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National 8erte$ of School Booh.
AN
ENGLISH GRAMMAR,
Sox tiitVLBt ot
Antkcmed by the CoinieU qf Public Inst\
Upp9r Canada,
TORONTO:
PUfiUSHED BY BREWER, McPHAi
Pftnteri , Stationeri and
46» Kma Stiut EitT.^
1866.
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PREFACE.
...i
In this work, the general principles of Gram*
mar are printed in large, and the illustrations
and exceptions in small type. The former ard
intended to be committed to memory ; and Id
commencing to teach grammar to youiig classes^
it will be advisable for the pupils to learn only
that portion which is printed in large type. In
a second course, or with an advanced class,
both the rules and notes must be studied, and
the exercises corrected and copied into a book
prepared for the purpose.
Those who are alregdy acquainted with
Grammar will observe that this work diiTert
from others of the same kind, on the degrees
of comparison, — the pronouns, — and the form
of the verb, which it is believed dre i;ere given
In a more simple and <'»orrect na^ner.
Ample directions to teachers • Will b© found
under each Section; but it is exp^pt^f that in
Grammar, as in every other bran<iK'jq^ educa«
lion, the pupils should be made to understand
what they learn
■A*.
Vi^'
IS;IJ^**
CONTENTS.
Pagt
Introduction, .... 7
Part I.— ORTHOGRAPHY.
Letten, 8
Syllables and Words, . . 9
Exercises, . . . . .11
Part II.— ETYMOLOGY.
Parts op Speech,
Article,
Noun, . .
Exercises,
Adjective,
Exercises,
Pronoun, .
Exercises,
Verb, . ,
Exercises,
Adverb, .
Exercises,
Preposition,
Conjunction,
Interjection,
Exercises, .
13
15
16
25
29
33
35
40
41
72
76
78
79
80
80
81
Part III— SYNTAX.
Subject and Verb, ... 90
Article, 91
Noun 92
Pag9
Adjective, . . . < . 93
Pronoun,
Verb, . . .
Adverb, .
Prepositi>t>n,
Conjun<Ction,
Interjection,
Exercises, .
• •
93
94
95
95
96
96
98
Part tV.— PROSODY.
Speaking and Readingr, .115
Verse, 116
Exercises, 121
APPENDIX.
Derivation,
Prefixes, . ,*
Affixes, . .
Latin Roots,
Greek Roots,
Composition,
Punctuation,
Exercises, .
Arrangement,
Exercises, .
Style, . . .
Exercises, .
Figurative LanguagVi
Exercises,
123
125
126
129
149
147
U1
151
154
157
163
16a
175
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All
ENGLISH GKAMMAR
%/\^\.>.-
I^TRODUCTION.
Mankind communicate their thoughts by
spoken and written language.
The dementis of spoken language are artu
culate sounds.
The elements of written language are cha*
racters or letters, which represent articulate
sounds.
Letters are formed into syllables, syllables
into words, and words into sentences.
Grajnmar is that science which teaches the
proper use of letters, syllables, wor^is, and
sentences ; or which treats of the principles
and rules of spoken and written language.
The object of English Grammar is to teach
those who use the English language to express
their thoughts correcuy either in speakiiig or
writing.
BNOLISH GRiMMAR.
DIVISIONS OF GRAMMAR.
English Grammar is divided into four parts
nvLtnefyi Orthography, Etymology, Syntax, and
Prosody.
Orthography treats of letters, and of the
mode of 'combining them into syllables and
words.
Etymology treats of the various classes of
words, a'nd of the changes which they undergo.
Syntax treats of the connexion and arrange-
mefnt of words in sentences.
Prosody treats of . the proper manner of
speaking and reading, and of the different
kmds of verse.
Part L— ORTHOGRAPHY.
Orthography treats of letters, and of the
mode of combining them into syllables and
words.
LETTERS.
A tetter is a mark or character used to re*
present an articulate sound.
The English alphabet consists of twenty-six
letters.
Letters are divided into toioels and cdnso*
nants,
A Vetnel is a letter which makes a distiiict
sound by itself.
A Consonant is a letter which cannot be
distinctly sounded without a vowel. ^^^'^w
pp
PiUlT I. — OBrHOQRiuPilT.
A, Cf 1,0, u, w and 1/ are vow^els.
The remaining fiineteen letters are con-
Aonants.
Th^ union of two vowels in one sound is
called a Diphthong,
When both vowels are heard, it is called a
proper Diphthong ; as, ou in sound.
When only one of the vowds is Iraard, it is
ealled an improper Diphthong ; as, oa in hoaU
The unioi;! of three vowels in on^i sound is
called a Triphthong ; as, iew in view.
All the vowels, many of the diphthongs, and severa^I of
the consonants, have more than one sound. Thus, tho
vowel a has four sounds, as in /a ^c, fait /s^t ff^Ui the
diphthongf ea^ has four, as in. heart heart, heat, breast;
and the coQeQuant c has twp. as in city, call.
On the othpr hand, many, of the sounds are represented
by several l^tt^rs. Thus, e,.a8 :n me, is represented by ae,
ay, ea, ee, ei,fio, ey, i,ia, ie, oe, oi, and y; as in the words
Caaar, quay, hear, see, neither, people, key, pique, cavi'
are, relieve, Joel us, turkois, and duty ; and the sound of
k, as in kill,)» represented by c, ch, q^ and gh, as in the
words corn, character, quoit and hough.
An accurate knowledge of the sounds of the vawels,
diphthongs, triphthongs, and consonants, i^ only to be
acquired by a careful attention to orthoepy, as it is to be
found in pronouncing dictionaries of established re|>uta-
tion, and as it is practised by persons of education and
titste.
SYLLABLES AND WORDS.
A Syllable is a single sound, represented by
one or more letters ; as, a, aw, ant.
In every syllable there must be at least one
vowel.
10 BNGLISn GRAMMAR.
The number f syllables in a word is always equal to
the number of distinct sounds which it contains. Thus,
the word «^rcng<A contains one distinct somnd or sylla-
ble; cru-cl contains two distinct sounds or syllables;
iti'Vefi'tion contains three ; con-vC'Tiuence, four ; versa'
til-i'tyf fi\e I tr a n-8ub'8tan-ti'a'tiont BIX _
A Word consists of one syllable, or a com^
bination of syllables.
A word of one syllable is called a Monosyl
lahle, ds, just; a word of two syllables, a
Dissyllable^ as, jus-tice ; a word of three syl-
lables, a Trisyllable^ as, jus-ti-fy ; a word of
four or more syllables, a Polysyllable, as, jus^
ti-fy-ing ; jus-ti-fi-ca-tiori,.
In representing words by characters, two sorts of
letters are employed ; namely, Capitals and small Letter$
Words should begin with capitals in the following
situations : —
The first word of every sentence — ^the first v^ifd of
every line of poetry — ^the first word of a quotation in a
direct form — the names of the Supreme Being — all pro-
per names, adjectives derived from proper names, and
common nouns persv^nified — ^the names of the days of the
week, and of the mouths of the year — any very import-
ant word, as, the Revolution, the Union — tho pronoun j^
and tho interjection 0.
A certain degree of uniformity prevails in the spelling
of many classes of words ; but the ejgceptions and svno-
maltes are so numerous, that in orthography, as is or-
thoepy, perfect accuracy is only to be attained bjf n^
tondmg to the best authorities. .
fVj!iit«
PART I.-^ORTHOGRAPHY.
u
EXERCISES.
LETTERS.
What is a letter? How many
English alphubut l How are let
vowel ? Wlittt 'li II consonant ?
there? How inanv consonants a ,
thong ? What is a proper diphtho
diphthong ? What is a triphthong '
Point out the voictelst consonants^ ,
tkongSf and triphthongs^ in the folio
Boy, many, what, rail, toil, round, against, road, moun-
tain, royal, draught, ground, hautboy, ciay, decoy, where,
poisonous, young, appear, beauty, vein, nyinpb, review, buy,
neight, yooman, bean, pigeon, which, does, sign, prey, mU-
Hou, adieu, broad, avoirdupois, poor, town, purlieu, know-
ledge, whatever, brought, tune, lieutenant, myrrh, free, aisle,
^ruest, youth.
SYLLABLES AND WORDS.
What is a syllable? Is any particular number of letteit
necessary to form a syllable 7 How do you find out how
many syllables there are in a word ? Is any p.frticu]ar num-
ber of syllables nec^'ssary to form a word ? What is a word
of one syllable called? a word of two syllables? of three
syllables? of four or more syllables J How many sorts of
letters are employed in representing words by characters t
In what situations should words begin with capitals ?
Divide the following words into syllables .•—
Compound, misconduct, progress, relate, michaelmas, pa*
raphrase, business, cauliflower, dungeon, parliament, moun-
tainous, leopard, marriage, nutritious, pursuivant, reservoir,
abbreviation, victual, harangue, licentiousness, neighbour,
crescent, magician, peaceable, reunion, impenetrability, odious,
passionate, symptom, efficacious, prescience, acquaintance,
diTisibiiity, handkerchiefi synagogue, purveyor, unanimity^
■ynonymous.
12
RNGLTSH GRAMMAR.
Correct the errors in the use of capital letters in the following
sentences : —
When Bocrates was Building himself a House at athens,
being asi^ed by one that observed the litlienoBs of the Design.
Why a mail so eminent would not have an abode more suit
able to i^is digruily : " i shall think Myself sufiicient!^
Acconnrk»datpd," replied he, " If i shall see that narrow Ha-
bitation liiled with real friends."
''' i
V 'A stilrpresslnsr on, beyond toruoa's lake,
'' ,^'And hcclii flaming through a waste of snow,
'<a:ii<J.farth«:«i!it greenland, to the pole itself,
where, fttiiiiig gradual, life at leugtli goes out,
the muso. expands her solitary flight.
remote, unfriended, melancholy, slow,
or by the Lazy scheld, or Wandering po ; '
or onward where the rnde carinthian boor
against the houseless Stranger shuts the door ;
or where Campania's Plain forsaken lies,
a weary waste Expanding to the skies ;
where'er i roam, whatever Realms to see,
my Heart uulraveird, fondly turns to thee.
anne, queon of great britain and Ireland, ascended tha
Throne, on the 8th of march, 1701 ; and Died on>the Ist of
august, 1714. her Reign was rendered Remarkable by tha
Vietories of the duke of marlborough on the continent of
aiirope, And the union Between england and Scotland.
these ar6 Thy Glorious Works, parent of Good !
almighty. Thine this universb^ frame !
the Bt georgti Arrived at kiugstown From liver-Pool on
tuesday evening at Eight o*clock, and will Sail at six O'clock
on Thunday morning.
i am monareh of all i Survey,
my right there is none to Dispute ;
from the Centre all round to the sea,
i am Lord of the Fowl and the Brute.
o solitude ! Where are the charms,
that Sages have seen in thy Face,
better Dwell in the midst of alarms,
than Reign in this Horrible Place.
PART 11.'— ETYMOLOGY.
'.J .
18
'hear the words of solomon, the Wise Kiiig of Israel : " fear
ifdd, And keep his Commandmetits ; For this is the whblv
Duty of Man.**
remember, o my Friends, the laws, the rights,
the Generous Plan of power, Delivered down
'from age to age by your Renowned Forefathers !
o let Them never Perish in your Hand^,
but piously Transmit them to Your children.
>^^W^/\/%/v/>'>''"^^
Part II.— ETYMOLOGY.
Etymology treats of the various classes u^
^ords, or parts of speech, and of the changes
which they undergo.
^ pahts of speech.
There are nine classes of words, or parts
of speech ; nanriefy Article, Noun, Adjective^
Pronoun, Verbf Adverb^ Preposition, Conjunc-^
tionf and Interjection!
I. An Article is a word placed before ti
tioun to limit its signification ; as, A tree, an
apple, the garden.
II. A Noun is the name of a person, place,
or thing ; as, John, London, book,
III. An Adjective is a word which qualifies
a noun ; as, A sweet apple; a large garden;
a iiew book.
IV. A Pronoun is a word used in place of
a noun ; as, John was in the garden, he says
that it is full of trees, which are covered with
fruit.
14
ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
V. A Verb is a word \%hich affirms, or which
asks a question ; as, Jatnes strikes the table t
do you hear the noise T
VI. An Adverb is a word which qualifies
a verb, an adjective, or another «^dverb; as,
He writes well; she is remarkably diligent;
they read very correctly,
VII. A Preposition connects words, and
shows the relalioti between them ; as. We
travelled from Spain through France towards
Italv.
VIII. A Conjunction joins words and sen-
tences together ; as. My father and mother
are come, but I have not seen them.
IX. An Interjection is a word used lo ex-
press sudden emotion ; as. Ah I there he comes ;
Alas I what shall I do !*
* DiRBCTioNfl TO Teachers. — Every word in the. Engiail
luigTiaj^ belongs to one or other .of these nine parts of fipeach.
I^e best way to disting^iish one part of i^ech from anoUior
li to attend to its significatioD, and consider whotbor it is a
aaniri, or a word used instead of a name — whether it expr c a o ei
^ality in a noun, a verb, or another word of qunlity — whether
it makes an assertion or asks a question — or whether it Joim
other words tc^ther, or points out relation betweeu them. —
The following directions will also assist in finding out to
what classes the principal words in a sentence belong :
Nouns admit before them words expressing quality : thus,
ire can say, a black hmee^ a tour orange^ a loud naitie ; hvi,
we cannot say, a black did^ a sour covcredy a loud very,
Nouns also answer to questions beginning with who and what :
thus, Who Btruclc the table ? What did James strike ? The
words JameOy table, which form the auflwers to theae qne»>
tkms, are nouns.
Adjectives admit nouns after them : thus, we cannot say, M
PART n. — ^ETTMOLOGY.
u
I. — Article.
An Article is a word placed before a noan
to limit its signification.
A noon without an aiticle htfon it is to be under-
itood in ui unlimited sense : thus, man is mortal, means
that all men are mortal. A man, limits the Biguification
lo sne man ; the man, limits the si^nificatioa to some
particular man.
There are two articles, a or an, and the.
A or an is called the indefinite article, be-
cause it does not point out any particular per-
son or thing.
Thus, a tree, an apple, may ngnify any tree, any aj^^
When the indefinRe article is tc be placed before a
mmn, a or en is employed aceonling as the one or th»
ether can be more r^dUy formed by the organs of speech.
good exeelleni, an excellent happy; but we can say a good boy,
an excellent scholar, a happy parent. Adji^ctireB also answer
tA questions begiuning witb what sort of : thus, What sort oj
garden is it ? What sort of apples are these 7 Large and
nteet, the answers to these i^uestions, are adjectives.
Verbs make sense with the pronouns, /, thou, he, or 100 4
tliuB, we nan say, / sit, thou standest, he walks, we run; but
we cannot say, / chair, thou still, he slowly, we down.
* Ad'-rbs, when joined to verbs or adjectives^ aaewer to th»
questions how ? how much ? when ? or where ? — ^thue, how
does he read ? When will she be here ? Well, soon, or any
other words which will answer to these questions, are ad-
verbs. Adverbs, though they are used to express qualit}% like
adjectives, do not make sense with nouns: thus, we cannot
■ay, a good hoy diligently, a wise man prudently ; but we can
«ay, a good boy learns diligently, a wise man acts prudentlp.
Prepositions may be distinguished from conjunctions by
their admitting after them the words me, us, him, them ; thosy
we con say, to me, by us, from him, in them; but we caniuil
fliQV Mud me, arus^tj him, though them.
mmmm
and 'M more pleasingf to the oar when preneaneed &lon|
, witU the word which folfows. Therefore, a is used
before words begioniijig with a consonauti the sounds of
10 and y, and the lon^ sound of u ; as, a book, a Word,
a youth, many a one, a eunuch, d unit* An i$ u«ed beio
fore words beginning with a vowej, silent A, and h sounded
when the acdent is oq tile second syllable ; iMi,.tf» army,
an hour, an his^rian. ' '
The is called the definite article, because it
points out some particular person or thing*
Thus, the garden refers to some particular garden as
distinguished Srom all others.
II. — Noun.
A Noun is the name of a person, place, oi
thing.
Thus, the words, Johut London, lookt are called nouns,
because John is the name of a person, London the name
of a place, tiud hook the name of a thing or object
Nouns are divided into Proper and Common,.
Proper No\;ins or names can be applied t6
fadividuals only.
Common Nouns or names can be applied to
a whole kind or species.
Proper Nouns distinguish individuals from the rest of
the same species. Common Nouns can be applied tji^
each individual pf a species, but do not distinguish one
mdividual from another, llius, John is called a pjx>per
noun, because, though there tire many persons of that
name, they do not form a kind olf species by themselves ;
the word is used to distinguish one nian or boy fronp^ an-
other : London w called a proper npuii, because it distin^
. guishes the ciiy which be^irs tliat name from every ojlhe^
city: book is c'lUed a comi^on uouni because it dp^ uo|
^f-
PAKT ll;«->^STTMOL007.
IT
it
distingaifth' one thin^ of the kind firom another^ batoaa
be applied to any object of the fame species.
Proper nouns, when applied to individuals only, do nol^
require an article before them to limit their signiiioaticn.
But when a number of individuals resemble each other,
the name of one of them is sometimes used to expreet
their common character, and then admits of being limited
like a common noun. Thus, a great orator is called a-
Cicero; an eminent poet, a Homer or a Virgil. Proper
nouns also become common, when they are applied to
two or moro individuals collectively.;, as^. The twelve
C<tsar9,
Nouns are inflected by Number^ Gender^,
^nd Case.
Nouns are inflected, or changed in their form, bf
Number, Gender, and Case, to express their various '
relations to the things which they represent, and to'
other words in the same sentence.
Number is that inflection of the noun by which wo
indicate whether it represents one, or more than one.
Gender is that inflection by which we signify whether
the noun is the name of a male, a female, or something
Which has no dititinction of sex*
Case is that inflection of the noun which denotes tho-
;\. state of the person, place, or thing represmited, as tho
subject of an affirmation or a question, the owner or
possessor of something mentioned, or the object of an;
action or a relation.
Thus, in the example, " James tore the leaves of Mary**
book," the distinction between ^ooAr, which represent!
only one object, and leavee which represents two or raoro
objects of the same kind, is called Number ; the distino*
tion of sex between James, a male, Jtfary, a iemrle, and:
(eaoot and bgokf things which are neither male nor female^
is e9M9d if ender ! and the distinction, of state betw»en.
J^mBBf the person who tore, or the subject of the afiir-^
' ' matioh, Maryt the owner of the book, leaves, the olqtett^
torq, and book, the object related to leaves, aa the wboir
of which they were a part, is called Cass*
18
ENGLISH GRi^MMAS.
* NUMBER.
There are two Numbers, the Singular and
Plural,
The Singular number expresses one of a
kind ; as, A book, a pen.
The Plural number expresses more than
one; slb, Books, pens.
When a noun in the singular number has a pluidl sigt*
nification, that is, signifies more than one, it is called a
collective noun ; as, PeopUt fiock.
The plural is ;^^ene rally formed by adding »
or es to the singular ; as, Hand, hands ; glove
gloves ; box, boxes. , *
Nouns generally form the plural by adding tho letter
9 to the singular, when the « readily combines in sound
with the last letter or syllable.
When the letter « does not readily combine ill sound
with the last letter or s>Mlable of the singular, the plural
is formed by adding es.
Thus, nouns ending in or, ch soft, sh, and m, form the
plural by adding ea; as, For, foxe«; church, churche«;
jUh, fiaheB ; glass, {rlfOBes.
The following are the principal irregularities with
respect to number : —
Nouns ending in ck hard, and in o preceded by a
Yowel, form the plural by adding «; as, Monarch, mo-
narchs ; folio, foliot. Nouns ending in o preceded by a
consonant, t^ke ts; as. Hero, heroM; except canto,
grotto, junto, portico, quarto, solo, tyro, which iidd # only
Nouns ending in y preceded by a consonant, change y
into tet; as DUiy, dutief. In like manner, ihe word
tilkali has alkaiist in the plural. But nouns ending in y
preceded by a yaWel, and proper names used W common
Boons, follow the general rule; as, i?ay, day* ; Htnry^
Henryt.
Nounffendnig in /or fe chKagdf or fe into m; u^
wmm
^ PART II. — ^ETYMOLOGY.
i9
Calf,cvAves ; knif e,kmve9; exceplhrieff ehie/t fief , grief f
handkerchief! hoof , proof , reproof , roof ; dwarf , scarf ,
Vfharf; gulf turf; fifcy strife; safe; which are regular.
Nouns ending in ff are also regular; as, Muff^ muffs;
except staffs which has staves.
A few nouns take the termination en ; as, ox, oxen /
ehildi children ; man, men, with its compound womanf
women; footman, footmen, &c. * r
Some nouns vary the plural to express a difference of
meaning ; as, Brother, brothers, (sons of the same pa*
rent, brethren, (members of the same profession ;) die,
dies, (stamps for coining,) dice, (small cubes used in
games ;) genius, geniuses, (persons of great talent,)
genii, (spirits ;) index, indexes, (tables of contents ;) sn-
i^tces, (signs in Algebra ;) pea, peas, (single seeds,)
pease, (seeds in a mass ;) penny, pennies, (coins,) pence,
(value of coins in computation.)
Nouns which have been adopted from foreign languagef
without change, sometimes retain their original plurals ;
thus: —
^:A^
•tt.^
...:■• a
Animalculum
Animalcula
Antithesis
Antitheses
Apex
Apices
Appendix
Appendices
Arcanum
Arcana
Automaton
Automata
Axis
Axes
Bandit )
Banditto )
Banditti
Basis
Bases
Beau
Beaux
Galx
Calces
Cherub
Cherubim
Criterion
Criteria
Crisis
Crises
Datum .^ ^.^ ,
Datfc.
Desideratum
Desiderata
Dilettante
DUettauii
EfHuviiim
Effluvia
Eilipsis
£i|UpMM|,,.^y .- .;y, „
Erratum
ErraU
' ■/^
wmmmm
ENGLISH QJLAHUXZn
Focus
Genus
Hypothesis
Ignis-fatuus
Lamina
Maffus
Medium
Memorandum
Metamorphosis
Monsieur
Phenomenon
Radius
Seraph
Stimulus
Stratum
Thesis
Vertex
Virtuoso
Vortex
Foci
Genera
Hypotheses
Ij^nes-fatui
LaminiB
Magi
Media
Memoranda
Metamorphoses
Messieurs
Phenomena
Radii
Seraphim
Stimuli
Strata
Theses
, Vertices ,
Virtuosi
Vortices
% f
The following nouns cannot be classed under anfTige-
lierat rule, in the formation of the plural number : Foot,
fttt; goose f geeot; louse, lice; mouse, mice; iootk, teeth
Some nouns have the singular and plural alike ; as,
Deer, sheep, swine, salmon, ^c.
Many nouns have no plural : these are chiefly proper
names, and namesr of v irtues and vices, arts aiid sciences,
metals, grain, 6ie. ; as, England, Dublin ; wisdom,
goodness, pride, sioth; poetry, music, arithmetic; gold,
silver, iron; wheat, barley; hemp, pitch, milk, btead, t^c
Some nouns waat the singular number : as« Bellows^
scissors, tongs, ashns, lungs, riches, bowels, vitals, morals,
nuptials, breechesi, drawers, kalends, noneSiidH^ thanks,
oats, victuals, poUtics, mechanics, stsktietieSf optics,
mathematics, antipodes, minutim, ^e.
Among this class of words are to be reckonsd letter$
signifying literaturp, and mann.n'S, in the sense of 6e-
haviour. Amends, means, odds, are either siogular or
plural. NetDs is generally used as singular; likewiM
alms and galUwsf,
PART II. — ETYMOLOGy.
a
GENDES.
There are three Genders, the Masculine^ tbf
Feminine, and the Neuter.
Properly speakiugr, there are only two genders, th0
masculine and the feminine, corresponding to the two
nexea ; but as many nouns belong to neither sex, thei0
are classed together, ai>d denominated neuter, that is, of
neither gender.
The names of males are masculine ; as, Man^
husband, father.
The names of females are feminine ; af
Woman, wife, mother.
The names of things, which are neither mal^
nor female, are neuter; as House, field, river .r
When a noun may be applied either to a male or a fty
male, it is said to be of tt^e commoit gender ; as, Parent^
child, friend.
There are three ways of distinguishing the masculioA
from the feminine :^—
1 By a different termination ;
fv
Abbot '
Actor
Administrator
Adulterer
A. .bassador
Arbiter
Author
Baron
Benefactor
Chanter
Conduotor
Count
Czar
P/lvphin
Deacon
Director
Abbess
Duke
Duchess
Actress
Elector
Electress
Administratrix
Emperor
Empress
Adulteress
Executor
Executrix
Ambassadress
Fornicator
Foruicatrix
Arbitress
Giant
Giantess
Authoress
Governor
Governess
Baroness
Heir
Heiress
Benefactress
Heritor
Hcritrix
Chautress
Hero
Heroine
Conductress
Host
Hostess
Countess
Hunter
Huntress
Czarina
.Tew
Jewess
DauphinesB
Lad •
Lass
Deaconess
Landgrave
Landgravijio-,
Directrix
Lion
Lioness
22
ENGLISH OHAMMAB.
MargraTC
) Margravine
Seamster
SeanMtresB
Marquis
MarchioueM
Shepherd
Siiepherdesi
Mayor
Mayoress
Songster
Songstress
Patrou
Patroness
Sorcerer
Sorceress
Peer
Peeress
Sultan
Sultaua
Poet
Poetess
Testator
Testatrix
Priest
Priestess
Tiger
Traitor
- Tigress
Prince
Princess
Traitress
Prior
Prioress
Tutor
Tutoress^
Propliet
Prophetess
Viscount
Viscountess
Protector
Protectress
2. By a different word ; as
—
Beau
Bolle
Horse
Mare
Boar
Sow
Husband
Wife
Boy
Girl
King
Lord
Quoe»«
Bridegroom Bride
Lady i
Brother
Sister
Man
Woman
Buck
Doe
Master
Mistress
Bull
Cow
Monk
Nun
Bullock
Heifer
Milter
Spawner
Cock
Hen
Nephew
Niece
Colt
Filly
Ram
Ewe
hog
Bitch
Sir
Madam
Drake
Duck
Sloven
Slut or slattei
Earl
Countess
Sou
Daughter
Hind
Father
Mother
Stag
Gaffer
Gammer
Uncle
Aunt
Gander
Goose
Widower
Widow
Gentleman Lady
Wizard
Witch
Hart
Roe
■
•
3. By prefixing a noun, an a(
Jjective, or s
I pronoun ; as—
Man-servaut
Maid-servant
Cock-sparrow
Hen-
•sparrow
Male-child
Female -child
He-goat
ghe-j
groat
CASE.
There are three Cases, the NominatUe, tht
Possessive^ and the Objective.
PART II. — ETYMOLOGY.
23
The Ihteif cusos are expresfiive of thn three Ktates of
relation to other words, iii one or othnr of which tht
name of every pereon* place, or thing must be placed.
A noun is iti the nominative cnse when it is
the suhject of an affirtnatior* or a queslion.
A noun is in the possessive case when it ex-
presses ownersh p or possession. .
A noun is in the ohjective case when it is
the end or object of an action, or of some re-
lation expressed by a preposition.
Thus, in the example, "John took Robert's knife,
and put it into the )>ocket of V^illiam's cout," two affir-
matious are made by the verbs took and put. The sub-
ject of these affirmations, or the person wliu took and put,
Was John, whose name is, therefore, in the n<tminative
case. The object or end of John's action in taking, wu
the knife ; the object pointed out by the preposition into,
was the pocket ; and the object pointed out by the prepo-
sition oft was coat; the words knife^ pockety and coutf are
therefore in the objective case. The owner of the kdilb
was Rohert, and the owner of Ctie coat was William;
hence the words RoberVs and WillianCs are in the poe-
sessive case.
The nominative and the ohjective of nouns
are always alike.
The possessive sin^lar is formed by adding
if with an apostrophe before it, to the nomi-
native ; as, King^ king*s.
When the nominative singular ends in «, 88, ce, or any
other letter or syllable which will yiot combine in sound
with f, the possessive is sometimes formed by merely
adding the apostrophe ; as, Mosea* rod, for righteovanesw
sake ; for conscience* sake.
The possessive plural is formed by adding
an apostrophe to the nominative ; as, Kings
kings\ ^
' EIVeLISV GRAMMAR.
When the nominative plurai aoes not end
sessive is formed' by acldiug «, with * an a
Men, merits.
Nouns are thus declined : —
Singular. .
Norn. Father
Poss. Father's
ObJ, Father
Singular,
Nom. Lady
Poss. Lttdy*s
Obj. Lady *
■ Plural,
Fathers
Fathers'
Fathers
Plural,
Ladies '
Ladies*
» Ladies
' Singular.
Nom. Child
Poss. Child's
Obj Child
Singular.
No7n. Lass
Pdss. liass's
Obj. Lass
in s, the pos*
postrophe, as,
Plural
Children
Children's
Children
Plural,
Lasses
Lass^i^
liassee*
' * -Directions 'TO 'T«ACHERs.-^To find oat the nnmbor and
gender of nouns, it is only necessary to jitlfind to th<Mr sign!-
matiun^ and to the mddes in which these hiflfMjlions are made
-in different sorts of words,' as explained in the preceding rales.
The following directions-will assist iii distinguishing the cases
"The nominative case answers to a; quest on beginning with
ijiDho or wAtf^i and the word which makes the affirmation ; as,
''Who took'R&herfs knife? John, a*- word' which was shown
*in the expiaiiation of the cases tb be in the nomiiiativo. The
'pdssc^ive case answers'to ai question beginning* with wAo«tf,
and th*< word following the noun, the case of which is to be
found out ; as, Whose knife did John take ? Whose pecket did
he put if. into? Robertas, TVf7/ea7n'«^ which are both in the
possessive. The objective case answers to a question bagiu-
laing with toAom or tcAa^, and ending with > the word \Vhich
makes the affirmation or points out the relation ; as, What
did John take ? A knife. What did he put it into ? A pocket.
What did he put it into the pocket of? A coat : the words
which answer to all these questions are in the objective.
Sentences like the preceding may be parsed in the following
tliannor: — Johnt a proper noun, singular nntiiber, masculine
gender, and nominative case ; tookt a verb : HoberVs, a pro-
per noun, singular number, masculine gender, and possessive
£a»o ; knifCf a common noun, singular number, neuter gender,
Und objective case; and, a conjunction; ^«/, a verb; it, a
prononn ; into, a pn position ; the, the definite article ; pocket,
a oonnnon noun, tiinjrular number, neuter gender, and objec-
VHMWPI
PART II. — ETYMOLOGY.
25
EXERCISES.
PARTS OF SPEECH.
llow many classes of words are there ? To what claiw do
all names beJoiig? What words limit the signification of
names? What words are used instead of^iames? What
words express quality? What words qualify nouns? What
are words which affirm or ask questions called ? What wnrdf
qualify afiirniations, and otlier words expressive of quality^
What wordii are used to connect other words ? What word*
both connect other words, and point out the relation whicl
one thing bears to »iiother? What words are used to ox
press sudden emotion ?
, Say to what class each of the'follotbing words belongs: —
Ireland, come, an apple, by, diligent, we, alas ! write, not,
t garden, quite, walk, good, and, plant, oh ! green, very, run,
but, winter, make, long, hush ! fruitful, silver, read, or, the
river, happy, build, quickly, sit, lar^e, house, nor, weH, it,
George, school, she, with, aha ! strike, Cork, I, ride, at, pen,
twectly, them, new, him« earlli, ah ! learu, you.
;i 'Vit
ARTICLE.
■;..'<: u '
Wliat is an article ? How is a v/ord which has no article
before it to be understood? What does a signify? How
t:
tive case; of, a proposition; William* s, a proper noun, singu-
lar number, masculine gender, and possessive case ; coatt a
common noun, singular number, neuter gender, and objective
ease.
On each of the words questions like the following may be^
put, to teach the ready application of the preceding rulos.
Why is JoAit called a ptoper noun? Why is it said to be iu
the singular number? masculine gender? and nominative
case ? Why is Robert's said to be in the possessive case ? Why
is knife called a common noun 7 Why is it said to be in the
neuter gender? and objective case ? What is the plural of
knife 7 How do nouns in /and fe form the plural number?
Why ia the called the definite article ? &c &o
a
I
K
2ti
ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
?
does the limit the signification of a noun ? IIuw many ar-
ticles are there ? What is a or an called ? and why ? When
ought a to be placed' bieforo a noun ? and when an ? What is
the called ? and why ? f
Place Articles before the following words : —
Man, sun, fields, apple, hour, grammaii, husband, pons,
union, stone, herb, infant, river, historian, wood, army, eunach,
clouds, garden, orange, youth, honour, scholar, wish, hope,
university, writer, ew*e, planets.
Correct the following Errors : —
An river, a i.pple, a ornament, an good scholar, an youth,
a himible man, an history, a hour, an ewe, a owl, an wclf,
an union, an prince, a empty purse, an huinArous story, an
useful work, a obedient f^on, an sweet pear, an green fields a
hidustrious man, a amiable woman, a harmonious sound, an
cheerful temper, an Winding stream, a open countenance, an
severe, winter, an mild sprhig, an warm summer, a abundant
harvest.
NOUN.
What is a noun ? How many sorts^ of nouns are there 7
What sort of a noun is John ? and why is it so called ? What
sort of a noun is hook ? ai. J why is it so called ? Wh^ii do
Proper nouns became Common? How are nouns inflected?
For what purpose are nouns inflected? What is Number?
Gender? Case? How many uumhers are th*^re? What is a
collective noun? How is the plural formed? When do nouns
form ' e plural by adding es? What termination or flnal
letters require es after them in the formation of the plural
Hurler? How do nouns ending in o, y, and /or /e, fofm
th > plural? How many Genders are there? When is a
louu suid to be of the common gender? What are the throo
ways of distinguishing the masculine from the feminine?
How many Cases are there ? What do the cases express ?
What cases in nouns are always alike? How is the Posses-
nivo case formed in the singular and in the plural- number?
When is the possessive singular formed in t|ie same way m
tlie pnsKossivo plural? and the possessive plural as the poti
•onnive singular?
¥"%
?ART II. — ETYMOLOGY.
21
Distinguish Proper nouna from Common in the fqlluwing .*—
Dublin, city, time, nation, Patrick, hope, dog, honour, (
friend, Limerick, table, kindness, portion, peasantry, Italy,
fleet, stream, happiness, London, boy, Amorica, debt, people,
Thomas, Henry, mountain, hut, multitude, party, CsesaTi
regiment, Bristol, virtue, dontineut, grammar.
In what number are —
Field, plants, beatit, rams, globes, cloud, virtue, vices, sun,
blackness, box, leaves, quartos, alkali, inches, duty, asses,
wish, heroes, tetrarchs, money, righteousness, knives, footman,
child, peas, axes, cherub, phenomena, crisis, genus, data,
effluvia, stratum, theses, teeth, salmon, sheep, whiteness, folly,
Aiorals, spectacles, antipodes, tongs, riches, optics, anncjs,
victuals, bread, milk, iron, mathematics, brass* amends, news,
alms, people, multitude ?
Form the Plural of —
Flower, watch, junto, staff, woman, bandit, erratum,
Soose, index, magus, seraph, brother, hoof, grotto, tax, gar-
en, orange,' miss, city, bay, gulf, monarch, tree, loaf, mouse,
automaton, hypothesis, penny, die, bush, deeri muff, lady,
radius, potato, ox, genus, criterion.
Correct the foUotoing errors ;—
Good scholares are always attentive to their studys, and to
the instructiones of their teacheres. The huntsmans killed
two fox. I saw a husbandmen ploughing, with six oxes.
You can see ten churchs from the top of that hill ; rt is a pros-
pect which even monarchs might admire. Hannibal was
one of the greatest heros of ancient tims. We are only tyroes
in grammar. The innkeeper borrowed two dozens of knifes
and forkes ; and he not only took great care of them, but
returned them in a few daies ; both of which are proofes that
he was deserving of the favour. That old man has two staffs,
one in each hand : how ridiculous these ladys would nppear
if each of them had two muffes. Obedient childes are t,nxioas
to please their purentes. These young mans are grea genii:
thee are brethren, being sones of the same father, ^'l^ut is
a good crop of oat, but the wheats in the next field i** *>^^ %o
good. I will give you two golds for three silvers. Tiw no** is
38
ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
well skilled in mechanic: he has invented a new kind
bellow. Lend me your scissor to cut this thread. David
a man of excellent moral, and pleasing manner, and Well
acquainted with letter. ^
What it the gender oj—^
King, duck, shepherd, beauty, heart, flock, woman, widow-
er, boy, companion, lady, uncle, Mary, virtue, master, bride,
biwband, witness, aunt, head,, parent, wisdom, Charles, princoi
empress, Belfast, cousin, nun ? '
What is the feminine of-^ '
Hero, nephew, lord, stag, abbot, marquis, hart, dnke,
ittltan, host, ram, brother, milter, testator, malC'Child, giant,
wizard, executor, beau, monk, bullock, viscount, margrave,
earl, director, he -goat, Sioven, buck 7 ^. .
In tohat ease is each of the following nouns .*—
A man's hand ; mend the pen ; John writes ; the kinp^t
crown ; in the field ; ladies* gloves ; children's toys ; sUiW
the table ; from Cork to Limerick ; Charles* hat ; the girls
, read the boys* books ; lend a slate and pencil ; Cesar was a
.scholar and a warrior; the ways of wisdom are ways of
pleasantness ; man's happiness does not consist in the abun*
dance of his possessions ; the scholar's improvement is the
master's object ?
Correct the following errors : —
Jame's sister was Roberts' husband. My uncle is mf
neatest benefactress. The duke is a distinguished heroine.
That young lady is the marqui's nephew, and is about to be
married to the ambassadors* daughter : she is a count in her
own riglit. Henries' daughter was much grieved at her childs
death. My brothers wifes mother arnved lust night. A mo-
thers tenderness' and a fathers' care are natures gifts' for maui
advantage. Wisdoms precepts* form the good mans interest
and happiness.
Parse the following sentences^ stating the number, gender,
and east of each of the nouns : — . «
A duke, a marquis, an earl, and & viscount, were. present
at the review. The king and the beggar, the prince and the
peasant) are liable to the misfartunes of life. Many men aro
f
■p
■MPIPMIiPMil^^
PART II.-^ETYMOLOGT.
^9
deceived by falso appearances. James and I arto rivals ; but
we do not cease to be friends. Charles was a man of know-
ledge, learning, politeness, and religion.
Th' unwearied sun, from day to day,
Does his Creator's powV display,
And publishes to every land.
The work of an Almighty hand.
Peevishness and paslsion often produce from trifles the most
serious mischiefs. Truth and candour possess a powerful
charm: they bespeak universal favour. Learning does not
grow up in the mind of its own accord : it is the fruit of long'
cultivation, and the acquisition of labour and care.
• f III. — Adjective.
An Adjective is a word ^hich qualifies a
noun.
Adjectives qualify nouns by ascribing to the objects of
which they are the names, some- prqperty or other cir-
cumstance which distingiuNhes them from some other
objects of the same kind. Thus, in the example, a tweet
apple, apple is the name of an objoot, and sweet describes
a distinctive Quality of that object : hence the word eweei
is an adjective. la like manner, in the examples, a largt
garden, a new book, the words large and new are adjec-
tives, because they express circumstances concerning
the garden and the book referred to, which distluguisE
them from some other gardens and books.
Adjectives have three forms ; the Positive^
the Comparative^ and the Superlative, .
An adjectiv^e is in the positive form when i(
does not express comparison; as, A rick man.
An adjective is in the comparative form^
when it expresses Comparison between two.
or between one and a number taken colics-
sb
English grammar.
J
tively ; as, John is richer than James : he is
richzr than all the men in London.
An adjective is in the superlative form, when
it expresses comparison between one and a
number of individuals taken separately : as,
John is the richest man in London.
Adjectives expressive of properties or circumstanceii
which cannot be increased, have only the positive form ;
.as, A ctVcM^dr road ; the cA«>/' end ; cxfremc measures.
The positive is used to denote the existence of some
quality in an object without comparing it directly with
any other object ; but in adjectives of dimension, and
son)e others, comparison is implied, though it it* not ex-
pressed ; thus, we say of a walking-stick, compared with
a twig that it is thick — compared with a tree that it is
: smaiL The comparative not only expresses comparison
between two, or between one and a number taken coU
lertively, but denotes that a greater or less degree of the
^jqoality exists in the one tJian in the other. Jn like man-
; per the superlative not only expresses comparison be-
. . t^een one and a number of individuals taken separately,
but denotes the greatest or least degree of the quality in
„ th«» object with which each of the others is compared.
* Tl)us, we say of an apple, it is sweet; comparing it with
another apple, we say it is sweetery meaning that it pos-
■ semea a greater degree of the quality of sweetness ; com-
paring it with each apple in a number, we say it is the
sweetest 1 meaning that of all the apples referred to, it
possesses the quality of sw ?tnes8 in the greatest degree.
Because the dfferent ft ..is of the adjective thus express
diflerent degrees of quality, they are generally caJl^d
the Degrees of Comparison,
The compnralive is formed by adding er to
tu J positive; as. Great, greater; STwa//, smaller.
jv When the positive ends in «, the letter r only i« added ;
as, Large f larger.
The superhiiive is formed by adding e^^ to the
p» *t;ve; as Great, greate*-/ ; smalU smaller/.
tf 7'
PART 11. — ETYMOLOGY.
31
When tho positive ends in e the letters st only are added
as, Lar^f, largest.
Whe^i the positive ends in y preceded by a consonant,
the y is changed into i 6efore er and tat ; as, Happy ,
happi«r, happicfff.
When the positive ends in a single consonant, preceded
by a single vowel, the consonant is doubled L x'ore er and
e«/ ; as, Hoi, hotter, hoittat.
The comparative is also formed by prefixing
^ore \o the positive; and the superlative, by
jsrefixing most; as, Useful, more useful, most
useful.
Adjectives of one syllable, and dissyllables ending in y
and c usually form the comparative and superlative by
adding er and c»f , or r and at. All other adjectives of
two syilubjes, and adjectives of more than two syllables,
usually form the comparative and superlative by prefixing
more and moaL
A few adjectives form the superlative by adding mo«t
to the positive or comparative, as, Frey foremost ; upper,
upper?«o«t.
The syllable iah is sometimes added to the positive tp
lessen its signification; as., Blackfhl'dckiah. When, the
positive ends in e, the e is omitted before iah ; as, White,
whitiah.
The signification of the positive is also lessened by pre-
fixing the adverbs leaa and leaat ; as, Useful, lesa useful,
leaat useful.
The adverb very is often prefiwed to the positive to in-
crease its signification by expressing a degree of quality
somewhat less than tho greatest or superlative degree ;
a«. Wise, very wise.
The following adjectives are irregular in the formation
of tie comparative and superlative : —
Bad
worse worst
t •.
Evil
Hi
Fai
Fore
!
farther
former
farthest
\ foremost
\ finit
mmmmm
ENGLISH GRAMMAB.
Good
Hind
In
better
hinder
inner
Late
Little
latter
MeM
Low
lower
Many /
Much ]
more
Near
nearer
Old
nether
\ older
( elder
Oat
outer
under
Vf
upper
best
hindmost
hindermost
inmost
innermost
latest
last
least
( lowest
( lowermost
most
{ nearest
( next
nethermost
(oldest
\ oldobt
i outermost
\ utmost
undermost
A uppermost
\ upmost *
* Directions to Tkachera. — It has beeu already ex*
plained that Adjectives may bo distinguished from the othet-
parts of speech by theii aiaklug sense with a noun, or by their
answefing a question in reference to the noun, beginning with
the words, What sort of. Thus, we can say, a sweet apple ,
but we cannot say, a stoeet large f a sweet it, or a sioeet learn.
Or, if we ask, Wha* sort of apple is it ? the word sweet, which
answers the question, is shown to be an adjective. Whe*
ther an adjective has any other form than the Positive can
only be ascertained by i:onsidering whether its signification
can be increased or diminished ;' and whether it is regular or
irregular, or in what manner ihn Comparative and Superlative
are formed, must be learned by attending carefully to the
preceding rules and examples. When an adjective is in the
comparative or superlative, it should be asked, why it is so ;
thus, Why is richer put in the comparative form 7 Because a
eomparison is made, first, between John and James, and thea
between John and all the men in London taken togetheiv
Why is riehett put in tho superlative form t Because a oon*
PART II. ^ETYMOLOGT.
u
EXERCISES.
ADJECTIVE.
What is an adjective 7 How do adjectives qualify noani t
How many forms have adjectives? When is an adjective in
the Positive form 7 ill the Comparative 7 in the Superlative 7
What adjectives have only the positive form 7 What is the
use of the positive 7 What adjectives imply comparison in
the positive form 7 What is the use of the comparative?
of the superlative 7 What are the positive, comparative, and
superlative generally called? and why? How is the com-
parative formed 7^ How is the superlative formed 7 How are
the comparative atid superlative formed, when the positive
ends in e ? when the positive ends in y preceded by a con-
» . . ' I. <
parii^on is made between John and each man itt London taken
separately.
Sentences containing the Article, Noun, and Adjective,
may be parsed as follows, the explanations being drawn from
the pupil by such questions as. Why is it called an adjective 7
Why are the comparative and superlative formed by adding r
and 8tf &.C. &c. A wise man; an amiable woman ; the last day,
A the indefinite article, limiting the signification of man;
wise, an adjective in the positive form, qualifying man, com-
parative wiser. Superlative wisest, formeid by adding r and st
to the positive ; man, a noun, singular number, masculine
gender, and nominative case ; an, the indefinite article, writ-
ten an because the next word begins with a vowel ; amiabU,
an adjective, in the positive form, comparative more amiable,
superlative most amiable, so formed because the positive is «
word of four syllables, to which it would be inconvenient to
add r and st; woman, a noun, singular number, feminine
gender, and nominative case, possessive woman's, plural loo-
men, possessive women's ; the, the definite article, limiting the
signification of day ; last, an adjective in the superlative form,
qualifymg 'day, irregular in the formation of the comparative
and superlative, later or latter, latest or last, later and latest
being generally apphed to time, latter and last to number and
erfier ; day, a noun, singular number, neuter gender, and uom-
mativo case, forming the plural by adding s, because the final
y is preceded by a vowel. ,.«;s ;v. ^ >, „ :
I
6*
■■■■
^^mmmmmmm
-.If*
KN6;«18H GRAMMAR.
lonant? when the positive ends in a single consonant, pre
/ ceded by a single vowel ? Is there any other way of forming
j thu comparative and superlative ? What adjectives generally
/ form the comparative and snporlative by adding er or estt or
r OT at? What adjectives always form the comparative and
superlative by more and most ?' How do a few adjectives form
tfie superlative? How is the signjiication of the positive Home>
times lessened ? What adverbs are sometimes placed before
the positive to lessen its sipiification ? What adverb is often
prefixed to the positive to express a degree of quality some-
what less than tho superlative ? What are those adjoclivea
Called which do not form their comparative and superlative by
the preceding rules ?
What are the comparative and Muperlativ of —
Bright, diligent, thin, noble, bad, pretty, fearful, brave,
warm, active, worthy, cold, large, industrious, affable, wise,
obedient, gloomy, able, sad, little, strong, near, dutiful, serene,
big* good, careless, late, fruitful 1
In what form are the adjective* —
Mildest, better, high, more, uttermost, happiest, worthless,
least, whiter, lowermost, worse, cruel, eldest, gentle, magni-
fioeut, best, many, less, gayest, peaceful, virtuous, sweetest^
eyili inmost, happier, miserable, temperate, useful ?
Correct the following errors : —
He expects to see more happy er days. You have got tht
lesser share. Alexander the Great is a most historical person-
age. It is the duty and privilege of man to worship tiie Su-
premest Being. Autumn is the iuterestingest season of tha
year. Tuesday was more cold than Monday. This summer
IB hoter. than the latest. Robert is more taller than William*
,, Solomon was the wiseest man ; Methuselah was the eldest
Jane is livelyer than Mary. This is the beautifulest flower I
ever saw. My hat is littler than yours, but his is the littlest of
jthe three. Patrick is the negligcutest boy in the c>ass. Shf
.was reduced to the extremest poverty.
Parse the following sentences : —
' "^A good boy ; the tallest girl ; an upright man ; a lofty tree {
.splendid talents ; fair weather ; the best neighbour ; the far
iner's hospitable mansion; man's chi^ cud; the l^uights pi
■V-In
PART II.-
'RTYMOLOGy.
81$
Iho round fiible ; re]i*ntless war ; a fruitful fifld ; Edward If
a most. a|rrffabl« companion. A profligate life leads to *
misr-ruhlo drjiili. Tlie smooth Btream, the serene atmofrphere,
thr mild zephyr, are the emblems of a g'cntle temper, and a
peaci^fdl iii'o : among the sons of strife, all is loud and tem«
peutuoas. >
O happy is the man, who hears
luHt.ruction^s warning voice,
And who celestial wisdom makes
His early, only choice.
t
Mnlt'tudcs, in the most obscure stations, are not less eager
'm their pplty broils, nor less tormf^ntcd by their pasfiions,
than if princely honours were the prize for which they contend.
IV.— P
RO.VOUN.
A Pronoun is a word used in place of a noun.
ThiiR, in the sentence, John was in the garden : he sayB
that it is full of treeHt which arc covered with fruit, he, ia
used in place of John, if, in place of garden, and which, in
place of trees, to prevent the repetition of these nouns.
There are tF^ree kinds of pronouns ; Per^
tonal, Relative, and Demonstrative,
PERSONAL PRONOUNS.
Personal Pronouns are so called because
they are used instead of the names of persons,
places, and things.
The personal pronouns are /, thou, he, she,
and it,
/, uliich is used when a person speaks of himself/lg
called the pronoun of the first person.
Thou or you, used in speaking to another, is called th«
pronoun of the second person.
He, she, it, used in speaking of a person or thiugt aro
called the pronouns of the third person
■V^ifUPHPiPMi
36
BNOUSH GRAMMAR.
Personal pronouns have number, gender;
and case.
They are thu& declined : —
VIK8T. PEH8. MA8C. OH FRM.
. Sing. "Plur.
Noni. 1 Nom. We
D . S ^y or «„.« ^ Our or
^•'*- \ Mine ^°"' 1 Onw
Obj, Me ObJ. Vb
P08».
THIRD PBR80N MASC.
Sing. Plur.
Ntfm. He Nom. They
Pom. Hfs JBos*. J 'r jl!!—^'
06;. Him Obj. Them
8EC0ND PERS. MASC. OR FEM.
jSiKff-. P/wr.
j^ S Thou ». i Ve
Thine
'*'hy P... J Your
YoJr ^"**-iYouw
, Yours (.
^.. ri'hee Obj. You
O*^- I You
THIRD PERSON PKM.
Sing. PltB".
Nom. She Noin. They
D (Herorii„ ^ Their or
^«**- Hen, ^^''' Thein
06;. Het 06;. Them
THIRD PER80N NEUTER.
Sing. Plur. *
Nam. It iVom. They
, Poaa. Its Pom. Their or Theirs
Obj. It Obj. Them
In addressing p rsons you is used both in the singular
and the plural: thou is seldom used except in addros^ing
the Deity.
It may be used not only in pla^^.e of the nsinie .»t an
object, but instead of a clause of a sentence ; an, To
Uarn hia leaaona well is the scholar's duty ; or, It is the
scholar's duty to learu his lessons- well. In such ex-
pressions aS| It rains, it freezes, it does not stand for
either a noun or a clause of a sentence, but is used to
point out the effect of some cause not specified "^'^
The possess! ves my, thy, her, our, your, their, ar«
us«"i when the name of the person or thi*»flr posfscssed ii
mentioned immediately after them ; aB,.My book, your
pen, her slate: — mine, thine, hers, ours, yours, iheira,
are nsed when the name of the person or thing pobnessed
PART II. — BTrNOLOOr.
»r
]» mentioned in a previous part of the ftentenco, or is only
understoocl ; as, The book; is mine! the penis your|;
Whose is'tiie slate ? her9, '
The Word ouDn is soinetimet added to the poeM^wivef
m^i min^i thiii^t hittj hert it», our^ youtt their^ to render
thei^i more emphatic ; as, It i» your owv fault.
Siift in the plural selves^ is also added to the pofweBsiTo
case oi' pronouna of the first aiid second prrNons, Hiid to
the ohjective of pronouns ofthf third pernon ; us, MyMelf^
ouiselven; himself, themselveg. These are soinetimef
called Reciprocal Pronouns, because, when used after
verbs they denote that the agsnt and tht johjcct of. Iht
action are the same ; as, They iujure themselves,
RELATIVE PRONOUNS.
Rdatim Pronouns are so called because
they relate to some word or clause going be-
fore; as, The boy who deserves the prize
«hall get it ; he has always behaved well, which
gives qne great satisfaction.
In these examples the pronouns who, mhich, are n«t
only used in place of other words, but who refers imme-
diately to hoy, and which to the circumstance of his having
always behave4 well, ■ ' J>''
The word or clause to whicH a relative
pronoun refers is called the Antecedent,
The relative pronouns are who, which^ that^
what.
Who fs applied to persons only; as, The
man who was here ; the woman who spoke to
him.
Which is applied to the lower animals and
things without life ; as, The horse which! sold ^
tfie letter which I wrote.
That is applied to both persons and things \
ifi
KNt^LJSH GRAMMAR.
as, The fr-end that helps ; the bird that sings ;
the knij'e that cuts.
What inchides hoth the antecedent nnd the
relative; as, I did what he desired «^e, ti^iat is
I did that which .^o desred me.
Because what includes both the autpcedcnt and the
relative, it is ^nlotitnes called a Gtunpmind Pi-r.noun,
For the fiaiiie reason, whoever and whatever may be con-
sidered compound pronouns, as in the examples, Whoever
said *;o was mistaken, that is, The person w'to said so
was mistaken ; Whatever you do, do quickly, that is,
That which you do, do quickly.
Relative pronouns have the singular and
plural alike.
Who is either mas^culine or fenninine ; whichf
that, are masculine, feiriinine, or neater; what,
as a relative pronoun, is always neuter.
That, what, are not varied by case. Wh4
and which are thus declined : —
Sing, and Plur.
Nam. Who .>«nitff jVom. Which
Poss. Whose Pass. Whose
Obj. Whom Ohj. Which
^ Who, which, and what, when used to ask
questions, are called Interrogative Pronouns.
In asking questions, who refers to persons, which to
persons or things out of some definite number, what to
persons or things indefinitely ; as, Who said so 1 Which
of you said so? What pereiou said so? Which book
shall I take ? What house is that ?
m
(! I*
Sijig. and Plur.
iiitl
/ DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS.
De;/ionstra'ive Pronouns are so called be-
cause they |<vint out particularly the persons
or objects to H'hich they refer
PAET JI.— :ETX^pI.QQy.
39
The demonstrate e pronouns are this and
that; in the pIuraljA^^e ^nd those.
This ojid these t^e applied, to persons and things near at
hand, or last named ; that arad those tc persons or things
at a distance in tipie or place , oSf This earth, these trees ;
that akyt those stars ; The B-^nk of Ireland and the Cus-
tom-house, are two of t^e most magnificent buildings in
Dublin: this is on the north ^ide of the river, and that
on the south side.*
'*'* Directions to Teachers. — The nouns for which the
personal and relative pronouns are used may easily be found
out by putting questions beginning with who and whati thus,
Who says that it ts f^ll 6j trees ? Jdhn. What is full of
trees ? the garden. What is covered with fruit ? the trees.
Care must be taken not to confound that as a relative pro-
noun with that as a demonstrative and that used as a conjunc-
tion. When it is a relative pronoun its place may be supplied
by who or which ; when a demonstrative pronoun, its place
may be supplied by the definite article the; when neither who,
which, nor the can be used in its place> It is a conjunction.
Sentences containing pronouns may be parsed as follows :—
/ recommend these hoys to your care, I hope you will find
them diligent. /, a personal pronoun, first person, singular
number, common gender, and nominative case ; recommend,
a verb ; these a demonstrative pronoun, pointing out hoys, ia
tiiS plural number, singular this; hoys, a noun, plural number,
masculine gender, and objective case ; to, a preposition ; your^
a personal prunoun, second person, singular numbor, common
gender, and possessive case, uoniinative thou, or you, posses-
•ive, thine, thy, yoHr, or yours, objective t/ic«, or you; care,
a noun, singular number, neuter gender, and objective case ;
/, a personal pronoun, first person, plural we; hope, a verb;
you, a personal pronoun, second person, singular number,
cojtnmon gender, and nominative case ; will, a verlr, find, a
verb; the7n, a personal pronoun, thii^d person, plural number,
masculine gender, and objective case, used in place of boyf,
nominative singular Ae, nominative plural they; diligent, an
adjective qualifying boys, in the pi^sitive form, coinparatiye
Hore diligo.n1, snporlative most diligent ,
: 'r L
■^(PPP
^■tipw"
"W"
40
ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
EXERCISES.
. PRONOUN. ^
What IB a pronoun? How many kinds of pronouns aro
there ? Why are personal pronouns so called ? What are the
personal pronoilins 7 what is the pronoun of the first person 7
of the second 7 What are the pronouns of the third person ?
What pronoun is used in both the sin^lar and the plural ?
When is thou .used 7 Is it used only in place of a noun 7
IVhat does it point out in the expressions it rains; it freezes ?
When are the. possessives my, thy^ her, &>c., used 7 and when
minef thine, hers, &>q., 7 What word is somotimos added to
render the possesisive more emphatic 7 tWi^at are the Recipro-
cal pronouns 7 To 'vhat cases are self, selves added 7 Why
are they called recipr^'xsal pronouns 7
Why are Relative jironouns so called 7 What is a word or
clause called, to which a relative pronoun refers? What are
the relative pronouns? To what \b who applied? which?
and that? Why is what called a compound pronoun?
"W^at other words may be considered compound pronouns?
"What are always alike in relative pronouns? What are the
genders of the relative pronouns? What relative pronouns
are , varied by case 7 What are the interrogative >pron9iins 7
How are they applied 7 t '
Why are Demonstrative pronouns so called 7 What aro
the demonstrative pronouns? How are they applied ?
" What kind of pronoun is —
Mine, these, we, them, thou, hers, that, my, this, our, whom>
his, thy, he, it; those, who, us, their, me, ours, whose, him,
thine, your, they, her, its, ye, I, she, self, which ?
What are the person, number, gender, and cas-e of —
Our, her, him, them, you, us, mine, thee, what, those, whom^
this, their, which, it, she, you, who, theirs, these, I, thy, that^
die, your, selves?
'. Correct the following errors : —
Thislxx)k is my. Is that yours pen? Give me hers slate.
It was him own fault. Let them do it theyselves. Come ihou-
wlf. I which teach. You which learn The books whom
we r^ad. Do what whith you are told. What's knife is this.
Do you see this two hats? those belongs to John, and theso,
to' James.
I
menc
youi
wish I
sure
fathel
earthl
of thl
heart!
\,t'
PAST 11. — ^BTYMOLOeY.
41
Parse the following aentencee :—
i shall hear your lesson when you can say it. He ma)
mend his own pen. Can she go by herself? Is that knife ol
yours sharp 1 Whose pencil is this? T>o unto others, as you
wish that they should do unto you. Such errors as these are
sure to be detected. Write such a letter as will please youz
father and mother. As far as happiness is to be found on
earthy we must look for it, not in the world, or the things
of thb world ; but within ourselves, iniDur temper, and in our
heart.
V. — Verb.
A Verb is a word which affirms, commands,
^r asks a question.
Thus, the words John the table, contain no assertiou *
but when the word etrikv.t is introduced, something is
affirmed, which is either true or not true : hence etrikea
^ is a verb, that is, it is the word which gives meaning to
the sentence. Sometimes the verb, or asserting word, is
omitted ; thus, in the example, did you hear ihr. voice ?
* yeSt the adverb which answers the question, makes an
affirmation in reply, but the verb / did is understood.
The simple form of the verb without inflection, is, in
^' ^*s Grammar, called the root of the verb ; thus, Love is
f.h^d root of the verb to Love. ^
■'y verb is said to be transitive when the action passes
' (f^^ri 'he subject of it to some other object, and intran--
•s;: t . ^yheu the action remains with the subject, thus ;
/ love him : love is transitive, because the action love
passes from the' subject / to the object him. Whereas,
/ walk, I sit, I run, are intransitive, because the actions
walking, sitting, running, remain with the subject /
Many verbs may be used either transitively or intransi*
tively ; thus, I am writing, may be regarded as intransi-
tive, having no reference to any thing written, but / am
writirj a letter is transitive, the action passing to the
vbji)Ct letter. So, / walk, is intransitive, but / walk.m
horse, is transitive.
Verbs are inflected by Numher^ PersoUf
Ttnse^ and Mood.
•»v,y»-
)
4^ E7/GLISH GRjlMMAR.
y^rbs have two numherst like novins and pronounfl, to
express whether the affirmation, &.c.| is made of one, or
more than one ; as, he learns f they learn.
Verbs have three persona, like the personal pronouns,
tc denote whether the affirmation, Slc, is made of the
potson who speaks, the person who is spoken to, or the
person or thing spoken of; as, I ledrny thou learnest, he,
she, or it learns.
Verbs have two Simple Tenses, the Present
and the Past,
The tenses of tr. i "j denote the time of the action or
sta(te of being; as, 1 <<>, that is, I am engaged in the
act of writing at the present tims ; I wrote f that iv, 1 wai^
engaged in the act of writing at some past time.
Verbs have four simple Moods, Injinitive,
Indicative, Conditional SiYid Imperative.
The moods or modes of the verb denote the manner in
which it is used ; as for affirming, comniahdiug. See,
Thus, when the sense of the verb is expressed without
reference to time or person, or when it i&used as a noun,
it is put in the Infinitive Moody the sign of which is
the preposition to with the root of tiie principal verb,
as, To love, To have loved. When the verb is used to
express a simple af&:mation, whether present, pa^tj> oi
future, it is put in the Indicative Mood ; as, / wrilef I
wrote, I will writs. When the verb is used to express
a condition, it is put in the Conditioual Mood; ant If
I Write, Although I write. When the verb is uced' to
express a comni&nd or entreaty, it is put in the iint-
perative ; as. Write thou.
Verbs have two Participles, the Active and
the Passive.
:K\\'-
Verbs have two verbaln, the one usually called' the
Infinitive, the other, the Participles. The infinitive ex*
presses the sense of the v^rb in a sobstantive form, tti«
participles, iu an adjective form ; aSf To rise early iff V^
heallhjul. An early rising man. The r:ewly risen sum «*^
T
now
Prei
A.bi(
A.m
Arie
Awi
Bak
Boa
Bea
Bea
Bee
Beg
Bet
"^
PART 11. — ETYMOLOGr.
43
The participle in ingt frequently is used as a substantivey
and thus it is equivalent to andthor infinitive; e. g. Ri$in§t
early it healthful^ and To rise early is healthful, are
equivalent.
Verbs are Regular^ Irregular , or Defective^ t
A vast majority of the verbs of the language form their,
passive participle like their simple past tense; namely.-
by adding ed or d to the root of the verb, and are called
regular; as —
Present Past. Passive Participles
Love Loved Loved
Learn Leaniod Learned
Verbs are considered irregular, when they form theijr
passive participle in any other way than as above ; as-r*^ ^
Present.
Begin
Write
Past.
Begai*
Wrote
Passive Participle*
Begun
Written '
>
Somn verbs are defective, by wanting one or more of
these paits ; as — ' , rLJ
Present. Past,
Can Could
May Might ^ ^ , >
The following is a list of the Irregular and Defective Verbt
now in use.
Passive Participle*
(Wanting)
( " ).
9.* * J"
Present,
Abide
Am
Arise
Awako
Bake
Past
abode
was
arose
awoke or awaked
baked > »\>
Boar, to bring forth bore or bare
Bear, to catry bore or bare
Beat . beat
Become became
Begin began
Behold beheld
Passive Participle, ?
abode
been wts'l
arisen /'.vh'l
awaked •' *
baked or baken
bom i
borne ! i
beat or beaten i^ »'^
become i"
begun
beheld or beholden
^ ■
ENOLISir GRAMMAR.
PreMent.
Paet.
*
Paeaive Partiei^
•
Bend
bent or bended
bent or bended
Bereaye
bereft or bereaved
bereft or bereav*^
Beseech
besought
besought
Bid
bade or bid
bid or bidden
Bind
bound
bound
Bite
bit
bitten or bit
Bleed
bled
bled
Blow
blew
blown
Break
broke or brake
broken
Breed
bred
bred
Bering
Build
brought .
brought
built or builded
built or builded
Burst
burst.
burst
Buy
bought y
bought
Gaat
cast
cast
Catch
caught or catched
chid or chode
caught or catched
chidden or chid
Chide
Choose
chose
chosen
Cleave, to adhere
clave or cleaved
cleaved
• Cleaye, to split
clove, clave, or cleft cloven or cleft
Cling
clung
clung
aothe
cloth ?*d or clad
clothed or clad
Come
came
come
Cost
cost
cost
Crow
crew or crowed
crowed
Creep
crept
crept
Cut
cut >
cut
Dare, to venture
durst or oi^^'mI
dared
Deal
dealt or dealed
dealt or dealed
Dig
dug or digged
dug or digged
Do
did
done
Draw
drew
drawn
Drink
drank
drunk
Drive
drove
driven
Dwell
dwelt or dwelled
dwelt or dwelled
Eat
ate
eaten
Fat
fell
fallen
Feed
fed
fed
Feel
U\i
felt
Flight
ibught
f0U|^t
:o
..I
n H
Prrsi
TART 11. — ETYMOLOGY.
^
S. i.
rii3
■rK
.'.')■ ,f
Prfitnt.
Find
Fleo
Fling
Fly
Forbear
Forget
Forsake
Freeze
Get
Gild
Gird
Give
Go
Gray©
Grind
Grow
Hang
Have
Hear
Heave
Help
Hew
Hide
Hit
Hold
Hurt.
Keep
Kneel
Knit
Know
Lade
Lay
Lead
Leave
Lend
Let
Lie, to lie down
Pa»L i
found
fled
flung
flew
forbore or forbare
forgot
forsook
froze
got or gat
gilt or gikled
girt or gilded
gave
went
graved
ground
grew ,
hung or hanged
had
heard
heaved or hove
helped
hewed
hid .
hit
held
hurt
kept
knelt
knit or knitted
knew
laded
laid
led
left ' ll"'<y-
lent
let
lay
Passive PartieipU*
found
fled
flung
flown
forborne
forgotten or forgot
forsakea
frozen
got or gotten
gilt or gilded
girt or girded r
given
gone
graven or graved
ground
grown
hung or hanged *
had
heard
heaved or hovea
helped or holpen
hewn or hewed
hidden or hid
hit >
held or boldeu
hurt
kept
knelt
knit or knitted
known
laden
laid
led
left
lent
let
lain or lien
**.:
* Hanged in the sense of '^killed by hanging." Such is the
•orrect present use
^
£N6LISH GRAftliMAR.
Present
Past.
Patmive Participle
Lift
lifted or lift
lifted or lift
Light
lighted or lit
lighted or lit
l.«oad
loaded
loaden or loaded
Loee
Ibst
loat
Mako
' made
made
Mean
meant or meaned
meant or meaned
Meet
met
met
Mow-
mowed
mown or mowed
Pay
paid
paid
Put
put
put
Quit
quit or quitted
quit
Read
read
read
Rend
rent
rent
Rid
rid
rid
Ride
ro^e
ridden or rode
Ring
rang or rung
rung
Rise
rose
risen
R'lve
rived
riven
Run
ran
run
Saw
sawed
sawn or sawed
S^y
suid
said
See
saw
seen
Seek
sought
sought
Seethe
seethed ar sod
sodden
Sell
gold
sold .
Send
sent
. ft*'
sent '
Set
set
set
Shake
shook
shaken
Shape
" shaped
shaped or shapen
Shave
shaved
siiaved or shaven
Shear
sheared or shore
shorn
Shed
shed
shed
Shine
shone or shined
shone or shined
Shew
shewed
shown
Show
showed
shown
Shoe
shod
shod
Shoot
siiot
shot
Shrink
shrank or shrunk
shrunk
Shred
shred
shred
Shut ,
shut
shut
PART U. — ETYMOLOer.
«r
present
Past.
Passive PartteipU^
Sinff
Sink
sang or swng
sank or Bunk
fung
sunk
Sit
sat
snt or litten
Slay
slew
slain
Sleep
slept
. slept
Slide
^id
slidden
Sring'
sluni^
shniH
slung *'■
Slink
slunk
Slit
slit or slitted
slit or sliUed '
Smite
smote
smitten '
Sow
sowed
sown or sowed*
Speak
spoke or spake
spoken
Speed
sped
«ped ''
Spend
spent -r
spent
Spill -^^-^t^-
spilt or spilled
spilled or spilled
Spilt
spun or span
spun
Spit
spit or split
spit or spitten
Split
split or splitted
split or splitted
Spread
spread
spread
Spring
sprang or sprung
sprung
Stand
stood
stood
Steal
stole
stolen
Stick
stuck
stuck '
Stiug
stnng
slung
stunk
Stiuk
stank or stunk
Stride
strode or strid
stridden
Strike
struck
struck or stricken
String
strung
strung
Strive
strove
striven ^
Strew or )
Strow ]
strewed or )
strewed )
. ) strewed
strown or | ^^^^^
Swear
swore or sware
sworn
Sweat
sweat
sweat
Sweep
swept
swept
Swell
swelled
swelled or swollen
Swim
swam or swum
swum
Swing
swung
swung
(
* Sowed, au iacorroct use arising from " sewed** with thread.
48
Present,
ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
Past
Passive Participle
Take
took
taken
Teach
taught
taught
Tear
tore or tare
torn
Tel!
told
told
Think
thought
thought
Thrive
1 throve or thriven
thriven
Throw
threw
thrown ^
Thrust
thrust
thrust .
Tread
trod or trode
trodden
Wax
waxed
waxed or waxen
Wear
wore
worn
Weave
wove
woven
Weep
wep*
wept
Win
won
won
Wind f
wound or ^winded
wound
Work,
wrought or worked
wrought or worked
Wring
wrung or wringed
wrung or wvinged
Write
wrote or writ
written, or .writ
Writhe
writhed
writhen or writhed
The Defective Verbs are as follows :~
-
PresenU
Past.
Passive PartieipU,
Can
, could
Forego
'"* "
foregone
May-
might
Must
lAUSt V ♦fi .
Ought.
ought
"•* Mil
Qjioth
quoth
^^
Shall
should
Will
would
f ' ,
Wis
wist »
\
Wit or wot
wot
1
Verbs may also be divided into Principal
tnd Auxiliary.
A principal verb is thai without which a sentence or
clause contains no afHrmation. An auxiliary is a verb
joined to the root or participles of a principal verb, to
express time and manner with greater precimon than
can be done by the tenses and moods iu their simple
MOB
PAK7 H-^BTYMOtOGY.
4»
form. Thus, the sentenoe, / ajit writing an exercise;}
when I skaU ha lie finished it^I shall read it to the cl(tS8thBB\
no laettiiliig without the principal verbs, writing ^ finished^ W
read; hut tho meaning ia rendered more deSiiite, ei^* >^
cialiy with rej^ard to time, by the auxiliary verbs, am^ \
haocy shall.
Tlie Auxiliary Verbs are, be. do, have, ?haU^, \
wilU may, can, let^ must, |
Conjugation of a Regular Verb. • - \> ■
Root. Love.
RADICAL PARTI.
Present Indicative. Past.
liove Loved
INDICATIVK MOOD.
Present Tense.
Singular.
1 I love
2 Thou lovest*
3 He, she, or it loves or loveth
Passive Partieipl^i
Loved >
f
/
Plural •[
1 We love '
2 Ye or you loya '
3 They lovet
* Tho secoud person singular, Ir in use, chiefly in addressef
to the Deity. h\ addressing individuals, the second person
plural, is used. Some grammarians have, on this accountf
represented such a phrase as, You love, as singular, becaiDi#
a may be addressed to an individual. But it seems to h6
merely a form adopted to avoid the abruptness of a direct
address, as the Italians are accustomed to address superion
in the third person.
t In both the tenses of the indicative mood, the first pencil
singular is the same with all the three persons plural. It
will not, therefore, be necessary to repeat the three persond
of the plural. This observation is universal in all verbs
regular and irregular, with the sole exception of the verb
to be, which has the first person singular present, / am; and
in the plural, we, ye or you, and they are. Also in the past
tense, first person singular, I was; plural, we, ye or you, or
they were^ Even in this verb all the persons plural are alike^
In the past tense of the indicative, the, first and third per*
•ons singular^ are always alike, and thus always the saoM
«p
ko
ENGLISH GBAMMAA.
1. I loved
2. TliDu loveiJHt
Past Tense,
Plural.
1. We loved, Sui,
CONDITIONAL MOOD.*
Present Tense.
m
Si.'ifrular.
1. If I love, &.C.
Plural. V
1. If we luvo, Slc.
with tiir |iliii!ii. Il will therefore bo uimece»sary to give the
third person R;n<Tiilar of the past teiiso.
In the ooiiditiouai mood, all the personn Ringular and
{»lurai ure ulikL', us, If I love; If thuu hva ; ff he love; If toe
ove ; If ye or yon love ; If they love. Past, If I loved ; If thou
lovcd ; If he hved ; If we loved ; If ye or you loved ; If they
loved. Tile only exception to this, is, that the second person
amgular, pawt tense, conditional mood of the verb Ih, may
be either If thuu were, or If thou wert. We sometimes in-
deed find the second person as in tho indicative : If thou
lovest ; If thou lovedst : but in these cases the indicative ii
used to express a condition usually for a purpose to be after-
wards explained. It will therefore be necessary to give only
1^ e first person of the conditional mood in either tense.
* This mood is called in many Grammars, the 8ubjunc'4,iVe
mood, meaning, that it is subjoined to the indicative mood.
But the name conditional mood, intimates tho purpose for
which it is subjoined to the indicative, namely, to express q
condition upon wiiich the indicative phrase depends.
Ijet it be particularly remarked that this mood is used not
to express an assertion depending upon a condition, but tho
condition itself. Much confusion has arisen from confound-
ing these two things which aro essentially distinct. Thus,
m the sentence / may write if I choose. The first clause is an
indicative phrase, / may writer i. e. I am at liberty to write,
which is altogether unaffected by the clause that follows;
the second clause is the expression of a condition upon which,
not my liberty to write, depends, but, my actual writing.
Again, in the sentence / might write if I chose. The fir»t
clause still expresses an indicative assertion, implying, that
t am at liberty to write. And the latter clause still ex-
preisses a condition upon which, not my liberty to write, but
my actual writing, depends. But the employment of the
PiET II. — ^ETYMOLOGY.
Pa8i Tense.'*
51
Singular.
1 If I iovod, &c.
Singular.
3 Love thou
>
Plural.
1 If we loved, &0.
IMPERATIVE UOOD
Plural
* 2 Love ye or you
INFINITIVE MOOD.
To Love.
PAirriciPLEs.
Active, Loviug Pasaicct Loved or being loved
IRREGULAR VERBS.
These have their compound moods and tenses formed
precisely as the regular verbs, only substituting tho
irregular form of the past tense and passive participlo
for the regular form in ed or *d, as —
I write. I am writing. I wrote. I did write. I have
written. I shall write. I shail have written, &c.
■ Ill "
past tense instead of tho present of the verb tnatfi is intended
to convey the idea that my writing depends upon a condition
which is not fulfilled ; and the past tense of the conditional
mood of the verb choose being used, implies, that I do not
ehoose, and therefore, will not write. The first clause, there-
fore, / might write, is an indicative assertion referring to a
condition to be afterwards mentioned, and which condition
it further implies is not fulfilled. Tho second clause, If I
chose, is tho expression of the condition itself in a form which
indicates tiiat it is not fulfilled. The use of the past tenses
of the vorb:3 tnay, can, will, and shall, will be more fully ex-
plained in treating of those auxiliaries.
* Although these two tenses of the conditional mood are in
form present and past tenses, and therefore are so denomi-
nated, yet they do not usually express time^ but are employed
to intimate the state of the condition expressed by them.
The present of the conditional leaves it doubtful whether the
condition expressed by it be fulfilled or not. Tho past tense
of the conditional, implies, that the condition is not fulfilled.
Thus, Jfl love, leaves it doubtful whether I love or upt. If
I loved, implies, that I do not love.
mmmm
"•PP
(■^•^s^^ir
IWPII
ENGLIS^a GRAMMAR
These axe the simple moods and texMes of the verb
but most of the modifications of the English verb, in
regard to time and mood, are carried on by means o|
auLiltftry verbs, which, combined with the principal verb
in various ways, form a vast variety of compound mioods.
ftnd tenses, to which various^names axe given in mbst
Oraiiiti.jirs. Instead, however, of burdening the memory
with a number of technical names, the explanations for
the formation of such compound ten*-as and moods, will
be given under each auxiliary. And it is recommended
to the teacher, instead of requiring a fccl;nieal name^oi
these compound moods and tenses, merely to require the
pnpil to bring together the principal verb and its aux-
iliaric<i forming these moods and teni$ds, to state which
pait of each verb is employed, and the effect of the whole
mood and tense. Thus, in parsing the senteiice I shall,
by two 0^ clock have tcritten my letter ; let the pupil be
directed to say, shall hate written, a compound tense of
the verb write, formed \. f the passive participle of the
verb wriffi, with the present of the indicative of the aux-
iliary shall, and the root of the auxiliary h.ave ; the whole
expressing future time and the action completed previous
tu some time expressed or implied. The time expressed
•r implied is two o'clock*
Au.x\\\&ry verbs are distinguished from other vei^ hf
their not requiring the sign of the infinitive mood, To,
after them, as verb^ not auxi^'.ary do, when they are com-
bined with other verbs. Thus, we must say, / love ti
read ; showing that the verb love, is not an auxiliary,
but a principal verb, go '^erning another in the infinitive
mood. But we say, / wtlt read ; thus indicating that
the verb will, is an auxiliary connecting the idea of read-
ing with future time.
AUXILIARY VERBS.
TO BE.*
RADICAL PARTS.
Present
Am
Past,
Was
Passive Participle,
Been.
<«i
^i
i'alfCT
.at. J
•1
im
w^^
#p
m>-y
PART ll.r— BTYMOLOGT.
/
INDieATITB MOOD.
Pretent Tenae,
18
Plural
1 We are, &UU-
Plural
1 We were, &o.
Smgnlnr,
1 I am
S Thou art
3 He, &.C.* is
iS'tng^uIar.
1 I was
2 Thou wast
3 He, &c. was
CONDITIONAL HOOD.
Present Tense,
Singular. Plural
1 If I be, &,c. 1 If we be» &e.
Past Tense,
Singular, Plural
1 If I were, &c. I If W9 wen, dte.
S If thou were or wert
IMPS RATIVB MOOD. 4>; |fe*/ «*Jti^'
Singular, w<*« *s*»ro. P/ur«^
S fie thou .mf'A^ .''^%'i 2 Be ye or you
c y.
^
INFINITIVE MOOD.
To Be.
PARTICIPLES.
•J.i
>* tyk
»V'f* '
Being . «*...t.vj Beea \^ g,
Uses of this Auxiliary.
I. — This auxiliary is joined to the active participle of
J. the principal v^rb, to form a class of present and past
^"' tettses, implying more deifinite time than the Simple
present and past tenses of tho principal verb. Thus, /
am writing, more distinctly coDveys the idea that I am
engaged in writing at the* present moment, than the
" simple present tense, Jwritt; and was writings refers to
• JNoie particnlar time'pwt at which I was ert^ffed in
writing, while the simpllB past tense, / torole, moicatef
^'lliii verb is frequently called the Suhstantits verb.
^"WP"
■^«F^"^
^mmm^^
u
J
ENGLISH GBAMMAR.M
no more than th&t the act of writing^ took place at some
former time. Thus* / voaB writing when he arrived, im-
plied, that at the very time he arrived I was in i:he act of
writuig. Whereas, I wrote when he arrived, implies no
more than that the writing was about the time of his
arrival, or rather subsequently to it.
II. — This auxiliary is added to the passive participle
of a principal verb to form a passive voice to that verb in
all its own moods and tenses, thus : —
Singular.
1 I am loved
2 Thou art loved
3 He is loved
Singular*
1 I was loved
2 Thou wast loved
3 He was loved
INDICATIVE MOOD.
Present Tense.
Past Tense.
Plural.
1 We are loved
Pltirai.
1 Wo wore, loved, &o.
CONDITIONAL MOOD. - ,',
' :• Present Tense.
Singular. Plural.
1. If I be loved, &.c. 1 If we be loved, &.C.
Past Tense.
Singular. Plural.
1 If I were loved 1 If we were loved
2 If thou wert loved
IMPERATIVE MOOD.
Singular.
1 Be thou loved
V.
,--ii
INFINITIVE MOOD.
To he loved.
PluraL
Be ye or you loved.
PARTICIPLE.
, Being loved.
> III* — ^This auxiliary is combined with the auxiliary
Kate and the principal verb, as, / hane been loving ; I
have been loved ; and also with other auxiliaries add«id
W the verb Aave, as, I may have been loving ; I might
TART li. — ^ETYMOLOGy. 65
have been loving; I shall have been, ^c, for purposiw*^
which will bet explained under that auxiliary.
IV, — This auxiliary is sometimes used with the infini-
tive mood of a prin.qipal verb, to express a future tense
conuected with the idea of obligution, as, I am to write;
signifying, I um expected ot appointed to write. Such
phrases, therefore, may be regarded as elliptical, and
construed as. one verb governing another in the infini-
tive mood.
V. — This auxiliary is used with the active participle of
the verb go, and the infinitive of a principal verb, and
ajso with the preposition about and the infinitive of a
principal verb, to express an immediate future ; as, / am
goivfr to write ; J am about to write.
. TO DO*
•■' ffiiitii
Present.
Do
RADICAL PARTS.
Past.
Did
Passive Participle*
Done
■vnv
^W^ii.^^^
,*f. .;
INDICATIVE MOOD. -I^
Present Tense.
Singular. Plural,
1 I do 1 '' 'e do, &c.
2 Thou dost ,
3 He, &c. does or doth . ,»j ini . „,. i
Past Tense.
Plural
■^'- •• , 1 We did, &c.
'^
Singular,
1 I did
U Thou didst
Singular.
1 If I (io, &c.
Singular.
1 If I did, &c.
*
CONDITIONAL MOOD.
Presenft Tease.
i..... Plural.
1 If we do, &c
. Past Tense. ,
PluroK
1 If we did, &iO.
*■%
-,f *Thi6 verb is frequently used as a principal verb in the
sense of acting, wof king, &>c., as,/ do well ; he does goad » they
did wrong : i. e. I d6t well ; he performs or works gocid : they
acted wrong.
mm^
66
J
Singular.
3 Do Thou
ENGLISH GBAMDIAR*
IMPERATIVB MOOD.
Flural
2 Do ye or yoiU
I^fFINI'r a MOOD.
To Do.
PARTICIPLBB.
Active. P&saive.
Doing Doue or being done;
Uses of thi8 Auxiliary. * .
I. — It is used with the root of the principal verb in iit
various moods and tenses for the purpose of expressing
the same meaning with the simple tenses of the princi-
pal verb more emphatically, as, / do lovct I did love, have
the same meaning with the simple tenses, / love, and I
loved, but more emphatically expressed.
II. — Its chief use is to express negative assertions in
famiiar conversation, as, / do not love ; I did not love ;
the forms, / love not, I loved not, being seldom heard«
except in poetry or declamation.
III.— It is sometimes used to save the repetition of
the principal verb, especially in answering questions, as,
Do you love ? I do. [i. e. I do love.] Did you love 1
I did. [i. e. I did love.]
... TO HAVE.
Passive Participle*
Had
RADICAL PARTS.
Present.
Past.
Have
Had
INDICATIVE MOOD. *
Present Tense,
Singular. Plural.
1 I have 1 We have, &«.
2 Thou hast ^.u . K ,vi i
3 He, &o. hai w hath ^ t ' . 1
Past Tense*
Singular, Plural.
1 I had 1 W Sad, 4o.
S Hiouhadit
; 1 ?if
^» 4.4. tVUWq
/S^
Hj
^>3l
PART ii:-^tTmOLOGY.
,COSDmWJ^h MOOD.
Pretent Ten9e.
Singular, Plural
1 If I kwoj&fi^ 1 If we have, Im.
<PmI fVnM.
<; ' * Singular. Plural,
I If I had, &c. 1 If we had, &c.
IMf BKATIVE MOOD.
Singular, PluraL
,^^, I) , Have thou ^ Have ye or yea
^& iiy
Active,
Having ^
INFINiTIVB MOOP.
To Have.
PARTICIPLES.
Passive
Had or being hi^*
Uses irf this Auxiliary.
r*
V
I,
I'.
1.— The present tense of this auxiliary is used with
the passive participle of the priucipal verb to signify
that the act expret^^d by the priucipal verb is completed
and consequently peflfs.*'y past, as. / have written, I have
toiled, I have, loved ; intonating, that the acts, writing,
toiling, and loving, are complete and paatt The com-
pound tense formed by the present of this auxiliary, in
therefore called the perfect or preterit tense.
n^' •The latter form is scarcely ever, if at all, used.
ill- . " .
^ 1 The verb Have, is used to express the compleMon of the
apt expressed by the principal verb. It intimates not merely
ihAt the action is done, but that the agent possesses it done*
It IS thus that it imparts an active si^uific atioa to the passive
partieiple. / have written a letter, implies Uiat I possess tht
act of writing the letter completed. This form, therefore, re^
quires not only that the act be completed, but that it in. some
sense continue to exist, and that tliere be an existing age?it
to possess it. Thus, we cannot say, Columbus has difipovered
Amntica ; because Columbus no longer exists to possess that'
action, nor can we say. The Duke of Wellington has taken
Badujos ; hiicmiae, although the Duke of Wellington existit,
the act is goitn, Dudajos is no lon.ier in his possession. But
mmmm
ENGLISH GRAMDIAE.
II. — The past tense of this auxiliary, with the paiii8i?«
participle of the principal verb, is used to signify that
the action denoted by the principal verb was past at
some former time expressed or implied, as, / had written
the letter before you arrived. The compound tenseformed
in this manner, is usually called in grammars, by the
very senseless name, the Plu-perfect tense, that is, a
we can say. Parliament has passed the Poor-law Bill : so long
as both Parliament exists to possess the actj and the act itself
■till exists to be possessed. In regard to this tense, authors,
whose works are extant, are regarded as enjoying a kind ol
continued existence in their works. Thus, we can say. Homer
has described the character, of the Greeks; because the poems
are extant in which he did so, and he is supposed to exist in
his writings. Thus, although this tense implies completed
action, so far from expressing perfect past time, it implies,
that the action is not perfectly past, but in some sense, that it,
as well as the agent, still exists. From this use of the passive
participle to express action, that participle has been very
generally treated, not as a passive participle, but as an active
participle, expressing complete or perfect time. But this is
manifestly erroneous, for in such phrases as, I am loving,
and / am loved ; I have been loving, and / have been loved ;
I shall have been loving, and / shall have been loved ; the
first in eaoh pair is active, and the second passive ; but
the only difference is in the participles, and the active and
passive sense must be in the participles respectively, or it
is no where. The sole cause of the apparent anomaly of a
passive word, used to express activity, is, that the word have^
with which it is accompanied, conveys the idea that the
subject of the verb possesses the action - done or completed,
and that he was the doer of it — that it was his act, and that
therefore, although the doing of it is over, the doer and the
thing done still remain. There is an error prevalent in Ire-
land in the use of the auxiliaries have and do in the past tense.
Did ought to be used when the act is altogether past;
Have, when something still remains of it, as explained abov0.
Thus-, did you write to Mr. B. before he went away ? Hav§
you written to Mr. B. to-day ? Did you call at the Bank on
the first day of last month 7 Have you called at the Bank yet?
FART U.— ETTMulAftT.
M
. I'
■V
\
-■-1
^'rS
a , '
contraction from the Latin plus quam perfect uinl^jjkfk
more than perfect tense ; as if an act done, could be\
more than perfectly done. If a name must be given to
it, the name, Prior perfect, ihni is, perfect or complete
prior to a given time, is much more appropriitte am
inteiltgiblo.
III. — The past tense of this auxiliary, is sometimes
used to express an act depending on a conditioii^ which
couaitioii is not fulfilled, as, / had gone, if I had known
that I was expected. The meaning of which, is, I did
not know that I was expected, and tht-rcfore did not go,
but if I had known, I should have gone.
IV. — The pa.*it ten.se of the conditional is sometimea
used before its nominative, and without a conditiouaj
conjunclion to expres.s a condition i](ot fuUiii^'d, as, / had
gone, had I been invited ; that is, If I hod been invited c
the meaning being precisely the same as in the former
example.
v.— 7-This auxiliary is used with the passive participle
of the verb To he, and the active participle of a principal
verb to express more definitely pa^t and prior past time,
according to the use of the compound tense formed by
the auxiliary To he, with the active participle of a prin-
cipal verb, as, / have been loving ; 1 had been loving,
VI. — This auxiliary is used in its diiFerent moods and
tenses with the passive participle of the auxiliary verb
To be, to form a perfect and prior perfect tense of the
passive voice, as, i have been loved, I had been loved.
Did it rain during the night, the ground is quite dry 7 Has it
rained during the night, the ground is v)et ? In Ireland the
first form with the auxiliary did, is frequently used for either
of these purposes indiscriminately.
The use of the past tense of have, with the passive participle,
26 analagou.9 to that of the present. / had written, asserts,
that I poHsessed the act of writing, completed at soni© past
time referKui io — and therefore implies, that / was the doe»
of it, that 1 had finished it at the time specified. We can
therefore use the past tense of have in cases in which wo
could not use the present; we can say, Columhus had dit^
covered America ; thie Duke of Wellington uau taken Badajo9,
m
ENOMSB GRAMMAS.
V<"
VII. — This auxiliary is combined with the othei
auxiiiati^ii yet to be iW)Htteid for the purpose of convey-
ing the idea o( perfitct past tilx6 prior pcrfficf ptisl time, a*
combined with the eeiftse bf these auxiliaries, as, I will
have loved; Ishali httovloved ; 1 may have loved; lean
have loved ; I wduM hiive loved ; I should have loved ; I
might, have loved ; 1 could have loved. U admits also the
same combination along with the passive participle of
the verb To hey and the active participle of a principal
verb, as, I will have been loving; I shall have been loving ;
I may have been loving j ^e. Also, with the jmssive par-
ticiple of the principal verb, as, I shall have been loved:
Tiiey might have been loved; He might have been loved fCte,
Vni. — This auxiliary is used with the infinitive mood
of principal verbs, to express future tluie, combined with
the idea of obiigution, analdgous to a similar use of tho
auxiliary Be, already explained, as, / have to write ; I
had to write. : sijjnifyingj I have It in charge to write ; I
had it in charge to write, or was obliged to write. Such
phi*ase8 may also be construed as ellipt cal forms of on*
verb governing another in the infinitive mood.
WILL.
RADICAL PARTS.
Present, Will Past, Would
INDICATIVE MOOD.
Present Tense*
Singular* Plural,
1 I Will 1 We will, &c
2 Thou wilt*'
3 Ho will
Past Tense,
Singular, Plural,
1 I would ^ 1 We would, &c
2 Thou wouidost or wouldst
fffi
• Thou wilt. The second person may sometimes be fotini
Thou wiliest, but then it is to be remembered that the verb i*
ib such cases no longer used as an auxiliary, but as a pritl*
eipal verb, signifying, to choose to be willing, and mvlst be
fdjowod by the sign of the infinitive, as, theu wiliest to ttftit^.
.1
yi
, X
'tx\. '
1.
VAVt n. — ^EnMOLOor.
91
CONDITIONAL HOOD.
Prtaeui Tenie.
Singular.
f, If I will, &e.
Singular,
1 If 1 would, ^c.
Past Tense.
Plural.
1 If w» will, iiA.
Plural.
1 If we would, Slc
1 NoTifi. — The imperative and infinitive moods oJT this
verb, are not used as auxiliaries to a principal verb, nof
>t'*^v Uie pariieipleiEi activo or passive.
1 Uses of this Auxiliary.*
»;•
ii >•
•r.
ill ■■■■>;
;for/
I.— It is used in the present tense with the "oot of a
principal verb, to express the idea of futurity, r uiected
]with the principal verb, or in other words, to form a
future tense for the principal verb.^ In the first person,
fiiugular and plural, it signifies a purpose or inleutioa ;
m Uic second and third persons, it merely prognosticates,
fus, X will write ; We will write; intimating the future
intention of writing. Thou wilt write; He will write ;
Ye will write ; Tliey will write ; expressing a mere in*
* l^erhaps the becit popular explaniitioii of tlie general rail
may bo expressed as under-*
You
He
1.
We
t?
shall,
I
We
} shall, fir ( wOL
> They )
The form 1, is usod to expiross futurity dependent on the wilt
of the gpeakor, as / will pay, You ehall pay. He shall pay^
The form 3, is used to express futurity not dependent on thd
#il1 of the speaker, as, / shall die, You will die. He will die
Originally it is likely that shall was alwayii used (as it oftim
is in our translation of the Bible and other old books,) to express
Sitnple futurity ; and will, to express futurity dependent oa
(he will, not of the speaker, but of the person whether speakei
0r not. This last use is retained where the will is emphatiCf
UMf He will pay, although he is not bound, , . . , V „.;
6 ■ -^.,...^.-,-.-^.^
m
ENGLISH GRAMMABi
timation of what in future will be done without neces-
Bariiy implying an intention in the ioei'i as, The clock
will strike.*
II. — The past tense is used with the root of the verb
for the Durpbse of forming a future tense referring to a
condition, which condition, it at the same time implies,
is not fulfilled ; as, / would write if I could ; He would
write if he were authorised. Both implying, that the
future writing depends on a condition, which condition
not being fulniled, the writing will not be dune.
The same distinction is to be observed in the use of
the past tense, as the use of the present in rc^^ard to the
employment of it with the different persons. In the
. first person, wouldt implies a conditional purpose or in-
tention, in the second and third persons, it implies a
conditional prognostication, as, J would writer if I could ;
expressing that my intention to write is prevented from
being carried into effect by my inability. The clock would
strike if it were wound up; expressing a fntiire event
depending on a contingency, which contingency not
being supplied, the event does not take plac , but without
implying any purpose or intention.t ''
* It is improper, therefore, to say, / will be hurt if I fall ;
because, in the first person, willf expresses intention ; now
it is not the intention of any person to be hurt. But it is
proper'to say, you will be hurt if youfallj or, he will be hurt
if he fall ; because, in the second and third persons, will,
only foretells or intimates what will happen without implying
intention. It is also improper to ask a question in the first
person by this verb, as, Will I write ; will we write ; because,
it is asking what our own will or intention is, which we
ought to know better than those whom we ask; hut it ia
pniper to say, Will you write ; Will he or will they write ; iot
that is asking what their intention is, or what is likely to
happen without intention, as. Will the clock strike.
>j
t It is improper, therefore, to use the expressions, / would
hs afraid I would be hurt if I fall; because, being afraid of
being hurt, is not the result of our own intention. But it is
E roper to say. Vou would be afraid ; He or they would be hurt^
ecause, the second and third persons would only express a
4'ftl/
ft".
fi ■
PART II. — ^ETYMOLOGY.
III. — The past tense of this auxiliary is us'td to con?
the idea of a past future, i. e. a future which is no^
past. For example, the phrases, / say that I will writ§
and, / said that I would write, run as it were parallel to
one another : / would write, having the same relation to
/ said, .hat / will write, has to / say, that is, the rela-
tion of futurity.*
IV. — This auxiliary is used in combination with the
root of the verb Be, and the active participle of a principal
verb, to express a definite future time; as, / will be
loving; Thou wilt be loving ; I would be loving; He would
be loving, ^c; as, I will be wailing when you come*
V. — It is also used with the root of the verb Be, and
the passive participle of any principal verb, to express
future time in the passive voice, as, / will be loved ; He
will be loved ; I would be loved ; He would be loved : as
The letter will be written when you call for it.
VI. — It is used in the present tense in combination
with the auxiliary H^ve, and the passive participle of a
principal verb, to express a prior future, time, as, / will
have loved ; Thou wilt have loved; He will have loved, ^e.
I would have loved; He would have loved ; I will havt
written my exercise before six o* clock ; and in the past tense
to express a completed conditional assertion, either past
or present, but not future, as,,/ would have written yes-
(
la
future contingent event. It is also improper to ask a question
with the past tense of this verb in the first person, as. Would
I be afraid if I went to sea ; because, such a question would
be enquiring of another person respecting the state of one's
own mind. But it is proper to ^ ay. Would he be cfraid ;^Would
the clock go if it were wound up,
* There is some delicacy required in the use of such phrases to
avoid ambig :ity. For example,i/e said yesterday that he would
write to-morrow ; might mean that his intention yesterday
was to write either to-day or to-morrow. This may be avoided
by rehearsing the exact words. He said yesterday, I will write
to-morrow ; which would fix the intention of writing for to-
day ; or by naming the day. He said yesterday that he would
write on Monday, Tuesday, ^c»
\
>
**■'
BNOUSH GRAMMAR.
Urday ; He tDould now Imve heen here. But altliough
■nch oxpreflsions iui» I would haze written ^o-morr^iD, may
■ometimes he heard, yet they are harsh,, and the «ame
•enae would be better expreaaed thus, It was m^.inU»tion
to write tO'tnorrow.
VII. — This auxiliary is used in coinbination with the
verb Have, and the verb Be, at the same time, ispd with
either the active or passive participle of jthe priocipal
verb, forming prior perfect future tenses, and coj^tional
perfect tenses in definite time in the active voicOt and
also perfect future aud perfect conditional tenses in the
passive voice, as, / will have heen loving ; 1 will hove heen
loved ; I would have heen loving ; I would have heen
loved ; / will have been travelling two hours before you
$et out ; The glass would have been broken if J had nel
caught if-
SHALIi. ->» '
V
RADICAL PARTflk
• ' ^
Present Indicative,
ShaU
Past. t
Should ,,i
INDICATIVE MOOD
• ' • 4
Present Tense.
Singular,
1 I shall
2 Thou Shalt
3 He, &.C. shall V
Plural. ^
1 We shall, Sr4i.
Past Tense,
Singular.
1 I should
2 Thou shouldst, &c.
•'■V
Plural. 'Kt
1 We Should, Sdc
CONDITIONAL MOOp. .4 .-* f.
Present Te nse. ? ^ «' "■
Singular. Plural.
1 If I shall, &c. 1 If we shall, &9*
Pttsi Terise.
^ Singular. Plural.
1 If I should, &o. 1 If we should, &a
Imperative, Infinitive, aud Participles watUing.
#?-^ * m^^m
i
C
t.f»V
PART IX. — ^BTTMOLOGT.
Utei 0/ thit Auxiliary,
This aUxHiary is used for the tame irarpoMS and iii
the same forms as the verb Will, with the exceptioa
of the directions respecting the use of it in the different
persons. The student, therefore, is referred to the obser-
vations made on the verb Will, and requested to attend
carefully to the following additional remark.
This auxiliary is used like the auxiliary will, in th^
present tense of the indicative, to express future time,
and in the past tense, assertion, referriug to a conditioa
which is not fulfilled, as, /sAa// love ; Ithould l»ve; Ithatl
write if you wish ; I should take cold if I were to go out
But with the first person, this auxiliary, contrary to
the auxiliary Will, expresses in the present tense, mtn
prediction or foretelling ; and in the past tense, mere
contingency, without implying any pui^e or intention.
With ^e second and third persons it expresses command
or intention in the person speakingi thus, 1 shall ^
hurt if I fall / Thou shalt not killThia auxiliary, it^
fore, is used in the first person, s^gular or plurp' ... JJ
in the present and past tenses, wherever tho ^"*'»*'T
will cannot be used for the rf«>ns given^ -^® £.***™
say, / wUl be afraid, but / sff}^ be afraf^ i nor, ll^« wiU
be hurt if we fall, but We sfi[j»^ A"'"' »/ '^«/«"- ,
The original meaning-'f ^w ''^ «♦ *?^ ?T\'
when used emphatically* ?io past tense, it still retain,
that meaning, as, / sA^^ \at>e written, but Iwasfre^
vented : I silduLO A^«^ i«««««^» *«« f,«»«* tnattenUvt,
In U*e last exam»^» the word should, pronounced enj.
nhatically, intimat'S that it was my duty to listen j buj,
J should have l*tened, had I been present, th» word
should being pj«ed over lightly, merely intimates what
would have tSten place had the condiUott of my btmg
present been^^^fi*^**- . , ,-r.Vf a 01-11
Th^se tirtt last auxiliaries, therefore, m« and Shall,
make ur complete tenses of the sam© kind between
thenv the one supplying the place of the other in thoi»
eaies where either the idei of intention on the one hand,
or obligation on the other, wouW be improper. Thui,
when ^^e^e futurity, without reference to intentit-a or obU-
gation,l» to be expressed, we havea fuluredeoltned}thw
6*
il?^ ii
■mp
^w*-'-''
' ENGLISH tsftAMMAft.
Singular, ' Plural.
1 I shall love 1 We sbuU love
2 Thou wilt love 2 Ye will love
3 He will love 3 They will love
But where the idea of purpose , intention, or obligatio*
; , is to be conveyed, we must decline thus : —
Singular, Plural.
1 I will love ,1 We will love
2 Thou ahalt Ic'd 2 Ye or you shall love
3 He shall love 3 They shall love
And corresponding with this, the past forms : —
Singular.
II should love
ft ' 2 Thou vouldst love
3 He woi«d love
Singular. '■
1 Iwouldlov\
2 Thou shouidij^ love
3 He should love.
Plural. ^
1 We should love
2 Ye or you would lovo
3 They would love
V,: Plural. ./
1 We would love ,y
2 Ye should love ,
3 They should lovo
MAV
^ %s Past,
^ ^ Might
^ • INDICATm jiooD.
•v. Present i>„^g
Singular. - ru.^ ' p^^^^j^
'"^ Pre8e.X
" ''<■
A?.
.*'
2 Thou mayest
3 He may
\
\
■ •-r
Singular,
1 1 might
,.i*H2 Thoumightesto^-mirhtBt
Past Tense. \ ' '>^
* >lural -^
1 Wemijht, &a "^
might
\'
"'' Singular,
CONOITIONAL MOOl).
Present Tense,
Plural
^j^ 1 If we may, &C.
■.v»
'v
,»
■ '-Jfv'
FART H.—iSTyMOLOGY.
67
iiyii\
V
V ■
« {'. «i
Pa*« Tense.
Singular. , Plural.
1 If I might, &>c. 1 If we might, &.C.
Imperative, Infinitive, and Participles wanting.
Uses of this Auxiliary.
I. — This auxiliary signifies to have liberty, and is used
with the root of the principal verb td express that mean-
hig, in the present tense, unconditionally ; in the past
tense, to express that the actual doing of what I assert
I have liberty to do, depends on a condition which is not
fulfilled, and therefore, what I have liberty to do, I do
not do ; as, / may write, signifies, I have^ liberty to write ;
/ might write, signifies I haye Hberty to write, but my
writing depends upon a condition which is not fulfilled,
and therefore, I do not write, as, Imight write if I chose,
implying, that I do not choose, and therefore, do not write.
II. — It is used to express mere contingency without
any reference to liberty, as. The clock may strike at the
next hour ; The clock might strike if it were wound up.*
I" — ■ '
* In consequence of this verb expressing liberty or mere
contingency to do anything, and in consequence of the fur-
ther fact, that when an act is contingent or when any one
has liberty to do it, the actual doing of it usually depends
on some condition expressed or implied, this auxiliary is
frequently represented as forming with the principal verb,
a present and past conditional mood. But this idea is
erroneous ; for when I say, / may write if I choose ; no con-
dition is attached to my liberty, which is positively asserted,
the condition that follows is attached not to my liberty to
write, but to my actual writing. The same is true in the
past tense, / might write if I chose ; the Hberty is still
Mserted unconditionally; but there is implied, that not my
Iberty to write, but my actual writing depends on a condition.
IThis, however, is equally true of the past tenses of the
tuxiliaries of will, shall, can, and have, as well as, may, and
ihere ii^ a tendency to this use of the past tenses of all verbs.
Jlius, we sometimes hear such expressions as. Did J know, for,
^ I kpew, and, as we Have seen, the constant use of the past
««iise of the conditional mood, is to express, not past time»
l(Ut to point to a condition not fulfilled, as, Jf J knew hit
(
\
9»
J
}
^
ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
:■•■ • ■ t ■
III. — ^This auxiliary ib used with the root of the aux*
illary B«, and the atstive participle of the principal yerb»
to unite with the idea of liberty or contingency* a definite
time ; as, / may he loving ; I might he loving ; and also
with the root of the verb Be, and the passive participle
of the principal verb, to eiqiress liberty or contingency
passively, as, / may be loved ; / might be loved,
IV. — It is combined with the present tense of the verb
Have, and the {mssive participle of the principal verb, to
form a compound tense, combining with the idea of
liberty or contingency, the idea of complete past' time,
as, I may have loved ; I might have loved.
V. — It is used in connexion with the two auxiliaries,
JBe and Have, combined as above, to form co<7ipound
teupes, uniting the ideas of liberty or contingency, active
or passive, with definite time and complete action^ as, 1
fhay have been loving ; I might have been loving; I may
have be€n loved ; / might have been loved,*
CAN. . ''.^^'
RADICAL PARTS.
Present Tense.
Can
INIHCATIVR MOOD.
Present Tense.
Could; .^il^'Vft
Singular.
1 1 can
2 Thou canst
3 He can
Plural.
^■«b fUk
1 We can, &C. ^^^'^
address I would write to him; the whole implying, not pwH^
time, but an unfullllle'd bondition, natnely, / do not know Ms
address, and therefore, will nvt writft.
If any name, therefore, is to be given to the compoufni
mood formed by this auxiliary, it should be the Potentiiri
mood, under which name it may be classed with thv atix •
Uiary, can.
* Might and may are Areqaently confounded iir Ireland
This is to be met with in old English books, but never non
heard among educated people in England, e. g. Y^ will nvt
€omt um^ me thmt ye might [may] have life*
4
^n*
PART II. — ^ETYMOLOGY.
6»
syk.
>
s
" ■
9
t*
y
'••
">
■ (
^
\
ei
■ *■
id
!>.•%'■
ve
1
ay
^--
u„;
id
Singular. Plural.
1 I couM 1 We could, ^
2 Thou couIdoBt or soqidst
3 He could
Singul
CONDITIOKAI. MOOD.
Present Tense.
ar.
Plural.
1. If I can, &.C.
Singular.
1 If I could '
1 If we can, &c.
Past Tense.
Plural.
] If we could. &c.
Imperative, Inliuitivo, and Participles wanting.
Uses of this Auxiliary.
I. — This verb originally signified to knoWf and still is
used in Scotland in that sense, differently spelled ken;
but as the idea of knowing to do anything easily glides
into the idea of being able to do it, the use of it as an
iuxiliary is to express power or ability, as, / can write,
that is, am able to write ; or as we find it frequently
expressed, especially in Ireland, / know how to write. It
is distinguished from the verb Mayj in that the verb may,
asserts liberty in opposition to external restraint: tho
verb Can, asserts power in opposition to internal inability,
as, I may go out to walk for my work is done ; I can lift
a stone of 100 lbs. weight.
II. — The past tense of this auxiliary as in the case of
will, shall, and may, does not usually convey vhe idea of
past time, but of present or future time, implying that
tho act expressed by the principal verb to which it is
attached, depends on a condition which m not fulfilled,
as, / could walk ten miles if J chose ; which sentence,
asserts my abiiily to walk ten miles unconditionally,
but intimates that my actual walking ten miles depends
on my choice, and intimating further, that I do not
choose, and therefore, will not vf^lk ten rriles.
Sometimes, however, the past tense of could, does con-
vey the idea of power or obligation at a former time, He
could read lohen he was three years old, that is, he was
able to read when he was at that age.
/
70
EllBLlSH GRAMMAR.
III. — Can^ is used in precieely the same combinationf
with Maiji for the purpose of forming compound tenses
combining iiie idea of power or obiigution, with tha
various ideas which the other auxiliaries are intended
to.'ionvey, as definite time, passiveness, complete action,
&c. Thus, lean love; I could love; I can he loving; 1
could be loving ; lean be loved ; / eould be loved ; I can
have loved ; I could have loved ; I can have been loving ,
I could have been loving ; I can have been loved ; I could
hcfve been loved, - ,
LET.
RADICAL PARTS.
Present Indicative. Past, Passive PariiciphL
Let
Let
INDICATIVE MOOD.
Present Tense,
Let
I
Singular
1 I let
2 Thou lettest'
3 He lets or letteth
Singular,
1 I let
2 Thou lettest
3 lie let
Past Tense,
Plural.
1 We let
■4 'f.;*^ ■ . .it
Plural, ' ^1
1 We lot, Slo, \^x
•V
CONDITIONAL MOOD.
Present Tense. -• U
Singular. Plural. riiW .„.
1 If I let, &.C. 1 If we let, &.C
Past Tense, Not used.
Infinitive To let.
Imperative. Let thou, Let ye, &c.
PARTICIPLES.
Active. Passive.
Letting Let ^, •
Uses of this Auxiliary,
I. — Its principal use as an auxiliary is to form a firti
and third person for the imperative mood of the principal
PART n.— ETYMOLaGY.
Tl
>al
verb, as, Let me Iopc; Let us love; Let him love; Lni
thf.m 1.01)6. It is obvious, however, that this is merely
the imporutivfi iii the second person, the address )>eiiig
to KOine jiersion luidarstood, Let thou, me love; that is,
permit thou mo to love.
II. — It is used in combination with the other aux-
iliaries, i do let. h\m wnte ; I did let, ^-r.; Iwilllety ^'c;
[shall let, <f<'. ; / may let^ A'C. ; I mit^ld lei, «^c.; 1 can
let, ^'('.; I cuiiUl let, ^c. ; 1 shall have let, k^c. ; I may
have let, <^€.; I can have let, ^c; I am lelling, ^'C. / /
was leltirtg, <f-c. / I shall be letting, tj-c. ; I should ht
lettingt <f*c. *
MUST.
This auxiliar}*^ is indeclinoblo, and is used only in the
present tense of the indicative and conditional moods, /
must, they must, we must, &lc. If I must, if they must, if
he must, if we must, <f«<T.
It is not used in combination with any auxiliary ex-
cept Bi and Have. I must be loving ; I must have loved ;
• / 7nvst hare been loved or loving.
Its us'i is to express the idea of obligation or constraint,
2La,Imu,U icriit , lam obliged to write ; I must be writing ,
It must be written ; I must have written.; 1 must have
been writing. In the latter two examples, must, is used
to express a strong belief founded upon evidence, as, /
must have written, else I could not have ivceived an an*
swer. I mast have been writing when he entered the
room, for I did not observe him enter.
♦ In old language this verb is used in the very opposite
tense of 'permit, namely, to hinder or prevent ; as when
Pharoah is stated, in the authorised version of the Bible, to
have said to Moses and Aaron, Wherefore do ye Moses and
Aaron let the people from their works, Exod. v. 14 ; that ifi,
hinder or prevent the people from doing their work. I
will work and who shall let it, Isaiah, xliii. 13 ; that is, who
Bhafl hinder it. Again, / proposed to come to you but was let
hitherto, Rom. i. 1.3 ; i. e. was prevented hitherto. Again, only
he who now lp.tteth will let, 2 These, ii. 7 ; that is, he who
now liinderetli will hinder
1
w
4
I
n
ENOLISil GRAIIMAR.
EXERCISES.
VERB»
What 18 a verb ? How many kinds of verbs are tliem i
When are verbs said to be transitive ? and when intrausitivo .
* DiKi.x I'lONH TO Teachers. — A verb may be easily dia>
tinguished from any other part of speech by its making sense
with a personal pronoun, and by the Siontenco being without
meaning when it is omitted. An active transitive verb ii
to be distinguished from an active intrdnsitive verb, by the
former admitting an objective case after it ; thns, we can
say, John strikes the table, hat we cannot say y John sits the
table. It is to be observed, however, that verbs which are
generally intransitive, sometimes become transitive, by
taking after tiit^m a noun of similar signification ; as. To
run a race ; to sleep the sleep of death. Thti number and
person of the verb depend on the number and person of the
inbject or nominative ; thus, if the nominative be in the
fliugular number and third person, the verb is also in the
nugular number and third person. When the past tense
oamiot be distinguished from the present, by the diiference
of termination, it is to be found out only by considering
whether the affirmation is made of something that is going
oil at the time, or of something which has already taken
place. The indicative, imperative, and infinitive moods, can
scarcely be mi^^tiken, if attention is paid to the preceding
expl anations. „ j ^^ n<!
Whether the present participle is used as a nouu, an
adjective, or a verb, must be discovered by considering whe-
ther it is the name of some proof or circumstance, whether
it qualifios a noun, or whether it expresses some act or cob*
ditiou in a state of progression. Care must be taken net to
cpnfound the passive participle with the past tense ; as, /
done itt instead of / did it ; I have wrote, for / have written*
It is easy to distinguish between the auxiliary and principal
Terbs, 6«, do, have, will, and let from the former being always
ioined to a verb in its simple form, or a participle, and £rpx|i
PA,|IT II. — ETYMOLOGY.
73
How are verbs inflected? How many numbers have verbs?
How many persons 7 What do the tenses of the verb denote 7
How many moods have verbs? What do the moods of the
/erb denote ? When is the verb said to be in the indicative
mood'' in the conditional? in the imperative? in the infini-
tive I How many participFes have verbs? Why are the
participles so called? What verbs are called regular? irre-
the latter making the afHrmatiou on which the meaning oi
the sentence or clause depends.
-. Sentences containing the verb may be parsed in the follow-
*)lig manner« the particulars concerning each part of speech
being drawn from the pupil by questions, as previously
directed : Ageailaus being asked what ht thought most proper
for boysio learn, answered, What they ought to do when, they
come to he men* Agesilaus, a proper noun, masculine gender,
and nominative case ; being, an auxiliary verb, joined to asked ;
asked, an active verb, passive participle, regular, present a«^,
past tense asked ; what, a compound relative pronoun ; he, a
personal pronoun, third person, singular number, masculine
gender, and nominative case ; thought, an active verb, past
tense, indicative mood, third person, and singular number,
irregular, present, think, past, thought, passive participle,
thought ; most, an adverb ; proper, an adjective,when connected
with most, in the superlative form ; for, a preposition ; boys, a
Doun, plural number, masculine gender, and objective case ;
to learn, an active verb, infinitive mood ; answered, an active
trannitive verb, past tense, indicative mood, third person, and
■ingular number, regular, governing the following clause;
what, a compound relative pronoun^ used instead of thai
which ; they, a personal pronoun, third person, plural niun-
ber, masculine gender, and nominative case ; ought, a defec-
tive verb, past tense, indicative mood, third person, and plural
Dumber, wanting the imperative and infinitive moods, and
the participles; to do, an active transitive verb, infinitive
mood, governed by the verb ought; when, an adverb ; they, a
personal pronoun ; come, an intransitive verb, present tense,
indicative mood, third person, and plural number, irregular,
past tense came, passive participle, come ; to be, an intransi-
tive verb, mfinitive mood, irregular, present arn, past tense,
was, passive participle been ; men, a noun, plural number,
masculine gender, and nominative case.
. 7 •
71
. \
ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
giifar? defective? What are principal verbs? What are
auxiliary verbs? Name the auxiliary verbs? What aux-
iliaries are also used tts principal verbs? What (Jock the
auxiliary verb fee denote? To what parts of the principal
verb is it joined? What are the uses of doj as ah auxiliary
verb? To what part of the principal verb is it joined ? What
does have imply? To what is it joined? What is the
primary sense of shall ? What is the present tense ue^d to
express? and what the past tense? What does the present
tense of shall signify in the first person? and what in the
seeond and third'' With what part of the principal verb is
shall inflected? What does icill denote? What, is the present
tense of this verb used to express ? and what the past tense?
What does it signify in the first person ? in the second and
third? With what part of the principal verb is will inflect-
ed ? What does let denote ? To what is it joined ? W^hat
does must denote? To what part o^ the principal verb is
it joined? What are shallt will, may, catit and mustf alsA
joined to ? > «=,
Distinguish Transitive from Intransitive, Regular from Irre*
gular, and PrincipaL from Auxiliary verbs, among th9
following : — i
• ■ ■ . . • ' .
Love, find, perform, can, serve, promise, direct, will succeed,
slug, am, shall arrive, make, say, live, sell, come, must be,
rise, ought to have. Improve, stand, amuse, 0(;cupy, lose, fall,
bleed, seek, think, aiHict, let us go, do you hear ? he can ride^
they may take, she has told, will they 'groyk^ ? shall I send ? he
is weepni^, I h^ve written, you must try, it must be done.
Inflect the following Verbs after the manner of
" to learn ; " —
Gain, praise, believe, defend, ask, inform, reward, destroy,
possess, admit, act, unite, agree, profess, punish, fear, prevent,
extend, pursue, employ, advance, perceive, attempt, assist. *i
Inflect the following Verbs after the manner of
" to write : *' —
.is
Arise, take, grow, lose, bring, fall, :»;hrow, strike, work, slay,
shake, meet, know, seek, come, hidi . find, fight, give, choosey
be^in, keep, see, stand, think, mak^
/
11
PART II. — ETYMOLOGY.
7&
t
»»
It
is
/« toAa< number, person, tense, and mond, are the Verba in
the following examples?
I move, they joined, to grieve, he is pleased, they are learn-
ing, she excels, having been, let him read, we gave, you wero
seen, it is finished, they may come, you should walk, I can run,
he must remain, let them attend, Hector fought ; CiBsar came,
saw, and conquered ; the good? wcro sold; it is your duty to
obey ; follow me ; come then, companion of my toils, let us
take fresh courage, persevere, and hope to the end; if he
repent he will be forgivieh ; though they wore invited, they
would not come ; were &he good, she would be happy ; gentle-
ness delights above all things to alleviate distress; and if it
cannot di'y up the falling tear, to soothe at least the grieving
heart.
Correct the following errors : —
I love he ; she sits the chair ; these books is mine ; John
write a letter ; thou should love thy neighbor as thou loves
Myself ; the pens which you buyest were excellent ; let him
who stand, take heed lest he falls ; have you wrote ? I done
as you desirest me ; he has take his hat ; she beseeched him
in vain ; I seed you at church ; James has went to London ;
Mary has tore her frock, let Anne mended it ; it ought to
have be doing yesterday ; it must be do to-morrow ; 1 had
finish before you come ; I shall not go to sea, for I will be.
drowned ; if it were not he, whom do you imagine it to be T
If you doest well, shall thou not be accepted ? and if you do
not well, sin lay at thy door
Parse the following sentences : —
I am sincere. Thou art industrious. A letter has been
written. You should learn^ Let me see that book. Tem-
perance preserves health. She may have been deceived. If
thou wert his superior, thou shouldst not have boasted. If
our desires are moderate, our wants will be few. He was
seen riding through the village. The water is frozen. Great-
ness may procure a man a tomb, but goodness alone can
deserve an epitaph. To a fond parent who would not have
his child corrected for a perverse trick, but excused it, saying
it was a small 'matter ; Solon very wisely replied, *• Yes, but
habit is a great one." If opinion has cried your name up, let
modesty cry your heart down, lest you deceive it, or it dcceivt
si
76
ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
you : there is no less danger in a great name than in a bad
one ; and no less honor in deserving praise, than in endur-
ing It
I would not have a slave to till my ground,
To carry me, to fan me while I sleep,
And tremble while I wake, for all the wealth
That sinews bought and sold have ever earned.
No : dear as freedom is, and in my heart's
Just estimation prized above all price,
I had much rather be myself the slave.
And wear the bonds, than fasten them on him.
VI. — Adverb.
■All
■J
An Adverb is a word which qualifies a Verb
an Adjective, or another Adverb. * .1? :^|^^ "*ii^i»
Thus, in the example. He writes well ; welU qualifies
the verb, by expressing the manner in which the act of
writing is performed ; in the examples, She is remarkably
diligent ; They read very correctly ; remarkably and very
qualify the adjective and adverb, by expressing the degree
of diligence and correctness.
Adverbs are chiefly used to express in one word what
would otherwise require t^Vo or more words ; thus. There
signifies in that place / Whence^ from what place ; Vac-
fully i in a useful manner. They are sometimes classified
according to their signification, as adverbs of time, of
. place, of order, of quality f of manner, ^c. ' ^*
Adverbs of quality and manner are generally formed
from adjectives, by adding ly ; as, elegant, elegantly;
, safe, Bdif ely ; peaceful, \tesicefu\ly. If the adjective ends
in y, the y is changed into i before ly ; bls, happy, happily.
If the adjdctive ends in /e the e is changed intoy; asl'
able, ably.
Some words become adverbs by prefixing a : as, afloat,'
aground.
A sort of compound adverb is formed by joining several
words together ; as, Now-a-days, by-and-by.
■vV«."
PART II. — ^ETYMOLOGY.
77
Adverbs, like Adjectives, are s.ometimea
varied in their terminations to express com-
parison and different degrees of quality.
Some Adverbs form the comparative and
superlative by adding er and est; as, soon^
sooner, soonest.
Adverbs which end in /y, are compared by
y)re fixing more and most ; as, Nobly , more
noblv, most noblv.
A few Adverbs are irregular in the forma-
tion of the comparative and superlative; as,
Wellf better y best,^
of
''ee
K^
V
I''
* Directions to Teachers.. — It will be observed that both
adjectives and adverbs express quality, and that the one claat
of words is to be distingnislied from the other, not by signifi-
cation or termiuation, but by the words which they qualifyi
adjectives qualifying nouns, or words or phrases used in place
of nouns, and adverbs qualifying verbs, adjectives, or other
adverbs. Among the coitipound adverlis arc not to be included
such phrases as, in general^ at present ; for these are merely
elliptical expressions for in a ffenernl iniinnert at the present
time. Yesterday i to-day ^ and to-morrow^ are sometimes impro-
perly classed among adverbs ; they are nouns governed by a
preposition understood.
Sentences containing adverbs may be parsed in the follow-
ing manner. We are fearfully and wonderfully made : we, a
personal pronoun, first person, plural number, and nomina-
tive case ; are^ an auxiliary verb, present tense, indicative
mood, first person, and plural uumber, joined to madej the
paswivo participle of the verb make, thus forming tho passivo
voice of that verb; fearfully an adverb, qualifying made,
formed from the adjective fearful, by adding ly ; and, a con-
jmictiou ; wonderfully, an adverb, qualifying made, compara-
tive, inore wonderfully, superlative, most wonderfully; made,
an active transitive verb, passive participle, irregular, premint
teiwe make, past made,
7*
to ENGLISH GRANMAB.
EXERCISES.
ADVERB.
What is an adverb 7 What is the chief use of adverbs T
How are they sometimes classified? How are adverbs of
quality and manner generally formed ? "When an adjective
ends in t/, how is the adverb formed from it 7 How are
adverbs formed from adjectives which end in le ? How are
some nouns changed into adverbs ? Why are some adverbs
varied in their terminations? How do adjectives which end
ni lyt form the comparative and superlative ?
Distinguish Adverbs from Adjectives in the following sen-
tences : •
A sweet apple ; that bird sings sweetly ; the virtuous are,
in general, happy; he, who acts virtuously may expect to live
happily ; profitable employment ; he is- profitably employed ;
we must be temperate, if we would be healthy ; he lives very
temperately; I shall be happy to see you; they dwell toge-
ther very happily ; no person could have acted more nobly,
yet he was sadly disappointed; there is nothing in human
life more amiable and respectable than the character of a
truly humble and benevolent man.
Correct the following errors: — *
He reads distinct ; she writes neat ; they behave very
proper ; let us bo sincerely ; a resolution calmly » nobly, and
disinterestedly ; a cheerfully, and good old man ; he spoke
uncommon well; do nothing careless; the nwu who deli-
berates wise, and resolves slow, will act correct; praise no
man too liberal when he is present, nor censure him too lavish
when he is absent ; a just man should account nothing more
preciously than his word, nolhiug more venerably than his
iaith, and nothing more sacredly than his promise. v
Parse the following sentences : —
j.tl
Here they are. Have you been there 7 Where is my hat 7
Whither has he gone? Now is the accepted tiipe. Work while
it is called to-day. I shall see my brother soon ; 1 eagerly
wish I could see him ofteuer. When I say once, take your
PART II. — ETYMOLOGY.
79
t^^Ate. ; when I say twice, prepare your pencils ; when I say
ih«ice, begin. Do not boast too much of your success. Come
hither immediately, and I will decide the matter between yon.
John reads less now than he did formerly. June went awaj
yesterday ; she will perhaps return to-morrow. Who can tell
what shull be hereafter? Can you lend me a shilling? In>
deed I cannot at present, but I shall be able to do so by-and-
by. A true fnend communicates his thoughts freely, advisen
justly^ assists readily, adventures boldly, takes all patiently,
and continues a friend unchangeably.
'-.-f.T, ;.,f.nt , y
■ VII. — Preposition,
A Preposition connects words, and shows
the 1 elation between them.
li-
no
ush
ore
his
It?
iile
rly
ftur
Thus in the sentence, ** We travelled from Spain
through France towards Italy," the prepositions /ro/ii)
through, towards^ not only connect the nouns Spairif
France, Italy , but express the relation or bearing they
had to each other in the travels of the persons repre-
sented by the pronoun tee.
Prepositions are so called, because they are generally
placed before the words whose connection or relation with
other words they point out.
The following is a list of the prepositions in most
common use : —
Abouti above, acrosSy after^ againstt along, amidf
amidst, umqng, amongst, around, at, before, behind^ be^
low, beneath, beside, besides, between, betwixt, beyond^
but, by, concerning, t^own, during, except, for, from, irif
into, near,nigh^of, off, on, ovev, out of, round, save^
through, throughout, till, to, towards, under, underneniht
unto, up, upon, with, within, without.
80
4
ENGLISH GRAMMAB.
7f
VIII. — Conjunction.
A Conjuiiction joins words and sentences
together.
Thut}» in the sentence^ **My father and mother are
• eoTne, but I have not seen them ;" the words father and
mother are joined by the conjunction and, and the two
clauses of the jentence are joined by the conjunction but
The conjunctions in most general use are : —
*l4n<?, also; either » or; neither, nor ; though, yet; hut^
however; fw that; because, since; therefore, wherefore,
then; if, unless, leut.
IX. — Interjection.
;1
An Interjection is a word used to express
sudden emotion. » ^ '^
Thus, in the examples, " Ah ! there he comes; alas!
what shall I do !" ah, expresses surprise, alas, distress.
Interjections are ^o called, because they are generally
thrown in bef wee»- iLj parts of a sentence. Those vrhich
are chiefly used ai —
Ah, alas, fie, ha. hush, huzza, lo, O, oh, pshaw.
Nouns, adjoclivos, verbs, and adverbs, become interjec-
tions, when they uie uttered as exclamations ; as, non-
sense ! strange ! hail ! away .'*
♦Directions to Tkaciiers. — Prepositions and conjunc-
tions are both used to join words together ; but the former
are easily distinguished from the latter by their expressing
both connexicn and relation, whereas the latter express con-
nexion only. Thus, the sentence, / have wine and a glass,
merely expresses that wine and a glas^ are in my possession ;
while the sentenoa / have wine in a glass, ezpressesi not only
PART II. — ^ETYMOLOGY.
81
EXERCISES.
PREPOSITION, CONJUNCTION, INTERJECTION. '
What is a preposition? Why are prepositions so called?
What is a conjunction 7 What is an interjection ?
Distinguish Prepositions from Conjunctions in the
5 following sentences : —
'■'■■ A slate and a pencil ; I write on a slate with a pencil ; we
live during one half of the year in the town, and during tho
other half in the country ; John and James divided the leaf
^hat the wim and glass are in my possession, but that the
one contains tho other. Interjections may be readily dis-
tinguished from other parts of speech, by their always ex-
pressing exclamation, and by their seldom being necessarily
connected with the other words in the sentence.
Prepositions, conjunctions, and interjections may be parsed
in the following manner : — / would willingly assist you ; but
alas ! I have not the 7ncans,for I my self have been left in great
poverty by the death of my brother and sister. /, a personal
pronoun, first person, singular number, common gender, and
nominative case ; wouldf th'^ past tense, first person singular
of the anxiliai^ verb will, joined to the verb assist, to form
the compound tense would assist, to express an assertion de-
pending upon a condition, namely, my having means which
is not fulfilled, and therefore implying that I will not assist ;
willingly, an adverb, quBM(y\ng would assist ; you, a personal
pronoun, second person, plural number, common gender, and
objective case, governed by the verb assist; but, a conjunc-
tion, connecting the two clauses of tho sentence ; alas, an
interjection ; /, a personal pronoun, as before ; have, an activa
verb, prefcent tense, indicative mood, first person, singular
number; not, an adverb, qualifying have; the, the definite
article, limiting the signification of means; means, a noun,
singular or plural number, neuter gender, and objective case ;
for, a conjunction connecting the two clauses of the sentence ;
/, a periioiitti pronoun, as before ; myself, a reciprocal pronoun,
nominative case ; have, an auxiliary verb, joined to been, the
passive participle of the auxiliary verb be and left, the passive
participle of the verb leave, past tense, left, forming the cora-
82
ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
between them, and James gave a part of his share to a poor
man on the street ; though he was rich, yet for our sakes he
became poor; blessed are the meek, for they shall inherit the
earth ; I have only called twice, since I came home ; since you
will not do as you are desired, you must be turned down to the
bottom of the class ; unless he come sqew, I do not expect to
see him before nigh* ; they are happy because they are good.
Pane the following sentences :' —
Charles is esteemed, because he is* both discreet and bene-
volent. Hark I how sweetly the woodlark sings! Remove far
from me vanity and lies ; give me neither poverty nor riches ;
ifefed me with food convenient for me ; lest I be full and deny
thee ; or lest I be poor, and steal, and take thy name in vain.
Behold ! how pleasant it is for brethren to dwell together in
Unity. He can neither read nor write, yet he is not altogether
ignorant. Out of the heart proceed evil thoughts. Ah ! the
delusions of hope. We in vain look for a path between virtue
tnd Vice. ;v"' -,-^. ..---. ^ ,,
The lovely young Lavinia once had friends, ■"}
And fortune smil'd deceitful on her birth :
For, in her helpless years, deprived of all,
I Of every stay, save innocence and heaven,
She, with her widowed mother, feeble, old,
' And poor, lived in a cottage far retired
Among the windings of a woody valen^
By solitude and deep surrounding shades,
But more by bashful modesty, concealed.
PARSING.
v
um W4 ■•»
To parse sentences etymologically, that is, to name the class
Mr part of speech to which each word belongs, and to explain
pound tense have been left, expressing the passive voice of the
verb leave, and perfect past time ; present tense, leave ; in, a pre-
position, showing the relation between / and 'poverty ; great,
an adjective in the positive form, qualifying poverty ; poverty,
a noun, singular number, neuter gender, and objective case ; by,
a preposition, showing the relation between the state in which 1
have been left find death, m\d brother mid sister; my, a personal
pronoun, possessive case •, brother, a noun, masculine gender,
and objective case ; and, a conjunction, joining brother, and
titter ; sister, a noun, feminine gender, and objective case.
PART I!. — ETYMOLOGY.
83
Its relations to the thing or thin;rs which it rrprespnts, und to
othor words in the same sentence, it is necessary to huve im-
pressed on iiie memory the Ibilowinjj general principles, ^8
they have been already given in the i'onn of riilca, and iUus-
trated by examples. Thu Kigniiieation of nonna is /mu7cri to
one, but to any one of the kind, by the indeJinUe article^ and to
Bome pavLcuiar one, or some patlicniar niunher, by the defi-
nite article. Noun^, in ono tortn, represent one of a kind, und
in another, any nufn(>ern\0):c than one ; they are the .'tames of
male.'j, of females, or of objects which are neither ma'a nor
female ; and they represent the subject of an affirmation, a
comiiidnd, or a quetition, — the owner or jpo5.sT.s'.sv;r of a thing,—
or the object oi an action, or of a relation expreswed by a pro-
position. Adjectives express the qualities which distingiiish
one person or tiling from another ; in one form they express
quality without compurisrm ; in another, they express compa-
rison between two, or between one and a number taken colleC'
lively, — and in a third, they express comparison between one
and a number of others taken separately. Pronouns are used
in plane of nouns ; one class of tiiem is used merely as the
substitutes of names ; the pronouns of another class havo a
peculiar re/ei erice to some preceding words in the sentence, of
which they are the substitutes, — and tiiose of a third class
point out, with great precision, the persons or things which
they represent. Some pronouns are used for both the name
and the substitute; and several are frequently employed in
asking tiuestions. Affirmations andcommands are expressed by
the verb ; and ditFerent inflections of the verb express number,
person, time, and manner. With regard to time, an affirma-
tion may be present or past or future ; with regard to manner,
on affirmation may bo positive or conditional, it being doubt-
ful whether the condition is fulfilled or not, or it being im-
plied that it is not fulfilled ; — the verb may exj)ress com^
mand ov exhortation ; or the sense of the verb may be expressed
without affirming or commanding. The verb also expresses
Jiat an action or state is or was going on, by a form which
a also used sometimes as a noun, and sometimes lo qualify
aouns. Affirmations are modified by adverbs, some of which
can be inflected to express different degrees of modifieaiioii.
W"ords are joined together by conjunctions ; and the various
relations wh'iah one thing bears to another are exprrssed by
prepositions. Sudden emotions of the m.ind, and exclamniioni^
ire expressed by interjections.
.^•n
m
iil
j'iui
64
>.NGLISH GRAMMAR.
Ill parsing sentences according to these general priiici-
pletj, it will be observed that many words, from the d iff rent
ways in wliich they are used, belong sometimes to one pitrt of
■peecli, sometimes to another. 'J'hus, in Iho sentence, *' After
a storm comes a calm" the word calm is a noun ; in *' 'i'he .
day was calm," it is an adjective ; in " Calm your fcarn," it
is a verb. The words which belong someti»nes to one class,
fionif times to another, according to their pecniidr significa-
tion in the sentences in which tJiey occur, are chiefly nouua
and adjectives, as, hard labour, labour diligently ; liuaus,
adjectives^ and verbs, as, humble rank, rank weeds, you rank
high; adjectives and adverbs, as, a little learning, speak
little; adverbs and prepositiouo, ^5, go on, on the table;
adverbs and conjunctions, as, tUr i^c yet young; thtmgh she
is fair, yet ahc is nut amiable ; p.cpositions and coijjnnctions,
iiB,for your sake I loill obey, for it is my duty to do so. The
simplest and most phi!osoj[>hical way to find out 'o what part
of speech each word beioiigs, as well as to analyze the struc-
ture of tiu^ most coriipii;;;jtcd soiit'^Mces, is to parse them ac-
cording to she fojlowiug inothod .• — The minutest plant or ani-
mal, ifatteuticely examined, affords a thousand wonders, and
obliges us to admire and adore that omnipotent hand which
created it. What word makes the principal affirmation in this
sentence? Affords. What part of speech is «//(>/ <i*, since it
affirms? A verb. Does it affirm of something paf^t, or of
something going on at the present ? Of something going on
at present. In what tense is it then? In the prenont teus6k
Is the affirmation positive or conditional? Positive, and
therefore the verb is in the indicative mood. V/hat is the
subject of the affirmation? Plan^. May any other word iu
the sentence be the subject of this affirmation? Yes, animal,
"What joins these two words? 'I'he conjunction or. What pari
of speech is plant ? A noun, because it is the name of souio-
thing. Is it the name of a male or female? Of Heitherj
hence it is of the neuter gender. Does it signify one, 01 more
than one? One only, and therefore it is in Iho singular niim-
oei. In what case is plant, since it in the subject of an uttir-
mation? In the nominative case. Is the applicalion of this
name or noun limited by any word? Yes, by the definite
article the. What kind of plant is spoken of? The minutest
plant. What psirt of speech is viinutcsL because it drscrlbefi
the kind of plant ? An adjective iu the supeilative form. Wh;
PART II. — ETYMOLOGY.
85
do you say that it is in the superlative form? Benau-ie it sup-
poses a comparison between this plant and every other plant
taken separately. What does the minutest plant or animal
aiTord ? A thousand wonders. Which of these words is th©
object of the action affirmed 1 Wondt.. , which is therefokc in
the objective case. What part of speech Kia? 'i'he indefinite
article. Does it limit the signification of the noun here ? No,
it limits the word tfiouaand. What part of speech is ihousatid ?
An adjective of number, qualifying wonders. Does the niiiintest
plant or animal alTord a thous^and wonders to every oii^ ? No,
they must be aUeidiveiy examined. What word joins this
affirmation with the other? The conjunction if. In what
way must the plant or animal be examined? Atteniively,
What part of speech is attentively ? An adverb, because it
qualifies the verb exatnined. What part of the verb is eX"
amined The passive participle. Does it make a completo
affirmation by itself? No, the auxiliary verb he is understood.
Is any other positive afliimation made concerning the plant
or animal ? Ves, it ohligea. Whom does it oblige ? Us,
What part of speech is us? A personal pronoun, in th«
plural numb'^r and objective case. What does the plant or
animal oblige us to do? To udmire and adoi\ . Wiiat word
points out what you art* obliged to do ? The preposition to*
What parts of speech are admire and adore .' Verbs. Do they
affirm in this sentence? Not by themselves, bnt they express
acts which we are obliged to do ? Wliat part of the verb it
each of them? Th© inlinitive mood indicated by the pre-
position / • ? What word connects them ? The conjunction
and. ^ hat is the object of the acts of admiring and adoring?
Hand. VV hat kind of hand ? Omnipotent. Is the word hand
qualiika by any other word but omnipotunt ? Yes, by th©
doii'-sMscraiive proncHin tnat. Is anything affirmed of thai
omn. oi^.nt hand ? It created. Is the word hand itself the
subject of this affirmation? No, the word which is used
iustejii of it. What part of speech is which ? A pronoun.
\Vhat kind of pronoun? A relative pronoun, because it
refers inmu'diately to the wonl hand, which is its antecedent.
Wh'^n did the act expressed by created take place ? At some
former or past time, hence the verb is in the pa&it tenso.
What t.id the omnipotent hand create? Thw plant or animal.
Is the wuid piant or animal the object of the affirmation, as
it is exnressed in the sentence? No, but its substitute, the
I
%»
ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
.©ronoun if. Nam© the articles in this fe^nteiice. Thdf a,
TJame u!! tho iiotius. Plants arnmnl, vsortders, hand, Natno
all the aiijectivvis ? Minutestt thousand^ ominpotent. Naino all
the proiiouns ? Us^ thaff which, ft. Name a!! the verbs? Exa-
mived^ affords, obliges ^ adore, admire, created. Name the
.adverb? Attentively. Name the preposition ? To. Name all
the coiijiuictious ? Or, if, and. Are there, examples of all the
parts of speech in this sentence I Of all but the interjection ?
'Sentences to he parsed according to the foregoing method ;—
If ustice and bounty procure friends.
< «
Idlci.e.^ is the parent of want and pain ; but the labour of
virtue bringeth forth pleeisurc.
The faculty of speech was bestowed upon man, for grtsai.
tod important purposes ; but, alas ! it is too often perverted.
iGrood magistrates, promoting the public interest, observiri|[
the laws, and favouring virtue, are worthy of honour.
Lo ! at tlio couch where infant beauty sleeps,
Her silent walch the mournful mother keeps ;
She, while the lovely babe unconscious lies,
'dak
J-
Smiles on her slumb ring child with pensive eyes.
II is reporled of the ancient Persians by an eminent writer,
that the sum of tlieir education consiisted in teaching youth
to ride, to shoot with the bow, arid to speak truth. .,^.
Life is a voya^, in the progress of which we ore perpetu-
ally changing the scene ; we first leave childhood behind us,
then youth, then the years of ripened manhood, then the
better and more pleasant part of old a^.
Seize, mortal ! seize the transient hour ;
Improve each moment as it flies:
Life's a short summer, man a flower ;
•» He dies — alas I how soon he dies !
- cSociety, when formed, requires distinctions of property,
diyefBity of conditions, suboidiuaiion of ranks, and a mul-
tiplicity of occupations, in order to advance the general good
TART II. — ETYMOLOGY.
97
a.
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» Full many a gem of purest ray serene,
The dark unfathom'd caves of ocean bear ;
Full many a flower is born to blush unseen,
And waste its sweetness on the desert air.
O vain and inconsistent world ! O fleetinjar ajid transient
life ! When will the sous of men learn to think of thee as they
ou^ht ? When will they learn humanity from the afflictions
of their bretltreii ; or moderation and wisdom from the sense
of their own fugitive state ?
Yon col tiiger who weaves at her own door,
Pillow and bobbins all her little store ;
V,, Content, thou^ mean, and cheerful, if not gay
Shuffling her threads about the live long day.
Just earns a seamy pittance, and at night
Lies down secure, her heart and pocket light ;
She, for her humble sphere by nature fit,
Has little uftderstanding, and no wit, ^
Rt ceives no praise : but though her lot be such,
(Toilsome and indigent) she renders much ;
Just knows, and knows no more, her Bible true—
A truth the brilliant Frenchman never knew ; ,' '
And in that charter reads with sparkling eyes, .'
^' Her title to u treasure in the skies.
'' O happy peasant i Oh unhappy bard I
His the mere tinsel, hers the rich reward ; "
"^ He prai-^od perhaps for ages yet to come,
' * She never heard of half a mile from home ;
» He lost in errors his vain heart prefers,
Sliti safe in the simplicity of hers.
If nature has denied to Britain the fruitful vine, the fragrant
tiyrtl^, the spontaneous soil, and the beuntifu! climate, she
lias also exempted her from the parching droughts, the deadly
siroc, and the frightful tornado. If our soil is poor and
ehnrlish, and our skies cold and frowning, thn serpent never
lurks within the one, nor t)ie plague within the other. If our
mountains are bleak and barren? they have, at least, nursed
within their bosoms a race of men, whose industry and intel-
Hgnnce have performed greater wonders, and supply a more
inexhaustible fund of wealth, than all the mijies of Mexico
•nid Hindostan.
•>0
»
t
68
ENGLISH GRAMMAil.
Hark ! from you stately ranks what laughter rings,
Mingling wild mirth with war's stern minstrelsy,
His jest while each blithe comrade round him flings.
And moves to death with military glee :
Boast, Erin, boast them ! tameless, frank, and free,
In kindness warm, apd fierco in danger known,
Rough nature's children, humorous as she ;
\nd he, yon chieftain, strike the proudest tone
^f thy bold harp, green Isle ! the Hero is thine own*
sul
all
Part III.— SYNTAX.
.•..::i'i
Syntax treats of the connexion and arrange
ment of words in sentences.
A sentence is any nunnber of words joined
together so as to form a complete afBrmation
or proposition.
Thus, the words, " From virtue to vice," do not contais
a complete proposition : therefore, they do not form a
sentence. But the words, " From virtue to vice the pro*
gress is gradual," form a sentence, because t'ley contain
a distinct proposition, or because the sense is complete.
Sentences are either Simple or Compound,
A Simple sentence contains only one pro«
position.
A Compound sentence consists of two or
more simple sentences joined together.
Thus, " His talents are of a high order." " His talents
excito admiration," are two simple sentences, which are
united into a compound sentence, by saying, " His talenti
which are of a high order, excite admiration." ,
Every sentence or complete proposition con-
4\
PART ni. — SYNTAX.
88
la
li
tains a subject, or thing spoken of, and an
affirmation, or what is said of the subject.
When the affirmation is not limited to the
subject, a complete proposition or sentence
ilso contains an object. ^
Thus, in the sentence, ** Birds sing," birds is the sub
ject, and sin^ the affirmation ; — in the sentence, " Know-
„^ 1-, ledge improves the mind," knowledge is the subject,
improves the affirmation, and mind the object.
'$!»,«
yu
iW
'■r.T
The subject of a sentence is always a noun, or two or
more nouns joined together ; as, James walks, John and
Thomas run ; — a pronoun, or pronouns ; as. He reads, you
and / write ; — the infinitive of a verb ; as. To obey, is the
duty of children ;— or a part o( a sentence ; as. That you
cannot repeat your lesson is your own fault.
The affirmation in a sentence is always made by a
verb.
The object in a sentence is always a noun, or a pro-
noun ; as, Jane lost her book, and Mary found it,' — th«
infinitive or present participle of a verb ) ttU, VVililaiit
***^ loves to play, Robert takes pleasure in reading unci
writing : — or a part of a sentence ; as, I do not know
how to perform this exercise.
The other parts of speech are employed ill (hn liHUUiuto
of sentences, as follows: — 'I'be Jiillrln (o liiiiit the wiffni-
fication of the subject or object ; the adjentivs hi 'illlS|iry
the,8ubject or object ; the ildviifb In miiiljfy (bn amrjilM-
tion, or to modify some other word o/ (|iia||ljf ; lb i>ii
position to show how the object is related to Ibe BiibJ«<'t,
or to the affirmation, or to some other objf ('t ; ijiid the
conjunction to join two or more Biihjects, twu (if more
affirmations, two or more obiocts, or two or nioio words
of quality, or to unite the clauses of a (lompound sen-
tence, or to connect separate sentences.
The following rules exhibit the principles upon which
H the several parts of speech are ceamented in tho con-
\ struction of sentences, according to the prevailing usage
of the English language.
a*
'*•>
A".
^
«0
ENGLISH ORAMMAR.
SUBJECT AND VERB.
Rule I. — A verb is of the same number
and person with its subject ; as, I speaks thou
heaviest, the master teaches^ the scholars learn.
1. Collective nouns are followed by verbs in the singu-
lar or ill the plural number, according as unity or plu-
rality of idea is expressed ; as, The council is sittiug, the
clorfry are divided among themselves.
Parti/y nrmyy and some other collective nouns, are
never followed by a verb in the plural number.
2. Two or more nouns in the singular number, joined
by the conjuiiction andf take the verb in the plural ; as,
Justice and bounty procure friieuds.
3. Two or more nouns iii the singular number, joined
by or or «or, take the verb in the singular ; as. Either
John or James was present.
In like manner, when two nouns in the singular num-
ber are connected by the preposition wiihj or by such
expressions as, as well as, the verb is in the singular; as,
The gentleman, with his son, was here yesterday ; Cwsar,
as well as Cicero, was eloquent
4. When two or more nominatives in different num-
bers are join'»d by or or nor, the verb is in the plural ; as,
Neither health nor riches are to be depended on j Neither
you nor I «r<r in fault. ?"*' -t"' .,
5. When two or mbre nominatives, iii tlie same num-
ber, but of different persons, are joined by or oir nor,
the verb agrees with the last ; as. Either thou or he is
to blamn.
6. When two dr more nominatives of different persons
are joined by the conjunction awirf, the. verb agrees with
the firMt person m preference tb the second, and with the
second in preference to the third ; as, You and I havt
learned our tei^isdnis ; You and he have received your
reward,
7. When th'^ infinitive mood, or part of a sentence, is
used as the Knhject of an affirmation, the verb is in the
third person Ktno^ular ; as. To live soberly, righteouslyi
«nd piouniy, /.v ilie duty of all men.
PART III. — SYNTAX.
01
8. When a subject or nominative is joined to a parti-
ciple, without being connected with any other verb in
tho sentence, it is saiiS to he in the nominative absolute;
as. The wind being favourable, we set sail.
The Active participle is sometimes used absolutely
without a nominative ; as, Generally speaking, my pupilf
are attentive.
ARTICLE.
19
Rule II. — The indefinite article is placed
before nouns in the singular number only ; as,
a pear, an apple.
,Kfl'The definite article is placed before nouns
m either the singular or the plural number ; as,
The garden, the trees.
> 1. The indefinke article is placed before nouns sijvni*
fyi«g more than one, wlieu they are used collectively ;
as, A dozen, a score.
2. The iiidofinite article is placed before nouns in th«
plural number, wh- n they are qualified by numeral ad-
jectives used as noii «, or by f^w or many ; as, A hundrej
pounds, a thousand guineiis, a few books, a great many
pens.
3. When several nouns are joined together, some of
which take a before them, and some an, the indefinite
article is repeated before each of them as, A horse, an
ass, an owl, and a sparrow.
4. When two or more nouns or adjectives are joined
together, the article is placed only before the first of
them, if they are applied to the same person or thing ;
it is placid before each of them if they are applied t<i^
different pennons or things ; as. The pious and learned
Newton \ the English and th£ Irish nation.
5. The d'^finite article and an adjective are sometimes
used instead of the adjective and a noun ; as, The good,
the wise, • :, ■>■■■
6. The definite article sometimes supplies the place of
a personal pronoun in the possessive case ; as, He has a
swelling on the neck.
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92
ENGLISH GRAMI^IAB.
NOUN..
' Rule III.— Nouns or personal pronouns
applied to the same persons or things, are put
in the same case ; as, John the Baptist ; Julius
CcBsar, he who was killed in the senate-house,
was a warrior and an orator.
1. A noun and a personal pronoun, applied to the
1 , same person or thin^, cannot be nominative to the same
, verb ; thus, ** Paul the apostle, fic was very zealous,"
ought to be, " Paul the apostle was very zealous.''
2. A no^n is sometimes put in apposition to a part
of a venteuce ; as^ You read very indistinctly, a habii
which you should endeavour to correct.
3. A noun or pronoun which answers a question is in
the same case with the noun or pronoun ^ich asks it ;
as. Who told you ? He, Whose books are these 7 Mine,
Rule IV. — When two nouns, or a noun
and a pronoun, denote the possessor and the
thing possessed, the name of the former is put
in the possessive case; as, My fafher^s servant;
thine is the kingdom.
1. The name of the thing > possessed is sometimei
omitted; as. He is at the watch-maker'' 9 ; let us go to St
Patrick's, ^^a^i
2. When the possessor H described by two or more
nouns, the sign of the possessive is generally put after
the last ; as, John the BaptieVs head.
3. When the thing possessed belongs to two or more,
the sign of the possessive is put after each ; as. It was
lay father's, mother's, and uncle* s opinion.
4. The objective case with of is frequently used instead
.. of the possessive ; as, A servant of my father,
%. When ths thing is only one of a number belonging to
tht possessor, boUi the p osse s s i vo caso and •/ wt% usedf
1 1
i^
r/illT III. — SYNTAX.
93
flervant. of aiy father^e, the word servants beins
tood after father's. The full construction in sucn
as,
nndcrstood
a case is, A servant oat of my father's servants.
ADJECTIVE.
Rule V. — Every adjective qualifies a noun,
expressed or understood ; as, A wise rnan
few were present.
1. Adjectives sometimes qualify the infinitive mood»
or a part of a sentence; as, To see is pleasant; to be blind
is unfortunate.
2. Adjectives of number qualify nouns in the singula!
or plural, according as they signify one or more ; as, One
maa, six children.
3« The adjectives eaeht every, either, neither , qualify
nouns in the singular number ; as. Every boy is in hia
place ; let each speak for himself.
Every sometimes qualifies k plural noun, when the
things which it denotes are spoken of collectively ; asj
Every hundred years. Hundred is here treated as a
noun.
PRONOUN.
Rule VI. — Pronouns are of the same num-
ber, gender, and person, with the nouns which
they represent ; as, The master sits at his desk;
\iu^ scholars learn their lesson.
1. W^h^n two or more pronouns are used in place of the
same noun, they are put in the same number, gondf^r,
and person ; thus, " Thou hast done me a great favour,
for which I am much obliged to you," ought to bp, " You
have done me a great favour, for which I am much obliged
to y»u."
ii. The pronoun it, when the nominative to a verb, is
applied to persons as well as to things ; to the first ami
second persons as well as to the third person ; and to the
plural nuinhrr hh wfiU as to the singular , as, It is the
588
ENQLISH GRAMMAR.
ii
I
king} it was /; it was not youf it was the men who
> n^ere here thia morning.
« 3. Relative pronouns are of tlie same numl)er, gender,
and person, with their antecedents ; as, /, who am still
your friend, will not desert you ; let the monitorSf who
are ready, begin..
4. When the relative refers to two antecedents of dif-
ferent persons, it agrees with the one or thi^ other, ac-
cording as the meaning of the sentence requires ;, as, /
am the person who make the pens ; I am i\\t> ptrson wht
has charge of the slates.
5. The relative which is generally underfitood of col-
lective nouns, even when they represent persons ; as, Tha
committee, 2/7 ^tcA met to-day, was unanimous.
6. The relative which has sometimes a part of a sen-
tence for its antecedent ; as, He is in great distress,
' . which I am sorry to hear.
7. The relative in the objective case is sometimes
omitted ; as. This is one of the best books I ever read.
8. The demonetrative pronouns this and that agree
with their nouns in number ; as, This book, these books ;
that map, those maps.
VERB,
Rule VII. — Active transitive verbs and
their participles take after them the objective
case ; as, If ye love me, keep my command"
ments ; William is learning his lesson.
When the active participle is used as a noun, it gene-
rally takes an article before it, and of after it ; as, In
the keeping of thy eommaudments there is great rewai-d.
When this participle is preceded by a noun or a pro-
noun in the possessive case, it does not take the article
before it ; as, His neglecting to study is the cause of his
ignorance.
' Rule VIII — The verb to be has the same
case after it as before it; as, It is /, be not
JTraid; who do men say that / am; whom do
bey represent me to be."
PART m. — SYNTAX.
h
Rule IX. — The Infinitive Mood follows
another verb or a participle ; as, I desire to
learn ; he is waiting to see you.
1. The lufiuitive Mood sometimes follows a noun OY
an adjective ; as Yoiir desire to improve is commcudahId,4
it is delightful to behold tfie setting sun.
S. The Iniinitivo Mood is sometimes used absolutely;
aS) To tell you the truth, I was not present
3. The Infiuitive Mood is preceded by the prepositioa
to, except after the verbn, hid^ can, dare, feel, hear, leU
m^ke, may, must, need, shall, see, and will ■
ADVERB. i
Rule X. — Adverbs, are joined to verb?,
adjectives, and other adverbs; as, wisely soiid,
exceedingly good, very well.
1. The Adverbs hence, whence, and thence, do not re-
quire from before them, as each of them contains in itself
the power of that preposition ; as, whence (thut is, from
what place) came you ?
2. 'I'wo negatives make an affirm|ttion ; thus, ** I db
not take none,^^ means " I take some."
'1
j
i
1
PREPOSITION.
Rule XI. — 'Prepositions are followed by
nouns and pronouns in the objective case ; as,
jFor me, with us, on the table,
1. Prepositions are also followed by the active par*
ticiples of verbs ; as, By applying to your studies, you
will acquire knowledge. .
2. Prepositions are frequently omitted, especially be«
fore nouns denoting time, space, and dimension , and
before the personal pronouns ; as, Once a day ; he ran
two miles ; this wall is six feet high ; tell me the truth.
^mmm
w
r I '
BNGLISH GRAMMAB.
3. The idiom of the laiijpfuage requires particular pre*
poaitioiis after certain words and phrases ; as, A preju-
, > . dice againat; an abhorrence oj ; an aversion to,
CONJUNCTION.
. RiTLE XII. — Conjunctions join the sanie
cases of nouns and pronouns, the same moods
end tenses of verbs, similar parts of speech,
and the clauses or members of sentences ; as,
John and James are come; I saw him and
her ; they read and write well ; a wise and
virtuous man ; we should live soberly and ho-
nestly ; keep thy tongue from evil, and thy
lips from speaking guile.
« 1. When the relative pronoun follows the conjunction
iharit it is put in the objective case ; as, Mis father, thati
whom I never know a bettor man, is dead. '
2. Some conjunctions have their correspondent con-
juftctions; thus, both is followed by and^ either by or,
« neither by nor, though by yet, Slg. ; as, Both you and I saw
*'■'■ it ; though he was rich, yet, for our sakes he became poor.
INTERJECTION.
Rule XIII. — Interjections are joined to the
objective case of pronouns of the first person,
and the nominative of pronouns of the second ;
as, Ah me\ O thou I
In addition to the examples of ellipsis, or omission of
words, given under some of the preceding rules, th*
following may be mentioned as oceuning frequently i*.
both poetry and prose.
1. When two or more affirmations are made of th
same subject, the noun or pronoun is placed only befor
the first ; as, ^* / love, fear, and respect the magistrate,
instead of, <* / love, / fear, and / respect the magistralt
PART III.— SYNTAX.
97
2. The noun is frequently omitted after an adjective
in the comparative form ; as, " I will pull down yiy bams
and build grwater,'' that is, " greater hams"
3. In poetry, nouns are often omitted in interrogative
sentences; as, " Lives there who loves his pain?" that
is, ** Lives there a wan, who loves his pain ?"
4. When two or more adjectives qualify the same noun,
>t is placed only afh^r tho last of them ; as, A great, wise,
and good prince.
5. When an adjective qualifies two or more nouns, it
is placed only before the first ; as, GooJ qualities and
actions.
6. The verb is frequently omitted after a noun which
follows the comparative degree ; as, " Only in tho throne
will I be greater than thou," that is, " than thou shall
he."
7. In poetry, verbs which express address, or answer,
are frequently omitted ; as, " To whom the monarch,"
that is, '* To whom the monarch said or replied."
8. When an adverb qualifies two or more words, it ia
placed only after the last ; as, " He spoke and acted
gracefully."
9. When the same preposition points out several ob-
jects, it is placed only before the first; as, ** He walked
ouei- the hills and the valleys."
10. The preposition to is omitted after like, near, ad'
joining, ^c; as. Like three distinct powers ; your opinion
is nearest the truth ; a garden adjoining the river.
11. When several words or clauses succeed each other,
the conjunction is sometimes omitted ; as, << He caused
the blind to see, the lame to walk, the deaf to hear, the
lepers to be cleansed."
13. In the expression of sudden motion, all but the
most important words are frequently omitted ; thus, the
exclamation " Well done !" means " That is well done."*
♦Directions to Teachers. — The rules of Syntax will
enable the pupil to understand how those words, which he
was formerly taught to classify and inflect according to the
principles of Etymology, are combined into sentences. In
parsing, they may be applied as follows : — Choose those Jor
^ m n^fW i^^
M
ENGLISH GSAIHMA^.
EXERCISES.
What is a sentence ? How many kinds of sentences are
there? Wliut is a simple sentence? What is a compound
sentence ? What must every at^ntence contain ? What must
a sentence contain wheu the affirmation is not hmited to
^.
,^
your companions tvhom you see others respect. ChoosCf an
active verb, imperative mood, second person singular or
plural, agreeing with its subject or nominative you under*
stood : " A verb is of the same number and person with its
subject." ThosCi a demonstrative pronoun, ii#t the plural
number, ajrreeiug with the noun persons understood: ** Tho
demonstrative pronouns this and thai agree with their uouna
in number." For, a preposition, pointing out companions :
YciUr, a personal pronoun, plural number, common gender,
and possessive case, connected with companions: ** When
two nouns, or a noun and a pronoun, denote the possessor,
and the thing possessed, the name of the former is put in
the possessive case." Companions, a noun, plural number,
common gender, and objective case, pointed out by the pre-
position for : " Prepositions are followed by nouns in the
objective case." Whom, a relative pronoun, plural number,
common gender, third person, and objective case, agreeing
with its antecedent persons : " Relative pronouns are of the
samtf number, gender, and person, with their antecedents ;"
and the object of the verb, respect. You, a personal pronoun,
singular or plural number, common gender, second person,
and nominative case, subject of the verb. See, an active verb,
second person singular or plural, present tense, ixidicative
mood, agreeing with its subject, you : "A verb is oi the same
number and person with its subject." Qlhers, an adjective
with a plural termination, used to signify other peratons.
Respect, an active verb, infinitive mood, the preposition to
being understood following the verb see: " The infinitive
mood follows another verb or a participle."
The following mode of analyzing sentences will as&isttho
pupil in understanding their grammaljical structure. Leuru
in^ confers so much superiority on those who possess it, thai thfiy
might probably have escaped all censure, had they been akh 4fl
PAST HI. — SYNTAX.
to
the subject? What must tho subject of a sentence always
b© ? What is the affirmation in a sentonce always made by 7
What must the object in a sentence always be ? Of what
use is the article in the structure of sentences? tho adjective?
the adverb ? the preposition ? the conjunction ?
agree among themselves. What is the the subject of the firist
affirmation ? Learning. What part of speech is learning ?
A noun, singular number, neuter gender, and nominative
case. Is the word learning always a noun ? No. It is some-
times the active participle of a verb. What is here affirmed
of learning ? It confers. What part of speech ia confers ?
A verb, present tense, indicative mood, third person singular.
How do you know that it is in the singular ? Because it is
of the same number and person with its subject learning.
What does learning confer ? Superiority, In what case is
superiority ? In the objective case, because " active verbs and
their participles take after them the objective case." What
oualifies superiority ? Much, which is therefore an adjective.
What part of speech is so ? An adverb, joined to much :
"Adverbs are joined to verbs, adjectives, &,c." On whom
does learning confer superiority ? On those who possess it.
What part of speech is on ? A preposition. Of what uso is
on in the sentence ? It points out the objects on whom learn-
ing confers superiority. What word represents these objects?
Persons understood. What part of speech is those ? A de-
monstrdtive pronoun, in the plural number, agreeing with
persous : *' The demonstrative pronouns this and fhai agree
with their nouns in number." What part of speech \s.who ? A
relative pronoun, in tho plural number, common gender, awd
third person. Mow do you know that who is of the plural
number, &.c. ? Because it agrees with its antecedent persona:
** Relative pronouas are of the same number, gender, and
person, with their antecedents." In what case is who 1 In
the nominative case, because it is the subject of the verb
possess. In what number and person is possess ? In the
third person plural, to agree with its subject who. What
kind of verb is possess ? An active verb. In what case is it ?
Id tho objective case, beqause ** Active verbs and their parti-
ciples take after them the objective case." What object is
represented by tlw3 pronoun it^ Learning, What otV "
100
ENGLISH ORAHMAS.
r
RULE I.
What determines the number and person of the yerb?
When are collective nouns followed by a verb in tlie singular,
and when by a verb in the plural ? What collective nouus
are never /ollowed by a verb in the plural? When two or
more nonns in the singular number are joined by the con<*
junction and, in what number is the verb ? When they aro
affirmation is made of those who possess learning? They
might probably have escaped all censure. What joins the
two clauses of the sentence ? The conjunction that : ** Con-
junctions join the clauses or members of sentences." Might
any other conjunction have been used to connect these clauses 7
No ; because in examples like the present, so must be followed
by its correspondent conjunction that. Parse the other words
in the clause in their order. They, a personal pronoun)
stibject of the verb might have escaped. Might, past tense of
the auxiliary verb may, joined with the root of the auxiliary.
have, and escaped^ the passive participle of the active verb
escape, forming a compound tense expressing an assertion
depending upon a condition unfulfilled, and therefore, im-
plying, that they did not escape. Had, the past tense, con-
ditional mood, of the auxiliary have, used with the pronoun
they, following it instead of, if they had, joined to been, tho
passive participle of the auxiliary verb Be, expressing, with
the adjective able and the verb ^o agree, the condition if they
had been able to agree, on which the assertion they might have
escaped, depends, and implying by the use of the past tense,
that they were not able to agree. All an adjective, qualify-
ing censure : " Every adjective qualifies a noun, expressed
or understood." Censure, a noun, singular number, neuter
gender, and objective case, following might have escaped ::■.
** Active transitive verbs and their participles take after
them the objective case." What word is qualified by the
adjective able ? The pronoun they, or persons, the noun for
which it is used. Does the infinitive mood to agree follow
a verb in the present example ? No ; it follows the adjective
able : ** The infinitive mood sometimes follows a noun or an
adjective." In what case is themselves? In the objective
case, after the preposition among : *' Prepositions are followed.
by nouns and pronouns in the objective case." \
PART III. — SYNTAX.
101
joined by or or novy in what number is the verb 1 When they
are connected by with or a« well aa^ in what number is the
rerb? Wha two or more nominatives of different numbers
are joined oy or or nort in what number is the verb 7 When
they are in the same number but of different persons, with
which does the verb agree ? When two or more nominatives
of different persons are joined by andf what persons are pre-
ferred 7 In what person and number is the verb, when the
subject is the infinitive of a verb, or a part of a sentence 7 In
what is a noun said to be, when it is connected with no other
verb in the sentence but the active participle ?
Parse the following sentences : —
Disappointments sink the heart of man ; but the renewal
of hope gives consolation. The school of experience teaches
many useful lessons. Among the great blessing and wonders
of creation, may be classed the regularity of times and seasons
The British parliament is composed of king, lords, and com-
mons. The multitude eagerly pursue pleasure as their chief
good. Life and death are in the power of the tongue. Food,
clothing, and credit, are the rewards of industry. When
sickness, infirmity, or reverse of fortune affects us, the sin-
cerity of friendship is proved. Neither wealth, nor virtue,
nor any valuable acquisition is attainable by idle wishes.
Patience, like faith, removes mountains. To rejoice in the
welfare of our fellow-creatures is, in some degree, to partake
of their good fortune. We being exceedingly tossed, they
lightened the ship.
Correct the following errors : —
The state of his affairs are very prosperous. Their riches
makps tiiem idle and dissipated. The mechanism of clocks
and watches were then totally unknown. The evils of life
is numftous enough without being multiplied by those o(
choice. Not one of those whom thou sees clothed in puple,
are completely happy. The assembly were very splendid.
The committee was divided in its sentiments, and referred
the business to the general meeting. The party are broken
up. An army of thirty thousand were assembled in ten days
Idleness and ignorance is th^ parent of many vices. Grace
and beauty is diffused though every part of the work. In
anity confiiBts the welfare and security of every society
0*
"•^
102
ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
w
;:)
«
\
Neither youth nor beauty are a eecurity against death. In
him were happily bleuded true dii^nity with softness of man-
nera. Not only wealth, but honour also, have uniformly
attended him. Neither the father nor the children deserves
to be credited. Either thou or he deserve to be punished.
Both he and I have forgotten your books. You and he must
mind his duty. To do unto others as we would that they
should do unto us, constitute the great principle of virtue.
To practice the virtues of meekness and charity are the sure
way to love them. Him being of the party, I shall willingly
accompany you.
The bloating sheep with my complaints apfree,
Them parched with heat, and me inflamed by thee.
VfriU the following; exereisey and supply the words which
are omitted : —
When the morning of life over your head, every thing
around you on a smiling appearance. AH nature
a face of beauty, and animated with a spirit of joy ;
you up and down in a new world ; you the unblowu
flower, and the untasted spring. Bnt ah ! the flattering
Bcen.^ not last. The »pell quickly broken, and the
enchantment soon over. Now thou no weariness to
clog thy waking hours, and no care to thy repose.
Dut know, child of the earth ! that thou born to trouble,
and that care haunt thee through every subsequent path
of life. Health now in thine eye, the blood pure
in thy veins, and thy spirits gay as the morning ; but|
alas ! the time come, when disease assail thy life»
a|id when stretched on the bed of pain, thou be ready
to death rather than life. You now happy in your
earthly companions. Friendship, which in the world a
feeble sentiment, with you a strong passion, fiut^ the
scene for a few years, and the man of thy right hand
become unto thee as an alien. Now, I cannot
the evil day, but I ann you against it.
your Creator: to him the early period of your days,
and the light of his 'countenance will upon you through
life. Then let tho tempest , and the floods
you safe and happy under *the shelter of the Rock o|.
Ages. ... :<,■:
•-^p
PaET in. — SYNTA ,
RULE II.
103
Before what number is the indefinite article placed 7 Ii
the definite article ever placed before the plural nunnber?
Is the indefinite article ever placed before nouns that signify
more than one? Is it ever placed before noiuiH in the plural
number? When is it necessary to repeat the indefinite article
before each noun? Is it necessary to repeat the definite
article before each of a number of nouns or adjectives, when
,he3t refer to the same person or thing ? When \b it necessary
lo repeat it before each of them? Or what other parts.pf
speech docs the article sometimes supply tho place? 'T ' ,""
«r
Parse thefolhwing sentences : —
There wore present a duke, a marquis, an earl, and a viscount.
Your son is an excellent grammarian, and a good arithmetician.
The gardener gave John a dozen for a penny. My father has
a great many books in his library. The farmer still owes a
few pounds of his rent;. We may trace the hand of an Al-
mighty Being in the animal, the vegetable, and the miner&I
world. The just shall live by faith.
Correct the following errors : — • .'
The admiral was severely wounded; he lost an arm and
leg. He is not a firmer friend than a bitter enemy. The
king and beggar, the prince and peasant, are liable to the
misfortunes cf life. He struck me on my head. The crimi-
nals were tied by their legs. Wisest and best men sometimes
commit errors. Purity \\9M its seat in a heart ; but it extends
its iufiuence so much over the outward conduct, as to form th«
great and material part of a character. I'he profligate man
is seldom or never found to be the good husband, the good
father, or the beneficent neighbour.
Write the following ex^eis^f, and supply the vjorda idUcK
ire omitted ;— ^ ,,
Purity of intention is to acts of man what setd
J ,to body; or . form to its matter, or root tq
«^, or suntQ wprMibr fountuiito< riverior ^
wm
104
ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
base to pillar; for, ivithout these, body is deal
trunk, matter is sluggi^li, tree is block, world if
darkness, river is quickly dry, pillar rushes into flat-
ness and ruin, and action is sinful, or unprofitable and
vain, poor farmer, who gaye cup of cold water to
auciont monarch, was rewarded with golden goblet ; an<f
he that gives same to disciple, in name of disci*
pie, shall receive crown of glory.
RULE III, '
When two or more nouns or personal pronouns are applied
to the same person or thiag> in what do they agree ? Can a
noun and a personal pronoun, applied to the same person, be
nominatives to the same verb? To what is a noun some*
times put in apposition ? What determines the case of the
noun or pronoun which answers a question ?
Parse the following sentences .*—
Money, the root of all evil, is eagerly sought after by men
I have just returned from the country, the scene of my youth-
ful amusements. Man that is born of woman, is of few
days, and full of trouble. You are too humane and conside*
rate, things few people can be charged with. To whom wen
the letters addressed ? To my father and me.
This is the place, the centre of the grove.
Here stands the oak, the monarch of the wood.
Correct the following errors : —
The cares of this world they ofte*^ choke the seeds of virtue
He bringeth down them that dwell on high; the lofty cit^
he layeth it low. My banks they are furnished with bees
Whatever is most attractive, it is sure to please best. Whose
orations are these ? Cicero. Who were present ? John ancf
me. Simple and innocent pleasures, they alone are durable
Next these is placed
The vile blasphemer ; him whose impious wit i«^i,^',||'
Profaned the sacred mysteries of faith.
Write the following exerciscy tmd supply the woras tohtch
utt omitted : —
Labour was the of necessity, the of hope, and
the - <}fart. He had the of his mother, the ;
1
PART III. — SYNTAX.
105
of his nurse, and the of his governess. Hii
was wrinkled with the , and swarthy with the . In
one , he had the of husbandry, with which
he turned up the ; in the other he had the tools of
, and raised walls and at his pleasure
•* Awake " ! cried he, with a rough , " and I will
teach you to remedy the sterility of the , and tbr
severity of the ; I will compel summer to fiud pro
visions for ; I will force the waters to give you
their , the air its , and the forest its ; I will
teach you to pierce the of the earth, and bring out,
from the of the mountains, metals which shall give
strength to your , and to your bodies, by which
you may be covered from the of the fiercest ,
aud with which you may fell the , and divide ,
»ud subject all to your and pleasure.
RULE IV.
When the name of the possessor and thing possessed come
together, which of them is put in the possessive case ? Which
of them is sometimes omitted? When the possessor is de-
scribed by two or more nouns, after which of them is the sign
of the possessive generally put ? When is the sign of the pos-
sessive put after each noun ? Wh^t form of expression may
sometimes be used instead of the possessive case ?
Parse the following sentences : —
The temperate man's pleasures are durable, because they
are regular ; and his life is serene, because it is innocent. I
am going to the bookseller's, to purchase Pope's Homer and
Dryden's Virgil. Phiiippa was the name of Edward the
Third's Queen. Ho had the surgeon's, the physician's, and
the apothecary's advice. The precepts of wisdom form the
good man's interest and happiness.
Reason's whole pleasure, all the joys of sense,
J.iie in three words, health, peace, and competence.
Correct the following errors : —
My ancestors virtue is not mine. Asa his heart was perfect
with the Lord. A man's manner's frequently inflneuce his
fortune. A wise man's anger is short. The king's crown of
lUigland. He incurred not only his father, but uIbo his mo-
*■■
106
ENGLISH 61lAM»rA1l.
<I
thor's dlfiploitisai'e. They very justly condemned the pVo^i
^I'fi, as he was called, senseless and extravagant coududt
The silk was purchased at Brown's, the mercer's and haber-
dsisher's. The world's government is not left to chance. Thtt
extent of the prerogative of the king of England is sufficiently
ascertained.' The nouse belongs to Lord Hill's steward's ne-
phew. This picture of the king's does not much resemble
him. Thos*^ 'Pictures of the king were sent to him from Italy
Write the following exercise , and svfply the words wMth
mrevmitted : —
i A few ago, as I was walking along one of the ^
of this city on a rainy morning, I was Very much struck with
the melancholy * of a blind , who was endeavouring
to excite by singing balladf. Misery could not have
found, among the numbers of distressed , a more
suited to nature. Whilst I was contemplating the wretch-
edness of the , and comparing it with the which
compelled him to chant, a sailor, who came whistling
along the street, with a stick under arm, stopped, and
purchased a from him. " Heaven' preserve you," cried
. the blind , ** for I have not tasted this blessed day."
Hearing this, the sailor looked round him for a , sprang
up four steps into a shop, near which he stood, and re«
turning immediately, thrust a small loaf quietly into the poer
hand, and went off whistling as he came.
RULE V. M.
What is either expressed or understood along with everjp
adjective 1 Do adjectives qualify nouns only ? What deter«
mines whether numeral adjectives are to be joined to the
singular or to the plural number? What adjectives qualify
a plural noun ?
Parse the following sentences : —
A temperate spirit and moderate expectatations are excellent
iafeguards of the mind, in this uncertain and changinjer state.
Wisdom and virtue make the poor rich, and the rich honour*
able. To be good is to be happy. The British army consisteu
M thirty thousand men ; the enemy had twenty thousand ttkrt^
PAET III. — STNTAX.
un
l^id fifteen thousand horse. Every person, whatever be 'hii
■taiiioni is bound by t|ie duties of morality and reUgjoi)^
"Count all the boys in the room, and let every ten forin ^
division. Each of them has told me the eame Htory ; but I
fear that neither of them is to be dependt>d on. John is oldof
than James, but James is the better scholar.
Correct the followivg errors : —
How many a sorrow should we avoid, if wo M'ere not indui*
t^ious to make them. The cha»m made by the earthquake
was twenty feet broad, and one hundred fathom in depth. \
taw one or more persons enter the garden. Let each of thefl9
in their turn, receive the benefits to which they are entitled*
I^one of my hands aie empty. Neither of the nations of ^n-
rppe escaped the mischiefs of the French revolution. My ad-
i:ipe to *ach of you is, that you should make it your end^fi-
v^our to come to a friendly agreement. He gained nothing'
farther by his speech but to be commended for his eloquence^
He is the stronger than the two, but not the wiser.
Write the following exercises, and supply the words which
are omitted\: —
Whence arises the misery of this world ? It is not
owing to our atmosphere, or seasons, and
ikies. It is not owing to the debility .of our bodies, or to the
i distribution of the goods of fortune. Amidst all die*
advantages of this kind, a , a and an
mind, possessed of virtue, could enjoy itself in peace, and
•mile at tho assaults of fortune and the elements
It is within ourselves that misery has fixed its seat. Our
-'1} : . hearts, our passions, our prejudice(B|
Mid desires, are the instruments of the trouble which
WB eiHiire.
RULE YL
What determine the number, gender and person of pro-
nouns? When two or more pronouns are used in place of tiie
same noun, in what must they agree ? Is the pronoun it ap-
plied only to the name of things jn the third person singqlfurf
What determine the number, gender, and person of relatiYfl
pironounp? When the relative refers to two antecedfluts qf
-*-^^M- *-".»-''
108
ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
A}
different persona^ what detennmes with which of them it muRt
tigree ? What relative pronoun is always used after collective'
nouns? Is the antecedent to toAzc^ always a noun? What
case of the relative pronoun is frequently omitted ? In whal
do the demonstrative pronouns agree with their nouns?
, Parse the following sentences : —
Our best friends are those who tell ' us of our faults, anc
teach us how to correct them. Our Saviour instructed and
led the crowds which surrounded him. I acknowledge that
I am the teacher, who adopts that sentiment, and maintains
the propriety of such measures. Choose what is most fit-:
custom will make it most agreeable. Ciesar destroyed the
liberty of his counlry, which was the cause of his death. I
think it was, Socrates, who, passing through the market, cried
out, " How much is here I do not want." I'he days that are
past, are gone for ever ; those that are to come, may not come
to us ; the present time is only ours ; let us, therefore, im*
prove it as much as possible.
Correct the following errars : —
Thou who has heard the matter, can give an account of ii.
Virtue forces her way through obscurity ; and sooner or later
it is sure to be rewarded. They were they who were th* real
offenders. They which seek wisdom will certainly find him.
I am the man who approves of wholesome discipline, and who
recommend it to others ; but I am not a person who promote
useless severity, and objects to mild and geuerous treatment
The court, who gives currency to manners, ought to be exem-
{^ary. He talks much of himself, who is the property of old
age. Joseph was industrious, frugal, and discreet, and by
this means obtained property and reputation. I have been
here this two honrs. Those sort of things is easily understood
Those were the kind of actions in which he excelled.
Thou, who hast known my services, can tell
How much this Osman owes.
Write the following exercisci and supply the wordawhitk
art omitted: —
Go to the desert son : observe the young stork
tke wilderness ; let speak to heart. bears on
wingB af^ed sire
lodger in safety, Mid suppl
PART III. — ^SYNTAX.
109
with food. Bo grateful to father, for he gave
tife ; and to mother, for sustained . Hear the
words of mouth, for are spoken for good ; give
0ar to admonition, for proceeds from love. father
had watched for welfare, has toiled for ease ; do
lionour^ therefore, to ago, and let not grey hairs be
treated with irreverence. Forget not helpless infancy,
nor the frowardness of youth ; and bear with the infir-
mities of aged parents: assist and support in the
decline of life. So shall hoary heads go down to the
grave in peace ; and children, in reverence of
example, shall repay piety with filial love.
RULES VII., VIII., IX.
What case do active transitive verbs and their participles
lake after them ? What verb takes the same case after it as
before it? What does the infinitive mood generally follow ?
What other parts of speech does the infinitive mood sometimes
follow ? Is the infinitive mood always governed by some oih^t
Word in the sentence ? What preposition generally precedet
fhe infinitive mood ? After what verb is io omitted before
the infinitive ipood ?
Parse the following sentences: —
Him and them we knew, but who art thou ? They who
ridicule the wise and good, are dangerous companions ; they
foHng virtue itself into contempt. Cyrus, when young, being
asked what was the first thing which lie learned, answered,
" To speak the truth." To maintain a steady and unbroken
spirit of mind, amidst all the shocks of the world, marks a
great and " ^ble spirit. They who have nothing to give, can
often afford relief to others, by imparting what they feel.
Pride (to use tho emphatical words of a sacred writer) was
not made for man. To see young persons who are courted
by health and pleasure, resist all the allurements of vice, and
Readily pursue virtue and knowledge, is cheering and delight-
fill to every good mind.
Correct the following errors : —
They who opulence has made proud, and who luxury has'
corrupted, cannot relish the simple pleasure of nature. Who
have I leasou to love so much ad this friend of my youth?
10
i
■ -■"^■^t^llllfl '"
m
>E]i7GLISH GKAMMAK.
Tour father told him and I. Let thou and I imitate his ex
imple. Be nr* afraid, it is me. I know not whether it wera
&em who co..ducted the business ; but I am certain it wiUi
not him. He so much resembles my brother, that, at fii^t
sight, I took it to be he. We ought act justly on all occasion«<
It is better to live on a little, than outlive a great deal. I dan
not to proceed so hastily, lest I should to give offence. It is a
great support to virtue, when we see a good mind to maintf^in
its patience and tranquillity under injuries and affliction, a|id
to cordially forgive its oppressors.
Wriit the following exercises, and supply the words which
mre omitted : —
The trunk of an elephant, which can up a pin, or
an oak, as nothing to the steam engine. It can
a seal, and masses of obdurate metal before it,
•at, without breaking, a thread as fine as a gossamer, ai)4
up a ship of war, like a bauble, in the air. ft can
muslin, and anchors — steel into ribands, ai^
loaded vessels against the fuqr of the winds and wave^
It would difficult the value of the benefits, which
thwe inventions conferred upon the country. There
no branch of industry that has not indebted to them ;
and, in all the most material, they not only most
magnificently the field of its exertions, but a thou-
■aiid fold the aniount of its productions. Our improved steam*
engiiie has indefinitely the mass of huniun comfort^
and enjoyments, and cheap and accessible, all over the
world, the materials of wealth and prosperity. It has
the feeble hand of man, in short, with a power to which no
limits can , the dominion of mind over the
most refractory qualities of matter, and a sure founda-
tion for all those future miracles of mechanic power, whiql^
to aid and the labours of future generations.
The love of praise should under proper subordi«
nation to the principle of duty. In itself, it a usefuUtiO^iyo
of action ; but when allowed its influence too far. It
the whole character, and guilt, disgrace^
and misery. entirely destitute of it a defect,
governed by it depravity. The proper a4iustment of (hi
several principles of aq^ion in hui^;^ nature,
a »^f
PABT III. -SYNtAX.
111
terwiiich but higllest attention. For when any one
'dfthem either too weak, or too strong;, it bdth.
^bur virtues and our happiness.
RULE X.
To what other parts of speech are adverbs joined ? What
adverbs do not require the preposition from before them?
What do two negatives make ? '
Parse the following sentences :—
Mixed as the present state is, rerason and religion pro*
hbunce, that generally, if not always, there is more happi-
ness than misery, more pleasure than p>ain in the condition
of man. Arise, let us go hence. There cannot be anything
more insignificant than vjanity. Consult your whole nature:
consider yourselves not only as sensitive, hut as rational
beings ; not only as rational, but social, not only as social, but
immortal.
Correct the following errors: — \
He was extreme prodigal, and his property is now near
iexhausted. The conspiracy was the easier discovered, from its
being known to so many. From these favourable beginnings,
We may hope for a soon and prosperous issue. From whence
arbse the misunderstanding ? From thence proceed all these
misfortunes. Neither riches, nor honours, nor no such
perishing objects, can satisfy the desires of an immortal
f^irit. These people do not judge wisely, nor take no proper
measures to affect their purposes.
Write, the following exercise, and supply the words which
dre omitted :
Youth is introductory to manhood, to which it is,
speaking, a state of preparation. During this season we must,
qualify ourselves for the parts we are to act
In manhood we bear the fruit, which has been planted in
youth. , if we have sauntered our youth,
we must expect to be ignorant men. If indolence and
inattention have taken an early possession of us, they will
increase we advance in life, and make us
k burden to ourselves, but useless to society. If , we
suffer ourselves to be misled by vicious inclinations, they wUl
gain new strength, and end in dissolute lives. But if
m
ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
we eultiyate our mindi in youth, attain habiti
attention and industry, of virtue and sobriety, we shall find
ourselves prepared to act .our future parts in life ; and
what above all things ought to be our care, by gaining this
command over ourselves, we shall be able, we ge
in the world, to resist every new temptation
k appears.
RULE XI.
What case do prepositions take after them 7 Are prepo«
Mtions followed by nouns only? Are prepooitions always
expressed? Before what sorts of nouns are they omitted?
What does the idiom of the language require in the use of
prepositions? . ■
Parse the folio aing sentences : —
Temperance, by fortifying the mind and body, leads to
happiness. If we view ourselves, with all our imperfections
and failings, in a just light, we shall rather be surprised at
our enjoying so many good things, than discontented, because
there are any which we want. Be not overcome by the
injuries you meet with, so as to pursue revenge ; by the
disasters of life, so as to sink into dispair; by the evil
examples of the world, so as to follow them into sin. Over-
come injuries by forgiveness ; disasters, by fortitude ; evil
examples, by firmness of principle.
Correct the following errors:
To who shall I give it? Give it to he. This is to be
divided between you and I. To who much is given, of they
much shall be required. Tell to me your name. He
advanced with sword in hand. She departed from this life.
I have a great prejudice for that kind of writing. Have you
made a great alteration of the house 1 There is no person
to whom you may more safely confide. He has a great
resemblance of his father. There was no water, and they
died for thirst. Many have profitted from good advice. That
boy is known under the name of the idler. This remark is
founded in truth. What went ye out for to see? He wae
accused with acting unfairly. She has an abhorrence to
all deceitful conduct. They have just landed in Hu'l, and
are going for Liverpool. They intend to reside some^iine at .
Inlaad.
ART III. — SYNTAX.
113 \
Write the following exereiect and supply the voorda whiek
are omitted : —
i
The nightingale is the most famous all the soogsteni
the grove, and has so long been celebrated the charms
its music, that the idea harmony seems associated
its name. It begins its song the evening, and
often continues it the whole night. Its attachment
some particular place is remarkable. several weeks
together, it will, if undisturbed, perch the same tree, and
every evening pour its fascinating melody. Its head
and back are a pale and tawny colour, dashed
olive ; the throat, breast, and upper part its belly ar»
a light glossy ash colour, and the lower part is almost
white ; the outside webs the quills are a reddish
brown ; the tail is a deep tawny red ; and the eyes aro
remarkably large and animated. It visits the south
England the beginning April, and leaves it tha
beginning August. It is totally unknown Scotland^
Ireland, and North Wales.
be
they
He
life,
you
>rson
rreat
hey
hat
kis
was
e to
and
iO at
RULE XII.
What do conjunctions join ? In what case is the relative
pronoun put, when it follows the conjunction than ? What
does the idiom of the language require in the use of many
of the conjunctions.
Parte the following sentences :-^
He and I commenced our studies at the same time. If we
contend about trifles, and violently maintain our opinion*
we shall gain but few friends. When blessed with health
and prosperity, cultivate an humble and a compassionate
disposition. Never sport with pain in any of your amuse-
ments, nor treat even the meanest insect with wanton cruelty.
If we knew how much the pleasures of this life deceive and
betray their unhappy votaries, and reflected on the disap*
pointments in pursuit, the dissatisfaction in enjoyment, or
the uncertainty of possession, which everywhere attend them,
we should cease to be enamoured of these brittle and transient
joys, and should wisely fix our hearts on those virtuoue
attainments, which the world c-^n neither give nor take away.
10*
114
ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
Correct the following errors: —
You and us enjoy many privileges. Professing regard, ana
to act differently, discover a base mind. My brother f^id
him ard tolerable grammarians. On that occasion, he could
not haVe done rnore, nor offer to do less. Alfred, than who
a better king never reigned, experienced the greatest changes
of fortune. Be ready to succour such persons who need thy
afisistance. He is not as diligent as his brother. It is so
clear as I need not explain it* He respects none, ueithor
high or low. His raiment was so white as snow.
Write the f (Allowing exercise t and supply the words which
are omitted : — . i..
There is nothing about which you need to be more' cautious,
the company you keep. you associate with idlo^
profligate young men, your character will suffer by it,
you will be m great danj^er of insensibly adopting th^ir
maxims and practices. It often happens along
with great worthlessness, they possess very alluring manners ;i
you cannot be too much on your guard. Be not
■educed by the appearance of good humour, by the wit,
entertaining, by the easy, careless lives, by
the licentious heartless mirth of the dissipated Do not
Buffisr yourselvea to be laughed out of your virtue, do
not sacrifice the future comfort of your lives, in order to
obtam the good will of unthinking, vicious young men. Be
not afraid of their reproaches, overcome by their raillery
Pity their delusion, resist aH their allurements with
■teadiness. In the company of good amiable young peo-
ple, you will find more true enjoyment, ybu could
poBsibly find in the compatiy of the licentious whose mirths
loud boisterous, is often, alas! embittered by
remone, hlways ends in wretchednesB.
b^'
115
Part IV.— PROSODY.
Prosody treats of the proper manner of
speaking and reading, and of the different
kinds 01 verse.
SPEAKING AND READING.
The art of speaking and reading with dis-
tinctness and taste depends on the proper use
of Paises, Accent Emphasis, and Intonation,
Pauses may be divided into two kinds: those
which are represented hy points or marksi, and
those which are not represented by points or
marks.
The Points which represent pauses are the
Comma (,) the Semicolon (;); the Colon (:),
the Period (.), the point o( Interrogation (?),
the point of Exclamation (!), the Dash ( — ),
and the Parenthesis ().
The camma denotes the most transient pause repre-
sented by points, and is used to separate simple plauses
of sentences and single words in an enumeration. The
Bemieolon denotes a more marked pause than the domma,
and is used to separate eompound clauses or member? of
' )Dtences. The colon denotes a pause approaching still
• more nearly to a final pause, and is used to separate
members of sentences still less closely connected \n sense
than the semicolon. The period denotes the final papse
of a seatence, and indicates that the sense is com^leteOf
The pauses which are not represented by
points are sometimes called rhetorical pat^ses.
Tho position and duratiQii<of rheJtQrieal pauses deppodi
in a great measure on the natjure of the composition.
Generally, as the use of rhetori(^aI paoses is to prevent
confusion from a reader or a specjcer separating wordi
V
116
ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
which ought to be united, or joining^ wordg which ought
to be separated, there should be a pause before and alter
eyery phrase in a sentence ; that is to say, before and afte^
every group of words which conveys an idea.
Accent is the stress of the voice laid upon a
syllable or word to distinguish it from othei
yllables or words.
Accept upon syllables gives distinctness to pronunci-
ation ; accent upon words gives clearness to the meaning
of the sentence.
Emphasis is the stress of the voice laid upon
a word to denote opposition or contrast.
Emphasis, like accent upon words, gives perspicuity
and force to the meaning of the speaker or writer.
Intonation is the change or modulation of
the voice, when speaking or reading.
The tone of the voice is changed chiefly at the accent
and emphasis. The raising of the voice at the accent or
emphasis is called the rising infiection ; the sinking of
the voice is called the falling inflection.
The art of making a proper use of Pauses, Accent,
Emphasis, and Intonation, in speaking, reading, or reci-
ting, is called elocutiou. The best general rule that can
be given for acquiring a correct and graceful elocution, is
to speak, read, and recite, so as to be readily and clearly
understood.
VERSE.
Verse is of two kinds, rhyme and blank verse.
In rhyme f the final syllables of the liae^
correspond in sound.
When the final syllables of two successive linei corrtt
pond in sound, the verse is called a couplet ; as,
Be humble ; learn thyself to scan ;
Know, pride was ne^er made for maa.
r^l
ART IV. — ^PROSODY.
117 (
When the final syllables of three successive lines rhymo,
the Terse is called a triplet ; as,
Freedom's battle once begun,
Bequeathed by bleeding sire to son,
Though baffled oft, is ever won.
When a verse contains several lines, net arranged fai
successive couplets or triplets, it is called a stanxa ; as,
Ye proud, ye selfish, ye severe.
How vain your mask of state !
The good alone have joy sincere,
The good alone are great :
Great when amid the vale of peace.
They bid the plaint of sorrow cease.
And hear the voice of artless praise ;
As when along the trophied plain
Sublime they lead the victor train.
While shouting nations gaze.
In blank verse^ the final syllables of the lines
io not correspond in sound ; as,
Procrastination is the thief of time.
Year after year it steals, till all are fled ;
And, to the mercies of a moment, leaves
The vast concerns of an eternal scene.
Every line of verse contains a certain num-
ber of accented and unaccented svllables.
The number of accented syllables in a line
determines the number of poetic feet.
The principal poetic feet are the Trochee^
the Iambus, and the Anapcsst.
A Trochee consists of an accented and an unaccented
syllable ; as, lovely.
^ An Iambus consists of an unaccented and an accented
syllable ; as, bec6me.
An Anapaat consists of two unaccented syllables aid
an accented syllable : as. overtake.
V*
«■•!
\ 116
ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
Verse is named, according to the feet that
prevail in it, Trochaic, Iambic, or Anapce^tic,
Trochaic verse consists of an acceated and
an unaccented syllable in alternate succession:
it may contain any number of feat from one
to H\X,
1. One foot.
Tiiriiing,
Burniug.
2. Onefootf and an accented syllable.
Ptirple scenes,
Winding greens.
3. Two feet.
Fancing viewing, . ;.
T6ys pursiling.
4. Two feetf and an accented syllable,
H^r6 the daisies spring,
Th^re the linnets sing.
5. Three feet.
. ,N6w they stdod confoiinded,
* AVhite the bittle soiinded.
6. Three feet, and a long syllable. i^ <
,. '. Lovely, lasting peace of mfnd,
Sw^et delight of hvinian kiud.
7. Four feet. • ;
, .^ S6ftly ljl6w the ev'ning breezes. .;^
8. Five feet.
Virtue*s bright'ning rdy shall beam for ^ver.
9. Six feet.
On a mduutain, stretch'd beneath a h^ar^'^ willow.
^mi:f
.'•»'
lambln vase consists of an unaccented and
accented syllable in alternate succession:
•X ttiay contain any number of feet from one
16 six.
^
PAST IV.— pRosomr
1. Two feet
With ritvish'd ears,
The m6uarch h^ars. .
Two feet, and an una''ccntcd syllable.
In wdods a rclnger,
To }6y a Btrdnger.
3. Three feet.
Al^ft ill Awful stlte,
- : 'I'he Gd4-like h<3rp sdt.
119
4.
Three feet, and an unc^ccenlcd syllable
Alive to d very f^elmgf
Tho woi'iiids of sdrrow hdaling.
This measuro is |reiierally called Anacreontic, bein^
the same as that used in ^the Odes of the Greek poet|
Anacreon.
5. Four feet.
Our broken friendships w^ depl6re -^ >
And l6ves\)f y6uth that dre no m6re. '
6. Five feet.
Confus'd and striick with silence at the dded,
He flies, but,, trembling, fails to fly' with sp6ed.
Delightful tdsk I to r^ar the tender th6ught,
To' tdach the young idiSa h6w to shdot. •.
This is the heroic measure of English poetry.
7. Six feet.
Fox t^^e the 6cean smiles, and smo6thes his wdvy breast*
This is called the Alexandrine measure : it is seldom
used except to complete the stanza^ of an ode, or occa-
sionally to vary heroic verse. . '
8. Seveii feet.
Let s&ints bel6w, with sw^et accord, unite with thdse abrtve, •
I^ solemn lays, to praise their king, and sing his dy'iug !6vo*
This kind of verse is generally divided into four lines,
(be flrst and the third containing each four feet, and the
soccud and the fourth containing each three feet ; thui^
'.i;.
\",
120
ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
i V
Let sdints bel6w, with sw^et accord,
Unite with th6se abf^ve,
In s6lemu lays, to prdise their king,
And sing his dy'ing Idve.
Anap,cBstic verse consists of two unaccented
syllables and an accented one in alternate suc-
cession ; it may contain any number of feel
from one to four.
•^
1. One foot.
v;' '^ *Ti8 in vain
They compMin.
2. Two feet.
In my rage shall be s^en
The revenge of a qu^en.
3. Three feet.
Who are th^y that now bid us be slaves ?
They are f6es to the go6d and the fre^.
4. Four feet.
•Tis the v6ice of the sMggard, I hoar him complain,
" You have wdk'd me too 8o6n, I must sliirnber agdin.**
Sometimes, as in T; ''haic and Iambic verse an un-
accented syllable is added to the end of an AnapeesUe
line; as, . . ,. , .
Then his coi^rage *gan fail him, . ,-,j
For no arts could avdil him. ,j*
'^n the V Irm cheek of yo6th smiles and r6ees are blinding
'^I'ochaic, Iambic, and Anapaestic feet are sometimet
f and in the same line ; as, ,^
Ye shepherds so cheerful and gdy, Jf
Whoso fl6ck8 never carelessly r6am. u
From the difficulty of arranging words in regular
measure, certain violations of the laws of Orthography,
Etymology, and Syntax, are allowed in poetry This ii
called •poetical license.
■*^'<l.l
PART IV. PROSODY.
121
1. Some words are lengthened, and others are short-
ened : thus dispart is used for part ; *gan for began.
2. Two words are sometimes contracted into one ; at,
* Tis for it is.
3. Adjectives are frequently used for adverbs ; as,
They fall successive and successive rise.
4 A noun and its pronoun are used as nominatives
to the same verb ; as,
My banks they are furnished with trees.
5. Intransitive verbs are m-ade transitive ; as.
The Iightnings^a«A a wider curve.
6. The past tense and passive participle are used for
eadi other ; as,
Though parting from that mother he did shun,
Before his wetiry "pilgrimage begun.
7. The conjunction /lor is used for neither^ lind or for
either.
Nor grief nor fear shall break my rest.
Remote, unfriended, melancholy, slow, : -..<
Or by the lazy Scheldt or wandering Po
I
»;.?
EXERCISES.
SPEAKING AND READING.
What does the art of speaking and reading with dietinot-
ness and taste depend upon ? How many kinds of pauses are
there ? What are the points which represent pauses ? What
kind of pauses do they respectively represent ? What are the
pauses not represented by points called? What do the po-
sition and duration of these pauses chiefly depend upon?
What is the use of rhetorical pauses ? When generally should
rhetorical pauses be made ? What is accent ? Of what use
iff accent upon syllables? upon words? What is emphasis?
Of what use is emphasis? What is intonation? When is
the tone of the voice chiefly changed ? What is the rising
inflection ? the falling inflection ? What is elocution ? Wha'
is the best general rule for acquiring a correct and graceful
elocution ?
11
122
ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
w
VERSE.
^ i UJ
Wit^'
How many kinds of verse aje tfiere ? What is rhyme ?
What is a couplet ? a triplet ? a etauza ? What is blank
verse? What does everv line of verso contain? What de-
terminos the number of poetic feet? What are the principal
poetic feet? Of what does a trochee cojisist ? nn iambus?
an anapaest ? How is verse named from the feet that prevail
in it? Of what does trochaic verse consist? How mauy
feet may it contain ? Of what does iambic verse consist ?
How many feet may it rontain ? What kind of measure i«
called Anacreontic? Why is it 80 called? What kind of
measure is tho Alexandrine? When is it used? How is
iambic verse containing seven feet commonly divided ? Of
what does anaptestic verse consist ? How many feet may it
contain? What is stMnotimes added *to an anapaastic lino?
What kinds of feet are sometimes found in the same line ?
What is meant by poetical license ? What has given rise
to poetical license? What laws of Orlho;rraphy are violated
in poetry ? What laws of Etymology are violated ? What
laws of Syntax are violated ?*
»'■< ■ .■ .J
'»M v4i
* For practical exercises on the first part of Prosody, teach-
ers are referred to the ^*' Introduction to Elocution," in which
the proper manner of reading and speaking, and especially
the use of pauses and accents, are very fully explained and
exemplified. The Second, Third, Fourth, and Fifth Books
of Lessons contain numerous passages of poetry, whicii may
be used as exercises on the second part of Prosody.
mh m* .! .
<»N •«]«•<«
.,:,:.Vi Uifiiil ■•■«»'>'■? r-ll^f. (r."i.' Mi"''"'^« 'Sh*
>i ! ;|tV/ .' it.txttfiiiiU (i!i'j'<r./ ii'iiKi/ ''•l\'-
>> *»jj[.
123
}.
{' ^ it 1
.,«-« «..v. 'APPENDIX. ,
i*^-
ft-^M^J ■(.»»! IdS •>■«»■> '
i.t. II i.n ..-ins*
DERIVATION. * 4>«.^vavV
Words are either jorimi^tue or derivative, .
■ A primitive word is not derived from any
other word ; as, Man. •
.;'!'
* Directions to Teachers. — Derivation is a branch of
Etymology. By the rules and exercises formerly givei) under
that part of grammar, pupils were taught to distinguish and
classify words according to their general use and meaning,
as expressive of names, qualities, affirmation^ relation, or
connexion. By this branch of Etymology, they are taught to
trace words to their origin, for the purpose of ascertaining
both their primary and ordinary signification. Besides the
interest which derivation excites in the minds of young per-
ions, it is of great use in assisting them to classify the various
parts of speech, — it gives them a command of expression, —
ind it is calculated to train them to habits of analysis. That
•t may promote the first of these objects, teachers are recom-
mended to make their pupils, when forming derivative words
from their roots, name fijrst the nouns, then the adjectives
&nd adverbs, and afterwards the verbs. To aid them in this
exercise, the affixes to these parts of speech are given sepa-
rately. In order to teach command of expression through
derivation, teachers should cause their pupils to rame, along
with the derivatives, all the words which have the same signi-
fication, whether formed from the same root or not. Habits
>f analysis may be foi;med, by causing a certain number of
words, in the daily reading lesson, to be traced to their roots,
according to the directions given iu the preface to the *' Fourth
Book" — It can hardly be necessary to explain, that, iu the
following list, one derivative is given after each root, not be-
cause it is the only one that is formed from it, but merely as
an example: the pupil should be required to givG as many
others as he knows or can form.
ip
&»^
124
APPENDIX.
I*?
A derivafive word is formed from somt
other word or words ; as, Manhood.
When a derivative is made up of two or more entirt
words, it is sometimes called a commund word ; as,
Mankind,
That part of grammar, which treats of the
formation of derivative words from their pri-
mitives, is called Derivation, r» n.^ l^5^/i
The primitive word, from which derivatives
are formed, is called the root,
Tbe letters and syllables, which are placed
before the root in the formation of derivatives,
are called prefixes.
The letters and syllables, which are placed
after the root, are called affixes.
The roots of the English language are chiefly Saxon
but a number of words have been adopted from othe
languages, especially from the Latin and the Greek. >
few words liave been borrowed directly from the Latin
and the Greek without any change upon their form ; as
Stratum, strata; phenomenon, phenomena. Some wordf
have been introduced from the Latin and the iiteeV
indirectly through other languages, especially the French j
as. Rex, roi {roix), royal. But the greatest number of
Latin and Greek roots has been adopted directly, by
dropping the original terminatfoiis, and compoundUlg
, the radical part of the word with prefixes and affixes.
The prejixes are chiefly prepositions. Some of them
are used in a separate form ; the others, from their being
found only in derivative words, are sometimes called
inseparable prepositions. A few of the prefixes are Saxon
or English ; the greater number is of Latin and Greek
origin.
The affixes are never found but in derivative words :
fhey are almost all of Saxon, I/atin, or Greek origin.
The following is a li«t of the principal rreJixeSt
. Affixes, and Latin and Greek Roots : —
PREflXES.
I— PREFIXES.
I. ENGLISH.
125
A) 077, as, afoot.
Be, aboutf heforcymakcy as, he-
Bpattor, ^ev\rare, ^edim.
En, (em, irn), mnke^ as, e/mblo,
embolden, c;/ibitter.
Fore, hefurCf as, /orc/seo.
Mi8,error or defect, as, miftako.
Out, beyond, as, ouflive.
Oyer, over or above, as, overdo.
Un, 710/, as, unwilling.
With, from, against, as, 101 f A*
hold, trttAntand.
2. LATIN.
A, ab, ahs, from, as, avert, ab-
solve, a6.9tain.
A<i, (a, ac, af, ag, al, an, ap, ar,
as, at),/o, as, atihere, ascribe,
.'accede, affix, aggravate, al-
lot, aimounce, a/^ply, arrive,
assume, attract.
Am, round, about, as, a77ibient.
Ante, before, as, antecedent.
Circum, (circu,) about, as, cir^
cujnforenct, circuit.
Con, (CO, cog, col, com, cor,)
together, as, concar, cohere,
cognate, collect, compose,
correct.
Contra, against, as, contradict.
De, down, as, c^eject.
Di, dis, (dif,) asunder, as, Ji-
vide, dispel, difiuse.
£, ex, (ec, ef,) out 0/, as, emit,
eortract, eccentric, effect.
Extra,6e^on</,as,eir/raordinary
In, (ig, il. im, ir,) in, before,
a verb— "Tiot, before an ad-
jective, as, include, infinite,
?^ucble^ t/himinate, import,
irregUi^aff
Inter, 6e/9re, as, intercede.
Intro, within, as, introduce.
Juxta,ni^A to,a8,^'uxtap08ition.
Ob, (oc, of, op, 08,)tn the way
of, as, o&ject, occur, offer,
oppose, ostensible.
Per, (pel,) tAroug'A,as, pervade,
jpe/Iucid. ♦
Post, after, as, j90«/poue.
Pre, before, as, prefix.
Preter, beyond, as, pre/ernatu-
ral.
Pro, (pur,) forward, as, pro-
ceed, jp7i7'pose.
Re, back or again, as, recall.
Ketro,6ac^ii;arri,a8,re/ro«pect.
Se, aside or apart, as, select.
Sine, (sim;) without, as, «tne«^
cure, simple.
Sub, (sue, suf, sug, sup, sus,)^.
under,aM, «u/>scribe,«?/cceed, ..
suffer, suggest, suppress,
suspend.
Subter, beneath, as, su&terfuge*
Super, (sur,) above, as, super*. ^
fluous, survive.
Tra\is, (tra,) beyond, s»,tranS'
port, traverse.
Ultra, beyond, as, ultramarine.
'•?4
.^i
1=1
11*
T
I
f »
186
APPENDIX.
3. GREEK.
A, (an,) toWtout, not, as, a-
theist, fl7mrchy.
Amplii, boihf as, ampAtbious.
Ana, through, as, analyaiB.
Auli, (ant,) against, in opposi-
tion to, as, antidote, an^cBci.
Apo, (aph,) /rom} as, apostSLie,
apheWon. '
Cata, (cat, cath,) from side to
side, down, as, cata\og\ie,
ctt/echise, cathoVic.
Dia, through, as, diameter.
En, (em,) in or on, asj encomi-
um, emphasis.
Epi, upon, as eptdemic.
Hyper, over, too, as, Ay/jcrcri-
tical.
Hypo, under, as, hypocrite.
Mota, (meth,) beyond, accord"
ing to, as, metaphor, metho^L
Para, (jp^,) against, beside, ob,
paradox, parochial.
Peri, round, about, as, peri"
meter.
Syn, (sy, syl, sym,) together,
as, synagogue, system, «y2«
lable, sympathy.
II.— AFFIXES.
(«v i,;<
- %
I. TO NOUNS
1
».
T . 1 - r
An, ^
'' Historia/?,
Acy, "^
age.
^Accureicy,
ant.
assist r7.//f,
vicarfl;g"c,
ar.
beg^«r.
ance.
vigilc/nce,
ard.
drui.Rrtrr/,
ancy.
eleg/irtcy,
ary.
adversary,
ence,
affluenee.
ale.
advoc</fc,
ency.
t\w» .
deccwey,
ee,
absentee.
hood,
boyhood,
eer,
-one who, -(
charioteer,
iHm,
»<afc o/
heroism.
ent.
as,
adherer//,
nient.
being.
amaze/nenl •
acrimowy, ***
er.
beholder,
mony, y or ■<
ist;
; ' '
botani.9/.
ness,
qualify,
darkr/e,9jv,
ite.
favonr//e.
O'r
as,
bravery, '*i^
ive,
i' ' V *■ ' . ,' '
capt ue,
ship.
rector*///p, •*'
or.
I' •■' ' , ., ,
actor,
sion.
declension,
Bter, J
y
, sonffv^er,
th.
< • ' '■
warmiA,
- ^ . ,«*?. m%*^
tioii,
•'< #•?'
formafion» "
■ '. ,h^-.
tude,
. i
eMitudtf
AumHHbxiiu ,f.,'. ii>
ty,
'
uov^lly.
-
y» J
^anarchy.
■»- .;i i
AFFIXES.
1«
Ary, ory, place wherCf as, avi-
ary, dormitory.
Cle, little, as, psirt'wle.
Dom, state, rank, ag, dukedom.
Esconce, state of growing, as,
putrescence.
lce,something,done,Bia,service.
(c8, science, art, as, optics.
Kin, little, as, manniA;m.
Let, little, as, rivu/e^
Ling, young, as, duck/in^.
Ock, 2i<^/e, as, h'lWock.
Ric, «irt<e, o^ce, as, bishop|:tc.
Uro, one who, state, art, ad,
creature, culture.
2. TO ADJECTIVES.
»•>•»«»
o/" or he-
' Elegiac,
filial/,
humaTi,
g^lobular,
literary.
>■ longing to, -{ aiigch'c
as, poeiical,
splendid/,
juvenile,
feminf«e,
illusory.
A.C,
il,
an,
ar,
ary,
ic,
ical,
id,
ile,
ine,
ory, J
Aceous, of, consisting of, as,
cetaceous, w.'^ -^-^i hp .'^u
Ant, ent, being, as, constant,
tihBent.
Ate, having, being, ViB, private.
3. TO VERBS.
' Abbreviate,
lengthen,
-j magni/y,
dimint«A,
. fertih'^e.
Ble, may or can he, as, visift/e.
Ell, made, as, wooden.
Escent, growing, as, Conval-
esccnt. .
Use/>/Z,
glorious,
verbo.'»e,
troublesotne,
^ woody.
fo make,
as
Ful,
ous,
ose, ^-full, as, ^
some,
y»
Ish, lUdc, as, blackisA.
Ive, can, being, as, afilictioc.
Loss, without, as, use /ess.
Ly, ) ( Friend/y,
ifih, > Ziic, as, < childish,
like, ) ( warlike.
Ward, towards, as, back/i;ard.
4. TO ADVERBS.
Ly, like, as, foolishZy.
Ward, towards^ as, north toarci.
»T"'
T. ft >*^f*.-
138
APPENDIX.
III.— LATIN ROOTS.
."TlA
Aqidus, tour, as, acidity.
Acris, sharp, as, acrimony.
Actum, to do, as, action,
Acuo, 1 sharpen, as, acute.
Adulor, \ flatter, as, adulaixon.
^des, a house, as, ediiy.
iEniulor, I vie with, as, emulu'
tion.
^quus, equal, as, equinox.
A«r, air, as, aertform.
^8timo,I value,aB, mestimahle
^stus, the tide, as, estuBLry.
^ther, the sky, as, ether'ia].
JEyvan, an age, as, coeral.
Agor, afield, as, agriculture.
Agger, a heap, as, exa^^erate.
Agilis, active, as, agility.
Agito, I drive, I stir, as, agita-
tor, cogitate.
Ago, I do, as, a^ent.
Ala, a wing, as, aZtped.
Alicnus. another* s, foreign, as,
aZifin ate.
Alo, I nourish, as, aZiment.
Alter, another, as, aZferation.
Alternus, by <urn9,as,aZZer/zate
Altos, At^A, as, exalt.
Ambuio, I toaZ^, as, peram^u-
Zate.
AniicufS a/rt«ncZ, as, amicable.
Amo, I love, as, amiable.
Amplus, large, as, amplify.
Ango, I vex, as, anguish.
Angulus, a corner, \a, inangu-
Zar.
Animus, the mind, as, unani-
mous.
Annus, a year, as, annual.
Antiquus, old, as, antiquarian.
AnxiuS| uneasy, as, anopiety.
Aperio, I open, as, aj^^rient.
Apertum, to open, as, apertan
Ap\s, a t'se, as, a/nary.
Aptus,^/, as, adaptation.
Aqua, water, as, aqruceZuct
Aquila, an eagle, as, a^uiZine
Arbiter, an umpire or judge^
as, arbitrate.
Arbor, a Zrtj^r, as, arboreous.
Arceo, I drive, as, coercion.
Arcus, a bow, as, arcA, archery
Ardeo, I burn, asj arrfcnt.
Arduus, steep, difficult, as, ar»
duoun.
Areo, I am parched, as, arid.
Argil la, potter's clay, as, ar
^iZZaceous.
Arma, arms, as, armipotent.
Aro, I plough, as, arable.
Ars, artis, art, as, artificial.
Artus, a joint, as, articulate.
Asinus, an ass, as, asinine.
Asper, rough, as. exasjjcrate;
Atrox, ^crcc, as, atrocious.
Auctum, to increase, as, awe
tion.
Audax, AaZrf, as, audacity. ''
Audio, I Aear, as, aufZible.
Auditum, to Acar, as, auditor
Augeo, I increase, as, a z/^men"
Augur, a diviner or soothsayer i^
as, inaugurate.
Auris, the eai^, as, auricular.
Aurum, gold, as, auriferous.
Auspex, a soothsayer, as, aut
picioua.
Auxilium, help, as, auxiliBiTy,
Avarus, covetous, as, avarice
Avidus, greedy^ as, avieZity.
Avis, a bird, as, aviary.
LATIN ROOTS.
1^9
B.
Biuxhus, the god of wine, as,
ha€chanalidi.n, debauch.
Barba, a beard, as, barb,
BtithATaa,8avage,BB,barbanan.
Beatus, blessed, as, beatitude.
Bellum, war, as, belligerent.
Bene, well, as, 6enevolont.
Beuignus, kind, as, benignity.
Bibo, I drink, as, imbibe.
Bini, two by two, as, com6t7ttf.
Bi& twice, as, 6tped.
Blundus, .(m<Z, soothing, as,
6Zan</ ishment.
Bonus, ^oo(f , as, bounty. ^
Brevis, short, as, brevity.
Bulla, a bubble of water, as,
e6u/2itiou.
Cadaver, a dead body, as, ca-
daveroua.
Cado, (cido) I/aZ2, as, cadence,
incident.
CK)do, (eido) I cut or A;t7Z, ais,
homicide.
t CaBlum, heaven, as, ceZefZzal.
Caasum, to cuf, as, incision.
Calx, lime, as, caZcareous.
Calculus, a pebble,aB,calcula,te.
Caleo, I am hot, as, caloric.
Callus, hardness, as, callovta.
Calumnia, slander^ as, calum.'
niate*.
Can||)uv3, a plain, as, encar/t/).
Caiideo, I burn, as, ince/zcZiary.
Cauis, a dog, as, canine.
Cano, I sing, as, can^zcle, pre-
centor.
Capillus, a hair, as, capillKy.
Capio, (cipio,) I ^aXre, as, eap"
able, princtj}al.
Captum, (ceptum,) to take, w,
captive, reception.
Caput, the head, as, capittfl,
precipitBite.
Carbo, coal, as, carbonic.
Ca,rcer,& prison, as, incr/rcerate
Caries, rottenness, as, carious.
Caro, carnis, flesh, as, carni-
vorous.
Carus, dear, as, caress.
Castigo,I/iunitfA,as,ca9ftg'ation
Castus, pure, as, chastity.
Casum, to fall, as, occamonal.
Catena, a chain, as, conca<c7t-
ation.
Cavus, hollow, as, excavate.
Cautus, wary,tprudent, as, in-
cauZious.
Cedo, I go, as, intercede.
Celebris, famous, as, celebrity.
Celer, swift, as, acccZerate.
Celsus, high, as, exccZ.
Censeo, I judge or blame, as,
ccTiAorious.
Centrum, the centre, as, eccen-
tric.
Centum,a Aan(Zre(2,a8, century
Cer^,wax, as, cerement,Binccre
Ceruo,I »cc or judge, b^, discern
Certo, I strive, as, disconcert
Certus, sure, as, certify.
Cesso, I cease, as, iuce^^ant.
Cessum, to go, to give up, as,
predecessor, concession.
Cetus, a whale, as, ceZaceous.
Chorus, a band of singers, as,
choral.
Cinctus, ^irZ, as, succincl.
Circus, a ring or circle, as, cir-
culate.
H
480
APPENDIX.
Cito, I calif I rouse, as, cita-
tion, excitement.
Civis,a citizen, M,civic, civilize
Clamo, I cry out, as, cxclwvi.
Ciam, secretly, as, clandebthio
C\^T\jtit,clear,BL9,clarify,declar€
Claudo, (cludo,) I shut, as, iii-
clude.
Clausus, (clusus,) shut, as,
clause, exclusion.
C\emenn,7nerciful,aa,clemency
Clino, I bend, as, recline.
Clivus, a slope, as, declivity.
Coctum, to 1)0 it, as, decoction.
Ccepio, I begin, as, incipient.
Colo, I cultivate, as, colony.
Cogniluin, to know, as, lecog-
niiion.
Comes, a companion, as, con-
C07nitB.nt.
Copia, plenty, as, copioxxB,
Cor, cordis, the heart, as, con-
cord.
Corium, skin, as, excon'ate.
Cornu, a horn, as, unicorn.
Corpus, corporis, the body, as,
corpulent, corporeal.
Cortex, bark, as, corticvK
Cras, to-morrow, as, procras-
tinate.
Creditum, to trust, as, creditor
Credo, I believe or trust, as,
credible.
Cremo, I burn, as, incremable.
Crepo, I fnake a noise, as, dis-
crepdint.
Cresco, I grow, as, excrescence
Creturn, to grow, as, concrete.
Cretum, to see or judge, as,
discreiLa.
Crimon.a cn*wic,as,recrMnf«ate
Crux, a cross, as, crucify.
Ciiho, (cumbo,) I lie, as, iucu-
6fition, n?rww/)ent.
Culina, a kitchen, us, culinary
Culpa, IX fault, as, excu//)ate.
Cultum, to till, as, agricu/^ure.
Cumulus, a heap, as, accumu^i
/ate.
Cupio, I desire or core/!, as, cu*
pidity.
Cura, a cure, as, sinecure, pro.
cure. .^
Curro, I run, as, conciir. '■
Cursus,a ru/tuiu^,as,oxcur#ion
Curtus, short, as, curif ail.
Curvus, crooked, as, curvature
Cutis, the skin, as, cuituneous
50 ..•*'
i<
Damnum, /oss, as, e^umage,
indemrUfy.
Damno, I condemn, as, dam
nation.
Datum, (ditum,) to give, &b,
dative, addition.
Debilis, /ec6/c, as, debilitate,
Debitum, to owe, as, debtor.
Decens, becoming, as, decency
Decor, grace, beauty, as, de-
corous-
DeViciuEi, da light, as, delicione.
Dens, a tooth, as, (^c/z^ist.
Densus, thick, as, condense.
Deterior, worse, as, deteriorate
Dous, a ^orf, as, rfeify.
Dextfer, right-handed, as, c^cx-
^erous.
Dicatum, to set apart, as, de-
dicate.
Dictum, to say, as, pre6?icA
; Dies, a day, as, diary, diw-
nal, meri</ia7t.
LATIN ROOTS.
131
Dl^ins, worthy, as, difrnify.
Disco, 1 learn, as, (li<ici[i]e.
Diviw, H £fot/, iiK, <?/yiiu\
Docro, f tonr.h^ as, docWo,
Dootiun, to tcac!!, as, dnctT\n(^.
Doleo, 1 fryieve, as, coixdnlc.
Uominiis, a master, as, ipro-
domitmui.
Domo, I subdue, as, iiu/mnrta-
ble.
•It « . \' »
DomiiH, a howtr, as, domestic.
J)oiium, a fi"f/V, as, rfonor.
Dormio, I fflcep, as, dorrnitoTy
Dorsum, the hack, as, rfwrsal.
Dubito, I doubt, iiS,'mdubitaMe
Duco, I lead, as, deduce.
Ducturn, to lead, as, conduct.
Duo, tt^o. as, (iuel, riuplicity.
Durus, A«rf/, as, cu(/ttrc, ob-
duTi^ie.
!u E. ■ '^''^ ^'•"•''
Ebrius, drunken, as, iiieft>iat(\
Edo, I ea^, as, e^^ble.
Egeo, I want, as, indigence.
Ego, /, as, egot'iHt.
Emo, I bui/f as, redeem.
Emptuai, lo buy, as, exem/)<ion.
Ens, ontis, being, as, none«<ity.
Equus, a horse, as, equestrian.
Erro, I wander, as, abcrrtf <ion
Esca, /ootZ, £is, cscttlent.
Esse, <o bCf as, essential.
Exporlor, I try, as, carpen'ment
Exter, outward, as, external.
^. . p
- I " ,!'■.•. - * •
V V'' ' V , .'.^ .-
Faber,a workman, &8,fabricBie
Facies, /orm, the face, as ef-
/ace, super^cial. S .-''
FanlliH, rc/.v7/, ;ia, fai'iliiaief
ihffirtiUy.
Facio, (fifjio.) F make, I //o, as,
&ri:Jtcih\, hr.tif;//r('.iit.:
FuctiMn, (lectuiri.) to make, io
do, as, Tnaiui/V/ "(^/re, por/ec^
Fallo, I dcceire, hk, in/'fl/Z/blo.
Fames, hunger, an, famiah.
Faimm, a temple, as, pro/V/ne.
Fan, to speak, an, inol7*//hle.
Farina, /«««/ or Jlotrr, na, fari'
;;r/ceoas.
Fastidiiun,.vcfjrw,as,/(r/fl//(itou8,
Fatiofo, J weary, as, inde/aZig*-
able.
Fatiius, foolish, as, in/V/./Mation
Fells, a cat, &h, feline.
Felix, happy, &h, felicity.
Feniina, a wojnan, as, /"emmine
Fera,a wild beast.na, fcrocioxal
Ferlo, I strike, as, inicifere.
Ferrncntnm, leaven, as, fer-
jnentai'ictt.
Fcro, I cat ry, as, in/er, ferry,
Ferrum, tVow, as, fer/ wginous. '
P^ertilis, fruitful, us, fertilize:
Fcrveo, I //oi'/^ as, /Vrwid. vj^
Fibra, a thread, &s, fibrous,
Ficium, to feign, as,Jict\on,
Fides, faith, 'ds, fidelity
Fido, I trust, as, conjldff.
Film, a <i««^A(«r, > ^..^ ;
Films, a son, ) '*'
Finis, an end, as, infinite. ^:'.i',|
Firmus, strong, as, confirm,
F'lBcas, 3. treasury,as,confi.*tcate
Fissum, to c/eawe, as, fi.s.'iure,
Fixum, to stick, as, trans)?^?.
Flagellum, a whip, as^ fidg^l^ \
Z^ztion. ' , ...',f
Flagitium, wickedness, HB^Jfa'
gitiouB.
r
^'""^^"^■J
132
APPENDIX.
W
Flagro, I burn, as, conflagra-
tion.
Flatus, a puff of wind, as, in-
fiate,
Flecto, I lend, as, reflect.
Fiexum, to bend, as,,^exible.
Flictuin, to strike, or dash, as,
mfliet.
Flos, floris, & flower, e^B, flora.}.
Fiuctus, a wave, &a, fluctuate.
FIno, Iflow, as, fluid.
Fluxus, a flowing, as, reflux.
Foedus, fcedcris, a treaty, as,
coi}federa.te.
Folium, a leaf, as, foliage.
Formido, fear, as, formidahie.
Foro, I bore, as, per/orate.
Fors, chance, as, /or tiiitons.
Fortis, strong, as, fortify.
Fossum, to dig, as, fossil.
J*i'acturn,to break, as, fracture
Frango, I break, aa,fragmeui,
infringe.
Frater, a brother, as, fraternal.
Fraus, fraudis, deceit, an, frau-
dulent.
Frico, I r^ib, as, /riction.
Frigeo, I ,\rn cold, as, frigid.
Frio. I crumble, as,/n'able.
Frivolus,, trifling, as, frivolity
Froiis, I'rontis, the forehead,
as, frontlet.
Frnctus, fruit, as, ffuctify.
Frucr, 1 enjoy, as, fruition.
Frustra, in vain, as, frustrate.
Fugio, Ifly, as, fugitive.
Fulg^o, I shine, aB,jefulgent
Fulmen, lightning, as,fulmi'
nate.
Futnus, snroke, as, fumigaXe.
Fuuctam, to perform, aB,funC'
Fundo, I pour, as, confound*
Fur, a thief, ae, furtive.
Fusum to pour, as, fusible.
Futilis, silly, as, futility.
Futo, I disprove, as, refutation
Galiina, a hen, as, gallinaceom
Gar/io, I tattle, as, garrulouB,
Gela, frost, as, congeal.
Gcnitum, to beget, as, pro^eni-
tor.
GeuB, a nation, as, ^en^ile.
Geiui,tho /:/2ee, as, genuflection
Genus, generis, a kind, as, do-
generate.
Gerinen, i\ branch, as, germi-
nntxon. "^*
Gero, I carry, as, belligerent.
Gestum, to carry, as, digestion
Glacies, ice, as, glacial.
Gladiu^j a sword, as, gladiator
Glomus, glomeris, a clue, as,
glomerate.
Gluten, glue, as, glutinous.
Gradior, I go, as, retro^ratfe.
Gradus, a step, as, gradual.
Gramen, gra8S,aB,graminivor''
ous. if
Grandis, great, as, ag^ran(f ize
Gratia, favour, thanks, as, in-
gratiate, ^ra^ttude.
Gravis, heavy, as, gravity.
GrescuB, a going, as, pro^reM
Grex, gregis, a flock, as, gv§
gariouB.
Gu9f;o, I ta9f«, as, diBgdst, i
H.
Habito, I c2]i)e/l, as, cohahtU
LATIN ROOTS.
Ida
Habitum, to koldf as, exhil.
t'lon.
Hcereo, I stickt as, Sidhere.
Hflpres, hocredis, an heiVf as,
herpditury.
HoBSutn, to stlckf as, cohes\on.
Halo, I breathe t as, exhale.
Hausttim, to draw, as, iuex-
haust'ible.
Herba, an herb, as, ^er^aceous.
Hilarls, cheerful, as, hilarity.
Hislrio, a player, as, hiatrioiuc.
Homo, a man, as, homicide.
Hcrreo, I dread, as, horrible.
Uortor, I encourage, as, ex-
hortatioii.
Hortus, a garden, as, horii'
culture.
Hospes, hospitis, a guest, a»,
Ao.9/)t7abie.
Hostis, an enemy, qs, hostile.
Humeo, I am wet, as, humid.
Hunius, the ground, as, post-
Au/nous, Aumiliate.
I.
.■6tiv
u
Idem, the same, as, <<2entify.
lens, going, as, trans7!en^
Ignis, ^rc, as, t^Tzeous.
loipero, I command, as, im-
peratiye,
Inferus, below, as, tn/criority.
Insula, an mland,fiB,i^\\in9ula
Iniegdr, entire, upright, as,
integrity.
Intra, within, as, tnfefnal.
Ira, anger, as trrt<ate.
Iter, itineris, a journey, as,
ttinerant.
Iterum, again, as, ret^^rate.
It am, to go, as exit, sedition.
J.
Jaceo, I lie, as, circum;ai7«n<.
Jactum, (jectum,) to throw, as,
e;<zculate, eject.
Janua, a gate, f^s^ janitor,
JociiH, 3. jest, 98, jocose.
JudfiX, judicis, a judge, as, ^*u*
diciixL
Jugum, a yoke, as, cowjugsite
Junctum, to join, as, con/unc-
<ion.
Jure, I swear, as, perjury.
Jus, juris, right, law, as, in-
i^ry, ^'uridical.
Jutum, to help, as, coad^'u^or.
Juvenis, a youth, ViS, juvenile.
Lac, miZA:, as, lacteB.1.
Laceratum, to tear, as, ^arerato -
Lsedo, (lido,) I hurt, as, e/i(i«.
Lffisum, (lisum,) to hurt, as^
co(/i^on.
Lapis, lapidis, a stone, as, /a-
pidary.
Lapsum, to fall,"BiB, relapse,'
Lassus, weary, as, /as^itude.
Lateo, I lie hid, as^, /^«'^ent.
Latum, to carry, as, irains^a/e
I^atus, lateris, a «tf/e, as, laterh^
Laus, laudis, praise, as, Zau-
(Zatory. •
Lavo, I wash, as, /uve.
Laxus, loose, as, relax.
Lectum, to gather or choose,
to rea(/, as, col/ec^, intel/etff.
Legatus, an ambassador, as^
de/f^ate.
Lego, i choose, I rea(/, as, e^ii^
^tble, legiUe.
134
APPENDIX.-^
Lenis, gentle, aw, lenity,
Leo, u Hon, us, /co77iiie.
Letlium, death, eh, lethal.
Levis, light, as, U'v'\iy.
Levo, I raise, as, eZcvate.
Lpx, legis, a /<i7i!J, as, il/eg^aZ.
Liber, free, as, /t/icrate.
Liber, a hook, as, Zi/frarian.
Libo, I pour out, as, iiftation.
Libra, a balance, as, equiZt-
6iium.
Licet, r< is lawful, as, ilZicz7.
Lignum, wood, a,», ligmoas.
Ligo, 1 6in(Z, as, Zigfament, ob-
Limen, a threshold, as, pra-
Zmiwary.
Limes, limitis, a boundary, as,
ZimzZatioi).
Linea, a ''ne, as, deZirzeate.
Lingua, a tongue, as, linguiai
Linquo. I leave, as, reZin^ut'sh
Liqueo, I meZ^ as, Zr^uefaction
Lis, litis, strife, as, Zi7tgious.
Litera, a letter, as, ilZi2€rate.
Lofius, a place, as, disZocate.
Locutum, i(o speak, as, cir-
cumZocuition.
Loii<7ii8, ZoA?^, as, ^Zowg-ate.
Loquor, I speak, as, soIiZo^u^.
Lotuni, to wash, as, Zotion.
Ijubricus, slippery, ob, lubric-
ate
Lucrum, gmn, as, Zwcrative.
Luctor, I struggle, as, reluct-
ant.
Ludo, I play, I deceive t as,
prelude, delude.
Lugeo, I mpurn, as, Zv^bri-
ous.
Lumen, light, as, ilZt/mztiate.
Luna *>!<» r^non, ae, snbZu/iary.
Liio, I vmsh away, as, abZuZton
Lustro, I purify, I shine, aa
Zws^ration, ilZ/iWrfltc. ..
Lusum, to dereive, as, ilZwsion.
Lux, lucis, light, as, eZwcidate.
M. •'••" :•
..^.
J-^
Macer, lean, as ?«flccrale. .^
Macies, leanness, as, emaciate
Macula, a spot, as, ini/nacu-
Zate.
Magister, a master, as, magis-
ter}&\.
Magnus, great, as, magniiy.
Magus, a sorcerer, as, ?/iflfg-ic.
Major, greater, as, majority,
Male, 7ZZ, as, ?naZcvolent. ,
Malleus, a h-amnier, as, mallc'
able. ^,
Mamma, a breast, as, mammt-
ferouB.
Mando, I commit, I 6it^, asi^
?7iflncZate.
Mando, I chew, as, 7/ia/7cZibIe.
Maneo, I stay, as, perwicrnent
Mano, I flow, as, emartate.
Manus, the hand, as, Traanu-
script.
Mare, the sea, as, wir/rine. '^'•
Mars, the god of war, as, mat'
«iai. .'»•■*; ?*>-fijr
Mater, matris, a mother, as,
mafernal, 7;ia<n'cide.
Maturus, ripe, as m</<Mrity.
Medius, middle, as, 7n(?(Ziator.
Medeor, I heal, as, remedy.
Mel, honey, as, jneZ/ifluous. *'
Melior, AiZ/cr, as, ameZ/o}'ate.
Menda, a blemish, as, am^nd
Mendax, /ffZsc, as, menrfucity
Mendico, I beg, as, me^iZtcant
m
i#^-
LATIN ROOTS.
^35
Mens, mentis, the mindj as,
mental.
Mensum, to measure^ as, im-
mense.
* Meo, I go, as, meander.
Morgo, I plunge^ as, twhmerge
Mersum, to flange, as, im-
merse.
Mer.airh, to deserve, as, merit-
orious.
Merx, mercis, merchandise,
as, commerce.
Motior, I measure, as, male,
Migro, I remove, as, emigr&te
Miles, militis, a sold,ier, as,
" miliiSiTy. "
Mille, a thousand, as, mz7/en-
nium.
Mineo, I hang, as, pyomirtent.
Minister, a servant, as, ad//iin-
ister.
Minor, les's, as, minority,
Minuo, I lessen, as, diminish,
dhninut'ion.
Mirus, wonderful, as, admire.
Misceo, I mingle, as, pro?nis-
f'ilOi.lt!.
Jiai^'i, wretched, as, commi-
Missu.!^, ^0 ^enc^, as, mission'
ary.
Mitis, miZrZ, as, mitigate.
Mitto, I send, as, com/ni^
Mixtum, to y/iing-Ze, as, admia?-
<cre.
Modus, a measnre, as, modify.
Iilola, a millstone, flour, as,
«m,7Zuinent, immo/ate.
Moies, a heap, difficulty, as,
demolish, molest.
Mollis, soft, as, molliiy,
Moiieo, I warn, as, admoniii^
Mouitum, totoarn, as, monitor
Moustro, I show, as, demon-
strate.
Morbus, a disease, as, mor&id.
Mors, mortis, death, as, im-
7norJal.
Morsum, to hite, as, remorse,
Mos, moris, a manner, as, im-
7noral. ,
Motum, to mace, as, remote.
Moveo, I move, as, moi^eable.
Mulgo, I publish, as, promu/-
g-ate.
Multus, many, as, multiply,
Munio, I fortify, as, munition
Muuus, muneris, a gift, as,
remunerate.
Murus, a wja/Z, as, immwe.
Mutilo, I maim, as, mutildLtlon,
Muto, I change, as, mu/able.
• N. ■
Narro, I tell, as, narrative.
Nasus, the nose, as, nasal,
Natus, born, as, native.
Nauta, a sailor, as, nautical,
Navis, a ship, as, namgate.
Ne, nee, not, as, neglect.
Necto, I tie, as, cou/iec/.
Nexum, to He, as, an/iex.
Nefas, wickedness, as, ne/ari*
ous.
Nego, I (/eny, as, negative
Nervus, a sinew, as, eA?erratek
Neuter, neither, as, nruiraf.
Nex, necis, death, as, pernici-
ous.
Nihil, nothing, as, an '/i/ti^atc.
Niveo, I iu>in/r, as, connive, '
Noceo, I hurt, as, innocuous.
Nomen, a name, as, nominal.
n
186
APPENDIX.
Non, nott as, n(>n^nae.
Norma, a ru2e, as, enormous.
Nota, a mark, as, denote.
Notum, to know, ^y notify.
Novus, new>f as, renovate.
Nox, iioctis, night, as, equinoo;,
nocturnal.
Noxius, hurtful, as, obnoirious.
Nubo, I marry, as, connubial.
Nudus, naked, m, denude, '
Nu^, triflea, as, nugatory.
NuUus, none, as, annuZ.
Numerus, a number, as, m
meratiovk.
Nuncio, I tell, as, announce.
Nuptum, to marry, as, nuptialB
Nutrio, I nourish, as, nutri'
ment
O.
Obliquus, crooked, as, obliqui-
OhWy'io, forgetfulness, as,o62t-
vtous.
Obscurus, dark, as, obscurity.
Occulo, I hide, as, occult.
Octo, ei^At, as, octagon.
Oculus, the eye, as. ocul'iBi.
Odium, hatred, as, oiftous.
Odor, smell, as, ot/oriferous.
Oleo, I smell, as, o/factory.
Omen, a sign or token, as, om-
inous.
Omnis, a22, as, omnipotent.
Onus, oneris, a, burden, as, ex-
onerate.
Opacus, dark, as, opacity.
Opto, I tos^A, I choose, as, ado/)t
Opus, operis, a work, as, co-
ojserate.
Orbis, a circle, as, oritcular.
Ordo, ordinis, order, ai, or<f tii*
ary.
Oriens, rising, as, oriental.'
Origo, originis, the beginning,
as, original.
Onio, I deck, as, ornament.
Oro, I beg, I speak, as, inexor-
able, orator.
Os, ossis, a bone, as, ossify ' ^
Otium, ease, as, negotiate.
Ovum, an egg, as, oval.
P.
■i"(
Factum, to bargain, as, pac*
tion.
Pagus, a village, as, pagan.
Pallium, a cloak, as, pallidXe,
Palpo, I touch, as, /^a/pablOr
Paiido, I spread, as, expand.
Papilio, a butterfly, as, papUi'
onaceous.
Par, equal, as, /rarity. ^
Pareo, I appear, as, apparent
Pario, I beget, I ftring- forth,
as, vivij^arous.
Pare, I prepare, as, repair.
Pars, partis, a jpart, as, parti*
ciple.
Passer, a sparrow, as, passer"
ine.
Passum, or pansum, to spread,
as, eiicom/)a«5, expanse.
Passum, to suffer, as, |)aff«ive
Pastum, to feed, as, pastor.
Pater, patris, a father, as, pa-
ternal, |7atrimony. ^ ,
Patior, I suffer, as patient.
Patria, one'« country, as, /pa-
triot.
Pauci,/ew, as, pauqity.
Pauper, poor, as, /*c<t<perism.
i^l
I
LATIN ROOTS.
187
PaX} pacis, peace, as, pacific.
Pecco, I sin, as, impeccable.
Pectus, pectoris, the breast,
as, expectorBite.
Peculium, money, private prr-
perty, as, pcculvXion, pecU'
lidir.
Pecunia, money, as, pecuniary
Pello, I drive, as, compel.
Fendeo, I hang, as, auapend.
Pendo, I weigh, I think, I pay,
as, comj>e/}d[tous, expendi-
ture. .... t
Pene, almost, as, peninsula.
Penctro, I pierce, as, 'impenC'
Arable.
PeDsum, to weigh, to think, to
pay, as, dispense, pensive,
recompense.
Penuria, want, as, pent/nous.
Perpes, continual, as, perpetxx"
ate.
Pes, pedis, the foot, as, bipe^.
Pestis, a p/a^ue, as, pe«<tlence
Peto, i seek, as, appetite.
Petulans, saucy, as, petularit.
Pictum, to paint, as, depict
Pilo, I rob, as, pi71age.
Pio, I atone, as, expiate.
Piscis, a fish, as, ptxcatory.
Placeo, I please, as, placid.
Place, I appease, as, implaca-
ble.
Plaudo, I make a noise, as, ap-
plaud, explode,
Piebs, the common people, as,
p/efreian.
Plenus, full, as, repZenisb.
Pleo, I fill, as, supp2^.
Plcitutn, to fill, as, ccmpUtt,
Plico, 1 /o2i, as comp/teatct.
Ploroi I ti;at7, as« depior#
Plumbum, lead, as, plumber.
Plus, pluris, more, as, pZttral.
Pceiia, punishment, as, penal.
PcBuitet, to repent, as, impen-
i7ent.
Pondus, ponderis, weight, as,
poRcZerous.
Pono, I place, as, component.
Pons, pontis, a bridge, nn,
pontific&te.
Populus, thepeopZe, as,popuZar
Porto, I carry, as, export,
Positum, to place, as, expasi"
/ion.
Posse, to bo able, as/pos«iA4o
Posterus, next, after, as, pos-
terity.
Postulo, I demand, as, expos*
tul&te.
Potens, powerful, as, potentate
Poto, I drink, as, potation.
Prceda, plunder, as, deprecia-
tion.
Pravus, wicked, as, depravity
Precor, I pray, as, deprecate.
Prehendo, I taAe,as,appre^en({
Prehensum, to taA:e, as, com-
preAen«ion.
Pressum, to press, as, oppres-
sion.
Pretium, a price, as, appreciate
Primus, first, as, primeval.
Privus, one^sown, peculiar, as,
private, privilege.
Prpbo, I prove, as, provable.
Probrurh, disgrace, as, oppro-
brious.
Prodigium, an omen, a t0oii<-
der, as, prodigioua,
l^roles, an of f spring, 9B,prolift»
Proprius, one^s oii^n, as, appro*
fnri^Xe,
138
APPENDIX.'**^
i
t
Froximus, nearestt as, ^roxi-l Radix, radicis, a rootj as, era^^
rficatc.
Ramus, a branch f as, ramify,
Rapio, I carry off, as, rap'me,
Raptum, to carry off, as, rap-
ture.
Ranis, thin, as, rarefy. .V
Rasum, to scrape, as, erase.
Ratum, to judge, io fix, as,^
undeiTfl te, ra tify. '-.
Rectus, straight, ruled, aB>
rectilineal, dir^cfor. ' ,
Rego, 1 rule, as, rc^'ent. #.
wiity,
Pudeufi, bashful, OB, impudent.
Puer, a feoy, as, puerile.
Pngna, a fight, as, TepugnB.nt
Pulsum, to drive, as, ox/^uZsion
Pulvis, pulveris, dust, as, 2)«Z-
verize.
Punctum, to prick, as, com-
punction.
Pungo, I prick, as, expunge.
Purgo, I cleanse, as, expurga-
tion.
Pusa, a little girl, as, pusil'
lanimoQs.
Puto, I prune, I think, as, am-
pw/ate, dispM<c. • ■'f'^^'-^'^'
Putris, rotten, as, putrify.
1 .1*1 tii f ,«»1i .'
Quoero, (quiro,) I ask, as, in-
quire. "'*♦'
QusBsitum, (quisitum,)toMe^,
as, re^Mzsi^ion.
Quails, of what kind, as, qua-
lify.
Quantus, how great, as, quan-
-«ity. -^^ •*^"*
Quartus, the fourth, as, guar-
<er.
Quatuor, /oM.r, as, ^r/a^rangle.
QuasBum (cussum,) to shake,
as, quash, discuss.
Queror, I complain, as, queru'
Quiuque, five, as, futngruen-
nial. ^ ' *
Rabies, m/i /?)!«««, as, ra(|d,
Radius, a ray, as, racZtate.
Relictum, to leave, as, relict*
'iyi .''";
Repo, I creep, as, rcp/ile.
Rete, a net, as, rc^/culate. u ■
Rex, regis, a Arin^, as, rcg^al, _^
Rideo, I laugh, as, dende.
Rigeo, I am s^i/]/*, as, rfgid. {|
Rigo, I water, as, img-ate.
Risum, to laugh, as, derision
Robui:, roboris, strength f qs.
Rodo, I gnaw, as, corrode. ,€| /
Rogo, I ffsA:, as, interrog'ate. ,,r|. '.
Rosum, to gnaic, as, corrosion.
Rota, a toheel, as, rotation.
Ructo. I belch, as, oructate. ' ..
Rumeu, ♦he cud, as, ruminate >
Ruptnm, to bresik, as, irrup* . ^
<ion. lu .,-.,■„ i .-^.'.^tim
Rus, ruris, thfe country, as,
rusticate, rwral. ^.j
Sacer, sacred, as, sacrifice, ;
consecrate. au f ^tmm
Sagus, wise, as, sag'acity, pre* ^
Sal, s/r/<, as, saZine. r |: ,<t>ic>|*{
Salio, lleah, as assatX
St
Si
LATIN ROOTS.
139
^-tum, to leapt as. emsaulty
msult.
SaliiS) salutis, safety^ as, sulu'
tary.
Salvus, safe, as, salmtixoxi.
Sanctus, holyi as, sanctify.
Sanguis, sanguinis, bloody as,
sanguinwcy.
Sanus, sound, as, insanity.
Sapio, I taste, as, iuj^i/jid.
Satis, enough, as, satisfy.
Batur, /wi/, as, saturaU^.
Saxum, a rock, as, saxifrage.
Bcaudo, I climb, as, nacend.
Bciudo, I cut, as, Yescind.
Soio, I know, us, omiiis'cxence.
Scissiim, to cut', as, s^i.-r^ors
Bcribo, I write, as, su'b?rr/6e.
Bcriptimi, to write, as, insc/-i/)-
/ion.
Scrutor, I search, as, inscrttt-
able.
Sculptum, to carve, as, sculptor
Sourra, a scoffer, as, scurrilons
Sectum, to rut, as, bisect.
Seculum, the world, as, secular
Secutum, to follow, as, persc-
cute.
Sedeo, I sit, as, sedentairy.
Semen, seed, as, dissernijmte.
Semi,(Fr. demi,) half, as, «emt«
circle, de mi-god.
Senex, senis, old, as, senfiior,
senior.
Bensum, to feci, as, 50n.9ation.
Sentio, I feel, I think, as, dis-
sent.
Septcm, seven, as, «e!j7/ennia].
Sepultum, to bury, as, sepul-
tare.
Sequor, I follow, as, con«e-
l^uence.
Screnus, calm^ as, seremiyi
Sorpo, I creep, as, serpent
Serra, a saw, as, serrate.
Sertum, to knit, to join, asi»
insert.
Sessum, to sit, as, ^esmn, as-
Sid us, sideris, a star, as, aide-
real.
Signum, a mark, as, signify^
design.
Silex, B,fiint,aa, siliciona,
Silva, a wood, as, siZran.
Siinilis, ZtTre, as, dissimt'Zar, re-
semble.
Simul, at the same time, as,
simultSineoixB.
aSimuIo, 1 feign, as, diasimula" '
tion.
Sinus, the bosom, as, insmuate
Sisto, I stop, as, desist.
Socius, a companion, as, asso- '
ciato. ,
Sol, the sun, as, soZar.
Solidus, ^rm, as, consoZr!(2ate.
Sol or, I comfort, as, con«oZa<^
tion.
Solus, alone, as, soZitude.
Solutum, to loose, as, soZution. '
Solvo, I loose, as, dissoZuc.
Somnus, sZccj7, as, somnambu- *
list.
Sono, I sound, as, consonai»t '^
Sopor, sleep, as, soporific.
Sorbeo, I suc& in, as, absorfrent '
Sors, sortis, a Lot, as, consorf
Sparsum, (spersum,) to scatter ^
as, d\spers€.
Species, form, appearance, as^
specioxm. ' ^
Specio, I see, I ZooA;, as, con*
spicuous, despise.
991191
t40
APPENDIX.
Spectum, to look, as, inspect
8pero, I hope, as, desperate.
8piro, I Ifreathe, as, conspire.
Spoudeo, I promise, as, re-
spond.
Sponsum, to promise, as, spon-
sor.
'Spoiite, of OTie*s own accord,aa,
8/)onfaiieQas.
Stans, standing, as, distant.
Statum, to stand, as, statare.
Statuo, I set up, I ordain, as,
statue, constitute.
Stella, a star, as, cousteUaiiou
Sterilis, barren, as, sterility.
Sterno, I cast down, as, con-
sternaiion.
Stillo, I drop, as, distil.
Stimulus, a spur, as, stimultiie.
Stingo, I put out, as, extin-
guiah.
Stips, a piece of money, wages,
as, stipends.
S^pula, a straw, as, stipulate.
Stirps, the root, as, extirpate.
Sto, I stand, aa, contrax^
Stratum, to cast down, as, pro-
strate.
Strepo, I make a noise, as, ob-
8treperou».
Strictum, to hold fast, as, re-
strict.
Strin^o, I holdfast, as, a»<rin-
^ent.
Structum, to build, aS, con-
ttruct.
Struo, I buildf tm, construe,
destroy.
Stultus, Skfool, as, ttultity.
Suadeo, I advise, as, dmsuade
Saaaum, to udtise, as, periaa-
Aon.
Suavis, sweet, as, suaviiy.-*
Sudo, I sweat, as, exude.
Sui, of one's self, as, suicide*
Summus, the highest, as, sum
mit.
Sumo, I take^ as, resume.
Sumptum, to take, as, pre
sumption.
Surgo, I rise, as, insurgent. -
Surrectum, to rise, as, re^vv ^'
reciioii. *
. -r
T. J^^
I
Taceo, I am silent, as, tacituT-
nity. ^
Tactum, to touch, as, contocl
^ulis, such, like, as, refa/tate
Tango, I touch, as, ta/i^tble.
Tardus, slow, as, retard.
Tectum, to cover, as, pro/e^f.
Tego, I cover, as, teg-umont.
Temere, rashly, as, <em«r ity.
Temno, I despise, as, con<f?Nff^
contemptible.
Tempero, I restrain, as, in-
<c7«/)crate. *
Tempus, temporis, time, as
/«m/)oral.
Tendo, I stretch, as, extend.
Teneo, I hold, as, retain. -^'
Tento, I <r^, as, temptation.
Tentum, to stretch, as, extent
\ Tentum, to hold, as, deten-
t'lon. ''''
Tenuis, thin, as, atfenifate^ '^^
Tepeo, I am warm, as, <ej9e«
faction.
Tergum, the back, as, ietgi^
versation. ■
Terminus, t boundary, as, d#*
termine - « * v
LATIN ROOTS.
141
Terra, the earth, as, Buhteira-
neau.
Terreo, I frighlen, as, dewier.
Testa, a shell, as, teftiaccoxxB.
Testis, a witness, as, testify.
Textum, to weave, as, texture.
Timoo, I fear, as, intimid&te.
Tingo, I stain, I dip, as, tinge
Tinc^nm, to dip, as, tinctare.
Tolcro, 2 bear, as, into/erant.
Tollo, I Uft vp, as, extol.
Torpeo, I benumb, as, torpid.
Tortum, to twist, as, distort.
Tracto, I handle, as, tractable
Tractum, to draw, as, extract.
Frado, I hand down, I deliver,
ap, fra<2itionary.
T/aho, I draw, as, subf ra^end.
Tremo, I shake, as, frernul-
ous.
Trepidus, fearful, as, iiif re/)i{f .
Tribuo, I give, as, dis<ri6ute.
Tric4B, a hindrance, as^ extri-
cate.
Tritus, rubbed, as, at<n7ion.
Trudo, I thrust, as, pro/ruc/c.
Trusum, to thrust, as, in^ru-
«ioD.
Tuber, a swelling, as, pro^u-
^ 6erant.
Tuitum, to «cc, to protect, as,
infttition, ^aMage.
Tumeo, I swell, as, ^itmid.
Turba, a crowd, as, <Mr/>Mlent
Turgeo, I swell, as, iwrg'id.
Turpis, base as, fur^ztude.
U.
(Jber, fruitful, as, exuberant.
Umbra, a shadow, as, umbra-
geous. . .^
Unctum, to anomf, as, unc/u-
osity.
Uiida, a wave, as, un^ZuIato.
Uiiguo, I anoint, as, unguent.
Uiuis, 'one, as, unity.
Urbs, a city, as, urbane.
Ustum, to burn, as, com6u«h'-
ble.
Utor, I use, as, utility.
Usum, to use, as, ahuse.
Uxor, a MJi/>, as, uxorions,
V.
Vacca, a cow, as, vaccinate.
Vaco, I am empty ^ as, vacancy
Vacuus, empty, as, evacuate.
Vado, I go, as, pervadfc.
Vagor, I wander, as, extrava-
gant.
Valeo, I am strong, as, preva*
/ent.
Vallum, a rampart, as« cir-
cumvaZ/ation.
Vanus, vain, as, vanish.
Vapor, steam, as, evaporate.
Vasto, I lay waste, as, dei^a««
Nation.
Vasum, to go, as, evasion.
Vectum, to carry, as, hwectWo
Vtho, I carry, as, vehicle.
Velo, I cover, as, develop.
Velox, swift, as, vc/ocity.
Vcndo, I «c/Z, as, vendible.
Venio, I come, as, convene.
Venter, the belly, as, ven/ral.
Venlum, to come, as, advent.
Ventus, wind, as, ventilate.
Ver, the spring, as, vernal.
Verber, a stroke, as, reverber-
ate.
Verbum, a wordf as, verbose.
m
1
142
APFE.NmX.
Vergo, I h€nd^ or liet as, con-
verge.
Vermis, a woinit as, vermicyx-
lar.
Versum, to turn, as, averse.
Verto, I iuriiy as, conce/'t.
Verus, jfrae, as, verify.
Vestig^ium, a tracks as, luoes-
tig^iQ,
Vestis, a garment, as, dives/.
Vetus, veteris, old, as, iwveU-
rate.
Via, a way, as, deviato.
Victuni, to conquer, as, (victor.
Video, 1 see, as, provicfe.
Vigil, watchful, as, v/^iZant.
Vigor, strength, as, invt^orate.
Viiico, I conquer, as, invi/icible.
Viiidex, a defender, as, vindi-
cate.
Vir, a man, as, triumvi/ate.
Visum, lo see, as, wwiblo. > V "
Vila, lifr., as, w/7ul. fi
Yitu, 1 shun, as, iucvi/able.
ViU'Uiii, glass, us, vi/r«ous.
Vivo, 1 live, as, reoive.
Voco, I call, as, convoke. '
Yolo, I fj/y as, »«/atile.
Yolo, I v)iU, I HJitvA, as, vo/ua
tary, beuei^o/ent.
Voluium, to roll, as, convo/u
tioti.
Volvo, I roll, as, roro/we.
Voro, I devour, as, curniDoroui
Votum, a vow, as, devote.
Vox, vocis, the voice, as, vocal
Vulgus, the common people
as, diru/^«.
Vuhius, vulneris, a wound, as
iiivuilTi arable.
Vulsum,to pull, to tear up, ai
coni)u/«ion.
• i'.'^. A. i^V''
IV.— GREEK ROOTS.
Ago, I lead, as, domag'qgue.
Agon, a combat, aa, awiagojiisi
Adelphos, a brother, as, Fhila-
delphvd.
Aethlos, a combat, as, athletic.
Akouo, I hear, as, acozistics.
Akron, a summit, as, ^jcropolis.
Alleloi, one another, as, pav-
allel.
Alios, another, as, allegory.
Aner, andros, a man, as, diaii-
dria.
Angello, I bring' tidings, as,
evangelist.
Anthos, a flower, as, anthology
Authropos, a ?nan, us, phila/i*
thropy.
Arche, government, .\9, mon*
archy.
Ares, Mars, as, ilrfiopagus.
Argos, inactive, as, lethariry.
Aristos, Z>e«<, as, aristocracy.
Arithmos, number, as, an'/^
7/ietic.
Arktos, a bear, the north, a^
antdrclic.
Aroma, odour, as, aro7natic.
Artos, bread, as, ar^ocarpus.
Asphaltos, bitumen, as, a«<
|)/mi<ic.
1>.!-»»*1> »,
GREEir ROOTS.
143
Aiflthma, breathy as, asthmatic.
Astron, a star^ as, aslovomy.
/Vtmos, vapnii as, ntjnosphere.
AluIos, ttpipe, as, hydmi/iics.
A.uto8, one'tr tfe//, as, autocrat.
B.
Bapto, I washf as, />ap/ism.
Baros, weighfj as, /;^/romcter.
Bibios, a ^MoA*, as, 6//>/iciil.
Bios, ///c, as, biography.
Blenia, a throw, as, problem.
Bolbos, an oni»n, as, Inilhou^.
^oieo, [ shoot, I throw, as,
hyperbole.
Botane, a plant, as, botanist.
UryOf I bud, as, embryo.
,: , ■ G. "
Gamos, a marriage, as, biga-
my.
Saster, the 6e/Zy, as, gastric.
Ge, the earth, as, g-cography.
Sreno, I produce, as, hydro-
Genos, a kind, as, heteroge-
neous.
Glossa, glotta, the tongue, as,
glossary, poiygfot.
Glypho, I carve, as, hierogly-
jp/tios.
Guostos, known, as, prog'Tiosti-
cato.
Goiiia, a corner or angle, as,
trigortorfietry.
Gramma, a letter, writing, as,
diagram.
Graphe, a description, as, bio-
Grapho, I write, as, autog'rajp^.
Gymnos, naJieJ, as, gymna^
tic.
Gyne, a female, as, mono^ynia
Gyros, a circle, as, g'yratioi:^
D.
I
Daktylos, & finger, as, daciyh
Deca, <fin, as, acftflogue.
Demos, the^Jco^Ze, as, opi<ffmim
Dotidrou, a tree, as, dendret'\o
Dis, twice, as, (/isbyllable. ;
Dogma, an opinion, asf <?og't
mailc. , .- if
Doxa, an opinion, as, orthodloar
Dotos, given ^ as, awtic/oZc.
Dromos, a course, as, hippo-
drome. %{
Drus, an oaA;, as, (2rui-d.
Dynamis, power, as, (Z^Aiamicsi
E.
I
Eidos, Si form, as, kalc/rfoscope.
Epos, a word, as, orthoepy. .
Eremos, a desert, as, eremite,
* (hermit) ^
Ergon, a worA:, as, energy,
metallM7g-y.
Ethos, manners, custom, as^
e^jbtcal. "
Ethnos, a natim, as, e^AnicaU«
Eu, iceW, as, eulogy.
z. ■
Zoon, an animal, as, zoology.
H. (Greek E.) '
Hagios, holy, as, Radiography
Haima, blood, as, Aemorrhago
144
APPBNDIX.
Harmoiiia, agreemtnt, as, har-
mony.
Hebdonias, a week, as, hehdo-
mndfx\.
Heketon, a hundred, as, heca-
tomb.
Helios, the aun, as, peri/te/ion.
Hemera, a day, as, ephemeral.
Hcmt, half, "9, hemmyltiere.
Heptu, seven, as, heptarchy.
Hoteros, diaaimilar, as, hete-
rodox.
Hex, six, as, hexagou.
Hieipiit fioly, as, Aterarchy.
Hippos, a horse, ats, hippopo-
tamus.
Holos, the whole, all, as, holo-
graph, catAoiic.
Ho^os, a way, as, method.
Homos, like, as, /tov/iogeneous.
Hydor, water, as, hydro^ai'ica
Hygros, moist, as, A^^rcjincter
TH. (Greek ©.)
* *
Theos, god, as, atheist.
Therme, heat, as, Mermometdt
Thesis, a placing, as, antitA-
Ichthys, A fish, as, «cA<Ayology
Idios, peculiar, as, t(2toniatic.
Isos, equal, as, Mosceles.
Kakos, 6(i<2, as, racophony.
Kalos. heautifml,VLB,ca!i'gT&fhy
Kaiypto, I cover, as, apoca-
lypss.
Kaiion, a rule, as, ciinonical.
Kardiu, the heart, as, peiicar
dixim.
K'iXrpoa, fruit, as, arto(;arj)ii«.
Kephale, the head, as, hydro
cephalwH.
Koiicho, a »/«e//, us, corichology
Kosinos, order, the worlds
beauty, as, co«7/iogoiiy, cot-
motic.
Kratos, power, government,
as, uriutocfvicy.
Krites, a judge, as, cn^erioo.
Krypto, I hide, as, crypt, apo«
crypha. J'
Kyklos, a circle, as, cyc/opedia.
L.
Laos, the people, as, /aity. f
Lethe, forgetjulness, as, /eiA-
argy.
Leipo, I leave, as, eIZ7|>sis,
Lithos, a stone, as, /tiAography
Logos, a word, a descriptionp
as, /o^omachy, geology, t
Lysis, a loosening, as, ana/3^-
st«, para/^2e.
M
Mache, a battle, as, nauintfcA]^
Mania, madness, as, maniac.
Mantis, a prophet, a diviner,
as, necromancy.
Martyr, a ui<ncM, as^ martyr*
ology.
Mathema, learning, science,
as, ma^Aematics.
Melan, black, as, me/arzcholy.
Meter, metros, a mother, as*
metropolis.
, -if
6RBSK ROOTS.
UH
lietron, a mcti8uret as, ther-
motH'.'fer,
Mikros, litUef us, microscope.
Misoe, hatred^ as, 7nttfaiithropy
Monos, alune, as, T/ioz/osy liable
Morpho, a shape, au, meta/no/-
pAoae.
Mythotf) fx fable, as, mythology
N.
Kaus, a «/<ri/), as, Tiat/machy.
Kekros, dead, us, nerrornaucy
Keos, net/;, as, y/eology.
Kesos, uii island, as, pelopon-
Komas, nomados, feeding on
pasture, as, nomadic.
Noinos, a law, as, astronomy.
Ko8M« disease, as, nosology.
|'»(V<f« ,
O.
Dde, a ffong*, as, monody
Oligos, fcu), as, o//garchy.
Oikeo, I dwell, as, parocAial.
Onoma,a name, as, anonymous
Ophis, a serpent, as, ophiology
Opto, I «ee, as, ojp^ics.
Orama, a thing seen, a specta-
cle, as, paiio/ama.
Ornifl, ornithos, a 6trd[, as, or-
nt<Aology.
OrtH«Mr ti^ht, as, orMography.
Osteon, a 6one» aa, ostfology.
Ostrakoii, 9. shell, as, ostracism
Oxys, acid, as, o^rygeii.
P.
I:^£0B, a hillf as, Areopagus.
Pais, paidos, a 6oy, as, peda^
goguo.
Puideia, instruction, as, cyolo*
Pus, pan, a2/, ap, jpanthooa.
Pa too, I walk, uh, panpateiic
Pathos, feelings as, Byi\\pathf»
Venie, Jive, as, />e//<agou.
Petros, a stone, us, petrify.
Plane, wandering, us, ^/anet
Polemos, toar, as, />o/emical.
Poleo, I «e//, as, monopoly,
Pol is, a ci/y, as, nictro/)o/t«. .
Polys, many, &a, poly Iheai,
Poturnos, a river, us, hippopo*
tamus.
Pons, podos, the foot, aa, polf^
pus, mil'ipode^
Praktos, done, as, impractlet^
ble.
Presbyteros, uu eZJer, as, pref*
frytei'ian. ;
Pteron, a wing, as, aptera,
Pyr, pyroa, Jire, us, j^^rometem
K.
•V-u ,•
Rheo, I flow, as, hemorrAagek
S.
Sarks, sarkos, ^ej^^j as, sarc^^
phagus.
SkeloSi tha leg, as, iso«ceZef. [
Skeptoniai,I(2e/i6era<e,I(2ottO<
as, «ce^/ioal.
Skopeo, £ look, as, telescope.
Sepo, I putrefy, as, antiseptic^
Sitos, corn, as, parasite.
Sophia, wisdom, as, phUoM-
phy.
mmmmmiw
Ui
APPENmX.
Stello, I sendi&B, tipostln.
Stereos, solid, firing as, stereo-
type.
Stoa, a porch t as, stoic.
Stratos, an m /ny, fiSyStratsigem
Strepliu, 1 lunti as, penstreph'ic
Strophe, a £ur/ii/}^,as, apostro-
phe.
T.
Tautosjthe same, as, iavtd\o^y
TechnOf art, &s, tcchnica.].
Telos, the end, distance, as,
telcHCope.
Totras, /wMr, as, tetrarchy.
Teuchos, 'dhook^ as, peniixteuch
Tithemi, I put, I suppose, as,
hypotheticaX.
Tonio^:, a section, a cutting,
a«, a .la/omy.
Tono», the sound of the voice,
as, monofo/ty.
•ropt»8. a place, as, <oj)ography.
Trope, a turnings as, trojpt;,
<ro//io.
TH. (Greek 0.)
Ph«go,I ««/, as, ap.hropo/j/ttf^f
Ph.aiiiotnui, 1 appear f as, phe-
nome non.
Pharmakon, a drug, as, phar-
macy.
Phlebs, phiebos, a vein, ai^
phlebotomy.
Fhohoa, fear, as, hodrophobitu^
Phono, the voice, as, eophbny
Phos, photos, light, as, photo*
meter.
Phrusia, a saying, an cxpreS"
sion, as, /jAra-^cology.
Phreu, the mind, as, phrenom
logy.
Plithongos, a sound, as, dij^A^
thong.
Physis, nature, cjs, physiolo^*
Phyton, a plant, as, zoophyte^
CK. (Greek X.)
Chalkos, 6ra»9, 7ii, chalcogr9>^
ph y.
Chalyps, «<e«Z, as, <;AaZybeat6b
Charis, charitos, grace, love^
as, charity.
Cheir, the hand, as, c/iiVogra-
phy, c^irurgeon, (surgeon.)
Chilioi, a thousand, as, cAt7iad
Chole, A»/c, as, melanc/foZy.
Chronos, tiine, as, c/tro^/ometei.
Chrysob, gold, as, cAr^^olite^^
PS. (Greek r.) ♦<*
Pseudos, & falsehood, as, pseu^
do'Uposile.
FhiloB, 'a /nenrf, as, DAiian-lPsyc**®' ^''««'*» >*»« *'''«^' ••l
tUropy. . ' metem|)»ycAo8i8. ^
^.V^'^TV, ^-.m
*>\tt Jl>
Z'^H.
I
^\n\ ,
<r
147
ophdny
I, photo*
cxpreS'
phrenom
^ophytef
'Icogrt^
^beatflw
/rogra-
^geon.)
holy.
)mete&
solite.*
pseu*
i>ili'
.t»t
COxMPOSITION.
CoAirosnioN is the art of expressing thouglit in vTitten
Jangi.iige.
^ To compose correctly, it is necessary to have a kuowledg©
of thp rules of Orthography ^ or the spelling of M^ords ; Ety-
mologVt or the uses and inflections of the various parts of
speech; and Syntax^ or the connexion of words in eentences.
To co^npose correctly and perspicuously, it is further ne-
cessary to have a knowledge of the rules of Punctuationf
Arrangementt and Style, and of th« use o{ Figurative Lan^
guage.
The rules of Orthography, Etymology, and Syntax have
been ah'eady given, together with the mode of applying
them in analyzing the writings of others. The object
of Composition is to teach the pupil to apply them in
giving written expressions to his own sentiments. The
following rules, observation^:, and exercises on punctua-
tion, arrangement, tstyle, and figurative language,
, .. will enable him to express his thoughts, not only with
y.^, accuracy, but with perspicuity and taste.
-^■i
'V2„^?l
I.— PUNCTUATION.
The points used to mark the grammatical structure of
sentences, are the same as those which are used to denote the
principal pauses ; namely, the comma (,), the semicolon (;),
the colon ( : ), the period ( . ), the point of interrogation (? ),
the point of exclamation ( ! ), the dash ( — ), «\ud the parens
thesis ( ).
COMMA.
I. — When the subject of a sentence consists of several word^
a comma may sometimes, for the sake of distinctness,
148
APPENDIX.
placed immediately before the verb ; as, I'o take sinecure
pleasure in the blessings and excolleucias of others, is a siire
mark of a good heart
In general, a simple sentence requires 04ily the period
at the end ; as, The real wants of nature are soon sa-
tisfied.
n. — When seyeral words of the same cflass follow 01.3
another, withoui conjunctions, commas are placed between
Ihem ; as. Reputation, virtue, happiness greatiy depend on
the choice of companions. John is a plain, honest, indus-
trious man. It is the duty of a ftlend to advise, comfott*
•short. Success depends on aoting prudentlyi 'steadily,
Yt|rorously.
1 When several words of a class follow each other,
a comma is placed between the last two, although the
conjunction is expressed ; as, Alfred was a brave, pious,
and patriotic prince. ^ ^
2. When words of the same class foKow each other in
pairs, a comma is placed between each pair ; as, Truth .
is fair and artless, simple and sincere, uniform and
constant.
3. When two words of the same class are joined by a
conjunction, they do not require a comma between thom ;
as. Religion purifies and ennobles the mind.
III. — The members or clauees of a compound sentence are
generally separated by commas ; as, He studios diligently,
and makes great progress. Peace of mind being secured,
we may smile at misfortunes. To confess the truth, I was
greatly to blame.
When the relative immediately follows the ahteceacnl,
or when the sentence is short, the comma may bb
omitted ; as. He who cares only for himself, has but
few pleasures. Candour is a quality which all admire.
IV. — Words denoting the person or object addressed, and
words placed in apposition, are separated by commas; as.
My son, give .iie thy hearU The butterfly, child of the sam*
fner, flutters in the sun.
PUNCTTI^TION.
*v
hi
and
as,
|Him«
V. — ^Word9 which express opposition or contrast, aro se*
parated by a comma ; as, He was learned, but not pedaptk«*
Though deep, yet clear j though gentle, yet not dull.
VI. — When a verb, or any other important word is omitted»
Hi place m sometimes suppled hy a comma ; as, From law
ftrisea stcurity ; from security, inquiry ; from inquiry, know
VII. — Adverbial and modifying words and phrases are
sometimes separated by commas ; as. Finally, let me repeat
what I stated before. His work is, in many respects, su*
pfsrior to mine. A kind word, nay, even a kind look, often
afibrdft comfort to the afflicted.
VIII. — An expression, supposed to be spoken, or takmi
from another writer, but not formally quoted, is preceded by
|i comma ; as, I say unto all. Watch. Plutarch calls lying,
the vice of slaTes*
" IX. — A word or phrase emphatically repeated, is separated
l^y a comma ; as. Turn ye, turn ye, why will ye die?
t " •
X. — Words directly spoken or quoted, are marked by in-
verted commas above the line ; as, '* Com< said he, '* let
W try this bow."
SEMICOLON.
•;> .>.',
*^' I. — When a sentence consists of two parts, the one com-
plete in itself, and the ether added as an inference, or to give
some explanation, they are separated by a semicolon ; as,
Kooiiomy is no disgrace ; for it is better live on a little, than
to outlive a great deal.
li U**:?
1. When the preceding clause depends on the follow-
ing, a semicolon is sometimes used ; as. As coals ore to
burning coals, and wood to fire ; so is a contertious man
to kindle strife.
2.-^A semicolon » soraetimes put between two clauses,
which have no necessary dependence upon each otlMr «
m, Straws swim, at the surface; but pearls He at Ui«
bottom. .J
wBsm.
150
APPENDIX.
it. — AVhen a sentence contains an enumeration of several
particulars, the clauses are generally separated by seini*
colons ; as, Philosophers assert that Nature is uulimited in her
operations; that she has inexhaustiVo treasures in reserve;
that knowledge will always be progressive ; and that ah
fqture generations will continue to make discoveries, of which
wo havo not the slightest idea. /Ji^ii^'
if/'*
COLON.
.♦.:
.I- *,
I. — ^Whcu a sentence consists of two parts, the oiie com-
plete in itself, and the other containing an additional romark,
the sense but not the syntax of which depends on the former,
they are separated by a colon : as, Study to acquire the
habit of thinking : no study is more important.
Whether a colon or semicolon shoirid be used wmo-
times depends on the insertion or omission of a cott'-
junction ; as. Do not flatter yourself with the hope of
perfect happiness: there is no such thing in the world.
Do not flatter yourselves with ♦he hope 'of perfect hap-
piness ; for there is no such thing in the world. t- • •
li. — When the sense of several members of a sentence,
which are separated from each other by semicolons, depends
on th<, last clause, that clause is generally separated from the
other.9 by a colon ; as, A divine legislator, uttering his voice
from heaven ; an almighty governor, stretching forth his arm
to revifard or pimish : these are considerations which over-
awe the W(jrld, support integrity, and check guilt.
III. — When an example or quotation is introduced, it in
sometimes separated from the rest of the sentence by a colon }
as, The Scriptures give us an amiable representation of the
Deity in these words : " God is love."
♦">'-;*t
iM ^ ^^i..M^\%* '.
PERIOD, &0. !» .:fH:^H ^
.U'l
:..<.. I 'I
*»-«•. i
«n'
The Period is used at the end of all sentences ^iless thei
are interrogative or exclamatory ; as, Cultivate the lore d
truth.
PUNCTtJATION.
I5t
'Til© peridd is also used after abbreviations ; as, K. C. B.,
t&r Knight Commander of the Bath.
The the point of interrogation is used after sentences which
l^k questions ; as, Whence comest thou ?
The point of exclamation is used after words or senleucea
which express emotion ; as, O peace ! how desirable thou
art I
The dash is used to mark a break or abrupt turn in a
•ontence ; as,
Here lies the great^ — False marble, where ?
Nothing but sordid dust lies here.
The parenthesis is used to enclose an explanatory clause
or member of a sentence, not absolutely ne,cessary to the
sense ; us,
>1 • '
*^^Stt«
.^ Know then this truth (enough for man to know,)
Virtue alone is happiness below.
EXERCISES.
^#'1
Write the following exercises, and supply the points which
are omitted : —
The intermixture of evil in human society serves to exer-
cise the suffering graces and virtues of the good. Deliberate
slowly execute promptly. The great business of life is to be
employed in doing justly loving mercy and walking humbly
with our Creator. The young and the old the rich and
the poor the learned and the ignorant must all go down
to the grave. Charity like the sun brightens all its ob-
jects. Trials in this stage of being are the lot of man. The
path of piety and virtue pursued with a firm and constant
spirit will assuredly lead to happiness. What can be said
to alarm those of their danger who intoxicated with plea-
•ures become giddy and insolent; who flattered by the illu-
eioiifl of prosperity make light of every serious admonition
which their friends and the changes of the world give them?
To enjoy present pleasure he sacrificed his future ease and
159
APP5NPIX.
reputation. ContUiue my dear child to make virtue thy prin*
eipal study. Content the ofTspring of religion dwells botk
in retirement and in the active scenes of life. He who is a
stianger to industry may possess but he cannot enjoy. It if
the province of superiors to direct of inferiors to obey ; oi
the learned to be instructiie of the ignorant to be docile ; of
the old to be communicative of the young to be attentive and
dlilivent. Gentleness is in truth the great avenue to mutual
enjoyment. Be assured therefore that order frugality and
economy are the necessary supports of every personal and
private virtue. One of the noblest of Christian virtues is to
love our enemies. Against thee thee only have I sinned. All
our conduct towards men should be influenced by this im«
portant precept : Do unto others as you would that others
should do unto you.
«... I
The passions are the chief destroyers of our peace the
storms and tempests of the moral world. As the eerth
moves round the sun it receives sometimes more and some-
times less of his liglit and heat and thus are produced the
long warm days of summer and the long cold nights of
winter. The path of truth is a plain and safe path that of
falsehood is a perplexing maze. To give an early preference
to honour above gain when they stand in competition to
despise every advantage which cannot be attained without
dishonest arts to brook no meanness and stoop to no 4uPt
sinmlation are the indications of a great mind the presaget
of future eminence and usefulness in life
Do not flatter yourself with the hope of perfect happiness
()t.>ere is no such thing in the world. There is no mortal truljr
vr'wfi and restless at once wisdom is the repose of minds. If
he has not been unfaithful to his king if he has not {Hvved
a traitor to his country if he has never given cause for suck
ehaj'gcs as have been preferred against him why then is ho
afraid to confront bis acrusem? The Uiree great enemies
to tranquillity are vice superstition (uid idleness vice whiek
poisons and disturbs the mind with bad passions superstition
which fills it with imaffinary terrors idleness which leads it
witii tediousness and disgust When Socrates was askod
Vhat man approached the nearest to perleot happiness li«
iMunrered ** That man who has the fewest wanted"
■I
ptrlWJirtrA^iON.
m
WorKHy happittisft^ evtr tdiids to deelrdy tlsetf by comi|>U
j^ the heart It fosters the loose and the violent passions
It engenders noxious habits and taints the mind with fsdse
delicacy which niakes it feel a thousand unreal evils Coh-
itantine the Great was advanced to the sole dominion of the
Ronnan Empire A D 335 and soon after openly professed tho
Chi-istian faith We wait till to-mdrrow to be happy alaii
trtiy not to-day Bhall we be younger Are we sure we shall
be healthier Will our passions become feebler and our love
of the world less Beauty and strength combined with virtue
and piety how lovely in the sight of men how pleasing to
heaven peculiarly pleasing because with every temptation to
deviate they voluntarily walk in the path of duty On the
ene hand are the Divine approbation and immortal honottf
ea the other remember and beware are the stingo of cdtt'*
•oieiice and endless infamy.
»vj . ■:> 1
•^'•'*I^e eagle nlay be consi^.ered among birds what, the lion is
ftMen^ quadrupeds and in many respects they hf.ve a strong
^militude to each other. They are both possessed of force
^nd an empire over their fellows of the forest Equally mag-
nanimous they disdain small plunder and only pursue ani-
mals worthy of conquer It is not till after having been lonj^
l^tovoked by the crie^ of the rook or the magpie that this
generous bird thinks fit to punish it with death Tht^ eagle
lAsb disdains to share the phu.der of another bird and wiU
devour no other prey than thaf, which he has acquired by his
own pursuit How hungry soever he may be he stoops not
to carrion and when satiated never returns to the same car-
case but leaves it for other animals more rapacious and less
delicate than himself Solitary like the lion he keeps the
desert to himself alone it is as extraoidinary to see two pair
of eagles in the same mountain as two lions in the same
forest They keep separate to find a more ample supply and
consivier the quantity of their game as the best proof of their
dominion. Nor does the similltade of thiese animals stop hei*e
they have both sparkling eyes and are nearly of the same
^dlbar their claws are of the same form their breath is equally
strhWf; and their cry equally loud and terrifying Bred both
foi ^ar they are the enemies of all society alike fierce preud
incapable of being easily tamed.
an
164
APPENDIX.
JSir Isaac Newton possessed a remarkably mild and even
temper This great man on a particular occasion was called
out of his study to an adjoining apartment. A little dog
named Diamond the constant but incurious attendant of his
master's researched happened to be left among the papers
and threw down a lighted candle which consumed the almost
finished labours of some years. Sir Isaac soon returned and
had the mortification to behold his irreparable loss But
with his usual self-possession he only exclaimed Oh Diamond
Diamond thou little knowest the mischief thou hast done.
By the unhappy excesses of irregiilar pleasure in youth
how many amiable dispositions are corrupted or destroyed
How many rising capacities and powers are suppressed How
many flattering hopes of parents and friends are totally ex*
tinguished Who but must drop a tear over human nature
when he beholds that morning which arose so bright over-
cast with such untimely darkness that sweetness of temper
which once engaged many hearts that modesty which was
80 prepossessing those abilities which promised extensive
usefulness all sacrificed at the shrine of low sensuality and
one who was formed for passing through life in the midst of
public esteem cut off by his vices at the beginning of hia
course or sunk for the whole of it into insignificance and
contempt These O sinful Pleasure are thy trophies It is
thus that co-operating with the foe of God and man thou
degradest human honour and blastest the openii^g prospect!
of human felicity. 'u . ; ,,
II. ARRANGEMENT.
The arrangement of words in sentences is either grawh
matical or rhetorical.
Grammatical arrangement is the order in which words ara
generally placed in speaking and writing.
' Rhetorical arrangement is that order of the words, in whick
the emphacical parts of the sentence are placed first
ARRANGEMENT.
155
.vr
For this reaeoii, the rhetorical armngement is also
called the emphatioaL It is used chiefly iu poetry and
hiipassioned prose.
The following rules teach the grammatical arrango-
meiit ; the rhetorical arrangement i& explained in tht
notes, which follow each rule.
' 1. — The subject or nominative generally precedes the verb
as William reads ; we write ; to obey his teacher is the duty
of a good scholar.
1. The nominative comes after the verb in the follow*
ing instances : —
When the sentence is interrogative ; as, Heard you
that peal of thunder ?
When the sentence is imperative ; as. Go thouy comt j*
When a supposition is expressed by an ellipsis; as.
Were / in your situation, I should not hesitate a iio-
mont.
When the sentence begins with the words there t here,
&/C. ; as, There was a great commotion among the peo*
pie ; here are the rioters.
When the verb is preceded by neither or nor; ob,
Neither were his services of small importance, nor was
his country unmindful of them.
2. The nominative is also placed after the verb, to give
spirit and emphasis to the sentence; as, Fallen is thy
throne, O Israel. Great is Diana of the Ephesians.
II. — The article always precedes the noun, whose significa
4on it limits ; as, A house, an inkstand, the dog.
tSfi»if''tl. When the noun is qualified by an adjective, the ar
tide is generally placed before the adjective; as, ^1 good
man, the wisest king.
2. The indefinite article is placed between the noua
and the adjectives many and such; and also between
the noun and all adjectives which are preceded by as, bo
<oo and how; as, Many a learned man has been do* •
•■iu
if'
MM
m
AJPP^IfDlX.
peiyed : such an occurreQce is not likely to take place*
80 great mitttitude ; ho\^ mighty a prince.
Tiie definite article is placed between the noun and
the adjective all; ^m, ^11 the books on the table.
III. — The adjective generally precedes the noun which it
qualifies ; as, A swift horse, an honest man.
1. The adjective is placed after the noun in the fof.
lowing instances : —
When it is used as a title ; as, Alexander the Great.
When other words depend upon it ; as, A man emineni
m his profession.
When it expresses dimension ; as, A wall ten feet
high.
.^. When it expresses the effect of an active verb ; as, Vict
renders men miserable.
When an intransitive verb comes between it and the
noun or pronoun ; as, It seems strange,
2. The adjective, when it is emphatic, is sometime!
placed at the beginning of a sentence, and at a distance
from the noun ; as, Just and true are all thy ways.
IV. — The pronoun of the third persdii is placed after thai
•f the second ; and the pronoun of the first person after those
of the second and third ; as. You and / will go, if they will
accompany us ; shall it be given to you^ to hiitit or to me 7
V. — Active verbe^generally {M'ecede the words which they
{[overa ; as, I wrote a letter ; learn your lesson.
1. The relative pronoun is placed before active verbs;
as. He is a man whom I greatly esteem,
2. When the objective case is emphatic, it sometime!
precedes the verb ; as, Silver and gold have 1 none*
VI. — The infinitive mood generally follows the word which
faverne it ; as, lie loves to learn ; I shall gif-
When the infiniiive'is the emphatic word, it sometimes
precedes the verb which governs it ; as. Do it yoi| must
•TW
mmmm
AREANGEMENT.
ItIT
VII. — Adverbs aro generally placed immediately beforo Of
immodiately after t\ o words which they qualify ; as, Very
fpiod ; he acted wist.iy.
Adverbs, wbsn emphatical, are sometimes placed a|
the beginning of a sentence, and at a distance from the
wordfi which \\ty qualify ; as, How gracefully that yoang
gentleman riac 6 his horse. •*
VIII. — Prepef'Hions are generally placed before the words
wh^ch they govt-ra ; as. From him, to them.
Preposifous are sometimes placed after tho wordi
which th*v govern, and at a distance from them ; af|
Such cof..«[jct I am at a loss to account for.
IX. — Cocjanctions are placed between the words or clausei
which they connect; as, Come and see; be caution^ ftttl
apoak the inXh.
1. Conjunctions of one syllable, with the exoeptton
of ti-niy are always placed first in the clauses or sen-
I ten^^^f s which they connect ; as. Virtue is praised by
mw!ij, and doubtless she would be desired also, \f her
iro}lh were really known ; see, iheut that you do i|8«he
Cftquires.
S. Conjunctions of more than one syllable (witii the
WKception of whereas, which must always be the fint
word in the sentence or clause,) may bo transferred to
the place where it is most agreeable to the ear in read-
ing ; as, Piety and holiness will make our whole life
happy, whereas, sinful pursuits will yield only to a few
scattered pleasures: let us diligently cultivate the for-
mer, therefore, while we carefully abstain from tho
latter.
• r-
EXERCISES.
Write the following sentences, and correct the arrange*
•ent , ..
|j| Ifnown to Him who made us, every desire of the hear^
f llil heavily upon the envious, common calamiAfies, and com*^
qtom WooHings. Neither gross, nor exeessively reined tbrnild
.14
158
APPENDIX.
be our maunera. How we can spend our time foolishly)
when we know that hereafter we must give an account of our
thoughts, words, and actions? Thou boast not of the fa-
vours bestowest tliou. Ho wore ever so great and opulent,
this conduct would debase him. Nothing is there on earth
to stable, as to assure us of undisturbed rest These firea
0hall glow still redder.
Man is noblest the work of the creation. Ho is much a
better writer than reader. A many a man has attained ia-
dependence by industry and perseverance. Do not enter-
tain a too high opinion of yourselft I am ashamed to tell
how a great mistake I have committed. Greater the part of
the furniture is removed, but the all servants remain.
Yiduth virtuous gradually brings forward manhood ao-
complished and flourishing. A spirit temperate, and ex-
pectation moderate, are safeguards excellent of the mind,
m this state uncertain and changing. The Great Peter of
Russia, wrought in the dook-yards, as a ship-carpenter. He
is a good, and respectful scholar to his teacher. This long
room is twenty feet, and wide sixteen feet. Your bounty
has rendered that old quite comfortable man. They that
. mourn are blessed ; for they shall be comforted. I and you
.will remain. If Tullia and you are well, I and Cicero are
well.
Patience, by composure preserving within, the impression
resisfs trouble makes which from without. No opportunity
of doing good neglect. They opulence lias made proud whom»
and luxury has corrupted whom, cannot the simple plousurea
of nature relish. I defy thy threats, thy mercy. To walk
too hastily you ought not. Vo do a kind action I need not
aoVuiit him. I must go whatever may ensue.
She properly reads, very, neatly writes, and accuiatoly
composes. He agreeably came to his promise, and suitably
conducted himself to the occasion. The blow came down.
How do the kind offices of a dutiful and affectionate child
greatly gladden the heart of a parent, when sinking under
age or infirmities especially .' I hope it is not I whom he is
displeased with. Do you know whom you speak to? Whom
do you offer such language to? It was not him that they
ARRANGEMENT.
ISO
firere bo angry with. Him between and me there is soml dis-
parity of years ; «>uone but him between and her. Theiii
como, let us go home.
Fancifully have of a river, the origin and progress been
compared to of man the life. Insignificant nre its beginnings,
and frivolous is its infancy ; of a nieudow among the flowers
it plays ; a garden it waters, or a little mill turns. In its
youth strength gathering, wild and impetuous it becomes.
Of the restraints impatient which it still meets with in the
Hollows among the mountains, restless and fretful it is ; iu
Its turning quick, and in its course unsteady. It is a roaring
catartci now, whatever opposes its progress, tearing up and
overturnii\g, and from a rock down it shoots headlong ; it
becomes a sullen and gloomy pool then, in the bottom of a
gleu buried. Breath recovering by repose, along it dashes
iigain, till, of uproar and mischief tired, all that it has swept
along it quits, and of the valley the opening leaves with the
rejected waste strewed. Now^ its retirement quitting, abroad
into tlir world it comes, with more prudence and discretion
jount-^y g through cultivated fields,, to circumstances yield-
ing, and winding round to overwhelm or remove what would
trouble it. Through the populous cities it passes, and of
man all the busy haunts, its services on every side tendering,
and of the country becomes the support and ornament. By
numerous alliances increa. ed, and in its course advanced,
grave and stately it becomes in its motions, peace and quiet
loves ; and in silence majestic rolls on its waters mighty till
to rest it is laid iu the vast abyss.
Indeed, you have been justly informed, with regard to my
poverty. In a house but of mean appearance, and of ground
a liltle spot, my whole estate consists ; I draw my support
from which, by my own labour. By any means, but if
vou have been persuaded, to think, thai in any degree un-
happy this poverty renders me, greatly you are deceived. Of
Providence I have no reason to complain ; with all that na-
ture requires it supplies me ; and if without superfluities I
am, from the desire of them I am also free. I confess, with
these I should be more able the necessitous to succour, the
only advantage for which to be envied are the wealthy : but
IS my small possessions are still to the assistance of ray
ftieodn I can contribute something.
■^H*
100
AVnMDtt. ^
\^
Change the follewing paseagee of poetry into pfoUe s
If good we plant not, vice will fill the place ;
Anv rankest weeds the richest soils deface.
C"?
A solitary blessing tew can find ;
Our joys with those we love are intertwined ;
And he whobo wakeful tenderness removed !^i H
TW obstructing thorn which wcvinds the friend ho lovtib
Smooths not another's ruggeu path alone, "•
But scatters roses to adorn his own.
...J
Thou holy harp of Judah's land,
That hung thy willow bour-hs upon,
O leave the bowers on Judah s strand,
And cedar groves of Libauon ;
That I may sound thy sacred string,
Those chords of mystery sublime,
That chimed the son^s of Israel's king :
Songs that shall triumph over mine.
Is there a soi^ of generous England here.
Or fervid Erin 1 — he with us shall join,
To pray that in eternal union dear, K V
The rose, the shamrock, and the thistle twine,
TypcA of a race who shall to time unborn
Their country leave uncouquer'd as of yoru.
O youth is like the sprir^g-tide mom.
When roses bloom on Jordan's strand,
And far the turtle's voice i;^ borne
Through aU Judea's echoing land !
When the delighted wanderer roves
Through cedar woods, and olive groves.
That spread their blossoms to the day ;
And climbs tlie hill, and fords the stream,
And basks him in the noontioe beam,
.A.nd cries, 'mid his delicious dream,
««0 I wouldlJvqalway!"
But age is like the winter's night,
When Hcrmon wears his nmutle*ctoud,
. When moon and stars withdraw their lighl»
And Hiunom's blast i» long and \^vd.
»
• ""..ifW!
"4
,! .'/I
I
ABRANOBMENT.
When the dejected pilgrim strayii
Along the desert's trackless ma^e.
Forsaken by each friendly ray ;
And feels no vigour iu his limb,
And finds no home on earth for him»
And cries, amid the shadows dim,
" I would not live alway."
When Israel, of the Lord beloved.
Out from the land of bondage came,
Her father's God before her moved,
An awful guide, in smoke and flame.
By day along the astonish'd lands.
The cloudy pillar glided islow ;
By night Arabia's crimson'd sands
Return'd the fiery pillar's glow.
m
Then rose the choral hymn of praise.
And trump and timbrel answer'd keen ;
And Zion's daughters pour'd their lays.
With priests' and warriors' voice between.
No portents 'now our foes amaze.
Forsaken Israel wanders lone ;
Our fathers would not know thy ways.
And thou hast left them to their own.
«■•
ffi
TRANSPOSITION AND VAJIIETY OF FXPKESSION.
Sentences often admit of a considerable variety of arrange*
ment.
T\m changing of one mode of arrangement fot another U
Mlled iran9po8itioH,
The following example will show how the memben of
a sentence inay be transposed. The Rym^n «/a<e ««»-•
dently declined, in proportion to the incrf^^e of luxurf/^
The Roman ttate, in proportion to the inereaee of
luxury, evidently declined* In propffr^i^n, t^ jt^f in*
§rmf€ rf Inamry, th$ Romnn §t^t9 mdentl^ 4f^U^4
14*
myt
A^rBNDIX.
The ideas in a sentence may also be expressed in yanoti»
forms.
Thus, The brother deserved censure more than his sis*
ter. The sister was less reprehensible than her brother.
The sister did not deserve reprehension^ so much as her
brother. Reproof was due to the brother t rather than to
the sister.
Change the following sentences^ by transposing the mem"
herSy or by varying the forpi of expression : —
I am williilg to remit all that is past, provid d it may bo
done with safety. Ho who made ligrht to spring from pri-
meval darkness, will make order, at least, to arise from the
Beeming confusion of the world. The man who can mako
light of the snlTerings of others, is himself entitled to lo
compassion. Whoever considers the uncertainty of human
affairs, and how frequently the greatest hopes are frustrated,
will see just reason to be always on his guard, and not place
too much dependence on things so precarious. Let us not
conclude, while dangers are at a distance, and do not imme- ,
diately approach us, that we are secuire, unless we use the
necessary precautions to prevent them: Those things which
appear great to one who knows nothing greater, will sink
into a diminutive siz3, when he becomes acquainted with
objects of a higher nature.
He who improves in modesty, as he improves in knowledge,
has an undoubted claim to greatness of mind. I will attend
the conference, if I can do so conveniently. Ho who lives
always in the bustle of the world, lives in a perpetual war-
fare. The spirit of true religion breathes gentleness and
affability. Industry is not only the instrument of improve-
ment, but the foundation of pleasure. The advantages of
this world, even when innocently gained, are uncertain bless*
ixigs. When you behold wicked men multiplying in ^umbor,
aiid increasing in po^er, imagine not that rrovidenco par-
ticularly favours thein. A wolf lot into the sheepfoldi will
devour the sheep. ].* 7 , ^'v
''TopaM our time in the study of the sciences hu, Hi all
age«i bef n reckoned one of the most dignified and happy of
I--':
.y
iA
8T7LE.
liman occupations ; And the name of Philosophers, or Lovers
«f Wisdom, is given to those who lead such a life. But it is
ly no,means necessary that men should do nothing e^e than
study known truths, and explore new, in ord*»r to earn this
title. Some of the greatest philosophers, in all ages, have
been engaged in the pursnits of active life : and he who, in
whatever station his lot may be cast, prefers the refined and,
elevating pleasures of knowledge to the low gratification jpf
the senses, richly deserves the name of a Philosopherl
By science we are raised to an understanding of the in-
finite wisdom and goodness, whicfh the Creator has displayed'
in all his works. Not a step can we take in any direction,
without perceiving the most extraordinary traces of design |
and the skill, every where conspicuous, is calculated, in so
vast a proportion of instances, to promote the happiness of
living creatures, and especially of ourselves, that we can feel
no: hesitation in concluding, that, if we knew the whole
scheme of Providenne, every part v^^ould appear to be in har-
mony with a plan of absolute benevolence. Independently,
however, of this most consoling inference, the delight is in-
expressible of being able to follow, as it were with our eyes,
the marvellous works of the great Architect of Nature, and
\o trace the unbounded power and exquisite skill, which are
txhibited in the most minute, as woll astin the mightiest parte
•f hisBvstera. , '<|(|u%
III.— STYLiE.
Style is the peculiar manner of expressing thoughts in Ian-
The most important quality of a good style is perspicuity.
Perspicuity of style depends upon the choice of words and
pKraseSf and on the structure of sentences.
TiPenpicuity in the nse of words and phrases requirer purity,
propriety f and precision.
' f eifspicuity in the structure o| ionteiices requires clearness,
unity, and strength.
sssm
104
f.'
APPENDIX.
WORDS AND PHRASES-
I. — Purity of style consists in th« use of such words an<l
pbrtises as belong to ^e idiom of the language ; in opposition
tA wonfo and phraseS) which are foreign, obsolete, qr vmd
wi^out proper anthority.
II. — Propriety of style conasts in the use of such wordi
9fid *^h rases as are best adapted to express our meauiag ; m
o)>p08itioiii to low expressions, and to words and phraaea less
aignificant of the ideas which we mean to convey.
. III. — Pren'tfioTi of style consists in the use of such exprei>
fiions as convey simply the idea which we have in view, anft
in the rejection of all superfluoiis words and phrases ; in op^
lition to a loose and diffuae mode of expression.
To WTi;3 with f»'ecisi(ni, it is necessary to attend to thr
exact significations of words. The following examplec
show the difference in meamng between ^ords, whicK
are commonly reckoned synonymous.
Ahkor, detest. — To abhor imports strong di8lik,e ; t«
detest, strong disapprobation. A man abhors beijoig; ji;^
debt ; he detests treachery. ' i
AvoWt acknamledgei confess, — To avow, supposes the
pfovon to glory in what he declares ; to acknowledge,
supposes a small degree of delinquency, which the ac«
knowledgment compensates ; to confess, supposes a higher
degree of criminality. A patriot avowo his opposition to
a corrupt ministry, and is applauded ; a gentleman ac-
knowledges his mistake,, and i^ forgiven ; a prisoner
confesses the crime of which he stands accus'jd, and is
punished.
Austerity, severity, rigour. — Austerity relates to nmidai
of living or behayiour ; severity, of thinking ; rigourf, of
punishing. A hermit is austere in his life ; a casuist, ia
severs in his app]icati«i of roligioa or law ; » judge, rig-
orous in his senteAAQf*
AMthentiCf. f (tnnumcr-bAuthoiitia neftirs to the etencter
oif n document; genuine, to the oonnexion hotwfftta^ay
production and its reputed author. We speak of t^t
, mH—ilirafcy of^ BuolMiialfr's history, that is, of its ^^
STYLE.
k
i^t
ist^ if
I?
»
If.
r»
•i''
^^;
m
\
thority &s a record of facts ; and of tho genuinentss of
Ossian's posms, that is, whether or not they were com-
posed by the person to whom they are ascribed.
Custonif habit — Custom respects the action, habit the
actor. By the custom of walking often in the streets, one
acquires ^ habit of idleness.
DifficvUyt obstacle. — A difficulty embarrasses us, an
obstacle stops us. Philip found difficulty in managing
the Athenians, on account of their natural dispositions ;
but the eloquence of Demosthenes was the great obstacle
to his designs. t .
EntirCf complete. — A thing fe entire by wanting none
of its parts ; complete by wanting none of its appendages.
A man may be master of an entire house, which has not
one complete apartment.
Equivocal, ambiguous. — An equivocal expression has
one sense open, and designed to be understood ; another
sense concealed, and understood only by the person who
uses tho expressitxn. An ambiguous expression has, ap-
parently, two seniles, and leaves us at a loss which of
them to prefer. An honest man will refrain from em-
ploying an equivocal expression ; a confused man may
often utter ambiguous terms without any design.
Haughtiness, disdain. — Haughtiness is founded on the
high opinion which we entertain of ourselves; disdain, on
the mean opinion which we entertain of others.
Invent, discover. — To invent, signifies to produce some-
thing totally new ; to discover, to find out something
which was before hidden. Galileo invented the telescope ;
Harvey discovered the circulation of the blood.
Only, alone. — Only imports that there is no other ob-
ject of the same kind ; alone imports being unaccom-
panied by any other object. An only child, is one that
has neither brother nor sister ; a child alone, is one that
is left by itiielf.
Pride, vanity. — Pride makes us esteem ourselves ; va-
nity makes us desire the esteem of others. A mail may
be too proud to be vain.
"'""""i^imiWi^F
m
APPENDIX.
Remark, observe. — ^We remark, in the way of attention,
in order to remember; we observe, in the way of exa-
mination, in order to judge. A traveller remarks the
most interesting objects he sees ; a general observes all
the motions of the enemy.
Surprised, astonished, amazed, confounded.— 1 am
surprised at what is new or unexpected ; I am astonished
at what is vast or great ; I am amazed at what is incom
prehcnsibl I am confounded by what is
terrible.
shocking oi
Tranquillity, peace, calm. — Tranquillity imports s
sitqation free from trouble, considered in itself; peace^
the same situation with respect to any causes that
might int^rupt it ; calm, a situation with regard to
disturbances going before or following it. A good man
enjoys tranquillity in himself, peace with others, and calm
after a storm
'Wisdom, prudence. — ^Wisdom leads ns to speak and
act with propriety ; prudence prevents our speaking or
acting improperly. A wise man employs the most pro-
per means for 8U9ces8; a prudent nian the safest means
to avoid being brought into danger.
With, by. — With, expresses a more close and imme-
diate connexion between the agent and the instrument ;
by, a more remote connexion. The bird was killed with
a stone by Peter.
STRUCTURE OF SENTENCES.
IV. — Clearness of style consists in a perspicuous arrange-
ment of the words and members of sentences ; in opposition to
ambiguity, arising from an improper collocation of thd>m.
1. Wordsexpressingthingsconnected in thought, should
be placed as near to each other as possible.
2. Ambiguities are frequently occasioned by the im-
prc^er position of relative pronouns, adverbs, connecting
particles, and explanatory phrases
STYLE.
rk
16*
A.
3. Ambiguities are also occasioned by tbe too frequent
repetition of pronouns, when reference is made to difTer-
ent persons.
V. — U'^.ity in tlie structure of a sentence consists in making
one leading thought connect its different parts.
1. (3bjficta that have no intimate connexion should
never bo crowded into one sentence.
«
2. Parentheses ought never to be introduced in the
middle of sentences. ,
3. Sentences ought never to be extended beyond what
seems tiieir natural close. «
\I,— -Strength v.i the structure of a sentence consists in
ffnch a disposition of its several words and members, as may '
give each of them its due weight and force.
r,y !• A sentence ought to be divested of all redundant
words and members.
bit 3. Attention should be paid to the use of copulatives,
4h: relatives, and all the particles employed in transition
and connexion.
V 3. The most important words ought to be placed in
the situation, in which they will make the strongest
impression.
4. A weaker assertion or proposition should never
come after a stronger one.
5. A sentence ought never to bo concluded with an
inco]j^iderable word.
6. In the members of a sentence, where two objects
are either compared or contrasted, some resemblance in
the language and construction should be preserved.
7. Attenv'ion should be paid to the harmony and easy
flow of the words and members of a sentence.
168
>/
APFENPIX.
EXERCISES.
Write the following aentenccSy and correct the errors in styU
I. — The king soon found reason to repent him of his pro-
voking such dangerous enemies. The popular lords did not
fail to enlarge themselves on the subject. Removing the
term from Westminster, sitting the parliament, was illegal.
He had been perplexed with a long compliance to foreign
manners. The discovery he made and communicated with
lufl friends. The wisest princes need not think it any dimi-
nution to their greatness, or derogation to their suificiency
\fi rely upon counsel. He found the greatest difficulty of
writing. You kuow the esteem I have uf his phiiosopby.
He is resolved of going to the Persian Court. Neither tho
one nor the other shall make me swerve out of the path
which I have traced for myself. A great quantity niay bo
taken from the heap, without making any sensible alteration
upon it. All these thingt^ required abundance of finesse and
d^licatasse to manage with advantage, as well as a strict
observance after times and fashions. The hauteur of Florio
was very disgracious, and disgusted both his friends and
grangers.
It irks me to see so perverse a disposition. I wot not wh«
has done this thing. Methinks I am not mistaken in an
opinion, which I have so well considered. Peritdventure he
will call again to-morrow. They have manifested great
candidness in all the transaction. It is difficult to discover
the spirit and intendment of some laws. His natural se-
Terity rendered him a very impopular speaker. The disqui-
frtness of his mind made his station and wealth far from
being envtable. The naturalness of the thought greatly re-
commended it. These are thii^gs bighliest important to the
growing age.
II. For want of employment, he roamed idly about the
fields. They thought it an important subject, and the ques-
tion was strenuously debated pro and con. He was long
indisposed, at length died of the hyp. I had as lief do it
myself, as persuade another tQ do it. He is not a whit better
than those he so liberally condemns. He stands upon
STVLE.
lAI
«;tirity, and will not liberate him till it be obtained. H6
itiight have percelv<*d, with half an eye, the difficulties td
fv'hich hia cOiiditct exposed hiin. Thi6 performance is mUch
at one with the othier. The twn nations worried each othelf
for above two hundred years. Every year a new flower lii
his judijnient beats all the old oups, though it is much ill-
ferior to them both in colour and shape. His name shalt
go down to posterity with distinguishied honour. Learning
And arts were but then getting up. It fell dut unfortunately
that two of the principul persons fell out, and had a ftittti
quarrel. Do not reject by the lump, but endeavour pati-
ently to gather the plain meaning. He made rhyming tra^
Sedies, till ho grew ashamed of making them any longer.
LU eloquent speaker may give more, but he cannot give more
convincing arguments, than this plain man offered. He is
engaged in a treatise on the interests of the soul and body.
The Latin tongue j in its purity, was never in this island. It
may be justly said that no laws are better than the English.
The Divine Being heapeth favours on his servants, evet
liberal and faithful. He was willing to spend a hundred or
two pounds rather than be eiislaved.
III. Viva(bity is often promoted, by presenting a sensible
object to the mind, instead of an intelligible one. The pro-
position for each of us to relinquish something Was complied
with, a»d produced a cordial reconcilement. It is diifioiilt
fbr him to speak three sentences together. He is our mii-
ttial benefactor, and deseryes our respect and obediencd.
The negligence of timely precaution was the cause of this
great loss. Disputing should always be so managed, as to
remember that the only end of it is truth. They shall flert
as the eagle that hasteth to eat. The wicked fly When lio
man pursueth. He died with violence ; for he was killed
by a sword. We have enlarged our family and expenses ;
and increased our garden and fruit orchard. The good maa
is not overcome by disappointment, when that which is
mortal passes away ; when that which is mutable dies ; anci
when that which he knew to be transieuti begins to change.
This great politician desisted from, and renounced biii
deBJgns, when he found them impracticable*. Hiii end sddoi
approached, ana he died With sreat <;ouraig6 and fortittiiv^
nfe was a man of bo hihch pride aiid vanity, thai he deB<^
15
no
APPENDIX.
pised the sentiments of others This man, on all occasions,
treated his inferiors with great haughtiness and disdain.
There can be no regularity or order in the life and conduct
of that man, who does not give and ailot a due share of his
time to retirement and reflection. Such equivocal and am-
biguous expressions mark a formed intention to deceivo and
ftbnse us. His cheerful, happy temper, remote from discon-
tent, ketps up a kind of daylight in his mind, excludes every
gloomy prospect, and fills it with a steady and perpetual
serenity.
IV. — They are now engaged in a study, of which they have
long wished to know the usefulness. The miserable remains
were, in the night, taken down. I have settled the meaning
of those pleasures of the imagination, which are the subject
of my present undertaking, by way of introduction, in this
paper; and endeavoured to recommend the purfii^' of those
pleasures to my readers by several consideratio. , 1 shall
examine the several sources from which these pleasures are
derived in my next paper. This mor.ning, when one of the
gay females was looking over some hoods and ribands, brought
by her tirewoman, with great care and diligence, I employed
no less in examining the box which contained them. As the
guilt of an officer will be greater than that of a common
■er'ant, if he prove negligent ; so the reward of his fidelity
will proportionably be greater. Though energetic brevity is
not adapted to every subject, we ought to avoid its contrary
on every occasion, a languid redundancy of words : it is proper
to be copious sometimes, but never to be verbose. Fields of
com form a pleasant prospect ; and if the walks were a little
taken care of that lie between them, they would display
neatness, regularity, and elegance.
By greatness I do not only mean the bulk of any single
object, but the largeness of a whole view. Sixtus the Fourth
was, if I mistake not, a great collector of books at the least
We do those things frequently, which we repent of afterwards.
By doing the same thing it often becomes habitual. Raised
to greatness without merit, he employed his power for the
gratification of his passions. These are the master's rules,
who must be obeyed. It is true what he says, but it is not
applicable to the point. We no where meet with a more
splendid or pleasing show in nature, than what appears in
■» A.
STYLE.
171
the rising and setting of the sun, which is wholly mado up
of those different stains of light that show themselves in
clouds of a different situation. Many act so directly contrary
to this method, that from a habit of saving time and paper,
which they acquired at the university, they write in so dimi-
nutive a manner, that they can hardly read what they have
written. Thus I have fairly given you my own opinion, as
well as that of a great majority of both houses hero, relating
to this weighty anair, upon which I am confident you may
securely reckon. The witness was ordered to withdraw from
the bar, in consequence of being intoxicated, by the motion
of an honourable member.
: The eagle killed the hen, and eat her in her own nest
Lysias promised to his father never to abandon his friends.
They were summoned occasionally by their kings, when com-
pelled by their wants and by their fears to have recourse to
their aid. Men look with an evil eye upon the good that is in
others, and think that their reputation obscures them, and
that their commendable qualities do stand in their light ; and
therefore they do what they can to cast a cloud over them,
that the bright shining of their virtues may not obscure them.
V. — Cato died in the full vigour of life, under fifty ; he
was naturally warm and affectionate in his temper. In
this uneasy state, both of his public and private life,
Cicero was oppressed by a new and cruel affliction, the
death of his beloved daughter, Tullia, which happened soon
after her divorce from Dolabella, whose manners and humours
were entirely disagreeable to her. The Britons, daily
harassed by cruel inroads from the Picts, were forced to call
in the Saxons for their defence, who, consequently reduced the
greater part of the island to their own power ; drove the
Sritons to the most remote and mountainous parts ; and the
rest of. the country, in customs, religion, and language, be-
came wholly Saxons. The sun, approaching, melts the snow,
and breaks the icy fetters of the main, where vast sea-monsterfl
pierce through floating islands, with arms which can with-
stand the crystal rock ; whilst others, that of themselvea
seem great as islands, are by their bulk alone, armed against
all but man, whose superiority over ci*eatures of such stu-^
peudous size and force, should make him mindful of hii
*J
m
APPENDIX.
priyilejre of his reason ; and forco him humbly to adore the
ffreat composer of their wondrous frames, and the author of
Sis own superior wisdom.
Disappointments will often happen to the best and wisest
of men, (not through any imprudence of theirs, nor even
through the malice or ill-design of others; but merely in
consequenc« of some of those cross incidents of life which
could not be foreseen,) f^nd sometimes to the wisest and best
concerted plans. Without some degree of patience exercised
tinder injuries, (as offences and retuliations would succeed
to one another in endless train,) human life would be rendered
a state of perpetual hostility. Never delay till to-morrow,
(for to-morrow is not yours ; and though you should live to
•njoy it, yon must not overload it with a burden not its own,)
what reason and conscience tell you ought to be performed
to>day. f
The first could not end his learned treatise without a
panegyric of modern learning and knowledge in comparison
of thn ancient ; and the other falls so grossly into the censure
of the old poetry, and the preference of the new, that I could
not road either of these strains without indignation, which
no quality among men is so apt to raise in me as sufliciency,
the worst composition out of the pride and ignorance of man-
kind. All the world acknowledges the ^illueid to be perfect
in its kind ; and, considering the disadvantage of the language,
and the severity of the Roman Muse, the poem is still more
wonderful ; since, without the liberty of the Grecian poets,
the diction is so great and nohie, so clear, so forcible, and
expressive, so chaste and pure, that even all t^e strength and
pompass of the Greek tongue, joined in Homer's fire, cannot
give us stronger and clearer ideas, than the great Virgil has
■ot before our eyes ; some few instances excepted, in which
Homer, through the forco of genius, hath excelled.
VI. — Although the effect fel{ short of what is ascribed to
fabulous legislators and foupders of stateA> yet to none evei
were ascribed more tokens of magnanimity and greatness of
^ind. I look upon it as ipy duty, so long as I keep within
tH.9 bounds of truth, of duty, and of decency. How many are
there by whom these tidings of good ^ews were never heard !
Iff SAys nQ^hii)^ of it hims^lO <ii>d I aii> not j^j^osed to tri^Y#t
STYLE.
in
Into tho regions of conjecture, but to relate a narrative of
factd. Never did Atticus succeed better in gaining tke uni-
versal love and esteem of all men. This is so clear a propo*
■itioii, that I miglit rest the whole argument entirely upon it
I went home, full of a great many serious reflections. The
very first discovery of it strilces the mind with inward joy,
and spreads delight through all its faculties. It is impossiblo
for UB to behold tho divine works with coldness or indiiferencei
or to survey so many beauties without a secret satisfaction
and complacency.
The enemy said, I will pursue, and I will overtake, and I
will divide the spoil. While the earth rernciineth, seed time
and harvest, cold, heat ; summer, winter ; day and night,
shall not ceuse. As the strength of our cause does not de«
pend upon, so neither is it to be decided by, auy critical points
of history, chronology, or language. The faith he professed,
and which he became an apostle of, was liqt his invention.
Their idleness, and their luxury and pleasures, their criminal
deeds and. their immoderate passions, and their timidity and
baseness of mind, have dejected them to suCh a degree, as to
make them weary of life. He had made cunsiderabie ad-
vances in knowledge: but he was very young, and laboured
under several disadvantages.
'■
,1 have considered the subject with a good deal of attentioui
tipon which I v/as desired to communicate my thoughts
Whether a choice altogether unexceptionahle, has, in any
country, been made, seems doubtful. It appears that th^re
are, by the last census, upwards of fifteen millions of inhabit-
ants in Great Britain and Ireland. Every one who puts on
the appearance of goodness is not good. Although personi
of a virtuous and learned education may be, and too often
are, drawn by the temptations of youth, and the opportuni-
ties of a large fortune, into some irregularities, when they
come forward into the great world, it is ever with reluctance
and compunction of mind, because their bias to virtue still
continues.
Gentleness ought to diffuse itself over our whole behaviour,
to form our address, and regulate our speech. Ambition
creates seditions, wars, discords, hatred, and shyness. Tho
ancient lawi^ of Rome were so far from sufFering a Roman
15*
m
APPENDIX.
oitizexi to bo put to death, that they would not allow him to
be louiid, or even to be whipped. The scribes made it their
prcfcssioii to teach and *, study the law of Moses. Tho
regular tenor of a virtuous and pioua life will prove the best
preparation for immortality, old age;, and death.
By what I have already expressed; tho reader will perceive
the business which I' am to proceed upon. This agreement
of mankind is not confined to the taste solely. May the happy
message be applied to us, in all the virtue, strength, and
comfort of it ! These arguments were, without hesitation,
and with great eagerness, laid hold of. The other kinds of
motion are incidentally blended also. /;
I have obseived of late the style of some great ministers^
very much to exceed that of any other productions. Tho
old may inform the young ; and the young may animate
those who are advanced in life. I cannot but fancy, how-
ever, that this imitation, which passes so currently with
other judgments, must, at some time or other, have stuck a
little v;ith your icrdship. The account is generally balanced ;
for ^ hat we are losers of on the one hand, we gain on the
other. He can bribe, but he is not able to seduce : he can
buy, but he has not the power of gaining : he can lie, but
no one is deceived by him. He embraced the cause of liberty
faintly, and pursued it without resolution ; he grew tired of
it, when he had much to hope ; a» '' gave it up, when there
was no ground for apprehension.
To use the Divine name curt'?marily, and without serious
consideration, is highly irreverent They conducted them-
selves wilily, and ensnared us before we had time to escape.
Tranquiliitv, regularity, and magnanimity, reside with re»
ligious and resigned man. By a cheerful, even, iud opert
tenip&r, Ue conciliated general favour. We reached the man-
sion before noon : it was a strong, grand, gothic house. By
means of society, our wants come to be supplied, and our
lives are rendered comfortable, as well as our capacities
enlarged, and our virtuous affections called forth uito their
proper exercise.
(1 irl i .
•{•*;
'»
■. •■ V
:f :
'■■-•^■' t.
a.i
w
175
I ,t
i IV. FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE.
* •
^ The Figures of Speech most frequently used in Compo-
•itiouy are Personification, Apostrophe, Hyperbole, Compari*
9on, Metaphor, and Allegory.
Personification ascribes life and action to inanimate ob-
jects ; as, The sea sav/ it, and fled ; the deep uttered his
foicc, and lifted his hands on high.
Apostrophe turns from the regular object of address, and
■peaks to the absent or the dead, as if they were present ;
as, Death is swallowed up in victory. O Death ! where '9
thy sting?
Hyperbole consists in magnifying or diminishing an object
beyond reality ; as, They were swifter than eagles ; it is less
than nothing.
Comparison or Simile expresses the resemblance which one
thing bears to another ; as. He shall be like a tree planted by
the rivers of water. ^
Metaphor expresses resemblance without the sign of com-
parison ; as, Thy word is a lamp to my feet, and a light to
my path.
Allegory represents one subject by another, without for-
mally mentioning the subject represented ; as, Thou hast
Brought a vine out of Egypt ; thou hast cast out the Heathen^
»nd pknted it. Thou preparedst room before it, and didst
dause it to take deep root, and it filled the land. The hills
4rere covered with the shadow of it, and the boughs thereof
#•10 like the goodly cedars, &.c.
The figures of speech are frequently used even in or-
dinary conversation, as when we say of the sun, he rises,
of the moon, she sets, of a river, it runs. By some they
have been called the language of nature ; by others, the
language of fancy and passion. They are introduced
into prose composition chiefly for ornament. The fol-
lowing rules should be carefully observed in the um of
the figures of speech :—
-It
., it
y
176
APPENDIX.
V I. — Figurative language shonM only be employed, when il
/ is calculated to make a stronger impression than the ordinary
form of speech.
II. — A hyperbole should never be used in the descriptioi
of any thing ordinary or familar. -, ^ ^
♦
III. — A comparison ought not to bo founded on a resem-<
blance which Js too near and obvious ; nor on such as is too
faint and remote.
IV.— ^A metaphor should never be drawn from any oliject
which is mean or disagreeable. 'i» '^ . i .^
V. — Different metaphors should never be composed toge-
lilt r in the same sentence.
(,; .,-.i •■J .. M .
VI. — Metaphorical and ordinary expressions ought nevei
to be so interwoven together, that part of the sentence niusi
bo tmderstood figuratively, and part literally.** '
* Directions to Teachers. — When the preceding rUle^
have been learned, and the exercises carefully written out;
pupils may proceed to the practice of Original Compositiou.
The first exercise of this kind may be, to give them a number
of words, each of which is to be made the subject of a ^feh*
tence. The sentences will, of course, be unconnected. Tht
next exercise in Original Composition may be, to mention t^
a class a subject on which each pupil, in succession, may fe*
made to suggest his ideas, which all may write down, to bt
afterwards correctly expressed and arranged. When tKo
pupils are sufficiently expert at these exercises, they may
then be made to write explanations of the difficult words
and phravsos in the lessons, and of the allusions in the pas-
sages of poetry to be turned into prose. In this way they
will be prepared for the writing of letters, and narrative,
descriptive, and didactic essays. Letters may be written on
personal adventures, businoss, real or imaginary, or any other
subject suitable for epistolary correspondence. Anecdotes,
abstracts of the history which they read, allegories, antl
PIGURATIVK LANGUAGK.
l'^)
TO
EXERCISES.
T^. yfi.
Write the following sentences, and coned ike errors in
the use of the figures of speech :—
ik^in
'■ -r
No human happiness is so seiene ^s not to contain any
alloy. Hope, the balm of life, darts a ray of light through
the thickest gloom. Let us be attentive to keep our mouths
as with a bridle ; and to steer our vessel arijght, that wo
may avoid the rocks and shoals, which lie every where
iround us.
Since the time that reason began to budj^ and put forth her
shoots, thought, during our waking hours, has been active in
every breast, without a moment's suspension or pause. The
current of ideas has been always moving. The wheels of
the spiritual engine have exerted themselves with perpetual
motion.
The man who has no rule over his own spirit, possesses no
antidote against poisons of any sort. He lies op-^i to every
insurrection of ill-humour, and every gale of distress.
Whereas, he who is employed in regulating his mind, is
moral tales will furnish appropriate subjects for narrative
essays ; and descriptive essays may be written on the seasons,
animals, public buil lings, remarkable scenery, or any other
natural, or artificial objects with which they are acquainted,
or which they have an opportunity of seeing. \^'hen the
pupils have a sufficient knowledge of geography, '-arratiou
and description may be combined by making th»"n write
imaginary travels. Didactic essays may be written o-i such
•ubjects as friendship, gratitude, &c. ; and then the^* should
be made to illustrate by all the examples which ii ^^ can
Bollect from history, biography, or their own obsei * ^tion.
* Teachers will take care that in all those exercises their v^pil*
be made to attend to the principles taught in the precird'n^
nilOB ; and they will at the same time, encourage those wlw
bare opportunity, to form and improve their stylo, by cart
folly attending to the best English authors.
wr
n«
APPKNDIX.
jakingf provision against ail the accidents of life. He li
irecting a fortress into which, in the day of sorrow, he cai
retreat with satisfaction.
In this ourr day of proof, our land of hope,
The good man has his clouds that intervene ;
Clouds that may dim his sublunary day,
liut cannot conquer : even the best must own«
Patience and resignation are the columns.
Of human peace on earth.
Biro.
cai
•.
7