IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) 1.0 I.I 1.25 2.2 i l£ III 2.0 1.8 U liil^ V] * 7 o^^ ? Photographic Sdences Corporation 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. MS80 (716) 872-4503 % U.A ^i % :\ \ Go's Educational Series. THE ELEMENTS OF Structural Botany WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO THE STUDY 01' CANADIAN PLANTS, TO WHICH IS ADDRD A SET^PJCTIOIS^ OK 7^,XAIVIITsr^TIO:sr I'A.PIilRS. BY H. B. SPOTTON, M,A.,F.I,.S., HEAD MA.sTKFl OK KARRIK OLLKrtkATE INSTl'iUTa. THIET) FDTTION. I \ ILLUSTRATED BY THE AUTHOR. ^ , ^ , ' ^_ : \ : <■> W. J. GAGE AND nO^FPANY, TOKONTO AND WINNIPEG. Entered according to Act of Parliament of Canada, in the Office of the Minister of Agriculture, by Adam Milllr & Co., in the year 1S79. I > NoTK.--lri explanation of the omission of Professor Macoun's name from the title pajre of the present edition, the Publishers desire to say that the orifj^inal desi^^^n of the authors was to pvepare jointly a work on the Canadian Flora, Mr. Spotton to write and illustrate an introductory vohime.and hoth parts, fur the sake of uniformity, to bear the niira ;s of both autho»'s. Owing to Professor Macoun's eng.'ioiiueiit with tht Dominion Government, the joint schapje was necessarily abandoned, and the whole work (the second part of which is now in the press) will hence- forth be issued under Mr. Spotton's signature only. PREFACE. The work, of which the present httle vohime forms the first part, has been undertaken, at the suggestion of several eminent eclucationists, to supply a palpable want. The works on Botany, many of them of great excellence, which have fouml their way into this country, have been prepared with reference to climates differing, in some cas^s, very widely from our own. They consequently contain accounts of many plants which are entirely foreign t ) Canada, thus obstructing the search for descriptions of those which happen to be common to our own and other countries ; and, on the other hand, many of our Canadian species are not men- tioned at cM in some of the Classifications which have been in use. It is believed that the Classification which is to form the second part of this work will be found to contain all the commonly occurring species of the Provinces whose floras it is designed to illustrate, with- out being burdened with those which are either ex- tremely rare, or which do not occur in Canada at all. The present Part is designed to teach the Elements of Structural Botany in accordance with a method which is believed to be more rational than that commonly adopted; and it will be found to supply all that is* requisite for passing the examinations for Teachers' Certificates of all grades, as well as any others demand- ing an elementary knowledge of the subject. It contains familiar descriptions of common plants, illus- trating the chief variations in plant-structure, with a view to laying a foundation for the intelligent study of Systematic Botany with the aid of the second part; then follow a few lessons on Morphology ; and the IV PREFACE. Elements of Vegetable Histology are treated of in as simple and brief a manner as was tbouglit to be con- sistent with the nature of the subject. Tlie Schedules, tlie use of which is very strongly recommended, were devised by the late Professor Hens- low, of Cambridge University, to fix the attention of pujuls upon the salient points of structure. They will be found invaluable to the teacher as tests of the accu- racy of his pupils' knowledge. The cost of striking off a few hundred blanks of each sort would be very trifling, and not worth considering in view of the resulting advantages. The wood-cuts are from drawings from living speci- mens, except in two or three instances where assistance was derived from cuts of well-known excellence in standard works on Botany. It need hardly be said that the engravings are not in any sense intended to take the j^lace of the living plants. They are designed chiefly to assist in the examination of the latter, and whilst it is hoped that they may be of service to those who may desire to read the book in tlie winter season, it is strongly urged upon teachers and students not to be salisfied with them as long as the plants themselves are available. The works most frequently consulted in the prepar- ation of the text are those of Hooker, Gray, Beutley and Oliver. Finally, the Authors look for indulgence at the hands of their fellow-teachers, and will be glad to receive sug- gestions tending to increase the usefuhiess of the work, and to extend a taste for what must ever be regarded as one of tlie most refining as well as one of the most practically useful of studies. September f 1879. Fit ■'■ G 7 8 loJ 11.1 12. 13. 14. »f in aH be con- jtrongly r Hens- ition of liey will le accu- kiug off be very of the g sgeci- sistaucG once in be said jiitleci to csigned fcer, and o those season, not to selves )repar- ley and handB le sug- work, I'ded as most \ DESCRIPTION OF CUTS. Fig. Page 1. Pibrons roprt of Bottcrcnp 2 2. Magnified tip of rootlet 8 8. Stem of Buttmoup 4 4. Iliidical leaf of Biiiue 6 5, Bick view oi one of tlit^ flowers of samo 6 G. Section of flowor of Rume 7 7. Stunrn of aamo 7 8. vStanuiu dis^iluugin^ pollen 7 9. Head of ciiriw^'ls of JJut t^rcup 7 10. A carpel iiiiif^iiiTiecl, and showing ovule 7 1 1. Sti<,aua of Buttercup, greatly ma{^'nilied 8 12. Plan of stanicn 8 13. Plan of carpel 9 14. Kipeiied carpel oi Buttercup 10 15. Vi-rtical eectiou of same 10 IG. S Mition of a Sfcd, kIio Aing position of embryo 10 17. Pollen grnin developing its tuho 12 18. Sejtion of ovule, showing micropylo 12 li». Hepatica 14 20. Singlo flower of Baiue, with bracts underneath 15 21. Head of carpels of s'ame 16 22. Snigle cupel 16 23. Marsh-Marigold 17 24. Head of carnels of same 18 25. Single carpul of same, split open 18 26. Shepherd's Purse 21 27. Flower of same 22 28. Tet'-adynamous stamens of same 22 2*'. Pistil of samo 23 30. The samo with on© lobe removed to show seeds 23 Bl. Round-leavod Mallow . . , 24 32. Section of flower of ?ame , 24 33. Pistil of samo 24 34. Ring of carpels and persistent calyx of same 24 35. Flower of Garden Pea 27 36. Front view of same 27 37. Diadelphous stamens of same 27 38. Pistil of same 27 39 Section of pistil 27 40. Flower of Great Willow-herb 29 41. Pistil of same bursting open 30 42. Section of same 30 43. Sprig of Sweet-Brier 32 i4. Section of flower of same 32 t5. Section showing carpels and hollow receptacle of same.. 33 *6. Flower of Crab-Apple 33 W DESCRIPTION OF OUTS. 47. Section of Bame 88 48. Cross Bcotion of Crab-Apple 84 49. Compound umbol of Water- Parsnip 86 60. Single flower of flame 86 61. Section of pistil of Ramo 36 62. S 'ction of flower of Dandelion 87 63. Single floret of Dandelion 87 64. Li^'iilate corolla of Ramo with epipetalous stuuieus .... 37 65. Synf^cnesiouH Htamc.'ns of Dandelion 38 6fi. Piippose peed of same 38 67. Single nower of Catnip 39 68. Front view of same, showing didynaraona stamens .... 39 69. Pistil of 8amo .' 39 60. CiirpcJg of samo 40 61. T\;rtile jQower of Cucumber 41 62. Stt;i!(j> flijwer of same 41 63. Sterile catkin of Willow 43 64. Fertile catkin of same 43 65. Single staminatc flower of same 43 66. Single fertile flower of same 44 67- Pumpkin seed 45 68. Same showing cotyledons 45 69. Same show^ing plumule 45 70. Bean showing cotyledons and radicle 46 71. Same showing plumule 46 72. Dog's-tooth Violet 47 73. Pistil of same 49 74. Section of ovary 49 75. Trilhum 60 76. Section of ovary of same 60 77. Net veined leaf of same 60 78. Indian Turnip 51 79. Spathe of same 62 80. Fertile spadix of same 52 81 . Sterile spadix of same 62 82. Spadix and spathe of Calla 64 83. Leaf of same 64 84. Perfect flower of same 55 85. Showy Orchis 56 86. Single flower of same 66 87 . Pollen-mas9 of same 67 88. Single flowed ol Timothy 68 89. Same opened to show parts 68 90. Section of a grain of Indian Corn 60 91. Embryo of same 60 92. Section of embryo 60 93. Tap-root of Dandelion 63 94. Tap-root of Carrot 64 96. Fascicled roots of Peony 64 96. Secondary roots of Verbena 64 DESCRIPTION OF CUTS. yu 97. Tendril of Gra^o 66 98. Leaf-tendril of Pea 67 99. Tubers of Potato 67 100. Rhizome 68 101. Section of Onion bulb 69 102. Lily bulb 69 103. Spino of Hawthorn 70 104. Prickles of Sweet-Brier 70 105. Whorled leaves of Oalium 71 106. Simple radiatt^-veiiicd leaf of Mallow 71 107. Compound leaf of Clover 71 108. Maplo leaf 72 109. Digitrtte leaf of Virpjinia creeper 73 110. Acicular leaves of Pine 74 HI — 134. Various forms of leaves 74 — 79 135. Form of a Corymb 83 136. Compound raceme 83 137. Form of Cvme 84 138. Petal of Garden Pink 86 139. Tubular corolla of Hon(!y8uckle 87 140. Funnel-shaped corolla of Bractod Bindweed 87 141. Salver-shaped corolla of Ptilox 87 142. Labiate corolla of Tnrtlo-head 87 143. Personate corolla of Toadflax 87 144. Stamen with a Inate anther 68 145. Stamen with innate anther 88 146. Stamen with versatile anther 88 147. Anther opening' along margin 89 148. Aijther of Blue Cohosh with uplifting valves 89 149. Anther of a Henth with pores at the apex 89 150. 151. Ovary of Mignonette with seeds on the walls 91 162, 153. Ovary of Pink with seeds on a central column. ... 91 154. Cone 92 155. Single scale of same 92 156. One of the winged seeds of same 92 167. Fruit of Blackberry 94 158. Section of unripe Strawberry 94 159. Legume of Bean 95 160. Silicle of Garden Stock 96 161. Pyxis of Portulaca 96 162. Samara of Maple 90 163. Loosely packed cells of the pith of Elder 99 164. Hair from leaf of a Petunia, showing cellular structure. 99 164. (a) Hair from leaf of Geranium 99 165. Tapering and overlapping cells of woody tissue 102 166. Dotted duct 103 167. Section of a young exogenous stem 104 168. The same at a later period of growth 104 169. Section of an endogenous Btcm 105 170. Leaf-stomate 107 CONTENTS. CHAPTER I. Examination of a Buttercup 2 CHAPTER II. Functions of the Organs of tho Flower H CHAPTER III. Examination of Hcpntica and Marsh-Marigoltl — Resemblances between their flowers and that of liuttercup 13 CHAPTER IV. Examination of otlier common plants with hypogynoua Btameus— Shepherd's Purse— Kound-leaved Mallow 21 CHAPTER V. Examination of common plants with perigynous stamens — Garden Pea — Great Willow-herb— Sweet-IBrier— Crab- Apple 26 \ CHAPTER VI. Examination of a plant with epigynous stamens — Water- Parsnip 35 CHAPTER VII. Examination of common plants with epipetalous stamens — Dandelion — Catnip 36 CHAPTER VIII. Examination of plants with Monoecious and Dioecious flowers — Cucumber — Willow 40 CHAPTER IX. Characteristics possessed in common by all the plants previously examined — Structure of the seed in Dicoty- ledons 45 CHAPTER X. Examination of common plants continued — Dog's-tooth Violet — Trillium — Indian Turnip — Calla — Orchis — Timothy 47 S CONTENTS. CHAPTER XL pasb Common characteristics of the plants just examined — Structure of tho seed in Monocotyledons 59 CHAPTER XII. Morphology of Roots, Stems and Foliage-Leaves 62 CHAPTER Xm. Morpholopry of Flower-Leaves — The Calyx — The Corolla — The Stamens— The Pistil— The Fruit— The Seed— Ger- mination 81 CHAPTER XTV. On the minute structure of Plants — Exogenous and Endo- genouB Stems — Food of Plants 98 CHAPTER XV. Classification of Plants according to the Natural System .... 109 The Herbarium 115 Index and Glossary 118 Examination Questions 134 ^ TABLE OF THE COMMON PLANTS EXAMINED, Tc GETHER WITH THE FAMILIES TO WHICH THEY BELONG. Buttercup, Hepatica, Marsh-Marigold.CROWFoox Family. Shepherd's Purse. ... Cbess Family. Bound- leaved Mallow Mallow Family. Garden Pea Pulse Family. Great Willow-herb Evenino-Primrose Family. Sweet-Brier, Crab- Apple Rose Family. Water-Parsnip Parsley Family. Dandelion Composite Family. Catnip Mint Family. Cucumber Gourd Family. Willow Willow Family. Dog's-tooth Violet, Trillium Lily Family. Indian Turnip, Calla Arum Family. Showy Orchis Orchis Family. Timothy Grass Family. XI THE ELEMENTS OP STRUCTURAL BOTANY 1. The study of Botany is commonly rendered unat- tractive to the beginner by the order in which the parts of the subject are presented to him. His patience be- comes exhausted by the long interval which must neces- sarily elapse before he is in a position to do any practical work for himself. In accordance with the usual plan, some months are spent in committing to memory a mass of terms descrijitive of the various modifications which the organs of plants undergo ; and not until the student has mastered tliese, and perha])s been initiated into the mysteries of the fibro-vascular system, is he permitted to examine a plant as a whole. In this little work, we purpose, following the example of some recent writers, to reverse tin's order of things, and at the outset to put into the learner's hands some com- mon plants, and to lead him, by his own examination of tliese, to a knowledge of their various organs — to ( 2 ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY. cultivate, in short, not merely his memory, but also, and chiefly, his powers of observation. It is desirable tliat the beginner should provide him- self with a magnifying glass of moderate power for examiiiiug the more minute parts of specimens ; a sharp i)enlaiife for dissecting ; and a couple of fine needles, which he can himself insert in convenient handles, and which will be found of great service in separating delicate parts, and in impaling fine portions for examination with the aid of the lens. '\ I I CHAPTER I. EXAMINATION OF A BUTTERCUP. 2. To begin with, there is no plant quite so suitable as our common Buttercup. This plant, which has conspicuous yellow flowers, may be found growing in almost every moist meadow. Having found one, take up the whole plant, loosening the soil a little, so as to obtain as much of the Root as possible. Wash away the earth adher- ing to the latter part, and then proceed to ex- amine your spec- imcn. Begin" ning with the Root, (Fig.l) the Fig. 1. first noticeable thing is that it is not of tlie same colour as the rest of ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY. \ 8 u the plant. It is nearly white. Then it is not of tho same fwm as the part of the plant above ground. It is made up of a number of thread-like parts Trhich spread out in all directions, and if you examine one of these threads through your magnifying glass, you wil] find that from its surface are given off many finer threads, called rootlets. These latter are of great im. portance to the plant ; it is largely by means of their tender extremities, and the parts adjacent to these, that it imbibes the nutritious fluids contained in the soil. Whilst you are looking at these delicate rootlets, you may perhaps wonder that they should be able to make their way through' the soil, but how they do this will be apparent to you if you examine the tip of one of them with a microscope of considerable power. Fig. 2 repre- sents such a tip highly magnified. It is to be observed that tlie growth of the rootlet does not take place at the very extremity, but immediately behind it. The extreme tip consists of harder and firmer matter than that behind, and is in fact a sort of cap or thimble to protect the growing part underneath. As the rootlet grows, this little thimble is pushed on first through the crevices of the soil, and, as you may sup- pose, is soon worn away on the outside, but it is as rapidly renewed by the rootlet itself on the inside. Another difference between the root and the part above ground you will scarcely have failed to discover : the root has no leaves, nor has it any buds. You may describe the root of the Buttercup vlb fibrous. Fig. 2. BLEMETS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY. I ! '< i^ 8. Let us now look at the Stem. (Fig.3.) Itis upright, pretty firm, coloured green, and leaves spring from it at intervals. As there is scarce- ly any appearance of wood in it, we may describe it as herbaceous. At several points along the main stem branches are given off, and you will observe that immediately below the point from which every branch springs there is a leaf d!n the stem.. The angle between the leaf and the stem, on the upper side.' is called the ajcil of the leaf {axilla, an armpit), and it is a rule to which there are scarcely any exceptions, that branches can only spring from the axils of leaves. The stem and all the branches of our plant termi- Fig. 3 nate, at their upper extremi- ties, either in flowers or in flower-buds. 4. Let us now consider the Leaves. A glance will show you that the leaves of this plant are not all ahke. Those at the lower end of the stem have long stalks, (Fig. 4) which we shall henceforward speak of as 2^(^tioles. Those a little higher up have x)etioles too, but they are not in ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY. quite so long as the lower ones, and the highest leaves have no petioles at all. They appear to he sitting on the stem, and hence are said to he sessile. The lowest leaves ol all, as they seem to spring from the root, may be described as radical, whilst the higher ones may be called cauline [cfiidis, a stem). The broad part of a leaf is its blade. In the plant we are now examining, the blades of the leaves are almost divided into distinct pieces, which are called lubes, and each of these again is more or less deeply cut. Both petioles and blades of our leaves are covered with minute hairs, and so are said to be hairy. Pig. 4. Hold up one of the leaves to the light, and you will observe that the veins run through it in all directions, forming a sbrt of net-work. The leaves are therefore net-veined. The points along the stem from which the leaves arise are called nodes, and the portions of stem between the nodes are called inter nodes. 5. Let us next examine the Flo\vers. Each flower in our plant is at the end either of the stem or of a branch of the stem. The upper portions of the stem and its branches, upon which the flowers are raised, are called the peduncles of the flowers. Take now a flower which has just opened. Beginning at the outside, you will find five little spreading leaves, somewhat yellowish in colour. Each of these is called a sepal, . g and the five together form the calyx of the 6 ELEMENTS OV STKUCTrUA'. i;OTANY. flower. If yoii look at a flower wliicli is a little older, you will in-obably not find any sepals. They will have fallen off, and for this reason they are said to be decidu- ous. So, in like manner, the leaves of most of our trees arc deciduous, because they fall at the approach of winter. You will find that you can pull off the sepals one a"f a time, without disturbing those that remain. This shows that they are not connected togeUier. They arc therefore said to be free, and the calyx is described as jiohjsepalous. \ w Inside the circle of sei)als there is another circle oi leaves, usually five in number, bright yellow in colour, and much larger than the sepals. Each of them is called a j>e(.) This seed consists mainly of a hard substance y called «//>/^mr;/, enclosed in a thin covering. At <)/ the lower end t)f the albumen is situated a very Fit? 16. small body, which is the r////>n/o. It is this which develops into a new plant when the seed germi- nates. 13. Wc have seen then that our plant consists of several parts : (1). The Root. This ])enetrates the soil, avoiding the light. It is nearly white, is made up of iibres, from which numbers of muoli iiner fibres are given off, and is entirely destitute of bud.s and leaves. (2). The Stem. This grows upward, is coloured, bears foliage-leaves at intervals, gives off branches from tlie axils of these, .'ind bears flowers at its upper end. (8). The Leaves. These are of two sorts : Fo/m^^- Icat'cs Mild Flower -leaves. The former are sub divided into radical and caullne, and the latter make up the llviwor, the parts of which are four in number, viz. : calyx corolla, stamens, and pistil. It is of great importance that you should make your- selves thoroughly familiar with the different parts of the plant, .as just described, before going further, and to that end it will be desirable for you to review the pre- sent chapter carefully, giving special attention to those ELEMENTS OF STnUCTURAI, HOTANV. 11 parts wliich wore not perfectly plain to yon on yonr first reading. In the next clmptor, wo sliall ^'ive a viry brief ac- count of tlio usts of thn JifTmeut piirts of tiu; llower. If found too diflicult, fli^ studv '»f it mav be deferred until further progress has bei ii niudc in plant examination. CHAPTKR II. FUNCTIONS OF THE ORGAN'S OF TFfK FLOWER. 14. The chief use of tlio calyx and corolla, or Jhra^ (mveloj,jf<, as they are collectively called, is /o profrrf the other parts of the jlouer. They enclose -the stamens and pistil in the bud, and they usually wither away and dis- appear shortly after the anthers have shed their pollen, that is, as we shall jiresently see, as soon as their ser- vices as protectors are no longer required. 15. The corollas of flowers are usuallv bright-colour- ed, and frequently sweet-scented. There is little doubt that these qualities serve to attract insects, which, in search of honey, visit blossom after blossom, and, bring- ing their hairy limbs and bodies into contact with the open cells cf the anthers, detach and carry away quan- tities of pollen, some of which is sure to be rubbed off upon the sti^^mas of other flowers of the same kind, subsequently visited. 16. The essential part of the stamen is the anther, and the purpose of this organ is to produce the pollen, which, as you have already learned, consists of minute grainSf havin'.: a definite structure. These little grains are usually alike in plants of the same kind. They are 12 ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY. f i !• furnished with two coats, the inner one extremely thin, and the outer one much thicker by comparison. The interior of the pollen-grain is filled with liquid matter. When a pollen-grain falls upon the moist stigma it beffins to (jrow in a curious manner. (Fig. 17). The inner coat pushes its way through the outer one, at some weak point in the latter, thus forming the beginning of a slender tube. This slowly pene- trates tlie stigma, and then extends itself down- Fig. i7. wards through the style, until it comes to the cavity of the ovary. The liquid contents of the pollen- grain are carried down through this tulDc, which remains closed at its lower end, and the body of the grain on the stigma withers away. The ovary contains an ovule, which is attached by one end to the wall of the ovarv. The ovule consists of a kernel, called the niiclcu^^ which is usually surrounded by two coats, through both of which there is a minute opening to the nucleu*8. This opening is called the micropylc, and is always to be Fig. 18. ^ound at that end of the ovule which is not attached to the ovary. (Fig. 18, w.) About the time the anthers discharge their pollen, a little cavity, called the emhr^/o-sac, appears inside the nucleus, near the micropyle. The pollen -tube, with its liquid contents, enters the ovary, passes through the micropyle, penetrates the nucleus, and attaches itself to the outer surface of the embryo-sac. Presently the tube becomes empty, and then withers away, and, in the meanwhile, a minute body, which in time developes into the embryo, makes its appearance in the embryo- sac, and from that time the ovule may properly bo called a seed. ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY. 18 17. In order that ovules may become seeds, it is always essential that they should be fertilized in the manner just described. If we preveut pollen from reaching the stigma — by destroying the stamens, for instance — the ovules simply shrivel up and come to nothing. Now it is the business of the flower to produce seed, and we have seen that the production of seed depends mainly upon the stamens and the pistil. These organs may consequently be called the essential ofydus of he flower. As the calyx and corolla do not play auy direct part in the production of seed, but only protect the essential organs, and perhaps attract iusects, ^ve can understand how it is that they, as a rule, disappear early. Their work is done when fertilization has been accomplished. Having noticed thus briefly tne part played by eacli set of floral organs, we shall now proceed to the exami- nation of two other plants, with a view to comparing their structure with that of the Buttercup. CHAPTER III. EXAMINATION OF HEPATICA AND MARSH-MARIGOLD — RESEM- BLANCES BETWEEN THEIR FLOWERS AND THAT OF . BUTTERCUP. 18. Hepatica. You may procure specimens of the Hepatica almost anywhere in rich dry woods, but you will not find it in flower except in spring and early summer. Lt is very desirable that you should have the plant itself, but for those who are unable to obtain !l 14 ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY. specimens, the annexed engravings may serve as a substitute. Beginning then at the root of our new plant, you see that it does not differ in any great measure from that of the Buttercup. It may in hke manner be described asjibrous. • Fi«. II. The next point is tlie stem. Y )m will remember that in the Buttercup the stem is that part of the plant from which the leaves spring. Examining our Hepa- tica in the light of this fact, and following the petioles of the leaves down to their insertion, we find that they and the roots appear to spring from the same place — that there is, apparently, no stem. Plants of this kind are therefore called acdulcscent, that is, stemless, but it must be carefully borne in mind that the ahspnce of the ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAI, UOTANY. 16 stem is only a])parent. In reality there is a stem, but it is so short as to be almost indistinguishable. The leaves of tlie Hepatica are of course all radical. They will also bo found to be net- veined. 19. Tiie Flowers of the Hepatica are all upon lonp peduncles, which, like the loaves, appear to spring from the root. Naked peduncles of this kind, rising Irom the ground or near it, are called scapen. The flower- stalks of the Tulip and the Dandelion furnish other familiar examples. Let us now proceed to exr.mine the flower itself. Just beneath the coloured leaves there are three leal- lets, which you will be almost certain to rcj,'ard, at first sight, as sepals, forming a calyx. It \\\\\ not be difli- cult, however, to convince you that 'his conclusion would bo incorrect. If, with the aid of your needle, you turn back these lealkts, you will readily discover, between them and the coloured portion of the flower, a vert/ sJ/'ort bit of stem {Yv^. 20), the upper end of which is the receptacle. As these leaflets, then, are on the peduncle, below the receptacle, they cannot bo sepals. They are simply small foliage leaves, to which, as they are found beside the flower, the name }>riis. 1ft ; t ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY. 2o, Rtimove the stamens, and yoii have left, as be- fore, n lioad of carpels (Finr. 24). Examine one : there is the lower broad part, which you recognize as the ovary, the very short style, and the .slicky stigma. To all appearance tlio carpels ar(! pretty much the same as those of the two plants already examined. It will not do, how- Fig. 24 ever, to trust altogether to appearances in this case. Cut open a carpel and you find that, in- stead of a single ovule at the bottom of the ovary, there are several ovules in a row along that edge of the ovary which is turned towards the centre of the flower. The ovary is, in fact, a jml, and, when the see^s ripen, splits open along its inner edge. If you ^;,,;j| can find one which has split in«this way, you can hardly fail to be struck with the resemblance Fig 25."^^^^'^^^ ^^ bears to a common leaf. (Fig. 25.) On the whole the resemblance between the structure of the Marsh-marigold and that of the Hepatica and Buttercup is suiftciently great to justify us in placing it in the same family with them. 20. Having now made yourselves familiar with the different parts of these three plants, you are to write out a tubular description of them according to the fol- lowing foi m ; and, in like manner, whenever you ex- . amine a new plant, do not consider your work done until yon have written out such a description of it. In tlie form the term cohesion relates to the union of like parts ; for example, of sepals with sepals, or petals with petals ; while the term adhesion relates to the uuion of unlike parts ; for example, of stamens ■■:. ifh corolla, 01 ovary with calyx. Neither cohesion nor ad- hesion takes place in any of the three flowers we iuivo ELEMENTS OF STRL'CTrUAL HOTAXY. 19 examined, and accordingly, under these headings in our schedule we write down the terms polysepalous, poly- petalous, &c., to indicate this fact. The symbol oo means ''indefinite," or " numerous," and may be used when the parts of any organ exceed ten in number. OIUJANOUPAUT Ol' FliOWlOU. Calyx. Sepals, Corolla. Petals. Pistil. Carpels. Ovary. BUTTERCUP. NO. { OUKSION Polypetalous. I Hypogyiious. llegulaiv Stamens. i * Filaments. | Anthers. Polyandrous. IIyiiogyiif)ns Ai)ocarpou8. Superior. 20 Er^EMKA'Ts OF STUuc :;:.;a:. n )TANY. HEPATICA. OROAN. NO. COHESION. ADHESION. REMARKS. Calyx. Sepals. 7-12 Polysepalous. Inferior. Coloured like 11 Coi-olla. Calyx. Petals. V/anting. Stamens. Filaments. Anthers. X Polyamlrous. 1 Hypogynous. Pistil. Carjjels. Ovary. a Auocarpous. Superior. ■ • MARSH-MARIGOLD. ^GAN. NO. COHESION. ADHESION. REMARKS Calyx. ' epals. 5-9 Polysepalous. Inferior. Coloured like a Corolla. Corolla . Petals. « . \Va ting. 1. Stamens. Filaments. Anthers. oc Polyandrous. Hypogynous. , -1 i 1 Pistil. Carpels. Ovary. 06 Apocarpous Superior. Carpels contain several seeds REMARKS. olonrodlikoa ('orolla. ''anting. REMARKS olourcd like a Corolla. Va ting. ;!arpel8 contain several seeds ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY. 21 CHAPTER IV. EXAMINATION OF OTHER COMMON PLANTS WITH HYPOOYNOUS STAMENS. SHEPHEKD's PURSE. ROUND-LEAVED MALLOW. 27. We shall now proceed to examine some plants. the flowers of which exhibit, in their structure, impni - taut variations from tlie Buttercup, Hcpiilicn. and Marsh-Marigold. Fig 26. ' ' i II' i i f i 22 iLK.MKNTH OF STRUCTURAL BOTAN\. L hepherd's Purse. This plant, (Fig. 2G). is ouc of tlio commonest of woods. As in tlio liuttercjup, the foUagc-lcavcs arc of two kinds, radical and cauliiic, the former being in a cluster around tlic base of the stem. Tlio caulino leaves are all sessile, and each of them, at i'o base, projects backward on- each side of the stem, so that the leaf somewhat resembles the head of an arrow. Such leaves arc, in fact, t.aid to be sfn/ittate, or arrow- shaped. The flowers grow in a cluster at the top of the stem, and, as the season advances, tlie peduncle gradu- ally elongates, until, at the close of tlio summer, it forms perhaps half of the entire length of the stem. You will observe, in this i^lant, that each separate flower is raised on a little stalk of its own. Eacl^ of these little stalks is a peiJicel, and when pedicels are IDresent, the term peduncle is applied to the portion of stem which supports the whole cluster. 28. The flowers, (Fig. 27), are rather small, and so will require more than ordinary care in their examination. The calyx is f olysepalouf, and of four sepals. The corolla is polypctaious, and of four petals. The stamens, (Fig. 28), are six in number, and if you examine them atten- tively, you will see that two of them are shorter than the other four. The stamens are conse- quently said to be tetrad ynamous. But if there Fig. 28. had been ou\y four stamens, in two sets of two each, they would Iwive been called didijnamous. The stamens are inserted on the receptacle (hypogynous). The pistil is separate from the other parts of the flower (superior). 29. To examine the ovary, it will be better to select a ripening pistil from the lower part of the peduncle . ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL UOiANY 2H It is a flat body, shaped something like a hear , (Fig 2r ) and having the short style in the notch. A rid^'o divider it lengthwise ou each side. Carefully cut or pull away the lobos, !ind this ridge will remnin, presenting,' now tlie appearance of a nar- row loop, witli a veiy thin membranous partition stretched across it. Around the ed'^o, on botli sides of the partition, seeds aro suspended from slender stalks. (Fig. .']0). Tlicre aro, then, two carpels fil'. 29. Fig.ao un'tcd together^ and the pistil is, therefore, sijncarpous. Tiio po'3uliar j)istil of this flower should bo carefully noticed, as it is the leading character of a whole group of plants. When you meet with suck a pistil, you may be pretty certain that the plant to which it belongs is a member of the Cress or Criicifer family, so called from the four petals sometimes spreading out like the arms of a cross. We shall find, however, that there arc oross- ehapod corollas b(?longing to plants of other groups. shkphriid's purse. OliGAN'. :,-o. 1 Couoiov. 1 APUISION. li::5r\.i!K,s. Calyx. Sepala. 4 r..ly.seiialoU8. 1 1 Inferior. Corolla. Tcials. 4 Polype t,alous. Hypogynous. Stamens, Filaments. Anthers. 6 Tetrndyna- UIOUB. 1 i 1 Hypogynous. Pistil. Ovary. 2 Syncaipous. Superior. The two ceUs of the ovary se- parate. I by a tbia partition. 24 ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL nOTANY. 80. Mallow. Tho round-leaved Mallow (Fig. 81) grows along every way side, and is a verv common weed i n cultivated grounds. Pro- cure, if popsible» a plant which has ripened its seeds, as well as one in flower. The root of this plant is of a different kind from those of the three plants first examined. It cons is ts of a stout tapering l)art, descending deep into the soil, from the surface of which fibres are given oflf irregularly. A stout root of this kind is called a tap-root. The Carrot is another example. 31. The leaves are long-patioled, net- veined and in- dented on the edges. On each side of the petiole, at its junction with the stem, you will observe a little leaf- like attachment, to which the name stipule is given. The presence or absence of stipules is a point of some importance in plant- structure, and you will do well to notice it in your examinations. You have now made yourselves acquainted with all the parts that any leaf has, viz., }>hnh', fx'tioJc nnd strpulcs. Fig. 34. KLKMKNTS OK STHUCTURAI. HOTANY. 25 32. Coming to the flowor, olserve first that the parts of the calyx are not entirely separate, as in tlio flowers you have already examined. For about half their length they are united together so as to form a cup. The upper half of each sepal, however, is perfectly dis- tinct, and forms a tooth of the calyx ; and the fact that there are ti' o of these teeth shows us unmistakably that the calyx lo made up of five sepals. We therefore speak of it as a iinmoscpalous calyx, to indicate that the parts of it are coherent. Aa the calyx does not fall away when the other parts of the flower disappear, it is said to he prrsLstcnt. Fig. 81, Uf shows a persistent calyx. 83. At the base of the calyx there are three minute leaf-like teeth, looking almost like an outer calyx. A circle of bracts of this kind is called an involucre. The three bracts under the flower of the Hepatica also con- stitute an involucre. As the bracts in the Mallow grow on the calyx, some botanists speak of them as an ciii- calyx. The corolla consists of five petals, separate from each other, but united with the stamens at their base. 84. The stamens are nuuuious, and as their fila- ments are united to form a tube they^ are said to be monadelphous. This tube spritKjs frotn the receptacle, and the stamens are therefore hypoijipiouH. Fig. 82 will help you to an understanding of the relation between the petals and stamens. Having removed the petals, split the tube of the stamens with the point of your needle. A little care will then enable you to remove the stamens without in- juring the pistil. The latter organ will then be found to consist of f ring of coherent carpels, a rather stout 2G ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY. style, and numerous long stigmas. (Fig. 33.) If j^ou talvc the trouble to count the carpels and the stigmas, you ■will find the numbers to correspond. As tlio seeds jipen tlje carpels separate from each other. (Fig. 34.) MALLOW. 1 OUGAN. No. 5 Cohesion. Adhesion. liEMARKS. Calyx. Sepals. Gumosopsa- lous. Inferior. Thvoo bract H growing 0 ista f n Tt'-io CHAPTER VI. EXAMINATION OF A PLANT WITH EPIGYNOUS STA5IENS — WATER PARSNIP. 46. Water-Parsnip. This is a common swamp v-i^i'^Vr-^^, . plant in Canada ; but if any diffi- •tiwv}^A£).^; cnlty be experienced in procuring Fig.ci. ''*^,:'^S'. specimens the flower of the com- J^J^' ' mon Carrot or Parsnip may be substituted for it, all these plants ^ ^ A l>eing closely related, and differ- r/ \J^ ing i^xit slightly in the structure of their flowers. Notice first the peculiar ap- pearance of the flower cluster. (Fig. 40.) There are several pedicels, nearly of the same length, radiating from the end of the peduncle, and from the end of each pedicel radiate in like manner a number of smaller ones, each with a flower at its extremity. Such a cluster is known as an umbel. If, as in the present case, there are groups of secondary pedicels, the umbel is compound. As the flowers are very small we shall be obliged to use the lens all through the examination. Even with its aid you will have a little difficulty in making out the calyx, the tube of which, in this flower, adheres to the surface of the ovary, as in Willow-herb, and is reduced above to a mere rim or border, of five minute teeth. The petals are five in number, and free from each other. Observe that each of them is incurved at its extremity. (Fig. 60.) They are inserted on a disk which croivns the Fig. 50. Fig. 49. m 3G ELEMENTS 09 STRUCTUKaL BOTANY. ovary ^ as arc also the five stamens, •wliioh are hence said to be epi I'Tious. In the ceutro of tlio flower are two short fityk'S projecting above the disk, and a vortical flection throngli tlio ovary (Fig. 51) shows it to bo two- cc'llcd, with a single seed suspended from the top of each cell. WATER-PARSNIP. ORO\N. NO. COHESION. ADHESION. RF.MAKKS. Calyx. Sepals. 5 Gamosopalous. Superior. Calyx-tortli rl- most oljsoloto. Corolla. Petals 5 Polypetalous. Epigyiions Petals iucurvcd. BtiimeiiB. 5 Pontaudrons. Epigynous. Pistil. Carpels. 2 Syncarpous, Inferior. / CHAPTER VII. EXAMINATION OF COMMON PLANTS WITH EPIPETALOUS STAMENS DANDELION CATNIP- 47. Dandelion. The examination of this flower will be somewhat more difficult than that of any we have yet undertaken. Provide yourselves with specimens in flower and in seed. The root of the plant, like that of the Mallow, is a tap-root. KLKMKNTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY. 87 TliG stem is almost suppressed, and, as in the case of the Ilepatica, the loaves are all radical They are also uet-veined. The flowers are raised on scapes, whicli are hollow. At first sight the flower appears to have a calyx of many sepals, and a corolla of many petals. Both of these appearances, however, are contrary to facts. With a sharp knife cut the flower through the middle from top to bottom. (Fig. 52.) It will then appear that the flower or rather jloioer-head, is made up of a large number of distinct pieces. With the point of your needle detach one of these pieces. At the lower end of it you have a small body resembling an un- ripe seed. (Fig. 53.) It is, in fact, an ovary. Just above this there is a short bit of stalk, sur- mounted by a circle of silky hairs, and above this a yellow tube with one side greatly prolonged. This yellow tube is a corolla, and a close examina- tion of the extremity of its long side will show pj^, 53. the existence of five minute points, or teeth, from which we infer that the tube is made up of five coher- ent petals. As the corolla is on the ovary it is said to be Epigiinous. Out of the cotolla protrudes the long style, divi- ded at its summit into two stigmas. To discern the stamens wttl require the greatest nicety of observation. Fig. 54 will help you in your task. The stamens are five in number. They are inserted on the tube of the corolla (epipetalous) and their anthers cohere (Fig. 55) and form a ring about the style. When the anthers are united Fig. 04. ui this way, the stamens are said to be syngenesiom. I 3R WLEIvrRNTS OF HTRUCTUn \r, HOTANY. 18. U sii)[)oarH, 'lien, tliattlii! Dandelion, intstoad [\\ of being a siiiglo llower, is in leality a compound of a great many flowers ujion u common recep- tacle, and wliat Mconied at first to be a caly.v is, in ^*8- •'*''• reality, an iiirohinr, made uj) of many biacts. ]>iit have tlie single flowers, or jlntrts, as tliey are pro[u')ly cjiUcd, no calyx ? The theory is that they have on<', hut that it is ndlKU-ent to the surface of the ovaiy, and that the tuft of silky hairs wliich we noticed is a prolongation of it. Now turn to your Bpecimen havuig the seeds ready to blow away. The seeds are all single ; the little bit of stalk at the top has grown into a long slender thread, and the tuft of hairs has spread out like the rays of an umbrella (I'ig. r>0). But tliougli the seeds are inva- riably single, it is inferred from the two- lol>ed stigma that there are two cHrpch. •19. Flowers constructed on the plan of the Dandelion arq called i'mnjiositf, flowers. A very lai'ge numlxu* of our common plants have llowers of this kind. The May-weed, which abounds in waste places everywhere, the Thistle, and the Ox-Eye Daisy are examples. DANDELION. Okqan. " Calyx. Sepaht No. Cohesion. Adhesion. GaiiiuBei)aloiis. Superior. Cm-oUa. Petals. StamonB. C Gamui)fctiilou.-. Kpigyiious. 5 Syngonesious. Epipotulous PiKtil. Carpels. O Syiicarpous. Inferior. Remakks. Tlio miiiiTicr of fiepalH in i)if erred fruiii onaluuy to I*^b«T', of stigmag. ELEMENTS OF HTUUCTLKAI. BOTANY. 80 Fi«. 57. 50. Catnip XoUf i'iii«l'ully the a|tne}iraiu'o of tlic hteuj. It Ih si/iiiue. Tlio llowois ai'o ill axillary clusturs. The calyx in a tube (Fig. '"iT) teiuiinatiii'.,' in five sluup teeth, and you may observe that the tube in a little louder on the u\'>- per siile (tliat is, tlio side tonun-ds tiic Htom) than on tlie lower. The corolla is some- what peculiar. It has somewhat the ap- [)earance of a wide open mouth, and is known as a lahiatf or two-lipped corolla. Tlio upper li}) is erect, and notched at the apex. The lower lip spreads outward, and consists of a large central lobe and two small lateral ones. Altogether, therefore, there eu'ejirr lobes cousti.- tutiiig the gamopetftious corolla. Pull out the corolla, and with the point of your needle split its tube in front. On laying it open, the stamens will be found to bo in- serted upon it (epipetalous). They are four in number, two of them shorter than the other two. Hence they are described as didtjnumous. The jMithers arc peculiar in not having their lobes parjdlel (Fig. 58), these being wide apart at the base, in consequence of the expansion of the connevUvc^ the name given to that part of Fig. 63. ^j^^ anther which unites its two lobes or cells. The pistil consists of a two-lobed stigma, a , long style, and an ovary which seems at first | as if made up of four distinct cai^els (Fig. 59). But the single style and the two-lobed stigma will warn you against this supposition. The ovary really consists of tuo carpels, each of two deep lobes, and, as the seeds ripen, these lobes form four little nutlets (Fig. 60), each contain- p^^ 59^ ing a single seed. I' I I , 40 Fig. 60. ELEMENTS OP STRUOTUBAL BOTANY. 61. The group of plants to which Catnip belongs is easily distinguished by the square stem, irregular corolla, and four stamens. CATNIP. ORGAN. NO. COHESION. ADHESION . BEMARE8. Calyx. Seimls. 5 6 Gamosepalcrus. Inferior. Corolla. Petals. Gamopetalous Hypogynous. Two-lipped. Up- I'er lii> of two, and lower of tLreo lubes Lobrsof nnthers not parallel. Stamens. Anthers. 4 Didyuamous. Epipetalous Pistil. Carpels. 2 Syncarpoua. Superior. CHAPTER VIII. EXAMINATION OP PLANTS WITH M0N(ECI0US AND DKECIOUS FLOWERS — CUCUMBER, WILLOW. 62. Cucumber. You can hardly have failed to notice that only a small proportion of the blossoms on a Cucumber vine produce cucumbers. A great many wither away and are apparently of no use. An atten- tive inspection will show that some of the blossoms a P t] ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY. 41 ;o m have oblong fleshy protuber- ances beneath them, whilst others are destitute of these attachments. Select a flower of each kind, and examine first the one with the protuberance (Fig. 61), which latter, from its appearance, you will prob- ably have rightly guessed to be the ovary. The situation of the ovary here, indeed, is the same as in the Willow-herb. The Fig. 6i. calyx-tube adheres to its surface, and is prolonged to some little distance above it, expanding finally into five teeth. The corolla is gamopetalous, and is adherent to the calyx. Remove now the calyx and the adherent corolla, and there is left in the centre of the flower a short column, terminating in three stigmas, each two- lobed. There are no stamens. 53. Now examine the other blossom (Fig. 62). Calyx and corolla have almost exactly tbe same appearance as before. Remove them, and you have left three stamens grow- ing on the calyx-tube, and slightly united by their anthers Fig. 62. (syngenesious). There is no pistil. You see now why some blossoms produce cucumbers, and others do not. Most of the blossoms have no pistil, and are termed staminate or sterile flowers, whilst the others are pistillate or fertile. Flowers in which 42 ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY. either stamens or pistils are wanting are also called im- perfect. When staminate and pistillate flowers grow on the same plant, as they do in the case of the Cucumber, they are said to be moncerions. . i. . 54. In plants of tliis kind the pollen of one kind of blossom is conveyed to the stigmas of the other kind, chiefly by insects, which visit the flowers indiscrimin- ately, in search of honey. The pollen dust clings to their hairy legs and bodies, and is presently rubbed off upon the stigma of some fertile flower. 55. In order to describe monoecious flowers, our schedule will require a slight modification. As given below, the symbol | stands for '* staminate flower,** and the symbol | for " pistillate flower." CUCUMBEK. • ' ORaAN. NO. COHESION. ADHESION. REMARKS. Calyx. Sejxils. 5 Gamosepalous Superior. CJoroUa. Petal H. 5 Gamopetaloua Perigynous. 1 Stameus. 3 SyngenesiouB. Perigynous Two anthers are 2— celled, and one 1— celled. t Pistil. Carpels. ■ 1 Staiiious. o .f - »^h L o : PiKtil. C(ll^)i:ln, 3 Syncarpous. Inferior. ■ ELEMENTS OF STRUCTUilAL BOTANY. 48 V 60. Willow. Tlie flowers of most kinds of Willow appear iu spring or early summer, before the leaves. They grow from the axils in long close clusters culled C(itliins or arni'Hts. Collect a few of these J'njm i/ii' same tree or shruh. You will lind them to be exactly alike. If the first one vou examine is covered with yellow stamens (Fig. G8), all the rest will likewise consist of sta- mens, and you will search in vain for any a])pearance of a pistil. If, on the other liand, one of your catkins is evidently destitute of stamens, and consists of oblong pis- tils (Fig. C-1), then all the other will in like manner be / ' 1 ■ to bo without stamens. Unlike our Cu- cumber plant, the stami nate and pistillate flowers of the "Willow are borne Fia. 63. .-^U %m^':^ ^^fjR*u*«^gf' Fig. G4. on cUjjcrcut plants. These flowers are therefore said to be (lia'rinits. As a general thing, staminatc and ]tistih laic catkins will be found upon trees not far apart. Procure one cf each kim.l, and examine first the stami- nate one. You will probably find the stamens in pairs. Follow any pan* oi filaments down to their insei'tion, and observe that they spring from the axil of a minute bract (Fig. 05). These bracts are the sntlcs of the catkin. There is no a])pearance of either calyx or corolla, and tlie flowers are therefore said to be (irhUnini- (hviis^ that is, without a covering. Now look Fig. r,5 at the fertile catkin. Each pistil will, like 44 ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY. i! M ji U w '1 the stamens, be found to spring from the axil of a scale (Fig. 66). The stigma is two-lobed, and on carefully opening the ovary you observe that though there is but one cell, yet there are tiro rows of seeds. We therefore infer that the pistil consists of two carpels. The pistillate flowers, like the staminate, are achlamydeous. In dioecious plants, the process of fertilization j,. ^ is assisted by insects, and also very largely by the wind. HEAHT-LEAVED WILLOW. ORGAN NO. COHESION. ADHESION. RBMABKB. Calyx. Corolla. t Stamens. 2 Diandrous. + PistU. : stamens. t Pistil. Carpels. 2 Syncarpous. 1 ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY. 4.6 66. B. CHAPTEB IX. CHARACTERISTICS POSSESSED IN COMMON BY ALL THE PLANTS PREVIOUSLY EXAMINED. STRUCTURE OF THE SEED IN DICOTYLEDONS. 57. Before proceeding further in our examination of plants, we shall direct your attention to some characters of those already examined, which they all possess in common. The leaves of every one of them are net- veined. Some leaves, at least, of each of them have dis- tinct petioles and blades. The parts of the flowers we found, as a general thing, to be in Jtves. In one or two instances they were in/owr«, that is, four sepals, four petals, and so on. 58. Now, in addition to these resemllances there are others which do not so immediately strike the eye, but which, nevertheless, are just as constant. One of these is to be found in the structure of the embryo. Take a cucumber or pumpkin seed, and having soaked it for some time in water, remove the outer coat. The body of the seed will then readily split in two, except where the parts are joined at one end. (Figs. 67, 68, 69). The thick Fig. 67. Fig. 68. Fig. 69. lobcs are Called cotyledons, or seed- leaves, and as there are two, the embryo is dicotyledonous. The pointed end, where the cotyledons are attached, and from which the root is developed, is called the radicle. Between the cotyledons, at the summit of the radicle, you will find a minute upward projection. This is a bud, which is known as the plumule. It developes into the stem. 59. If you treat a pea or a bean (Figs. 70, 71), in the same manner as the cucumber seed, you will find it to be 4r, ELEMENTS OF STUL'C I'tiwU. liOl'ANY. constmcted on tliG Bame plan. The em- bryo of the bean is dicotyledonous also. l^)ut you will observe that in these cases the embryo occupies the whole of tlie inte- rior of the seed. In describing the seed of the Buttercup, it was pointed out that the embryo occupies but a very small space in the seed, the bulk of the lat- ter consisting oi aJhtnncn. Seeds like those of the But- tercup are therefore callci}. (ilbuDunous seeds, while thoseof the Bean and Pea are cxalbumliwii^. But, notwithstand- ing tliis difference in the structure of the seed, iliocmdryj of the Buttercup, when examined under a strong magnifier, is found to be dicotyledonous like the others. In shoit, the dicotyledonou-^ embryo is a character common to all the plants we have examined — common, as a rule, to all plants possessing the other characters enumerated above. From the general constancy of all these char- acters, plants possessing them are grouped together in a vast Class, called Dicotyledonous plants, or,, shortly, Dicotyledons. '• ' GO. Besides the characters just mentioned, there is still another one of great importance, which Dicotyle- dons possesses in common. It is the manner of cp'owth of the steyn. In the Willow, and all luv trees and shrubs without exception, there is an outer layer of bark on the stem, and the stem increases in thickness, year by j^ear, by forming a new layer just inside the bark and outside the old wood. These stems arc therefore called exopenous^ that is, outside (/rowers. Now, in all dicotyledonous plants, whether herbs, shrubs or trees, the stem thickens in this manner, so that Dicotyledons are also Exogens. ■H itg ELKMENTfl OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY. 47 CHAPTER X. .:/r IS \a'th lubs I the jar, hide EXAMINATION OF COMMON PLANTS CONTINUED. DOc; S-TOOTH ^ VIOLET, TRILLIUM, INDIAN TURNIP, CALLA, ORCHIS, . ..> -. ,i / , , TIMOTHY. . i < ^■'' 'f - k. 01. Dog's-tooth Vi let. This plant (Fig. 72)which llowers in Spring, may be pretty easily recoguisetl by ■*i ' J .* ;r, ^ ■^*w!^^>^ /.jl^ \ . ■ ': ' >!' * ■ I ii.i 1 ■ ' ■ - 1 ' ' ■ 1 - .1 ^wi\l I . ■ -.' i ■ 1 ' • » 1- is' '.' I . -:l ' '-.■■ .1 *' n1| u i--'-J ' /-ili ' . r- )• ■'■ ij ' 1 >">' \l ■iiU ■•. : . t /. 1 t .-;:•• -: .; \ •:»ii'r '»'. .'■•-• -M -iA^r. \ 4 .■,7fr},--.f f ■■. Vk- .>» . '■■ / ' '•' ' I'ii fri-di V' . . ; • : ^■.^-i ?-.7 _!■ w Ji'ij •'^> M . ■-• / \ ■'.'•] 'h:-^ 1 s ,'.<■ . ;i;-:Y/ i ■ . / " /.'a •' ^^.- ^ ■ ,' / . - ' i i' • " -^ *s .: .-ivi .-.-f.f'iii /.i.u/i'-r'^ >. I. h t iH J\ }'» 'U'r ,t»:-iu :■; r,n fj j*fi; ^» !';ii i .^/T tlj ! i 1 •'*->' * t i.« rbs, SO ■nf: Fig. 72. il;8 peculiar blotched leaves. It may be found in rich 48 ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY. moist pasture lands and low copses. The uame * • Violet ' ' is somewhat unfortunate, because the plant is not in any way related to the true Violets. To obtain a com- plete specimen requires some trouble, owing to the fact that the root is commonly six inches or so below the surface of the ground'; you must therefore insert a spade or strong trowel sufficiently deep to avoid cutting or breaking the tender stem. Having cleared away the adhering earth, you will find that the roots proceed from what appears to be the swollen end ot the stem. This swollen mass is coated on the outside with thin scales. A section across the middle shows it to be more or less solid, with the stem growing up through it from its base. It is, in fact, not easy to say how much of this stem-like growth is, in reality, stem, because it merges gradually into the scape, which bears the flower, and the petioles of the leaves, which sheathe the scape. The swollen mass is called a bulb. 62. The leaves are two in number, gradually narrow- ing at the base into sheaths. If you hold one of them up to the light, you will observe that the veins do not, as in the leaves of the Dicotyledonous plants, form a network, but run only in one direction, namely, from end to end of the leaves. Such leaves are consequently called straiijht-veined, 63. In the flower there is no appearance of a green calyx. There are six yellow leaves, nearly alike, ar- ranged in two sets, an outer and an inner, of three each. In such cases, we shall speak of the colored leaves collectively as the perianth. If the leaves are free from each other, we shall speak of the perianth as poly- phl/Uous, but if they cohere we shall describe it as ^amo- II T S( li; b< ELEMENTS OP STRUCTURAL BOTANY. 49 Lolet" Lot in com- le fact w the spade ng or ly the dfrom This scales. )r less om its jf this merges ,nd the The arrow- them o not, orm a from uently green te, ar- three kolored Ire free |s poly- garnO' phyllous. Stripping off the loaves of the perianth wo find six stamens, with long upright anthers which open along their outer edges. If the anthers bo pulled off, the filaments will be found to terminate in long sharp points. The pistil (Fig. 73) has its three parts, ^^«' ^* ovary, style, and stigma, well marked. The stigma is evidently formed by the union of three into one. The ovary, when cut across. Fig. 74. i^ seen to be three-celled (Fig. 74), and is therefore syncarpous. DOG'S-TOOTH VIOLET. ORGAN. NO. COHESION. ADHESION. BEMABES. Perianth. Leaves. 6 C Polyphyllous. Inferior. Stamens. Hexandrous. Hypogynous. Filaments ter- minating in sharp points. Pistil. Carpels. S SyncaxpouB. Superior. 1 64. Trillium. This plant (Fig. 7B) may be found in flower about the same time as the one just described. The perianth of Trillium consists of six pieces in two sets, but in this case the three outer leaves are green, like a common calyx. The stamens are six in num- ber. There are three styles, curving outwards, tho whole of the inner side of each being stigmatic. 50 ELEMENTS OF STKUCTMKAI. HOT ANY. Tbc ovary (Fig. 76) is six- angled, aud on being cut acioHs in seen to be tbree- celled. ' - 65. Comparing this flower with that of Dog's-tooth Vio- let, wc find the two to exhi- bit a striking resemblance in structure. But in one respect the plants are strikingly un- like : the leaves of the Tnllium are net-vnned (Fig. 77), as in the Exogens. From this cir- cumstance we learn that we cannot altogether rely on the veining of the leaves as a coit- slant characteristic of plants whose parts are not in fives. Fig. 75. ■,,-,'.■ TRILLIUM. ' ORGAN. NO. 3 3 COHESION. ADHESION. REMARKS. Periautli. Sepals. Petals. Polyphyllous. Inferior Sepals persist- ent. Stamens. Hexandroufl. Hypogynous. • Pist'l. Carpels. 3 Syncarpous. Superior. The inner facf of eacn style stigmatic. Leaves net-veined. w IX a] fn th so .^ :s. ersist- Ir face I 111 stylej Itic. KLEMENTM OF STRriirRAL lloiAXY. 51 ()(>. f ndian Turnip. Tliis ))lant iimy be easily lutt with iu our woods in oaily sumuier. It you aro not familiar with its appearance, the iinnoxcd cut (Fig. 7B) 5.4 i5 m:^^^^:' • Fig. 78. ' ' will lielj) you to recognise it. Procure several speci- mens ; these will ))robably at first seem to yoi^ to be alike iu every respect, but out of a number, some ar(3 pretty sure to differ from the rest. Notice the bulb from which the stem springs. It dilfois from that of the Dog's-tooth Violet, and Lilies generally, in being a solid mass. It is called a lonn. Between tiic pair of 52 ELEMENTS OF bTltUClLKAL liOTANY, Fig. 79. leaves yon ooserve a curious strip- ed slicath, having an arching, hood-like top, and enclosing an up- right stalk, the top of which almost touches the hood (Fig. 79). Can this be a flower ? It is certainly the only thing about the plant which at all resembles a flower, and yet how different it is from any we have hitherto examined ! Care- fully cut away the sheaths from all your specimens. Most, and per- haps all, of them will then present an appearance like that in Fig. 80. If none of them be hke Fig. 81, it will be well to gather a few more plants. We shall sup- pose, however, that you have been fortunate in obtain- ing both kinds, and will proceed with our examination. Take first a specimen cor- responding with Fig. 80. Around the base of the column are compactly arrang- ed many spherical green bodies, each tipped with a little point. Separate one of these from the rest, and cut it across. It will be found to contain several ovules, and is, in fact, an ovary, the point at the top being a stigma. In the autumn, a great change will have taken place in the appearance of plants like the one we are now examining. The arched hood will have disappear- ed, as also the long naked top of the column, whilst the part beloWi upon which we are now engaged, will have Pig. 80. Fig. 81 ELEMENTS oP STRUCTURAL llOTANY. 58 lg.81 lear- the lave vastly increased in size, and become a compact ball of red berries. There can bo no doubt, then, that we have here a structure aualogous to that found in the Cucum- ber and the Willow, the fertile, or pistillate, flowers being clustered together separately. But in the Cucum- ber all the flowers were observect to bo furnished with calyx and corolla, and in the Willow catkins, though floral envelopes were absent, each pair of stamens and each pistil was subtended by a bract In the present plant there are no floral envelopes, nor does each j>istil arise from a separate bract. 67. But, you will now ask, what is this sh jathing hood which we find wrapped about our col .mn of pistils ? There is no doubt that we mubt look upon it as a bract, because from its base the flower-el 'lor springs. So that, whilst the flowers of Indi;*!- Turnip are, like those of Willow, imperfect and diccio s, the clusters differ in having but a single bract instead of a bract under each flower. 68. We must now examine one of the other speci- mens ; and we shall have no difficulty in determining'^^'' the nature of the bodies which, in this case, cover the base of the column. They are evidently stamens, and your magnifying-glass will show you that they consist mostly of anthers, the filaments bei: •' extremely short, and that some of the anthers are two-celled, and some four-celled, all discharging their pollen through Uttle holes at the top of the cells. 69. The column upon which, in plants Uke Indian- Turnip, the flowers are crowded, is known as a spadix^ and the surrounding bract as a spatlie. You will observe that the leaves of this plant are nst- veined f as we foimd them in the TrilUum. M r ELEMENTS OF STRUCTUKAL BOTANY. INDIAN-TURNIP. OB IAN. NO. COHEBIO>f. ADHESION. f Stamons. 1 Monandrous. : P.atil. Car^jels. 1 Apocarpous. P owers crowflefl o i a apadix, and Borrounded by a spathe. Ljavcs uot-veiued. 70. Marsh Calla. This plant must be looked for in low marshy grounds, where it will be found in flower generally in the month of June. With the knowledge which you have of the structure of Indian-Turnip, you will hardly doubt that the Calla is closely related to it. You will easily recognize the spadix and the spathe (Fig. 82), though in the present instance the 8t)adix Fifi 8 Vig. ta. Elements of structural botany. 55 tor rer Ige ou it. the bears flowers to the ^op, ana Me spathe is open instead of enclosing the column. Observe, however, that tho veining of the leaf (Fig. 83) is different, that of Calla being straight, like the Dog's-tooth Violet. There is also a difference in the flowers. Those of Indian-Tur- nip were found to be dioecious, but the spadix, in the present case, bears both stamens and pistils, and the lower flowers, if not all, are perfect ; some- times the upper ones consist of stamens only. Fig. 84 shows one of the perfect li flowers much enlarged. The stamens, it will be observed, have two-celled anthers, opening lengthwise. MARSH CALLA. Fig. 84. ORGAN. NO. COHESION ADHESION. Perianth. Wanting. Stamens G Hexandrous. IlypogynouB. Pistil. Carpels. 1 Apocarpous Superior. 71. Showy Crchis. The flower of this plant (Figs. 85, 8G) is provided with floral envelopes, all col- oured like a corolla. As in Dog's-tooth Violet, we shall call them collectively the perianth, although they are not all alike. One of them projects forward in front of the flower, forming the lip, and bears under- neath it a long hollow spur, which, like the spurs of Columbine, is honey-bearing. The remaining five con- verge together forming a kind of arch over the centre of the flower. Each flower springs from tho axil of a 5G ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY ! I i i I t y Fig. 85. leaf-like bract, and is apparently raised on a pedicel. What seems to be a pedicel, however, will, if cut across, prove to be the ovary, which in this case is inferior. Its situation is similar to the situ- ation of the ovary in Willow-herb, and, as in that flower, so in this the calyx-tube ad- heres to the whole surface of the ovary, and \iyr il' the three outer divisions of the perianth are simply upward extensions of this tube. No- tice the peculiar twist in the ovary. The FiB 80, effect of this twist is to turn the lip away y ( I s a s ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY. 67 is from the scape, and so give it the appearance of being the lower petal instead of the upper one, as it really is. 72. The structure of the stamens and pistils remains to be examined, and a glance at the flower shows you that we have here something '.otally different from the common arrangement of these v^rgans. In the axis of the flower, immediately behind the opening into the spur, there is an upward projection known as the column. The face of this column is the stigma ; on each side of the stigma, and adhering to it, is an anther-cell. These cells, though separated by the column, constitute but a single stamen. The stamen, then, in this case is united with the pistil^ a condition which is described as gynan- (irons, 73. If you have a flower in which the anther-cells are bursting open, jou will see that the pollen does not issue from them in its usual dust-like form, but if you use the point of your needle carefully you may remove the contents of each cell in a miss. These pollen masses are of the form shown in Fig. 87. The grains are kept together by a fine tissue or web, and the slender stalk, upon which each pollen mass is raised, is attached by its lower end to a sticky disk on the front of the stigma just T,. «« above the mouth of the spur. Insects, in their Fig. 87. ^ ' efibrts to reach the honey, bring their heads in contact with these disks, and when they fly away carry the pollen-masses with them, and deposit them on the stigma of the next flower visited. In fact, without the aid of insects it is difficult to see how flowers of this sort could be fertilized at all. 68 ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL. BOTANY. SHOWY ORCHIS. ORGAN. NO. COHRBION. ADHESION. REMABES. Perianth. Leaves. 6 Gamoi)h: llauf, Superior. i ■ Stamens. 1 Monandrous. P^2. From what has gone before, you should now be tolerably familiar with the names of the different organs of plants, and you have also had your attention directed to some modifications of those organs as they occur in different plants. In all these cases, the adjective terms, which botanists use to distinguish the variations in the form of the organs, have been placed before you, and if you have committed these carefully to memory, you will have laid a good foundation for the lessons which follow on Morphology, the name given to the study of the various forms assumed by the same organ in dirTerent plants, or in different parts of the same plant. In some instances, the terms employed, being derived from Latin and Greek, and specially devised for botanical purposes, may seem difficult to learn. We believe, however, that this difficulty will be found to be more apparent than real. You will be surprised at the ease with which the terms will occur to your mind if you learn them with the help of plants which are every- where within your reach — if you be not satisfied with being mere book-botanists With a good tnany terms you will find no difficulty whatever, since they will be found to have the same meaning in their botanical applications as they have in their everyday use. ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL D^TANY. 63 jry- rith in ^''^•eS. The R6'(>t. This organ is called the descending axis of the plant, from its tendency to grow downward into the soil from the very commeuccmont of its dovcl- opcmcnt. Its chief use is to imhihc liquid nourishment, and transmit it to the stem. You will remombcr that in our examination of some common seeds, such as those of the Pumpkin and Bean (Figs. G7-Y1), wo found at the junction of the cotyledons a small pointed pro- jection called the radicle. Now, when such u seed is put into the ground, under favourable circumstances oi warmth and moisture, it begins to grow, or germinate^ and the radicle, which in reality is a minute stem, not only lengthens, in most cases, so as to push the cotyle- dons upwards, but developes a root from its lower ex- tremity. All seeds, in short, when they germinate, l)roducc roots from the extremity of the radicle, an ample, will take root at every joiut, if the stem be laid upon the ground (Fig. 9G}. The ruuners of the Strawberry take root at thtir extroruitics : and nothiug is more familiar than tlwt euttiugs from various plants will make roots for themselves if put into proper soil, aud supplied with warmth and moisture. All such roots are produced from some other part of the stum tliau the radicle, and are called secondanj or aJccnlitiuns roots. When such roots are d^^veloped from parts of the stem which are not in contact with the ground, they are aenal. ^~y^. There are a few curious plants whose roots never reach the ground at all, and which depend altogether upon the air for food. These are called epiplnjtes There are others whose roots penetrate the stems and roots of other plants, and thus receive their nourish* ment as it were at second-hand. These are ])U7'asitic plants. The Dodder, Indian- Pipe, and Beech-drops, of ^ Canadian woods, arc well-known examples. ^i^S^. The Stem. As the root is developed from the lower end of the radicle of the embryo, so the stem is developed from the upper eud, but with this important difference, that a bud always precedes the formation of the stem, or any jDart of it or its branches. Between the cotyledons of the Bean (Fig. 71), at the top of the radicle, we found a minute bud called the jAumule. Oiit of this bud the first bit of stem is developed, and duriug the subsequent growth of the plant, wherever a branch is to be formed, or a main stem to bo prolonged, there a bud will invariably be found. The branch buds are always in the axils of leaves, and so are called axillary. Adientitious buds, however, are sometimes produced in plants like the Willow, particularly if the v^ 66 ELrMENTfl np STRUCTURAL BOTANY. etcm has been wounded. The bud from which the maiu stem is developed, or a branch continued, is of course at the end of the stem or branch, and so is *mvinal. \/o9. If you examine a fev/ stems of plants at random, y^ycJix will probably find some of them quite soft and easily compressible, while others will bo firm, and will resist compression. The stem of a Beech or a Currant IS an instance of the latter kind, and any weed wiil servo to illustrate the former. The Beech and the Currant have ivooJij stems, while the weeds are herde ceoHs. Between the Beech and the Currant the chief differenco r> in size. Tiie Beech is a tree, the Currant a shrub. Br.t you are not to suppose that there is a hara and fast lino between dirubs and trees, or between herbs and Ghn;b3. A serica of plants could be constructed, commencing with an unquestionable herb, and end- ing with an unquestionable tree, but embracing plants exhib.ting such a gradual transition from herbs to shiubs, aid from shrubs to trees, that you could not say at what precise point in the series the changes occurred. VOO. The forms assumed by stems above ground are numerous, and they are described mostly by terms in common use. For instance, if a stem is weak, and trails along the ground, it is trailing, or prostrate ; and if, as in the run- ners of the Straw- berry, it takes root on the lower side, then it is creeping. Many „. ^^ weak stems raise Fig. 97. ELEMEI TS OP STRUCTURAL, BOTANY. m iges themselves by clinging to any support that may happen to be within their iea3h. la some instances the stem itself winds round the support, assuming ft spiral form, R8 in the Morniug-Glory, the Uop, and the Bean, and is therefore distinguished as twmvig. In other cases the stem puts forth threrad-like leafless branclios oaMod tendrils (Fig. 97), which gra3p the support, as in the Virginia Creeper, the Grape, and the Pea (Fig. 98), or sometimes the leaf-stalks serve the same purpose, as in tiie Clematis or Virgin's Bower. In these cases the stems are said to climb. Tlie stems of wheat and grasses generally are known as cnlma. They are jointed, and usually hollow except at the joints. \791. Besides the stems which grow above ground, there Fis. 98. rig. C9. are varieties to be found below the surface. Pull up a ELEMENTS OF 8TKUCTURAL BOTANY. Potato plant, and examine the underground portion (Fig 99). It is not improbable that you will regard the wlioie as a mass of roots, but a very httle trouble wil; undeceive you. Many of the fibres are unaues- tionably roots, but an inspection of those having pota- toes at the end3 of them will show you that they are quite different from those which have not. The former wil; be found to be furnished with little scales, answer- ing to leaves, cacli with a minute bu J in the axil ; and the potatoes them- ;^^if selves exhibit buds of the Feme kind. The potato, in short, is only tfib molten end of on vnderfj) ound new Such swollen ex- tremities are known „ ,,^ as tubers, whilst the Fig. IfO. underground stem is called a roots'ock, or rhizome, and may always be distinguished from a true root by the presence ol buds. The Solomon's Seal and Toothwort of Canadian woods, and the Canada Thistle, are com- mon instances of ijlants producing these stems. Fig. 100 shows a rhizome. y-^c Take now an Onion, and compare it with a rotato. You will not find any such outside appear- ances upon the former as are presented by the latter. Tlie Oaion is smooth, and has no buds upon its Burface. From the under side there spring root?, anel Una cir- cumstance will probably suggest that the Onion must be a stem of some sort. Cut the Onion through from top to bottom (Fig. 101). It will then be seen to be ouj bnf bul 9^ ■i SLEMEmS OF STBUCTUBAL BOTANY. 69 a iar- Lter. ice. Icir- lUSt :otn be maae up of a number of ccats. Strip off one or two, and observe that whilst they are somewhat fleshy where the onion is broadest they gradually become thinner to- wards the top. The long green tubes, which project from tho top of tho Onion during its growth, are, in fact, the prolongations of these coats. But the tubes are the leaves of tho plant. Tho mass of our Onion, therefore, con- sists of the fleshy bases of the leaves. But you will observe that at the hottom there is a rather flat solid part upon which these coats or leaves are inserted, and which must consequent- ly bo a stem. Such a stem as this, with its fleshy leaves, is called a i>«''> If tho leaves form coats, as in the Onion, the bulb is coated or tnnicated; if they do not, as in the lilies (Fig. 102), it is scaly. '^' ^^* ^3. Tubers and bulbs, then, consist chiefly of masses of nourishing matter ; but there is this difference, that, in tho latter, tho nourishment is contained in the fleshy leaves themselves, whilst, in the former, it forms a mass niore or less distinct from tho buds. ^^4. The thickened mass at the base of the stem of our Indian Turnip (Fig. 78) is more like a tuber than a bnlb in its construction. It is called a corm, or solid bulb. The Crocus and Gladiolus of the gardens are other examples. yr^i)5. In the axils of the leaves of tho Tiger Lily are produced small, black, rounded bodies, which, on exami. nfttioxi, prove to be of bulbous structure. They arc, in « M i i% iii !l ii 70 ELEMENTS Ok STiiUCTUUAL. IIO'IAMV. Fig. 103. fact, hidblcts, and new plants may be grown from them. jr^(j. Our Hawthorn is rendered formitlable by the prcscnco of stout Sidncs (Fig. 103) along the stem and branches. These spines mvariably proceed from the axik of leaves, and are, in fact, branches, whose growth has been arrested. They are appendages of the wood, and will remain attached to the stem, even after the bark is stripped off. They must not be confounded with the j^rickles (Fig. 104) of the Rose and Brier, which belong strictly to the bark, and come oflf with it. 97. Foliage-Leaves. Thece organo aro usually more or less flat, and of a green colour. In some plants, however, they are extremely thick and succulent ; and in the case of para- sites, such as Indian-Pipe and Beech-drops, ^" ^^' they are usually either white or brown, or of some colour other than green. The scaly leaves of underground stems are also, of course, destitute of colour. 98. As a general tljing, leaves are extended horizon- tally from the stem or branch, and turn one side towards the sky and the other towards the ground. But some leaves are vertical, and in the case of the common Iris each leaf is doubled lengthwise at the base, and sits astride the next one within. Such leaves are accordingly called equitant, 99. As to their arrangement on the stem, leaves are alternate when only one arises from each node {ITig. 8). If two are formed at each node, they aro sure tolo niE the the in 1 HHHHl iSa m ^yi ■•*, % mi i jgm m m ELEMENTS OP STKUCTIRAJ. BOTANY 71 )3, of of of In- ds its h iS :e on opposite sides of tlio stem, and so are described as oppodtc. Sometimes thero :jcq novcrn,! leaves at the same node, ii\ which cr.Be tlicy arc uhorled or v(rticilhuc (Fig. 105). 100. Forms of Foliage-Ler.ves. Leaves present an almost endloss va- riety in their forms, aud accurrxy in describing any given leaf depends 3 oud deal upon the ingenuity of the student in Delecting an 1 combining terms. The chief terms in use will ba given here. Compjirc a leaf of the Round-leaved MalloTT vritla one of Red Clover (Figs. lOG, 107). Each of them iz fur- Fig. 105. ( r o rig. lOG. Fig. 107. nishod with a long petiole and a pair of stipr.lcs. In the blades, however, there is a differonco. The blada o< the lormor consists of a single piece : thr^i o.^ Iho latter ;» in three ceparace pieces, each of which io called r Iccficl, bat all of which, taken collectively, constituto the blade /a ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY. of the leaf. Tho leaf of tlio Mallow is simple ; that of this lllover is compound. Between tho simple and the sjompouod form there IS every possible shade of Tradation. In the Mallow ieaf the lobes are not very clearly dcfiu'^d. In the Maple (Fig. 108) they are well-marked. In other cases, again, the lobes are BO nearly separate, that ^^ '' ^ Fig. 108. the leaves appear at first sight to be really compound. 101. You will remember that in our exapiinatious of dicotyledonous plants, we found the leaves io bo in- variably not- veined. But, though they have this gener- al character in common, they dificr considerably in the details of their vcining, or venation, as it is called. The two leaves employed as illustrations in the last section will serve to illustrate our meaning here. In the Mallow, there are several ribs of about the same size, radiating from the end of the petiole, something like the spread-out fingers of a hand. The vcining in this case is therefore described as dirjitatCy or radiate^ or palmate. The leaflet of the clover, on the other hand, is divided exactly in the middle by a single rib (the midrib), and from this the veins are given off on. each 6ido, so that the veining, on the wdiole, presents the appearance of a feather, and is therefore described as pinnate [penna, a feather). 102. Both simple and compound leaves exhibit these two modes of venation. Of simple pinnately-veined '""■=""' 0, eXHUCTCBAt .ox.«,. leaves, tho Boocl,, Mullein, and Willow , /^ "-'-CCS Srff^^r •■"''' V,,.g,„^,.Creeper (Fig. 09) • oompound digitate. . ^""^'C'cstuut, „„<, ?j,,„;"|;:^ As has already hpf^r> r^«• i , vewcd. a'wost invariably stra.g;. ^03. In addition to *I,„ »J-rio leaf inehl";jSr; "" "^^"'^'^ '* tlie genera! outline, fc?,!' !^ concer^in.. (,, to consider first 'the fo L°" '' " "■'" "^^ convenient '»''-. ami who3e ^a^^i^: ^f ^'^ "^^ ^--es .it, "„ oont«uou.. BncU leav1slTV!r^"'° '"<"<^ oriel - -Wcl. both ends 0^10 ^a e 'n' '"'''• ''' ■ *''- y apex is narro,vor tLan tl ■ '^'' "'"=« '" whicj, "-P0. is Lroader til.^lt- ^"^^ '"^ ^ ^^^ '■■aUn/variLlr^f J;-;;;- t?'^- it is evident O" tl'e relation between the .T' '''P'^"'' altogether fe.'eaf. When the eaf l !f' ?'' "'« t"eacUh of Panson wi,h its ieugth L 1 ""n^ "'^""'^ "' com :: «-«-/-;>.<; (Fig. \To) A^f"'- " ^^ «--•- ^^Vass through the forms "n " '"'•"' '""cases and finally orMc,,lar\T^ 7'' ^ ''"'''■• '''^'"U r-'-' "«--i..or,„ito;'J;4="^;;o -ath andlenS r^ '. If' 74 EI'EMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANT. LlnMtr Oblong Oral Orbtnnlftr Fig. 110 Fig 111. 106. In the second class the different forms ai'ise iTom the varying width of the hase d( the leaf, and we thus have subvluU or aicl-shaped (Fig. 112), lanccolai^- orate, and deltoul leaves (Fig. 118). Fig. 112. ^\ . " 107. In the third class, as tlie apex expands, wpliav Fie 117 Fifi. lis. Fis. 114 Fie. lir« Fig. lie. ^.■^.C^ fi-: :. .\ ail 86 d we the forms ,;5aM«toe (Fiff ]j41 ;; reverse of lanceoUte) (pt i , r'^ "*'"'"•'•"'""■ ("-at is, the K 108. In leaves of the seco.d ii.d we fro, el 2 ^ i?:itrrvr' ''- "^« '^^^^^ Ti^ereverorrs'^t^^^- -dentation i. at le 1 x' "'"? "''' f -(Fig. 118). Th/X' :.;*r shaped m> iio\ • '^^'^' °^ spear. ""' of the second cJass. F'g. 119. av / ^i^. 120. *'ig- 121. Fig. 122. a^dwilUe readily understood from th.» --""^^ If the potiole r„ r?'"' *'»"««• of the ur, il,;„ ""r'r'^ '" ""y part oftotheedlt TJ "'^^ 109. Leaves wLich *aiP !.] i -alb descnbed b, sUUnJ" t.^ t^.ey are palmateiy or , in„ot . "■ Pig. 123. ^^d, if the former iL T^ "' ^^^^^^^^ lormer. the number of Jobes is ^11 genoiftlJ, k:n:. 7fi ELEMENTS OF BTEUCTURAL BOTANY. given. If the leaves are very deeply cut, they are said to bo pahnatijid or pinna tijid according to the veining (Fig. 124). If the leaf is palmately lobcd, and tho lobes at the base are themselves lobcd, the leaf is jteilate (Fig. 125), be- cause it looks something like a bird's foot. If the lobes of a pinnatifid leaf are themselves lobcd, the leaf is Lipinna- ^V ^ ti/id. If tho leaf is cut up iuto lino ^v^jf segments, as in Diccntra, it is said to be qOs\I^ muUifuUy^ ^sV^ 110. Apex. Tho principal forms of tho apex are the imcrgnaifi (Fig. 122), when the leaf m tipped with a sharp Fig. 124. point, as though the midrib were projecting beyond the blade ; cusjndatef when tho leaf ends abruptly in a very short, but distinctly tapering, point (Fig. 12G) ; acute, or sharp; and obtuse, or blunt Fig. 125. / 111. It may happen that the apex does not end in a point of any kind. If it looks as though the end had been cut off square, it is truncate. If the end is slightly notcheil, but not sufficiently so to warrant the description obcordate, it is emartjinate. Fig. 128. "^112. Margin. If tho margin is not indented in any way, it is said to be entire. If it has sharp teeth, jxyint- ing in the direction of the apex, it is serrate, and will be coarsely or finely serrate, according to the size of the said ining "•'""•" or sTBCcx„„,, «„^,_ the same leneth, the leaf '««te Jof L„, , " "'"""'• ■""' if tlie teeth, ^•"-^times a pair ollZsZicTt btt"'"?' '"« ^''""«- L|^ on the other side ofrsS'?; / Tm "'^''^^ m St o ^"^ "'^°"«^' ""=^- tI a :; t? case in our common BoUwort .. , *'"' »liich are aceordingiy Zriltl '"''"' °^ (Fig. 129). Sometiml !"' *" P"^"""" ^ . stem, as in the unner I. J ^ "'"^P '^^^ ^■'^- in the Trios wTi- Honeysuetle. Eupatorium. Sueh C; "^ ZZ f °" "^^"^ °^ nate-per/oliau (Fig. 130) T„ ^ ^ ""'""" °^ 'o»- *e margin of the leaf is eon""' °" ^^'^^'"'"■^ga '^ned on eact side beW le •y,;! P«nt of iDBertion, and thp i„k« , ««• w • °" *"« lobes erow fast to the rides 7fe -Lr:iENTv OF STKUCTURAL DOTANV. of tlic stem, giving rise to what is called the iUcurrent form (Fig. 181). Tho terms by which simple leaves are describsd are applicable also to the leaflets of compound leaves, to the copals and petals of flowers, and, in short, to any flat forms. ^aaO Fig. 132. 114. We have already cxpliiined that compound leavec are of two forms, pinnate and palmate. In the former, the leaflets are arranged on each Lidc o the midrib. There may be a leaflet at the end, in which case the leaf is odd-pinnate, or the terminal leaflet may be wanting, and then the leaf is '^ yifnthj pinnate. In the Pea, the ic xjinnate and terminates in a ■ ■udnl (Fig. 98). Very frequently the primary divisions of a pinnate leaf are themselves pinnate, and the whole leaf is then tnicc-pinnate (Fi^o 132), If the subdivision is continuod through another stage, "^-j the leaf is i^irice- pinnate, and so on. Sometimee, as in the leaves of the TomLito, very small leaflets are found between the Icrger oneo, and this form is described as intcrrupt- ciUy pinnate (Fif^. 183 V j-^--^. ■-, ELEMENTS OT 'TUUCTURAI, "-OTANY. 7D 1 In the palmate or digitate forma, the leaflets spread out from the end of tho petiole, and, in de8cribin<^ them, it is usual to meutiou tlie number of divisions. If there are three, the leuf is in-foliolab' \ if there are five, it is Hxdnquejolinhite. Wo, In tlie examination of the Mallow, we found a couple of small leaf-like attachments on the petiole of each leaf, just at the junction with the stem. To those the name .sti/>iihs was given. Loaves which have not those appendagcB are exstipulaL\ 116. Besides the characters of leaves mentioned above, there remain a few others to be noticed. With regard to their surface, leaves i)resent every gradation from perfect smoothness, as in Wintergreen, to extreme roughness or wooUiness, as in the Mullein. If hairs are entirely absent, the leaf is (flabruus ; if present, tho degree of hairiness is described by an appropriate ad- verb ; if the leaf is completely covered, it is villous or villose ; and if the hairs are on the margin only, as in )ur Clintonia, it is ciliate. Some leaves, like those of Cabbage, have a kind of bloom on the surface, which may be rubbec oil" with the fingers ; this condition is described as nUtncous. 117. A few plants have anoma- lous leaves. Those of the Onion' are Jilijonn. The Pitcher llrjit of our Northern swamps has very curious leaves (Fig. 134), appar- ently formed by the turning in and cohesion of the outer edges of r.n ordinary leaf, so as to form a lube, closocl except at the top, and armed IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-S) 'W 7 1.0 I.I mms. 12 2.5 2.2 2.0 18 1:^ JA |||||i6_ -^ 6" ► Photographic Sciences Corporation 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. 14580 (716) 87*2-4503 80 ELEMENTS OF 8TRUCTUKAL BOTANY. on the inner surface with bristles pointing uowards liie base of the leaf. 118. Fiually, as leaves present an almost infinite variety in their forms, it will often be necessary, in de- scribing them, to combine the terms explained above. For instance, a leaf may not bo exactly linear, nor ex- actly lance-shaped, but may approximate to both forms. In such a case the leaf is described as lance-linear^ and 80 with other forms. The following form of schedule may be used with advantage in writing out descriptions of leaves. T'wo leaves — one of ^laplo and one of Sweet-Brier — are described by way of illustration. If a leaf is compound, the particulars as to outline, margin, apex, base, and surface will Lave reference to the leaflets. LEAF SCnEDULE. LcAi- or Maple. Sweet-BbifR. 1. rositioa. Cs.u'.ino. Cauliae. 2. Arransciacnt. Opposite. Alternate. 3. Insertion. Potiolate. Potiolate. 4. Ctipulation. Exstipulate. Stipulate. 5. DiviaioD. Simple. Odd pinnate, 7 leafloU. 6. Venation. Palmate. 7. Outline. Eoundlsh or oval. 1 9. Margin. Deeply lobod. Doubly Borrate. ELEMENTS OP STBUCTUBAL BOTANY. 81 the uite do- ovo. cx- rms. aud witli Two —are )und, , and Icifc 9. A;iex. rointed. Acuto. 10. Ease. orJato. Hardly indcntod. 11. Eurfaco. i Glrv^rnns ibovo; wbitlsb Downy nbr>vo ; covered \^ iLii gluuaa boucuiu. CHAPTER XIII. MOBPHOLOGY OF FLOWEB-LEAVES. THE CALYX. THE CO- ■ KOLLA. THE STAIJENS. THE PISTIL. THE FBUIT. THE SEED. GEBMINATION. 119. From an examination of the various forms pre- sented by foliage leaves, wo proceed now to tlioso of the floral ones, and we shall first consider the chief modifications in the arrangement of Jlowers as a whole, to which the term inflorescence is applied. 120. It is found that inflorescence proceeds upon two Yrell-dcfiEcl plans. To understand these, let us recur to our specimens of Shepherd's- L*urse aud Buttercup. You will remember that, in the former, the pedunclo continues to lengthen as long as the summer lasts, and new flowers continuo to be produced at the upper end. Observe, however, that every one of the flowers is produced in the axil of a hract^ that as the stem lengthens new Jjracts appear, and that there, is no flower on the end of tJic stem. You will easily understand then, that the production of flowers in such a plant is only limited by the close of the season or by the exhaus« tion of the plant. Such inflorescence is therefore called indefinite, or inde'.erminate, or axillcry. It is sometimes also called centripetal, because if the flowers happen to be in a close cluster, n.s are the upper ■ 1 1 62 ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY. oneo iu Shepherd's- Purse, the order of developement is from the outside toivards the centre. 121. If you now look at your Buttercup, you will be at once struck with the difference of plan exhibited. The main r-xis or stem has a jloiver on the end of it^ and its further growth is therefore checked. And so in liko manner, from the top downwards, the growth of the branches is checked by the production of flowers at their extremities. Tlic mode of inflorescence here displayed is definite, or determinate, or terminal. It is also ulled centrifugal because the developement of the flowers is the reverse of that exhibited in the first mode. The Tipper, or, in the case of close clusters, the central flowers' open first. In either mode, if there is but one flower in each axil, or but one flower at the end of each branch, the flowers are said to be solitary. 122. Of indeterminate inflorescence there are several varieties. In Shepherd 's-Purse we have an instance of the raceme, which may be described as ^ cluster in which each flower springs from an axil, anc^ IS supported on a pedicel of its own. If the pedicels are absent, and the flowers consequently sessile in the axils, the cluster becomes a spike, of which the co7iimon Plautaiu and the Mullein furnish good examples. The catkins of the Willow (Figs. 63, 64) and Birch, and the spudix of the Indian Turnip (Figs. 80, 81) are also spikes, the former having scaly bracts and the latter a fleshy axis. If you suppose the internodes of a spike to be suppressed, so that the flowers are densely crowded, you will have a head, of which Clover and Button-bush supply instances. If the lower pedicels of a raceme are considerably longer tlian the upper ones, so that all the blossoms are nearly on the same k fli ih W( G( ra< sol sin cor ] call nsu bra: .» H i^«IW | i|i M > li i l J II MI II ELEMENTS OF STKUCTURAL BOTANY. 88 f? 9 V Fig. 133. !■ 1^ l:U level, the cluster is a corymb (Fig. 1^5). If the flowers in a head were elevated on separate pedicels of the same length, radiating like the ribs of an umbrella, we should have an umbel, of which the flowers of Geranium and Parsnip (Fig. 49) are examples. A raceme will be compound (Fig. 136) if, instead of a solitary flower, there is a raceme in each axil, and a similar remark will apply in the case of the spike, the corymb, and the umbel. 123. The inflorescence of most Grasses is what is called a panicle. This is a compound form, and is usually a kind ot- raceme having its primary divisions branched in some irregular manner. If the panicle is si ELEMENTS Of 8TBUCTUBAL BOTAMTt compact, as in the Grape and Lilac, it is what is called a thfjrse, 124. Of determinate inflorescence the chief modification is the ci/me. This is a rather flat- topped cluctcr, having something the appearance of a com- pound corymh, but easily distinguished by this pecuU- arity, that the central blossom ojwis first ^ then those at the ends of the first set of branches of the cluster, then those on the secondary branches, and so on until the ouler buds are reached. The Elder, Dogwood, and St. John's Wort furnish good examples of the cymose Fig. 137. • structure. Fig. 187 Efhows a loose open cvme. ;> . 125. It has already been pointed out that canline leaves tend to diminish in size towards the upper part of the stem, where the flowers are found. Such re- duced leaves, containing flowers in their axils, are called bracts. In the case of compound flower-clusters, this term is limited to the leaves on the peduncle, or main stem, the term bractlet being then applied to those oo- corring on the pedicel& or subordinate stems. In the 1 tl t[ ol ELEMENTS OF ;TRUCTURAL BOTANY. 65 led [lie! ped om- 5uU- e at then L the a St. xnose •anline jr part icli re- called rs, tins kr main lose OQr In the case of the umbd and the head, it generally happens that a circle of bracts suitouuUs the base cf the cluster. They arc then called, collectively, an involucre, ami in the case of compoiuKl clusters a circle of biactlets is called iuiinvolucel. J3racts are often so minute as to be reduced to mere scd/rs. From our definition, it ^vill be evident that the sj>(U/ie surrounding the spadix in Indian Tin nip is merely a bract. 126. It has already been stated that the jiarts of the tiowcr, equally with the foliage-letives, must be regarded as mc ditii:atious of the same structure, and some proofs of tins similaiity of structure uere given. We shall now pi-()cccd to consider in detail the variations in form assumed bv these organs. 127. The Calyx. As you are now well aware, this term is applied to the outer circle of floral leaves. These are usually green, but not necessaiily so ; in some Ex- ogcns, and in nearly all Endogens, they are of some (ther colour. Each division of a calyx is called a sepal, and if the sepals are entirely distinct from each other, the calyx is pnhjscpaluus ; if they are united in any de- gree, it is (lawDHcpdlous. A calyx is nynhir or irrefjiihtr, according as the sepals are of the same or different shape and size. 128. In a gamosepalous calyx, if the sepals are not united to the very top, the free portions are known as calj/x-teeth, or, taken collectively, as the limb of the calyx. The united portion, especially if long, as in Willow-herb, is called the cali/x-tube, and the entrance to the tube its tkroat. In many 2>lants, particularly those of the Composite Family, the limb of the calyx consists merely of a circle of bristles or soft hairs, 66 ELLMENT9 OF STRUCTURAL liOTANY, and is then dcscribetl an pfipposc. In other cases the limb is quifi) inconspicuous, and so is said to bo obsolete. A calyx ^vhich remains after the corolla has disa[)poarcd, as in Mallow (Fig. 31), is persistent. If it disajijiears when the flower opens, as in our Bloodroot, it is cadii- couSf and if it falls away with the corolla, it is deciduous, Wc must repeat.here, that when calyx and corolla are not both present, the circle which is i)reHent is con- sidered to be the calyx, whether green or not. 129. The Corolla. The calyx and corolla, taken together, arc called the JJoral cnvehpefi. When both envelopes are present, the corolla is the inner one ; it is usually, though not invariably, of some other colour than green. Each division of a corolla is calh d a ;>r/a/, and the corolla is 2)ohj})etalous when the petals are com- pletely disconnected ; but ijamupctnluus if the • are united in any degree, however slight. The terms reijidar and irredidar, applied to the calyx, arc applica- able also to the corolla, and the terms used in the description of leaves are applicable to petals. If, however, a petal is narrowed into a long and slender portion towards the base, that portion is known as the claw, whilst the broader upper part is called the limb (Fig. 138). The leaf- terms are then applicable to the limb. 130. Gamopetalous corollas assume various forms, most of which arc described bv terms casilv understood. The forms assumed depend almost entirely on the shape of the petals which, when united, make up the corolla. If these, taken separately, are linear, and are Fig. 138. ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURM, BOTANY. 87 rms, :oocl. tho the are Q^^ united to tlie top, or nearly so, tlio corolla V f/ will bo tubular (Fig. VVJ.) If the petals are wodgo-sbapod, tliey will ])v tbcir union produce a fiinnrl-shapnl corolla. (Fi^'. 110.) In tli.e ciinipamilatr or hcU-ahnixul foiiu, tlie enlargement from base to Hummit is more gradual. It tlio petals arc narrowed abruptly into long claws, the union of the claws into a Fij^ 1:9 tube and tlie spreading of the limb at ricdaL. A {jood mr.ny corn] liis:;ucli us tlio.so of Tosidflax, Dicoutra, Suapdragon, ColiiHibine, ii'.ul Violent, have protubcrjiucos or fparo at tl:u hiiso. ill Violet one petal ouly is si)urred ; in Coluuibiuo the whole five arc so. . i;J2. The Stamens. As calyx and corolla arc called collectively the lloral envelopes, so stamens and pistil are spoken of collectively as the es'ioitial organs of tho ilower. The circle of stamens alone is sometimes called the andnccimn. A complete stamen consists of a slender stalk known as the Jilanunt^ and a small sac called the anther. The filament, however, is not un- commonlv absent, in which case the anther is sessile. As ii general thin,(^, the anther consists of two oblong cells with a sort of rib between them called the connec- tive, and that side of the anther which presents a dis- tinctly ^rooi'Cf/ appearance is i\\ej'ace, the opposite side being tho hack. The liiament is invariably attached to tho connective, and may adhere throngli the entire length of the latter, in which case the anther is adnate Pig. 144. Fig. 145. Fig. 146. (Fig. 144), or the base of the connective may rest on the end of the fila.ient, a condition described as innate (Fig. 145), or the extremity of the filament may be attached to the middle of tlie lack of the connective, so that the anther swings about ; it is then said to be •versatile (Fig. 146). In all these cases, if the face of ELEMKNTS 01* STIiLTTrHAI, KOTANY. 69 the unulicr is turned (owardH the ccntiG of the flower, it Tb said to be zntrursc] if .>iirned outwards, ewtmrr.c, /j\ .. 1*33. Tlio cells of anthers commcnlj .•Jill, -v 1/ open jilonj^ their outer edijfea to dio- charge tlieir pv)licn (Fig. 117). In most of the Heaths, liowever, the pol- len is dischiirj^^ed !.!u-ou'^}i a minute .iperturc at tlic top ol each cell (x^ig. «€...7.3i>.9..ig..:. 1^3)^ .jjj in our 131uo Cohosh each cdl JB cro'r.lci with a lid ( r valvo near the top, T.liic?: opens n X Kind of hinr;o (Fif?. .'-.C). IGd. ri':-m:n. mr.y bo oithcr ei.iirely distinct from oac!: Cthor, n which case uh y are descrihed ac (liaii' drouCy ^edt riUiTimx, >ctanuUereui>, tho jistil is ai)(j('((rj)()iis ; if tliey are united in any degree, i'^ ir 8ync(trj)())is. 138. In our examination of the Marsh Marigold (Figs. 24, 25) wo found an apocarpous pistil of several carpels. We found also that each car])el contained a n; 'nber of seeds, and that, in every case, tlio seeds were attached to that Qib^ii of the carpel nhich was turned tow wds tlio centre of thejh)wn\ and that, as the caipels ripened, tliCy invariably split open along that edge, but not along the other, so that the carpel when opened out presented the appearance of a loaf witli seeds attached to the manjins. The inner edge of a simple carpel, to which the seeds are thus attached, is called the ventral suture^ the opposite edge, corresponding to the mid-rib of a leaf, being the dorsal suture. iGC. If wo suppose a number of simple carj^els to approach each other, and unite in the centre of a flower, Jt is evident that the pistil so formed would contain as many cells as there were carpels, the cells being separ* ELEMENTS OF 8TRLMURAI, HOTANY. 01 Fit'. 150. ated fioni cacli otlier ])y a ilnuhle null, and that the seeds wcjuld bo found ananged about tlio coutro or axis of tiio pistil ; ni d this is tho actual htato of things in tho Tulii', Nvhoso i)istii is fornitd by tho union of three carpels. ^Vhcn the pistil ripens, tlu^ double walls sepa- rating tho cells s[)lit asuraler. To theso nepaiating walls tho name ilissrj/htunt or p'lrtifion is given. 110. But it often happens that though Kevoral car- pels unite to form a compound pistil, there is buL one cell m the ovary. This is because tho separate carp lary leaves Lave not been folded btforo uniting, . Vavo been joined edge to edge, or r.-^^;:: — rather with tlieii" edges slightly '' ^^ turned inwards. lu these cases the seeds cannot, of course, bo in tho centre of the ovary, but will be found 071 the wa/h, at tho junction ot the carpels (Figs. 150, 151). In fcomo plants tho ovary lif^% is one-celled, and the seeds are arranged %^ round a column which ribes from tho bottom 1 of tho cell (Figs. 152, 153). This caso is I'iys. J i53. explained by tic early obliteration of the partitions, which must at first Lave met in the centre of the cell. 141. In all cases tlie line or projection to "svhich tl c seeds are attaclied is called the placenta^ and the term placental ion Las reference to tlie manner in wLicL tLc placentas are arranged. In tlie simple pistil tLe placeutation is marginal or sutuniL In tlie syncarpous pistil, if tLe dissepiments meet in tLe centre of the ovary, tLu: dividing it into stparate cells, tLe placenta- tion is ce?icn carpcliaiy ^J leaf or scale, the scales forming what is knov^ii as a cone (Figs. 154, 155, 15G). The i)lants of this family are hence called Figs. 155. i5». (fymn(>-<, or naked-seeded. 144. The Fruit. In coming to the considei-ation of the Fruit, you must for the present lay aside any popu- lar ideas you may have acquired as to the meaning of this term. You will find that, in a strict botanical sense, many things are fruits which, :n the language of common life, are not so designated. For instance, we hardly speak of a pumpkin or a cucumber as fruit, and yet they are clearly so, according to the botanist's defi- nition of that tenn. A fruit may be defined to be the ripened /lisfil together vjifh ani/ other organ, such as the calyx or receptacle^ loh'ich may l/'j adherent lo it. This definition will perhaps bo more clearly iiuderstood after a few specimens have been attentively examined. 145. For an example of the simplest kind of fruit let us revert to our Buttercui). As the carpels ripen, the style and stigma are reduced to a mere point. On cutting open one of these carpels when fully ripe, we find it contains a single i^eel, not quite filling the cavity, but attached at one point to the wall of the latter. What you have to guard against, in tbis ELEMENTS OF STRUCTlflAL i;(>TANY. \rd tlct the On we the the this instance, is the mintake of consiik-rinj^ tht3 cuthe carpel to be merely a seed. It is a seed envel- oped in an outer covering ^vhich we called the ovary in the early stages of the flower, but which, now that it is i-ipG, we shull call the prn'rarj). Thin pericarp, with the seed which it contains, is tiie fruit. The prin- cipal difference between the fruit of ]\Iarsh-Marigold and that of Buttercup is, that, in the former, the peri- carp envelopes several seeds, and, when ripe, splits open down one side. Tlie fruit of Buttercup does not thus split open. In tlie Pea, again, tlie pericarp encloses several seeds^ but splits op 'U along hot// margins. The fruits just mentioned all result from the ripening of apocarpous ])istils, and they are consequently spoken of as apocarpous fruits, liC). In Willow-herb, you will recollect that the calyx tube adheres to the whole surface of the ovary. The fruit in this case, then, must include the calyx. When the ovary ripens, it splits longitudmally into four pieces (Fig. 41), and, as the pistil was s//ncarpous, so also is the fruit. 147. In the Peach, Plum, Cherry, and stone-fruits or drupes generally, tlie seed is enclosed in a hard shell called a putamen. Outside the putamen is a thick layer of pulj), and outside this, enclosing the whole, is a skin-like covering. In these fruits all outside the seeds is the pericarp. In one ' respect these stone-fruits resemble the fruit of the Buttercup : they do not split open in order to discharge their seeds. All fruits having this peculiarity are said to be indehiscent, whilst those in which the pericarp opens, lu- sei);uatcs into pieces (called valves)^ are de- hiscent. I 94 ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY 148. lo the Api)le (Fig. 48) and Pear, the seeds are contained in five cells in the middle of the fruit, and these cells are surroundoLi hy a firm fleshy mass which is an enlargement of the ealyx. In fact, the lemains of the five calyx-teeth may he readily detected at the end of the apple opposite the stem. As in Willow-herb, the calyx is adherent to the ovary, and therefore calyx and ovary together constitute the pericarp. These ilesliij-fruits, or ironies, as they are sometimes called, are of course indeMscent. 149. In the Currant, as in the Apple, you will find the remains of a calyx at the top, so tiiat tliis fruit, too, ia inferior, but tl;e seods, instead of being separated from the mass of the 1 uit by tough cartilaginous^ cell- wuUs, as in the Apple, lie imbedded in the soft juicy pnlp. Such a fruit as this is a hfrrij. The Gooseberry and the Grape are other examples. The Pumpkni and other gourds are similar in structure to tlie berry, but besides the soft inner pulp they have also a firm outer layer and a hard rind. The name pepo is generally given to fruits of this sort. 150. A Ilaspberry or Blackberry (Fig. 157) proves, on examination, to be made up of a large number of juicy little drupes, aggre- gated upon a central axis. It cannot, therefore, be a true berry, but may be called Fig. 157. an aggregated fruit. 151. A Strawberry (Fig. 158) is a fruit consisting chiefly of a mass of pulp, hav- ing its surface dotted over with little carpels (acheue.-^) similar to those of tho Buttercup. The flesh of the Strawberry •^ r'lg. lie. ELEr.ICNTS or* STRUCTURAL BOTANY. 96 ID cimply au enlarged receptacle ; so that this fruit, dso, is uot a true berry. ir2. The fruit of Swcet-Brier (Fig. '15) consists of a red flesliy calyx, lined with Po hollo v/ receptacle ^7hich bears a number of achoncs. Thic fruit i3 therefore analogous to that of tho Strr.v/borry. In the latter the aclieues arc on the outer surface of a raisal receptacld, while, in the former, they firo on the inner surface of r- hollov) receptacle. 153. The Gone of the Pine (Fig. 154) is a fruit which diflers in cin important resp( ct frcm all those yet men- tioned, inasmuch as it in the product, not of a sindc flower, but of as many llowers as there are scales. It mo-y tlierefore be called a c >llective or muJti[fle iruiij. The Pine-Api)lo is r.nother instance of the aamo thing. 151. Of dehiscent fruits there are some variotioa which receive speciiLl names. The fruit of ;,he Pea, or Ber.n ;Fig. 159), whocc pericai-p splits opo::L along hoik mrorgino, ia called a Icjume ; thf-tof JIi.rdi-Marigoia (Pig. Fig. lED. 25), which opens dov/n one side only, is a JolHcle. Doth of these are apocar- pous. 155. Any cyiicr.rpous fruit, having a< dry dehiscent pericarp, h c.Uled Cj capculc. A long and dondcr cap- sule, having' tv/o colb ccpr/i'ctcd by z mcmbrauouo partiLiou bor.ring tho seed, r.n:I from '.7]u.!i> rrhen ripe, tho valves fall ?7:icrj on each eide, ic called r. czlique )L t)n •ELEMHXTL OF STRl'CTURAL. BOTANY. -t'i^,'- 100. (Fig. IGO). If, as iu Shepherd's Purse (Fig. 29), the capsule is short and broad, it is called a sHich. If the capsule opens /iorizo)ital/i/, so that the top comes off like a lid, as iu Purslane (Fig. Fig.iGi. 161), it is a pj/xis. 150. Auy dry, one-seeded, indchisccnt fruit is called an achene.^ of which the fruit of Buttercup (Fig. 14) is an example. In Wheat the fruit difl'ers from that of Butter- cup in liaving a closely fitting and aiihp.rent pericarp. Such a fruit is called a caryojhsis or grain. A nut is usually syucarpouB, with a hard, dry peri- carp. A winfjCAl fruit, such as that of the Miijile (Fig. 1G2), is called a samara or key. 157. The Seed. The seed has already been de- scribed us the ferfiUzcd ovule. It consists of a nucleua, enveloped, as a rule, in two coats. The outer one, which is the most important, is known as the testa. Occasionally an aviditional outer coat, called an aril^ is found. In the Euonymus of Canadian woods, the aril is particularly prominent in autumn, owing to its bright scarleti colour. Tlie stalk, by which the seed is attached to the placenta, is the funiculus, and the scar, formed on the testa where it separates from the seed-stalk, is called the Jdlum. In the Pea and the Beau this scar is very distinct. 158. Germination of the Seed. Whenaseedis lightly covered with earth, and supplied with warmth and moisture, it soon begins to swell and soften, owing to the absorption of water, and presently bursts its ■idtfHibaaab^^ii^HttMidi^w ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANY. 97 coats, either to such a degree as to liberate the cotyle- dons comitletely, or so as to permit the escape of the radicle ai:d th.o plumule. The former immediately takes a downward direction, developing a root from its lower end, and either elougate« through its whole length, in whicli case the cotyledons are pushed above the surface, as in the Bean, or remains stationary, in which event the cotyledons remain altogether under ground, as in the Pea and in Indian Corn. Before the root is developed, and tlie little plantlet is thereby enabled to imbibe food from the eoil, it has to depend for its growth upon a store of nourishment supplied by the parent plant before the seed was cast adrift. Tlie relation of this nourishment to the embryo is different in dilTerent seeds. In the Bean and the Pumpkin, for example, it is contained in tlie cotyledons of the embrvo itself. But in Indian Corn, as we have already seen, it constitutes the bulk of the seed, the embryo merely occupying a hollow in one side of it. In such cases as the latter, it will be remembered that the term albumen is applied to the nourishing matter, as distinguished from the embryo. 159. As to the number of cotyledons, it may be re- peated that, as a rule, seeds are either dicotyledonous or monocotyledonous. Some plants of the Pino Fam- ily, however, exhibit a modification of the dicotyledo- nous structure, having severai cotyledons, and being consequently distinguished Si^ polyeotyledonous. 96 ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAL BOTANT. CHAPTER XV. ON THE MINUTE STRT'CTURK OF PLANTS — KXOGEXOUS AND ENDOGENOUS STEMS FOOD OF PLANTS. 160. Up to tliis point we have been engaged in observing such paiticnlars of structure in plants as are manifest to the naked eye. It is now time to enquire a httle more closely, uud find out wliat-wo can about the elementitnj structure of the dilfcrcnt organs, ^^'e Iiave ail observed liow tender and delicate is a little plantlet of any kind just sprouting fiom the seed ; but as time elapses, and the plant developes itself and acquires strength, its substance will, as we know, assume a texture varying with the nature of the plant, either becoming hard and firm and woody, if it is to be a tree or a shrub, or continuing to bo soft and coni]>r(-ssible as long as it lives, if it is' to be an herb. Then, ni a rule, the leaves of plants are of quite a different consis- tency from the stems, and the ribs and veins and petioles of foliage leaves are of a firmer texture than the remaining part of them. In all plants, also, the newest portions, both of stem and root, are extremely soft compared with the older parts. It will be our object in this chapter to ascertain, as far as we can, the reason of such differences as these* and to accomplish this, we shall have to call in tlie aid of a microscope of much higher power than that which has hitherto served our purpose. IGl. I- a small bit, taken from a soft stem, be boiled for a wdiile so as to reduce it to a pulp, and a little of this pulp be examined under the microscope, it will be foivju to be entirely composed of more or less rounded ^msHmmmm rXEMENTS OF STRICTURAL BOTANY. 99 lan J or oval bodies, wliich arc cither loosely tlirown together (Fig. 1G3), or arc pressed into a more or loss compact, "=>^ li;.'. ir, FiH. 164. Fig. 104 (ii). mass. Ill the latter case, owing to mutii;il pressure they assume a somewhat angular form. These bodies 4- aro called cflls. Tliey are hollow, and their walls are usually thin and transparent. The entire fabric of every plant, without any exception whatever, is made up of cells ; but as we proceed in our investigation, we shall find that these cells are not all precisely alike, that as they become older they tend, as a rule, to tliieken their walls and undergo changes in form, which, tj a great extent, determii.e the texture of the plant's sub-jtance. 102. A fabric made up of cells is called a tissue. A collection of such cells as we found constituting our pulp, and as we should find constituting the mass of all the soft and new parts of plants, as well as of some hard parts, is called cellular tissue. The cells com- posing cellular tissue vary a great deal in size in different plants, being, as a rule, largest in aquatics, in which they may sometimes bo observed witli the naked eye. Ordinaiily, however, they are so minute that millions of them find room in a cubic inch of tissue. 163. When young, the walls of the cells are quite unbroken. Each cell is lined with an extremely thin membrane, and a portion of its cavity is occupied by a 100 KKEMKNTfl OF HTUr'TTRM, HoTaNY. soft body call('enetrating the diaphragm more rapidly than the other. The cells of plants, as we have said, contain dense liquid matter. The moisture present in the soil, and in contact with the tender root-hairs (which are made up of cells, you will remember), being of less den- sity than the contents of tlio cells, flows into tliem, and is then passed on from cell to cell on the same princi- jilo. The supply of assmnlated matter is thus renewed as fast as it is appropriated by the newly divided and growing cells. 16G. If a plant, during its existence, simply multiplies its cells in this way, it can of course only be a mass of cellular tissue as long as it lives. But we see every- where about U3 plants, such as trees and shrubs, whose stems are extremely firm and enduring. How do tiiese stems differ from those of tender herbs? How d) they differ from the soft parts of the plants to which they themselves belong ? A moment's consideration will make it evident that, as every plant begins with a single cell, and increases by successive multiplications of it, every part of the plant must at some time have bee. composed c^ cellular tissue, just as the newer portions are at present. The ceils of those parts which are no 102 ELEMENTS OF STKl.'t TLRAl. HoTANY. I ' longer soft, must, then, liave uutlergone a cliaiige of some kind. Let uh try to understand the iiatnro Oi this change. It lias been stated tlint the walls of new cells are extrcnuly thin ; as tlu y hccome older, however, they, as a rule, increase in thickness, owing to deposits of cellulose upon tlieir inner surface. It sometimes happens, indeed, that the deposits are so copious as to almost completely till up the cavity of the cell. The idea will naturally suggest itself, that this thielcening of the walls must impede the passage of the sap, but it is found tliiit the thickening is not uniform, that there are, in fact, regular intervals which remain thin, and that the thin s2)ot in one cell is directly o[)posito a cor- responding thin spot in the wall of its neighbour. Eventually, however, these altered cells cease to convey sap. 1G7. The hard parts of plants, then, differ from the soft parts in the different coiisistcncij of tlnir cell-waUs, But they differ also in the form of the cells fiti'tfisclres. In those parts where toughness and strength will be required, as, for ex- ample, in the inner bark, in the stem, and in the frame-work of the leaves, the cells become elongated and their extremities as- sume a tapering foim, so that they overlap eacli other, instead of standing end to end as in ordinary cellular tissue (Fig. 1G5). To this drawing-out process, combined with the Fi". 165. hardening of the walls, is duo the firmness of wood generally, and the tissue formed by these modi- fied cells is known as woody tissue. On account of the great relative length of the cells found in the inner ELEMENTS 01 STlUJCTURAli HOTaNV. 108 br.rk, and tho consoqncut toui,'lmes8 coufcrrcil upon that part, thu tisHue formed by thorn is specially dis- linguibhed as hast tissue. Associa'ted with the wood- cells nio commonly found othors, dillerinj^ frori thorn chiefly iu heiu^' liinjur in dianictcr, and f rmed onfc of rows of short cells, standing' end t > end, by tho disap- pearance of the piirtitions which hcparatud them. These enlarged cells, product d in Wu-i uay, nro calkd ris.srls f)r >/iiris, and a conihinuiun of | them is known us i/isrxlur ii.-,stic. ])ucts in- [". v,'iri:ih]y show nini'kings of yomc sort on their i walls. Tho one figured in the niai'gin (i'lg. i- lOG) is a (Inttcil duct, the dots heing spaces \"~"- which have not been thickened by deposits of » ,;hI cellulose. Other ducts are spin/lli/ marked (m | ;; their inner surface, but in thi.^ case the miuk- h "- ings arc themselves the thickened part of the Fig. irn. cell- wall. It is convenient to speak of the mixture of woody and vascular tissue as the Jihro- rase id a r si/stem. The name jnu-iiii Iniwit is C( n.r.ionly ajiplied to oiili- nary cellular tissue, whilst tissue formed of long cells is called prosimhi/ma. It will be understood, then, that all cells of every description, found entering into the composition of a plant, are only modifications of one original form, the particular form ultimately assumed by tho cells depend- ing mainly on tho fiuictions to bo discharged by that portion of the plant iu which the cells occur^ EXOGENOUS AND ENDOGENOUS STEMS. 168. It has already been hinted that the two great classes of plants, Dicotyledons and Monocotyledons, differ in the mode oi growth of their Btem> We shall 104 EI.F.ilENTB OF STUUCTUUAL liOTANY. lif I; \ I !i /^^ now cxi'lain somcwliat luoro in ilctnil the nature of this clifleieiicc. ]>earing in mind the f;ict .stated in the \v:q- ceding part of tlio cliapttT, that old and new paitn diU'or mainly in (he f^liapo of then' component cells and tho lexture ot tho cell-walls, it will be lound that tho dis- tnictiou between Exojjenous a.id Endo^jenous ^^rowth depends mr)stly upon tho rehitivo situation ol tho now cells and the old oliCS — of tho jniniicliyina and th' iiroscnchiinKt. ir)0. Let us hi'j_:ia with tho stem of a Dicotyledon. Fig. K»7 shows a section of a young shoot. The whole of tho while part is cellular tissue, \ tho central portion heing tho j^ith. The dark wedge-shajicd portions arc libro-vascular bundles, consist- ing mainly of woody tissue, a lew vcssds, easily recognised by their lar^^r openings, bcingintor.^persed. As the shoot becomes older, these bundles enlarge, r.nd others arc formed between them, so that the radiatin^' channels of c^llulnr tissue which separate them aie in the end re- duced to much smaller compa^s than in the earlier stages of growth (Fig. 1G8). The narrow channtls , aro the mcduUanj rays. The cells of which they are composed are flattened by compression. Eventually, a ri)nj of wood is Fij,'. ns. formed; tho medullary rays inti'rsocting it in fme lines, a-s the sawed end of almost any log will show. Outside the zone of wood is tho bark, which at first consists altogel.ier of cellular tissue. As the season advances, \ Fig. ]G7. X. ELEMKNTS OF STHUCTURAL noTANV. 106 V I however, long hast cells are formed in the inner part, next the wood, wliic'li part i.^ thereafter Kpccially desig* Dated the ViUrr, Tiio outer ring of all, enclosing the whole stem, is the eindt^rnu's or s/iin. 170. It is now ti) he observed Uiat, year after year, the rings of wood are incroascil in tluckur^s hij h: r^'iU] a- cation of their outer u^li^. TIxTO is, consequently, aluuys a layer of soft cells hctwrcii the v.ood ai;d the bark. Thia is known as the ctDulnmr /.///./•, and it is hero that the whole growth of an c iogcmus rtem takes jtlace. The soit cells on its inner side are gradu- ally transformed into woody tissue and vess(-ls, whilst those oa its outer siilc becomo the bast cells of Iho liber, and others form tlie extension of tho medullary rays. Bear in mind, then, that tho exogenous stem is char- acterized (1) by the formation of its wood in rinj.^s, (2) by the presence of tlio continuous camhium-layei*, and (3) by the presence of a true baik. 171. Let us now consider the structure of an endo- genous stem. Fig. 109 reju-esents a section of one. Here, ngain, the white portion is cellular tissue, whilst the dark j>arts are the flbro-vascular bundles. Tiiis stem is at once distinguished from tho other by the isolation of these bundles. They never co- alesce to form a ring. That por- tion of each bundle, which is nearest the centre of the stem, ct)rresponds to the wood of the exogen, whilst the outer portion of each consists of cells which resemble the exogenous bast-cells, but there IC^ ELEMENTS OF STRJCHURAL BOTANY. is no ctu/ilKum-lajier, and consequently no arrangement for the indefinite continuance of the growth of the bundles. Once foi'med, therefore, they remain un- chanj-ed, and the growth of the stem consists in the production of new ones. These (which oi igmato at the bases of new leaves) being introduced amongst the older ones, act as wedges, and swell the stem as a whole.^ THF. FOOD OF PLANTS. 172. A wo)d or two is necessary on this subject in additioE to what has already been said. The nature of a plant's food may be determined by making a chemical anidysif of the i)lant's substance. A:: already stated, rhe chemical elemeno.j found in plants are chielly four. carbon, oxygen hydrogcr: anc\ nitrogen, tin latter elc- mcni occurring in th protoplas: . of activ cells. What, then, are the souP'.e: from which the plan! obtainc these materiiih of its growth ? In the atmosphere there is always ju'esen a ga'^ known as carbon dioxide, oi car- bonic acid. This gas, which is p. compound of carbon and oxygon.., i. produced largely in the lung . of animalr:. anc by then, exhaled. _(/ is readily soluble in water. . ^ thJ rain-drop in their passage throug)i the air dissolve IC anc! carry i witli tliem into the soil. Again, wherever aiii'Jia. or vegetabl matter is decaying thece i^ pro- duccc. a gas called ammonia, a compound of nitrogen and hydrogen, and; lik^ carbonic acid, readily soluble, so that thi also is present in rain-water. An "! when :Il is consideroc'. thai .- ver;- large proportion of tliv^air con- sists of frGu nitrogen, soluble to some extent in water, and. that- r.v elements - water itself arc oxygen and hydro- gen ?.' wil' be . ';:.fe">' that the moisture in the aarVii contai:i3 a supply of eve - one of tlie elementfj uent the un- the t the the as a ancl ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURAI. BOTANY. 107 chiefly required by the plant. Now it is a matter of common experience that, with rare exceptions, a plant will wither and die unless supplied witli adequate mois- - ture. We tliererore come to the conclusion, that at any rate the greater part of the nourishment of ])lants is imbibed in liquid form tln-ou[;li the roots. The law of endosmose, in accordance with which this imbibing goes on, has already been explained The s(tp^ as it is called, ascends through the newer tissues, and is at- tracted to the leaves l\v the constant evaporation going on there, and the consequent thickening of the contents .of the cells in tliose organs. 173. And this leads to the question — How does the water-vapour make its esca]-»e from the leaves ? The microscope solves this dilliculty hn- us. A leaf almost always presents one surface towards tne sky and tlie other towards the ground. It is protected on both sides oy an epidermis or skiji, consisting of vei-y closely packed cells. The side exposed to the sun is almost J unbroken, but the lower side is seen, under U, ~^,U' ^^^'' niicioscope, to be perforated by innu- U\\ merable little openings, which lead into the \|^^J||i Ij body of tlie lent. Tliese openings, to wliich 'Ml ' II tlie nn;nc st(>)H((f((, or stoHhdc^i (Fig. 170) ^ ' ■' has been given, have the power of expanding when moistened by damp air, and contract- V' ing when dry. By this wonderful contriv- Fitj.no. auce, the rate of evaporation is regulated, and a proper balance maintained between the supi)ly at the root and the loss from the leaves. The stomates, it may be noticed, serve also as means whereby caibonic acid may be directly absorbed from the air. In those plants whose leaves lloat on water tlie stomates are ri 108 ELEMENTS OF STBUCTURAL liOTANY. found on the upper surface, and in vertical leaves they occur pretty equally on hoth surfaces. Immersed lecvea are without stomates. 174. The crude snp, then, which ascends into the leaves is concentrated hy the evaporation of its super- fluous water. When so concentrated, the action of sun- light, in connection with the green colouring matter existing in the cells of the leaves, and known as chloro- phyll, decomposes the carhonic acid, contained in the sap, into its carbon and oxygen. Tlie latter gas issuPC from tlie leaves into tlie air, wliilst the carbon is retained and combined with the r-^maiuing elements to form flahoratcd sap, out not^ and to each of these great gronpa we shall f»ive th-a name Series. We tlius h v the Flo' 'ering, or, t> use the Greek term, Phan~rop^a:T.cus, Series, nud th^ Flowerless, or Cryptcg .moL!:', beries ; or we may spoak of th:m hrieriy as Phanerc >mr aud Crypto- fjnms. Then, leaving i\\ii Cryp^^pams aside foi tiie moment, we may hreak up the Phanerogams into two great Classes, Exogens (or D>'-t/]edons) and EndofreTo (or Monocotyledon ), for reasons al- ready explained. I'v far tl e greater number ol Exogens produce seeds which are enclosed in a pericarp ol some kind t but there is a remarkable gi-oiip of plants (repre- sented in Canada only by the Pines and their imme- diate relatives) which dispense witli the pericarp alto- gether, and whose seeds are consecpiently naked. So that we can make two bub-Classes im' tlu I'xogens, on the basis id' this dilTerencu, a;;d these we "Ikdl call the Angiospermous Sub-Class, and the C.jym.i: '^pcr- mous (naked-seeded) Sub-Class, The first of these may be grouped in three Divisions, the Poh/prtalous, Garno/iefalons, and Apt't'tlmts, and the Endogeno aiso in three, the SjMulir.eons, the Pftidoid'ous, and ^he Gliimaceou.^, types of which we have already examined i;-i the Marsh Calla (spadiceons), Tiilliuni (petaloideous)^ and Tnnothy (glumaceous), and tlie distinctions between w.hich are sufficiently obvious. i'lie Cryptogams are divided into three great Classes, viz. : Aeroguns, eiubracing Ferns, Horse- tails and Club-mosses; Anophytcs, embracing Mosses andLiverworts; and 'I'hailoptiytes, embracing Lichens, Seaweeds, aud ]\lusJnooms. P 112 ELEMENTS OF STULUiURAJ. liOTANY. I II c O < H 'A O a > Series I. Phanero- gaias So far, tlic'ii, our classitication '.s ac follows : r Sub-class 1 -Ar^i( gpti'ins robjpctalous Div'cicn. Class I.— Exogens -A Gamopctalous Apctaloxis ^Sub-class2-Gyuii.nSj (!r(si()ns ij .sub-uiviacd into :, nnujbrr nf Families or Orders •, each Order into a number oi' Genera ; ami each Genua into L>,;:ecics. A siujcios is the snui i . all tho indivitlual plants \=. hoso rcscinblauccs m allcsscnti.il respects are so great as to wanaiit the belief that they have sprung from one c )murm Btock. Do CanJjlle has this statement : " \V ) wnit) uulor ,he designation di'" s;;''c/<'^ all those individuals that mutu- ally bear to each other so close a resemblance a^ to allow of our supposhig that they may have proceeded originally from a siiigle being or a single jiair.'"' We ma}' also speak of each one of these individual plants as a species. For example, you may say, after finishing the first lesson of this book, that you liave examined a species of Buttercup. Mere diuercDccs (>f colour or size arc not sufficient to const.tutc dirfcrent species. The Balsams of our gardcnSj for instance, nro of various colours, and tlie plants vary gi-eally in size, yet they all belong to one species. Those minor dillorences, v;hich are mainly the rer.iiU of caro and cultivation, give rise to vun'eties. These are of great interest to the horticul- ELEMENTS OF BTRUCTrRAL BOTANY. 118 turist , but the fitiuly of species is the great end and aim of the botanist. 180. Those Species uhich are considered to resem- ble each other most nearly are <,'roii[)id into Genera, and the Genera, in like rnantier, into Orders ; but tliesc particular grou])ing3 are more or less . artificial, and arc subject to continual alteration in con- sequence of our inii.erfect Ivuowledge. As, year by year, new facts are brought to light, modifications in arrangement take place. In the Classilication which constitutes the Second Part of this work, tho Divi- sions spoken of above are placed in tho order named. In the Polypetalous Division, thosi-j Oi'ders a:"0 put first which embrace plants with hi/jiO'jyih'ma stamens and apocarpous pistils, tho parts of tho flowers buing consequently srp(trate ; then tlioso with similarly in- serted stamens, but i.'//"r<' jtau* ical name should be written neatly in the lower right- hand corner, together with the date of its collection, and the locality where found. Of course only one Species should be mounted on each sheet ; and when a sufficient number have been prepared, the Species of the same Genus should be placed in a sheet of larger and coarser paper than that on which the specimens arc mounted, and the name of the Genus should be written outside on the lower corner. Then the Genera of the same Order should be collected in the same manner, and the name of the Order written outside as before. The Orders may then be arranged in accordance with the classification you may be using, and carefully laid ftway in a dry place. If a cabinet, with shelves or draw- ers, can be specially devoted to storing the plants, so much the better. ',1 I INDEX AND GLOSSARY Tho rcforeuce^i arc to the SectionH, uulfHsFiguiesaiuHf eoified. Abruptly pinnntf, Hi. AbKoiptu)!! by roots, V*, 1G5, 172. AcuuU'Hccut : Hppiurtitly without u strm, 18. AccoHHory fniitM ■ eiuh as consi.st chiefly of an enbirgement of Bomo or^Mii oiuli fi.s t'^-^ caly: or receptacle, uot organically unit('«l Willi :lio pistil, 151, 152. Acheiiiiiiu dr Achcno, loO Achljiiuyib oiis : Imviug neither calyx nor corolla, 66 Ac'iculiir, Fig. 110. Acroncns, 179. Aeuiaiunte : with r. long tapering point. Aciilo: "1 arp-pointeil. 110. Adherent: r. teiin npplii d to tho union of unlike parts; $. g. Ktanions with corolla, &c. Adnato (autheis), 132. Adventitious : occurrinfj out of the natural position. Adventitious roots, 86. , Adventitious buds, 88. Aerial roots, 8(5. Aestivation : tho folding of the floral envelopes in the bud. Aggregate fruits, lot). Air-plants (ipiphytes), 87. Albumen (of the seed) : solid nourishing matter distinct irom the embryo, 12. Albuminous seeds, 59. Alternato (leaves), 99. -Iment or Catkin, Figs. 63, 64. Amplexicaul : cliisping a stem. Auatropous : a term applied to ovules when inverted, lo thaL thd micropylc is close to the point of attachment. Andrcccium : the circJs of stamens collectively, 132. Androus : an ending of adjectives descriptive of stamens, e.g., monandrnus, polyandrous, &q. Angiospermous : applied to plants whose seeds are enclosed in an ovary. Annual : a plant which grows from the seed, flowers, and dies, ir the same season. ^ Anophytes, 179. Anth( : tho essential part of a stamen, containing the pollen, 132. Apetalous : without a corolU ; having only on set o* floral envelopes, 20 120 INDEX AND GLOSSARY. Apocarpoun: applied to pistils when the carpels are free from each ethor. Append nRo : anything attached or added. Apprf ssed : in contact, but not united. Aquatic: growing in the water, whether completely, or only partially, immersed. Arborescent : resembling a tree. Aril, 157. Arrow-shaped, Fig. 120. Ascending: rising upward in a slantiug direction; applied chiefly to weak stums. Ascending axis : the stem of a plant. Ascidium : a pitcher-shapod leaf, Fig. 134. Ashes of plants, 176. Assimihition, 165. Auriculate : same as auricled, having rounded lobes at the base ; applied mostly to leaves. Awl-sbapcd, Fig. 112. Awn : a bristle, such as is found on the glumes of many Grasses, Barley for example. Axil, 3. Axile : relating to the axis. Axillary : proceeding from an axil. Axillary buds, 88. Axillary flowers, 120. Axis : the stem and root. baccate : like a berry. Bark, 169. Hast, 167. Bearded: furnished with hairs, like the petals of some Violets, &c. Bell-shaped, 130. Berry, 149. Biennial : a plant which grows from seed in one season, but pro- duces its seed and dies in the following «easou. Bifoliolate : having two leaflets. Bilabiate: two-lipped, Fig. 142. Bipinnate : twice pinnate. Fig. 132. Bipinnatifid : twice piunatifid, Fig. 123. Blade : the broad part of a leaf or petal. Bracts, 19, 125. Bracteate : subtended by a bract. Bractlets : secondary bracts growing on pedicels, 125. Bftiuches : growths from the sides of a stem, originating in axil- lary buds, 8. Breathing-pores (stomates), 173. Bud : an undeveloped stem or branch. Bulb, 92. INDEX AND GLOSSARY. 121 from only iefly ase; sses, ilets, pro- azil- BulbiferouB : producing bulbs. Balblets, 95. BulbouB : like a bulb in shape. Caducous, 128. Calyx, 6. Cambium layer, 170. Campanulate, 130. Capillary : fine and hair-like. Capitulum : Bame as h^ad, 122. Capsule, 155. Carina, or keel: the two cohortnt petals in the front of a flower of the Pea kind, Fig. 30. Caryopsis, 156. Carpel, 7. Carpellary : relating to a carpel, e.g., a carpellarij I aj\ &c. CartilaginouB : tough. Catkin, Figs. 63, 64. Caulescent : with an evident stem. Cauliole : another name for the radicle. Caaline : relatin^^ to the stem, e.g., caulinc leaves, &c., 4. Cell : the hollow in the anther, which contains the pollen. See also 161. Cell-multiplication, 164. Cellular tissue, 162. Cellulose, 163. Centrifugal inflorescence, 121. Centripetal iuflorescence, 120. Chalaza : the part of an o\ule where the coats are united to the nucleus. Chlorophyll, 163, 174. Ciliate, 116. Circinate : curled up like the young frond of a Fern. Circulation in cells, 163. Circumcissile: opening like a pyxis, Fig. 161. Classification, 177. Claw (of a petal), 40, 129. Climbing stems, 90. Club-shaped: with the lower part more slender than the upper, as the style of Dog's-tooth Violet, Fig. 73. Cohesent: a term applied to the union of like parts, 26. Cohesion, 26. Collerm , or neck : the junction of the stem and root. Coll active fruits, 153. Column, 72. Coma : a tuft of hairs, such as that on the seed of Dandelion, Fig. 56. Complete, 8. CJompnnnd, or Composite, flowers, 49. * I 1 122 INDEX AND OLOSSABT. Compound k.i, 100. Compound r.pike, corymb, iondrou3 : with ■!:^70 sepairi'^ Rt-^^menrj, INDEX AND GLOSSARY. 128 &c. Dichlaraydeous : having both sets of floral envelopes. Dicotyledonous, 58. Dicotyledous, 59. Didynamous (stamens^. 50 * Digitate, 101. . Dioecious, 5G. Dibk : in flowers of the Composite Family, the centre of the head as distinguislicd from the border ; a fleshy enlargement of the receptacle of a flower. Dissected : finely cut. Dissepiment, 139. Distinct: not coherent, (see Coherent). Divergent : separating from one another. Dodecaudrous : with twelve distinct stamens. Dorsal suture, 138, Dotted ducts, Fig. 166. Double flowers : abnormal flowers in which staai^Jis itud carpels have been transformed in*,o petals. Do-.7ny : covered with soft hairs. Drupe, 147. Drupelet, a little drupe. Ducts. 167. and turn ssive lauts Earthy constituents of plants, 176. Elaborated sap, 174. Elementary constituents of plants, 176. Element r.ry structure, 160. Elliptical : same as oval, 105. Eraarginate, 111. Embryo, 12. Embryo, sac, 16. Emersed : raised above the surface of water. Endocarp : " When the wall&of a pericarp form 'jwo or more lay- ers f dissimilar texture, the outer layer is called the Epicarp, the Middle one M^socarp, and the innermost Endocarp.*^ — Gray. Endogen, 81. Endogenous growth, 171. Endosmose, 172, 165. Enneandrous : vrith nine distinct stamens. Entire, 112. Ephomerr- : las!;: one day only. Epicalyx, 33. Epicarp : see Endocarp. Epidermis, I'oJ. Epigynous : inserted on the ovary, 46. Epipetalous: inserted on the corolla, 47. Epiphytes, 87. Equitant (leaves), 98. v 124 lL:D^EZ X^D GLOSSARY. Essential organs, 17. Evei'green : rctainiug foliage during winter Exalbuminous, 69. iixcurrent: said of main marked to the top, as deliquescent. Exhalation, 175, 178. Exogen, 60. Exogenous growth, 169. Exserted protruding, 136. Ex8tipulatc, 115. Extrorse, 132. stems which are distinct, and well- in tho Pine and Fir ; the reverse of Fascicle : a close bundle, either of leaves or floworo. Fascicled roots, 85. Feather-veined : same as pinnately-veired, 101. Fertile flower, 53. Fertilization, 17. Fibrous thread-like, 2. Fibro-vascular system, 167. Filament, 6. Filiform, 117. Fimbriate : fringed. Fleshy fruits, 148. Flora: a description of the plants of a district; a collective name for the whole of the species of a district. Floral envelopes, 14. . ' Floret, 48. riower : the part of a phanerogamous plant in which the stamens and pistil are situated. Flower-leaves, 11. Flowering plants, 179. Flowcrlcss plants, 179. Foliaccous : like a leaf in appearance, r'oliolato : having leaflets. Follicle, 154. Free, 5. Fruit, 144. Fugacious : falling away early. Funiculus, 157. Funnel-shaped, Fig. 140. Furcate : forked. Fusiform: same as spindle-shaped, 85. Galea : an arching petal or sepal, as the two upper ones in Gatxdp, :;:- 57. C.amop. dlous, C3. C:^mopetalous, 120. C r,zaosepalous, 127. well- se of INDE?: AND OIX>SSABY. l:^ Oenera : plural Oi geniis. Genus, 179. Germ : Bame as embryo. Geriuinatiun, 150. Gibbous : swollen on one side. Glabrous, 116. Gladiate : sword-shaped. Glands i applied geneniUy *o cells or hairs on the Burfacea of plants, in which resinous or oily matters are secreted ; but the term is also used to describe any projection, the use of which is not clear. Glandular : bearing glands Glaucous, 116. Globose : like a globe or sphere. Glumaceous : bearing or resembling glumes. Glumes, 75. Gourd, 149. Grain, 156. Granules : particles. Gymnospermous, 143. Gymnosperms 179. Gyna3cium, lc-<7. Gynandrous, 13". 11 I '3 'v5 I '^M name mens itnip. Habitat : a term applied to the region most tavourabie to the growth of a plant : the place where it grows naturally. Hairs, 116. Hairy, 4. Halberd-shaped, Fig. 119. Hastate. Fig 119. Head, 122. Heart-shaped, 108. Heptandrous : with seven distinct stamens. Herb, 89. Herbaceous, 89. Herbarium : a botanist's collection of dried plants. Hexandrous : with six distinct stamens. Hilum, 157. Hirsute : rough with hairs. Hispid : covered with stiff hairs. Hoary : densely covered with fine grayish hairs Hortus siccus : same as herbarium. Hybrids : plants resulting from the crossing o. nearly related species. Hypogynous. 135. I n I Imbricate : overlapping like shingles on a roof. Immersed : wholly under water. Imperfect, 53. 126 INDEX AND GLOSSARY- Incliukd, 136. Incoinplcto, 19. Incurved (petals) Fig. 50. Indcniiitp, 20, i;i4. Ind'tiuito inliorcscence, 120. Iiidchiscont, 117. Indctenniiiato inflorescence, 120. Indigfuious : naturally growing in a country. Inferior : underneath ; farthest from the axis ; the ovary 13 inferior when tho calyx alhercs to it throughout ; the calyx in inferior when free from the ovary. Inflorescence, 119. Innate, 132. Inserted : attached to. Insertion : tho point, or manner, of attachment. In tern odes, 4 . - Interruptedly pinnate, Fig. 133. Introrse, 132. Involuool, 125, Involucre, 125. Involute: rolled inwards from both edges. Irregular, 35. Isomerous : having tho parts equal in number. Joints : a name sometimes given to tho nodes of a stem. Keel, Kee Carina. Kernel, IG. Key-fruit, 156. Kidney-shaped, Fig. 121. Labellum (or lip), 71. Labiate, 50. Lancec'late, Fig. 113. Leaf, 97. Leaf-arrangement, 99. Leaf-f^reen. seo Chlorophyll. Leaflet, 100. Leaf.'^talk, 4. liegume, 154. Ijef,Himinous : producing or relating to legumes. Liber, li'>\). Ligneous: woodv. ■ Lignlate, 131 . Ligu'o : a strap-phaped corolla n Grasses, a poale-lilio projeo- tion betwf^^ea tho blade of a leaf and tha sheath. Limb, 129, 130. Lip, see Labellum. Linear, Fig. 111. INDEX AND GLOSSARY. 127 Lobe, 4, 100. Loculicidal (dehiscence) : eplittiug niidvvay between the partitions. Loment : a jointed legume. Lyrato : pinnately-lobcd, with the terminal lobe much larger than the others. Marcescent: withering persistent. Marginal: relating to the margin. Marking3 (on cells), 167. Medullary rays, 1G9. Membranous : thin, like a membrane. Mesocarp : see Endocarp. Micropyle, IG. Midrib, 101. Monadelphous, 134 Monandrnus: with a single stamen, 72. Monochlamydeous : with only one set of floral envelopes. Monocolyledonous, 80. Monocotyledons, 81. Monfficious, 63. Morphology, 82. Mucronate, 110. Multifid, 109. Multiple fruits, 153. Naked flowers : those which are destitute of calyx and corolla. Naked seeds . those not enclosed in an ovary, 143. Napiform, 85. Natural system of classification, 1'7, &c. Naturalized : introduced from other countries, but growing spon- taneously from seed. Neck, see Collum. Nectary : that in which nectar is secreted. Needle-shaped, Fig. 110. Net-veined, 4. Neutral flowers : those having neither stamens nor pistil. Nodding : haugiuu with the top downwards, like the fiowei tn Fig. 72. Node, 4. Normal: regular; according to rule. Nucleus (of au ovule), 10, 157 ; (of a cell), 163. Nut, loG. Nyitlet : a bmall nut, or nut-like body, 50. Obcordate, 108. Oblanceolate, 107. Oblique : having the sides unequal. Obliteration (of partitions), 140, Oblong, 105. i^ 128 INDEX AND GLOSSABY. Obovate, 107. • . Obtuse, 110. Oohrea : a tube formed by the union of both edges of a pair of stipulcH. Ochreato : Iiaving ochreaB. Octandrous : having eight separate stamens. Offset: a short, prostrate branch, rooting at the end. Opposite, 99. Orbicular, 105. Orders, 179. Organic elements, 176. Organs : the parts or members of a living body. Organs oi Reproduction : the parts of the fiower. Organs of Vegetation : root, stem, and leaves. Orthotropous : applied to ovules v^hen straight, so that the micro* pyle is as far as possible from the ^oiut of attachment. Oval, 105, Ovary, 7. Ovate, 106. Ovoid: egg-shaped. Ovule, 7. I I Palate, 131. Palet, 76. Palmate, 101. Palmately-lobed, 109. Palmatifid, 109. Panicle, 123. Papilionaceous, 35 Pappo?e, 128. Pappus : a ciicle of bristles or hairs representing the limb of thr calyx in flowers of the Composite Family, 48. Parallel-veined : same as straight- veined, 62. Parasites, 87. Parenchyma, 167. Parietal : on the walls, 141. Parted : almost completely cut through. Pectinate : pinnatifid with lobes like the teeth of a comb. Pedate, Fig. 125. Pedicel, 27. Peduncle, 6. Peltate, Fig. Pentandrous Pepo, 149. Perennial : a plant which continues to grow year after year. Perrect : having both stamens and pistil. Perfoliate, 113. Perianth, 63. » Pericarp, 146. . . . • , 123. - with five distinct stamens. INDEX AND OL0B8ABT 1^ Porigynoua, 86. Persistent, 32. Personate, 131. Petal, 6. Petiolate : having petioles. Petiole, 4. Phanerogamous or Pheenogumous, 179. Pilose : having long p(»ft hairu. Pinna : a primary division of a pinnately compound leaf. Pinnate, 101. Pinnately-lobed, 109. Pinnatifid, 109. Pinnule ; a secondary division of a pinnately compound leaf. Pistil, 137, 7. Pistillate: having a pistil, 53. Pitcher- shaped (leaf). Fig. 134. Pith, 169. Plaoenta, 141. Placentation, 141. Plumose: feathery. Plumule, 68. Pod : a dehiscent fruit. Pollen, 6. Pollfn-tubo, 16. Pollinia : pollen-masses, Fig. 87. Polyadelphous, 134. Polyandrous : with numerous distinct stamens. Polycotyledonous, 159. Polygamous: having perfect as well as imperfect flowers, Polypetalous : having separate petals. Polysepalous : having separate sepals. Pome, 148. Posterior : next the axis. Praeflf rati'^n, see Estivation. Prcfoliation : the disposition of leaves in the bnd. Prickles, 96. Procumbent : lying on the ground. Prosenchyma, 167. Prostrate, 90. Protoplasm, 163. Paboccent : covered with fine dowi.. Punctate : having transparent dots, like the leaves of bt. John'i Wort. iPucamen, 147. Pyxif, 155. Quinquefoliolate : having five leaflets. Raceme, 123. 130 INDEX AND 0L0S8ART. RnpomoRG : liko a raccmo. Rarhis: an nxis. Radiate, 101. Radical : portaining to the root. Radical icavc s, 4. Radicle, 58. RaphideF, 1C3. Ray : tli" nmrpinal florets of a ooLcposito flower, as distinguished from ti.e disk. Recejitac'e, 8. Recurved : curved backwards. Rcflexed : beut backwards. Regular : with purtn of the same Bize and shape. Reiiiforru, Fig. 121. Reticulated ; netted. Retuso : slif^'btly notched at the apex. Revolute : rtdled back. Rhizoruc, 91. lUbs, 101 Ringent, 131. Root, 2, 83. Root-hairs, 165. Rootlet, 2. Rootstock, 91. Rotate, 130. Rotation in cells, 163. Rudittientary : imperioctly developed. Rugose : wrinkled. Runcinate : with teeth pointing backwards, as in the leal' Dandelion. Runner, 90. Sagittate, Fig. 120. Balver-shapcd, Fig. 143 Samara, Fig. 162. Sap, 172, 174. Sarcocarp : the flesh of a drupe. Scabrous : rough. Scandent : climbing. Scape, 19. Scar, 157 Scion : a young shoot. Seed, 17, 157, 158. Seed-vessel, see Ovary. • Sepal, 5. Septicidal (dehiscence) : splitting open along ih partitiozi8.e Septum : a partition. Series, 179. Serrate, 112 INDKX AND OI.OSSART. 181 shed if C'essile, 4. Cetaceous: liko a bristle. Sheath : :. tubo BUiroundiiip: a stem, 62. Sheathing: surroundiiiK liko a eheath. Shield-shaped, soo Poltato. Shoot : a uewly formed branch. Shrub, 80. Silicic, ISf). Silique, 155. Simple (leaves), 100; (pistil), 137. Sinuate : wavy on the margin. Solitary, 121. Spadict'ous, 179. Spadix, 69. Spathe, 69. * Spathulate, 107. Species, 179. Spike, i'.2. Spikelet, n secondary spike. Spindle-shaped, 85. Spine, 96. Spiral markings, 107. Spores: the rcprnductivo bodies in CrypiOgams which correspond to the seeds of Phanerogams. Spur, 131. Stamen, 6, 132. Staminate (flower) : having no pistil, but only stamens. Standard : the broad upper petal of a papilionaceous corolla. Stem, u, aa. Stemless, 18. Sterile (flower) : having no pistil. Stigma, 7. Stigmatic : bearing the scigma. Stipulate: having stipules, 115. Stipule, 31, 115. Stolon : V, short branch which droops to the ground and takeu root. ntomate, 173, Stone, see Putamen. Stone-fruit, see Drupe. Strap-shaped, see Ligiilate. Striate : marked lengthwise with lines or furrows. Strobile: same as Cone. Style, 7. Ciub-class, 179. Subulate, Fig. 112. Succulent: juicy; fleshy. Sucker : an underground branch, at length emerging and form- ing a stem. 189 INDEX AND Or.OHSARY. Superior, 7, 37, 44. fiupproHHion : Hl>8oiie<' of parts. SuHpondcd : liunt' from ^I)()V(^ ButUK', IM. Symrruitiical, 42. SynearpouK, 2'.). Syiigent'HiouK, 47 Tap.rjot, 81. Tf th (of calyx), 32. Tendril, 90. Terete : cylindrical Terminal : at the end of a stem oi branch. Tcrnato : in threes. Testa, 157. Tetradynamons, 28, 130. Tetrandrous : having four distinct Btamens. Thalumillorous : having the Btauienu inserted Thalamus : th(» roccptaclo. Thread-shaped, see Filiform. Throat (of cilyx), 128. Thorn, see Spine. Thyrse, 123. Tissue, 162. Tomentoso : woolly. Toothed, see Dentate, 112. Torus : eamo as receptaolt. Tree, 89. Triadelphous, 134. Triandrous : having three distinct stameof* Triennial : lasting three years. Trifoliolate : having three leaflets. ' Truncate, 111. Trunk : the main stem. Tube, 34, 128, Tuber, 91. Tuberous : like a tuber. Tunicateu, 92. Twining, 90. Two lipped, see Labiate, 50. Umbel, 122. Umbellet : a secondary umbel. Unguiculate : having a claw. VaWate : edge to edge, but not overlapping. Valve, 41, 133, 147. Valved: having valyei. Varieties, 179. the refieptaele. INDEX AND GLOSSARY. 133 Vascular tissne, ir»7. Veins : the tiuer parts of the framework of a leaf. Venation, 101. Ventral Butuie, 138. Vernation, Bamo as ProefoUation. VersatiUs 132. Vertical leaves, 98. Verticillato. 99. Vessels, K')?. Villoso, IIG. Wavy : witli alternate ronndod hollows and projections, 112. Wedge-shaptd : like a wedge, tbo broad uart being oho a^ex. Wht-el-sbapid, eco Rotate. Whorl : a circle of three or more leaves at the same node. Woody tissue, 1(37. >taole. z;iisii *f - APPENDIX. <$jekrti0ns from ^iramination ^ap^rs. UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO. 1. Define suckers, stolons, offsets, runners, tendrils, thorns, and prickles, describing their respective origins aud uses, and giving examples of plants in which they occur 2. What are the functions of leaves ? Describe the different kinds of compound leaves. 8. "What is meant by inflorescence ? Describe the different kinds of flower-clusters, giving an example of each. 4. Mention and explain tlie terms applied to the various modes of insertion of stamens. 6. How are fruits classified ? What are multiple or collective fi'uits ? Give examples. 6. Relate the differences in structure between endo- genous and exogenous stems. Describe their respective modes of growth. 7. "What ifl the food of plants ? how do they obtain it ? and how do they make use of it ? 8. Describe the component parts of a simple flower. How is reproduction effected ? 9. Describe the anatomical structure of a leaf, aud the formation and office of leaf-stomata. 10. Explain the conpequences of flowering upon the health of a plant, and shew how these effects are reme- died in different climates. What practical bearing has this upon horticulture ? 11. Trace the development of a carjiel from a leaf. Describe the different forms assumed bv placentsB in 184 APPENDIX. 185 compound ovaries, and explain the origin of these variations. 12. Mention the principal modes in which pollen gains access to the stigma. What are hybrid plants, and how are they perpetuated ? 18. Describe the anatomy of a leaf. What are stomata ? 14. What is the placenta in a seed vessel ? Describe the different modes of placentation. Show how the varieties) of placentation agree with the " altered-leaf theory " vol the pistil. 16. Give the characters of the Composite. How is the order subdivided ? Describe the composite flower, and mention some of the common Canadian examples of this order. 16. Give the peculiarities of Endogens in seed-leaf, leaf, and stem. Subdivide the class. Describe shortly the orders Araceje and GramiueoB. 17. Describe the wall of a seed-vessel, an i notice its varieties of form. 18. What is meant by the dehiscence of a capsule ? Shew tlie different mode« in which pods dehisce, and give examples of each. 19. Give the characters and orders of Gymnosper- mous Exogens. 20. Give the characters of Ranunculaceae. Describe shortly some of the principal plants of the order. 21. Give some account of the special fonns which the leaves of plants assume. 22. What are stipules ? What their size and shape ? 28. What is meant by Imperfect, Incomplete, and Uu symmetrical flowers respectively ? 24. Describe Papihonaceoua and Labiate corollas. 25. Write notes on Abortive Organs, Gymnosper- mous Pistil, and Pollen Granule. 26. Distinguish between the essential and non-essen- tial materials found in plants, and notice the non-es- sential. 27. What is vegetable growth ? Illustrate by a ref- 186 APPENDIX. erence to the pollen granule in its fertilization of the ovary. 28. What is an axil ? What is the pappus 7 29. What are the cotyledons ? What is their func- tion, and what their value in systematic Botany ? 80. Distinguish between Epiphytes and Parasites; Describe their respective modes of growth, and give ex- amples of each. HI. What is the difference between roots and subter- ranean branches ? Define rhizoma, tuber, corm, and bulb, giving examples of each. How does a potato differ botanically from a sweet-potato ? 82. Describe the calyx and corolla ; what modifica- tions of parts take jilace in double flowers ? 83. What is a fruit in Botany ? Explain the struct- ure of an apple, grape, almond, strawberry, fig, and pineapple. 84. What organs appear in the more perfect plants 9 In what two divisions are they comprised ? 85. Weak climbing stems distinguished according to the mode in which they support themselves, the direc- tion of their growth, the nature of their clasping organs. 86. Structure and parts of a leaf : What is most im- portant in their study ? Give the leading divisions, and mention what secondary distinctions are required in specific description ? 87. Function of the flower : its origin : its essential and accessory parts : names of the circles and their component organs: circumstances which explain the differences among flowers. 88. Parts of the fully formed ovule and distinctions founded on their relative position. 89. Sub- kingdoms and classes of the vegetable king- dom. SECOND CLASS TEACHERS' CERTIFICATES, PROVINCE OF ONTARIO. 1. Name the parts of the pistil and stamens of a flower and give their uses APPENDIX. 137 2. What are Perennial plants ? Descrilie their mode of life. 8. •' There are two great classes of stems, which tliffer in the way the woody part is arranged in the cellular tissue." Fully explain this. 4. Describe the functions of.leaves. How are leaves classified as to their veining? 6. Name and describe the organic constituents of plants. 6. Name the organs of reproduction in plants, and describe their functions. 7. Give, and fully describe, the principal parts of the flower. 8. What are the different narts of a plant ? Describe the functions of each part. 9. State all the ways by which an Exogenous stem may be distinguished from an Endogenous. 10. Describe the functions of leaves. What is the cause of their fall in autumn ? Draw and describe a maple leaf. 1 1. Tame the different parts of a flower, and describe the ; ci each part. Draw a diagram showing a sta- men unci a pistil and the parts of each. 12. W^hat is the fruit ? Why do some fruits fall from the stem more easily than others ? 13. Of what does the food of plants consist ? In what forms and by what organs is it taken up, and how is it asssimilated ? Name the substances inhaled and those exhaled by plants, and the uses of each in the economy of nature. 14. Describe fully (1) the plant in Vegetation ; (2) the plant in Reproduction. 16. Describe Fibrous roots, Fleshy roots, and differ- ent kinds of Tap-root. 16. Describe the structure and veining of leaves. 17. "The nourishment which the mother plant pro- vides in the seed is not always stored up in the embryo." Explain and illustrate. " 8. Describe the various modes in which Perennials Mean mtim 188 APPENDIX. "provide a stock of nourishmeut to begin the new growth.' 19. Describe fully the organs of reproduction in a plant. Describe the process of germination. 20. Wliat are the parts of a flower ? Give illustra- tions by diagram, with a full description. 21. Name and describe the principal sorts of flowers, 22. What elementary substances should the soil con- tain for the nourishment of plants ? 23. How are plants nourished before and after ap])earing above ground ? 24. Tell what vou know about the various forms of the calyx and the corolla. 25. Explain the terms Cotyledon, Pinnate, Root- stock, Filament, and Radicle. 20. Explain the terms Papilionaceous, Cruciferous, Silique, and Syngenesious ; and in each case name a janiily in the description of which the term under con- sideration may be properly applied. 27. Give the characters of the Rose family. 28. Describe the various modes in which biennials store up nourishment during their first season. 29. Explain the meaning of the terms Sepal, Bract, Raceme, and Stipule. Describe minutely the Stamen and the Pistil, and give the names applied to their parts. 30. Are the portions of the onion, the potato, and the turnip which are capable of preservation through the winter, equally entitled to the name of roots ? Give reasons for vour answer. FIRST CLASS CERTIFICATES. 1. What are the cotyledons? Describe their func- tions, &c. State their value in systematic botany. 2. Describe the difference in structure and modes ol gi'owth of exogenous and endogenous stems. 8. Describe the circulation in plants. " In the aci of making vegetable matter, plants purify the air foi animals." Explain this fully. APPENDIX. 189 4. What are Phoenogamous plants ? Define Raceme, Corymb, Head, Panicle, Ament. 5. Give the characters of (a) The classes Exogens and Eudogens ; (h ) The Mint and Lily families. 6. To what family do the Cedar, Clover. Mustard, and Dandelion respectively belong ? 7. Why does a botanist consider the tuber of the po- tato an underground stem ? 8. Give the philosopliical explanation of the nature of a flower considered as to the origin and correspond- ences of its different parts. 9. Draw a spathulate, an obcordate, a truncate, a palmately-divided and an odd pinnate leaf. 10. Explain the constitution of a pome or apple- fruit. 11. What organs appear in the more perfect plants, and in what divisions are they comprised ? 12. Give the function of the flower, its origin, and its ossential and accessory parts. 15. Describe the nature and chief varieties of roots, and distinguish between them and underground stems. 14. '• As to the Apex or Point leaves are Pointed, Acute, Obtuse, Truncate, Retuse, Emarginate, Obcor- date, Cuspidate, Mucronate." Sketch these different forms. • 16. *' There is no separate set of vessels, and no open tubes for the sap to rise through in an unbroken stream, in the way people generally suppose." Comment on this passage. 16. The great series of Flowering Plants is divided into two classes. Describe these classes. 17. Give the chief characteristics of the order cnici- fera f'Cress Family^, and name some common exam- ples of this order. 18. State the difference between definite and indefin- ite inflorescence, and give exami)les of the latter. 19. Of what does the food of plants consist ? in what form is it found in the soil ? How is it introduced into the plant ? What inference may be drawn respectmg the culture of the plant ? . wfc - i -tfdMn«4 140 APPENDIX. 20. Distinguish weak climbing stems according to the mode iu which tiiey support themselves, the direc- tion of their growth, and the nature of their clasping organs. 21. Name the three classes of Flowerless Plants, and give an example ot ciicli. 2 i. Explain the terms Spore, Cap3ule, Bract, Stip- ule, Albumen, and Epiphyte. 28. Wliat are tendrils, and of what organs are they supposed to bo modifications ? 24. Give the characters of the Cress Family, and name as many plants belonging to it as you can. 25. Tell what you know about the minute structure and the chemical composition of vegetable tissue. 26. Describe the origin of the different kinds of pla- centas ; and of tlie different parts of the fruit of the plum, the oak, and the maple. 27. Describe fully the proc3ss by which it is sup- posed that water is carried up from the roots of plants. 28. Give the meaning of the terms stomate, indehis- cent, thyrse, glume, pyxis. Distinguish epiphytes from parasites, 29. Describe any plant you have examined ; if you can, tabulate your description. 30. Name all the families of monopetalous dicotyle- dons which you remember, and give the characters of any one of them. McGILL UNIVEESITY. 1. Describe the germination of a plant. 2. Explain the differences in the structure of the embryo. 3. Explain the functions of the i^oot. 4. Describe the structures in a leaf, ana cxpiain their action on the air. 6. Mention the several parts of the stamen and the pistil, and explain their uses. 6. Describe an Achene, a Samara, a Drupe and a Silique. APPENDIX. 141 7. Describe the differences in the stems of Exopjens and Endogens, and tl\e relations of these to the otlier parts of the phmt and to dassification. 8. Explain the terms Genera, Sjiocies, Order. 9. What is an excurrent stem, an axillary bud, bud scales ? 10. Explain the terms primoraial utricle, parenchyma^ jyTotojilasm, as used in Botany. 11. What are the functions of the nucleus in a living cell? 12. Explain the movements of the sap in plants. 13. Describe the appearance under the microscope of raphides, spiral vessels, and (Ihc-budrimj wood-cells. 14. Describe the structure of the bark of nn Exogen. 15. Describe freely the anatomy of a leaf. IG. Desciibe shortly the parts and structures denoted by the following terms, spiyie, aerial root, phjjllodium, cambium, stipule, rhizoma. 17. Give examples of pIi(eno(jams, crypAofjams, exoyena and endogetis, prope' 'y arranged. 18. Describe the principal forms of indeterminate inflorescence. 19. In what natural families do we find siliqufs, didynamoiis stamens, labiate corollas, or pappus- bearing achenes. Describe these structures. 20. State the characters of any Canadian Exogenous Order, with examples. 21. Describe the cell-walls in a living parenchymatous cell. 22. Describe the fibro-vascular tissues in an Exogen- ous stem. 23. Describe the appearance of stomata and glan- dular heirs under the microscope. 24. DkifiUQ jjrcsencbynid, cor?n, cj/closis, thallus. 25. Explain tiie soui ces of the Carbon and Nitrogen of the plant, and the mode of their assimilation. 26. Describe the pericarp, stating its normal struc- ture, and naming some of its modifications. 27. Explain the natural system in Botany, and state the gradation of groups from the species upward, with examples. 142 APPENDIX. ONTARIO COLLEGE OF PHARMACY. 1. What do plants feed upon ? 2. What do you understand by the terms Acaulescent, Apetalous, Suffrutescent, Culm ? 8. Name Bome of the different forma of Primary, Secondary, and Aerial Roots, giving examples. 4. Explaiu the followiii;:^ terms descriptive of forms of leaves, giving sketch : — Ovate, Peltate, Crenate, Serrate, Cleft, Entire, Cuspidate, Perfoliate. 5. Explain difference between Determinate and In- determinate inflorescence, giving three examples of each. 6. What organs are deficient in a sterile and a fertile flower ? 7. Give the parts of a perfect flower, with their rela- tive position. 8. Give the difference between simple and compound Pistil, with example of each. 9. Name the principal sorts of buds, and explain how the position of these affects the arrangement of branches. 10. Give description of multiple and primary roots, with two examples of same ; also explain the difference between these and secondary roots. 11. Name the principal kinds of subterranean stems and branches, and explain how you would distinguish between these and mots. 12. In the classification of plants explain difference between classes and orders : genus and species. 18. Name three principal kinds of simple fruit. 14. When roots stop growing does the absorption of moisture increase or decrease ? Give reason for it. 15. Upon what do plants live ? Indicate how you would prove your answer correct. 16. In what part of the plant, and when, is the work of assimilation carried on ? 17. Name three principal kinds of deterymnfite, and some oiindeteirmiwiie inflorescenc ) j^anio tlie essentie." organs of a flo\N6r. ^ APPENDIX. 148 18. In what reHpecta do plants differ from inorganic matter ? And from animals ? 19. Describe a liliizoiue, Tubor, Bulb; and say if they belong to the root or stem ; which aro Rliuum, Jalapa, Sweet Potato, Onion ? 20. Define the difference between natural and special forms of leaves ; between smiple and compound leaves. Give example of each, Sketcli a connate-perfoliato leaf. 21. Mention the parts of an embryo. Of f% leaf. Of a pistil. Of a stamen. Of a seed. 22. What is meant by an albuminous seed ? By dioecious tlowers ? By a compound ovary? 23. What is the difference between determinate and indeterminate inflorescence ? How do they influence growth of the stem ? Give three principal kinds of each. 24. Name the parts of a flower. What office is performed by the ovule ? Name two kinds. 26. Name the parts of a vegetable cell. What are spiral ducts ? 26. In what paiis of the plant is the work of absorp- tion carried on ? In what part the work of assimila- tion ? How do plants purify the air for animals ? 27. Explain the natural system of chissiflcation in Botany ? Name and characterize the classes of plants. 28. Explain the structure and functions of the Le«f, Bud, Root. 29. Give some of the terms used in describing the shape of a simple leaf as concerns (a) its general con- tour, {h) its base, (c) its margin, (J) its apex. 80. Name the organs in a perfect flower ; describe fully the structure of the anther and pollen. Wliat is coalescence and adnation ot tiie parts of a flower ? 81. Explain the terms Raceme, Pappus, Coma, Rhi- zome, Pentastichous. • 32. State the distinction between Exogens and Endo- gens. 33. What ar^^lular structures as distinguished from vascular ? ^HlB't is ohlorophyll ? 144 APrENPIX. 84. Mention the organs of fructification, and explain tlic process of fertilization in a flowering plant. 85. Explain the Btructure of a seed, and describe in • a few words the process ot germination. 8G. D line what is meant by the following terms: — Morphology, Polycotyledonous, Epiphyte, PedunclOi; Stipules. 87. Describe briefly the root stem, leaf, and flower of the common dandelion, giving the functions or office of each. 4 88. Name some of the most common forms of leaves, giving a few rough outlines. 89. Of what part of the flower does the fruit nomin- ally consist ? What additional parts are in some ii> stances present ? 40. Define the terms Drupe, Pollen, Gynandrous, Pome, Aduate. 41. Explain the process of fertilization in flowering plants, and mention the difl'erent ways in which it is brought about. 49. Enumerate the different varieties of tissue recog- nized by botanists, and give their situation in an Endo- genous stem. THE END.