.v**^ IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-S) 1.0 I.I |50 "^ lU ILT I^ 2.5 2.2 1.8 1.25 1.4 ||.6 ■• 6" ► p> <^ /i A ^.. ^ ^%/^JV o 7 "^/^ /A Photographic Sciences Corporation ,\ s V 4^ '^ s \ ^.. <^ o^ 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. 14580 (716) 872-4503 CIHM/ICMH Microfiche Series. CIHM/ICIVIH Collection de microfiches. Canadian Institute for Historical Microreproductions Institut Canadian de microreproductions historiques 1980 Technical and Bibliographic Notes/Notes techniques et bibliographiques The Institute has attempted to obtain the best original copy available for filming. Features of this copy which may be bibliographically unique, which may alter any of the images in the reproduction, or which may significantly change the usual method of filming, are checked below. n n □ n D Coloured covers/ Couverture de couleur I I Covers damaged/ Couverture endommagie □ Covers restored and/or laminated/ Couverture restaur^e et/ou pellicul6e □ Cover title missing/ Le titre de couverture manque I I Coloured maps/ Cartes gdographiques en couleur Coloured ink (i.e. other than blue or black)/ Encre de couleur (i.e. autre que bleue ou noire) I I Coloured plates and/or illustrations/ Planches et/ou illustrations en couleur Bound with other material/ Relid avec d'autres documents Tight binding may cause shadows or distortion along interior margin/ La reliure serr^e peut causer de I'ombre ou de la distortion le long de la marge intdrieure Blank leaves added during restoration may appear within the text. Whenever possible, these have been omitted from filming/ II se peut que certaines pages blanches ajout^es lors d'une restauration apparaissent dans le texte, mais, lorsque cela dtait possible, ces pages n'ont pas 6t6 film^es. Additional comments:/ Commentaires suppldmentaires; L'Institut a microfilm^ le meilleur exemplaire qu'il lui a 6t6 possible de se procurer. Les details de cat exemplaire qui sont peut-Atre uniques du point de vue bibliographique, qui peuvent modifier une image reproduite, ou qui peuvent exiger une modification dans la mdthode normale de filmage sont indiquis ci-dessous. I I Coloured pages/ D Pages de couleur Pages damaged/ Pages endommagies I I Pages restored and/or laminated/ Q Pages restaur6es et/ou pellicul6es Pages discoloured, stained or foxed/ Pages d^colordes, tachet6es ou piqu^es r~7| Pages detached/ n Pages d^tachdes Showthroughy Transparence Quality of prir Qualit^ in^gale de I'impression Includes supplementary materi{ Comprend du materiel supplementaire r~> Showthrough/ I I Quality of print varies/ I I Includes supplementary material/ Only edition available/ Seule Edition disponible Pages wholly or partially obscured by errata slips, tissues, etc., have been refilmed to ensure the best possible image/ Les pages totalement ou partiellement obscurcies par un feuillet d'errata, une pelure, etc., ont 6t^ film^es d nouveau de fagon d obtenir la meilleure image possible. This item is filmed at the reduction ratio checked below/ Ce document est film6 au taux de reduction indiqu6 ci-dessous. 10X 14X 18X 22X 26X SOX / 12X 16X 20X 24X 28X 32X The copy filmed here has been reproduced thanks to the generosity of: National Library of Canada L'exempleire film6 fut reproduit grdce d la g6n6rosit6 de: Bibliothdque nationale du Canada The images appearing here are the best quality possible considering the condition and legibility of the original copy and in keeping with the filming contract specifications. Les images suivantes ont 6t6 reproduites avec le plus grand soin, compte tenu de la condition et de la nettetd de I'exemplaire film6, et en conformity avec les conditions du contrat de filmage. Original copies in printed paper covers are filmed beginning with the front cover and ending on the last page with a printed or illustrated impres- sion, or the back cover when appropriate. All other original copies are filmed beginning on the first page with a printed or illustrated impres- sion, and ending on the last page with a printed or illustrated impression. Les exemplaires originaux dont la couverture en papier est imprimde sont film6s en commenpant par le premier plat et en terminant soit par la dernidre page qui comporte une empreinte d'impression ou d'illustration, soit par le second plat, selon le cas. Tous les autres exemplaires originaux sont filmds en commenpant par la premiere page qui comporte une empreinte d'impression ou d'illustration et en terminant par la dernidre page qui comporte une telle empreinte. The last recorded frame on each microfiche shall contain the symbol — ♦- (meaning "CON- TINUED "), or the symbol V (meaning "END"), whichever applies. Un des symboles suivants apparaitra sur la dernidre image de cheque microfiche, selon le cas: le symbole ~-^ signifie "A SUIVRE", le symbole V signifie "FIN". Maps, plates, charts, etc., may be filmed at different reduction ratios. Those too large to be entirely included in one exposure are filmed beginning in the upper left hand corner, left to right and top to bottom, as many frames as required. The following diagrams illustrate the method: Les cartes, planches, tableaux, etc., peuvent dtre film6s d des taux de reduction diffdrents. Lorsque le document est trop grand pour dtre reproduit en un seul clichd, il est filrn^ d partir de Tangle sup^rieur gauche, de gauche d droite, et de haut en bas, en pranant le nombre d'images ndcessaire. Les diagrammes suivants illustrent la mdthode. 1 2 3 1 2 3 4 5 6 I ^■p c -t- A HAND BOOK OF — Greek AND Roman History FOR Candidates Preparing for Junior Leaving AND University Matriculation. COMPILKD BY JAMES MACDONALD. M.A., Classical Master, Pu/oii JJii^h School, TORONTO: the copi>, c lark comf^any, limited. F'^15 h']^ Ontario, in the OlHce of the Minister of Agriculture. INTRODUCTION. It is not the intention of the author that this work shall take the place of any text book. The object aimed at has been simply to give a succinct outline of the History required for Junior Leaving and University Matriculation. While this has been the aim, it may, however, be found a useful supple- ment to the ordinary text book, by giving a fuller account of some of the facts than is generally given. The work in its present form is simply a revised and en- larged edition of notes, which I have used in my own teaching. Most teachers of History must have felt, at least some time in their career, that the amount of work given us to cover is very great, and that to plunge the ordinary student into the mass of detail as given in most text books is very confusing. I have found good students who, after going through the text book once, frankly confessed that they knew next to nothing about it. Now there seems to me to be something wrong. Either we are mistaken in teaching the subject at all, or we are proceed- ing on wrong principles. Those of as who have fought our way through, and have acquired some knowledge of the History of Greece and Rome, have come to love it, and it should be our duty, if possible, to lighten the task of those who come after us. History, in my opinion, has been sadly neglected in our schools. It has generally been taught on the principle that the law requires it, but that any person is quite competent to teach it, and that there is no historical method. The develop- iv INTRODUCTION. raent and progress of humanity is surely not a subject of secondary importance. While due place should be given to the Mathematics and Sciences, I still claim that the centre of interest is man as man. " The God made many wonderful things ; but the most wonderful is man." • History should be the philosophy of the schools. The pro- gress of humanity is not haphazard, and History, from first to last, presents itself as the result of cause and effect quite as clearly as the facts of physical science. What we are is a result of what we have l)een, and our future is mirrored in our present. "We are the heirs of all the ages," and we are ourselves unconsciously contributing our quota to the heritage of pos- terity. Apart, then, from the interest which should naturally attach itself to such & subject, it is clearly our duty to acquaint ourselves with the subject, at least in its main outlines. No defence is needed for the study of the history of the two races, to whom we owe the foundation of law and the development of art. The form which these notes have taken will indicate the method which I would adopt. • To you2ig pupils, and even to those of us who are older, the most interesting part of History is Biography. I have therefore selected from the names in Greek and Roman History, those which are most prominent, and have given a sketch of each — not too long — yet I trust sufficient to show the part which each had in the making, or it may be the unmaking, of his country. In Greek History, with its marked individualism, this is especially easy. INTRODUCTION. In Roman History, where universalisin is the most marked feature till the time of the Gracchi, a list of important dates cannot but prove useful. In arranging the notes on Geography, I have thought it well to give, in most cases, a short note regarding the histori- cal importance of the place, in addition to the description of its locality. This should make it more interesting, and would also serve as a means of review. Some of the more important places, such as Athens, Thebes, Rome, etc., have not been given, because a complete account of them would take up too much space in a work of this kind. It is difficult to prevent errors from creeping into a com- pendium of this kind ; but I hope that it will be found fairly accurate. JAMES MACDONALD. PiCTON, October, 1897. CONTENTS. Leading Mkn in Greek and Roman History: PAOB. Lycurgus Solon ^ Peisistratus *^ Cleisthenes Aristides Theraiatocles Cimon . . ' ^^ Perikles ^' Nikias ^2 Cleon ^^ Alkibiades ^* Epaininondas Philip of Macedon 21 Demosthenes Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus -^ Caius Semp. Gracchus 29 Caius Marius •'' Sulla '^'J Pompey ^^ Cjesar ^^ Augustus . General Physical Characteristics of (ireece 4^ Geography of Greece in Outline '*^ General Physical Characteristics of Italy 48 Geography of Italy in Outline 48 Periods of Greek History 49 Outline of Athenian History ^^ Periods of Roman History '^^ Geographical Names in Greek History 5- Geographical Names in Roman History 6<^ Greek Chronology ^^ Roman Chronology ' ^ Greek Antiquities Roman Antiquities Maaoiiey, and in 352 he delivered his first Philippic i ^i»"- LEADING MEN. 23 't satisfied get 2)os- coast of nians, he declared d Pydna. inst Am- marched IS he liad up. The issaiy to )lynthus. I Athens, ittleinent The gold mds, the ns to his vay into i against i by the vere de- He then the pass re. He also he eyes of hilippic t^ainst him, but Demosthenes failed to rouse his coun- trymen. In 349 he commenced his attack on the cities of the Chalcid. Olynthus applied to Athens for aid, and the Athenians were urged by Demosthenes to send help but failed to do so, and Olynthus fell, 846. Philip then marched upon Phokis and destroyed their cities, and stepped into the place of the Phokians in the Amphiktyonic council. Between 342 and 340 Philip was engaged in Thrace. In 340 he attacked Perinthus and B3^zantium, which were relieved by the Athenians under Phokion. Philip now seemed to give himself no concern about the affairs of Greece, and waged war with his northern neighbors. In 339 the Amphiktyons declared war against Am- phissa, and being unable to accomplish anything, aj)- pointed Philip commander of their forces. Philip marched through Thermopylae and seized Elateia. The Athenians and Thebans now united their forces, but were completely defeated by Philip at Chseronea, August, 338. Thebes paid dear for her resistance ; but Athens was treated with great leniency. Philip now seemed to be within reach of his cherished design of invading Persia as commander-in-chief of the Greek armies. A congress met at Corinth, 337, to which all states, except Sparta, sent delegates. This congress agreed to support the plans of Philip. 24 (JKKKK AND liO.MAN HISTOKV. Kjirly in ^VM I'orcoH wcjrc s(!iit to Asia under Pannenion to t^aiii o\er tlui (irook cities, but in the summer of 88(j lMiili|) was murdered. 1. His j'ai-ly traiiiiufj^. '2. The difficu]ti(!s of Macedonia. li. His stru<^^le witli tlie Atlieriians in the Tlu'aceward i-('ixu)ns. Ani})]iipoHs and I^ydna. P()ti(hea. Crenides. 4. His first contest with the Phocians in Thessaly 5 His attack on the Clialcid. C). He subdues the Pliocians. 7. He attacks Perinthus and Byzantium. >i Phokion was a patriotic statesman and skilful general, wlio thought that the interests of Athens would best be served by keeping peace; but Aeschines was simply the paid tool of Philip. In 842 the operations of Philip in Thrace were checked by the Athenian general Diopeithes. He then laid siege to Byzantium. In 341 Demosthenes delivered liis third and fourth Philippics. In 840 Athens dechired war against Philip, and the Athenian army, under Phokion, succeeded in driving Philip back. In 888 began the second sacred war, which gave Philip his long wished for opportunity. After the defeat at Chaironea Athens was mildly treated by Philip ; but on his death ])emosthenes urged his countrymen to n.'new the struggle for freedom. It was not successful, and it was with the greatest difficulty that permission was secured from Alexander for Demosthenes to remain at Athens. In 880 l^emosthenes delivered his oration on The Crown. On the death of Alexander, 828, the Greek states rose again, and Demosthenes took a leading part in the atiairs of Athens ; but their defeat at Cranon forced him to go into exile. He took refuge at Calauria ; but finding himself pursued by the emissaries of An ti pater, he took poison and died, 822. 1. Position of Demosthenes in Athenian and Greek history. r1 28 (IHEKK AND HUMAN UlSTOltY. 2. Trend of Athenian afikirs. 8. His opposition to Pliilip. His Philippics and Olynthiacs. 4. Peace of PhilocrateR. 5. His opposition to Alexander. (). Ora:ion (jn TJte Crown. 7. Athens renews the struggle on the death of Alexander. 8. Cranon — suicide of Demosthenes. TIBERIUS SEMPRONIUS GRAOOHUS. Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus was the son of T. Gracchus, Governor of Spain, and Cornelia, daughter of Scipio Africanus. While travelling to Spain, he noticed in passing through Etruria the poverty of the middle classes. The nobles in Etruria had introduced slave labor to a great extent. They thus became wealthy, while the poorer classes of Roman citizens could not make a living. He resolved to use every effort to remedy this state of things by endeavoring to create an independent middle class of agriculturists, and to put a check upon the un- bounded avarice of the ruling class, whose covetousness combined with the disasters of the second Punic war had cumplctely destroyed the middle class of small land- owners. He was elected tribune, 133. l.KAI)IN(; MKN. •29 death of US. >n of T. ughter of le noticed le middle ;ed slave wealtliy, ould not state of it middle I the un- tousness war had II land- His first measure was the rc-enactmiMit of the Liciiiian laws, with a. few chanj^cs in favor of the rnliii;^^ class. Octavins, (jne of the tribunes, vetoed the measure. Gracchus had him soleunily deposed at a meetin*^ of the peoi'le. Three men were api)ointed to see that the hiw was carried out. About this time Attains, kin<^^ of Peroamus dic^d, leav- ing his kingdom to the llomaus. (jJracchus pi'oposed that this should be given to the poor to enable them to buy implements. When Gracchus presented himself for re-election, 182, the senate declared that no man could lawfully hold this position for two successive years. Tiberius paid no attention to this ; but when the tribes were votinix a band of senators attacked the people and Gracchus was killed. 1. His family. 2. Condition of Italy. 3. Tribune of the people. Opposition of Octavius. 4. Gracchus presents himself for re-election and is killed. OAIUS SEMP, GRACCHUS. Gains was in Spain at the time of his brother's nmrder. He returned to Rome soon after, but held aloof from politics for some years. In 120 he was qupestor in Sardinia. In 124 he returned to Rome. Urged on by the populai* wish and 80 GREEK AND ROMAN HISTORY. by the desire of avenging his brother, lie became a candi- date for tlie tribuneship, 128. His reforms were far more extensive than tliose of his brother. His tirst measure was the renewal of his brother's Agrarian law. He next carried several laws for the amelioration of the condition of the poor, e.g., he enacted a law that soldiers should be ecpiipped at the expense of the state. In order to weaken the power of the senate lie carried a law transferring the judicial power from tlie senators to the equites, and that every year before the consuls were elected the senate should determine the provinces of the consuls. He gave a regular organization to the province of Asia. No branch of the administration seems to have escaped his notice. To facilitate intercourse between the different parts of Italy, and to give employment to the poor, he made new roads and repaired the old ones. He was re-elected 1 22. The senate finding it impos- sible to resist the measures of Caius, resolved if jjossible to destroy his influence. They persuaded M. Livius Drusus to propose measures still more popular than tliose of Caius. The people allowed themselves to be duped, and the influence of Gracchus irrew less. During his absence in Africa, whither he had gone to establish a colony at Carthage, his party had been con- siderably weakened by the influence of Drusus, and many of his friends deserted him. He failed to obtain the tribuneship for 121, and when his term of ofl^ice was up his enemies began repealing LEADING MEN. 31 le a candi- were far 3 His first i Agrarian •4 %4 ioration of 'i law that ' '^ tlie state. ..1 i carried a 1 i iiiators to i isuls were '■? ces of the i 1 ovince of ^ to have b parts of l nade new ; it impos- f possible f- Liv'ius 1* lan those i ^ duped, gone to 'I eon con- iM !us, and --1 d when ~s I^ealing- m his enactments. Gracchus appeared in the forum to oppose these proceedings. A riot took place, and Gracchus, after having escc ped across the Tiber to avoid falling into the hands of his enemies, was slain by his slave. 1. His life previous to his tribuneship. 2. Tribune for 123. Agrarian law. Payment of soldiers. Change in method of appointing judges. Administration of Asia. Repairing of ;oads.. 8. Re-elected 122 — Opposition of Drusus. 4. Defeated in 121 — His death. OAIUS MARIUS. He was born at Arpinum, in 157, of humble parentage. He first distinguished himself at the siege of Numan- tia, 134. His name does not occur again for fifteen years. In 119 he was elected tribune of the plebs, and in this office acted as the champion of the popular party. In 109 he went to Africa as legate to the consul, Q. Metellus. Here, in the war with Jugurtha, his militar}^ genius had ample opportunity to display itself. I % m ■I : It I 1 ill t ;1J 82 GREEK AND ROMAN HISTORY In 107 he was elected consul, and was 7, when iridates. Athens, defeated 1 peace Roman )nduct- ory at e took at en- 3inted His chief object in being invested with the dictatorship was to carry into execution, in a legal manner, his great reforms in the constitution and the administration of justice. The general object of his reforms was to restore, as far as possible, the ancient Roman constitution, and to give back to the senate and aristocracy the power they had lost. Thus he deprived the tribunes of all real power, and abolished entirely the legislative and judicial functions of the comitia tributa, and restored the judicial power to the senate. To strengthen his power he established military colonies throughout Italy. After holding the dictator- ship till the beginning of 79, he resigned it and retired to Puteoli, where he died in 78. 1. His early life. 2. His service with Marius. 3. His politics. 4. His part in the social war. 5. His campaigns in Greece. 6. His return to Italy. 7. Sulla dictator — His constitutional and judicial re- forms. POMPEY. Cneius Pompey was born in 106. He fought under his father in the war against the Italians. During the following five years the Marian party had control of Italy, and Pompey was forced to ! i !i 111; ■ i 1 1*1'. 86 GREEK AND KOMxVN HISTORY. keep in the background. When in 84 news came that Sulla was about to return, Ponipey raised three legions for him, and fought with much distinction in the civil war. In 82 he was sent to put down the Marian party in Sicily and Africa. On his return to Rome he was received with much enthusiasm, and given the honor of a triumph. In 77 he took part in tli.:; wa,.. against Lepidus. He was sent to Spain in 76 to conduct the war against Sertorius, and remained there till 71. On his return to R iit ■: ^ obtained the consulship for 70. He now openly ln^-... with the aristocracy and joined the popular party. 1);^ rroposed and carried a law restoring to the tiibu os t. |\>vver of which they had been deprived by Sulla. He then lent his aid to the praetor, Aurelius Cotta, who carried a law dividing the judicial power between the senators, equites and tribuni eerarii. In 67 the Gabinian law gave him the command against the pirates. In this war he was completely successful. While in Asia the Manilian law of 66 gave him the com- mand against Mithridates. Pompey pursued Mithridat(}S into Colchis. He then returned and spent the winter of 65 in Pontus. In 64 he advanced into Syria and made that country a province of Rome. In 63 he advanced into Phoenicia and Palestine and subdued them. He returned to Italy in 62, and was again honored with a triumph. "»<^, LEADIXd MEN. 37 tluit 4 With this triumph the first and more glorious part of Pompey's life ended. His life had up to this time been an almost uninterrupted succession of military glory. Now he was called upon to take part in politics, for which neither his natural talents nor his previous life had fitted him. Pompey scarcely knew which side to take. The Gabinian and Manilian laws had been carried contrary to the wishes of the aristocrats ; while he did not wish to ally himself with the democrats, who had risen into importance during his absence, and over whom Caesar had unbounded influence. What engaged his immediate attention was the ques- tion of obtaining the senate's ratification of his acts in Asia, and an assignment of lands which he had promised his veterans. The senate, however, glad of an oppor- tunity of putting an affront on a man whom they hated and feared, refused, and by their short-sighted policy compelled him to ally himself with Caesar, when they should have sought in his influence a counterpoise to Caesar's popularity. Caesar promised to obtain for Pompey a ratification of his acts, and Pompey promised Caesar his support in all his measures. These two men with Crassus formed the first triumvirate. Caesar was consul in 59. He carried out liis promise to Pompey, and then aided by Pompey passed measures to please the people. Pompey remained at Rome from 59-49. While Ca3sar was gaining glory in Gaul, Pompey was gradually losing the confidence of all parties at Rome. ' ii ,1 I It il < ! 1 38 GREEK AND ROMAN HISTORY. II) 1 nm The senate hated and feared him, while the people deserted him. According to an arrangement between the triumvirs Crassus and Pompey were to be consuls for 54. After this, Caesar's term of office was to be extended five years, i.e., to the end of 49, Pompey was to receive Spain, and Crassus Syria. Crassus on the conclusion of his term of office went to his province, but fell in battle with the Parthians at Carrhse, 53. Thus Pompey and Caesar were left alone in the struggle for supremacy. Pompey remained at Rome, leaving his lieutenants to govern his province. In 52 Pompey was sole consul. Soon after he became recon- ciled to the aristocrats and was looked upon as their head. The rest of his history will be found under CsBsar. 1. Pompey and Sulla. 2. Campaign against Sertorius. 3. Consul in 70 — breaks with the aristocrats. 4. Gabinian and Manilian laws. 5. He defeats Mithridates. Campaigns in Syria, Phoenicia and Palestine. 6. Return to Italy and career as a politician. 7. His position with reference to the parties at Rome. 8. His alliance with Caesar and Crassus. 9. Rivalry of Pompey and Caesar. Civil war. LEADING MEN. 39 1:1 Caius J. Caesar was bom in 100 B.C. He was closely connected by marriage with the popu- lar party, though his own family were aristocrats. His aunt was married to Marius, while he himself married the daughter of Cinna. Finding that his life was not safe at Rome he went to Asia, where he remained till Sulla's death, 78. On his return to Rome he became noted as an orator. He devoted all his energies to winning the favor of tlie people. He was quaestor in 68, and aedile 65. In 62 he was praetor. In 61 he went as governor to further Spain. On his return he became a candidate for the consulship. This office he held in 59. Before entering upon it, Caesar with Pompey and Crassus formed the first trium- virate. While consul, he satisfied Pompey by obtaining the sanction of the senate for Pompey 's acts in Asia, and then carried an Agrarian law to please the lower classes. In 58 Caesar went to Gaul as Governor. This position he obtained with four legions for five years. During the following nine years he subdued the whole of Gaul, and twice invaded Britain, and twice crossed the Rhine into Germany. In 56 another agreement was made between Caesar, Pompey and Crassus, according to which Caesar was to f 40 GREEK AND ROMAN HISTORY. keep his province for five years longer. An estran^o- ment then took place between Ca3sar and Pompey. Caesar's victories had gained for liini fresli popularity and influence, and Pompey saw himself becoming tlu^ second man in the state. Pompey openly joined the aristocrats. The object of this party was to deprive Caesar of his command, and force him to return to Rome as a private man, wlien they would have formally accused him. On 1st January, 49, the senate passed a decree that Caesar should disband his army before a certain day or be declared a public enemy. Two tribunes put their veto on this resolution, but their opposition was disregarded and they fled to Caesar's camp. Caesar now crossed the Rubicon, which separated his province from Italy. Pompey 's troops deserted him, and Caesar met with little resistance on his southward march. Pompey with the senators withdrew, first to Capua, and as Caesar drew near, to Brundisium, where he embarked for Greece. Caesar first marched against the Pompeian forces in Spain and routed them at Ilerda. He then returned to Rome, where meantime he had been appointed dictator. He resigned this office, but accepted the consulship for 48. At the beginning of 48 Caesar crossed to Dyrra- chium. The campaign was at first in Pompey 's favor; but Caesar was finally victorious at Pharsalia. Pompey fled to Egypt, where he was nmrdered. LEADINCi MEN. 41 When the news of his victory reached Rome, Caesar was appointed dictator for a year, consul for five years, and tribune for life. He declined the consulship, but entered on the dictatorship. When Caesar arrived in Egypt he became involved in the Alexandrine war. Caesar remained there nearly a year. He returned to Rome through Syria and Asia Minor, and on his way defeated Pharnaces, son of Mithridates, at Zela. He reached Rome September, 47, and was appointed consul for the following year. Soon after he left for Africa, where he defeated the Pompeian party at Thapsus in 46. Caesar was now the undisputed master of the Roman world ; but he used his victory with the greatest moder- ation. He declared that he would make no difference between Pompeians and Caesarians. The dictatorship w^as conferred on him for ten years, and the censorship for three years. It was now that he introduced his reform in the calendar. In 45 he went to Spain and defeated the sons of Pompey at Munda. To reward his followers he increased the number of senators and public magistrates. He meditated great reforms, among them a digest of Roman law, the drain- ing of the Pomptine marsh, the dredging of the harbor of Ostia, etc. To protect the boundaries of Rome, he resolved upon an expedition against the Parthians, !'.!i; 42 OREEK AND ROMAN HISTORY. A special meeting of the senate was to take place on 15th of Marcli, 44, for the purpose of conferring on him the title of king outside of Italy. A conspiracy had been formed against liim, and although he had received many warnings against attending the meeting he disregarded them, and fell by the hands of Brutus and Cassius and other conspirators. 1. His relatives. 2. His political career previous to 59. Quaestor, sedile, praetor, consul. 3. First triumvirate. 4. Ciesar in Gaul, 58-49. War with Pompey. Ilerda — dictator. Pharsalia — dictator, consul and tribune. Alexandrine war — Zela, Thapsus. Reforms calendar. Munda. 5. His proposed reforms. 6. His assassination. i.| AUGUSTUS. Augustus, the first Roman emperor, was the son of Atia, the daughter of Julia, the sister of J. Caesar. His original name was C. Octavius, and, after his adoption by CaBsar, C. J. Caesar, Octavianus. He took part in Caesar's campaign in Spain in 45. He was then sent to ApoUonia to prosecute his studies. On the death of LEADING MEN. 43 Cajsar ho set out for Rome, accompanied by a few friends, among whom was Agrippa. The state of parties at Rome was most perplexing. Augustus had to contend both against Antony and tlie republican party. Look- ing" upon Antony as his most dangerous opponent he r /ed to crush him tirst. He accordingly ottered his services to the senate. He was sent, with the title of praetor, along with the consuls Hirtius £ind Pansa to attack Antony, who was besieging D. Brutus at Mutina. Antony was defeated and fled across the Alps. The death of the consuls gave Augustus command of their troops. The senate now became alarmed, and resolved to prevent Augustus from acquiring further power. Vugustus then marched upon Rome, and forced the *^^e to appoint him consul. He then marched into the north of Italy, ostensibly against Antony. He met Antony and Lepidus, the governor of Farther Gaul, descending the Alps at th(j head of seventeen legions. An arrangement was made by which the power was divided between Augustus, Antony and Lepidus, under the name of triumvirs. This arrangement was to last for five years. They published a proscription, and more than two thousand equites and three hundred senators were put to death, and their property confiscated. Among them was Cicero. Soon afterwards Augustus and Antony crossed the Adriatic and defeated the republican leaders, Brutus and Cassius, at Philippi, 42. The triumvirs again divided the empire, Augustus receiving Italy and Spain, Lepidus Africa, and Antony all east of the Adriatic. v^' (iKAPIlI(!AT- XAMKS IX (JllEKK HISTORY. r,7 advice of Thoinistocles, 490, the money wmh nsed to vA\n\\) a fleet. In the time of Xenophon they yielded 100 talents, but gradually decreased. liCmnoH. — One of the largest islands of the Aegcean, situated midway between Mt. Athos and the Hellespont. It was sacred to Hephgestus. Leontini. — Town of Sicily, north-west of Syracuse, tivu miles from the sea, settled by Chalcidians from Naxos, 780. It soon became subject to Syracuse and shared its fortunes. Leuktra. — A small town on the road from Plataea to Thespia?, noted for the defeat of Cleombrotus 871. Mseander. — River, which, rising in Phrygia, flows west through Caria into the Aegean. Mantinea. — One of the oldest and most important towns of Arcadia. Till Megalopolis was founded it ex- ercised supremacy over the other Arcadian towns. During the Peloponnesian war it was destroyed. After Leuktra it gained its independence. It was famous as the scene of the last victory of Epaminondas. Marathon. — A plain in the east of Attica, twenty-six miles from the city by one road and twenty-two by ' ther. It extended along the sea a distance of six les, and varied in breadth from a mile and a half to ■ .ree miles. Megalopolis.— City of Arcadia,on the border of Messenia. It was founded after Leuktra by the people of thirty- eight vil ges moving thither. Melr -An island of the Cyclades, the most westerly of the , oup, situated 70 miles north of Crete and 65 58 GREEK AND ROMAX HISTORY. miles east of the Peloponnesus. The island was ravaged by the Athenians in 416. Memphis. — City of Egypt on the Nile. After the de- struction of Thebes it was the capital of Egypt. It was a place of great commercial importance till 526, when it was partially destroyed by Cambyses. It was finally destroyed by the Arabs in the 7th century. Mesembria. — An important town on the Euxine, on the frontiers of Thrace and Moesia. Mitylene. — The chief city of Lesbos, on the east coast. It founded settlements in Mysia and Thrace. In 428 it revolted from Athens. Mykale. — Mountain at the mouth of the Mseander. It and the island of Samos overlap, and are separated by a strait three- fourths of a mile wide. It is noted for the victory of the Greeks, 479. Naupactus. — Town in south-west of Locri Ozolae, very strongly fortified and possessing the bes^ harbor on the north of the Corinthian gulf. Given by the Athenians to the Messenians 455. Naxos. — The largest island of the Cyclades, situated midway between Greece and Asia Minor. It was con- quered by Peisistratus 501. It was conquered by the Persians 490, but achieved its independence. Nemea. — Valley between Cleonse and Phliasia, in Argolis. The Nemean games were held yearly. Olympus. — The eastern part of the Cambunian Mts. The abode of the gods. Olympia. — A smaU plain of Elis, north of the Alpheus. The games were held every four years. GEOGRAPHICAL NAMES IN GREEK HISTORY. 59 m Olynthus. — The most important Greek town on the coast of Macedonia. It was situated on the Toronaic gulf. After tlie Peloponnesian war it became the head of a league. It was captured by the Spartans, but gained its independence after Leuktra. It was destroyed by Philip 347. Parnassus. — A mountain a few miles north of Delphi. It was sacred to Apollo and the muses. Peirffius.— The chief of the three ports of Athens. It w^as five miles south-east of the city. It was first used on the advice of Themistocles. The port formerly used was Phalerum. Pella.— An old town of Macedonia, of little importance until Philip made it his capital. • Perinthus. — An important town on the Propontis. At the time of Philip's attack it was more powerful than Byzantium. Platsea.— Town of Boeotia, on the northern slope of Cithffiron, near the source of the Asopus. Pydna.— A Greek town on the Macedonian coast. It fell under the power of Macedon. It is noted for the victory of Paulus over Perseus, 168. Salamis.— West of Attica. The island incloses the bay of Eleusis on the [south. In 620 a struggle for its possession took place between Athens and Megara. Samos.— One of the chief of the Ionian islands, in the Icarian sea. Sardes.— The capital of the Lydian empire, situated in the valley of the Henims, at the foot of Mt. Tmolus. Sestos.— City of the Thracian Chersonese, opposite to ^^"mimmmmm 60 GREEK AND ROMAN HISTORY. i! il (if;, IV: Abydos. It is famous on account of the story of Leander, and as the place where Xerxes crossed into Europe. Skyros. — An island of the Sporades east of Euboea, famous as the place of Achilles' concealment. Selinus. — An important Dorian town on the south- west coast of Sicily. Taygetus. — A lofty range of mountains, of a wild and savage character, separating Laconia from Messenia. Sphakteria. — An island about IJ miles long, stretching in front of the harbor of Pylos. Sporades. — A group of islands off the coast of Crete and Asia Minor, so called in contrast to the Cyclades. They were not clearly defined. Thermopylse. — A narrow pass leading from Thessaly into Lokris. Trapezus. — A Greek colony of Sinope in Pontus. During the middle ages it was the capital of the Greek kingdom of Trebizond. Next to Odessa it is the chief port on the Black sea. Zacynthus. — An island in the Ionian sea off the coast of Elis. It was inhabited by Greeks from very early times. It is called by Homer " wooded Zacynthus." Geographical Names in Roman History. Actium. — See Greek geography. Noted for victory of Augustus, eSl. Agrigentum. — Town on south coast of Sicily, 2 J miles from the sea. Till its destruction by the Carthaginians, GEOGRAPHICAL NAMES IN ROMAN HISTORY 61 405, it was one of the most wealthy and populous cities of the ancient world. It finally tell into the hands of the Romans. Algidus. —Mountain and town of the Aequi south-east of Rome. Allia.— River rising near Crustumerium, 11 miles from Rome, falls into the Tiber six miles from the city. Owing to the defeat of the Romans there in 390, the 16th day of July, the dies Alliensis was unlucky. Aqufe Sexti^.— A Roman colony a few miles from Massilia, noted for the defeat of the Teutons, 103. Artaxata.— Capital of Greater Armenia, on the Araxes, founded on the advice of Hannibal. Famous for victory of Lucullus, 69. Asculum. — Two towns of that name, the one in Picenum, the other in Apulia. The latter was noted for the victory of Pyrrhus, 279. Bsecula.— Town in south of Spain, north-east of Cor- duba, noted for Roman victory over Hasdrubal, 209. Bene\entum. — Town of Samnium on the Appian way. The old name was Malventum. In 268 the Romans sent a colony there and called it Beneventum. It was noted for the defeat of Pyrrhus, 275. Boians.— A Gallic tribe between the Padus and the Apennines. Campi Raudii.— Plain north-west of Vercellffi. Cannfe.— Town of Apulia, near the Aufidus, noted for the defeat of the Romans, 216. Capua.— Chief city of Campania after the fall of Cumai. It was colonized by the Etruscans twenty years rm^mmmimmmmmmm 62 GREEK AXD ROMAN HISTORY. •r, 1 1 ii'i hi: I 'ill 4-1 before the founding of Rome, and was soon the largest, wealthiest and most luxurious city in Southern Italy. In 420 it was conquered by tlie Samnites. When it was again attacked by the Samnites of the Highlands in 343 it placed itself under the protection of Rome. Carrhae. — The ancient Haran, a city of Mesopotamia, noted for the defeat of Crassus, 53. Casilinum. — Town of Campania on the Volturnus. Situated on the site of the modern Capua. Caudium. — Town of Samnium on the road from Capua to Beneventum. Near it are the Caudine forks, noted for the defeat of the Romans, 321. Clupea. — Town on peninsula of same name, north-east of Carthage. Founded by Agathocles under the name of Aspis, taken by the Romans 246, and called Clypea or Clupea. Clusium. — The most important of the twelve cities of Etruria, situated on an eminence near the Clanis. Cremera. — Small river of Etruria, falling into the Tiber a few miles from Rome. Noted for the destruc- tion of the Fabii. Cremona. — Roman colony founded at the confluence of the Addua and the Padus, 219, together with Placentia as an outpost against the Gauls. Cynoscephelge. — See Greek geography under K. Cyzicus. — See Greek geography. Dyrrachium. — See Greek geography under Epidamnus. Ecnomus. — Promontory near Gela, noted for a Roman victory, 256. ■Mi GEOGRAPHICAL NAMES IN ROMAN HISTORY. m jest, baly. was 343 Fidense. — Town in the Sabine district, five miles north- east of Rome, probably colonized by the Etruscan city of Veii. Often at war with Rome. Destroyed 437. Gaurus. — Mountain situated near Cumae and Neapolis. Noted for Roman victory, 340. Italica. — Name given by the allies to Corfinium, a city of the Peligni, which they intended to make the new capital of Italy. Lautulse. — Village of the Volsci, noted for Roman defeat. Lavinium. — Town founded by Aeneas in honor of his wife, two miles from the sea, and six north-east of Laurentum. Magnesia. — City in the north-east of Lydia, foot of Mount Sipylus. Noted for the victory of L. Scipio, 190. Messana. — An ancient town in north-east of Sicily. It was destroyed by the Carthaginians 396, but rebuilt by Dionysius of Syracuse. The conduct of the Mamer- tines stationed there was the immediate cause of the 1st Punic war. Massilia. — A town of Southern Gaul, founded in 600 by Greeks from Asia Minor. The Carthaginians soon became jealous of its trade, but they were defeated by the Massilians, who formed an alliance with Rome. Metaurus. — A river of Umbria, noted for the defeat of Hasdrubal, 207. Mylse. — Town on peninsula in the eastern part of the north coast of Sicily, founded by Mossana. It is noted for the victory of Duilius, 260, and Agrippa, 36. m CA GREEK AND ROMAN HISTORY. ■'' Neapolis. — Colony of CuiiifB, on tlie western slope of Vesuvius. It was divided into two parts, Neapolis and Palaeopolis. Of historical importance in connection with the wars between Rome and Samnium. Nola. — Town of Campania, 21 miles south-east oij Capua. Numantia. — Chief town of the Celtiberians near th( Durius, taken by the Romans, 133, after a siege of tei years. Ostia. — Port of Rome, situated on the left bank of the Tiber, 16 miles from the city. It was built by Ancus Marcius. It was destroyed by Marius. It was after- wards rebuilt, but after a new port was built by Claudius on the right bank it declined in importai ice. Panormus. — City founded by Phoenicians in north-west of Sicily, captured by the Romans, 254. Pergamus. — City situated in south of Mysia, after- wards the capital of the Roman province of Asia. Perusia. — City in the east of Etruria, between tlie Tiber and Trasimene, noted for the siege in 40. Pharsalus. — Town south of Scotussa. Noted for Poiii- pey's defeat, 48. Philippi. — Celebrated town of Macedonia near the Strymon, formerly called Crenides. Noted for the defeat of the Republicans, 42. Pistoria. — Small town in north of Etruria, noted for Catiline's defeat. Placentia. — Town south of the Padus. Pydna. — See Oi-eek geography. ■'''■*,, 1 GEOGRAPHICAL NAMES IN ROMAN HISTOllY. 65 Regillus. — Lake of Latiuiii between Rome and Mount Algidus, noted for the defeat of Latins, 497. Sacer. — Mountain two miles from Rome, noted for the secessions of 495, 449. Saguntum. — Old Greek town on the east coast of Spain. Its siege by Hannibal, 219, formed the prelude to the 2nd Punic war. Sentinum. — Town of Umbria, noted for a Roman victory, 295. Siris. — Small river of Lucania flowing into the gulf of Tarentum. Syracuse. — One of the most important cities of the ancient world, situated on the south-east coast of Sicily. At the height of its power its population was 500,000. Tarentum. — Greek city on the west coast of Calabria, founded by Spartans, 708. Thapsus. — City on east coast of Africa. The scene of Caesar's victory, 46. Thermopylae. — See Greek geography. Thurii. — Greek city in Lucania founded 448, not far from the site of the old town of Sybaris, which had been destroyed 60 years before. Ticinus. — River draining lake Verbanus, and flowing into the Padus from the north. Trasimenus. — Lake of Etruria, noted for Hannibal's victory, 217. Trebia.— River flowing north into the Padus. . -^-^ f^ ]!■ 66 GREEK AND ROMAN HISTORY. Yeii. — On the Cremera in Southern Etruria. One of the twelve cities and apparently the most powerful. It was destroyed 396. Venusia. — City on the borders of Lucania and Apulia. The birth-place of Horace. Vesuvius. — Mountain between Cumse and Neapolis. Zama. — Town of Numidia, on the borders of Africa Propria, strongly fortified, the residence of Juba, noted for the battle fought there 202. Zela. — Town of Pontus, noted for Caesar's victory, 47. \m «1 ■? j , Greek Chronology. The most important dates are indicated by the asterisk. Semi-Historical, 2000-621 b.c. 2000. Emigration of Greeks into Hellas. 1194. Trojan expedition. *1184. Fall of Troy. 1104. Migration of the Dorians. *1068. Abolition of kingly power at Athens. *884. Establishment of Spartan institutions. 752. Limitation of Archonship at Athens to ten years. 743-724. First Messenian war. 683. Archonship limited to one year and nine ap- pointed. GREEK CHRONOLOGY. 67 684-()()8. Second Messcnian war. *621. Laws ot* Drako. 620. Attempt of Kyloii to seize jrovernment at Athens. *594. Institutions of Solon. Rules of Tyrants, 650-500. *560. Peisistratus obtains the tyranny. 546. Lydians and lonians conquered by Cyrus. *527. Death of Peisistratus. *510. Overthrow of the Peisistratidse and triumph of Alkmffionidse under Kleisthenes or Cleisthenes. 506-456. War with Aegina. 499. Rebellion of lonians under Aristagoras. Help sent from Athens. 494. lonians finally subdued. Struggle with Persia, 492-477. 492. First expedition against Greece under Mardonius. *490. Second expedition under Datis and Artaphernes. Marathon. *480. Third expedition under Xerxes and Mardonius. Thermopylse. Salamis. *479. Platsea and My kale. Two Confederacies in Greece, 477-432. *477. Confederacy of Delos. 464. Rebellion of Messenians. 1 ■ i 68 GREEK AND ROMAN TIISTORY. 456. War Ixitvvoon Atlicns nnd Corintli, Bd'ofcia and Aegiiia. *450. Five years truce. 44(S. War between Delpliians and Pliocians. 445. Rising of Eubcxja and Megara against Athens. *440. Expedition against Sanios, reduction of island and consolidation of Athenian Empire : 80 years truce. 436. Appeals of Epidanmus to Corey ra. 433. Surrender of Epidanmus. Alliance between Athens and Corcyra. Peloponnesian War, 432-404. *432. Defeat of Corinthia.-S at Sybota by Korkyraians aided by Athenians. Embassy to Sparta from Potidsea. Congress at Sparta. 431. First invasion of Attica. 430. Outbreak of plague. 429. Surrender of Potida^a. Spartans invest Plat?ea. Death of Perikles. Successes of Athenian admiral Phormion. 428. Kevolt of Lesbos. 427. Lesbos reduced. Platsea surrenders. Embassy arrives at Athens from Leontini. *425. Athenians occupy Pylos. 424. Athenians successful in Peloponnesus. They take Cythera. Expedition of Brasidas to Thrace. Athenians defeated at Delion. L GREEK (:illl()N()L()(JY 69 428. Truce for a year in order to arran^rr for a peace. 422. Kleon sent to Thrace. Battle of Amphipolis. *421. Peace of Nikias. 50 years peace. 420. Defensive alliance of Athens with Ar-os, Elis, Mantinea. 418. Spartans invade Argos. Defeat of Argivos at Mantinea. *415. Arrival of embassy from Egesta. Athenians fit out an expedition under Alkibiades, Lysiumchos, Is.kms. 414. Athens successful at first, but tide turned by arrival of Gylippos. »413. Beginning of war about Dekeleia. Destruction of Athenian forces in Sicily. 412. Treaty between Sparta an.l Persia. Alkibiades forced to leave Sparta. *4n. Thrasyboulos takes Alkibiades to Sanios, where he is elected strategos. 408. Athens retakes Byzantium, Chalcedon. *407. Return of Alkibiades to Athens, His fleet under Antiochus defeated. Alkibiades depnvo.1 of Ins command. 406. Athenians win a victory at Arj^inusa?. *405. Athenians defeated by Lysander at Aegos- potami. *404. Blockade and capture of Atheas. \ 70 (JKKKK AM) ROMAN FIISTOHV. I i ill! (f ., 'I K! Supremacy ok Sparta, 404-371. *404-403. Thirty tynuits at Atliens, ovortlirown in 403 by Thi'jisyboulos. 401. Expedition of 10,000. 399. They return and enter service of 'I'liinibron. 399. Deatli of Sokrates. 397. Peace of Derkyllidas. 396. A^esilaus goes to Asia Minor and defeats Persians at Sardes. *394. Agesilaus returns to Greece and defeats allies at Coroneia and Neniea. 392. Fall of Spartan maritime supremacy before attacks of Konon and Pharnabazus. 390. Death of Thrasyboulos. *387. Peace of Antalkidas. 384. Confederacy of Olynthus and march of Spartans under Eudaniidas and Plm^bidas. 379. Surrender of Olynthus. *378-362. Theban war. 373. Sparta and Athens renew peace of Antalkidas. *371. Leuktra. Theban Supremacy, 371-362. 369. First invasion of Peloponnesus. 368. Second invasion. Outbreak of war between Thebes and Thessaly. 365. War betw^een Elis and Arkadia. *362. Mantinea. ROMAN (:ilR()\()|.()(iV. 71 IM lats at A Sthuogle of Greeks with Greeks. *.S50. IMiilip l)(!COin(iH kin^ of Macedonia. 35(). Ho takes Ainpliipolis, Py. Roman Chronology. Semi-Historical, Dates Uncertain— Kixoly Rule— 753-509. *758. Foundation of Rome on the Palatine. 758-710. Reign of Romulus. Founding of ixjlitical institutions. Settlement of Sabines on Caj^itoline and Quirinal. t t I ■ i : 1 , I r ! 1^ 72 GREEK AND ROMAN HISTORY. Appointment Flaniines. Vestal Virgins. Pontiffs and Augurs. G73-640. Tullus Hostilius. Wars with Latins. Veii. Fidenai. Destruction of Alba Longa. 640-616. Aneus Marcius. Removed the conquered Latins to Aventine. Beginning of Plebs. Extension of city. Foundation of Ostia. 616-578. Tarquinius Priscus. Greatness of Roman monarchy. Great public works. He concpiers Sabines and Latins. Senate increased to 800. 578-534 Servius Tullius surrounds city with a wall. New constitution. Rir.e of Comitia Centuriata. Insti- tution of 30 Plebeian tribes. 536-509. Taniuinius Superbus. Abrogation of Ser- vian constitution. He becomes ruler of Latium. He attacks the Volsci, but is at last expelled. Rome and the Latin Tribes — Patricians and Plebeians — 509-457. *509. Appointment of consuls, Rex. Sacrificulus, quse- stores aerarii. War witli Porsena. 501. War with Latins. T. Lartius first dictator. *498. Regillus. *495. First secession. Institution of tribunes and Aediles Plebis. 493. Treaty with Latins. War with Volsci, and capture of Corioii. 489. \'olsci led by Marcius Coriolanus attack Rome. ^ KOMAN CHRONOLOGY. 73 *48r). Ao-rarian law of Cassius. Trial, condeninatioii and death. 477. War with Veii. Power of Fabii. Wars with Ae(iiii and Volsci. *471. Laws of Publilius Volero. 458. Quinctius Cincinnatus dictator. Defeat of Aequi at Algidus. *462. Demand of Arsa for written laws. 457. Increase of tribunes from five to 10. *454. Bill of Arsa becomes law. Plebeians Obtain Equal Power wtth Patricians, 451-367 *451. Appointment of Decemviri. *449. Second secession of Plebs. Dep( .sition of Decem- viri. *445. Law of Canuleius. Appointment of military tribunes with consular power. 443. Appointment of censors. 440. Famine at Rome. First praefect annona^ ap- pointed. Sp. Mselius. 426. Destruction of Fidenae. 406-396. Siege of Veii. 391. Exile of Caiuillus. *390. AUia. 884. M. Manlius. *376-367. Licinian laws. \ V I i I $ i i'f I ?.i.* ,. ' * 74 GREEK AND ROMAN HISTORY. Rome Becomes Mistress of Italy, 367-272. 867. Appointment of Praetors. 858-356. Fresh Gallic attacks. First Plebeian dic- tator. 851. First Plebeian censor. *843-840. War with Sanuiites. Mt. Gaurus. ^840-888. War with Latins. Vesuvius. ^839. Laws of Philo. 387. Pra^torship opened to Plebs. ^888. Subjno-ation of Latins and Volsci. *826. Second Samnite war over the quarrel about Fregall?e. 326-321. War goes on against Samnites. *321. Caudine Forks. 319. Truce for two years. 816. Samnites renew war. 814. Victory over Samnites and subjugation of Cam- pania. 311. Etruscans declare war against Rome, but they and Sanniites are defeated. 81 1-805. Samnites meet with great defeats and Bovi- .•uium, (heir cajjital, is stormed. *804. Peace with Samnites. Their allies are defeated. *298. Th'u'i] Sanniite war. 298-295. Samnites defeated in Lucania and Sanuiium. ROMAN CHRONOLOGY. 75 *295. Etruria. *290. 282. *281. 279. 278. *278- Sicily. *275. Battle of Sentinum in Umbria. Perusia in Samnites defeated on all sides. Sue for peace. Tarentum sends an invitation to Pyrrlms. Pyrrhus lands and defeats the Romans at Siris. He defeats them at Asculum. He makes a truce with Rome. 275. Pyrrhus wars against the Carthaginians in Returns and is defeated at Beneventum. !• oME Conquers the Countries of the Western Mediterranean, 272-202. 268. Samnites rise against Rome and are defeated. Supremacy of Rome in Italy. *264 Beginning of first Punic war. Capture of Messana. *262. Capture of Agrigentum. 261. Carthaginians ravage Sicily. *260. Mylse. 259. Romans attack Corsica and Sardinia. *256. Expedition under Regulus and Manlius to Africa, 255. Regulus defeated and taken prisoner. Victory and destruction of Roman fleet. 254. Romans build another fleet and take Panormus. % '1 76 GREEK AND ROMAN HISTORY. 11 ll m^ Mill i:; 258, Romans ravage coasts of Africa, but lose tlicii^ fleet in a storm. 250. Mutellus defeats Carthaginians at Panormus and Carthage sues for peace as slie lias now lost all posses- sions in Sicily exce^it Lilyba^um and ]])repana. 249. Roaians under Appius Claudius defeated at Drepana. *247. Hamilcar takes connnand of Carthaginians. *241. Victory of Catulus at Aegatian Isles. Peace between Carthage and Rome. *238. Rome carries on war with Boii and Ligurians. Conclusion of war between Carthao'e and her allies. Rome seizes Corsica and Sardinia. Hamilcar goes to Spain. 229. War with Illyrian pirates. Hamilcar died in battle. *225. Advance of Gauls southward. Thev are defeated at Telamon. 223. Flaminius crosses Padus and defeats Insubres. 222. Insubres defeated by Marcellus at Clastidium. Rome gains Lombardy. *221. Hannibal succeeds Hasdrubal in Spain. 219. Second Illyrian war against Demetrius of Pharos brought to a close b}^ Aemilius Paulus. Hannibal takes Saguntuju. *218. Beginning of Second Punic war. Hannibal, leaving New Carthage, reaches Italy in hve months. He defeats the Romans at Ticinus and Trebia, and winters in Liguria. ROMAN ClfRONOLOGY. 77 Ind les- ICO 217. I)(^r(!at of Flaiiiinins at Trasimeiio. Fabiiis Max. appoints 1 dictator. Hannibal winters in Apulia. *''2\{). Cannae. Death of Hiero. Hannibal winters in (ya[)U.'i. Treaty between Philip and Hannibal. 215. Hannibal meets with reverses at Nola and Eeiiev^entnui. 214. Claudius Marcellus sent to Sicily. "212. Marcellus captures Syracuse. Defeat and death of the two Scipios in Spain. 211. Romans recapture Capua. Hannibal takes Tarontum. P. Cornelius Scipio goes to S})ain. *209. Ivomans retake Tarentum. Scipio defeats Has- drubal at Ba^cula. *;07. Metaurus. 205. Scipio returns to Rome and is elected consul. Peace between Romans and Philip. *204. Scipio crosses to Africa, *202. Zama. Rome Conquers the East, 202-146. 200. War between Romans and Philip renewed. 197. Philip defeated at Cynoscephela^. 196. Defeat of Insubres and Boii. Hannibal forced to take refuge with Antiochus. *191. War with Aiitiocliu«. Aciliu^ Glabri,, -UHtus. 25. Au<^u.stus subdues Cantabri. 16. Defeat of LoUius by Germans. 10-Ji Wars in Germany. 1-7. Wars in Germany renewed. *9. Defeat of Varus by Germans. *14. Death of Augustus. Greek Antiquities. [Some remarks on the Public Assemblies and I^iblic Magistrates at Athens, Sparta and Rome, from Baird's Manual.] Inhabitants of Attica. The inhabitants of Attica were divided into three classes: 1. Freemen. 2. Foreigners settled in the country. 8. Slaves. Inhabitants of Sparta. The inhabitants of Sparta were divided into two classes : 1. Spartans and Perio^ci, town and provincial freemen. 2. Helots, slaves. r I greek antiquities. Magistrates. 81^ The form of goveniiiioiit at Atlions was, as in many states, fre(|uently cluing'e ^^ J^ %\S 7 /A Photographic Sciences Corporation 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. 14580 (716) 873-4503 o^ t 84 GREEK AND ROM/ N HISTORY. bi'i I ' I ^ 2. To .settle all disputes respecting tlie priesthootl, and judj^e those accused of impiety. DUTIES OF THE POLEMARCHUS. The duties of the Polemarchus were : i. To celebrate rites in honour of Mars and Diana. 2. To have under his care all foreigners and strangers, and settle actions brought against them. 3. To superintend the wars, over which he had the chief command, and thence received his name. THESMOTHETAI. The functions of the Thesmothetai were connected with the administration of justice, such as : 1. Receiving indictments, bringing cases to trial, and appointing the day of sitting. 2. Annually/ revising the code of laws. 3. Drawing up agreements with foreign states, etc. 4. Examining the magistrates, and taking the votes in the assemblies. ELECTION OF ARCHONS. The Archons were elected by lot, and before they were admitted to office passed an examination as to their family, age, past conduct, etc., and took oath that they would observe the laws, administer justice and accept no presents. THE EPHOROI. The Ephoroi,or "overseers," were the chief magistrates at Sparta; they were five in number, and elected annvxilly from and by the people without any qualification of age ii I GREEK ANTIQUITIES. 85 or property. Though at first only judicial officers, in time their authority became so great that even the two hereditary kings of Sparta, as well as the magistrates, were prosecuted or suspended at their discretion. They had the superintendence of the public morals, convened the public assembly, levied troops, etc., and had great influence in the most important matters. Every month they exchanged an oath with the kings, ryornising to defend the royal authority, provided it did not violate the laws. The tribunal of the Ephoroi was in a council hall in the Forum. Assemblies. Ecclesia. — The General Assembly of the citizens at Athens, in which they met to discuss matters of public interest. This assembly had the power of "nuihing hiws, electing magistrates, iwoclaiining war, etc. ; the place of meeting was either the Agora or Pnyx, in later times the theatre of Bacchus. The magistrates who presided in the Assembly were : 1. Prytaneis, who summoned the people, and an- nounced the subject for decison. 2. Proedri, who occupied the front seats. 3. President, chosen by lot from the Proedri. The usual manner of giving votes was by holding up the hand, and as soon as the voting was ended the Pra3dri examined the suffrages, and pronounced the decree, psci>liisma, so called from the psephoi, pebbles which, together with beans (kyami), were sometimes used in voting. BOULE oil senate. 7'he Sevate of the Five Hundred. — The institution of this body is attributed to Solon, in whose time the 86 GREEK AND ROMAN HISTORY. f I Council Consisted of only four hundred members ; but, on the tribes being remodelled by Cleisthenes, B.C. 510 the Council was increased to five hundred, and the members were divided into ten sections oi fifty each, and were called Prytaneis: they presided in the Council, as well as the Assembly, during thirty-five or thirty-six days, so as to complete the lunar year of 354 days. Each tribe presided in turn, and the period of office was called a Prytany. The members of the Council remained in office for a j^ear, at the end of which they were obliged to give an account of their conduct (euthune); and previous to entering office, they submitted to the dokimasia, or scrutiny into their private character. THE APELLA. The Apella, or General Assembly, was composed of all the citizens of Sparta over thirty years of age. By this body laws were made, and questions of peace and war decided; but nothing could be brought before it, save such matters as the Senate had previously decided might be entertained by it. It was by this assembly that the senators were elected. 1: THE GEROUSIA. Gerousia was the name given to the Council of Elders, gerontes, or Senate at Sparta: it was composed of the two Kings and twenty-eight citizens, who had reached their sixtieth year. They were elected by the people, and were irresponsible. The functions of this Council were : 1. To propose measures to be laid before the Popular Assembly. GREEK ANTIQUITIES. 87 2. To discharge the highest offices of government. 3. To sit as tlie supreme criminal tribunal ; and 4. To watch over tlie public morals. Judges and Courts of Justice. TJie Court of Areopftgits. — This was the most ancient and venerable seat of justice in Athens; it derived its name from the Arelos Pagon (the hill of Mars) because, it is said, Mars was the first criminal tried. The court was composed of ex-archons who had discharged their office unblamably, and of the most distinguished citizens: the number of judges varied at different times. They were termed Areiopagitai, and took cognizance of all crimes, vices, and abuses, such as robbery, murder, poisoning, arson, etc. ; they overlooked religious matters, and punished severely for impiety and contempt of holy mysteries. So great was their power that they sometimes even annulled the decrees of the Popular Assembly. the heliasts. The Heliasts, so named from their court, Helinia, were a body of Judges chosen by lot, and varied in number ; sometimes the Heliastiai wxre six thousand in number. They took cognizance of affairs of the greatest import- ance, but were not permitted to pass sentence until they had taken oath to decide according to the decrees of the people. THE DliETETiE. The Forty. — The diatetai were inferior judges who settled private disputes, subject to an appeal before the Heliasts. They were chosen yearly from the phylai, or 88 (JREEK AND llOMAX HISTORY. tribes, and were required to be fifty or sixty years of age. The Forty were also inferior judges who annually took a circuit through the JJe/nii, and decided causes where the matter in dispute did not exceed 10 drachmae. COURT OF THE EPHET^:. The Ephetai were judges, fifty -one in number, selected from noble families, and required to be more than fifty years of age. Their jurisdiction extended to cases of justifiable and unintentional murder ; when judging of the former, they sat at the Delphinivmi ; when of the latter, at the Palladium. Amphictyones were members of the Aviphiktyonia, which was a confederation formed for mutual security, and for the protection of a temple at which the members assembled to transact business and celebrae their fes- tivals. The most celebrated was the Delphic Amphic- tyonia, originally composed of twelve tribes, whose deputies met annually at Delphi in the spring and at Thermopyloi in the autumn. The council itself was called Pyloia, Roman Antiquities. The Early Tribal Divisions. The Roman people were divided by Romulus into three tribes (tribus) Ramnes or Ramnenses, TitienseSy and Luceres: these tribes were again divided into thirty curioi, each of which had its curio, or president, and the whole body had a curio muximus. ROMAN ANTIQiriTlES. Social Divisions. 81) The inhabitants of Rome were at first divided into two ranks (ordineft): 1. Patricii, and 2. Plchci — these were connected together as Fatroni and Clientes ; after- wards, the Eqivites, forming a kind of intermediate order, were added. The Patricii appear to have been tlie original citizens, and were divided into curiae and gentes, or clans, united by reHgious ties or family coiniexion. They were entirely separated from the Plebei, no connu- bium or marriage being permitted between the orders, and were the only parties eligible to the Senate, or tlie higher offices in the religious and political government of the state. In time, however, the Plebeians increased in import- ance by the admission of concpiered tribes into their order, so that, from the time of Scrviios Tidlias^ they took part in the comitia or legal assemblies, and ulti- mately obtained the connubium and cijual rights with the Patricians. The Equife^ were at first only a military order, 300 in number (celeres) and instituted by Romulus. This number was increased by the successive kings ; the Equites had a horse at the public charge (eqitiiH 'jmhllcas) and (ces eqneMi'e) a sum for its support. Latterly, how- ever, the name Equiteft was extended from tliose who had horses at the public charge to all tiiose having horses of their own, and qualified by their property to act as judices, and thus the military character of the original order disappeared, and all free-born citizens possessing four hundred thouf^mnl scMcrfii were E(piites, or of the Equestrian order. The insignia of these Knights were the annulus aureus, gold ring, and the angustiui via v its, 90 GREEK AND ROMAN HISTORY. a narrow band of purple wrought in the cloth, and extending from each shoulder to the bottom of the tunica. The Eijuites occupied the first fourteen benches at the theatres. New Parties. When the ancient diflference between Patricians and Plebeians had disappeared, then arofiC a new classifica- tion, Nohiles and IcpiohileH ; the only privilege of the Nohil/'s was the jus imaginum, an ancient custom of setting up in the atria or courts of their houses waxen busts or effigies of their ancestors. These Nohiles were again divided into Optimates or Conservatives, and Populares or Radicals. The Slave Element. When the Roman empire enlarged its territories, there arose another division, Servi, or slaves, who became such either by being taken in war, by sale, by way of pitnish- nient, or by being horn in a state of punishment. They received a monthly allowance, but could not obtain property without the consent of their masters. Slaves were sold at Rome by auction, and became either the property of private individuals or of the state. The state of slavery was terminated by ManumissiOy which Avas effected either by entering a slave's name on the Censor's books (censu), or by certain ceremonies with a rod (vinclicta) before the Praetor, or by will (testainento). The Senate (Senatus). The Senate, according to tradition, was instituted by Romulus, and consisted at first of only one hundred ROMAN ANTTQITITIES. 91 members (senatores or patres), chosen from the Patri- cians. This number was increased to two hurulred wlien the Sabine Tities became united to the Latin Rarrones, and another one hundred were also added when the Luceres, consisting chiefly of Etruscans, were incorporated in the time of Tarq. Priscus ; these new Senators were called Patres minorum gentium, in distinction to the old Senators, Patres Tnajorum gentium. The vacancies which occurred in the Senate after the abolition of the monarchy (B.C. 509) were filled up by Plebeians of Equestrian rank, who were designated Conscripti, and hence the Senate was addressed as Patres (sc. et). The number of three hundred remained until the time of Sulla, when the Senate consisted of between jive and six hundred. The Senate possessed the administrative authority in such matters as religious worship, taxa- tion, levying of troops, negotiations with foreign states, embassies, provincial government, etc. The sittings of the Senate were either regular (senatus legitimus) or extraordinary (senatus itulictus), and were held between sunrise and sunset. When the mem- bers had assembled, the presiding magistrate announced the subject (referre ad Senatum), and called on each member to state his opinions (rogare sententias, senten- tias dicere) ; this he delivered either by a single word or in a speech ; then followed the voting (discessio, pedibus ire in sententiam alicujus). The decree, when passed (Senatus Gonsultum vet Decretiim), was written down and placed in the cerarium or treasury, under the care of the Prcetor. A certain number of Senators were required to be present to make a decree valid, and those absenting M I I 92 (JKEKK AM) ROMAN HISTORY. themselves with(3ut just cause were fined. For Inter- cessio viile Tribuni. It was required in a candidate that he sliould be free- born, and possess a certain amount of property ; bitterly, 800,000 sestertii. The Senators were chosen (le(jrhantur) by the Kinc/s, by the Conmdf*, and, in later times, by the Censor's ; one of the qualifications necessary was that the candidate should have fulfilled the duties of the magis- tracy, the first degree of which was the ([uaestorship. The iiisignia of the Senators were the latus clavus^ a broad band of purple extending from the neck down to the centre of the tunica, and the calcens lunatus, a high shoe adorned with a small crescent. The Senators had also certain seats at the public shows. Assemblies (Comitia). The Comitia were the legal meetings of the Roman people, at which their votes were taken on matters con- nected with the goverinnent of the State. The Comitia could only be held on certain days (dies coniitiales), never on festivals ; and, previous to meeting, notice was given (prcminlgari) of the subject for decision. There were three kinds of Comitia: 1. Comitia Curiata ; 2. Comitia Centuriata ; 3. Comitia Tributa. 1. Comitia Curiata were held, in a part of the Fom,m called Comitiuiii, first by the Kings and afterwards by the Consuls and Pnvtors. Though at first they were assemblies of the whole people, and possessed power in enacting laws and confirming the authority of the Kings, on the decline of the Patrician power they lost their im- portance. The Comitia Calata belonged to these Comitia, I ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. dd which were iiioroly meetinjj;;.s for t\w purpose of sanction- ing certain procee(lin