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 iGeologv Simplified 
 
 ^Pr^Kt^i- 
 
 
 What the Rocte Revecjl i 
 
 I 
 
 oi^ 
 
 - DY - - 
 
 J. HOYES PANTON, M.A., r.G.S. 
 
 [I Pwfessor or Biology and Cieologv, lr\ the Ontario 
 
 B T^iflrlcuitural College, Guelph. 
 
 r .- — 
 
 jj SECOND EDiriOM, REVISED AND ENLARGED. 
 
 i — 
 
 y GURLI'H, OnT. • 
 
 || J. J. JCruso, Book and Jon Prihtrr. 
 
 I 
 
 11 
 
 J l==i( =zJis pjp=:J/iSSUl~3^ ~lr^;rxJf=:zlr r^i -.^ 
 
 V^^i 
 
 d! 
 
 Ont.Agr. College 
 Library 
 
\ \ 
 
 
 Shelf No. ^^I 
 
 <Bntati0 Agricultural College 
 tlil&rarp 
 
 
 v 
 
 5000-55-2502 
 
 \ 
 
 ll 
 
 19 
 
6- SI 
 
 C.3 
 
 
 What th^ R88fe Reveal 
 
 --OR 
 
 Geologv Simplified 
 
 - - BY 
 
 J. MOVES PANTON, M.A., T.G.S. 
 
 Professor of Blologv and Geologv, In the Ontario 
 T^grlcultural College, Ouelph. 
 
 GUELPH, OnT. ' 
 
 J. J. Kblso, Book and Job Printer. 
 1897. 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 SECOND EDITION. 
 
 This booklet has been written with the view 
 of simplifying the teachings of nature, as they 
 are revealed upon the fragmentary pages of the 
 geological records. 
 
 Especial attention has been given to the com- 
 position, origin and formation of soil, and also 
 to the economic products of the rock systems of 
 Ontario. Teachers in rural schools could make 
 good use of the information in this book by 
 giving a series of talks on Geology Friday after- 
 noons, 3 to 4 o'clock, during the Fall term. 
 Few subjects are better suited to develop obser- 
 vation, induction and method than Geology, and 
 none can be made more interesting and instruct- 
 ive to a pupil. Teachers attempting this attractive 
 way of imf)arting a knowledge of this science, 
 should encourage pupils to collect specimens 
 and bring them to school, so as to form a museum 
 that will represent the Geology of the district. 
 Every fact should be illustrated, as far as possible, 
 
m!!^ T^T °' '^"'""'' «"d 'hus an appeal 
 made to the ,j,, and iamf, as well as to th? 
 SO ac f/^ «,„! . * " ^^ ^o the ^^r. 
 
 - would „ake fa™ „fe attract "li^t^^lX' 
 Guelph, April 7. ,8„. ^^ ""''^^ ^-^°"' 
 
f 
 
 appeal 
 he ear^ 
 young 
 Liltural 
 f talks 
 rural 
 nence 
 ctive. 
 
 )N. 
 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 ROCKS AND WHAT CONSTITUENTS THEY ADD TO 
 
 THE SOIL. 
 
 Geology may be defined, as that science which 
 has for its object a knowledge of the earth. In 
 the study of it we have much to do with rocks. 
 A rock, in geological language, is any portion of 
 the earth's crust, and hence the term is as 
 applicable to a bed of sand, clay or gravel, as to 
 a mass of so called rock. 
 
 All rocks belong to one or other of three 
 classes : 
 
 1. Igneous.— They embrace such as those 
 whose origin is associated with the presence of 
 heat, e. g. the product of volcanoes. 
 
 2. Aqueous.— Rocks that have been de- 
 posited in water as sediment and afterwards 
 hardened, belong to this class, e. g., limestone, 
 sandstone; 
 
 3. Metamorphic— These include such as 
 have undergone a marked change, likely through 
 the influence of heat and pressure in the presence 
 of moisture, e. g., slate, marble. 
 
! . 
 
 ^ WHAT THE ROCKS REVEAL. 
 
 z./,^/ V / "^/^^^^^' s"<^n as sandstone, iimestone 
 coal, dolomtie, granite rh^ij. ^'^'"cstone, 
 
 TkI "^'f^^^^f^, chalk, gneiss, trap, guartzite 
 
 Mica, Hornblende CalcL r ' '''''P"' 
 Iron and Serpentin;. ' ^''P"""' ^P''"'^. 
 
 cru« t r,f r' "'" '•' P" ^^'"- 0' '"« earth's 
 
 -?^e:::?j:-rr-^^^^^^^^^^^^ 
 
 composition of soil vi, . n ^ ^ T ""* 
 Sulphur, Carbon, Hydrl„~ cX"' ''!!r 
 
 £rr£^-~^'-^'-ii : 
 
 r^rar;;h?;frr^^^^^^^^^ 
 
 about one-auart*»r «:,'i.v^ »r , '-'xygen and 
 
 .he nUima^X^rhicrr^^^^^^^^^^^^^ 
 
 position of the rocfc*: fr^«, u- l , °"^" 
 
 me rocks from which soil is derived. 
 
WHAT THE ROCKS REVEAL. 7 
 
 These unite and form acuh, as Nitric, Sulphuric, 
 Carbonic, Phosphoric, Sihcic, and also combine 
 to produce l>ases, as Soda, Potash, Magnesia, 
 Lime and Alumina. A union of bases with 
 acids gives rise to Salts, the most common form 
 of compound in rocks and the soil which they 
 form, e. g., Carbonates, Nitrates, Sulphates, 
 Phosphates and Silicates. 
 
 Let us repeat the various steps by which we 
 arrived at our conclusion. 
 
 1. Rocks divided into three great divisions :— 
 Igneous, Aqueous, Metamorphic. 
 
 2. The rocks of these exist in masses, such 
 as Limestone, Coal, Sandstone, etc. 
 
 3. The constituents of the rock masses are 
 such minerals as : Quartz, Gypsum, Feldspar. 
 
 4. Elements which compose the minerals: 
 Oxygen, Potassium, Carbon, etc. 
 
 We shall now consider more definitely the 
 composition of tne minerals referred to. 
 
 I. Quartz consists of silica, a substance con- 
 taining Silicon and Oxygen. Quartz occurs in 
 a variety of forms, such as : P^ock Crystal, 
 Amethyst, Chalcedony, Cornelian, Agate, Jasper 
 

 8 
 
 "-HAT THE ROCKS REVEAL. 
 
 2 FpMc. ■ '^'"^'°fo"ier minerals. 
 
 2. feldspar is one of th 
 
 minerals in rocks r, • """^^ ™portant 
 
 f-W,Ato4, w.and'/C™';r' °' "^'''' 
 bmed as double Silicates e . Ir '' "' ^°'"- 
 ""na (clay) and Silicate of P^'' u "^^^ "^ ^^''■ 
 Feldspar-Orthocia e Si, '* '°™ P"'"^" 
 Silicate Of SodalAbite Si, °' ^"""■■"=' ^-nd 
 and Silicate of I C .' ?" °^ ^'"""•"a 
 'herefore, three le di„7t"°" "'■ ''' ""«• 
 0«hocIase, composed o? J ""' "' ^^'^spar 
 
 ;FroD, this it will be seen h^ ■ 
 ""neral becomes in soil f„ ""P°"""' '^is 
 
 "ay- potash, soda and .mnr ' '' '"'"'""^ 
 P- or broken up b.the^;:-r--- 
 
 ^rthodase is mn«^ ^^ 
 "any of our hard bouWr°" '"" --"« 'n 
 «aImo„-coIored rock. ' '" "'^ «"" as a 
 
 3- Mica consists of x/X>^ / ■ 
 
 4- Hornblende supplies..^, .>,,, 
 
 '■ '""^' ^''^"=- «-^-e and U^Z 
 
WHAT THE ROCKS REVEAL. 
 
 P Quartz, 
 nn'nerals. 
 
 mportant 
 of sinca, 
 are com- 
 ^of AIu- 
 Potash 
 'ina and 
 ^iumina 
 - have, 
 Idspar ; 
 Albite, 
 
 It this 
 plying 
 ecom- 
 ather. 
 
 irs in. 
 as a 
 
 task, 
 
 fsta. 
 one 
 
 have much the same composition, i. e., carbonic 
 acid and /itne. 
 
 6. Gypsum contains sulphuric acid and lime. 
 
 Selenite, a translucent mineral like mica, and 
 alabaster resembling marble, are varieties. 
 
 7. Dolomite is composed of carbonic acid^ ,- 
 lime and magnesia, 
 
 8. Serpentine consists oi silica, magn i a.nd 
 water. 
 
 9. Apatite is a source of phosphoric acid and 
 lime. 
 
 10. Iron is a combination of iron 7ix\^ oxygen. 
 
 11. Chlorite contains alumina, magnesia, iron 
 
 and silica. 
 
 12. Rock Salt is composed of sodium and 
 
 chlorine. 
 
 In the preceeding list we give nearly all the 
 elements that enter into the composition of 
 plants. How the rocks containing these are 
 broken up and decomposed, we shall consider 
 in a subsequent chapter. 
 
 A tabulated statement showing the percentage 
 composition of the most common rocks and 
 minerals from which the ingredients of the soil 
 are derived. 
 
lO 
 
 ^"AT THE ROCKS 
 
 REVEAL. 
 
 Orthoclase, 
 Albite, 
 
 Anorthfte, 
 
 ^bradorite, 
 Andesive, 
 
 Varieties of Feldspar. 
 
 ^f-' Alumina. Poeash. 
 
 6S 
 68 
 
 43 
 62 
 
 53 
 64 
 
 18 
 20 
 
 37 
 24 
 
 30 
 
 24 
 
 ^7 
 
 Soda. Lime^ 
 
 12 
 
 9 
 4 
 S 
 
 20 
 5 
 
 S 
 
 'P^''--^^^^^^^^ -f Quaru, Feld. 
 
 I ! 
 
 "'/f 
 
:al. 
 
 WHAT THE ROCKS REVEAL. 
 
 II 
 
 « 
 
 
 ^m\^\ 
 
 '^coteM 
 
 14. Granite is the same, but the minerals are 
 more in a confused mass. 
 
 15. Trap varies in composition, but usually 
 contains much Feldspar. 
 
 16. Sandstone is chiefly composed of Quartz. 
 
 
 
 ? 
 
 14 H 
 
 i 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 22 
 
 (21). 
 
 ^- Lime. 
 
 20 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 Feld- 
 
CHAPTER n 
 
 Igneous rocks 
 as Eruptive and Un.JL«°"!^"'™^' '<=fe"ed to 
 '""' -•» applied f^oTZlT^' '"^f-™ - 
 'he latter from the,r\„n ' ''" °'' '■°™»"on. 
 refers to their ong,"""'"^"^^' >""'« igneous 
 
 "SStun ,tTLd"^r °^^ - '- 
 '--'ofanin,alorprtWer''°""'^'^"^^«'e 
 
 Occurrence-—^ r • 
 ;ge»- A Bedso;erflo^-n;Z"'!:™^«^'°fa,I 
 'he form of tortuous TZ *P°^"^- '■ l" 
 
 "e-ns as rf^«, „h,.^^ /re son^^r"''^- "^ S™""! 
 -^-p..e masses de:c:rar:r-PPed 
 
 v-onstituents-— a r ■ 
 *"^. /^/*/.., mingled ,orh~""'"^°'^'""-*. 
 
 often occurs as Jff^'' ""'" '''"^"^W,. ft 
 o'-ginaliy melted r^t f r""'*^ "''''es of 
 
 --■»-uc./.v.:nd're''-;£ 
 
 f 
 
WHAT THE ROCKS REVEAL. 
 
 13 
 
 )CKS. 
 
 he 
 
 great di- 
 
 referred to 
 the former 
 formation, 
 
 '^e igneous 
 
 ■^ or less 
 "ossiis (the 
 
 ses of all 
 ts. ^. In 
 (^- Broad 
 -r-topped 
 
 ite IS a 
 ^de. It 
 sses of 
 • Trap 
 when 
 
 it presents a rough form of crystallization it is 
 termed Basalt, d. Trachyte is more or less porous, 
 rough and usually light gray and rich in feldspar. 
 Pumice is a variety, e. Obsidian is a glass-like 
 form of usually dark colored lava. 
 
 Localities: — Lake Superior, Highlands of 
 Scotland, Palisades of the Hudson, Fmgal's 
 Cave, (Basalt), Montreal Mountain, (Trap), and 
 all deposits from Volcanoes in present and past 
 time. The " Devil's Slide," at the entrance to 
 Yellowstone Park, affords an excellent example 
 of two dikes. 
 
 Here two walls 200 feet high, 50 feet thick, 
 with a spjx'ze of 150 feet between them, slope up 
 the side of Cinnabar Mountain 2,000 feet. 
 
 The " Devil's Tower," in the table-lands of 
 Wyoming is 800 feet high. The longest diameter 
 of the base being 326 feet. It consists of a mass 
 of huge crystals of basalt^ some three feet in 
 diameter and these continue unbroken from the 
 bottom to the top. 
 
 This huge obelisk of stone is visible for forty 
 miles. 
 
 The walls are almost vertical, showing only a 
 slight slope, and presents a front that no human 
 being can ever hope to climb. 
 
iiiii 
 
 I ! 
 
 ^ WHAT THE ROCKC »„ 
 
 T,. ^^S REVEAL. 
 
 ^ne Study of th*»Trr« 
 '» 'he origin of .he fr' '?'=' «'^^^ "'' a clue 
 '"« earth's i,uenor a, IV"" "'^ ^°"*'io„ J 
 «<"y of the ear,h. as gJheJT"" ''•"'■ The 
 
 '--'^eseroe.,is^jS:roC:r--- 
 
 '•A period when the p,«k 
 by a glowing „ass of inelnd. ""' '^P-^e^ented 
 A time when it existed , " "h"" ""P"^- *• 
 3- A thin crust formed V^"''"'^"-'! rock. 
 *a'f could descend and '''"'"'''''«" 'he 
 gradually cooling surface Ma "P"" ">e 
 
 "^'•"•es would be made in -t'' "P''""^* ""d 
 ""« a' 'his time f wh ' "'""^ ^°™ed 
 began to emerge and became '^' ^°""''en«s 
 ■a' for redistribution through fhe '°""' "' ""««. 
 «• Final arrangement nf^r*S^"<^y°f water 
 °^ 'be g,obe/ Zliflr^^'^-'^'i'^isiol 
 "■"ory of the earth would '' i''^"' '" '"« 
 /»'" a vast period of ,rme' *'°"'"' ^«end 
 That the p^rtu u 
 
 heated condito" is n ? """ '^ """ m a 
 facts.- ""' "'P'oved by ,he follow^^' 
 
 '» vari '^ro^irsrt -'^ -- 
 
 ^--andVe„owsto„ere-pat'-V;- 
 
EAL. 
 
 gives us a clue 
 
 - condition of 
 It time. The 
 » an examina- 
 
 )IJows : 
 
 '"epresented 
 t vapor. 2. 
 
 "lelted rock. 
 
 5d when the 
 
 upon the 
 
 ^eavals and 
 
 ^^y formed 
 
 continents 
 
 - of mater- 
 y of water. 
 ^ divisions 
 'S '^n the 
 t. extend 
 
 ow in a 
 
 oJlowing 
 
 ^ geysers 
 i, New 
 ^^yom- 
 
 WHAT THE ROCKS REVEAL. 
 
 15 
 
 ing. In this wonderland are 3500 boiling springs 
 and 84 geysers. 
 
 2. Volcanoes^ of which 407 are known. 
 
 3. The temperature in deep mines increases 
 1° for every 60 feet of descent. 
 
 4. Water from deep Artesian Wells is warm. 
 
 5. Presence of Eruptive Rocks far from 
 preStnt Volcanoec, such as in some parts of 
 Lake Superior district, Quebec, Wales and 
 among the Rocky Mountains. 
 
 At the rate of increase of i" in temperature 
 for every 60 feet descent, metals would fuse at 
 a depth of 30 miles. This is allowing the in- 
 crease to be uniform, but such may not be the 
 case. However, the crust of the earth must be 
 comparatively thin compared with the rest of 
 the material of which it is composed. There 
 can be no question, but vast masses of molten 
 material exist in the interior, ready to escape 
 when communication is made with it. With 
 this eruption of molten material Volcanoes and 
 Earthquakes are associated. The origin of Vol- 
 canoes is accounted for as follows : — 
 
 T. A union of chemical elements in the 
 interior of the earth which causes rupturing of 
 
i6 
 
 li'W: 
 
 
 the u ^^viiAL. 
 
 tense heat. ^"^ ^^'^ generation of in- 
 
 «ust results. "^ ^"^ ruptnrmg of the 
 
 "^" 'he sea and g ea If '"""^ "« "^"ally 
 em-tted during an en.nV ""'' °^ ^'«»™ are 
 
 °;VoIcan,cerup.ionI he^:^""^'- ^he resuU 
 of ^-.//i^«. These are r'?'"""""""""""' 
 '"« "«er or „ou.h of the v7' *P°'''^ ^™"' 
 ""Ption, lava, gas L *^"''- during an 
 '<-\ frag^en,; 1 s'e t;;; T^^' ^""^^- an" 
 '"a (Trachyte) cools ,10™ , "''''■ ^tony 
 «Pfy, '^hile spongy p°'V f'^^^nObsidian) 
 b"bbles. Great intefnal r? '^ " ''"" °^ ''P°^ 
 heavals, sometimes "It " ^°"°^"^ •>>• "P- 
 "d giving rise to "oumlf"? i°"« ''■■^'»-' 
 "■°"n«ain chains have bTe„^ ?'"''"• ^ost 
 ''"y; in other words, thev hav "P"" '" ""» 
 
 -n>pIi»gandeIeva;ion In rea'S,?' '°™ '^ 
 
 "e earths crust, and 
 
EAL. 
 
 1 Of Java from 
 
 earth's crust, 
 eration of in- 
 
 'ted interior; 
 "'•■ng of the 
 
 in its favor; 
 are usually 
 " steam are 
 quakes are 
 The result 
 niountains 
 osits from 
 During an 
 iders and 
 '"• Stony 
 Obsidian) 
 of vapor 
 ■^ by up- 
 istances, 
 ^. Most 
 
 in this 
 
 from a 
 Jst, and 
 
 WHAT THE ROCKS REVEAL. 
 
 17 
 
 afterwards become worn by the action of the 
 atmosphere into the variety of forms we see them 
 assume. We may mention here another kind of 
 mountain, that of circumde?iudation. This results 
 from material once around it being all removed, 
 so as to leave the mountain only. We have, 
 therefore, three forms of mountains : a. Eruptive, 
 chiefly Volcanoes; b. Eia>ation, mountain chains; 
 c. Circumdenudation, single and isolated forms. 
 
t';' 
 
 ! Ill 
 
 'Mi 
 
 1 11 
 
 m I 
 
 CHAPTER in. 
 
 AQUEOUS ROCKS dl^rr. 
 ^^-0.3 rocks T, T"""^"''- 
 
 !,nd Stratified, from'hdr ^T"" '' Sedimentary 
 These rocks have been d '"' "PP^^^^nce 
 -•I'-ent, and afterwads tZT. I" "«" - 
 '° ^^ referred to subseqtntt ' ' '''""'' 
 
 Character • Th^ 
 
 °"^ ™cks, less' cry t2C T' '° '"" '^ 18"- 
 
 ;how a sedimentary", ru^;;;?''' '" ">■'"• 
 °^^"- Lake Winrnp";' ^'^."-l "^"""y -contain 
 
 ^°» of how this sedSenf m ' '""^ "'"^•"■ 
 *'"«■•. which emptiest," ™ ^'°"^^'- ^^d 
 very muddy water by theTilv' ""'"' ^°"'^'"» 
 so muddy that the !'^'t '''"'' "'^'"''e, 
 ^undred miles; beyond J T *=''" '"^ •«■<> 
 f''^- What has become of ,h' '"'''' '' q^'te 
 has settled in the lower enrf//' ''*'"^"' ? It 
 vast deposits are co,te,W ,h' '"^ '^^«' -"^ thus 
 'r"l. no doubt, become siid^'^!' "'"■'^''' '" "-"e, 
 """g 'o ,he earth's cTustVf """ '"" »">- 
 examine. Lake GenevI T/^T", ''"'"^'^'^ '» 
 
 ""^^---'--erstd^- 
 
 
WHAT THE ROCKS REVEAL. 
 
 19 
 
 FORMED. 
 
 ' Sedimentary 
 ' appearance. 
 ' •"« water as 
 ^y agencies 
 
 ard as Igne- 
 d in layers, 
 'a'iy contain 
 'od iJIustra- 
 llect. Red 
 -» contains 
 ss the Jake, 
 ^r 'or two 
 ■r is quite 
 nent ? it 
 
 and thus 
 
 ') 'n time, 
 
 dd some- 
 
 'ogists to 
 
 aJso fur- 
 
 niuddy 
 
 water is emptied and clear issues from the other 
 side, leaving the deposits in the lake bottom. 
 Most of our great lakes illustrate how Aqueous 
 or Sedimentary rocks may be formed. 
 
 Occurrence. — These rocks occur over wide 
 areas in thick masses, and usually are very little 
 disturbed from their original position. 
 
 Examples : — Limestone, sandstone and clay 
 beds are in this group. Some have estimated 
 that the earth's crust is made up of fifty miles of 
 Igneous and Crystalline rocks and thirteen miles 
 of Aqueous. 
 
 We also place among Aqueous rocks : Chalk, 
 largely formed from the decomposition of shells 
 and corals ; Marl, a lime deposit in places once 
 covered with water ; Stalactites, icicle-like struct- 
 ures on the roofs of caves; Stalagmites, the 
 deposits on the floors of caves ; Gypsum, Coal 
 and Salt. 
 
 Localities : — Very common throughout On- 
 tario and all places where limestone, etc., are 
 found. 
 
I! 
 
 f I 
 
 <> I 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 «ETAMORPH,c ROCKS 
 
 Metamorphic rocks in.i ^ ■ 
 have undergone grea' cw'' '"''' '' ^-^™ 'o 
 'ieposued ,,ke Aqueous rocks '"'' "^^^ -«'« 
 Character -—Th 
 , .'° Igneous, being uZZT''""''''"""''^'^^ 
 
 Occurrence •— tk H'aced. 
 
 ^tending over wide arlT."'" ""■^'' "^^^es 
 scattered over our field? ' "" " '''''<' ^""^'f'rs 
 
 ^''Ph'.e. Apa.i.,'$ :„^^-. Ta,c. Marb.e. 
 Gneiss is a very comn,„ ' ^"^''' and Iron 
 
 -« or .be ha^dToSr;? '" ? *-" 
 fragments Of it. '" °"r fields bc:;.. 
 
 easSSat^--^ 'Quebec, and .be 
 ^^Wst^rtn':;^' "''- --„ o, 
 
WHAT THE ROCKS REVEAL. 
 
 31 
 
 "ch as seem to 
 'nee they were 
 
 e resemblance 
 talJfne, occur 
 
 nd sometimes 
 >ndition from 
 •laced. 
 
 thick masses 
 lard bouiders 
 
 C' Marble, 
 ' and Iron. 
 is division, 
 ieJds be - 
 
 and the 
 
 stream of 
 
 lalk, they 
 
 graphite 
 
 and marble. Hence the conclusion ree;arding 
 the origin of Mctamorphic rocks is, that, after 
 their deposition as Aqueous rocks, they were 
 submitted to the action of heat in conjunction 
 wiih moisture under great pressure. Their hard- 
 ness and stratified structure seem to indicate this. 
 Their composition closely resembles that of 
 Igneous rocks and leads us to infer that they were 
 likely derived from the first rocks that came into 
 existence. Inasmuch as Aqueous rocks are at 
 first deposited in a soft condition, a question 
 naturally arises how have they become hardened, 
 as we find them to-day in our limestone deposits, 
 and beds of sandstone ? Some one or more of 
 the following reasons will be found sufficient to 
 explain the results in each case : 
 
 I. The cementing action of such coinpounds 
 as lime, iron, silica, in the deposits. We see 
 this illustrated in the action of mortar, a mixture 
 or lime and sand \ the " setting" of Plaster of 
 1 aiis, used by plasterers in molding, and other 
 ornaments upon ceilings, and very forcibly in 
 the construction of pavements on our city streets, 
 by the use of sand and some other compound 
 like lime. This, though as soft as mud, will, in 
 two days, become as hard as the hardest rock. 
 
Hi 
 
 In i: 
 
 i 
 
 i il 
 
 hill • 
 
 ill 
 
 WHAT THE ROCKS REVEAL 
 
 4. Drying exerts a verv i,, ^ • 
 upon clay. '^^'^ hardening influence 
 
 »-'-trLgrsv'"^''""-<^^'''ca 
 
 cementing effec, '" ^'^"''' «"d produce a 
 
 -J/Xpircrc:^tt?-,e^^^^ 
 
 '"'dening or.'deposfts. ^ '° «'"« "'^ to 
 
 ;fii ! ' 
 
% 
 
 EVEAL. 
 
 f bricks, 
 may aid in the 
 
 'en'ng influence 
 
 iron and silica 
 and produce a 
 
 ^s, coraJs, etc., 
 to give rise to 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 FOSSILS, HOW FORMED, AND WHAT THEY RE- 
 VEAL REGARDING THE PAST. 
 
 We have already used the word fossils and 
 simply referred to their presence in some rocks ; 
 but these remains are of such importance that we 
 shall now consider them more fully, and for 
 that purpose we shall endeavor to dfefine what a 
 fossil is, how it v^ formed^ and what inferences can 
 be drawn from its presence in a rock. 
 
 Fossils are the relics or remains of animals 
 or plants imbedded in rocks. A footprint is as 
 much a fossil as the remains of the animal which 
 made it. 
 
 I How VOTTCi^A'.— Partial change. The 
 animal or plant becomes imbedded in the de- 
 posits and undere;oes only a partial change, so 
 that there is no difficulty in identifying the object 
 as that of some animal or plant, in part or whole. 
 Such is seen, when a bone or piece of wood still 
 retains much of its appearance and structure, 
 and yet, to some extent, is petrified. This is 
 what may be termed the simplest form of fossil. 
 
3- Casts • Thf» 
 
 •ng maeeria,, such asTmi' ''™" ^""^ '"fi'trat- 
 
 ' ^^^-j arop out. Th.-o r P' ^^sts of 
 
 common m the.r. . ^ ^°^"^ of fossil /c 
 
 "1 cne rocks at OpI^ r. ' '^ ^ery 
 
 S"'^. and a» pa«,e,e ?„' '/^f^ °^ "-e object bt' 
 
 «nce. This results in » ""I'trating sub 
 
 °^ "'^ whole object /^°™P'"^ ^«P'aceme„; 
 '■eP'-esentation of th" "" P^^^ces a I" !" 
 
 .t:-'>-ha:s:trerthr°'^^- «-- 
 - .meS;.^"--'^ Mar th: ^rc'^" 
 
REVEAL. 
 
 '^^ Object has 
 terwards entirely 
 '[^ °^ '-^s form 
 deposits harden 
 '°" of n.an, as 
 'P^^' space, the 
 
 some fnfiitrat- 
 '^a in solution 
 ^ ^^^'"ng it up, 
 ' "A casts of 
 f fossil IS very 
 
 and Guelph. 
 
 '^trating ma- 
 ' '"n solution, 
 • object be- 
 e substance 
 trating sub- 
 
 -placenient 
 a perfect 
 So com- 
 •""cture of 
 -served in 
 St unique 
 
 WHAT THE ROCKS REVEAL. 
 
 25 
 
 5. Impressions: — To understand how these 
 may have been formed, let us imagine a seashore, 
 where the tide leaves a portion of it exposed 
 nearly twelve hours. During this interval birds 
 and other animals, in search of food, may wade 
 over the soft deposits and leave well marked 
 fooi))rints. The deposits, exposed to the sun, 
 harden, and when the returning tide overlays 
 them with a new layer of clay or sand, the whole 
 is imbedded. If these soft rocks become 
 hardened in time, there is no doubt but such 
 rocks will, on splitting, show many well preserved 
 traces of footprints. Ripple marks and even 
 rain drop impressions may be preserved in the 
 same manner. 
 
 1. Inferences from Fossils: — TAe age of 
 
 rock. Some fossils are the remains of animals 
 that existed only for a short period in geological 
 time. The trilobite, a crab-like creature, be- 
 came extinct about the time of the coal deposits, 
 and, therefore, its presence will indicate rocks 
 before that time. The mastodon did not appear 
 until many systems of rock had been formed. 
 From its remains we infer that the rocks in which 
 they occur are high in the geological scale. 
 
 2. Nature of the Deposits: — Animals and 
 
26 
 
 ; I 
 
 n 
 
 I .ii 
 
 ^I'i^l 
 
 
 plants live unH '"'■ 
 
 "ve under certam ^ 
 
 f^P or shallow, sal, "^L °"''"°"^' ^"^h as in 
 «''«"■ presence as foss Is "h"'' '^"'^l^^mly 
 
 °* 'ake, sea or river A ^^""^ "e snealr 
 
 '"-''^ 'hey conuir ^''""^' ''--ding ,lTe 
 
 3- Citniaie • Mo c 
 
 '■" «'"ng us a ciue to Tr "' °' ""''^ '"'erest 
 ^ney flourish ,-ir,i. • "^P^stthan 
 
 ' i:r:;ne"^---en:':^,;r/-''- -'^ 
 
 K cms, we can understand l *'«member. 
 
 « '°-t makes a grea revell, ' ''''" P'"«"-e 
 donate of ,he pa^ ' 7"^'^"°" concerning the 
 
 ^f « 'here are C:, s^t''^' '"'°- ^^ ^t 
 ^h^ed the climate's '„'oL' :'!! "' '°'-'- Ho. 
 On'ano was beneath a sel 1 °'' '^^^^' '"'en ' 
 never sank below 6S- rt '^ '«"Perature 
 plants, found in our 'co^ b.T"'"' °""«™»t 
 
 ;°«s' and jungle, such as L'f '''"" ' "'"' of 
 regions. ^' '^ only seen in tropical 
 
 Thus v/e sf»#a k /• 
 --thing abo:tti"::°:f- can g,e,„ 
 ;he years long receded "''th °" ~"""-y '" 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 I 
 
REVEAL. 
 
 ^'■f'ons, such as fn 
 3ter, consequently 
 'l^ the condition 
 Hence we speak 
 according to the 
 
 °^ "lore interest 
 of the past than 
 l^'^^ ^'red, saJt 
 ^ J^emember- 
 their presence 
 concerning the 
 hores of Lake 
 •f coral. How 
 se days, when 
 • temperature 
 s of luxuriant 
 -all a time of 
 •n in tropical 
 
 - can glean 
 ■ country in 
 't, and how 
 'g character 3 
 
 e Aqueous I 
 
 -at import- 
 
 WHAT THE ROCKS REVEAL. 
 
 27 
 
 ance in geological evidence regarding changes 
 which the earth has undergone since life appear- 
 ed upon it ; while the Igneous rocks help us to 
 solve some of the marvellous conditions prior to 
 the introduction of life. 
 
INFLUENCES TO Wn/rr, 
 p ^^^ SUBJECTED ^''^''^^CKS 
 
 Constant change IS f. I,- 
 
 ^'" ;ng, as is se?n at CaTe r' "''" "' "<>- 
 «^°"« ^nd Greenland '^' ^'''°"' P''"^ of No,! 
 
 3- Denudation — ti,- . 
 ''«^"eyby„hi,h^^-Th,s change, the great 
 
 ^nief agents of 
 
WHAT THE ROCKS REVEAL. 
 
 29 
 
 r. 
 
 ° ^HICH ROCKS 
 
 ■^ on the earth's 
 -one ceaseless 
 >erations. jsTo 
 genc/es are at 
 ^^ese changes 
 
 ^" ^a^sed, and 
 '■ This may 
 ^ t/^e present 
 erica and of 
 
 ^^ are now 
 ''■ts of JVova 
 
 ^^e great 
 3lace when 
 
 ^^ed, soas 
 cted upon 
 ■ and de- 
 agents of 
 
 denudation are : the atmosphere^ embracing the 
 effect of oxygen, carbonic acid, wind and vapor ; 
 water^ as rain, river, lake, sea and ice ; life^ as 
 animals and plants. The result of one or more 
 of these agents during long periods of time is 
 very effective in breaking up rock, and producing 
 material for the formation of soil. We shall 
 now consider how these forces act upon the 
 earth's crust. 
 
 Oxygen. — The air contains 21 per cent, of 
 
 oxygen, an element that has a very strong affinity 
 
 for nearly all other elements, and especially for 
 
 iron, a very common substance m rocks, notably 
 
 Igneous and Metamorphic. Oxygen changes 
 
 ferrous oxide (FeO) into ferric oxide (FeO) 
 
 2 3 
 which, in the presence of water, has a tendency 
 
 to become hydrate ferric oxide (Yellow Ochre). 
 
 Ferrous carbonate (Feco), in the presence of 
 
 3 
 oxygen, oxidizes and also forms Yellow Ochre 
 
 (Fe O + Ho). . Ferrous oxide (Fe O) is com- 
 
 23 2 
 
 mon in many rocks containing pyroxene, horn- 
 blende and mica. Iron sulphide (Fe s) is also 
 
 2 
 readily acted upon by oxygen to form Yellow 
 
 Ochre. The sulphur forms sulphuric acid, which 
 combines and forms sulphates. We find Fe s 
 
30 
 
 'Ml ^ 
 
 ,M 
 
 ^^^AT THE Roc^c 
 
 ROCKS REVEAL. 
 
 -'v-iva KEVEAT 
 
 y^-d ifmeCe %?"'''■ '"''''■ »>ca. slate 
 ^fone. Th^ u -^^^ presence i<5 ,•„• ^* 
 
 -ferric oxide (Fe O) in -^ ^''^^ '" 
 's insoluble; but H. • ' ^ ^ " '°'^« ^^d rocks 
 
 ^"'""'e and cashes out . . '' ^^^^°). 
 
 •^"■nes decolorized ,K ^ ""^ ™<^k which h' 
 -^ g-es rise "chaSer; "^^^ '"Cv" 
 f^^us carbonate oxL/f. ^"°"' ^P^'^fi/'nfe 
 - -d becomes C;.f- - ^Posure toThe 
 
 ^^Po^.ted at the side of th ^ ?'' "'^'^'' '^ 
 
 "on-c dioxide is pr^e"' 'I'/ ^P""S. but if car 
 ; -'uble iron car'o ' 'V:" ^«^- "ecom 
 '«es ,„ t,vo forms ._ ^'"'^ "-o" accumu. 
 
 s 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 ■a 
 
REVEAL. 
 
 '"^'««' nifca. slate, 
 '^e IS mjurious to 
 •e brought about 
 ^'^a/ton) to com- 
 ^e disintegration 
 '^ ^y the wfth- 
 
 ^"cy of organic 
 ^ great affinity 
 °^<="r even in 
 oils and rocks 
 
 ' "latter with- 
 'errous oxide 
 o^ carbonic 
 '^^e (Feco), 
 
 '^ W'hich be- 
 >"fo springs 
 nngs. -The 
 'ure to the 
 )> which is 
 
 ^ut if car- 
 
 ^ become 
 
 accumu. 
 
 WHAT THE ROCKS REVEAL. 31 
 
 a. Ferrous carbonate (Feco), where organic 
 
 matter is plenty, e. g., in vicinity of coal beds. 
 
 d. Ferric oxide (Fe O), where organic matter 
 
 2 3 
 IS scarce, e. g., beds of iron ore. 
 
 Boulders by the wayside often illustrate some 
 of these changes, by the rusty streaks upon their 
 surface. Where rocks show this presence of 
 oxygen combining with iron, it is only a matter 
 of time when they will be a heap -^f loose ma- 
 terial, forming a contribution to the soil beneath. 
 Iron is one of the most susceptible elements 
 in bringing about the disintegration of rocks; 
 whether it be combined with oxygen, as an oxide, 
 or with sulphur, as a sulphide. Oxygen exists 
 in the air mixed with nitrogen and not chemically 
 combined; consequently it readily separates 
 from it to unite with other elements. 
 
 Carbonic Acid.— This is always in the air, 
 and it, too, is a powerful disintegrating agent in 
 the presence of moisture, especially upon rocks 
 containing carbonate of lime, magnesia or iron. 
 With these, insoluble in water, it combines and 
 forms bi-carbonates, soluble in water ; and thus 
 while breaking up the rocks, it at the same time 
 supplies food in solution for plants. 
 
f/'i 
 
 ^^ VVHAT THE RoCK. p 
 
 ."^"' '"■« form ■ ,K r ""'"' '' chalky sed 
 
 °[ '■■ne has changed ,o k """'"'= "''bonate 
 ^"'•""e m water. Therl ,■ """"'""^'^ °^ C 
 '^e water as before buH '"" '^ "'"^h "">e"^' 
 "■^"ge is going „„'- ™" '^ no„-i„„„.y^, "^ ^^ 
 
 "'« '" the soil.^ '°"^'^""V where carbo„;res 
 
 ^e observe hn 
 
 '"" ''"°^'-«'ed with rain "°" °' ^"'bonic 
 
 {' also has the power ,„ 
 
 and r • ^ and potash rr ^^'"Pounds 
 
 ana ieavinjy ^]« i""i«*i>n, form mo- r-i^k 
 
 mf^ ^ ^^a^' as a res.i?*- r ^ carbonates 
 
 integrated. '^^"^^ from the rock dis- 
 
 Hard as granite is fn ^• • 
 ''^^-'-'edecompo^i;;:™-^^^;'; to Pieces, 
 
 or carbonic acid, 
 
 I 
 
KEVEAL. 
 
 ■^^ by taking some 
 carbonic acid into 
 '^^"gh a tube wiil 
 ' "^'^^-^'ke, and if 
 I ^ ^^alky sedf- 
 ^'^onate of Jin^e, 
 '^^ gas is added,' 
 '^"'shes and the 
 J^ubie carbonate 
 donate of j/^e, 
 ^s niuch Jime in 
 Jnvisibic. Th/s 
 ^^e carbonates 
 
 "scriptions on 
 ^^i no doubt 
 ' °^ carbonic 
 
 •"^ Fe/dspars, 
 compounds 
 ' carbonates 
 '^ ^ock dis- 
 
 ' ^o pieces, 
 
 WHAT THE ROCKS REVEAL. 
 
 33 
 
 4 
 
 ■M 
 
 ' :Z 
 
 ■■f 
 
 bon 
 
 ic acid. 
 
 and supplies sand, clay, oxide of iron, and the 
 alkaline matters washed out. Illustrations of 
 these changes in granite are seen at the base of 
 Pike's Peak and other mountains around Color- 
 ado Springs where great heaps of disintegrated 
 granite lie. Even slate in some cases undergoes 
 dissolution in a somewhat similar manner. In 
 this compound we have not only a powerful 
 agent in the destruction of rock, but also a great 
 provider of soluble material suitable for plant 
 food. 
 
 Wind.— The effect of wind is seen more 
 especially in districts where sand is common, 
 or along the seashore, where particles of sand 
 blowing constantly against rock, in time beat 
 holes into it, which enlarge and bring about 
 results in rock destruction almost incredible, 
 were they not borne out by actual facts. The 
 shifting of the " sandhills " in Manitoba, near 
 Brandon, and those of Prince Edward County, 
 Ontario, are also illustrations of what wind may 
 do as a denudating force. 
 
 Rain.— It is not difficult to understand how 
 rain may be a powerful factor in grinding down 
 rock, both as a mechanical and chemical force. 
 Every rain storm lays bare much surface, by 
 
Jll 
 
 34 
 
 ^VHAT THE ROCK. . 
 
 '^OCKS REVEAL. 
 
 simply washin 
 
 fo-- further wear; then S„ ? « '''■"'' ^"ftces 
 ^'.P"^e ,va.er and a »1 '°'^^"">"'on, both 
 ^;'<^' ■■'« effects upo Z^ T'''''"'"^ --^on c 
 "■" contains more or ! T "''y e'e^t. All 
 
 ;°"« from the ir„r '''''"'''■ ''"'>^ 
 •"'""Sh Which it paLel '""'' "°"' 'he .o^! 
 
 ''iii'Ml 
 
 4 
 
 .A 
 
% 
 
 REVEAL. 
 
 '•'■^1 from hillsides 
 "g fresh surfaces 
 ^ent action, both 
 taming carbonic 
 ^^^y great. aJJ 
 's acid, derived 
 ^'■om the soil, 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 THE WORK OF RIVERS, ETC. 
 
 V?/r'm.— The influence of rivers, as denuda- 
 ting agents, depends upon their length, volume, 
 slope and the nature of their bed and banks! 
 They also act mechanically and chemically. In 
 their course they form "Valleys of Denuda- 
 tion"; these have strata of the same character 
 on opposite sides. A few rivers may be given 
 here to illustrate what important agents they 
 become in denadation. 
 
 Niagara River has cut its way|through a bed 
 of rock over 150 feet thick, a distance of 7 miles. 
 It is estimated that the Falls recede 3 feet 
 annually, and were at Lewiston^i5,ooo years ago. 
 
 The Mississippi deposits at its mouth annually 
 7,471,400,200 cubic feet, and cuts down its whole 
 drainage basin one foot in 5,000 years. This 
 IS sometimes represented as equivalent to 50,000 
 acres of sediment, three feet deep. The Delta 
 at its mouth contains 13,600 square miles, 528 
 teet deep. The Ganges has deposited a Delta 
 
36 
 
 
 equivalent tn -,« 
 
 of the Rhine to Europe xtt n ' =°'""''"«o„ 
 °f doming, has cut out al °"^'°"^«-"- 
 "°°-'5oo feet deep 1 ^T '' ""'" '°"g 
 ''domed with all th!' cT '' °^ "^'^^ are 
 The Colorado R ver i„ ° '' "' ^"'""»' 'eave/ 
 has cut out X4 cr„;™;. 7"^^: °^ '.°- miles 
 Canyon. 65 „„es long^L waH ^' '"■"' *'"■"« 
 ""d the Grand Can.tj!"!','^""/"^" •>'«"• 
 ^ho»s ,n some places Uils 6 " '" '^"S'"' 
 •composed of ,,600 fee, of ''°° '"" ^igh, 
 sandstone, 800 of qua ' f '"'!"°"^' ''°o°o 
 «=°'0'ed gneiss. The'g" L"h '°° °^ <'-" 
 '" 'he world. The Mam2h r ^''"''^^' S°^8« 
 ""'h its «3 avenues ave^J "" '" ^^""'^ky, 
 '"d width, represeCg"?;:^ "/^« - heigh'' 
 g^und passages, is largelv th " ', °' """"■ 
 terranean river since S "■""' "^ a sub- 
 «f'er threading your laf r'"' '^'''- ^o-day, 
 you come tofhrEcho P "''^"^ ">^^« '"«el 
 :="» «ail for a mile and w' '"^" "'"■<='' ^o" 
 J°-ney for six miles far.htat' T"'""^ ^°" 
 avenues, shrouded in ete"na,d °"' "' ''""^e 
 Byhe action ofth- ''"'' S'°°»- 
 
 '--ebeenwXS'e:.:::?'"'''^^^*- 
 
 ' "'J"'"'ent to the remov- 
 
 h..V| 
 
EVEAL. 
 
 ^^- Egypt is the 
 the contribution 
 "owstone River, 
 e '2 miJes Jong,' 
 ' of which are 
 autumn leaves, 
 of i,ooo miles, 
 St two, Marble 
 i'Soo feet high, 
 ^es in length,' 
 °° feet high, 
 one, 2,000 of 
 Soo of dark 
 randest gorge 
 in Kentucky, 
 eet in height 
 s of under- 
 '^ of a sub- 
 s' To-day, 
 f^ree miles, 
 ^hich you 
 'tinue your 
 -se strange 
 ^nd gloom. 
 
 ■e galleries 
 he remov- 
 
 es 
 J 
 
 I 
 
 tf 
 
 WHAT THE ROCKS REVEAL. 37 
 
 al of 1 2,000,000 cubic yards of limestone. Such 
 examples at once impress us with the striking 
 results effected by rivers in transporting sedi- 
 ment and disintegrating rock. 
 
 From observations made as to the rate at 
 which rivers deposit sediment and cuf out gorges, 
 the rate at which stalactites form in caves, and 
 mountains wear away by denudation, Geologists 
 are able to calculate the relative time that has 
 been required to bring about changes that have 
 occurred in the ages long receded into the past. 
 Such agents of change— sedimentation, erosion, 
 construction and denudation— may be termed 
 geological clocks. 
 
 Lakes and Seas.—Tht effect of large bodies of 
 water upon a rocky shore is seen by the forma- 
 tion of " Outliers" and Caves. The former re- 
 sult, where the waves succeed in separating a 
 portion of the main rock, by cutting around it 
 and causing it to appear like a detached rock in 
 the water. 
 
 Caves may be formed in four ways : a. by the 
 elevation of rock, as in many parts of the Blue 
 Ridge Mountains of Virginia; b. along the shore, 
 where a place is exposed to the action of the 
 
38 
 
 I' t 
 
 
 waves, as Fin^al'.. r-o 
 
 Kenmct,, or tklwy^,^:, r"r ""'" ^avef 
 toes beneath iava bed" ' °'^'"'''''-' d. some- 
 
 ■''«— The action of thk ,c ^. 
 agent upon rocks is best Z ^ '''^'"'egrating 
 » perpetual snow line LS" "Tr""'"^^ *''"« 
 ""^■•easing until so much !' '"""' ''^eps 
 
 mountain tops, that i" finairr"'''" °" '"' 
 the valley, if ,h, ^oumain , '' ''°"" '"'o 
 body of snow and ice wil l^'^Pf '^ ^'^^P. 'he 
 ^errific rapidity and fore" T ^"""^"^ «'"> 
 ''^fore it. This is an^ 'T^'"^ ^""^'^ing 
 °«"r in the Rock^ Mout "'■ "'^^ "^en 
 Warently cut through fo^^' \^' ^^enues. 
 
 "de, indicate to an observer k "" "'^ ™°"«'"» 
 avalanche. If the ,,° ""^ P^'hway of an 
 
 o;- Will n.ove ow^r,^ r"^«-dua, I ,oTy 
 
 <"■-«• Themovem ntofrh '^''"''^•"^"^er 
 «<>' exceeding ^-xcinl ""'' ''^ "^'y ^'ow 
 
 '""d bordering LsyrZ""^ '"^''^ ''^"-=«'' 
 fl-e sea, or a place in the' n T""''^' ^''her 
 P"an,re is sufficien: t ^^^ ."f"^ '"^ '-■ 
 and becomes the source ofT ' "^ " "elts 
 «» terminus boulders, g'avel ""';' '"/ '^"^'^ "' 
 
 .gravel, sand and clay, which 
 
 I..' 
 
EVEAL. 
 
 ^f Staffa; c. by 
 fammoth Cave, 
 '^'■^na ; d. some- 
 
 ^ clisintegrating 
 countries where 
 fie snow keeps 
 'ulates on the 
 v'es down into 
 ' be steep, the 
 own ward with 
 1^ everything 
 / they often 
 f'^e avenues, 
 ^e mountain 
 thway of an 
 "al the body 
 w<?/-, or river 
 •every slow, 
 but it will 
 -ks beneath 
 'hes either 
 - the tem- 
 e it melts 
 scatters at 
 ^ay, which 
 
 WHAT THE ROCKS REVEAL. 
 
 39 
 
 
 it has formed and gathered in its course through 
 mountain ravines. The Muir Glacier, of Alaska. 
 has a frontage three miles wide where it enters 
 the water and three hundred feet high. If you 
 could see the whole face it would represent a wall 
 of ice looo feet high. Every ten mmutes a new 
 iceberg is formed at its front, and as it falls into 
 the water the sound is heard three miles away. 
 
 This glacier moves eight feet per day and has 
 200 tributaries. Its greatest length is 50 miles, 
 and it is 20 miles wide where the tributaries meet, 
 but narrows as it reaches the sea. It is almost 
 as large as all the glaciers of Switzerland put 
 together. 
 
 Some of the glaciers in the Alps are 20 miles 
 long, 1-3 miles wide, 300-600 feet deep. The 
 Humboldt, of Greenland, is 45 miles wide and 
 300 feet thick. 
 
 Where the glacier reaches the sea it pushes 
 out for a distance, the end breaks off and gives 
 rise to an icedgr^. Such are seen floating from 
 northern places to the Gulf of St. Lawrence. 
 Some are 300 feet high, and sometimes only a 
 seventh is above water. There is always from 
 4-7 times as much below as above the water. 
 
f 'megrating the rol ,^ T''"'"' '"""ence ^ 
 F'-o". as it occurs ,n tU ^ '!!"'""°"^*«"«s. 
 ^'""g 'he banks of a Wve ?„! "^^"^^ "^ ^"^l^^ 
 
 <'-"''-s,b.bu..,„,r;erso7.:r'"'^'-- 
 
 , -"-h serve as wedg "bX^t'"^ '"""' ^'°"'^' 
 f « causes .he opSn^''''"'"''^ deeper as ,he 
 
 "•"ch of the debris r/«/„J<, /''" "'^■^"""ts for 
 »--a;„sorafongI:t/brr''''^''''-<'^ 
 
 -o wh.-ch'itT^;t- ^;-. ^- P-ages 
 """erial near, so as Tdfs 1 '"" '"^ "PO" 'he 
 ''^^. a great benefit fn ,ht T'' ''• "'°""' 
 ;*mated by able invest J°:*- ^' ''=■» been 
 '"e surface soil at the ra f '.'' "J '"'^ '""«»« 
 y^^'riy. by 'hedepo!itTo' °f°r'''"'''"^''"-"ch 
 
 ^^Pressed in other Zdradd T '''''"«'• O'. 
 
 *'"<'edrock,oanacrerhU''°-<'f«ne,; 
 
 The holes thev f 
 
 -■" -d air, in U°ZyZ f "<^ P^-^" ^r 
 men." "^^ are "nature's plough. 
 
REVEAL. 
 
 •^ hov fee in alJ 
 -rf"! influence fn 
 ^tainous districts 
 <^'-acks of rocks 
 ' on mountains, 
 5 of rock. 
 
 ^ be very large, 
 ^e small stones, 
 ^ deeper as the 
 "d; until they 
 s accounts for 
 « the base of 
 
 ^orni passages 
 ^ct upon the 
 - It- VVorms 
 It has been 
 they increase 
 h «fan inch 
 castings, or, 
 ns of finely 
 
 WHAT THE ROCKS REVEAL. 
 
 41 
 
 
 Plants, while living, act upon rocks with acids 
 formed in the minute root cells. This has been 
 shown by growing plants on marble, when its 
 surface becomes quite corroded and eaten into 
 from the solvent action of the liquids in these 
 cells. When dead, the plant in decaying gives 
 rise to carbonic acid, itself a great solvent, and 
 as decay of the roots proceeds leaves passages 
 suitable for the access of air and water. From 
 the facts referred to on denudation, the reader 
 will readily see what an enormous change must 
 be constantly going on where these agencies are 
 at work, and that their combined action tends to 
 the preparation of material important in the for- 
 mation of soil. 
 
 assages for 
 2's plough- 
 
,"«^!i|i 
 
 iiuumili 
 
 
 CHAPTER VIII 
 '"bterranean forces Tp^TTr^'' "^'^"^ °f 
 
 l^he direction of the rl^ , 
 ;»^'es to this is calied L "f^r-r ."' " =" "^'^ 
 fracture, a "fau,,.' w„, ,,/ "''^ ^^ 'he rock 
 
 «;ata ofone side will no 'c^'""" ""^ 'he 
 °"'-- % this means Ok are T"' "'" '"« 
 brought into view as an " Fv '" '■''■^^'' ^"d 
 
 "-ked „ay be styled an ""ot"'"^"'' '^^"''^ 
 change three forms of VaHev, ? ^^ 'h'^ 
 «• A Valley Dislocation wKf ? "^ P~<^"ced. 
 P°«"e «des do no ?: *^ '"-"'a on op- 
 
 t^ndulation resulting CS^ "• ^^"^^ of 
 
 'hat the strata dip toward T"^ °''^' '°'^ks, 
 
 ey of Elevafon is forleTot k'''"^^' '■ ^^'- 
 
 from 'he folding of str"! Th "u^'' ^"""'"S 
 
 ''^"'"■on, yet it mayoc uDvI/"*" " ^'"^^ °^ 
 
 ---vingsu„k4ri:-£:ahythe 
 
f 
 
 I WHAT THE ROCKS REVEAL. 43 
 
 \ flowing upon it so as to cut out a channel. The 
 strata on both sides in this case dip from the 
 valley. 
 
 Where the strata of rocks are parallel to one 
 another the term comformable is used, and where 
 they are not, unconfortnable. The latter indicates 
 a great lapse of time between the two periods at 
 which the deposits were laid down. 
 
 5- Metamorphism.— This change is pro- 
 duced by pressure, heat and moisture acting 
 together. It changes clay to slate, chalk to 
 marble and causes "Cleavage" a tendency of 
 rocks to split into an indefinite number of thin 
 layers independent of the layers of stratification, 
 e. g., mica and slate. 
 
 It may be confined to a limited portion (local) 
 or extend over a wide area (regional) as is repre- 
 sented in the northern parts of Canada, where 
 these rocks are common, e. g., Muskoka, etc. 
 
 An examination of the earth's crust, in all parts 
 of the world, shows that it consists of regular 
 layers, that these layers always occupy the same 
 relative position to one another, that is to say, 
 that if the layers are numbered i, 2, 3, 4, 5, 
 etc., you will never find 4 above 5, 6 above 8. 
 
< ' 
 
 «ny place in regular o de, I? '''T"''" "' 
 '" ft« no district has au' t T """'''«'«. 
 'hM a place is usuZ h '^"^ "^ ''^^'^ 'earned 
 ^^n receive a de^ a„d r "' ?'^^' ""^f"^ " 
 »'e submerged at he sa» " ^ "'^'^ "" ^''-" 
 have characteristic foss, ! T '^^' '"y^^ 
 . '""e of the most ilnl ,' '° """ ''y '^"owing 
 ■ 'he position of^hlleoT'"!' "' '' °"'' '^-o' 
 Remembering thesft:r^"^°'<^' "^^^^ -• 
 ""« is composed of layers „?V"~"'' ^"'"'^ 
 ""ye's ; these layers arjt ' f '"" ^ ^" 'he 
 "'yerhasitscharacer'llT"' "''^^' ''"^h 
 ^'-<' how it is PC We ,0 miV ^' ^^ ""<'- 
 arrangement of the 1° ^^ * systematic 
 represented in the earth sTust;"' '""""""^ 
 
 The absence of cprta,., i 
 f"', by the fact, that the t v^"' '" ^<^eounted 
 "hove the sea, when tl.V '" "'"'*' has been 
 
 or 'hat they Crfm f/ettt "T """^ '^-" ^ 
 «"«y- A third exDlanatin • * ''""" ''^^hed 
 'h« the place was ^m" "r^'™" «"■-"' 
 beyond the influence of ^ ''"■"""'' "O" 
 usually confined to Dort?n\, , i""" '''"^h is 
 nearer the shore ' °^ "'^ ^ea bottom, 
 
 I 
 
REVEAL. 
 
 '^e, for it enables 
 2rs represented at 
 le may be absent, 
 we have learned 
 ' water, before it 
 otiikeJyaJi//^^^^ 
 
 '"«• The layers 
 hat by knowing 
 'e at once know 
 •cords before us. 
 >s:— the earth's 
 aJace has all the 
 ar order; each 
 we can under- 
 s a systematic 
 -k formations 
 
 ' is accounted 
 ther has been 
 •re Jaid down ; 
 been washed 
 etimes given, 
 -a, that it was 
 5n which is 
 sea bottom, 
 
 WHAT THE ROCKS REVEAL. 
 
 45 
 
 i 
 
 The layers of rock which compose the earth's 
 crust are usually grouped into Ages, Systems and 
 Formations. The Ages being the most compre- 
 hensive. 
 
 Comparing the stony records of geology to a 
 book on history, we may call the Ages, volumes ; 
 the Systems, periods; and the Formations' 
 chapters. 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 THE ^TONY RECORDS. 
 
 Below is a tabulated statement, showing the 
 different Ages and Systems, and some of the 
 striking characters in each System. The Forma- 
 tions into which these Systems are divided in 
 Ontario, are given at the close of chapter XI. 
 
i;-)!ni! 
 
 46 
 
 WHAT THE ROCKS REVEAL. 
 
 3 
 
 & 
 H 
 < 
 
 2 
 
 < 
 
 O C3 
 
 ^ a 
 
 
 w 
 
 ten 
 
 H 
 to 
 
 >- 
 
 t/3 
 
 a 
 
 C <J 
 
 C oj 
 
 to 
 
 c c 
 o O 
 
 
 ■r-'j:: o 
 
 OJ lu u o c .t; 
 
 <u i3 !« <« a 9 
 
 "* J? i; 
 
 s s 
 
 C Rl 
 
 5 c 
 
 S 
 
 
 C 
 
 o 
 o 
 u 
 
 
 o 
 
 c 
 
 
 ID >« 
 
 <-> k. 
 
 W .S 
 
 S u 
 
 OJ 
 
 r 
 t( 
 t( 
 I 
 
 IV 
 
V'EAL. 
 
 3{^ oT 
 
 . a Oh 
 
 ; « 2 
 : so 
 
 a, „ 
 
 CL, r 
 o o 
 
 o o 
 
 2 2 
 
 S a 
 
 WHAT THE ROCKS REVEAL. 
 
 ^S 
 
 
 a 
 o 
 u 
 
 
 a: 
 
 H 
 
 47 
 
 lO 
 
 The Ages are named according to the con- 
 dition of hTe at the time. The Systems are 
 called in some cases (Huronian, Devonian, etc.,) 
 from places where they are well represented; 
 in others (Carboniferous, Cretaceous,) from the 
 nature of the deposits in the rocks ; and in some 
 (Eocene, Miocene, etc.,) from the resemblance 
 of life to that of the present day. 
 
 In giving examples of localities where certain 
 rocks are found, we shall refer more particularly 
 to Ontario, when they are represented, but if not, 
 to other parts of Canada, the United States and 
 Europe. 
 
 c 
 
 S 
 
 "5 .3 
 
 & 0) 
 
 •3 H 
 
 O "I 
 
 00 M 
 
 
 
 00 
 
 O 
 
 N 
 
 o 
 
M 
 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 . ™^ VOLUME ABOUT MINERALS 
 
 -iiie term Archaean (anc ent) has 
 
 used b •. th^ H- '"" ^^°" <"'*°'" W«) «='' 
 led to a change, and Echoic (dawn of life) was 
 subs ,tu,ed. As many did noi believe ,hey we e 
 OSS. s. he .e™ Archaean (ancien.) was appL 
 as be,ng a correct one, under the circumstances 
 Th.s Age, .ncluding 50,000 feet of rock ^ 
 
 rHrni::.°"'"°^^'--'--^"-a: 
 
 ,n^*^'"^"*'?" System.-This ««„. has been 
 apphed to the period on account of the rocks 
 be.„g well represented along .he shores o"h 
 Ix)wer St Lawrence. It is largely a mineral area 
 Na,u.e^The rocks are hard, crystalline, more 
 present the appearance of granite. Though we 
 
WHAT THE ROCKS REVEAL. 
 
 49 
 
 ERALS. 
 
 tinguished for 
 3cks, rich in 
 (ancient) has 
 dest rocks we 
 hout life) was 
 3posed fossils 
 1 ofh'fe) was 
 ive they were 
 
 was applied, 
 rcumstances. 
 
 of rock, is 
 SjLaurentian 
 
 we has been 
 3f the rocks 
 lores of the 
 lineral area. 
 
 alline, more 
 ' and often 
 rhough we 
 
 find Quartz, Mica and Feldspar here, yet it is 
 not in a confused mass, as in granite, but in 
 layers. The rocks often show veins containing 
 mineral ores. 
 
 Loca/i/ies.—ThesQ rocks are found along the 
 north bank of the rivet St. Lawrence, in parts of 
 Quel ec, throughout Muskoka, east side of Lake 
 Winnipeg, and extending north to the Arctic 
 Ocean. Between Morrisburg and Kingston, on 
 the G. T. R., is an area of this rock. Many of 
 th- boulders scattered throughout fields in On- 
 tario belong to this system ; how they came here 
 will be answered in a chapter on the Ice Age. 
 
 Li/e.—M^ny geologists are sceptical about 
 any life existing, when these rocks were formed ; 
 but of late years specimens have been discovered 
 in Ontario which seem to indicate that life existed 
 in Laurentian times. 
 
 The representatives oi life, if any, were con- 
 fined to the sea. The fossil said to be found in 
 these rocks is called Eozoon Canadense and is 
 recognized by some eminent authoritities, (not- 
 ably Sir J. Wm. Dawson) as a tiue fossil. 
 
 The reasons usually set forward in support of 
 the view, that the Laurentian rocks were deposit- 
 
so WHAT THE ROCKS REVEAL. 
 
 ed as Aqueous and afterwards underwent a 
 great change, so as to completely modify their 
 general structure and appearance, are : 
 
 r. The presence of limestone which was likely 
 a product of life. 
 
 2. Beds of Graphite, a form of carbon likely 
 derived from plants. 
 
 3. Deposits of Iron Ore, the accumulation of 
 which ,s largely dependent upon the presence of 
 decaying organic matter, as referred to in chapter 
 VI. Iron thus becomes a sign of life and a 
 measure of its amount. 
 
 4. The presence of fossil Eozoon Canadense. 
 
 5; The beds are often in layers, indicating a 
 sedimentary structure. 
 
 Bcomm^c /'/^.../..-Limestone, serpentine, 
 iron ore, asbestos, apatite, graphite, mica, galena ' 
 and some gold. 
 
 Huronian System.-This name is given on 
 account of large areas of it along the northern 
 shores of Lake Huron. 
 
 JVa/ur,.-.The rocks are hard but not so 
 crystalline as the preceding; considerable con- 
 
 li ml 
 
WHAT THE ROCKS REVEAL. 51 
 
 glomerate (pebbles and fragments of rock 
 cemented together in a solid mass) is found 
 among them. Many of the rocks indicate a 
 shore deposit, that has become hardened and 
 consolidated. Great masses of Quartzite occur 
 here, some slate and in some places areas of 
 trap. 
 
 £om'i/y.~The district around the northern 
 shores of Lake Huron, Georgian Bay and the 
 islands in that vicinity. 
 
 Life.~\\. is claimed by some that fossil worm 
 tracks and some obscure forms of sponges have 
 been discovered. A doubtful fossil resembling 
 Eozoon has been reported in the Lower Huron- 
 ian of Europe. 
 
 Economic Pro ducts. —Qo^y^tx and Silver ores, 
 Gold, Iron and Nickel. 
 
'il 
 
 CHAPTER XI. 
 
 THE SOURCE OF GAS, SALT, GYPSUM AND 
 PETROLEUM. 
 
 Palaeozoic Age.-This age is represented 
 by 70,000 feet of rock and includes six systems 
 During ir many animals appear, but they are 
 largely confined to the sea, and do not number 
 many species ; the plants are flowerless and the 
 fish have cartilaginous skeletons instead of bone 
 The seas were thronged with moUusks before the 
 volume closed. 
 
 Cambrian System.-The name Cambrian 
 tefers to Cambria in Wales, where the rocks of 
 this system are well represented. 
 
 ^a//.^...-ConsiderabIe sandstone is found 
 among the rocks of this period, some quartzite, 
 slate and some limestone. 
 
 Localities.--^ somewhat triangular area con- 
 taining much of this system is found extending 
 from about Morrisburgh on the G. T. R to the 
 junction of the Ottawa and St. Lawrence Ri ers • 
 also in some parts of New Brunswick. ' 
 
WHAT THE ROCKS REVEAL. 
 
 53 
 
 'SUM AND 
 
 Zifg.— There is no doubt but that traces of 
 animal and plant life occur in these deposits. 
 Seventy-two species of trilobites, (crab-like crea- 
 tures), some corals, crinoids, (sea lilies), cuttle 
 fish, worm tracks and some brachiopods, (allied 
 to lamp shells), have been found in these rocks. 
 The peculiar tree-like fossils near Kingston are 
 located in these depop'*^'^ 
 
 Economic Product • aese are gold, copper, 
 iron, manganese, asbestos, soapstone, and sand- 
 stone suitable for building,, (see Parliament 
 Buildings, Ottawa), glassmaking, and some hard 
 enough for whetstones. 
 
 Cambro - Silurian.~The name implies a 
 transition between the Cambrian below and the 
 Silurian above. 
 
 Nature.— The deposits of this period consist 
 chiefly of limestones. In some of the earlier 
 rocks evidences of metamorphism are present 
 and the rocks show a disturbed condition. 
 
 Locality.— The area lying between Kingston 
 and Weston on the G. T. R., and extending 
 northward, embraces rocks of this system . Whit- 
 by, Toronto, Peterboro and Bowmanville are 
 upon it. 
 
54 
 
 WHAT THE ROCKS REVEAL. 
 
 .1 I 
 
 Lif€.~T\it remains of animals and plants are 
 now quite plentiful. Corals are very common 
 Graptohtes (so. le not unlike a minute saw) are 
 very numerous m Quebec. Trilobites are very 
 numerous. Many large fossils, of forms allied 
 to the cuttle fish, are obtained. The writer found 
 one SIX mches in diameter in rocks at Oshawa 
 The shells consisted of a series of chambers, the 
 last bemg occupied by the animal. 
 
 The straight forms are known as Orthoceratites 
 Plant life was still confined to the sea. 
 
 Economic Products. -Urc^^^ion^^ largely used 
 for buildmg purposes and the manufacture of 
 lime; Sandstone, used in making glass- Bitu- 
 mmous Shale, once used for the production of 
 coal oil, (Utica Slate formation at Collingwood) 
 the source of Gas. (Trenton formation), some 
 Marble and also Hydraulic Limestone (Quebec 
 formation), and Lithographic Stone. 
 
 Silurian System.— This name is derived 
 from the word Silures, the name of an ancient 
 tribe of Britons, who lived in the West of 
 England, where the rocks of this period have 
 been studied. 
 
 -A^a///;vr.-These rocks are chiefly dolomitic 
 
WHAT THE ROCKS REVEAL. 
 
 S5 
 
 limestone, (a combination of lime and magnesia 
 with carbonic acid) but in some places a soft red 
 sandstone appears. 
 
 Locality, — In Ontario the area over which the 
 G. T. R. passes from Weston to Baden, embraces 
 rocks of this system. 
 
 Life. — Fossils are innumerable in deposits of 
 this system. So common have shells become, 
 that it is known as the "Age of Mollusks." 
 Many remains of seaweed occur; a very charac- 
 teristic one (Arthrophycus) is found in rocks 
 near Grimsby. A fossil land plant has been 
 found. Corals also abound. In Europe remains 
 of fish have been found at the summit of Silurian 
 rocks. In 1888 some remains of fish were found 
 in these rocks in New Brunswick. 
 
 The Silurian species has been estimated as 
 718 corals, 1,579 trilobites, 1,567 brachiopods, 
 1,086 bivalve shells, 1,306 univalves, 40 fishes. 
 
 Economic Products.— ^2\\. (Goderich), gypsum 
 (Paris), building stone (Forks of the Credit), 
 Dolomite for building purposes and the manu- 
 facture of lime (Guelph), lithographic stone (near 
 Walkerton). 
 
 The deposits containing gypsum and salt are 
 

 ■I ■* 
 
 «i 
 
 56 WHAT THE ROCKS REVEAL. 
 
 supposed to have originated partly i„ salt lakes 
 or tnlets of the sea. while rapid ev'pora.ionta 
 
 che^r^ '"' ■' '°T ''''°""' '°' "'^'» by a simple 
 chem,cal un.on of the elements of which they 
 are composed. ' 
 
 It was likely a time of elevation and dry 
 chmate wuh deserts .nd salt lakes, ^ 
 
 of '^LT^"""" ^"°'^ '"""' '° ^^'^ been a time 
 of^shallow seas, warm climate and life largely^ 
 
 Silence was a leading feature of those days • 
 ounT 7' "° """"^'^ ^^P^ble Of malg 
 
 rjed toth?i"° '"'-''" ^'-' "^^ ^^- 
 
 nami:r:dihr:ioft':; '-r-i °^ 
 
 over the bare rocks. ' "'"'' '"^'''"8 
 
 -h^^cSrS.-'^'^-^^'-PPearance 
 
 pevonian Period.-The name Devonian 
 
 Tpotd th ■" "T" '" ^"S'-"- Some h te 
 applied the name £nau to this system on account 
 
 Lake ir Tr"""^ deposits found aZ 
 ScotLd ^'"^""'^O"^^^'' Sandstone Of 
 
 i' IB ' 
 
WHAT THE ROCKS REVEAL. 
 
 57 
 
 n salt lakes 
 oration was 
 by a simple 
 which they 
 
 1 and dry 
 
 een a time 
 ■ largely in 
 
 ose days; 
 )f making 
 'ife being 
 
 )aning of 
 d rushing 
 
 pea ranee 
 
 )evonian 
 nie have 
 account 
 d about 
 stone of 
 
 Nature. — In Scotland sandstone is common 
 among the deposits; but in Ontario they are 
 largely limestone, clay beds and some sandstone. 
 
 Locality. — The area included between Baden, 
 on the G. T. R., and Sarnia lies within this 
 system. With this period the geology of Ontario 
 ended, until the 15th (Pleistocene) was reached, 
 when the Province received another donation. 
 During the vast period of time including seven 
 systems, Ontario was at a geological standstill, 
 as far as receiving further deposits. It is likely 
 the rocks were above the sea, and thus not in a 
 position to receive additions to the beds already 
 formed. 
 
 Life. — The advance of life, both plant and 
 animal, is very marked. Land plants are com- 
 mon in the form of ferns, and trees similar to 
 pines; they indicate the presence of forests. 
 Fish are so plentiful, that this has been termed 
 the " Age of Fishes" ; these were of a peculiar 
 '•'pe, known as ganoids. 
 
 The skeleton was cartilaginous, and hence 
 boneless ; the body was covered with plates, or 
 firm scales, and the tail was unequally lobed. 
 They were wonderful in variety, size and num- 
 
58 
 
 WHAT THE ROCKS REVEAL. 
 
 \ m 
 
 lihi 
 
 ber, and were prepared either to attack or defend 
 themselves against their enemies. 
 
 The Dinichthys was a huge form, whose 
 remains have been found in Ohio ; its head was 
 3 feet in length and the body as great in diameter ; 
 while the length of the creature was fully 30 feet! 
 Supplied with tusks I foot long, it became a 
 terrible engine of destruction in the nameless 
 seas of Devonian times. 
 
 Coccosleus, .Cephalaspis, Pterichthys are fossil 
 forms referred to in nearly every geology, as types 
 of these peculiar forms of animal life. It was 
 among the fossils of the Old Red Sandstone 
 Hugh Miller labored with such distinguished 
 success, and in describing them, became famous 
 for his descriptive powers. Corals were very 
 abundant; 75 species are reported in the rocks 
 along the shores of Lake Erie, and insects' re- 
 mains have been discovered. 
 
 Economic Products. —WhW^ a certain amount 
 of limestone is obtained frc n these rocks, the 
 great^ product is petroleum, its source being in 
 the Corniferous formation of this system. 
 
 Regarding the origin of this valuable product, 
 two explanations have been set forward, a. The 
 
WHAT THE ROCKS REVEAL. 
 
 59 
 
 distillation of bituminous coal. b. The decom- 
 position of organic matter, chiefly vegetable. 
 The oil is generally found in a porous dolomite 
 limestone, a few feet in thickness and compara- 
 tively soft. Two well known fields exist in 
 Ontario :— Petrolia and Oil Springs, with about 
 2,500 wells, from which petroleum is being 
 obtained. 
 
 All petroleum is not derived from Devonian 
 rocks,. Canadian is derived from lower Devonian 
 (Corniferous); Kentucky and Pennsylvania wells 
 are from upper Devonian; Virginia's are from 
 sub-carboniferous; and Ohio's are from the 
 lower coal measures. 
 
 The following are the Formations into which 
 the Systems we have considered are further 
 divided, in the Province of Ontario :— 
 
 I, Lower, 2, Middle and 3, Upper Laurentian. 
 I, Lower and 2, Upper Huronian. 
 I, Animikie, 2, Nipigon and 3, Potsdam, of 
 the Cambrian. 
 
 I, Quebec series, 2, Trenton (source of gas), 
 3, Hudson River, of the Cambro-Silurian. 
 
 I, Medina, 2, Clinton, 3, Niagara, 4, Guelph, 
 
«° WHAT THE ROCKS REVEAL. 
 
 5, Onondaga (source of salt and gypsum i « 
 lower Helderberg, of the Silurian ^' ' 
 
 leum?Tu''n' Co'niferous (source of pe.ro- 
 Sial '""'"°"' '' ^-'''8-hemung, of .ht 
 
CHAPTER XII. 
 
 COAL, ITS ORIGIN AND FORMATION. 
 
 Carboniferous System. — This name has 
 been given on account of the nature of the pro- 
 ducts in this system, there being much carbon 
 present. This is a term likely to be misleading ; 
 for we may conclude that wherever much coal 
 occurs the rocks must belong to the Carbonif- 
 erous. This is not the case, as is seen in the 
 coal deposits of our Northwest, which belong to 
 the Cretaceous system. However, Carboniferous 
 has been applied to the system by early geologists 
 and must be accepted now. 
 
 Nature. — The rocks of the system include 
 15,000 feet of deposits containing immense 
 quantities of coal, which is found in seams vary- 
 ing from a few inches to 30 feet in thickness ; 
 between these are layers of shale, sandstone and 
 clay, and often deposits of iron ore. Limestone 
 is also found in rocks of this period. 
 
 Locality. — As we learned in the last chapter, 
 the geological records of Ontario closed, and we 
 
62 
 
 ^HAT THE ROCKS REVEAL. 
 
 I-.'', f'^'i^ 
 
 must therefore seek elsewhere for coal deposit. 
 Such occur in Nova Scotia and New BrunS" 
 and to some extent in British Columbia. * 
 
 that';:tri^i„t:r:;e:eThtrt"''"^'^ ^- 
 
 Wp finH .o^ ^"'^ system occurs 
 
 to day U; u""' "'°''" '"-^ club-mosses of 
 
 form o ",a« L laf ^h "'k"" ""'^ ^™P'« 
 The typical plants of the time were Fern, 
 
 N 
 
WHAT THE ROCKS REVEAL. 
 
 63 
 
 -^i 
 
 deposits, 
 unswick, 
 
 I. 
 
 )f a most 
 he same 
 =h leads 
 nate for 
 occurs. 
 1 States, 
 ns and 
 tnerous, 
 >werless 
 )sses of 
 ired no 
 ants of 
 simple 
 ed the 
 
 Ferns, 
 ioden- 
 
 great 
 
 them 
 stems 
 lately 
 uxur- 
 
 iant forms of plant life are what contr-'^uted the 
 material for the production of our coal. Animal 
 life is not so characteristic and striking as that ';f 
 plants. Some amphibians make their appeara ice, 
 a few spiders and some snails have been fo jnd. 
 The trilobites are nearly all extinct; consequen: 'v 
 where we find trilobites on rocks near the surface 
 we need not expect to find coal below, as they 
 disappeared before coal was formed. 
 
 Economic Products.— The great product of this 
 system is coal; but iron ore is sometimes 
 associated with it, and limestone and sandstone 
 are also obtained. Regarding the origin of coal, 
 two theories are set forward; both a^ree in 
 considering, that coal is derived from the 
 accumulated remains of plants, but differ as to 
 how the formation of the deposits took place. 
 
 1. Raft Theory. — This theory accounts for 
 coal by an accumulation of vegetable matter 
 that shifted from its original position, became 
 submerged, and changed into coal. This might 
 occur in large rivers, and is only applicable to 
 comparatively limited areas of deposits. 
 
 2. Swamp Theory. — According to this view 
 the accumulated remains did not change their 
 position, but simply became submerged and 
 
64 
 
 WHAT THE ROCKS REVEAL. 
 
 *., 
 
 gradually changed to coal, ber^eath whatever 
 may have covered the beds, such as sand or silt. 
 This is well suited to account for extensive de 
 posits in different parts of the world. A forest, 
 located at the mouth of a river not much ab :ve 
 the level of the sea, would meet the requirements 
 of this view. Every seam of coal represents an 
 ancient land surface; consequently where several 
 seams occur we are led te believe that there were 
 several periods of elevation and submergence. 
 
 The luxuriant vegetation of the time seems to 
 indicate warmrh, humidity, uniformity, and very 
 little movement in the atmosphere. Some argue 
 from the rank vegetation an excess of carbonic 
 acid in the air. 
 
 The abscence of mountains would, no doubt, 
 cause less precipitation and more moisture. It 
 was m reality a time of forest and jungle and the 
 sea covered with numerous islands. At the 
 close of the system the rocks were considerably 
 disturbed and subjected to change. All coal, as 
 already stated, is not confined to the carboniferous 
 system. It is found in the Jurassic (Yorkshire), 
 Triassic (Virginia), Cotaceous (Northwest)* 
 Miocene (Oregon), Carboniferous (England! 
 Nova Scotia and Pennsylvania). 
 
WHAT THE ROCKS REVEAL. 
 
 65 
 
 Permian System.— This name is derived 
 from Perm, in Russia. It represents a transition 
 period between the closing and opening of two 
 periods. Some of the gigantic types of plant 
 life have passed away, and never appear in the 
 rocks again. This is seen in the Sigillaria and 
 Stigmaria. Some of the red sandstones of Prince 
 Edward Island belong to this period. It also 
 appears in Nova Scotia and some parts of 
 Virginia. 
 
 At the close of the Palaeozoic age the Appa- 
 lachian Monntains appeared. During this age 
 about 70,000 feet of rock were formed, and 
 throughout this vast period of time igneous 
 ejections seemed to have occasiiinally occurred^ 
 as is seen in some Cambrian deposits in the 
 Rocky Mouutainsj Cambro-Silurian of Nova 
 Scotia ; Silurian of New Brunswick ; Devonian 
 of Quebec, and Lower Carboniferous of New 
 Brunswick. 
 
CHAPTER XIII. 
 
 ii i 
 
 MARVELLOUS FORMS OF LIFE. 
 
 Mesozoic Age. — This volume of the records 
 has but a small amount of deposits as compared 
 with the preceding; something about 11,000 
 feet, yet among them are tound some of the 
 largest creatures that have ever existed upon the 
 face of the earth. The outburst of reptilian life 
 was something marvellous, and its decline was 
 equally remarkable. One of the smallest volumes 
 and, yet, in it the developemenc of life, rapid, and 
 the size attained almost incredible. We find 
 three well marked systems here. 
 
 Triassic. — A name given because the rocks 
 are represented in some places by three layers. 
 
 Nature. — Much sandstone is found here ; it 
 has been called the New Red Sandstone. 
 
 Locality. — This layer is found on Prince 
 Edward Island, around the Bay of Fundy, and 
 along the Connecticut River in the United 
 States. 
 
WHAT THE ROCKS REVEAL. 
 
 67 
 
 Zi/f.— The unique plants of the Carboniferous 
 days are all gone ; ferns still continue to flourish, 
 and a strange plant (Cycad) comes upon the 
 scene ; it was a sort of pine and palm, resembling 
 the former in structure, the latter in appearance ; 
 pines also occur. In the deposits of Connecticut, 
 (U. S.) the rocks abound with many varieties of 
 three-toed markings, which were, for a long time, 
 considered the footprints of birds. Some im- 
 pressions are 22 inches in length by 12 in width 
 and indicating a stride of 6 feet. Whatever 
 animal made such footprints must have been 
 immense. Latterly it is believed that most, if 
 not all, of these three-toed markings were caused 
 by reptiles. 
 
 In Europe some five-toed markings are found 
 upon Triassic rocks. The first mammal (allied 
 to the Kangaroo) occurs in these deposits. 
 
 Cuttlefish, m coiled shells are becoming much 
 more common and show more complicated 
 partitions in the shells. The straight form of 
 cuttlefish (Orthoceras) so common in Silurian 
 rocks, die out here. 
 
 Economic Products .-—Salt-beds occur in these 
 rocks in Cheshire, England, and coal in Virginia. 
 
 I'i 
 
68 
 
 WHAT THE ROCKS REVEAL. 
 
 Ik. 
 
 The Palisades of the Hudson Riyer, N. Y., 
 were formed at the close of the Triassic days. 
 
 Jurassic System.— This name is derived 
 from Jura mountains. 
 
 iV(fl!/M/-<'.— Considerable limestone and shale 
 are in some parts, while in some places the ro -^ 
 resembles the fossil roe of fish ; on this account 
 the term Oolitic har been applied to it. 
 
 Zoca/i^y.— British Columbia shows some de- 
 posits. They are also found in England. 
 
 Zi/e.—The Cycads reach the summit of their 
 developement here, and so numerous are t y in 
 the deposits that the term " Age of Cycads" has 
 been used. But the surprising feature of the 
 Jurassic is the mnumerable remains of gigantic 
 reptiles (Dinosaurs) it has yielded. 
 
 Thj Ichthyosaurus (fish lizard), 30 feet in 
 length, with jaws 3 feet long filled with teeth, and 
 eyes, a^foot in diameter, is a common form, often 
 illustrated in books. The Plesiosaurus, with 
 long graceful neck, glided over the waters, like a 
 huge swan, and seems often to have waged war 
 with its enemy the preceding reptile, for the 
 remains of the one have been found within the 
 
WHAT THE ROCKS REVEAL. 69 
 
 body of the other. The Pterodactyle was a huge 
 reptile able to fly through the air ; and several 
 forms evidently moved like the Kangaroo by 
 bounds from place to place. The Atlantosaurus 
 had a thigh bone 8 feet in length. From this 
 we can ''magine the size of the gigantic reptile of 
 which it was a part. One has been estimated 
 to have been 70 feet long and 10 feet high. 
 Such were the monsters of Jurassic days, and 
 the period might well be styled "The Age of 
 Reptiles." 
 
 The first fossil bird was found (1862) among 
 these rocks, and styled the Archaeopteryx. It 
 was very incomplete, but enough was discovered 
 to show that it was a bird that had many things 
 in common with reptiles, much more so than the 
 birds of our time. 
 
 Economic Products — Some coal in Yorkshire 
 is located in these deposits and also some m parts 
 of Virginia. 
 
 The Rocky Mountains began to rise out of 
 the sea towards the close of this period. 
 
p. 
 
 r«l 
 
 % i 
 
 f 
 
 CHAPTER XIV. 
 
 THE TIMES OF CHALK AND COAL. 
 
 Cretaceous System.— This name is given 
 on account of the natue of ihe deposits in some 
 parts, especially in England, where vast beds of 
 chalk are found in rocks «{ this period. The 
 same deposits in the North-west have no chalk, 
 but abound in coal. 
 
 Nature.— A large amount of chalk is in some, 
 and coal, as already noticed, in others, while 
 great beds of clay also are common. 
 
 Locality. — Immense deposits of tiiis system 
 occur on the continent of America from a little 
 west of Brandon, on the C. P. R., to Calgary, 
 near the Rocky Mountains, (800 miles.) It is 
 also well represented in the United States and 
 England. 
 
 Life^ — A great advance is made in both plant 
 and animal life. Plants with netted leaves are 
 common. From this onward flowering plants 
 increase, and the Flora of the time becomes more 
 attractive. Fishes have advanced and possess 
 bony skeletons. Their tails had become equally- 
 lobed before this, but cartil ; represented the 
 
 % 
 
V, FiiriT THE ROCKS REVEAL. 
 
 71 
 
 skeleton. Types more or less allied to our 
 modern perch and salmon appear. Reptiles, 
 though silll represented by some large forms, 
 have begun to wane. Cuttlefish, represented by 
 Baculites and Ammonites.the former with straight, 
 the latter with curved shells, are very common ; 
 both possessing shells with very complicated 
 partitions. 
 
 Several birds have been found in American 
 deposits, some of which have teeth and show well 
 marked reptilian characters. 
 
 Economic Products.— N^sX deposits of Coal in 
 the Canadian North-west. This is chiefly lignite, 
 and exists in unlimited quantities over an im 
 mense area. It is harder the nearer the 
 moutains it is found, and in some places it is 
 anthracite. Chalk occurs to a considerable extent 
 in England. Salt has been obtained from these 
 deposits in Louisiana. At the end of this period 
 the Continent of America, which hitherto was 
 represented by two great bodies of land, became 
 one by the gradual upheaval of the submerged 
 region. The Colorado mountains, which had 
 been a line of islands in the Cretaceous sea, 
 were pushed up and the strata along the flanks 
 much tilted. 
 
 
CHAPTER XV. 
 
 GREAT MAMMALS AND THE ELEVATION OF 
 
 MOUNTAINS. 
 
 Kainozoic Age.— We now have an approach 
 to recent things and many of the shells are the 
 same species as are found in present waters. The 
 names of the different systems are applied accord- 
 ing to the percentage of shells found in them 
 resembling modern types. Three systems are 
 embraced in this volume of the records. 
 
 Eocene System.—This name {Gr. eos, dawn; 
 kainos, new,) sieinifies the dawn of recent things^ 
 and contains from 3-10 per cent, of shells like 
 those of our own time. 
 
 Nature.—ThQ deposits are chiefly clay and 
 limestone. 
 
 Zt?m%.--Extensive areas, occur around Paris, 
 (France), some in England and in the United 
 States. 
 
 Z//f.~Nummulite, a coin shaped fossil, is very 
 characteristic of these rocks. Tapirs are very 
 common in the deposits of the Eocene basin of 
 
WHAT THE ROCKS REVEAL. 
 
 73 
 
 Paris, where 40 species have been found. Ex- 
 tensive deposits, containing the remains of whales, 
 are found in Alabama. Vertebrae, measuring 
 one foot and a half in length and one foot in 
 diameter, have been discovered. At Florissant, 
 Colorado, a remarkable deposit of Upper Eocene 
 has been found, one layer of which is black with 
 the remains of insects of all kinds ; 1000 species 
 have been identified. On the island of Sheppy, 
 England, the remains of 13 species of palms 
 have been discovered. The Flora of England 
 resembled that of Australia now. This system 
 is not represented in Canada, unless it be in some 
 of the Upper Cretaceous of the North-west. 
 The close of the period is marked by great eleva- 
 tion of land in some parts, and several mountain 
 chains came into existence about this time, viz : — 
 Alps, Pyrenees, Carpathian and Himmalaya. 
 
 Miocene System. —The name, (Gr. meion, 
 less; kamoSf new,) given because we find in this 
 that 19-30 per cent, of the shells are modern. 
 This word means less recent, but refers to the 
 succeeding period. 
 
 Locality. — This is wanting in Canada, but well 
 represented in India and severa; [ Uces in Europe 
 anc' he United States. 
 
rM '; 
 
 74 
 
 WHAT THE ROCKS REVEAL. 
 
 Life. — Some immense forms of the m.uiimaiia 
 appear here, such as the mastodon, much larger 
 than the largest elephant. Teeth of this have 
 been found wck-hing 17 pounds, and tusks a 
 foot in diameter. 
 
 The Dinoiherium, another gigantic mammal, 
 existed at this time. It had huge tusks resembl- 
 ing, in position, those of the walrus. A tortoise 
 has been found 13 feet long, and the remams of 
 some gigantic antelopes. Plants are numerous, 
 but less tropical than formerly. The Flora of 
 Europe was like that of the Southern States now. 
 It is supposed that the Atlantic was dry land at 
 this time ; this may account for the resemblance 
 the plants of Europe bear to those on the roast 
 side of the United States. K\. the close < the 
 Miocene the Coast Range ot Mountains of Cali 
 fornia nnd Oregon came into exist'^nce, and likely 
 at the same time occurred the great lava-fiood, 
 covering to a great extent portions of Nevad-^, 
 Oregon, Washington and Idaho, and otendmg 
 into Montana and British Columbia V is 
 estimated that these deposits cover a' are.c )f 
 150,000 Ecpjare miles, 3,000-4,000 feet thick. The 
 Columbia River has cut a channel for 100 miles 
 through beds 1,000-3,000 feet thick, showing in 
 
 

 WHAT THE ROCKS REVEAL. 
 
 75 
 
 some places 30 sheets of lava. The source of 
 this lava seems to have been in the Cascade 
 Mountains. 
 
 Pliocene System. — The name, (Gr. pleion, 
 more ; kainosy new,) signifies more recent, there 
 bcinij, 30-90 per cent, of the shells recent. 
 
 Locality. — These deposits occur in England, 
 Italy and Carolina. 
 
 Life. — The srells are nearly all recent, but the 
 mammals are 11 extinct. The Mammoth 
 appeals here. The Flora of Europe resembled 
 that of America nc . In the latter part of the 
 pe'iod the land, both in "urope and America, 
 was more elevated and extc.sive than at present. 
 This corresponds to the fiist Continental Period 
 of Lyell. 
 
 The climate was now getting colder, and 
 changes taking place which showed that the 
 former warm climate was at an end. 
 
 
CHAPTER XVI. 
 
 THE ICE AGE. 
 
 AcRozoic Age.— This Age forms the last 
 volume in the geological records, and in it wc 
 find some of the most interesting pages in the 
 story of the earth. It embraces two system, 
 Pleistocene and Modern. 
 
 Pleistocene System.— Pleistocene or Gla- 
 cial, (Gr. pleistos, most; kainos, new,) in which 
 all the shells belong to existing species. 
 
 The deposits occur as extensive beds of clay, 
 sand, gravel and loose boulders, well represented 
 in the northern parts of America and Europe. 
 Ontario now received additional deposits. These 
 constitute what is known as " Glacial Drift." It 
 is widely distributed in the Northern Hemisphere, 
 and extends from the Arctic regions to 50° north 
 latitude in Europe, and about 39" in North 
 America. It generally occurs as sand, clays and 
 gravels, spread in widely extended sheets, rep- 
 resenting three distinct layers. 
 
 I. Unstratified clays with angular fragments 
 
 sir? 
 
WHAT THE ROCKS REVEAL. 
 
 77 
 
 of stone, more or less polished and striated. 
 These beds form the so-called Boulder Clay or 
 Till, resting on rock which is abraded and 
 striated. 
 
 2. Stratified sands, gravels and clays, also with 
 boulders. 
 
 3. Sands and gravels, also stratified, but the 
 stones in them are more rounded and water worn 
 than in the preceding. 
 
 It is considered that when the Boulder Clay 
 was formed in America the northern part was 
 higher than now and the climate Arctic, so that 
 the mountain tops became the starting points of 
 glaciers. 
 
 Then followed a time of subsidence, reaching 
 4,000 feet in North America, during the deposit 
 of stratified clays, and thus making it favorable 
 to floating ice and glaciers to act conjointly. 
 After this, re-elevation began and reached its 
 maximum in the earlier part of the next system, 
 (Modern.)- These glacial deposits have ji.lways 
 afforded interesting facts for study, and are 
 credited to the result of ice action during the 
 Ice Age, a term applied to the Pleistocene. In 
 order to understand fully the importance of con- 
 
 
78 
 
 WHAT THE ROCKS REVEAL. 
 
 ditions that existed during this Period, it is 
 necessary to examine the work of ice in the forms 
 of avalanche, glacier and iceberg. This is 
 possible by visiting some places where such are 
 at the present time. 
 
 Our lessons upon the effects of ice are usually 
 gathered from phenomena witnessed in Alaska, 
 Greenland, Switzerland and Norway, where there 
 is a line of perpetual snow. The snow cannot 
 remain always on top of the mountains, but 
 eventUiilly comes down rapidly, as an avalanche^ 
 or slowly as ^ glacier. The latter threads its way 
 down the mountain side and through ravines, con- 
 tinuing its course until it either reaches a place 
 where the temperature is sufficient to melt it or 
 pushes out in the sea, when a portion breaks off 
 and floats away as an icsberg. Its course valley- 
 ward is, usully, very slow, sometimes only ten 
 inches per day. As it moves along at this rate 
 it receives contributions of rock material, falling 
 upon its surface. This arranges itself in regular 
 rows, called lateral moraines. If two glaciers from 
 different valleys unite a medial moraine \% formed. 
 It is not unusual for great cracks (crevasses) to 
 appear in the glacier and into these many of the 
 huge stones on the ice drop, even reaching the 
 
WHAT THE ROCKS REVEAL. 
 
 79 
 
 bottom. From this it is easily understood that 
 the glacier will have a tremendous grinding in- 
 fluence, both on the rocks on which it is gliding 
 and those embedded in it. 
 
 At last the body of ice is overcome by heat 
 and melts, giving rise to a terminal moraine, and 
 the source of a river. This water will have a 
 tendency to distribute the material carried down 
 in the following order : course boulders, peobles, 
 gravel, sand, and the clay carried far into the 
 valley. It sometimes happens during a very 
 warm season, a glacier shortens, and thus an 
 opportunity is afforded to observe how it has 
 affected the rock over which it moved. The 
 result is, the hard rock has been abraded, polish- 
 ed and scratched, the scratches or striae are in 
 the direction from which the stream of ice has 
 come. Glaciers are often many miles long, 
 miles wide and hundreds of feet thick. With 
 such forces at work, we can readily believe an 
 immense amount of rock material must be 
 ground up, adding a contribution to the soil of 
 the valley, "and that many of the rocks in the 
 mass and beneath it, will have a more or less 
 rounded form, from the constant rubbing during 
 miles of transport. 
 
 ■tl! 
 
 ^i- 
 
 W 
 
I «■ 
 
 80 
 
 WHAT THE ROCKS REVEAL. 
 
 pi, . 
 
 m 
 
 In the case of an iceberg, which is a portion 
 of a glacier that has reached the sea before the 
 temperature is sufficient to melt it, much of the 
 material is transported and finally finds a resting 
 place wherever the " berg " melts, depositing its 
 load in a place far from where the rocks are 
 located from which the fragments were derived. 
 We observe this every year in the deposits of 
 Greenland rocks dropped into the Gulf of St. 
 Lawrence, and along its shores, by melting ice- 
 bergs, and witness the work in Switzerland, much 
 as already described. It is now generally accept- 
 ed that both in Europe and North America, 
 during Pleistocene days, phenomena occurred 
 much as we see in the countries referred to. 
 Immense glaciers were common, and, likely, for 
 a portion of time at least, icebergs played an 
 important part in the work. Some hold that the 
 Ice Age lasted 160,000 years, but later geologists 
 brine; it within a period of 25,000 years. As 
 already observed, the climate in those days had 
 become arctic and the land, for a time, mor.. 
 elevated to the north ; the south, also, may have 
 been much submerged and conditions were 
 present suitable to the formation of glaciers and 
 and icebergs, both of which were factors in what 
 
WHAT THE ROCKS REVEAL. 
 
 8i 
 
 resulted. The question may arise here, what 
 proofs have we in Ontario of the Ice Age ? The 
 following may be given : 
 
 1. The presence of rounded boulders, frag- 
 ments of northern rock, entirely different from 
 Ontario limestone. 
 
 2. The boulders have a southern limit : the 
 south shore of Lake Erie about 39° N. Lat. In 
 Europe the limit is 50° N. Lat. 
 
 3. The rock surface of our province in many- 
 places is abraded, polished and scratched, the 
 striae showing a N. E. direction. 
 
 Our clays are to the south, north of these 
 
 - 4- 
 
 is gravel, and farther north are boulders. 
 
 S- The action of glaciers to-day produce 
 similar results. 
 
 It has always been a question of much interest 
 to account for the ch?inge in the climate that led 
 to the Ice Age. There are two leading views 
 concerning the cause ; one explainmg it on phy- 
 sical grounds (Lyell's) ; the other on astronomi- 
 cal (Croll's); of these the former seems the 
 more reasonable. By this it is claimed that a 
 different distribution of land and water currents 
 
 
 
 
 i:.,W 
 
82 
 
 WHAT THE ROCKS REVEAL. 
 
 could produce the changes that took place ; for 
 instance, if the Gulf Stream broke through the 
 Isthmus of Panama, England would no longer 
 enjoy the influence of that current, but experience 
 an arctic winter. The second view maintains 
 that there is an eccentricity in the earth's orbit 
 around the sun, which at intervals of many 
 thousand years produces winter, when the earth 
 is in aphelion (farthest from the sun) while to-day 
 winter takes place in perihelion (nearest the sun.) 
 It is claimed that under such conditions, we 
 might reasonably expect a glacial period. To 
 those desiring a full explanation of this view, we 
 would recommend a reference to some large work 
 upon Geology. 
 
CHAPTER XVII. 
 
 THE APPEARANCE OF MAN. 
 
 Modern System.— This period include.^ 
 from the Close of the Ice Age up to the present 
 time. By some described under the divisions 
 Post-glacial and recent periods. In the earlier 
 part of it the land of the Northern Hemisphere 
 was more extensive than it is now, and is de- 
 scribed as the "second continental period" 
 (Lyell), the first being in the Pliocene. It closed 
 by a submergence (the flood of biblical history), 
 after which there followed a gradual elevation, 
 which has given the continent of America its 
 present appearance. 
 
 The climate became temperate after the long 
 years it had been held within the icy grasp 
 of the former period. In these earlier deposits 
 (Post glacial) are located the cave deposits and 
 river gravels of Europe, from which so much 
 light has been gathered concerning man'^ 
 antiquity, which by many is not referred to an 
 earlier date than that immediately following the 
 
84 
 
 WHAT THE ROCKS REVEAL. 
 
 close of the Ice Age (Pleistocene), viz. : the 
 Post-glacial. However, some claim that man 
 existed before the Ice Age. 
 
 The following are the chief sources from which 
 proofs bearing upon man's early appearance are 
 derived : — 
 
 1. Cave deposits, e. g. Kent's (Devon), Kirk- 
 dale (York), and Aurignac (France). These are 
 referred to Palaeolithic times, a division of the 
 so-called " Stone Age." 
 
 Man's remains are associated with those of the 
 cave bear, hyena, lion and tiger with which he 
 fought for the caves. There is little doubt but 
 that he hunted the mammoth. This race of men 
 likely perished in the flood. 
 
 2. Kitchen Middens, in Denmark ; masses of 
 refuse, indicating the presence of man. These 
 are located in Neolithic times, a more recent 
 division of the '^ Stone Age," a better race of 
 men than in the preceding period. 
 
 3. Lake Dwellings in Switzerland, built by a 
 still later race of men, belonging to the " Bronze 
 /ge," about the time of the " Mound Builders" 
 in America. The present is known as the '* Iron 
 
 Age." 
 
m 
 
 WHAT THE ROCKS REVEAL. 
 
 8S 
 
 The noted fossil man of Mentone (France), 
 belongs to the Paleolithic period. The animals 
 of post-glacial days were characteristic. Many 
 of them were gigantic forms, such as the mastodon 
 and mammoth ; woolly rhinoceros, Irish elk and 
 megatherium, an immense sloth found in the 
 deposits of South America, and several other 
 mammalian types. Many of these became extinct 
 at the close of the Post-glacial period. The re- 
 mains of the mastodon and mammoth found in 
 America are usually referred to Pleistocene times, 
 but there are those who locate them in Miocene 
 deposits. 
 
 ^ By some this last age is divided as follows :^ 
 I, Glacial ; 2, Champlain ; 3, Terrace ; 4, Re- 
 cent. 
 
 1. Glacial. A time of elevation of the earth's 
 crust in high latitudes, probably from 1-2,000 
 feet above the sea, accompanied by an arctic 
 climate and the formation of glaciers, producing 
 results much the same as we see where glaciers 
 are now. 
 
 2. Champlain. A subsidence of land until 
 the sea stood 500-1000 feet above its present 
 level, and therefore covered much of the land of 
 today. This was a period of inland seas, a 
 
86 
 
 WHAT THE ROCKS REVEAL. 
 
 J 1 
 
 V y 4 
 
 t. 
 
 milder chmate and melting of the ice, giving rise 
 to great lakes and rivers. Some glaciers would 
 contmue. Icebergs and field ice would be com- 
 mon, resembling the icebergs of Greenland in 
 their results. 
 
 3- Terrace. This marks a gradual emergence 
 of land approaching to the continent and climate 
 ot the present. 
 
 It was during the Champlain period that our 
 fresh water lakes formed one body of water 
 which emptied out by the Mississippi instead of 
 he St. Lawrence, as now. Some discuss this 
 last volume (Acrozoic) under the divisions :- 
 Glacial, Post-glacial and Recent. 
 
 In that portion of the volume which reveals 
 traces of man, we sometimes find the following 
 divisions made .-Stone Age, paM^c the 
 earlier part, ;;..^M/, the later; Bronze Age and 
 the Iron Age, now in progress. During the 
 Acrozoic Age Mammals reached their highest 
 development. ^ 
 
 Many were huge forms, such as the mammoth, 
 mastodon, the Ir.sh elk with antlers ten feet 
 
 the Rocky Mountains, some huge oxen and the 
 
! 
 
 WHAT THE ROCKS REVEAL. 87 
 
 megatherium (a huge sloth found in deposits of 
 South America). 
 
 Economic products from the Rock Systems of 
 . Ontario, as reported in the annual report of the 
 Bureau of Mines : — 
 
 1892. 1895. 
 Building Stone, $880 000 $438,000. Chiefly from Silurian 
 V?™^"^ S5.997 159.477. «' 
 
 i^-^^ j •;>•.•.• 350,000 280,000. « 
 
 Tile and Brick. 1,339,335 L 173.429. 
 
 Pottery 80,000 108,000. «♦ 
 
 Oypsum deposits 25,900 20,500. <« 
 
 Phosphate .... 23,810 Laurentian. 
 
 ^r 162,700 188,000. Silurian. 
 
 E ■, ^ 500 2,900. Laurentian. 
 
 j!'^''^^ 590,902 404.861. Huronian. 
 
 .^°PP" 232,135 160,913. 
 
 ^°}^\ 36,900 50,281. 
 
 Petroleum and 
 
 products ....1,400,435 1,173,429. Devonian. 
 
 ^^^ • t6o,ooo 282,986. Cambro-Silurian 
 
 Tnfni «tr ^/:«"1 a. 7, [and Devonian, 
 
 lotal ....$5, 369, 694 $5, 170, 1 38 
 
 i 
 
 irii- 
 

 I {if* 
 
 'i 
 
 CHAPTER XVUl. 
 
 ORIGIN AND FORMATION OF ONTARIO SOIL. 
 
 The following is a popular exposition regard- 
 ■ng the Origin and Formation of Soil, with 
 specal reference to the Province of Ontario, and 
 rep'-esents m a summarized form much of the 
 precedmg teachings of geolog; 
 
 I. A Vertical Section f Ontario Soil 
 
 parfo7thTp""'"' " '""■'-"'" ''"'""' °' ">'' '" =">y 
 charactLs.!""'""' " "'" P^-" '"e following' 
 
 >. Certain large stones, hard and more or less 
 Wstdhne. some of a salmon color, some greet 
 «b, others a mixture of black and white, and in 
 »any cases the material Will be arranged r 
 
 If quarries are near, the rock is not at all of 
 the same nature as the large, hard, round stones 
 
 we w^catr '"'/"' ""'^'^ '°' ~-«-"« 
 we will call forgtgn boulders. 
 
 These we shall show have been brought here 
 
WHAT THE ROCKS REVEAL. 
 
 89 
 
 in ages long past, and lie by our roadsides, and 
 in our fence corners, silent monuments of thrill- 
 ing scenes that happened in the Ice Age. 
 
 2. Other large, loose stones of a much softer 
 nature appear, but they resemble the rocks of the 
 quarries, if such are in the vicinity. These are 
 not so much rounded, we shall call them local 
 boulders; for they have not been transported so 
 far as the preceding. 
 
 3. Scattered throughout the loose earth, we 
 observe the remains of decomposed plants that 
 have flourished from time to time upon the soil 
 in which they are now found. These form the 
 Humus of the soil. 
 
 4. Our ideal section will also show ground-up 
 rock, usually called soil. 
 
 5. Beneath all is a floor of rock. Our section 
 thus shows five constituents, foreign boulders, 
 local bounders, humus (organic matter) soil (pul- 
 verized rock) and a solid floor of rock. From 
 this it is readily seen that the composition of 
 soil largely depends upon the nature of the rock 
 below it, and upon those at a distance (in On- 
 tario those lying to the north), because, as we 
 shall see later on, much material was transported 
 
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 90 WHAT THE ROCKS RIVEAL. 
 
 from the north durinR the " Ice Age." We shall 
 now consider the nature of the rock that under- 
 lies our Province and the regions north of it. 
 II. The Rocky Floor of Ontario. 
 I. A district embracing that portion of the 
 Provmce extending from near the junction of the 
 Ottawa and St. Lawrence Rivers to Morrisburg 
 and north to the Ottawa. Th,s is largely under 
 V ^T''' °^"'' ^'""''"''" System Wo. 3) in 
 a'ndtlate"' '' """" ^''^'"""' '°'"' "'"^^'"•'^ 
 
 2. This area extends from Morrisburg to 
 Kingston and continues in a north-westerly di- 
 rection beyond the limits of the Provincei wi- 
 dening as ,t passes north. This is the Lauren- 
 
 anada""" ^^°' '^' "' ^'"'' ■"■""'" "'' «' 
 
 In many places the rock is bare, yet this dis- 
 trict possesses rocks, which, when decomposed, 
 supply some of the most valuable constimen. 
 
 L °f\ V "* ^""^ ""''^ Feldspar, consist- 
 
 ng of clay, s.hca and potash which it contributes 
 
 to the soil on disintegration ; Apatite, the .source 
 
 of Phosphoric Acid; Iron, and other deposits of 
 
 great importance in soil formation. 
 
WHAT THE ROCKS REVEAL. 91 
 
 Thus in this apparently barren area we have 
 rocks which, in time, break up and supply valu- 
 able constituents to the soil, such as phosphoric 
 acid, potash, soda, iron, lime, magnesia, sulphur. 
 clay and sand. 
 
 3- The area extending from Kingston to a 
 little west of Toronto, known as the Cambro- 
 Silurian system (No. 4), contains vast beds of 
 limestone. 
 
 4. A district from near Toronto to Baden, on 
 the G. T. R., consists of Silurian Rocks (No 5) 
 largely made up of dolomite (containing both 
 magnesia and lime). 
 
 5. From Baden to the western boundary of 
 .the Province includes Devonian Rocks (No. 6), 
 composed of limestone and clay deposits. We 
 have thus six systems represented in Ontario :— 
 I, Laurentian ; 2, Huronian (around lake Huron 
 and mnch the same as No. ,); 3, Cambrian; 
 4, Cambro-Silurian ; 5, Silurian ; 6, Devonian. 
 At No. 6 the geological records closed, as far as 
 Ontario was concerned, until they re opened at 
 No. IS (Pleistocene). It is remarkable that, as 
 far as deposits are concerned, we received none 
 from No. 6 to No. 15. 
 
 11 % 
 
4fi 
 
 i 
 
 9» WHAT THE ROCKS REVEAL. 
 
 Other places received great additions, such as 
 coal beds, challc and other deposits of grea 
 thickness wh,Ie Ontario received none. Since 
 nearly all rocks are formed under water, it is 
 hkely our country was, during that vast period 
 of time, high and dry and thus beyond the in- 
 fluence of the sea. "tnem 
 
 However, great changes were going on, and 
 
 modified from the action of agents which we 
 shall now consider : 
 
 ni. Disintegrating Agents. 
 
 rr^'''"'T''"^ '^'""' '• *■• ^S^"'' breaking up 
 rocks These acted upon the solid floor of On 
 tario during vast periods of time. 
 
 I. Air, in the presence of moistu:,, has a great 
 nfluence upon rocks, especially if iron Is in 
 them and this is a common ingredient among 
 the oldest rocks. You often notice by the way- 
 side, boulders with rusty stains upon them. 
 These result from the action of the air upon the 
 .ron in the stone. I, win only be a matter of 
 time before it is dissolved and the stone crum- 
 bles to pieces. The element, oxygen, a constitu- 
 ent of air, has a great tendency to unite with 
 
 a 
 
 \i 
 
WHAT THE ROCKS REVEAL. 
 
 93 
 
 other elements, and, hence, its destructive ef- 
 fects upon many rocks. Consequently, the 
 simple action of the air in the long ages between 
 the Devonian and Pleistocene periods would no 
 doubt do much in breaking up the rocks upon 
 which it acted. 
 
 2. Water, especially in the form of rain, beat- 
 ing upon the rocks during this long period would 
 exert a wonderful influence upon the rock sur- 
 face in two ways, viz. : mechanical and chemi- 
 cal. The former needs no explanation, for it is 
 readily seen how rain would act, as we see it to- 
 day, by distributing the ground-up rock and 
 wearing away, by mechanical action, the surface 
 over which it flowed. But there is another way 
 in which it can act very forcibly, especially when 
 it contains carbonic acid which is present in the 
 atmosphere. When this carbonic acid and rain 
 water come in contact with rocks, especially such 
 as contain lime, magnesia and iron, they form 
 with them compounds soluble in water, and thus 
 break up the rock in which they are found. 
 This solvent action of water explains why it is 
 always more or less charged with mineral sub- 
 stances, producing hard water. Many caves, es- 
 pecially those found in limestone, have been 
 
 m 
 
94 
 
 WHAT THE ROCKS REVEAL. 
 
 
 i 
 
 I.' i 
 
 ^ 
 
 formed by the solvent action of water, and the 
 beautiful icicle-like structures in them have been 
 deposited from water, drop by drop. The 
 Mammoth Cave of Kentucky has 223 avenues 
 representing 150 miles. The average height and 
 width of these passages is 2 1 feet. The amount 
 of limestone removed is said to be equivalent to 
 12,000,000 cubic yards. This to a great extent 
 IS the result of the solvent action of water. Rain 
 charged with carbonic acid during long ages 
 would certainly act so as to disintegrate the 
 limestone floor of Ontario. See its effects upon 
 the marble tombstones in a graveyard, and ob- 
 serve how it corrodes the limestones of the field 
 so that we readily distinguish them by their 
 weathered appearance. 
 
 3. Plants, as soon as they appeared, would 
 exert an influence upon the surface. While liv- 
 ing, the tender roots penetrating the soil would 
 feed upon the minute particles and dissolve those 
 near them, and when they decayed, channels 
 would be left for rain to pass into the soil, and 
 the decomposing plants supply carbonic acid, 
 which would aid in the work of disintegration. 
 
 4. Animals, especially such as burrowed, 
 
 iJ 
 
vM 
 
 WHAT THE ROCKS REVEAL. 
 
 95 
 
 would open up the way for air and rain to enter 
 the soil. Few animals are credited with more 
 influence in the breaking up of the soil, than the 
 common earthworm. From extensive experi- 
 ments by Darwin, it has been discovered that in 
 some places worms add one-fifth of an inch of 
 mould yearly to the soil, or at the rate of i6 tons 
 to the acre derived from the deposits they leave 
 upon the surface. Besides this, their burrows 
 form passages for air and rain to act upon the 
 rock material exposed. 
 
 S- Frost, while it existed, would be a powerful 
 agent. We see how it breaks down the rocky 
 banks of rivers and sculptures the mountains. 
 Much of the rock lying at the base of mountains, 
 cliffs and steep banks is the result of frost. 
 
 Now, the more we consider these five agents, 
 a/>, rain, plants, animals zxid frost, the more we 
 will be convinced of their disintegrating effect, 
 especially when we think of the vast period of 
 time elapsing from the close of the geological re- 
 cord (Devonian No. 6) in Ontario, until they 
 were re-opened for deposits in the Pleistocene 
 days (No. 15). This gap, as already noticed, 
 embraced eight periods, each of which may have 
 been thousands of years in duration ; yet in that 
 
 \\ 
 
 \^n 
 
 ^ ; 
 L. L 
 
 11 
 
t 
 
 96 WHAT THE ROCKS REVEAL. 
 
 time the rock surface was undergoing changes, 
 that must have prepared fi;reat deposits of finely 
 divided rock. However, this soil would be 
 largely localized, being much of the same nature 
 as the rock below it; but when the Pleistocene 
 period arrived, the Ice Age appeared, and was 
 destined to mingle this pulverized rock in a most 
 marvellous manner. In order to understand 
 this more fully, let us examine some things going 
 on now in countries where mountains are found 
 with snow capped summits throughout the whole 
 year and from these phonomena form some 
 conclusions regarding the state of affairs in On- 
 tario during the Ice Age, claimed by some 
 writers to have lasted 160,000 years. 
 
 IV. Ice Age. 
 
 Ice Age, the period during which enormous 
 quantities of rock material were ground up and 
 mixed with soil formed previous to its appear- 
 3iice. 
 
 In countries where the mountains are high 
 above the level of the sea, a line of perpetual 
 snow IS formed, and ice keeps accumulating 
 throughout the year. In time the mass becomes 
 so great that it can no longer remain upon the 
 
I 
 
 WHAT THE ROCKS REVEAL. 97 
 
 mountain top, but begins to descend. If the 
 slope is steep, the descent is rapid, and the mass 
 of ice IS known as an avalanche, which moves 
 with tremendous force into the valley below. 
 
 But if the descent is gradual, then the ice 
 moves slowly towards the lower country, and 
 forms an ice river (a glacier), sometimes miles 
 long and hundreds of feet thick. It glides on- 
 ward, sometimes at a slow rate— only a few 
 mches each day-yet it moves, and what seems 
 very remarkable, moves more rapidly in the 
 centre than on the sides. This has been shown 
 by putting stakes in the glacier and along the 
 sides. In the course of time they assume a V 
 shape, indicating that those in the centre have 
 made more progress than those at the side. In 
 course of its journey, fragments of rock are c n. 
 stantly falling upon the glacier. If cracks (cre- 
 vasses) occur in the rock, which is quite a com- 
 mon thing, the rock drops into them and be- 
 comes imbedded in the ice. In cases where 
 some reach the bottom, one can readily under- 
 stand what a grinding effect these imbedded 
 rocks will have upon the rocks below. Thus a 
 glacier becomes a tremendous agent in grinding 
 up rock. This river of ice will continue gliding 
 
 1 1 
 
 ! i 
 
98 
 
 WHAT THE ROCKS REVEAL. 
 
 on until It reaches a point at which the tempera- 
 ture IS sufficient to melt it, and then it becomes 
 the source of a river. If it is a very warm sea- 
 son, the glacier is not so long, and an opportun- 
 ity is offered to see how things appear where the 
 glacier was the season before. The solid rock 
 is smoothed, polished and covered with mark- 
 ings running in the direction from which the 
 glacier came, and the boulders lying about are 
 rounded. Now if the glacier reaches the sea be- 
 fore it melts, a portion of it breaks off and moves 
 away as an iceberg. This will carry away all the 
 rock material in it, and will be deposited where 
 it finally melts. This is what occurs yearly along 
 the coast of Labrador and Newfoundland, where 
 so many bergs strand at certain seasons. Now, 
 if an elevation of the sea-bottom took place here,' 
 we would find it covered with great boulders! 
 not the same as the rocks along the shore, but 
 like those in Greenland, whence the icebergs 
 came. 
 
 The question naturally arises now. Is it pos- 
 sible that such conditions have ever been in this 
 part of the world ? We are forced to admit such 
 IS the case, to some extent, when we consider 
 the following facts : — 
 
WHAT THE ROCKS REVEAL. 99 
 
 1. Boulders are found all over our province. 
 These are not at all the same kind of rock as 
 the stones of quarries near by, but strongly re- 
 semble the rocks lying to the north and north- 
 east of us. 
 
 2. These boulders are not found much south 
 of the 39' north latitude, that is, a little south of 
 Lake Erie. They extend in an irregular man- 
 ner, as far as Cincinnati. Foreign boulders 
 can be seen almost anywhere north of this 
 limit, which strongly resembles in their distribu- 
 tion the boulders in districts now undergoing the 
 grinding influence of glaciers. 
 
 3- In many parts of Ontario, where a rock 
 surface is exposed, the rock is abraded and pol- 
 ished, and entirely covered sometimes by pe- 
 culiar markings (striae of geologists). These 
 have a more or less uniform direction (northerly), 
 which indicates the glacier came chiefly from the 
 north. 
 
 It is difficult to account for these foreign 
 boulders and the smooth, polished, scratched 
 rocks below, extending only so far south, unless 
 we imagme the same condition that we see now 
 m other parts of the world where glaciers and ice- 
 bergs are found. 
 
 
lOO WHAT THE ROCKS REVEAL. 
 
 Then, too, we find the arrangement of our 
 clay, gravel and boulders is similar to that where 
 glaciers are to-day. In Western Ontario our 
 clay beds lie to the south. In Artemesia, north 
 of these, are great stretches of gravel; and still 
 further north are extensive areas covered with 
 boulders. No better explanation to account for 
 this state of affairs can be given than the pres- 
 ence of a glacial period in Ontario— a time when 
 the northern part of our continent was more ele- 
 vated and became the starting point of glaciers 
 that made their way southward until regions were 
 reached where they melted, leaving the boulders 
 ot our wayside as silent monuments of that period 
 in geological history. It is an open question to 
 what extent these phenomena are due to the 
 action of glaciers and icebergs. Some attribute 
 them entirely to glaciers, while others consider 
 them partly due to iceberg action. 
 
 In regard to the duration of the glacial period, 
 there is great diversity of opinion. No doubt it 
 lasted for thousands of years. During this time 
 immense quantities of rock were ground up and 
 transported to the south of the starting point of 
 the glaciers. At the close of this wonderful 
 period it is supposed that all of our fresh water 
 
WHAT THE ROCKS REVEAL. loi 
 
 lakes were united, and formed a vast body of 
 water which covered the entire province. This 
 would have a great influence in mixing up the 
 soil that had been formed before the glaciers ex- 
 isted and that which had been prepared during 
 that period. During this time the waters of this 
 great lake found an exit by the Mississippi River. 
 In time the waters began to subside, and 
 Queenston Heights formed a shore line. The 
 Niagara River existed before the glacial period; 
 part of Its course extended from the present 
 whirlpool to St. David's, this in course of time 
 was filled up with glacial clays. When it began 
 to flow again, instead of keeping in its old bed 
 It flowed down to Lewiston and poured its water 
 into the subsiding lake. As this lake diminished, 
 the falls increased, and receded gradually until 
 they reached the place we find them to-day. 
 
 the time required for this gradual change ia 
 their position was once put at 35,000 years. 
 More thorough investigation has led geologists 
 to believe that it probably took only 10,000 to 
 15,000 years. It is doubtful at what period the 
 waters found an outlet into the Atlantic Ocean 
 But shortly after this took place, the physical 
 features of Ontario began to assume their pres- 
 
I02 
 
 WHAT THE ROCKS REVEAL. 
 
 I 
 
 It 
 I*' 
 
 ent outline, and the province became fitted for 
 man's abode. From what has been set forth in 
 this lecture, we conclude that the soil of Ontario 
 has been obtained from the disintegration of 
 rock during the vast period of time extending 
 from the 6^h to the 15th system of the geological 
 records; the grinding action of ice, both as 
 glaciers and icebergs, during the Ice Age, and 
 what has resulted from a modification of the 
 earth's crust since that time, together with the 
 decomposed remains of plants and animals that 
 have from time to time been added to it. 
 
 If the writer has awakened a desire in his 
 readers to seek further information in the attract- 
 ive field of geological science, he feels assured 
 that they will consult larger works and satisfy the 
 taste developed by reading this elementary treat- 
 ise. In this connection the following books on 
 geology will be found interesting and instructive : 
 —"A Compend of Geology," by Joseph Le 
 Conte ; Handbook of Canadian Geology, by Sir 
 J. W. Dawson ; and the Manual of Geology, by 
 Dana, latest edition.