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Las diagrammas suivants illustrant la m^thoda. 1 2 3 1 2 3 4 5 6 c,:; P V ' ;:: , *■• ■ ">' ' :._';> ■ -»■// '-\: THE OANADlAK FAEMEK8 MANUAL or AGRICULTURE. r-f" ■■'■^: '^-v. ..\ V^ i I "M f i i f/t .■'■>; %^. \: '*; r ?f ^ f (' s '1 SC *. ♦ i- J /■■ f I THE CANADIAN FAKMEE'S MANUAL OF ^ AGRICULTURE ; ' THE PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OP MIXED HUSBANDRY, AS ADAPTID TO OANADIAK BOILS AMD CLIMATE, OOMPBIBINO : The Field ; Prodnoe ef the Turn ; Stock Bdring wd Wawagwnent ; lIuinflMtnnioftheFann;Dtiij; Diseuei of Honee> Oattle. Sheep. Pigi ; Fann Bnildiagi ; Modem Machineiy and Implemeiiti ; COUNSEL TO THE IMMIGRANT-SETTLER, ETC., "^^ ■:.,:■■:. y .,>, , /•■•• -. ■ r ..-V,, .^..^ ^: BY CHARLES EDWARD WHITOOMBE, ^ Of the Boyal AgrxeuUural CoUege, OireMeater, England, and a Practical Farmer in Ontario . WITH NUMEROUS WOOD-CUT ILLUSTRATIONS ; Tablet, and Forma of Simple Farm Account Keeping, prepared exprettlyfor the Work, '■,."\/y'-' ' AND . ' • ' ■■•■'. I, AN INTRODUCTION ^. ■"/ BY WILLIAM JOHNSTON, M. A, Prerident of the Ontario Agricultural CoUege, Chidph. Wherefore come on, O young huabandnuu^. ! | Iieam the culture proper to each Und.— VueiL. ^m^ . - TORONTO: & WI LLIAMSON ■ -''*, -v^ ;v ,.V T/)/^ I X o 1 1 ^ J SO/ wsa y-...- .*i '-.k * •, n 'rJM £■ ■:^'V.V:: ^ li 3 '\ y'- _. , i. ■. .', :fi -tk^i-'t.: ■>V I' '5 J Amonqi against out gOOi Canada that bui hard wc men of i a trade and the sible re! For it is action tl to the h do the e of all o& their stu is true o the resul brancheE ters, for the lesso our worl ciples of make up of life a to the u] And ei present < the virgi and even past hen .//-;, tV- Ay i-f J IHTRODUCTION. '^'>^ M \ Amongst the most of farmers there exists a strong pi'ejudice against what is called book-farming, and the prejudice is not with- out good and rational foundation. For, just so far as farming in Canada is a trade and a business — and it is both — that trade and that business must be acquired by years of experience, usually hard won and often dearly bought. But whilst this is true, all men of sense readily distinguish between the folly of carrying on a trade or business according to the exclusive directions of a book, and the wisdom of reading and studying as many books as pos- sible relating to matters pertaining to that trade or occupation. For it is by such reading and study carried into experimental action that all trades, occupations, and professions, have advanced to the highest stage of excellence. To the pages of their books do the clergymen, the doctors, the lawyers, the engineers, and men of all occupations, turn for instruction, and only through carrying their studies into practice do they look for progress. And what is true of every other occupation is likewise true of farming. For the results of the life-long experience of others in the particular branches of farming in which they have been acknowledged mas- ters, for principles of practice drawn from that experience, for the lessons taught by years of experiments in aU departments of our work, and for the explanation on theoretical and practical prin- ciples of those experiments, we must consult works that go to make up an agricultural literature. In every other occupation of life a professional literature is looked upon as invaluable, and to the universal rule that of the farmer is no exception. And especially is this true in the Province of Ontario at the present epoch of its agricultural history. In the older counties the virgin fertility of the soil, has in the majority of cases, gone, and even in the newest it is rapidly disappearing. The days are', past here when any one, no matter what his previous occupation, ^' -lli^ . *::l«^^^>"4^j; 2 Introduction. if could be a fanner because the soil needed but to be turned to produce, and to produce abundantly. Now the successful farmer must have been trained to his business and be practised in the art of husbandry. He is a working capitalist, looking both for the wages of labour and the profit of capital from his industry. With a deteriorated soil as his weapon he is a competitor with the wide world in the world's market. To that contest for the next few generatioixs, he must bring the highest agricultural skill and the greatest possible amount of agricultural knowledge. For the former he must be trained by apprenticeship and experience, iind to possess the latter he must be a man of reading, observa- tion, and experiment. For whilst no theory and no plan of im- provement in his business the world over should escape his notice, every theory, every plan, every experiment, must stand the test of our climate, our practice, and our agricultural necessities. Hence the need of books on Canadian agriculture. Hence the necessity at the present stage of our agricultural history of a Canadian agricultural literature. And to that literature the author of this work has made a timely and a valuable contribution. He commences by treating of the buildings and permanent im- provements of the farm, and passes on to a consideration of the different kinds of soil, the various methods of their improvement by underdraining and tillage, and of their renovation by manuring. He then takes up in detail the different varieties of cereals and roots and the best methods of their cultivation. Passing under review the characteristics of each, he treats of the breeding and feeding of horses, cattle, sheep and pigs, and has gathered together a fair epitome of the principal diseases to which they are subject, with the commoner remedies for each disease. After a summary description of the necessary implements, the book closes with some good advice on the business of the farm. And whilst evidently in possession of the theory of husbandry, the author has made that theory subservient to our Canadian methods and systems, and produced not only a book of reference but a manual of practice. Whilst the work might be assisted by division and subdivision into the usual chapters and sections, yet the table of contents furnishes an excellent index, to which the If- #'- \v- Introduction, 8 ruaiiei- can turn with the cei'tainiy of finding alniuHi every Mubjuct relating to our Canadian farming. Ah one of the few contributionH to our Canadian agricultural literature — the precursor let ub trust of many others — as worthy on its own intrinsic merits, it is to be hoped that it may find a place in the library of every intelligent farmer in the Dominion. Ontario Aoricultural College, September 24th, 1879. WM. JOHNSTON. 'm- \ 1 -' 1 » u . ,v ,3 ■'■'' * /i' ^>'i. i I I r l*vr^M^ ■ f' :'--I TO Ml The wtirt G been felt b^v breach by "The CANi We are al of work in ( ployed to w the only ne scarce ; to p creased kno make farmii the one thin desirable in( the laws of necessary. endeavourec not be that present, can a treatise oi work ia not full informal right track." cal man. Tl stood the tes every chapt Topics on w treated from opinion upoi no hobby of several argu erned by m PREFACE. n., TO MY BROTHER FARMERS OF CANADA. The WHi.t of a standard work on Canadian agriculture has long been felt by our class. I have endeavoured to step in and fill the breach by laying before you the accompanying work,^entitled " The Canadian Farmer's Manual op Agriculture." We are all well aware that farming is no sinecure in the way of work in Canada. Stout hearts and willing hands must be em- ployed to win a way to fortune on our farms. But these are not the only necessary qualifications — wages are high and hands are scarce ; to pay the one and create a substitute for the other, in- creased knowledge and intelligence must be the instruments. To make farming profitable we do not require larger holdings ; but the one thing needful is larger yields per acre. To attain such a desirable increase of production, a more thorough knowledge of the laws of growth, and the requirements of plant-life becomes necessary. This knowledge, which is in itself indefinite, I have endeavoured partially to provide in the following pages. It can- not be that any single work, especially of the proportions of the present, can cover all the ground necessary to be touched upon iu a treatise on the Principles and Practice of Agriculture. This work is not and could not be exhaustive, but where it fails to give full information, I trust it may at least set the reader " upon the right track." The farmer in Canada must be essentially a practi- cal man. The reader will find advanced no theories that have not stood the test of practice. It has been my constant aim to adapt every chapter to the present state of agriculture in Canada. Topics on which the opinion of eminent farmers are divided, are treated from every stand-point : where I have given a personal opinion upon these subjects of debate, it has been based upon no hobby of my own, but upon a mature consideration of the several arguments advanced by eminent authorities, and gov- erned by my own and my neighbours' practical experience. ' »■ 2 .Preface, opinion upon these subjects of debate, it has been based upon no hobby of my own, but upon a mature consideration of the several arguments advanced by eminent authorities, and gov- erned by my own and my neighbours' practical experience. For instance, in the chapter devoted to Barnyard Manure, I have set down the arguments of the advocates of Raw or Ev.cten, Long or Short ; and the subject being one on which I do not feel decided, I have refrained from the expression of any dogmatical opinion. Whilst this is not a work of compilation, the reader will find scattered through its pages many quotations, in the citation of which I have endeavoured to give due crec'it. These selections, appropriate to the several subjects, I have been careful to obtain in the majority of cases, from such authorities as I am aware are or have been engaged in actual farming in Canada, or in those States of the Union in which the soils, climate, and systems of husbandry are generally of a nature similav to those of our Dominion. The central object which this work is intended to keep in view, is the demonstration of how farming may be made to pay — ^by the general improvement of the soil, of seeds, and of methods of cultivation. With these few prefatory remarks, I leave " The Canadian Fabmer's Manual " in the hands of my brethren of the plough. That it may prove useful to them, and a welcome addition to the agriculturist's library, is the sincere wish of the author. C. E. W. TABLE OF CONTENTS ALPHABBTIOALLT J^BRANOBD. A FAOE ACCOUNTS : Farm : Advantages of keeping 620 Breeders' Calendar 620 " Statement 526 Calving Table 5lsl Dairy 627 Diary and Journal combined 625 Ledger 523 Livestock 522 Produce 524 AGRICULTURAL £xHiBiTi<»NS : Undue encou- ragement of Trottem 385 Steamers 500 ALLUVIAL SOIL 79 ASHES 146 AXLES 481 B BARLEY : Cultivation'; Shallow 180 Position in Rotation 180 On Wheat Stubble 180 Seedbed 181 Rolling 181 Harvesting 182 Seed and Sowing : Checks from Frost 182 Steeping 181 Time of Sowing 181 BEETS 230 BINS, Capacity of 508 BOILERS, Agricultural 500 BONES 138 BREEDING 306 BREEDS of Cattle 304 BREEDERS : Our Canadian 347 Calendar 520 BROOM CORN 196 PAO«: BUCKWHEAT : As aManure 162 Cultivation 185 Flour, Value of 187 Harvesting and Threshing... 186 Seed and Sowing 186 Use as a Crop 186 Where to Grow 186 BUILDINGS, FARM : Barns, Height of 40 Plans for 41 Roofing for 46 Ventilators 21 Basements. Accommodation in 23 To excavate for 21 Cellars, Concrete for Walls... 26 To make Frost-proof 26 To keep dry 26 Floors, Asphalt 26 Brick 29 Cement 29 Wooden 28 Granaries 21 Lightning Rods 48 Electricity; how it acts 48 Paint : Cheap Wash 47 Crude Petroleum 47 How to apply 47 For Bricks 47 Roors : T« find No. of Shin- gles for 46 Sbingles, Paint for 46 To prevent decay of 47 Stables : Feeding Troughs... 30 Mangers 39 Oat Boxes 39 Stalls 30 Topurifv 39 To tie Horses in 39 Unclean, a source of disease 34 Stone 2a Veutilation, danger of bad. . 26 14 '< n •i-ri'- 4 Table of Contents. FAOB BURNT LAND, Treatment of.. 73 BUSINESS TRANSACTIONS.. 528 Account Books as Evidence. 633 Husband and Wife 531 I. O. U 531 Landlord and Tenant 628 Leases 629 Purchasing Property 628 Stamps for Promissory Notes 631 Wills 632 CABBAGES 238 CALVES : Abominable butchery of 344 AtHohenheim 346 CoBtivenesB of 343 Fattening 346 Feeding 343 Raising 341 Secret of raising 344 Weight of at Ten Months.... 344 Youatt's Opinion 343 CAPITAL, How to Invest 18 CARE OF HORSES, Lies in a Nutshell 399 CARROTS AND PARSNIPS... 230 Cultivation 234 Harvesting ., 234 Seed Raising 235 Seed and Sowing 233 SoU 232 Sowing in the Fall 236 Value of 231 Varieties of 231 CATTLE 303 Breeds : Ayrshires 306 Aldemeys and Jerseys 305 Durham 304 Dutch or Holstein 805 Devon 304 Herefords 304 Milch Cows 326 Breediko : Co-operation to obtain Bulls. 307 Generous Feed for * Blood'.. 307 Grade Bulls should never be used 307 Parents, Influence of 308 Pedigree 308 Selection by Character 308 Thoroughbred Males desir- able 306 Breeders, Our Canadian 347 CATTLE : Diseases of : Abortion 433 Aptha 434 Black Quarter 434 Bloated Csee Hoven). Brain 434 Bronchitis 434 Constipation 435 Choking 435 Colic (see Hoven). Cow-pox 436 Cud, Loss of 436 Diarrhoea 436 Drum-Belly (see Hoven). Eye 436 Fever 437 Flooding ... 437 Garget 437 Hidebound 438 Hoven 438 Jaundice 438 Joint Felon (see Black Quar- ter). Lice (see Cow-Stables). Milk Fever 439 Murrain 439 Pleuro-pneumonia 440 Quarter-evil (see BlackQuar- ter). Red Water 442 Ringworm ! 442 Teats 442 Thrush (see Aptha). Warbles 443 Yellows (see Jaundice). Fattino : Buying for 314 Live and Dead Weight 317 Management in Stalls 316 Overfeeding 317 Rules for finding the Weight 319 Selecting for 315 When to stop 317 Fastenings : Chain 33 Stanchion 32 Feed : Clover, Analyses of 312 Comparative Equivalents of various kinds of Food 312 Cutting 321 Nutritive Vidue of various Foods 311 Quuitities contained in an acre of various Crops 311 Steaming 321 loATTLE : Feed — CmiUi Soiling Theory of . Indications of For Beef-pro( For Milking , For good Co Early Mati Medicines Lice and Mang Kind Treatmej Milch Cows : Breeds Breeding fron Management Management i ters Milking , Milking Kick M|[LK : Cheese from S Composition o Properties of.. Quality of Taint, causes « Overfeeding fc Oxen Shorthorns Store CELLARS CHEESE, Skim M CHESS AND WH CISTERNS, Capa< CLAY SOILS CLOVER Alsike As a Manure.. For Pasture .. COLTS : Management ( Breaking First year's ca Shying Teaching to V\ Weai , Treatment of ... 73 Ploughing 62 Cross ... 53 Deep for Drainage 50 Deep or Shallow 54 Fall 58 For permanent Pasture 52 On Clay Lands 53 On Hilly Lands 63 On Light Lands 62 Quantity per Day 63 Subsoil 66 Width of Lands 62 Without Lands 62 Rotation OF Crops 64 Sowing, Broadcast 63 Drilling 63 Summer Fallow 69 Operation of 61 Depth of 62 Thorough 50 CULTIVATORS, or Grubbers... 476 D DETERIORATION in Wheat Crop, Causes of 163 DEW, how formed 264 DISEASES : Common to Horses (see Horses). Common to Cattle (see Cattle). Common to Sheep (see Sheep). DITCHING MACHINE 503 DRAUGHT, Principles of 467 DRAINS 81 Depth of 86 Distances of, apart 90 Government should institute a private fund for drainage 92 Material for 85 Spade for 502 Time to Dig 84 To Level for 89 "«^- A & 6 Table of Contents, PAOK DRILLS, Grain 478 DRY EARTH SYSTEM 120 DUNG (see Manures). ELECTRICITY, how it acts 48 EMIGRANTS, A Few Words to 534 Advice to 537 Beware of Whiskey 547 Hard Work necessary to Suc- cess 545 The Backwoods Settler 546 The Settler's Position in a new Land 547 The Settler's Duty in a new Land 548 When to go to the " Bush". 547 aobicultubal advantages of Canada 536 Average Wages paid to La- bourers, Mechanics, &c 538 Chances to become a Farmer 536 Climate OF Canada 537 Comparison between Pboduc- TIONS of United States and Canada 543 Cost of Living in Canada ... 539 EducationaIi System of Can- ada 543 Elbow-room IN Canada 534 Equality, Fraternity and Liberty 535 Extent OF Canada 536 Extent of Canada, compared to England and Wales 536 Financial Aspect op Canada 542 Forest Produce, Exports .... 541 Imports and Exports of Can- ada 541 Labour is the Poor Man's Capital 534 Labour required in Canada 551 Prices of Land 549 The Nationalities from which the People are drawn 540 The Religious Denomina- tions in Canada 540 To CONVERT British Money INTO Canadian 537 To THE Old Country Farmer AS AN Emigrant 548 United States compared So- cially WITH Canada 535 Ways of obtaining Land : 1. Free Grants 544 PAOI EMIGRANTS. Ways of obtaining Land — Continued. 2. Purchase of Wild Lands. 644 3. Purchase of Cultivated Farms 544 What is Grown in Canada.. 642 Younger Sons of English Gentlemen as Farmers in Canada 650 F FANNING MILLS 498 FASTENINGS, Cattle 32 FATTING CATTLE 314 FENCES, Board 290 Comparative Cost of various Kinds 295 Gates, Farm 300 Hedges, Live 296 Afterculture 297 And Mice 300 Arbor VitsB 300 Beech 298 Buckthorn 298 Deciduous Plants 298 Hemlock 300 Honey Locust 298 Norway Spruce 300 Pruning 297 Setting out Plants '296 Thickening neglected 297 To prepare Bed for 296 Wild Plum 299 Hurdles, Movable 302 Rail 288 Stone 295 To Secure Posts 291 Wire 293 FE RTILIZERS, Special 127 FLxiX 199 FLOORS 26 FLOUR : Wheat 178 Buckwheat 187 FODDER, Indian Com for 194 Peas for 190 G GATES, Farm 300 GANG PLOUGHS 477 GOVERNMENT should insti- tute a Private Drainage Fund 92 GRAIN ORUS GRANARIES GRASSES : Clover : Alsike Analyses of For Seed Hay Pasture .. Seed and-S Soiling .. When to (!i Hungarian. . June Grass . Lucerne .... Seeds GRAVELS .... GRUBBER OR GYPSUM HAIR, as Manv HARROWS (se HAY TEDDEB HEMP, Essay Esq., M.P. HEN MANUR] HOE, Expandin HOPS Baling Cost and Pro Drying Management Ist year 2nd year ... 3rd year Picking Preparation Soil for Time op Plaj Trellis Wori Varieties of. HORSE POWE HORSES Breeds : Thoroughbr Arab SuflFolk Pur Clydesdale Norman or '. French Can Trotting He Morgans, B pests, R( all mongr Table of Contents. PAOX GRAIN CRUSHERS 498 GRANARIES 21 GRASSES : Glover : Alsike 269 Analyses of 259, 312 For Seed 262 Hay 257 Pasture 263 Seed and Sowing 253 Soiling 263 When toOut 261 hunoarian 274 June Grass 273 Lucerne 271 StBDS 266 GRAVELS 78 GRUBBER OR CULTIVATOR 475 GYPSUM 150 HAIR, as Manure... 146 HARROWS (see Implements). HAY TEDDERS 502 HEMP, Essay by H. G. Joly, Esq., M.P 201 HEN MANURE 126 HOE, Expanding Horse 478 HOPS 241 Baling 248 Cost and Profit of an Acre 248 Drying 247 Management : 1st year 244 2nd year 244 3rd year 246 Picking 246 Preparation for 243 Soil for 242 Time of Planting 244 Trellis Work 250 Varieties of 241 HORSE POWERS 496 HORSES 381 Breeds : Thoroughbred Racer 384 Arab 384 Suffolk Punch 385 Clydesdale , 385 N orman or Percheron 385 French Canadian 385 Trotting Horses 385 Morgans, Blackhawks, Tem- pests, Royal Georges are all mongrels 385 PAOl HORSES— Contimied. Brood Mares J89 Care of, lies in a nutshell .... 399 Colts (see Colts). Common Diseases of : Abscesp 406 Accidents 407 Apoplexy 407 Bite from Mad Dog 407 Bleeding 408 Bowels, Inflammation of .... 409 Broken Knees 410 Back Sinews, Strain of 410 Bots (see Worms). Chill 411 Cold 411 Colic Spasmodic, Belly-ache or Gripes 411 Constipation 411 Cough 412 Curb 412 Chest Founder 412 Cow-hocks 412 Diarrhoea 412 Distemper 413 Eye, Diseases of 414 Farcy. 414 Feet 416 Fever 419 Fits 419 Gleet (nasal) 420 Glanders 420 Heaves 422 Hide-bound 422 Influenza (see Distemper). Lampas 423 Lung Fever 423 Pneumonia 423 Pleurisy 423 Maggots 424 Megrims 424 Poll Evil '... 424 Polypi 424 Proud Flesh 424 Ringbone 424 Saddle Galls 424 Shoulder Lameness 425 Side Bones 426 Sitfasts 426 Sores 426 Spavins 426 Sprains 427 Staggers, Stomach 427 Staggers, Mad 428 Staked 429 Stings 429 % 8 Table of Contents. PAGE HORSES : Common Diseasks of — Conti- nued. Stifled 429 Strangles 429 String Halt 429 Sunstroke 429 Swelled Legs 430 Thoroughpin 430 Ulcers 430 Warbles (see Sitfasts). Windgalls 431 Worms 431 Warts 431 Washiness 431 WolfTeeth 431 Unsoundness 432 Warranted Sound 431 Farmers 386 Food 396 And Water 398 humaniiy 393 Makes : Better than Geldings 386 To breed from 387 Medicine for (see Medicines). Points of a Good 381 Stallions 389 Of pure Blood 386 To Drench 403 Undue Encouragement at Agricultural Shows given to Trotters 385 Unsoundness Hereditary ... 387 Vices Common to 400 Bad to Shoe 404 Balking 400 Biting 403 Crib-biting 406 Hard Mouthed 402 Interfering 405 Kicking 400 Overreaching 405 Pawing 404 Pulling on the Halter 401 Rearing 404 Rolling in Stall 404 Runaway 404 Shying 404 Slipping the Halter 406 Stumbling 405 Getting? bit in the Cheek 403 HOT-BED, To Make a 518 HOUSE SLOPS, Valuable as Manure 145 HUNGARIAN GRASS 274 PAQB HURDLES 302 HUSBAND AND WIFE 631 I IMPLEMENTS 461 Broadcast Sower 480 Corn Shellers 498 Cultivator 475 Ditching Machine 503 DiTCHKK, Open 504 Drag Saw 498 Draining Spade 503 Fanning Mills 498 Gang Plough 477 Grain Crushers 498 Grain Drills 478 Grass Seed Sowers 481 Great Variety in 463 Grdbbers 476 Harrows 473 Chain , 474 Rotary or Revolving 474 Brush 474 Horse Hoe 478 Horse Rakes and Tedders. 602 Mowing and Reaping Ma- chines 486 The First Invented 486 Qualifications of 487 Trials at Agricultural Shows 490 Must be Strong 464 Ploughs : Anti-friction Wheel 470 Beam, Land-Side, Share, «&c 467 Construction of...... 466 Gray's Double Furrow Plough 471 Gray's Triple Furrow Plough 473 Hill'sPatent 471 Jointers 469 Line of Draught 467 Other Swing 472 Swing 468 Swivel or Side Hill 470 Trial of, at Paris, in 1871 ... 469 Poor Tools cannot Pay 465 Powers 496 Roller 477 Root Pulpers 600 Saving of Labour effected BY 462 Steamer and Boiler 500 Straw Cutter 499 Stump Pullers 601 implemen Threshing Separatoi Little Gis The Agitj Clover Tl Turnip Dr Waggons Dishing o Principle Draugh Width of Warehousi LONDO] Will not s: INDICATIOI in CA JUNE GRAS LAMBING... LAMBS, Man LANDLORD LEASES.... LEAVES, for LICE, To cun LIME, as a M LIQUID MA] LOAM LUCERNE .. MACHINES ( MANGE, To ( MANGEL Wl MANURES : Amounts vi ent AnIMj APPLICATI0^ On Grass '. On Heavj On Light Quantity ] Repeated . Spreading Surface ... Ashes Barn Yards Compost 1 Evaporati' How it aci Table of Contents. 9 VAOB IMPLEMENTS— (?onloyer's arranfjements over those of the neighbours, and will attend more carefully to, and carry out more thoroughly, the operations of winter feeding, &c. Such buildings as are erected should be on the north, east and west sides of the yard, leaving the south open to the full benefit of the mid-day sun. In Canada, where warmth is so great a requisite, the bmk bam is, undoubtedly, the most convenient, giving a great capacity in room on a comparatively small scale. Homesteads, however, must vary with farms, and it would be as inconsistent to dictate the plan of farm buildings as of the farms themselves. Manual of Agriculture 21 in as rms We will merely point out those general rules which should be carefully weighed ere the farmer engage in either new building accommodation, or additions to former barns and out-huases. Convenience and economy of space are here almost synonymous terms, and are points to be carefully kept in view. Good ventilation is as essential to the well-being of stock as of man. Cattle and pigs require plenty of warmth, while horses and sheep should be kept in cool, well-sheltered steadings, where thorough ventilation has been carefully secured. Ammonia and other noxious odours that emanate from animal manure are very injurious to health, and means should be em- ployed to carry off all such poisonous gases. Grain, hay and roots also require good ventilation, and for this reason there is great objection to the not uncommon system of close-battening barns. Ventilators should be provided for all barns and cellara, to carry the heated air caused by fermentation out at the roof of the building. Granaries should not be built in under the swing-beam of a barn, surrounded by solid masses of grain, hay or straw. We should advise, if possible, the building of a granary in the shape of a lean-to, or, better, as a detached building from the main barn, allowing the free play of air upon every side. We shall at a future page speak more particularly on the subject of granaries. Basement Barns. — Every barn should have a basement, wher- ever stone to build one is accessible. The sills are thoroughly protected from rot by being placed high and dry above the ground. The basement is well adapted to fatting cattle, hogs and milch cows, while a cellar for the storage of roots may be built at the back end. It is a great advantage to have roots stored upon the same level as the feeding stalls, as there is a great loss of time in carrying large quantities of roots up stairs or ladders. Where a site upon a hill side can be obtained, there is nothing but a simple excavation to be made, the labour becoming greater as the slope of the land approaches a dead level. The accompanying diagram shows the form of excavation where DlAQRAM L 22 The Canadian Farmer's iii iiilili the slope is slight, the earth taken from the basement being thrown out on the upper side to form the road-way to the barn. Here x y shows natural slope of ground, making an angle of 5° with the horizon. By excavating three feet at the inside, and supposing the barn to be forty feet wide, sufficient earth is ob- tained to make a raised road to the top of a basement wall, D B, nine feet high. Raised road running out twenty feet from the barn floor to the natural ground, and making an incline of three feet in twenty, up which to take waggons into the barn. If the site should be a dead level, earth must be obtained else- where to make a protection to those w alls of the basement forming the outside of the cellar. Puoam 8. X y shows the natural slope of the ground, being say three feet in forty. By excavating three feet at the inside, and supposing the barn to be forty feet wide, earth sufficient is obtained from the excavation to make a raised road to the top of a nine-foot basement wall ; such raised road running forty feet out to meet the ground, has only an incline of three in forty, up which to draw on to the barn floor. If the site should be a dead level, the cost becomes far greater, as the earth required to protect the outer walls of the cellar would have to be drawn to the spot, whilst if the basement be commenced on the crest of the elevation, as in Diagram 2, the labour of excavation is reduced to a minimum. A basement wall resting against a bank should be built of stone and first-class mortar, and should be at least 1 ^ feet thick. Masons generally slope such a wall upwards and outwards to the bank, giving as their reason that the slope overcomes the pressure of the contiguous earth. To keep the walls free from dampness, and to still further lessen any danger from the crowding of the bank, small stone or coarse gravel should be filled in for about twelve inches in width be- tween the wall and the bank, and this gravel rest over a drain below. In this manner all wet, especially in spring, escaping from the ground, will filter through the gravel, and, before reaching the cellar wall, will escape by the drain beneath. HI Manual cf Jgriculiure. 23 lessen coarse th be- drain Accommodation in a Basement. — For the purpose of approxi- mation, it will be near enough to calculate that ten bushels of roots require fifteen cubic feet of space. On this basis the following Table will serve to measure the no- <3essary size of a cellar to contain various quantities of roots : — 1,000 Bushels of roots will require 1,500 ciil ic feet, or ( 20 x 8 4x9 high \ <»; 20 X 9-4x8 " 1,500 «i (« 2,250 " ( 20 X 12-G X 9 " \o)-, 20 X 14 X 8 " 2,000 (( « 3,000 " f 20 X 168 X 9 " I or, 20 X 189 x 8 " 3,000 it M 4,500 " f 20 X 25*0 X 9 " or, 20 X 28-0 x 8 " 4,000 <« articular grain, texture and colour of each bed ; com- pare them with the buildings around ; and if there be any old quarries near with the face exposed, see which of the beds stand •_ -i 24 The Canadian Farmer's li ^! out the most and show the old tool marks, and consequently have yielded to the action of the weather least. It frequently happens that the best stone is neglected, or only in part worked, from the cost of removing the rubbish with which it may be associated. " As an economical supply of stone in particular localities would sometimes appear to depend on accidental circumstances, such as the cost of quarrying, the degree of facility in transport, and the prejudice that generally exists in favour of a material which has been long in use ; and as the means of transportation have of late years been greatly increased, it becomes essential to ascertain whether better materials than those which have been employed in any given place may not be obtained from other, although more distant, localities, offering equally advantageous terms. The rela- tive facility with which good materials may be obtained in a dis- trict is to a certain extent marked by the appearance of the towns and villages, the comparative cost in obtaining them being in general better shown by the character of the ordinary buildings than by that of the public buildings and large mansions, the stone for which may sometimes have been brought from comparatively considerable distances. " From the frequent practice, however, of selecting those stones which yield readily to the tool, and are hence commonly called freestone, whatever may be their mineralogical characteristics, the most durable and therefore the cheapest are far from being always employed ; and it sometimes happens that we find the common cottages built of durable materials, while large mansions and public buildings are not, the materials for the latter having been selected only because they were so readily worked up for ornamen- tal parts, while those for the former may have been thrown aside in the same quarries because they yielded less freely to the tool." For the reverse process, or to find how many bushels can be stored in a given cellar : RULE. Multiply the length, breadth and height of the cellar together, to obtain the number of cubic feet in space — divide by 15, and multiply result by 10. Example. — Wanted to find the number of bushels of roots that a cellar measuring 37 feet in length, 33 feet G inches in width, and 8 feet in height will contain ; 37 ft. X 33 ft. 6 in. =1239-50 square feet 1239-50 sq. feet X 8 feet = 9916 cubic feet 9916 cubic feet -^ 15 = 061-06 and 66106 x 10 = G610, or the number of bushels that the cellar will contain. he lar Manual of Agriculture. 26 Price of building such basements. — Excavation of, varying according to the nature of the soil, from clay through gravel to clear sand — 10 to 12 cents per cubic yard. Stone. — There are 99 cubic feet of stone to the cord. There are 16^ square feet in a perch — a wall 12 inches thick would then ran 6 prches to a cord of stone, whilst if 18 inches thick it would only run 4 perches to a cord of stone. The following prices apply more particularly to the classes of limestone commonly used in Canada by farmers when building : Cost of quarrying a cord of stone from |2 00 to $3 00 " ** hauling (regulated by distance) " 2 00 to 5 00 " •* Lime required for a cord of stone— 6 bush. ... " 90 to 1 20 " " Sand " *• " 1 load. ... " 25 to 60 '• " hauling lime and sand " " building (at 50 to 60 cts. per perch) per cord " 3 00 to 3 60 Total cost per cord from$8 15 to $13 30 " " •' perch of 12 in. wall 1 35 to 2 20 " " " " 18 in. " 2 20 to 3 30 TO KEEP CELLAR WALLS DRY. It has been recommended to put a coat of tar on the inside^ and this custom is much practised in England. The coal tar is boiled in an iron boiler until all the watery por- tion has been driven out in steam. The tar should then be laid on hot with a common whitewash brush, care being taken not to use the tar hot enough to destroy the hairs of the brush. One or more coats may thus be evenly painted on a rough stone wall, and will render it quite impervious to that damp which is occa- sioned by a difference in temperature between the outside and inside of a wall. We have already alluded to an effectual means for securing dry- ness, by filling up for about afoot between the wall and the adjacent soil with coarse gravel, small stones or brick rubble over a drain. The mo.st effective drain is one made of tiles, and laid at least a foot deeper than the foundation ; this is best done before the walls are commenced. Another very dry form of cellar is that built with a double brick wall, leaving a vacancy of about six inches, and tied at the comers and at several places in the sides — this, however, is too expensive, unless in a neighbourhood where it is impossible to obtain the requisite building stone. Cellar floors should be made smooth and hard, so as to offer every facility for shovelling upon and cleaning. CONCRETE FOR WALLS. " The gravel should be coarse and not screened — the coarsest kind of building sand or gravel right from the bed is best, as I 26 The Canadian Farmer's the coarse gravels ballast and support irregular stone best, and make a porous mortar unfavourable to capillary attraction, ren- dering the walls drier. The mortar or concrete should be made and piled up in a heap, lightly covered with the gravel, and lay a week or two before using, and thoroughly tempered or washed over before using," — John Sirathmore, in " Country Oentlemany ASPHALT OR CONCRETE FOR FLOORS. The 0arclener^8 Magazine has the following : — " Three parts coal ashes (those from the blacksmith's forge to be preferred) and two parts gas-lime from the gas-works, to be thoroughly mixed, and then made into a mortar with gas-tar. If the gas- tar comes from the gas-works, where the ammoniacal liquor is not separated, it will be suftlciently mixed for the purpose ; but if the latter be separated and the tar be thick, it will set quicker if about one- fourth part of water be mixed thoroughly with the tar when used. For the floors of cow sheds, this should be laid about three inches thick in one layer, on an even surface of gravel, or stone broken very small with a sprinkling of gravel over, and rolled down. The mortar may be laid on with a common shovel, and merely patted down flat. In dry, warm weather, if the mortar has been carefully made, the floor will set firm in a few days. For any ordinary outhouse, half the thickness will make a permanent floor." TO MAKE CELLARS FROST-PROOF. Before leaving the subject of cellars, we will point out an excellent plan for making cellars temporarily frost-proof Take paper (coarse brown paper is the best, but, in lieu of such, news- papers will do), mix a strong size, and paste the papers — if com- mon papers, two or three thicknesses will be necessary — firmly upon the walls. There is no need to press the paper into the in- terstices, as each air spot between the paper and the wall forms an additional non-conducting medium of heat. This remedy has been often adopted with great success — paper being one of the best non-conductors known. Ventilation is very necessary in a cellar, and the higher the ventilator is carried the more thorough will be the action of its draught in drawing away the noxious gases evolved by fermenta- tion or decay. In the case of cellars under a house, very fatal injuries may arise by a want of due cleanliness and imperfect ventilation. DANGER TO HEALTH OF BAD VENTILATION. "Few people are fully aware," says the Pennsylvanian, " oi the danger to health and life of living in damp houses. It is Manual of Agriculture. ^ll now unquestioned by intelligently inclined men that damp houses are a prolific cause of consumption This influence is more marked in individuals who are predisposed to the disease of here- ditary <^aint, but unmistakable instances are tion before forty-five. These conclu- sions are borne out by carefully analyzed statistics by competent medical men. Any person who is any way predisposed to lung troubles is in imminent danger, if living in a damp house. "Not only does dampness produce and awake the germs of consumption, it manifests itself in numerous ways in producing disease and breaking down the powers of the system. To intelli- gent medical eyes, those who have long lived in damp houses are known by their devitalized look. Children manifest effects of the poison in bilious troubles, sallow complexions, scrofulous affections, debility and marasmus ; while grown people suffer from rheumatism, catarrh, frequent colds and general loss of vi- tality. " So manifestly dangerous are damp houses to life and health, that boards of health and civil authorities should proscribe their use and condemn them as effectually as though they were centres of contagion. We have no doubt but a civil action for damages, and under certain circumstances even a criminal action, would be sustained before an enlightened court, if brought by a person who had been in any way compelled to live in a habitually damp house. " A house with water continually in its cellar is as unfit and dan- gerous to live in as a malarious swamp. This is strong language, but facts will prove the statement. The fearful mortality among the poor of large towns and cities is largely owing to so many liv- ing in damp cellars. Let no family live in damp houses who value their health or lives." We have ourselves observed a very strong proof of this fact. Canadian farmers' families have been born and have grown up in robust health in wooden houses, which cannot but be dry. The farmer has made money and has built himself a fine stone house ; however, he utterly neglected the first laws of ventilation by building high rooms, and plastering well away from contact with :^. 28 The Canadian Fanner's the outside walls. The consequence has in several instances been that the family, who were robust in person and constitu- tion, have become consumptive, and one by one have sunk into an early grave. This fatal effect has been owing entirely to the change from a dry residence to one in which continuous damp- ness existed. li COW STABLES AND STALLS FOIl FATTENING DEASTS. It will be found very advantageous to have these in the base- ment, as they will be warm — upon the same level as the root-cel- lar, and underneath all other feed. A milch cow requires from 3 J to 4 feet of room in which to stand at the byre, although less may do in the case of Ayrshires or other small breeds. In arranging a milking stable, it is very necessary that each cow be completely isolated by a partition, so that the milker may not be troubled by the restlessness of the neighbourmg beast ; whilst fatting or stalled dry stock should be tied side by side without partitions, as by this means economy ol space is secured, whilst in our cold climate a number of bodies close to one another aftbrd mutual warmth. FLOORING. In milking stables, great care should be exercised that the cattle cannot lie down in their own dung, and that all manure be regu- larly removed ; for milk is exceedingly susceptible of taint by dirt upon the udder, or by contact with impure air. Behind every cow there should be a gutter, the length of the stall being so regulated that, whilst standing, her dung shall fall into the gutter, but long enough to enable her to lie down upon the stall iioor. There are various methods of constructing floors, amongst which the three most practicable are with wood, cement or brick. FLOORING WITH WOOD. Lay a double floor of 2-inch plank. Let the upper floor be just long enough from manger to heel to admit of a cow comfort- ably lying down ; this is usually about 5^ feet. The lower floor should be about 12 inches longer, and be gently declined from the inside of the stable to the door through which manure is thrown or wheeled out. This will secure a run down the gutter. Let the upper and shorter floor, also of 2-inch pine or hemlock, be graded with a slight fall from the feeding-box towards the back, so that no urine or other wet may 8tat (;»)nes|>(>tKlet»t of the Ctinada Foy- Lr, who writes over the initial "C," aiul are well worthy of eon- IderatioM on the part of any farniei' ahout to builil. He says: " Among the advantajj^es winch this design embraces, lay l>''-1„ 46 The Canadian Farmer's The tiles are laid in mortar ; i.e. the mortar is laid on that pai of each tile that is covered by the next above. It must, however, be borne in mind, that this roof is very expej] sive, and that the tiles have to be burned from clay entirely fre from limestone. For, unless the pottery be of the best, it is subjea to be severely injured by Canadian frosts. There are variouj shapes of tiles, from the plain flat to the fluted tile. Slates also form an excellent roof, but are very expensive. Shingles. — Extra shaved shingles made from large sound piJ timber are the most durable. Spruce, if large, and the sap all take! ofi^, will make shingles to last for fifteen or twenty years. Son ash shingles last well, but they are very apt to warp and crack. TO FIND THE NUMBER OF SHINGLES ON A GIVEN SIZED ROOF. DlAQRAM & > '^ 30 Fttt 111111) 'ITIHI II' ' vyrTf IIJ I 'III! Rule. — Multiply thJ breadth of one side oil the roof in feet by ill full length in feet ; ref duce to inches ; and diJ vide by 10, the resulj will be the number shingles required foij one side of the roof. Examples. The roof in the diagram measures in length 30 feet. in breadth 20 " The breadth of one side 20 " length " 30 600 feet. To reduce to inches by 144 144 8G400 r>ivide by ten 8640 — the number of shingles required for one side] Therefore it would take 17,280, or seventeen thousand shingle to cover this roof. Paint for Shingles. — Slake stone lime by putting into a tull and keeping in the steam. When slaked, pass through a fine sieve! and to each six quarts add one quart of salt and one gallon o( water ; boil and skim off what rises to the surface. To each live) gallons of this result add pulverized alum, one pound ; coppeim one half-pound ; potash, one half-pound ; hardwood ashes, sifted, Manual of Agriculture. 47 four pounds ; apply with a whitewjish brush. This is a very cheap paint, and will last for many years. To prevent decay in Shingles, the following has been well recommended : — Take a potash kettle or large tub, and put into it one barrel of lye of wood ashes, five pounds of white vitriol, five pounds of alum, and as much salt as will dissolve in the liquor. Make the mixture, when all dissolved, warm ; soak in it the shingles. Then lay the shingles on the roof in the usual manner. After the roof is laid, take what liquor is left, put lime enough in it to make a whitewash, and if you desire colour, add some colouring matter, as ochre, Spanish brown, lampblack, &c., and wash on the roof with an old broom or whitewash brush. Paint for Buildings. — A cheap wash may be made as follows : — Take a clean water-tight barrel, and put into it half a bushel of good lime ; slake it with boiling water ; cover it six or seven inches deep, and see that it be thoroughly slackened. Then dissolve the slackened lime in water, and add two pounds of sulphate of zinc and one pound common salt. This will harden the wash, and prevent its cracking after application. Colour it with : For a cream colour add, in proportion ^ the above mixture, three pounds yellow ochre ; for lead c, ' add a lump of iron black ; for fawn colour, add four pou- <^ umber, one pound of Indian red, and one pound lampblack ; for stone colour, add two pounds of raw umber and two pounds lampblack. To render it still more durable, and to give a glossiness to the work, before application to woodwork add a pint of sweet milk to a gallon of the wash. Grade petroleum,, or coal tar, as an application to woodwork, is of some value, although dangerous on account of fire. The proper method of applying coal or gas tar to woodwork is by heating it to the boiling point. Of course, this, when subject to light, heat and rain, will come off in a year or two ; but when applied hot, it will soak into the pores of wood and render it im- pervious to damp. Petroleum is not affected as coal tar, and outside influences will not wash it off". In using paint, it must be borne in mind that the advantages of rendering damp proof arise chiefly from the use of oil. The natural pigments are not only the most durable, but the most economical to use in painting. For painting brick, about the best mixture is finely-ground French yellow ochre and American white zinc, equal quantities by weight. The resulting colour is a soft buflf, pleasing and per- manent. The ordinary colours used are Venetian red, artificial ochres and red oxide of iron ; but these do not hold oil as well as the French yellow ochre. Brick should never be painted except in dry, warm seasons. 48 The Canadian Farmer's after the moisture which brick absorbs in spring and winter has dried out. If painted too early, the paint is apt to scale off. Painting is too often executed rapidly, to the injury of its permanent results. Oil without any paint at all would be the best method of render- ring wood waterproof, but for the combined effects of economy and appearance it is desirable to mix with the oil various paints. The extra ingredients for drying, such as benzine, turpentine, Japan varnish, lithaige, &c., should be used sparingly, for their effect is to prevent the oil in paint mixtures from saturating the wood ; and it is in this saturation of wood by the oil that the best results are attained. Where much of these drying materials are used, the oil con- tained in the paint is formed into a gloss, which is rapidly washed off by rain and peeled oflP by the sun. Of course this does not apply to inside painting, but only to that which is meant to render exposed wood impervious to damp. Oil must be boiled, to free it from impurities, before using in paint. Never use any but the purest oil. Moderately cold weather is the best time in which to paint buildings, fences, &c., and great haste in the application and drying is inadmissible. The very best plan to be adopted is, paint with pure boiled lin- seed oil and pigment, no drying material, and let it have sufficient time to dry &nd soak into the pores of the wood ; long intervals between the several coats of paint. Lightning Rods. — It has been asked by some, what benefit can be derived from the use of Lightning Rods ? We will explain in a very short manner the principle upon which these rods operate. Lightning, or electricity, is supposed by science, in lieu of a more definite theory, to be composed of two fluids, to which have been given the names Positive Electricity and Negative Electricity. It is also an accepted fact, that the natures of these two are such that like repels like and attracts unlike. In other words, a body surcharged with positive electricity, over which positive electricity preponderates, will attract to itself the electricity of a body surcharged with negative, and vice versa. As an instaQce, we shall take the two clouds. We shall say Fia. u. Manual of jigriailture. 49 that the negative electricity of the one cloud a is gathered towards the point a, and the positive electricity of the cloud h is gathered fc(iwards the point 6. Then when a and h come within a certain distance of one another, the attraction of the opposite poles of electricity, mutually the one to the other, becomes so great, that they rush to unitewith great rapidity through the intervening space. The union is attended with combustion, which is the jlash of lightning, while the sound of such combustion is the thunder. We will now take as one illustration the cloud and the barn, and before doing so, point out fw. le. another very important fact with regard to the escape of, electricity from bodies : i.e., that electricity in any body •will invaHahly gather to a point, and will escape first from that point. This is very important, as upon it rests the entire principle of the use of the lightning rod. Supposing, as in the annexed diagram, there is a point a in the cloud, to which is gather- ed the positive electricity of the cloud : the barn b charged with an opposite or negative elec- tricity : the affinity of the electricity respectively contained in the barn and in the cloud is so great that, should the cloud be driven within a certain distance of the barn, their severally contained electri- cities will burst all bonds asunder, and, rushing with prodigious force to meet one another, will evolve such heat as will, in all proba- bility, set the barn on fire. We now consider the exact use and advantage of the liuhtninsr rod. A thunder I cloud charged with, say po- sitive electricity, appears and is driven by the upper cunents of air into the neiofhbourhood of our barn. The barn and the earth con- Itiguous are surcharged with 4 \ , ; " 'i,oi>' .n ' i" I: • j;. i b'i 50 The Canadian Farme/s an electricity of an opposite nature (or pole), say negative. There is then an attraction between the electricities contained in the cloud and in the earth. If a solid rod of iron be carried u[) from the earth towards the cloud, electricity will gather in force at its point, and rush fioni that point to meet the opposite electricity from the cloud. The currents, evolving immense heat, will combine in and above the rod, and if the rod be properly isolated (by glass) from the building, the shock will take place directly between the earth and the cloud, and will not affect the building. Brief as is this explanation, it is all for which we can afford space in this work ; at least, from it may be deduced the safety to a building of a contiguous but yet isolated lightning rod. Professor Henry, of the Smith.sonian Institute, gives the fol- lowing instructions for the erection of lightning rods : — 1. The rod should consist of round iron of about one inch in diameter; its parts, throughout the v^hole length, should be in perfect metallic continuity, by being secured together with cou- pling ferrules. 2. To secure it from rust, the rod should be coated with black paint, itself a good conductor. 3. It should terminate in a single platinum point. 4. The shorter and more direct the course of the rod to the earth, the better ; bending should be rounded, and not formed in acute angles. 5. It should be fastened to the building by iron eyes, aud may be insulated from these by cylinders of glass. 6. The rod should be connected with the earth in the most per- fect manner possible. Where practicable, let the rod be conveyed horizontally to the nearest well, and then turned vertically down- wards until the end enters the water as deep as its lowest level. The horizontal part of the rod may be buried in a stratum of pounded charcoal and ashes. The rod should be placed, in pre- ference, on the west side of a building. A rod of this kind may be put up by any ordinary blacksmith. The rod in question is in accordance with our latest knowledge of all the facts of electricity. Attempted improvements on it are worthless, and, as a gen- eral thing, are proposed by those who are but slightly acquainted with the subject (and we may add, who are i' '^'^rested in the sale 1 and erection of rods). ON CULTIVATION. Thorough cultivation and liberal manuri og are the two key- atones upon which are built the success 'f agriculture. It isi perfectly useless to half- work our lands, /.i we would raise a line horse, he must be generously fed, and moderately exercised from Jet us only pc c-dtivation ai the results ai the yard, the to behold. Now, whils f«s does the g^ the farmer to nearer to that fcionately to tl nch, there is i that of ten bu The founda< A he reader ma respectfully aj plough. To plough A^ and work of t ■■^oi', and are m Manual of AgricuUiire. fil Aedge gen- linted I lie ' le 31' key- It is I a fine I from a colt : should wu .staive iiiiu and put liim to heavy work when \oung, he will assuredly turn out a stunted beast. And so it is in regard to our land ; we must feed generously and work moderately if we would have profitable returns. The land i.s the store-room to which the plant — be it grain, grass 01- root— must go to obtain the greater part of its daily sustenance. It is for us to see that the store-room is well . v^--' 'ed, and is at iiU times and in due seasons accessible to the t. '.t. ^otlet. As man's life and growth is dependent upon a regui.ir supply of food, which, entering into the body and being subjected to cer- tain chemical processes within, is divided into various portions, which portions are severally appropriated to the diflferent wants of the body, some to blood, some to bone, some to tissue, &c., so the life and growth of the plant is equally dependent upon a constant and regular supply of food, which, entering into its l)ody by a thousand tiny mouths, is appropriated to the dif- ferent wants of the living plant, some to the formation of straw, some to grain, some to sugar, some to starch, &c. The operations of nature, on the control and subordination of which man's life is dependent, are almost analogous to those by which are regulated the life and growth of plants ; and the same mgency which calls for a generous supply of food to man is neces- sary if we would have our plants to grow and thrive. The knowledge, to the perfection of which we f;S farmers should strive, is that of the best plan by which to sup; ly food, and then to render such supply available to our crops. The former of these is performed by gift of manure, the latter by cultivation of the soil. As a practical illustration of the effects of thorough culture, let us only point to the gardener's crops. In the (;arden, thorougii cultivation and generous manuring are faithfully performed, an-i die results are such that if the acre should yield in proportion to the yard, the crops upon a hundred-acre farm would be wondrous to behold. Now, whilst we cannot expect to cultivate our farm as thoroughly ;is does the gardener his plot, yet it should be the constant aim of the farmer to bring his land to a state of garden fertility. The nearer to that end that he attains, the greater his profit propor- tionately to the expense of cultivation. If land is rich, and is kej)t rich, there is no more cost in the raising of forty bushels than in that of ten bushels of wheat to the acre. The foundation of farm cultivation must ever be good ploughing. The reader may say, "Why! almost any boy can plough." We respectfully answer, a very great number of farm men cannot plough. To plough well, a good implement is necessary. The style, shape and work of the plough vary according to the various natures of soil, and are greatly governed by taste. 1.1 t i.i ■ ■li 52 The Canadian Farmer's In a later portion of this work will be found a chapter devoted to ploughs and implements. Ploughing. — No amount of after-cultivation can retrieve bad ploughing ; if the field be once turned over badly, it will be the cause of extra trouble to the cultivator and injury to the crop throughout the whole season. We need not here dilate upon the necessity of economizing the work of horses ; suffice it to say, that it is a matter of vit^. impor- tance to use the plough which, with the minimum draught, will thoroughly perform the required work. There are various styles of ploughing, upon which we now pro- pose to dwell shortly. Permanent meadows or 'pastures. — Where it is intended that certain fields be used for a length of time in grass, they should be laid flat and well surface-drained by narrow grips in any direction necessary to carry away stagnant water. It must be remembered that whilst water lying upon and freezing in young clover meadows is almost always fatal to the plant, yet, that the old and permanent meadows will stand a great deal of stagnant surface water, and require to hold all the water that falls throughout the spring, summer and fall seasons. Width of lands. — In ploughing for a seed bed there is a great variation, according to soil, in regard to the requisite width. Upon the heavy clays a narrow land is required, so that there are plenty of furrows to act as surface drains, while the land is so rounded up that surface water cannot rest upon it. On the lighter lands, especially where the subsoil is of a gravelly nature, it were better if no furrow were made in the whole field ; but, at any rate, where the land system as now generally adopted prevails, they may be at least twenty-four paces wide from crown to crown. To do without lands there are two methods — one, the use of the turnwrest or swivel plough, and the other by ploughing round the field. To the latter there may be taken great objection on account of the one fact that the horses trample down the new turned seed bed at each corner. The tarmurest or swivel plough has of late years become more popular. The peculiar principle of this plough is, that by reversing the mould board at each end of the field the furrow slice can be thrown up first on the gee side, and then, on returning, on the haw side ; so that all loss of time in taking the plough empty across the breadth of the land at the headlands is done away with, and instead the plough returns each time in the same furrow in which it previously came down. The adoption of this plan will yet be general on our light lands. On sandy soils the furrow is utterly useless ; in its finishing, in the setting out of stakes for and the first slices of the land crown, Manu.il of Agriculture. 68 there is an amount of time taken up which might just as well be saved to the regular ploughing ; whilst the furrows are a constant source of annoyance in after cultivation, taking extra strokes from the drag harrows to fill them, compelling the roller to travel across them, jolting the mower and reaper, and also the loaded waggon, whilst, as a matter of fact, the grain in the furrow seldom does as well as that on the main land. On sandy land we should have our fields perfectly even on the surface ; if we adopt the no-land system we may cross-plough with impunity — we shall have no dead fur- rows to cause hollows and rises all over the surface of our fields. On lands of a clayey nature, and in which, owing to their tena- city, there is little chance for the escape of surface water by per- colation, it is expedient to plough in narrow lands and to round them well off, and it is here that the knowledge of a good plough- man is shown. The object must be to preserve a gradual descent from the crown to the furrow. Whilst sandy land may and indeed should be turned over flat, the clay furrow-slices require to be set up well on end, so that whilst " h slice rests firmly against its neighbour, a provision is made ^o. ween them for drainage. The accompanying diagram will show more plainly than language the shape in which clay lands and furrows should be ploughed. Fia. 18. '■- 1 Cross ploughing is of great benefit on tenacious and dirty lands, but may bo advantageously dispensed with upon our sandy and lighter soils. The advantage sought in cross-ploughing is to cut across, and break into squares the old ploughing. Now upon the lighter soils this object may be better obtained by a free use of the cultivator. The quantity of land ploughed in a day depends upon the nature of the soil, the weather, and the lay of the land. It is generally considered that two acres of stubble or one and a half acres of sod Is a good average day's work for an ordinary team. How shall we plough our hills ? — There is a great difference of practice on this point. Some plough round the hill, others plough ■■V: v., t Iff K 1 v.. ■-] *;|.iE 64 The Canadian Farmer'r> ■ S! I »(!ross, and others up and down hills. The last plan is radically- wrong. By ploughing up and down a hill we form in each fur- row a shallow underdrain with a very steej} grade Every storm of rain that falls upon a hill so ploughed rushes down these innum erable drains, carrying with it manure, mould, and even the plants themselves ; in fine, not only washing away the hill and its plants, but smothering with these very washings a large portion of the crop below ; whilst, on the other hand, by ploughing round and round the hill, or even straight across it, the land is laid solidly together, and through such the rains of spring and summer can only soak instead of rushing away in streams, and thus the soil on the hill-top receives a maximum amount of benefit from every rainfall. The turn wrest plough, of which we have before s]ioken. and which will be found described in a future chapter devoted to implements, will be found very useful on a hilly farm, as by its use the team may be started at the bottom of the hill, and every consecutive furrow thrown down hill, leaving a perfectly even sur- face, >Vithout ridge or furrow. On heavy land, where it may be thought advisable to let the rain from off the hill, it is better to plough diagonally up and down the hill, as by that means the velocity of the rushing water after h storm will not be so apt to wa.sh away the surface soil. From what has been stated,, the reader must pei'ceive that ploughing cannot be regulated by any given and invariable rule, but that the individual must use his own discretion, and, governed by the general knowledge that we have of the special character- istics of various soils, must adopt his own plans to the peculiar land upon which his lot has been cast. On strong lands, clays and loams, the plough should be set in deeply, whilst on the gravelly and sandy lands, the advantages to be obtained by deep ploughing are not by any means apparent ; while great harm may be done should we incautiously turn up a sterile, cold and poisonous subsoil. Of this we shali now treat more fully under the head of DEKP AND SHALLOW PLOUGHING. The depth of ploughing must alwaj's be regulated by the na- ture of the soil and subsoil. While the efficacy of renewing the surface by new soil brought up gradually from below has been practically and fully established, no one would wish to plough down into a subsoil of very inferior quality. As an instance of the injurious effects that might result from an injudicious reversal of such soil, it has been found that in cases, the subsoil is highly impregnated with oxide of iron, a substance exactly similar to ordinary iron rust. This substance is fatal to plant life, and it Manual of Agriculture 55 is found extremely difficult to neutralize it when once mixed with a seed bed. Still, 08 a very general rule, shallow ploughing is one of the most crying evils in agriculture all over the world, and from the evil ( 'anada is far from free. It is computed that the average depth to which the fai-ming soil in Canada is now worked cannot be more than five or six inches. Now, when we consider that the tap root of wheat, our staple crop, has been found to reach down to a depth of 12 inches, and that, under any circumstances, it will, if the soil be loose enough to permit it, sink eight and nine inches, it is ap])arent that, where the plan is practicable, a sufficient depth should be made loose. If the tap root of wheat comes, in its search for deep hidden food, in contact with a pan so hard as to prevent its further pro- gress, it will again throw out its rootlets upwards, and there be- coming entangled, and struggling for food and life with a thousand ')ther roots, its energy is wasted, its growth impeded, and the plant above must suffer. There are two modes of deep ploughing, which may be called deep ploughing proper and subsoiling. Under the former plan, the subsoil is actually reversed and mixed with the surface mould ; while, under the latter plan, the subsoil is simply stirred up and luosened. Of the latter this work will presently treat, under the caption Subsoiling. When we propose to turn up soil from below and to incorporate it with our already cultivated land, we must be sure that we are not about to do it at the risk of poisoning the surface. As we liave already stated, there are some subsoils that must never be turned up. These may be discovered by submission to a compe- tent analytical chemist, but as farmers have not usually such men handy to them, the simplest plan is for the individual to institute a practical experiment for himself by taking a few spadefuls of surface and an inch or so of subsoil, mixing them together, under the same circumstances of season and management as he proposes to adopt in the field, and then try what eftect these mixed soils will have upon some seed. If the seed, be it wheat or of any other kind, grows healthily, he may be assured that he is safe in car- rying his experiment to the field ; for, if the subsoil be not visibly injurious, he may be assured that the other benefits are so great, that the surface soil will be greatly advantaged by a renewal from below. Even in the best of subsoils, caution must be used before an attempt is made to utilize it by deep ploughing. Having been always in a state of darkness, and removed from immediate con- tact with the atmosphere, it is, when first brought to the surface, in a state technically known as cold. Now to explain this term cold, or 80ur. A soil may be full of the necessary elements of '^\ [•'\ »f 50 The Canadian Farmer's J. t iij! 'I '.I'! plant life, yet those elomonts are so held together that the tcrulor rootlet is unable to extract any for its use ; such land, then, whilst rich in food, is yet useless to the plant, and is called cold, or soiir. To release these constituent elements and render them available to the plant, a chemical process is necessary, and that is performed without the help of man, by aeration, or exposure to the air, and especially to the alternate actions of freezing and thawing. For this reason, such deep ploughing as will rip up and bring the subsoil to the surface must always be done in the fall, when, by lying exposed, it will receive the full effects of frost, snow, rain and thaw, while after, or in spring, cultivation will distribute it evenly through the old soil. Farmers have heard of the benefits of deep ploughing, have tried it and immediately sowed grain ; the crop was a failure, because the soil was sour, having had no chance of aeration ;and they, disgusted, have set down deep ploughing as one of the humbugs of the book farmer. It is not then advisable to bring up more than two or three inches of subsoil at any one time. Neither is it necessary or advisable, after once ploughing deeply, to repeat the operation in each year — for if we should, we only again fall into the error of creating another hard pan by the constant passage of horses, men and ploughs over the subsoil in the furrow. When once a field has been broken up to a greater depth than usual, it may again be ploughed for several years only sufficiently deep to give a good seed bed. This is one of the chief advantages in favour of mixed husbandry, that various crops require various depths of soil, from the short-rooted barley to the tap roots such as carrots or mangolds. If hill sides be deeply ploughed, the soil will not as readily wash off them as when in a shallow condition ; the rain falls in torrents, and rushes down, carrying soil and roots and manure along with it. Another very good opportunity occurs in rotation for the pur- pose of renewing land by bringing up a fresh supply of subsoil. When land is to be fall ploughed lor roots, and it is proposed to apply farm-yard manure, there is an excellent time to turn up two inches of sour subsoil, and thoroughly incorporating with it barn-yard manure, leave them together exposed to the frosts and snows of winter. When the land is of a sandy nature, with perhaps a gravelly subsoil, and by the constant passage of the plough a hard pan has been formed at a reasonable depth, the eflScacy of deepening such may be in many cases very doubtful. The second kind of deep ploughing is that of subsoiling, and we consider this plan practical, and certain to be of advantage in land of almost any nature. The action of the subsoil plough is not to bring subsoil to the top, but to stir it below. The advan- tages obtained by its use are : Drainage. — The average depth to which our fields have been Manual of Agriculture. 57 ,nd in is nn- heretoforo ploughed is probably about five inches Year after year and season after setuton, our ploughs, horses and men liave trani))cd upon every inch of our field in furrows, just the same depth from the surface each time. Such constant trampling has Ictt a solid sub-surface, baked down and compressed, until it has assumed more the nature of stone than that of soil. Through this surface, or pan, no water can saturate, nor can any plant thrust in its ten- der fibrous rootlets. Every plant whose roots partake of the na- ture of tap root — and in this category may be found our most va- luable cereal, wheat — requires a good anchorage ; such tap roots strike straight down in a vertical direction, and directly on meeting this hard pan are turned back again, and, extending in an unna- tural way along the surface of the ground, become entangled in a labyrinth with hundreds of other roots, and in the struggle for food that commences between them all the weaker ones must perish. This is the only reasonable way of accounting for the rapid decline in the health of a crop that we so often see, when almost at its prime. We want all spring and summer rains to soak through our lands, and not to rush off them. By breaking up this hard pan, we provide for the perfect soak- age or percolation of all water into our soils, and for its access to the very tiniest rootlet. To guard against drought, deep cultivation is effectual. This is apparent to the most casual observer, for the garden, under deep spade culture, never dries out as rapidly as the open field. The principle is what is known scientifically as capillary attrac- tion. Deep in all soils, except those of a gravelly nature (and on such subsoiling is a waste of time and labour), is contained a large amount of moisture. When the earth upon the surface becomes dried out, it has a strong tendency to draw up moisture, by the process known as capillary attraction, from the soil beneath, and it would in all dry seasons do so to advantage, were it not for the intervening barrier or hard pan caused by the passage of horses and implements so often over the one level. The action of this hard pan, as an impediment to vegetable growth, is very apparent in the case of the long carrot. We know that to grow carrots to perfection, it is necessary that the ground be stiiTed to a depth of at least twenty inches ; and the same principle applies to the necessities of other tap-rooted plants — for instance, wheat. A deep loose soil can only be had by subsoiling or trench ploughing. Trench ploughing is fitted only for very rich and deep soil, in which the subsoil is equally fertile with the surface. Where there ■I'.- 58 The Canadian Farmer's S'j; ^li!|: 1 1 is but a shallow fleptb of fertile soil, the work of subsoiling must be performed before such can be improved in depth. This is generally done by means of a subsoil plough following in the furrow, and necessitates the use of another team. " This is an obstacle which is insurmountable on the great ma- jority of farms. To provide a means of accomplishing the impor- tant work of loosening the soil below the bottom of the furrow, we have hit upon the expedient here described : Fig. 19, " The attachment here figured may be affixed ^^ to almost any plough. Three bolts fasten it ^H to the land side of the plough on the inside : ^H the arrangement of the bolt holes should per- ^^Km mit the teeth only to project beneath the soil : ^^Hv a small block of wood will be necessary to be ^^^^ laid between it and the land side, and corres- ^ pond with the flange generally found at the bottom of ploughs. "The draft is not materially increased, and the plough holds the ground more steadily. The teeth, two in number, and about four inches apurt, should be of steel, and should be kept sharp in front; the rest is of wrought iron. A blacksmith can make the affair at a cost of something over one dollar. " The constant use of this addition to the plough will loosen the subsoil, and allow it to be turned over and intermixed at the rate of two or three inches each year. It will dry the soil by thus loosening it, in a degree gaining some of the benefits of nnder- (Iraining, without any of the cost. " But its great advantage is, that it will gradually break up the hard stratum of soil, which has been compressed at the bottom of I he furrow by continued ploughing and trampling, and permit the penetration of roots into the subsoil, without necessarily bringing it up to the surface." — Artwrican Agriculturist FALL PLOUGHIN(i. It should be the object of every farmer in Canada to turn over as much land, intended for sowing in the spring, as possible, in the preceding fall. The advantages of fall ploughing are very great. The earth is exposed to the action of the frosts of winter, and frost is the most perfect pulverizer that we have. Fall ploughing exposes to the cold many of the pupaj ot insects, and they are killed. It also sprouts many weeds which will be destroyed by the frosts of winter. The object of the winter fallow is to place the soil in such a state that the frost will act most effectually upon it. To eflFect this, the greater amount of surface that can be exposed the better. There- Manual of Agriculture. 59 fore, always lay up a winter ftiHow as rough and cloddy as pos- sible ; the frost penetrating thoroughly from all sides, and followed in spring by the rain, will so disintegrate the component particles, that the use of cultivator and harrows will cause them to fall apart and show a deep, mellow seed bed. Never harrow down a winter fallow. — The great tendency of arable land in Canada is to run together and bake in the early spring. When this happens, our [)loughing has been useless, and we might better have left the land in stubble throughout the winter. This is more especially the tendency of heavy lands. When the fall ploughing is made smooth, the rains of spring fall, ,'ind, saturating the surface, beat it down ; the hot sun, bursting out as it often does in Canada immediately after very wet spring weather, bakes it into so hard and compact a mass, that the whole has to be again ploughed before a seed bed can be obtained. To obviate this difficulty there is no remedy so effectual as that of rough fall ploughing, exposing as great a surface as possible of ciirth to the action of winter's frosts. Where the farmer feels that he cannot undertake the ploughing 01 his stubbles in the fall, it is an excellent plan to put heavy harrows over them ; this will stir the surface, and will cause many weeds to sprout which will afterwards be destroyed by the severity of winter weather. SUMMER FALLOW. A great difference has and probably ever will be found on the question of the summer fallow. Many farmers consider it an ac- tual necessity to right cultivation, while others again are of opinion that the system must be false that makes a husbandman lose a crop for a whole season. When, however, we turn to the objects for the accomplishment tt which the system of summer fallowing is adopted, we shall see that there are circumstances under which it becomes neither a matter of economy nor of fashion, but of actual necessity. The use of the summer fallow dates from the earliest annals that we possess of agriculture. It was first introduced to Great Britain by the Romans ; whilst we have in the Bible a certain knowledge that as a rest was imperative for the people every seventh day, so should the land require a like rest every seventh year — for it was laid down in the Jewish law by Moses, who ordered that the tribes of Israel, when led out of Egyptian bondage, should, every seventh year, give to the land a jubilee : " And six years shalt thou sow thy land, and gather the fruits thereof, but the seventh year thou shalt let it rest and lie still." (Exodus xxiii. 10, 11.) The objects to be accomplished by means of the summer fallow are the dostriiction of weeds and the aeration of the soil. To ac- VM: l '■ikl ^ 'V i ■■■*'!"! f!.-l I ! 60 The Can.zdian Farmer's complish these two objects, different soils require different treat- ment ; and also, the destruction of weeds by some such certain process as that of summer fallow, may be of more or less frequent necessity on various kinds of lands. On the lighter soils our weeds can nearly always be destroyed by the working of the land by hoes, incidental to the raising of root or corn crops ; but upon the tenacious clays we find it very diffi- cult to raise roots to advantage, while weeds in such soils obtain so very strong a foothold, that it is a matter oftentimes of insuper- able difficulty to effect their destruction by means of hoeing. An argument very frequently used by the opponents of the summer fallow is, that it is the work of nature to reproduce in every year ; that nature knows no rest. Such an argument is correct, but not as against the system; for our object being to destroy weeds, it must be borne in mind that in that universal law of yearly reproduction, nature makes no distinction between the wild weed, and the flov/er and cereals raised for the use and by the hand of man. Amongst the most eminent scientific men and chemists there is also, upon this point, no small difference of opinion. Sir Humphrey Davy, than whom the world has known no more able and clever practical chemist, says that " it is scarcely possible to imagine a single instance of a cultivated soil, which can be sup- posed to remain fallow for a single year with advantage to the farmer." " Land unemployed no profits grateful yield ; Man's blessings should abound in every field ; From industry our wealth and comforts flow ; Comforts, alas ! which sloth can never know." Another learned Professor, James Rennie, Professor at King's College, London, England, says to the very reverse : that " the whole value of the system is due to the effects of solar light upon the soil." Let us now turn to the opinion of non-scientific but very prac- tical men. Such authorities as we have of this nature invariably agree that, as a matter of actual observation, it is found that upon heavy lands, no matter how careful the ordinary cultivation, cer- tain varieties of weeds obtain such a strong foothold, that they cannot be eradicated but by a steady fight, extending throughout a whole summer. The great question at issue, and the one which every individual farmer must solve for his own guidance, is: Can clays be kept constantly clean ; or, should they once become foul, can they then be cleaned by any other means than by the use of the summer fallow ? For our own part, and writing under authority of very many eminent, practical and successful farmers, we answer both these questions in the negative, and feel convinced that the recur- Manual of jigricuUure. 61 rence of the summer fallow at certain intervals is a matter of abso- lute necessity upon all tenacious soils. In support of this opinion, we again 4 . )te from tht words of an eminent farmer to the Board of Agrl-^aiture some years ago : — " Fallowing for wheat on cold, wet, strong lands, and on all such as are unfit for turnips, is absolutely necessary, and he who attempts to manage such land without fallowing, will have reason to repent his mistake. Mixed soils, which are too wet for turnips, have a particular propensity to the production of root grasses. Summer fallow, therefore, becomes absolutely necessary, and every attempt to crop without it, for any length of time, on such land, has termi- nated to its injury and to the loss of the occupier." — Brown, oj Markle, vol. i. p. 209. The operation of summer fallowing. — As Marshall says, in his "Rural Economy of Yorkshire, " "To begin a fallow without continuing it until its intention be fully accomplished, is throw- ing away labour unprofttably." Now, as to the propriety of fall ploughing for the summer fallow of the succeeding year, there is some difference of opinion. Some farmers contend that the heavier lands, when ploughed in the fall, and left exposed in an oper condition to the fall and spring rains, become chilled, and do not dry off as rapidly as do those that are left in stubble, which, having a hard and more even surface, throw off the wet more readily. This is the only argu- ment that can be given against fall ploughing for a summer fallow, although, as a matter of expediency, it is better to do such fall ploughing as is meant for a coming spring seed bed, first, because it is of more actual importance, and our short fall seldom leaves us time to plough for summer fallow. But when, fortunately, we have the time, there are these ad- vantages in fall ploughing : many annual weeds are turned up to the surface, sprout and gi'ow, when they are killed by frost, whereas if they lay in the ground as seeds, the cold would have no effect upon them, and they would grow in spring. This is a slight advantage, inasmuch as it reduces the number of weeds to be destroyed in the summer. A far greater benefit is, however, gained by the exposure of the pupse (chrisalydae) of our most noxious beetles and insects to the severity ot winter, and the consequent destruction of them. Another benefit is derived from the exposure of the soil to the action of the frost. Frost, or alternate frost and thaw, is the best pulverizer of soil, and the greater surface of soil we expose to its action the more thorough will be its pulverizing effect. Again, frost has an effect in heaving up the subsoil, when the surface lies loosely. As a remarkable instance of the effect ot frost in this manner, we may note a well-known fact, which has been yearly observed by r ; ,!» M-"^- ■ ' I'; : ..lli/^ ii\ \i 62 The Canadian Farmer's m % the farmers of stony land, notably in the Counties of Wellington and Waterloo, in Ontario. On some tields in these counties, and doubtless elsewhere on soils of the same nature, stones are picked oft", and the fields apparently cleared of the larger ones ; yet, next year, when the land is ploughed no deeper, more large stones are again brought to the surface. Now, there is no way of acconntin<^ for the presence of these stones high enough to be turned up hv the plough, except on the supposition that they have been thrown up by the frost. If the fiost thus acts as a heaver up of these stones, it must also lift and disintegrate the subsoil, thus forming an excellent natural drainage and subsoiler. The proper depth of ploughing a summer fallow. — It is urged by some that the first spring ploughing should be at the deepest intended ; because they say, when the dry season sets in, if the land has been ploughed shallow, it will be found a matter of almost insuperable difficulty to plough to a lower depth ; while others con- tend that it is better to plough shallow at first, and thoroughly kill the weeds to this depth, and then at the second ploughing fetd; up more soil, and kill the weeds in that, thus, as it were, summer fallowing the soil by instalments. However, in Canada, where the summers are so well adapted to the destruction of weeds, and where the dry season ha'j a great power in hardening the so::, the former plan of deepest ploughing at the first will be found the most practical to the farmer. As to the use of cultivators and harrows, the object of the summer fallow is not only to clean the land, but thoroughly to expose the soil ^r» the air, from which it will gather much plant food, especially ammonia, and that of a nitrogenous nature. Let the first part of the summer fallowing be devoted to the destruc- tion of the weeds ; and in order to effect this, let the land be as constantly cultivated as time will allow, and the weeds thrown out be raked to the top, by the use of harrows, and there left to wilt. Ifbythis course all weeds can be destroyed, the last ploughing, or the one immediately before wheat, we should prefer to leave for as many days as possible in a rough and cloddy state. It will be found that, provided the clods have been ploughed up dry, the heat of summer will have much the same effect as frost — namely, to render them susceptible to pulverization by after culti- vation ; while midsummer thunderstorms, succeeded by burning sun, will not bake down such land as compactly as when it has been left smooth upon the surface. If manure is to be ploughed into a summer fallow, we would not turn it under deeply, but would rather, if it be short enough, cultivate it in just before sowing, and thus thoroughly incor- porate it with the surface soil or actual .seed bed. Manure will not wash upwards; every shower carries its stiength into the Manual of ^griciiUure. ground. It" it then be laid near tlio surface, its very essence will be carried to the root plant ; if it be ploughed under deeply, the root must penetrate to the manure. If land is cold and sour, lime will be found an excellent addition. Applied early in summer, and thoroughly mixed up by cultivation with the land, it will also aid the extermination of all classes of weeds. For the action and benefits of lime, see chapter on Manures. ON SOWING — BROADCAST OR DRILLING. In ancient times the general custom of sowing was by hand, although in China the drill has been known for ages, whilst in parts of Europe its use dates back as far as 1650. The father of drill husbandry in England was one Jethro Tell, of Berkshire, who commenced his experiments in 1731. Broadcast Sowing. — The advocates of broadcast sowing con- tend, and their opinions are well worthy of consideration, especially its referring to heavy soils : 1. That the plants should not be crowded together in rows, but should spread evenly over the whole surface of the ground, and thus draw their noiuishment from every portion of the soil. 2. That broadcast-sown crops are less apt to suffer from wind than such as have been drilled in ; for they say, drilled crops, not giving at their roots such mutual support by interlacing on every side, have their stems broken — a })rocess known in Scotland as knee-shackled. 3. That the effect of leaving rows unsown is such that they become filled with weeds, many of which would have been ."^mothered by a broadcast crop. On the other hand, the advocates of Drilling contend : 1. That the seed is deposited at a more even depth, and conse- (piently that its growth and ripening are even throughout the season. 2. That a saving of seed to the amount of at least twenty-five per cent, is effected. 3. That the seed, being uniformly and entirely buried, is saved from the ravages of birds. 4!. That the spaces between drills admit a greater amount of air and light to the growing plant than is obtained in a broadcast crop. 5. That drilled grain is less apt to lodge by storm. 6. That such weeds as pigeon weed (Red-root) and cockle are more readily observed, and therefore more easily picked, amongst drilled than in broadcast crops. 7. That by the use of the sowers, as now attached to drills, grass seed may be sown along with the grain, and at the time, the wind notwithstanding, when soil is best fitted for its reception. The grass seed growers should be placed before the drills. Some have argued that, by so doing, the grass seed would be covered too ■j^ I;' I i- ^i>-\. t; V . ■ i ''■ ■ l\ If ' 'til ^\'^ iiV • ii ' ' ' i! i'l! i 1 1 ;' ' . ■' i i' ' I ■ J ' :'' i' i ■■■' I! 1;! 64 The Canadian Farmer's deep ; but this is not so, for the spouts of the drill do not turn over soil, but simply stir it. On the other hand, when the seed sower follows the drill, not only does the field require rolling after to press in part of the seed, but the greater portion rolls into the trench formed by the drill spout, and is either covered so deeply that it canuot sprout, or if it should grow will be found to come up in rows, and amongst the roots of the grain crops. The qualifications of a good seed drill are : — 1. To be simple and easily operated, 2. To be strongly built. 3. To distinguish in its sowing arrangements between wheat or small grain, and oats and coarser grain. 4. To sow immediately upon being started. 5. To sow any required quantity from a peck upwards, and drop its seeds regularly. Fia. 20. FnK ix. Drilled Wheat Broadcast Wheat. ROTATION OF CROPS. In the right and proper cultivation of a farm under the system of mixed husbandry, a recognized rotation of crops should take a very important position. Indeed, no farmer can expect to v^btain the maximum yield from his farm unless he has so considered the various wants and capabilities of his various fields as to be able to adopt some systematic plan or course of cropping. It has been well observed tnat " no branch of farming requires more sagacity and skill than a proper rotation of crops, so as to keep the ground always in good heart, and yet to draw from it the greatest possible profit." The main object to be attained by a systematic plan of rotation of crops is, not to allow the too frequent repetition of crops of an exhaustive nature. It is universally recognized, that in every soil there are certain Manual of Agriculture. 65 particles especially adapted to the use of one kind of plant, while for others, other plants have an affinity. For instance, the grains or cereals generally require a greater or less amount of silica, while other crops require less of silica and more of potash, or of some other mineral salt. A field which would not yield a second good crop of wheat, may, even without manuring, grow a passable crop of clove)- or retura a large yield of roots. The important principles in the rotation of crops are, that although a given soil may contain all the mineral substances necessary for the use of every cultivable plant, yet there may be only a limited supply of that particular food essential to the well-being of some particular f)lant. Plants derive their sustenance from different sources. The grains, to which few leaves are attached, depend almost entirely on the surface soil or seed bed for their sustenance ; tap-rooted plants, as carrots or beets, go very deeply into subsoil for a large proportion of their food ; while the cruciferse, clover, peas, &e., depend in great measure upon the amount of food that can be inhaled from the surrounding atmosphere by the action of their leaves There is not space in this work, which is intended more as a book of reference than as a treatise upon scientific agriculture, to deduce from the tables of the chemical analyst the propor- tions of food required by the various plants. Experience, however, shows that land requires rest. At one time the Canadian farmer did not believe in such a le- quirement ; but trusting to the apparently inexhaustible nature of the virgin soil, he continued to grow wheat after wheat until the diminution in its yield, began to affect his pocket, when he at last found to his cost that to receive a return from his land at all commensurate with the yearly outlay of capital, he must turn to the resting of land from the constant reproduction of any one particular crop. The question to set before our view is then : How shall we raise the greatest amount of marketable produce in a given series of years,with the least proportionate expenditure of capital and labor ? While drawing from our lands great production in the one season, we have to beware how we accomplish such exhaustive yields at the expense of the crops of future years. We must not kill the goose for the sake of the one golden egg. Let us remember the old Scotch saying : " He who sows wheat after hear (barley), Had need of muckle gear." We will now passingly allude to a few of the rotations that bear sway amongst the farmers of Great Britain, merely as a means from which each individual farmer in Canada may draw his own conclusions as to the probable course that will suit his own soil and circumstances. :i* m: '■'?■• 'i' ■, ! .'Fi--;' jl it!:!- ,r 'I ft I'. , 66 The Canadian Farmer's We take first the old-fashioned three course rotation, or Trien- nial, which is ; First year, fallow ; second year, wheat ; and third year, spring crop (barley, oats and peas). This was formerly practised to a ^reat extent over the whole of Europe, where farms contained a large proportion of pasture and meadow. A large amount of stock being in winter yarded, sufficient ma- nure was usually made, to go over the fallow, if not every time that it came round, at any rate in each sixth year. The following advantages may be clsimed in its favour, always allowing that the farm to which it attached was one a large proportion of which was devoted to pasture, and long laid down ]n low-lying meadow : Economy of work ; less constant attention than a fuller course. For Canada, the loss of a year's crop every third year, by a fallow, seems rather a serious matter ; but the advocates of the system have claimed that, especially on heavy lands, such loss is more than compensated by increased yield of wheat. Besides, on clay ground, the system is widely adopted on the deep sandy loams of East Kent, where, known as the Kentish Round Tilth, it consists of barley, beans, wheat, — although clover is sometimes substituted for beans. We next come to more modern rotations, and such are better adapted to the general soils of this Dominion. We will take the Norfolk system, which con-sists of a four-year rotation : 1, turnips ; 2, barley ; 3, clover ; 4, wheat ; and this course is adopted by many of the most successful farmers in that prince of agricultural counties. Turnips (which are usually there fed off by folded sheep) clean, the ground. Barley does well after the rich manuring usually devoted to the turnips, and in the clean, well-tilled, shallow seed bed that is the result of a turnip crop properly cultivated. The ground is also clean and in good heart for a good catch of clover ; and a young clover sod ploughed down early forms an excellent bed for wheat. This course is often extended to a five or six years' shift by leaving the clover for two or even three j^ears, and, where there might be objection to the putting of wheat upon a two or three year old sod, it would be quite feasible to introduce some other crop, say peas, between the clover sod and wheat ; and in the inte- rest of the advocate of summer fallow, the rest might be intro- duced also, supposing that a dirty crop like oats was grown in the place we have assigned to peas, when the course would stand thus : 1. Turnips. 6. Pasture. 2. Barley. 6. Peas, or oats. 3. Grass, 7. Summer fallow or wheat. 4 Grass. a Wheat 8. One of th( Dot too tenaci of Gowrie, co 1. J 2. V 3. h Among tho and Glasgow, remunerative 1. Potatoes. 2. loss whj'^ the after the one 3 As a concl rotation, we w by John McK( of Canada. Mr " It is rare i the same land common, but raising and da a longer cours together fill ( cultivated, hot wheat succeed and summer fj tion — the len^ tinues to yield "In the five- a very few ac: them being ap Manual of Agriculture. 67 It is apparent, therefore, that, by taking any of these Old Country rotations as a basis, we may so change their order or make additions as to cut out for each one individually a systematic rotation, in the carrying out of which one could so adjust his work as never to lose an operation in the field by the wavering course of cropping so generally adopted. We take another very difierent rotation, commonly used on cold thin clay and flinty chalk lands : — 1. Fallow. 2. Wheat. 3. Peas. i. Turnips (fed off). 6. Oats or barley. 6 and 7. Clover, &c., left for any number of yeara, as individually suitable. 8. Wheat. One of the favourite Scotch courses on a soil strong, dry, and not too tenacious, such as is found in the higher regions of the Carse of Gowrie, consists of — 1. Fallow 4. Barley. 2. Wheat. 5. Clover. 3. Beans. 6. Oats or sometimes wheat. Among the Scotch farmers, in the neighbourhood of Edinburgh and Glasgow, where the production of potatoes is considered as remunerative as that of wheat, we find the usual course to be : — 1. Potatoes. 2. Wheat. 3. Clover. 4. Oats — although we are at a loss why the oats and irley should not be at 2, and the wheat after the one year's clover. As a conclusion to this brief reference to the principles of rotation, we would quote a letter to an American agricultural paper by John McKelan, llisq., a valued member of the agricultural press of Canada. Mr. McKelan says, in speaking of rotation in Canada : — " It is rare to see two cereal grain crops grown (in Canada) on the same land successively. A five-course rotation has been most common, but of late years the greater profit obtained from stock raising and dairy farming has induced the adoption by many of a longer course, extending over seven vears. Root crops and corn together fill one course, and, being lieavily manured and well cultivated, both enrich and clean the land. Barley and spring wheat succeed, seeded down with grass ; this is followed by peas and summer fallow ; then oats and winter wheat, ending the rota- tion — the length of which depends upon how long the grass con- tinues to yield profitably. *'In the five-course rotation roots and com are not counted, as but a very few acres of either are grown, the manure not required for them being applied to the summer fallow, and these crops, when ; I 1 " 'fei-: 68 The Canadian Farmer's m ■m grown, forming a portion of the land which would otherwise have gone into fallow." The following is the substance of a paper read by the author of this work before a Farmers' Club in Ontario : — "In no art are the prejudices of habit so strongly rooted or so difficult to surmount as in that of agriculture ; and although I consider it far from expedient to oppose such too suddenly, or to eradicate them, except by the progressive and enlightening effect of practical experie'nce, yet it behoves each one of us to discon- tinue customs that we have good reason to believe should be abandoned, or that are radically bad in themselves. '• In the introduction of a proper system of cropping by rotation we strike a blow at the very root of bad farming. " It is impossible to drive in any direction in this our fair Do- minion, without being struck by the appearance of an utter want of system among too many of our brother farmers. " We see fields so run out by continuous cropping as to show plain indications of deterioration in the very colour and consis- tency of the soil, while others, which have been pampered, petted, and crowded with manure (because perchance they are handy to the barn-yard), are so strong and rich that no grain crop can stand upright upon them. "The reason which renders it imperative upon our part to con- sider and weigh well the benefits which will most assuredly accrue from the adoption of some regular system of rotation in our crops, is that no two plants of different kinds require for their nourish- ment the same substances in the same proportion. "For instance, the grains draw largely from the silica contained in a soil, and will therefore soon exhaust the supply of this in- gredient in ordinary land. I say ordinary land, for in the virgin soils so great is the proportion of the humus or putrescent animal and vegetable matter — the most tertile portion of land — that wheat, or, indeed, almost any crop may be and has frequently been grown with unvarying success for many succeeding years. Under the old system of farming, this repeated cropping with wheat was adopted, and with apparent success. But it has been found that, even to the virgin soil made rich with that decaying vege- table matter, which has been deepened with each successive shed- ding from forest leaves, a time will come when the land, under an everlasting course of wheat, will begin to show signs of ex- haustion. "The important principles which should rule the larmer in the adoption of a regular rotation of crops are : — "1 That though a soil may contain all the mineral substances Dicessary for the nourishment ol every variety of cultivable plant, yet there is only a limited supply of the mineral food neces- sary for each particular species of plant Manual of Agriculture. fi9 ex- ir in nces able " 2, That son plants, as for example the grains, draw their chief nourishment from near the surface of the land, while others, like carrots or beets, seek for food at a greater depth. " 3. Clover and plants that put forth a luxuriant foliage absorb much of their food from the atmosphere, while cereals depend almost entirely upon the earth for their sustenance. " 4. Certain insects live upon certain plants, and aa long as their peculiar variety of food is furnished them, so long will they grow and multiply (instance the midge in the white wheats) ; but if a crop should intervene which is not the natural food of these our enemies, their larvae will perish for want of nourishment. " Variety is then one of the first rules by which the farmer should be guided in adopting a regular rotation of cropping. "Doubtless, by means of a copious supply of manure, sufficient to return to the soil those ingredients which the harvest has with- drawn, a succession of the same crops may be gi'own without the grain being either diminished or deteriorated, but the most prac- ticable and convenient plan is to alternate the crops so that after a particular species of plant has been raised, the land may have time to recuperate ere it be again required to supply a large quan- tity of the same kind of food. "The general principles upon which different fjirmers may work will, of course, vary with those differences, climatic and of soil, which exist in their several localities. All considerations of pro- per rotation should be carefully guided by the following rules :- - " To avoid the immediate succession of similar crops, especially if such be of an exhaustive nature, and to throw their return as far distant from each other as practical circumstances will admit. " To grow intermediate crops of grass and roots, soil permitting, between cereals. " To give the preference to such green crops as afford the best prospect of food for live stock, and particularly to those which will admit of cultivation by hoe. " Never lay down to grass until land be free from weeds. " The subject of this paper is, like newly cleared land, all but inexhaustible. I will therefore simply note a few of those courses which are now in vogue in Great Britain, only premising that in Canada wheat is undoubtedly the staple product, and that, owing to the length of our winters, we require much more fodder for our stock. " First, a Quadrennial Rotation ; — " First year, summer fallow ; second, wheat ; third and fourth, clover. "Now, I hardly dare here give my private views on the subject of summer fallowing, for I know that many farmers advocate, and indeed practically adopt it. The use and abuse of the summer fallow may well form a subject for future discussion. • 1 1 •?; tWHn 70 The Canadian Farmer's "The advantages claimed for the above rotation are, that the system is economical, requiring nothing but the most simple oper ations and the most inexpensive implements ; that it does not require so much attention to the manngement of the land as does a purely altern itive system, for the repetition of the summer fallow affords plenty of time for the preparation of the land for wheat , that the labour is evenly divided throughout the seasons ; that if the clover bo ploughed under after the second year, the land is kept in good heart, and will be still more enriched by the appli lation of our barn-yard manure to the fallow ; that the fallow ■cleans the land, and is undoubtedly followed by a good crop of wheat. " We now take a Five Years' Rotation, usually adopted upon the light lamis of the east of England, a part of the kingdom famed as a great turnip-raising country: — "First year, roots; second, barley; third and fourth, clover; fifth, wheat. "It is not customary, nor indeed C(mvenient, to grow such a large proportion of roots in Canada. We may therefore put part of this field in roots, peas, &c. ; but should, when the rotation again come^ round to this field, reverse the division, sowing grain where we before planted roots, and roots where we grew grain "The advantages of this system are, that it is peculiarly' suit- able to our lighter lands and loams ; the roots get a thorough cleaning, and prepare a mellow seed-bed for the barley; and a young sod is held to be, when broken up by a single ploughing, a good preparation for a sound seed-bed for the ensuing wheat crop, " I will close by laying down for consideration a rotation for such land as we have generally throughout this township. "This extends over six years, and is as follows: — "First year, wheat; second, third and fourth, grass ; fifth, hoed crop ; sixth, barley. " By bringing in grass for three years — say one in pasture and one in hay — we have an excellent sod to plough down, and we also have plenty of opportunity to enrich that land which may have been put to barley, by a liberal dressing of dung before put- ting in fall wheat. "The advantages that I claim for this rotation are an even dis- tribution of crops over the land, a thorough enriching of the soil every sixth year, and a good proportion of superior hay and ot wheat, the two most valuable products of a Canadian farm." A contributor of the Country Gentleman, hailing from Wes- tern New York, and signing himself " Observer," in a brief com- munication to that paper, gives the following pertinent remarks on this subject ; specially worthy of perusal by the farmer in Canada : — " So I soon worked into a rotation of : first year, corn ; second, Manual of AgricuUure. 71 pt ■«, cats or barley aofided with clover; third year, clover, first croii cub for hay and the second saved for seeil ; fourth year, clover, cut for hay and then pastured. As the land improved and oats hecame more liable to rust, barley was more generally sown instead of oats. " In this way, I not only soon got the land into condition to grow good crops, and realized more money than the previous owner liad received, but the soil improved very fast. "This improvement was due to two causes, one was, grow- wvf more corn and clover : the land was in clover halt the time, and was thus greatly improved ; and the other was the feed- ing of a good deal of clover, hay and other fodder, as well as coarse grains, which largely increased the amount and value of the manure. " Now, I know of no way in which land can be as certainly and rapidly improved as by growing clover and making and ajjjdyinff a large amount of good barn-yard manure. I find an essential cot dition of this course is to sow clover often. Keep the land in clover half the time, if possible ; tc keep the clover mainly for mowing, so as to secure a large growth of clover roots, on which much of the improvement by clover depends, and to always plough up a clover sod whilst in full vigour, or at any rate before the more exhausting grasses come in and use up the fertilizers rendered available by the clover. Another important point is to feed plenty of rich feed, as clover — hay and coarse grain, in order to make rich manure, which also has no small influence upon the amount or degree of improvement that may be secured "Now, in view of these facts, I think the course proposed by T ( first, clover ; second, wheat ; third, corn [hoed croj)] ; fourth, wheat) may be largely improved in two particulars: first, in grow- ing less wheat and more clover ; and second, in cutting and feeding more clover-hay and making more manure. This rotation keeps the land in wheat one-half the time. In every four years there are two crops of wheat, one of corn a' 1 one of clover; but the clover is ploughed under, which only icaves three crops in four years to be. gathered. This, I think, can be improved to the ad- vantage of the land and of the owner's pocket. The first object with me would be to save ploughing under the first and best crop of clover, so as to realize something every year from the land. If the small kind is sown and a good growth secured, the first crop may be cut early for hay, and the second crop make a good start to be ploughed under in August, Then the next spring, seed again to clover with the wheat, and grow clover one year between the wheat and corn. This clover may be cut early for hay, and then saved for seed ; and, if plastered and well managed, ought to turn as much money as a crop of grain. This is also a cheap crop ; there is no ploughing or fitting the land for the seed ; there is * ■ . .. ■li" 3. ■ 72 The Canadian Farmer'^ \V :1 little to do besides gathering the two crops; and, where it is an object to save labour, it will be found one of the best crops for this purpose that is sown on the farm. The next spring the clover should not be pastured, but make as much growth as possible before it is ploughed under for corn. This allows of ploughing under a good clover sod for both the wheat and corn crops, and with the growth above ground, and the large amount of clover roots in the soil, will be better — furnish more fertilizers than any crop that can be ploughed under. Then there will be two crops of clover-hay and one crop of clover- seed; two crops of wheat, if wheat follows corn , and one crop of corn, all grown in five years; which, I think, will pay far better than the course proposed by 7'. Perhaps, to illustrate, the returns of each course may be calculated from one acre, as follows : — YIELDS. PRICE. First year, clover. 1 4 tons $10 (10 per ton. Second year, wheat 20 bus. Third year, clover 14 tons. Third year, clover-seed 2^ bus.. Fourth year, corn 40 " ... Fifth year, wheat 20 " ... 1 50 10 00 6 00 75 1 50 bus ton bus According to this, one acre in five years would return " According to the other rotation, there would be — COMES TO. 115 00 30 00 15 00 15 00 30 00 30 00 $135 00 YIELDS. PRICE. Firstyear.clover (ploughed down) Second year, wheat 20 bus $1 50 per bus Third year, corn 40" 75" " Fourth year, wheat 20" 150" " COMES Ta $30 00 30 00 30 00 Which comes to $90 00 Add one-fourth for fifth year . 22 50 $112 50 " This taken from the amount realized by the first course leaves a balance of $22 50c. in five years in favour of the first rotation. This on one hundred acres would make $2,250 in five years, or $450 per year. And even this fails to show all the advantages of the first course, as by growing clover two years, and feeding the clover-hay, and making and applying more manure, the land will improve much faster than may be expected in the last rotation. An objection to both is getting corn out of the way in time to sow wheat in the fall, which is a heavy job (and can't be done in Canada). Hence I think a still better course is to plant corn , then sow to barley, or oats with which clover is seeded, the next year — the first crop of clover cut for hay and the second turned under for wheat; the fourth year the wheat also seeded to clover, which may be allowed to lay one or two years." m Manual of Agriculture. 73 His rotation (which is excellently adapted to the average soil of Canada) then stands : First year, com or any hoed crop. Second year, barley seeded down. Third year, clover cut for hay and for seed. Fourth year, wheat seeded down. Fifth year, clover. Sixth year, clover. /^ ■ : ' i; And he goes on to say : " This keeps the land in clever about half the time, and only grows one crop of wheat in a rotation, which must be a decided advantage where land has been run to wheat ; while the greater improvement of the soil must make the crops better, and the rota- tion more profitable in the long run. Indeed, with land in wheat half the time, and in clover but one year in four, I don't see much chance for improving the soil unless a good deal of manure is purchased and applied, I know from observation that good crops oi' clover, ploughed under every other year for wheat, will largely improve the soil, until the land gets so rich — full of vegetable matter — that the straw is weak and the crops lodge badly ; but I hardly think that one crop of clover ploughed under in four years, with three exha-isting grain crops in the meantime, can work any considerable improvement." The treatment of burnt land. — A practical farmer writing to the Canada Farmer, in 1871, says : " In regard to the mode of treating badly burnt land and plant- ing root crops thereon, I have always found that turnips thrive best, after one crop of grain (followed by clover) had been taken from the land. I would recommend anj' one who has suffered by having the land deeply burnt over to sow barley, and seed down with plenty of clover, using several varieties — Alsike, Broad and Dutch. After harvesting the barley, allow the clover the follow- ing year to attain a height of eighteen inches or two feet, and let it begin to ripen its seed, and then plough all under, being careful to bury the stalks thoroughly, but not all the heads. As soon as these heads are thoroughly dried, but not on any account sooner, harrow the land well, and sow wheat — fall wheat if possible. There will be an abundant crop of clover amongst this crop, to be again ploughed under in early spring. As soon as this second crop of clover attains a fiiir growth, plough it under, and turnips on this will be a successful crop. Burnt land, if badly injured, will not do for turnips the first year; but if only partially burnt, or but little injured, the tuiriip crop is the best that can be grown on some descriptions of soils. If too much burnt clay results, the turnip plant does not thrive at first, and is checked too much." We have, also, the experiments of another farmer, in the .same oolumns, upon this subject, as follows : i^i- !«^;h,F- t; ■" f-' ^lll : 1 ■ > ' . ■ ■0 IV . ..' -iiA Is ■ 1 74 The Canadian Farmer's % " I otter what little experience I have had for the benefit of those who, like inys».^lf, have had their standing timber destroyed by those destructive fires which sometimes occur in our Canadian forests. The recommendation to sow barley for a first crop, I have no doubt, is good, when any black soil is left ; but when nothing remains but the hard clay loam, I should be unwilling to try it, as such soils retain the water too long in the spring, and when the hot weather sets in the soil becomes baked hard, and cracked in every direction, and unles3 the barley had time to cover the ground well, the crop would hardly be worth harvesting. " The first piece of such land I cleared was ploughed in the fall and sown the next j'^ear with spring wheat; but, although the spring was favourable, the crop was not worth much. The stubble was ploughed in the fall, and sown the next spring with peas at the rate of three bushels to the acre. The summer proved showery, and the pea stalks grew to a length of eight or nine feet, and were heavily podded ; the weeds were completely smothered, and the soil mellowed, so that it was much easier to plough. The next piece I sowed with fall wheat, ploughing the ground as soon as I could get it cleared, and sowed early red clover, very early in the spring. The clover took well, and it would have be^n better to have ploughed it in last year, but, as is frequently the case on bush farms, I had not sufficient meadow, so I cut it for hay, and in September tried to plough in the after-grass, then over a foot high, but the ground was so hard, I had to de;,i.st and cut the after-grass for fodder. In November, when the ground was soft enough to admit of being ploughed about four inches deep, the clover was about six inches high, and I found the clovei* roots had penetrated the hard pan about six or eight inches. This year I sowed peas, but owing to the extraordinary drought the ytraw was very short but well podded, and the pods well filled. lij 1809, I had a ten acre field cleared and sown with the Tread- well fall wheat, and in the following spring I sowed early red clover at the rate of twelve pounds to the acre. In some places two ploughings could not go more than two inches deep, and in those places the wheat was winter killed, but the greater part came on well, and I had a fair crop. The clover took well except on the hard places, and these I harrowed after harvest, and sowed clover again, and this year, in spite of the drought, I had a fail crop of clover hay. Last fall I cleared another field, and sowed the Treadwell wheat at the rate of two bushels to the acre. Scarcely any was killed, and though the crop is, of course, not so good as on uuburnt land, yet the grain is an excellent sample, and weighs much heavier than last year ; but as the clover sown last spring failed, I have ploughed in the stubble for peas next year, and in future shall sow such ground first with fall wheat and clover, then peas, followed by fall wheat, with clover again." Manual of Agriculture. 76 SOILS. ed xt lat The surface of land is composed chiefly of minerals, such as clay, hme, marl, gyps, fluor, talc, sandstone, slate, quartz and barytes. These are the .scientific names given by geologists, and these suhstanc>>s mixed together in varying proportions, go to form the different soils. We will shortly see what these various earths are. ClaT/ consists of various earths in admixture, differing only in proportion and tenacity. Were it not for the stubborn tenacity of clay, it would be, under all circumstances, the best for the farmers, for in clay is found food in abundance for every variety of plant. Where clay can be readily brought under the disintegrating action of sun and frost, it will be found a very profitable soil; whilst, although much labour and capital is required to reduce the stiffest cLiy to a till- able condition, yet when once such a state is attained, it is capable of producing yearly, and of sustaining production for a long time, of immense crops. Calx is lime in combination with acids, and to this class belong chalk and marble. These, of course, are seldom found forming the entire surface soil, but when present in moderate proportions, in other earths, are found necessary to the successful production of most crops, and more especially of cereals. Calcareous earth. — To this belongs that peculiar earth in which we hud a mixture of clay and marl. Marl is very valuable on light lands, and its [iresence is beneficial in all wheat lands. Qi/ps is calcareous earth saturated with vitriolic aeid, and in the form of gypsum is found beneficial to many soils. Clay. — The peculiar nature of clay is its power of retaining moisture ; and for this reason alone a drainage is of very great benefit to all clays. Stagnant water is poison to all plant life, and clay has peculiar power to hold water until it assumes a stag nant state. Again, clay being saturated with water, does not dry out easily, and the effect of any sudden access of heat causes it to rim tog ther. In this state no crop can succeed. One of the chief objects, then, of the cultivator of clay land must ever be to counteract this natural tendency to run together or bake. Among the preven- tives are under drainage, subsoil and deep ploughing, and the addition and incor|)oration of such foreign materials as lime, chips, ashe-<, etc., or any substance whose mechanical action may be to render the soil more porous and to divide the particles of clay the one from the other. The nature of clay is much benefited by deep cultivation, for then the water that falls percolates through the soil, instead of standing for a length of time at or near the surface. 1, i'--!. ^i : 1 r il 76 The Canadian Farmer's ■ I'U Mv! Clay is a soil that no unintelligent or poor farmei can work with success. If ploughed too wet, it is ruined as a seed-bed, while if it is too dry it becomes next to impossible to rip it up. The general characteristics of a clay farm are, that it will pro- duce the most abundant crops, and that its strength will remain longer than any soil., but that, in its tillage, far more expenditure y: absolutely necessary to secure a crop at all. But there is a hungry clay, although happily we have but little of it in Canada, which is highly impregnated with iron ore (oxide of iron), and this substance is poison to plant life. None but a very rich man should dare to take hold of such land, for to bring it to a cultivable state requires much underdraining, liming, manure and time. Clay is immensely improved by the application of lime, chalk or any substance, mineral or otherwise, the effect of which may be of a stimulating nature. For instance ; lime acts in three distinct and effective ways upon a tenacious clay. As a corrector of acidity it neutralizes the acids injurious to plant life, removing from a soil that sourness which is found in what is technically known as cold soil ; it acts as a de- component of vegetable matter, and by hastening decay brings the elements of |)lant-food into a state in which they are soluble to the growing plant. Its effect is also mechanical in keeping apart the particles of clay, and thus it becomes an instrument for the admission of air into the soil, and the consequent destruction of the natural and injurious tendency of clay soils to run together and bake. This mechanical effect may also be attained by the incorpora: tion of such matters as ashes, coal or wood, chips from the wood- shed, etc. It may also be borne in mind, that lime being found in the ashef^ of every vegetable substance, in greater or less proportion, is re- quired as actual food to all growth, SAND. We next come to a consideration of sand as a soil for the use of the agriculturi.st. As a rule, we find our best farming sections in Canada to be those where sandy or gravelly soils predominate. This is, doubtless, owing to the general want of capital as applied to our farms, for, as itha ; been before mentioned, the clay farm, though capable of a heavier production of almost any crop, yet requires more expensive cultivation. As an instance of this, we may point to the farming operations of Alderman Mechi, in Eng- land. When Alderman Mechi first promulgated his various pecu- liar theories, he was laughed at as an enthusiastic scientist ; but when, by the aid of capital, he was enabled to bring his theories* f ! ^'i Manual of Agriculture. 77 to actual practice, it was found that no man in Great Britain whm able to approach him in the yields that he obtained from his farm of one hundred and seventy acres. His farm was stiff, blue clay, and required a large outlay of money in drainage and mechanical efforts to render it less subject io baking. This outlay he made, and, in his report (and we have no right or reason to dispute the truth of every statement, as his books have been voluntarily thrown open at all timos to inspec- tion by proper authorities and competent critics), the alderman ,says ; " For the last six years my gain as landlord and tenant on my little farm of one hundred and seventy acres, has been nearly £700 ($3,500) per annum. Even this last year, with wheat at 428. per quarter (SlyVir per bushel), I have gained £600 ($3,000) after paying every expense." Cands are easily cleared of weeds, and <\o not so absolutely or often require the services of the summer fallow. Moreover, they admit of easier and certain cultivation of root crops and corn, and these being cleaning crops help to supei'sede the summer fallow. They are not so subject to coldness or sourness as the claj', for less stagnant water will rest upon them, and for the same rea- son they are not liable to run together or bake. We may work sand at almost any time, even in a moderately wet state, without fear of the mechanical injurious effects which will assuredly accrue from meddling with heavier lands when moist. The natural drain- age is better, and, consequently, under-drainageandsub.soiling are not required to so great an extent as upon lands of a more compact nature. On .sands, our object will be the reverse of that upon the clay. On the latter we desire to loosen the soil, on the former our en- deavour is to compact it, and lim^ s an instrument for the compact- ing of sand is as effectual as for the disintegration of clay. Sand does not contain in its natural state as large a supply of vegetable matter as clay, nor will it retain as long the benefits of manurial applications. Whilst then we require to devote more time and capital to the actual cultivation of clay, to sand we must apply larger doses of manure of all kinds. In Canada, one of the best plans and most practicable is the ploughing down of rank vegetable matter, rich in ammonia and nitrogenous matter. A correspondent of the Oountry Gentleman gives to that paper his experience in the fertilization of a thin sandy soil, and we com- mend its principles to our readers. He says: " About twenty-five years ago I came into possession of about nine acres of thin sandy land. There had been within, say, three or four years previous, two crops of corn taken from it that did not exceed ten bushels per acre \ had it ploughed deeply and v.- ■ '' 1 I I -■ i H I ■ y, 78 The Canadian Farmer's sowed heavily to oats. As soon as they began to ripen we ploughed them in, and applied about seventy bushels of lime- kiln ashes to the acre. We then sowed it with rye, and also sow- ed clover and timothy. We had a splendid crop of rye, and for several yeors mowed a good swathe of grass; since which we have kept up a rotation of corn, then wheat or rye, followed by grass, which has been either mown or pastured ; two of the years potatoes have taken the place of corn. " The corn has averaged from fifty to sixty bushels per acre of shelled corn, and the other crops have been above the average of the balance of a good farm. We have put but little if any manure upon it, except a moderate amtiunt with potatoes. I may add, that a large portion of this lot is so sandy that it does well for building purposes." GRAVELS. Physically, gi-avr]-- and sands are of a similar nature, the drainage in li>oili bci^^r good, and having no tendency to run to- gether. But gvavoLs aui veiy various ; while .some are noted for their natural t'eitUiij r-s instance in the County of Wellington and parts adjoining thcTMo. others are of a cold, sour and barren nature, These barren gravel ; are usually known as hungry soils. They absorb all manure, and carry it beyond the reach of plant life, so that the application of manure to such soils in their natural state is like iln-owing gold to the bottom of the Atlantic. The better kinds of gr.ivel are, however, especially adapted to the growth of all kinds of plant life, both cereals and roots — whilst winter wheat and grasses flourish upon such. Whilst the gravel is hartlly capable of producing as great a yield of gi'ain as the clay, both having an equal cultivation, yet the grain on gravelly soils is usually superior in brightness and more solid in body. This fertility in many of our gravelly soils is due to the pre- sence of a large proportion of phosphate of lime, potash, and sili- con, all essential elements for the nourishment of grain crops. The best of these soils, however, require a ia ''ge iuiount of ma- nure in Older to keep them up to a high stanoMcd in their prodiic- tiveness, and for this purpose we depend greiaiy upon the use of green manure, especially the ploughing down ot green clover. By this process we not only supply a large amouot of nitrogenous matter, but the decomposing vegetable matter renders the staple of the land firmer and mor-e consistent. Of the barren gravels, the most stubborn to improve are those in which strati of day and gravel lie alternately, and crop out on the sides of hills. This is one of the worst forms in which arable land is found, as it is invariably full of land springs, which render the soil cold, and Manual of Agriculture. it also has a tendency, from the firm binding together of stones And gravel, to become impenetrable to the plough. These land springs also render any attempt at under-draining very difficult of accomplishment. We have yet another soil, which, though of a gravelly nature, is not purely gravel. We find land in many parts of Canada, whose staple is clay, but in which is incorporated a considerable quan- tity of stones, of the nature of flint. This is usually very excellent soil for wheat, fully supplied with silica, and often containina a iarse amount of lime. We now come to the consideration of LOAM. This m the prince of soils, and to the nature of a loam it should be tlieoViject of every farmer, by cultivation and cai3, to bring his land. The loam is the farmer's paradise. Loarrf' is a soil composed of an admixture of different soils, in various proportions, From the preponderance of heavy or light soil, v/e speak of clay, sandy orgravelJy loams. Loam is exceedingly friai)le, readily admits air and rain, and as readily discharges all su- perfluity of moisture, only retaining as much as is necessary to the wants of vegetation. It is deep, and is neither liable to be parched by the summer's drought nor chilled by the cold of spring and fall. The peculiar difference which exists between loam and pure clay or pure sand is caused by the presence of a large amount of vagetable humus, and for this reason it is fruitful as the virgin soil of forest lands. We have said that to the nature of a loam every farmer should assimilate his land ; and as the es- sence of a loam is the vegetable humus contained, so almost any soil may be artificially brought to a loamy nature by the sup- ply of decaying and decayed vegetable matter, by the ploughing down of green manures such as clover. The loam is easily cuitivateil, and containing in itself all the elements of food known to the wants of vegetable life (because largely composed of putrescent vegetable matter), it is ada|)ted to the growth of all crops, and can be brought under any system. It will grow cereals and grasses, roots and vegetables. That the superiority of loams is due to the presence of this de- cayed vegetable matter may be readily proved by the observation of two veiy practical facts. First, that newly cleared land, made rich by the shedding of the leaves yearly from deciduous trees, through many generations, is a perfect loam ; while by neglect to supply to loams long cultivated the necessary vegetable matter to decay, they lose their richne.ss and degenerate rapidly to the nature of a loose barren sand on the one hand, or to that of a worn- out, sour and tenacious clay upon the other. Alluvial soil is a species of rich loam, which has been formed "■If ', I n:. ■;:t 11. li-il ^Skl % 1. 1 80 The Canadian Farmer's hi ■ t lit' ■■'■; in low lands, from the wasting of the surface of higher grounds, from the deposits of streams pouring down in flood times, or the overflowings of turbid rivers, which leave a deposit of mud richly charged with vegetable matter upon the surface. Such is the nature of the soil deposited at regular periods on the banks of the Nile, m Egypt, about whose banks are cultivated probably the heaviest crops in the world. Not only do they contain much vegetable, but they are likewise rich in animal matter, and are almost inexhaustible. Still, as practical farmers, we should infinitely prefer, for general husbandry, the rich upland loam to the deep fertile lowland allu- vial soil, for the products of the latter are very deceptive — they are usually great in quantity, but not equal in nutriment to those grown on higher lands This is not only observable in our own Dominion upon sucli land, but in Spain — in Valencia, one of the most highly cultivated districts in the world, and where the system of irrigation has been carried to an excess — its products have been found so deficient in nutriment as to have passed into a proverb, expressive of theii inferiority in the power of imparting vigour : ** In Valencia the grass is water, The flesh is grass, The men are women. And the women — nothing." So in the lowland quarter of the great sugar-producing island of Martinique, called the Lamentin, the richness of vegetation is extraordinary, The canes grow to a size unparalleled in any other part of the world ; but the sugar, though as white and clear as pos- sible to please the eye, is found so scantily supplied with the crys- tals in which lie all the saccharine strength, that it decomposes when carried across the Atlantic, and is almost useless to the refiner. Peat is an inflammable soil, and may be said to rank with coal and bitumen. It is formed of successive layers of heath and close herbage, which spring up, grow, and die out. There being not sufficient natural heat, they only partially decompose, and thus are truly vegetable matter in a half rotten state. In peat, then, there is contained an immense supply of vegetable food, but it is in a state perfectly insoluble to the wants of cul- tivated crops. To use it to advantage, it must be subjected to intense heat, in order that, by chemical process, its vegetable matter may be brought into a state of practical utility to the farmer. This is best done by composting. As an addition and improve- ment to the manure pile, there is no substance more valuable than peat XS' Manual of Agriculture, 81 We conclude this section by a short allusion tu the retentive power of moisture in various earths and soils, based on the Report of Professor Johnson, F.R.S., laid before the Royal Agricultural Society of England. In the experiments brought forward, the specimens were pre- viously dried in a temperature of 212°, and then exposed to air saturated with moisture at G0°, for three hours, under which cir- cumstances, 1,000 parte of a clay soil gained 29 parts. 1,000 " coal ashes " 14 " 1,000 " lime " 11 •• 1,000 " gypsum •* 9 •* 1,000 " chalk " 4 " In the experiments of Professor Schubler, the amount of the moisture absorbed by the earths was ascertained at different periods, viz., 12 and 72 hours. The temperature of the atmosphere in which they were exposed was between 59 and 65, and each sample was spread over a surface of fifty square inches. The amount absorbed is stated in grains : 12 Hours. 72 Hours. 1,000 grains of silicious sand " calcareous sand 2 '• gypsum (powdered) .... 1 " sandy clay ... 21 *♦ loamyclay 2.5 " stififclay 30 " grey pure clay 37 " iinelime 26 '"'' fine magnesia 69 ** garden mould 35 " arable soil 16 " slaty marl 24 3 1 28 35 41 49 35 82 52 23 33 ' It is evident, then," says Professor Johnson, " that the power of absorbing moisture is in a great degree the measure of the ferti- lity of the soil." ON DRAINAGE. This is a subject not only of great importance to the practical farmer, but one upon which a full work might with advantage be based. We shall, in this section, content ourselves with passing allusions to the general principles upon which the formation of lasting and useful drainage should be accomplished. Draining is very often looked ufjon by the farmer as an opera- tion entailing such a considerable outlay as to be beyond the pocket of an ordinary man. Doubtless, to undertake in a short time to effectively under-drain a farm would require a very large expenditure, but the advan- tages are so great to the productive power of any land, that a con- stant improvement in this shape, on a small scale, and the opera- tions spread over a number of years, are hardly felt to the pocket ; 6 ■■Mi ■\ • 1;^ ■\ ft i v \ ' ■ 1 1' ■ % 82 The Canadian farmer's r»,.. , I?;^:" V !■ while it is marvellous what an amount may be accomplished at odd times throughout the year. There are many men who wait to hire their labour until the day for its requirement on the ordinary farm operations has arrived, and then, alas ! they find it exceedingly difficult, in a coun- try like Canada, whero labour is so scarce, to find such as they require. Rather we would advise the hiring of men for longer periods, and then, by constantly having works of improvement to turn to when other work is short, we may apply that labour at all times to some profit. There are a great number of days when we cannot get upon our land to work profitably at field operations. If we have a cer- tain field or spot laid out for drainage, these wasted minuter might be most profitably employed. There are, indeed, but few farms in Canada to-day upon which there are not to be found spots, sometimes covering very many acres, which, composed of the very best kind of soil to the hus- bandman, are yet so apt to retain upon their surface stagnant water, as to be totally unfit for the production of marketable crops, In many instances the drying of these spots, by means of un- der-drainage, is not by any means so formidable a job as may at first appear, while the profit is not only enormous, but lasting. From the experience of all farmers who have done any under- draining, we learn that the first cost is amply repaid in three years, or, in other words, the capital so invested yields no less an interest than 33J per cent. We know of no ir /estment so profitable and safe upon the stock or money market. The effects of drainage are very varied upon different soils. The immediate benefits derived are the remov,*^] of stagnant water, and the onening of the soil for the transmission through it of the . , ^aden rains and atmosphere. , , , oh is full of pores. These pores must be either filled v ' . with water. L . . uU water which stands in them for any length of time, then do they become cold and acid; if with atmospheric air, v.hen are they warmed with every increase of the tempeiature of the upper air. If these pores are filled with air, the land works up friable and mellow ; if with water, then will it run together and bake like brick on the receipt of the heat from a pouring sun upon it when in such a wet state. The o bject of under-draining is to advance this friable state, and, on the other hand, to overcome the baking process. By keeping the pores of the earth open, plants are enabled with- out resistance to strike their roots downwards and upon every side, thus securing sound anchor.cge, and seeking in all directions for their nati down and in| in u soil. Water in si or filters genf of i'u,'li«g upo| hpvd ioad. torrents, it isl quantities th| carry off' to Ic exposed to the Thus will in wet cold sej falls at intervi In other wc weather, and j Now comes afford to undei a fortune — litt Begin on th your main-drc 3ea.son. It is extraor stantly to the become drainec But when o farm ; but, if it age is thoroug] Finish as yo time and labor A little exti the service it > The outfall . main covered When spring greatly expedi As far as po may run alon^ parts our fielc a fence will e posts, prevent thaw. A great mi^ sides sufficient to slope the si Steep bank in, or are poa< Manual of ylgricultuye. 88 Ind Ike for their natural food, the earth is opened up, and worms can work down and increase in their ^tassages the number oi air channels in u soil. Water in spring, or when falling on the growing crop, percolates or filters gently through the soil until it reaches the drain, instead of u ling upon the surface and rushing off, as is its action upon a hpvd ioad. When water falls and runs off the surface of land in torrents, it is useless to the plant, for it never reaches in sufficient miantities the root, while in its superficial rush it is very apt to carry off to lower-lying spots the top soil, and leave the plant root exposed to the next burning sun. Thus will under-drains prevent a superfluous soaking of the soil in wet cold seasons, whilst they help to retain all the water that falls at intervals through the summer months. In other words, they are means by which to dry the land in wet weather, and also to wet the land in dry weather. Now comes the question to the ordinary farmer : How can I afford to under-drain ? Why, in the same way as you accumulate a fortune — little by little, by constant but small increase. Begin on the worst fields or worst spots upon the farm. Put in your main-drain this year, and some of your side-drains next season. It is extraordinary how soon this devotion of odd times con- stantly to the work will accumulate, and how many acres thus become drained in but a few short years. But when once a field is begun, do not travel off all over the farm ; but, if it takes ten years, stick to that field until its drain- , age is thorough. Finish as you go ; make good drains, if at the expense of extra time and labour, and fill them in as you go along. A little extra care upon a drain will often add many years to the service it will render. The outfall or main open drain, namely, that into which your main covered drains discharge, is the first to be attended to. When spring creeks of some depth of bank exist, this is often greatly expedited. As far as possible, fields should be so arranged that open drains may run along the fences, as thus we are saved from cutting in parts our fields for cultivation, and an open ditch by the side of a fence will effectually, by draining the water from around the posts, prevent its heaving under the influence of frost and thaw, A great mistake is made by many ditchers in not giving the sides sufficient slope ; an angle of 45" is none too much at which to slope the side of a ditch from the horizontal. Steep banks become undermined by running water, and fall in, or are poached by cattle in search of drink, and are tumbled »! !.-:*J' . 1 '>\ '■' <: i \ • \{ 1 ■ -' ■ i ,l\. IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) 1.0 I.I ■ 50 "•^^ 2.5 2.2 us 1^ 2.0 1.8 1.25 1.4 III 1.6 < 6" ► V] 7 "^ WJ^'' Photographic Sdences Corporation 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. MSSO (716) 872-4503 f'^^ of fermentation there is loss of imporUint strength by evaporation. The lightest covering is suflicient, and therefore we advise the incorporation of such broadcast manure by the use of cultivator and harrows. The old principle of plougliing down manure, except it. be done very lightly, has been pretty well exploded Manure that is once ploughed down deeply will never rise again Every storm that falls will carry it down wards, and further out ot reach of the growing plant. It is possible to put on too much manure, and so increiise tlit- bulk of the straw at the expense of the head. It is customary on some farms to draw out the manure evei-y year, on one or two fields that are handy to the barn yard, and there to use it ; because, forsooth, it save; 'w trouble of drawing a greater distance ! This is "robbing Peter to pay Paul." A few tields or acres adja- cent to the homestead are so enriched that grain lodges every year, while this evil effect is attained at the expense of the bal- ance of the farm. A proper rotation of crops will overcome this evil, as each field will thus obtain its fair share of manure, and the status of the whole farm will be kept up to an equitable standard of fertility. Surface Manuring. — We prognosticate that surface manuring will before many years be a recognised principle over all Canada: already we find very many of our most intelligent and practical men have become converts to the system. We clip the following correspondence from the Country Gentle- man, as it contains, in a terse and concise manner, the advantages of this mode of application of barn-yard manure, and is written for American farmers, and from a portion of America similar in cli- mate and soil to Canada : " Having tried nearly all of the various modes of using manure, and finally concluded that surface manuring is the best, I propose to give some of the reasons for coming to this conclusion. In doing this I shall only refer to such manure as is made in the sta- bles and barn-yards in Western New York, where a large amount of straw and other litter is mixed with the manure. "The iii-st one to discover fully the advantages of surface ma- Manual of ^gricuUure, 109 nuring wjiH John Juhnston, of near Geneva, N. Y, ThiH waH duii« Accidonially, in this way. Having land badly infcHtod with re the influence of human excrements by this people, that the laws of the State forbid that any of them should be thrown away, and reserves are placed in every house, in which they are collected with the greatest care. No other kind of manure is used for their com fields." It has been calculated that the excrement of a man used as manure, aided by what plants obtain from the atmosphere, will produce sufficient wheat to support him. How nearly then do guano and night soil resemble one another, each containing in great quantity those essential constituents of plant life which are most liable to be absent from our soils. Of what glaring inconsistency are we then guilty. We throw away that which costs us nothing, and is yet so valuable, and at the same time incur an immense expense in the importation of guano from countries some thousands of miles distant ! The natural aversion to handling may be overcome by deodor- izing the manure ; this may be effected by an admixture of ashes, dried peat, or dry earth of a claysy nature, or soot. Lime should, however, never be used, as it injures the strength of night soil by driving off its ammonia. About ten bushels of a compost will be a very liberal dressing to an acre. To compost it, it is recommended that there should be first laid down about two feet of fresh earth, to which the night soil may be drawn, after which another layer of earth to the same thick- ness, then another of night soil, and so on. It should then be regularly turned and thoroughly mixed, and may be used either for wheat or barley in the proportion of three loads of the mixture thinly spread abroad on an acre. It should be used more as a top-dressing. It is sometimes also mixed with the yard dung to excite fer- mentation ; this is not, however, advisable, for its effect is greatest when applied in an unfermented state. The operation of deodorizing is, however, usually performed by the earth closet system, and this is well worthy of attention by all from a sanitary point of view. if T H M S CO rS m ^ l-H o ol K > o s o > H » . . GC IB, O M H P4 O PU O M o § p s o o Manual of .Agriculture. 119 't'l; owerful \> human H are the ex ae is at- ^ ^ ple, that Si thrown 1^ they are e is used «g L used as wg lere, will another, luents of r2 Is. re throw 0g e, and at o Nation of 13 3 ^£ T deodor- of ashes, e should, it soil by essing to >• H PEI be first , O soil may 1^ le thick- go 5 H > « sed, and cog of three H O t should ^Ph 1 <^ cite fer- gg greatest S| vformed "> ktion by t o P o ! 8 H I I CO 3 09 99 H 99 I I o s s * 6 © © o © © 9 s i © . s § s? s s g M iH u5 ^ lo ^ '« "©©©©©© © 00 CO ^9^ ^P ?< ^ lH iH © © 9 b 6 © t- S "^ S9 SS 33 a J2 a 2? IQ CO ^ CO CO b b b 9 9 ^ © CO i-i ^ ^ ? a p ?3 i i 9 9 © e © e S © © M 04 rH pi^ iH ^ I s I i rH fH © © © I-H p 94 ^ © 3 s ^ ^ i; ^ ^^ ^ ^5 CS ^ ^ p4 ^ §1 S ^ fl ^ to TK r^ i-t CO •3rceptible odour. It would be, however, more certain in its effect should the dry earth be handy, so that at least once a day some might be thrown down and thus thoroughly incorporated with the excreta. The following contains the subject-matter of an able essay on the Dry Earth System, by Mr. Richard Postans, read before the Farmers' Club, at Ancaster, Ontario, on the 27th February, 1871 : " This system, which is destined to become a great boon to man- kind, was discovered a veiy few years since by a clergyman in England, where it is rapidly coming into use. Perhaps it would be more correct to say rediscovered, for a similar system is com- manded and described in the book of Deuteronomy, chap, xxiii. verses 12-13. " The system, as applied to sewage purposes, consists in the in- troduction of a certain quantity of dry earth into the vault every time that the closet is used. This earth possesses both deodoriz- ing and disinfecting properties, and so thorough is the action of these properties that all noxious gases are at once absorbed ; and if the ear th be properly applied, the air in the closet seems always as pure as that in any other ordinary room. " The disinfectant qualities of dry earth are shown in a very marked degi'ee by the remarkable cures effected in cases where severe wounds have become running sores, the clay having caused the discharge to cease, and the sore to take on a healthy appear- ance in a very short space of time. Its healing qualities have also been shown in its successful application to severe flesh wounds and to bad burns. " The cheapest implement for applying the dry earth is an ordi- nary scoop shovel ; but this is the most troublesome and the least effectual. A machine is now in use which has been patented by the Rev. Mr. Moule, the discoverer of this system, and no doubt other machines will shortly be introduced. " These machines may be attached to any existing closet, which would require very little alteration. " The best kind of soil to use for these closets is a pure or nearly pure clay ; any soil, however, except pure sand will answer. liilisi! Manual of Agriculture. 121 which nearly " Thus the entire rural, and the majority of the city population may obtain a thorough deodorizing material — dirt cheap ! " The earth requires very little preparation, and there is only one condition to be carefully observed, viz., that the earth be en- tirely free from moisture before it is used ; and with our almost tropical summer, this can be easily done. " In one of the long dry spells that occur in the summer, as much of the thoroughly sun-dried earth as may be required ft»r one or even for two years' supply should be collected and placed under cover, so as to be thoroughly protected from the wet. Two or three good waggon loads will last an ordinary family a year, allowing that it is to be used only once. The fine and dry earth from any but macadamized or very sandy roads would answer very well. " In stationary closets the vault may be made of such a size as to go for three, six, or even twelve months without emptying. Surface water should be carefully kept out of the vault. A small door at the sidior rear of the closet gives access to the vault for the removal of its contents. The contents of the receptjicle of the portable, or of t,he vault of the stationary closet, may remain until full without tranamittinw the slightest impurity to the surround- ing atmosphere; and when they are removed the operation is attended with no more unpleasantness than if it were so much garden earth. " In places where it is difficult to obtain a supply of suitable ea^th, the contents of the vault, after being dried by the sun or by iire-heat, may be again used, being entirely inodorous, having the appearance of pure earth, and acting as effectively as when first used. This may be repented as many as six or seven times without impairing the deodorizing qualities, and each time greatly increasing the value of the material as a fertilizer. After seven-fold use the material will have ?iecorae about as strong in fertilizing qualities as guano. " Experiments have been tried with the earth by applying it to turnips ; one hundred pounds weight of earth that had been used seven times was applied to an acre with the most marked effect, not only upon the roots, but the benefit of the top-dressing was very apparent on the succeeding crop, both crops being much in excess of the yield from an equal quantity of ground adjoining not thus manured ; while the earth was applied with as little difficulty and unpleasantness as would be found in using so much bone dust. " Every bushel of grain which is produced over and above the quantity necessary for home consumption, and which is in conse- quence sold out of the country, adds just so much to the wealth of that particular nation ; and if every available fertilizer was re- turned to the soil at such a cost as to yield a handsome profit on f I- ■: ■ i- ■3' i ' ''■ 1 1 . . ' >. i' '■ m- 1- li:''".' !-■: ;!!.■■: 1'^^ i' ■ ;■ - i :U- ' .* , 1 i. -,is; w. ••J h'f [:?,i i m ffi i I 122 The Canadian Farmer's the outlay, the profits thus secured would form quite an item in the annual exports of the country that might pursue such a course. " It is estimated that the human manure wasted in the United States amounts to the annual value oi fifty million dollars. This one fact is sufficient to clearly illustrate and prove the importance of this subject of agriculture. " Farmers have been advocating through the various agricul- tural journals the advantages of co-operative societies, and have made a practical move in that direction in the case of cheese factories. Here is a good opportunity for co-operation. Let a nurnber of enterprising farmers, who happen to live near a town or city, form a company, rent a suitable building for a store-house and drying shed ; let each shareholder deliver annually a certain quantity of dry earth at the store-house, and receive his share of fertilizing material ; let them employ men and horses to distribute dry earth to the closets and collect the waste earth again, and let them share the expenses thus incurred. If the size of the company and the extent of its operations be properly proportioned, the shareholders will thus secure an abundance of manure at a cost far below its actual value, and they will thus promote their own interests and the public welfare." Mr. Postans went on to show the immense advantages, in a sanitary point of view, which would assuredly accrue from the adoption of this system, and thus do away with the thousands of festering pools of corruption, that like a many-throated monster send up their poisonous breath to pollute the surrounding atmos* phere. LIQUID MANURE. The value of liquid manure, as such, is also very highly regarded by the inhabitants of China and Japan, the best gardeners in the world. The national plan is thus : " Into a cask or jar put a collection of putrid animal substances, consisting of tiesh, fish, blood, &c., to which is added a certain quantity of urine, but the vessel is not completely filled. A mandarin, or officer of Government, then attends, who, upon the vessel being closed, affixes his seal, and in this state it must re- main for at least six months. When this or a longer period has elapsed, the mandarin removes his seal and grants his certificate as to the quality of the preparation, which is shown by the proprie- tor, who cries it through the streets as a manure for gardens, and it is sold in quantities as small as a pint. Before using, it is always diluted with four or five times its bulk of water, and it is extensively used for garden crops, but universally in drills." The writer adds that he was informed by several intelligent Chinese that human urine, thus prepared, forms a fourth part of all the ma- nure employed in China, and is never used until it has reached a high state of putridity. Manual of Agriculture, 123 We pride ouraelves upon being in the advance of civilization, yet we of the Western hemisphere might yet lenrn many a prac- tical lesson of actual economy from the natives of the far East. An immense amount of money is annually expended in our large cities of Canada in the removal of sewage, which is carried into rivers and lakes, there to destroy all 6sh life, and, at the best, is but an imperfect way of getting rid of the noxiii >i8 vapours and effluvia that emanate from the ordure of man in densely populated cities. The subject of the utilization of our sewage to the increased production of surrounding lands is one worthy of mature consi- deration on the part of our city authorities. We will refer to a few of the marked effects of the system as carried out in England, and then, with a short consideration of the matter from the farmer's point of view, will hasten to our next chapter. Mr. Morton, Mrriting to the London (England) Times, says : "As you express regret, in the course of your very interesting remarks on the sewage question, that the results of the recent ex- periments conducted by the Metropolis Sewage Company, and quoted iii the Report of the Board of Works, are not given more explicitly, you may perhaps be willing to find room for the follow- ing statement of their experience during the last summer. " It is not only on the sand-plot at the North London Outfall that this experience has been obtained. "They have there, as you appear to be aware, obtained great crops of grass and vigorous growth of wheat, mangold- wurzel, celery and carrots, by the use of sewage poured over about an acre of the Maplin Sand, which has been brought up by barge and spread thirty inches deep over a contractor's yard. " But besides this, they have, since Lady-day, 1866, been tenants of 200 acres of light and gravelly land at Lodge Farm, two miles from the Barking Outfall, and on this, by pumping apparatus, they can deliver sewage at the rate of three hundred tons an hour. During the summer of last year about sixty acres of this land were laid out water-meadow fashion, somo on the ridge and fur- row, or, where the slopes were greater, on the catch-water plan. And from fifty-three acres of Italian rye-grass sown on this land, and watered with sewage in this way, they have cut during the last summer 2,480 tons of gras.s, which is at the rate of forty-six tons per acre. But of these fifty-three acres ten were sown this spring (April), and sixteen and a half acres were sown late last fall (October), so that only one-half of the land can be said to have been in full bearing power when the sewage reached it ; and of this again, at least one-half, which was mown in December last, was near' j~ destroyed by the sharp frosts of January Besides this large extent of Italian rye-grass, small experi- I ■ - I r 4'\ •I it Miai 124 The Cafiadian Farmer's I'! t • -s y mental plots of whest, mangold and other crops have been sewaged; and I may add the results of this report, notwithstanding that wo cannot attach so much importance to them because of the small scale on which they have been obtained" six hund'ed bushels of mangold roots were weighed off rather more than une-third of an acre (at the rate of 1,733 bushels per acre) — more than twice the quantity on fields close by manured and cultivated in the ordinary way. And the plot of wheat (sixty-one rods) which received three dressings of sewage when the land was dry in spring and early summer, yielded fifteen bushels of grain, which is at the rate of forty-three bushels per acre, while surrounding this plot on two sides of it, 102 rods of similar land, in all respects similarly treated excepting only that it had no sewage, yielded eighteen and a-half bushels of grain, or at the rate of only twenty-nine bushels per acre." The following table shows the construction of tanks for con- taining liquid manure, from which, at the Canadian prices of labour and material, our farmers may gather the cost : — ^i & o 2,209 4.538 6,807 9,076 11,345 13,614 15,883 18,152 20.421 22,690 1 •s 1 II 1:4 11 Q S '^ Feet. Ft. In. Feet. Ft In. 10 6 10 12 9 28 9 8 11 10 13 8 11 10 14 15 10 49 68 87 15 3 17 5 106 16 8 18 10 124 18 20 2 140 19 4 20 5 21 7 .*.<• •••••••• 21 6 22 7 23 9 161 180 199 u B as I 4,200 6,100 7,900 9,600 11,000 12,400 1.3,700 15,100 16,500 17,900 Our Scotcli readers must know that the Craigentinney Mea- dows, near Edinburgh, furnish a convincing proof of the powerful effects of the application of sewage in the production of grass; whilst by the use of this class of manure as a top-dressing, ^he cold, thin, and sterile sands of Flanders have been brought to such a condition of fertility that the crops grown there vie in quantity with those produced from the best lands in any part of the known world. On this subject the Canada Faiirner says, in its issue for March, 1869:— " Our fanners have not yet experienced the great benefits to be derived from this mode of using manure, which would be so pe- culiarly applicable in our hot, dry summers, and we hope at no distant day to see tanks for the purpose of collecting manure for Manual of Agriculture. 125 distribution in this manner become a necessary appendage to every well-cultivated farm. But, while we think tnis mode of applying manure to the soil, especially to grass crops, would be highly advantageous, and repay many times over the cost of tanks, water-carts, &c., we imagine that the construction of tanks or cisterns in the farm-yard, in order to collect the liquid drain- ings of the stables, cow byres, and even the rain from the roofs of the farm buildings, in order afterwards to pump out the contents and spread them over the manure heap, at intervals during the dry weather of summer, would prove of signal advantage to the cultivator of the soil. Ordinary farm-yard manure, as made in Canada, contains a large admixture of vegetable matters, such as straw, corn stalks, &c., which, becoming dried out in summer, re- sist the decomposing powers upon the small amount of excrements incorporated with them ; so that by the time the farmer wants to haul the manure out on liis fallow, or plough it in for root crops, he finds the undecomposed vegetable matter greatly in the way of the efficient incorporation of the manure with the soil. Dried- ap manure heaps are also greatly liable to become firefanged, which destroys their value. "In Belgium these manure tanks are usually constructed by brick- layers at a price proportioned to their capacity — the larger they are, the less the price in proportion : the usual size of a tank or cistern being of a capacity to hold 38,000 gallons. In Switzerland they make square holes in the ground, and line the sides with brick set in clay mortar. Where the soil is a tenacious clay, and there is no danger of the liquid manure percolating out at the sides or bottom, it is only necessary to construct the tank in such a way as will keep the sides from falling in, either from the effects of the action of frost or the trampling of animals near it. Where the soil is porous, it becomes necessary to make the bottom of stone flags, with the joints cut square, set on a puddling of strong clay. The wall is then to be built from and on this bot- tom, and hydraulic cement used instead of common mortar. " The cost of a tank containing, say 25 square yards of brick- work, would be about $50." Fto. a*. SL. 13 ^n: '■'•aV:-; ' m Liquid Manure Pumps.^^Vl^e find in the Americcm Agricvl- turist a pump, and instructions to make, parbiuulady well adapted 126 The Canadian Farmer's V •" i m -i;- 1 for the use of liquid manure tanks, the ordinary pumps being apt to become choked in use by coarse particles of solid matter. This pump can be made with the simplest tools. The box must be fitted tight, so as not to leak. The valves are of wood, covered with sole leather, which projects a quarter of an inch over the edge, so as to ensure a tight fit. They are hinged with a pair of common butt hinges to the pump rod, so that they will open the full width to permit any solid matter to pass up without choking. The pump rod is a strip three or four inches wide ; at the bot- tom of it is fastened a hemispherically shaped piece of wood, which supports the valves when working. Liquid manure is better in its diluted form for application to light lands. But for heavy lands it may to more advantage be used by distribution over the solid manure pile. We may sum up the uses of liquid manure thus : 1. If applied in summer or fall it will increase the aftermath on grass land and keep it green through the winter. If used for pas- ture, apply in fall^ as cattle dislike the smell when fresh put on. 2. Good to apply to clover sod before breaking up, very soluble, and readily taken up by the roots of the clover for the use of the succeeding crop. 3. Does well for wheat on light land, but its effect on clay is imperceptible ; should always be laid on when the land is dry. 4. Not so good for barley, as it is apt to soften the straw and cause the crop to lodge. 5. Apt to make potatoes coarse, hollow and watery. Lastly, the very best place for it is on grass, whether for mea- dow or to be turned under. HEN MANURE. Hen manure is home-made guano, and as such • is of very great benefit to the farmer. We import an immense amount of guano, and many of our best fanners use it every year upon their roots Now, our home-made hen manure is almost as good as the best of guano, while we know, when using it, that we have an unadulterated article. In no article of commerce is there a greater amount of adulter- ation than in the manufacture and sale of artificial fertilizers such as guano, .superphosphate of lime and the nitrates, and it would be to the interest of the sellers were they to obtain certificates from qualified analytical chemists as to the purity of the article. There are few farmers who do not keep a sufficient number of hens from which to collect yearly some ten or fifteen hundred weight of hen manure, and guano would cost them at the rate of forty dollars per ton. Manual of Agriculture. 127 ulter- such svould cates icle. jer of dred te of To Collect Hen Manure. — The droppings under the perches should be carefully covered from time to time with dry earth, ashes or plaster. These matters will have a powerful deodoiizing effect, and will by no means hurt the quality, but rather render it nearly of the proper strength for application. The droppings so treated should be from time to time drawn together in neaps kept under cover. If these heaps be watched, that undue fermentation does not set in, and from time to time tuiTied with the tcoop shovel, the hen dung, ashes, earth, &c., will work down to a powdery state, free from all disagreeable pun- gent smell. Lime should never be used with them, for it has the effect of setting free the ammoniacal salts, which are amongst the most valuable ingredients. The hen dung may be incorporated with the manure pile, and doubtless much of the benedt would be thus saved to the land ; but it is better to work it separately by the plan above described, and thus to keep it by itself as a special fertilizer on especial crops. Thus will the maximum amount of good be obtained from its use. It may be used with advantage on hiUed com or on potatoes or turnips. It has, when applied in the hill, and lightly covered with soil, the effect of generating heat, and thus conduces to the speedy ger- mination of the young plant. This is of especial benefit to the young turnip, as we desire that its early growth should be as rapid as possitls, in order to carry it into the rough leaf and beyond the attacks of the destruc- tive "fly." In all these cases it should be again mixed with dry earth, ashes or plaster, as in its natural state it is too strong for immediate application. Another of its effects is, as soon as heat and consequent fermen- tation is generated, to give off carbonate of ammonia, which, ab- sorbed by the soil and through it taken up by the plant, quickens growth and imparts a dark green colour to the leaf. It should not, if possible, be allowed to come into immediate contact with the seed, but be separated by from a quarter to a half inch of soil. Some, however, have used it in a still more weakened state as a top-dressing on the first braird of turnips, finding that its pun- gency is very distasteful to the " fly." SPECIAL MANURES. These special fertilizers are concentrated manures, or fertilizers of great strength in small bulk. They contain in a small compass large quantities of special '.I'iiit'N, 'H iMUMia 128 The Canadian Farmer's I, '!! m -A ti [I- plant foud, and are very vigorous stimulants of plant life. Due caution is required, therefore, to be exercised in their use. The caufie of failure in the use of the concentrated fertilizers in often due to the manner in which they are applied. It is difficult for those who have been accustomed to use bulky manures to realize that the full fertilizing potency of a bushel of animal excre- n^ent may be held in a large-sized table-spoon, and that a handful of one adds to plant structures as decidedly as several shovelfuls of the other. A full dose of opium as given to patients furnishes quite a dark, bulky powder, or pill ; but if we separate the alka- loidal principle upon which its hyponotic power depends, we have only a little delicate white powder which a breath of wind will blow away. The one-eighth grain of powder will affect the human organism as powerfully as ten times the weight of opium. If we were so forgetful of " potencies" as to administer as much, or even one quarter as much, of the white concentrated powder as of the bulky dark one, we should destroy our patient's life, or at least do great injury to his health. So if, in the use of genuine super- phosphate, or guano, or ground bones and ashes, we forget their power, and apply too much, we endanger the life of our plants. An experiment madeuponcomaffordstin illustrativecase in point. At the time of planting upon a field divided by a narrow strip of sward land, we directed that on one side a tablespoonful of the mixed bone and ashes should be placed in each hill and well covered with soil; upon the other, four rows were to be treated similarly ; and upon the remainder, the hills should receive a double quantity. It is curious to observe the effects. The first field and the four rows were remarkably thrifty. The corn came up well, and manifested remarkable vigour from the start. On the other hand, the over- dosed corn appeared for a long while as i it had been paralyzed by some wa.sting disease. It could not bear up under so much of a good thing. More free ammonia was formed at the start than could be appropriated by the tender plants, and many of them perished from over-stimulation and heat, produced by the fermen- tative chanfjes of the active bodies in contact. Whether it pays for the Canadian farmer to make use of these expensive special manures we must allow each man to judge for himself. We ourselves undoubtedly think it does when due regard is had to the proper mode of application, so as to receive full benefit to the crop. Although the price at which these special manures is held appears at first to stagger us, j^et when we consider the strength in rela- tion to bulk and weight, their value would appear to assimilate more closely to that of ordinary manure. At any rate, this chapter will indicate to the reader several of such manures, their method of action and mode of application, Manual of Agriculture. 129 ■.^,i. |e over- 'alyzed luch of •t than If them [ermen- these dge for regard Ive full ippeara in rela- limilate ;eral of LcatioD, without attempting to lay down any certain profit to be derived when compared with expense. It may be, however, well worthy of observation, that the majority of our more enterprising farmers seem to patronize the concentrated manures, are satisfied with the results, and so year after year cause an annual increase in the amount that passes through the hands of city dealers. Guano. — This is simply and purely bird manure made in a country where little or no rain ever falls, and the deposits of countless generations of sea-going birds, which come to the islands every year to lay their eggs and hatch their young. These deposits are found in the islands scattered in the Pacific Ocean and on the coasts of Peru. The fact that guano contains much more phosphoric acid than ordinary bird manure, is probably owing to the fact that the deposits are not only formed by the excrements of these fish- devouring birds, but also of their carcases and skeletons. There is great variation in the several guanos, the nitrogen varying in them from 5 to 15 per cent., and their phosphates running up the scale from 25 to 35 in the 100. Guano used at the rate of from 2 to 3 cwt. per acre is a most powerful manure — its effects are more readily felt in wet than dry seasons. The most powerful guano the analysis of which has been recorded was found to contain in one hundred parts — water 2053, Organic matter and Ammoniacal salts 7 "59, Phosphates 31 '69, Carbonate of lime 606, Alkaline salts 5 63. If water be drained through guano we have a very strong form of liquid manure — but for immediate application to plant life it requires to be very copiously diluted. The same rules are to be observed in the application of guano to turnips, corn, &c., as mentioned in regard to hen manure. Nitrate of Soda. — On the use of this manure the American Agriculturist says : — " Nitrate of soda at 4 cents per pound is the cheapest source of nitrogen in the market at the present time, and with wheat at $1.75 it might be used with fair profit. Sow 100 pounds per acre when the wheat is sown, and another 100 pounds if need be in the spring. On poor, sandy land, it would be better to sow 100 pounds of guano and 100 pounds nitrate of soda per acre in the fall." Sulphuric Addis used chiefly as an agent in the decomposition of bones, and of any other matter containing phosphate of lime. Superphosphate of Lime. — The mineral phosphate of lime is found in Canada in large quantities, and of late years no small amount has been exported to Europe. It is abundantly de- posited in the Counties of Leeds and Lanark, in Ontario, as If 'I, I il'B ll'fi.ii 130 The Canadian Farmer's jtSrl i doubtless also in many other parts of the Dominion. It is a very valuable manure for the supply of the phosphates required by nearly all vegetable life ; but if yre have bones about, we can manufacture a home-made article, and we may be assured that there m no adulteration in it when made under our own eyes. A ready way of manufacturing this important manure is to break up the bones as fine as possible, and then place them in a wooden box or barrel. Water, equal to about one-sixth the weight of the bones, may next be added, well stirred in, and left for a day or two to heat and ferment. Boiling water would be best for this purpose. Then add sulphuric acid, mixing well with a wooden spade (no metal should come in contact with the mixture) in the proportion of about forty pounds of acid to one hundred pounds of bones. Let it stand for about two weeks, stirring daily. If the mass is not then dry, add some absorbent, such as sawdust, dry earth or peat, but on no account use lime or ashes. This compound will retain its strength for a long time, but must be kept under cover. Dr. Nichols, in his Boston Journal of Chemis- try, February, 1869, gives the following, which he recommends: Take a barrel of fino ground bone and a barrel of good wood ashes ; mix well together and add three pailsful of water ; mix the whole thoroughly, stirring daily ; the mass will be fit for use in a week. In the columns of the Country Gentleman we find: — "To make superphosphate of lime, I take 500 pounds of bone and 175 of vitriol. The bones I take to a pine block and cut them up small. (They don't fly so much when I use pine.) I put them in a pile and let them heat and dry. Then I take a large flag- stone and put a frame around it Then get a boulder with a flat bottom, fasten a ring to it, have a rope and pole, and let them work like a well sweep. The frame around the flag keeps the bones from flying off when the stone strikes them. I put the bones into a large kettle with twelve pails of water, and boil them six hours. I have a large box made of plank and put the bones into it, and then the vitriol. I keep them well stirred. When they are hot, dry off with dry earth. I don't dry with ashes — they are not good to mix with phosphate. I sell 2,000 bushels a year. A glass company takes almost all my dried ashes at my place, paying 25 cents a bushel, rounding measure." Mr, Lyman Call, of East Durham, Ont., gives in the Canada Farmer the following account of experiments made with super- phosphate of lime on various crops. He applied this manure to portions of a field of potatoes, leaving rows unmanured to note the difference. The quantity used was about one baixel to an acre, and it was applied in the hills, about a tablespoonful to each hill. The manured portion exhibited a marked superiority over the other in vigour of stalk during the period of growth, and at Manual cf Agriculture. 131 harvest yielded one-third more than the unmanured rows. In experimenting with the same fertilizer on meadows, he comes to the conclusion that a barrel of superphosphate will increase the hay crop by as much as a ton to the acre. On wheat he found les8 marked advantages, and believes that salt is preferable in this case, using about two and a half bushels of salt to the acre. English experimenters also agree with Mr. Call, in that the benefits of superphosphate are not so marked upon wheat or jrain of any kind as upon potatoes, roots of any kind and grass. Before proceeding further with fertilizers, we would remind our readers that the cultivator requires to regard two essential matters for his guidance in the application of manures, special or ordinary. First, what proportion of particular ingredients of plant life his several crops require ; and secondly, what proportion of such particular ingredients are to be found in the various manures at his command. The two following tables will afford a basis of information on each of these two necessary points :— ■ \'MK\ li'i.*; iU'f •li'- s*i ,:— "To ,nd 175 lem up t them ge flag- h a flat jt them 3ps the lut the id boil ►ut the stirred. ] y with [1 2,000 dried lure. lanada super- lure to to note \\ to an to each ity over , and at i'- KU , Ui 1/ ' 132 u o I Pi^ •w EC o I o I tD EH The Canadian Farmer's I CO h <] S 4> !» & s ^^"^jg :? s? SP o ^ ^ 3? f gr „~J'j Hn He» ^01 ie9«rioeooee««o9f-jQi-ii-«H ,^ "3 -S ^ .i ^ I S. 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V .M ■ i' I I 136 The Canadian Farmer's ;BI''t W' WV 'h: -k: §w b o S« ^ »5 O J > o ss o w < w fa g potltM pu« arm I s^!!85saR8S5S8a?J»8a««a t;iiS 93 E888 I 5J D ■onmtnv -jsunniiB ■Ai]'id8 •«»»aiM >A lO « o V lb ><3 >A lA C4 u) 09 te t^ « >a « ^ « mioM otia CNino) o isqoiaoaa iMimoAON jsqtaatdag ^snilny •Xinf '•nnp •X«H •nadv qo«K Al rH ei eO r4 rH ^ ^ e« pH ei r4 i-l 04 rH M 04 tH p4 n O) ^ CO 01 M ^ iH -id Wi^)4ei>iHF4^rHOOOp401iHi-iOi^OiH pHiHO O-'O 04WOIN '^nnjqaj in coo«tii^aoao o % oiqcoocoq 109 0190 Vr< AuyOiO o"*© iHrtooo'^oortOoo o b o © 06© oj© «•*©« 'Xnnavr <6 9 '^ '^ © <9 9> '~< C4o<^©©^©o] o -• ^n>o eao «c©i^a> Sn© iHrHoiia o^~r-^^oi©p

Hb It©© ix©© ©be ra^ v>'tfr*i'' "■a '-' 5^0 5 35 s-c lil.s!ll.illil! Ih ■% .■3. s o if ls1illfiil£SS:Sgg III % ' J S5 S 2-- ■gas >^'3 - ft> I ill nuotoQ • 1; /i I * ■ ■■ - 'I Manual of jigriculture. 13: :SSS lit n O H H H V a 2 a fl 3 1 1, . « fig §1 f^O ?;S -^ ss v3 o h N O CQ H S5 Id M Q H 133 H I. •S'S 03 I ^ s ;! 3 5; 2 3 S S 5 f t» i 9* ^ 8 <4 r<- JS 2 « 8 S S is n 00 e w 53 o 3> o CO «« 8 a: I h Q § o O ;0 a I t- ^ I o I ;!J V o II o i t 02 /••I 'I * \ i \\ 138 The Canadian Farmer's f'i ' A comparison of these two tables shows us that swede turnips have in one ton no less than 157 lbs. 13^ ounces of salt, and we know as a matter of practical experience that salt appears to have a better effect upon this crop and mangold wurzels than upon any other. By reference to the table it will be seen amongst other things that phosphoric acid and lime enter largely into the com- position of roots of all kinds. Bones have by the other table a large proportion of phosphoric acid in their composition — thus is inferred by science and proved by practice that the phosphates are peculiarly adapted to the quick growth of roots — ^also of guano. By further compaiison of the two tables it will readily appear what manures are specially adapted to particular crops. Colonel Daniel Needham, in a speech in the Massachusetts Se- nate, advocating the passage of a Bill to provide against the sale of adulterated commercial fertilizers, by requiring that they be analysed and each barrel, &c., be labelled with such analysis, said in the course of his remarks, that " a most valuable fertilizer could be made by taking four barrels of ground bone, one carboy of sulphuric acid, and one of ashes. He said that the expense of this fertilizer would be only about $18 a ton, and that he had no doubt the fertilizer thus made would be as valuable as any purchased in the market for $40 per ton. He stated the expense substantially as follows : — Four barrels bone at $2 50 per barrel, $10 ; one hundred and seventy-five pounds sulpliuric acid, $5 25: two barrels ashes, $2 50 ; total, $17 75. 'The process of mixing," he said, "was very simple He would take the ground bone, and, after wetting it thoroughly, allow it to heat, which it would do in a short time, then pour on the sulphuric acid, and afterwards mix with the mass two barrels of ashes." Which is all quite correct in practice, except that the barrels ot ashes should decidedly be left out. There is yet one other preparation of phosphate of lime, known as Bone black, which is made by charring bones in close vessels, by which process most of the strictly animal matter is driven off. They are, however, more easily reduced to powder than before. When dissolved in sulphuric acid they make a good fertilizing agent, but not equal to common superphosphate, where all the ingredients of the bones are used. Caustic soda-ash will work down or dissolve ground bones. It has been also recommended, to pile bones and burn them with the trimmings of fruit trees and weeds, &c. Bones may either be used as they are, with the simple aid of pounding or grinding, or their action as fertilizers may be hastened bydissolution in strong acids — they then become superphosphates, of which we have already spoken. For accelerating the growth of grass and green crops bone manure is of great value. Within the last twenty years this manure has Manual of Agriculture. 139 Imanure lure has excited great attention throughout the length and breadth of Great Britain, and is now in almost universal use for raising tur- nips in all the greater turnip-growing parts of that country. Of late years it has been looked upon with favour amongst the better class of Canadian farmers. Long before the advantages to be derived from the use of well- crushed bones were generally known, many persons Were aware of their fertilizing properties. At first they were reduced to ashes by fire, but in this process there was great waste, for the oil and nutritive matter were considerably diminished by calcina- tion. Bones contain more than fifty-three per cent, of phosphate of lime, some phosphate of magnesia, carbonate of soda, and over seven per cent, of nitrogen. To the quantity of phosphates con- tained is due their principal value, for these salts are largely removed by feeding cattle and the exhaustion of successive crops. Another way of reducing bones to powder has been to partially break them with a hammer, and then decompose them by the effect of urine at the bottom of the farm-yard. Mills may now be obtained at a reasonable price, in which to reduce the bones directly to powder, and by this plan much waste may be avoided. When bone dust is used for the turnip crop it is usually sown in the drills with the seed, or it may be spread to advantage, es- pecially with ashes, along the drill when the young turnip puts forth its virgin leaves. With regard to the durability of this manure, it has been asserted that on a field, part of which was boned forty years ago, the crops were on that portion, during fifteen or sixteen years, visibly better than on the remainder, although the land was all of the same quality, and the part not boned was manured with barn- yard dung. In another case reported to the committee of the Doncaster Agricultural Association, about three acres of light sandy land were dressed in 1814 with 150 bushels of bones per acre, since* which time the land is said to have never forgotten it, but is nearly as good again as the other part, farmed precisely in the same way, with the exception of the one application of bones. Upon the lighter and more calcareous soils the benefits of bone dust are more marked and more permanent. This manure should be laid upon grass as early in the spring as the land becomes dry. That bone manure has little or no effect upon wet land is gene- rally conceded. It has been affirmed that broken bones have a mechanical eff'ect in loosening heavy soils, but I think that a less costly application, say chip manure, would be equally beneficial. Upon thin sandy land, a liberal application of bone manure will be of great advantage, not only to the immediately succeeding crop, but in the improvement of the land for many years, and in ,. 'it ■'!■'■ r 140 The Canadian Farmer's fr I! If s I. If the efficiency, in the succeeding courses, of a smaller quantity of manure to ensure a crop. For general use, particularly upon turnips, manufactured bones — that Is, bones boiled and ground — are most easily handled by the farmer ; but farmers, at least in England, have found themselves imposed upon by adulteration on the part of the manufacturers, or more often by the deprivation by manufacture of the gelatine and oil which bones in their natural state contain. There is yet another way in which to make this article at home. Even as flesh, if buried in the ground, will not bring its fertilizing powers to bear upon the earth until decomposition has set in, so it IS necessary that bones should have begun to ferment before they become available for the use of the soil. To attain this fermenta- tion, the formation of a compost of bones with earth and other substances will be found quite practicable. Mix twenty bushels of bones with four or five of barn-yard muck, cover the heap well, and the mixture will soon become decayed and pulverized. In this you will have the bona fide bone manure, with all its gela- tine, phosphate, and nitrogen conserved. This practice has been recommended by several very intelligent farmers and we have it from a farmer near Guelph that its effects upon the turnip crop have been very decided. Bones have the advantage of being easily procurable in our cities, and are compact for carriage One hundred bushels will be found equivalent to thirty waggon loads of barn-yard manure. They may be collected and drawn home in the winter time, and can be preserved for a long time if kept dry. Moreover, they have one advantage over barn-yard manure, in that they carry no weeds to the field. They are most suitable for turnip culture, and a successful crop of these will indirectly benefit the farm in suc- ceeding years We have numerous instances of turnips with or- dinary manure laid under them being destroyed by the fly, while those sowed with bone dust have escaped the ravages of this pest. A dressing of 250 pounds per acre on grass land, especially if it is occasionally [)astured, would undoubtedly pay. As a dressing for grape-vines, pear trees, and for general garden use, it may be used at the rate of three to five hundred pounds per acre profitably. The method recommeiuv ^ by Mr. A. Gordon, of Fitzroy, in the Co. of Carleton — a Canadian farmer, is : — " The bones to be used should be broken as small as possible ; they cannot be too small, as the smaller the pieces the greater the surface presented to the ac- tion of the acid, and consequently the more rapid and perfect will be the solution. Having broken the bones into pieces from one to two inches in length, place them in a large cask or sugar hogshead, add a quantity of water sufficient to moisten the bones, and allow them to soak in it for three or four hours before adding the acid , if the water be boiling, so much the better , then add the acid, most ough< moist When heat of 5 degree The Manual of Agriculture, 141 ii %:''. 11, as ac- ffect from igar |)nes, ling the acid, and stir it well with the bones. Sulphuric acid is the acid most commonly used ; its specific gravity from the manufactory ought to be r845 ; it should be kept in close vessels, as it attracts moisture rapidly from the atmosphere, and becomes weaker. When strong acid is added to water, a considerable amount of heat is produced. If we mix vitriol and water in the proportion of 5 lbs. of acid to 2 lbs, water, the temperature will rise to 266 degrees. The proportion of acid to be used in making vitriolized bone man- ure is one hundred-weight of acid for every two hundred-weight of bones, and the proportion of water should be fully three times that of the acid. The water must be applied first to the bones, afterwards the acid. The reason of this is, that when undiluted sulphuric acid is poured upon the bones, violent action ensues, but continues only for a short time, as a coating of gypsum, which is the first new compound formed, covers the surface of the crushed bones with a crust, which prevents the acid from coming in con- tact with the unaltered portions, and consequently prevents a perfect solution. But by applying the water first, and afterwards adding the acid, the action iscom'tio. % This is strictly super- phosphate of lime. Caustic lye may be also used to diss 1" '.ones, its action being, however, slower than that of sulphuric acid. To accomplish this, a rough but tight box, not over eighteen inches deep, is needed. Procure sound, unleached wood-ashes, mix a peck of slaked lime and a peck of sal-soda to every barrel of dry ashes. Pack the ashes, &c., with the bones in layers (ashes first) until the box is filled. Saturate the mass with water, and add from time to time more water to preserve a constant state of mois- ture In four or six weeks the bones will have become so much sof- tened that they will crumble to powder with a slight blow. The mass may then be mixed up and beaten fine with a shovel, and an equal quantity of fine soil added and thoroughly intermingled. This compost k too strong for direct application to the seed, and in using it for corn some earth needs to be mixed with it previous- ly. If the quantity of ashes is increased, the process is proportion- ately hastened A correspondent of the Country Gentleman says : " Take a water-tight box or cask of a suitable size, and in the bottom put a la\'er of ashes, say three inches in depth, then on this a layer of bones, and so on alternately until the cask is nearly or quite full, the last layer of bones being well covered with ashes. I then have my family pour upon this all the urine from the house every day, and on washing days pour on a quantity of the strong soap-suds. In a few months this can be taken out with a shovel all dis- solved, except it may be the large enamelled joint bones, which may have to be broken and put through another sweat in the like man- .■.'■li'y ^f !':v. :, r. ■ 1 :■! Ih >.'• \ i1u;x\^-il i; fi 142 The Canadian Farmer's ,1 I ner. It is understood that the ashes must be good hardwood ashes, unleached, or the undertaking will prove a failure. There is one great difference to be observed in the application of bones simply broken up and ground, and when reduced by strong acids. Bones may be applied directly on the plant without fear in touching the seed, whilst superphosphate should be incorporated in the soil without actually coming in contact with the seed — foi the action of the latter is stronger, in that it is more rapid than that of bones in a natural state That the turnip has a great affinity for the ingredients of food contained in bone, we have ourselves seen very frequently illus- trated by the growth of a turnip root through a solid piece of broken bone. The value of bones as manure may be generally summarized as follows : — That on dry sands, limestone, chalk, and light loams, bones are a very highly valuable manure. That they may be applied to grass with great good effect. That on arable lands they may be laid on fallow for turnips, or used for any of the subsequent crops. That the best method of using them, when broadcast, is previous- ly to mix them up in a compost with earth, dung or other manures, and let them lie to ferment That if used alone, they may either be drilled with the seed or sown broadcast. That bones which have undergone the process of fermentation are decidedly superior, in their immediate effects, to those which have not. That the quantity should be about twenty bushels of dust, or forty bushels of large, increasing the quantity if the land be im- poverished, and also if the bones have been manufactured. That upon clays and heavy loams it does not yet appear that bones have any marked effect. Farmers, do not waste bones, but collect all you can ? Soot is another valuable manure, thousands of bushels of which are annually wasted in Canada alone Soot IS made up of carbon m the purest state, and is full of volatile parts. The soot from bituminous coal is generally considered of more value, weight for weight, than that obtained from wood. " This is an excellent manure , but, as in many other cases, one must know how to use it. It is, first, good for all fruit trees, for meadows overrun with moss, and for clover. In the kitchen garden, reserve it for the onions. For other vegetables it is more hurtful than useful. Use it with moderation. In small quantities, soot produces good results ; in ■-•'it Manual of Agriculture. 143 large, it disorganizes the plants bums and cauterizes them, eats both leaves and roots. On a rainy day, give your soil a weak dose \ prudence says, mingle earth and mud with it. Above all, do not make use of it in hot and dry weather." — La Gazette dee Cam- 'pagnes SWAMP MUCK AS MANURE BY ITSELF, We have spoken of the use of swamp muck as an auxiliary to the composite heap oi barn-yard manure It may also often be used with advantage by itself. Originally most of our swamps were lakes or large ponds. The accumulation of decaying vegeta- ble matter, however, gradually raised them, until they became in the half-dry and periodically wet state in which we now find them. A great depth of soil on these is composed of alluvial deposits and pure decayed vegetable matter. This is rich in the elements of plant food, but as a, manure is in its natural state next to useless, owing to its acidity and the consequent fixed state of its most val- uable ingredients. In order then to render these ingredients soluble to plant life, the acidity in muck must be corrected, and no agent is so power- ful for this purpose as lime. As we have before said, if near enough, it will often pay to haul into the barn-yard and there draw out in the compost heap all the vegetable food which has for generations been preserved from entire decay by perpetual moisture ; but to use it by itself on land, it may be manufactured into manure upon the edge of the swamp. Throw it up in heaps on the adjacent dry spots, and mix liber- ally with it, as it is [)iled. lime. The action of the lime shovelled into the muck will be to set up the action of fermentation. Its rapidity will depend greatly upon season, and upon the state of decomposition in which the muck may be found. If used on the s^il, it will be found a powerful and lasting fer- tilizer, though its action will be far slower than that of barn-yard manure. In soils destitute of lime and alkalies, this muck will act very slowly ; for when these ingredients do not exist in the land, the benefits of rotten wood or vegetables are purely mechanical. Therefore, even on stiff clays, it would have the effect of mechanically loosening the soil, although for that purpose it would hardly pay to go to the expense of manufacturing, hauling and spreading, when other substances, such as chips, &c., far more affective to open up heavy land, could be obtained. It is peculiarly adapted to the use of light land, giving to such a greater consistency. Like charcoal, it absorbs moisture and retains it for the use of the growing plant. i'i'r:ir:| :!■• if:> 1 !'■■'* :• !! :t I , r 1)1 i n .«l fe ■ ''1 i'f- , :^; 144 The Canadian Farmers Depend upon it that, as a rule, money and labour laid out in the use of such additions to the consistency of light lands will pay better than when expended on more acres. "In a discussion before the Little Falls Club, Mr A. L. Fish stated that twelve years ago he drew out three thousand loads of muck, and applied it at the rate of fifty loads to the acre, pulverizing and mixing it with the soil. The result was good crops without fur- ther cultivation, Two years later he drew out four thousand loads, and applied it at the rate of one hundred loads to the acre, spread with a plank to which was attached a tongue to hitch the team The land was planted to corn. After taking two crops from the land, it was put down in meadow, and it has produced at the rate of two tons of hay per acre ever since, though before the application it did not yield one ton per acre, It did not act so quickly as manure, but was more lasting." — Rural Home. A good compost may be made in the proportion of three bush- els of lime to a cord of muck. If a peck of salt be added it will greatly help to correct the acidity and hasten the action of the manure upon the crop Muck is a good top-dressing for grass. If drawn out in winter and laid on wheat, it will not only help the wheat through the alternate frosts and thaws of spring, but be of great benefit to the growth of grass seeds. If it be required to use it for spring crops, it should be drawn out by sleigh and spread on the winter fallow. In these ways we may find lots of profitable work for team horses that would otherwise be " eating their heads off " in winter. SAWDUST. This has heen too often called valueless. Its value is not great, but where handy will often pay the hauling. We once saw a very good crop of potatoes growing on a patch of old pine sawdust, hut it was well rotted It should be heaped and well rotted. It is injurious to the land to plough it under, m any quantity , in a fresh state. Better use it for bedding, and allow it to undergo a process of fermentation before using Thus it will be found a valuable ad- junct to the manure pile for there is no better absorbent obtain- able. Hardwood sawdust is more valuable than that made from pine. It 18 also useful spread upon the surface in the neighbourhood of the roots of trees — prevents the surface of the earth from c; '^ng, and retains moisture in the soil. Its action in this case i ot manurial, but purely mechanical. On heavy soils it will also help to keep them open It might help grass as a mulch, retaining moisture and protect- ing the roots through winter. Manual of Agriculture, 145 in the 11 pay stated muck, igand nt fur- )usand le acre, ;ch the crops oduced before t act so e bush- i it will of the L winter ugh the .t to the 3 drawn )r ceam rinter. )t great, a very [ust, hut It iy by , in a locess of ible ad- I obtaiD- pme. Ihood ol ] 01 iFotect- SEAWEED. * This is a valuable manurial agent, and is largely used in coun- tries adjacent to the ocean. It is used in two ways: either it is gathered, spread and ploughed under when fresh, or piled in heaps and burnt. The ashes are rich in fertilizing elements, containing twelve per cent, of potash, twelve per cent, of soda, twenty per cent, of salt, ten rer cent, of lime, five per cent, of phosphates, and twenty-four per of sulphuric acid, besides a trace of chlorine. It is used by the Lower Canadians in great quantities along the shores of the Gulf of the St. Lawrence, and by them is ploughed under green, or burned to ashes and spread broadcast, or deposited in the potato hills. PEAT OR TURF AS MANUKB. This is not of great value except as a top-dressing for grass, for which purpose it must be reduced to a finely divided state by a similar process and by the use of lime, as already given under the heading of " Swamp Muck for Manure." It is, however, far more useful in the barn-yard manure compost heap. tallow-chandlers' refuse. This consists of the muscular parts and membranes of fat af* r it has been tried for lard. There is much animal matter in the scraps, and they contain about thirteen per cent, of ammonia, with no inconsiderable quantity of sulphur and phosphorus. As manure, it is generally broken up fine and composted with good muck ; about a hundred pounds to a cord of muck ; after becoming well heated, the heap requires to be turned over and well mixed. It may be applied with advantage to almost any crop. HOUSE-SLOPS Should never be wasted. Not only are they when thrown promiscuously out of doors a source of annoyance and a well- spring of noxious odours, but there is contained in them a large amount of good manure. Pour them daily on a compost heap, or, after free dilution with water, apply directly to garden crops, peach trees, &c. WOOL WASTE, Such as drops from the carding machines of woollen factories, is a rich fertilizer, being saturated with grease or oil, and is used to 10 m/ W\ ■■llvfi iV.'? #; f^ u IV' 146 The Canadian Farmer's tf i !k 1 ' iPn Ti wli' ' ^ If! li ,i si , if a great extent, mixed with ashes and lime, in England, by hop growers. The mixture is worth, on most soils, more than ordi- nary ashes. HAIR Contains a large amount of nitrogen, and is therefore a rich fer- tilizer. It decomposes in the soil very -lowly, and so its results are not very marked, but they are lasting. It is several times more enriching than common barn-yard manure. We see the farmer who does not believe in books, sneer when we advise him to save carefully all the combings from the teams. Such a little matter to look after ! We wish the farmer to try it ; he will be astonished at the amount collected from a few teams in a season's grooming. LEAVES Of particular vegetables are the best manures for those vegeta- bles, because they contain more or less of the special ingredients of food required by them individually. This is nature's law, and requires no special knowledge of chemistry to appreciate. They are, when handy, well worth collecting. In the barn-yard they will be found valuable as absorbents of liquid manure, besides containing in themselves great manurial qualities. The value of the leaves from hardwood trees is greater than from pines. These matters when viewed singly are small, but in the aggre- gate an immense amount of addition of valuable material may be made to the " farmer's bank " — the manure pile — by attention to these minor details " Mony a mickle maks a muckle," the Scotchman says. The ashes of leaves will be found largely composed of soluble sfits, earthy phosphates and carbon, also a very large amount of silica, the straw-supporting requisite for cereals. ASHES. Amongst mineral manures there are few of greater im- portance to the farmer than ashes. All ashes may, in one man- ner or another, be made of great use upon the farm. The ashes of coals and cinders are of benefit in a mechanical way by loosening and making friable tenacious soils, whilst they render light soils more compact. In Canada, in the country, wood is the fuel ; farmers therefore have the means of collecting every year large quantities of wood ashes. By chemical analysis it is found that wood ashes contain in large to plant On th ful effec InGe ness by has been farmer t( culture, to plant phatcs. Their hard woe We ha kinds of It is ac ashes. T then bec( counterba our own p this pract: tion of wJ ashes prod Let the hardly doi meadows In the I» are looked Numeroi been recorc of eighty-t] "Theyk with Dutd nineteen bi withstandir they alway doubtless in being used.' The farm deeply impr being broug cases have I land. When ash tomarv to m We'think plaster by it Manual of Agriculture. 147 hop ordi- hfer- re not i-yard lenwe teams, try it ; aius in vegeta- edients iw, and ,rn-yard manure, ,er than maybe Intion to soluble lount of Iter inl- ine man- Ichanical list they Iherefore I 1 of wood contain in large proportion most of the more essentia) elements necessary to plant life, with the exception of ammonia. On the European continent the value of ashes and their power- ful effect, especially upon young clover, are fully recognized. In Germany, grass lands are kept in a high state of productive- ness by the exclusive use of this manure. Indeed the question has been frequently mooted whether it would not pay the British farmer to import wood ashes from Canada for the purposes of agri- culture. The chief and most important of the elements necessary to plant life, contained in wood ashes, are potash and earthy phos- phates. Their quantity varies with the different kinds of wood, the hard woods containing a greater amount than the soft. We have some very complete analyses of the ashes of different kinds of wood by eminent chemists. It is advocated by some to burn the stubbles and thus make ashes. To effect this, burnt stubbles must be left long, and it then becomes a question whether the benefit of the ashes will counterbalance the loss of straw for our long winter's use. For our own part, we are inclined to think that the benefit (if any) of this practice ariser >re from the effect of the fire in the destruc- tion of weeds auv^ .asects than from the small quantity of the ashes produced. Let the farmer think as he will on these matters, yet he can hardly doubt the efficacy of wood-ashes as a top-dressing for his meadows In the Netherlands, where their clover seldom if ever fails, ashes are looked upon as necessary for top-dressing Numerous individual instances of their beneficial effects have been recorded, and Sir John Sinclair adds the public declaration of eighty-three practical Flemish farmers, that — " They know by experience that when clover is not manured with Dutch ashes at the rate of 25 cuvelles per hectare (equal to nineteen bushels per acre), the following crop is very bad, not- withstanding any culture that can be given the soil , whereas they always have an excellent crop of wheat after clover, and doubtless in proportion to the quantity of manure above-mentioned being used." The farmers who subscribed this declaration must have been deeply impressed with the importance of these ashes ; for, besides being brought through the canals from Holland, they must in most cases have been afterwards carried from forty to fifty miles by land. When ashes are used to top-dress meadows in Canada, it is cus- tomary to mix them with gypsum, and lay on in early summer. We think, however, the better plan would be to lay on the plaster by itself in spring, and the ashes in the fall by themselves ; ;■.• i St,.- ■ IV. "> ; :.i mi fill ^ i I 148 The Cafiadian Farmer's thus we shall secure a more liberal application of each of these valu- able but differently constituted manures. Wood-ashes are so valuable to the farmer that it becomes a penny wise and pound foolish proceeding to sell them for the penny bars of inferior soap which are often received in excliange from the peddling ash-man. Let us rather keep our ashes for our own use ; it will in the long run pay far better. Good wood-ashes weigh about fifty pounds to the bushel — oi this 6f lbs. are soluble in warm water. We find in the Boston Journal of Chemistry, the editor ol which is also a practical farmer in New England : " Of the soluble constituents of unleached wood-ashes there are little more than 4 J pounds of potash and soda, the remainder being the sulphuric, muriatic and carbonic acids, with which the alkalies are combined. Forty-three pounds are insoluble in water, and consist of ; Carbonate of lime 32 pounds. Phoaphate of lime 3 '* Carbonate of magnesia 4 " Silicate of lime 3 " Oxides of iron and manganese 1 '* 43 " In leaching, the only change in ashes is in removing the soluble portions and adding about one pound of quicklime per bushel. There is not much change in bulk, but considerable addition to the weight from the quantity of water absorbed. As to the commercial value of the ashes before and after they are leached, it is said : In the dry state, 4Pbs. of potash and soda are worth 6 cents per lb 27 cts. Other soluble constituents 3 32 lbs. Carbonate of lime 3 3 " Phosphate of lime 6 3 " Silicate Iron and manganese This estimate gives the value per bushel of unleached ashes at thirty-nine cents. By leaching, thirty cents of the commercial value is removed ; this leaves a bushel of leached ashes worth nine cents for its fertilizing constituents, though there should be also added silicates, which, having no commercial value, are useful as plant food. A bushel of unleached ashes judiciously employed will return in most seasons sixty or seventy cents worth of produce. The leached ashes are also worth more to the farmer than nine cents per bushel. A good, honest bushel of moist leached ashes will give a return to product for the first year of fifteen or twenty cents. Manual of Agriculture. 149 These estimates are only rough ones, but still afford some clue to the relative agricultural values of leached and unleached ashes. Sc'iuething also depends upon the nature of the land upon whicii they are applied, being peculiarly beneficial to the lighter soils, especially such as have been deprived of phosphates. Spread round trees they are of special benefit, not only as ma- nure, but also as destructive to insect life. One of the most efficient applications is found to be on potato hills. We find reported the following remarks from Mr. Quimby, at a meeting of the Rochester Farmers' Club, on the value of leached ashes ; they may well be read with care by those who are fond of speaking of the utter worthlessness of ashes after leach- ing : — " Leached ashes are good for all crops ; for corn in the hill, and especially valuable as top dressing for wheat and clover fields, and meadows generally. During the past three years he had drawn 10,000 bushels on his farm, which he spread on land at the rate of 200 to 300 bushels per acre. He had covered forty acres in this way, and meant to ash the entire farm. The}'^ had doubled his wheat crop and wonderfully increased his crop of grasses, especially clover. Land which had been run down too much to seed with clover, produced heavy crops when ma- nured with leached ashes. He got a good catch of clover where he applied leached ashes last year on his wheat and rye, while the balance was a failure. He could see a great difference in the growing wheat where the land was manured with ashes and where it was not." A successful orchardist being frequently asked how he made his apple trees grow so fast, replied, " I give them plenty of soap-suds and ashes ; so the potash manures them,renders them luxuriant and kills insects." The same says also : " From one-fourth of an acre of ground I raised last year (1869) sixty-five bushels of potatoes, \^;hich was a remarkable yield for an unfavourable season." The secret of this product was a liberal manuring with ashes and soap-suds. "A Subscriber" sends us the following as his experience in using wood ashes, viz., that in quantities of only eight bushels per acre they have a marked effect ; that they push the wheat forward several days, thus getting it ahead of that critical period when it is so apt to be attacked by rust ; that they strengthen the stem and increase its solidity. The very best time to spread ashes, regardless of season, is as soon as they can be procured ; they can be spread at once from the waggon or sleigh in which they are hauled as easily as at any other time, and one time is almost as good to apply them as another —i.e. on grass lands — although we individually prefer fall and win- ter. " Having made this season some experiments with hardwood m ^.i\-. VM 150 The Canadian Farmer's I' ' !■'■ r, ashes and bono phosphate, side by side, on potatoes, I take thu li- berty to send the results obtained toyourexcellent farming journal. " The experiments wore made on about half an acre of Early Rose potatoes, in the following manner : In two rows, when planted, 1 put about one gill of phosphate ; in next two, the seed was planted without any fertilizei in the hill ; in two rows next to these, I put one gill of hardwood ashes in the hill, and thus this operation was repeated on the piece. The rows that were served with phosphate came up first, and looked the best the fore pait of the season ; but the latter part, the rows containing ashes were ahead The rows that had to depend on nature alone were vi- sible for a long distance, owing to a smaller growth of tops The land was loamy, and bore potatoes last season, consequently not in very rich condition to produce heavily. " I dug the potatoes a few days ago, and found the rows in which the ashes were put to produce the largest and the most in quantity ; the rows in which phosphate was put produced a fair (quantity, but they were not so smooth and large as the rows containing ashes , the rows that simply drew their nourishment from the soil alone, produced quite a quantity, but nearly one-half of the potatoes were too small to cook. Planted two bushels and one peck of seed ; dug twenty-seven bushels of cooking potatoes and seven bu.shels of small ones " I have used ashes, both leached and unleached, for several years, and find that unleached pay me pretty well on com, potato, wheat, &c. I can buy good hardwood ashes for twenty-five cents per bushel, while phosphate costs from one dollar fifty to two dol- lars fifty pel- bushel, showing, if ashes will produce as heavy a crop as phosphate, a large balance in their favour." — CaHos, in Country QentleTnan. PLASTER OF PARIS— GYPSUM, OR SULPHATE OF LIME. " Gypsum," " Sulphate of Lime," or, as it is generally known, " Plaster of Paris," is used greatly, and with usually beneficial re- sults, by the majority of our Canadian fanners. The fertilizing powei*s of this manure upon certain crops and on certain soils have been very favourably reported upon by many eminent Ameri- can and British agriculturists The name " Plaster of Paris" was given when gypsum first came into general notoriety, from the fact that large beds were found and worked in the hill of Montmartre, near Paris The analysis of gypsum shows it to contain, of Parts. Pure calcareous earth or lime, about 30 or 33 Sulphuric acid 32 " 43 Crystallized water. 38 " 24 100 100 Its di.S tion of HI ing from weight chemists ports. J ground \ comes he panied h substance torn, it n Traces of the ar ties genei of its use the Econ( .spread ov It was, h( ally reco| quantities hundred i State of I The 8t( twenty-fi" Experii plaster si by bumir thus the cannot, ho mo.st viol useless, ar the use ot impercept simply grc Upon o be most n on the lig] lands. U growth of top-dressii servable ii like lime. We hav doubt, it s gives the strength, a and severe Manual oj JlgricuUure. 151 ^men- came found Its dissolution in water, owing to the presence of a largo propor- tion of Hulphuric acid, is a nrocess of slow accomplishment, requir- ing from four hundred and fifty to five hundred times its own weight of water. Its t)urity varies in different beds, and hence cheinistst have not well agreed in their respective analytical re- ports. A good test of its purity is obtained thus : Put the ground powder in an iron pot alone, over the fire ; when it be- comes heated it will give out a strong sulphureous smell, accom- panied by a rapid bubbling; if this ebullition is brisk, and the substance will admit of a straw being thrust with ease to the bot- tom, it may be considered pure. Traces of the discovery of gypsum are discerned in the writings of the ancients ; but not until the last centuries were its proper- ties generally known in Europe At that time some experiments of its use were reported on by eminent German agriculturists to the Economical Society of Berne, in Switzerland, when it rapidly spread over that country, France, and many other parts of Europe. It was, however, in America that its merits became most gener- ally recognized. Indeed, it was exported to America in large quantities, and from the Delaware was conveyed as much as one hundred and fifty miles by land carriage, until discovered in the State of New York. The stone, when ground to powdei", produces from twenty to twenty-five bushels per ton. Experiments were made in England of the relative values of plaster simply ground and when calcined. It was thought that by burning, much of the water contained might be expelled, and thus the proportionate weight be greatly reduced The water cannot, however be expelled from the sulphuric acid except by the most violent heat, and thus the attempt was found practically useless, and was consequently abandoned ; also, experiments upon the use of plaster when calcined proved that there was an almost imperceptible difference between its effects when burned and when simply ground Upon our light and sandy soils the effect of gypsum seems to be most rapid and lasting, and in Canada we find that the farmers on the lighter soils apply it more generally than those on the clay lands. Upon wet land this manure has little or no effect. The growth of young clovei is verj'^ materially quickened by a good top-dressing of plaster, and its benefits are more particularly ob- servable in its application to all leguminous plants This manure, like lime, is a stimulant. We have seen it used on fall wheat with various results. No doubt, it stimulates and starts a young wheat crop, but it also gives the young plant an unnatural push, which weakens its strength, and thus materially reduces its power of standing a long and severe winter. Its application in the spring on winter wheat S' ;'-^: 162 The Canadian Farmer's ss>,. Wm m we believe to be of great benefit. Not only does it push forward and revivify the young wheat plant after its long torpor, but it is upon the ground for the benefit of the clover crop. Its exact means of action upon the growing plant yet remains clouded in much doubt and uncertainty. It is very generally supposed that its effect is due to its power of attaching moisture to the plant upon which it rests. Sir Humphrey Davy, however, contradicts this, for he says that even allowing gypsum to have a great attraction for water, yet the same substance, owing to the large proportion of sulphuric acid, also retains its moisture most strongly, and therefore would give it off* very slowly indeed to the leaves and roots of plants with which it may be brought into con- tact. Moreover, this great chemist denies the fact that gypsum has a strong attraction for water, and gives the following experi- ment in support of such denial : One and a half ounces of gyp- sum were exposed for three foggy nights to the air, and on the third night, being weighed carefully, it was found that the inc^pase was not quite half a grain. It has also been urged that, when applied to clover just before rain, its effects were not perceptible. No doubt this has been owing simply to the fact that the rain has washed it off the plants into the ground, where its effects upon the plant by the root would not be so observable, because not so rapid; and yet it is well known that that part of the field upon which it has been spread invaria- bly retains the dew for some time longer in the morning than those parts upon which gypsum has not been laid. Even with these contradictory reports and opinions before us, we may, at any rate, be certain that its benefits are great upon many crops — wheat, spring grain, corn, turnips, — but more especi- ally upon clover and the grasses. For our own part, we consider that in this very power of retaining moisture consists tlie great value of gypsum as a top-dressing in this country. When all other sources from which moisture may be drawn fail the plant, the gypsum is giving out its moisture, very slowly it is true, but in sufficient quantities to keep the plant supplied, and growing from dew to dew and from rain to rain. In England, where they do not often suffer from a too dry atmospheie, the opi- nions of farmers upon the use of gypsum are very varied, and it does not seem to have anything like as proportionate a value as it has upon this our drier continent. At one of the regular meetings of the Ancaster Farmers' Club, last winter, when speaking on the subject of plaster, brought for- ward in an able essay by a gentleman of that locality, although some difference of opinion appeared to exist as to the time of application and the immediate action of this manure, yet the im- mense benefit to be derived from a generous use of gypsum on many crops, and more especially upon clover, was most cordially m Manual of Agriculture. 153 '■A endorsed, and proved by reports of different experiments by the majority of the most successful farmers in that locality. On the time of application the Canada Farmer says : " There is great diversity of opinion in regard to the best time to sow plaster. Much will depend on the state of the weather during the season. If the spring is dry and warm, early sowing would be best, say as soon as the clover leaves are expanded. If wet, cold, or backward, it would be best to defer sowing till dry, warm weather sets in." From one and a half to two bushels of plaster is a fair dressing for clover. Plaster, it is said by some practical farmers, is hard on land. Growth is hard on land, and nothing can be said more truly in favour of the use of plaster to increase growth than to assert that " it is hard on land." But the farmer should remember that he not only sows plaster to increase his crop of clover for hay, but also to make a better growth to plough down. That if he increases the growth of his corn fodder, hay, &c., he may thereby also increase the size of his heaps of barn-yard manure. Practical men tell us that they can sow plaster on a field of clover in the shape of their written name, and the writing will be plainly marked by a rank dark growth, and we believe them. Our best Indian corn raisers always use plaster, and it is found beneficial on trees, vines, vegetables, potatoes, turnips, fcc, &c., and upon all grain. Salt, for the use of the land, has now for many years occupied the attention of leading agriculturists, and many and various have been the results deduced from frequent carefully conducted experi- ments in different parts of the world. These results have varied upon different soils, and under different conditions as to climate and modes of application. Owing to the several forms in which salt has been discovered, there has arisen a difficulty among scientific men as to calling it a mineral, but we shall not be far astray when we class this product among the mineral manures. Salt, as a stimulant, is various in its action, according to the mode and quantity of its application. If used in great quantities, it has a tendency, like lime or any other energetic stimulant, to destroy and rapidly disorganize all vegetable matter with which it may come in contact. When, however, this substance is used moderately, or mixed with compost, its action is that of a gentle stimulant, giving increased vivacity to the vessels of the plant, even as it does to those of the human body, consequently promot- ing vegetation and acting as a useful manure. Upon a naked fallow it has been recommended in large quanti- . ^ '.■ ,!• 0:1 154 The Canadian Farmer's feff>k "■8 ■': i >'4 ties, in order to hasten the decomposition of any existing vegetable matter or putrescent manures. Its effect is in this case precisely similar to that of lime, and its quantity, when applied to fallow thus, will have so far diminished by incorporation with the soil by tlie time that grains are sown, as to act upon the crop with moderate stimulating power. Salt is plentiful in Canada, ^nd it is a matter of regret that we have not more practical experiments on record as to its use for manure from our farmers, especially those in the neighbourhood of Goderich and salt-producing parts of the country. Salt supplies soda and chlorine to vegetation, and is capable of entire absorption by the growing plant. It also imbibes watei' very freely, and retains it for the use of vegetation — keeping the soil with which it is brought in contact in a moist state. It renders soluble many of the earthy salts contained in the soil, and, as it is very penetrative, finds its way rapidly down to assist in the decomposition of deep-lying vegetable matter. It is also a corrector of acidity and dissolves silica , for the latter reason, it cannot but be of use to the stiffening of straw Its effects seem to be of little use on heavy lands. This, how- ever, requires more test from actual experiment ere it be made a positive assertion. If added to dung, it, like lime, hastens fermentation, but does not, as the latter, let free ammonia and other volatile parts of barn-yard manure. When in combination with Plaster of Paris, it forms and sets free soda and sulphuric acid. By the tables on pp 132 and 137 it will be found that both swedes and mangolds require a large amount of salt in their composition. And experiments made in England under Dr. Voelcker go to show an immense increase in these crops, as the result of liberal applications of salt When applied, the rate generally recommended is from five to ten bushels per acre — a wide variation, but opinions on the benefi cial influence of this article differ as widely It would appear that salt is particularly effective on wheat crops, when incorporated by cultivation with the seed bed. Lime. — All matters which, when applied to our soils, increase their fertility either by mechanical action or by the supplying of certain elements of plant food, may be fairly considered under the head of " Manures." Lime may, then, be termed a " calcareous manure," and is often of great benefit to our soils. By the dis- coveries of science, and the experience of practical men in the ap- plication of those discoveries, we have learned the great usefulness of lime as a manure. Lime may be used in one of two states — quick or slaked. After limestones have been subjected for some time to the action of in- tense heat, they burn into a substance very caustic, and having Manual of Agriculture, U5 ncrease lying of ider the After of in- having an immense effect in causing the rapid decomposition of vegetable and animal bodies. This substance is quick lime. If vviter be applied to this quick lime, or if it be simply exposed tc tK ^ air, it loses with more or less rapidity, according to which process be adopted, much of its caustic or burning power, and becomes "slaked "or "effete." Now, the difference between quick and slaked lime is simply in rapidity of action upon substances with which they may be brought in contact — the former hastening decomposition much more rapidly than the latter When the object of an application of this manure is to destroy and hasten the rottmg of vegetable or animal matters, the quick lime has the best effect. The action of lime is almost entirely mechanical, although it does directly impart a certain element of food to plants, as is proved by chemical analyses, in that calcareous earth is found in the ashes of all vegetables, and in large quantities in those of wheat or clover In 100 parts of wheat straw there are found 5 parts, and in wheat 33o parts, of phosphate of lime. On the otb . hand, seeds planted in a pot of carbonate of lime will grow very feebly —in clear lime, will die Partly fill with garden mould and cover over with lime, and the plant will put down its roots through the lime to the mould, without throwing out branch rootlets until it arrive at the mould. Great care must be used in the application of this manure, for it has different effects upon different soils and under different con- ditions. These conditions are so contrary, that while in many cases lime has been shown to have a most beneficial effect, in others its application has been fatal tc all vegetable growth. Lime has a strong affinity for acids. Its application to land, therefore, is beneficial in the following ways : It either renders harmless or converts into usefulness substances lodged in the soil, which, by their acidity, or, as named by farmers generally, " cold- ness,' ma}'^ be injurious to the growing crops, and thus prepares the land for the reception of seeds ; it also greatly increases the rapidity of decomposition of putrescent manures, thus making them more easily available for the nourishment of vegetable life. Lime has a great effect upon decayed and decaying vegetable matter, or. as we know it, " mould." There is no doubt that its application is of great benefit on " sour clays," for it corrects their acidity, and warms that sour mould which has been useless hitherto to plants, because it has required a quickening power to stimulate its further decomposition ; also to land which has been at some time previously well dressed with " dung," without any addition of calcareous matter, by hastening decomposition and rendering every particle of the rotting or putrescent manure available to the Sfrowing plant. Now, in all arable lands, however much such may have been ! •»; ■ T iiv<( 156 The Qanadian Farmer's h li " run out," there still remains a large proportion of mould. Lime applied upon such land will quicken all that plant food which is lying dormant, and will greatly benefit the ensuing crop. Let it be borne carefully in mind that lime has the effect ol drawing out and placing within reach of the crop all the strength of the land, and it becomes evident that, if its application be not followed by more manure, it will have the effect of rapidly ex- hausting the land. It is useless, and indeed injurious, to lime too often ; for if our land become surcharged with lime, having no putrescent matter to act upon, it will act too directly upon the crop itself, and greatly injure it. Many farmers have, by advice, used lime on certain lands, and found that they have thus increased the yield of the ensuing crop. From this result they have deduced the truth that it is a gi-and manure, and have again and again applied it without further barn- yard or green manure, to the utter exhaustion of the soil and the certain failure of future crops. Lime is a stimulant, correcting acidity and quickening the action of vegetable and animal ma- nures, and, like all stim.ulants, is good when used in moderation, but fatally exhaustive when taken in excess. Low lands are immensely benefited by a free use of lime. Our low lands are generally rich, with a deop black mould, but owing to their coldness, crops are not as heavy as the richness of the soil would lead us to hope. These soils contain in themselves all the component parts of the best soils, and are rich in decayed and de- caying vegetable substances, but the manurial qualities in these lands are sluggish and inert, and will not freely give of their rich- ness to the growing plant until stimulated by a free use of lime. Heavy clays are often deficient in calcareous earths. In such lime is needed, and has often, too, the purely mechanical effect of making the soil more friable, and less subject to run together after rain. Upon sandy land, which seldom contains much vegetable mat- ter, lime has a contrary but good effect, attracting moisture from the atmosphere and giving more consistency to the sand, even as sand and lime become mortar. " But if the soil consists of clay and sand," as Finlayson says in his Practical Essays on Agriculture, " containing animal or vege- table matter in a torpid state of decay, then lime would be prefer- able to dung. The state of the soil should therefore be minutely inquired into before lime is employed, and it should only be used to give effect to the inert substances with which it may be con- joined" We cannot but think that a very free and liberal application o lime, ploughed in with our new lands when broken up, would in- crease their fertility wonderfully, for such lands are rich in vege- Manual of Agriculture. 167 i,f all the and de- |in these sir rich- lime. In such iffect of er after ]»le mat- Ire from leven as )n says )i' vege- prefer- [inutely 36 used )e con- Ition lukl in- vege- table matter, but are cold, inert in action, and acid. On such land we should use quick lime, as its effects are the more rapid, ant) it will destroy weeds and injurious plants. The authority quoted above also says : — " There is this differ- ence between the actions of lime and barn-yard manure upon land : The former, being more stimulant and corrective, helps the farmer to an abundant crop at the expense of the land alone, while the latter furnishes the land at once with fertilizing fluids, and will ensure a good crop on a place perfectly barren before and after the application of lime." Lime 18 of great value to pasture land. So great an affinity has it for acids that it will greatly sweeten the herb. Indeed, if lime be spread upon a tuft of grass that has been refused by cattle, it will be found that they will soon detect the greater sweetness, and will eat it close down. When used for this purpose it must be slaked, for quick lime would be apt to burn the grass if used in any but very small quantities. In the " General Report of Scotland," it is remarked, that " In the best cultivated counties, lime is now generally laid on finely pulverized land, while under a fallow or immediately after being sown with turnips. In the latter case the lime is uniformly mild —in the former, quick lime, as pernicious (in a certain extent) to vngetation, may be beneficial in destroying weeds, and some ex- periments have been recorded showing it to have a very powerful effect upon the fly Sometimes mild lime is applied in the spring to land, and harrowed in with grass seeds, instead of being covered with a plough ; and under this management a minute quantity has produced a striking and permanent improvement in some of the hill pastures of the south-eastern counties. Its effects are yet conspicuous, after the lapse of nearly half a century In some places hme is spread on grass land a year or more before it is brought under the plough, by which the pasture in the first in- stance, and the cultivated crops subsequently, are found to be greatly benefited. But in whatever manner this powerful stimu- lant is applied, the soil should ne\ "^r be afterwards exhausted by a succession of grain-bearing crops — a justly exploded practice, which has reduced some naturally fertile tracts to a state of almost irre- deemable sterility." Lime may be, and often is, used as a top-dressing on wheat, and the results of this proceeding have been various. Lime will have a better effect if applied to the land before it is shallow-ploughed the last time, or sown broadcast, and harrowed in with the wheat. Strewn sparingly over the young turnip plants, it is stated that it prevents the attack of the turnip-fly ; and harrowed in whe j the ground is naked, if the quantity be considerable, slugs and wire-worms disappear from its effects. Many Canadian agriculturists have experimented with lime. 158 The Canadian Farmer's Some have given us results in the Canadian agricultural press. Let us have more experiences, and thus ventilate the subject, and give us the bounds within which we may steer, in order that we may improve the fertility of our lands without exhausting our soil or ruining our crops. Under a system of deep cultivation, such as is now generally adopted in Great Britain, lime is laid on in very heavy quantities at long intervals of ten or fifteen years apart. But as our system of cultivation in Canada is usually shallow, if lime were laid on in very large quantities, a great amount would, before eight or ten years have elapsed, find its way through the soil, it being of an exceedingly penetrative character, and be lost to the use of vegetation by incorporation with the hard pan below. The better plan in Canada is to apply at the rate of from ten to thirty bushels per acre, at intervals of say five to seven years, the best time being in the regular rotation on summer fallow before wheat, or, where no summer fallow is adopted, by incorporation with the surface soil of the fall wheat seed-bed Upon soils that are wet, and retain a large amount of moisture, the benefit from lime would be found nil. Such lands must be first thoroughly drained. It has been thought that lime, slacked for a length of time, is valueless as manure. This is, however, far from being the case. Suppose lime to have lain exposed for six months ; about one-half of it will have become converted back to carbonate of lime, whilst the remainder is equally as good as ^resh burnt lime ; moreover, carbonate of lime is exceedingly valuable as plant food. The lime rubbish from under old houses, or refuse of builders^- about newly-erected stone and brick houses, is full of nitrates, and, consequently, of no mean value as a manure. We find it highly valued as such by gardeners. The idea has very generally gone forth, that land in the neighbourhood of and over limestone rocks does not require the addition of lime for artificial purposes. Now, should such soil be itself of a calcareous nature, there is less need for the application of lirae ; but as a matter of practical experience, we have often found land lying directly over a limestone rock to be very defi- cient of lime in its composition. On this point we have also the evidence of Dr. Voelcker, analyti- cal chemist to the Royal Agricultural Society, England, who says : "In the analysis of some soils from the Cotswold Hills, in Gloucestershire, I was surprised to find that they did not contain more lime. These soils being the products of the decomposed strata on which lime predominates, the presence of lime in large quantities would be naturally inferred." He explains the matter thus : that a large proportion of the calcareous matter is being Manual of Agriculture. 159 shallow, Qt would, 3ugh the id be lost m below. •m ten to (Tears, the iw before rporation f time, is the case. t one-half le, whilst noreover, builden- ates, and, it highly i in the quire the h soil be )plication ive often /ery deli ', analyti- ind, who Hills, in )t contain composed in large le matter • is being constantly dissolved and carried down into the sub-strata by the infiltration of rain water charged with carbonic acid. Similar observations on land over limestone ridges are very fre- quently reported from Pennsylvania, New Jersey, and other States in the Union, whilst we have ourselves observed the same apparent anomaly on the limestone ridges on either mountain to the north and south of the Dundas and Hamilton Valley, in Ontario. We believe that the opinion of Dr. Voelcker must be now modified, since the days of deep cultivation in England. It is a strong point in favour of general and judicious deepening of culti- vation, that it brings up lime with other ingredients of the soil where such are present. Lime is ot great benefit in moderate quantities, and incorporated with the surface soil around the roots of growing fruit trees. To spread on land, haul out lime in a quick state to the field, in the fall, and dump it in small heaps , as a basis of quantity per acre, one bushel every four rods each way will give a dressing of twenty bushels to the acre. Exposure will soon slake this lime, so that it becomes quite powdery, when it may be spread evenly over the land. It should be incorporated with the soil by means of cultivator or harrow, and should never be ploughed down deep ; for, as we have already said, lime is very penetrative in its action, and will work downwards into the subsoil. Great oare should be exercised that, before spreading, the lime be in a pulverized state ; if it is lumpy, much of the benefit is lost to soil and vegetation. Lime at twenty-five cents a bushel, covering expense also of hauling and applying, is not a dear fertilizer. When we consider that professional lime burners can manufacture and draw eight or ten miles for twenty-five cents per bushel, surely lime can be util- ized by the large farmer who has a limestone ridge within easy distance or on his property, for a very much less sum per bushel. In portions of Pennsylvania, near the coal regions, many farmers burn their own lime at a cost of three cents per bushel. A farmer who has limestone upon his farm could hardly do a better thing for himself than to visit western New Jersey and Pennsylvania. The sight of the blooming wheat and clover fields, and of the corn tlelds of thirty to forty acres each, turning forty or more bushels to the acre, would, without much doubt, convert him to the liberal use of lime upon his own acres. As a summary of foregoing, the following general rules may be worthy of careful consideration : 1st, Land muse be thoroughly dry before it is in a fit state to receive lime. 2nd. It may be laid on the land at almost any season, but during dry weather in the fall is the best time. r, T ■. . :if ii ,■ . ,11. ■*«:■ IP: i- ,■. i m ^'•1^ 160 The Canadian Farmer's r'i ^1 ' 'I :',i 3rd. Should not be used until reduced to a powdery state, and then should be incorporated with the surface soil 4th Clays and strong soils will require a fuller dose than those of a lighter nature. 5th. Lime being a strong stimulant must not be used too much. Requiring to decompose 8ome matter, care must be taken that there be vegetable matter or manure in the land upon which it is applied, else it will act directly on and destroy crops. GREEN CROrS FOR MANURE. Succulent growth of plants, such as clover, buckwheat, rape, vetches, &c , ploughed under, go by the name of green manures. The ploughing under of such plants has been found of immense benefit in increasing the fertility of soils, especially of those of a gravelly, sandy and generally light nature. The practice is now fully recognised in Canada, and, when adopted, is attended with excellent results. The question, whether it would not pay better to cut the green crop off and feed it to cattle, returning the manure to the land, rests solely upon the relative cost of making, hauling and applying farm-yard manure, and the value of meat. As meat so frequently falls to a very low price in Canada, it is very doubtful whether the increase of animal matter in manure, and the value of our stock, will counterbalance the above- named expenses resulting from the manipulation of manure. This is, however, a point to be carefully weighed by each farmer for himself The chemical effect of ploughing under succulent plants is sim- ply the return to the soil of all plant food, such as ammonia, nitro- gen, carbon and the constituents of water, absorbed during growth by the thousand mouths of many -leaved plants from the atmo- sphere. The gradual decomposition of such vegetable matter likewise affords a constant and steady supply of manure to the soil, which renders the effects of green manures more lasting than those ol such as is made in the barn-yard. It takes several seasons for gi*een manure, such as clover, to thoroughly rot in the ground, and until that end is consummated it is giving forth plant food to the soil, and in a form readily soluble to vegetation. Clover has been called by one of the most celebrated of the agricultural chemists of the day the " great renovator," and as such it is looked upon by the intelligent Canadian iarmer. The fact is patent to the most ordinary observer that the Ca- nadian farmer has not enough of the "muck-heap" to supply the yearly wants of his soil, and as an addition he properly looks to green manuring. Manual of Agriculture. 161 professor Voelcker says that " A good crop of clover which has produced one heavy crop of hay, and which has been allowed to stand for seed, will add to the land a fertility for wheat which could not be attained with the heaviest practical dressing of guano ; but to do this in the best possible manner, the clover must be allowed to come to perfection ; must be treated so that it will produce and leave on the ground the greatest possible amount of leaf and root, for in those two portions of the plant consists the virtue of the clover crop." We in Canada find that unless the clover be ploughed under very early in August, it will not rot sufficiently to benefit the fall wheat. This difference between our system and that adopted in the British islands is doubtless owing to two facts : one, that our climate is much less humid than the English ; and another, that we have to sow our winter wheat earlier than there. For this reason we find the best time in our rotation for the ploughing under of green clover to be for our root crop, or for summer fallow, or to be followed by peas as a cleaning preparation for fall wheat. Clover is the very best application for manuring steep hills. In our own neighbourhood, some of our best farmers work very steep conical shaped hills ; they clover heavy to the verj' top, plough it down and manure on top; they then ol 'ain excellent crops )i wheat on the very crowns of their hills. Clover ploughed down on hill tops is a manure of a nature not easily washed away. And if dung be applied on the clover before turning under, its strength will be absorbed by the plants and held at the top of the hill for the use of the succeeding ip. We shall speak more fully on this as a green manure in the pages devoted to the grasses. Turnips as a green manure. — Whether it would pay to grow turnips for manure we are not prepared to state, but we find the toUowing observation from a practical farmer, Mr. A. B. Ball, Stan- stead, Canada, on the effects of a crop of turnips that were frozen in the ground by the early advent of winter. He says in the Canada Farmer : " I had two acres of turnips frozen in, and another acre of ground on which I had grown com for fodder. " On these three acres I sowed what is called mixed grain ; that is, one-half oats and a quarter of each peas and barley : this is grown and used for provender. From these three acres I harvested three hundred and three bushels, and this without any further manur- ing than that given to the crop the previous year. " The acre where the corn grew was not nearly so stout as that where the turnips had been ; the straw being shorter, and the heads not nearly as well filled nor as long. " The yield of this mixed grain is usually from fifty to sixty bushels per acre, sometimes seventy-five ; consequently you can U .>? ■' It , . I' I: ''4' t :l -Si '.; I; "■J \i- I ('• i: ,■ :!l m } P:\ :] '*: ! , i 1 ■ ' f;,- ' \ 162 The Canadian Farmer's *\, SI '. see that I had an extraordinary crop on the turnip grounds — from one hundred and fifteen to one hundred and twenty bushels per acre. " I mentioned this crop to my neighbours ; but as only a few had any turnips, and fewer still had lost them, they had not had an opportunity of witnessing the result produced by a turnip crop frozen in and used as a manure." Buckwheat may be used in certain cases as a ploughed down green manure to great advantage. The fertilizing power is not so great as that of clover, nor is the raising of buckwlieat for a manure as practical or profitable on ordinary land as clover. But, owing to the coarseness of its stem, it may be often used in this way very effectually upon heavy clay lands ; such as, from want of careful cultivation, have run to- gether and become closely compacted. The big coarse straw keeps apart the atoms of soil, and thus admits air and thorough percolation of water ; while the slowness of its decomposition keeps the land thus opened for a long time, and gives every opportunity for making it friable by thorough cultivation. The ground, to be generally benefited by the application of green manures, should be capable of bringing them forth with such an abundance as to produce a complete shade to the surface durin" their growth, and a large enough mass of vegetable matter to cause rapid and constant fermentation when buried by the plough. By this means we secure two desirable results — an increased amount of fodder or pasture, and a great bulk of rich manure of a very fertilizing nature. Where the green manure system is adopted in Canada, the opera- tion should be repeated so often that at no time, in the course of a rotation, should the decaying vegetable mass be imperceptible our soils. in FIELD CROPS. " The autumn fields are fringed with gold. The autumn breeze is sighing ; The swallows flit to foreign climes. The summer flowers are dying ; ** The lanes are strewn with falling leaver, The sky is overclouded ; The pattering rain falls ceaselessly, The lake with mist is shrouded ;— '* All, all around us Nature seems To weave a web of sorrow, And winter comes with stealthy pace, To deeper shade the morrow ; Manual of Agriculture. 163 %■ — from lels per few had had an lip crop d down or is the table on its stem, 1 heavy 3 run to- and thus slowness ong time, thorough 1 of green 1 such an 3e during natter to i by the increased mure of a jhe opera- lourse of a sptible in "Yet dhall the autumn' gloomy days, And winter's deeper aadnesa, Prepare the coming of the spring, And Bummer's brighter gladness." \^\(,(ii. — Wheatshouldever be thekeystone of Canadian fanning. ITo bring his land up to a condition fit for the growth of large and abundant crops of wheat, should be the object of the agriculturist. The food of the world depends upon the growth of wheat ; and we find that when wheat is plentiful, all manufactures flourish, and nothing has the same power to affect general markets as have the rise and fall of the demand and supply of bread — the staple of Canada is essentially a wheat-producing country. Her climate jd soil are well adapted to the growth of this cereal, and she has |at command gi'eat facilities for placing her grain upon the markets lofthewdrld. Tliere was a time whci' wheat grew and flourished in Canada without any uncertainty ; when crops were great and diseases inkuown. The rich virgin soil, formed by the decayed vegetable matter of countless yeans, appeared to be inexhaustible. The surface had but to be tickled with the plough to laugh into a crop." But year by year the natural richness became exhausted. N'othing was returned to the land, and the soil in the older parts ?ii3 taxed to that extent, that its productive power fell to a low fbb indeed. So debilitated at last became the farms, that their produce was weakened, disease and parasites stepped in, and com- pleted the downfall of wheat from the category of successful and )aying crops. Yet our soil is of that superior nature, and our climate so well luited to the wants of the wheat plant, that Canada is capable of Hoducing as heavy crops of wheat, acre by acre, as the best culti- |ated lands of the old countries or the virgin prairies of America. Not only has our soil, in the more civilized parts, been worn out, jiutthe seed has also greatly degenerated — become prone to disease, id fallen a victim to the attacks of the parasite. The Canadian farmer, if he would see his land produce a paying rop of wheat, must look well to its cultivation and to the nature the seed employed. We have just recovered from a fearful [isitation by "the midge ;" let it be a warning to the slovenly, for ssuredly our crop was rendered more subject to its baneful influ- ices by weakness of the soil, deterioration of seed and the con- iquent inability of the plant to grow rapidly and stoutly in spite ' " midge'^ We regret to have seen, in more than one number of the English 'ricultural press, accounts in disparagement of the wheat grow- [g capabilities of Canada. Writers on the world's production of iif '^1 /'N '■,-". i ill I . < m If . mr. 1 !?;■ I 1*: 164 The Canadian Farmer's mi m • 'Si ■ 1^ breadstuff have of late yeara, looking at our returns, had too much reason to assume that we cannot produce a supply adequate to our area and population. This is not, however, the fault of the capabilities of our soil and climate, but of the carelessness of the cultivator. The soil is now gradually coming back to her primeval strength, and in the hands of many of our more intelligent practical farmers, crops are yearly increasing per acre. Hasten the day when we shall stand where we ought, at the head of the wheat-producing nations of the world! None doubt the quality of our produce. May the time arrive quickly when quantity shall be commensurate with quality ! ill Canadian stands at the head of flour brands in the Liver- pool markets. Many an old farmer can tell us of the times when Canadian soil has yielded thirty, forty, and even fifty bushels per acre. We are afraid the average to-day is hardly up to twenty bushels per acre. We must raise more crop per acre, or our farms cannot pay a fair interest on capital invested. When we raise better crops perj acre, the capitalist will think of investing in agriculture. In England, wheat has averaged for the last fifteen years about | one dollar and a half per bushel, with labour at, say, forty or fifty cents per day; while in Canada the prices have been, of wheat I about one dollar, and of labour from eighty cents to a dollar per day. There will in the future be little fear of wheat falling below an I average of one dollar and twenty-five cents per bushel, for the increased circulation of money and the rapid multiplication of the population of the North American Continent will keep up the value of Canadian wheat, while increased facilities of cultivation | and of exportation will cause an ever-increasing demand. Continental summer heat carries wheat and corn far north m i America, while a winter of some severity seems to be demanded | for the best class of wheat all over the world. Canada and parts surrounding them owe much to the beneficial I effects of the great lakes, which equalize the naturally changeable climate of these portions of North America. These lakes absorb solar heat during the very hot months, and give it forth to the use of surrounding territory when there is a deficiency of warmth upon the Lnd. Fall Wheat is divided into two general species — red and whitd The red varieties are generally more hardy, and are less subject to I the attacks of rust and insects than the white. The outer husk isl of a coarse nature, varying in degree in proportion to the humidityl of the soil. It is therefore less valuable to the miller, but of lat«| years has been more productive, because more hardy, than < white sorts in Canada. Manual of Agriculture. 165 It '! bo ibund, attacks of midge and disca.se set aside, that tho red 01 hard varieties do better on heavy lands, while the fine wheats require a more friable soil to secure a profitable return. The varieties in use in Canada at the present date are : Diehl, Soules, Wildgoose, Treadwell, Red Chaff (nearly obsolete), Mediter- ranean, Midgeproof, Lowe, White China, Kentucky White, Hack, I Boyer, Michigan Amber, &c. Of these, the most common have been for the last few years the I Diehl, a white wheat, and the Treadwell, a reddish wheat. The Diehl has short stiff straw and very plump well-filled ears ; I it is an agreeably deceptive variety, usually thrashing better than it promises in the field. At present, not only in Canada, but in the States, it is next to I impossible to obtain the seed pure and unmixed with other I varieties. The Treadwell (red) is a more hardy variety, stands the winter [better and stools out freely. It is also proof against the midge, land if sown late will come out in the spring far better than any {variety now at our command. Mr. Zimmerman, of Nelson, Ontario, gives to the Canada Far- er, 1870, the yield of several of these kinds on his own farm in Ithe previous year. It is worthy of note as aflfording a practical omparison : Diehl 32 bushels per acre. Soules 30 " Treadwell 25 " " RedChaflf 20 " Wildgoose 16 " " Midgeproof 16 " " Mediterranean, only 10 " '* le, however, gives the preference to the Treadwell, as a gener- illy profitable crop for the farmer. Mr. Cull, of Toronto, thus writes to the same paper in 1869 : "My object in sowing the different kinds of wheat this year |ras chiefly to test the liabilities of each kir ■ to the midge ; and 'so to see whether a wheat stubble field of which the soil was a or blowing sand, if well manured, and sown again direct, would Iroduce a crop. " The different sorts were White China, Soules, Treadwell, Ken- [icky White, Midgeproof, Mediterranean Midgeproof, Club-shaped ar (name unknown), and common Red Midgeproof. The Tread- [ell does not seem any earlier than either the White China or oules ; the Kentucky White was almost all winter killed ; having bwn it now three years, I would not advise any one to do so here- er. The Soules, of course, is, as usual, excellent ; the Club- baped Ear also good ; the White China also ; but the Treadwell I best of all. The other sorts, although very rank and tall, have 166 The Canadian Farmer's iml m .^ badly-filled heads. No midge has made any perceptible inroads on any cf the seven varieties." Good wheat land should always possess a certain degree of con- sistency, and as a rule the clays, supposing them to be passably dry, are the best adapted for its growth. Though the gravels and even sands often produce an excellent quality of wheat, as instance the plains between Paris and Woodstock, in Ontario, yet are large yields more certain from the heavier soils. The majority of the annual prizes given by the Canada Com- pany at our Provincial Exhibitions have been gained by farmers from clay regions, particularly the Township of Scarborough, and in the neighbourhood of Richmond Hill, to the north of Toronto, Yet if we have a sufficiency of lime in our sandier soils, to the amount of not less than fifteen per cent., we have an excellent soil for wheat ; but such must also contain a sufficient amount of humus, or mould, to render it of sufficient consistency. Pure sands are unfavourable to the growth of wheat, for suchj are deficient in that degree of firmness which is necessary to sup- port the roots. The crop is liable to fail' re on such land, both from the severity of winter and from drougiit in the hot months. We would not, however, be understood to assert that sand is always unfit for wheat, but only that such is the case in pure sand The sandy soil may, by good cultivation, and the use of clover | freely ploughed down, be changed into the nature of a loam, having the necessary amount of mould or decayed vegetable mat- ter to render it firm and to supply plenty of nourishment to whe'!■ PJfK 176 The Canadian Farmer's fe 'V, sm Mm ■I. I the soil in which it may be worked. It is especially adapted to the stirring of wheat that has been sown by hand and upon the heavier soils. The harrows not only break the crust of the earth, but drawing the fresh mould upon the wheat plant, they thus give a perfect top-dressing. Many have been "scared" by the appearance of their wheat field after the operation, but as long as the scarifying of the wheat has not been so severe as to tear out a great number of the plants (and it is, as a matter of fact, almost impossible to tear out a great many), it will have the desired etiect A pulverizing the upper soil, and will most certainly tend to give a rapid start to the growing plant. It should, however, be executed when the plants begin to re- vegetate, and care and personal supervision must determine that point. If the work be done when the plants are yet torpid they may be rotted, and if done too late their growth may be checked. There is yet another great advantage in the operation. If we intend to seed down our wheat, and the operation has not been per- formed on the last fallen snow, after the harrowing is the next best time to sow grass seeds. They will fall in a good bed, and the next smart shower will cover and sprout them. It occasionally happens that our wheat has too full a growth in the spring, and we desire to check it. We are particular to say occasionally, for we ourselves have observed but very seldom any wheat in Canada that required to hj thinned after once it had grown. In such a case, the best method of thinning (if the harrows be not sufficient) is to turn on sheep, in March, on frozen ground, or ' soon as the ground is dry enough to bear them without poach- '»• Sheep bite off short, and do not pull out in bunches, as do \nd more especially horses, .e sheep bite off the frozen blades, and make room for a new t.n.1 vigorous stool from the crown. It has been recommended to roll fall wheat after the last har- rowing. We cannot endorse the opinion — first, because the ground, when left smooth, will not hold the winter's snow as well ; and, secondly, the action of the frost on ground that is a little cloddy will be to mellow it down, and cover up such wheat roots as may be partially thrown out by frost and thaw ; and. thirdly, when we harrow in spring we should have no soil to harrow down. Spring Wheat. — Peifect cultivation is the great requisite in a successful growth of spring wheat. For several years back this crop has been one of such uncertainty in Canada that the faith of our farmers in it has been much shaken. As in our coming chapter on barley and oats we shall speak ii\ ' Manual of Agriculture. 177 more fully on spring seed beds, we need only say here that spring wheat may be sown witl. more impunity when the ground is cold than any other spring crop. Indeed, it becomes a choice between two evils, whether we sow <^te and run the risk of our crop being eaten up with midge, or earlier, and risk the seed rotting in the cold soil. Of the two, we prefer the latter, for wheat seed is very hardy, and will seldom rot. Spring wheat requires to be sown thicker than the fall varieties. Tne kinds common to Canada are : Black Sea, Sibetian, Canada Club, Ohio Club, Golden Drop, Fife, Midge-proof, and Califor- nian. Diseases to which Wheat is Liable. — These are usually, in Canada, Smut and Rust. Rust we are very subject to, not only on wheat, but on oats, and sometimes on barley, and it is of much the same nature as mildew. •* Shield the young harvest from devouring blight, The Smut's dark poison and the Mildew white." Rust seizes on the stalks and leaves ; the dust gathering on these stops the free circulation of sap, so that they are unable to come to full size. The berry suffers accordingly, and is found to be more or less shrivelled up. Rust is more often found in " gleamy " days about the time of ripening. If the attack of rust takes place when the plant has fully ripened, it will only injure the straw ; but if previous to that time, the grain will be much injured and shrunk. Our opinion is, that rust and mildew are so alike in their results that we may fairly class them as one and the same disease. Rust is rarely felt in warm, dry seasons, or upon high, dry land. The disease is generally considered to be caused by the presence of numberless sporadic fungi which fasten on the crop in certain states of the atmosphere. We know that we may certainly ex- pect rust when the evenings, about harvest time or before, are cool and foggy, or when we have a succession of storms followed by in- tensely hot intervals. Such is known as " blighty " weather. The only remedy that we have is under-draining, for it is an un- doubted fact that the disease is more prevalent in the neighbour- hood of low, swampy spots than elsewhere. Spring wheat is more liable than fall wheat to this disease. The Canada Farnur says : " No remedy has yet been discovered for it ; but reasoning from analogy that salt is a well-known destroyer of parasitic fungoid growth, it may be possible that sowing salt on the land, or even on the crop, in very moderate quantity, when the weather is such as to render the appearance of rust probable, may act as a pre- ventative of its ravages. 12 IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) 1.0 I.I li^llS |2.5 I1& 1.25 1.4 II 1 A .« 6" ► /) ^;. i? / /A Photographic Sdences Corporation 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. 14S80 (716) 873-4503 .^'*,V4^ .% 178 The Canadian Farmer's ^1 ' " We once saved a valuable and heavy crop of wheat from it by the simple experiment of having two men pass through the crop, in the early mornings, drawing a long rope between them over the wheat. This bent down the heads, and shook off the accu- mulated moisture to the ground before the sun evaporated it." Smut is seen in the grain, when the husk, instead of contain- ing healthy farina, is filled with a black, stinking powjler, render- ing it utterly unfit for flour. It is the cause of an injury which may be justly regarded as a disease. It is a minute parasite, or funo^is, living on the grain of wheat, and is propagated by spores, which answer the purpose of seeda These are so minute as not to be observaVtle to the naked eye in seed, and when sown, in some way reach up to the heads of the wheat, where they grow and flourish by converting the farinaceous portion of the kernel into a black nauseous powder. The only preventive is the destruction of these spores in our seed wheat. Salt is a destroyer of all fungoid growth ; so that we may des- troy these spores by steeping seed in salt or sulphate of copper. Dissolve common salt in water until a brine is made strong enough to float an egg , or, if sulphate uf copper (blue vitriol) is used, put one pound to about 10 gallons oi water. Put the pickle in a tub ; pour seed slowly into it, so that all light grains will float — these may be skimmed off, — ^let the seed soak for a few minutes, then spread it out to drain on the baru floor ; after draining, sprinkle it with thoroughly alalced lime, or ssifer, plaster of Paris, until dry, and sow as soon as possible. The sul- phate of copper is a deadly poison ; care must be taken that none of the grain, if vitriol be used, is left within reach of pigs or poul- try. Smut is usually found worst under and in the neighbourhood of trees and dirty fence corners, after old sods and foul stubbles. Clean fallows are most free from smut. Of one thing we may be certain, sow smutty seed and the result will be a smutty harvest. Wheat Flour is of the best quality from grain that is cut before it has come to full maturity, being whiter and softer, aad such flour carries a better figure in the market. A bushel of 60 lbs. of wheat shoald yield — Flour 48 lbs. Shorts 8 " Bran 4 " But it must be remembered that the coarse or thick-husked gruiD will yield more bran and less flour than the above. The best time in which to cut wh^-at is as soon as the berry if solid and the straw is yellow, but before the berry has hardened it by crop, , over accu- b." atain- jnder- l as a wheat, geeds. eye in of the laceous in our ay dea- pper. strong itriol) is I all light ed soak tloor ; or Siifer, rhe sul- lat none or poul- lourhood tubbles. lid result it before lad such ted grain berry if lardened Manual of Agriculture. 179 The general use of reaping machines now makes it quite within the reach of the fieirmer to cut his wheat at exactly the light time. GobA of producing an acre of wheat :— Rent of one acre $3 60 Plongbing twice 3.00 Harrowing twice 1<00 Seed li bushels, at $1.40 2 10 , Sowing with drill 0.50 Reaping 1.00 Biuoing I.SO Carrying, about. 1.00 Thrashng, say 25 bush, at 8c 2.00 Cleaning up, &c 0.60 Teuuiug and co»t of selling l.GO $17.60 If summer fallowed, add the extra cost and one year's rent to above. Wheni and Chess. — ^The author of this work has heard of chess actually growing out of the same stem and head as wheat. He has often desired to 8?e such a phenomenon, but has never been satisfied by such a sight. By others, rewards have been offered to any man who could prove that such a thing ever existed; those rewards are, oi far as we know, yet unclaimed. Until we see and examine for ourselves a plant showing dis- tinctly wheat and chess, the result of the same root, or a grain in «yhich the two are plainly intermingled, we shall refuse to acknow- (edge as proven the frequent claim that wheat degenerates into )hes8. THE CULTIVATION OP BARLEY. Barley in Canada is confined to the one kind, namely, spring barley. In more moderate climates there is also a kind known as winter barley, or here. There are again subdivisions of summer barley into two-rowed and six-rowed. It is termed " two-rowed " or " six-rowed," according to the number of its fertile florets. In iix-rowed barley, three rows on each side of the spike are fertile, aud consequently three rows on each side are perfected. Slightly examined, indeed, six-rowed barley often presents the appearance of four-rowed, but this is really only in appearance, for such barley has alwa3's three rows on each side perfect, although in poor soil and under unfavourable circumstances two of the rows will run into one anotLer, and thus the mistake may arise. Soil. — Barley requires a rich, mellow and friable seed-bed. Land may be heavy as long as it is free from wet, coldness and tenacity. It cannot be grown upon a tenacious clay, except under such peculinr circumstances of cultivation and climate as shall render the land friable. It is a very tender plant, and will not ^. >* 1: 180 The Canadian Farmer's stand the slightest amount of coldness in the soil. For this rea- son barley soil should never be touched when wet, nor should barley be sown before warm rains have fallen upon the seed-bed. We may sow spring wheat early with comparative impunity, as the seed is very hardy, but when once barley has been com- mitted to the earth, it must either grow or rot ; if the soil be too cold to allow of its rapid germination and steady growth, then will it most assuredly rot in the ground. Land containing from fifty to sixty per cent, of sand and the balance of clay, provided that it lies dry, is the very best for barley ; after it may be ranked the lighter soils. It may also be grown successfully upon clay, pro- vided that such contains a sufficient proportion of mould to render it friable, while the presence of chalk is very beneficial as having a tendency to correct any natural acidity that may be present in the soil ; but the chief point upon which to depend for a success- ful crop of barley is thorough cultivation. Cultivation. — Barley^ is probably the most shallow-rooted crop that we have. It does not, like wheat, send down a tap-root to- wards the subsoil, but its roots keep near the surface and there seek for food. For this reason cultivation to the depth of three or four inches is ample. Again, its rootlets are very tender, and its growth rapid, so that the soil requires to be broken up into as fine a tilth as possible. A quick growing crop requires plenty of food, and food so applied that it is immediately available. The usual position of barley in all rotations is after hoed crops. The objects attained by this position are two-fold. The land under hoed crops usually then receives a heavy dressing of barn-yard manure. The roots or corn do not by qxlj means exhaust this manure, and the large balance left in the ground, after their re- moval, has become thoroughly rotted, and in the processes of cul- tivation for barley will become distributed through and incorpo- rated with the surface soil. This manure, thus mixed up with the soil, is in a form the most available to the wants of the tender barley root. Also, the land is thoroughly cleaned and freed from weeds by the use of the hoes, and as such is especially adapted not only to the reception of barley, but also for seeding down with grass, which is usually done on barley. Barley is, however, not unfrequently grown upon a wheat stubble. When such is the course proposed, the stubble should be ploughed in the fall. The advantage thus attained is the beneficial effect of winter's frost upon the soil — the frost, by expansion and contraction, so breaks up the clods that when the cultivator and harrows are passed over the ground in the spring, the soil will be found to break up into the fine state of garden mould. In England the best Wley ground is that upon which, when in turnips the preceding year, sheep have been folded. The sheep manure the ground and com- pact it by their treading. After ploughing shallow in winter, and 1 I Manual of Agriculture, 181 d crop oot to- l there f three er, and into as enty of \. The I. The under n-yard L3t this leir re- ef cul- icorpo* ith the tender id from bdapted n with er, not is the (1. The Ir's frost breaks ;ed over [up into barley ig yfi*'^' id com- [ter, and exposure to frost and rain, the cultivators and harrows break it into a shallow, rich, mellow and friable seed bed. Under this plan, the crops of barley raised in Norfolk are immense. It is a matter for regret that the severity of our winter precludes us from the adoption of the same system in Canada. After fall ploughing, the land should be cross stirred, by means of a two-horse cultivator or gang plough, to a depth of about four inches ; this, when harrowed over, will leave the land in very fine tilth. Of course, when broadcast sowing is proposed, the land need not be harrowed be- fore sowing, but will, after sowing, require several strokes. When the drill is to be used, the finer the tilth can be brought down the better. The use of the roller is very effective on land under culti- vation for barley — the roller breaks the little lumps, whilst the harrows simply push them on one side. Before drilling we al- ways roll our beds. As to the use of the roller after sowing — If the seed has been broadcasted, the roller will doubtless help to cover it, and from the fine state of tilth into which the land should have been brought, will be better for the purpose than any after passage of harroves. If, however, barley has been drilled, it is a mistake to roll im- mediately. We desire to place no obstacles in the way of the rapid appear- ance of the blade above ground — but the roller compresses the soil, and makes it more difficult for the blade to pierce through to the light. This is particularly the case in land that verjes upon the " strong " side i but after the blade has shot through it will be found advantageous to roll, compressing the earth firmly round the roots, and helping the soil in its retention of moisture for the use of the young plant. Seed and Sowing. — The colour of seed is immaterial if the ber- ries be plump and hard. It has been recommended to steep the seed in soft water for twenty-four hours. The advantage claimed is, that any seeds and light grains will come to the surface and may be removed, and that the seed will germinate more rapidly and evenly when covered in the ground. We leave this to the opinion of our readers ; for our own part, we consider the advan- tage very slight, and fully counterbalanced in the weakening of the germinating power of the grain. The usual time for sowing in Canada is in the latter part of April or commencement of May, but the point must perforce be always regulated by the peculi- arity of the season. No matter how fine the weather may be overhead, or how warm the sun may beat down on the new turned soil, the seed-bed of barley can never be in a fit state for reception of the seed until after a fall of warm spring rains. We have seen many a field of barley sown when the ground appeared warm, *but there was no growth in the soil ; the barley sprouted, ■:l \n^n< • -'i ■ 182 «' The Canadian Farmer's and slowly showed through the top soil ; it was then stunted, weak and yellow, and barley, when once retarded in its early growth, will never recover lost ground. There is no crop so sus- ceptible to the evil effects of a check in growth, and none upon whose after life an early check has so certainly a damaging effect The blade is moreover often checked by late frosts, and this, if possible, should be avoided. The quantity of seed varies in Canada from two bushels to two and a half bushels per acre when sown broadcast, and about one and a half bushels per acre with the drill. The richer the land, the less seed is required, as in such laud it will tiller more than in poorer. The mode of sowing is by broadcasting or drilling. There are yet to be found plenty of advocates for the broadcast ; for our part, we consider that there is no comparison between it and the system of drilling. The drill possesses two great and important advantages in its use, namely, a saving of seed (for every giain is covered), and the distribution of the seed at an even depth ; while the passage of the drill itself acts as an excellent cultivator. The opponents of the drill claim that it is a slow job. But although a man can sow more land by hand than can a team and man with the drill, yet one if not two crossings with the harrows are saved. The drills should be from seven to eight inches apart, and the quantity of seed may be fully half a bushel per acre less than that used under the broadcast system of sowing. It is customary to sow grass seeds along with the barley. For this purpose, a clover sower is attached to the drill, which should sow beforeHae drill, not, as we have seen some, behind it. Barley is the most troublesome grain that we have to harvest. A single rain will destroy its colour after it has been cut, and not unfrequently when standing riue, and will reduce its value in the market very materially. In Canada it is seldom long enough to bind. Moreover, when binding has been possible, we have found that bound barley does not thrash out as well as the loose. This is doubtless owing to the carelessness of the feeders of thrashing separators, who, being in a hurry to put through a large quantity of grain, are in the habit of constantly letting pass through the cylinder, without unbinding them, many of the small sheaves of barley ; and a bound sheaf let into a separator ic never thrashed out cleanly. It is well, in harvesting barley loose, to put it into moderate- sized cocks in the field, for such as have been so cocked will not sweat in the mow or stack. Loose barley should always be handled with the wooden barley fork. The use of the rake breaks it up, and if at all ripe will cause it to shell out. Another advantage attained by the cocking system is, that Manual of Agriculture, 183 ;unted, eaxly 80 sus- e upon r effect, this, if 1 to two out one he land, than in here are for our and the oportant grain is h ; while or. The though a nan with ire saved. , and the than that omary to , a clover the drill, loderate- wiU not m barley I ripe will is, that very much larger londs may be built from the cock than when taken from the ground in bundles, as left by the machine, or in swath by the scythe. Barley roust be cut before it is dead ripe. QaiH. — Oats will flourish on almost any soil, and being of a far hardier nature than barley, are found very useful as a spring crop, to fill up a rotation in spots which are not well adapted for the cultivation of spring wheat or barley. The only soils upon which they appear to be a failure, are those of too dry a nature. They will grow well on a tough meadow sod or fresh-ploughed old pasture. As for a full cro|), they do not seem to require that the sod should be thoroughly decomposed. For this reason we often sow oats on the same land for two yeai-s in succession, and where the seed-bed rests on an inverted old sod, the second crop has frequently proved a better one than the first. Oats are sometimes seeded down with grass, and we have our- selves had in this way excellent catches ; but there is considera- ble risk in the plan, for oats are apt to grow very rank, and often- times to lodge, and in either way the young grass stands a strong chance of being smothered. We have found oats a very useful crop to sow with vetches, as a green food for soiling purposes. Not only are green oats very excellent fodder, but growing among vetches they help to hold the latter up from the ground, thus allowing of the permeation of air, and light, and rain throughout the whole crop. They will do well in cold, moist places, and will grow rankly, and turn out a good yield in swampy spots utterly unfit for the growth of any other cereal. Oat straw is a valuable fodder, and is generally more relished by cattle than that from wheat. It is not, however, actually as nutritious, but its superiority for feed doubtless arises from the fact that it is usually cut greener than wheat, and at a cooler sea- son of the year, in consequence of which the straw has retained all its saccharine juices and is more of the nature of hay. As to the sowing of oats, there is no crop upon the thick or thin seeding of which there has been greater diversity of opinion. It is observed, that oats standing thinly are far more liable to rust tlian when the ground is well covered. At one season, when we were sowing a field of oats broadcast, the wind blew very hard, and we made, in consequence, a very irregular job. In one ]ilace we made too wide a cast, and across the whole field a strip of some inches in width was left upon which the seed was deposited not one-fourth as thickly as upon the land adjoining. At harvest this strip was green and very badly rusted, whilst the rest of the field was bright-coloured and fit for the cradle. vm^ 184 The Canadian Farmer's This liability to rust is the great objection to thin sowing. The best crop of oats that we ever grew was broadcasted, at the rate of three bushels per acre. Of courso, some difference must be observed with different varie- ties of seed, as some stool out far more than other kinds. The new varieties of oats come fast and thick before the notice of the farmer. In a few years it is probable that all our present varieties will be known as oats of the past. We shall therefore only shortly review the oats now come and coming into general use ; and we cannot do better than to quote the report of experiments made by the noted nurserymen, Messrs. Hicks and Son, of New York State, in the season of 1871 : " Eda. Country Gentleman — We drilled in seven varieties of oats, April 7th and 8th. The previous crop was corn on inverted sod. "Mr. Nowton, of Henrietta, N.Y., sent us the White Probsteier ; the cAher varieties were procured of Mr. Fanning and the Depart- ment of Agriculture. The White Schonen did so well the season before, under very favourable circumstances, we desired to procure as much as possible from the seed ; having about five pecks, we drilled it on an acre. It stood very thin ; double the seed would probably have given over a third more yield. The other varieties were sown at the rate of seven to eight pecks, except Norway oats, when only six pecks were used. " Below is given their yield by weight, 32 lbs. to the bushel :— Weight of Weight of Bushels, bushel. sheaves. Norway .., 39 32 lbs. 3,050 lbs. Surprise 36 401bs. 3.000 lbs. White Probsteier 38 30 lbs. 2.700 lbs. New Brunswick 31 31 lbs. 2,475 lbs. Excelsior 31 381b8. 2,3401b8. White Schonen 20 28 lbs. 1,220 lbs. Common 28 291bs. 1,980 lbs, "An acre of Norway, well manured and sown two weeks later, yielded forty-five bushels to the acre, and the sheaves weighed three thousand seven hundred pounds. 'Our common oats in 1869 yielded forty-one bushels to the acre; this season twenty-eight bushels — we accordingly estimate' the above yields to be two-thirds a good crop. "In examining the different varieties before reaping, the Norway stood the highest, three and a half feet ; and the £xcelsiors the shortest, two and a half feet. To a casual observer, the Norways did not look as though they would yield near as much as the Surprise, growing side by side — we could see through the Nor- ways down to the ground so easily, and hardly at all through the Surprise ; the stalks of Surprise were smaller and more numerous. " Weasked our neighbour, who was extolling the Surprise, to pick i I Manual of Agriculture. 186 out a few of the beat stalks and count the grains, while we would do the same with the Norways. The gi'ains on a stalk of Surprise were out on the end of little branches from two to four incnes long, leaning off in every direction from the main stalk ; consequently the surface was evenly spread with grains, preventing seeing through them. The grains on a stalk of Norway were all on one side,andnot overan inchfrom it, giving plenty of room to see through them, and making them appear to poor advantage. Our fViend counted from thirty-five to fifty grains on his stalks of Surprise ; while our Norway stalks, the double grains counting but one, gave us eighty-five to one hundred and one grains. The Excelsior, New Brunswick and Surprise were ripe July 14th ; White Schonen, Common and White Probsteier four days later ; and the Norway a week later. The Surprise were the most broken down, caused by weak straw and heavy grain. Having rolled the field, we were enabled to reap without waste or extra trouble. "The Excelsior, New Brunswick and Surprise are a short chunky grain, and in examining them a few days ago, found their hulls to be thicker and stifFer than the other sharp-pointed long grains." The result of experiments made at the Michigan State Agricul- tural College was : — " Excelsior oats, from England, yielded at the rate of sixty bushels to the acre ; Somerset oats, from England, ninety-four bushels to the acre ; White Schonen oats, from Ham- burg, sixty-two bushels to the acre ; Black Swedish, also from Hamburg, sixty-six bushels an acre ; Prince Edward Island oats, sixty-two bushels per acre ; Brooks' oats, from Michigan, sixty- eight bushels per acre; Norway oats (the seed from Jones and Clark, New York) yielded fifty bushels ; and the Surprise oats, at the rate of thirty-eight bushels to the acre. The weight ot the Norway oats was only twenty-eight pounds to the bushel, while the same measure of the last-named variety weighed forty-six and a half pounds." Oats must be cut early. If left to ripen on the ground, there is no crop that will shell out as badly. Moreover, the straw, being very valuable, makes excellent fodder when cut well on the green side. If oats be allowed to become dead ripe when standing, a large proportion of the saccharine matter contained in the growing stalk is lost for the purposes ot fodder. iWJ: :|P3 l?n. ■iv :■*■ BUCKWHEAT. This is a good crop to fill up blank places in a rotation. It is not very generally grown, but is by no means an invaluable crop. Land that has been allowed to run to waste has often produced an excellent yield of buckwheat, when no other cereal could, with any degree of certainty, have been raised. This is doubtless owing 186 The Canadian Farmer's to the fact that for a very lar^e proportion of its sustenance it is dependent upon the stores contained in the air. It is found A useful crop on a summer faliovir. From the dense luxuriance of ito foliage and straw, it effectually smothers weeds, and where a heavy growth is secured, even the Canada thiiitle has no chance among it. So great is this faculty, that there would even appear to be something in its roots and stalks absolutely poisonous to plant life It forms a fair green manure, and plo i^hed under stiff soils, is very beneficial ; for not only does it contain much nitrogenous plant food, but from its coarseness acts mechanically in opening out and ad- mitting air and moisture to such soils. It luxuriates in a dry, warm sand ; although it will often grow on apparently worn-out lands and without mnnure, yet there is no crop that responds to generous treatment more rapidly. It is not, however, advisable to have land too rich for buckwheat, because such soil is fitted for more profitable crops, and too great richness of land will cause it to grow altogether to straw. The time of sowing is usually from the last week in June through the first week of the succeeding month. This in our Canadian cli- mate may be considered an arbitrary rule, ie. when the crop is grown for grain. If sown too early, it will, when in full flower, receive the very dry weather of the latter part of July, and such is injurious to tlie formation of the berry. If, again, the crop mature too late, it may be caught by late frosts and utterly ruined ere it has come to maturity. The quantity of seed should be not less than one biishel per acre. Whatever be the nature of the land, it should be made mellow for a seed-bed. Buckwheat matures very rapidly; nine to ten weeks being the usual length of time between germination and maturity. We have seen thirty bushels and more, and almost under any circumstances we may rely on at least fifteen bushels per acre. Harvested usually with the cradle, being laid in swathes, the follower of the cradle then rakes it up into fair-sized sheaves, and giving their heads a twist stands the bundles up on their butts to dry. Drying requires some time, not only because the stems are na- turally green and juicy, but the season of harvest is usually cool. The less handling that it receives when ripe the better, for it is a grain that shells with very little shaking. To thrash buckwheat the best plan is : — " Where it must be thrashed by hand, a floor may be pre- pared in the field, by scraping and sweeping a piece of ground or by laying down sheets. Lay over this a bed of rails an inch or two apart, raised from the ground sufficiently to make room for Manual of Agriculture. 187 the grain when it is thrashed. On the rails throw the straw as itis Drought from the stacks, and thrash out the gi-ain, which falls through the openings between the rails. The Htraw cnn thus be removed and separated from the ^ain very quickly. When all is thrashed, remove the rails, and the grain may be cleaned on the ground if desired without removing it to the barn. It is abso- llutely necessary to clean buckwheat as soon as thrashed, or the Ichnfi' being damp will heat and spoil the grain in a few days." If possible, it should not be stacked ; for it is exceedingly easily I heated in the mow or stack. It is better to thrash straight from the field, either by the plan [above, or by hauling on to the barn floor, stamping out with Ihorses or thrashing with the flail. It bhould be cleaned up imme- jdiately after thrashing, spread and turned over to dry. Flour. — A bushel of good grain should yield about twenty-five [pounds of fine buckwheat flour. I The grain is a good feed for hens ; for horses it is not good [except when chopped and well mixed with oats. It is a very heating feed, and will be found good for pigs [preparatory to feeding for the butcher. I It is satisfying, and will keep up the animal heat and growth, |but will not make firm po. k. For hens, from its heating quality, it is a great promoter of good |laying. An objection taken to buckwheat is frequently, that the shell- ngs of harvest lie dormant in winter, and sprouting the next Ispring become mixed with tlie then growing crop.s. If it precede a hoed cro[), this will not matter, for cultivation |will destroy it. If it is to be followed by a cereal, the better plan is: — As soon as it has been removed from tlie ground in autumn, j>ut a pair of heavy harrows on and thoroughly scarify the istubble. Should we, after , operation, have but a lew days of warm t^r wet weather, all the bed buckwheat will sprout, and, after the seed has once germi- ated, winter frosts will destroy it. PEAS. The faith of Canadian farmers has of late been sadly shaken fn the cultivation of field peas as a profitable market crop ; and, m& it not for the value of the grain for pork producing, and of Ihe straw as fodder, we doubt not but that the crop would ere pis have been almost entirely discarded. At the present day peas are raised chiefly as food for pigs, and such are very valuable, for they produce hard and firm ork — such as delights the eye of the dealer. A loamy soil id the best for the cultivation of this crop, but suc- • ■.■/!'!*■ 188 The Canadian Farmer's cess is generally attained on land of a heavier nature, and some varieties do passably well upon sands and gravels. Varieties in common use are : — Crown. — A good sound pea, of which a farmer in the neigh- bourhood of Tngersoll, Ont., says : — " They are larger than the common pea, command a higher price, and will yield a third more. They are especially suited to rich, strong soils, as they do not run to straw and lie down. They can be cut like hay. I cut mine with a mowing machine. The straw is much liked by stock, and they ripen earlier than most kinds. I have grown them for the last four or five years, sowing at the rate of three bushels of soed per acre." Oolden Vine. — One peculiarly aaapted to the lighter soils. Black-eyed Marrowfats are good neavy yielders, but mature dowly and ripen late. Daniel O'Rourke are a very superior large pea. They, however, require better cultivation than the common pea. They do not yield a heavy crop of straw, but are better bearers of grain. Small Canada or Common Pea is a very hardy variety : a heavy yielder even under inferior cultivation, but is extremely subject to the attacks of the " bug," or pea weevil. We h ;ve an experiment before us of several new varieties of early peas : ** Laxton's Alpha oame up in 12 days. Philadelphia Extra Early, in 14 " Kentish Inviota, in 16 '* Carter's First Crop, in 17 " Laxton's Prolific, m 19 •* My soil is gravelly, with subsoil of hard clay." Sowing. — Early and late sowing have each their advantages and disadvantages. Early-sown peas will usually bring a heavier yield, but are more subject to bugs. Moreover, early sowing frequently brings the field into harvest at about the same time as wheat and barley, which is often very awkward to the farmer. Late-sown peas are more free from the attacks of the weevil, | but will not yield as well. Peas should be sown heavily, to cover the ground well and! keep it damp, and to yield a nutritious straw. From 2 bushels with drill, to 2^ bushels and 3 bushels with the hand, are the best | quantities of seed. Cultivation. — The drill is the best instrument for the sowing of I peas. They are thus deposited at An even depth, come up to| gether, and grow and ripen evenly. It is difficult to cover peas that have been sown broadcast, »j heavy rain, shortly after sowing, will sometimes expose two-third3[ of the seed. Manual of Agriculture, 189 When broadcast sowing is adopted, the only safe plan of covering is to plough the land f^t ana level it down with one harrow stroke, tilling in the furrows well (if the ploughing has been per- formed in the previous fall, so much the better) ; then sow the seed and cover it in by a shallow ploughing. This is most effectually done with the gang-plough or two-horse cultivator. This plan applies to stubble or root ground. In sod, we have seen the peas sown on the surface and ploughed under with a light cut furrow slice. The pea is a vigorous grower, and easily forces its way through the grass roots to the surface. The better way is, however, to plough the sod first, and then, levelling off well, use a driU ; or in ploughing set the sod well up on end, as recommended for heavy land on page 53 ; and the peas, even if sown by hand, will fall in between the furrow slices, and their crowns may then be dragged in to cover the seed, when the crop will come up in perfect drills, just as wide as the furrow slice has been cut. If possible, peas should be covered to a depth of at least three inches. It is not advisable to apply fresh dung to the seed bed, for we look upon this crop as a lana cleaner, and rank manure is apt to induce a coarse growth of haulm at the expense of the grain. A^ a Cleaning Crop, peas are by many highly approved of, and often form the preparation for fall wheat. By their luxuriant growth, they keep the ground shaded and moist through summer, smother weeds, and, gathering a large amount of sustenance from air and dew, do not exhaust the land, but rather leave it clean, mellow and friable, well prepared for the reception of wheat seed. As a green manure they have been highly recommended. By some they have been thought equal in fertilizing elements to clover, whilst they exceed clover in quantity of matter. Though we do not agree to this proposition, we have no doubt that they contain, when decomposed, no mean amount of -plant food. Green peas are, however, very difficult to cover with the plough, and are, therefore, when designed to be so treated, better mixed with oats, around which they twine and are prevented from trail- ing along the ground and lying in heavy bunches. The use of the chain on the plough will be found efficient in rolling the crop into I each furrow before the mould board. The land should not be again ploughed until the mass of covered vegetation is well decomposed. As a green crop for hay, peas are valuable. They should be cut when the lower pods are well formed, and the 1 upper blossoms in full flower ; it is well in this case also to mix oat-9 with the seed, for the same reasons as above stated. In this case, two bushels of peas and two bushels of oats to the acre is not too heavy a seeding. 1^^ 190 The Canadian Farmer's For fodder, the peas and oats may be allowed to grow together until rips; these thrashed and ground make an excellent feed, especially for horses and cattle, and the straw is almost as nutri- tious as any timothy hay, and far more so than much of the bay that we have seen fed or taken to market. The ordinary mode of harvesting is with the scythe, by 'vliich the peas are pulled out, breaking oflT close at the roots, and are t;hen rolled into heaps ; this is slow, but clean. The revolving horse rake is sometimes used, and the pea crop, torn up by the roots, is deposited in bunches laid in wind-rows. This is, however, a dirty plnn, f >r much dust and soil is gathered with the crop ; and as the fodder value of pea straw i«i very great, should not be resorted to except under special circumstances of haste or want of sutHcient help. Peas usually lying in one way may often be cut on three sides by the mowing machine; and though we have thus seen very excellent and clean work done, it can only be accomplished for certain with such particular kinds as grow well up off the land How Bugs get into Peas : *' After the pea vines have flowered, and while the pods are young and tender, and the peas within them are just beginning to swell, the bugs gather upon them, and deposit their tiny eggs singly in the punctures or wounds which they make upon the surface of the pods. This is done mostly in the night or in cloudy weather. The grubs, as soon as they are hatched, penetrate the pod and bury themselves in the opposite pens, and the holes through which they pass into the seeds are so tine as hardly to be perceived, and ai'e soon closed^" — Disecta Injurious to Vegetation, oy Harris, p. 63. Strange td say, there are peculiar sections in Canada where the farmer is not troubled at aJi by the pea weevil ; and it is from these parts that reliable dealers obtain their seed. The bugs in jieas may be destroyed by dipping the peas in scald- ing hot water ; but as it is quite possible to destroy the germina- tion of the pea by boiling, they should only be left for a very short time — about a minute — or the pea will be ruined as well as the weevil destroyed. Of course this plan applies in practice only to small quantities ; our only remedy as farmers is to obtain our | seed from localities that are not infested, and to sow late. The latest season at which peas for a crop may be safely sown, may be computed from the fact that the growth of the pea from germination to maturity averages about ninety -seven days. CORN. The varieties of corn are usually divided into two general i clas.ses, — the yellow and the white, — and for general Canadian agriculture such clas»itication is full enough. Manual of Agriculture. 101 There are in America an immense number of varieties of com, but as only a portion of these are suitable to our more northern climate, it is notdesigncdto dwell at length upon them in this work. The Dent, the Large Western, and the Early Prolijlo are the kinds in general use north of the forty -second parallel. The Sandford, — a white variety, — has been generally tried in various parts of the Dominion, but has hardly been found suffici- ently valuable, under our climate, to form a staple kind for general cultivation. Our own experience of the Sandford has not been practically favourable. It is in warm parts of America a very heavy yielder, and its kernels are of a superior nature, but the only value to us is in the profuse growth of its stalks and leaves, making it a desirable crop for fodder or for soiling purposes, under which heads we shall speak of it again. With u^, as a crop, we found it late, and liable to be caught by early frosts in the fall. It is possible that, when accli- matized, it might be brought more rapidly to maturity. We also found the ears very liable to become smutty. The Dent Corn is a hardy variety, well suited to our climate, and early. Tlie Early Prolific is a bright yellow eight-rowed com, with stalk of a moderate size, and a fair yielder. Culture. — The cultivation of corn is peculiar, partaking in its essential elements of the modes of culture both of roots and of cereak. Like roots, it draws nourishment largely by leaf from the atmosphere ; and like the cereal, it is a shallow-rooted plant. The roots of corn extend for a long distance upon every side along the ground, and ever seek t"6 keep near the surface. For this reason it becomes necessary that the soil (as in barley) be mel- low and rich near the surface, and that all manurial food be sup- plied from near the top of the seed bed. It loves a loa;»e, liofht and friable soil, and will not grow on compact land;^, in cold soiLi, nor upon such as are retentive of sur- face water. It can only be grown on clays with any certainty when such have been thoroughly drained and worked to a mellow and friable condition. It does excellently well upon a clover ley or even upon an old sod ; but such should, when turned up in spring, be ploughed very shallow. If we would apply barn-yard manure, the fall of the year is the best season. A practical American farmer says that "he has no hesitation in saying, that twelve loads to the acre, spread in the early part of October, and allowe«l to lie until planting time before being turned under, are equal in the effef^t they produce to twenty loads applied and ploughed in, in the usual way, in the spring. " ':;i|' Ik. 192 The Canadian Farmer's ^^i '( 1(1 m -1 I We take this with a grain of salt, merely remarking that some- thing depends upon the state of the manure, whether long and unfermented, or short spit-dung. The better plan, when manure is fine and of the nature of mould, is to put a shovelful of such short manure in each hill and cover with dirt before planting the corn ; but as this is a long job, we prefer to spread our short manure all over the surface, and work it in with cultivator and harrows. As we said above, the com throws out roots to a great distance along the surface, and it will come in the way of manure along each root. Doubtless the hill manuring will push on the crop faster at first, and that is a great matter ; but the latter will give more lasting benefit all through growth, and the succeeding crop will find the land more generally and evenly rich. We prefer, with long manure, to apply it to the previous grass before turning down the sod. On one point all practical men agree, that corn requires plenty of air and light, and, consequently, must not ue sown too close or thick. Hills versus Drills. — Steady and far has raged the controversy amongst corn growers on the respective advantages from planting in hills or in drills. At one time the advocates of the drill take the agriculturist's mind by storm, at others the hill men triumph. We believe in hills for a matured crop, and in drills for fodder. Opposed to our own practical observations we find the opinions of a number of worthy authorities. The Michigan Agricultural College has made experiments, and reports : " The plots for trial were forty-eight rods long and two rods wide. The rods were four feet apart ; the corn. Yellow Dent. The plants were thinned, so as to leave the same number of stalks on each plot. The soil and manuring, and the cultivation, were as nearly alike as practicable. Both were cut up at the same time, the com husked, and corn and stalks all weighed separately. The drilled portion produced 74^ bushels of shelled corn per acre, and that in the hills 62^ bushels. The drilled plot yielded stalks at the rate of three tons per acre i the othei' at the rate of two and | two-thirds tons." In all published American works and period- icals, and in those of our own Dominion, we find strong advocacy I of both sides of the question. Sowing. — The old saying is, plant eight kernels to a hill : " Two I for the worm, two for the crow, and four will be left for the far- mer to grow." If we plant in hills, four kernels are ample to grow, and unless | land be very rich, three will be found sufiicient to thrive well. Of one thing we may be certain, deep sowing will not do; the| ig that some- her long and ■Manual of Agriculture. .'-. f tie surface, fre bm „. h?"- °/ 'L^'"' ''»'■ *« ««", roote h.- y«»?g weeds. Sfctt "f ",v*'''»^ """PetiUon^^- & retain moistui* .«^ Vi * , *« «oi fiives itT '"'° '^'th Our own experienp * • ^"wage of the on, were as ■ Lg or «^ -I ^^' ^^^n the pJanta h»,l Jf ^^*"* of ashes and of two andlf !8'*5?'l ""d before the^^ *,"?*."«»> »« thecobs have « advoca, ■« -U^ed .n -e^^^, wM,b «,-' ^-» tbe^ebarine ure of mould, lill and cover long job, we J, and work it :reat distance lanure along •aster at first, more lasting will find the revious grass res plenty of lose or thick. controversy om planting jriculturist's 1 for fodder, ihe opinions iments, and i two rods ellow Dent. )er of stalks ion, were as if. ' 1 IT' 't -i ii If If I ! I may, each id being far ,est hay as luch of tbe alk and leaf eing finer in the blossom, Lt danger of' est for food', ally far more and yellow ins are still I a statement jrces on the [ing crop for | yax the testi- joorestof all )t so thicWy lultivated to and earing, ir are stored Ise and from ludes a mis- corn whicli lUst be very |)rthern corn,! LJust befool "4. Its value, compared with lucerne, millet, the best grasses, and other plants containing a larger percentage of nutriment, taking into consideration the quantity produced and the cost of its pro duction, has not been determined fully, and should be decided by a series of thorough and exhaustive experiments. " It is evident from all that is conflicting in the opinion of differ- ent feeders, that the differences are mainly due to the degree of maturity or soundness of the corn. That from thick sowing, im- mature, colourless and watery, is unfit to place before the cows of any well-regulated dairy. It is probable that half that is fed is either improperly cultivated or in a state of growth not produc- tive of the highest results. If this should be the case, how stupid to condemn the maize for the ignorance of the cultivator. If it is found to contain too little nutriment for its bulk, or too small an amount of the flesh-forming element, the suggestion found in the practice of some, of giving a small amount of more highly con- . centrated nutriment in connection with corn fodder, is eminently wise. This is a deficiency easily remedied. While corn is our national crop, less fastidious in the circumstances of its growth than almost any other, and capable of yielding so largely under the proverbial neglect which characterizes our culture, let not this fodder be discarded until something of greater practical value is found, the superiority of which has been actually demonstrated under local circumstances of soil, climate and cultivation." The drill husbandry is undoubtedly better for fodder than broad- casting, allowing more spread for roots laterally, providing more sun and air to the growing corn, and permitting cultivation by hoe. " Stalks were collected from a field where the seed was sown broadcast, and also stalks growing in drills upon the same field, and they were dried in a drying closet to expel the moisture. Both specimens were planted at the same time (the 6th of May), and it was found that the plants from the broadcast sowing contained ninety-two jier cent, of water, those from drills eighty-three per cent, of water. Thus it was shown that the difference of solid matter in the two was relatively as eight to seventeen per cent. The solid matter was composed of starch, gum, sugar and woody fibre. There was almost an entire absence of sugar and gum in the stalks from the broadcast sowing, while the stalks that had grown under the influence of light and air held these nutrient principles in considerable quantities. The stalks were collected at the period of growth just before the ear begins to form, a period when most farmers commence to cut the fodder for their cowa." — ^Q%ton Journal of Chemistry. In order to secure the greatest amount of benefit from the corn planted exclusively for fodder, experience has led us to adopt the following rules : 1st. To sow so thickly that cattle will eat the fine stalk& '(IS 'AM m. 196 Th6 Canadian Farmer's U 4 ^^ r , i t! '1! 2nd. To sow in drills, so that horse-culture may be freely given. 3rd. To cut at the right time, as already designated. 4th, and last, but not least. To cure as perfectly as possible, inasmuch as sweet, green fodder is better than black, water-soaked, half-fermented or mouldy fodder. The greatest difficulty in the manipulation of the crop in this form is that of properly drying before it is stowed away. One plan is : To start in the field and reach round a number of tops with both arms, and bind a hill or as much as can be reached in a drill ; let this stand fast ; then cut round and set up all round this shock, until it is just so big that it can be readily bound: The middle part, that stands fast, will remain dry, while the stalks piled around will dry perfectly. Before winter they may be all drawn in. No fear of heating from the small proportion of those in the middle, for they will have dried out standing. Neither will such shucks be blown down by fall winds. Broom Corn, though not general in Canada, has been grown successfully in parts of this Dominion. It requires much the same soil, cultivation and climate that are suitable to the large western corn, or to Sorghum. About five hundred pounds of broom per acre is a fair average yield, and from this will usually be cleaned about fifty bushels of seed. It must ripen early enough to escape fall frosts when in the ground. General cultivation similar to that of any other field com. If planted in hills, it should be thirty inches apart one way, and eighteen the other. About thirty seeds are planted to a hill ; thus taking seed at about the rate of three pecks per acre. It requires to grow thick to ensure fineness of the stalk,— a quality desired by the brushmaker. The seed should weigh forty pounds to the bushel. The Canada Farmer thus describes the securing of this crop : ** As the seed as well as the brush is of value, and the first autumn frost kills the plants, the operation of harvesting should I be performed as soon as the seed is ripening and before frosts come. The stalks are bent down at a height of two feet from the ground, laying those of two opposite rows across each other obliquely, leaving a clear passage between every other two rows for the convenience of passing through when it is ready for cutting! After it has been so bent over, the brush will cure sufficiently! in from four to six days to be cut, which is then done with a sharp! hook or sickle, leaving about one foot of the stalk, or even less,iol the ground. After being cut, it is sometimes laid out to dry stilll more ; but if the weather has been very favourable, and the brushj is dry enough not to heat or get mouldy when packed away, it i I and over a-j Manual of Agriculture, 197 carried to the barn. If it is bound in small sheaves, there will be less trouble in getting off the seed. If not perfectly dry, the brush must be spread out on scaffolds in the barn till dry. The process of extracting the seed is called ' scraping the brush ;' this is done in a machine invented for the purpose. It is an upright imple- ment of elastic wood or steel, fastened to a bench of the requisite height for an operator to sit at. The brush is taken in hand, and the top part, as far 9& the seed extends, is brought down ou the top of the machine, forced through between the teeth, and drawn outwards toward the operator. This separates the elastic portion of the brush, and when drawn out the seeds are scraped off in the process. If the stalks are cut before the seed is ripe, the brush is stronger, and more elastic and durable ; but the value of the seed then lost is a serious item, and unless the grower can make certain of obtaining as much higher price as will cover the loss of seed, he will not submit to the sacrifice. The seed weighs forty pounds per bushel, and is said to be valuable for feeding stock, though we have had no actual experience in that way to enable us to judge. " Sometimes the broom-makers will contract to take the whole crop on the ground, and attend to the cutting and curing them- selves, when they desire to take pains to have a particularly good article of brush." To keep birds from, com when first planted, the following plans are recommended : Put the com, say half a bushel, into a tub, and pour in hot water enough to cover the seed ; let it stand a few minutes, then strain oft the water, and pour over the corn a little gas or coal tar, which has been previously warmed until it is thin ; with a stick stir it thoroughly, which will give every kernel a coating of tar ; then dust over it dry plaster to prevent the grains sticking to one another, and stir it up again. No birds will touch it after such a dressing, and though the seed will not sprout quite so soon, yet no injury has been done to it. The following is from Brown's " Book of Manures :" Saltpetre, one pound ; copperas, sul. of iron, three pounds ; dis- solve each in six quarts of water, in separate vessels (rain water is best). Put eight quarts of shelled com into a tub, and over it pour the two liquids ; stir the whole well together, and allow it to remain twenty-four to thirty-six hours. Just before planting, drain it off. As soon as the corn is dry enough, coat it lightly with coal tar and dust it with plaster, and then plant. Seed pre- pared in this way is not liable to be attacked by birds or worms, I will give the young plants an early start, a vigorous growth, and I an early maturity. If crows or other birds attack it, they will not try more than a hill or two ; and if they eat what they have pulled, will be found on the ground dead or dying. But the surest way, and we have succeeded with the plan over I and over again, is — r ';'^^"l. 198 The Canadian Farmer's * ill ■^ 4 h ft?' i " String " the field with white cotton twine ; fasten it to short stakes, and cross it about every three rods. The crows are " scared" of a trap, and keep at a respectful distance. There is a use for corn-husks not generally adopted. Dried and torn into strips.they make excellent mattresses — clean, sweet, soft and elastic. Plaited into a rope, and wound round, they make good door mats. CTorii-criis. — We extract the following from the Arnerican Agnculturist : " Corn-cribs might be improved in a double way by a somewhat similar arrangement of the floor. Generally, if any mould occurs in a crib, it is on the floor, as here is found the first corn put in, which is generally dampest, and here the least venti- lation takes place. A floor raised " roof-shap- ed" (Fig. 25), and holes bored in it for ventila- tion, would efiectually prevent dampness or mould in that part of the crib ; and if slide- doors are put here and Improved Corn-orlb. there at the bottom, at convenient places, the crib may be emptied, or nearly so, without tak^nj? a shovel or scoop into it. We have found that rats may be excluded from the crib by a peculiar form of post, turned smoothly in the lathe. The shape is some- what like a mushroom, the stalk smallest at the bottom. The blocks (sunk in the ground) are of wood, with holes made toj receive the posts, which enter four or five inches and fit tightly. This causes the crib to stand firmly. When the posts are made | smooth with sandpaper, no rats or mice will mount them." EatimcUed cost and prqfU from an acre of corn ; Bent of land $3.00 Ploughing in fall 2.00 Hauling out manure 2.00 Cultivating in spring 60 Harrowing twice 60 Planting 50 Cost of seed 30 Cutting, husking and cribbing 5.00 $14.00 Credit.— 40 bushels shelled com, at 70o $28.00 Manual of Agrindiure, 199 I. Dried m, sweet, loor mats. d.7*ierican } miglit be a double somewhat igement of Generally, i occurs in in the floor, found the it in, which y dampest, sleastventi- is place. A " roof-fthap- 5), and holes for ventila- effectually impness or ihat part of tnd if slide- |ut here and be emptied, We have a peculiar »e is 8ome- jttom. The les made to fit tightly. are made 3m." Leaving a profit of $14.00 per acre, with the corn fodder thrown in, and the land in first-class order. Soiling. — For this purpose corn is one of the best fodders that can be grown. The best recommended kind for this purpose, on the continent, is. Stowell or Evergreen Sweet Com. The Sanford is an excellent variety, as it puts forth a profu- sion of leaves, stalks and suckers, and is a very rapid grower when young. There are a great many varieties of early sorts, suitable for soil- ing purposes, amongst which we may mention — The Sioux, Button, Mandan, Sugar, Tuscarora, Adams, King Philip, and the Chinese Tree. The subject of soiling will be treated more fully in the pages devoted to cattla FLAX AND HEMP. Flax. — " It is strange that so many professing to take a deep interest in agricultural matters neglect this valuable branch alto- gether. It only requires a visit to the Counties of Wellington and Waterloo to convince the most • sceptical that the growth and manufacture of flax is one of our most important interests in the new Dominion. At St. Mary's will be found the produce of not less than five hundred acres ; at Woodstock, at the fine mills oi Mr. Brown, the produce of seven hundred acres, three hundred oi which, I am told, were grown by himself at Elora ; the produce of other five hundred acres at Baden,, Conestoga, Stratford, Mary- boro', and several other places. The most active operations are I being carried on. Employment is given to from twenty to thirty hands at each of those mills, and a much larger number during I the grassing season, which continues several months. " While we are all most anxious to make the most of our lands, I flax presents itself as another of the crops well worthy the atten- tion of the farmer, from the fact that it is bringing as high a price, vhen ready for market, as it did during the American war ; and it only fiuctuates in price like all other products. " Farmers have often been urged through the press to sow this Icrop, each on at least a couple of acres on his farm. This would jsoon be the means of flax mills for scutching being established in [every part of the country. " From the experience of every man that has tried flax in this Icountry, it has been found to answer best when it is early sown, ISO that it may get a clear month before drought overtakes it. To Ithose who have not made the trial before, I would say it is desira- Ible to put flax in a piece of the cleanest and richest soil on the Tfarm ; clay loam is preferable to any other when the soil is deep pnd friable. On such land you may safely sow two bushels of eed to the acre. '\ii < I $28.00 200 The Canadian Farmer's " If you want to seed down, do so by all means with flax ; there need be no apprehension about the clover plant being removed on pulling the flax. On the contrary, it moulds the plant and causes it to spring up with more vigour and freshness. " Let not the pulling deter the farmers from growing flax any longer, as they can as readily obtain a machine for pulling pur- poses as they can a reaper for taking ofi^ their grain, and at the small cost of seventy -five dollars or eighty dollars each. " I should have said, while speaking of the proper kind of soil to sow flax on, that nothing can beat a piece of old ley, and if ploughed in the autumn, it may be sown in the spring with great certainty of a good crop. Let the ridges be made as wide as pos- sible, with as few furrows as you can get along with, as the plant invariably grows more in length along the edges of the furrows, and it is most desirable to have it all as near one length as possible. " During the last two years the price of this article has been much reduced, owing to the great fall in cotton since the American war ; while barley, wheat, and indeed most other crops bringing high prices, several of the enterprising scutch millers have been induced to abandon the enterprise for a time. "What is most wanted at the present time is an established market at some convenient point for shipping, and I have little doubt some of our enterprising neighbours will soon fill up this want also, so that we shall not have to depend on the periodical visits of those buyers who only find their way here when the arti- cle is scarce in other countries. " There are now at work at least twenty scutch mills. Some will produce this year fifty tons of clean scutched flax. At Wood- stock, St. Mary's, Maryboro' and Elora, a much larger quantity will be produced, but in round numbers say each of those twenty mills will produce fifty tons. This would make one thousand tons. At current rates — three hundred dollars per ton, or fifteen cents per pound — this would net the handsome sum of three hun- dred thousand dollars, foreign capital brought into the country in a few months. The value of the seed also will amount to another large item, the price per bushel being from one dollar and a half to one dollar and sixty cents for every fifty-six pounds. " In looking over the map of the Dominion, I find there are over forty counties that have as yet to give the cultivation of flax a trial ; but if each of those counties would only produce an equal amount to that now produced in Wellington or Waterloo, m should have a handsome revenue coming into the country annu- ally of from eight to ten millions of dollars for fibre and seed, to say nothing of the increased employment it would create, and help in a great measure to bring an industrious, skilful class of immi- grants to our shores."— John A. DoNALDSOiif, G. I. Agent, in The Canada Farmer. Manual of Agriculture, 201 ax; there moved on tnd causes e flax any Tling pur- nd at the ind of soil ley, and if with great ide as pos- 3 the plant le furrows, as possible. ie has been e American )s bringing have been established have little fill up this B periodical en the arti- Is, Some At Wood- quantity ose twenty thousand t, or fifteen three hun- country in to another and a half there are] bion of flax [e an equal Iterloo, "wej itry annu- id seed, to I }, and help of immi-j lAsent, iiil flfgmp. — The following is an Essay to the Canada Farmer for 1869, on the Cultivation and Preparation of Hemp, by H. O. Joly, Esq., M. P. :— " It is necessary that I should begin by stating, for those who may not be acquainted with the fact, that the male, or fecundat- ing flower of tne hemp, and the female, or seed-bearing flower, grow upon separate and distinct plants. So that hemp, unlike flax, whose every plant bears seed, is divided between female, or seed-bearing plants, and male plants, which do not bear seed, but are indispensable for the fecundation of the female plant. "I have never read nor heard that it was possible to distinguish the sex of the plant in the seed of hemp ; male and female must, therefore, be sown and grow up together. There is nearly an equal quantity of each ; it anything, the female slightly predomi- nates. The male ripens about three weeks sooner than the female. It is known to be ripe when its stem and leaves assume a yel- lowish hue. That colour makes it easily distinguishable from the female, which at that time is still perfectly green. " There are no two countries — scarcely two localities in the same country — where hemp is treated identically in the same way ; but I think all the various modes of treatment can be safely classified under one or another of the two following heads — the old-fashioned European, or the new-fashioned Kentucky mode. "The choice of the ground, the way to prepare it, the sowing of the seed, and the cultivation between seed-time and maturity, are the same in both these modes of treatment, which, in fact, differ but on one point, the harvesting of the crop. "Choice and Preparation oftJie Ground. " I will quote some good authorities on that subject, whose words will carry much more weight than mine, merely stating that, from experience, I have found them to be perfectly correct. " Mr. Bradford, of Kentucky, says : — " ' The i oil for hemp must be a strong, calcareous, deep, warm loamy, and perfectly dry one, deeply and thoroughly prepared by ploughing and cross-ploughing, according to its previous condition, until a fine state of tilth is produced.' " Henry Clay says : — " * The lands which produce hemp best are those which are fresh, or which have lain some time in grass or clover. Manuring is not much practised yet (in Kentucky). Clover is used in lieu of it. Fall or winter ploughing is practised with advantage. It is indispensable in old meadows or old pasture grounds intended for producing hemp.' " Sebastian Delamer says : — " * Hemp gives but a very unsatisfactory return on soils of too 202 The Canadian Farmer's i: H -! ill: sandy or clayey a nature, on shallow soils, on those which are apt to be hcorched by the sun, or are unable to receive their due share 01 atmospheric influence. Fresh broken lands, in the midst of woods and forests, are favourable to its growth.' " Sowing the Seed. " We sow hemp, in the district of Quebec, about the first week in May. Yoii can safely sow yours, in Upper Canada, at least a fortnight sooner. Sow it broadcast, about one bushel to the acre (for hemp grown for rope-making, which is the only kind, I think, that can be advantageously raised for the present in Canada). Harrow before sowing, and harrow and cross-harrow lightly after sowing. " Never sow seed older than the preceding summer's growth, foi it is admit ';ed by every one that hemp seed loses its vitnlity rapidly. The seed must be plump and full, and rather dark in colour. Whitish and greenish seeds are always bad. "Last year I imported seed from Piedmont, north of Italy. It came to an absurd price, but, with proper management, it ought to be got hero for four or five dollars a bushel. This year I im- fort Kentucky or Missouri seed (I think it is the same\ for which expect to pay, delivered in Quebec, from three to t^ree dollars and a quarter per bushel. Mr. Wra. Evans, of the Agricultural Warehouse, Montreal, imports all my seed. From experiments made last year, I am, so far, inclined to give the preference to the Missouri seed over the Piedmontese. Some of the plants from the latter are, it is true, much taller than any produced by the former ; but the crop yielded by the Missouri seed was a good average length, and much more equal in height and thickness than that from the Piedmontese seed. " There is no cultivation whatever required between seed-time and maturity; the rapid growth of hemp chokes up all weeds; in fact, it weeds itself. " Harvesting. " I have now reached the point at which the European and Kentuckian modes of treating hemp begin to differ from one an- other — I mean the harvesting — and I will proceed to show in what that difference consists. " In Europe, when the male hemp has become ripe, it is pulled by hand, plant by plant, allowing the female plant to stand, in order that its seed may ripen, which takes about three weeks from the time the male is pulled. After being pulled, the male plants are laid out to ret, or, as it is more generally called in the country, to rot, either on the ground or in water, like flax. The same process of retting is followed both in the European and the Manual of Agriculture. 203 Kentuokian treatment of hemp. When destined to bo rett»'d in water, hemp is put up in bunillea, which must not exceed ten inches in diameter or thereabouts at the thickest part, so tliat the water may act easily on the centre of the bundle. Fivo or six days in stagnant water, when the weather is still warm, is j^'^ne- rally sufficient. It takes much longer in running water. When the water is cold, owing to the lateness of the neason, it is better to ret on the ground. It takes from one month to six weeks to ret on the ground — the time depending completely upon the greater or lesser frequency of rain. " When the bark which contains the fibre can be easily detached from the wood, in long strips uninterrupted, from the root to the top of the plant, the retting is completed. Hemp ought not to be spread upon the field' to dry the moment it is taken out of the water, for it is then soft and brittle, and might be injured. The bundles must be put up standing along a fence, a wall, or, if neither be quite convenient to the pond, some light scaffolding erected for the purpose, after slackening the ties, which can be readily done by pushing them up towards the thinner part of the bundles. They are left standing for a day or two, until the water has run out of them. The plants are then fit to spread on the ground in thin layers. When dried on one side, turn them over, and a few hours of sunshine will complete the operation. Do not take them in unless thoroughly dried. " When the seed hardens, the female plants ought to be pulled. It would not do to wait until the seed is quite ripe, because the bags containing it will then burst, and the seed drops on the ground, and is Tost. The seed is allowed to ripen for a few days on the field, care being taken to prevent the head of the plant, which contains the seed, from resting on the ground. It must not be beaten out with the flail. It is too soft for that, and would be crushed. The best plan is to bring barrels or boxes to the field, hold the handful of hemp with one hand, the heads of the plant placed inside the barrel or box, and with the other hand, armed with a small stick, beat the heads until the seed drops, after which operation the female plants are retted in the same way as the male plants. " When the seed is extracted, it is taken under shelter, and laid in very thin layers, not more than a couple of inches thick, for it is very apt to heat when not thoroughly dry. It is well to turn it over from time to time. After a month or so, when well dried, the seed is winnowed and put up in bags or barrels. " Such is the European mode of harvesting. Now for the Ken- I tuckian. In Kentucky, Missouri, and other parts of the States, the whole crop of hemp, male and female, is pulled, or more often cut, at one and the same time. The period chosen is about half- way between the maturity of the male and the female plants, say '■-1% 204 The Canadian Farmer's H|= -SI i«J I li about ten days after the male has ripened. The instrument used for cutting hemp is something like a reaping-hook, only the blade is much stronger, nearly straight, with the slightest inward curve, and about twenty inches long ; the handle is straight, two feet in length. " If the crop is to be cut with the hemp-knife, the operator is re- quired to cut «at once through a width corresponding to the length of the hemp, and as close to the ground aq possible, spreading the hemp in his rear, in an even, smooth swath. It is afterwards spread out on a meadow for rettiug. This is ' dew retting.' " T think you will agree with me that the Kentucky mode is preferable, for the following reasons : — " 1st. Because it does not exhaust the soil, the seed not being al- lowed to ripen ; but if it stands for seed, it is on all hands ac- kr^owledged to be an exhausting crop. "2nd. It saves one pulling, both male and female hemp being pulled or cut at once ; and that one pulling saved amounts to more than one-half the work of harvesting. It speaks to common sense that the first pulling alone, according to the European system, when you must choose and pull the plants one by one, takes more time than a general pulling or cutting of all the plants at the same time ; and when thoy come in Europe to the second pulling, that of the female plants, as they do not stand quite close together (the male plants having been removed), the work does not proceed quite as rapidly, in proportion to the number of plants pulled, as it does in Kentucky. " 3rd. When it is intended to ret hemp in water, the warmer the water is, the more rapid and perfect is the retting. Now, as the season advances towards autumn, the water cools rapidly. The ten or twelve days during which the female hemp is allowed to stand after the male is pulled, and the time afterwards required for hardening and ripening the seed, and taking it off (which is often protracted to one or two weeks by rain, for the seed cannot be knocked off unless the plant is perfectly dry), may cause a long delay, during which the water often gets too cold for retting the female plant (as happened to me last fall), and then you must ret on the ground, when the colour is not so fine. This applies more particularly to Lower Canada, where the seasons are shorter. "4th. I think the fibre of the female plant is stronger when pulled before the seed is ripe. " The high price of labour on this continent accounts for the new mode of harvesting adopted in America. The Kentucky hemp is quite as strong as the Russian, but its colour is not as clear, owing to its being retted on the ground, and it accordingly compels the rope-maker to employ tar of a lighter colour, which is more ex- pensive than that required for the Russian hemp. The water in Kentucky is not soft enough for retting hemp. Manual of Agriculture. 205 metit used 7 the blade irard curve, two feet in irator is re- tlie length reading the afterwards ting.' sky mode is lot being al- ii hands ac- hemp being mts to more namon sense lean system, s, takes more plants at the jond pulling, lose together not proceed Lts pulled, as warmer the INoW, as the Ipidly. The s allowed to Irds required Iff (which is seed cannot ;ause a long retting the fou must ret ipplies more shorter. fonger when Ifor the new ];ky hemp is hear, owing Icompels the lis more ex- Ihe water in " The Kentuckians sacrifice the seed, but they have found out that the saving in labour both in the puUing, and afterwards in the curing of the seed, more than compensates for the loss of the seed. In other places, where labour is cheaper, it may be other- wise. Wo have still a great deal to learn from experience. " For those who will try the European plan (as both plans ought to be fairly tried) and save the seed, I will state that, taken equal weights of flax-seed and hemp-seed, hemp-seed will yield in oil two-thirds of the quantity that flax-seed does. This statement, however, must not be looked upon as conclusive. It is merely a personal opinion, based upon the results of one experiment made this last fall at Messrs. Turcotte's oil mill at Beauport. Those gen- tlemen had never worked hemp-seed before. As we gain in ex- perience we may expect more favourable results. But, even cal- culating upon that, if an acre of hemp yields, say, twelve to four- teen bushels of seed — and I think it will do that if carefully worked — that yield would be an important item, well worth the farmer's consideration, where cheap labour can be obtained. The oil is employed, in Europe, for painting. I got ours tried here by a reliable painter, and it gave much satisfaction. It appears, how- ever, to change the colour of white lead a trifle more than flax oil does, but it is just as good for every other paint. The hemp cake is fed out to cattle with the same results as flax cake. " We have seen that by following the Kentucky mode of harvest- ing, the seed is sacrificed. In order to procure the seed necessary for the next season's sowing, they lay out a small patch of good land in hills, a couple of feet in diameter, disposed in straight rows, three feet apart each way. They plant seven to eight seeds in the hill. The same rules observed for the cultivation of Indian corn will apply in the after culture of hemp-seed. Those plants with plenty of room to expand laterally, will throw out, in every direction, branches covered with seed. Of course, their fibre is quite worthless, owing to those same branches, but the yield in seed is extraordinary. I took myself, from two plants, about one pint apiece of clean seed. You can form an idea of how small an area of ground would be required in order to yield one bushel of seed. " As to the pecuniary returns from hemp, grown for the fibre, per acre, I must base my calculations upon the price paid our farmers last summer, namely, half a copper a pound for unretted hemp, and one copper for retted, delivered at the mill. One man was paid at the rate of sixty dollars per acre, irrespective of the value of the seed, but that was the highest. Those who had weU selected the land generally ranged between that rate and thirty- five dollars. The drought in our part of the country was extra- ordinary. The hemp crop suffered very severely from it, as did the flax, so that our success was far from complete. Some farmers. I dh %..■ 206 The Canadian Farm^i^s 1"^ ! ' w ■3 ' mm who had sown their hemp in good soil, but such as Sebastian Delamer describes as * apt to be scorched by the sun,' were dis- appointed. Some others, who pitched it carelessly in poor soil, without due preparation, and expected a miracle, were mjre than disappointed. One must be prepared to meet these checks with patience. However, the general results of last summer s trial, al- lowing for the great damage done by the unusual drought, which at one time made me fear that all was lost, were of such a nature as to encourage those upon whose help we must mainly depend— the careful, intelligent and enterprising farmers, whose example will tell in the course of time upon the others. " When the male and female plants are pulled separately, the female being kept for seed, the price of half a copper a pound for unretted hemp is not unfair to the manufacturer. Both plants are then brought to him ripe ; the sap is dried up ; the leaves are gone, and in that state it will not lose more than half ius weight in retting, which will bring it to one copper per pound for retted hemp. True, the manufacturer has the trouble of retting it, but it may be worth his while to have ponds, and ret it in water, which will give him a superior article, the farmer generally retting on the ground. But that same price of half a copper a pound for hemp not retted, when both the male and female plants are pulled at once, is more than the manufacturer ought to pay ; for while the male is dry^ and worth that price, the female is still green and loaded with leaves, and will lose more than half the weight in retting ; there ought to be some deduction in that case, say one- fifth or one-sixth on the whole ; if the crop has been cut down with the hemp knife, the deduction ought to be much smaller, if any, because the manufacturer has not then to pay for the weight of the roots, which is a considerable item. For my part, until the whole business is more practically understood by us, I would prefer it if the larmer were to ret his hemp himself, even on the ground, and deliver it at the mill at the rate of one copper a pound, as some have done. At that rate one acre, well cultivated, ought to yield him about fifty dollars. It would not impoverish the land if both male and female plants are removed at one time, and would prepare it for wheat. " Of course, it is useless to start the growth of hemp on a large scale, where you are not prepared to dress it. In Europe they dress it by hand. Labour is too expensive here for such a slow process. We must have recourse to machinery, as they do in the States. A hemp mill worked by water, such as I put up at Lot- biniere last fall, given the motive power (water-wheel, steam or other ; it appears that in Kentucky they use horse-power, in the absence of water-power), and a shaft on which to hang two pulleys, one for the break and one for the scutchers, will cost from $300 to $350 at the most. Manual of Agriculture. 207 I Sebastian ,' were dis- , poor soil, mjre than hecks with ■'s trial, al- ight, which ^h a nature ^ depend— >se example irately, the a pound for Both plants le leaves are f iwS weight id for retted retting it, it in water, rally retting a pound for ts are pulled for while the II green and le weight in ise, say one- en cut down h smaller, if the weight rt, until the vould prefer the ground, a pound, as }d, ought to sh the land !, and would on a large Europe they such a slow |y do in the up at Lot- 3I, steam or Iwer, in the Iwo pulleys, from $300 " The whole machinery consists in a six-roller break (Sandford & Mallory's pattern), manufactured by Mr. Wm. Moody, at Terre- bonne, near Montreal, and sold by him for $240, and of two scutch- ing pulleys, with five knives on each (the pulleys made of birch and pine, and the knives of well-seasoned maple or spring steel). Hemp requires much less scutching than flax : I think two scutch- ing pulleys, with five knives each, will be sufficient for the former, where five such pulleys are required for the latter. Put over the machinery a covering, consisting merely of a roof without sides, so that the dust will not trouble the men. " The scutching pulleys, with the knives attached to them, must be raised off" the ground a good deal higher than for scutching flax. The shaft of those pulleys ought to be at least four feet from the floor of the mill, the men who scutch standing on stools. The reason is that, if j'ou leave your scutching knives asi low as for flax, the ends of the hemp will lie on the ground (it is often eight or nine feet long), when the knives, in their swift revolu- tions, pick them up. The hemp then gets entangled, and ultima- tely rolled up round the shaft, and is lost, as I found out to my cost. "The outlay of $300 to $850 for the machinery of a hemp mill, though not very considerable, is more than one would like to in- cur for the simple experiment of a new^ thing, especially when un- dertaken with some doubt as to the final success. But, without incurring any expense, the trial can be made — as I made it before building the hemp mill — either at any ftax-d:'8ssing mill, or, in the absence of such a convenience, with the common old-tashioned flax-break, worked by hand, so well known to every farmer. If there be a flax-dressing mill at hand, you can make use, for your experiments, of the flax-break, taking care to slacken a little the screws that keep down the upper rollers. Hemp, being thicker than flax, requires more room between the rollers. If your flax- break is not very strong, to avoid injuring it, it will be well to cut off the roots of thick hemp before passing it through the bieak, but you are no* obliged to goto that trouble with a regular hemp- break. Once broken, scutch the hemp with your flax scutching knives, on revolving pulleys, taking great care th t the long ends do not get entangled ; or with a common hand scutching knife. Six pounds ol retted hemp, at the rate of one cojtjier a pound, cost the manufacturer five cents, and will produce one pound of clean dressed hemp. The cost, delivered at Qujbec, of Russian hemp of the same quality as our Canadian hemp, was, last fail, about 9c. per pound, which I am told is not a very high price in this market. This would leave a margin of four cents a pound for dressing and delivering here ; and I think we could give it cheaper than the Russian, hemp requiring much less scutching than flax. It is indispensable that it should be sufficiently retted, whether that be done by soaking in water or exposuie to dew. ■^ J<1 ! 208 The Canadian Farmer's l^ W- ■ - h^ '■ m. " We are now beginning to dress our stock of hemp at the mill, for Mr. Onslow's rope- walk at Quebec. By the spring, I shall be able to state with mure accuracy the cost of dressing hemp, and the yield of retted hemp in dressed hemp. I should not be sur- prised if, on an average, it took something less than six pounds for one. Some people tell me that they have found it to be five pounds for one. Experience will show. " I earnestly trust that the results of these experiments will be such as to encourage the cultivation of hemp on a large scale, and that it will be found profitable both to the farmer and to the manufacturer in Canada, as it has been found in so many coun- tries." ROOTS. Potatoes — {Solanum Tuberosum). " Let the sky rain potatoes." Shakespeare. The history of the potato is shortly this : — It is a native of America, and was unknown to the ancients ; it is no unworthy reward to the inhabitants of the old world for the daring and energy displayed in the discovery and colonization of the new. The word Potato is said to be a corruption of the Indian word batatas. In English it reads potato ; in Spanish, battata ; French, yyatate ; and in Mexican, papas. It has been found growing wild in Central America and Mexico, and a species now grows upon the Rocky Mountain slopes, from which the present Colorado potato beetle has so thickly emigrated. It is supposed to have been first introduced to Spain by Sir Walter Raleigh, and thence to Europe generally and to Great Britain from 1650 to 1740. As food it is a most valuable esculent, and, whether for man or beast, may be ranked as an agricultural production next in im- portance to that of wheat, the place of which it, to a great extent, has taken as an article of diet with both rich and poor, European and American. It has become an universal article of food, containing great nutri- ment ; it has been proved alone to sustain life longer than any other kind of food; its fat-producing qualities are very great; and it can be grown under any climate and upon any soil in the known world, although it luxuriates in a temperate clime and light soil. The general cultivation of this crop has prevented any wide- spread famine on the old continent, for when all crops have failed the potato has generally proved reliable. In Canada, the chances i of a famine are reduced to a minimum, for our climate and soil | are admirably adapted to the raising of both flour and potatoes. p at the mill, ig, I shall be g hemp, and ^ not be sur- n six pounds it to be five lents will be ge scale, and r and to the many coun- Manual of Agriculture. Shakespeare. le ancients; Id world for colonization [ndian word ta; French, and Mexico, slopes, from y emigrated, pain by Sir id to Great ' for man or next in ira- [•eat extent, r, European great nutri- r than any /^ery great; ' soil in the clime and i any wide- have iailed the chances ite and soil I i potatoes. I Tuber DaiUm or Tops - Totals in 200 parts iHr „ 1. ^ —^ L_( 157 19-43 J w, according to an n«oT • ■ ^— -L_ Of soluble Muciw. ^' ^ P^^^^^o contained- ^' ^ Of soluble Mucilage. Of Water.;.::.: 11^ grains. 695 " ... 622 « ■ ...4713 «« 7000 'I'he proportion in Tirl.- i. ^^ ''^^ " W a tevmzZZh^oT^ experience teacC us f^,"^ fertilisers I 1, ^ ^^"^''""h^uoo^ upon almost any If. 210 The Canadian Farmer's < i m :|i: soil, except such as have run together, or are very retentive of surface water. Immense crops have been recorded from the clay lands, where such have been rendered dry by drainage and have been cultivated up to a friable state. Swamps, when reclaimed and thoroughly relieved of staornant water, have produced immense crops ; while new lands, especially where the timber fallows have been burnt, being richly filled with potash, are very superior lands for the potato. Indeed, owing partly to the hoe cultivation that it must necessarily receive, and where the top soil is bound in by a hard sod, potatoes are the very best crop to grow on new land for the first few years. Some idea of the varying adaptability of differently constituted soils to the wants of the potato crop, may be gleaned from the fol- lowing experiment : — The produce of four eyes cut from one species and planted on five different soils was : — On a piece of new land, hardwood ridge 36 lbs. " u strong rich loam 34 '• " a light loam, rich 26 " " a good gravelly soil 20 " " a good sandy soil 16 " Of course, this is only partially indicative of the ca))abilities of j these soils in the production of potatoes ; much depends, in actual practice, upon the variety of seed, the thorough cultivation both before and after planting, and the climate. But it strengthens the position that we have always assumed,] that the heavy lands are the greatest yielders, provided that capi- tal be invested in bringing them into a loamy or friable conditioa j The exhaustive cry is raised upon all sides, against every crop; and some have asserted, and been backed too by excellent author- 1 ities, that the potato crop is very exhaustive of all soils. Our experience points to the contrary. No crop that we knowj of (except the clover) is so certain to leave the land in good hemif Turnips are very exhaustive, and, if not well manured, leave thel ground yellow and impoverished ; but this is not the case with! potatoes, and a good crop of this tuber is certain to be followed bjj a heavy cereal crop. Although not as exhaustive, neither is this crop as good al cleaner as turnips. If potatoes received, at the hands of the husbandman, the sarasj care and tender nursing as he is perforce obliged to devote to hi/ turnip crop, they would produce three or four hundred per cend a better yield than is at present the average return in Canada. Culture. — The best position in rotation for this crop is after so a young clover ley being the best antecedent crop. This ncedsnil scientific illustration ; it is consonant with the experience of evei] practical farmer. 11 ' / Manual of JlgricuUure. 211 tive of , ■where tivated iagnant pecially ed with , owing ive, and the very astituted a the fol- lanted on It is better always to plough for potatoes in the fall : where a sod is turned, it has a chance to rot better ; and where a stubble is to be prepared, the winter frosts help to ameliorate the soil. Coarse manure should, if possible, be kept out of the field ; nor is it generally advisable to apply manure directly to the potato crop. Too great richness of barn-yard manure is apt to make the plant grow greatly to top, and to render the tubers hollow and stringy. Where manure is to be used, it is best to make it in the yard, by piling as it is drawn from stalls and byres, then draw it out in winter on the sleighs, and spread it as early in the spring as frost will permit. Or, it is sometimes laid in the bottom of the drills, the potatoes laid on it, and the whole covered by splitting between the drills. In this latter case the manure should be thoroughly well rotted, and it is, at best, an inferior plan, especially upon the lighter soils. We have before us the experience of a Quebec farmer from Pon- tiac, on the raising of potatoes, which we commend to the atten- tion of our readers. Our authority says he has never failed to raise from four hundred to five hundred bushels to the acre : — "He selects the earliest and best potatoes of the variety he wishes to grow, in the fall, and lays them away for seed. He fall-ploughs the land eight inches deep, and cross-ploughs it in spring four 36 lbs. 34 " 26 " 20 " 16 " ibilities of ^•i'^ both B"'''^®''' deep, thus leaving the seeds of weeds, &c., at the bottom of ™lhe seed bed. He plants about the 12th of May, cuts his seeds into from three to six pieces each, a week before planting time, and is careful not to have the eyes sprout before planting. He the ground well harrowed and levelled, marks rows both ways |two and a half feet apart each way, by means of a wooden rake ith four large teeth in it, each the required distance apart to ark the rows. He drops three pieces of potato at each cross mark, nd does all the afterwork by means of a plough, which he runs th ways between the rows ; and harvests his crop of potatoes een to twenty days ahead of any of his neighbours. He grows lotatoes on the same land for three years in succession, and then luts in wheat, of which he always gets a good crop after potatoes." The experience of another practical fanner is thus worded : — " Experiments started to ascertain the comparative value of arious fertilizers. — Those planted upon the barn-yard dressing are ken as a standard by which to measure the results of the others. ,ra manure ve v'll call one ; the ratio of yield of the other fer- lizers will stana thus : Hen manure and plaster, one half pint per ill, gave an increase of one-fourth, or rates at one and one-fourth; ched ashes, one pint per hill, one-half less ; no dressing, two- iirds less. " Recapitulation. — Barn dressing, one ; hen manure and plaster, e and one-fourth ; leached ashes, one-half; nothing, one-third. My assumed, | that capi- condition. | jvery crop ; lent author- Lt we knovrl good hoartl Id, leave the! case with! Ifollowedhyl as good in, the saraa levote to lii^ [ed per centi ;;anada. is after so fhis needs nj luce of ever] 1 ■;; - :U^ .J, f 212 The Canadian Farmer's 'i.,i ;l potatoes were but little afFected by the rot— no observable difference upon different fertilizers — but where a low placeoccurred the rot was particularly at home. I have been saving my fowls' droppings with zealous care for several years, and experimenting upon various crops with them. Plaster I find the best substance to mix with them, and would advise its use freely, even to tlie 'half-and-half point. I think this compound, home-made and easily handled, as the old codger observed of the cat race, 'a leetle ahead' of all other farm-produced fertilizers, all things considered. "J. W. Lang." Mode of planting. — Some difference of opinion has always ex- isted in regard to the relative advantages of planting in hills or drills. The hill system is recommended for the reason that cultivation with the horse hoe can be afterwards performed in both directions across the field ; whilst the advocates of the drill consider that a greater yield can be obtained from the acre under the same circum- stances of cultivation. One plan. — Where the ground is rich enough without manure, | or the manure has been spread broadcast, the potato sets are drop- ped, either in hills or drills, in every third or fourth furrow, and by I this method, when the ploughing is finished the potatoes are sown. When the plants appear above ground, a light harrow ia I put on, and the surface of the soil mellowed around the tops ; this I is also done to advantage under any system of planting, as by I means of the harrows the weeds on the surface are destroyed orj thrown back, so that no more cultivation is needed until the are well out of the ground. As regards hills or drills, perhaps the better rule to lay downisJ that when the land is rough and difficult to work, hills will bel found the most advisable, while a better yield may be generally! expected from drills where the land is free from stumps and tkj surface smooth. Drills should be twenty-eight inches apart. Time of planting must be regulated by circumstances. From the day when the frost comes thoroughly out of the ground, plant] ing may go on at convenient intervals until the middle of Jund If there be favourable weather, someone planting must get theful benefit The most important time in the growth of a potato! its season of blossoming. If the weather is favourable at that timej the crop may be counted upon as secure. A common mode practised in Ireland, and in some parts of tlij north and west of England and Scotland, is that known as tin lazy-bed fashion, which consists in planting the sets in beds of j few feet in width, covered from trenches formed with the spade. [ The manure is spread upon the land when ready for planting, ani the beds are formed of various widths — ^from three to five vable difference rredtherotwas droppings with n various crops with them, and "point. I think the old codger farm-produced W. Lang." las always ex bing in hills oi lat cultivation both directions onsider that a 3 same circum Manual of Agriculture. •even feet— the trenchM h-; . ' ^'^ lo three feet and *„ tf j "6 » iboft three weeks aft "'' ""/ """^'"^ ''Xd'iTrf •'r"""'' ^^ , pear, the bedrare c„trer'''',f' ^°™ «« the P.^^ h ' -'T^"^ togahoout ofthrtSl^'^S r'* *""°'*^ ^"^"chS" ^^^^^^ thfi plant by ffivin^o!! S .^^ operation is nnf ..^ii. °^ ^^»^. ting in 4 ., |S:^ he couch af, o^^S .n e ^ i. a g.at i^e't Ufe tiat we werrwZr:."'^''-^ «>2cd g"orittVt> sets are dro^ If ^ ■V'"''' th»t we hardit t ^ ^"1 *« Mc^shanocks Z. 'urrow, andbylX"? "^""^ ' '^"t «» tW^n d.^ *'"'' ^^ have even s^df ght harrowaji^. "'°— ^"c ,""">"» in which nL f- i^P^^cment. the tops ; thiiK^T '^ ''I *hc apple or seed bulh tv T '""'''' "^ potatoes ar. lanting, as byfiTe ^n?™^''"""^- ^'""'^ ott^hed to the , hilJs Will beBiipi, -„^ ^ „."^^^ *«e potatop«j +v,» • ^^" ^s an ordinarv rbegenerallytfJ'^^^^dlingsfromtLCreV^ ??«f ^ from seeds fan J ground plantt^d very t^l^^ P."* "P«« the marklf Th' ^^'"* ^^^^^^ iddle of JuDeM„j u • ■'^. s^®^* risk : for nnf ^i- "'''^i^^'^- Ihere is in thia St get the tM&ly'"^'^ possible that but one or?' * ""'''■«1 ^eedlinl t cnown as til^^?" t'^e cultivation of theLfo^ f ' '^^^^^^^ be any info^ ; in beds ofR*^^" "P between th^ ad ^ 1 ' 5' T" ^^^ the "^ontro 1 the spadefclrnr^ ^r«- e'u^ se^^^ '' P^-ting whole tuWs" planting, aoBfl, ""^" Part, we consider flio* *i. jH:r S' *'">'■ 214 The Canadian Farmer's ness and variety of the seed, and the method of cultivation by the husbandman. Of one thing we must be careful, not to let sprouts grow too long on potatoes before planting ; they weaken the vitality of the seed. We will shortly touch upon the point at issue — whole or cut potatoes for seed. Dr. F. M. Hexaraer, who has devoted much time to the history and habits of the potato, and who is always looked upon as one of the best authorities on any subject connected with that plant in America, in a lecture delivered to the Cornell University, says upon this particular part of our subject: — " It makes no difference how potatoes are cut for planting, The sprouts may be broken off, and they will grow again. If the piece has no eye, it will nevertheless nearly always grow ; and even if the eyes are all cut out and the potato planted, it will grow; because the branches of the medulla, which end in the eyes, are still there, and, like the branches of a tree when the points are cut off, they sprout out anew and grow. The eyes may be cutout and planted, and the potato used for food, as is often done when they are scarce and dear. If a very choice variety is scarce, the eyes may be cut out and divided and subdivided, and they will grow and produce large potatoes,'* In this way the lecturer said he had raised $600 worth of potatoes from $10 worth of seed The chief objection to the planting of whole seed has ever been that such will throw up too many sprouts, in the same manner would thick-sown corn ; and will, in consequence, yield too maDj| small potatoes. The summing up of the very many experiments that we havil seen recorded, and from the few that we have ourselves made, hai| led us to believe that sets cut from full-gwwn healthy tubers ai as productive as the whole tuber ; and there is undouttedl] effected a saving of seed. Of one thing we are convinced, that it is a sad error to pick oi the small potatoes and plant them for seed, " Like produ like" is the universal law, and as we require to grow a mediui sized potato of each sort, neither big and coarse nor small as marble, so should we use seed of a medium size. From a great variety of experiments carried on for many yei it has been recorded that" the heaviest crop of potatoes, and tb most profitable to the grower, will, in most soils and seasons, obtained from tubers of considerable weight, and will be foui least subject to decay in wet and cold seasons. It is, howe' probable that, when the soil is very dry, so as to preclude grounds of fear of the cuttings decaying, more regular and betl rows of plants might be obtained from single eyes placed — y-"' immedia hoeing, t ftarof d The a hoe and the last t It has theflowei mthonty as by hin as soon a« be considf Wesho farm than Diggim lifting wit been plou, rowed for over the ol not as clea We hav( Manual of Agriculture, 215 ition by the iS grow too tality of the vhole or cut 3 the history pen as one of ihat plant in versity, says for plantincr, again. If the ■ow ; and even it will grow ; . the eyes, are ihe points are nay be cut out I en done when ' is scarce, the and they will 600 worth ofl has ever beenl ime manner i cield too manyl that we hav«j lives made, hasj undouttedlJ ror to pick oiil (Like produa }ow a mediuD lor small asi or many yeaij [toes, and thoi" id seasons,! will befo^ fct is, howe^ [o preclude! alar and bettj tyes placed I short distances, with a njoderatelv large portion of the matter of the tuber, than the whole tubers. ' This last opinion we cordially endorse from our own observation. A neighbour grew the finest crop of Peerless last year from sets cut to a single eye out of good medium-sized seed, that it has ever been our lot to see taken up. Seed and tail end. — There is a difference in the nature of the eyes or beads which appear on the surface of the potato, those at one end being more prolific than at the other. A great difference of opinion exists as to the use of the seed end or of the tail end. The stems which spring from the nose of the potato are more vigorous than such as spring from that end of the potato into which the fibre which connected it with the mother plant, and from which the potato itself is grown, germinate but feebly, and do not attain the size of those coming from the seed end. In every field of potatoes that we have seen, where the cuts were taken for Lt ed from both ends indiscriminately, some of the stems grow with >ouch more vigour than others, which undoubtedly proceeds, in the majority of cases, from planting weak sets cut from the tail end of the potato. Our own opinion halts midway between Dr. Hexamer's one-eye theory and those who throw away the seed end. And we have observed, invariably, that the most regular grow- ing and even-ripening crops of potatoes are those from sp+s that havo been made by splitting the tuber from nose to tail. Afier-oulture. — As we before observed, a stroke of the harrows immediately after the top comes through is as effectual as a hand hoeing, and breaks the mould round the young plant ; there is no fear of dragging off the plant with a light pair of harrows. The after-culture consists simply of the free use ot the horse hoe and moulding up the potatoes, all of which should be done for the last time before the potatoes bloom. It has been asserted by Sir John Sinclair, that " the plucking of thefiowers ensures a greater weight of crop." And another authority says it has been proved by many other persons, as well as by himself, that " if the blossoms of a potato plant be picked off as soon as they may become visible, the quantity of potatoes will be considerably increased." We should prefer to see the experiment tried on some other farm than our own. Digging. — We are adherents of the good old fashion of lifting with the fork, believing that by the time potatoes have been ploughed, picked from the ground and cultivated and har- rowed for a second and third picking, there is little saving effected over the old-fashioned plan ; whilst the work is most assuredly not as cleanly performed. We have ourselves had no opportunity of witnessing the opera- I,-. 216 The Canadian Farmer's tions of the potato diggers, but we know them to be impractica- ble in any but well-cleHred fields. The accompanying is an en- graving of this implement. Fio. 27. Potato DigKor. Storing.--All potatoes should be dug as soon as thoroughly ripe , that is, as soon as the tops can be detached by pulling from the bulbs. They should be left upon the surface of the ground, if the weather be open, until the earth upon them is perfectly dry. Upon lighter lands, two hours will often suffice for this purpose. They should then be piled or pitted in small heaps containing from twenty to forty bushels, and left to sweat until there be danger of injury by frost. This sweating process has to be under- gone somewhere, and it is far better that it should take place in small heaps outside, than when stored in large quantities in a cellar. If potatoes are to be left out through our long Canadian winter in pits, such pits should be dug in a dry spot, from two and a half to three feet deep, and great care should be exercised in the for- mation and covering of the heaps. We are no advocates for large pits. We consider fifty bushels to be the best size, and our rea- sons for so thinking are, that our risk of loss by excess of heat or frosty is thus reduced to a minimum ; that such is a handy-sized pit to open and pick over during the snatches of fine weather that we may have in winter or early spring , and that fifty bushels just about make a convenient waggon load. Lay the heap upon a very light bottom of straw, just sufficient to keep the root from contact with the earth. Pile up neatly ; cover with a foot of loose straw and six inches of earth firmly compacted with the spade. Build in a ventilator, and leave it until the very severe weather sets in. Long ere that time the potatoes will have been thoroughly sweated. Then take away the ventilator and make all snug. Manual cf Agriculture. 217 We would recommend every farmer to han^ ono or more ther- mometers in his root collar. They cnn bo b(tu«^'ht at fifty cents apiece, and the cost is well repaid by the knowledge that our cel- lars are neither too hot nor letting in the frost. In entering a cellar from the outer air upon a cold winter's day, it is iniposMible to tell what is the temperature inside by the ^7. An atmos- nliere in which the temperature is at 26*^ will feel warm after leav- ing the open air, where the thermometer stands in the neighbour- hood of zero. We have found it an excellent plan to kee]> potatoes in barrels, and any that we have intended to hold over for seed we have always so kept in the cellar Diseases. — The common disease of potatoes, although not so bad as in the old countries, is yet very prevalent in Canada, and is known as Rot. The disease arises from the existence of innumerable and infi- nitely small particles of moisture in the skin of the potato; and from this knowledge, it would appear a natural suggestion, that heat applied to the skin of a diseased potato would absorb such moisture, dispel it and prove a cure. The presence of rot is generally accompanied by mildew of the stalk ; indeed, experiments in proof of this have been tried and have resulted successfully. " The vines should be watched closely, and on the first appear- ance of the disease, plaster should be applied ; not merely sowing it broadcast, but dashing it over and under the vines, bringing it in contact with the stalks, using a handful to three or four hills. Plaster for this purpose should be very dry and powdery, and should be applied when the air is still. One application is seldom sufficient ; it should be renewed as often as circumstances require. Examine the vines about three days after a cold night, or about the same length of time after a heavy rain. If the leaves begin to curl and wither, apply plaster at once, and, in short, whenever the vines show any signs of drooping ; be the causes bites of insects, excessive humidity of the atmosphere, or sudden change of temperature — drooping from any cause whatever indicates the ap- proach of mildew, which should be promptly met with an applica- tion of plaster. " As before stated, plaster the vines as soon as they are up ; again after the last ploughing and hoeing ; after that, one, two or three times, as circumstances indicate. By this method the vines are kept of a bright, lively green, and the tubers are kept swelling until growth is stopped by frost. Another point gained is, pota- toes so grown are so sound and free from disease as to be easily kept for spring market, without loss by rot." — Br. H. Compton, in Utica Herald. The remedy as applied to the potato itself was effected by a 218 The Canadian Farmer* s IS f^ It f. II I Russian physician, who took in a quantity of potatoes with the ob- ject of converting them into sets for the following season, and, for want of other accommodation, they were placed against the wall which separated the kitchen fire from the room adjoining (this was in England). A strong heat from this lire, which was daily lighted at an early hour, and kept well supplied with fuel until a late hour at night, was diffused amongst the potatoes, and produced the unlooked-for effect of absorbing the moisture con- tained in the skin of the potato. Quite unaware of the process which the potatoes had undergone, the doctor had them cut into sets and planted them, and when taken up for use, he was much astonished and highly delighted to find that he had not an unsound potato in the entire crop, whilst the crops of his neighbours, on every side of him, were totally unfit for use. It has been suggested that by laying out the potatoes, either before or after cutting them, upon the drying-floor of a malt-kiln, or on the floor of a bakehouse, all the good effects above naro-ed may be obtained. Doubtless the action of covering the potato sets with plaster, as performed in Canada, has to a limited degree a precisely similar effect. Computation of Crop. — Taking up a three-ounce p«>tato, we should call it a fair tuber; a five-ounce, we should call a fine one; and an eight-ounce, we should call an extra root. Probably the average will not be over three ounces for the ordinary seed potatoes. Now, suppose we grow our potatoes in ridges, twenty-eight inches apart from centre to centre, there will be eighteen thou- sand six hundred and seventy lineal feet of ridge in the acre. Let us put the sets nine inches apart the one from the other along the drills, and we shall have twenty-four thousand eight hundred and ninety-three sets to the acre ; and if each set produced three pota- toes weighing three ounces apiece, or an aggregate weight of nine ounces to a set, the acre would produce fourteen thousand and two pounds, or two hundred and thirty-three bushels. We will now take smaller seed on inferior soil, and see what a vast difference a slight variation in the productive power of each seed will make in an acre's yield. Supposing one potato to only average two ounces ; we have, as before, twenty-four thousand eight hundred and ninety-three sets in an acre, and if each set produced only two potatoes of two ounces, or an aggregate weight of four ounces to a set, the acre would produce six thousand two hundred and twenty-six pounds, or one hundred bushels. From the reverse process it will readily appear that where a crop only yields one hundred bushels to the acre under the drill husbandry, twenty-eight inches between drills, and nine inches Manual of Agriculture, 219 between sets, each set produces an average yield of four ounces of potatoes ; whilst the result of two hundred and thirty-three bush- els per acre points to an average yield of nine ounces to each set. Let us now take the first, or four-ounce yield to each set, and figure out what the yield should be of the crop when sets are placed at six inches apart. We shall thus have thirty-seven thousand three hundred and forty sets, which, yielding each four ounces, would give us nine thousand three hundred and thirty-five pounds, or one hundred and fifty-five bushels, which is probably the average yield in Canada under good cultivation. Now, from this it would appear that, with our estimate of the yield of the average potato for seed at two ounces, we shall, with drills twenty-eight inches apart, and six inches between the sets, require thirty-seven thousand three hundred and forty sets to the acre. If each seed potato makes four sets, we shall require nine thou- sand three hundred and thirty-live potatoes, weighing two ounces apiece, or one thousand one hundred and sixty-seven pounds, —equal to twelve bags per acre. Table showing amount of seed potatoes required, when cut or uncut, and when set at diferent distances apart, in drills twenty- eight inches from crouni to crown. Whole, and planted 6 inches apart t* <( g t( Cat into two sets Cat into four sets <( (< Cut into five sets i( Cut into six sets 12 18 24 6 9 12 18 6 9 12 6 9 6 77 bushels per acre. 50 38 2f> 19 38 25 19 13 19 13 10 15 U) 13 The advantages, then, of cutting average-sized potatoes, or planting them whole, is the question: whether it is better to plant whole potatoes at a distance of twelve inches or eighteen inches from one another, or cut them into sets and plant them nearer to one another. We favour the latter plan. Varieties. — There are several hundred varieties of potatoes ; we shall content ourselves with allusion to a few best tried on this continent. Earli/ Goodrich have fallen off considerably in the last two sea- sons ; Harrison, large and prolific yielders ; Oarnet Chili, good 1*1 ,^-,,. ,.,,■ rl 220 The Canadian Farmer's 4. Vir .;| red winter kind, well liked in Canadian market, and hardy as against rot; Galiforniana, hardy but very coarse; Early Rose, seedling of Garnet Chili, originated in 1801, first introduced to farmers in 1868, suit Canada well; large white-fleshed, good cookers, but already show great tendency to degenerate ; Gleason, good yielders, and very superior for the table ; Peachblow, late, very uncertain yielders, much sought in Canadian market for win- ter use ; Idaho, a new kind, not well tested yet in Canada ; Peer- less, excellent white flesh and abundant yielders. Amongst the early kinds for the garden, we find Ash-leaved Kidneys, Early Handjield, Myatt'a Prolific, Early Shaw — all small, and quick growers. Among.st the medium earlies are Buckeye, and amongst these may also be, perhaps, classed Early Rose and Early Goodrich. New Kinds. — Amongst the new kinds (1873) we have — Bresee's King of the Earlies, or No. 4. This is, without exception, the earliest variety in cultivation, having been carefully tested by many agriculturists in various parts of the countrj"^ the past sea-^ son, and by them pronounced from five to ten days earlier than the celebrated Early Rose, and fully its equal in quality, produc- tiveness and general appearance. Vines quite dwarf, averaging from ten to twelve inches ; leaves large ; tubers large and handsome, roundish, and slightly flattened ; eyes small and somewhat pink- ish ; skin flesh-colour, or dull pinkish white ; flesh white, floury ; cooks well, and is of the best quality for the table ; has thus far proved very hardy, and the earliest in cultivation. The Climax is a seedling of the Early Goodrich, and originated with Mr. D. S. Heffron in 1864. It has a stout erect stalk, large leaves ; tuber about medium size, smooth, cylindrical form, swell- ed out at centre ; eyes shallow, but strongly defined ; skin con- siderably netted or russet, rough white ; flesh entirely white, solid, heavy, brittle and never hollow ; boils through quickly, with no hard core at centre ; is mealy, of floury whiteness and of superior table quality. It is equally productive with the Early Rose, but a few days later ; earlier than the Early Goodrich ; while its keep- ing qualities are as good as those of the Peachblows. Bresee's Peerless. — The latest and best of all Mr. Bresee's seed- lings for the main crop. This is also a seedling of the Garnet Chili, and originated from the same seed-ball as the Early Rose. Skin dull white, occasionally russeted ; eyes shallow, oblong ; flesh white, mealy ; grows to a large size, often weighing from one and a half to two pounds, and enormously productive. At a-trial before a Committee of the Massachusetts Horticultural Society in September last, this variety obtained more votes as to quality than any other of Bresee's seedlings. Late Rose. — A sub- variety, or a sport of the Early Rose. The parent hills of the Late Rose were found a few years ago, in Wash- Manual of Agriculture. 221 [y as Rose, ed to good '.ason, I, late, rwin- Peer- leaved ;— all these ch. Iresee's m, the ted by bst sea-i r than >roduc- ig from idsome, ,t pink- floury ; hus far rinated :, large L swell- lin con- |e, solid, ith no iperior )se, hut |s keep- I's seed- I Garnet Rose. ; flesh bne and a-trial ^iety in ty than The [Wash- ington County, New York. It was observed in digging a field of Early Rose that some of. the vines had not ripened with the main portion of the crop, and on digging, their tubers were found to be much larger and more numerous than those in the ripened hills. It is two or three weeks later than the Early Rose; has yielded in the last season from two hundred and fifty to three hundred bushels per acre ; is hardier, healthier and a better keeper, retain- ing its good qualities till new potatoes come in. It also grows to a larger size than the Early Rose. From the above we should consider this new variety as a very valuable addition to our keeping potatoes. Extra Early Vermont. — A seedling raised by Mr. George W. Woodhouse, of West Rutland, Vermont, in 1866, from a seed-ball of the well-known Jackson White. A patch of the Garnet Chili was growing near them, and it is the opinion of experts in potato culture, that the blossoms of the Jackson White must have been fertilized from those of the Garnet Chili, as it strongly resembles many seedlings of that variety. The habit and growth of the new seedling are much like those of the Early Rose, as well as its gen- eral appearance. Vines of medium height, somewhat spreading, the tubers growing very compactly in the hill. For four years they have been grown side by side with the Early Rose, both under the same treatment, and have proved from seven to ten days earlier than that favourite sort ; they are more productive ; fully equal if not superior in quality ; flesh very white, dry and floury ; an excellent keeper, and in every way a most promising variety. Patterson' 8 Bovmia, or Cattle-Feeder Potato — Imported to Cana- da from Mr. Patterson, of Dundee, Scotland ; is very rich in fari- naceous matter, and can be grown on ground that is too rich for turnips. This potato has actually yielded, in Scotland, the enormous product of twenty tons, or six hundred and sixty-six bushels to the acre. Mr. Patterson, of Dundee, indeed affirms that forty tons per acre have been grown with extra culture. We have ourselves examined and weighed some of these pota- toes at the store of the Messrs. Bruce, of Hamilton, and can readily give credence to this apparently extraordinary yield under special cultivation. We believe that this potato is destined to come into general use as a cattle feeder ; the amount of nutritious food yielded from an acre of such, at an average rate in proportion to size, would give many times more good food for our stock than any other known kind of field roots. The following are a few experiments on the potato crop, taken from the Canadian agricultural press. ^;: m^- VI P>\, 222 The Canadian Farmer^s Mt' u ■■ '4'-. A farmer from Brampton, Ontario, sends the following :— " Soil, rather light loam. Ploughed from sod in spring of 1868, and sown with peas. Cross-ploughed after peas taken otf, and ploughed again in the fall. Manured last spring, about fifteen loads to the acre, and ploughed and harrowed. Furrows for seed run with the plough twenty-seven inches apart, and from tonr to five inches deep. Seed cut into pieces with two or three eyes in each (Early Rose only one eye in a piece). Planted from 20th to 28th of May, about a foot apart in the furrows, and covered with the hoe. Ground harrowed down smooth immediately after plant- ing, cross-harrowed about two weeks afterwards, and harrowed again lengthwise after the potatoes were up. Horse-hoe run through twice afterwards. No hand-hoeing or earthing up, " Some of the varieties rotted very badly, and none could be said to be entirely free from the rot. " In the subjoined Table, the first column gives the names of the several varieties grown ; the second, the rate of yield of sound po- tatoes per acre, in bushels, ascertained by actual measurement of ground and crop ; and the third, the amount per acre in bushels of potatoes injured and decayed by rot, according to careful estima- tion: Cuzco 415 8 Harrison 411 11 Gleason 3D7 4 I'arly Goodrich 385 12 Calico 3l»2 23 Early Rose 301 43 Garnet Chili 257 45- Peachblow 2.S5 78 Buckeye 197 71 Mercer 133 15 Mixed lot, chiefly Cups 126 140 Myatt's Ash-leaved Prolific 98 6 Kidney 91 130 Early Handsworth 84 6." A farmer from Orillia, Ontario, says : — " I planted fourteen kinds on sandy loam, once ploughed, with- out manure ; previous crop, oats. " I tried their qualities for the table in May, before planting, and in October after taking them up, and also weighed an equal number of hills of each, so as to test their relative producti vanes j. " The first and second columns give the quality, the third column the quantity : HINDS. May. Oct. Bush. Buckeye 1 1 2J Maiden's Blush 4 1 23 Wild Mexican 2 1 17 Buckley 2 2 25 Meshannock 2 1 12 White Garnet Chili 3 2 12 Red Garnet Chili « 4 2 20 i/ Manual of Agriculture. 223 Oct. Buob 1 22 2 20 2 20 4 23 2 23 2 23 KINDS. May. Banff Cup 1 Black Diamond 4 Early Goodrich 3 Cuzco 6 Harrison 4 Calico 4 " The Early Rose under this treatment, or want of care, produced sixty pounds to each pound planted, and from one middle-sized potato of the Gleasou variety, cut into eyes, I dug sixty-one pounds. " No rot observed, except in a very few potatoes of Meshannock, Mexican, Buckeye, Early Goodrich and Early Rose. " With manure, the relative quality and productiveness of some kinds would possibly have been different. " Of the above varieties, the best late appear to be in the order named, Banff Cups (or Rough-skinned Cups), Carters or Buckeyes, Meshannock, Mexican, Buckleys. The best early, Early Rose, Early Goodrich, Buckley, Mexican, Black Diamond. " The most productive, Gleason, Buckleys, Early Rose, Harrison, Cuzco, Maiden's Blush, Banff Cups, Red Garnet Chili, Buckeyes, Early Goodrich, Black Diamond, Mexican. " Early in the spring I spread over it a light coating of manure which was not very well rotted. It was then ploughed some six or eight inches deep, and harrowed smooth. I then made drills three inches deep and two and a-half feet apart. I then cut twenty-five eyes or sets from twenty varieties, the sets being as nearly equal in strength as possible. These I planted in the drills, one foot apart, making twenty rows of twenty -five sets each, covering the sets about three inches deep. They were all planted on the 10th of May. " The following were the varieties planted : "American Varieties. — Early Rose, Early Goodrich, Climax, Bresee's Prolific No. 2, Bresee's King of the Earlies, Harrison, Van- dervere, and Garnet Chili. " English Varieties. — English Fluke, Royal Ashleaf, Cotter's Early Kidney, Wheeler's Milky White, Early Racehorse, and English Ashleaf "Scotch Varieties. — ^Patterson's Victoria, Baron's Perfection, King of Potatoes. "Irish Varieties. — White Rock. " Canadian Varieties. — Early Shaw, Bennis' W^hite. "They were well cultivated, and no weeds allowed to grow, and the following table gives the number of potatoes and weight of each variety. <.o^■ il ' 1, 224 The Canadian Farmer's m Potatoes. Ibb. Early Rose 122 29 Early Goodrich 145 29 Climax 195 40 Bresee's Prolific No. 2 154 26 King of the Earlies 101 134 Harrison 230 62 Vandervere 90 2«4 Garnet Chili 80 26 Patterson's Victoria 112 15 Baron's Perfection 80 6 King of Potatoes 122 ^ English Fluke 122 21 Royal Ashleaf 108 4 Cotter's Early Kidney 78 4 Wheeler's Milky White 164 124 Early Racehorse 150 12 English Ashleaf 72 4 White Rock 150 23i Early Shaw 115 174 Bennis' White 74 16 " From the above results I arrive at the following conclusions ; For poor land and ordinary culture the American varieties are far the most profitable potatoes to grow ; that all the European varie- ties require land heavily manured and good culture, especiallv those of the Ashleaf or Kidney family, of which are Cotter's Early Kidney, Royal Ashleaf, English Ashleaf, Patterson's Victoria, Baron's Perfection, King of Potatoes, Early Racehorse. These are calculated more expressly for garden culture, and require forcing in order to yield largely. I find also that nearly all the European and Canadian varieties can be grown on heavily manured rich land, and still be dry and mealy when cooked ; in fact, many of them do not show their good qualities unless grown in very rich soil, while on the other hand most of the American varieties are almost spoiled for table use by growing in rich or heavily manured soil. The King of the Earlies is an exception, however, to this rule ; like the European varieties, it requires a rich soil, and is far better adapted to garden than field culture. As it would be occu- pying too much space to give my judgment of the qualities of the diflferent varieties, I will let that pass." — J. H. Thomas, Brooklyn Ontario, in Canada Farmer. Potato Grafting. — Take any two sound potatoes of different varieties whose good qualities you wish to retain. Cut out all the eyes of one of them entirely with a common pocket-knife, then cut a piece out of this potato in the form of a wedge or of any other shape, and substitute for the bit so removed a piece having a good eye or two, nicely sprouted, about half an inch long, then tie firmly together with a piece of bass matting or string, having first run a couple of ladies' hair-pins clean through both potatoes. These hair-pins will prevent the tie from slipping oft the potatoes, as well as assist in holding both parts together. The fit mus as in ai formed possible to the receive i up level the graf which w Pink-ey( of varioi large, ani must be they hav early or early dec The prod shape anc boxes, an understoo operation stands gra Cm\ Gave A nove took an E their place one hill of pounds an( other, but Corn an menting fa field, by p corn and p I rows of cor I row. The and potato early in th( I the usual c and plants [propriety o I'^ould be a I maintained |«ach being [advantage. Upon all Manual of Agriculture, 225 iclusions ; es are far san varie- 3specially er's Early Victoria, . These d require y all the 1 manured lact, many very rich rieties are J manured er, to this and is far Id be occu- ties of the Brooklyn gt must be a good one, and the bark or rinds of each must meet, as in any other mode of grafting. The operation must be per- formed quickly, and the grafted set must be planted as soon as possible, as the sap would dry up if exposed for any length of time to the air. I have my trench opened and manured ready to receive the grafted tubers, and they are placed therein and covered up level with soil as quickly as I can get them ready. As some of the grafts ma^ .ail, it is best to graft at least a dozen or more sets, which will produce round ones and kidneys from the same root. Pink-eyed and mottled ones, purples and reds, are also produced of various shapes and sizes. Some are early, some late, some large, and some small. All the produce, both large and small, must be kept in bags and planted out the following year, for until they have been planted it cannot be told whether the varieties are early or late. The early ones can easily be discovered by the early decay of the foliage. These should be marked with a stick. The produce of each, or such of them as look promising by their shape and general appearance, should be put into separate bags or boxes, and numbered in the usual way. Let it be perfectly understood that not every one can graft potatoes successfully. The operation should be performed by a person who thoroughly under- stands grafting fruit trees. Then there is a chance of success. — Cor. Gardener's Chronicle. A novel experiment was tried by neighbour this season. He took an Early Goodrich potato, cut out every eye, and inserted in their place the eyes of the old-fashioned red potato. He made only one hill of the grafted potato, and he dug from that one hill sixteen pounds and a half of potatoes that were neither like one nor the other, but like Jacob's cattle, ring streaked and speckled. Corn and potatoes together. — We are informed by an experi- menting farmer, that he obtains more com and potatoes from a field, by planting them in alternate rows, than by planting the corn and potatoes separately in different parts of the field. The rows of corn have more room, and may be planted thicker in the row. The rows being three and a-half feet apart, each two corn and potato rows are seven feet. He plants the potatoes quite early in the first place, and when they are just peeping, or about the usual corn planting time, cultivates well between the rows and plants the seed. There is some diversity of opinion on the propriety of this practice of mixing, and it is doubtful if there would be any gain where the usual distances for the hills are maintained for the two crops ; but if their dissimilarity admits of leach being more closely planted in the row, there may be a decided [advantage. ON TURNIPS. •ii ' I ':■ .#• ¥ Upon all the lighter lands of Ontario, the culture of turnips, 15 226 The Canadian Farmer's &■ Y')' i: and of roots and hoed crops generally, is looked upon as the funda- mental basis of a successful and clean system of farming. The in- troduction of the culture of turnips into the British islands, which is supposed to have taken place in the County of Norfolk nearly two centuries ago, and from which county it spread into all por- tions of the British islands, was the keystone of that system of farming which has been since so successfully built up. Before their general adoption, the farmer was at a loss to know how to successfully manage a proper rotation of crops, and was thrown back upon the plan of laying down land for an indefinite period as pasture. It is not so veiy many years since the first Swedes were raised in Canada, and since their introduction our farmers have been enabled to engage more largely in the raising and fattening of cattle, and have in this manner not only found a profitable em- ployment for the farm all the year round, but have increased by the manufacture and application of a large amount of barn-yard manure the fertility of their lands. It is an observable fact, that the progress of the agricultural status of those parts of Ontario where the raising of roots and the fattening of stock have been prosecuted upon a large scale, has been very much more marked for the last twenty- five years than in other portions where these means have not been generally adopted. Where hay was formerly used up wastefully for the purposes of wintering stock, it is now found that stock can be well put through the cold season by straw, with the help of turnips. Soil. — The soil best adapted to the growth of turnips is any of a fertile nature, and sufficiently dry free and loose to shut out the probability of baking. Indeed turnips can be raised on any soil in Canada, but upon those of a clayey nature there is required far more labour, and consequently a more expensive tillage, than upon the sands, gravels or loams. The plant also delights in a cool, dry climate ; but although it was once thought a Canadian summer was too dry, it has been found that not only can the crop be raised successfully here, but that, although perhaps smaller in size, yet turnips here are more solid, and contain a greater amount of food in comparison to water than those raised under a more humid clime. The kinds of this root are very various. Though known as white, green, and purple-topped, the " Norfolk " and the " Globe," they may be for our purpose divided into two kinds, the white and yellow turnips and the Swedes. The White Globe, or Norfolk, is the turnip of greatest antiquity — well suited to very light soils, can be &!0wn late and used early, produces a very heavy yield, and is very sweet. It, in company with all white turnips, is very tender, and will not, as a rule, keep in cellars much after Christmas although the writerhas used them up to February, but towards the. last they became stringy, and were not very much relished b; ff: . PrepariTK worough til Jtarnips. A invariably b( panied by he K great d( Fill penetrat pt as all e{ Ny dividec, ps Jumpy and ^eeks before ivery weed Manual of Agriculture. 227 funda- Che in- which nearly ill por- stem ol Before how to thrown B period ies were ers have attening able em- eased by arn-yard fact, that I Ontario »ave been e marked tiere these 3 formerly , it is now by straw, s is any of ,0 shut out ed on any required lage, than lights in a Canadian ,11 the crop smaller in er amount ider a more the cattle — if sown too early, the white turnip is apt to run to seed, and is then useless. The " Nimble Dick " is a white turnip well known to Canadians, and one of the best kinds produced. The " Yellow Aberdeen " is between the " Globe " and the " Swede," and is ai very valuable species ; it is of a hardier nature than the white, and of slower growth \ it is of tine texture and great specific weight, and is adapted to keep well into February and March. The advantage of the Yellow Aberdeen is that it will do well on land too strong for the certain growth of other kinds. The " Grey- stone Turnip " partakes more of the nature of the Swede than the Yellow Aberdeen, is a very heavy yielder, and must be sown late in the season. If planted too early they will become hollow and stringy. They will keep to the end of February in a well- venti- lated root-house. In their cultivation they must be thinned in time. When the plants are too big, thinning checks their growth, and once checked, they are so tender that they will seldom, if ever, recover their growth. The Swedish turnip is the hardiest species known, and defies the influence of any ordinary frost. The genuine and original sort has yellow flesh and no stem ; it has, in its various kinds, more or less degenerated by the flesh turning white and the crown running up to stem of more or less length. We often hear complaints of Swedes being stalky. Its bulb is not only much more solid and heavy than the turnip, but (although this is not of great value) its leaves are very much better relished by all kinds of animals. Its keeping qualities place it in the first rank for feed, and now-a-days, as a marketable commodity, it is one of the best paying crops that we can raise, within reasonable distance of cities. The Swede requires richness of land and thorough cultivation ; land must be manured at some jtime, and none is better than before a turnip crop, because [nearly all manure contains an immense number of weed seeds ; [these will grow and be destroyed by hoe cultivation. CULTIVATION. Preparing for Turnips. — Whatever be the nature of the soil, thorough tilth is the grand secret of success in the cultivation of known asBturnips. About the time for sowing turnips in Canada, the sun tie " Globe, ■invariably beats down with terrific heat, and is very often accom- , the whitfiBpanied by hot drying blasts of wind. This heat will penetrate a or Norfolk,«very great depth into the ground, and in rough cloddy earth it li^ht soilSjBwill penetrate more deeply than in mellow soil. It is well known yield, andBthat as all earth has great power to. absorb water, so earth in a lips, is veryHfinely divided state will retain moisture much longer than such as • OhristmasBg lumpy and shallow. A good early tilth, say ten days or two owards theBveeks before the time of sowing, will start into growth nearly relished bvjevery weed contained in the soil, and these may be killed before :>-T- , N w 228 The Canadian Farmer's turnips are sown, by the use of cultivator, harrows and exposure to a wilting sun. We cannot grow turnips and weeds together except at great disadvantage to the former. When land has been ploughed and manured in the previous fall, one cross-ploughing early in the spring, and a constant tearing up and disintegrating of the bed thus formed, from time to time until seed time, is all the actual preparation of the land required. When, however, ma- nure is to be applied in the spring; there are two ways in which to perform the operation — spreading on the surface or spreading in drills. By the latter we receive more immediate benefit to the turnip; by the fonner, more even manuring of the land. If ma- nure be short, the broadcast plan will be found to answer well ; if long, it may be applied in the drill. We may remark, however, that the system of spreading in the fall, and ploughing under shallow then, is the best adapted for successful turnip culture in this climate and on the lighter lands. Having got our land into a tine tilth, we drill it up into ridges from twenty-six inches to thirty inches apart Draw the dung to the field and lay it 'n small heaps along every third drill ; from these heaps it may he spread by hand into three drills. Never draw out more dung than can be spread and covered by splitting the drills, as you go along, so as not to leave the heaps too long exposed. If manured on the level, the manure should be spread and in- corporated with the soil by the use of the cultivator, when it may be drilled up immediately for turnips. Unless the manure be short and well rotted it cannot be used in this way, for the plough will gather the manure, and we cannot set up our drills right. Turnip ground cannot be too rich, provided tilth be thorough. Mode of Drilling. — The proper implement for setting up ridges is the double mould-board plough, which in its passage up the field makes each time the halves of two ridges, equivalent to a ridge in each passage. While, however, the single mould-board is used, it is customary to throw out one side of the drill, and then to use a second stroke for the completion of each drill, thus neces- sitating the passage up and down the field for the construction of i each drill. Artijicial Manures. — Those used for turnips are bones, super- phosphates, and guano. The benefits of these artificial manures I are that they contain in an easily soluble form every ingredient of plant food necessary to the use and growth of turnips. The young plant is thus pushed forward vigorously, sprouts before the dry weather can hurt it, and is carried on to the rough-leaved state in the minimum of time, and when once in the rough leaf, the turnip fly cannot injure it. How to apply. — ^There are three ways. Spread broadcast and harrow in — good ; sow by hand or drill before second half is made! under the double-stroke system — better ; with a drill made for the I Thinmm Jis this ;~T{ [leave the br Mde. The ''eather bes m pull pro [¥e from inches wide. p hanging Fter turnii Wanted beet ^ done whei I'OD; plants y f"^ in thicl W and wi Kthe wic "6 turnips w Merally. w Manual of Agriculture, 229 xposure nogether las been oughing egrating :ne, is all jver, ma- in which jpreading stit to the i. If ma- wer well ; .however, ng under culture in • land into c inches to d lay it "n \ it may be more dung , as you go ead and in- hen it may manure be the plough Is right, 'thorough, g up ridges age up the livalent to a Id-toardis 11, and then thus necesi- struction of purpose, or by hand in the groove on top of the ridge and just be- low the turnip-seed — best. The young turnip plant must reach the artificial manure immediately on sprouting. So great is the affinity of the turnip plant root, that the fibres are often found growing through a piece of bone. Btd time to sow. — This depends somewhat upon the nature of the soil, and upon the particular season. We may take it as a rule, founded on experience of our best turnip growers, that the best times are on the heavier lands from the 6th to the 15th of June, and on the lighter soils from the 10th to the 20th of that month. Quantity of seed. — This also varies according to soil and season. In damp weather and upon sandy soils, 2 lbs. is about the quantity per acre ; in dry weather or on clayey soils, 3 lbs. are required. If you alter these quantities, put in more, but never less. The depth should be from one inch to one and a half inches below the sur- face — the deeper in dry weather. It is better for plants to come up thick, as they grow faster when close together, affording one another mutual support and moisture, and thus escape the de- vastation by the " fly." But, on the other hand, if too thick they spindle. Modes of Sowing. — There are two methods — on drills and on the level ; on drills is far the best ; far larger crops can be obtain- ed, and weeds more easily destroyed ; the cost will also be very much easier to harvest Drills should be at least 26 inches apart ; [many prefer a distance of 30 inches. The latter distaQce the writer believes the most advantageous. AFTER CULTIVATION Thinning. — After giowth, the first operation on a turnip crop is this : — Take your horse hoe and pare down drills so close as to lleave the braird or plants set on a crown of about four inches ide. The plants are ready for this when two inches high ; damp eather best for the operation. With a hoe thin out (by the push nd pull process), levelling down the drills, and leaving the plants ingle from 12 to 15 inches apart, use a hoe not less than 9 nches wide. The single plant should be knocked down, and [eft hanging by its roots ; a plant knocked down will grow to a iter turnip than one left standing up in the drill, like a trans- planted beet The time of thinning is very important — it should done when the plant is about two inches high If thinned too ion, plants will not stand the shock, and will wilt; if left too 'Dg in thick growth before thinning, plants will be spindled, dcast anil^*'^> ^^^ will assuredly become necky turnips. The riclier the If is madeB^^i ^^^ wider apart may the plants be left. Why ? Because \de for theW^ turnips will be bigger, and will require more room to expand ^terally. When a good braird has been secured, and the turnip lones, super- Jial manures Ingredient of The young Ifore the dry leaved state igh leaf, the 230 The Canadian Farmer's plants singled (this Bingling is very important, for if two plants W left together, neither will come to a accent sized bulb), nothing more is required but constant stirring of the soil ; for, as has been already stated, loose soil will absorb and retain the greatest amount of moisture attainable, and the stirring ensure the dcstrut;- tion of every weed. If the ante-cultivation of the ground has been good, this may be effectually accomplished by the norse hoe alone Insuct Enemies. — The chief and only enemy to be feared is the " fly " {Haltica memora), and the best remedy against its at- tacks is any and every process by which the young plant can be carried rapidly into the rough-leaved state ; in that state the crop is comparatively safe. As adressing, however, sprinkle lime, ashes, soot, plaster, or even road dust, on the plants early in the morning when the dew is on. Hai'vesting. — The Swede turnip grows more after the first frost than at any time, so we must not harvest too soon. Many have, however, been caught in their harvest by winter. This was notably the case in the fall of 1869, when hard, sharp frosts sot- ting in early in Noven: bt;-', hundreds of acres of turnips were left in the ground all winter and lost as fodder to the farmer. The best time to secure turnips is, in Ontario, during the first week of November ; the amount of growth after that date is not worth the risk of total loss. There are two modes of harvesting : — First, the old-fashioned method of topping and tailing with a knife ; second, cutting off the tops with a sharp hoe, and harrowing up the bulb. The first is so far the better plan that nothing but special cir- cumstances can warrant the use of the harrows. THE SUGAR BEET. We refer our readers to a work on the Sugar Beet by J. A. Cull, Esq., of Toronto, in which will be found a very full and par ticular account of the beet. We shall barely have space in this work for other subjects of I importance to the farmer, and we therefore feel that there is uo need of apology for skipping the cultivation of the beet for sugar, In our article on the Mangold Wurzel will be found all informa- 1 tion respecting cultivation of beet for cattle food. CARROTS AND PARSNIPS. These two tap-rooted plants are in their nature anl habits sol like one another, that any remarks made upon the habits and cul-f tivation of the carrot will apply to those of the parsnip with equal! force. We shall confine ourselves, therefore, to a consideration ol| the carrot crop. The carrot appears to have been known to agriculturists IdI Manual of Agriculture. 231 plants W , nothing has Wen greati'sl ! aestriu;- has been noe alone feared is nst its at- mt can be ,e the croj) ime, ashes, e morning 5 first frost [any have, This was 3 frostB sot- ps were lefi rmer. The irst week of t worth the —First, the ife ; second, p the bulbs. special cir- jet by J. A. tuU and par- subjects of there isno| let for sugar. ill informs- \\ habits sol bits and cul- p with equall Lideration oil lulturists inl Europe before the turnip, and wa.s first brought into general notice in Great Britain during the Elizabethan era. The advantages of carrots as a field crop to the farmer are, that they stand the droughts so prevalent in Canada, and are very seldom injured by the attacks of any insects, while both top and root make most excellent food for horses, cattle, sheep and pigs. For milch cows they are specially valuable, as they impart no un- pleasant taste to the milk and butter, such as is often observable when turnips are fed in any quantity ; should the red or orange varieties be used aa food, they impart a rich tint to the butter. Their culture is attended with some difficulty, for their growth very slow at first, giving noxious weeds a chance to push IS ahead ; and they are a tedious crop to thin and attend. Yet, in this as in many other cases, the tedium and slowness of the operations to be performed may be in great measure oveircome by careful planning and good ante-cultivation of the bed. The carrot is not an exhaustive crop— not so much so by far as turnips — and the reason is doubtless to be found in the fact that the long tap root gathers a large proportion of its food from the subsoil, witnout encroaching uj)on the stores contained near the surface, and thus rendering the latter available for the use of such crops as usually follow in rotation. They will yield more per acre, under careful cultivation, than either mangolds or turnips ; and as animal food are more nutri- tious, weight for weight. They are particularly excellent for horses, acting as a diuretic upon the kidneys, and imparting to the coat a healthy and glossy appearance. For the reason that they are in their effects diuretic, they are peculiarly valuable as a spring diet ; and, for the same reason, care should be exercised that they are not fed too freely. From four to seven bushels per horse each week is an ample supply ; added to the above uses, they are very beneficial to newly weaned calves and colts, and to young store boasts. Pigs are extremely fond of them, and there is no better food on which to winter store hogs or to put through breeding sows. Varieties. — Of these there are several ; some are used as field carrots, whilst others are more generally grown, as being of smaller size and more tender in the flesh, for the uses of the house. Of field caiTots we have three varieties of general credit in Ca- nada. First ranks the White Belgian, then the Long Red or Orange, and occasionally the Altringham are cultivated. The White Belgian is a free yielding variety, and hardy. Its su- periority to the Orange rests on the fact that it is far more easily lifted ; for the latter showing very little above ground, and thus forming no handle, is difficult to raise, especially upon soils bor- dering on the tenacious. But we believe that the Belgian is m '.'•if. 'r 232 The Canadian Farmer's i ;C r ■; 3! inferior to the latter in amount of nutritive matter contained ; while the leaf or top of the Orange is more luxuriant, and more effective in keeping the soil moist and in smothering out young weeds. The Altringham is a variety much patronized in England, but not a great favourite in Canada. It partakes largely of the nature and possesses all the characteristics of the Orange or Long Red. Soil. — The carrot delights in a friable soil and, so far, is similar in its requirements to all other root crops ; but from the nature of its long tap-rooted growth, it must have depth of soil. For this reason, depth of cultivation must be an essential con- sideration in the preparation of the land for this crop. Cultivation. — The better plan is to manure, and plough in the fall of the year as deeply as possible, and if time permits subsoil at that time. As early in spring as possible, this should be again cross- ploughed. It should then be brought to a finely pulverized state by a free use cf cultivator and harrow. It is now ready for drilling. The drills should be not less thar, thirty inches apart. Ground in fair order would supply plenty of nourishment to a carrot crop grown in drills from eighteen to twenty inches apart, and even nearer to one another ; but the object of placing the drills so great a distance apart as thirty inches, is to afford plenty of room for the free use of the horse hoe. This, of course, only applies to the cultivation of a field crop, and not to that of the garden patch. If time has not, however, been found in the previous fall to subsoil the land all over, it will be well now to do so in the process of drilling. Drill up as usual, then run the plough up and down between the drills, split them, and cover so that the carrot may send down its tap root into the subsoiled por- tion of the field. The subsoiling will give us a long even-shaped carrot. If, on the other hand, the cultivation has not been very deep, we have in- variabl}'^ found that as soon as the tap root of the carrot has in its natural course grown downwards and struck the hard pan, it is impeded, turns to every side, and either grows a deformed root or throws out a number of side roots to make good its hold upon the ground. What we desire in carrots is an even taper from crown to tip, and it is this kind of root that ever should re- ceive the commendation of our show judges. Manure. — The application of manure should, if possible, be made in the fall, to give time for its thorough incorporation with the soil ; but if used in spring it should never be long For this there are three excellent reasons— 1st. Long strawy manure in- variably renders the seed-bed more susceptible of the effects of drought ; 2nd. Carrots encountering such manure are apt to grow stringy and to throw out a great number of side roots, and even to fork at the bottom ; and 3rd. Such manure is invariably full oi Manual of Agriculture. 233 foul seeds, the weeds from which, bemg quick growers, are apt to come up and smother the young carrot in its early and very slow growth. The use of well-rotted manure will, however, overcome all these difficulties — is very much more easily handled, and does not prove an obstruction to good work in the preparation of a seed-bed. Seed. — Carrot seed has, owing to its hairy attachments, a great tendency to cling together in bunches. This may often prove a serious obstacle in sowing. To overcome it, mix the seed with fine dry sand before using. It also takes a very long time to ger- minate, and thus allows any weed seeds that may be in the soil, — and in all land there are some, — to obtain the lead ; and when once weeds get a fair start, it is difficult to prevent them from keeping it. This points to the advantage of the plan that we have always adopted— the encouragement of weed growth at all times before the last ridging up, — and by this means the destruction of many may be encompassed without fear of disturbing our own crop. It has been recommended to soak the seed before sowing. Our own opinion is divided upon the wisdom of such a plan. No doubt the germination or sprouting of the seed is hastened, nor can there be any question but that its vitality is also thus somewhat impaired. We have grown our carrots both from dry seed and from that which has been swelled and sprouted, and from our own experi- ence we do not feel justified in giving a decided opinion upon either side. Some soak it in warm water, spread it, dry it and roll it in dry sand or ashes or plaster ; we should prefer the sand. Another plan is to have the seed and dry fine-sifted sand or load-dust well mixed together and laid in small heaps in a warm place, screened from the rays of the sun, which should be wetted with drainings (well diluted with water) from the stables. Time of sowing extends over a long period. It may be sown as soon as the earth is fairly warm, or at any time up to the 1st of June. We had last year an excellent crop sown on the 29th of May, but our experience leads us to consider from the 15th to the 24th of May, or earlier than that period, to be the most certain time of sowing. On high lands, subject to drought, it should be sown early ; on alluvial soils later. The quantity of seed must depend entirely upon its quality ; if raised by the farmer himself, or obtained from men upon whom he can place implicit reliance, three pounds per acre, on land drill- ed as we have recommended, will be found ample ; if, however, there should be any doubt as to the vitality and freshness of the seed, from fifty to one hundred per cent, more should be deposited. Naturally, less will be required if the season is damp than in a Hi • (, , I D . li a i?a i 1 234 The Canadian Farmer's dry spell, and in moist than dry land ; indeed, it is a safer rule never to sow less than five or six pounds. Sowing is performed by many of our new seed drills well, but the hand process is the safest. After Culture. — If the land has been well cleaned previous to planting, much after cultivation will have been saved. The car- rot sometimes fails to put in an appearance for as long as two or three weeks, while there is under the most favourable circumstances seldom any show before the tenth day. They are not ready for thinning for about ten days or two weeks after that period, and in all this time any weeds that are present have been taking full advantage of their opportunity. Remember, nature makes no distinction between weeds and plants — aU are equally her children — and a friable state of the land hastens the growth of the weed as well as of the plant. When ready for thinning, the plants should be singled to a dis- tance of from six inches to nine inches. This must be done by hand ; but time may often be found in mornings and evenings, and after wet, in which the men may be advantageously put in at this job ; while, if boys are willing or are well watched, they can make good wages at thinning. Care must be exercised to single. Two carrots left together will neither of them grow to perfection ; but, before this operation, as soon as the row or braird of young carrots can be distinguished, it is well to pare away the soil from each side of the drill. This is often done by the horse hoe, but if there is time it will be found advisable to let the horse hoe cut up all weed growth in the centre, while the drills themselves are pared by hand hoeing. The latter can be performed closer up to the carrots, and with less fear of destroying them. It requires a very steady horse and a very good man to pare away close, without cutting into the carrots, even with tho best of horse implements. We can thus leave the carrots standing on a ridge about an inch wide, and the weeds in such will not hurt the growth of the root. The ground between carrot drills requires to be frequently stirred by the use of the horse hoe, through the early part of their growth. Carrots grow slowly at first, but very rapidly in the autumn ; all the aim of cul. vation should then be to push them on in the early part of the season. Lifting. — For this there are several ways. Cut off* the tops with a sharp hoe as they stand in the ground, and collect thein out of the way. Then run a subsoil plough along the rows, when the carrots may be lifted and pitched straight into the waggon. Our own plan has always been to run a swing plough close along- side the outer row, throwing the dirt from the carrots outwards, then haw round, and in the same way come down the outer row of any sized patch that you may wish to take up ; let the men and boys follow, and pulling out the carrots by the top, throw them Manual of Agriculture. 235 into heaps just far enough from the next row to be out of the way of the plough. Continue this operation. Then top your carrots in the heaps at pleasure, making separate hea|)s of the caiTots and covering with tops ; leave these for a few daj^s that the carrots may sweat, and draw into cellar. Carrots, when in the ground, will stand a great amount of frost, but when once thrown out must be carefully covered if there is fear of night frosts ; neither should they be long left exposed to the rays of the hot sun. Produce. — We are afraid the average produce of the carrot crop in Canada does not come up to three hundred bushels per acre, but they are capable of producing and we have seen eight hundred bushels to the acre, while a thousand bushels has been recorded in our Dominion. Carrots sown in the fall. — We once sowed our carrots in the fall. The seed must be sown late enough, so that it will not ger- minate before spring. The advantage expected was an early growth in spring, and in consequence a " big crop ;" but in this hope we were miserably disappointed, and such has invariq^ly been the result to any who hf/v., tried the experiment in this northern clime. They came up all right in the , -^ ;, but were terribly hard to hoe and thin ; about one-half ran to seed, and the rest did not make up half as many bushels, nor were they as line carrots as those sown alongside upon the 23rd of May. Our climate is as well adapted to the growth of carrots as that of England. The yield of carrots by a Somersetshire clergyman, at the rate of two hun- dred and sixty-seven bushels off a quarter of an acre, has gone the rounds of the papers, as worthy of special notice. Raising Carrot Seed. — We wonder that more Canadian farmers do not raise their own seed, especially those living at a great dis- tance from reliable dealers. We do not say much money is saved by so doing, but the farmer has the satisfaction of knowing that his seed is fresh and unadul- terated. Select some of the most healthy carrots from the field. Cut the tops off to the length of an inch, and pack them in the barn cellar in straw. In the following spring, as soon as the ground is dry enough, set the plants in a well-prepared and heavily-manured seed bed in holes. Put four roots in a bunch — on about a foot square of land — and let these bunches be set at a distance of three feet the one from the other ; keep them well hoed and hilled up during the summer ; they will ripen very irregularly. As the seed heads become ripened, they may be cut ofTand carried to the barn; they may then be thrashed with a flail ; they will require three or four thrashings, passing the seed through a series of sieves, each finer than the preceding one. The quantity of roots planted per acre will be in this way about P * li'i ,11 mm I Ifi 236 The Canadian Farmer's 80 bushels, or 10 bushels to twenty square rods — and the produce of seed Bhould be from 600 lbs. to 1,000 lbs. per acre ; or, if a bushel of roots be planted, the farmer may expect to obtain from eight to twelve pounds of seed. Mangel-wurzel. — Mangel-wurzel, or more properly Mangold- wiirzell, is now grown over a very much larger area than formerly, and is deservedly regarded as an excellent root for the use of milk cows in winter. The late Dr. Lettson introduced this variety of esculent some 80 years ago into England as a field crop, and since that time it has been steadily gaining for itself confidence amongst the largest stock raisers. Mangel-wurzel will suit itself to any land which is moderately moist, and although it will grow to great s'ze even in wet lands, yet in such it becomes watery, hollow, and will rot quickly. The young plant is very easily killed by frost, and should not therefore appear above ground previous to the middle of May. Land should be ploughed deeply, and if manured, we should advise the work- ing of the manure in with the land, rather than manuring in drills in spring and splitting. The land should be ploughed early and kept well stirred until readj'' for planting, for as we force for- ward the weeds and kill them off at an early date, so will our trouble be the less in keeping the after crop clean. Doubtless the best plan of cultivation is by autumn ploughing and manuring. The manure is thus thoroughly incorporated in the soil, the spring work is lightened, and the action of the winter's frost, followed by the cultivator and harrows in spring, will be certain to secure a thoroughly pulverized and clean seed bed. The plan very generally adopted in England answers well in our soil and climate. In the fall the land is ploughed and ridged up 26 inches apart, and the manure spread in the drills. These drills are then split before winter. In the spring all to be done is to again split the drills in which the manure has lain all winter, and we are ready to plant. These drills will work very fine, for the frost has thoroughly penetrated them, and we thus save a great deal of time in spring, our " thronging" season. A liberal supply of superphosphate of lime (but it must be genuine) will be amply repaid in crop. The rows should be at least 26 inches (or in rich, well-prepared land, 30 inches will be none too far) apart. The seed may be either drilled upon the top of each row, or dibbled in at intervals of from 15 to 18 inches. Sow about the middle of May, thus escaping the frost ; moreover, if sown too early, the root is apt to run to seed early in the fall. From 4 lbs. to 6 lbs. per acre should be used. In Canada the dibble is too expensive a process ; drilling and thinning becomes our only practical plan. The seed is very easily buried, and should not be covered by more than half an inch of earth. Two or three plants generally spring from each grain of seed, the pi Tht the la They for th recom when unnec( drawb labour suscepi compai liar ad practice 1. Is 2. Pr 3. Dc better a 4. Wi Manual of Agriculture, 237 luce of 3hel of ight to bngold- rmerly, )f milk •iety of d since mongst lerately b lands, y. The herefore I should e work- iring in ed early ;orce for- will our lougWng »rated in winter's ;, will be feed bed. il in our idged up fCse drills me is to Inter, and !, for the a great d supply le amply seed, and great care has to be exercised in thinning that we leave the plant firmly rooted. The after cultivation is such as applies to all root crops. Keep the land thoroughly clean, and wage perpetual war upon all weeds. They must be harvested early, before there is any chance of frost, for this root is very tender and easily frozen. Many gi'owers recommend that the mangold be not tailed when taken up ; and when the land is light and the bulb pulls up, clean tailing is an unnecessary addition to the trouble of harvesting. The chief drawbacks, then, to the cultivation of the mangold are that more labour is required in the thinning, and that they are extremely susceptible to the effect of frost. It may assist us, in making a comparison of the two principal root crops, to state here the pecu- liar advantages possessed by each — Mangolds and Swedes — as practical field crops : — THE MANGOLD-WURZELL. 1. Is neither liable to " fly" nor to " wire-worm." 2. Produces a greater weight of root per acre. 3. Does not taste the butter when fed to milk cows, and is a better and stronger food in late winter and spring. 4. Will grow on sii^'land with more certainty than the turnip THE SWEDE. 1. The " thinning out" is less expensive. 2. Can be planted later. 3. Is less liable to be hurt by frost. Muta Bagas. — The growing of ruta bagas, both as a field crop for feeding to stock, and as a garden crop for culinary purposes, is becoming much more general in some localities than it was a few years since. The proper time for sowing the seed is governed largely by the latitude, soil and its condition. Often it may be put in later than is generally practicable, and a good crop be rea- lized. As a second crop, following an early one, removed by the first week in July, it is often a success, although the safer and more advisable course is to plant during the month of June. These roots will bear transplanting equally as well as cabbage, so that there is no excuse for any vacant spaces in the field, as those thinned out may be reset, or a bed may be sown designedly for transplanting. The ruta bagas, and other like root crops, do not throw out any fibrous roots to collect plant food far away ; consequently, do im- mensely best when the soil is put in the finest possible condition of tilth and fertility. A clay should be ploughed in the fall, hav- ing manure ploughed down, and left till spring for amelioration. ^ 238 The Canadian Farmer's .:> ■:i i ";■; 11 t: I Early in May it should be ploughed again, and after lying some days be harrowed thoroughly ; be ploughed again a few days previous to sowing the seed, having received one or more harrow- mgs during the intervening time. These three ploughings and several workings will put the soil in excellent condition for de- positing the seed. It is now ridged, with centres two and a half feet apart/ The soil ought to be so well worked that there are no lumps, &c., to interfere with drilling the seed. Fresh seed will not need over one and a half pounds per acre ; that of which there is any doubt will need more. With good quality of seed the plants will be well up in ten to twelve days from sowing. Now is the time to give the first working with a scarifier. The cultivator disturbs the soil, leaving the plants free to grow. This and a few weeks later are the important points in culture to obtain advantage of and keep down weeds. When the plants attain a growth of an inch they should be blocked or chopped out, leaving the bunches four to six inches apart. As soon as they are out of the way of the fly, &c., thin to a single one in a place. Cultivate sufficiently to keep down all weeds, the soil mellow, and the plants well grow- ing. By August the tops should cover the ground so as to shade and keep down all weeds, &c. On a sandy loam, more easily worked, two ploughings in spring, and in some instances one, with suitable harrowing, is all that is needful to put the ground in condition. The ground is fitted and the seed sown as before directed. For domestic use the later sowing gives the more suitable sized roots, as a medium size is much preferable to the larger ; but for feeding purposes, the larger the roots grow, the better. When there is a prospect of a short hay crop, prudent farmers will put in a few ruta bagas, or some other timely root crop, to provide for the deficiency. Cabbage as a Field Crop. — For some years past, in Canada, owing to droughts, winter-killing of clover and other causes, there has been a short fodder crop : as we are never perfectly safe against a recurrence of the same casualty, it would be well to look to all crops that will help to eke out food for our long Canadian winter. We know of no crop that will yield a greater amount of food to the acre, of the best quality, than the cabbage. The work of set- ting out appals many farmers, but it need not. There is time enough before haying or the middle of July. We should take advantage of rainy weather to set out our plants. TL ' ^ nd should be rich and thoroughly cultivated. The plants shou ue set in rows, two and a half feet one way and two the other. :.. 'e plants are then dibbled and puddled. It is a good plan tc make a mix- ture of clay and dung, saturated with the draining' from the sta- ble, into which to dip the roots before planting. Take the dibble in the right hand ; let a boy carry the bunch of plani makes a a water driven i the root In pla the plan before f small fib a slight! smart mi In the lent feed up to sta Let th( for winte Theme head dow part of th In wini fatting ca green foot Deep cu land culti evil. Th( thorough! used, not If all this readily, y( early as p( of midsun tion, stirri these thin^ failure of s rainy seasc The great < have a cha overhead. put down and the Wi spread and months. 1 much of its both rich, a cess we evei being turne but in the fi y:ii' Manual of Agriculture, 239 of plants, and separating a single plant, hand to the dibbler, who makes a hole which is filled with water by another boy carrying a water can ; the plant is placed in the hole, and the dibble again driven into the soil close to the hole, and the soil pressed against the root of the plant. In placing a cabbage plant, the hole should be made deep and the plant lowered as far as possible, and then slightly drawn up before pressing into position. The sides of the hole catch the small fibres that are attached to the tap root, and thu . hem a slightly downward turn, which is their natural positiv. A smart man will thus plant from four to five thousand in a day. In the fall, when pastures begin to fail, cabbages make an excel- lent feed, and are a good preparation for cattle intended to be put up to stall. Let the soft heads be then pulled and fed, and leave the firm ones for winter keep. The method of keeping is very simple : place them on a dry spot, head down, and cover with straw and earth, leaving the root and part of the stalk exposed. In winter they are much relished as a change upon turnips by fatting cattle, are greedily eaten by pigs, and are the very best of green food for milch cows. De&p cultivation for all root crops. — " We raise our root crops on land cultivated too shallow. This is o groat; a general, a crying evil. The soil requires deep tillage, the subsoil plough used thoroughly — an implement used too little now-a-day.*^ ind when used, not suiSciently. Fine the land for twenty inches or more. If all this depth is mellow, yet compact somewhat, draining itself readily, yet admitting the air, and if the crop is put out early — as early as possible — so as to get the start on the prospective drought of midsummer ; if weeds are kept out and the soil in good mo- tion, stirring it well and often , if withal the land is rich — if all these things are rigidly seen to, there will not, there cannot, be a failure of a, good crop. A severe drought will not prevent it, nor a rainy season ; the cool fall will perfect what the summer advanced. The great depth of soil is good for the moisture, where the roots have a chance to penetrate and luxuriate even with a raging sun overhead. But the land needs to be fertile, and if the manure is put down it will not hurt it for that crop ; the roots will find it, and the work will go on with vigour. The manure should be spread and permitted to lie for some time— for weeks, better for months. The soil immediately below will then have received much of its strength, and when it goes under, soil and manure ar© both rich, and will form a good bed for the roots. The best suc- cess we ever saw was with a field treated in this way, horse manure being turned down. The soil was deep ; there was a great droughty but in the fall it pushed forward, the manure then drove, aided by w 240 The Canadian Farmer's H *■'! :ii' the rains. It is the depth of cultivation and the manure that have a wonderful virtue, the very things that are neglected. We use manure, but not enough, not rotten enough, not mixed with the soil sufficiently, through its juices first, and then by the plough. " We like sod for roots, but let it be well rotted and made mellow by after-ploughing and cultivation. " This last has been among our best experiences " We can then secure a root crop with certainty. Why not do it ? Why run risks ? We know what they are ; in too many cases they are a loss, and this no one can afford, for the loss is not a common one according to the amount of land used ; good soil is selected, unusual labour expended. Make the soil still better, devote more labour to it, judiciously, and this loss will be avoided ; in its place will be a crop that will pay for all, with a fair margin to boot ; and such a crop, where the drought is fought, is more nu- tritious than where water has been imbibed ; there is more con- centration, more excellent stuff. As the seasons now run, we must expect drought, and depth of soil for moisture, and manure to drive, must be relied upon to overcome it." RELATIVE FEEDING QUALITIES OF VARIOUS ROOTS. Of real food in one hundred parts of — Potatoes there are 22*0 parts. Rutabagas 12-7 " Mangel-Wurzels IJO " Parsnips 99 " Cabbage 94 " Rape 94 " Carrots 92 " Swedes 79 '* WTiite Turnips 7-1 " Rape is an excellent green manure, or it may be used in Cana- da, in the fall of the year, up to severe frosts, to turn on sheep and fit them for Christmas mutton. The leaf is exactly like that of a turnip, but is more luxuriant, whilst the plant has no bulbous root. It will grow on any land ; the richer the better ; nor is it at all subject to attacks of insects such as affect turnips or cabbages. Usually sown broadcast, late in June or early in July, at the rate of about two quarts to the acre, and then left to its fate, bestowing no hoeing or more cultivation. The ante-culture should be the same as for any description of roots ; thorough ploughing and pulverization. It is well after sowing to roll and thus cover the seed. Some, however, cultivate it in drills, hoe and keep clean, and thin out the plants to a distance of six or eight inches. By this means pnrpos It is feeding of that It is on Wee Ifpo soon as cast in i in it ca planting Thoro weed lift crops, an If the success ii The El Saxon hop our langu humulus. The earj old French ing to whi from Beck begins in t to be regul The Eui | comprii ipon then* ,iil^^ jable of sup isonswitH 244 The Canadian Farmer's ittii t requires a thoroughly good ploughman and a steady pair of horses. The man and team that can set out lands well for ploughing yod, are capable of performing this operation also. The time, of planting is usually in the latter part of April or in the beginning of May ; in fact, about the same time as the seed- ing of spring gi'ain. The sets used have been cut from the root of an old crop by the process of grubbing and pruning, which we shall explain here- after. These cuttings should be six inches long, and care should be exercised that every cutting or set has eyes or buds upon it. The manner of planting is thus : — A hole is dug at and around each stake, the hole to be about one foot deep and the same square. Into this hole is then thrown two good shovels-full of well-com- posted manure, earth is filled in, and the whole well mixed together. The spade is then driven into the hill perpendicularly to its full depth, and worked forwards and backwards until a crack is foraed of the same width and depth as the spade (before this has been done, the hill should have been tramped pretty solid). Then take four of the six-inch sets, and carefully place them in this crack, one set at each extremity and two between, and at equal distances from one another. The sets must be planted with the huds up, and be put down fuU-spade depth, so that when earth is again com- pressed round them, they may be about an inch below the surface. After setting, the small stake should be put back in the centre of the hill. It is necessary that a certain number of male plants be also set in the field. The custom is to make each tenth hill in every tenth row a male hill. Where roots are bought, dependence must be placed on the word of the seller as to which are male plants ; but in the field it is customary, in order to distinguish the males at pruning time, to leave the poles around them all winter — or a great many other methods of marking them may be adopted. The first year's manxigement depends entirely on keeping the field clean. This may be done by the free use of the horse hoe and it is not uncommon to grow a crop of Indian corn in the field this year. The corn is planted intermediately between the hop rows, and thus whilst a crop is secured the hoe may be worked constantly and the land kept from becoming foul. In the fall of this year the hills should be manured ; this c done by putting on the top of each hill a couple of shovels-full well-rotted barn-yard manure, which not only acts as a protectii mulch for the crown of the plant, but enriches the soil around Second year's management. — As soon as ever the frost is out the ground in the second year, the operation of root pruning grubbing is performed. Ab above with t faJJ, ar the hi] as cIo.s( carefuiJ tant Of over ev Folir mert &i TVo J apart, ar poJing. t duced tc when we should b< the placii practical direction. The po octagonal is very im vines than Poles sh The next c '^ying u eighteen h .l^^es; this |''une;the ready for t operation m I Three vij for the pun J Cutstrini f piece of v) Jien cut th lent. Hang the 5"nd the p( 3 tied in a rowing vin( 've the end] ?y the tin f^st, it will we without Always wi Manual of Agriculture. 245 I crop by ain here- ,re should pon it. nd around me square, well-coin- rell mixed y to its full t is famed lis has been Then take this crack, lal distances [le buds nf, ,s again com- ■ the surface. n the centre A boy goes first and cutM off all that remains of last year's vines above ground, and puts them off the hill ; then follows a man with the grub hoe, who spreads the manure that was put on in the fall, and using his grub all round to draw away the earth from the hill, cuts off all side roots, drawing them out and cutting them as close to the main root as possible ; the earth is then drawn carefully around the root again. This pruning is a very impor- tant operation, for if not done, the roots would spread and lace over every inch of the hop-yard. I'oling. — As soon as convenient the poles may be set, and judg- mert and care are both very necessary in this operation. "'wo poles are used in every hill, and are set exactly one foot apart, and across the eight foot width between stakes. Thus, after poling, the width to be cultivated between the hills will be re- duced to seven feet each way — this is the object had in view when we recommended above, that in setting out the rows they should be eight feet apart the one way and seven feet the other ; the placing of the poles one foot apart in each hill equalizes, for practical purposes of cultivation, the width of the rows in every direction. The poles, set firmly in a hole made by a man with a long octagonal pointed crowbar, should slant slightly outwards. This is very important, as affording far more sun, air and light to the vines than should the poles be upright. Poles should run from twelve feet to eighteen feet in length. The next operation is — Tying up the hop vines. — As soon as the vines have made from I eighteen inches to two feet of growth, they are ready to tie to the 1 [wles ; this is generally from the middle of May till the middle of June ; the work has to be done at odd times, for the vines come ready for tying very unevenly ; we cannot wait to go through the [operation without intermission. Three vines are tied to each pole ; fine soft twine is the best I for the purpose. Cut strings to a length of ten inches. To do this rapidly, take [apiece of wood the required length, wind the twine round it, and ben cut through each end with a chisel or other sharp instru- aent. Hang the strings on your coat ; let a boy take up a vine, wind it ound the pole and hold it while you tie ; the string must never tied in a knot, or it would soon cut through and destroy the Rowing vine ; but after passing the string around vine and pole, [ive the ends a twist together between the finger and thumb. By the time the vine has grown large enough to open out this ffist, it will be of sufficient strength to cling and wind round the ole without assistance. Always wind the vine round the pole from left to right, or fol- mm ii u 1 ''J f- J: '»l:| tn:\ !' 246 The Canadian Farmer's lowing the course of the sun. If this precaution is neglected, the vine will in its growth unwind from the pole and fall to the ground. The vines that are not tied to the poles should be drawn out and cut off as close to the root as possible. Cultivation is this year effected not only with the cultivator but by plough. To plough between the rows requires four slices, and always thrown towards the centre and from the plants. "With two horses the two centre furrows may be turned ; then one hor e must be used with short whippletree well covered at the extremi- ties, so as to get the plough close to the hills. After this ploughing, the between rows should be again smoothed down level with the cultivator. A small crop is usually harvested this year, running from three to five hundred weight per acre. It will be well in the fall again to manure, as recommended for the first fall, and indeed to repeat it every year as forming an ex- cellent mulch for protection against the cold weather of winter and spring. The third year's management is exactly similar to that already explained to take place in the second, but as this year the crop should come to full perfection we shall proceed to speak of — Picking, drying and haling. — The crop ripens from the 1st to the 15th of September, varying in different seasons. When the seed is fully formed, and the flower covered with pollen, we know that the vine is ready to be stripped. The hops are picked usually by women and boys, into boxes or bags — the foriner are now almost entirely discarded. Strong frames of wood, like a skeleton box, called " bins," or " cribs," are placed in the field ; these frames are about nine feet long and four faet wide, standing about three feet and a-half from the ground. They are made large, so that several can tand around them. In the centre of the frame is hooked a large coaise canvas bag, into which the hops are picked. The particular part for the " boss" to watch is that the women, and especially children, pick the hops clean, and throw no more leaves than possibleinto the bags. The vine is cut off" about three feet from the ground, any lower being considered injurious to the root from the profuse bleeding which it occasions, and the pole is then wrenched from the ground and placed over the " crib" frame, when the vine is stripped by the pickers. As the poles are often very fast in the ground, much difficulty is sometimes experienced in pulling them out, and a wrenching instrument is sometimes found necessai y. The one j made use of in Kent, England, is the best that we have ever seen | for the purpose. It is constructed of a strong, tapering wooden handle, about I three inches in diameter, and about five feet long, at a distance of j about bar of into a thing pole, I from i knowr Wh( for a M The is neitt and ha not do Hops will hej /s Dryi. and rec intend i Itis t hundred We ca man pre those ah tant poi; hop kiln ,Thefl( high up ; from fifte A roon alongside there mu As a g( full groui four acres Hops, \ the floor; heavier it The ter [i?g- Ind( time, it wi Wheni next come time usual Whend ledge canr j from expei Manual of Agriculture. 247 ted, the to the twn out iltivator ar slices, s. With no hor e extremi- )e again rom three lended for ing an ex- vinter aid lat already r the crop Lkof— I the 1st to vered with boys, into discarded, ed "bins," about nine and a-half il can tand Large coarse .•ticular part Illy children, lible into the Ld,any lower [se bleeding L the ground ipped by the •ound, much out, and a |y. The one ve ever seen landle, about distance of about twelve inches from the lower and larger end of which a small bar of iron, a foot long, is clenched ; and being bent in the middle into an acute angle, the inside is roughened at the forge into some- thing like teeth, which, when fixed upon the lower end of the hop pole, bites, and holding fast, is used as a lever to wrench it loose from its anchorage in the soil. This instrument is technically known as a " hop-dog." When smaller bags, baskets or boxes are used, it is customary for a woman to engage one or more for herself and family. The weather considered most favourable for picking is when it is neither too hot nor moist, but as in Canada time always presses and hands are scarce, we cannot be over-fastidious. But it will not do to pick in rain. Hops must be dried as soon as possible after picking, or they will heat and become discoloured. One day's picking is therefore always dried at the kiln before the next day's lot comes in. drying. — The operation of kiln drying is one of great nicety, and requires experience — the hop grower should always super- intend it himself It is the simplest thing in the world to reduce the value of a hundred of hops several dollars, by improper drying. We cannot here enter into a full description of a hop kiln. Any man proposing to build one should go and examine personally those already constructed. There are, however, one or two impor- tant points worthy of special consideration in the building of a hop kiln. The floor (slatted strong enough to hold men tramping) must be high up in the heating room. This room should then be at least from fifteen to eighteen feet high. A room for storage of hops should be provided up stairs and alongside the drying-room, but it may be at a lower level — and there must be a room for baling in, below the store-room. As a general rule, it may be assumed that a hop kiln of 20 x 15, full ground plan, will be of capacity sufiicient for from three to four acres of hops. Hops, when brought in, should not be spread too thickly upon the floor; about one foot is the medium thickness — if they lie heavier it becomes hard work to turn them. The temperature should never be over 170°, for fear of scorch- ing. Indeed, if we can accommodate next day's picking, or have time, it were better that the heat should be even very much less. When it is necessary to have one day's picking dried before the next comes in, and the heat to be kept between 150° and 170°, the time usually required is from 1 5 to 20 hours. When dry, the seed of the hop must be shrivelled ; this know- ledge cannot well be imparted by reading, but must be learned from experience — for it is a knowledge on the accuracy of which ^^^ 248 The Canadian Farmer^s -11 III ' i: i' ill'-- the quality of the hop, when brought to market, in great measure depends. Sulphur is generally used in drying, to improve the colour, making a yellower sample. Baling. — It is better to leave the hops at least two or three weeks after drying before they are compressed into bales. In thai time they imbibe a certain amount of moisture, which keeps the colour fresh and adds to the weight. The hops are then passed down through a pipe into canvas set in a press. The men that work the press below, also stamp the hops in with their feet and sew up the sides ; the size of the bale is usually about 5 ft. 6 in. x 1 ft. 6 in. X by 2 ft., and contains from 150 lbs. to 250 lbs. of pressed hops. The usual yield of hops in full bearing in Canada is from 5 cwt. to 15 cwt. per acre. We have heard of one ton to the acre, but have never had our eyes refreshed by the sight of such a crop. The attacks to which the hop crop is most exposed are, chiefiy, of some of those numerous tribes of insects known as plant-lice, which are the hop-aphidce. They are, in certain weather, gene- rated in vast numbers, and, covering the plant, suck the leaves, and cause them to curl downwards, black, sickly and dying. Another very rapacious enemy is the wireworm, who acts be- low with such effect upon the roots, that sometimes one-third of them will be destroyed. Attempts have been made to destroy the aphidse by burning rubbish, sulphur, old tobacco, &c., on the windward side of the garden, but such remedies are of little avail Of one thing we may be certain, that the hop-grower has no friend equal to the " ladybird," whose black larvae feed upon the "fiy." The " mildew," a common disease in England, we are glad to say has never been prevalent in Canada. We now come to a consideration of the cost and profit of the hop crop. Our estimate must necessarily be very rough, for there is such a variation in the cost of poles, of la' ur and of production, that it is impossible to come at closer estimates than the following: COST AND PROFIT ON ONE ACRE OF HOPS. CULTIVATION. First Year — Rent of land (being under-drained) $5 00 Ploughing in fall 2 00 Ten loads of manure 5 00 Ploughing In spring 2 00 Marking out and staking 2 50 Sets, at $2 per bush. and4 bush, per acre 8 00 Planting: Two men for three days 6 00 Twelve loads rotten manure 6 00 Cultivating twice 1 70 $38 20 Manual of Agriculture. 249 By 40 bush. Indian com, at 60 cents 24 00 $14 20 Steotid Year. — Fall manuring on hills, 12 loads $6 00 Rent 5 00 1,600 poles at 8 cents, extending thisch&rge over 8 years, say 16 00 Sharpening poles 8 00 Trimming, grabbing, pruning and poling, three men and one boy, for one day 3 50 Tying bines, a man four days altogether 4 00 One ploughing between rows 2 50 Cultivating twice 1 70 46 70 Third Tear, — Same expense of cultivation as in the second year 46 70 Total expenses of cultivation for first three years $107 60 PICKING, &C., COST OF. Say crop pelds 12 cwt. in 3rd year, and 5 cwt. in 2nd year, or total yield of 17 cwt. to the acre in first three years: Pkking. — At 3 cents per lb. (usual price) $51 00 Drying.— At $1 per 100 lbs 17 00 Baling. — Two men and one boy can bale and sew 600 lbs. per day 7 50 BentoJ Kiln, costing $400, at 12 per cent 4 80 Total cost picking, drying, &c $80 30 Total expenses $187 90 Contra. 17 cwt. hops, at 20 cents 340 00 Profit from one acre 162 10 'I 'I- i« ■■•'-; K It thus becomes apparent that, given a fair crop and price, the growth of hops is very profitable. We must also bear in mind, that in the estimate above set down every item is charged at its highest cash value. Not onlj'^ labour but manure is charged at a far higher rate than would be proper when the farmer of a large holding simply devotes a small portion of his property to the cultivation of hops. Every year succeeding the third the profit becomes very much greater, for, as will be perceived, the first year is one of outiay with no return, whilst the crop picked in the second year is of little value. Thus the third, or first year of perfect crop, is charged with no less than three years' cultivation, while the profit on every suc- ceeding crop will be only chargeable with the cultivation of one year. The hop crop is one that requires considerable capital in the commencement, careful culture, and patience to wait for some years ere the full interest be realized. The want of either or all i I 250 The Canadian Farmer's m ■"'.'' '"ii'tM* 7 •¥ 'n of these requisites has ruined very many hop-growers both in England and in America. Like the generality of businesses in which profits are very great there are immense risks to run, and, therefore, the man who is not provided with stamina enough to stand a year's dead loss, and to wait for future crops to make up any deficiency so caused, had better keep himself and his purse clear of the risky though profit- able culture of the hop. It has been well said, that *' hop culture is one of the most hazardous investments connected with farming, and is indeed regarded by many persons as a species of gambling, only to be in- dulged in by those who have capital sufficiently large to withstand successive failures." Although this is rather strong language, yet we heartily endorse the meaning of the writer, that a man without capital may easily ruin himself by too extensive a rush into hop culture. Trellis-work instead of Poling. — Many of our hop-growers have given up the system of poling, and have adopted trelliseo of string. The advantages claimed are: the plant obtains more sun and air, is more spread out, and therefore less liable to fly or lice. The poles are shorter, cost less, and stand better against high winds. The plant is more accessible„and can be examined and trained more easily. The crop is picked Adthout cutting down, thus preventing all bleeding. The price of hops has varied in the last few years through every gradation from 6 cents to 35 cents and yet higher per lb. The cause of the sudden decline in the prices some four and five years ago, was the rush made into hop-culture of which we have already casually spoken, and the consequent forcing upon the European market of a great quantity of American hops of inferior quality. English brewers must have good hops, for much of their beer is sent to hot countries, and to keep, must have been made from the very best of materials. ARTIFICIAL GRASSES, HAYING, &C,, «fec. We now come to a consideration of the grasses grown for meadow and pasturage in Canada. These grasses, whether made into hay or fed upon the ground, form the most important forage for cattle, and also, by the manure made in their consumption, help to maintain more live stock upon an arable farm, exclusive of the product of grain, than upon an equal amount of land solely in pasture. Without the use of these artificial grasses, it would indeed Manual of Agriculture. 251 aoth in y great, 10 is not and to 3ed, had 1 profit- he most indeed io be iu- ithstand r endorse ay easily -growers treliiseo sun and lice. inst high d trained anting all through jr per lb. and five we have upon the )f inferior of their een made rrown for ground, le manure Ive stock lain, than Id indeed upon our light soils be impossible to continue a mixed course of husbandry embracing a yearly proportion of wheat. We find, on reference to botanical works, enumeration of a great number of varieties of pea-blossomed plants under the names of " Trefoil " and " Melilot," but they all belong to the one class, and, cultivated in Canada, are simply divided into red and white clover. These clovers are most of them indigenous to our climate, and indeed the oily seeds of white clover will remain dormant, espe- cially when covered in calcareous soil, for ages, and then appear to spring up spontaneously and naturally when least expected, or when, perhaps, particularly undesired. It is a perennial plant, lying so close to the ground that it is not unfrequently known by the name of " creeping clover," but the gicat luxuriance of its growth, its nutritive quality, and the sweetness of its flavour, give it rank as the most valuable for pasturage amongst all our natural grasses. The broad-leafed red clover is also to a certain extent indige- nous, but it has been imported so generally, and so improved by cultivation, that it now may be fairly ranked amongst the arti- ficial gi'asses. No better step has been ever made in the general agriculture of this continent, than the general gi'owth of this plant. As a green manure it is unsurpassed by any other crop, affording shade to and retaining moisture in the soil during its growth, and returning much plant food when ploughed down and in a state of decomposi- tion. It is a biennial plant, not arriving at perfect maturity until the year after it is sown, and dying in the next season. Clover is not an exhaustive crop, and the reason is very concisely put in the following passage from the pen of Professor Liebig : — "Clover differs entirely from the cereals in this respect, that it sends its main roots pei "^endicularly downwards, when no obstacles stand in the way, to a depth which the fine fibrous roots of wheat and barley fail to reach ; the principal roots of clover branch off in creeping shoots, which again send fresh roots downwards. Thus clover, like the pea plant, derives its principal food from layers below the arable surface soil, and the difference between the two consists mainly in this, that the clover, from its larger and more extensive root surface, can still find a sufficiency of food in fields where peas will no longer thrive. The natural consequence is, that the subsoil is left proportionably .nuch poorer by clover than by the pea. Clover seed, on account of its small size, can furnish from its own mass but a few formative elements for the young plant, and requires a rich arable surface for its development, but the plant takes comparatively but little food from the surface of the soil. When the roots have pierced i'.i m ^\k I? 252 The Canadian Farmers ,t f through this, the upper parts are soon covered with a corky coating, and only the tine root-fibres, ramifying through the sub- soil, convey food to the plant. " The value of the root is equal to that of the leaf and stalk to the farmer. As Dr. Voelcker's experiments clearly prove, there remains in the soil, after the removal of the crop, an enormous weight of clover roots, which on their decomposition supply, in an available form, a large amount of plant food that this vigorous feeder has collected largely from sources that would have been inaccessible to the finer tendrils of wheat roots. Furthermore, clover roots penetrate deeply into the subsoil, and when they decay they leave open a well-furnished and inviting channel by which the roots of more delicate plants can descend beyond the influence of drought. This is in addition to the accumulation of nitrogen in the substance of the roots, and in the fallen leaves of the crop. Whatever the reason may be, the fact is most obvious, whenever I have been able to observe its effect, that the growth of clover has invariably added to the apparent fertility (th^ available fertility) of the soil. The good effect is much more obvious after two years' growth of the clover." Many American farmers believe so heartily in the eflficacy of the clover plant as a renovator of land, that they are willing to lose one whole crop in order to ensure a thoroughly good crop of wheat in the succeeding year, thus going a step further with this subject than we have in Canada. We as yet have only gone to the extent of ploughing in the year's crop of clover, and generally trust to the influence of the decaying roots alone, after having taken off either one or two cuts of grass or hay. American farmers take the bull by the horns at once. They seed down wheat with clover, do not allow the young clover to be fed off on any account, then for the next season close up the field fences altogether, and neither feed nor cut the crop. The entire clover plant is allowed to grow, and is often over two feet high, a solid mass of flowers and seed, and is allowed to rot down on liie ground, and lie all the winter. The next spring the clover starts again, and is allowed to grow till in full flower. The whole of the result is then ploughed under as a preparation for wheat, either with or without a fallow. If spring wheat is to be grown, the ground is fallowed during the remainder of the season, after ploughing, and regularly prepared for spring wheat. If for fall wheat, the clover is ploughed under, the land heavily rolled, and cultivated so far as to keep down thistles and weeds, and the fall wheat sown. A noble crop may be expected, to be again seeded down to clover. By these means the ground becomes filled with clover seed, and the peculiar elements produced from rotten and decayed clover, and this ensures a thorough crop of clover so often as it is used. The originators of this system claim that it is Manual 0/ Agriculture. 263 stalk to e, there lormous ipply, in vigorous kve been hermore, len they innel by yrond the ilation of leaves of ) obvious, e growth lity (th^ ich more jfficacy of willing to od crop of with this y gone to generally ir having lAmerican sed down fed off on jld fences )ire clover ;h, a solid n on lae »ver str.rts one of great economy. The outlay is very small, the cost of labour comparatively nothing, the smothering effect of the clover kills all weeds, and the double crop so ploughed in is done by one ploughing and a slight cultivation of the soil between the time of ploughing and wheat sowing. They say that you have the ground more cheaply and better manured than you can have it m any other way, and ensure a thoroughly good crop of grain. In case of growing spring wheat, the plan might be further supple- mented by a crop of buckwheat ploughed under after the clover, or a crop of green mustard. Either of these would be ploughed in, the last thing in the fall. Clover will grow upon almost any kind of soil, from the most sandy to the stifFest clay, but on the lighter lands it appears to be more at home. Indeed, it is generally considered that if a crop of clover can be secured upon a field very much worn out, the first step has been taken in the reinvigoration of such land. When sown. — Generally along with spring wheat, barley or oats, and upon fall wheat in the spring of the year. Sowing. — In the sowing of clover, the most important point to be considered is the condition of the seed. It must be borne in mind, that good red clover seed is dark-coloured when thoroughly ripe ; so that in proportion as there are present in the sample a gieat number of light-coloured seed, so there will be greater risk of a proportion not generating. To illustrate this point more fully : if the light-shaded seeds in a sample be picked out and planted, many will be found to fail, whilst all the dark- coloured will germinate. The quantity per acre is a subject on which there has been much difference of opinion. We have ourselves always favoured thick sowing, and we have yet seen no reason to change our opinion upon the subject. Something may, however, depend on the condition of the seed bed, as in a mellow, rich, friable sur- face soil, doubtless the seed will have the best chance to grow quickly. The three objects to be attained in the sowing of clover are nutritious fodder, a heavy growth to plough under, and the for- mation of dense shade for the ground. The practical experience of farmers is adverse to thin sowing of clover. The plants come up far apart, and if, owing to a very favourable state of soil and season, we have a good crop, the stalk grows very coarsely, and is apt to become dry and brittle after curing, stacking and mowing away. Extra seed should not be grudged if by its use a sweet, soft, fine-stemmed clover can be secured. It is passing strange that the practice of thin sowing should be so frequently carried out in Canada ; for even in Great Britain, where there is far greater humidity of climate, and where the l''i 'A' ■ i 254 The Canadian Farmer's 5?)) . ifyrr I sir ■>■ m ;; ; si H *^: state of cultivation is very perfect, it is the general practice to sow not only clover, but all grass seeds, much thicker than we do here. As we sit writing and cast our eyes into an adjoining field, which was last year a garden, there is a patch upon which clover seed was sown very thickly ; probably over twenty pounds to the acre. The spring has been excessively dry (1873), and the clover is generally very backward. Our patch is thick and luxuriant, springy to the tread of the foot, and the ground beneath, notwith- standing there has been no rain for about three weeks, is moist. It is quite evident that the early and vigorous growth of a mass of stem and leaves has covered the ground w«>ll, prevented the escape of moisture, and also, in all probability, of many fertilizing gases. The sun is streaming down with intense heat upon the head when walking upon this green carpet, but the feet feel mois- ture and coolness. Where the clover is thin in the fields, the ground is bared to the action of the sun, is scorching hot to tie hand, the spires of the plants are dried and the leaf shrunk. No after rain can ever cause such to make the growth that will be found in one thick-sown piece ere the blossoms are out and the Crop fit for the scythe. In the one case, a crop of at least three tons per acre will be cut, and with the very best of weather we cannot expect more than twenty hundred weight from the other. The hay from the one acre will be worth, at ten dollars per ton, thirty dollars ; while from the other it will b'^ only ten dollars, under the best circumstances of weather that may supervene be- tween the present time and haying. The difference of seed used on the two portions was probably nearly ten pounds, or, at six dollars per bushel, only one dollar. Thus, for a saving of one dollar at one time, is lost hereafter twenty dollars. This may be called "dollar wise and twenty dollar foolish" It is, then, not the thick growth of individual plants, but the heavy growth of the whole, that protects the crop ; for it gives the crop a good start in early spring, and a growth luxuriant enough to form a dense shade over the ground ere drought can take effect upon the soil. " It is held that heavy crops evaporate moisture all the more. This is true. But much of this moisture is retained by the heavy mass 'entangled in its folds,' so that the escape — actual escape, from the grass as a body, is considerably less, in proportion, than that set free by the more scattered growth. Here the air drinks rapidly from the slim plants exposed fully to it, and carries off what it takes. In the dense mass it cannot do this ; it cannot penetrate it. "But the greatest harm in a drought is, the direct exposure of the soil to the sun and the hot, dry wind. This, indeed, is the cause, Manual of Agriculture. 255 to sow we do ig field, 1 clover 13 to the e clover xuriant, lotwith- moist. f a mass [ited the jrtilizing upon the eel mois- elds, the )t to the ink. No it will be ; and the ill be cut, lore than s per ton, dollars, rvene be- jseed used ir, at six ,g of one is may be \, but the it gives luxuriant luglit can pe more, [he heavy a,l escape, tion, than kir drinks carries off it cannot lure of the lihe cause, more or less, of all drought. What is the evaporation of plants compared to this ? Well, this is avoided, wholly avoided, in a dense mass of verdure. It needs but a start to occupy and cover in time, as now. The contrast is interesting — a cloud on the one hand, barrenness on the other." The quantity of seed per acre should not be less than ten pounds, or a bushel to six acres. We have often put on fifteen pounds, or divided a bushel between four acres, and have never had reason to repent of such a liberal use of seed. Less is probably required when sown early on fall wheat, than upon spring crops. The tirne of sowing depends, of course, upon the crop with which it is sown, and also upon the state of the weather. On Fall Wheat. — It may be either sown before the frost is out of the ground, or when the land is ready to go on with horses. We have had excellent " Catches" by sowing on the last snow, i.e., the late spring flurries that we usually have after the back of winter is broken. The advantages are that the broadcast sower finds it more easy to sow evenly, for he can see his tracks up and down the field, and the melting snow sinks the seed into the ground and gives it an early start. If the operation, however, is put otf later, it is a good plan to sow as soon as land is moderately dry, and the wheat has begun to put forth a growth for the summer. Then harrow the wheat, as was recommended in the section de- voted to the culture of wheat, and the passage of the roller after this harrowing will help to cover in the seeds. Last season (1872), when a great number of f; ners failed to secure a " catch" on fall wheat, we adopted this plan and were successful. A bush harrow, following sowing, will also be found a very ex- cellent implement for covering clover seed, for it should not be deep in the surface soil. The success of the clover crop depends in great measure upon the state of the weather, both when sown and afterwards when standing for a crop. It. requires gentle rains to sprout it rapidly and to give it a good anchorage before the summer droughts set in, though in this climate we always run the risk of losing our clover by the burn- ing heats of summer, no matter how favourable to its early growth may have been the spring rains. The farmer too often, however, blames the weather for his lost crop ; but given soil clean and under good tilth, a liberal supply of sound, fresh seed, and nature will, in the majority of cases, respond with a bountiful crop. It is useless to sow clover on foul land. Most of our noxious weeds are fast and stout growers, and in the tussle for life our do- mestic plant must go to the wall. Not only does a fine friable state of the bed give the clover a >i:i t 256 The Canadian Farmer's HJ-rf: '%\^\ f 'i. .,i chance to strike its tap root firmly and deeply down, but in such ground the temperature is always cooler. When sowing clover seed along with spring grain, in drills, the clover sower should run in front of the implement. The teeth of the drill only stir the soil, and so ju8< cover the grass seeds; while if the seed follows, it will fall and roll into the drills and be cov- ered nearly the same depth as the grain, which will be fatal to a large proportion of grass seeds. After "lover seed is sown with spring grain, the roller should always be used to cover in such seeds as may have remained on the surface. The Americans have recorded instances of a successful " catch" of clover on com ground. A. G. Kirk, Dickinson Co., Kansas, says he saw in Columbus County, Ohio, last April, a line stand of clover in a corn stubble, and on inquiry found the owner of the land was in the habit of sowing clover seed when he worked the corn the last time, for the purpose of supplying manure for the crop of oats, or barley, or wheat, which was to follow. This farmer evidently was one of the progressive sort, who believes in putting all he can on the land. We have done the same, pasturing the clover with sheep, and had a good crop of wheat after it. Sowing clover alone. — That grass seed will come to agood crop when sown alone, is now a well-established fact. Indeed it was brought under our own ob nervation in a very marked manner. We seeded down a field of oats ; the oats were drilled in, and the grass seed was dropped by a clover sower attached to the hind end of the two-horse drill ; the seed was covered with a bush harrow. For some reason the grain drill did not work well, and several of the spouts missed sowing in two or three places through the whole length of the field. In one spot the whole drill missed for some yards. Upon these bare spots the grass seeds have, not- withstanding the extreme dryness of the season, far excelled in luxuriance of growth those upon the land where the oats have grown regularly. This goes to prove that the clover and timothy will do well when sown by themselves. Whether the farmer would approve of losing one year's crop oil I his land, he may judge for himself ; but on low spots such grasses as timothy may be sown to advantage by themselves in the fa" and will come to a good crop in the succeeding year. We would, however, repeat our opinion that if the land be not I in good heart und thoroughly clean, it will be worse than useless | to sow timothy and clover alone. Should land, however, be in a fit state to receive the seed I next year, let it be ploughed in the fall and left rough , cross- ploughed or thoroughly cultivated and harrowed down very finely Manual of Agriculture. 267 b in such irills, the B teeth of ds; while d be cov- fatal to a ler should nained on il "catch" Columbus rn stubble, he habit of ime, for the r barley, OT was one of can on the with sheep, , a good crop ideed it was manner, illed in, and to the hind „ ith a bush •k well, and tees through drill missed [s have, not- excelled in le oats have n\\ do well jar's crop otl I I such grasses I in the land be not I 1 than useless ^ve the 8& jugh , cross- 1 In very finely in the spring, and seeded down thickly with equal bulks of tim- othy and clover. If manure be used, it must be fine and thoroughly rotted, so that all weed seeds have been killed, and it should be incorporated with the soil by spreading on top, and working in with the culti- vator in the early spring. A top-dressing of ashes and plaster will be of great benefit at almost any period of its growth. Or let him plough early this fall and sow timothy seed alone, and in the spring drag with light harrows ; sow clover seed, harrow again, and top-dress with fine rotted manure, plaster and ashes. Of the two courses we prefer the former as the more safe. The only advantage to be obtained from the latter course is that the first year's hay will have a good admixture of timothy in it. When clover is used with the intention of keeping the meadow for two or three years, it becomes necessary to use another kind of seed to take the place of the clover, which, being a biennial plant, disappears in two years. For this purpose timothy is used in Canada. While we believe that there are other grasses of a sweeter flavour and more luxuriant growth than timothy for this purpose, and suited to the climate of Canada, yet experiments, as recorded, have been so meagre that we hardly feel qualified in advising the supersedence of timothy by them. We shall speak of these other mases hereafter. It was customary at one time to sow clover by weight and timothy by bulk. The present and more practical plan is to sow a given bulk per acre of the two, mixed in equal quantities. Before leaving this subject, we may mention the common prac- tice of cutting cereal crops, amongst which grasses have been sown, too close to the ground. Undoubtedly a larger amount of straw lis thus obtained, but on the other hand a fair length of stubble affords considerable protection to the young plant, and breaking down in winter acts to some extent as a mulch. We nofw come to a consideration of the main principles to be observed in the securing of a superior article. HAY. ^^. jWe will here condense from a treatise on haymaking, by Mr. Sib- I son : — " Haymaking, though essentially merely a process of drying, by [which the feeding principles of the grass are brought to a condi- tion capable of being preserved, is accompanied by minor changes which materially influence the result. The chief of these is the production of the peculiar flavouring principles of hay, which pro- Ibably contribute much to the value of this produce as a choice larticle of food. Again, the grass in drying is exposed to certain Isources of loss in nutriti\*e materials, so that the hay made from a 17 I i 258 The Canadian Farmer^s P^*li'- >?f' given weight of grass doeH not contain so much nutritive mattei as the grass in a fresh state would do. " This loss may be accounted for : 1. B^ the seeds, flowers and finer leaves, especially of the clovers, which become very brittle on drying, shaking out to some extent, during the making, even when carefully managed. " 2. By incipient fermentation, which proceeds in the moist grass as soon as cut, and proceeds while drying in the field as well as in the mow or stack. " 3. By the washing out of its soluble constituents by dew and rain while lying in the field, especially when arrived at the con- dition approaching to that of nay. The extent of this loss, of course, depends on the weather during the operation, being iu wet seasons very considerable, and is the principal reason why fine weather is of so much value in haymaking. *' The quality of hay as food, apart from that determined by the manner in which it has been got, depends of course mainly on the character of the meadow which produces it, and also much upon condition as regards the maturity of the grass when cut. Up to the period of flowering, the nutritive juices of the grasses continue to increase, especially in sugar ; in many species notable quantities of this valuable constituent of food are present. As the process of fructification proceeds, these bodies diminish, being drawn upon to supply the flowers, pollen, &c., much of which is thus lost, whilst the amount of woody fibre in the stems rapidly increases, also at the expense of nutritive principles. For these reasons it is certainly better to cut grass for hay too early than too 1 late ; for although by waiting longer a heavier crop may be obtained, beyond a certain period this increase in quantity will be greatly at the expense of quality." We give analyses of clover hay and ordinary mixed meadow | hay:— ^,r. MEADOW HAY. Per cent. Moisture ,. 16-64 Fatty and waxy mattera . 5'01 Albuminous compounds* 808 Gum, sugar, &c. &c 44'86 Woody libra 17-64 Mineral matters t 777 Per ton. SS'.i Iba. 72 1404 9654 355 134 1 .1 ■/* 100-00 2000 '" . ^'f ,: Percent. Per ton. •Contarnhig Nitrogen..;.!-....;....... % 1-30 29 lbs. t *.«•/ Phosphoric Acid.......:. ...... 043 94 ••: 'Poijwh ....;........;.*.......... 202 45 Mo Fit Alb 8uK Wo, Miu Both of fatty aniniaJ One-! clover h the gre clover is It has mow do( emitted sider tha of sugar. The p doubted I nitrogenc tors of tl: such evol hay, and Clover when grei its brittle is dangen oftheiun Signs o time of ha operations Now, w moon and chronicle prevalent, tricai fluct each year, Jnopn, sucl: earth. * Contain Manual of Agriculture. 259 u mattei wors and ry brittle LUg, even loist grass well as in J dew and L the con- ns loss, of sing ill wet why tine irmined by irae rnainly I also much 3 when cut. the grasses ciea notable lent. As the liiiish, being of which is ,em3 rapidly For these ;rly than too I •rop may be ptity will be ted meadow Per ton. 72 UOi 965i 353 134 2000 CLOVBK UAY. Per cent. Per ton. Moiitnre 17 05 34l91bi. F»tty and waxy matters 374 438 Albuminous Compounda* .. .. 14'34 2812 Sugar, gum, &c 30'76 649 Woody nbr« 2001 6501 Miueral matters t •. 7'50 128 i) 100 00 2000 Both meadow and clover hay contain a considerable proportion of fattv and waxy matters, all of which are probably available for animal wants. One-sixth, however, of the weight of hay, and a little more in clover hay, it must be observed, is water, It is doubtless owing to the greater amount of nitrogenous matter and phosphates that clover is a better fertilizer than mixed grass. It has been argued by some that slight heating in the stack or mow does not injure the feeding qualities of hay ; but the .smell emitted from hay in a state of fermentation would lead us to con sider that there mu.st be a loss in the process of no small amount of sugar. The practice of salting hay, when about to mow away, is un- doubtedly a good one, for it tends to amalgamate the soluble nitrogenous compounds, and these are, undoubtedly, the origina- tors of that fermentation which, if allowed to proceed, will cause such evolution of heat as to destroy the feeding properties of the hay, and in some cases cause actual combustion. Clover has, undoubtedly, a larger amount of feeding quality when green than ariy other kind of artificial grass ; but owing to its brittleness when drying, it becomes dusty, and for this reason is dangerous feed to an animal from whom speed, and rapid action of the lungs and organs of breath are required. Signs of Rain. — Many of our farmers regulate not only the time of haying, but also the setting of posts .id many other farm operations, by the phases of the moon. Now, whilst we can hardly perceive any analogy between the moon and a fence post, it is yet probable that the moon acts as a chronicle of certain times in the year in which rain is more or less prevalent. It is ohservable that there is, on an average, a symme- trical fluctuation in the amount of rain at certain given seasons in [ each year, and these seasons are chronicled by the phases of the I moon, such phases showing the relative position of the sun, moon and earth. ^^ ^■' ■ I' H. ■■ Per ton. 29 lbs. 94 45 Per cent. •Containing Nitrogen 228 t " Phosphoric Acid '53 " Potash 1-83 Per ton. Slllba. 11-9 410 260 The Canadian Farmer's i ' ' 'K We would call our farmers' notice to the fact that in nearly every year there is more rain in the first two weeks in July than in the latter part of June or of July. A natural barometer is noted in Macdonald's " Hints on Farm- ing," as discovered by a gentleman in England, being the spider's v/eb. When it is about to rain and be windy, the spider shortens considerably the last thread to which his web is suspended, a^d leaves it in this state while the weather remains variable. If the insect lengthens its threads, it will be fine, and the fine- ness may be guessed by the length they attain. If the spider remains inactive, it is a sign of rain ; if, on the contrary, it begins to work whilst it rains, it betokens a speedy change for the bet- ter. The spider alters his web every twenty-four hours, and if these alterations are made a little before sunset, the night will be fine. The following quaint reasons, forty in number, are given by the late Dr. Jenner as sure signs that rain is near : — The hollow winds begin to blow, I The clouds look black, the grass is low, The soot falls down, the spaniels sleep, And spiders from their cobwebs peep. Last night the sun went pale to bed. The moon in halves hid her head ; The boding shepherd heaves a sigh, For see a rainbow spans the sky. The walls are damp, the ditches smell, (Closed is the pink-eyed pimpernel. Hark ! how the chairs and tables crack — Old Betty's joints are on the rack. Loud quack the ducks ; the peacocks ory, The distant hills are seeming nigh. How restless are the snorting swine ; The busy flies disturb the kine. Low o'er the grass the swallow wings— The cricket, too, how sharp he sings. Puss on the hearth, with velvet paws, Sits wiping o'er her whisker'd jaws. Through the clear stream the fishes rise, And nimbly catch th' incautious flies ; The glowworms, numerous and bright, Illumed the dewy dell last night. At dusk the squalid toad was seen, Hopping and crawling o'er the green. The whirling dust the wind obeys, And in the rapid eddy plays. The frog has changed his yellow vest, And in a russet coat is dressed. Though June, the air is cold and still, The rapUow blackbird's voice is shrill. My dog, BO altered in his taste, Quits mutton bones on grass to feast. And see yon crows ! how odd their flight, They imitate the gliding kite, And seem precipitate to fall, As if thej' felt the piercing ball. 'Twill surely rain ; 1 see with sorrow Our jaunt must be put off to-morrow. L 2. 3. 4. 6. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. IL 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 23. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 84. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. Manual of Agriculture. 261 1 nearly ily than a Farm- spider's shortens ied, a^d the fine- tie spider it begins r the bet- irs, and if ht will be The object in making hay from grass, as we have before observed, is to retain the maximum amount of sap, and this can only be done by allowing it to go through a state of partial fer- mentation in cocks whilst undergoing the process of drying. This is best effected by first putting it into small cocks, then into larger ones, thus gradually curing in the shade ; this also prevents all liability of a second fermentation in the stack or mow Clover is ready for cutting at a far earlier period than usually practised by farmers. To preserve all the saccharine juices it must be cut when in full bloom, when but a very few of the heads have begun to brown — it is common to wait until the majority of the heads are wilted and dead. The heads should wilt in the cock, and not on the stem. Timothy, likewise, to secure a well-coloured and nutritious article, should be cut when the first joint above the root has turned yellow and become hard. If left to ripen its seed, the juices are turned into hard fibre, which is little better for feed than ground-up chips of wood. " A farmer says he wants to let his timothy grow until it is ripe eni>ugh to haul into the bam the same day it is cut. This sounds very nice, and looks practical. But on the other side there is a horde that, if he could speak, would say he will not eat such hay at all if he can get hay that has been cut before the seed was filled, and has been well cured by the process of sweating in the cock. We think that in most cases it is the imperfect curing of early cut hay that brings it into disrepute with city buyers. Some cut it too early, and allow it to lie in the swathe and burn up in the sun. Finding it does not dry, they leave it all night exposed to the dew m the swathe, or even for a day or two under the sun and passing showers, till it gets wilted, not cured. Such hay has lost all its aroma and sweetness. Had it been tedded, or shaken out twice within six hours after cutting, and then put up in cocks to stay till it had gone through a slight degree of fermentation, it w ould have been quite a different article." " The Country Gentleman hears of many farmers who could not get in any hay during the showery or ' catching' weather of j this season ; F.nd is told of one man who is not supposed to be much of a farmer, but put from three to six tons of hay in good order into his barn every day for a week. There is no secret in the process. He put up the hay in cocks and put canvas caps over them, thus shedding the rain. Then when the weather was clear again, off went the caps and the hay opened to the air and sunshine. The caps he used were made out of old bags, and cost Ubout fifteen cents each. But much higher priced bags would pay I well on the investment when wet weather continues." " It is held by some that clover, as soon as it begins to lodge, ■I ;■ m %A 4t 262 The Canadian Farmer's iii4, i; m .;■ ,1 should, a8 a general thing, be cut. This irrespective of its age or size. Hence, clover by these men is cut early as a rule — in moist seasons always before it is in full blossom. When the crop is light (in a drought) it is cut later, but not much. The early cut- ting has convinced them of the superiority of the hay. Thus we have, Aug. 7th, the second cutting in process. There are a few heads, but half have not appeared. Thu crop has begun to lodge — of course it is of a good length to do this ordinarily ; the stems are eighteen to twenty inches long. It is a heavy mass of green fodder, surpassing in weight the tirst cutting, on account of the more favourable weather. "To cut thus early is to get all of the growth, as all can be cleanly cut off, not having lodged sufficiently to prevent this. There is a saving, therefore, in this respect, as well as in the better quality of the hay, no rotting of the lodged stalk taking place. This last, when much lodged, and a heavy growth, results in much loss." Of late years caps have been brought into general requisition in the States for the protection of hay in cock. For weighing hay in small lots, an American exchange describes a very simple contrivance, which saves the tying at leapt, and is very cheap and easy to make. It consists of an upright standard, five or six feet in length, of 4 X 4 scantling ; a round pole will do as well. Near the bottom of this standard, two two-inch holes are bored at right angles to each other. Round straight poles are slipped through these holes, projecting some three or four feet on each side of the standard. On the ends of these poles are laid and fastened light narrow strips of boards or poles, forming a square, the sides of which are equally distant from the standard. A clevis is attached to the top end of the .tandard in which to hook the steelyard. The usual lever ar- rangGiTient Js used to raise the hay, which is simply pitched onto the platform. When not in use, the cross poles can be slipped out, and the whole stored in a small place. Clover for Seed. — Clover seed is at best a troublesome crop, and rarely yields more than three bushels to the acre. Still, as from the farmer's own field he can obtain seed which he knows is fresh and unadulterated, it may be a safe plan to cut and thrash ; but it must be borne in mind that the cutting of grass for seed is hard upon the land. The period when it may be considered ready to cut is one re- quiring judgment. "As the crop approaches to maturity, it changes its verdant appearance to a light brown ;" the leaves begin to harden and shrivel and drop off, leaving a bare stem, with the vV'ithered flower nodding at the top. The best plan is to [»luck the flowers and rub in the hand. When the seed separates with some difficulty, but yet will come away from the flower, the crop should be cut ; by the time it has dried it will tlirash easily. In- deed, should machi] clover into a shelJin. It is and on hot sur The damp t and sul more ea Seed clean gr weeds v Thee barn are moved { have bee In sta( securing upon SOI such WO allow of Wlieu simply m bulky su this bag, rise to th This ph the hay I ' it far mo] The gn be all the kept well Pastun more diffii are of sue! I eaten dow slightest Jvefindth I twenty .. I It is th( I makes goo I if the land ^oiling g •■■/ Manual of Agriculture. 263 8 age or •ule — in the crop arly cut- Thus we ,re a few to lodge ihe stems of green it of the be cleanly Chere is a quality of This last, h loss." uisition in exchange ! tying at lists of an scantling ; s standard, jach other. , projecting )n tire ends IS of boards dly distant end of th'j X lever ar- .tched on to slipped out, deed, clover when ripe for seed is at all times a bad sheller, and should be secured with as little moving as possible. The reaping machine is the best implement for cutting clover for seed. The clover heads may be raked in windrows, and immediately pitched into a waggon rack which has been boarded up, so that as few shellings as possible may be lost in carrying. It is better to cut clover for seed in the mornings and evenings, and on cloudy days, for it becomes very dry and brittle under a hot sun. The crop must, however, be perfectly dry for thrashing, as if damp the seed is very hard to separate. But a wetting with rain, and subsequent drying, will have a good effect in making it thrash more easily. Seed should be only taken from clover that has been grown on clean ground, or a plentiful crop of mulleins and other abominable weeds will be on hand for distribution over the farm. The chief points to be considered in stowing away hay in the barn are : — Mowing away in such a manner that it may be easily moved again ; sprinkling with salt, the beneficial effects of which have been already shown. In stacking hay, more care should be exercised than is usual in securing the bottom from wet. We believe that a regular stand upon some stone pillars or wooden posts would pay well, for such would not onl}'^ keep the stack perfectly dry, but would also allow of a current of fresh air passing constantly below the hay. Wiieii hay is very damp, a ventilator is most useful. This is simply made by keeping a bag filled with chaff, or some light but bulky substance, always standing in the centre, building round this bag, and then drawing it up each time that the layers of hay rise to the mouth of the bag. This plan of ventilation need not, however, be resorted to unless the hay be very damp, for a moderate sweating of the hay renders it far more palatable to the cattle. The grand principles of a well-built stack are that the centre be all the time kept higher than the sides, and that the whole bo kept well trodden down. Pasture Land. — The management of pasture land in Canoda is more difficult than in the moister climate of England. Droughts I are of such frequent occurrence during the summer, that gras.^-, once eaten down, sometimes takes several weeks to put forth again the [slightest growth, and thus at certain seasons through the summt-r we find that our cattle do no better when they have the run of j twenty acres than at other seasons in a far smaller field. It is the quickly renewed growth of grass after cropping that I makes good pasturage, and this rapid revival will not take place ] if the land be allowed to get parched up. foiling vs. Pasture. — Our own experience in this matter has * 264 The Canadian Farmer's ■mi +- ! ^3 III been that the less pasture land we have kept the better, and that for a climate almost tropical as is ours in the summer months, the soiling system is the correct one, if we would have our farms carry a heavy stock. Indeed, by the growth of plenty of gi-een fodder (notably corn), twenty acres may be made to feed forty head of stock equally as well — aye, better than eighty acres, while the remaining sixty acres may be reserved for winter feed in the shape of hay. The whole question of Soiling vs. Pasturing resolves itself into this : Will the extra expense of cutting and carrying food to the stock throughout the summer be more than counterbalanced by the acreage of land thus saved for other purposes ? We submit as our opinion that it undoubtedly will, simply premising that a suffi- ciently heavy stock be kept to pay for the expense of one man's whole time. We shall enter more fully into reasons when we come to consider the principle of soiling cattle. At present our busiijjss is with pasturage. Now, to keep a pasture field in heart, we must not only have a rich and deep soil, but we require any kind of grasses that will thoroughly shade the ground. Timothy is a valuable grass for hay, and is in first demand amongst city buyers ; but it is a miserable species for a pasturage — not only itself a naturally dry plant, having few leaves by which to gather moisture at night, and partaking in this manner of the nature of a cereal, but it grows spindly, straight up, far apart, and permits the hot sun to strike down on to the very surface of the ground and to bake it for several inches in depth. It does not aftbrd the same surface as other grasses from which to radiate the earth's heat at night, so that a maximum amount of dew may be condensed, and per- mits the hot scorching winds of summer to blow fairly through it, and dry and shrivel up its stalks. What we want upon our pas- ture ground is a luxuriant matted growth — one that will tho- roughly .shade the ground, and will condense the greatest amount of moisture at nigl t during hot weather. Dew. — And whilst upon the subject, we would explain the for- mation of dew. It is incorrect to say that " the dew falls" or even to speak of the dew rising. Dew forms — i.e., it is simply a co.ndensation of the atmosphere upon the surface of substances, varj ing in degree according to the amount of surface exposed to the atmosphere over a given area ; for which reason dew is always heavier upon the grasses than upon the bare ground, and heavier upon thick matted, many-leaved grasses than upon those which, like timothy, spindle into one almost leafless stalk. The action of the forraation of dew may be seen every day. Go to the well or spring in hot weather and fill a glass with cold water ; directly this glass, made cold by the water, is brought into contact with the warm atmosphere, moiature is formed on the out- side for w< being phere Tlio When coverei The the air cold gli breath( the con In CO the wa much 1( densed Alltl most pa ture int( Now, have bo< Imme( lose its \ particle i gra.ss, tr( This r; three wa tion, whe soon the preserve the stove back tow the heat from it. The he; tion upwa , So that immediat The ear the air coi We hea: so cold if radiates al gives you Again, v oeeause th Manual of Agriculture. 265 ind that months, ir farms ly corn), [ually as ng sixty ly. The ito this : the stock i by the nit as our it a suffi- )ne man's when we cesent our ily have a I that will ! grass for 3ut it is a rarally dry ; at night, real, but it 16 hot sun ,d to bake me surface It at night, and per- through it, »n our pas- will tho- lest amount un the for- . falls" or ts simply a [substances, [exposed to >w is always pind heavier lose which, Iry day. Go \ with cold brought into 1 on the out- side of the glass. This is dew. The wet does not come through, for we know that water cannot 'penetrate glass ; but the glass, being colder than the air, condenses the moisture of the atmos- phere immediately round it into drops of water. Tho same thing may be observed in winter, in frosty weather. When wa rise from our beds in the morning, we find the window covered v/ith frost or frozen water. The pane of glass is made cold outside by low temperature of the air ; our breath being mftist, and coming into contact with the cold glass, i,i condensed into drops of water, and frozen. When we breathe upon a pane of glass at any time, moisture is formed by the condensation of our warm breath in contact with the colder pane. In cold weather we can see our breath ; because immediately the warvn air exhaled by us comes into contact with the very much lower temperature of the external atmosphere, it is con- densed into water or vapour, and as such is perceptible to the eye. All these illustrations show — and the glass of cold water is the most palpable — that the effect of bringing air at a high tempera- ture into contact with cold is to condense the air into water. Now, after a warm day the atmosphere and surface of the earth have both been heated. Immediately the sun goes down, the earth begins rapidly to lose its heat by radiation — that is, heat is passed away from every particle of the earth's surface, or of what grows on its surface, as grass, trees, &c., in radiating lines outwards towards the sky. This radiation we will shortly explain. Heat is transmitted in three ways — by conduction, reflection, and radiation. By conduc- tion, when you place one end of a piece of iron in the fire, and soon the other becomes too hot to hold ; by reflection, when i:o preserve your wall you place a piece oi bright tin between it and the stove, by which, as soon as the heat strikes the tin, it is thrown back towards the stove ; and radiation is the process by which the heat leaves the stove and warms you as you stand some yards from it. The heat, then, leaves the earth as it leaves the stove, by radia- tion upwards into space. So that the earth cools far more rapidly than the atmosphere immediately around it. The earth then takes the place of the glass of cold water, and the air condenses upon it. We hear some reader say, " But why do we feel the evening air so cold if it is really warmer than the earth ? " Because heat radiates also from your body, and the air condenses upon you and gives you a chilly and moist leeling. Again, we hear, " Why is dew, then, never heavy under trees ? " Because the tree above does the radiation of heat, and the rays of N-. i I J* > 266 The Canadian Farmer's heat from the earth are stopped by the tree above, so that there the ground does not cool as rapidly as where unsheltered. If you climb the tree, you will see the dew heavy on the top. Again, for the same reason, radiation is prevented by clouds, and, therefore, there is no dew in cloudy weather. If you place a paper cover over a warm egg, but not in contact, the egg will not cool as rapidly as one that is not so covered, no matter how cool the surrounding atmosphere may be, because the paper prevents radiation of heat. The earth is the egg; if covered by a tree or by a cloud — aye, by a piece of paper, not in contact with it, radiation is prevented ; it does not cool much more rapidly than the lower air, and consequently there is little or no dew, ac- cordinof to the close.iesa and thickness of the clouds. We cannot afford space to enter more fully into the subject ; we ask our readers ui take notice that the greater the surface ex- posed over a given oj* ;»,, the greater the amount of radiation, the more rapid tlo ooliti.n; process, and the heavier the condensation of air into water .>r dAV. Thus a grass that l! rows out innumerable leaves will condense much air at night, uxi uhus supply itself with much noisture to keep it damp througr< the coming hot hours. The dew is also so heavy on clover and such leafy grasses that it soaks at last through them and drops to the soil beneath ; it is then shaded from the hot sun by the dense growth of leaf, and the ground remains moist. In timothy, the sun gets at the ground, and if it has become wet in the night, will cause rapid evaporation, and leave it drier in a few hours than if there had been no formation of dew at all. We now give a list of grass seeds. In the first column will be found their prices as sold by Bliss & Co., seedsmen, of New York, and in the second column their prices as sold by Canadian seeds- men, the latter being taken from the catalogue of Messrs. Bruce, Hamilton. The prices for 187S of the several imported varieties of grass seeds already tried in the United States ax ^ hay crop often makes it probable that, by the time spring many farmers find themselves with less of it than is desir- ^ carry through the stock in good condition till grass comes. A ..« price also may rule so high as to be an inducement to sell hay, rather than consume it on the farm. " In order to provide for this contingency, it will be well for thc»se who breed stock largely, especially sheep, to grow some crop that will give them an extra early bite in spring, should the winter fodder not hold out. " For this purpose, nothing better adapted to the climate, or more certain to succeed, than winter rye can be found. It will grow on almost any soil with very little preparation, and if sown early enough, will acquire such a growth before hard frosts stop it, that when the snow melts in spring the sheep will find a very good bite, and it will start again so early that much feed can be had from a field of it before there is a bite of grass in any of the meadows. The seed required will cost but little, as from a bushel to I a bushel and a half per acre will be sufficient seeding. Stubbles, and land intended for fallows or roots next year, may as well be iff, Manual of jigriculture. 271 ry farm, may be- in turn- n turned ded with rally, dry md grass ig clover )ssibly for : moisture jn off, this the shade 1 can then len the fall roots are ing clover yof hayhe 3d is dearly bheir exist- on there is [iless in the too heavy money in Itock which dor quality time spring Ian is desir- rrass comes. fent to sell Ibe well for some crop the winter climate, or id. It will ind if sown frosts stop I find a very feed can he any of the a bushel to Stubbles, as well be sown with this crop, if it is thought probable that there will be a deficiency of forage before grass comes again. But it is a very un- desirable crop if allowed to go further and grow up to maturity, and t!'03e who sow it forthe purpose of obtain ing late fall orearly spring feed must not be tempted by the fine appearance of the growth to neglect ploughing it up as soon as the stock can go to other pasturage. It is also better to be careful with stock when they are turned on such very early spring feed, and allow them to get gradually accustomed to it, otherwise the sudden change from dry fodder to green food will prove prejudicial by rendering them liable to scouring, and giving them a distaste to what dry fodder can still be spared to them. They should get out on the rye only for a short time each day, and in no case be allowed to live on it exclusively." — Canada Farmer. Lucerne. — This grass we do not see mentioned in our Canadian seedsmen's list ; but it has been fairly tried in the eastern States, under a climate very similar to that of our own Dominion, whilst there are recorded facts as to its cultivation here. The editor of the Canada Farmer, in 1870, says, in answer to certain queries : — " Fromalimited experience with lucerne, we believe it will endure the Canadian winter. Many years ago we saw this crop grown on sandy loam soil, and although neglected in its culture, there was an excellent yield the first year. It was sown about the 1st of May, and endured our winters, and yielded two cuttings each year for about five years. It was then destroyed to make room for a garden. The owner, a bricklayer, knew little of farming, and took no care of the young plants, even the first year. It was sown broadcast with barley. Many of the stalks were four feet high, and several horses were fed during the summer from it." The following, upon this crop, is of great value, as coming from the pen of a farmer in New York State : — " Respecting the cultivation of lucerne, I will give you my ex- perience with great pleasure, as I feel convinced that it is a soil- ing crop which has only to be tried to be more generally grown. It is essentially a soiling crop, being ready to cut in the spring before red clover, and continuing to produce heavy cuttings all through the summer, no matter how hot or dry. Last season, though unusually dry, did not appear to check its growth, as we were able to mow over one portion of a field five times, and another, only, seeded last spring, was cut four. "There are crops that will yield a greater weight of feed per acre at one cutting — corn, for instance, and which is a crop that lucerne cannot supplant, as it yields a very heavy weight of green food at that season of the year when most of our dairy farmers are requiring such — but as a soiling crop proper, I know of none that can compare with lucerne, and one that few farmers can 4 \ IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) % // %. J A &1 ^ 1.0 I.I 1.25 Uita 12.5 tti -.n Hill 2.0 1.8 lA. ill 1.6 6" Vl /a °> > /^ ''W V Photographic Sdences Corporation 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. 14580 (716) 872-4503 ^ '9) 272 The Canadian Farmer's I jIT. t, il afford to be without. It yields a heavy weight of feed all the summer, of excellent quality, and one that does not require the expense of ploughing and re-seeding after each cutting, nor each year, as by proper management, and on suitable soils, it will re- main profitable five years. " Its relative value, as compared with corn, is decidedly superior, our sheep and cattle not only preferring, but ' doing* much better on it. In fact, com with me has not proved a very satisfactory soiling crop — cattle fed on it generally losing flesh — ^until we have all but given over growing it for that purpose. " The first hay we have this winter, that is the hay our calves and sheep prefer, is that with a little lucerne in it. . Going on to the hay mow the other day, I saw a hole cut in it. Inquiring the reason, I ascertained that the shepherd had found where a load or two of hay, with a little lucerne sprinkled through it, had been mowed away, and that he had been getting it for his sheep, as they ate it better than good clover hay. " A rich, dry soil, with an open, porous subsoil, is the most (pon- genial to the growth of lucerne ; but it will succeed well on any f soil that will grow red clover to perfection. " The seed may be sown broaxicast, or in drills ten to twelve inches apart. In England we generally followed the latter course, so that after each cutting, or as often as might be necessary, we could run through the horse hoe, to loosen the soil arid destroy weeds, &c., and by these means the crop could be grown success- fully ten years. But here, I have generally adopted the former plan, sowing from twelve pounds to fifteen pounds of seed per acre, as early in the spring as the season will permit. " The soil should be thoroughly prepared in the fall by deep ploughing, and manuring with rich, well-rotted dung, or what would be, perhaps, better, thirty to forty bushels of bone dust per acre, there being less liability of having foul seeds introduced, as this is a crop that is easily choked or run out by weeds, &c. " In the spring the soil may be lightened with a two-horse cul- tivator, or scarifier, making a fine surface mould. The latter is essentially necessary to get a good plant. The seed being very small, wiU only require lightly brushing in. " The after cultivation will consist yearly of a good top dress- ing of well-rotted dung in the fall, and harrowing and rolling in the spring. " As I said before, weeds easily choke it ; it will therefore be advisable to select a rich piece of soil free of weeds, and sow aftei some hoed crop, such as roots or potatoes. " The first season will yield a fair crop, but the second, third and fourth will be the best." The best grasses for butter purposes. — X. A. Willard, the first authority on the dairy in America, says upon this point : — it / ■ !■ ■; Manual of Agriculture. 273 '" Fancy butter,' that will sell for a dollar per pound, cannot be made from bad material — ^from milk produced on weedy pastures, or upon the rank sour herbage of swamps, or upon land newly seeded with red clover. The experienced butter dairymen, there- fore, pay much attention to the feed of their cows, and prefer old pastures. "On the old pastures of the butter district there are several varieties of grasses that spring up spontaneously, and are much esteemed as affording sweet and nutritious feed, from which the best qualities of milk and butter are produced. These grasses form a dense solid turf, leaving no intervening spaces. They em- brace the June, or blue grass \Poa pratensia), the fowl meadow- grass {Poa aerotina), meadow fescue {Featuca pratenaia), red top (Agrostia vulgaria)^ the wire grass {Poa compresaa), the sweet- scented vernal and vanilla grass, together with timothy {Phleum pratense), orchard grass {Dactylia glomerata), clover and other forage plants. " The June grass (Poa pratenaia) is regarded as very valuable ; it throws out a dense mass of leaves, is highly relished by cattle, and produces milk from which a superior quality of butter is made. It is found growing throughout the butter districts of the country. The wire grass {Poa compreaaa) is deemed one of the most nutritive of the grasses ; is very hardy, eagerly sought after by cattle, and is one of the best grasses for fattening. Cows feed- ing upon it yield milk of the richest quality, from which the nicest butter is made. It flourishes well upon gravelly knolls and in shaded places, and its stem is green after the seed has ripened. It is found growing in all pa,rts of the country. " The meadow fescue is common in old graas lands where the sod is thick, and grasses of different varieties are mingled together. It starts up early in the spring, is relished by stock, and furnishes good early feed. The milk farmers hold it in high estimation as a reliable grass, tenacious of life, and not running out like timothy {Phleum pratenae) or clover. The white clover {Trifolium repena) springs up spontaneously in the old pastures, and is highly es- teemed as giving flavour and quality to butter. " The sweet-scented vernal grass grows best upon the moist soil of the old meadows. It starts very early, and gives off an agree- able odour "We have been particular in naming the grasses which are most esteemed for producing a high-priced butter, because a record of long and well-conducted experiments has proved their utility." Permanent paaturea can be kept up to a full growth only by careful attention. After the pasturage has once become permanently established, it can be kept up for many years by an occasional dressing of well- composted barn-yard manure, superphosphate, or even a mixture 18 'I* 274 The Canadian Farmer's of plaster and unleached ashes, giving ai the same time a sprink- ling of fresh seeds on those spots that show signs of having run out. Particular care must be taken all along to carefully cut out, root and branch, all noxious weeds that may make their appear- ance, and not to allow stock to pasture it down too closely in the autumn, so aa to have the roots unprotected during the winter. Hungarian Orasa. — " The trouble about Hungarian grass is, that it is not generally cut at the proper time. I have raised it for several years, and consider it the very best hay for horses. They will keep fat on it, where on timothy they will grow poor. I sow half a bushel per acre. It then makes fine hay, and on good land should yield from two to three tons to the acre. Cut it when in the blow, before any seed is formed ; wilt in the swarth the same as clover, and make in the cock. The stalk is nearly solid and the hay very heavy, and if made in this way will be as green as grass, and a horse will want little grain for ordinary farm work. I only feed grain in the spring when doing heavy ploughing. Give your horses all they will eat of it, and they will fat with decent usage. But if allowed to turn yellow and dorm seed it is the same as any other grain, and will, of course, injure a horse the same as if he were fed wheat in the bundle to excess. An over-feed of grain is bad. It is better to rake it by hand, but on a good soil you will tumble up a big cock in a small space. " If cut at the time I mention, it will sometimes sprout up again and make good fall feed or a green crop to turn under. In one case I cut it the second time for seed, but it was short." — Prairie Farmer. Millet. — "The Great or Indian millet (Holcus Sorghum L., Sor- ghum Vulgari) * * * * [cultivated the length and breadth of the continent] has a stem that rises five or six feet high, is strong, reedy, and like those of the maize, but smaller. The leaves are strong and broad, having a deep furrow through the centre, where the midrib is depressed in the upper surface, and is very prominent below. The leaves are two feet and a half long, and two inches broad in the middle, embracing the stalks with their base. The flowers come out in large panicles at the top of the stalks, resembling at first appearance the male spikes of the Turkey wheat; these are succeeded by large, roundish seeds, which are wrapped round with the chaff. This grain is a native of In- dia, where it is much used to feed poultry, and is frequently sent to Europe for the same purpose. It is much cultivated in Arabia and most parts of Asia Minor, and has been introduced into Italy, Spain, Switzerland and some parts of Germany ; also into China, Cochin China and the West Indies, where it grows commonly five or six feet high or more, and, being esteemed a hearty food for labourers, is called Negro Guinea Corn. Its long awns or bristles defend it from the birds. In England the autumns are seldom Manual of Agriculture. 275 [TOW poor. ,y, and on icre. Cut ihe swarth ia nearly will be as r ordinary ing heavy i they will and ^rm se, injure a 3 to excess. r hand, but 1 space, it up again er. In one " — Prairie m L., Sor- ,nd breadth et high, is aller. The irough the ice, and is , half long, talka with the top of ikes of the aeds, which tive of In- lently sent in Arabia into Italy, into China, imonly five iy food for or bristles i,re seldom dry and warm enough to ripen the seed well in the field. In Arabia it is called dora, or durrs ; the flour is very white, and taey make good bread of it, or rather cakes, about two inches in thickness. The bread which they make of it in some parts of Italy is dark and coarse. In Tuscany it is used chiefly for feed- ing poultry and pigeons — sometimes for swine, kine and horses. Csesalpinus says that cattle fed on the green herb are apt to swell and die, but thrive on it when dried. They make brushes and brooms of its stalks in Italy, which Ray observed in the shops at Venice, and which are sent to this country. Of this species there are two distinct varieties, one distinguished by black and the other by red husked seeds, besides sub-varieties. " The only sorts of millet which can be cultivated in this country are the German, cultivated, and the Polish sorts. According to Professor Thaer, the cultivated is to be preferred, as having the largest grain. " The soil for the millet should be warm, sandy, rich and well pulverized to a good depth. The seed is sown in May, very thin, and not deeply covered. In the course of its growth, no plant. Professor Thaer observes, is more improved by stirring the soil, after which it grows astonishingly fast, and smothers all weeds. " In harvesting the millet, great care is required not to shed the seed, and as it ripens rather unec^ually, it would be an advantage to cut off the spikes as they ripen, as in reaping maize. No grain is easier to thrash, or to free from ' ts husk by the mill. It is used instead of rice, and in Germany bears about the same price. It produces a great bulk of straw, which is much esleemed as fodder." ^Lovdon'a (English) Encyclopcedia. An American says that " curing millet is done in the same manner as timothy and other grasses. Weather favourable and properly handled, it will be sufficiently cured for harvesting two days after cutting. Harvest when the seed is about swelling. If cut at a later period the nutritious qualities will be seriously diminished. Product, two to four tons per acre. The land ought to be thoroughly ploughed and harrowed. Sow four or five pecks of seed per acre, broadcast, and cover with a harrow, followed by a roller ; the land sandy or light loam, and made rich enough for corn. Millet for hay may be sown in the middle States as late as the 25th of July. The same mode of curing will apply as to the Hungarian grass. Our preference is the India or Grand millet, which produces a third more forage and seed than the common millet. Seed of the latter can be found at any prominent seed store. The India can scarcely be obtained till the new crop matures. Millet is very nutritious, and is eaten with avidity by horses and horned cattle." Sorghum. — We have found no difficulty in curing sorghum, so as to be fed to cattle late in autumn and during early winter. It M' fW , SI'S- I* ft' t: 276 The Canadian Farmer's was placed as soon as cut in Jaree shocks, carefully made, so as to stand even and erect, and was allowed to remain several weeks to dry. When green and fresh, cattle eat the whole stalk greedily; the only objection to it is that the animals, becoming accustomed to so sweet and delicious a food, neglect ordinary pasturage, and if they do not have enough sorghum will be apt to suffer. In early winter the stalks become too dry to be eaten in this way, and we therefore cut it short by horse-power, and feed it in boxes or man- gers. When thus cut, the cattle eat it readily, and it increases the milk of the cows. It is important, in order to succeed well, that it be kept in good condition, and the work well performed. For fodder, it should be cut rather early — a little before the aver- age time for cutting sorghum for manufacture, so that the stalks may not be too hard and horny when they dry. We would not recommend sowing broadcast ; it does much better in hills or drills, where it can be cultivated and kept clean. A peck or so will do for an acre, varying with soil and culture ; on a fine, rich soil, in perfect condition, and covering the seed at a uniform depth of about three-fourths of an inch, four quarts would be better than thrice that quantity on hard cloddy ground, or buried carelessly at various depths. It may be well to say that sorghum cannot be sown so thick as com, to advantage, as the stronger plants crowd and shade the smaller ones, and obtain the entire ascendency; while com, if sown thickly, is dwarfed all alike. Vetches or Tares are very useful for soiling purposes. We have invariably made it a practice to grow a patch of tares near our stables for feeding horses when they come in from. work. They are very nutritious, and agree well with all kinds of stock, while hogs will, in summer, eat them greedily. They should be allowed to wilt a little before feeding to horses. To do this, they may be cut in the morning and will be then ready for feed at noon. Like all such very succulent food, they should be given to cattle cau- tiously at first, or the animals may become " hoven," or bloated, by too greedy feeding. It is a good plan to sow oats along with the seed ; these help to support the vetch and keep them from becoming too tangled on the ground. We have usually succeeded in cutting two crops in the season— one through June, and again in the autumn. WEEDS. ** If you've weeds in your garden, my good friend, I pray ; Do not stand looking over the fence ; To your neighbour's domains — just over the way — Your weeds are tiie most consequence ; Uproot them while yet there is daylight to work ; xear tiiem up seed and branch from the soil ; * They are sure to do mischief, so pray do not shirk ; You'll be amply repaid for your toil." Ye ioih hand upon from Na crop- food, naturi Att noxioi caUy c turist i the po pockefa A tic cereals, i^hose : categorj to his f own his The \ distribu^ tore are I premises The r of weeds jurors ag lie atten agoresol the grow being al lands, a ( counties , to make : move all before th( may prev The Ob for a mon ground fo ploughed our fields nurseries keeds. 1 every bm Manual of Agriculture. 277 Yearly, millions of dollars are lost to the agricultural community in the war against weeds. Not only have we to engage in actual hand-to-hand fight to exterminate them in our hoed crops and upon our summer fallow, but every weed that grows takes away from the abundance of the harvest. Nature does not distinguish between the weed and the farmer's crop — all are plants alike to her, and from her stores all gather food. Let us destroy the enemy, and we shall receive its share of natural provisions. Attempts have been made by the State to curtail the spread of noxious weeds by legal enactments. Could such laws be practi- cally carried out, they would indeed prove a boon to the agricul- turist and to the country, but all such laws have failed, and in all probability will ever fail. The farmers must be educated up to the point at which they will plainly perceive money for their pockets in the eradication of noxious weeds. A tidy farmer who attempts to keep all his land clean for his cereals, grasses and roots, is very often annoyed by a neighbour whose farm is the receptacle of every weed to be found in the category of botanists. These weeds allowed to seed are wafted on to his farm by every blast of wind, and through no fault of his own his land keeps foul, fight he ever so hard against it. The travelling thrashing machines are prolific sources for the distribution of weeds. Indeed the farmer should see that separa- tors are carefully cleaned of all small seeds before entering on his premises. The roads are too often generous nurseries for the propagation of weeds ; and so great was the nuisance in England, that grand jurors agitated the matter so strongly that it was forced upon pub- lic attention, and the Irish Royal Agricultural Society a few years ago resolved: "That as great injury arises to the farming classes from the growth of weeds along the sides of public roads, whose seeds I being allowed to ripen and shed are spread over the adjoining lands, a circular be addressed to the grand jurors of the several counties soliciting them to give directions to the county surveyors to make it imperative upon road contractor to cut down and re- move all weeds, more particularly thistles, docks and rag- weeds, before the 1st of June, and at such other periods in the year as [may prevent their injurious efiects to the farmer." The object of such a course is obvious to any one who reflects Ifor a moment on the fact that the seeds of weeds will lie in the Iground for years without germinating, but as soon as the earth is [ploughed for a crop spring into existence. No matter how clean lour fields are kept, if the corners of the fences are allowed to be Inurseries from which are scattered seeds for an annual supply of Iweeds. Every thistle top has seeds enough to stock acres, and every burr of dock can furnish seed for a township. ill '1.11 % ■i.'i^: 278 The Canadian Farmer's If,; 1 j|) Our own Legislatures have passed Thistle Bills, but in practice they are but a dead letter. \ The pathmaster is to nee that all thistles, docks, &;c., are cut on roads and in the fields in his section before they go to seed. In nine cases out of ten this person's farm is as well stocked as his neighbour's, and in many cases he is himself an untidy farmer, who " let8 things go." As far as the Canada thistle is concerned, we think that the law might step in and not only impose a fine on those that did not meet its requirements, but give to the Municipal Councils power to appoint an independent overseer to see to the enforcement of the law, and to be paid out of a public fine fund. No man can be called a good farmer who does not keep his land clean. He may be a strenuous advocate of liberal manuring, but much profit is lost if he allow weeds to overrun, choke out his crops, and luxuriate on the feed that he has generously supplied for the use of his crops. To ensure good crops, land must be cultivated in a superior manner, and when such is the case dirty land cannot be found. " Prevention is better than cure" in all cases, and the labiur of constantly going about and destroying thistles, burr-docks, rag- weed and other noxious plants, out of fence corners and neglected spots, before they can come to seed and multiply themselves into hundreds and thousands, is not, nor ever can be, looked upon as lost time. Indeed there is no time put in during a whole season's operations as profitable to the farmer as that of destroying young weeds. In any badly neglected field, the botanist could probably point out to us over a hundred difierent kinds of weeds ; annuals, bien- nials or perennials, deep-rooted weeds or flowering weeds, such as propagate by the buds in their roots, and such as are disseminated by seeds carried by every changing wind and by the birds of the air ; but we shall speak only of the pro- perties and methods of destruction of the most commonly known and most noxious weeds to the Canadian farmer. And first of the Canada thistle. The Canada Thistle, for all that has been said, we believe to be indigenous to our soil and climate ; but why it should be dubbed the thistle "of Canada " par excellence we are at a Idss to see, for it was well known in the British islands ere a stick of our primeval forests had been touched. The botanical name is Cirsium arvensis, and it is found in the cultivated fields and in the fence corners and highways of every part of Great Britain and the continent of Europe. It has indeed obtained such a foothold upon Canadian farms, that we blush to think that outsiders may be readily excused for j the assumption that it is a Canadian pet. There is more than one way of effiecting its destruction. We | Manual of Agriculture, 279 clip the following extracts from amonsst the heap of writing, practical and theoretical, sense and bosh, that has from time to time appeared in the columns of our agricultural press ; the two chief writers from whom we draw being those contributing over the signatures of *' Vectis" and "C," from time to time, in the columns of the Canada Farmer. Destruction by Summer Fallow. — "This we believe to be the only thoroughly effectual mode by which to encompass the ultimate death of this pest, but the remedy must be searching, and carried on by no half measures. " The Canada thistle has two kinds of existence — the annual and the perennial life. As an annual it is as easily killed as the most delicate foreign exotic. The least movement or stirring of the soil and exposure to the sun for ever so short a time is fatal to it ; but the perennial requires a different course of treatment altogether ; no half measures will do with it If you plough only half enough, you have, by cutting up the roots covered with eyes, from long pieces into short ones, made thousands instead of tens of plants ; each piece when severed and divided is ready to spring into a separate and individual existence. But if you plough (or move them in the soil) often enough, and the soil is dry, you make rpot and branch work with them, and (except on the deep, loose soil) you have got rid of them for the time altogether." " C." says, and this we believe to be the only eflfectual plan :-j- "Now, my plan is quite different. I never plough or disturb the fallow land infested with thistles until June, and then they are often three to four feet high in my rich clay land, and many of them forming seed ; in fact, their growth is about done, and they only seek to mature their seed. Now is the time to go at them. The land is comparatively hard, and ploughs up very rough — and the rougher the better ; and the larger the furrows turned, the rougher the land will lie. Much of the land so ploughed will lay up quite hollow, and expose a surface many times larger than the area of the land ; the sun gets into and under these lumps, and being much exposed to the action of the air, the soil becomes completely dried, and every thistle that remains in a clod so exposed and dried will die, and in fact is dead in a week. As soon as ploughed once, do not go and harrow all down smooth again, for that course is the very worst you can follow. You can easily perceive that by these means you cover up all thistles ex- posed, and so prevent their death being entirely completed, where there are some remains of life left. But instead of harrowing, put in the plough again, and move all the under soil to the top, and enable it to obtain more ammonia and nitrogen from the air. While in this state of rough surface, so much is exposed that the land is absorbing at every pore from the atmosphere, and on a surface exposed to the action of the air a great deal larger than m m ii I*;! ♦>'■ 280 The Canadian Farmer^s I bu its flat area ; whereas, if the land was well harrowed down, the suiface exposed for such absorption would be but little larger than its absolute area. Weeds, also, vegetate more freely in this caae, and in direct ratio with the surface so exposed. Three such mov- ings, if the weather be dry, will entirely exterminate all thistles ; they are dead, root and branch ; they have for that year lost the natural and extreme tendency to surmount all difficulties and ma- ture seed, as they had nearly done so before being disturbed, and hence are much weakened, and five times as easily killed. This course particularly applies to clay land, and is the mode of work- ing fallows in England, so far as the rough surface is concerned, amongst the more intelligent farmers, especially where steam cul- tivation is practised. They do not absolutely plough, but do what they call ' smash up' the land with powerful cultivators, whose tines or teeth penetrate from twelve to fifteen inches, leaving the soil very rough, and the surface soil always on the top ; and in many sections where the land is clean, this is considered the best mode of cultivating, unless where manure has to be burielil, or weeds or sod killed. Let those who are sceptical try this plan alongside a piece worked in the old way of fall ploughing, and again in June or early in July, and again for seeding, with inter- mediate harrowings. My piece will be clean and free from thistles and weeds, whilst the other will be as foul as ever. My three ploughings are applied just when the heat is greatest, and will be found most efficient in their action. " I entirely cleared twenty-seven acres of land, last summer but one, by this course, and as yet no thistles are to be seen, where, when I began, they could be counted by millions. Some were so high that I had to mow them befope the horses could go into them." By Clover. — Smothering with a heavy crop of clover will keep down thistles for a time, but roots will lie dormant, and when cul- tivation is again effected, they spring up and flourish with renewed energy. On this point, " Vectis" practically remarks : — " I do not for a moment mean to deny that clover, in a great degree, smothers and keeps down thistles, but I very much doubt whether it kills the roots. The thistle is a perennial, and can live and remain in a quiescent state with very small help from its leaves, provided it remains undisturbed in the ground. It hyber- nates, so to speak, until the favourable moment arrives for it to put forth new leaves and flowers, and then bursts into full vigour, and produces seed within four months from the time of making its | appearance. " The growth of the Canada thistle, when in a perennial state, is I like that of the horse radish and other similar deep-rooted plants. It sends forth in the spring one of its long and rapidly growing Manual cf Agric.Mure. 281 underground branches ; this pushes ahead until it finds sufficient light and air for the favourable OTowth of stem and flower. It comes to the surface, and if all is favourable there it at once devel- opes the seed stem, but it does not finally push forth until the fa- vourable place is reached. These stems thus grow with the clover until the crop is ready for the scathe, and are then mown with the crop, thus cutting the thistle just when it has made its great- est exertion to live, and when it can actually least bear the check. The stems being thus cut off just down to the ground, the thistle has to form a new series of buds and headings, but it is generally too late for a second blooming ; then the plant seems to husband itself for another year. " A bunch of short-leaved stems and corresponding leaves grow amongst the second growth of clover, although they are not very observable, and the plant prepares itself for the next year's cam- paign against the farmer. " Now, except in the loosest kinds of soils, the thistle does not grow as deeply in Canada as it does in England ; for instead of going down to great depths, it simply grows to the extent of the plough gauge oi a little below, then runs out horizontally instead of vertically, and in some of the worst infested ground, roots may be traced in the bottom of the furrow for ten feet or more. " All these roots are furnished with the regular complement of eyes for new shoots, all are within reach of the surface, and hence, when the circumstances are favourable, they all put forth at once, and form one of those mats of growth known as a 'patch of thistles.' " These can only be destroyed by ploughing below the roots, and thus bringing them into the loose soil, then continually moving them to the surface before they have had time to grow or form new shoots ; and in one season of summer fallow, if ploughed — or, what is equivalent to ploughmg, moved by the cultivator or grub- ber often enough — they are killed and thoroughly destroyed." American farmers also contend that the thorough summer fallow, commenced when tlie thistle is in blossom, is the most certain way of extermination. One of their most able writem says : — " On land not excessively stony, I can kill the thistles in four months, so that not one of them will ever peep again, for eight dollars an acre. The fine condition the soil will be left in will be worth about this sum additional. Let the thistles grow till flowering time ; then turn them all under by means of a log chain attached in the usual manner to the plough, for plough- ing under tall crops. Repeat the ploughing once a month until time to sow winter grain (or for any other crop), and the job will be completed. But remember — t}\A work must not be done hy halves! If you leave a thistle sticking up here and there, at any of the four ploughiugs, you will fail Turn them under : ■', ' i !• 282 The Canadian Farmer's r« f'""' deeply — thoroughly ; the roots will all die if they cannot breatlie for a whole summer." By Hoeing. — If this is done effectually, thistles may be greatly reduced in number ; but it must be done very effectually. Fii'st encourage the growth of the thistle as much as possible, and then destroy it aa soon as it grows. Every thistle root has upon its lateral roots a number of buds ; these will lie in the ground for a long time without sprouting, and if not made to grow and the f)roduct destroyed, will take advantage of the fine culture of our and for some crop, as wheat, when we should be peculiarly glad if they did not put in an appearance. One object, then, in effecting their destruction by the hoe, must be to cause first every one of these buds or eyes to sprout. This can only be done by deep ploughing and deep cultivation. Say we would take off a crop of roots whilst we kill the thistle. Turnips will be found the oest, because we may with impunity sow them late, say on the 10th of June. Previous to that date we have time to plough and deeply cultivate the land, so as to get a fine deep mellow seed bed down to the very root of the thistle, and thus by culture give that root every chance to grow. Many of the roots will, by such cultiva- tion, being thoroughl}' torn away from any hold upon the soil, and turned over and dried out, be destroyed before turnip-sowing time. Such roots as remain under ground will lie in a mellow seed bed, and will all grow. Now comes the work. Throughout the summer, whenever a Elant from any eye of these roots appears on the surface, it must e immediately cut off. This can only be effected by a constant use of horse and hand hoe. If all the eyes of the root have sprouted, it has been in point of fact turned from a perennial into an annual plant ; and if all the annuals have been prevented from coming to maturity, the thistle crop is destroyed. But if any of the deep roots have remained quiescent or dor- mant in the ground, there is yet left a perennial thistle root, and at some future time it will throw up its bunches, or " Thistk patches." If, however, another root crop is grown on .the same ground in the next year, and the same method of cultivation is adopted, the total destruction of all thistles in that field will be unfait accompli. If we can get a good catch of clover on a field that is badly infested with " thistles," cut one crop, and turn down the after- math, we shall have a preparation of the land which will grow two fair root crops in succession, upon the principle and for the purposes above mentioned. We still, however, hold to the position that when very large %7^ '4 Manual of Agriculture. 283 )t breathe 36 greatly ly. First , and then } upon its ound for a v and the lure of our liarly glad B hoe, must lUt. cultivation, the thistle. h impunity and deeply A bed down ^e that root ich cultiva- lon the soil, irnip-sowing oaellow seed whenever a face, it must a constant in point of id if all the the thistle kent or dor- Ele root, and [or "ThistU In .the same Lltivation is [field will be Ihat is badly In the after- Ih will grow land for the very large fields are overrun with the thistle, the summer fallow, deep and thorough, commenced when the weed is in blossom, and carried on continually through the hot months, is the most effectual and practical means of destruction. THE WILD OAT {Avena fatua ) Is a wild winter oat It has been well known for a long time on the European continent and all over Great Britain, where it has been justly regarded as a dangerous pest, and has been pretty well kept under. If, however, it should ever get the same hold upon our Canadian farms as has the Canada thistle, it will be found even more difficult to eradicate. It is a weed, the seeds of which are possessed of the most extraordinary vitality. It will grow anywhere and under any climate. It will be found in any crop, and, coming very rapidly to maturity, it will re-seed the ground ere our cereals are ready for the cradle. A peculiar feature in the wild oat is that each seed has hooks upon it, like those found in the seed of a burr-dock, by which they attach themselves to any object passing in contact with the ripe stems, such as cattle. So readily is this accom- plished, that some farmers have persisted that they fly forward of their own accord to cling to external objects. The travelling separators and the habit of lending fanning mills are prevalent sources by which these weeds are spread from farm to farm. If fed to horses, they will pass through into the manure pile, and unless such is very thoroughly heated, will grow again when carried to the fields. The seeds will lie for a long time dormant in the soil, and even when buried to a great depth do not lose their germinating powers. The stem will throw out flower and ripen its seed at any height from two inches to four feet, and if cut down close to the ground, will shoot out again and stool luxuriantly from the crown. When once the wild oat has obtained thorough possession of a field, summer fallowing, such as we have above described for the thistle, becomes the surest means of eradication. It has been asserted that the seeds of this noxious plant will i lie for many years or for generations in the subsoil, and will I spring into life on the first favourable opportunity. In support of this, " Vectis," to whose authority we have before alluded, records, that "his father owned a farm in England, on which wild oats were certainly known, for they are known all over England, but they were not plentiful, and from having been well kept ! I 'ft' 284 The Canadian Farmer's it under, were not even a nuisance, being duly weeded out of the growing grain with the docks, thistles, &c., every spring. Well, there was one field which it was supposed would be greatly benefited by the bringing up of an inch or two of subsoil, and this was done in the fall, so as to give it the benefit of the winter's frost. The field was well manured, and sown to peas. In due time the peas came up, but wiib them so plentiful a crop of wild oats, that they would have smothered the peas, but that peas like something to climb. The whole crop as green stuff amounted to more tons per acre than I should like to say ; it was all cut green and fed to cattle in the way of soiling, and destroyed in the farm-yard, and every exertion was used to eradicate the wild oats by immediate ploughing, and fallow, or rather hoed crops; but that field was many years thoroughly infested with the wild oats, and they certainly had all been brought up by that two inches of subsoil, which by its appearance might have remained till that time undisturbed since the Deluge." When not very bad, there is a simple mode of destruction which is practical to all forehanded farmers : it is fall ploughing. iThe spring crop, sown on second light ploughing, gang ploughing or cultivating, will so far obtain the start of the wild oats that when the crop is ready for harvesting the weed wiU not have gone to seed. But as this is only temporary, and only prevents the increase of the oat, the field must be ploughed each fall. A better plan is to cultivate or harrow thoroughly the stubbles immediately after harvest. This will start the weeds into growth, when fall ploughing will destroy them. They will seldom come up through meadow or pasture land, but will lie donnant beneath the sod, ready to mature when cul- tivation shall have afforded them a satisfactory seed bed. Even after harvest, when cut off with the crop, the stem that is left will throw up shoots, and seed before winter. COUCH OR QUACK GRASS {Triticum repena). This plant is not as prevalent in Canada as in the Old Country, but it is one, if well established, even more difficult to get rid of than either the thistle or wild oat. Growing close to the ground, with a heavy broad blade, it will smother out almost any plant. It is of a perennial character, and increases by spreading under- ground its white jointed roots, from each joint of which a stem is thrown up. Cut these roots up as much as possible, and if any joint be left attached to the soil by a single fibre it will grow and become the centre from which springs forth a new store of plants. If the land is badly infested, nothing short of the expensive operation of fallowing, raking, and burning will be effectual Manual of Agriculture. 285 1 of the Well, greatly soil, and , of the to peas, sntifui a peas, hut as green e to say ; lUng, and used to fallow, or loroughly all been ppearance e Deluge." bion which ing. ^The jughiug or that when bve gone to he increase A better ninediately when fall sture land, when cul- . , item that is Id Country, ,0 get rid of >lade,itwill [ding under- Ichastemis , and if any iU grow and jve of plants- ^e expensive 36 etfectual. Such a costly businer-a may frighten the farmer, but it must be done. We know of fields in our own neighbourhood so filled with couch that when ploughed and cross ploughed the soil cuts up into square chunks, which it is almost impossible to tear with the cul- tivator and harrow. A field never should be allowed to get into such a state ; but when, unhappily, it has become so overrun, the weeds must be torn to pieces, brought to the surface and burnt. Plough deep and cultivate thoroughly after spring seeding is finished ; then by hand-rake gather the couch grass which is so brought up into wind rows and heaps, and set fire to it. Summer fallow the field thoroughly during the hot months, and each time that it is stirred, gather up the roots and burn. In the succeeding year put on a hoed crop, and keep it thoroughly hoed. This is the plan, and the only one, by which this pest can be eradicated from a field that has once become thoroughly overrun by it. We would sooner own a field so covered with Canada thistles that there should not be enough bare soil on which to lay a six- pence, than one in which couch grass had held undisputed sway for any length of time. In every agricultural paper or book, and from every farmer to whom we apply on this subject, we obtain the same invariable answer — nothing will destroy couch grass but bringing the roots to the surface, gathering them and burning. And such has been our own experience. Never let a patch increase. Like other weeds of a similar nature, it first shows itself bj' the appearance of one or two patches. Let these be destroyed by the above process, for if its spread be not immediately retarded, it will soon cover acres. The weed will grow anywhere, and its root penetrate almost any substances ; it luxuriates on the heaviest of soils, and is yet at home in sand. Such is the forcing power of its root, that we have frequently found them growing completely through a potato ; and we once ploughed up an old boot sole, probably drawn out in ma- nure, through the centre of which a root of couch grass had found its way. SORREL {RuTMx Acetoso). When the season is unpropitious and meadows are thin, sorrel holds supreme sway, as in the season of 1871 and 1872. If clover is thin on the ground, some other plant will take its place — that plant in Canada is usually what is called Horse Sorrel — there is then commenced a struggle for growth between the artificial grass and the natural weed. One of two results must come to pass — either the clover smothers out the son-el, or the latter so destroys the clover. It is a common saying that land is sour when sorrel is preva- '^1 1 286 The Canadian Farmer's lent, and that the application of lime, ashes and plaster will cor- rect the acidity and make the soil uncongenial to the wants of sorrel ; but this is far from being the case. Sorrel dearly loves a good warm soil, and will luxuriate in such like any other plant, be the same a weed or not. But the application of these top dressings has the effect of pushing forward the growth of clover, which then gets the start and smothers the weed. On light lands, the application of manure will destroy sorrel ultimately. The first year the sorrel will grow equally well with the grass, but in the second we have always found the clover make such rapid growth as effectually to destroy the weed. That lime of itself will not destroy sorrel we know, for we have seen it flourishing on the very edge of a lime kiln. But lime the land, haiTOW the grass, top dress it with ashes and plaster, and nurse it, and you will get rid of sorrel by pushing for- ward your own crop. \ CHARLOCK, OR YELLOW MUSTARD {Sinapis Arvensis). It is seldom that this weed, which is an annual, becomes so thick that it cannot be hand picked. As it ripens before any grain, forming seeds at the bottom, when the top is in flower it must be picked out of the growing grain fields. Should it, however, have been allowed to overspread a large axea thickly, a succession of hoed crops for at least two years will be found effectual, killing the plants before they have time to ripen and cast seeds. The two hoed crops are generally necessary, because in very few seasons will all the seeds be sprouted ; some will lie dormant. But if we succeed in destroying the greater part in one hoed crop, any that may be left, and grow in succeeding spring crop, may be readily picked by hand. PIGEON WEED, OR RED ROOT, When not very thick, may be destroyed by hand picking. Mr. John Johnston, according to the author of" Walks and Talks," has studied the habits of red root, or " pigeon weed," as he calls it, and thus ascertained how best to attack it. irle sowed some red root seed in flower-pots each month, commencing in February, and kept them well watered. The seed sown in February, March, April, May and June did not germinate any earlier than that | sown in July ; that sown in August germinated more freely ; while that sown in September came up at once, and in great quantity. Here he got ah explanation of the fact that red root rarely proves of any damage to any crop except winter wheat. It shows, too, | nu Manual of Agriculture. 287 will cor- wanis of y loves a plant, be effect of the start broy sorrel well with over make ar we have h ashes and pushing for- nsis). [, becomes so 8 before any I in flower it ,read a large years will ave time to y necessary, outed ; some in one hoed spring crop, kicking. Mr . and Talks, as he calls it, red some red February, and Iruary, March, lier than that ; freely, while [reat quantity. rarely proves lit shows, too. that a summer fallow for wheat will not kill it. The seed mainly lies dormant in the ground during the whole summer, and the thorough cultivation causes it to stait up more freely in the wheat. But if you fallow the land and then do not sow it to wheat, the red root will spring up and can be easily killed. The red root seed gets into the manure from clover hay and wheat straw, and when the manure is applied to wheat it springs up, and there is no chance of killing the plants except by weeding and hand hoeing. It was for this reason that Mr. Johnston adopted the plan of spreading the manure on grass land in September. The red root seed then germinates, and when the land is ploughed over the following spring the plants are turned under and killed. It appears, from the nature of the growth of this weed, that it cannot be destroyed by hoe crop or by summer fallow ; the most effectual plan then is '' to prepare the land for fall wheat, and then not sow it to wheat" Docks {Rumex Acutus) do not seed until the second year. In the first year cut them off below the crown, or pull them up by the roots, and they will die. About the end of June is the best time. In the second year they form burrs, and thus become burr- docks. Then cut them after the seeds are partially formed, and when the stems are hollow. Don't pull them the second year, for there will be enough food stored up in the root to allow the seeds to ripen, even after they are out of the ground. It is better when the burr is fully formed to cut them off than to pull them up by the root. Plantains. — Dig them out with a knife, and if on grass land, encourage the growth of the grass, which will kill out the [weeds. Smart Weed (Polygonum Amphibium) is not a noxious weed, [but a valuable article of forage ; horses and sheep eat it greedily, hether green or cured. Its effect upon the animal system is very ;ood, and promotes health and vigour through the summer. It is, fact, an excellent tonic, and is often used by man for giving a m to the appetite and stomach. Chickweed {Alsine Media). — Of this there are two kinds, one m annual and the other a biennial. Good culture and constant re in preventing the first from going to seed are the only neces- ries required to keep it under. For the biennial, it must in some ay be smothered out. Heavy growths of clover will generally 'ect its destruction. Yarroiu is a common perennial plant in Canada. It is very itter in its nature, and so aromatic that it will impart a flavour hay so strong that horses do not care to eat it. Good cultiva- Q and heavy crops will soon smother it out. I 288 The Canadian Farmer's m 8'^' iv. tx. >>rming per- ^ht of stock mes within ing system. I no reason- J farmer has blame of the ich in nine I doing Jvhat thoroughly, ssary to be , Proper pre- r selection oi pruning of per drainage, at the depth •e of the line each side oi 18 of the sub- the drain on subsoiled for |o the width thoroughly To prevent in amongst ^out five feet an ordinary lelting snows itting among fits are tobel felected of as I Ig and weak lad, while the I, leaving the Issfully tiUed. The plants are to be cut back beforr planting to within three or four buds or branches of the collar, which will leave them about three inches high when planted out. The distance apart at which the plants are to be set will vary with the kind of material used, out in any case mu8t be unit'orin throughout. In aasorting out plants as they come from ^he nursyiy or seed bed, it will generally be found that there are three sizes, which may be classed as large, medium, and small. One strip of hedge mav be planted with the best and strongest plants ; another with those of medium size, and the small ones either set out again in the seed- bed till they get strong, or, if they are thrifty, though slim, set out in a strip by themselves. Every plant that has roots that are imperfect or deficient in fibres should be rejected, it being impor- tant that the roots, as well as the tops, should be equal in strength and quality. The plantine out may be expeditiously done with a trowel or small garden spade. Insert the implement into the soil, press the handle forward, while another hand places the roots into the crevice, and on withdrawing the blade the earth will fall back on the roots, and can be compressed slightly by a pat of the im- plement, or by the hand. After-culture. — Having planted out the hedge, the after-culture should consist in keeping the ground stirred with the hoe, and all weeds down, for a strip the full width between the water furrows on each side. Care should be taken to allow no animals to browse on the hedge at any time — a thing they are most apt to do when it is young, and full of succulent wood. Any plants that fail to grow must have their places filled from the seed bed, or from the end of the hedge, as soon afterwards as possible. When the hedge has fairly started growing, it should be left undisturbed by any pruning process for two seasons, at the end of which the plants are to be cut back to within four inches of the ground, and there- after twice in each year, say in July and September, to within three or four inches of the previous cutting, the first time it is done, and as much higher with an inch more added at each time of cutting, till the hedge has reached a height of five or six feet " Pruning into shape. — The most common error in pruning hedges, and one that results in making them thin at the bottom, is that they are cut from the top downwards, instead of the bot- tom upwards, thus leaving a flat top. The hedge should be allowed to extend at the bottom to thicken it, and cut so as to form a triangle, the base of which rests on the ground, and the apex points upward to the sky. " Thickening neglected hedges. — When a hedge, even at six or eight feet high, has become scraggy and thin at the bottom, it may be restored to usefulness by cutting each stem half-way through, near the ground, with an upward stroke Oi a sharp hatchet or chisel, and bending the plant down to an angle oi ,ij,, ■«! 7M Mi J I I: 298 The Canadian Farmer's about 30°, commencing with the first stem at one end and bendino it, the next being bent to it, and so on to the other end, Tliis operation must be performed very early in the spring, before the buds begin to break. A new gro" th will start upwards from near the cut, and at the end of a year the hedge can be pruned into proper shape, which consists mainly in throwing back the growth towards the bottom and side branches. " Deciduous Hedge Plants. — Those plants that are of a thorny nature are usually best adapted for making a hedge, though gooJ hedges can be made from some varieties of shrubby trees that pro- duce no thorns. One of the most popular hedge plants of America, and one that is every way adapted to the purpose, where it can be successfully grown, is the Osage Orange. It is a rapid grower, makes a strong, thorny fence, and is easily propagated from seed It does not, however, prove sufficiently hardy to withstand the severe cold of our Canadian winters, until the plants have become quite large and strong. In an experiment we tried with it some years ago, the plants were found very variable in their hardiness. Some of them were killed out entirely the first winter, somei only partially so, while others were scarcely affected by the frost, and continued in after years to giow vigorously ; but the seeming im- possibility of filling up the gaps, after several trials, caused the attempts to make a hedge of Osage Orange to be abandoned. Three inches apart is the distance they find best to set the plants of Osage Orange in the western United States, where many hun- dred miles of hedges are made of it. " White Willow suckers so badly, it is quite worthless for hedg- ing. " Buckthorn makes a capital hedge, and proves quite hardy here, but is of slow growth and difficult propagation, and has one seri- ous drawback we have observed in those that have come under our notice, viz. it suffers gi-eatly from summer drought when it has got well established, often to the extent of the destruction of so many plants as to leave large gaps in the hedge. It may be, however, that this can be prevented by mulching the ground on both sides of the hedge during summer time, with a layer of straw. Plants are set six to eight inches apart. They can be bought at most nurseries for six dollars per thousand. " Honey Locust makes a thick, strong, rapid-growing hedge, per- fectly impervious to any kind of stock. The plants can only be raised from seed. It is somewhat liable to winter-kill when young, but not nearly so much so as the Osage Orange. Plants may be set out nine to twelve inches apart ; and it is absolutely necessary to keep it well cut back after the hedge is established, or it will get too strong and unmanageable. "Beech. — Some varieties that are inclined to be shrubby, espe- cially the purple beech, would make an excellent hedge, perfectly Manual of Agriculture. 299 I bending nd. This lefore the from near uned into he growth ' a thorny ough good 3 that pro- )f America, '6 it can be )id grower, . from seed. bstand the ave become fith it some r hardiness. •, somei only le frost, and seeming im- , caused the I abandoned. jt the plants ) many hun- essforhedg- hardy here, las one seri- come under Ight when it lestruction of It may be, ground on [yer of straw, lie bought at Ig hedge, per- lean only be Iwhen young, llants may be ^ly necessary led, or it will irubby, espe- Ige, perfectly hardy, and capable, when once established, of turning any kind of stock. Such a hedge would, however, require to be protected from sheep and cattle in its early stages, as they are extremely fond of browsing on the young shoots of beech in the winter and spring. Plants set eight inches apart. Can be easily grown from seed or young plants a few inches high, grown in the woods, may be transplanted to a seed bed, and a year afterwards set out in a hedge. " Wild Plum. — Some of the prickly varieties of our wild plum ought to yield a good material of which to make hedges, and plants could doubtless be easily obtained from seed. The wild crab would probably also make a good hedging plant under proper management, though as yet we do not think it has been tried. "For merely ornamental hedges to the garden or lawn, or inside the fence in cities or towns, there is nothing equal to Privet, which is a quick-growing shrub, easily obtained at a cheap rate, in most Qurseries, and quite hardy and reliable Set the plants four to six inches apart. Barberry also makes an excellent hedge for gardens, and is both useful and ornamental ; the berries can be made into tarts and preserves by those who like their flavour. " For a low hedge bordering a garden walk, there is nothing more beautiful than the Japan Quince (Pyrus Japonica), with its loads of bright scarlet blossoms in spring and early summer. Set the plants eighteen inches apart, and trim the sides in, so as to incline them to throw out branches towards the top and centre, till the hedge is about three feet high, at which elevation it is to be kept by regular pruning.' A correspondent of the Prairie Farmer, thus records a novel mode of trimming hedges, which appears to have the advantage of being exceedingly expeditious : — "Having heard a great deal said about the mode of trimming hedges, I will give my mode of keeping hedges low trimmed, which for ease and expedition I think is the best I have yet tried. Take my waggon, with hayrack on, fill the space on off" side of rack with an extra board, so as to make a good and soft platform to stand on, then I hitch my most steady team to the waggon, and armed with a good, sharp scythe, am ready for the work, drive with off horse next the hedge, tie the lines to the standards in the front of rack, with right line a little tight, to keep team close up to the hedge, then start the team as often as the length of the rack. I am now speaking of cutting the top of the hedge, which is much easier cut than timothy grass, being young and tender, and with a little care can be trimmed as level as a house floor. " After trimming the top, T put out my team and walk back- wards along the side of the hedge, with my scythe still sharp, trim with an upward stroke, and if there is any unevenness in the trimming you will immediately see it, having your face constantly ^:.^'>^, ■■ I ""'■':. m. I < •'I 800 TA^ Canadian Farmer's towards the part trimmed. This is all very easily done, being much easier than mowing gi'ass. A man can trim in this manner from one-half to a mile of hedge per day. It should be done twice during the season, in June and August. This manner of trim- ming gives the hedge a beautiful appearance, with a slope on each side and flat on the top, giving it the appearance of a well-laid stone wall." Hedges and Mice. — These little pests are often found very des- tructive in hedges. The only practical plan to prevent their rav- ages is to be found in keeping the land at the bottom and aloDg each side of the hedge clear of all grass. They will seldom move across bare land, nor take up their quarters except where grass is thick, in winter. In the articles quoted above, no mention has been made of the English Hawthorn. We know of many hedges of this kind in Canada, but of none that have been kept properly cut down so as to be stock proof; but where they exist, although in a wild neg- lected state, they are hardy and thrifty. The Arbor Vitce, Norway Spruce and Hemlock make 'very nandsome hedges, and though not stock proof, will be found very valuable as windbreaks, on the exposed sides of private grounds, barn yards and orchards. Farm Gates. — Of these the number is legion, patented and un- patented — swing, slide, lift and self-acting gates. Some gates cannot be opened except by a man's strength, whilst others are so delicately engineered, that on the approach of the horse and buggy, open sesame and presto ! — the gate flies open of its own accord as if by magic. But as unfortunately, time and weather do not recognize the subtle mechanism of these patents, and lay upon them, equally with those of more humble preten- sions, the heavy hand of inevitable decay, we prefer to leave them to be pufied by the patentees. As our work is devoted to the interest of the farmers themselves, we shall confine ourselves to a description of a few cheap gates that can be made by any handy man, with a few simple tools, and during the slack winter days. For a simple swing gate : — Take six pieces of stuff" twelve feet long, four inches wide, and one inch thick ; lay these down on a level piece of ground, leaving the first bottom space two and three-quarter inches wide, the next three inches, the next three-and-a-half inches, the next five-and-a-half inches, and the next or top space, nine-and-a- half inches wide ; then take the same kind of material and nail across the ends with annealed nails ; then nail on a cross brace from the upper to the lower corner, also with annealed nails, so that it will fit neatly inside of the end pieces. Now turn the gate over, and nail similar upright pieces across the ends, even Manual of Agriculture. 301 le, being I manner >ne twice of trim- e on each well-laid very des- their rav- md along iom move re grass is ade of the is kind in down so as , wild neg- makevery found very te grounds, ted and un- ngth, whilst ach of the flies open of y, time and ese patents, nble preten- fer to leave devoted to ■ne ourselves lade by any slack winter es wide, and i of ground, arter inches Lf inches, the f, nine-and-a- [rial and nail I a cross brace |aled nails, so low turn the te ends, even with the ones on the opposite side, and one upright piece midway between the ends. This latter is far preferable to putting on a diagonal brace on that side In such a gate there is no mortising, and, for the weight of it, it is far stronger than any mortised gate that can be made. Annealed nails are better than wrought nails. Such gates look well, and are very quickly made. A good hand will make five of them in a day. In hanging, place the opening end at least one and a quarter inches above what you wish it to be, as any large gate, no matter on what kind of a hinge, will spring at least that much. This may be varied by mortising the bars into scantlings for uprights, A very good gate is made by forming a frame of scantlings, and letting pickets into the horizontals. Referring to a good sliding gate, W. H. Smith, in the Rural New Yorker, says : — " I have a gate which has been in use eight years, and works as well to-day as the first day it was put up. 1 now have nine of them on my farm. Not one of them has cost me a dollar since erected, nor any repairs, except two of them which have had new sills. They are constructed as follows : "Four posts are set firmly in line, so that the fronts will be true. Measure fourteen feet, in line with those already set, and set the post the gate shuts against. Then place the sill for the gate to ran on, fourteen or sixteen feet long, put down solid. The sill for the gate to run back on, can be made of any light material that will sustain the weight of the gate. The sill should have about one inch down grade toward the shutting post, and be spiked fast to the posts. The gate is made of any width lumber, and long enough to lap four inches on the shutting post, and about two feet on the groove post, to keep it steady. At the bottom the gate must have two boards to support the bolts that the rollers turn on. These rollers should be six inches in diameter, an inch thick, to run on half-round iron, placed at the proper distance from the bottom board of the fence, so to let the gate pass with- out rubbing. The iron rod should have holes punched, so as to let twelve-penny nails through to nail to the sill about two feet apart. Nail down the rod, and it is ready for the gate. "The gate is put together with sixteen two and a-half inch bolts and eight three and a-half inch bolts ; the three and a-half inch bolts go through three boards at the bottom. The rollers go be- tween the bottom boards close under the brace, so as to get the bearing ; the bolts should fit the rollers as tight as possible. These rollers in their place, put up the gate on the rod, and run it back on the fence ; mark the four posts one inch above the top of the gate ; saw them off square in line ; place on top of the mf.i ■' u'u a 302 The Canadian Farmer's posts a joist twelve inches wide, two inches thick ; let it project over in front of the gate far enough to clear it ; now nail a six- inch strip on the edge of the joist, so that the top edge will be even with the top side of the joist; the four inches projecting down will serve as a groove for the gate to run in, and keep it in its place , now spike the joist to the top of the post firmly ; let the gate lap on the shutting post about four inches on half of the posts ; then nail the ends of the boards to the post occupying the other half so that the gate will shut against the butts, which will help to sustain the post ; now nail a board solid in line with the butts, and thick enough to project a quarter to a half inch from the gate ; nail a stout board on the previous one, and let it project over about three inches toward the gate, and in line with the post, so as to make a groove for the gate to stand in. If it is properly shaped, the gate will jam in it, and remain solid until it IS pushed back " These gates are the cheapest and most durable of any I have ever used. I am now sixty years of age, and have used all kinds, but these are the cheapest and best." The great difficulty encountered with swing gates, is the sag- ging and heaving of the posts, when the frost is coming out of the ground. To overcome this, the following plan will be found effectual :— The posts are framed in a stout sill, about two feet above this a girt is framed in , this acts as a brace in such a manner that the posts are rigidly kept in place. A trench three feet deep is dug, the frame and posts are set up therein, and the earth is well stamped and compacted round the sill. The upper girt need not be sunk more than a few inches beneath the surface, but the earth should be well tamped and forced under it, that it may not suffer from loaded wagons being driven over it. These posts may be guaranteed to stay where they are placed until inevitable decay overtakes them. It will not be out of place here to quote an excellent plan for lifting old posts that are firmly imbedded in the ground. A long logging chain is put around the post at the base and a stout prop put under it a few feet away and inclined towards the post, then let the oxen draw. There are very few posts so tight in the tifround, that they cannot be easily removed by the strength of two stout oxen. In this way, a long line of fence may be removed in a single day, A span of horses may be used in place of the oxen, MOVEABLE HURDLES. At a meeting of the Elmira Farmers Club, Mr. George Maby said: "Last fall I made a visit to Orange and Ulster counties, and there I saw a good deal of hurdle fence in use. It is made in Manual of_ Agriculture. 803 it project a,il a six- [e will be projecting d keep it irmly; let lalf of the ipying the Its, which I line with I, half inch , and let it ni line with in. If it is ilid until it any I have jd all Jjinds, , is the sag- ming out of effectual:— ibove this a ner that the deep is dug, arth is well 'irt need not [face, hut the ,t it may not Ise posts may itable decay nient plan for Vnd. A long 1 a stout prop Ihe post, then Tight in the length of two J removed in of the oxen. [eMaby said: counties, and is made in sections eight feet long, and of the desired height, all of young chestnut, having regard to lightness and durability. Saplings four inches in diameter are suitable for posts, and these are cut about six and a half feet long, allowing eighteen inches to enter the ground. Each piece is split, making two posts, and sharpened as if for driving. At proper distances holes are bored in the posts ; two holes with an inch augur as close as they can be bored together, to receive the slats. These are made of smaller chestnuts, those two inches in diameter being split to make two. Now the holes being bored and the slats fitted at the ends to enter them, they are driven together and light braces nailed a- cross, and the panel is ready to carry out and set yp. Holes are made with a crowbar and the posts dropped in, two panels to the rod, a quick job and a good fence. I saw fences of this character, which had been twelve years in use, and were yet ser- viceable. They are taken up at the close of the season and housed and piled in good order, and in the spring they are reset where needed. Low flats subject to overflow may be fenced in this way with entire securitj'^ against loss by overflow, and it is a quick, easy job to put out or take up the fence. So patches of roots may be separated from the remainder of the field easily by this fence. Any common labourer may put it up if he has sense enough to punch a hole in the ground with a bar. The cost of the panels is 56 cents each, all ready to set up, and it is said the mountainous districts in those counties are inhabited by men who drive a profitable business in making this fence, and selling it to their wealthier neighbours on the low lands. Many farmers there deal largely in small fruits and these hurdle fences by their portability are just suited to their wants. Cattle have due respect for the fence, and on the whole I think it worth notice especially by those farmers whose lands are subject to overflow." CATTLE. When we advocate the keeping of well-bred cattle, we do not wish to be understood as advisin,:^ the raising of thorough-breds by the generality of farmers. Such would not be remunerative nor practicable. What we require is good grade stock — cattle that have fineness of bone and at the same time a large frame. In ordei to keep up a good standard of grade, it becomes necessary that we look for sires to animals of the most symmetrical shape, the most perfectly developed form, and possessed in a pre-eminent degree of all those various points which go to make up a square well- built animal. We are not amongst the number of those who would disparage the common cow. Far from it ; we consider such to be of great value in their own particular way ; but we main- tain also that they are capable of improvement. Their hardiness I J ft r Jn I I 304 The Canadian Farmer's and freedom from disease are points in their favour. Let us retain those good inherent qualities, and by the use of a different class of bull, endeavour to break down such characteristics as may be found unprofitable in the common cow She is large in bone, and therefore is not profitable for beef; she is a greedy feeder, and takes far more food to put on a given weight of beef than one of her own size, that has finer bones in her frame. The preservation of pure blood, uncontaminated by mixture with different breeds is only required for breeding purposes, for the very best results have always been attained by crossing such thorough-breds with the common naturalized cow of the country. In these days, when the farmer is looking to beef as a source of profit even greater than such as is realized by the exhaustive process of continual grain raising, and when every kind of fodder is scarce and dear, it behoves him to look well to the kind of cattle to which he devotes his attention and his feed. The fine-boned, high-blooded animal will return a greater amount of beef, and that of a better quality, as the result of a given quantity of food, than will the coarse bred beast. \ The questions that each farmer must set before him to be an- swered are : "What produce do I require from my cattle, dairy or beef, or dairy and beef 1 What kind of animal will give me, in re- turn for the care and food that I may devote, the greatest quantity of either or of both of these marketable products ?" But we have often been asked which is the best breed of cattle for the ordinary farmer ? Shorthorns, Devons, Ayrshires or Jerseys? Now this matter depends entirely upon what sort of a common farmer the querist is. If he wishes to devote his sl^ock to butter, the Jersey is undoubtedly the best, if to the raising of cattle for work, the Devon ; if a milkman near the city, Ayrshire ; and if a beefmaker ; the Durham The Durham, though not giving a copious supply of milk, will be found a good butter cow, for her milk is exceedingly rich Indeed, Mr. Allen, in his work on American cattle, affirms that they are as good milkers in quantity as any other breed ; and it should not be forgotten that the Teeswater cattle, from which our present improved Durham have sprung, were, one hundred years ago, noted in Great Britain for their feats at the pail. For this reason the Durham strain or good Durham grades will readily commend themjielves to those farmers who desire to obtain profit both from milk and beef; and in this latter particular these grades are very superior, for should our cow at any time g^ 'ja'/en for a year, we can immediately dispose of her to advantage by a short preparation for and sale to the butcher. The Devon and Hereford. — The latter have never taken well in America, and to our mind the reason has been, that though good beef cattle they are inferior as milkers. 'tlPP- E Manual of Agriculture. 805 18 retain snt class 1 may be )one, and ader, and m one of servation it breeds st results reds with 3 a source exhaustive I of fodder ae kind of a greater t of a given Q to be an- le. dairy or re me, in re- est quantity •ed of cattle orJerseysl [f a common •k to butter, ig of cattle Tshire ; and pf milk, will My rich affirms that [reed ; and it |m which our indred years grades will sire to obtain rticular these .le g •' W'-'''^'^'^ idvantage by Itaken well in that thougli The JJevona are better milkers than usually supposed in Canada; the chief objection to them seems to have arisen from a prevalent idea that they were an ill-tempered breed. We believe there is some ground for the idea, at least when we compare theUi with the kind and gentle Durham or Ayrshire. But in the southern parts of England, and especially in their native county, they are highly esteemed as generous milkers. There is no stock equal to them as oxen for work ; and the best yokes that we have seen in Canada were invariably Devons. The Ayrahirea have from time immemorial been bred in the west of Scotland as milkers. In that rocky country, against whose heights the moisture-laden clouds from the Atlantic are con- stantly brought in contact and dispelled in rain, the natural pasture is superb, and in every way calculated to increase the milk producing qualities of any race of cattle. They are of undersize, hardy, kindly, and seem to do well under the Canadian climate. They require very little food to keep in good condition and gene- rous flow ; and for the farmer whose chief desideratum is milk or cheese, there is probably no better breed existing. But for beef- producing, not only is the frame small on which to lay meat, but the beef is inferior to that of the Devon or Shorthorn. It is a common practice, and one highly recommended by many of our best breeders, to put a grade Shorthorn to a thorough-bred Ayrshu*e bull. They assert that the result is preferable in the dairy to a thorough-bred Ayrshire cow, while the boef-producing qualities are doubtless very much better than those found in pure Ayrshire. The Alderney or Jersey come from the three little islands half- way between France and England, and situated in the English Channel. Again, the humidity of these islands has favoured the development of a good milking race of cattle. These Alderney s are small in size, hardy and kindly — requiring but very little food to keep them in good flow. The richness of their milk is proverbial, being of a deep yellow creamy colour throughout ; they are consequently very superior as butter cows, and we are surprised that they are not more sought after by pri- vate families, who require for their daily use rich milk, plenty of butter, and at the same time a gentle, kind and docile animal about the house. For such families, in town or village, the Alderney or Jersey will be found the very best breed. The Dutch or Holstein Cattle, natives of Holland, have of late years attracted considerable attention at the hands of American dairymen, and we believe are yet destined to become an estab- lished breed on this continent. Holland is a purely dairy country, i and the milking qualities of their native cattle are very excellent. I They possess the gr^at advantage of being largely built and capa- I bie of making fair sized beeves. 20 jUii;'!; w^ i i ■I' , hi 906 The Canadian Farmer's If nothing more would deter the ordinary farmer from going into thorougn-breds, their high price forms a barrier ; and to our mind it is as well. Men of means and judgment have been found to take up breeding as a business. Let us be content with our grades, and look to them for thorough-bred males, by which to keep up the good qualities of our grades. We go to the seedsman for new and improved varieties of seeds, and we pay him a high figure for them. We acknowledge the necessity of improvement in our cereals, and we are willing to pay those who have devoted time and money to starting such improve- ment. In like manner there are those who are devoting means, energy and education to the improvement of the several breeds of cattle , before we partake of the benefits accruing from the devo- tion of these men, we must "pay our footing." " To a man who deals in scrub cattle worth fifty dollars a head, it seems an enormous price to pay two hundred dollars for a herd book animal, and six hundred is deemed a clear case of extortion. " But there is nothing in the breeding of choice animals to dis- turb the usual law of supply and demand. Like any other ani- mal in the market, they are worth just what they will bring. " The scrub cow is good for beef and milk, and it does not add a cent to her value that she can reproduce her kind. If she is a good milker she is worth sixty dollars as a new milch cow, if that, IS the market value of the article. If she will make five hundred pounds of beef, she is worth so many cents per pound, according to the market price. You can get as many as you like at that price ; but the thorough-bred is prized for different qualities alto- gether. If known to be a barren animal, she is worth no more than a scrub cow of the same weight. If she can reproduce her kind, every good quality in her is enhanced in value. " We are ready to pay for her pedigree, her beauty of form, her capacity to make beef economically, to produce a large flow of milk or to make rich butter or cheese. These extra qualities are the result of care in breeding ; they represent capital lavishly spent and skill in the breeder, acquired by long years of expe- rience. He has in the carcase of his thorough-bred animal a ma- chine for the production of certain economical results which has cost him large sums of money. If he can show that he can pro- duce these results with a fair share of uniformity, he is entitled to an extra price for his thorough-bred animal. There is no doubt that the skilful breeder can do this. A shorthorn bull at a large price is cheaper for a farmer who wants to raise beef than a scrub bull at any price. It is the confidence which farmers have that tho- rough-breds will transmit their good qualities that leads to the steady demand for them. A. breeds them, it may be to sell to B. at a fancy price. But B. would not want them unless he could i sell to G. who is engaged in raising beef cattle ; and has found out Manual of Agriculture, 307 iin going id to our on found with our ih to keep s of seeds, rledge the ng to pay I improve- ing means, L breeds of L the devo- lars ahead, J for a herd I extortion. mals to dis- yr other ani- 1 bring. loes not add If she is a cow, if that. five hundred id, according ike at that ualities alto- jrth no more eproduce her of form, her large flow of qualities are )ital lavishly rears of expe- animal a ma- lts which bas Lt he can pro- is entitled to no doubt that a large price 1 a scrub bull ^ave that tbo- leads to the „ be to sell to [nless he couW has found out that grade shorthorns will save a whole year of feeding, and one year's interest on the large capital he has invested in stock. He wants only a thorough-bred bull, and thinks he can afford to pay any price which is necessary to get him. " The high prices for these animals will only continue as long as farmers find it to their own interest to buy them. The several breeds of cattle meet real wants among farmers who desire them for ordinary purposes. The demand will probably continue as long as beef, milk, butter and cheese are eaten ; as long as oxen are used on the farm It is the most thrifty and skilful farmers that in- vest in thorough-bred animals. " It is altogether probable t]mf understand their own interests." Now, a stock of good grade cattle may be rai)idly gathered up by any farmer at an expense of from one to two hundred dollars. Many breeders will dispose of a thorough-bred bull for a moderate sum because his colour does not suit them, whilst his pedigree may be perfect and he may possess every useful quality. Co-operation in a neighbourhood where more than one farmer would purchase a thorough-bred bull, so that they might exchange and prevent too close breeding, would soon raise up a fine class of grades in a section. Of one thing we may be certain, the use of a grade bull should never be permitted. It takes but four or five years to raise up a herd, with little expense, to three-quarter and seven-eighth bred animals, and then it is that the good qualities show and high figures begin to be realized. Could a common steer be made up to a live weight of 2,600 lbs, at three years old ? We think not. The old saying, " Blood will tell," true as it undoubtedly is, will be found no talisman against neglect, exposure and starvation. Many a man has tried improving his stock, but left them out in the weather and neglected them just as he used to do with his common stock ; and the natural consequence of such treatment was made a ground of complaint against breeding. If a man should buy some old worn-out watch for a dollar, and put it to steep in a basin of water, its functions would be, in all probability, somewhat retarded. Should he give a hundred dol- lars for a Waltham, and treat it in like manner, the fact of his article having been composed of the best material would not pre- vent its reduction to about the same state as the dollar watch when under the same course of treatment ; but his loss would be the greater. The reason why a grade bull is not a safe one to breed from is simply, we know nothing of his ancestry for any length of time back, and we cannot tell if those qualities which we particularly want to be developed in the progeny have been passed down to him through a sufficiently long ancestry to make it certain that they will also be stamped upon his calves. 1 'H'-. ■:1 I i> V n Jr-',. J .t ■ 308 The Canadian Farmer's Breeding. — " Wliatever the class or character of the dams, the continued use of sires of a distinct breed, capable of transmitting a family likeness, should constantly be persisted in ; the man who does so finding his stock of various breeds of animals yearly in- creasing in value, the receipts correspondingly raised, and the oc- cupants of his pastures, stables or stalls, wonderfully improved in appearance, " Whether they attend to it or not, we find most men admitting the influence of a well-bred sire on the character and quality of the future offspring; but, strange to say, comparatively little stress is laid upon the influence for good which is exerted by the dam on her young, when she herself is of good quality and well descended. When both parents are good, progress is rapid ; and by holding over for breeders only the young of the best animals much time is saved, and the required amount of perfection is reached in a very limited number of years. Once looked to, this point will ever after be considered one of the most vital import- ance, and will on no account whatever be neglected or overlookeJ. To any one conversant with stock in large numbers, the infiuence of the mother is strikingly apparent in certain members of each class, their produce year after year exceeding in value that of every other animal of the same kind, and, when sold, brings pro- poiiionately more money. Thus, for instance, a cow will sometimes breed calves for a succession of years exactly the same colour, form and general character — no matter if the sire is changed each year ; and her progeny again will transmit to their own offspring the same characteristics, but in an improved degree, i^* fcho necessary measures have been attended to with this view. Families are thus founded, and men intelligent enough to profit by improving a good strain which has come in their way — it may be quite acci- dentally in the first instance— have gained for themselves a name and acquired fortunes. To breed from females which have proved themselves indifferent nurses, and whose progeny, however handsome they themselves may be, are always amongst the culls of the flock or herd, is very short-sighted policy, and detracts very materially from the prosperity of those who will not take the trouble of marking all such animals, and getting rid of them on the first favourable opportunity. Hardiness, by which general term a great deal of meaning is expressed, should never be lost sight of by the breeder, but, on the contrary, carefully attended to, as it is a quality of the utmost consequeilce, enabling them to withstand the vicissitudes of the weather, to keep up condition at periods when the greatest foresight cannot prevent a scarcity of food, to be always in good health, and to b6 able to breed animals of sound, healthy and hardy constitutions." — Mark Lane Express. Animals should be selected for breeding purposes that have a I character. If for the dairy, a character is wanted that they, and Mi-iiMi- m.0 *\M >.g )00.0 \A 907.1 1.2 1185.7 5.5 ! 90.').4 1 2 120.8 R.7 84.6 0.7 98.2 1.1 61.4 7.7 64.2 0.1 71.0 5.0 76.0 9.1 72.0 1 1 81.5 6.0 76.0 3.2 78.7 3.7 78.2 4.6 77.0 3.1 68.0 0.8 70.3 ' and CroTM Lucerne. 75.0 2.2 14.3 0.8 1.9 4.4 0.6 1 0.8 1 100.0 r Humphry e, as food, of Swede turnips Wiiite turnips Mangold wurzel (loni; red). . . . " " (orange globe Sugar beet Mucilage or Starch. 9 7 13 15} 17i Sugar. 51 34 119 10«| 126} Oiuten or Albumen. 2 1 4 ToUl. 62 52 136 134 146} Treat all Animals Kindly — It is a pity every one does not treat animals kindly, for much more can be done with them in all ways ; they will do as you wish them readily, and you become completely master of them, without knowledge on their part that they are subservient to your desires. There is not a more interest- ing sight than to see a first-rate herdsman or a thoroughly good shepherd move a numerous lot of animals and draw them out into different yards, and then, perhaps, into pens — one here, two there, &c., but in every instance the right one going into the right place, and all this done without any bustle and in the most regularly quiet manner imaginable. JVJan too is an animal, and how very much better it would be if any one having that sort of animal around him would treat them kindly : he might, as stated with the lower animals, become complete master and have entire con- trol of them, without their feeling how really subordinate they were. Overbearing manners beget dislike. Belittle a man by a foolish arrogance, and he is totally discouraged and becomes careless. In fact, there is generally a great want of sense in any one who tries to make others feel inferiority; and depend upon it^there is nothing better than kindly treatment towards all animals. Store Cattle. — The two chief points to ever bear in view in the treatment of store and growing cattle is shelter and generous variety of food ; and yet store cattle must be kept cheap, or they vyill "eat their heads off," as the saying is, ere they be ready to put up for the butcher or to come in as milkers. Well, comfort is half the battle, and costs very little, A warm shed in winter ; a liberal supply of straw, varied with roots, and a very little grain in winter; shade and access to water in summer, and plenty of moderate exercise, are all that is wanted to keep young cattle growing. The object to be sought with stores is to keep the frame enlarging and the constitution sound and healthy, so that when the time ot feeding arrives we may have a large and fully developed frame and a healthy machine by which to convert the crops into beef. Depend upon it, for the ultimate benefit of the farm, the right and proper way of disposing of all straws, hays and coarse grains, is by making them " walk off" to market. The common object sought in keeping cattle in the barn-yard :i%^. ■^la* , U\ ' , 'I ^i |t'^ ••nl- r >.H ill ■ 11 If: |Sc'.,.'..r MM; fib* [if i 314 T'/t^ Canadian Farmer's through the winter is to keep the beasts at least in as good order as when they left the pasture, and to make manure. If cattle be once stinted in their growth, they will never after- wards be able to acquire flesh either so rapidly or so fully as if better kept. The different appearance of cattle kept well sheltered in winter and those that are allowed to run out in all sorts of weather, and unprotected, to grub their own food, is in the spring very apparent to the outsider ; and if the owners could be persuaded to produce a fair and square account, we have no doubt that the feeder would show a better balance sheet ere June grass had left, than he who winter starves his cattle. Fatti/ng Cattle .— " Oh ! rare rosbif ! loved by mankind, If I were doomed to have thee, All dressed and garnished to my mind. And swimming in thy gravy, Not all the country's force combined Could from my fury save thee." \ Buying Cattle to Fat in Winter. — The liberal and constant ap- plication of manure is the grand basis upon which rests successful farming. Of manure there are three kinds — the so-called artificial manures, green manures, and animal or barn-yard dung. Each in its place is necessary to a proper enrichment of the soil, and the obtaining of all is a matter of much importance. To make plenty of barn-yard manure, a number of stock must be kept, and such should be richly fed ; for as the fodder is rich, so will the manure be impregnated with a maximum amount of those rich elements which go to increase the growth of the plant. While endeavouring to fat a great number of head of cattle, the question of a profitable return for the food supplied has to be con- sidered as inseparably connected with the manufacture of rich ma- nure. We have seen beasts put up to fatten who have eaten more than they have made. A thin beast, put up in the cold weather, takes a great amount of his food for the purpose of supplying the necessary heat to the body ; while an animal in good order has a heat-producing store in his own fat, which allows all the extra food to be taken up in producing more meat. We may lay it down as an axiom that it will not pay to put up a thin beast to fatten upon stored or winter food. After August, the fall pasturage will be ready for cattle ; take them off this as soon as very cold nights set in, and stall feed, They will be the very best of beef by Christmas. In this way alone, as a rule, can winter feeding of stock for the butcher be made profitable. The animal is growing from August to December without a day's check. We have bought steers in August for thirty -five dollars cash, and sold the same before | Manual of jigriculture. 315 Christmas for sixty-five dollars, only stall feeding for about six weeks. Money may be made in the current year by growing and selling a large breadth of grain, but it is made at the expense of our fu- ture income. Fattening of stock is the most profitable manner in which to apply our farm produce, for we have profit from the ani- mals and manure to boot. At the same time, there is such a thing as putting more feed into a beast than his increase in weight will pay for. If we adopt as an axiom, that an animal should always be in good order when put up for winter stall feeding, we cannot go far astray. Choosing a Beast to Fatten. — British Husbandry says : " In choosing a breed more especially adapted for fatting purposes, there are some points which should be closely regarded. Attention should be paid to compactness and symmetry of form ; deep fore quarters, wide carcases, fine small bones, moderately thin hides, a protuberance of fat under the root of the tail, and large full eyes, A well-shaped steer should thus have a small head, with a placid countenance, as indicative of docility and aptitude to get fat ; a fine muzzle and open nostrils ; the throat should be clean, long and thin in the neck, but wide and deep in the shoulders ; the back should be broad and straight near the setting on of the tail, with the rump-points fat and coming well up to it ; the bar- rel should be round, wide across the loins, and the girth deep be- hind the shoulders, with the space between the hip bone and the short rib very small (this latter is most important to all easily kept animals) ; the fore legs should be short and wide apart, so as to pre- sent a broad appearance to the chest, and the thighs of the hind legs should be shut well in the twist — the seam in the middle of which should be well filled ; and the flanks should be heavy and full. A form such as this is not only the best for affording the greatest weight, but will be also generally found to lay the flesh upon the prime parts, to produce the least quantity of offal, with such a large quantity of tallow as, emphatically speaking, in the butchers' phrase, will cause the animal to ' die well' These marks, however, are not the only indications of a propensity to fatten quickly. On the contrary, it has been found by experience that many coarse beasts, with large bones and gummy legs, have often proved superior in that respect to other animals of undoubted superiority in point of shape. The state of the hide and flesh is of the first importance, as the essential property of ' handling mlV" An eminent breeder considers that " it is the nice touch or mel- low feel of the hand which constitutes, in a great measure, the judge of cattle," " The knowledge and the value of sJcill in touch can only be acquired by long practice, but when once obtained, it may be '■^,. f *' 816 The Canadian Farmer's ^m ■vK til'- relied on as the best criterion in judging of the feeding qualities of a beast, for it is generally found to be accompanied by the other good properties of gentleness, purity of blood and consequent dis- position to fatten. A thin, papery skin, covered with light silky hair, denotes weakness, and is therefore as defective a test of su- periority as that of a coarse tough hide, covered with hard, short hair, which always indicates a bad feeder." This judgment of good feeders is most important to the cattle buyer, and we have the perfection of a skin indicative of disposi- tion to fatten, thus briefly summed by an eminent cattle dealer, " as consisting in a thick, loose skin, floating as it were on a layer of soft fat, yielding to the least pressure, springing back towards the fingers like a piece of chamois leather, and covered with thick, glossy soft hair." Early maturity/ can be gained in no other manner than by the increase of the superiority of the breed, best effected by the use of thorough-bred male stock. Although it has been said that " a plain, coarse, ugly animal may pay more than a fine, well-made one, because the coarse one is bought at a much less price in proportion," yet our readers who have had experience in fatting extensively for the market will endorse us when we strongly recommend the propriety of the purchase of those cattle for the stall which have the finest points in their form ; for these will not only carry beef of the best quality, but will consume less food in proportion, particularly as they attain age and fatness; and will thus, generally, realize the largest profits on their fattening. Management in the Stalls. — The thrifty condition of a beast, and the saving )f food from waste, are in a very great measure dependent upon their management when put up to stall feed. The first point is comfort of accommodation ; for on their easi- ness depends, in a great measure, the rapidity with which they will lay on fat. They should be perfectly secured from the weatJur, and a certain degree of warmth above and below — roofs rain-proof and floors dry. Neither should stalls be ill-ventilated or too warm ; for the first fault may affect the healthy state of the respiratory and digestive organs, whilst the latter may cause perspiration, and every sweating is so much food lost to fat. A dry bed and plenty of litter inclines the beast to lie, and the oftener he is down, con- tentedly chewing the cud of perfect satisfaction, the more rapidly will he increase in size and weight. Strict regixlat^ty in times and (if any) gradual variations in quantity and quality of food are most important. Whatever periods for feeding are once adopted, they should be made a rule' and acted up to within the minute. The beast soon, by instinct, will acquire a most accurate knowledge of his proper feeding time, and from that minute will be restless until he is sup- Manual of Agriculture. 317 qualities the otber [uent dis- ght silky est of su- ard, short the cattle of disposi- tle dealer, on a layer ik towards with thick, han by the r the use of iigly animal } coarse one readers who market will riety of the finest points [best quality, jly as they :e the largest of a beast, eat measure ,all feed. »n their easi- A/phich they > the iveatlier, >fs rain-proof )r too warm; , respiratory ipiration, and >d and plenty IS dow^n, con- Imore rapidly Mviations in ley should he le beast soon, 1 of his proper itil he is sup- plied, and every minute of restlessness is again so much food lost to fat. Stalls should he kept moderately dark, for by so doing the ani- mal is induced to take more rest. Cleanliness. — No point is of more importance, and probably there is none so generally neglected as this. Mangers should be cleaned out before every feed, that there may be no sourness found in the bottom. Water. — It is not uncommon to say that cattle fatting require no water — that such as is contained in the turnips is ample. Try the beast with a pail of clean water immediately after he has eaten his turnips, and in nine cases out of ten he will take a drink. Turnips, no doubt, contain over ninety per cent, of water, but it is not in a form by means of which the animal can wash down his feed. When to stop Feeding Cattle. — Nature has a law, that she will refuse to increase live weight of the animal world above a certain point. There is a period during the fatting of domestic animals heyond which feeding is no longer done at a profit. When the heast is well fattened, and loses his appetite for food, further fat- tening is only at a loss, and the sooner the animal is slaughtered the greater its profit to the feeder. Feeding may be continued just as long as the beeve appears healthful, and will take his regular feeds with a keen relish. Overfeeding. — There is such a thing as overfeeding, and the effect is that the appetite becomes cloyed, and it will take some time to bring back a healthful relish for food. To prevent this, careful watch must be set, and when a beast begins to play with his fodder, tossing it out of the box or rolling it into a ball, it should be immediately removed, and the amount of succeeding feeds be reduced. Large quantities of grain should n£ver be fed at one time. The error is not uncommonly committed of feeding the animal too little at one time, and then endeavouring to make up for lost time by cramming. This may have answered for the Irishman's pig, when he wanted to " put on a streak of lean and then a streak of fat — sure ;" but the effect upon beasts is to cloy the appetite, and the principle comes weU under the old adage of " the more haste, the less speed." LIVE AND DEAD WEIGHT. The difiiculty of judging correctly the difference between these weights has led to the adoption of calculations based on the measurement of the dimensions of the animal. One plan is : — The girth is taken by passing a tape-line round the body, just behind the shoulder blade and under the fore legs ; and the length ■%, 'f "tl- 3pii| I' 1 i! Illiii hi ill iiL 318 The Canadian Farmer's is found by measurement along the back from the foremost corner of the shoulder blade-bone, in a straight line to the hindmost I)oint of the rump, or to that bone of the tail which plumbs the ine with the hinder part of the buttock. This mode of measurement is generally acknowledged as the most simple and the best, as applicable to all breeds of cattle. The weight is then found by any of the following rules : — BULES FOR FINDING DEAD WEIGHT. For example, we suppose a fat beaat to be 5 feet in length and 7 feet in girth. Rule 1. Multiply the square of girth in inches by length in inches, and divide the result by 525, and the quotient is the weight required : — Ex. ... I Square the girth in inches 84 84 705C Multiply by length in inches 60 Divide by 625. 525)423360(806 Ans 806 lbs. Rule 2. Square the girth in feet, multiply the same by the length in feet, and multiply the double sum by 3*33, and the re- sult is the weight required : — Ex. 7 Square girth in feet « 7 49 Multiply by length in feet...... 5 245 Multiply by 333 333 Ans 815-85 lbs. Rule 3. Multiply half the girth by itself in feet, and the pro- duct by fourteen times the length in feet. The result will give | the desired weight. N.B. This rule is more simple, but not quite as accurate as | Rules Nos. 1 and 2. k;M 3st corner hindmost umbs the red as the •attle. les : — length and r length in tient is the 5 i)(806 same by the 3, andtbere- 7 7 k9 5 J5 lbs. and the pro- 3sult will give accurate as Manual of Agriculture. 319 36 Multiply half girth by itself in feet 35 1226 Multiply by length in feet 5 6125 Multiply by 14 14 Ans 857ilb8. Rule 4. Multiply girth by itself in feet ; multiply product by five times the length in feet; and multiply result by the fraction |. 7 Multiply girth by itself. 7 49 Multiply by^five times the Jength 26 1225 Multiply by fraction f Ans 816§ lbs. Rule 5. Obtain the live weight of an animal by actual weighing, aDd divide this '^y 8, and multiply the quotient by 6. Thus, if the animal weighs 1288 lbs. on the scales: — Divide by 8 8)1288 161 Multiply by 5 5 Ans 805 lbs. Id other words, the live weight loses exactly three-eighth& For 1288 — | (1288) = 1288 — 483 = 805 lbs. Ans. lOr the mean amount of beef from a fat beast is about '625 of the five weight : — For, as above -626 of 1288 lbs. = 805 lb& A number of experiments have been, within the last few years, oade on this point at the public slaughter-houses of Paris and Brussels, and the result of these have been that — m m 'hi r ' i:i *' li;; 320 The Canadian Farmer's As ox weighing 1322 lbs. yields :— Meat 773-26 Skin.. 111-20 OreMBe 8800 Blood 55-16 Feet and hoofs 2200 Head 1100 Tongue OSO Lnngs and heart 15*33 Liver and spleen 2005 Intestines 66*15 Loaa and evaporation 154*32 548-76 Total 132200 Ibfl. In this experiment, the beef was only -58 of the live weight, but we believe that our former figure of -625, or f , is a better standard. Rule 6. — As there is a difference in the proportion of meat to offal in animals of different condition, the following accurate rules have been struck : — Multiply the girth into itself and multiply by the length ; if the beast is " J ust killable," multiply product by 3 08 "Fair beef," " " 3*22 "Fat," " « 3-33 "Very fat," " " 350 "Extra fat," « « 3-64 Example: — Take girth as before, 7 feet, and length 6 feet 7 Multiply girth by itself 7 49 Multiply by length 5 245 K " Just killable," multiplyby 308, gives 75470 lbs. " Fair beef," " 3*22 " 788-90 " "Fat," « 3-33 " 815-85 " "Very fat," « 3*50 " 85750 " "Extra fat," ** 8*64 " 891-80 " In the Quarterly Journal of Agriculture we find also a s I Weha sate for i 'ili such pincy st( jansTver ij pill not ppecfc th pe farme ^ fair size «11 up to . %stea h ordin£ Mi" 30 lb Ner, and P'ee-quai M, we Si lave twen n *o $1. Manual of Agriculiure. 321 ment of the live and dead weights ; and proportion of offal of bullocks of different breeds, a summary of which is as follows : — Breed. live weight, |, is a better m of taeat to accurate rules length ; if the )8 22 J3 50 4 7 7 49 5 245 70 lbs. •90 « i-85 (1 r-50 « L-80 « id also a I)urhara . . Devon — Hereford . . Hisliland . Cross-bred Proportion of carcase to Proportion of offal to 700 lbs. of live weight.' 700 lbs. of carcase. 40; Iba 72j •' 140; lbs. 172i 220 282i " 282i " Thus establishing the Durham at the head of beef producers. Again, we have another tabular statement of four animals, which, though individually of equal weight when alive, yet sepa- rately displayed an extraordinary difference when killed, in their production of beef and tallow, exclusive of hide and offal. Live Weight. Dead Weight. Tallow. An Aberdeen ox 1859 lbs. 1848 " 1680 " 1681 " 1182 lbs. 1261 " 1087 " 945 " 220 lbs. 196 " 210 " 208 " A Shortlioni ox A " heifer A ** steer It is instructive to observe the large proportion of tallow from the younp: stock as compared with that in the oxen. CUTTING AND STEAMING CATTLE FEED. We have been often asked what are the advantages to compen- Isate for the trouble and expense of steaming our cattle food. Like lall such farm operations, people have said it 13 all very fine for jfancy stock, but it won't pay with our ordinary stock. The lanswer is ready. It will pay if only enough stock is kept. It Iwillnot pay to rig up apparatus at some expense, and then to expect the profits on two or three head of cattle to make it up to khe farmer, but the aggregate saving of a few pounds per day, on I fair sized stock, will, in the course of a long Canadian winter, [ell up to a very pretty sum total. By steaming, twenty-five per cent., or one-quarter, is saved over [he ordinary plan of feeding long fodder. If 30 lbs. of hay be required per day to keep one cow in fair [rder, and, by means of steaming, it can be shown that 22 lbs., or bee-quarters of the first amount, will answer the purpose eoually Ml, we save 8 lbs. of hay per day, per cow. Suppo.'jing that we lave twenty head, we thus save IGO lbs. of hay per day, equiva- pt to $1.60 cents per day when hay is worth $10 per ton, or for 21 t';Ui'"t 322 The Canadian Farmer's ■'.< >!l! the five winter months we effect a saving in fodder to the amount of $150. Albert J. Foster, a farmer having many years' experience, says before tho Orleans County Farmers' Club : — "Having been solicited to make a statement of my experience in cutting feed and feeding stock, I will say that I have cut feed, more or less, for the last fifteen years, and find it a great savins in feeding all kinds of stock, and particularly in feeding horses. I find that it does not require more than two-thirds as much in bulk when cut as when fed without cutting. I am feeding the present winter seventy horses and mules and eleven head of cattle entirely on cut feed. I do not steam my feed, for the reason that I have not the proper facilities for so doing, but I think a gieat saving might be made by steaming. I have a second-hand two- horse power that cost me $25, and a cutting box that cost $30, that I use for cutting feed for all my stock. Two men and a boy i will cut enough in one day to last seven days. I mix ]this feed i in a box as I want to use it, and always salt it well before feeding, I In this way I have no sick horses, and they all appear to have good appetites. I usually water once a day, and while the stock are drinking, clean the stables. I find that one hand will take proper care of this stock, with the help of another hand one liourl in the morning and at night. I have often heard it said thatstockl would not do well if compelled to eat cut feed up clean,and that I is particularly the case in regard to corn fodder; but I have nearly] finished cutting 16 acres of heavy corn fodder, that, owing to badl weather, was not as well saved as some years, and as yet I have not thrown into my yard one bushel of this cut mixture. I intenJj to mix, as nearly as possible, two parts straw with one of hay ani one of corn fodder. A sufficient quantity of this, with at least sijf quarts of ground feed (three parts shorts to one of meal) per head will keep stock thriving and in good condition. I am not ableti give any experiments in feeding cattle for beef, except in regan to one pair of six year old oxen, which I bought last spring, aaj worked through the summer, and fed on grain after they wcij turned to grass. They were weighed when put up to feed in t!ij fall, again two weeks before selling, and when sold, and I fuuii they had gained an average of 2^ pounds a head per day. TlieJ were fed, in addition to the regular cut feed, about six quarts i meal each per day. I am fully satisfied that it will pay any tainiJ to cut feed for his stock, and perhaps to buy more feed rather tm to sell any off the farm. " But this is not the only advantage gained by feeding cut feeast winter, is somewhat changed from previous years, and is a boxful of steamed feed morning and noon, and 5 lbs. dry hay at night. The two boxes of feed contain 3 lbs. good hay, 6 lbs. straw (or its equivalent), 1 lb. shorts, and 1| lbs. meal (half each cotton seed and corn), and upon this good gain is made, as the monthly record shows." Before leaving the question of feed, we will return to summer feeding as performed under the system known as Soiling. — Whether the adoption of entire soiling will pay or not depends in great part upon the nature and value of a farmer's land. Where there is rough land it is often only fit to be put into a state of permanent pasture. But where all the land can be used to advantage to raise meadow hay, it becomes a question whether it would not pay us better to get a full crop than to turn our cattle out upon land upon which our hot climate usually very materially reduces the amount of succulent food through tb summer months. We are well aware that a given amount of Li will feed far more head of cattle under the soiling system than when pastured. The question for the farmer to solve is, will the saving of land fo other purposes pay for the time and trouble tor| be expended in cutting and carrying food all through the sum mer months ? There are six distinct advantages accruing from the practii of soiling: 1. It saves land. 2. It saves fencing. 3. It economizes food, 4. It keeps the cattle in better condition and greater comfort I 6. It produces a better flow of milk in milch cows. ' n Manual of Agriculliire. 325 (). It increases the quantity and quality of the manure made on tho farn). Tiiat it saves land there can bo no • thus saved or use upon tlie field cro|)S of the farm alone pays> for the timo the^ 'inontlily fr*^ trouble entailed under this practice. The kinds of fodder grown for soiling purposes are chiefly clo- rer, oats, Indian corn, cabbages and rye. Tho Inst makes an ex- llent early crop ; then clover from the 1st of June ; oats will le ready by July, and Indian corn may be made to come in by wing at different intervals for all the hot month of August and jhe greater part of September; while the cabbages, helped out by |he second crop of clover and other root'?, will carry the soiled .ttle into winter quarters. The cattle recjuire to be fed often, say five times a day, and to ve access to plenty of pure water. One boy, devoting his whole time to it, will feed a great num- r of cattle ; but it is work that requires the constant supcrvi- ion of the owner, for upon the regularity of feeding will entirely pend the thrift of the animals. It is recorded by the Hon. Mr. Quincy, an American, and is rroborative of experiments made by Sir John Sinclair, that 17 res of land under the soiling system will keep as many head of the practicM'^^® ^^ ^^^ previously required 50 acres of pasturage. Thus has ^ mffo. effected a saving of 33 acres, which at a very moderate rent uld be equivalent to one hundred dollars a year, to say nothing the crops that may be raised on the 33 acres, the increased ount of manure made, and the superior thrift of the cattle. \ r comfort, W^ ^^ h^^n urged that the abolition of pasturage on a farm ^^^ ® »uld be hard on the land : but it must be remembered that ^ws. ■ ' , about held rid 1,120 ll)s. ;)iined h\ Ihs i weeks, tin; lined 40 ll)s. ley would eat was found to above statcMl. doofi fill 200 feed i it well 1 hay and y straw. This eked in layers bh 180 quarU larts corn meal s been used for 18 years, and is lbs. dry hay at ay, 6 lbs. straw alf each cotton irn to Bumraei| ng will pay or ue of a farmer's fit to be put the land can )me8 a question op than to turn ate usually very )d through tb amount of land! system than! live is, will tkl and trouble toi| irough the sum- }m >i 326 The Canadian Farmer's ■i' #11 none of the crops used for soiling are permitted to go to seed, and that a great amount of manure is made to return to the fields. What it takes to Soil a Coiv. — " Having an excellent piece of clover just coming into blossom, we measured forty square rods, and commenced deeding it to seven cows and four horses: it fed them liberally fifteen days. The two succeeding years we tried the same experiment, the animals differing somewhat, but with the same result. In each case we found forty square rods equal to the summer feeding of one cow. These crops of clover were very heavy, and could not always be equalled ; yet, allowing for contingencies, we came to estimate one half acre of land in good condition in clover as adequate to the summering of a cow ; thus making soiling equal to from four to six times the space in ])as- ture. We tried afterwards much larger experiments — soiling thirty-five cattle and horses, and using some land in much poorer culture ; but we found the saving comparatively quite as encour- aging. We selected one hundred acres — barely sufficient to have pastured this number of animals — ten of it in clover, oats and sowed corn ; we fed them from the 20th day of May to the 1st day of December. We had a surplus of sixty-five tons of hay, after feecing those animals six months and ten days, which sold in the barn for $972.00. It required six hours' labour per day to soil them, which amounted (in those cheap times) to $Go.OO. One hundred loads of manure were saved in fine condition, worth at least $50 more than the droppings of these animals at pasture. The expense of cutting and housing the sixty-five tons of hay vas $1.50 per ton, or 8.97.50, which, added to the Ijibour of soiling, makes $162.50, leaving $859.50 as the net gain of this soiling ex- periment." — Live Stock Journal. MtLCH cows. ■ >;if Selection. — We make no apology to the reader for quoting on this head somewhat lengthily from X. A. Willard's very excellent I work, " Practical Dairy Husbandry." The work should be in the hands of every dairy farmer, and would, indeed, be found a valuj able addition to any library in the country : — " Which is the best ureed of Cows for the Dairy, and how is it\ to he obtained ? — This question has been before the dairy public for the last quarter of a century, and is to-day by no means setrl tied among practical dairymen. If you go among the breeders of I thorough-bred stock, you will get no end of argument, backedf by a fuimidable pile of statistics, to show that this or that breedl is the best. It is now Shorthorns, then Ayrshires, or AlderneysT or Devons, or Dutch cattle ; just as you happen to meet those in[ teiested in one or other of these breeds. " Now, it may be presumed that none of these men mean toj Manual of Agriculture, 827 men mean mislead ; for they may have strong convictions of the truth of what they advocate, and, under certain conditions, I think that it might be proved that either would be right. But that any one of these breeds is best adapted to all soils, all climates or all pur- poses, is quite another matter, and one which is not true in fact. The practical questions for dairymen to decide are — first, what breed of cattle is best adapted to the soil, the climate and the surface of the country, or farm, where the stock is to be kept ? and, secondly, what breed is best adapted for the peculiar purpose for which it is wanted ? " It would, it seems to me, be exceedingly poor economy for the butter maker, located on a rough hilly surface, affording scanty herbage, to select Shorthorns ; because they are not an active race, and demand a plentiful supply of nutritious food — food easy to be obtained. And to the cheese dairyman, located on a level or slightlj'^ undulating surface, yielding an abundance of rich food, who desired to get the greatest profit from making cheese and beef, it would be equally bad economy to select the Alderney. And yet, if one was to engage in butter dairying alone, where extra quality and high prices were looked after sharply, the Alder- ney might serve his purpose altogether best. It is from overlook- ing certain conditions, and hoping to realize every excellence, such as quality and quantity of milk, of butter, of cheese, of beef, with activity and endurance, all centred in one breed, that has caused so much dissatisfaction and difference of opinion among dairymen in regard to particular breeds." In Allen's work on American Cattle we find the following ex- cellent advice on the selection of good milkers : — " Where the digestive organs are defective, good milch cows are rarely met with, since these organs have a powerful influence on the exercise of all the functions, and particularly on the secre- tions of the milky glands. " Good milkers allow themselves to be milked easily ; often while ruminating they look with pleased eye at the person who milks them, and like to be care.ssed, and caress in return. The udder is formed principally by the glands which secrete the milk, called the milky glands. These, four in number, two on each side, are designated by the name of * quarters,' each constituting nearly one-fourth part of the udder. The udder is composed, moreover, of skin, cellular tissue, fat, lymphatic ganglions, vessels, &c. In almost all cows, the abundance of milk is in proportion to the size of the mamelles. The marks indicating that these gland.s are constituted so as to produce much milk are, a very large de- velopment of the hind quarters ; a wide and strong lumbar region ; a long rump ; haunches and hind legs well apart ; a large space for lodging the udder ; milky glands well developed, and causing the udder to be of considerable size. In good cows the glands .^:i-* (• 328 The Canadian Farmer's m constitute a large part of the udder, and accordingly, after milking, it shrinks much, and becomes soft, flabby, and very wrinkled. The teats should be set apart from each other, as indicating that the milk vessels are large. Of all the marks for ascertaining good cows, the best are afforded by the blood vessels ; if the veins which surround the udder are large, winding and varicose, they show that the glands receive much blood, and consequently that their functions are active, and that milk is abundant. The veins. on the lateral part of the belly are easily observed. These veins issue from the udder in front, and at the outer angle, where they form in good cows a considerable varicose swelling. They pro- ceed towards the front part of the body, forming angles more or less distinct, often divide towards their anterior extremity, and sink into the body by several openings." Classijication of milkers. — We may classify milkers in a general way as follows : — Good "milkers. — Veins large and of a varicose appearance, i.e., knotty. Milk veins well developed. Udder large, pliable, and shrinking much after milking^ covered with thin skin and fine hair. Hind legs wide apart and teats far from one another, with an outward slope. Broad chest, showing a good constitution, with a gentle and kindly disposition. Moderate milkers. — Generally good shaped in udder and but- tocks, but without a first-class development of the milk and blood veins. Bad milkers. — Cows of bad constitution, or poor feeders. Fleshy thighs, so narrow that there is little room for the udder to hang, without being chafed ; skin of udder hard, and coarsely haired ; veins feebly developed. MANAGEMENT OP MILK COWS. Feeding in Spring and Summer. — We have already spoken at some length on pasturage and soiling in a former chapter ; we now add a few remarks hy X. A. Willard. He says : — " There is a great difference of opinion amongst dairymen in reference to the kinds of grain best adapted to milch cows in spring. " Dairymen generally suit their own convenience in the matter, without much regard to the opinion of others So widely do people differ on this question, that many prefer to feed in spring nothing but hay, if of good quality, claiming that the cows will be healthier when turned to grass, and that the net profits from the dairy will be greater than when grain is used in spring feeding. In other words, that the value of the grain fed in spring more than balances receipts from the extra quantity of butter and of cream produced ; and hence, that grain feeding in spring must be Manual of AgricuLure. 329 poor econan.y. Another class of dairymen, who claim to have looked pretty closely to profits to be realized from milch cows, and to have compared results one year with another, say that no- thing is gained by having cows * come in milk' as earl}'^ as Feb- ruary or March. They prefer the months of April and May, as not only more agreeable, but actually resulting in greater profits. " They argue that cows 'coming in milk' early in the season are more exposed to cold and storms, which must injure the health and weaken the constitution of the animal ; that it sooner wears out the cow, and yields no more net profit than when a later date is Lad for commencing the business of dairying. " Why, they say, should one do extra work in milking and nursing stock through the bad weather of February and March, when the result from stock calving thus early not only is no pecu- niary gain, but brings positive injury to the herd ? Others insist that greater profits are realized when cheese and butter making are commenced early in the season. But if we assume that cows are to come in milk as early as March, then some kind of food other than hay — at least hay as usually harvested — seems to be imperatively demanded, in order to keep stock in decent con- dition as to hfcii' •! t.nd strength, until it comes to grass " Now, the '•' "on of milk is in some respect a matter of habit or educa' -; nd should be promoted and kept up from its first flow. This cannot be accomplished upon hay alone, since the cow cannot be induced to consume the quantity necessary for her maintenance and a full yield of milk of good quality. This will be made evident by comparing the constituents of milk and those of ordinary meadow hay. Suppose the cow is yielding but eight quarts or twenty pounds of milk per day ; this will con- tain a little over two and a-half pounds of dry materials, as follows : — ■,\ OfCasein TOOO lbs. "Butter 0625 " "Sugar 0-875 " " Phosphate of lime 0-045 " Other mineral ingredients 0-055 " Toul 2-600 lb8. " Now, the same amount or twenty pounds of dry hay contain of albuminous matter, fibrine and casein, &c., say about 185 ; oil, butter, &c., say 5'36. " So it will be seen that this quantity of hay (considering that a part of the nutritive matter is not assimilated and passes off in the excrement) will be mostly needed for the manufacture of the milk alone, while a like quantity, and more, must be used for hei maintenance. Experience, as well as science, amply demonstrates the fact that late-cut hay, when used as an exclusve food for milch 5^1 380 The Canadian Farmer's cows, is insufficient to produce milk rich in quality and large in quantity. " The most natural and of course the healthiest food for cows in summer is green grass. When cows are giving an extra quantity of milk, and consequently are milking down thin and poor, it will be advisable to give concentrated food. " When cows are first turned to grass in spring, if feed is abun- dant, they should not be allowed in the pasture but a few hours each day, for several days. The change of food should be gradual." This is also to be guarded against when turning cattle in to aftergrass in the fall. Salting Milch Coiys.— They should have constant access to salt; they will take just enough to keep up their appetite and general health. The common practice of salting at certain intervals is a bad one, for the cattle are themselves the best judges of when they re- quire a lick at the salt, and if deprived of it at one time are apt to devour it too greedily when it is supplied. Salt is necessary to milch cows : it is an important element in the constitution not only of blood, but furnishes the soda neces- sary to hold the cheesy portion of milk in solution. Haidlin found, in the analysis of one thousand pounds of milk, nearly half a pound of free soda and over a third of a pound of chloride of sodium (common salt), and also one and three-quarter pounds of chloride of potassium. Pasture in the spring is deticient in saline matter. Salt should be certainly supplied at that season. X. A. Willard tells us that, from actual experiments made, it has been found that in May and June, when rnilch cows have been deprived of salt for several days, the milkshruuk from two to four 'per cent, in quality. Water for Cows. — No cow can keep up a good flow of milk without abundance of pure water. We have all obsei'ved the rapid decrease of milk when the weather has been hot or water scarce. Of milk no less than 87 parts in every 100 are water. It is held by many that the quantity of drink taken by a cow is an excellent test of her worth as a milker. It must also be no ticed in this connection, that as water enters so largely into the composition, any taint in the water will affect the quality of the milk to a very great extent. M. Dancel, in his communications to the French Academy of Sci- ences, asserts that " by inciting cows to drink large quantities of water, the quantity of milk produced by them can be increased several quarts per day without materially injuring its quality." Fall Feeding. — There is no season of the year when it is more I essential that the feeding of milking cows be carefully attended [ to, especially of such as it is desired to continue in milk through the winter mouths. Manual of Agriculture. 331 Fall pastures are very ai)t to become stringy, bitter and un- iileasant to the taste of cattle, and milk is sure to fall off if feed be not liberally given. Should the production of milk be allowed to ftill off to any extent in the late autumn months, it will be found impossible to raise the flow again when once winter feeding has fairly commenced. A little bran or meal should be given daily to cows at this season, or even a small quantity of whole grain, such as corn, peas or oats. They should also be sheltered at night, or at least sheds should be at hand into which they may oro in cold rain or early snow storms ; and during the heavy white frosts that occur in the fall, or out of the cold north-easterly blasts which herald the ai)proaching winter. Milking cows are peculiarly susceptible to the bad effects of cold and wet, and such effects are invariabl}'^ first perceived in the decrease of the flow of milk. The flow must be kept up if we would make our cows profitable machines. As well half feed a cow for no milk as run an engine with no paying freight behind it. Moreover, fall frosts very materially injure the quality of grass. cows IN WINTER QUAllTERS. Cows should go into whiter quarters in good thrifty condi- tion. If poor in order and in milk at that season, they will re- main so throughout the winter. When put up in good order, it is a simple matter to keep them well through the winter, and the supply of butter and milk will then come in at a time when its market value is invariably high. Before leaving the sultject of food we would say a word on The use of Concantrated Foods. — Great care must be exercised in the feedingr of meal and such stronof food, which is not a natu- ral diet to the animal ; but, on the other hand, if hay and natu- ral fodder is poor, the elements required must be made up by the use of strong materials. Shelter is an important object to be ever kept in view in the management of animals, and of none more especially than in the case of such as are in inilk. A certain amount of animal heat must be kept up in all living bodies. Any exposure to bleak winds or cold rain and snow storms has a tendency to destroy animal heat, and it must be restored by the application of extra feed. If by shelter we can save the animal heat from loss, then do we also save the use of so much food, and food has a distinct money value. The usual estimation is that animals well and warmly housed in such a climate as ours will come out of winter in better condi- tion and on two-thirds of the food consumed by cattle remaining without shelter. Thus by " housing" we save 33^ per cent, of all the food stored in the barn — a very large amount whore many head of stock are wintered. 'm t '^t;.i.'; I '■f^]i t^ .V ilit'-Srifi 332 The Canadian Farmer's Whilst attending to warmth, we must never neglect good ven- tilation, for a cow requires 956 cubic feet of fresh air daily. Exercise. — Milk cows do not require much exercise, nor in the summer time will they voluntarily take more than is necessary to gather their daily feed, but a certain amount is necessary to the general health of the animal. For this reason we have invariably made a rule of turning our cattle out every day in winter (unless may be upon some that were exceptionally , stormy) for some hours, according as the day has been bright and sunny or otherwise. These are all matters of common sense, gained by a careful observation of the animal's ow^n instinctive likings. That cows like to be let out on a winter's day, none can doubt who has ever loosed them from their fastenings; while no matter how short has been the time that they have exercised, they are ready to come back to their stalls immediately the door is again opened. The Proper Age Jor Breeding. — This depends upon circum- stances; but even with the Shorthorns, which mature very early, were they allowed to run until they were two and ifi-half to three years of age, they would become larger, finer, and moie valuable, while their progeny would undoubtedly be larger and stronger. The custom, which at one time was very prevalent, and which we regret is not yet obsolete, of putting the heifer at one year old, is one fatal to the development of superior stock. At an age when all the food is required for the formation and growth of the mother's frame, a sufficient nutrition cannot be afforded to the " foetus," and the result is injury to the young and to the mother as well. From two to two and a-half years old is the best age for put- ting to the bull. If the heifer is allowed to go over three years old, the animal gets in such high condition that there is often difficulty and uncertainty as to her becoming pregnant. If the first calf comes at too early, an age, there will be danger from the mother not having attained her full growth ; if at too late a period, there will bo risk of fever to the heifer. The same age applies to the use of the bull ; he should never be used before he is two years old. Treatment before Calving. — We must remember that the cow in calf has not only to yield milk for her master, but also to supply food to the " foetus " within her. Her food must therefore be plentiful and generous ; increasing in strength and quantity as she approaches her time of pa "ition. The chief point to be carefully kept in view in the tre? ^ent of cows in calf is, never to allow them, to become costive^ n this is best effected by liberal alio wan ce of succulent food. A moderately open state of ohe bowels is most important at the time of parturition in the co* '. During the whole time of preg- Manual of Agriculture. 333 ^oodb ven- ie, nor in than is mount is his reason out every leptionally . bright and r a careful That cows t who has • how short •e ready to ti opened, oon circum- lature very ) and ^i-haif r, and more 1 larger and Y prevalent, the heifer at ior stock, rmation and 1 cannot be I the young age for put- : three years \\eve is often lant. If the icrer from the % too late a should never iihat the cow filso to supply therefore be quantity as point to be [calf is, never jjted by liberal )ortant at the Ttime of preg- nancy her enormous stomachs sufficiently ])ress upon and confine the womb ; and that pressure may be productive of injurious or fatal consequences, if at this period the rumen is suffered to be distended by innutritious food, or the many plus takes on that hardened state to which it is occasionally subject. We shall speak more fully on the subject of Parturition in a future chapter devoted to Diseases, &c., of Stock. Milking. — X. A. Willard says : — " Farmers generally have the impression that when milch cows have wintered well, and are fair}" ' ' :o grass, there need be little care or attention given to vi.^ a lals, and that then in their herds they have a fountain that is lu supply good milk simply by drawing it, not much matter how or when. " It is true, people understand that when cows are milked with great irregularity, or are subject to any extraordinarily brutal treatment, such as sundry kicks in the udder with a heavy boot, they will yield unprofitable results, since the consequence of such management forces itself almost immediately upon the attention. But it is not those things that come so plainly under the eye of the observer, concerning which I propose to speak. If an angry man kicks his cow in the udder, probably some of the blood-vessels of the pait will be ruptured, and the bloody milk which flows from the teats will speak more forcibly than any words of mine ; but if he kicks her in the ribs or mauls her with the milking- stool upon the hips and back, the consequences may not be so immediately apparent, yet that damage has been done, and that loss will follow, are equally certain. " I am speaking of no exceptio.^ai cases, but of such as are of common occurrence wherever any considerable herd is kept, and where the eye of the master is not sharp enough to detect and punish these offences. " A rap upon the spine with the stool has ruined many a valu- able beast ; a stroke upon the udder has often produced unaccount- able cases of garget. " I wish it could be generally and thoroughly understood that nothing pays better in the dairy than kindness and gentleness to stock. Milch cows should be kept as quiet and comfortable as possible, and no person should be employed in milking that the animals fear. Any undue nervous excitement not only lessens the quantity but depreciates the quality of the milk. " The hours of milking should be regular, and each cow should be milked in its regular order, " The milk should be drawn rapidly, and to the last drop ; and all loud talking, singing and wrangling avoided. These are little things in themselves, and may seem to many to be ' over nice,' but repeated and well-conducted experiments have convinced me that they are important points to be attended to, and must be ob- I served to obtain the best results. '■I l^r •i 'C- f: ' 1 im 334 The Canadian Farmer's '* In driving cattle from the pasture to the stable they should never be hurried faster than a walk. " Good cows have well-filled udders, which make it painful to move over the ground faster than at a walk. Besides, in warm weather, by hurrying the animal there is always danger of over- heating her blood and milk, and thus not only injuring it, but all the other milk with which it conies in contact. " Dogs should never be allowed in a dairy. They are a source of infinite mischief In all my observati 'is I have never yet nut with a first-class dairy of cheese where the cows were dogged f''om the pasture to the stable. " Some people are in the habit, when first sitting down to milk, of drawing a little milk to wet their hands and the teat of the cow. It is not a cleanly habit, and should always be avoided. "Some pei*8ons have the impression that milk in some way pu- rifies itself, and that taints imparted to the milk cannot be carried into the butter and cheese. Such ideas are very erroneous. " Cow8 do not milk any easier with wet than with dry hands. If the udder or teats are muddy or covered with filth, they should be washed with clean water and wiped dry. Then milk with dry hands, and it will be found easier and pleasanter, even with i' who have been accustomed to wetting the hands and teats Wuiot milking." On this subject, Professor Dick, of the Edinburgh Veterinarj- College, says : — "" The operation of milking is performed differently in various parts of the country. In some the dairy-maid dips her hand into I a little milk, and by successively stripping the teat between her fingers and thumb, unloads the udder. This plan, however, is at-[ tended with the disadvantage of irritating more or less the teat, and rendering it liable to cracks and chops, which are followed by inflammation extending to the rest of the quarter. This accounts for the disease occurring more frequently among the cows under I the charge of one milker than it does in those under the charge! of another ; and as this practice is more common in some parts | of the country than in others, it also accounts for the disease be-i ing more common in these parts. This plan of milking, where! the irritation is not suffieif nt to excite the extent of intlamniatioDJ to which I have alluded, frequently produces a horny thickeninji of the teat, a consequence of the cracks and chops, which rendersl it more difficult to milk than when in its natural state, and atl the same time predispo^ses to inffammation when any cause oc- curs to set it up. " These effects may be, and are, almost entirely avoided by tliej more scientific plan of milking adopted in other parts of the counf try, where, instead of drawing down orstri[)ping the teat betweew the thumb and fingers, as I have stated, the dairy-maid followil ing cal in a pc grount animall on the f but we Mil/i I'; || llillli{i»lll{i :!l;i Manual of Agriculture, 335 more closely the principles which instinct has taught the calf. She first takes a slight hold of the teat with her hami, by which she merely encircles it, then lifts her hand up so as to press the body of the udder upwards, by which the milk esca})es into the teat ; or if, as is generally the case when some hours have elapsed be- tween milking times, the teat is full, she grasps the teat close to its origin, with her thumo and forefinger, so as to prevent the milk which is in the teat from escaping upwards ; then, making the rest of the fingers to clo3e from above downwards in succes- sion, forces out what milk may be contained in the teat through the opening of it. The hand is again pressed up and closed as bo- fore, and the milk drawn easily and freely, without the tugging and wrenching inflicted by clumsy milkers." The following instructions are the rules of a large dairy in Scot- land. We recommend our readers to establish the same upon their own farms : — 1. Every cow must be in her stall at the appointed time of milking. 2. Milkers are expected to be on hand at 5.45 a. m. and 5.45 p. M., Sundays excepted, when milking will commence at 6.15 A. M. and H.lo p. M. 3. Each milker will have charge of a definite number of stalls, and will be held responsible for the thorough milking of every cow occupying them. 4. Gentle words and kind treatment are enjoined. Strikiig cows with stools, clubs, heavy sticks, &;c., will under no circum- stances be allowed. 5. In driving the cows to and from pasture, great pains must be taken not to hurry nor run them. 6. When persons have any trouble with their cows, they are ex- pected to report the same to the herdsman. 7. It will be the duty of the herdsman to occasionally inspect the milking of all the cows, and to report the result of his inspec- tion to the superintendent. Q(yw» Withholding their Milk. — When cows withhold their milk, they are commonly in a dissatisfied state of mind, and therefore anything to draw their attention from this condition answers a good purpose. We have always succeeded by giving them a mess of food to amuse them while the milking is going on, — generally dry meal, so as to keep them long occupied. If they have suck- ing calves, let them suck at the time of milking. Driving them in a position so that their fore legs will stand on much higher ground than the hind legs, or on lower ground, counteracts the animal's a'ttention, and generally succeeds. It is said that a weight on the small of the animars back, as a bag of grain, will answer, but we know nothing of its efficacy, nor how heavy it must be. Milking Kicking Cows. — Cows raised under gentle treatment. i.lM;'' I; :'■>!■■'', ■' At hi I t I '^* -M 336 The Canadian Farmer's and well accustomed when young to handling, will seldom develop nny propensity to kicking, i.e., to systematic and vicious kickin(T, when being milked. The first drawing of the milk from the udder of a heifer is always accompanied by more or less pain to the animal, and usually results in a few lunges and timid kicks. Gentle handling is all that is required in such a case, with suffi- cient firmness on the part of the milker to show that ho is de- termined to empty the bag. Time and gentle handling will rapidly accustom the heifer to being milked, when, far frum showing an inclination to be obstreperou.^, she will find relief and pleasure in the operation. But as some heifers, perchance from careless handling on the part of the attendant, great soreness about the teats, or a habit formed, become bad kickers, it behoves us tu use some strong remedy by which to master the animal. Whip- ping will never be of any avail. When kindness fails, one plan is to strap up the fore leg ; this will often stop her, as she thinks that she cannot kick without falling when standing on two legs. A more severe remedy, and one tliat we ourselves have always found effectual, is to pass a girth or rope round the body, just in front of the bag and over the hips, and draw it tight. After a time the strap need not be tightened up, but only laid across her back, to make her cognizant of the fact that it is there. The setting of the head firmly against the flank, close up to the hind leg, will often, with a steady pressure into the flank, stop a cow from kicking. G. W. Jackson gives his experience with a kicking cow to the columns of the Country Gentleman. After trying all the ordinary- plans with an inveterately vicious kicker, he says,: — " Finally, I made a milking stall by putting up scantling two and a-half feet from the wall, the cellar wall answering for one side of the stall. I made the stall eight feet in length — if the cow is small, it should be shorter. Board up in front, so that the cow cannot get out ; put up three scantlings, and leave a place on the right side of the cow to milk, so that a person can milk with ease. Board up the side, drive in the cow, and put up a bar behind to keep her from backing out. Then drive a stake in the grounl about two feet behind the cow, buckle a strap around her right hind leg just above the hoof, pull her foot back about one foot, and tie it to the stake ; then j^ou can milk without being kicked or hooked. If this will keep any person from getting a broken nose, I shall think myself well paid for writing it." Cows Sucking Themselves. — Some cows have a very awkward habit of reaching the head round and sucking themselves. The following plans for prevention of this habit 'have been recommended : — "Put on the cow a good leather head-halter with several links of chain in the tie ring ; and a web surcingle with some links hang- Manual of Agriculture. 837 n develop > kicking, from the s9 pain to nid kicks. with suffi- ho is de- dling will far from I relief and hance from >ness about hoves us to lal. Whip- one plan is thinks that ) legs. lavc always lody, just in ut only laid it it is there. 3se up to ths [flank, stop a cow to the the ordinary cantling two iring tor one ^ if the cow that the cow place on the ilk with ease. ar behind to the groun'l md her right .jQut one foot, being kicked ,ng a broken lery awkward lelves. lit 'have been weral links of [e links hang- J *'w. 26. ing from the middle under the belly, ending with a ring. Make a smooth ash Eole as thick as a hay-fork andle, having a little curve, with a snap at one end, which is secured to the bit of chain on the halter. The other end passes between her fore legs and through the ring which is suspended from the surcingle. The jjolo should be long enough to allow her to extend her neck and head without pulling it out of the ring ; but as a further precau- tion, a btrip of leather may be wound around the lower end, and nailed so as to form a slight knob too large to pass through the ring. The harness does not interfere with grazing, lying down or getting up, but she cannot suck herself. « T. J. H." Another farmer says : — " Any one who has carefully noticed a calf while sucking has I observed that the tongue is extended an inch more or less beyond the front teeth, to envelop the teat on the under side. Now, any device which will render it impossible for the cow thus to extend I the tongue beyond the front teeth, it is obvious, will make it im- ssible for the cow to take her own milk ; and this the bridle bit Ivill do most effectually, if secured in the mouth by a small strap Ibuckled over the head, back of the horns, as the back part of the Itongue is so thick that the tongue cannot be extended under the Ibridle bit while the mouth is closed, which it ihust be nearly in peact of sucking. The bit does not in the least interfere with pe operations of eating or chewing the cud, or of licking herself, i this act is performed with the mouth open sufficiently wide to ^low the tongue to be extended out of the mouth under the A good, simple, and cheap arrangement to prevent cows from ttcking themselves, or each other, may be made by making a halter V follows : Take two or three straps two inches wide, and long nough to reach around the cow's nose. Stitch the edges together, nd the ends also, with sharp nails inserted every one and a-half bches, so that the points will stand outward. The heads of the should be very large, and should be between the two straps |hen sewed together. Now fasten two side straps, with a buckle 1 one end of one, so that when the part with the nails is around |e nose, the side straps may be buckled together over the head, «k of the horns; the part around the nose should be large lough to allow the animal to eat freely. 22 i'lf I 838 The Canadian Farmer's ml ■V'f ■ ' ■4 iTp' ' ■|' ft' MILK — ITS PROPERTIES, ETC. Boaaingault found on analysing the first milk that it contained in one hundred parts, for the first eight or ten days after calving, about four times as much caseine as m ordinary milk. Voeleker's analyses of four samples of new milk show the pro- portionate constituents in one hundred parts to be — Water 83'90 parta Butter from 7*62 to 199 parti. Caseine " 3 'CO to 2 94 " Milk sugar " 44(3to6l2 " Mineral matter " 64 to 113 " Making dry matters to vary from 1610 to 1005 per one hundred parts. All analyses show an immense variation in all the constituent parts of various samples of milk, dependent not only upon the different breeds, but also upon food. The average quantities are stated to be, by X. A. Willard :— I Water 8740 Butter 3-43 Caseine 312 Milk sugar 5*12 Mineral matter '93 100 00 Professor Voelcker, in papers prepared a few years ago for the Royal Agricultural Society, England, gives us the followinf^ com- positions of milk drawn from cows, and we subjoin his remarks immediately following : — "COMPOSITION OF NEW MILK. No. 1. No. 2. No. 8. No. 4. No. 6. No. 8. Mill; Milk Milk Milk Milk Milk Analysed Analysed Analysed Analy.sed Analysed Analysed October 21, Nov. 29, Sept. 18, Aucfust 7, Sept.. 6, Sept. 6, 1860. 1860. 1860. 18G0. 1S60. (Morning's milk.) IbCO. (Eveii:n»'i milk.) ^ater 83 00 7-62 331 85-20 4-06 3 66 86>n5 3 -99 3-47 87-40 3-43 312 fc9-95 1-99 2-94 flO'70 1-79 2»1 Butter Caseine Milk fluorar 4-46 605 6-11 6-12 4-4S 4'i)4 Mineral matter (ash) •71 1-13 •78 •93 •64 •63 100 00 10000 100-00 100-00 10000 10000 Percentage of dry 1610 14-80 13-35 12-60 1005 9-30 "I have selected these analyses from a considerable nunil) made in my laboratory. They strikingly illustrate the great diti'erj encea that exist in the quality of new milk. It might readily I Manual of Agriculiun. 339 contained jr calving, w the pro- )ne huntlred , constituent ,ly upon the Willard:— ago for the 'oUowin?; com- n his remarks No. 6. .nalyseo Sep*- 8> 1S60. lorning » mnio_ fc9-95 1-99 a'94 i-4^ •64 10000 1005 N". 6. Milk Analysed Sept. 6, 1»G0. (Eveun?"! roWk.) ' 90'70 VA 1i\ •M 100 00 ierable nuni^^ (the great ditle light readily imtK^ned that milk such as that which I examined on the 6th September, containing 90^ per cent, of water, had either been diluted with water or at least produced by cows fed on mangold tops, distillery wash or similar food. Such, however, was not the case. The cows which yielded this poor milk were out at pasture, and every precaution was taken to get a fair average of the milk- incs from some eight or ten cows. The milk was received by me almost immediately after it had left the udder, and I can thus vouch for its being genuine, and, in its watery condition, natural. The pasture, however, was poor and overstocked, so that the daily growth of grass furnished hardly enough food to meet the daily waste to which the animal frame is subject, and was thus not calculated to meet an extra demand of materials for the formation of butter and curd. The milk consequently became not merely deficient in quantity, but also poor in quality. "It is well, then, to bear in mind that an insutlicient quantity of food in the case before us caused the supply of milk to be small and unusually poor. This analysis illustrates and confinus a principle generally recognized by good dairy farmers, that it is bad policy to keep more cows than can be liberally supplied with food. The evening's milk on the 6th of September, it will be noticed, contained about three-fourths per cent, more water and somewhat less caseine and butter than the morning's milk of the same cows on the same Hay. From this and other instances some may be disposed to infer that the morning's milk is generally richer than the evening's milk — a view which I myself was dis- posed to adopt until a larger range of experiments proved to me its inaccuracy. " The mineral matters of which we have made mention in all 1 the above analyses are composed chiefly of phosphates of lime and I magnesia, chlorides of potassium and of sodium and free soda." QUALITY OP MILK — HOW AFFECTED ? In answer to this, Mr. Wi Hard's statement is : — " By the age of the animal, as well as by the distance from the Itirae of calving. " Now, as to the milk of aged cows, the general irapre - •ion is that |tlie milk of old cows is quite as good or even better than that of young cows. "Hence the almost universal practice amongdairymen is to retain "cows upon the farm, and if no accident occurs on account of fhich their milk fails, they are kept in the dairy until quite worn but with old age, and are then turned off — but little better than |>ld skeletons of hides and bones — at from six to ten dollars a head. England I found a very different practice prevailed. When lilch cows have attained an age of from six to eight years, they >ie put in condition for the shambles and sold. A good profit is \, Ji 340 The Canadian Farmer's thus realized on the animals for meat, irrespective of what they may have made in tlie dairy. They hold that the milk of old cows is inferior in quality to that of young cows, and chemical analysis, it seems, confirms this opinion. Again, as old cows consume more food than young ones, and are therefore more expensive to feed, nothing appears so unprofitable as to keep cows until they grow old." Voelcker afiirms that "after the fourth or fifth calf, generally speaking, the milk becomes poorer. .... If turned into beef at seven or eight years old, there will be little or no loss; but if kept for four years longer and sold for ten dollars, the loss on first cost of the animal is some sixty dollars, or fifteen dollars per year." What are the Strippings? — .... "Now, cream being lighter than milk, the denser or heavier portions of the milk is drawn first from the udder, while the lighter parts, rich in butter, remain back, and make up what is known among dairy- men as ' strippings.' It will be seen, then, how important it is that the last drop of milk in the udder should be drawn while milking, and that when particular attention is L.ot given to this point the loss is much more serious than a waste of the same quantity of first drawn milk, for the one is thin cream, while the other is nothing more than plain milk. There is another loss of course in not milking clean, as it has a tendency to dry up the cow, or lessen the secretion of milk from day to day." MILK WILL BE TAINTED BY COWS INHALING BAD ODOURS. It has been fairly established that the milk is afiected by taint when cows are at pasture near where there is carrion or other decayed matter, and the taint will be carried right through into the milk pail, and from thence to both butter and cheese. Dozens of cases of this might be cited, but we content ourselves with again advising every farmer who keeps milch cows (and who does not ?) to invest in Mr. X. A. Willard's excellent work on " Practical Dairy Husbandry." We have already complete analyses of milk ; we now set down the composition of cheese (American), by Voelcker : — Water Butter *(^'a!ieine Milk HUfiar, lactic acid and extractive matters t Mineral matten (abh> * Containing nitrogen t Containing cummon salt No. 1. No. 2. No. a No. 4. 27-29 3304 31-01 38-24 3541 33-33 80 90 26 0)) 25-87 27-37 20-25 26-81 6-21 2 82 7-43 364 6-22 3-39 4-41 623 lUO-00 lOU'OO 10000 lOOOO 4.14 4-38 4-20 4-20 IW •47 1-69 1'94 what they 3f old cows al analysis, isume more iive to feed, they grow f, generally If turned e or no loss ; lars, the loss fteen dollars Now, cream is of the milk larts, rich in imong dairy- bant it is that vhile milking, this point the Lo quantity of 3 the other is ss of course in cow, or lessen D ODOURS. 'ected hy taint trrion or other ,t through into (heese. Dozens tent ourselves llch cows (and [excellent work now set do^u 3. 31-01 80 90 1 2«J-26 7-43 441 4-20 1-68 No. *• 33'24 2G0S 26'Sl 364 528 "ioooo 4-20 IM Manual of Agriculture, COMPOSITION OF SKIM-MILK CHEESE. (Vodcker.) 841 Water Butter * Caseine Milk sugar, lactic acid and extractive matters t Mineral luatten (ash) * Containitig nitrogen t Containing common salt No. 1. No. 3. No. 8. 27-68 30-43 3S-39 80-80 27 08 23-21 8512 80 37 28-37 1-46 -22 6-80 4-94 2-80 3-23 10000 10000 100 00 S-62 4-86 4-54 1-27 •23 •33 No. 4. 43-87 16 ■H9 28-93 6-47 4-84 100-00 4-63 1-66 So little cheese is made at home in Canada that we do not feel justified in devoting any of our pages to the manufacture of cheese. It is a subject to which justice cannot be done under very many pages, and we would rather, therefore, refer our readers to such works as that from which we have already made copious extracts, for fuller information upon the subject. We conclude with an analysis of the composition of whey, from which our readers will perceive that its qualities as food are not by any means to be despised. The analysis is made in the same terms as that of butter and cheese — from samples. No. 4. [Water. { Butter (pure fatty matters) ' Nitrogenous substances (caseine k, albumen) I i Uill< sugar and lactic acid Miueral matter (ash) I 'Containing nitrogen I \ Containing free lactic acid No. 1. No. 2. No. 8. 92-96 92-65 92-60 •65 •68 •66 120 •81 •96 4-56 5-28 6-08 •65 •58 •81 100-00 10000 10000 •19 •18 •16 •48 •41 •36 92-75 •89 •87 613 •86 lOO-OO •14 •41 Raising Calves. — ^There are two distinct ways of raising a calf: Iwe don't mean here, well or badl}^ but by hand or by the natural |use of its mother's milk. There can be no doubt that the latter plan is the best for the calf, for it is nature's way, and in such mat- ers nature can never stultify herself ; but whether for the farmer looking to the question of profit this is the better plan, is open to pong doubt, and yet even doubtfulness on this point must be en- [irely governed by circumstances. If the reader is one who is raising thorough-bred and high- briced fancy stock, the amount of butter or cheese lost in allowing |he calf to suck its mother is as nothing in the balance with the of any increase in the beauty, shape and size of the calf. m hi? '■^x. -, 13' J' S42 7"^^ Canadian Farmer's But for the ordinary stock, such as are generally raised by the farmer for general purposes, we, having tried both plans, are of opinion that the CB\i should never see its mother, and our reasons are briefly as follow : — 1st. Neither the calf nor its mother will fret much if they are separated immediately after birth. Science and nature tell us that the matter which the cow licks from the body of the calf is medi- cinal, and beneficial to her after parturition. This is undoubtedly true, yet by giving the cow a good warm gi'uel, we have found that she is as certain to do well as after taking nature's medicine ; and if we permit the calf to remain tor its mother to clean, or to obtain one draught from her teats, tiie worry and vexatious pining of the cow, when her young one is removed, is so much more keen as fully to compensate, in doing her harm, for the medicinal benefits gained by her in the licking of the calf Calves that have sucked at the mother for say eight or ten weeks, usually lose three or four weeks' growth in the process of weaning ; whilst the cow, in the worry and excitement o^f losing her calf after so long a knowledge of it, takes a very long time to become reconciled, loses much in flesh, while she is sure to go off very materially in her flow of milk. The punching of the calf is very apt to make sore teato on a cow, so that breaking her in to milk becomes a far more difficult process. Of course we must not be understood as laying down an universtil rule, for there are cases when it becomes advisable to leave the calf a short time with its mother ; as, for instance, when the bag is very hard and baked after calving, nothing is so effectual for soft- ening it and promoting the ready flow of milk as this very punch- ing and chafing of the calf But to return. Calves brought up " by hand" are much more domesticated, less wild and timid, than those which have depended upon their mother for daily food. Rules that apply to domesti- cated animals undergo a change from such as rule in the case of I wild beasts. Sucking is the natural and wild way in which calves are brought up, ar d applies well to all such cattle as those of j Texas, which run almost wild in herds ; but for domesticated ani- mals we must form new rules, for we have already broken througli nature's laws in their civilization. Heifers brought to milking without their calves, turn out morel gentle — less given to wildness, kicking, holding up their milk audi other bad tricks. Oxen and cows that have been started " by hand " are more easilvl carried through the first winter than those that have been alloweJl to suck. They do not then require to be taught to eat corn meall swill, &c., &c. These were all fed to them in their babyhood, aiiJl £i ,"Sj rood warm ell as after f to remain er teats, the young one ,te, in doing . the licking Manual of Agriculture. , ni 343 they " know the ropes." Indeed it has been urged that bringing up a calf in the way it should go is as important as bringing up a child in like manner — we do not mean nttportant to the world, but to the animal. With patience and deterinlnation a calf may be taught to drink out of the pail without the finger in two or three lessons. Although the calf is not only foolish but naturally stubborn, yet it will soon succumb to gentle determination on the part of the feeder. Indeed, it is about as easy in point of time and trouble to feed a calf by hand as to let him in to and remove him from his mother, at stated times, as is the proper custom under the other plan. These customs, however, can never be regulated by rules ; each man will generally " gang his ain gait." Youatt is very averse to removing the calf at once, and puts it very strongly on a point of cruelty to animals when he says : " It is a cruel thing to separate the mother from the young so soon. The cow will pine, and will be deprived of that medicine which nature designed for her, in the moisture which hangs about the calf, and the calf will lose that gentle friction and motion which helps to give it the immediate use of all its limbs, and which, in the language of Mr. B'^rry, increases the languid circula- tion of the blood, and produces a genial warmth in the half- exhausted and chilled little animal." He further says : " In what- ever manner the calf is afterwards to be reared, it should remain with the mother a few days after it is dropped, and until the milk can be used in the dairy. The little animal will thus derive the benefit of the first milk, that to which nature has given an ape- rient property, in order that the black and glutinous foeces which had been accumulating in the intestines during the later months of the foetal state might be carried ofi" ; moreover, the cow's udder becomes more soft and pliant than it would otherwise be, by the calf being allowed to suck for a time. In the case of young cows especially, the udders of which are generally hard, it is often ad- visable to allow the calf to suck for a couple of weeks." The calf should be fed for from ten days to four weeks (accord- ing as the farmer is willing to sacrifice butter to stock) on new milk, giving four quarts night and morning, or eight quarts a day. At about five weeks old, the calf will take another four quarts at noon, or twelve quarts per day (skimmed milk). In changing from new milk to skimmed milk, care should be taken that the milk is at first warm, and it will pay well to add to it some fine-ground oat or pea meal. Cold skimmed milk, immediately on stopping new milk, will assuredly scour a calf badly, and this scouring is very injurious. We should have mentioned, that calves are very apt to be cos- tive at birth ; this must be carefully watched, and relieved with a IV' '■ >; 844 The Canadian Farmer's dose of sweet oil. Calves are ready to eat grass at from six to eight weeks old ; but the skimmed milk and meal should be con- tinued for about three months, when they will thrive well on fodder and sour milk. A good calf should weigh four hundred pounds at ten months old. During the first winter, warmth and generous food, with plenty of succulents, are essentials. A great mistake often made by farmers is the allowing of calves to run with lai'ger cattle, especially those that are six or ten months (yearlings) older than themselves. Not only do the little fellows get mauled about, but rather than allow them to obtain any food, the older cattle will spoil such fodder as they cannot themselves eat. In this selfishness, yearlings and all cattle are not unlike many of their superiors of the genus homo. The secret of raising stock is never to let them stop growing ; crowd them on, gently at first, but more fully as they advance in age. We have owned many two-year-old heifers which, fed cheaply but regularly, provided with warmth and shelter, tenderly handled at all times, and never interfered with by older stock, have been, put to the bull, and before three years old have raised as fine calves and become as large and fully developed mothers as other cattle carelessly attended to have attained with a year's additional growth. A good grade Durham steer should, under this system, with very little fatting at the last, be worth from sixty to seventy-five dol- lars as a three-year-old. That the superiority of thorough good beef cattle is recognised by our butchers, we were convinced on a vir,it to the stables of Mr. Rennie, near Fergus, Ontario. There stood a picture — a white three-year-old Shorthorn grade steer. He weighed twenty-six hundred pounds, was sold for ten cents a pound live weight, when common beef was worth only about five cents, and thus realized two hundred and sixty dollars to his proprietor. Unfortunately, we did not see Mr. Rennie himself, and were unable to get accurate particulars of the cost of raisiiig, but are convinced, from what we learned from the young man who attended us, that the raising of that calf, from birth to maturity, did not cost one-half of what it will take to raise fom of the ordinary sixty dollar steers. Killing Heifer Calves. — We look upon this butchery as an abomination, and respectfully ask our farmers to " spare the inno- cents." Indeed, why man cannot be content to live upon beef and mut- ton and pork and game, for meat, we know not. It seems a sinful waste of God's gifts to sacrifice the calf to suit the epicurean tastes of the diners of the world. We suppose it must, however, always be regulated by the knowledge on the part of farmer and butcher that under circumstances " there is money in it." Manual of Agriculture. 346 ■om six to ild be con- il on fodder pounds at i generous ig of calves ten months ttle fellows m any food, themselves not unlike )p growing; advance in fed cheaply Bily handled k, have been, lised as fine ers as other r's additional sm, with very inty-five dol- orough good nvinced on a ,ario. There grade steer. )x ten cents a only about lixty dollars Mr. Rennie Is of the cost jm the young [from birth to to raise jo^i^ tchery as an [are the inno- Leef and mut- Eeems a sinful Icurean tastes vever, always and butcher Our duty, however, calls us, in the design of this book, to touch lightly upon all subjects, to speak shortly on the best foods by which to fatten a calf, and we quote an excellent article on this point from the Rural New Yorker : — "It has usually been thought impracticable to fatten a calf properly without giving it fresh milk from the cow. Milk is the best type of food for the young animal, because it possesses all the constituents necessary to build up every part of the system, and in the most soluble and digestible condition. Now, any food con- taining the requisite constituents, in a soluble condition, easily given in a liquid state, may be substituted for the new milk. Hay tea is sometimes used to bring up a calf. This is the soluble constituents of the hay, obtained by cooking. But the best food to fatten a calf, without whole milk, is oil meal, molasses, and skim milk for the first two weeks, after which a little oat or bar- ley meal may be added. We have often made calves weigh one hundred and twenty to one hundred and forty pounds, at four weeks old, on this food. We have one now that weighs one hun- dred and twenty-five pounds at that age, never having had any new milk after the second day. Molasses may, perhaps, be con- sidered a new food for this purpose, but, when fully understood, must be regarded as an important one. It is very soluble, and easily assimilated by the young animal. Liebig is of opinion that starchy food is first converted into sugar before being assimilated by the animal. We all know how rapidly sugar enters into the circulation of the system. Sugar is found to take the place of animal fats in cold climates in keeping up the heat of the body. li may be considered as a substitute for the oil of the milk used in making butter. Oil meal is rich in muscle-forming food, and phosphates with some remaining oil. Its constituents are mostly soluble, and easily assimilated as food. Oil meal should be scalded, and allowed to form a thick mucilage before being mixed with the skimmed milk. The molasses may be added directly to the milk, land the whole should be blood- warm when given. The proper [quantity for a young calf is a table spoonful of oil meal and the [Same uf molasses, divided into three parts, for one day's feed, added to the refuse milk. At the end of the first week each may be increased, and at ten days a spoonful of molasses and the same of oil meal may be given at each feed. At the commencement of the third week a spoonful of oat or barley meal may be added to each feed, but this should be cooked. This food, together with the skimmed milk of the mother, will make an excellent calf for the butcher at five weeks old. Now, the whole expense of this extra food is not more than one-tenth of t'le value of the butter made from the milk saved. At present prices it will cost less than one WoUar for five weeks ; and an early calf of the weight mentioned will bring from ten to fourteen dollars. The molasses may be of \-, b'lj m& 346 The Canadian Farmer's the cheapest sort, but there is none better than sorghum for this purpose." Oil meal is better known as oil cake in Canada. Hmv they raise Calves at Hohenheim. — This is in Germany; established in 1818 ; the father of agricultural colleges, and proba- bly the best conducted in the world. They raise calves entirely " by hand," and the daily allowance of food is as follows : — MILK. OATMEAL. FINE HAY. lbs. lbs. lbs. let week 12.... 2nd " 16.... 3rd " 20.... 4th " 22.... 6th, 6th, and 7th weeks 22 4 i 8th week 21 | i 9th '* 20 1 1 10th " 16 2 3 11th " 12 2 6 12th " 8 2 10 13th 10 In the ninth week the milk is first mixed with water, and a little fine oatmeal is stirred in. The meal is afterwards mixed with the dry fodder After three months the milk is withheld, and then the young animals receive daily, till two and one-half years old, from twenty to twenty-two pounds of hay or its equivalent. But the calves never after receive, even in summer, any dry food till they are nine months old. The average feeding is so divided that the| younger portion receives less, the older more, till two and one- half years, when they begin to receive the regular rations of the I older cattle, including the grain fodder as indicated above. The I growth with this treatment is such that these animals (not Short- horns) attain the following weights at various ages : — ' am : HEIFERS. BULIiS. Average weight of calves at three months 233 lbs. 353 lbs. " " " six months 351 " 472" •• " " twelve months 640 " 750 " " " " two yeara 1184 " 1300 " Daily increase of calves ' 1-5 " IS " " " insecondyear 1*4 " 1*5 " Oxen. — The method of training steers lies in a nutshell, and! can be accomplished by any man who is gentle, without fearol the animals, and, above all, possessed of quiet determination suffij cient to tire out the natural stubbornness of the ox : — " First train them to lead by a rope attached to the homsj Then procure a light yoke and bows, and teach them to stanj with them on for a few days until they get used to them. TheJ take them out and exercise them gently, and with great patience! teaching them the meaning of the terms used in going to f. ' ^ilillBi. Manual of Agriculture. 347 am for this nada. I Germany ; , and proba- Ly allowanoi HAY. B. ) ) 9 4 I 3 6 10 10 L water, and a rwards mixed len the young d, from twenty But the calves 1 till they are vided that the| two and one- rations of the id above. The] lals (notShort- BULLS. 353 lbs. 472 " 750 " . 1300 " . 1-8 " 1-5 " a nutshell, ani without fear of fermination suffi] bx : — , U to the hornsl them to stanj Ito them. Theil \ great patience! tn going to tlii right or left and backing. If they get restive, quiet them with a little salt and some coaxing. Never unycke them while they are excited ; cool them down first. Let the lessons gradually increase in length until they understand their business ; then attach a chain, and soon after a small log or other weight may be given them to draw. Working in this manner, they may soon be broken in to do light harrowing or other work not too heavy foi- them. It would be well if oxen were broken in to the use of a line attached to the horn, and the shouting commonly made use of were abandoned." Our Shorthorns. — This favourite stock has obtained a strong foothold upon Canadian soil. It is the pride of the farm to show a beast with Durham in him, and the Canadian Shorthorns are becoming well known in Europe. A residence and acclimation in Canada appears to give hard- ness and generally improve the constitution and form of the de- scendants of the Bates, the Booths, the Wallarbys and a dozen other tribes of celebrated English Shorthorns, and of late years we have been selling thorovgh-hred Durhams to go to England. In the present year one of our most celebrated breeders, Mr. Coch- rane, of Compton, Quebec, has sold ten Duchess Shorthorns to Lord Dunmore, of Scotland, for no less a figure than fifty-one thousand dollars, or five thousand one hundred dollars apiece. We give below a list of some of our most celebrated Canadian breeders of thorough-breds : — BREEDEKS OF SHORTHORN DURHAMS. Ashworth, Jno., Belmont Ottawa. Barker, W. B St. Thomas, O. Beattie, Simon. Bangor, O. Bell, Jno. M Atha, P. O., O. Brown, Hon. Geo., Bow Park Brantford, 0. Craig, J. R Edmonton, 0. Christie, Hon. David Paris, O. Cochrane, Hon. M. H., Hillhurst.... Compton, Q. Dunkin, Hon. C Ottawa. Greig, Major. Beachville, 0. Haskett, T. R St. Thomas, O. Isaac, Geo Haldimand Plains, 0. Kirby, Jos Milton, O. Miller, Geo., Riggfoot Markham, O. Miller, Jno. (Jr.) Markham, O. Miller, Jno Brougham, O. Mills, R. P St. Thomas, O. Sneli, Messrs., Willow Lodge Edmonton, O. ;Stone, F. W., Moreton Lodge Guelph, O. ^:\ I ' t. r If n]li ii' 11? S; 348 y/ifi Canadian Farmer's Taylor, Col. J. B London, O. Thompson, W.... Markham, O. Thompson, J. S Whitby. 0. White, Jno., M.P Milton, 0. Whitson, Jas Atha, P. 0., O. Wood, Geo Stratford, O. BREEDERS OF DEVONS. Foley, R Bowmanville, O. Mann, Geo Peters, W. J London, 0. Pincombe, J Bowmanville, 0. Rudd, Geo Guelph, O. Whetter, R London, 0. BREEDER OF HEREFORDS. Stone, F. W., Moreton Lodge. Guelph, 0. \ BREEDERS OF AYRSHIRES. Abbott, Hon J. J. C Montreal, Q. Gihbs, Jno. L, Sunny Braes Compton, Q. Lawrie, Jas Malvern, O. Logan, Jas Montreal, Q, Patton, J Scarborough, O. Wallbridge, A. H Belleville, 0. Wheeler, Messrs Scarborough, 0. Whitney, N. S Montreal, Q. BREEDERS OF GALLOWAYS. Hood, W Guelph, O. Kerr, Jno London, O. McNeil, A Vaughan, O. McRae, T Guelph, O. Nichol, Jno London, O. Overfeeding for Exhibition. — The chief aim of breeders seems t& be to outdo each other in so fatting up their thorough-breds as to hide the real points of breeding, by rendering the animals un- shapely in the extreme by superabundance of fat, no matter what the cost, thus overlooking the most important and profitable argu- ment advanced by the advocates of breed — the production of | animals which give the maximum of meat at the smallest cost. Manual of Agriculture. 349 iders seems to mgli-breds a« J animals un- , matter what :oiitableargu- aroduction of idlest cost. We would not reflect upon the judges ; they have simply fallen in with a system, but this system has the most pernicious result. In the words of a well-known breeder who resides near Guelph, " Leiceatriensia " — "Does it not seem aenaeleaa in the extreme that after an experienced breeder has been to an enormous ex- pense in importing first-class breeding animals, he should, by injudicious treatment of them, destroy their procreativeness, and thereby render them utterly useless for the very purpose for which they were imported ?" Many of our best breeders will not send their stock to our shows for this reason : — Inferior animals are exhibited, many of whose bad points are hidden in fat ; and again, our best men are determined not to destroy the constitution of their animals, and injure their power of procreation, by showing breeding stock dressed up in fat fit to become Christmas beef Surely it would be better that cattle of equal age, fed and stalled at the same time, should be brought before competent judges, to determine the beat frame for putting meat and fat upon — the frame which would be most productive of profit to the producer and of eligible food for the consumer. It is the frame and conatitution that we wish to transmit to our herds when we pay fancy prices for thorough-bred animals. The fat-producinn qualitiea — not the fat itself. Prizes should be invariably awarded to the " best framed" ani- mals ; and good frames do not show to advantage under layers and rolls of fat. We have been glad to see at our late large fairs, both at home and across the line, a step has been made towards discarding over- fed anin^ ^s from the pens in which are shown breeding stock. May it prosper until judgment is given upon "frames" alone. SHEEP. The sheep is found in every part of the world. They are pro- viders of clothing and meat, and in many parts also of milk. The calling of the shepherd has from time immemorial been conspicuous, and not wanting in dignity and importance. Abel was a keeper of sheep ; as were Abraham and his descendants, as well as most of the ancient patriarchs. Job possessed fourteen j thousand sheep. Rachel, the favoured mother of the Jewish race, "came with her father's sheep, for she kept them." The seven daughters of the priest of Midian " came and drew water for their I father's flocks." Moses, the statesman and lawgiver, " learned in all the wisdom I of the Egyptians," busied himself in attending the flocks of Jethro, bis father-in-law. \: i. % 360 The Canadian Farmer's David, that sweet singer of Israel, and its destined monarch— the Jewish hero, poet and divine — was a keeper of sheep. To shepherds abiding in the field, keeping watch over their flocks by night, came the glad tidings of a Saviour's birth. The Hebrew term for sheep is significant of fruitfulness, abundance, plenty — indicative of the blessings , which they were destined to confer upon the human family. In the Holy Scriptures this animal is the chosen symbol of purity and of the gentler virtues — the victim of propitiatory sacri- fices, and the type of redemption to fallen man. Among profane writers, Homer and Hesiod, Virgil and Theo- critus, introduce them in pastoral themes ; whilst their heroes and demigods, Hercules and Ulysses, iEneas and Numa, carefully perpetuate them in their domains. In North America we have a native breed from the Rocky Mountains, called by our hunters the Bighorns. They are great climbers, hardy and active, and in their habits more resemble the goat. In summer they are found single, but when travelling in lower and warmer parts for the winter months, they march .in flocks. The breeds cultivated on our Canadian homes are all imported European varieties. Amongst the short-wools we have the Spanish and Saxon Meri- nos and the Southdown ; and for long-wooled sheep we raise Lei- cesters, Ootswolds and Lincolns. The Spanish Merino. — The wool lies thick, short, and close to the body, being abundant in yolk or oil ; is matted closely together, and is covered with a dirty crust, often full of cracks. Legs long but small in bone, breast and back narrow, sides somewhat flat, fore-shoulders and bosoms are heavy, and the ugliness of the ani- mal is caused by all the weight being carried on the coarser parts, and by the nature and appearance of the wool. Some are horned and some are not. They are small sheep, and, when fatted, make from twelve to sixteen pounds per quarter. The advantages of the merino consist in the fineness and felt- ing property of their wool ; also, the closeness of their fleece and the large amount of yolk enables them to support extremes of I cold and heat, and they will feed and thrive upon very coarse pas- tures. Leicesters. — The old or unimproved Leicester was a large, heavy, I coarse- wooled sheep, a habitant of the midland shires of England] — a slow feeder, coarse in wool and in meat, but a heavy shearer. Its value in those days lay altogether in the quantity rather than the quality of its wool. llobert Bakewell, of Uishley, in Leicestershire, and alter him I many eminent breeders, applied themselves to the improvement of I this breed by reducing the size of the bone and fining down the I i! Manual of Agriculture. 351 texture of the wool. It is now at the head of the long-wooled br";ed8, is valuable for the quantity of meat that it produces, but U inferior to smaller breeds in the flavour and quality of its mutton. The Souihdoivn is a native of the chalky hills all along the 80uth-western and west-southern coasts of England, extending northward to Norfolk and westward to Eastbourne. It is probable that originally the Downs were horned sheep, as occasionally a horned ram crops up among them, but they are now usually polled. Of black legs and medium size, the quality of the Southdown cannot be surpassed by any breed for mutton, and is only equalled by one, namely, the mountain sheep of Wales. Its wo ', though ranked in the short, might, in point of length, well belong? to a middle class. For mutton the Southdown is eminently adapted, maturing early, and possessing extreme aptitude to lay on fat ; it is killed at two years of age, when, in England, it will run from twenty to twenty-five pounds to the quarter, whilst thirty to forty pounds to the quarter have been often on record. It is a very hardy sheep, and loves high, dry and close pastu- rage, whilst it stands our Canadian climate better than any other kind of sheep. The Cotswolds, natives of and named after a rancje of hills in Gloucestershire, in the west of England, differ from the Leicester in their superior hardiness and better adaptability to our soil, food and climate. They are also very prolific and splendid mothers, being supplied with a great flow of milk. A cross of the old Cotswolds with the Leicesters has produced the present breed of improved Cotswolds. The wethers may, in this climate, with ease be fatted to thirty and forty pounds to the quarter. The mutton is superior to that of the Leicester, having less tallow, and with a better develop- ment of muscle and flesh, but is far inferior to that of the Down. The Lincolna are another phase of modern improvement upon an old breed. The present Lincolns are robust in health, though somewhat I coarse in wool and mutton; they are hardy, and yield a great amount of wool ; they are prolific and good mothers, generally capable of supplying plenty of milk to two lambs. Age of Sheep by their Teeth. — The age of sheep is commonly Jcounted from the period of their first sheaiing, instead of the time at which the lamb was dropj)ed, and may be known, like that of Icattle, by the appearance of the teeth in the lower jaw, the upper Ijaw being without any in the front. During the first year they are all of small size, but when from Ifourteen to sixteen months old, they renew the first two (or centre lones), and two more every year until the fourth shearing, at which Itinie they have " a full mouth." 352 The Canadian Farmer's rm 'if tlioir The natural age of a sheep is about nine or ten years, b teeth begin to fail in the sixth and seventh years, and t.£><". Iccgiqc what is technically termed "broken-mouthed." As tVi^ . i^yvr of mastication is from this date greatly impaired, it is usuft.j ^,oor economy to fit them for mutton later than six years of age. Sheep were originally clothed with long hair, underneath which and next the skin was found, and is yet found in the sheep in those countries over which the Israelitish races wandered, a close mat of shoii), crisp wool. This is now the appearance of the cov- ering of the Cape of Good Hope sheep and of the flocks of South America. The chan'xe from hair to wool, influenced doubtless somewhat by peculiarities of climate, is yet chiefly due to civilization and cultivation. If sheep be badly neglected, it will be observed that the tendency of their wool is to go back to a half-hairy condition. The yolk, which is simply an insensible perspiration, keeps the wool soft, oily and strong. Where there is a deficiency of this substance the wool is dry and harsh and brittle. The quantity of this oily matter differs in various kinds of sheep, the Merino having in their wool the greatest proportion. It is found in the greatest abundance about the neck and shoul- ders, an^ the texture and quality of the fleece is improved in pro- portion fls this yolk soaks to a greater or less degree into other parts of the wool. « The chemical analysis of the yolk has established its composi- tion as of carbonate of potash, acetate of potash, lime, muriate of potash, and animal oil — all forming a substance of a purely soapy nature, which accounts for the ease with which wool is washed white when upon the sheep's back. Fime or coarse wools axe regulated by the size of the fibre ; but these terms, as commonly used, are vague, for all fine fleeces have some coarse wool, and all coarse fleeces some fine. " The most accurate classification is to distinguish the various qualities of wool in the order in which they are esteemed and pre- ferred by the manufacturer, as the following : first, fineness with close ground, that is, thick matted ground ; second, pureness; third, straight-haired, when broken by drawing ; fourth, elasticity, rising after compression in the hand ; fifth, staple not too long; sixth, colour; seventh, what coarse exists to be very coarse; eighth, tenacity ; and ninth, not much pitch-mark, though this is no disadvantage, except the loss of weight in scouring. The bad or disagreeable properties are : thin grounded, tossy, curly-haired, and, if in a sorted state, little in it that is fine ; a tender staple, many dead white hairs, very yolky;" Breeding. — No one breed of sheep can combine all good quali ties in itself One is remarkable for its weight, early maturity oi A ram si [Hence ar insmissic Id in whi m Manual oj Agriculture, 353 rs, It'i ^ 'dmx the excellent quality of the mutton, hut rlefioient in quantity or texture of wool ; while, on the other hand, a breed may produce heavy floecea of superior wool, and be unfit to take a place in the market as first-class meat. Some varieties do well in one climate, wliilHt there no other sort will thrive. Situation and nature of pasture lands are especially adapted to particular breeds of sheep. There are two essential considera- tions to be ever kept in view in determining upon any particular breed : First, situation of pastures, food and climate ; and second, the market demand and facilities. General Principles of Breeding. — The aim of every breeder of animals must ever be to retain by generation any and every varia- tion for the better that may at any time be observed in his live stock. The same remarks apply to the very great advantage of using none but well-bred male stock for sheep, that we made in a former chapter when on the subject of cattle. It may be observed that the influence of the ram having first fruitful intercourse with the female, is often distinctly marked he quantity of Bthrough many generations. If that influence has been to improve, the Meriuo Bits effect will be felt through the flock for many years. In crossing, there are several objects to be obtained — to raise animals for the butcher or to establish a new breed. It is, however, nearly always advantageous to choosealarge female of the breed which it is sought to improve ; for instance, the Southdowns have greatly improved Ithe Hampshires, and the Leicesters the ungainly Lincolns and rge Cotswolds. The Use of Rams. — Rams are used from one year old to ten and iraetimes over. But a ram at from two to four years old may be Dsidered in his prime. Much depends, however, upon whether ms have been overstocked. We have seen those that have not en allowed to run to too many sheep, sure lamb-getters even e fleeces have Jhen quite aged. A ram lamb should never be used ; the efffect upon him will be sh the various ■" stunt his growth, injure his form, and in the majority of cases emed and pre- ■"seriously impair his usefulness and damp his courage, fineness withB For a yearling ram thirty ewes are ample; a two-year-old may ond pureness»rve from forty to fifty ; w ile a three-year-old will run satisfac- lurth elasticityMrily with from fifty to six y; and, in exceptional cases, rams have not too longPen found strong and mature enough to serve from seventy to very coarse iighty ewes. though this \m ^Q animal that is impoverished and overtasked cannot transmit • „ The badPthfully those superior points for which he has been chosen as a V curly-haireti,|fe- tender staple,!^ ram should be carefully selected, not only on his general ex- nllence and blood, but with the distinct view of improving by all ffood qualiP'^smission of some of his own characteristics to the progeny. Iv maturity orlf age. •neath which :,he sheep in lered, a close B of the cov- iV» of South iss somewhat ilization and the tendency on, keeps the •iency of this eck and shoul- proved in pro- rree into other its composi- te, muriate of I „ purely soapy rool is washed the fibre; but I m h\ 1 K ■'■•■■■ !1 i 354 The Canadian Farmer's The general points of excellence in a good flock of sheep are, strong bone with a roomy frame, heavy fleeces of good quality and texture, natural disposition to lay on fat early and quickly, and prolific nature. Any of these characteristics deficient in a flock should be counteracted by the use of a ram with such very fully developed. One ram and his flock of ewes should always be kept separate to themselves. Two or more rams in a flock incite one another to extra and unnecessary activity, and are sure to fight. To Mark a Flock. — In order to show which individual ewe the ram has covered, smear his belly with a preparation of Venetian red and hog's lard. To tell when the ram is ready for work, examine his skin upon the flanks ; if red, the natural desire is upon him. A good ram should serve all his ewes within three weeks. It is better, how- ever, to leave him with them for a full month. To make a ram serve from one hundred and flfty to two hun- dred ewes. — Robert Jennings, V.S., says: " A couple of strong rams, of any quality, for about every hun- dred ewes, are aproned, their briskets rubbed with Venetian red and hog's lard, and let loose among the ewes. " Aproning is performed by sewing a belt of coarse sacking, broad enough to extend from the fore legs to the hind legs, loosely but strongly round the body. To prevent its slipping forwards | or backwards, straps are carried round the breast and back of the breech. " It should be made perfectly secure, or all the labour of this method of coupling will be far worse than thrown away. The pigment on the brisket should be renewed every two or three days; and it will be necessary to change the * teasers,' as these aproned rams are called, about once a week, as they do not long retain I their courage under such unnatural circumstances. Twice a day | the ewes are brought to yard in front of the hut. " Those marked on ^hc rump by the teasers are brought into the I hut. Each is admitted once to the ram, and then goes out at the opposite end from which she entered, into a field separate from that containing the flock from which she was taken. [ " Thus a powerful, vigorous ram, from three to seven years old,] may be made to serve from 150 to 200 ewes in a season." Rams should he fed when on service with grain. The rutting! season should be delayed until moderately cold weather in the fall! say November or December ; this will bring in the lanbs in Aprij and May. The ewe goes pregnant about five months, or from 145 dayst 165 days. Lambing. — Pregnant ewes require a generous diet. Pea stra^ is even better than hay ; while the best division of fodder is pei Manual of Agriculture. 355 straw (cut on the green side) twice a day, and good clover hay at one meal. A few succulent roots and a little grain will increase the secre- tion of milk. Too many turnips are injurious, as tending to sour the milk, to the injury of the lamb. Ewes must not be allowed to become excessively fat, as in such condition abortion is readily brought on. Abortion is likewise produced by frights from the appearance of dogs and strange objects, long and severe journeys, blows, &c,, and more especially by the too prevalent practice of driving, with dogs not properly trained, ewes that are pregnant. Lambs are usually dropped in Canada during the months of March and April ; we think, however, that March is a very bad month in which to time the arrival of lambs. Given good shelter and accommodation, and we have been more successful with February lambs than with such as came in March. In February there are usually plenty of fine sunny days, and in such weather, if the ewes can be kept in a warm place, well sheltered, lambs will do very well, and be large and fat for the Easter market. Even when lambs are dropped in May, the ewes should be always put in at night, and during rain, or when there is a prevalence of windy and blustering weather. Should the weather be warm and bright, it is better that lamb- ing should take place in the pastures, since sheep will there get away by themselves, and be disposed to own and take kindly to labour of this Htheir own lambs more certainly than when confined in a crowded away. The ■inclosure. oor three days; I For ewes that are to lamh very eatiy, or in winter quaHera, the bs these aproned ■following is an excellent arrangement :— not long retain ■ In the pen shown, Twice a day (protected and yet well [ventilated, ef and gh f ire moveable divi- lions across the pen, md dividing it into kee divisions, a, h, c. divisions are oveable, and e/and ^ run on wheels, so ather in the fallBhat the size of a, b, c lambs in Apiiljiay be altered at will. each of e/ and j h ere is a door. Now, fore any ewes have )f sheep are, quality and quickly, and jnt in a flock ;h very fully kept separate ne another to idual ewe the of Venetian his skin upon A good ram 8 better, how- ftyto tivohun- out every bun- ,h Venetian red coarse sacking, ind legs, loosely lipping forwards ,nd back of the Fio. 28. 3rought into the goes out at the U flAnarate from len. I seven years old, I season." The ruttingi kom 145 dayst / « c / /* Jiet. Pea straiWrabed, the divisions g h and «/are pushed close to one end of the [of fodder is p^Building, so that the pregnant ewes have the whole pen to run in. i ■ 't'i » I 356 The Canadian Farmer's Ai soon as lambing commences, the ewes are carefully watched and as each ewe shows the usual signs of labour, the divisions are moved out, so as to make three pens — a, h, c. The ewe is placed in the middle pen, 6, by herself, or with one or two others ready to lamb, as the case may be ; they are then by themselves when their lambs are dropped, and the lamb is neither separated from its mother, nor knocked about by the crowding of the flock. When the lamb is strong and able to suck fully, it and its mother are removed on to pen c. By this process the flocks are divided into 1 three portions: pregnant ewes; ewes having just lambed, or upon whom are the signs of labour ; and the ewes with their lambs. As the ewes continue to lamb, the pen a becomes smaller by the push- ing up of the divisions g h and ef, and the pen c becomes larger, until, when all the flock have lambed, the pei. is brought back to its original size by the pushing of the divisions over from one I side to the other. The jostling of sheep upon one another is very injurious to ewes I in lamb, for which reason the shepherd must always teach his| sheep docility, and by gentleness accustom them to his presence. Enclosures for yeaning must be kept clean ; for when the lambj is dropped it is covered with moisture, and to this in a dirty en-i She is, is n fitht of the siiephe tly cau veiygt 8om( foetus ; : iohelp i Istrengt]] Irute fo: Thee] 'ter del ot be a] Gabbai mbing, te sprin eet miJ ^ery bene Manag le-it ( iure's u iS too sj icognize iier rage A lamb e care closure so much filth will stick, that the ewe will refuse to lickH* clumsy the body of her lamb, which is nature's method of warming am strengthening the newly-dropped Ian' b. Neither should too muchl straw be used for litter, as such may embarrass the young laml in attempting to rise for the purpose of sucking its mother. The signs of lambing in the ewe are : enlargement and red dening of the parts under the tail, and a dropping of the flanks, The ewe, immediately before the pains of labour are fully upoL her, stretches herself frequently, exhibits great restlessness, sepaWP^^. it rates herself from her companions, constantly lies down and riseB^^/^' daj up again, as if dissatisfied with her' bed ; paws the ground, s.uU"^'^^^' fet bleats as if the lamb were already born and she were looking foB'"^ cork it ; and appears very fond of other lambs. Br ^ ^^m When these symptoms appear, if the sheep be yet in winteBJ' don't quarters, she should be isolated. When the expulsion of a bag of water takes place from thj vagrma, the pains of labour are fully upon the ewe. While it ii well to watch her narrowly now, interference should be carefuU] avoided. Nature may take some time to eflfect a birth, but tL sheep that have not been frightened or subjected to rough treaB'Ood sh raent, and have been well kept, mechanical assistance is veiw '''^is in rarely needed. mi^^ ^^ Uncalled-for interference with ewes when lambing, hasdestro]i9^^^'s firs more lambs than natural causes. mt\^^^^^^ Interference, when not absolutely necessary, just frightens {■''has be ewe, and she ceases her efforts to expel the lamb. J^onseque natural search oi I'D the ba very \f lambfi i^r Manual of Agriculture. 367 Should it be apparent that the foetus is presented wrong, that 13, is not coming away in the natural position — the two fore legs with the head lying between them being presented at the mouth of the vagina — mechanical assistance becomes necessary. Let the shepherd oil well his finger and thumb, and whilst the ewe is gen- tly caught and carefully held, push back the lamb and turn it very gently until the nose and fore feet appear. Sometimes the ewe has not strength enough to expel the foetus ; in such a case aid may be given, hut very gently, and only , ^(o Mf the throes of the dam. Never take away a lamb by main mbea, or upon ■j^jg^ortj^^ or, as such work is sometimes called, by the exercise of '\ "Jh tt"*' ^''''^® ^"^^ stupidity." er by the pus • g ,j^^^ clearing, or placenta, which usually comes a few minutes ter delivery, should always be taken from the lambing pen and lot be allowed to lie there. Cabbages or kale are better food for ewes, just previous to mbing, than turnips, for the latter are fibrous and astringent in e spring, and for this reason are not beneficial to the secretion of eet milk. A little oil-cake, meal or whole oats will be found [ery beneficial to ewes before and during lambing. Management of Lambs. — When the lamb is first dropped, it will clumsy on its big unwieldy legs : be in no haste to help it to ;e— it don't want milk immediately ; what it requires is lire's warmer, the licking of the ewe. If the attendant inter- is too soon, he angers the ewe, and she may even refuse to icognize her lamb, or, as we have often seen, even stamp upon it her rage. A lamb that gets at a teat and sucks for itself, will kurr- to ecare of itself, and may generally be regarded as. saf ^. If „o .,a1^o Jped, it will continue to expect aid, and will not try for Itsilf ibr estlessness sepaMJ^^j ^^yg_ ^ '^ down a ^Eeverfeed with a spoon, but from a bottle with a qn'U or tube the cork, because the latter is more like nature. If a lamb is, however, so weak that assistance becomes neces- , don't throw the mother down, but make the lamb suck in natural position of the ewe, because instinct teaches the lamb 1 from tn™^^*^^'^^^ ^^ ^^^^ ^^ point its nose upwards. If taught to suck ^ While itiB'" *^^ ^^o ^^ ^^® prostrate ewe, the lamb, when strong enough, ^^A h carefullB^ ^® ^®^T f'wkward about finding the teat ir its natural position. ouiQ e Mif lamhs have to be fed by hand, the mothers having no milk, food should be invariably taken from a neiv milch cow. Don't this in its full strength, but mix it half and half with water, put in enough molasses to give it the purgative effect of the bar's first milk ; gently warm to a natural heat ; when feed- be careful to make the lamb suck from the bottle. Many a lb has been choked by pouring milk down the throat, and consequent passage of the fluid into the lungs. illy watched, divisions are Bwe is placed ihers ready to ■es when theii ated from its flock. When its mother are ■e divided into becomes larger,] Tought back to over from one| ijurious to ev?es ■ways teach his his presence, r when the lamb is in a dirty en- ill refuse to lickj of warming m [Should too inuch| ,he young laml cs mother, ement and red' ng of the flanks, ir are fully m the ground, ani were looking foj yet m wintel from tM a birth, but Id to rough treatl ssistance is vetj \ing, hasdestm^ ust frightens ■]-:'si 358 The Canadian Farmer's b ', •f ifj^ a lamh becomes chilled, wrap it in a woollen or flannel blan- ket, and place it in a warm room, giving it a little milk, with a trifle of pepper, as soon as it can drink. Don't keep the lamb from its mother longer than possible — a little gentle friction, espe- cially of the extremities, will be found very restorative. Sometimes, a ewe having a good bag of milk loses her lamb, when it may be required that she should be taught to suckle a st'range lamh. Skin her dead lamb immediately, and sew the skin en the j lamb that she is required to raise. Put her in a moderately dark | room ; if she is suspicious of it, watch her carefully, and, if neces- 1 sary, hold her for the lamb to suck. She will soon take to vhe I young impostor, when the covering skin may be removed. When a ewe has a full bag, and, losing her lamb, no other one is j placed to her, the milk must be drawn off* by hand once or twice, j or the aflection known as garget will ensue. After milking, bathe with cold water, which has the efttct of | checking the secretions of milk, and gradually decrease her sup- ply of succulent and milk-secreting food. When a young ewe will not stand for her lamb to suck, it isj the effect of soreness or hardness of the bag. Let the ewe be caught and held until the lamb has emptied the bag, and there will seldom be any trouble afterwards. "Pinning." — Young lambs are frequently subject to thiiil trouble. Their first excrements are so adhesive and tenaciouf that the orifice of the anus becomes completely covered over, and subsequent evacuations prevented. Let the adhering matter m entirely removed, and the part rubbed with a little dry eartli (clay). We have seen very r« any iambs perish from a neglect ( this precaution. Weaning should take place at from three and a-half to fou months old. When first weaned, the lambs should be put in field as far distant from the mothers as possible, that their respecj tive bleatings may not be heard. It is an excellent plan to turn one or two tame old ewes in wit[ the lambs ; these teach the young sheep to be docile, to come wlie called, to find salt when thrown out, and to eat from troughs, &| advanta; Salt it does better th| not take pature rel ' it is servj^ Tar is the nose : 'flesh or [no doubt I Igreat exti weanea Lambs require fresh and tender pasture when first while the dams should be put for a week or so on short, diy, u| land pasture, to stop the flow of milk. The latter should be cai fully watched, as the bags of some may require emptying hand. After once being thoroughly dried, they require to be wi fed, to put them in condition for the rutting season. Gastration and Docking. — The object of docking is to keep t sheep, especially ewes, clean behind ; since the animal, especially Canada, being changed from dry fodd<;r to pasture, and from gri to hay or straw, is very apt to purge. It is usually done when the mothers are washed in the latl Manual of Agriculture. 359 lannel bkn- nilk, with a ip the lamb fiction, espe- V(i. r lamb, when zU a atmnge e skin en the ! lerately dark I and, if neces- i take tovhe] lOved. 10 other one is I jnce or twice. b to suck, it isl jet the ewe h bag, and there abject to thisi and tenaciouj »vered over, and^ jring matter ba Attle dry eavtl] •om a neglect I led in the laW paH of May, and that is about as good a time as any. It should, however, be carefully done, so that the skin may slip back over the wound. Let the skin be drawn tight back towards the body, while with a chisel and mallet the tail is cut quickly and cleanly off between the bone joints, leaving it from one and a-half to two inches long. By drawing the skin back in this manner, it will, when released from the hand, slip back over the end of the stump, and the healing will soon take place. An ointment of lard and tar, mixed in the proportions of four pounds of lard to one quart of tar, should be smeared on the wound, in order to keep away flies, and thus prevent the forma- tion of maggots. Castration. — Some authorities advocate this operation in a day or two after birth, while the majority approve of the age of at least six weeks, when the creature has attained strength and the parts have not yet become too fully developed. We favour the latter plan. Dry and cool weather should, if possible, be selected — a cool day if possible — and if warm, it should be performed early in the morning. It is a safe and simple operation. Let one man hold the lamb, with its back firmly pressed against his breast and stomach, and all four legs gathered in front and held closely in his hands. The operator then, with a sharp knife, cuts off the bottom of the pouch, frees the testicle from the inclosing membrane, and draws it steadily out, when, if the cord does not s'^ap off at the proper distance, he cuts it with his knife. It is well to drop a little salt into the pouch. The end should bo lightly smeared with an ointment for the same purpose, and as above recommended for docking. Feeding. — Sheep purine very easily — for which reason they should not be turned • ddenly from dry food to grass — which is best effected by housing them for the first few nights and feeding hay. Water. — It is commonly thought that sheep require no water. They will, it is true, live without, but a free access to it is very advantageous, especially to ewes giving milk. Salt is indispensable to the perfect health of sheep. Although it does well to feed it at intervals of, say, once a week, yet it is better that the flock should have constant access to it ; they will not take too much ; but, rather, will lick just the amount that nature requires, instead of eating it voraciously, as they do when it is served out at stated intervals. Tar is supposed by breeders to be verj^^ healthful. Smeared on the nose it will be licked, and swallowed as the natural heat of the flesh or weather causes it to trickle down over the lips. There is no doubt that, applied to the nose, it will repel the fly, and, to a great extent, prevent what is known as " grub in the head " i;- 360 The Canadian Farmers !-^ ,^ Dry, sweet pastures are best adapted for sheep runs. They will eat any kind of grass, pasturing on what has been rejected by horse and cow ; they feed on many a weed that larger animals will not look at, as wild mustard, burrdock, thistJes, milkweed, marshmallow, and many other similar plants. Artificial Pasture. — Rye makes an excellent fall and early spring feed for sheep. Corn sown broadcast, or white mustard'- both make an excellent feed for sheep, not only as pasturage, but when cut early for fodder and used in winter quarters. That shade is very essential to sheep, none can doubt who have seen them panting in their heavy coats and crowding on to the smallest piece of shade possible to find. In the absence of trees, whose entire removal from many of our farms is to be «:loepiy deplored, shade should be provided by means of any roughly constructed open shed. Want of shade is loss of flesh to (lie animal, and loss of flesh is a drainage to tlie farmer's jjoeket. Fall Feed. — By the middle of November, grass has usually lost ts nutrition in Canada, owing to the action of repeated frosts and thaws. It is time then that sheep should have seme fodder in ,i> Edition to their pasture. Thi" may be provided in pens, by bringing them home at nights. Sheep that lose condition in the fall will seldom piclr up again during winter. A few oats fed at this time, say a gill per head, will be well bestowed. Winter Feed and Management are very shortly summed up. Pea straw is valuable for sheep feed. Corn stalks, Hungarian grass, and hay of all descriptions form good fodder. We prefer bright pea straw to any fodder for ewes in lamb ; but as all ani- mals like a variety, so an occasional change from one kind to I another of fodder is highly relished by sheep. The straws of I cereals, as wheat, barley and oats, being very dry, afford poor fod- der to sheep. Grain, in small quantities, is the cheapest fodder wej can give Oats, at a gill a head per daj^ will go further in keep- ing sheep thriving and in good healthy crd^r than an equal value! of any other kind of food. Indian corn is bad feed for sheepj for pregnant ewes it is especially dangerous, as being verv| heating. Roots should be f mI in moderation to sheep. Water in winter is very necessary, although very few farmers] in Canada allow their sheep access to it. Sheep should be kept separate from other stock. How ofteni have we seen the cattle in a yard with their horns ornamented b}J lumps of wool taken from the fleeces of the farmer's sheep. Cattle hook them and colts tease them, while neither cattle noi| horses will touch what sheep have fed over. Sheep do not require warmth — Nature has provided them witlj tremendous coats — but they must have dryness and shelter, UdI der a bank barn is the worst place to keep sheep ; they should Manual of Agriculture. 361 3. doubt ■who .•wding on to le absence of •ms is to be eans of any ss of flesh to ler's |K.'cket. 3 us"jally lost Led frosts and •me fodder in I in pens, by idition in the jw oats fed at y summed up. ks, Hungarian r. We prefer but as all ani- a one kind to Jhe straws of| ford poor fod- pest fodder we I irther in keep- an equal value feed for sheep; IS being veryi ■ry few farmers! ■k. How oftei ornamented b)i r's sheep. I sither cattle no^ ided them witl id shelter. Ud' they should confined in sheds open upon the south side, so that, on the one hand, neither rain nor snow can drive in ; and on the other, there may be a plentiful circulation of fresh air. One evil effect of wintering sheep in too warm a place is, that the wool comes off them in spring long before shearing time. The utmost regularity in feeding should be preserved — regu- larity as to the times of feeding. Sheep do not, like cattle and horses, feed well in the dark ; they should therefore be provided with their evening meal early enough to allow them to consume it before night sets in. Regularity in amount is synonymous with a saving of fodder, and should therefore be carefully attended to. The iUffeds of Food. — ^An analysis^of wool shows us that it con- tains : — Carbon 5065) Hydrogen 7'03(,-- , Nitrogen ,7.71 > 100 parts. Oxygen and sulphur 24-61 ) The large quantity of nitrogen here contained shows that its production is dependent, in great part, upon food in which that element predominates ; and all experiments have shown that amount of wool in every case depends upon amount of nitrogen- ous food. From this we may learn that the steady feeding of grain, such as peas and oats (especially the former), in such quan- tities as not to injure the health, will be most effectual in the pro- duction of an increased amount of wool. Moreover, grain helps the increase of the tissue, and is, therefore, beneficial in putting Jlesh upon the stall-fed sheep, ; without it no fat could be produced. Yards. — It is well that yards be attached to all winter sheds, as sheep, especially pregnant ewes, require daily exercise. Washing. — The methods usually adopted for washing sheep de- pend upon the means at hand to the individual farmer. A thorough washing is, however, of great importance, for upon a pi'oper performance of this operation depends greatly the value of our wool as a marketable commodity. It is often done in a very hasty and inefficient manner. We have seen a flock of sheep driven three or four miles along a dusty road, penned in on the banks of the Grand River, where the current is very strong, taken out one by one, shoved into the water, and after being turned over by a man standing in the river, and slightly rubbed, allowed to swim ashore and go off again along the dirty high road. A roomy pond of clear stagnant water is far preferable to a ranning stream. The water is usually softer, and the yolk or oil which is supposed to be formed through the wool by insensible perspiration, being of a very soapy nature, causes the wash to act more effectually. In running streams this soap is carried away with each sheep, and the v ater remains hard from first to last. If" Br t I* .;*;;.! ¥-' ' If t • I ill i I v tii Ml ';■!' fl' ,;■ 862 The Canadian Farmer's The sheep, owing to the weight of fleece upon its;back, is in its normal state hot at all times, and particularly so in the end of May. A sudden plunging into cold water is, therefore, a very severe shock. The water in a stagnant pond, or in one formed by draining a creek, has a chance of being well warmed before use, and this is another point in its favour. Perhaps the most effectual pla.n is to combine these several ways. Let the sheep be seized by the fore legs, and passed to a man standing in the stagnant and warm water. He should turn the animal in every direction ; should squeeze out the wool well with his hand, and pass it on to one who is placed below, either in running water or under a shoot. After two or three have been washed, we have good soapy water, which will far more effectually soften the wool and loosen all impurities than will clear hard water ; and these impurities will be entirely removed by a final immersion in the running stream. Moreover, the stagnant water, being warm, will prepare the animal's body gradually for the colder, and will do away with that shock to the system caused by a sudden immersion of the sheep, which has sweated under the combined influence of a May sun and its own struggles with its captor. All burrs and tenacious impurities should be carefully and thoroughly removed, and the offensive matter collected round the anus may, when thus softened, be drawn from the wool, thus saving many pounds of wool in a ffock from the process of tagging, at shearing time. A clean pasture, and if possible a clean road to pasture, should be provided until after shearing. The former is most necessary ; for when the dews are heavy, if there be a patch of bare ground in the field, there will the sheep be found lying at night. So important, indeed, has the subject of thorough cleansing of | the fleece before shearing been considered by large breeders, that some years ago the Farming Society of Ireland recommended the use of a large tub of water warmed to blood heat, in which to place the sheep till the wool be well softened, and then to river wash, on the ground that " the keeping the animal in cold water a sufficiently long time to wash thoroughly, endangers its health ; that fleeces of a close pile cannot be cleansed by the usual mode of washing ; and that the extra labour required to wash sheep in tubs of warm water would be amply repaid were the washings in these tubs carried out and applied as manure, thel quantity of rich animal soap which they contain making it oneofl the most fertilizing applications which can possibly be used." It is better to allow a full week or ten days to elapse before! shearing. The wool will then, if it has been fine, be thoroughlyj dried, and some time is necessary for the oil or yolk to ascend fronij the body into the wool, by which the weight of the fleece is iiiT Manual of jigricuUure, 863 ik, is in its the end of )re, a very formed by before use, 1636 several passed to a should turn e wool well lelow, either good soapy )1 and loosen le impurities the running , will prepare io away with ersion of the nee of a May carefully and ited round the pi, thus saving of tagging, at lasture, should )st necessary ; f bare ground light. h cleansing of Dreeders, that jmmended the ,, in which to then to river nimal in cold endangers its jd by the usual uired to wash spaid weretlie] ,s manure, the lakingitoneot be used." .0 elapse before \, be thoroughly I to ascend from] the fleece is in- creased, and by which a great doal of softness and elasticity is imparted to the marketable wool. If the wool be got clean and white, it will always sell for more than enough extra to offset the increased labour and the diminu- tion in weight. Our wool (long) loses by washing about 36 per cent. ; from this may be judged the relative prices that should be paid for washed and unwashed wool. Shearing. — Between washing and shearing should be generally a week or ten days, but this must depend upon the weather ; should the interval be cold or rainy, oi' even cloudy, more time must elapse. The wool should be thoroughly dried out, and the natural oil be allowed full time to rise in the fleece. Shear- ing should not commence until the dew has dried off" sheep. Sheep are generally sheared upon the barn floor. It is well to raise a platform at one end a few inches so that the shearing table may be kept perfectly clean ; but if a nice clean sod is handy, it will be found that they will lie easier and more quietly on soft grass under the shears. It is impossible to convey in writing intelligible practical in- structions by which shearing can be taught. The operation requiring much sleight of hand, must, like the trade of a barber or haircutter, be learned by experience ; there are, however, a few points that may here be with advantage indicated. The wool should be cut off as close as conveniently practicable, and evenly. If the wool on the sheep's back is left uneven, or in very plainly marked ridges, it betrays a want of skilled workman- ship on the part of the operator. Care should be exercised that the wool is never cut twice in one place, as by so doing the length of staple is injured. The chief pint to be attained is to place the sheep as easily in its different positions as possible, and to hold it firmly, that struggles may be avoided. It will he remarked, that clumsy shearers always grumble, because they say that they get the most troublesome sheep, when it is really but another application of the old adage, that " the bad workman complains of his tools." Sheep-ticks. — These vermin, when very numerous, are apt to keep sheep very thin in winter, and at shearing time, being driven from the mothers, will go to the lambs. A fortnight after shearing, when all the ticks have migrated from the back of the sheep to the fleece on the lamb, boil refuse tobacco leaves until the decoction is strong enough to destroy the vermin. Five or six pounds of cheap plug tobacco will answer for a hundred lambs. The following plan of dressing lambs has been highly recommended : " The decoction is poured into a deep, nar- row box, kept for the purpose, which has an inclined shelf on one f . ti' «' . Iff ■; f 'a- nil 864 The Canadian Farmer's side, covered with a wooden grate. One man holds the lamb by its bind legs, while another grasps the fore legs in one hand, and shuts the other about the nostrils, to prevent the liquid from entering them, and then the animal is entirely immersed. It is then immediately lifted out, laid on one side upon the grate, and the water squeezed out of the wool, when it is turned over and squeezed on the other side. The giate conducts the fluid back to the box If the lambs are regularly dipped every yar, ticks will never trouble the flock." Miller's Tick Destroyer we have found to be an excellent and effectual preparation : full instructions for its use are conveyed with every box. Marking Pigments. — Boil tar until, when cold, it has a glazed, hard consistency ; stir in a little lampblack when boiling ; apply when just cold enough not to burn the sheep's hide, and the mark will remain the whole year round. Paint made of lampblack, to which a little spirits of turpen- tine is first added, and then diluted with linseed or lard oil, may be used. The rump is the best place on which to mark sheep, as it is plainer seen when the flock are together or moving away. More- over, the wool on the rump is less valuable than that on the flanks and shoulder. A distinction should be made in the mark between ewes and wethers. Maggots. — To destroy these, boiled tar is an effectual remedy. The Diseases of Sheep will be noticed in a subsequent chapter. PIGS. " Pork, both in its fresh and salted state, is an article of such universal consumption (not only in Canada and the United States, but over the whole world), and the hog is such a profitable con- sumer of every eatable species of offal, that pigs are reared by not only every farmer, but every cottager who can find means to feed them ; for there is no animal which yields so great a quantity of flesh in return for the kind of food which it consumes ; and it has been not unjustly call- ed ' the poor man's stock.' This, together with the fecundity of the sow, which gener- FiG. 29. 3Eff Manual of ^gricuUure. 365 e lamb by hand, and iquid from nersed. It the grate, 19 turned ndvK'ts the •e regularly :cellent and e conveyed las a glazed, ling; apply nd the mark ,s of turpen- ard oil, may heep, as it is way. M.ore- on the flanks lark between lal remedy, ent chapter. fticls of such fnited States, 'ofitable con- reared by not ■>^ ally produces from seven to ten young ojios at a birth, and that not uni'rei I uently twice within the year, tends, notwithstanding the demand, to keep down the price at market to a figure which would leave but little profit if reared upon purchased food. But as they will eat every refuse of animal and vegetable substance, from the kitchcii or the stable, even if spoiled or trodden under foot by other animals, they are thus fed at comparatively little expense during their growth. They are also tended with little trouble ; and this, combined with their leaving nothing to be lost, and pro- ducing large quantities of dung, of a quality only inferior to that of sheep, renders them so valuable to the farmer, that if the sale of the meat repays the cost of production, it is commonly thought sufficient. " Although thus apparently careless of the quft ' provided the quantity is sufficient to appease the appetitr I swallowing everything that comes in his way, yet, if alloweu a choice of diet, the hog has the palate of a true gourmand, and always selects that which is the most nutritive ; if turnips and potatoes be ofli'ered, he will be sure to choose the latter, and he infinitely prefers beans or peas to either oats or barley." The animal, though unjustly considered filthy in his habits, is yet cleanly, if he be only allowed a proper chance, and his flesh is of a delicacy equal to that of any other meat ; so that the pig is cultivated as a means of supplying food to the whole Christian world. ON BREEDS. The various breeds range through every size and shape, from the immense Yorkshire and modern Chester White to the small improved Berkshire and rough Highlander, the latter of which is described as an ugly brindled monster, the very epitome of the wild boar, yet scarcely bigger than an English terrier. " His bristled back a trench impaled appears, Aud stands erected like a field of spears." We shall content ourselves with a succinct account of those now generally bred throughout Canada and the United States. The pig is not a native of North America, and we owe the origin of all our present species to Europe and Asia. Improved Berkshires. — These were first imported to America in 1832, and have steadily, since that period, risen until they have now attained the apex of popularity. Harris says, in his excellent work, " Harris on the Pig," that " although the Berkshires were fully as x'aluable as the breeders claimed, yet a widespread dis- appointment soon manifested itself. For a time the supply was not equal to the demand, and, doubtless, hundreds of pigs were m i t ■)Lm IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) z V] 71 /: 7 1.0 1.1 I us 12.0 iS. 1.25 U iiiji^ < 6" ► Photographic Sciences Corporation 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. 14580 (716) 872-4503 A L i'':'^ S66 The Canadian Farmer's sold as ' pure Berkshires' that were nothing but grades. But the f moral complaint was that the Berkshires were not large enough. he advocates of the breed met this complaint by statements of weights, giving many instances where Berkshires and their grades dressed four hundred pounds at a year old, and that at eighteen or twenty months old they could be made to weigh five hundred or five hundred and fifty pounds dressed. One of the prominent breeders stated that he had a thorough-bred Berkshire that gained four hundred and ninety-six pounds in one hundred and sixty- six days, and when killed, dressed six hundred and twenty-six pounds. The fact is, that what the pork raiser requires is an animal that, having the least amount of offal, will mature rapidly and make a fine lump of pork at an early age. For the last few years there has been no demand for great coarse carcases, but buyers have preferred those that will dress from two hundred to two hundred and fifty pounds of pork. The winter is long and severe in Canada, and it will npt pay to feed pigs over the winter months. What we require is a class of pigs that have the qualifications to mature rapidly, and born in the spring will be ready for the knife, making one hundred and fifty pounds and upwards, by the first month of winter. This tendency to early maturity is eminently characteristic of the fine improved Berkshires and Suffolks. The value of these small breeds lies in their perfection of form, fineness of bone, and small proportion of offal ; whilst they put the greatest proportionate amount of meat upon the ham and shoulder, the choice portions of the carcase. The essential points in a well-bred Berkshire are that the hair be long, thin and somewhat curly ; ears fine, and fringed with long hair round the outer edges ; the body thick, compact and well formed ; legs short and sides broad ; the back wide (showing a well-arched framework of ribs), on which to put fat ; the head well set on ; the snout short ; the jowl thick ; ears erect ; skin fine in texture ; flesh firm and well-flavoured. It is highly popular for pork feeding, on account of its smallness of bone, early maturity, aptitude to fatten on little food, hardihood and fecundity of the females, who are also good mothers. Improved Suffolks. — The old Suffolks were white, long-legged, long-bodied, and, in general, a type of the racers. The present improved breed owes its existence to crossing with the Chinese, and a notable herd of such may be found on me late Prince Con- sort's farm near Windsor. These improved Suffolks, many of which have been lately im- ported to Canada, and have deservedly become very popular, are well formed, compact, of medium size, with round, bulky bodies, short legs and small heads, and exceedingly fat cheeks. Manual of Agriculture, 867 They are rapid maturers ; indeed, in this respect few breeders will agree as between them and the improved Berkshires. For otir owli part, we have always preferred the Suffolks to the Berk- shires, although we aJlow a certain prejudice in favour of the colour of the former. Th% Ghinese. — ^The native hahUat of this hog is in the south- eastern parts of Asia — Siam, China, Burmah, Malacca, Sumatra — and in many of the eastern i^ands ; and there can be little doubt that the European stock was originated in the Asiatic breeds. They are divided into two distinct varieties, the white and the black ; they are all very small in size.' Being exceedingly fine in bone, small in limb, of round bodies, and covered with fine silky bristles, they have been for many years largely used by English breeders to tone down the natural coarseness of the old British stocks of swine, and to the use of these Asiatic breeds we may trace most of the improvements now apparent in our own best stocks. Forfefcires.— The old Yorkshires were coarse, ungainly animals, greedy feeders, an4 although consuming an immense amount of food, yet could show a very poor proportion of pork to bone and offal when slaughtered. Notwithstanding their great size, they seldom attained heavier weights than from three hundred and fifty to four hundred pounds, even when fat and full grown. By crossing with the LeicesterS; the Chinese, the Neapolitan and the Berkshires, the breed has been greatly improved, and has come down to us as the Improved Yorkshire. Those from the Berkshires are hardy, but, though attaining considerable size, fatten very slowly. The old breed, crossed with the Leicesters, has given us the Improved Large Yorkshires, and is in great request not only in Europe and Great Britain, but also in Canada. As we said above, if the present demand for small good pork continues in our market, the Yorkshires will never be a profitable breed to the Canadian farmer ; for although they can be fed to an immense weight in time, yet they do not mature early enough. The prize boar at a Royal Agricultural Show of England, held at Chester, weighed no less than one thousand two hundred and thirty-twa pounds alive. Of the small Yorkshires, Mr. Mangles, a well-known pig breeder in Yorkshire, says : — " The small Yorkshire is peculiar to York- shire, and different from any other breed I have seen. It has a short head, small erect ears, broad back, deep chest, and short legs, with tine bone. It is always ready to fatten, and turn to account either in the way of roaster, small porker, bacon or medium. Three or four of the small breed might be fed well, and kept fresh and symmetrical, on the food which would barely keep one lean and gaunt large Yorkshire." ii ■ ''iKjiiti y^ V' 868 The Canadian Farmer's / ThA Essex. — Sidney, one of the best English authorities on the pig, says: — "The improved Essex is one of the best pigs of the small black breeds, well calculated for producing pork and hams of the finest qualities for fashionable markets, but its greatest value is as a cross for giving quality and maturity for black pigs of a coarser, haraier kind. It occupies with respect to the black pigs the same position that the small Cumberland- Yorks do as to white breeds — that is to say, an improved Essex boar is sure to improve the produce of any large dark sow. " The original Essex pig was a parti-coloured animal, with white shoulders, nose and legs ; in fact, a sort of ' sheeted ' pig, large, upright and coarse in bone " The improved Essex, with symmetry, have more size and con- stitution than the original Essex-Neapolitans, and this has been maintained, without any crosses, for more than twenty years, by judicious selections from the ' three distinct families ' (Original Essex, Western Essex and Neapolitan-Essex)." Cheater TTAifes.— Harris says : — " The most popular and exten- sively known breed of pigs in the United States at this time is, unquestionably, the Chester County breed, or, as generally called, the ' Chester Whites.' " The rearing and shipping of these pigs has become a very large and profitable business. " One f rm alone in Chester County, Penn., informs us that for the last three or four years they have shipped from two thousand five hundred to two thousand nine hundred of these pigs each year, and many other breeders have also distributed large numbers of them. There are several reasons why the Chester Whites are more popular than the English breeds. In the first place, they are a large, rathercoarse, half-hardy breed, ofgood constitution, and welladapted to the system of management ordinarily adopted by the majo- rity of our farmers. They are a capital sort of common swine, and it is certainly fortunate that they have been so extensively intro- duced into nearly all sections of the country. Wherever Chester Whites are introduced, there will be found sows admirably suited to cross with the refined English breeds. No cross could be bet- ter than a Chester White sow and an Essex, Berkshire, or small Yorkshire thorough-bred boar. " We get the form, refinement, early maturity and fattening I qualities of the latter, combined with the strong digestive powers, | hardiness and vigorous growth of the Chester Whites. " If the first cross does not give pigs possessing sufficient refine- j ment and early maturity, a good, thrifty, well-formed sow should be selected from the litter and put to a thorough-bred boar, and this second cross will, so far as our experience goes, be as refined as is desirable for ordinary farm-yard pigs The pigs from a third cross would have 87^ per cent, of thorough-bred blood I Manual of Agriculture, 369 irities on the pigs of the :k and hams rreatest value ack piga of a he black pigs lo as to white re to improve animal, with ted'pig,lai^ge. B size and cob- this has been enty years, by ilies ' (Original liar a)^d exten- a.t this time is, [yenevally called, become a very rms us that for im two thousand ,e pigs ea«h year ,rge numbers of Whites are more they are a large, andwelladapted d by the majo- mon swine, and .tensively intro- herever Chester dmirably suited as could be bet- irkshire, or smaU in them, and, so far as the production of pork is concerned, would be more profitable than thorough-breds." Tkt Cheshire, or Jefferson County Pigs. — ^This is a breed which, originating in Jefferson County, N.Y. State, has come into some notoriety in the States, though few have found their way into Canada. They are descended from the " Cheshires," one of the largest and coarsest breeds in England, of which Sidney says, "These unprofitable giants are almost extinct." They are like the Chester Whites in form, but superior in beauty and fineness. The Magie {Ohio) Pig is another large breed of pigs which has of late attained considerable celebrity, especially in the west- ern States. D. M. Magie is the largest breeder of them, and from him they have obtained a name. They are large and coarse, and we doubt their ever finding favour, unless considerably refined, in the Canadian market. Breeding. — The same remarks that have been applied to the advantages of breeding sheep and cattle from thorough-bred male Btock, are of equal weight in the selection of sires for pigs. There are distinct objects to be attained in breeding — improve- ment of shape, tendency to early maturity of progeny, and fecun- dity of sow and boar. Under any circumstances, the points to be looked for in a good breeding sow, whatever may be her breed, are : a small, lively head ; a broad and deep chest ; round ribs ; capacious barrel ; a haunch falling almost to the hough ; deep and broad loins ; ample [and wide hips, with considerable length of body. Smallness of bone is another property inevitably transmitted to progeny, and the possession of which early maturity is dependent. Twelve teats should be found on the belly of a good breeding for every pig selects a teat for itself, and keeps it. Breeding sows or boars should never be raised from defective imals. A good hoar should possess a long body ; small bones ; well- iveloped muscles ; wide chest ; broad, straight back, not falling the rump ; short head ; fine snout ; clear, bright eye ; a short, "ck neck ; broad, well-developed shoulders ; a loose, mellow skin ; e bright long hair and few bristles ; and small legs and hips. Ivrand'in breeding has a very rapid deteriorating efiect upon ne. When persisted in, the result is decrease in number, size sufficient refine- Ad early maturity of every succeeding litter, until at length the med sow should Bogeny becomes puny, the sows barren, and the boars almost use- ;h-bred boar, andr les be as refined ■The practice is also very injurious in that it predisposes the The pig* Bogeny to all the diseases that the pig is " heir to," such as scrofula, ittgh-bred blood Blepsy, rheumatism, &g. Pigs not only improve very rapidly by 24 and fattening iigestive powers, thites. y } 370 The Canadian Farmers m for boa sow ort' boai year Ft m\ ferta eestoi be at iiieji ill da] The iiiture &ctin the use of superior breeding animals, but also d^nerate very lapidlv by iniudicious management. Bai8mg Thorough-brede. — As in the kine or sheep, thorough- breds must be raised by some one to give us the benefit and use of blood-boars, but for the ordinary farm purposes a good grade pig will be found the most serviceable; in order, however, to keep up a good stock of grades, thorough-bred males must be usea. As Harris puts it: — " It cannot be denied that many farmers have purchased thorough-bred pigs, and after keeping them a few years have given them up m disgust. One cause of this result may be found in the erroneous ideas prevalent in regard to the object of keeping improved thorough-bred animals. No farmer could afford to keep a herd of high-bred Duchess Shorthorns simply for the purpose of raising beef for the butcher. Their value consists in their capa- city to convert a large amount of highly nutritious food into a large amount of valuable beef, and in the 'power they have of tram- muting this quality to their offytring when crossed with ordinari/ _^ cows. It is in this last respect that pedigree is so ii^portantl/^j^. But the former quality is due in a great degree to persistent highlug^j ^^4 feeding for many generations. Were they submitted to ordinary ' food and treatment, especially when young, they would rapidly. deteriorate. But put one of these splendid Shorthorn bulls to a carefully selected ordinary cow, and we get a grade Shorthorn thatj with ordinary good feed and treatment, will prove highly profi able for the butcher. " The same is true of improved thorough-bred pigs. Theii valuable qualities have been produced by persistent high feeding] and by selecthig from their offspring those best adapted for higl feeding. Pigs that grew slowly were rejected, while those thai grew rapidly and matured early were reserved to breed from, this way these qualities became established in the breed; and thi qualities cannot be maintained without good care and good feedi: " In the case of pigs, we could well afford to give the necessai food to fatten thorough-bred pigs for the butcher. But we canni afford to raise the young thorough-breds for this purpose. Thi would be true, even if we could buy thorough-bred boars and i to breed from at the price of ordinary pigs. The reason we not afford to raise highly refined, thorough-bred pigs for ordin purposes is, that if we feed them as they must be fed to mail tain their qualities, they are apt to become too fat for breediDj and if we feed and treat them as ordinary slow-growing pigs treated and fed, they lose the qualities which it is the object the breeder to perpetuate. To raise highly improved thoroug bred pigs requires more care, skill, judgment and experience thi ^^ ^^ we can afford to bestow on animals designed to be sold in ^Ctyof gi months to the butcher. Ks [q Manual of Agriculture* 871 merate very "The object of Taising thorouch-bred pigs is simply to improve oar common stock. They should be raised for this purpose, and for this purpose alone. The farmer should buy a thorough-bred boar from some reliable breeder, and select the largest and best sow he has to cross him with. A thorough-bred boar at six weeks or two months old can usually be bought for $20 to $25. Such a boar in a neighbourhood is capable of adding a thousand dollars a year to the profits of farmers who use him. Fertility. — ^lliis is a quality that runs in families in sows, and one very important for the profits of the pig breeder. To keep up fertility in a stock, sows should be chosen for breeding whose an- cestors have been noted for the same quality. Also, sows should be at all times plentifully but not h^hly fed. Plentifully, that they may never be suffering from hunger; and not too highly, that tU clanger of over-fatness and fever be avoided. The influence of a first impregnation is very great upon the foture breeding of a sow. We have many illustrations of this ivntk ordii^'H/ Ibtct in daily experience, for we see the litter of a sow often taking is so impoTtaQt.nrmany years, even when a different boar has each time been persistent higlilisecl, after the first boar to which she had access, itted to ordinaryH Breeding and Rearing.— k strong, vigorous sow, of ^od size, 'lould be chosen from which to breed. If a farmer desires to let pigs run over the first winter, and to make heavy eighteen inths old pork, a sow fiom a big-bred sow had better be selected put to a small thorough-bred. As we have said in a preceding page, we believe that for the lers in Canada the most profitable kind of pig is one that make from one hundred and fifty to two hundred pounds of k in the first nine or ten months of its life ; and for this pur- le there are none equal to the well-bred small kinds — Black irkshires and Essex and White Suffolks and small Yorkshires, etake the following full and yet concise instructions from the of "Harris on the Pig :"— Store Pigrs.— He begins by saying: "Better pa^ five dollars :the use of a thorough- bred than accept the services of a grade common boar for nothing If the sow has pigs in, say, the middle of March, they may be weaned in six iks; and if the sow has been properly fed, she will take the in a few days after the pigs are weaned. We should then a Utter of, say, grade Essex about the 1st of September. sow, during the summer, should, if possible, have the run of a er pasture ; and if she is not in good thriving condition with and the wash or milk from the house, throw her two or three of com a day. She should not be too fat, but there is not one er in a thousand who ever falls into this error. Let her have ity of exercise ; and if she is fully hxilf fat by the time she ^ in, all the better. K she is a good mother, nearly all her ,p, thorough- letit and use a good grade rever, to keen lUst be uaea. ,ve purchased V years have , may be found lect of keeping i afford to keep [or the purpose tain their capar JUS food into a («feav6o/ trans ey would rapidlyl jithom bulls to al le Shorthorn that, >ve highly profit jred pigs- TheiJ ^.growing Wl it is the object! mproved thoroui jtnd experience thi ftobesoldina^ if; w W p.! ./■ is m S72 The Canadian Farmers iMkmmulated fat will find its way to the little ones before they an six weeks old. •' For two or three weeks before she is expected to farrow, let the sow be put in a pen by herself at nights, to accustom her to it She may be allowed to run out during the day, but should always be fed separately in the pen» and in this way she will soon eome to regard the pen as her own, and will go in as soon as the door is open. Let no harsh word be spoken, nor a kick nor a blow he on any provocation resorted to. " The pen should have a rail round the side, about six inches from the floor, and eight or ten inches from the side of the pen, so tJiat if she makes her bed near the side of the pen, as she almost invariably will, the rail will afford a space for the little ones to slip under, and thus prevent their being crushed against the sides of the pen. " As at this season the weather is warm, she will need but little straw. The better plan is to put in two or tbree times as much straw as is needed two or three weeks before she' is expected to pig. By lying on it she will make it soft, and this is very de- sirable. If any of it becomes wet or dirty, remove it from time to I time when the sow is out. As the time approaches she will select a particular spot and ' make a bed.' When she is eating, or out of the pen, examine the bed and see that the sides are not too haid,| or compacted together too closely, and that they are not morel than four or five inches high ; if so, remove a little of the straw. I It is better to have too litUe than too much. After this, the sow] should be left to herself With gentle thorough-breds that are! accustomed to being petted, we keep a close watch during such anl interesting event, rendering assistance if necessary ; but as a t\M and especially with common pigs, it is far better to trust to nature^j and let things take their course. " At this season of the year, and especially if the sow has ba the run of a pasture, and is in a thrifty condition, there will sel^ dom be any trouble. The little pigs will come strong, and con mence to suck a few minutes after they are bom. On no accou disturb the sow until all is over. This may be two hours, ani sometimes longer. Do not be in any hurry to feed her. Bt when she gets up let her have all the slop or milk that she^ drink. " It is better to watch her, and keep pouring it into the tron as fast as she will drink it up clean. Let her have all she < drink, but leave none in the trough. We are aware that thei directions are not in accord with the general rules upon the i ject. There are those who think that the sow should be kepto short allowance, so that she may be wideawake, and quick! hear the scream of any little one she may be lying on. " This is all very well, but the chief danger occurs from that es before they are zainst the sides of Manual of Asriculturt. >} until she eeta ud flanin ^r ,. *^^ down, there is ]inu "i ^ '"""»"' V" "">o of the sow Tk., ' .' ■■"» "tUe Dies a^n.,» ^.mmed milk „ot too ^"JJ; JJ"!? * " ""'W-g better f« «l'ered Do tt *?.'' *««-fo™ed hf *; >>*''T No matter hJw i ;?' /" 874 The Canadian Farmef's but it is not often that we can find men in this country who are able to perform the operation with safety. Where there are such, all the sow pigs not intended for breeding should be spayed a week or ten days before weaning. There is nothing better to apply to the wound than petroleum — not kerosene, but the crude oil. " The time of weaning will depend upon the time when it is required to have the next litter of pigs. " If the sow is in good condition, she will take the boar in a week or two after the pigs are weaned. And if the sow and pigs are well fed, the pigs may be allowed to remain with the sow until ten weeks or three months old. " It is better not to remove all the pigs at once ; let them return to the sow for a few minutes at the expiration of twelve hours, and again at the expiration of twenty-four hours. We prefer, however, to let one or two of the weaker pigs remain with the sow for a week or so after the others have been removed. " At the time of weaning, the pigs should have extra attention. Feed them five times a day, the first thing in the morning and the last at night. If they have all they can eat, they will not pine for the mother. Nothing is so good for them as milk. A little flaxseed tea, oatmeal gruel, or cornmeal gmel, mixed with the milk or given separately, will be good and acceptable. As the weather by this time is getting cold, it will be well to give warm food But guard against giving it too hot : it should not be warmer than new milk. " There is perhaps nothing better for the pigs than com pud and milk. Put two quarts of com meal into a pail, and poi on two or three quarts of boiling water and stir it until all thi meal is wet, then fill up the pail with milk. " We need hardly add that all pigs should be allowed a con stant supply of fresh water. There are few things more importani in the management of pigs. " Let the pens be warm, clean and well ventilated, but withni cracks for the wind to blow in on to the pigs. And, above all, li the bedding and pens be dry. There should always be liti enough for the pigs to bury themselves in. Warmth, to a cei extent, is equivalent to food, and, what is of more importance the saving of food, it saves digestion. Let the pigs have the exercise they wish, and then do not be afi'aid that warm, and comfortable quarters, with abundance of wholesome food, make them tender. " We are aware that this is a common idea, but it is an erroneoi one. A cold wind or storm, that will send a half-starved neglected pig squealing round the barn-yard with hair op ei^ head down and back up, will have no effect on pigs treated as \ have recommended. And there is nothing more important th to have young pigs in a healthy, vigorous, and almost fat conij tion before winter sets in. and f< butchi they again. pint we gle andsp IS here and ca "TI the hit Utest Manual of Jgric'lture. 375 ntry who are here are such, be spayed a oetter to apply le crude oil. me when it is the boar in a e sow and pigs with the sow let them return i twelve hours, irs. We prefer, remain with the emoved. extra attention. I ihe morning and I liey wmnotpinel 9 milk. A little ted with the milkl As the weather! give warmfooil t be warmer than| hancompuddii a pail, and poj it until all m -ititisanerroneoi |a half-starved « with hair opei J pigs treated as lore important tl Id almost /at co«' " The pign are now three months old, and should weigh 75 lbs. to 80 lbs. apiece. « During the winter, the pigs may be allowed to run in the barn-yard, to pick up what they can find. If the cattle are fed with grain and oil-cake, a certain number of pigs will keep in good condition on the leavincs of the cattle, and on food which would otherwise be wasted. Let the young pigs, however, have a sepa- rate pen from the old ones, and see to it that they have enough food to keep them in condition. " By throwing them an ear or two of com in the pen, they will soon learn to be ready at the appointed time to enter the pen for the night without trouble. On no account let them go to bed hungry. " Let their stomachs be well filled, say at five o'clock in the evening, and they will sleep quietly until eight o'clock the next morning. In fact, a well-bred and well-fed pig will sleep three- fourths of his time during winter. If not disturbed, and. tempted with fattening food, he will eat nothing and gain nothing. And sometimes, like other hibernating animals, he will live on nis own bit. " As spring approaches, the young pigs will need more food, and fortunate is that farmer who has a uberal supply of parsnips, sugar-beets or mangold-wurzels for them. These roots, pulped or rasped in a cider mill, mixed with a little corn meal, are a cheap ana excellent food for pigs in the spring. But, whatever the feed, let the pigs have all they need to keep them in a good thriv- ing condition. " As soon as the clover is fairly growing, the pigs should have the run of the clover pasture. They will get three-fourths of their food in the pasture, and we need hardly say that where clover grows abundantly, it is the cheapest food that can be fed to a pig ; with clover and the slops from the house and dairy, the pigs will keep in a thriving condition. But it is a waste of time and food to depend on this alone with pigs intended for the batcher. If fed from a pint to a quart of corn or com meal a day, they will eat just as much clover, and will grow nearly as fast again. After harvest they will pick up considerable food on the pin stubbles ; but if as fat as they should be by this time, stub- ble gleanings can be more profitably left to the breeding stock and spring pigs. " By the Ist of November, such pigs as we have described, fed as here recommended, should be in prime order for the butcher, and can be sold at any time when the price is satisfactory. " They should average 400 lbs. dressed weight. The pork is of ihe highest quality, and the lard keeps firm and hard during the hottest weather in summer, and makes excellent pastry." Spring pigs, to be killed when nine or ten months old, should vim 11 ^ 878 ThB Canadian Farmer'^ be brouffht in as early in spring as possible. As the weather in which they are bom is apt to be cold and stormy, some care must bf) exercised in the protection of the mother and young. The pen must be warm and well sheltered. The treatment of the mother may be similar to that already explained in the foregoing extract. There should be plenty of straw, but let it be provided some days before pigging is expected to commence, so that the mother may bite it up short and make a compact bed. In long straw, young pigs are apt, when first born, to become en- tangled, and so are easily laid upon and crushed by the mother. It must be remembered that the pig when first born is very tender, is wet, and therefore very susceptible to cold. We have saved pigs bom in February, when the thermometer was below zero, by careful attention,to the exclusion of every possible draught of wind from the pen. The same treatment of the mother, and sucking pigs the same time of. weaning; castrating should be adopted as was recom- mended in the preceding extract from " Harris on the Pig." Spring pigs, however, that are required to make choice pork before winter sets in, want careful attendance during the summer. They should have the run of a good clover field, and there, with all the milk and slops that can be spared them, and a very small but regular supply of grain, and constant access to water, they will thrive and grow during the hot months. As soon as ever the crops are off, let them be turned into the grain stubbles ; there they will fill out and grow fat with amazing rapidity. As soon as tm the stubbles become pretty well gleaned, if the pigs be not taken up they will begin to lose fat by reason of the amount of exercise , tnat they will take in wandering over the field in search of the | shellings. This must be avoided by immediately penning, and commencing I to cram them with hard grain, corn or peas. The stubbles are | generally cleared by the middle of October, when heavy pen feed- ing with sound grain, for about four or six weeks, will bring I spring pigs into prime condition for the market, and of a quality for which there is and ever will be a large demand in Canada. I Well-bred pigs of the improved breeds, such as Berkshire, Suffolk I or small Yorkshires, will at ten months old, or by December, ifj well fed, in the manner above indicated, from the day of birth, [ dress from one hundred and fifty to three hundred pounds of primej pork. , Messrs. Lawes and Gilbert give the following table : — TABliB SHOWING THE WBIQHT OP SIFFERKNT PARTS OF A PIO WEIOHINO AUVl | 212f LBS. (AVSBAGE OF 59 PIOS.) Parts. Actual Weight. Percentage. Stomach and contents 2 lbs. 10*4 oz. 1-28 Caul fat 1 " 2-3" 64 Manual of Agriculture. 877 le weather in iO WEIGHING AUVI Parti. Aotaal Weight Small intestinea «nd ooutenti 4 lbs. 8 '4 ox. Large " " 8 " 67 Intestinal fat 2 '< 5 6 Hc«rt and aorta " 9'6 Looge and windpipe 1 <* 91 Blood 7 •• lO'l Liver 3 " 4-6 Oall bladder and contenti " 21 Pancreas (sweet-bread) " 6*6 Miltorspleen " 4*7 Bladder " 2-6 Penis *• 7'1 Tongue 1 «• 02 Toes " 2-9 Miscellaneous trininiings " 8*8 Total offal parts 36 Carcase 176 Loss by evaporation, ftc 1 Live weight after fasting 212 4( «1 «« «« l« I* 4-6 " 6-3 •• 21 " Peroentagib 2-20. 4 04. 106. 0-29. 0-76. 863. 1-67. 0-06. 0.19. 014 0-08. 0-2L 0-48. 008. ' 0-26. 16-87. 82 67. 0-56. 12-0 100 00. From tliese and other experiments, Mr. Harris deduces the fol- lowing: that A moderately fat heifer or steer will dress 59^ per cent. meat. "mutton sheep " " 59J pig .824 It (< «« Showing that a pig turns out twenty-three per cent, more meat, Id proportion to its actual live weight, than either the steer or Pigs, if properly attended to, and treated well and generously, are the most profitable stock that the farmer can raise. Thev realize the great commercial principle of profit, namely, " quick returns," and, added to this, they have the qualities of rapid mul- tiphcation and early maturity. Feeding Peas or Corn. — Peas contain in 1,000 parts — Com ... Barley 264 parts of gluten, and 496 of starch, gum and sugar. 123 " " 716 " " " 64 " " 684 " " " In our former chapter on the principles of feeding, we showed that food containing large amounts of gluten was fiesh-forming, while that into the composition of which enters largely starch and sugar was fat-forming. Hence, mixing peas and com or peas and barley will be found better for the purpose of fattening pigs than the same weight or equivalent in money value of either of these grains fed separately. Peas are the most valuable when the pig is first put up to fatten, by filling up the flesh on the bones ; but when once the bones have become well covered with flesh, corn will be found most efficient in the formation of fat. i 378 The Canadian Farmer's Sour Whey for Pigs. — It is calculated that about one pig can be reared from sour whey for every two cows in the dairy. Supposing a dairy to consist of fifty cows ; three breeding sows, reckoning that each one would have eight young pigs, might be kept, giving them the run in any rough grass under orchard trees not much used for other purposes. These pigs, lecol^.nng as much of the sour whey as they will drink, will make strong growing pigs. The whey is much better for pig food when old, or at least some mixture of it should be so ; and if it be used daily from the vat, which is as often getting replenished from the dairy,it makes a very wholesomedrink for pigs, on which they will grow and do remarkably well. And ds the pigs are small to begin upon it, and do not drink as much as afterwards, a stock collects for their large appetites; and this, with the wash which farm-houses must supply, with gai'den refuse thrown in it in the summer in addition, is found enough to keep the num- ber of pigs mentioned, viz., about one of the age and description given, to every two dairy cows in milk. — " Morton." TABLE OP DENTITION OP PIGS. V At Birth. One month. Three months. Nine , Twelve months, months. Eighteen months. *""•' j dental Temporary incisors 4 4 4 4 4 central 4 4 8 central and lateral 8 central and lateral 4 lateral. -■• Permanent incisors •• • • • • 4 corners. 8 central and cor- ners. 12 central, lateral and comer. Permanent tusks • • • t • • 4 (cutting) 4 4 Total iu both Jaws 8 12 16 16 16 16 SEVERAL MODES OF CURING BACON, HAM AND PORK. Dry Salting. — Cut up into hams, shoulders and sides, and salt well ; lay up for a time, and in about six weeks salt again. When the salt has worked well through the pork, it may be hung up in the kitchen to dry, and before the flies become troublesome in spring, pack the salt in sifted woodashes or in oats. It will keep sweet all summer. In Brine. — Put a layer of salt at the bottom of the cask, at least one inch thick, and then pack tightly one layer of clear pork, each piece placed on its edge. Now put salt on again, to fill up the interstices between the pieces and to make another layer of salt over the layer of meat. Then add another layer of pork and another layer of salt successively, till the cask is nearly full, put- ting over the last layer two inches or so of salt. Now take cold water and make a brine as strong as salt will make it, and pour this brine over the meat, putting in enough to cover the upper layer of meat with the brine. Manual of Agriculture, 379 ne pig can be r. Supposing wrs, reckoning e kept, giving 3es not mucQ ch of the sour gs. The whey e mixture of it tiich is as often tiolesomedrink ly well. And ink as much as d this, with the refuse thrown keep the num- md description »> 'welve 1 Eighteen wnths. months. JD POBK. sides, and salt It again. When T be hung up in troublesome in It will keep I of the cask, at jr of clear pork, ,again, to fill up tnother layer of ^er of pork and yearly full, put- JNow take cold Ike it, and pour lover the upper We have pork in our cellar now that was thus put away a year ago, and which is as hard and as perfectly sweet as any one could possibly desire. From the moment it is stowed and packed away it needs no more attention or watching. The top of the barrel should be made small enough to be put over the meat, with a weight pressing it down. This gives easy access to the pickled pork, and keeps it under the brine. No one need fear using too much salt. Use it lavishly, and when the meat is all gone, take the brine and scatter it over the manure heap, just as it is being hauled out to the field. Used in this way it will be worth to the farmer all that it cost him ; especially if applied where early corn or early potatoes are being planted. Land that has been dressed with s(Ut manure has been put in grand prepara- tion for a crop of turnips. Sugar Curing. — Take fourteen pounds of good salt ; one half pound of saltpetre; two quarts of molasses, or four pounds of brown sugar, with water enough to dissolve them. Bring the liquor to a scalding point, and skim off all the impurities which rise to the top. When cold, pour it upon the hams, which should be perfectly cool, and not frozen, and closely packed in a barrel ; if not suffici- ent to cover them make up with pure water. For a flavour, pepper, allspice, cinnamon, nutmeg, mace or cloves may be added. Let the hams remain six or eight weeks in this pickle ; then hang them up in the smoke-house, with the small end down, and smoke for from ten to twenty days, according to quantity of smoke made. Keep the fire far enough away to escape all danger of heating the hams. The Westphalia hams, a noted article in the world s market, are smoked in a cool, dry chamber, into which the smoke is carried from a cellar below by a flue. Green maple makes the best chips for smoking, after which come, in the following order, hickory, birch, corn-cobs, white ash or beech. To Keep Flies out of Cured Pork. — Cover each piece with a can- vas bag thoroughly saturated with lime whitewash, or pack in sifted ashes, dry oats or baked sawdust. Another plan is to dip them in meat paint This is made by stirring very fine ashes into warm (not hot) water until the mixture is as thick as paint, then dip in the meat pieces and hang up to dry. The files will not molest it ENGLISH MODES. Westmoreland Hams, which are famous, are thus cured : They are rubbed hard with bay salt, after which they are left on a stone bench to drain off the brine. After four or five days the i 880 The Canadian Farmer's aii rubbipff is repeated, with an addition of an ounce of finely-pow- dered saltpetre to each ham, mixed with the salt. Then they are suffered to lie about a week, and are then hung in the chimney to smoke. Some hang them so that they may be dried solely by the heat of the fire, without being exposed to the smoke ; while others suspend them in the midst of the smoke, whether rising from wood or peat, and leave them there until the weather becomes warm, when they are packed up in oat chaff; though, to prevent them from being fly-blown, they ought to be covered with bags of coarse linen or paper. In Hampshire, Berleshire, and some of the neighbouring dis- tricts, when the hog is killed the first process is to " swale" him or singe off his bristles, which is done by laying the carcase on one side and covering it thinly with straw, to be lighted on the windward side, and renewed as it bums away, taking care, how- ever, not to scorch the skin ; the other side is then turned, and when the process of singeing is completed, the bristles are scraped off dry. This is considered preferable to the usual plan of scalding and scraping, which softens the rind, and is then thought to injure the firmness of the fat. He is next cut into flitches, which are effectually rubbed with a mixture of saltpetre and common salt, and laid in a trough, where they continue for three weeks or a month, according to their size, and are during that time frequently turned, and when completely dried and cured on the same plan as that of Westmoreland, noticed above, are either packed in oat chaff or deposited on the kitchen racks for home consumption. They should be kept dry, and never be packed in. cellars or damp places. On the European Continent it is common to strip off the skin, the hide being sold for saddles, and the bristles for brushmaking. These parts afford some profit, and the flesh is said to take the salt better when skinned ; but if cured, it is said that the bacon is subject to become rusty, and to waste in boiling. Piggeries, — We have not room in the present work to go into the subject of piggeries, but we commend our readers to the excellent portions on this subject contained in " Harris on the Pig," a book written by a practical farmer and the son of a farmer, as he 8a3rs in his preface, residing near Rochester, in the State of New York ; and we have no hesitancy in saying that it is a work that should be on the shelves of every enterprising farmer. Catching a Fig. — Of all the animals to catch, perhaps a pig is the most difficult, and the most provocative of constant loss of temper to the attendant. However, as the more the temper is lost, the more perverse and obstinate the animal becomes, we should advise as the first essen- tial " to keep cool." Common method. — To drive him round till the attendant is out Manual of Agriculture. 381 of breath and the pig has done himself a great amount of damage and lost a day's good food ; knock him down with a stick ; get bit- ten, and frighten the animal so that he will not willingly approach man for a month or so. A better method is to fasten a double cord to the end of a stick, and beneath the stick Ist there be a running noose in the cord ; tie a piece of bread to the cord (it may also be done without any bait), and when he opens his mouth to seize the bait, catch the upper jaw in the mouth, run it tight, and back of the tusk, and the animal is fast. Tie the other end to a post, and you may approach and do anything to the pig without fear, even to slaugh- tering. A pig tied by a cord, behind the tusks, and attached to a stout post, will do nothing but steadily pull back with his whole weight on the cord ; he will never come forward. Another method. — Catch one foot in a running noose and draw it off the ground, then throw a bag over the animal's head. HORSES. ttendant is out **The fiery courser, when he hears from far The sprightly trumpets and the shouts of war. Pricks up his ears, and, trembling with delight, Shifts place, and paws, and hopes the promised fight *, On his right shoulder his thick mane reclined. Ruffles at speed and dances in the wind. Eager he stands — then starting with a bound, He turns the turf, and shakes the solid ground ; Fire from his eyes, clouds from his nostrils flow \ He bears his rider headlong on the foe !" POINTS OF A GOOD HORSB. We extract from " The Horse in the Stable and the Field," by Stonehenge : — " The Head. — Without a wide forehead (which marks the seat of the brain) you cannot expect a full development of those faculties known as courage, tractability, good temper, &c. The size of the muzzle is partly regarded as an element of beauty, and partly as a sign of good breeding. " Hence, in the cart-horse a coarse jaw and thick muzzle are not regarded. A large and patent nostril cannot be dispensed with in horses intended for fast work, and should be desired even in the cart- horse, for in drawing heavy loads on a hot day his breathing may be rendered almost as laborious as that of the highly-tasked race-horse or hunter. So also with the jaw : if there is not ample width be- tween the two sides for the development and play of the larynx and windpipe, the wind is sure to be affected, and, in addition, the head cannot be nicely placed on the neck. * * * The eye is to be examined with a twofold purpose — first, as an index of tem- y 382 The Canadian Farmet^s per, the nature of which is marked by the expression of this organ ; and second, of its continuing healthy. A fuU and clear eye, with soft, gazelle-like expression, is scarcely ever associated with a bad temper, and will most frequently continue sound if the management of the horse to which it belongs is proper in itself. The ear should be of medium size, not too small nor too large ; nor should it be lopped, though many good lop-eared horses have been known, and some very superior breeds, like that of the celebrated Melbourne, are notorious for this defect. " The neck should be of moderate length, all beyond a certain dimension being waste, and even a moderate-sized head at the end of an extremely long lever being too much for the muscles to sup- port. It should come out full and muscular, with a sweep between the bosom and the withers, and should gradually diminish till it runs into the head, with an elegant bend just behind the ear. A very narrow throat, suddenly bent at the upper part, known as the thropple, is apt to be connected with roaring, and on that account is objected to by horsemen. " In the fore quarters there are several points to be attentively examined, and among these the shoulder is regarded as of most consequence when the horse under consideration is intended for the saddle. It is evident that unless there is length of the blade, and also of the true arm, there cannot be a full surface for the attachment and play of the muscles, nor can there be the same amount of spring to take off the jar which follows each footfall The straighter the angle formed by the long axis of each of these bones, the less spring there will be. So also, if the angle is not sufficient, the muscles of the shoulder-blade will not thrust for- ward the true arm, nor will the latter be sufficiently clothed with muscles (without being loaded) to act on the fore arm, commonly known by hoi'semen as the arm. Hence it is found that, with an upright shoulder, not only is the stride in all the paces short and the action stumpy, but there is not that elastic movement which enables the horse to carry his body along rapidly and evenly, without rising alternately behind and before, and thereby jarring himself or his rider. On the other hand, the upright shoulder, loaded with a thick mass of muscles, is useful in the cart-horse, and to a certain extent also in the carriage-horse, in both of which the pressure of the collar requires a steady and comparatively mo- tionless surface to bear it. * * * The point of the shoulder should be well developed, but not showing any rough protuber- ances, which are equally objectionable with a flat or ill-developed point. The length of the true arm is mainly dependent upon that of the blade ; but sometimes, when this is oblique enough, the true arm is short and upright, and the elbow stands under, or only a little behind, the shoulder point. This is a very faulty conforma- tion, and is seldom attended with good action. The chief defect BHi * •« Manual of Agriculture. 383 ion of this U and clear r associated )Ound if the )er in itself a large ; nor 53 have been e celebrated ind a certain ,d at the end iscles to sup- reep between minish till it i the ear. A icnown as the that account e attentively d as of most , intended for . of the blade, irface for the be the same each footfall each of these 3 angle is not )t thrust for- ' clothed with m, commonly that, with an ,ce8 short and rement which ■f and evenly, lereby jarring ght shoulder, e cart-horse, loth of which iaratively mo- " the shoulder igh protuber- ill-developed lent upon that [ough, the true ler, or only a [ty conforma- chief defect in the elbow is seen when it turns inwards, and rubs so closely against the ribs that the finger can hardly be insinuated between them and it. Here the elbow is said to be tied or conlned, and the horse is very apt to turn his toes out ; while the opposite forma- tion is indicated by tumed-in or * pigeon toes,' and turn-out elbows, frequently accompanying long-standing rheumatism of the shoul- ders. A long and muscular fore arm is a sure accompaniment of strong and sweeping action, and should be carefully prized ; in other respects there is little to be noted here. Next comes the knee, which should be broad, and, when looked at from the front, should be much wider than the limb above and below. It should taper off backwards to a comparatively thin edge, and should have a good development of the pisiform bone, which projects back- wards at its upper part. The leg, immediately below the knee, should be as large as any other part, and not 'tied in' there, which indicates a weakness of this part. A bending of the knee back- wards is called a * calf-knee,' and is not objected to in cart-horses, in which it is by no means uncommon ; but it is very apt to lead to strains of this joint in the race-horse or hunter. A knee natu- rally bending somewhat forward is much preferred by good judges, though when it is the result of overwork, it is almost equally to be avoided with the calf-knee. Flat, and at the same time large cannon bones, without gumminess, are of great importance; and if attended with a full-sized suspensory ligament, and with strong, clean, and free back sinews, the leg is to be considered faultless. The fetlock-joint should be of good size, and clean, whilst the pas- terns should form an angle with the ground of between forty -five and sixty degrees. Lastly, the foot should be well formed ; but the construction of this part being elsewhere more fully described, its consideration here is omitted. "In the middle-piece the withers come first under notice. It is usual to desire them high and thin, but they are very commonly too much developed, and if the bony processes stand up like the edge of a razor, without muscles in them, they are to be regarded as objectionable rather than otherwise. * * * The volume of the chest is the measure not only of the capacity of the lungs, but of that of the large organs of digestion. Hence, unless there is a middle-piece of proper size, the wind is seldom good, and the stamina of the individual will scarcely ever be sufficient to bear hard work. * * * The capacity of the lungs is marked by the size of the chest at the girth ; but the stamina will depend upon the depth of the back ribs, which should be especially attended to. " A short hack, with plenty of ground covered nevertheless, is the desideratum of every practical horseman. Unless the mea- surement from the shoulder point to the back of the quarters is somewhat greater than the height at the withers, the action is confined, especially in the gallop, for the hind legs cannot be i '5: \ 384 The Canadian Farmer's brought sufficiently forward on account of the interference of the fore-quarter ; and, indeed, from the want of play in the back, they Are generally too much crippled in that respect. * * ♦ j^g^^ to these points in the middle-piece it is important to pay attention to the upper line of the back, which should bend down a little behind the withers, and then swell out very gently to the junction with the loins, which can hardly be too wide and muscular. " In examining the hind-(^uartera, so much depends upon the breed, and the purposes to which the animal is to be put, that only a few general remarks can be given. ♦ * * Muscular quar- ters and gaskins are desirable in all breeds ; for without strong propellers, no kind of work to which the horse is put can be duly performed The judge of a horse generally likes to look at the quarters behind, so as to get a good view of their volume, and unless they come close together, and leave no hollow below the arms, he suspects that there is a want of constitution, and rejects the animal on that account. But not only are muscles of full size required, but there must be strong joints to bear the strain which these exert, and one of the most important of all the points of the horse is the hock. This should be of good size, but clean and flat, without any gumminess or thoroughpins, and with a good clean point standing clear of the rest of the joint ; the 'curby pla<;e' and the situation of spavin should be free from enlarge- ment ; but to detect these diseases a considerable amount of prac- tice is required. Lastly, the hocks should be well let down, which depends upon the length of the thigh, and ensures a short cannon- bone. The pasterns and feet should be formed in correspondence with those of the fore extremity, to which I have already alluded." Breeds. — There are certain fixed types of horses which have the power to transmit their peculiar characteristics to their pro- geny when crossed to common mares. These are the thorough-bred Racer, Arab, Suffolk, Clydesdale, and Norman or Percheron. The Thorough-bred Racer. — We believe that a more liberal use of the genuine horses of this type would be productive of a great improvement in our present class of Canadian horses. The pecu- liar features and characteristics of these horses are splendid wind and great courage. We have them typified to a certain extent in the descendants of " Lexington" in Kentucky and in " Scottish Chief." For general purposes there can be no breed so useful as the cross between the stout, square-built and heavy farm mare and a thorough-bred blood horse. From the one we obtain size of frame, weight for the collar ; while from the other are derived endurance, pluck and life. The Arab has been used to advantage to produce the same qualities as the type above spoken of. Manual of Agriculture, 385 ence of the 5 back, they « * Next ly attention )wn a little the junction 9cular. ids upon the ut, that only iscular quar- bhout strong i can be duly ) look at the volume, and 3W below the n, and rejects luscles of full ear the strain all the points aize, but clean I, and with a it; the'curby from enlarge- mount of prac- jt down, which short cannon- jorrespondence •eady alluded." (S which have !S to their pro- wfc, Clydesdak jore liberal use Itive of a great Is. The pecu- splendid wind Irtain extent in fid in " ScotM \o useful as the Irm mare and a size of frame, Eved endurance, Iduce the same The Suffolk, usually called Punch, is a breed peculiarly adapted to farm purposes in Canada. They have strengtn, beauty, docility, are easily kept, and are fast walkers — ^good on the road or on the &rm. The Clydesdale is heavy and unwieldy, excellently adapted for heavy pulling at a slow pace, but it is not favourable for farm uses ; a cross between a Clydesdale and a well-bred, fine-limbed horse, is productive of a superior farm and general beast. The Norman or Percheron is being fast introduced into the States, and has made some foothold in Canada. The breed possess great strength with stoutness, and is of moderate size and good action. Our French Canadian horse is from the pure Norman stock, crossed on the Indian ponies of the habitants of the Lower Pro- vince. 'For strength, toughness and sagacity, combined with smallness of size and easy feeding qualities, there is probably no superior breed in the world. Trotting Horses. — The raising of trotting horses is in itself an- tagonistic to the development of a good breed of general purpose horses. The trotter is of no breed, but owes his superiority in one par- ticolar part to the diligent training of himself and perhaps of his ancestors in that particular gait. The Morgans and Black Hawks, Tempest and Royal George, are all mongrels, with an infusion of the blood of the racer, and in very few cases has a superior trotting horse been found capable of transmitting his qualities in that paiticular respect to his ofispring. When a common mare is put to a trotting stallion, the chance of the colt turning out well on the track depends not so much lipon the trotting capabilities of its 'sire as upon the iDfiision of blood inherited from his ancestors. On this point Stonehenge says : — " The pure blood stallion had I no plebeian ancestors, and his colts, if not closely resembling him- self, will still be good, inheriting the qualities of some ancestor, while the colts of a trotting stalUon are likely to take after some dunghill grandmother." A good trotting mare to a blood horse is almost certain to [produce a fast colt ; whilst a slow-gaited mare and a trotting Istallion are equally certain (if the trotting stallion be not of )od blood for several generations back) to produce an ordinary, id in many cases an inferior colt. An undue encouragement has been given to these trotting illions and trotting horses at our agricultural shows of late. The ordinary farmer, who is the supporter of our agricultural Jieties, does not want weedy trotters for his uses, but good, ser- iceable, compact, easily fed and enduring horses. Let the farmer, then, take a stand, and see to it that in our 25 886 The Canadian Farmer's horse rines prizes are not awarded to some loose, weedy and leggy trotter, tnat can "knock spots" out of better built and more useful animals, when speeding round the puny ring, to the admiration of outsiders and the shouts and yells of appreciative boys. Employ only stalliona of pure blood, and beware of using any of the classes of ill-bred trotting stallions now so numerous. The fact of so many of these trotters having obtained premiums, and having thus been advertised before the public, is due to the unjust and harmful practice on the part of the judges at our agricultural societies' shows, of awarding prizes to animals for an excellence in what they have been trained to do, rather than in those qucUities which, inherent in the blood, they will without fail transmit to their progeny. Stallions should be obliged to show a pedigree at our exhibitions. This is just as important with reference to the horse, as it is to the bull that is entered as a thorough-bred. We are particular to know the exact descent of a bull, because we say blood is everything. Equally as rigid should be the rule as to the pedigree of the horse. An old writer has justly said : — ** The worst scrub of a hack of pure-blooded lineage will pro- duce better colts than the handsomest mongrel that ever went on a shodden hoof can do." 2%e Farmer^ s Horse is an animal of all work. He is required occasionally to take the saddle or to draw the light buggy to town ; to be lively enough, that the driver be not required to " work his passage ;" and to be light enough, that an occasional trot along thei hard high road will not use up his feet or legs. As steady pulling is required from the farmer's horse, a thicker and lower-set shouldei must be looked for than on the road or purely carriage horse. He wants weight enough to tell before the plough, and "go enough to drive with spirit before the light rig. Were the open tions of farming confined to heavy, steady ploughing and cultivai ing, the heavy-built, all-weight horse might suit the farmer. Bui in Canada the seasons are short, and we have in all our operatioi to " hurry up." We want a horse, then, that will walk up with thS^ J"** reaper and mower ; fetoh the empty hay- rack and dung-waggoB /. ^^ back from the bam at a rattling pace ; in fine, one who is cap -^'* ^^' of doing not only steady but fast work. For these general purposes, a moderate-sized, strong, cleai limbed and active horse will be found best suited, and to attaij such a class the half-bred horse with some blood in him will found necessary. Mares are, as a class, better suited for farm purposes than gel ings. . A mare, taking weight for weight and bulk for bulk, is usui ' stronger and more lasting than a gelding, and the farmer can at time make her bring in a good income, not only from work but breeding. There is a constantly increasing demand for stout, a1 leneed We vins, orely t the leas ma ler tei und m\ mpuTi "It % m Manual of Agriculture. 88; dy and leggy i more useful idtniration of horses, clean in limbs and with blood in them, in Canada ; and we know of no kind of stock in the raising of which there is more profit at the present day, to the Canadian farmer, than that of a good class of agricultural horse. A good colt at three years old will fetch one hundred and fifty dollars, and will require little more attention and feed than a three-year-old steer, worth pro- bably from sixty to eighty dollars. If a farmer owns a good, sound farm mare, and can find a three- fourths or seven-eighths bred horse to which to put her, he need not fear but that he will raise a valuable and saleable colt. By judicious management, the time taken from work for a breeding mare need be very short; for it has been proved over and over again, that the mare does best when moderately and steadily worked up to the very day of foaling. If a mare is put in May, the foal will be dropped at a comparatively leisure season of the working year. Tkt kind of mare from which to breed is very important; indeed we have observed that, as a matter of practical every-day obser- vation, the value of a foal depends, no doubt, greatly upon the sire, but far more upon the mare. So well aware are the Arabs of this fact, that it was for years a matter of very great difficulty, and is yet no easy task, to obtain a superior native Arab mare. They would part with ft buggy ^ ^own ,■ their stallions, but nothing could induce them to permit a good red to " workWsHju^fe to leave their country. The greatest evil has been done to lal trot along th«t]je xqjqq of agricultural horses in Canada by the too common steady polling ifl belief that " any mare will do to breed from," no matter how ower-set shoulderBjy^ undersized, blemished, broken-winded or otherwise unsound. y carriage horseMQe gg,yg. Q^\y ^^9,^ « a mare's a mare for a' that and a' that," and ilough, and " go Hiie looks to the stallion to counterbalance in the colt her in- here the o][»era«iierited imperfections. It cannot be too often or too deeply im- ing and cultivatMpf^g,} upon the farmer that from the dam comes the majority the farmer. ^°Vof points and beauties in the colt. In the days when Greece was all our operatio p^g t ^j^q i^Q^d of civilization, an Athenian youth had entered walk up withtnB^ig horse for a race in the Olympian mimes : *' What chance have ,nd dung-v?aggo»of winning T asked the youth. The answer made by anexpe Inewhoiscap™' ^^ • ^ ■ ^ ys. of using any tinerous. Tbe remiums, and J to the unjust ir agricultural i excellence in those qualitm lil transmit to OMV exhibitions. )r8e, as it is to I are particular ^e say blood is i to the pedigree ineage -will p^- lat ever went on He is required ienced Greek who stood near was, " Ask the dam of your horse.' We are too apt to think that the fact of a mare having curbs, mm, contracted feet, roars, thick wind, heaves, blindness, &c., are inrely the result of perhaps hard work, neglect or some local cause, the great majority of cases, although these tokens of unsound- less may have been developed in the mare by hard usage or ' er temporary causes, they are in her breed, and will be handed __ ^ m as hereditary to her colts. It is not safe to breed from un- „ farmer canataM^Q^ mares, unless such unsoundness be known as only resulting |from work but mj^ purely accidental circumstances, and for stout, aOBoj^ ^ possible that cases may exist where it is safe to breed kd, Btrong, deal ted, and to attei iod in him wiU irposes than ge^ Ifor bulk, is USUI >.,('' ' ;'!,' 1 m 388 The Canadian Farmer's 'I from an old mare. Two of the finest horses that reins were ever drawn over were from a mare nearly thirty years of age, but she was perfect in limbs and spirits ; had always been owned by the same person, and fed with as much regularity as the owner's meals were served ; she was never raced at a ' militanr muster,' or over- loaded in any way, and at thirty-three years of age she and her mate, of about the same age, were not only sound in wind and limb, but were a pair to be proud of when one held the reins over them. A pair of her colts, bom after she was twenty -live, sold, under our eye, for twice as many hundred dollars as other fine horses about them brought ! A moderate old age should not, therefore, absolutely exclude the mare from breeding, if she is right in other particulars. " The common practice for many years past, and one which has become woven, as it were, into the habits of the people, so that it seems as natural as the breath of life, is to keep the old mare for breeding when she is unfitted for service on the road or on the farm, This is where the evil commences. She is a favourite animal, was handsome, spirited, and with a power of endurance almost beyond belief. But now she is seventeen years of age, has a spavin, a slight touch of the heaves, and one or two other trifling matters which are a little inconvenient for a working animal, but she will make a good breeder, and about pay her keeping besides ! This is the conclusion arrived at, and thousands of such cases exist { among us to-day. " So the old mare, crippled by too early labour and disabled by] disease, is to become the progenitor of a race which is tooccupy a cer- tain locality, perhaps for a hundred years ! It is scarcely possible, that her j^oung will not be injured before they see the light ; and! the strong probability is that each of them will bear the marks ofl her imperfections; some with ringbone, perhaps, or asthma, orl spavin, or some lurking disease that had not developed itself iDJ the over- worked and disordered mother. We have seen a yearling colt with a ringbone upon every foot ; well-formed otherwise, ap parently healthy, eating and drinking well, but suffering and ut terly worthless." — New England Farmer. Proofs have been piled upon proofs, that blindness, roaringl heaves, thick wind, spavins, curbs, ringbones and founder, bavf been bequeathed from dam to colt, sometimes escaping one gen& ration and being developed in the succeeding ofispring. Hena the necessity of some knowledge of the ancestry of horses froiiB-P«>'^Mi which to breed. ■>« ias b In breeding, it is well to remember — W^ bowe That peculiarities of form and constitution will be inherited froiv term both parents ; equally as much, aye, more, from the mare ; anw'j or th that out of a sorry mare, no matter how good the stallion may bV yeter no perfect colt can come. Bs lives Iskilled Manual of Agriculture, 380 B were ever age, but she ivned by the iwner's meals iter,' or over- she and her in wind and the reina over nty-iive, solcl, as other fine e should not, ;,if8he 18 right one which has ople, BO that it e old mare for 1 or on the farm, rite animal, was ) almost beyond has a spavin, a trifling matters | nal, but she villi g besides I This such cases exist The .parents, at the time of breeding, should be in full possession of their natural powers and strength. Strict confinement to one breed, or a system of breeding in and io, too long persisted in, will result in deterioration. (Ht stalliona in Canada are not as good as they ought to be. There are not enough with good blood in them travelling the country. A few are owned by such men as Mr. Simon James, of Hamilton, and the late Mr. Sheddon, but they are so few that their service is placed at a figure far bevond the pocket of the ordinary farmer. We want more thorough- red sires. We have too many of these prancing stallions, with a fine-sounding name, who have not a drop of blue blood in their veins, and who, fed up and pampered, are full of life and show, but whose fat hides all their points, and about whose ancestors — many of whom were, doubtless, broken-winded, spavined, curbed and what not — we know nothing. They catch the eye by their fat, and prancing motions, but for the purpose of improving our stock few of them are at all efficient. The brood mare is generally supposed to go with foal for eleven months, but there is a great irregularity. Some have been known to foal in less than ten months, whilst others will run nearly, aye and over, the full year. As we have before indicated, the end of May is the best time tt which to put the farm mare in Canada ; thus she comes in, in the early part of June, when the work is slack and pasture plen- tiful and tender. It is better for the mare to work up to the day of foaling, though r the wax has appeared on her teats, which will be from one and disabled by istoocc P^ ■^^^■|o two days before foaling, it may be as well to turn her into a icarce y p ^^^^ce quiet and dry paddock, and for the last two weeks of her '^ fh ^ marks ofS^S'^^'^^'y ^®^ work must be only steady draught, — no heavy (ear tne ^^^ oiHriving nor working in deep soil, where she will have to strain ** \^^ d^ itself iiiB''P"^^^^g ^^^ ^^^ ^®®^- velope ^j^^^j^j-H Abortion or Slinking of the Foal usually occurs when the mare ^^^+h rwise apW *^^"^ ^^^* through her time of pregnancy, or in the sixth jd otne ^^^ ^tjid seventh months ; they should in those months be carefully llindness, roaring] id founder, hav^ scaping one geni^ )ffspring. Hf" cy of borses m i be inherited froij the vxaxQ \ afl [estaUionmayl atched, well fed, the bowels kept open, and have regular exer- le. Nothing is so apt to bring on abortion as standing idle in a ble ; a mare is better at that time, if there be no work for her, be running out in the yard or in a large loose box. This will treated of more fully in our chapter on Diseases of the Horse. Parturition in a mare is seldom accompanied with danger, if e has been well fed and cared for during winter and spring, and ir bowels kept open (this is most important) at the expiration of term of pregnancy. Where, however, great difficulty is mani- it, or there is evidently a false presentation of the colt, a quali- ' veterinary practitioner should be called in, rather than risk e lives of mother and foal by interference on the part of those iskilled in such matters. 1 ■ ! .: ' :!ri'^ 390 The Canadian Farmer*s 'I ■ As soon as the mare has foaled, let her have the run of a dock, with shelter at hand, and feed her plentifully, but* not heavily. This is the niost important time in the life of the colt If stinted in the first few weeks he will never recover lost ground The mare should then be kept in a good Bow of milk. Remember that to suckle a colt without working, is quite as wearing, an^ more apt to pull the mare down in condition than to work a mare without a colt to suckle. Let the colt learn to eat as soon as possible, by feeding the raare in a trough on the ground. Three weeks, or, when the work only consists of drawing hay, or other light work, two weeks after foaling, the mare may be again harnessed. The colt should not, however, be at first allowed to follow the mare all day, or it will thoroughly tire itself out, but should be confined in a stable, and each day allowed to run a little longer with the mare. It will soon get used to it, and become wise enough not to follow its mother all round the lield, but to wait and lie about. We have seen colts not six weeks old allowed to run after their mothers along a hot, dusty, and perchance stone road, to town and back. Now, fourteen or twenty miles a day is rather too much for a colt whose legs are not one quarter formed. Again, the farmer should bear in mind that the mare who works and suckles a colt at the same time is having the condition I drawn down at double speed, and she must be fed gi'ain and fodder | in accordance. Between the third and fourth week after foaling, the mare will I come in heat again, and she is more certain to "hold" the horse at | this season than at any subsequent one. Weaning. — The colt should be weaned from five to six months I old. The colt should be kept away, as far as practicable, from thel mother, that they may not pine for one another ; she should bel fed drier food, and her milk drawn from her, and so graduallyl dried ofi*. Management of Colts. — The following remarks, from a cor pondent of the Rural New Yorker, are very pertinent : — " We often, when travelling through the country in the fall, i colts with a rough, staring coat ; eyes nearly closed, and a water matter exuding therefrom ; with a body shaped like a squash se which, but a few weeks before, while running with the map were possessed of a sleek, shining coat, eyes bright, and body i round as a barrel. Now the question arises, what is the cause ( this ? I answer, in nine cases out of ten it is improper weanind Nearly every colt in a farming community is allowed to run wi^ its mother until about four or five months old, when, to suit fch convenience of the owner, it is turned into some distant field oi| Manual of Agriculture, 801 of sight, and, if possible, out of hearing of its mother, there to run and whinney and worry, until it brings u^iun itself a fever, which weakens the constitution, closes the pores of its ikin, and, in brief, the whole organs of digestion become moru or less dis«Ased. All of this can be avoided by a little care in weaning. " My way of weaning is this : When u v colt is lour and a-half months old, I put a strong leather halter upon him and place him in a stall, and put his mother in an adjoming stall, with a par- tition between, so arranged that they can see each other, and, if possible, get their heads together. The first day I let the colt Durse twice ; the next day, once. I feed the mare upon dry hay and dry feed, and about half milk her two or three times a day until dry. The colt I feed upon new-mown grass or fine clover hay, and give him a pint of oats twice per day, and in about two weeks I nave my colt weaned and my mare dry, with my colt looking aa well as ever. When he is one year old, he has as much growth and development of muscle as one two years old weaned in the first described manner. When the mare becomes dry, colt and mare may be turned out together again in pasture." And — " Colts are very apt to be left to shift for themselves after weaning. This is wrong. A year's gain in the usefulness of a horse may easily be made by care and attention during the first few months of its life. Then care should be exercised to keep it growing. During the fall months some of the best early-cut nay should be given to it ; and when the horses are stabled, let it have a loose box or stall adjoining them, where it can see and become the mare will I "^^ ^^ ^^^ discipline of the stable. Everything around it should id" the horse atB'^ weW secured, lest in rubbing itself it might get something loose. A habit of breaking things and getting loose is easily and invaria- to six months ■% formed at this time, and should be guarded against. During ■winter, feed your colts as you feed your horses. Give them a ♦"cable from theB'tiwe of what is served out—oats, corn, or ground feed as it may be. • she 'should beHThey cannot grow or fare well otherwise. ' Stinginess' don't pay d 80 graduaUyH"^ rearing young animals. An addition of twenty-five or forty ^ "dollars to its value may result in the winter's feeding and care of lone colt. Generosity here (of course exercised with judgment) is wise foresight, and will pay good interest on the investment, ilts are better kept up than allowed to run around. They will come more docile and tractable, and will learn fewer tricks, ake them out only for exercise, except when at pasture, and then e sure to have a secure fence, or they will inevitably learn to rub it down or jump over it. Train your colt to walk, and keep it alking. Farmers don't want fast-trotting horses as yet; we live need, so far, of fast- walking horses ; great need, we may say, ir they are far too scarce. Therefore, train colts to walk at the ite of four miles an hour at least. The time will come when a un of a pad- illy, but not 3 of the coll r lost ground Remember wearing, ancl in to work a iding the mare drawing hay, mare may be at first allowed tire itself out, lowed to run a ised to it, and onnd the field, ) run after their ) road, to town ly is rather too rmed. , the mare who i)ff the condition ^•ain and fodder w.from a coi linent :— Vry in the fall, sed, and a watei jike a squash seei r with the mai ight, and body ^at is the cause i proper weanwi lowed to run wi| rhen, to suit « I"!: 1,1 : I r,l '' ' ■ distant field oAorse that can walk his mile in twelve minutes will take a prize ji^i,: 392 The Canadian Farmer's at an agricultural fair, equal in value to the best trotter. A team of such horses could plough an acre of ground, with a furrow six inches wide, in five hours, allowing time for turnings round. This is above the quantity plougheci on the average now in a day of ten hours. Horses of such capacity would be worth a large price, and it should be our endeavour to produce them. We have a breed that can transmit trotting capacity to its descendants ; why could we not raise up a breed of walking horses ? Some one might make a name and fortune in this." — American Agricultur- ist. Breaking Colts. — We would only endorse the above remarks, and to the importance of teaching agricultural horses to walk fad, add the following summary : — When first bitted, a bit should be selected that will not hurt his mouth, and one smaller than in common use. Allow him to play with this bit, by champing it for a few days an hour at a time. Before putting him in with another horse, accustom him to portions of the harness, and let the straps dangle round his legs, gently at first ; and afterwards, let the tugs fall down and strike him about the heels ; accustom him to stop at the sound '* Whoa," without any bit in his mouth, and to understand and obey every word of command before he is put into harness at all. If this custom of thorough training were more generally adopted before breaking to the waggon, we should have less " kicking scrapes" and fewer runaways. Put him to a very light load at first, alongside of a steady but on no account a slow or lazy mate. Before he pulls an ounce, let him understand what " Get up," a chirp or a whistle means. Directly he stops of his own accord, or when he is in the act of stopping, call " Whoa ;" he will soon learn that that word means stand. Drivers very frequently stop the horse by a pull on the reins, and then call "Whoa," This is wrong; the word of command should be always given before the manoeuvre is executed. In teaching a colt to back — one of the hardest tricks, for it is a I trick — don't call " Back" unless he is able and willing to do it. It | is unnatural to him, and in this case the action of backing should be performed by gentle pressure, not severe force, upon the bit, and | should be simultaneous with the cry of "Back up." How many horses do we find that if the reins should break will I not run away ; and yet it is as easj' to train them to stop on the break of the line and the call of " Whoa," as to teach them to keep in the furrow or on the land when ploughing. Teach them when young to travel under a gentle strain of the line, and that the I slacking of the line is meant to imply, equally with the word " Whoa," stop. Horses are not generally deal ; on the contrary, they have an earl Manual of Agriculture. 393 ill not hurt his exceedingly susceptible to every wave of sound. There is, then, no necessity to shout at a horse as if he was " hard of hearing." When a colt shies, he does it not generally from vice, but because he sees something that he never saw before. Don't beat him for that, as you simply increase his timidity. He associates the object, whatever it be, with a lash of the whip, and becomes still more frightened of it. Reader, did you ever take a child out for a walk, and meet some ugly animal, say an immense dog, at which your child was frightened ? Did you beat the little one for its foolish timidity ? We trust not. You rather coaxed it, soothed it, and led him up to pat the big ugly fellow, thereby allaying his childish fears by showing that there need be no cause of alarm. The child was frightened because he saw an object for the first time in his life, and couldn't realize what it was. You answer, " Of course I petted the child ; do you think I'd be such an inhuman brute as to whip the poor little frightened thing ?" And yet can you with a clear conscience say that you never drew the whip across a colt for exhibiting the very same fear as that which overcame your child ? If you can answer this home question iu the nega- tive, then you have got the one great and practical lesson of horse-training — ^to teach the colt, by the influences of affection, salutary fear on his part, and steady determination, kindness and common sense, exercised in almost exactly the same manner as when brought to bear upon the early training of a little child on your part. The whip is needed for the colt, as it is for the child, at times — administered rarely, but, when applied, used firmly — ^as a means of correction, but very seldom for the pure purpose of coercion. Before we enter upon the question of food for horses, we would copy the following excellent summary, entitled — "HINTS ON HUMANIIT TO ANIMALS." [From a work on " The American Horse,' by Robert MoClure M.D., V.S.) " 1. Warm the bit in frosty weather, before putting it into the horse's mouth. " 2. Let the horse lick a little salt out of your hands whenever you offer to bit him. " 3. Never startle a horse by suddenly striking him. " 4. Uniformly gentle treatment will secure faithful and steady work. Anger, severity and sudden jerking endanger your harness, your vehicle and your life, besides permanently injuring your horse. " 5. Be well provided with horse-blankets, especially at night. If you are waiting for passengers, while you look for your own comfort by a warm fireside, or in thick wrappers, see that your faithful brute companion is also protected from the chilly air. 394 The Canadian Farmer's " 6. Wash the inside of the collar frequently with Castile soap suds, and when it has thoroughly dried, gently warm the leather and soak it with oil, so as to soften it ; but do not allow any oil to remain on the surface of the leather unabsorbed. " 7. If the shoulders are tender, feverish and disposed to chafe, they should be well rubbed, and afterwards washed with salt water. This should be done after unharnessing, so that the parts bathed may be dry before work is resumed. " 8. Do not be tempted by over-pay to overload your team. Overloading occasions blindness, spavin, splints, glanders, farcy, and other painful and fatal disorders, and thus risks the loss of capital, besides injuring yourself by encouraging a cruel disposition. " 9. See that the harness fits tight in every part, and that the shoes are tight and well put on. *' 10. Let your tones, when addressing the horse, be always gen- tle, soothing and pleasant. Pat him often, and encourage every sign of attachment that he gives. " 11. Every vehicle should be so arranged that the weight on the neck is relieved when the team or horse is standing. " 12. Curry, rub and clean well at least once a day. The effect is worth half the feed. A dirty coat and skin, when the animal is deprived of exercise in pasture and of rolling on the grass, can- not fail to produce disease. " 13. Never use a check rein. It is false taste to think a horse more beautiful when his head is fastened in an unnatural position. The bearing rein keeps a horse in a constant fret, makes him vest- less and uneasy, and often prevents him from recovering himself in case of a stumble or a fall. " 14. Your stable should be perfectly level, or very slightly in- clined ; well lighted, well drained, well ventilated, and well pro- tected from draughts and from extremes of heat and cold. Keep the crib clean and free from dust, and. keep the hay or other fod- der as far from the stall as possible, so as to be away from the steam and breath of the animal. "15. If you use ground feed, remember that it is not unfrequently adulterated when bought. " 16. If you suspect adulteration, usually done by the use of plaster of Paris or marble, or the sweepings of canal boats and barges, heat a portion of the feed to a red heat in an iron vessel. After the whole has been reduced to ashes, if they contain plaster, the ashes will soon set or harden, after being mi^ed with water to the consistency of paste. " 17. Do not urge your beast beyond a walk when the heat is I oppressive ; furnish drinking water often, and sponge the legs and such parts as are liable to chafe by perspiration or otherwise ; see| the harness is not oppressive and cumbersome. " 18. In icy weather keep your animal sharp shod, renewing the I m---r with Castile soap irarm the leather lot allow any oil 3d. iisposed to chafe, 'ashed with salt so that the parts 'load your team, , glanders, farcy, risks the loss of cruel disposition, •art, and that the e, be always gen- encourage every at the weight on anding. day. The effect ^hen the animal )n the grass, can- to think a horse inatural position. makes him rest- covering himself very slightly in- >d, and well pro- and cold. Keep lay or other fod- $ away from the not unfrequently e by the use of canal boats and in an iron vessel. J contain plaster, ed with water to psrhen the heat is onge the legs and •r otherwise ; see od, renewing the I Manual of Agriculture. '^^ sharpening as often as th« «K« u ''* ^^^ expended in this wav Im a. ^^°«™e blunt A f««. a i, thrush and WmTt^T"^^^^ "manure softens th^ K ^ "26 On the • ' ^y and wiiimg the morning of 8taS^^-''''^^^^"^J<'"rney give do„w , ^ , "27. Whenho^esareT«^".^"^"*^^^^« about evm"'twn \^'*"^ ^gs and with pr~od%t t^^^^^^ V^^^^l^Z 'X'o"" lie bottom, and of ba^jV^f^ ^ °^^® ^^^ should be of i^^Tu I »re subject to in- ly upon oats, observations ot Manual of Agriculture. 397 many men, and we have ourselves frequently observed that there are far more cases of colic amongst stabled horses, on Sunday night or Monday morning, than on any other day of the week. Horses will do well on straw, if it has been cut on the green side ; but as it requires more digestion than hay, it should be only fed when horses are moderately worked, and have in consequence good appetites, or when turned out loose. TABLE SHOWING AMOUNT OP VARIOUS POODS OENEBALLT SUFFI- CIENT FOR WORKING HORSES. ARTICLES OF FOOD. 1. Farinaceous substances, consisting ot bruised or ground beans, peas, wheat, barley or oats 1 Bran, fine oi coarse 3, Boiled or steamed potatoen, nuwhed 4, Fresh fijAins (boiled barley) i. Hay (cut) (.Straw (cut) , With two ounces ot salt tor each cla8s,'making 1st Class. lbs. 6 6 7 7 80 2nd Class. lbs. 6 6 8 10 28 3rd Class. lbs. 10 10 10 4th Class. lbs. 6 6 8 8 It will thus be seen that from twenty-six to thirty pounds of food will be required for each horse per day to keep him in good working order. Of the four classes, we prefer, as conducive to the general health of the horses, Nos. 1 and 2. We again quote the excellent advice of Dr. McClure, under the head of " Hints on Horse Food :" — "1. All horses must not be fed in the same proportions, without due regard to their ages, their constitutiorss and their work — be- cause such action is the basis of disease of every kind. " 2. Never use bad hay on account of its cheapness — because there is not proper nourishment in it. " 3. Damaged grain is exceedingly injurious — because it brings I on inflammation of the bowels and skin diseases. " 4. Chaff is better for old horses than whole hay — because they I can chew and digest it better. ' 5. Mix chaflf with corn or oats, and do not give them alone — I hmuse it makes the horse chew his food more and digest it 1 better. " 6. Hay or grass alone will not support a horse under hard I work — because there is not sufficient nutritive body in either. " 7. When a horse is worked hard, the food should be chiefly oats land corn ; if not worked hard, his food should be chiefly hay — liiecattse oats and corn supply more nutriment and flesh-making |Mterial than any other kind of food ; hay, not so much. "8. For a saddle or coach horse, half a peck of sound oats and '. 'I ■;•■( I r I * ■" m is 898 The Canadian Farmer's eighteen pounds of good hay per day are sufficient. If the hay is not good, add a quarter of a peck more oats. " 9. Rack feeding is wasteful. The better plan is to cut fodder and feed in manger — because the food is not then thrown about, and is more easily digested and chewed. " 10. Sprinkle the hay with water that has salt dissolved in it — because it is good for and pleasant to the animal's taste. "11. Oats and com should be bruised for an old horse, but not for a young one — because the former, through age and defective teeth, cannot chew them properly ; the young horse can do so, and they are thus properly mixed with the saliva, and turned into wholesome nutriment. " 12. Grass must always be cut for hay before the seed drops — because the juices that ripen the seed are the most valuable part of the hay. If they (the juices), are sucked out by its ripening and dropping, the grass will not turn into hay, but only, wither and grow yellow. "13. Vetches and cut grass should always be given in the spring to horses that cannot be turned out into the fields — because they are cooling and refreshing, and almost medicinal in their effects ; but they must be supplied in moderation, as they are liable to fer- ment in the stomach if given largely. " 14. Water your horses from a pond or stream rather than from a spring or well — because the latter is generally hard and cold, while the former is soft and comparatively warm. The horse pre- fers soft muddy water to hard water though ever so clear. "15. A horse should have at least a pail of water morning and evening (we think three times a day), or (still better) four half I pails-fml several times a day — because this assuages his thirst without bloating him. But he should never be made to work directly after he has had a full draught of water, for digestion and exertion can never go on together. " 16. Do not allow your horse to have warm water to drink— | because if he has to drink cold water after getting used to warm, it will give him colic. " 17. When your horse refuses his food after drinking, go no I further that d&y— because the poor creature is thoroughly beaten " Water for the Horse — " This is a part of stable management little regarded by the farmer. He lets his horses loose night ai " morning, and they go to the nearest pond or brook to drink iheirl fill, and no harm results; for they obtain that kind of vv> ,^rj which nature designed them to have, in a manner prepared for them by some unknown influence of the atmosphere, as well as by I the deposition of many saline admixtures. The difference between I hard and soft water is known to every one. In hard water soap I will curdle, vegetables will not boil soft, and the saceharinel matter of the malt cannot be fully obtained in the process ofl Manual of Agriculture. 899 If the hay is to cut fodder ihrown about, dissolved in it } taste. ►rse, but not for and defective > can do so, and nd turned into the seed drops at valuable part by its ripening )ut only, wither en in the spring g — because they in their effects ; axe liable to fer- itherthan from a hard and cold, The horse pre- so clear. ,ter morning and better) four half jsuages his thirst | le made to work ir, for digestion mter to drink- 1 Ig used to warm, drinking, go no Iroughly beaten." Ible management \ loose night and [k to drink their _, kind of vYi'ir Iner prepared for tre, as well as by Ifference between Ihard water soap the saccharine the process of brewing. There is nothing in which the different effects of hard and soft water is so evident as in the stomach and digestive organs of the horse. Hard water, drawn fresh from the well, will assur- edly make the coat of the horse unaccustomed to it stare, and it will not unfrequently gripe and otherwise injure him. Instinct or experience has made even the horse himself conscious of this, for he will never drink hard water if he has access to soft ; he wiU leave the most transparent and pure well water for a river, although the water may be turbid, and even for the muddiest pool. He is injured, however, not so much by the hardness of the well water as by its coldness, particularly by its coldness in summer, and when it is many degrees lower than the temperature of the atmosphere. The water in the brook and the pond being warmed by long exposure to the air, as well as having become soft, the horse drinks freely of it without danger. "There is a prejudice in the minds of many persons against the horse being fairly supplied with water. They think that it injures his wind, and disables him for quick hard work. If he is galloped immediately after drinking, his wind may be irreparably injured ; but if he were oftener suffered to satiate his thirst, he would be happier and better. " It is a fact unsuspected by those who have not carefully watched the horse, that if he has frequent access to water he will not drink so much in the course of the day as another who, to cool his parched mouth, swallows as fast as he can, and knows not when to stop." We have already recorded our opinion in the agricultural press, that i}ie, care, of horses lies in a nutshell ; thus : — " Handle the colt from the time it is foaled. By not working the dam too hard, and by generous food, keep her in good flow of milk. Feed well from the day of foaling ; never let it stop grow- ing. Halter-break the first winter. " Begin to work him very lightly when two years old. Don't put him to heavy work until five years old. Feed him regularly, evenly and generously, whether at work or idle. Keep his stable dean, warm, well ventilated and light. Clean him every da3^ morning and night. Take off harness when brought to the stable sweated from work. Don't let working houi^ encroach five minutes on feeding tiines. Always put a lighter load than that |fhich you think the horse could pull at his best. Never check his "; up before a load. Keep your fences good, and your colt will lot learn to breach. Don't let shoes go until they fall off. Go n miles to a good horse-shoer rather than one mile to a botch. your horse is sick, and you are sure of the nature of the ail- ent, attend to him at once ; if the attack is beyond your know- ge, send to an experienced surgeon. Never let a quack into our stable. Ninety-nine out of every hundred colds, colics. ! K ; 400 The Canadian Farmer's heaves, blindnesses, strains, spavins, curbs, and other diseases and accidents to a horse, are caused by gross neglect." A FEW COMMON VICES. hi ih toi tha and ban fectJ 80 a checi lettj To Cure a Kicker. — ^The following plan has been found, though not always, yet in a majority of cases, to be effectual : — " With a strong harness, hitch to a stout whiffletree, which has a rope attached to it long enough to allow a man to hold the rope with safety. Let one man hold a mare by the head, while another, holditig the rope slack but firmly, moves the trace or whiflBetree against the mare's legs, tempting her to kick. Allow the whiffletree to fly high when she kicks, but bring it back every time. Let her play with this arrangement until she is thoroughly tired of it and wijj not kick at it. Without harnessing her in any other way, try the same every day, until she will allow the whiffletree and traces, or anything, to brush and strike against her legs without shov/ing any fright or dislike, even when fresh." Or simply fasten a short trace chain about two feet long by a strap to each hind foot, and let him do his own whipping if he cannot stand still without it. Give them a wider stall, or turn them loose in a box stall. If neither is convenient to do, or fails to cure, take a piece of trace chain about two feet long, and fasten one end of it with a strong strap to the foot with which they kick. Or put a surcingle locsely around the animal, and pass a cord from the kicking foot through the girth, around the head, in front of one ear and behind the—. .^ other. Make the knots so that they will not slip tight, and givej,_^°' length for necessary motions. Balky Horses. — Horses know nothing about balking until they are brought into itby improper management ; and when 8 horsej balks it is generally from some mismanagement, excitement, confu sion, or from not knowing how to pull, but seldom from any unwil lingness to perform his duty. High-spirited, free-going horses ai the most subject to balking, and only so because drivers do nol properly understand how to manage. This kind of free horse i a team may be so anxious to go th£i,t when he hears the won he will start with a jump, which will not start the load, bui give him such a severe jerk in the shoulders that he will ~ back and stop the other horse : the teamster will continue hij driving without cessation, and by the time he has the slow hoi started again, he will find the free horse has made another lun; and again flies back, and now he has them both badly balked, aii| so confused that neither of them knows what is the matter orho' to start the load. Next will come the slashing and cracking of tl driver's whip, till something is broken, or he is through with thj course of treatment. It takes a steady pressure against the colli stand ateai &stf( fiilk Tumi traces, ford, j process 'collar, i liaIkio£ IS Dot emal raeai lythin soo; Manual of Agriculture, 401 diseases and ;ound, though 1:— e, which has a the rope with [iother,holdi!\g ree against the iffletree to fly Let her play i of it and will ler way, try the B and traces, or ithout showing , feet long by a whipping if he I a box stall. If a piece of trace to move a load, and you cannot expect him to act with a steady, determined purpose while you are whipping him. Almost any team, when first balked, will start kindly if you let them stand five or ten minutes, as though there was nothing the matter, and then speak kindly to them, and turn them a little to the right or left so as to get them both in motion before they feel the pinch of the load. But if you want to start a team that you are not driving yourself, that has been balked, fooled and whipped for some time, go to them and hang the lines on their hames, or fasten them to the waggon so that they will be per- fectly loose ; make driver and spectators stand off some distance, go as not to attract the attention of the horses, and unloose the check reins, so that they can get their heads down if they choose ; let them stand a few minutes in this condition, till you can see they are a little composed. When you have them ready to start, stand before them, and as you seldom have but one balky horse in ft team, get as near in front of him as you can, and if he is too fast for the other horse, let his nose come against your breast ; this will keep him steady, for he will go slow rather than run on you. Turn them gently to the right, without letting them pull on their traces, as far as the tongue will let them go ; stop them with a kind word, gentle them a little, and turn back to the left by the same .. ^ process ; as you turn them again to the right, steady them in the it with a- strong ■jijUj^j.^ ^^^ y^^ ^^^ ^^^ them where you please. surcingle loo^^'yB jf you want to break a horse that has long been in the habit of ingfoot througnB|jjj^jjjg y^^ Q^gj^j. |.Q yg^ apart a half day for it. Put him by and behmd t_MB|i,e gj^e of a steady horse, have check lines on them, tie up all the p tight, a.ndgive|^gg ^^^ straps, so that there will be nothing to excite them. D not rein them up, but let them have their heads loose ; walk lem about as slow as possible ; stop often, and go to your balky u« ' ^ — orse and gentle him ; do not take any whips about him, or do ixcitement, conittmjjy|,jj-jjg ^^ excite him, but keep him just as quiet as you can ; he from ^pyj*^^, Jnll soon start off at the word, and stop whenever you tell him. 80on as he performs right, hitch him to an empty waggon and ive it stand in a favourable place for starting. It would be well shorten the stay chain behind the steady horse, so that if it is „^ _j«ssary he can take the weight of the waggon. The first time ,rt the lo*^.>""M)u start them do not drive more than two rods at first; watch that he wul «iir balky horse closely, and if you see he is getting a little ex- will continue JBted, stop him before he stops of his own accord, caress him a las the slow "^'^tle, and start again ; drive them over a small hill a few times, |de another ^^'^'■id then over a larger one, all the while adding a light load. This badly balked, auB^ggg ^jjj make any horse pull true. Ithe matter ^^f\m^vtlling on the Halter. — A writer in the Rural New Yorker nd cracking 01 Wys that he breaks a horse from pulling by putting a rope through witht^gj.j.g^p j^j^j^^j. ^^g^ ^1^3 ^Qp ^f ^j^q manger, and back through a the coHlg jjj ^j. yjjjjgj tlje frame of the manger, and between the 26 liking until they I id when 8 horsel .going horses ai^ ise drivers do noj of free horse i^ hears the wori .:■ IV M '^U m I .1 '■5? I lit I H,-:', ■i 402 The Canadian Farmer's cei siz ba( thr tigi the coo thai -C T slan TJ rai.se is da inge me, with borse's fore lefp, through a surcingle, and back to the hind leg, Buckle a strap with a ring on it around the ankle ; tie the halter strap to this ring. Keep the horse tied in this way one week. A correspondent of the Cincinnati Oazette says : " Tie the horse -with an inch rope in a stall with a floor in it ; have the floor about three inches lower behind than before, and make the floor wet, so that it will be slippery ; after tying the horse around the neck with a knot that will not slip, get before the horse and take an old white hat and scare the horse by hitting hira on the nose with the hat. When he pulls back from fright he will fall down, his feet slipping from under him. He will not try it more than two or three times before he will become afreid to pull, for fear of fall- ing. Keep this up for a week or so, by making him pull until fasi i * ' •will at last stand as quiet as a lamb. The writer says he broke" - two horses and two mules from pulling back in this way. Eej once tied a puUing-back horse with a running noose around thej neck, and the horse pulled back and came very near choking death. It broke him so, that he would stand if hitched Vvilh string. Choking, in all cases, is not recommended, however." Bard-mouthed Horse. — " Take a small rope, about three-eightl of an inch in size, very strong, and about nine or ten feet long. a loop in one end, just large enough to admit a large hand. Thi loop should be tio^l by what is known as a " sailor's bowlini knot," which cannotslip or tighten up. If you cannot tie the bowlini knot, you must make a loop as best you can, and secure it from sli, ping by tying a cord around the knot to proven'; any danger froi the loop tightening. Now stand upon the near or right side your horse, with the loop in your left hand ; place it well up in the mouth ; reach with your right hand over the neck, bringing thj end over the neck towards you, passing it down through the loo] which you have placed in the mouth, drawing up tightly upon rope. Taking hold of the rope about three feet from the hi give your animal about one half dozen short pulls — first upon on| side, then upon the other — in quick succession. " Do not be afraid of hurcing him ; on the contrary, be very sevei Do not speak while you are using the rope, as your object is make the mouth governable. After a few pulls, let the horse stai a few minutes. Then stepping off to the end of the rope to 01 side say, * Come here,' and at the same time pull upon the quickly and decidedly ; then go upon the other side and repi As soon as your horse shows signs of yielding to the slighti touch, step up and caress him by way of encouragement. In tl same way teach hira to yield to the slight touch of the ro] whether you step either to the right or left, in front or behind, at moment you straighten upon the rope, accompanied by the woi * Come here, sir.' " After two of the above lessons, given in one day, you will pi tliegi This I issom terdei 'time. Don sp urn n To reef< »nl. rod Manual of Agriculture. 403 ) the hind leg, ' tie the halter J one week. '• Tie the horse have the floor make the floor arse around the orse and take an )n the nose with ill fall down, bia \, more than two 1, for fear of M ceed to another adjustment of the rope, viz. : make a loop just the size of the collar your horse works in ; place it upon his neck, well back, putting the other part of the rope into his mouth, and down through the loop which you just placed upon the neck ; draw up tightly, and proceed as described in the case of small loops. If the above directions are strictly followed, with determination and coolness, the worst and most unmanageable horse can be cured so that any woman or child can drive him with comfort and safety." --Cor. Western Rural. To Drench a Horse. — An ox's horn, the larger end being cut slantingly, is the best instrument for administering drink. The noose of a halter is introduced into the mouth, and then, him pull until heB by means of a stable fork passed through the noose, the head is 31 says he broieB jj^jsed up high. Introduce the horn (or bottle if used, though it n this way. HeH jg dangerous to put glass in the horse's mouth), and pour the liquid loose around theH in gently, and over the tongue. In order to make the latter point sure, it will be as well always to draw out the tongue and hold it with the other hand ; quickly take out the horn and let the patient have the use of his tongue ; stroke the throat gently, and watch the gullet to see if he has gulped down what has been given. This may be repeated until the whole dose is taken. As the horse is sometimes very obstinate about swallowing, especially any bit- ter decoction like aloes, the head has often to be held up some time. A sharp slap on the muzzle with the open hand will often Imake him swallow. Don't put too much into his mouth at a time, for it only makes im splutter, and perhaps cough it up again. To make a twitch for the nose, take a piece of stout lath about ree feet long ; bore a hole one inch from the end ; take a strong ird, put it through this hole, and tie the ends ; put the lath in mouth, with rope over the nose, well up above the nostrils, and is takes the place of the halter noose spoken of above. This is principle of The Twitch ; and by turning the stick round, the lorse may be caused such pain in the squeezing of his nose and louth as to have his attention fully taken up while any minor leration is being performed. Bitivg. — This habit is usually taught to the horse by the fool- teasing of his attendants. It is a very dangerous habit, and e tickling and pinching of a horse, looked upon as sport by some e and mischievous boy, has often in after years turned out a icious biter. In this case prevention is the only remedy. A rse that has once acquired the habit can never be cured of it. _8 may be muzzled when in town, or where he is likely to do ,nt or behind, a^ JBischief to strangers. nied by the won« g^^^^^^ ^j^ ^^^ ^^ ^^^ Cheek. — This is a habit resulting from sheer ... fcchief on the part of the hcrse, and may be remedied by having day, yon wiU P^ry large bit rings, or puiting a stiff round leather on each side of e bit inside the cheeks. near choking if hitched v,T.h ed, however.'" bout three-eightl ben feet long, ^i! large hand. Tni "sailor's bowlini nottiethebowlini secure it from sill .', any danger froi ar or right side ace it well up in. neck, bringing thj through the lool p tightly uponth et from the heai Usr— first upon oni l-ary.beveryseve! your object 18 let the horse stai lof the rope to oi Ipull upon the ro] fr side and repi Jg to the slighti u-agement. In t' ou^h of the rom !' : S 404 The Canadian Farmer's I I'fl' U >\ Reaving is often brought on by a too free use of the curb, i change from a severe to a more gentle bit will often euro this habit. As to pulling a horse bdcktvards, Youatt says : — " The horsebreaker's remedy — that of pulling the horse backwards on a soft piece of ground — is worthy of him, and would be practised only b}' reckless and brutal men. Many horses have been injured in the spine, and others have broken their necks, by being thus suddenly brought over ; while even the horsebreaker, who fears no danger, is not always able to extricate himself from the falling horse. If rearing proceeds from a vice, and is unprovoked by the bruising and laceration of the mouth, it fully partakes of the in- veteracy which attends the other divisions of restiveness." Runaway. — If this proceeds purely and simply from vice, there I IS no cure. The horse has learned that he is stronger than the | man, and he has learned " a stubborn fact." Very sharp, punish- ing bits will in many cases prevent their attaining a full know- ledge of man's incapacity to hold them, if determined to bolt, i We have cured a young horse of this habit by giving him all the running he desired, and a good deal more, by liberal use of whip and spur on a clean trail and over heavy ground. I Bad to shoe arises from careless handling and often rough treat-! ment when firet shod. Nothing but kind and encouraging treat- ^ ment will overcome the difficulty ; it is seldom a vice, but in mostH^ *^® cases is the result of timidity. It is a very awkward form ofP*"** "^ timidity, full of danger to the smith ; and we can hardly blame thef mechanic if he sometimes pricks the foot of a horse that refuse/ to stand still. If the fear becomes confirmed, the horse has gene rally to be cast. Pawing is a bad habit, for the cure of which shades will found the best remedy. Rolling in the stall. — The habit once acquired cannot be broken] the only remedy is to tie him so short that he cannot lay his heaij on the floor, for a horse cannot roll without he gets his head quiti down. Shying. — In colts this proceeds from timidity ; as we have enj deavoured to show above, gentle treatment and proving to the anil mal that the object at which he is frightened will not hurt hin are the proper methods to be adopted. _ . It may arise from defective sight, in which case, if the eyesighB ^^t^'f'ft cannot be improved, the sooner the horse goes blind the better ; f(W? ^^^^^ a horse that is deprived of sight is a safer beast to ride behinw^^'*" than one who has only imperfect vision. ■ wem - Where the habit arises from skittishness and a " good feeling" rn^S low the part of the horse, the best plan is to take as little notice •''' '^om possible of him ; perhaps speaking a little sharply to him, ''■f^®' ^^* never using the whip. In most cases it is a mere affectation-B-^'^^ed pretence of being frightened— on the part of the horse, and, \M^^> *'ie ili Manual of Agriculture, 405 the curb. A ten cure this says -. — " The ackwards on a d be practised re beeu injured by being thus ker, who fears roin the falling revoked by the iakes of the in- iveness." from vice, there ■onger than the f sharp, punish- ing a full know- jrniined to bolt, ving hijn all the leral use of whip afTectation in man or woman, the best cure is to take no notice at all of it. John Lawrence, in his work on the Horse, gives the following instances of this phase of shying : " I recollect," says he, "haviiid ; we don't is given, let list of medi- ind rubbing ; aring the run )e given, and latmeal. al in allaying plest made of , a lather ; or ruel, in which e of dissolved ances and cut- rravel and dirt, onltice must be tust be closed or a smooth piece ound— this will of this does not •endered useless. or if it be only an ounce ; rain- violent exertion re lameness, and tter two or three Un fomentations Ikes a good addi- Light, take away Iflannel bandage, lint of vinegar tj) idage should be pain has gone, Already inflamed. |d, by the use ot Ipart remains en- Wed, we may w| ^blistering, in or- der to rouse the deeper-seated absorbents to action, and enable them to take up this deposit. (jkill. — A shiver, usually a sure sign that some disease or fever is imminent. The disease is sometimes arrested by stopping the chill. Give twenty drops of aconite root in a wineglassful of water, blanket the patient, rub the legs, and generally promote the circulation. Gold, or Catarrh. — Symptoms. — Discharge from nose and eyes, coat roughened, a loss of appetite, and cough. Treatment. — Warmth, bran mashes, a few gentle doses of aco- nite — and let him alone. If he gets worse, then give, three times a day, in cold water, two ounces each of powdered gentian root, powdered pimenta, powdered carbonate of ammonia. Mix this lot and make twelve powders of it. Green cut food, when available, is one of the best things for a cold. Colic. — Spasmodic Colic, or Gripss,or Belly-ache. — Symptoms. — Comes on very suddenly, and continues in spasms, each succeed- ing spasm being more severe until relief is obtained. It is something like inflammation of the bowels, and in order to distinguish the two diseases, we give their respective symptoms below, and side by side : — COLIC. Sndden in its attack. Pulse not much quickened in the early period of the disease, and during the intervals of ease, but fuller. Legs and ears of natural temperature. Relief obtained from rubbing belly. Relief obtained from motion. Intervals of rest. Strength scarcely affected. INTXAMMATION OF THB BOWELS. Gradual in its approach, with previous indications of fever. Pulse verymuch quickened, but small and scarcely to be felt. Legs and ears cold. Belly exceedingly tender, and painful to touch. Motion evidently increasing pain. Constant pain. Rapid and great weakness. Causes. — Drinking cold water, or feeding heavily with oats I when overheated. Treatment. — Warm the stomach. Give a bottle of warm ale, l(ffld mix in it three; ounces of spirits of turpentine and an ounce of laudanum. If relief be not obtained in half an hour, and it is clearly a case of colic, repeat half the first dose with an ounce of iBarbadoes aloes dissolved in warm water. Rub the belly well Iwith a brush or warm cloth. Walk the horse about — and throw lup an injection of warm water, soap and sweet oil with a solution |of aloes. When relief is obtained, clothe him warmly, and give |him a bran mash for the next few days. Gin, pepper and such hot things may do good, but are danger- |ous in gripes, as tending to turn it to inflammation of the bowels. The attack generally gives way to the turpentine and laudanum. Constipation, or the eft'ect of continued costiveness. — Horses 412 The Canadian Farmer's ^1 '^ 1 if. subject to such should be often supplied with mashes and soft food, and constantly watched. Cough. — Chronic. — The presence of an obstinate cough may be traced to a hundred causes. When the cause can be directly traced, as weakness of lun^s, bronchial affections, worms, &c., a plan to get rid of the cough is to remove its cause {causa suhlata tulitur effectua) — a good general remedy is : — Digitalis ^'drachm, ) Nitre | drachm, > 1^ drachma to make Emetic tartar | drachm, ) two doses, and to be given once a day when very obstinate. A blister, extend- ing from the root of one ear to that of the other, taking in the whole of the channel and reaching six or even eight inches down the windpipe, and even to the chest, will often prove effectual. As prevention is better than cure, keep your horses from dusty hay and musty oats. Crih-biting. — (See The Vices of Horses.) Curb. — ^A swelling immediately below the point of the hock joint, the result of a strain of the straight posterior ligament. Cow-hocks very susceptible to curbs. Treatment. — First foment with cooling lotions, equal parts spirits of wine, water and vinegar. If possible, keep a bandage soaked in this on the hock. Absolute and long-continued rest. Cut the hair off and blister with an ointment of red iodide of mercury, applied once a week, and keep the skin well greased to prevent cracking. j Catarrh. — (See Cold.) Cataract. — (See Eye.) Chest founder. — Often confused with Feet founder, but is nothing more than rheumatism in that part. Corded Veins, or Farcy Buds. — ^A sure sign that farcy is in the blood of the horse. — (See Farcy.) Cow-hocks. — A bad shape for a horse's hind legs, always indicat- ing a tendency, on any extra exertion, to throw out curbs ; and liability to windgalls, fetlock sprains, thoroughpin, spavins, cut- ting and knuckling. Diarrhoea. — When it simply consists of a looseness of the bowels, unaccompanied by gripes or other pain, leave it alone ; but when the offensive passage continues, there will be some colic, and the | discharge must be stopped. Treatment. — If there be any pain, give twenty-five drops of I tincture of aconite in cold water ; then the following powder, every two hours, until there is a change for the better : — Prepared chalk, half an ounce ; catechu in powder, one drachm ; opium in I •Hi Manual of Agriculture. 413 id soft food, ugh may be 3SS of lungs, of the cough ;u8)— a good ;o make oaes, lister, extend- takiug in the t inches down e effectual, ^es from dusty it of the hock ,erior ligament. as, equal parts Iceep a bandage ir off and blister ed once a week, ir,but is nothing it farcy is in the 1, always indicat- out curbs ; and ^in, spavins, cut- less of the bowels, llone ; but when le colic, and the Ity-five drops ol tllowing powder, letter -.-Prepared ichm; opium «> powder, ten grains. Allow plenty of water to drink. Give bran mashes for a few days, with cake meal or ground flax-seed. DISTEMPER, EPIDEMIC CATARRH OR INFLUENZA. Symptoms. — Shivering fits, to which succeed a hot mouth, greater heat of the skin than is natural, heaving of the flanks, and cough. The eyes are heavy and red, and the membrane of the nose red (but paler than in inflammation of the limgs). Discharge from the nose ; at first watery, but soon thickening. This soon becomes offensive and full of matter. The glands of the throat and under jaw become enlarged, the membranes of the nos- tril and throat inflamed and .tender, and there is difiiculty in swal- lowing water, particularly if it be cold. The horse coughs as he drinks ; the cough is painful, shown by the horse stamping his feet in the act ; soon he becomes very weak, staggers and almost falls, or supports himself by leaning against the side of his box or stall. Legs swell, and enlargements appear on the chest and belly. The pulse is quickened. It rises to sixty or seventy, but the vari- ation of the pulse depends entirely on the degree of fever that accompanies the disease. Cause obscure; the consequenceof a bad cold, or more frequently an epiden^ ic in the district. D. McClure, V,*^-., recommends for the distemper, as it appears in America, as follows : — " Place the horse in a cool (not cold) and airy place, put a light covering on him, and give him twenty drops of the tincture of aconite root in a little cold water every four hours until five doses have been administered. Place plenty of cold water before the horse, so that he can drink as much as he wants. When the aconite has been all given, commence with fifteen-drop doses of the tincture of nux vomica, which repeat every four hours, con- tinuing it for a few days, and if the animal improves, and the ap- petite returns, nothing more in the way of medicine need be given. " Recovery being slow and the appetite poor, give the following powders morning, noon and night : — Powdered carbonate of am- monia, three ounces ; powdered gentian root, two ounces ; powdered pimenta berries, two ounces. Mix, and divide into twelve powders, and give them mixed in a little cold wa- ter ; and drench the horse out of a strong-mouthed bot- i tie. The powders will have to be wrapped well, so as to keep them from the air and prevent the loss of their strength conse- quent on exposure. Twenty drops of commercial sulphuric acid may be given occasionally in half a bucket of cold water, which the horse will readily drink. Do not apply blisters or anything I to the throat, as is too often done ; they can do no good, but po- il'r'i 414 The Canadian Farmer's sitively much harm." (In our own experience we have seen the glands of the throat much relieved by blisters. — The Author.) EYE— DISEASES OF. Floating spots. — Bathe with cold water. Warts on the eyelids may be cut off with a pair of scissors and the roots touched with caustic. The thickening of the haw can only be relieved by cooling loi'ons, and physic to improve the general health. Common infiammation is generally sudden. Symptoms. — The lid swells, eye partly closed, with some weep- ing. The inside of the lid will be red, some red streaks visible on the white of the eye, and the cornea slightly dimmed. Treatment. — Look well to see that there is no object of irritation, such as hay seed, in the eye. Apply cool lotions to the eye ; give mash diet and gentle physic. Ophthalmia, or Moon Blindness. — If the inflammation has not abated in several days, we may suspect periodical or specific blind- ness. This is a disease which may be relieved for a time, but never cured ; in greater or less time, eyesight will become obscured. For three or four weeks the inflammation will continue unabated, when suddenly, without warning, the eye will mend, and the sight be quite recovered. But before long the ophthalmia will come on again, and after a succession of intervals total blindness will ensue of one or both eyes. Cool lotions and fomentations will give temporary relief In examining the eye of a horse, when about to purchase, care must be exercised that there are no traces of the existence of this disease. They are a slight thickening of the lids, or pucker- ing towards the inner corner of the eye ; a difference in the apparent size of the eyes ; a cloudiness, although perhaps scarcely perceptible, of the surface of the cornea, or more deeply seated, or a hazy circle round its edge ; a gloominess of the eye generally, and dulness of the iris ; or a minute, faint, dusky spot in the centre, with or without little fibres or lines diverging from it. Causes. — Bad ventilation and darkness in stables are the chief | predisposing causes to this disease. Farcy is not glanders, but is very closely connected with it ; their symptoms often mingle together, or the one disease will run I into the other. While glanders is incurable, farcy in its milder and earlier stages may be successfully combated. It is a " scrofula" acting on the blood vessels, especially upon those infinite smaller! ones that open upon the skin— -thus it is known — or appears out- wardly as a skin disease. Tlie valves of the blood vessels are| - i;I--M ' Manual of Agriculture, 415 have seen the \A Author.) of scissors and ved by cooling rith some weep- reaks visible on ned. ject of irritation, id gentle physic. amation has not or specific blind- time, but never me obscured, mtinue unabated, 8nd,andthesiglit mia will come on ndness will ensue a,ry relief, io purchase, care existence of this lids, or pucker- iifference in the [though perhaps I, or more deeply liness of the eye taint, dusky spot ss diverging from Xhlea are the chief Inected with it; \ disease will run Ircy in its milder lit is a "scrofula infinite smaller r-or appears out- Wood vessels are affected and get out of order ; hence the whole circulation being impaired, the blood must be cleansed. Symptoms. — An unhealthy coat, loss of flesh, impaired appetite and general dulness, followed by, generally, the sv/elling of a leg, hind or fore. The swelled leg is hot and painful, and soon breaks out in " farcy buds ;" these buds may be distinctly felt, like a lot of buttons on the leg, when the hand is passed down it ; gene- rally found on the inside of the limb. It assumes all sorts of forms. Sometimes these " buds" break into ulcers, spread round and are difficult to cure ; or tumors are formed between the fore legs and about the groin, or upon the lips, which ulcerate and spread. When this stage is arrived at, watch carefully for glanders. Causes. — Bad ventilation, inoculation or contagion from other affected animals. Treatment. — ^Attack it in the first mild form, when it is only " button" farcy. Remove the horse to a place by itself, and keep him, his clothing, and everything used about him, from other animals. Provide for a plentiful supply of fresh air. English treatment — In the first stage administer a mild dose of physic ; examine buds carefully, and if any have broken apply the budding iron, of a dull red heat. Or if matter should be felt in them, showing that they are dis- posed to break, they should be penetrated with the iron. These wounds should be daily inspected, and if pale, foul, spongy, and discharging a thin matter, wash frequently with a lotion composed of corrosive suhliTnate, one drachm, dissolved in one ounce of rectified spirit When the wounds begin to look red, and the bottom of them is even and firm, and they discharge a thick white or yellow matter, /riar's balsam will speedily heal them. Altera- tives must also he used to attack the blood. The best will be the corrosive sublimate, in doses of ten grains, gradually in- creased to a scruple, with two drachms of gentian and one of ginger, repeated morning and night till the ulcers disappear — un- less the horse be violently purged or the mouth get sore, when a drachm of blue vitriol may be substituted for corrosive sublimate. Let the animal have plenty of cariots and green meat, with some grain, and let him be daily exercised. American treatment (McClure). — Give twice a day, a table- spoonful at a dose, sulphite (not sulphate) of soda, continuing this till the horse is well ; and for a few weeks after, two or three times a week, will be of good service. While the blood is thus being purified, .... give something to facilitate the removal of the effete matter from the body, without weakening the animal^ with debilitating diuretics. For this purpose the following medicine : — Powdered sulphate of copper, three ounces ; Spanish fly {canfha- ridea), one drachm ; powdered gentian root, four ounces. Mix, \ • I '■■m 1 .. 1 416 The Canadian Farmer's m\ k and divide into twelve powders; and give one powder at night in some good feed, with no more cold water in it than will keep the particles of the feed together. These powders will do for two weeks ; at the end of that time got more, and continue them till the horse is well. In addition, give grass and generous feed. The English practice also recommends moderate bleeding, when the farcy is attended at the outset by enormous swelling of any limb. FEET. Oreaae. — A disease of the heels and legs of horses ; the result of suppurative inflammation, making the heels and legs dry, cracked, hot and swollen (more frequently behind than on the fore legs). Causes. — Bad stable management ; neglect to dry off the heels when the horse is brought in from muddy work, especially in the early spring ; aided also by bad state of the blood. Remedies (English). — Wash the heel well with carbolic soap and tepid soft water ; then apply to the cracks, white oi/ntment composed of one drachm of sugar of lead, rubbed down with an ounce of lard ; or a lotion composed of a solution of two drachim of blue vitriol, or four drachms of alum in a pint of water ; or a poultice of linseed meal, with an ounce of finely powdered char- coal ; or a poultice of carrots, boiled soft and mashed. Dressings. — An ointment composed iione part resin and three parts lard, melted together, and one part calamine powder added when the former begins to cool. Remedies (American). — Keep heels dry and clean, and apply twice in the twenty-four hours — water, one pint ; sulphuric acid, two drachms ; corrosive chloride of mercury, one drachm. Mix, and shake up before using. Or for dressing, use glycerine, or lard hav- ing no salt in it. For obstinate cases — Take one box of concentrated lye, and dissolve it in two quarts of water, and bottle up for use when wanted in the following way : Pour a winegjassful of the solution of lye into a small bucket of cold water, and wash and bathe the heels and legs for half an f hour, morning and night. N. B. by Author. — Don't wash fam horses' heels when they I come in from work, but rub them dry ; don't cut off the hair that nature has placed over the heels. Keep the horse's blood andl water in good order ; and on the first appearance of a crack in the! heel, treat it just as common sense teaches you to treat cAaps on| your own hands. An excellent and simple remedy for scratches, cuts with shoe! corks, and most flesh wounds, is in use by the practical farmers ofj my own neighbourhood, and is one that we can personally highlyl recommend. Make a salve of gunpowder and lard and heat itoverl t II or th inf tio *! wit Soo dow Feel Ir mati ikm Tf lie d( I cupfu Strom 0ffth( jremov o: Ithefii jfeet th Jsoft mi mi b]( |u> a di dam aiJs, TretA »g Manual of Agriculture. 417 the stove, mashing it down so as to crush all the gritty particlea of the gunpowder, and apply it with the hand to the parts aticcted. It is very healing and perfectly innocuous. Founder. — Laminitia. — A hybrid word from the Latin lamincB or leaves, and the Greek affix itia. It is a fever of the leaves in the foot, and when left to itself will become chronic. Causes, — Cold water when the animal has been overheated ; inflammatory tendency of the feet ; a sudden change of inflamma- tion from lome other organ to the feet. Symptoms. — The horse refuses to move, stands upon his heels with fore feet spread forward to take the weight off the foot. Soon the horse, afraid at first to bring his feet under him to lie down, will flop down on his litter, and experience thereby relief. Feet hot. In inflammation of the feet, the horse will lie down. In inflam- mation of the lungs, he perseveringly and obstinately remains standing. Treatment (American). — Give good bedding, and the horse will lie down. Give twenty drops of the tincture of aconite root in a cupful of cold water, poured into the mouth from a bottle with a strong neck. Repeat the dose every four hours, till six or eight doses have been given. Apply ice-water cloths to the feet. Take off the shoes as soon as i; can be done. Care should be taken in removing the shoes that every nail be drawn before attempting to pull off the shoe. Let the cold water be kept on constantly for the first day, or until active pain gives way. Pare the soles of the feet thin. Give plenty of cold water to drink. Feed on grass or !oft mashes, but do not keep the horse too low. Remember, do |Dot bleed, neither from the neck, nor foot, nor from any other place, in a disease of this kind. — D. McClure. Canker in the Foot. — Causes. — Injuries to the sensitive sole by ila, bruises, and other accidents, as a piece of sole being torn off. Treatment. — Removal of any diseased or dead sole or proud ^^ bh. If not ail removable, or removed, reduce caustic potash small bucket of Ruickly to a coarse powder, as it soon dissolves on exposure to air. lees for half aBRayit upon the raw surface. Thisapply nextday,if first application ■as not removed sufficient or all of it. After proud flesh has been heels when they Rniirely taken off, dress every day with BarhaJioes tar, one pound , off the hair thatBuJ^fcuric a^id, three droAihms ; powdered sulphate of copper, half orse's blood and ■ti ounce. Mix well, and spread a portion on the sore foot, and of a crack in theBver this dressing a pad of tow or cotton, held firmly down on the to treat c/ictps onBadJing, so as to produce pressure. This can be secured by Bin splints from young wood placed across one another over the cuts with sboeBad, and the ends pushed in beneath the shoe. — McGlure. actical farmers omContra^ted Feet. — An unnatural contraction of the back part of inersonally higb^ywe hoof As the hoof draws in, the parts beneath, particularly ft and beat H ove« coffin bone and the heels of the coffin bone, diminish. 2i at night in ill keep the do for two lue them till ceding, when elling of any les ; the result fs dry, cracked, le fore legs), y off the heels jpecially in the 1 carbolic soap white ovntment I down with an of two drachm I of water; or a pcrwdered char- resin and thm e powdjcr adm [lean, and apply . mlphurica^id, Irachm,. Mix.and me, or lard hav- it in two quarts foUowingway.l I ■.M- '-Hi:, 418 The Canadian Farmer's ! r Causes. — Want of proper knowledge, on the part of the owner and horse-shoer, in injudiciously uaring all feot alike ; keening shoes on too long; standing too long in dry places, and thus aepriving the hoof of natural moisture (hence the benefit of stopping the shoe with cow dung in the stables); inHammation of the little phitcs covering the coftin-bone. Blood horses are particularly lial)lo to contraction of the feet, whilst overfeeding and close confinemeut combine often to bring on many such local affections. Treatment rests to a great extent with the shoer, and herein is the skill and knowledge of such a mechanic displayed. When contraction causes lameness, the case should be put in the hands of a vet. Corns. — A red spot on the inner portion of the heel of the foot. Cause. — Pressure and bruising by shoe, when badly put on or left on too long. Treatment. — Let a skilful practitioner cut out the corns ; then apply a few drops of commercial sulphuric acid to the part. Shoe the horse sufficiently often to ensure even bearing to the shoe upon the wall only of the foot. — McCture. P'rich^. — Treatment. — Pull the nail out and poultice the foot for twent^'-four hours; then make an opening through the horn, over the place where the nail went in, so as to allow the pus to pass. After an opening has been made properly, drop^ve droys of muri- atic acid into the hole, once a day for a day or two. Poultice every second night or day, and not oftener. — McGlure. SandcrOjck. — A crack in the hoof, into which sand or other grit has got. j Causes. — Brittleness of hoof ; want of natural moisture generally in the inner part of fore foot. Prevention. — Apply to brittle feet equal portions of oil of ta and cod liver oil, whale oil, or any fish oil, well rubbed in with brush on the hoofs a few times a week. Treatment. — Considerably thin the edges of the crack ; wasl out well ; and if any fungus shows through the crack, destroy il with chloinde of antimony. Make a piece of iron red hot, ani then pass it rapidly across the hair just above the crack, so as make a scab ; put a pledget of tow in the crack and bind it dov Navicular i)iscase.— Behind and beneath the lower pastei bone, and behind and above the heel of the coffin bone, is a smal bone called the navicular or shuttle bone. There is a great dei of weight throwa on this bone, and its surface sometimes becomi ulcerated. Causes. — Constant work on hard roads, or inflammation nej leeted, and ending in ulceration. Symptoms. — Hard to discover; when there is lameness and grej heat, and none of the other diseases of the foot can be found, may generally conclude that the navicular bone is affected. .s t CI a fr. m naj hoi am dov COV( fore the T. the( aod : half-, alteit Fei local with Fei theh( 'sa distri coJd, as to clean out ach, dissolve two ,ve the dose once ims of powdered or Phrenitis.— rers, but af*^ i ' the flanko, lis mid and vacant ties himself furi- unconscious mis- dangerous to all stall or anything first stupor has less. [ADNESS, lore or leas violence, a set determination, jB, to do mischief, and Lys consciousness. pi anything valua- ies against which te of litter under a dirt floor. [ntil he faints or le quickness with quantity. After- 1 at the time and and followed by smaller doses of ten grains each, every six hours, with injections of warm water, soap and oil, until the bowels have been well opened. Staked. — If the bowels are injured, or any portion have escaped through the opening and are torn, sew them with small, line cat- gut, and pass them back into their proper place. If the skin only IS wounded, it is but a simple sore. If it is in a fleshy part, treat the wound with a weak solution of bluestone, chloride or sulphate of zinc. Stinga from Bees, Hornets, &c. — Take acetic acid No. 8, four ounces ; powdered camphor, one ounce. Mix and dissolve ; then rub a portion of the mixture in the parts most aflected. In about an hour, when the poison, swelling and irritation have boen arrested, anoint with sweet oil or lard. Instead of acetic acid, strong table or white wine vinegar may be used without the camphor, but the acetic acid is more effectual, if on hand. Stifled consists of the displacement of the stifle, or patella, which slides oft' the rounded heads of the bones. The horse should be removed to a level pasture, and have him shod with a shoe having a projecting piece of iron attached to the toe, which will prevent the bones from sliding out of place and knuckling at every step. Strangles is an abscess between the bones of the lower jaw, brought on by a poison of the blood which few horses escape ; generally seen in horses at three or four years of age, and usually in the spring of the year. Treatment. — Don't poultice but blister, if it is desired to hasten the process of the abscess. It should be lanced as soon as the abscess has been brought well to head. If left to burst naturally, it is apt to form a bad, ragged ulcer, which is slow to cure. StHnghalt. — Causes. — The loss of nervous influence in the leg, or the peculiar anatomical structure and articulation of the hock- joint of some horses. Treatment. — There is no remedy, but occasionally, at a very rly stage, the nervous influence may be restored by generous feed and, say, one grain of strychnia (nux vomica) given daily, for six weeks, in the horse's feed. Sunstroke {Coup de Soleil). — Symptoms. — Exhaustion and stupidity ; the animal falls, and can go no further. Prevention. — In very hot weather, always use a sunshade for |the horse. Treatment. — At once remove the horse to a cool, shady place. ive two ounces of sulphuric ether ; twenty drops of the tincture f aconite root, and a bottle of ale or porter as a drench. Place chopped ice in a coarse towel or bag, and apply it between he ears and over the forehead, and secure it there. Warm the egs if they be cold. 1^' ■'. il m 430 The Canadian Farmer's » I,: i.\. 1 'St. j. I' l::- S welled Legs are usually the result of an impure state of the blood. Diuretics or alteratives should therefore be administered. (See Medicines.) Thoroughpin. — An enlargement above the hock, between the tendons of the flexor of the foot and the extensor of the hock. Necessarilj' projecting on both sides of the hock, in the form of a round swelling, it is called a thoroughpin. Cause. — Overwork. Treatment. — The same as for Windgalls, whicli see. Thrush.— {See Feet.) ULCERS. Healthy Ulcers. — Every sore that suppurates becomes a healthy ulcer. Generally they will heal themselves. To hasten the heal- ing, if such is desired, apply a solution of bluestone, or chloride of | zinc, as follows : — Chloride of zino 4 grains. V Rainwater 1 ounce. Mix. Or— Powdered bluestone 2 drachms. Rainwater 8 ounces. Mix. Apply either of these once a day, to moisten the lips of the sore and to arrest the formation of proud flesh. Where proud flesh has grown up badly on neglected sores, caus- 1 tic must be used. Touch with the caustic potassa a few times, until the proud flesh | blackens. Repeat if necessary. N.B — Caustic potassa must be kept in a tight bottle when notj in use ; if not so preserved, it will become liquid. Never use adhesive plasters if they can be avoided. Indolent Ulcers. — These are such as are found on horses' h(!^l and heels in such diseases as grease, farcy, &c. Cause. — General debility, poor feed, or bad state of the blood. Treatment. — Apply powdered bluestone to the ulcer, to eat ofl the unhealthy surface ; then apply a poultice for the night, njadej of boiled turnips, carrots, or any soft material. Cover the face off the poultice with brewers' yeast, or charcoal powdered. Feed the animal well, and give half-ounce doses of sulphite of] soda once a day, to purify and eniich the blood. heritable Ulcers, such as sores caused by flies, heat and sweat.— I These are of the nature that they cannot be touched withoutT bleeding ; are red, angry-looking, and very painful ; highly in-] flamed and extremely vascular. Treatment— Keep away flies. Dress the sore with oil of olive Manual of Agriculture. 431 re state of the ) administered. k , between the or of the hock. (1 the form of a i see. icomes a healthy hasten the heal- ne, or chloride of | t grains. i ounce. 2 drachms. ) ounces. he lips of the sore ■■lected sores, caus- ilthe proud flesh bottle when not] )ided. id on horses' le^^] Ite of the bluod, |e ulcer, to eat of the night, made] ICover the face of rdered. ses of sulphite oi leat and sweat.-] I touched witlioul Inful ; highly in- Iwith oil of olive one ounce ; creosote, half an ounce. Mix, and apply to the sore with a piece of soft cloth once a day. Warranty. — A certificate of warranty need not be a document of extreme and exact legal formality. The law will see that if A. warrants to B. an animal to be sound wind and limb, quiet to ride and drive, and of a certain age, B. will receive his remedy should he be able afterwards to prove that at the time of the purchase the horse was not as A. had warranted it. Such a form as the following is as binding in law as any of far greater formality : — Received from A. B. one hundred and fiftv dollars for a bay horse, warranted only five years old, sound, free from vice, ana quiet to ride or drive. $150. C. D. Windgalls are soft, elastic swellings, oflener found on the hind than the fore leg, and near the fetlock. Treatment. — Bandage tightly with a soft pad over each tumor ; wet the bandages with vinegar, to each pint of which a quarter of a pint of spirits of wine has been added ; or, more severely, blister the tumors. For these, the last process of " firing" has occasionally to be adopted. Worms. — Stomach Worm. — ^These are the products of eggs laid by the bot fly in summer about the legs of the horse, and sucked in by him in the process of licking himself. Symptoms of their presence are an unthrifty coat and loss of flesh. Treatment. — Improve his condition by extra feed. In addition, give iron and gentian — thus: Powdered sulphate of iron and gentian root, each three drachms. Mix, and make one dose, to be repeated twice a week. Fundament Bot. — These will be found sticking about the anus and under the tail. Treatment. — Injections of linseed oil. Warts. — ^Either cut them off with a knife, or take arsenic, one drachm ; hog's lard,four drachms. Mix, and make into an ointment ; rub a portion in and around the wart once a week. In a short [time it will fall off Washy Horses. — Such as are not well-ribbed home (having too [great a space between the last rib and the hip bone). These horses are subject to purging if more than usual exertion is re- quired from them. They may be free and fast, but cannot have I" stay." Wolf Teeth. — Sometimes, at two years old, the second teeth do [not rise immediately beneath the first or milk teeth, but some- what to one side, and then, instead of the natural and gradual ab- sorption of the latter, the whole tooth is pushed out of its place ta .!;li,!'i!lSiM 432 The Canadian Farmer's the fore part of the first jfrinder, and remains for a considerable time under the name of a wolf 8 tooth, causing swelling and sore- ness of the gums, and frequently wounding tne cheeks. As the very slow natural absorptitin of these displaced first teeth is often accompanied by pain to the horse, it is proper to get rid of these diminutive teeth, either by punching them out or by drawing them. SOUNDNESS. Ih' The following affections render a horse unsound : — Broken Kneea, if after healing the action of the knees is inter fered with. Capped Hocks. Contraction of the feet does not necessarily entail unsoundness, but where present the feet should be closely examined. Corns, and are seldom radically cured. Cough. — As long as this disease hangs on a horse he is unsound. Roaring, Wheezing, Whistling, High-blowing andGrunting.m^ Broken Wind — all being affections of the air passages, and interfer- ing with perfect freedom in breathing. Orib-biting, although not always so considered, yet is undoubt- edly a form of unsoundness. Curb, as long as the swelling remains, is partial unsoundness, for a horse that has once thrown out a curb is always liable to do so again on slight extra exertion. Gutting can hardly be called unsoundness, but must be closely watched Enlarged Glands. — If very large and tender, we should hesitate j before we pronounced the horse sound, especiall}'- should the! lining of the nose be red, and the gland at the root of the ear par- take of the enlargement. Enlarged HoJc. — Will always be lamed by a few days of extra] hard work. The Eyes. — Proofs of unsoundness of the eyes are : a pucker- ing of the lid towards the inner corner of the eye ; a difference in I the size of the eyes ; a gloominess of the eye ; a dulness of the| iris ; a little dulness of the transparent part of the eye generally; a minute, faint, dusky spot deep in the eye, and with little radia- tions of white light proceeding from it ; starting at objects, if notj proved to be a trick. Lameness from any cause, as long as it remains. Quidding. — If the mastication of food gives pain to the animal,! he will drop it before it is perfectly chewed. This, an indication j of disease, is a form of unsoundness. Quittor is unsoundness. Ringbone. — So I'ar unsound us tending to the spread of inflam-l mation and disease. Ik , V >^ j.^ terminate in hoove or murrain, or some other diseases. The ptoms for these must be carefully looked for, and as soon as ly appear, be treated. ''boding (from the womb), though rare, may follow natural urition. featment — Apply cold cloths to the loins. Dissolve a pound tre in a gallon of water, and keep the cloths wetted with the ition ; or, if in summer, use ice cloths. Let her drink all the water she will take, and give large doses of opium (two ihms every hour). Elevate the hinder parts of the cow ; keep perfectly quiet, and do not permit the calf to suck. Anything absolute rupture of the womb will yield to this treatment. krget.—Mam7niti8,or Inflammation of theUdder. — Causes. — allowed to become too full and hard after, or sometimes 1 of disease. Whd IS bronchitis, pleui ,er illness the rene^ ignof permanent 11 tor treatment; it 1 powders com ,n ounce ; opium: heat flour gruel, ecessary effect. e abuse of purgati« ^^1^^^^ [form ; feeding on 3d from dry to grei ly state of the ati iseed cake. McCli rentian, and sulpl He also says: lous acid gas." three drachms ot day mptoma. — ^A teat or quarter becomes enlarged, hot and ten- and begins soon to feel hard and knotty ; and little distinct lened tumors are felt inside the teat. This is apt to spread the whole udder and to the other teats. Mtment. — In the early stage, let the calf be allowed to suck knock about and soften the udder. This will generally re- her, by promoting a flow of milk. . inflammation continues, or the udder is so sore that the er will not allow her calf to suck, refuses to eat, or ceases to gruel once a ^Bnate, becomes feverish, the milk is discoloured and mixed : each feed oi m B matter and blood, the case is serious. en apply warm poultices to hasten suppuration. This may , areM*^® P'^^ ^^ evacuate itself When properly discharged, use a yelids must "^^^^mg ointment on the sores which will be left. iry, and the M^q garget appears chronic, i.e., the heat and redness be not ih : One par m^g^j g^ swellings containing pus, use cold applications, if pos- aJw ^ ^ ^^ ^^ ^^^ effected, bring on suppuration by poultices, reat as above. Whatever treatment be adopted, be sure to ^91 i the scissors, 438 The Canadian Farmer's milk the udder severely, and, if possible, put two strong calves to ■ i suck. Hidebound. — An indication of a bad state of the digestive or- ■ e gans, and general " out of sorts." I } Treatment. — A dose of physic, say : Epsom salts, one pound ; I t ginger, half an ounce — in two bottles of cold water, and sweetened I I( with molasses; or, sulphur, eight ounces ; ginger, half an ounce— in I a) a bran mash. After the physic has acted, give the following pow- 1 gi ders : — Powdered ginger 1 ounce. Fenugreek 1 ounce. Carraway seeds 4 an ounce. Mix, and give in one dose, daily, for a week. Hoven. — Tympanitis, Bloated or Drum Belly. — This is simply a mechanical ailment, and is caused by the generation of a largeH amount of carbonic acid gas from a mass of partially decern posedH n • food in the stomach, which has been allowed there to accumulateB i^ The paunch is distended or bloated ; the skin drawn as tight an c a drum ; and if the gas be not evacuated, the internal organs arel pressed upon and death ensues. ■ of n Ti catment. — Must be rapid ; time is everything. First, trjfl i- mild methods. Give half a pound of table mustard and an ouncfl n of chloride of lime, mixed in a little cold water ; or, if handy, givfl i^^ ' freshly powdered carbonate of ammonia, in cold water ; or, dasll J cold water over the loins, and move the animal gently aboufl j The best of all the milder remedies will be found in an injectioBA . of raw linseed oil, soap and warm water. ■ J If the gas is not soon evacuated by the anus, an operation musl ° ^ be performed. Every farmer should own a trochar and canulB . the proper instruments to be here used. In default of these, aiiH,_- ' where the case is argent, at once plunge a dinner knife, weB^ ' sharpened, into the &ide, or at equal distance from the hip bonB j "^ ^ short rib and spine, Sind on the left side of the animal. ■ '^^ Where the trouble has become chronic, i.e., a return of ^Wny- ] complaint is constantly taking place, it shows a debilitated "•'■Li^' dition of' the walls of the rumen, and the following powder sl^ofl^af^ be given for a few days, morning and night, in a mash : — ■ .^! Powdered ginger 4 *^ ounce. B''^*1'M Gentian | an ounce. Fenugreek | an ounce. Inflammation is not common in cattle, but when it occurs be treated as described before for the horse. I ^c Jaundice, or the Yellows. — Cause. — An obstruction of the pB^ase sage of bile from the gall bladder, and its absorption in the storaaB«^assi from which it spreads throughout the whole system. ■"^v Symptoms. — A yellow colour of the eyes, of the skin generaBMid fl'r>'- Manual of Agriculture. 439 strong calves to ,he digestive or- ilts, one pound; r.and sweetened talf an ounce— in le following pow. )unoe. )unce. an ounce. —This is simply i. terution of a largel rtially decoraposedl lere to accumulate.! 1 drawn as tight asl nternal organs aw" ything. First, tr istardandanound r • or, if handy, H ;old water; or,dasJ dmal gently alwutt und in an injectioJ s, an operation ffiw trochar and canut lefaultof these, ai dinner knife, J?< from thehipboi animal. ■i.e., a return of % vs a debilitated CO] wing powder shoa n a mash : — and of the urine ; seen plainly in the lining of the mouth and nose. In had cases, the general health is seriously affected, causing gen- eral irritation and fever, quickness and hardness of the pulse, heaving of the flanks, excessive thirst, and suspension of rumina- tion ; costiveness, with the dung of a whitish or straw-coloured look. If it be not bad, give plenty of soft food, slops, &c. If it assumes an acute kind, a good dose of purgative medicine may be given : — Epsom salts , 1 pound. Table salt 4 pound. Ginger I^uiounce. Mix, and dissolve in four bottles of water, sweetened with mo- lasses. lAce. — (See chapter on Cow Stables.) Milk Fever occurs from the first to the third day after calving. It is inflammation of the womb, which sometimes extends to the bowels. Symptoms. — Loss of power over the hinder limbs, and conse- quent falling down of the animal ; loss of appetite and suspension of rumination, resulting in the affection of the brain, and in a short time death. Causes. — Too high condition at time of calving ; overfeeding before or after calving. Treatment. — To lessen the probability of this trouble, give, a week or so before calving, the same medicine recommended above for jaundice, and feed plentifully with slop mashes, giving no meal, grain, or heating food. When the disease has set in, give, according to McClure, thirty drops of the tincture of aconite root, and half an ounce of the pure opium, in powder, in a bottle of thin gruel. The aconite must be repeated every four hours, without the opium, until four or five doses are given. Place chopped ice in a bag on the forehead, 'newing it when wanted. At more leisure, give the Epsom salt purgative as above recommended. Keep the cow as quiet as pos- sible ; her legs and body warm. Give pure air, and as much cold water as the animal desires. All writers insist that the bowels must be opened ; clysters of warm water, soap and oil will help this greatly. MURRAJN — THE MALIGNANT EPIDEMIC. \ an ounce. ^ an ounce. ^ an ounce. |t when 1 ^ MIcClure is very hard upon the cow leeches for calling any dis- of the pB^^® Murrain, which name means to die ; but although " by classical scholars, orators and poets, the use of the word murrain istru _ ii-jo gtoniiiW''"*''^^^^ suuoiars, oraiora auu poeis, tut? use ui tiie wuiu muiittiii Irption m ■may be taken as an indication that they have read Virgil, Homer 1 system. ^g^era^^d Horace, yet when cow doctors talk about the murrain, it con- 1 ^1 1 1. 440 The Canadian Farmer^s veys the reverse idea to that entertained when used by the orator and poet." Yet we would remind Dr. McClure that a very well- known and revered classical scholar and poet has handed down for universal quotation the couplet: — " What's in a name ? A rose by any other name would smell as sweet." The disease may be the consequence of " Epidemic cataiTh, epi- zootic aptha (de la Jievre aptheura) in a malignant form, on account of the great vascularity of the system, and intensity of febrile action, and consequent vital exhaustion," &c., &c. ; but of one thing we are well assured, that as murrain it was known to the old world, as recorded in the Book of Exodus (Chap, ix.); to Homer, 900 years before Christ ; to Hippocrates, who flourished 500 years yet before Homer ; to Plutarch, who speaks of it as occurring dur- ing the reign of Romulus; to Livy; to Virgil, in his pastoral " Georgics," about 50 years before the Christian era (see Georg. lib. iii. v. 478, &c.) ; to the historian, Cardinal Baronius, who refers to it as murrain in the year A.D. 376 ; to the Emperor Charle- magne, the whole of the cattle in whose army was destroyed by murrain in A.D. 810 ; to the Venetian States, which were ravaged in 1514 and 1599 ; to the Journal des Savans, in 1682 ; to Dai- matia and Italy, in 1711, whence it spread to Piedmont, thence to France, Germany and England. In 1743, the disease, still known as the murrain, again broke out devastating France, Holland and Germany, when in Holland alone, more than 200,000 cattle perished with it : and again came over to | Britain, and for twelve years laid waste the herds of the islands. In the year 1747, as murrain, it destroyed 40,000 cattle in the | two shires of Nottingham and Leicester ; and in Cheshire alone j 30,000 cattle died in six months. As the murrain it is now known to farmers, veterinary prac- titioners, " intelligent persons" and " ignorant pretenders ;" and fori such, when once fairly afloat, there is no remedy but extreme measures to prevent its spread — totp,! stamping out — and keeping I herds carefully in good healthy condition. We trust we may| never see the murrain in Canada. Pleuro-Pneumonia. — Affection of the covering or pleura of tliej lunffij and of the lungs themselves. At first, Tlie symptoms are scarcely observable. When, however, the constitution is no longer strong enough to resist the ravages of the! disease, there appears diminution or irregularity of appetite. SoodJ afterwards, a frequent and dry cough, which becomes feeble ai painful as the disease proceeds. The dorso-lumbar portions on the spine become tender, and the animal flinches when that pari is pressed upon, and utters a peculiar groan or grunt, indicative,! experienced ears, of an affection of the pleura. Soon after, m t i by the orator lat a very well- anded down for eet." mic catarrh, epi- form, on account jnsity of febrile but of one thing lovm. to the old . ix.) -, to Homer, irished 500 years as occurring dur- , in his pastoral , era (see Georg. •onius, who refers Emperor Charle- was destroyed by lich were ravaged in 1682 ; to Dai- Piedmont, thence n, again broke out I in Holland alone, again came over to ds of the islands. 0,000 cattle in the kn Cheshire alone I ig or pleura of the ken, however, the 1 the ravages of the jr of appetite. Soon Lcomes feeble andl lumbar portions o les when that pai Trunt, indicative,! la Soon after, the Manual of Agriculture. 441 movements of the flanks become irregular and accelerated, and the act of respiration seems to be sympathised in by a motion of the whole body. The sides of the chest and the loins become quite tender ; the elbows are bent out from the chest ; the pulse becomes feebler ; the muzzle is hot and dry alternately ; rumination is partially or entirely suspended. The foeces are harder than they should be ; the mouth becomes dry. In most cases the disease pursues its course with little remission towards its fatal termina- tion, every symptom gradually increasing in intensity. The respi- ration becomes more painful ; the head more extended ; the eyes are brilliant ; every expiration is accompanied by a grunt and a kind of puckering of the angles of the lips ; the cough becomes smaller, more suppressed, and yet more painful ; the tongue pro- trudes from the mouth, and a frothy mucus is abundantly dis- charged ; the breath becomes offensive ; a purulent fluid of a bloody colour escapes from the nostrils ; diarrhoea, profuse and foetid, succeeds to constipation ; the animal becomes weaker ; it is a complete skeleton, and at length dies of utter prostration. Causes. — Atmospheric influences cause thid disease to assume the nature of an epidemic ; sudden and severe changes of tempera- ture, easterly winds, &c., and many other such uncontrollable con- ditions of the times. Also a predisposing cause which resides in the individual patient. A very fruitful Source of predisposing causes may be found in the imperfect ventilation of cow-houses and stables ; close contiguity to the smoking and fermenting dung- hill ; over-heated stables ; too stimulating feed, and turning the cow suddenly from a heated temperature out into the cold. Treatment. — The disease is far more fatal in cows heavy with calf, and in animals who are in low condition. McClure says : — "K tho disease has been observed within forty-eight hours from the time of attack, give the following powders every four hours, between six o'clock in the morning and ten at night, or at six, ten, two, six, and ten o'clock : — Tincture of aconite root 24 drachms. Powdered gentian root 3 ounces. Powdered ginger root 3 ounces. Sulphate of iron 2 ounces. Mix well, and divide into five powders, to be given as above directed. After the five powders have been given, continue with the same powders, but without the aconite, and give them only ihree times a day. Half an ounce of the sulphite of soda may be added to each powder with advantage. The powders will have to be mixed in a large bottle of water and sweetened with molasses. Allow plenty of pure air, cold water and good strong feed, but not too much at a time. * * * In the early stages of the disease, the carbonate of ammonia given in three-drachm doses along with I I ■"■iV. 442 The Canadian Farmer's \\ ■! ■ Si the other powders, will do much good. There are two points I have ever sought to obtain in the treatment of this disease : — 1st. To maintain the appetite ; 2nd., to restore and maintain it, if lost. Red Water. — This disease usually occurs to cows a few days after calving. Cause. — During the period of pregnancy there has been con- siderable determination of blood to the womb ; the condition of the blood is then, first locally, and soon after generally alten'd ; the red globules are broken up, and the colouring matter, or /lema^osn?,, escapes into and is passed out in the urine. Symptoms. — General disorder, shown by suspension of mmina- tion ; suffering ; diarrhoea followed by constipation ; and the urine, with diflficulty discharged, is highly tinged with blood-red, and in the last stages is of a black colour. Treatment. — First, a purgative : A pound of Epsom salts, a pound of common salt, half an ounce of ginger dissolved in water, and sweetened. Give plenty of mashes. The animal mits< be purged if constipation has set in. When the purging has been effected, give no astringents, but rather administer stimulants and medicines that act upon the blood and kidneys. Common turpentine or spirits of turpentine, guarded by a few drachms of laudanum, will be given with advantage. Or, by way of precaution, it has been well recommended that the bowels be carefully kept open before, during and after calving, by occasional doses of common salt dis- solved in water ; and as a cure, give twenty ounces of Epsom salts in warm water, and half an hour afterwards two quarts of gruel with half a pound of buofcer dissolved in it; "half the quantity of gruel and butter to be repeated every two hours ; the purgative to be repeated, if necessary, at the end of twenty-four hours ; and should the constipation prove obstinate, injections composed as follows should be frequently administered : Boil an ounce of ani- seed in a quart of water, strain the clear liquor, and dissolve in it four ounces of butter and a tablespoonful of salt. Ringworm. — A parasitic disease, consisting in the growth of cellular tumours on the skin. Treatment. — Use the oxide of zinc ointment. Teats are subject to local affections, besides the inflammation of the udder, or garget (which see). Milk Stones sometimes stop the channel. For their removal take a silver probe or a knitting needle, and if possible, by gentle pressure, force the obstruction up into the udder. Strictures of the channel cause a small stream of milk to flow. Commence with a small silver probe or needle, and gradually use thicker ones till the channel is made of a proper size. The opera- tion maj'^ take a week or fortnight, using the instrument once or twice a day. Manual of Agriculture. 443 ]• 1..: two points I liaease ; — I maintain it, 8 a few days las been con- indition of the |r altered ; the ,or feemaiosan, ion of rumina- and the urine, Dod-red, and in Epsom salts, a olved in water, mvusi he purged s been effected, 8 and medicines a turpentine or 'laudanum, will ion, it has been ept open before, Dmmon salt dis- 8 of Epsom salts quarts of gruel the quantity of ; the purgative four hours; and DS composed as Ml ounce of ani- Ld dissolve in it the growth of [inflammation of their removal fssible, by gentle I of milk to flow. id gradually use £ize. Theopera- ttrument once or Warta may be removed by sharp scissors and the roots touched with caustic. Simple Sore Teats, in the form of excoriations or small cracks or chaps, are cured by fomentations and a dressing with the fol- lowing ointment . Take an ounce of yellow wax and three ounces of hog's lard ; melt them together, and when they begin to get cool, rub well in a quarter of an ounce of sugar of lead and a drachm of alum finely powdered. Thiniah. — (See Aptha.) Warbles. — The larva of the ox-fly {oestrus hovis), which deposits its egg just beneath the skin, generally about the back, or where the beast cannot lick. Squeeze the tumour and force the larva out Yellows. — (See Jaundice.) THE ORDINARY DISEASES OF SHEEP. Sheep are difficult patients to deal with in sickness; but as many sheep are yearly lost from the effects of simple ailments, we shall refer shortly to the treatment (»f some of these. Colic, or Stretches — Causes. — The same as induce bellyache or flatulent-colic in all animals, most frequently the result of costiveness. Symptonu. — The sheep keeps rising and lying down, constantly stretches its fore and hind legs as far as possible apart, until the belly almost touches the ground , is in pain, and refuses all food. Treatment. — Give a dose of linseed oii, or— Epsom salts i an ounce. Powdered ginger 1 drachm. Peppermint essence 60 drops. Costiveness. — For this give castor oil, two tablespoonsful every twelve hours until relieved ; or Epsom salts, one ounce. It will be well also to give an injection of sweet oil, warm water and soap suds. Chronic Cough is often noticeable in more or less of the sheep in a flock. This is nearly always cured by a complete change of pasture, accompanied by regular feeding with salt. If not so cured, it will generally be found symptomatic of some worse disease. Eruptive Disease. — Sheep are subject to an eruption of the skin which gradually extends along the chine, and if permitted to be- come universal may prove dangerous. Treatment. — Give daily drinks of half a drachm of cream of tar- tar, and one drachm of sulphur, in four ounces of camomile de- coction. Anoint also with mercurial ointment. Foot Rot. — Very prevalent amongst high-bred sheep. Sheep have a secretory outlet between the claws of the foot, which, when the hoof grows too fast, is apt to be obstructed, or may be closed '1^1 I I I IrJ: I < '■■'. :i. '% :1 'S ^Hi ill 'i H 444 The Canadian Farmer's up by sand, gravel, &c. Hence, inflammatory action is set up amongst the laminse of the foot, and there is a secretion of foetid matter. When a sheep is observed to go lame, examine the foot, clean out from it all sand, gravel and filthy matter ; cut off all loose and ragged portions of the horn of the hoof, and apply to the sore por- tions an ointment composed of two parts of tar and one of oil of turpentine, which having mixed, add one part of muriatic acid, and afterwards add four parts of blue vitriol. Or, the ointment may be made thus (McClure) : — Oil of turpentine 2 ouncei. Sulphuric acid \ ounce. Olive oil 1 ounce. Mix. Apply with a sponge or cloth ; where sores occur on the di- visions, touch them with nitric acid or a little of the butter of antimony (terchloride of antimony) by means of a feather, Grab in the Head, ox Frontal Worms. — Cause. — This is the lar- vae of the oestrus ovis, or gad-fly of the sheep. It lays its eggs on the inner margin of the nose, which having become hatched, the larvse or grubs creep up into the frontal and maxillary sinuses to the torment of the sheep, and at times to their destruction. Symptoms. — The fly, laying its eggs in July, August and Sep- tember, may be observed by the action of a flock of sheep, which collect \r close clumps, with their heads inwards, and their noses thrust towards and often into the ground. During the ascent of the larvjB, the sheep suffers great torment ; stamps, tosses his head, and often runs wildly off" over the field. The larvae, when once established, create no more trouble until in the succeeding spring, when they begin to crawl down again, causing more agony to the sheep than when they ascended. Treatment. — As a preventive, smear the nose with tar, or take half a pound of Scotch snuff", and two quarts of boiling water ; stir and let stand till cool, then squirt an injection of this up each nostril, two or three times between October and January. N.B. — There is no actual danger from this grub, except in so far as the irritation makes the sheep liable to catarrh and other diseases of the head, and causes the poor animal considerable tor- ment. Injlammation of the Bowel8,known. asBraxy. — Causes. — Eating noxious vegetables ; being turned too long or suddenly on turnip fields or turnip tops half rotten ; exposure in cold weather. Symptoms. — Uneasiness, loathing of food, frequent drinking; carrying the head down ; drawing the back up ; swollen belly ; and avoidance of the flock. Prevention. — Warm, dry shelter and nutritious food. ■ iii . 1 is set up on of foetid e foot, clean ill loose and the sore por- d one 01 oil luriatic acid, ,he ointment e. le. ir on the di- bhe butter of ?.atber, his is the lar- ys its eggs on s hatched, the ary sinuses to ruction, gust and Sep- ' sheep, which id their noses the ascent of tpa, tosses his 3 larvJB, when ^he succeeding ig more agony with tar, or [boiling water ; f)f this up each luary. b, except in so Irrh and other ^siderable tor- mses.— Eating jnly on turnip reather. Iient drinking; [swollen belly ; lood. Manual of Agriculture. 446 Treatment to be succeBsful must be prompt Give two ounces of Epsom salts dissolved in warm water, with a handful of com- mon salt. If unsuccessful, give a clyster, made with a pipeful of tobacco boiled for a few minutes in a pint of water. Administer half, and if not effectual, follow with the rest. Assist the purga- tives with warm gruels and laxative feed. McClure says: "Give castor oil, two ounces; calomel, five grains ; laudanum, two drachms ; molasses, two ounces. Beat up with an egg, in warm water, and give it as a drench ; lopeating in half doses every six hours." Rot — A fearful disease. Causes. — There have been no satisfactory causes given for this disease. Symptoms. — Loss of flesh ; what remains is flabby and pale ; the animal loses all vivacity ; the lips, tongue, and all mucous mem- branes are livid, and in the advanced stages are alternately hot and cold. The eyes look sad and glassy, the breath is foetid, the urine small in quantity and highly coloured ; the bowels are at one time costive, and at another affected with a black purging ; the pelt will come off with the slightest pull. Treatment, never successful unless commenced very early, or when the disease is of a mild nature. 1st. There must be a total change of food, and to that of a dry and nutritious character ; all the farina? are good, as wheat, barley, oat or pea meal. Give salt in water from the first. In the more advanced stages, give every morning — Watery tincture of aloes 4 ounce. Decoction of willow bark bounces. Nitric acid 25 drops. Scabs, or Scabies, or Psora. — This is not a common disease in Canada, but it occasionally runs through a flock. It is a cutane- ous or skin disease similar to the mange of other beasts. Some- times they appear in the form of erysipelatous eruptions, and at others as psoric or mangy ones. In the former instance they are universal and very red, and may be cured by nitre administered quickly, and a change of food. In the latter form, as scab, other remedies are required. Symptoms.- — The sheep is very restless, rubs against trees, stones fences, &c. ; scratches itself with the feet, bites its sores, and tears off the wool with its teeth. The animal must be relieved, or under the torture it will pine away. Treatment. — Separate the affected sheep. Cut off the wool in the neighbourhood of the scabs ; wash them with soapsuds, rubbed hard in with a brush ; make a decoction of tobacco, to which is added one-third, by measure, of a strong lye from wood-ashes, hog's lard, and a little tar, and about one-eighth of the whole, by i 446 The Canadian Farmer's measure, of spiritw of turpentine; rub this upon the .'»p or>d around them, after they have been broken and cleansed \ ah the soap suds. Or, first wash with soap suds, and then dip in an infusion of arsenic, in the proportion of half a pound of arsenic to twelve gallons of water. See that this does not get into the nostrils. Or, take common mercurial ointment and mix with from five to eight times its weight of lard ; apply the ointment all along the back, and in a few lines along the sides of the sheep, first parting the wool carefully where the ointment is to be rubbed in. A lamb requires one-third as much as a full-grown sheep ; or, two pounds of lard oil, half a pound of oil of tar, and one pound of sulphur. Gradually mix the last two ; then rub down the com- pound with the first. Apply ointment as before. Or, take of — Corrosive sublimate 4 P<)*1'^<1' White hellebore ^powdered) j pound. Whale or other oil 6 gallons. Resin 2 pounds. Tallow 2 pounds. Mix, and melt together. This \r powerful, and must be used with caution. Scouring, or Diarrhoea. — Causes. — Bad hay, or rapid transition from one kind of food to another ; overloading the stomach ; or a change of weather. When not of long continuance, it is better left alone ; it is sim- ply nature's treatment for the removal of an overplus of bile from the system. Wl en, however, the trouble continues so long as to very much weaken the sheep, and, consequently, make it subject to other and worse forms of sickness — Treatment. — Change of pasture, or confinement to dry food. When medicine becomes requisite, give first a gentle cathartic, especially if any mucus or matter be observed in the fceces ; either half a drachm of rhubarb, or an ounce of linseed oil, or half an ounce of Epsom salts — these to a lamb ; give double quantity to a full-grown sheep. After this gentle cathartic, an astringent will be required. Give prepared chalk, a quarter of an ounce in half a pint of lukewarm milk, once a day for two or three days. Or, to combine both cathartic and astringent, give in the first place — Powdered opium 2 grains. Powdered gentian 1 drachm. Powdered ginger 1 drachm. Mix, and give in an infusion of linseed. Also, it has been recommended in cases that do not yield to the simple chalk and milk, to take — sed \-'i\i the n. infusion ot tic to twelve ) nostrils, rith from five b all along the ), first parting cd in. vn sheep ; or, ,nd one pound iown the com- , take of — and. und. lions. unda. uudfl. apid transition stomach ; or a lone ; it is sim- lus of bile from js so long as to take it subject |t to dry food, sntle cathartic, . fceces ; either oil, or half an ale quantity to astringent will ounce in half a |e days. Or, to first place — ^ains. ^achm. rachm. lot yield to the Manual of Agriculture, 447 Prepared ohalk I ounce. ' Powdered catechu jounce. Powdered ginger ... 2 drachma. Powdered opium 4 drachm. Mix with half a pint of peppermint water. Give to a grown sheep two or three tablespoonfuls morning and night ; to a lamb, half that quantity. This mixture is known as " Sheep's Cordial." Staggers, Oid, Tumaick, Ooggles, Sturdy, Watery Head, and Pendro, are all popular names for hydatids on th«! brain. Cause. — An hyaatid is formed upon the brain, being a parasite which in some unaccountable manner finds its way to the inside of the sheep's head. Symptoms. — Stupidity; a disposition to sit on the rump, to turn to one side, and to incline the head to the same when at rest. The eyes glare and the pupils become rounded. A softness will now, bv close examination, be found upon some part of the skull, generally on the opposite side to that on which the animal hangs the head. When no softness is found, the hydatid is in one of the ventricles, and death is near at hand. When a softness of the skull is in any spot apparent, death may be a long time coming. Treatment. — "This disease has been cured by practitioners by a removal of the hydatids ; but as such is, at the best, but an experi- ment, the better plan is at once to make mutton of the subject. THE ORDINARY DISEASES OF THE PIG. Drenching. — Whenever possible, let all medicines be given in food ; sometimes, however, the patient is off" his feed, and drench- ing becomes necessary. Let a man get the head of the pig firmly between his knees, while aiiother secures the body ; then take hold of the head, raise it a little, and incline it to one side. Separate the lips on the opposite side to form a hole, into which gradually pour the drench. Directly the pig snorts or chokes, release his head for a few seconds before p iring more into his mouth. Remember, a pig has a small gullet and may easily be choked. Do all kindly ; no hitting, shouting and wrenching because the pig is obstinate. The man should show himself as obstinate, and he is but a poor man whose obstinacy takes the form of that of a pig rather than the quiet determination of a superior being en- dowed with reasoning faculties. The weapon of the lower animals is brute stupidity ; if we can only meet him with his own weapons — brutality and bad temper — then will he assuredly obtain the mastery. Catarrh or Cold. — Causes. — Exposure in a stye full of draughts. Symptoms. — An inflammation of the lining of the nose, and general dulness. 448 The Canadian Farmer's ill Trea^me-n-t —Opening medicines in warm bran mashes; give succulent food, and stop his allowance of rich meals, &c. C%o^era.— This disease has been very fatal in the United States, and we have had many cases of late years in Canada. Causes. — The filthiness, not of the iiog, but of his attendant, who persists in making the proverbial filth of a hog his excuse for possessing pig pens that, one mass of accumulated rottenness, are in themselves cesspools in which the most virulent diseases are fenerated. It has, so far, when once fairly established in a neigh- ourhood, proved fatal to all pigs attacked. We must look to its Treatment by preventives. — Cleanliness in and about pens ; a liberal use of whitewash, chloride of lime, carbolic acid, and such disinfectants. When one pig is struck down by cholera, kill him, remove him and thoroughly disinfect his stye. Give the rest the following ; take an iron mortar and grind up together : — Flour of sulphur 6 pounds. Animal charcoal 1 pound. Sulphate of iron 6 'inces. Chincoua (pulverized) 1 pound. And feed at the rate of a tablespoonful to each animal, in food, three times a day for a week. Diarrhoea. — A change of diet from succulent to more binding, will generally stop this trouble. Acorns, at the right season, will generally stop it. If medicine is required, mix in their food chalk or powdered egg shells, with a little rhubarb. Fever. — Symptoms. — Redness of eyes ; dryness and heat of lips, nose and skin ; loss of appetite and violent thirst. Treatment — In this case it will often be well to bleed at once. See that the pen has plenty of fresh air, and allow all the cold wa- ter the pig requiree. If he is costive, give castor oil or linseed oil, but not unless. These measures will usually break the fever. If not, little else can be done. Inflammations {Internal) or Heavings. — Causes. — Cold caught in damp pens, dirtiness and impure air. It is infectious. " Harris on the Pig" recommends a mild blister ; foment the body, under i,he fore legs, for an hour or so, with cloths wrung out of hot water, and rub on a little saleratus or soda occasionally during the operation, to soften the skin ; then apply crude petroleum. This will act as a mild irritant, and heal at the same time. When inflammation has once set in, the symptoms of which are j the same as described for the horse or cow, success is very doubt- 1 ful. Jaundice. — Symptoms. — Yellowness of the white of the eye, the j lips and skin generally. Treatment. — Diminish the quantity of food and give aloes. Manual of Agriculture, 449 lashes; give kc. nited States, lis attendant, tiis excuse for ottenness, are b diseases are ed in a neigh- ttst look to its ibout pens; a acid, and such olera, kill him, ve the rest the ;her : — lunds. mnd. inces. )untl. animal, in food, o more binding, •ight season, will Ik or powdered and heat of lips. [to bleed at once, all the cold wa- loil or linseed oi], lak the fever If ,g8— .Cold caught jctious. "Hams , the body, under rrung out of not ^asionally during [crude petroleum. lame time, loms of which are is very doubt- kss iiteoftheeye. tbe id give aloes. Mange or Itch is caused by the same acarua as the similar affec- tion in other animals. Use such applications as diluted carbolic acid, crude petroleum, &c., on the posts, sides of the pens, and in a weak form on the pig itself. Qive also sulphur in the food. Except as a last resort, have nothing to do with arsenic, corrosive sublimate, or mercurial oint- ments. Measles. — A common disease amongst high bred and highly fed Gausea. — In-and-in breeding, dirty pens, &c. It is a parasitical disease, and measly pork is a fruitful source of tape- worms, and is utterly unfit for human food. Is often brought on by feeding raw flesh to pigs, and by the habit, not uncommon to sows, of eating their own offspring. Symptoms. — Red eyes ; foul skin and general dulness ; loss of appetite ; pustules about the throat, and a blotchy, red, eruptive appearance of the skin ; cough, fever, running from the nose, and a weakness of the hind legs. Not a fatal disease, unless neglected. Give nutritious and easily dige ted food, and mix in it sulphur, saltpetre, Epsom salts, and other gentle aperients. Thoroughly cleanse the pen. Protrusion of the Rectum. — A very common affection of young pigs when highly fed, being a sort of piles, and generally the re- sist of severe diarrhoea. Treatment. — Wash the protruding gut with warm water ; rub on a little laudanum, and gently force it back into its place. Staggers. — A termination of blood to the head. Treatment. — Bleed freely and give a strong purgative. Surfeit or Indigestion. — Cause. — Indigestible food. Symptoms. — Loss of appetite, panting, swelled stomach and omiting. Treatment. — K it does not naturally pass off by starving for me hours, give bran mashes in small quantities, and for several ys give nothing but washy and easily digestible food. TiLTnors, or hard swellings, which sometimes appear in various rts of the body. Treatment. — Give sulphur, saltpetre and nitre in the food, as iterative medicines ; and if the swellings become large and soft, [pen them with a knife or lancet and press out the contained pus )r matter. Bheumatism. — Common to thorough-bred pigs. Cause. — Same as in the human subject : exposure to damp, or idden changes of food, ill ventilation, &c. Treatment. — Libeml feed and Rochelle salts. Give the salts for or three days, in doses of one ounce a day for a moderate- 29 ^ 450 T'/tg Canadian Farmer's sized pig, aDd more or less according to the weight of the animal ; and then omit for a few days, and if necessary give again. MEDICINES IN COMMON USE FOR HORSES, CATTLE AND SHEEP. ASTRINGENTS. For stopping discharges, as in diarrhoea. It may be borne in mind that, with the exception of acrid sub- stances, as mineral acids, &c., which no ca>' Astringent Mixtures for Diarrhcea, Scouring, ^c. {Old.) 1. Powdered ipecacuanha, one drachm ; powdered opium, half a drachm ; prepared chalk, two ounces ; boiled starch, one pint. 2. Suet, four ounces ; boiled milk, eight ounces ; boiled starch, six ounces ; powdered alum, one drachm. 3. (For horses and cattle :) Glauber salts, two ounces ; Epsom salts, one ounce ; green vitriol, four grains ; gruel, half a pint. 4. (When the scouring approaches the nature of dysentery) : Castor oil, four ounces; Glauber salts (dissolved), two ounces: powdered rhubarb, half a drachm ; powdered opium, four grains ; gruel, one pint. American. — Carbonate of lime or prepared chalk, one to two ounces for horses and cattle ; and two to three drachms in wheaten gruel, with a drachm of ginger, for calves. Or, for horses and cows : Catechu, two to five drachms ; pro- pared chalk, one to two ounces ; powdered opium, ten to thirty grains. Mix in wheat-flour gruel. Or, a toa made from the bark of slippery elm. Or, nut galls, from four to six drachms in a dose. Or, sulphate of iron (not when fever is present), in doses of two or three drachms, with an equal quantity of powdered gentian, twice or thrice a day, in plenty of cold water. Drench, or mix with cut feed. Or, logwood chips, two ounces; boiling water, « >ie pint, cooled and strained through a cloth, and given in doses vt he whole for horses and cattle ; from one to three ounces foi cah r \. Or, mercury with chalk (grey powder) given to aj^es in doses of from ten to fifteen grains, with a little ginger and in wheat- flour gruel. Or, oak bark (boiled), half an ounce to ;-. piat of w^ter, and given in doses of four drachms to calves. Or, starch with a few grains of opium and a little ground gin- ger. Or, tannic acid, from a half to one drn,chm for cattle, and from ten to twenty grains for calves ; and mixed in wheat-flour gruel. Astringent Balls for Diabetes or Saccharine Urine. — Catechu, I half an ounce ; powdered alum, half a drachm ; sugar of lead, ten I grams. Astringent Paste for Thrush, Foot-Rot, &c. — (Old) — Prepared calamine, half an ounce ; verdigris, half an ounce ; white vitriol, half a drachm ; alum, half a drachm ; tar, three ounces. Mix. Astringent Washes for cracks in the heels, wounds, sprains, &c., &c. (Old:) j,^ 1- Sugar of lead, two drachms ; white vitriol, one drachm ; Mix, and give "^strong infusion of oak or elm bark, one pint. Mix. 452 Tke Canadian Farmer's !■■■ if' (American :) 2. Green vitriol, one drachm ; infusion of galls, half a pint. Mix, and wash thrice a day. LOTIONS, LINIMENTS EMBROCATIONS, &C. General — Alcohol or Spirits of Wine, is the foundation of many lotions and liniments. For S'prains. — Acetic Acid. — Add one ounce of camphor to four ounces of the acid. Or, Tincture of Arnica, ono, ounce ; water, two ounces. For Wounds and Sores. — Muriatic Acid, or Spirit of Salt.— Pour a few drops into sores in the feet, nail holes, or poll-evil, &c Burnt Alum, with which to touch indolent sores. Borax, dissolved in sixteen times as much water. Good for ring- worm. Lime Water and Calomel, the Yellow wash, and lime water and corrosive sublimate, the Black wash ; both good for unhealthy sores. Sulphate of Copper. — Ten grains to an ounce of water. Creosote. — Good for all wounds and sores. Elm Bark (Slippery), scalded with hot water, makes a good poultice for wounds, ulcers and sores. Glycerine. — Good for sores, especially scratches. Tincture of Marigold. — Good for all sores ; applied by wetting cloths. Good for burns ar.i scalds. Tincture of Myrrh. — For sores, sore mouth, &c. Neats' Foot Oil. — To be used after blisters. Oak Bark boiled in water, and applied to running sores, greasy heels, &c. Sulphate of Zinc (White Vitriol). — For healing up wounds and sores. As a wash, one part of zinc to about twenty parts of soft water. Tannin, mixed with water, is good for running sores. Chloride of Zinc dissolved in water, also for healing wounds, prevents the formation of proud flesh. For Bruises. — Tincture of Arnica as above. Eye Lotions. — Plain cold water generally the best. Sulphate of Copper, three grains ; rain water, one ounce. Apply with a feather or camel's-hair brush. Acetate of lead (sugar of lead) in solution. Chloride of Zinc, two grains ; ram water, one ounce. For the Feet — Terchloride of Ariimony (Butter of Antimony) — Good for foul claw in cattle, or sores in feet of horses or sheep Laid on by moistened rags. Calomel. — Inserted in the cleft of the frog of a horse inl thrush ; used for foul claw and sore feet in sheep. Manual of Agriculture. 453 B, half a pint. ic. idation of many camphor to four ( ounces. Spirit of Salt.— I, or j-oll-evil, &c r6S. r. Good for ring- Ld li'me water and 3d for unhealthy of water. jr, makes a good es ■pplied by wetting &c. running sores, .aling up wounds it twenty parts ot tng sores. U heaUng wounds, best. . , lone ounce. Apply le ounce. , Itter of Antimony)' lof horses or sbeep rog of a horse ia Tar. — For stopping horses' feet ; also to keep flies off any wound, sore or raw spot ; and to keep out cold in winter. OINTMENia Collodion. — A solution of gun-cotton ; for dressing wounds and cuts, in the place of plaster. Friar's Balsam. — Applied to wounds and sores. Iodine Ointment. — One part of iodine to eight parts of lard, good for soft swellings. Iodide of Mercury. — Same proportions as above. Nitrate of Mercury. — Good for ringworm ; but spoils with long keeping. Oxide of Mercury (Red Precipitate). — Used for unhealthy sores and ulcers. Brewers' Yeast. — Good for unhealthy sores or ulcers. Oxide of Zinc. — Good for scratches, and such shallow sores. Carbonate of Zinc (Calamine). — One part to four parts of lard ; good for healing sores. BLISTERS. (Old :) 1. A general one : Powdered Spanish fly, two ounces ; Venice turpentine, two ounces ; resin, two ounces ; lard, two pounds. Melt the latter together, and when warm stir in the cantharides. 2. A strong, cheap blister, but not to be rised in fever or inflam- mations of bowels, lungs &;c. : Euphorbium powdered, one ounce; oil of vitriol, two scruples ; Spanish fly, six ounces ; resin, one pound; lard, < r,e pound ; oil of turpentine, three ounces. Melt the resin with the lard. Having previously mixed the oil of vitriol with an ounce of water gradually, as gradually add this mixture to the melting mass, which again set on a very slow fire for ten minutes longer ; afterwards remove the whole, and when beginning to cool, add the powders, previously mixed, together. 3. A mercurial blister for splints, spavins, ringbones, &c. Add to four ounces of either of the above blisters, half a drachm of finely powdered corrosive sublimate. 4. A strong liquid blister : Powdered Spanish fly, one ounce ; oil of origanum, two drachms ; oil of turpentine, four ounces ; oli e oil, two ounces. Steep the cantharides in the turpentine for three weeks, strain ofi" and add the o\i 5. A mild liquid or sweating blister : Of the above No, 4, one i ounce, with an addition of one and a-half ounces of olive oil or [goose grease. (American :) Tartarized Antimony (Tartar Emetic). — As an ointment, to be [used about the kidneys where Spanish fly blister must not be used. I 454 The Canadian Farmer's II !i Iodide of Mercury. — For swelling of the neck glands, for tumors, for splints, ringbones, spavins, windgalls, shoulder-joint lameness, thoroughpin, &c., &c., and is a good general ordinary blister. The horse must be prevented from getting at it with his lips. Mustard Seed. — A good blister on the belly and over the loins ; *br lumbago, sprains of the back and bowels, &c., a mustard plas- ter is highly recommended. Savin, or Oil of Juniper. — One part to sixteen parts of lard ; good for keeping up the action of blisters. Spanish Fly, or Ganiharides. — Ground up and mixed with oil or lard, thus : Spanish fly powdered, one drachra ; lard, six drachms. Also used for application to splints or soft tumors of the legs, thus : — Tincture of Spanish fly, one ounce ; croton oil, twenty drops. CLYSTERS OR INJECTIONS. (Old:) 1. Thin gruel, five quarts , Epsom or common salt, six ounces. 2. For Gripes or Colic. — Mash two onions ; pour over them oil of turpentine, two ounces ; pepper, half an ounce ; thin gruel, four quarts. 3. Nutritious Clyster. — Thick gruel, three quarts ; strong sound ale, one quart. 4. Strong broth, two quarts ; thickened milk, two quarts. 6. Astringent Clyster, in Diarrhoea, &c.) — Tripe liquor, or suet, boiled in milk, three pints ; thick starch, two pints ; laudanum, half an ounce. 6. Alum whey, one quart ; boiled starch, two quarts. A simple injection, useful in nearly all cases of colic or costiveness, is com- posed of warm water, soap and sweet oil, beaten up into a lather. CORDIAL BALLS. (Old:) 1. Powdered gentian, four ounces; powdered ginger, two ounces; coriander seeds powdered, four ounces ; powdered carraway seeds, four ounces ; oil of aniseed, a quarter of an ounce ; make in a mass with honey, molasses or lard, into balls of from one ounce to one and a-half ounce weight. STIMULANTS. Aw/monia. — Two drachms to half an ounce in water, as an an- tispasmodic in cases of flatulent colic. Carbonate of Ammonia. — Two drachms, given three times a day in thickish gruel ; good in cases of weakness and general pror tration. Manual of Agriculture. 455 ck glands, for , shoulder-joint neral ordinary with his lips, over the loins ; a mustard plas- i parts of lard ; nixed with oil or \.rd, six drachms, lors of the legs, »ton oil, twenty salt, six ounces, ►ur over them oil ; thin gruel, four rts; strong sound two quarts, pe liquor, or suet, ints; laudanum, marts. A simple fstiveness, is cotn- up into a lather. inger, two ounces; carraway seeds, , make in a mass one ounce to one Chloroform. — Good for chills or in case of colic. From one to two drachms in weak whiskey every two or three hours until colic is relieved. Fenugreek. — In one ounce doses, good for loss of appetite, &c. - Juniper Berries. — Good also in loss of appetite. Magnesia. — Also in loss of appetite in young animals. Give about four drachms with a little ginger, to prevent the magnesia griping. Spirits of Wine (Alcohol). — A good stimulant ; far better to give in colic than bad whiskey. Oil of Turpentine. — Very excellent to relieve spasms in colic. COUGHS AND COLDS. (Old:) Chronic Cough Balls. — 1. Calomel, one scruple ; gum am- moniacum, two drachms ; horse radish, two drachms ; balsam of tolu, one drachm ; squills, one drachm. Beat all together and make into a ball with honey, and give every morning, fasting DHnk for Chronic Cough. — 2. Tar water, half a pint ; lime water, half a pint ; tincture of squills, half an ounce. Powder for Chronic Cough. — 3. Tartar emetic, two drachms ; powdered foxglove, half a drachm ; powdered squills, half a drachm ; calomel, one scruple ; nitre, three drachms. Give every night in a mash. (American :) Elecampane. — Make a tea of this, and give it as a drink. Henbane. — A relief for cough or irritation of the throat or wind- pipe. One or two drachms of the extract of henbane forms a dose. CAUSTICS. (American:) Sulphate of Copper. — To destroy proud flesh — used in crystals or in solution. Caustic Potash. — Very quick reducer of proud flesh. Lunar Caustic (or Nitrate of Silver). — A common caustic for unhealthy sores or ulcers. Also Verdigris, or subacetate of copper —a mild caustic. COLIC REMEDIES OH ANTISPASMODICS. Si"! I I •si water, as an an- ^en three times a and general pro.- Ammonia. — (See under the head of Stimulants.) Calcium, or Quicklime. — For flatulent colic, where there is blout present: For horses and cattle, from one to two drachms. When used in the form of lime-water, give five ounces. Chloroform. — (See Stimulants. ) Qingev should enter every dose for gripes or colic. From one i I 456 The Canadian Farmer's to two ounces for horses and cattle ; for sheep, two drachms ; for calves, one drachm and under. Laudanum given in conjunction with turpentine, and in quan- tities not exceeding one ounce. Pepper given in combination with ammonia from three to five drachms ; and of cayenne pepper, from twenty to thirty graina Spirits of Wine. — (See Stimulants.) Turpentine. — (See Stimulants.) DIURETICS. Medicines which increase the flow of urine, by action upon the kidneys. (Old:). 1. Diuretic Ball. — Resin, one pound ; nitre, half a pound ; horse turpentine, half a pound ; yellow soap, a quarter of a pound. 2. Diuretic Powder. — Resin powdered, four ounces ; nitre pow- dered, eight ounces ; cream of tartar, four ounces. Given in six, eight or ten-drachm doses, nightly, in mash. 3. Drink for action on the urine. — Glauber salts, two ounces 1 nitre, six drachms. Dissolve in a pint of warm water. (American :) Oil of turpentine, from one to two ounces, mixed in an equal amount of any oil. DISINFECTANTS, OR PURIFIERS. For Fumigation. — Manganese, two ounces ; common salt, two ounces ; oil of vitriol, three ounces ; water, one ounce. Put the mixed manganese and salt into a basin ; then, hr.ving before mixed the vitriol and water very gradually, pour them by means of a tongs, or anything that will enable you to stand at some dis- tance, on the articles in thb basin, gradually. As soon as the fumes rise, retire, and shut up all doors and windows tightly. Or, set fire to sulphur and let fumes rise. Quicklime is, in whitewash, or thrown about in a powdered state, an excellent disinfectant. Carbolic Acid. — Add a tablespoonful of the greatest strength I solution to a bucketful of whitewash, and thoroughly wash every [ part of stables or pens. Chlorine Ga^ — Pour hydrochloric acid on an ounce or so of I black oxide of manganese; put a spirit lamp under them, and | shut the fumes in. Chloride of Lime. — Sprinkle alout. FEBRIFUGES, OR MEDICINES FOR FEVER. (Old :) 1. A Powder. — Tartar emetic,„two drachms ; nitre, five drachms. Manual of Agriculture. 467 y action upon the mixed in an equal 2. Antimonial powder, two drachms; cream of tartar, four drachms ; nitre, four drachms. 3. A Drink. — Sweet spirits of nitre, one ounce ; mindererus spirit, six ounces ; tartar emetic, three drachms. 4. Epidemic Fever Drink. — Sweet spirits of nitre, one ounce ; simple oxymel, six ounces ; tartar emetic, three drachms. 6. Malignant Epidemic Fever Drink. — Simple oxymel, four ounces ; mindererus spirit, four ounces ; beer yeast, four ounces j sweet spirits of nitre, one ounce. (American :) Sulphuric Acid. — Forty to sixty drops very largely diluted with water. In mixing, add acid to water, not water to acid. Aconite. — Never carry this medicine, which is a powerful poison, being a sedative, too far. Never give more than eight doses of twenty drops, or six doses of twenty-five drops. Aniseed. — One or two ounces daily, in conjunction with fenu- greek or cardamons. Carda/mons. — One or two ounces. Caraway. — Do. do. Fenugreek. — Given in one-ounce doses. PURGING MEDICINES. (Old :) Balls. — (Very mild :) 1. Powdered aloes, six drachms ; oil of turpentine, one drachm. 2. (Moderate.) — Powdered aloes, three drachms ; oil of turpen- tine, one drachm. 3. (Strong.) — Powdered aloes, ten drachms; oil of turpentine, one drachm — made into a ball. (Liquid.) — Epsom salts (dissolved), eight ounces ; castor oil, four ounces ; watery tincture of aloes, eight ounces. (American :) Aloes. — Six drachms, made with powdered ginger and molasses, two drachms, into a ball. Cantor Oil is decried by American writers, as tending to bring on inflammation. Croton Oil. — A dangerous medicine, but very rapid to open the bowels; only to be used in extreme cases. For the cow (only), ten to fifteen drops, given along with Epsom or Glauber salts. Epsom Salts. — Valuable and safe, especially for cows — one to two pounds, largely diluted with water. For calves, from one to four ounces ; for sheep, from four to six ounces. Glauber Salts, or Sulphate of Soda. — Good for cattle and sheep. Linseed Oil. — The safest oil as a base in which to give purges, and as a lubricator of the throat in cases of choking — from one to two pints at a dose. Salts. — Chloride of Sodium or Common Table Salt is a laxative or gentle purge. '|!| 458 The Canadian Farmer^s POULTICES. f Bran and Goulard ivater. Boiled and mashed turnips, carrots or parsnips. Hemlock. — For cancerous sores. Linseed. — '"he very best poultice. Bops or Yeast from the brewer. N.B. — Never 'and a poultice on tightly, so as to stop the circu- lation of blood. RHEUMATIC APPLICATIONS. If Colchicum {Meadow Saffron). — The seeds and root can be bought as a tincture. Given internally, from one to two drachms for horses and cattle. Tincture of Guaicum. — A resin ; give half an ounce twice a day in cut feed, or as a drench in cold water. SEDATIVES {to allay excitement). Tincture of Aconite Root. — (See Febrifuges.) Belladonna. — Used as a substitute for opium in many cases, as a milder nie'^Iicine. Used in doses of half a drachm, in half an ounce of sweet spirits of nitre, two or three times a day. Chloroform. — (See Colic.) Digitalis. — A dangerous drug, not often now used. Acts too suddenly on the heart. Gum Tragacanth. — A resin. From one to two ounces for horses and cattle ; four drachms for calves or sheep, dissolved in warm water as a drench. N.B. — In the use of sedatives, care should be exercised that they are not carried too far. STYPTICS (or applications to arrest bleeding). Cobwebs. — Gathered in a mass and applied. Perchloride of Iron, applied with a soft brush, or pledget of soft cloth or cotton saturated and bandaged over the wound. Tannin. — The hot Iron and Bandages. N.B. — When an artery or large blood vessel is severed, the sur- geon must be brought. Should an artery on any of the limbs of man or beast be cut, bind tightly round the limb between the wound and the heart; put on a tourniquet, or twisting stick, and draw the bandage so tight that the flow of blood is arrested. Difference between the flow of blood from a cut vein and a cut •artery : Manual of Agriculture. 459 )8. stop the circn- i root can be to two drachms mce twice a day n many cases, as , in half an ounce used. Acts too junces for horses [solved in warm srcised that they ling), 1, or pledget of Iho wound. [evered, the sur- pr beast be cut, [and the heart; [the bandage so vein and a cv^ The blood flows steadily from a cut vein. The blood flows in jets with every pulsation from a cut artery. . SKIN DISEASES — APPLICATIONS. (Old :) For Manfje. — Sulphur vivum, eight ounces ; arsenic in powder, two drachms ; mercurial ointment, two ounces ; turpentine, two ounces ; lard, eight ounces. Mix and dress. Note. — "We think this must be effectual, but a very dangerous and poisonous application. (American :) Benzole. Iodide of Sulphur. — In all applications of sulphur keep the patient from getting cold or wet. Bichloride of Mercury (Corrosive Sublimate) should only be used in ringworm and very bad mange, being a dangerous poison. Peach Leaves, infused like tea in water, are good for itch and or- dinary skin diseases. Petroleum (Crude). — Good to destroy lice. Is apt to bring the hair away ; for which reason should be mixed with other oil, say linseed. Sulphuret of Potash (Liver of Sulphur). — Dissolve an ounce in a pint of water, and after having rubbed the affected parts well with a hard brush to expose the acarus, apply the solution. Sulphur. — The safest article to use, in all shapes ; only as it opens the pores, it leaves the patient subject to take cold, which must be guarded against. TONICS. To increase the general tone of the system. Muriatic Acid (Spirit of Salt). — Forty to sixty drops given, largely diluted, three or four times a day. Nitric Acid (Aquafortis). — Also very largely diluted. Arsenic. — A poison, but a splendid tonic ; two and a-half grains per day are ample ; given well mixed, in a very large bulk of cut feed. Camomile. — A mild tonic. Coriander Seeds. — EspeciaUy good for calves ; two drachms in their milk feed. Iodide of Iron. — One or two drachms in cut feed, twice a day. Sulphate of iron.— Always combined with seme vegetable tonic, as gentian or ginger root ; two or three drachms to the horse and cow, mixed with feed. Strychnine. — Very dangerous poison. For horses, one grain once a day is ample, given in cut feed or in a gruel drench ; the dose may be gradually increased to three grains. Remember, twelve grains will kill a horse. 'Ill !• ■ 'dm ••^ "^'^ IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) 1.0 I.I UilM 12.} £ m 12.0 1.25 1 ..4 , ,.6 rk in the dissemination of seeds [and of agricultural implements and machinery. We have also heard of seven 1 depots of a similar character [which have lately or are about t»» be established; and we would beg our farmers, in their own interest, to extend their patronage lin a free and liberal manner to all such as may be founded in the several parts of the Dominion. 30 466 The Canadian Farmer's PLOUGHS. Of ploughs there are two distinct kinds — those that are mounted on a wheel or wheels and are called wheel ploughs, and awing plouglis. With the ordinary class of ploughmen, and considering that we in Canada, in choosmg our workmen, cannot be very particular as regards their qualifications as ploughmen, we may look upon the wheeled plough as an instrument bv which a comparatively inex- perienced ploughman can make good work ; while the performance of the operation with the swing plough, except in the hands of a man of some experience, will prove a bungling job. On the other hand, the swing plough is capable of doing actually better work than that mounted on wheels, and the friction and draught are undoubtedly proportionately lighter. There is no wheeled plough in the world, not even excepting the " Howard," that can compete in the essential qualifications of neat I furrow slices, control and easy draught, with the Improved Scotch i swing plough in the hands of a good lowlander ; but we have ourselves seen better work done by means of the " Howard " in the hands of a greenhorn, than that by a superior Improved Scotch | held by a man of mediocre ability as a ploughman. On the whole, take ploughmen as they are, and ploughs as they I are generally constructed, it will be found in Canada that the | work is generally neater in those districts where the wheel ploughs are in use ; whilst, on the contrary, in townships where the swing! plough is common, the workmen will be found superior handlers of | the plough. In the construction of a plough there are certain general prin- ciples that must be carefully regarded. These have reference to the laws of formation of the variousl parts as adapted to their special uses. First, the throat or breast, or that part which enters and per- forates the soil. In this portion lie the greatest points of resist-] ance, and the form must, in order to reduce such resistance to s minimum, be of a long, narrow, tapering, sharpened nature, while| friction is greatly reduced by the amount of polish or smoothne of the material employed. The mould board, being that portion which regulates the [ tion of the furrow slice, must be of that hollowed-out and twisteJ form which not only tends to lessen resistance, but gives form anij shape to the turned-up soil. The beam and muzzle require to be of that length, substancj and shape which allows of the moving power being attached the most advantageous line of draught. The stilts or handles are but levers ; and the mechanical princil pies of leverage must be brought into action, in order to place tbl Manual of Agriculture. 467 power under full control of the driver, that he may, by the slight- est exertion of force, alter the direction, and that such force used by the holder may be applied to the instrument without unduly affecting the draught. The land side is of no less im|)ortance than the mould board, for here in many ploughs is to be found a useless friction. This portion is the fulcrum on which the leverage of the stilts is ex- erted, and all that is required is that it should, when necessary, afford a steady purchase on which to bear the handles in shifting the direction of the moving plough. Line of draught must be at right angles, in the case of horse- power, to the slant of the animal's shoulders. When the horse is pulling, the collar, pressing tightly upon the shoulder, is of a slightly circular form. The point of draught is then where the trace is attached by the hames to the collar. The direction of draught, starting from this point and at right angles with the slant of the shoulder (shown by a line drawn from top to bottom of collar), should pass directly through the plough-bridle, and cut a point in the coulter at half the depth of the furrow. Now, ploughs are to be seen any day in the right season in Ca- nada, in which such a line of draught from the collar would pass almost over the beam and to some part of the stilts; such a varia- tion must cause the plough to dip, and thus give a very great ex- tra amount of friction. In other cases the line of draught will be found to strike the earth before the coulter reaches the spot, and such entails a form of share which not only keeps the plough in the ground, but affords extra and useless resistance to the draught, which exerts a constant force to lift the plough out of the soil. The beam serves as a line of connection to which is attached the various parts of the plough — hence it is the basis of the ' ] .'le construction, and its shape is of the utmost importance — and of whatever material it is made, it must be stoutly built. If we take the angle which the horse's shoulder makes with a perpendicular from the horizon, and continue another line at right angles to it, or in the line of draught, the length of the line from the horse's shoulder to where it meets the coulter at half the depth of the furrow will be about twelve feet for ordinary-sized horses. If the plough be properly made, this line of draught will pass through the middle of the lowering and heightening holes of the muzzle ; and the length of the beam, in accordance with these prin- ciples, should be from six feet six inches to seven feet, in order to give it a proper height for the bridle. Land side should be a perfect plane, and run exactly parallel to mechanical princiBthe line of draught. How often are ploughs made with a land side 'n order to place thB turned off two or three inches at the hind end and outwards. I that are mounted owgf/w, and 8wing msidering that we very particular as may look upon the omparatively inex- ile the performance t in the hands of a job. ite of doing actually Qd the friction and er. t even exceptmg the lualifications of neat he Improved Scotch nder ; but we have )f the " Howard " in •ior Improved Scotch hman. and ploughs as they in Canada that the ire the wheel ploughs ips where the swing "superior handlers of [certain general prin- ation of the variou8| Ihich enters and per Itest points of resist such resistance to i Irpened nature, whili Ipolishor smoothm regulates the posi; fwed-out and twist«( but gives form am iat length, substanc jr being attached • 1 1 il- l's 468 The Canadian Farmer's Such a form is worse than useless, for it entails a considerable amount of unnecessary friction. The effect of such a shape is, that the plough is thrown off towards the furrow, and the mould board pressing with undue force upon the slice breaks and crum- bles it, besides giving extra exertion to the horses or cattle. The coulter should be as nearly as possible at an angle of 45" with the surface of the ground — for if it is more oblique, it picks up stubble and grass roots which choke under the beam ; and if less oblique, it will be apt to drive stones and sods and other obstacles before it, causing an increase to the amount of draught. The Mould Board. — This part of the plough must vary in shape according to the nature of the soil and the various kinds of ploughing. For working fallows and light lands, a slightly convex surface is most effectual. For clover leys, sods, pasture fields and clayey land, an almost even plane is better; and for stiff clays, a concave form is necessary in order that the surface may clear itself. A land aide, if too short, renders the plough unsteady, being easily disturbed by any obstacles in the soil ; whilst too long a land plate affords a great friction when the leverage of the handles to turn the plough is put in force. The Handles. — Long handles are necessary to give power over his implement to the ploughman. They should at the end be of such a height that an average-sized man ha.s neither to bend the arm when holding them, nor to stoop in order to lift upon them. The Share varies in form with the different sorts or styles of ploughing generally required ; but it should be of steel, that it may be always bright ; and it is as important to the horse that a share be sharp, as to the mower that his scythe blade be well whetted. Swing Ploughs. — Of these in Canada there is an endless va- riety, and every township or section appears to take to its own special favourite. We shall here merely indicate a few of t newer kinds. gray's champion single furrow plough. This plough is made of wrought iron throughout with the exj caption of mould boards, which are of steel or cast iron. ■I; Manual of ^jricuUure. 469 In the trial of ploughs at Paris, in 1871, under the auspices of the Provincial Agricultural Association of Ontario, it was awarded the first prize. Under the dynamometer, this plough, itself weighinj^ 180 lbs., showed an average draught of 500 1 ds., and it was observed that on ascending a hill this draught was only increased by about 25 lbs. The same maker has also put out what he calls " Qray'a Light Canada Plough" of the same form as the above, I but of lighter make. It is made of wrought iron, with a cast iron head, steel mould board and steel shares. uls a considerable )f such a shape is, )W, and the mould breaks and crum- jes or cattle, at an angle of 45" oblique, it picks up 5 beam ; and if less and other obstacles draught. must vary in shape 3 various kinds of btly convex surface yey land, an almost 1 ,ve form is necessary igh unsteady, being I irhilsttoolongaland re of the handles to |^ THE COMBINED CAST BEAM PLOUGH 3 give power over his F , the end be of such a ■Does not make the work that such ploughs as above described are abend the arm whenHcapable of, but is adapted to every style of ploughing. »n them. | it sorts or styles of I lae of steel, that ill to the horse that al cytbe blade be welll e is an endless va- to take to its omi licate a few of the! ***fr£-c %\ ■1 TANKEE NO. 22 JOINTER (TWO OR THREE HORSE). PLOUGH. I Of the Jointers, for deep ploughing, cross ploughing and break- Dg up old tough sods, we select one manufactured by Mr. Wat- ighout with the exftn^ of Ayr, Ont., adapted for two or three horses, according to cast iron. |he depth required to be turned up and the nature of the soil. 470 The Canadian Farmer's THE ANTI-FRICTION WHEEL PLOUGH. A new plough has lately been introduced by Mr. Rennie, known as the Anti-friction Wheel Plough. He says : "The superiority of a rolling to a sliding motion in the construc- tion of ploughs is easily understood, as securing lightness of draught and ease of management. " The Anti-friction Wheel Plough is fully a third less draught than the ordinary single-furrow plough. "It can be worked in any soil with two horses the same depth as can be done with three horses, besides making more regular work, " This plough is easily adjusted to any required size of furrow or style of ploughing, and when so adjusted is self-acting, following the horses without the guidance of the ploughman. " When the ridges are struck out by a competent ploughman, the work can be carried on by a boy, the stilts or handles being used merely for turning at the ends and for passing obstructions in the soil." THE SWIVEL OR SIDE-HILL PLOUGH. Is built in a series of several sizes, from a light one-horse to heavy or four-horse plough. Manual of Agriculture. 471 r. Rennie, known They are so constructed that the mould board can be instantly changed from one side to the other, enabling the operator to per- form the work horizontally upon side-hills, going oack and forth on the same side, and turning all the furrows downward. Thev are employed by many for level ploughing, as this leaves the field without any centre, dead or finishing furrows ; thereby allowing the mowing machine, horse rake and hay tedder to work to best advantage. hill's patent plough Is one of the very best swing ploughs made in Canada, and we give it as such a place in this chapter. The advantage which it specially possesses is, that it is equally serviceable as a sod plough or as a jointer when the skim coulter is attached. gray's double furrow plough. As economizers of labour, both manual and horse, these ploughs have for several years been widely used in the old countries, and for the last two years a great number have been sold in Canada. Every farmer who has bought one has been well satisfied with his investment. They have become deservedly popular, owing to the saving effected in draught, manual labour, and wear and tear. 472 The Canadian Farmer's This plough is imported from Mr, Gray, Scotland, but we trust before long our Canadian manufacturers will turn out a similar implement. They are wholly carried on iarwe angular rimmed wheels, which not only carry their weight, buC also resist the pressure exerted in lifting and turning the furrow. They have neither side nor sole plates, and hence are free from all friction caused by the rubbing action of the same ; the cutting part of the coulters and shares are so constructed and arranged that they make room for the rest of the plough, and no part of it touches the soil or mould board. By this arrangement the power required to work the plough is re- duced fully a third. The double-fiirrow plough can be drawn on heavy soil with ease by three horses, and on light soil by two. Among the advantages these ploughs possess are the following :— The work can be accomplished by fewer horses. On moderately heavy land the double-furrow plough drawn by three horses, will plough throe acres per day of nine hours, thus securing to the farmer a saving of not less than 30 per cent., or affording him the oppor- tunity of having his ploughing done quicker when a suitable sea- son occurs. With one of these double-furrow ploughs one man can do the work of two, if using the ordinary plough, and with far more ease, as they guide themselves, and only require attention in case of anything unusual in the soil. The shares are made of steel, and are so cheaply constructed, and keep sharp so long, that the whole cost of keeping them up does not exceed the cost of sharpening the old iron share. These ploughs raise and loosen the land more thoroughly ; from their construction they turn a deeper and broader furrow, and press it more closely than the ordinary ploughs. There being no sole plate, the subsoil is not glazed and hardened as by the com- 1 mon plough, the advantage thus gained being great in all cases, but especially in damp soils. It is suitable for all kinds of ploughing, and will also rib up to j 18 inches in width. The two lifting levers afford additional facilities for throwing I the plough over fast stones or other obstructions in the soil, and the adjusting screws on both right and left hand levers make it easily adjustable to any inequalities of the surface. On light land, or for ribbing, it can be worked by two horses,! and on heavy and rocky land three horses can be used with safety] It is easily adjusted to plough any required width of furrow. This plough, when once adjusted, is self-acting, following the! horses without any attention from the ploughman, and works wellj in any kind of land. Manual of Agriculture. 473 id, but we tnist rn out a similar d wheels, which sssure exerted in iher side nor sole . by the rubbing Iters and shares room for the rest or mould board. the plough is re- i heavy soil with •ethe following — 9. On moderately r three horses, will aring to the farmer ng him the oppor- hen a suitable sea- e man can do the with far more ease, ttention in case of leaply constructed, 1 keeping them up [iron share, thoroughly ; from •oader furrow, and There being no led as by the corn- great in all cases, will also rib up to I lities for throwing! Ins in the soil, and \nd levers make it| face. ked by two horses, te used with safety. Cidth of furrow, [ting, following the] Wand works well gray's triple-furrow plough.— (See Appendix.) This extraordinary economizer of labour is similar in construc- tion to the double- furrow plough, having the new governing steerage, and is made so that in heavy work it can be readily changed in a few minutes to a double-furrow plough. At a time when facility for getting through work is of such ur- gent necessity, farmers will readily observe and appreciate the importance of this triple-furrow plough. In ploughing loose land for wheat, and in cross ploughing for root crops, it does the work of three common ploughs in superior style, and saving two men and three horses. It has also been successfully used in making two drills at a time for root crops, by merely withdrawing the centre plough. The lightness of draught is, in the case of this triple-furrow plough, exhibited in a most marked manner, the dynamometrical tests having shown an average draught of one horse power -per fwrrow, at the usual depths ; so that, except in stiff heavy lands, this plough can be worked by three horses. Amongst our other ploughs we have *' Barrowman" " Wilkie,' "Murray" " McSherry" " Britannia" " Morley" " Model" " Gew. of Ayr" (Watson), " Scotch Canadian" "Highland Mary" and very many others, varying in forms and prices. HARROWS. An instrument of nearly as much importance as the plough, and of quite equal value in cultivation. " Any man can make a set of harrows," is an expression not uncommonly heard. It is, however, very far from correct ; for, as a matter of fact, very many who professionally are engaged in their manufacture do not construct them properly. The shape of a harrow and the relative position of its teeth are governed by ar- bitraiy mathematical laws, the slightest variation from which will [result in an imperfect implement. The shape of the harrows commonly in use is either a V or Irhomboidal, and the best angles for the rhomboid are a smaller [angle of 75° and a larger angle of 105°. The object in making a harrow of this shape — i.e., on these an- kles — is to bring the furthest point of the rear as near as possible |to the horses. The rectangular frame can only be brought not to track by illowing one corner to fall far behind the opposite angle, and thus so much of the harrow is at a great distance from the horses, and 'raughtis increased ; for the nearer a horse is to his work, the jier the draught. (For Diagrams see Appendix.) It will thus be seen that there is a rhomboid, having the two 474 The Canadian Farmer's 'i angles at one side respectively 76° and 105°, which will theoreti- cally cause the resistance of the earth to allow of the harrows riding parallel to the double tree, or at right angles to the line of draught ; whilst practically, the more closely the framework and the setting of the teeth approach this shape, the easier and lighter will the draught be upon the horses. In the before mentioned diagrams the one being a set of harrows in the form that we have recommended, and which ride squarely forward ; and the other being square-framed, and consequently having to be drawn as it were "askew" — ^it will be plainly perceived that whilst each harrow covers the same amount of ground, and the distances between the tracks of each tooth are the same, the main portion of the square harrows is very much further from the horses, and consequently that the draught is proportionately greater than that of the first or rhomboid-shaped implement. In order to enable harrows to ride squarely forward, it then becomes necessary to build wooden frames on the above principle. The square body has, however, been adapted in the iron frame, to draw parallel to the double and whiffletrees of the team, as shown in the plate. — (See Appendix.) The Chain Harrow is a form which will be found excessively useful ; being composed altogether of iron links, working loosely into each other, they clear themselves well. They will be found excellent tools for harrowing in grass seeds, following the grain drill to smooth off the surface of a seed bed, and for spreading top dressings of any kind, whether barn-yard manure or other rough deposits ; and above all, they are very light on the horses. The Rotating or Revolving Harrow is an ingenious contriv- ance. They are to be had, we believe, from some American manu- facturers; the best that we have ever seen are two of English make, being Crosskill's haiTow and Ashhy's harrow. By the use of this tool we obtain a rotary as well as forward motion. They have been found excellent devices for cleaning out couch grass and such weeds, and leaving them free of adhering soil when exposed to the hot summer suns. The Brush Harrow is also a good, simple and cheap con vance for dispersing top dressings and covering grass seeds. Small branches (beech are the best) are interwoven in a rough frame, made of scantlings, using three or more cross pieces, into which the brush is twined in such a manner as to leave the lower part rough and bushy. This drawn over pulverized land will cover grass seeds better than any other kind of harrow ; and it has this advantage, that any farmer can go to his woods and make one in a j very short time. Our practical experience iu the use of thi i ready home-made I Manual of Agriculture. 475 h will theoreti- of the barrows }s to the line of framework and isier and lighter a set of harrows ch ride squarely id consequently plainly perceived t of ground, and ire the same, the further from the \ proportionately i implement, forward, it then e above principle, ibe iron frame, to tie team, as shown found excessively s, working loosely ing in grass seeds, 'ace of a seed bed, /hetber barn-yard ihey are very light igenious contriv- American manu- 1 of English make, _ well as forward Es for cleaning out ee of adhering soil [cheap cont "vance ass seeds. Small fin a rough frame, pieces, into which ive the lower part land will cover , , and it has this pindmake one in a 1 ready home-made harrow, especially for covering grass seeds, has been always en- tirely satisfactory. GRUBBER OR CULTIVATOR. These implements, though known under very many names, as scufflers, scarifiers, extirpators, &c., &c., have but one object, and may therefore be considered conjointly under the above caption. The introduction of cultivators as substitutes for the plough is of comparatively recent date. Previous to the nineteenth century they were little known, and by no means generally used. Their adoption has, however, brought about a revolution in the system of cultivation, and in the present day we probably do very much more work with the cultivator in the season than with the plough. The principles to be secured in the construction of these imple- ments are : play to secure an even grubbing of knolls and hol- lows, a thorough uprooting of every particle of soil in their pas- sage, the minimum amount of draught to the horses, and the formation which shall ensure a rooting up of weeds and grasses and sodfj without choking up the machine. To ensure play for hollows and knolls, and to allow of collected sods, weeds, &c., escaping from under the machine after being rooted up, the frame must be hung on the axle, that it may have swing. To ensure easy draught on the horses, the centre of resistance when at work must be known b}'^ the maker, and that point brought as near as possible to and in the natural line of the trace and collar. 1 We have seen such grubbers as take too firm a giip on the soil, and entail extra exertion on the part of the team to keep them out of the land, whilst others again are so badly constructed that an extra hold must be taken of the soil to prevent the horses drawing them to the surface. These are two very important points which have been often overlooked by judges. It is a com- 476 The Canadian Farmer's It i i' paratively easy matter to make an instrument that will clear itself well and grub thoroughly ; the skill of the inventor and mechanic is more severely tested in reducing the draught to a minimum, and in obtaining the proper direction of draught from the centre of re- sistance to the motive power. The old country cultivators are very effective, but are nearly all horse-killers. We choose for illustration the Scotch Grubber and a Canadian two-horse cultivator. The Grubber is a heavy draught implement, but will be found none too strong in land badly infested with couch grass ; while the other cultivator is better for summer fallow stirring and general cultivation. MORGANS TWO-HORSE CULTIVATOR. PATENT FLEXIBLE IRON CULTIVATOR. Manual of Agriculture. 477 nrill clear itself • and mechanic minimum, and tie centre of re- but are nearly and a Canadian it will be found rm& ; while the ring and general OR. GANG PLOUGH. The Gang Plough is the double or treble-furrow plough in min- iature; that is, it ploughs again perfectly to a depth of a few inches in loose soil, already ploughed, two or three furrows at a time. This implement is specially adapted for preparing fall- ploughed land for spring grain, or for covering peas or wheat that are to be sown on such land broadcast. With this, on any but very stiff clay, an ordinary team can turn over from four to six acres a day. It has wooden handles and a short beam, but a tongue may be put in instead of beam and handles; it is with a tongue better under command, especially where the land is rolling. With steel mould boards and chilled shares this implement is easily worked by an ordinary team for the purposes of second ploughing. FIELD ROLLER. 478 The Canadian Farmer's The roller has been a much-neglected implement in Canada. It is indispensable to good cultivation. Dry land will mellow quicker under the roUer than by the action of the harrows. Finely pulverized seed beds will retain their moisture longer after rolling than when left by the harrows. AU grass land ought to be rolled in spring, to level meadows for the future passage of the mowing machine and to press into the ground such roots as have been " heaved " by spring frosts and thaws. Barley and spring grains, a week or so after coming up, fre- quently suffer from hot air obtaimng access through a loose sur- face soil to their roots. The pressure of the roller is for this an effectual remedy. In fact, a farmer may as well discard his har- rows as his roller, and no cultivation can be thoroughly and properly completed without the aid of this implement of tillage. EXPANDING HORSE HOE. In these implements there has been for several years past an ever-increasing improvement. Every section has now scattered through it many styles and! patents, amongst which it would be invidious and indeed impossi-| ble to diistinguish. We give one illustration of the expanding horse hoe, which may I be used for cleaning between rows of roots, earthing up potatoesj or simply stirring the soil. Expanding hoes of this nature are! often supplied with a double mould board better suited to thej earthing up of potatoes and com. MACHINES FOR SOWING, r- Qrain Drills. — In a former chapter the question of the respecJ tive advantages of broadcast and drill sowing has been considered! The points to be secured in the construction of a perfect grain drill are — Manual of Agriculture. 47f) That every seed shall be distributed at the exact depth required, or thtit depth the most favourable to its germination and growth. That the seeds be evenly and regularly deposited, and that none be left on the surface. That the delivery of the seeds be uniform, and that the grain be not cut in passing through the feeding apparatus. (N.B. — These two points can be fully tested on a bam floor.) That the gearing apparatus be so constructed that the delivery may be immediately arrested, and that the delivery be inatantly again started on motion of the driving wheels. IMPROVED GRAIN DRILL. — (See Appendix.) Broadcast Sower of Plaster, Ouano and General Fertilizers. (See Appendix.) Drills for sowing Turnips, Carrots, <&e. There are but few important principles to be regarded in the turnip drill. These are, that the drill shall not flatten down too much the ridge of earth ; that the delivery be uniform and con- stant, and plainly visible to the operator ; that the delivery be in- stantly stopped when required, as at the headland in turning, and as instantly commenced again; and that the covering of the seed be perfect. Amongst the many excellent machines now turned out by our Canadian implement manufacturers, the undermentioned from the shops of Mr. John Watson, of Ayr, Ont., is very perfect in all these qualifications. The concave rollers in front shape the drill, and are moveable upon a rod, so that they readily adjust themselves to various widths ; they carry the sowing tooth along with them in such ad- justment, so that seed is always dropped in the centre of the drill. The two iron rollers that follow cover the seed and press the soil. The sowing apparatus consists of two tin canisters mounted on a shaft, and by regulating holes will deliver seed of various kinds and at different rates. IMPROVED TURNIP AND SEED SOWER. — (See Appendix.) Hand Drills for Root Seeds. — There are also several hand drills, I which, being cheaper, commend themselves to the use of those 1 who work small areas. Amongst them are the Wethersfield Seed Drill, which marks its I own row, drops, covers and lightlj'^ rolls the earth upon the seed. 'I It 480 The Canadian Farmers WETHERSFIELD SEED DRILL. A BROADCAST SOWER OF AMERICAN INVENTION. This ingenious implement, known as Cahoon's Broadcast Sower, the author has himself used and, whilst unwilling to condemn it for practical use, cannot take upon himself to recommend it. It is capable of sowing, in the hands of a stout man, a very large average per day. Our experience with it has been varied. One field we sowed came up with beautiful regularity, while another, sown in a wind, was a failure as far as even distribution was con- cerned. It doubtless requires some experience upon the part of | the sower ; and while some farmers have entirely discarded it, others have been well pleased. It has taken a firmer foothold in the States than in Canada. I ■I CAHOON's BROADCAST SOWBE. J^mual of Agriculture. f MENTION. Broadcast Sower, ing to condemn it jommend it. ; man, a very large )een varied. One ty, while another, ribution was con- upon the part of irely discarded it, firmer foothold in s i 481 GRASS SEED SOWER. WAGGONS. The wooden ade k fh ■• v. '""»• ^"d the «,„„<&,. Vy. Itisonlyadantp^? strongest waggon buf i« 482 The Canadian Farmer's It is capable of carrying as heavy loads as the ordinary farmer requires to market, and, except for constant travel upon the hard high road, is in every way better adapted for general purposes than either of the other forms spoken of Good material, well seasoned, and true w^orkmanship about the wheels and running gear, will ensure very many years' last to such a waggon if fair usage is accorded it by the farmer. Such a waggon, not overloaded or too often " run," kept well painted and protected when not in use, will last from ten to twenty years. The Size of Wheels. — As to the relative size of wheels, the Ame- rican waggon is practically perfect. An authority says : — " If the load be placed in the body of a waggon, on the fore and hind wheels, in the proportion that their diameters bear to one another, nearly all the advantages of having wheels of equal dia- meter (as in a trotting skeleton waggon) will be obtained. " This proportioning of the load cannot at all times be obtained in waggons of the ordinary description, even if wished ; because the body of the waggon must be equally filled with goods, or a great loss of room would occur." As the load is usually distributed, the greater part is, especially in the case of a load of hay, on the hind axle. Should we distribute our load equally, the fore and hind axles would require to be far apart, and hence the point of resistance of I the hind wheel being far removed frcMn the horse, the draught [ would be increased. To overcome this, we increase the diameter of the hind wheel I and thus admit of the heaviest of our load being placed aft of the| centre of the waggon, " The ease with which logs, &c., may be removed on a pair of I wheels of large dimensions has been long a well-established factf In passing over a rough and uneven road, a small wheel sinks into! every little hollow, and the axle, if noticed, will bejfound to de-l scribe a line almost as curved and irregular as the surface of thel road. A large wheel on the same road partakes but slightly of itsi inequalities, and the line described by the axle will be found toj deviate but little from a straight line ; indeed, with a wheel sufI ficiently large, the axle will describe a perfectly straight line. Inl the latter case the friction, and consequently the draught, will little more than if the carriage should run upon a railroad ; thJ larger, therefore, we use the wheels, the nearer we approach thij point of eflfect." In practical use, a certain limit of size has to be applied to Hi wheels of a waggon, on account of the difficulty which, in on! mounted on very high wheels, would result to the process loading. : 1" Manml of Agriculture. of wheels, the Ame- er part is, especially by reducing the friVtion u^''^" *^« resistance tS' th« ^ u of a grind t rub to tW ""f '^*V,^'"§ ^^^^ ^^ciio^x iZ^X^'''''?^^ , High broad wheels do „„, • . '^ "' "* |ke '^&1&P?''1P^«'g^ (as in the city "lorries"^ ., parallel to the plane surface 484 The Canadian Farmer's in a perfectly regular line. If any weight be attached to or sua- pended from the centre, this will also move in a continued straight line without rising or falling, and consequently, when once put in motion, there is nothing to check its progress (neglecting for a moment the slight resistance of the air) and it will require no force to keep up the movement so long as the wheels continue to turn. We have, therefore, in this case only to examine into the force necessary to turn the wheels. The wheels, if left to themselves, would roll on with perfect freedom whatever might be their weight or whatever weight might be attached to them, provided nothing, in the mode of attaching that Weight, impeded their, revolutions; but, in practice, we cannot admit of the load revolving with the wheel, and we have no means of susuending it to the wheel, except by means of an axle fixed to the load, and passing through the centre of the wheel. The axle presses upon the lower surface of the hole ; and consequently, when the wheel revolves, causes a friction proportionate to the load upon the wheels, under the circumstances here supposed ; and it is the action of this friction, the degree in which it affects the draft, and by what means this effect IS increased and diminished that we must consider. I \ ' Let C be the centre of the wheel, of which CD is the radius ; and CA that of the axle passing through the wheel, and which being fixed to the load does not revolve with the wheel. If the force CB be applied to the centre of the wheel tending to advance it in the direction of B, the point D being in contact with the ground, the wheel is compelled to roll over, and the force CB in turning the wheel acts with a leverage equal to CD, but the friction between the axle and the wheel is at the point A, and in preventing the turning of the wheel it acts onlyi at the extremity of the lever GA ; consequently, if CD be ten times as great as CA, the force CB, need only be equal to one- ched to or rus- tinued straight hen once put in leglecting for a will require no eels continue to LO into the force 't to themselves, be their weight rovided nothing, leifi revolutions; volving with the it to the wheel, passing through he lower surface revolves, causes tieels, under the n of this friction, jvhat means this ; consider. ^ is the radius; [heel, and which L wheel. [he wheel tending Ibeing in contact Iver, and the force 1 equal to (7Abiit is at the point leel it acts only lly, if CD be ten Ibe equal to one- Manual of Agriculture. 486 tenth of the amount of the friction ; and, as a general rule, the radius of the axle, and the friction remaining t'xt same, the force necessary to overcome thie resistance ari'^ing from this friction will be inversely cw the radiua o • fhe diameter of the wheel ; or, in other words, the draught will in this case diminish exactly in proportion as the size or diameter of the wheel is increased. The exact amount of friction at the axle depends somewhat upon the nature of the substances in contact. Thus the friction between metals is less than that between woods ; and where the parts are in proper order, greased, &c., the friction becomes practically very much less. It haa been laid down as a general rule, that in the case of an iron axle in contact with an iron box in the hub and well greasod, the friction amounts to about one-eighth, or at the most one-fifth of the pressure or weight. Example. — Suppose it one-sixth; and if the diameter of the wheel is to that of the axle as 18 or 20 to l,the whole resistance mis- ing from friction at the axle will be ^ of i^, which is equal to y^ So that to move one ton would require a force of traction of about 17 lbs. So much for the resistance offered by the axle and hub. In practice, however, this friction is by no means the most consider- able power of resistance to the draught. We have hitherto, for the purpose of considering friction alone, supposed the road perfectly level. It is needless to say that this is only a bare supposition, seldom or never found in practice. But on an uneven road the friction remains about the same. There is yet another impediment to the movement of the wheel —obstacles in the road, or yielding materials. It was found in England by practical experiment that the force required to move a four-wheeled vehicle weighing 1,000 lbs. shewed, after repeated trials, the following results : — Force of traction required Description of Road. to move the vehicle (1,000 Iba.). 1. Turnpike road, hard and dry 30i " 2. Ditto muddy 39 *« 3. Hard compact loam 63 •• i Ordinary by-road 106 •• 5. Road newly gravelled 143 ** 6. Loose sandy road 204 " The wheels were upon wooden axles, and being nearly constant, probably absorbed at least l-80th of the weight, or 12 J lbs. of the force of traction, leaving therefore for resistance caused by road on half a ton on wheels — Turnpike road, hard, dry, about 18 lbs. dirty 26i " newly gravelled f.. 1304 '" Loose sandy road 1914 " 486 The Canadian Farmer's In passing, let us not neglect to take particular notice of the fact that the sandy road offered ten times the resistance of the turnpike road, and from such a fact deduce a lesson of the vast importance to the farming community of good high roads to mar- ket. MOWING AND REAPING MACHINES. Hi II Mowing Machines. — The combination of mowing and reaping machines is fatal to the perfection of either operation, or at any rate to that of cutting grass. The operation of cutting grass and that of reaping grain are very different, and it is impossible to combine the necessary quali- fications for each class of work in any one machine without we have more extra and unnecessary friction and weight than is ab- solutely necessary for either operation. A mower should be specially adapted to the cutting of heavy grass in a wet or dry state. To effect this is required great rapi- dity of motion and light draught. The reaper does not require as rapid a motion of the cutting parts, and therefore the use of the same pinion wheel for reaping and mowing either necessitates ex- tra speed on the part of the horses in the one case, or entails use- less rapidity of revolution, and therefore waste of power, in the other. A mower requires to be light, compact and strong, for it is sub- ject at all times to a very great resistance, cutting in wet grass and close to the ground, entailing also a rapid multiplication of motion between the driving wheels and the pitman shaft. A reaper meets with little resistance from the grain, cuts high offl the ground, and therefore entails in itself but little extra draught, were it not for the softness of the ground. Nowadays, the addi- tion of the heavy platform and the solid self-raking apparatus in- creases the draught immensely, and hence the necessity of reduc- ing as much as possible all useless multiplication of motion. The first invented machines were reapers, and, as is generally thej case with new-fangled notions, they were received with disdain by the farmer, who would cut his grain " as his father did before him;" and yet in the present day there is not a farm of 100 acres in Canada, a new country, on which the occupant feels secure of his harvest without the use of a reaping machine. We pride ourselves upon our ingenuity in the invention of ma chines, yet the principles of the reaper have undergone no radical! changes since the days when, at the commencement of the present century, the Rev. Patrick Bell put his new invention into practici Our skill has been shown rather in modification or simplificatioi To Mr. Smith, of Deanston, who, in response to an offered pn mium by the Dalkeith Farmers' Club, brought out a reaping rm- Me cut tha is a qui obti on \ ■ *f ^ - ^ Manual of Agriculture. 487 cular notice of the a resistance of the I, lesson of the vast high roads to mav- ES. owing and reaping ition, or at any rate I reaping grain are ,he necessary quali- aachine without we weight than is ab- le cutting of heavy required great rapi- ' does not require as efore the use of the ther necessitates ex- case, or entails use- ;te of power, in the strong, for it is sub- utting in wet grass id multiplication of pitman shaft. A grain, cuts high off little extra draught, Nowadays, the addi- •aking apparatus in- 3 necessity of reduc- on of motion, d, as is generally the ceived with disdain lis father did before a farm of 100 acres ipant feels secure ine. le invention of ma idergone no radical nent of the present mtion into practice in or simplification to an offered pre out a reaping nw chine in 1812 ; to Mr. Scott, of Ormiston, who made an attempt in 1815 ; to Mr. Mann, of Raby, in Cumberland, England ; to Mr. Ogle, of Rennington, near Alnwick, England ; but especially to the Rev. Mr. Bell, whose machine, invented in 1828, has been in use ever since, we owe the first introduction of the horse reaper. The principles of this early and very complete machine are the same as those of the present day, though the form has been ma- terially altered. We find the driving wheels attached to the axle, and motion communicated thereby to the reel for knocking down the grain,the cutter bar, knife and triangular sections ; but the horses walked behind the machine, and so propelled it in front of them. An estimate of the probable value of this early machine may be formed from the reports signed by numerous practical farmers, who were spectators to different trials made in 1829 and 1830. In 1829, the machine was tried at Powrie, in Forfarshire, Scotland, before about fifty landed proprietors and practical agriculturists, who signed a declaration declaring that " the machine cut down a breadth of five fe^t at once, was moved by a single horse, and attended by from six to eight persons to bind up the corn ; and that the field was reaped by this force at the rate of an acre per hour." In September, 1830, the machine was again publicly tried at Monckie, in Forfarshire, in the presence of a still greater number of persons, who attested that it cut in half an hour nearly half an acre of a very heavy crop of oats, which were lodged, thrown about by the wind, and exceedingly difficult to harvest. The price of the machine was from £30 to £35. It may be seen that, with the exception of the self-rake and self-binder, the present inventive age has neither improved upon capacity of cutting, nor upon price. Indeed, even our new inventions are not so very original, for in 1822 a machine for reaping and sheaving (laying in sheaves) corn was invented, but, owing to the apathy of the farmers, could not be put into general use. This machine operated satisfactorily, and would cut fourteen acres a day. The essential qualifications of these machines are — Speed of motion, communicated with the least extra exertion on the part of the motive power. We know of only one machine in Canada — viz., that of the Messrs. Noxon, of IngersoU, Ontario — in which the speed of the cutting knife can be changed without increasing or diminishing that of the horses. This is very necessary. In all fields we shall find spots where grain is badly lodged, or green, or where there is a rank growth of grass or even weeds ; in such places we re- quire an extra amount of speed to the knife, and unless we can obtain such by the multiplication of the revolutions of the pinion on the machine itself, we must secure it by urging forward the 488 The Canadian Farmer's Ft. team. Now, the ordinary farm team naturally gets into a certain gait whilst performing such an operation as that of reaping, and it is not always an easy matter to increase the speed of their walk at the proper time and place ; whilst, if we keep them at full speed all the time, we waste much power upon the higher parts of the field, where probably the resistance to the cutter is very much less. In cutting down hill, all steady teams exhibit a tendency, in holding back, to pick their steps very slowly, and I have myself frequently had the motion entirely stopped by this tendency on the part of my team to crawl down hill. Hence the advisability of control over the speed of the cutter, independent of the horses. It is well known that the wear and tear is greater on a machine cutting at extra speed in light grain or grass, than where the re- sistance and the cutting power are about equally balanced. This is well illustrated by the case of a man who should hit out from the shoulder and his blow meet no resistance ; such an effort will hurt or strain the arm more than if he should meet with some soft object at the extremity of his stroke. Hence the importance of a power to change the rapidity of the cutting motion. Changing the Height of Gut. — This is a very important com- mand to be secured. In all fields there will be found lodged spots of grain ; it is very advisable that the cutting bar can be so lowered that it may pick such up. Again, the relative position of the horses to the machine, and the consequent altered direction of draught, will, in a hilly field, cause the machine at one time to plough the ground, and at another, in light grain, especially oats, to bend the crop before it and to pass it over uncut. Obstacles also occur on the surface of the land which would very greatly retard a day's work had the operator to remove each one. The raising of the heel of the reaper and mower has been brought well under control, but a better arrangement to raise the extreme point of the bar, without stopping the team or leaving the seat, has yet to be secured. The best we have seen is upon the " Kirby" as a mower. The same principle was applied to the reaper put out by Mr. Forsyth, of Dundas, in his reaper, on the Buckeye principle, but not prov- ing satisfactory in practice, it has been for the present withdrawn. The correct position for the cutting apparatus has been a sub- ject of hot discussion amongst manufacturers. We incline to side with those who claim the rear as the proper position. The advo- cates of other positions rest their claim chiefly on the advantage that " when" the driver is thrown from his seat he runs less danger. Manual of Agriculture. 489 ;ets into a certain bt of reaping, and )eed of their walk them at full speed igher parts of the ter is very much )it a tendency, in lud I have mysell' this tendency on B the advisability lent of the horses, ater on a machine han where the re- y balanced, vrho should hit out [ice ; such an effort Jd meet with some )he rapidity of the •y important com- of grain ; it is very d that it may pick ) the machine, and ill, in a hilly field, le ground, and at the crop before it land which would tor to remove each mower has been lement to raise the |eam or leaving the las a mower. The It by Mr. Forsyth, [pie, but not prov- Iresent withdrawn, has been a sub- le incline to side ftion. The advo- [on the advantage le runs less danger. This we think a weak argument. They admit the liability of per- sons being thrown off in a forward cutting machine, and we think that there is more chance of being so pitched out in such on the same principle as that which throws the handle of the plough wp and the- person forward on to the stilts, when a stone or root is suddenly struck. For our own part, we would sooner be thrown in front of the knives than on top of them, the latter being to our mind the proba- ble position into which the driver would be thrown in the forward cutting machine, by a very sudden and severe jar. We have worked a machine with the cutting apparatus to the rear, and also one where the bar was forward, and the above is our own practical opinion upon this subject. Again, obstacles may, in the rear position of the bar, be seen before the knife is upon them, and so avoided. It is, however, claimed that there is less side draught where the bar is in front. This is, doubtless, to some extent true, but by a judicious placing of the pole to the opposite side of the machine this side draught is reduced to a minimum. Now, we believe that, as a matter of fact, it requires less power to work a machine with the cutting apparatus to the rear, and that the application of a given amount of draught power exerts a greater force to drive the knives. Where this portion is in front, and resistance is met with, the effect of that resistance as against draught is to force the face of the bar downwards, and, if set very low (an important object in mowing), into the ground, and thus the traction of the wheels is weakened just when most needed, and the whole action reversed from thSt which is sought. Levers. — The machine requires two levers — one to raise the whole bar over obstacles, and another to simply change its angle, and, by depressing the points of the guards, allow them to pick up and press to the knife lodged hay or straw. The driving wheels of most of our machines are too small, and in reaping sink deeply into soft ground. Why manufacturers should heretofore have found it impracticable to make their driv- ing wheels larger, we have been at a loss to conceive. We are aware that the relative proportions of the several gearings require to be changed with any heightening of the axle, but no alteration of principles is involved. The materials used by too many of our makers are very infe- rior. We call upon the mower and reaper to sustain very severe shocks and strains, and none but the best material can give satis- faction to the farmer. Many a manufacturer has lost custom, in spite of the excellence of the principles upon which his machine works, by the use of in- ferior castings and bad steel. The farmer does npt look much to mechanical principles. Give 490 The Canadian Farmer's ME' Wkm him a machine which will stand his work, and he does not care much for any other qualification. The harvest time is short in Canada. Let the report once be fairly credited in a section, that a certain manufacturer's imple- ments are always " breaking," and he may withdraw his agents. Give us castings, not made from old stoves, but from such ma- terial as that of the railroad car wheels ; give us good steel, well- seasoned wood, and firm at that, and we will excuse high painting, aye, and will not look too closely at the quality of the harvest ng. What we desire — and the manufacturer who in this accords with our wishes, will find it to his advantage — is a machine that will stick to its work day in and day out. We do not like the six-acre per dayrcradlers, but steady men who stick to their work day by day ; neither do we care whether a machine does ten or twelve acres a day ; but we want one that will last to do its average every duy. It is not necessary to mention name or locality, but we know of a locality in which one machine, in one year, entirely cut another out, not for any superior qualities in principle or work — indeed, it could not harvest as large an acreage per day, nor did it lay the gavels as well — but it was made of the best of materials, tho- roughly tested before sent out, and the farmers recognized the advantages of a machine that was not in the weekly or daily habit of "breaking a casting." Simplicity we also require. Farmers are not mechanics, and must have a machine the principles and working of which are not difficult to comprehend. There are various machines in the field of competition in Cana- da. The following is a brief resume of the great trial held at Paris, Ont., in 1871, under the auspices of the Provincial Agricul- tural Association. Of twenty mowers that were entered, only eight came ont for competition. The ground was hilly and rolling ; the crop, mixed clover and timothy, was light and over ripe. The competitors were : ''The Cayuga Chief" Brown & Patterson Whitby 0. " Wood'sPatent" Massey Newcastle, " Ohio Buckeye," Noxon Bros Ingersoll " The Humming Bird". ...J. Watson Ayr. " The Clipper," Do Do. " The Sprague,'* .Maxwell & Whitelaw Paris. " Buckeye," Bell & Son St. George. " Wood's Patent," L. D. Sawyer Hamiltoa The first half acre was cut by Mr. Noxon's " Ohio Buckeye " in eighteen minutes, but the others were not far behind in speed. This, however, depends in great part upon the horses and driver. e does not care report once be 'acturer's imple- •aw his agents, t from such ma- good steel, well- ge high painting, f the harvest fig. ihis accords with lachine that will 1, but steady men we care whether ve want one that yr, butwe know of tirely cut another • work — ^indeed, it nor did it lay the of materials, tho- srs recognized the , weekly or daily )t mechanics, and of which are not ipetition in Cana- reat trial held at [>rovincial Agricul- pight came o',4 for ; the crop, mixed Manual of Agriculture. 491 SINGLE MOWER WITH FORWARD CUTTING BAR. (See Appendix.) SINGLE MOWER WITH CUTTING BAR IN REAR. (See Appendix.) THE CAYUGA CHIEF. (See Appendix.) The test of draught which was very carefully performed resulted as follows : — Name of Machine. Width of Cut. Draught. " Cayuga Chief." 4 ft 180 lbs. " Wood's Patent" (M&asey) 4 ft. 2 inches ,^190 " « Do. do." (Sawyer) 3 ft. 10 inches ,^233^ " "Ohio Buckeye" 4 ft 193^" "Humming Bird" 4 ft V 165 " "Clipper" 4 ft 6 inches 175 " "The Spingue" 4ft 145 " "Buckeye" 4 ft 2 inches 20O " The prizes in this class were awarded thus : — 1st, to " The Cayuga Chief ;" 2Dd, to " Buckeye ," 3rd, to « The Clipper." Combined Mowers and Reapers turned out in stronger force, there being 14 in the competition, and the test showed as follows : — AYR CLIPPER (mowing),— (See Appendix.) AYR CLIPPER (reaping), — (See Appendix.) TEST IN MOWING. Whitby, 0. Newcastle. Ingersoll. Ayr. Do. |w Paris. St. George. Hamilton. \Ohio Buckeye" va behind in speed, lorses and driver. „^a Draught. Oswald & Patterson Ohio Buckeye 4 ft. 3 in. ..275 lbs. J. Bingham Ohio Buckeye No. 1 .. 4 " 3 "...260 " J.Bingham Ohio Buckeye No. 2 ... 4 " 3 "...251 " J. H. Grout Ohio 4" 3 "...240 " Noxon Bros Noxon's Standard 4" 6 "...230 " NoxonBros Ohio Buckeye 4" 3 "...220 " J.Watson Ayr Clipper. 4" 8 "...205 " Harris & Son Kirby 4" 3 "..280 " L.D.Sawyer Ball's Ohio 4" 3 "...225 " J.Forsyth Ohio Buckeye 4" 4 '-...225 " J.Forsyth Ball'sOhio 4" 3 "...240 " H. A. Massey Hubbard 4" 6 "..275 " Eastwoods Co Ohio Buckeye No. 1... 4 " 3 "...250 " Eastwood & Co Ohio Buckeye No. 2... 4 " 2 "...250 " Draught per inco of Cut. .5^ lbs. ...4 9-10 " ...4 9-10 " ...4 7-1 0" ..,4i ...44 ...34 ...54 ...4 3-7 ...4i ...4| ...5 1-11 ...4 9-10 ...4 9-10 492 The Canadian Farmer's The following is the result of the test in reaping : width nrft,,_i,t Draught per of Cut. """»"*• inch of Cut. 5 ft. 6 in... 225 lbs. 3 3-7 lbs 5 ft. 6 in. ..241 " 3 7-11 " 5 " 226 "3i .233 .225 •' «' 208 " "6 in.. ..250 " 5 " 233 " 3 9-10 5 "6 in.. .225 " 3 3-7 "6 in... .233 " '• 150 " " .222 '• ..225 " " .236 " 3 9-10 ^ 4 6-10 4 6-10 3i 4 1-6 34 4 H. A. MaBsey Hubbard J. Bingham Ohio Buckeye, Dodge R., J. Bingham Ohio Buckeye No. 2, Dodge B. . J. Forsyth Ohio Buckeye, Johnson Rake . . J.Forsyth Ball's Ohio, Johnson Rake Harris & Son Kirby, Dodge R., sing. dr. whl. L. D. Sawyer Ball's Ohio, Dodge Rake J. Watson Ayr Clipper, Johnson Rake, . . Noxon Bros Ohio Buckeye, Johnson Rake. . Noxon Bros Noxon's Standard, Johnson R . J. H. Grout Ohio, Dodge Rake Eastwood & Co Ohio Buckeye No. 1, Dodge R. Eastwood & Co Ohio Buckeye No. 2, Dodge R. Oswald & Patterson... Ohio Buckeye, Dodge Rake The prizes were awarded thus : — IN MOWING. First prize J. Forsyth Ohio Buckeye. Second prize Noxon Bros Noxon's Standard. Third prize Harris & Son The Kirby. IN REAPING. First prize J. Forsyth Buckeye, (Johnson rake). Second prize Noxon Bros " Standard " (John«on rake). Third prize J. H. Grout Ohio. (Dodge rake). It is observable that the Buckeye gearing and Johnson 'ake, received first favours. r THE JOHNSON SELF-RAKE. — ( See Appendix.) THE KIRBY COMBINED AS A SELF-RAKING REAPER. — " Dodge Rah" (See Appendix.) Thrashing Machines. — The origin of the threshing machine is due to Scotland, where a century ago the first attempt was made to construct one driven by a water-wheel, which put in motion a number of flails of a similar kind with those used in threshing by hand. It soon fell into disuse, and it is now about sixty years since the invention was brought nearly to its present perfection by an ingenious mechanic named Andrew Meikle. Manual of Agriculture, 493 « V* Draught per Draught, inch of Cut. 225 lbs. 3 3-7 lbs .241 " 3 711 " .225 •' 31 233 " 3 9-10 " .225 " 3J 208 " 4 6-10 " 250 " 4 6-10 " ■■.233 " 3 9-10 " 225 " 3 3-7 " ...233" 3i .150 •• 4 1-6 " ...222" 34 225 "34 " ..236 " 4 " Buckeye, n's Standard. &irby. Johnson rake). ' (John«on rake), e rake). Johnson 'ake, 3ndix.) ." Dodge Bake." |hing machine is ipt was made to put in motion a in threshing by )out sixty years lesent perfection There are but two kinds of threshing machines now in general use in Canada ; they are the " Separator" and the "Vibrator!' The several qualifications of the first are : — The frame is solid and well braced, the very best iron or steel being used in the shafting. That it threshes cleanly, quickly and thoroughly — i.e., that the light grains and weed seeds are entirely sifted from amongst the plump grain ; that it will thresh at least 250 bushels of wheat per day, and that no grain goes over in the straw ; and that it responds easily to the revolution of the cylinder. The cylinder is no unimportant portion of a " Separator ; " the best material should be in the teeth and the cylinder itself should in all cases be bound with a centre head. IMPROVED THRESHER AND SEPARATOR. The only difference of any moment between the several ma- chines of this class, is found between those that are run chiefly by belting and such as are geared all through. IMPROVED TEN-HORSE pitt's SEPARATOR. (See Appendix.) We are indebted to Mr. Watson, of Ayr, for the following plate of his "Improved Ten-horse Pitt's Separator," which, as will be seen, is geared all through. — See Appendix. . The Little Oiant Thresher and Separator, which has now been before the Canadian public for four or five years, is a very useful implement. It will thresh over two hundred bushels of wheat, of a good fair crop, in a day, and we have seen it do its work as cleanly as any of the large ten-horse power separators. The straw and chaff are taken from the cylinders by rakers ; the straw is then carried out of the machine by an ingenious contrivance worked by cranks, which serves to give the straw an additional shake, so that no ^ain is carried out. The chaff and wheat are shaken down on 494 The Canadian Farmer's Tl 1 }\ 'f H . it the grooved and slatted shoe, by a rock roller, which also riddles through a comb when the blast from the fan strikes, the same as in other machines. The cylinder measures 2 feet 4 inches longitudinally, with a 13i-inch diameter ordinary open cylinder, with eight bars, teeth in every bar, and two centre heads. The length of the machine over all is, without tongue, 12 feet It is made for a six-horse power, but two teams can drive it without distress. For this machine there is in use a new style of power, to which allusion will be made under the head of Motive Power. The Little Giant is a very handy machine for a farmer's private use. His own teams can run it. It is very compact, does excel- lent work, is very simple to manipulate, and is stowed away in small space. It is a great advantage to have a machine at hand at all times through the winter. When no other work presses we can thresh. Straw is better for feeding purposes when freshly threshed. There need not be a single pound of straw wasted through the winter. Its cost is one hundred dollars — little more than the price of a lumber waggon — ^and if the farmer will allow a sinking fund of the percentage per bushel that he pays to the hired thresher, he will in two or three years save enough to purchase this very use- ful little machine. We have no hesitancy in recommending this machine to any farmer growing on an average over fifty acres of grain a year. Being easily portable, two neighbours could very well buy one togewier and share its work. It is a great favourite already in some sections of the country. THE LITTLE GIANT THRESHER AND SEPARATOR. (See Appendix.) The Agitator. — For this machine the manufacturer claims the following advantages : — That it has facilities for separating and saving grain which it is impossible to apply to other styles of separators ; that while its capacity for threshing is equal to that of any other machine, it is simpler in its construction, more durable, easier managed, and lighter on the horses. The teeth of the cylinder are distributed equally over all the bars, causing it to run steadily, feed regularly, and retain its ba- lance equally. It is 31 inches longitudinally, 16 J inches in diame- ter, and weighs 270 lbs., mounted and balanced on a steel shaft. There is also what is called an improved concave regulator. This consists of two concave ends, with a disc working in each ; a square iron rod passes through these two discs, and is operated by means of a handle at the feeder's hand, retained in place by a -.X iM. which also riddles trikes, the same as »itudinally, with a bh eight bars, teeth ut tongue, 12 feet, an drive it without of power, to which Power. a farmer's private mpact, does excel- s stowed away in I machine at hand sr work presses we OSes when freshly 1 of straw wasted ban the price of a sinking fund of bired thresher, he ase this very use- I machine to any of grain a year. Jry well buy one ourite already in (See Appendix.) iturer claims the grain which it is s ; that while its ler machine, it is )r managed, and ally over all the ttd retain its ba- inches in diame- tt a steel shaft, ncave regulator, working in each; and is operated ed in place by a Manual of Agriculture. ratchet and pawl • thn ■>.«., i, • «V«.8 the concavi toU ° ^^8 *""*^ »?*«««« the di«» .„ sheaves can'set T -f '^ ^^^^^'^ *« the cwTndPr ^^-^""'"^ ^^^'^ TMAGiTAToa (See Appendix.) ihe two sections mnv^ • & j' «-ver The si: llhTrrayJ *" thfZS.''"""'^''^"'' There are but four belts on fhi T^P^ng" to clear the sho^ 496 The Canadian Farmer's '.<'■ 4. seen, is supplied with a tightening pulley, operated by a lever at the feeder's side, by means of which he can tighten it without stopping to unlace. He can likewise stop the whole machine back from the cylinder. It is very much cleaner than the common separator in one way, for it leaves but little litter on the ground beneath and around it. It is likewise claimed that no dust is thrown out from the cylin- der, but is all carried through with the straw to the back end. Having a less number of pulleys, shafts and other working parts, the friction is naturally reduced, and therefore the 'Agitator' requires a less amount of motive power than the older-fashioned separator. " In the older kind (alluding to the ordinary style of separator) there are four shafts, one canvas belt, one picker, one slatted belt, twenty-six pulleys, and four belts required for merely separating the grain, apart from the fan, elevator and shoe ; while in the * Agitator* the separation is much more effectively pert ..rmed by means of the oscillating trough or box and fingers, driveu by one crank, thus dispensing with all those shafts, pulleys, &c." The " Agitator" is also so arranged that the carriers may be attached either above or below the shoe, and either save the chaff or carry it along with the straw. Clover Threshers. — The following is a simple plan, in the absence of a clover huUer, to thresh closer by means of a threshing ma- chine ; — Elevate the concave, or depress the :'^'linder so that there remains ba»ely room for the ends of the c} Under teeth to pass clear of the concave ; then attach a board in front, on the left side | of the cylinder, and half the width of the cylinder. Back of the cylinder, and opposite where the clover enters, a I similar board. The clover passes through the opening in front, strikes the back board, and rebounds back over the cylinder, strik- ing the front board and passing out ; thus each feed is struck or j threshed twice, and thoroughly. When winnowing, if the screen is too coarse, cover it with wrap- ping paper, secured to the sides of the screen with tacks. In thel fan shoe attach an oats and a four or six mesh riddle. The seed| will pass down the heads amongst the tailings, and the loose chaf will fly off. If not satisfactorilj'- threshed, pass the heads through| the threshing machine a second time. Threshing Grasses. — If the straw is long, remove the fenders i if short, on the contrary thresh and winnow as directed foq clover, but the blast of wind will require to be reduced. MOTIVE POWERS. Horse Power. — The subject of motive powers has given rise endless discussions amongst scientists, but to the farmer the rea rated by a lever at tighten it without le whole machine ^'^nual of Agriculture. queationati8suois«,h„.f„_ , "' ^^^ Stances. ^ Qimself, according to h^y ° ansr/ered bv It will, then be of m '^ '''"''^ ^^^«""»- owing to careleZes's f ^t'^ ^^^'^ «^i e'l tt 2??^ f ^^^'^ Horse ^here the pZlS '^' It^' '^^^tmotion^^^^^^ been simply patent has given ,n^-' ^^ ?«°^"iaterial S h. ^'"^^ «"* with In buyinfrCs'^^^^^^^^^^^^ "'^ ^"P^^^^^' ^h- he ^ollowingpointswT^'/il^ Purchaser shouW 1. i, , w ample privisinn V ^^* *^e oastincrs ar7f? """i^ ^^«sely to the best, the Sn ' '?''^"^ •• ^^at the matpt' ? '° '"^^ cogs ^d jou/nals ofthe f esT t^'^ ^"^ «^d «tove Xes'T'.^^^^ ^^ ^^ Wfcn^^^^^^^^^^ '^^^ ^^" ^^ *^ ^-^^^^^^^^ f ^n tuberanee of bolt enr'T^^"^^^^ conWvance tr^^^'^ "°^ "«^ fetal or serious acH^'?^ ^^>^« *ha<^ havTbeen '.n T'^"'^* *^« Pro- See that rboSn'';^. ^^^« ^ct of Arl?ame,f '" *^.^ ^^"^^o^ .. ...vex «a.««, a- metal, and covered wljfJ'^"^ ^^^^ a good th^ok l^''''^^ 1874.) opening in front, | to prevent anvoh *^ ^"'* covers ; that t^l f ^^^^^ «^ I^abbitt .he cylinder, strikJ rollers shouldZ fL«T l.^^^^^'^^ng.' The trln'^""" '' ^^" traced 1 feed is struck or I larger than for^^/^^^ /?« ^^^e? kind of ^7^' "^^ ^^^^^o^ .^ .^^ I they wear C'^' ^^^ '« ^^^^qnence, revd^W^^ over it with wrap-B ' '"'"^^^ng more slowly, ith tacks. In thel „„„ riddle. The seed! ^en-hobse poweb.— rSee Anr. j- . md the loose chaifl A little power h u ^^"^ ^PPendix.) the heads throughi to the farmer. It Sn h? ^^^"^^ constructed whioh • • , move the fendeJSVKor^^^^^^^^^^^^^ .^asjirec^ f^ .S^^^t^t "^^^^^^^^t^! )arator in one way, jath and around it. out from the cylin- the back end. ther working parts, re the "'Agitator" he older-fashioned style of separator) ir, one slatted belt, merely separating loe; while in the vely pert ..rmed by ers, driveu by one lleys, &c." e carriers may be ther save the chaff ilan, in the absence f a threshing raa- inder so that there ider teeth to pass nt, on the left side ler. e clover enters, a i'owEB.--(See Appendix.) . ■The Totman, m ^PPendix.) 3 has given rise Mgenera] us. t„ .J""^VOWer is also anntl,..- <■ I ^^ "^''y '""^^^ from pdo 498 The Canadian Farmer's place at any season of the year. By means of a ishaft and pulley m place of the pitman, this power, which waH originally designed only for application to a drag saw, can be applied to a chaft-cuttor, grain crusher or any light machinery. There is also another pat- tern made on the same principle, to which four horses may he attached. — (See Appendix.) TOTMAN POWER APPLIED TO A STRAW CUTTER. — (See Appendix.) ft - s < ill ' )' , ' • i ^ 1 i IK J V ) TOTMAN DRAG CROSS-CUT SAWING MACHINE. — (See Appendix.) The old Tread Power we hope is now discarded, as fit to be classed only amongst those works which are brought within the scope of the Act for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals. (See Appendix.) Fanning Mills. —The principles of a good fanning mill are, easy change of the shake, thorough control of the draft or blast, and a careful sizing of sieves. The sieves and screen should be made, if possible, to shake in- dependent of one another, and there should be a contrivance to regulate the angle at which the sieves dip. The less gearing the lighter will be the run. There should also be an ample area for screening. We hope the day is not far distant when our threshing ma- chines will be so improved as to dispense with the necessity for a second operation in the hand mill. Corn Shellera. — Of these there are several patents, American and Canadian. The Canadian Chief Corn Sheller, it is claimed, will shell a bushel in two minutes, and can be run by hand or horse power. This machine in competition with American machines obtained the first prize at the Buffalo International Exhibition. Grain Crushers. — In these days when our coarse grains are readily sold for cash, and when economy of feed is the only way in which to make the fatting of stock profitable, every man, who winters cattle, should be possessed of one of these useful imple- ments. The amount paid in toll to the miller will pay on most farms in one season the first cost, and the farmer is assured that his feed is the pure article, which, made under his own eye, cannot be adul- terated without his knowledge. By the one item of bruising oats for horses there is a great sav- ing. Even with young horses a saving of 25 per cent, is effected by feeding them crushed oats, while in the case of old horses, whose powers of mastication are reduced, it becomes necessary that their feed be softened. Manual of Agriculture. 499 ng mill are, easy t or blast, and a ble, to shake in- a contrivance to ir threshing ma- e necessity for a ly on most farms Iredthat his feed kcannotbeadul- U is a great sav- f cent, is effected te of old horses, eomes necessary PATENT WOOD FKAME QBAIN CRUSHER. These implements are made in various forms, some on wooden frames and others upon iron, varying also in capacity of work and crushing power. STRAW-CUTTER — FOR TWO MEN OR HORSE-POWER. The hay and straw cutter is an indispensable article in the list of farmer's stock. We, ourselves, bought one of the improved kind last year, and know that we saved thereby at least five tons of hay, which rul- ing at about $15 per ton in the barn was a gross saving of $75 in the one winter. We gave $40 for the implement and, adding 25 per cent, for wear and tear, we effected a net profit of $25 by our investment. Of late years, fodder has been scarce, and farmers have gener- ally become convinced of the utility of the straw cutter, which prepares coarse food in such a manner that all animals will readily 600 The Canadian Farmer's wrP r 'r^ ! . eat it, thus saving much waste. Nearly all our agricultural im- plement makers are now engaged in their manufacture, and yearly many hundreds are old throughout the Dominion. Some are made for hand power, and others to be run with horse power. The former are fit only for the use of private gentlemen who keep perhaps a single horse and cow, but to any farmer with a reasonable live stock, the straw-cutter will be found as profitable an implement as he can have in his shed. Root Pulpers. — Of root cutters there are a vast number, but the principle of cutting roots is, in practical benefit, far behind that of pulping. It is well known that the best form of feed to fatting cattle, is that in which it has been reduced to a certain stage of fermenta- tion. To effect this, the most rapid and economical process is, to reduce the roots to a pulp and mix with cut fodder. The only root pulper we have at present in Canada is the Ben- thall, an English patent, and they are imported. Whilst on this subject, we pass to the Agricultural Steamer. — An opi- nion on the advan- tages to be derived from steaming food will be found in a preceding chapter on Cattle Feeding. The accompany- ing Figure repre- sents a steamer well adapted for the pur- pose, sold by Mr. Rennie, of Toronto : This is used for cooking food, heat- ing water, &c., by steam,though useful on the farm and elsewhere for many other purposes. It is made in two sections, the lower one being the caul- dron, and the upper one the steam at- tachment, which has AOBICULTUBAL STEAMER AND BOILEB. a pipe that leads Manual of Agriculture. 501 cultural im- , and yearly 1 with horse e gentlemen farmer with as profitable nher, but the ehind that of ting cattle, is of fermenta- process is, to la is the Ben- hilst on this ct, we pass to Agricultural ner. — An opi- on the advan- 1 to be derived steaming food be found in a jding chapter ,ttle Feeding. le accompany- Figure repre- a steamer well ,ed for the pur- sold by Mr. ie, of Toronto : is is used for Ing food, heat- -ater, &c., by ,thougti useful e farm and [here for many purposes. ts made in two Ins, the lower [eing the caul- I and the upper Ihe steam at- lent, which has t)e that leads into a large barrel that stands near it. Both sections are des- igned to be used separately from or conjointly with the stove, or on an arch, as may be preferred. For indoor work this steamer will be found very valuable, as it is perfectly secured from all danger of communicating fire, and, by an improved combined vacuum and pressure safety-valve, from danger of explosion. The furnace is made of wrought and cast-iron. The stove is of heavy boiler iron, and the base, flues, &c., of cast iron. The cauldrons stand from three and a-half to four and a-half feet high, with a diameter somewhat less than the height. Three sizes are made, to steam from twenty to one hundred bushels of cut feed per day, and to hold from one to two and a-half barrels of water. There are also various implements of less common use, but all labour-savers.- The Stump-Puller. — Of these, the most powerful and probably the best for general use is that made upon the screw principle. The screw and the screw-box is the only part of the machine that cannot be made by any farmer SCREW STUMP MACHINE. (See Appendix.) We find the following simple stump machine in the columns of the American Agriculturist : — A SIMPLE STUMP-PULLER. It is worked by a lever, moved preferably by a stout yoko of oxen. The end of the lever is supplied with a strong clevis, suffi- ciently long to pass around so as to be used on either side. The fulcrum of the lever consists of a chain which is to be fastened to the largest stump near (a) ; on each side of this is a clevis, with a .:|ir 502 The Canadian Farmer's mm Pi ■'^".ll 1^;., j iSf-f ' ' ■'i t" 1 ■■}■>' . ^bl V 1 J IHl'^'! ' ^g|'i;'t , ^ ^HHjfliHKh^' ^^^^kV. ByB^^nwiv ^BST^ \ ^Sr-^ <# \w^ ^ -'V M'%\'' •" >' .' 1 , ^ Si- , ^ 4 4* ( ^ E^). ' :^ k; |tr ^ ^ 4 i short chain and hook attached. To work the machine, fix a chain to the stump to be pulled, hook on to one of the short chains of the machine (6), draw up the oxen until that chain is tight ; hook on the other chain (c), turn the team, and draw up as far as they can go ; hook the chain (b), turn and draw again, and so repeat until the stump is drawn out. Then fasten on to ajiiother, and repeat the process until all the stumps are out within reach of the one the machine is anchored to. The machine will then have to be moved to another anchoring place, and so on until the field is cleared. The last stump left must be grubbed out. It will be necessary to remember that the power of this lever is very great, and stump pulling requires stout implements and chains. A breakage may not only cause delay, but a blow from a snapping chain may very easily be fatal ; it is therefore absolutely necessary for safety that the chains be made of the best iron, with the best workmanship, and strong enough to hold against all the resistance they may meet. The lever should be strengthened with iron plates in those parts where the holes are bored for the clevis bolts. Horse Rakes and Tedders. — For horse rakes, there is none equal in perfectness of execution to the American Revolving Hake, now in common use ; but it is a man-killer. The Sulkey steel- toothed rakes are coming into use, and are very generally liked in the older portions of Canada, or where the fields are well cleared of stumps, and are moderately smooth. We have seen an application of the Revolving rake to the Sulkey principle. It is manufactured by Mr. Forsyth, of Dundas. Ac- companying is an illustration. SULKEY REVOLVING HOBSE RAKE.— (See Appendix.) LOCK-LEVER SULKEY HAY RAKE. — (See Appendix.) dick's PATENT POTATO DIGGER. Manual of Agriculture. 503 DBA.ININO TOOLS. Draining Spade. — This is the proper shape for finishing off the bottoms of drains in which tiles are to be laid. ENGLISH DRAINING SPADE. CARTER S IMPROVED DITCHING MACHINE. This ditching machine was first introduced to the public in the summer of 1869. It has been awarded the highest premiums wherever exhibited, both in Canada and the United States. Indeed it has in every instance, when brought into competition with others, prov- ed itself to be far superior to any other machine of the kind yet invented. Its principal parts are an iron wheel four feet in diameter and eight inches wide, with two flanges of five inches projecting from its edges. Between the flanges, on the circumference of the wheel, are cogs five inches long, arranged in rows of two at points twelve inches apart around the wheel. Immediately in the rear, and in close proximity to the bottom of the wheel, is a steel plough-shaped cutter, arranged in such a manner that the earth continues its up- ward progi'ess to the top of the wheel, where the cogs pass through a comb, and the earth is discharged into a polished steel spout, and falls at a convenient distance from the trench. The whole is connected with a car upon which the operator stands, who has the power of regulating the cutter for the purpose of levelling the bottom of the ditch — quite a desideratum. The machine is drawn to and fro in the same track, cutting from two to five inches each time (at the will of the operator) until the ditch is the depth required. The machine is simple in construction, very strong, and not liable to get out of order. It will work satisfactorily in the hardest as well as the toughest and most adhesive clay soils ; will also work admirably in sandy or light soils. Two men and from two to four horses are required to work it, cutting from one hundred to two hundred rods (according to soil) of ditch, three feet deep, eleven inches wide at the top, and eight inches at the bottom, per day. m. 504 The Canadian Farmer's &4 i: ■;* Official authorities certify that it does the work of from twenty- five to thirty men per day, and saves fifty per cent, of the former cost of draining. CARTER S OPEN DITCHER, ROAD GRADER AND SUBSOILER. This machine is quite simple. The main fixture is that of a plough driven and used in the ordinary manner. Attached to this is a large wheel, which lies on its side, and revolves as the plough cuts a furrow, takes the earth from the plough, and, cany- ing it round the flange of the wheel, drops it in the middle of the road, a distance of seven feet from where it originally lay. Thus the machine cuts a ditch on each side of the road to any required depth, and throws the earth into the middle, not in large quantiti'^s, but equally distributed across and along the road. In this ope. ation the two machines, which are usually employed on such work, are combined in one, and th'b work done in the same time as an ordinary plough would take to cut a ditch. It is an excellent machine upon the farm for making open ditches, and may, indeed, be used in some cases for subsoiling. It is supposed to effectually grade from three-quarters to one mile of road per day, and the same amount of open ditch. ■* I M Manual of Agriculture. 505 TABLES, &c. Measures oj Length (Ounter'a Chain) used in land surveying. 792, or nearly 8 inches = 1 link. 25 links, or 198 inches = 1 polo. 4 poles = 1 chain. 10 chains, or 7,920 inches = 1 furlong. 8 furlongs, or 63,360 inches = 1 mile. A chain is equal to 100 links, or 702 inches, or 22 yards, or 66 feet. Measures of Surfaces, or Square Measure. 144 square inches = 1 square foot. 9 square feet = Isquareyard. 40^ square yards , = 1 sq. pole or rod. 40 square poles = 1 rood. 4 roods = 1 acre. Note. — An error is often made which should be guarded against in supposing the terms " square inches" and " inches square" to be synonymous — denoting, in fact, the same thing ; but there is a great difference between them. " Twelve square inches" is only the twelfth part of a square foot, but " twelve inches square" is 144 square inches. Land — Square (or Gunter's Chain) Measure. 62726 square inches = 1 square link, 2295 square links = 1 square foot. 20-661 " " = Isquareyard. 625 " " = 1 square pole. 10,000 " " = 1 square chain. 25 square chains = 1 square rood. 10 " *' = 1 square acre. 640 square acres = 1 square mile. Cubic Measures of Solid Bodies. 1,728 cubic inches = 1 cubic foot. 46,656 " or 27 cubic feet = 1 solid yard. 606 The Canadian Farmer's Note. — While square measure is based upon the square of numbers, which is found by multiplying any number into itself, as 4x4=16, which is the square of 4; cubic measure is based by multiplying any number twice into itself, as 4x4x4=64, which is the cube of 4. Surface has only length and breadth ; a solid body has length, breadth and thickness. Avoirdupois Weight. 27'343 grains = 1 drachm. 16 drachms = 1 ounce. 16 ounces = 1 pound. 28 pounds = 1 quarter. 4 quarters = 1 cwt. 20 hundredweight = 1 ton. 14 lbs, (English measure) = 1 stone. Bread Weight. 4 pounds is the full-sized 41b. loaf. Dry Measure, or Measures of Capacity. 4 gills = 1 pint. 2 pints ^ = 1 quart. 4 quarts = 1 gallon. 2 gallons = 1 peck. 4 pecks 1 bushel. 8 bushels (English) = 1 quarter. ^i.i F^; Measures of Time and Motion. A mean solar day is the mean apparent time of one revolution of the earth on its axis ; and it is divided into 24 hours, an hour into 60 minutes, and a minute into 60 seconds, &c. ; hence the mean daily apparent motion of the sun is 15 degrees per hour, or 1 degree in 4 minutes of time. A sidereal is the real and invaria- ble period of the diurnal rotation, and contains 23 h. 56 m. and 4 1 1-lOth seconds of mean solar time. A tropical year is the period of one revolution of the earth in its orbit, and contains 365 d. 5h. 48 m. 49*19 seconds of mean solar time. The seconds' pendulum I makes 86,400 vibrations in a mean solar day, at the same place on the earth's surface. A lunar day is 24 h. 48 dl The aiderealisj 3 m. 56 sec. less than the solar day. upon the square of mber into itself, as jasure is based by X 4x4=64, which d breadth ; a solid 1 drachm. 1 ounce. 1 pound. 1 quarter. 1 cwt. 1 ton. 1 stone. lb. loaf. >acity. L 1 pint. 1 quart. 1 gallon. 1 peck. 1 bushel. 1 quarter. >f one revolution !• hours, an hour &c. ; hence the rees per hour, or real and invaria- 3 h. 56 m. and 4 ear is the period | tains 365 d. 5h. ;onds' pendulum I e same place on The eiderealis Manual of Agriculture, 607 Commercial Numbera. 12 articles 12 dozen 20 articles 5 score 4 quarters . . 24 sheets paper 25 20 quires 2U " 2 reams 10 reams 5 dozen skins parchment 100 words in law make 1 dozen. 1 gross. 1 score. 1 common hundred. 1 hundred. 1 quire. 1 printer's quire. 1 ream. 1 printer's ream. 1 bundle. 1 bale. 1 roll. 1 folio. Capacity of Cisterns. Supposing the annual rainfall to average about three feet, it will furnish to each square foot of surface 2 2 44 gallons ; so that in calculating the capacity of a cistern to hold the water shed from any sized roof, find the number of square feet of surface that the royf covers, and multiply by 22 44 ; the result will be the number of gallon.s ^hat will, on an average, be supplied in a year. Example. — The roofing covers a building of the size of 30 x 40 feet, or 1,200 square feet ; multiply this area by 2244, and you have 26,928 gallons. As you are constantly drawing this water, cistern room to hold one-half, or 13,464 gallons, will be ample. Now to find the requisite sized cistern. If circular, take the diameter in feet, square that, and mul- tiply by 785398 ; that gives the area in feet : multiply this by 1,728 and divide by 231, and you will have the number of gallons capacity of one foot in depth of the cistern ; from this calculate the depth. If square or rectangular, multiply length by breadth, and proceed to multiply result by 1,728 and to divide by 231, as before. In this way we find that each foot of depth of a CIRCULAR CISTERN, 6 ft. in diameter, holds 4-CObbls. C-71 " 9-13 " 11-93 " 1510 " 18-66 " 5 ft. bv 5 ft 6 " 6 7 " 7 8 " 8 9 " 9 10 " 19 SQUARE holds.... CISTERN, 5-92 bbls. 6 " " 8-64 " 7 " «' 11 '63 " 8 «' «< 15-19 " 9 " »« 19-39 " 10 •« «« 23-74 " ■m$ 508 The Canadian Farmer's Capacity of Bins, etc., etc. The capacity of the bushel of grain is 2,160 inches. To Measure the Number of Bushels of Grain in a JSm.— Multi- ply height, breadth and length in inches, and divide by 2,150. Example. — Given a bin 10 feet long, 4 feet wide ; how much grain will there be if filled to a depth of 3 feet ? 120 in.x48 inches X 36 inches = 207,360 inchea 207,360-5-2,150 = 961 bushels. To Measure Corn in the Ear. — Multiply the length, width and height of bin in feet together, and the result by 4 ; cut off the last right hand figure {i.e., divide by 10), and those left express the] number of bushels of unshelled corn. Exam'ple.—GiwQn a bin 20 feet long, 8 feet wide ; how many i bushels of unshelled com will fill it to a depth of 6 feet ? 20 ft. X 8 feet -f- 6 feet = 960 ft. • 960 ft. X 4 -H 10 = 384 bushels. To Measure for Roots. — Allow one cubic 'foot and two-thirds I (1§) for each bushel, or 16§ feet (in decimals about 1666) fori every 10 bushels. An easy mode of reckoning will be to use thel rule above for measuring corn in the ear. To the quotient thusi obtained f-dd one-half the amount, and you will have about the| number of bushels of turnips to be allowed for these dimensions. Example. — Find the capacity for roots of a bin 10 ft. x 20 ft,| X8 feet. 10x20x8=1,600 ft. Multiply by 4, or 6,400 feetj leaving 640 bushels as the capacity for unshelled corn. Add halfj to this: 640 -H 320=960, the number of bushels of turnips required! The relative bulk of corn in ear, roots and grain may be calcuT lated in reference to the first, as half as much again as the second] and twice as much as the last. In other words, a space that woutf hold twenty bushels of corn in the cob would contain thirty| bushels of roots, and forty bushels of other grain. Manual of Agriculture. 509 DISTANCES OF DRAINS. iches. 71 a Bin.— Multi- vide by 2,150. wide ; how much inches. length, width and 4; cut off the last e left express the wide ; how many | of 6 feet % lot and two-thirds Is about 16-66) for I will be to use thel \ the quotient thusl vill have about the| these dimensions, bin 10 ft. X 20 ft] 4, or 6,400 feet,l id corn. Add halfl ji turnips required,! ■rain may be calcu-l gain as the second, a space that wouldl lild contain thirt)] in. 6 feet, in, 7 6 16 6 18 21 24 30 33 36 5 11 12 14 1» 20 22 24 Gkneral Character of the Soil. Tenacious and uniform clay. Distance from Drain to Drain, in common use. Same aa above, fine and silthing clays, with beds of fine sand in- terspersed. Clays containing coarse sand and grit. Calcareous soils and clays, lighter than the above, with frequent intermixtures of sand and gra- vel. Clays similar to the above, with rotten sandstone rock, and more frequent intermixtures of gravel, &c. The lighter description of clays and clay gravels. Stony, gravelly, and sandjr soils, and the lighter description of lands, usually springy soils. 7 ft. 6 in., 15 ft., 21 ft, or every furrow, every other furrow, every third furrow, &c, Drains 1 rod apart. Drains 16^ feet or 1 rod apart. Drains 21 feet apart. Drains 24 feet apart Drains .'iO feet apart. Drains 33 feet or 2 rods apart. Drains 41ft. or 2i rods apart. Table of the Diameters of Pipes through which a required quan- tity of water may be discharged in a given time. ■Im. Cubic feet per minute. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 18 20 Diameter in inches. 1 li 1 2, 2 2 2 2i 3 3i 3. 3 3i 3: 3 4 4i Cubic feet per minute. Diameter in inches. 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 4} 5| of 6 7 7 8 s 9 9i 10 lOi 11 Hi Cubic feet per minute. 160 170 180 190 200 225 250 275 300 350 400 440 529 625 729 841 900 1000 Diameter in inches. 510 The Canadian Farmer's AVERAGE COMPOSITION OF LINSEED CAKE. 4 Moisture Oil Albuminous compounds* MucDnge and other carbonaceous principles Phosphate of lime, magnesia and other mineral constituents of foodf Woody fibre Insoluble earthy matters 'Containing nitrogen f " phosphoric acid " potash per cent, 12-70 11-32 28-21 29-42 4-84 12-46 1-06 per ton, 284 5 lb 253-5 " 6319 " 659 0" 1084 " 279-2" 23 5" 2240-0 per ton. 100-8 lb 28-7" 30-1" COMPOSITION OF RAPE CAKE (SIBSON). Moisture Oil Albuminous compounds* Non-nitrogenous matters Phosphate of lime, magnesia, potas Vi and other mineral constituents of food Woodv fibre Inaoluble earthy matterst *Containing nitrogen f ** phosphoric acid " potash 100 00 per cent. 6-66 117 1-64 per tot. 252-7 lb 250-0" 684-1" 637-3" 25-4" 257-8" 31-8" 22400 per ton. 137-8'- 26-2" 34-5" COMPOSITION OF WHEAT, BARLEY, AND OATS. MTHBAT. BARLEY. OATS. Moisture percent. lJ-26 11-54 68-47 2-61 1-75 per ton. lbs. 341-4 258-5 1533-7 67-2 39-2 per cent. 14-65 10-84 68-31 3-46 2-75 per ton. lbs. 328-2 242-8 1530-1 77-3 61-6 per cent. 15 09 11-85 63 34 7-02 2-70 per ton. lbs. 338-0 Albuminous compounds* Starch, sugar and other car- 1 bonaceous matters j Woodv fibre 265-4 1418-8 157-3 Miner&l matters*!* 605 10000 2240-0 100-00 2240-0 100-00 2240-0 *Containin& nitrosren 1-86 0-80 0-52 41-6 17-9 11-6 1-73 0-97 0-42 38-7 22-4 9-4 1-89 0-67 0-40 42-6 •I" '• phosphoric acid.. " potash 15-0 8-9 One ton 37^ bus 60 lbs. equal to hels, at One ton 4H bush lb£ equal to els, at 54 One ton 56 buah( lbs. equal to 3l8, at 40 CAKB. Manual of Agriculture. COMPOSITION OF PEA AND BEAN STRAW. 611 food+ per cent 12-70 11-32 28-21 29-42 4-84 12-46 1-05 per ton, 284 -5 lb 2o3'5" 631 '9" 659 0" 1084" 2792" 23-5" 22400 bson). per cent. 11-28 11-20 30-54 28-45 6-60 11-51 1-42 per tot. 252-7 lb 250-9" 684-1" 637-3" ituents 25-4" 257-8" 31-8" 100-00 per cent. 5-66 117 1-54 2240-0 per ton. 137-8" 26-2" 34-5" \.ND OATS. 5Y. aer ton. 328-2 242-8 15301 77-3 61-6 OATS. per cent. 15 09 11-85 63 34 7-02 2-70 2240-0 38-7 22-4 9-4 ;qual to] at 54 10000 per ton. lbs. 338-0 265-4 1418-8 157-3 605 2240-0 1-89 42-6 0-67 150 0-40 8-9 One ton equal to 56 buBhela, at 40 lbs. Water Fatty matters Albuminous compounds* Gum and other carbonaceous principles Wtiody fibre Mineral mattersf < PIA BTRAW. per cent. 16-02 2 34 8-86 2606 42-79 4-93 •Containing nitrogen f " phosphoric acid . " potasn lOO-OO per ton. lbs. 358-8 52 4 198-5 561-3 958-5 110-5 BEAN STRAW. 22400 1-41 0-41 0-50 31-6 9-2 13-4 per cent. 19-40 102 3-36 6-93 65.58 3-71 per ton. lbs. 4.34-6 22-8 75-3 155-2 1469-0 8;V2 100-00 2240-0 •54 -27 -78 12-1 6 17-6 COMPOSITION OF MEADOW OBASS. Per Cent. Water 76-52 Fatty matten. chlorophyl, &c 1-40 Albuminous compounds* 225 Sagar, gum, cellular tissue, &o 1268 Woody fibre 4-97 Mineral matterst 2-18 100-00 *Containuig nitrogen '36 t " phosphoric acid "12 " potash -56 COMPOSITION OF GBEBN RYE. Per Cent. Water '. 75-42 Fatty matters 0-89 Albuminous compounds 270 Cellular tissue, &c 9-13 Woody fibre 10-48 Mineral matters 1-35 100-00 COMPOSITION OP VETCHES. Per Cent. Water 8130 Albuminous compounds 3-60 Carbonaceous principles 8-80 Woody fibre 446 I Mineral matters 1-84 100-00 Per Ton 1714 lbs 31 " 604" 284A" 111 " 49 " 2240 8 « 2i«« 124 " 22400 3*6 " 1-34" 62 " 512 The Canadian Farmer's COMPOSITION OF WHITE TURNIPS (SIBSON). Per Cent. Per Ton. Water .. .. 90 43 2025«lbc. Albuminous comnounda* 104 23-3" Peotin, sugar ana other oarbonaoeout prinoiplei S'45 1221 •< Woody Hbre 2-44 64-9 " Mineral mattent -63 14-1 •' 100 00 'Containing nitrogen '16 t " phoaphorio acid •06 " potash '88 COMPOSITION OF SWEDES. Per Cent> Water 89-4« Albuminous compounds* 1*34 Pectin, sugar and other carbonaceous principles 5 '93 Woody fibre.: 264 Mineral matterst '62 100-00 * Containing nitrogen '21 t " phoaphorio acid '06 • potash '22 COMPOSITION OP POTATOES. Water 750 Albuminous compounds* 2*3 Starch, Ac 187 Woody fibre 30 Mineral matterst I'O 100^ * Containing nitrogen , '37 t *' phosphoric acid '14 " potash -48 COMPOSITION OF PARSNIPS AND CARROTS. Parsuips. Carrots. Water 8205 87-33 Albuminous compounds 1-28 '66 Sugar, pectin, starch and cellular fibre 15*74 11*27 Miuenu matters -93 -74 10000 100-00 Per Ton. 2003 9 lbs. 30 9 132-8 69 -4 13 9 2240 47 134 49 1680-0 61-5 418-9 67-2 22-4 22400 8-28 3-13 10-75 iibson). Per Cent. Per Ton. 90 43 2025 (Ub^ 104 23 3 " 546 122 I • . 2*44 540 •' •63 141 " 100 00 2240-0 •t6 3'6 " •06 1-34" •28 6-2 " Manual of Agriculture. COMPOHITION OF ASH OF GIIASH (sIHSON). Per Cent Pottwh 2540 Lime .*. IS'il MftK""*'* 030 So:la 0-24 Oxide of iron 018 Phosphoric acid 5'45 Sulphuric acid 7 ()8 Silicic acid 24 30 Chhirinc 4 70 Carbouio acid and loss 0-08 100 DO 513 COMPOSITION OF RICH AND POOR MILK. Per Cent. Per Ton. . 8940 2003-9 Iba . 1-34 30 9 . 6 -93 132-8 .. 2-64 69-4 62 13 9 lOOKN) 2240 •21 4-7 .. 06 134 •22 49 1. Water 85-20 Butter and fatty matters .. 4-00 Casein or cheesy matters 3 08 Sugar of mi lit 503 Mineral matters 1*13 100-00 2. 89 00 2-47 2-09 6 08 -76 100 00 Table showing the estimated value of the manure obtained from the consumption of one ton of different articles of food, each supposed to be of good quality of its kind. 760 23 18-7 30 10 100-0 37 •14 •48 IROTS. Parsnips. ,. 82 05 1-28 .. 15-74 •93 10000 16800 61-5 418-9 67-2 22-4 2240-0 8-28 313 10-75 Description of Food. 1. Decorticated cotton-seed cake 2. Rape cake 3. Linseed cake 4. Linseed 5. Tares or vetches . . .. 6. Peas 7. Oats 8. Wheat 9. Indian corn 10. Malt 11. Barley 12. Clover hay 13. Meadow hay 14. Oat straw 15. Wheat straw 16. Barley straw 17. Potatoes 18. Mangolds 19 Swedish txirnips , 20- Common turnips 21' Carrots Estimated money value of the manure from one ton of each food. $31 50 2300 22-00 17-25 17-35 1600 8-36 8-n 861 861 7-11 1091 7-29 3-37 312 255 175 120 1-05 1.00 100 100-00 33 514 The Canadian Farmer^s FEEDING. Wheat prrain Barley grain Beans Cotton-seed cake. Linseed Indian com Oata grain Rape cake Bran Bean meal Linseed cake Hay (meadow) . . . Hay (clover) Pea straw Oat straw Wheat straw Potatoes Grass Barley straw.. .. Green rye Kohl-rahbi Clover (green) . . , Mangolds Parsnips Carrots Cabbage Green rape . . . , Swedes White turnips . . . .5 ^ c s 73 a 82-1 81-9 81-9 81-9 81-3 80-0 70-9 77-8 76-6 75-2 73-9 65-7 66-3 41-2 23-8 22-6 22-0 18-5 18-2 14-1 12-7 12-6 11-0 9-9 9-2 94 9-4 7-9 7-1 ill O ^ t»i « 3_ en C c4 n) a> 4) •^ ^ **^ C w 1-0 10 1-0 1-0 10 1-0 10 10 11 1-1 11 1-2 1-4 9.0 3-4 3-6 37 4-4 4-6 6-8 6-4 6-5 7-4 8-2 8-9 8-6 8-7 10-4 11-6 ili 8s 2 11 -64 10-84 7-72 41-25 24 44 11-27 11-84 80-54 13-88 23-30 28-21 8-08 14-34 8-86 2-76 2-93 2-30 2-26 4-43 2-70 2-35 8-19 1-54 1-28 0-()6 150 3-13 1-34 1-04 •A? as 68-74 68-31 72 44 54-90 112-80 67-60 6S-30 66-.;0 65-50 48-60 65-76 49-87 34.50 27-40 15-06 15-40 18-70 14 03 9-67 10-02 8-23 7 69 8-54 7-71 7 80 7-09 4-64 6 93 6-46 •is "at a rt g 12 & §■3 6-0 C-3 9-4 :-3 4 5 GO 5-3 V8 5-3 2-1 19 C-0 2-4 3-1 B-7 5-2 8-1 6-2 2-2 ;j6 3-5 24 6-5 (10 tons to 4 7 to 1-5 to 4-4 to 5i The fresh ashes of wheat contain in 100 parts: — Phosphate of potash 36-51 " of soda 32 13 " of lime 3-.S5 •' of magnesia 19 61 Perphosphate of iron 3 04 Silica -15 Coal and sand 4'99 — FreseniuS. The ashes of rye contain in 100 parts : — Phosphate of potash 52-91 " of soda 9-29 " oflime ■ 5-21 " of magnesia 26-91 Perphosphate of iron 1-88 Sulphate of potash and common salt 2 93 Silicate of potash -34 Sand -50 — FKESEhflUS Manual of Agriculture. 515 Tlie ashes of peas contain in 100 paHs : — S3 5 9 88 = 3. •£•2 |i -. ta u §S.g •^2£ 4 14 f2 25 14 27 S4 54 88 ■30 •21 •08 •34 1-86 !-76 2^03 2-30 2-25 4-43 2-70 2-35 8-19 1-54 ■28 O^tiO 1-50 3-13 134 1-04 68'74 6831 72 44 54^90 112-30 67-50 63-30 B6-.'0 55-50 48 50 65-75 49-8T 34 50 27-40 15-U6 15-40 18-70 1403 9-67 10-02 8-23 7-69 8-54 771 7 80 7^09 4 •64 6 93 5-45 |3 O o 6^0 C^3 9-4 1-3 45 G-0 5-3 1-8 5-3 2-1 1-9 6-0 2'4 3-1 5-7 52 8-1 6-2 2-2 1 to 1 to 1 to 1 to 1 to 1 to 1 to 1 to 1 to 1 to 1 to 1 to 1 to 1 to 1 to 1 to 1 to 1 to 1 to 1 to 1 to 1 to 1 to 1 to 1 to a 8 1 to 4-7 1 to 1-5 1 to i-i I to 5i 36 3-5 2-4 5-6 (VO Phosphate of potash 52-78 * ♦' of soda 507 " of lime 10-77 •* of magnesia 1378 •' of iron 2-40 Sulphate of potash (l9 Common salt ' 396 -Will. The ashes of barley contain in 100 parts : — Potash .• 18-00 Phosphate of lime 9'20 Chloride of potassium 25 Sulphate of potash 1-5 Earthy phosphates < 32-5 Silica 355 Metallic oxides -25 Loss , 2-80 — Saussurb. The ashes of oats, 100 parts : — Potash 600 Soda ... 500 Lime 3-00 Magnesia ... 2 50 Alumina "50 Sihca 70 50 Sulphuric acid 1-50 Phosphoric acid 3 00 Chlorine -60 — Johnston. Ihc ashes of wheat straw, 100 parts : — 36-51 32 13 335 19 61 3 04 •15 4-99 —Fresenixis. Potash 12'5 Phosphate of lime 50 Chloride of potassium 3-0 Sulphate of potash 20 Earthy phosphates 6*2 Earthy c.ubonates .- 10 Silica 61-5 Metallic oxides 10 Loss 7-8 — Saussdee. The ashes of barley straw. 100 parts ;— 52-91 9-29 5-21 26 91 1-88 2 93 •34 •50 — FkeseniuS Potash 16-0 Chloride of potassium •S Sulphate of Koda 3^5 Earthy phosphates .. 7'75 Earthy carbonates 125 Silica 355 Metallic oxides '5 Loss 2-25 — Saussure. 616 The Canadian Farmer's The ashes of'pea straw, 100 yarts : — Carbonate of potash 4'16 Carboniite of soda 8'27 Sulphate of potash 10-75 Common salt 4*63 Carbonate of lime 4781 Magnesia 405 Phosphate of lime , a 5"16 Phosphate of magnesia 4*37 Phosphate of iron and alum 2*10 Silica 7-81 The ashes of good meadow hay, 100 farts : — Silica ; 60-1 Phosphate of lime .• 16*1 Phosphate of iron 5.0 Lime 27 Magnesia 8'6 Gypsum r2 Sulphate of potash 2*2 Chloride of potassium 1"3 Carbonate of soda 2'0 Loss '8 The ashes of clover, 100 parts ;— Silica 5438 Sulphate of potash 3080 Chloride of sodium '. 1-670 Carbonate of potash 12728 Carbonate of soda 13528 Carbonate of lime 38216 Magnesia 4'160 Phosphate of iron 1'240 Phosphate of lime 11'970 Phosphate of magnesia 6790 Carbonaceous matter 0'160 The ashes of the bran of wheat, 100 parts :-^ Potash 14-0 Phosphate of lime 70 Chloride of potassium '\Q Earthy phosphates 46*5 Silica '5 Metallic oxides '25 Lobs 859 — LiBBIO. San Flin Gra Flin Blac Gra\ AU8SUEE. Sand Grav Wet Dris] m Manual of Agriculture. 517 416 8-27 10-75 4-63 47-81 4-05 515 4-37 210 7 81 601 161 5.0 2-7 8-6 1-2 2-2 1-3 2-0 •8 Analyses of several kinds of farm produce, 100 parts of each, extremely dry : — Carbon. Hydrogen. Oxygen. Nitrogen. Ashes, 461 5-8 43-4 2-3 2-4 46-2 5-6 42-2 1-7 2 3 60-7 6-4 36-7 2 2 4 48-4 5-3 38-9 0-4 7 49-9 6-6 40-6 3 36 501 5-4 39 0-4 51 44 5-8 44-7 1-5 40 42-8 5-8 43-4 17 6 3 42-9 5-5 42-3 1-7 7-6 40-5 6-2 40-0 4-2 31 45-8 5 35 6 23 113 47-4 50 37-8 21 7-7 Wheat Eye Oat3 Wheat straw Rye straw Oat straw Potatoes Beet Turnips Peas Pea straw Red cloVer stalk Analyses of dry beef and ox blood, by which their constituents appear to be the same : — Beef. Ox Blood. CarTon 5183 6195 Hydrc -. 757 7-17 Nitrogfc . 15-01 15-07 Oxygen 2137 2139 Ashea 423 4 42 — pLAYFAia. Vii!;il 6-438 3-080 1-670 12-728 13528 38-216 4-160 1240 11-970 6-790 0-160 — LiBBIO. 140 7 •16 46-5 •5 •25 8-59 — AUflSTJEE. TABLE OF SOILS AND THE TREES SUITABLE TO THEM. Heavy and gravelly loams Sandy loams Flinty strong loams Gravelly and sandy loams Flinty, dry, poor, grav- elly loams Black loam Gravelly loam Heavy loam. Ditto Ditto Gravelly loam , } Ditto Dry sandy gravel Heavy and poor loam., ' I Sandy gravel j Sand and gravel Gravelly loam i Gravelly, stony loam . Wet spongy laud Moist, boggy earth. . . . Drier than above Ditto, more dry Oak, ash, chesnut, willow, lime, walnut. Elm, beech, pine, spruce. Willow, chesnut. Ash, beech, oak, hazel, chesnut. Beech, oak, larch, etc. Birch, elm, ash. Oak, ash, hazel, and beech. Pine, larch, chesnut. Oak, chesnut. Alder, willow, osier, etc. Poplar, wiUow, black ash. 1 1 518 The Canadian Farmer's % : Table showing the number of plants which may be planted onav acre = 160 rods = 4,840 square yards = 43,500 square feet. Feet Apart. No. of Plants. 1 43,5G0 U 19,360 2 10,890 24 6,909 3 4,840 34 3,556 4 2,722 44 2,151 5 1,742 6 1,210 7 889 8 680 9 537 Feet Apart. No. of Plants, 10 435 11 360 12 .302 13 2.-)7 14 222 15 193 16 170 17 150 18 134 19 120 20 108 25 , 69 30 48 Holu to make a hotbed. — " Sow in heat — Sow in a hotbed," are directions so connnonly to be found in the notices of half hardy annuals, that we feel we shall be materially aiding those who are their own gardeners if we give a few simple directions on the subject of a hotbed, composed of stable manure, the most fre- quent and useful form in which it is to be found. The preparation of the dung is a matter of great importance, and if the bed be expected to retain its usefulness for any length of time, it should be well worked previous to being used. If ob- tained fresh from the stable-yard,and found to be too dry, it should be well watered and thrown lightly together to ferment; this will take place in the course of a few days, and three or four days afterwards it should be completely turned, well shaken and mixed, keeping the more littery portion to the interior of the heap ; a second turning and watering may be necessary, although one will be generally found to be sufficient ; when thus cleaned of its rankness the bed may be made. The situation for this should be dry underneath, sheltered from the north as much as possible and fully exposed to the sun ; it should be built up from two feet six inches to four feet high, and wider by six inches every way than the frame to be placed upon it. The dung should be well shaken and mixed while being I put together, and firmly pressed by the feet. The frame should be kept close until the heat rises, and three or four inches of sifted sand or ashes should be placed on the surface of the bed ; in a few days it will be ready for use ; but air should be given night and day while there is any danger from the be planted on an ',0 square feet. No. of Plants. 435 360 302 2.>7 2-22 193 170 ir)0 134 120 108 09 48 3W in a hotbed," he notices of half ■iaily aiding those mple directions on nure, the most fre- d. great importance, ess for any length eing used. If ob- $ too dry, it should ferment ; this will hree or four days ihaken and mixed, )r of the heap ; a iry, although one ,hiis cleaned of its Ith, sheltered from led to the sun ; it i)ur feet high, and [to be placed upon lixed while being let. The frame ree or four inches the surface of for use ; but air danger from the Manual of Agriculture. 519 rank steam, and if the sand or ashes are drawn away from the side of the bed, they* should bo replaced. When the hotbed is used for seeds only, nothing further is necessary ; they are to bo sown in pots or pans, placed or plunged in the bed, the heat of which will soon cause them to germinate. As this will, after .some time, decline, what are called linings should be added, that is, fresh, hot, fermenting (but not rank) dung applied about a foot in width all round the bed ; this renews its strength, and will greatly aid its successful management. A cold frame is formed by placing the ordinary hotbed frame upon a bed of light, rich soil, in some place in the garden where it will be protected from cold winds. They should both be shaded from the sun by mats during the middle of the day. How thick the ground is covered by ccrtai/n sowings. — A bushel of wheat contains 000,000 grains. If this quantity should be si)read equally over an acre of ground, it would give nearly 10 square inches of space for each plant ; each plant would be a little more than 3 inches from the next, and there would be 15 plants to each square foot. If the seed were sown in drills 9 inches apart, theie would be a plant to each inch in the drill. It is well known that in broadcast sowing much of the seed is covered too deeply, and some not sufficiently, and thus possibly a half of the seed sown is wasted. In drill-sowing a much greater proportion of the seed produces returns, because of its even covering and more regular germination. If each seed should produce but one perfect ear, the yield would be over 30 fold, but it is safe to say that every healthy wheat plant will produce at least three stalks ; so that, should the whole of the seed sown mature, a crop of 90 bushels would be the result. There is no doubt but drill- sowing will produce a better yield than broadcast sowing, as much more of the saed will successfully germinate, and the expense of drill-sowing being less than hand-sowing and harrowing after- wards, we would advise all those who can buy or hire a drill to abandon broadcast sowing. m 620 The Canadian Farmer's FARM ACCOUNTS. " No one need he ruined who keeps good accounts'* The following system of keeping farm accounts is thorough, and at the same time plain and simple in form. There is a place in which may be entered every transaction which it is necessary to record. A boy who can read and write may understand the principles, and by devoting five minutes of every evening to the task, may Ic2ep the accounts thoroughly posted. The book shows at a glance the following : — What cash has been expended or received. What the owner's liabilities are, and what is due to him, at any date. The day on which a cow or other animal may be expected to ' come in." The amount of feed that is being consumed on the farm. The amount of hay, grain, roots, live-stock, milk, butter, or other produce that has been sold, or is at any time on hand. Provision is made for opening an account with the grocer, black- smith or any other tradesman or person. From the columns of the main book, the actual expense of cul- tivation in any given field and of any given crop can be readily and exactly computed. Finally, it is plain and simple. If the farmer who has never been accustomed to making any regular entries of his farm transactions does not care to keep the accounts himself, let him entrust them to his son. It will be found a practical education of the very best and most useful kind. breeder's calendar. The following is the basis upon which the time is computed in entering in the page devoted to Breeder's Memorandum : — Species. Premature Laboa> Regular Labour. Mare Cow.., Sheep Sow.. 11 months or .^0 8 " or 24f 4J " or 13 3l " or 11 « « 11^ months or 340 days 9i " or 285 '' 4 4-5 '• or 144 " 4 " or 120 '• Protracted Labour. 14 months or 420 days 11 " or 330 " 5k " or 160 " 4i or 130 Manual of Agriculture, CALVING TABLE. 521 Day Bulled. WUl Calve. Day Bulled. WUl Calve. ery transaction I the principles, o the task, may Jan. 1 Oct. 8 " 7 " 14 "M " 21 "81 " 28 "28 Nov. 4 "31 .1 7 Ffcb. 1 " 8 " 7 " 14 "14 " 21 "21 •' 28 "28 Dec. 5 Mar. 1 ... 6 " 7 " 12 "U " 19 "21 " 26 "28 Jan. 2 "81 « 6 April 1 " 7 .< 14 <• 21 " 28 " 30 May 1 " 7 « .21 28 31 1 7 14 21 28 80 Juno Jan. 6 " 12 " 19 " 26 "".lb. " Mar, tt Day Bulled. Will Calve ih 25 4 7 " 8 " 14 " 21 " 28 April 4 f« 6 July 1 " 7 " 14 " 21 " 28 i " 31 lAUfe-. 1 " 7 1. 14 • 21 " 28 ' 31 Sept. 1 " 7 " 14 " 21 " 28 " 90 April 7 '• 13 " 20 " 27 May 4 " 8 " 9 •' 15 June 5 " 8 " " 15 " 22 " 29 July 6 «' 8 Day Bulled. Will Calve. Oct. 1 " 7 « 14 " 21 " 28 " 31 Nov. 1 " 7 " 14 " 21 " 28 30 1 , 7 14 21 28 81 Dec. July 9 " 15 " 22 " 29 " 9 " 15 " 21 '• 29 Sept. 5 " 7 " 8 " 14 " 21 " 28 Oct. 5 " 8 16 to him, at any ■ be expected to the farm, milk, butter, or e on hand, he grocer, black- to making any care to keep the t will be found eful kind. ^rotracted Labour. months or 420 days " or 330 " " or 160 " or 130 " 522 The Canadian Farmer's \n i ! § O o o 4S •a Q > 1 tf O q P^ 1 U ^ 2 pq 1 " -d V Ph q a o xn - rd rs c3 E-I CM W o V 1:3 o M 1 1 Manual of Agriculture. 523 O g 9> 524 The Canadian Farmer's o o » p Q O Ph 1 • % d. ti ^ OS Pn Pm Q ■ H *; m 1 i\ , £ o w •13 0) o< a< o J3 o -*» - ^ t>0 3 o fq -d o •■ CQ M u t3 P o M &4 i eS C 5 Q iZ5 O O 55 & O fZ! Manual of Agriculture. 525 00 « e? d o O o ^ 4i 3) 1 ^ M o >5 a 3 Q » 73 B 3 o c5 Ph o > W tf ^ M H^ . C 3 .2 ti) H •»noj •D^y '0:9 'p93g 'oanu'cj^ •spuBH ua!»xa O •BpU«JJ •sasjojj t >; « » -„« of Tiekie- «on W.11 be awarded, wlie Je you h»-'*'' L'? ''<"'«"". the deeN IOn?"/.'r'* »f »rthogmXeouW.r''';''?'''»e ill or we?] m any longer doeumtt "® *" *''""^'""' «' debt is r£ing To Mr. Smith, ^ August, 1873. 825,50 ^■^^^■' Twenty-five AV dollars cash. Ol 1 , JAMES WALKBR Should you however affix ih. *• . l^-ue, „.y t7ZrZ:Zir^^^^^ ^'-Ped t„ its proper ■ ™^ '^^''^ Of STAMP DUTIES (1873) tS^^^^"^^'^ Of e h ,■ ,^^ ^^^^ M Of WltrTS °I ''' ^«' -^ ^ P-Pared by When HUSBAND AND WIFE. W m,\ married,* husband isliaMe for hi, '« "-ife's debts contracted 532 The Canadian Farmer's befort marriage. In such a case, a creditor should proceed against both. The husband is liable for debts of his wife contracted for neces- saries while living with him. If she voluntarily leaves his protection and lives in adultery, this liability ceases. He is also liable for any debts contracted by her with his authority ; and the law implies his authority where the debt is for necessaries, or in the common course of house-keeping, unless the contrary be proved. In civil cayes a wife may give evi- dence for or against her husband ; in criminal cases she cannot be a witness, with the exception of the case of assault by him upon her. A man used to be allowed to " correct" his wife with " a stick not thicker than the thumb." But this barbarity has gone the way of all such customs. But he may keep her under restraint to prevent her leaving him, provided he exercise no cruelty. There are laws by which a wife can obtain security for her lawful earnings if her husband desert her. WILL& MiV Always let your will be drawn by a lawyer. More litigation and endless Chancery suits have arisen from wills drawn by in- competent persons, than from almost any other source of error. Better draw your will in common sense, every day conversational English, as, " I, John Smith, leave to to be paid at my death, by who I hereby appoint my executors," and let it be well witnessed, than allow intermeddlers who have a smattering of the wording of legal forms, to lead you into endless mistakes. Depend upon it, much as it may be the fashion to upbraid the apparent contradictions and quibbles of the law, common sense English will generally be fairly construed by impartial judges and sensible juries. There are a few ordinary points however to be borne in mind. The witnesses must subscribe in the presence of the testator, and of themselves ; and the testator must at the time be of sound mind. A will may be revoked or annulled, but only by burning or entirely destroying, or by adding a codicil, or by making a subse- quent will duly attested. The act of running a pen through the signatures or down the page is not sufficient to cancel a will, without a written declara- tion to that effect signed and witnessed. A will made before marriage is revoked thereby. Any persons who can write their Aame, are qualified to witness Manual of AgHculture, 533 proceed against acted for neces- in adultery, this atracted by her )rity where the house-keeping, fe may give evi- s she cannot he lit by him upon a will, but such witnesses cannot be benefitted by the will. A be- quest ma$'!} K')H • rt- ,•* ?**-? , The Canadian farmer must have labour and will give any wages in reason to the labourer. There is iiot at present an average of three able bodied men to every hundred acres under cultivation. Every acre additionally reclaimed from the forest requires extra labour in the country. If you visit Canada and find our average crop below what you have been accustomed to at home, remember it is due to a want of sufficient labour, and not to any deficiency in quality of soil nor to bad climate. In one Province — Ontario — every farmer, on 20,000,000 acres of land, is crying for more labour, and will pay for it as soon as it can be obtained. Therefore in Canada, the working man, may be certain of work whenever he requires it, and of remuneration at a high rate. There is a constant demand for labourers to work on railways. WJiat chance is there for a labourer becoming a farmer for himself i- Out of 78 million acres of good farming land in one province, only about 20 millions are yet occupied. There are yet 50 millions TED STATBB. Sq. miles. 2,933,583 , 577,590 thousand square lED WITH THOSE OF Acreage. .. 32,590,397. ..2,258,435,200. MILE. .3722. •One. will give any bodied men to ^t requires extra )elow what you lue to a want of ^lity of soil nor ),000,000 acres )r it as soon as certain of work Ihigh rate. )rk on railways. a farmer for In one province, ] yet 50 millions Manual of Agriculture 537 of land to be taken up by the men who possess the capital of stout hearts and strong arms. There is no end to the absorption of labour. Every new labourer helps to clear new land ; all that we can raise will find ready sale in the markets. Let the Emigrant observe carefully three points ere he steps over the line to the south. Our average soil is better than the average soil of the States, such soil as is poor amongst us has been made so by imperfect tillage. We have abundance of water, and in this are far ahead of the Western States, the Australian Colony and New Zealand, all of which countries are extremely subject to droughts. Not only have we plenty of water, but we have no stagnant water; and hence there is little or no fever and ague, such as is prevalent in many portions of the Western States. The lie of our whole land is a gradual slope from the Laurentian range or watei'shed, north to Hudson's Bay and south to our five great lakes ; from the Rocky Mountains, east to our lakes and west to the Pacific. That the climate is very healthy may be readily seen by our registrations and the general appearance of the people, which is verydi ferentto that of the sallow westerner. Advice to Emigrants. — Work hard. There is before any man in Canada a noble chance to obtain for himself a respectable home, to educate his children and to lay by for his old age. But the way of obtaining such lies through steady industry and strict sobriety. Be careful of what little store of money you may bring. The Canadian dollar and the U. S. gold dollar are of equal value ; but U. S. paper is not equivalent in face value to gold or to Canadian paper. The British sovereign is equal in Canadian money to about four dollars and eighty-six cents. There is a slight fluctuation, however in its value, but never more than a few cents. Therefore to bring sterling pounds into dollars, multiply by 73 and divide by 15; dollars are brought into pounds sterling by the reverse process. EXAMPLE. 50 X 73 £50 = 15 = $243.33 And $243.33 = £ $243-33 X 15 73 = £50 If' II m 11 i:l|l 538 The Canadian Fanner's Under this head, we show the Government Return of *he average wages paid to labourers, and the price of living : — Return of the Average Wages paid to Labourers, Mechanics, &;c. General Trades. Bookbinders and Printers Blacksmiths BakiTS Brewers Butchers Brickmakers Bricklayers or Maaon.s Car])enter8, House Do. Carriage Cabinetmakers Coopers Coachmen and Grooms Curriers Engine-Drivers, per trip Farm Labourers, skilled Farm Labourers, con.moii Gardeners Millwrights Millers Painters, House Do. Carriage Plasterers Plumbers Shoemakers Sawyers Shipwrights Stonecutters Saddlers... Stokers, Railroad, per trip Tanners Tailors Tinsmiths Trimmers, Carriage Wheelwrights Whitesmiths Boilermakers Fitters Moulders Patternmakers. Rivetters Turners Foundries and Machine Shops. Carders Designers Dyers Finishers Fullers Spinners Warpers Weavers Woollen Assorters . Woollen Factories. Per Diem. 00 00 00 50 50 50 1 50 1 50 1 .50 1 75 1 50 1 50 50 50 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 By month, with Board. 15 to 20 20 to 25 15 to 20 15 to 20 15 to 20 25 to 30 25 to 30 20 to 25 20 to 25 20 to 20 ].") to 20 15 to 20 15 to 20 15 to 25 10 to 15 15 to 20 20 to 25 15 to 20 20 to 25 20 to 25 20 to 25 20 to 25 ]."> to 20 15 to 20 20 to 25 25 to 30 20 to 25 15 to 20 15 to 20 15 to 20 20 to 25 20 to 25 20 to 25 20 to 25 20 to 25 20 to 25 20 to 25 20 to 25 20 to 25 20 to 25 20 to 25 15 to 20 15 to 20 15 to 20 15 to 20 15 to 20 15 to 20 15 to 20 it Return of *\q if living : — Labourers, er Diem. By month, with Board. $ Ct8. $ 9 1 (XJ 15 to 20 1 25 20 to 25 1 00 15 to 20 1 00 15 to 20 1 00 15 to 20 '? 00 25 to 30 ^ 00 25 to 30 1 r.0 20 to 25 1 1.0 20 to 25 1 75 20 to 20 1 00 15 to 20 1 00 15 to 20 1 00 15 to 20 1 00 15 to 25 75 10 to 15 1 00 15 to 20 1 50 20 to 25 1 00 15 to 20 1 5J 20 to 25 1 no 20 to 25 1 50 20 to 25 1 50 20 to 25 1 00 ]."> to 20 1 00 15 to 20 1 50 20 to 25 2 00 25 to 30 1 25 20 to 25 1 00 15 to 20 1 00 15 to 20 1 00 15 to 20 1 50 20 to 25 1 50 20 to 25 1 50 20 to 25 1 50 20 to 25 1 50 20 to 25 1 50 20 to 25 1 75 20 to 25 1 50 20 to 25 1 50 20 to 25 1 50 20 to 25 1 50 20 to 25 1 00 15 to 20 1 00 15 to 20 1 00 15 to 20 1 00 15 to 20 00 00 00 15 to 20 15 to 20 15 to 20 Card Room Hands Uyerlo(,kerH Weavers Cotton Factories. Cooks FE5fALE8. J^airymaicls""!! iJoustiioid Servants Laundry Mai.i.s i'er Diem. 1 00 1 m 1 00 , % month, with Board. 15 to 20 20 to 26 15 to 20 12 8 to 4 to 8 to 12 4 to c 6 to Cost of Living. I-ist of Retail Prices of nvri; required by the WorkTnf err;!"'""'- "' ^""^ and Ra^eul ^acon, per Jb. ^o. fresh...' ^eef, Mutton, Veai,' Pork"' Beer per quart... '*"^''- Candles Cheese . CoflFee Firewood, nefS ''' P'" "^M Ham, per lb. Shoulders, per']!,.'.' Herrings, per barrel" Mustard, per lb. ' *li/k, per quart .' "atmeal, per 100 iba pepper, per lb. Tea, green iobacco ■■" Sets. 80 030 Clothing. srfctr^T-d Siurts, Flannel S" Cotton... "" (under) "wo've" taf-"™.^" ...;::::: oocks. Worsted n? , Cotton...: Blankets Rugs SeX '""".P-yard-; Canadian Cloth do "• Shoes, Men's §\ Women's:: «oot8, Men's f«. ^^^omen's:: I^ndia Rubber Oversh'„e«;'M-,; ^« Ho Women's l> to 12 00 8 to 12 00 H to P 00 2 to 4 00 1 to 2 00 1 00 1 00 1 00 1 oO ,50 25 4 to 6 00 |2to4 00 30 20 25 J 00 3 00 2 00 4 00 3 00 1 00 75 540 The Canadian Farmer's Rents are moderate, and good board and lot^^'ug may bo ob- tained for about $3.00 y)cr week. Clothing is about 25 per cent, dearer than in ' ^rtat Britain; but good clothing, suitable to the country, may bo obtahied at reasonable prices. In short, living in Canada is cheap, when compared with Great Britain or the United States. The Proportions of. the Principal Nationalities from WHICH THE Inhabitants of Canada are drawn are : — 111 African or Negroes Dutch Enelisb Irish Scotch Welsh French German Indian Je' 8 Other Nationalitiea New Nova Ontario. Quebec. Brunswick. Scotia. 13,436 148 1,701 6,212 1!>,992 798 6,004 2,868 439,429 • 69,822 83,598 113,520 659,442 123.478 100.(143 62,851 328,889 49,458 40,8r)8 130,741 5,282 283 1,096 1,112 75,383 929,817 44,907 32,833 158,608 7,963 4,478 31,942 12,978 6,988 1,403 1,666 48 7,365 74 2,687 3 903 4,056 1,620,851 1,191,516 285,594 387,800 THiS Proportions of the Principal Religious Denominations. MethodlBts. Church of England Catholics, Roman f Methodists Wesleyan Episcopal Primitive New Connection.. British Episcopal. Calvinists . Bible Christians . . i Atheints Without Creeds. . < Deists I No Religion.. Other Denominations Ontario. 330,995 274,162 8,128 286,911 92,128 24,045 30,889 1,824 44 18,225 19 239 4,650 648,392 1,620,851 Quebec. 62,449 1,019,850 • 4,.363 26,737 1,274 48 1,546 13 15 104 1 43 376 74,697 1,191,516 New Brunswick. 46,481 96,016 3,4.39 26,212 83 1 121 55 76 114,110 285,594 Nova Scotia. 65,124 102,001 1,662 38,683 403 27 1 1 94 72 44 189,688 387,800 ag may bo o\)- •'irtiit Britain; bo obtaniod at ired with Great NALITIES FROM lAWN ARE : — few Novft iswick. Scotia. 1,701 6,212 6,004 2,868 i.i.rm 113,520 J0.<143 62,851 10,808 130,741 1,0% 1,112 44,907 32,833 4,478 31,942 1,403 1,666 3 903 4,055 85,594 387,800 ELIGIOUS ^few Nova iBwick. Scotia. 15,481 55,124 >6,016 102,001 3,439 1,662 !6,212 38,683 83 403 1 27 1 1 121 94 55 ' 72 76 44 4,110 189,688 15,594 387,800 Manual of jigricuUure, Impoiith and Exports, Showing the rapid i>rogrc8f< of Canada in 20 ymra. 541 Yeart. Total Trn.lo. INiV) 82<.>,7():«,J!i7 1851 3l,M(»:{.>(i| lMr)2 3."., .■)!•», KM) 1853 55,7H-J.73<» 1854 6,»,.VIK,r.l5 1855 «4,'-'7l,<)H0 iHiw 7*).,242 Y.ani, Total Trade. ISCO «(;8,!t55,(K»3 IKdl 7tl,ll'.>,H»3 181)2 7!».;il>8.()ti7 18(13 81.t:.8,:(.t5 18(i4- half-year 3»,">8(i,(»54 18114-5 8(i,(;i»,!t-)l 18ti."M5 89 1871-72 194,070,190 The increase alone in these three years is almost as large as the total trade in 1850. Exports in 1871-2. Products of the Forest |23,685,.382 Do Agriculture 13,378,562 Animals and tneir Products 12,416.613 Produce of the Fisheries 4,348,508 Do do Mines 3,926,(M)8 Manufactures 2,389,436 Showing the Value of the Forest Produce Exports. Ashes-Pot 8578,814 Do Pearl 59,430 Timber— Ash 68.499 Birch 173,045 Elm 229,849 Maple 4,429 Oak 1,280,420 White Pine 4,1.55,974 R. 1 do 387,976 T .uarac 9,720 ^,aInut 51,003 Basswood — Butternut — Hickory 524,510 Standard Staves 16,5.S8 Other Staves 296,290 Battens 2,838 Knees and Futtocks 3,4.33 Scantlings 256,343 Deals 5,113,978 Deal Ends 25,193 Planks and Boards 8,527,249 Spars 227,602 alasts 13,225 Handspikes 149 Laths 161,145 Lathwood 9,490 Firewood 469,781 .Shingles 240,730 642 The Canadian Farmer's shingle Bolts 31,908 Stave Bolts 7,440 Oak Logs 8,028 Spruce Logs 27,559 Pine Logs 28,763 Sleepers and Railway Ties 194,698 Oars 2,451 Other Woods 496,165 823,685,381 THE FINANCIAL ASPECT OF CANADA. The net debt of the Dominion in 1871, deducting assets, was $77,706,517.05 ; the net interest $5,302,812.80 ; the average rate of interest 5o4) per cent. The net debt amounts to $21.72 per head of population, and the net interest to 1.20 per head. The whole debt has been incurred for the construction of prac- tical public works ; none by war. THE STATISTICS OF BANKS. T i I i ' I J- r f 'I Years. Paid up capital. Deposits. 1868 $28,529,048. $30,168,536. 1869 29,651,674. 36,671,432. 1870 31,450,597. 50,229,788. 1871 36,415,210. 55,763,066. 1872 45,134,609. 64,720,489. The combined Government and Bank circulation at the end of the last Fiscal year 1871-72 amounted to $35,090,348. The Climate we will dwell but shortly on. The most southern part of Canada is on the same parallel as Rome, in Italy; Corsica in the Mediterranean, and the northern part of Spain. The Northern shores of Lake Huron are in the latitudes of Central France, and vast territories not yet surveyed, embracing many million acres of land of good quality lie south of the parallel of the northern shores of Lake Huron where the climates are favourable to the growth and ripening of all the staples of the temperate zones. But it is more practical to test the climate by what will grow under its influence. WHAT WILL GROW TO PERFECTION IN CANADA. Wheat — A. 1. Canadian Flour is equal to any, and superior to most samples in Liverpool market. t. Manual of Agriculture. 643 31,908 7,440 8,028 27,559 28,763 194,698 2,451 496,165 3,685,381 ig assets, was verage rate of ation, and the ction of prac- Barlcy. — Sown m spring, a certain crop ; and forms a regular crop in most rotations. Peas and oats grow and mature well ; the former much grown for the value of .its straw. Indian corn or maize ripens with certainty and produces from 20 to 40 bushels per acre, aecoiding to cultivation. Flax, hemp, tobacco, buckivheat, Hungarian grass, millet, and artificial grasses ; also every kind of roots, potatoes, turnips carrots, sugar beets, mangolds d-c, &c., with tomatoes, peppers, Gidnese yams and other tropical roots and vegetables. Apples. — Can rival the whole world. Grapes, peaches, plums, melons, cucumbers, tomatoes, pump- kins, strawberries, and all the berries grow and ripen in the open air. Now to quiet the doubts of those who are doubtful as to which choice they will make, the United States or Canada, we will quote from a lecture delivered by the author in 1870, befoie a large audience in Gloucester, England. COMPARISON BETWEEN THE U. S. AND CANADA. leposits. ,168,536. ,671,432. ,229,788. ,763,066. ,720,489. at the end of le parallel as lortliern part I the latitudes I, embracing 'the parallel climates are baples of the lat will grow )A. superior to Tn nine years, we found that Ontario added from 46 to 05 per cent, to Tier population, while in the same nine years the United States only added from 35 to 58 per cent. That in nine years she added sixty-four cultivated acres to every hundred acres in cultivation in 1852, while the United States and territories, in ten years from 1851, only added forty-four acres to every hundr< ]. That the cash value of her farms per head of her popuhition was greater in Canada than in the United States. That the value of her farms was greater by nearly six dollars per acre. That the capital invested in agricultural inplements was greater in Ontario than in the United States in proportion to the breadth of land cultivated in each country. That she grew more wheat in 1860 (the year of the census) than any State in the Union. That she was greatly a-head even of the Western States as a wheat pro • ducing country. That in proportion to population she had more capital invested in live stock than the United States. That for every 100 of her population Ontario owned twenty- seven horses, and the United States only twenty ; of sheep eighty-four and the U. S., only seventy-one ; of milch cows thirty-two, and the U. S., only twenty-seven. That in 1860, she produced more than 19 lbs. of butter for every inhabitant and the U S., only 15 lbs; of wool 2^ lbs., for each inhabitant, andth. U.S., 21bs. THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTKM Is of such a nature, that the poorest may, indeed nmst, for the com- 544 The Canadian Farmer's pulsory clause is now law, obtain a sound practical education for his children. THE WAYS OF OBTAINING LAND. First. — By Free Grant from the Government. Second. — By purchase of wild lands now in the hands of private individuals or companies. Third. — By purchase of improved farms, varying in price accor- ding to their situation and state of improvement. Free Grants. — In the Provinces of Quebec, Ontario, New Bruns- wick, Nova Scotia and British Columbia, the free grant lands are held b}'^ the several Provincial Governments. In Manitoba. — The valley of the Saskatchewan and the rest of the North- West Territory, the free grant lands are yet held by the Dominion Government. In Nova Scotia. — There are now nearly four million acres of ungranted lands. The price of these lands is $44, ( £8.1Gs. sterling) per 100 acres. No distinction is made in the price between lOO acres and smaller lots. Any quantity over 100 acres must be paid for at the rate of 44 cents per acre. The cost of survey is defrayed by the Government. In Quebec, there are now nearly six million acres of farming land offered for sale by the Government at the rate of from 30 cents to 60 cents per acre ( 15d. to 2s. 5^d., sterling). The terms of sale are : One fifth of the purchase money is required to be paid on the day of sale, and the balance in four equal annual instal- ments, bearing interest at six pe • cent. The surveys and roads are at the expense of the Government. The purchaser must take possession of the land sold within six months of the date of sale, and must occupy it within two years. He must clear, in the course of ten years, ten acres for every 100 acres held by him, and erect a habitable house of the dimensions of at least 16 feet, by 20 feet. The letters patent are issued free of charge. On eight of the great Colonization Roads, 84,050 acres are set apart as Free Grants — in lots of 100 acres each. Any person over eighteen years of age may demand a permit of occupa- tion from any Crown Lands Agent ; and if, at the end of four years, he has cleared twelve acres and built a house, the land is freely granted to him under a Crown Patent. The parts of the Province of Quebec, now open to colonization, are the valleys of the Saguenay, St Maurice, and the Ottawa, the Eastern Townships ; the Lower St. Lawrence, and Gaspe. Province of Ontario. — Has thrown open about three million of acres, included in fifty-three townships, as/ree grant lands. Every head of a family can obtain, gratis, two hundred acres of land, and any person, of eighteen years of age, may obtain one pro| ti'om udgia I'liiLior But Manual of Agriculture. 645 ducation for ids of private a price accor- ,, New Bruns- r'ant lands are ,nd the rest of ret held by the lillion acres of S.lGs. sterling) 3 between 100 s must be paid ^ey is defrayed •res of farming rate of from 30 g). The terms lured to be paid annual instal- •veys and roads nd sold within it within two s, ten acres for lie house of the tters patent are acres are set Any person nit of occupa- U end of four [se, the land is jbo colonization, te Ottawa, the iGaspe. Tit three million \e grant lands. Indred acres of Kay obtain one hundred acres in this district. As this offer is made without dis- tinction of sex, a large family may obtain a large block of land. These free grants are made under certain settlement duties, which are: to have fifteen 'acres on each grant of one hundred acres cleared and uader crop, of which, at least two acres must have been cleared and cultivated annually for five years ; to build a habitable house, at least twenty feet by sixteen feet ; and to re- side on the land at least six months in every year. Province of Manitoba — In this Province the Government of the Dominion gives free grants of one hundred and sixty acres, subject to conditions similar to those imposed by Ontario under the free grant system, with the exception that the age must be twenty-one, and the number of years to elapse before the issue of a deed from the Crown to be three years. Dominion Lands, in the Province of Manitoba and parts adja- cent, may be purchased at any time at the rate of $1 (4s. 2d. ster- ling) per acre, but not more than six hundred and forty acres, being one square mile, may be jmrchased by one person. For further particulars, let the emigrant apply to the Govern- ment Agents, whose instructions are to give him every informa- tion, '" ADVICE TO EMIGRANTS. There is much hard work before any man who would shoulder his axe and locate himself in the backwoods. There are not many emigrants who are suited to follow out such a course. The art of chopping, the mysteries of logging, burning, clearing, and, above all, living in the backwoods, have to be learn- ed. Should the emigrant determine to proceed o rect to the bush he must purchase his experience ; and it should ili":p. be his object to buy such as cheaply as possible. The backwoods are the natural heritage of^^h* Canadian, and life in them should not be lightly undertaken by any but such men as have served their apprenticeship to *^'anadian har.ijs and ways. On the other hand, the ambition that prompts the emigrant to go to the woods and hew out a home and an independence is worthy of all encouragement. After five years have expired, and the duties have been per- Iforuied in regard to settlement (and these must be years of )teady work and close economy), then the emigrant will have a cons'der- |able clearance, a warm house and comfortable buildings, and a properly, his own absolutely, with an unimpeachable title di "eji [ioiu the Crown ; and, should the locality have been chosen with ludgmeut, the property will be ever increasing in value, as emi- .ralion increases, roads are made, and markets are opened up. But the backwoods settler cannot go into a new grant devoid 8) 546 The Canadian Farmer's of cash. He should have at least £50, because it is evident that upon his wild land he can have but very small returns of crop for the first year or so. We should strongly advise the emigrant, who brings out such a sum or even more, to place it in a savings bank, where it will be perfectly safe, and will draw from four to five per ceijt., and hire himself out, at least for a year, with a farmer, before he attempts to go to the backwoods. It is true that he will thus be retarded somewhat in gaining the object of his ambition — a clear title to a property — but that year will be very profitable to him in affording such experience as will save him many a shilling when he finally settles in the bush. The following are a few of the many advantages to be gained by following such a course : — First. — He will learn to know one kind of wood from another, an indispensable knowledge, for the only means of Judging of the nature of the soil, are by the quality and class Oi the timber which naturally grows thereon. Secondly. — In a choice of land from among some millions of acres, the experience gained by a year's residence in Canada will be found of immense advantage. Thirdly. — It is upon the settler's judgment in his choice of locality that his future prospects will very greatly depend. Fourthly. — He requires to have very many old-country preju- dices rubbed off before he mix in the society of Canadian forest pioneers. Fifthly. — He will obtain an insight into the value of staple arti- cles, a ready knowledge of the currency of the country, and of the kind, amount and quality of stock to be laid in for a residence in the remote settlements. Sixthly. — As an old countryman, " unco canny " though he may have been at home, he is green and inexperienced among back- woodsmen, and there are many, even amidst the innocence and natural purity of the woods, that would not hesitate to take ad- vantage of him. Seventhly. — It is far more profitable to be paid, whilst obtain- ing necessary experience, than to be compelled to purchase it. Eighthly. — After working in Canada for a time, the emigrant may change his mind, and consider that the profits to be saved from wages, added to his little capital already in security, hold out sufiicient inducements to persevere as a hired man, and in the future rent a farm in a more improved section of the country, or encr&ge in some other business. When the locatee — to use the Government name for a settler — is installed ; his first duty will be to build a habitable dwelling, and to lay in such a stock of necess iries as may be requisite. Manual of Agriculture. 647 3 evident that turns of crop igs out such a lere it will be ei3it., and hire e he attempts lat in gaining ;rtY — but that Lch experience setthis in the t.0 be gained by from another, iudging of the V the timber )me millions of in Canada will tt his choice of depend. •country preju- Canadian forest e of staple arti- ntry, and of the a residence in though he may among back- innocence and ,te to take ad- whilst obtain- purchase it. J, the emigrant ts to be saved security, hold lan, and in the the country, or for a settler — Itable dwelling, requisite. September is the best month in which to settle, for there is then time, and the harvest being over, he can obtain help to build a house and get comfortably ensconced ere the cold winter set in. A log house, such as is usually built in the backwoods, would cost, if put up by contract, about £5 sterling ; but with the assist- ance of the neighbours, which is always readily exchanged, it may be erected for very much less. The walls of the shanty are composed of rounded logs, generally oak or elm, cut in the woods, of the full length of each side, let into and resting on one another at the extremities. The interstices are filled with mud, and the inside roughly plastered. The roof is covered with birch bark slabs, or basswood troughs or wooden shingles. The chimney and the requisite furniture put a finish to the house, rough, it is true, but warm and comfortable. There are required for the winter, a supply of cured pork, a few hundredweight of flour, and a stock of oatmeal, potatoes and groceries. To keep the potatoes, a roothouse is generally built. A yoke of oxen, a milch cow and a couple of hogs, make the usual live stock with which to commence operations. But there is a time in the dreary lengths of winter, when every settler must feel lonely, and perhaps becomes home-sick ; at times, he will be shut out, for days, by impassable roads, from al! communication with his neighbours. Beware of whiskey. Whiskey is the curse of Canada. Not only is the habit of intemperance a stumblingblock in the way of success in life, and the ruin of man, both here and hereafter, but the stuff that is in America dignified by the name of" spirits" is so adulteratod that it can be rightly callea by no other name than "rank pciyjn.' Canadashows,in proportion to her population, animmenseamount of crime, disease, accidents and loss of life, through the agency of drink ; and it has been a fact well observed, that the drunkard . who soaks himself with Canadian whiskey very quickly runs his course. It takes but a short time for that poison to convert a strong, healthy man into an object upon whom is plainly stamped the fate of a premature and loathsome death. Let the settler work steadily and keep sober, a slow but sure and happy independence is before him. To-day the settler is one of a few isolated inhabitants ; in a few short years his neighbours will have increased by the score. Let him take care to assume that lead which his position offers. Let him work for his own good and for the general welfare of i!' iJ 548 The Canadian Farmer's his neighbourhood, that he may earn the right to be considered the brave pioneer to those who will undoubtedly soon follow him to the woods and, in his wake, will convert the wild waste places into a flourishing and influential section of the country. It will be his duty to introduce the regular worship of God in the new land. A few energetic members will soon raise and support His holy temple, even in the depths of a Canadian bush. Look around you when you first land in Canada. As you travel through the richest, most j)erfectly cleared and best cultivated section of the agricultural portions, remember that forty years ago these noble farms were but slashings in the deep woods, that the men who now live in those handsome houses, that own those large and valuable herds, and whose sons now fill the senate and the bar, tlie pulpit and the counting house, were, not so very many years ago, but poor emigrants like yourself They struggled through difficulties, avoiding extravagance and intemperance, to wealth and sterling independence. Your chances in these days of wealth and railway enterprise are far better than were theirs. BUYING FARM^ IN CULTIVATED PARTS. To the Old Country Farmer as an Emigrant There are many tenant farmers in England who would gladly move to a new country, but they cannot summon up sufficient cou- rage to leave their old homes, break off* their old habits, and com- mence life again in a far, and to them unknown land. Let such, or any who should bring out capital to invest in farm- ing in Canada, beware of some of the errors, to which they are liable in this new sphere of action. Bigotry and prejudice must be cast aside by any man who would lead in a new country. What our fathers and our fathers' fathers did in England will have no weight, apart from that given by in- trinsic worth, out here. If you come to Rome, you must adapt yourselves to Roman customs. We live under ; different clime. Your ways must be adapted to our manners a^^d customs. You cannot gei us to array ourselves blindly under your old fashioned ideas of socialism or of agriculture. Cast off all your old fashioned prejudices. As you come to labour on a different soil, and under a different face of nature, you must adapt your ways to those of a different country. You, who have been accustomed to have everything done for you by servants, must turn to with a will yourselves out here. Manual of Agriculture. 549 36 considered )n follow him I waste places try. dp of God in ,port His holy As you travel est cultivated orty years ago oods, that the at own those" he senate and 3, not so very ravagance and Your chances far better than rant \ would gladly sufficient cou- ^bits, and com- id. invest in farm- hi(;h they are Lan who would Fathers' fathers [t given by in- /es to Roman 1st be adapted ider your old ^t off all your ler a different I of a different Ihing done for out here. Labour is very scarce in all new countries, and men, if they have reason to dislike a place, have no difficulty in obtaining new sit- uations. Farm labourers here are accustomed to see the farmer work ; here we have to lead, and cannot put our trust altogether in orders. It will not pay in haying and harvest to ride round the farm on " the cob," and pay ten shillings a day and board to your substitute. The season for securing is short, wages are high, and labour at that time invariably scarce : every available hand is then required to safely house the crops. Beware of high improvement. It will unquestionably pay in the end, but labour is scarce and wages dear. High farming must be cautiously engaged in. The money required at home to properly stock a rented farm wiU purchase a good farm in Canada and yet leave sufficient capi- tal with which to stock and on which to work for a few years, until the new comer gets into the ways of the country. I^et a man have been ever so good a husbandman at home, and understand thoroughly both the theory and practice of farming there, yet he has much to learn in a new country, much that can only be bought by experience. We know how different are the systems of farming in the Severn valley and that adopted on the plains of Norfolk. Equally distinct are the systems upon which Canadian and old country agricultures are based ; and there is moreover to be learned the differences of customs, of manners and of habits. To the man who is ground down under a harsh landlord, or who feels that the rent which he pays is far beyond its proper rate, we would say, by all means, come to Canada : but remember that, with- out steady indilstry, sober habits, and above all, a determination to study and fall in with the ways of the country, he cannot better himself by emigration. Follow these, and you cannot fail to become a substantial yeo- man, perfectly independent, and in a position to better your cir- cumstances every year ; and by giving your children the benefits of a good education and a fair start in fhe world, will live to bless the day when you became a landovner in the new country in place of a tenant in the old. Good farms may be bought at various i>ricc.s. Near our best mar- kets, say on the lines of the main railways, at the ports and near the centres of trade, farms are usually worth from £10 to £20 per acre, the price varying with the state of cultivation and the value of the permanent improvements. Moving back into a rougher, i.e less thoroughly cleared coun- try, land may be bought, moderately well fenced, with or without buildings, at figures ranging from £4 to £8 per acre, the value being in great part governed by the spocies and quantity of the 550 The Canadian Farmer's timber, the quality of the soil, and the amount of land under cul- tivation. There are also government lands and lands in the hands of private companies sold at prices of about one dollar or (48. 2d. sterling) per acre. ■;} .'5' THE YOUNGER SONS OF ENGLISH GENTLEMEN, AS FARMERS IN CANADA. Many gentlemen in England, who have younger sons to start in life, turn for that purpose to the Colonies. Many younger sons of gentlemen have, of late years, come to Canada. Many of such men (especially where they have been brought . up in towns) are scarcely fitted for the position of a Canadian farmer. Their appreciation of the freedom and happiness of a country life is not generally sufficient to compensate for the loss of society, the steady hard work, economical habits, and very gradual inde- pendence which accompany the career of the Canadian farmer. Unless a man becomes wedded to his farm, loves to be at work, and takes the greatest interest in the welfare of his stock and the growth of his crops, he simply throws himself away in coming to farm in this country. Some have bought farms, settled down, and are doing well ; others have become disgusted, and have either sought situations in towns, where, be it remembered, they have no influential friends to back them, or have returned to their homes. Of the last two classes, the latter have, doubtless, been the wiser, for they have tasted colonial life and will, at least, know how to value any good thing that they may drop into at home. Experience has been bought, and, if not paid for at too dear a rate, parents need not consider their money to have been alto- gether wasted. For our own part, we consider that the gentleman who lives on his farm here has no reason to envy the man in the best of situa- tions ; but to act up to such a way of thinking, steady industry and strict economy must be practised. Any young man coming out here to practise farming must be determined to work hard and live cheaply, or he cannot succeed. Gentlemen must remember that their sons who come to farm in Canada lose many of the luxuries of home life, will see but little society, and will, in everyway, lead a widely different life from that to which they have been acoustoraed. Parents cannrt be too careful not to force their sons to a farm- er's life in Canada, for there are few countries iri which there are less restraints upon a young man, or more temptations to lead him " to the dogs." d under cul- ihe hands of r or (48. 2d. ARMEBS IN ns to start in younger sons been brought, f a Canadian of a country OSS of society, gradual inde- ian farmer, bo be at work, stock and the r in coming to re doing well ; yht situations ential friends [less, been the bt least, know [to at home, at too dear a |,ve been alto- who lives on best of situa- jady industry ling must be Aoi succeed. I come to farm II see but little Vent life from jns to a farm- lich there are to lead him Manual of Agncuiiure. 551 At the same time, a year or two in Canada, should he remain no longer, will be found no bad " finish " to a gentleman's educa- tion. THE LABOUR REQUIRED IN CANADA. The Department of Agriculture caused a number of circulars to be sent to different parts of the Dominion, to ascertain the number of immigrant labourers, of various kinds, required. The returns were imperfect ; but, from a compilation of those sent in, we find the following numbers were required : Proviace of Ontario 91,621 " •' Quebec 27,336 " " NewBrunawick 13,476 •' " NovaScotia 13,870 " "Manitoba.. 312 Total. 146,615 These figures do not include the requirements of contractors for he public works (Pacific. ilail way, &c.) to be undertaken. "iiiS l|:'' n '" ■*' APPENDIX • f CO 1- R o o fa w H V I l\ '^ o . -♦-1 6 O ee u o o a "S I J) ^ IS ^^ T § -•% ee rt ee o ^ ! II I ^. IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-S) 4 1.0 I.I If: 1^ IIM t. US. 1112.0 2.2 1118 1.25 1.4 1.6 • ^ 6" >■ V] '/ Photographic Sciences Corporation 23 WIST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. U58C (716) 872-4S03 554 Appendix. 9 *■ BHOHBOm AND STBAIOHT-DRAWINO HARBOWS. (See p. 473.) \ CHAIN HARROW. (See p. 474.) Appendix. 655 I % H I i s I il ^i 'I l| '^l 1^ ^1 I- is II I* III li TOOTH OF EYEll'S PATENT HARROW. (See p. 47^.) 556 Appendix. IF i I .1 9 >§ 5 05 03 O s ■ s o 1 1 s i I -ft =1, I 1 2 I s ^^ ? I Appendix. n 667 *,, I I ': 05 ^ 1 0) 2 1 M g ^ •4 "eS d b g -3 o g H u <1 3 .2" fi 1 g 1 1 ^ a ^ 'J^ 1 I I ^1 3;^ y S. 9 U ^ •II .3 I I I- I Si li 558 Appendix. OS CQ. I 09 ■& Q c I ^ i 9 s I I 9> •3 I »...;,> iv Appendix, 559 m i "■ ' ^m\- SINGLE MOWER, WITH FORWARD CUTTING BAR. (Seep. 491.) The Sprague Mower was introduced in Canada by Mr. William Rennie. Toronto, about four years ago, and which he continues to offer at Agricultural , Warehouse and Seed Store, comer Adelaide and Jarvis Streets. 1 666 , ■■ • Appendix. p ♦'/ >- • .'^^^. ' ;»: . m. 1 .9 i2. H > o 6" 11 Eh t B 1 I ■• o II I n" If-" ^y .IrfliA-,:. Appendix. 661 % ' 1 1 i • ^ • 73 f 1 1" .a .if ;^-- r ^-^ F » 1—1 % ll OS 11 Ml 8eh R S m v_^ |5 Sa2 ^B h* s-s ^B ^ ^S B g B •41 JS Hi d 01 S 1 raluabl Eurehoui liP H l^ 1 bine, with th Agiricaltural 1^ 1*^ AYR CLIPPER, MOWING. (See p. 491.) Manufactured by John Watson, Ayr, and for sale by Mr. William Rennie, Toronto, Ont. 562 v\ appendix. 'l^l v> 'jSkTrSMi-lS AYR CLIPPER, REAPING. (See p. 49L Manufactured by John Watson, Ayr, and for sale by Mr, Wjm. Rennie, Toronto, Ont. ' , • ■/ :■/ ■m ,^ ■ ^i ■^ Appendix. ■%Ki<: Wp. Rennie, I THE JOHNSON SELF-RAKE. (See p. 492.) Address orders to Mr. William Rennie, Toronto, Ont. £64 Jppendix. w 11' w ^ ■' 'If f i I > 1 Appendix, 565 ,\ (4 I t I (S p^ 5 u ^ 03 >v ja C» o fe 1 ^H Pk s «M ^ »k ^ ^ o -< n a S5 1 H "S H ^ Q U ^ > ^ •-? Oh >> fri ^ 13 2 565 Appendix. . ! % THE LITTLE GIANT THRESHER AND .SEPARATOR. (See p. 494.) Mr. William Rennie, Toronto, Ont., gives further inlormation respecting this Machine on pages 55 and 56 of his Illustrated Catalogue (Fifth Edition), a work to which our readers are» referred. I'M i ^ I THE KIRBY AS A MOWER, WITH CUTTING BAR IN REAR. (See p. 491.) For dale by Mr. Wm. Rennie, Toronto, Ont. ' ' ' • y I ■ appendix. (See p. 494.) (nation respecting le (Fifth Edition), (See p. 491.) ^ • 667 » 1 *l ll i 568 Appendix. TEN HORSE powi^k. (See p. 497.) ' Horse and Dog Powers of several styles and numerous suites are offered by Mr. Rennie, Agricultural Warehouse and Seed Store, Comer Adelaide and Jarvis Streets, Toronto. { farmers' horse power. (See p. 497.) Manufactured by John Watson, Ayr, for sale by Mr. Wm. Rennie, Toronto, Ont. :i Appendix. 569 are o^iered by Adelaide and t J, Toronto, Ont. *3 \ I I "* a a O) o a? ~ [V'.v !,i.^ ;•. '= „■ Ilp«. Pol. 1 '■ ' - . ^ " '' ' ,''*-i *- tiU*-- . J* !■■'-. -"'^ J 1 f : '"" . , - -,* V '•■ • ■'■'i ■■' ■- ^ -, < ^ Advertisements. \ '^v SEEDS ! ./ JOHN A. BRUCE & CO., SEED WABEHOUSiE, • OoAier King and McNab Streets, SEED FABM, - • - • Main Street East, HAMILTON, ONTARIO. I Established 1850. B I III-.. Bnoe's Selected East Lothian Swede Tnmip. CD 2 Illie following CATALOGUES arp published durirg tbe year, and will be forwarded poat ftee to all appUcanta :— No. 1.— IllustrateU Seed Catalogue, j ublinbrd 16tb January, a descrlitive list of Agricultural Vegetable and ower Seeds, CuUnary Roots, Garurn Implfnicnts, S| rln^i Fluverliig Bulbs, Ac. Mo. II.— Wholesale Catalogue of Biii ds, ic. (for the Trade only), publlsbcd 16tb January, No. III.— Bulb Catalogue, pul)llBhed September 1st, containing a choice collection of Double andSingle Hyadntiia. llpt, Polyanthus Nm'clssus, Crocus, Snow Drops, Crown Imperials, Jonquils, LUles, Ac., Ac. PLANTS AND SEEDS CAREFULLY PACKED FOR ALL CLIMATES. * Advertisements. < ©41141^4 COMI?ANY. *<^ CAPITAL, ^1,000,000. OFFICE- 345 St, James Street, Montreal, Pr«fideBl. COL. A. C. DxLOTBINlEBS-BARWOOD, D.A.O. ViM-Pnddent. WM. ANGUS, ESQ. (I w Mawagliig DiMetor and Secretary. EDWARD H. QOFF, ESQ. XMreetofit Col. A. 0. D'L. BABMOOh, t.A.9., MetltlML Rev. P. LEBLANC (Bishop't MmbX MontrML A. DESJARDIN8, Etq., ttuMjfi CProprUtmr MMtHt^taM MmM). WM. ASfQVB, Emi.. MoirtiaM {PntUtnt CMwbi Paptr Co\. J. B. POULIOT, Eaq.. M.P., liflHW dn L019. L. MOLLEUB, JBsq., M.PP., Si jotas (^PnMm St Jtkm AmtX O. BABT, Esq., M.P., MbM«. ARrara MfifeftKAlT, Em. . Montraa .. . . (Jiditor La Miturte). Ool. A. A. StttMeON, Montreal. TB06. L0OAitMM>> 8b«rbrooke. T. H. MABonJtti. <}uebec. tfc B. OBABUBIDSL Km., Laprairie. OOa FB8. PAWOSlUP. Esq.,M.D,VHninM. L. H. BLAU, BH|., MMtmigiijr. THIS Company ki (tfganiEed for the express jivrpbm of insuring Farm Property and I^HjJUiftBeficlences, and it is the determination , D.A.a. \ r. , Em., UoutreaL klu, Em.. Montraa ^tWlraJtiiMrM). >ll, MontraBl. 8ta«rbrooke. Quebec. )., Laimirie. >, Em}., M.D .VarmnMi itmegny. of inraring F«nii Idetermination of its of bmineas, thua risks. ipany has the benefit f Watertown," wKich I profitable business, le Company's Office, stock to $1,000,000, ly for the next sixty for the subscriptioi desiring a safe am ' at the Company'-' Brest! by insuring ii , the Secretary.