was iu ard roll over our heads. 8. I am verily a man 
 who am a Jaw. 9. Extravagance as well as i)arsimuny are to be 
 avoided. 
 
 Exercise 164. 
 (Same continued.) 
 
 1. His worship and strength is in the clouds. 2. Neither Charles nor 
 William were there. 3. (;(X)d onler and not mean savings produce 
 great profit. 4, The two first boys in the class. 5. Alfred, than wiioin 
 wiser prince never governed England. tJ. He does not know but what 
 it is true. 7. Are either of these i'orscs yours? 8. He went away all 
 of a sudden. 9. It was thought to be he. 10. All the better. 
 
 Exercise 165. 
 (Same continued.) 
 
 1. Many a time. 2. Each shall bo rewarded in their turn. 3. 
 Between you and I, there is little hope that I will succeed. 4. A 
 few hours of intfTCour.-e is enough for forming a judgment in tlu' case. 
 5. His aversion from that cause is strong, tj, AH males are of the 
 iijjisculinc gender. 7. Him excepted all were lost. 8. He is not the 
 Ui.ui as told me the i«tory. J). That is not .•■ueh a practice as I can 
 ^\nction. 10. The following facts may, or have been adduced on the 
 ()ti.er 8i<i,. 
 
 Q 
 
220 
 
 ENGLISH GUAMMAR. 
 
 EXERCISES ON THE ANALYSIS OF SENTENCE: 
 
 Exercise 166. 
 
 § 302. (1.) Make three sentences, each having the 
 Sul)ject a Noun. 
 
 (2.) Make three sentences, each having the Suhject 
 a I'ronoun. 
 
 (3.) Make three sentences, each having the Suhject an 
 Adjective with a Noun nnderstood. 
 
 (4.) Make tliree sentences, each having the Subject 
 an Intinitive Mood or Gerund. 
 
 Exercise 167. 
 
 § 303. Arrange in columns the Subjects and Predi- 
 cates of the foHowing sentences : — • 
 
 1. Tlie lighthoust; wa.s tlcstroyeJ. 2. The tempest rap^od. 3. Blessed 
 are the peacemakers. 4. (ireat is Diana-of-tbe-Ejthesians. 5. Dejiart 
 ye ! G. Fallen is Babylon-the-Great. 7. The playhouse is in flames. 
 8. The siiip sank. 9. To see is to be convinced. 10. (It) is pro- 
 verbial that bad masters make bad servants. 
 
 N.B. State in each case of what the subject consists. 
 
 Exercise 168. 
 
 (Same continued.^ 
 
 (1.) Add to the following Subjects, Predicates consist 
 ing each of a single word [Simple Predicates] : dv' 
 — sheejj — temjiests — the sun — stars — the tvind. 
 
 (2.) Add suitable eiilargeiia'nts to the followin, 
 jNouns : — W'olsci/ — Cianmcr — Milton — Iselsoii - 
 1 1 \'IIiii<jt(m — Fraiddin. 
 
 (3.) Add suitable Predicates to the above Subjects fe« 
 enlarged. 
 
 Exercise 169. 
 
 (^Samc continued.^ 
 
 ( 1.^ !Mako six sentences, each with tho Predicate 
 consisting of a Verb and Nuun or Adjective Com- 
 plement, 
 
EXERCISES. 
 
 227 
 
 rEKCE: 
 
 iving the 
 e Siil)jcct 
 >ul>ject an 
 e Subject 
 
 ad Tredi- 
 
 3. Blessed 
 5. l)e])art 
 
 5 in flames. 
 
 It) ia pro- 
 
 s consist 
 -esj : doij 
 
 bllowin, 
 
 Nelson ~- 
 
 ejects fs« 
 
 "•rcdicate 
 vo Com- 
 
 (2.) Make six sentences, each with tho Predicate 
 consisting of a Verb and lutinitive Couiplement. 
 
 Exercise 170. 
 
 § 304. (1.) Make six sentences, each containing a 
 Direct and Indirect Object. 
 
 (2.) Arrange tho same sentences in a tabular form 
 so as to exhibit lSnl)jcct, Direct Object, Indirect 
 Object, and rredicate. 
 
 EXEIICISE 171. 
 
 §§ 305, 303. (1.) Distinguish between Enlargements 
 and Extensions. 
 
 (2.) jMake twelve sentences, each having some kind 
 of Extension of the Predicate. 
 
 N.B. Each kind of extension to be introduced three ti'Jies, 
 
 Exercise 172. 
 Simple Sentences for Analysis, 
 
 1. The chief in silence htrode before. (S.) 2. My eldest son, George, 
 was bred at Oxford. (G.) B. Here the poor boy was locked-in by 
 himself all day. (L.) 4. We hail ])lt'nty of recreation after school- 
 hours. (L.) 5. So loud a report ."-tartlcd my daufj^hters. (Cr.) 6. Adu- 
 lation ever follows the ambitions. {G.) 7. The horsemen soon overtook 
 them on the road (S.) 8 We were sitting one iiiglit by the fire, 
 alone. (I).) 9. I deplored his untim<'ly death mo.st sincerely. (/>.; 
 10. They both had little bright round twinkling eyes. (2>.; 
 
 Exercise 173. 
 Simple Sentences continued. 
 
 I. The gentleman spoken-of had a fall white hat on. [Conneet, htd- 
 on.] [!).) 2. My annt covered her eyes thonghtfidly with her hands, 
 (D.) 3. Next morning, after brcakfa.st, I ("omnienfed sohnol-lifo again. 
 (D.) 4. He looked again over lis .shoulder townrds the glimmering 
 sea-line. (D.) 5. The mild jMr. C'iiilli]) o mid not possibly bear malice 
 at such a moment. (D.) [Connect, rouhl-ht ar : not, extension of prcd.] 
 tj. She was thoughtfully sticking Iht nei tile into her face .... all the 
 time (D.) 7. His hair must-have-takcn all the obstinacy out of his 
 character. (D.) 8. Our little habitation was-situated at the foot of a 
 fllojiiug hill. (G.) 
 
 9. There she weaves by night and day 
 
 A magic web with colours gay. ('/'.) 
 Q, Here to tlie hou.seless ejiild of waut 
 
 My dour is open still. {G.) 
 
 Q 2 
 
■m 
 
 228 
 
 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 Exercise 174. 
 Simple Sentences continued. 
 
 [EXLAROCMEN'TS IN FORM OF PrEPOSI I'lOXAL-niRASES 
 
 INTIJODUCED.] 
 
 1. Fine old Christinaa, with the srmwy hair and ruddy face, had 
 done liis duty that year in tlie noblest fasliion. (/•,'.) 2. The coui« 
 plaints of the old man excited the indiguiition of the byrftaudeis. {Sr.) 
 6, He carried a jaunty sort of a stick, with a large pair of rusty tassela 
 to it. (£>.) 4. He was a tall hliamblins youth, with a cast in his eye, 
 not at all calculated to conciliate hostile pnjudices. (L.) 5, Over the 
 little mantelshelf was a picture of the fc^aiah June lugp;er, built at 
 Sunderland, witii a real wooden stern stuck on to it. (D.) 6. The 
 shouts of the multitude, together with the acclamat'ons of tlie heralds, 
 .... announced the triumph of the victors. (Sc.) 7. A fellow with a 
 bundle of .';tniw for my bed .... led me along a dark narrow passiigo 
 into a paved rmin. (G.) 
 
 8. So all (lay long the noise of bnttle rolled 
 Among the mountains by the winter sea. (7'.) 
 
 9. The grey-hiiired, venerable-looking old man, with no dajis to his 
 pocket-holes, talked a long string of learning about Grtek. {G.) 
 
 10. One snmmcr noon, an arm 
 Eos(! up from out the Itosoin of the lake, 
 Clotiied in white samite, mystic, wondeil'iil, 
 
 Holding the sword. 
 
 (T.) 
 
 Exercise 175. 
 
 Simple Sentences continued. 
 
 [Direct and Indirect Object.] 
 
 1. The dwarf dealt one of the champions a most angry blow. (G ) 
 2. The blow did the Saracen but very little injury. (G.) 3. You will 
 not refuse me that favour. (Sc.) 4. Just at that instant a servant de- 
 livered him a card. (G.) 5. In this otlice Mr. Crispe kindly oilers all 
 liis Majesty's sul)j( ets a g'^nerous promise of 3ii/. a year. . . . (G.) (J. 
 Friend I do thee no wrong. (E. V.) [The Voc, friend, does not enter 
 into the analysis.] 7. 1 have settled on him a good annuity for 
 life. (G.) 8. Some of them did ms no great honour by these claims 
 of kindred. (G.) 0. Sometimes, with the music-master's assistance, 
 the girls wonld give ns an agreeable concert. (G.) 10. At last a small 
 cure of fifteen pounds a year w.is ollered me in a distant ueighbour- 
 hooti. ((;.) 
 
 Exercise 176. 
 Simple Sentences continued. 
 
 [Inversions introduced.] 
 
 1 . Tn front of me sat an old lady in a great fur cluak ( D.) 2. A 
 barking so.iud the shepherd hears. (IF.) 
 
EXERCISES. 
 
 229 
 
 .SES 
 
 fnco, had 
 Tilt' com- 
 lera. {Sr.) 
 sty tassela 
 a his eye, 
 . Over the 
 r, built at 
 .) 6. The 
 le heralds, 
 o\v with a 
 i\v passu go 
 
 la] IS to bia 
 G.) 
 
 blow, (n ) 
 You will 
 rviuit de- 
 
 ly oilers all 
 
 not entff 
 
 inuity for 
 
 lose claims 
 
 lassibtance, 
 
 ;t u smnll 
 
 icighbour- 
 
 d. 
 
 5. 
 
 ■Within a •wiiidiiwcd niclie of th;it hiirh hall 
 ^ate lirunswick's hited chiLt'tuiu. (^U.) 
 
 Th.>n rose from sei, to sky the sad fare will. (Z?.) 
 
 Then .bho( Ic the liil's bv thunder rivon ; 
 Then vu.sli(d tlu' st'cd to hattle driven; 
 [And] louder than th' hnlt.s of heaven 
 
 Far Hashed the red artillery. (C.) 
 
 Id.) 2. A 
 
 I ar nasheu tue reu art 
 [To be tn attd as time separate sentenci s.] 
 
 n. On iho right sl;oulder of the m intlo tliere was cut, in white 
 rldtli, a cross ot' peculiar form. (Sr) (In analy.'^is, omit " there.'] 7. 
 lUside each por.son of rank wa.s pluced a gohlet of silver. (Sr.) 8. There; 
 comes out of the cloud, nur house — not new lo mo but quite t'nmiliar — 
 in its earliest reni! mbrance. {D.) [Tiiat "not new .... familiar," as 
 one phrase.] 
 
 9, 111 could the hauc:lity Diicre brook 
 His brother warden's snge rebuke (<Sc.) 
 
 10, Then wt nt Sir Uedivere the second time 
 Across the ridge, .... 
 
 (Counting the dewy pebbh s, fi.xed in thought. (T.) 
 
 11. Now fades the glimmering landscape on the sight, 
 
 [Ami] all the air a wjlemn .-tillness holds. ((»/•.) 
 
 [Treat as two separate sentiences.] 
 
 12. Full many a gem of purest rny >erene 
 
 The dui'k uufatliomud caves of ocean bear. (C?r.) 
 
 Exercise 177. 
 
 Simple Sentences continued. 
 [Noun and Adjective Complemexts.] 
 
 1. I have made thee, my country, the wonder of earth, (i?.) 
 
 2. . AH snt mute 
 
 onderingthe danger with deep thought. (M.) 
 
 8* In this infernal vale first met, Thou call'st 
 
 Me Father. (M.) 
 
 4. These ruftlings will only make us hated by all the wives of our 
 liciglibours. {<}.) 
 
 5. Our torments also may in length of time 
 Becojue our clomenis. (M.) 
 
 6« Young Francesci's hand remain'd 
 
 Still by the church's bonds unchain'd. (/y.) 
 
 7. In this manner, I considered my chihlren as a very valunble pr©- 
 cent made to my country. (G.) [" As" disregarded in analysis.] 
 
 8, Numberless were those bad angels seen, 
 Hovering ou wing under the cope of Hell. (M.) 
 
230 ENGLISH GUAMMAR. 
 
 9, Sage he stood 
 "NVith Atlaiitiiiii shouUlcrs fit to bear 
 The wi;i;^'lit uf mightiest monarchicji. (J/.) 
 
 10. This pluoi' lies cx|)ost'd, 
 The utmoat border of his. kingdom. {M.) 
 
 EXEUCLSK 178. 
 
 Simple Sentences continued. 
 
 [Infinitive and (JEituNU iNTRonurED.'J 
 
 1. Our going thithor is uncertain. {Sc.) 
 
 2. There was arming lieard in Vnlencia's halls. (Be") 
 
 3. I hate to learn thi- » hh of t'luo 
 
 From yon dull st ei)le".s drowsy chime. (■S'c.) 
 
 4. Hi.s tru.st was with the Kt»n'nal to ho detiu'd 
 Efiual in stnngth. (.1/.) 
 
 5. I remember his pointing with his wooden sword. {Sc.) 0. I could 
 not avoid expressing my concern at seeing a gentleman in such circtmi- 
 stances. ((/.) 7. It was worse in the days of winter to go prowling 
 about the streets. (L.) 
 
 b. 'Tis something in the dearth of fame . . • 
 
 To feel at least a putriot'.s shame. (//.) 
 
 9. 'Twere better by far 
 
 To have match'd our fair cousin witli young Loehinvar. (So,.') 
 
 10. It cost some exercise of the white truncheon, well secoiuh d by 
 the exertions of the domestics, to silence this canine clamour. {Sc.) 
 
 Exercise 179. 
 Simple Sentences continued, 
 [Infinitive Complements.] 
 
 1. I "fd before me the gladiator lie. (Z?.) 
 
 2. My wife world bid the girls hold up their heads. (G.) 
 
 3. And did they dare 
 
 Obey my frenzy's jealous ravings ? (i?.) 
 
 4. I never knew one of the travellers find fault with our gooscborrf 
 wine. (G.) 
 
 o. To me 'tis doubly sweet to find 
 
 Remembrance of that love remain. (^.) 
 
 G. I would fain lay my ineffectual fingers on tlie spoke of the great 
 wheel of tiie years. (L.) 7. Now I . . . see her snlitnry brother pass 
 through the dark streets at night, looking among the wandering fares 
 (P.) 8. I have known him double his knotty fi,-«t at a poor tremlding 
 child with the maternal milk hardly dry upon his lips. (L.) 
 
EXERCISES. 
 
 231 
 
 still I feci 
 My ftithfr's slow hand .... 
 Stroke out my childish curls across his knoc. (/v. D.) 
 
 10. I have seen your bed-ni;ik.rs in spectacles drop me a corts-y, 
 micitukiDg me for something of their own sort. (L.) 
 
 o 
 
 n. I could 
 
 ich circuiu- 
 prowling 
 
 r. (Sr.) 
 cnn(l( d by 
 
 ^ooscbcrr' 
 
 the parent 
 ntluT pns3 
 ling fiires 
 treml>Iing 
 
 Exercise 180. 
 
 Simple Sentenvcs continued, 
 
 [Infinitive as Complement continued.] 
 
 1. ISfr. Wilmot was by this blow soon dcternuncd to broak-off the 
 rngagcmcnt. {(i.) 2. Hy tluit time, I began to have a liiarty con- 
 tempt for the poor animal myself. ((7.) 3. At that age I should have 
 been disposed to laugli-at the grote.<(pie (iotliic heads grinning in 
 stone around the inside of the old Kound Church of tlie Templars. {L.) 
 \. 'Die old gentleman, hearing my name mentioned, seemed to look-at 
 me for some time witli attention. (Ji.) 0. Mr. S|»iker, alter tiu' receipt 
 f»f such a contidence, naturally desired to favour liis friend with a con- 
 fidence of his own. (/>.) G. George was to depart for town tlio next 
 day, to secure his commission, in pursuance of liis geiRious i)atron's 
 directions. (D.) 7. 1 am about to establisli my.self in one of tiie pro- 
 vincinl towns of our favoured island, in immediate connexion with one 
 of tlic learned professions. (i>.) 8. jMankind in general are observed 
 to warp their speculative conclusions to the bent of their individual 
 humours. (L.) U. Instead of returning him a decent acknowledgment, 
 she appeared to resent his compliments. (L.) 10. It was not dilliculi 
 for me, on Peggotty's solicitation, to resolve to stay with her untiij 
 after the poor carrier's fuucral. (/>.) 
 
 Exercise 181. 
 
 Simple Sentences continued. 
 [Nominative omitted, and Impersonal Vep.bs.] 
 
 1. Together let us beat this ample field. (P.) 
 
 2. Let us draw upon content for the deficiencies of fortune. (6'.) 
 
 3. Earth ! render back from out thy breast 
 A remnant of the Spartan dead. {B.) 
 
 4. Then rest you in Tantallon liold. («Sc.) 
 
 5. Behold the cliild, by Nature's kindly law, 
 Pleased with a rattle, tickled with a straw. {P.) 
 
 C. There behoves him to set up the standard of her grace. (.ITa) 
 
 7, Let thy gentle fingers fling 
 
 A melting murmur o'er mine ear. (C) 
 
 8, Me lists not at this tide declare 
 
 The splendour of the spousal rite. (<Sc.) 
 
-^ 
 
 232 
 
 ENGLISH GHAMMAIJ. 
 
 9. Tict ua not tlicn pursue, 
 
 By force impossible our sUito 
 
 Ot'epleudid vassalage. (3/.) 
 
 10. Now ]»()S.S(.SS 
 
 n spncidU.s world, to our native lleaven 
 
 Ijittlo iul'crior, by my adventure liard, 
 With peril great achieved. (J/.) 
 
 Exkijci.se 182. 
 Sinqilc Sentences cohflnncd. 
 
 flNFINITlVK AS CoMI'LEMKNT CONTINUED."! 
 
 1. Wc were !i]] desirous t(> show ourselves v<ry gratcl'ul in liim. (/),) 
 2, l\Tr. Thondiill iii;hIc no iir)rts to restrain her nujitials. (<1.) :\. The 
 butler, in his in;ister'.s [ibscnce, had a mind lo cut u liLTurt' fnr my 
 entertaiiuuent. (d.) 4. lie was able to retire at night to fiijoy himself 
 at a club of his fellow-cripples oyer a dish of hot meat fiml vegetables. 
 (L.) (Treat the whole phrase, "to retire .... vegetables," as com- 
 plenient.J .5. Some ellbrts to cut a portion of the wreck away were 
 then being made. (/>.) <".. I received an awful summon.s to attend 
 the presence of fu! whole as-einbled Wvm in the formidable back- 
 ])arloiir. (L.) 7. The creation of tin' world iiad not. in my opinion, 
 anything to do with my business. ((.'.) S. .\tler an elaborate estimate 
 of his resoinces, he had coiiie-to tlie conclusion to select a sum rcpre- 
 scMiting the amoimt with compound interest. (7>.) 
 
 y. Fell not from He iveu spirit more gross to lovo 
 
 Vice for itself. (M.) 
 
 10. Uailing at the writer with unrestrained resentment, my wife had 
 scarcely patience to hear me to the eutl. ((/.) 
 
 1. 
 
 2. 
 
 8. 
 
 4. 
 
 6. 
 
 EXEUCLSE 18'). 
 
 § 308. Co-ordinate and Contracted Sentences. 
 
 Fair Science frowned not on his humbl(;*l)irtn, 
 ]{ut Melancholy marked ]jim for her own. ((rV.) 
 
 The Moor had beleaguered Valenci: 
 
 I S II 
 
 all. 
 
 And lances gleamed up through Ikt citron-bowers, 
 
 And the t<Mits of the desert had girt lu'r plait), 
 
 And camels were trampling the vines of Spain. (Uc.) 
 
 The oirfew tolls the krnll of parting day. 
 The lowing herd winds slowly o'er the lea. 
 
 The j)loughman homeward plods hiw weary way. 
 And leaves the world to darkness and to me. (Gr.) 
 
 Die he, or Justice must. (.1/.) 
 
 The fnshening bn ezo of eve unfurled V at banner's massy fold 
 'I'll' parting gh am of sun^hiiie K-i.-sed that liauLrhty scroll of gold. 
 Night sank upon tlie du>ky biai'h. and on the piir|ile shore : 
 Buch uight in Knglund ne'i r had been, noi e'er again shall 1)0. 
 
 iMu.) 
 
 m 
 
EXi:UCISES. 
 
 233 
 
 ) 
 
 )!" gi>kl, 
 
 l)C. 
 
 (.xl/a.) 
 
 6. Slowly and sadly we laid him down, 
 
 From tlic field of hia famo fresh and fi;nry, 
 ^Ve carvfd not a line, and we raisrd ncit a .stimo, 
 lUit wo Ictt lum alone in lii.s glory. {Wvlj'e.) 
 
 7t Ni' war nor liattlc's sonnd 
 
 Was heard the world around, 
 The idle spear and shield were higli up hung. (}f.) 
 
 8. That oaten pipe of hers i.s rauto, 
 
 Or tin-own away: but with a lluto 
 
 Jhr loneliness she cheers: 
 This llute, made of a hemlock sialic, 
 At evening in in'.s honuward wallc, 
 
 The Quantoc'k woodman hears, ( II'") 
 
 EXEI'.CI.SE 184. 
 §§ 309-315. Conq'Jcx Scuti'nrcs. 
 
 [AltVHK'lHAL SkNTKN'KS IN ri'.ODL'i KD.] 
 
 1. Whflo onr til lULrlds were thus employed, tlie hosie.s.s entered the 
 room, ((r.) 2. They loMgiit cijually, until the miller began to jo.-so 
 tonii)er at finding himself so stoutly opposed, (.be.) :!. His rounteiianpo 
 bore as little the jnarks of .'^elf-den iiil. as his I abit indicatid contempt 
 of worldly sjileialour. {Sf.) 4. Wlien the two ciiampious stood (!p])o-;( d 
 to I ach other at tlie two extremities of the lists, the jmblic exjiectatiou 
 was strained to the highest pitch. (Sc.) 5. ( >p( n rebuke is better tiian 
 secret love. {I'^'ikj. Jlihlc.) tl. 'J'he >ame excciable tyranny drove the 
 younger pait of ns from the fires, when our feet were perishing with 
 told. (/>.) 7. There has nut b<eii a lawsuit in the parish, siuco he 
 Ijas lived ami .ig them. ((?.) 
 
 tl. 1 am so (I'cply smitten through the helm, 
 
 'i'hat without help I miy not last till nmrn. (T.) 
 
 n. A.s I had .some opinion o*" my son's prudence, I was willing to 
 Entrust liim with this commission. (G.) 10. Though the same room 
 served us for parlour and kiteiieu, that only made it the warmer. G.) 
 
 ExKlvCISE 185. 
 Complex Sentences continued, 
 
 [AlUECTIVAb SeNTEN<'RS IXTIIODUCED.] 
 
 1. Wo nro the deliverers of the connnon wealth, who oaao every man 
 of his burdi n. (.S'-'.) '2. This pi llv N(>ro artually braiidi d a boy who 
 Jiad olV. nded him with a red-liot iron. (/>.) It, The gruvtest part of 
 Sir h'oger's csti'te is tenanted by persons who have served liimself or 
 his ancestors. (Sf-(H.) 1. A mutiny broke out which ail i'u. vigotu' 
 ami resolution of Cromwell i-ouM hardly ipiell. (Ma.) ."i. I determined 
 to .send my eldest son to to\sii. where his abilities miirht coulril.ute to 
 our support. (<i.) <■>. The austere ruriiaus who bore .sway at Mdiii- 
 bur^jh, had permilld t'luaiea U) ubouuie t..e crowu. {^Mu.) 7. 1 iu*! 
 
234 
 
 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 iiiciiM'Iy 
 biK'kh; 1 
 voice to 
 
 8. 
 
 10. 
 
 tluit stn;?!' rif sleepiness, wlion Pefff^ntiy seemed to grow ira- 
 hirijje. (I).) S. Wo ngreed to lirciikt'ast together on tlic liotiny- 
 )unk, where my yonngest diuiglitcr, at my request, joined her 
 the concert on tlie trees above vis. 
 
 I (lid send 
 To you for goM to pay my legions, 
 Which you denied mc {Sh.) 
 
 Whom 1 most hiitecl living, thou hast made me 
 \Vith thy religious truth and modesty, 
 Now iu hid ashes honour. (^Sh.) 
 
 
 Exercise 180. 
 
 [AlUECTlVAL SeNIENCES CONTINUED.] 
 
 1. After tliis, I allotted tf) earh of the family what tliey were to do. 
 (Vi.) 2. Bring home every niglit what money you (arn for our su|)- 
 port. ((t.) 15. Here I nm to speak wii;it I do know. {Sli.) 4. Vou 
 have done that you sliould he sorry for. (>7(.) 
 
 5. This same day 
 
 Must end the work the ides of Mareii hegun. (Sh.) 
 
 f). T can't lielp wondering at what you could see in my face, to 
 think me a proper mark for deception. ((.'.) 
 
 7. l-<'t all tlie ends tliou aim'st at be thy C<nuitry'8, 
 
 Thy God's, and Truth's, (^h.) 
 
 8* The vilo strength man wields 
 
 For eartli's destruction, thou dost ail despis(>. 
 Hurling him from thy bosom to the skies. (C) 
 
 !* 'J'h(! tlinty couch we now must share, 
 
 JShall seem with down of eider piled, 
 If thy protection hover near. (Sc.) 
 
 10. Report speaks you a bonny monk, that would hear the matia 
 chiuio ere ho quitted his bowl. {iSc.) 
 
 e.xehcise 187. 
 [Noun Sentences introduced.] 
 
 1. Frugal by habit, they scarcely knew that temperance was R virtno. 
 (^r.) 2. 1 soon found by their looks they had met with a tliousand 
 misfortunes on the road. ((»'.) !{. 1 should like to luar how that is 
 made good. {Si'.) 4. Finding himself now at his ease, he demand(Hl of 
 tl»e guide who and what lie was, (Sr.) f). That the king could not im- 
 jxi.se taxes without conHcnt of l^iriiament is admitted to have been, 
 irom time inmien\orial. a fundanietital law of I'lngland. (Mi.) <1. 
 Wentwoitli di>tinctly saw iu what mnuner idone hia cud could be ob- 
 tained. {Ma.) 
 
 7« , Ti 11 me not, in mournful rnnnbcr.s, 
 
 Life is but an ejupty dream. (Lo.) 
 
t:XKUClSES. 
 
 2n5 
 
 p^row ira- 
 liu hoiiuy- 
 oinod hoi 
 
 cm to do. 
 
 our siip- 
 
 I i. V(m 
 
 * laco, to 
 
 Lc matia 
 
 ft virtno. 
 loiisaiid 
 
 tllMt is 
 
 ,ii<1(,hI ol' 
 not iiii- 
 
 '0 I )(.'('! 1. 
 
 /.'.) »;. 
 I bo ob- 
 
 8. Wio was to represent tlie Queen f>f Bt^auty and of Love, on tlie 
 present occasiou, no one was i)re])ared to guesd. (.Sv.) 
 
 0. Alp knew by the turbans that rolled on tlie sand 
 The foremost of tliese were the best of his band, (ii.) 
 
 10. I thought ten thousand swords must liave leaped from their 
 8('id)bard8 to avenge even a look Uiat threatened her with iubult. 
 {Burke.) 
 
 EXEHCISE 188. 
 
 [Miscellaneous Examples.] 
 
 1. A few weeks before the death of Klizabeth the concjuest [of Ire- 
 land], wliieli had been begun more than a hundred years befijre by 
 btrohgbow, Wiis eompleted by IMountjoy. {Mn.) 
 
 2. It's dull in our town sinee my playmates le'"M 
 1 ean't forget that l"m bereft 
 
 Of all the pleasant sights ihey see, 
 
 NVhieli the I'iper al^<o promised me. (7?. /?.) 
 
 3. The part of the mill she liked be,>t was tlie topmost story, where 
 were the great heaps of grain, which she could sit ou and slide down 
 continually. ((»'. A.) 
 
 4. Chief 
 TIk'c. Sion, aiul the flowery brooks beneatli. 
 That wasli tiiv hallowed feet, and warbling llow, 
 Nigiitly 1 visit. (.)/.) 
 
 5. Sinee such were thi' conseipienees of going to law, Tom thought 
 his father really blameable, as his aunts and uncles had always said 
 he was. (t?. A'.) 
 
 6« III fart s the land, to hastening ills a prey, 
 
 Wiicre wealth atcumulates and men decay. 
 Princes and lords may llourish or may fade, 
 A breath can make' them, as a bri'ath hath made. (G.) 
 
 7. If the knight {ouched his opponent's shield with the reverse of 
 his lanee, the trial of skill was made with what were eallcd the arms 
 of courtesy. {Sc.) 
 
 8. Ilalfafraid, lie tirst 
 Against the window beats; tlie-n, brisk alights 
 On the warm hearth; then, hopping o'er the <loor, 
 Kyes all the sn.iliTig family a.skance, 
 
 And ix'cks, and stnrts, and wonders where he id : 
 Till, more familiar grown, the table crumbw 
 Attract hia slender feet. ( Th.) 
 
 0. Maggie hung on his neck in rather a Htranu'l^^ng fashion, \^hilo 
 his blue-grey eyes wandered towards the croft and t'.ie river, wliei(> bo 
 promised himself that he would begin to tish to-morjuwmoiuuig. (Cr.ii.) 
 
 lU, As Chaos, which, by heavenly doom, 
 
 Had sle[it in everla.^ting glcxnn, 
 Stiirtt'il witii terror and surprise 
 When light tirst Hashed upon her eyes— • 
 
236 
 
 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 So LunJoii'ri .-ioiis in uijrhtonp woke, 
 
 III bedgown woko her dainea : 
 For shouts wen; heiinl 'mid lire ami siiiokc, 
 And twice trn hunih'ed voices spoke — 
 
 " The playhouse is in flames ! " (//. S.^ 
 
 11. In November, 1010, met that renowned Parliament which, in 
 spite of many errors and disasters, is justly entitled to the reverence 
 uud t^riitiludu of all who enjoy the blessings of coustitutional govern- 
 meut. (Ma.) 
 
 12. Nor second he tliat rode snblimc 
 
 lJj)oii the seraph winp;3 of ecstasy, 
 
 The secrets of the al)yss to spy; 
 He i)assed the llamiug bounds of space and time : 
 The livini; thrones, the sapphire blaze, 
 AVlicre angels treinbh; while they ,L!;a/e, 
 He saw : but, bl istcd with exce.-s of liglit, 
 Closed his eyes iu endless night. {Or.) 
 
 13. Tra Idles never said who the real offender was, though ho 
 Bmarteil for it next day, and was imprisoned so many hours that became 
 I'ortli witli a whole church-yurdful of skeletons swarming all over his 
 Latin dictionary. (/>.) 
 
 14. There he sl.,-pt. 
 
 And dream'd, as iippetite is wont to dream, 
 Of meats and driidcs, Nature's refreshment sweet; 
 Him thouglit, he by the brook of Cherith stood 
 And saw the ravens witli their horny l)eaka 
 Food to Mlijah bringing even aial morn. (M.) 
 
 15. The numerous cooks wlio attended on the prince's progie.ss. 
 liaving exerted all their art in varying the forms in which tiie ordi- 
 .lary provisions were served up, had >ucceeded in rendering then per- 
 fectly unlike their natural appearance, (^'c.) 
 
 16 He scarce had hnisli'd. when such murmur fill'd 
 
 'I'll' as.scmhly, as wlnii hollow rocks retain 
 'I'hc sound of l)lu.>t<'iing winds, which all night long. 
 Had roiistd the sea now with hoarse cadence lull 
 {Sea-faring men o'crwatch' tl. whose bark by chance 
 Or pinnact! ancliors in a craggy bay 
 Atter the temiiest. {M.) 
 
 17. Slic bad t(»M 'I'om that ^he siiould like him to put the wormi? 
 on the hook fir her. altiioui,di she acc(>pted his word when he assured 
 her, that worms couldn t f( el. ( (i'. A.) 
 
 18. The large while owl that with age is blind, 
 Is carried away in a giist of wind, 
 
 His wings could bear him not as fara 
 As he g(H'th now the lattice past- 
 He is borne by the winds; the rains do follow. {E. B.) 
 
 1'.). A few minutis" ])aiiHc having Im en allowed tlnit the combatant.s 
 lind till ir bor.ses might recover breath, I'rince .John with hif^ trunchi'on 
 Kij^ued to tUe trunt]ietb to sound the un.^et. (<b'c.) 
 
EXERflSKS!. 
 
 237 
 
 ordi- 
 per- 
 
 20. From yonder wall 
 Thfre flaslird no fire, nnd thoio histied no hull, 
 Thnnsli he sldod heiitntii the hastion's frown 
 Tliat llanked the seasvard gate of the town, 
 Though lie heard the soniid, and could almost tell 
 The sullen words of the siritirud 
 
 As his nicasuretl step on the atones hdow 
 Clanked as he paced it to and fro. (7>.) 
 
 21. The sqnire's life was quite as idle as his sons', hnt it was n 
 fiction ke[it np by himself and his eontenipnraries that youtli was 
 exclusively the i^eriod of folly, ((/. /;.; 
 
 22. As when the pohnt rod 
 Of Amram'a son in J-lgypt's evil day 
 
 Waved round the ceast, up-callM a piti^hy clonj 
 Of locusts, warping on the ea.>tfni wind. 
 That o'er the realm of in\pious l'hai;\oh hung 
 Like night, and daikeu( d all the land of Nile, 
 So numberless were those bad angrls s* rii 
 Hovering on w..ig under the cope of Hell 
 Twixt upper, nether, and surrounding lires. (.1/.) 
 
 23. Seen at a little distance as she walked across tlie ehurehyard 
 and down the village, she seemed to be attired in pure white, and 
 her hair looked like a dash of gold on a lily. (f/. Vi.) 
 
 24. Now when the rosy-fingred [Morning fairo 
 
 Weary of aged Tithones satVron bcl. 
 Had spri ad her purple robe through deawy aire, 
 
 And the high hils Titan discovered. 
 The rf'Vall virgin >hook otf drou>\ lad : 
 
 And, rising forth out of her baser bowre 
 Lookt for her knight, who far away was tied, 
 
 And for her dwarfe. that wont to wait eacli howre 
 Then gan she wail and weepe to sei- tuat woeful atowre. (<Sy>.) 
 
 tormis 
 -ured 
 
 tanta 
 'heon 
 
 EXEKCISES IN PUNCTUATION. 
 
 Exercise 189. 
 {Period or Full Stop.) 
 
 § 363. Pnnctnato :— 
 
 1. I pass over all that hai^pened at school until the anniversary of 
 my birthday I remember seurcely unythiug about it. 2. 1 left Salt ni 
 House upon the morrow afternoo'n I Uttle thought then that I left it 
 never to return. 3. Ilia hair was ipiite white now he was very neatly 
 dressed in a blue coat. 4. We went hotue i urly in the evening it was 
 a very fine evening. 5. I observed that INIr. Murdstone was graver 
 and steadier than the twt) gentlemen th' y were very gay and earele.ss 
 they joked freely with one another. 0. iJoth plots W( re .--onn discovered 
 cowardly traitors hastened to save themselvt s. 7 \ uluable plate was 
 often set on the table there Were signboards which had cost thirty or 
 forty i)Ound». K. The iunkeej)era were nut like othir iuukeein rs on the 
 
238 
 
 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 ^ 
 
 Conlinrnl tlic landlord was tlio tyrant of those who rrossod the Ihrosh- 
 old in England he was the servant. 1). The military ,ij;l<>ry of Frauee 
 was at till.' ill i^ht shi^ had vanqnished mii^iity eoalitinns she Imd snh- 
 jn.i^'atcd f^'reat cities and i)rf)vinees. 10. There was no sympatliy 
 between th(! two classes the earn<\st of each was the jest of tUu other tlie 
 pleasures of each were the torments of the other. 
 
 ExKliciSE 190. 
 (Colon and Semicolon.') 
 
 §§ 364, 365. runctuato : — 
 
 1. Tlic kiiHj: alone was entitled to convoke the estates of Ihe realm 
 lie could at his jih-asure dismiss thi ni. 2. Edward the First ventured 
 to hreak throuLrh the rule hut he t'uconntered an opposition to which 
 hi' found it expe(li('nt to yield. ;». His grandson attiniptid t(» violate 
 this .solemn compact hut Ihe attempt was strenuously withstoo<l. 4. 
 They Were interdicted from taxing hut they claimed the rij^ht of 
 bepri^ini:; and borrowing, o. The art of war has been carried to a 
 perftction unknown to former flf^es and the knowledire of that art is 
 coniined to a juirticnlar class. (5. No resource was left but a Pariia- 
 ment and in tlie spring of 1<!!() a I'arliament was convoked. 7. The 
 extreme section of one class consists of bigoted dutnrds the extreme 
 K(Mtion of the other consists of .^liallow and re>tless empirics. S. 
 Hampden's regiment was rrgardetl as one of the best and even Hamp- 
 den's regiment, was described by Cromwell as a mere rabble of tapsters 
 and serving men out of place, i). The siege of (Gloucester was ra .sed 
 the loyalists in every part of the kingdom were disheartened and the 
 lord.s hastened back from Oxford to Westminster. 10. His troops 
 wiae comparatively few but he was little in the habit of counting his 
 enemies. 
 
 E.XEUCISE 191. 
 
 (Same continued.) 
 
 runctuate : — 
 
 1. Ho publicly disclaimed all thought of calling in foreign aid 
 auainst his p«'ople he privately solicited aid from France ami from 
 Denmark. 2. France was our old enemy it was against France that 
 the most glorious battl»>s recorded in our aimals had been louudit the 
 coiKjue.-t of France had been twice etVected by the Plantagenet.s. !>. 
 For a time his suggestions had been slight' 'il but it was now thought 
 expedient to act upon them. 4. He rej)resented to them that the re- 
 laxation of disciplines had introduced a long series of disorders that a 
 people ruineil by oppression could no longer supply a numerous army 
 with the means of luxury that the danger of eadi individual had 
 increased with the despotism of the military order, o. A select 1 o ly 
 of the (iothic y(ailli was received among the imperial troops the re- 
 njaiialer was soM into .servitude. G. The youths lie trained in the 
 exercise of arms to the dani.-els lie gavt; a liberal ami Kitiian education 
 and he gradually introduced between the two nations the clo.se.st and 
 most cn<learing connections. 7. From an early period the kings of 
 Kngland hail been assisted l)y a I'rivy Council (lining several centuries 
 tiiis body deliberated uu the mast delicate atVairs by dt grees its 
 ciiarnctcr chai:ged it became too largcs 'or dispatch and s<'erecy. 8. 
 The uatiouul a]jirit swelled and rose high the terms ull'cred by thw 
 
EXERCISES. 
 
 2r>o 
 
 lie rc- 
 
 that a 
 
 nriny 
 
 liad 
 
 loly 
 
 IC IC- 
 
 I tlie 
 atioii 
 it iiiid 
 
 St* (if 
 
 iiirics 
 a its 
 •. 8. 
 V tbtf 
 
 nllics were firmly rcjectod the dykis wore npcncil tlio wlu'lo onun(rv 
 Wiia turned into a prcat lako. D. Charles was insatial'ly prordy of 
 Frciioh ^'old he had l>y no intaiis n'ljniiui>hrd thr hope of t'stalih.sliiTif; 
 ttl)M»:iiti' nionaroliy hy force of arms. 10. llouuur all mt-u love tlie 
 brotherhood fear ( iod honour the kin<;. 
 
 EXEIKISE 192. 
 {Comma; with Colon and Semicolon.) 
 § 366 and preceding §§. rimctuate : — • 
 
 1. A few omiiieut nun who In-lonf^ed to an emlirr and Vx-tterap;'' 
 Were exempt from the general eontap^ion. 2. Cowhy di.stin^'uislird na 
 a loyali.st and as a man of letters rai.scd his voiee eouVagt ou.sly airain-st 
 the i)revailin;^ immorality, o. 'J'he playhonsiM shut by the Im cMliii^' 
 fanatic in tlie day of his pow. r were again crowded. 4. Sci nery 
 dre. ses and decoiations da/zled the eyes of the inuliitnde. T). 'J'o Ijiis 
 (lay I'alamon and Arcite t'ymon and Iphiiretiia 'J'h' o lore and llonoria 
 are the d(;light l)oth of critics anil schfxtU'oys. d. 'i'he wits as a ch^^s 
 lia I been iiiUKlU d by their liatred of riiritanb^m to take the siile of tin- 
 Court. 7. Drydeu in particnlar had done goi;d si rviee to tiui govt-rn- 
 ment. S. Cavalier and KoundheatI Churchman and I'luitan were for 
 once allied. 'J Divines jurists slatesnan nobh s princes .•^wrlled the 
 triumj)h. 10. The Treasurer was iu truth expoacd to the veugt anre of 
 Parliament. 
 
 Exercise 193, 
 
 (Same rontinned.y 
 
 Punctnate : — 
 
 1. Thi; most probable suppo. ition sroms on the whole to be 2. If 
 this were so the a.ssassin must have afterwanls bitterly execrated his 
 own wickedneas and folly. 3. Aci ordingly in .Jamiary ItlTi* the Par- 
 liament which had been in existencf ever since the Ix'ginning of tl (; 
 year ItiGl was dis.solved and writs were is.'-ued for a new election. 
 4. The talo of Oates thouirh it had sutliced to convtilse the whole 
 realm would not unless conlirnicd by other evidence suthce to destroy 
 the hiunblest of those whom he hiid accused. Ti. For by the old law of 
 Kiigland two witness(>3 are necessary to e.-tabljsh a charge of trea.son. 
 6. Oates that he ndglit not be- eidip^ed liy iiis imitators soon ad<led a 
 iarg(f supph nient to his original narrati\e. 7. 'J'he I'hief judi,'es fif the 
 land were corrupt cruel and timid. 8. Tht; scheme which he pro|Kist'd 
 showed considerable inirennity. 0. Among th' statesmen of those 
 times Halifax was in geiuiis tlie lirst his intellect was f( rtile subtle; and 
 eapa''ious. 10. Insteail of 4uarrelling with the nickname he us.iumed 
 it US) u title (jf honour. 
 
 E.XEIICISE 194. 
 
 (Note of Interrogation, Quotation Maiis, ttr.) 
 
 §§ 367-372. riinetiiate:— 
 
 1. Pray \\n\t\ patience saiil the bee or you'll spend yi^ur Bubstaiice 
 rvA for an<:ht I see you may staml in need of it all. 2. liogc.u rogi.i) 
 I'fcplied the Bi)ider yet ait thin '\d vou bhould have m"fu rt.dpc -t to u i-u- 
 
PP?%,''««4, 
 
 210 
 
 ENQLISir GRAMMAU: EXERCISES. 
 
 son whom all Uio world allows to ho so much your better. 3. Wha . 
 moan baid I thoso ^'nat llij^hta of birds that are perpetually hovflrinj; 
 about the brulf^e and settling upon it from time to time 4. Theso 
 said the genius are envy avarice sujjerstitiou despair love with the like 
 cares and passions that infest human life, o, I here fetched a deep 
 siu'h alas saul I man was maile in vain here is ho given away to misery 
 and mortality tortured in life and swallowed up in death. 6. Then 
 suddenly would come a dream of a far (liferent character a tumultuous 
 dream commencing with a music such as now I often heard in sleep 
 nmsic of preparation and of awakening suspense. 7. In conclusion for 
 the manuscript here is a little teilious both father ai. 1 sun fairly sal 
 down to the mess and never left oflf till they hud de8j)atched all thuj 
 remained of tlie litter. 
 
 S. I would '7ot enter on my list of friends 
 
 Though giaced with polish'd manners and fine sense 
 
 "i • ^ ''. a"^:^: sensibility the man 
 
 "Wi- Ueeiih'-isly sets foot upon a worm. 
 
 9. IJnfaumg IL ■. wlien life's last embers bum 
 "When soul to soul and (hist to dust return 
 Heaven to thy charge resigns the awful hour 
 Oh then thy kingdom comes immortal power. 
 
 10. It must be so Plato thou reasonest well 
 
 Else whence this pleasing hope this fond desire 
 This longing after immortality 
 Or whence this secret dread and inward horror 
 Of falling into nought Why shrinks the soul 
 Buck ou herself and ^turtles ut deibtructioa. 
 
( 211 ) 
 
 APPENDIX I. 
 
 Additional Examples of rAusrso. 
 [only thk mure difficult wouds rur.ATi.i>.] 
 
 A. " You were bilent when accused — a clear t'otifensinti of guilt.** 
 
 when: conj. [temporal], conrn'iting soutouce, "[you were] accused," 
 tu sentence, " you were silent." 
 
 wk. conj. pass, imlic. 
 
 accused: i.e. (you) were accused: verb tr 
 past indef. plur. 2 pers., agr. subject *' y' 
 
 confession: noun com. nout. abstr. since- nr i., in ji;.p(isilioa to sentence 
 "you were silent " ( = this was a clear coniessiou^, 
 
 B. '* This dune they went to dine." 
 
 "A time to Idwjh." ....«! saw tho.-n kl/hd.'* 
 
 This: prou. demonstr. neut. siii','. nom. ahsnl. with " JoJJt'.** [" T/us 
 dune" adverbial phrase modityiug verb "KOif,"] 
 
 to dine: verb intrans. wk. couj. act. infin. iuJef. ; complement (ad- 
 verbial) to " u-cnt." 
 
 to langb : .... complement (adjectival) to noun '^ dmc." 
 
 killed: .... pass, infin. indef. (=:to be killed: § -JU), complemiut 
 to verb " suw." 
 
 C. " Itt us go ;" " let A B C be a triangle," &c. 
 
 In such casf's the word ht must bo parsed as a so]-»arat(! and 
 independent verb, in tlie Imperative Moud. 7.^/ i.s here eipiivaleiit 
 to siifrr^ permit ; and the eominaiid or requeiit may bo repirded 
 as a<idressed to some ima|,'inary i)ers()n or persons whoso ^>e/-m<i>- 
 siun is assumed [2nd. pers. sing, or pi. prcs. imi)erativej. 
 
 D. "He was busy imting letters-," "let us go fmhinj" "while the 
 bread was baking," 
 
 In such phrases as tho«o, it is ?;omctimes diHiciilt to say 
 wlicther tho form in /?)'/ sliould l)e parsed as a l'articij)l(' or a 
 Verbal Nonn FGernnd, § 268]. It may with propriety be treated 
 as a Verbal Nonn, whenever a Preposition mi^ht naturally bo 
 iiitrodnoed. Thus : "ho was busy vritlmj letters," i.<\ in or 
 at writing;; urifing. Gerund: — "lot ns go fishiiifr," i.e. on,al»>nt, 
 or for fishing; fishinfj. Gerund : — "whih; tho bread was bidin;/,'* 
 i.e. in {the ad (/) bakin^j ; b thing, Gerund. After tho ve'rb to U 
 
 li 
 
212 
 
 An-ENDIX. 
 
 tlio form in i»,v may be treated as a Participle when not used in 
 a passive or nillcxivo scnso: e.ij. "Noah was prcj)ann;f the ark;" 
 p/V7>(^ri/<5r, Participle : — " while the ark was preparing ;" preparing, 
 (jlerund. 
 
 The Infinitive Mood. — It has T)oen seen that tho Infinitive 
 Mood is a kind of Noun. A>; such it may be parsed as either 
 tho Subject (§ '260) or tiio Olyeet (§ 2G1) of another Verb ; or as 
 tho Complemont of a Verb, a Noun, an Adjective, or an entire 
 sentence (§§ 2G3-2GG). 
 
 Tho parsing of a Subject-Infinitive presents no difficMilty. 
 
 With reference to the Object-lntinitive, tliere is sometimes 
 a difficulty in deciding whether tiie ])receding Verb is transi- 
 tive or intransitive. Take the phrase " he hopes to win." The 
 simple Verb hope is rarely or never used transitively. In a transi- 
 tive sense we say, to hope /or. Yet here to irin is so evidently the 
 direct Object of hope, that it ouglit in spite of this difficulty to 
 bo parsed as an Objective, and not as a mere Complementary 
 Infhiitive [Adverbial]. 
 
 Bear in mind also that some Verbs, taking two Objects in tho 
 Active Voice [teach, ask, § 209], may retain a single Object in the 
 Passive. Hence in such a sentence as " I was taught to parse,*' to 
 parse is object of the Verb 2 ivis taught, in spite of its being 
 in tlio Passive Voice. 
 
 Tho Complementary Infmitivo after a Verb, Adjective, or 
 entire sentence, is virtually an Adverb, and iu parsing should 
 be so descril )ed : e.g» 
 
 I come to bury Coesar: to bury, Coiiipl, lufia. to *' come," — Adver- 
 bial. 
 
 Things hard to be understood: Corapl. infin. to hard, — Adverbial. 
 
 The Indopoudfuts were — to nso the phrase of their time — rout aud 
 branch men: to use, Compl. bifin. to sentence, Tho Jhdept'ndents 
 were root and branch men, — Adverbial. 
 
 The Complementary Infmitivo after a Noun is virtually an 
 Adjective, and in parsing should be so described : as, 
 
 A crime to ho cx/iiatcd with blood: — to be expuded, Compl. Infin. to 
 cn>/u?, — Adjectival. 
 
Arri'NDix. 
 
 213 
 
 used in 
 cark;" 
 
 ifinitivc 
 i either 
 > ; or as 
 1 entire 
 
 y- 
 
 iietniK'S 
 , traiisi- 
 ." The 
 a transi- 
 lutly the 
 iculty to 
 mcutary 
 
 bs in tlio 
 ct iu the 
 )(irse," lo 
 is being 
 
 ivo, or 
 Hliould 
 
 -Adver- 
 bial. 
 
 -r«H)t iUiil 
 pendents 
 
 lally au 
 lafiQ. to 
 
 ArrENDix n. 
 
 A. DirrERFNT Mode of Exiiiiitixg the Analysis op Sentences. 
 
 The tahi'lar I'orni is hy no nictms cfrstiitial to Analysis. Son-o 
 may prefer sncli a moilc of arran}:;c'nicnt as tiie following, a.s 
 Imiui; more r<iniple : — 
 
 No. 1 (11. 1 17). 
 
 SuBM'.c r : We 
 
 KNI.AIUil'.Mi:NT OF .SLMiJKCT; all 
 
 PiiKMicATB . . . . : assomblea 
 Extensions OF Tin i>i<\\Tr. : (l> \>y sunrise (2) ia our com- 
 
 ninu aiiartuifnt. 
 
 No. 2 (p. 147). 
 
 SuilJI.OT : |ivoJccessor 
 
 KN'i.Ainir.MKNT OF Srit.iifT: my 
 iMOiDK.'ATi: .... 
 
 OiWKcr . . . . 
 
 ENLAUCiKMFNT <>V OltJlXJT 
 LXTKNSION OF rRKlJlCAll. 
 
 No. 7 (p. 119). 
 SuBJi:CT 
 
 h.ul niatlo 
 il M'at 
 
 ovt'isliail(>\v<'«l 1)V a hpi1'j;o, &c. 
 at a .->niall di.staucu tmni thi: 
 huusu. 
 
 . : till' ri"l 
 EnlauukmkntsOF SuuJiX'T: (I) |.i'tcut (2) of Aniram's s^n 
 
 (;i) waved rouud the coa 4. 
 Pm:i>I('ATB . . . . : Up-rallod 
 
 OiUKCT : a clnud 
 
 Enlaugi;mi:nts of Odjixt : (1) pitchy (2) of locusts, warp- 
 
 iiiLj ciii tlip t-asteni wind. 
 
 Or, " ivarpinff,^' i.e. n-orhlntj sJiore-jmrd, may be taken as referring.: 
 to the collective noun *'dowl," rather than t(. the " /otv?.s7.s " 
 forming the " eloiid." 
 
 Further, those who ])rrf(r to do so, may use the ternis 
 "Adjectival" and " Adverbiiil," instead of " Enlargement " and 
 -Extension." See §§ 305, 8U0. Thus— 
 
 No. 8 (p. 149). 
 
 Subject : winds 
 
 An.iKCTivAT, TO Sfiui'.cT . : luiwliiic; 
 
 PUKPICAIK ic. CoMil,!:.MLM : diivc devious 
 
 Object : me 
 
 Adjectivals TO Object . : (1) scarco hopint; to ntrain tliat 
 
 rest (2) always Ironi port 
 with-ludd (;i) always distifst 
 
 Adverbial.^ TO Predicate : (1) sails rent (2) seams opening 
 
 wide (•')) compass lost. 
 
244 
 
 APPENDIX, 
 
 COMPLEX SENTENCES, No. 1. (p. 158.) 
 General Analysis. 
 
 A. I was met at the door by the captain 
 
 of a ship : Principal Sontonce. 
 
 a'. C''^) I was going out with this reso- 
 lution : Adv. Sent, to A. 
 
 n'. with whom I had forniorly some 
 
 little acquaintance : Ailj. Si-nt. tt» "captain." 
 
 B. (and) he agreed to be my companion : I'rincipal sentence, co-or<L 
 
 with A. 
 
 Detailed Analysis. 
 
 A. " I waa met at the door," &c. 
 
 SirnjECT 
 
 Frf.dicate .... 
 Extensions of rRi;nicATE 
 
 I 
 
 was met 
 
 (1) at the (lnor(2") by thecaptam 
 of the ship. [Adverbials.J 
 a', (as) " I was going out," &c. 
 
 SniijECT : I 
 
 Predicate . . . . : was going ont 
 Extension of Predicate : with that resolution. [Ad- 
 verbial.] 
 
 a*. " with whom I had formerly," &c. 
 
 Subject : I 
 
 Predicate : had 
 
 OnjECT with Enlargements : some little acquaintance. 
 Extension of Predicate. . : ''^1) with wliom (2) formerly. 
 
 [Adverbials.] 
 
 Sentence a* may be perhaps more logically analysed thus : — 
 
 SunjECT. ..... 
 
 Predicate ..... 
 
 OltJECT 
 
 Extension of Predicate 
 
 I 
 
 had-some-littlf.-acquaintance-with 
 
 whom 
 
 forniorly. fAilverbial.] 
 
 (I have acquaintance with = l kuow.^ 
 
 B. "he agreed," &c. 
 
 Subject : ho 
 
 Predicate with Comi>t. (Adverbial) : agreed to be my companion. 
 
 No. 5. (EXERCISE 188.) 
 
 General Analysis. 
 
 A. Tom thought his father really blame- 
 able : Princ. Sent, 
 
 a*, (as) his aunts and uncles had nUvays 
 said [contracted co-ordinate stntences 
 taken together for brevity] . . : Adv. Sent, to A. 
 
ice. 
 
 ^■iptain." 
 ice, co-oriL 
 
 the captain 
 L'lbials.J 
 
 n. [Ad- 
 
 ice. 
 formprly, 
 
 Ims : — 
 Dtance-with 
 
 
 
 APPENDIX. 245 
 
 *'• (^'^"O he was [blnmcaMcl . v c . , 
 
 »'. (.s.nre) su.h were the coDsequoncPs'of "'* °^J' °^ "^'J'" 
 
 going to law . . ^ '*'* ., ^ 
 
 .,,,.,,. • Adv. Sent, to A. 
 
 (Detailed Analysis as in previous examples ) 
 
 l^^A"tJtlX%ll^^^^^^ -f con. 
 singo or co-or.linate; and the\md\ }i '^'"^^'"^TS ^vlu-ther 
 a', a^ a3 b- b^ L^ ^e; to dcnolerifet^^t'^S!. "^"^' 
 
 No. 24. (EXERCISE 188.) 
 
 ^' ^Z^^^ ^''^''^ '''''^'° "'""*'' ofldrousy: 
 
 «'. [win] ;he'ros;.f;„,:,,a ^^.rnin^ fair' '""" ""*' 
 
 ,V*'"y;'<; had .spread^ . : 
 
 through (iewy air . . • a i o 
 
 a', and [when] the high hdls' TiUn dis: ' '" ^' 
 
 covered , , 
 
 ■ *'''■• S«nl- to A (co-ord. 
 
 B. She) rWng f„„h . . . . ,„,.i„, f„ "'"•»';• 
 
 '-kn,.ht...a„„,„rherdwarre.. P-in. S,.,.. („,„,,) ,^„j. 
 
 b'.,-l.o(.het„ight)m..„a,h„dfled. A^'Vu., .<. .,„,,„„ 
 
 v. that (the dwarfe) wont to wait each '" "' 
 hour . 
 
 ' M]- Sent, to « dwarfe " in 
 
 C. Then gan she wail and weep to see 
 
 that woeful stour . n r. 
 
 ■^'■'nc. Sent, (contr.) co- 
 
 (Detailed Analysis as in previous examples.) 
 
 ompanion. 
 
24G 
 
 AiTENDlX. 
 
 I 
 
 APPENDIX III. 
 
 On the Tnterchangk of Consonants, as soon by comparison o! 
 words l»(!loii^iii<; ti) tlu iiativo English vocabulary (soo 
 ]). loG) with coiTciSixHidi ij? wcjrds in tlio Grork and Latin 
 lan^'uagcs, ((iiaifo-Lacm brauch of the Aryan or Indo* 
 EuroiK^an Kaniily). 
 
 At sonio ronioto jKsriod in tho history of tlic human race, tho 
 iriluis of tho Aryan Family — now so widely dis])ors('d, and broken 
 up into so many distinct branches, — a))j)ear to have dwelt 
 tojA'citlier, and to liavo posse'ssed a eonunon hinji,uagc. 
 
 Tliis appears from tho identity wliieh can still bo traced in a 
 larj^o nuiubcr of Aryan words, in spitt; of tlieelianjies which they 
 have underp)no in dilferent countries, in the course of a;^rs. 
 Tho words whicli sliow this identity arc, in almost every caso, 
 tlios(} which stand for tho most eonnnon and universal notions: 
 ns,/(//u /', mother ; tho numerals one, two, tliree, &c. ; the jjersoiial 
 pronouns /, tJmit ; and others. 
 
 As we cannot conceive of a hmjijuage existing witliout words 
 to cxpniss notions such as these, we iirt! I(>d to coMvilude that tho 
 identity referred to ])oints to an orij^inal conuuon stock, ratiier 
 than to a transfer of words from one laii^'uajj:e to another. 
 
 This may be illustrated by observinjj: that our own lnnp:uap;n, 
 while borrowing freely from Latin and I rench [Ltitin in a mocb'tied 
 state], has kept its own names for all tJio simplest and mo.st 
 necessary ideas : § ?i'li. 
 
 It is not possible to trace the changes which these originally 
 identical words liave undergone, in the same manner as wo can 
 trac} tlie gradual transformation of Latin into French or Italian. 
 The materials for such a history do not exist. It is impossible 
 to do more than conjecture wliy one section of tlio Aryan Family 
 should have for ages employed an !is|)irat(d consonant whero 
 another sect ion employs an unaspirate<lone ; or a hard consonant 
 for a soft one (§ 7). l^nt these changes must have taken place 
 according to certain physical laws ; and the regularity of inter- 
 change between ])articular consonantal sounds furnishes an 
 unerring clue to the recognition of words fundamentally identical, 
 under tlieir various transformations. 
 
 The law of interchange of Consonants is usually called (xrimm's 
 I^aw, from tho name; of the eminent plhiologist who was the first 
 to discover and fonnulate it. 
 
 Tho corresf)ondenco of consonants l)ctween English and Grocco- 
 Latin is as follows : — 
 
 1. Labials. 
 
 Gra!(!<>-T,atin 
 Englislt 
 
 P 
 
 r 
 
 1) 
 
 f 
 
 b 
 
AlTKxNDlX. 
 
 21? 
 
 2. Dentals. 
 
 ir.rco 
 
 ■Latin 
 
 th 
 
 arison of 
 ary (sco 
 [id Latin 
 Indo 
 
 jr 
 
 rare, +ho 
 id broken 
 vo dwelt 
 
 •acrd in a 
 hich they 
 i of ages, 
 very case, 
 I notions: 
 l; pcivsonal 
 
 mit words 
 V. tliat the 
 |ck, rather 
 
 r. 
 
 inj2;iiap;o, 
 noditk'd 
 
 lid nio.st 
 
 ai 
 
 oripiinally 
 as we can 
 )r Italian. 
 inpossihlo 
 in Family 
 lilt where 
 consonant 
 <en place 
 V (if inter- 
 lishcs an 
 identical, 
 
 I Grimm'R 
 
 s tho iirst 
 
 ;id Grrcco- 
 
 £uj;libh 
 
 th 
 
 Tlic above order of interchange may be ea.sily reniiunibered by 
 noting it in figures : thus, 
 
 Graeco-batin ..,,.: 1 2 :i 
 EngUsh : 3 1 2 
 
 But no instance appears to have been observed of change of 
 Gr.-Lat. b to Eng. ;*. 
 
 The letters /, in, n, r, s, for the most part remain the .same in 
 English as in Grajco Latin. 
 
 The interchange of vowel sounds is too difficult a subject to 
 enter upon in an elementary work like the present. 
 
 Examples of wonLs showing the above interchange of cou- 
 boiiauts : — 
 
 (1) Graco-Latin • . . : p-n-t-c-v /-r-a-t-er 
 English : /-a-^/i-er 6-r-o-^'(-er 
 
 (2) Gra'co-I.atiu , , : /-r-a-/iO* J-cn-i-is th-vr 
 Eugli.sh . . ; (i-r-.i-ij t-oo-th -J-wv 
 
 (3) Graco-Latin , . : corp-u g-n-6 t/t-cn 
 EngUsh , . . : /i-orn li-n-ow ,7-()o-,set 
 
 The student may practise luniRclf by tracing tl.o corresixai- 
 denc(! between tl:e following Greek or Latin words and their 
 English equivalei.ts : — 
 
 pollis skin \^fcU^ as in fcllmongor] 
 
 TTOUX, TToSjj foot 
 
 nepos grandson fai-'ithew] 
 
 pro, por /or, fore 
 
 o-tppis brow 
 
 fi)r-are bore 
 
 for-o bc<ir 
 
 (pdvos O.E. 6aMu = mur(]urer 
 
 tres three 
 
 trinifru thunder 
 
 tectum roi'f [thatch] 
 
 te thco 
 
 handw tatiic 
 
 ' In fmhn tlip h liail luul.iiihtccily n ^jiiltural <;<iiii .1, siiiilLir t" that of tho Hri' k \. 
 t It> .'/""•■- ''" « IS a jKiii iii tbc oii^inul woiU wliitU li.itt diB.ii)iiturtd la llic (jiicelt 
 foiuu: Genu., i^aiiti. 
 
248 
 
 ArrENDiX. 
 
 8U(lo 
 
 scdeo 
 
 c'lo 
 
 ovfiap 
 
 tt6(lt.) 
 
 calamus 
 
 KupBia 
 
 rajiut 
 
 iaKpv 
 
 dt'i'inn 
 
 Ffpyov 
 
 agcr 
 
 g.'n (rt.) 
 
 g.'nvi 
 
 i-jjLfKya) 
 
 oah [tree] 
 
 sweat 
 
 sit 
 
 eat 
 
 udder 
 
 door 
 
 mend 
 
 place [do, as in to r'on] 
 
 recti, stalk [liauliu] 
 
 heart 
 
 head: O.E. heafod 
 
 tear 
 
 ten 
 
 work 
 
 acre* 
 
 kin 
 
 knee 
 
 (t(t) 7ni7/£ 
 
 yes-terdiy [spelt with g in O.F.^ 
 
 * Aj In tiie expression i^od't acre, i.e. GodCiJMd : the chur. hyaid. 
 
 riK K!»a 
 
O.F..]