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DISCOURSE 
 
 .V/ 
 
 ON 
 
 THE STUDY 
 
 OK THE 
 
 LAW OF NATUEE AND NATIONS 
 
 nv 
 
 
 IR JAMES MACKINTOSH, M. P.; 
 
 TOGETHER WITH A COLLECTED LIST OF 
 
 WORKS UPON INTERNATIONAL LAW, 
 
 A SKETCH OF THE AUTHOR'S LIFE, ETC., 
 
 BY J. c;. MARVIN. 
 
 ....:L TO ...K. . ...u. .. ru. .o,-.. ..s OK n.K. .vuo., n ... ..o. ..u .,.: .o..u 
 
 BOSTON: 
 
 l» 11 A T T AND COMPANY, 
 
 N(i. a2 J'oiirt f<troct. 
 
 1843. 
 
 ..,1' 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF ViaORIA 
 
 LIBRARY 
 
 Victoria, B C. 
 
r.iilin il iiccdnliiii; U> A(t iiri'oiiuir^s, jii Ilir jL'iir l.^l:l, 
 ItV .1. <;. MAIiVlN. 
 Ill llii' rink's (iiriic (il'llir Dislriil CiPiul olllH! Iti^tricl cil' .Miis-:u liiixll 
 
 II n -i I II N : 
 
 \MII.I.\V'» > M> l'Ut;N I I-)- , 
 
 I Ihviiit.'llin- SI. 
 
 i 
 
T 
 
 f |{ E F A C E . 
 
 We arc aware that the duties of a compiler, or editor of 
 another's production, are sufliciently humble; but if, by this 
 means, any thing truly valuable is placed within the reach of the 
 public, no one ought to shrink from the task. This admirable 
 " Discourse" has passed through several large editions in England, 
 and has ever been regarded by competent judges as the most 
 finished and profound production that has been written upon 
 the Law of Nature and Nations. When such ornaments of the 
 Senate and the Bench, as Pitt, CANMNr;, LoufiiinoROucin, 
 and Story, warmly cojumend a ])roduction, it needs no farther 
 proof of its intrinsic value and importance. The entire writings 
 of this accomplished scholar and profound philosopher, cannot 
 be too extensively read or highly appreciated. We have thought 
 that it might not be inappropriate to prefix to the " Discourse" 
 a brief Biographical Sketch of Sir James Mackintosh, and a list 
 of scmic of the more reputable works upon International Law; 
 hoping that these few pages, in their present form, will not be 
 wholly beneath the attention of the general reader, or of the 
 Legal Profession. •'• G. M. 
 
 Camhridiii, 0,f ii), IS.l:l. 
 
 .,V 
 
A U T TI U S , 
 
 WHO HAVE VVKITTEN ri'ON TIH^ LAW OF NATUKK AM) 
 
 NATIONS* 
 
 The following list contains some of the anthors who have writ- 
 ten upon international law. Though far from being complete, yet 
 upon glancing at the succeeding pages, the reader will observe a 
 noble array of the most profound jurists and elegant scholars ol' 
 modern times, who have illustrated this branch of jurisprudence, 
 so essential to be thoroughly understood by the Statesman, an<l so 
 necessary for the preservation of national rights. 
 
 liarrire, D., Do La Libert6 des Mcrs, 3 vols., Hvo. l'ari:<, ITOr*. 
 
 Bernard, Jacob, Rociicil do Triiitos do Paix. 1700. 
 
 liinkershoch; C, anostionos juris publici. Translated by Diipo iccan 
 
 Philadelphia, IfilO. 
 niirlamqidyJ. J., Droit Naturcl. Nouvollo edition, par Dupin. Paris, l&iO. 
 Bitssard, M., Elcmcns do droit naturel privc. 
 Durge, William, On Colonial and Foreign Laws. 4 vols., 8vo. London, 183^ 
 
 Comeirns,Di]pycch,hixxo\xdn Sage a T intoret dc penplos bien entcndu, 
 dans r exercise dii droit dc guerre ct dc conquetc. Paris, 1800. 
 
 Conriiur, .Xiflwhis, Jus Naturalis et Gentium doctrina nietaphysicc asserta. 
 Venota, 173(i. 
 
 Consniato del Marc. Lurra, 1720. Edited by Casaregi. 
 
 ( •mbcrland, llirbard. Treatise oftlic Laws of Nature. 'Ito. London, 17a!>. 
 
 Ctalmers, George, Collection of Treaties between (Jreat Britain and other 
 Powers. 2 vols., 8vo. London, 1790. 
 
 Danzrlll, Guiscppi, Prinoipi di diritto natiirale. Palermo. 
 Ihimonl, John, Corps uiiiversel diploinali<|ue du droit des (iens. 8 vols., 
 folio. Amsterdam, I7"2G 
 
I 
 
 VI 
 
 MS'I' nl UOKKS riMiN 
 
 n„iiii>, n /, I.MW uf Ni.liHiis, iiiv.-liffil.d ill II |M.iiiil;.r liiiilinrr i-v" 
 IMiilmlilliliiii, !-(»!> 
 
 t'.rlidril, I /.., Prill, iiiiii juris iN.itiiriilis 
 
 lldni, h'rnUrlr, An ilistori.i.l Sketch ..f tin' Inlorimlioiiiil I'clu-y of F.ii- 
 
 nipc, !is .•..iin.Tl..,l with ih.' IViii.iphs of the Luw of Njilun.^ aii.l of 
 
 Nations. London, \^'2.\. 
 RHiol, JoiiatlHin, Amcrhiin Dii.h.ni.itic Co.h-, nnhrucing a ('< Hrrtion of 
 
 Tr.'alirs and Cuiiv.ntioiis hHwicii th- Viiii.'d Statrs and Forngn 
 
 I'oNv.Ts, from 177r lo J.-'IM. '2 vols., tvo. Wasliiiiglon, |H:5t. 
 
 r,ill.r, M , Dii <oiil1it d.'s lois dr dilVrrciil.'s nations, on du droit intcina- 
 
 tioiial. . 
 
 ri,i.-<s<i„, De, Dc Ilistoiiv .h' hi Diph)matiqiie rran(;ais(<. v.ds., 8vo. I aris, 
 
 |HI!>. 
 rnlhuli, nUluim, Paiuhcts ofihr Law of Nations. It... London, 1(i()t». 
 
 (taJinni, Mlmtr, Dei Dov. ri d.'i I'riii.ii.i Nntraii in t.-nipo di (Jii.-rra. IT"-*. 
 (Initilix, .Uhfricun, U.jiiiv li.lli lil.ri tr.'s. i-^vo. llanov.'r, I.V.tt*. 
 (loiidoii, I. I., \hi .h-..il piihli.' .( "hi <lroil d>'« g<'"'*- I'i""^- 
 (linithfr, C. «., Kiiro|.!Vis.h.s Volkfrr.'.lit in rri.d.'ii/.'iton, na.li Verminn 
 
 Vortragcn und H.^rkoininoii. '2 vols., Hvo. I7il'i. 
 (iiidnirr, rriii.i|)ia jiiris|irii(hntia' Natiiralis. 1710. 
 Urollus, IliiL'o, Rights of War and T.'a.'.', with tli.' Not.s of IJarhcvrac. 
 
 folio, liondon, I7;i^ 
 
 Hay, (l(„nrr, \ Tivatisi- on Expatriation. Washington, 1?M. 
 
 Ilay, Clforln; An Kssav on Natiiiaii/ation and Alh'giaii..'. Washington, 1(^10. 
 
 Il,i„rrci„s, Kl.inciita "juris Nalurii' ct (i.'ntium. Translat.d hy Tnrnbiill. 
 
 I7();<. 
 //«;/'.« Law Journal. Vol. VJ., p. L'>0. 
 HiMfS, Thoiniis, Licnirnta I'liihisoidiica d.' Tiv.'. Kil'i. 
 //(.Jmrt«, O., Legal Outlines. 1 vol.,8vo. Haltinior.N 1^','1» 
 
 Ichslailt, .'Ilium Tore, Elemonta Juris (ioritimn. 1740. 
 
 Joiiffroii, rhemlorr, Conrs d.< Droit Nalurcl. 2 tonios, Hvo. I'aris, |h;14. 
 Justice. nt.raH<i>r,MU-ncxa\ Tr.-atis.' of tlio Dominion and Laws of ill.- 
 Sea. London, I7lt."). 
 
 R'cn/, .'"?«(»■, Coninientanes on Anicricau Law. Vol. L, Hyo. New York, 
 
 1-4:?. 
 
 Koch, Histoiro ahri'g...' d.s Trait, s d.^ I'aix eiitro Irs I'uisances .lo 1" Luro|H', 
 depuis la Pai.x <hi W.'stphali.; ju^.p!.; a Irilo, par S!tho.'ll, l"> vols., Hvo. 
 Paris, 1'*I7. 
 
 Kohkr, Ihnrij, Juris socialis m (i.'ntium ad Jus Naliira- rcvorati, fSperi- 
 niina, 1735. 
 
 Khihcr, J J , Droit .hs CJ.iis modcrnes d< 1 F.urop.;. Paris, !?*•:>(?. 
 
 i 
 
INTF.IINATIUNAI, LAW 
 
 VII 
 
 IjUiitprrili, ft M, \)irhu> Puliliro iiiiivi iHnh; o sia ilirilto tli Nuliini u dulle 
 
 (Jciiti. 4 vols., l-iiiic. iMiliini), l-ji^'H. 
 Isiiir, On llii; liiiw ol' Nations, iVc 
 
 l.rilmitz, <•■ /C, ('oilcx juris (iciitiuni (li|)in.iiiilirns. IG!I3. 
 Lurd Oinleif, r.ssiijs on the lliji^lit ot" IVoinrty in Land, witli respect to its 
 
 roundalion in tlie Law orNaliirc^ Lomlmi, IT'l. 
 Lndoeidis, J. t'., Doctrina Juriw Nalurn; juridica tonsidcrata. (Jii.ss, l*"^"!. 
 
 Mnillnnlkrf, Viscount tic, Prcciso du Droit di-s Gnis. Paris, 177.'). 
 
 Martins, <t. t\ Von, I'rcciso du droit dcs Gens Modcrne Av V Luroin'. {&2\ ■ 
 
 Miirlcns, Charles ilc, (inido Diploinatiiinu. Irt3'i. 
 
 Micriiis, I'rodroniiis juris prndt iiliii; Gi'nlinni comniimis. I()7I. 
 
 Miilihj, .Ihlii. dt, Lo Droit Public dc I' Europi', Ibndo sur los 'I'raites. 3 toni. 
 
 fvo. I7GL 
 Manninir, /('. O., roinnionlarics on tiic Law i.f Nalions. London, 1H3ri. 
 Miiriii, llistoria del dcrcclio natural y di' grnlos. 'J vols., H\o. 1800. 
 Mallirni, PrLcitf do la scicnto du droit .Naturol el du droit des (icns. Pans, 
 
 Atdstcr, /■'. 6'., nildiollieca Juris Nalura' et Genliinn. 3 vols,, ,Svo. I/')?. 
 Moser, J. ./., Versutli des nouesten Luropiliseheii Volker-Ueehts. I7H0. 
 
 A'li/ron, Professor, Prineipes du Droit des (Jens Luropeeiis ronventionel el 
 Coutiniier. 17r^3. 
 
 Ohiinilorp, H/a-a^a^o, sen olenientaria lutroduetio Juris Nuturrt', Gentium, 
 
 et Civilis. ]Marl)iirg, irjOtJ. 
 Oiiiptiihi, Huron Von, Literatur des Volker-Keelrts. 
 Omplcdii, Huron Von, Literatur des Gesainiuteii sowolil Natur lichen ais 
 
 Positiveii Vijlkerreclit. \7'^'f. 
 (nionis,M. If., Llenienta juris Natura^ el (ienliuiii una euni deliiiealioun 
 
 juris positivi universalis, llul'. 173."*. 
 
 Vnjj'iiulurf, Samuil, Law of iSature and Nations, wiili the .Notes of Uarlie) 
 
 ra<', hy Kennet and Crew. I'olio. I7'J'.». 
 I'lslcl, V. If., Fundam.'iita jurisprudeuliie iNatur;ilis. Lugd., 177.'). 
 
 /{(iiincriil, M. diriud ilt., Institutions du Droit de la Nature et des (ieiis 
 
 Paris, l."<()3. 
 /.'«W<V, .A/»if.v, Inquiries ill International l<aw. Loudon, l'<l"J 
 llorrus. Philadelphia, l-0;», 
 
 liohinsniis Colleetanea Maritiina London, L-^OL 
 ItutlirrJ'orlli, Thomas, histililtes of Natural Law. London, 17.">0. 
 liijmrr, Thomas, Kadera. ".'O vols., folio. London, 173."). 
 
 .Sarpi, Pdola, Del Domino del Marc Adrialieo. Veiieta, l()7(). 
 .Satin:, De Legihus et Deo Legislatore 
 
 .Srhaiaa.ts, .laroli, Ccupiis juris (o'ntiuni .Xcadeiiiiciuii ICiOO 
 Srhlrsi'l, I V It , .\n Imporliiiil l',.\Miiiiiiali<Mi of the Rigiil "f Siiiirh of 
 Neutral V' smI- Plnladelplna. f-Oj. 
 
vm l.isr or WOKK.S ri'O.N I.NTIIRNATION \L I, AW 
 
 Sclinxlf, /■'. /,., S\ slciiiii juris (iciiiiiiiii. IVd^imc, IT(i'^ 
 
 >iili/llill'., I>IIS r,llli)|i;ii-.i hr NiilKrIK lilt ill lirlit Itilihrni. IJcrliii, |HI7. 
 
 \ liiiii h.iiii! , .liiliiis, S\ stciiiiiii-i in r (iniiiiiii-^s (lis I'liirijsclnii I'.iiriijiitiNrlit^ii 
 
 \t)ll».IIT.llls, |-','(». 
 
 S'luiiirl-Jii.i, ('. (i., DisiiuisiiiDiics sc|ii('iii |)roi)liMnatmii juris iiiittiriL' i>t gcn- 
 
 liiiiii. I";?"'. 
 Slim II mi I;, Dc lliiis sci'iiikIiiiii jus Niilill'ii'. Oxoii, Kifitt 
 Sililiii, Ji'liii, .M.'iir ■ImiI'^iiiii sell dc ilnmiiKi iniiris. 
 Silili II, Jiiliii, Kcjiirt' N. ct (i. jiixt'^ (lis('i|iliii!iiii Ilirbrn'oruni. 
 s/iaiii, (Iniieillr, A Tr.icl on tlu' I,;i\v of Niitions, iiiul l'riiu'i]>li'!4 of Action 
 
 ill .Mini. f^vi). LiiihIdii, ITTr. 
 '^jiiiil.s, Jiiidl, l)i|iiiiiii;iii(' ('iirrc-piimlriir'c of iliti Aiufricaii Kcvolutioii. 
 
 I'» vols., K\o liosioii, |.-:iii. 
 Stonj, Josijili, Coiiiiiiiiil.iiics oil tjic t'oiilljit of l.iiws. 'J(l cil. Uoston, IH-ll. 
 
 I'liijlor, I'.lc'iiiriits cil'( 'i\ il \.:\\\. Sf<oii(l ((liiioii, (|iiiirlo, |i. !•!>. 
 TlionKi.oii.t, (.'., ruiiil.'iiiii'iitM juris Natur:)' tt liniliiMii, ('\ siiisii roiniiiuni 
 
 (liiluil;i. 11)-- 
 I'l liiiri s, /!'., S\M(i|i>is Juris (iinlimn. I(»"0. 
 
 Tiind, ^ir Jiiiiit .ly l)is(|uisiiioii ot" llif I, aw of Mature. London, Kl'.t'j. 
 Traill', (iiiti/ifit i\\- l>i|iloiiMiiii|Ui' (tar uii Amiiu .Miiiislrf. Paris, If^'.V,). 
 
 Anoii\ iiioiis 
 
 I'lillil, /;. ill, l,( Droit (lis <i(iis. IT.")-'. 
 
 ]"ilr(iriiis, ,1 . ./., Iii-iitiilioucs Juris Natur.i' ii (Iriiiiuiii. I,iii,'il., 1711. 
 
 rilliii-f, M. ill, \,i- Droit i\v la .Nature ct dcs (liiis. I.oiidoii, I7.">."<. 
 
 It'iirilni, I). 11., Oil tiir Ori^'iii, Naturr, Progress and Intluence of (.'onsular 
 
 r.staldi,liiii. iits. Paris, l>i:!. 
 Iliinl, Itiiliiil, .\n I uir) into the I'ouiidation ;iiid lli>tory of tin; I, aw of 
 
 Nalioiis ill |jir(i,ie, from the time of the (ireeKs and Koiuans, to iIm; ago 
 
 idMirotius. Lcuidoli, 17'.i-". 
 Il'iinl, lliiliirl, Treatise ii|ioii the Kiiilits and Duties of llelligereiit and 
 
 Neutral Power-, in .Maritime All'airs. 
 
 London, l-^Dl. 
 
 /((((■/(.•.//(/(//i, Jus (onliuiii (jiiah ohiiiimrit ajuid d'ra'eos ante Ijellornin euni 
 
 Pi 
 Ifiili/ii 
 
 er-i:- iresloruiii luilltiiii. 
 
 ■, .'/ ./., I»i-|iiii;ilio dr utililate juris Nat lira', (iiess, J7iJ0. 
 /( ( /.■•■/ii , .1/., (oiisideratioii- hi>t(irii|iie et di|)lomati(jue siir les Anibassadcs 
 
 d. s |{ 
 
 oiuains, eoniparei s :iii\ inoiieriie 
 
 ISM. 
 
 fl'ii/iirforl, Knihassador and liis fiinelious. folio. London, I71G. 
 U'iiikI, Institutes of the ('i\il ami Imperial Law. ("Iiap. Ii, hoidv 'i. 
 Utiljiiis, ('., Ihiroii I'oii, Jus (jieiitiuni methudo scieiitilica |)ertraclntuni. 
 
 '.I \ols. Lranenf, 17i:t. 
 Ulicutoii, llrnrij, l^hineiits ol" International F.,aw, with ii ykcteli of the IIi.s- 
 
 tory ol tiic >eien 
 
 Phila<l< 
 
 ll- 
 
 i.-;{(j 
 
 Zuuiii, linltiinl, Du Jure reciali sive dejure inter (JeiUes. JGoO. 
 
IHI7, 
 
 i)|iili»«i'lu'ii 
 
 SKETCH OF THE LIFE 
 
 of Artioii 
 ;cv()liitiiin. 
 ston, Htl. 
 
 OK 
 
 SIR JAMES MACKINTOSH.' 
 
 coinimmi 
 
 ir.!>3. 
 
 1711. 
 
 t.f t'oiisiiliir 
 the l.iiw ol' 
 
 S, to till! ilgli 
 
 igorciit iiiiil 
 illonim emu 
 
 I7t»0. 
 
 Aiiibiii-sudL'S 
 
 G. 
 
 [xTtriictiituui. 
 h of the llis- 
 
 It would be impossible in the necessarily liiniU d space appro- 
 priated to this Bio^rr;i|)hical Sketch, to give a very minute account 
 of the life of this man, so distinguished fo' I .s gcnius, and rlogant 
 scl.. 'arship; but we must refer tiie reader who is d^siroui of pursu- 
 ni(r the subject farther, to those works mentioned .J tlie bottom of 
 llic page. Perhaps this sketch, though brief, in which we shall 
 endeavor to present the prominent events of his life, and the pecu- 
 liarities of his writings, may invite the perusal of some who cannot 
 readily avail themselves of other resources. 
 
 Sir James Mackintosh was a native of Scotland, and de- 
 scended from an ancient family of Mackintoshes, a clan of 
 no inconsiderable importance in the Highlands, as early as the 
 thirteenth century. He was born at Aldourie, a small town upon 
 the banks of Loch Ness, on the 24th of October, 1765. His 
 
 1 Tho following works liavc been consulted in the jircparation of this 
 
 sUotrli. 
 
 Eiicycloptcdiii Britannicii. Article .Muckintoxh. 
 
 The Law Maga/.ino, vol. f^. 
 
 IlallV Law Joiiriial, vol. 1. 
 
 The Monthly Uevicvv, 1S;W, vol. 1. 
 
 North American Review fur Ortolier, 1832. 
 
 American Jurist, July, IfX'). 
 
 Annual Biography and Obituary, ^S^'^. 
 
 Memoirs of the Life of the Right Honorable Sir James Mackintosh, by his 
 
 son. 
 
 Review of the same in Quarterly Review, 1835. 
 
 B 
 
'^ 
 
 X SKETCH OF THE LIFE OF 
 
 liUlior, ('nptain Ji)hn Mackintosh/ was a soldier for more tlian 
 twenty years, iiaviiiu entered tlie army (juite younsr. Soon after the 
 ^nl^ject o{' this memoir's birth, liis lallier was coniiieHed to join th«» 
 army; and Ix-inix ahsent some eiirhl or ti-ii years, Sir James' e;ly 
 education chietly devolved upon an exceih iil lirandmother (with 
 whom lie an<l his mother lived) wlio early instilled into his mind a 
 taste for readinjj. At ten years of aire lie was placed to school at 
 Fontrose, where talents were developed that excited the hisrhest an- 
 ticipations of his friends. A (piick |)erception, and tenacious mem- 
 (>r" were the more marked characteristics of his juvenile mind ; and 
 so jirreat was his proticiency at school, that at the aije of fifteen he 
 was suliicieiitly advanced to enter Kinii's Collejie, at Aberdeen. 
 While at i'ontrose, he was kindly noticed by a Mr. Mackenzie, 
 who lent him Burnet's Commentary on the Tli'rty-nine Articles ; 
 the perusal of which first excited that impiisitive and sj)ecnlative 
 turn of mind that so eminently characterized him in sub.se- 
 (pient years. lie read with peculiar earnestness the article on 
 " Predestination," which Mackenzie annotated upon by observing 
 that "the Bishoj) had not ^iven his own opinion u})on the subject, 
 but appeared to be of the o])inion of the (ireek Church, from 
 which St. Austin departed." In a short memoir of him.self, writ- 
 ten while in India, Mackintosh alludes to this as follows: — " I was 
 so profoundly ifjnorant of what the Greek Church was, and wlnit 
 St. Austin's deviations were, that the mysterious majrniiicence of 
 this phrase had an extraordinary elfect on my imairination. My 
 boarding mistress, the schoolmaster, and the parson, were orthodo.v 
 Calvinists. I became a warm advocate ft)r free-will, and before 1 
 was fourteen, I was probably the boldest heretic in the country." 
 About this time he read Plutarch's Lives, Echard's Roman His- 
 tory, Pope and Swift, and made his first literary effort by writing 
 
 ' iMnjor MfTciT iiinkrs lionoriil)lp nHMitiiui of' iiini niid an cider l)r(>tli('r as 
 follows: — "John Ma'kintosli was oiii' ot' the most lively, frooil-lmniorod, 
 gallant lads I ever knew ; and lie had an elder lirollier of llie nanio ot' An- 
 gus, who served in the regiment thai eneaniped next to ours, who was a 
 most intelligent man, and a most Mieom|)lished genllemaii. .Mr. ."NI.'s grand- 
 father saw liis two sons return home at the end of the sevi ii years' war, onu 
 with a sluitturea log, and the other with tiie loss of an eye. As I'opu ,says, 
 
 ' noUi calliinl liKiilii^r-; lilcil in In. net's i an>e 
 In Untain, yet while Imiiur cauiM appliiii'je,' " 
 
SIR JAIMKS MA( KINT(>S1I. 
 
 XI 
 
 an Eletry upon the death of liis uncle, General Fraser. Soon after 
 this, he conunenced a regular epic upon the defence of Cyprus by 
 Evagoras, the materials for which he found in Rollin. 
 
 Through the assistance of some friends he obtained pecuniary 
 aid, which enabled him, in IX», to enter college, llis predilec- 
 tion for metaphysical studies soon became apparent ; for during his 
 first winter's residence at college, he read attentively Priestly's 
 Insthutes of Nature and Revealed Religion, Beattie's Essay on 
 Truth, andWarburton's Divine Legation. Among his classmates, 
 at Aberdeen, was the celebrated Rol)ert Hall, 4o whom he became 
 greatly attached, and between whom there subsisted, for nuuiy 
 Jears afterwards, tlie strongest fri« ndship. Their minds were in 
 manv respects similnr : both were disputatious and tenacious of 
 their opinions. These tv o young men were the stars of a small 
 tlebating dub"- that they i)riginate(l, and were " the observed of all 
 
 observers." 
 
 The polemic and political controversies of the day were here 
 mooted with astonishing ability for young men yet in their teens; 
 and .MacluiUosh, in after life, alhrmed " that he learned more from 
 these discussions as to principles, than from all the books he ever 
 
 read." 
 
 In I7H-J, iMackinto>h fell violently in love with a beautiful Miss, 
 " and exchanging Herodotus for the ladies who give their names 
 to his books," wooed her in prose and verse, till the passion was 
 reciprocated ; and he now begiui to lay his plans for establishing 
 himself in the world. This devotion to the shrine of beauty, which 
 is more or less a universal concomitant of juvenile years, seems to 
 have materially interfered with his regular studies, since it was 
 coiitiiined for sonu time, and as he himself s;iys, " wns during six 
 mouths almost the only occujiation of my time." His highest am- 
 bition was to obiam ;i professorship at Aberdeen; and for this pur- 
 pose he solicited the inllueuce of his friends in furtherance of the 
 object. However, bi'l'ore the close of his collegiate course, his pas- 
 
 ' During' on.- ^^\u\rr, mI cnll...,., IImH .iinl .MM(l<iMto>li met M livr in the 
 nioyniiig t.. .•nnslni.' IMmIo, Xmnplioii, :ui,1 ll.rn,l„iMs. Tli>ir Mpplicaliuii 
 .^..(•(iis to hiiv.^ .•x.-il.<l 111.' .■ii\> of snii.r of ll.o duller fort, and it \shs on.n 
 ol.srrsr.l, ns lil.-so two lVioi.<ls jm^.. .1, tli.-iv go " Pinto and Iklodotlis." 
 
 •J Joculnilj •■iillitl III!' " ll:ill mid IMafkinlosii Club. " 
 
 i 
 
XII 
 
 SKETCH OF Tin: LIIi: OF 
 
 sion for Miss S. was considerably abated, and with that abatement 
 vanished the desire of tillinjr a professional chair. In referring to tliis 
 period, he says, •' I left, college with little regular and exact knowl- 
 edge, but with considerable activity of mind and boundless literary 
 ambition." lie had now to choose a profession, and that of the 
 bar was the one of his ciioice; but in conseciucnce of the res 
 (ingHftrr. (lomi, he was compelled to abandon all hope of this, and by 
 the advice of his friends, medicine was the one determined upon. 
 
 In order the better to prosecute his medical studies, he set 
 out for Edinburgh in 1784, which was at this time the resi- 
 dence of many distinguished men, — among whom were Smith, 
 the famous political economist; Black, well known by his dis- 
 coveries in chemistry; Robertson and Ferguson, the historians; 
 Ilutttm and Dugalt Stewart; together with many lesser lights, 
 whose names arc emblazoned upon the pages of science and 
 literature of the past age. Here was an ample opportunity 
 for the disj)lay of talents of every kind ; and we soon find 
 Mackintosh iimong the combatants in the field. He became 
 a disciple of Dr. Brown, who fancied he hud made some new 
 discoveries in medicine, and defended Briiiionianism with great 
 zeal. But though the Doctors new tiioories seem never to have 
 produced any great revolutions in pharmacy, yet the mental ex- 
 erci.se necessary to sustain his new views, and combat opposition, 
 made his disciples at least fornii<lable in the war of words. How- 
 ever, medicine ' never appears to have been a fuvorite study with 
 Mackintosh, but general literature and the specidative sciences 
 had for him more seductive charms; and however inconstant he 
 may have been to the former, he wooed the latter with unabated 
 ardor throughout a long life, 
 
 A few months after his arrival, he was elected a member of 
 the Speculative Society,- in which were discus.sed literary, meta- 
 
 ' His nttcndnnrn upon iiUMlical liM'tiircs, wliilu ut Eilinbiirgli, was not ns 
 regular as a tnu! sou's d)' Ksculapius slioulil liave l)(M'n,and it was laugliin}!;ly 
 said of liiiii by the students, lliat lio was " an honuninj nicnibur of tlic 
 
 class." 
 
 * Resides being n mnnlicr of this, lip nlso belonged to tho " Roynl Modi- 
 rnl " nud " I'iiysiral Societies," in all of whieli bo was an aetivo inenilx'r. 
 Before tlie " Royal INfediral " ho road an artirb; upon " Interniiltenl Fever," 
 and to thu "Pbysiral," "On tlu; Instinct?" and Hispositionff of Animals " 
 
SFH J.\MF,S MArKINTOSII 
 
 \iu 
 
 physical and political questions. This preseiitcil an opportnnity 
 {'or the full scopo of his vorsatilo genius, and he innnediately lie- 
 canie <listinguishcd as an eloquent and acute debater. It was in 
 discussions here, with a Thomas Addis Emmet, a Wild, a Gillies 
 and a Laing, that he accustomed himself to take those hold and 
 discursive views of political (piestions, practiced that close ami 
 logical style, and acipiired that familiarity with the best writers 
 of all preceding ages, which is apparent in the productions 
 of his more mature years. His conversational powers also were 
 of a high order; and being of an ardent temperament, he in- 
 dulged rather freely in conviviality; which, together with his de- 
 sultory method of study, alienated from him s(mie of his nearest 
 friends, who were fearful that his habits would lead him to un- 
 happy consequences. 
 
 However, in 1787, he received his medical degree, and compos- 
 ed ui)on the occasion, a Latin thesis, " Dv Actioiii: MiiMulari.' 
 The ability with which he treated this subject was highly com- 
 mendable, and excited the wonder of those who knew the imlitler- 
 ence with which he had attended to his medical studies. Soon 
 after taking his deirrce, he departed for London, where he arrived 
 in the spring of ITiSK He took up his residence at the house of a 
 maternal relation, Dr. Fraser. Among the frecpient visitors at his 
 house, was a Miss Stuart, with whom Mackintosh l)ecame acquaint- 
 ed, and for whom he had a high regard. She was a younnr huly of 
 rt>spectable Scotch parentage, and was more distinguished for her 
 amiability and intelligence, than for her beauty or wealth. Their 
 acciuaintance ripened into mutual esteem and afl'ection, and they 
 were clandestinely married a few months after they first met. 
 The friends of both parties were nnich ofl'ended at this hasty mar- 
 riage; and Mackintosh, at the age of twenty-four, was without any 
 regular employment, without means, and encumbered with the ex- 
 penses of a family. lie contemplated a settlement at Bath, but for 
 some cause, this plan was never carried into effect. Another pro- 
 ject fitr establishing himself in the profession, was to go to St. 
 I'etersburgh as [)hysician to his im|)erial majesty ; l>ut his pecuniary 
 endtarrassments, his dislike of the profession, together with a fond- 
 ness for a Lontion life, finally deterred him from going to the Con- 
 tinent. 
 
 M 
 
XIV 
 
 sKF/nii nr Tnr i,irr; or 
 
 About this tinu", his rallicr (lying, a HinuU paternal inheritance 
 at Kellachic descended to iiiiii, whicii was converted into money; 
 but so great was bis im|)rovidence in relation to pecuniary matters, 
 that he was soon again destitute. The Regency question was now 
 the all-absorbing topic of the day, and Mackintosh partook of the 
 general excitement. lie made his tirst appearance as a i)olitician, 
 by writing a pampiilet in favor of the claims of the I'rince of Wales, 
 and seconded Kox in his ctlorts to establish that there was no dif- 
 ference, between the then state of the .sovereign's ' health and a 
 natural demise. Ilowtner, the parti/ans of the I'rince faihul in 
 obtaining the ascendancy, in conserpience oi' the recovery of the 
 kiiiii; and the pamphlet, with the defeated party, was soon forgot- 
 ten. His taste tor politics was further evinced by the active part 
 he took in promoting the claims of llorne Tooke to a .seat in Par- 
 liament. I lis exertions brought him in contact with many promi- 
 nent politicians, and he was a fre<pient guest of the candidate 
 whose cause he had espoused. 
 
 In the latter part of 17S1*, he went to Leyden, where he remain- 
 ed some months perfecting himself in his medical studies, whicli 
 he had again resumed. During his residence u])oii the ("ontinenl, 
 he acipiired a perfect knowledge of the Trench language, and was 
 not an inattentive observer of the political excitements that pre- 
 ceded the l''rencli Itevolution. Upon his return to London, he 
 tnade an engagement with the publisher of the "()racle," John 
 Bell,"-' to superintend the department of foreign news, which 
 aftbrded him a splendid opportunity to cimiinunicate his own views 
 relative to f'oiitinental alfiiirs, besides securing a oood compensa- 
 tion tor his services.'' lie now abandoned all hopes of following 
 
 II (■lll)S(l|lllll( 
 
 ,r <; 
 
 till- Tliii(l>; ili'i'iiii 
 
 It, M; 
 
 mUiiiIiikIi wiis 
 
 Inil ti) the iii\ f'slifjatiiiii ril" the siilijcrt, uliiili rcsiiltcil in nr:irl\ ('oiiiplrling 
 a trintisi' iijii.n liis;iiiity, wlmli wms ;i(l\«'rlisc(], Iml iii'vcr priiilid. 
 
 '■^ I'clrr .-111(1 ]>;iiiiil !^tii;irt, hrdllicrs <<[' his wife, Kijl>siM|iiriilly roiilrilpd 
 the Onirli !iui\ Minniiii,' I'lisl ; llii- I'ciriiirr ii I'illitc uiid thi' iiillcr ii roxitc 
 paprr. I'liir iiifiinii- us thai .Mac kiiitosh widto hiuh't-; \'>\r holh ihisc pa- 
 
 M 
 
 i(Unil(i>li was iKiw iiiliiiiati' with 
 
 I" 
 
 Koiiiillv, Uar- 
 
 jrravc,Sir Franris liiiichll, and Charh's Fox; a imhh' roinp.-iiiv id'assdiiali': 
 
 or w lioso SDiii 
 
 \y liis rriiiaikahh' coUiKpiial piiwcrs rniiiMMitly qiialilicd liini. 
 
 •■ llr was p.aid ill piopurilon to thf ipiantity cil" matter runirihiitcd ; ami 
 one wci'k, his fcts nniounling to ten guineas, Mr. Itcll \n reported to iiavi; 
 
SIR JAMF.S MACKINTOSH 
 
 IV 
 
 liis profession for a livelihood, preferring "Coke aiid Lytlletoii to 
 (laleii iiiid llipiH)cr!ites," and entered liis niune at liiiic.oln's Inn. 
 
 In ITDO, Bnrke's ''Jitfin fioiis vpim t/ir iWnt/i l{n'olii(ion" 
 a|)peare(l. The views pronnjljrated in tiiis masterly perfornianee, 
 strnck terror throngliout the ranks of the friends of reform, and 
 they were the more snrprised, coming as it tlid from that man of 
 transcendent abilities, who had hitherto rallied heneiilh the haimer 
 of freedom. His former friends, some of whom had strnggled with 
 him for the amelioration of man, hy denonncing tyranny and advo- 
 cating liberal |)rinciples, manfnlly grasped the thrown ganntlet, 
 and prei)ared for the contest. The nnmerons replies that were 
 made to the " llellections," evinces the sensation that it jtrodnced 
 anKHig the friends of the French llevolnlion. The lirst antagonist 
 that enconntered Bnrke, was Miss VVolstonecral't ; and then fol- 
 lowed Paine,' Priestly and Price; bnt snddenly "a boll was shot 
 from amongst the nndistinguished crowd, but with a for<'.e which 
 siiowed the vigor of no connnon arm." 
 
 In April, 17«.M , the " Vindiciir (jliiUirtr " of Mackintosh was i)ub- 
 lished; which, for beauty of style, and (>legance of di<'lion, and for 
 vehement and im|»assioned lan<.niagi\ may, without di>paragenienl, 
 be compared with the '•Rrflr(tioii.<.'' - When we consider that the 
 ''Vin(/i(i(/' was written at a time when th(> antlior's family was 
 indisposed, and his attention was nnitually divided between it and 
 the work; and that when a chapter was sml to tli(> press the suc- 
 ceeding one was not written, and that it was produced by a yoniig 
 man of twenty-six, it must ever be regarded as a most wonderful 
 
 siiid, "JSo i);i]).M- I'lni stand this." Tins ('.Mlhcniin wri'U's Inlmr wiis tlic 
 cause of Ills being limited to ;i fixed salary f'T l!ie future. 
 
 ' WliiUt Paine wns jireparinfi an answer to the " Kelleetions," tin- 
 "Rishls of .Man," he ai(i<lentu]ly heard that MaeKiiitosh also wiis writinjr a 
 reply, and sent him tiie loilowins niessajie liy a mntnal friend:—" 'I'ell yonr 
 friend .MaeUintosh that if he does tiot make h;iste, ni\ work a^tainsl Mnrke 
 will he piihlisheti ; after whieh, nothing more on that snlijecl will lie read " 
 
 • When the " Roflertions" appenreil, Mackintosh ea;;erly re.ad them, and 
 e(nieeived the hold desi-rn of writing a n^jdy, thongh applxing to himself 
 
 iliat wi'll-known line of the jioet — 
 
 '• liifrli\ purr, ;il(iMc' iiii|);ir (•(iiiL'ii'ssiis .Vcliilli." 
 He alwavri had the highest vetn'ration and esteem for Unrke ; which is 
 shown hy that ronrteons ami resperifnl manner towards him, thronglioiit 
 the '■^ I'i ndidiv ; " strikingly conirastinjr with the coarse vnl{^«nsnis of Paine. 
 
1 
 
 XVI 
 
 sKMTcii or Tin; uii: ok 
 
 product ion. It was ('uloijiscd by F»).\ and Sheridan, quoted in tiie 
 I'arliantontary dchatrs, and ijained tlie author as nnich celebrity, 
 lor a tinu\ as was ever obtained by any publication.' It was, to 
 the advocates of reform, what Machiavelli's "Prince" had been in 
 precedinji linu's — a manual, a text book, the expounder of a 
 powerful party's views. 
 
 The folhvwiiiiir opinion of the author and his work, was thus ex- 
 pressed by the learned Dr. I'arr ; — " Jn Mackintosh I see the stern- 
 ness of a rei)nblieaii, without liis acrimony; and the ardor of u re- 
 former, without 1ms impetuosity. Jlis taste in morals, like that of 
 Mr. Hurke. is ecpially |)ure and delicate with his taste in literature. 
 His mind is so romi)rehensive, that jreiu'ralities cease to be barren; 
 anti so My;oroMs, that detail itself becomes interesting. He intro- 
 duces every <pu'slion wilii perspicuity, states it with precision, and 
 pursues It with easy, unaU'ected method. Sometimes, perhaps, he 
 may amuse iiis readers with excursions into paradox ; but he never 
 bewilders ilieiii by llijrhts into romance. His philosophy is fur 
 more just, and far more amiable, than the philosophy of Paine, and 
 his elociiience is only not e(|ual to the ehxpieuce of Burke. lie is 
 arirumenlative without sophistry, fervid without fury, profound 
 without ob.scurity. and sublime without extravajrance." 
 
 'I'lie sale of the " liinliria;'"' was unprecedented; three editions 
 siioceediiiMT e;icii other in almost tlie same number of months. 
 
 Altiiou;.fli tlie occasion that produced it has passed, and many 
 i>r its principles have been demonstrated to be Utopian, yet it 
 may be said to have exerted a beneticial inlluence by showing 
 the necessity of reforms, which have been and are still being 
 made. .As (be book is now rather scarce, a short quotation 
 iVoiii it limy not be inappropriate or uninteresting. The character 
 of l.oiiis XIV^ IS thus vividly described: — 
 
 " The intrusion of any jtopular voice was not likely to be tolera- 
 li'd in the reijfu of Louis XIV.; a reian which has been so often 
 celebrated as the zenith of warlike and literary splendor, but which 
 has always appeared to me to be the consummation of whatever is 
 
 ' .Mr. t'imiiiii): ohscrviil nC the Viiidii i;i' "tliut lie iiad road it with as 
 null li acliiiirMliun ns he had ever tilt." 
 
 '•' Till' |iiicf iiiij;iiiMll} ;ignrd to Uc paid for tlin inanuspripf, wa.H £30; 
 h'll ii^" ilh' driiiniid I'nr ii liucaim; gnat, the imblislar generously paid 
 liiiii tliricu iliat e^iiiii. 
 
SIR JAMl^.S MACKINTOSH 
 
 XVII 
 
 iidlirtiiicr and (Icprradinsr in llio history of tlie liuinaii race. 'I'alent 
 s('('iiu"(riii that rriirii to he lohht'd of the conscious elovalioii, of the 
 erect and iiiaidy port, which is its nol>l('st associate and its surest 
 indication. The niihl purity of Feiudon, tlie h.fty spirit of Bos- 
 suet, the masculine mind of Boileau, the suhliine fervor of Cor- 
 ueiMe, were confounded l)y tlio conlasrion of ifruominious and in- 
 discriminate servitude. It seemed as if tlic representative majesty 
 t>f tlie genius and inteUect of man were prostrated l)e fore the shrine 
 of a sa"iguinary and dissolute tyrant, wlio practised tlie corruption 
 of courts without their mihiuess, and incurred the guilt of wars 
 without their glory. His highest praise is to liave supported the 
 stage-port of royahy with eiVcct. And it is surely dilVicult to con- 
 ceive any character more odious aiul de.^picahle tlian that oi a 
 puny lihertine, who, under the frown of a strumpet or a monk, 
 issues the mandate that is to murder virtuous citizens, to desolate 
 happv and peaceful handets, to wring agonising tears from widows 
 ami orphans. Heroism has a .splendor that almost atones for its 
 excesses! hut what shall we think of him, who, from the luxurious 
 and dastardly security in which he wallows at Versailles, issues, 
 with calm and cruel a|>athy, his orders to hutclier the pvotesiaiits 
 of Lauguedoc, or to lay in ashes the - illages of the ralatinate ? 
 On the recollection of such scenes, as a scholar, I hlush for the 
 prostitution of letters; and as a man, I blush for the patience of 
 humanity." 
 
 In 1T0.">, he was admitted to the bar. A .study of the technical- 
 ities of the law must have been sufficiently tedious to a mind accus- 
 tomed to soar in the higher regions of philosophy, and we may well 
 suppose, from his fondness for society and literature, that the old 
 black-letter tomes were not very critically or frequently consulted. 
 Yet he had a great desire for professional distinctiim, which stimu- 
 lated him to master most o\' the miimtiin of practice. He became 
 attached to a di-batiiig club, wher(> he made the acquaintance of 
 Mr. Scarlett (afterwards Lord Abinger,) Lord Teuterden and oth- 
 ers, among whom his ready elocution and powers of disputation 
 were duly "ippreciated. He wa.- also, at this period, a cimtributor 
 to the .Monthly lleview,' in which the following articles are known 
 to have been from his ^^vii : — Rv\'n'\v of (iibhon's ]\li.<nIlainoi(i 
 
 1 Vi.l.' v.. Is. lit, -JU and -21. 
 
 (• 
 
W III 
 
 •Kr/nii OF Tin: Ln i: or 
 
 ir«/7.s." also Mr. llosfoc's Lift' of Lorcmn tic Hfidiii, iind a 
 Crit'niiio iipoii IJiirke's '* T/i(>ii<;/ifs on a Jiii^iritlr I'rart." His 
 miiarks upon tlio latter aro imrivallcd s|H'ciiiuMis of clrvatod, dijr- 
 iiitit'd tritici-in : wliicli was tlie caiis(> of the author's rrcciviiiji a 
 polite invitation t'roin Uiirke to visit liini at Deaconslield. The iii> 
 vitatioii was accepted, and these two j][reat political aiitarroiiists 
 were in conclave lor several day^-, discnssiiitr «piestio!is upon which 
 all Knropo was divided in opinion. It is said, that at the end of 
 tiiree days,' Hiirke prevailed upon liiin to renounce some of the 
 doctrines niaintaiiied in his " IV/uZ/V/V/," which Mackintosh frankly 
 acknowled<jed to some of his l„uidon friends. The followinj^ let- 
 ter, written l>y him, to I'nrke, ahoiit this time, informs us of the 
 estimation in which lie held this celehrated philosopher and states- 
 man, and also contains a recantation of some of his former jiolili- 
 cal principles. 
 
 " Trom the earliest nionient of rellectioii, your Mritinjis were 
 my chief study ami deli^xht. 'J'he instruction which they contained, 
 is endeared to me hy heinix entwined and interwoven with the 
 freshest and liveliest feelin;is of youth. The enlhnsiasin with 
 which I once ciiiliraced it, is now ripened into solid conviction, by 
 the experience and meditation of more mature ajfe. l''or a time, 
 indeed, .«ediiced i)y the love of what ! thono;hi liherty, I ventured 
 to oppose, without ever ceasinif to venerate, that writer who had 
 iiiiiirislifd my iiiiderstaiidiiiLf with the most wholesome principles 
 of political vvixlom. I s|)eak to state facts, not to Hatter; you are 
 ahove ll.iltery : and, i)ermit iiu; to say. I am loo proud to (latter 
 even you. iSiit I can, with triitli, atlirm that I sniiscrihe to your 
 ;xeneral principles, and am prepared to shed my hlood in defence 
 of the laws and <'onstitulion of my conntrv.'' 
 
 ISiirke s repjiv to tins, allows us the admiration and high regard 
 that he had for liis (|iioii(l;im antagonist. 
 
 "Sir, — The very olilicrinir letter with which you have honored 
 iiu\ is well calculated to stir up those remains of vanity that I had 
 hoped had heen nearly extinguished in a frame approaching to the 
 dissolution of every thing that can \W{\ that pas.sion. But, in 
 truth, it atforded me a more solid and a more .sensihie consolation. 
 
 ' Vide tilt Life lit" Miirkilllosll, liy llis Soil, vol. 1, ]). Dl, fur soiiio frag- 
 niiiil-s ol'llic llirt'c day M coiivirsutiun. 
 
1 
 
 SIR JAMKS IMArKINTuSII 
 
 \i\ 
 
 iiiul n 
 Mis 
 
 0(1. tWir- 
 
 ■iviii^ !i 
 
 rriio iii- 
 
 ifjonistH 
 wliicli 
 (Mid of 
 of Ihc 
 
 Irankly 
 
 Tlio viow of ii vijjTorous mind, siil)(luin<i, by its own constitiitionaJ 
 force, tlie luiiludit's wliicii tlmt very force t)f coiistiliitioii hud pro- 
 duced, is ill itself ii spectacle very ploiisinjj and very instructive. 
 It is not proper to say anytliin<r more about myself who /mri' hmi, 
 but ratiier to turn to you who rirr, and who prol»ably will be, and 
 from whouj the world is yet to expect a ifreat deal of instruction, 
 and a ifreat deal of service. You have bcjfun your opposition l»y 
 obtaininrr a <rreat victory over yourself; and it shows how much 
 yfuir own sagacity, operatinsj on your own experience, is capable 
 of addintr to your own extraordinary natural talents, and to your 
 early erudition. As it is on all liamls allowed that you were the 
 most able advocate of the cause which you supported, your sacri- 
 Hce to truth, and mature rellection, adds much to your glory." 
 
 In 171>7, Mackintosh suiTered the severest of domestic calami- 
 ties — tiie loss of his inestimable wife — to whom he pays the fol- 
 lowing beautiful and pathetic tribute : ' 
 
 "Allow me, in justice to her memory, to tell you what sue was, 
 ami what I owed her. I was guided in my choice oidy l)v the 
 blind alfectiou of tny youth, and might have formed a connection 
 in which a short-lived passion would have been followed by repen- 
 tance and disgust; but 1 found an intelligent companion, a tender 
 frieuil, a prudent monitress, the most faithl'ul of wives, and as dear 
 a mother as ever children had the misfortune to lose. Had I mar- 
 ried a woman who was easy or giddy enough to have been infected 
 by my imprudence, or who had rudely or harshly attempted to cor- 
 rect it, I should, in either case, have been irretreviably ruined ; a 
 fortune, in either case, would, with my habits, have been only a 
 shorter cut to destruction. But I met a woman, who, by the ten- 
 der management of my weaknesses, gradually corrected the most 
 pernicious of them, and rescued me from the dominion of a degra- 
 ding and ruinous vice. She became prudent from atTection ; and, 
 though of the most generous nature, she was taught economy and 
 frugality by her love for me. During the most critical period of 
 my life, she preserved order in my affairs, from the care t)f which 
 
 ' Tliia was written in a bntiT to liis frioiKl Dr. Parr, win) olistivcs, " Tliat 
 III' never reeeived from nirirtal man, a fetter, wliieli, in imint ufeDuiiiosilion, 
 eoulil t)e eonipareit with it. " 
 
XX 
 
 sKi;r( II HI Till. 1,111. or 
 
 slio rc'liovfMl 111*' : >\\r irrntlv rcclainicfl iiii" Irnm di-isipation : slic 
 propiKfl niy wfuk and irrc-oliin' iiiitnrc : slir iirircd my iiidulciice 
 to all » ho exertions thai have hern ii-ct'iil and iTcditahlc to me: 
 and she wa^ |)cr|>('tiiallv at hand to admonish my htTdltv>>Mc.«.s and 
 improvidoncc. To her I owe that I atn not a niin<d outcast : to her 
 wliatcvcr 1 am: to lur wiiat ever I shall he. In her solicitndf for 
 my interest, she never, tor a moment, forL'ot my I'eeliiiirs or my 
 character. Kveii in lier occasional resentment, tor which I hnt 
 too ot'ten gave jiisi canse, (wonhl to Go<l that 1 conid recall these 
 moments!) she had no siillenness or acrimony : her t'eeliiii;s were 
 warm and impetuous, hut >he was |)lacal)le. tender, and constant : 
 .she united the mo^^t attentive prudence, the most (."'ueroiH ;iiid 
 gudeless nature, with a spirit that tlisdained the sliadow ot' mean- 
 ness, and with the kindest and most honest heart. Such was siie 
 whom 1 have lost : and I have |o>t her when her excellent natural 
 sense wa.s rapidly improvinix, and moiddiuir our tempers to each 
 other; when a kiiowledire of her worth liad refined my youthful 
 love into friend>hip, before a<ft' had deprived it ot'much of its ori<r. 
 inal ardor. I li.st her, alas ! (the choice of mv youth and the part- 
 ner of my misfortunes.) at a moment when I had tiie ]trosppct of 
 her sliariiiff my l)etter days. This, my doar ^ir. is a calamity 
 which tlio prosperity of the world cannot repair. To expect that 
 any thing on this side of the grave can make it up, would 1)0 a vain 
 and delusive expectation, if 1 had lost the giddy and thoughtless 
 companion of prosperity, the world could easily have repaired my 
 los.s; hut I have lost the faithful and tender partner of my misfor- 
 tunes: and my oidy consolation is in that Being, under whose 
 severe, hut paternal cliastisemeiit. I am cut down to the grouiui," 
 
 in IT1M1, haviuir a limited practice at the har, and as a means 
 of enlartiiiig his income, he amiounced to the puhlic his inten- 
 tion of delivering a course of lectures upon "The Law of 
 Nature and Nations,' and made apj)lication to the Uencher.s 
 of Lincoln's Lui, for the use of their Hall, for that purpose. 
 Party spirit was still rife in all ranks of society: and these 
 notahle Benchers, fearing lest they should he the means of 
 perpetuating Jacohiiiism, stoutly demurred to having their Hall 
 prostituted to such an ignoble purpose. Pitt and Canning endeav- 
 ored to (piiet their apprehensions and alarms, but to no purpose; 
 and the interference of Lord Chancellor Loughborough, at last put 
 
silt JAMF'.S >f \( KINTOSII 
 
 \\l 
 
 She 
 Iciicc 
 me : 
 a Mil 
 o luT 
 I' t'tir 
 ' my 
 f l>iit 
 tlirsc 
 
 WlTf 
 
 tttiit ; 
 I- and 
 
 incaii- 
 is .-lu' 
 
 atiiral 
 cacli 
 
 Xltllt'lll 
 
 s oritr- 
 part- 
 IOC t of 
 
 a <iiii('tii< upon tlioir (ili-iiii;ini'\ . hv ordfrin;.' tin- Hall to lie (ipcMirtl. 
 The plan marked out liy Maekiiito^li lor the eoiirse ot" leelnres, 
 was indeed vast, and woidd never havf heeii undertaken exeept Ity 
 a mind conseions of its own Itonndless powers, lie had tjiven the 
 snhjeet iimeli attention het'ore suhmittinir his plan tt) the world : 
 and npon the pni)ii('ation of the IntnnhntDri/, it was evident that 
 he had laid every department of literature under eontrihution, to 
 emitellish and adorn this most valuable department of law. With- 
 out descendini: into the minutiii,' i>f his suhjeet, like his (jreat pre- 
 decessors (jrotiu> and Pulfendorl", lie extracted the jfreat ijovernini^ 
 principles — the pliilo^uphy — t'rom the mass of undi<;ested learniiifr, 
 an<l presented them ni a mo.-t attractive form. " What was intri- 
 cate, he disentan«il(il : ht> coiifirmoti wliat was donhtful : end)ellish- 
 eil what was dry; and illustrate<l what was olisciire. Like tiie 
 splendor of the iroldtn honjjrh that Wore the Trojan hero thrtuicrli 
 the darksome retfions of the nether realms, the luminous ^rlance of 
 his uennis iiarled tliri)Mi;li all the branches of the tree of knowl- 
 edge, and trilded, with a new liirlit, every leaf u|)oii which it 
 shone : " 
 
 "Aiiri;ii|u.' iiigfiiii ]irr r;iino< aura ril'iiUit. " 
 
 Never was a course of lectures graced with a more distinguished 
 auditory, ("ommon'^rs and peers, lawyers and nonprofessionals, 
 students of the Inns of Court, all crowded to Lincoln's Inn Hall to 
 listen to this L^reat CNpouiiiler of International Law. The cour.sc 
 occupied thirty-nine lectures: and to tiie L^reat regret of every 
 body, only the Introductory Lecture was ever prepared for the 
 press.' He delivered them principally from m>tes, relying upon 
 his great fund of le irniiig for ampliticatioii and illu.stration. 
 
 Hazlitt has left us an exceedingly graphic sketch of the lecturer 
 and the lectures; " In these lectures he showed greater confidence 
 and was more than usual at home. The etfect was more electrical 
 and instantaneous; and this elicited a i)rouder display of intellec- 
 tual riches, and a more animated and imposing mode of delivery. 
 He grew wanton with success. Dazzling others with the brilliancy 
 
 ' III wiiliiig til a fiiciiil, 111' «;i\s, "A- Id piililiciliull, lliiit is ;i ii>all<'r, 
 wliirli, it' it cvrr liiki"i jiliiic, } I'll iinii-t wmIi ,i Imig tiiin; ; scvi'i'al y<:nr.-» will 
 be nt'cussiiry to digi'st and iiiijirovi: the wurk." 
 
X\ll 
 
 sKF.Tcsj or Tiir. i.iir. or 
 
 (if Ills aciiuircmcnt-i, (l;r//lo<l liimsclf l)y tlu; ixliiiinition tlioy oxci- 
 IimI, lie Inst ti'ur as wi-ll as prmlciicc — dared ovt-ry tliiiijj — ciirrit'd 
 i'Vtry lliiiiix liflnrc him. Tlif imidcrii pliilnsopliy, c«Hiiil('rscar|», 
 uiilwiirks, tiladt'l and all. till without a Mow, hy ' tli(> wliitl' and 
 wiiiil ol" his tell doctrine,' as il' it had hciii a pack of rards. 'I'lic 
 volcano tit' ihf I'rcnili Ucvoliitioii was seen cxpirinj^ in its own 
 llaincs, like a Ixinlirc made ol" straw. 'I'lic principles of retoriii 
 were scattereil in all direciiiuis, like cliatV het'ore the keen iiortlierii 
 lilasl. lie laid aliont luiii like one inspired: iiolinii^ conid with- 
 stand Ins envenomed tooth. Like some savai^o l)ea.st jjot into tiie 
 •garden of the tahled llesp(>rides, he made clear work of it, root 
 and hranch: with white foamiiiir tusks, 
 
 ' f.iiiil w.isii' the Ixprilcr-, ami o'crllirrw tiii' liowrrs.' 
 
 The havoc u.i-; ama/iii'i, tlu' de.-olation was coiiipleto. As to our 
 visionary sceptics ami philosopliers, they stood no chance with onr 
 lectnrer: he did not 'carve them as a dish lit for the go<ls,' but 
 hewfd theiii as a c.ircass lit for lioinids." 
 
 I ha\e mil willi l>nt tuo or three iV.iLrmeiils preserved from his 
 iiiipiihlished Lectures, which, I doiilit not, will lie <|uite acceptable 
 to the reader, ami we tluret'ore |ireseiil them: — 
 
 '• In the examiintioii of laws, I .■<liall not set out with the .'issninp- 
 imn that all the wise men of the world have been hitherto toilinjf 
 to build u|) an elidxirate system of folly, a stupendous edifice of in- 
 justice. As I think the contrary presumption more reasonable aa 
 well as more mode.<t, 1 .-hall think it my duty to explore the c<ides 
 of nations for those treasures of rea.'^on which iiin<i have been de- 
 posited there iiy thai vast stream of wisdom, which, tor so many 
 a^cs, has been Ihnvinif over them. Such a philosophy will be ter- 
 
 ri 
 
 hie t 
 
 o none of my hearer 
 
 i; 
 
 mpirica 
 
 1 slat 
 
 esmeii have despisec 
 
 d 
 
 science, and visionar;, specu! itors have despi.sed I'xperience ; but 
 
 ' e who w;is both a |ihilosopher and a statesman, has told us, ' Thi-s 
 
 < that which will indeed diirnify and exalt knowletliri-, if conteni- 
 
 lation and action may be more nearly compared and united than 
 
 ley have hitherto been.' 'J'Ik se are the wdrds of Lord Bacon; 
 
 ,>d in his sjiirit, I shall, throii^rhout these lectures, labor with all 
 
 ly might to |)rove that plulo.sophical truth is, in reality, the foun- 
 
 lation of civil and moral prudence. In the execution of this ta.sk, 
 
 I tru.st I shall be able to avoid all obscurity of language. Jargon 
 
1 
 
 SMI JA.MI.S MACKINTOSH. 
 
 XXIIl 
 
 is not |)hih)sophy : tliniiiih lie who first nssmncd llio iiuiiu' of plii- 
 losoplicr, is s;ii(i ity Liiciiiii to liiivc cimrcsscd lliiit he iii;i(!<' liis 
 tlortriiirs woiidcrrul, to attract the admiration ditlic vMJjjfar. You 
 will, I hope, prcl'.T the taste of a irrciitcr than l*vllian:oras ; of wlioin 
 it was said, 'that it was his course to uiaUc wonders |)lain, not 
 plain things wonderful.' " 
 
 In another fragment, he thus descrihos the coiniection of a classi- 
 cal education w itii morals ; and w iio can read this elo(|nent and 
 just encomium upon the writers of ancient times, without perceiv- 
 inif tlie correctness of his |)ositions ? 
 
 " I am not one of tlios(! who think, tii;it in the sy-teni of liUirlish 
 education, too nun-li time and lulmr are employed in llie study «)f 
 the ian^fuaifcs of (ircece and llonii': it is a popular, hut in my 
 huud)le opinion, a very shallow and \id;xar objection. It would he 
 easv, I think, (o prove th;U too iiiuch tiuu; can he scarcely em|)loy- 
 ed on these laniiua;L;e.s by any nation which is desirous of i>res(>r\- 
 iiiij either that juirity of taste, whicii is its briirlilest ornauu nl, or 
 that puriiv of morals, whuh is its strou;i<'st bidwark. 
 
 " Von niav .le sure, ucntlemen, that i am not fzoiuil '<> wa.ste 
 your time by e\p:mdiui.f the conuuon-places of paneijyric on classi- 
 cal leiiruin<r. I siiail not speak of the necessity of recurrinu; to 
 the best models for the formation of taste. When any modern 
 poets or orators shall have <'xcelled llonn-r ami Demosthenes, ami 
 when any cousideralde number of uidett'Tcd modern writers (for I 
 have no concern with extraordinary exceptions) shall have attained 
 eminence, it will Ix; time enouirh to discuss tin- (piestion. But I 
 entreat you to consider the connection between classical learning 
 and nu)rality; which, I thiidi, as real and as close as its connection 
 with taste: althouirh I do not find that it has been so often noticed. 
 If we were to devise a mi'thod for infusing morality into the tender 
 miiuls of youth, we should certaiidy not attempt it by aro;uments 
 and rules, by definition and denions^tration. We should certaiidy 
 endeavor to attain our object by insinuatinif morals in the disjiruisc 
 of history, of poetry, and of elotpience ; by heroic examples, by 
 pathetic iiici'lents, by sentimenis that either exalt and fortify, or 
 sofU'n and melt the human heart. If philosophical inirenuity were 
 to devise a |)lan of moral instruction, these, I think, would be its 
 outlines. But such a plan already exists. Classical education i.s 
 that plan ; nor can niodern history and literature ever be substitu- 
 
'■-** 
 
 XXIV 
 
 sKi/rcH or Tin: i.iri: or 
 
 ted ill its stead. ISIodorii exaniplo can never iiiipiiiit on the yoiitli- 
 fiil iiiiiid tlio frraiid and aiiliioritative M-iitiiiieiit, tliaf, in tlio most 
 distant ages, and in states «)t' society the most unlike, the same vir- 
 ln(>s have heeii the oliject of human veneration. Strip virtue of 
 the awful authority uhieli sh(> derives irom llie treneral reverence 
 of maiikiiid. and you roh her of half her majesty. Modern charac- 
 ter never could animate youth to nohle exertions of duty and of 
 ijeniiis, hv the example of that durahle irlory which awaits tlieiii 
 after death: and which, in the case of the illustrious ancients, they 
 see has survi\((l the sul)\c'rsiou of empires, and even tiie extinction 
 of nations. Modern men ar(> too near, and too familiar, to inspire 
 that enthusiasm with which we must view those who are t«) he our 
 models in virtue. WIumi our fancy would exalt them to the level 
 of our temporary admiration, it is ])erpetuallv checked hy some 
 trivial circumstance, by some mean association, j)erhai)s hy some 
 ludicrous recollection, whnh damps and extiiiifuishes our enthusi- 
 asm. 'J'licv liiul the same manners which we see every day de- 
 grailed i)y ordinary and vicious men; tliev spoke tlu' language 
 which we hear polluted hy the use of the ignorant and the 
 vulii'ir. Rut ancit'nt sagres and patri()ts, are. as it were, exalted by 
 ditVerence of language and manners, above every thing that i.s 
 familiar, and low, and debasing. And if there be something in 
 ancient examples not fit to be imitaie<|, or even to be a|)proved in 
 modern times, yet, let it be recollected, that distance not only add.s 
 
 to their authoritv, but softens their fierceiies 
 
 \V 
 
 lien we contem- 
 
 plate them at such a distance, the ferocity i> lo<t, and lh(> magna- 
 iiiniity only reaches us. 'I'liese iiobli> studies jireserve, and they 
 only can j^reserve, the unbroken chain of learning which unites the 
 
 most renioie aener.ition? 
 
 the (rrand catholic communion of wi^ 
 
 dom and wise men throughout all age-< and nations of the world, 
 ' If,' says Lord IJ.icoii, ' the intention of the -^hip was thought so 
 noble, which carrieth rirlies and commodities from place to place. 
 
 d consociateth the ino^t remote reinon-i ui i)arti<'i!)ation o 
 
 f tl 
 
 leir 
 
 an 
 
 fruits, how much more arc letters to be inaif|iitie<l, wiiicli, as ships, 
 pass through the \ asi ,-eas of time, and make ages so di>tant, par- 
 ticipati' of ihe wixlom, illununation^, and mvrnlions, the one <d" 
 the other I ' Alas I gentlemen, what can I sa\ that will not seem 
 Hal, nnd tame, and uiMpid, after this divine wisdom and divine 
 elo(jueuce '. liul this great commerce between ages will b»! broken 
 
tmi JAMKS MACKINTOSH. 
 
 XXV 
 
 yoiUll- 
 
 most 
 iiir vir- 
 rtue of 
 .ercnce 
 char.ic- 
 
 i\ii(l oi" 
 Is tbcm 
 Its, they 
 (inction 
 > inspire 
 I) 1)0 our 
 ll\e level 
 l)y some 
 by some 
 eiithiisi- 
 ,■ (lay (le- 
 hiiiifuage 
 and the 
 xalted by 
 (T that is 
 cthinor in 
 proved in 
 only adds 
 ^ contem- 
 10 n\a^na- 
 , and they 
 unites the 
 [)n of wis- 
 tlio worhl. 
 ihoiifiht so 
 '(■ to plaoe, 
 >n of their 
 h, as ships, 
 liMaiit, par- 
 Uie one of 
 il not seem 
 and divine 
 
 1 be broken 
 
 and intercoiHed: the hinnan race will ho rof'.acod to the scanty 
 stock of their own aijo, unless the latest generations are united to 
 the eirliest, by an early and iiitinialo knowlodifo of their langnatio 
 and their literature. From the exiicrioiico of former times, 1 will 
 venture to predict, that no man will over obtain lasting fame in 
 Icarniuir, who is not onlightonod by the knowlodnro, and ins|)ired 
 by the ir»>nius of those who have gone before hnn. Unt if this he 
 true in other sciences, il is (on thousand times more evident in the 
 sci(Micc ot' morals. " 
 
 In I7«H, Mackintosh urn-riod a second time, and seems to have 
 been (^(piallv as fortunate in hi- second as in his first choice. 
 
 'I'lie r( filiation that lie ac(inire(l bv delivering his Lectures, was 
 of i.rroat asM-tanc(> to Inni m pru.'uriug l>ractice; " and ho was fre- 
 ,|iirMtlv employed in arguing .luesUons of international law botWre 
 ('oiiimitlc-s of the House of ("onuuons. One of his most distin- 
 guished .■If.rls. as an a.l.ocate, w; s liial made m defence of 
 Peltier, 'rhis man lb'. I from I'raiieo during the stormy times of 
 lIU-,;, and sui.p(-ited himself in (.ondou by |)ublisliiiig a pajKH- 
 cd i; Ambigu. In the fuvl number of tins paper, was an ode 
 .llrctingpretiy severely up-m Bonaparte: and alius instigation an 
 action was brcughi against the editor, who employe.l .Miickiiitosli 
 ,„aefen<l luia. 'I'hr trial cam.' on before Lord I'Jleiiborough : and 
 an immense crowd assemble.! to b am what disposition would bo 
 made of the otbuidiug Frenchman. 
 
 The counsel bir the defeudant was eminently (pialiiied l!> under- 
 take the iler,'iice : and upon that ..cra-ion deliviTod a discourse lliat 
 fullv sustained bi> alr.'ady enviable reputation, and which must 
 ,.v<'r umiii.-tiouablv remain as one of the fme.<t specimens of foren- 
 sic oratory. It b •% h"ue\cr, by some, been complained of as be- 
 ing to., discur.ivr, aiel too liighlv wrought for iheoccasi..n: and 
 li~m others, it hasreccivt-.l the highest encomiums.-^ It was trans- 
 
 ca 
 r( 
 
 , ,1 I,.,, |„,,.„ ,.nil Ih:'l Ins |.iarli,T uas aKvays bum. <i ; liul w. l.'.-nai 
 ,•,,„„ ||„. in.-l MiM|U, ^lh.l,:ll.i.• aulh.ailv , llial .huing his la>l y.sir at lli.' I.ar, 
 ,„„| I,.. u„. „nl^ . |,nM rui.mrr mv.'M n-'iu-s) his \vv. an.o.nUc.l to ...or., than 
 
 Cl-Jiin. 
 
 ■-■ Si.' Williani S.nti sai.l "lluaoli,' inn.t hi'lllia.il s|mmm'Ii ,-vcv u.a.l.. at 
 I,,, „, ,„ ,;,,,„M. tlr.kn,., n, s,M.aK,n^ m'u, -av>, - I shall aivvavs .nnsnl-r 
 „ ,,. , ,r,h,. iiiM.t -i.ini.li.l .11... Mis ■.!•;;,. nil., hai.mits aii.l .1..- 
 
XXVI 
 
 .sKirrtii (»r Tin; liie of 
 
 liiU'il into Kroiicli by Mii(l;iiiic tli' Stiiiil : ' which cxtondetl the re- 
 liuiiiuon ot" .Mai'UiMfosli. already I'avoraltly known, throiitrhtmt 
 Eiiropo. Ho htiwcMT lost tlic ca^c, and his rlinit was convicted, 
 
 Tlic extensive knowledire of international law, shown hy Mack- 
 intosli in Ins Lectures, their hrilliaiit success, and Ids ahilities as 
 an able and I'earle-^ advocate, e\ inced at the trial of Peltier, and 
 npon otiier occasions, attracted the attention of (.iovornnient : and 
 he w;is reirarded as a suiiahle individual to iill some one of the 
 iuiih Colonial otiiccs. Accordinyls , in I^'IKJ, ho was appointed 
 llecorder of IJoinhay : and n|)oii assuming tlie judicial rohe, re- 
 ceived the honor ol knighthood. Two considerations induced him 
 to accept this appointment: the one, in order that he ndtfht accii- 
 tnnlati- a competency for his somewhat numerous fandly, and the 
 other, that he luiLiht pro-ecute his literary jjiirsuits less unintt'rrnpt- 
 edlv than at h( ine, amidst political excitements, 'I'JU' year fol- 
 low ni^r his ap|i('intnient. he set out lor India, accompanied hy his 
 family, " multa et preclara minans of Icfral, philosophical, and his- 
 torical works." Dnrinir ii residence id' ei^dit years in the I'last, ho 
 produced no work of any unseat size : yet we are not to infer from 
 this that he was inactive or indolent, \either did he extend his 
 researches into Oriental literature, as his nrvM prodocossor, Sir 
 V\ illiam Jones, had done : lint spent his leisure moments in r<'adin(f 
 and { xauiininL' historical and metaphysical works, the results of 
 which, in subsequent years, he, in part, ^rave to the worhl in Ins 
 Ahridirod Ifistorv ot' ilni.dand, and ni a Dissertation upon the Pro- 
 trress of Kthical I'hilo.-ophy. 
 
 I.iinl I'.l]i'iili(inin;;li, in lii.-< rliar^'c tu tjji' jury, [ironounci'd it to 
 
 lllc lllll^I ( liMIl 
 
 Milt uialinii hr li.iil t V I'l Inaril. 
 
 .Ma<i:i 
 
 Willie III I'Mli' 
 
 lii StacI lliiK 
 (' I -I (Ian 
 
 |ii alv^ nl' ihc jrnat ri)ii~(]laliii|i it iilliii-dcd iirr 
 (1 - juiir- iiiauc u\ i|iic jr riM Us Ic |ilai(|ipMr dc 
 M AlaiMiitn-li, la |c Ills < I- jiaixrs uii il I'ait Ir |iiii'|i'ai| <| nil Jiir'nhiii, ijiii' 
 > 1 si inmilic II rnlilr liaiis la riMiliiti"ii cniilrc lis iiil'aiis, Irs \ Ifillurds, ct 
 
 !,■. I'. 
 
 riniiiis. ii ijii! sr jiln siir la lie rirr ilii I iirsi.j ijiii im ra\itjiis(|ii a la 
 iiiiiiiiilii' pari ill' ri 111' lilii 111- |iiiiir lai|iiidli' il -r |ir('ti'iidiiit ariiiu. Cr iiior- 
 irall ill' la jiliis liclli' <'liii{lii In r nirllllll {llsi|ir all liinil dr I, 'mil', I, is 
 n|M rii 1,1- |ii in ml ■|iiiIi|ih I'ois. ,i linr ln~rii, soiila^jiT Irs iiiliirtii- 
 
 I I'l'U ilMI - 
 
 Ill's, ilaii- liMi. Il ~ |ia\-. I I ilaiis (mis jis linijps 
 
 la I' 
 
 tais,'iil si |i 
 
 I'liiidi'iiii'iit .iiiliinr ill' I 
 
 Mill, ipii' ri'lti \iii\, ijiii' tiinl :i I'll <;i ri'|i<iiidiiil a iiioii 
 
 ami', nil' sriiililuil dr-i inilui' ihi ml — clli' \ ciidiI d iiii (lav." lilin 
 .'Inui'A.i il' I'.sih 
 
 l)t 
 
^ 
 
 SIR JAMES IMACKINTOSn. 
 
 XXVII 
 
 lie re- 
 u«rlu>iit 
 ictc'd. 
 Muck- 
 itics as 
 lor, and 
 It : and 
 of the 
 pointed 
 l)e, ro- 
 ced liini 
 lit afcii- 
 aiid tlic 
 nterni|)t- 
 year I'ol- 
 ed l)y liis 
 and liis- 
 I'-ast, he 
 lifer tVoin 
 •xteiid liis 
 :essor, Sir 
 II reading 
 results of 
 rid in liis 
 n tlic I'ro- 
 
 oiiliLi'tl it to 
 
 iill'ordi'il lirl 
 |iliiiilii_\ir tit! 
 Jiicdiiiii, (|ilo 
 
 \ ilillilllls, ct 
 
 it jusi|ir a Im 
 
 |6. ('(' IIMH- 
 
 rfiiiic. I.I s 
 r lis iiilnrlii- 
 :iisiiil si |(ri)- 
 
 lllllllit H lllllll 
 
 ilin." — />" 
 
 Having learned the Cierinan niul Italian languages, during Ins 
 residence aliroad, he read most of the i]ieta|)liysicai works in the 
 (briiier, and many of the poets and hetter ])rose writers in the 
 latter : besides all of the new readable hooks of England and 
 France. He had also an extensive eorresi)oiiden<'e with men of let- 
 ters, at home, and on the Continent ; which, together with his judi- 
 cial duties, occupied the greater i)art of his time. He sustained, 
 while abroad, his high reputation as a scholar, and the ciiaracter of 
 an upright and fearless judge. He was at great pains to inform him- 
 self of the (teciiliarities of the |icople among whom he was ])lace(l to 
 ndiiiinister justice; and in his opening address to the jury of l5om- 
 bay, " he compared himsell" to a newly appoiiiK d physician in a 
 hospital, who would fust examine the bo«d\s of the establishnient, 
 in order to make himself acquainted with the complaints that were 
 most fretpiently to call for cure.'' 
 
 "The prevalence of perjury is, ])erliaps, a more certain sign of 
 the dissolution of moral principle, tlian other more daring and 
 ferocious crimes, more terrible to the imagination : and of which, 
 the immediate C(m-;e(piences are more destructive' to society. INr- 
 jurv indicates the absence of all the common restraints which with- 
 hold me!i from crimes. It su|)poses the absence of all feiir of human 
 justice, and bids deliaiice also to all human laws; it supjioses also, 
 either a contemi)t for jtublic opinion, or, what is worse, a state of 
 society whicli lias ceased to brand with disgrace actions that ought 
 to be infamous; it is an attack on religion and law in the very 
 |)oint of their union." 
 
 A ca.'^i' of perjury very soon occurring, he gave the natives an 
 earnest of what his future course would be, relative to tiiis crime, 
 ('poll a trial of two individuals for murder, an Indian woman was 
 the principal witness, and her testimony before the coroner was 
 directly contradictory to that snlisetpieutly given. During the trial, 
 the Court asked her ''if she ihought there was any harm in false 
 swearinir !'■ she re|)lied "that she had uiiil(>rstoo(l the Miiglish had 
 a L^real horror of it, i)ut that there was no such horror in iter <'oiiii- 
 trv." She was sentenced to liv(^ yciirs im|)risoum(>nt ; during which 
 period, she had to stand once a year in the pillory, in front of the 
 coiirt-hoiis(>, with laiiels on her breast and back, explanatory of the 
 crime of which she had ln-eii guilty, and of the resolution of the 
 Court to ado|)l the most rigorous means for the extirpation of this 
 olTence 
 
XXVIll 
 
 sKF,T( II OF Tin: Mir. or 
 
 Sir Jaiiips' policy, at Roinhay, wa?; to aiiiolioratc llio rii^'ors ol" 
 tlu' law: and a judicial f\|)ciic'iici' ol" seven years, proved 
 that tlie plan worked well, altlioii^li lie has l)e(>n censured tor ho- 
 in^f too lenii'iii in the lollnwiMr ca.-e : — 'I'wo native ollicers had 
 a^'recd to waylay and as.-anlt t wo Diiichiiien : and their prohahio 
 iiileniion was to connnit nuinliT. The |>risoners, i\peclin<f to ro- 
 cei\(' the sentence of death, had liniiished themselves with knives, 
 and resdlvi'd to sacnlice the seiileiicer : Imt their intention was 
 intisi opporiiMU'ly discovered, and the Coinl t<u)k occasion to make 
 to them this rl(i(|nenl address : — 
 
 " It has been my rat(\ in this place, to be obliijed to justify llie 
 lenity, rather than the severity of the penaltie> inllicled here. I 
 thndi. it is likely to contniue so: i'or I have more confidence in the 
 certainty, than in the <e\eritv t>f |)inilshment. I conceive it to be 
 the first duly ol' a crinunal jndu:e. to cM-rt and lo strain every fac- 
 ulty of his mind to discover, in every case, the smallest possible 
 (pianlity of pimislmu'nt that may be eiU'Ctual for the ends of 
 amendiuent and example. I consider every panir of the criminal, 
 not necessary tor these objects, as a crmie in the judj;e. 1 was 
 employed (addressiiiix himself to tin- ciil|)rils,) in considering the 
 mildest |nd<.niieiit which |iublic <liity would allow me to pronounce 
 on yoii, when I learned, from undoubted authority, that your 
 tliou;.dits towards me wire not ol' the >aiu(' nature. I was credibly, 
 or rather cert.iinlv iiilonued. ill. it \ou had .■nlmitted into \oiir minds 
 the ile>per;!(e |iro|(Ct of dotrouiiLi voiir own li\e> at the bar where 
 you siainl. .'iiid of sii.niali/.niL' voiir >uicide by the |)re\ ions destruc- 
 tion of at least one ot vour jiidiic;- If thai murderous project had 
 lu'eii ( xeculed, I should li;ive been tin fu>t Mntisli iiia;;i>trale who 
 vwr stiiined with hi> bli;od tlie bench on which he sat lo adminis- 
 ter jiisiici'. iJnt I could iie\er have died better, than in the dis- 
 char^re of my duty. When I iicce|ited the otlice of a minister ot' 
 pistice, I knew that I ou^llt to de-|>ise nii|)opiilarily and sl.uider, 
 and even death itself. 'riiaiiL (iod, | do desi)ise them: and I sol- 
 enmlv as.-ure \ou, that I feel more compassion for the ^loom\ and 
 desperate si, lie of mind which could harbor such projects, than re- 
 
 sentiiient for that part of tlieui 
 
 Inch 
 
 w.is directed airainsi invself 
 
 I should consider myself as mdeliblv dis:_rraced, if ti llion^lit of \oiir 
 firojects a^^ainst me were to inlliiein c my jndtrmeiil." 
 
 Th 
 
 ■V were sentenced to tueUe nionlhs imprisonment. 
 
SIU JAMMS IVl ACKINTOSII 
 
 XXIX 
 
 rigors ot 
 , |)rove»l 
 (1 lor 1)0- 
 iccrs had 
 pr;)l)al)lo 
 iiiif to ro- 
 ll kui\('s, 
 ititm was 
 I to iiiako 
 
 Histily tlio 
 I lioro. I 
 lu'c in tlio 
 vo it to 1)0 
 cvory lac- 
 st possiljlo 
 
 ends ot" 
 (• criniiiial, 
 ire. 1 was 
 idfriiiii tlio 
 
 proiiouuoo 
 , tliat your 
 as orodihiy, 
 
 your iiiiiitls 
 i" l);\r whoro 
 .)\is tli'stnii-- 
 
 jiidici't liail 
 ^islralc who 
 
 lo lulminis- 
 
 1 in the <lis- 
 i miiii-li'i' ot 
 mill slaiidor, 
 ,1 ; and 1 sol- 
 
 crjooiiw and 
 -cts, tli:iu ro- 
 :aiiisl myscir. 
 oiiwht of \oiir 
 
 111. 
 
 As ii Vico-Adiiiiralty Jiidfrc, his docisioiis wcro govoriK'd l»y tliiit 
 hiirli and liboral policy which iulluoiiccs the judiriiu'iils of tlioso 
 dooply iinhiiod with correct views of iiiternalioiial law; and he 
 claimed the same indopeiideiice tor the Admiralty, astli(> Conrls of 
 Common liaw assort. 
 
 Diirinir his residence in the Ivisl, he loiinded the Homhay 
 liiterury Society; made several valuahle comiiiimications to 
 the Asiatic llejfister ; and assisted IJiKdiauan in his vahiahle 
 work upon India. In 1^1 I, on accoimt of indisposition, he 
 obtained permission to retnrn to iMitrlaml; without having; liiliy 
 attained the acc,omi>lishment of either of the desi^nis tor which he 
 accepted the judffesliip. He however received iVom the Mast India 
 Companv a ])ension of XVZW) a year, and was ai)poinied Professor 
 of Law and General J'olily, in the KasI India Colieire, ar Lon- 
 don. \n l^^l:?, he obtained a seat in Parliament : and conlinned to 
 represent here varions boronirhs dnrintr tlie remainder of his life. 
 In ihe Honse, he nsnally voted with the Whius, but was never an 
 nltra party-man. On (jnestions of Foreiiiii I'olicy and Inleniational 
 I,aw, on the Alien Bill, on the Liberty of llie I'ress, on Keiiir- 
 lons Toleration, on the Slave Trade, on Ueform in Parliament, on 
 till" KiLdit of the Colonies to Self-CJovernmcnI. Sir .lames took an 
 active and eiliciciit part : and was always found supporlin^r thai side 
 which most favored t lie progress of liberal principles. ci\ili/alion 
 .-md happiness. A reform in the Criminal Law was a subject he 
 had loiiir meditated upon: and uniformly advocaied its necessity 
 with hi- L'reat comi)eer. Sir Samuel llomilly. I'pon the death of 
 the. hitter, this branch of Le«ial Reform devolved upon Sir .lames; 
 anil as chairm.m of a coimnittoe of the House of Commons, he in- 
 troduced several bills which succeeded in erasiuij; from the statnle- 
 hook seven oiVences that had ])reviously been punished with death. 
 The followinix extract from one ol' his speeches, shows the com|)re- 
 hensive and enlanrod views that he had upon the subji'd. 
 
 " If a foreigner were to form his estimate «)f th(> people of Ln<];- 
 land from a consideration i>f their penal code,- ho woidd undoid)t,- 
 
 ' Whil.' Prof.ssor ill this <oll,Mr.', In rc-dt livci-f.l liis (diirsd of Li'Ctiirus 
 iiiK.ii llic "Law orNiilui-n mill Nal'MHis." 
 
 •-■ TInrr w. r.' Mii.n- thiin ;i limnliv.l (ilVnu^rs, nl that lime, wiiirii (lie laws 
 nf |-,ii-lan.i .I.tImiviI w.iv puni.lial.lc u illi dralh; nixm twenty ..f wiii.li, 
 only, that piinislmicnt was cvi r iiilliritd. 
 
\\\ 
 
 sKi'.Tcii or Tin: 1,111: or 
 
 »'(llv coiicliulc )li;it llit'v "iTf a iiJitioii »il' ]»arl»arians ; tliat wo were 
 MaMiifr III iiiir llircals, aid yet wore I'ccltic in our cxociition of |)uii- 
 isliiiifiils ; that we cIm (-islicd a svslciii wliicli in theory was odious, 
 1)111 which was iiii|)ot(Mit in practwic Iroiu its severity: tliat in rases 
 (il" hiijh treason, we involved iniioeeiit eliildren in all tlie coiise- 
 t|iiences ol'iheir I'atiier's o;iult : that in cases ot" eorriiption of blood, 
 we were even still more cruel, piinishiiitx llie oUsprinii; when w(^ 
 could not reach the parent : and that on some occasions, we even 
 proce(>de(l to wreak veii^'eance upon the hodies of the inanimate 
 dead. if the same |iers(in were told tiiat we W('r(> tiie same nation 
 which had liccn the lirst to iswr full piii>licity t() every part of our 
 indicia! svsli in ; lint \\v were the same nation wiiicli had estah- 
 li>lied ihe trial hy jnry : uhi<'h, blamahie as it mii.'lit he in theory, 
 wa.- su iii\aliiahle in practice: that we were the same nation which 
 hail I'oiiml mil ilie (rrentot seciirilv which had ever been devised 
 for indi\idnal liliertv, the writ of habeas corpus, as settled by the 
 Act of Charles II. ; that we were the same nation which iiad discov- 
 ereil the full blessiiiirs of a represeniative government, and which 
 had endeavored to dilfiise them lhroiiu;hont every p^irt of onr free 
 ein|»ire, he would wonder at 'h ■ straiiLfe anomalies of linmaii 
 nature, winch could unite things that were, in themselves, so totally 
 iiicnnipatii)le," 
 
 One of his late speiMJies was upon a Hill relative to anatomical 
 dissections; upon which so much sickly sentiment exists in the 
 world. 'The enliuhteiied reader anii'it fail to coincide with llie 
 views that Sir .lames takes in the followinir e.MracI, as well as 
 admire the earnestness witii wliicli lie advocates the necessity of 
 facilitatinir, rather than impediiiir anatomical investiLrations. 
 
 " Allow m<> to illustr.iie, by an imairinarv case, tlie opposite 
 elVei'ts of conliimiiii.' to bar up, and of trvinif to widen, tli(> only ac- 
 cess to aiialomical knowli^dire. li'wtwere told, that in some desert 
 reiridii of Central Africa, it was the practice of a tribe of .savapes 
 to put to death, anniiallv, a certain inimber of their own sick and 
 Wdiiiided, we should surely listen to the siory with a hope to find it 
 false. Ibit if it were added, that these murders were perpetrated, 
 not by the instantaneous imd merciful operation of the sword, the 
 pistol, or the a\e, but by a lin^jferiiiif torture for months or years, 
 we should require the stronircst evidence to induce lis ever to lis- 
 ten to such a charge a^fainst cannibals themselves. If we were told 
 
 II 
 v; 
 ri 
 w 
 
SIR JAIMKS MACKlM'Ufil. 
 
 xxxi 
 
 tlitil \vc wore nursclvoH chiirgoiiblc with e<iiial barbarity, siioiild we 
 not cry out witli tlie Syrian of old, ' is thy servant a dog, liiat iio 
 should (h» tliis thinjr !' But let us h>oii at home. Let us not sui- 
 ter ourselves to be paid in words, which, as was sharply and sagely 
 said, ' are the counters of wise men, and the money of tools.' 
 What is the substantial dilVerencc between the supposed barbarity 
 in Africa, and the legal impediments to anatomy in Great Britain ? 
 In proportion to every degree in which anatomy declines, iuid med- 
 icine sinks, an adilitional nnnd)er of human lives must be cut siiort. 
 If the healing arts preserve life, their decay nuist destroy it. That 
 their iMi|irovement has contribute*! to that prolongation of its ave- 
 rage duration, wiiich has taken place during the last half century, 
 is what nobody but the most extravagant dealers in ct)iinnon-place. 
 paradox will venture to dispute. The main length of life chieHy 
 dei)eiids on the treiituuMit of children; and the decline «)f medicnl 
 science, must be attended, in its very beginning, by a real, though 
 not iiomnial, massacre of infants. U', imleed, it were to kill at a 
 blow, it might be a l)lessing to many. But its victims will die so 
 slowly, none can call it murder. The bungling surgeon will make 
 his instrument a meiins of more cruelty than the tomahawk ; the 
 ignorant physician will kill only by the protracted torture of disease. 
 Let every man who calls out law, or prc'judice, against dissection, 
 consider whetiier he does not do his utmost to abate the means of 
 lengthening life; and, (what is far more iini)ortant,) of alleviating 
 misery. Let him deeply reflect, whether an inconsiderate word 
 may not make an orphan ; and an intlamatory sentence may not 
 cause unspeakable anguish to hundreds. What a fearful responsi- 
 bility <loes he incur to all those who may suiVer from the blow he 
 has struck against the healing arts! 
 
 " I should be most painfully perplexed, if I thought myself, in 
 this case, reduced to the sad necessity of choosing between the 
 means of relief to l)o(iily sutVering, and the discipline which culti- 
 vates our moral feelings. J iun not among those wli(» underrate the 
 riles of sepulture; still less the regard for the remains of the dead, 
 which has promi)ted mankind, in every age, to hold tlio.se rites 
 sacred. 1 believe that such a regard is indisi)ensable from alVection 
 towards the li\ ing. As the ciuinibal feeds his ferocity by vindictively 
 devouring the llesh of his enemies, so, it seems to me, funeral honors 
 may be said, in some measure, to return and replenish those sacred 
 
XXXIl 
 
 .sKi'.TCii OF Tin; Lil'i: Ol" 
 
 fountains of kindiicss ;iii(l compassion from wiiii-li tln'y flow. Rut 
 I will not lu'lievo tliiit tlio inor.il iMiltnro ol" m:ni is ;il variance willi 
 his Wodily welfare. I am convinced that inqniry will discover 
 means, sanctioned l)y llie e\j)erienc(> of other countries, hy which, 
 while tlie nohl'- science of ;uiatomv, and the lieneficent arts of med- 
 icine and -^urLferv are |)ics(-rved ainonif ns, the alarms of atlectioii 
 mav lie iii)peased, and the .-anctuary of the jfrave remlered more 
 Miviolalije. 1 helieve that a plan may he found, which will spare 
 tiie feeiinixs of every known or discoverahle person : and I conceive 
 that to re(inire more, would he lantastic extravaifance. I helieve, 
 witli ei|ual confidence, that if th-ie_f-< l^'* on as they now threaten, 
 we shall clo-c the ix'tler part of the m(<ans ol' instruction in the 
 medical science: hut that a ntiseraltle reMtiiant niii~t still i>e scan- 
 tilv supplied hv tint svsteni of cl iiidesline and contrahand disinter- 
 iiiiMit. which sliocUs the lieirl ol' tin' iiioiii-iier, degrades science, as 
 well as renders its |irol"ession odious, iind hecoiiies, like snuiif- 
 vdiiiLT and |)oacliiiitj', a ^cllo■)| in which men are lilted for the worst 
 crimes.'' 
 
 {•'or mauv vear<, In- had hcen colleciin^r material-' for !i history 
 of l'!iii:laiid : and -liortly .liirr hi- return from India, he announced 
 III the pnlilic his intention of writing' tln' -ame, and solicited access 
 to jtuhlic and pri\ate lilirarie-, which was readil\ L^ranled. For 
 this purpose, also, he \isited the ( 'oiit'iieul, and olitained a mass of 
 information, whieh. uii(|u<'-ii()uaM\ , in his hand-, if his attention 
 had not hecn directed to too many oiijects, would have heen 
 wrou:iht into the mn-t philosu|)liic and valuable history tlnit tlio 
 worhl had ever seen.' His fondness for society, !iou('\er, in which 
 lie j)re-emineiitiy shone, his attention to politics and ^(Miera! litera- 
 ture. euL'ro-sed so much of his life, that he went to his irra\(' with 
 vast |iroiecis half accompli-hi'd. He liowc\er made an ahridnment 
 ol" his lii-tory, in two \olume<. which may he found in Gardner's 
 < yclopadia : tri\iiiu us a foretaste of what he wa- capable of iloinij 
 as a historian. His ohject, he informs us, m the two puhlished vol- 
 umes, '" was to ;ri\(. all the information \\liicli men of dilVerent pur- 
 suits, and of little lei-iire, mav think ii ncces-arv to have always 
 within their reach ;'' and he verv niodistly stvles the work a Manual. 
 
 ' Till' fdllii lion (.(' iiiiiiri.il-j ror liis ::rr( at liislorii'Ml wnik, aiiiiumtcd, iit 
 III- ilialii, 111 tilu rii,iiiii~i lijil snliiiiK's 
 
 mi 
 (1 
 
 ilM 
 
 ric 
 ire; 
 iiil 
 
 tlio 
 frii 
 
 Wi 
 
 r.ir 
 
 fir.i 
 .-Iri 
 ml 
 
 S0( 
 
SIR JAMLS MACIClM'OSll 
 
 XXXUI 
 
 Hut 
 
 witli 
 scovor 
 wliicli, 
 it" iiumI- 
 Vcctioii 
 
 1 more 
 I sparer 
 Diiccive 
 hfliove, 
 ircatoii, 
 I ill the 
 If scaii- 
 lisiiitor- 
 ('ii<"(>, as 
 t> suMiii;- 
 he worst 
 
 a liistory 
 inoiiiict'd 
 •<l access 
 e<l. Tor 
 a mass ol 
 attention 
 Jive l)eeii 
 • (hat tlic 
 , in wliidi 
 •ral litera- 
 rrave witli 
 |>ri(l;imeii1 
 Lariliier's 
 (• ol' (loinif 
 ilislied vol- 
 I'crent ]Mir- 
 ive always 
 L a Manual. 
 
 immmttd, :it 
 
 Tins aljridirnient lias trreat merits, and nmst ninaiii a standard 
 work ni)()n that |)orlion of I'iiiLrlish history of which it treats.' He 
 was a l)relty reiridar c()n(ril)utor to tlie Kdinhurifh ami Monthly 
 Reviews, and fnrni>hed a Dissertation upon Kthical lMiiloso|)hy for 
 the l''ncyclo|)a'dia Britannica. In addition to the works that have 
 been mentioned, he wrote a life of Sir Thomas More ; Fragment of 
 the History of the Kevolntion of hiSS ; which, together with his 
 speeches in Parliament, comprise the greater part of his works. 
 Mackintosh has heeii censured liy some, for his indolence, and for 
 havinir produced so little; as though cpiantity was the criterion hy 
 wlii<h a man's talents were to be estimated. Jiiit if all writers had 
 written wilii hi> care, and infused the soul of true philosophy, like 
 luiii, into tiuir productions, there would doubtless be many authors 
 of neglected or forirottcu tomes, who would now be an honor to 
 their country, and a blessing 1o the world. 
 
 As a writer, Mackintosh has less originality than many; but mt 
 (iu(; was ever lieiter endowed than he, with the faculty of abstrac- 
 ting from the mass of human learning, everything that could eluci- 
 date or beautify whatever subject he undertook. The transforma- 
 tion thai the maierial underwent in the laboratory of his mind, was 
 like that of the precious metals, in shajx-less masses carried into a 
 mint, and coming forth correctly weighed, and beautifully stamped. 
 He had ext.Mided Ins rer-earches into every field, both ancient and 
 
 ' "\Vi- find in it thr .liligi'in'o, llic acfurin'v, .-md llir iiulgiiifnl nf Hiil- 
 linu, iinitid In llic vivruity ^nd tlic cdloriiig of SoiUlicv. A History of 
 tliiglnliil, wriltcn llimiiglioiit, in this iiiannor, woiihl In- llic most tiisciniiliiig 
 linok ill tlu' langiiiigc ; it would hv iiiori> in rfMjiKjst at the circiiiatiiig libra- 
 rios thiiu ilii hisi nov.l. Aliuosi all tho distiiignislifd writers, who have 
 iicalcd of r.iigh^h hi>toiy, ;ni' iidv(.<Nitc's. Mr. Ilallam and .-^ir James Mack- 
 ililosh, tilolic', are eiililled M he eiilled jtldiies. — .'»f«(■fl^//'■;/• 
 " I sc.ireil v know two volumes, I'roin which, considering their depth of 
 ihoughMhe siuitdesi mind will !)(- .ipt to r^irry olY more instruction, nor 
 from which the most instrucled minds, if I iniiy judge of such a mental class, 
 wniild l>e likcK, coti>idering the inMmi:il :uid popular ohjecl of the work, to 
 rarrv olV more sound niid pleasant imjiressioii>.' — liuhnr. 
 
 "1 ihink the History a nohle one; perhaps I never read one with equal 
 gratificMli.u. The author knows on what part of liistory to throw the 
 >lrongesl light ' he pulges pa.^1 age-^ with dist rnnination and candor, enters 
 mio Uieir spirit, an.l knows llii' signilicauce and actions in ditferent singes in 
 sociply. " — i'hanmnii 
 K 
 
X.WIV 
 
 s^Ki r( II oi riii: uii; oi' 
 
 iiindcrii. of |iliil<>s(i|iliv, piuMrv anil liistury : .iikI rruiii racli lia<l 
 ••iillcd llic tlmici'si llowrrs. wliiili u« re rnj-iilarly classilicd in tlic 
 mind's licrbariiini, and coidd Ix'ca-'dv rctcrrcd to upon any desired 
 ofcasion. Indeed, his nieinoiy was wondi'riid. .\nionif the elassie 
 anlliors, ( 'icero was liis favorite: ulioni lie had almost literally eom- 
 iniited to memory. Tlii' I'.iiLdish prose writers, for whom he had 
 tlie ijreatest fondness, vvere Lord IJacon, Hooker, JMiltoii, Locke, 
 llarilev. Harrow, .lenniy Taylor, Swift, Addison, I'aley and 
 IJurke. 
 
 As a i)oIitician. he iiewr sulVered himself to he (•arri<'<l away with 
 parlv zeal; hnt was irindtd liy a eool and deliherate jndijrment, that 
 coin ineed every one ol his intcL^rity, and rendered his support of 
 a measure peenliarl\ desirahle to Ins |tolitical frien<ls. 
 
 " If he liiid lieen arroifant and jrraspinir, if he had been faithless 
 and false, if lie had been always ea^er to strangle infant ireniiis in 
 its cradle, ;dways ready to betray and to blacken those with whom 
 ho sat at meat, he wonid have passed many men, who, in the 
 coursi' of his lonu life, have passed him; bnt, without sellinij his 
 soni for [Kittaire, if he oidy had had a little more prndenee for (he 
 promotion of his interest, and more of annry passions for the piiii- 
 islmient of those detractors who envied his fame and presumed n|)on 
 liis swi-etiiess, if he had been more aware of his powers, and t)l' 
 that sp.ice which nature intended him to occupy, he would iiuve 
 acted a threat part in life, and remained a character in history." 
 
 A 
 
 s a parliamentary < 
 
 lebate 
 
 lie w 
 
 as of the hi'Miest cl 
 
 iss 
 
 II 
 
 IS 
 
 talent was not that of ridicnh 
 e.\cite a roar from the lol)bii's. 
 
 and sarcasm, calculated to 
 and perhaps sway the voti-s 
 
 of a few thouiflitless meiiiliors, luit ol' the urave and deliberative 
 kind, adapted to important measures, that re<iuire de|)th of thoiijrht. 
 
 ami 
 
 ^airac 
 
 iiv "f iiidirmont, to irrapnle wii| 
 
 1 and coiKitier 
 
 11 
 
 e sei 
 
 (loin spoke without a tlioroiiirh knowledirc of his subject, and then 
 not to the house alone, but to the world, lie has been censured 
 for beiiii; too philosophical in his speeches, for siiootuiLr bev<^nd the 
 cajiacify of a common arm, for usinir artillcrv wlu n small arms 
 would have done siitlicieiit execiilinii: but this has ever been the 
 
 coniulaint 
 
 )f a certain c 
 
 wlio 
 
 ;im 
 
 li'f 
 
 htl 
 
 v over suli 
 
 \VC\! 
 
 ixainst those who fathom and iiia>ter liv deen icllcction, and s 
 
 tudt 
 
 <|iii'stions beyond tlie calibre of ordmar\ mind-. Such a talent, 
 
 as 
 
 .hi>, i'\ery .-eiisible man woubl aim to ac(|ni 
 
 re 
 
 'I'l 
 
 li-^ is the kind of 
 
SI I! J X.Ml.S >I MKIN'InSII 
 
 XXXV 
 
 hiMl 
 
 II tlir 
 •sirrd 
 •liif^sie 
 
 fOIII- 
 
 liacl 
 
 and 
 
 with 
 It, tliat 
 Durt iA' 
 
 lali'iit that Hiirkc «lis|ilay(il hrti.rc a |ii)rtinii ot' tli<' House nt' 
 Cuiiiiiioiis, wliilc tlic aliiiiciitativc part ul" liis associates toiiiid it 
 more a^rrcoalilc to lie al)s('iit. Tiiis is the kind of talent tliat 
 |{roiiifliaiii displayeil in some of liis |)rn|°(iiiiid speeelies, amidst tlic 
 coiiiilis and noise of the sem-eless |)art ol' tlie llniise, who hroiirrlu 
 no otlier <[naliliciitioii for M. 1*., than tiie inihiencc of some landed 
 aristocrat. 
 
 As a motaphysician, Mackintosh liad, it is trne, some views pe- 
 culiar to himself; and what writer n|)on morals and metaphysics has 
 not had, upon this most unsettled of all hranchesof human learninir ?' 
 Krom the days of Aristotle, to the present time, no one sect, or wri- 
 K^r, Ins heeii so comphtely orthodox, but that some have seceded 
 iVoiii him : and tiie most canonical writer in one nsro, is entirely 
 iliscarded in the next. Of this much, we are certain, that he ha> 
 treated with <rreat candor those writers who diiler i'roin him; and 
 as it respects tho historical |)\rt of his lucid, vigorous, and ornate 
 J)issertation, there can he hut one opinion. It is to he regret- 
 ted that he ever connected himself with ]Militics or parties, which 
 consumed so ^reat a ))ortion of his m.iturer years; durin<x which 
 time, he miirht have produced soiiieihin|tr more worthy of liimself 
 and all future time.' 
 
 As a kind and airectionate Imshand, as a jfood and a virtuous 
 cili/en, as an encoiiraper of talent in the aspirins yomiix. no man 
 ever surpassed the suliject of this sketch. 
 
 "Sir James Mackintosh was in per.son well made, and above 
 lilt middle stature, ile was reixiilarly handsome in his youth, and 
 even in ihv decline of life ; and under alllicted health, was a person 
 of prepossessing and comman(liiii| ajipearance. His countenance 
 iiad a chanceful mixture of gay and grave expression, a shrewd- 
 
 ' Moriil I'liiliisopliv lie Ii.-kI alwiivs stmlicd willi frrcal cntliiisiasin. — 
 " Mai l<iiil(i,--ir.-; f^cimis uiis licr^t mlajilcil ((ir iiii'ta)ili\ sii ,il sjk ciilMiiiin ; 
 .iiiil if lie had I'lidsiii Moral l'liiliis(i])liy, lie wmilil jirnlialilv have siirpasscd 
 t'Vfrv living wilier.' — llnhrrt Hull 
 
 ' In lii-j (li rlininfr viars, lir hilli'rlv r(|iriiarlic(t liim.^rlC fur linvin;; nnpng- 
 irl in nniltil'arious pnrsiiils; ;iii(l ii|i(pn hi* indnflinn intn tin' oflicc ot'ltcitnr 
 iil'llif I'nivcrsilv (i|'<;ias<rri\v, '• lir warncil llu' stndiMits against tin- pfrplox- 
 itv "I" nianiliild rni|dnvnu'nfs, 'nt' .'.:^-tly rcinnnnenilf il iIip rnntontrntion 
 ol'tticir iniiid* upon onrnr nrir cirat nl)|prt 
 
\\\M 
 
 ski:t( II oi rin. i.iii; oi m ACKiMnMi 
 
 iii'ss ooiiibiiicd witli siiiivity, tliat lici;xli<<'i>*'<l ^nxl ix'torilrd witli the 
 cliarin of his coinirsatioii." 
 
 lie liad, lor mail) vcars, lalxircil iiiiiirr an alii ctioii of the liver ; 
 hut the iiMiiKMhati* caiiM' ot'liis (lc;ith oriiriiiatcd in an accidtMit. Onr 
 dav, \\liil>t at (hiint>r, hr •^wallowed a small rra;,Mncnt <it' a cliickcn 
 h(iii(>: whii'li, with soiiit' (lillKMltv was removed: |irudii«-in<r a sliirht 
 laceration in his throat. 'I'lii > >ii|)eriii(hii'ed an iiillammatioii, that 
 siilise(|ueiitlv ('Mended lo lh(> \( rtel)ra' of the neek ; orcasionin^ 
 severe pains in his In ad, shoulders and linihs, and eom|>letely nn- 
 seitlitiii liis jieneral health: which he never rciraiiied. A few days 
 liefore his death, the pains ceased: and upon May IlO, |s:W, lie 
 died, surrounded hv anxious friends, and in the possession of all his 
 I'iK'iilties: lirmly helievinix in a h:i|)pier and a lietter w<irid.' 
 
 'I'hus died an accomplished orator, an impartial jndirr, a pro- 
 foiltid inetaph\sici;iM, a iirilliant scholar, mid a christian. In ro- 
 xiewiiii; his life, wi- discover an inilividual risinir from the hiiinhler 
 walks of societv, without fortune; resolutely hraxiiiir in early 
 years the sea ol adverse circumstances, hut ever iruided hy the 
 highest morals aixl most ennol)liii<r Miitiiueuis ; who attained tlie 
 proudest seat amidst " I'ln^land's intellectual |>eeraire ; ' by wlioso 
 fau!t> let u^ protit. and wlm~e siijierior excellence let us strive 
 to uintale. 
 
 ' Mis (li Mill wMs iiiiiv I i-.'illv iliplcirid .It liuiiic mill iImmukI — " I,' Anjrlf- 
 tcrrc a {iirdii iin \i iimiix iiiomii . I;i liicriiltin' iin liisturiin |ir<if<iii(l rt plii- 
 losop|ii(jii(' ; la {iii'is|jriiii('ii( r iiii n |i>rin:itriir rcl.-ijn'' ; li- |i.'irl<'iii(Mit nil 
 oratcur dont I' i'l>ii|Ui'n<'c i'Iii|)|iiiiImiI t(iiit< -:: r^i'io it hi raisnn ii a |u iiisti''o ; 
 r hiiiiKuiili' rnfiii mi tlilrnsiMii /.tic ilc s's (linJN <1 (Ic scs intcrels II i'liiit 
 ''ininnnmrni Anplnis pnr son pnlrinti^mr, rt cnsmdimlitc jiar 1' nlismcp ilcs 
 prrjiigcn nnlionniiv." — .■? /I' Srhlr^rl 
 
i 
 
 SrEKCIIES, &f!., OF SIR J.VMKS )1.\('R1XT()SII. 
 
 Tlio follow injT aro soino ot'llic Foroiisic, ['iirliaiiiciitJiry, I.itorary, 
 IMiiln>(.|)lii(nl and Historical Works ol' Sik .l\.\ir,s Mackini'osii : 
 
 A l'iiiii|plilri nn ilir Kc'^'iMiv (lnt'sl ii in, I7~'.'. 
 
 X'illilic'iM' (i;illii;i', I vol. -VIP., IT'.M. 
 
 l.ifi' lit' Sir 'rimmiis Mi'tv, (in llif lirsl mpIiiihc hI" " 'I'ln' Mvcs tA' r.rilisli 
 
 StillCSIIICII. ') 
 
 Di^^irtiilinri III! tlir i'roarcss nf l",tirn;il I'liilip^opjiy. 
 
 Aliriil'irii lli-loiy ol" l'.ii!.'l:iinl, "2 vols. 
 
 I'r;ij;iii(in ul'ilic lli-ilory ( f llir Revolution of l(;-~, (a ]instlnnnniM iinlili- 
 
 lation.) 
 A DiscdurHc on llic vStiuly orHic Law of N:iinri' ami N'.itioiH. 
 
 'rii(> lollowiiiff contrittiitioiis to the Edinbiirgli Ktrlnr : — 
 
 Vol.. "J'.', Kixiiw of llic PoiMis of Rojri'rs. 
 " " " of Miidiiuir (Ic Siac'l's "D(' L"All('niagni'." 
 
 " "iJ, Ri'llrctions on rriiinc. 
 " •,'•">, Rcviiw of VV'ra.\iiirs Memoirs. 
 " ti7, (.'liaraclrr of Lord Uiicon. 
 " 'M, All Arliile niion I'MrliMinentiiry Riform. 
 
 " :!(», Review of Slevv.irt'.-J Diseonrse on the Trngress of IMetriiiliysiriil 
 Seienee. 
 
 Ill the Moiithhl lirrinr : — 
 
 Vol 'J(t, Review of fiihhons Miscellaneous Writings. 
 u II " of Roseoe's Life of Lorenzo «lo ASediei. 
 
 u Of, '• (d"t!ie 'i'lioughts on a Regieide IVaee 
 
 Traiisaclioiis of Tin Lifirtirif Soriifi/ of Bombay : — 
 
 Vol.. I, A r)iseonr-;e licfore tlie Lilernrv Society of Rondmv 
 
 " " roiiil>ar;itive Voc-diniary of Indinn l,angu;iges 
 Several iirtirles in the .hiiitic Uriristrr. 
 Charactpr of Mr running, in Thr Krep^nUr, for l.'^'^^*. 
 
,,..i,i s,M:.:n.rs<>F..wJA^n>>'^*^'^'^'''*^'^" 
 
 r,;;;::™':;.';;:^.- >«. ""^""^- -■ 
 
 S,u.,.,l, loll... l.oNal N.Mlh r.nl.ms. _ 
 
 \, „l„„Mlu->.'^M'-"'"'^"^'l"'''"""""'''' '■'■ 
 „|,.,„,|,rTri;il..rtli-Clnrrn. 
 
 upon tl.."«>|.|'n.>>i"noftlif<;n...U^. 
 
 II rchlllM' to Sintcli Jlirif:'. 
 
 II ill ta\or 111' Krlnrin. 
 
 . „1H,„ tl,.. Hill n lining lo An.lon.i.nl Dissc.Uons 
 u onll... AtrMi,-.orror;ngal, 
 
 Vi.U. nl.o r;nli..n.nl:,ry D,!.-,.. (or lb.. vc.Mrs..S->0, i(,. .^0, .^1 
 
n N 1 N s 
 
 ciF I)Imm:i{i:n'I' wiirrr.us ii'o\ ■riii; valit. or tiik roM-uwiNc nis 
 
 nil Ksr, (IF SIR .IAMi;s .MACKINTOSH. 
 
 "If we were (lis|i.isf(l 1(, n iiiiiii'IkI tlic sliuly nf |iiiliiii' mmiI loivigii law, 
 
 I,, ..Hiiinon l:i\Wf|-s, \\r do iml Uimiw Imu we cniiM I'. ■Iter du it, iIkiii liy 
 p,,iiitiiij:(ml some illiiMiion-; ,\iiiii|ili'< of its su-.Tssful iiccom|ilislmirnt in 
 oi,r own agr. Sir Jaiiirs AlacUinlosii, of hit.' ycnr.< so disiiiifruishcd in I'ar- 
 lianicnt as a fri.nd to lilirrlN , to s( i. iico, and liixTal in:,tiluti(ms, and wlio is, 
 al 111.' sainr linic, ;: niosl liiinianc and idiilosopiiical jnrist, has, in liis inconi- 
 paialii.- Iiiti-oilintory Discourse to his LccImits on thr Law olWations, i;i\ en 
 us a tiiiisli.d siiccinirn of liie advantages residlin;,' iVoni the mastery «i' for- 
 eijri, pidilie writers. It would, iierlia|is, he dilli.ult to s.dcrt from the whole 
 
 niLs of modern literature, a dise se of e.pial length, whii h is so just and 
 
 heamiful, so acurati- and profound, so eaplivating ami .■nligiitened, so eii-^ 
 ri, hed w ith the reliiMuneuts of modern learning, and the simple grandeur of 
 .aueient principles. It siH.uld he read hy every student, for instrnction ami 
 purilv of sentiment : and l.y lawyrs of grav.T years, to refresh their souls 
 w nil impiiries whieii may elevate tliein al.ove the narrow inthunces of a dry 
 and hardening practice. " — Jiuli^c Stanj. 
 
 " .\ lecture, in the spirit of that discourse, would at all times he of great 
 utility, and of much ornament to the profession of tliu law."— Lon/ Luui;h- 
 
 Inira.iijh. 
 
 "If MacUinlo.h I. :d puidi.h.d nothing else than his ' discourse on the 
 Law of Natur.' aid Nations,' he would have left a perfect nionnmcnt of his 
 intellectual strength and svmnielry ; and even supposing that that essay had 
 heeii recovered, only :Minerfecl ami niutilaled, if hut a s.ore of its consecu- 
 tive sentences eouhl h.' shown, they would hear a leMimoiiy to his genius a.s 
 decided as the hust of Theseus hears to (Irecian art anumg the Elgin inar- 
 iih.s." — Cdiiipbcll. 
 
 " [ am disposed to consider this i'.»av as the mo-i peifei I of all his« vvril 
 
xl 
 
 NUTICLS or TllL WORK 
 
 S.V IiIh 1..V.. n..,-r uw., ui.l. - nnn, so M,h. .:ul cl..g.n,, ou .1.. ..I.. 
 J..;,, in MMV lungn.g,..-"V//""" /''^ "" •'""""•• 
 
 u u s. l,lo,n h;.^ 1-.. .Miu:>ll,.,l,:nul m^.T has l.r.M. surpa-s.,!/ -/>.. /•-'•. 
 
 ,,,i l..v,..wsan,U,.s..an..„..x.u..i,...iin.an„.a...j h--- 
 
iS 
 
 DlSCOUllSE. 
 
 1 
 
 I 
 
 Befoki: I bo^iii a course of lecture.^ on a science 
 of great vxUmt and importance, I think it niy duty to 
 lay before tlie public the reasons wliicli have induced 
 me to undertake sudi a labor, as well as a short ac- 
 count of the nature and objects of the course which I 
 pro})ose t:) deliver. I have always been unwilling to 
 waste, in uni)ro(itable inat'tivity, that leisure which the 
 first years of my profession usually allow, and which 
 dili^n-nt men, even with icoderate talents, might often 
 employ in a manner neither discreditable to themselves, 
 nor wiiolly useless to others. Being thus desirous that 
 my own leisure should not be consumed in sloth, I anx- 
 i(Risly looked about for some way of filling it up, which 
 might enable me, according to the measure of my 
 tumble abilities, to contribute somewhat to general 
 usefulness. I had long been convinced that public 
 lectures, which have becni us(>d in most ages and 
 countries to teach the elements of almost every i)art of 
 learning, were the most convenient mode in which 
 these elements could be taught ; that they were the 
 best adapted for the important purposes of awakening 
 
 F 
 
~^ 
 
 IvJ 
 
 Di!^cui'R!?E ON 'rm; .«-tluv uf 'Jiik 
 
 tho attention of tlio student, of iihridirinif his labor, of 
 linidinil lii?' in'inirics, (»!' rclievini^ the tcdiousiuss of 
 ()rivat(> slndv. iind of iin|)ressiiii> on liis recollection 
 the principles of sckimm'. I saw no reason why the 
 Law of i'Jioland slionid he less adapted to this mode 
 of instruction, or le>s likely to henetit hy it, than any 
 other part of knowiediie. A learned ifentlenian, liow- 
 e\(r. had already occupied that around,' and will, I 
 douht not, persevere in the iisefid labor which he lias 
 un( -liilceii. rpon his provinces it was far from my 
 wish i rude. It appeared to me that a r-oiirse of 
 
 lectures a another science closelv connected with all 
 liberal professi(»iial studies, and which had lon<; been 
 the subject of my own readiiiu,' and rcHection, mi<iht 
 not ouly pro\(! a most useful introduction to the law of 
 Fnirland. but miiiiit also become an int<,'restino- j)art of 
 aeiieral study, and an important branch ot" the educa- 
 tion of those |)ersons who were not destined for the 
 
 ])rofessiou of the law 
 
 u 
 
 as confirmed in my opinion 
 
 by the asseuT and ap(>roi>ation of men, wliose names, 
 if it wer(^ becominii t(» meiit' i them on so sliirht an 
 occasion, would ifise aulhoritv to truth, and alford 
 some excuse even for <rror. I', ncou railed bv that 
 approbation, I resolved, without delay, to bi'^dn the 
 course of leeiiires, of which I >liall now j>roceed to 
 s^tate the raitline. 
 
 The M ience which teaches the ri<»hts and duties of 
 n:en and of >tates, ha-, in modern times, been called 
 
 the Law of \ature and Nations. Liider this com 
 
 pro- 
 
 hensive title are included the rules of moraliiy, as they 
 
 • S,.. "A Sxlliil. 
 
 if T,ri iiiri' 
 
 till' Ti.-IW of l'i|f;l.inil, III III' (ll'IiviTfcl 
 
 ill liinriilii's-Iim Iliill, \t\ M. .Nulaii, Ksi|." Loiidoii, ITIMj. 
 
I- AW or NA'IMUr. AM) NATIONS 
 
 4:) 
 
 iTovcrn tlio coudiict, of |>riv;ito uuh\ townrds cjicli 
 otiicr ill Jill (he various rchitious of hiiiiiiiii life ; ns tlicy 
 roguliilc both tlio ohediciicc of titi/ciis to the laws, 
 jiiul tho authority of tii(3 luayistnitc in fnuuiuu laws 
 and aduiiuistcriujx jxovornnu'nt ; as tluv iiiodilV iIk^ 
 intercourse of ind(>|)en(lent conujionwcallhs, in peace, 
 and as they jinv^crihe limits to tlu'ir luHtilitv in war. 
 This important science comprehends only that |)art of 
 prinitf ethics which is ca|)ahle of heinu rednre<l to 
 lixed and ixeneral rules. It considers oidy thosi; oeneral 
 principles ()[\iiirisjnu(lni(r and politirs which the wis- 
 dom of the ' nviiivcr adapts to tlu; peculiar situation of 
 liis own coiintrv, and which tla^ skill of the statesman 
 applies to the more dnctuatinu and infinitely varyiiiif 
 circumstances which allect its immediate welfare and 
 safety. "For there are in nature certain fountains of 
 justice whence all civil laws are derivc^l, hut as streams ; 
 and like as waters do take tinctures and tastes from thi^ 
 soils throu^ih which they run, so do civil laws vary 
 accordinji to th<> re<j[ions and i>overnmenls where they 
 are planted, th<m<ih they procetMl from the same fonn- 
 tains." ' — liHroiis l)ii>\ and Adr. o/" Lutni. Works, 
 vol. i. |). 101. 
 
 On the irreat questions oi' morality, of politics, and 
 of municipal law, il is the ohject of this science to 
 deliver only those fundamental truths of which the par- 
 ticular application is as cxlensive as tlie whole private 
 and public conduct of nu>n ; to discover those •• foiin- 
 
 ' I llllVC not llcPlI ilitrili (I li\ -Willi' |irtl\ illiniiir|iiil\ iil' lllii,ilili(ir rriiiii 
 
 quittin)! tilis noble sciili'l .Mr. Iliiiiif liinj, iii'rli!i|i-^, llii-; si'iilcini' in Ins 
 
 |-c((illiction, wiinn he wmlc :i iiMi^lkiiliiii jiiosiif^u ul" hi- vmuI.s. Sec 
 lliimi's r.Dsiiij.i, Mil. ii. |). I'">','. London idil., I/SS, 
 
14 
 
 DiscorRSF. <>\ Tin: stldv of tiif: 
 
 tains (if justice,-' without pursuiuir tlio "streams" 
 throuifli llic endless variety of tlieir course. But 
 anotlier part of the suhi«^ct is treated with ijjreater ful- 
 ness and minuteness of a|)|)hcation ; namely, that 
 im|)ortant hranch of it which professes to re<rulatc the 
 relations and intercourse of states, and more especially, 
 on a<'count hoth of their iireater perfection and their 
 more innui'diate reference to use, the laws of that 
 intercourse as tliev are moditied i)y the usajres of 
 the ci\ ili/cd nations of Christendom. Here this 
 science no lon<ier rests in <i;eneral |)rinciples. That 
 province of it which we now call the law of nations, 
 has, in manv of its parts, ac(|uired amonj); our Euro- 
 pean nations, nnich of th«.' ))recision and certainty 
 of positive law; and the particulars of that law are 
 chielly to hv tound in the works of those writers who 
 have treated the sci<Mice of which I now sjieak. It is 
 hecause they have classed (iFi a maruier which seems 
 peculiar to modern times) the duties of individuals 
 with th-;se of nations, and estahlisluMl tlieir ohli^ation 
 upon similar irrounds, that the whole science has been 
 <-alled '• The Law of \atur(; and Nations." 
 
 WhetlKT this appellation he the happiest that could 
 hav(> Ixcn chosen for the science, and by what steps 
 it came to he adopted am<ui<r our modern moralists 
 and lawyers,' an; in(|uiri(>s, perhaps, of more curiosity 
 
 ' Till' li'Miiii li reader is iw.iri' tli;il ijn' '■ pis n.iliirip" niiii "jus fri'iiliimi" 
 (if llir IJmiii.iii law VII s ,iir |ilir;i-i s of vrrv ilill'm nt iiii|i'irl t'liiiii the nirxli'rn 
 plirMsis, " 1,1 w 111' I in III rr iiiiil l.iw nl" iiiiiiniis. — '• .III- iialiiivilc," s.i\ s ri|iiiill, 
 " csi i|iiiii| ii:iliir;i (Hiitiii riiiitiialiii (ioi-iiil. " ' 1). i i, i li " (AikmI natiiriiliH 
 
 nitiii mill' iiiniii's limi 
 
 cs cnii'lifiiil, 111 (|ii(' npiiil niiini's pcin'ijiic nisloditiir 
 
 (1) .Viiliiriil linv.'int I'lpinii, i« ihnt inw wliirh nntiiif imrh^t in nil thr nniniiil crrn 
 
LAW OF NATlRi: AINU NATIONS. 
 
 46 
 
 is" 
 iiit 
 ful- 
 hat 
 the 
 
 illy, 
 
 loir 
 that 
 of 
 this 
 That 
 ions, 
 '.iiro- 
 aiiity 
 \v aro 
 s who 
 It is 
 sccins 
 iduals 
 nation 
 s hcon 
 
 than use ; which, if thoy any where deserve much 
 attention, will he more properly considered in a full 
 examination of tiie suhject, than within the short 
 limits of an introductory discourse". Names are, iiow- 
 ever, in a great measure arhitrary ; but the distribu- 
 tion of knowled<rc into its parts, thouLdi it may often 
 perhaps he varii'd with little disadvantaire, yet depends 
 most certainly upon som(* fixed principles. 'V\w mod- 
 ern method of considcrin«; individual and national 
 morality as the subjects of the same science, seems to 
 me as convenient and reasonable an arrangement as 
 can be adoj)ted. 'The same rules of morality which 
 hold together men in families, and which form families 
 into comnu^nw ealths, also link together these common- 
 wealths as members of tlu; great society of mankind. 
 Commonwealths, as well as private men, arc liable to 
 injury, and capable of receiving benefit, frou! each 
 
 voc;itiirf|ii(' jus ficntiiim.' ' D i. i !V I5iil llit'v soinctimos iii'ffloct lliis siili- 
 tic (listiiK'tiiiii — ''Jure tiMluiali ijikhI ;i|)|)( INiIur jus iii'lltiiini. '^ \. '2. I. II 
 Jus I'ciidli Wiis llic Kwiii.iii ti nil liir "\\v liiw nl" iiiiliuii.-.. " r.clli (|iiiil('iii 
 ir(|iiitiis siiiiclissinic |)(i|iiili Rmii, I'iciiilr jure |)i'i~iripl;i ('<!. " ■' ( Ml', i. II. Our 
 li'iiriK'd cix iliiiii, Zniirli, li;is iicciirdiiifilv riilillcd liis work, " Dc Jure I'i'ciiili, 
 sivc (Ic Jiirc iiilir (iciili s. ' ' Tlir ('liiiiicclliir I)' A<;iU'ssfini, [iroliiilily witli- 
 iiiil kiKiwiiifr lilt' wiirk of ZimhIi, siifjircstril tliiil this kiw slimild lii< called 
 " Droit niirr Ifs (Inis," •> (Oliivrcs, toiii. ii. p. IV.57,) in wliicli lie lius Immmi f'ol- 
 liiwi'd liv ii liiti' must iiii!<'iiii>iis iiiid oriifiii.'il writer, Mr. Bt'iitJKiiii, I'liiif. of 
 !Mi)riils ,'ind I'ol \i. '.Vii. I'lrliMjis tlicsc liiirncd writers dd eiiiplny a |)lirase 
 wliiili expresses tlie siilijeet ii|" tliis law willi more aMiir.icv than our eoin- 
 liioii laiif.'iiap'e ; hilt I doiilit wiielher innovations in the terms ot' seieiico 
 alwavs rejiav ns liv their superior preei>ion lor the iiiieertaiiity and I'oii- 
 filsion whii'h the elianjie oceasioiis. 
 
 (1) \Vli!il''Vrr naliir.il rea-icm ciin-litiilr^ aiiiniu all Mien, nnil Hint wlm-li is ( (|iinlly uli 
 scrvcil li\- all, is Ciillrd llir l;nv el' mil lens. 
 
 (■J) Ity natural hiw. ii ini'ant llie law of iriiiiins. 
 
 (It) Inileeil the highest eiiiiily iif lirlicnrnt riclit« amnng the Unm.in", i« ))rp<!rrihr(1 by tile 
 fecial law. 
 
 (4; t'poii IhP Fecial, or intmmtinnal lau , 
 
 {."0 Inlernatiiinal I.nw. 
 
46 
 
 DisroT'Rsr, ON Tiir, .-tidy or Tin; 
 
 otlior ; it is, tlH'iTlon', tlu^ir interest .h well as their 
 duty to reverence, to practise, and to (Milorco tlios(; 
 rules of justice w liicli control and restrain injury, 
 Avliicli reiinlate and aULnneiit benefit, wiiicli, even in 
 their }>resent imperfect ol)s(>r\ance, preserve civili/ed 
 states in a tolerahle coiniilion of security from wronjx, 
 and which, if ihev could he u'eneraJly oheyed, would 
 estahlish. and permanently maintain, the well-heinir 
 of th(^ nniv(>rsal commonwealth of the human race. 
 With justice. tlier('l()re. Iiasone part of this science been 
 called "the nttHndl lair of itidiritli/d/s,"' and llie other 
 '■^ tlie iuit}i nil Id ir i)f stairs :"' and it is too obvious to 
 require observation.' that the ap|)lication of both 
 tiiese laws, of the former as much as th<^ latter, is 
 modified a?id ;aried hv customs, conventions, char- 
 acter, and situation. Hence the writ(>rs on (gen- 
 eral jurisprudence have considered states as moral 
 
 pcrs 
 
 on." 
 
 a mode of e.\pre»ion which has been 
 
 called a tiction of law, but which may l>e n'lranh'd 
 with more propriety as a bold metaphor, used 
 to convey the important truth, that nations, thouiih 
 they acknowh'due no common su|»erior, and neither 
 can nor ouirht to be >ii!»jectr(l to human punishment, 
 are yet under the same obli<:afions to practise hon- 
 esty and humanity, which would have bound individ- 
 uals, if they were not compelled to discbar^re their 
 duty by the just atithority ol' mauistrates, and if thev 
 could be conceived ev<-n to liav*' ever subsisted without 
 the protectinir restraints of «i()vernment. With the 
 same views this law has been styled, and (notwithstaiid- 
 
 ' This rrmark is sii(r!r<"sfr(l liy nn nhjn tion of loltil, wiiii'li \» rnnro 
 specious than sr.lid Scr hi-; Pnlim f; (\. 
 
 ^ 
 
LAW UF .N ATI 1:1: AND NATlONrf. 
 
 47 
 
 loir 
 
 oso 
 
 iiry, 
 
 It in 
 
 [i/o(l 
 
 loll 2, 
 
 (cini!: 
 Inico. 
 luH'n 
 otlu-r 
 us to 
 both 
 
 iiii^tlic ol)joctioiis of some writors to the vaijucncss of 
 the liintrujiiie) ii|)|)C!iis to have hccii styled u ith threat 
 (»r()|Miety, '-tin; law of nature.*' It may witli sntiicient 
 correctness, or at least h\ an easy metaphor, he called 
 a ''/(lie,"' inasmuch as it is a supreme, invariahle, and 
 iiiicoiitrollahle rule ot" couduct to all men, the viola- 
 tion of which is avenged hy natural |)unisluuents, neces- 
 sarily llowiiiLT Irom tlie very coustitution oi" thint»s, and 
 e(|uallv lived and invariable with the ordcu' of nature 
 
 itseir. It i^ '• l/tr I 
 
 (iir of iitilinr. 
 
 because its ireneral 
 
 precepts are (essentially adapted to j)roniote the happi- 
 ness of man, as lonif as he remains a beiuijof the same 
 uatun; with which he is at present endowed, or, in other 
 words, as lonu' as Ik; contiuues to he nuui, in all the 
 variety of tim(\'^. places, and circumstances, in which he 
 has been knowu. or can be imagined to exist; because 
 it is discoverable bv his natural reason, and suitable to 
 his natural constituliou : because its iitness and wisdom 
 are founded on the general nature of human beings, 
 and are alto<; 'ther independent of any of those tem- 
 porary and ac(Mdental situations in which they may he 
 placed. With still more propriety, and indeed with 
 the hiiihest strictness, and the most perfect accuracy, it 
 is called a law, when, according to those just and 
 magiiiticent views which |)hilosoj)hy and religion open 
 to us of the government of the world, it is received and 
 reverenced as tlu^ sacred code promulgated by the 
 irreat Leizislator of the Universe for the guidance of 
 his creatures to happiness; guarded and enforced, as 
 our own e.\|)erience may inform us, Ijy the penal sanc- 
 tions of shame, of remorse, of infamy, and of misery; 
 and still farther enforced by the reasonable expecta- 
 
 j/ 
 
48 
 
 DISCOL'KfSr, ON Till. STl 1)V Ol' Till: 
 
 tion of yet more Jiw I'lil jxMmltics in a tutiirr jukI inon; 
 ])(>nniUioiit state ol' ('.\ist«MU('. The cruitcmplatioii of 
 the hnv ot' nature. ii!i<ler this riill. mature, and perrect 
 idea of its hiiih oriiiin and transcendent (h<.!;nity, lias 
 eall(>(l forth the (Mithnsiasm ol" tlie urrf^atest men, and 
 tlic iireatest writers of ancient and inoch'rn times, in 
 those snhhine (h'scri|ttioiis. where they liave exliausted 
 all the powers of Iani:iia2<', and surpassed all the otiier 
 exertions, even of their own <feniiis, in th(^ display of 
 the heantv and niJijesty of this sovereign and immntahle 
 law. It is of this law that Cicero has spokf'ii in so 
 manv parts of his \\ritniLi<. not only with all th«> sj)len- 
 dor and copi<jusness of elocpu'iice. hnt with the seii- 
 sihilitv of a man of virtne. and wilh th«' gravity and 
 comprehension of a |)hilosopher.' It is of this law that 
 
 ' '• I'.st <|iiiclc'in \ c TM \v\, i-iclM r.iliii. iiiitiiiui rinii'inf iis, (lill'u<:i in oriiiics, 
 (•(installs, sciiijiilc-iia, (|iia' v((i( I ad (itiiiiiiiii |iilicii(|ip, vctaiidn a I'imikIc dctcr- 
 ri'at,(|ua' taiiicii n('(|Ui' prdlins Iriislra jiilnl aiil vi tal, ii('(|ii(' iiii|iri>liiis Jidiciido 
 aiit M'laiid" iiiiiM't. lliii( li i;i rn (jin' idii-d^rjn-i f-i> est, imijiii diinjjnii cX liac 
 ali(|iii(l licit, 11(1)111' tiita alim^raii |Mitrsl. N'lr \ i in ant \nr si'iialiiiii ant |mt 
 |ii>|iilliliil siih i liai' li<;(' |iii.ssiiiiiiis. .\('i|iir r-l i|ii:i niidiis ('\|ilaiiatiir ant ill- 
 ti ijiri s ijiis alms N'rc irit alia li x Kmiia', ali.i \lliiiis, alia liiilic, alia 
 |ins||i;ir, scd ct iiiiiiii's fri'liti"* ct iiiiiiii liiM|inii' una lr\ It srMi|iilrriia, d iiii- 
 iiintaliili!i I'diitincliit, iiiiusi|iii' crit ( (inininiiis ijiiasi ina;;isti'r it iMi|i('iat(ir din- 
 niiiiii Itiiis. nil' li'ijis liiijii- in\i iilnr, ili~ii'|)la|or, latnr, rui i{ui iion |i;iri'liil 
 ipxi .•>■' Jiiaid it nii/Kiiiiii /iiiiiimi.^ ii.<iii iiiiiint (I i\ ali|iii' lim- iji>ii lint ina.xinia^ 
 punas I'tiaiiisi ca't'Ta sn|i|)liiia ipiic |intaiitnr cirnircril. ' — t'niirni. iili. iii. 
 Cinr. ill li'ijiiilil. ii/iiiil l.iiitiiiil 
 
 It is iiii|iii-sil)lr to riad snrli prcriipiis frai:nirnt> uillnnit di'idiniii'; tlic 
 Kiss III a work, w liitli, Tor lln' lirni'lil ol' all ^'iiifiatinns, .v/k/m/i/ lia\f Ik'L'II 
 ininiiirtal. 
 
 (I) Trill' law is iiiili I il rijlit riasiin, Kiiisistrnt with natiin, sIiiiIiIiml' il-i iiitliiriicc ii|iiiii 
 
 ull, ciaisliiiit anil iMMiiiilalilr. II im ili's inrii tn ll \i nisr ul im r> iimral iliil\ , it iliterd 
 
 tlii'iii liy lis iiriiliiliitions tViiiii tln' i >iiiijiii~^iiim ut' lrau<l : iiritliir ilm^ ii i iiiiiiiiaiiil (ii |ir(iliiliit 
 tilt' \ iitiiiMis III vani, iiiir aniiisi ilir iiiiiiiiiral lis ll^ Mininlinii- In um it ails. It is iiii|iii>iis to 
 cliHiiur -III ll w |,i\v . Ill iilrrr I- II \.\\\ liil In iiliair II. liiir 1 an ll br w Inilly ahriivatiil. 'I'hr sin 
 all mil Mil |i. (iplr r,-iniiipt ili-rli irs."' ii> liiiiii ii> iii<lit;.'ilhins, ll iliii ~ nut niinirr nii cxiMiiiml 
 (r nr iiilir[iri'ti r. ll will nut In inir lliiii!.' at Ituiin , ami am.lliii at \tliriis ; iiiic law now, 
 anil a ilillirrnl unr licii'alli'r ; Imt it is llir •<aim i ii rnal ami inuulaliU' law , llial coiniitrlii'mls 
 
LAW Ul' NATLKi; AM) .NATIONS. 
 
 49 
 
 Hooker, in a stniiii of sucli .sul)limo oiitluisiasm, thus 
 spciiks : — " Of law, no less can ho siiid, tlian tliat her 
 scat is tlio hosoni of Ciod, her voice tlie liarinony of 
 th world; all thin^rs in heaveji and earth do her 
 hoinajre, the very least as teelinu her care, the (great- 
 est as not exempted from her power; both impels and 
 men, and creatures of what condition soever, though 
 each ill dillereiit sort and manner, yet all with uniform 
 consent, admirini; her as tin.' mother of their peace and 
 joy." — ilcrlcs. I'o/., hook i., in the conclusion. 
 
 Let not those, who, if 1 mav use the lanjruaijc of the 
 sam(^ Hooker, '-talk of truth," without "ever sound- 
 inj^ the depth I'rom whence it spriiiiioth," hastily take 
 it for jjjranted, that these u^reat mast(;rs of eloijuenco 
 and reason were led astray by the specious delusions 
 of mysticism, from the sober consideration of the true 
 grounds of morality in tin; nature, the necessities, and 
 the interests of man. They studied and taught indeed 
 the principles of morals ; but they thought it still more 
 necessary, and more wise, a much nobler task, and 
 more becoming a true philosopher, to inspire men with 
 a love and reverence for virtue.' They were not con- 
 
 ' "Age \ero urbibiis ronstitutis uf fidcm colere et justitiani rctinerc dis- 
 crrfnt I't aliis pnrrrr sua voluntate cousiicscerent, ac non niodo labores ex- 
 ripicndiis roinmuiiis cnmmotli raiisa sf>il ctiam vitam nniiltciulam cxistima- 
 rent ; qui tandem fieri potuit n'si iiomiiics ra qim^ ratione invcnissent fIo- 
 ipu'ulia pcrsuadoio potuissont." ' — Cic. dr Inr. Hlirt. lil). i. in proem. 
 
 even- iKitjon, lliru\ii;liniii all liiuo ; and is, as it Hcrr, a runinion mastrr and nili-r ; flic divinity 
 iifall. (it\i\ is till' iiivcnliir, llir hIvit, and the jiidL'r ofllii^ Ian ; and hIuicvii will " ' ' ry 
 M-; prci'i'iils. III liirn tire, and avind thr ((iiniianinnsliiij ul' liis race ; and lhn.-> he v. •','. imfpr 
 till' si'vcicsl lu'iialtii's, alllinn<.'li csi-aiic (illnr {iiMiishiii>'iil~ llial auait liinj. — Eilit. 
 
 (I) till on tlicn anil liinnd I'ilii's, tliai till' (iti/.i IIS may li'arii liuw uimd t'ailli is In lip rlit'r- 
 i^ln-d, jiisiiir niainlainrd , and lliiil liny may ai cnstnni Iliinistlvi's willinuly In (iliry others ; 
 and not I'lily sliiinid tiny rtincniliir lliat linrtlirns must lie assumed, lint if iit-icssaiy, sanitirp 
 llnir lives fiir the iiiibin' wral. This will nnlv he dunr, unless nif n ran be persuaded to un 
 il. rtake those duties v\liirh it is the piruiiar pimniie iil"i'l'it|iii'ii''c to ininkatp. 
 
 ,-J^' 
 
5U 
 
 i)i!^iuLi<s:i: O.N Till: !<TiDV or Tin; 
 
 tented with eleineiitiiry .<|H'(til;iti(>iis. Tliey exaiuiiK'd 
 the loimdaliuiis oldiir duty, hut they felt iiiid cherishfMl 
 a most ii;itiii;il. ;i must seemly, a most rational entlm- 
 siasm. when tliev contemplat^'d the majestic, editico 
 which is reared upon th«'se solid lonndatiiMis. Tliey 
 devoted the highest e\<Mtions of their mind to spread 
 that JHMiefuent eMthiisiasm amoiiji men. I'hcy con- 
 secrated, as a lioma«ie to virtue, the most |)errect fruits 
 of their jifmus. If tlu'se Lrraiid sentiments of "the 
 •jfood and fair." have sonietinu's prevented them from 
 dchvorini!: the priiieiplrs of ethics with the naki'dness 
 and drvne^s of science, jil least, we nmst own tliat 
 thev have chosin the better part; that they have pre- 
 ferred the: jiractical henefits of virtuous feelin<r, to the 
 speculative curiosities of moral the(>rv. I*erhaps those 
 wis<( men mnv have sup|)osed tli;it the nuimte dissec- 
 tion and anatomy of virtue, nuLdit, to the ill-jud f 
 eye, weaken tla; cliarm of her heauty. 
 
 It is not tor me to attempt a them(> which has per- 
 haps heen exhausted hy tiiese ifreat writers. I am 
 indeed nuich less called upon to display the wortii and 
 usetidness of tlie law of nations, than to vindicate my- 
 self from pnsumption in atlemj)tinir a subject wiiicli 
 has i»een already handled bv so many masters. For 
 tln' purpos(> of that vindication it will l)(> necessary to 
 sketch a \ery short and sliiiht a«-count (for such in 
 tins j)lace it nuist unavoidabb be) of the pro^ross and 
 present state of \\u: seieiice. and of that succession of 
 able writ<'rs who have gradually brouiiiit it to its pre- 
 sent p<'rfection. 
 
 We have iiodnck or iloman treatise remaininiron 
 tile law of nations. I rom the titl(> of one of the lo'Jt 
 
I, AW OF N ATlKi: ANr> NATIONS 
 
 Al 
 
 works of Aristotle, it }ij)|K>}jrs tliat ho coiupo.sod ,i troa- 
 tisr on the laws of war,' wliitli, if w<' had the ^food 
 lorfiino to j)oss(\ss it, would doiibilcss have; am|)ly 
 .sitisliod our curiosity, and would have tautjlit ns hotli 
 tho practico of tho auciout nations and the opinions 
 of tlu'ir moralists, with that |)rocision which distin- 
 truishcs th(^ other works of that jxrcat philosopiicr. \Vc 
 ran now oidy collect that j)ractice and those o|)inions, 
 ini|)erlectly, Ironi various j)assa<j;<'s which are scattered 
 over tlu^ writinp^ of philoso|)hers, historians, poets, 
 and orators. When I am led hy the course of these 
 lectures to examine more fully the <^overnment and 
 manners of the ancient world, I shall he able, perhaps, 
 to oiler satisfactory reasons why that ])art of moralitv, 
 which regulates the intercourse of states, did not 
 form a separate and independent science amon^ these 
 enli»fhtened nations. It would re(|uire a lonir dis- 
 cussion to unlold th(^ various causes which united 
 the modern nations of Kurope into a closer society ; 
 which linked them touether hy the firmest hands 
 of mutual de))en(lence, and which thus, in process 
 of time, <j;ave to tho law that reuulatod their in- 
 tercourse ijroater importance, hiiiher improvement, 
 and more hindinj; force. Amon<r these causes we 
 may enumerate a conmion extraction, a common 
 religion, similar manners, institutions, and lantrua- 
 ijes ; in (>arlier a<;os, tho i.uthority of the See of 
 Rome, and the extravaijant claims of the imjicrial 
 crown ; in later times, the connections of trade, the 
 jealousy of power, the refinement of civilization, the 
 
 (]) Th« Inwi nt Hill, 
 
5a 
 
 Kisrorusr, (tx Tin; .<Tin>v or Tin: 
 
 cultivation of scionco, and, above all, that <jonoral 
 niildiioss of charnctor and manncMs which arose iVoni 
 tlio coinhint'd and proiiTossivo iiiHiionco of chivalry, of 
 coinuiorcc, of learniiiir. and of rcliiiion. Nor must 
 \vc omit tlu> siniiliiiity of those political institutioni?, 
 which, in every countrv that had been over-run hy tho 
 (rothic con(|U(M'ors, hore discernihle marks of the rudo 
 but bold and noble outline of liberty, originally sketc'"^d 
 by the hand of these iicnerous barbarians. Thesi", and 
 many oth(>r cnnses. conspired to unitc^ thv nations of 
 EurojK! in a more intimate; connection and a more 
 constant intercourse, and consequently made tlu; rv^- 
 nlation of their intercourse more nec<'ssary, and the 
 law that was to irovern it mor(> important. In pro- 
 portion as they approachiMl to the condition of provin- 
 ces of thr" same empire, it became almost as essential 
 that Km'ope should have a precise and comprehensive 
 code of the law of nations, as that each separate 
 country should have a sys[<Mn of municipal law. The 
 labors of the learned accordiiiLdy beiraii to be directed 
 to this subject in the sixteenth ccMiturv, soon after the 
 revival o\' learnin<r, and after that reonlar distribution 
 of power and territory which has subsisted, with little 
 variation, until om- times. The critical e.vamination 
 of these early writers would, jM'riiaps, not be very 
 interestiiiir in an extensive work, aiul it would be 
 tmpardonable in a sluu't di<coiii>e. I shall onlv here 
 observe that they were all more or less ^hackled by the 
 barbarous j)hilosophy ot' the -cliools. and that they 
 were impeded in their proirress bv a timorous (h^f- 
 erence for the inferior and technical |»arts of ilie 
 Hoinan law. without raisintf their views to the compre- 
 
 (.; 
 
 4 
 
 m 
 
LAW OF NATI'Ki: AND NATION.S. 
 
 53 
 
 honsivc priiici|)los wliicli will lor vw inspire n-ankind 
 with venercUioii lor that ^vnuul hk luinent of himiaii 
 wisdom, it was only, indc-cd, in the si.vteenth centnry, 
 that the Konian law was lirst studied and understood 
 as a science connected with Jlonian history and hter- 
 ature, and illustrated hy men whom I'Ipian and Fa- 
 l)inian would not have di^^dained to acknowledge as 
 their successors.' Aniono- tlu^ writers of that n<so we 
 may perceive the iiiotlrctua! attempts, the partial ad- 
 vances, the occasional streaks of lijiht wiiich alwa\s 
 pre'c<>de oT(>at discoveries, and works that are to in- 
 struct posterity. 
 
 The rediK-tion of the law of nations, to a system, 
 was reserved for (irotius; who, hy the advice of Lord 
 Bacon- and Peiresc, undertook this arduous task. He 
 produced a work which we now indeed justly deem 
 miperfect: hut which is, perhaps, the most complete 
 that the world lias y(>t owed, at so rarlv Ji stai^e in the 
 pro<Tress of any scienc(>, to the genius and learnino- of 
 
 ' f'ujn.'iiis, liiiss.MMii'., |[oiloiii:iliiii!.s iVc iVr — Vid, (inir'nKt On'u. -Iiir 
 Ciril. |). i:Vi-l:V-'. rtiit.l.iiiv |T:lV 
 
 Lciliiiitz, ;i pri'Ml iiiiiilicniiilici.iii as well ,-i^ pliilnsinili, r, <lic|;ir('s \hn\ In- 
 kiKiNvs ii.illiili;^ wliicli .■i|i|in.iulii- -M ihiir luilir iim||ii>,I ;iiii1 i)rril<i<iii of 
 a:i'"lili'try MS flic Hiiiii;iri l,i\v, — Op. I'Hjl. i\. |i. 'ir>). 
 
 ■•' I ilMVC her.' liiM'ii iriislril liv ;in "\|iri'ssiiiu ..f ;i nindcvil Ji;ii)."f.ry I'isl u\' 
 Ornliiis. Ill' tells IIS Ih.il ijir li.ii.K '• I), Jnii IIJ/i' ■ was iiiKJcrlakm 
 '' /lorliiiili Haiom: \ i.ki i wwn." ■ \i,!. Ckvs /,/,,/ pirfirii .hir'scon.iiiili in 
 Uii'jDnr d'tiiin.'' Tli"iii;ii awaiT ol' iji,' aiiilii;.i;iK(v of l!)i i \|iris>ioii, I 
 
 tliniiplit tliat il ri'lrrrri! i ■.■ iritiiraM^ m piMMnial cvjiortalioii I imw timl, 
 
 iiii'.vi'MT, (liat it alliiilis i)iil\ 1(1 tjic |,laii skilrlii'il ■ui in Lord Ijaion'.-i 
 >vritiiiy;s, in uliiiii siii-r Sii l-aar .\i wlmi minlit i', -aid In liavr i()ni[Hisi'il 
 his I'riiii ipia ^^ Imrtiiiih lliiiniii I'l i uLiiinn.' Tli. aiillinilii' liisfii|-\ id'tlii' 
 wiirk 111' (ii-i)tiii.s in) III |ii> liiiii:.! HI liis ii\\ M iiKisI iiiti'ii sliiiii Ldiiis, and in 
 • iassiMidi's MTV aldr inid cm-idiis lili nt' I'riri'sc. — {.\Vi'( /.) thr tliiril nlil .) 
 
 M! On III! laH i\f war. 
 
 (•J) At il Kiiimcsliiin iiiiidc in l.ciril llanin. 
 
 fit) Sec IIil'io (Jrollii^ iiima llii nirMl>'in iilra oi a |ii'il'.'(t .Iiiris rnniiili. 
 
 
 li 
 
54 
 
 ni.*!r()rRsi: on tiii: stidv of tiii: 
 
 one man. So ufront is tiio uncertainty of posthumous 
 reputation, and so liaMe is the fame, even of the jjreat- 
 cst men, to he ohscured hy tliose new tasliions of tliink- 
 ini; and writin*; whicli succeed eacli other so rapidly 
 an«on!T polished nations, that Cirotius, who tilled so 
 larire a s|)ace in the eye of liis contemporaries, is now, 
 perhaps, known to sonu' of my nviders only hy name. 
 Vet, if we fairh estimate hoth his endowments and his 
 virtues, we mav justly consider him as one of the 
 most memorahl(^ men who have done lionor to ujod- 
 ern tinu^s. He combined t\\o discharire of the most 
 important duties of active and j>id)lic life with the 
 attainment of that exact and various learning which is 
 iicnerallv the portion onlv of the recluse student. Il(^ 
 was distinixuished a-! an advocatr and a magistrate, 
 and he composed the most valuahle works on the law 
 of his own conntrv : he was almost (mjuuIIv celebrated 
 as a historian, a scholar, a poet, and a divine ; a disin- 
 terested statesman, a philosr;p|iifal lawyer, ji patriot 
 who unitod moderation w:<h lirnmess, and a theolo- 
 gian who was tauiiht candor by his learniuij;. With 
 singular merit and sinifular felicitv he preserved a life 
 so blameh^ss, that, in limes of the niust furious civil 
 and reli<rious faction, the saifacifv of lierce and acute 
 adv»'rsaries was vainly exerted to discover a stain on 
 his charact( r. Jt was his late 1<> be exposed to the 
 severest tests of human virtue; but such was the 
 happy tem|)(TatMr( of his mind, that he was too firm to 
 be subdued by adversity, and too mild and honest to 
 be provoked to violence by injustic<\ Amidst all the 
 bard trials and |zallin<; vexations of a turbulent jxiliti- 
 cal life, he never once deserted bis friends when tbev 
 
LAW Ol" NATLUE AiNU NATlOAS. 
 
 Oii 
 
 »l<)- 
 
 ith 
 ifc 
 ivil 
 iito 
 on 
 tho 
 tl»o 
 1 to 
 t 1o 
 tlio 
 liti- 
 
 were uiitortunato, nor insulted his enemies when they 
 were weak. Unmerited exile did not damp his patri- 
 otism ; tile hitterness ot" controversy did not (extinguish 
 his charity. He was just, even to his persecutors, and 
 faithl'ui to liis ungrateful country. 
 
 Such was the man who was destined to give a new 
 form to the law of nations, or rather create a science, 
 ot" wliich only rude sketclies and indigested materials 
 were scattered over the writings of those who had 
 gon(' heforc him. iJy tracing tiie laws of his country 
 to their principles, he was led to tiie contemplation of 
 the law of nature, which he justly considered as the 
 parent of all nuinicipal law.' Few works were more 
 celel)rat(;d than that of Cirotius in his own days, and 
 in the age which succeeded. It has, however, heen 
 the fashion of the last half-century to depreciate his 
 work as a slia|)ele>s com|)ilation, in which reason lies 
 huried inuhM' a mass of authorities and (|uotations. 
 This fashion originated among French wits and de- 
 claimers, and it has heen. I know not for what reason, 
 adopted, tliough with far greater n> xleration and de- 
 cency, hy some respectahle writers amoiiii; our>elves. 
 As to tlios(! who first used this language, we are hound 
 in candor to suppose that they never read the work : 
 lor, if they had not heen deterred from the perusal of 
 It hv such a formidahle display of (ireek characters, 
 tli( y must soon have discoNcred that (Irotius never 
 (|iiotes on any suhject till he lias first appealed to 
 some princi|)les, and often, tlioiinh in»f alwa\s, to 
 principles the soundest and most rational. 
 
 ' I' 
 
 rii'ixTi MP j'w (M \'' 
 
 |1^ > 
 
 /), f.,,. I' 
 
 tu. 
 
56 
 
 DiscoLRsi: OiN Tin; sTi:j>Y OF Tin: 
 
 But another sort of answor is due to some of those' 
 who have criticised Cirotius, :iu(l that answer might 
 be iiiven in tlie words of" Cirotius himselt'.- lie was 
 not of such a stupid and servile cast of mind, as to 
 <|Uote the 0|)iuioMs of poets or orators, of liistorians 
 and pliilosoplu'is, as if tliev were judiies, from whose 
 ilecision there was no aj)peal. He (juotes them, as he 
 tells us himself, iis witnesses wiiose cons{)iring testi- 
 monv, nuyhtilv strenifthened and coidirmed by tlieir 
 disconhuice on almost every other sid)iect, is a con- 
 clusive proof of the unanimity of tlu- whole human 
 race on the great rules of dutv and the fundamental 
 principles of morals. On such matters, poets and 
 orators are the most unexcepliouahle of all witnesses; 
 for they address themselves to the general feelings 
 and sym|)athies of mankind : they are biassed by no 
 system either of philosoj>liy or sophistry ; they c[in 
 attain none of their objects ; thev can neither convince, 
 nor persuade, nor move, nor delight, if they utter 
 moral sentiments not in unison with those of their 
 resulers or hearers. Surely no system of moral phil- 
 osophy can disregard the general feelings of human 
 nature and the according indgment of all ages and 
 nations. IJut wherr ar(> these feelings and that judg- 
 ment recorded and preserved: in those very writings 
 which (irotnis is gravfly blamed for having (juoted. 
 The usages and laws ol nations, the events of history, 
 the o|)inions of pliiloso|)hers, the sentiments of orators 
 Jind poets, as well as the observation of common life. 
 
 ' l)r l\il( V, I'lMi.' cI'Miir ,111.1 I'niii. I'liil.>s. I'lrt'. i> XIV. ami .x\ 
 ' (init. Jiir li, II, (I i'ar. rml.y ;; (() 
 
 tl 
 
LAW UI' NATURJ:: AND NATIONS. 
 
 67 
 
 are, in truth, tlic niatoriiils out ofwliicli tlio scionco of 
 uiorality is formed ; and tlioso wIjo iH'<r|(>ct tlicni arc 
 justly chariroable witli a vain jittoni|)t to pliilosophizc 
 witliout regard to fact and experience.', the sole foun- 
 dation of all true philosophy. 
 
 If this were merely nn objection of taste, I should 
 l)e uillinu to allow that (Irotius has indeed poured 
 forth his learninir vvith a |)rofusion which sometimes 
 rather encund)ers than adorns his work, and which is 
 not always necessary to the illustration of his subject. 
 Yet, even in makino- that concession, I sluudd rather 
 yield to the taste of others than s|)eak from my own 
 feeliuirs. I own that such richiu'ss and splcMidor of 
 literature have a powerful charm lor n\v. They fill my 
 mind with an endless variety of di>liiilitlid recollections 
 and associations. They relieve the iinderstaudin^r in 
 its proixress throudi a vast science, bv caljinii- up the 
 memory of oreat men and of interestinu events, liy 
 this means we s<'e the truths of moralitv «'lothed with 
 all the elocjuence (not that could h(> produced by the 
 powers of one man, but) that coidd be bestowed on 
 them by the collective i,feni\is of th(> world. Rven 
 virtue and wisdom themselves ac(|uire new majesty in 
 my eyes, when I thus see all the oreat nuisters of 
 thinking and writing- called toiiether, as it were, from 
 all times and countries, to do them homage and to 
 appear in their train. 
 
 IJiit this is no place for discussions of taste, and \ 
 am very ready to own that mine may be connpled. 
 rh(> work of (irotius is liable to a more sc-rious objec- 
 tion, though I do not recollect that it has ever been 
 
 M 
 
6l!!l 
 
 OlSCOCKSi; ON TIIL STUDY OF Till: 
 
 iuiul<;.' His luctliod is iiiroiiveiiicMit and iinsciontific. 
 Il(» liJis inverted llie natninl order. Tluit natnral 
 order nndonl>t(>dly dictates, tliat wo slionid lirst searcli 
 (or tlie original |>rin(i|)les of the scieneo in hnnian 
 natnre; then a|)|»l\ them tt> the r(>«inlation oftlie con- 
 (hul (>r in(hvi(huds, and lastly, employ them lor tlio 
 decision of those diliicnlt and complicated qnestions 
 that arise with respect to the intercourse of nations. 
 IJnt (irotins has chosen \\\o reverse of tliis metliod. 
 \\v heiiins with the consideration ol" tlu; states of 
 peace and war, and he examines original princi|)les 
 only occasionally and incidentally as they <frow out ot" 
 tin' (piestions which he is calk'd upon to decide. It is 
 a iiecessar\ conse(|nence ol" this disorderly method, 
 which exiiihits the elements ol" the science in the form 
 ol" scattered diirressions, that he seldom employs sulii- 
 cient discussion <»n these rmidamental truths, and 
 never in the place where such a discussion wcjuld be 
 most uistructive to the reader. 
 
 This ilelet't in the |>lan ol" (irotiuswas j)ercei\ed, 
 and snppliejl h\ Pnli'endorll", who restored natural law 
 to that sii|>eriorit\ which l>elonu<'d to it, and with 
 ^reat propriety treiited the law ol" nations as oidy one 
 mam hraiieh ol'llie jtarent stock. Without the jfenius 
 ol' his master, and with very inferior learninu, he lias 
 yet treated this suhj<ct with sound sense, with clear 
 method, with extensive and accurate knowhidjie, and 
 with a copiousness of detail sometimes inrl 'ed tedious, 
 
 Th 
 
 li|ii hull ll^illll-l iIm' llirll|( 
 
 if ( ilullll- i- -liltl'd 
 
 ll> li .llllrcl \Mi|l, Mil " Till lll~li 
 >r ( ilnlin 
 
 l'\ nl till 
 
 1. 
 
 ll' .\llli 
 
 .Mr. W A HI), ill 
 lie liirc ihi tunc 
 
 IS." ll|iili;;li .11 till' liiiii III' wiitiiifi lliii I •iscmiii^u I Jlilcl lurgiilttll 
 tll.'ll |iil.s>i\j;i .il' jii.s \\i,\U. — (Sill, 1,1 III, ihinl iilihoii.) 
 
\..\W OV N ATI RF. AND NATION'S. 
 
 59 
 
 but silvvnys instructivo iind .satisfactory.' His work 
 will always be stiuliod by tlios(> wbo spare no labor to 
 acquire a deep knowledoe of the subject ; but it will, 
 now, I fear, be oftener found on the shelf than on the 
 desk of the jreiieral student. In the time of Mr. 
 [iocke it was considered as the manual of those who 
 were intended for active life ; but in the present age 
 1 believe that men of business are too much occupied, 
 men of letters are too fastidious, and men of the world 
 too indolent, for the study or even the perusal of such 
 works. Far be it from me to (lero<rjite from the real 
 find jxi'oat merit of so useful a writer as Putfendortf. 
 J lis treatise is a mine in which all his successors must 
 dij?. 1 only pn^sunn^ to suirijest, that a book so j)ro1ix, 
 and so utterly void of all the attractif)ns of composi- 
 tion, is likely to rep(>l niiiny readers wbo are interested, 
 and who miuht Ix; disposcnl to acquire some knowledf^e 
 of the principles of public law. 
 
 Many oIIkm' circumstances mijibt be mentioned, 
 which conspire to prove that neither of the «^|-eat works 
 of which I have sjmkcn. has superseded the necessity 
 of a new att(Mnj)t to lay before the public a system 
 of the Law of Nations. The liminiaij!;e of science is 
 so completely chanired since both these works were 
 written, that any writer who should now enq)loy their 
 terms in his moral reasouinos, would be almost unin- 
 1eHioil)|o to some of his liearers or readers; and to 
 some amon^ th(Mn too who are neither ill (jualitied nor 
 
 ' I Mtii nut iiidiii'i'd to rrliNict this iuiriiMiii(l:itiuii l>\ the jiiiMt aiilliority 
 (\(ii 111" l.v.iiiM 1/. Iiiinsclf, wild, ill niii 111' liis iiK oiii|)!iriilili' IcrtiTS, culls 
 I'litlciulnrlV " Vir pnrinn jiirifiorsiiltiis rl minimi' /ihilnsn/ilnis. ' ' 
 
 Ml \ li;i{| l;i\v\ rr mill :i « di-ic' |iliiln-ii|i|iri, 
 
(iO 
 
 i)i.-«i»i i!si: ON Tin; sti l»^ (ir riir. 
 
 ill disported to .''tudy fiicIi siiltjcH'ts w ilh c-oiisidonihlo 
 iidviMitJi«i<' to tlu'iiisolvcs. Tli(> Iciirnrd, indeed, well 
 know how little no\elt\ or variety is to he louiul in 
 scientille (lis|Mites. The same tiiiths and tlu> sanu; 
 errors have Ix^en repeated from a^'e to n<i<>, with little 
 variation hut in the laiitiujiac ; and novelty ol" e.\|)res- 
 sion is often mistaken hy the ignorant lor sid)stantial 
 discovery. l'erha])s. too, \vr\ nearly the same |)ortion 
 of genius and |ii(luinent has Ixen exerted in most ol' 
 the various forms under which seieiiee has heeii enlti- 
 vated at dill'erent j)eri(jds of histor\ . It is not improh- 
 ahle that nmch of the superiority of those writers who 
 contiime to he read, often consists in taste, in pru- 
 dence, in a hap|»y choice of suhject, in a favorajjio 
 moment, in an agreeahle st\i<', in the li'ood fortune of 
 a prevalent lannuaac, or in other advantages which 
 are either accidental, or the result nither of the sec- 
 ondary than of the hiiihest laculties of the mind. IJut 
 thes(^ rellectiou.^ . while ijiey moderate the pride of in- 
 vention, and disjxl the extraNauant conceit of superior 
 illummation, \et M'r\»' to prove the us(>, and indeed 
 the necessity, of com|)osinu-, trom time to tinu', new 
 systems of scieuc*; adapt<'d to the opinions aiid lan- 
 guaiic of each >uc< i'e(linL»' period. Ilvcrv a<i(; must 
 he taught in its own laniiuaue. If a man were now 
 to hegin a discourse on ethics with an account (sf the 
 ''■ tnural entities" of PiitiindorJi",' Ik^ would s|H>ak an 
 uidvuown toniiuf^. 
 
 o 
 ni 
 
 it 
 
 ' I ill) lint iiu'.'in In ini]irM( ll llir si illlnllii'SS iil' Mil \ |iMrl iil' l'ilt!rlli|nrll"s rcil- 
 snniiii;, roiiiiili'd (III imiiul riititiis. it ni;iv lir i'\|iLiiiii il iii .1 iii<iiiiirr 1 uiisist- 
 oit will till' most jiist |)liilrisii|)|iy llr> iisiil, ,is 1 \ I r\ \v ntir iiiiisl dn, tin' 
 scifiititii' hnaiKijjt' lit' hi- "W 11 ll I miK .-i-s..]!, ih.ii t,> ihci.-r ulio .•irr 
 
 nil 
 <iiii 
 
LAW or NATLKC AND NATIONS, 
 
 Ul 
 
 It is not, howovor, iilone us ;i more trfinslntioii of 
 former writers into modern lunoiijiir<', that a new 
 system of public law seems likely to be useful. Tbc 
 a<;e in which wc live, possesses many advantaires, 
 which are peculiarly favorable to such ati undertakinir. 
 Since the composition of the great works of Cirotius 
 and Purt'endorlf, a more modest, sim])le, and intelli^ri- 
 blc j)hilosophy has been introduced into the schools ; 
 which has, indeed, been grossly abused by sophists, 
 but which, from the time of Locke, has been cultiva- 
 ted and improved by a succession of disciples worthy 
 of their illustrious master. >Ve are thus enabled to 
 discuss with precision, and to e.\j)lain with clearness, 
 the })rinciples of th(^ science of human nature, which 
 arc in themselves on a level with the caj)acity of every 
 man of frood sense, and which oidy appeared to be 
 abstruse from the un])rofitable subtleties with which 
 they were loadcnl, and the l>arl)iirous jiu^ijon in which 
 they were expressed. 'I'lie deepest doctrines of mo- 
 rality, have, since that time, been treated in the per- 
 spicuous style, and (>ven with some detrree of tie 
 beauty and ('loquence, of the ancient moralists. That 
 |)hilosophy, on which are founded the principles of 
 our duty, if it has not become more certain (for 
 morality admits no discoveries), is cenainiy less 
 *' harsh and crabbed," less obscure and hau«,dity in 
 its lanijruage, less forbidding and disgusting in its 
 apj)earance, than in the days of our anc(>stors. If 
 learning, in this j)rogress towards j)opularity, has en- 
 
 iiii.ii'(|M;iiiiti>(l with iinciciit systems, lii> iiliilcisiipliii ;il viii'aliiil.iry is (ilisolclt 
 •iiiil nniiiti'lli<;ilili<. 
 
Cfi 
 
 DISCOI'RSE <>\ TIFi: STIDV OF TIIK 
 
 jiondorrd (as we iniHt own tliat it has) a iniiltitudo of 
 su|)orli(;ial and ni(»st niiscliicvoiis sciolists, tlio antidot(3 
 ninst conio Ironi ilic same (|iiart('r with the <hscaso. 
 P()|)nlar reason can alone correct popular sophistry. 
 
 JN'or is this the onl\ ad\antaL!<' which a writer of 
 the |)resent aufe would possess over the celehrated 
 jin-ists of the last century. Since that time, vast addi- 
 tions have heen nnuh- to the stock of our knowled<fo 
 of human natur<\ Many dark periods of history liave 
 since heen explored. Many reunions of the i![loh(% 
 iiitherto unknown. Iia\e heen visited and descrihed 
 hv travellers and navigators, not less intelliiicnt than 
 intrepid. We niav he said to stand at the cojdluence 
 of the iiTeat<'st innnher of streams of knowledj^e, How- 
 iiiijf from the most distant sources, that ever mot at 
 one point. We are not confined, as the learned of 
 the last aL^e (renerallv were, to the liistory ot tlioso 
 renowned nations who are our masters in literatiir(>. 
 We can hrinii hefore us man in !i lower and more 
 ahject condition than aii\ in whicli he was ever seen 
 hefore. I'he records, hav<'. in part, heen opeiUMl to 
 us of tlios<[' nniihtv empires of Asia,' where the hei»in- 
 
 ' I I ;i II II III |in'\ uil 111! iin -1 ir In |i,i~< dvir this siilijcrt \s it In ml piu in;; iiiv 
 liiiiiil)li Iriliiili li. llic iiiciiiMr\ (■!' >ir \\ . .Imii's, wliu li;i,. lalinrcil •<) micit-:,- 
 t'lilh ill (tiiiiiiil lilrr.iliiri , \\ liosr llnr ^iiiiiis, pure Iii^Ic, iiiiwciricd iinliis- 
 Irv, iiiirix iillril ,111(1 riliiin^i proiliiiiipiis \.Mirl\ cif ,M(|iiirriiiriils, iiiiisl iiispiri' 
 :ill \\ lin |iM I' ur iiillualr litters, \silli iiiliiiiiMlniri anil reverence. Tin' 
 lileaslire W Itll wliicli \M iiinleiii|i|;,te >uell e\traiinllliar\ i|lialitie-i, is elieeUeil 
 lis the rieiilleciiDii dl" tin rei eiil iiinl ]ireniatiire death nftliat ^'reat man, 
 who wa-i iiiil iimre i|istiiii;iii-hiil In lii< liiniiis ami liarnirm than l)\ his ami- 
 able ilispusitinns ami -|ii.|lc^- piirit\ .>l' lil'r. 
 
 [ Impe I shall lie panlnlieil il' I a-lil m\ a|i|ilaii'^e In the peiiiiis and learn- 
 ing' nf Mr. .Maiiriee, \\ hn treaiK in t he -ie|)s rit" his illiislriiiiis iVierid ; ami 
 wliii has hrwailed his death in i strain of jjonninr and hranlif'nl pnetrv. mit 
 iiiiwnrlliN lit' hajipier |irrinds nt' our I'.ii^li^h liter.itiiro. 
 
 Ill 
 
 I 
 
LAW Ol iNATLRL A.ND NATlO\.S. 
 
 (>:) 
 
 iiiiijrs of civilizjition arc lost in the darkness of an 
 uiifathoniablo anti(|uitv. Wo can make linnian society 
 pass in review before our mind, from tlie brutal and 
 helpless barbarism of Terra del Fucoo, and the mild' 
 and voluptuous savages of Otaheiti; ; to the tame, but 
 ancient and immovable civilization of China, which 
 bestows its own arts on every successive race of con- 
 (juerors ; to the meek and servile natives of Uindos- 
 tan, who |)reserve their in^emiity, their skill and their 
 science, throu»fh a lojiir series of a<.res, und(>r the voke 
 of fore i Jill tyrants; to the jj;ross and incorri<iible rude- 
 ness of the Ottomans, inca})abl(; of improvement, and 
 e\tintiuishin<r th(.' remains of civilization amon^ their 
 unhappy subjects, once th(> most in<«;enious nations of 
 the earth. We can examine almost every imaginable 
 variety in the character, manners, o|)inious, feelinirs, 
 prejudices, and institutions of mankind, h\U) which 
 they can l)e thrown, either by the rudeness of barba- 
 rism, or by the capricious corruptions of relineineiit, 
 or by those innumerable condjinations of circum- 
 stances, which, both in these opposite conditions and 
 in all the intermediate staucs between them, influence 
 or direct the course of human alVairs. History, if 1 
 may be allowed the exjjression, is now a vast museum, 
 
 ' TIlc OlilliritrMlls w ill |ii'iili,ilil\ llnl III' lliiill^fllf to ilr^rfM' citliir tn lie 
 |ir:iiMil tor tlnir iiiililiii'ss iir ciix iid tiir their liii|)]iiiii'ss, iil'tcr the ititcr(<ling 
 accdiiin (if llii'ir cliMriirlrr iiiiil sitiiMliiin, wliirli li;is hi in iiitcly hiid hrliiro 
 till' pnlilii' ill "Till' .Mi^-ioN\Ki \iHM,i: ;" an aciciiinl wliiili has llir 
 stnni^ii'st iniirks of iici'iiratv am! anlhcnliiity, and \vliich, as it was liirivcd 
 iVom inliinalr inti'iTdiirsc, innsi far nnlui'ijrji the liasix and sii]ii'rli<ial olisir- 
 \allons III" |)ani'<r\risls, \\ iin ajlmsril ihrlllsidvrs no Slllliriilit tilllr citimr In 
 jiain Mccu-atr inforiiKition, or to lot thr lirr-t riilliiisiasin, rxi'ilrd h_v novrlty, 
 siih.sidf. 
 
lit 
 
 iiiscoi i!sr. (».\ iiir. !^ri u\ <>r Tim 
 
 III wliK'li s|)((iiiu'iis (>(■ every variety of liiiinan nature 
 iiiMV lie studied. Iroiii these yreut accessions \o 
 kii<)\vl«'d;je, lawgivers and statesmen, l>ut, above all, 
 moralists and political pliilosojiliers, may deriv*' \hv 
 most important instructions. They may plainly dis- 
 cover, in all tile iiselul and heantil'ul variety of •gov- 
 ernments and institutions, and under all the fantastic 
 multitude ol" usai:<> and rit(>s which have prevailed 
 amoni: iiieii. the same I'lindameiital, com|)reliensiv(; 
 truths, the sacred master j)rinci|)l<s uhich are the 
 •guardians of human society, re<'oniiised and rinered 
 (\vitli lew and slight e\ce|)tions) l)\ e\<'r\' nation upon 
 earth, and uiiironiily tiiiiiiht (with exceptions still 
 lewer) h\ a succession ol" wise men I'rom the first 
 dawn of s|)eculation to tin- present moment. The 
 exceptions, few as the\ are. will, on more rellection, 
 he iJniiid rather apparent than real. .\a\, if we cfHild 
 rai>e ourselves to that heiL''ht from which we oiiiiht to 
 siirvcN so \ast a suhject, these <v\ceptions would alto- 
 •fether vanish; the hnitality of a handful of sava»ies 
 would disa|)pear in the immense pros|)ect of human 
 nature, and th<' murmurs ot' a few lic(Mitious sophists 
 would not ascend to hreak the *ieiieral harmony. 
 This consent of mankind in first principles, and this 
 <>n(lless variet) in their application, which is one 
 anions maiiv \iilual)le truths which we ma\' collect 
 
 from 
 
 our j '-eseiit extensive ac(|iiaintance wi 
 
 th tl 
 
 10 
 
 history of man. is itself of traiisceiuhiit imj)ortance. 
 Much of the ma|e.-t\ and autlioril\ of \irtue is derived 
 from that consi nf. and almost the whole of practical 
 wisdom is founded on that \ariety. 
 
LAW OF iNATLlU: AiNU NA'l'lONrt. 
 
 ih'i 
 
 VVIiiit tbrinor ii<fo could hiivc siippliod tiicts tbrsiicli 
 a work as that ot" .MoiitcscniicMi ? lit.' in(l«M'(l lias Ueeii 
 (•.liartr(!(l, and it may he justly, vith ahiisiii<r this advaii- 
 taijfc, hy iiuliscriiniiiatc'ly adoptinir the narratives of 
 travellers, without duly estiniatiii;.' their accuracy and 
 veracity. IJut if W(! reluctantly confess the justness 
 of this ohj<;ction ; if we are compelled to own that ho 
 exaifjj;erates tin; iriHuence of climate, that hv ascrihcs 
 too nnuh to tin* foresight and forming skill of legisla- 
 tors, and far too little; to time and circumstauccs, in 
 the ijrowth of political constitutions ; that the suhstau- 
 tial character and essential dillerences of <rovernments 
 are often lost and confounded in his technical lan- 
 ifuajjfe and arranii;ement : that he often hends the free 
 and irreirular outline of nature to the imposin<f hut 
 fallacious «,feonu>trical rej^ularity of system ; that he 
 has chosen a style of allected al)i-u[)tness, sententious- 
 noss, and vivacity, ill suited to the j^ravity of his suh- 
 ject : idter all these concessions (for his fame is large 
 enou*i;li to spare many concessions), the s|)irit of laws 
 will still remain, not only one of the most solid and 
 durahle inomunents of the powers of the human mind, 
 hut a strikintf evidence of the inestimahic advantaji;es 
 which political philosophy may receive from a wide 
 survey of all the various conditions of human society. 
 
 In the present century, a slow and silent, hut very 
 real mitiLnition has taken place in the practice of war; 
 niid in proportion as that mitigated i)ractice has re- 
 ceived the sanction of time, it is raised from the raidv 
 of mer*; usaiic, and lK>comes part of the law of nations. 
 Whoever will com[)are our present modes of warfare 
 I 
 
()() 
 
 Disjcouijsi: ON Tin: stidv ur Tnr, 
 
 witli tlio system of (Jrotiiis,' will cloarly discern the 
 iininense iini)roveineiits which luive been made in that 
 respect since the j)nhhcation of liis work, (hirinir a 
 period, jx-rhaps in every ])oint of view, the haj)piest 
 to be flnnul in the iiistory of tiie world. In the same 
 j)eriod, many important points of pnhlic law have been 
 the subj(^ct of contest, both by ar^nnm-nt and by arms, 
 of which we iind either no mention, or very ob; cure 
 traces, in the iiistory of precdinsjj times. 
 
 There are other circnmstances to which I alhide 
 with hesitation and relnctanc(\ thon^h it nmst be 
 owned that thev alford to a writer of this ai:;c some 
 degree of uidortunate and de|)lo,able advanta<xe over 
 his j)redecessors. More important and terrible in- 
 strnction has of late been condensed within the short 
 compass of a tew years, than in the nsual conrse of 
 hnnian all'airs is scattered over the history of many 
 aijcs. M(Mi's wit, shar|)ened b\ their passions, lias 
 peiutrated to the bottom oi almost all political (pies- 
 tions. I'nfortnnately for mankind, even the fnnda- 
 mental rnles of morality themselves, have, for the first 
 time, become the snbject of doubt and discnssion. I 
 shall consid(^r it as my duty to abstain from all mention 
 of th(>se awful events, and of these tiital controversies. 
 But incurious ami indocile indeed nmst be the mind 
 of that niai) who has eitli-r ov<'rl(K)ked all these things, 
 or reaped no instruction from the contemplation of 
 them. 
 
 From the fore<r()ii)(r reflections, it aj)pears, that. 
 
 ' Ks|i"(iiilly lliiisi' (liiii.lrr.J of IIk; tliiid iid.ik, ciititlid, Tt iiipi ill lilt ntli III 
 riirii (iipliriis,^ \i . \i . 
 
 (I) Moil l.ltlnli III |i ■; inl 1.1 IHI^olM |,, 
 
LAW OF NAT! Ill; AM) INATlONri. 
 
 67 
 
 tliat, 
 
 since tlic coinj>osition ottliosc two tricnt works on the 
 J.jiw of Nature and Nations, wliirh continue to he the 
 chissical and f^tandard works on tliat suhject, we have 
 gained l)otii more convenient instruments of reasoninir 
 and more extensive nnilcrials lor science; that the 
 code of war has heen enlariroci and imj>roved; that 
 new questions have been j)ructically decided; and that 
 new controversies liave arisen rcL'^anhno; the inter- 
 course of iiulcjxvnfh^it statcNs and the first |)rincii)les 
 of morality aixl civii governmeiit. 
 
 Some reathrs, may, liowever, tiiink that in tlie 
 course of tii(> observations which 1 am olferino-, to ex- 
 cuse the ))iesum|)tio!i of my own attemj)t, I have 
 omitted the mention of later writers, to whom some 
 part of my remarks is not justly applicable. Ikit, per- 
 haps, after farther consi«!eration, I shall stand acf|uilted 
 in the judiiment of such readers. \\ rit<>rs on })articu- 
 iar (juestions of public law, are not within the scope 
 of my obs<>rvatioiis. TIkv have tiirnished the most 
 valuable inat<>rials ; but I am speakiuij: only of a sys- 
 tem. To the larL'o work of Wolilius, tlu^ observations 
 which I have madi? on Pull'cndorlf, as a book lor i^en- 
 eral use, will ap|)ly with t<wil<)ltl l(>rce. His abri<lif(M-, 
 Vattel, deserves, indcrd. considerable jjraiso. Il<^ is 
 a very inj^enious, clear, elenant, and useliil writer. 
 lint he only considers one part of tliis evtensive sub- 
 ject, namelv, the law of nations strictly so called ; and 
 I cannot help thinkinti;, that, even in this d(>i(artment 
 of tin; science, he has adopted some doubtful and dan- 
 i^erous principles,' Jiot to mention his constant deii- 
 
 ' 1 \v:is iiiiwiHini; In liiivi^ t'\|irr>~('(l iimi-c ^iiMiiijIv i>r ■■(iiiliilcnily i>u <lis- 
 .•i|>|ii-iili;i|iiin <>r '^iiiiif |iai-H 111' \';illil ; limii'ili I inijiln li.ivi' |Ms<i(li'c| niiirc 
 
68 
 
 Disrorusr. on tiik stidy of tiii: 
 
 ciency in tlmt fiilnoss of oxninpln and illnstnition, 
 which Ko nuicli onilu'lhshrs and strciii^'thons reason. 
 It is liardly nocessary to lake any notice of the text- 
 book of Heineccins, tlie best writer of elementary 
 books, with whom I am ae<|nainted on any snbject. 
 Burhnna«|ui is an anthor of snperior merit: hnt ho 
 conlines liimseH' too much to the ireneral principles of 
 morality and politics, to r(>(|nire much observation 
 from me in this phice. The snmr r<^ason will excnso 
 me for j)assin!j^ over, in sileitc(>, tlu^ works of many 
 j)hilosophcrs and moralists, to whom, in tlu^ course of 
 my pro[)oscd lectures. I shall ow(^ and confess the 
 greatest oblij^ations : jind it mi«jhl. j)erha|)s, make it 
 unnecessary ior me to speak of the work of Dr. Paley, 
 if I were not anxious to avail myself of this |nd)lic 
 opportunity of professini; mv <rratitu<le for the instruc- 
 tion and pleasun^ which I have received from that 
 excellent writer, who possesses, in so eminent a de- 
 «jfrce, those invaluable <|ualities of a moralist, <rood 
 sense, caution, sol)ri(>ty : and perpetujd refer(>nce to 
 that excellence which is attainable in public institu- 
 tions, and to that vutue which is |)racticable in human 
 life ; who. because his tast(> and his mod(>stv have le<l 
 him to disdain the osteiitatioii of uoveltv, has, |)erhaps, 
 lost some part of that reputation for orii;iuality,"; to 
 wliich Ik; is justly eiititN'd. and which he mii,dit so 
 easily have accpiind, if, instead of bleiidinif his own 
 reasoninirs with the bod\ of received opinions, he had 
 
 dccisivi' ncnsiirr l)\ llic .•uilhunty i.C tiii' <:ir;ilcst I,i\v\it< ot" llir in-i'sciit iific 
 
 Ills |iolilii's ari' rmi(l:iiiiiril:illy irrni iis ; liis (|irl,Miii,iliiiiis iiic often iiisijiiil 
 
 iind iin|)( rtiii.iil •■ .md li(> liiis (lilli ii nilo ^n;it inisiMlo'; in itii|iiirl;ml prarti- 
 nil (iisiMissicins itt'piililii' Inw 
 
LAW OF NAT! R)^ AND NATIONS 
 
 69 
 
 Stooped to copy the arts of those who liide the poverty 
 of tlicir invention hy extravagance, and disguise the 
 most meagre common-phiccs in tlie gaudy dress of 
 parodox. 
 
 No writer, since the time of Crotius, of Puffendorff, 
 and of Wolf, has comhined an investigation of the 
 [)rinciples of natural and [luhlic hiw, with a full ap|)li- 
 cation of these [)rinci])les to particular cases ; and in 
 these circumstances, [ trust, it will not be deemed ex- 
 travagant presumption in me t(» hope that 1 shall he 
 able to exhibit a view of this science, which shall, at 
 least, be more intelligible and attractive to students, 
 than the learned treatises of these celebrated men. [ 
 therefore, shall now proceed to state the general plan 
 and subjects of the Ie«.turcs in which I am to make 
 this attempt. 
 
 1. The being whose actions the law of nature ])ro- 
 fesses to regulate, is man. The science of his duties 
 must be founded on the knowledge of his nature.' It 
 is impossible to approach even the threshold of moral 
 philosophy, without a previous examination of the 
 faculties and habits of the human mind. Let no reader 
 be repelled from this examination, by the odious and 
 terrible name of mctaplnjsks ; for it is, in truth, noth- 
 ing more than the employment of good sense, in 
 observing our own thoughts, feelings, and actions; 
 and when the facts which are thus observed, are ex- 
 pressed as they ought to be, in plain language, it is, 
 perhai)s, above all other sciences, most on a level widi 
 
 ' Natiira eniin jiirin rx]iliiMii<l;i rsl nobis, caqiic ah homivis rrpctrnihi, 
 vdliird} — Cir. ilr Lff^. lili. i. <'. "t. 
 
 ( I ) I'or I aji) to rxpl.iiii llic iialinc d' law, ami that iiiut^t lie Houplit fur in llip rotisliliiliMii 
 i>r man. 
 
DisroiKsi: <iN Till'. s'ni>v «»r Tin; 
 
 the capacity and iiiforination of tlio generality of 
 tliiiikinir UKMi. \\ licii it is tliiis expressed, it re(iuires 
 no |)revioiis (juulilicution, but a sound judgment, per- 
 fectly to couipreliciid it ; and those who wrap it up in 
 a technical and mysterious jar,uon. always ft\\c us 
 strong reason to susj)ect that tli(>y are not philoso])her.s 
 but im|)ostors. Whoever tiioroughly niidcrstaiids such 
 a science, must be able to teach it |)lainly to all men 
 of counnon smise. 
 
 The proposed course will therefore open with a 
 very short, and, I hope, a very simple and intelligible 
 account ol" the |)owers and operations of the human 
 mind. JJy this plain statement of facts, it will not be dif- 
 ticult to decide many ceNbratcd, though frivolous, and 
 merely verbal controversies, which have long amused 
 the leisure of the schools, and which o\V(> both their 
 fame and their existence to th<' ambiguous obscurity 
 ol scholastic language. It will, iijr example, only rc- 
 (juu'e an apj)eal to everv man's expcM'ience, to prove 
 that we often act purely lr(»m a reuiird to the hap|)i- 
 ness of others, and are, therefore, social beings: and 
 even without being consummate judges of tin; decep- 
 tion< of language, we can detect and (lesj)ise the 
 sophistical Iritler, who tells us. that, because we 
 (\\"|)erience a i>ratilication in our benevolent actions, 
 we are llierelore exchisivelv and uiiil<>rmlv selfish. A 
 (orrect exauniiation of facts will lead us to discover 
 that ijuahty which is C(»inmoii to all virtuous actions, 
 and which distmgiiishes them from thos(> which are 
 vici(»us and criniiiial. Ibit \\v shall see that it is neces- 
 sary l<)r man to b(^ governed not bv his own transient 
 and hasty oj>inion iijkui the tendency <»f ev< r\ partir- 
 
LAW or NATL'Ui; AND NATIONS. 
 
 71 
 
 ular action, but by tbosc fixed and unaltorablo rules, 
 wiiicb are tlic joint result of tlie iinpartiid Jud^niient, 
 the natural reelin<,^s, and the embodied expericnre of 
 mankind. The authority of these rules is, inde(!d, 
 founded only on their tendency to j)rom(jte |)rivjite and 
 public welfare; but the morality of actions will a|>|)ear 
 solely to consist in their corres|)ondence with ujoral 
 rules. IJy the help of this obvious distinction we shall 
 vindicate a just theory, which, far from bein<r modcMii, 
 is, in fact, as ancient as philosophy itself, both from 
 j)lausible objections, and from the odious im|»utatioii' 
 of supj)orting those absurd and monstrous s) stems 
 which have been built upon it. lieuelicial tendeucy 
 is the toundation of moral rules, and it is the criterion 
 by which we are to try those habits and seutim(>iits 
 which are the motives of all human conduct, liut 
 neither is it the innnediate standard, nor can a regard 
 to it ever be the principal motive of action. No |)re- 
 cept, indcK'd, deserves a i)lace amonji" the rul(!S of 
 morality, unless its observance will |)romot(! the hap- 
 piiu?ss of mankind;- aud no man ou<iht to cultivate 
 in his own mind any dis|)osition of which the natural 
 fruits are not such actions as conduce to its own well- 
 beinfr, and to that of his fellow-men. Ttility is doubt- 
 less always the ultimate test of lla; soundness of general 
 rules, l)ut it can very rarely be the direct test of the 
 morality ol single actions. It is also tlu; test of our 
 
 lull' iii2 niciii-i trait liy Mr (in rii, ciiliilril, " An r.iii|iiiiy IiiId llio 
 
 'ladinj; l'riiici|)lc i-I'llir iii'w S\-|riii I'l' Ardi'uls." 
 
 -' Or, to use tile l:iii;;iia;:c of Cii nu, iimIcs:; il lir iidaplc 
 
 MAliNVM II. I. AM ^iKMIVn.M I.IM.Iil-- IIIM^M."' 
 (I) 'I'd till' inc'i lAalinii i.f ilial L'li.al cniiiiiaiiniii Inii ,a' 111:' iiuiii ui Jacc 
 
 led " .\l( ri: t;MiA,M 
 
 « 
 
 i 
 
7i 
 
 DlSCOURSi: ON Tin; STUDY OF Till; 
 
 lin!)itii!il siMilimcnts, but it can .still more raroly supply 
 their pliie«' as motives to virtue. A iiilv is moral, of 
 wliieli tile ohservaiiee tiMids to |)ro(lue(; ijem>ral iiap- 
 |)iness.' An action is virtuous wliieli accords witli 
 moral rules; and a character is virtuous in which tiic 
 natiu'ai rreliniis ot" lli<' human jieart are so moderated, 
 matured, and improved, as to produce steady habits of 
 virtuous action.' 
 
 \\ illi(»ut, however, dwellinii lonir«'r on subjects which 
 cannot hv clearly stated, miless th(>y are fully uidohled, 
 I content myself with observiuij, that it shall be my 
 object, in this prehminary, but most important |)art of 
 lh<; course, to lav the loundations of morality so deeply 
 in human nature, as mav satisly the coldest in<|uirer ; 
 and. at the same time, to vindicate the paramount 
 authorit\ of the rules of our <hitv, at all times, and in 
 all ()hices, over all o[)inionsof interest, and s|)eculations 
 of lM«nelit, so extensively, so universally, and so invio- 
 lably, as mav well jiistitv tlu; i.n'andest and tlu; most 
 a|)pareiitlv extravaiiant "tfusions of moral enthusiasm. 
 If, iiotwithstandinn all my endeavors to deliver these 
 doctrines with the utmost simplicity, any of my auditors 
 should still reproach me for introducinir such abstruse; 
 matters, I must shelter mvself behind the authority of 
 the wisest of men. • If they, (the ancient moralists), 
 
 ' Wli 
 
 II lu 
 
 ili'^iriilK (ir>ll|(l\iM^ lIll'Si' ntll'sli 
 
 iri'li s l.iiilii (iT Niiiiir 
 
 llidroiiglily, will (Id 
 M work, w liii li, iil'iir 
 
 liiiK'li i'i>ii>ji|i'i':iliuij, I lliiiiit iii\~i If' mil 
 
 linriMij 1.1 r.ill llli: liinsi nrijiili;! 
 
 |il''>ruiiiii| llint \\\\-~ r\ri' ii|i|ii':ir<'il ui] nmr.-il |>liilo>(i|i|i\ 
 
 Vm 
 
 iiii'iii \ji'lii< iiiliil ,'iliurl ijiiani in si |ii'rl'i da ,'iIi|mi' a<l suiiiiniiiii |ii'r- 
 
 iliK'Ici iniliir.i 
 
 r 
 
 il' /., 
 
 lii> 
 
 M> \ llllli l'< lli'lIllllU I l-i lli:ill Mipillnl M.lUllill (Ml III 
 
 lltitaiiii III till liiglii "I ill 
 
 Bl.f. 
 
LAW OF NATLltE AND NATIONS. 
 
 73 
 
 iipply 
 ■al, of 
 
 liap- 
 
 with 
 •li the 
 rated, 
 bits of 
 
 which 
 olded, 
 he my 
 i)art ol' 
 deeply 
 juirer ; 
 iinoimt 
 and ill 
 ilations 
 ) iiivio- 
 (! moist 
 iisiasni. 
 r these 
 nuhtors 
 d)strus(! 
 lority ol" 
 )rahsts), 
 
 ll\ , w ill il" 
 \liii li, iillrr 
 irigiiHil ;iihI 
 
 iiiiniun (n r- 
 
 lic lugllr-l ill 
 
 before they luid come to the popular and received 
 notions of virtue and vice, hiid staid Ji little longer 
 upon the in(juiry concc'rniiig tJw. roots ofaood and tvil, 
 they had given, in my oj)inion, a great light to that 
 which followed ; and specially if they had consulted 
 with nature, tlujy had made their doctrines less prolix 
 and more profound." ' What Lord Bacon desired for 
 the mere gratihcation of scientific curiosity, the welfare 
 of mankind now iinperiously<h'maMds. Shallow systems 
 of metaj)liysics have givt.'ii hirlli to a [)ro«)d of ahomi- 
 nahle and prslilential paradoxes, which nothing but a 
 more ])rol()un(l i)hiloso))hy ean destroy. However we 
 may lament the necessity of discussions which may 
 shake the habitual revireuce of some men tor those 
 rules which it is the chief interest of all men to prac- 
 tise, we now have no choice left. We must either 
 dispute, or abandou the ground, rndistiiiguishing and 
 umnerited invectives against j)hilosopliy, will only 
 harden sophists and their (h.-eiples in the insolent con- 
 ceit, that thev are in j)ossession of an undisputed 
 superiority of reason : and that their antagonists have 
 no arms to employ against them, but those of j)Opular 
 declamation. I^et us not, for a moment, even appear 
 to su|)pose, that |)hilos()pliical truth and liuman happi- 
 ness arc so irreconcilably at varianc<>. J cannot express 
 my own opinion upon this subject so well as in the 
 words of a most valuable, though generally neglected 
 writer : " The science of abstruse learning, when 
 completely attained, is like Achilles's spear, that healed 
 the wounds it had mad(» belore ; so this knowledjie 
 
 ' l>a' cm, l)i;;ii. aiid .\(!\. nf Learn. ImnK ii. 
 .1 
 
74 
 
 Dlf<tOUI{f<i: ON TIIL STUDY OF THE 
 
 serveH to repnir tlio diunniic itsolfhad occasioned, niid 
 tliis, |)erhaj)s, is all it is jrood lor ; it casts no additional 
 litijlit u|)()H the |)atlis of lilc, hut disj)orsos the clouds 
 with whi<-h it has uvorsju-cad thcui hclorc : it advances 
 not the traveller one step in his journey, hnt conducts 
 him hack ajiain to the spot I'roni whence he wandered. 
 Thus the land of |)hilosophy consists partly of an open 
 chainpaiirn countrv, passahle by every connnon under- 
 standinii, and partly of a ranif(> of woods, traversable 
 onlv hv the speculative, and where they too rre(|uently 
 (h'liiiht to annise theins<^lves. .Sinc(^ then we shall be 
 obliged to make incursions into this latter tract, and 
 shall j)rohiihly lind it a reirion ol" obscurity, dan<rcr, 
 and ditliculty, it behoves us to use our utmost en- 
 deavors tor enliiiliteninii and smoothini:' the way hel'ore 
 us." ' We shall, liowever, remain in the Ibrest only 
 ion;: enoiiiib to visit the tountaiiis ol' those streams 
 which tlow from it, and which water and fertilize the 
 cultivated leiiion of morals, to become ac<|uaintcd 
 with the UHxIes of warfare practised by its sava«re 
 inhabitants, and to learn the mejins of trnardinjjf our 
 fair and truitlul land a;iainst their desolatinir incur- 
 sions. 1 shall hasl<-n trom speculations, to which I 
 am naturally, perliajts. hut too prone, and proceed to 
 the more prohtahle considiTation of our |)ractical duty. 
 II. J'he first and most sim|>le part of ethics is that 
 which re<rards the duties of private men towards each 
 other, wIkii they are eousidcred apart from the sai»c- 
 tion of positive laws. I say, (iiuat from that sanction, 
 not (iiilrcxhiil to it ; for thoui^h wt; s( pa rate private; 
 
 < iirrli-; Li^ilit 1)1' .\;ilurc, liy .\liiali:iiii TiirKor I'.sti , \<il i. |iril' 
 
 \ \ X I i I . 
 
 \ 
 
IwWV or NATI-RP, AND NATIONS, 
 
 75 
 
 d, aiul 
 litioiiJil 
 clouds 
 viinccs 
 )nducts 
 ulcrod. 
 n oj)on 
 undor- 
 xMsable 
 (liKMitly 
 .hall 1k! 
 ict, and 
 dan<i;(>r, 
 lost cn- 
 y 1)0 lore 
 est only 
 streams 
 ilize the 
 Huaintcd 
 ? sava^fe 
 lint,^ our 
 jr incur- 
 whicli I 
 [»ceed to 
 cal duty. 
 •s is that, 
 »rds rach 
 the sane- 
 sanction, 
 c |)rivate 
 
 \()1. i. prtf 
 
 % 
 
 from political duties, lor tlu; sake of greater clearness 
 and order in reasoninji, yet we are not to be so deluded 
 by this mere arrangement of convenience as to sup- 
 pose that human society ever has subsisted, or ever 
 could subsist, without bein«y |)rotected by irovernment 
 and bound tojrether by laws. All these r<>lative duties 
 of private life have been so coj)iously and beautifullv 
 treated by the moralists of anti(|uity, that lew men 
 will now choose to follow them who are not actuated 
 by the wild and)ition of e(|ualling Aristotle in precision, 
 or rivalling Cicero in elocjuence. They have been also 
 admirably inculcated by modern moralists, among 
 whom it would be gross injustice not to number many 
 of the })reachers of the Christian religion, whose pecu- 
 liar character is that spirit of universal charity, which 
 is the living princijih; of all our social duties. For it 
 was long ago said, with great truth, by Lord Hacon, 
 " that there never was any philosojdiy, religion, or 
 other discipliiK", which did so plainly and highly exalt 
 that good which is connnunicativ(\ and depress the 
 good which is j)rivate and particular, as the Christian 
 faith." ' Indeed the apj)ropriat(^ ])raise of this religion 
 is not so much, that it has taught new duties, as that 
 it breathes a milder and niore benevolent spirit over 
 the whole e\t<'nt of morals. 
 
 On a subject which has been so exhausted, f should 
 naturally have contented myself with the most slight 
 and general survey, if some fundamental j)rincipl(>s 
 had not of late be«'n brought into (|uestion, which, in 
 all form(>r times, have heen deemed too evident to 
 
 ' n:i(iiil, |)ii;ii Mild \il 
 
 .r I, 
 
 ciini iHHiu II 
 
 if' 
 
 •> 
 
M» 
 
 Drst'oLKsr, ON rm; sii i)\ oi' Tin. 
 
 % 
 
 ro(|irno tlio support of ariniinciit. iiiul almost too siicrcd 
 to admit ihv liberty ol discussion. I thcrcroro shall 
 endeavor to streuiidicii son\e parts ol'llie rortilirationrt 
 of morality which have hithcrlo heeu neglected, only 
 because no man had escr been hardy enou«j;h to attack 
 them. Almost all th*' relative duties of human life 
 will b(^ touud more inun(Mlial(>ly, or more remotely, to 
 aris(? out of the two ^reat institutions (d" property and 
 marriau^e. I'hey adorn, preserve, and even constitute 
 society. I pon their Lnadual improvement depends 
 the progressive ci\ ili/ation oT mankind : on them rests 
 th(^ whole order of civil life. We are told by Horace, 
 that the first eHbrts of liiw^ivers to civilize men, con- 
 sisted in strenjjftheninii and reaiilatiui!; these institutions, 
 and fencinir them round with ri<iorous penal laws. 
 
 HI'' h'"i 
 
 Oppiil.i i'<r|Mriiiii iiimiirc, i I poni 
 
 .\(U i\\i\< fill- i>.-( 1, iic'ii i|iii< lali'c), 111 II (juis .uliiltir.' 
 
 I Si rill, iii lor> 
 
 A celebrated ancicMit orator, of whose poems we 
 have but a few fragments reuuiinin<i', has well described 
 the ordiT in which human society is irraduallv led to 
 its hiiilu>st improvements under the ainu'dianshij) of 
 lhos(^ laws wliiili .-eeure propert\ and re<:Mlate mar- 
 riaac. 
 
 I'.I \l'^s•^ >.\ni\.\- iliM'iiil, i\ r.iin |ii2;i\ it 
 Cnrpdra rciii|iii;li- ; ct inafTiia* I'mididit iirlir-i. • 
 
 I'ra^. < '. Licin. Cah i. 
 
 Nothing can be more philosophical than the succes- 
 sion of ideas here presented bv Calvus : for it is onlv 
 
 (n And now tlnv I'casc frnni wur; iMrir lnwn-i riirlcM' 
 Willi Inriiiiilal'lf wall-, ami law- iniii|iii< • 
 'I'll >trlkr tlif Ilin r. ami liiulnvaj inaa viitli ilri-ail. 
 Anil viiiiliiali llii- »aiif<l mama!.'' Ii d. — Finnr'~. 
 
 (0' lie laiiiilil ilii-ni ili\ iiu lavi -. iii-lili|ti''l iiniiiaji -, ;iim1 ImiiIi -|iai imi- i iln 
 
r 
 
 LAW nr iW'i'i in: and aatiuns 
 
 77 
 
 iicrcMl 
 
 sluill 
 
 utions 
 
 , only 
 
 llttiiclv 
 
 m lil^ 
 cly, to 
 ty ami 
 istitutc 
 
 n rests 
 loracc, 
 II, con- 
 lutions, 
 svs. 
 
 iii. 111.'. 
 
 .ms wc 
 'scril)e(l 
 V led to 
 isliij) ol" 
 \c nuir- 
 
 in. (';il\i. 
 
 ' siicrcs- 
 It is only 
 
 wlien tlie ireiu>riil security is niiiiiitniiied l»y the liiws, 
 iu\d when the order of doinestir hte is fixed hv innr- 
 ri5i«j;e, tliat iiiitioiis emerge IVoiu l)iuhiirisin, proceed 
 hy slow d('nrre(>s to cidtivate scieiic(\ to l()iiMd (>in|)ires, 
 to hiiild mji<iiiiticent cities, and to cover tiie enrth witli 
 all the splendid inoniiiueiits of civilized art. These 
 two ^reat institutions convert the seliish as well as die 
 social |)assions of onr iiatnre into tin; iirniest bands of 
 a peaceable and orderly interconrse : thev chan<re tlu; 
 sourc(^s of discord into |)rincij)les of (|uiet; they disci- 
 pline the most ungovernable, they reline the grossest, 
 and they exalt the most sordid pro|)ensities ; thev be- 
 come the |)er|)etual fountain of all that streniitheiis, 
 and preserves, and ad(jrns society ; tli(>y nourish the 
 individual, and they perpetuate the race. As they were 
 at first the sole authors of all civilization, so they niiist 
 for ever continue its sole protectors. They alone malv(j 
 the society of man with his fellows delightful, or secure, 
 or even tolerable. Kvery argument and exam|)le, 
 every opinion and |)ractice which w(>akens their au- 
 thority, tends also to dissolve the fellowshij) of the 
 human race, to replunif(> mm into that state of help- 
 less f(M*ocitv, and to condemn the earth to that unpro- 
 ductiy(; wildness, from which they were both originally 
 raised, by the power of these sacred })rinci|)les ; which 
 animate the activity of exertion and yet mitigate the 
 fierceness of contest, which move every plough and 
 feed every month, an<l r(\uulate every household and 
 rear every child : which are the great nourishers and 
 guardians of the world. Tli(> eiuMiiy of these prin- 
 ciples is the enemy of mankind. Around these insti- 
 tutions all our social dutie- will be f(»und at various 
 
 li run 
 
TH 
 
 Discol Ksi; ON rill' sTLhV (H" Tin: 
 
 f 
 
 (listaiK'cs to riin«ir tlioinschcs : souk^ more noar, ohvi- 
 ouslv cssciitiiil to tlir ii<)0(l onirr of limiiiiii life, otliors 
 more rcinotc. .iikI otuhicli the iKu-cssity is not at first 
 view so apparent ; and sonir so distant, tliat tluMr ini- 
 portancc iias Ixm'ii sonntiinrs doiilitcd. tlioii*r|i npon 
 more matnrc considtration tlicy also will appear to l)0 
 ontposts and advanced <j:nards of these two ureat I'linda- 
 mental |)rin(iples; that man shonid seeiirely enjoy and 
 t'reelv traiisnnt the I'lnits of his lahor, and tliat the 
 soeietv ot the se\es slionid he so wiselv ordered as to 
 n»ak<! it a school ot" the kind allections, and u Ht nur- 
 serv lor the conunonwealth. 
 
 'J'he snhject of pniiirrlij is ot" iireat extent. It will 
 he nec.essarv to estahlish the tonndation of the riiihts 
 ot ae(|nisitioii, alienation and transmission, not in iiii- 
 airinary contracts or a j>retended stale ol" natnre, luit 
 in their snhserviencv to the snhsistence and well-heiiiir 
 of maidvind. It will not (»nly he cnrions, hnt nsefnl, 
 to trac{! th(! history ol" projjertv trom the first loose and 
 transient occnpancv of the sava^je, thron<rli all the 
 modifications w liicli it has at dill'erent times received, 
 to that coinpreheiisiv(\ snhtle, and anxionsly miniit<; 
 code ot" pro|)erty which is the last result of the most 
 refined civilization. 
 
 I shall ohserve the same ord(T in consid(>rin«; tlie 
 society of the sexes as it is re<iiilated hv the institntion 
 ol marriaife.' I shall endeavor to lay open those nn- 
 allerahle principles ol" L'eiieral interest on which that 
 
 ' Si'i- ijii lliis siili|(r( all iii(iiiii|i,ir,ilili' IVii^iiiiiiil lit' llif first linuk of 
 eiiirn - l'.(<p|iiiiiiiis, \\ liii li i-; Inn Iniifr t'lir iiiscrlioii Ik re, liiit wliicli, if il lie 
 I'losily I'VMiiiiiicil, niiiy ])i'rli;i|is (lis|ii'l the iliiisii)ii of iliosi' "cnllriiirn, who 
 li:i\(' SM r-lriiigrly t.'ikf'H it for prniitrd, lli;it ('inro \v;i"« iiiriipniilr ol' exact 
 reasoning 
 
IwWV Ol' NATI Ur, AND NATKhNS. 
 
 19 
 
 \\\o 
 
 institution rests: and if I ontcrtnin si lioju! tliiit on this 
 subject 1 may In; able; to add sonietliin^f to wiiat our 
 masters in morality bavr tau^jit us, 1 trust that tlie 
 leacU^r will bear in mind, is an excuse for mv jiresiimp- 
 tion, that thci/ were not likely to em|»loy inueh ariiument 
 where they did not foresee the j)osf*ibility of doubt. I 
 shall also consider the history ' of marriage, and trace 
 it throu<ih all the forms which it has assumed, Ut that 
 decent and ha))|)y permanency of union which has, 
 above all other causes, contributed to the (|uiet of 
 society, and the refinement of manners in mod<'rn 
 times. Anumtf many other in(|uiries which this sub- 
 ject will suiiiijest, 1 shall be led more particularly to 
 
 ' This progress is tnK'n! with grciit aci-iiracy in suini' hciiilifiil iiiiis ol" 
 I.iicri'tiiis : 
 
 .MiiliiT iiiiijiinctii viro concessit ii luiiiiii, 
 
 ('ii-^tiuiMc priviitic N'ciicris cc)iiiiiilii:i lii'l;i 
 ('();,'riit;' iiiii, |)rolciii(|iit' ex sc viderc coortnin : 
 
 Tl>I (iK.M > 111 MAM M I' H I M T M MOI.I.KSi Klil; KUl'll. 
 
 |iiicri(iiic 'irirciitiiiu 
 
 ahiiicliliis lii( ilc iiij;(iiiiiiii iVcgirc sii|icrhiim. 
 'I'linr it iiiiiirlliiiiii ni/tirinit jiinisrrc lialniilcs 
 riliitiriia inter se, nee liedere m i' vii)lare. 
 I't luieros ((nnnii'ndirMnl nniliclirei|Ue srcliini 
 Vocihus et fjestn cum haihe sij^nilicarent 
 Imiiki ii.i.imi M l>si; v.iiri m m i-^f.m r.u dmmi m.' 
 
 I.iin-ft. lil, V. 1. 101(1— llfJ-J. 
 
 (I) Vet wlicii, at li ri!;lli, rinlc liiit^i tlic> tirst ilcvisM, 
 And tilts, and iiarinenls ; and in iinieii swcil, 
 Man wedded wcinian, llir pnic jeys indnlu'd 
 III' rliiiste I'oniiahiiil liur, anil iliildren rcise, 
 'I'lic iiiiii;li liarliaiian- >el'tin"d. 'I'lic u ami in arlli 
 'J'lleir I'laiiies sii inrlled lliey im llliiie iiiiiid In iir, 
 As iTst, tir niiidVi I'd sl<ies ; Ilie iei|ilial lied 
 lliiilie their wild viL'ur. and the I'niid larvs^ 
 (If iirallliiiL' iliilchcii IViini llic liii-(ini i lia-'d 
 'I'llrll strni, lelciricilis llianili'l-^. .\riL'llh(il~ IMiW 
 .l.iin'd ill the iHiiiiN ot'fiiend-lnii, and rcscdv'J 
 'I'he seller sex til ilieri^h, and Iheii billies ; 
 And owii'd by p'slmcs, siciis, and soiimls iinniiilli, 
 "I'was just the weaklier tii |iinti 1 1 iVein lianii. — .A .1/. '•'i""'- 
 
80 
 
 DISCOURSi: ON Tin: STUDY Ol' Tiii; 
 
 examine the natural fetation and duties of the feni 
 
 sex, tlieir couchtion unions dilleicnt nations, its im- 
 provement in lMiro()e, and the l)()un(ls wliich Nature 
 hcM'selt' has j)reserihe(l to ti»e progress ol" that improve- 
 ment; hevond which every |»reten(led advance will he 
 a r(>< ! (li^iiradation. 
 
 III. Ilavniii estahlishcd the |)rlncipl«'s of j)rivate 
 (hitv, 1 shall ))r<)('(-e(l to consi<ler man under tlu; im- 
 portant n-latioiis orsuhjcct and so\< rciiiii, or, in other 
 words, ot eilizcii and n.auistrat<'. The duties which 
 arise Iroiu llies<> relations I shall cndcaxDr to «'stahlish, 
 not i;|)0!i supposcil comi)acts, wliich are altoirether 
 chinicricai. uliicli nui.-t he admitted to he false in Tact, 
 wlucli il" ilit \ are t»> he considered as lictioiis, \,dl he 
 found t<; ser\e no purpose of just reasonin*:', ;i'id to b*' 
 e(|uall\ til" louiidatioii of a s\,-l(>!u of universal desp// 
 isiii 111 llnlthes. and of universal anarchv in liousseau; 
 hut upon the s(>li<| liasis of li'ciuM'al C(.iiveiiience. iNfen 
 cannot suhsist without society and mutual aid ; ihrv 
 can neither niaintaiu social int rcourse. nor reci tve 
 aid lr»»i.' eacli other, without the protection of iroNrrn- 
 nient : and tiiev c;iiiiiut eiijov that protection without 
 suhuuttiiii: to tin' restraint- v\ Inch a just liovernment 
 imposes. This phiiii ;uiilliuent estahhslies the dlltv ol 
 ohedieiice on the p;irt ot citi/.eii.-. and the diitv of pro- 
 tection ou that (»!" iiiai>i>trat<s. on the same loundation 
 with that oi everv other moral diitv ; and it shows, 
 with siillicient evidence, that these duties are recipro- 
 cal : which directlv aiiu liillv answers the only rational 
 (•nd for which the fiction of a contract could have heen 
 luveiHed. I >|i;ill Hot eiiciiiMher uiv r<'asoninL»' hv any 
 speculations oil the oriu,iii of liovernment ; a question 
 
1. AW OF NATUUK \SU NATIONS. 
 
 81 
 
 iij)Oii which so nmcii roasoii has bocn wasted in mod- 
 ern tinios ; hut wliich tho ancients ' in a hi^^^lior spirit 
 of philosopliy hav never once deigned to stir. It" our 
 principles l)e just, tlic orijfin ol' «roverninent must liave 
 been coeval witli that of mankind ; and as no trih(; has 
 ever yt^t l)een discovered so brutish as to be without 
 some jjjovernment, and yet so enhghtened as to estal)- 
 hsh a government by conunon consent, it is surely 
 unnecessarv to employ any serious argunieut in the 
 conl'utatiou ol'adoctriue inconsistent with reason, and 
 wholly unsup|H»rt((l by e.\p<'rience. Dut though all 
 in([uiri(>s iuto the origin ol" goveriunent be chimericiil, 
 yet the history of its progress is anuising and instruc- 
 tive. The various stages through wlii<h it passtjd 
 from savagc' indepench'iice, which implies every man's 
 j)ower of iniuriiig his neighhor. to legal libnfy, which 
 consists in every iuan''s security nuiunst \v rong ; the 
 manu<'r in which a I'auiily expands into a tribe, and 
 tribes coalesce into a naliou ; in which public justice 
 is gradually engrafted on private revenge, and tempo- 
 rary submission ri|)en(Ml iiUo habitual obedience: form 
 a most iuip<.'tant Jind extensive subject of imiuirv, 
 which coniprelK'iids all the improvements of nuiidund 
 m police, in judicature, and m legislation. 
 
 I 'I'lic introrlnctiiiii tn the first Imok nf ArisKiilr"- I'.ilitirs is ilii- bfst iU>- 
 iiiolistnitinii tif till' IK rcsvily of |Hililic;il s(m ic't\ In tllf u p||-h( ill;;, ;in(l iri- 
 ,1,,,.,| to the viTV liiiiijl, nl" iiiMii, Willi wliiili I aiii ;ir,|iiai iilnl ll.ivin;,' 
 -iiiiwu the circumstaiirr win. Ii r.Miili i immii mci -Miiily ;i social liciiii:, lu! 
 |usll\ (•..iiiiiiilcs, " Kui ill u.'i^r.T.i ■ijru t:u'u:v f-iiv."'— ./'v'.vV. ilr lirp., lib. i. 
 
 'I'll,. ..;ini. - Imiiic 111' |iliiliisii|ili\ IS ailimralily |iiii-iic'(l in llir r-lmri, ImiI 
 
 llivallialllr l|;i;:inrMl ol' lIll' sixlll Imnk .il' I'nlslnil-, ulllrh .IrsiTlllls lllr IllS- 
 
 lun ami n \ uliil mii-. .il' jri,\ miin. ill. 
 ^l, \ii.l mail is .il 1 iiiiliM.illy a i.ililp'al luiiiu- 
 
 K 
 
H> DlSCOUUfi: Oi\ Till. STUDY Ol' TIIK 
 
 I have ulnsulv iiilimatcMl lo the rcadcM" llmt tho de- 
 scription ol" libiM'tv wliicli seems to me the most com- 
 prehensive, is that ol" sfciiiili/ <i<>(iinst uronu-. Liherty 
 is tlierefore the ohj(>ct ol" all iroNeniment. j\fen are 
 mor(> free uiuI(M' every izovermiient. even the most 
 imperleet. than they would he it" it \v«M-e possihl(> iitr 
 them lo e.vist withont any *i(»vernmcn1 at all : they are 
 more .>ecnre Irom wroiin", itiorr inu/lsltirhrd in tin r.rcr- 
 cisc of flit if mftiiidl jiDirt/s. and tlinrf'orr more I'rcr, 
 til n ill the /iiosf obvious onil grossest s< use of the irtnd, 
 than iltJH'v were altogether nnprotected a;iaiiist injury 
 from each other.' Ihit a^ aeneral security is enjov«'d 
 in verv diirereiil de<j,rees under diirerent iiovcrimu^its, 
 those which iruard it most |)errectly, are, hy Wii\ of 
 eminence, called //vr. Such iroNcrmueiits attain most 
 com|)letely the end which is connnon to all govern- 
 ment. \ free con>titulioii of" u'ovcrnmeiit and a ii<)()d 
 constitution of iioveninient are therefore." dilferenl 
 e\j)ressions for the s;iine i.h :i. 
 
 Another miiterial distinction, however, soon pn^sents 
 itself. In mo-t <i\ili/,ed slates llie suhject is tol(>rahly 
 j)rotecte(l a^iiiii'^l .'jross injustice from his fellows hy 
 im|)artial laws, which it \- the manifest iiit(-rest of tiie 
 sovereign to (Miforce. liut some conuiioii\\(';iltlis are 
 
 I 
 
 I I 
 
 iii\ ' III \ I 
 
 ill iiiiiiiiiii 
 
 |iiili iiil'il til nlTir il 
 iiliiiL' I" m\ iiriiii iiili 
 
 III III" lili' rl\ 
 
 li';.'ii;il 
 
 Il wmijij li.' iMIy 111 Mllilri)il liiiiiiiil 
 (Il linilMni-^ lA' [ii'lili' il ii'Tiii- Till -iiii|iir mill iirlttiii.ij iinhnii ii\' lllii rl II i<, 
 
 llill 
 
 Mi;it 111 I 
 
 M .lll-l'l|i 
 
 I'rWl r lllliull.. Il\ lilU irillllrlll 
 
 il I' ll:iiiil Am\ if MUM :ili ri'sl i';il Mi'il ill 
 
 ill lln >iiii- 
 
 II ilMII lMl'\ Wnlllil 
 
 \l\ \ Inlill 
 
 piiM il -r;ilr i.t IIMllll'i 
 
 It'll 
 
 It lln-v ,iri alw .i\ 
 
 n ~ll',lllll 'I ill |Mii|Mi|||i M w- 
 
 tllfV iiri' llliil-i <iTiiri' , II \\ ill r..||.i\\ , lli,il r . I MlMv ;illi| IllirlU lilll-l ;ll\ ,i\^ 
 
 .nil nil 
 iilir nl' 
 
 III lt\ lll.'IV .'llw ll\ - Il 
 
 |ir:ii'ti<';ill\ ciiiiniili lli:il tlir i|. ;:i- I' 
 
 lis a ti-l 1,1' Ihr (liMrrri- nl' lilii | l\ , iml ||i;i| I'm ;ill |ir.iii ic.i I |ilir|ii 
 
 IIh'M' ui.iil:- MKi', <.iti>t:iiill\ 111 ••uli-tltiltril I'll' lln' i.ljii r. — .\'(.^ tn lliinl itl 
 
I-AW OF NATURi: AND NATIONS. 
 
 WJ 
 
 I 
 
 SO lin))|)y ns to bo lomi(l(?il on a princi|)lc of mnch 
 jiioR! icIiiK'd nnd |n-()\ idoiit wisdom. Tlie subjects of 
 such coumioMW( altlis are <iuarded not ojiiy iijiaiust the 
 injustice of eacli other, but (us far us iiuinan prudence 
 can contrive) auainst oppression IVoni the inngislratc. 
 Sucii states, hke all other e\traor(hnary e.\an)j)ies ol' 
 pubhc or ])riv;ite < xcellence and liappiness, ure thinly 
 scattered over the dilferent aires and countries of tlie 
 \V(trl(l. i]i them the power of the sovereign is limited 
 wilh so e.xnct a measure, that his jirotectiuL^ autliority 
 is not weakened. Such a combination of skill and 
 fortinie is not often to be expected, and indeed never 
 can arise, but from the constant thou<di urachnd exer- 
 Irions of wisdom and vu'tui', 1o improve a long succes- 
 nion of most favorable circusustances. 
 
 'itfhf^re is, iiKJeed, scarce any society so wretched as 
 to In r'. 4itiite of some sort of weak provision aijainst 
 th<^ N'i;|,Hsti«'<> of their ijovernors. Kciijiious institutions, 
 fa\<)riti<-' prejudices, national mann( rs, have m dilferenl 
 countries, with uncijual d(\Ln'ees of force, cin'cked or 
 mtti<4ated th<> exercis(> of supreme |)ower. 'Vlw j)rivi- 
 l(>ucs of a |)f)werlid lUihility, of opulent men-antile 
 .^-<>nununities. of <i;r(>at judicial corpcM'alions. liave, in 
 A()fi\v monarchies, ap|»roached more near to a control 
 cHii' iKIk' .-•o\('rei;in. iMeai)< have betMi devisinl with juore 
 or l«"ss wisdom lo temjM'r fh<' despotism of an aris- 
 lo<racv M'or tluir subj(>cls. and in democracies to ])ro- 
 tect fhe minori<ty auainst th<' majority, and the whole 
 people ii'iainsi CIk- tyraii-wv o^' demairo!j;n(>s. lint in 
 these ^Mu;nixr'<4 (/)rms of oo\ , ;.unent, as the riirht of 
 k'jrislafK* ,K< vfste<1 in one indi.idnal or in one order, 
 if IS o!)vi<»f'i.- ♦ii'K r^K' l<':.',i l:'ivc power niav shake oil" 
 
S4 
 
 DISrorUSE (».\ TIIF, STl'DY OF TIIK 
 
 all tlio r<>i«tr!iints wliicli tlio laws have imposod on it. 
 All such oovorninciits, tlxTcton", tend towards despot- 
 ism, and llic sccuritit's u liic-h tliey admit against niis- 
 £Tovorinn»Mit, arc (WtrfMucly Icchlc iind precarious. 
 
 The l)e<t security which huuuiu wisdom can devise, 
 seems to he the distrihtilioii of |)ohtic;d authority inuouir 
 dilier(Mit iu(li\ iduals and hcxhes, with se])arate iut«'rests 
 and sf>parate ciinractf-rs, correspondiuj; to the vari(^ty 
 ol" classes of which civil society is composed, each in- 
 terested to ituard their own order from oj)pression hy 
 the rest : each, also, iiitereste<l to prevent any of tlui 
 others from sei/,in»i' on exclusive, and ther<^tbre desj)otic 
 power : nnd all hin inir a common interest to co-o|)er- 
 iitr in cnrryinu' on the ordinary and necessary adminis- 
 trntion of irov(>rnnu'nt. It" {horv were not an interest 
 to resist each othei- in e\tr;iordin;iry cases, there would 
 not he lihert\ . it there wer(> not ;u\ inter(\^t to co- 
 o|K'r;ite in the ordinary course of allairs, there could 
 he no jTovernnient. The ohject ol' such \vise institu- 
 tions which make the selhshniss of liovernors a secu- 
 rilv aiininst their injustice. i< t(» jwotect men iiuiiinst 
 wronir hotli I'rom their riders and their tellous. Such 
 ^o\<'rnments are. with justice, peculiarK and emphati- 
 callv caJIfMl ()■(( : and in ascrihuiu th;it hl»<rt\ to the 
 skiU'nl ('omhinntion of mutual dependence iind nuitind 
 check, I leel my (*\\\\ conviction ^leiitly stri'nirtJHWU'd 
 hy calluiii to nund, that in thisctpimon I nffree with all 
 the wi<e men who li;(\c «\er deepK <<»u:-idere(l the 
 principles of polities : with Aristotle ;ind i'ojvhius. with 
 Cicero ;ind Tacitus, with liacon nnd iMacluavel, with 
 Montes(juieu and Hum*'.' It is impossihle. in such a 
 
 ' To llif wiijihl 111' llii-ir' jirrnt r.:inn'- lit iii>- ;iil(l tlin n|)iiiinip of t\vr( illiN- 
 liious mm iit'tlif |ii('«.in! .(fji', »* bi>tli tin ir o|)iiMi>iit nii- < i.inliiiii'ii liy onr nf 
 
l-AW or NATIMir, AM) NATIONS 
 
 i-<n 
 
 mis- 
 
 cursory skotch as tlio proscnt, cvoii to jilliidc to n vory 
 small part of those ])liil()so|)liicjil |)rin(i|)l('S, political 
 roasoiiinirs, and historicnl I'iicts, wliidi iirc iicccssarv 
 for the illustration of this moMUMitous suhjccl. In a 
 full discussion of it, I shall br ohiiucd to ('Xiiininc th(^ 
 troneral frame of the most celebrated jj^oveninieiits of 
 ancient and modern times, and es|)eei!dly of those 
 which have been most renowned for their I'nM'doni. 
 'J'he result of such an {wamiiiiitioii will be, thiit in> 
 institution so (letestabl(> ns an absoliitelv uiibiihmced 
 jTovernment, j)erhaps ever e\ist<>d ; that lh<' simple 
 iTOvernments ar(> mere creatures of the* iiniiuiiiation ol 
 theorists, who have transformed names, [\<i'(\ for the 
 convenience of arraniiement. into rcid polities ; that, as 
 constitutions of iioveniment approach inure neaih to 
 that unmixeil and uncontrolled siniplicitv, tliev become 
 desj)otic ; and as they recede fartlhr t'roiii that siin|)lie- 
 ity, th(>y become fre(\ 
 
 f>y the constitutioii of a state. [ mean " f/ir (xxh/ of 
 those initirn (itul inni-i iitni ' I'lnnltn/intiti/ /<iifs ir/iir/i. 
 
 llli'ln ill lilt' t'lilldwill'i |)i/>>;i:;r : "Mi' (Mr. i'ns ) .ilw ii\ < lli.iiiy;||| ;ili\ i>|' I lie 
 Miiijilr uiili.'ilaiici'd ;iii\ cniiiii iiN li.iil ; <ini|ili' iiniinnli \ , -iiii|,li' iiri -Ioii-.-h'v 
 sillljlli' il.'ilKn rnr\ , lie lii-lil lllctllilll illl|M rt'.'i I nr \ irl.iii-., ;i 1 1 \\ i i ,. |,'|,| ',^ 
 rlii'iii-rl\ r< ; llic (•cim|iii-.iii.iii aliiii'' w IK i;m.hI. Tlifsi' IkhI In in ahAa\- Ins 
 |iriiii i|ili'~. Ill \\ Im h III' a^rci'd willi Ins li IiihI, .Mr. Mm kr. '-- .1//-. I'm „/( 
 t/ir .Iniiij r.-liiiiiilis, IMli I'l'l- I7:mi. 
 
 ill s|ii'akiiiy' (if IhiiIi iIii'sc illiislriuiis im i|, \\ liu-r iiaiiii'- I Inri' |n||i, ns 
 llir\ will 111- |iiiiii'il III laiiii' by jm-lirily, wli'ii llnii- lriii|iiirar\ ililiii'i'iiii'M 
 aii> liiiiriitti'ii III till' rri'dllci'lidil III" till n iri'liiil- ami llicir li irinUliiii, | iln 
 mil I'litrrtaiii iIh' vain iiiia^iiialinii llial I ran ailil In lln ii iilmv li\ .iii\ tiimir 
 llial I can say. IJill il is a jrratilirali.iii in inc hi yivc iillriaiii i' l<> m\ I'l.c!- 
 
 Ill^s; lu ('\|in'SS lllc |ll'ornllllll Mllclallnll Willi wlllill I aill lillril I'lir ill.' 
 
 ini'imirv 111' till! line, ami llir \\ anil all'i'rlmn wiiiili I rln ri>li liir llir nllici, 
 wliniii mi oiii' i'\ ' r lii''ir<l in jiiiIiIh' v\ illmm ailniiialiini, or Iwn-w in |in\ ati' 
 iili' wiiiiiini lux inif. 
 
 ' Till' nailrr will oliscrxc llial I insert llii" \\tni\, " iniiriiihn, witli a 
 
IHSCOI HSK (».\ rilK STl I)V Ol' TIM' 
 
 irini/ttir llir most imjioildnl riiihts of the /ilnhfr t)]ai>ls- 
 
 55 
 
 tiiili's, (I ml l/ir most rssciifidl jirici/f^rs ' <)/' tlir snhjti'ts. 
 Snrli ;i IkmI\ (»!' politicnl laws, must, in all countries, 
 arise niil ')!" the cliaractcr and silualitui of a j>('o|)le ; 
 lli«'\ must urow willi its prourcss, \\v adapted to its 
 |K'cidiari1i('s. change wifli its clianiies, and he incorpo- 
 rat»>d iiit<! its jiabits. iiuinan wisdom cannot lorin 
 sncli a constitntidn bv one act. lor linnian wisdom can- 
 noi create the materials of which it is composed. 'The 
 attempt. al\\a\s ineliectnal. to cinino'e hy violence the 
 ancient lial>it> ot" men, and the eslahlished order of 
 socMiN, so as to lit them tor an ahsolutelv new scheme 
 of <:'(»\<'riiinent. Ilows from the most pn^snmptnous 
 iLnioraiic<>. r(M|iiires the support of th(> most ferocious 
 i\rami\, and leads to cons(M|uences which its authors 
 can iie\er iorcsee : ueneralK, indeed, to in>titntions 
 llic mo;t opposite to those of which thev profess to 
 seek the e-tahlishnieiit. ' IJiit human wisdom, inde- 
 fatiuahh emplo\('d U;y reiiiedviiiu ahuses, and in :>ei/- 
 iuL' fa\orahlr opportunitirs of improvinii that <»rder of 
 siw iel\ wjiirji arises from cau-cs o\('r which \\v \\\\\v 
 
 \\v\\ \u ijlr IJIIInrilllt :illll -. llscIr-^-i IM V i U 1 1|" I If i-;i' wllii inlil.llii llr.'ll i'. rl\ 
 
 riiiiiilr\ wliirji |i;i ; iinl ii irrilli ii < mi.-lil iitioii , \ii\i^\ in- williuiil m imm-i mil mii . 
 
 ' I'firilt.i^ III I'nlliail |Uri-|)rilcli-lu-i', lilc'!ili-i llic I n III pi inn . pI' dili' lli(ll\ lil- 
 
 ll.'ll I'loill lll< Mill riltinli III' :l liw l'iililp':|l liri \ iji'^i '~, III llli'~i'll>r ill wiiji'll 
 
 I riiiiilin till' liTMi-', nil nil ill 
 
 rliN 111' till' siiliji 'I- III" M IV 
 
 IIT ilri I 
 
 III ll 111 IS. I I 
 
 itiiil III ihc wi'll-lii'iii-' III' III 
 
 |i •■!- Ill M llTl' ^.l:ll(•, \\ IlK'll 
 I' I'liiiiiiioli wi'mIi ll, lliMt I lii'V 
 
 iiiijiliil Crniii llii iiriliiiir\ ili-i n limi nl' tli. iii.'i'.'istr.ili'. Mini ;;iiiinliMl liv 
 
 llu' siiiii riiiiil.iiiii iil:il I lu • u liiili -11 iiri III- iiiilliiiril' 
 
 '•' St • III ,'iiliiiir;ilil 
 ll Snlinii Ills, \ III 
 
 !'• |i;i— iL'i' 'III till- .-111 
 
 iiji-il III l)r 
 
 'I'll 
 
 ifM. 
 
 |;i| — I rj. Ill V lin ll llir trill- ijiirliiiii' III' ii'l'iiriiiii- 
 
 tioli 
 
 i- l;iii| iliivv n w It 
 
 I -Mi:.'iil;ir :ilii 
 
 lit\ la th ll I'll 
 
 ijiii'iil iiiiil jilii 
 
 ii-ii|il(|r:il 
 
 v^ritii- Sr.' .il-i, \1r ItiiiK 
 
 I ill nil n I iiiiiinii'.i I nlnriii ; am' ?^ir 
 
 Sir M 
 
 llitli nil till' ;iiiiiiiiliii. Ill ..r l;i\',-. III ill!' I iilli rlimi III' iii\ lidiiii ll .mil ti\<<>\ 
 
 '\< . Ill ll! I'r 
 
 M. II 
 
 .'r:ivr, |i 
 
 M- 
 
J. AW OF NATl'Ri: AND NATION? 
 
 87 
 
 little control, after the relorms imd ninondinonts of a 
 scries of Hfrva, h;is, sonietiine.«, tlioiiiili very rarelv,^ 
 shown itself ca])ul)le of biiildino iip a free constitution, 
 which is " the lirowlii of linie and nutin-e, rather than 
 the work of human invention."" Such a constitution 
 can only he formed l>y the wise '\u\\U\Uon oi' ^^ llie great 
 innovator, ti\ii:," — "which, indeed, imiovateth jrreat- 
 ly. hut (juietly, and hy deii'rees scarce to he ])erceived." ■' 
 Without descendiniT t() the ])ueril(3 ostentation of paiie- 
 jryric, uj)on that of which all mankind coid"e,-s the 
 excellence, I may ohsiM've, with truth and soherness, 
 that a frc(! <j-overnme!it not only estahlishes an uni- 
 versal security aixainst urouff. hut that it also cherishes 
 all the nohlest [towers of the human mind ; that it 
 tends to banish holh the uk an and the fer<»cious vices; 
 that it improves the national character to which it is 
 
 ' Pinir (i)riiii'r iiii •.'iiiivcnn'diciil inodri-i', il fiiiit foiiihiiifr Ii's piiissanfr's, 
 Ics ri';;lt r, Ic-c tiiiipi-rcr, Ics liiiri' ii'fir, iliniiicr |i()ui- aiii>i ilirc iiii lest ii liiiiu 
 |Miiir hi iiicflrc (11 il:il ill ii'>i-~iir ,i iiiir aiitri', i r>l iiii < licl'-il'ii'ir. n- ilc ligis- 
 hilliiii i|iic \r li:i/,,ir(l I'lh rari'iin'iit, rt i|iir riirciiiciit nii hii>>c tiiirc u lii |irii- 
 cli'iiri'. I'll iiniurnic'iiinil (lis|iniii|Uf ail "■milrairc siiilc poiii- aiiisi dirr aii.v 
 si'ii\ ; il r^l iiiiiloriiM' |iailniii •. ciuiniii' \l iii' I'aiil ■|ii" ilr- |)a.-.-inii> jiniir 1- 
 ('talilir tdiil |i' iiiiiiii!'' I <\ Imii |iiair ■ i la.' — Miiiil( yi/iiii i/^ l>i I' r.s/iri/ ihs f.n/.r, 
 liv. V. V. II. 
 
 - I (|iiii|i' llii.< |ia»~:ii;i' iVmii liisliii|i Slii|'li\ s liraiilil'iil aii'nuii! lif the I'.ii- 
 i;li.-i|i ( 'i)ii<liliilMiN, ( Slii|iliv's \\ I'l'k-i, \ III. li. |i. II 'j,) iiiii' III' tlir liriol parts 
 
 of a W I'ili r, \\ lln--r W "\'k< I - .lllllnl help rnilsidrrillL'' as lllr plIIT-l and llliist 
 
 liiiilllr-^ iiimlrl n|' ri ill 1 pi i<i I inn iji.at ijir prrsi III a;;'' I'aii lioa.-l. (iri'ai.r v ijinr 
 and -pliiidiii- iiia\ In I'.iniid in lillirrs, Inil ^o pirli'd a la.-Ir, <iiili diasto 
 and Miudi'^l 1 li';.'ani-i', il \\ill, I llilllk, l:r li.'ii'il In disriiVi'l' ill an\ ollirl' I'll- 
 glisli u I'lliT III' llii- II ii'ii, — .Villi lit llilnl I ilitiiui. 
 ■' IjiiI'iI IJariin, r,s>a\ \\i\. Hi' I nnnv al nms. 
 
 (1) III iiiiln 111 ruMi a |iiiiilriii L'l'V iiiiiM 111. «. iiiii-^l iiiailiiiir ii- |iii\vi'i-. n i.'iiliiti', tniipi'i', 
 am! pill I 111' I II III .11 Hull ; plariiii:, ~<> in -{y iN, ;i lialla~l in i In . in uiili r In n inli i' il i'a|i:ilili iif 
 ii'-^l.-llii;; .niiilliiT i il ii a i7ii;/' i/'imk »v nl' li'iM^I I'um 111 i! "liaiii i iiiiK iin.iliirrH, iiiiil iiiii' 
 1 1 111 I i> lai. I> fi-iiin i| |i)-i I; iill> . .\ ili -ji. it i iMniriiiii' iil, lU !lii nailiMj , i- al',\ ;n s \i>ilili- ; it 
 I < till ^aiiir ('\ ri,\ u In 11' ; aiiil niir ii i- c.-liilili.-lii il iii llu' alii'dinii.-* nl' iiii ii, all tin' u mlil !.- 
 aila|ilri| l.i it. 
 
88 
 
 Kisroiui^ii; ON the stidv or Tin: 
 
 si(lai)to(l, iiiid out of u hirh it jxrows ; tluit its whole 
 iuliniMistratioii is a practical school of honesty aiul 
 hmnaiiitv ; in which tli(> social allcctioiis, expanded 
 into |)nl>lic .>-|)iiit, act thronirh a wider spiiere and are 
 moved hv a more powerful sprin<r. 
 
 I shall conclude what J have to oiler on govern- 
 nient. hv an account of the Constitution of Knjrlaiid. 
 I shall (Muleavor to trac«' the |)ro^ress of that Consti- 
 tution hv the liirht (»f history, of laws, and of records, 
 from th(> earliest times to tlu> present a»,f(> ; and to 
 show how the general principles of liherty, originally 
 connnon to it. with the other (Jothic monarchies of 
 I ,urope. hut in other countries lost or ohscured, were, 
 in this more fortunate island, preserved, matured, a id 
 auapted to the j)roi:ress ot" civilization. I shall attiMupt 
 to exiiihit this most complicated machin(% as our his- 
 torv and our law> show it. in action : and not, as some 
 celehrated writers have most im|)erfectly represented 
 it. who lia\e torn out a \'r\v of its more simple sj)rinos, 
 and. j)Uttinii- tluMu together, miscall them the IJritish 
 Constitution. So prevalent, indeed, have these imj)er- 
 fect re|)resentations hitherto heen, that I w ill vcMitnro 
 t<» allinn. there is scared v any suhject which has heen 
 less \reated as it deserved, than the Lfo\ernment ol" 
 I'.niiland. l'hiloso|>liers of jjreat and merited rej)Uta- 
 tion' have told us that it consisted ot" certain portions 
 of monarchy, aristocracy and democracv : names which 
 are. ill ninli, \ery little apjdicahle. and which, if they 
 were, W(.)ukl as little iiive an idea of thir^ t^overnment, 
 
 ■ Till' riMilcr will pcriiiv.' ili.ii I nlliidi i<> M^v i r ^i)i i ' . wliuin I mcmi- 
 ii.niir uilliciiil n-MTi'iu'i, lliMii:;|i | >li.ill |iic^iiini' lo crilii Im' Ins iifcuiiiil uf a 
 gii\ ciiiiiirul wliirli ill- niilv -aw al a ili^laiK I'. 
 
LAW OF NATL RE AJVI> NA'llUNS. 
 
 89 
 
 as mi account of the \vei<,dit of bone, of llesli, and of 
 l)lootl in a human body, would he a picture of a Uving 
 man. Notlnn«r hut a palit'ut iiud minute investigation 
 of tlie practice of the ifovernmeiit in all its parts, and 
 throujfli its wliole liistory, can give us just notions on 
 this important subject. If a lawyer, without a philo- 
 sophical spirit, he uiUMjual to the examination of this 
 great work of liberty and wisdom, still more uneijual 
 is a philosopher witiiout practical, legal, and historical 
 knowledge ; for the first may want skill, but the second 
 wants materials. 'I'he obs(>rvations of Lord liacon on 
 j)olitical writers, in general, are most applicable to 
 those who have given us systematic descrij)tions of 
 the lOnglish constitution. '• All those who have written 
 of governnu'Uts have writ1("n as philosophers, or as 
 lawyers, and none as staUninin. As lor the philoso- 
 phers, the\ make imaginary laws for imaginary com- 
 monwealths, and their discourses are as the stars, which 
 give little light because they are so high." — '• liar 
 coi>nitio (((I riro.s ciri/rs jnoprif' pcrtlnct,^' ' as he tells 
 us in another part of his writings; but, unfortunately, 
 no experienced piiilosophical British statesman has 
 yet devoted his leisure to a (l(>lineation of the consti- 
 tution, which such a statesman alone can practically 
 and perfectly know. 
 
 Jn the discussion of this great subject, rnd in all 
 reasonings on the princi|)les of p(»litics, I shall labor, 
 above all things, to avoid that which -ippc^jirs to me to 
 have been the constant source of political (M-ror : [ 
 mean the attempt to give an air of system, of siin])li- 
 
 (h 'I'lii- kiiiiu I. ilui Ik Iniii- iiiirr |ir.:|i 'ih I" (i.^liln i,ui-. 
 I. 
 
9U 
 
 uiscoL'itsr. <->% riir. f-Tiuv of tiik 
 
 ritv. iiiid of ritforoiis (IfMuoiistratioii, to sul)jocts wliicli 
 do not luliiiit llu'iii. Tlic only iiu'mm.s hy wliicli this 
 could l)(> doiic, was hy rct'cirinii- to a lew simple causes, 
 what, in truth, arose Iroiu iiinneiisc and intricate coni- 
 hiuatious. and succ(>ssions ol" causes. 'I'he conse- 
 ((ueiice was verv oi)viou>. I'he system oltho tlieorist, 
 disencunihered iVoni all reijard to the real nature of 
 thiuLi's. easilv assumed an air ot" speciousiu'ss. It re- 
 (|uired litfle dexterity to make jiis aruument apj)ear 
 conclusive. Hut all men airreed that it was utterly 
 inaj)|)licahle to human allairs. 'J'he theorist railed at 
 the I'ollv ol" tlie w(»rld, in>fead of coidessinjx his own ; 
 autl the men ol' jjractice unjuMly blamed pliiloso|)hy, 
 instead of condenmiuir the so|)hist. The reas(jn of 
 this constant war helween specidation and ])ractice, it 
 is not diliicult to discover. It arises from the very 
 nature of ()Mlifi( id science. 'TIk^ causes which the 
 politiciiin liii- to consider, are. al)ov<' all others, multi- 
 plied, complicated, uMUiile. siihiile. and, il" I mav so 
 spciik, evanescent : perjxtindly clian^inii' their form, 
 and varyiuL*^ theu' comhinations ; losinij their nature, 
 while tliev k<'ep their name : <'\hihitinu' the most dit- 
 ferent con;((|uences in die endless diversity of uwn 
 and nations ^m wliom thev operate' : in one dejiree of 
 streiiL'^tli prodiicinii- the mo>t siLnial henefit ; and, uiuler 
 an apparenlK sliulii variation of circumstances, the 
 most tremendous mischiefs. Thev admit, indeed, of 
 hem^i; reiliict d to tlie(»ry : hut to a theory lornied on 
 th(^ mo>l e\tensi\e \ie\\s. of the most com|)reliensiv(! 
 and llexihle |)rinciple.-. so as to embrace all their vari- 
 < tie.-, and to lit all their rapid transmiiiratioiis ; a iheorv, 
 ol which the most fundamental nia.xim is, distrust in 
 
I,AW or NATUKK AM) NATION'S. 
 
 m 
 
 itsolf, and (lot'orcncc for practicnl j)ni(ltMic'o. Only two 
 wriUM's of lbnn(>r tnncs liavo, as tar as I know, o!)- 
 servod tliis frcneml (k'lect ol' political rcasoncrs : hut 
 these two are the tj^rcatest ))hil()so|)lu>rs who have (n(>r 
 apjx'ared in the world. 'I'he first of them is Aristotle, 
 wlio, in a passage of his I'olities.' to whirh I cannot 
 at this moment tMrii, plainly condenms ihc |)nrsuit of 
 a delusive if<x)metrical accuracv in moral reasonin«:s 
 as the constant source? ol" tlu; urossest error. The 
 second is liOrd l5acon, who tells us, with that authority 
 ot" conscious wisdom which helongs to him, an<l with 
 
 ' [ liMVc t-iiii'r ili-riiv crid till' |)iia>;i|.'(' 111' rnllicr |);is<nfrc-: (i( .\ri-i|i<llc tn 
 wliicli 1 itlliuli'd ; 1 li;i\i' collrrii.l s('\i!-:il dl' llii'^r pas-^.M'is tVii,ii -varidiis 
 |i.'irts ul' lii-i wriliii:;-, ilial llic iimiIit ni;i_\ srr llir .-iiixirtv nl' lli:it jrrriil. 
 ]iliiliiS(ijilii'r Id ini iiI<':i!i', I'.cM a1 llic i'\|iclisi' ul' rr|iilili(ii|, tlir iili.-iirdiM ni" 
 t'M'ry iin('iii|)l ti) niltivati' nr tiacli moral |)liiliis()|iliy uitli a irioinclriiiil I'x- 
 aitnc~s, u liicli, in ihr \ am pursiiil of an an-iirMcy w liidi i.rv ( r can In niori! 
 tliaii ii/'/iiiri .'il, l)rira\< llir iiHiuiii'r in!" rial, iiiiiininralilr, ami niosl iiiU- 
 iliirvoiis t'allacii'-i : 
 
 \lifi fAi\i ijv TWi ■■ar;t.l~--j-.ui\-w:', v'.T'^i; ts VTJ^yuv S'.l, x:t/ ■tt-i/ik TC.'XC t;iI' iuTiv', 
 
 S '-1 ^■'!uv 'S l:t Tl Ti'V '■.'i! KJ-t ru'j ^/.r ;«?lTi'.' rTc. TH." :/ljisyS-lri:-.—. I I'l sf . lll Ihilllli. 
 
 ijh. vii., lap. 7, iti liiii'. 
 
 ■j/>^i. — Milii/iliijs. lili. ii. <a|i. iill.-' 
 
 \UtjuS iuuiv" -^np ?:/■/ ST( t;J"7:v TUiipjCi: ST(^i'?>i'.' kvV in-jr'.v J5v;c f^i' '.J"-v « T« 
 
 njrJ-/jx'i-xi Kit !,itr.^tii'^v tnJii'^w: ■jtT-jti'u'i. — t'.lliif. ml .Vn/niiii. lili. i. .a]!. I. 
 
 Ill liic lirst ol" ili('-:c> rcliiarUalilr |iassa;;r<, lie ionlrailistiiiniii>lic's iiioralily 
 tVoiii tlic |iliv~i'al sciciicts ; in the srcmid, iVniil llic ahslracl sciclicr^. 'riic 
 ilistiiii lion, IJiniiijJi ol" a ilill'm ii! natiiia', i< ri|iiall_\ y:rcal iii liolli cascH. 
 Moralilv laii oritlicr allaiii tin' /iii liiiiil/i ill 'i ol' the ^liinn s w liirji arc roii- 
 \crsaiif with rMrriial natiirr, nor llir ,<////////(■//// ul' i lio-c, w liiili, luraiisi' 
 ihcv arr liiuinli il on a li\v < !i iii.iilar\ |iriiiii|ili-, ailinit ipI' ri:roniii,» (Icnion- 
 slration ; liiil tliis is a .xiilijcrt wliidi would rr(|iiin: a Imig di^siTlation. I am 
 ■■atislicd willi la\ing licfon' llio icadrr tin; aiitliorily and the rfaxming id' 
 Aristotle. 
 
 ,'01 CiiiiiiiaP' llii- |i:i-~:i!li' u illi tlial u liii li !-• ijiinli it in llio iifvt incc IVdiii l.nnl !! iii.ii. 
 
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^<° €^. 
 
 
\)'l 
 
 DlsrolUS"', u\ Tlir. STl'DY tH' TITF- 
 
 tlmt |)o\vor o\' richly iuloniod trutli from tlic wardrobe 
 ol' iToniiis, which h(> possrssinl silmvc (dnwst all men, 
 " Civil Iviiowledm' is convcrsiuit about a subject which, 
 above all oIIkm's, is niost immersed in matter, and hard- 
 liest reduced lo axiom.'' ' 
 
 IV. I shall next endeavor to lay open the o;oncral 
 principles of civil and criminal laws. On this subject, 
 I may, with souie conlidence, hope that I siiall bo 
 enabled to reason b(>tler l>y niy ac(iuaintance with the 
 laws of my nun ccMMitry, which it is the business of 
 my life to practise, and f>f winch the study, has, by 
 habit, becoUK! my favorit*; pursuit. 
 
 The lirst |)rinciples of jurisprudence arc simple 
 maxims of reason, of which the observance, as wc 
 know by innucdiate e\peri(>nce, is essential to the 
 security of men's rights, and which pervade the laws 
 of all countries. An account of the irmdual applica- 
 tion of these ( iiiinal princi|>l('s, first, to more simj)le, 
 and iitterwards to leore complicated cases, forms both 
 the history and the theory of law. Such an historical 
 account of the prourcss of nien, in reducinfjj justice 
 to an ap|)licablo and pracliral system, will enable us 
 
 ' Tliis |)niii'i|ili' i> ivpn <^i'il li\ ,1 writer of :\ \ crv (lill'iri'iil cliiii-iiclor 
 tVuiii llii'M' ivMi filial |iliil(i~M|ilic f> , ,'i w lilir, " (///'(i/i ii'ii/i/iilli 1(1 jiliis jilii- 
 Ihsii/iIk, iiiiiis i/ii'iiii II jijii III III li jiliis i' liii/iii III (// .V ,v/i^,7)/.\7( .s," ' wiili grc.'it 
 I'lirrc, and, as lii-* iiianiiiT i^, willi miimc isafii!! ration : 
 
 " l\ It V a |i(iiiil ill' jiiiii' ijii - all-trail • ilaiis la |)nlitii|iii'. (' I'sl line srii'liro 
 lies rali'liis, dcK (■iimlilllliiMills, il ilrs r\ii'|ilii)lis, -H'loll Irs lirilx, lis liiiijis I'l. 
 IcK cirriiiisiaiiris. " ' — l.iilii ill lliiiissiiiii nil .Miirijii/s ili Miriilii iiii . 
 
 Tlio scrniiil |ir<i|iii*lliiiii IS triir . Iml tlir lirst is iim a just inrfri'inT rroin il. 
 
 I'D 'I'liiil Hi' raiiliiil rail iiinii |>liil<i~ii|iliii', IimI u c imiv rail tin iiiii'*! i Uii|iu lit (if lllc 
 fnplil.-ls. 
 
 (2) 'I'litrr 1111' nil aii-li-.ii I |iiiiiri|i|i''i m iinlillrs. It i< a irjcnrf nf raliiilalln'is, nt" rniiiM- 
 niitiiills, liml III rvrr|itiiiii», .■|rnii iliiiL' In |ilai '., iiinr';, ;,iii| riri iiiii-taiin s. I.dtrr of lioiisscau 
 III llw Miliums ill- Miriiln iiiK 
 
LAW OF NATIRF, AND NATIONS 
 
 OJl 
 
 to trace that chain, in which so many breaks and inter- 
 ruptions are perceived by superficial observers, but 
 which, in truth, inseparably, though widi many dark 
 and hidden windings, hnks together the security ot'hfe 
 and property with the most minute and apparently 
 frivolous formalities of legal proceeding. We shall 
 perceive that no human foresight is sufficient to estab- 
 lish such a system at once, and that, if it were so 
 established, the occurrence of unforeseen cases would 
 shortly altogether change it ; that there is but one way 
 of forming a civil code, either consistent with common 
 sense, or that has ever been ju'actised in any countrv, 
 namely, that of gradually building up the law in pro- 
 portion as the facts arise which it is to regulate. We 
 shall learn to ap{)reciate the lerit of vulgar objections 
 against the subtlety and complexity of laws. We shall 
 estimate the good sense and the gratitude of tliose who 
 reproach lawyers (or employing all the powers of their 
 mind to discover subtle distinctions for the prevention 
 of injustice ; ' and we shall at once perceive that laws 
 ought to be neitiier more simple nor more complex 
 than the state of society which they are to govern, 
 but that they ought exactly to correspond to it. Of 
 the two fiiults, however, the excess of simplicity would 
 certainly be the greatest ; for laws, more comj)lex than 
 are necessary, would only produce embarrassment ; 
 whereas laws more simple than the afiairs which they 
 regulate, would occasion a defect of justice. More 
 
 ' 'I'lic ('.■isiiisliciil siililli'lics nri' iiol ipciliMps jin'iilcr lliMii tlu; siilith'licH of 
 lawyers; hii/ ilic liillvr arc inninuil. (iiul even necessary. — Hume's Essays, 
 vol. ii., |i. ."),")-'. 
 
04 
 
 l)l!S€()URSE th\ TliK t-TUUV OF TlIP, 
 
 > 
 
 understanding' has, i)orluips, been in this manner 
 exerted to li : die rules ot life, than in nnj otlier science ; 
 and ^t is certainly the most honorable occn[)ation of 
 the und'v.'rstaiiding, because it is the most inunediately 
 subservient to general safety and condort. Tiierc is 
 not, in my opinion, in the uhole compass of hunum 
 afiairs, so noble a si)ectacle as that which is dis|)layed 
 in the proiirciss of jurisiuudence ; where we may con- 
 template the cautious and unwearied exertions of a 
 succession of wise men throuuh a lon«jf course of a^jjes ; 
 withdrawinij every case as it arises I'rom the dangerous 
 power of discretion, and subjecting it to intlexible 
 rules ; extending the dominion of justice and reason, 
 and gradually contracting, within the narrowest pos- 
 sible limits, the domain of l)rntal force and of arbi- 
 trarv will. This subject has been treated with such 
 dignity, by a writer who is admired by all maidvind for 
 his elo<|uence, but who is, if jiossible, still more ad- 
 mired by all c(.nii)eteiit judges for his j)hilosophy ; a 
 writer, of whom 1 may justly say, that he was ^^aravis- 
 simus ft ilirnuU ft IntfUiacndi (iitrtor ct ma^i.stcr, " ' 
 that I cannot refuse ujyselfthe gratification of ([uoting 
 his words : — " The science of juris|)rud('nce, the j)ri(le 
 of the human intellect, which, with all its defects, re- 
 dundancies, and errors, is the collected reason of ages 
 
 ' " I,;i\v," siiil Dr. ,l(iliM-iin, " is ilic sciriirc in \\ liirli the ■irciilcsl |iii\V(rH 
 iif iiiMlcr-lMMiliii;; MIT ;i|i|p|ii;l In llir |.'r.:ili'>l liumlirr i<\' tin-Is. " .Ncilmdy, 
 wllii is ;ir(|ii;iiiiti'<l Willi llii' Miridv iillil liiulli|ilic il \ ol' llir siiliji'cis (if jiiris- 
 pnidriiic, :iiii[ witli tlii' iirndi^rioiis iiiiwiis i<\' (lisiriiiiiiialiiiii (,in|iliiv(.'(l iijioii 
 llii'Mi, cim (Idiilil till- tiiilli iil'lliis (ilisirv .ilioii. 
 
 (•J) The iiriil'.iun.lr.-i i.l' ilnnkirs, ;mil III ■ iiin-t i Imiiii nl nf uratnn'. 
 
LAW OF NATURE AND NATIONS. 
 
 95 
 
 conil)Jning the principles of original justice with the 
 infinite variety of human concerns." '■ 
 
 I shall exemplify the progress of law, and illustrate 
 those principles of universal justice on which it is 
 founded, hy a comparative review of the two greatest 
 civil codes that have been hitherto formed — those of 
 Rome ~ and of England ; ^ of their agreements and 
 disagreements, both in general provisions, and in some 
 of the most important parts of their minute i)racticc. 
 In til is part of the course, which I mean to pursue 
 with such detail as to give a view of both codes, that 
 may, perhaps, be sufficient for the purposes of the 
 general student,* I hope to convince him thf>t the 
 laws of civilized nations, particularly those of his own, 
 are a subject most worthy of scientitic curiosity ; that 
 
 ' l?iii!v( 's W'ork.-i, vol. iii,, ji. ^'X\. 
 
 ^ Jt iiiiiv, |)rrli;i|)>, iKit 1x1 disiiiirccilili' to the reiuh.'r to find lici'i' llii^ |i;is- 
 siign of liKiHN!!/., lo wliiili I liiivc rcli'iicd in llir t'oniiir editions o|" \ho. 
 Discourse. " <^etel•o(|ni^ e^o Diirrslonnii Opus V(d polius nueloiuni inide 
 exceriifii sunt lahores iidrniror, nee ipiidijUMni vidi si\i' riitioMinn jx'^dere sivo 
 dieendi iiervos s[ieetes quod ni;igis aceedut ad inatlhiuiitieoruin laudeni." ' — 
 Leibnitz, Up. vol. iv., |>. 'l'y\. 
 
 •* On tlio inliniate eonneetion cd" these codes, let us liear llic wiirds of 
 Lord Holt, wlnise name n( ver i an lie [iroiKinnccd williont vi'iieratiou, as long 
 as wisdom and intejirily are revered anniiifr men: — " Iiiasnunli iis tliv hiirs 
 of nil iKiliiins nil- iliiiili/l( S.I nii.iid mil i>f llic ruins of the riril /(//r, as all 
 iroverumeiits are s|iniuix oul (d" tin' ruins (d" the Itoman eni|iire, it nuist ho 
 owned llidt Ihr /irinri/ilr.i of our liiir iirr hornnrdl from Ihi rii-il Ion-, there- 
 lore grounded upon the sanu' reason in many things." — I'i Moil. l^^'J. 
 
 ' On a closer e\aniinalion, this jiarl ol" m\ scheiiie lias prosed im|>racli a- 
 l)h' in the ( \teiit which I ha\e here prii|iosed, and within llie short time lo 
 which I am ni'iessarilv eontined. A geni'ral view ol' the principles of law, 
 with some iliuslralions from the l''ngli-li and itom.in codes, is all thai I can 
 compa- s. 
 
 (h l!i'<,ilr<, I grcally adaiirc 111!' DiL'c.-ls, (ir riitlicr llic >kill uf tiji' anllKirs in rdiiiposiiHr 
 tliciii , nor have I ever seen aii.s- Ilium, lur fun c el' riasiiiiiiin er stieii|,'lli uf LWprt'ssidii, lliut 
 a|iiiriia('li(;s su acar, a>- llicv iln. in llic |.ii ci-umi el' inallii laalicH. 
 
m 
 
 90 
 
 DiscouRsi; ON Till: s'lL'DV ui' Tin: 
 
 K. 
 
 principle and system run throunli \\\vn\ even to the 
 minutest particular, as really, though not so apparently, 
 as in other sciences, and are applied (o purposes more 
 imj)ortant than in any other scieucc. \\ ill it he pre- 
 sumptuous to express a ho|)e, tluil such au iii(|uiry may 
 not he altogether an useli'ss introduelion to that larger 
 and more detailed study <»ttli<' law of llugland, which 
 is the duty of those who arc to proli'ss and practise 
 that law ? 
 
 In considering the im|>orlaur suhject of criminal 
 law, it will he n»y duty t > fouud, on n reganl to the 
 iieneral safety, the riuht *;!' the uiagistrate to intlict 
 punishments, even the most severe, if that sali'ty can- 
 not he efl'ectuallv protrctt-d hy the «',\ampl(! of inferior 
 punishmonts. It will he a uiore agrecahle part of my 
 office to explain the t«'m|)«'iam('Uts which NVisdom, as 
 well as Humanity, jjrcscrihes in the «'\ercise of that 
 harsh right. unfortunat<ly so cssrutial to the preserva- 
 tion of human society. I shall collate the penal codes 
 of diflerent nations, and gather togetlu-r the most 
 accurate statement of the result of experience with 
 resjM'ct to the ellicacy of lenient and severe punish- 
 ments ; and 1 shall endeavor to ascertain the principles 
 on which must he tbunded hoth the proportion and the 
 appropriation of jxMialties to crimes. 
 
 As to the /(lie of nimiiiti/ iirorrcilina,^ my lahor will 
 he very easv : for on that suhject an I'-nglish lawyer, 
 if he were to delineate the model of perfe<'tioii, would 
 find, that, with feu exceptions, he had transcrihed the 
 
 ' n\ the " I.iiir iif rrinniiiil jinii i uliiin ■, I iii' nii llinni. I,i\ss wliiih xt'gw- 
 WX" \\\'' liiiil 1)1" lllill ai c u-id 111' cniriis, iiM (ll>lll|i;lll-liril iVnlil fll liill III ir , 
 
 wliicli liMS llir i)inii.<lniii lit n|" iiinii- 
 
I.AVV OF NATURE AND NATIONS 
 
 07 
 
 institutions of his own country. The whole subject 
 ot my lectures, of which I have now given the outhne, 
 may be summed up in the words of Cicero : — " Na- 
 tura enim juris ex])licanda est nobis, eaque ab hominis 
 rcjietenda natura ; consideranda) leges, quibiis civitates 
 regi dcbeant ; turn luec tractanda qua? composita sunt 
 et descripta, jura et jussa populorum ; in quibus ne 
 
 NOSTRI miDEM POIM 1,1 LATEBUNT QVJE VOCANTUR JURA 
 CIVIMA." ' — C/C. de Li'iT. hb. i. C. 5. 
 
 V. The next great division of the subject is the law 
 of nations, strictly and properly so called. I have 
 already hinted at the general principles on which this 
 Inw is founded. They, like all the principles of natural 
 jurisprudence, have been more happily cultivated, and 
 more generally obeyed, in some ages and countries 
 than in others ; and, like them, are susceptible of great 
 variety in their application, from the character and 
 usages of nations. I shall consider these principles 
 m the gradation of those which are necessary to any 
 tolerable intercourse between nations: those which 
 are essential to all well regulated and mutually advan- 
 tageous intercourse ; and those which are highly con- 
 ducive to the preservation of a mild and friendly inter- 
 course between civilized states. Of the first class, 
 every understanding acknowledges the necessity, and 
 some traces of a faint reverence for them are discov- 
 ered even among the most barbarous tribes ; of the 
 second, every well-informed man perceives the im- 
 
 (I) T am tn oxplnin tlip naliiie (if law, and llml niiisr lip Miusht inr in the <(instiliirinn of 
 mnn. 'I'lic laws liy wliiili stalos (iiiclil I" hi' sovcrncil, must firstly he ronsKlcrcri , tlicii llip 
 parts of wlil.M they arc eoriiposcl ; ami tlir (i<-srriplinii ofllirni an- to he spoken of, viz. tlip 
 laws and rnst! .ns of the pi opli- ; anions wliirli aie lliose of the Uoni,in!», cnlk-rt civil laws, 
 that shall not !.,• pas-id omi m silence. 
 
 M 
 
06 
 
 DISCOURSE ON THE STUDY OF TIIE 
 
 
 portant iiso, and they have jrenerally been respected 
 by all polished nations ; of the third, the j^reat benefit 
 may be read in the history of modern ICurope, where 
 alone they have been carried to their ("nil jjerlection. 
 In nnt'oldinjT the lirst and second class of principles, I 
 shall natnrally be led to «;ive an account ot" that law of 
 nations, which, in greater or less perfection, re<fulated 
 the interconrse of savages, of the Asiatic empires, and 
 of the ancient republics. The third brings me to the 
 consideration of the law of nations, as it is now 
 acknowledged in Christendom. Krom the great extent 
 of the subject, and the particularity to which, for rea- 
 sons already given, 1 must here descend, it is imj)os- 
 sible tor me, within any moderate com]>ass, to give 
 even an outline of this part of the course. It com- 
 prehends, as every reader will perceive, the principles 
 of national independence, the intercourse of nations 
 in peace, the privileges of ambassadors and inferior 
 ministers, the commerce of private subjects, the 
 grounds of just war, the nmtual duties of belligerent 
 and neutral powers, the limits of lawful hostility, the 
 rights of conquest, the faith to be observed in warfare, 
 the force of an armistice, of safe conducts anil pass- 
 ports, the nature and obligation of alliances, the means 
 of negotiation, and the authority and interpretation of 
 treaties of peace. All these, and many other most 
 imj»ortaiit aiid complicated subjects, with all the vari- 
 ety of moral reasoning, and historical e.\am|)les, which 
 is necessary to illustrate them, nmst be fully examined 
 in this part of the lectures, in which I shall endeavor 
 to put together a tolerably com])lete practical system 
 of the law of nations, as it has for the last two c(Mi- 
 turies been recognised in Imuojx'. 
 
LAW OF NATL HI:: AND NATIONS 
 
 «K> 
 
 " Le (huh des gens est iiaturcUcmcnt fondo sur ce 
 priiicipo ; (|uo Jcs diverges nations doivent sc Ihire, 
 daiiH Iji |)aix, lo i)lus do bioii, ct dans la ouerre Ic moins 
 do nial, (ju'll est j)o.ssil)lo, sans nuirc ii leurs vcritablcs 
 inU'rcts. 
 
 " L'objct dc la guerre c'cst la victoire ; colui do la 
 victoiro la concjuctc ; celui do la conquote la conser- 
 vation. Do CO principe et du precedent, doivent 
 deriv(>r toutcs les lojx (jui torment Ic droit des gniH. 
 
 " Toutes les nations ont un droit des gens ; les lio- 
 (juois nienie qui niangent leur prisonniers en ont un. 
 lis envoientet reroivent des emhassades ; ils connois- 
 sent les droits de la guerre ct do la paix : le nial est 
 <iue cc droit des gens n'est i>as Ibnde sur les vrais prin- 
 cipes." ' — /> rKsinil des Loix, liv. i. c. 3. 
 
 VI. As an important supi)lenient to the practical 
 system ol' our modern law of nations, or rather jis a 
 necessary |)art of it, 1 shall conclude with a survey of 
 the di/domatic and ronvcntiomd law of Europe ; of the 
 treaties which have materially atl'ected the distribution 
 of power and territory among the European states ; 
 the circumstances which gave rise lotheni, the changes 
 which they elfected, and the j)rinciples which they 
 introduced into the ]>ublic code of the Christian com- 
 monwealth. In ancient times, the knowledge of this 
 
 (I) liitcriialidiial law is iiatiiriilly fniiiiilcil mi this |iriiiii|(lc, that (liil'irriit iialiiUH iiimlit, in 
 liiiii' 111' |ii :iri , III ilii iinr aiiiillir. II tlir L'linil they ran ; anil in liirii' iil' war us lilllr iiijiiiy as 
 liiissililr, withiillt lirrjiiilii r In tlnir rral lllti'irst. 
 
 'I'hr iihji It 111' war, is viilnn ; thai ol' \irliii>, ruminrsl ; ami thai nfr |nrsl, |iirsrrvaliiil). 
 
 I''riim this, ami llii' prriiilliiL' |iiinii|ili', all Un- I ,s whiih I'linii inliiiiatinnal law ari' do- 
 livril. 
 
 All I'niinlrii's havr intiriialinnal laws, t'\ir. Iir I ioi|iiolsr tlinnsi'h rs, who flrvniir thrir 
 [irlsiiniis. 'I'lny srnil ami iimtIm' anihassadnis, ami iimlrrstaml thr liiilils nf war ami piacc. 
 'I'hr iliilii ally, liin\r\rr, in thru inlrinaliiinal law i-. thai it is ni t i'nnnilril iipmi trni' prinri 
 
 plis. 
 
lUU 
 
 bLxcouui^F. ON Tin; jstudy or Tin; 
 
 conventional law was thontrht one ot* the jjrcatost 
 praises that could bo bestowed on a name loaded with 
 all the honors that eminence in tlu^ arts of peace and 
 war can confer. 
 
 " iMinideni existinio. judices, cnni in oinni {jenere 
 ac varietate artinin, etiani illarnni, (piin sine sninnio 
 otio non facile discuntur, (n. j'onipeins excellat, sin- 
 gularcin quandani laudeni ejus et |)ra«stabilein esse 
 scientiani, //' fadrribiis. pact'umibtis, conditionihvs 
 populorum, }r<>>nn, r.rtnannn tuitloiunn : in nniverso 
 deniqne belli jure ac pacis." ' — Cic. Oral, pro L. Corn. 
 Bdfbo, c. C). 
 
 Information on this subject is scattered over an im- 
 mense variety of voluminous compilations ; not ficces- 
 sible to every one, and of which the |)erusal can be 
 agreeable only to very few. \'et so much of these 
 treaties has been embodied into the general law of 
 Europe, that no man can be master of it who is not 
 acquainted with them. The knowledge of" them is 
 necessary to negotiators and statesmen : it may some- 
 times be imj)ortant to private men in various situations 
 in which they may be placed : it is useful to all men 
 who wish either to be acquainted with modern history, 
 or to form a sound judgment on political measures. 
 i shall endeavor to give such an abstract of it as may 
 be sufficient for some, and a convenient guide for 
 others in the farther progress of their studies. 'I'he 
 trcfities, which I shall more particularly consider, will 
 
 (1) Iiiilccil I lliink, Jiidcrs, siiirc in cvrry kind and varitfy of tlio nits, rvcn tlinsc wliicli 
 nr(^ not rasjjy li.irni (1 wnlioiil llii- cifatol li isiin, CnriiiJ I'dinpi'iiiH ixrcllrd, and In' was 
 prr I niiniiitly skilird in, and is Id lie pr.iisi d fur lii< knuu liiiac of r(in>litnli(ins, siipula 
 tiiins, and trc alics uf nations, lidtli fdrri^'n and dmni »lic ; and was, in slmrl, will viisi-d in 
 t'Vciy tliinc prrlaniinL' tc. tli. law •; uf war and prari . 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF VICTORiA 
 
 LIBRARY 
 
 Victoria 8 C. 
 
LAW OF NATURE AND NATIONS. 
 
 KM 
 
 be those of Wostplinlin, of Olivn, of the Pyrenees, of 
 Brodn, of Nimonfiion, of Uvswick, of Utrecht, of Aix- 
 la-Chapelle, of Paris (1763), and of Versailles (17M3). 
 1 shall shortly explain the other treaties, of which the 
 stipulations arc either alluded to, confirmed, or abro- 
 gated in those which [ consider at length. I shall sub- 
 join an account of the diplomatic intercourse of the 
 Euroj)oan powers with the Ottoman Porte, and with 
 other princes and states who arc without the pale of 
 our ordinary federal law ; tog(>ther with a view of the 
 most important treaties of commerce, their principles, 
 and their consequences. 
 
 As an useful apj)endix to a practical treatise on the 
 law of nations, some account will be given of those 
 tribunals, which in different countries of Europe, decide 
 controversies arising out of that law ; of their consti- 
 tution, of the extent of their authority, and of their 
 modes of proceeding ; more especially of those courts 
 which arc peculiarly appointed for that purpose by the 
 laws of Cireat IJritain. 
 
 Though the course, of which 1 have sketched the 
 outline, may seem to comprehend so great a variety 
 of miscellaneous subjects, yet they are all, in reality, 
 closely and insepjirably interwoven. The duties of 
 men, of subjects, of princes, of lawgivers, of magis- 
 trates, and of states, are all of them parts of one con- 
 sistent system of universal morality. Between the 
 most abstract and elementary maxim of moral philos- 
 ophy, and the most complicated controversies of civil 
 or public law, there subsists a connection which it will 
 be the main object of these lectures to trace. The 
 
nn 
 
 insioriisi; ON riii; .study oi* tin: 
 
 .^ 
 
 principle of justico, deeply rooted in the nature and 
 interest of man, |)erva(les the whole system, and is 
 discoverahle in every [)art of it, even to its minutest 
 ramification in a lejjjal formality, or in the construction 
 of an article in a trtnity. 
 
 I know not whether a philosopher ou;j[lit to confess, 
 that in his inquiries after truth, he is biassed by any 
 consideration ; even by the love of virtue. IJut I, who 
 conceive that a real philosopher ou«j[ht to re^nrard truth 
 itself chierty on account of its subserviency to the hap- 
 piness of mankind, am not ashamed to confess, thai 
 I shall feel a great consolation at the conclusion of 
 these lectures, if, by a wide survey and an exact ex- 
 amination of the conditions and relation • of human 
 nature, I shall have confirmed but one individual in 
 the conviction that justice is the permanent interest 
 of all men, and of all conunonwealths. To discover 
 one new link of that eternal chain, by which the Author 
 of the universe has bound together the hap|)iness and 
 the duty of his creatures, and int -jsolubly fastened 
 their interests to each other, would fill my heart with 
 more pleasure than all the fame with which tin; most 
 ingenious paradox ever crowned the most elocjuent 
 sophist. 
 
 I shall conclude this discourse in the noble langungo 
 of two great orators and philf)sophers, who have, in a 
 km words, stated the substance, th(> object, and the 
 result of all morality, and [)olitics, and law. 
 
 " Nihil est quod adhuc de rej)ublica putem dictum, 
 et ({uo j)ossim longius progredi, nisi sit confirmati.m, 
 non modo falsuni esse illud, sine injuria non posse, sed 
 
 .4 »^ * 
 
 "'-^M.'s^ 
 
LAW OF NATURE AM> NATIONS 
 
 \m 
 
 lioc vcrissimiim, sine Humna jiistitia rcin|)ul)lic{un gcri 
 noil posse." ' — Cir. Fr(i<r. lib. ii. dc licjxih. 
 
 ".Justice is itself tlie ij;reat staii(lin<j^ policy of civil 
 society, aiui any einiiieiit dejjartiire IVom it, under any 
 circumstances, lies under the suspicion of being no 
 policy at all." — Biuk(\^ Works, vol. iii. p. 207. 
 
 (I) It may mil lie nniiitcr^sliiin ti) tlir learned reader to know more of this imlde pansace 
 here i|lliited liy Sh JaiiiiH. it is tlie last seliteliee ol'llie seroiid lioiilt ol' Cicero's t\r l(('|iiililie. 
 I'lil'ortiiiiatel) many \K\\iv:^ nf tlie Ixiiik are lust, Imt I'rofissiir .Mai (|iiotes the lolliiwiiiu pas 
 Kam' IViiiM St. Aiitinstiiie's lie Civ. Ilei. li. 'Jl., a.s a HUinmary ol' the lost passasie-. "And 
 ulieii Hi'ipio had, in a more roiii|Ui'heiisive anil din'nse way, shuwii hotv ailvanlM: -iiiis 
 jiislici' was to a Slate, and how injiiiioMs the want ol' it. I'hihis, who was one of tho-e 
 present at the ilisrnssions, took 11 np, and proposed llial the sniijeil slionid he earernlly Inves- 
 liuated; as an opjniini w as ojitainini! that f;o\erniiienls eoiild not lie administered willi-iiit 
 in.lnstn-e." 
 " 'I'lim Scjpjo, assenlior vero rennmioipie voids, nihil esse ipnid adhnc de repnl &,c." 
 
 " I altoaether assent to it. said Siipio, and frankly dei l:ire to yon, that we must e.-leeni as 
 nolliini! thai whirli w< I . VI said iiImhiI vovernnient, or that which yet remains to hi said 
 nnless it shall he eslulilisheil, not only that it Is untrue that iziMrnments cannot he adni nis 
 loreil williMii' injustice, liiil that it is most true tliut no government can prosper in any 
 manner w itnoiit the lii^liest de<:ree id' justice." 
 
n>»w 
 
 ]\;,tf. — The text, from which tho preceding Discourse is print- 
 ed, is that of tlie tiiird London edition, wliicli was corrected and 
 enhirged by the Author, and which is thus rendered more valuable 
 than any previous edition. 
 
r inl- 
 and 
 able