IMAGE EVALUATION 
 TEST TARGET (MT-3) 
 
 k 
 
 A 
 
 ^A^. 
 
 />>> 
 ^^^- %5^ 
 
 
 1.0 
 
 1.1 
 
 11.25 
 
 lllllm 
 
 1.4 mil 1.6 
 
 V] 
 
 W 
 
 / 
 
 
 
 Photographic 
 .Sciences 
 Corporation 
 
 33 WIST MAIN STRf IT 
 
 WEBSTiR.N.Y. MSSO 
 
 (716) 872-4503 
 
 4 
 
 m 
 ^ 
 
 ^ M 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 <i> 4s 
 

 
 *^ 
 
 4. 
 
 CIHM 
 Microfiche 
 Series 
 (l\/lonographs) 
 
 ICIMH 
 
 Collection de 
 microfiches 
 (monographies) 
 
 Canadian Institute for Historical Microreproductions / Institut Canadian de microreproductions historiques 
 
 1 
 
Technical and Bibliographic Notes / Notes techniquet et bibliographiques 
 
 The Institute has attempted to obtain the best original 
 copy available for filming. Features of this copy '.vhich 
 may he bibliographically unique, which may alter any 
 of the images in the reproduction, or which may 
 significantly change the usual method of filming, are 
 checked below. 
 
 Coloured covers/ 
 Couve'ture de couleur 
 
 Covers damaged/ 
 Couverture endommag^ 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 Covers restored and/or laminated/ 
 Couverture restauree et/ou pelliculie 
 
 □ Cover title 
 Le titre de 
 
 missing/ 
 couverture manque 
 
 □ Coloured maps/ 
 Cat 
 
 tes giographiques en couleur 
 
 □ Coloured ink (i.e. otf 
 Encre de couleur (i.e 
 
 D 
 
 other than blue or black)/ 
 autre que bleue ou noire) 
 
 D 
 D 
 
 D 
 
 D 
 
 Coloured plates and/or illustrations/ 
 Planches et/ou illustrations en couleur 
 
 Bound with other material/ 
 Relie avec d'autres documents 
 
 Tight binding may cause shadows or distortion 
 along interior margin/ 
 
 La reliure serree peut causer de I'ombre ou de la 
 distorsion le long de la marge interieure 
 
 Blank leaves added during restoration may appear 
 within the text. Whenever possible, these have 
 been omitted from filming/ 
 II se peut que certaines pages blanches ajouttes 
 lors d'une restauration apparaissent dans le texte, 
 mais, lorsque cela etait possible, ces pages n'ont 
 pas ete filmees. 
 
 Additional comments:/ 
 Commentaires supplementaires: 
 
 L'Institut a microfilm^ le meilleur exemplaire qu'il 
 iui a M possible de se procurer. Les details de cet 
 enemplaire qui soift peut-Att t uniques du point de vue 
 bibliographique, qui peuven^ modifier une image 
 reproduite. ou qui peuvent exiger une modification 
 dans la methode normale de f ilmage sent indiqu^ 
 ci-dessout. 
 
 □ Coloured pages/ 
 Pages de couleur 
 
 □ Pages damaged/ 
 Pages endommavaes 
 
 □ Pages restored and/or laminated/ 
 Pages restaurees et/ou pellicultes 
 
 Pages discoloured, stained or foxed/ 
 Pages decolorees. tacheties ou piquees 
 
 Pages detached/ 
 Pages detaches 
 
 r~> Showthrough/ 
 I ^1 Transparence 
 
 □ Quality of print varies/ 
 Qualite inegale de I'impression 
 
 I I Continuous paginition/ 
 
 n 
 
 Pagination continue 
 
 Includes index(es)/ 
 Comprend un (des) index 
 
 Title on header taken from:/ 
 Le titre de I'en-tCte provient: 
 
 □ Title page of issue 
 Page de titre de la 
 
 □ Caption of 
 Titre de de 
 
 livraison 
 
 D 
 
 issue/ 
 depart de la livraison 
 
 Masthead/ 
 
 Generiqitr (periodiques) de la livratson 
 
 This Item is filmed at the reduction ratio checked below/ 
 Ce document est filme au taux de redijr'»:o.T indique ci dessous. 
 10X IX 18X 
 
 12X 
 
 16X 
 
 20X 
 
 22X 
 
 26 X 
 
 30X 
 
 J 
 
 24 X 
 
 D 
 
 28 X 
 
 32 X 
 
j'il 
 :et 
 ie vue 
 
 lion 
 h% 
 
 The copy filmed lare has been reproduced thanks 
 to the generosity of: 
 
 Harold Campbell Vaughan Memorial Library 
 Acadia University 
 
 The images appearing here are the best quality 
 possible considering the condition and legibility 
 of the original copy and In keeping with the 
 filming contract specifications. 
 
 Original copies in printed paper covers are filmed 
 beginning with the front cover and ending on 
 the last page with a printed or sl!ustrated impres- 
 sion, or the back cov^r when appropriate. All 
 other original copies are filmed beginning on the 
 first page with a printed or illustrated impres- 
 sion, and ending on the last page with a'printed 
 or illustrated impression. 
 
 The last recorded frame on each microfiche 
 shall contain the symbol — ^> (meaning "CON- 
 riNUED"). or the symbol V (meaning "END"), 
 whichever applies. 
 
 I\1aps, plates, charts, etc.. may be filmed at 
 different reduction ratios. Those too large to be 
 entirely included :n one exposure are filmed 
 beginning in the upper left hand corner, left to 
 right and top to bottom, as many frames as 
 required. The following diagrams illustrate the 
 method: 
 
 L'exemplaire film« fut reproduit grflce d la 
 g«n«rosit« de: 
 
 Harold Campbell Vaughan Memorial Library 
 Acadifl University 
 
 Les images suivantes ont «t6 reproduites avec ie 
 plus grand soin, compte tenu de la condition et 
 de la nettet« de l'exemplaire film6, et en 
 conformity avec les conditions du contrat de 
 filmaga. 
 
 Les exemplaiE'es originaux dont la couverture en 
 papier nst imprimAe sont fiim^s en commenpant 
 par ie premier plat et en terminant soit par la 
 derniire page qui comporte une emprelnte 
 d'impression ou d'iKjstraticn, soit par Ie second 
 plat, salon Ie cas. Tous les autres exempiai>-es 
 originaux sont filmis en commengant par la 
 premiere page qui comporte une emprelnte 
 d'impression ou d'illustration et en terminant par 
 la derniAre page qui comporte une telle 
 emprelnte. 
 
 Un des symboies suivants apparattra sur k. 
 derniire image de cheque microfiche, selon Ie 
 cas: Ie symbols — ^ signifie "A SUIVRE ", Ie 
 symbolG V signifie "FIN". 
 
 Les cartes, planches, tableaux, etc., peuvent dtre 
 film6s A des taux de reduction diff^rents. 
 Lorsque Ie document est trop grand pour dtre 
 reproduit en un soul clich6, il est film6 A partir 
 de I'angle supArieur gauche, de gauche A droite, 
 et de haut en bas, en prer<ant Ie nombre 
 d'images n6cessaire. Les diagrammes suivants 
 iliustrent ^a mithode. 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 32 X 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
;' 
 
 Vl 
 
 'i «;ii'-t 
 
 ll.^Bk.TlSl^r 
 
 '^ 
 
 
 r »■^ 7 ( ; ► ■ A-(^, 
 
 ml 
 
 m 
 
 m 
 
 ■m:^ 
 
(f'i 
 
 /' 
 
 ?< 
 
 
 l-^-Lti , ,/ 
 
 THE CORRELATION 
 
 li^l* 
 
 or 
 
 THE VITAL AND PHYSICAL FORCES. 
 
 A Prize Thesis for tlie degree of Doctor of Medicine and Master of Chirurgery, 
 defended before the Medical Faculty of McGill University, 
 
 Montreal, May 2, 1SG2. 
 BY R. MAURICE BUCKE. 
 
 {From the British American Journal.) 
 
 " The one spirit's plastic stress 
 Sweeps through the dull, dense world, compelling there 
 All new successions to the forms they wear, 
 Torturing the unwilling dross that checks its flight 
 To its own likeness as each mass may bear ; 
 And bursting in its beauty and its might 
 Prom trees, and beasts, and men, into the heaven's light." 
 
 Although the subject upon which I have undertaken to write is not strictly a 
 medical one, I shall make no apology for having selected it; for in the first place, 
 it is not to be expected that a man so little read in medical science as a student 
 must necessarily be, and who, at the same time, has had no experience at all, 
 could advance new views of any value, or relate any facts (except in rare cases) 
 not known before; for this reason, I say, it can make but little difiference upon 
 what he writes. 
 
 But secondly, and on the other hand, if he could write anything of any value, 
 if he couH add anything to the stock of positive facts or opinions possessed by 
 the medical world, then certainly there is no subject upon which information 
 should be more acceptable, and on which it is more wanted, than the nature of 
 life; a phenomenon which has so often been considered to be an ultimate fact, 
 and philosophic enquiry into the nature of which, has consequently, until lately' 
 been almost entirely neglected. 
 
 Furthermore, the subject I have chosen, though not strictly a medical one 
 yet must be acknowledged to lie at the basis of all branches of medicine ; to b^ 
 in fact the trunk of the great medical tree ; for as it has to do with the nJture of 
 life so It IS the very ground work of Physiology and Pathology, and as such 
 underlies the whole subject of the practice of medicine ; and I think it is not 
 too much to say, that until w« have some clearer understanding of life than we 
 at present possess, the great blank which lies between the knowledge of the nature 
 of medicines on the one hand, and their obvious actions on the other, will never 
 
 7- 
 
 / / 
 
 vy 
 
D'i 
 
 M 
 
 ,i 
 
 be much encroached upon ; and until our knowledge covers this, the practice of 
 medicine can never be truly a Hciencc. 
 
 The theories of lifo have been constantly changing from the earliest times 
 until the present day. This was to have been expected from the fact that think- 
 ing men arc not apt to rest satisfied with the knowledge of any truth, but seek - 
 to explain it by a reference to other truth to endeavour to establish, in short, 
 some relation between all things that seem in the least degree analogous to one 
 another. 
 
 Thus, in the middle of the .seventeenth century, we see a sect of medical 
 philosophers, headed by Silvius, holding the iatro-chemicul doctrines,* which 
 were supposed to be justified by the discovery of the fact that many of the 
 chemical actions going on within the body were analogous to others observed in 
 the inorganic world. 
 
 At the same time and later flourished the iatro-mathemntical school, founded 
 in the first place by Borelli.f and afterwards extended by Bellini. J The doc- 
 trine of these philosophers was based on the observation tliat many of the vital 
 actions are governed by mathematical laws.^ 
 
 The insufficiency of these hypotheses gave rise in turn to that of the Archeux 
 of Van Helmont, the /inima of Stahl, and the Via Mvdicatnx Naturn of 
 Gullen. 
 
 Still later than this, a belief became somewhat prevalent of so monstrous a 
 nature, that, did we not know by daily experience the almost unlimited extent 
 of human belief, we could never suppose it to have been entertained. It was 
 that all the vital force required to build up any organism was stored up in the 
 cell from which the plant or animal originally proceeded, so that all the force by 
 which an oak, a whale, or an elephant was built up, was capable of being con- 
 fined within the compass of a microscopic cell, of which thousands, or perhaps 
 millions, would lie upon the point of a penknife blade. 
 
 Still later, when it was believed that the vital forces existed in a dormant 
 state in all matter capable of undergoing organisation, light and heat were re- 
 garded uS vital stimuli or forces which possessed the power of calling these forth 
 from the latent condition. This theory cannot be said to be absurd, it involves 
 no contradiction, and could not be logically denied while it was held that a dor- 
 mant magnetic power was possessed by iron, that latent heat existed in steam, 
 and the like ; but when with Grove we deny the existence of such a property in 
 iron, of such heat in steam, and the presence of latent force in every other case 
 where it is said to exist ; we have also a right to deny to carbon, hydrogen oxy- 
 gen, &c., the dormant power that is by this theory attributed to them. 
 
 ^■^ 
 
 • Bostock's " History of Medicine," pp. 157-8. Francis Delabac Sylvius, a Dutch 
 physiologist and chemist, was born 1614 and died 1672. " CycIopiEdia of Biography " 
 p. 917. ' 
 
 t J. A. Borelli, an Italian philosopher, was born 1603 and died 1679. " Cyclopsedia 
 of Biography," p. 89. * 
 
 t L. Bellini, a celebrated anatomist, was born 1643 and died 1702. " Oyclopadia of 
 Biography," p. 89. 
 
 § Bostock's " History of Medicine," pp. 164-6. 
 
Until the time that Fowler* wrote, I do not know that any steps were taken 
 attfinipting to prove any closer relationship between the vital and physical forces 
 than is expressed in the term vital stimuli. Since then, however, the belief in 
 the mutual convertibility uf these two set of forces— the vital and physical— has 
 been steadily ^aininj; ground, and is at present held by some of the most dis- 
 tiuguished physiologists. 
 
 Now it has never been doubted, so far as I am aware, that however unlike 
 in almost every way they may be, the matter which enters into the composition 
 of any organised structure is the same as that met with in the mineral king- 
 dom, but with its elements combined in different relative proportions ;t the 
 forces that bind them together in any one whole, wliether chemically or physi- 
 cally, are also known to be the same as those seen in the world of dead matter, 
 namely, chemical affinity and attraction of cohesion. But what is generally 
 supposed to separate, by a well marked line, the living from the dead, is, that 
 in the former is perceived the operation of certain forces which do not exist in 
 the latter ; which forces, under the name of functions, are most of them exhi- 
 bited in common by the members of both the animal and vegetable kingdoms, 
 while in the vegetable kingdom, and peculiar to it, we see displayed a p^wer of 
 organizing mineral matter ; and in the animal kingdom, and peculiar to it, two 
 distinct forces, the nervous and muscular, with special structures provided for 
 their evolution ; while at the same time in the inorganic world, are certain dy- 
 namical agcntn such as light, heat, electricity, &c., which specially belong to it, 
 and which although they have always been allowed to have very similar actions 
 upon living beings, and to be of vital importance to them, yet are not considered 
 as belonging to them in the same sense as they do to the mineral kingdom. Now 
 the question which I am about to consider may be thus stated— Is this line of 
 demarcation, which I have attempted to point out, real or only apparent ? Are 
 these forces, or rather these two groups of forces, distinct and separate the one 
 from the other, or arc the forces which we see manifested by organized beings 
 another and modified form of the forces existing in the inorganic world bor- 
 rowed from it, and when ut vrain returned to it; just as the matter of which 
 living beings are composed is t ".ken from that by which they are surrounded 
 and when used, again returned to the dead world from which it was taken ? It 
 is the object of this paper to show that, abstractedly considered, no such line 
 ca n be drawn ;| that in fact there is no difference between these two groups of 
 
 • I refer to the notice of a paper by R. Fowler in tlic Ilcport of the British Asaocia- 
 tion for 1849, called " If vitality be a force having correlationa with the forces, chemi- 
 cal affinities, motion, heat, light, electricity, magnetism, so ably shown by Prof. Grove 
 to be modifications of one and the same force." 
 
 t " The elements of organic bodies are the same as those that constitute the inorganic 
 world, save that the relative proportions are different." Encyclopiedia Britannica, eiehth 
 edition. Vol. VI, p. 501. ' ** 
 
 t Compare Buckle's "History of Civilization in England." He savs, "What we 
 call the divisions of nature into ' organic and inorganic ' have no existence except in 
 our own minds." Vol. II, p. 402. He is speaking of Sir John Leslie, who as early as 
 the end of last century, seems to have had the same idea. He says, "All forces 
 are radically of the same kind, and the division of them into living and dead U not 
 grounded upon just principles." Leslie on heat, p. 133. 
 
 
 fH6'r9, 
 
forces except in the mode of their manifcHtntioii, nnd that this is due to the 
 difference in the material substratum tlirou^h whieli they in each cuko manifest 
 themnelvcs. Tiiat in short, the vital and physical forces are correlated the ono 
 to the other. 
 
 And before proceedinf? further it may be well to state clearly what is meant 
 to be implied in the followin); pa.^es by the term " correlation." It may be thus 
 defined, — one force, A, operates upon a certain form of matter and disappears, 
 but in its place a second force, B, is developed ; again, B is made to act upon 
 some other form of matter, and in its turn disappears, and now A is reproduced, 
 or perhaps not A, but some other form of force, C, D, or E. 
 
 Now this conversion of one force into another, if such we like to consider it, 
 necessarily implies a definite (|uantitativo relation existing between the forces 
 thus capable of being changed tlie ono into the other ; that is, a certain amount 
 of force A is equal to, and will produce a certain amount of force B, which in 
 its turn shall be capable of reproducing the same amount of force A as origin- 
 ally existed. Thus a certain (juantity of zinc is oxidated in the cells of a gal- 
 vanic battery and a certain (luantity of electricity, the result of the oxidation 
 passes along the wires connected with the battery ; but as a second conse- 
 quence of the chemical action heat is evolved, so that we cannot have all the 
 chemical force continued as electricity ; nevertheless a remarkable relation has 
 been shown to exist between these two, for if the electricity be employed in the 
 decomposition of water, it will be found that for every equivalent of zinc that 
 has undergone oxidation in each cell of the battery, an equivalent of water is de- 
 composed;* so that the oxygen that disappears in ono place reappears in the 
 other, and the force that is set free in the union of the oxygen with the zinc is 
 again taken up in the act of decomposing the water. 
 
 It is rarely, if ever, that wc can reproduce so as to measure in another form 
 all the force which has in any case thus merged itself; still in the case of some 
 of the physical forces it has been determined, at least approximately, how much 
 of one is required to produce, or be equal to, a certain quantity of another. 
 Thus the experiments of Mr. Joule,t which Prof Grove considers the most reli- 
 able that have been made upon the subject, show that the heat necessary to raise 
 one pound of water through one degree Fahr., is equivalent to the motor force 
 requirred to raise 772 pounds one foot. 
 
 This theory of the correlation of forces, followed to its consequences, naturally 
 leads to the idea of the conservation of force, which supposes that as with mat- 
 ter so with force, there is a certain quantity in the universe, of which none is 
 ever annihilated, and to which none is ever added, that in every case wliere one 
 form of force disappears, another takes its place ; and in like manner every force, 
 which is in any case evolved, is so from an antecedent force which has been con- 
 verted into it ; and as this is true of every form of force so no one of these stands 
 first more than another, and so no one can be said abstractly to be the cause of 
 
 • Faraday " On definite electrolysia." Phil. Tran. 1834, p. 11. 
 t Joule " On the mechanical equivalent o< heat." Phil. Tran. 1850, p. 61, and quoted 
 by Grove. " Correlation of physical forces," p. 130. 
 
the roHt, for though it may produce any of tlio rest, yet any of the oth.T8 may 
 also produce it.* 
 
 As for the abstriict nature of matter and force, and their reflation to one 
 another, it mutters little what view we talce, and whetlier following JJoMcovich,! 
 wu ooncoivo matter to be made up of matheuiutiwal points without form or size, 
 acting on each other ^by attractions and repulsions ; whether with GroveJ wo 
 uonsider all forces as properties of matter, and therefore inseparable from it ; or 
 taking the more generally received opinion, we suppose matter to bo one distinct 
 entity, and force another acting upon it, the question before us remains the same 
 and unaffectei'. 
 
 Now the whole subject of tho correlation of forces nuturally divides itself into 
 three parts, as follows: 1. The correlation of the physical forces ; 2. The cor- 
 relation of tliu vital forces ; and 3. The correlation of the vital and physical 
 forces. 
 
 The first is often considered as proved, || and there can be no harm in taking 
 it as a postulate, and as such using it in tho argument before us. Of course it 
 wonld be impossible to enter into the proofs of it in this place, and after Prof. 
 Grove's treatise on tho subject, anything that 1 could say would be probably 
 something worse than superfluous. 
 
 Though tho second division, tho correlation to tlio vital forces, docs not prop- 
 erly form part of my thesis, yet for the sake of making the latter more complete 
 than it would otherwise be, I shall say a very few words upon it before proceed- 
 ing to the main object of imjuiry. 
 
 Tiie growth of all organized beings, from the simplest vegetable to the most 
 complex animal, essentially consists in the multiplication of cells ; all organized 
 beings originating in this, the most simple structure endowed with life. All the 
 forces of every kind which are manifested by organized beings are evolved 
 through tho instrumentality of cells, or by tissues which have originated in 
 these, and retain, more or less completely, their cellular character ; and further the 
 all most active vital operations are performed by tissues which retain, with 
 little or no change, the perfect cell as their chief constituent. § This has given 
 
 * "It," the conservation of force, "must bo considered as a necessary truth, and as such 
 is a sound basis of deductive reiisoning. " Prof. Joseph Leconte. " On the correlation 
 of vital and physical forces." Amer. Jour, of Science and Art, Vol. XXXVIIF, p. 306. 
 Though in this instance I quote from I'rof. Leconte's paper, it will be readily seen by 
 consulting it that on the most important points I differ from him very materially. On 
 tho conservation theory see also Dr. Wood, Phil. .Mag., Vol III. p. 40, 1852. Buckle's 
 "History of civilization in England,' Vol. 11, p. 384, where he also quotes from Fara- 
 day's "Discourse on the conservation of force." "Faraday says, " he ogrees with those 
 who admit the conservation of force to be a principle in physics as larg^ and sure as 
 that of tho indestructibility of matter." 
 
 t Boscovich's theory of tho universe. Enoy. Brit, Seventh edition, Vol. I, p. 606. 
 
 t Grove "Correlation of tho physical forces," Third edition. 
 
 H As by Faraday in his "Discourse on the conservation of force," Buckle, "Hist, of civil- 
 iiation in England," Vol. II, p. 384. Wood, Phil. Mag. Vol. Ill, p. 64, 1852. Leconte, 
 Amer. Jour, of Science and Art. Vol. XXXVIII, p. 305, &c., &c. 
 
 § Carpenter's "Elements of Physiology," p. 49. 
 
6 
 
 riHo to Iho term "Cell force," which term cxpresMcs every form of force put forth 
 by orKanizoil Iwin^s ; according to tli is, therefore, the relation the ceilH bear to 
 each other, will bo bImo the relation which the different forms of cell force (vital 
 forces) bear to each other. 
 
 Now this much beinj? Rranted. it will be seen by the following eonsideratioDB 
 what an exceedinj,'ly close relationship this must bo ; for HrHtly, in the wimplost 
 forniH of life there is no division of either structure or function, we have but one 
 form of cell by which all the functions of the plant or animal are perforraod, 
 that is by, or through which, all the forms of cell force put forth by Huch plant or 
 animal are evolved ; so that here the same liberates several forms of vital force. 
 .Secondly, in the highest organisms, although a particular form of coll is provid- 
 ed for the evolution of each force, yet they are all lineally desconch'd from the 
 single primordial cell in which the animal originated. Thirdly, althou"h when a 
 form of cell is once set apart for the evolution of any particular kind offeree, it 
 generally continues to evolve that and no other, yet it is a curious circumstance, 
 and one that is hardly explicable upon any other view than that here taken, that 
 under special conditions a form of cell may cciise to liberate the form offeree for 
 which it was designed, and give off another (|uite different from it. Thus mu- 
 cous membrane and skin are convertible into one another by a change in their 
 external condition ; and either (in the ca.se of conversion of skin into mucous 
 membrane) the epidermic cells arc altered in their functions so that they secrete 
 mucous, or else there is an earlier change in the direction of the force, by which 
 means true mucous epithellamis grown upon the ba.scment membrane whica waa 
 the cutis vera. Just the same may be said of the change of umcous membrane 
 into skin, and, in fact, of all such cases of conversion. 
 
 Innumerable other instances of this kind could easily be given. Thus the little 
 hydra, or fresh water polype, may be turned inside out, and that which was the 
 external surface will perform the oflSce of digestion as well, or nearly so, as the 
 membrane originally provided for that purpose ; the gastric juice being poured 
 out by its cells and absorption taking place through it, in a manner apparently 
 quite normal.* Again in the case of gemmoe of Marchantia jwlymorpha, to 
 be noticed again in another connection, the external influences determine entirely 
 the respective sides that shall furnish the stomata and the roots. It is needless 
 further to multiply instances, and I shall only remark that all cases of vicarious 
 secretions f must be looked upon in the same way, and proceed to the fourth 
 consideration, which is, that cell action in one place can, in virtue of its correla- 
 tion with all other forms of this same force, control cell action elsewhere; and 
 on this view we can most readily explain the influence of the nervous system 
 over all the other functions of the body ; for as electricity, developed by chemical 
 
 * Carpenter's " Elements of Physiology," p. 263. 
 
 t On the subject of vicarious secretion, which my space does not permit me to dilate 
 upon, see Carpenter's "Human Physiology," pp. 303-5, also p. 823. Todd and Bow- 
 man's "Physiological Anatomy," p. 700. Draper's " Human Physiology," p. 190. That 
 instances of vicarious action should be rare in the higher animals, as man, should ex- 
 cite no surprise, for in them the cells have (so to speak) grown a long way apart from 
 one another, but in some of the lower animals it seems to cost scarcely any effort. 
 
action in one place, controls chemical change in another to which it has been 
 conducted «, cell force in the form of nervous agency being condu;^ by i.. 
 prnper ,nnd.um, nerve fibre, can accolerate, check, or alter ceil action in other 
 parts of the body;* and in this w..y wc can understand how any «ufficien 
 cause actmg through nervous ,^;eney, n.ay, as in the ease of shoeic, altogeth 
 stop Homo action essential to life, and so cause the death c.f ,he individual ;+ or 
 
 lulHf v';^^^^^^ ^^ ''"''' ' *""' " «•'"" '' "•-"I'"»'^'" -^^ « con. 
 
 Now of course u will not bo supposed that when I speak of cell force I mean 
 to express that the cells have the power of originating that force; further on U 
 will appear whence I consider it to be derived. My idea of the agency of cells 
 an such .s s.n .|y th.s, that whereas any force in its origin, as tL /L mt; 
 be produced by a conversion of some other into it, and that for tJs purpose 
 some particular material substratum must exist in the passage through wLh 
 he change takes place, so I believe the cell is the form of matter through Zh c 
 
 ttse^S ^::i :i:r "^'^"-'^ ~ - -'''-' ^-^ - ^"^^^ --«^- - 
 
 The subject which I have, perhaps rashly, undertaken to treat of-" The 
 Correla .on of the Vital and Physical Forces,"-! shall exan.ine in th;ee par^ 
 whuih dms.o„ IS of course arbitrary, the subject it,self being properly one and 
 
 physical forces pass „ to the vital, and conversely the vital into the phyS b 
 direct contac w.th living or recently dead tissue ; and (III.) thirdly Tinflu 
 ence of the physical forces, principally light and heat, upon the livi^ 1^^^^^^^^^ 
 animal in the ordinary state of nature. ^ 
 
 Part I. 
 
 throirr"") ^^-'"fi"^' '' "' "y ^'^''^ '^''' ^'""''^^y """^^'-^ion takes place 
 ttrough the chemical force, that is to say, when any one of the physical fj^^ 
 merges Itself into one of the vital, it does so by inducing a ch mfcal hi!! 
 and so hberat.ng chemical force, which is then in virtue of the ^0"^ f mS 
 h ough which It acts, continued as a vital force; the form of this latter whi^h 
 IB hus called forth, will depend upon the kind of tissue, that is the om f 
 eel through which the chemical force passes, in which i is Hbera^d a^ in 
 which It merges itself into the vital force which is its resultant and Oversell 
 
 Tv inVuJ T" Tf'''' ^*"'' " P'^^^^^^' ^°^^^' '' ^°- - -^^ the firstie' 
 
 's:^Z!:^f:zr' ' ''-' ^°"" ^" ''' ^'^'^' ^- ^^■^- 
 
 ini^Tane? '"" "" ^' ''' """' '"' '°"°'"^ '""^ "^" ^' '^^^^ °^ '^^ «t-o«t 
 
 ^^wl- "^'°^°f« °°* already chemically united with others enter into 
 ^^^bl^ation^foi ^ kind is evolved, and the amount of this force wiU be 
 
 • Carpenter's " Human Physiology," pp. 739-74^ ' ' ~ 
 
 f Carpenter " On the mutual relaUon of the vita"l and phyBical forces." Phil. Tran. 
 
8 
 
 in the direct ratio of the strength of the affinity existing between the bodies 
 thus uniting.* In the same ratio also will be the intimacy of the union, the 
 divergence of the characters of the resulting body from its constituents,! and 
 the stability of the new compound. J 
 
 Law II. When a compound body suifers decomposition, the force required to 
 effect this, will be exactly equal to the force given out in the formation of that 
 body from its elements. 
 
 Law III. If now the elements of a compound body enter into more intimate 
 union — which presupposes the decomposition of the already formed body— the 
 resulting force will be in the direct ratio of the strength of the affinity exer- 
 cised by its elements, &c., as in law one, but minus the force which was re- 
 quired to decompose the pre-existing body. 
 
 Law IV. If a body be decomposed and give its elements to the formation of 
 another body whose stability, &c., as in law one, is less than that of the body so 
 decomposed, the force actually expended in effecting such change will be in the 
 ratio of the strength of the affinity which existed between the elements of the pre- 
 formed body, minus the strength of the affinity existing in the new compound.|| 
 
 Now the force evolved in composition and required to effect decomposition 
 may be (1) heat, as in ordinary combustion, and indeed in almost, if not in 
 every act of chemical union, even when the main part of the force given out 
 takes some other form. The converse of this is well seen in the case of the de- 
 composition of the carbonate of lime by heat, and also very beautifully in the 
 following experiment by llobertson.g A substance capable of supporting in- 
 tense heat without fusing, and at the same time incapable of being acted upon 
 by cither of its elements, (such as platinum or iridium) raised to a higher point 
 of ignition and then immersed in water will decompose some of it, and bubbles 
 of oxygen and hydrogen will rise to the surface. The heat required to effect 
 this decomposition is, according to the experimenter, equal to 2386°. (2) This 
 force may be electricity as when that is evolved by a galvanic battery, or con- 
 versely, when it is made to decompose water, the alkalies, &c. (3) It may be 
 light as when this is given off along with heat in ordinary combustion, and this 
 
 if 
 
 • To illustrate this part of the law, I refer to Dr. Wood's experiments " on the heat of 
 chemical combination." Phil. Mag. Vol, II, of the 4th series, p. 208, also Vol. IV, of the 
 4th series, p. 370. 
 
 t This part of the law will not apply to organic chemistry. 
 
 t Even if solution be regarded as chemical action, as it probably should be, (See 
 " Thoughts on Solution and the Chemical Process," by T. S. Hunt. Amer. Journal of 
 Science and Art, Second series. Vol. XIX, Jany. 1854,) it is no exception to this law, 
 for when cold results, or the opposite of any force, it is due to the change in consist- 
 ence which one of the bodies concerned has undergone. See Grove on " The correlation 
 of the Physical forces," p. 174. 
 
 II It does not, strictly speaking, devolve upon me to explain why, in the union of 
 bodies, force ia given out, and the converse. A very ingenious theory on the subject is 
 put forth by Dr. Wood, who also gives his opinion as to why bodies unite, which is one 
 step further back still from my subject. See Phil. Mag. Vol. Ill of the 4th series. 
 Compare Grove " On the correlation of the Physical forces," pp. 175-8. 
 
 § Robertson " On the effect of heat in lessening the affinities of the elements of 
 water." Transactions of the Royal Irish Academy, Vol. XXI, p. 2. 
 
tf 
 
 is better seen in cases of slow combination such as DhosDl.or«<i««„<« v ,. , 
 much the most manifest of the forces evolved 212,"^^'"' "}'": ^^^' " 
 such smaU quantities that for a Ions time it »««^ i 7 -J * " ^""'^"T^^ >" 
 
 all. CWerilyitisweUknoUZ 'i^hUJltiS^^^^^^ "^"*^'* ''' 
 of the salte of sUver, hydn)eyanic acid &c »nT^ «f^«'o™P08ing several 
 
 leav.ofpIan^carbo;ie'ac7a^ammo;i^So Z^^T "?.*'.^ ^^- 
 forms of physical force, but to no purpose aa thl eZ Jf -n T"' «' "*^^ 
 iUustrate my meaning and I am IZ^ examples mil be sufficient to 
 
 phy^ foL. ^' "°* °°^ '''''^'^ ''*•> '^' correlation of the 
 
 And first of plants. 
 
 water, ammonia, carbonic acid &c and 7.^ • 'ts e„ret.ons or decay, such as 
 ar ' 'rom them it reform 7eoZi^oTZ 1^ 1 ^*^'' ^^' '^^' ^" 
 -^. they were derived. Tl^t ^S rw:Ser^^^^^ '"°"^- 
 
 eff^ted by L veget^bk li^rfo^Ts ^^ ^ ^'^^if *^« ^''-^^ 
 whence it is derived : at pre^nt weTalf ^!^ '^ . ^^ "^^ ^^ ^" «'^^' ««« 
 namely, germination whirh^SrjenLrl''^ ''.t '*^ ''^ ^**««°' 
 growth of the plant, 'and closelj ^t rnrm^irl^ '''^'^" ''""" *^« ^'■ 
 
 hea?rm;i: :^r3ol"fhe"\^^^^^^ '^^''' ^ ^''^ -«"- of 
 imposition; some^^^e ISrlrric^rralt" tT ^"*" '^■ 
 which the starch is converted first into dextrine aud*^ T ^^ '"''"'' "^ 
 solved. A part however does not «flnl, t ?' '''° '"^^ '"8"' *°<* ^'8- 
 
 passes downLdslTreTa; ItL J ^"*/^'"°g oxygen f„>m the air 
 stable conditionTt can atS^rndrr. ''^''"*'°" ^^ '^' '"^^^^ -<» '"ost 
 
 meantime in the pla^^ onhe ^ we Tavl" "*"' ''?'""'°"'° ^''-^ '^ '^^ 
 
 ^^=;ruit^3^^ 
 -..somrs^zf^^rv::"^^^^ 
 
 cont;i^Tni"^jrt:pr Ti ''' '""^^''^^ '^^ ^'- *^« -*»«' 
 
 let us weigh the pl^t tJi^ forlT "^'^ """^""^ '''*'"°- ^« -^««*««<1 this 
 shall find-putli!! 1 o^/l 1' '"*^ '"PP'^'^S we had weighed the seed we 
 the young pCShatso-^^J^ '"Z"'"*"" that may have been absorbed by 
 
 way 8 Structural An<l .«!„=♦„»._..•. r, n rr: — — 
 
 Encyclopsedia Britannica, 8tii 
 
 
 ed!|^XVLfS^^^^°^^^^*'''= B^t^^y.-Tm 
 
 B 
 
10 
 
 water wen formed. But carbonic acid and water are much more intimate and 
 stable compounds than those which were broken down in their formation there- 
 fore force must have been evolved in the act of their composition beyond the 
 force that was required to break up the already existing compounds (Law III) * 
 This force operaUng through a pre-existing fecundated germ-cell manifests itself 
 as vital force, and in accordance with, and under the direction of the laws of 
 lite, builds up the fabric as far as we have seen. 
 
 But now, still supposing light to be excluded, the plant comes to a stand-sUll 
 It has no force withm itself that is capable of adding the dead matter around it 
 to it« structure. If some of it, from the operation of physical causes, becomes 
 partially decomposed, some of the matter, by means of the oxydation of the rest 
 thus liberating the necessary force, may be used by the plant, but beyond these 
 very narrow limits its growth cannot go on, and in these operations it is always 
 necessarily losing weight. There is no force outside of it that can help it h^t 
 has done its utmost in furnishing the requisite conditions for the performance 
 of the chemical changes that have so far provided it with force; chemical affin- 
 ity can now do nothing for it, for every manifestation of this requires a part of 
 its own substance; unless indeed in such cases as the fungi, where the pabulum 
 for the growth of the plant consists, as in the animal kingdom, of or-^anic com- 
 pounds; here the oxydation of the complex molecules taken into the plant fur 
 nishes both the material for its growth and the force that is to apply that mate- 
 rial, and make it part of the structure of the plant. 
 
 But now let a ray of light fall on the cotyledonH and we shall find it immedi- 
 utely followed by the formation of chlorophyle, the decomposition of carbonic 
 acid and ammonia in contact with the green leaves ; water at the same time is 
 absorbed, with which the free carbon unites, forming lignine, starch, sugar &o 
 and with these elements, (C H 0) the nitrogen of the decomposed ammonia 
 combining, forms acids, neutral substances, mild or acrid bodies, alkaloids, &c. 
 and finally the protenaceous compounds albumen, fibrine, and caseine. ' ' 
 I shall not stop to inquire into the chemical processes by which these bodies 
 are formed, indeed very little is known for certain on the subject except this, 
 that these bodies are buUt up from the elements of the more simple ones men- 
 tioned above-carbonic acid, water, ammonia, salts, &c.— with the constant evo- 
 lution of oxygen and absorption of light,t and this is perhaps suflJcient for our 
 present purpose, as I have not space to enter into minute details ; and whether al- 
 bumen, fibrine, and caseine are formed directly from the liberated elements of 
 water, carbonic acid, ammonia, &c., or what is considered more likely, are formed 
 from bodies which possess a certain d^ee of complexity, as starch and sugar, by 
 the addition of nitrogen, sulphur, and phosphorus, derived from ammonia, sul- 
 phuric acid, 4c., or finally, whether we suppose the nitrogen also to be derived 
 
 • Compare with the process I am describing the act of combustion of wood ; here also 
 we have ternary compounds-almost identical with those in the seed-breaking up and 
 by the addition of oxygen forming the same simple substances as in the other case, 
 every one knows of the force given out here, and that it is entirely due to the opera- 
 tion of law III there can be no doubt. 
 
 tEncyclopadiaBritannica, 8th ed., Vol. IV, p. 519, 
 
^'^*.*^W*?^f.-^~T'>^*- "^ 
 
 '.^^■: 
 
 -^fi.-^ .: 
 
 11 
 
 from complex bodies such as malamide, (C» H • • i\» O') is of little consequence 
 in the consideration of the question I am now concerned with. 
 
 However the process be looked upon we have here again the deconirosiUon of 
 one body, and the formation of another, but in an inverse order, as it were to 
 that observed in the former case ; for whereas in that the body which was formed 
 had more stability than that which was decomposed, and there was in conse 
 quence a surplus of force; in this case the body formed is in a much lower 
 state of combination than that decomposed, therefore (Law IV) force has been 
 required, and this force we have seen is supplied in the form of light. 
 
 There is another question, in connection with this supply of force to plants 
 of great interest and importance, but which I think may be best consider^ 
 when I come to speak of the influence of light and heat on growth and develop 
 ment, where they do not seem to act so directly through the chemical force 
 
 If we pass now to the consideration of animal life, wo shall iind it to bo under 
 the influence of the same laws as those which govern the life of vegetable^ but 
 to be m one sense diametrically opposed to the latter; for firsUy, as tomattlsr it 
 requires for its maintenance to be supplied with organic compounds, animals not 
 possessing the power of appropriating to themselves mineral matter* and 
 secondly, as to force; it is supplied with no dynamic agency JVom any external 
 sourrce, at least not in the same direct manner that plants are. 
 
 This diflference may be briefly expressed by saying that through plants the 
 other physical forces are converted into chemical force; and in animals this 
 chemical force is reconverted into the ordinaiy forms of physical force and so 
 returned to its former state. In each case, by its passage through particular 
 forms of structure, taking on, in some part of its course, the various forms of 
 force caUed vital. And did this hold good throughout it would afford an ex- 
 ceedingly beautiful and useful line of demarcation between the two kingdoms 
 but unfortunately as with all other distinctions, the exceptions to it are numer- 
 ous, though with them we need not now concern ourselves, as they have not the 
 least effect upon tne theory for which I am contending. 
 
 Now these two facts are easUy seen to be intimately connected with one 
 another ; for as the food of animals is organic matter, that is, matter in a state 
 of weak union, of highly complex chemical constUution, the elements of which 
 readily, upon the least provocation enter into more inUmate combination at 
 the same time (Law III) evolving force, so animals may be said to appropriate 
 force along with the matter they eat. 
 
 Further, plants receiving force from without, do not again while they continue 
 to hve, or even perhaps till long after Uieir deatfi, give out that force but hoard 
 It up; whereas animals taking in this force with their food, give it out in the 
 performance of all tiieir functions, such as innervation, muscular action, seer*, 
 tion, &c., and after tfie animal body has arrived at its ftdl siie, so that it requires 
 no force or matter to be used in building it up which is not again given out in 
 
 • I do not speak here of the water used by animals, because although they injeat and 
 m a sense assimilate it, it eridenUy can take no active part in the economy, at do the 
 organic articles in their food, and though it is extensively used, it is so as a purely pas- 
 •ive agent. 
 
 
12 
 
 its breaking down, it stands in the same relation to force that it does to matter 
 not retaining any but giving out in some form or other aU that it veoeiveB. Bui 
 It wUl of course be observed that this is not the case as long as any processes of 
 growth or development remain to be accomplished. ^^ 
 
 .,, ^'t^ T "°f '^' *''' ""'"'^ '''^"'^"^ '" *t« «^ ''"y as we have done 
 the vegetable, and to do so let us begin with the egg 
 
 The egg being subjected to a certain degree of heat, prebably required torive 
 
 TrtS L^ :fT'^ ''^"'* '* " '"^"p"^' """^ °«' itself iTi^r 
 
 It^tT 7 ' "^ '"*"" '"*° *''*' ^»* sortof decomposition as didT^ 
 
 eed in the former ease, oxygen is absorbed, and carbonic acid and perhaps wa 
 
 ter IS given out, through the minute pores of the sheU or sac as the Vase mayle 
 
 ll^'l^ t^ r '"t"^-. ^ " consequence of the formation of these simpk 
 
 gethr with free oxygen foree is evolved. (Laws I and III). At the same ime 
 gradually, from a shapeless mass of albumen, a living being is built up. To 
 effect this force is required ; on the other hand force is known to be given out 
 Moreover we know that on the one hand it is gradually Uberated; and on the 
 
 u! f^'ST/ * ~*«'f V"'^ ^«'«- Surely the conclusion foreed upon 
 us ,8 that the force here evolved is applied when foree is known to be used- 
 rather than say, here foree is annihilated; there ereated-.,r here foree becomes 
 atent ; there it is reused from its dormant state. For is it not unphi'.osophical 
 to suppose a cause which is more than adequate to produce an observed effect? 
 
 shell with It, It will be found to contain considerably less matter than did the 
 egg from which it preceeded j we have seen where that matter has gone And 
 Jf the tissues of the young bird be analysed they will be found to contain at 
 least some of them, molecules such as hemato-fibrine = C » « H^'N** S" 
 O") more complex, less stable, and held together by a weaker affinity, than 
 were those of the ongmal constituente of the egg, thus displaying (besiL the 
 moiThological and hictological transformations that have tVen plStS. re 
 
 fo,^ wa! deS ''''"" ^'''" '""-^ ""' '^"^ ^'^ -- -J^-- ^^ 
 
 In another place I stated that my idea of the agency of cells, as such, is that 
 they represent the form of matter threugh which the physicalf rees pas Sthd 
 conversion into the vital. Now the form of vital foree mnifested by^lls vS 
 with their structure; and for any one kind of action we must have an apprenri 
 ate form of cell. But contained in aU seeds and eggs capable of life w!Zve 
 ^Z'l^l^f;.'^''' T'^f'^^-^^^^y^^^ chemical ZZ^Z 
 
 ;^n,r- n ?• f "P *^' P^""^* " '"'^"'' "'^ ^^'^- i^ "^b^nt makes 
 the material link incomplete ; and the chemical foree instead of passing to the 
 vital, IS given out in other forms, chiefly as heat. But whether thTegg or seed 
 llT ?w r ""*' ''^ '° '"^ deoompoBition it must result, fremihe C 
 l^d down that the same amount offeree will be given out by the time that its 
 elmentfl, m either case, have reached the same chemical level 
 
 Now after the young bird or mammal, as the case may be, has used the food 
 la^^ up for, or supplied to it by the female parent and has t(; shift for it^ h 
 
13 
 
 receives no force from vithout, as does tLe plant in a similar situation, and 
 here, and not till we arrive at this point does the difference above mentioned 
 begin, but its food consisting of such matters as being in a state of loose com- 
 bination readily admit of the evolution of power by entering into greater inti- 
 macy of union. (Law III). At the same time, as if this were not sufficient, a 
 free element of pre-eminently strong affinities is taken in by the animal to com- 
 bine with them, as they run down to form the simple compounds. 
 
 But here it may be said that the young animal has not only to furnish energy 
 for the performance of its organic and animal functions — respiration, circulation, 
 locomotion, innervation, &c., — but also it has to grow ; increase in size. Its 
 tissues continually breaking down in the performance of their respective func- 
 tions, it has to restore them continually, and not only this, has to add steadily 
 to their bulk. Whence comes the supply offeree that shall be adequate to these 
 wants ? And here we see the purpose of the vegetable kingdom in its relation 
 to the animal, perhaps more beautifully displayed than from any other point of 
 view. For the vegetable having received force from without, holds it in trust, 
 as it were, for the animal kingdom ; and in the use of vegetable food it is known 
 that the animal does not raise the compounds contained therein to any higher 
 state of combination than that in which it receives them — except in the case of 
 hemato-fibrinc, and perhaps a few other instances. To build up its nitrogenijsed 
 tissues it receives albumen, fibrine, and caseine; for its adipose tissue it takes in 
 fat, though it can also form this last from staioh or sugar ; its gelatinous and 
 cartilaginous tissues are supplied from the albuminous bodies by a process of 
 diminishing complexity, and so on. 
 
 But this is not of much importance, after all, for the result would be the 
 same, namely, that on the one hand animals receive compounds of great com- 
 plexity and of loose chemical construction j and on the other hand their excreta 
 consist of chemical forms of great comparative, and some of great actual simpli- 
 city, between the elements of which there exists great strength of affinity, there- 
 by furnishing the conditions (Law III.) for the evolution of vast quantities ot 
 force, which being directed into the proper channels by means of the various 
 forms of cells, through which it acts, performs all the functions of the body. 
 
 But here, if this be granted, another difficulty will arise in most minds, 
 which at first sight might seem almost insurmountable, fcr, it will be asked, is 
 it possible that such an immense amount of power of various kinds, put forth by 
 animals, can be derived from the decomposiiion of what seems to be the compa- 
 ratively small quantities of food they digest? To illustrate this forcibly, I was 
 once for five days and four nights exposed to a temperature of from zero or below 
 that point to a few degrees above the freezing point : during this time I was sup- 
 plied with no food, no artificial heat, and travelled every day on foot through deep 
 snow from morning till night. Now, I ask, could the muscular force employed, 
 the heat evolved, and the vis nervosa put forth (without speaking of other forms 
 of force liberated in less amount), have been derived from the decomposition cf 
 the tissues lost during that time ? I make no doubt that the reply must be in 
 the affirmative. 
 
 The answer to this difficulty resolves itself into two distinct parts. 1. The 
 
 >» 
 
»"' : 
 
 fii 
 
 14 
 
 consideration of the quantitative ivlaHnna ^r »i *> 
 
 cconomiepowei.ofanin>asco„p^^^^^^^^^^^^^ «»d 2. The 
 
 contrivance. ^ ^ *^ *^°'' °^ " '"""''i^c of merely human 
 
 one hand, and the vaLstrm/of vl „ the 'Ji^ ' *'r'?'"' '<'"'' «" »^« 
 resultant of any vital force wh"n i Jol V ,. ' ^"* '^ ^^ ''""'^ ?«* 'he 
 this being bettfr unde/srod could morf. ,1'"'° """^ '^^ ^'^^ P'^^^ ^°«««. 
 
 1. we can do in the oJ:'i::ZZZS ."^^^ITV'^' '"'"""" 
 -and I think it may safely be cranted fl,„f f ^^""ot'on we can measure; 
 
 offby the body takes^hisf^rmrreJt!^^^^^^^^ 'f ''' '"'«^ S-" 
 •nation to the result we are s ekin. F„ °? tl roT . \ ^ T""*^ 'P^''^^'- 
 twecn motion and heat be recolleSlthat Ll 'f^'T'^'^ ^^^^ exists be- 
 772 pounds one foot is only el!l 1 1 . ! '"°^' ^°''° *'^P^^'<^ "^ '«'"«? 
 wa Jthrough one dele Fal' aid T 1 '''^'"'^ ^^ ™^° °"^ P"""^ of 
 of chemical action ifLessanfi^tl 1.7 ^'^ T'^'' ^'^* ^ ^"'^^ »'"°""* 
 heat-how much'eat forSsttce a 1^7. " ^"^''"^''^ •^"■'""^^ o*' 
 while, at tl. same tim^irgivroHaJ^^n^^^^^^^^ ? lamp wi„ yi,„, 
 
 disproportion tltrmrdteSL'tr^^^^^^^ 
 2. That the animal body should beTsutrirr " ^'' F""" '' ''"^'"S- 
 
 a^d Hand soitlilyt^wr;: S^X^t I^Tf ^ ^^"^ 
 us. And it must be regarded as a result of f^! ■■ '''''^ '^""S 
 
 proportion of the force given off tekes the fori f .""""^"S '^'' «« g^^at a 
 is a much ehea^r ^o Jof fo^Lt l^t™ IT^^^^^^^ '^-^ 
 
 Part IT. 
 

 
 15 
 
 cessity alive, in the ordinary acceptation of that term, yet it must be in a stat<> 
 closely allied to vitality, as recently dead tissue, or as in the case of the seed 
 vrhieh is said to be in a state of " dormant vitality." And here we have as it 
 seems to me, an almost, if not quite, insuperable bar to the doctrine of equivo- 
 cal generation ; which can never be received till some exception be pointed out 
 to the law I have laid down. 
 
 It may be considered as proved by the following facts that nerve force and elec- 
 tricity are not identical. For (1) no electric current can be detected in a nerve 
 along which nerve force is known to be passing. (2) By ligaturing a nerve its 
 conducting power for electricity is not in the least impaired ; while for nerve 
 force it h destroyed. And (3) if a piece of nerve be removed and the ends thus 
 left be connected by means of a conductor, electricity will still pass along it, but 
 nerve force will not.* 
 
 But it must equally be allowed that some exceedingly clnso relationship does 
 exist between them, for if a current of electricity be passed along a motor nerve, 
 even for a part of its course, contraction of the muscles supplied by that nerve 
 is the result. ^ If an afiFerent nerve be experimented upon the same way, whether 
 a nerve of common sensation, the optic, auditory, gustatory, or olfactory, a prick- 
 ing sensation is expeilenced, flashes of light seen, sounds heard, a peculiar taste, 
 or a phosphoric odor perceived, in accordance with the function of the nerve 
 operated upon.f 
 
 Now if in the case of the magnetization of a bar of iron by the passage of a cur- 
 rent of electricity round it, a conversion of the electric force into the magnetic 
 be conceded, such connection can scarcely be denied in these cases in which a 
 perfect parallelism to that of the magnetization seems to exist. But to follow 
 out the analogy — for magnetism will under the proper conditions produce elec- 
 tricity — the converse should hold, namely, that the nerve force will produce 
 the electric ; and this is seen in the most remarkable manner in the case of the 
 electric fishes of which the Torpedo, the Gymnotus clectriciis, and the SUui-us clec- 
 tricus are best known. In them a special division of the nervous system is set 
 apart for the production of nerve force, which by means of a particular form of 
 apparatus — supplying the special material substratum required in this case — is 
 converted into electricity. That in this case the nerve force is in fact converted 
 into electricity, or bears some very analogous relation to it, is as well capable of 
 proof as that in other cases it excites the contraction of muscles, for from the 
 electric lobe proceeds a large nerve trunk, which when it reaches its destina- 
 tion in the electric apparatus, divides into minute branches which ramify profusely 
 in all directions. Now if this nerve be divided, the apparatus fails to evolve 
 electricity ; if partly divided or injured, the discharge is weakened ; if the elec- 
 tric lobe be removed, destroyed, partially taken away, or injured, similar results 
 follow ; and if the lobe be irritated the discharge is increased. If now the nerve 
 be divided, and the cut end belonging to the peripheral extremity be acted upon 
 
 • Lectures on Physiology by Prof. Fraser. 
 
 t For the facts in this paragraph as well as for several others of the same kind fur- 
 ther on, I am indebted to Dr. Carpenter's article in the Phil. Tran. for 1830 on " The 
 mutual relations of the Vital and Physical forces." 
 
 
 
 f't 
 
 > ^ 
 ''f i 
 
16 
 
 t^t::^^;rrr^Jt„r^^^^^^^ o. He., .e result wiU 
 
 eUctri^ity from the apiaratus " *^' "^*'' «"'' "» ^volutioa of 
 
 J^'it^tn/Lteio^rr^ -^ -sole 
 
 nomena connected' Z^TJZ neToeT"'" "' '''^'''''^' "^ ^« P^O" 
 
 -usclejn their relaUon to orither^rla; "kT"'"- "''" *"""'' «"^ ^ 
 cription. It iB, however, probaWe tha. ^ " ^''° '" '^' ^^^'^ d««- 
 
 relation that nerve force Cs to .."• 5 • '? ^'* ^^''''''' »^*'««° the 
 produced in the other For^hL Tthf " ^'^.^ °""' ''"'^ *« «^« -«"»» 
 certainly not converted direc7lyZ^ 1^ T! t^' """^^ *^^ "^'^^ ^^'^^ ^^ 
 «hip to it, as we shall ^e further o;. T„ the nt ^T ^ ""^ •^^*^"* ''^^'- 
 trie fish it is highly probable thLtL 1 . ^"'^ '" *^« ^"^ °^ »!>« elec- 
 
 nerve force by VcCttnt^ alT^^^ the 
 
 tion and even death of the animal after l.fl? ' 1"'* *^" '^^'''^^ ^^^u^" 
 and the fact that no other orS Ifl^L" u' ^ "''"^i^' "'^'^ ^'' ««"« ti°»«.=*^ 
 de^, to justify us in com^i^fTofh;: ^H^r' °"*' -"'^ -"> ^^ - 
 
 there :nrn:Tou^t:tratr^:;^^^^^^^^^ 
 
 converaion of heat into nerve-force ^y22L ?. ""'^ "°'^ ^'^""^ "!»» '^ 
 the nerves which transmit suerSpttl'X'he ''"'^"' -tremities of 
 n>ent of this, and which would annfyTn' II l" J '^"'"* ^°'' '^' ^^'^^'^h" 
 of this form. Given a force appH K ho. ^r^^ T' "°"'' "^^^ ^""^^^'^-^ 
 of a different chamcter passfn. alol thif n!^^ 'l\^''''> «»<i 'A- a force 
 force, which passes along'he n^rve mu tt T' ff^ ^'> *^^ «"^-^««"t 
 or (2) it must have been roused from a h!^ ^TT^ " "°"''-'- '- "««ted ; 
 by eonverslo. of the forceTwctTas in '*"''' "' ^'^ ^* '^ *^« '^"^tan; 
 
 «een reasons above for rejecting tte two I^ T -"""^^ ''' ^"^ ^^ ^ave 
 therefore to accept the iL eXati- "' '* '"^ "'"'^"^ *« »« 
 
 by a t^^ltlLTZlir ^^^^^^^ .^^.^ --^- ^^- i3 caused 
 
 the optic nerve, flashes of light Ts^rtt! "^^^ ''^"" '^^"^' '»PP"^'» to 
 appUed to the course of a motorTem it' .^o^ *'^' "'^^^ ^^"'^' ""^ «« °« i 
 by it ; in all cases, causing a « of n T '"°'''° '" ^'^^ "^"^^'^ ^^^^^^ 
 Which it is applied'as the LtTtcT^n Us Z^Z^ '"^ ^'"^" *'^ "^^ *^ 
 
 »cal action, some of it may be dZllTf ^"^"^ ^^^ to rf«-ec« chem- 
 
 I Carpenter, Phil. Tran. 1850. ' '^°- 
 
te-^.#^:*e»,.' 
 
 17 
 
 and the rapid cooling of bodies of ivhich tho nervous centres have been destroyed 
 notwithstanding that respiration is artificially maintained, and tho circulation 
 continues.*" 
 
 Chemical re-agents applied to nerves in their course will produce all the effects 
 which we have seen to follow the application of heat and electricity ;f while, as 
 the converse of this, it is well known that nerve influence may change the chem- 
 ical properties of the secretions in the most marked manner, and even probably 
 produce chemical alteration in tho blood itself, or tho solid parts of the organ- 
 ism ;| and that it excites chemical change in the muscles there can be no doubt. 
 
 We have a striking instance of the conversion of light into nerve force in the 
 phenomena of sight, the mode of which conversion being a matter of little im- 
 portance in our present inquiry. Whether we ore inclined to accept Draper's|| 
 very ingenious explanations of it or not, tho fact that such change does tako 
 place can scarcely be denied ; tho argument for tho proof of this conversion 
 would be similar to that used on a former occasion when speaking of heat. 
 
 Conversely, although most cases of animal luminosity may be fairly referred to 
 slow combustion, or phophoresence, in the part where such effect is manifested, yet 
 this explanation does not seem adequate to account for all instances of this kind ; 
 and it is believed that in some cases, more particularly in the cases of the marine 
 Annelida, and some other of tho Articxilata, a conversion of nerve force into 
 light takes place.§ 
 
 The relation between nerve force and motion has been considered as being a 
 more remarkable instance of conversion than any of those above specified,^ But 
 this does not seem to me at all so clear as at first sight it might appear to be. 
 For it is certain that in the relationship existing between motor nerves and their 
 muscles, no conversion of nerve force into motion takes place, but, as wc 
 shall hereafter see, a connection of an entirely different character obtains. How- 
 ever this may be the converse of it holds good ; for motion in the form of me- 
 chanical irritation applied to a nerve at ita periphery, or in its course, will be 
 followed by a nervous current along that nerve and by excitation of its centre. 
 That is to say, when applied to a nerve of common sensation it causes pain ; to 
 the eyeball or optic nerve, flashes of light; to the auditory, sounds; by strikbg 
 the tongue quickly and lightly with the tip of the finger, a distinct taste is de- 
 veloped, sometimes saline and sometimes acid. t9° 
 
 I have said that the motion produced by the contraction of a muscle cannot 
 be r^arded as a continuation of the nerve force which called that muscle into 
 action. It seems sufficient reason for this assertion that there is another, and 
 distinct source known to which to refer for the proximate antecedent of the mo- 
 
 • Carpenter, " Principles of comparative Physiology," p. 401 ; see also his " Human 
 Physiology," pp. 417 et acq. 
 t Carpenter, Phil. Tran. 1850. 
 X Carpenter, " Human Physiology," pp. 740-746. 
 
 II Draper's ''Human Physiology," pp. 392 et seq. 
 
 § Carpenter, " Principles of Comparative Physiology," p. 447. Compare Todd and 
 Bowman "Phys. Anatomy," pp. 224 et seq. 
 ir Carpenter, Phil. Tran. 1860. 
 V^ Baly's translation of Muller's Physiology, p. 1002. 
 
 /i, xj 
 
 Ik 
 
 ..-AS 
 
18 
 
 tion namely, the chemical change taking place in the muscle; the relation of 
 which to the force put forth is bo well shown by the different amount of urea 
 formed under the different circumstances of activity or rest of the muscle i= 
 Still that there is an intimate relation between the current in the motor nerve 
 and the muscular contraction is well known, and also that in a certain sense a 
 quantitative relation exists between them, the degree of contraction in the muscle 
 being entinjiy dependent, cwlcU paribus, Mpon the amount of stimulation or 
 nerve force conveyed to it by the nerve supplying it. The relation then between 
 nerve and muscular force, though intims >, is certainly not that of direct con- 
 version, but seems to be extremely analogous to that which light bears to the 
 force produced by the union of hydrogen and chlorine when their combination 
 IS determined by the action of it« rays upon them ; for the amount of nerve 
 iorce, as of light, supplied in any given time, other things being equal, detcr- 
 »^TL^ amount of chemical change in the muscle or in the mixed gases 
 and consequently the amount of force (Laws I. and III.) that will be put forth' 
 or evolved, but in neither case docs the determining agent supply the force thus 
 yielded. But the nerve force as well as the light, (according to the theory 
 here advocated) must have a resultant when it ceases to exist as such and I 
 would suggest the possibility of that resultant being the heat, or part of it, that 
 IS always produced during normal muscular contraction. 
 
 If we consider now that on the one hand all the physical forces are mutually 
 convertible into each other, and on the other that nerve force is considered as 
 the highest form of power put forth by organised beings, besides being (as must 
 be granted) probably correlated to all the rest; it must be allowed that the fore- 
 going facts go far towards establishing the relation contended for here, between 
 the vital and physical forces, for if each one of the two groups of force have its 
 own forms of force convertible into each other, then it only requires one connect- 
 ing link to establish the unity of all the forms of both groups. But because 
 we cannot point out any one link that would fulfil this condition so as not to 
 «UIow of any cavil, if is necessary that we should have a larce number of in- 
 stances of conversion, each of which should be as reliable as possible under the 
 
 ra?p!lTwr/'r\^^"'"\P™^''^"'"*'^^^ ?«'"*'"§•" »»« direction, we 
 may establish that which cannot bo shown to be absolutely true by any one direct 
 
 ^ Instances (or at least seeming instances) of conversion coming under this di- 
 vision of the subject might be multipUed, but it would be tedious to do so and 
 would serve no purpose, for if those instances already adduced are not received 
 ^^^l «f r«l''«on, any others would hardly be so; and if they axe so looked 
 upon tliere is no need of adding to them, and it must be obvious to everv one 
 that If this view be the true one, every vital manifestation must be an example 
 ot correlation, since every vital force, in its origin as such, must proceed from a 
 physical one. I shall, however, brieBy consider muscular action^ for the 1 
 po^ of seeing whether this theory is capable of throwing any light upon it. 
 
 Aach form of cell, as we have seen above, has its own pr oper fom of « cell 
 
 IogyJ^7S," """""" Pbyio'ogy-" pp. 444 et seq. and Carpenter's " Human Physio- 
 
««^. 
 
 jTlfSj^^l^^Wn 
 
 19 
 
 force," which it evolves under certain determinate conditions; thi.s force hai 
 for it« anteoedcnt that set iVco by the oheniioul chun^cs going on in the cell 
 itaclf, the convention being effected by the particular form of matter (the cell) 
 through which the force passcH. Now an the cell is the form of matter (jntr r.r- 
 lelknce) throua;h the agency of which tlie physical iorccs are changed into the 
 vital, HI) each form of cell has its own form of vital force wliicli must result from 
 the fact of ite having its origin as vltnl /onr in that cell. 
 
 As the proximate origin of the force liberated by each cell i.s to be found in 
 ohcmical change, ho tlic stimulus that calls that cell into action is something 
 that will determine the taking pluce of that chemical change, and may be itself 
 exceedingly amall in quantity compared with the force which at first sight it 
 might seem to produce. 
 
 The cells* of muscle iiro eliPinically composed of cxeceilingly complex bodies ; 
 the affinity exercised between the elements of which seems to be very slight and 
 their stability remarkably feeble ; from which it results that their elements may 
 easily be made to change their chemical condition (Law II.); and also that when 
 they full into low forms of combination in which the affinity exercised by them 
 will be great, a large quantity of force will be set Irec (Law IIL) ; and in this 
 fact we have the reason for the great complexity in chemical constitution which 
 obtains in tissues through which much force has to be evolved, that is, whose 
 functional activity is great. f 
 
 This being the state of affairs what is next required is, first, another force which 
 t^hall so act upon the complex bodies as to cause the chemical change, and second, 
 a form of matter, in the passage through which this force set free shall assume 
 the form required ; these two conditions we have fulfilled in nerve force on the 
 one hand, and muscular tissue on the other. But any other force may take the 
 place of the nervous as when an isolated muscle is called into action by heat, clee- 
 ctrioity, mehanical irritation, etc. ; and again the cell may be in some way so al- 
 tered that it shall lose its property of directing the force set free into the normal 
 vital channel, and then we shall have another form of force evolved, which in ac- 
 cordance with the rule, in cases of chemical combination, will be mostly or entirely 
 heat. This aberration is seen during life in certain morbid states of the system 
 as in pyrexia (?), and after death of course it always happens ; and if the cir- 
 cumstances attending the death be such as to leave the elements in a more than 
 usually unstable condition we shall have a rise in the temperature of the dead 
 body, &» is oflen seen in cases of cholera, yellow fever, etc.J 
 
 In health, because it would seem some little chemical change, probably connec- 
 ted with nutrition, must always be going on, when the muscle is at rest and there- 
 fore not liberating a ly of its proper force, electricity in small quantities, (for the 
 
 * I follow Sharpie} and Carpenter (Prof. Fraser's lectures on Physiology,) in consi- 
 <1ering muscles as ultimately composed of cells : in reality it does not appear to me to be 
 of any consequence for our present purpose whether we call them such or fibrillar, 
 
 t For it would seem to be a law, to which there are certainly seeming exceptions from 
 the operation of other laws interfering with it, that the more complex a body is, the 
 weaker is the chemical affinity exercised by its elements. 
 
 t Carpenter's " Human Physiology" p. 410. 
 
 #t«^ 
 
 ^B^sEfeLii^'j '^'^^l 
 
 HEl^'I 
 
20 
 
 oSltl^ '"'''; '"^ ''''""' ^"* ■" «^" "" »'>° »"'^'" '« ^""^'l upon to give 
 out ite proper form of oneiKy, Us evolution oui.- os * ^ *"^' 
 
 mi of Ilfr ""T ^"""'^''"' '° "•"^^ ^ "»*'*' ^^«'P^'» '^'^ '•«*<" 'h*t irritable 
 
 IfT.h r T '" ' '"^^ '*"^'" °«"^*'°" '»>»" ol-tainH in other pe p ) h„v 
 more ot this free eleotrioity than others.f ^ ^ '' ^ 
 
 Part III. 
 And first of heat. 
 
 within thorn h.? V '^""y ^''"" *'^*^ ^'^""•cal clianges jroing on 
 
 by its pl^etou^^^^^ P"t°' *\^^'' ''""'^ ' ^«"» '^ *^« f-- -hic'>, 
 
 form in cr^t lart tt • 5 '"^ ^'"^ "^''"^^"^ *« ^'^' f°'««' has to per- 
 
 orm in grea part the assunilative and nutritive functions. I say in -.roLt oart 
 
 lorn wat"''".r'' •" *'^ P'P^'^'''" '^ ^°™ -»-' -<1 where tea7^^^^^^ 
 from water are they .n any degree separated ? that is has the affinit/ex eS bv 
 
 ew b dilsT ?h " ""TJ 't^" ^'^^ "'^ ^""^^'"^^ -^'^ carbon'trZhes 
 
 von^ the Wo ; . T I' "'""' ''*"' " ^°'«^ *° ^ff^^'t 'J^'^ decomposition be- 
 yond the force that .sevolved in the formation of the new body (Law IV^ If then 
 
 ^ "e on light, U 1. ci.vu- ;u^ certain amou.it of heat will be re- 
 
 • Carpenter's " Human Phyiiology" p. 426 "^ 
 
 t Carpenter's " Human PhyEiology" p. 429 
 
 quantity of iy wood 3d '1,7^ J''' " "^^ ° "'^ ''^"''''^' <"' ^ ^"PPO'e, agiven 
 coal as there warcarblilr . ' " '" ''' combustion than would as much char- 
 is not at al lerene^U Z,?:^^^^^^ .^ combustion j but if the affinity between them 
 of heat evolved bv U,e 12! ^/. . ' u ""^ '^"""^^ '"''" *° ^"'""'<=t from the amount 
 O-e ? n Ihe woS sTt noM"! ''""^^ f '"* "'^-^^ «=«•««"« between the H an^ 
 
21 
 
 quiMd for II 'ly given amount of prowth and dc lopment oxhibitod by the plant ; 
 bat IB, a quuntiUtivfi relation must exMt between ttto force supplied and the vi- 
 tal forcfi pnt forth which depends upon it ; and thi« is seon to bo the cam in the 
 moat striMng manner, for aeoordinj; to Bou8lnp?ault " the same annual plant in 
 uniting at it« full development and Koing thnjugh all the proeeesof f flowering 
 and maturation of ite seed, everywhere reooivea the sauio amount v,i ^.lar light 
 and heat, whether it bo grown at the c(|uator or at th« temperate lono, it- rate of 
 growth being in a preoiBcly direct ratio to the amount it roceivcH in any iron 
 .irae. 
 
 Very much the same thing is seen in the oaao of the lower oold-blw led anifc A 
 though what ia the nature of t»-3 relation oxiHting here between the pr -^al afli 
 vital force, I do not pretend to say ; it may bo that the former morel) Tniahep 
 a neoessary condition for the evolution of the latter from other ources ; -t may 
 be changed into it directly; or again the heat may alter its li rm and b oihin^ 
 chemical force may so pass into the ■ ital ; be this as it may, the relation exists 
 ;ind is well seen in the case of the ( -uttacea. For 1, the variety of thoir t '•m 
 and organization (which may bo rc^r ,ded as so many varied manifestat rf 
 the organising force) increase as we pwss from the polar seas towards the (;• or 
 the number of species thus augmenting .'reatly as we go southward. 2. T, 
 terenccs of form and organization are »< t only more numerous and more ohw »c- 
 tcristic in the warm than in the cold rej; >n8 of the gloln) ; but they are also in 
 important. 3. Not only are those Crusta, -n which are most elevated in the sc 
 defieient in the polar regions, but their r(>iative number decreases rapidly as « 
 pass from the equator towards the pole. 4 The average size of t he Cnutacea o; 
 tropical r^ons is considerably greater than that of the tribes inhabiting frigid 
 or temperate climes. 5. It is whore the temperature is most elevated that the 
 peeuliarities of structure which characterize he several groups are most strongly 
 manifested. And 6. There is a remarkable v oincidence between the temperature 
 of different regions and the prevalence of certain forms of Cnutacea.* 
 
 The rate of performance of their functionb in cold-blooded animals depends 
 much upon the temperature in which they liv' Now as the respiratory process 
 is an exponent of the rate of life of any animoj that is of the rate of chemical 
 change taking place in the organism, it follows t^rom the above that should this 
 be stopped, the length of life of the animal will be in the inverse ratio of the 
 temperature to which it is exposed ; and so we nd it, for when firogs were con- 
 fined in a limited quantity of water and not a owed to come to the surface to 
 breathe 
 
 They died in 12 to 32 minutes when the water was 90° 
 
 " " 35 90 « <« '* 72 
 
 " 350 375 " '• « 50 
 
 '•' " 367 498 " " " 30 
 
 At the lowest temperature mentioned the prolongation of life was not due to 
 torpidity, for all the functions of the animal were p- rformed, but slowly J 
 
 ♦ Milne Edwards " Histoire des Cruataces iome iii pp. 555 et. seq. quoted by Car- 
 penter in his article in Phil. Trsn. 1850. 
 t Dr. F. W. Edwards " On the influence of physical agents on life." 
 
 
 [■Is 
 
 'i. 
 
22 
 
 In the production of larvae ft-om the eggs of insects, we see very much the 
 same rektion between heat and the vital force as in the case of plants for he 
 rate of development is in the direct ratio of the heat supplied, and Ihe fina 
 transformation may be accelerated or retarded at pleasure, within certain irnft^ 
 by regulating t^e amount of heat which they receive ; but i; every case-in eZ of 
 hesameinsect-the same amount of heat is required, and must be supplSto 
 effect the same transformation.* 
 
 U rLT'f'^ ""^'""^ '" ^^' P*"*^ '^ S^^*^""" '» warm-blooded animals 
 ^no doubt due in great part to the regularity of temperature that they are ca- 
 paWe of sustaining under nearly all circumstances, and which is necessa^ to the 
 continuan^ of their vitality, and I would be inclined to think (though I cannot 
 anywhere find It so stated) that the temperature of warm-blooded animals de- 
 creases as age comes on from the single fact (if it be a fact) that the period 
 of gestation is prolonged in accordance with the advance of age 
 
 Besides the influence exercised by light in the decomposition of carbonic acid 
 and ammonia m contact with the green leaves of plants, there is no doubt that 
 It IS a force which IS extensively used in the process of development, that in 
 somecases at least, it determines the manner and direction of growth in a 
 very remarkable degree A very curious example of this kind is furnished by 
 the experiments of Mirbel upon thegemm* o{ Afarchantia poIymorj>Ju,. He 
 found after thoroughly testing the matter, by repeated trials, that during the 
 development of these little discs, stomata are formed upon the side exposed to the 
 light, while root fibres grew from the under surface; and it is a matter of indif- 
 ftrence which side of the disc is at first turned upwards, since each has the 
 power of developing stomata or roots according to the influence it receives.t 
 
 This division of my subject might be almost indefinitely extended, but I have 
 not attempted to do more than notice some of the more salient poinL belonging 
 to It, which IS all my space will admit of. ^ 
 
 Higher in the scale of organization there are to be found such facts as the 
 influence of light m the development of tadpoles into frogs ;-multitudes of the 
 like instances will present themselves to the mind of every one 
 
 Finally to test a theory we examine it in all its ramifications, and if it be 
 found to be absolutely opposed to fact in any one case it cannot stand. So if 
 any physical or vital force, however inconsiderable in amount, can be shown to 
 
 5" ^'f '!!!;? ?' "^^""^ '""'^ **^°''*'^' «« ^« «^««^« >ts operations, which 
 do not proceed from some antecedent physical or vital force, such theoW can 
 no longer be entitled to belief or consideration. But if, on the other hand, there 
 are vital forces of which we do not know the antecedent force, or that thei have 
 any except from analogy, it is the business of the holders of this view to en- 
 deavour to clear up, and show the connection between such forces and their cor- 
 
 IhfZ'tw" '° ' Tt' '' •" '^' '"'"^°'" '"'^^■' 0' »o «l>ow, if such be 
 the case, that none exist, and so destroy a false hypothesis. 
 
 •Carpenter, PhH.Tran. 1850. 
 t Carpenter, Phil. Iran. 1850.