IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) /. 4is y.s P 1.0 I.I 1.25 y^tm iiiiiM IIIIM mil 2.2 .i IIIIM BAO 12.0 1.8 1.4 il.6 Photographic Sciences Corporation 33 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, NY. M580 (716) 872-4503 'lA ^v- Qa CIHM/ICMH Microfiche Series. CIHM/ICMH Collection de microfiches. Canadian Institute for H storical Microreproductions / Institut Canadian de microreproductions historiques Technical and Bibliographic Notes/Notes techniques et bibliographlques The to t\ The Institute has attempted to obtain the best original copy available for filming. Features of this copy which may be bibliographically unique, which may alter any of the images in the reproduction, or which may significantly change the usual method of filming, are checked below. Coloured covers/ I I Couverture de couleur □ D D Covers damaged/ Couverture endommag^e Covers restored and/or laminated/ Couverture restaurde et/ou pelliculde □ Cover title missing/ Le titre de couverture manque □ Coloured maps/ Cartes gdographiques en couieur Coloured ink (i.e. other than blue or bleck)/ ere de couleur (i.e. autre que bleue ou noire) I I Coloured plates and/or illustrations/ Planches et/ou illustrations en couleur Bound with other materia'/ Relid avec d'autres documents r~y\ Tigh: binding may cause shadows or distortion along interior margin/ La reliure serr^e peut causer de I'ombre ou de la distortion le long de la marge intdrieure Blank leaves added during restoration may appear within the text. Whenever possible, these have been omitted from filming/ II se peut que certuines pages blanches ajout^es lors d'une restauration apparaissent dans le texte, mais, lorsque cela dtait possible, c««s pages n'ont pas 6t6 filmdes. Additional comments:/ Commentaires suppldmentaires; L'Institut a microfilmd le meilleur exemplaire qu'il lui a 6t6 possible de se procurer. Les details de cet exemplaire qui sont peut-dtre uniques du point de vue bibliographique, qui peuvent modifier une image reproduite, ou qui peuvent exiger une modification dans la mdthode normale de filmage sont indiqu6s ci-dessous. □ Coloured pages/ Pages de couleur n Pages damaged/ Pages endommagdes □ Pages restored and/or laminated/ Pages restaur^es et/ou pelliculdes r~l Pages discoloured, stained or foxed/ The poss oft! filmi Orig begi the I sion othe first sion or ill Pages ddcolordes. tachetdes ou piqu^es Pages detached/ Pages d6tach6es Showthroughy Transparence Quality of prir Qualit^ indgale de I'impression Includes supplementary materii Comprend du matdriel supplementaire Only edition available/ Seule Edition disponible I I Pages detached/ r~~J> Showthrough/ I j Quality of print varies/ I I Includes supplementary material/ I I Only edition available/ ■ The shall TINl whic Map diffe entir begii right requ meth y Pages wholly or partially obscured by errata slips, tissues, etc., have been refilmed to ensure the best possible image/ Les pages totalement ou partiellement obscurcies par un feuillet d'errata, une pelure, etc., ont 6t6 filmdes d nouveau de fa^on d obtenir la meilleure image possible. pp. 1/2, n/12, 17/18 MISSING - NOT USED □ This item is filmed at the reduction ratio checked below/ Ce document est film4 au taux de reduction indiqud ci-dessous. 10X 14X 18X 22X 26X 30X V 12X 16X 20X 24X 2IX 32X The copy filmed here has been reproduced thanks to the generosity of: Thomas Fisher Rare Book Library, University of Toronto Library L'exemplaire filmd fut reproduit grfice d la g6n6rositd de: Thomas Fisher Rare 3ook Library, University of Toronto Library The images appearing here are the best quality possible considering the condition and legibility of the original copy and in keeping with the filming contract specifications. Original copies in printed paper covers are filmed beginning with the front cover and ending on the last page with a printed or illustrated impres- sion, or the back cover when appropriate. All other original copies are filmed beginning on the first page with a printed or illustrated impres- sion, and ending on the last page with a printed or illustrated impression. The last recorded frame on each microfiche shall contain the symbol — ♦> (meaning "CON- TINUED"), or the symbol V (meaning "END"), whichever applies. Maps, plates, charts, etc., may be filmed at different reduction ratios. Those too large to be entirely included in one exposure are filmed beginning in the upper left hand corner, left to right and top to bottom, as many frames as required. The following diagrams illustrate the method: Les images suivantes ont 6X6 reproduites avec le plus grand soin, compte tenu de la condition et de la nettetd de l'exemplaire film6, et en conformity avec les conditions du contrat de filmage. Les exemplaires originaux dont la couverture en papier est imprim^e sont filmds en commengant par le premier plat et en terminant soit par la dernidre page qui comporte une empreinte d'impression ou d'illustration, soit par le second plat, selon le cas. Tous les autras exemplaires originaux sont film6s en cornmongant par la premidre page qui comporte une empreinte d'impression ou d'illustration et en terminant par la dernidre page qui comporte une telle empreinte. Un des symboles suivants appara>tra sur la dernidre image de cheque microfiche, selon le cas: le symbole — ^ signifie "A SUIVRE", le symbole V signifie "FIN". Les cartes, planches, tableaux, etc., peuvent dtre film^s d des taux de reduction diffdrents. Lorsque le document est trop grand pour dtre reproduit en un seul cliche, il est film6 d partir de I'angle supdrieur gauche, de gauche d droite, et de haut en bas, en prenant fe nombre d'images ndcessaire. Les diagrammes suivants illustrent la mdthode. 1 2 3 1 2 3 4 5 6 % t k: 1i < IS •t i; .! 1 i 1 i isIb HC 5 .13 'jj f •3 THE DOMINION OF CANADA; CONTAINING A HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE PRELIMINARIES AND ORGANI- ZATION OF CONFEDERATION; ALSO, THE VAST IMPROVEMENTS MADE IN AGRICULTURE, COMMERCE AND TRADE, MODES OF TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION, MINiNG, AND EDUCATIONAL INTERESTS, ETC, ETC. rOR TlIK PAST EIGHTY YEARS UNDER THE PROVINCIAL NAMES. WITH A LARGE AMOUNT OF STATISTICAL INFORMATION, FROM THE BB8T AND LATEST AUTHORITIES. BY H. Y. HIND, M. A., F. R. G. S. T. C. KEEFER, CIVIL ENGINEER. J. G. HODGINS, LL. B., F. R. G. S. CHARLES ROBB, MINING ENGINEER. M. H. PERLEY, ESQ. REV. WM. MURRAY. FULIiY ILLUSTRATED WITH STEEL AND ELECTROTYPE PLATE ENORAVUJGS, BHOWINO THE PROGRESS IN THE VARIOUS BRANCHES TREATED OP. (FURNISHED TO SUBSCRIBERS ONLY.) TORONTO: PUBLISHED BY L. STEBBINS. 1869. • i ^ OOIsTTEISTTS. SIX CHAPTERS, INCLUDraG EIGHTY SECTIONS. Part I. Introductory, (2 sections.) Part IL Period of English and French Discovery and Settlement, (10 sections.) Part III. Political and Military History— French Period, (26 sections.) Part IV. Political History of Canada— British Period, (18 sections.) Part V. The Maritime Provinces, (8 sections.) Part VI. Confederation of the Provinces — with Statistical Tables, (16 sections.) m k K I. HISTORICAL SKETCH OP THE NEW CONFEDERATED DOMINION OF CANADA. PART I. INTRODUCTORY. The prosperous provinces of British North America, which now constitute the " Dominion of Canada, " were, with the islands of Prince Edward and Newfoundland and the outlying territory of the Hudson Bay company, (and even portions of the United States,) — once known as Nouvelle France. This vast area was two centuries ago held by one people, and ruled by one viceroy — with his subor- dinates as governors of districts. It will be curious and interesting briefly to trace the successive steps which led not only to the rapid expansion of French power and influence on the continent, but also to note the causes which led to the no less certain decay and extinction of that power as a political entity in America. Equally instructive will it be to take a glance at the successive steps which led to the establishment of that other rival power in the very seat of French dominion on this continent, and caused to be trans- ferred to Great Britain these fine provinces, which after- wards under her beneficial rule grew and prospered as sin- gle communities, and at length confederated together as one Dominion — a Dominion with a population and territory- equal to that which formed the United States at the close of its successful revolution of 1776. VI INTRODUCTORY. 2. Groivth of British North America. — Long after the dis- CO very of America, Great Britain bad no permanent foot- hold in any part of the continent. For many years she maintained but a nominal claim, for fishing purposes, upon the outlying island of Newfoundland — her sovereignty over which was chiefly based upon Cabot's discovery in 1497, and Sir Humphrey Gilbert's act of possession in 1583. Gradually, however, she advanced her power and increased her influence, until she absorbed nearly the whole of the North American continent. But very soon after the ab- sorption of this vast territory, there arose that restless spirit among her own children, which at length issued in rebel- lion against her authority, and in the end bereft her of more than half of her possessions. Since that event there has again grown up in what was once New France, a pros- perous cluster of colonies, which stretch across the continent from the island of Newfoundland to that of Vancouver. PAET 11. PERIOD OF ENGLISH AND FRENCH DISCOVERY AND SETTLE- MENT. 1. Cahot^s Discovery of Newfoundland. — Soon after the news of the discovery by Columbus had reached England, John Cabot, a Venetian merchant, resident at Bristol, obtained a commission from Henry VII., in 1496, to make a voyage to the New World. In June 1497, he left Bristol with his son Sebastian. On the 24th of that month, he reached a point on the Trinity Bay coast, Newfoundland, which he ' named Prima Vista. On St. John's day he came to an island which he named St. Jean, (afterwards Prince Edward.) By virtue of these discoveries, the English first laid claim to sovereignt}'- over these islands. 2. CorlereaVs Voyages. — In 1500 Gaspard Cortereal, a «p 11 ENGLISH AND FRENCH SETTLEMENT. VU Portuguese, made a voyage to Labrador, Newfoundland, and New England. lie made a second voyage in 1501, and, having reached Hudson Strait, was never heard of afterwards. 3. Vemzzani^s Voyage. — In 1524, John Yerazzani made a voyage to America, under the patronage of Francis I. In 1525 he made a second voyage, and explored more than 2,000 miles of coast. In consequence of his discoveries the French claimed jurisdiction of all places visited by him. 4. Cartier's Discovery of Canada. — In 1534 Philip Cabot, admiral of France, urged King Francis I. to establish a colony in the new world. He recommended Jacques Car- tier, a noted navigator of St, Malo, to command an expe- dition of discovery to the New World. In April 1534 Cartier left St. Malo, and twenty days after reached a cape on the Newfoundland coast which he named Bona Vista. On the 9th of July he entered a bay (of New Brunswick) in which he experienced such intense heat that he called it the "Bale des Chaleurs." Passing northwards out of this bay he rounded the peninsula, and on the 24th of July landed on the coast since known as "Gasp6,'' — an Indian name for Land's end. There he erected a cross, on which he placed a shield bearing the fleur-de-lis, as emblematical of the new sovereignty of France in America. He then returned to France. In July, 1535, after a tempestuous voy- age, he again reached Newfoundland. On the lOtli of July he anchored in a bay to which he gave the name of St. Lawrence, — having entered it on the festival of that saint. The name thus given to the little bay has since been ap- plied to the vast gulf and noble river which Cartier was the first European to discover and afterwards explore. 5. Name of Canada. — When Cartier reached Stadacona (Quebec) the Algonquin Indians intimated to him that Kanata, — a collection of wigwams at the native Huron vil- lage of Hochelaga (Montreal) — was farther up the river. i tit II vm ENGLISH AND FRENCH SETTLEMENT. He probably understood them to apply tliat word to the whole country lying beyond him. In this way, it is sup- posed the name Kanata, or Canada, was given to the entire country which Cartier was then engaged in exploring, 6. Other Futile Expeditions — Feudal System introduced. — During the next fifty years little more was accomplished. But in 1598 the Marquis de la Eoehe was constituted lieu- tenant-general of the king, and was invested by him with power to "grant leases of land in New France, in form of fiefs, to men of gentle blood." Thus was the feudal system introduced into Canada. It was modified by Eichelieu into a seigniorial tenure, and was not finally abolished until 1854. 7. Commercial Efforts. — Not only did the French fisher- men continue to frequent the coast --f Newfoundland, hut, under the patronage of Henry IV., Dupont Grav6, a mer- chant of St Malo, and Chauvin, a master-marine of Eouen, made several voyages up the St Lawrence to Tadoussac, and brought home cargoes of the rich furs which had been collected from the north at that place. De Chattes, the governor of Dieppe, formed a company of Eouen and other merchants, to' prosecute the work more vigorously. 8. Champlain^s Discoveries. — The first expedition to Can- ada projected by this Company was placed under the com- mand of Samuel de Champlain. In company with Dupont Grav6, he, in 1603-7, explored the St Lawrence from Tadoussac to Three Eivers. On the 3d of July, 1608, he founded the city of Quebec. In 1609 he ascended the river Eichelieu, and discovered the beautiful lake since called Champlain. In 1616 he ascended the Ottawa to Lake Ni pissing, descended French Eiver to Georgian Bay, and from Lake Simcoe he passed by a long portage to the head- waters of the river Trent, and thence to Lake Ontario. 9. Reverses — Fui ih'r Explorations. — The Prince de Cond6 having been appointed viceroy, a new and enlarged com- »«;* ENGLISH AND FRENCH SETTLEMENT. IX pany was incorporated under his auspices, and an effort was made to introduce Christianity among the Indians. For this purpose Champlain brought the first missionaries to Canada. These were four Eecollet fathers, who accom- panied him in 1615. 10. Montreal Founded. — Huron War. — M. De Montmagny followed Champlain. During his administration in 1642, Montreal was founded with religious ceremonies under the name of V'lla Maria, (Town of Mary,) and soon after, the long threatened war of extefrmination against the Huron Indians was commenced by the Iroquois, it was to this governor that the Indians lirst applied the term Onontio, the great r)iountain — a literal translation of M. de Montmagny's name. The term was afterwards applied to each of the French governors of Canada. On-ti-go-a was the Indian name of the king of France. PART III. POLITICAL AND MILITARY HISTORY— FRENCH PERIOD. 1. Proposed Union of the English, French, and Dutch Colo- nies. — The four New England colonies had, in 1643, formed a union or alliance. It was then proposed that this union should include all the European colonies in Amer- ica — English, French, and Dutch — whose existence should not be imperilled by the politics or wars of Europe. Each colony was to retain its own laws, customs, religion, and language. 2. Projected Alliance wiHi New England. — With a view to carry out this confederation. Governor Winthrop of Massa- chusetts wrote to the governors of New Netherlands and New France, or Canada, in 1647. The Dutch governor responded favorably at once, but the French governor de- layed doing anything until 1650, when he dispatched P6ro ill X POLITICAL AND MILITARY HISTORY. Druilletes to Boston, to propose as an additional article of union, the stipulation that New England should join Can- ada against the Iroquois — the French having suiFered so severely from the Iroquois in their prosecution of the pel- try-traffic. This hostile stipulation on the part of the French, although skillfully presented as a righteous league in defense of Christianity against scoffing pagans, broke off the negotiations. When this proposed arrangement be- came known to the Iroquois, it exasperated them still more, and they redoubled their efforts to destroy the French col- onists, so that for several years the French were virtually kept within their inclosures. Trade entirely languished, and the beavers were allowed to build their dams in peace, none of the colonists being able or willing to molest them. 3. Peace and Progress. — At length, however, a treaty was entered into with the five Troquois tribes in 1654, and for a time war ceased its alarms. Trade revived, and the peltry-traffic was vigorously prosecuted by the French with such of the Iroquois as were near Canada. The others, how- ever, preferred to trade with the English. During the in- tervals of war, explorations were made among the Sioux Indians beyond Lake Superior, and also among the Esqui- maux. The year 1656 was noted for an overland expedi- tion which was sent from Canada to Hudson Bay by way of Labrador, under Louis Jean Bourdon, attorney-general of New France, to take possession of that territory on behalf of the French King. 4. Poyal Qovernment Established. — In 1659, a royal edict was issued regulating the civil government of the colony. The resumption of Royal authority in Canada was made the occasion of introducing various reforms. A "Sover- eign Council," invested with administrative and judicial functions, somewhat like the "Parlement do Paris," was instituted at Quebec. Legal tribunals were established, and municipal government in a modified form introduced. L FRENCH PERIOD, 1640—1763. XI The right of taxation was, however, reserved to the king. The administration of goverment devolved upon a viceroy (who, as colonial minister, generally resided in France,) a governor, and an intendant, or chief of justice. 5. Police and Public Works. — West India Company. — "With these modifications the king, in 1664, transferred the trading interests of Canada to the West India Company, by whom an ordinance was passed introducing into the col- ony "the law and customs of Paris," (la coutume de Paris.) With a view to insure harmony in this matter throughout Canada, all other French coutumes were declared illegal in it. 6. Vigorous Administration and Reform. — The new rulers sent out from France in 1665, were men of ability. M. de Tracy was selected by the king as lieutenant-general, M. de Courcelles as governor, and M. Talon as intendant. On their arrival with new emigrants and farming materials, the colony revived. Talon, by authority of the king, car- ried into effect various useful reforms in the system of government, — especially in regard to the finances, the pun- ishment of peculators, and the reduction of the amount of tithes payable to the clergy. He further sought to encour- age both agriculture and manufactures. During his ad- ministration the restrictions on trade in Canada, as imposed by the West India Company, were greatly relaxed. 7. Attempted Diversion of the Fur Trade. — The English, having, in 1663, superceded the Dutch in New Amsterdam, (afterwards New York,) pushed their trade northward through the agency of the Iroquois Indians. These allies, anxious to profit by the traffic, sought, in 1670, to obtain furs and skins for the English from the various tribes up the Ottawa, which was then the chief hunting ground of the French Indians. 8. Formation of the Hudson Bay Company. — In the mean- time the English obtained a footing in the Hudson Bay tcr- Xll POLITICAL AND MILITARY HISTORY. ritories, under the guidance of des Groselli^res, a French pilot, aided by another Franco-Canadian, named Eadisson. An English company was formed to trade for furs, under the patronage of Prince Kupert. Charles I., King of Eng- land, having claimed the Hudson Bay territories, by virtue of Hudson's discoveries in 1610, granted a charter in 1670 to this compuii J, authorizing it to traffic for furs in that region. 9. Count de Frontenac. — In the year 1672 de Courcelles retired, and Count de Frontenac, a man of great energy and ability arrived. He remained ten years, and was re- called in 1682. In 1672 he built Fort Frontenac (Kings- ton.) It was rebuilt of stone by La Salle in 1678. Fron- tenac was re-appointed governor in 1689, and carried on a vigorous war against the English settlements in New York, and against their Indian allies, the Iroquois. The English retaliated, and the Iroquois made various successful inroads into Canada. In 1690 Frontenac defeated Sir William Phipps and the English fleet, before Quebec. He died greatly regretted in 1698, aged 78 years. Though naturally haughty, he was an able and enterprising man. 10. Spirit of Discovei'y and Adventure. — Nothing was so remarkable, during the early settlement of Canada, as the spirit of adventure and discovery which was then devel- oped. Zeal for the conversion of the Indians seems to have inspired the Jesuit clergy with an unconquerable de- votion to the work of exploration and discovery. Nor were the^ alone in this respect, for laymen exhibited the same adventurous spirit in encountering peril and hard- ship. From the first settlement of Quebec, in 1608, until its fiill in 1759, this spirit of discovery and dominion was actively fostered by each succeeding governor, until there radiated from that city a series of French settlements which stretched from the St. Lawrence to the far West, and from the sources of the Mississippi to the Gulf of Mexico, and even to the shores of South America. FRENCH PERIOD, 1640—1763. XUl 11. Summary of Discoveries. — After Champlain, other ex- plorers extended their researches westward. In 1640 the southern shores of Lake Erie were visited by P^res Chaumonot and Breboeuf. In 1647, P^re de Quesne went up the Sague- nay and discovered Lake St. John. In 1651, 1661, and 1671, expeditions were sent northwards towards the Hudson Bay, with more or less success. In 1646, P^re Druilletes ascend- ed the Chaudi^re, and descended the Kennebec to the At- lantic. In 1659, the Sioux were visited by adventurous traders, and in 1660 P^re Mesnard reached Lake Superior. In 1665, P^re Alloiiez coasted the same lake, and formed a mission at the Bay of Che-goi-megon. In 1668, Peres Dablon and Marquette formed a settlement of Sault Ste. Marie. In 1670 and 1672 Alloiiez penetrated, with Dab- lon, to the Illinois region, where they first heard of the mysterious Mississippi, — the " great father of waters." 12. La Salle's Expeditions to the Mississippi. — Fired with the news of this notable discovery, Sieur de la Salle, a French knight, then at Quebec, determined to complete the discovery. He sought to reach China by the way of Can- ada. His design was frustrated by an accident at a place since called Lachine, or China. He explored the Missis- sippi from its source to its month in 1678-80 ; spent two years between Frontenac (Kingston) and Lake Erie, and constructed the first vessel on Lake Erie (near Cayuga Creek.) He sought to reach the Mississippi by sea, but, having failed, he sought to reach it overland. In doing so he was murdered by his jealous followers who, afterwards, justly suffered great hardships. P^re Hennepin, a Kecollet Franciscan friar emigrated to Canada in 1675. He accom- panied La Salle in his exploration of the Mississippi in 1678, and visited the Falls of Niagara, — of which he wrote an interesting account. 13. Failure to restrict the Peltry Traffic to the Region of the St. Lawrence. — Great efforts were made by the French to 1M ' i .■ ' i! ijt. I 'h^l XIV POLITICAL AND MILITARY HISTORY. restrict the traffic in beaver-skins and peltry within their own territories. They at one time interdicted trade with the Anglo-Iroquois — then they made them presents; — again they threatened them — made war upon them — invad- ed and desolated their villages ; — they made treaties with them, and urged and entreated the Dutch and English to restrain them, and even sought to make the latter responsi- ble for their acts ; — but all in vain. As the tide rolled slowly in upon them, and the English, (who were always heralded by the Iroquois,) advanced northwards and west- wards to the St. Lawrence and the great lakes, the French still gallantly holding possession of their old trading-forts, also pressed forward before them and occupied new ground. 14. Armed Trading Posts. — With sagacious foresight, the French, in addition to a regular fort at Quebec, erected, from time to time, palisaded inclosures round their trading posts at Tadoussac, at Sorel, and the Falls of Chambly (on the Iroquois, or Richelieu River) at Three Rivers, Montreal, and Cataraqui (Kingston.) Subsequently, and as a coun- terpoise to the encroachments of the English, they erected palisaded posts at Niagara, Toronto, Detroit, and at Sault Ste. Marie and Mich-il-i-mack-i-nac. Nor were the Eng- lish idle. Creeping gradually up the Hudson river, they erected armed trading-posts at Albany, and at various points along the Mohawk valley, until, at length, in 1727, they fear- lessly threw up a fort at Oswego, on Lake Ontario, midway between the French trading posts of Frontenac and Niagara. 15. Tlie Catise of the Incessant Disputes and Wars must be looked for in the mutual determination of the French and English colonists to secure an exclusive right to carry on a traffic for furs with the Indian tribes. Territorial exten- sion, no less than national resentment between the French and English colonists, gave intensity of feeling to the con- test, and contributed to its duration. In their efforts to force the traffic into unnatural channels, the plans of the FRENCH PERIOD, 1640—1763. XV Frencli were not only counteracted by the energy of the English traders, but they were even thwarted in them by separate classes among themselves — each having different interests to serve, but all united in their secret opposition to the government. 16. Tlie Three Glasses of French Fur Traders were; 1, the Indians; 2, the trading officials; and 3, the courcurs de bois (" runners of the wood," or white trappers.) As to the first class, (the Indians of these vast territories,) they were ever proud of their unfettered forest life, and natu- rally disdained to be bound by the artificial trammels of the white man. The second class, (the officials of New France,) were secretly in league with the courcurs de bois against the king's revenue agents — their exaction and their exclu- sive privileged. The third or intermediary class of traders, or factors, (the courcurs de bois,) sought in every way to evade the jurisdiction of the farmers of the revenue at Que- bec. Their own reckless and daring mode of life among the Indians in the- woods, far from the seat of official influence and power, gave them peculiar facilities for doing so. 17. Various ameliorations. — During a peaceful interval, M. do Vaudreuil, the governor, set himself to develop the resources of the country, and to foster education among the people. He subdivided the three governments of Quebec, Three Eivers, and Montreal, into eighty-two parishes, and took a census of the people. 18. Maritime Defense of New France. — To provide for the maritime defense of Canada, (which, as yet, had no protec- tion to the seaward,) France, in 1713, colonized the island of Cape Breton, and, in 1720, strongly fortified Louisbourg its capital, at great expense. 19. PepperreWs Expedition from New England. — In 1745 war again broke out. From Crown Point, on Lake Cham- plain, the French and their Indian allies successfully at- tacked the English settlements ; and from Louisbourg a host $ XVI POLITICAL AND MILITARY IIISTOIir. of French privateers sallied forth to harrass the commerce of Nova Scotia and New England. Governor Shirley, of Massachusetts, aided by the other colonies, at once sent an expedition under William Pepperrell for the reduction of this stronghold. It was highly successful, and Pepperrell was rewarded with a baronetcy. Nothing daunted, a fleet, under the Duke d' Anville, was dispatched from France to recapture Louisbourg. But having been dispersed by a tempest, it never reached its destination. 20. Proposed Federal Union of the Colonies, 17 5B-4:. — With a view to concerted action against the French, the lords of trade suggested to the colonies the formation of a league with the Indians, which in its structure should be an enlarge- ment of the Iroquois confederacy. Shirley, the indefatigable governor of Massachusetts, conceived the bolder project of an alliance among the colonies themselves, for the purposes of mutual defense. Neither schemes were, however, adopted, but the germ of such a colonial union was subse- quently developed at the time of the American revolution. 21. Capture of Quebec. — The incessant trading disputes which had lasted for years between the English and the French ultimately culminated, in 1759, in that decisive contest between them on the Plains of Abraham. And thus, in the memorable fall of Quebec, fell also, in Canada, (although the after-struggle was protracted for a year,) that imperial power which, for mo/e than one hundred and fifty years, had ruled the colonial destinies of New France. 22. Fall of French Power. — Thus, after years of heroic struggle — with scant means of defense against powerful rival colonists and a relentless Indian enemy, — the first promoters of European civilization and enterprise in Can- ada were compelled to give place to a more aggressive race.. But they did so with honor. And little did those think who were then the victors over so brave an enemy in Canada, that, within twenty years from that event their own proud FRENCH PERIOD, 1640—1763. XVll ^erful first Can- race, think anacla, proud fla'^ would be ignominiously lowered at the seat of their own power at New York, as well as at every other fort and military post within the thirteen American colonies, 23. Tlie Treaty of Paris, 1763.— By this treaty France ceded to England the whole of her possessions in North America, with the exception of Louisiana and the small fishing islands of St. Pierre and Micquelon (off the coast of Newfoundland.) 24. The French and English Colonial Systems Contrasted. — The return to France of the French military officers and troops, as well as of many of the chief inhabitants, was en- couraged by the English, who were anxious thus quietly to rid themselves of a powerful antagonistic element in their newly acquired possession. They well knew that the pro- cess of assimilation between the two races so long arrayed in hostility to each other, would be very slow indeed. 25. System of Government in the French Colony. — The French colony, in its relations to the Imperial government, was as a child of the State. Every thing in it was subject to political influence or official surveillance, while religious matters were subject to vigorous ecclesiastical control. Two principal objects engrossed the attention of the French colonists, — the extension of the peltry traffic, and the con- version of the Indian tribes. As a means of carrying out these two great projects, exploration and discovery formed a chief feature of French colonial life. 26. System of Government in the English Colony. — In the English colony, the government, on the contrary, partook rather of the nature of a civil and social bond between the governing and the governed. It interfered as little as pos- sible in matters of trade. Hence exploration and discovery within the colony formed but a subordinate part of the ob- jects and pursuits of the English colonist. When, there- fore, the rival colonists came into contact, it was rather in a struggle for enlarged boundaries for trade, or for dominion I i ^ k \ > XVIU POLITICAL AND MILITARY HISTORY. over rival Indian tribes, and for the monopoly of tlie fur trade. That contest, although it was too often utterly self- ish in its objects, nevertheless unconsciously developed in both colonies, in a wonderful degree, a spirit of enterprise and discovery, which has scarcely had a parallel in later times, when steam and electricity have added, as it were, wings to man's locomotive and physical power. i PAET lY. POLITICAL HISTORY OF CANADA,— BRITISH PERIOD. 1. British Rule Inaugurated — In 1763 General Murray was appointed the first governor of the new British Prov- ince of Quebec, — the boundaries of which were contracted by the separation from it of New Brunswick, Labrador, &;c. The old district divisions of Quebec, Montreal, and Three Eivers were, however, retained, and a subordinate governor appointed over the two outlying districts of Montreal and Three Rivers. 2. State of Canada at this Time. — The population of Can- ada at this time was about 80,000, including nearly 8,000 Indians. The country, however, had been exhausted by des- olating wars, and agriculture and other peaceful arts lan- guished. The failure of the French Government to pay its Canadian creditors the sums due to them, (chiefly through the fraud, rapacity, and extravagance of the Intendant Bigot,) involved many of these creditors in misery and ruin. 3. Ameliorations hi the System of Oovernment Discussed. — In 1766 Governor Murray was recalled, and General (Sir Guy) Carleton appointed Governor General. Sir Guy Carleton (afterwards Lord Dorchester) had taken a prom- inent part in the siege and capture of Quebec, under Wolfe, in 1759; and, during Governor ^Murray's absence in 1767 he administered the government. Being in England BRITISH PERIOD, 1763—1863. XIX in 1770, he aided in the passage of the first Quebec Act. In 177-1 he became Governor-General, and successfully re- sisted the attack of the Americans upon Quebec in 1776. In 1778 he returned to England and was knighted by the king. In 1782 he succeeded Sir Henry Clinton as coui- mander-in chief of the royal forces in America. In 1786 he was created Lord Dorchester for his distinguished services; and from that time (with the exception of two years) he re- mained in Canada for the long period of thirty-six years. Daring that time he acquired great distinction as a colonial governor by his prudence, firnniess, and sagacity. 4. Tlie Quebec Act. — In 1774 the Quebec Act was passed as a conciliatory measure by the Imperial Parliament. It provided, among other things, for the "free exercise" of the Roman Catholic religion — for the establishment of a Legislative Council, and for the introduction of the crim- inal law of England into the province ; but it declared "that in regard to property and civil rights, resort should be had to the laws of Canada as the rule for the decision of the same." Thus, the enjoyment of their religion, and protection under the civil laws of French Canada were con- firmed to the inhabitants by Imperial statute, and a system of local self-government was introduced. Tiic act gave satisfaction to the French Canadians ; and, at a time when the old English colonies were wavering in their attachment to the British crown, it confirmed them in their allegiance to the king. 5. Efforts of the Disaffected colonists to Detach the Canadians from England. — In 1774, the assembly,from Massachusetts, requested a meeting of representatives from all the colonies to concert measures of resistance to England. Each of the thirteen old colonies, except Georgia, sent delegates. Can- ada declined to take any part in the revolt; and although one of the three addresses issued by the insurgent Congress was esp'^cially addressed to the Canadians, they declined XX POLITICAL HISTORY OF CANADA. to repudiate their formal allegiance to the British Crown. Strong efforts were also made by the Americans to detach the Iroquois (under Brant) from the British standai'd, but without effect. 6. Constitutional Changes — Clergy Rtserves. — In 1789, the draft of a new constitution for Canada was prepared. It proposed to divide the province of Quebec into Upper and Lower Canada; to give to each section a Legislative Coun- cil and House of Assembly, with a local government of its own. This celebrated constitutional act was passed in 1791. By it representative government, in a modified form, was for the first time introduced into the two Canadas simulta- neously, and gave very great satisfaction. In the same year the famous Clergy Keserve Act was passed in Eng- land. This act set apart one seventh of the unsurveyed lands of the Province, "for the support of a Protestant Clergy," and authorized the governor of either Province to establish rectories and endow thorn. This act became afterwards a fruitful sourcu of agitation and discontent in Upper Canada. 7. Parliamentary Government Inaugurated. — In June, 1792, the first parliamentary elections were held in Lower Canada, fifty members were returned. The Legislative Council, appointed by the Crown, consisted of fifteen mem- bers. On the 17th of December the new Legislature was opened by General Alurcd Clarke, the Lieutenant-Governor. Eight acts were passed by both houses. During the second session five bills were passed. The revenue of Lower Can- ada this year was only $25,000. During the third session, of 1795, accounts of the revenue and expenditure, which had now reached $42,000, were first laid before the Legislature. Of the customs revenue. Upper Canada was only entitled to one eighth. 8. Settlement of Upper Canada. — As Upper Canada was chiefly settled by United Empire Loyalists (to whom the ■i .4 BRITISH PERIOD, 1763—1863. XXI British Government bad liberally granted land and subsist- ence for two years,) it wr^ deemed advisable to confer upon these settlers a form of government,, similar to that which they had formerly enjoyed. In 1788 Lord Dorchester di- vided Upper Canada into four districts, viz. : Lunenburg, Mecklenburg, Nassau, and Hesse. In 1792, the Legislature changed these names into Eastern, Midland, Home and Western. These districts were afterwards divided, and their number increased ; but they were abolished in 1849. 9. The First Upper Canada Parliament was opened at Newark (Niagara) on the 17th of September, 1792, by Lieutenant-Governor Siracoe. The House of Assembly con- sisted of only sixteen members, and the Legislative Coun- cil of seven. Eight bills were passed — one of which pro- vided for the introduction of the English Civil Law. Trial by jury was also specially introduced, by statute, in that year. The English Criminal Law was also (as it stood in 1792) made the law of the land in Upper Canada. 10. Shtvzry Abolished. — In 1793, Slavery was abolished in Upper Canada; and in 1803, Chief Justice Osgoode decided that it was incompatible with the laws of Lower Canada. 11. The Seat of Government in Upper Canada was, in 1796, removed from Newark (Niagara,) to York (Toronto) by Governor Simcoe. 12. Progress of Affairs.— From 1796 to 1810 little of pub- lic or historical interest occurred in Canada. The local dis- cussions related chiefly to abuses in land-granting by the government, the application of the forfeited Jesuit estates to the founding of a Eoyal Institution for the promotion of public education in Lower Canada, and the establish- ment of Grammar Schools in Upper Canada. Efforts were also made to improve the navigation of the lower St. Law- rence, to regulate the currency, extend the postal commu- nication, ameliorate the prison system, promote shipping and commerce. Soon after, the war of 1812 took place. xxu POLITICAL HISTORY OF CANADA, 13. Conditions of the Provinces at the Close of the War. — Although the war of 1812 lasted only three years, it left Upper and Lower Canada very ranch exhausted. It, how- ever, developed the patiiotisra and loyalty of the people in the two provinces in a very high degree.. 14. Political Discussions in Upper and Lower Canada. — The distracting influences of the war having gradually ceased, political discussions soon occupied public attention. In Lower Canada, a protracted contest arose between the Legislative asssembly and the Executive Government, chiefly on the subject of the finances and political rights. In Upper Canada an almost similar contest arose between the same parties in the state ; while the abuses arising out of an irresponsible system of government were warmly discussed and denounced. Nevertheless, progress was made in many important directions. Emigration was en- couraged ; wild lands surveyed ; commercial intercourse with other colonies facilitated ; banking privileges extend- ed ; the system of public improvements (canals, roads, &c.) inaugurated. Steamboats were employed to navigate the inland waters ; })rimary and higher education cncournged, and religious liberty asserted as the inherent right of all religious persuasions. 15. Political Crisis. — Remedy. — The political discussions culminated, at length, in 1837, into armed resistance. This however was soon put down ; and Lord Durham was sent out from England to inquire into the grievances complain- ed of. His mission resulted in their removal, and in 1840 the two provinces were reunited under one government. 16. Political Progress.— hoviX Sydenham was sent out as Governor General to inaugurate and carry the union into eficct. Under his administration the foundation of many of the most important civil institutions were laid, especially those relating to the municipal system, popular education, the customs, currency, &c. BRITISH PERIOD, 1763—1863. 1 XXIU 17. Lord Elgin. — From this period until 1847, when the distinguished Lord Elgin became Governor General, the political and material progress of the Province was marked and steady. In the discharge of the duties of his high office Lord Elgin exhibited a comprehensiveness of mind and a singleness of purpose which gave dignity to his ad- ministration, and divested the settlement of the various questions of much party bitterness and strife. Under his auspices, responsible government was fully carried out, and every reasonable cause of complaint removed. The con- sequence was that contentment, peace and prosperity be- came almost universal throughout Canada. During his period of office the Grand Trunk and Great Western Kail- ways were projected, a free banking law was passed, a uni- form letter postage rate of five cents was adopted, and the number of representatives in Parliament increased, lie also procured the passage of the Kcciprocity Treaty with the United States, (since abrogated.) Ho fostered the systems of public instruction in Upper and Lower Canada, and greatly promoted their popularity and success by the aid of his graceful eloquence. 18. /S^;r Edmund Head succeeded Lord Elgin in 1854. His administration was noted for the final settlement of the Clergy llescrve question in Upper Canada, and of the Scig- nioiiil Tenure question in Lower Canada; also for the completion of the Grand Trunk Railway to Eivi«^rc da Loup, and of its splendid Victoria Bridge over the St. Lawrence river at Montreal. In 1851, 1861, and 1863 Canada distinguished herself in the great International Ex- hibitions held in London, Paris and Dublin. In 1856, the Legislative Council was made elective; and the laws of the province consolidated. In the same year a Canadian line of ocean steamers was established ; a decimal system of currency, with appropriate coins, was introduced; the handsome Parliament and Toronto University buildings '^•^^ammmrm^'mm W.- I if XXIV POLITICAL HISTORY OF CANADA. were commenced ; in 1860 the memorable visit of tlie Prince of Wales to Britisli America took place; and in 1864 the project of Confederation was discussed. PART Y. THE MARITIME PROVINCES. 1. Nova Scotia, formerly called Acadie, was settled by the French under De Monts, in 1604 ; ceded to England in 1713 ; colonized in 1748-9 ; a constitution was granted in 1758 ; in 1784 it was modified. Cape Breton was taken from France by England in 1758 ; ceded formally to her in 1763 ; annexed to Nova Scotia in the same year; separa- ted from it in 1784, and re-annexed again in 1819. 2. Political and Commercial Progress. — In 1820 efforts were first formally made to protect the English fisheries on the Nova Scotia coast. In 1823 the Roman Catholics were admitted to the full enjoyment of equal civil privileges with other denominations. In 1824-28 the Shubenacadie canal, designed to connect Halifax with Cobcquid iJay, was commenced, and a line of stages between Uaiifax and Annapolis established. 3. liesponsihle Government — In 1838 a deputation from Nova Scotia was sent to confer with Loi'd Durham, tlie Governor General at Quebec, on a proposed change in tlie constitution. In 1848 a system of government, responsible to the Legislature, as in Canada, *vas introduced. In 1851 further efforts were made to protect the fisheries ; and, in 1852, a Pi'ovincial force, auxiliary to the Imperial, was placed under the direction of the Pritish Admiral for that purpose. Afterwards a fishing and reciprocity treaty was made with the United States, but it was abrogated by that country in 1866. 4. Confederation in Nova Scotia. — In 1860 His Royal Highness, the Prince of Wales, visited Nova Scotia. Id 'I m Prince ' m the was Eoyal THE MARITIME PROVINCES. XXV addition to the other valuable minerals, gold was discovered in 1861. In 186-1 Nova Scotia united with the other col- onies in the consideration of a scheme for the confederation of all the provinces of British North America under one government. With that view a meeting of delegates from each province was held at Charlottetown, Halifax, and Quebec. Kesolutions approving of confederation were passed by the Nova Scotia Legislature in 1866, and a feel- ing in favor of it exists in Nova Scotia, although the scheme is now strongly opposed by many of the people there, headed by the Hon. Joseph Howe, her leading statesman. 5. New Brunswick. — In 1713, this Province, being part of the French colony of Acadie, was, by treaty, ceded , to the British Crown. This transfer was finally confirmed by another treaty in 1763. In 1785, New Brunswick, then the county of Sunbury, (Nova Scotia,) was, by an act of the Imperial Parliament, separated from Nova Scotia, and erected into a distinct Province. It was named New Brunswick, after Brunswick in Lower Saxony, in Germany, the place of residence, up to 1714, of the present royal family of England. 6. Ashhurton Treaty, &c. — In 1842 a treaty was negoti- ated between Great Britain and the United States by Lord Ashburton. By it the disputed boundary bet\^een Maine and New Brunswick was settled. This territory contriincd 12,000 square miles, or 7,700,000 acres. Maine received 4,500,000 acres, and New Brunswick 3,200,000. 7. Responsible Oovernment, similar to that in the other provinces, was introduced in 1848. Since then the Prov- ince has increased in wealth, population, and importani^o. 8. Confederation in Neio Brunswick. — During 1864-G the project of confederating the Provinces of British Amer- ica was discussed in New Brunswick, and in each province. The result was that in 1807 a basis of union was formally submitted to the British Parliament and passed into law. 4* I". "J^ ■m i ' ♦i i XXvi CONFEDERATION OF THE PROVINCES. PART VI. CONFEDERATION 01 f HE PROVINCES. 1. History of Confederation. — The germ of confederation, (as we have seen in the rapid glance which we have taken,) may be traced in the efforts which were made from time to time, by the colonies themselves, to overcome the weakness of their isolated position, and to concentrate their energies and resources for the purpose of mutual defense. (1) The first step in this direction was the union of the New Eng- land colonies in 1643, and (2) in the projected league be- tween the Dutch, English, and French Colonies in 164:7-60. (3) Tlie celebrated confederated league which existed among the Iroquois until 1780 was a remarkable instance of the sagacious instinct of this brave and noble people to maintain their power, and to perpetuate their existence. (4) The project of an extension of this league so as to in- plude in it the English Colonies (with the Iroquois) was •urged by the Lords of Trade in 1753; (5) Governor Shirley of Massachusetts, however, conceived the bolder plan of a federal union between all the Britisii Colonists themselves for the purpose of mutual defense. (6) Neither scheme succeeded at that time; but it was afterwards fully developed in the memorable union of the thirteen in- surgent colonies in 1776. (7) In 1784 it was mooted, when New Brunswick was separated from Nova Scotia. (8) In 1800, Hon. R. J. Uniacke of Nova Scotia brought the nuitter under the notice of the Imperial authorities. (9) In 1814, Chief Justice Sewell of Quebec wrote a letter to the Duke of Kent, while in Nova Scotia, advocating a union of the provinces. (10) In 1822, Sir J. B. Robinson, of To- ronto, while in England, submitted to the colonial office, by request, a scheme of union. (11) In 1825 the noted Robert Mi THE CONFEDERATED PROVINCES. XXVU Gourley, of Canada, in a letter from London, recom- mended a scheme of confederation. (12) In 1838 a deputa- tion from Nova Scotia brought the matter before the Earl of Durham, Lord High Commissioner, in a conference with them on the poHtical state of that province. (13) In the same year, Bishop Strachan of Toronto also urged the expediency " of consohdating the provinces into one territory or king- dom," on Lord Durham's attention. (14) Lord Durham himself also favored the plan of a single "ruled govern- ment" over that of a "federal union. " (15) In 18-10 the union of the Canadas too, (16) and in 1843 Elliot Warburton in his " Hochelaga," advocated an extension of the prin- ciple to other colonies. (17) In 1849 the British American Conservative League advocated "colonial union." (18) In 1851 Col. Eankin, of the Canadian Parliament, in an address to his constituents, and in 1856 in a speech before the House, urged a "union of colonies." (19) In 1858 the Hon. A. T. Gait, finance minister of Canada, renewed tue project; (20) and in the same year the governor-general recom- mended it in a speech from the throne. (21) In 1864-6 the present confederate scheme was discussed at meetings of delegates from all the provinces, at Charlottetown, Prince Edward's Island, and at Halifax and Quebec, and finally assented to by the British Parliament in 1867. 2. Principle of Confederation. — This act of confederation provides for the union of the four provinces of Ontario, (Upper Canada) Quebec, (Lower Canada) Nova Scotia and New Brunswick, into one Dominion, with the seat of gov- ernment at Ottawa. The Executive Government consists of a Governor-general, and a Privy Council of 13 members. The Legislature consists of three branches, viz., the Governor- general, 72 senators, and 181 members of the House of Com- mons. Each Province retains its own Local Government, viz.. Lieutenant-governor, Legislative Council, and House of Assembly. (Ontario alone has no legislative council.) (7= xxvm THE CONFEDEllATED PROVINCES. 3. To the Central Legislature belongs the right to deal with all matters relating to the Public Debt and Property ; the regulation of trade and commerce ; the raising of money by any mode or system of taxation ; the borrowing of money on public credit ; postal service ; the census and statistics ; militia, military and naval service, and defense ; the fixing of and providing for the salaries and allowances of civil and other officers of the Government of Canada; construc- tion of beacons, buoys, lighthouses, navigation and ship- ping, quarantine, and the establishment and maintenance of marine hospitals ; sea-coast and inland fisheries ; ferries between a Province and a British or foreign country, or between two provinces ; currency and coinage, banking, in- corporation of banks, and the issue of paper money, sav- ings banks, bills of exchange and promissory notes, interest, legal tender, bankruptcy and insolvency ; weights and measures ; patents of invention and discovery ; copyrights ; Indians, and lands reserved for the Indians ; naturalization and aliens ; marriage and divorce ; the criminal law, except the constitution of courts of criminal jurisdiction, but in- cluding the procedure in criminal matters ; the establish- ment, maintenance, and management of penitentiaries ; and such classes of subjects as are expressly excepted in the enumeration of the classes of subjects by the act assigned exclusively to the legislatures of the provinces. 4. To the Local Legislatures belong matters relating to the provincial government and revenue ; public lands ; edu- cation ; reformatories and prisons; municipal institutions; trading licenses; local public works; agriculture; property and civil rights in the province ; marriage; and the adminis- tration of justice ; and "generally all matters of a merely local or private nature in the province;" 5. Financial Arrangements. — The Dominion is made liable for the debts of all the provinces; and these provinces are held liable to the Dominion in the following K I I THE CONFEDERATED PROVINCES. XXIX ratio — interest payable at the rate of five per cent, per annum. Ontario and Quebec for any debt over. . , .$62,500,000 Nova Scotia, ditto, 8,000,000 New Brunswiclv, ditto, 7,000,000 sbip- The payments to these provinces from the Dominion government are as follows : — Province of Ontario $80,000 per annum. Province of Quebec 70,000 do. Province of Nova Scotia 60,000 do. Province of New Brunswick 50,000— and $63,- 000 for ten years, (on account of her small debt.) Each province is also entitled to 80 cents per head of the popu- lation as per census of 1861. 6. Intercolonial Trade and Customs. — All articles of the growth, produce or manufacture of any one of the prov- inces are admitted free into each of the other provinces. Only one tarifi" of customs and excise shall prevail in all the provinces. 7. Intercolonial Railway. — The interest on a loan of £3,000,000 is guaranteed by the British Government. This loan is to be expended in the construction of a railway to connect Nova Scotia and New Brunswick with Quebec and Ontario. 8. Progress of Population in the Dominion. — The following table exhibits the progress of population in the four prov- inces of the Dominion. 1775 8,00>i 90,oo(; \ 20,000 1800 50,000 225,000 .57,00(1 10,000 1830 1861 1861 Females. 070,510 543,702 165,273 12.1,099 1861 Total. 1,390,091 l.m.'iOO 330,857 2.52,047 3,090,561 1867 Onliirio 158,000 450,000 JSO.OOO 75,000 Males. 726,575 567,804 105,584 129,948 Estimate. 1,802,000 1,:«)0,000 370,000 296,000 Ciiiebcc Novii ftcotiii New Briinswidk . Totttli 196,000 342,000 833,000 1.588,971 1,502,590 3,768,000 9. The present Political Divisions of the whole of British North America are as follows : — %.f XXX THE CONFEDERATED PROVINCES. THE DOMINION OF CANADA. Name of Province. Quebec. Ontario Nova Scotin. i Breton. ' i Cnjie Mew Brunswick. Discoverer and Date, Jncqiies Cartier, ..1535 Clmmpliiin, 10J5 Sehnslian Cabot,. .1408 S^ebiislian Cabot,.. 1498 Jncqnes Cartier, . . 1535 Mode of Acquisition and Date. Capitulation,.,.. IT.V.I Cession, 1703 ) Cabot's visit and t treaty of 17J:! Capitubition 175?^ Treaty, 1703 Government Establlihed. rrenuli, 10U8; En(;lish, J7U4 ; separ. gov'mt, 17!l'i; united, .,1840 i^opar. f,'ov't, 17-!fi ; Sop. pov't, 1784 ; united 1819 Pepar. governm't, 1784 THE OTHER COLONIES IN BRITISH NORTH AMERICA, Name of Province. Prince Kdward Island. Discoverer and Date> ^ebuftiaii Cabot,.. 1498 NewCoundland i.Sir Jolin Cabot,.. .1497 Hudson Bay Territory. II. Hudson, 1019 & 1794 Red River Canada Explorers, . . . Britisb Columbia Sir A. Mackenzie, 1793 Vancouver Island [Sir F. Drake, 1759 Mode of Acquisition and P'^te-^ Treaty, .7. . . r.~r7G3 Sir H. Gilbert, ...1583 Utrecht treaty, .1713 Treaty,... 1713 & 1703 Lord Selkirk's I settlement, ISlli Treaty 1793' V'couver's visit, . . 1799, settled, 1848 Government Established. St'jjarate gov't, ...1771 By diaries 1.. l(iU3; separate gov't, .1728 Cbartcr, KHO and li- cense, 1821 and 1842 Crown Colony, ...186- Art of Parliament, Cbnrtcr to Hudson Buy Co 1849 10. The extent, population, and capitals of these divi- sions of British North America are as follows : — THE DOMINION OF CANADA. Name of Provinces, Area in Enu. su. Miles. ■iio.ooi, 15t),0n( ]9,C.."0 i!7,71(; t^llclltiC Ontario Nova Scotia it ('. B. . . New Brunswick Popula' tion. Lll^.-iliO 1,390,091 .330,P.")7 252,047 Capital. tlueliec, Toronto. 1 „.. Ilalirnx. ^Ottawa. Frcdericton. J I. Where Situated. St. Lawrence.. , Lako Ontario.. , S. F,. Const River St. John. Popu- lation, 44,425 20,000 7,000 THE OTHER COLONIES IN BRITISH NORTH AMEUICA, Name of Provinces. Ptince Kdward Island. Ncwfiiundliiiid Hudson Bay Tcrrilorv lied liivcr British Columbia Vancouver Island Area in KnR. sq. Miles. 2,134 57,000 Popula- tion. 80^857 124,2f*f ■.!.2i,o,(;oo 175.000 10.0011 SlO^-iflO 8,000 18,000 11,403 Capital, WTicre Siluatnl. Clinrlottutown 'Nonr c-oiiln- ( I' island. . St. .Tobns ,S. V'j. I'onriiiiiila York Factory Ilayrs' I(iv<'r Fort Garry Aosiiiilioine, lied River 5 Victoria 'S. of island Popu- lation. 0,700 •i'i.OOO .')()U 3,500 11. The general area of these divisions of British North America is as follows : — ^ 1 1 Q Oi N. C[ i N( % PH Ne Hii Re Br Va V{ 10 1 Pen Roc 'WM Ha Hnl Me II '*^^| Pit Lu Mil ^ Popu- lation. tw7'^ 44,425 20.000 7,000 Popu- hition. (),7b0 25,(100 500 . 3,500 North I .'- THE CONFEDERATED PROVINCES. THE DOMINION OP CANADA. XXXI Name. Average length in miles. Average width in miles. Miles of Sea coast lines. Area in Acres. Acres in Cultivation. Surveyed Acres uncul- tivated. ..5,575.00U ..7,304,000 ..1,000,000 . .2,905,000 Value of Farms. Qiiehec. 1 . . . 1,200 300 100 150 ... 1,000 ...1,150 .... 500 160,500,000 13,534,300 17,000,000 J 4,804,2;»r) } 6,051,620 ..1,028,0.32 ...835,108 172,000.000 Ontario. \ Nova Scotia, i Ca()e Breton. J ' ' New Bruniwick. .... 330 190 2!)6,0(K),000 40,000,000 32.000,000 THE OTHER COLONIES IN BRITISH NORTH AMERICA Name, &e. Average length in Miles. Average width in Miles. Miles of Sea- coast lines. .... 350 ... 1,100 . . . 1,500 .... 900 .... 850 Area in Acres. Acres in Culliva tion. Surveyed Aci«s Un- cultivated. Value of Farms in dollars. Prince Edward Island. .... 130 .... 320 .... 40 .... 130 .... 250 .... 55 ..1.370,000 ..2,304,000 136.640,000 ..8,320,000 . 20«,127 ..41,108 ..26,500 .. 17,000 ..260,000 1,000,000 ..73.500 . . . 63,000 8,000,000 1,000,000 Hudson Bay Ter. Red River. British Columbia Vancouver Island. . . . .... 450 .... 278 ..500,000 ..300,000 12. Value of Products. — The estimated quantity and value of the products of the four provinces in the Domin- ion is as follows : — * Grain, viz. Wheat, 30,000,000 bushels. " " Bnrley 8,000,000 " " " Outs 50,000,000 " " " Buckwheat 4,000,000 '• " " Indian Corn 3,0(K),000 ". " " Rye, 2,000,000 " 97,000,000 .15,000,000 bushels, valued at <60,000,000 ditto 12,000,000 Peas, &c , Roots, viz. Potatoes, 50,000,000 " " " Turnips, &o. ..25,000,000 7.5,000,000 ditto 2,'>,000,000 Hny 2,.'>00,000 tons. .. ditto 25,000,000 Butter and Cheese 75,000,000 tbs ditto 10,000,000 Meats, viz. Mutton, 250,000,000 lbs. " " Beef, 200,000,000 do. " " Pork 150,000,000 do 600,000,000 lbs. .. .ditto 35,000,000 P'sh 80,000,000do ditto 3,500,000 Lumber, viz. Oak, I,,'i00,000 cubic feet " " Elm l,.')0n,000 " " " " White Pine 25.000,000 " «' " " Red Pine 4,000,000 " » " " Tamarack & > „ „„„ ^r^ " Spruce, \ 2.000.000 .... " " Miscellaneous, 1,000,000 " ".... 3.'5,000,000 cubic feet 30,000,000 Wool 10,000,000 Ibi 5,000,000 Miscellaneous, 5,000,000 Grand Total, $210,500,000 * Year Book of Canada for 18(8, page 40. ; '' 4 xxxu THE CONFEDERATED PROVINCES. 13. The Income, Expenditure c&c, of each province in the Dominion, during the last year of their separate exist- ence, was about as follows : — Items. Quebec and Ontario. Nova Scotia. New Brunswick. 816,410,000 14,727,000 62,734,000 69,500,000 ,J, 100,000 48,500,000 1,800,000 1,!M)0,000 5,000,000 5,700,000 14,4()0,(MI0 8,050,000 1,4.'>0,000 Expenditure Debt J,,T)0,000 5,000,000 Assets 5,054,(H)0 10,000,000 Exports 8,200,000 15. Recent Example of Confederation of States. — It is a striking fact that during the last few years a more general and rapid confederation of States has taken place, than had occurred during the whole of the preceding century. Not to mention the absorption of the native states in India under British rule, we have seen how rapid has been the consoli- dation of Italy into one kingdom. Later, there took place in the United States a memorable contest against a princi- ple of separation of States. Within the last year or two, the fate of one noted battle led to the absorption by Prus- sia of a number of petty States in Germany ; and now guided by an unerring ins'inct four large provinces of British America have confederated themselves together into one Dominion. 16. The Objects and Advantages of such a confederation may be stated in a few words : It has long been the desire of the sagacious statesmen of the Dominion to concentrate the resources and energies of the isolated provinces into a pow- erful and prosperous State, and thus to give free scope, on a wider and broader field, for the enterprise and talent of a young and growing people ; to enable them to present a bold and united front against aggression or absorption, by an active and powerful rival ; to develop internal trade and commerce; to bring into settlement and productive life large tracts of outlying territory, now a vast uninhabited forest, in the various provinces ; and, as was fitting, at this period in the history of the provinces, to lay broad and deep .1 I ?% THE CONrEDERATED PROVINCES. xxxiii mce in 3 exist- insw ick. 1,000 ),000 ),000 J.OOO 1,000 J,000 -It is a general ban had jr. Not La under consoli- 3k place a princi- or two, )y Prus- nd now inces of together the foundation of a new nationality, whose heritage and birthright are the priceless blessings of civil and religious freedom, as long felt and enjoyed in England and in these provinces. — A nationality whose future should witness the consolidation and growth, on this continent, of those princi- ples of British colonial freedom which are so eminently cal- culated to promote internal peace and prosperity, and, under God's blessing, the enjoyment also of " ILP and liberty," as well as " the pursuit of happiness," among all classes of people. deration iesire of trate the a pow- 3pe, on a ent of a jresent a )tion, by rade and tive life nhabited ^, at this md deep 'I 'il II ,11 i ''fiU PREFACE. •^ m The business of the historian of the earlier ages of the world was to record changes in forms of government, to give accounts of long and bloody wars, and to narrate the rise or fall of dynasties and empires. From the days of Herodotus, to the middle of the last century, the world made little progress. It is true, that great empires rose one after another upon the ruins of their predecessors ; but so far from there being any thing like real progress, the reverse seems to have been the case. It has remained for the pres- ent age to witness a rapid succession of important inven- tions and improvements, by means of which the power of man over nature has been incalculably increased, and re- sulting in an unparalleled progress of the human race. But great as has been the movement in the world at large, it is on the North American continent that this has been most remarkable. The rise of the United States. from a few feeble colonies to a high rank among nations, has never ceased to attract the attention of the world ; and their cancer has been indeed so wonderful, that the quiet but equally rapid growth and development of the Bntioh PBEFACE. Korth American provinces has received comparatively little notice. It will be seen from the following pages that they have at least kept pace with their powerful southern neighbors, and that, though laboring under some disad- vantages, they have in eighty years increased tenfold, not only in population but in wealth ; they have attained to a point of power that more than equals that of the united colonies when they separated from the mother country. They have, by means of canals, made their great rivers and remote inland seas accessible to the shipping of Europe ; they have constructed a system of railroads far surpassing those of some of the European powers ; they have estab- lished an educational system which is behind none in the old or the new world ; they have developed vast agricul- tural and inexhaustible mineral resources ; tliey ];ave done enough, in short, to indicate a magnificent future — enough to point to a progress which shall place the provinces, with- in the days of many now living, on a level with Great Britain herself, in population, in wea^'^ and in power. If in the next eighty years the provinces should prosper as they have in the eighty years that are past, which there seems no reason to doubt, a nation of forty millions will have arisen in the North. To exhibit this progress is the object of the present vol- ume. It will be seen, from the well-known names of the gentlemen who have contributed to its pages, that a high order of talent has been secured to carry out the design of the work. CONTENTS. Physical Features op Canada Page • 13 Agricultural Hlstory op Canada • • » 32 Agricultural Societies in Upper Canada • • 39 52 64 74 94 Agricultural Productions op Canada • * Forest Industry •••»,, The North- WE3T Territory , , , , The New Parliament Buildings at Ottawa . By Henry Youle Hind, M. A., F.B.G.S., Profcsaor of Chemistry and Geology in Trinity College, Toronto; Author of Narrative of the Canadian Exploring Expedition in North-wctft British America; Explorations in Labrador, and in tho Country of tho Montagnaia and Nasquapeo Indians; Editor of tho British American Magazine, and Of the Journal of the Board of Arte for Upper Canada. i iiiji::' 6 CONTENTS. PAGB Travel and Transportation . . 99 Roads in Lower Canada . 104 Roads in Upper Canada . 109 Bridle and Winter Roads . 116 Corduroy Roads . 119 ,,^^ Common or Graded Roads . 120 gc Turnpike and Plank Roads . 122 Macadam Roada .... . 123 Water Communications . 129 Ocean Steamers .... . 141 Early Navigation of the St. Lawrence . 146 Railways in Canada , , . . 187 Grand Trunk Railway . 197 Causes of Failure of the Grand Trunk Railway , 208 Municipal Railways . . 214 Railway Morality .... • • . 221 Great Western Railway . 229 Buffalo, Brantford, and Goderich Railway . 234 Grain Portage Railways , , • • • . 236 Inter-Colouial Railway • • . 238 Railway Policy .... • • • . 247 Express Companies , , , • • . 260 Canadian Gauge . , , • • • . 263 Horse Railways .... • • 265 Bv Tno8, C. Kkefer, Civil Engineer, Author of " Phi- losophy of Railroads," Prize Essay on the Can a ls of Canada, &c. I * CONTENTS. 7 Pagb Victoria Bridge 257 The Electric Telegraph in Canada, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick ....... 266 Commerce and Trade . ... , , . 2r Eariy Trade of Canada . 20 . Fur Trade . 275 Ship-Building and Lumber Trade . . 284 Produce Trade . 290 Present Trade of Canada .... . 292 The Reciprocity Treaty . 296 Channels of Trade . 298 Immigration . 301 Free Grants of Land and Colonization Roads. , . 303 Br Hknrt Youlk Hind, M. A., F. R. G. S., &o Mineral Resources of British North America . . 308 Geological Structure of Canada . , . .310 Catalogue of useful Minerals found in Canada . .313 Mineral Resources of Nova Scotia . • . . 360 Mineral Resources of New Brunswick .... 360 Mineral Resources of Newfoundland . . . 363 Mineral Resources of British Columbia and Vancouver Island 365 Mineral Resources of the North-west Territory . , 371 Br Charles Robd, Mining Engineer, Author of '*The Metals in Canada,*' . iucclu: sizoas 260 ieet deep wb( c jl. JJOi'JW ».^ «... r--.w. tho J^ fti i/-*l :■! :il fT!S->->/ ^ Y-'w ''■■'♦nw*?*\"^ IVI The enti miles. Th which do n to the gall their level erally state 1. The r February. 2. The rr 3. The n 4. The n feet and six 5. There their levels upon lunar The St. ; 000,000 cul 2 ^m THE PHYSICAL FEATURES OF CANADA. 19 Namei. Distance from Anticosti in miles. Elevation above the Sea level. "3 . .s-g Si 5 9 7 1 2 200 200 200 200 ■S a « = 45 45 45 45 1 ii ■5 .3 44} \ 824 ' 43 4 12 410 590 5'J8i 614 6f)2i 073i 688 14 14-58 58..5-14I.3 142.fr 185.6 190.5-105 195.3-207 Montreal Lachine Canal Beauharnois do Cornwall do Farren's Point do Rapid Flat do Ft. Iroquois Canal... Galops do.. . . 6901 714i 207-213 213-225 1 2 — — 6 8 Lake Ontario Welland Canal 766 1016 234 234-564 27 150 26i 330 1041 1280 564 564 Detroit River Lake St. Clair River St. Clair 1355 1580 1050 573 573-582.5 582.5-6C0 2 550 75 I'n River Ste. Miirie BaultSte. Marie Canal Lake Sn|)erior Fort William Superior City 1650 1910 2030 600 The entire area of the great lakes is about 91,0u0squure miles. They are remarkable for the purity of their waters, which do not contain more than eight grains of solid matter to the gallon of 70,000 grains. The variations to which their level is subjected are common to all, and may be gen- erally stated to be as follows : 1. The mean minimum level is attained in January or February. 2. The mean maximum level is in June. 3. The mean annual variation is twenty-eight inches. 4. T!ie maximum variation in twelve years has been four feet and six inches. 5. There is no periodicity obsui vable in the variations of their levels, and there is no flux and reflux dependent upon lunar influence. The St. Lawrence carries past the city of Montreal 50,- 000,000 cubic feet of water in a minute, and in the course 2 L 'it I Hi 20 THB PHYSICAL FEATURES OF CANADA. of one year becars 143,000,000 tons of solid materials held in solution, to the sea. All the phenomena of a mighty- river may here be witnessed on a stupendous scale, its irresistible ice masses, crushing and grinding one another in the depth of winter, its wide-spreading and devasta- ting floods in spring, its swelling volume stealing on with irresistible power in summer, broken here and there by tumultuous and surging rapids or by swift and treacherous currents, or by vast and inexhaustible lakes. As it ap- proaches the ocean it rolls on between iron-bound coasts, bearing the tributary waters of a region equal to half Europe in area, and subject to a climate which vainly endeavors to hold it frost-bound for fully one-third of the j'-ear. The whole valley of the St. Lawrence is a magnificent example of the power of water in motion, and the great lakes them- selves arc splendid illustrations of the " dependence of the geographical features of a country upon its geological structure." The following table shows the relative magnitude of the great laices of the St. Lawrence valley : Area in Elevation Menn Names of Lakes. Sqiinro Miles, uljovetlioyea. Jlcplli. Lnke Superior 32,000 600 1,000 Greon Bay 2,000 578 ftOO Lake Michigan.. . 22,400 578 1,000 Lake Huron 19,200 578 1,000 Lake St. Clair 300 .')70 120 Lake Krio 9,600 5G5 84 Lalco Ontario 0,300 232 GOO Total area, ... . 91,860 The greatest known depth of Lake Ontario is 780 feet ; in Lake Superior, however, a line 1,200 feet long has, in some i^arts, fiiilcd in reaching the bottom. OEOaRAPIIICAL SURFACE OF CANADA. The western peninsula, comprehending the rich tract of oountry west of an undulating escarpment or ancient sea rLi f. '•%->. ^■.-„^, THE PHYSICAL FEATURES OB' CANADA. 21 margin, reaching from Queenstown on the Niagara, round the head of Lake Ontario, and thence north to Georgian Bay, Lake Huron, is a gently sloping plain, deeply covered with drift clays ; the highest part of this plain is at the Blue Mountains, abutting on Georgian Bay, where their northwestern escarpment is about 1,000 feet above Lake Huron. From the central townships of Proton and Luther, a low axis or water parting causes the rivers to discharge west into Lake Huron and cast into Lake Erie, as far south as the head-waters of the Thames, which flows in a south- westerly direction to Lake St. Clair. Joining the ancient sea margin about half way between Lake Ontario and Nottawasaga Bay, Lake Huron, a ridge of drift, about 700 feet above whce the Northern Railway crosses it, pursues a course roughly parallel to Lake Ontario, but with gradu- ally diminishing altitude, and terminates near the Bay of Quints. This ridge of drift blocks up a communication which once existed between Georgian Bay and Lake On- tario. There is strong evidence to prove that another ' Niagara' formerly existed somewhere between Lake Hu- ron and Ontario, probably in the neighborhood of the line of the Northern Railway. A direct artificial water com- munication between these lakes is now advocated. In the rear of these subordinate elevations, which only slightly diversify the great plain of western Canada, the Lauren- tide mountains, stretching from Lake Suj)erior to Labrador, sej)arate the valley of the St. Lawrence from the region tributary to Hudson's Bay. Tho Laurcntidos ajiproach or forni the north shores of the Gulf and River St. Lawrence from Labrador to near Quebec; they then retire from the river by degrees, and at [Montreal are thirty miles from the St. Lawrence, They cross the Ottawa one hundred and fifty miles from ^[ontreal, and, bending round, approach the St. Lawrence again in the direction of Kingston. From this point they run in a north-westerly direction, and form 'riMM.A*L-' 22 THE PHYSICAL FEATURES OF CANADA. the rough country in the rear of Lakes Huron and Su- perior, and the water parting between the St. Lawrence val- ley and Hudson's Bay. The height of land is really a table- land, diversified with innumerable lakes, large and small, but west of the Saguenay Eiver, not distinguished by moun- tains possessing any considerable altitude. In the rear of the St. Lawrence, below Quebec, detached peaks of the Laurentides attain an elevation of 2,000, and even 3,000 feet. Forty miles from the coast, opposite Anticosti, they have an elevation of 3,200 feet, and on the great table land of the Labrudor Peninsula there are isolated peaks at least 5,000 feet above the sea level. On the south of the St. Lawrence, the level valley of the river is from thirty to forty miles broad as far as the base of the prolongation of the Green Mountains of Vermont, in which range detached peaks at- tain an elevation of about 4,000 feet. The Notre Dame moun- tains in the District of Gasp6 are very imposing ; they vary in width from two to six miles, and in height from 2,000 to 3,778 feet. Viewed as a whole, the entire valley of the St. Lawrence from Lake Superior to Quebec, may be regarded as occupying part of the north-eastern rim of the immense basin of sedimentary rocks which form the United States, a portion of Mexico and British America west of Lake Winnipeg. The broad and low Laurentides stretching from Labrador to the Arctic sea separate this basin from the northern one, in part occupied by Hudson's Bay. THE SOILS OP CANADA. The geological structure of different parts of this vast extent of country determines, to a considerable degree, the character of the soils which form the surface. The soils in the western part of the province are derived from the 'drift,' which is made up of the ruins of the crystalline rocks of the Laurentides and of the sedimentary rocks lying to the north of any particular locality or in its immediate neighborhood THE PHYSICAL FEATURES OF CANADA. 23 In the extreme western peninsula the rich clays consist of remodeled ' drift,' and are of lacustrine origin. In the valley of the St. Lawrence below Montreal, the clays are marine, and not unfrequently contain a considerable pro- portion of calcareous matter. Below Quebec, on the south shores, the soils are derived from the disintegration of the red slates found in that region, while in the eastern town- ships the drift and debris of the altered rocks, which distin- guish that part of the country, form the surface covering. In the region of the Laurentides, the fertile belts or strips consist either of 'drift' or of the ruins of crystalline lime- stone, and soda and lime feldspars, but the area covered by arable soil in the rocky region of the Laurentides is com- paratively very small, and necessarily limits the progress of settlement north of the St. Lawrence and great lakes. The area in Canada occupied by sedimentary rocks, where in general rich and fertile soils abound, is about 80,000 square miles ; the region embraced by the crystalline rocks is about 240,000 square miles in extent, five-sixths of which may be said to be wholly incapable of cultivation. KOOK FORMATIONS. The whole of the peninsula of Western Canada, the val- ley of the St. Lawrence south of the Laurentides, the val- leys and depressions in the peninsula of Gasp6, are more or less deeply covered with clays interstratified with sand and gravel, which belong to quarternary deposits, and in some parts are overlaid by alluvium. The i-egion of the Laurentides alone exposes over the greater part of its vast extent, bare crystalline sedimentary rocks, the oldest, as far as is known, in the world, and named after the great river where they are developed on such a stupendous scale, the 'Laurentian Series.' Between the Post Tertiary and the base of the Carbonif- erous, the entire scries of sedimentary rocks is wanting in k'i iw* \r uAm^> 24 THE PHYSICAL FEATURES OF CANADA. Canada, with the exception of small patches of Tertiary Formations which have escaped denudation. THE QUARTERNARY DEPOSITS. The stratified clays, sands and gravels contain the remains of many species of marine animals, identical with those now found in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, often at an altitude of 500 feet above the level of the sea. Sixty-three species of marine invertebrates from the Post-Pliocene or Pleistocene clays of the St. Lawrence valley have been disinterred. The quarternary deposits form the soil of a large portion of the country. They contain cla3^s suitable for the fabrication of red, white and yellow bricks; molding sands, tripoli, shell marl, bog iron ore, ochre, and in the eastern part of Canada they are overlaid by peat, which occupies depressions. THE PALEOZOIC ROCKS. If we suppose that the quarternary deposits were swept away, and the whole of the underlying rocks laid bare, the formations of Canada older than the post tertiary would be found to consist of the following series : 1. A small area of the Carboniferous. 2. The Devonian Series. 8. The Silurian Series. 4. The Iluronian or Cambrian Series. 5. The Laurcntian Series. These rocks form part of the Great Southern Basin of North America; the geographical limits of Canada, while embracing a large portion of its northern rim, penetrate like a wedge towards its center, by means of the peninsular portion of the western part of the province. An anticlinal axis separates this basin into two subordinate divisions, the line of demarkation running from the valley of the Hudson towards Quebec. The western subordinate basin contains the great coal fields of the United Slates, the eastern portion 1^'" '^^^^flt;^^ THE PHYSICAL FEATURES OF CANADA. 25 embraces those of New Brunswick and Massachusetts. " The rocks of these two basins present remarkable diiTer- ences in their cliemical and physical conditions. The for- mations of the western basin are nearly horizontal, and offer a perfect conformity, Avhile in those of the east there is discordance between the upper and lower Silurian, and be- tween the Devonian and Carboniferous formations. The strata of thp. eastern basin are moreover very much folded and contorted, and have in some parts undergone profound chemical and mineralogical changes."* The highest formation in Western Canada is the. Portage and Chemung group, or the upper portion of the Devonian Series, which includes the Hamilton group, the Cornifer- ous limestone, the Oriskany sandstone, &c., of the New York geologists. In the extreme west of the province, where patches of the Portage group occur, extraordinary springs of petroleum have been tapped by boring to the depth of from 200 to 300 feet, on the summit of an anticlinal axis. The source of the petroleum is probably the underlying Corniferous limestone. The yield from four springs, which send pure petroleum about thirty feet above the surface of the ground, is estimated at fifteen thousand barrels a day. Lying beneath the Devonian Series are the Onondaga Salt Group, the Niagara limestone and the Medina sandstone of the Upper Silurian Series. Next follow the Middle Silurian rocks, represented by the Iludson Eiver Group and Utica Slate, the Oneida Conglomerates not having been found in Western Canada. The Lower Silurian Series is repre- sented in regular sequence by the Trenton, Black llivor, Birds-eye and Chazy limestones, succeeded by the Calcifer- ous sand-rock and the Potsdam sandstone which rests upon the ancient crystalline rocks of Huronian or Laurentian * Sketch of tho Geology of Canada, by Sir W. E. Logan, F. R. S., and T. Storry Hunt, P. G. S. i:.)kJlkA^iM^ 26 THE PHYSICAL FEATURES OF CANADA. I age. Tracks of a large crustacean are numerous in the Pots- dam sandstone, coprolites occur in abundance at the sum- mit of the Calciferous sand-rock, the succeeding limestones are very rich in fossils, and the Utica slate is distinguished by abundance of bitumen, which has been used as a source of oil derivec? from its destructive distillation, but not, com- mercially, v/ith success. The Onondaga salt group furnishes gypsum and brine springs. The marbles of the lower lime- stones are susceptible of a fine polish, and hydraulic cement of the best quality occurs in many parts of the provin le. The highest rock in the eastern basin is a millstone grit, which forms the base of the New Brunswick coal field. It occurs in the Peninsula of Gasp6, and is underlaid by De- vonian sandstone of great thickness, (7,000 feet,) which re- poses on limestone and shales of the Upper Silurian Series, resting upon rock of Middle Silurian age. Some members of the Lower Silurian Series are highly metamorphosed and developed to an extraordinary extent in the vicinity of Que- bec and elsewhere, showing a thickness of 7,000 feet, and distinguished by metaliferous veins; hence, although of the age of the Potsdam sandstone and the Calciferous sand- rock, they have been named the Quebec Group, also the Taconic system, and the Upper Copper-bearing rocks of Lake Superior. They are of vast economic importance, in- asmuch as they form the great metaliferous formation of North America, containing gold, lead, copper, zinc, silver, cobalt, nickel, chromium and titanium. They are traceable from Gasp6 to Alabama, under various designations, and thence to the west side of the Mississippi, through Kansas to Lake Superior, without suffering any diminution in volume. The copper ores in Eastern Tennessee and those of Acton in Lower Canada, belong to this important group, as well as the lead, copper, zinc, &c., of Missouri, and the copper of Lake Superior. On the shores of Lakes Huron and Superior, the Quebec gi'oup rest reposes al The Huro quartzites, It is the 1 mense bee series. It The Laure and is com dorite. T limestone altered sei probably e found in so thick, gre;i tributed ci importance Canada co fossiliferoul Laurentian ered with q stones, and gration a f( rentian coi from the { districts. The gee remarkable the country modified b; valley of t water, is re country be tudes whicl THE PHYSICAL FEATURES OF CANADA. 27 gi'oup rests unconformably on the Iluronian Series, which reposes also unconformably upon the Laurentian Series. The Huronian Series is 18,000 feet thick, and consists of quartzites, thin limestone bands, slate rocks and diorite. It is the lower copper-bearing rock of America. The im- mense beds of iron ore at Marquette also belong to this series. It is traversed by a vast number of trappean dykes. The Laurentian system is the oldest known system of rocks, and is composed of gneiss, crystalline limestone and Labra- dorite. This series is of enormous thickness, one band of limestone being 1,000 feet thick, and the entire mass of altered sediments composing the vast Laurentian series probably exceeds 20,000 feet. Traces of fossils have been found in several localities ; beds of iron ore hundreds of feet thick, great veins of metallic sulphurets with widely dis- tributed crystalline limestone bands, give great economic importance to the series. The geographical surface of Canada contains about 80,000 square miles of unaltered fossiliferous rocks, and probably 230,000 square miles of the Laurentian Series. Where the Laurentian Series is not cov- ered with quarternary deposits, the belts of crystalline lime- stones, and soda and lime feldspars, produce upon disinte- gration a fertile soil, so that the cultivable area in the Lau- rentian country is much greater than would be inferred from the gneissoid character of the formation in many districts. THE CLIMATE OF CANADA. The geographical position of Canada has necessarily a remarkable inlluence upon the climates of different parts of the country. The western peninsula has its climate greatly modified by the vast lakes which almost encircle it. The valley of the St. Lawrence below Kingston, as far as tide water, is removed from this ameliorating influence, and the country below Quebec is subject to many of those vicissi- tudes which belong to great estuaries and the sea-coast. The !>te: U Jfciiibiiui^-^' ! 1 :fi1 ill 28 THE PHYSICAL FEATURES OF CANADA. M north shores of Lake Huron and Superior, and the back country north of a line extending from Lake Huron to Ottawa, and removed from the influence of the great lakes, possess a very rigorous climate, in which intense winter cold, prolonged through many weeks, is followed by a short but hot summer, succeeded by genial autumnal months. Meteorological observations have been carried on for many years, at three separate points, which may represent the centers of the different climates of Canada in the settled parts of the country. At Toronto, (1862,) the mean an- nual temperature for a period of 22 years, has been 44°. 12, the warmest month, July, has a mean of 66°.85 ; the coldest month on the average of 22 years is February, which has a mean temperature of 22°.98. The highest temperature re- corded was 99°.2, the lowest, — 26°.5. The average range of temperature during the same period amounts to 102°.7. The average fall of rain during 21 years was 30.32 inches. The greatest rain-fall in one month was 9.76 inches, the greatest in one day, 3.36 inches; but the average for 21 years of the greatest rain-fall in one day is 2.14 inches. The average fall of snow for 21 years is 61.6 inches, and the number of days on which snow falls is 57. The total average depth of snow and rain during 21 years is 86.49 inches. The average number of days on which rain or snow falls is 163. Sep- tember is the most humid month. The resultant direction of the wind during a period of 14 years is N. 60 W. The mean velocity per hour being 1.85 miles ; but without re- gard to direction, the mean velocity is 6.78 on an average of 14 years. The mean humidity of May, June and July, deduced from a period of 21 years, is 74. At MoN'j'REAL, (1856,) the mean temperature of the air for a period of 7 years, was 41°.56. The absolute mean range for the same period has been from 90°.9 to 27°.4 be- low zero. The highest temperature in the shade recorded was 100".!, the lowest 36°.2 below zero, giving a climatic TUB PHYSICAL FEATURES OF CANADA. 29 range of 136°.3. The degree of humidity is represented by .84. The average number of days on which rain fell was 73 per annum, and of days on which snow fell 43 ; or in all, 116 days on which precipitation took place. The rain-full amounted to 43.004 inches ; the depth of snow to 95.76 inches, or 52,380 inches of precipitation reduced to the form of rain. The mean of evaporation from the surface is nearly 21 inches during the spring, summer and autumn. The most prevailing wind is the westerly. The snow storms are from the N. E. by E., on the average. The following table shows the monthly mean temperature at four different stations between the head of Lake Ontario and Quebec inclusive. From it an idea of the difference in climate between those far separated points may be inferred. The period over which the observations extend is the year 1855, but it is probable that the means of a large number of years would produce slight but comparatively unimportant changes in the observed temperatures. From this table the chief differences in the climates of the districts of which they are centers may be deduced. TABLE Of the Mean Monthly Temperatures at Hamilton and Toronto, (Upper Cana- da,) and Montreal and Quebec, (Lower Canada,) for the year 1855. Hamilton. Toronto. Montreal. Quebec. (Lilt. 43° 16') (Lilt. 43° 39') ,, „o gon /i., 46^ 40", Head of Lake Ontorio. 341 ft. nhove the sea. '^"- *^ •'"' ■' ^^"' ^^ *'' -' 1855. 18.55. 1855. 1855. Months. Months, Months. Months. Months. January, 29.37 29.95 17.88 1().70 February, 19.14 15.41 11.23 10.55 March, 32.11 28.46 24.08 21.06 April, 45.48 42.43 40.15 34.14 Miiy, 56.95 53.07 56.85 49.03 Juiie, 62.63 59.93 62.39 58.34 July 71.65 67.95 72.73 68.86 August, 68.08 64,06 64.94 61.54 September, 64.02 59.49 58.55 55.16 October, 47.89 45.39 46.35 45.43 November, 41.08 38.58 31.58 28.75 December, 29.21 26.99 20.84 18.09 Me""r' f 10year8,48.73 16 years, 44.27 3 years, 42.24 1855,38.09 Min. 1855 —20.00 —25.00 -33.09 —29.05 Max. " 96.00 92.08 97.00 90.00 The year 1855 was distinguished by the extreme and prolonged cold of February ^*m I V- vM m 30 THE PHTSICAL FEATURES OF CANADA. TABLE, Showing the average Temperature, Humidity, Wind, Rain and Snow at Toronto, 108 feet above Lake Ontario, or 341 feet above the sea, for a period of 22 yeara : . {Obaervatory, Toronto, propbssob Kingston, dibeotob.) TEMPERATURE. Average Extremes in 22 years, of 22 years. Highest. Loteest. Mean temperature of the year 440 .12 4GO 3fi 420 16 (m 184b.) (m 18.56.) Warmest month Julv J"ly. 1854. Aug. 1860. wh^en the mean temperature of the month ^^^ ^^ ^^^ ^^ ^^ ^^ ^^ CowTsVmVuth.'. '.■.■.■. '.'.'. *'.'.'. ■.■.■.*. ■*.'.'. ".".'.' February Jan. 1857. Feb. 1848. when the mean temperature of the month was 220.98 12o .75 26° .60 Difference between the warmest and coldest months 430 .87 Hig.iest tetnpor'atu^e 90o .4 99o ii 820 .4 which occurred on July 22 Aug 24. Aug 19. (1854.) (104U.; Lowest temperature 120 .3 -260 5 t lo .9 which occurred on Jan. 25. J»" • ^l*- "^fg^o s ^^ »"•» y^ "^'- Jir.-!., (iTsi'i.) HUMIDITY. ' M years. Mean humidity of the year '^' '° I qS' Month of greatest humidity .«ry. *■ iJec. i»ao. when the mean humidity of th- month was 83 89 81 Month of least humidity May. Feb 1843. Aprill, 1849. when the mean of the month was 72 58 'o CLOUDS. Average Extremes in 9 yen of 9 years. Highest. Low Mean cloudiness of the year 60 62, in 1 861 57, in '5: j6 ( Dec. '58. j Most cloudy month December. Dec. '60. \ Dec. 1 857. ( Feb. 'ol, ; when the mean of the month was 75 ., .^-^or^ t ^^lon Least cloudy month July and Aug. July, 1853. June, 1801. when the mean of the month was 45 34 4o Resultant di Mean resulta Mean ''eloeil direction . , Total depth ii No. ot days < Greatest depi when it arr Rainy day.; w when their Greatest dept which fell Greatest dept Total depth ii No. of days c Greatest dept when it an D.iys of snow when their WHERE 10 IN Total depth ii Number of d Greatest dept when it am Days of aque when their THE PHTSICAL FEATURES OF CANADA. 31 WIND. Result of 14 years. Resultant direction n. 60° w. Mean resultant velocity in miles. . . 1 . 82 Mean ■■•elocity, without regard to direction 6 . 78 RAIN. Averajgfe of 21 years. Total depth in the year in inches. . 30 . 324 No. ot "lays on which rain fell. . . . 106 Greatest depth in one month fell in September. when it amounted to 3 . 973 Rainy day^ were most frequent in . June when their number was 12 Greatest depth of rain on one day. 2 . 138 which fell on Greatest depth in one hour SNOW. Extremes in 14 years. 8.55inl860. 5. 10 in 1853 Extremes in 21 years, < 43 . 555 » 5 21 . 505 ) } in 1843. S 1 in 1856. S 136 in 1861. 80 in 1841. Sept. 1843. 9.760 June, 1857. 21 3.360 Oct. 6, 1849. Sept. 1848. 3.115 May, 1841. 11 19 yrs* &1s yrs. Extremes fn 19 years & 22 years. Total depth in the year 61 . 6 No. of days on which snow fell ... 57 Greatest depth in one month fell in February, when it amounted to 18 . Days of snow were most frequent in December. when their number was 13.0 !99 in 1855 87 in 1859. Feb. 1846. 46.1 I Deo. 1859. I Jan. 1861. 23.0 ) (38.4 I )5. i ) in 1851. i 33 in 1848. Deo. 1851. 10.07 Feb. 1858. 8 RAIN AND SNOW, (COMBINED.) ■WHERE 10 INCHES OF SNOW ARK CONSIDEBKD AS EQUIVALENT TO 1 INCn OF KADT. Average of 19 yrs. & 22 yrs. Total depth in the year 36 . 488 Number of days in which rain or snow fell 160* Greatest depth in one month fell in September. when it amounted to 3 . 973 Days of aqueous precipitation most frequent in December. when their number was 18 jiluicu^A**^' ^■■p i y 32 THE AGRICULTURAL HISTORY OF CANADA. CHAPTER 11. THE AGRICULTURAL HISTORY OF CANADA. THE AGRICULTURAL HISTORY OF CANADA. Eighty years ago Upper Canada was a wilderness from the Ottawa to the St. Chair. The first British settlements were made after the year of peace 1783, but previousl}'- to that date only a few insignificant and r" ^ooping Erench colonies lay scattered on the banks of the St. Lawrence, or grouped in remote isolation on the river Detroit. Lower Canada at that time contained 113,000 people, although in 1670, or more than a century before, its population amount- ed to nearly nine thousand souls. So languid and slug- gish was the progress of Canada under Erench rule, that a century scarcely sweUed the number of its inhabitants to that of its commeicial capital, Montreal, at the present day. Eighty years ago the province, which now claims 2,506,- 755 inhabitants, was just emerging from the gloom of its forests. Over the whole of the most fertile and now most densely })eopled western half, forest silence reigned, reigned undisturbed and Si-preme. The agricultural history of Lower Canada — where the population is of French origin in the proportion of 76.29 per cent, to the whole number of inhabitants — is essentially distinct from that of Upper Canada, whose people are al- most exclusively of British descent. The Lower Canadian Fvench are natives of the country, sons of the soil, honcpt, light-hearted, and pre-eminently faithfid to the religion, tra- ditions and usages of their forefathers. They have grown to be almost a distinct peo])le, under the old feudal system, and have always looked with characteristic reverence on their seigneurs, their pastors and the notary of their village. They have received no fresh blood by immigration for THE AGRICULTURAL HISTORY OF CANADA. 33 generations, and have clung with remarkable tenacity to the customs of their ancestors, repelling innovation and dis- carding all change not especially sanctioned by their spirit- ual advisers. Hence their agriculture is still to a consider- able extent in a primitive condition, and requires a 'oiief hiSbOrical notice separate from that of the people of Upper Canada, who have been continually supplied with an in- fusion of fresh blood from Europe, are eager to grasp at every improvement which may better their condition, and who live less with a careless indifference to the future, or a happ}'' enjoyment of the present, than with continual efforts to secure independence, often merging into a feverish anxiety to become rich, and surround themselves with the luxuries which the well-to-do iu the world are supposed to enjoy. LOWER CANADA. FRENCH CANADIAN FARMS. There can be no doubt that the w/ctched mode of subdi- viding land !^nd laying out farms which formerly prevailed in Lower Canada, has been instrumental in retarding the progress of husbandry in that p„rt of the province. Very generally the farms in the old settled parts originally con- sisted of narrow strips whose lengths and breadths were in the ratio of ten to one ; three arpcnts wide by thirty arpents in depth being the form of the long rectangle ex- hibited b}^ a French Canadian farm when first surveyed. This is the same as if the farms were 200 yards broad by 2,000 yards long, a form inconvenient for practical agri- culture, involving a yearly increasing expenditure of time and labor in its cultivation as the cleared portions become more remote from the homestead, for which no advantages of river or road frontage could compensate as the country became cleared. But when the seigncurics were surveyed, 1,* '. '0j|uLiiMt><'' :i^ ■■i 84 THE AGRICULTURAL HISTORY OF CANADA. Steamboats, railroads, and even macadamized roads were not thouobt of, and people did not then indulge in the habit of looking* far into the future, or those of later date care to contemplate the condition to which they were drifting by continuing the mode of subdividing the soil which their fathers had inaugurated. With tlie increase of population, and the love for the paternal roof, which distinguishes the hahitans of Lower Canada, their farms have been again sub- divided longitudinall}', sometimes into three parts, or one arpcnt in breadth by thirty in depth, or in the proportion of 66| yards broad to 2,000 long; and in the older seigneu- ries the ratio of breadth to length is not unfrequently as one is to sixty or 331 yards broad to 2,000 yards long. These are some of the heirlooms of that old feudal system which sat like a huge incubus on Lower Canada, and whose depressing influence will long leave its mark on the energies and character of its people. FARM PRACTICE. We do not require to go far back into the history of that part of the province to find husbandry in all its branches in a very primitive condition. Thirty years ago, rotation of crops was wholly unknown, and no rules of art were prac- ticed by the happy, light-hearted French Canadian, who with rigid steps pursued the systems handed down to him by his ancestors, and strictly a- lered to usages which generations had sanctioned. In addition to the entire absence of rota- ion of crops, the practice of carting manure on to the ico of a neighboring river, in order that it might bo washed away in the ;-(pring, was generally practiced, and even now prevails to a considerable extent. Barns were removed when the accumulations before the door impeded entrance or exit, and the old primitive forms of plows, harrows and all other farming implements and vehicles, were retained, with a whoUisome horror of innovation in form or material. 1 ^^^^^B 1 ^Bi im •Ei; . I ^^1 V' ill -■ , i -' — i^^lbi^jM^* •T'^^^-' 1! ' ' 4 } illll It i ■ IMI Nor need v their origin end in viev The nan to those se^ cottages wl St. Lawren A stranger, miration ai: tages, front glittering ti ground th( picture, suj rural conte as elsewliei let him tak find little ( tween what one general is progress! habits and to the soil divide thci much wide ing the riv The foll( Lower Can five years, years since, gate results seems plain 18; 18' 18i • **^ / t 1 i 1 1 1 '1 ! 1,1 1 J ■j ii I m flfi' 86 THE AGRICULTURAL HISTORV OF CANADA. Tons. Pounds. i«orses. uxen. 1827, 1,228,007 731,()96 140,432 145,012 1852, 755,579 1,189,018 184,6-:?0 112,128 Cows. Sheep. Swine. f/j^l.-'';;- 1827, 200,015 829,122 241,735 2,940,505 1852, 295,552* 647,465 257,794 3,005,167 • 183,972 calves or heifers not hicluded under the head 'cows.' The diminution of oxen and sheep is remarkable ; the small increase in the production of wheat is probably owing to the "fly." In two articles only do we recognize any advance commensurate with the increase of population in twenty-five years, viz., in oats and flax. The area under crop in 1827 was 1,002,198 acres, in 1852, 2,072,841 acres, or more than double, yet while the area under crop had doubled, the yield appears to have uniformly diminished, a fact strongly shown in the subjoined comparative table of average produce per acre in Upper and Lower Canada in 1852, according to the census of 1851 — 2 : Upper Canada. Ijower Canada. Bushels per acre. Bushels per acre. Wlicat, lOU 9|1 Indian Corn, 24^'V 18^^ Rye, 1213 10 IV'Us, 14JJ 9fS Oats, 20^J 20fJ In 1851 — 2, each person in Lower Canada cultivated 4 acres, roods, 8 poles ; in Upper Canada, 3 acres, 3 roods, 20 poles ; and while each family in either section of the province had on an average 2 cows, in Upper Canada 53y pounds of butter per cow was produced, and in Lower Canada the quantit}'- was only 33 pounds. With respect to cheese, the proportion was as 7i is to If, or about 4 to 1 in favor of Upper Canada. While the stagnation, or rather retrograde movement, in the farming industry of the liahitaits in Lower Canada was taking place during the twentj'-five years under review, the f 'W'^ THE AGRICULTURAL HISTORY OF CANADA. 37 most striking proofs were simultaneously afforded at the different agricultural exhibitions at Quebec and Montreal, of the fitness of the soil and climate of the country for agricul- ture in its broadest acceptation. Scattered throughout Lower Cana'da there are numbers of excellent farmers whose practice can not be surpassed. In the results they have produced, and the example they have shown, they have proved beyond doubt what can be accomplished through- out the length and breadth of settled Lower Canada, from the Bay of Chaleurs to Montreal, and redeemed it from those unfavorable impressions which a survey of the culti- vated productions of its soil under the hands of the habit- ans of the old school is adapted to create. AGRICULTURAL SOCIETIES IN LOWER CANADA. In April, 1862, there were no less than seventy-two oi these useful associations in the Lower Division of the pro- vince. The progress which might fairly have been antici- pated from such a large number of distinct bodies, organized for the purpose of mutual assistance and encouragement, has not been satisfactory. This state of things has arisen in many instances from a most unusual and novel mode of distributing the annual government grant. We can not do better than transcribe the description of this singular disposal of public money, given in a recent number of the Lower Canada Agricultural Eeview, written by the editor on the occasion of a visit to different parts of Lower Canada to col- lect the best specimens of agricultural productions for trans- mission to the International Exhibition at London, " In many counties the societies have only distributed the funds among the local farmers, and this has been the case year after year, and we have often raised our voice against this sort of family compact. Wc need not hero repeat our arguments, for wherever we have suggested the employment of the funds for any otlicr i)urposc, wc hav(> generally met \M'^***^*^ 38 THE AQEICULTUBAL HISTORY OF CAN. IDA. with the entire approbation of the enlightened farmer ; and we have often met conscientious and intelligent men whose only aim is the advancement of agriculture. But these men are often bound hand and foot in their actions, being opposed by a majority who have no reason, and are only guided by their own narrow notions and the following of old customs; happily this majority is day by day losing their strength and influence, and we predict a triumph, at no distant day, of progressive and improved agriculture." The Board of Agriculture for Lower Canada have taken decisive steps during the present year, (1862,) to secure the proper disbursements of the provincial grant, and to devote liberal awards of public money to the promotion of agri- cultural industry in all its important branches. The Lower Canadian Provincial Shows have partaken more of the character of an agricultural festival, hitherto, than of a meet- ing for the purpose of securing the progress of the Science and Art of Agriculture by fair and open competition and peaceful rivalry. In this respect they have differed materi- ally from the same annual expositions in Upper Canada, where astonishing advances in the proper direction have l)een made. The Board has now taken steps to establish an Agricultural Museum, and to give assistance to county socie- ties towards the importation of improved breeds of horses, cattle and sheep. The Board is willing to advance to any society funds for the purchase of stock, retaining one-third of the annual government allowance for three successive years to discharge the debt thus incurred. If this new si)irit of enterprise continues, the progress of agriculture in Lower Canada will be much more rapid than it has been of late yearn, although it must be acknowledged that in the face of many difficulties, national prejudices and peculiarities of character, a very marked improvement has taken place in many departments of husbandry, and in many parts of the Lower Province, but nmch, very much remains to be done THE AGRICULTURAL HISTORY OF CANADA. 39 The influence exercised by the Agricultural School at St. Anne is already favorably felt, and as this establishment appears likely to work a beneficial change in Lower Cana- dian husbandry, a few details respecting it may be both ap- propriate and acceptable. THE AGRICULTURAL SCnOOL AT ST. ANNE. At this establishment there are two departments, one de- voted to theoretical training, the other to the cultivation, upon the most approved principles, of a tract of land, to serve as a model farm, and a nursery for stock. The bene- ficial effect of the model farm is already felt in the neigh- borhood, farmers having generally adopted the cultivation of root crops, and sought with avidity for the improved breeds of animals which have been reared by the College. During the year 1860 there were eight pupils attending the school. In 1861, there were only four ; but as this depart- ment is yet in its infancy, there is good ground for the ex- pectation that it will receive increased encouragement, as the influence of the College becomes more widely felt. The steps taken by the provincial government for the en- couragement of agriculture in the Province at large, will be described in the narrative of the progress made in Cana- dian husbandry in Upper Canada, to which we now turn with more encouraging results before us. CEAPTER III. UPPER CANADA. AGRICULTURAL SOCIETIES IN UPPER CANADA. We have already stated that eighty years ago that part of the province of Canada which is now most densely peo- pled, was a forest wild. Upper Canada dates its existence as a distinct Province previously to the Union from the ^mm m 'i'm '■ m iim.ii tijjl,: !f|f|.'!' 1 • i . i r ■, . i • 1 I 40 THE AGRICULTURAL UISTORY OF CANADA. year 1791. Before that period it formed part of the Pro- vince of Quebec ; as soon, however, as it had acquired a separate political status, it was divided into four districts, the Eastern, Midland, Home and Western, each of which, in course of time, established agricultural societies. In 1782, or exactly eighty years ago, Upper Canada had barely 10,- 000 inhabitants. In 1824, the numbers had increased to 152,000, and in 1829 to 225,000 ; but it was not until the year 1830 that the government of the province took any decisive step to foster the agriculture of the country by "An Act to encourage the establishment of Agricultural Societies in the several Districts of the Province." As early as the year 1825, agricultural societies, it is believed, ex- isted in two or three districts, but no records have been handed down to show the condition of husbandry at that period. The indirect assistance given by the Imperial Govern- ment to Agriculture in Upper Canada, dates from a much earlier period than the encouragement given to Agricultural Societies by the Provincial Government ; for we find among the donations of George III. to the U. E. Loyalists the old English plow. It consisted of a small piece of iron fixed to the colter, having the shape of the letter L, the shank of which went through the wooden beam, the foot forming the point, which was sharpened for use. One handle and a plank split from a curved piece of timber, which did the duty of a mold board, completed the rude implement. At that time the traces and leading lines were made of the bark of the elm or bass-wood, which was manufactured by the early settlers into a strong rope. About the year 1808 the "hog-plow" was imported from the United States; and in 1815 a plow with a cast iron share and mold-board all in one piece, was one of the first implements requiring more than ordinary degree of mechanical skill, which was manufactured in the province. The seeds of improvement ^-^' nL THE AGRICULTURAL HISTORY OF CANADA. 41 were then sown, and while in the address of the President at the Frontenac Cattle Show in 1833, we observe atten- tion called to the necessity for further improvement in the plows common throughout the country, we witness, in 1855, splendid fruit at the Paris Exhibition. In a notice of the trial of plows at Trappcs, the Journal cV Ayriculture Practique makes the following reference to a Canadian plow : " The plowing tests were brought to a close by a trial of two plows equally remarkable — to wit, the plow of Eanson & Simms, of Suffolk, England, and that of Bingham, of Nor- wich, Upper Canada. The first is of wood and iron, like all the English plows, and the results which it produced seemed most satisfactory, but it appeared to require a little more draught than the Howard plow. Bingham's plow very much resembles the English plow; it is very fine and light in its build ; the handles are longer than ordinary, which makes the plow much more easy to manage. The opinion of the French laborers and workmen who were there, ap- peared on the whole very favorable to this plow. In 1828, when the whole population of Upper Canada amounted to 185,500 inhabitants, the number of acres un- der agricultural improvement was 570,000, or about 3-,^ for each individual ; in 1851 the average for each inhabitant was very nearly four acres. The comparative progress of Upper and Lower Canada, in bringing the forest-clad wil- derness into cultivation, may be inferred from the following table : LOWSn CANADA. UPPER CANADA. Year. No. acres cultivnted. No. acres cultivated 1831, 2,()6r),<)13 818,432 1844, 2,802,317 2,166,101 1851, 3,C05,07G 3,702,783 IRGl, 4,678,900 0,051,019 Hence, in a period of twenty years. Lower Canada increased her cultivated acres by 1.9 and Upper Canada by 4.5. Before proceeding to describe in detail the progress of Agriculture in Upper Canada, it will be advisable to glance .^.jr^iwl-i-* m ; ilHI nil' IX > 'In' -I'i; n iflll'Nl 42 THE AGRICULTURAL HISTORY OF CANADA. at the efforts made by societies and the Government of the Province to elevate the condition of husbandry in all its departments, and to induce the people at large to join hand in hand in the march of improvement. GOVERNMENT AND LEGISLATIVE ENCOURAGEMENT. The first public Act for the encouragement of Agricul- ture in Canada, which came into operation in 1830, author- ized the governor to pay one hundred pounds to any District Agricultural Society which raised the sum of £50 by sub- scription, for the purpose of importing valuable live stock, grain, useful implements, &c. Several acts were passed in subsequent years, being modi- fications of that of 1830, all of them having for their object the encouragement of Agricultural Societies and Agricul- ture. In 1847 an additional step was taken, fraught with very important consequences to the interests of husbandry in Canada. An Act for the incorporation of the Provin- cial Agricultural Associations came into operation; and in 1850, Boards of Agriculture for Upper and Lower Canada were established by law. In 1851, an Act was passed to provide for the better organization of Agricul- tural Societies, and finally, in 1852, the most important step of all was taken, and " An Act to provide for the estab- lishment of a Bureau of Agriculture, and to amend and con- solidate the laws relating to Agriculture," came into operation. The District Societies, which, in 1830, drew their annual pittance from Government, and represented the agricultural interests of the country, have thus grown, in twenty-two yeaKS, to a comprehensive and centralized organization, con- sisting of, 1st, the Bureau ; 2d, the Boards of Agriculture for Upper and Lower Canada ; 8d, the Agricultural Asso ciations for Upper and Lower Canada ; 4th, County Socie- ties; 5th, Township Societies. <>V--Tn THE AGRICULTURAL HISTORY OF CANADA. 43 In 1857, another change took place, being also a step in advance; an Act was passed "to make better provision for the encouragement of Agriculture, and also to provide for the promotion of Mechanical Science." The head of the Bureau of Agriculture received the title of ' Minister of Agriculture,' with very extensive powers for obtaining and distributing information respecting the condition of Hus- bandry and the Progress of Arts and Manufactures in the Province. By this act Boards of Arts and Manufactures were created, and Horticultural Societies incorporated. The Boards of Agriculture distribute the annual gov- ernment grant to the County Societies, upon duly certified statements from the Treasurers of the different Societies. The progress of these excellent adjuncts to agricultural im- provement is shown in the following table : Year. 1852, No. of So- Amount of Amount of cieties. Subscription. Grant. 22 $13,531.00 $21,557.00 1853, 41 17,109.00 25,930.00 1854, 41 23,409.00 32,792.00 1855, 41 23,119.00 32,574.00 1856, 41 23,654.00 33,014.00 1857, 41 24,957.00 34,075.00 1858, 42 15,675.96 34,275.00 1859,* 61 24,221.00 23,836.00 With the means at the disposal of the County Societies, a valuable impulse has no doubt been given to agriculture in all its branches ; chiefly by encouraging the introduction of a superior breed of animals and of improved implements. Several societies have devoted a considerable portion of their funds to the importation of improved breeds of cattle and horses. The awarding of premiums for stock, imple- * This year, in consequence of the financial condition of the country, the legishitivo grant was limited to a certain amount for the entire Province, and a uniform deduction was made from the amount which each society would have been entitled to under the act. The sum due, according to the act, being #47,950, of which only $32,836 was furnished by the Government. i .?« Ri '■.'■! }^^^'''' mm .I'l i 11 llili lili ■M i ^'^'^ 44 THE AGRICULTURAL HISTORY OF CANADA. ments and farm productions generally, has encouraged pri- vate enterprise and awakened a spirit of emulation which has been most successful in promoting progress and im- provement, and the rank which Upper Canada now oc- cupies as an agricultural country is mainly due to the excel- lent organization and energetic spirit which has always distinguished the county societies since their first establish- ment.* THE PROVINCIAL AGRICULTURAL ASSOCIATION. As a necessary result of the successful working of the county and township Agricultural Societies, v. growing de- s're began to be felt, now nearly twenty year,j ago, for the organization of a Provincial Society which would bring the farmeis and manufacturers from all parts of the Province together, and, by friendly rivalry and competition at an an- nual exhibition, present at one view the best results of the agricultural and mechanical industry of the country. Af- ter several ineffectual attempts to obtain general and united action, a meeting of delegates from county societies was held at Hamilton in August, 1846, and an Association formed, entitled tho "Provincial Agricultural Association and Board of Agriculture for Canada West." Tlie first Exhibition of tho Association was held at Toronto In October, 1840. Tho amount of prizes offered in money reached $1,112, besides books, making the total prize list to have a money value of about $1,600. The result of the Ex- hibition suniassed the most sanguine anticipations of its pro- moters, a; A* excited the astonishment of many who were not famii.ar with the progress already made by the County Socie- tif^ at the display of stock, implements, grain, fruit, and veg- etables. Thorough-bred Durham cattle were exhibited, and ♦ For an excellent butnma.-y of legislative enactments in favor of agricul- ture in Cfinaila, see tlio first volume of tho Trausaotious of tho Board of Agri- culture for Upper Canada. lUJ .:.|,i gH THE AGRICULTURAL HISTORY OF CANADA. 45 eagerly bought up at the close of the show. lu the ad- dress delivered at the Hist meeting of the Association, we find the following paragraph, which illustrates the condition of husbandry in relation to stock which prevailed through- out the province : " The rough condition of our farmers, with various concurring circumstances, have in times past precluded any due attention to the important department of live stock. We find every where a mongrel mixture of Devons, Ilerefords, Lancashires, and Normans, frequently, indeed, producing good milkers, and useful cattle for the yoke, but entirely devoid of any established qualities upon which the breeder can rely, or feel any confidence that "like will beget like." We muot admit, however, that some improvement has taken place, and that the well- defined breeds of England are beginning to be sought after with some care." The Provincial Association commenced its operations without any well-established means of support, trusting to members' fees and contributions from county societies. Its first exhibition was so far successful that a balance of $408.25 remained in the treasurer's hands after all expenses were paid. In 1847 the association was incorporated by act of Parliament, under the title of "The Agricultural Association of Upper Canada." Since that time it has in- creased ill influence and usefulness year by year, as the fol- lowing brief synopsis of the results of the diflerent exhi- bitions held tinder its auspices amply proves : COMPARATIVE STATEMENT Showing tho amount of competition at all tho Exhibitions bold by tho Asso* oiation, between 1846 and 18G0, inclusive: BXHIOITIONI. Amniinl of PrizeR offertid. Toronto, 1840 £400 0. Hamilton, 1847, 750 0. Col.ourg, 1848 775 0. Ki^^^st(m, 1849, 1.400 0. Tntnl No. Entries. 1,1.50 1,000 GOO 1,.500 .575 1,429 700 Amount of Prizes Awarded. .£275 Niugiirn, 1850, l,'27G 11 9 1,038 950 I ^■ir f\ ut !lf i6 THE AGRICULTURAL HISTORY OF CANADA. EXHIBITIONS. Total No. Entries. Amount of Prizes offered Brockville, 1851,.,.. £1,2.54 9 3 1,466 Toronto, 1852, 1,470 9 9 3,048 1,228 Hamilton, 1853, 1,002 10 9 2,820 1,323 London, 18.")4, 1,794 6 2,933. Coljourg, 1855, 2,304 1 6 3,077. Kin-jston, 1856, 2.309 12 6 3,791 1,()99 Brantfoni, 1 857, ..... 2,5 1 7 17 4,337 .... " ' 5,572.. Amount of Prizes Awarded. . £805 18 9 6 3 1,356 17 6 8 6 17 6 Toronto, 1858 2,675 2 6., 2.010 10 2,303 15 Kingston, 1859, 2,028 5 4,830 2,010 15 Hamilton, 1860, 3,753 17 6 7,532 3,235 The following table exhibits, in a condensed form, the general results of two exhibitions, at an interval of 11 years. The remarkable change, both in number and kind of stock, and implements exhibited, shows how rapid the progress of improvement lias been during that period. COMPAHIBON BETWEEN THE ENTRIES AT THE PROVINCIAL EXHIBITION OF 1849 AND 1860. Classes. No. of Entries, No. of Entries, 1S19. 1860. Blood Horses 10 20. Atrrioultural Horses, 97 128. Amount Awarded. $305 00 .,418 00 lloii.l or Cnrriag.* Horses, 1 88 422 00 Heavy Draught Horses., 49...... 330 00 Horses of all Classes, 52 100 00 Diiriiam Cattle, 54 143 032 00 Devon Cattle, 10 172 003 00 Hereford Cattle 19 329 00 Ayrshiro Cattle, 12 63 558 00 (lalloway Cattle, 56 532 00 Bulls of any i}reed, 21 80 00 (Jrado Cattle 51 73 199 00 Fat and Working Cattle, 20 38 227 00 Leieester Sheep, 79 176 162 00 CoLswold Sheep, ^ 1 78 00 Cheviot Sheep 41 1.59 00 Oth.r Long Wooled Sheep, 121 162 00 Southdown Sheep 16 ,...118 162 00 iMerinoand Saxon Sheep, 11 52 202 00 Rams of all Breeds, 40 20 00 FatSheep, 5 23 54 10 45 82 00 19 80 00 16 64 00 ^59 28 105 00 45 95 00 23 06 00 11 20 00 Yorkshire Pigs,. Larire Herksliire Pigs, Other h.rge Breeds, SiilFolk l^gM Improved Herkshiro Pigs,. Other Small Breeds, Pigs idl Breeds, THE AGRICULTURAL HISTORY OF OANADA. 47 Classbs. (TABLB C0NTIND2D.) No. of Entries, 1&19. Poultry, 22 . Foreign Stock, Grains, Si'eds, «fcc.,. Roots, &c., Fruit, J. 224 . Gjirdun Vegetables,. Plants and Flowers,., Dairy Products, ' . 63, No. of Entries, Amount 1860. Awarded. ....297 191 UO .... 1 15 00 ....764 822 00 ...546 254 00 ,...690 270 50 ,...644 269 50 ,...142 228 50 ...201 210 00 ...226 771 00 ...153 204 50 ... 6 15 00 Agricultural Implements, (Power,).. . J ,^, Agric'uituial Implements, (Hand,). . . | , Artificial Cattle Food, Manures, &o., Foreign Agricultural Implements, 39 2 10 00 Arts Department, (in Medals,) , 160 00 Arcliitectural uud Miscellaneous use- ful Arts, 70 159 00 Cabinet Ware and other Wood Ma»u- faetures, 18 120 236 00 ♦Carriages, Sleighs, &o., 40 47 88 00 Furs and Wearing Apparel, 28 25 00 Fine Arte, 78 262 291 00 ~ " 194 182 00 4 6 00 165 535 227 00 140 377 00 89 87 00 24 54 00 26 95 00 00 00 00 00 Groceries, Provisions, &o, Indian Work, 3 Ladies' Department, Machinery, Castings, «!fcc., ) gg Metal Work, Plain and Ornamental,. . J Miscellaneous, Musical Instruments, Natural History, 50 274 Paper, Printing, Bookbinding, (Sec, 7 61 01 rottery, 3. *>Saddlery, Harness. Leather, «feo., *Shoe and Ho(jt Work and Leather, ... Woolen, Flax, and Cotton Goods, 99 . Foreign Mairjlactures, Amateur Jiands Totals, 1,429 NoTBi.— Till' Medals and copies of Transactions of the Board are included in the above statement; tlie #old Medils being valued at 810 each, the silver Medals at $\0 (-iich ; and lilt' IranHaclloiis at $1 per volume. Where tlie amount of prizes awarded cxcecda lliat otfered, the excess is caused by extra prizes, or, in the case ol' live stocic, by the aUdl- tluiini amount fur imported animals. ' III 1S49 included under the head of Carriages and Sleighs, and Leather manufacture* and Furs. Some permanent buildings are now erected at Toronto, Hamilton, London, and Kingston, .'espectively, for the ex- press purposes of holding annual exhibitions. In 1862, the annual meeting was hold at Toronto, and permanent . 53 137 . 72 148 . 67 99 00 .159 272 00 . 21 . 3 325 GO r,532 $12,940 00 mt I : 1 I ti ill; m^^ i;j!|i,::| 48 THE AGRICCLnjtiAu HISTORY OJ? CANADA. THE provision made for stabling 198 horses and 435 head of cat- tle. The amount of prizes offered exceeded 1,600 dollars. Such is the progress which has been made during fifteen years, in bringing together the different industries of Up- per Canada, and teaching her people those lessons which can only be learned by friendly competition in an arena open to all, witiiout distinction, prejudice, or favor. The cause of this rapid improvement is no doubt in great part due to the immigration of scientific agriculturists, as well as practical farmers, who have learned and studied hus- bandry in all its branches in the best districts of Engl? id and Scotland. Any improvement which takes place, either in stock, implements, or farming practice, either in Europe or the United States, is immediately imported, and, if satisfac- tory, adopted in Upper Canada. By means of the differ- ent agricultural, societies, all needful information respecting the results attained are speedily made known, and there is now no lack of enterprising and energetic men who gladly embrace every opportunity of improving the farming prac- tice. The financial condition of the Association and the Board of Agriculture, afford incontestible proof of the deep root which these institutions have taken in Canada. It will be remembered that in 1846 they commenced their operations without funds, relying solely on subscriptions. In 1859, thij large sum of $110,908.78 passed through the hands of the treasurer. Out ot the surplus funds a hand- some and commodious brick building has been erected in Toronto for the purposes of the Board, amply provided with space for museum, library, reading-room, large luill for pub- lic meetings, and a capacious seed-store. THE FRUIT-OROWEHS' ASSOCIATION FOR CTPPER CANADA. Intimately connected with agriculture, in the common ac- ceptation of the term, fruit-growing is now m accepted de- partment of husbrmdry. Canada imports an immenfje quan- tity of fruit i elusive, the v: fruit from the Fruit— Green, " Dried, . . Total, The fruit c as being wort reach $500,00 Growers' Ass First— Thi relative merit the determinj ble for cultiv the list of frn Second. — T require, of tu of such new decmea wort names of an; of cultivatioi sufficiently h T/iu'd.--'V] and improv testing of al merits or d( trials. Fourth.-—' the identifie eat localitici the ignoran( as new varn F^th"^ t\ ij THE AGRICULTURAL HISTORY OF CANADA. 49 titj of fruit from the UnHed States. In 1859-1861, in- clusive, the value of the importation of green and dried fruit from the United States amounted to the following • 1859. 1800. 1861. Fruit— Green, 216,592 241,912 245,259 " Dried, 35,414 43,192 64,932 Total, $252,006 $285,104 $310,191 The fruit crop of the state of New York is estimated as being wortii annually $6,000,000 ; that of Canada may reach $500,000. The objects contemplated by the Fruit- Growers' Association for Upper Canada : Pirst. — The discussion by members of the society of the relative merits of the different kinds and varieties of fruit, the determination and selection of the best varieties suita- ble for cultivation in Canada West, ai d the publication of the list of fruits so selected and recommended. Second. — The revision from time to time, as occasion may require, of tue catalogue of fruits, and the addition thereto of such new varieties as may after a sufficient t.ial bo decmea worthy of j^eneral cultivation, and striking out the names of any that may on further trial be found unworthy of cultivation, either .Tom being deficient in flavor or not sufficiently hardy to idtand the severity of our climate. TInrd. — The promotion by the society of the cultivation and improvement of 7)citive and indigenous fruits, the testing of all new varieties of fruit, the discussion of their merits or defects, and making known the result of such trials. Fourth. — The determination of the names of fruits ; and tlie identification of fruits having different nances in differ- ent localiaos, or which, having received new names through the ignorance or fraud of cultivators, have uecu distributed as new varieties. Z'Yif/? - -The discussion of all questions relative to fruit ■M' m %. 50 THE AGRICULTURAL HISTORY OF CANADA. culture, and disseminating information respecting the same, such as the most proper or most advantageous modes of cultivation ; the soils and exposures most suitable for the different kinds of fruit ; the manures most beneficial, and the best modes of applying the same ; the diseases to which the various fruit-bearing trees, shrubs and plants are liable, with the remedies for such diseases ; the insects injurious to the different kinds of fruit, and the best means of pre- venting or restraining their ravages; the best modes of ripening, gathering, and preserving fruits ; and any other subject bearing upon fruit culture. This association was reorganized in 1861, the Constitu- tion and B^^-Laws having been framed and adopted in Jan- uary, 1862. It already numbers most of the fi-uit-growers in the province among its members, and it will no doubt ere long take an important position. HORTICULTURAL SOCIETIES. These are established in most of the chief towns : To- ronto, Hamilton, Kingston, Peterborough, St. Catharines, Niagara, Cobourg, and Paris. In the bill now before Par- liament it is proposed that " every horticultural society in any city, town or incorporated village, incorporated under this act, or which may have been incorporated under any other act of the Provincial Legislature, shall be entitled to a public grant equal to the amount subscribed by the mem- bers of such society, and certified by their treasurer to have been paid into his hands in the manner provided b}^ the sections of the act relating to Agricultural Societies, provi- ded that the whole amount granted to any such society shall not exceed one hundred pounds in any year." The progress of horticulture in Canada may be inferred from what has taken place at and near Toronto since 1836. In that 3'car, with a poj)ulation of about 6,000, there were two small green-houses in the town, where common plants ii tj'p 1 ( ^' '"' i ;| ' ' ' it . ' \l ! ii* ^^■I i ^^^B^^^^^^bSe^ |l4 'wm 3 ! HI i^ i HI 1 i ^H| II 'WI:^HK mm I i»^ l§ m i ) # * i) il nm^ i iffi 1 1 •■ ' ' If ■ ( '1 ? 1 c PI o i 'ix ■ ii i j^^l^ iiliii I^H^MH i- 7 \ p "/ <^ /^ >^ ''^ 1.0 I.I 1.25 |50 Mi IIIM Photographic Sciences Corporation M 2.0 i.8 U 111.6 23 WKT MAIN STRE8T WEBSTER, N.Y. 14580 (716) 872-4503 9 '4^ i > I ■ t'-i'M S',' i; I ipi M only were c square feet upon the mi the growth Orchard hoi delightful I Some of the a very subs feet of pipcj grounds of ; most valuab horticulturis ever tends t( Five acres a^ ration, so th city of Toroi In Hamiltoi was 393 in J times as mar Organized tion and dis the wants of and domestic boriculture, i oil, food and of papers ei formation br ultimate est£ Garden. Among ot culture in U] the Univcrsil nection with 4 THE AGRICULTURAL HISTORY OF CANADA. 51 only were cultivated. In 1862, there exist many thousand square feet of glass-roofed structures, most of them built upon the most approved modern principles, and adapted to the growth of foreign grapes, green-house iind exotic plants. Orchard houses are already numerous, and a taste for the delightful pursuit of horticulture is rnpidly spreading. Some of the private green and hothous.; pre constructed on a very substantial and extensive scale ; several thousand feet of pipes for the supply of hot water being used. The grounds of the horticultural society occupy five acres, in a most valuable part of the city, and are the gift of a zealous horticulturist and warm and generous supporter of what- ever tends to improve and elevate his fellow-countrymen. Five acres adjoining have been purchased from the corpo- ration, so that there is now in the midst, as it were, of the city of Toronto, a horticultural garden containing ten acres. In Hamilton the number of entries at the annual shows was 393 in 1851 ; in 1859 it rose to 1,418, or nearly four times as many. THE BOTANICAL SOCIETY OF CANADA. Organized in 1860, and having for its object the introduc- tion and distribution of new plants and seeds adapted to the wants of the country ; experiments on the indigenous and domestic plants of Canada ; the encouragement of ar- boriculture, forest-conservation, and the culture of fibre dye, oil, food and medicinal plants, together with the pubUcation of papers embodying the results arrived at, and the in- formation brought together by the above means, with the ultimate establishment of a Botanical and Experimental Garden. CHAIR OF AGRICULTURE. Among other important adjuncts to the progress of agri- culture in U})per Canada, there is a Chair of Agriculture in the University of Toronto, and a Veterinary School in con- nection with Board of Agriculture, ^ ^..JkM.UM^'^' 52 THS AORICULTURAL. HISTOBT OF CANADA. CHAPTER ly. AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTIONS. WHEAT. Among- farm products, wheat takes the first rank in the husbandry of Upper Canada. Formerly it occupied an equally prominent position in Lower Canada, but for many years this cereal has not been successfully cultivated in the eastern part of the province, in consequence of the Hessian- fly, wheat midge, and an exhausting system of culture ; it is now, however, slowly regaining its position in Lower Canada. The following table shows the amount of wheat produced in Lower and Upper Canada in different years : Lower Canada. Year. Bushels of Wlieat. 1827, 2,931.240 1831 3,404,756 1844,.., 942,835 1861, 3,045,600 1861 Uppkr Canada. Yenr. Bushels of Wheat. 1842, 3,221,991 1848, 7,558,773 1851, 12,674,503 1861 24,620,425 Long before Upper Canada was invaded by the whites, Lower Canada was a wheat exporting country ; but the re- turns show a gradual falling off from about the year 1819. In 1790 the valley of the Eichelieu produced 40 bushels to tiie acre EXPORTS OP BUEADSTUFFS PROM THE PORT OP QUEBKC, PROM 1793 TO 1802, AND PROM 1810 TO 1822, INCLUSIVK.* VcRr. Wlient. Flour— (bbli.) 179:t, 487,000 10,900 1794, 414,000 13,700 1795, 395,000 18,000 1796, 3,100 4,300 1797, ?1,000 14.000 1798 92,000 9,500 1799, 129,000 14,400 ♦ It is probable that a ooiisidorable portion of tlie exports from Quebec between 181G and 1822 canio from Upper Canada. STATEMENT OP fM THE AGRICULTURAL HISTORY OF CANADA. 53 Year. 1800, 1801, 1802, * * 1816,.".'.".'."." 1817, 1818,. 1819, 1820, 1821, 1822 Wheat. Flour— (bbli.) 217,000 20,000 473.000 38,000 1,010,033 ..28,300 i|c !|e 9|i * # * .............. 1,137 546,500 69,100 37,800 12,100 320.000 45,000 318,400 22,600 145,000 47,700 An inspection of the foregoing table will show that the cnltivation of wheat in Lower Canada has long since been of a precarious character ; two instances are known, namely, in 1796 and 1819, when the exports became merely nominal, while in 1802, before Upper Canada could contribute any proportion of exports, the amount of wheat and flour sent from Quebec reached 1,010,033 bushels, and 28,300 barrels respectively. Even when Upper and Lower Canada are taken together in relation to the export of wheat, the pro- gress is shown to be far from uniform. STATEMENT OP THE NET EXPORTS OP WHEAT, FLOUR, AND BRAN, FROM THE PROVINCE. Year. 1853,. . . 1854,... 1855,..., 1856,..., 1857,..., 1858,. Qnnntify Value. Rate per Bushel. Bushels. , . .$7,322,324 $1 15 6,267,628 .. 6,742,200 1 31 5,146,795 , .. 11,750,020 1 85 6,351,362 , . . 10,476,327 1 39 7,.536,925 , . . 3.690,428 1 06 3,841,538 2,763,509 97 2.848,977 1859, 1,097,742 1 06 1,03.5,606 I860, 6,367,061 1 13 5,637,222 1861, 9,299,351 1 08 8,613,195 WHKAT CULTURE. Until recently, with few exceptions, wheat has been cul- tivated without regard to rotation of crops, both in Upper and Lower Canada. Several reasons have led to this very improvident system of farming practice, independently of a general want of knowledge regarding the first principles of husbandry. For a long time wheat was the only pro H ykiuaiii*^^ :m ' p J l\ III !)• 'ii I & - [| \,\ ' 1 1 ! "n, 54 THE AGRICULTURAL HISTORY OF CANADA. duct of the farm upon which reliance could be placed as a mean of obtaining ready money. Wheat has always been a cash article; other farm products have often sought a mar- ket in vain, and were consequently given by the farmer in barter or exchange for many of the necessaries he required. Since the construction of railways, things have changed; a market has been found for almost every production of the farm, and with a more general spread of agricultural know- ledge, a better farming practice has been established, and the value of rotation of crops acknowledged. Both in Upper and Lower Canada, vast areas of most fertile land have been rendered nbsolutely unproductive by continual wheat cropping. Portions of the valley of the Richelieu in Lower Canada and of '■ -le Thames in Upper Canada afford striking proofs of this deterioration in the fruitfulness of the soil. Forty bushels to the acre was by no means an uncommon yield when the land was first cleared of its for- est, as it now is in the valley of the Saugeen and Maitland. Rest for a few years, or deep plowing, restores the soil nearly to it3 original fertility, and whore the last artifice is adopted, even on v/hat are callea worn-out farms, it is found that fair and sometimes excellent crops can be ob- tained. This is particularl}'' the case in Lower Canada, where for centuries the soil has been merely skimmed, and the cultivation of wheat abandoned on account of the wretched yield obtained. By deep plowing these " worn-out lands" have been restored, and there is no doubt that the same artifice, if thoroughly carried out, would bring many a wheat field of by -gone celebrity back to its original produo* tiveness, if a judicious rotation of crops were adopted. TIIK DESTROYERS OF WHEAT IN CANADA. Insects here as elsewhere on this continent have been the great enemies of the wheat crops, before which the best practice has failed. The wheat midge, the Ilessian-fly, and i ! that destri] ruined the one instant years. A j on a precec effect of ii Avheat rose 1 and 1859 t( portation o] great part t given in su The first Lewder Canr vast numbe in 1836, it c the vallev > pcared in tl ously to this bad fallen IS-i-l. In 1 wheat-grow: two to six I Its progress 1851 and caused a los exceeding f Canada, its i portion. Ii very dostru( in the Unite ive in the ] grossed as lake shore w this year we Thames in 1 peninsula its THE AGRICULTURAL HISTORY OF CANADA. 55 that destructive fungus, "rust," have in many instances ruined the productive capabilities of whole counties, and in one instance the greater part of a province, for a term of years. A glance at the tables of annual exportation, given on a preceding page, will show how terrible has been the effect of insect destroyers. In 1856, the exportation of wheat rose to 9,391,531 bushels ; in 1857 it fell to 6,482,199, and 1859 to 4,032,627 bushels, or less than one half the ex- portation of 1856. This diminution must be attributed in great part to the wheat midge, of which a short account is given in subsequent paragraphs. The first recorded appearance of the wheat midge in Lower Canada took place in 1829, In 1834 it appeared in vast numbcisnear Montreal, and in the following year, and in 1836, it destroyed a great quanaty of the wheat crops in the valley of the St. Lawrence. In the year 1849 it ap- peared in the eastern counties of Upper Canada, but previ- ously to this date the production of wheat in Lower Canada had fallen from 3,404,756 bushels in 1831 to 942,835 in 1844. In 1851 the average production of some of the best wheat-growing counties of Upper Canada fell from twenty- two to six bushels to the acre in consequence of this pest. Its progress westward in Upper Canada during the years 1851 and 1852 was very marked. In 1854 this insect caused a loss in the wheat crop of the state of New York exceeding fifteen million dollars, and in some counties in Canada, its destructive influence was felt in the same pro- portion. In the region of the Lower St. Lawrence it was very destructive in 1855, although not generally prevalent in the United States, although very abundant and destruct- ive in the previous year. In 1856 this insect had pro- gressed as lar westward as the Niagara counties, and on the lake shore west of Toronto. Its ravages in Canada during this year were estimated at $2,500,000. It appeared on the Thames in 1856, and throughout a large part of the western peninsula its depredations were felt. ^t' M: U'i. m\ '^ 56 THE AGRICULTURAL HlriTOUY' JF CANADA. There are several species of the whea,t-iniclge, but the differences are so small as not reudily to strike the eye of the unpracticed or unscientific observer. The most com- mon species is a small orange-colored fly with delicate, trans- parent, viridescent wings, and long, slender legs. The length of this insect is about the tenth of an inch, the breadth of its expanded wings slightly exceeds the tenth of an inch. It appears in Canada during the latter part of June, and remains until the middle of August. The eggs are deposited in the germ of the still undeveloped grain, through its chaff or sheath. The number of eggs rarely ex- ceeds ten, but as several insects lay their eggs in the same floret, from ten to forty larvso have been counted in one floret. The young maggots feed upon the juices of the grain, and dry it up. It appears to be most destructive during dry summers, like other insect pests. In 1859 this midge was destructive in the county of Wel- land, but in other parts of Canada it appears to have ex- hausted itself The remedy universally adopted or recom- mended is to sow early kinds of winter wheat very early in the season, and the Fife spring wheat either very early or not until after the 20th of Mry. THE HESSIAN FLY. Between the years 1805 and 1816, the Hessian-fly was very destructive in some parts of Lower Canada. In 1819 the importations of wheat fell to 37,800 bushels, having in 1802 exceeded one million bushels. This diminution is in great part attributed to the IIessian-fl3^ In 1880 it began to disappear in Lower Canada, and in 1836 it was no longer to be found. In 1816 it appeared in Upper Canada, hav- ing been very destructive during the previous year in western New York, Ohio, Michigan, n.nd the western states generally. In 1847 it was common about Toronto, and strange lo say, although great fears were entertained for the safety of th count of tl previous y( best ever gi which govc ive to vegci Other wl less with th( species of tl are known undergrouD generally, structive al as they app Rust is j the wheat c unexpected whirlwind ( of thousanc night. In fungus was and in diffe ing with pi of rust. I surest mod( getable org ing in the r tate when " rust." T enough to such a Stat healthy coi Averages Bent by the dents of tht THE AGRICCLTURAL HISTORY OF CANADA. 57 safety of the harvest of 1^ ±8 in the United States on ac« count of the remarkable prevalence of the insect in the previous year, the crop of 1848 proved to be one of the best ever grown, so remarkable and mysterious are the laws which govern the increase and decrease of insects destruct- ive to vegetation. Other wheat insect depredators are comparatively harm- less with the exception of the wire-worm. Upwards of sixty species of the larvoo of beetles belonging to the genus Elater are known to entomologists. They feed upon the roots and underground stems of wheat, Indian corn, and the grasses generally. Sometimes the wire-worm is found in such de- structive abundance that it cuts off the young crops as fast as they appear two or three inches above the surface. Rust is justly considered one of the greatest enemies to the wheat crops of this continent. Its attacks are often so unexpected and universal that it has been likened to a whirlwind of blight, which sweeps over thousands and tens of thousands of square miles in the short space of a single night. In 1837, 1840 to 1846, 1849, 1850 and 1855, this fungus was very destnictive in many states of the Union and in different parts of Canada. Draining, and early sow- ing with properly prepared seed, are the best preventives of rust. As, in most other cases, good husbandry is the sui'cst mode of withstanding the attacks of this minute ve- getable organism, whose seeds or sporules are always float- ing in the air during the ouiuuior season and instantly vege- tate when those climatic conditions occur favorable to " rust." The only plan is to have the wheat plant strong enough to bear its attack when it comes, and the soil in such a state that it will not foster its growth by an un- healthy condition of the plant. Averages per Acre. — According to returns to circulars sent by the Bureau of Agriculture in 1860 to the Presi- dents of the different Agricultural Societies in the Province, j^iMMuai^'' 58 THE AGBICOXTURAL HISTORY OF CANADA. the ibllowing data witli reference to the yield of wheat haa been collected: PRODUCE PER ACRE IN UPPER CANADA. Winter wheat. Spring Wheat, No of bushels per acre. No. of bushels per acre County of Carlton 28| 22J " " N humberland , . . .27^ 19 " " Siincoe 26| 2?,^ " "York 27 20 " " Bruce 25 20 " "Leeds 25 16| " " Peel 241 isl " " Ontaiio 22| 23| The total average for the Province is 21 bushels of win- ter wheat to the acre, and 18 1 bushels of spring wheat. The number of acres of winter wheat now cultivated in Upper Canada is only about one-third of the whole cropped witn wheat. Five years ago there was not one acre of spring wheat for every ten of winter wheat. This change has been brought about by the ravages of the wheat midge. No doubt when draining becomes more generally adopted, farmei-s will return to the cultivation of winter wheat. In Lower Canada the county of Laval returned 18 bushels to the acre of winter wheat, Ottawa 15, Pontiac 20 and 15 bushels. Of spring wheat in Terrebonne the av- erage is stated to be 20, Megantic 18, Grantham 17, Leeds lOi. The total average of spring wheat for Lower Canada being 13 bushels to the acre. The midge was destructive in several counties in Lower Canada in 1859, destroying from 25 to 50 per cent, of the crop. The wheat crop of 1858 was very deficient; it averaged for winter wheat not more than 12 bushels to the acre, or about 331 per cent, less than the general yield of 18 bushels to the acre. The yield of spring wheat in 1858 was 13^ or 15 per cent, below the general annual average. The wheat midge was found to prevail in every county on the lake shores of Upper Canada. Bust was this year about aa 1 destructi\ not to be 1858 was crop wa.s below. In 185; eial annu without fi from Cai that the a\ vast bodi beneficial the tcrrib rust, than has been of these d for a remc there is n( varieties o destroj^ers and 1859, try; they ers to the ing princi rotation oi The tot bushels jDC bushels. 221 bushe The avc bushels tc THE AGRICULTURAL HISTORY OP CANADA. 69 destructive as the midge, altliougli the Fife wheat was stated not to be injured by rust. Generally the wheat crop of 1858 was about 25 per cent, below the average. The pea crop was beyond the average, the potato crop 25 per cent, below. In 1857 the wheat crop was 31 per cent, below the gcn- eial annual average. These deficient crops \vill explain without further comment the small exportations of wheat from Canada during 1858 and 1859 ; they will also show that the western peninsula, although nearly surrounded by vast bodies of fresh water which exercise a marked and beneficial influence upon its climate, is scarcely less liable to the terrible visitations of the midge, the Hessian fly and rust, than those parts of the United States, where wheat has been partially abandoned as a farm crop in consequence of these destroyers. In good husbandry only can wo hope for a remedy against the attacks of insects and of rust, but there is no doubt that by draining, the selection of early varieties of wheat, and sowing very early or late, the wheat destroyers can be overcome. The lessons taught in 1858 and 1859, have been productive of great good to the coun- try ; they have opened the eyes of a great number of farm- ers to the necessity of due attention to the first and lead- ing principles of good husbandry, namely, draining and rotation of crops. OATS. The total average of oats in Upper Canada was 34i bushels per acre in 1859 ; in 1858 the average was only 32 bushels. In Lower Canada the returns show an average of 22 i bushels per acre. BARLEY. The average return of this grain in Upper Canada is 27^ bushels to the acre; in Lower Canada it is 23 bushels liii'i, ■- W nm:i- I j^i)jkMi^'^^^**^'- ¥ • - ii ^i !■ |n: * 80 THE AGRICULTURAL HISTORY OF CANADA. The growth of barley is very much on the increase in Lower Canada. V/inter barley is coming into extensive use ; as much as 60 bushels to the acre have been produced in the county of Maitland. KYE. The average return in Upper Canada is 18 bushels to the acre ; in Lower Canada 13 bushels. INDIAN CORN, Thirty bushels to the acre is the average for Upper Can- ada in 1859. In Lower Canada, Indian corn, peas, and buck- wheat seem to be very little cultivated, and with indifferent success. PKAS. The average for Upper Canada is 23^ bushels per acre; the curculio, which for many years had been very destruc- tive in the Province previous to 1858, appears to have disappeared in 1859, affording another instance of the vi- cissitudes of insect life. POTATOES. In Upper Canada the average was 125 bushels to the acre in 1858; in 1859 it rose to 176 bushels. In Lower Canada the average was 175 bushels in 1859, about 50 per cent, greater than in 1858. HAY. Hay is a better crop in Lower than in Upper Canada, the averages for the eastern half of the Province beint* about 2 tons to the acre, whereas in the western division it is not more than 1} tons. TURNIPS. The cultivation of this valuable vegetable is increasing in Canada, and some magnificent crops are produced in both sections of the Province. A sketcl be incomp] in the rear yearly invi tiers. In 1 and the up trated by grants of I ada, the v peninsula < St. Lawren governmen to actual set has been d^ are selectee On the ( Upper Can 1859; iuli her of acre 2,016; in 1 alone 607 s year. Upc were raised 12,723 : 12,711 904 2G8 580 22,G20 ll,r)02 312 570 5,192 544 I 209 i 95 4,4G7 1 1,877 f THE AORICULTUKAL HISTORY OF CANADA. 61 INVASION OF THE WILDERNESS. A sketch of the progress of agriculture in Canada would be incomplete if the manner in which the vast wilderness in the rear of the thickly settled parts of the country is yearly invaded by thousands of hardy and industrious set- tlers. In Upper Canada the country between Lake Iluron and the upper waters of the Ottawa River has been pene- trated by colonization roads, on the line of which free grants of land are made to actual settlers. In Lower Can- ada, the valley of Lake St. John and the St. Maurice, the peninsula of Gasp6, and the shores of the estuary of the St. Lawrence below Quebec, are intersected by roads cut by government through the wilderness, and free grants made to actual settlers, as in Upper Canada. In illustration of what has been done on these colonization roads, two exam23les are selected, one from each division of the Province, On the Ottawa and the Opcongo colonization road in Upper Canada, 1,090 acres of free grants were allotted in 1859 ; in 1860 the area amounted to 1,468 acros. The num- ber of acres cleared up to the 81st of December, 1859, was 2,016; in 1860 it reached 2,623, showing that on one road alone 607 acres of forest fell before the settler's ax in one year. Upon 1,468 acres actually cropped in 1860, there were raised: 12,723 bushels of wheat, at f 1.00 a bushel, $12,723.00 12,711 " " oats, " 50...." C,35.5..')0 904 " " barley, " 60 " 542.40 208 " " Iiidiauconi, 1.00 " 268.00 580 '< " peas, " 1.00 " 580.00 22.G20 " " potatoes. " 40 " 9,048.00 11,502 " " tuni-ps, " 10 " 1,150.20 312 tons of. . , hay, " 14.00 oor ton, 4,368.00 570 " "...straw, " 3.00 " " 1,710.00 5,192 lbs. "... sugar, " 12 "lb 614.64 544 Kais. "... molasses, " 1.00 " gal., 544.00 209 bb!s. "... pork, " 16.00 " bbl., 3,344.00 95 " "... potash, " 20.00 " " 1 ,900.00 4,467 11)8. ".. soap, " 10 " lb. 446.70 1,877 bu. ". .ashes, « 5 " bu 908.80 Totiil, $44,503.24 1 ■ ^> :fl ;M' {•i^SJIJL^i^^miU*!'''^ =B I.I ! I 62 THE AGRICULTURAL IIISTQRY OF CANADA. — which sum shows the average value of the produce of each acre ♦o be $30.32. On the Elgin ro;i,d in Lowej Canada, below Quebec, 23,507 acres have been allotted, of which 1,457| acres were under improvement ; 238 souls were residing on the road, and 54 houses and 41 barns and stables erected. Grain and pota- toes to the value of §3,291.30 were raised in 1860, and the actual amount of the settlers' labor on this colonization road was equal to $26,194 in 1860. The total length of coloniz- ation roads opened in the province in 1860 amounted to 483i miles. This invasion of the wilderness by means of free grants of land to actual settlers, on lines of road cut out by the government, is fiist peopling that vast region north of the immediate valley of the St. Lawrence and the great lakes, and must soon exercise a very important influ- ence upon the wealth, power, and political influence of the country. CENSUS OF 1851 AND 1861. The following comparative tables will show the increase which has taken place in various agricultural productions in Upper Canada since 1851. The census tables for Lower Canada were not published at the time of going to press, and therefore the data for that part of the province is not so complete as for the sister half. A comparison between the census reports of 1851 and 1801 will show in a very st. iking manner the progress which hjis been made in Agricultural Industry during the last ten years in Upper Canada. COMPARATIVE TABLE Of the Agricultural Products, &o., of Upper Canada in the years 1851 and 18G1. 18G1. 18C1. Population of Upper Canada 9.')2,004 1,396,001 Occupiers of land, 9«j,906 131,983 ^.Viieat, bushels. . . .12,682,550 24,620,425 Barley, do 625,452 2,821,962 Rye do 318,429 974,181 *«f>''''T^ THB AOBICULTUBAL HI8T0UY OF CANADA. 03 [lU^ (table concluded.) Peae, bushels . Oats, do. . Buckwheat, do. . Indian Corn, do. . Potatoes, do. . Turnips, do. . Carrots, do. . Rlangel Wurzcl, do. . Hay, tons . ]7iax or Hemp, pounds. Tobacco, do. . Maple Sugar, do. . Cider, gallons. 1851. 3,127,681 11,391,867 579,935 1,688,805 4,982,186 3,110,318 174,686 54,206 693,727 59,680 777,426 3,669,874 742,840 1861. 9,601,496 21,220,874 1,248,037 2,256,290 15,325,920 18,206,959 1,905,598 546,971 801.844 1,225,934 6,970,605 1,567,831 It will be observed upon inspection of tlie foregoing table that in every item enumerated an increase has taken place, in some instances of a very favorable character, indi- cating progress in the true principles of farming practice. The cultivation of root crops is progressing with extra- ordinary rapidity, as shown by the production of ] 8,000,000 bushels of turnips in 1861 against a little over 3,000,000 bushels in 1851. The production of mangel wurzel has in- creased tenfold; wheat has doubled itself; barley shows more than a fourfold increase; peas, threefold; and the production of flax and hemp in 1861 is twenty times greater than in 1851. The cash value of the farms of Upper Canada reaches the enormous sum of $295,000,000. We now turn to the live stock as shown in the following COMPARATIVE TABLE Of Live Stock in Upper Canada in the years 1851 and 1801. 1851. 18 11' -tttfl ill !' 'ti fS jjyLiiii^* ~'t 1 Riw i| ;|!Si:, i The mo: Canada ar( 1st. The area of 75, ash are chi 2nd. Th of 22,000 f yellow and 3rd. Thf Eich in wl 4th, The pine, sprue 5th. Th pine, sprue 6th. Th( and wahiu 7th. The contains a " N'ot less engaged ir technieally of the falls floated fron borers for I to supply tl berers are although tl in their pro obliterated, years oceup being the sc wilds into f The f aino 6 FOREST INDUSTRY. 67 The most important and extensive timber territories of Canada are subjoined : 1st. The country drained by the Ottawa, containing an area of 75,000 square miles. The white pine, red pine, and ash are cliicfly obtained from this region. 2nd. The Si.. Maurice and its tributaries, draining an area of 22,000 square miles. Contains large quantities of white, yellow and r^ 1 pine, spruce, birch, maple, and elm. 8rd. The Saugenay country, area 21,000 square miles. Rich in white and red pine, spruce, birch, and tamarac. 4th. The north sliore of Lake Huron. White and red pine, spruce, cedar, birch, and maple. 5th, The extensive Gasp6 Peninsula. White and red pine, spruce, tamarac, and birch. 6th. The Peninsula of Canada West contains oak, elm, and walnut. 7th. The Ontario territory, north of Lake Ontario, still contains a large amount of white pine, elm, maple, &c. THE LUMDER TRADE. Not less than twenty-five thousand persons are directly engaged in lumbering operations. Government works, technicallj'- called slides, have been constructed on the sides of the falls on the great rivers down which the lumber is floated from the interior. Farmers have followed the lum- berers for be3-ond the frontiers of the settlements, in order to supply them with oats, potatoes, peas and hay; the lum- berers are essentially the pioneers of civilization, and although they leave the marks of desolation behind them in their progi-ess through the wilderness, these soon become obliterated, and the snug farm-house in the course of a few years occupies the site of the lumberer's rude log shanty, being the second stage of the transformation of the forest wilds into fruitful farms. The amount of revenue accruing from timber dues and ift'i ,.;:^I1 5i ; ijBrf I lit ii|i 68 FOREST INDUSTKY. ground rent in 1861 -was $327,503, and from slide dues $55,546, or a total of $383,050. British American lumber is chiefly exported to the United Kingdom, but there can be no doubt that the trade is di- minishing, while there is every prospect of an increased trade taking place between continental European ports and British America. Thirty years ago, one-third of all the British tonnage trading beyond the seas, or about 300,000 tons, navigated by 16,000 seamen, was engaged in the colo- nial timber trade. During the year 1830 out of 40,000 emigrants which arrived from Europe, more than 30,000 were carried out by the timber ships. During the four years between 1857 and 1860, both inclusive, the propor- tion of British North American lumber imported into the United Kingdom was in 1857 50 per cent, of the whole. 1858 48 " " " " " 1859 44" " " " " 1860 45 " " " " " Hence it appears that the average decrease in the imports of lumber from British North America to the United King- dom, during the above period, is about 11| per cent., while the increase on the imports of foreign lumber is nearly 10 per cent. During 1861 about twenty cargoes of Canadian lumber were exported to the continent of Europe, and nu- merous inquiries continue to be made respecting the timber resources of the country. So rapidly is the price of timber increasing in France that standing timber worth 50 francs per 85 cubic feet in 1852 was worth 100 francs five years later. The industry to which the manufacture of the different products of the forest gives rise is very extensive. In 1851 there were 1,567 saw-mills in Upper Canada, and 1,065 in Lower Canada. The number of feet manufactured during the year amounted to 301,051,820 and 381,560,950 respect- ively. S increased from whit some con formed fr^ of §1,507 being not ada ten y( a remarks war whic across the The ex States is < prosperity Value of Exj 185' The sudde to 1,500,0( occasioned unhappily The yea trade. Tl that seasor exported -u to the Que 242,689 fo( degree aiu year. In 000,000 fe 1848 a totf 17,000,000, dered at thr The exciter 'IS ' FOREST INDUSTRr. 69 ively. Since 1851 the quantity manufactured has no doubt increased enormously, but no data are at present published from v4iich satisfactory conclusions can be drawn, although sonic conception of the magnitude of the trade may be formed from the fact that planks and boards to the value of §1,507,546 were exported to the United States in 1861, being not far from half the total production of Upper Can- ada ten years previously, although the trade had suffered to a remarkable extent in consequence of the calamitous civil war which is now wasting the energies of our brethren across the international boundary. The exportation of planks and boards to the United States is one of the most important Canadian sources of prosperity as may be inferred from the following table. Value of Exports of Planks and Boards to the United States from 1857 to 1861 inclusive. 1857. 1858. 1859. 1860. 1861. $2,558,206 $2,890,319 $2,676,447 $3,027,730 $1,507,546. The sudden diminution from more than 3,000,000 in 1860 to 1,500,000 in 1861 results from a temporary depression occasioned by the civil war in which the United States are unhappily engaged. The year 1845 was a most prosperous one for the lumber trade. The quantity of square timber brought to market that season amounted to 27,704,344 feet, and the quantity exported was 24,223,000 feet. In 1846 the quantity brought to the Quebec market rose to 3 7, 300, 643. feet, but only 24,- 242,689 feet were exposed. Hence prices fell to a ruinous degree and a great blow was given to the trade during that year. In 1847 there was a stock supply of more than 44,- 000,000 feet to meet a demand for 19,000,000 and in 1848 a total supply of 39,000,000 to meet a demand for 17,000,000. Under such circumstances it is not to be won- dered at that the timber trade became exceedingly depressed. The excitement of high prices has fostered over-production, :-SSj., I •*■■<'■ "! I I 70 FOREST INDUSTRY. and the diminisbed consumption of Canadian timber in Great Britain brought prices down to the lowest ebb. When the trade is in a prosperous condition the profits are sometimes excessive, speculation then ensues and ruin fre- quently follows. The character of the trade is changing as the timber groves become more remote, more capital be- ing required to carry on lumbering operations on a profit- able scale. Many lumberers now invest a considerable portion of their capital in clearing and cultivating farms in connection with their timber limits for the purpose of rais' ing provender for their stock and food for their hands. A glance at forest industry v/ould be incomplete if we were not to note a contingency to which the timber trade is becoming more and more liable each year. One of the most destructive agents in the vast pine forests north of the St. Lawrence, is fire. Thousands of square miles of the forest timber have been ruined by this ruthless destroyer. Fires in the woods do not generally extend so lar as one at the first blush supposes; they rarely go beyond thirty miles in length by ten in breadth, but it is the frequent occurrence of these fires which in the long run of years lays waste so much valuable property; and with the pro- gress of the lumberers in the wilderness the chances of fresh conflagrations yearly become more imminent. The produce of the forest of most importance next to lumber has alw\ays been pot and pearl ashes. Potashes are made from the crude ashes by dissolving the soluble salts with water, evaporating to dr3mess and fusing at a red heat into a compact mass, which although grey on the out- side is pink colored within. Pearlash is made by calcining potashes upon a reverberatory hearth until the carbon and much of the sulpliur is dissipated. Water is then added, and a lye formed, which, when evaporated to dryness, yields the pearlash of commerce. Canadian potashes con- tain on an average about 60 per cent, of carbonate of Comparative SUi FOREST INDUSTRY. 71 potassa. Pearlash contains generally about 50 per cent, of caustic potassa. The quantity of potashes obtained from tlic combustion of the trees or vegetables on a given area of ground depends altogether upon the species. Thus, while the pine 3'iekls only 0.45 per mille, the oak gives 1.53, the willow 2.85, elm and maple 3.90 per mille, or 39 per cent. The value of ashes, both pot and pearl, exported from Can- ada during the years 1859 to 1861 inclusive, was as follows —three-fourths going to the United Kingdom : 1859. Potashes $760,512 Puarlashes 337,759 1860. $741,473 219.633 1861. $705,228 173,779 Total, $1,107,271 S901,106 $879,007 In addition to these staple productions of our forests, we have a growing trade in Canada balsam, turpentine, pitch, spruce gum, oil of spruce, oil of hemlock, hemlock bark, maple sugar, bark of the basswood, bark of the butternut, and of the hickory, sassafras, sumach, bark of the white oak, and of the sHppery elm, besides the medicinal plants common to Canada and the northern States of the Ameri- can Union. GENERAL RESULTS. Comparative Statement of the Produce of the Forest, from 1853 to 1861, inclusive : 1853, $9,121,010 1854, 9,981,367 1855, 7,947.923 1856, 1(I,0I9,8S3 1857, 11,575,508 1858, $9,284,514 1859, 9,663,962 1860, 11,012,253 1861, 9,572,645 Very few years have elapsed since the produce of the forest formed the most important of Canadian exports, as the following comparison will show. Of late years, agriculture has asserted a superior claim and will no doubt maintain it: Rill ^'I'lL ( < ILii;:; I ' I ; J Y2 FOREST INDUSTRV. iai9. 1850. 1861. Value of the Products of the Forest ex- ported, $5,310,148 $r),l42,93f) SC,038,1SO Value of all other productions, 4,000.108 5,237,056 5,200,340 Balance in favor of Forests, $1,310,040 $205,880 $777,840 X859. 1800. 1861. Value of Agricultural Productions ex- ported, $7,339,798 $14,259,225 $18,244,631 Value of the Products of the Forest ex- ported, 9,663,962 11,012,253 9,572,645 Balance in favor of Forests, $2,324,164 Balance in favor of Agriculture, $3,247,972 $8,071,986 THE LUMBERERS. A lumberer's life is full of tliat half-wild excitement ■which belongs to the wilderness, and few who have en- gaged in this apparently laborious and at times dangerous industry are willing to relinquish it for the tamer pursuits of the farm. When any one intends to " make timber," as it is technically called, — that is, to cut and bring lumber to market, — the first operation is to take a " limit," and having thoroughly explored it and laid out roads to the most con- venient water-course or "drivable" creek, he engages his men, either for cutting the timber, or for cutting tlie timber and the " drive " (or from the time of commencing opera- tions to the period when it is brought to Quebec or any other convenient port.) A "grove of pine" having been found and rough roads cut or laid out if necessary, the op- eration of making the timber commences. The hands are divided into gangs, which generally consist of four or more cutters who fell the trees and bark them for the liner. The liner marks the tree for the "scorers," who block it olT, — that is, cut off branches, knots, &c. The broad-ax man follows, who squares and finishes the "pieces." During the winter, when the snow lies sufficiently deep on the ground, each piece is hauled by a yoke of oxen or a pair of horses to the bank of the drive, where the timber is piled on or near the roll-way until the return of spring melts the 'W^ FOREST li«OrSTRY. 15 frozen creek and the waters nse to a convenient "driving condition," A lumber "shanty" generally contains three or four gang?, headed by a foreman whose duty it is to call the men up in the morning, lay off their work, take their time, and superintend operations generally. The broad-ax man makes each night a return of the quantity of timl)er made during the da}'. Wlien the rivers are in suitable driving condition, the most perilous and laborious part of lumbering operations begins. The pieces are pushed into the stream and floated down to its junction with the main river, where they are retained by a temporary boom. Wheu the tributary streams on which the lumber is made are nar- row, it is a matter of some difficulty to accomplish 1 ae drive, and the men are often exposed for weeks together to all the inconveniencies and dangers which attend frequent wading through in cold water. Jams not unfrequently occur at the bends of the stream or above falls, and the utmost caution is necessary in removing the obstruction which retains the confused mass of pieces, apparently in- volved in inextricable confusion. The cutting away of a single stick or piece is often sufficient to set the accumulated mass in motion, and accidents of a fatal description are not unfrequent in endeavoring to loosen a "jam." The main river once reached, a number of pieces are fastened together by means of withes, and formed into a raft, which slowly floats down the river towards a sea or lake port. The great distance up the tributaries of the large rivers draining a timber territory to which the lumberers have penetrated, often causes the drive to occupy from two to three months. An idea of the immense distance from which lumber is now brought may be obtained when it is known that the lum- berers traveling up the tributaries of the Ottawa are now raeetino; those who have ascended the rivers flowinj? into Lake Huron; and the broad height of land which sends waters to the St, Lawrence by the tributaries of the Ottawa, wmmmmm ^'m \Ml 74 THE NORTH-WEST TERRITORY. to Lake Ontario by the Trent, and to Lake Iluron by the Muskoka and other rivers, resounds with the ax and shout of luiabermen who have reached the same spot by travers- ing the rivers draining three different water-sheds, after clearing the country of all timber groves conveniently situ- ated for driving. CHAPTER VL THE NORTH-WEST TERRITORY. Beyond the dividing ridge which separates the waters flowing into Lake Superior from those which take a north- wcstei-ly and then northerly direction towards Hudson's Bay, lies the Great Inland Basin of Lake Winnipeg, occu- pying a very considerable extent of the North American continent, and forming part of the British possessions known as tlie North-West Territory, or Rupert's Land. The Basin of Lake Winnipeg extends from the 90th to the 118th meridian. Its most easterly margin lies on the boundary of Canada, west of Lake Superior, in long. 90° 14, lat..48" 53, being tlic head waters of Savanne River, a remote tributary of tlio Winn i peg. Tlic most westerly limit of this vast basin is tlie Glacier, near IIoAvse' Pass, in long. 117° 35, lat. 51° 52', from which a branch of the Saskatchewan takes its rise. The southern extension of its boundary is Lake Traverse, in Dakotah territory, long. 96° 43, lat. 45° 58. It stretclies north as far as Frog Portage, long. 103° 30, lat 55° 20. This Basin consequently extends over 28 degrees of longitude and 10 degrees of latitude. The eleva- tion of its eastern boundary is 1,485 feet above the ocean, and the heiglit of land near the sources of the tributary which rises farthest to the wesL is 6,347 feet above the same level. Its northern boundary is separated from the valley THE NORTH-WEST TERRITORY. T5 of the Mississippi by a]ow portage over which waters flow during floods, while towards the south, Lake Ti-avcrse, which also sends water into the Mississippi during spring freshets, is only 820 feet above the sea. The outlet of Lake Winnipeg is through the contracted and rocky channel of Nelson River, which flows into Iludson's Bay. The mean breadth of the Basin of Lake Winnipeg is about 380 English miles, and its mean length 920 miles, hence its area is approximately 360,000 square miles, or about as large as the Province of Canada. Lake Winnipeg is 628 feet above the sea, and, with Lakes Manitobah, Winnipegosis, and Dauphin, covers an area exceeding 13,000 square miles, or about half as much as Ireland. The country possessing a mean elevation of one hundred feet above Lake Winnipeg is well marked by an ancient lake ridge called Pembina Mountain, and may con- tain 70,000 square miles, nine-tenths of which are lake, marsh or surfiicc rock of Silurian or Devonian age, and generally so thinly covered with soil, with the exception of that part of the valleys of Eed River and the Assiniboine which lie within it, as to be unfit for cultivation, except in small detached areas. Succeeding the low regions there are the narrow terraces of the Pembina Mountain, which rise in abrupt steps, ex- cept where Cut by the broad valleys of rivers, to the level of a higher plateau, whose eastern limit is formed by the precipitous escarpments of the Riding, Duck, and Porcupine Mountains, with detached outlines, Turtle, Thunder, and Pasquia Mountains. This is the great Phaiuie Plateau of Rupert's Land ; it is bounded towards the south-west and west by the Grand Cotcau du Missouri, which forms the north-eastern limit of the Plains of the north-west. The area of the Prairie Plateau is about 120,000 squoro miles; it possesses a mean elevation of 1,100 feet above the sea, and consists of cretaceous rocks, overlaid in some parts it' itiii 111 ii *' t,,i/uii.>^^ IB ■HR i,l M , • \ ■ 78 THE NORTII-WEJiT TEUKITOUY. with tertiary formations. The Biding and Duck Moun- tains, 1,600 feet above the ocean, no doubt once formed part of an unbroken level to the Grand Coteau, the intervening depression having been the result of denudation. The is- olated range of hills, such as the Touchwood Hills, the File Hill, the Pleasant Hill, the Birch Hill, kc, are parts of this former elevated table-land, and would assume the character of islands in a sea washing the base of the Grand Coteau du Missouri. The Great Plains rise gently as the Bocky Mountains are approached, and at their western limit have an altitude of 4,000 feet above the sea level. With only a very narrow belt of intervening country, the mountains rise abruptly from the Plains, and present lofty precipices, frown- ing like battlements over the level country to the eastward and separating the rich golden treasures of Britisl: Colum- bia from the wide sterile wastes of the South Saskatchewan or the long and narrow fertile belt through which the North Saskatchewan pursues its winding course of nearly one thousand miles. The average altitude of the highest part of the Bocky Mountains is 12,000 feet ; in lat. 51°, the forest extends to the altitude of 7,000 feet, or 2,000 feet above the Vermilion Pass. The "Fertile Belt" of the North- West consists of the richest arable soil, partly in the form of open prairie, partly covered with groves of aspen; it stretches fi'oni the Lake of the Woods to tlie foot of the Bocky ACountains, about 800 miles, and aver- ages from 80 ir 100 miles in breadth. The North Sas- katchewan flows through this Fertile Belt, in a valley varying from one-fourth of a mile to one mile in In-oadth, and excavated to the depth of 200 to 300 feet below the level of the plains or prairie through which it flows, until it reaches the low country some miles east of Fort a la Corne. The area of this remarkable strip of rich soil and pasturage is about -±0,000,000 acres. It was formerly a wooded country, but by successive fires iv has been par- fm^ THE NORTH-WEST TERUIXOKY. 11 tiallj cleared of its forest growth, but abounds with the most luxuriant herbage, and generally possesses a deep, rich soil of vegetable mould. The winter of this region is not more severe than that of Lower Canada. The snow is never very deep, and in the wildest tracts the natural pas- ture is so abundant that horses and cattle may be left to obtain their own food during the greater part of the winter. This perennial supply of food for cattle might have been predicted from the fact that the North Saskatchewan west of Carlton supports vast herds of buffalo during the winter season, and formerly the whole of the fertile belt used to be the favorite winter quarters of countless herds who fattened on the rich abundance of the natural grasses, scraping the snow away with their feet, and never failing to obtain abundance of well preserved hay beneath. The Fertile Belt of the North Saskatchewan valley does not derive its importance from the bare fact that it contains 64,000 square miles of country immediately available for agricultural pur- poses in one coniinuous strip, 800 miles long and 80 broad, stretching across the continent ; it is rather by contrast with an immense sub-arctic area to the north and a vast desert area to the south that t^is favored "Edge of the AVoods" country acquires political and commercial importance. A broad agricultural region, capable of sustaining many mil- lions of people, and abundantly supplied with iron ore and an inferior variety of coal, and spanning the eight hundred miles which separate Lake Winnipeg from tlie llocky Mountains, more than compensates for the rocky character of the timbered desert between the Lake of the Woods and Lake Superior. The South Saskatchewan flows tlirough an and district which reaches as far north as lat. 52. Tlie stiff clays of the cretaceous and tertiary deposits, often highly impregnated with salts, bakes into a hard and cracked sur- face during the summer. The characteristic plants of the arid region are the pretty prairie apples {Opuntia) and the 111 78 THE NOKTII-WEST TERUITORY. slirub suge {Artemisia.) Witliin the fertile belt the alluvial Quts of the river valleys arc clothed with the balsam poplar and a dense tliicket of willows, dogwood, amclanchier, and red willow, together with Shejjherdia argentea. On the praiiics of the Belt the aspen occurs in groves, and dense thickets of willows surround marshes and swamps. On the sides of the rising grounds the Elcmgnus argentm forms a low silvery copse, affording food to large coveys of prairie grouse. On high ground, with a sandy soil, the bear-berry or kin-i-kinic forms a close matting. Towards the Rocky Mountains large expanses of plain are covered with a low birch or alder six to eight inches high, which in winter gives the appearance of a heather-covered moorland to these prairies. In June and July the prairies are covered with brightly colored flowers, or completely clothed with a dense copse of rose bushes and in many places of snow- berry. As. the country towards the south merges into open prairies, the clumps of copse and young poplars are found only on northern exposures. The last outliers of the woods to the south form "Islands," which make a great show in the distance, but when approached are found to consist of a small species of willow, that will, yield neither fire-wood nor shelter.* The whole of the Fertile Belt is well fitted for S(^ttlement and agricultural colonization. All common cereals and green crojis have been grown successfully at the diilerent posts of the Hudson Bay Company within this district. The recent discoveries of gold in British Columbia have given extraordinary importance to that colony, and to tlio great Fertile Belt of the Saskatcliewan valley in view of a high road across the continent. During the season of nav- igation the facilities for reaching any part of Lake Superior are such that a vessel from Liverpool, of a capacity fitted * See Dr. James Hector on the Physical Foaturos of tho central part of British North America ^«*— rrff. THE NORTH-WEST TEBRITOUT. 79 tO go througli the locks of the Welland Canal, may dis* charge her cargo at Fort William or any port on this vast inland sea without breaking bulk. The next step in an overland communication to British Columbia is from Lake Superior to the settlement on Eed River. The water part- ing is not more than 890 feet above Lake Superior, and the countr}^ is thickly wooded with valuable trees as far as the Lake of the Woods. There does not exist any difficulty in ^he construction of a road between Thunder Bay and the most easterly indent of Rainy Lake, a distance of 200 miles. Between Rainy Lake and the north-west angle of the Lake of the Woods, the country in rear of Rainy river, a distance of 120 miles, is unexplored, and its facilities for a direct land communication unknown. From the north- west angle of the Lake of the Woods to Fort Garry, 90 miles, is a level country, which has already been traveled by horses, although the swampe near Lac Plat are formida- ble. The third step is the valley of the Saskatchewan, already described, which, even in its present state is con- stantly traversed with horses and carts from Red River to the Rocky Mountains. The following are the altitudes of the principal passes iu the mountains above tlie sea level: Altitude in Feet. Kicking Horse Pass, lat. 51° 25', 5.420 Vermilion Pass, lat. 51o lo', 4,914 Kaiianaski Pass, hit. 50O 40', 5.985 Kootanie Pass, lat. 49° 25' 6,000 The height of land not 5,000 feet above the sea on the line of the Vermilion Pass once crossed, the auriferous ter- races of British Columbia come into view. Tlie Cariboo and Kootanie diggings are both on the immediate west flank of the Rocky Mountain range, or between 400 and 500 miles from the Pacil'\c coast. Tiie whole valley of the upper Columbia is auriferous, and gold has been found on the eastern slope, two hundred miles from the mountains, in [r Mk\ Jii*/*^- """"v^^ m 80 THE NORTH-WEST TERRITORT. the bed of the Saskatchewan, but it is not probable that the auriferous region on the east of the mountain is of great extent, as the ancient rocks from which the gold must have been derived have not been observed on that side. A great future lies before the valley of the Saskatchewan ; it will become the granary of British Columbia, the vast pasture field by which the mining industry of the Rocky Moun- tains will be fed. British Columbia is rich in the precious metals, but poor in arable land ; the Fertile Belt of the Saskatchewan is marvelously fruitful in forage plants, possesses an admirable soil, and embraces besides an im- mense supply of coal and iron ore of the best quality. With these conditions, added to a very healthy climate, it is not too much to expect that the Basin of Lake Winnipeg will one day become the seat of an industrious, prosperous, and powerful people, who, in these days of steam, will always be able to communicate with the outer world for two months in the year, at least, by way of Hudson Bay, even if other outlets should be closed against them through unhappy international troubles.* THE LABRADOR PENINSULA. The vast peninsula which commonly bears the name of T-abrador, a term more correctly applied to the north-eastern portion, occupies an area between the Atlantic and Hudson's Bay, lying wdthin the forty-ninth and sixty-third parallels, and between the fifty-fifth and seventy-ninth meridians. The Gulf of St. Lawrence, the North Atlantic, Hudson's Straits and Hudson's Bay are its boundaries on three sides; ]-lupcrt's River, the Mistassinni and the Bersiamits rivers may be considered as forming the approximate south-western limits of this peninsula. From the mouth of Rupert's River on Hudson's Bay to the mouth of the Bersiamits on * Soo "Niirralivo of the Canadian Kxpeditioua in Rupert's Land," by tho author of lliis article. •'^■^rm' THE NORTH-WEST TERRITORY. 81 the St. Lawrence, tlie distance is about 470 miles, and from Cape Wolstenliolme, the most northern point of the country to the Straits of Belle Isle, it is 1,100 miles. Traveling northward from the Iludson Bay Company's post at Bcr- sicamits, in a direct line to IJngava Bay, the distance would be about 650 miles, while to Cape Wolstenholme to the west, not less than one thousand. The area of the Labrador Peninsula is approximately 42,000 square miles, or equal to the British Isles, France, and Prussia combined, and the greater portion of it lies between the same parallels of lat- itude as Great Britain. The whole of this immense country is uninhabited by civilized man, with the exception of a few settlements on the St. Lawrence and the Atlantic coast, and some widely separated posts of the Hudson's Bay Company. It is very thinly peopled by nomadic bands of Montagnais, Nasqua- pee and Mistassinni Indians, and the northern coast by wandering Esquimaux. Taken as a whole it is a region altogether unfit for the abode of civilized man, and although once rich in fur-bearing animals, and in cariboo or reindeer, it is now almost a desert. In the absence of any definite boundaries, the entire peninsula is divided into three parts, supposed to be sep- arate water-sheds, to which special names have been given. The area draining into the Elver and Gulf of St. Lawrence, belongs to Canada, whose eastern boundary is at Blanc Sablon, near the mouth of the North-West Eiver. The country sujiposed to be drained by rivers which flow into the Atlantic is called Labrador, and is under the jurisdiction of Newfoundland. The remaining part of the peninsula, which is drained by rivers flowing into Hudson's Bay has received the designation of the East Main. The names and position of the mouths only of the numerous rivers which flow into the Gulf of St. Lawrence, from the Bay of Seven Islands to the Siraits E ■:■, J^: '^ii»A>^' m li 82 TUB NORTII-WKST TERRITORY. of Belle Isle, are correctly given in published maps of the country, and nearly the whole of our present knowledge of the east side of the Labrador Peninsula is derived from Capt. Bayfield's surveys, which are limited to the coast, and no map yet published exhibits a correct geographical picture of the interior of the country. The ]\roisic or IMiste-shipu liiver, the "Great River" of the Montrti>;nais Indians, enters the Gulf of St. Lawrence in longitude 63° 10 , and has its sources in some of the lakes and swamps of the high table-lands of Eastern Can- ada. For centuries it has bean one of the leading lines of communication from the interior to the coast, traveled by the Montagnais daring the time when they were a numerous and powerful people, capable of congregating upwards of a thousand warriors to repel the invasion of the Esquimaux, who were accustomed to hunt for a few weeks during the summer months a short distance up the rivers east of the Moisic, as they do now on the Coppermine, Anderson's and Mackenzie's rivers in the country of the Hare Indians, and the Louchcux. The old and well-worn portage paths round falls iuid ra})ids and over precipitous mountains on the up- per Moisic, testify to the antiquity of the route, independ- ently of the traditions of the Indians who now hunt on the river and on the table-land to which it is the highway. The Jilontagnais Indians have for centuries had a water communication between Seven Islands on the Gulf and Hamilton Inlet on the Atlantic Ocean, via the Moisic, the Ash-wa-nipi to a great lake on the table-land in the interior called Petshikupan, thence by the Hamilton River to the Inlet of the same name. The whole river may bo known by the name of tlio Ashwanipi, which takes its rise near the head waters of die Moisic, and from which it is separ- ated by a low and narrow water parting. The Ashwanipi flows through five degrees of longitude, and little more than two degrees of latitude, traversing the elevated table l'^ iiitliiiilii&.J ,. , i , ' ; ,1 • : M ^ V \ « "I : \i\ ( \' 1 i t 1, , i : \ HI s r f 1 ■i, ; ^!IS!i ; vm 1 11 iilii'li^ land of th Gulf coast at the SOU! eminently cariboo m( and aspen the table-h ders, some' ices are pe often on th foot to twt the awful Peninsula.'' All tribe to the Atla of their su the fish-spe of St. Law] daytime is with the ii salmon by work. It I its most st] in the full s bilities for i roused to e: body and tl See how ; of the even one another voices distil * See " Expli thor of tliia aiti 6 TUB NORTH-WEST TERRITORT. 83 land of the Peninsula in a direction roughly parallel to the Gulf coast. The table-land is 2,240 feet above the ocean at the sources of the east branch of the Moisic. It is prC' eminently sterile, and where the country is not burned, cariboo moss covers the rocks, with stunted spruce, birch and aspen in the hollows and deep ravines. The whole of the table-land is strewed with an infinite number of boul- ders, sometimes three and four deep; these singular errat- ices are perched on the summit of every mountain and hill, often on the edges of cliffs, and they vary in size from one foot to twenty feet in diameter. Language fails to paint the awful desolation of the table-land of the Labrador Peninsula.* INDIAN SALMON-SPEARING IN LABRADOR. All tribes of Indians from the Red River of the Korth to the Atlantic coast of Labrador, draw a considerable share of their support from the lakes and rivers, by means of the fish-spear or " negog " of the Montagnais of the Gulf of St. Lawrence. But spearing any kind of fish during the daytime is a tame and monotonous occupation compared with the irrepressible excitement which attends spearing salmon by torch-light, with Indians who understand their work. It unfolds the real character of the Indian race in its most striking peculiarities ; it displays untutored man in the full strength of his natural gifts, expresses his capa- bilities for intense enjoyment, and shows how he may be roused to exert for hours together the utmost activity of body and the greatest presence of mind. See how gently they step into their canoe in the gloom of the evening ju^t passing into night. They whisper to one another, although there is no fear of the sound of their voices disturbing the prey of which they are in search. • See " Kxplorations in the Interior of the Labrador Peninsula" by the au- thor of this article. . -.'5 -is it m V \ TtII 4:, 1', ;iMr 11 1 1 Di 84 THE NORTH-WEST TERRITORY. "Watcli the one in the bow trying the flexible clasping tines of his "negog" or salmon-spear, springing them backward to see if they have lost their elasticity, or if they can be trusted to hold a powerful fish in their grasp; how he straightens the long and slender shaft and lays it tenderly under the bars of the canoe within reach of his hand. He next examines the rolls of birch-bark w^hich he will use for torches, and fastens a cleft stick to the bow of his canoe, in which he will insert one extremity of the flaming roll. Turning round to ask his companion if he has "fire," he re- ceives a low grunt in reply, which is followed by a subdued howh ! howh ! and both grasping their paddles, away the canoe glides towards the foot of the rapids, to a well known sh.'dlow, or close to the tumbling waters of a cataract where the fish are known to lie. The torch is lit, and the spearman relinquishing his pad- dle stands in the bow of the canoe, glancing eagerly from side to side. Suddenly he pushes his spear in a slanting direction, and quickly draws it back, lifting a salmon int( the canoe ; a second push and another victim ; now he at- taches a thin line of sinew to his spear and twines it round his arm. Like an arrow he darts his spear ; it is whirled away with a sudden jerk, and trembles in the stream ; he gently but steadily draws it towards him with the line of sinew, and grasping it when within reach, lifts his quarry into the canoe. Look over the side of the little craft, the salmon are seen coming to the light, they gaze for a moment and glide away like spectres into the black waters ; some of them swim round the canoe, and come to look again and again, pausing but for a moment to speculate upon its brightness, and the next lie quivering at the bottom of the canoe. Both Indians at the same moment see a fish of unusual size approach the light, gaze without stopping and quickly move off", hover about at some little distance, suspicious f'^lv^ 1 THE NORTH-WEST TERRITORY. 85 and distrustful, but still attracted by the light. Gently and noiselessly the canoe is urged toward him by the Indian in the stern, no words pass between him and his companion, both saw the fish at the same moment and both know that they will take him. But look at the Indian with the spear, look at his face illumined by the red flare of the burning torch; his mouth is half open with suspense, but he d s not breathe through it, his dilated eyes are flashing intci he stands so motionless, with uplifted spear ready to stril that he looks like a statue of bronze. But there is life in tliat expanding and contracting nostril, life in the two thin streams of vapor which puff from his nostrils into the keen night air ; and is there not sudden and vigorous life in that swift dart of the spear, those parting lips closing together in unison with the fling of his arm? is there not intelligent life in that momentary light which flashes from his eyes, red like the gleams which they reflect, and in that smile, triumphant and assured, which he throws at his com- panion, as, without uttering a word or sound, he lifts witii both hands the heavy fish straight from the water, holds it struggling over the canoe, and shakes it from his spear ? Is this the languid, drowsy savage which you have often seen slouching through the day, indolent and li'ji/iess, a sluggard and a drone? They go to the foot of the cataract ; the largest fish lie there in little eddies close to the rocks, waiting for an oppor- tunity to take their leap up the tumbling waters, to shel- tered parts above, where they may rest in their diflicult ascent. Now is the full measure of the Indian's skill re- quired ; the broken water at the edge of the main rapid at the foot of the cataract rocks the canoe, and would seem to destroy the spearer's aim; the water is deep, and he must throw his weapon, he cannot push it as in the shallows or a quiet stream. The Indian who is steering and paddling must beware of strong eddies, of whirlpools, of getting ft 4.''M; i!-.^: .'Pl;«&Ji i Ii 86 THE NORTH-WEST TEBRITTORT. under the cataract, or of sidling into the rapid below. He must have his eye on the canoe, the water, and the salmon, and his hand ready at any moment to edge off from danger and never give way lO momentary excitement, even when the spear is thrown, and a heavy fish struck, — the rocks, the impetuous torrent, the tumbling waters at his bow, the flickering light not always to be relied on, must be watched, for a slight change in an eddy may swamp the fragile craft, or break it on a rock. There is indescribable excitement in the dancing motion at the foot of a cataract, in a tiny birch-bark canoe, by the red light of a torch during a night without a moon. You see before you a wall of water, red, green and white tum- bling incessantly at your feet, on either hand you gaze on a wall of rock, rising so high as to be lost in the gloom and apparently blending with the sky. You look behind and there is a foaming torrent rushing into the blackness of night, sweeping past the eddy in which your birch craft is lightly dancing to the loud music of a water-fall. No sound but its never-ceasing din can reach you; no near object meets your eye which dco'^ not reflect a red glare and assume an unaccustomed character which the warm and cheery color imparts. Suddenly the torch falls and is instantly extin- guished in the rushing waters; absolute darkness envelopes you, the white foam, the changing green of the falling wa- ter, the red reflected light of the broken waves, all be- come uniformly and absolutely black. Nothing what- ever is discernible to the eye, but perhaps another sense tells of swift undulating motion, a rolling ride over stormy waves, with lessening roar. Your eyes gradually recover their power of vision, and you find yourself either swaying up and down in the same eddy or far away from the fall on the main channel of the river, secure against whirlpools and rocks, with the Indians quietly paddling the canoe and about to turn again to resume their savage sport. The ; *1 moment t occurs wi cided wh( and desc( This is a situations for if the of a minu of being refuge fro in the swi a large ri motion is vantage oi spearer, w self-posses it were th isteuce. F]-om tl cuted wit through th ants, the / a promine latterly an 1 peopled ii Life in tlie children o for montlii' educated ii difficult to derness of of the St. 1 Kockg, mo • THE NORTH-WEST TERRITORY. 87 moment the light fell into the water, an event which often occurs with birch-bark torches, the Indian at the stern de- cided whether to remain in the eddy, or to enter the rapid and descend it until his power of vision was restored. This is a contingency for which all salmon-spearers in such situations must be prepared. Indecision might prove fatal; for if the eddy were safe in absolute darkness for a quarter of a minute, it would be wise to remain ; if there is danger of being sucked under the fall, it would be well to seek refuge from a sudden deluge, or from rocks and whirlpools in the swift but tumultuous rapid. This can only occur on a large river, and at the foot of a fall. Water in rapid motion is a terrible power, and none know how to take ad- vantage of its humors better than the wild Indian salmon- spearer, who avoids its dangers with matchless skill and self possession, and who seeks the excitement it offers as if it were the mainspring of his life, or the aim of his ex- istence. UFE IN THE WILDERNESS. From the earliest period when the fur trade was prose- cuted with vigor in British America, those wanderers through the woods, the Coureurs clu Bois, with their descend- ants, the Bois brules, or Half-breeds, have always occupied a prominent position on the frontiers of civilization, and latterly among many of the nomadic Indian tribes which peopled and still occupy the vast north-west territory. Life in the wilderness has not only peculiar charms to these cliildren of the forest and the prairies, but it annually wins for months or l\ >r years many who have been brought up and educated in all the refinements of civilized society. It is difficult to say wherein lies the greatest charm of the ^' il- derness of British America, within the limits of the vuiiey of the St. Lawrence, or the valley of the Saskatchewan. Rocks, mounta'ns, foaming torrents, magnificent cataracts, BLl h '^^.i^iuJ'' 68 THE NORTH-WEST TERRITORY. and endless forests distinguish tlie St. Lawrence. Bound- less prairies, sweet-scented breezes, and gorgeous sunsets are the characteristics of the Saskatchewan. In summer the prairies are perhaps to be preferred, in winter the woods. The falls and rapids of the rivers flowing into the St. Law- rence to the east, or ultimately into Lake Winnipeg on the west, often present the wildest and most picturesque scenery, displaying every variety of tumultuous cascade, precipitous cliffs, deep gorges, treacherous and sullen eddies, huge swelling waves, rising massive and green over hidden rocks, or quiet and tranquil rivers gliding into lakes. Viewed under different as;)ects they convey all variety of impressions to the mind, cold and cheerless in the gray dawn of morning, pleasing and encouraging as they flash in the brightness of noonday, or melancholy and depressing as they silently glitter in the silver light of the moon. Few enjoyments can equal a bright camp-fire after a hard day's work in canoes, and no sleep is like the sleep of ti." toil- worn voyager, on the pine or spruce branches he spreads for his couch, beneath the cold, clear sky of autumn in tl' gloom of Lawrentian forests. A DAY IN THE WILDERNESS. The dawn of morning when journeying through the wide and wild rocky ridge which separates the valley of the St. Lawrence from that of the Winnipeg, possesses scenes and associations which belong to it^self Kising from a bed on the hard rock, softened by a few spruce boughs and a north blanket, the paling stars and the cold, yellow light in the east first tell that the night is passed. On the lake a river by which the camp is made a dense screen of fog rests like a pall. A sudden rush through tlic under- brush tells of a poor mink or martin prowling close by, probably attracted by the fragments of last night's meal. From the dying camp-fires a thin column of smoke rises THE KOKTH-WEST TERRITORY. 89 higli above the trees or spreads lakewards to join the damp, misty veil which hides the waters from view. Around the fires are silent forms, stretched like shrouded corpses at full length on the bare earth, or on spruce branches neatly laid. These are Indians; they lie motionless on their backs completely enveloped in their blankets. Beneath upturned canoes, or lying like the Indians with their feet to the fire, the half-breeds, or the French Canadian voyageurs, lay in wild disarray. All is repose ; the silence is almost oppres- sive, broken at intervals only by the dull noise of a water- fall borne on the gentle breath which springs up imperceptibly with the rising sun. As the morning advances an Indian awakes, uncovers his face, sits on his haunches, and looks around from beneath the folds of his blanket which he has drawn over his head. After a few minutes have thus passed, not observing his companions show any signs o' waking or any disposition to rise, he utters a low " waugh ;'' slowly other forms unroll tuemselves, sit on their haunches and look around in silence. Soon the half-breeds or voy- ageurs are aroused, the dying embers of the fire blown into a flame, a few sticks of fresh wood added, pipes lit, and the day's work begins. The canoes are soon launched and the baggage stowed away; the party embark and plunge into the mist, Mdiile no sound but the measured stroke of the paddle meets the ear. The sun begins to glimmer above the horizon, the fog clears slowly away, a loon or a flock of ducks fly wildly across the bow of the canoe, the Indians shout at the frightened birds, or imitate their cry with won- derful accuracy, the guide cjills a halt, pipes are replenished, and the cheerful sunliglit gilding the top of distant trees brightens, warms, and enlivens all animate and inanimate things. The day wears on and the breakfast hour arrives, a short hunt in the woods for rabbits, or in a neighboring lake or marsh for ducks, rapidly passes the time. As soon as the meal is finished, all embark again. The voyageurs i> { 90 THE NORTH-WEST TERRITORY. and half-breeds sing their merry French songs, or the In« dians chant the war-songs of their forefathers, keeping time to the regular stroke of the paddles. The banks of the river are closely scanned in search of game, and the fresh track of a bear, a moose, a cariboo, or a deer awakens all the hunter's sympathies, as with suppressed voices they dis- cuss the number of hours which h^ve elapsed since the track was made. Supper is the time for enjoyment, aa lazily lolling round the camp-fires the men, pipe in mouth, listen to tales of forest life, incident of the chase, hair- breadth escapes, and distant Indian wars. A WINTER JOURNEY ON THE PRAIRIES. Dogs, carioles, sledges and snow-shoes, are required for a winter journey in the prairies as well as in the woods, but in consequence of the greater degree of cold in an open expanse of country, the difficulty of procuring fire-wood and the scarcity of game, winter traveling in the prairies is far from being so pleasant as in thick woods where a good track can be made. Each dog requires daily about two pounds of pemmican or three pounds of white-fish, so that the provisions for a train of carioles employing thirty dogs would involve the carriage of 600 pounds of pemmican or 900 pounds of white-fish for a ten days' journey. A train of three dogs will draw 300 pounds forty miles a day for ten or twelve days in succession, if well fed, and the road is tolerably good over a level country. A winter road, it may be here remarked, is nothing more than a cariole or sledge track caused by the pasv^'age of this primitive kind of vehicle over the snow, and is liable to be obliterated by every fresh fall. A cariole is constructed of a very thin board ten feet long and twelve or fourteen inches broad, turned up at one end in the form of half a circle, like the bow of an Ojibway canoe. To this board a high cradle, lite the body of a small carriage, is attached, about eighteen THE NORTH-WEST TERRITORY. 91 inches from the end of the board or floor. The framework is covered with buffalo skin parchment, and painted or de- corated according to taste. The inside is lined with a blanket or buffalo robe, and when the traveler is seated in his cariole, with outstretched legs, he is only separated from the snow b/ the thin plank which forms the floor. A sledge is nothing more than a thin board ten or twelve feet long, twelve inches broad, and turned up at one end. The baggage is attached to it by means of buffalo thongs, and two or three dogs are harnessed to this simple vehicle with the same materials. The dogs attached to a cariole are generally decorated with collars, from which beadwork and tassels are suspended together with a string of small bells. When a train is in motion the driver runs behind the cariole 0" sledge, guiding it by means of a loop fastened to each corner of the floor; when tired or anxious to ride he sits on the small box containing the traveler's baggage, which is fastened to the projecting board. A camp is always made in "woods," if possible, for the sake of fuel and shelter. The first operation is to sweep the snow from the ground, and prepare a place for the fire and blankets. This is easily accomplished with snow-shoes, and as soon as an area proportioned to the size of the party is prepared, a fire is made sufficiently long to admit of each man lying for the night with his feet towards it. No tent or covering of any description beyond a blanket stretched on poles is admissible, as it would scarcely be possible to fold canvas in the morning, and time does not generally allow of tlic erection of a hut, nor are the materials always at hand. When pine or spruce is accessible, a very com- fortable floor can be made from the boughs, but in the prairie country or on its borders these useful trees are rarely to be seen. The appearance of the camp during the night, when all are buried in profound slumber, is very wild and savage. vi^'-*^- I if>~ \'\i n I'M, mw 62 THE NORTH-WEST TERRITORY. Throwing a few dry sticks into the fire to light up the scene, the silent, slumbering forms of the travelers are seen stretched in two parallel rows with their feet to the fire; between the men, one, two, and sometimes three huge dogs have crept ; some are lying on the legs of the half-breeds for the sake of warmth, others have found a snug berth close to the fire but in imminent danger of burning their fur, a few lie coiled outside of the circle half-buried in the snow. The cold is so intense that their faces are white with frozen breath, and scarcely distinguishable. The fire, even when in full glow, has not power to melt the snow more than a few inches from it, without it is exposed to direct and prolonged radiation. Now and then a watchful dog raises his head, probably disturbed by some slight movement of the sleepers ; he looks once round and buries his face i.gain. Sometimes a dog will utter a low warning growl, when three or four other dogs, probably old "tagers, will rouse themselves for an instant, listen and growl, gen- erally all looking in one direction and snufling the air. A half-breed sits up, looks at the dogs, observes their mien and actions, and after a moment's pause, uttering the word "wolves," he quickly coils himself under his blanket again. The most disagreeable part of the daily routine of a long winter's journey is the catching and harnessing of the dogs. Some of these animals at the beginning of winter, when fresh at their work for the season, are exceedingly restive under coercion of any description, and not unfre- qucntly snap at their masters, who invariably arm them- selves witli very strong mittens of buffalo or deer liide when harnessing a savage and powerful animal. They re- quire long-continued and most severe punishment to make thorn obedient to the word of command. An Esquimaux whip is the instrument which every driver should be com- pelled to use, but the half-breeds trust to sticks and stones, or any object within reach on the road, which is picked up -If "^fr j^m THE NORIH-WEST TERRITORY. 93 as they pass and thrown at the dogs. It is painful to wit- ness the sudden start of terror with which each animal, looking over his shoulder as he trots along, watches the mieu and motions of the driver as he poises the stick, which he knows how to throw with certain dexterity at the terrified animals. All the dogs give a simultaneous jump on one side as the missile flies past them, when directed to the leader of the train ; and not unfrequently would the cariole be overturned if it were not for the strength and the skill of the driver in holding the loop with which he steers it. When this occurrence takes place and the dogs are at full speed, the only plan left for the helpless traveler is to draw his arms close to his sides, and wait until the cariole is righted by the driver; but any attempt to right the cariole by putting out an arm is a dangerous operation, which might occasion a broken limb. In descending steep hills, it is always advisable to walk or run, which all would pre- fer for the sake of exercise, except when the road is very good, and the trains can proceed for many miles at a gallop without fatigue. A heavy snow-storm is a serious matter in the prairie. It is then absolutely necessary for all the trains to keep close together; the drifting snow soon obliterates the tracks; and, although the dogs with their exquisite noses v»-ill fol- low the tracks of the leading cariole even when completely hidden from view by a light fall, yet when drifts accumu- late they are at fault. Preparing to camp in a snow-storm is not an agreeable operation, or suggestive of that comfort and safety which a camp almost always presents. When the fire is well lighted, supper cooked and eaten, and the party "turned in," then it does not matter much how heavily it snows, the trouble being reserved for the following day. After a heavy fall during the night, men, dogs, carioles, and sledges are all covered with a thick mantle of pure white; a sudden shout I ■I ^fl m 1' H> ■ !< 1 T ' 5,' ' r 1 \i w li i i'( jjbJfei^uli ■ T! 94 THE NEW PARLIAMENT BUILDINGS AT OTTAWA. from tlie guide enlivens many of the apparently lifeless forms, recognized only by their ontline; but some of the sagacious dogs take advantage of the concealment afforded by the sni^w, and, quite neglectful of the whistles and shouts of their masters, "lie close." CHAPTER VII. THE NEW PARLIAMENT BUILDINGS AT OTTAWA. Canada has hitherto been signally unfortunate in her different seats of government, in the buildings appropriated to public departments, and in the residences of her gov- ernors. Quebec, Montreal, Kingston, and Toronto have each in turn been the capital of the province. Ottawa has not yet been tried ; but there is good ground for the expec- tation and hope that the selection of Her Majesty the Queen will be found conducive to the best interests of the province, whatever may be the disappointment felt by cities which had a history before Ottawa was in existence or even the great river from which it derives its name thoroughly ex- plored. THE OTTAWA RIVER AND VALLEY. The Ottawa rises near the forty-ninth parallel of latitude in longitude 76° W. It is about 780 miles long, and 300 miles from its source it passes through Lake Temiscaming, 67 miles long. Above this lake the country drained by the Ottawa is little known; but below it, for a distance of 430 miles, the river has been surveyed. Montreal River, the canoe route to Hudson Bay, comes in from the nortli-west, 84 miles down Lake Temiscaming, and, six miles lower down, the great and almost unknown river Keepawa plunges into the lake in a magnificent cascade 120 feet in height. From the long sault at the foot of Lake Temiscam- ing, 233 mile" above the city of Ottawa, the river is not THK NEW PARLIAMENT BUILDINGS AT OTTAWA. 95 navigable for a distance of 89 miles, except for canoes. Be- tween the last-named point and Ottawa, a distance of 197 miles, numerous tributaries swell its waters, and one of these, the Matawan, coming from the west, is of especial interest at the present time, in consequence of its being on the line of the proposed ship-canal route between the Ottawa Eiver and Lake Huron. Above the Upper AUumette Lake there is a navigaUe reach of water 48 miles in length. The mountains above AUumette Lake are upward of 1,000 feet in height, and the scenery is magnificent. The moun- tains on the north side of Colongue Lake are 1,500 feet high, and the scenery grand and beautiful. The Petewawa, one of the largest tributaries, 140 miles long, drains an area of 2,200 square miles; the Black River drains 1,120 square miles; and, 39 miles above Ottawa City, the Madawaska, one of its greatest feeders, and 210 miles long, drains 4,100 square miles. Six miles above Ottawa the rapids begin which terminate in the celebrated Chaudi^re Falls, whose tumultuous waters plunge 40 feet and partly disappear in the " Lost Chaudi^re " by an underground passage whose subsequent outlet is unknown. At Ottawa the great river receives the Rideau, distinguished on account of its canal which connects the city of Ottawa with Lake Ontario at Kingston. Its largest tributary, the Gatineau, with a course of 420 miles, comes in from the north, and drains 12,000 square miles of territory. Eighteen miles below Ottawa is the Riviere du Li^vre, draining an area of 4,100 square miles; below this river there are numerous tributaries vary- ing from 90 to 160 miles in length. The rapids below Ottawa are avoided by a succession of canals. One hundred and thirty miles below the future capital of the province the Ottawa's waters mingle with those of the St. Lawrence, and for many miles their yellow, turbid stream can be seen quietly gliding by the side of the blue waters of the St. Lawrence, soon to become blended in their onward course to the sea. j^wm mm\\\ #1 1 i: '< i T^llS ' i ,J|| 11 1 ^^^■sflllK^A 96 THE NEW PARLIAMENT BUILDINGS AT OTTAWA. The valley drained by the Ottawa is 80,000 square miles in area, for the most part covered with valuable woods, par- ticularly red and white pine; it is abundantly intersected with large rivers, and contains a very considerable area of the best soil. The country is generally beautiful and undu- lating behind what has b'^en called the red-pine region, and sustains a growth of maple, beech, birch, and elm. No re- gion of equal extent enjoys so much excellent water-power witli such ample supplies of timber and minerals to work up, or to apply to any kind of manufacture to which water- power is applicable. It is a region rich in iron, lead, plum- bago, marbles, ochres, and copper. The valley of the beautiful and bountiful river is capable of maintaining without difficulty twice the entire present population of Canada, or more than 6,000,000 souls. Such is the region in which the future capital of this vast province is situated, and where its government will be established. The city of Ottawa was founded by Colonel By, in 1827, at the time of the construction of the Rideau Canal. It is situated a little below the beautiful and curious falls of the Chaudii^re, and stands upon a high and bold eminence surrounding a deep bay. Lord Sydenham recommended Bytown (now Ottawa) as a very favorable situation for the scat of Gov- ernment of Canada. In 1850 the population was 6,016; but, in consequence of its being the seat of the lumber trade, its inl, ibitants have always been of a very transient description, spending the summer in the town and in fall hastening far away to the great lumber districts, north, west, and east, to spend the winter in the glorious forests which still cover the Upper Country. The present popula- tion of Ottawa is 15,000. THE GOVEKNMENT BUILDINGS. These are three in number, — the parliament-house and two departmental buildings. They occupy an elevated 'T^'ui^, THE NEW PARLIAMENT BUILDINGS AT OTTAWA. 97 piece of ground, about 25 acres in extent and 150 feet above the river, known by the name of " Barrack Hill." The view from this natural terrace is superb. The great river, with its moving rafts, steamers, barges, and canoes rolls swiftly on through splendid hill ranges towards the south. In the distance the succession of bridges which span the majestic river just above the Chaudi^re Falls, attracts the eye, even though it be tempted to rest upon the wild beauty of the cascade sweeping by craggy rocks, be- tween abrupt islands, and plunging into the basin below, where part of its waters disappear in the Lost Chaudiere. Far beyond the beautiful cascade, glitters the broad river, swiftly rushing down the rapid Des Chenes; and in the re- mote background rise towering hills and mountains, often brilliant with purple and gold when the sun dips from view and gilds their lonely summits with his parting beams. The buildings are constructed of a light-colored sand- stone found in the township of Nepean in the valley of the Ottawa. This material is geologically interesting, as it comes from the most ancient fossiliferous unaltered rock in the world, — the Potsdam sandstone. At Lyn, where home of the stone is obtained, the massive sandstone beds are seen resting on Laurentian gneiss. The walls are relieved with cut-stone dressings of Devonian sandstone from Ohio, and by red sandstone relieving arches from Potsdam in the state of New York. The roofs are slated with purple and green, and the pinnacles ornamented with wrought-iron cresting. The style of architecture is the Italian-Gothic, and the south front of the quadrangle is formed by the parliament building, 500 feet in length. The two departmental struc- tures are 375 feet long. The rear is open and will be railed off with a suitable ornamental screen. The committee rooms occupy the front of the building. The library, a beautiful detached circular building, with a dome 90 feet high, is in the rear of the central tower, 250 high. The W f 98 THE NEW PARLIA DUILDINGS AT OTTAWA. two legislative halls are on each side of the library, but in the main building. The dimensions of these halls are the same of those of the Uouse of Lords, — namely, 80 feet by 45 ; they are situated on the ground floor and lighted from above. The library is constructed after the plan of the new library of the British Museum, and will hold 300,000 vol- umes. The speaker's rooms, and all other offices and con- veniences required, are judiciously arranged within easy reach of tlie legislative halls. The speaker's and librarian's residences are detached buildings and do not necessarily form part of the main str" cture. The two departmentf 'Idings contain in the aggregate 300 rooms, and are inttw. to accommodate all the depart- ments of th< government of the province; and are so con- structed as to be capable of extension at any future time without injuring the general architectural effect. The buildings cover nearly four acres, and some idea of their magnitude may be inferred from the following brief statis- tics. The plastering when completed will exceed ten a^res in extent. The number of windows and doors is aoout 1,200; the length of the cornices, 12 miles; the number of bricks used, 12,000,000; together with many thousand yards of masonry, cut-stone work, and much carving and decora- tions of a similar character. The architect for the parliament buildings are Messrs. Fuller and Jones, of Toronto; Mr. Thomas McGreevy, of Quebec, is the contractor. The architects for the depart- mental buildings are Messrs. Stent and Laver; the con- tractors, Messrs. Haycock and Jones. It is quite impossible to state the cost of these buildings when finished: it is sufficient to say that up to the present moment, upward of a million dollars has been expended on them, and they are still far from being completed. ■I! 1] %. : 1 %mM, p ^ i H^' 'v\ ^^^^^B rft ' libran' ' -n*; in iameh ' viuit -i' .V ea and (uodtti u ul ;^ ..ilectura^ v.,>.v '*'u\iS .11 lit \, ^•m\ \ .^^ 11 '*! ,?^^ » 1 1 1 * "'Ifl ■■■ '■ i • 1 4i; Tjte tn any Lranc der which at pliysicf sary intro( Transport tury whic pra'^.ticall}' close of t1 Nortli-An at least, e ago, and t and (to a been hanr struggling tition alor foremost r superiors i productioi power " c rived man ary qnesti The pre whole of ( contained number, v along the Eastern o at the out' 7 ^v/^-'-^i^.^| TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. TiTE true appreciation of the progress of any country in any "branch of its industry depends upon the conditions un der which that progress has been made: a glance, therefore, at pliysical, social, and political elements becomes a neces- sary introduction even to the limited field of its Travel and Transportatioii. The progress of Canada during the cen- tury which has elapsed since it became a British colony practically commenced about eighty years ago, or after the close of the contest between Great Britain and her revolting North-American colonics. Out of these eighty years, fifty at least, embrace the history of two provinces of unequal ago, and two races, under different laws, language, religion, and (to a great degree) climates. These provinces have been hampered by a vacillating Imperial policy, while struggling for a commercial independence involving compe- tition along a thousand miles of frontier with one of the foremost nations of the earth ; — with a people tenfold their superiors in numbers and wealth, in quantity and variety of productions, and in the possession of their " treaty-making power" on their own continent — whereby they have de- rived manifest advantages in the settlement of every bound- ary question. The province of Canada, or of Quebec, by which names Ihe whole of Canada was called after its seizure by the English, contained a French population between 60,000 and 70,000 in number, which, with two exceptions and the few settlements along the Detroit River, was confined within the bounds of Eastern or Lower Canada. At Frontenac (Kingston,) and at the outlet of Lake Eric, the old French forts were garri- 7 ! l^auJ^''' J^Si i (I ■ il 1 1 1 1 100 TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. Ml soned within the boundaries of Upper Canada; but those which commanded the Niagara and Detroit Rivers were upon the southern shore. As a colony of France, Canada was a semi-military organization, without any other exports than peltries. By becoming English, a privileged market for lumber and breadstufFs was opened to her in the British West-India Islands, — particularly valuable during and after the war of the Revolution, when the Atlantic colonies were excluded. In 1777 a British officer wrote that " there are saw-mills and grist-mills all over the province, and the Canadians are enriching themselves by exporting lumber and grninrto the West Indies."* This referred, of course, to Lower Canada; for, though Montreal fell, and a daring attempt was made at the outset of the Revolution to seize upon Quebec, the posts upon the lakes, although then one hundred years old, were surrounded by savages hostile to the cause of the insurgents. Upper Canada was at that pe- riod in the possession of the Northern Iroquois, a confeder- ation of the most warlike of the native tribes ; and there are those yet living who remember when, — save the few families around the precincts of the old French forts, — not a white man could be found over all the vast area of Canada West. Toronto was then an Indian village whose warriors speared the salt-water salmon in her harbor, or chased the deer through the county of York, and their squaws then paddled among the rice-beds of the smaller lakes, and threshed out the wild grain over the gunwales of their canoes.f In the Western Peninsula the noble elk herded upon the prairies of St. Clair, or roamed over the oak forests, untroubled by the sound of the settler's axe, and swam the waters where paddle and screw barque and brig now plow their busy way. Myriads of wild pigeons from ♦ In 1787, over 200,000 buslicls of wlu-at wero exported from Quebeo, t III 1705, 400 to 500 pounds of wild rico wore sold by tho Indians in King8ton market. the South i the branch from the E ward in e^ turkeys an( the wild pa roar of the every narrc laborious b broad meac successors, each other. The achii colonies ex had placed these villifi mained for they could i ful democra' east maintai while the fo Atlantic se to which th guidance ar northward plain on the the center, r as fur south water-tight, were yet es eastern rout joiii those customs. T the provinc< brought abd TRAVEL AND TRANSPOHTATION. 101 the South annually invaded the beecli woods and bore down the branches by their weight; thousands of black squirrels from the East swam the broad Niagara, and marched west- ward in extended line; while flocks of gorgeously clad turkeys and plump-breasted quails stalked solemnly along the wild patli»ways of the forest, undisturbed by the hoarse roar of the locomotive or the rush of the railway train. In every narrow valley and upon every living streamlet, the laborious beaver arrested the rich alluvion and prepared broad meadows for the flocks and herds of the red man's successors. The hunter and the hunted have exterminated each other. The achievement of their independence by the revolted colonies expatriated all those whom loyalty to their king had placed upon the losing side ; and fortunate it was for these villified and plundered fugitives that there yet re- mained for them upon this continent an asylum to which they could retire from the fierce persecution of the success- ful democrats. The impregnable fortress of Quebec on the east maintained communication with the mother country, while the forts of Oswego and Niagara — separated from the Atlantic settlements by vast forests — were cities of refuge to which the adherents of the king migint flee under the guidance and protection of the friendly Mohawk. This northward emigration penetrated Canada by Lake Cham- plain on the eapt, by Oswego and Frontenac (Kingston) in the center, and by Niagara on the west. They came from as far south as the Carolinas, and their wagon-boxes, made water-tight, floated the wheels across rivers where no ferries were yet established. Many of th(>se who entered by the eastern route moved westward to a milder climate, and to join those of their own language, faith, and municipal customs. This sudden influx of a British population into the province of Quebec — French in all but its allegiance, — brought about the division into Upper and Lower Canada, 102 TRAVEL AND TBANSPORTATION. in eacli of whicli the laws were to be made by the inhiioib- ants thereof. The separation took place in 1791, at which time the population of Upper Canada was about 20,000 souls; that of Lower Canada a little over 100,000. The province of Quebec had been governed by the ordinances of a governor and council ; but, from 1791, both provinces were equally endowed with a local legislature, although in both, the governors selected and maintained their councils without the acknowledgment that the confidence of the house of assembly was a constitutional necessity, until their reunion in 1841. ROADS. The development of the Transportation service in any new country is not more dependent upon the advance in civilization of its colonists than upon its physical geography and climate. The possession of capital and a knowledge of the arts, are, for a time at least, often valueless in the face of obstacles presented by rapid rivers, mountain ranges, trackless forests, or quantities of snow. Time is as neces- sary as money to prepare the way for the superior vessel or vehicle; and thus, to the European in America, the simple expedients of the savage indigene are as applicable as the camel to the desert, the dog-sledge for the Esquimaux, or the ironless carts of the " Bois Brules" in Eupert's Land. Although the existence of roads for the passage of wheeled vehicles dates from the most remote history, it would seem that their early construction was for warlike or for state rather than for commercial purposes — for chariots and trojihies and engines of war; perliaps, also, for the transport of materials for monuments, temples, &c. The Assyrian sculptures show that wagons and carts, drawn by mules and oxen, were used; but their land trade, we know, was prin- cipally carried on by caravans of loaded camels, horses, mules, and f»Hses. Wagons were used to bring down the m ^^ip '"^"IjTn, TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 103 aged patriarch, " tlie wives, and the httle ones " into the land of Goshen, but their supplies were borne upon the backs of animals. Egypt and Assyria were rainless coun- tries, traversed by great rivers, watered by irrigation, and supplied with numerous canals giving water transportation for internal traffic. Separated by the mountainous regions of the Holy Land, their interchange of commerce was best conducted by the "ships of the desert;" for movable sand has ever been one of the greatest impediments to road- making. The wonderful roads of the Eoraans, carried straight over hill and dale in such a manner as to be of little service for wheels, were more military than commercial. Inasmuch as the Eoman knowledge of road-making was derived from the Carthaginians, ancient colonists from Tyre, it is p.'obable that, notwithstanding the obstacles which the rugged land- scape of Canaan opposed to commercial highways, we may trace the origin of paved roads to the land where Pharaoh's wagons were sent when Israel went down into Egypt. In- deed, it is difficult to conceive how the cedars of Lebanon could be transported from Joppa to Jerusalem without a graded road. Two thousand years have not effiiced those adamantine lines whicli the Romans engraved and inlaid upon the face of three continents, for some of them are in use to this day ; and, until the discovery of America, it was supposed that as road-makers they had no superiors. A Roman road was often three feet thick, con!--isting of three courses, of about one foot in thickness each, of coarse con- crete masonry, gravel, and cut-stone paving: — sometimes their roads were wholly formed by a species of " macadam- izing " with the addition of a cement forming a very hard concrete. Of such roads there were about fifty distinct ones with an aggregate length of 14,000 miles in Italy alone, besides those in the provinces. In point of magnificence, however, the Incas of Peru 1 p III , 1 1 1 I h ... ( t- g| n iM 1 i m 104 TRAVKL AND TRANSPORTATION. surpassed even the Emperors of Rome. That narrow fringe of sea-coast was traversed from north to south by two great roads, — one in the interior, the other along the Pacific sea-board. The first extended 1,500 to 2,000 miles, having stone pillars set up at intervals of little more than a league, and hostelries or caravansaries at suitable distances — in which respect it was similar to the Babylonian royal road from Sardis to Susa, as described by Herodotus, which it exceeded in length. This road, says Prescott, was car- ried over pathless sierras covered with snow; through galleries cut for leagues in the living rock ; upon suspension bridges, swayed to and fro over raging torrents, by cables of native osier thick as the body of a man ; and was con- ducted across ravines of hideous depth filled up with solid masonry. The coast road, about 300 leagues in length, was carried on an embankment twenty-five yards wide, with a parapet of clay. Trees and odoriferous shrubs were planted along the margin, and streams of water were con- ducted through aqueducts along its side, to slake the trav- eler's thirst. Both roads were paved with heavy flags of freestone, some ten feet square, and in some places with pebbles imbedded in a bituminous cement which made a road-bed hard and smooth. It was an evidence of their advanced civilization that persons were stationed at the Incas' " swing " bridges to collect toll from all passers-by, for the maintenance of these the only perishable portions of the work. ROADS — LOWER CANADA. The roads of the province of Quebec and of Lower Canada, until 1832, were placed under an officer appointed by tlie crown called a grand voyer, a sort of surveyor- general, who had deputies {sousvoyers) and surveyors under him.* The roads were divided into three classes. * This office was filled as early as 1 689 by the Sieur De Beccancourt, ai ■ucoessor to his father who was probably tho first grand voyer of Now France. :^-^^. TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 105 1. Chemins royaux — Post roads or "front" roads, the eoil of which belonged to the crown ; these generally trav- ersed the " front " of the seigneuries. 2. Chemins de ceinture et de traverse — or back roads, the soil of which belonged to the seigneurs; these ran in the rear and parallel with the royal roads. 3. Chemins de sortie et de communications— -called, also, " routes " and by-roads. These were cross-roads, connect- ing those in front and rear. Also, banal roads, which were those leading to the seigneury mill. All proprietors and holders {seigneurs and censitaires) were obliged to open, make, maintain, and repair, as well in winter as in summer, their " front " roads, across the land held by them. All bridges under four (or six) feet span were to be made by the occupant; but larger ones by the joint labor of the parties interested, — the timber being demanded from the nearest property. By joint labor, also, the cross or b3''-roads and mill- roads were made. In the case of the front roads, ownership or occupancy was considered a sufhcient reason for making the unlucky holder construct and maintain the road; but in the case of side roads and others made by joint labor, this proprietorship exempted him from all other contribution, because he furnished the right of way.- The grand voyer made semi-annual inspec tions, and by proces verbal, if confirmed by the quarter sessions, determined the dimensions, ditches, &c., and the ^^ repartition^^ or apportionment of labor on bridges and routes. lie seems to have been a magnificent personage, with the powers almost of a provost-marshal, who literally drove the habitants to the improvement of their ways. Winter roads in the climate of Lower Canada require special provisions, some of which are demanded by the ab- surd tenacity with which the habitant clings to a vicious system. Instead of profiting by the example of the town- ship people beside him, he attaches the shafts of his cariole, m H 106 TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. herline, or traineau, the running gear of which is* a low sledge, by a chain in such a manner that when the draught slackens the shafts fall on the snow. The runner likewise does not follow the horses' feet, so that the road is not beaten for two horses abreast, — and thus must forever remain an inferior or *' one-horse " affair. The action of the loose shaft is similar to a horse-rake, and the snow is rolled into " winrows," giving the road a corrugated pro- file, forming what are called cahots by the French, and " cowholes" by the English; the crater between the oppo- site peaks being large enough to contain one of those animals. As a penance for thus destroying the road, the law required the habitant to carry shovel, pick, and hoe, and to level the track behind him. It is also obligatory to have the track over ice or open country marked out by evergreen bushes called halises, so that the traveler may not lose his way. Besides the ordinary provisions for " break- ing" the winter roads, it is required that on the 1st of December all fences along and abutting the roadside within twenty-five feet, be taken down within two feet of the ground, and kept down unLil the 1st of April, the posts only left standing; and, when required, halises are to be planted every thirt^'^-six feet. The road question appears to have early. engaged the attention of the Governor and Council of the province of Quebec, and an attempt was made to establish the statute labor system of the English colonics by Governor-General Afurray in 1766. His ordinance authorized the surveyor of highways to summon the parishoners with their carts, horses, &c., to work collectively on the roads, which were then specified to be at least fourteen feet wide. In 1777 Guy Carleton passed an ordinance establishing the French system of individual responsibility on the part of each owner and occupier to keep in repair the king's road, then specified at thirty feet wide. By-roads twenty feet wide were to be i " according less favored run in any of our whi bridge sleep sousvoyers w the caj^tains ulars the olc Dorchester i dinance " t< but this led supplies fro I noxious ord: was made t were left in anteed to th when Lord ' the constitut of 1837, to afler the uni and one was district of M ers have hitl In 1832, transferred roads came u the labor haf of apportion by-law of t roa " front ' occupant; b Council, ma} occupant fix Under that j TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 101 were to be made by joint labor, and banal or mill roads "according to ancient usage." In that early day, liogs, less favored tlian they since have been, were not allowed to run in any highway. In the ordinance of 1777 the value of our white cedar was recognized by enacting that all bridge sleepers should be made of it ; and grand voyers and sousvoyers were appointed for each district, the latter to be the captains and senior officers of militia. In these partic- ulars the old French system was followed. In 1788, Lord Dorchester made a bold attempt to abolish cahots by an or- dinance " to alter the method of drawing sleighs," &c. ; but this led to rioting, and the habitants, by stopping the supplies from country to town, forced the repeal of the ob- noxious ordinance the following year. No further attempt was made to interfere with the cahots, and the habitants were left in undisturbed possession of an institution, guar- anteed to them by the articles of capitulation, until 1840, when Lord Sydenham took advantage of the suspension of the constitution of Lower Canada, caused by the rebellion of 1837, to pass two sleigh ordinances; but immediately after the union, the right of self-government was asserted, and one was repealed ; but the other was confined to the district of Montreal, where the turnpike trust commission- ers have hitherto successfully resisted the traineau. In 1832, the despotic powers of the grand voyer were transferred to road commissioners; and in 1841 the roads came under the control of the municipalities, by whom the labor has been more equalized, and who have the power of apportioning it upon all roads. In the absence of any by-law of the municipality or unrepealed proccs verbal, " front " roads are still to be made and maintained by the occupant; but a special superintendent, appointed by the Council, may, by proper proccs verbal, relieve any owner or occupant from any excessive portion of work required under that provision. All the main roads, made by the %%' I 111 III 108 TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. government and transferred to the municipalities, are to be maintained by the latter. Front roads must (since 1855) be at least thirty-six feet French (nearly thirty eight and a half feet English), and routes twenty-six feet French (about twenty-seven feet nine inches English,) between the fences. This is an increase of fifty per cent, over the width estab- lished before the conquest. The old French laws governing the roads were practica- ble in the level seigneuries, with their peculiar subdivisions caused by the laws of descent, as well as from their quon- dam semi-military orgc^w-.zation. The holdings are narrow strips of one or two hundred yards, or less, fronting on the St. Lawrence, and extending back a mile or more. The front road is near the river, and on it are the houses, giving the river bank the appearance of a continuous street. These laws were, however, wholly inapplicable to the townships with their hills, and lakes,- and heavy timber, where the " front" road would run a mile or more along one property, and where the cost of making the road would be far greater than the valuf^ - .' the land ; where, also, there were crown reserve? • i h)ng distiinces without an oc- cupant. The p ' "1' their roads formed, for perhaps a cer snow in wi urgent for grants; nU the townships thus had no op- portunity for log-ro^ aig," and were too weak politically to extort relief. It was therefore not until 1815-17 that any effort was madf to apply a j^jortion ^ their abundant revenue to the roads and bridges of lower province. The Lum of £63,600 (or $254,400) w jted in these two years, which was expended chiefly in i seigneuries. In 1829, however, the legislature seems to i ive commenced in earnest, about £120,000 (or $480,000)^ having been voted in that and the two succeeding years; and then the town* «»hips, after forty years of suffering, obtained some assistance their lij^ht traihc on the er in summer, were not TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. ROADS, UPPER CANADA. 109 in the first parliament of Upper Canada, held at Newark in 1793, an act was passed by which the roads were placed under overseers to be appointed by the rate-paying inhab- itant householders at their annual town meetings. Every person was required to bring tools and work three to twelve days; and owners of carts and teams at least six days. At first rich and poor were treated niike (for all were alike poor,) and the number of days' work exacted from each, which \/as in the discretion of the overseer and depended on his energy and the wants of the road, was fixed at ten ; but when large blocks of land, granted to favorites or held by speculators, stood in the way of improvement, dissatis- faction was created at the unequal road law which exacted no more from the great land-owner than from the tenant or laborer, and it was altered; the number of days' labor being determined according to the assessment roll. The power of altering or opening new roads was vested in the quarter sessions by whom a surveyor was appointed to report upon any application for such alteration or new road if signed by twelve freeholders. In its infancy this province had neither revenue nor taxes, the civil list being at first wholly and afterwards par- tially sustained by the military chest of the Imperial gov- ernment. In 1795, the revenue was £900 sterling, and the only tax 4c?. per gallon on wine; and it was not till 180-i that there appeared any surplus for roads. In that year an appropriation of £1,000 (or $4,000) was made for this pur- pose, which proved premature and was repealed in 1806, when £1,600 (or $6,400) was granted; and this rc)ad grant, increased to £2,000 (or $8,000) and £3,000 (or $12,000,) was annually maintained till 1812, when it rose to £6,000 (or $24,000.) Interrupted two years by the war, it in- creased in 1815 to £20,000 (or $80,000,) and in 1816 to £21,000 (or $84,000,) aftei which little was done until >il»ii 110 TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 1830, when, between that date and 1833, £128,000 (or $512,000) were granted. Between 1836 and 1840 over £100,000 (or $400,000) more was granted, the whole of which was not expended until after the union. Tiie roads of Upper Canada, by the municiijal act, arc wholly under local control; and the assessment act provides that every male between sixteen and sixty years is liable to statute labor to the extent of two days as a minim.um. If assessed at a total valuation of £50 (or $200,) two days are required, and more in propo. «ion up to £1,000 (or $4,000,) which gives twelve days; and one day for every £200 (or $800) over that sum, sul)ject to a pro rata reduction by the council. Where there is no by-law, 2s. Qd. (or 50 cents) per day is the rate of commutation. When there is no property delinquents may be imprisoned six dayt^ if they do not work their two days or pay their two dollars. The roads mu:=-b not be less than thirty feet or more than ninety feet vvide; and local rates may be levied for local roads, on a petition of two-thirds of the resident rate-payers repre- senting one-half the assessed value. Councils can not close a road to the prejudice of any person, nor encroach on gardens, orchards, pleasure-grounds, or buildings; but they may urder the removal of trees, not being ornamental or plantations, within twenty-five feet of the highway, and must compensate for all real damage. PROGRESS OF TRAVEL. In the province of Quebec, the European system of traveling by ])ost was in force and regulated by law. The distance between Quebec and Montreal, commonly called sixty leagues was divided into twenty-four stages. The mailres de poste were obliged to keep four caleches and four carioles, and to be ready at a quarter of an hour's notice to forward the traveler, who was usually received with much ceremony, on alighting after each stage, by the lady of the m I'W^^rt ^ TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. Ill house.* They had the exclusive right of passenger trans- port by land, the charge being fixed at twenty to twenty -five cents per league, — twelve to fifteen dollars for thn iourney between Quebec and Montreal, which occupied three days. The caltche is a gig upon grasshopper springs with a seat for two passengers; the driver occupies the site of the dash- board, with his feet on the shafts and in close proximity to the horse with which he maintains a confidential conversa- tion throughout the journey, alternately complimenting and upbraiding him, and not failing to impress him with the many virtues of his master. A public mail-stage was established between St, John's and Quebec before the expiration of the last century ; but although facilities existed for land travel before the era of steamboats, the water route, where it was down stream or slack water, was generally preferred. Water carriage along the whole frontier from Quebec to Lake Huron, and abundance of snow (east of Kingston) while the navigation was closed, checked the early establisiiment of a good road throughout. Before the war of 1812, the land route from Montreal west- ward was broken, not only by the necessary ferries across the tawa at Isle Perrot, but by the long ferry in Lake St. Fran- cis, where a horse-boat traversed the slack water, because of the wet land route along the front of Glengary. In 1796, with the exception of about fifty miles, a road had been opened from Montreal to Kingston, and the journey could be made by land from Montreal to Lake St. Francis, and from Corn- wall to Prescott, along which latter route the United Empire loyalists, who cam,e in in 1784, had established themselves. The intermediate portions, having slack water cr nearly so opposite them, were not completed until the neccsbity for them was demonstrated by the war of 1812-15. * Tlu) maitres de jwsle vmvQ first recognized by law in 1780, and sonio half a dozen ordinnnces and acts were passed in thoir favor or to coJitrol them be- tween that date and 1819, when their privileges oeasod. 1 1 1" 112 TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. During the infancy of Upper Canada the road extension from Prescott to Burlington, — with the exception of those portions where the loyalists were settled, which extended as high as the Bay of Quinte, — was retarded by the slack- water navigation between these points; but to avoid the detour by Queenstor., Fort Erie, and Lake St. Clair, a road was opened as early as 1794 from Ancaster (the point to which the loy- alists had extended their settlements from Niagara, and made their road by private subscription) to the Mohawk village on the Grand Eiver, to which place Brant had removed his Six Nations. From Brantford it was carried through to a point (London) on the river La Trenche (now called the Thames,) from whence a boat navigation existed to Lake St. Clair. Thus, from the French seigneuries on her eastern boundary to the American border on the west, Upper Canada sought first to connect the natural navigation by what may be called portage roads of greater or less length ; and so to diminish the time, cost, and fatigue of land transport. Governor Simcoe, who seems to have been fully impressed with the importance of his mission as the founder of a na- tion, also opened out, in 1794, by the labor of the Queen's Eangcrs, the portage of thirty-three miles from Toronto to Lake Simcoe, called Yonge Street, which shortened and cheapened the route to Mackinaw, then the great d^'pot of th' fur-trade. On the opening of this route the North- "W est Fur Company, which was established by Frobisher and McTavish, of Montreal, in 1782, and which in 1796 employed 2,000 men, instead of sending their supplies up the Ottawa by canoes, sent batteaux up the St. Lawrence, which were carted across the portages at theCarrying Place and Yonge Street, .'ind delivered their cargoes in Mackinaw at a saving of £10 (or $40) to £15 (or $60) per ton. Even the Spanish settlements down the Mississippi were supplied by British goods thus taken to the great peltry fair at Mack s*^"^. iS'it, TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 113 inaw. Dundas Street, as the main post-road traversing the province was called, was also established by Governor Sim- coe, lots being granted along it on condition of building and improving in one year; and so provision was made for a continuous land communication throughout the province: but it was not until after the war of 1812 that any portion of it was so far improved and bridged as to become a stage route. The first stage in Upper Canada was established by Mr. Macklem, of Chippewa, in 1798, between Queenstown and Fort Erie, running every other day at the moderate fare of one dollar; distance about twenty-five miles. On the 1st of Jt.uuary, 1816, the first stage betweeji Montreal and Kingston was established by Barnabas Dickinson. Covered sleighs left Samuel Hedge's, in St. Paul Street, Montreal, and Robert Walker's Hotel, Kingston, every Monday and Thursday, and arrived every Wednesday and Saturday. In January, 1817, Samuel Purdy established the first stage be- tween Kingston and York. It left Daniel Brown's inn, Kingston, every Monday morning, and York every Thurs- day morning, stopping at Spaulding's inn, Grafton, as a halfway house. The fare was eighteen dollars with twenty- eight pounds of baggage allowed. The next winter Purdy reduced the ftirc to ten dollars, three dollars to Belleville, and six dollars to Spaulding's inn. On the opening of nav- igation the stages between Prescott and York were discon- tinued, as a steamboat was then on this route. The mail, which as late as 1807 was so light as to be carried by pedes- trian white nicn between Montreal and Toronto, and by an Indian between Toronto and Niagara, all of whom carried axes to aid them in crossing streams, went by the king's vessels in summer, and after 1817 by the steamers, which also took the local trallic between the frontier towns; so that there was no travel to maintain a summer stage except on the portages below Preseott. The first steamers were placed i I' [i- ! 114 TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. on Lake St. Francis and Lake St. Louis, in 1826, when four- horse covered coaches w^ere put on the road between Mon- treal and Lachine, and stages were run from the Cascades to Coteau Landing, and from Cornwall to Prescott, no steam- boat having yet ventured below the latter point. In 1832, a stern-wheel steamer, the Iroquois, was built to overcome the rapids between the Longue Sault and Prescott. At first she required the aid of horses and oxen at Rapide Platte; but further experience in pilots and an improvement in the boilers enabled her to ascend by steam power alone; and thereafter the stages retired to the twelve miles of por- tage passing the Longue Sault between Dickinson's Landing and Cornwall. , Between Kingston and Cobourg, and other points where the steamers did not call, at first a horse, and then the one- horse wagon delivered the local mail; and, as local travel incrcas(>d, two and four horses were put on, the vehicles generally being open stage-wagons, the covered coaches be- ing kept in tlio vicinity of the larger towns where the roads were bottei- and where it was worth an effort to " take in " the unwary. As late as 1834, passengers in stages from the west could avoid "sea" sickness on Lake Ontario by con- necting with steamers at the " Carrying Place," at the head of tlic Bay of Quinte, from whence there is river navigation to ^fontreal. In 182f), the first stage was established between Niagara and York, — time, seventeen hours; fiire, five dollars. In 1827, the exclusive right to run a stnge for twenty-one years from Ancaster, through Brantford, Burford, "the Long Woods," and Delaware, to Detroit IWver, was ob- tained, after two years' effort, by a public-sjiirited physician of St. Catherine's, for the purpose of inducing other parties to provide this much-needed accommodation. Under this Btimulus, a lino of fourdiorse coaches was started in 1828, which not pnying it was reduced to an uncovered wngon, CAUIOLE. IIAIUTANT, LOWKK CANADA, DUIVINtt A CALfcdIli ) i "a I ) ' ; 11 ' i ■ 1 i i m ^1 1 ti: iiJiiMU*iMi.»*^ 1l* I and after a years after tl Ontario and t line was estr done in con ner's require Benjamin America in of Commons tween Montr tended eastwj Kingston only quarterl with a mail-b Our progre established pc Dates. 176G, 1791, 1817 , 1824, 1828 1831 1832, 1836, 1837, 1810,.... IH.'il, 1852, 18r.4 18r)7, 1860, In 1852, th( the revenue, the number ol nue, $658,451 is exclusive of costs $110,00( B r«v^-">y| TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 115 and after a time even that was abandoned. It was some years after this before a stage was established between Lake Ontario and the Detroit Eiver, and not until 1842 that a daily line was established throughout the province, which was done in consequence of Deputy Postmaster-General Stay- ner's requirements with regard to the mails. Benjamin Franklin, Deputy Postmaster-General of North America in 1766, stated before a committee of the House of Commons that the only post-road then in Canada was be- tween Montreal and Quebec. In 1791 the post-road ex- tended eastward to New Brunswick, and westward as far as Kingston. As late as 1807, the mail to Amherstburgh was only quarterly, a Canadian once in three months appearing with a mail-bag on his shoulder. Our progress, as gathered from the number of miles of established post-roads, is as follows: — Dates. 1766,. 1791,. 1817,. 1824,. 1828.. 1831,. 18.32,. 1836,. 1837,. 1810,. 18.51,. 1852,. TTiimber Miles of MilfS of of Established Annual Post-offices. Post-Uoadfl. Mail Travel. 3 170 10 600 25 1.200 69 1,992 369,616 101 2.368 455,936 151 227 289 375 405 601 840 2.896 713,076 3,460 787,472 4,377 1,005,,524 5,370 1,176,708 5,736 1,473,264 7,595 2,487,000 8,618 2,930.000 18.")4 1.166 10.027 4,000,000 1857, ] ,506 13,253 5,383,000 1860, 1,698 14,202 5,712,000 In 1852, the number of letters per annum was 3,700,000; the revenue, $230,629; expenditure, $276,191. In 1860, the number of letters per annum was 9,000,000; the reve- nue, $658,4:51 ; expenditure, $534,681. This expenditure iscxclu.sive of railway and steamship subsidies. The former costs $110,000 and the latter $416,000 per annum. w k y|U*ii*i^**' 116 TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. PROGRESS OF ROADS. The land communications of the copper-colored nomads, eastward of the prairies, were natural routes subordinate to their water ones, being mere portages from one stream or lake to another; and in this respect they differed essentially from those of a fixed population. But, as with the savage, the track of the wild animals, — the deer, moose, elk, or cariboo, — indicated the hardest ground or lowest pass for the war-path, so with the colonist the same guides — or the instincts of domestic animals turned loose in the forest,— often marked out the "bridle-road," the pioneer route of land transport from point to point. In later times, since the sur- veyor has preceded the settler, the roads have been either arbitrarily determined for a country presenting no special obstacles, or carefully explored as a basis of settlement. But as, "until a comparatively recent period, the squatter preceded the surveyor, the original roads have been estab- lished either by the accidental conditions noted above, or by the more extensive and careful explorations of the lum- berman, who has been the pioneer of the agriculturist over the greater portion of cultivated America. The progressive stages of improvement, from the track of the wild animal to the metalled road, are, — 1. The Bridle Road; 2. The Winter Road; 3. The Corduroy Road; 4. The Common or Graded Road; 6. The Turnpike; Macadam, Gravel, and Plank Roads. BRIDLE AND WINTER ROADS. Before the era of wheeled vehicles, communication be- tween back settlements, save in winter, is restricted to " bridle roads," by which men and women on horseback may assemble for worship, visit their neighbors, and attend upon all those occasions of births, marriages, and deaths so TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION'. 117 much noticed in the forest and so little in town. On pack- horses, also, grain is taken to and from the mill, and other movables transported. These roads are formed simply by clearing away the branches and logs, so that a man on horseback may ride, and are most frequently old lumber- men's roads, which have become impassable from fallen timber, and the growth of underbrush. In winter, how- ever, the snow and ice, the great democratic elements in the physical constitution of Canada, make all roads alike, and the humblest settler in the most remote back-township has not only an excellent road, but can make himself a vehicle capable of transporting the largest loads; and, sheltered by the forest, the once broken track is protected from those drifts which are the only drawbacks to the snow-roads in the clearings. It is impossible to over-estimate the importance of the frost and snow to the people of Canada, or to place any money value upon them. That which most Europeans have deplored as the only drawback to this country is in truth the source of its rapid prosperity. The operations of agriculture and commerce do not necessarily require perennial communication with a market. As there is but one crop of grain and lumber in the year, it is suffi- cient if onc€ in the year an opportunity is afforded to transport it, and this Canada possesses in a higher degree than any other " more favored clime." In the dead of winter, when all agricultural out-door operations have ceased, the farmer, after having threshed his grain, can sally forth to any market he may select, even if distant one hundred miles or more, and combine other business or pleasure in the town with that of the sale of his products. He can go any where while the snow lasts, for all roads are alike; and he can take as large a load as can be transported by the same power on the best wheel roads in Europe. For domestic purposes the ice and snow are equally valuble to him; for, while unable to cultivate the fields, he can make ;ii 1: ! 118 TRAVEL AND TUANSPOKTATIONk the forest resound with his axe, and every swamp is accessiblo to his horses and his sledges; thus becuring his annual sup- ply of fuel without the necessity of money or barter. If he has a family of grown-up sons, he may cut the timber and fuel and transport it to the market, because there is not a week in the whole winter in which out-door work is un- pleasant; and there is, therefore, less loss of time than, in milder and more rainy climates. The presence of the ice and snow at the season when horses and cattle and their owners can not be employed in field operations, and its cer- tain continuance over the greater part of the country for several months, define the mode of conducting the business without inconvenience and to the best advantage. What- ever is intended for export is, where good summer roads are wanting, hauled down to the shipping ports while the snow lasts; and if a house is to be built, the stone is quarried and hauled wnen little else can be done, and all preparations are made before the season for building commences. The statistics of shipments show that only about one-third of the crop is sent forward in the year in which it is grown ; and although in many instances the produce can not be brought out until the snow falls, it is evident that from choice the greater part will be held back until that season. The autumnal plowing and sowing after harvest, ditching, fenc- ing, and other duties, often make it inconvenient to com- mence threshing before the winter: moreover, there is also the hope that better prices, when western exports are suspended, and cheaper transportation on the snow, will more than compensate for any loss of interest. The frost which bridges every river and makes a hard and level causeway of every swamp, with the snow, which fills ^ery rut and cavity and buries boulders, logs, and stumps, enable the lumberman to send supplies for a whole year to his shanties; and, in like manner, the pioneer settler takes advantage of this season, to prepare for his summer's TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 119 work of establishing a home in the heart of the forest. It is only by contrasting this state of things with India, the Turkish Empire, or other snowless and roadless countries of the world, that we can determine what it is worth to have, as Canada has for months in every year, the best pos- sible road, not only on all main lines, but to every man's door and to every corner of his property. The winter road is too narrow for wheeled vehicles; in summer it is but a bridle road on the hard ground, and im- passable through the swamps. CORDUROY R0AD9. In forming a road for wheeled vehicles or in convertmg u winter road into a summer one, there are necessarily as many degrees of excellence (or rather badness) as are afforded by the character of the route, — the number, wealth, and intelligence of the settlers. But, whatever the means at their disposal, there seems to be a universal resort to the axe and log-chain, where the pick and shovel should be used. This wide-spread error is the result of habit: axes are in the hands of all, and familiar to all ; the pick and shovel are regarded as only fit for " canallers " and railway " navvies." Not only in the case of swamps (in many of which the corduroy system is indispensable), but wherever water at stated seasons collects on the surface, so as to soften the soil and cause the wheels to sink, whole hecatombs of trees are sacrificed to form a corrugated causeway of their round trunks, laid side by side, over which wagons can be slowly dragged or bumped, any attempt at speed being checked by immediate symptoms of approaching dissolution in the vehicle. When the country becomes cleared most of these vegetable causeways remain high and dry through- out the year, from the mere admission of sun and wind; but though no longer of any service, the logs are too often permitted to remain, because, half-buried as they are, the 120 TRAVEL ASD TRANSPORTATION. laborious and plebeian occupation of digging is required to extract tliera. It must, however, in justice, be admitted that in many cases where simple ditching would be better and cheaper than the corduroy, the latter can be done while the former can not, for want of tools or of time, at the pro- per season of the year. Where the foundation is a morass the corduroy is a ready and efficient mode of constructing a road; and, though most disagreeable to the traveler, and peihaps destructive to his vehicle, it is often impossible for the scattered settlers to do more. The captious visitor from oldc^r districts ma}'' grumble at the roads over which he is obliged to travel, but a liberal mind will acknowledge the formidable obstacles which the early settler must contend with, and not expect that, in addition to the war waged on the wilderness to obtain bread for his family, he can devote much of his labor to the common benefit. If, therefore, perhaps after 3^ears without any summer road at all, he can procure a passable one only, it is natural he should wait for assistance before attempting more. The great objection to the indiscriminate resort to corduroy is that many roads are kept in the worst state many years longer than they would be had they been left without this questionable improve- ment. As the settlement increases in numbers and wealth, and the evils of corduroy are appreciated, an attempt is' made to cover the logs with earth, by ditching from the sides when practicable, or by the more expensive process of hauling the material from the extreme ends. But where there is not a morass beneath the logs, the frost penetrates and throws them up through their scanty covering, and there can be no rest for these ghosts of the murdered trees until they are wholly removed or buried the " full fathom " deep. THE COMMON OR GRADED ROAD. This is that stage which has emerged from the bridle, winter, or corduroy to the condition of a highway marked TRAVEL AND TRANSPOUTATION. 121 out by fences in the clearings or by wide openings tlirough the woodland, — formed, drained, and bridged, with logs ex- tracted or effectually buried, and hills graded down within reasonable limits; but without any other road-bed than that afforded by the underlying or adjacent soil. These roads are excellent in midsummer and midwinter, and (except when broken up by frost in spring and autumn) are seldom surpassed, even by the turnpike, except for the heaviest traflic. The common road as it becomes consolidated is better for the horse and more agreeable to the traveler than any other, and, except where in loose sand, affords facilities for travel and transport during the summer months only inferior to those of the winter ones. Their chief defect is in their Eoman straightness, following the concessions or side-lines of the original survey arbitrarily, and encounter- ing obstacles which might easily be avoided. Land-owners attach importance to straight and rectangular boundaries as more easily ascertained and maintained, and therefore op- pose propositions to have their fields encroached upon to improve the road. Although the bail of the pot is no longer when on the fire than when off — when upright than when horizontal, — it does not seem to be conceded that it may often be as short to go around the hill, upon the level, as to climb over it. The value of level roads is demonstrated in the highest degree by the locomotive, which, upon an ascent of only one in one hundred, can not draw more than one fourth the load which can be taken on the level. The act of parliament only requires hills to be reduced to one in twenty on toll roads and railway crossings, and we often see them one in ten or less on other roads. If the principles of transportation were moi'e thoroughly appreciated, all our main routes would be improved by abandoning locations which can never give a good road, and by avoiding, as far as possible, all hills, particularly those which are to be ascended in the direction of the heaviest traffic, thus making t ' »"i"*»r?" i 12i TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 1 ■.,* Mm the road towards the market as far as possible, down hill. The reflection that millions in number and in value must, until the end of time, travel over the roads, perhaps as we lay them out, should secure the utmost carefulness and consci* entiousncss in the location of all our highways, railways in- cluded, so as to avoid the unnecessary loss of time and waste of horse-power and steam-power now going on daily over all this continent. TURNPIKE ROADS. Gravel Roads. — The existence of large deposits of gravel at many points, and the fact that the natural roads upon a gravel formation were the best, led to its being used exten- sively lor metalling graded roa( > s. For light traffic it makes a smooth and hard road ; but it is not, as usually applied, capabl 3 of resisting the heaviest traffic. If sufficiently clean, and laid on to a proper depth, it will form a road fit for any purjjose; but so formed, it, in the majority of cases, will be more expensive than broken stone. Plank Roads. — These were introduced after the union, and were extensively used at first; but as a class they may be said to have proved foi lures, except as a temporary ex- ped'cnt. In many districts where there is neither stone nor gra^^el, and where plank abounds, they have been the only means of f.ocommodating a hcfvy traffic, and are particu- larly valuable where the natural road-bed is sand. Sand, except when frozen or covered with snow, is almost as great an obstacle to t;-affic as swamps; and plank, although a perishable, is an expeditious and generally economical mode of overcoming it. In many cases it will pay to lay down plank in order to cheapen the cost of putting metal on the same road ; and, as the plank will last several years, the tolls collected in that time may reimburse the cost. Where lumber is cheap and where stone can not be obtained near the road, it will be policy to make th^ first covering of the grad( been devised notice these, there is little their form; wear them dc through, and gravel is wi second time, out, and unle durable road. Macadam . experience in over any oth( much impair( repairs, and 1: idly to consol proper size a sand (and th( avoided excej thus two or " bound." T worn out, wl years are con tem, with sc£ The only proj roads in the p are the turnp These roads i tolls are free! to wear out, t kept in good ( the roads are companies wh TRAVKL AND TRANSPORTATION. 123 of the graded turnpike with planks. Many plans have been devised for laying the planks, but it is unnecessary to notice these, as their duration does not depend on this. '*' there is little traffic they warp and rot without re^'jrence to their form; and if there is much traffic the horses' feet wear them down : and when thus weakened they are broken through and soon become a nuisance. When stone or gravel is within reach, plank should never be laid the second time, unless the tolls re])lace them as fast as worn out, and unless there be a lack of means to make the more durable road. Macadam Roads. — This system, after about forty years' experience in Europe and America, has proved its supei iority over any other; but its value in this country has been very much impaired by inattention to details in construction and repairs, and by the want of a sufficiently heavy traffic rap- idly to consolidate the new road. The metal, often of im- proper size and inferior quality, unless " blinded " with Band (and thereby deteriorated) or covered with snow, is aA'^oided except for a short time in spring and autumn; and thus two or more seasons are passed before it becomes " bound." The repairs are then postponed until the road is worn out, when it is again renewed en masse; and thus years are consumed in the infancy and old age of this sys- tem, with scarcely an intermediate period of efficiency. The only properly constructed and managed macadamized roads in tlie province, with perhaps one or two exceptions, are the turnpike trusts outside of Montreal and Quebec. These roads are in the hands of commissioners, and as the tolls are freely expended on them, they are never allowed to wear out, but by constant repairs with clean metal are kept in good order. In Upper Canada, on the other hand, the roads are generally in the hands of lessees or stock companies whose practice it is to lay out nothing upon them / ■'■ 124 TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. which can be avoided. There is no stronger instance of the patience and law-abiding disposition of the people than in their toleration of so great an imposition as most of the toll-roads of Upper Canada. It matters not whether a com pany has purchased the right of way, cleared the forest, fenced, " graveled," and bridged a road, or whether it has thrown down stones or plank upon an old highway made ready for them at the cost of the public, — the traveler (who has perhaps exerted all his skill in driving between the loose stones and broken planks and the ditches, or in " straddling " the ruts) is arrested every four or five miles by a toll-gate. In winter toll is exacted even if sleighs are used, which can only be defended on the ground that some revenue must be had; but in summer there is not this relief, although it would be safe to say that, for the greater part of that season at least, the roads would be much more efficient in their natural state than they are as " improved." Such roads have no resemblance to the turnpike trusts of Lower Canada, except at the toll-gates; and the continuance of so great a nuisance as barriers on even the best of roads must be regardc^d as evidences of a preference on the part of the most intelligent population of Upper Canada for direct taxation. It may be argued that those who wear out the road should pay for keeping it in order; but this might be met by an annual assessment on hoofs and wheels without the intervention of toll-gates. If the cities and mai'ket- towns assumed tlie tolled roads, they have it in their power, by fees, market-rates, &c., to levy the amount required; and there would thus be bodies interested by their mutual competition in keeping the roads permanently in good order. This, however, "s one of th' vso reforms which wc can not hope to attain until wc are i\xr enough advanced to thick of fencing our animals in instead of fencing them out, TRAVEL AND TRANSPOKTATION. ROAD POLICr. 126 The provision for roads in many of the townsliips of Upper Canada is excessive. The usual dimensions of the lots are a quarter of a mile in width and a mile and a quar- ter in I'Tigtii, containing two hundred acres; and in some townships, in order to give every lot frontage on a highway, road allowances sixty-six feet wide, running from front to roar, have been reserved every half-mile. The concessions (which are reserves of a similar width) divide each tier of lots so that they occur at intervals of every mile and a quarter; thus the lots may be halved, and each hundred acres, front and rear, will have a road allowance upon two sides of the property. In townships of unbroken, and dry land the roads become established upon those allowances; but in many cases, intervening; obstacles force the road through private property, where it remains on sufferance until (from the permanent character of the obstacle) it is duly established by authority, when it is enlarged to the regulated width and the " statute labor " expended on it. Befo/c the union of the provinces, and the establishment of municipal institutions in 1841, considerable amounts were annually granted by the Legislature for roads and bridges. These were in fact almos'. the only public works prior to the era of can.als and railways and public debt, and absorbed the greater part of the net revenues. This system still obtains in the lower colonies, and their main roads are unsurpassed, as a class, by those of any other government on tliis continent. Aid from the public chest was generally restricted to trunk lines and bridges beyond the means of local taxation oi " statute labor ; " but, by judicious "log- rolling," as the barter of vote for vote between members is called, tliis aid became so widely disti-ibuted and the num- ber of chiimants so increased as to force the leaving of SIT j-^^' ■ 126 TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. road-m;iking wholly in the hands of the localities, except in ihe case of new roads for settlement, or where large areas of public land remained unsold. The dissatisfaction created by the apportionment of the road moneys was one of the arguments in favor of municipal institutions which have since relieved parliament of applications on account of what may be called local roads. While there is little doubt that it was high time the old, rich, and populous districts should no longer abuse their greater political strength to secure for their own doors the lion's sluire of the road moneys, it is equally clear that, in bc'ng thrown upon their own resources, a load has been imposed upon many of the back counties which they are unable to bear. It may cost one county, by reason of numerous large rivers, deep ravines, jwamps, &c., ten times as much to make its road)-^ as it costs another more favorably situated ; and the more broken the country the less good land and the fewer the in- habitants, so tliat the tenfold expenditure fidls upon a pop- ulation only one-tenth of that in the older front counties. Again, the back counties conti'il^ute so much to the werdth of the front ones, that the latter may with justice be abkeJ to share a burden from which, by the natural fr rmation of the district, the labors of their fathers, or from paat government aid, thi^y are comparatively exempt. Honest- ly administered, the system which prevails in the low- er coloni('s, and which once existed hero, is at least tlie most equitable ; and it ca)ii only be docried by tlie con- fession that there is not public virtue enough to sustain it. The proceeds from sales of the -jrown lands and the rev- enues derived from the valuable timber thereon, do not ac- crue to tlic municipalities in which these may be situated, and as there seems to bo a natural claim upon tins fund for roads in the same district, the provincial treasury which re- ceives may with reasonableness be asked to give. This Shorinpf the ar Turnpike Iruati,.. TRAVEI. AND TRANSPORTATIO». 127 principle has been recognized by the government of the United States, which, in organizing new states, made pro- vision for roads out of the proceeds of the public lands sold in each state ; and is acknowledged by us as respects what are called Colonization Roads. STATGMGNl' Sho ving the amount expended by the Legislature of Upper and Lower Can- ada, respeetivoly, fiom 1791 to 1861, for Roads and Bridges; also, the amount expended since the Union by Municipalities and Road Companies, in the construction of Turnpike Roads : ExPBNnsD BY Upper Canada : General (grunts for roadt (.id bridges. Bpecial npproprintiona for roads Speciil .ipprijjrrintions foi bridges, (5U) . . . CrnnL* for colonization rundi, Roads biiil'. by mi>nic:i palitiesuiidjoinlsiock compunies, Comman Roadt. Mila. Mncadflni Rnadi. Milet. .714 .938 •1,302 .137 FUnk Roads. mia. .135 Cost Before Union. Cost Since Union $763,200.00 ..753,466.65 ...13,456.00 1,529,123.65 Gencrni grant for roads and bridges, 283 104 Total, Upper Canada, £XPUNDBD EY LOWBII CANADA! 782,24000 $1,392,707.00 . . . .91,537.75 .. 528,739.21 4,366,522.00 6,379,505.90 Total Cost. .8762,200.00 2,146,173 65 ,. 104,993.75 ,. 5.:rf,739.31 4,366,522.00 7.908,028.61 G|)eciiil nppropriniions for roads Special npprcprintinns for bridgCH, (32). . Grants for colonization ronds, Turnpike trusts Roads built by niiinici- piilities nod joint stock cunipbnios, (nn r-ilurn) .893 ,1,537 22 .P34 8 ....SI 230,380.00 21,500.00 m Total, Li'wer Canada, Grand Total, Upper and Lower Canada,.... 780,711,19 218,909.00 44n,7e6.32 425,365.79 . . 782,240.00 1,011,091.19 . . 240,409.00 .. 440,786 32 . 425,205.73 1,034120.00 2,.'=n:!,«'-',2.05 .. so,niio.o<''.. 20,000.00 l,89l,6'^2.2;j 8,271,178.19 2,925,792.23 10,834,420,84 " Uraveled roadi only, on nearly all ot which lulls are ccilleclnd. I M Mi!' H t 128 TRAVKL AND TRANSPORTATION. The Plank, Gravel, and Macadam roads of Lower Can- ada were nearly all constructed by Parliamentary grants. This road expenditure of $10,834,420.84 excludes those made by statute labor or commutation money ; and all mu- nicipal outlay on common roads. The colonization road expenditure in Upper Canada in- cludes that from the Improvement Fund, — applicable to new townships. TABLE Of Plank, Gravel, and Macadam Roads constructed by municipalitiea and Joint Stock Companies in Upper Canada, since the Union. Counties. PUnk Road. No. MUa. Gravel Road, No. MUa. Macadam Road. No. Milel. Total No.Milei. Total Cost. Brnnt, (no return.) 37 37 . . $37,000.00 ... 12,000.00 Cnrleton, (no relnrn,) 6 6 Klpin 42 42 . . . 84,000.00 Frontennc, Lcnno.Y, und Addington, 106 166 177 .. 318,(M)0.00 Grey, 177 . . 200,000.00 none. 60 Ilnlton 60 .. 100,000 00 9 94 103 .. 191,300.00 177 177 . . 462,400.00 Kent, 14 19 3 33 . . 66,0(10.00 Ltiiiibtoi], 18 21 . . . 42,000.00 Lanark nnd Kenfrew, (no return,) Leeds ruid Grenville, .... iiaj .. si27,'848()6 Lincoln 20 .52 153 .. 127,,')00.00 Middlesex 11 142 . . 600 UOO.OO Norfulk, (I'lnnk nnd firnvel,) 88 .. 140,000 00 229 .. 4!I2,000.00 8 8 ... 12,000.00 Oxford, 11 112 101 134 ....1364 101 . . 2,').5,.")I10.00 I'crtI . . 20U,4.')7.00 6 6 ... 12,000.00 Prcscott nnd Russell, none. 200 , 200 Stntntelnlior. Sinicoe. (no return,) 6 5 11 ... 22.000,00 Stnrmont, Dundos, and Glengary, 24 4 28 1 . . . 60,000.00 1 .... 'J.(l( 10(H) Wellnnd, 28 28 82* .. 111,877.(10 Wellinpton 82.\ .. ] 62,640.90 Wentwortli 13 12J 46 71* Hi .. 194.(HH).0(I York and Peel, (no return,) Ill . . 222,000.00 Totol 194 1,302 2,834 2,277 4.366,.522.00 Note.— Coat ia eatiinated where not given, and known roaoa are inaerted in cnaea where n* return woa tnade. ■pap TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. WATER COMMUNICATIONS. 129 The pliysical geography of Canada, presents a marked contrast with respect to rivers and water communica- tions, to that of the States of the Union. The Mississippi and its numerous tributaries are navigable, at some seasons of the year, from their mouths almost to their sources ; but the St. Lawrence and its branches are beset, a little beyond tide-water, with rocky barriers to navigation which are re- peated at varying distances — generally with lakes or long deep reaches intervening. The proportion of water navi- gable in both directions to that of rapids, chutes, and cata- racts is, however, so great, that for purposes of transporta- tion the St. Lawrence presented to the early explorer less obstacles than the Mississippi, — the upper waters of which were first reached through the great lakes, by Jolliette and Marquette in 1673, and by Hennepin in 1680. Between Quebec and Chicago — a fresh-water navigation of 1,450 miles, — the total length of canal is only sixty-eight and a half miles: and in the proposed improvement of the Ottawa navigation, out of a total of four hundred miles between Montreal and Lake Huron the length of canal is only thirty miles, about one-third of which is upon the Island of Montreal itself. On this latter route, — by which, the Algon- quins avoided the Iroquois, and which afterward became the highwa}'- of the voyageurs of the fur companies, — a few miles of portages constituted all the land carriage required between Montreal and the centre of the continent. In the later operations of the lumberman the long reaches of level road upon the ice of the Ottawa, and of its lakes and tributaries, have carried the supplies into the inmost recesses of the forest. This terracelike profile of the northern rivers is not with- out its ameliorating influence upon the temperature daring the two or three short periods of intense cold which occur ill !■ 1. "BP'rfU I, i !■ i ■^lidi*M 130 TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION*. in a Canadian winter. "While a thick covering of snow re- tains heat in the earth for the protection of vegetation, and when the lish retire to the shelter of the deep water in the ice-covered lakes, the open area at the rapids affords the principal outlet for radiation, — which increases with the in- tensity of the frost — and at these points an almost constant congelation in the form of " anchor ice " upv.n the bed of the stream, sets free an additional supply of latent heat. Another peculiarity of the Canadian navigation is its great directness. From the Straits of Belle Isle to the head of Lake Erie, the St. Lawrence affords a navigation almost upon an air-line; and from Montreal to the western extrem- ity of Lake Superior, the Ottawa gives a route nearly direct. The Mississippi and many of its tributaries, on the other hand, double the air-line distance between their cities, and oppose an almost uniform current to ascending craft. While hatleaiix could be dragged up the rapids and sail up the St. Lawi-ence in ten or twelve days from Montreal to Lake Ontario, and there transfer their cargoes to schooners, it required four months to pole a keel boat up the Mississippi from New Orleans to St. Louis; and it was not until the successful invention of the steamboat that the western rivers could be commercially navigated, and thus have their fertile valleys opened to the immigrant. The river St. Lawrence — that greai; aorta of the province of Canada, waich drains an area of half a million of square miles, and opens a highway for ocean borne vessels from the Atlantic fully two thousand miles into the interor, or more than lialf-way across the continent, — has ever been a base-line of operations in those struggles, both military and commercial, which have taken place between the rival races and rival offshoots from tlie 'jarne race in the New World. Its two incjst important branches, the Ottawa and the Richelieu, were, on account of their great directness towards the AVcst and South, their slack-water, and the greater de- pression in Algonquin a none the less our own tin sweeping the Gulf of Me.^ level at the a direct line tion of the s; charges in a by means of feet above ti connecting it A subsidence along the lin tion between of New Eng The progrc rivers are — The Bark ( The Battea The Barge The Horse- The Steam' To which — fc Bail-crafl requ The Bark aborigines is < for travel and igation which improve upor fiiiled, and it : man for asccn p^^.'^^ TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 131 pression in their valleys, favorite tliorouglifai es of the Algonquin and the Iroquois, and theso characteristics are none the less important to the commercial requirpraents of our own time. The Appalachian chain of mountains, sweeping the curve of a great circle of the earth from the Gulf of Mexico to the St. Lawrence, is cleft to the ocean level at the Hudson Eiver, and only there. Almost in a direct line north of tbis river, and apparently a continua- tion of the same fissure in the chain, Lake Champlain dis- charges in an opposite direction, into the St. Lawrence, by means of the river Eichelieu. Tliis lake is only eighty feet above tide water, and the summit level of the canal connecting it with the Hudson is only fifty-five feet liighcr. A subsidence, therefore, of only one hundred and fifty feet, along the line of this valley, would open salt-water naviga- tion between Montreal and New York, and make an island of New England and the Lower Colonies. PROGRESS OF NAVIGATION. The progressive stages in the navigation of the northern rivers are — The Bark Canoe: The Batteau ; The Barge or Durham Boat; Tiie Horse-boat; The Steamboat ; To which — for the lakes — may be added every description Bail-craft required in ocean navigation. The Bark Canoe. — This primitive vessel of the northern aborigines is one of the most useful and economical vehicles for travel and light traffic upon a broken and sheltered nav- igation which can possibly be devis'^d. Every attempt to improve upon it, by substitution of tin or otherwise, has failed, on(l it is to this day the favorite craft of the lumber- man for ascending or descending the tributaries of the Ot- 9 1 ' ' ' "' ii ,iV;N M^ '' ..iiMi^' . !*=■ i) » 182 TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. tawa, where no summer roads are found. In size they range between nine and thirty feet — one and a half to five fathoms, as the measurement is usually given. The smaller size will only carry one person, with a small stock of food or neces- saries to trim the ship; and as one person can easily carry it, a considerable journey with numerous portages may be made solus wherever there is a foot of water in the stream. The larger canoes will carry twenty-five to thirty men, or a cargo of three tons, and when loaded draw two feet of water. The frame-work consists of numerous single ribs or laths, bent like an ox-bow, and terminating in the gunwales; all which, with the bow and stern-post, are made of white cedar {Thuya occidentalism) the lightest and most durable wood our forest affords. The few bars which maintain the opposite gunwales in situ are of maple, elm, or ash — cedar not being strong enough — ^but they are attached, through holes bored in their ends, by a seizing of young roots, (in- stead of Vieing framed in,) so that they can readily be replaced. The sheathing is the bark of the white birch {Betulu papyracea,) more durable than the cedar itself, (al- though that lasts as long as the owner,) sewed together and lashed to the gunwale with the fine, tough, and durable filaments which form the young roots of the spruce, and which are prepared by boiling. The seams are payed with a pitch composed of resin and tallow, which makes them water-tight; but often the raw gum of the forest tree id used. Thus it will be seen that with the exception of the cross-bars, so easily replaced, there is no perishable wood in the bark canoe; and they are lighter for their tonnage than any other craft of equal strength. Being very elastic they will stand a good deal of rubbing on boulders or water- worn roMks not sharp enough to cut them through; and if damaged the adjoining forest affords the means of repair. The largest canoe requires a crew of six to eight men, but can be carried by one-half this number; and it is on'y with TRAVEL AND IftANSPORTATION. 133 the larger sizes that more than one of the crew is needed to carry the vessel over the portages. At night the canoe in- verted affords shelter from rain and dew. The bark of the birch-tree forms the covering for the wigwam or hunters' camp — gives utensils in which flour is kneaded and water boiled — is the papyrus on which the Indian pioneer sketches with native plumbago hieroglyphics (which are left in cleft sticks at the portage landing) for the guidance of his following tribe — and makes the resinous torch for lighting the portage, the camp, or the night-fisher's spear; while the gi'cen wood from which it is stripped burns as readily on the camp-fire as the dry of any other tree. The BatteaxL — When the extent and regularity of the traffic called for some more improved means of transport, the batteau — a large, flat-bottomed skiff, sharp at both ends, about forty feet long and six to eight feet wide in the mid- dle, and capable of carrying about five tons — was substi- tuted. Sometimes they were confined to a particular reach of water; in other places they were, with the aid of ropes and windlasses, men and oxen, dragged up the shallow rapids ; or were unloaded and carted across the portages. They were provided with masts and lug-sails with about fifteen feet hoist, an anchor, four oars, and six setting-poles shod with iron, and a crew of four men and a pilot. With forty barrels of flour on board they drew only twenty inches of water. Their great merit was in their entire adaptation to the work and to all conditions of the route. They could not be capsized in the excitement of a rapid, while their light draft enabled them to creep up along shore; nor could the flat bottoms be easily damaged on the water-worn rocks. When coasting along the shore of the great lakes, if the sea became too rough they could be hauled up and inverted to afford shelter like a canoe. Though by no means models their light draft and displace- i ;. li .i-i' i ,-Jii^ IMAGE EVALUATION TESTT/RGET (MT-3) / C'^/ 4 o ,<^^/% £p. %o Q- W, 1.0 M pa ||25 t^ m 2.2 e 1^ 2.0 *MUt. 1.8 I.I 1.25 1.4 1.6 I " ^ — u ^ V] ■/a t-'* / o e/. ^V^i^^ ^ ^ C^;.! /^ Photographic Sciences Corporation \ iV 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.V 14580 (716) 872-4503 % V ^^ \ \ % l> \ L(? Q- W, 134 TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. ment and their sharp bows made them tolerable sailers and not difficult to row. In the last century the batteau was used, almost exclusive Ij, on the inland waters. Although ships of four hundred tons then came up once a year to Montreal, and although there were, as early as 1795, three merchant vessels on Lake Ontario of from sixty to one hundred tons, which made cloven voyages in the year, (besides the six king's vessels which carried the mails, troops, and passengers,) the batteau was still used for purposes of travel and light transport fi'oni Quebec to York. Passengers from Montreal went down with the current to Quebec in a batteau having a sec- tion covered with cloth stretched over hoops, forming a sort of cabin ; but came up by land to save time. From Mon- treal westward there was no choice; the passengers were obliged to camp on shore at night, and shot over the adJQin- ing woods while the crew were toiling up the rapids. This state of things continued until the introduction of the steam- boat and the completion of the land road. llie Durham Boat was introduced after the war of 1812 by the Americans, and adopted to a considerable extent by the Canadians, the object being to combine the light draft of the batteau with better sailing qualities and greater ton- nage capacity. They were flat-bottomed barges with keel and center-board, and with rounded bows; eighty to ninety feet long and nine to ten feet beam, with a capacity about ten times that of a batteau, or about 350 barrels of flour, down ; but, in consequence of the rapids and want of back freight, they brought only about eight tons up, on the aver* age. The commencement of agricultural exports and con- sequent increase in Lho downward tonnage, after the war, called those boats into existence; for, though unable to carry u full load up the stream, they could bring up enough to moot tho demands of llu^ route, — the proportions between the down and up freights having materially changed from l:: TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 135 those in 1795-1800, when the batteaux bringing up pro- visions from below for the new settlers and taking down peltries as the only export, were equallj' loaded both wa3'3. Sail Vessels. — The French traversed Lake Ontario jn sail vessels two hundred years ago, and in 1679 La Salle laiuK'hed the Griffin, above Niagara Falls, in which he sailed to Lake Michigan; but nothing more pretentious than a batteau or open boat was constructed, for commercial purposes only, previous to 1790. It was not until 179(3 that any vessel bearing the American flag was afloat above Niagara Falls. She was a British built, 75-ton sloop, pur- chased from the North- West Fur Cornpanjr. The Simcoe was the first commercial schooner on Lake Ontario. She was built at Simcoe Island about 1793, by the North West Fur Company, and was commanded by Henry Murncy, who built the second vessel, the Prince Edward, in 1798, at the Stone Mills on the Bay of Quinte. In 1795, three merchant vessels were engaged between Kingston and Queenston. Merchandise was taken up and furs and skins brought down, and this trade then employed as many as fifty to sixty wagons daily on the portage around Niagara Falls. Still, however, the batteau coasted along the north shore, and it was not till after the war of 1812 that the Carrying Place was al)andoned — because communication was maintained by the Bay of Quinte while Lake Ontario was in possession of the enemy. Government schooners first commenced carrying passengers through Lake Ontario in 1791 : the fare was only two guineas, wines included, which, as the voyage nn'ght last a week, was very moderate. The Cherokee, a Canadian vessel, built and sailed by Cap- tain Gaskin, was the first lake craft which crossed tiio Atlantic; and the Dean Kichmond, from Chicago, in 1855, was the ilrst iNmcrican vessel which entered into the direct trade with Europe, A Lake Erie vessel, from Cleveland, in 18-49, went out of the St. Lawrence and around Cape 136 TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. Ilorn, with passengers, &c,, for California. The first Eng. lish vessel which reached Chicago from Liverpool was the Madeira Pet, in 1856. The following table shov;s the fluctuations in the Cana- dian lake marine in the last ten years. The decrease since 1857 is owing to the insane efforts of the Grand Trunk Railway to rival the water route, the only result of which has been to ruin the boat owners and exhaust the road. The vessels arc, however, in existence, and their highway needs no repairs or renewals. They are, therefore, re-ap- pearing on the scene, no longer in danger from their worn- out and exhausted antagonist. BTATEMENT I'i Of the Number and Tonnage of Vessels built in Canada from 1850 to 1861 ; distinguishing those at Quebec and Gasp^, which are chiefly sea-going, from those at inland ports. Year. 1850,.., 1851..., 1852,.., 1853,.., 1854,.., 18.')5,... 1856,.., 18.57,.. 1858,.. 18.59,.., I860,.., 18G1,.. , Saimno Vessels Quebec am\ Gaspe. Inland Ports. No. , 65 . 65 , 48 . 80 , 72 . 73 , 80 . 65 . 50 . 43 . 55 . 53 Tonnage. 31,204 . 41,505 . 28,003 . 51,124 . 46.993 . 32,001 . 36.765 . 38,592 . 20,326 . 14,997 . 22,426 . , 26,737 . No. 11 12 14 56 32 40 46 45 35 20 14 32 [onnage. 876 , 1,144 1,403 7,272 4,829 7,702 4,819 , 5,788 , 4,234 1,.579 1,102 5,295 Quebec. No. Tonnage . 8 . 3 . 4 -Steamers — 8 6 8 3 8 3 3 2 839 . . 3 .. 150 .. 1 .. 572 .. 5 .. . . 2 .. 518 .. 8 .. 933 . . 18 .. 485 . . 14 .. 173 .. 13 .. 697 . . 9 .. 285 . . 3 .. 354 . . 2 .. 223 .. 9 .. Inland Ports. No. Tonnage. 300 1,1 39 J 674 1.715 2,335 3,270 2,383 1,980 175 111 932 The Horse-Boal. — This vessel, adapted only to short and sheltered ferries, may be considered the true forerunner of the steamboat — which latter is an extension of the system on a larger scale and with a vastly superior power, but in* volving a different mechanical arrangement between the en- gine and the paddle-wheels both of which were compara- tively old — the engine having been in use efficiently for ovef As soon as the first Hon. troduce stean A small expe TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 137 thirty years on land, and the wheels on the horse-boat, h& fore they were brought together in the steamboat. Boats of this description, worked by four horses, were established on the Niagara Eiver in 1793, at Fort Erie, Queenston, and Niagara; and, even as late as 183-1, one was put on the ferry across Toronto Harbor. But now steam has almost everv where relieved the noblest of animals from the worst of the many forms in which he has been doomed to suffer in the service of man. The Steamboat — It is generally conceded that the steam- engine was first invented by the Marquis of Worcester, in 1663; but it was an atmospheric engine, usually more costly than horse-power, until taken in hand by Watt in 1765. AVilliam Symington succeeded in applying an engine to a boat, so as to obtain a speed of five miles per hour, in 1788, and seven miles per hour, in 1789; but, neither of these proving serviceable, he built the first practicable steamer the Charlotte Dundas, in 1801, and set her at work on the Forth and Clyde Canal ; but the swell caused by her paddles proving injurious to the canal banks, she was laid up. Fulton visited Symington, who "fired up" the Cliar- lotte Dundas and gave him a trip at the rate of six miles per hour. He requested and obtained permission to take notes — Symington, who was protected in Great Britain, ap- pearing iudillcrcnt to any use which might be made in America of his labors. Fulton thereafter proceeded to the United States, and, securing a patent, launched the Clermont hi 1807, having wisely taken the precaution to import tlie engine from Boulton and Watt in England. The Clermont commenced her trips regularly in 1808, and was the first Bteamer applied to any regular purposes of transport. As soon as this demonstration was made on the Hudson, the first Hon. John Molson, of Montreal, determined to in troduce steam upon the route between Quebec and that city. A small experimental i)oat was built at Montreal called tha 1 1 ' 'I isH i ■mm •r"i f;f .LiMjiiL m mm 138 TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. Accommodation, said to have been only about forty tons, with seventy-five feet keel and eighty-five feet length on deck, the engine of which was made at the ancient works at Three Rivers. After various alterations in the boilers, she set out, on Wednesday, the 1st day of November, 1809, at 2 P. M., for Quebec, which she reached on Saturday morning, the 4th, at 8 A. M., — having been thirty hours at anchor. Her running time, with the current, therefore, was thirty-six hours, and her average speed under five miles per hour; but it is stated that her time to Three Rivers was twenty-four hours. She had berths for twenty passengers, at that time, but brought only ten to Quebec ; the passage- money down was ei.Q:ht dollars, and up, nine dollars. She was propelled by *' open double-spoked perpendicular wheels, without any circular band or rim." Her return to Montreal occupied a week or more ; and, although she was kept on the route in 1810, the adventure was a serious loss to Mr. Molson, who determined nevertheless to persevere. In 1811, he proceeded to England and ordered an engine from Messrs. Boulton and Wact, and commenced the hull of the Swiftsure for its reception. This boat was completed, late in the season of 1812, in time to be of much service during the war which commenced in that year. The first passenger steamer in Britain was only established in that year, so that, in emplojnng steam navigation, the colony was not behind the mother country. Immediately after the peace of 1815, sevcrnl gentlemen of Kingston determined to introduce steam navigation upon Lake Ontario; and on the 7th of September, 1816, the steamer Frontenac was launched at the village of Ernest- town. She was one hundred and fifty feet keel, one hundred and seventy feet over all, thirty feet beam, and twelve feet depth of hold; her wheels were thirteen feet in diameter, her draft of water when loaded eight feet, and she was rated at 7-12 tons. The machinery was imported from Eng* land, an $28,000.; men of i was own of the C zie, and, 1817, we ton, for from Kii route wa! ports, to thence, v the same Steerage selves. I pounds, in the ri\ ers, who Kingston on the la In Au< called th( ciates, of trial trip whether i has not b which w( to navigii intercstin The N incorpor? vote of 7 that it w( if Fulton had some i s ■1 I TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 139 land, and tbe contract price for tlie hull was £7,000 (or $28,000.) The Frontenac was pronounced " the best speci- men of naval architecture yet produced in America," and was owned by respectable merchants and other inhabitants of the Count y. She was commanded by Captain Macken- zie, and, after making her trial trip, on the 30th of May, 1817, went on her route in June from Prescott to Burling- ton, for which distance the fare was eighteen dollars; but from Kingston to York it was only twr' /e dollars. Her route was advertised from Prescott, touching at the river ports, to Kingston, Ernesttown, Newcastle, and York; thence, via Burlington Beach, to Niagara, returning over the same route, — the round trip requiring about nine days. Steerage passengers paid three dollars and "found" them- selves. Cabin passengers paid extra baggage over sixty pounds. Having touched, it is said not unwillingly, a rock in the river on her first attempt to go to Prescott, her own- ers, who were interested in maintaining transhipment at Kingston, withdrew from the river navigation and kept her on the lake. In August, 1816, a small steamer of two hundred tons, called the Ontario, owned by Mr. Charles Smith and asso- ciates, of Albany, was launched at Sackett's Ilarbor. Her trial trip is said to have been made in April, 1817; but whether she traversed the lake before the Frontenac or not has not been established. These were the first steamboats which were tried, out of river navigation, and the attempt to navigate the lakes by them was then looked upon as an interesting experiment. The New York Legislature n^fused, in March, 1816, to incorporate a steamboat company for Lake Ontario, by a vote of 75 to 49, on the ground, as was stated at the time, that it would facilitate trade down the St. Lawrence; but, if Fulton's right extended to the lakes, that fact may have had something to do with the defeat of the measure. In 181J from the s between ] river boat dersleeve nac) for a Johns, Di these two transporta the King8 flection tl are calcuL that the p; exclusive legislature to grant 1 measure v £17,000, J Hon. Jno. spent in c and river. The eel land in 1 pulsion o class now lakes, dians. The wl now upon 132,327 t( are Cana< uation of The m: ment to tl wa.- TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 141 In 1818, tbe Cba:^loItf, a river steamer, was launched from the same yard where the Frontenac was built, to ply between Prescott and Carrying Place. She was the first river boat in Upper Canada, and was built by Henry Gil- dersleeve (who was also the assistant builder of the Fronte- nac) for a committee consisting of Smith Bartlett, Solomon Johns, Daniel Washburn, and Peter Hetsel. Although these two boats held almost a monopoly of lake and river transportation, the future was so doubtful to the editor of the Kingston Gazette^ that he consoled himself with the re- flection that " whether they prove profitable or not, they are calculated to promote the public good." It was said that the p^-oprietors not only sought government aid, but the exclusive right of steam navigation, — a right which the legislature of Lower Canada had more than once declined to grant to Mr. Molson. The fate of the Frontenac in a measure warranted these fears; for, although she cost about £17,000, she was sold in 1825, at auction, for £1,550, to the Hon. Jno. Hamilton, of Kingston, whose whole life has been spent in developing steamboat transportation on the lake and river. The celebrated Swedish engineer, Ericsson, while in Eng- land in 1837, successfully applied the screw to the pro- pulsion of vessels. In 1841, the Vandalia, the first of a class now numbering over one hundred and twenty on the lakes, was built at Oswego, and afterwards sold to Cana- dians. The whole number of steamers, propellers, and tugs now upon the lakes is 863, with an aggregate tonnage of 132,327 tons, and a valuation of $5,576,000. Of these, 100 are Canadian, having a tonnage of 30,511 tons, and a val- uation of $1,397,000. OCKAN STEAMERS. The magnificent subsidy awarded by the British govern- ment to the Cunard line had the effect of diverting Canadian \ , ■l ■ \ |:;n .1. \ f >IH ^'^H ■+■ i iM yylyy^L wmm 142 TRAVliiL AND TRANSPORTATION. traffic with Europe from the St. Lawrence river tluougb the ports of Boston and New York. The policy of the Imperial government, which tended to build up American seaports at the expense of Canadian, left the colony no other resource than competition. On the 13th of August, 1852, a contract was entered into between the commissioner of public works of Canada, and Messrs. McKean, McLarty & Co., a Liver- pool firm, for the term of seven yeais, by which a line of screw steamers of not less than 1,200 tons carpenters' meas- urement, 300 horse-power, and capable of carrying 1,000 tons of cargo besides coal for twenty-four daj's, were to commence running between Liverpool, Quebec, and Mon- treal, in the spring of 1853, once every fortnight during the season of navigation, and to Portland once a month ; the outward passage not to exceed fourteen days, and i\\i homeward passage thirteen days. The maximum ra>:e of freight to be charged was 60s. per ton. Fourteen tri;)3 v/cre to be made from Liverpool to the St. Lawrence and back, for which at least live steamers were to be provided; and five trips to Portland and back, for which three steamers were required. The vessels were all to be ready and to commence their fortnightly service on or before the 1st of May, 1854; and a sufficient number to be ready and to com- mence the monthly trips in the spring of 1853. The price to be paid by the province was, for fourteen fortnightly trips to the St. Lawrence, £1,238 Is. lid. sterling per trip. The Grand Trunk Railway was to pay £336 6s. 8d. sterling for each monthly trip to Portland. In October, 1852, Messrs. McKean, McLarty k Co. formed a provisional company under the title of the " Liverpool and North American Screw Steam-Ship Company," and pe- titioned the board of trade for a royal charter, with limited liability. In this they were vigorously o.nc. successfully op- posed by the Cunard company, and g-''nerally by British ship-owners not protected by limited liablity, and were TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 143 compelled to attempt the formation of their company under a Canadian charter. Under this contract, the Geneva, a small steamer of 700 tons and 160 horse-power, was sent out in 1853, — the first transatlantic screw steamer which entered the St. Lawrence. The Lady Eglinton, 600 tons and 160 horse-power, and the Sarah Sands, 1,200 tons and 150 horse-power, followed; these boats made five trips only in 1853. The aver^ige voyage; out was fourteen to twenty-two days, and home twelve to eighteen days; and 80s. freight, instead of 6O5., was charged. In consequence of this total failure on the part of the contractors, the government of Canada annulled the contract, and on the 28th of September, 1855, a new one was entered into with Hugh Allan, of Montreal, to commence in April, 1856, and give the same time and num- Der of trips as before, but with vessels not less than 1,750 tons builders' measurement, and not less than 350 horse- power. The subsidy was £24,000 sterling per annum, and a penalty of £1,000 for every trip lost was provided for, besides the deduction of a pro-rata amount of the subsidy. Tlie contract was terminable by the contractor, at the end of any year, by giving six months' previous notice. Al- though t' e line was not remunerative in its first season, 1856, the contract was fulfilled in the most satisfactory manner, the outward passage being U7ider thirteen days, and the homeward a little over eleven days. The inefliciency of a semi-monthly line, especially for postal purposes, in competition with the subsidized line to Boston and New York, led to a revision of the contract in 1857, by which a weekly service to the St. Lawrence com- menced in May, 1859, at a subsidy of $220,000 per annum. In April, 1860, a new contract was entered into with Mr. Allan, to continue in force until the 1st of January, 1867, for a weekly line between Liverpool and the St. Lawrence, and in winter Portland. All the vessels, except the Anglo- !{ ill I I );1 IX': i,-)!,--; la > K ! W:l' w litas 1 1 iri: m « 144 TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. Saxon, Canadian, and North American, to be not less than 2,800 tons builders' measurement, with not less than 500 horse-power. Under this arrangement the ships must call at any port in Ireland which may be selected. The average passages in 1860 were twelve and eleven days, instead of fourteen and thirteen, the contract time. The subsidy is $-116,000 per annum; the penalty for every trip not per- formed is $5,000, bts3ides the contract value thereof; and the contract is terminable by the contractor on giving six months' notice, but by the government only in case of de- fault. The doubling of the subsidy was in consequence of the losses of the company in the first year of the weekly line, in which two of their steamers, the Indian and the Hungarian, were lost in the Atlantic, en route for Portland, while off the coast of Nova Scotia. In the winter of 1859, the Canadian steamships for Portland commenced to call at Cork, receiving supplemen- tary mails, with letters written in London after the steamer had left Liverpool; but as Cork was not suited to the St. Lawrence route, Londonderry was selected for the Irish port of call, and the first voyage, stopping there, was made from Liverpool on the 30th of May, 1860. The day of de- parture from Liverpool was also changed, in July, 1860, from Wednesday to Thursday, taking an extra day from the Cunard line, which leaves on Saturday. The Canadian line, in 1860, carried 620,000 letters be- tween the United States and Europe, and received $101:, 6-11.68, trom the United States' post-office, for this service. Previous to the arrangement of 1859 and 1860 the claims of the British and American post-offices, for packet and transit charges on Canadian correspondence with Europe, averaged $165,000 per annum; but, after 1860, they were reduced to $50,000 — the difference of $115,000 per annum being the amount accruing to Canada from the transport of her own European correspondence. This lin five of its Indian in ' Briton in rence and can be la steamer 1( lighthouse an incom] arrival. The fol pacity, &( LIVERPO AND LONDOND] LINE. North America An^lo Snxon, . Nova t'cotian,. Bolipmiiin, . . . . Iliberninn, .... Norwegian, . . . Jura, New ship, biiili The no approxim times the a marked the gross. There { to Glasgc visited M The St, the very ; tively s 1 w TRAVFL AND TRANSPORTATION. 145 This line has been unfortunate, in the loss of not loss than nve of its steamers in four years, — the Canadian in 1857, Indian in 1859, Hungarian in 1860, and Canadian and North Briton in 1861. Of these losses, two were in the St. Law- rence and three in the Atlantic, and of the former only one can be laid to the dangers of the navigation, as the first steamer lost was run ashore almost under the lamps of a lighthouse in full view, and on a bright, calm evening, by an incompetent pilot, who had assumed the control on her arrival. The following table shows the principal dimensions, ca- pacity, &c., of the Canadian ocean steamers : — MONTREAL OCEAN STEAMSHIP COMPANY. 3 03 p Draft of Ton nape •fl o i? rp fa's >. 9 g re TO O re ;= 3 5" ' 5' •c 3 9 "1 LIVERPOOL "A s- e 2. o Water. Measiirc't. (5 in' §o ■a 3' g_ n o 5:5 re 3 3 "A 5 Is ~o a c Il n 5' AND LONDONDERRY r ES 1 O o f 32 ■'1 a • ^ o o -> re 1 ■ =! n LINE. • • 1 '. ^ 3 n ■"4 o re i 1 North American, 2Tfi 35 11 19;J I'T&I 1-137 1-000 250 45 11 75 100 2.50 Anpio Piixon, 2T() [in 11 11)^ 1-784 ll(i5 1-000 2,50 45 II 75 KM) 250 Novn Heotian, 29*2 ■.i^ 13 -H 22.50 1-187 1-2.10 3(HI 50 10 () 1-488 l-2.')0 3(10 50 10 90 120 :»,5o Illberninn, 2!Hi 38 13 21 A 2-334 ]'8H8 1-1.50 MOO 48 11 90 120 3.50 Norwe''iiin, 2!I0 38 13 21^ 2;m 1-888 1-1.5(1 300 48 11 90 120 350 Jura, .?0.'j 37< m 22 2-24(1 1-007 1.200 40(1 CO 12 90 (H) :)50 New ship, biiiliiins,. .. 30() 38 13 22 2-350; I-2.50 500 50 15 110 120 350 The nominal horsepower, speed and ship's company are approximate ; the actual horse-power exerted is nearly four times the nominal. The Hibernian and Norwegian pIiow a marked advantage in the net tonnage as compared with the gross. There are two regular Lines of Screw Steamers sailing to Glasgow, and the pioneer vessel of one to London has visited Montreal. The St. Lawrence route to Liverpool as a steam one has the very great advantage of sheltered and therefore compa- tively smooth water from Cape Race to Quebec. The Can- !:i %'■ s>f i ji ,i « 146 TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. adian steamers have 1,000 miles less of open ocean to con- tend with than those plying to New York. Our mail steamers should therefore regularly make shorter time than the Cunard line, but for want of sufficient power they do not do so : and from over loading since the grain trade at Montreal has increased, their average voyages are longer now than they were before 18v30. The contract for fixing a maximum for the outward and homeward passage neces- sarily allows a margin for bad weather, and thus this pro- vision fails to secure that speed which alone can establish the route. The subsidy should not be renewed unless the utmost efficiency of which a screw line is capable of, is se- cured; for this is precisely one of those things which should be thoroughly done or not attempted at all. It is the height of folly to continue to pay a large subsidy to a line just fast enough to be beaten. The fastest line will take the mails, — the most prolitaole traffic; and a larger subsidy even than that now paid might prove remunerative if tliese can be secured. A subsidy is no longer needed to open the route, — it should now only be employed to demonstrate its superiority to all otherp. EARLY NAVIGATION OF THE ST. LAWRENCE,, During the first quarter of the present century, — before the state of New York had availed herself of that remark- able pass through the Alleghany range, whicli is afford- ed by the Hudson River, and had tapped Lakes Champlain, Ontario, and Erie by means of her grand canals, — exports from Noi-thern Vermont and New York, via Lake Cham- ]ilain (or Corlaer's Lake, as the Dutch had named it,) as well as from those tributaries of the St. Lawrence which take tlieir rise in the " Empire State," sought an outlet at Quebec and Montreal. Previous to the year 1822, American lum- ber, grain, &c., were admitted into Canada, duty free, and ti !j I ■ 1 1 j.^LjMi-'^' ■f exported, ■ ducts, to 1 York was and compi prepared t exports fro a duty upc in 1822, a properly si a duty mig to the meas into the B American ' Canada wo toms, via t the Mississ an evasion navigation Tills blund re-admissio Long bei improveme the whole ( constructed theLongue of larger si neers, as m the batteau when agric down (bofc which wcr( Some sligh: .1805 and : tinndise w the batteaii I TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 147 exported, witli all the privileges afforded to Canadian pro- ducts, to the British West-Indian colonies. While New York was pressing forward her canals (commenced in 1817 and completed in 1824,) the Imperial authorities, in 1822, prepared the way for the complete diversion of American exports from the St. Lawrence to those canals, by imposing a duty upon such exports to Canada. Sir J. B. Eobinson, in 1822, as the agent of Upper Canada in London, very properly suggested that the propriety, or otherwise, of such. a duty might safely be left to the Canadirns; but the defense to the measure was that, as Canadian products were iKlmitted into the British West-India colonies free of duty, while American were taxed, the free admission of the latter into Canada would be a discrimination in favor of British bot- toms, via the St. Lawrence, against American bottoms, via the Mississippi, of which the Americans would complain as an evasion " of the relaxation professed to be made in the navigation laws for the benefit of a reciprocal commerce." Tais blunder was, however, acknowledged, in 1831, by the re-admission of American exports, as before, free of duty. Long before the commencement of any regular system of improvement, by means of continuous canals overcoming the whole of any rapid, small locks for batteaux had been constructed by the French at the Cascades, the Coteau, and the Longue Sault rapids. In 1804, these were reconstructed of larger size and in improved positions, by the royal engi- neers, as military works. While furs were the only exports the batteau was suited to the trade in both directions; but when agricultural export commenced, grain was first sent down (l)efore 1800) on the raus, and in scows or " arks," which were broken up and sold as lumber ip Montreal Some slight improvements were made by Lower Canada in •J 805 and 1806 in the boat channel of the rapids. Mer* cinndise was at that time carted to Lachine, from whence the batteaux and Durham boats took their departure (in 10 I il tijlliiMfli 148 TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. " brigades " of five or more boats, that their united crews might aid each other at the rapids,) and sailed through Lake St. Louis. At the Cascades, three-fourths of the cargo was discharged and carted to the head of the Cedars — the boat, with the remaining fourth, being locked past the Cascades, dragged up the " Split Rock " and Cedars, and re-loaded — passing the Cot au by a lock into Lake St. Francis. Above Cornwall, there were two locks in Longue Sault, one of which was a private speculation ; and between Mille Roches and the head of the Longue Sault, as between the Cascades and the Cedars, lighterage was necessary, three-fourths of the cargo being discharged and hauled over land. From Prescott the boats sailed up to Kingston, or (after 1818) were towed by steamer. The average time required for the voyage was twelve days, and the actual expenses of a Dur- ham boat with an average cargo of eight tons, from Lachine to Kingston, were as follows: — Tolls at tho Cascades and Coteau, £2 10 - Towing nt different Rapids, 5 10 — Land carriage of G tons from Cascades to the Cedars, 3 — — Lund carriage of 6 tons from Millo Roches, 3 — — Towing by steamboat from Prescott to Kingston, 3 15- Wages, &c., 6 men, 12 days, at 38. 6d. per day, 12 12 - £30 7 ^121 40 cents. Salt, which was taken at the lowest rates, was charged 35. 9d. per cwt., in 1825, from Lachine to Kingston; the aver- age rate on merchandise being 4s. 6d. per cwt, or eighteen dollars per ton. The number of boats which paid toll at the Coteau locks were — Year. 1818, 1819, 1820, 1821, 1824, Durham boats. ... 315 .... ... 339 .... . .. 561 .... ... 342 .... ... 208 .... Datteaax. .. 679 .. 673 .. 430 .. 634 .. 596 ■^rmti" TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATIOIT. 149 An addition of about twelve per cent, should be made, to the above because one boat out of eigiit or nine sailed up the rapids, and did not pay toll. Of the Durham boats about one-half were American. For downward cargo a Durham boat had a caprvcity of three hundred and fifty barrels of flour, and a batteau thirty to forty; but in their latter days these were made nearly as large as the former. Upward, the former averaged eight tons, and the latter four to five. The transportation of 1824 was diminished by a failure of the harvest in 1823, as well as by the operations of the Imperial trade act of 1822. The average passage of a boat from Kingston to Lachine was four days, and the expense as follows: — Six tnc •', four days, at 3s. 6d., £4 4 - Pilotage at the rapids, 117 6 £6 16 $24 30 The downward trade in 1818 to 1825 averaged about 150,000 to 175,000 barrels per annum, say 15,000 tons; and the upward trade about 5,000 tons, or about one to three. In 1832, the trade had increased so as to give six to eight hundred Durham boats and twelve to fifteen hundred batteaux, passing the locks, the down trade being 66,000 tons and the up trade 21,000 tons — the proportions of about three to one still holding good. As the trade increased, passenger steamboats were placed on Lakes St. Francis and St. Louis, and four-horse coaches upon the portage roads. Improvements in the steamboats, in 1833, enabled them to overcome the smaller rapids be- tween the Longue Sault and Prescott; and from that date they descended as far as Dickinson's Landing. The agitation of the Erie and Ohamplain canals early drew the attention of the Canadians to the competition with which they were threatened. It was a renewal of that If w in If I" 150 TRAVEL AND TBANSPOKTATION. strife, for the commerce of civilization, which had existed for the fur-trade, between the English colonies on the At- lantic and the French at Montreal and Quebec, before the conquest. A short portage divided Fort Stanwix, on the Mohawk (a principal branch of the Hudson,) from Wood Creek, which flowed into Oneida Lake, and thence, by the Onondaga Eiver, into Lake Ontario, at Oswego, which latter place was the scene of more than one conflict between French and English and their savage allies, over one hun- dred years ago. In 1817, the same year in which the canal bill passed at Albany, and a month earlier, the government of Upper Canada advertised for tenders for the improvement of the navigation between Lachine and Kingston, by the course of the river Eideau. The project of connecting Lakes Erie and Ontario, by the Welland Canal, first appears in print, November 29th, 1817, in a paper prepared by William Hamilton Merritt for Eobert Gourlay. In 1818, a company . was incorporated to construct the Lachine Canal, a project which had been mooted as early as 1795 ; and another, in 1819, for the construction of the canal at Chambly. Thus, movements were on foot, in the center and at the two extremes, — to compass the objects aimed at by the state of New York, — before the completion of her canals had demonstrated their success; but, from various causes, at the head of which, no doubt, the separation of the provinces stood first, no actual commencement was made except with tlie Lachine Canal upon the Island of Montreal, and the Grcnville Canal (by the Imperial government) on the Otta- wa, until long after the completion of the Erie and Cham- plain canals. The military canals, having been conceded to the province in 1853, and happily never having been required for other tlian commercial purposes, will be noticed under the head of the Ottawa Eiver improvements. Takmg 1 the order o The Eicl miles betw( on Lake CI this distanc teen miles i between th; feet in leng tween the 1844, and c The second by a canal Btone locks four feet, ar pendcd in at a cost of boats can p; Champlain, Hudson Ei'\ of lumber ! Ottawa to t Lake Chii St. John's, higher than than the ri nawaga (op in a direct 1 a canal mus will give a millions of miles in len feet higher L± f^^r*»** 166 TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. tii 'lb" •with Sir James Kempt at their head, atfthorized its enlarge- ment for steam navigation, the locks to be one hundred and thirty- four by thirty-three feet; the towing-path was, therefore, unfortunately omitted. The canal drops into the Ottawa by a flight of eight com- bined locks, having a lift of eighty -two feet ; and as it was necessary, on leaving the Ottawa, at once to rise above the level of the Chaudi^re Lake, the navigation would have been extended without additional lockage, nearly forty miles higher up the river, had the canal been kept in it until that lake was reached. TIMBER SLIDES ON THE OTTAWA. The Ottawa, above the point where the Imperial canal joined it, has been, with several of its large tributaries, the subject of improvement, for downward transportation only — for the purpose of bringing out timber and lumber with greater expedition, greater safety, and greater economy. These works are peculiar to Canada and deserve more than a passing notice. The heavy timber, hauled out by the aid of the snow which gives access to every tree, is deposited on the ice in the several streams and lakes, and is there left to be borne down by the spring freshets, either in single sticks or in rafts manned by men, according to the size of the stream. If not rafted, it goes off with the water, followed by the men in canoes, whose duty it is to look after the stragglers grounded on a shoal or detained in an eddy, and shove them out into the main stream. This mode of bringing out the timber, which is called " driving," is praoticable upon almost all streams when in freshet; but, on many, there are a few places where the obstructions are so great as to call for artificial aid, to prevent detention of the timber until too late for that tide which, if not taken at the flood, too often leads to misfortune. In some rivers, precipitous cataracts ai the virgin by means ( down. In so great tL be got int next year. The sli( troughs of which a p( thereby ca stick fiist are narrow a water-wl timber th( them a cri forty tons and the c fifty feet I Dams a and rocks high wate strengther to govern The Oti the outlet whence Q' added the have beei at much of Quinte was comp three mih in the coi thfj water TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 157 cataracts and jagged rocks are so destructive to timber that the virgin groves have remained almost untouched, until, by means of slides and dams, it could be profitably brought down. In others, the delays in passing certain points were so great that the freshet passed off before the timber could be got into the main river, and it was left behind for the next year. The slides are artificial ^^ chutes" formed by inclined troughs of timber and plank, open at both ends, through which a portion of the stream is diverted, and the timber thereby carried past chutes and places where it would either stick fixst or be torn to splinters. For " driving," the slides are narrow, and similar to the flumes or raceways supplying a water-wheel ; but when designed for the passage of rafted timber they are twenty -five feet wide; and down one of them a crib, containing fifteen hundred cubic feet or nearly forty tons of timber, will be carried, with the men aboard and the cookhouse undisturbed, and in a few moments be fifty feet below its former level. Dams are resorted to to flood back the water on shoals and rocks which retain and damage the timber; to stop up high water channels — so as to keep it from straying or to strengthen the main current; and also at the head of chutes, to govern and regulate the mouth of slides. The Ottawa and the Bay of Quinte, the latter as being the outlet of the inland waters, are the chief sources from whence Quebec is supplied with timber; to these may now be added the St. Maurice or Three Rivers. Recently, rafts have been towed through some of the great lakes, but at much risk and some loss. The first raft from the Bay of Quinte was got out by Samuel Sherwood, in 1790. It was composed of masts cut upon the north shore of the bay, three miles east of Trenton; and there being then no cattle in the country, Sherwood used tackle to haul the timber to the water. In 1806, Philemon Wright took the first raft Mt '-/."':; ti TH? 1 1 il 158 TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. down the Ottawa. It was obtained from tlie Gatineau, a large tributary entering near Ottawa City. PROPOSED OTTAWA AND LAKE HURON CANALS. In 1853, an appropriation of $200,000 was obtained, without previous survey or estimate, for the purpose of connecting the Chats and Chaudiere Lalces by means of a canal with fifty feet lockage. The idea of the projectors was to commence on a magnificent scale at a point where the very uselessness of the expenditure would be an argu- ment in favor of its extension, east and west, to Montreal and Lake Huron. They did not, therefore, court any ana- lyzation of the scheme. The government of that day, on the other hand, obtained the support of the Ottawa constit- uencies for their railway policy along the St. Lawrence, and wore thus induced to grant the sum required to commence operations. The simultaneous failure of the contractor and the appropriation afforded a decent pretext for suspension in 1856, which ended in abandonment: in the meantime the projectors were amused with a series of extensive sur- veys of the whole route, between Montreal and Lake Huron, — of over four hundred miles, and with estimates for canals for Atlantic vessels. The result of these surveys shows that the abandoned canal on which $873,191 has been expended was in the wrong place; that to have completed it on the scale pro- posed would have cost $1,465,'139, whereas the same result can be produced in the right place for $081,932 — in other words, that 'the opportune abandonment of the work will effect a saving of $410,316. It is gratifying to know that if the commencement has involved a loss of $373,191, the abandonment has saved a greater sum, and that there is still a handsome balance to the credit of the latter. The summit level of the proposed Ottawa route at Lake Nipis- sing wouli water; an Huron, b; feet, the J seventy-se The gei Mr. T. C. extracted Section; Lachine Can; Tjake St. Lou Saint Anne's, Lake of Two Carillon to Gi Green Shoals Ottawa River Chaufiiore an Chenes, . . . Dfs Chenes 1 Chats, Chats I^ke, Snows to Blac River and Lai longe, . . . Chapeau and . Deep River,. Joachim's to tawan,. . . . River Mattaw Summit love! French River Add Enginee Superinten Totals, . The SC£ thousand forty-five mitre sills These ] taken on ! h uiifl TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 159 sing would be six hundred and fifty-one feet above tide- water; and tbe total rise and fall from tide-water to Lake Huron, by this route, is seven hundred and twenty-eight feet, the fall from Lake Nipissing to Lake Huron being seventy-seven feet. The general resuUs of the Ottawa survey, as made by Mr. T. C. Clark, C. E., are embraced in the following table extracted from his report: — OTTAWA AND FRENCH RIVER NAVIGATION. ^-Distances, iniIe8-> , I,bvels . Sections. Rivers and r-.n.i= No. of Lockage, Cost. Lakes. l^anals. Locks. feel. Lachine Canal, ... 850 5... 43-75. . . .not estimated. T.-iko St. Louis, 13-31 ... do. Saint Anne's, ... 119 1... 100. $4 69,672 Lake of Two Mts.,. 2470... Carillon to Gr'nv'le,. 7-73 . . . 500 .... 7 . . . 5850 . 1,649,909 Green Shoals, ... -10 136,105 Ottawa River, 55.97 ... Chaufiicre and Des Chenes, 3-75... 2-61.... 6... 6300. 816.733 Des Chenes Lake,.. 2669 ... Chats, 1-70... -60.... 5... 50 00. 681,932 Chats Uko, 19-28 ... Snows to Black falls, 18 32 ... 105 .... 11 ... 10400 . !'.'. 1,256,840 River and Lake Cou- longe, 2493 ... 262,514 Chapeau and L'Islet, 4-85 ... '14 ... . 2 ... 1800 . 243,.'^^07 Deep River, 33-58... Joachim's to Mat- townn 51-r4 . . . 226 14 ... 14820 . 1,757,653 1,162,154 River Mattawan, . . 1622 . . . 108 .... 11 ... 14400 . Sunimitlovel and cut, 5115 .. . 697 2,16n,.S69 French River 4752... -82.... 7... 7700. 886,117 Add Engineering & Superintendence, ... 574,175 .. $12,057,680 Totals, 401-44 . . . 2932 . . . . 64 . . . 665 70 . The scale of navigation proposed is for vessels of one thousand tons. Locks two hundred and fifty feet long by forty-five feet wide, with twelve feet depth of water on the mitre sills. These figures are conclusive; — a canal scheme, under- taken on such a scale, and upon such a route, with all the ,^^.:-«.«,1, I'l .**»'••>*' I ] 160 TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION changes and additions which would follow, would result in an expenditure of at least twenty millions of dollars; but if it could be done for ten, it would be equally impracticable as a provincial undertaking. The region traversed does not possess sufficient political influence to carry the appro- priations for a tithe of the sum required ; and as a commer- cial speculation no case could be made out for it. Although it would sliorten the distance between Montreal and Lake Huron by three hundred miles over the present route, via the lakes and the Welland Canal, there would be no saving of time on the round trip, on account of the extra lockage and river navigation; and it would be exclusively a route for steamers, whereas the greater part of the present route is available for sail craft. On the St. Lawrence route the extra three hundred miles would be overcome by a propeller in the open lakes with an unvarying speed, night and day, of ten miles per hour; while the ten extra locks of the Ot- tawa route, and the m.ore intricate river navigation worked at half-speed, would demand at least an equal loss of time. For the downward commerce only, which gives at least tliree tons to one of the upward, the difference is vastly \r favor of the St. Lawrence, in those boats which descend the rapids, as there is in this case only the Welland Canal with tweiity-seven locks against the Ottawa canals with fifty-nine. On the St. Lawrence route there is a local as well as a through business, and a choice of markets while in transitu, as well as the proximity of railways in case of in- terruption to the navigation. On the Ottawa there is at present only sawn lumber to fill out a cargo. But while so great an undertaking is, on the part of Canada, financially impracticable and commercially unwarrantable, the opening of this route is, as an imperial and military work, most de- sirable. From the remote position of the greater part, the expense of cut-stone locks of the size proposed, would make it advisable to reduce the scale and also the character TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 161 of the work. Cedar cribwork is nearly as durable as or- dinary masonry in this climate; and by substituting it, filled with stones and planked water-tight, for stone-work, the Ottawa route would supply the materials and the kind of labor required. The laying of masonry can only be ad- vantageously done for a few months in the year, and a por- tion of this time would be lost by high water. In some sections it would probably be found cheaper to build timber locks, if only for the purpose of reducing the cost of the future stone ones. Any increased cost of mainte- nance would be far less than the interest saved, and the amount so saved in interest would be an ample renewal fund. The fact that scarcely one of the hundreds of stone locks in America have proved after ten years' experience, to be properly proportioned, for the wants of commerce, would suggest the propriety of substituting timber for stone for the peculiar conditions of the Ottawa route — especially as there seems no hope for the work being carried out upon any more expensive basis. IMPROVEMENT OF THE RIVER ST. LAWRENCE. The early and eflicient commencement of this work was very much retarded by the fact that the obstructions were under separate jurisdictions, and nearly equally divided be- tween the two provinces; and that the action of one would be of little value unless imitated by the other. Lower Canada, having control of the seaports, helped herself to the lion's sliare of the import duties, the only fund upon which either province could rely for internal improvements. The division of these duties was a constant source of contention between them. From 1792 to 1813, Lower Canada col- lected a net revenue of £642,000 sterling, of which sho kept £600,000 and gave the pdd numbers to her younger sister. From 1813 to 1818, Upper Canada received less than twenty-five per cent, of the net revenue collected by « i- '; '. • iHMk^. ;j^i'-''' 162 TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATIOK. Lower Canada, — and in 1820 and 1821, nothing at all; whereupon she carried her complaints to the foot of the throne, and thereafter the Imperial government assumed the collection and distribution of these revenues. The net amount received by the two p; vinces, in the half-century between their separation in 1791 and their re-union in 1841, was, Lower Canada, £3,445,110 sterling (or $17,225,700;) and Upper Canada, £731,834 sterling (or $3,659,173,) which may be considered the measure of the ability of the two, respectively, in carrying on their public works. Both provinces had a gradually increasing but comparatively un- important revenue collected at their inland ports; and I^ower Canada, under cover of inspection, levied a toll on scows and rafts passing Chateauguay, which, between 1808 and 1831, yielded about £6,500 (or $31,633.33.) She also claimed the excess, not only by virtue of her superior population, but on the ground that rum, the article on which the bulk of the duty was collected, was almost exclusively consumed by her; and Upper Canada was charged with having descended to whisky. Per^contra, it may be stated that the quantity of rum which passed above Coteau du Lac in 1799 was about sixty thousand gallons, (which prob- ably went to the United States as well as to Upper Canada;) and the still harder fact that a barrel of rum, the freight on which was three to three and a half dollars from Lachine to Kingston, was the well-known standard of up freight for merchandise by batteaux and Durham boats. The action taken by the two provinces, respectively, be- f(3re the Union with reference to the improvement of the St. Lawrenct? was as follows. As early as the session of 1795-96, a bill was introduced for the construction of both a canal and a turnpike to Lachine, by the late Hon. John Jlichardson, who lived to cq^y out those schemes at a later day. In 1805, the Legislature of Lower Canada ajipropri- ated £1,000 (or $4,000) to clear the channel of the Lachine i i '^'"^^Ww PdUTAGK. See Pago 132 TIMBER SLIDli, /ikiU**^ ■II Rapids. np light point it expend i the folic Lake St. v^hen c( Upper C raunicat and Ott; corporat years, ai in seven by the ] 1823 a f^ the Cluu not be C' 1831 an battcan.N Francis . mate po^ C(ju]d n( scheme i by whici per houi planes \\ au Diabl yond th movemc spect to The li ment da governo whole o] Lachine W'Tftl TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 163 Rapids. Batteaiix, which ran down loaded, were dragged lip light and took in their up cargo at Lachine. to which point it was carted from Monti-cal. The result of this first expenditure proving satisfactory, a similar sum was given the following year for the ra]>ids between Montr'^.al and Lake St. Francis. Nothing farther was done until 181S, v/hen commissioners were ajipoiutcd to meet those froni Upper Canada about the improvement of the water com- munication between the provinces, both by the St. Lawrence and Ottawa routes. In that yoar, also, a company was in- corporated to construct tlie Lachiiie Canal within tliree years, and another for the Chambly Canal, to be completed in seven years. In 1821, the Lacliine Canal was assumed by the province, the company having failed to act; and in 1823 a similar course was taken, for the same reason, with the Chambly Canal, coupled with the proviso that it sliould not be commenced until the Liicljiiie was completed. In 1831 an :ip[)ropriation was made for ascertaining if loaded battcanx could be taken up the ra})ids between Lakes St. Francis and St. Louis, and whether steamers, about the ulti- mnte power of which great expo^ctations had been formed, Could not ascend the cascades to Prcscott. This was a scheme for " reducing the grade " of the river at tlie rapids, by which it was hoped currents of twelve or fourteen miles per hour could be reduced one-lialf Cuts forming inclined planes were made at i\Iill Point below the Cedars, at Point au Diable, the Rigolet, and French's Run;' but nothing be- yond the (expenditure of the money resulted from this movement, — with which the action of Lower Canada in re- spect to the improvement of the St. Lawrence terminated. The first movement of L^pper Canada was an advertise- ment dated I9th February, 1817, in which the lieutenant- governor invited tenders for the work of rendering the whole or any portion of the water communication between Lachine nnd Kingston, by the course of the river Rideau, 11 it! ! B JiAi*-*' p, i ■' ^ i|i 'Iff 164 TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. navigable for boats drawing two feet of water and ten feet in width, and also for boats drawing three feet of water and twelve feet in width. The route defined was by Irish Creek and Kideau and Mud Lakes; the number and posi- tion of the locks were to be specified, and " the number of flood-gates in each lock." The next year £2,000 (or $8,000) was granted for a survey of the St. Lawrence, and in 1821 commissioners were appointed. In 1823 and 1824, £2,000 (or ,$8,000) more were granted to this commission of which Robert Nichol was vice-president, and James Gordon and Charles Jones, members. On the death of Colonel Nichol, his place was filled by John Macaulay. As the views of the country with respect to the scale of the proposed navi- gation became enlarged each successive year, the magnitude of the undertaking evidently alarmed the Legislature. Even the offer of £70,000 stg. ($350,000) by the Imperial government towards opening the Rideau route, failed to elicit more than an expression of gratitude and a promise of early consideration. The Legislature leaned to the St. Lawrence as the natural commercial route, having only about one-half of the lockage of the Rideau route; and were, moreover, convinced that it would be the cheaper of the two. The Imperial government, desiring the control of the work for military purposes, set about the Rideau Canal themselves, in 1826, on an estimate of £169,000 stg. ($845,000,) and completed it in 1832 at a cost of £900,000 stg. ($4,500,000) — a result which may fully account for the hesitation of the Legislature, in 1825, in accepting the £70,000 ($350,000) and undertaking the work. The opening of the Rideau route failed to satisfy the wants of the trade. The lock at Yaudreuil was in the hands of a private company; those at Grenville were much less in size than the ones above and below them; fixed bridges prevented masted vessels from going through ; and the absence of a towing-path made forwarding a monopoly, and caused through wi managed as — the partie or opinion therefore, tl set about; 1833, and tl In descril ment of the About fif influenced i broad and depth at lo and sea-goi in entering standing th emporium timber, in "> coves of Qi or three cc Peter, and it was prop sixteen feet This was fi the enginee to leave th( from the oc to the reqi after expei the Leg i si a whereupon TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 165 and caused the delay and expense of locking a steam-tug through with every freight. Moreover, the canal was managed as a military rather than commercial undertaking — the parties in charge being beyond the reach of authority or opinion in the colony. No sooner had it been tried, therefore, than the improvement of the St. Lawrence was set about; a grant being made for the Cornwall Canal in 1833, and this work was commenced-in 1834. In describing the several works embraced in the improv- ment of the St. Lawrence, we commence at tide-water with LAKE ST. PETER. About fifty miles below Montreal, at the lowest point un- influenced by tide, the St. Lawrence spreads out into a broad and shallow expanse called Lake St. Peter. The depth at low-water upon these flats was only eleven feet, and sea-going vessels were consequently obliged to lighten in entering and leaving Montreal, which city, notwith- standing this disadvantage, maintained her position as the emporium for the import trade, and of all exports except timber, in which latter trade the tidal harbor and roomy coves of Quebec defy competition. As there were only two or three comparatively insignificant bars above Lake St. Peter, and none below, and as the bed of the lake was soft, it was proposed to deepen the channel by dredging, so that sixteen feet draft of water might be carried up to Montreal. This was first attempted by the government in 1844, when the engineers endeavored to induce old Father St. Lawrence to leave the bed in which he had lain since first he emerged from the ocean, and follow a "straight cut," to be dredged to the required depth. The work was so managed that, after expending $295,619, it was suspended in 1847, and the Legislature, after investigation, abandoned it in disgust; whereupon the Hon. John Young, on behalf of the harbor 1 1 m r • ^-55^^ I I, m 11 166 TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. commissioners of Montreal, after four years had elapsed, obtained permission to try again, and tlie work was recom- menced in 1851. By following the natural channel, com- plete success has been obtained, with much less time and money, and a vessel drawing not sixteen but eighteen feet of V. dter can now come up. It is intended to continue op- erations until twe-ity feet at low-water is obtained; and as the government, having had its practicability demonstrated, has assumed the expense, it is to be hoped this work will be carried out. THE LACHINE CANAL. The original canal between Montreal smd Lachine, com- menced in 1821 and completed in 1825 at a cost of £110,000 (or §110,000,) was an admirably constructed Avork, witli cut-stone locks, one hundred and eight feet long between the gates, and twenty feet wide, with fix- ed bridges of the same class of masonry. In these, as in the locks of the Eideau and St. Lawi'ence canals, the upper gates were placed upon br-^ast walls, which reduced the effective length of the lock. On the Welland Canal, the upper gates being carried down to the level of the lower ones, the whole length between the gates is available. The enlargement of the old Lachine boat canal, in con- nection with the construction and completion of the re- mainder of the St. Lawrence ship canals, was one of the im- mediate consequences of the reunion in 1841, thus confirm- ing the views of Mr. Macaulay, in 1825, as to the impolicy of its substantial stone locks of boat size only. The enlarge- ment, begun in 1813, was sufficiently advanced in 1818 for the passage of large vessels, and was completed in" 1819, except the widening of a portion of the rock-cut near La- chine which is now in progress. This canal, eight and a half miles long with forty -four feet lockage, surmounts the obstacles presented by the Lachine Eapids, and con- nects Lake with the ha The next site or sout upon that si commenced Lake St. L considerable known as tl At the I Canal, twel head of the taken by U 1838, by w expended, tional cost ( in 1813. From th( eight miles Rapid Plat united lock separate ca which have canals weri to the trad( The not: that althouj one hundrc miles of ca TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 167 nects Lake St. Louis, an enlargement of the St. Lawrence, with the harbor of Montreal. THE BEAUIIARNOIS CANAL. The next in order is the Beauharnois Canal on the oppo- site or south bank of the St. Lawrence, and the only one upon that side, eleven miles long with eighty feet lockage, commenced in 18'12 and completed in 1849. [t connects Lake St. Louis with Luke St. Francis, O' jrcoining three considerable rapids, united together by a swift current, and known as the Coteau, the Cedars, and the Cascades. THE CORNWALL CANAL. At the upper end of Lake St. Francis, the Cornwall Canal, twelve miles long with fifty feet lockage, reaches the head of the Longue Sault Eapids. This work was under- taken by Upper C- nada alone in 1831, and carried on until 1838, by which time £110,000 (or $1,760,000) had been expended. It was completed after the union, at an addi- tional cost of £75,000 (or §300,000,) and opened for traffic in 1813. THE WILLIAMSBURO CANALS. From the Cornwall Canal to Prescott, a distance of thirty - eight miles, there are four minor rapids, — Farrans Point, Rapid Plat, Point Iroquois, and Les Gallopes, — with a united lockage of twenty-two and a half feet, at which four separate canals were first constructed, the two upper of which have since been united by the Junction Canal. These canals were commenced in 1813; the upper one was opened to the trade in 1816 and the remainder in 1817. The notable feature of the St. Lawrence navigation is, that although between Prescott and Montreal, a distance of one hundred and fifteen miles, there are forty and one-half miles of canal, and twenty-seven locks with two hundred In '•yife- 168 TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. and four and three-quarters feet lockage, steamers of live hundred tons burthen daily descend from the level ac Pres- cott to that at Montreal (the fall being two hundred and twenty-five feet) without using a lock or canal. The rapida of the St. Lawrence, though some have a fall of over forty feet in a mile, are navigable for descending boats with a draught of six to eight feet according to the extremes of low and high water. Freight boats drawing more than this descend the canals; but the mixed freight and passen- ger steamers, wh'ch the rapidity, comfort, and excitement of the trip sustain in spite of the railway, all run the rapids, making the passage between Prescott and Montreal in nine to ten hours. The improvement of the rapids so as to turn the whole descending trade down the river, thereby shortening the time of transit and practically doubling the capacity of the canals, has been mooted for the last ten years. Two modes have been proposed; one to raise the water surilice by dams and piers, the other to lower the bottom by submarine blasting, — rboth having the same ob- ject in view, viz., the increase of depth at two or three points, w^here alone there is any deficiency. The former plan has been successfully adopted for the purposes of the timber navigation on the Ottawa; the latter, which 'has been also tried there, has not only done no good but positive harm, because it has substituted a torn and jagged bed of rock for one worn smooth by the flow of ages. Moreover, a rapid being an inclined trough, if the bottom is lowered the water surface descends with it more or less, and any at- tempt to increase the depth, beyond the removal of an isolated boulder, &c., by submarine blasting, except in slack water, seems hopeless. Lastly, the effect of submarine blasting against Potsdam sandstone in shoal water would scarcely be perceptible, while the cost, if persisted in, would be overwhelming. An appropriation of £25,000 (or |100,000) as an experiment would settle the question of the prac and would of an objec played tow; important c Lawrence i the deman( taken assui supersede t not now CO active co-o| induccmeu' companies under publ lowest bid. dental advi support ot dized railv through th hand is nt surprisin ways and time than safeguards From craft of ai tance of rather a p called tli< Hamilton without 1 miles abc works, oft more pro] Ol 1 TRAVEL AND THAN8PORTATION, 169 of the practicability of flooding tlie shoals by dams, &c., and would be a mere trifle, even to throw away in pursuit of an object of so much importance. The indifference dis- played towards this subject, as weil as toward the equally important one of an enlarged direct canal between the St. Lawrence (near Montreal) and Lake Champlain is due to the demands created by our railway policy, and the mis- taken assumption that railways would in a great measure supersede the canals. Improvements in the navigation do not now come home to any particular locality, or enlist the active co-operation of any ])arty. Moreover, they offe,r no inducement to speculators to undertake them by corporate companies ; for, the expenditure being necessarily made under public competition, in which the work goes to the lowest bidder, such works do not afford any of those inci- dental advantages by which fortunes are made and party support obtained, and which are so conspicuous in a subsi- dized railway. When the public funds can be dispensed through the medium of an irresponsible corporation, the left hand is not ignorant of what the right is doing; it is not surprising, therefore, that the indirect system of aiding rail- ways and municipalities has been more popular for the time than the direct application of the money, under proper safeguards, to works of general utility only. From Prescott upward, navigation is unrestricted for craft of any dimensions to the head of Lake Ontario, a dis- tance of two hundred and fifty miles. Here a canal, or rather a passage without locks, is opened across a sand bar, called the Beach, into Burlington Bay, by which means Hamilton is made a lake port. The Desjardins Canal, also without locks, extends lake navigation to Dundas, five miles above Hamilton ; these canals are, however, local works, ofi'the line of the St. Lawrence and Lake routes, and more properly come under the head of Harbor Works. \ i li M / .*' Ji ». '■ i 1 ' * I The F tliein, offi tion of an required betwet^-; agn-.oga1. between Altboi Niagam wbieii b( twenty y proposed merit wa; tween th rio, — wli lUth Maj Thomas seph Sir llamiltoi a eapital ofXl'2,l( subscribe vember, culiou w passed I'l lueantini Drigiual only, u[ of the 11 to the B boat eai' taiued a the mon dcternii; TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. THE WELLAND CANAL. 171 The Falls of Niagara, with the rapid.^ above and below them, offer by far the most formidable obstruetion to naviga- tion of any upon the line of the St. Lawrence. The lockage required to connect that short distance of twenty -eight miles, betwcf- Lake Erie and Lake Ontario, is greater than the agfi".ogate of all other obstructions in the thousand miles betwemi Lake Superior and tide water. Although a canal to unite the two lakes was projected at Niagara as early as 1798, and an exploration of the ridge whicii bounds the Welland River, on the north, was made twenty years later, (in 1818, the year after the scheme was proposed by Mr. Merritt to Gourlay,) the lirst active move- ment was made in 1823, by obtaining a line of levels be- tween this river, called also the Chippewc, and Lake Onta- rio, — which were run bv Ilirain Tibbets, (3ngineer. On the IDth May, 1824, the legislature incorporated George Keefer, Thomas Merritt, George Adams, William Chisholm, Jo- seph Smith, Paul Shipman, John Decou, and William Uamilton Merritt, as the " Welland Canal Company," with a capital of £37,500, (§150,000,) divided into 3,000 shares of £12,106'., (§50.00,) each. Over one-fourth of the stock was subscribed, and the work was commenced on the 30th No- vember, 182-1, and it is worthy of remark ; that " its prose- cution was not discc ntinued a single day until two vessels passed from lake to lake, five years later;" although in the meantime the expenditure was more than six times the i)riginal capital. The lirst project contemplated a boat canal only, up the valley of the Twelve Mile Creek to the foot of the mountain ridge, ascending from thence by a railway to the Beaver dams, and thence to the Welland River b}'' a boat canal tunneled through the Ridge: but power was ob- tained also to connect the Welland River with Lake Erie at the mouth of the Grand River. In 1825, a ship canal was dctennined on, a)id the capital stock was increased to I'. 172 TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. £200,000, ($800,000.) In 1826, tlie legislature loaned the company £25,000, ($100,000,) and the Imperial govern- ment, the same year, gave £16,300, sterling, ($81,500,) one- ninth of the estimated cost, in consideration of the free pas- sage of government stores, troops, and vessels. In 1827 the legislature took £50,000, ($200,000) stock, the com- pany to pay interest until one year after completion ; and also granted 13,400 acres of marsh land. The legislature of Lower Canada also took £25,000 stg., (or $100,000) stock. In 1828 the whole amount of stock was paid up, and the company succeeded in borrowing £50,000 (or $250,000) from the Imperial government on condition of surrendering the grant of one-ninth the cost. The work had so pro- gressed that it was fully anticipated the water would have been let in early in November, 1828; but, when within ten days of this estimated result, slips of so formidable a cliar- acter took place in the " Deep Cut," which wa.-i seventy feet in depth, that it became indispensable to abandon the original plan of making a feeder of tlie Welland Kiver, the level of which is ten feet lower than Lake Erie, and to bring a supply of water on a higher level from the Grand Hiver, in order to pass over the quicksands which caused the slides. Up to this period the whole pressure had been borne by the shareholders; no aid had been granted by the govern- ment except that for which the interest had been punctually paid by the company; but now the funds were almost ex- hausted, and they dared not appeal to the legislature while prophecies of the inevitable flulure of all attempts to get a navigation through the Deep Cut met them at cwry point. It was now necessary to throw a dam across the Grand Eivcr by which its waters were raised about seven feet above tlu^ level of Lake Erie, and to cut a feeder, twenty-seven miles in length, to be carried by nn aqueduct over the Wel- land liiver; by which means, after allowing for the i'all in the feeder, a level sixteen feet higher than the Welland Tliver was obtained, and thus the necessity of carrying the TRAVEL AND TRAKSPORTATION. 173 Deep Cut down into those treaclieroiis quicksands was avoided. It was necessary to do all tins chiefly on credit, and a covenant was inserted in each contract that a percent- age only was to be paid in cash, the balance " after the company obtained the means from the legislature ; " so con- fident were the directors that parliament, like Jupiter, would help those who help themselves. Although the frost did not leave the ground until the 15th of April, 1829, the dam across the Grand Eiver, the aqueduct over the Welland, four locks at the Deep Cut, the cut at the mouth of the Welland, and twenty-seven miles of canal, were so far completed on the 9th day of October as to admit the passing of a vessel down the feeder; and on the 30th of November (the anniversary of its commence- ment five years before,) two schooners, one British and the other American, the "Ann and Jane" of York (Toronto,) and the " E. H. Bough ton" of Youngstown, N. Y., passed up from Lake Ontario into Lake Erie. The confidence displayed by the contractors, without which the works must have been suspended altogether, was natural result of the vigor, ability, and integrit}'- displayed oy the projector of the work, — the Hon. William Hamilton Merritt,* — by whose extraordinary energy, perseverance and discretion all difficulties were surmounted. Of those out of the })rovinee, John B. Yates of New York, the largest private shareholder, who in 1827 became liable for a large amount in aid of the company, was its greatest benefactor. To show upon how few the labor fell, only eight Upper Canadians, viz., William Hamilton Merritt of St. Catherines, George Keefer of Thorold (who was the first president of the company,) John Henry Dunn, John Bev- * Since these lines were written, ilentli lias removed a man, who, with un- fliigging energy, ever pursued his objeet in the spirit of peace ; — a politicinn wlio was not an offiee-beekor, and who loved his country more than si.lf or party, — a stateKninii often in advjinoo of his countiynH'n — but not of his coun- try — and u loyalist who so valued truth that he sought it even from the enemy — preferring to bo misunderstood rather than to remain unarmed. m I ijk*'^..^*^" I f 174 TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. orly Eobinson, William Allan, TIenry John Boulton, D'Arcy Boulton, and Colonel Joseph Wells, of Toronto, — held suflieient stoek to qualify them to become directors; and for these services they never received, or looked for, any com- uensation. Parliament in 1830, by a majority of two, granted a loan of £25,000 (or $100,000,) which enabled the company to pay the debts incuri'ed during the previous year. The whole expenditure to this period had been £272,795 (or $1,001,180.) To avoid the circuitous route by the Welland and Niagara Elvers, and the strong current in the latter, it was proposed to enlarge the feeder, as far as its course was directed toward Lake Erie, and cut a new channel, only seven miles long, to join that lake at Gi'cvelly Bay; and for this purpose the aqueduct over the Welland had been made twenty-four feet wide. In 1831, £50,000 (or $200,000) was loaned by the legislature on condition that this amount M'onld complete the canal and harbors, and tliat the eom- pany shoidd ]iav the interest of the loan and one-half the pi'ineipal; and John B. Yates, William II. Merrilt, and Alexander Yates A[eDonell became sureties for these con- ditions. The work was retarded by fearful ravages of tlie cholera in 1832, but in 1833 the new outlet at Gravelly Bay (Fort Colbornc,) was brought into use. After this date the control of the work was in a great measure assumed by commissioners appointed by government to look after the large interest the province now had in the under- taking. In 1831, the capital was increased to £250,000 (or $1,000,000,) — the government subscribing for £50,000 (or $200,000,) stock by the casting vote of Air. Speaker McLean, ever a friend to the work. In 1830, a committee of the house recommended the assumjition of the work by the province, and ultimate indemnilieation of the sli/ireholders, as an act of justice to the latter, who had been the means of conferring so great a boon upon the province; and in 1837 all government loans were converted into stock, and TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 175 a fartlier appropriation of £245,000 (or $98(),000,) to com- plete the canal in a durable manner, with stone locks, was authorized. In 1839, the purchase of the private stock was authorized by an act to which the royal assent was withheld; but, on the unanimous petition of the legislature, this was given in 1840; and the legislature authorized a grant of £500,000 (or $2,000,000,) to complete the work,— only two members out of eighty opposing the grant, — a striking contrast to the state of feeling in 1834, when the compan}' were saved from ruin only by the casting vote of Speaker McLean. Doctor Strachan, archdeacon of York, and member of the legislative council, the present bishop of Toronto, was always a lirm supporter of the woi'k, and by his vigorous pen contributed in no small degree, as enrly as 1825, in putting the true scope and bearing of this important enterprise before the countrj'-. Hon. \V. B. Iv-ob- inson, now a commissioner of the Canada Compaii}', as gov- ernmen' commissioner and superintendent of the canal, and subsequently as chief commissioner of public works for the province, was ever a fast friend to this great work. The old Welland Canal had forty wooden locks, one hun- dred feet in length between the gates, and twenty-two feet wide between the walls, with seven feet water on the sills; and these endured from 1829 until 1845, by which time they were fully worn out. Tlie section of the canal was twenty- six feet wide at bottom, fifty-six feet on water-line, and eight feet depth of water. The cost of stone locks would alono have consumed all the company's resources, leaving nothing for excavations, dams, harbors, aqueducts, and bi'idg(>s; and any attempt on that basis would have ruined the enterprise. By taking a vessel, of over one hundred tons, from luko. to lake, in 1829, at an outlay of a little over one million of dol- lars, the company were sustained by the legislature — which up to that period had never given them more than £50,000 (or $200,000,) at a time, but which, ten years later, voted ten times as much for stone locks. I '^^^iil^ m w , 1- !•'! ,iyi^ i i 176 TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. It is impossible, at this day, fully to appreciate the vicis* eitudcs of such an undertaking by corporate enterprise in Upper Canada more than thirty years ago. We have only the successes before us; — the refusals, disappointmunts, sneers, and raillery suffered by the directors and. their supporters are forgotten ; but, so long as the St, Lawrence flows to the sea. Upper Canada will remember with pride and affection the men who could, at so early a day, carry such a vast enterprise to successful completion. Projects for organizing joint-stock companies in Montreal, the com- mercial metropolis of British North America, before 1820, for the comparatively insignificant Lachine and Chambly Canals, fell stillborn; and when the latter work was com- menced by Lower Canada in 1831, with three-fourths of the import duties levied on the consumption of the two provinces in her treasury, it was suspended in 1835, and only completed in 1843, — requiring more than twice the time taken to open the Welland Canal. The Cornwall Canal, commenced by Upper Canada in 1834, was suspended in 1838 and not completed till 1843. If the provincial governments, with all the increase in wealth and popiilation, of 1835 over 1825, found such difficulties, we may infer what the Welland Canal Company encountered and sur- mounted, and thus more truly appreciate the result. The enlargement and reconstruction commenced immedi- ately after the union, and the new stone locks were ready for passing vessels of the larger size, by way of the feeder, in 1845, and the main route was opened through in 1850. Doubts respecting the capacity of the Grand Eiver as a reservoir have led to the lowering of the section between the Deep Cut and Port Colborne, so as to make Lake Erie (which is ten feet higher than the Welland Eiver) the feeder. This lowering of the bottom, which is still in progress, is effected by dredges, the water not being removed; and, therefore, no further slides are anticipated. I' <)i a B O O 5" O if CI. ■o r o O o IS H r!2 5 > £" "=?q5o5 o P3 o- r I? S.C O B W r w c OB s n o P (« g i» >r » " BB ^ r sans! H p 2 = < =r * ff =- an 03 C 15 3 3 s 2g en i Is ^» 1= 5 £.3 3 — » 2. S^ ::^ '^~ P5 Cfi H PS w r^ =-=• a 2 ^ w M re W cs w <' pr ?2 ?5- o no i-r "r "? 8 KoSi >- — a,> 0> 00 totote-JC) 2.S! >sssS K) h-* t-1 C;i bn C/i Cn &i o: ts tc tc (S ii^ to •(^ bi C' oi it St"! nil lill 2 ^ 6i -IU» til -l-fa. C to to t9 4» Si O iJ^ at oo "8 8 Is s y— Cl O £ •fe h- t» h- .fe 8 :i 1 s ^ & "— '-; "lo £8 K CO liCi _* JOjtoS »-.a» 0(0*0 "go ^"in'Vi 2S to 8 > as o > n !>» f , •ji^i^lhj itSSSJ^ii 1 11 ! y0^ Aun^^ a 'Wi ,( U;i. 178 TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. The magnitude of the work undertaken in Lake St. Peter, by the Ilui-bor Commissioners of Montreal, may be esti- mated from the fact that 3,000,000 cubic yards liave already been removed by dredging, and that another million yards must yet be dredged to give the intended depth of twenty feet at low water, nnd a width of ciiannel of 800 feet. It is an incident not generally known, a?id worthy of record, that the foundation stone of the Locks at Ottawa, for the liidean Canal, was laid by the celebrated, but un- fortunate arctic voyager. Sir John Fraidclin. STATEMENT Showins; the amounts expcn'lcrl fi'din 1791 to 1301. in other public works con- iiei'tcd with llie Navigation. DESOniPTION. n r "it • _ o- ",'■ ■ Totul Cost. Beruro Union. Since Lnion. Liglifhoiisi-s. — Tppuf and Lower Caiiiula $10.000.00.. $7S«t 223.11 . . 8793.223.11 Ottawa slides, .tc, f0f)7S77 01.. $fi!)7.877.fil St. Maiirict! sii>l. s etc 242. oS 1.51 . . 242,.'J8'l..".l Sasuonav '. 40.8l)r) O''. . 40.r.(i5 07 Trent arid Newcastle shdes, 352.1 13 SO. . 35-J,l 13.80 $1,333,440 99. .$1,333,440.99 Tiocal Wovlis — tapper Canada : Ilail.ors .?42.0;0 00.. $(111,300 79.. Sr,«3.3fi0.76 liurlinuton Bay Canal 1 24,35000 . . ir,8.32() 00. . 232,')R2 ()() Disjardins Canal, (estimated,).. 100.000.00 lOO.OOO.OO Trent Inland .Navigation. 105,180.05.. 103,809.01.. 268,989.00 $431 ,536.05 . , $903,496.37 ..Si .335.032.43 Local Wnrl<« — T.iO\ver Cnnad.i : Harbors and I'i. rs, $315,900.00. .S1.3SS.460.S5. .$1,704,308.35 Grand Total, $5,171,005.37 Summing u]) the ju'ovincial, municipal, and corporate ex- penditure of Canada, under the three heads of Po.VDS, Navicatio.v, and IIatlway; we find that in round num- bers the first have cost $11,000,000; the second, $21,000,- 000; and the Canadian interest in the last, is at least $30,- 000,000; or a total of over $60,000,000. ^['liis sum al.^o, i.s about the measure of the public debt of the Province, — so !|i' Bi iil IHIi i ^ I^H ^^MHI > rHiHI \ Jl 1 1.. 1 t 1 i |! lll«t> J ^.|i 1 pi 1 1- n .1 ■i\ ev «. r, >00 of under ■852. done iles in sixty which have been opened within the last tot the impetus given by the railway ]r ' '•^' Of these 1,906 miles, the Granc^ have 872 miles within the prov' all the other companies. O^" o last, miles, owned by four companies, .. -enot vow in operation. Canada has more miles of railway than S( jtland or Irelaad, or any of the New England States, ai d is only exi ided in this respect by five States in America, viz.. New York Pennsylvania, Ohio, Ind'ana, and Illinois. Of her totii railway expenditure, which exceeds one hundred inilliono of dollars, about thirty millions have been supplied by the government and municipalities. The foil wing tables will show the leading statistics of Canadian railways, from offi- cial sources, as far as returns have been made. 3 O w , 1-5 -) << ■< "J Is fig- ■< ^ fH fe 5 a, o«g f3 5; " -^ w _J ■*^ r* -H Qi *^ 'X. o2 O ^- a^ (2 . >'. f. w <; Ph n O o 2 "»^ s o O rt ^ (4 a o ■♦^ o o KAILWAY8 OF CANADA. 193 3 i CO CO i- 65 »^ c-i CO 'lo CO c- ■* o a^ coco Wi-I '- w S; 5^ ''^ m''> > 6 a ti^tS u o o 5 s srs^ -J 00 C-- SS. - S M i5 r- oj 61 w »' - --' ;: C 3 S t-' C ^!2;fia'5!?, >:;c- o o ^fi> 1-1 'n jj •" O C ■" £■0 c £ tj o i a 1 £.■3 t. o «•- i- a • 3 : o t^ 3 o "-SS o a « Coa OM es'rt i ,, T ^ r ti O ■«-' ^■^ -f- ■*-* 3 I— < ^ « S '^ = ^ ^ ''i * n c5 - 'K 5 « r- 3 L- '^ " ■g fl^^R ;- ja U *J in ^ !: 3 o2o 3^.2 t- ?; « I n C3 1 « 1 3 S ^ PQ d 3. "3 •Co 53 t J. t: o 3 gi 3 3 S J s 3 O t o !J5 i ■1 . m I; li i } " j H ■M L 194 to j; E if o 5 5" o o o a 0.2 EAIUWATS OF CANADA. 5 o wo tn o s a O St "3 3 £3 c I o 'a «! 2S o c S •^ - ri «o o CC -M ?1 ; 32 «i.'5 to S .-3 ' a r- O C *' — O IS a tn o em a o us c o a. a 2 o s e c a a .a 9 s n £ (2 a f O w 2 If o IS ,>« HO ca g§ '§ >■- 2 p| o " c" « h a •< o ss s ^ " M •- hi H H o H ID %^ H T o tn s KAILWA"^^ OF CAJfADA. 195 i> S-3 I ef 2 I- Stil X ? " ""^ if, £3 «. «• i n a s S ^ = E ^ ?J;:2''^'3 in ^ 5 ^ a ■*^ w "~ *^ "^ ^•^•;=> Ph a t/j fe o "si'/ .9 01 _' C "0 ^ -C 5 a r/T § gas? f s 3 : rt . -3 j: j: c - 5 ^ja-^i - g o ::.ti Ct- 4; V *^ ^ Cja « a u c3 ■^ S H ; S > u a, 3 I — .. 5^ •- •.P-la • 5.0 S tt-J-B" o 03 c/5 -, , 5 u 0) '2 ,1 ;! 5<' I K'l 196 RAILWAYS OF CANADA. S o tc a ■*-» « S k i « a (-■ a> «)*-Ofc S-3§ bn i-«i<(r n •» •a d Ul tfi tl) c p: isl ro'irfoi" «o>.^ o IMC» O O (M CO I TEAVEL AND TKAN8P0RTATI0N. 197 GRAND TRUNK RAILWAY. Canada had scarcely completed her magnificent system of canals when the rapid extension of the American rail- ways, projected in all directions over the great grain ro gion lying between the Mississippi, the Ohio, and the lakes, warned her that a new and formidable rival had appeared ; and that further and greater exertions would be required — not merely to enable her to continue a com petitor for western trade with the whole Union, but to maintain her own proper status in comparison with tlie individuLl commonwealths of the North. Stretching for nearly one thousand miles along the frontier of a nation ten times more numerous — herself the chief representative on this continent of the first empire in the world — this province has had imposed upon her duties and tempta- tions, far greater in proportion than those of the most im- portant of the associated States commercially opposed to her. Without a perennial seaport, and with her early trade restricted by imperial navigation-laws and custom regulations, she had no foreign commerce accumulating capital ; and wanting this commerce and this capital, and confined to her own market, as well as discouraged by the traditionary colonial policy of the mother country, be- sides being always overstocked with the products of cheaper labor and capital, she could have no manufac- tures, and consequently no capital for investment in rail- ways. Moreover, she did not possess that ti-ade and travel which could make railways profitable, and thus invite ex- ternal aid. But, iioblesse oblige — the force of position made riiilways a necessity, if their construction could in any legitimate way be brought about ; the more so, be- cause it would have been impossible without them to have kept at home her most valuable population — the young, vigorous, and ambitious natives, " to the manner born," while in eight of a people speaking the same language, : I 198 TBAVEL AifD TKAN8P0BTATI0N. and having abundant facilities for developing an almost unbounded fertility, open to all comers. "When Montreal, therefore, was arrested half-way in her single-handed attempt to push a railway to Portland, and even the Great Western, which had been years under con. tract, could not move, tlio legislature, on the 30th of May, 1849, passed an act by which the province guaranteed (as a loan) the interest only, on the sum required to com- plete any railroad of seventy-five miles or more in length, of which one-half had been already made by the pro- prietors.* This act, which was of material service to the Portland and Great Western railways in their preliminary stages, was insufficient, and did not produce any com- mencement of the intermediate sections of the Trunk line between Montreal and Hamilton. In 1851 a bill was passed, providing for the construction of a main trunk line, and restricting provincial aid to the same. Tills act of 1851 looked to possible aid from the imperial government, in the form of a guaranteed loan — an oifer having previously been made by Earl Grey to assist the colonies in that manner, to the extent required to con- struct a military line between Halifax and Quebec. A proposition was to be made to extend this boon to the con- tinuation between Quebec and Hamilton, in order that Canada as well as the lower colonies might be traversed by the road built with Imperial aid ; and in this event the trunl line was to be undertaken by the province as a public work — or so much of it as the Imperial guarantee might be obtained for. The bill provided, in the second ])lace, that it' this guarantee were not obtained, the prov- ince would undertake the work on hor own credit, pro- vided the municipalities would bear half the expense ; and • This step was a repetition of the legislation of Upper Canada in 1837, before the Union — that province having voted tlio Great Western Railway £3 for every £1 of private stocic subscribed, to the extent of £200,000. In default of repayment, the receiver-general could levy on the Gore and Western Districts. Iw« TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 109 as a last resource, if both these plans fiiiled, the local com- panies, wliich had been formed on the strena;th of the guarantee to attempt the different sections, were to be al- lowed to try their hand. This bill also extended the pro- vincial guarantee to the principal as well as the interest on one-half the cost, and to this extent substituted provin- cial debentures for railway bonds, while it allowed the aid to be issued when companies had expended half of the cost, including land, instead of completing half the length of their lines. The imperial government having declined to aid tlie particular route demanded by tlie colonists, no attempt was made by the Canadian envoy to carry out the second plan of the bill of 1859 — that is, to construct the Grand Trunk as a public work, in connection with the munici- palities. This change of programme was in consequence of prop- ositions made to him while in London by English con- tractors of great wealth and influence.* It may be said in defence of this step, that the municipalities were not, like the province, irrevocably committed ; that uncertainty existed as to the co-operation of some of them, and that, in any event, time would be required fully to embark them in the scheme. On the other hand, it was charged that the Canadian envoy broke off negotiations with the impe- rial government at the Instigation of the contractors — who had already been at the colonial office in the position of competitors with the colonies for the privilege of contivl- ling an expenditure of such magnitude, to be guaranteed by the British treasury. It was also believed that a pow- erful though indirect influence, wielded by these contract- ors, materially contributed to the adverse position assumed * It is important to note, that if Canada did not construct bor Trunk Rail- way without involving Englishmen (and women) in ruin, it was because Englishmen would have it so. Moreover, the demand came from such a quar- ter, that to those familiar with the resources of these " operators," it might have been extremely difficult for her to have gone into the n»oney market oc her own account, against their opposition. P ■} ! I \ m.L'LiJ ii*^''' ,i}IS 200 TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. by the new colonial minister on a question to which the imperial government had, by his predecessor, been so fur committed. The course of the Canadian envoy can only be defended on the assumption that a refusal was inevita- ble, and that a proper appreciation of his position led him to anticipate it. No more unfavorable impression would probably have remained, had not his name subsequently appeared as the proposed recipient of a douceur from the contractors, in the shape of £50,000 of paid-up stock in the capital of the company, which, however, he repudiated when it was announced. Previous to 1851, Canadian securities had no status of their own in England, the canal loans having been ne- gotiated under an imperial guarantee. When provincial bonds had no regular quotations, it is not surprising (how- ever much so it may now appear), that as late as 1851, the bonds of the city of Montreal were sold in London at thirty per cent, discount. At the great exhibition of 1851, Can- ada made her debut so favorably, that the keen frequent- ers of 'Change Alley consented to chaperon tlie interesting stranger — confident that a good thing could be made out of so virgin a reputation — especially after the imperial government had a second time proposed to indorse for her. No machinery could be better devised for launching a doubtful project, such as was the Grand Trunk llailway of Canada, viewed as a commercial undertaking, than that possessed by the colossal railway contractors, the modern and unique results of the railway era. Extensive opera- tions, involving purchases of land from the nobility and gentry, and weekly payments of wages to the middle and lower classes, over hundreds of miles of country; large or- ders to iron masters, wood merchants, and engine and car- riage builders, in all parts of the kingdom ; with bunking transactions, and sales of securities of the heaviest descrip- tion in the capital itself, gather round the eminent con- tractors a host of dependents and expectants, in and out of 'Hi- TRAVEL AlTD TEANSPORT ATION. 201 Parliament, by a skilful, and, it is to be feared, sometimes unscrupulous use of whom, fortunes are made, and ap- pointments, and titles even conferred. It does not follow that all, or even the majority of those who are thus made use of, are in any degree culpable. Setting aside the effect of pressure from constituents, many an honest man is moved by an unseen lever ; and none know better than railway practitioners the value of a man qui facit per alium where he cannot per se. Although some opposition was experienced from the promoters of the local Canadian companies — who had borne the burden of the project hitherto, and now saw another about to reap its benefits; and from the few who clearly foresaw the cruel injury which would be inflicted on the innocent, and the consequent responsibility of Can- ada, there was little ditficulty in reconciling the provincial legislature and the municipalities to the abandonment of the joint provincial and municipal plan of constructing the road. The latter were shown that they could now de- vote their means to local improvements ; and to those re- quired members of the legisUiture who failed at once to perceive the great advantages to the country at large at- tendant upon the importation of so much English capital, the question was brought home individually in such a way that all scruples were removed. To prepare the scheme for the larger appetite of the London market, itft proportions were extended from the 500 miles between Quebec and Hamilton, to upwards of 1000 miles, extend- ing from Lake Huron to the Atlantic ; although provis- ion had already been made for the former by tlie Great Western, and for the latter by the New York and Boston lines approaching Montreal. Amalgamations with existing lines in Canada, and the lease of a foreign one, were made upon the most reckless and extravagant terms; and lastly, having whipped in the requisite financial indorsation in London, the scheme was successfully launched by the con- tractors most opportunely, just before the Crimean war. ., |i ::i Ji 202 TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. As the prospectus showed a probable dividend of eleven and a half per cent., the stock rose to a premium 1 For this preinium a discount wa3 substituted, as soon as exer- tion was slackened by success, which rapidly increased on the breaking out of the war, and became hopelessly con- firmed as soon as the London, Liverpool, Mant^hester, and Glasgow merchants read the postscripts of thoir Canadian mercantile correspondents ; nor could any subsequent ef- fort of the company, with the aid of all the great names now fairly harnessed in, drag the unwieldy vehicle out of the slough into which, apparently by its own dead weight, it so rapidly sank. This sudden depression, before any trial of the scheme had been made, was the natural result of that reilection which ought to have preceded its recep- tion ; and is important in itself, as proving that the English shareholders were either self-deceived or deceived by their own countrymen, the promoters in London, rather than by any importance which they attached to the action of Can- ada ; because no practical demonstration was waited for to prove the real value of the stock. The fact that they did not wait fur this, proves by their own act that they were not warranted iu believing the prospectus, although they have since founded a claim against Canada upon the faith they put in it.* A little reflection was all that was required to make that preposterous document harmless; and wo can hardly bo held responsible for their exercise of that reflection a few weeks ci/'ter, instead of at the time of its publication. Notwithstanding this early disrepute of the stock, the character of the subscription list and wealth of the con- tractors carried on the work until 1S55, when the com- pany came before the Canadian Parliament "i/i for/nd paujifrisp This was repeated in 1850, when for the first time thoir contracts were submitted to public inspection. * The7 really believed in men of their own country who did not believe in the prospectus, but who had other reasons for indorsing it; and this explains why their fai'ii was of such short duration. TRAVEL AlfD TRANSPORTATION. 203 A grant of £900,000 sterling was voted in 1855, to enable them to go on ; and in 1856 the province, which liad hither- to stood in the position of a first mortgagee, to the extent of its advances to the company, gave up this position and went behind the shareholders, in order that the latter might issue preference bonds to fill the vacated space; and because they complained that Canada ought not to exact her rights to their prejudice. The ordinary bond- holders, — who, though they ranked after the provincial mortgage, no doubt counted upon similar forbearance when the proper time arrived, and tiierefore felt them- selves virtually first mortgagees, — were effectually floored by this preference coup d'etat,' nor can one fail to ad- mire that lucky accident, or judicious foresight, which made one dollar of the original provincial aid, practically count as two to the future wants of the company : for the provincial lien could only have been considered as of pros- pective value by all parties, especially after the company, which had paid the interest upon it out of capital un- til 1857, formally declared their inability to continue to do so. This was caused not only by want of receipts, but by their having bound themselves to pay greater rents for leased lines than they could earn from them, so that the productive sections could not certainly do more than pay this deficiency, and complete, equip, and maintain the road. When thus virtually making the company a present of over £3,000,000 sterling, the legislature re(piircd them to expend £225,000 (or seven and a half per cent, of this amount) upon branch lines connecting with the main Trunk, a stipulation which the company have described as one of the injuries inflicted upon them by the Canadians. As section after section was opened, and no indications of the eleven and a half per cent, presented themselves, the difficulty was accounted for, first, by the want of western connections, then by the non-completion of the Victoria Bridge, and lastly, the want of rolling stock. The western connections were obtained by promoting a company to con. .1 i" I I i^cM 204 TRAVEL AND TKAN8P0RTATI0N. struct a line in Michigan, at a cost at least one-third more than was necessary, and then leasing it at eight per cent, upon this extravagant cost, after it had been demonstrated that It could not earn its own working expenses. The only pos- sible explanation of such an extraordinary proceeding, at so late a date in the history of the company, is, that the parties wlio furnished the money did so in good faith, for the benefit of the whole enterprise, and that the work be- ing situated in a foreign country, and constructed wholly on Grand Trunk account, they were entitled to protection. Also, that as this last and indispensable link was the gol- den gate through which the treasures of the boundless west were to pour over the Grand Trunk, and produce eleven and a half per cent, dividends, eight percent, on their out- lay was but moderate compensation to the corporate bone- factors. The Victoria Bridge was completed, and then the want of rolling stock was the only reason assigned for the Avant of success ; but when it was remembered that, by the Act of 1857, the conditions on which the prov- ince surrendered her lien only remain in force while the company " supply the said railway with Sufficient plant, rolling stock, and appliances to work the same efficiently," and " so long as they maintain and work the same reg- ularly," it was discovered that no more rolling stock was necessary at present ; and at the same time the rumored threats of stopping the road, unless the postal subsidy were increased and capitali>ced, suddoidy ceased alto- gether. AVhen at last all efforts failed, the conviction forced itself on the hitherto infatuated proprietors, that the anticipated traffic was not to be had upon any Cana- dian route, except as a water-borne one which this rail way was unable to divert. A failure so magnificent, complete, and disastrous has naturally led to recriminations ; and forgetting the part played by Englishmen in the inception, and their almost exclusive execution and management of the undertaking, its British victims have attempted reclamations on the TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 205 province, on the ground of the " moral responsibility" in- curred in accepting the tempting offers made lior. A very large ])roportion of such claimants are effectually disposed of by the fact that, having acquired their stock at some- thing like one-fifth its cost to the real victims, and otlier securities at proportionate discounts, long after the fallacy of the prospectus was admitted, they can have had no im- plied contract with Canada, "moral" or otherwise. If we are bound to compensate, it can only be those who really put faith in us, and gave the first impulse to our railway, and not the bulls and bears of the stock exchange, — per- haps the men who, having deceived and plundered their own countrymen, have bought back the depreciated securi ties, and now stand in dead men's shoes to intimidate and revile Canadians — every one of whom bears by taxation something more than a moral responsibility on account of the Grand Trunk. Canadians did not originate this Bclieme, and, left alone, they would have closed the gap in their Trunk line between Montreal and Hamilton without greater cost tlian they have contributed to the Grand Trunk, and without loss to any but themselves. This section was all that was necessary, in a national point of view, as it would have secured the connection of our chief seaports with the remote west. But a member of the British Parlia- ment, representing the wealthiest firm of contractors in the world, crossed the Atlantic, applied to the Canadian legislature for the necessary powers to bring out the gi- gantic scheme on the London market, and taught the inex- perienced colonists how to take advantage of their position. The (Tovernor-y-eneral, either to immortalize his adminis- tration, or acted upon, however innocently, by those influ- ences in London which control appointments and peerages, publicly implored the legislature not to shut the door in the face of such proffered relief; and prepared an elaborate statistical report, to accompany the prospectus, showing the progress and resources of the colony. It was not pos- Bible that a people ignorant of railways could resist such r ,.iAiii«*'^ 206 TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. arguments or such temptations ; nor is it remarkable that, knowiii<^ the marvellous effects of railways elsewhere, they should be unable to discriminate between the prolital)le and the unprofitable routes, especially when they were assured of success from such experienced and influential sources. TIkju^Ii they had just incurred a debt of millions for canals, which were not directly remunerative, they embarked in railways to a much greater extent, assuming obligations which, could they hav^e foreseen the results, they would not have done, even though English capitalists had offered to invest two dollars to their one. . CAUSES OP FAILURE. The Grand Trunk scheme embraces so large a propor- tion of the railway system of Canada, that its failure de- serves investigation, and may be found in the following considerations : 1. We have seen that while private enterprise had taken up as intrinsically valuable, or supposed to be so, the rail- ways leading from Montreal to Purtland, Boston, and New York, and from Toronto and Niagara westward — the sec- tions between Quebec and Toronto — the most prominent portions of the Grand Trunk, as prepared for tlie English market, were, though backed by a provincial guarantee, left by the Canadians until the last, because it was felt that no railway could successfully compete with such a naviga- tion. The English projectors thought otherwise, because their railwavs had beaten their canals : but no analoo'v exists in the case of either system in the two countries. Their railways have a different traf^c and climate, are better made and cheaper worked, while their canals arc but enlarged ditches compared with ours. The original Canadian railway companies were organized on the basis of portage roads working in connection with the naviga- tion, besides forming a through line for general purposes ; but the Grand Trunk vainly essayed competition with the m TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 207 water, and disdained all connection with it between Mon- treal and Lake Huron. 2. While the Canadian envoy in May, 1852, looked only to a line between Montreal and Hamilton, the Eiiirllsh Bchenie provided for an extension of both ends, of a cen- tral line, itself never regarded as a promising one— the ex- tensions, as a whole, being still more unpromising intrin- sically than the centre ; evidently counting upon a through traffic wliich should be more valuable than the local one. The weak point in the scheme was, that these extensions connected points already connected by better routes, and between which no regular traffic existed, or was likely to arise. The Canadian railway route between Detroit and Boston, as compared with that via Albany, was an attempt to travel the arc of a circle (and a more arctic one at that) in competition with its chord. The scheme did not possess the elements of success, either as a whole or in its parts ; tlie failure was, therefore, inevitable, and in pro- portion to the extension. The following statements which show the receipts and exports by sea, via the St. Lawrence, and the Grand Trunk Railway respectively, prove the hopelessness of the contest between the rail and the river ; and the insignificance of the winter operations of the former, via Portland and Boston, in diverting exports from the latter : KECKIPTS OF WESTERN GRAIN AND FLOUR AT MONTREAL, lSfi2. By water. I5y G. T. Railway. Total. Pr cunt. byG.T. li. Grain, bus. Klour, blls. 11,867,710 772.881 602,128 402.221 12.169.888 6..W 1,174,602 84.25 EXPORTS SEAWARD OP GRAIN AND FLOUR FROM MONTREAL, 1862. By River St. Law- rence. By G. T. R'lw'y via Portland A Boston. Total. Per cent, by G. T. Raihviiy. Grain, bus. Flour, blls. 9,015,874 697,477 478,f>95 66,1^ 9,493,9C9 663,600 f).3 9.96 3. The enterprise, unpromising as it always was to com- 1 ? m n;^ a ■ni! 208 TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. petent and disinterested observers, was loaded down with improvident leases of foreign lines. The Portland mil- way was leased at six per cent, upon its cost, and required the expenditure of over a million and a half of dollars to make it workable ; yet with all the advantages of the Vic- toria Bridge and western connections, the company have not been able to earn more than two-thirds of the rent they agreed to pay. Nothing but the greatest infatuation could have led to the belief that such a road, with its heavy grades and curves, and a scanty local traffic, could, amid winter snows, do a through business, to waiTant the price paid fur it. Tlie lease of the Michigan line we have already noticed : this was so much the worse,in that the company have not only been unable to earn any port' )n of the eight per cent, rent, but have lost money in working it. 4. The purchase of the St. Lawrence and Atlantic line at cost, though the stock had been sold at fifty per cent, discount, was made on the assumption that it was com- plete as f'lr as it went ; but, like the Portland end of the same line, another millior of dollars or more was re- quired to put it in efficient order. Besides this unexpect- ed outlay on the existing road between Montreal and Portland, about six millions of dollars were subsequently required, to make up deficiencies in the contract provision for those portions of the line constructed under the com- pany's own auspices. Whatever allowance may be made for heated imaginations, when estimating the prospective business of the road, and deluding themselves with the notion that itwould^as a whole, earn di^'idends of eleven piid a half per cent., when none of its parts had j^ravi^. .isly been considered as practicable without sub- sidies, the railway men of the prospectus must have known that this could not be done with three-i)er-cent. of sidings, and the limited number of locomotives and car- riages provided by the contracts ; and that the working expenses could not be kept down to forty per cent. o+' all the receipts which could be earned by such an equipment. TRAVEL AND TRANSPOKTAnOK. 209 Tlie prospectus assured subscribers that the cost of the railway was defined by contracts, whereby " any appre- hension of the capital being found insufficient is removed," and which " secured a first-class railway, including sidings ample rolling stock, and every requisite essential to !rs per- fect completion ;" and that, " for the capital stated, the proprietors are assured of a railway fully erpiipped and complete in every respect, and free from any further charges whatever !" The capital estimated by the ])ros- pcctus was $47,500,000 ; the company, in 1800, showed a balance sheet of $70,000,000 ; of this amount, about $5G,00on the line. The railway satrap sent out by tiie London l^oard, whoso salary is only exceeded by that of the governor-general, naturally considers himself the second person in the province j and, charg toul TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 213 as a consequence, the special commissioner sent out from the same source, wifh the salary of the President of the United States, to obtain more money from the province under the veil of a postal subsidy, would deem himself the second person on the coutinent, and therefore assume a position commensurate with his importance, and indulge in threats of destroying the credit of the province. Th^*- salary of this commissioner is reported at $25,000, his charge for expenses $12,000, and the cost of his special trains at $G,000, making a total of $-43,000 on account of one year. If only half of this be true, it is sufficient to pre- vent Canadians increasing their own taxes in order to afford the company the means of continuing such extrava- gance. Men so much better paid than their confreres nat- urally '/r.lue themselves much higher; can only be ap- proached through successive doors, or be communicated with through successive depiries, in a diminishing scale, until the man who does the work is reached ; and can only travel by special trains or in exclusive carriages, provided with ;very luxury on an imperial scale, and with equal in- difference to detail. Perhaps no circumctanc? has tended more to mako the n anagement unpopular, and the liber- ality sought for on accoTint of postal subtiidy impossible, than this abusi*, of special trains and carriages by officials of the corapar y intoxicated with the novelty of their posi- tion. The bishops, and the judges of assize ; the most ven- erable and respectable inhabitants of the country, as well as tourists of the highest rank, are content to travel by ordinary trains and in the usual carriages ; but ;;he upper servants of the rail-vay company have burned the fuel, worn the rails ard rolling-stock, deprived their fellow employes of the needed Sunday's rest, and thrown the uholo freiglit traffic of a single lino out of time (thus jeopardizing life and property), in ordor that they may show their litMo brief authority. Passengers have been turned out oC ^v sle -=ping- cai in the dead of the night by the breaking of a whool, and cr-iwded into the only remaining ca,rriage oi the train ex- 1' i 8 ■ il' ' . I ■■ ■ I ■i!. I!'; '■ '<:iti i ■*t 214 TBATEL AND TRANSPORTATION. cept one, which, though large enough for fifty, was sacred to a few railway magnates whose duty it was — and pleasure it should have been — to treat the ejected passengers as their guests, but who resolutely kept out the vulgar herd. It seems absurd in such nabobs to plead poverty before our legislature, or expect the men whose wives and daughters have been so treated to support their petitions. MUNICIPAL RAILWAYS. The municipalities, relieved from contributing to the Trunk Railway, were thus at liberty to embark in branch lines, and some rushed headlong in, seduced by men who saw how the thing was done in the Grand Trunk. Contrac- tors controlled the board of directors and appointed the engineer; a scamped road, barely practicable for traffic, was made, on which the whole receipts for the present generation must be applied before it can be considered completed. To enable the municipalities to carry out their loca improvements, the province virtually indorsed their bonds by exchanging them for others, in which it acted as a broker, undertaking to collect from the borrower and pay over to the lender. Tlie by-laws by which counties, cities, and townships voted their loans or subscriptions to public works, required the approval of the governor in council before they could take the benefit of the Municipal i Loan Fund Act. This provision was intended as a check upon extravagance, but the practical effect of it was to place the members from every county and city, seeking to avail themselves of the provisions of the act, at the mercy of the ministry of the day. Those who were most subser- vient obtained most money, and one village was allowed to borrow three hundred dollars per head for every soul of the population. Of course default was made in the in- terest on such loans, and one delinquent produced others ; the province as indorser in the mean time paying for them, and in the end accepting, in lieu of the dues, an annual as- TRAVEL AND TEAN8P0RTATI0N. 215 Bessment of five per cent. Althongh loans of this doubt- ful character have been thus compromised, a rigid neu- trality has been maintained toward those municipalities which, like Hamilton, embarked in good faith in similarly unfortunate enterprises upon their own unaided credit. The following tables show that about six and a half mil- lions of dollars have been contributed to railways by the municipalities in Upper and Lower Canada, out of the loan fund. Some three millions or more have been con- tributed by municipalities which did not borrow from the fund, so that the total investment by these bodies in rail- ways cannot be far from ten millions of dollars.* * Unfortunately, the municipalities do not make any return to Parliament of their invcEtmenta in public works. This is the case also with road com- panies and several other joint-stock corporations. No good reasons are advanced why these bodies should be more favored than banks and r&il* -.'Mm^lgliii-' .i^-m ' 1^ !^ ! i! Ill 216 TRAVEL AND TKANSPOIITATION. TABLE SHOWING TUB AMOUNTS TAKEN FROM THE MUNICIPAL LOAN FUND BT MUNICIPALITIES IN UPPER CANADA FOR RAILWAY PURPOSES ONLY. Population Populatioi I Arrears of Interest MiinicipaUties. in 1S51. in 1861. Amount of loan. due Dec. 31, 1861. Town of Port Hope 2,476 4,161 $740,000.00 $312,303.r-' To\vnship of Hope 5,299 5,883 60,000.00 25,802.56 Town of Niagara 3,340 2,070 280,000.00 148,974.02 " " Cobourg 3,871 4,975 500,000.00 31.3,420.01 Village of Chippewa 1,193 1,095 20,000.00 7,10971 Township of Bertie 2,737 3,379 40,000.00 8,873.36 " " Brantford. . . 6,410 6,904 50,000.00 2,428.11 Town of Brautford 3,877 6,251 500,000.00 186,754.87 Township of Wainfleet. . . 1,841 2,316 20,000.00 1,440.37 " Canboro. ... 1,151 1,252 8,000.00 330.80 Counties of Huron and ) qq 706 Bruce ' Townships of Moulton | « 0,0 and Sherbrooke ' ''''^^^ 76,226 125,000.00 3,059 20,000.00 ViUage of Paris 1,890 2,373 40,000.00 172.23 City of Ottawa 7,760 14,669 200,000.00 100,000.00 113,411.37 62,625.53 Town of Preseott 2,15G 2,591 " " Woodstock 2,112 3,353 100,000.00 47,824.29 " " St Catharine's.. 4,368 6,284 100,000.00 47,748.27 Townsliipof Woodhouse. 2,894 3,703 10,000.00 31.04 " " Norwich.... 5,239 6,383 200,000.00 101,508.96 " " Ops 2,512 2,872 80,000.00 39,897.36 County of Elgin 25,418 32,050 80,000.00 35.95 City of London 7,035 11,555 375,400.00 100,000.00 155,412.56 'I'ownship of Windham. . 2,900 4,095 50,251.66 Town of Simcoe 1,452 1,858 51,964 lOO.OJO.OO 800,000.00 52,276.99 300,189.16 Counties of Lanark and } »^ hoo Renfrew ^6,732 Town of Brockville 3,246 4,112 400,000'.00 187,432.01 Township of Elizabeth- | - oqq town ) ' VillafT.) of Stratford 6,101 154,000.00 51,704.00 2,809 100,000.00 56,871.79 Town of Goderich 1,32S 3,227 100,000.00 35,174.92 " " iiarrie 1,007 2,134 5,076 12,000.00 80,000.00 2,504.09 13,400.12 " " Guolph 1,860 " ' Peterboro 2,191 3,979 Total, 100,000.00 27,274.12 $5,594,400.00$2,359,406.74 J TBAVEL AND TKANSPOBTATION. 21 r TABLE SnO WING THE AMOITNTS TAKKN FROM THE MUNICIPAL LOAN FUITD H"? liUXIC.tPALITlES IN LOWER CANADA FOR RAILWAY PURPOSES JNLY. Popnlntion Municipalities. in ISol. County of Ottawa 22,903 " " Terrcboiino..26,;91 " ■ Shefford... .1G,482 " " Stanstcad...l3,898 " " Megantic... 13,835 St. Romuald do Faruliam| Township of Sheflbrdf. . . 2,512 Town of Three Riveraf . . 4,835 Township of Granbyf . . . 2,392 " Boltonf 1,936 " ofStukelyNthf )„,„, " ofStukelySthtP'^"^**' Village of Fermoat| Population in isCl. 27,757 19,460* 17,779 12,258 17,889 3,712 6,058 3,271 2,526 . 2,820 Amount of loan, $131,000.00 94,000.00 215,000.00 71,000.00 5,840.00 30,000.00 57,500.00 220,000.00 30,000.00 13,000.00 j 16,000.00 ( 10,000.00 32,000.00 Arrears of Intorpit due Doc. 31, IsOl. $81,(40.1!) 00,198.17 6:!,340.5;i 17,581.02 ;{,r)8o.,'>7 1 1,423.08 21,895.59 53,855.61 10,938.37 2,834.39 3,763.29 2,364.00 6,393.00 Total, $925,940.00 $343,208.41 This flagrant disregard of obligations, by so many tnu- nicipalities, is not to be ascribed wholly to the inability of some, and the example of such upon others ; nor to any proneness to repudiation ; for these bodies have made great and successful efforts to keep faith witli other credi- tors, and have only failed in cases where the debt was overwhelming. Little effort was made to pay the loan fund, even during the most prosperous days of the corpo- rations, chiefly becausu no attempt was made to collect : — the example of the government in conniving at the default being the ])rimo cause of its present magnitude. To press a municipality was to drive it into opposition ; and rail- way corruption had so thoroughly emasculated the leaders of the people, that they had not virtue enough left to do their duty. Moreover, at the time the money was borrowed supporters of the government had industriously sowed the impreesion that repayment would not be exacted, and this view gained ground after the lien on the Grand Trunk was abandoned. They could i\ot see why the law of 1849, which treated all districts alike, should have been repealed for the benefit of the wealthier localities ; and ♦ Boundaries changed since 1851. f Object of loan not stated ; supposed to be for railways. !«■ ' 218 TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. looked upon this move a3 an abuse of their political power by the majority. To these considerations, as well as to the feeling that the debt is due, in a great nieasure, by the people in one capacity to themselves in anotlier, and not to individuals or a foreign government— and has more- over been pretty generally distributed over the province- may be traced tiiis otherwise disgraceful exhibit. The dimensions of many of the loans, as compared with the borrowers, go to show that the latter did not expect and were not expected to repay ; — nor could many of them have been sanctioned by the p;)pular approval, had they been considered 'a.?, hond file debts. The manner in which the guarantee has been distributed, as shown in the fol- lowiuij table, has likewise tended to foster this feeliniij. Oi-eat Westorn. Grand Trunk. Northern. Total co3t of the road to ) g23,000,10J:.00.$55,690,0:?9.92.. .$3,890,778.68 3 Ist December, 18G0. . j "f^ ' ' •v i i -*■ i i Total amount received \ from the province in [• . .$3,755,555.18. $15,142,033.33.. .$2,311,606.67 debentures ) Total miles built 345 872 95 Mileage entitled to guar- \ „q^ antee j .680. ,95 Amount received per mile \ of wlioio road in deben- >• $10,800.00 $17,365.00 $24,333.00 tures ) Amount received per mile i entitled to guarantee in [• $14,000.00 $22,200.00 $24,333.00 debentures. Per cent, of cost supplied \ by the province ) .16.32. 27.18., ,..59.41 The debentures were sold at about twelve and a half per cent. ]n'e!nium, which would increase these amounts cue-eighth. The province has abandoned its claim on the last two roads ; the Great Western has ceased paying principal or interest, — the former from inability ; the latt(;r on the ground that its mail service has not been pcttled. The Northern was not a part of the main trunk, but ob- tained provincial aid because it had been put under con- tract in view of the guarantee, before the repeal of the law TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 219 of 18J-9 ; — a privilege wLich the Prescott and Ottawa as well as other companies might have obtained, had they added twenty-five miles or more iu any direction to the length of their line (so as to make up the seventy-five miles required to secure them the guarantee), and con- tracted for the whole. When the advance to the Grand Trunk was fixed at £3,000 sterling per mile, the railway commissioners es- tablished a similar limit for the Northern, or a total of £275,000 sterling, which was more than that company then hoped for from the province. On the twenty-first of June, 1854, after two-thirds of the line had been in operation eight months, the engineer of the company reported that the remaining third was rapidly approaching completion, grading and bridging finished, — ties distributed and iron delivorcd, and one-half of the track laid ; — that i^e expected to open the whole length in August, when the harbor at Collingwood would be sufficiently advanced to be used ; and showed the expenditure, including road, harbor, station and depot services and equipments, to be £698,810 5*. Od. sterling. He also rendered an account as follows : Provincial guarantee, £275,000 stg.^currency at 3} per cent. £334,583 6 8 Received by company, to date 284, 1G6 13 4 Balance currency £50,41G 13 4 In the same month, the railway commissioners reported that the total amount to complete the works, including thf rolling stock, was £716,530, of which the sum of £682,961 5s. Od. had been expended, and recommended the advance of this balance, subject to the report of one of their own body, who was an engineer. This report was made on the twenty-seventh of September following, and it not only confirmed the advance, but declared that the road — which was so nearly completed, and which had been esti- mated by the board of which he was a member, three months before, at £716,530— would now cost £1,156,592 7s. 7d. (or $4, ''26,369.52), the moiety of which, or full amount of i: ? li 0. ^^a .0^.. \'^> Z^ IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) 1.0 I.I 1.25 — " IIIM ^ 140 M M !.8 1.4 11.6 "/ <^ w ^ //, '^n VI <-># ^^ oy % Photographic Sciences Corporation 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. H580 (716) 872-4503 #^ ^ iV o ^ <1? >> 6^ %^ ■<^' ^ y Mp< C?- w.. «^f: "»:*! 220 TBAYEL AND TRANSPORTATION. ^narantec by the provisions of the act, will be £578,296 ds. dd., of which the company has received (including the sum above recommended) £334,583 4s. Sd. leaving to bo ultimately provided by the province the sum of £243,713, 17s. Id. The company was paid the whole of this extra amount, £200,000 sterling, in debentures (over $1,000,000), within four months after this report was made. It is not often that 9 railway, or any public work, proves to have cost less than was estimated for it, seven years before, but the Northex-n is an honorable exception to the rule. The liscal returns published by the inspecLor of railways, which are the company's own statements, show that the cost of this road and its equipments, up to the thirty-first of De- cember, 1860, instead of $4,626,369.52, was $3,890,778.68, or $735,i>90.84 less. The company has received $2,311, 6GC.G7 One-half tlie cost as retumod by them is 1,9-15,380.34 '/ So it would appear they wore overpaid $306,277.33 Ottawa, Prescott, Brockville, Cobourg, Peterboro', Port llt)i)e, Niagara, Bnintford, St. Catherine's, Paris, London, Ikrrie, Guelph, Stratford, Goderich, and the counties and townships adjoining them, which haveiiot dis[)liiyed much alacrity in repaying the municipal loan fund, will dnul)tles3 claim that the railways which they have interested them- selves in should receive some of that consideration which has been so liberally bestowed on the Northern. The guarantee law of 1849 was very unguarded; so much so that contractors, by tendering at double the value, couUl make the half contributed by the province pay the whole cash outlay, and could thus afford to take payment in stock and bonds : this has been the result in the case of the Northern Railway. It became necessary, therefore, as we have seen, to restrict it to the main trunk lino, and to provide not only for the approval of all contracts by the irovornnient, but that the estimates of work done and to TKAVEL AND TKAN8P0KTATI0N. 221 be done should be submitted to it — well-meant but inefifec- tual provisos, as we have also seen. So, also, the manner in which the municipalities voted away their bonds, forced, after some three years' experience, a limitation of the amount for which the province would act as a broker. Some of the wealthier counties, careful of their credit, de- clined to pay eight per cent, for money, and thus derived no benefit from the municipal loan fund (if benefit it can be considered), while they contribute through the consoli- dated fund to pay its losses. During the Grand Trunk era of construction, from 1S53 to 1859, the first Canadian age of iron, and of brass — the utmost activity was displayed in running into debt. The great success which attended the ejirly years of the Great Western assisted every other Canadian road, and was doubtless the main instrument in preventing the Grand Trunk from being prematurely abandoned. Whatever loss of prestige or character the province may suffer from the almost universal failure of her railways, as investments, it is clear that in a material sense she has been benefited immensely by the early luck, of the Great Western, and by the English infatuation about Grand Trunk; for without these the means for the construction of many miles now in use wt>uld not have been raised. The constru(^tiou of the other lines simultaneously with Grand Trunk was equally opportune, because there would have been little prospect of getting them done after the bankruptcy of that road. RAILWAY MORALITY. So much recklessness was displayed, in sanctioning by- laws, and in exchanging what were really provincial for mu- nicipal debentures, as to give color to the charge that con- tractors were not the only ones personally interested in these issues. The years 1852 to 1857 will ever be remem- bered as those of financial plenty, and the saturnalia of nearly all classes connected with railways. Before the invasion of the province at the east by a deputation from < ii ill AAiUy*' -»" (HMh II 1'^. Jf niff' I ■ f! » ii I 222 TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. the most experienced railway men of England, bringing with them all the knowledge and appliances of that con- servative country, it had been penetrated on the west by some contractors from the United States, bred in that school of politics and public works which brought New York to a dead stand and Pennsylvania to the goal of repudia- tion. These " practical men" had built State canals with senators and even governors as silent partners, and were versed in all the resources peculiar to a democratic com- nmnity. The convergence of these two systems on the poor but virgin soil of Canada, brought about an education of the people and their representatives more rapid than the most sanguine among them could have hoped for. One bold operator organized a system which virtually made him ruler of the province for several years. In person or by agents he kept "open house," where the choicest brands of champagne and cigars were free to all the peoples' rep- resentatives, from the town councillor to the cabinet minister ; and it was the boast of one of these agents that when the speaker's bell rang for a division, more M. P. P.s were to be found in his apartments than in the library or any other single resort ! By extensive operations ho held the prosperity of so many places, as well as the success of 60 many schemes and individuals in his grasp, that he ex- ei'cised a quasi legitimate influence over many who could not be directl}^ seduced ; or made friends of those he could not otherwise approach, by liberal purchases of their prop, erty, and thus, insensibly to them, involved their interests witli his own. So he ruled boards of directors — suggest- ing, as the officers who should supervise his work, creatures of his own — and thus the companies found themselves, on settlement-day, committed by the acts of their own ser- vants. Companies about to build a railway, and depend- ing on the municipal loan fund, were led to believe that, if he wore the contractor, there would be no difficulty in obtaining the government sanction of the by-laws to any extent, and therefore the exchange of bonds ; or, if their ^i TRAVEL AND TBANSPORTATION. 223 charter were opposed, the great contractor only could set it all right. A few anecdotes will illustrate the impar- tiality of his levies. An Fnglish contractor was, without competition, about to pounce quietly upon the contract for the T(5ronto and Hamilton Hallway, when his American " brother" de- manded and received a royalty of £10,000 sterling, before he would allow a corporation to be so imposed upon : he was, however, subsequently obliged to disgorge this black mail, when seeking the co-operation of the same contractor in England for the celebrated but abortive Southern Rail- way scheme. The English contractors for Grand Trunk also were compelled, before they could risk the ordeal of the legislature, to promise the ever-present and never-to- be-avoided American one-third interest in their contract. This, considering the kind of payments and their prospec- tive losses, the latter took the earliest opportunity to com- promise for the consideration of £12,000 sterling. The Toronto Northern road was let to a company of American contractors at a price per mile, payment bemg made chiefly in the company's stock and bonds, and the government guarantee debentures. It was necessai-y, in order to secure any portion of this latter item, that one- half of the work upon seventy-five miles should lirst be completed by the contractors. Having exhausted their means in reaching, as they hoped, this position, the con- tractors, through the company, called on the government for the advance ; but, upon an inspection by the government engineer, the road was found to have been so " scamped," under the American engineer (who subsequently openly became a partner with the contractors), that the commis- sioner of public works refused to recommend the issue of the provincial bonds. Here was a fix 1 But the con- tractors sent for their American brother, who, for a bro- kerage of $100,000 of the first mortgage bonds of the company, undertook to obtain the guarantee. He went to his colleague iu the government ; the commissioner of I • Mi '■: ■!!' 'iu'i**-'- ; *^!! -t-^i i I 224 TRAVEL AND TUAN8P0RTATI0N. public works was shunted out of office on a suddenly raised issue (which immediately thereafter was dropped), and just one week afterward the guarantee bonds were forthcoming. In connection with this incident, it is wor- tliy of remark, that a member of the government shortly afterward paid away nearly £10,000 of the first mortgage bondri of the same company in the purchase of real estate. Tlie Great Western Railway, finding their traflic on the first opening of the road to exceed their expectations. Bought, among other legislation, the power to lay a double track from Hamilton to London, and on applying to the gov- ernment to promote their bill — instead of meeting with that encouragement whicli the proposal to expend so much addi- tional English capital led them to expect — they were grave- ly assured that the government was powerless to give them their bill, in consequence of the influence of the enter- prising Pennsylvanian in the house. The contractor's price for permitting the bill to pass was — the contract for the work to be done ; and to this the company, seeing no escape, consented conditionally ; that is, if the work were undertaken during the ensuing five years. Fortunately for them, before a commencement could be made, the double track was found to be unnecessary. Among other favors '>btained by the legislation thus bartered for, was the power to disregard that provision of the railway act which requires trains to stop before crossing the draw- bridge over the Desjardin's Canal. In less than two years thereatter, a train which did not stop plunged through this very bridge, and among the first recovered of the sixty victims to that "accident," was the dead body of the great contractor himself. Lest it should be considered that there is any thing pe- culiar to Canada in these transactions, it may be mentioned that about the same period a Congressman was convicted at Washington of voting for a " consideration," and was expelled from the House of Representatives. Tliis man was declared to bo tlie spokesman of a band, irreverently ^Iffl TRAVEL AND TRAJ^SPOKTATION. 225 styled " the forty thieves," by whom he was authorized to negotiate for tlieir votes with the highest bidder. The canal frauds of New York and Pennsylvania are matters of history. Venality and corruption in high places, mainly engendered in the contracts and expenditure for public works, have done, perhaps, as much as slavery, and that territorial covetousness which amounted to idolatry in the Union, to bring down the vengeance of Heaven upon oui^ unhappy neighbors. Nor is tin's, what may be called, railway morality peculiar to this side of the Atlantic. The following extracts from Smiles' Life of George Ste- piienson reveal a similar history in English railways : — " Folly and knavery were, for a time, completely in the ascendant. The bharpers of society were let loose, and jobbers and schemers became more and more plentiful. They threw oat railway schemes as mere lures to catch the unwary. They fed the mania wuth a constant succession of new projects. The railway papers became loaded with their advertisements. The post-office was scarcely able to distribute the multitude of prospectuses and circulars which they issued. For a time their popularity was im- mense. They rose like froth into the upper height of society, and the flunky Fitz Plushc, by virtue of his sup- posed wealth, sat among peers and was idolized. Then was the harvest-time for scheming lawyers, parliamentary agents, engineers, surveyors, and traffic-takers, who were alike ready to take up any railway scheme, however des- perate, and to pi'ove any amount of traffic even where none existed. The traffic in the credulity of their dupes was, however, the great fact that nuiinly concerned them, and of the profltable character of which there could be no doubt. Many of them saw well enough the crash that was coming, and diligently made use of the madness while it served their turn. " The projectors of new lines even came to boast of tlieir parliamentary strength, and of the number of votes which they could command in the ' House.' MiH 226 TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. " Amongst the many ill effects of the mania, one of the worst was that it introduced a low tone of morality into railway transactions. Those who had suddenly gained large sums of money without labor, and also without honor, were too ready to enter upon courses of the wildest extravagance ; and a false style of living sliortly arose, the poisonous influence of which extended through all classes. Men began to look upon railways as instruments to job with ; and they soon became as overrun with job- bers as London charities. Persons, sometimes possessing information respecting railways, but more frequently pos- sessing none, got upon boards for the purpose of promoting their individual objects, often in a very unscrupulous man- ner; landowners, to promote branch lines through their property ; speculators in shares, to trade upon the exclusive information which they obtained ; whilst some directors were appointed through the influence mainlj' of solicitors, contractors, or engineers, who used them as tools to serve their own ends. In this way the unfortunate proprietors were, in many cases, betrayed, and their property was Bhamefully stpiaudered, to the further discredit of tlie rail- way system. " Among the characters brought prominently into notice by the mania was tlie railway navvy. The navvy was now a great man. He had grown rich, was a landowner, a railway shareholder, sometimes even a member of Par- liament; but he was a navvy still. The navvy contractor was greatly given to ' scamping.' lie was up to all sorts of disreputable tricks of the trade ; but he was greatest of all, perhaps, in the ' scamping' of ballast. The conse- quences were sutth as might have been anticipated. l\Ioro bad and dishonest work was executed on the railways constructed in any single year subsequent to the mania, than was f)und on all the Stephenson lines during the ])receding twenty years. " The navvy's great object was to execute the work so that it should pass muster and bu well paid for. The con- TRAVEL AND TBAMSPOlvTATION. 227 tractor in such cases was generally a large capitalist ; a man looked up to even by the chief engineer himself. But the worst feature of this system was, that the principal engineer himself was occasionally interested as a partner, and shared in the profits of Ihe contract. In passing the contractor's work he was virtually passing his own ; and in certifying the monthly pay-bills, he was a party to pay- ing hiins(jlf. What security was there, under such a system, for either honest work or honest accounts ? The conse- quence was, that a great deal of slop-work was thus execu- ted, the results of which, to some extent, have already appeared in the falling in of tunnels, and the premature decay and failure of viaducts and bridges." Caiia'liiins, indeed, have had cause to blush at the spec- tacle of men filling the highest offices in their province, with a seat at the council-board of their sovereign, accept- ing fees and favors from contractors and ofKcials of a rail- way company (between whom and them there should have been a gulf as wide as that which separates the judges of assize from the suitors before them), and laying the honor of their country in the dust, often at the feet of boorish and uneducated men, whose only recommenda- tions were — ^the material one of ill-gotten wealth, and the immoral one of unscrupulousness in the use of ii. May they never again see a member of their government wend- ing his way to the wharf, after a TnatinSe of champagne, supported by contractors and their suite, and departing amid the tipsy cheers of his associates ; — or have to com- plain that ministers of the crown again have made men seeking favors from it their most intimate companions, their hosts and guests, their patrons and their proteges. The evil effects of the past ascendency of railway influenco is visible in the disregard paid by many of the companies to the law of the land. Every company chartered after the passing of the Railway Act of 30th August, 1851, is re- (piired to show a printed tariff in every passenger-car, and 16 1 ? A ,' ^Jifc»A^-- ■-■'"t i liiil III wm 22S TRAVEL AND TRAN8P0KTATI0N. to submit all by-laws changing this tariff for the approval of the governor in council, and to publish the by-law and the order in council approvinf,* the same at least twice in the Canada Gazette before putting the same into operation ; also to file in the registiy oilice of each county traversed by the railway, a map and profile of the portion within that county ; and one of the /hole railway, in the office of the commissioner of public works ; and to submit annually to the legislature dassijied statements of the passengers and goods transported by them. These pro- visions should either be enforced or expunged from the Statute-Book ; for nothing can be more demoralizing in its example than long-continued disobedience by such conspicuous law-breakers. An iinnecessary tenderness has also been displayed toward coTipanies which are exempt by the date of their charter from the wholesome provisions of the Railway Act. Almost all the early charters contain a clause declaring that subsequent enactments by the legislature in the public interest shall not be considered a breach of the privileges granted ; and therefore those railways which, like the Great "Western, do not exhibit notice-boards at level crossings, and do not remove timber which may fall across the track, should be required to do so as much as those chartered a few years later. The number of level crossings (at every one of which, sooner or later, loss of life may be counted on) has been reduced on the Great Western by the fact, that the contractors were paid in proportion to the work done, and not by the mile, and because frequent crossings of this description would, in- crease the danger to the trains^ with the high speed aimed at in the location of that work. On other roads, where the contractor's interest was supreme, or where the com- panies were very poor, these crossings are more numerous, as being the least expensive. TRAVEL ANT) TBANSPOETATION. 229 THE GREAT WESTERN RAILWAY. This important road, Becond to the Grand Trunk only in its length, was first chartered sixteen years before it was commenced. The fine agricultural district between London and Woodstock is nearly equidistant from the three lakes, Huron, Erie, and Ontario ; and as produce afloat on the latter is most valuable, being nearer its mar- ket, the original road of 1834 was one commencing at London and terminating on Burlington Bay ; though pow- er was also obtained to extend westward to the navigable waters of the Thames and to Lake Huron. Before the work was commenced, however, in 1850, the New York railways had reached the Niagara frontier, and the Michi- gan Central road connected Detroit with Chicago. The Great Western thereupon changed its character from that of a Canadian local and portage railway only, debouching on Lake Ontario (which was but a reproduction in iron of Governor Simcoe's road of the last century), to that also of an important section of the main line leading from Boston and Albany to Chicago, the shortest route for which is through the peninsula of Western Canada. The eastern terminus was therefore extended to Niagara, where a magnificent suspension bridge, worthy of the site, united it to the New York roads ; and the western one was di- verted from Lake Huron to Detroit, where a short ferry maintains uninteiTupted communication throughout the year. The ec.timate was made in 1847, by an American en- gineer, and was (exclusive of the Gait branch) only $4,954,080, which, however, did not include the important items of right of way and land damages or rolling stock. The following exhibit shows the expenditure of the com- pany, and how it is made up, with the excess in the cost of the main line over the original estimate of 1847 : 1 I- I 230 TBAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. Cost of main line and Gait Branch ) .sterling £3,651,524 19 7 (with aidmgs fifty miles) ) " ' ' Cost of Sarnia Branch 467,636 2 2 " Gait and Guelph lino 76,183 7 5 " Hamilton and Toronto line 394,466 10 3 " Steamboats Detroit Ferry 39,332 1 2 10 " " Canada and America 48,820 5 6 Detroit and Milwaukee Loan 250,000 Total Expenditure in sterling £4,927,953 17 10 Cost of main lino and Gait Branch (not separated) £3,651,524 19 7 Stuart's estimate, 1847 £990,816 Cost of Gait Branch (estimated) 60,000 " Rightofway " 188,3710 " Rolling stock " 645,774 1,884,961 Excess of exp. on main line over origtnal estimate £1,766,563 19 7 This increased cost of track and buildings only, on the main line amounting to nearly $9,000,000, makes this part of the work cost nearly three times the original estimate, and is due to several causes : 1st. It appears that millions of dollars were expended on these items after the line was opened for traiRc. Until February, 1852, the expenditure was confined to the Cen- tral Division, between London and Hamilton (the original Great Western of 1834), and it was only then the com- pany felt itself in a position to strike out for the larger scheme of the througli line. Notwithstanding this tardy action, it was expected that the whole line would be open- ed in August, 1853. In November, 1852, there was a change of engineers, when it was found that the estimates of the previous June would be exceeded by £621,295 cur- rency, and the new engineer protested against any attempt to open, in 1853, a line on which not a mile of track had been laid before the month of May in that year. Not- withstanding this opinion, so great was the pressure to bring about an opening at the earliest moment, that large sums were offered the contractors if they succeeded in passing a train by November 1st, 1853. One of the con- tractors, by laying the track in unfinished cuttings, at ele- vations varying from five to twelve feet above the perma- za TRLVEL AND TRANSrOETATION. 2S1 nent grade, succeeded in passing a train on the 10th of November, for which performance he received a bonus of $50,000. The whole line was opened in January, 1854, but on the 1st of August of that year the engineer showed work yet to be done to the amount of $1,436,435. Of course the unfinished cuttings had to be lowered between the transits of trains; the ballasting was chiefly done un- der a similar disadvantage, and tlius inucli of the work cost many times more than it could have been done for in the ordinary way. In this course the company exceeded the usual practice of American roads, where, for want of capital, the object is to expend only so much as is neces- sary to open a line, in order that the company may cease paying interest out of capital — have the means of paying the interest on further loans, and get these loans on better terms. It does not appear that the pressure for such pre- mature opening arose from great difficulty in raising the amount required to cover the deficiency of original esti- mates, or that the earnings of the road were needed to meet the interest account. The company, which had then only received £200,000 sterling from the province, could have claimed millions of dollars us a six per cent, loan on account of the guarantee. 2d. The traveller, in riding over a perishable wooden bridge, nearly a quarter of a mile long and fifty feet high, which traverses an inlet near the shore of Ontario, sees the termination of it only a few rods from the line, where a better and cheaper crossing could have been obtained, and naturally wonders why the road was not placed there. At the western end he remarks that the track for miles runs in the water, with dry land everywhere parallel to the line and but a few yards from it, and is again nonplussed. The engineer who located the road had a weakness for straight lines ; and from the manner in which the work was driven, it is probable that sufficient time was not given to amend the location of these long straight lines. Rather than sacri- fice them, therefore, if a wide gulf or miles of water inter- .■1 1 'I 232 TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. vened, it was pluiif^ed into ; or if a house stood in the line it must be removed, and the owner indemnified, coute que coutc. Of course, the preliminary surveys in 1847 did not providefo."such freaks of the location one, which was made some years afterward, and thus increased cost rolled up. An enormous amount has Leen expended in tlie location through Hamilton, and the 500 feet ascent westward from Lake Ontario (which is continuous for eleven miles)> wliere the road first worked itself, in the course of years, into a quiet bed through many fathoms of mud and ooze ; then clings to the face of cliffs, or the rapid slopes formed by the shedding of their exposed faces ; and, lastly, at the summit encounters a quicksand, at the bottom of deep and extensive cuttings. This location, which must have greatly increased the cost, was rath': : in the interest of the contractors than of the shareholders, and does not appear to have been contemplated in the original estimate of 1847. The contracts, some of which had been entered into four years before work was commenced, were item ones, and if at all profitable, this would be in proportion to the amount of work done. There is nmch reason to bolieve that alter- ations and additions to the plans, and also extra works, were ordered without the sanction or knowledge of the directors, more for the chief contractor's benefit than for that of the work ; and to such an extent was this carried, that this road was styled his " milch cow," to be drawn upon at will. In England capitalists object to item contracts because, under these, the final cost is not fixed ; and, theretrre, in preparing the Grand Trunk for that market, a price per mile was agi'eed upon ; which, as we have seen, did not save that company from the necessity of adding many millions of dollars to its capital. The difference between an item contract and a per mile one, as usually carried out on this side of the water, is this. In the former there is always the temptation, by increasing the quantity and altering the quality of the work, to make a first-class road : /H J TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 233 in the latter it is just the reverse ; every thing which is not in the bond (and sometimes much that is) is omitted. As to the two systems, it is but Scylla or Chary bdis to a rail- way company, in the hands of dishonest men ; and, like forms of government, " Whate'er is best adaiinistered is best." The original estimate was, no doubt, most insufficient in many respects — but there is very little reason to doubt that the greater part of the excess of £1,766,564 sterling, is due to the causes we have mentioned. This company was induced, by the example of Ameri- can lines terminating on Lake Erie, to embark in the steambjat business; a disastrous experiment, as it has proved even on Lake Erie, where its chances were always best. Before so many through railway lines were estab- lished between the East and the West, passenger-steamers could be patronized ; but the division of the business, and the dread of se-vsickness, no longer make it practicable to sustain such expensive boats as those floating-palaces, once the pride of the lakes. A much more serious un- dertaking into which the company has been led, was the subsidizing of the Detroit and Milwaukee railway. Whether this was a legitimate attempt to protect itself from the encroachments of the Grand Trunk, and to be able to avoid its proft'ered embraces, or whether (as is too often the case) the company was forced into it by con trolling spirits, who had speculated in the securities of the subsidized road, and used their temporary power to give value to their major interest at the expense of a minor one, cannot yet be determined, liailway companies will always bo exposed to such hazards, so long as their di- rectors are permitted to hold a greater interest in a:.y other company. The Great Western is one of the best equipped and best managed railways on this continent, and traversing a rich and populous district, to which it oifers a choice of market, . a- \ ''t| 234 TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. will always have the best local as well as the best through business of any Canadian railway. BUFFALO, BRANTFOBD, AND GODERICH RAILWAY. While the Great Western was busily engaged in watch- ing the i)roposed invasion of their territory on the north, by the Toronto and Guelph road and its extensions, they were assailed in the rear, and startled by the announce- ment that a company was formed, and had secured " vested rights," for a railway between Buifalo and Brant- ford. The general act, authorizing the formation of road Companies, had been amended in 1850, so as to extend to railways — a provision which, it appears, had escaped the notice of many railway companies. This virtually gave us the Kew York system of a General Railroad Law, un- der which any company may make a railway anywhere, by complying with certain conditions. This democratic measure is the Jiorror of all orthodox existing companies ; but while, in New Tork, tlie impossibility of getting cap- italists to invest in competing lines has been ample pro- tection, conservative legislation in Canada has entirely failed to produce the same result. The peo])le of New York }>assed their General Railroad Law not only as a measure of justice to all districts, aiul a protection against mono[)olies, but chiefly in order to extinguish that corrupt radnig in charters which has obtained in Canada, and "which induced the legislature to repeal our General Rail- road Law, immediately after the Buffalo and Brantford Company had been organized under it — saving those rights, of course. The mischief having been done in 1851, the Brantfonl Company, in lS.r2, was allowed to produce ita line to Goderich, on Lake Huron. This road originated in a desire, on the part of the popu- lous city of Buffalo, to render tributary to herself the rich peninsula of Canada West ; and also to divert the stream of eastern and western travel and freight away from the Buspension-bridge voute to her own hotels and stations. ^a*****^ TilAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 235 If the Great "Western had not committed the mistake of giving Brantford the go-by, it is extremely doubtful whether Buffalo could have organized a Canadian interest strong enough to have carried out this measure. This road, which has an admirable track, and is splendidly equipped in stations and rolling stock, deserves a better traffic- Virtually connecting Lake Huron with Lake Erie, it can have, on this route, no through traffic — because this could only be supplied during the season of navigation, when there is slack water of unlimited capacity between its termini, with which it is impossible it can compete. Its local traffic, alsu, may be limited to that between way sta- tions, since its principal terminus is in a foreign country, and liable to exclusion from Canadian traffic by inter- national trade regulations and currency distinctions. The great want of this road is a terminus on Lake Ontario, in which case it would become available for the grain traffic from Chicago and Milwaukee, or Cleveland and Toledo, to Oswego, Ogdensburgh, New York, or Montreal. Now that the Grand Trunk is hors du combat^ and better coun- sels prevail, the railways of the western peninsula will see that their great aim should be to build up the shippmg interest on Lake Ontario. This lake is open by water communication both to New York and Montreal, and by the aid of water communication alone can our railways hope to deliver that back freight at their termini on Lakes Erie and Huron, which will induce vessels to bring grain to them instead of taking it on to Buffalo, where return cargoes always await them. This railway has a value in its power of mischief, for it furnishes, in connection with the Grand Trunk, via Stratford and Sarnia, an opposition to the Great Western ; and as it has at present no legitimate orbit, it may become merged in one of these larger bodies. JThe Grand Trunk, which has so long unsuccessfully wooed the Great Western, might hope to have in this an engine of coercion ; while the latter may take it ur as a means of self-defence, or to 'ii I 236 TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. \\y< prevent the Trunk from establishing one leg on the Ni- agara frontier. It is, perhaps, superfluous to say, the Brantford road could be happy with cither ; but the legis- lature has fortunately been aroused to the danger of these amalgamations, and it is to be hoped we have seen the end of them. . rom Hamilton to Quebec, railway monopoly is shorn of its power by the water route, but a general amalgamation on the western peninsula would place the pople there under a tyranny which could not and would not be endured. GRAIN PORTAGE RAILWAYS. The Niagara peninsula separates the open stretch of in- land navigation afforded by Lakes Erie, Huron, and Mi- chigan, from Lake Ontario (which is 330 feet lower), by a distance of only thirty to forty miles. Although the Welland canal connects these waters by a fixed scale of navigation, it is found that the longer voyage on tlie upper lakes is most profitable when with a size of vessel too large for this canal ; and that the saving in freight on grain from Chicago to this peninsula, in the larger vessel, is more than suflicient to cover the cost of elevating it by steam power and machinery, transporting it across by rail, and dischargiMg it into the vessel on Lake Ontario, Time is saved, so that the wheat reaches the seaboard before tlie drafts by which it was purcha cd mature ; the grain is im- proved and prevented from heating by the aeration it re- ceives in passing through the elevators ; and, most import- ant of all, every craft afloat on and above Lake Erie is availa- ble to carry grain destined for Lake Ontario, instead of the limited number adapted to the locks of the Weiland Canal. The Weiland Railway, which runs parallel with the Wei- land Canal, and thus takes advantage of its harbors, luis demonstrated the iijiportance of this traffic, having trans- ferred upwards of eleven millions of bushels of grain from the upper to the lower lake since its opening in June, 1859. Instead of being a competitor with the canal, it has iS^'^^ TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. proved an au.viliary to it, as a lighter to grain vessels too deeply laden to pass the canal. Over half a million of bushels were thus " lightered" from one end of the canal to the other in 1802 ; the total quantity transferred from Lake Erie to Ontario in this year, was 4,111,040 bushels. This work, originally projected to connect a steamboat route between Port Dalhousie and Toronto with Thorold and the Great "Western Railway, unites the two railways which Bkirt the opposite shores of the peninsula, and the numei'ous villages created by the water power of the canal, and thus has a self-sustaining local traffic as well as its through business. It has been successfully carried to com- pletion by the same mind and will which produced the Welland Canal, and amid the same general predictions of failure. Following this lead, the Erie and Ontario road, which is now valueless, is to be extended to Lake Erie, and become a grain portage railway, besides forming part of the line between Buffalo and Toronto. The Buffalo and Lake Huron Company also pro- pose to acquire the half-completed Hamilton and Port Dover Railway, between their line and Burlington Bay. If a connection is made with Lake Erie at Dunville or Port Maitland, another grain portage railway is estal)lished for Lake Erie, in addition to their route from Lake Huron. All three of these roads will avoid the expense of harbor protection works, as all have the advantage of terminating in the best natural or artilicial harbors to be found on these lakes. The difficulty whi.^h all, however, have to contend against, is the securing of a regular supply of tonnage working in connection with them, without which they are helpless, especially while the snpply of routes to the sea- board exceeds the demand for tlioni. Iron, from its clean- liness and greater carrying capacity in proportion to beam and draught, would make the best grain craft, but there is not capital here to supply tiiem. These, together with the larger portage roads, offer an opportunity for a legitimate and extensive increase of "ifjil I '^^i A^.u*'-''- If ' 'IB i 1' ''i . ' W^ ^ -irmmi •m f'??f»I?f ' ' \i ' • ,v • '. '•/,«' , , f.i^' )' ' *ii ittll! 11 E -11 ' i 238 TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION, British commercial tonnage on the lakes, an object of vital importance in the defence of the province on its weakest side ; and in this view, instead of mere private speculations, they become works of national importance. THE INTER-COLONIAL RAILWAY. The proposal to unite the British North American Cd- onies by a railway was the suggestion of Lord Durham, tlie imperial commissioner sent out in 1838, to inquire into the Canadian Rebellion.* The initiative was taken by a proposition from Nova Scotia to have a survey made, at the joint expense of the three provinces; and this was undertaken under imperial direction, by Major Bobinson and Captain Henderson, of the Royal Engineers, in 1846, and completed in 1848. In 1849, the colonies passed acts, guaranteeing to acquire the right of way through private property for this railway, and granting ten miles in width on either side of the road, wherever it traversed the pub- lic domain. They also pledged themselves to contribute £20,000 sterling each, per annum, toward making up any deficiencies of revenue. It was proposed to raise the capital on the security of a duty of seven shillings and six- })ence per load (fifty cubic feet) to be levied on timber, the produce of the British North American colonies, then enjoying a protection in Great Britain. In May, 1850, Sir John Harvey, Lieutenant-Governor of Nova Scotia, made this proposition to Earl Grey, the colonial secretary, who promptly replied that her majesty's government were " not prepared to submit to Parliament any measure for raising the funds necessary for the construction" of this railway. In July, 1850, a convention Avas held at Portland, ]\[aine, for the purpose of pushing the American railway system eastward, through Maine, to Halifax, as the ultimate port of debarcation of mails and passengers for Europe. Nova Scotia, desirous of making her portion of this railway, like her electric telegraph — a public * In a dispatch which arrived after the High Comr. had left tlio jjrovinee, Lord Glenelg had suggested an inter-colonial road, and Lord Durham, instead of this, proposed the railway. TBAYEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 239 work — once more appealed (in August, 1850) to Earl Grey, to aid lier with the imperial guarantee or indor- sation, and offered to assume the wliole burden of its cost. This application, with reference to a section of only- provincial and not imperial importance, received no encouragement ; whereupon the persevering little prov- ince, determining to make a final effort, dispatched a delegate, who arrived in England in November, 1850, and immediately opened his batteries on the colonial ofHce, with such effect, that on the 10th of March, 1851, Earl Grey surrendered ; agreeing to guarantee the interest on the cost of the Nova Scotia Trunk line, but only on con- dition that the other colonies, Canada and New Bruns- wick, should place themselves in the same position. Of course the line was to go to Quebec or Montreal, in- stead of Portland. It was stipulated that the line should pass wholly through British territory, and should be ap- proved of by the imperial government ; but it was not required that it should necessarily be the one recom- mended by Major Robinson and Captain Henderson. In announcing this decision to the delegate, the under secretary wrote, that " Her Majesty's Government would by no means object to its forming part of the plan which may be determined on, that it should include a provision for establishing a communication between the projected railway and the railways of the United States." The delegate read this to mean, that the guarantee would be extended to two lines through New Brunswick, the one to Quebec, and the other to Portland ; thus connecting the maritime colonies both with Canada and the United States. On March 14th, 1851, dispatches were sent to all the governments, suggesting a conference at Toronto. New Brunswick, which had, in mean time, become ex- cited on the question of the railway to Portland, passed resolutions, before her legislature adjourned, rejecting any proposition based on the conditions laid down by Earl Grey ; evidently not feeling certain that the interpretation ji^m>*^- ■ i 1^1 240 TKAVEL ANT) TRANSPORTATION. of the Nova Scotian delegate was to be relied upon. Delegates, however, from Nova Scotia and New Bruns- wick came to Toronto, in June, 1851, according to the suggestion of Earl Grey, when it was agreed that a line fi'om Halifax to Quebec should be undertaken on joint- account. Crown lands on each side of it were to be con- ceded for the benefit of the road ; the receipts to be com mon property until payment of cost and interest ; after which each province should own the portion within her own territory. The legislature of Canada, then in ses- sion, at once adopted this agreement. The government of New Brunswick favorably received it, but in conse- quence of a change of ministry, no legislative action was then had. At the very time, however, when Nova Scotia was rejoicing over the acceptance, by her legislature, of the imperial offer, a dispatch was on its way out, which upset all that had been done. On the 27th of November, Earl Grey called the attention of the lieutenant-governor of Nova Scotia to an error into which he had fallen, in his speech when opening the extra session, by assuming that the imperial government intended to guarantee tlie amount necessary to construct the Portland line through New Brunswick, as well as that leading to Quebec. Earl Grey explained, that the passage which had led Nova Scotia's delegate astray, only meant that the imperial government would sanction, but not aid, the Soutliern, or European and North .Imerican lines, through New Brunswick — which, he was quite aware, was preferred by that province to the Northern, or Quebec and Halifax line. The great preponderance of population, wealth, and po- litical influence in New Brunswick, lies upon the Bay of Fundy and the river St. John, while Major Robinson's line ran along the Gulf of St. Lawrence. For this reason, New Bnmswick would not contribute to the Halifax and Quebec line, unless she in turn was aided to make the line Bhe preferred ; and she saw clearly that the military con- TRAVEL KKD TKANSPOKTATION. 241 eiderations, set forth in Mr. Hawp's letter of tlie 10th of March, 1851, would keep the line either on the eastern coast or in the wilderness between it and St. John. Canada, on receiving the interpretation of the original dispatch, and knowing that New Brunswick would now abandon the Quebec line, sent off three of her ministers to Fredericton to console her distressed sister, and at the same time to feel her pulse. As Earl Grey had not insisted on Major Robinson's eastern-shore line, although reserving the right of approval of the route, New Brunswick assented to " try on" a Halifax and Quebec line which should fol- low the Southern or European and North American one as far as the city of St. John, and tiien ascend the valley of that river to Lake Temiscouata. Be-enforced bv a dele- gate from the New Brunswick cabinet, the Canadians journej^ed on to Halifax, where they found a new difficulty. Nova Scotia had no idea of standing a third of the cost, if the road should first (/louche on the Atlantic Ocean at St. John, instead of at its rival, Halifax. Canada, acting as mediator and umpire, finally proposed that as New Brunswick would decidedly gain by the adoption of the southern instead of the northern route, — getting her con- nection with Quebec and Portland where slie wanted it, and with 100 miles less of her chosen railway to make at her own cost, — she should assume five-twelfths and Nova Scotia one-fourth, Canada taking her old proportion of one third. At this stage the New Brunswick delegate put the question to his Canadian fellow-travellers, whether a pro- posal from English contractors to construct botli roads, on receiving £90,000 to £100,000 per annum for twenty years from the colonies, besides a grant of 3,000,000 to 5,000,000 acres of land, would be entertained? The answer was, " not for a moment ;" whereupon New Brunswick, with dignified resignation, agreed to the new subdivision on Jan. 31, 1852. On Feb. 5, one of the Canadian delegatea wrote from Halifax toEarl Grey, detailing the scheme as amended, and announcing that delegates from the three provinces ? I gjit*^'' 242 TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. would wait on him in London. To this, on Feb, 20, Earl Grey replied, declininj^ to commit himself to the new route without more specific information, but expressing solicitude for a successful issue, and approving of the intended dele- gation to London. The Canadian delegate proceeded to LoM(lon in advance of his colleagues, where he found Earl Grey out of office,. and Sir John Packington as his suc- cessor. Sir John, on May 20, 1S52, notified him that as all previous negotiations had been based on Major Robin- son's line, or something near it, the route by the valley of the St. John was out of the question ; and as the delegates were authorized to treat only for the latter, he must ter- minate the question by declining, &c. The provinces were thus left to carry out their own railways in their own way; they had, however, gained by the discussion. The mere proposal on the part of the British government to indorse their bonds, raised these in a market whei'c they were not known; and before the adverse decision had been announced it had been anticipated, and Canada had thrown herself into the open arms of Messrs. Jackson, Peto, Bras- sey, and Betts, the great railway contractors. Viewing tlie question as an imperial as well as an inter- colonial one, it is evident that the first blunder committed by the colonies was in agreeing to pay the whole expenses of a railway survey which was to be made solely under imperial and military control. They thereby, at the out- set, assented to the position that the imperial government had no substantial interest in the question, and at the same time they failed to ascertain the facilities for other routes, if such exist, than those recommended. Without impugn- ing the ability of the royal engineers who conducted the exploration, there is little doubt that a more satisfactory survey could have been made by civil engineers, accustomed to similar surveys in the forests of this continent ; and the want of some reliable knowledge of the practicability of other lines besides that recommended by Major Robinson, has been a stumbling-block in the way of every subsequent TRAVEL AND TRANSPOETATION. 243 movement down to the present hour. It must also be admitted that the mother country drove a hard harfjain with her offsjiring. Her own colonial secretarv, Lord Glenelg, suggested the communication to her own high commissioner, Lord Durham, not as a military road solely, but as a political measure. When the colonies took up the idea, the mother country steadily refused all aid ex- cept that which, as had been proved to her in the case of Canada, was but nominal ; while she exacted for this nominal aid sacrifices from the colonies which were real and important. She would not build the road, nor aid in building it, because it would not pay ; and she would not permit the colonies to build it where they believed it would pay, at least, its working expenses. She had already guaranteed a loan for the cost of the canals of Canada, which were constructed wholly on commercial principles, and with the route of which she did not interfere, though military considerations were wholly disregarded in the case of the Beauharnois Canal. She acknowledged an imperial interest to which she attached but a nominal value ; she felt for the colonies, but would not feel in her pockets for them. Ten years have elapsed, and in the interim sections of the proposed Halifax and Quebec, and European and North American Roads have been constructed, the former by Canada and Nova Scotia, the latter by New Brunswick — and again the project is revived, by the renewed assent of the imperial government, to guarantee the funds for the construction of the diminished distance (reduced from G35 to 370 or 470 miles, according to the route to be selected) ; and as military considerations are now predominant, it is understood the selection of the route will be left to the imperial government. For the revival of this project we are no doubt indebt- ed to the exigencies of the Grand Trunk Company, aided by the re-establishment of the entente cordiale between the Colonies and the Colonial Office, consequent upon the visit f H. E. H. the Prince of Wales; by the subsequent 13 i ! ^%4r^ .f# li?: 244 TRAVEL AND TRAXSPORTATION". civil war in tlie United States, and especially by the Trent aflfair. The Grand Trunk, at its wit's end to raise more money, and seeing the capitalization of a postal subsidy yet remote, sought to revive the intercolonial project in order to transfer to it as much of the unproductive sections east of Montreal as possible — no doubt at a bargain — and therefore the influential owners of this road brought about another Colonial conference. Some years back the Com- pany, during one of its numerous and successful applica- tions for relief, generously proffered their 118 miles east of Quebec as a gift to the Province (in consideration of the relief granted), to enable her, hereafter, to turn it in as a part of her contribution towards the future Inter- colonial Railway. As the Company were then subsidiz- ing contractors to work this section, by paying them a handsome bonus in addition to all the receipts, the gift was not accepted. What it would now be valued at, it is difficult to imagine ; but it is evident that the first pre liminary toward the intercolonial project should be to establish its future relations with the Grand Trunk, and thus confine the expenditure of the capital to be raised wholly to the new road to be built, eastward of Riviere du Loup. The provinces will, doubtless, build the road, at their own expense, on whatever route the mother country wishes it built, if solicited to do so by her — the loans being guar- anteed, 80 that the money can be raised on terms not oppressive — because there will then be an implied pledge on the part of the empire, that if built as a military work, it will be used as^ such whenever occasion may require. In other respects its value to Canada will be more political and commercial than military, because, unless extended, with the same avoidance of the frontier, far be- yond Quebec, it will be of little value in the defence of the province at large. Though it might bring men and mu- nitions of war without interruption (except from snow) to Quebec, a fortress which does not require this protection, Q. w) to these could not reach Montreal or Western Canada hy rail, unless the Grand Trunk Railway were maintained for a distance of nearly 400 miles between St. llyacinthe and Toronto, every portion of which, except, perhaps, a few miles on the Island of Montreal, would be exposed to a sudden raid or a superior force. In order to preserve the granaries of the province in case of threatened invasion, and supply the comparatively dense population of Western Canada with arms and mu- nitions of war, as well as to enable us to contend for the superiority of the lakes, a railway from Quebec to Lake Huron, by way of Montreal and Ottawa, is required. If the latter city were made (as is practicable) a second Quebec, the water communication could always be kept open between them, thus reducing the imperative railway distance, in mean time, to less than half. Such a road would be a base line of operations for the defence of Western Canada ; and by means of the present railw^ays debouching at Prescott, Brockville, Cobourg, Port Hope, and Toronto, would serve to communicate with the fron- tier, while it would be, in its entire length, beyond the reach of an enemy. If now laid out as a railway, it could be used as a highway, on which the snow would seldom be wanting in winter, until time and money could be had for the better road. As it would pass almost wholly through the public domain and the best timber districts of Canada, it would pay indirectly, as a colonization road, creating wealth by rendering valuable timber which is now beyond reach, and is being annually diminished by fire ; and giving increased value to the lands on both sides of it. In timber and lumber it would have a profitable local traffic in both directions, to the markets of Chicago and the Hudson river ; and in spring and autumn, if extended to Montreal, a through grain trafiic would arise, ir which, the St. Clair flats being avoided, the largest class of vessels which can enter Chicago would be employed, and grain could be delivered at tide-water from Lake Huron, with one hundred 1^, ! t % :if :i • ^ '• 11 mt '1 i 1 i ; t i ■' '■ i > '^t^- „■ W .,;,■•*}:. 21G TRAVEL AND TBANSPORTATION. miles less of railway carriage than by any other mixed route having but one transshipment. Large sums of money have been annually expended without much system, and with comparatively partial re- sults, on what are called colonization roads, which it would be wiser to concentrate on such a truly national object as the above, — one which would promote immigration, develop the resources, and provide for the defence of the country That such a road would yield the country a return com- mensurate with its cost there can be no doubt, and that it wofild be at least self-sustaining there is a certainty. The only thing therefore which should prevent its execution, is the burden of its cost until it has produced its fruit. To this it may be said, that more money would be spent and lost for the want of it, in one year of war, than would construct it ; and that there is no way in which the colony could so power- fully contribute to her own defence, and to the integrity of the empire, without ultimate loss, and while pursuing the legitimate mission of peace. As a necessary extension and corollary to the intercolonial railway, the mother country might fairly be requested to promote such a work by similar assistance ; and the province could have in her unsold provincial domain, thus rendered valuable, a relia- ble basis for a sinking fund to meet the interest, and to provide for the extinction of the principal, of the loan. The importance of opening up this domain has been recog- nized in the charter of a company for the construction of a railway from Quebec to Lake Huron, and the endow- ment of the same by a grant of 4,000,000 acres of the public lands. The demonstration of the failure of Canadian railways as investirtents, and tlie extent to which the provincial revenue is burdened by guarantees, left no other means of raising or attempting to raise the capital required, but that of a corporation based upon land grants ; and if, as appears to be the case, large endow- ments of land will not secure the construction of the road, the project must either be abandoned or be taken up as a r less acres It poll Qut pus foun( TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 247 public work. However unpropitious the time may 1 t considered for such a suggestion, it may bo asserted that no public »vork already executed, or proposed, can surpass in importance tnat of a railway from Quebec to Lake Hu- ron, as a national road. With such a base, and with our i)ack to the unopened north, our flank could not be turned, nor our communication with the sea be cut off. Without it, the attempt to hold Western Canada against an invading force five times our superiors in nuinbers, and command- ing, as they then could, the lakes, would be almost hope- less. If 4,000,000 acres is not sufficient appropriation for such a work, we can increase the quantity. The prin- ciple that the public lands are of little value until salable is self-evident ; and it is equally true, as admitted by our free grant system, that a settler as a consumer, and subject of taxation, is more remunerative to the province than the unoccupied acres he would require. The interest question and municipal taxation will force the earliest practicable settlement of the lands, no matter into what hands they may fall. The United States Congress has granted no less than 25,000,000 acres to railways, besides 10,000,000 acres for other public improvements. If the Intercolonial Railway be entered upon as a political and social measure only, it may terminate at Quebe'j; but if designed as a military one, it should be pushed to its legitimate conclusion, and that will not be found short of Lake Huron. " ■^i RAILWAY POLICY. The great want of the Canadian railways is a paying traffic. The Grand Trutdv, in tapping the Western reser- voirs, may feed itself imder an almost constant head, and maintain an almost continuous descending stream, though this may not often be a paying one ; but as the Western States do not import through Canada, there is no return traffic. The procession of empties, from the Atlantic to the St. Clair, is " a drawback" which will always bo ^Jimut*t^''' ' /- IM §/- Jl ,, ., -,f ^ km 1 '• I ;l 248 TRAVEL AND TEAN8PORTATI0N. difficult to get round, and must have suggested melan- choly trai'ip. of reflection in the mind of each sucessive manager. Ivj price ohtainable in competition with the water, or with the shorter lines and better gradients and lighter frosts and snows of the American routes, can com- pete with the latter, while these monopolize the carriage of the up freight, the merchandise and manufactures, on which the most profitable rates are collected. The through downward freight to the Atlantic, consisting chiefly of the cheap cereals, the flour and the lumber of the north, does not average more than about one-tenth of the value per pound of the cotton, tobacco, and sugar, the agricul- tural products of the south ; and it is questionable whether on the whole of a year's business it has ever paid the rail- ways more than the cost of carrying it. The downward or export tonnage, is usually three to one. as compared with the up or import freight ; and to that extent the local business also involves a return of empties which has here- tofore, to a considerable extent, been avoided on the American lines by the westward excess of the immigrant travel. The dream of a great railway traffic through Canada, between the Atlantic and the west, except on the portage linos terminating on Lake Ontario and the Niagara fron- tier, must therefore be abandoned ; and we must turn our attention to tiie development of tJic local traffic of the country, and bring down our establishments from those of a foreign war of aggression on the more favored routes, with all its consequent extravagances and losses, to that of a peace and home establishment. With regard to the passenger traffic, there yet remains the experiment of cheaper rai^es of fare, to test whether any increase of travel will produce a greater siggregato from this source, at the same cost to the companies. The rates charged are, when and where practicable, the maxi- mum which the law allows, and are about fifty per cent, higher than those on leading United States' lines. No doubt thoy are at this excess much less profitable, in con- Th( a w chill car Toi of; 11 TRAVEL AND TEANSPORTATICV. 249 sequence of tlie paucity of travel ; but it is equally certain that the low • rates of the American routes have developed a much greater tendency to travel there than htTC. The manufactures of New England are the main source of the profitable local traffic of her railways, and this r^^onrce our roads do not possess. Besides the immigration kind great business travel between the east and the west, one of their profitable items is in the large amount of female travel between New England and her western colonies. The young adventurer l^turns from the prairies to take back a wife frotu his native hills ; perhaps a sister accom- panies them " on speculation." In the course of evcntt the wife returns to her mother, or the mother goes to her daughter, and a third passenger appears on the stage. On the one hand it is argued by the companies, that fifty passengers at ten dollars each, are more profitable than sixty at eight dollars ; but if the number increase to seventy-five the reduction would pay. The increase would be the work of a little time, and might then possibly be attributed to the progress of the country, and not to the policy of lower fares. Such a bold experiment- probably requires more faith and patience tiian our railways, in their present distressed state, can be expected to exercise. On the other hand it may be said that the trains must and do go, whether full or not ; that even if no more money were received, they cost the company scarcely any more when full than empty ; and that increased facilities beget both trade and travel, to the ultimate gain of the railway. Tlie position assumed by the companies is, that there exists a certain amount of travel whicii must go, and that any reduction to tliis would be so much loss. Perhaps a com- promise might be arrived at, and the experiment tried by a wise and gallant discrimination in favor of women and children. At present, a respectable woman in Montreal cannot pass her Christmas with relatives or friends in Toronto short of an outlay of twenty dollars. The fatigue of a sixteen hours' journey, and the risk of a broken rail } ti li lliiuA*d^'*^ '!.• ». 'l> 250 TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. (and neck), are such as to require decided temptations to travel ; and it would be sound policy in railway companies to encourage a spirit of locomotion in that sex wliicli is supposed to be attracted by every reduction in price, and which has both the leisure to travel, and the power of obtaining the ways and means from those who must re- main at iiome. In their freight traffic the companies dis- criminate in favor of the long haul, and it is only in their passenger rates that the jpro rata system is maintained. The principle that a half fare is better than none, is also admitted, whe?e competition exists, in their through rates, between Chicago and Boston. It might be found equally wise to establish special through rates between distant cities in Canada, instead of treating them wholly as local points, and thus create a travel which does not now exist. As to freight traffic, the rates must vary with the exist- ence or otherwise of watc competition, which is the only protection to the prc^^iCer against excessive charges, there being no limitation by law to the freight tarift' except the neglected sanction of the government. The greatest de- vciopmont of a legitimate and profitable freight traffic will be that which will arise from an abandonment of the at- teni})t to compete with the water route, and the adoption of this as an auxiliary, particularly in the carriage of grain in bulk ; which, from its mobility, can be shipped and trans- shipped by machinery, and with benefit instead of de- terioration. EXPRESS COMPANIES. The public does not derive the full benefit fron the rail- ways which these great improvements on all previous means of communication are capable of giving, and the railways do not earn all they are capable of earning, in consequence of the monopoly accorded to a peculiarly American institu- tion — the Express Company ; a sort of imperium in imperiOf enjoying the benefit of the franchise of the corporation, < 'I TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 251 without assuming its liabilities toward the public. Tlie necessity for the rapid conveyance of very valuable small or perishable articles, a business of great importance and profit, which is conducted by the parcels delivery depart- ment of the English railways, was soon perceived ; but in America, instead of this being done by the railways, inde- pendent corapanies were formed in which railway directors, superintendents, &c., became interested, contracting with themselves for the transport of the most paying freight, and flourishing as an Express Company while languishing as a Railway. The importance of the institution was greatly enhanced by the necessity which existed for some wealthy and responsible association, to whom could be committed the transport of specie, bills, and negotiable security, which either could not be intrusted to, or could not be transported by, the United States post-oflSce. The railway companies confined themselves to the transport of passengers, and of freight by freight trains only ; and in ?ome cases they have entered into covenants with the express companies, that no passenger should be allowed to carry any thing but personal luggage with him, even by paying the extra baggage rate for the same. Under this system passengers on the Grand Trunk Railway have unexpectedly had small articles taken forcible possession of and handed over to the express : the owner going home without them, and receiving them some tiine next day, with charges several times greater than the extra baggage rate, and in some cases more than the value of the article. Fruit, which the passenger hoped to enjoy with his family while it was fresh, was depreciated one-half and charged more than its worth. The impolicy of this system, besides the ill-feeling it engenders, is, that it discourages the passenger traffic, the most profitable of all. A country resident goes into the city expressly to make pi'rchases, and naturally wishes, if their bulk permits, to take them with him in order to save time and cartage. The company's regulations would allow eighty or one hundred pounds of shirts, &c., in a trunk, but I H- -7-i^ 252 TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. ,'« ' 1 ' 1 ^v ri not one-half that weight or bulk of any thing else ; and when the purchaser once experiences the annoyance and the extortion, he will not a second time submit himself to it. But there is a still greater evil in the system. The company runs with the passenger train one car, about equally divided among the post-office, baggage, and ex- press. The latter, with a limited space, and dealing only in the more valuable articles, keeps up its charges so as to exclude a large amount of articles requiring either quick transport or prompt delivery, and yet not possessing suffi- cient '/alue to affi^rd express rates; while, where it has the power by the bond, it plays the part of the dog in the manger, and will not let the railway company carry these in the half- empty compartment accoi'ded to baggage. The express charges are arbitrary, irregular, and often pro- hibitory. The public have no remedy, because the rail- way company says : " "We are not compelled to carry by l)assenger trains any thing but passengers and their lug- gage. If you do not like express charges you must wait fur the freight trains." These are irregular, and no facili- ties are offered for, or proper care taken of, light articles, so that the freight trains are not available for these, even if time be unimportant. But perishable articles, such as fruit, Ush, vegetables, require quick transport, and space and rates which the express cannot afford or will not ac- cept ; and the railway is thus confined to the limited amount of these, with many other articles of traffic, which the ricii only can affoi'd to consume. It is a question whether the railway and post-office de- partments sliould not do the whole of tlie business now done by the express. It is certain that the revenue of both the former are materially reduced by the existence of the latter. But if the express be an institution as indispensable as either of the others, then it should be treated as such, and be put under similar regulations and restricitions. Above all, some provision should be made for a parcel and fast freight traffic, especially for articles which will not go h,'i .'*!!f swr-*^ IKAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 253 either by express or upon freight trains, and at rates si. fti- eient to pay one profit direct to the railway, instead of two to tiie express. As to the vahie of the express tratHc to the railway, it appears that tlie whole amount received by the Grand Trunk Company from express companies in ISGO, over 970 miles of road, was |27,600, or less than twenty- nine dollars per mile per annum. Tnis company com- plains that seventy dollars per mile is wholly insufficient remuneration for the carriage of the mails, which do not equal the express goods in weight, travel at the same speed, occupy the same car, and have, like the express, only one conductor ; they must, therefore, be greater losers propor- tionally by the rates they have fixed for themselves, thau by those which the post-office has fixed for them. Assum- ing that the way mail on accommodation trains together with extra mails per ocean steamers, make the total mail service double in value that of the express, it would seem that the company, by their own showing, either get too much for the mails or too little for the express. CANADIAN GAUGE. The gauge of the Canadian railways is five feet six inches, although this is not the exclusive one in use. The St. Lawrence and Champlain ; Stanstead, Sheilbrd, and Charably ; the Prescott and Ottawa ; and the St. Lawrence and Industry roads, in all 147 miles, are of the American gauge of four feet eight and one-half inches. Some energetic gentlemen in the city of Portland, am- bitious of obtaining something of that railway aid which had contributed so much to the success of Boston, con- ceived the bold idea of tapping the St. Lawrence at Mon- treal by a railway over the route of the White Mountains, through the vast forests of Maine, New Hampshire, Ver- mont, and Canada. The distance is nearly three hundred miles, with an intervening summit of about one-third of a mile in height above the termini, the line having besides the frequent and severe curves and gradients usual to such 1 I ■■' I jm^-i^^ .1. , « I 'M ¥ .. I li I 254 TRA.VEL AlND transportation. a route. Having enlisted Montreal in the project, they took the precaution to bind the Canadians, under seals and penalties, to adopt the peculiar and exceptional gauge of live feet six inches ; and an elaborate and sententious report was prepared, which proved to the unsophisticated Cana- dians, that by the simple adoption of this great iniprove- ment in gauge, Boston and New York would be distanced. Wlien the Grand Trunk bill was passed, Lower Canada being in the ascendant, the Portland gauge was forced upon the province, the Lower Canadians being iinanimous in its favor, because they had been led to believe that it would divert western trade from the New York route and send it down to Montreal. The Great Western Kailway, which was not restricted to a particular gauge by its charter, had decided on the American one, but was compelled to change it by threats from the government, both to withhold the guar- antee, and also to charter a continuation of the Grand Trunk, on the Canadian gauge, from Toronto to Sarnla, To the latter intimation the company yielded, vainly sup- posing that they thereby acquired a right of protection from a competing line, especially as they formed a portion of the Trunk railway. But as soon as Grand Trunk became supreme in the provincial cabinet, the unfortunate Great Western had the disagreeable alternative of amalgamation or competition presented to them, and of the two evils they naturally chose the least. The Grand Trunk went to Sariiia, the guarantee following it, to the great beneiit of the intervening counties, and of the contractors; and as it went to Sarnla, so it must also go to Riviore du Loup, in order that there might not be an undue preponderance of mileage in Upper Canada ; and this is where the contractors and the counties got the better of the shareholders. The latter have, however, no cause of complaint against the province on this score, for, by their prospectus, they un- dertook to go to Sarnia, and not only to Rivi6re du Loup, but thirty-five miles beyond, besides constructing the TEAVEL AND TBANSPOBTATION. 255 Grand Junction, a work which has not been, and is not likely to be, commenced. It has long since been demonstrated, that what is called the narrow or Stephenson gauge, of four feet eight and one-half inches, is wide enough for all practical purposes; and that any increased width is an unnecessary expense in first cost, and an increase of dead weiffht, and of re- sistance at curves in working. In case of invasion, however, there would bo this ad- vantage in the Canadian gauge, that on all approaclieis — excepting tliat from Portland — the enemy must relay to his own gauge nearly the whole of our railways, before his own rolling stock could be used — unless indeed we should so blunder as to let ours fall into his hands. HORSE RAILWAYS. The first street railway company in Canada was or- ganized the 29th of May, 1861, for the city of Toronto ; and the materials being prepared, the Yonge street line was commenced on the 26th of August, and opened to the public on the 11th of September in the same year. The Queen street line was also commenced o'l tlic 16th of October, and opened the 2d of December. This com- pany claim six miles of single track, eleven cars, and seventy horses ; — which, with stables, car-houses, &c., are put down at a cost of $175,000 in stock and bonds. The cash outlay has probably been something under half of these figures. The Montreal street railway was likewise commenced in September, 1861, and opened in the following Novem- ber. The total length of track is six miles and a quarter ; the cost of which, including eight cars, brick stable, forty stalls, and car-house, was $89,263.13 ; of which $12,500 was paid the contractor in stock. The company have be- sides, four one-horse cars convertible into close sleighs, three covered sleighs, fi.ve open sleighs, and sixty-three iiuijua*'** ii'\ , ^i y 'i> If I nil;'*"'" 25G TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. horses, with Imrness and other equipments, costing, together er, $10,16J:.52:— making the total cost almost $100,000. The street railway is an institution for the benefit of those who ride at the expense of those who drive; and is a Hagrant violation of the rights of the minority, if not of the majority. The rights of a single owner are considered sufficient to p t^vent the closing or alienation of a high- way ; gas and water companies are only permitted tempo- rarily to obstruct a street ; but the horse railway is a permanent obstruction — practically dividing a wide street into two narrow ones, and a narrow one into two lanes. These railways are a great relief to commercial cities, where the busii'^iss centre is ever extending, and pushing the population into the suburbs ; — and they therefore much increase the value of suburban property ; — but it is questionable whether they will be found profitable as in- vestments in Cimada. It will be oidy occasionally that they can be worked in winter — and then only in Western Canada, so that during this period their permanent way is of no value ; and the traffic by sleighs, always open to competition, will be ba.i3ly sufficient to cover expenses Where, however, they do not pay as investments they are often warranted, provided the traffic is sufficient to cover the working expenses, if laid down in connection with, and by the owners of real estate, in the suburbs. Still there should be some limit to the extent to which the streets of a town may be cut up for such partial and selfish purposes ; as there is a tendency to obstruct streets with them where there is no plea of necessity, but chiefly to se- cure the franchise for the future. If proper discrimination were used, a few leading arteries could be laid down, in streets which are not thoroughfares, without much incon- venience to the public, and with nearly equal advantage to those who use them — a precaution which has not been taken either in Toronto or Montreal TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION, VICTORIA BRIDGE. 257 Tliis structure, the design of which originated with a Canadian engineer, Mr. Thomas Keefer, is beyond dis- pute, the most costly and magnificent bridge ever erected.* The following extract is from a report of proceedings in the Parliament of Canada : " Hon. Mr. Allan said that before the orders of the day were called, there was a subje^c to which he desired to call the attention of the House, and which lie desired tho Government to hear. It was true that one of Enirland's greatest engineers had given the sanction of his name to the Victoria Bridge. But it was also true that that great work was indebted in the first place for its conception to Canadian skill. To a Canadian engineer was due the first enunciation of the scheme of laying down the present bridge in the place where it now stands. In 1847, Hon. Mr. \ oung, of Montreal, and the finance minister, ob- tained a survey of the St. Lawrence, in order to see if it were possible to erect the bridge. The survey was carried on by an engineer of experience, but this gentleman re- ported that the scheme of bridging at Point St. Charles was impracticable. At the same time he reported the feasibility of building a bridge over Nun's Island. In 1851, Hon. Mr. Young obtained another survey of the St. Lawrence, for the same purpose, conducted by Mr. Thos. C. Keefer, an engineer whose talents were well known in the province. The result of this survey was given in a report published immediately afterwards. In this report Mr. Keefer demonstrated the practicability of erecting the bridge in the place where it now stands. The plans on which the bridge should be constructed were also laid down. It was recommended that it should be a solid rail- road bridge, that it sliould be erected high over naviga- * Mr. Keefer having from a natural delicacy declined to write an account of a work with which his namo is so intimately associated, the following ex tracts must suffice. — Ed. I ' 9 258 TRAVEL AND TRANSPORTATION. Hi •iii iil ^il ;'!iil| t ^^: r-m ~^^ tion, instead of having drawbridges in it. A certain dis- tance was to intervene between the piers. It was to be for railroad traffic alone ; and lastly, and what was of greatest itnj>ortance, solid approaches should be con- structed to diminish the waterway, instead of enlarging it as might have been proposed, and to guard against the crush of ic(}. It was worthy of remark, tliat the present bridge was constructed precisely as this report recom- mended. (Hear.) In consequence of the changes which afterwards t jok place in the management of the Grand Trunk Railway, the undertaking was transferred to English hands, and the work in question was constructed by other persons. The bridge, however, was built in accordance with Mr. Keefer's report. (Hear.) All the leading prin- ciples set forth in his report were adopted by the English engineers. This being the case, he (Mr. Allan) claimed that Mr. Keefer should not be overlooked ; that the English engineer should not receive the whole of that credit, an equal portiaii of which was due to the Canadian. He claimed fur Mr. Keefer that his name should be eno;raved on the Victoria Bridge beside the names of Stephenson, Ross, and the other engineers connected with that work, whose names were already cut upon it. He made this proposition with the greater confidence, because on many occasions the celebrated Stephenson had acknowledged Mr. Keefer's claims with reojard to the oriii-inatino- of the work. (Hear.) The Grand Trunk Railway Company had also acknowledged Mr. Keefer's claims, for they had been compelled to pay him a certain sum for his report, and also for his services ; and not oidy had justice been done to Mr. Keefer by Stephenson and the Grand Trunk Companj^ hut even in the American railroad journals credit was given to him — not once but on several occasions." The following description of the Bridge is extracted from " ^'1 Glajioe at Victoina Bridge^ and the Men %oho luilt it^'' by Mr. Charles Legge, C. E., Montreal. "The superstructure, as designed by Mr. Stephenson, con- j-;*4 >j ^1 :im\i ■'■n#l ■H ^,jjyiit««- 'r^^aol^■ :ie aa; '■ 1.10 V-'lUU' v'' y V!1 I ^«*'''.'^1V|^fff|^^ TRAVEL AND TEAN8P0BTATI0N. 259 sists of twenty-five tubes, or rather, as one continuous tube extends over two spans, of twelve double tubes, and the large central one over the channel. They are of the uiii- fonn width of sixteen feet throughout, for the accommo- dation of a single line of railway, but differing in height as they approach the centre. Thus, the depth of tlie tubes over the first two spans is eighteen feet six, the next two nineteen feet, and so on, every coupled pair gaining an additional six inches, to the centre one, which is estab- lished at twenty- two feet in depth, as the proper propor- tion obtaining for a beam 330 feet long. These side-spans being all the same length, the increase in height dues not arise from any requirement of additional strength, but simply to prevent the appearance of too great a break being visible in the top line of the tubes, and, by graduat- ing the difference in height between the ends and centre, to give greater facilities for the roof required in the pro- tection of the tubes from moisture and consequent oxida- tion, and presenting at the same timS a straight and con- tinuous outline on the top. " The tubes, being detached, are not designed npon the principle of continuous beams, for practical reasons, in- cluding the circumstance of the steep gradient on each side of the central span, and the great disturbance which would be caused by the accumulated expansion and con- traction of such a continuous system of iron work, in a climate where the extremes of temperature are so widely apart. The arrangement introduced of coupling but two together, with an intermediate space of eight inches be- tween them and the neighboring tubes, divides this move- ment and retains it within certain specified limits. " A double tube, covering two openings, is securely bolted to the masonry of the pier in the centre, on which it has a solid bearing of sixteen feet by nineteen feet, and provided with a free bearing on each of the two contiguous piers of seven and a half ieet, resting at each end on fourteen ex pansion rollers six inches in diameter and three feet in Ai^.U*-" 1: ^ik' 260 TRAVEL AND TEANSPORTATION. length, seven on each side of the tube, retained in place by a wrought-iron frame, allowing the rollers to traverse on a planed cast-iron bed-plate seven and a half feet long, three and a half feet wide, and three inches thick, bolted to the masonry. A similar plate covers the rollers, and is secured to the bottom of the tube. The tube is thus free to expand or contract each way from the bearing-pier m the centre. " Creosoted tamarack timber, covered with felt, is intro- duced between the iron and the stone, in every case, to give the junction of these hard materials a certain amount, of elasticity. " The tube proper is composed entirely of wrought-iron, in the form of boiler-plate, ranging from four-sixteenths to twelve-sixteenths of an inch in thickness, with the joints and angles stiffened and strengthened by the addition of Tee and Angle irons. The secret of success in this mode of construction, lies in arranging those different thicknesses where the strains or weights call for additional strength or otherwise. " The following table will show the general distribution of material in the different parts of the tube, as arranged by Mr. Stephenson, starting in all cases from the centre of the spans : — ce •se ;ed L is ree in :ro- , to an'''- •on, sto ints I of leof jsses agtli ilion nged re of travel and transportation. Top Plates. 261 Length of Division. Sectional Area. Total Area. From Centre. Plates. Strips, Tee and Angle Irons. Thickness of ] Plate. 1 11.00 125 92Ja 217tV 1" 2 11.00 125 86tV 211iV i" 8 4 11.00 11.00 lUa 107tV 86^ 84U 2001^ 191U tV i 6 6 7 11.00 11.00 11.00 87^ 75 56U 84U 77A l72tV 152VV 134 8 11.00 63| 55J. 1081 tV 9 11.00 60 65^ 1061 it 10 11.00 60 48 98 « 11 11.00 1 (( (( it Bearing. 8.00 129.00 Bottom Plates. Length of Sectional Area. From Strips, Toe Thickness of Centre. Division. Plates. and Angle Irons. Total Area. Plate. 1 19,6 137.60 63.75 201.25 f— l^^l 2 14.0 137.50 57.76 196.25 »4 tt • 3 14.0 125.00 67.75 182.75 (( a rs 4 14.0 112.50 54.25 166.75 tV-tV o 6 14.0 87.60 67.60 145 tV— tV > 6 14.0 85.00 33.00 118 tV 7 14.0 50.00 42.00 92 tV 8 17.6 60.00 42.00 92 A B-jaring. 8 50.00 42.00 92 tV 129.0 2(32 TRAVEL AND TEANSPOKTATION. A l^H SIDE PLATES. Beginning at the centre, and strengthei^ed by Tee bars inside and out, placed at distances of 3', 6", — The flrst space of 35 feet from the centre is formed of J inch plate. Tilt) second space of 45^ feet " " " JL " " The third " 35 " " " " 0. " " The remaining space " " " _»_ " " The following analjr^is is made of the arrangement proposed for distribution : Top of tube 76 Tons. Bottom of do 82 " 158 Sides 84 Total 242 Tons. Keelsons, 10 inches in depth, are placed transversely at distances of 7 feet, and secured to the side Tee bars by gussets, for the support of the longitudinal timbers carry- ing the rail. The top of the tube is also supported by keelsons at the same distances apart, and the whole tube rendered rigid, by stiffening gussets and double covers over every joint. The wrought iron in a single tube 258 feet in length, including its bearings over the piers, weighs about a ton to the running foot, or 258 tons in all. Tlie central tube, in consequence of its increased length, is somewhat different in its arrangement ; the bottom and top being proportionally stronger, — the first with an addi- tional thickness of plates, and the last, with longitudinal keelsons 10'' high, taking the place of the ordinary longi- tudinal Tee bars, as existing on the side tubes ; the side plates are 2^ feet, instead of 3} feet wide, with a propor- tionately larger number of side Tee bars. The whole tube is disconnected from the others, being bolted to pier No. 12, and resting on rollers on No. 13 pier. Windows are introduced into the sides of the tubes near the line of neutral axis, and serve to liglit up the in- Bide. Iron brackets are placed on the piers where not ft -m and addi- dinal longi- side ropor- tube rNo. TBAVEL AND TRAIdSPORTATION. 263 occupied by the tubes, and slope back to the top of the tubes, but are entirely disconnected from it. They serve to give a finislied appearance, and likewise prevent the snow and rain blowing in through the openings left for expan- sion and contraction. It was originally intended to cover the top of the tubes with a curved corrugated iron roof, to protect them from the weather. This design was subsequently abandoned and the present sloping angular one substituted, composed of grooved and tongued boards, covered with the best quality of tin. This tin is not put on in the usual manner, but, by an ingenious arrangement, each sheet is allowed to expand and contract at pleasure, without the danger of destroying the fastenings wliich attach it to the timber underneath, as in the ordinary method made use of, and thus insures its continual efficiency. A foot-walk 26 inches in width extends along the top of the roof, the whole length of the tubes, for the conve- nience of the employes connected with the work ; a track is also provided for the painting-travellers. The contract price may be put down under the heads of, Fi7-st. — The approaches and abiitmonts, which topjether extend to ;!,000 feet in length, amount in the estimate to $1,000,000 Second. — The masonry forming the piers, which occupy the inter- vening space of 7,000 feet between the abutments, including all dams and appliances for their erection 4,000,000 TJurd. — The wrought-iron tubular superstructure, 7,000 feet in length, which amounts to 2,000,000 (About $285.70 per lineal foot), making a total of $7,000,000 The following interesting details are annexed by Mr. Lcgge : First stone. No. 1 Pier, laid 20th July, 1854. First passenger train passed 17th December, 1859. Total length of Bridge, 9,184 feet lineal. Number of spans, 25; 24 of 242 feet; one of 330 feet. Height from surface of water to under side of centre tube, 60 feet Height from bed of river to top of centre tube, 108 feet. Greatest depth of water, 22 feet General rapidity of current, 7 mile8 an hour Cubic feet of masonry, 3,000,000. ■*1vl i' • I' ' wT^ », !;, "IM . 1 11 'ora I! 264 TRAVEL AND TBANSPOETATION. Cubic feet of timber, in temporary work, 2,250,000. Cubic yards of clay used in puddling dama, 146,000. Tons of iron in tubes, say, 8,250. Number of rivets, 2,500,000. Acres of painting on tubes, one coat, 30; or for the four coats, 120 acroo. Length of abutments, 242 feet each. " of north approach, 1,344 feet. " of south approach, 1,033. Force employed in construction during summer of 1858, the working season extending from the middle of May to the middle of November : Steamboats, G; horse power, 450 ) ,„ „„„ . Barges, 72 \ ^^'""" ^°°^- Manned by 500 sailora In stone quarries 450 men. On works, artisans, &c 2,090 men. Total 3,040 men. Hones, 142. LocwmotiTea, 4. ^3 t, TKATEL AND TRANSPORTATION. 265 4 O EH -A If E-l CO CO h-t CQ O CO JO )S03 pd)viu|)83; •qoBOJ(Id« PII09 JO q^Siioi •sutids Sapiitiniaj jo qiSuai •jonntiqo J3A0 nvds JO q)Su3i 'sands jo 'o^ 9Aoqn XnMpBsq jstioi •JSJBA^ OAoqt! •qjSaoi mox O4 v< •E » I OQ s Sri « •2 a fl p-i CO CO s 3 8 I 3 § cT -a o o a d o a o ■a o o o •o n o ■6 o o •18 d o «r a 2 to a o Q s •fl o I 3 CD di w 3 ^ s fs eo' c3e4" ^ ss s s; SS 3 !S « § s T3 a eg V O 2 m1 a> T1 Oi ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ 3 a o .ft a o f4 LI ■a 8> □ a •a Stui***"" /^aiiip m i-i' i:i m ! 1 266 THE ELECTRIC TELEGRAPH. THE ELECTRIC TELEGRAPH. The whole of the telegrapliic system of Canada (except the private lines belonging to railway companies) is in the hands of one company. The Montreal Telegraph Company was organized in 1847, and first opened between Quebec and Toronto. The following figures show the progress of this company : In 1S4T. In 1861. The capital stock £15,000 £100,000 Length of line 540 miles. 3,422 miles. Number of stations 9 150 Persons employed 35 400 Number of messages transmitted 33,000 300,000 Miles. The main lino extends from Woodstock in New Brunswick to Detroit in Micliigan 1,050 And from Quebec C. E. to Buffalo, N. Y 650 With the following branches : River du Loup to Father Point 10 Quebec to Richmond, on Grand Trunk R. R 96 Montreal to Porthmd, Maine, on do 292 " Troy, New York 260 " Waterloo, C. E 60 Prescott to Ottawa City 54 " Oswego, New York 120 Belleville to Stirling 15 Trenton to Pictou 30 Port Hope to Petorboro' and Lindsay 55 Toronto to Collingwood, on Northern Railway 97 Toronto to Sarnia, on Grand Trunk R. R 170 Godorich to Buffalo 160 St. Mary's to Port Stanley 50 Brantford to Port Dover 32 Windsor to Amherstburg 18 Various branches to small towns and villages 153 3,422 The lines enumerated above embrace all the important towns and villages in both provinces. There are thirty-two poles to the mile, and the wire is smmsm mm 'f%m TUE ELECTRIC TELEGRAPH. 267 number eight and nine, galvanized. The line is worked on the Morse principle, and nearly every thing is taken by sound. The business, after the crisis of 1857, fell off to a considerable extent, but during the last two vears it has gradually increased, and the number of messages passing over the line in 1861, amounted to 300,000. NOVA SCOTIAN TELEGRAPH. Miles. Built Halifax to New Brunswick line 130 1849 Truro to Pictou 40 1850 Halifax to Liverpool 102 1851 " Yarmouth {via Windsor) 224 1852 Pictou to Sydney, 0. B 195 1852 " Amherst, {via Pugwash) 80 1853 Liverpool to Barrington 62 1853 Halifax to Truro (second wire) 64 1853 Barrington to Yarmouth 45 1854 Antigonishe to Cape Canso 67 1854 St. Peters, C. B., to Arichbat, 0, B. (about) 20 1854 Plaister Cove to Port Hood 28 1855 Wolfvillo to Canning 9 1858 Total miles, 1,066 All except the second wire between Halifax and Truro, are of number nine ungalvanized wire ; the poles are spruce and tamarack, from thirty-five to forty to the mile. The second wire, from Truro to Halifax, is number nine gal- vanized wire. Tlio telegraph in Nova Scotia was constructed by the provincial government. NEW BRUNSWICK TELEGRAPH Miles. Built Calais to St. John 90 1848 St. John to Nova Scotia boundary 140 1849 " Fredericton. C4 1850 Fredericton to Woodstock 64 1851 Monckton to Chatham 100 1851 Newcastle to Bathurst 55 1858 Bathurst to Campbelltown 68 1860 Salesbury to Hillsboro' 22 1856 Total miles, 603 ,Llid^'' % l\, ' ■ h iii CHAPTER I. EARLY TRADE OF CANADA. Threk hundred and twenty-seven years ago, Jacques Cartier, of St. Malo, discovered tb t. Lawrence,* sailed up its mighty stream for severf ^dred miles, formed alliances with the Indians, built a fort, and wintered in the country. In 1549, the colonization of the newly dis- covered " Canada" was commenced, under the auspices of Iloberval, the first viceroy, and an attempt made to establish a traffic In furs with the natives ; but, in conse- quence of the loss of Roberval and some of his com- ])anions, at sea, in 154:9, and European distractions arising from the wars between France, Spain, and Austria, no further effort was made for nearly half a century to cok)ni;ie the valley of the St. Lawrence. In 1581, a trade with Canada l)cgan to spring into activity, and in 1591 a fleet of ships was fitted out by the adventurous inhabitants of St. Malo, to engage in the Canada trade, and, chiefly, to procure the teeth of the walrus, which at that time was common in the gulf and estuary of the St. Lawrence, In 1003, a company of adventurers, headed by M. de Chauviii, lieutenant-general of Canada and Acadia, re- ceived a royal charter from Henry TV., of France, and established a regular system of trade in the colony. Ten years later, Champlain obtained a commission authorizing him to seize every vessel, not holding a license, he sliould find tratticking in furs between Quebec and the upper part *Ia 1508, one Thomas Aabert made a voyage from Dieppe to Newfound- land, and sailed up tuc estuary of the St. Lawrence. mSS j:aklt trade of Canada. 269 of the St. Lawrence. In 1628, the celebrated but unscni- pulous Cardinal de Richelieu organized the " Company of One Hundred Partners," and conceded to its members in perpetuity the viccroyalty of New Fnance and Florida, thus establishing a commercial re(jime in Canada, whose influence soon extended far and wide among the Indian races of tlie valley of the St. Lawrence. The "Company of One Hundred Partners" was dis- solved by Louis XIY., in 1663, who resumed the juris- diction over the country, which for thirty-five years had been under flie rule of a trading association. Scarcely, liowever, had a year elapsed, when, by a royal ed t dated 1664, Canada was once more handed over to the hort -lived commercial bondage of the " "West India ComiMuy," but, in 1666, free trade with the aborigines was again declared, subject to certain restrictions and reservations. The company was permitted to retain the right to one-fourth of all the beaver-skins, and or'e-tenth of all the elk-hides exported, besides the traffic wliicli belonged to Tadoussac at the mouth of the Sauguenay. For these privileges, the company paid 48,950 livres, or about $10,000, a livre being worth, at that period, about one English shilling. Thus far, the efforts made by the French to colonize Canada, and open a trade with the different nations inhab- iting the vast extent of country drained by the St. Law- rence, had not been productive of much public and private good, and was marked by a succession of individual dis- asters which damped the ardor even of the most courageous and enterprising merchants of that day. Lake Superior was visited, in 1659, by two traders, who joined some roving bands of Algonquins, and passed the winter in that region. In 1660, they returned to Quebec, escorted by sixty Algonquin canoes laden with furs. In the autumn of 1678, La Salle, armed with a royal commission, commenced the construction of a fort at Niagara; and during the winter he laid the keel of a vea- ifiuiM*'*" I! < ■^i| I \ |i; 270 EARLY TRA.de OF CANADA. Bcl iiitendocl for the navigation of the upper lakes, about eix miles above the stupendous cataract. The first U})per Canadian sliip (for in those days it wa'* worthy of that des- ignation) was lannclied in the summer of the following year, and, to the unbounded astonishment and alarm of the savage Iroquois and Eries who peopled either shore, it sailed through Lake Erie, Lake Huron, and finally reached Lake Michigan. The "Griffon," as the vessel was called, met with an untimely fate on her return; she was wrecked before she reached the Niagara river, and, with her rich cargo of furs, sank beneath the waves of the inland sea wlwse solitudes -she was the first to invade. Not two centuries (183 years) after the lonely " Griffon" had pene- trated through the Upper Canadian lakes, the commerce of the regi(Mi tributary to them was more than sufficient to em])loy nearly two thousand steamers and sailing ves- sels, exceeding half a n)illion tons burden, and costing fifteen millions of dollars.* Subse(piently to the extinction of the "West India Company, the trade in peltries was free for a time, with the exception of l)eaver and elk skins, for which monopoly 70,000 francs a year was paid by the lessees, until it became the projierty of a French society, called the " Company of Canada." After an unprosperous existence for a few years, this trading association, like its predecessors, expired deep- ly in debt, in 1700. In a report on the condition of CaTi- ada in 1715, contained in the ''^Documents de Paris,''^ there is an interesting account of colonial affairs, which throws some light on the state of Canada at that period. The report is by M. d'Auteuil, who remarks that trade with the savages, once considerable, had even at that early date greatly fallen oft'. Ship-building was brisk even 150 * Tho Marquis de Denonvillo, in a proclamation respecting the taking of tlie post Niaguriv, in 108", states that tlio stocks on whicli La Salle built his "bark" wore .still soon .-vbovo tho groat lake, and that his "quartorii" were burned iu 1675 by tho Sen->cas. IIo also states that the Siour de la Salle navigated Lakes Erie, Huron, and Ulinois (Michigan), for eovcral years. a^ EAKLT TRADE OF CANADA. 271 years ago ; lieinp for cordage and flax for linen -were ad- Tantageously grown ; but France did not import Canadian timber, or continue to v/ork the copper mines on Lake Huron. The French, at the close of the 17tli centnry, must have been familiar with the copper treasures of the sliores of Lake Huron, and perhaps even of Superior, or M. d'Auteuil would not have regretted their neglect of them. In 1087. M. de Denonville writes to the French ministry :* '" The copper, of which I sent a sample to M. Arnon, is 'found at the head of Lake Superior. The body of the mine is not yet discovered. I have seen one of our voyageui'S, who assures me that he saw, fifteen months ago, a lump of 200 lbs. weight, as yellow as gold, in a river which falls into Lake Superior. When heated, it is cut with an axe ; 'but the superstitious Indians, regarding this piece as a good spirit, would never permit him to take any of it." The estimate formed by M. d'Auteuil of the annual value of the peltries exported from Canada in 1677, was 550,000 francs, and in 1715, two million francs. Thomas Dongan, governor of the province of New York, in 1687, complains bitterly of the difficulties he had to encounter in finding, on his arrival in the colony, " such a contest between the government of Canada and this (New York) about the beaver trade, the inland country, and the Indians." The English found their way to Lakes Ontario and Erio; with merchandise, for barter with the Ottawa Indians, as early as 1086, much to the disgust of M. de Denonville, who writes to his government that he is going to intercept ten English canoes, laden with merchandise, that have ap- peared on Lakes Ontario and Erie. " I regard, my lord," he says, " as of primary impor- tance the prohibition of the trade to the English, who, without doubt, would entirely ruin ours, both by the cheaper bargains they could give the Indians, and by at- tracting to them the Frenchmen of our colony, who are * Paria Doc, 1686. hi! ;!i^ I 272 EARLY TRADE OF CAJiADA. accustomed to go to the woods."* The " merchandise" largely employed in those days, and continued up to the present time, both by British and French, has i^roved the ruin of the Indian race of this continent. M. de Denon- villc writes to Governor Denon : " Think you, sir, that re- ligion will progress whilst your merchants supply, as they do, eau de vie in abundance, which converts the savages, as you ought to know, into demons, and their cabins into counterparts and theatres of hell ?" But what was the religion spoken of by Denonville? Here is a description of it : " The presentis to inform Y. R. of our return from the Iroquois mission, loaded with some spoils rescued from hell. We bear in our hands more than five hundred chil- dren, and a number of adults, the most part of whom died in baptism. We have re-established faith and piety in the heart of a poor captive church, the first foundations of which we laid in the Huron country. We have proclaim- ed the gospel unto all the Iroquois nations, so that they are henceforth without excuse, and God will be fully justi- fied against them at the great day of judgment."f In a memoir addressed to the Marquis of Seignelay, dated 1687 (Paris Doc), the trade of Canada is described as being very precarious. "Canada is encompassed by many powerful English colonies, who labor incessantly to ruin it by exciting all our savages and drawing them away with their peltries, for which the English give them a great deal more merchandise than the French, because they pay no duty to the king of England.":}: * Paris Doc., 1687. f Father Paul Ragucnoau. X Governor Dongan's reply to M. de Denonville ia characteristic of that otTicer. " Tlio missionary fathers, if they please but do mo justice, can givo you an account how careful I havo been to preserve them; I have ordered our Indians strictly not to exercise any cruelty or insolence against them, and havo written to the king, my master, who has as much zeal as any prince living, to propagate the Christian faith, and assured him how necessary it ia to send to tlicni some fathers to preach the gospel to the natives allied to us, and care would then bo taken to dissuade them from their drunken debauch* nmfammm EARLY TRADE OF CANADA. 273 In 1754, only ten vessels, of forty to one hundred tons, were built in Canada. The trade with France employed about thirty ships, belonging to merchants of La Rochelle. During the administration of French rule, previously to the year of peace 1760, when Montreal and all the French fortresses in Canada were surrendered to Great Britain, the balance of trade was always against the colony. The exports, previous to 1759, are stated in a prosperous year to have been as follows : Furs to the value of £88,3^3 sterling. Seal Oil 1M16 " Flour and Peas I*»i416 " Timber «-250 " Total £115,415 " In 1729, the annual expenditure of the government of Canada was £16,1GG 13s. 4d ; in 1759, the disastrous year which witnessed the fall of Quebec, the expenditure rose to £1,083,330 Gs. Sd. sterling ; but this vast outlay did not increase the trade ^f the country. Military oper- ations, glory, and extravagance consuming it all. In 1754, the number of vessels engaged in foreign trade with the colony only amounted to hfty-three, leaving a total im- portation valued at £216,769, and an exportation valued at £75,560, leaving a balance against the colony of £141,- 209 sterling. After the fall of Quebec, trade increased and assumed a healthy tone ; the imports no longer exceeded the exports ; another race, less addicted to military glory, acquired a standing in Canada, and began to develop its long neg- lected resources. But the country people, of French ori- gin, had received an indelible impress of character and es ; though certainly our rum cloth as little hurt as your brandy, and in the opinion of Ohrintians is much more wholesome. Ilowover, to keep the Indiana temperate and sober, is a very good and Christian performance, but to pro- hibit them all strong liquors, seems a Uttle hard, and very Turkish."— Parti JJoc, III ifH [■* 1 V I ! n1 < I'J '.h^ wi '271 EARLY TRADE OF CANADA. disposition, which they have retained in many particulars np to tlic present day. The fuUowin^ table shows the number of vessels and their aggregate tonnage wliich have arrived at Quebec from sea, at decennial periods between 176-i and 1861 : * No. of vessels. Tons. Men. I7r,4 67 5,496 668 176!) 82 7,411 587 1771 11 G,584 597 1780* 69 8,792 724 1791 81 14,760 826 1801 176 20,517 1,564 1811 682 116,687 5,553 1821 4:h 102,786 4,645 Ni.. »f sailing vessels. Tons. Men, 1831 1,026 203,160 13,329 1841 1,221 425,118 16,443 1851 1,300 533,427 17,753 18G1 1,277 703,908 19,339 No. of steamers. Tons. Men. 18:!1 1 363 21 1841 13 5,057 221 1851 — 18GI 67 71,894 4,335 The folk)wing table represents the coasting trade, below Quebec, for the last five years: Year. Vessels. Tons. Men. 1857 130 6,265 495 1858 146 9,372 8G6 1859 100 11,454 1,070 1860 177 12,934 1,160 18G1 277 16,910 1,536 Tliis tal)le shows how rapidly the country below Quebec is settling, and what an impulse has been given, during tlio short i)eriod of five years, to the commerce of that rcc'ion. Tiie eavliest period recorded, of the dates of the open- ing of navigation at QueViec, is the 12th April, in 1828; the latest ])eriod was the 11th May, 18-47 ; a difVcrence of one month. The hitest date of the closing of navigation occurred on the 21st December, 182(5; the earliest date was the 25th November, 1833 ; also a period of about one month. *No returns for 1781. I 9 'M '"^TnlH'l If 1 ,jii-- ^f^^^^-mmam li It 'vJir'" ^"wm THE FUR TRADE. 275 "With respect to the period of navigation between Mont- real and Quebec, the longest duration was in 1830, when the number of days between the first arrival and the last sailing was 223 days, or from April 26tli to December 4th. Tlie shortest period occurred in 1836, from May 11th to November 25th ; 199 days. The average period of navigation is about seven months. CHAPTER II. THE FUR TRADE. Whosoever chooses to wade through the voluminous documeiilary history of the early British colonies in Amer- ica, will find that the fur trade was the all-absorbing interest, for more than one hundred and fifty years, in the valley of the St. Lawrence and the vast region tributary to Hudson's Bav, previous to the second conquest, in 1759.* The beaver, the present symbol of Canada, was early a source of considerable revenue to the colonies, and has far surpassed in importance all other fur-bearing animals ; although now it is comparatively valueless, the tax on beaver-skins alone, in early times, being more than the present worth of the pelt, when the diiFerence in the value of money is taken into consideration. In 1678, Sir E. Andros, governor of New York, reports, that ' the rates or duties upon goods exported are, 2s. for each hogshead of tobacco, and Is. 3d. on a beaver skin, and other peltry proportionally." * Quebec was taken by the British in 1629. Champlain and most of the JoBuits returned under free passes to France. In 1G32, Charles I., by the treaty of St. Germain, resigned to Louis XIII., of France, all his title to Canada and Nora Scotia, and Champlain returned to Quebec, as viceroy of Canada. 18 'si U II II 273 THE FUB TRADE. «^;f Governor Dongan, under date 1687, in a report on the Province of New York, writes: "It will be very neces- sary for us to encourage our young men to goe a beaver hunting as the French doe." " I send a map by Mr. Spragg, whereby your Lop* may see the several goverm'*, &c., how they lye where the beaver hunting is, & where it will bee necessary to erect our Country Forts for the securing of the beaver trade, & keeping the indians in community with us."* In the same report, Governor Dongan notices " the custom or duty upon every beaver skin commonly called a whole beaver, ninepence." "And that all other fur and peltry be valued accordingly, that is, for two half beavers ninepence ; for four lapps nine- pence ; three drillings one shilling and sixpence ; ten ratoons ninepence ; four foxes ninepence ; four and twenty meescats ninepence ; ten mallar ninepence ; twenty-four pounds of moose and deer skin ninepence. And all other peltry to be valued equivalent to the whole beaver export- ed out of the province (bull and cow hides excepted)." Father de Laraberville, a cunning, zealous, but not over- Bcrupulous missionary, wrote to M. de Denonville, gov- ernor of Canada, in 1684, that " the envoy of the governor of New York, who is here, promises the Iroquois goods at a considerable reduction ; 7 & 8 lbs, of powder for a bea- ver; as much lead as a man can carry for a beaver, and so with the rest." It must not be supposed that this was the actual price paid for a beaver-skin at that time. Father de Lamberville merely mentions these items to show that the English were bribing the Iroquois to adopt their side, in the event of war with the French, or in future exten- sion of trade. It was a system of presents which gave rise to the Indian expression, " underground" or secret presents, in order to avoid the appearance of bribery. The word " underground" has recently acquired a differ- ent application, familiar to every ear. The fugitives from the slaveholder reach Canada by the " underground rail- * Documentary History of New York. THE FUK TRADE. [ery. ffer- I'rom irail- 277 ?5 way/' The Confederates obtain information of tlie move- ments of the Federalists by the " underground telegraph," and the late rush across the Canadian frontier, from the drafting in the United States, was chiefly by the " under- ground line." Father de Lamberville defeated Colonel Dongan's at- tempts to draw the Hurons and Ottawas to his side, by " underground presents," although Dongan ofiered seven pounds of powder for a beaver, or as much lead as a man could carry. The mission and the beaver were too frequently associa- ted by the early French missionaries. They made the fur- traier and the proselytizer one. There is no doubt that wherever the fur trade extended, there was but too much need of the humanizing influence of Christianity, but as long as the missionaries traded in furs, the gentle influ- ences of religion were not felt. The condition of the colony in Denonville's time was deplorable. He himself writes, " I receive letters from the most distant quarters, from the head of River Mississippi, from the head of Lake Superior, from Lake des Lenemyngon (Lake St. Anne, north of Lake Superior), where they propose wonders to me by establishing posts for the missions, and for the beavers which abound there. But in truth, so long as the interior of the colony is not consolidated and secured, nothing certain can be expected from all those distant posts, where hitherto people have lived in great disorder, and in a manner to convert our best Canadians into banditti."* The failure on the part of the difierent French compa- nies to establish successful monopolies, arose in great part, from a spirit of personal aggrandizement, which influenced men in power, and the excellent opportunities which the form of government then prevailing in the colony secured to them. In 1731 the administration of M. de Beauhar- * Denonville's Expedition, Paris, Doc. III. .tfi- It ' ■ ■'»1. if ,■ r m ■ -1 ■ I -.'f'i J/.™?!!!' ^'1 ;:: ill I '278 THE FUR TRADE. nois was marked by continued erection of new forts, and displays of military force, for the purpose of keeping the English traders within proper limits. Soon after the whole valley of the St, Lawrence came under British sway, the merchants of Montreal, among whom were many Scotchmen, seeing the advantage of united action, formed themselves into a company in 1784, and assumed the title of the North- West Company of Montreal. The stock of this company was at first divided into sixteen shares with- out any capital being deposited, each shareholder furnish- ing a proportion of such articles as were necessary to carry on the fur trade. It was soon found, however, that some of the traders in the Indian country were adverse to this nnion of interests, and a few of them joined together and established a rival company. As might have been ex- pected, a collision between the two companies soon took place, murder was committed,* and many of the injuries which rivalry and jealousy could engender, were inflicted by both sides, far beyond the reach of retributive justice. At length, in 1787, the discontented traders and the North- West Company came to an understanding, united their interests, and founded a commercial establishment on a sound basis, divided into twenty shares, a certain por- tion being held by the merchants in Montreal, the remain- der by the traders in the Indian country. The adventure for the year amounted to £40,000, L'lt in eleven years from that date, or in 1789, it reached treble that sum, yielding large profits to the company. In 1798 the num- ber of shares was increased to forty-six, and so rapid was the increase in power and wealth of the corporation, that the army of employes enlisted in its service rose to up- wards of four thousand. The agents of the North-West Company came into fre- quent collision with the servants of the Hudson's Bay Com- pany, which not only led to a spirit of rivalry in trade, ♦ Sir Aloxaudor Mackenzie — A General History of the Fur Trade. In ag£ of til r^rj: TUE FUR TRADE. 279 baffling description, but also to numerous encounters, in which much blood was shed and many lives lost. Wearied of this ruinous competition, and harassed by the threat- ened difficulties, which the continuance of so much crime and bloodshed amonf2;st their half-wild subordi- nates were drawing upon them, the two companies agreed to unite, and in 1821 an end was put to contention and rivalry, by the amalgamation of the two bodies, under the title of the Hudson's Bay Company. From the date of tiie union a new era in the fur tn.de began, which will be better described after a brief history has been given of one of the most successful and flourishing monopolies the world has ever seen. The Hudson's Bay Company was incorporated in the year 1670, under a royal charter of Charles the Second, which granted them certain territories in North America, together with exclusive privileges of trade and other rights and advantages. During the first twenty years of their existence the profits of the company were so great* that, notwithstanding considerable losses sustained by the cap- ture of their establishments by the French, amounting in value to £118,014, they were enabled to make a payment to the proprietors, in 1081, of fifty per cent., and a further payment in 1089 of twenty -five per cent. In 1690 the stock was trebled witiiout any call being made, besides affording a payment to the proprietors of twenty-five per cent, on the increased or newly created stock. From 1692 to 1097 the company incurred loss and damage to the amount of £97,500 sterling, from the French. In 1720 their circumstances were so tar improved that they again trebled their capital stock, with only a call of ten per cent, from the proprietors, on M'hich they paid divi- dends averaging nine per cent, for many years, showing profits on the originally subscribed capital stock actually * Soe letter from the Governor of the Hudson's Bay Company to the Lords of the Committee of Privy Council for Trade, February 7th, 1838. mm l&i- III >h^ 1 ■ J « :!!il ' 280 THE FUR TKADE. paid up, of between sixty and seventy per cent, per an- num, from the year 1690 to 1800, or during a period of 110 years. Up to tlii8 time the Hudson's Bay Company enjoyed a monopoly of the fur trade, and reaped a rich harvest of Avealth and influence. In 1783 the North-West Company was formed, having its head-quarters at Montreal. The North- West Company soon rose to the position of a formidable rival to the Hud- son's Bay Company, and the territory the two companies traded in l)ecame the scene of animosities, feuds, and blood- shed, involving the destruction of property, the demoraliza- tion of the Indians, and the ruin of the fur trade. Owing to this opposition, the interests of the Hudson's Bay Company suffered to such an extent, that between 1800 and 1821, a period of twenty-two years, their dividends were, for the flrst eight years reduced to four per cent. During the next six years they could pay no dividend at all, and for the re- maining eight they could pay only four per cent. In the year 1821 a union between' the N rtli-West and Bay Companies took place, iinrha* the title of the imI upon to r,ay £100 ' stock in trade ipital st >ck of >aid in the years tlt\) arly dividends of Hudson's last named. The proprietary werr per cent, upon their capit wh of both parties in the ♦ £400,000, on which 1821 to 1824, and f lat tin- to to'- the five per cent, to 1828 ; . .om IS^'^ to 1832 a dividend of five per cent., with a bonus of ten per cent., was paid, and from 1832 to 1837 a dividend of five per cent.^ .vitli ai iverage bonus of six per cent. The distribution of pr 'i shareholders fin- the years 1847 to 1856 both in as follows : 1847 to 1849, ten per cent, per annum ; 18.' per cent, per annum, of which ten per cent, wah added to stock ; 1851, ten per cent. ; 1852, fifteen percent., of which five per cent, was added to stock ; 1853, £18 4*. 6d., of which £8 4s. Qd. was added to stock ; 1854 to 1856, ten ve, was twenty i| THE FrR TKADE. 2S1 per cent, per annum dividend.* Of 268 proprietors in July 1856, 196 have purchased their stock at from 220 to 240 per cent.f The affairs of the Hudson's Bay Company are managed by a governor-in-chief, sixteen chief-factors, l^venty-nino chief-traders, iive surgeons, eighty-seven clerks, sixty- seven post-masters, twelve hundred permanent servants, and five hundred voyageurs, besides temporary employes of different ranks, chiefly consisting of voyageurs and servants. The total number of persons in the employ of the Hudson's Bay Company is about 3,000. The late Sir George Simpson was governor of the Hud- son's Bay Company for forty years. He exercised a gen- eral supervision over the company's affairs, presided at their councils in the country, and had the principal direction of the whole interior management in North America. The * Letter from R. G. Smith, Esq., Secretary to the Hudson's Bay Company, to H. Moriviile, Esq. — Appendix to Report from the Select Committee on the Hudson's Bay Company. f The capital employed by the Hudson's Bay Company was as follows: — June 1st, 1856: — £ s. d. Amount of assets 1,468,301 16 3 Amount of liabilities, 203,233 i6 11 Capital 1,265,065 19 4 Consisting of stock, standing in the name of the proprietors, 500,000 Valuation of the Company's lands and buildings, exclusive of Vancouver's Island and Oregon 318,884 12 8 Amount expended up to 10th September, 1856, in sending minors and laborers to Vancouver's Island, in the coal mines, and other objects of colonization exclusive of the trading establishments of the company, and which amount will bo repayable by government if possession of the island is resumed 87,011 8 3 Amount invested in Fort Victoria, and other eGtablish- menta and posts on Vancouver's Island, estimated at 75,000 Amount paid to the Earl of Selkirk for lied River Settle- ment 84,111 18 5 Property and investments in the territory of Oregoil, ceded to the United States by the treaty of 1 840, and which are secured to the Company as possessing rights under that treaty— $1,000,000 200,000 Total £1,265,067 19 4 282 THE FUR TRADE, governor is assisted by a council for each of the two de- partnienta into which the territory is divided. The seat of council for the northern department is at Norway Il^use, on Lake Winnipeg ; for the southern de- partment at Michipicoten, Lake Superior, or Moose Fac- tory, on James's Bay. The council consists of the chief officei's of the company, the chief factors being ex-oj/ioio members of council. Their deliberations are conducted in private. The sixteen chief factors are in charge of differ- ent districts in tlie territory, and a co'tain number of them assemble every year at Norway House, for the northern department, generally about the middle of June, to meet the governor and transact business. Seven chief factors, with the governor, form a quorum, but if a sufficient num- ber of the higher rank o+' ofticers are not present, a quorum is established by the admission of chief traders. The Hudson's l^ay Company's operations extend not only over that part of North America called Rupert's Land and the Iiulian ten-itory, but also over part of Can- ada, Newfoundland, Oregon, Russian America, and the Sandwich Isles. Tlie o})erations of tlie Hudson's Bay Company extend over territories whose inhabitants owe allegianc'c to three diifcreiit and independent governments, British, Russian, and the United States. These immense territories, exceed- ing 4,500,000 square miles in area, are divided, for the exclusive purposes of the fur trade, into four departments and thirty-three districts, in which are included one hun- dred and fifty-tv/o posts, commanding the services of three tlionsand agents, traders, voyageurs, and servants, besides giving of'casional' or constant employment to a))out one hundred thousand savage Indian hunters. Armed vessels, both sailing and steam, are employed on the north-west coast to carry on the fur tiade with the warlike natives of that distant region. More than twenty years ago the trade of the north-west coast gave employment to about one thousand men, occupying twenty-onepennanen" esl^blish- iwk THE FUR TRADE. 283 ments, or engaged in navigating five arraad sailing vessels, and one armed steamer, varying from one hundred to three hundred tons in burden. History does not furnish another example of an association of private individuals exerting so powerful an influence over so large an extent of the earth's surface, and administering their aftairs with such consunnuate skill, and unwavering devotion to the original objects of their incorporation. The Hudson's Bay Company, even when they relinquish the valley of the Saskatchewan, and confine their opera- tions to the region north of the 56th parallel of latitude, will still liolu much of the fur trade in their grasp. P"t tliey will do so as an independent company, engaged in open competitive rivalry with all who choose to engage in that diilicult and precarious traffic. The organization ex- isting among the olficers and servants of this company ; their acquaintance with the habits, language, and hunt- ing-grountls of the Indians of the North American conti- nent ; and, more especially, the fact that they are not only personally acquainted with almost every Indian in North America, but have the means, if it suit the purposes of trade, of communicating with them and supplying their wants, will secure to this admirably organized association the command of the iiiost lucrative branches of the fur trade, for many years to come. If the history of any fur- trading company in America were faithfully written, it would exhibit to the world a systematic course of action as surely destructive to the Indian race of this continent, within the limits of the law, as if it had been a ]»redeter- mined object from the beginning of their operations to the close. The history, indeed, of almost any one abandoned fort or ])08t, during the prosperous existence of a company, would be a type of the history of the entire trade, and its prejudicial influences on the Indian races. An abandoned post implies, in general, the utter destruction of the fur- bearing animals, or of the sources of food upon which the Indian hunters formerl}'^ subsisted. It is an acknowledg- i \u 'rf i^\ i'lf' 1 : •Hi ii -J i; s III f 4- _,_ iiS4 Sllll'-BUILDING AND THE LUMBER TRADE. ineiit that the country which once served the post has been •onvurted into an inhospitable desert, wholly incapable, in its wild and uncultivated state, of supplying the small de- mands of the former inhabitants of the district it served. TABLE SHOWING TUB ANN"JAL EXPORTATION OP PURS AND SKINS FROM CA'IADA, EXCLUSIVE OF THE HUDSON'S BAY COMPANY'S EXPORTS : 1853, $127,694 1858, $163,213 1854, 69,357 1859, 229,147 1855, 115,260 1860, 227,115 1856, 207,753 1861, 230,596 1857, 154,879 All of the furs collected by the Hudson's Bay Company go to England, The Canadian fur trade is very limited in comparison Avith that of the giant monopolist. The total value of the export of furs amounted, in 18G1, to $228,918 ; $84,601 worth going to the United States, the remain- der to Great Britain. The monopoly enjoyed by the Hudson's Bay Company is now extinguished by the expi- ration of their charter, and, as soon as ready communica- tion between Canada and the valley of the Saskatchewan is established, tlie Canadian fur trade will revive again, although it will never attain a tithe of the importance it possessed during tlie palmy days of the North- West Com- pany. CHAPTER III. SIIIP-BUILDING AND THE LUMBER TRADE. Snii'-nuiLDiNO was one of the earliest branches of indus- tiy cultivated in Canada. The memorials contained in the " Documents do Paris'^ inform us, that as early as 1715, ship-building at Quebec was pretty brisk, although there was great reason for complaint that the French would not import the fine timber of the country. The fur trade ap- peared to monopolize all the attention of the French rulers ; th Vf SHIP-BUILDING AND THE LUMBER TRADE. 285 and altliongli the British drew large supplies of lumber from the Atlantic provinces, New France contributed no i:)art of her immense forest treasures to increase the naval resources of the great rival of England on the seas. M. de Maurepas, the French minister of marine in 1731, Avas fully alive to the importance of ship-building, for he wrote some strong dispatches to the governor, urging the stimu- lation of this branch of industry, and promised that ships of war should be constructed in Canada, if some good mtM-c'hant vessels were turned out. He offered a premium of 500 francs for every vessel gauging 200 tons or over of colonial build, and sold in France or the Antilles, and 150 francs premium for each barge of thirty or forty tons, if similarlv dis])Osed of. In 1752, ten vessels, of forty to one hundred tons, were built in Canada, but the materials were badly chosen, and the price high. It is remarkable, that even at that early period of the history of French Canadian industry, a num- ber of vessels, used in the trade of Canada, were purchased from the enterprising New Englanders With the finest forests in the world for ship-building, unequalled facilities for bringing lumber to the seaboard, and the encourage- ment of a liberal bounty, French enterprise in Canada, to- ward the middle of the last century, was not equal to the task of seizing upon the only industry which would tend to secure to them the peaceable possession of the colony in the event of a war with their great and industrious rival, Britain, besides encouraging immigration, amassing wealth, and establishir •• a political importance. In 1734: there were fifty-two saw-mills in that part of this province which lies east of the Ottawa; the popula- tion of the country being 37,252 souls. In 1827, or nearly one hundred years later, the number of saw-mills had in- creased to 565, with a population of 471,870. The following table shows the number and tonnage of the sea-gi>ing vessels built at Queuee during decennial periods, between 1791 and 18G1 : npV r«! i ii! '! : 286 BHIP-BUILDING AND THE LUMBER TRADE. Year. No. of ships. Tonn. 1701 12 574 1801 24 3,40-i 1811 54 13,(!91 1821 22 2,254 i8ai 38 G,no 1841 G4 23,122 1851 GO 41,005 1801 51 25,546 * Since 1787, there have been 2,939 ships built at Quebec, l)eiu«x in the a«i;^i,a-egate 890,201 tons burden. The hirgest ship ever constructed on this continent was built in Que- bec, in 1825. It was called the Baron of Renfrew, and measured 5,294 tons. Another large wooden ship was built in 1821:, measuring 3,690 tons: but these huge wood- en vessels were not successful. This enumeration does not include other vessels which were constructed at the different ports of the valley of the St. Lawrence, and sometimes sent across the Atlantic; for sale. Such vessels have been recently built on Lake Hu- ron, at Toronto, tfec, &c., l)ut in (H)nsequence of the general depression in trade, since the year 1857, little has been done in ship-huilding in the lake districts, although there is every ])ros})ect that it will become an important indus- try now that ship communication with Europe and Lake Superior, by means of the Canadian canals, without break- ing bulk, is easily and profitably accomplished. Thelumber trade was long in growing to importance du- ring the early ITustory of Canada. In 1723 nineteen vessels cleared from (Quebec, containing cargoes of peltries, lum- ber, and provisions ; but tliere does not appear to have been any considerable trade in lumber between Europe and Canada until the close of the eighteenth century. In 1786, the exports of fish, li(ii)hei\ &c., from Labrador and Gaspe were returned at -£45,000 sterling, and furs and other colonial produce from Quebec at .£145,116 sterling ; but lumber is not specially included as an article of com- ♦Tho average value of ships built nt Quebec is taken at .$40 a ton; the ton- iiago c-au bo obtained at oace hj dividiuK the value by 40. li«ii lii BHIP-BinLDING AND THE LUMBER TilADE. 287 merce. In 1808, the products of the forest became a sepa- rate item, and we find oak and pine timber, staves, masts, &c., exported, to the value of £157,360 sterling; but from the United States the imports of lumber were to the amount of £70,000 sterling, the greater part of which would be in- cluded in the amount specified above. The different arti- cles which make up Canadian lumber exports have been enumerated in the chapter on " Forest Industry." It will suffice for present purposes to state the condition of the export trade during the years 1824 to 1829 inclusive, with the statistical data of the trade from 1853 to 1861 inclu- sive. Exports of lumber from Quebec during the years 1824, 1825, 1826, 1827, and 1829 : 1824. 1,132 1,289 19,994 Masts , Spars Oak timber, planks . . " " tons Pino " planks.. " " tons Staves 3,667,188 Stave ends 30,41G Deals and boards 1,052,147 Hoops 147,800 Ashes, barrels 65,108 1825. 988 1,799 33,152 1824 751 2,892 182T. 983 1,999 1829. 973 1,079 9G,026 128,078 3,934,410 19,295 1,479,565 125,536 65,502 23,822 21,763 24,411 123,5io >'^'^^ l± r,'J7 IT-JO 129,151 86,090 4,164,688 5,476,548 61,191 68,1 823,922 1,621,658 9,543,645 98,888 34 39,589 27,303 30,425 Comparative statement of the value of the products of the forest, during the years 1853 to 1861 inclusive:* 1853, $9,293,3.38 1858, $9,284,514 1851, 9,912,008 1859, 9,6(i3,n62 1855, 7,832,660 1860, 11,012,253 1856, 9,802,130 1861, 9,572,645 1857, 11,575,508 The annual exportation may be stated at 30,000,000 cubic feet of timber in the rough state, and about 400,- 000,000 feet, board measure, of sawed lumber. The revenue derived from timber cut in the public forests was $383,150, in 1861. There is very good ground for the expectation * Furs are not included in this estimate. r^i 288 SHIP-BUILDING AND THE LUMBER TRADE. that new markets in continental Europe will soon be opened for Canadian timber. Already the beginning of this trade has been made, by the dispatch of twenty cargoes to France, Spain, and Germany, in 1861. Tiie products of the forest hitherto exported have been confined to a few species of timber trees, not exceeding a dozen at the most. When it is known tliat there are upwards of thirty kinds of forest trees, out of some sixty or seventy species with whicii our forests are filled, well adapted to the wants of European manufactures, it is confidently anticipated that a new im- pulse will soon be given to the lumber trade of the Province, in a difl^'erent direction to that whicli it has hitherto taken. Prior to 1858, England imported more timber from the Bi-itish American Provinces than from all other countries. This predominance ceased in the next succeeding year, when the British importations stood thus : 1869. From British America 1,301, 218 loads. ' " Foreign countries 1,G55,'232 " 1860. From British America 1,26'1,360 loads. " Foreign countries 1,537,020 " In the present year (1862), eight vessels have already sailed for German ports, their destination and cargoes being as follows : Name of Port. No. of Vessels. Cargo. Stettin 1 Oak. Hamburg 3 Oak and pine. Bremen 4 Rod and white pine, walnut, Ac This trade promises to be of the greatest value to Canada, and if the government adopt wise and liberal measures to secure a foreign European market, the gain which will re- sult to Canada, in many ways, is incalculable. Immigra- tion from those countries can be fostered in no better way than l)y a growing trade in the forest productions of the British Provinces. The shipments of timber from Quebec, for the year end- ing December Ist, 1862, as compared with those of 1860 and 1861, were as follows: i ¥ BHIP-BUILDING AND THE LUMBEK TRADE. 289 1860. 1861. 1862. Oak 1,485,400 ft. 1,725,160 ft. 1,46:5,680 ft. Elm 1,021,560" 1,269,329" 1,099,200" Ash 88,440 " 96,560 " 99,840 " Birch 462,160" 255,320" 165,480" Tamarac 58,240" 50,240" 57,120" Wluto pine, square ) jg 252,600 " 19,447,920 " 15,493,080 " and wanj' ) Red pine 2,502,880" 2,855,240" 2,491,120" The export of the leading items for 1862, falls slightly below the average shipments of the five years, from 1853 to 1857 ; but the stock at Quebec considerably exceeds that of any previous season, being 19,000,000 feet of pine against 10,000,000, the average stock between 1853 and 1857. The prices current for the leading descriptions of timber in the raft, in Quebec, on the 1st December, compare as follows during the years 1858, 1859, 1860, and 1861. ■White p'mo. Eed plno. Oak, Elm. 1862. 3id to Gd. lid. to lOd Is. 2d. to Os. Od. did. to Is. lei 1861. bid. to G^d. Sid. to lid Is. 3d. to Is. 5d. 9d. to Is. Id. 1860. &id. to Gid. 8d. to lid. Is. 2d. to Is. 3d. 7^^. to Is. Id 1859. 4}d. to 6d. 8d. to Is. Is. to Is. 3d. I^d. to Is. 2d. 1858. 4d. to 5Jd. 9d. to Is. Is. 4d. to Is. 5d. lOd. to Is. Od, The remarkable increase in the grain trade of Montreal, is seriously aifecting the shipments of lumber at Quebec. Fully one-half of the vessels which formerly took in car- goes of luml)cr at Quebec, now go to Montreal for grain. This withdrawal of 400 or 500 large sea-going vessels, is diminishing the industry of the port of Quebec, while Montreal is becoming the great seat of foreign commerce. . r * t ( i ' ■ %i *' ,:4^ , i.,-i" i i 1 ! ^^HHi i ^ HH^Hut fl^i Slj ^^B ' Oil''''' E ■ r ' M •i 290 THE PRODUCE TRADE. CHAPTER IT. THE PRODUCE TRADE, In 1734, when Lower Canada liad a population of 37,252, the lands occupied and in tillaj^e amounted to 163,111 arpeuts, and there were produced 737,892 minots of wheat, 1(!3,988 minots of oats, 166,054 lbs. of tobacco, and 92,246 lbs. of flax. The following table shows the ex- port of wheat which took place from the port of Quebec, from 1793 to 1802, inclusive. Nearly the whole of tliis ex- portation must have been the growth of Lower Canada, for the upper division of the province did not contain more than 50,000 inhabitants, at the beginning of the 19th century. Years. Wheat (bush.) Flour (bbls.) Biscuit (cwt.) 1793, 487,000 10,900 9,800 1791, 414,000 13,700 15,000 1795, 395,000 18,000 20,000 1790,* 3,106 4,300 3,800 1797, 31,000 14,000 8,000 1798, 92,000 9,500 12,000 1799, 129,000 14,400 21,500 1800, 217,000 20,000 25,000 1801, 473,000 38,000 32,300 1802, 1,010,033 28,300 22,051 Total, 3,251,139 171,100 169,451 Annual aver; ige, 325,114 17,100 16,945 Duri'ig tlie years 1816 to 1822, inclusive, the exports of wheat averaged 195,386 bushels ; of barrels of flour, 28,323 ; and of hundred weights of biscuit, 9,694, annually. In 1824, 25, 26, 27, 29, and 30, the export of wheat and flour amounted to: Wheat. Flour. 1824, 1825, 1820, 5,396 minota. 718,019 " 228,635 " 41,001 barrels 40,003 " 33,671 " 1827, 1829, 391,420 40,402 11 63,839 " 2,859 " 1830, 590,081 II 35,836 " * In consequenco of the failure of the crops in 1 795, the governor in council proclaimed an embargo, prohibiting the exportation of wheat. Ik- kcil THE PKODUCfi TRADE. 291 These fluctuating exports show the precarionsness of the wheat crop in Lower Canada — which is still further ex- emplified by the following table. Produce of wheat in Lower Canada, during the years 1831, 1844, and 1851 : Year. Bnshels. 18:U 3,404,756 1844 942,8:55 1851 3,045,600 There can be no doubt, however, that importations from the United States, especially of flour, enabled larger ex- ports to be made from Quebec than would otherwise have taken place, for in 1830 we find 10,633 barrels of flour im- ported into Montreal, and 103 barrels of wheat. The rise and progress of the grain trade of Canada are well shown by the following table of exports :* TABLE OP WHEAT EXPORTS, Tear. Bushuls of wheat.* Tear. Bushels of wheat 1838, 296,020 1850, 4,547,224 1839, 249,471 1851, 4,275,896 1840, 1,739,119 1852, 6,490,718 1841, 2,313,836 1853, 6,597.193 1842, 1,678,102 1854, 3,781,534 1843, 1,193,918 1855, 6,413,428 1844, 2,350,018 1856, 9,301,531 1845, 2,507,392 1857, 6,482,199 1846, 3,312,757 1858, 5,610,559 1847, 3,883,156 1859, 4,032,627 1848, 2,248,016 1860, 8,431,253 1849, 3,645,320 1861, 13,369,727 The total amount of spring and fall wheat grown in Upper Canada, in 1861, exceeded 24,500,000 bushels. The absolute value of all agricultural products ex])orted, of home and foreign production, for the years 1853 to 1861, inclusive, is given in the following table of home and foreign production : Tear. 1858, 1859, 1860, 1861, Tear. Amount. 1853, $8,032,535 1864, 7,316,160 1866, 13,130,399 1856, 14,972,276 1857, 8,882,825 Amount. $7,904,400 7,339,708 14,259,225 18,244,631 * Ono barrel of flour is estimated equal to five bushels of wheat. 19 t ''H 1 ^ "ill 1 11 '.'Hi :1 3» 202 PRESENT TRADE. CHAPTER V. PRESENT TRADE. In the year 1808, the trade of the Province of Canada assumed proportions which entitled it to the serious atten- tion of the mother country ; for although the population of Upper and Lower Canada did not exceed 300,000 in that year, the entire trade of the colony, including exports and imports, amounted to £1,776,060 sterling, or about $8,400,000. This trade was made up of the following items : — 1808. No. of vessels engaged in the trade 334 Exports From Quebec. Furs and other colonial produce £350,000 "Wheat, biscuit, flour 171,200 Oak and pine timber, staves, masts, &c 157,360 Pot and pearl ashes 290,000 New ships — 3,750 tons, at £10 sterling per ton 37,500 Fish, lumber, oil, &c., from Labrador and Gaspe. . . . 120,000 Exports to the United States, sundries, about 30,000 Total exports £1,156,060 Imports from England: — Manufactured goods £200,000 West India produce 130,000 Imports from United States : — ' Merchandise, tea, provisions, tobacco 100,000 Oats, pine, masts, &c 70,000 Pot and pearl ashes 110,000 Total imports £610,000 Balance in favor of the colony £546,060 Tlie exports of 1830 show a remarkable increase in the trade of the colony, as will be seen by the following table : 1830. Vessels. Tons. To Groat Britain from Quebec 571 169,046 " " " Ireland 214 57,233 " " " Jersey 1 113 eign TU K PRESENT TRADE. 293 Tessels. To Great Britain from Gibraltar M l( « M II iir :■¥! '■I IK in n I < :ll m 2'J4 PKE8ENT TBADE. commercial excitement, followed by a corresponding de- pression — the imports in 1861 not equalling tliose of 1856, while those of 1858 fell short to the extent of nearly $3,000,000 of the value of imports in 1853. Table showing the total value of exports and imports, and the aggregate value of the foreign trade of the prov- ince, from 1852 to 1861 : Year. Export*. Imports. Total valne of Trade 1852, $14,055,973 $20,286,493 $34,342,466 1853, 22,012,230 31,981,436 53,993,666 1854, 21,249,319 40,529,325 61,778,644 1855, 28,188,461 36,086,169 64,274,630 1856, 32,047,017 43,584,387 75,631,404 1857, 27,006,624 39,430,598 66,437,222 1858, 23,472,609 29,078,627 52,551,136 1859, 24,766,981 33,555,161 68,322,142 18G0, 34,631,890 34,441,621 69,073,611 1861, 36,614,195 43,046,823 79,661,018 The total value of Canadian foreign trade has more than doubled within ten years, and last year it reached the im- posing value of nearly $80,000,000. It now remains to exhibit the manner in which this enormous trade is carried on, by a statement showing — First: the number of vessels entered inward and outward, from and for sea, during the years 1853 to 1861, inclusive: Vessels Inward from Sea. Vessels Outward for Sea. Tear. Total Number. Tonnage. Total Number. Tonnage 1853, 1,798 622,579 1,821 658,853 1854, 1,890 705,342 2,018 781,755 1855, 1,168 419,552 1,219 451,241 1856, 1,494 550,573 1,532 573,648 1857, k,047 748,425 1,848 731,367 1858, 1,657 613,813 1,662 623,046 1859, 1,715 641,662 1,618 640,571 1860, 1,992 831,434 1,923 821,791 1861, 2,442 1,077,128 2,389 1,059,667 Second : tlie amount of Canadian and American ton- nage, inward and outward, with the interco'irse by inland navigation between Canada and the United States : TBESENT TRADE. 1858. Tons. 29i Tons. sail 730,174 f ••••3.144,297 American steam 3,0.S8,672 / n r,e a.^^ sail 477;728} ••••3,516,400 Canadian steam 3,014,123) Total inward.9 and outwards 7,2(50,697 Add soa-going vessels, as above 1,230,859 Total tonnage engaged in Canadian trade 8,4D7,556 1859. Tons. Canadian steam 1,552,711) •y-^ri sail 801,225 f ^''^''•^> American steam Tons. 93G jrican steam 4,090,690 ) . ^q„ ooj " sail 586,704 p---*'^S2,394 Total inwards and outwards 7,036,330 Add sea-going vessels, as above 1,282,233 Total tonnage engaged in Canadian trade 8,318,563 1861. Tons. Canadian steam , " sail American steam 2, , _ sail 674,673 J" Tons. .2,755,3^8 .3,097,187 Total inwards and outwards 5,852,525 Add sea-going vessels, as above 2,149,300 Total tonnage engaged in Canadian trade 8,001,885 The year 1859 was one of great depression in Canada ; tlie decrease in 1861 was probably due to tlie railways, which now afford an excellent means of communication between the two countries, to the detriment of lake and river navigation. CANADIAN STEAMERS AND SAILING VESSELS REGISTERED IN 1861. Vessels Built. Tonnage. Steam 11 1,155 SaUing 85 32,032 Total 96 33,187 t ',! m '-•< 1 ^i 11 IS 1 'y m 296 PRESENT TRADE. VESSELS BEGISTEUED. No. Tonnage. Steam 23 9,61G SaLL 150 34,749 173 44,365 THE RECIPROCITY TREATY. The reciprocity treaty between the United Stt tes and Gi'eat Britain, has been the subject of prolonged discus- sion on the part of a few interests among; those mercantile communities of the United States and Canada, wliicii are not advantageously affected by the conditions of the treaty. The weiglit of evidence, as deduced f) )m statistical returns, goes to establish the fact that the advantages derived by botli countries are very considerable, and will far outweigh the complaints of sectional interests which have attempted its destruction. The following are the leading points of the treaty : I. The inhabitants of the United States possess, under the reciprocity treaty, the right to take fish of any kind, except sttell-fish, on the sea-coasts and shores, in the bays, liai'bors, and creeks, of anv of the British provinces, with- out being rcfitricted to any distance from the shore ; with permission to land upon the coasts and shores of those provinces, for thu purpose of drying their nets and curing fish. II. British subjects possess, in common with the citizens of the United States, the liberty to take fish of any kind, except shell-fish, on the eastern sea-coasts and shores of ' iC United States, north of the thirty-sixth parallel of north latitude ; with the same privileges as to landing on the sea-coast as are enjoyed by American citizens in the British Provinces. III. Certain articles, being the growth and produce of the British colonies, or of the United States, are admitted into eacli country free of duty, respectively. (The most important of these articles are grain, flour, breadstuifs, PRESENT TRADE. 297 animals, fresh, smoked, and salted meats, fish, lumber of all kinds, poultry, cotton wool, hides, ores of metals, pite' tar, ashes, flax, hemp, unmanufactured tobacco, rice, &c.) TV. The right to navigate the River St. Lawrence, and the canals of Canada, is equally enjoyed by the citizens of the United States and of the British Provinces. This right extends also to Lake Michigan ; and no export duty on lumber cut in Maine, and passing through New Bruns- wick to the sea, can be levied. The treaty was signed June 5th, 1854, and may termi- nate after the expiration of ien years. STATEMENT SIIOWIKO THE AVIIOLE TRADE IN IMPORTS AND EXPORTS BE:;WEEN CANADA AND TUB UNITED STATES, DURING ELEVKN YEARS. Amount of tbo Years. Imports from Uniteil Exports from Cannda States into Canada. to United Htutcs. 1851, $8,365,764 1852, 8,477,693 1853, 11,782,144 1854,* 15,533,096 1855, 20,828,676 1856, 22,704,508 1857, 20,224,648 1858, 15,635,565 1859, 17,592,916 1860, ' 17,273,029 1861, 21,069,388 $4,071,544 6,284,520 8,936,380 8,649,000 16,737,276 17,979,752 13,206,436 11,930,094 13,922,314 18,427,968 14,386,427 ■whole trade. $12,437,308 14,762,213 20,718,524 24,182,096 37,565,952 40,684,260 33,431,084 27,665,659 31,515,231* 35,700,907 35,455,815 In ten years the amount of the trade between the United States and Cinada lias nearly trebled itself, and risen from twelve millions to thirty-five millions of dollars, with- out including those articles which are free under the treaty. STATEifENT SIIOWINO THE IMPORTS AND EXPORTS BETWEEN CANADA AND THB UNITED STATES, OF ARTICLES FREE UNDER THE TREATY, TO JANUARY 1, 1861. Tear. Imports into tho United States from Canada. 1855, $16,476,093 1856, 17,810,684 1857, 17,812,308 1858, 11,514,364 1859, 1860, 15,289,070 20,365,829 Imports into Canada from tho United Btutes. $7,725,561 7,909,554 8,642,030 5,564,616 7,106,116 7,069,689 KxcpKs of Imports free under the treaty Id favor of Cauouu. $8,750,532 9,9(M,130 4,nii,278 6,!)J 9,749 8, 1 82,954 13,296,140 Totals, $94,268,343 $44,917,566 $50,250,783 ♦ Epoch of the Reciprocity Treaty. .-' 1^. ufiN'^i '^.■r «■ r- il '■. I ^: n I' >' 298 THK CHANNPXS OF TRADE. THE CHANNELS OF TRADE. The successive governments of Canada have always kept in view the importance of attracting the trade of the countiy, and of the Western States of the American Union, to the St. Lawrence. Tliis route is beginning to engage increased attention from both importers and exporters. Tlie tollowing tables show the value of the St. Lawrence traffic, for 1857 to 1861, inclusive : STATEMENT OP Tlffi VALUE OF EXPORTS AND IMPORTS Via THE ST. LAWRENCE, WITH THE TONNAGE OP VESSELS, INWARDS AND OUTWARDS, DURINO THB YEARS 1857 TO 1861, INCLUSIVE. Tonnage of vessels. Total trad© via Year. Value of exports. Valufi of Imports, Inwards. Outwards. J i. Lawrence. 1857, $13, 751!, 7 87 $14,561,884 748,425 731,367 $28,318,671* 1H58, 9,727,41.-? 10,795,077 6i:!,813 632,046 20,522,490 18.J!», 8,821,062 " ] 1,540,068 641,662 640,571 20,370,730 18G0, l'J,0:i7,403 13,548,665 831,434 821,791 27,586,068 18G1, 22,524,735 17,249,055 1,087,128 1,059,667 39,773,790 Ilcnce it appears that the St. Lawrence trade has risen in value, daring a period of five years, from twenty-eight millions to thirty-nine millions of dollars. Bat the grand system of internal navigation which this river affords, with its magniiicent canals, will eventually become of great im- portance to the " Far West." The prospective value of the St. Lawrence route to Canada may be best shown by the following table : VALUE OP GOODS IN TRANSITU FOR THE UNITED STATES. Year. Imports. Exports. Total 1857 $183,790 .... $183,790 1858 26,916 .... 26,916 1859 76,314 .... 76,314 1860 21,505 21,505 1861 522,514 $3,505,511 4,028,021. The increase in the trade vta the St. Lawrence in 1861, as compared with the previous year, exceeds twelve inil- liouB of dollars. • Valuo of shipa built at Quebec included. WSS^SB^^r^- FREE P0KT8. 299 TRADE WITH THn UNITED STATES. The reciprocity treaty, to which reference has already been made, resulted benelicially to both countries, although there is no doubt that much local ill-feeling has been en- gendered in particular States, and at those lake ports which have not been beneiited by the treaty to the extent antici- pated, when the subject was under discussion, and whose local trades have been materially influenced by the high tariffs on certain articles recently imposed by the govern- ment of Canada. The following presents a comparative view of all the imports and exports, to and from the United States and Canada, from December 31, 1849, to January 1, 1861 : EXPORTS AND IMPOUTS BETWEEN CANADA AND THE UNITED STATES. y Imports Excess of Otherlinporta Estimated excess of Imports Imports into tho luiports into into Canada from tlicUnited into United into United States above Canadian Im- rear. Canada. Sttites. Canada. States.* ports into tho U, States. 1850, fti,694,8()0 $4,951,159 $1,64,3,701 $982,083 $001,618 1861, 8,3()5,7()5 4,071,644 4,294,221 845,8!J3 8,4.18,388 1862, S,47V,6y.<5 6,284,.V21 2,193,172 1.261,682 941, MO 1853, 11,78'.M47 8,9iifi,«82 2,846,765 1,789,073 1,056,093 1864, 15,5;ti.(J7. 1858. 1859. Molasses, percept 16 11 11 18 I () Sugar, refined, " 32 28 25 26^ 40 Sugar, other, " 27^ 20 17^ 21 30 Boots and shoes, • 12^ 14^ 20 21 25 Harness, " 12^ 17 20 21 25 Cotton goods, " 12i lU 15 15 20 Irongoo'ls, " 12i 18^ 15 16 20 S'lk goods, " 12^ 13i 15 :7 20 Wool goods, " 12^ 14 15 18 20 REVENUE. The net revenue from customs during the past ten years has been as follows : — Year. Net rev. from Customs. Year. Net rev. from Customs 1851, $2,808,831 1857, $3,59,:, 754 1852, 2,822,^31 1858, 3,020,294 18') 3, 3,940,393. 1859, 4,123,511 1854, 4,672,074 1860, 4,405,104 1855, 3,255,278 1861, 4,411,160 185G, 4,115,621 The amount paid yearly, by each individual of the population of Canada, is one dollar and sixty c^nts, — as- Butningthe population to be 2,506,755, and the calculation to be made for the years 1857 to 1861, inclusive, on the gross revenue from customs. REVENUE OP 1861. Ordinary $9,318,180 Seignorial indemnity.. Public worlts Advances Repayment sums due on open account. Special funds , Redemption of the public debt Rndomption Lake St. I'eter bonds Total. >«•••■• 224,000 9U6,000 218,000 520,000 751,000 . 55,738,000 65 000 $14,740,180 IMMIOKATION. RECEIPTS. Ordinary, including municipal loan fund and railway interest $7,841,311 Investment realized and advances repaid. 1,116,000 Special funds 034,000 Debentures issued 2,764,000 $12,655,511 Deficiency 2,085,869 30J CHAPTEK VII. IMMIGRATION. The largest number of immigrants arrived at the port of Qucl)ec since 1829 has been 53,180. The following table shows the annual immigration since 1850 to 1861, a period of twelve years : f ' Ills? COMPARATIVE STATEMENT OF THE NUMBER OP IMMIGRANTS ARRIVED AT TIIH POUT OF QUEBEC, SINCE TUE YEAR 1850 TO 18G1, INCLUSIVE. Continent Yciir. England. Ireland. Scotlfind. YKurope. Low er porls. li-;50, 9,8!^7 17,976 2,879 849 701 1851, 9,6^;; 22,381 7,042 870 1,106 1852, 9,276 15,983 5,477 7,256 1,184 185:5, 9,585 14,417 4,745 7,456 496 1854, 18,175 16,165 6,446 11,537 857 1855, 6,754 4,106 4,859 4,864 691 1856, 10,:J53 1,688 2,794 7,343 261 1857, 15,171 2,015 3,218 11,368 24 18.-;8, G,441 1,153 1,424 3,578 214= 1859, 4,346 417 793 2,722 • • 1860, 6,481 376 979 2,314 , 1 1861, 7,780 413 1,112 10,(.18 •• Total ar. ivals, II II between 1850 and 1861. .. . . . . . 319.993 " 1829 " 1849.... 632.675 / • 962,068 The dispersion of tiiese immigrants tiirougli the country is a matter of great moment, as vast number^ find their way eventuall-"^ to tho Western States who come witli tlie in- tention of settling in Canada, yet, on accouiu of neglect, or the misrepresentations of agents, j're led to seek a borne •"'n the south side of the international boundary. .J I ill lull \ H fill d ji -tv *-f i • t I,, s i-:' iU 302 IMMIGRATION. Tlie following is an approximate statement of the arrival and distribution of inmiigrants during 1861 : — Lan led at Quebec 19,923 Arrived in Canada via the route of the United States : By steamer to Portland, from January to April 330 " " " ' " November to ;nst December, 242 By route of Suspension Bridge, to Hamilton, 11,132; of whom there remained in Canada 3,263 By steamer on Lake Ontario, from Rochester and Oswego, 353 " " from Oswego and Cape St. Vincent to Kingston, 350 By route of Lake Champlain, to Montreal 126 4,664 Total arrivals in Canada, 24,587 Of the arrivals at Quebec, thero proceeded to the United States 10,700 Remaining in Canada, 13,887 Of this number there appear to have settled : In Western Canada 9,500 In Ottawa District 1,544 In Eastern Canada 1,500 In Gaspo 400 Unknown, but presumed to have remained in Canada 943 — 13,887 Each immigrant on his arrival in the country is taxed one dollar, which forms part of the funds under which the iinmi- gratiou department is sustained. The expenditure in 1861 amounted to $28,T73 ; the items were as follows : — For the Quarantine establishment at Grossc Isle $4,700 25 i'or immigration, in tho direct reUef and assistance to destitute immigrants 8,920 19 Agency charges, salaries, rents, office and travelling expenses 15,152 58 $28,773 02 Being an increase of $2,259 19 compared with that of 1860. The total amount of tax realized during this season was $19,112, making the surplus of expenditure over receipts $9,661 — a paltry sum, when the amazing advantage to the province of a continuous stream of immigration from conti- nental Europe is taken into consideration, and the settle- ment of the vast wilderness in the rear of the St. Law- rence by industrious laborers and mechanics. There are six government immigrant agencies in Canada, FREE GRANTS OF LANDS, ETC. 303 located respectively at Quebec, Montreal, Ottawa City, Kingson, Toronto, and Hamilton. The Imperial and Pro- vincial Passengers' Acts provide as far as possible against frauds and impositions being practised on the immigrant. The Provincial Passengers' Act provides that immigrants may remain on board forty-eight hours after the vessel's arrival (except in cases when the vessel has a mail con- tract), and that they shall be landed free of expense, at proper hours ; that no person, without a license, shall influ- ence passengers in favor of any particular steamboat, rail- road, or tavern ; that tavern-keepers shall have posted, in some conspicuous place, a list of prices to be charged for board, lodging, &c.; and they will not be allowed to have any lien upon the effects of a passenger, for board and lodging, beyond five dollars. The total immigration from Great Britain, from 1815 to 1858, has been as follows : — Proportion. To British American colonies 1,180,049 24.60 To United States 2,890,403 60.25 To Australian colonies , 652,.S53 13.60 To other places ' 74,361 1.55 4,797,166 100.00 FREE GRANTS OF LANDS AND COLONIZATION ROADS. There are now seven million acres of crown lands sur- veyed and open for sale, at prices varying from thirty cents to one dollar per acre. Every purchaser must become an actual settler. This enormous area of surveyed public lands is distributed in the following manner : Lower Canada 4,540,000 Urper Canada 2,400,000 Or, exhibiting more particularly the localities of these public lands, there are in Acres. The Three Rivera district about 349,000 Kast of the Chaudiere to Gaspe " 1,310,000 Giispe and Bonaveuture " 348,000 Sauguenay district " 295,000 Eustem townships " 1,030,000 Ottawa region north of the river " 1,206,000 Between Ottawa River and Georgian Bay. . . " 1,740,000 West of French River and Lake Nipissing... " 160,000 ■: j I f <^ 304 FBEE GRANTS OF LAIRDS, ETC. The capital required to enable an immigrant family to Bcttle upon a free-grant lot, or enter upon the occupation of wild land, should be such as would be sufficient for the support of the family for eighteen months, until a return from the land can be obtained. The following is a careful estimate of the quantity and cost of provisions required for twelve months, for a man md liis wife and three young children, and also a list of arti- cles required by settlers going into the bush. The prices are attached at which they can be purchased at the villa- ges near the settlements :* .8 barrels of flour, at £1 15s. per barrel £14 2 " of pork, at £3 15. " T 10 80 bushels of potatoes, at 2s. per bushel. .. . 8 30 lbs. of tea, at 2s. 6d. per lb 3 15 1 barrel of herring 2 i " of salt 1 6 Cost of Provisions £35 12 6 SEED, 20 bushels of potatoes, at 2s. per bushel £2 3 " of wheat, at 73. 6d. " 1 2 6 10 " of oats, at 28. " 10 Cost of seed £4 2 6 OTHER NECESSARIES. 1 Axe £0 8 9 1 Grindstone 7 6 1 Shovel 110 2 Hoes, at 3s. Gs. each 7 3 Reaping-hooks, at Is. 6d. each 4 6 1 Scythe 5 1 Inch auger 5 1 Inch-and-a-half auger 7 6 1 Hand-saw 7 6 2 Watc- pails, at Is. 6d. each 3 1 "W indow-sash, and glazing 5 i Bake-oven 5 2 Pots, at 5s. each 10 1 Kettle 5 1 Fryiugpan 3 1 Teapot 2 6 6 Small tin vessels, at 4d each 2 3 large tiu dishes, at 28. 6d. each 7 6 * From Government Immigration Reports. Wl 'II I' GOVERNMKNT ROADS. 305 OTHER KECE8SARIES — contintied. 6 Spoons, at 2d. each 10 6 Knives and forks 5 3 Pairs of blankets, at £i. 5s. per pair 3 15 2 Iliij^s or quilts, at 2s. 6d. each 5 2 Pairs of sheets, at 3s. per pair 6 1 Smoothing iron ; 2 6 1 Pig 15 £10 1 1 Total £50 2 1 Add one Cow 5 00 Hay for ic, 1st year 3 00 Currency £58 2 1 Or, Sterling £-17 Tlie provincial government has recently opened seven great lines of road in Upper Canada and five in Lower Canada, and laid out for settlement the lands through which these roads pass. The roads in Upper Canada are styled : — 1st. The Ottawa and Opeongo Road. — ^This road runs east and west, and will eventually be 171 miles in length, and connect the Ottawa Piver with Lake Huron ; about 62 miles are now finished, and 235 settlers already located thereon. Resident agent, T. P. Fkench, Clontarf, town- ship of Sebastopol. 2d. Addington Road, running north and south, 61 miles long, and starting from the settlements in the county of Addington, until it intersects the Opeongo Road; the number of settlers on this road is 178. Resident agent, E. Perry, Tamworth. 3d. The Hastings Road, running nearly parallel to the Addington Road, 68 miles long, and connecting the county of Hastings with the Ottawa and Opeongo Road : there are 306 settlers on this road. Resident agent, M. P. Hayes, village of Madoc. 4th. The Boucayoeon Road, running from Bobcaygeou, between the counties of Peterborough and Victoria, north, and intended to be continued to Lake Nipissing ; 36 miles are already completed, and there are 168 settlers on the % iinif ■^ . '* \ 'im^f'^^ fo: v, i~ «i;'ii * ll * ( , 1 i ' I 306 GOVERNMENT E0AD3, line ; tliG nnnibcr in the family of each settler, on the above roads, averages about four. Resident agent, R. Huoiies, Bobcaygeon, and G. G. Boswell, Bobcaygeon North. 5th. The Fuontenao and Madawaska Road, of which 33 miles are completed. Resident agent, J. Spike, Ilar- rowsmith, Gth. Tin-: Muskoka Road, of which 21 miles are com- pleted. This road runs from the head of the navigation of Lake Couchiching to the- Grand Falls of Muskoka, where it will intersect the road called Peterson's Line, which will eventually meet the Ottawa and Opeongo Road, now gradually opening westwardly ; and by it the intending settler, arriving at Toronto, can, in one day's journey from that city, reach the very centre of the country. Resident agent, R. J. Oliver, Orillia. 7th. The Hault Ste. Marie Road, intended to run from Sa\dt Ste. Marie to Goulais Bay, and of which 5 miles are already completed. The five roads in Lower Canada aro : — The Elgix Road, in the county of L'Islet, about 35 miles long, from St. Jean, Port Joli, to the pi'ovincial line. Resident agent, S. Drapeau, St. Jean, Port Joli. The MATA^fl•: and Cape Chat. The Tache Road, from, Buckland, in the county of Bcllechasse, to Metapedia Road, in Rimouski — about 200 miles. The TKMrscoiTATA Road, from River du Loup lo Lake Tcmiscouata; and The Metapedia Road, from Cabot to Restigouchc. In order to facilitate the settlement of these parts of Canada, the government has authorized free grants of land along these roads, not exceeding in each case 100 acres, and obtainable upon the following conditions: 1st. That the settler be eighteen years of age ; 2d. That he take possession of the land allotted to him within one month ; 3d. That he put into a state of cultivation twelve acres of land in the course of four years ; 4th. That GOVERKMENT EOADB. 307 he build a log-liouse, twenty by fourteen feet, and reside on the lot until the foregoing conditions are fulfilled. Families may reside on a single lot, and the several members having land allotted to them, will be exempt from building and residence upon each individual lot. The non-fulfilment of these conditions will cause the im- mediate loss of the land, which will be sold or given to another. The lands thus opened up, and gratuitously offered by the government for settlement, are chiefly of excellent quality, and well adapted in resj^ect to soil and climate, to all the purposes of husbandry. 20 IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (AAT-3) / O O fe? , ■^ V ,^^ .^4^ s &?- ^ f/ J?, •<^ . ^M/, (/a 1.0 I.I 1.25 !f?«a lU |40 1.4 IM 20 1.6 V] V] /y O el J? e. -% o 7 Photographic Sciences Corporation V iV :^V «• ■ f '^? .^-b k 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, NY. 14580 (716) 872-4503 i" Mi.. .i '''!* f ij i" '^- fN ;. * 310 MINERAL KESOUKCES OF BKITISII NORTH AMERICA. them available in the arts, such as chromic iron, phosphate of lime, petroleum, &c., are rendered comparatively value- less from the fact, that in present circumstances, the crude material has to be transported at great expense to distant manufacturing centres. Sucii materials are peculiarly de- serving of the attention of enterprising capitalists, as their manufacture in the province would be attended with the double advantage of rendering them available as a source of national wealth as well as individual profit, and of giving employment to an industrious and intelligent class of population. The knowledge we possess of the mineral wealth of Cana- da, imperfect as it necessarily is, from the vast extent of unexplored and partially explored territory, as well as from the recent date at which public attention began to be di- rected to the subject, is nevertheless sufficiently accurate to admit of a certain classification and arrangement, and the geographical distribution of the various useful minerals has been ascertained with considerable accuracy. For much or nearly all of this knowledge we are indebted to Sir Wil- liam Logan, the Provincial Geologist, and his coadjutors, who have devoted themselves assiduously, (under the liberal patronage of the Provincial Government,) during nearly twenty years to the investigation of the Geology of Cana- da; and whose labors have not only conferred incalculable benefit on the country, but procured for themselves a world- wide re|)Utiition. In order to illustrate our remarks upon the mineral productions of Canada, we shall give a slight sketch of the geological structui'e of the country as ascer- tained by the provincial geologists. aEOLOGICAL STRUCTURE OF CANADA IN RELATION TO ITS USEFUL MINERALS. The oldest geological formation in Canada, styled by Sir William Logan the Laurentian system, occupies all the ir lO MINERAL RESOURCES OF BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. 311 northern and portions of the central divisions of the pro* vince, extending over an area of about 150,000 square miles, and composed of various hard rocks, such as gneiss and white crystaline limestone ; the total thickness of this formation in Canada is probably not less than 20,000 feet. These rocks consist of highly altered strata, in which no positive and unequivocal traces of organic life have been as yet detected; and which have been bent, twisted and tilted up at all angles, and in some j.laces invaded by masses of intrusive rock. Among the useful minerals peculiarly characteristic of this formation, the ores of iron are the most important, being found in interstratified layers or beds in quantities which may be regarded as inexhausti- ble and of exceedingly rich quality. Veins of lead and copper also, cutting the stratification, occur in the formation, especially at or near its junction with the next succeeding system of rocks; plumbago and mica abound, and phos- l^hate of lime and sulphate of bary tes are of frequent occur- rence. The Laurentian limestones furnish marbles of very excellent quality, together with a great variety of materials applicable to ornamental purposes. The Huronian system, the next in ascending ovder, is wanting in the eastern and central parts of Canada, but at- tains a great development on the northern shores of Lake Huron and parts of Lake Superior; occupying a linear ex- tent of about 400 miles, and consisting of slates, altered sandstones, limestones and conglomerates, associated with heavy masses and dykes of trap ; the total thickness is esti- mated at about 18,000 feet. This system constitutes what has been called the lower copper-bearing rocks of the lake region ; the ore occuning sometimes disseminated among the slates, but more frequently in quartz veins intersecting them. These deposits of copper ore have formed, for many years back, the object of mining operations ; and there can be no doubt that this region contains metallic treasures "'''i"'1j W""** i ' W^. '' -v« Jl 312 MINERAL RESOURCES OF BIUTISH NORTH AMERICA. which will one day become the source of great wealth to Canada. In addition to copper, silver and nickel occur in this formation in quantities which promise to be of econ- omic importance. Agates, jasper and other varieties of pre- cious stones are of frequent occurrence, and the jasper con- glomerate, which abounds in this region, affords a beautiful material, which will be found applicable to many purposes of decorative construction. The upper copper-bearing rocks, including the well- known rich deposits on the south shore of Lake Superior, have recently been discovered to have their equivalents in what has been denominated the Quebec Group, in the eastern part of the province ; consisting of altered and highly dislocated and disturbed limestone and sandstone strata, belonging to the inferior part of the Lower Silurian system, and extending in a belt varying from twenty to sixty miles wide, from the borders of Lake Champlain eastward to nearly the extreme point of Gasp6. This important region, which occupies an area of over 15,000 square miles, is a portion of the great metalliferous formation of North Ameri- ca, which includes the well-known mining regions of the Appalachian chain from Canada to Tennessee, as well as those of Missouri and the Lake Superior region. Although this fact has but recently been recognized, many valuable discoveries of copper and other metals have already been made in the eastern townships of Co,nada, and at other points comprised within the region specified. In addition to the metals, it abounds in roofing slates of excellent quality, besides many beautiful varieties of serpentine, marble, soap- stone, whetstones, ochres, &e. The central portion of the province, comprising the re- gion bordering on the north shore of Lake Ontnrio, and ex tending over an area of about 7,000 square miles, is under laid by rocks of the Lower Silurian age, which are com- paratively unaltered, both as regards position and chemical MINERAL HESOUIICKS CF BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. 313 composition. They are for the most part hidden under thick deposits of drift clay, and have hitherto produced no im- portant discoveries of the metals ; but it is worthy of re- mark that it is in limestone rocks of corresponding age and condition that the extensive deposits of lead in Wisconsin and Iowa occur. The limestones of this region, besides con- tributing materially to its agricultural value, furnish excel- lent building and paving materials ; and in many places beds of hydraulic limestone are found, and a superior description of lithographic stone maybe obtained in unlimited quantity. The rocks of the western peninsula are of Upper Silurian and Devonian age ; and furnish, by their decomposi'^ion, the materials for the rich and fertile soils by which this part of the province is distinguished, and rendered so invaUuible for agricultural purposes. The most important mineral pro- ducts of the rocks of this region are gypsum, hydraulic lime and petroleum. The superficial deposits, all over the country, furnish abundant materials for the manufacture of bricks, tiles and every description of coarse pottery. Shellmarls occur in many places, and constitute a valuable manure. Bog iron ore is also found in great quantities, and at several points has been made available in the manufacture of iion of an excellent quality. Beds of ochre exist in many localities, and considerable areas in the eastern part of the province are covered by marshes yielding abundance of peat, which must in time become most valuable for fuel. CATALOGUE OF U8EFCL MINERALS FOUND IN CANADA. It will be impossible, within the limits prescribed to us, to give more than a general and cursory account of the useful minerals of Canada ; and with respect to many of them we must confine ourselves to a bare enumeration. As the basis of our remarks, we shall adopt the classification given by Sir William Logan ; reproducing, in an abridged form, the I ^ ;.# s 1»«fi?r ^ rtswcwT '! S 814 MINERAL BESOURCBS OF BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. index to the elaborate and valuable " Descriptive CaMlogues of the Eco:iomic Minerals of Canada^'' prepared by him for the Great Exhibitions of 1851 and 1862; and omitting such as are either common to most other countries, or of limited application in the arts, together with such as appear to be of rare occurrence in Canada. We shall then enter upon a more particular account of such as are of special interest or importance, giving such details as may serve to elucidate their nature, mode of occurrence and value, and the extent to which they have been developed. METALS AND THEIR ORES. Iron. Magnetic, specular, bog and titaniferous. Zinc and Lead. Sulphurets, (blende and galena.) Copper. Native, pyritous, variegated and vitreous sulphurets. Nickel and Cobalt. Sulphurets. Silver. Native, and associated with galena and copper ore. Gold. Native ; in superficial deposits and in veins. MINERALS APPLICABLE TO CHEMICAL MANUFACTURES. Chromium. In chromic iron ore, for forming chromate of potash, &c. Manganese. In iron ore, and as earthy peroxide, for bleach- ing and decolorizing agents. Iron Pyrites. For manufacture of copperas and sulphur MINERAL FAINTS. Iron Ochres. All varieties of color ; very abundant. Sulphg.te of Baryta. For manufacture of permanent white, &c. Steatite. Soapstone, used both as a paint and a refractory stone. MATERIALS APPLICABLE TO THE ARTS. Liihoaraphic Stone, Mica, Moulding Sand, Fuller^ s Earth MINERAL RESOURCES OF BRITISH KOBTH AMERICA. 315 MATERIALS APPLICABLE TO JEWELRT. Agates, Jasper, Labradonte, Sunstone, Hyacinth, Oriental Rubies, Sapphires^ Amethysts^ Ribboned Chert, (for cameos,) Jet. MATERIALS FOR GLASS MAKING. White Quartzose Sandstone, Pitchstone, Basalt^ &c. REFRACTORY MATERIALS. Soapstone, Pipestone, Asbestos, /Sandstone, Plumbago, Fire-clay. MINERAL MANURES. Phosphate of Lime, Gypsum, Shellmarl. GRINDING AND POLISHING MATERIAL. Millstones, Grindstones, Whetstones. MATERIALS FOR COMMON AND DECORATIVE CONSTRUCTION. Granite, Sandstone, Limestone, Hydraulic Limestone, Roofing Slates, Flagstones, Marbles, (iu great variety of colors,) Serpentines, Clays for brick and iih making and coarse pottery. COMBUSTIBLE MATERIALS. Peat, Petroleum, and Asphalt. In the notices which we shall proceed to give of the pro- gress of development of the various minerals under their respective heads, it is to be understood that the date to which this account is brought up is the early part of the year 1862. IRON ORES. The iron ores of Canada, with the exception of the bog ores, which are distributed over many parts of the province, are chiefly found associated, as we before remarked, with the Laurentian rocks, in which they occur in prodigious quan- tities, and generally in beds lyins: conformably with the %>ih\ < |! ~ 316 MINERAL RESOURCES OF BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. stratification. Most of these beds are of very great extent and thickness, and of excel'ent quality, yielding sixty to seventy per cent, of pure iron ; and although the want of mineral fuel operates as a very serious obstacle to the de- velopment of this branch of industry, they have been par- tiallv worked in a few places. Ac the Hull mine, situated about five miles above Ottawa City, the bed is about 90 feet in thickness, containing be- tween 60 and 70 per cent, of metallic iron, and is of vast though unknown extent. At the lowest estimate this de- posit is calculated to contain not less than 250,000,000 tons of iron. The Crosby mine, situated on the Rideau canal, is on a bed 200 feet thick, and its yield over the same extent of ground would amount to double that above-mentioned ; a quantity which, at the present rate of production, would afford employment for the whole mining force of Great Britain' and the United States for a century. In the township of Marmora, where iron works have been estnblished and smelting done to a limited extent, the beds are in the aggregate about 150 feet in thickness, and by the same method of computation may be estimated to contain 100,000,000 tons ; and at two other known loca- tions which have been partially opened up, the probable contents may amount to 150,000,000 tons; thus making, for the five localities specified, an aggregate of 1,000,000,- 000 tons. A'^ast quantities of iron ore have recently been discovered in the neighborhood of Lake Nipissing, and it is certain that as the whole region overlaid by the Lauren- tian rocks becomes settled, many additional localities of the material will be discovered. It is thus evident that the supply of iron ore in Canada may be regarded as practically inexhaustible. As regards the quality of the ore, and natural fixcilities for working and transportation, these are unsurpassed by MINERAL RESOURCES OF BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. 317 any country in the world. The ore consists chiefly, in the locaHties referred to, of the magnetic oxide of iron, wliich is the same species, and occurring in the same geological formation, with those of Sweden and Norway, from which the celebrated Swedish Iron is made. There is therefore every reason to believe that if treated in a similar way, it will produce an equally good material for the manufacture of steel and the finer descriptions of iron work. The ore-beds occurring immediately at the surface can be wrought with comparatively little labor, and many of the most promising are situated near the banks of navigable rivers and canals. The extensive scale on which iron smelting works must necessarily be conducted, and the large capital involved, together with the want of mineral fuel and expense of labor, have hitherto operated as obstructions to the develop- ment of this branch of industry in Canada ; while the low price of iron imported from the mother country renders it doubtful whether, in present circumstances, it would re- pay the cost of manufacturing. It is, however, in the highest degree satisfactory to know that this country pos- sesses within itself such vast stores of a material indispensa- ble to the comfort and progress of mankind, and which can be made available when circumstances render its ajpplica- tion expedient or necessary. It is a remarkable and somewhat anomalous fact, how- ever, that in the British provinces in North America, iron smelting and some other branches of industry, received a larger share of attention half a century ago than they do at the present day. This is probably to be accounted for from the application of the modern system of division of labor, which tends to restrict the industry of countries, as well as individuals, to those branches only which are supposed to form their staple productions, or to which nature and custom are conceived to have best adapted them. Several years ago iron works were established, and smelt- IK f .^ :| .+n^r M .;tr. I l|>M ||;1| it«| i 1:1 H ^' ' 11; m ! I! J18 MINERAL RESOURCES OF BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. ing carried on for some time, on the rich magnetic oxides in the townships of Marmora and Madoc in the county of Hastings ; the produce was a very superior quality of man- ufactured iron ; but owing chiefly to the want of roads, dis- tance from markets, &c., they have been found unprofitable, and abandoned in the meantime. We have no statistics of the production of these works. Of late years a trade has sprung up, to a limited extent, in the exportation of the iron ores of Hull and Crosby to the smelting establishments of Pittsburgh, Penn. ; which can be done with profit when taken as return freight by the vessels carrying the agricul- tural products of the West down the St. Lawrence. The ore is worth from $5 to .$6 per ton at the furnaces, and can be put on board at Kingston for $2.25. From the Hull mine about 8,000 tons have been thus forwarded since 1855, and from that of South Crosby, which is more conveniently situated as regards proximity to the shipping port, the ex- ports up to the year 1860 are stated at 6,000 tons. Besides the magnetic oxides, specular iron ore abounds in many localities in Canada, both in the Laurentian and Lower Silurian groups of rocks, and red hematite or car- bonate of iron is also of not unfrequent occurrence. About fifty years ago, these descriptions of ores were mined for smelting purposes in the neighborhood of Furnace Falls in Landsdowne, but the works being found unprofitable at the time, were abandoned. Red hematite was formerly quar- ried in the township of Brome, Canada East, of such superior quality as to be found worthy of transportation a distance of about 180 miles to be smelted. A great extent of rich hematite has recently been discovered upon one of the islands in Lake Nipissing. Titaniferous iron ore is very abundant in Lower Canada, chiefly in the Eastern townships and at Bay St. Paul, but it is doubtful whether it can be rendered available for the manufacture of iron, owing to the presence of the MINERAL RESOUECE8 OF BRmSH NORTH AMERICA. 319 titanium which is difficult to separate, but which prol/ably may in the progress of the arts become itself a valuable product. The deposit at Lay St. Paul, which is ninety feet thick, and is traceable for about a mile, contains 4:8.60 of oxide of titanium. The bog iron ores, which are found so extensively dif- fused throughout Canada, have been in a few instances the object of manufacturing industry. These ores occur in patches from three to twenty -four inches thick, on the sur- face, generally in the neighborhood of swampy lands, and consist of hydrated oxide of iron combined with an acid de- rived from vegetable decomposition ; their yield of metallic iron is usually from forty to iifty per cent. The St. Maurice forges at Three Rivers, in Lower Canada, which have been in operation for upwards of a century, employ ex- clusively this description of ore, which is found in great abundance in the immediate neighborhood ; and have pro- duced largely both of cast and wrought iron of a very superior quality. This establishment, which at one time employed from 250 to 300 hands, is now discontinued ; but the business is carried on vigorously at the Radnor forgrs in Batiscan, where the .ore and fuel are abundant. Tlie chief manufacture here consists of cast-iron car- wheels; and recently a rolling mill has been erected, which produces railroad and other descriptions of fine iron. The quantity of ore annually used at these works is be- tween 4,000 and 5,000 tons, producing about 2,000 tons of pig iron ; and the number of workmen varies from 200 to 400. In Upper Canada, v.i iron smelting work, in which the bog ores were employed, was erected and carried on for sometime in the county of Norfolk, on the shore of Lake Erie, but is now abandoned, and no statistics of the pro- duction of this work have, so far as we are aware, been preserved. The excellent quality of the iron produced from the bog ores of Canada is remarkable, inasmuch as these invariably contain a notable quantity of phosphorus, .ijiiii***''- ll -\~M- mi Vh J r'lr 320 MINERAL RE80CRCE8 OF BRITIBH NORTH AMERICA. which is generally, although, as it appears, erroneously, supposed to be highly prejudicial to the iron. ZINC AND LEAD. Hitherto no available deposits of zinc ore have been discovered in Canada, although this metal is known to exir^t at many places, and may yet become of economic importance. Blende, or the sulphuret of zinc, is found associated \vith copper in considerable proportion at Pointe aux Mines, on Lake Supenor, and it is also fouiu:l wich galena at several points in the eastern townships. Deposits of zinc ores must be large and favorably situated in order to be worked with profit, and the sulphuret is not the most valuable ore ; its occurrence in Canada, therefore, can only be regarded as important in so far as it may lead, as in other countries, to the discovery of the more useful ore, calamine. The officers of the geological survey have reported the occurrence of galena, in many localities in Canada. The most important is that now known as the Ham say lead mine, in the county of Lanark, 0. W. Here the rock intersected by the vein, which is of calc-spar, is an arenaceous limestone, or dolomite, belonging to that di- vision of the lower Silurian series known in New York State and in Canada as the calciferous sand-rock. Mining operations have been prosecuted with some success, and have established beyond a doubt the important facts, that the ore exists in true veins, which may be depended upon for persistence in depth, and that its quality is most excellent, producing eighty per cent, of metallic lead. Up- wards of thirty tons of ore of this produce have been ob- tained, and smelting works have been erected to reduce the ore ; but the enterprise has languished from want of sufiicient capital to carry on the work efiiciently. It is expected that in the course of the present season (18G2), these mines will be worked by a powerful company, and with good prospects of success. At other locations iu tho I — MINEBAX, KE801TRCEB OF BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. 321 Bame district of country, as in the townships of Bedford and Lansdowne, other veins have been discovered, hold- ing a nearly uniform course, and which appear to be con- nected with the well-known lead lo les of Hossie, in St. Lawrence county, New York. Trial shafts have been sunk on many of these veins, and with good prospects of a successful result. Galena is known to exist at several points in the Quebec group of rocks, stretching from Lake Cham]>lain to Gaspe ; but it is as yet uncertain whether it occurs at any place in sufficient quantity to be remunerative. At Lidian Cove, in Gaspe, a lead vein has been partially explored, and has yielded about six tons of sixty per cent. ore. Gale la has also been found in occasional bunches in the Niagara limestone rocks, skirting the head of Lake Onta- rio, and various attempts have been made to explore and work them ; but no vein of any considerable importance has yet been discovered here. COPPER. This valuable metal undoubtedly constitutes the most important of the mineral treasures of Canada, and is des- tined to occupy a prominent rank among the resources of the country. The ores of copper are found to be dis- tributed abundantly over large tracts of country in the western and eastern extremities of the province, their existence having been known in the former case for nearly two centuries, while in the latter, notwitiistandii\g its being a much more populous and accessible region, it has only been brought to light within the last few years. The Laurentian rocks have not hitherto been found to yiel ? any great deposits of copper ore, although veins of the sulphurets have been traced in this formation which may lead to more important discoveries. Copper mining in, the lake region. In the western part of the province, the Iluronian rocks, occupying the whole I i* k < t' Sh-:M i: i 322 MINERAL RESOURCES OF BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. northern flank of Lake Huron, and parts of Lake Superior, are traversed by numerous and powerful cupriferous veins, which have formed the object of mining enterprise for many years. The attention of travellers was attracted to the rich copper ores of this region as far back as the middle of the seventeenth century ; and in 1770 a company was actu- ally formed by some enterprising Englishmen to work copper mines on the north shores of Lake Superior ; but owing to the remoteness and inaccessible nature of the coun- try, it was found impracticable to continue operations for any lengthened period. In 184:5, when the excitement conse- quent upon the great discoveries of copper on the south shore of Lake Superior was at its height, similar mining sJiemes were instituted on the Canadian side, and com-* panics were formed in Montreal, Quebec, and various other Canadian cities, who with praiseworthy zeal, though questionable discretion, sent armies of explorers and miners into the field, equipped in the most extravagant style, and who certainly obtained abundance of ore, but at a cost greatly above its value. The consequence of these rash and imprudent proceedings was that most of the companies speedily abandoned their operations, after the irretrievable loss of large sums of money ; and witli those wlio have continued in the business till the present time, the debts thus incurred have proved a severe drag upon their subsequent more cautious proceedings. The Montreal Mining Company have prosecuted their works till this ti nu?, and with tolerable success, at the Bruce Mine, located on the shores of Lake Huron, where a group of cop- per-bearing quartz lodes are found intersecting greenstone rocks. On a careful examination instituted by Sir Wm. Logan, in 1848, it was found that about 3,000 square fathoms of the lodes would contain six and a half per cer.t. of cop- per. The average annual produce of this mine during the fourteen years of its existence has been about 700 tons, of 18 to 20 per cent. The deepest working is 60 fathoms from the surface ; the mine employs about 84 hands. lH:. ■mi w^ii«»«j»v».»=-v HI a-;»'i MINERAL KES0UBCE8 OF BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. 323 About four years ago the Montreal Mining Company leased one of their locations, the " Wellington Mine," to a private English company, who have worked it with great vigor and success. The lodes here are apparently con- tinuations of those found on the Bruce location, and are extremely powerful and productive. The quantity of ore obtained at this mine since 1857 is about 6.000 tons of twenty per cent., and it is said to yield twenty-five per cent, on the capital invested. The same company have alsD recently opened on an adjoining location, which is owned by the Huron Copper Bay Company, and have discovered very valuable deposits ; this mine being reported to have yielded during 1861 not less than 1,300 tons of twenty per cent. ore. The number of men on the Wel- lington and Copper Bay Mines is supposed to be about 265. All the ore raised by this company is sent to Britain. Smelting works have been established in connection with the Bruce Mines, the coal being supplied at a nominal rate of freight by the vessels which are sent to carry the produce of the south shore mines. These works have not hitherto been brought into successful operation, but if skilfully and economically conducted, they cannot fail to be of great advantage to the mining interests of this region. The aggregate produce of the three Lake Huron copper mines for 1861 is about 3,000 tons, worth about $250,000, a considerable addition to the exports of the country from one small port, but a mere fraction of what might be done, should the government provide efficient steam communication with the upper lakes. The ores of the Lake Huron copper region are entirely Bulphurets, yellow, variegated, and vitreous — no native copper being found. This form of the metal is, however, found in considerable quantity at Maimanse, Michipicoten island, and various other points on the north shore of Lake Superior ; and it is quite possible that these regions iwy ultimately prove as favorable for the production of copper as the far-famed " south shore." 21 !lPl ■ii> iiii> r.i ! .!■ 32i: MINERAL EES0URCE8 OF BKITISH NORTH AMERICA. Copper mining in Canada East. We have already re- marked that the rocks of the Lake Superior mining region have their geological equivalents in the Quebec group in Lower Canada, and accordingly we find them character- ized by similar features as regards their metallic contents. It is only within the last ten years that the existence of copper ores has been recognized in the eastern part of the province, and the discovery of their economic importance is of still more recent date. So far as hitherto observed, the deposits occur most abundantly, and in greatest rich- ness, in the highly altered and disturbed strata constituting the mountainous and picturesque region of the eastern townships, extending from the province line, near the head of Lake Champlain, in a north-easterly direction as far as Quebec, and occupying a breadth of forty-nve or fifty miles. They occur chiefly in beds subordinate to the stratification of the chloritic and micaceous slates, and asso- ciated dolomitic limestones of the metamorphic lower Si- lurian age, which are tilted to a high angle; and the most valuable deposits are found where these strata appear to have been fissured or otherwise disturbed, and the openings subsequently filled with ore. In some cases, also, veins, occur cutting the stratification at small angles, and these give promise of being permanently reliable mines. The ores are generally of an unusually rich character, and are found in such variety as, by their mixture, to give great fa- cilities for smelting. During the last two years (1860 and 1861), much activ- ity has prevailed in prosecuting the search for valuable minerals in the region in question, chiefly by individual enterprise or by Fmall companies. Surface explorations have been made over a very largo tract of country, and in several instances actual mining operations have been com- menced, and the results so i'ar have proved highly encour- aging. Deposits of the sulphnrets of copper, more or less promising, have been found to exist on upwards of 150 distinct \oU, in various townships. On nine or ten loca- MmERAL RESOURCES OF BRITISir NORTH AMERICA. 325 tions, at great distances apart, trial shafts have been sunk to a considerable depth, and in as many instances large sums have been expended in costeening and trenching; and in almost p.ll cases the deposits, when traced in depth, have been found to improve in all the qualities requisite for permanent and profitable mining. All that seems wanting in order to establish the character of this promis- ing mining region is the expenditure, at varioils well se- lected points, of a moderate capital judiciously and eco- nomically applied. These mines are very well situated as regards transportation of the ores to market, the whole district being traversed by railways, and at no point very distant from water conveyance. The only copper mines in Lower Canada which have as yet produced much ore for the market are the Acton and Harvey Hill mines. At Acton, in Bagot county, the ore, which is associated with a dolomitic limestone, in conse- quence apparently of complicated dislocations of the strata, occurs at the surface, in a series of bunches of exceeding richness, which have now for che most part been extracted by open quarrying ; but on tracing this ore in depth, the bunches appear to be connected with regular veins which afford promise of being permanently productive, although by a different and more satisfactory mode of working. In the absence of full official returns, it may be safely esti- mated that the Acton mine has, up to the close of the year 1861, produced not less than 6,000 tons of ore, averaging seventeen per cent, produce, and worth about $100,000, at a cost probably about one-sixth of that sum.* This mine gave employment in 1861 to between 500 and 600 hands ; and although its character as a good mine for permanent * Since writing the above, it has been ascertained tliat the total value of ore obtained at the Acton Mine, within tliree years after it was opened, was $•190,000. " It is believed that the history of mining in America aCTords no parallel to this. In the majority of cases where copper mines have proved ultimately profltable, it is only after the consumption of much time and the investment of a largo amount of capital that any returns have been realized." — Dr. jMlcson^s Report on the Acton Mine, 18G2. h' I ' ^il t^i'-l ' 32 G MENEKAL RESOURCES OF BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. .iiid profitable working has been seriously injured by an im*nrl5f>''ous system of development, it is certain that the o^(^ ' ill very far from being exhausted. At the Harvey Hill mine in Leeds (the property of the English and Canadian Mining Co.), the works have been ])ro8ecuted during the past three years with much skill and vigor, in opposition to many and formidable difficulties, which seem at length likely to be crowned with merited suc- cess. The ore, which consists of the pyri tons, variegated, and vitreous varieties, here occurs both in rich bunches in a series of quartz courses of considerable though limited extent, cutting the stratification at small angles, and in a more diffused state in beds or bands coinciding therewith ; and is attacked and extracted by regular and systematic under- ground operations. The principal adit, when complete, will cut all the courses at a depth of thirty-seven fathoms from the summit of the hill, and will be 250 fathoms in length. In order to save expense in transportation to market, the ore is concentrated by dressing to thirty-five per cent, or upwards. In opening up this mine, from §80,000 to $100,000 have already been expended, and during the past year it lias produced about 130 tons of thirty-five per cent, ore, worth about $18,000, and the to- tal produce from the commencement may be estimated at about $60,000.* The number of men employed is about sixty ; the, produce of this mine is all sent to England. An experiment is now in process of trial at the Harvey Hill mine for concentrating the poorer ores from the beds, &c., by Henderson's patent process, which, if successful, as there is every probability it will be, will add greatly to the value of this, as well as all other copper mining prop- erty in Canada. The Ascot Mine, near Sherbrooke, opened in the fall of * From a return made by Mr. Williams, at the close of the year 18G2, wo find that the total quantity of ore shipped to England was 322 tons of 35 per cent., besides about 2000 tons of poorer ore averaging 3^ per cent, then on the ground. MINERAL RESOURCES OF BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. 327 1801, has in five months produced about 100 tons of eight or nine per cent, ore, with very little cost for working. This mine has been opened on a twist in the stratification of the chloritic and slaty limestone of the country, whicli appears to have folded the copper-bearing bed upon itself, g;iving three courses of ore in the breadth of eighty feet. The ore-bearing bed, which is at one place about eight feet thick, carries the yellow sulphui'et of copper disseminated throughout the mass, and is simply brokem up and l^arrelled for market without any special dressing. The total depth reached is about seven fathoms, and the beds seem to in- crease in richness as they are traced in depth. The rock is mined with unusual facility; the ore has hitherto been sent chiefly to the Boston sinelting works, where it is much prized for its valuable fluxing qualities. At other mining locations in the townships of Sutton, Melbourne, Durham, Wickham, and Upton, and in the Seignory of Lotbiniere, some progress has been made in the extraction of ore, the total value of which may be esti- mated at $8,000 ; but these operations must be regarded as only preliminary, this branch of industry being as yet quite in its infancy ; and it is a highly gratifying feature in these mines, that the ore incidentally obtained in test- ing them frequently sufiices to defray the expense. As regards the comparative advantages of mining in Canada and in England, we have to remark, that although at present the expenses both of labor and transportation are considerably greater in Canada, tliese evils may be ex- pected to cure themselves as soon as mining becomes an " institution" among us — the first by the immigration of Cornish hands, and the latter by the erection of smelting furnaces, or other means of concentrating the ores, at or near the mines, or at the nearest coal country in British North America, — Nova Scotia, — which must in time occupy the same position with regard to the mining region of Lower Canada that South Wales holds with respect to Cornwall. As an an- pie set-off to these present disadvantages, we may I ¥1 328 MINERAL RESOURCES OF BRITISH NORTH AMKRIOA. mention tlie greatly superior richness of the ores in Canada, their greater proximity to the surface, dispensing with much costly machinery for pumping, &c., and abundance of wood for timbering and for fuel. Tlie mining adventurers in some instances purchase the land with the minerals, but in general the mode of tenure is by lease of the minerals only for a considerable term of years, with payment of a royalty. The extraor- dinary success of the Acton Mines, and the excitement consequent upon the novelty of the discoveries, at first rendered the proprietors jm'" '( 'JS£^h| ;-Jr; 1 n "i '■ill 334 MINEllAL liESOCRCES OF BRITISH NOKTH AMERICA. adulteratinp; white lead, occurs abundantly at Baryta Island, in Lake Superior ; and also in the townships of Bedford, Bastard, Lansdowne, and McNab ; it forms, in conjunction with calc-spar, the gangue of many of the metallic veins, chiefly those of galena. At one place in the township of Bastard, as described by Mr, Murray, assistant provincial geologist, these minerals constitute a vein traceable for a quarter of a mile in length, with a breadth of twenty -eight inches, consisting in some places al- most entirely of pure crystallized sulphate of barytes, yield- ing about ten tons per fathom. The value of the crude mate- rial is said to be $8 to $10 per ton to the manufacturer, while the manufactured article is worth $30 per ton. STEATITE OR SOAPSTONE. This mineral, which is composed of silica and magnesia, possesses many valuable aiid useful properties. It is soft and unctuous to the touch, capable of being worked into any required shape by common carpenters' tools, and is little aifected by exposure to intense heat or strong acids. In Canada it is used occasional!}'- as a refractory stone, and is found in beds of twenty and thirty feet thick re- spectively, in the townships of Sutton and Bolton, associ- ated with serpentine and dolomite. It also exists in the townships of Leeds and Stanstead, where it is ground and employed as a paint. LITHOGRAPHIC STONE. A species of limestone belonging to the period of the lower Silurian formation, and occurring in the township of Marmora, in the vicinity of the iron-works already men- tioned, is found to be exceedingly well adapted to the pur- poses of lithography, and attracted much attention and commendation at the Great Exhibition in London in 1851, although hitherto no attempt has been made to quarry it for use. The bed from which this valuable material is de- rived is of great lineal extent and about two feet in thick- I I ,; MINERAL KE80UBCE8 OF BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. 335 ness, and is distinguished for its perfect homogeneity^ close- ness and compactness of texture, and other excellent qualities for the purpose referred to. Another locality of this material, in the upper Silurian rocks, has recently been discovered in Canada West, near Walkerton, Brant count}', where not less than fifteen beds of limestone, ad- mirably adapted for this purpose, occur in a thickness of nine feet. Good lithographic stone is said to be worth about seven cents per pound. MICA. This remarkable mineral is found in great abundance and of extreme purity in some parts of Canada, and has been to a limited extent applied to economic purposes. " The cleavable character of mica," says Sir William Lo- gan, " its transparency, its elasticity and refractory nature, render it valuable for several purposes, the more impor- tant of which relate to it as a substitute for glass for ships' windows, and in some countries for house windows, for stove fronts, and such like applications. For the latter purpose it is greatly used in North America. The price at which plates of five by seven inches sell in Montreal is about a dollar the pound." Sir William further states that the Canadian mica attracted so much notice at the French Exposition in 1855, as to induce inquiries by an artist in Paris, who stated that he could use about 12,000 lbs. annually. He could afford to pay the following prices for square plates of it, according to size : From 3J inches to 5J inches $34.00 per 100 lbs. " 5| " 7| " 40.00 " " 7| " " " 46.75 " " »| " » " 53.57 " In Grenville, on the Ottawa River, where the mineral is found in great quantity, but in patches imbedded in massive pyroxenic rock in contact with a bed of crystalline limestone, crystals of mica have been oh ained giving sheets measuring twenty-four by fourteen inches. At another ,»^W"'- I' \ i> 330 MINERAL RESOURCES OF BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. locality in the township of North Burgess, near the Kideau Canal, the mineral is found in regular veins, or rather bands, running parallel with each other at no great distance apart, some of which are as much as four feet in width, and can be traced for seventy-five yards in length. These deposits havp yielded good plates, which when dressed measure twenty by thirty inches; the average size, however, varies from three to ten inches square, of which great quantities can be obtained in this locality. At present the demand for mica is rather limited, but there can be no doubt that a material possessing such re- markable and valuable properties must, in the progress of the arts, and when its abundant supply is established, find many economic applications. In addition to the uses mentioned above, it has recently been much employed in photographic manipulations, and for the manufacture of stable and other lanterns ; and large flakes are eagerly sought after by optical instrument makers, for dials for ships' compasses. A flake one inch thick can be divided into the astonishing number of 2,000 sheets. Recently a new field has been opened up, by a patent process for the application of mica, previously colored or metallized, to the decorating of churches, rooms, shops, and other ornamental and useful purposes. The mica from its unalterable nature, preserves the gilding, silver- ing, or coloring from deterioration, and from its transpa- rency the articles so treated will preserve all their bril- liancy. The value of mica depends upon the size of the sheets and their transparency. In the London market, to which Canada has supplied about two tons, of the total net value of £450 sterling, the Canadian mica is not so much esteemed as that from Calcutta, which commands from two shillings sixpence to four shillings per lb., while tlie Ca- "nadian will rarely exceed two shillings. The location in North Burgess, mentioned above, has supplied the only mica hitherto exported from Canada, so far as we are aware. ! £ MmEBAL RESOURCES OF BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. 337 PLUMBAGO, OR GRAPHITE. The crystalline limestones of the Lanrentian system, and some of the lower members of the Silurian system, are marked by the occurrence of this mineral in many cases, diffu'sed in small scales and flakes ; but sometimes in sufficient aggregation to be economically available. The chief locality where it seems to occur in workable quan- tities, is in the townships bordering the north bank of the Ottawa river, below Ottawa City. A bed of tolerably pure graphite has been partially worked in the township of Grenville ; it has been traced at intervals for a distance of about three miles, and shows on the surface a thickness of ten inches ; but the purer portions of the band appear to form lenticular masses, which cannot be depended upon for continuous working, and, consequently, may not be found profitable in mining. This, so far as hitherto as- certained, seems to be the character of the deposits of graphite generally throughout Canada. At the present time it is essential to the commercial value of this mate- rial, that it should be almost free from gritty or stony par- ticles ; but economical methods of purifying it will doubt- less be applied at an early day, and will secure a regular market for the Canadian ulumbago, some of which is found in a state of great purity, and is worth from eighty to one hundred dollars per ton. The chief apj^lications of this material are for the manufacture of crucibles for brass- founders, for glazing gunpowder, blacking stoves, &c., and for diminishing friction in heavy machinery. Processes have recently been patented in England, by Messrs. Brockedon and Brodie, for the purification of ordinary plumbago, so as to render it fit for the manufacture of black-lead pencils. These have been ascertained to be successfully applicable to the Canadian article, and will thus render the mining of this valuable mineral, on an ex- tensive scale, well worthy of attention. We are not aware 'jn i i4J 338 MINERAL RESOURCES OF BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. thilt any considerable quantity of plumbago has yet been produced in Canada. MINERAL MANURES.— PHOSPHATE OF LIME.— GYPSUM.— SHELL-MARL Apatite or Phosphate of Lime. — This mineral, the con- stuuent elements of which form the base of animal bones, is found in great abundance in the Laurentian rocks of Canada; and although not hitherto brought into very gen- eral use as an artificial manure, is plentifully distributed by the hand of nature from the debris of the rocks among the soils, contributing no doubt very materially to their fertil- ity and value. Its occurrence in rocks of such primitive geo- logical age, points to the existence of animal life at a period vastly earlier than the received geological theories admit. The mineral phosphate of lime has for some years back attracted considerable attention, both in England and the United States, as a substitute for guano and bone-dust. So important is the substance deemed, that the British government sent commissioners to Estremadura in Spain, where the mineral is found, for the purpose of arranging for its importation into England ; but the result was that it did not appear to exist in sufficient quantity ; so that the only mineral phosphate now used by the agriculturists in England is obtained from the crag on the coast of Suffolk. This, however, is very impure, containing nmch carbonate of lime and other earthy matters ; while the mineral ])hos- phate found in Canada is nearly in a pure, and much of it in a crystallized state. Although it has not yet been mined to any considerable extent, sufficient has been as- certained with regard to its mode of occurrence to render it certain that it can be obtained in very great quantities, and it may be hoped that it will supersede the use of bones, of which probably not less than £400,000 or £500,- 000 worth are annually imported into England. Besides the use of bone-dust for agricultural purposes, several thousand tons of it are annually used in England for the MINERAL KES0URCE8 OF BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. 339 manufacture of china ware, at a cost of from seven pounds to ten pounds per ton. Probably the mineral phosphate might be successfully applied as a substitute for this pur- pose also. As a manure it has been actually applied to the land with great success ; but a good and cheap method of decomposing it, previous to applying it to the soil, is Btill a desideratum. The usual mode of applying it as a manure, is to grind the mineral to powder, and treat with coarse sulphuric acid ; about two-thirds of the phosphate is thus at once liberated, and enters into combination with the soil, while the remaining third will act upon the ground the ensuing year, by becoming soluble by natural agencies. This mineral is found very extensively distributed among the Laurentian rocks, both in detached nodules and in crystals ; but the most important locality of its oc- currence hitherto discovered is in the township of South Burgess, whe;-*^ it forms a massive bed of unknown though evidently very great dimensions, which has been quarried to a small extent. Another deposit in the adjoining town- ship of Elmsley, but which, from the direction of the beds, seems to be in the same band, has also been worked a little, and apparently forms an irregular bed in the Laurentian limestone. This bed has been traced upwards of a mile, and seems to be about ten feet wide, of which three feet are nearly pure crystalline apatite, containing about ninety per cent, of phosphate of lime, the remainder being mixed with the limestone rock, in which, however, the phosphate greatly predominates. The deposit in South Burgess has the great advantage of being very easily quarried, and of being situated immediately upon one of the reaches of the Rideau canal. The mineral is stated to be worth from twenty to thirty dollars per ton in England, the value of course varying according to the percentage of phosphoric acid. When we consider tlie bearing of the phosphate of lime upon the animal and vegetable economy, we must regr.rd the discovery of this substance in such abundance, 22 i \ 'I' ii lb- i: u i: 340 MINEEAL RESOURCES OF BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. and so easily accessible, as one of the most valuable of the sources of wealth which has been added to the country during the last few years. Gypsum. — In regard to this valuable material, the fol- lowing extracts from a lecture delivered by Professor Hind of ToTonto, in 1857, are pertinent and exhaustive: "Tlie vast areas occupied by the rocks yielding gypsum in Western Canada have for many years been regarded as sources of great national wealth. Our gypsiferous rocks extend from the Niagara to the Saugeen, a distance of 150 miles, and have a breadth varying from five to fifteen and even twenty miles. Gypsum has been quarried in the townships of Dumfries, Brantford, Oneida, Cayuga, and others in the valley of the Grand Kiver ; it will probably be found in great abundance in the valley of the Saugeen when that fertile tract of country becomes better known. " Gypsum, or sulphate of lime, is used in the arts for numerous purposes. It is employed by potters for pro- curing moulds with its calcined powder, moistened with a proper quantity of water. The finer kinds are selected for the maimfacture of the alabaster ornaments so much admired. "When properly calcined, and ground to a fine powder, it ie^ largely employed for stucco-work, statues, and statuettes; when mixed with glue or gelatine, colored stuccoes of great hardness and beauty are made from it. It is admirably adapted for taking casts of objects, and is frequently employed for that purpose. "When mixed with alum, borax, or potash, a variety of materials greatly prized in the plastic arts are produced. The subject is one of general interest, aird the vast deposits of gypsum in Canada will no doubt become considerable sources of wealth when the proper time arrirea. "For agricultural purposes the value of gypsum is too well known to require rnuch notice here ; a growing ap- preciation of its worth is shown in the yearly increasing demand, and it is now found for sale in large quantities in most Canadian towns. It i>* a fact ascertained by tlie ex- d la th 3d in ex- A % MINERAL BES0URCE8 OF BRITISU NORTH AMERICA. 341 perience of very many years in France and Germany, and more recently in America, that gypsum, when judiciously applied, sometimes doubles and even trebles the quantity of certain plants usually grown on a given area. A study of the mode and time of applying it, and of the plants most benefited by it, ought not to be lost sight of in Can- ada, where it so largely abounds. The value of the exports from Canada of ground plaster and hydraulic lime shows a steady and important increase. In 1853 it was £1,310 ; in 1S51, £2,017; and in 1855, £19,112." Sir William Logan remarks : " All the gypsum mines at present worked in Canada occur on the Grand River, in a distance of thirty-five miles, extending from Cayuga to Paris. All the mines appear to be confined to one Btratigraphical position in the formation, which is probably about the middle. The mineral occurs in lenticular masses, varyine^ in horizontal diameter from a few yards to a quarter of a mile, with a thickness of from three to seven feet. The layer of gypsum appears to be in general both overlaid and underlaid by beds of dolomite, much of which is fit for the purpose of liydrMulic cement, and the gypsum itself is sometimes interstrat.'fied with thin beds of dolomite. In some parts there appear to be two work- able ranges of gypsum, one a few feet above the other. But this probably is only to be considered as a thickening of the gypsiferous band with an interstratification of a larger mass of dolomite." The business of mining gypsum in Canada, and of pre- paring it for the market, has been in existence for the last fourteen or fifteen years. The following is the amount raised annually from the quarries on the Grand River, according to Sir Wm. Logan's returns : Tons. T. Martindale, Onoida, 3,500 J.Donaldson, " 1,500 A. Taylor, York 3,000 Thompson & Wright, Paris 4,000 J. Browu, Cayuga, 2,000 14,000 I ii I ■jLjtM"'" )'• i 'I**?' '1, i' mm .1 342 MINERAL KESOUBEES OF BRITISH NJRTH AMERICA. The greater part of this gypsum is employed for agricul- tural purposes, and the prices at which it is sold are aa follows : — Per Ton. Plaster, unground $2.00 " ground for agricultural purposes 3.50 — 4.00 " " stucco, raw 5.50 — 7.00 «• « " calcined 16.00 Much of the produce of these mines is sent to be ground and prepared for market by Mr. Brown of Thorold, on the "VVelland Canal, who has for the last fifteen years manu- factured on an average 1,000 tons annually. Shell Marl. Vast deposits of recent shell marl and cal- careous tufa are found in various localities, and in all parts of Canada, too numerous to be here specified. Wherever they occur the land is characterized by a luxuriant vege- tation, and dense growth of hard-wood timber, indicating their extraordinary fertilizing properties on the soil. The deposits of shell marl extend in some instances, as in the township of Sheffield, county of Addington, C. W., about 400 acres, with a thickness over the greater portion of at least ten feet. One of the deposits of calcareous tufa is supposed to extend over more than 1,000 acres, with an average thickness of five feet. HYDRAULIC CEMENT.— ROOFING SLATES. At several points, and in various geological formations m Canada, silicious dolomites occur, which, when carefully calcined and ground, are found to furnish a very superior description of water-lime or cement, which rapidly hardens under, and permanently resists the action of water ; this invaluable property being due to their containing a definite proportion of silicious and magnesian salts associated with the lime. The principal localities where limestones hold- ing the proper admixture of the materials named have been discovered are at Paris, Cayuga, Thorold, Kingbton, and Loughborough in Canada West, and at Nepean or Hull, Quebec, and the Magdalen River in Gaspe, Canada •f 354r MINERAL RESOURCES OF BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. to shipping, and its small value per ton indicates tlie fa- cility vnth which it can be obtained, in a country where wages are high. At otlier parts of the province, as in Cape Breton, verj large deposits of the mineral are found, but not at present worked. IRON. A very extensive and remarkable deposit of iron ore, which promises to be of mucli economic value, occurs, as- sociated with the metamorphic upper Sihirian rocks of the Cobequid hills, in the county of Londonderry. This deposit attracted attention as early as the time when the land on which it occurs was granted by the crown, and it had been brought into notice at various times subsequently. Since 1845 the extent and economical capabilities of this deposit have been discussed by several writers, and it has been opened, and smelting furnaces put in operation by an association of capitalists, under the title of the " Acadia Mine." This enterprise has recently been taken up by a powerful English company. This vein occurs near the junction of the carboniferous and metamorphic series, and runs nearly, although not al- together, with the stratification of the rocks, which are tilted into a vertical position. It contains a great variety of different ores of iron, as magnetic, specular, hetnatite, &c., as well as other minerals ; it is in one place not less than 120 feet in thickness, and has been traced for a dis- tance of seven niles. " The deposit," says Dr. Dawson, " is evidently wedge-shaped, being largest and richest on the surface of the highest ridges. It contains, however, an immense quantity of valuable ores of iron, though its irregular character opposes many difficulties to the miner. Difficulties have also been found in smelting the ore to advantage ; but these are often incident to the first trials of new deposits, to which the methods applicable to others, of which the workmen have had previous experience, do not apply. It is to be hoped, however, that these prelimi- MINEEAX BE80URCE8 OF BRIXISH NORTH AMERICA. 355 nary hinderances have been overcome, and that the mine will soon become highly profitable to the proprietors." The following general estimate of the value of the deposit is quoted from an elaborate report made in 1849, by Dr. J. L. Hayes, of Massachusetts, which is further interesting, as furnishing a statement of the comparative value of iron ores at different places : " From the descriptions above given, it is evident that although the unlimited extent of the ore at a particular point can only be determined by working the deposits, yet an immense field is open for exploration and working. Although it is probable that an abundant supply of ore will be found upon the mountain last described, at a price not exceeding $2 per ton of iron ; if this should not be the case, an ample supply can be furnished from the other localities at an expense which, including raising and hauling, could not exceed $4 to the ton of iron. I would advise the opening of the veins at diflerent points upon the line, to determine the cheapest point for mining, and the ores which can be used most advantageously. If this is done, the price of the ore cannot be fairly set down at the sum for which it can be obtained at the nearest locality, but at an average of the prices of the ores from different localities, delivered at the point selected for the furnace. This may be estimated at $3 to the ton of iron. " The value of this locality with respect to ore may be judged of by conrparing it with establishments in the United States. In Berkshire Co., Mass., at some estab- lishments which have been successfully conducted, the price of the ore is between five and six dollars to the ton of iron. In Orange Co., N. Y., ore yielding between forty and fifty per cent, costs between four and five dollars to the ton of iron. At one locality iu New York State the ore costs ten dollai's to the ton of iron ; at some establish- ments on Lake Champlain, ore costing one dollar per ton at the mine is carried twelve miles to the furnace. The ore at the Baltimore furnacea costs over seven dollars to 23 I ] I .ilMi**'''- .. M-J ^^:i 'm |L 356 MINERAL KESOUKCES OF BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. the toD of iron ; this is also about the average cost of the ore at the furnaces in Pennsylvania. Estiniaiing the cost of the ore ev^n at four dollars to the ton of iron, there will be an advantage over the average American localities. " The cost of ores at some of the Swedish and Russian furnaces is still greater. In certain parts of the Ural Mountains the minerals are carried by land to the forests, a distance of from forty to eighty miles. Some of the forges of Sweden are supplied with minerals from Pres- burgli and Dannemora, which are transported by land car- riage, the lakes, and the sea, to distances exceeding 370 miles. " I have no doubt that iron of the first quality for purity and •:l'.ongth, and which will command the highest prices in the market, can be made from these ores. If Mr. Mushet's opinion, based on his own experiments, that these ores will furnish steel-iron equal to the best Swedish brands, should prove correct, these ores possess a rare value ; for of the many charcoal iron establishments in the United States, I know but one which furnishes iron suitable for making the first quality of steel." In the district of Pictou and the neighborhood of the Albion Mines, already described, there occurs an immense bed of iron ore, which, from its situation and concomitant advantages, must eventually become of great economical importance. GOLD. Since the excitement with regard to the wonderful gold discoveries in California and Australia arose, reports have from time to time obtained circulation of similar discoveries in Nova Scotia, where the rock formations of the south- east Atlantic coast bear a remarkable resemblance to those of the auriferous regions in the countries named. Until a very recent period, however, these rumors have invariably been found to be devoid of adequate foundation in fact. In 1855, Dr. Dawson, in his "Acadian Geology," expressed JIINEEAL KESOUBCES OF BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. 357 I the opinion, founded on geological considerations, that gold would probably be found in that region, but his re- marks would lead to the inference that it might not prove to be of much economic importance. In 1857, Mr. John Campbell, a gentleman of considerable scientific attain- ments, obtained gold by washing the sand of the beach near Halifax harbor. Tliis was the first actual discovery on record of gold being found in Nova Scotia, and since that time Mr. Campbell has devoted liimself assiduously to the development of this branch of her natural resources. In the year 1860, some important discoveries of the pre- cious metal were made in the valley and toward the head- waters of the Tangier Eiver, about forty miles north-east of Halifax, which created an immense 'excitement for a time, and tempted many to leave their ordinary avocations to search for gold, which, however, was not found in suffi- cient quantities to reward the labor, and consequently the excitement speedily subsided. In the month of March, 1861, fresh discoveries of con- siderably larger quantities were made near the mouth of the same river ; and since that time there has been a steady increase in the number, and also in the confidence, of the adventurers engaged in this pursuit, as well as in the as- 3ertained extent of the gold-producing country, which may now be regarded as comprising an area of 6,000 or 7,000 square miles, being the entire region occupied by the metamorphic lower Silurian rocks of the Atlantic coast, the corresponding geological position to that in which it is found in most other countries. The description we have already given of these rocks as they occur in Cnnada, will apply to the same formations in Nova Scotia. The most recent and authentic information hitherto ob- tained in regard to the Nova Scotia gold fields, is con- tained in an article contributed by Dr. Dawson to the " Canadian Naturalist," for December, 1861 ; and in an elaborate report by Messrs. Poole and Cimpbell (1862), who were specially appointed by the provincial govern- It m :'!'-] 358 MINERAL KE80UBCES OF BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. mont to investigate the matter. From these documer.ta ■\ve shall condense the most important particulars relative to this interesting subject. In this province, although the general conditions in which the gold occurs are doubtless the same as in other auriferous regions, it is remarkable that it if found chiefly in the quartz veins traversing the rocks, rather than in the superficial clays constituting the debris of these rocks. With the exception of one locality, " The Ovens," near Lunenburg, seventy mile? west from Halifax, where a considerable quantity has been obtained in the sand of the beach, formed by the action of the waves upon the rocky cliffs, placer washings and surface diggings have not proved remunerative in Nova Scotia. On the other hand, the quartz veins, on which the Cali- fornian and Australian digger is accustomed to look with suspicion, are here remarkably productive; an instance is upon record where one and a half ton of quartz has pro- duced seventy-two ounces of gold, valued at $1,296. The veins have been traced continuously for a distance, in one case, of two and a half miles, and found to pay well throughout this whole extent. In many instances the veins are exposed at the surface, and, where concealed by drift clay, its thickness is very inconsiderable, rarely ex- ceeding six or eight feet. In mining in the veins them- selves, their richness appears to increase with the depth ; and there is much to encourage the hope that deep mining will prove the most successful to the adventurer, as well as the most permanent and reliable source of wealth to the province. The most important gold fields in Nova Scotia hitherto discovered occur in the district of country eastwards from Halifax to Cape Canso, a distance of 130 miles, with an average breadth of about twenty miles. Within this area, Mr. Campbell has recognized the existence of five bands or lines of elevation, running nearly parallel with each other and with the general coast line, and exhibiting at some places arched or folded strata of dark-colored clay-slate, MINERAL EESOURfES OF BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. 359 traversed by quartz veins, of thickness var^'ing from one to nine or ten inches, following the planes of bedding in the strike, but frequently cutting the strata in the direction of the dip, sometimes in wavy or zigzag lines. There are also larger veins, from one to three feet in thickness, but the thin veins first referred to are invariably the richest in gold. The metal occurs, for the most part, disseminated in irregular grains and masses in the quartz : it is found most abundantly at and near the walls of the veins, and is usually associated with iron pyrites and misplckel^ or arsenical pyrites. The largest nugget yet found is said to be valued at $300. It is impossible to state, with any degree of accuracy, what amount of gold has been hitherto obtained in Nova Scotia, as, in almost every instance, the claims have been worked by private individuals, who are generally unable or disinclined to give the requisite information. Even if ascertained, this would afford no criterion of the value of the gold fields, as the search has hitherto been prosecuted only in the rudest manner. At one claim at Tangier $2,400 are said to have been realized in a very short time ; $1,300 from another, and $480 from a third, while many have yielded little or nothing. A statement we have recently seen gives the daily yield as 100 ounces, valued at $18 per ounce. The Nova Scotia gold is of remarkable purity. The principal localities where mining has hitherto been carried on are Tangier, Wine Cove, Laurencetown, Sherbrooke, Isaac Harbor, and Lunenburg. With the exception of Lunenburg, the district of country westward of Halifax has not as yet produced much gold. The provincial government have surveyed and divided the principal gold fields into claims of twenty feet by fifty feet, and exact an annual license fee, or rent, of $20 for each claim. It is to be hoped that a more liberal policy will prevail, and greater encouragement be extended to the adventurers, as the claims are much too small, and the rent too high, where the risks of mining are bo great. l\ti'- (1 j ' 360 Ml iiL RES0URCE8 OF BBITI8II NORTII AMERICA "In one important respect," says Dr. Gesnei, "the Nova Scotian <;old tields poi^sess a very i^reat advantage over those of Aintraha, Cahfornia, or British Gohiinbia : namely, t'lat the rooks containing the gold in the greatest abundance are near the Atlantic coast, and intersect a number of the smaller rivers and harbors, whereby facili- ties are afforded to supply the requirements of mining. It is not at all probable that ihe richest gold deposits in Nova Scotia have yet been discovered ; but there is enough known to satisfy the most sceptical that the province con- tains an nple amount of the precious metal to warrant the mo tensive operations, and the employment of ma- chinery . ts mining and purification." NEW BRUNSWIC .:. The province of New Brunswick has not hitherto at- tained much consequence as a mining region, although a very great part of its area is underlaid by the coal-measures ; and many of the metals and other useful minerals are known to exist within its bounds. The coal formation of New Brunswick occupies an area which is somewhat triangular in outline. Its base rests on the Gulf of St. Lawrence, and extends from Batlmrst on the north to the Nova Scotia frontier on the east. Its apex is at the Oromocto Lake ; and its north-western mar- gin runs ft'om thence to Bathurst, while on the south-east it approaches the Bay of Fundy. It is worthy of remark, that only the south and south- east sides of the great New Brunswick carboniferous basin have yet been explored. Within this area the only point at which coal mining operations on an extensive scale have been carried on, is MINEBA.L RE80U90E8 OF RRITISH NORTH AMERICA. 301 at the Grand Lake in Queens County, between Little River and Coal Creek, at the head of the lake. Here mining leases, covering a space of about forty-five square miles, wore granted by the crown in 1849 ; this area being sup- posed to cover all the available coal ground in this lo- cality. Tlie number of distinct beds of coal is uncertain ; the average thickness of those which are worked, is about twenty inches ; the depth of the coal below the surface seldom exceeds forty feet. The quality is excellent, being hard, rather lustrous, giving out much heat in burning, and lasting longer than most other coal. The amount brought to market in 1854, was about 3,000 chaldrons, but the mines are capable, with proper management, of producing at least double this amount. "We are not aware whether these mines are now in operation. We have now to refer to a very remarkable mineral de- posit, allied to coal, which has been discovered in this province, and somewhat extensively developed, and has assumed much economic importance as a source of illu- minating oils and gas. We refer to the Albert coal. This remarkable mineral, which appears to partake of the distinctive characteristics of coal, asphalt, and jet, without belonging to either class, occurs in the county of Hillsborough, near the southeast- ern boundary of the province, in an irregular vein, varying from one to thirteen feet in thickness, sometimes cutting and sometimes coinciding with the strata through which it passes, and which has been mined to an extent of several hundred feet on the length of the vein.* We are not aware of the amount or value of the material extracted ; it has been used chiefly in the manufacture of illuminating oil, of which it yields, by distillation, a very high percent- * The material is one of the most beautLful of all carboniferous products ; it is jet black, brilliant, and lustrous, with a conchoidal fracture, and is ex- tremely brittle. Its composition is : carbon (fixed at redness), 36.04 ; volatile, 61.74; ash, 2.22; equal to 100. Coke, 38.26 Specific gravity, 1.13. '0, >. i I 302 MINERAL RESOURCES OF BRITISn NORTH AMERICA. age, and of the very best quality ; but since the discovery of the extraordinary petroleum wells of Pennsylvania and Western Canada, no other source (so long as it lasts) can at all compete with this for the purpose named. The metalliferous rocks of the Appalachian chtvln trav- erse the northern part of the province, and may be ex- pected, when the country becomes settled and explored, to yield the same results as in Canada, Nova Scotia, and the Eastern States of the Union. Already geld, lead, and copper have been found in these rocks in New Bruns- wick, and the deposits of iron ore are rich and extensive. The principal locality of copper is at and near the village of Bathurst, on the Bay Chaleur. Here rocks of the car- boniferous system, or perhaps even higher in the geological horizon, and occupying the region bordering on the coast for a distance of live or six miles back, are found resting on the " primitive slate formation," probably of lower Si- lurian age. About seventeen years ago, a deposit of very rich copper ore was discovered in the bank of the river Nepisiguit, about one and a half miles from Bathurst, where mining operations were commenced, and about twenty -four tons of very rich vitreous copper ore, said to contain a considerable proportion of silver, were taken out ; but the deposits not being sufficiently regular to pay mining ex- penses, the enterprise was abandoned. Subsequent observations on the nature of these deposits, and of the enclosing rocks, leading to the belief that they were secondary products, derived from the debris of the older rocks lying farther inland, search was instituted in these rocks, which resulted in the discovery of seme im- portant copper lodes on the Tattagouche river, seven miles from Bathurst, which are now being developed by an American company. The lodes are said to be highly promising, being of great thickness, and having all the usu.al accompaniments of good copper veins ; but the works having been temporarily suspended, we are unable to learn the results. Very considerable sums of money MINEEAL BE80URCES OF BKITISH NORTH AMEfilCA. 303 have already been expended in minitig in this locality. One remarkable peculiarity in the mineralogical character of tliis region is the occurreno-- of great veins of manganese ore in the neighborhood of the copper lodes, tliough in a rock of a different color. A considerable deposit of copper pyrites has been dis- covered near Woodstock, Carleton county, about sixty miles north-west from Fredericton, in a true vein which has been traced for upwards of 2,000 feet on tlie strike, and traversing talcose and felspathic slates of the same geological age with those of the Tattagouche river. Min- ing operations were instituted here in 1858, to the extent of sinking trial shafts and costeenings, which have proved the deposit to be of considerable importance and value. We are not aware whether this mine is still worked, or to what extent it has proved commercially profitable. The Tattagouche and Woodstock mines are situated at a distance of about 130 miles apart, on a broad band of tlie formation ; and the fact of such apparently valuable de- posits being found at the extreme points of such an ex- tensive area, the intermediate parts of which are as yet entirely unexplored, points to this as a highly promising field for mining enterprise. Besides the metals above named in New Brunswick, deposits of plumbago and gypsum, and salt springs of a liigli degree of saturation, are found in many parts of tho province. NEWFOUNDLAND. The geological structure and mireral resources of tho islHnd ef Newfoundland were examined and reported on in 1849, by Mr. Jukes, who gave it as the general result of his investigations, that the island is not favorably situated for useful minerals. The coal formation occurs on a small portion of tho ! i. i fl nti H^l Hit. m Mm I ■!! Li hi m 't .1 364 MINERAL RESOURCES OF BRITISH NORTH AMERICi. west side of the island, but the beds of coal do not appear to be of any considerable thickness ; although it is quite possible that more important seams may be found, should the district ever be thought worthy of a thorough exami- nation. Gypsum is very plentiful on the island. Coj)per was worked in Newfoundland upwards of a century ago, to a slight extent, and in 1845 attempts were made to re- vive the work. The copper veins were found in the "lower slate formation" (probably the equivalents of the Quebec group in Canada), in Shoal Bay, south of Peck Harbor, at the eastern extremity of the island. Owing to the un- productive character of the work, however, it was speedily abandoned. A very remarkable lode of iron pyrites, containing also much copper ore, was discovered during the year 1861, about one mile inland from Little Bay, on the north- east coast of Newfoundland, and a company has been formed for working this and another similar deposit on Trump Island. A grant of these claims has been obtained from the colonial government, free from royalty during the first five years. Vigorous operations were commenced, during August of that year, by Mr. F. A. Gisborne, min- ing engineer, who turned the course of two rivers, at the junction of which the lode came to the surface. Tiie lode v/as thus uncovered for a length of 200 feet, show in*; a thickness varying from twenty to forty feet of solid ore. The true course of the lode appears to be six or eight de- grees north of east, and south of west; the northern country being a soft serpentine, and the southern kilhis, or slate ; tlie north wall, so far as proved, goes down verti- cally. After various trial pits had been sunk (all of which proved a rapid increase in the richness of the vein for cop- per, within a short distance from the surface), a stope was commenced, forty-two feet in length and eight feet Avide, along the north wall ; from this stope a cargo of 150 tons was obtained, and shipped to Swansea. The ore is found 'u compact hui'izoatul beds, or floors, averaging twenty * j^j ^^^^gj^ jg^^ MINERAL KESOURJE8 OF BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. 365 inches in tliickness ; and at ten feet from the surface, would average eight per cent, for copper, and forty per cent, for sulphur : the surface ore yielding only from one to two per cent, of copper, this rapid increase in richness is truly re- markable. A shaft is now being sunk in the lode, and will yield about twenty-five tons of ore per cubic fathom, a result rarely surpassed in any mine. BEITISH COLUMBIA, AND YANCOUYER ISLAND. The present has been, perhaps, more prolific than any preceding generation in wonderful discoveries in the arts and sciences, and especially in those means and appli- ances which tend to promote intercourse between distant parts of the world. A striking illustration of this remark is afforded by the late extraordinary and unprecedented discoveries of gold in California and Australia, which have done more in a few years for the settlement and civili- zation of these ''emote regions, than might otherwise have been effected in as many centuries. Still more recently another region, yet more remote from the beaten paths of nations, has been discovered to abound in the precious metal ; by whose potent influence British Columbia is rapidly becoming linked to the brotherhood of civilized nations. Yancouver Island, on the western shores of the Pacific ocean, has been long regarded in England, notwithstanding its great distance, as a promising field for settlement and colonization, on account of the fertility of its soil, the se- curity of its harbors, the excellence of its climate, and the reported abundance of coal on the island. These circura- B^ances, together with its admirable adaptation generally, as a depot for the naval forces on the Pacific, early at- tracted the attention of the British government, and dis- ,ili,iU*^'- S-'^f '. 1^ m\ 306 MINERAL KESOUKCES OF BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. posed them to afford every encouragement to emisiration ; but it was not till the year 1856,* when the governor ot the island reported to the imperial government the fact, that gold had been found in considerable quantities within the British territory on the Upper Columbia, that any considerable emigration took place. From that date to the present, the ascertained area and reputed richness of the British Columbian gold fields have steadily and rapidly increased ; and the influx of adventurers into Victoria, the capital uf Vancouver Island, and the nearest port for the gold fields, has augmented in proportion. The auriferous region of British Columbia comprises a vast, though unknown, area on the western slopes of the Rocky Mountains. Hitherto the discoveries have been chiefly confined to the left bank of the Frazer river, and its numerous affluents from the east, and to the head waters of the Columbia river ; the aggregate linear extent of which may be computed at 1,000 miles. The country is broken up into mountains and ravines; there is really no level ground, except the tops of the mountains, which, curiously enough, are all flat and level. The ravines are characterized universally by what the miners call " bench- es," or terraces running along their sides. These benches are all auriferous as far as they have been tested. The geological formations and conditions are precisely similar to the gold-bearing region of California, of ^vhich in fact this forms only the northern extension ; and it is worthy of note, that gold mining has proved more successful in California the further north it has been prosecuted, The rocks consist of what (for want of a more precise designa- tion) is now called the primary slate formatioTi — probably, as in other auriferous regions, the metamorphic lower Silu- rian — thrown up and pierced by masses, veins, and dikes of quartz, granite, porphyry, and other so-called igneous rocks ; the debris from which, together with their precious ♦ The oarliost reported discovery of gold in British Columbia, howover, was in 1850, and agaiu in 1653. MINERAL EE80UECE8 OF BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. 367 metalliferous contents, form vast accumulations of sand, gravel and clay, extending from the base of the mountains to the banks of the rivers, which, as we have before stated, constitute for the present the iield of labor for the miners. There is, however, reason to believe that ample scope will be found for their exertions at a distance from the princi- pal rivers. As a general rule, the gold is found in smaller particles and less in quantity nearer the mouths of the rivers, and both size and quantity increase as we ascend them. At the celebrated Cariboo district of the Frazer river, a lump of pure gold, weighing seven pounds, is said to have been obtained, and all the gold there is coarse. It will be readily inferred from what we have said, that tl e adven- turers confine their attention entirely to placer diggiiig and washing, and this method of working will doubtless, for many yeai's, be that universally adopted ; but there can bo little doubt that the auriferous veins which have supplied these washings will ultimately be discovered,* and will afford inexhaustible supplies of the precious metal for gen- erations to come. The principal difficulties to be con- tended with at present are, the want of roads or moans of conveyance into the interior of the country ; the difficulty of obtaining provisions, tools, and other materials ; the fresh- ets on the rivers, &c. ; to which may be added, the hostility of the native tribes of Indians, who, though at present ap- parently friendly, are treacherous and capricious. In Vancouver Island, although gold has been found and actually worked in a few places, it has not hitherto been obtained in paying quantities. There is every reason to believe, however, that important gold fields may yet bo discovered on the island. Rich copper ore has also been found, but hitherto it is undeveloped. Although here, as in all other gold-producing regions, wonderful instances of good fortune occur, and are noised * A rich auriferous voia was discovered in 1862, in Mitchell Harbor, Queen Charlotte's Island. i-'t 'M. tttataumammiaim 1 f ' n \'] I 3G8 MINERAL KESOURCES OF BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. abroad, there are equally laraentabk, and, we fear, miicli more numerous cases of failure, or at least of very mod- erate success. We do not therefore think it necessary to chronicle, as is the fashion with newspaper paragraphists, any great strikes, but shall confine ourselves to a statement, from authentic sources, of the quantity of gold actually obtained, and the number of hands employed, during the years 1858 and 1859, from which we shall be enabled to deduce their average earnings. " In 1858," says Mr. Despard Pemberton, the surveyor general of V^ancouver Island, in a recent work containing much valuable information on this subject,* " the greatest monthly shipment of gold from British Columbia was $235,000, and the least was about $6,000 ; and the total product of the gold mines for that year was estimated at $1,494,211 (Yide Gazette, April 19th, 1859). From data before me, I believe the amount mined in 1859 to have been about $2,000,000 ; but, to be moderate, assume the product of the two years at $3,000,000 ; the number of miners actually at work at any time in the country cannot have exceeded 3,000, as the mining licenses show {Gazette, June 9th, 1859, estimates them at 2,000), which gives the miners' average earnings at £100 sterling." Mr. Pember ton probably somewhat underrates the prospects of success, but his " facts and figures " render it sufficiently obvious that, taking into account the aggregate results, adven- turers will not be justified in forming very sanguine ex pectations.f Mr. Pemberton adds : " In California the average earnings are about half as much, but the country is open and accessible ; and therefore the means of living and creature comforts much more plentiful, which leads the miner to prefer it far to British Columbia, notwith- Btanding the higher pay in the latter." ! .1 * " Facts and Figures relating to British Columbia and Tancouver Island." London, 18G0. f It should be rt>inarked that the miners can only work four months in tbe year. i» ■ ;; psi; .1° ii -w^il MINERAL KES0UECE8 OF BEITISH NORTH AHERICA. 369 Assuming, as we have every reason to believe, that Mr. Pemherton's statistics are correct up to the time lie wrote, the last two years seem to have greatly improved the pros- pects of the gold miner in British Columbia, for we find a statement, apparently upon reliable authority, of the yield of 1861, and number of men employed, wliich gives a much higher average : — 79 miners took out an aggregate of $92G,G80 400 ditto, claim owners, took out 600,000 1,021 ditto, at $7 a-day, in 107 days 704,729 Total yield, nearly all from Cariboo . .$2,291,409 1,500 miners who worked in other I places for 180 days at $10 per diem $2,700,000 2,000 ditto, at $5 1,800,000 4,500,000 5,000 miners— gross yield for 1861 $6,791,409 Giving an average of $1,358 or about £272 sterling a year COAL. The consumption of coals by steamboats on the Pacific is enormous, perhaps not less than 200,000 tons a year. It is, therefore, an object of much importance to secure a supply at the nearest point. The coal formations come to the surface towards the coast of British Columbia, and have attracted some attention ; but the principal source of mineral fuel on the Pacific coast is undoubtedly Van- couver Island. Outcrops of coal occur at several points along the eastern coast of the island, and attempts have been made at var'ous times, by the Hudson's Bay Company, who have, until very recently, held possession of it, to turn these discoveries to profitable account. The earliest rec- ord we can find of such works is in 1849, at Beaver Har- bor, at the north-east extremity of the island ; but this locality was soon abandoned as hopeless. Further search has, however, been rewarded by the discovery of extensive seams of workable coal at Naniamo, about sixty miles north of Victoria, in latitude 49° 15', longitude 123° 45'. !"' 141 lii;. 5 ': '«m«MPiMi>^pp /if-: •? Lii 370 MINERAL BE80URCE8 OF BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. "We subjoin the following detailed account of mining op- erations here, abridged from a paper by Col. Grant, read before the Geographical Society of London, in 1857. " The coal at Naniamo was first discovered by Mr. Joseph McKay, in 1850, who was directed to it by the Indians of the neighborhood. The same seam was dis- covered on Newcastle Island, and several other small islands in the channel, and the Indians soon got out two hundred tons. A pit was commenced by ten regular miners, on the 17th of September, and a shaft sunk to a depth of fifty feet, being through twelve feet of alluvium, eight feet of sandstone, and thirty feet of shale ; the situa- tion of the pit is at the north-west extremity of Np-niamo harbor. Here they struck another seam of from six to seven feet in thickness, lying on conglomerate ; they are now regularly working this seam in several parallel gal- leries, extending to a considerable distance already under- ground. The seam here runs nearly level, although with sutficient dip to insure good drainage. The greatest quan- tity of coal that has been raised from it was at the rate of 120 tons per week, with eight regular miners. The other seam has been discovered outcropping at another place, at a considej'able distance from the working already de- scribed, and an adit level is being driven upon it. "Work has been done at four different places, three on the upper seam, which is of an average thickness of six feet, and one as above described, on the lower seam, about the same thickness and of precisely similar quality, situated fifty feet lower than the first. The pit is situated within a few yards of the water side, and vessels drawing sixteen feet can anchor close to it ; notwithstanding its proximity to the water, very little pumping is required. It is the opinion of the head miner that coal may be found any- where within a circumference of two miles from Naniamo, at a depth of fifty or sixty feet below the surface. Alto- gether, there are few places where coal can be worked so easily, and exported so conveniently as from Naniamo." MmEBAL RESOURCES OF BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. 371 As the Hudson's Bay Company Lave recently surren- dered their territorial rights, it has been decided to sell the coal mines, which have accordingly been acquired by a powerful English company, who will doubtless work them to their full capacity. Altogether about 6,000 tons of coal have been exported from Naniamo up to the present date, of which one-half may be said to have been worked and loaded by Indians, and the rest by regular miners. It is chiefly used by the British steamers, those of the Hudson Bay Company, and by the steamers plying between Vic- toria and Frazer river ; and is worth from four to six dol- lars per ton at the pit mouth. The coal is of excellent quality, very like that from the "West Riding of Yorkshire ; the chief objection to it is that it burns too quickly, and leaves behind a good deal of slag, which makes it difficult to keep the furnaces clear ; it is, however, very strong, rich coal, and of high heating power. Mr. William Downie, who was sent by the governor of Vancouver Island to explore the region in the north of British Columbia, along the coast to Fort Simpson, and back into the interior, as far as Stuart Lake, reports, under date October, 1859, that he considers this the best looking mineral couPitry in British Columbia ; in some places gold was discovered; rich veins of excellent plumbago were found, and an extensive coal country occurs, where seams, varying in thickness from three to thirty-five feet, were exposed in the banks of the rivers. Notwithstanding its excellent soil and climate, however, and its mineral riches, it is to be feared that unless the government assists in its development, this regiqn must long remain in its primitive condition. THE NORTH-WEST TERRITORY. QcrrE recently gold has been discovered on British ter- ritory on the eastern slope of the Rocky Mountains, toward the head-waters of the Saskatchewan and Peace 24 i vi ii 372 MINEEAL BE80CUCE8 OF BRITISH NORTH AMERICA. rivers, and expeditions have been fitted out and are now engaged in proving the productiveness of this vast and unknown region. Should the gold be found in any con- siderable quantity, this wi]! be a great stride toward the attainment of an object which has long been deemed of vast importance for the intercourse and civilization of the world; namely, the opening np, on the northern hemi- sphere, of a practicable route between the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. The magnificent lake and river system of Canada afibrds uninterrupted water communication for nearly half the distance, and Lake Winnepeg and the river Saskatchewan, together with the rivers flowing into the Pacific, form a great part of the rest ; leaving only the dis- trict lying between Lake Superior and Red River, and the pass of the Rocky Mountains, to be overcome by land transport. The country traversed by the Saskatchewan is said to be remarkably fertile and to enjoy an excellent climate, while coal and other useful minerals abound. Were it for no other object, the opening up of this region would be of inestimable importance, as the most direct route fi'om England and Canada to British Columbia and Yancouver Island, in preference to a long, dangerous, and expensive voyage by sea. There can be no doubt that the existence of a supply of coal in British territory on the shores of the Pacific, and in the valley of the Saskatchewan, will exercise a powerful influence, in combination with the gold discoveries in British Columbia, in furthering com- munication between the Atlantic and Pacific coasts along the route we have designated. ..^-^-„.^ — T'^'^l HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION m UPPER AND LOWER CANADA.* BY J. QEOBGB HODOINS, LL. B., F. E, O. & SECTION I. UPPER CANADA,— INTRODUCTORY. By very many writers in Europe and America it lias been asserted, and the assertion has been received without question, that in the United States of America, before the recent civil war, education was more generally diffused, and was in a more flourishing condition than in any other part of the world. It has also been stated that the institutions of most of the United States and their systems of govern- ment were and arc more favorable, if not more peculiarly adapted to this educational success, than in any other part of America ; but of late years a change has taken place in public opinion in this respect, — an efficient system of popu- lar education having in the meantime been established in Canada. If this system continues to be properly directed and vigorously maintained, as it has been hitherto, the result will strengthen the conviction in the public mind that an * This paper is divided into two sections and each section into three parts. The first part of each section contains a brief historical sketch, in chronologi- cal order, of the progress of education, including the universities, colleges, grammar, common and other schools. The second part contains an account in detail of universities, colleges, professional and other schools, together with a list of various other educational appliances in operation in each portion of the province. The third part contains various statistical information. ,,ijii" '" ■spp m 1 ' ; \ ) 1 1 1 V 1 ^'i ;it ; w I '; V ii m ^ ■■ ■ 374 HISTORICAL SKKTCII OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA. entire compatibility exists between the working of free colonial institutions, founded upon a monarchical basis, and the development and growth of a highly popularized, yet efiicient system of public instruction — such as has hitherto been said to flourish only in a democratic country.* The necessity for a national system of education in Cana- da, had long been admitted by all parties, but the final es- tablishment of such a system did not take place until within a comparatively recent period. For, when public attention was first practically directed to the accomplishment of that object in 1836-7, the seething turmoil of political strife pre- vented the immediate realization of those hopes of the friends of popular education, which had only then been re- awakened. The political union of the Canadas in 1840 did not long include an educational union of Upper and Lower Canada, for since 1843, they have each had their own separate educational systems. TART FIRST— CHAPTER I. FAP- :)NAL EFFORTS IN UPPER CANADA, 1783—1806. J3 to tlie state of education in Upper Canada, el and in other publications of 1783 — 1805, are very .v agre. All the writers, who do allude to the subject, de? ribe the education provided in the few schools then in existence as ve^v mfer" )r in its character, and the facilities * The editor of the Ma.*'- to Upper Canada, thus re' vember, 1855 : He says, Binn Bystom of schools, th with most of its prominent "tls Teacher, in giving an account of his visit the educational system in the Teacher of No- iucb has been written and said about the Prus- vell-informed teachers have become familiar atures ; but a system of education in some re- fpecUi more complete and more imposing than (hat of Prussia has sprung up on our own borders, which appears to have attracted less general attention among us." Ii HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN IfFKR CANADA. 375 for acquiring it but scantily diffused throughout the coun try. This was chiefly owing to the sparseness ol" the popu- lation and the remoteness of the new settlements. One reason assigned by a highly intelligent American traveller for the fewness of the schools in Upper Canada, in 179-1-9, throws so much light upon the political policy and social state of the province at that time, that we quote the passage entire. This traveller, on visiting Kingston, (then the most important town in Upper Canada,) makes the fol- lowing observations : " The object of the British nation is to people and cultivate this country, and to make it as perfect a part of the empire as possible. Dreading revolutions, they are cautious in receiving republicans from the States, and wish to encourage husbandmen and laborers only. Clergymen, lawyers, physicians, and schoolmasters from the States, are not the first characters who would be fostered. Many congregations would have been formed, and schools opened, if the policy in this particular had been different. * * * » * " An extensive field is opened for men of letters in every profession. Destitute of colleges, academies and schools, and confiding in the qualifications of the clergy ordained by the bishops in the States, Governor Simcoe* wished to have introduced such, but an act of the British parliament disconcerted his design. " When the Bishops of England were permitted to con- * Colonel John Graves Simcoe was born in England in 1752. He entered the army at nineteen, and commanded the Queen's Rangers (Hussars) during the American revolutionary war, n?.") — 83. In 1792 he was appointed Lieuten- ant Governor of Upper Canada ; and in September of that year he opened the first Parliament of the province, at the town of Niagara, then called Newark. In 179G, he removed the seat of government to Toronto, then called York. He induced many of the American United Empire Loyalists to settle in Upper Canada, and sought in every way to promote the prosperity of the province. He constructed Yonge street, thirty-six miles, as a military road to the lake which now bears his name. He was appointed Governor of St. Domingo in 1796, and was made a Lieutenant General in 1798. He died on his return to Englnnd, in 1805, aged fifty-four years. rm 376 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN I PPER CANADA. secrate bishops for the States, a clause was inserted in the act passed by parliament for the purpose, that nothing therein contained should 'enable such bishops or clergy- men ordained by them, to exercise their functions within the limits of the nation.' This act of course applies to Canada." The writer further remarks, that, ander this law, " the clergy born and ordained in the States are excluded from the parishes in the provinces ;" and that its operation " has certainly defeated the extending of religion and learn- ing in the provinces,"* So far as we have been able to ascertain, the first school opened in Upper Canada, was in 1785. In that year a classical school was opened at Cataraqui, (Kingston,) by the Kev. Dr. Stuart; another by Deacon Trayer at Port Kowan, (Lake Erie,) in 1789. The Duke de la Eochefoucault, who visited Kingston in July, 1795, thus refers to the state of education in that part of the country at that early date. lie says : " In this dis- trict are some schools, but they are few in number. The children are instructed in reading and writing, and pay each a dollar a month. One of the masters, superior to the rest in point of knowledge, taught Latin ; but he has loft the school without being succeeded by another instructor of the same learning." He also sta^'cs that "No newspaper is pr.blished in Kingston ; that of Newark [Niagara] is the only one published in Upper Canada, which being a mere imperfect extract from the Quebec Gazette, is here taken in by no one. I know but of two persons who receive even the Quebec paper. As to the interior of the countiy, no new3 penetrates into that quarter, a circumstance that ex- cites there very little regret." From the Upper Canada papers it appears that private schools were established shortly after this time in several * A Tour through Upper and Lower Canada. By a citizen of the United States. Printed at Litchfield, (according to Act of Congress,) 1799. Pp. 55 — 57. ( I HISTORICAL SKJITCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CAJCADA. 3'''7 parts of Upper Canada. Among the rest a school was es- tablished for the Six Nation Indians, and the teachers paid by the king, at Mohawk, (Grand River,) — " the principal village of the Six Nations, in a tract purchased from the Mis- sassaga Nation for them by his present Majesty, (Greorge III.) on account of their loyalty and attachment during the late rebellion, in which they lost their possessions on the Mohawk River, New York."* The military chaplains at the different stations also did what they could to promote education, but their efforts were chiefly confined to their own immediate circle. The New Testament, with Webster, Lindley Murray, or Dil worth's Spelling-book, were the priixcipal text-books, in general use. At a very early period in the history of the province, and but six years after the first settlement of Upper Canada, (1789,) a memorial was presented to Lord Dorchester, (Sir Guy Carleton,) the then Governor General of British North America, representing the great deficiency in all means of instruction, and requesting his lordship to establish a pub- lic school at a central place, such as Kingston, or Fron- tenac, (the old French post,) which was then the principal town in Upper Canada. In compliance with this request, Lord Dorchester gave directions to the surveyors-general to set apart eligible portions of >nd for the endowment of schools in all the new townships. These lands, liowever, long remained unproductive ; and before any benefit could be derived from this solicitude on the part of the Governor General, Canada was divided, by the constitutional act of 1791, into two distinct provinces ; and, in 1792, John Graves Simcoe, Esq. was appointed the first Lieutenant Governor of Upper Canada. In that year Rev. Mr. Addison estab- lished a classical school at Newark, the seat of government, • Topographicnl description of His Majesty's Province of Upper CaQad)k By Diivicl Wm. Smith, Esq., Surveyor General of Upper Canada. London, October, 1799. U ' ' ' V,y:n I mu^ I -., 'mm 378 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA. (now Niagara.) In 1794, the Kev. Mr. Burns, (father of the late Hon. Judge Burns,) opened a school at the same place. In 1795, Governor Simcoe addressed a letter to the Bishop of Quebec, in which the following passages occur. " The peo- ple of this province * * * havethemeansof governing them selves. **■»«■ To this end a liberal education seems indis pensably necessary; and the completion of such education requires the establishment of a university to inculcate sound religious principles, pure morals and refined man- ners." ^ In November, 1796, an evening school was opened at Newark, by Mr. Richard Cockrel,* who shortly afterwards transferred his school to the Reverend Mr. Arthur,! and removed to Ancaster, where he opened another school. In 1796, notice was given in the York Gazette, that "as schools were now opened, ignorance would be no longer tolerated." ] In 1798, a school was opened in Duke street, York, by Mr. William Cooper. In 1796, the Imperial Government, in a letter dated 22d of June, and addressed by the Duke of Portland to Lieuten- ant Governor Simcoe, acknowledged the receipt of a letter from the Bishop of Quebec upon the subject of a school of a higher class, to which Gov. Simcoe had called the Bishop's attention, but which his Grace then did not think neces- sary in Upper Canada. The Legislature of Upper Canada thought differently, and, in the Spring of 1797, agreed upon a memorial to His Majesty, George III., soliciting a grant of land for the endowment of a grammar school in * Mr. Cockrel's charges were 4s. per week, for ttucliing Writing, Arith- metic, and Book-keeping. Time of tcacliing, from 6 to 8 o'clock, P. M. f In his advertisement Mr. Artliur intimates that " if any number of boys offer, and books can be procured, a Latin class will conmionce immodiately." Ho al.so states that " besides the attention which ho ever wishes to pay to the behavior, religious instruction and literary improvement of all his pupils, his boarders will have tho benefit of private tuition in geography and other parts of a useful and ornamental education." HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA. 379 each district, and a university for the whole province. To the address a favorable answer was returned, embracing a scheme of education more comprehensive in its character, so far at least, as higher education was concerned, than that which was proposed by the Legislature. This response to the memorial of the Legislature was con tained in a dispatch addressed by the Duke of Portland to Peter Eussell, Esq., President and acting Governor of Upper Canada, and was dated the 4th of November, 1797, as follows: " His Majesty * * * being always ready to show his paren- tal regard for the welfare of his subjects in the furtherance of so important an object as the instruction of youth, and to assist and encourage the exertions of his province in laying the foundation for promoting sound learning and a religious education, has expressed his gracious intention to comply with the wishes of the legislature of his province of Upper Canada, in such manner as shall be judged to be most ef- v fectual. First, by the establishment of free grammar schools in those distiicts which they are called for ; and, secondly, in due process of time, by establishing other seminaries of a larger and more comprehensive nature, for the promotion of religious and moral learning, and the study of the arts and sciences." Peter Russell, Esq., the President, requested the chief civil officers* to draw up a report on the subject. They did so in 1798, and recommended a grant of half a million of acres of land for the establishment of a grammar school in each of the four districts into which Upper Canada was then divided, and a central university at some future time. They recommended, also, that a grant of £3,000 be made to each of the districts in Upper Canada for the cectior of "a plain but solid and substantial building containing a school-room sufficient to hold one hundred boys without danger to their health from too many being crowded to- * These officers were the members of the Executive Council, the judge j and law officers of the Crown in Upper Canada. 'Wk'!<'W^n|P| :*l m i ■w :■] 380 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPKR CANADA. gether; and also a set of apartments for the master, large enough not only for the accommodation of his family, but also for the very desirable purpose of enabling him to take a few (from ten to twenty) of his pupils as boarders," The salaries proposed were £100 for the head master, £50 for the assistant master, and £30 for repairs, &c. Kingston and Newark (Niagara) were recommended as eligible sites for schools; after which, when the funds were sufficient, schools were to be established at Cornwall and Sandwich. York (Toronto) was recommended as entitled to the university ; and for the establishment and support of which a sum at least equal to that granted to the four schools was named, y Governor Simcoe authorized the lion. Messrs. Cartwright and Hamilton, to select a person to take charge of the pro- posed college. The Rev. Dr. Chalmers, having declined the appointment, it was accepted by Mr. (now the Right Rever. 'end Doctor) Strachan (Bishop of Toronto.*) On his arrival at Kingston, on the 31st of December, 1799, he found that the project of a college had been abandoned. Governor Sim- coe, in the meantime, having gone to England. In 1799, an act was passed by the Upper Canada Legisla- ture " to provide for the education and support of orphan children." It authorized the township wardens, with the consent of two magistrates, to bind and apprentice, until they became of age, children desei'ted by their parents. In 1799, a school was opened near St. Catherines. * The Uonornble and Right Reverend John Strachnn, D. D., LL. D., first Protestant ]']|)iscopal Hishop of Toronto, was born in Aberdeen, Scotland, on the 12th April, 1778. lie commenced life as a teaclier; and in 1800 opened a private school at Kingston, and subsequently one at Cornwall. Among his pupils (in Scotland,) were Sir David Wilkie and (in Upper Canada) tlio late Chief Justices, Sir J. B. Robinson, and Sir J. B. Macaulay, Com- ' niodore Barclay, &o. lie was ordained a clergyman of the Church of England on the 2d May, 1803, was minister of Cornwall in 1804, and Rector of Toronto in 1812 ; was appointed a legislative counsellor in 1818 ; archdeacon of York in 182'), and Bishop of Toronto in 1839. lie founded the University of Trinity College, Toronto, in 1851—2. 'wm HISTORICAL SKETCH »r EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA. 381 In August, 1801, a meeting of the proprietors of the I Niagara Library was held at Newark, when it was resolved that a call of $2 per share be made for the purchase of new books. It was also resolved that new members pay $4 per annum as subscriptions to the library, and old members $2 per annum. It was soon discovered that half a million of acres of land would endow but few grammar schools, land being then only worth a shilling per acre ; the scheme had, there- ore, to be abandoned. Meanwhile the Hon. Mr, Cartwright made an arrangement with Mr. Strachan to instruct his sons and a select number of pupils for three years. In 1803, Mr. Strachan was ordained by the Bishop of Quebec, and in 1804, he removed to the mission of Cornwall, where, at the request of the parents of his former pupils, he opened a private school. For several years this school was the only one of any note in Upper Canada ; and in it were educated some of those gentlemen who have filled some of the most important positions in the province. In 1802, Dr. Baldwin opened a classical school at York; and, in 1805, Mr. Strachan held the first public examination of his school, in Cornwall, at which all the principal persons in the neigh- borhood attended. Subsequently Mr. Strachan's school was constituted the Grammar School of the district. CHAPTER II. EDUCATIONAL LEGISLATION, 1806—1816. The first legislative enactment relating to general educa- tion was not passed, until March, 1807. This act provided for the cstablishmentof grammar or high schools, but made no provision whatever for the common schools; still, it did good service, and was only finally superseded by a more comprehensive measure in 1853. In the former year (1806) ■i: II ,aJii*-' M- ! j '^\ i ntr i i^ 382 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA. a temporary act was passed by the provincial legislature, and made permanent in 1808, establishing a classical and mathemntical or "Public School" in each of the eight dis- tricts into which Upper Canada was then divided; and granting £800 per annum, or £100 per school as the an- nual salary of the teacher in each district — the teacher to be nominated by the trustees, but appointed by the governor.* * In order to give effect to this Act, Lieut.-Governor Gore, on the 13th March, 1807, appointed "the undermentioned gentlemen to be Trustees o •'he Public Schools in the several districU of Upper Canada : "1. Eastern District \ " 5. Home District. Sanjuel Sherwood, Niel McLean, Samuel Anderson, Joseph Anderson, John Crysler, Alexander McMillan, .1 P Rev. Mr. Stuart, D'Arcy Boulton, John Small, Duncan Cameron, Samuel Smith, William Graham, Thomas Rldout, 1 Ctt " 2. District of Johnstown, " 6. District of Niagara. Thomas Sherwood, Ephraim Jones, Solomon Jones, James Campbell, Elijah Bottom, Hon. Robt. Hamilton, Colonel Clark, William Dickson, Robert Kerr, Thomas Cummings, James Muirhead, "3. Midland District. John Symington, Hon. Richard Cartwright, ' " 7. District of London. Rev. Dr. Stuart, Thomas Talbot, Allan McIiCan, s Samuel Rycrse, Joseph Forsyth, Joseph Rycrson, Thomas Maikland, i' William Hutchinson, • s. Piter Smith, Thomas Walsh, I Alexander Fisher, i Ap'ci Philip Dorland, |2May.^ John Coltman, Daniel Springer, " 4. District of Newcastle. " 8. Westmi District. Hon. James Baby, ■" Asa Burnham, ' Rev. Mr. Pollard, Leonard Sot)per, 1 Matthew Elliott, . s. Eliae Smith, SenV., Angus Mcintosh, Eliaa Jones, ' 3 5' John Askin, Sen'r., s John Peters, .» Gregor McGregor, "a John Bleeker, Alexander Duff, HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA. 383 In February, 1806, at the suggestion of Dr. Strachan, an Act was passed granting £400 for the purchase of in- struments for illustrating the principles of Natural Philoso- phy, which were to be deposited in the hands of a person employed in the education of youth. In January, 1808, M. de Diemar opened a French school from 5 to 9 P. M., at York, (Toronto,) and in August, Rev. Mr. Stuart, held a highly satisfactory examination of hia school at the same place. In describing the state of education in Upper Canada about this period, we quote the following observations from a work published at Baltimore, Maryland, in 1814. by M. Smith, of Richmond, Virginia, author of " A View of Upper Canada," who resided in the province from 1808 until the breaking out of the war of 1812. Mr. Smith says: " The greater part of the inhabitants of Canada are not well edu- cated ; for as they were poor when they came to the province, and the country being but thinly settled for a number of years, they had but little chance for the benefit of schools. But since the country has become more settled, and the inhabitants rich, or in a good way of living, which is almost universally the case, they pay considerable attention to learning, " Ten dollars a year is the common price given for the tuition of each scholar by good teachers. " Until lately, there was no Latin or Greek school kept in the province. Now there are three — one in York, taught by the Rev. John Strachan, Episcopal minister of that place ; one on the Bay Quantie, by a Mr. Bidwell,* from the United States ; and the other in Niagara village, by the Rev. Mr. Burns. Good encouragement would be given in many other parts to teachers of such schools, particularly in the Niagara and London districts. *' Notwithstanding that I said that the main body of the * Father of the Hon. Marshall S. Bidwell, now of the city of New York but formerly Speaker of the Upper Canada Commons House of Assembly. *' i >*i^' l-l; 'ffcl 384 UISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA. iiiliabitants were not well educated, yet there are a number of gentlemen in the province who have the best of learning. " There is a public free school kept in every district, by order of the king, the teachers of which receive annually one hundred pounds sterling from the crown."* v^ In 1812, llev. Mr. Langhorn, a missionary for twenty years, and a school-master, made a present of his library to the inhabitants of the Bay of Quints. In 1814, Kev. Eobert Baldwin was appointed Grammar School master at Corn- wall, vice the Eev. Mr. Bethune, resigned. In 1815, an act was passed by the Legislature to incorporate the Midland District School Society. In 1816, an act was passed grant- ing £800 for the purchase of a library for the use of the Legislative Council and House of Assembly. IM CHAPTER IIL FIRST ESTABLISHMENT OF COMMON SCHOOLS, 1816—1822. In 1816, (nine years after the grammar schools were established,) legislative provision was first made for the establishment and maintenance of common schools in Upper Canada. The large sum, in that day, of £6,000 was annually granted for this purpose,! and the people were au- thorized "to meet together" in any town, village or town- sliip, " to make arrangements for establishing common schools in such town, village or township," at each of which the attendance of pupils should not be less than twenty. It also authorized that three " fit and discreet persons " should be chosen Trustees, who were to ** examine into the moral * Geographical view of the British Poesessions in North America, by M. Smith, page 52 — Baltimore, Maryland, 1814. t The appropriations under this first Common School Act of Upper Canada were us follows: To the schools in the Midland District £1,000; in the Eastern District £800 ; in the Home, Johnstown, London, Gore, Niagara and Western Districts, £600 for each district ; in the Newcastle District £400, and in the Ottawa District £200. Total, £6,000, or |24,0C0. It uld ■al M. nada the and and HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA. 385 character and capacity of any person willing to become a teacher" and appoint him. The trustees were also author- ized to make rules and regulations for their own schools; and to select text-books from a list prescribed by a district Board of Education, to which they were required to report. The provincial allowance to each school was in no case to exceed X25 — the balance of salary and contingent expenses to be made up by subscriptions. No rate-bills or assess- ments were authorized. This law was considered only as an experiment, and its operation was limited to four years. Thus, in hesitation and doubt, were sown the seeds of intellectual life and vigor in Upper Canada, which, though unproductive for a time, and even nearly uprooted for a time by chilling frosts and wild popular commotions, have, by renewed care and culture, been developed into more than 4,000 schools with almost $1,000,000 of self-imposed taxa- tion for their maintenance. At the expiration of the four years, it was obvious that either the law of 1816 did not produce satisfactory fruit, or men of narrower minds controlled our public affairs ; for, in 1820, another act was passed, reducing the legislative grant from $2-4,000 to $10,000 per annum, making a uniform grant of $1,000 to each district, and reducing the teachers' allowance from $100 to $50 per annum. In regard to the state of education in Upper Canada in 1817, and the fluctuating character ofdts progress since the settlement of the province, in 1784, up to that time, Mr. Eobcrt Gourlay, a well-known Canadian politician and author, writes as follows : " There is no college in Upper Canada, but there are said to be several townships of land set apart for the purpose of endowing such an institution, when the population and circumstances of the province shall require it. "No provision is made by law for free schools. The in- mJ^ i !ii i' Lj< 386 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA. !--(*i3 i:,! habitants of the several townships are left to a voluntary support of schools, according to their own discretion. " An Act of the provincial legislature, in 1807, granted a hundred pounds a year to the teacher of one school, in each of the eight districts under the direction of trustees. In some districts the school thus provided for is made a free school ; but in other districts the salary is considered as a public encouragement to a teacher of literary eminence, in addition to the compensation received for the tuition of each scholar. " The act was limited to four years, within which period the limitation was repealed, so that it is now a per- petual law. From the extent of the districts, the location of the schools, and other considerations, the school act has proved not very satisfactory, and a repeal of it has been re- peatedly attempted. Such dissatisfaction and attempts to procure a repeal, may have lessened the ability of these schools. Several of them, however, are flourishing and highly respectable. " Other seminaries for the education of youth are sup ported by individual exertions, without public aid. "The first inhabitants, as was stated in the historical sketch, were generally poor, in consequence of the revolu- tion. They had also to struggle with the labors and priva- tions incident to new settlements. As their habitations were sparse, it was difficult for them to unite in sufficient num- bers to form good schools ; and they could neither afford much expense for instructors, nor allow their children much time for receiving instruction. From such inevitable causes, education was neglected among them until the neglect almost became habitual. The want of books, at ^ ae same time, re- laxed their taste for reading. " A sense of these disadvantages excited desires for sur- mounting them, which have at length produced some cor- responding exertion. Books are procured in considerable numbers. In addition to those with which particular per- il 1 fjfl{ HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA. 387 sons and families are supplied, social libraries are i: Produced in various places; and subscribers at a small expense thus enjoy the benefit of many more volumes than they could individually afford to purchase. " A spirit of improvement is evidently spreading. The value of education, as well as the want of it, is felt. The practicability of obtaining it is considered. Gentlemen of competent means appear to be sensible of the importance of giving their children academical learning, and ambitious to do it without sending them abroad for the purpose. "Among other indications of the progress of literary am. bition, I can not forbear referring to the academy lately erected in Ernest Town, by the subscriptions of public- spirited inhabitants of that and the neighboring townships, who appear to be convinced that the cultivation of liberal arts and sciences is naturally connected with an improve- ment of manners and morals, and a general melioration of the state of society." * As to the state of feeling in the rural parts of the oldest settled portions of Upper Canada, we make the following ex- tracts from a letter written to Mr. Gourlay from the town- ship of Grimsby, in 1818, by a highly respected resident, AVilliam Crooks, Esq. Mr. Crooks remarks : " The state of education is at a very low ebb, not only in the township, but generally throughout the [Niagara] district ; although the liberality of the legislature has been great in support of the district schools, (giving to the teachers of each £100 per annum,) yet they have been pro- ductive of little or no good hitherto, for this obvious cause, * " Such was the prospect when the war oomnienced, but it is changed. Tlio academy was converted into a barrack ; and the academical institution has nut been revived. The students resorted to other places of education, many of them out of the province. The building is now occupied as a house of pub''o worship, and a common school. It is to be hoped, however, that the taste for literary improvement may be revived, and this seminary be re-established." Statis- tical Accouiii of Upper Canada, &c. By Robert Grourlay. 2vols. Loudon, 1822. 25 X3! .,^i^''' ''^!t?■' '.iinP I '^i m 'A ■In 1 1 It 388 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA. they are looked upon as seminaries exclusively instituted for the education of the children of the more wealthy classes of society, and to which the poor man's child is considered as unfit to be admitted. From such causes, instead of their being a benefit to the province, they are sunk into obscuri- ty, and the heads of most of them are at this moment enjoying their situations as comfortable sinecures. An- other class of schools has, within a short time, been like- wise founded upon the liberality of the legislative purse, de- nominated common or parish schools, but like the preceding, the anxiety of the teacher employed, seems more alive to his stipend than the advancement of the education of those placed under his care : from the pecuniary advantages thus held out, we have been inundated with the worthless scum, under the character of schoolmasters, not only of this, but of every other country where the knowledge has been pro- mulgated, of the easy means our laws afford of getting a living here, by obtaining a parish school, which is done upon the recommendation of some few freeholders, getting his salary from the public, and making bis employers contribute handsomely beside. "It is true, rules are laid down for their government, and the proper books prescribed for their use ; but scarcely in one case in ten are they adhered to, for in the same class you will frequently see one child with Noah Webster's spelling-book in his hand, and the next with Lindley Mur- ray's. However prone the teachers are to variety in their schools, much blame is to be attributed to the trustees, who are in many instances too careless, and I might almost add too ignorant to discriminate right from wrong, in the trust they have undertaken for the public benefit. It is therefore not to be wondered at why the parish school system should meet with almost universal reprobation from most discern- ing men. " Of these parish schools, we are burdened with a liberal share having no less than three of them. If the establish HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA. 389 m ish ment of this system was meant by the legislature to abbre- viate the present enormous price of education, they have been miserably deceived ; for I can see no alteration or re- duction from the charge made before the passing of the act The price then was 12s. 6d. [i. e. $2,50,] and is now the same, per quarter."* In 1819, the Executive Council, on corsidering the Duke of Portland's dispatch of 1797, recommended that 500,000 acres of land be disposed of for the purpose of establishing a University in Upper Canada. The members of the Coun- cil thought thit £10,000 would be required for the erec- tion of *' a suitable building and provide a library, philo- sophical apparatus and a botanic garden," with £4,060 per annum for " salaries, scholarships and contingencies." In July, 1819, provision was made for an additional gram- mar school ; for holding annual public examinations ; for reporting the condition of the school to the governor, and for educating ten common school pupils, free of charge, at each of the nine public grammar schools already established ; but the provincial allowance to teachers of grammar schools was reduced to £50 in all cases where the numbers of pupils did not exceed ten. Thus ebbed and flowed, without a master hand to stay the current, that tide which in other lands is regarded as the nation's life's blood ; and thus was permitted to ensue that state of living death by which Upper Canada, in the signifi- cant and popular metaphor of the day, was likened to a 'girdled tree,' destitute alike of life, of beauty, or of stately growth. * In 1818, Mr. Gourlcy reports the names of the grammar school masters in Upper Canada as follows : Johnstown District, Rev. John Bethune, (now dean and rector of Christ Church Cathedral, Montreal ;) Midland District, Rev. John Wil- son ; no7ne District, Rev. Dr. Strachan, (now Bishop of Toronto ;) Niagara Dis' trict, Rev. John Burns, (father of the late Hon. Judge Burns;) London Dis trict, Mr, .James Mitchell, (subsequently Judge of the District Court;) Western District, Mr. Merrill ; Eastern and Newcastle Districts, vaca:it. — Statistical Ac count of Upper Canada, tfcc, Vol. II., Appendix xciv. 390 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA. CHAPTER IV. V ^i.ilH H% FITFUL PROGRESS FROM 1822—1836. In 1822, Sir Peregrine Maitland, the lieutenant-governor of Upper Canada, submitted to the Imperial government a plan for organizing a general system of educrtion for the province, including elementary schools; and, in 1823, he obtained permission from England to establish a Board of Education for the general superintendence of this system of education, and for the management of the uni- versity and school lands throughout the province. This Board prepared some general regulations in regard to the schools, an \ proposed a plan by which to exchange 225,- 944 acres of the less valuable of the school lands for the more productive Clergy Reserve lands. The plan having been approved of by the home Government, was carried into effect by the Governor soon after. In 1824, the first at- tempts towards providing the public with general reading books, in connection with the common and Sunday schools, were maae. The sum of £150 was annually appropriated for this object, and authorized to be expended by the Pro- vincial Board of Education in the purchase of " books and tracts designed to afford moral and religious instruction." These books and tracts were intended for equal distribution throughout all the districts of Upper Canada. Thus were presented the dim outlines of a system of pub- lic instruction, which it was clear the necessities of the coun- try required, bat which for want of a vigorous and system- jilic departmental supervision was gradually permitted to lan- guish. The educational legislative enactments themselves were suffered to become; almost obsolete on the statute book. In these fitful efforts may be traced the noble instincts of the province to possess herself of an invaluable palladium of civil and religious freedom, but which the apathy or selfishness of her sons alone presented her from acquiring. il Jj HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA. 391 We honour her even in her failures, while we learn a valuable lesson from her history : that to entrust the cause of education to the chance of political strife or to the guid- ance of self-interest r aimless counsels is to doom it to ship- wreck and destruction. In January, 1824, the Common School Act was made to Apply "to all schools that are now or luay hereafter bo established and kept among the Indians wh*) shall be resi- dent within the limits of any organized councy or township within this province excepting such schools as shall or 'tay be otherwise provided for."* Provision was also made this year for the examinatir"" of common school teachers by county Boards of Education. In March, 1827, Sir Peregrine Maitland obtained a charter for King's College, Toronto. In transmitting the charter, Lord Bathurst proposed to endow the University, as follows: " I am further to acquaint you that His Majesty has been pleased to grant, £1,000 per annum as a fund for erecting the buildings necessary for the college, to be paid out of the moneys furnished by the Canada company and to continue during the term of that agreement. " I have to authorize you, on receipt of this dispatch, to exchange such Crown Reserves as have not been made over to the Canada Company for an equal portion of the lands set apart for the purpose of education and foundation of a University, as suggested in your dispatch of the 19th December, 1825, and more fully detailed in Dr. Strachan's Keport of the 10th March, 1826 ; and you will proceed to endow King's College with the said Crown Ecserves with as little delay as possible " Objections having been made in Upper Canada to the charter of King's College as too exclusive, a committee of the House of Commons, in 1828, recommended the appoint- ment in it of a theological professor each for the established * All the Indian schools of tho province, which are sustainod by various religious bodies, are chiefly under the control of the Indian Department. The mnnnfljement of the Indian lands is vested in the Crown Lands Department. J'.^^ki; I I i'k 1.^ '■ 1 t, >' it 392 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA. churches of England and Scotland. This recommendation was, however, not acted upon. In 1829, Sir John Colborue, (now Lord Seaton,) superse- ded the Eoyal Grammar, or District School, at York, now Toronto, bj an institution which he named Upper Canada College. He obtained for it, from Ilis Majesty's Govern- ment, an endowment of 66,000 acres of school land, besides some town lots. On the 4th January, 1830, this college was formally opened. See Part Second, chapter iii. In 1828 — 9, the Wesleyan Methodists took active steps to establish an Academy for the superior education of pupils of both sexes; and in June, 1880, the Wesleyan Conference appointed a committee to collect subscriptions and to select a site for the proposed academy. In 1831, a committee of the House of Assembly recom- mended that £4,400 per annum be granted for the support of the eleven free grammar schools, or respectable semin- aries [to be " incorporated with the present district schools"] where the youth of the province generally might receive a liberal education, without being removed many hundred miles from the tender care and watchful authority of their parents." The committee was also opposed to the endow- ment of " King's College, or any other extensive university which can only be viewed as of benefit to those whose wealth enables them to bear the great expense of sending thdr chil- dren to the capital of the province ;" but it recommended that £2,000 be set apart for the annual support of a provin- cial seminary at York, "whether called Upper Canada Col- lege, or by any other name." They further recommended that £50 be annually granted to establish a school in each of the 132 townahijis of Upper Canada, (being 12 schools in a district,) and thus give to Upper Canada a system of edu- cation that might well be envied by any other colony in His Majesty's dominions." The report was partially acted upon in 1839. See page 394. In November, 1831, Lord Goderich, in a dispatch, pro HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA. 393 posed that the King's College charter be surrendered, with a view to its modiucation. Ill 1832, the functions of the Upper Canada Board of Education ceased ; and the school lands under its manage- ment were reinvested in the Crown, with a view to having the proceeds of their sale annually applied as might be di- rected by the legislature. In the same year, £7,000 having been collected by authority of the Wesleyan Conference, the site was selected for the proposed Upper Canada Academy at Cobourg, and the building commenced. On the 18th of June, 1836, the Academy was opened ; and in October of that year a Royal Charter was obtained for it, through the exertions of the Rev. Dr. Ryerson.* Dr. Thomas Rolph, who travelled in Upper Canada in 1832 — 3, thus refers to the state of the schools at that time. He says : " It is really melancholy to traverse the province, and go into many of the common schools; you find a herd of children, instructed by some anti-British adventurer, in- stilling into the young and tender mind sentiments hostile to the parent state ;f false accounts of the late war in which * Tlie Rev. Egerton Ryerson, D. D., LL. D., is a younger son of the late Colonel Joseph Ryerson, (a United Empire Loyalist, of New Jersey, who came from New Brunswick in 1793.) He was born in Charlotteville, county of Norfolk, ITppiT Canafla, in 1803 ; entered tlie Wesleyan ministry in 1825 ; was editor of the Christian Guardian (which he established) in 1829 ; Principal of Victoria College (Cobourg) in 1841 ; appointed Chief Superintendent of lidu- cation for Upper Canada iu 1844 ; made a tour of inquiry Ui Europe in 1844 — 5 ; and founded the present system of i>ublio instruction in Upper Canada in 184G— 53. T It may be proper to remark hero that it was not until 1846 that a chock was put upon this abuse of public confidence on the part of American or Americai'ized teaohers. In the Upper Canada con.'non sch<^)l law of 1850 it is provided that " no foreign book in the English branihes can be used in any model or common schools without the express permission of Council of Publio Inciruetion." Foreign teachers were also required by the scIkh)! Acts of 1843 ajd 1850 to take the oath of allegiance to Her Majesty before they could receive a certificate of qualification irom the County Board of Public Instruction. These restrictive provisions of the school law are thus justified by the Rev. Dr. w .Mi \k n 394 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPEH CANADA. Great Britain was engaged with the United States , geogra- phy setting forth New York, Philadelphia, Boston, &e., as the largest and finest cities in the world ; historical reading books, describing the American population as the most free and enlightened under heaven ; insisting on the superiority of their laws and institutions, to those of all the world, in de- fiance of the agrarian outrages and mob supremacy daily witnessed and lamented; and American speUing-books, dictionaries, and grammar,, teaching them an anti-British dia- lect, and idiom; although living in a province, and being subjects, of the British ciown."* Pp. 262, Appendix.f Ryerson in his special Report to the Legislatuie in 1847 : " I thinlc that less evil arises from the employment of American teachers tlian from the use of Ameri- can text-books. * * * * i< Whatever may bo thought of the wisilotn or ex- pediency of restricting Icg'il certificates of qualification to natural born or nat- uralized Briti! by examiners appointed by the Senate of the University of Upper Canada, and that the claim to all public aid be forfeited if this condition is violated. "3. That all students who have passed the examination of the Senate and graduated in their respective colleges, shall be entitled to rank as graduates of the University of Upper Canada. "4. That the university examinations of candidates shall be held in the respective colleges, where also the degrees shall be conferred. " 5. That in the case of King's College, the till shall pro- vide that corporate powers be conferred upon this institu- tion with provision for the appointment of professors, regulation of salaries, expenditure, &c. ; and for conferring degrees in all the faculties, subject to the same conditions as in the case of the other incorporated affiliated colleges. Also, that the necessary powers for conferring degree" be provided in the case of Eegiopolis College, Kingston. "6. That no degree shall be conferred on any candidate who has not passed through a course of study and attend- ance in some affiliated college, prescribed by the Senate of the University of Upper Canada. "7. That the apportionment of public funds to the affili- atv.O. colleges be fixed and equal, except in the case of King's College, and that Kin . Wesleyan Female College, a proprietary institution in connection with the conference of the Weslevan Meth- odist Church in Canada, was established at the city of Hamilton in 1861. It is designed to furnish a superior ed- ucation in the English branches to young ladies exclusively. The proprietors of the college are an incorporated body, possessed of one or more shares of the value of one hundred dollars each. The officers of the college are eight; viz.: a principal, five female and two male teachers, besides a domestic or house governor, and a chaplain. w^ and VIZ. : a teacli- ember. itutioa Meth- city of ior ed- sively. body, undred viz.: a sides a HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA. 435 The Convents. In nearly every important town of Upper Canada, convents have within the last few years been es- tablished for the instruction of young ladies in the superior branches of an English education. The following are the principal ones, viz.: 1. The Ladies of Loretto. They have a superior convent in Toronto, with, excellent branches at the Niagara Falls, Guelph, and Belleville. A pupil at one institution can be removed to the other without any inconvenience. 2. The Sisters of St. Joseph have also similar convents at Toronto, Barrie, Niagara, and St. Catharines. They also teach the Eoman Catholic Separate Schools at Oakville, Brantford, and Paris. 3. The Sistei-s of the Presentation have an old established convent at Kingston. 4. An UrsuUne convent has been established at Chatham, and a convent under a French order of the Sisters of Charity has been established at Ottawa. The Sisters of Notre Dame have a School at Alexandria. CHAPTEE Y. PROFESSIONAL SOHOOia 1. Schools of Theology. I. — CHURCH or ENGLAND. Although a Royal Charter was obtained in March, 1827, authorizing the institution of a Faculty of Divinity in the proposed University of King's College, at Toronto, it was not until 1843 that a professorship in that faculty was act- ually established. Pending the protracted public discussions on the subject, the Right Reverend Doctor Strachan, Prot- estant-Episcopal Bishop of the diocese, upon the report and recommendation of his three chaplains, founded a diocesan 28 "^pp ■^fl Pi i! I W'\ 'if m,m .J 436 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF KDCCATION IN UPPER CANADA theological college at Cobourg, in December, 1841. This diocesaa college was continued, notwithstanding th« exist- ence of the Church of England professorship of divinity in the University of King's College, from 1843 un«il 1850, (when an alteration was made in that institution, and the divinity professorship abolished,) in consequence of the precarious tenure by which the divinity profesaorship in King's College was held during those years. In 1851, after the professorship of divinity was finally abolished, the bishop undertook the laborious and difficult task of found- ing a purely Church of England university and obtaining a Eoyal Charter for it. This he successfully accomplished; and in January, 1853, he had the satisfaction to preside at the inauguration of Trinity College University, in which there was established a faculty of divinity. The diocesan college at Cobourg was merged into the new university, and in 1853 the students transferred from Cobourg to Toronto. The regulations of the Theological Faculty in Trinity College University are as follows: — " The theological course of Trinity College extends over two years. Any person is eligible for admission to it who has taken the degree of B.A., or who, having attained the age of twenty-one, has passed one year in the Arts Course. " Bachelor of Divinity. Candidates for this degree must be Masters of Arts of at least seven years' standing. The requisite exercises are, — " A Latin and an English thesis, — one on some point of doctrine connected with the Thirty- nine Articles, and the other on some scriptural subject to be appointed by the examiners ; An examination must also be passed in some Latin or Greek treatise or treatises chosen by the examiners; An English sermon must be preached before the university. " Doctor of Divinity. Candidates for this degree must be Bachelors of Divinity of five years' standing. They will be required to write an English and a Latin thesis, as HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA. 437 This exist- lity in 1850, ad the of the ahip in »1, after ed, the ' found- lining a plished; ie at the ch there 1 college , and in •onto. I Trinity mds over to it -who ained the Course, iree must The >g- le thesis, — Tliirty- subject to must also ses chosen preached Tree must lig. They thesis, as in the case of B.D., and to preach an English sermon before the university. " The examiners in divinity shall be the professors of divinity, and two graduates in that faculty, to be appointed by the council." Objections having been made to the character and ten- dency of the theological teachings in Trinity College, To- ronto, the Right Reverend Doctor Cronyn, Bishop of Huron, proposes to establish a theological college in that diocese. A grant of five hundred pounds sterling has been made for this object by the society in England for promoting Chris- tian knowledge. An English gentleman has also given five thousand pounds sterling towards the same object. n. — CHURCH OF ROME. Upper Canada is divided into five Roman Catholic dio- ceses, viz.: Ottawa, Kingston, Toronto, Hamilton, and Sandwich, in each of which, there is a college for the in- struction of youth. In these colleges, there is also provision made for the training of candidates for the priesthood. Regiopolis College, at Kingston, is the oldest of these dio- cesan colleges, and, for a number of years, was the only Roman Catholic college in Upper Canada. Regiopolis College was founded by the late Hon. and Right Rev. Bishop McDonell, who left a legacy by will for this object in 1835. It was opened in 1846 by the Very Reverend Angus Macdonell, Vicar-General, who is its pres- ent president. The general course of study in the college embraces classics, mathematics, philosophy, and theology. The theological course extends over three years. St. Joseph's College, at Ottawa, was founded in 1848, by the Right Reverend Doctor Joseph E. Guigues, first Roman Catholic bishop of the diocese. It is under the direction of the " Society of the Oblates of Mary Immaculate." Its general course is classical and commercial. I'i ' 'ili :'> i: mi mv\% f IP" I t« 438 HISTORICAL SKETCU OI EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA. Its theological course comprises moral and dogmatical theology, and is usually attended by about fifteen students. Already forty priests have been educated at the college, and are now perforniing their functions in various parts of the country. St. Michael's College was established at Toronto in 1852 by some clergymen of the order of St. Basil, under the pat- lonage of the Right Reverend Doctor De Charbonell, 2nd Roman Catholic bishop of Toronto. It is chiefly designed for the instruction of youth in the higher branches of edu- cation, but among its professors is one of divinity. The superior is professor of logic. The course of study in logic and theology extends from four to five years. III. — CHURCH OP SCOTLAND. The Presbyterian Church of Canada, in connection with the Church of Scotland, have a university at Kingston, called Queen's College. In its theological faculty there arc two professors, viz. : the Principal and primarius professor, and the professor of oriental languages, biblical criticism, and church history. The theological course extends over three sessions; the study of Chaldee is only required during one session, while attendance on the Syriac and Arabic classes is optional. TV. — CANADA PRESBYTERIAN CHURCH. The Canada Presbyterian Church now includes the United Presbyterian Church, and the Free Presbyterian Church in Canada. Both bodies had their separate divinity halls, or colleges, until the period of the union in 1861, when they were merged into Knox's (theological) College, Toronto, which had been established by the Free Church in 1844. This college has three professors, viz. : the Principal and pri- marius professor of divinity, the professor of church history and the evidences of Christianity, and the professor of ex- HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA. 43J) egetical theology and philosophy. The course of study ex- tends over six years, including three years in general studies, and three years in theology. The admission to the college is through the various presbyteries, which have the right of examination in order to entrance. A boarding house is attached to the college; but residence is optional. The institution is supported by funds contributed annually by the congregations of the church. The liberality of several individuals and congregations has secured to it a fbw permanent bursaries or scholarships. His Royal Highness the Prince of "Wales, on the invitation of Principal Willis, visited the college in 1860, and afterwards made a donation to it of eight hundred dollars to form a fund for the estab- lishment of annual prizes. The college possesses a museum and also a library of about five thousand volumes, which was established chiefly through the exertions of the Rev. Principal Willis, Rev. Professor Burns, and other friends. V. — THE METHODIST CHURCHES. Although two Methodist bodies in Canada have institu- tions of learning at which many of their ministers attend as secular students, in neither of them is there any provi- sion made for theological training. The different Methodist bodies have, however, a prescribed course of theological study which all candidates for the ministry must complete before ordination and during their four years' probation. The Wesleyan Methodist course of study will be found on page 440. VI. — THE BAPTIST CHURCHES. The only Baptist institution in Upper Canada in which provision is made for theological training is the Canadian Literary Institute at Woodstock. The regulations require candidates to pass an entrance examination. They must also bring letters from theii respective churches, either ll; ■m li' ;Mi i j ; 1 1 440 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA. licensing them to preach or approving of their studying for the ministry. Prior, also, to their full admission, they are required to submit to a committee, chosen by the trustees, a statement of their Christian experience and call to the ministry. The course of study extends over three years. See page 440. VII. — CONQREGATIONAL CBURCH. The Congregationalists of the various provinces have, within the last few years, united their various institutions into one theological college at Toronto, under the name of the " Congregational College of British North America." This college is not endowed, but is supported by annual contributions from the colonial churches, assisted by a grant from the Colonial Missionary Society of England. It is under the control of subscribers, by whom a board of di- rectors is chosen to manage the college. The course of study extends over five sessions of six months each. Upwards of fifty ministers have already been sent out from the insti- tute. The present course includes " the usual branches of a liberal education, embracing the original language of the Scriptures, biblical literature, theology, church history, ho- miletics and pastoral duty. Every candidate for admission into the college is required to present to the directors, — 1. The testimony of the church of which he is a member, and apparent suitableness for the ministry; 2. A written state- ment of the grounds of his conviction that he is called to the work, and his views of Christian doctrine ; 3. Evidence of sufficient literary acquirements — the minimum of which shall be a fair English education." Students are first ad- mitted for one session on probation. No fees are charged for tuition, and assistance is given, when required, towards defraying the expenses of board in private families. Ex aminations are held at the close of each session. The oollege has a valuable library of over two thousand volumes. ■Mill HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UITER CANADA. 44^ BCHEDULE or THEOLOGICAL TEXT OR REFERENCE DOCKS AND COURSE OF STUDT IN THE SEVERAL COLLEGES, ETC. 1. Church of England. Portions of the Septuaglnt ; Liturgy : Proctor on the Book of Com- New Testament in Greek, (chiefly the mon Prayer; Epistles ;) Pearson on the Creed ; ffebrew: Bernard's Guide to the Hooker's Ecclesiasticjil Polity, Book V j Hebrew Student ; \ treatise or treatises of the Fathurs One or more historical or prophetical of the first three centuries ; books of the Old Testament, &c., if( science: Bishop Sanderson's Ecclesiastical History : In th's depart- otures ; De Oblagatione Consei- ment have been used ; Robertson je ; Bishop Butler's Sermons, for the first six centuries ; Hard- by Whewell ; wick for the middle ages and Re- Aristotle, Ethic. Nicom., ii.,iii., iv. ; formation ; and Massing Cerd, for Plato, Resp., ii., iii., iv. ; the English Reformation ; History of Greek Philosophy ; Articles of the Church of England: Pro- History of Moral Philosophy in E g- fessor Harold Browne's Lectures ; land. 2. Church of Some. Bouvier's Institutiones Theologiose ; Cardinal Wiseman's Lectures on Gury, Compendium Theologicse Mor- Science and Revealed Religion ; ralis ; L'Abbe Migne's Cursus Completus St, Liguoris Theologia Moralis ; Sacrsa Scripturte ; Billuart on St. Thomas ; Cursus Completus Sanctorum Patruni . Cardinel Gousset, Theologie morale et Commentaries of Maldonatus ; dogmatique ; Catechismns Concilii Tridentini ; Bishop Kenrick, Theologia moralis et Rodriguez's Christian Perfection ; dogmatica ; Calmet ; Joannes Devoti on Canon Law ; Dixon's Introduction to Sacred Scrip- Summa Theologiae, Sancti Tliomae ; ture ; Baldeschi's Ceremonial ; Bouvier and Rothenflue' i Course of Ceremoniale Episcoporum ; Philosophy ; including Logic, Reeve's Church History ; Metaphysics, and Ethics. Rohrbacher's Church History ; 3. Church of Scotland. Theology : Arnold's First Hebrew Book ; Bible. Hill's Lectures ; Paley's Evidences ; Chaldee: Butler's Analogy ; Greek Testament. Riggs's Manual ; The Bible. Biblical Criticism: Syriac : Greek Testament ; Eadie on Colossians ; Uhlemann's Grammar ; The Bible. Ellicott on Ephesians; Bush's Notes Arabic : on Genesis; Stewart's Grammar ; The Bible. Home's Introduction ; Church History: Wolfe's Hebrew Grammar j Kurty'B Text-book. m d 1.', Ji ' m i4 m 442 UI8T0RI0AL SKETCH OF BDUOATION IN UPPiSR CANADA. 4. Canada Prealytcrian Ohm eh. Systematic Theology — Oells' Institutes Class of Exegetieal Theology— Ellioot j of Theology, with extracts from Eadie on the Epistles ; Calvin ; Alford'fc Greek Testament ; Dr. Willis' Latin Collectanea ; MoiXfj on the Minor Prophets ; Biblical Criticism — Home's Introduc- Mv^tjl and Moral Philosophy, Reid, tion ; with Notes by Sir W. Hamilton — Oass of Evidences of Christianity — Wayland. Butler, Paley. 5. Wesleyan Methodist Church. First year : {Additional for honors : The Bible ; Horner's Introduction ; Smith's Sacred Annals — 1. Patriarchal Wesley's Sermons, (first scries ;) Age : 2. Hebrew People.) Wesley's Christian Perfection 5 Third year: Wesley's Notes on the New Testa- Watson's Theological Institutes, (part ment ; iii. and iv.;) Watson's Theological Institut., (part i.) Pearson on the Creed ; ^Additional for honors : Taylor's Ancient and Modern History. Wesley on Original Sin ; (Additional for honors : Fletcher's Appeal ; Smith's Sacred Annals — 3. Gentile Fletcher's Checks to Antinomianism.) Nations.) Second year : Fourth year : Watson'? Theological Institut., (part ii.) Butler's Analogy, with Teft's Analysis ; Murdoch'^ jklosheim's Ecclesiastical Upham's Mental Philosophy ; History by Reid 5 Whately's Logic nnd Rhetoric ; Dr. G. Smith's History of Methodism ; {Additional for honors: Bangs's History of the Methodist- Examination by miscellaneous questions Episcopal Church. on the foregoing.) 6. Baptist Church. Paley 's Natural Theology; Giesler's Ecclesiastical History ; Wayland's Moral Science ; The New Testament and Septuagint in Paley and Wilson's Evidences of Chris- Greek ; also translations ; tianity ; Analysis and Exegesis in Greek ; Emesti's Principles of Interpretation ; Besides lectures on the genuinene^^ of Hebrew Bible ; Scripture, History of Sacred Criti- Malcolm's Butler's Analogy; cism, Ecclesiastical History, Chris- Jahn's Biblical Archeology ; tian Theology, Pastoral Theology Biblical Geography ; ' Pastoral Duties, &o., &o. HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA. 443 7. Congregational Church Books of Reference : 1. In Systematic Theology : Calvin's Institutes; The works of Howe, Edwards, and Dwiglit ; Knapp, Dick, and Wardlaw's Theology; Dr. Pye Smith's First Lines ; Payne's Lectures ; Watson's Institutes. 2. In Biblical Criticism, and Interpret tation : Home's Introduction ; Davidson's Introduction to the New Testament ; Westcott on the Gospels ; Alexander's Christ and Christianity ; EUicott's Life of Christ ; Ernesti's Institutes ; Plank's Sacred Philology ; Davidson's Biblical Criticism and Her- meneutics ; Fairbain's Hermeneutical Manual ; Kitto, Ilerzog, and Smith's Cyclope- dias; 2. Schools of Law. On the Evidences : Butler, Campbell, Paley, Watson, Chalmers, «&c.; On the Grnek Testament : Alford, El- licott, Winer, Benzu, and Oerhau- sen. 3. In Church History : Reid's Murdoch's Mosheim, Nean- der, Giesler, Hase, Kurty, Schaff, Bower's Lives of the Popes ; Milman's Latin Christianity ; (Bohn's) Greek Eeciesiast. Historians ; Hagenback's History of Doctrine ; Neander's Christian Dogmas ; Bingham's and Coleman's Antiquities ; Chase's Apostolical Constitutions. 4. In Church Government: John Owen, David Clarkson ; Wardlaw's Congregational Indepen- dency ; Davidson's Church Polity of the New Testament ; 5. On Bapiism : Wardlaw, Ewing, L. Woods, Beecher, Wilson, and Halley. -THE LAW SCHOOL OP OSOOODE HALL. " In Upper Canada, the profession of the law is divided into two branches, each subject to its own peculiar regula- tions, and, to a certain extent, independent of the other, though generally the one person practices in both. They are, barristers^ or persons authorized to ^^ plead ai the bar" of the courts of law or equity, and to take upon them the advising and defense of clients, and from whom all judges, Queen's counsel, and attorneys and solicitors general are selected; and attorneys and solin'tors, or persons authorized to " appear in the courts " ii ^e place and on behalf of others, tp prosecute and defend actions on the retainer B^mmm 444 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA. of clients. The only distinction between these two latter is, that *' attorney " is the title adopted in the courts of com- mon law, and " solicitor " the title adopted in the courts of equity." — [Cajiada Educational Directory, p. 94. In the study of law, the course presciibed by the Law Society for Upper Canada takes precedence.* Students who have already passed through a three or four years' university course of law studies are still required, if they wish to become barristers at law, to begin de novo, and continue as students of the Law Society for three years longer. While those who are not university graduates are only required to remain on the books of the Law Society as students for five years. All students must be at least sixteen years of age; they must attend term lectures, and must re- ceive their professional education under the superintendence of some barrister. In order to facilitate the education of the students, the Law' Society has arranged *' that +,he tuition of the pupils attending the law school shall be by means of lectures, readings, and mootings; that there shill be four readers, viz. : the reader on common law, the : Aer on equity, the reader on commercial law, and the reader on the law of real property ; that in addition to the lectures in term, there shall be lectures during the three educational terms of each * Tlie Law Society of Upper Canada was established in 1797, b)' the Act 37 George III., cap. 13, which enabled the then practitioners of the law to form themselves into a society, " for the purpose of securing to the country and the profossion a learned and honorable body, to assist their fellow-subjicts as occasion may require, and to support and maintain the constitution of the province." By the same act, the judges of the superior courts were consti- tuted visitors, with authority to sanction such rules as they considered necessary for the good government of the society. In 1822, the society was incorporated by the Act, 2 George IV., cap. 5, and its functions vested in the treasurer and benchers for the time being, elected according to the by-laws of the society, much in the same manner as in the law societies of Great Britain and Ireland. The benchers sit in convocation every law term, for the admission of students anl barristers, and for other business. — [Canada Educational Directory, p. 96 HISTOUICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA. 445 year; whicli shall continue for six consecutive weeks each. The attendance on the lectures of the educaiional term is, however, voluntary. In order to give an additional st'mu- lus to the study of law in Upper Canada, the society has established four scholarships (one for each year's course) which are open to any student on the society's books, whether pupils of the law school or not. These scholar ships are of the respective values of one hundred and twenty, one hundred and sixty, two hundred, and two hundred and forty dollars per annum, and are payable quarterly. The readers deliver the lectures, hold readings, and preside at fnootings or the moot courts. The charge for attendance at the law school is one dollar per term. Students of the Law Society are admitted upon examination in one of the three following classes, viz. : the university class, the senior class, and the junior class. The examina- tion in the university and the senior classes is the same, and includes Greek, Latin, mathematics or metaphysics, astron- omy, ancient and modern geography and history; the ex- amination in the junior class is in Latin, mathematics, English history, and modern geography. Every candidate for admission to the bar must be of the full age of twenty-one years. He must pass an examina- tion in writing and also ore tenus. These examinations are divided into two classes, viz. : for " call " simply, or for " call, with honors." Every student on being called to the bar must appear before the convocation in a barrister's gown for the purpose of being presented to the superior courts by a bencher of the society. Candidates for admission as attorneys and solicitors must pass a similar examination, and receive a " certificate of fitness," but are not required to pass an entrance or matriculation examination as students of the Law Society. TLey must, however, have completed the whole term of their articles under the instruction of ni li i|!f ' 44(,» HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN KPPEB ri^NADA. some attorney or attorneys previou;' to their examination for a *' certificate of fitness."* II. — UNIVKESITT OF TOEONTO LAW COUHSE. No lectures are delivered in the faculty of law in this university; but the following are the requisites for obtain- ing the degree of LL.B.'in the ordinary course: — Having matriculated in the faculty of law; Being of the standing of four years from matriculation; Having passed in each of those years the examinations prescribed in the statute respecting *' subjects of examina- tion in the faculty of law; " Being of the full age of twenty-one years. The following are the requisites for obtaining the degree of LL.D.:— Having been admitted to the degree of LL.B. ; Being of ten years' standing from admissio. to the degree of LL.B. or of M.A.; * In an address by the late Sir John B. Robinson, Bart., to the students of the Jjaw Society, on the occasion of his retirement from the office of Chief-Justice of Uppor Canada, (after thirty-two years' service,) he thus sums up the " changes which have taken place in the condition of law students " since he first studied law in 1807 : 1. The period of study has been reduced two years in favor of graduates in arts or law ; 8. Term lectures are delivered on the different branches of law ; 3. The whole of the statutes have been simplified and consolidated ; 4. Much that was formerly difficult and embarrassing in the mere technicality of law has by late changes been swept away. lie strongly advises students " to make some one branch of the law an especial object of study — resolving to know, so far as it may be possible for you, every thing that can be known in it, meaning and hoping to become in time an admitted author- ity in that particular department of the law, whether your inclination and judgment shall lead you to select the criminal law, the law of real property, commercial law, or pleading generally, or practice generally. Such a course would, I believe, insure to the person who pursues it the advantage of soon being generally and favorably known. He would acquire a reputation which must advance him in his profession, secure for him the confidence and respect of his legal brethren, and make his services sought after by those who hava valuable interests to protect." HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA. 447 Having composed an approved thesis upon some subject in law. Four scholarships of the value of one hundred and twenty dollars each are distributed annually to students in this faculty; each successful candidate must sign a declara- tion of his intention to proceed to a degree in the Univer- sity of Toronto. A gold and a silver medal, certificates of honor, and prizes in books, are also distributed annually among the successful students. 111. — UNIVERSITY OF QUEKN'S COLLEGK LAW COUKSE. The law course in Queen's College extends over three years. Candidates must pass a matriculation examination, unless they have already passed a similar examination in any college, or have been admitted as students of the Law Society for Upper Canada. Lectures are delivered by three professors. rv. — UNIVERSITT op victoria college law COURSE. The law course in Victoria College extends over four years. Candidates must pass a matriculation examination, unless they have been admitted as barristers by the Law Society of Upper Canada. A student of three years' standing in arts may enter at the examination for the second year; and a graduate in the same faculty may enter at the third year examination. No lectures are given, but annual examinations in the subjects prescribed are held. V. — university op trinity college law course. No lectures in law have been given since the law course was opened at Osgoode Hall by the Law Society. .'.•.- •'!. %m^ 448 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA. SCHEDULE OP THE LAW COURSE IN THE SEVERAL UNIVEU8ITIBB, ETC. Law Society for Upper Canada. Law Scholarships — First Tear: 1. Stephen's Blackstone, Vol i. 2. Stephen on Pleading. 3. Williams on Personal Property. 4. Story's Equity Jurisprudence, from § 440. Second Tear: 1. Williams on Real Property. 2. Best on Evidence. 3. Smith on Contracts. 4. Story's Equity Jurisprudenoe. Third Tear: 1. Real Property : Statutes of U. C. 2. Stephen's Blackstone, Book V. 3. Bylos on Bills. 4. Ilaynes's Outlines of Equity. 5. Coote on Mortgages. Fourth Tear : 1. Burton on Real Property. 2. Russell on Crimes. 3. Common Law : Pleading and Prac- tice. 4. Smith's Mercantile Law. 5. Dart on Vendors and Purchasers. 6. Mitford on Pleading. 7. Equity Pleading and Practice. Examination of Barristers for CaU: I. Blackstone's Commentaries, Vol. i. 2. University of Toronto. 2. Addison on Contracts. 3. Smith's Mercantile Law. 4. Williams on Real Property. 5. Story's Equity Jurisprudenoe. 6. Stephen on Pleading. 7. Taylor on Evidence. 8. Byles on Bills. 9. Public Statutes of Upper Canada. 10. Pleadings and Practice of the Su- perior Courts of Upper Canada. Additional for Call, with Honors : 11. Russell on Crimes. 12. Story on Partnership. 13. Walkins's Principles of Convey- ancing. 14. Coote on Mortgages. 15. Dart on Vendors and Purchasers. 16. Jarman on Wills. 17. Story's Conflict of Laws. 18. Justinian's Institutes. Certificate of Fitness for Attorneys : 1. Blackstone's Commentai-ies, Vol. i. 2. Smith's Mercantile Law. 3. Williams on Real Property. 4. Story's Equity Jurisprudence. 5. Statute Laws of Upper Canada. 6. Pleading and Practice of the Courts. 1. Demosthenes, Olynthiacs. 2. Cicero, Orationes in Catilinum, pro Arohia et pro Maroello. 3. Logical and Rhetorical Forms in Fowler's English Language. 4. History of English Literature, from Elizabeth to Anno, in Spaulding's English Literature. 5. Macaulay's History ; from Charles i. to William iii., inclusive. 6. Hallam's Middle Ages, chapters i. and ii., with Appendix. 7. Murray's Logic. 8. Wayland's Moral Philosophy. 9. Whately's Political Economy. Additional for Honors • , 1. Demosthenes' Philippics. 2. Cicero, pro Milone. 3. Translation from Latin into English Prose. i II rwm HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA. 449 4. Analysb of one of Shakespeare's 2. Mitford's Pleading in Equity. plays. 3. Burton's Compendium of the Law 5. Whately's Synonyms. of Real Property. 6. Trench's English, Past and Present. 4. Archbold's Landlord and Tenant. 7. Trench's Study of Words. 5. Addison on Contracts. 8. Moliere, Le Misanthrope. 6. Westlake's Conflict of Laws. 9. Translation from English into Candidates for LL.B.: French. 1. Taylor on Evidence. 2. Sugden on Vendors and Purchase™, 10. Hallain's Middle Ages, chapter viii.; parts i., ii., iii. 3. Jarman on Wills. 11. Smith's Wealth of Nations, books 4. Blackstone, Vol. iv. i., ii., iii., iv. 5. Justinian's Institutes. Second Tear : 6. Gibbon's Roman Empire, chap. xliv. 1. Hallam's Constitutional History. 7. Arnold's Rome, chapters xiii., xiv., 2. Austin's Province of Jurisprudence. xvi., xxvi. 3. Smith's Equity Jurisprudence. Additional for Honors: 4. Williams on Real Property. 5. Smith's Mercantile Law. 8. Sugden on Powers. 6. Bowyer's Civil Law. 9. Wheaton's International Law. Tliird Year: 10. Mackeldey, Systema Juris Ro- 1, Cox's British Commonwealth. man!. 3. University of Queen's College. First Tear: 5. Statutes of Upper Canada. 1. Stephens on Pleading. Third Tear: 2. Stephens's Blackstone's Commenta- 1. Williams on Real Property. ries, Vol. i. 2. Story's Equity Jurisprudence. 3. Burton on Real Property. 3. Pleadings and Practice of the Courts Second Tear: of Law and Equity. 1. Addison on Contracts. 4. Archbold's Landlord and Tenant 2. Smith's Mercantile Law. 5. Jarman on Wills. 3. Taylor on Evidence. 6. Sugden on Vendors and Purchasem. 4. Chitty on Bills. 4. University of Victoria College. || First Year: 7. Whately and Hamilton's Logic 1. Cicero, Pro Archia. 8. Statutes relating to the Constitution 2. Demosthenes, De Corona. of Canada. 3. Montesquieu, Esprit des Lois, Book 9. Wayland's Moral Science. ii., chapter 6. Second Tear: 4. Whately's Political Economy. 1. Hallam's Constitutional History. 5. Brougham's British Constitution. 2. Smith's Wealth of Nations. 6. Blackstone's Commentaries, Vols. i. 3. Powell on Evidence. and ii. 4. Drewry's Equity Pleading. f - A ■111 ,.--,yr i ■^iivii mm p iiK n r ^■Ifl l'% It:- h ;■ m WMl' I ft iH^^^^^^^^^B W ' ' ' ^y'arf?; IIk B^M' 1,1 ssiiuuiii if ; ' -T* 1 Hill B T'l^^^^^l 11: 1 ' ''^'i m ^B ''Ji ' m ^11 I'M ^■ll iiiP a*' t< v.; I ■ i II |:;|l|j|j RRII im g| pP-t ■1 i||,:^^ 11 P*-^ , M J ■" 1 r'l* H 1 tel:-! ^H ' 4.50 HISTOKICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA. 5. Stephen on Pleading. 6. Blackstone, Vol. iii. 7. Smith on Contracts. Third Year: 1. Smith's Mercantile Law. 2. Bylee on Bills. 3. Walkins on Conveyancinjf. 4. Williams on Real Property. 5. Story's Equity .Jurisprudence, Vol. i. 6. Justinian's Institutes. 7. Upper Canada Statutes relating to Real Property and Commercial Law, Fouilh Year: 1. Bentham's Theory of Legislation. 2. Story's Equity, Vol. ii. 3. Taylor on Evidence. 4. Addison on Contracts. 5. Russell on Crimes. C. Blackstone, Vol. iv. 7. Upper Canada Statutes relating to the Administration of Justice and Criminal Law. 3. Schools of Medicine. In addition to the ordinary schools of medicine connected rilL the universities, there are three medical boards in Upper Canada for the examination and licensing of candi- dates desiring to practice physic, surgery, and midwifery. These three are (1.) The " Medical Board of Upper Canada," which me6ts quarterly in the Toronto General Hospital; (2.) The " Homeopathic Medical Board of Canada," which meets in Toronto half-yearly; and (3.) The "Eclectic Med- ical Board," which annually meets in Toronto. I. — UNIVERSITY OP TORONTO MEDICAL COURSE. No lectures are gi^ en in the medical faculty of this uni- versity ; but the following are the requisites for admission to the degree of Bachelor of Medicine in the ordinary course : 1. Having matriculated in the faculty of medicine, or having matriculated and passed one other examination in either of the faculties of law or arts; 2. Being of the full age of twenty-one years; 3. Having pursued medical studies for the period of at least four years, and having regularly attended lectures thereon ; 4. Having passed in this university an examination in all the medical subjects specified; 5. Producing satisfactory certificates of good conduct. rm^' HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA. 451 The following are the requisites for admission to the degree of M. D. : — Having been admitted to the degree of M, B. ; being of one year's standing from admission to the degree of M. B. ; and having composed an approved thesis upon some medi- cal subject. Four scholarships of the value of one hundred and twenty dollars each are distributed annually to students in this faculty ; each successful candidate must sign a declara- tion of his intention to proceed to a degree in the University of Toronto. II. — UNlVEitSITT OP queen's COLLEGE MEDICAL COURSE. The faculty of medicine in this university was established in 1854. It includes seven professors and the president. The period of instruction extends over four years. Attend- ance on full course of daily lectures in at least two classes is required. One year's instruction under a qualified medi- cal practitioner is received as equivalent to a year's attend- ance at college. Each candidate for a degree must be twenty-one years of age, and must present a certificate of good moral character, with a statement of his literary, scientific, and medical studies. He must also submit an original thesis for the approval of the faculty. At the end of the third year a primary examination takes place, and a final examination at the end of the fourth year. These examinations are held both in writing and viva voce. HI. — UNIVERSITY OP VICTORIA COLLEGE MEDICAL COURSE. The faculty of medicine in this university was established at Toronto, in 1854, by the merging of what was then called the Toronto, or Rolph's, School of Medicine, (founded by the Hon. Dr. Rolph in 1843,) into the university. It now em- braces eight professors, (including an assistant,) and the dean 29 f; i ^ 452 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDCOATION IN UPPER CANADA. of the faculty. The period of instruction extends over four years ; but, if found duly qualified, a st\ideut may graduate in three years. Each candidate for a degree must be twenty-one years of age, and must compose, for the approval of the faculty, a thesis upon some medical subject. IV. — TORONTO SCHOOL OF MEDICINE. As this institution, although incorporated in 1851, can not confer degrees of itself, it is affiliated with the Univer sity of Toronto for that purpose ; its examinations are con- ducted in that university, and upon the result of those examinations the medical degrees are conferred upon its students. There are eight lecturers in the school, in- cluding its president. In addition to its own museum, the medical museum of the Toronto university has been placed in its charge, and forms a valuable collection for the use of students. SCHEDULE OP THE MEDICAL COURSE IN THE SEVERAL UNIVERSITIEa, ETC. Matriculation : Sallust, Catilina ; Arithmetic and Algebra, in part ; English Grammar and Composition ; English History ; Ancient and Modern Geography ; Elements of Chemistry ; Elements of Physiology ; Elements of Botany. For Degree of M.B.: Examination in the following sub- jects : Having attended two courses of lec- tures of six months each* on Anatomy, Physiology, * Or having attended one courte of liz twelve cfttes of labour. 1. University of Toronto. Practical Anatomy, Theory and Practice of Medicine, Principles and Practice of Surgery, Chemistry, Midwifery and Diseases of Women and Children ; Having attended one course of lectures for six months on Therapeutics and Pharmacology ; Having attended one course of three months on Practical Chemistry, Medical Jurisprudence ; Having attended twelve months' prac- tice at some general hospital, and six months' clinical lectures on Medicine and Surgery. monthi with certificate of having auiited at er four raduate ears of faculty, 151, can Univer are con- if those ipon its tool, in- nuseum, las been ;tion for riES, ETC. dicine, Surgery, jf Women 3 of leoturea ology; se of three onths' prac- }ital, and six on Medicine ing assisted at HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA. 453 2. Queen's College, Kingston. Ufalriatlaiion : CsBsar'a Commentaries ; London Pharmacopoeia, or Gregory's Conspectus. For Degree of M.D.: Examination on the following sub- jeota: Having attended two courses of six months each on Anatomy, Practical Anatomy, Principles and Practice of Surgery, Theory rnd Practice of Medicine, Materia Medica and Pharmacy, Chemistry, Obstetrics and Diseases of Women and Children, Institutes of Medicine ; Having attended two courses of three months each, or one of six months, on Clinical Medicine, Clinical Sur- gery; Hospital, twelve months. 3. Victoria College, Cdbourg. Principles and Practice of Surgery, Principles and Practice of Medicine, Materia Medica and Therapeutics, Chemistrj", Midwifery and the Diseases of Women and Children, Clinical Medicine and Surgery ; Having attended one course of six months on Medical Jurisprudence and Pathology. Matriculation : Sallust, CaUlina ; London Pharmacopoeia, Gregory's Conspectus, or any other Latin author. Ibr Degree of M.D.: Examination in the following sub- jects: Having attended two courses of six months each on Descriptive and Surgical Anatomy, Physiology, 4. Toronto School of Medicine. The same as that of the University of Toronto. 4. Schools of Teaching. I. — THE NOKMAL SCHOOL FOR TTPPER CANADA. The establishment of a normal school for the training of teachers, as a necessary part of a national system of educa- tion, engaged attention in Upper Canada in 1836. But no detailed plan by which that object could be accomplished was recommended to the legislature until the presentation, in 1846, of a " Keport on a System of Public Elementary Instruction for Upper Canada," by the Rev. Dr. Ryerson, Chief Superintendent of Education. Practical effect was immediately given to these recommendations, by the passing j! 454 ilSTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA. of a school law embodying the general features of the sys- tem sketched out in that report, — appropriating $6,000 foi furnishing suitable buildings, and an annual grant of an equal amount for the support of the school. After the necessary arrangements hud been completed, the Normal School for Upper Canada was opened on the 1st of No- vember, 1847, in the old Government House, Toronto, in the presence of a large number of gentlemen from different parts of the province. T' ^ institution having proved entirely successful, and m 'd enlarged premises having become necessary, the legi. are, at its session in 1850, appropriated $60,(' '0 for tlie purchase of a site and erection of buildings, and ' ad- ditional $40,000 in 1852, making in all $100,000. ''he corner-stone of the new buildings was laid on the 2nd of July, 1851, by His Excellency the Earl of Elgin and Kin- cardine, in the presence of the members of both branches of the legislature, the judges, cl-^rgy, and the citizens of Toronto. The premises were formally opened by a public meeting in the theatre of the institution, on the 24th of November, 1852. The institution consists of a normal school and two model schools (one each for boys and girls;) the normal school is the school of instruction by lecture, — the model school the school of instruction by practice. The one hun- dred and fifty students in the former are teachers-in-training, whose ages vary from sixteen or eighteen to thirty, while the hundred and fifty pupils in each of the latter are chil- dren between the ages of five and sixteen years. In the normal school, the teachers-in-training are instructed in the principles of education and the best methods of communi- cating knowledge to the youth placed under their care — are " taught how to teach ; " in the model schools they are taught to give practical effect to those instructions by teachers pre- viously trained in the normal school, and under the direction n ad- he syg- OOO fot b of an fter the N'ormal of No- ), in the lifferent ■n\ and ary, the ,0'>0 for d 0. 2nd of md Kin- branches tizens of a public 24th of and two e normal le model one hun- •training, ;y, while are chil- In the ,ed in the ommuni- care — are ire taught jhers pre- direction HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA. 455 of the head master. The model schools are designed, both by the system of instruction pursued and general arrange- ment, to be the model for all the public schools in Upper Canada. The principal general regulations for admission of the students to the normal school are as follows: — I. No male student shall be admitted under eighteen years of age, or a female student under the age of sixteen years. 1. Those admitted must produce a certificate of good moral character, dated within at least three months of its presentation, and signed by the clergyman or minister of the religious persuasion with which they are connected. 2. They must be able, for entrance into the junior division, to read with ease and fluency; parse a common jirose sen- tence according to any recognized authority; write legibly, readily, and correctly; give the definitions of geography; have a general knowledge of the relative position of the principal countries with their capitals, the oceans, seas, rivers, and islands of the world; be acquainted with the fundamental rules of arithmetic, common or vulgar frac- tions, and simple proportion. They must sign a declaration of their intention to devote themselves to the profession of school-teaching, and state that their object in coming to the normal school is to qualify themselves better for the impor tant duties of that profession. II. Upon these conditions, candidates for school-teaching will be admitted to the advantages of the institution with- out any charge, either for tuition, the use of the library, or for the books which they may be required to use in the school. III. Teachers-in-training must board and lodge in the city, in such houses and under such regulations as are approved of by the council of public instruction. IV. A sum at the rate of one dollar per week (payable at the end of the session,) will be allowed to each teacher-in- ! h. i 456 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA. V 1 ii\ ■.1iJ''^i''i It , h training who, at the end of the first or second session, shall be entitled to either a first or second class provincial certifi* cal"; but no teacher-in-training shall be entitled to receive aid for a period exceeding ore session, and no resident ol the city of Toronto shall be entitled to receive aid. V. The continuance in the school of the teachers-in- training is conditional upon their diligence, progress, and observance of the general regulations prescribed. Each session to be concluded by an examination conducted by means of written questions and answers. On the establishment, in 1857, of an educational museum and a model grammar school, it v;as found necessary to provide further accommodation, and to remove the normal school to another part of the premises. "With this view, a large additional building was erected, at a cost, including fittings, of about $35,000, in rear of the main structure, having a handsome front facing on Gerrard Street. To this building was transferred, in 1858, the normal school — the model grammar school being then but newly opened. II.— THE MODEL ORAMMAU SCHOOL FOR UPPER CANADA. The Model Grammar School was designed not only to exhibit the best system of grammar school organization, discipline, and teaching, but it was also intended as a train- ing school for masters and assistant masters of grammar schools in Upper Canada. The regulations of the training department of this school are as follows : — 1. No fees will be charg d to students admitted in this department; and eo'*^ cstuuent, if approved at the end of each term, may be assisted during one year to the amount of a dollar per week, towards the payment of his board. 2. Each student must sign a declaration to become a grammar school teacher in Upper Canada. 3. Graduates of universities in Her Majesty's dominions ^'\\l be admitted without examination, and be aided by such tti m, sliall ,1 certifi* receive ident ol cliers-in- ess, and 1. Each icted by museum jssary to e normal s view, a ncluding structure, reet. To school — apened. t only to anization, IS a train - grammar his school 3d in this he end of le amount i board, become a dominions jd by such BiSTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA. 457 instruction and practice as may qualify them for the special duties of organizing, teaching, and managing a grammar school, and will receive a certificate accordingly. 4. A student who is not a graduate of some university in Her Majesty's dominions must be at least twenty years of age, and pass an entrance examination in the subjects for matriculation in arts in the Provincial University. 5. He will receive instruction in ail the subjects required by law, to qualify for the mastership of giammar schools, as also in the best methods of teaching and managing schools. Each student on leaving the school will receive, if approved, a certificate from the rector, in addition to his legal certificate of qualifications from the committee of ex- aminers, according to his attainments and merits. The general management of both institutions is intrusted to the council of public instruction appointed by the Crown ; and their governmental superintendence, together with the executive management of the grammar and common schools of Upper Canada, to the chief superintendent of education. CHAPTER VI. UNIVERSITIES. Having already alluded in this paper to the faculties of law, medicine, &c., in the four universities of Upper Canada, it may be considered sufficient in this place briefly to refer to each university separately^ and to give, in a schedule, the course of study in the remaining faculty of arts. i. The University of Toronto. This institution is simply an examining body, and confers degrees in the faculties of arts, law, and medicine. Its his- tory has been very varied since its first establishment .4 M I i I 458 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF KDUOATION IN UPPER CANADA. in 1842, when, as King's College, it united the functions of a college with those of a university. Since 1853, these functions have been separate; and the two institutions are now designated respectively the University of Toronto and University College, Toronto. This latter institution is designed for teaching only. It has nine professors, including a president and a lecturer and tutor. Its lecture courses are delivered in the handsome University Buildings, University Park. Its annual income, including that of the University of Toronto, is nearly $55,000. The value of that part of the original grant of lands, already sold, is about $1,500,000. The regulations of the University of Toronto and of Uni- versity College in regard to the faculty of arts are as follows: Degree of B. A. — Candidates, on entering, must produce satisfactory certificates of age and of good conduct. The regular mode of proceeding to the degree of B. A. is by passing the five annual examinations prescribed; but students may enter at any of the annual examinations on certain conditions. Candidates for the degree of B. A. who arc not students in any affiliated college must, in each of the years succeeding that in which they matriculated, pass an examination in the subjects appointed for such year. Degree of M. A. — Candidates for the degree of M. A. must have been admitted to the degree of B. A. ; must be of the standing of one year from admission to the degree of B. A. ; and must have composed an approved thesis upon some subject in one of the departments in the faculty of arts. Eight scholarships are annually offered for competition — at the matriculation examination, and at the end of the first, second, and third years' examinationvS, and five at the final examination. Each scholarship is of the value of one hundred and twenty dollars a year. Each scholarship is tenable for one year only ; but the scholars of one year HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA. 459 are eligible for the scliolarships of the succeeding years. No student can hold two scholarships at the same time; but if two or more scholarships have been awarded to him, he will be entitled to the sum of forty dollars for each ad- ditional scholarship, his scholarship being called a double, triple, &c., scholarship, as the case may be, and the senate may award the remainder of the value of each additional scholarship to the student who would next have been entitled to it. All scholars will be required to sign a dec- laration that it is their intention to proceed to a degree in the University of Toronto. Gold and silver medals, prizes in books, and certificates of honour are also given to the most successful students. 2. The University of Victoria College, Cobourg This institution originated with the Wesleyan Methodist Church in 1828, and is still under its control. It was erected through the efforts of members of that churcb, aided by a provincial grant of $16,400. It was first opened as " Upper Canada Academy," under a royal charter, in 1832, and for eight years was attended by male and female pupils. In 1840, it was by the legislature erected into a college and university ; and in October, 1841, it wao formally opened, as such, under the principalship of the Rev. Dr. Rycrson. It now contains three faculties, — those of arts, law, and medicine. It has no permanent endow- ment; but it is supported by voluntary contributions and fees, supplemented by an annual parliamentary grant of $5,000, and also $1,000 to the faculty of medicine. Its annual income from these sources (not including the medi- cal faculty) amounts to about $9,500. The number of professors and tutors in the faculties of arts ai^d medicine, including the president, is fourteen. The number of stu- dents is about two hundred, not including preparatory students. ■''iSL H'i I,' );l>j 460 HI8T0 RIC AL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPI BR CANADA. The regulations of the university, in regard to the faculty of arts, are as follows: — Degree of B. A. — After matriculation the course of study embraces four years ; on the satisfactory completion of which> students are admitted to the degree of Bachelor of Arts. Attendance on lectures during the entire four years is requisite to graduation. Any student not intending to graduate may pursue a special or elective course, selecting such studies as his circumstances may require. For the accommodation of such students, special classes are formed in natural philosophy, logic, rhetoric, meta- physics, and other subjects. Degree of M. A. — This degree is conferred, in course, on all Bachelors in Arts of three years' standing, whose mental improvement and moral character have appeared satisfactory to the authorities of the university. Medals, Prizes in Books, &c. — The Prince of Wales gold and a silver medal, with various prizes in books, are given to the most successful students. 3. The Universily of Qiteen's College, Kingston. Queen's College University received a royal charter in 1841. It is under the control of the Presbyterian Church of Canada in connection with the Church of Scotland; and is mainly supported by the voluntary f^.ontributions of members and societies of that church, both in Canada and Scotland. It is the only university in Upper Canada which contains the four faculties of arts, theology; law, and medi- cine. Its endowment fund amounts to $101,738, and its annual income to about $13,300, including a parliamentary grant of $5,000 to the faculty of arts, and $1,000 to the faculty of medicine; besides $1,703 from the colonial com mittee of the Church of Scotland to the faculty of theology The number of professors in four faculties is eighteen, in- cluding the principal. The number of students in these s^^.veral faculties is about one hundred and eighty. I HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA. 461 The regulations of the university, in regard to the facultj of arts, are as follows: — Degree of B. A. — The degree of B.A. is obtained by attending the courses of lectures in arts extending over three years, and by passing the prescribed examination. Degree of M. A. — The degree of M. A. can be taken only after an interval of two years from the date of graduation as B. A. The candidate must compose a satisfactory thesis on a professional or other subject selected by himself and approved by the faculty. Graduates will be ranked in three classes: 1. Those who simply pass; 2. Those who pass with honors; 3. Those who pass with highest honors. A student is not entitled to highest honors unless he has gained honors in each of the departments of classics, mathematics, natural history, moral philosophy, and English literature. Scholarships and Prizes. — Twenty scholarships of the annual value of from twenty to eighty dollars, and tenable from one to three years, are at the disposal of the college. Prizes, including the Prince of Wales prize, are also given to the most successful students. 4. TJie University of Trinity College^ Toronto. On the passage of the law in 1849, changing King's College into the University of Toronto, the venerable bishop of Toronto (the Eight Reverend Doctor Strachan,) undertook the establishment of Trinity College as a Church of England university. The buildings for the university were erected at a cost of nearly $55,000. About $200,000 were collected to form its endowment. The annual income of the college is about $17,000. The number of professors is seven, including the provost, or head of the college. The regulations of this university in regard to the faculty of arts are as follows: — Degree of B. A. — All candidates for the degree of B. A. V-TOl i.J V i Bsam M III! l?*ll 462 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA. must be matriculated students of Trinity College, and have kept nine complete terms. They will be required by the university to pass two examinations. Ist. The previous examination, which will take place at the end of the Lent term in the second year. The names of those who pass this examination will be arranged in two classes, in alphabetical order, — the first class consisting of those who shall pass with credit; the second, of those to whom the examiners shall only not refuse their certificate of approval. Any one who shall absent himself from the proper ex- aminations of his year without the written approval of the vice-chancellor, will not be allowed the Lent term of that year. ' Those who fail to satisfy the examiners must present themselves at the examination in the following year. 2nd. The examination for the degree of B. A. which will take place at the beginning of the tenth term from matricu- lation. Those who shall have been approved at this examination may present themselves for further examination for honours in chissics or mathematics. The honour examination will take place shortly after the examination for the ordinary degree of B. A. The result of each honour examination will be published in three classes, in order of merit. Provision for admitting candidates to Degrees in Arts, by examination, without residence. — In consideration of the small opportunity which the inhabitants of the province have hitherto possessed of availing themselves of a univer- sity education, the corporation have resolved to admit can- didates to degrees in arts, by examination, without residence or attendance at lectures, for the space of five years, beginning from October, 1860, under the following regulations: — 1. All candidates shall be members of the United Church of England and Ireland; passing HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA. 463 2. They shall produce testimonials of good conduct and attainment, signed by at least one parochial clergyman and two laymen of respectability ; 3. They shall also satisfy the corporation that profes- sional duties preclude the possibility of their through a regular college course ; 4. No candidate shall be less than twenty-five years of age; 5. These regulations shall in no way affect the regulations already made respecting students in divinity; 6. Candidates shall pass the several university examina- tions — that is to say, the examination for matriculation, the previous examination, and the examination for the degree of B. A., at the usual intervals. N. B. — Under this statute, candidates may be admitted to the matriculation examination for the first time in October, 1860, and for the last time in October, 1864. Scholarships. — Twenty scholarships and exhibitions, ten- able from one to three years, and of the annual value of from eighty to two hundred dollars, are at the disposal of the college. Any person offering himself as a candidate for admission is required to produce testimonials of good conduct, and to pass a matriculation examination. Every candidate for admission must have tntered on his sixteenth year; for a scholarship, on his seventeenth year. Medal and Prizes in Books. — A medal and various prizes in books are also given to the most successful students. BOHKDULE OP THE COURSE OF STUDY AND TEXT-BOOKS IN THE FACULTY Of ARTS IN THE FOLLOWING UNIVERSITIES:* 1. Matriculation : Xenoplion's Anabasis, book i.; Sa'.lust's Catilina ; Virgil's ^neid, book ii.; Latin Prose Composition ; University of Twonto, Arithmetic, to end of square root j Algebra, first four rules ; Euclid, book !.; English Grammar ; Outlines of English History ; * Not inoluding the honour coucso, tvhich includes options, &o. ffCi'l^ I h V 1 464 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF KDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA. Outlines of Roman History, to death of Medieval History; 1 Nero ; British History ; ' ' • Grecian History, to death Chemistry and Chemical Physios ; 1 of Alexander ; Mineralogy and Geology ; 1 Ancient and Modern Ge- Murray's Logic ; j ography. Wayland's Moral Philosophy ; First year: Locke, books ii., iii., and iv.j Homer's Iliad, book vi.; Third year : Lucian's Vita and Charon ; Sophocles, (Ed i pus Rex; Virgil's ^neid, book vi.j Herodotus, book ii.; Cicoro, de Amicitia Horace, Satires and Epistles ; Latin Prose Composition j Livy, book v.; Arithmetic ; Latin Prose Composition ; Algebra ; Hydrostatics, Optics ; Euclid, books i.-vi. French Composition ; Plane Trigonometry ; Racine's Phedre and Athalie ; English Composition ; Bossuet's Oraisons Funebres ; English Language and Literature ; French Liter.iture ; French Grammar ; German Grammar, &c.; Montesquieu's Grandeur et Decadence German Composition ; dcs Romaines ; Lessing's Minna von Barnhelm ; Ancient History ; German Literature; British History ; Modern History ; Elements of Chemistry ; British History ; " Physiology ; Chemistry ; " Botany ; Comparative Physiology ; Paley's Natural Theology j Vegetable Physiology, &c.; Paley's Evidences. Reid's Intellectual Powers ; Second year: Stewart's Moral and Active Powers ; Homer's Odyssey, book xi.; Whately's Political Economy. Demosthenes' Olynthiacs ; Filial examination: Horace, Odes ; Euripides, Medea ; Cicero, two orations ; Tljucydides, book vii.; Latin Prose Composition j Juvenal, sat. iii., vii., viii., and x.; Statics, Dynamics ; Tacitus, Germania and Agricola ; English Composition ; Latin Prose Composition ; English Literature ; Acoustics; Astronomy; French Composition ; English Composition ; La Bruyere Caracteres ; English Language and Literature j French Literature ; French Composition ; German Grammar ; Corneille's Le Cid ; Adler's German Reader ; De Stael's De I'Allemagne; German Literature ; French Literature . HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA. 465 German Composition ; Schiller's William Tell, &o.; German Literature ; 2. University of Mairiculaiion : Greek Grammar ; Greek Reader ; Latin Grammar; Latin Reader ; Arnold's First Book, Latin j Cornelius Nepos ; Sallust's Jugurthine War ; English Grammar ; English Composition; Outlines of English History ; Scripture History : the Pentateuch ; Arithmetic ; Algebra ; Geography, Ancient and Modern. Freshman year: Xenophon's Anabasis, books i. and iii.; Herodotus, book i.; Greek Prose Composition ; Greek Lexicon ; Greek and Roman Antiquities ; Virgil's ^neid, books i., ii., iii., and vi.; Livy, book i.; Latin Lexicon ; Latin Prose Composition ; Geometry, nine books ; English Elocution; English Composition ; French Grammar; French Reader ; Fenelon's Telemaque ; Scripture History : Old Testament ; Chemistry, Electricity, Magnetism, and Elcctro-Chemistry. Sophomore Class: Homer's Iliad, four books; Xenophon's Memorabilia, books i. and iv.; Greek Prose Composition ; Horace, Odes, books i, and ii.; Chemistry. Mineralogy , Geology, Phys- ical Geography , and Meteorology; Smith's Wealth of Nations. Victoria College. Horace, Satires and Epistles; Latin Prose Composition ; Loomis's Trigonometry, plane and spherical ; Mensuration, Surveying, and Leveling; Analytical Geometry and Conic Sec- tions ; English Eltx^ution ; English Composition ; French : Raelne ; Animal Physiology ; Botany, Mineralogy, Geology ; Natural History. Junior year: Thucydides, bmi ■liP' ! i .. , • ( + H^Hs 474 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA. There are some good Crustacea, a few arachnida, and an ex- tensive and valuable series of insects, illustrative of the re- ceived divisions, and including many rare and beautiful species. There is an extensive series, including several thousand specimens, of the shells of molluscous animals, — land, fresh-water, and marine, — amongst which will be found nearly all the North American land shells, and there are some good echinodermata and zoophyta. In botany, there is a collection including about six thousand species, among which will be found most of our native plants. Some progress has been made in mounting and arranging them. The University Museum of Mineralogy and Geology has been but recently established. Already, however, up- wards of six thousand specimens, with various instruments, casts, and models, have been received from Europe, and a special Canadian collection, increased by valuable additions from the collection of the provincial geologists, is now under arrangement. The museums in Victoria College, Cobourg, and in Queen's College, Kingston, embrace a collection of Cana- dian and other minerals and fossils; that in Trinity College, Toronto, contains various natural historj^, mineralogical, and geological specimens. The museum in the Canadian Institute, Toronto, is luort; varied, and includes numerous specimens of natural history and geology, with Indian and other relics. The museum connected with the educational department for Upper Canada contains some specimens of Canadian natural history and of Nova Scotian geology. It also contains an extensive collection of copies of Italian, Dutch, and Flemish paintings, and of statuary casts. Vari- ous smaller museums exist in different parts of the country. 8. Libraries. Not only do our collegiate and most ot our other public institutions possess a library, but many of the public schools have also within the last few years established them for tho !^ an ex- tlie re- !autifal several tnals, — m\\ be d there botany, species, plants, ranging jeology ver, up- uments, e, and a dditions is now and in )f Cana- College, alogical, knadian umerotis iian and icational mens of logy. It ■ Italian, 3. Vari- country. or publio ic schools m for tho trj HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA. 475 benefit of the pupils and rate-payers. As an approximation to the number of volumes in the libraries named, we insert the following table compiled from the best sources at our command: — University of Toronto and University College, . " Victoria College, Cobourg, " Queen's College, Kingston, " Trinity College, Toronto,. . Regiopolis College, Kingston, Knox's College, Toronto, St. Joseph's College, Ottawa, St. Michael's College, Toronto, Upper Canada College, Toronto, Congregatioual College, Toronto, Belleville Seminary, literary Institute, Woodstock, Oagoode Hall, Toronto, Canadian Institute, Toronto, French Canadian Institute, Ottawa,. . . . Educational Department, U. C, Board of Arts and Manufactures, Mechanics' Institute, Toronto, " Kingston, Hamilton and Gore Mechanics' Institute, Mechanics' Institute, Ottawa, " London, Mercantile Library Association, Publio School Libraries, 48 Sunday School Libraries, l,81r> Jail and Asylum Libraries, 22 Misoellaneous Libraries, Grand total, 2,401 15,500 1,000 3,000 3,500 2,500 4,000 2,000 1,500 500 2,260 8,000 2,600 2,000 1,050 5,400 2,300 2,740 193,258 288,664 3,218 544,990 In connection with the foregoing, it may be interesting to show what has been the extent of the demand for books in Canada during the last twelve years. The facts arc highly encouraging, and speak well for the prevalence of an enlight- ened literary taste and growing intelligence among the various classes of the people. The following statistical table, which has been compiled from the trade and navigation returns for the province, shows the gross value of printed books (not maps or school apparatus) imported into Canada during the twelve years specified, as follow, — ■ i ; ! f 1 i 1 liif I n if! U' 476 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA. Value of Books Value of Books Total Value of Year. entered at ports entered at ports Hooks imported in Lower Canada, in Upper Canada, into the Province. 1850, 8101,880.... $141.700.... $243,580 1851, 120,700.... 171,732.... 292,432 1852, 141,176.... 15!),2«)8.... 300,444 1853, 158,700.... 2.54.280..., 412,980 1854, 171,452.... 307,808.... 479,260 1855, 194,356 338.792.... 5.33,148 1856, 208,636 427;992.... 636,628 1857, 224,400.... 309,172..., 533,572 18.')8, 171,255.... 191,942.... .363.197 1859, 139,057.... 184,304.... 323,261 1860, 155,604.... 2.52,.5iU. . . . 408,108 1861, 185,612 .... .344,621.... 530,233 $1,972,828. . . .$3,084,115.. . .$5;O50;943 Up to 1854, the trade and navigation returns give the value on books entered at every port of C.inada separately ; after that year, the reports give the names of the principal ports only, and enumerating the rest as other ports. In. 1854, (a fair average year,) the proportion entered in Lowei Canada was within a fraction of a third part of the whole ; and, accordingly, in compiling this table for the years 1855- 61, the value entered in other ports is divided between Up- per and Lower Canada, in the proportion of two-thirds to the former and one-third to the latter. CHAPTER IX. ADDITIONAL SUPPLEMENTARY AIDS TO EDUCATION. It is not easy to form an estimate of the number or extent of these additional supplementary aids to education in Ujjpcr Canada. They are very numerous and diversified, and are difficult to classify. In a summary sketch like this, no aid to education however humble, should be overlooked ; for each in its place performs an important function, and con- tributes materially to the progress of knowledge and intelli- gence among the people. Among these additional supplementary aids we may enu- merate the following, although we can, in many cases, scarcely classify them, or estimate their number: — 1. The religious, educational, literary, scientific, and seo- HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPIER CANADA. 477 ular press; 2. Bible and tract societies; 3. Eeliglous meet- ings, sermons, and lectures; 4. Mercantile library associa- tions and reading rooms; 5. Agricultural and horticultural associations, and their exhibitions; 6. Youthful asylums and similar benevolent institutions. These all perform their duty silently and effectively. Separately they are diverse, both in their character and op- eiations; but, combined, they form an active supplementary agency in the after-training of an individual. They culti- vate liis intellect, call forth his benevolence, promote his taste, extend the range of his sympathies, and give an ad- ditional interest to his daily life. Each one, also, having a definite object of pursuit, or taste, or benevolence, give a concentration of purpose or effort, and thus supply a want which mere educational training could not furnish. Upper Canada is yet in comparative infancy, but she may well be proud of her educational resources. They are princely in their character and priceless in their worth. They demon- strate that her inner life is vigorous and active; and that if she fails in her high destiny, as the brightest colonial jewel in the crown of Her Most Gracious Majesty the Queen, the fault rests with herself. As these resources have accumulated and have come down to us in such rich abundance, let us sacredly guard them and seek to extend their value and usefulness. Taking warning by other nations, let us neither dwarf their growth nor extinguish their light; but, through God's blessing, let us transmit them undiminished and unimpaired to our sons who must soon come after us. PAET THIRD— CHAPTER I. VARIOUS ENDOWMENTS AND SUMS AVAILABLE FOR EDUCA- TIONAL PURPOSES IN UPPER CANADA. I. THE EDUCATIONAL LANDS ENDOWMENT. Through the munificence of the King and others, the following lands were set apart for the objects named: — I ; ■ ■ ! .1 '■ ii ,;l, J-L W im liifefel >. 478 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA. Acrei. 1. Cointy Grammar Schools, 258,;530 2. University Institutionfl, 226,200 3. Upper Canada College, 66,000 4. Trinity Colleze (from private sources,) 23,590 5. Half of the Parliamentary Appropriation of one million acres of > cqa qaq Land for Common Schools in each part of the province,. . . J ' Grand total number of acres, 1,074,120 11. THE STATE ENDOWMENTS OF EDUCATION, ETC. (1862.) 1. Parliamentary Grant to Superior Education (i. e., Colleges and Universities,) $20,000 Less applied to Grammar Schools, as below, .... 3,200 $16,800 9. Income of University College, Toronto, and Upper Canada College (from Lands,) etc., about. . . . 75,000 3. Parliamentary (irant to Grammar Schools, from Lands, (tec, 22,619 Parliamentary Grant to Grammar Schools, $10,000, and 83,200, (as above,) 13,200 35,819 Parliamentary Grant to three Medical Schools,. . 3,000 Parliamentary Granta to three Literary Institu- tions, &c., 1,800 Parliamentary Grant to two Observatories, 5,300 10,100 $137,719 4. Parliamentary Grant to Common Schools, from Lands, &c., 186,032 Gnuid total Annual Endowment, $323,751 III. — INCOME FROM LOCAL SOURCES — SCHOOL RATES, FEES, ETC. \ . Colleges, &c., (I860,) $33,750 2 Grammar Schools (1861,) 48,470 3. (a.) Common Schools (1861,) by trustees, 937,014 (6.) " " by municipal tax, 278,085 4. Private Schools (1861,) 45,393 Gi-and totjil Annual Income from Taxes, Fees, &o., $1,342,712 IV. THE NUMBER, CHARACTER, AND VALUE OF THE EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS OF UPPER CANADA.* In Upper Canada there are the following educational in- stitutions, viz.: — * In many instances the information contained under this head is necessarily defective. Circulars were sent to the various institutions named, but repliee to several questions were notreoeived. And in some instanoes no reply wliatever was received. HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN UPPER CANADA. 479 Name, or DcscniPnoir of Ik- 8TITUTIOW. I.Toronto University, includ- ing University College,... 3. Victoria College University, {!'ol)(nirg 3. Qneon's (^)llege University, Kingstiiii 4. Trinity College University, 'J'oronto, Four Human Catholic Col- leges, viz.: 1. St. .loseph's ('ollege, Ottawa 2. Regiopolis College, K'gston 3. St. Miclmel's (College, T'nto 4. L' Assoniption College, Sandwich, Two Theological Colleges * exclusively, viz.: 1. Knox College, Toronto,. . . . 2. Corigregiitionai College of U. No. Aiiiericn, Toronto Three Collegiate Seminaries, viz.: 1. Belleville Seminary, 2. Cnnudian Literary Institute, Wootlstock, 3. Wesleynn Female College, Hnmilton, Tuio RoyalOrammar Schoolt, <$-c., »ii.; 1. Upiier Canada College, T'no 2. Model Grammar School, '' Three Kormal and Model ifchooh, viz.: 1. Normal School, Toronto,.. . 2. Boys' Model School, " ... 3. fJirls' Model School, " ... County Grammar Schooit. 80 (irumnmr Schools. Three Industrial Schools,viz. ' I. Friends' Seminary, near I'io- ton, , 3. Indian Industrial School, Alnwick, 3. Indian Industrial School, Monnt KIgin 4019 FJemr.ntury Schools,viz.. (1.) a.UlO Common Schools,. . (2.) 10!) Roman Catholic Sepa rate Schools, 351 ^Miscellaneous, viz.: (1.) 30 Indian School (2.) 320 Private Schools, (3.) 1 Deaf and Dumb School, Toronto, or 4,477 Educational Institu- tions, in alt, in U. Canada. Grand Total, for U. Canada,. S *> 12 20 18 7 12 12 11 10 8 127 S 2 2 4,180 160 35 400 « 3 250 200 160 40 50 100 100 50 50 10 150 160 136 130 90 150 1.50 180 4,766 60 30 30 316,287 13,631 800 7,354 20 .^3 •sEi-ss $610,000 $85,000 50,000 3,000 75,000 5,000 100.000 10,000 30,000 50,(M)0 40,000 2,000 4,000 2,000 10,000 600 30,000 4,000 1,000 800 12,500 600 10,000 800 20,000 500 10,000 1,000 800 150,000 1,200 400 400 40,000 8,000 8,500 500 5,000 250 5,000 250 2,100,000 60,000 27,000 1,000 3,000 60,000 200 2,0(K) 500 100 13,437,500 • 193,400 Citimntod Aiiiuiiil liicume. •55,000 12,(H)0 13,300 17,000 6,000 12.(I(H» 8,0U() 5,000 5,001) 3,0(K) 10,000 8,000 10,000 20,000 10,000 20,000 83,000 4,000 e.'H 850 1,350,400 30,000 5,000 44,400 4,000 $1,736,800 Reli^totii DeiiouiinAtion, or ottierwise. (Public.) Wesley. Methd'st Ch. of Scotland. Ch. of England. 1 >R6m. Catholic Canada Presbyt'n. Congregational. Meth. Episcopal. Baptist. Wesley. Methd'rt. .(Public.) Quaker. Wesley. Methd'st. 41 11 (Public.) Roman Catholic Various. (Public.) * In addition to these purely theological colleges, there are theological faculties in the Uni rersities of Trinity College, Toronto, and Qneen's College. Kingston, as well as the Roman Catholic colleges at Ottawa, Kingston, and Toronto, and in the Baptist Literary Institute, a^ Woodstock. wm Mi ^M 1 •iu m ^ , P5 Eh W o M O CI o 2 00 -< »^ 2 is i^ S '?i&' i * • '!3S is; .?§s €8 9':- S.'u- O 3J aS S.4 58 £'■" So & • ^g i^ ^' I o c o o o *C "a t3 na T3 • ^ as o o c o Oi "O 13 "O T3 "9 ^ 2S .4* 3 o o e o od> Is- 2. S; oo ■MV'i |oi>i|3g aq) ui aSuoqo n JO aauanbasuoa ui paAjSoaj sjsm ivoi a\t\\ loj s)ioil3}{ o{^ ea be c s) Ll-8.' o o o a 0) u Ji a n •a * t3 S ♦ « a, t: J- « 5 C3 . -I - .-•= e 0-5.= --» --"^ »i o;;; b^sBs bcbcw_' ^■~ c =.Seu.= .= c « a 1 -= -a 5 -H ^ s ~ 3~ = O O " l.i-=o|5ii :S o S. t.= 3 e '^ S 5 coo - 00 o 5o3 c.a.s a=- O "^.CE^^i 3 Di3 3 3r^Ki oj c "a "e "3 "rt "5 "3 c •5B .2 a a'« O 3 O S «W a o <2 b^S o 3 c = = ?<- ■ s - o : S so S i = f-F- '"M l-^wn.'rm'.ei-QooiO-^e^mfio-.ot- aces g — 3-a_ _ a o c 09 si E g S? ft» f^ 'I' Irt CO 1) g S = « eSftieistSojSS oSss aiinn- >Srt 3 'nei 3 I 66> t)I0ll3){ Ofl • t=. ■ = c S 5 = 5tJ ;•- _ Ci : u c S J a o a> uH B u ■"f cS- ° => c "^^ — c 5 C "^ O ^ &- M 3 'C — -M — O SS O C CS 3) ^ 5 £ S o o o > 2 = o oo oo oo 'O oo (/J CO 'O oo O 00 o Ob •ON inn is n e» I* « ^ I- 5 ri -jr — 'TO S2 S <0(0 lO ibr-" m' 1-1 S 00 c i! ?i S SI ei e( el oi x'^ «i -^ S>0 «6 "^ — «» 0I« . . . . "■ ^o *■ »™« ^ -^ • • • • CO I— i'^— 'V«0 cia> !S . ^\ 5,-IOl-X ■» 3 1- SI 5;fi23¥ _• «» e» 51 ■* • e» -^ t~ CO -• -H ■ i-IO to S . «i. lO — -" © X SI to -H 1-; to eo_3 siJB to o 00 t-'x's! tc'co SI -- :?5 CO — CO -^ CO i- .r. 3>u5aoo- :2»»3S"g?!c§|£r2glS ; r- CO " n ri" o 2 • f-oo^tocoiosisjtpte — oujg . i(? to X s n ih X iio B> »>" CO CO •33 »-l O O r5 l" SI 'J" C'- 1^ . s» . . . CO '^CO CO'* -< r- 1- rt 'O s» lo to us 3*. s> — < r- to OS lO O « |4 CD r-i lis CO CO 3) 10 IIO "0 1.0 3 r-l Si X St to -1 Irt CO f-< CO o»^ CO oo r- 1^ t (N o> -njaaSrSPS 3i K « s» >o • If? 2 X r; S !i S $el oi o-sicoto^3cox CO ; CO SI 1* ~> . . . . . • - » . . IJO ! ! . r ! r . . . . '•^ V& • ■^t-o>t-e»-< .fetocooxsio • to CO I.O !■- . 2 i- I' SI -Ti 5 to ■ CO rt 00 • =-C I- -< to "T "»■ :co....si:£co Ars 00 ."?..*• . ^ CO :<3 ::::.: g -■ -H s to I- to — 'O 3 "O *— SI "? "". "T. '^li^'V-is''''^^ ^ Q q" oT rf to* lO" V'lio so s» ^1 % l^hl : : : : !J5i CO 00 lOOO Olio <» n » m rt .2 o CO io > ly" a ^"x'^co SI • lO 5 r~ g )3 f-' 5 1- o jt; g *iJ T C-; ;^ t^ 00 c <— < Cl »0 (O O "S 13 to o 00 -^ r^ - « isjiSi'sa' jj !-■ K CO e< o »§| : : : o ■ ■ : : : I >« 0.3 g T -i'l.,- = -a 3 a 5^- -S 2 ■i * c "■ o. If li'if -= 01. "2 »i j: = OIL- S 5 S ■:: ii 3 a o > I a5i-5^2:j S ■= 55 .2 J 5 t -/, 2 o ,•;: s 2 i >■ -^x . c § ,£ £ -.'■= ^ s E « w *" ' Bks>.|._o oO -• O J-L ^ ** 111 C ti" tn — ■— £• t; £Si 3- != 12 5 S S o s ^ IS .n ■" oj w. 5 ~ -^ x 3 a ^i"— >. £ S .2 .^ = 6i .a o -1- • vo •n '*" ~ ■- ♦ "5 5 .'- c:« e S .> S 3 c* a S 0^-7- o — ou ., c Jtg.53r2.2 ; s •« £■" "S.^ lU -3-= = •H 2 ■H-^a .2 a^ g^ = « • - - "d .2 « -g •T3 S" «> o t: 1) -a ■a c! u = lO-r i to r: tS «» «» •e to o f- •"• to cs u COXI-iOfI -3 CO C! SI i« I- 3 -< eJ CO SI O CO 9 oo to to e» 5 — ■ r•^ tot- I- ^SoOOM-tcl- POl OJ CO to" O s ■" ~ "" M SI lo lo "5 i"* ':S •* Sg :::::: : g2 I ?=i. £• o o 3 '^ icosi » ;t: 22 s saasiasss t2 o £ o -a 3 t^ . 41 --a «» ti » — — ,. a) * 1 '' o = £ u's ++.2 ■= -* « ■-! i, S " 1^ •? u O O ea fto >« M d tn c rj c 2 2 S-g ogo a ts S '5 0) ,£ ^- 3 i ^^^^^^^^^^j X- % \ ti'^ll^iVH , J i 1 MmM ' il t n^^^^H 1 !■ - 1' , iH|l i; , ^1 ''■, ' H^B^Pi M i^Hll: : i V^HWf '' ' 1 1 i ■y ^^^^^^^^^^m '■ < ^^^B^ ':■ ■ ^^^^^^^^^^^^■■1 t ^^^^^^^^^S) ., 1 Hi^B ^f ' ■ir- f ffl^Pn^' 1 1 ^^Uft^M^i^J s ^x^^^^^l 1:' ^^B>J \\ . \v It ital nfll ■ \ '; W'i 1^ [K ^^^Hl Mm'\ ^ fw' ^^^^K wm.\ 1 ii ^H HI -J* ^n'^B^^Ii u k ^ COUNTBT DISTRICT SCIIOOL-HOUSK. 31 nUhXQM SOHOOIi-HOUSK li f : h ! J i- ■ *li^ r^ : h ; |||h *» f M : i V fl 1 ■l:i 1 ' . ': » r i < ■1 ' 1 ■1 1: 'j ■■| w I. I.. I'-S 1 itj^l^j^a 1, ^m 1 :^^^^^^^^^H 1 ' ^'^^^HI^^B if i* APFAOATUS AND EQUIFMENT 07 IBB DKITBICT_ SCHOOL AS IT WAO. SPSOIUENS or AFFAKATUB Off TUS SCHOOL AS IT IS. i!" r-^ w Jt WAS. BRIEF HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN LOWER CANADA. SECTION II. par:^ first— chapter i. EARLY EDUCATIONAL Dr^ORT IN LOWER CANADA— 1632-1759. Althougii upwards of two centuries and a quarter nave now passed away since the first school was opened in Lower Canada, yet it was not until nearly a full century had elapsed after Jacques Cartier discovered the country, that that event took place. In 153C, Jacques Cartier first entered the St. Lawrence; and, in 1632, Rev. Father Le Jeune opened the first Canadian school at Quebec. He commenced with only two pupils, — one a negro and tlie other an Indian boy, — to whom he taught reading and writing. Next year his school was attended by twenty boj's, chiefly Indian lads collected by missionaries from wigwams in the neighbor- hood. Father Le Jeune was greatly elated, and, in view of the noble prospect before him, of christianizing the Indian tribes, he wrote to his supeiior in France, to say that he would not exchange his little school of savages for the best university of Europe 1 The Indians permitted these youth to attend the school, chiefly because they were the less hardy and promising of their race, either mentally c physically, and, therefore, were unequal either to the vicis- situdes of the chase or to the endurance or strategy of war. The restraints, however, of so monotonous a life proved too much for their untutored natures, and they gladly made ■•/. . ^%. .0^ ^.^ IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) 1.0 I.I 1.25 ui iU m hi — 6" 1 2.0 1.8 U 111 1.6 =:l y <^ /] A '^ /% >^ Photographic Sciences Corporation 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. 14580 (71') 872-4503 (v ^^ ,-V :\ \ 9) V «^ rv •ib^ L

aw^.- -This community, as an ofi'shoot of one which still exists in Paris, was established at Montreal, in 1653, by Dlle. Marguerite Bourgeois. The first school was opened at Montreal, in 1657, and was chiefly attended by Indian girls. Tlie number of schools gradually increased in 1727, to 34, in- cluding one in Kingston, Upper Canada, and two in Nova Scotia. At present, not less than 10,000 attend the various schools and convents established by this community. 5. Rayal Institution for the Advancement of Learning — A Board or Council of Education under this name was authorized by Act of Parliament in 1801. The members of the Royal Institution were not, however, appointed until 1818. The object of the institution was to promote the establishment of elementary schools. In this it failed ; and its powers have, by successive school Acts, been grad- ually limited, so that it is now, we believe, connected with McGill College only as a Board of Governors. I it I 536 HISTOBICAX SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN LOWKB CANADA. I) HI 'd' 6. Tlie Fahrique Schools. — In 1824, a Legislative Act was passed giving power to the fabriques, or Roman Catho- lic parish corporation, to establish schools. These schools are now under the control of the local school autliorities. 7. The Dissentient Schools. — ^These schools originated in a desire to provide an education in Roman Catholic com- munities for the children of the purely Protestant part of the population of Lower Canada. They were contem- plated in a bill which was introduced into the Lower Can- ada House of Assembly in 1829, but which then failed to become law. The General School Law for Tipper and Lower Canada, however, which was passed in 1841, dis- tinctly authorized the establishment of Protestant Dissen- tient schools in Lower Canada, and separate schools in Upper Canada, and they have ever since been in existence. In 1861 there were in Lower Canada 143 of the Dissen- tient schools, attended by 5,119 pupils. 8. Freres des Ecoles Chretiennes^ or Christian Brothers^ Schools. — ^This religious order was established in France, in 1679, and it was introduced into Canada in 1837. Its schools are now very numerous and well attended. 9. Continental Church and School Society. — This society (form.erly the " Colonial Cliurch Society," and the " New- foundland School Society"), in connection with the Church of England, originated in London in 1823 ; and its ope- rations were extended to Canada in 1838. In January, 1851, the two Societies named were united, and became the " Colonial Church and School Society." In May, 1861, the present name was adopted. A branch of the Society exists in each of the Church of England dioceses of Quebec and Montreal. In the Montreal diocese it has a Model School, and an Infant School in each of the two dioceses. The number of other elementary schoo' a con- nection with the Society, is 30 ; viz. : 20 in the diocese of Montreal, and 10 in the diocese of Quebec. Total, 33 ; HKTOEIOAL SKETCH OF EDUCSATION IN LOWER CANADA. 637 attended by about 1,600 pupils. The annual expenditure on behalf of these schools is nearly $12,000, of whirjli the government grant is about $1,000. One hundred and fivo schools have been established, or at some time aided in Canada by the Society. 10. Ladies of the Sacred Heart. — This religious com- munity came from France in 1842. It bus an extensive convent at Sault au Recollet, near Montreal. 11. Sisters of Providence. — This community was estab- lished by Mgr. Bourget, in 1844. Upwards of 1,000 pupils attend the schools of the order. 12. Brothers of St. Joseph. — These brothers came from France in 1847. They have several schools, in which they afford' instruction in agriculture and the useful sciences. 13. Ladies of Ste. Croix. — This community, founded in France in 1839, established a convent at Montreal in 1847. They have also several other convents in the country. 14. Sisters of Ste. Anne. — ^This community originated in Canada in 1848. It has four convents in Lower Canada. 15. Sisters of the Presentation. — This community came from France in 1853. It has six convents in the diocese of St. Hyacinthe. 16. Sisters de VAssomption originated in the diocese of Three Elvers in 1853. Their convent is at St. Gregoire. 17. TJie other Roman Catholic religious teaching com- inunities* are the Ladies of the Holy Name of Jesus, Sisters of the Holy Cross, and the Sisters of Charity, &c Those which are not teaching communities are the Grey Sisters or Nuns, who have charge of the Asylum for old men and other charitable institutions at Montreal, and the Ladies of the Good Shepherd, who iia,ve charge of a liefuge or Magdalene in the same'place. 18. 27ie other Protestant Societies* are the British and * No separate informatioa oas been obtained in regard to these communi< ties and sociotiea, etc. i- -t Wi J .: 1 538 niSTOEIC-cVL sketch of education in lower CANADA. Canadian Scliool Society, Educational Society, American Presbyterian School Society, besides schools named St. Andrews, German, Protestant, etc. CHAPTER VIII. SUPPLEMENTARY ELEMENTARY EDUCATIONAL AGENCIES. Under this head we may enumerate (1) schools for or- phans ; (2) for deaf and dumb ; (3) for juvenile criminals. (1.) There are excellent orphan schools in the principal cities of Lower Canada ; but our information and want of space will not warrant us in entering into details. (2.) There are two Asylums for the deaf and dumb in Lo'-'er Canada. The first, for boys, was established near Montreal by the Rev. Abbe Lagorce, in 1849 ; and the second, for girls, was established in Montreal by Mgr. Bonrget, Roman Cathol'c Bishop of Montreal, in 1853. In these two asylums there are eight teachers and about sixty pupils. An asylum of the same description was es- tablished by Donald McDonald, Esq., at Quebec, in 1832, under the authority of a special act of Parliament. Mr. McDonald was aided in his benevolent work by M. Clerc, formerly a pupil of the Abbe Sicard, who was a successor of the celebrated Abbe de L'Epoe, inventor of a method for instructing deaf-mutes. The law, however, having ex- pired in 1836, it was never revived, and the Asylum was closed. (3.) The Reformatory school for juvenile criminals was established at the Isle aux Noix, near the frontier, and at the head of the Richelieu river, in 1858. Being an old military post, it was again deemed necessary to occupy it, and the Reformatory was removed to St. Vincent de Paul, near Montreal, in 1861. There are now about fifty inmates in the institution. NAD A. American amed St. ENCIE8. ols for or- riminals. principal d want of B. dumb in shed near I ; and the by Mgr. , in 1853. and about on was es- c, in 1832, lent. Mr. M. Clerc, successor a method laving ex- lyhim was ninals was ier, and at jing an old occupy it, It de Paul, 'ty inmates mSTOBIOAL BEETOH OF EDUCATION IN LOWSO. CANADA. 539 CHAPTER IX. OTHEB 8UPPLEMENTAEY AGENCIES.. These agencies include mechanics' institutes, literary societies, associations, and libraries. (1.) As in Upper Canada, the Board of Arts and Manu- factures of Lower Canada has chiefly to do with the me- chanics' institutes. This board established, in 1859, a cen- tral scliool of art and manufactures at Montreal. It has now six professors and teachers, and is attended by about sixty pupils. (2.) The literary societies of Lower Canada are numerous, hut we have only room to enumerate those in existence in Montreal and Quebec. In Montreal : The Natural History Society; Institut Canadien ; Medico-chirurgical ; Mechanics' Institute ; Hochelaga Debating Club ; McGill University Society ; Phrenological Society, etc. In Quebec : Literary and Historical Society ; Institut Canadien ; Mechanics' In- stitute ; Institute of St. Rochs ; St. Patrick's Institute, etc. (3.) As far as possible, we have given the number of volumes of books contained in the library of each of the colleges. In addition, we can only give the following sum- mary of libraries, from the report of the Superintendent of Education for Lower Canada for the year 1861, viz. : num- ber of public libraries, 163 ; number of volumes therein, 106,500 ; number of volumes in the libraries connected with the seminaries, colleges, academies, and normal schools, 161,366. Total number of volumes, 267,866. Note. — At the request of the publisher, this article on the state and progress of education in Lower Canada has been considerably abridged. i fi ,1 h i| i: 540 HISTORICAL SKETCH OF EDUCATION IN LOWEB CANADA. PART III. CHAPTER I. VARIOUS EDUCATIONAL STATISTICS. (1.) Lands set apart fy the desolation lies of prostrate 3vastating way. f the hurricane, spray upon the ault of heaven; nent. For a mo- d silence reigned be hushed, when r came booming issive and devour- md Douglastown, from Bartibog to )ne hundred miles nso sheet ot flame, EARLY HISTORY OF NEW BRUNSWICK. 54'J that spread over nearly six thousand square miles ! That the stranger may form a faint idea of the desolation and misery, which no pen can describe, he must picture to himself a large and rapid river, thickly settled for one hundred miles or more on both sides of it, lie must also fancy four thriving towns, two on each side of this river, and then reflect that these towns and settlements were all composed of wooden houses, stores, stables, and barns ; that these barns and stables were filled with crops, and that the arrival of the fall importations had stocked the warehouses and stores with spirits, powder, and a variety of combustible articles, as well as the necessary supplies for the approaching winter. He must then remember that the cultivated or settled part of the river is but a long narrow strip, about a quarter of a mile in width, and lying between the river and almost interminable forests, stretching along the very edge of its precincts and all around it. Extending his conception, he will see these forests thickly expanding over more than six thousand square miles, and absolutely parched into tinder by the protracted heat of a long summer. Let him then animate the picture by scattering countless tribes of wild animals, hundreds of domestic ones, and even thousands of men through the interior. Having done all this, he will have before him a feeble description of the extent, features, and general circumstances of the country which, in the course of a few hours, was suddenly enveloped in a fire. A more ghastly or a more revolting picture of human misery cannot well be imagined. The whole district of culti- vated laud was shrouded in the agonizing memorials of some dreadful deforming havoc. The songs of gladness that formerly resounded through it were no longer heard, for the voice of misery had hushed them. Nothing broke upon the ear but the accents of distress ; the eye saw nothing but ruin, and desolation, and death. "Newcastle, yesterday a flourishing town, full of trade and spirit, and containing nearly one thousand inhabi- 'n\ 1, I * :.'i tf!> riei ! if »,l^.i ■I: ■ n: Ir ■■>■■:■■ ooO EAKLY HISTORY OF NEW BRUNSWICK. tants, was now a heap of smoking ruins ; and Douglas- town, nearly one-third of its size, was reduced to the same miserable condition. Of the two hundred and sixty houses and storehouses that comprised the former, hut twelve remained ; and of the seventy that composed tho latter, but six were left. The confusion on board one hun- dred and fifty large vessels then lying in the Miramichi, and exposed to imminent danger, was terrible ; some burnt to the water's edge, others burning, and the remaiu- der occasionally on fire. " Dispersed groups of half-famished, half-naked, and houseless creatures, all more or less injured in their per- sons, many lamenting the loss of some property, or chil- dren, or relations and friends, were wandering through the cou-itry. Of the human bodies, some were seen with their bowels protruding ; others with the flesh all consumed, and the blackened skeletons smoking ; some with headless trunks and severed extremities ; some bodies burned to cinders ; others reduced to ashes ; many bloated by suffo- cation, and several lying in the last distorted position of convulsing torture. Brief and violent was their passage from life to death, and rude and melancholy was their sepulchre. ' unknelled, uncofRned, and unknown.' " The immediate loss of life was upwards of five hundred human beings. Thousands of wild beasts had perished in the woods, and from their putrescent carcasses issued streams of effluvium and stench that formed contagious diseiises over the dismantled settlements. Domestic ani- mals of all kinds lay dead and dying in different parts of the country; myriads of salmon, trout, bass, and otlier tish, poisoned by the alkali formed by the ashes pre- cipitated into the river, row lay dead, or floundering and gasp'.ig on the scorched shores and beaches ; and the countless variety of wild fowl and reptiles shared a similar fate. Such was the awful conflagration at Miramicbi, which elicited the prompt benevolence of very many philantliropists of the old and new worlds, who subscribed lass, and other EAKLY HISTOEY OF NEW BRUNSWICK. 551 £40,000 for the relief of the survivors, whose property, to the extent of nearly a quarter of a million, was destroyed. " New Brunswick, like the other British provinces in North America, has suffered much ironi fires. In 1837, a great fire in St. John consumed one hundred and fifteen buildings, and occas'oned a loss of a million dollars." Sir Howard Douglas held the office of governor, or, rather, lieutenant-governor, which is the official title of the executive officer, till 1831, and did much to improve the country and advance its prosperity. His successors have been : Sir Archibald Campbell 1 S32 to 1838 i Sir John Harvey 1838 " 1842 Sir W. M. G. Colebrooke 1842 " 1 851 Sir E. W. Head 1851 " 1855 Hon. Mannerp ratton 1855 " 1862 In 1851, the population of the province had reached the number of two hundred and ten thousand. One of the most important events in the history of New Brunswick was the settlement of the boundary question with the United States, by the treaty of "Washington, in 1842. By the treaty of peace in 1783, the boundary lines, between the loyal and the revolted provinces, were so im- perfectly defined that they coi'tinued for more than half a century to be the subject of dispute. Efforts were made from time to time to reconcile conflicting claims and interests, but without avail. In 1839, the contro- versy between New Brunswick and Maine had arrived to such a pass that arined forces were raised, fortifications built, and the prospect of actual warfare became im- minent. In this crisis, the English and American governments, abandoning all the futile plans of arbitration which had 60 long been discussed, and even tried, adopted the policy of compromise. They ultimately succeeded in agreeing upon a line of division, which, as it fully satisfied neither i ^m f.W' ii i«!f. 1 n^'i 552 DESCEI11IVE AND STATISTICAL ACCOUNT. party, may be regarded as, on the whole, an equitable one. By this treaty, which was fully ratified in August, 1842, New Brunswick not only secured protection and tranquillity to her inhabitants, but gained a large accession of territory. This was estimated by Mr. Talcott, the United States commissioner appointed to make the survey, to contain eight hundred and ninety-three square miles, — equal to five hundred and seventy-one thousand five hun- dred and twenty acres. This country may be rough, and, as represented by the commissioner, compared with other sections, not of great value for timber or for agricul- ture. It is, however, an important acquisition to the province, and especially as it opens a convenient means of communication with Canada without crossing a foreign State. In compensation for this advantage, the right of free passage on the St. John, with all unmanufactured articles of trafllc, was ceded to the people of Maine. If the climi.te of New Brunswick is cold, it is remark- ably healthful. Its soil is in many parts highly produc- tive, and it has many resources for profitable traffic. A careful observer and writer states that the children of immigrants are taller and larger than their parents, that the women are handsome, and the men active and intel- ligent. DESCRIPTIVE AND STATISTICAL ACCOUNT OF NEW BRUNSWICK. The Province of New Brunswick is situated between the parallels of 45° and 48° north latitude, and the me- ridians of 63° 45' and 67° 50' west longitude. It lies between Nova Scotia and Canada, with its eastern front on the Gulf of St. Lawrence, and its southern front on the Bay of Fundy, being bounded westerly by the State of Maine, and on the north by Canada. The area of New Brunswick is estimated at 17,677,360 T OF NEW i at 17,677,360 DESCEIPnVE AND STATISTICAL ACCOUNT. 553 acres, equal to 27,620 square miles. Of this quantity, more than 6,000,000 of acres have been already sold or alienated by the crown, leaving upwards of 11,000,000 of acres yet to be disposed of. The quantity of good land fit for settlement and yet unsold, is estimated at 7,500,000 acres, of which 250,000 are surveyed for settlers. The mode of selling crown lands is by auction ; and sales take place every month in. each county. The upset price is three shillings currency per acre, equal to two shillings and five-pence sterling, payable one-fourth on the day of sale, and the residue in one, two, and three years, without interest. If the whole amount is paid at the time of sale, the purchaser is entitled to a discount of 20 per cent., which reduces the price to two English shillings per acre. To ^his must, however, be added the expense of survey, three-pence currency, equal to two and a half pence sterling per acre. When several persons, desirous of becoming actual set- tlers, apply jointly for lots of vacant land, in a locality where no roads exist, they can procure such lots, not ex- ceeding one hundred acres each, and pay for the same in labor on roads, to be laid out leading to or through their land. In such cases the applicantp pay for the survey of the land, and at the rate of three shillings currency, equal to two shillings and five-pence sterling per acre. The road-work is done at such times and places as are fixed upon by the commissioners £ pointed for that purpose. No less work is to be done in any one year than will be equal to one-fourth the whole purchase-money ; and no grant will issue until the purchaser has actually resided on the land for one year, and brought at least ten acres into a state of cultivation. A third mode of disposing of crown lands for actual settlement, has recently been adopted ; full particulars of which will be found in the appendix hereto. Professor J. F. W. Johnston, F. R. S., the well ^ nowu writer on agriculture and agricultural chemistry, was em- Wim 'It, ^- I 1 V 'II 554 DESCRIPTIVE AND STATISTICAL ACCOUNT. ployed by tlie government, in 184:9, to make an inspection of Nevv Brunswick, and report upon its agricultural capa- bilities. In his report, subsequently published by author- ity, he thus describes New Brunswick : — " Two very ditferent impressions in regard to the Province of New Brunswick will be produced on the mind of the stranger, according as he contents himself with visiting the towns, and inspecting the hinds which lie along the seaboard, or ascends the rivers, or penetrates by its numerous roads into the inferior of its more central and northern counties, " In the former case, he will feel like tlie traveller wlio enters Swe- den by the harbor of Stockholm or of Gottenburg, or who sails among the rocks on the west coast of Norway. The naked cliffs, or shelving shores, of granite or other hardened rocks, and the unvary- ing pine forests, awaken in liis mind ideas of hopeless desolation, and poverty and barrenness appear necessarily to dwell within the iron- bound shores, "A large proportion of the Europeans who visit New Brunswick, see only tlic rocky regions which encircle the more frequented har- bors of the province. They must, therefore, carry away and convey to others very unfavorable ideas, especially of its adaptation to agri- cultural purposes. " But, on the other hand, if the stranger penetrate beyond the At- lantic shorts of the province, and travel through the interior, he will be struck by the number and beauty of its rivers, by the fertility of its river isUmds and intervals, and by tlie great extent and excellent condition of its roads, and, upon the whole, of its numerous bridges. He will see boundless forests still unreclaimed; but will remark at the Bame time an amount of general progress and prosperous advance- ment, which, considering the recent settlement and small revenue of the province, is really surprising. If he possesses an agricultural eye, he may discern great defects in the practical husbandry of the provin- cial fiiriiicr, while he remarks, at the same time, the healthy looks of their large families, and the apparently easy and independent condi- tion in wiiich they live, if he have travelled much in other coun- tries, one thing which will arrest his attention more than all, will be the tVecinent comj)laints whicli meet his ears, of the slowness with which tlie province advances, of the condition of its agriculture com- part"! sviih that of Scotland or England, of the want of capital among it^ l.iiid possessing farmers, and so on; complaints which would be made regarding New Hrunswick witli very much less urgency, were the rate of its own actual progress better known to its iniiabitants, and its own rural and economical condition better understood and ap- prt.Vuited. " For my own part, in taking a general survey of the actual condi- tion of the province, in connection with the period of its early settle- ment, and with the public revenues it has possessed from time to time as means of improvement, I have been much impressed with the rapid progress it has really made, and with the large amount of Bucial advancement which is everywhere to be aeen. Ihe roads, the 1 inspection Itural capa- by author- )vince of New if^er, according ■iispecting the - , or penetrates i\ and uortliera \o enters Swe- or who sails naked cliffs, or id the unvarjr- desolation, and ithin the iron- ew Brunswick, Vequented har- 'ay and convey station to agri- beyond the At- iiterior, he will the fertility of t and excellent iiierous bridges, ill remark at the perous advance- mail revenue of agricultural eye, ry of the provin- lealtliy looks of ependent condi- 1 in otiier coun- than all, will be e slowness with agriculture com- )f capital among tvhich would be 8 urgency, were ) its iniiabitants, Jerstood and ap- ;he actual condi- :' its early settle- id from time to impressed with large amount of Ibe roads, the DESCBITTrVE AND STATISTICAL ACXX>UNT. 555 bridges, the churches, ths schools, the colleges, besides the numerous (itiier public institutions, axcellent and liberal in themselves, assume a very large magnitude in the eyes of the impartial observer, when it is considered that they have been made, built, or establislied, and pro- vided for by a population even at present under two hundred thousand souls, less in number than the inhabitants of one of our third-rate Eng- lish cities, and in the short space of sixty or seventy years. "When I have heard natives of New Brunswick complaining of the slowness witii which their province advanced, I have felt persuaf';iH» if* .?■ 11 • i . !■ ! fm "'! ■' ' 'i fi,''^^'i ■ i 560 DESCRIPTIVE AND STATISTICAL ACCOUNT. which may be rendered profitably available, in most dis- tricts. The climate of New Brunswick is well fitted for the rearinf]^ and feeding of cattle. With proper care, they not only winter well, but gain size and flesh. In Resti- gouche, the most northerly portion of the Province, the climate is less severe upon stock than in Great Britain. Though a large provision of winter food is required to maintain the stock during so many months, yet by the saving of manure npon farms of all kinds, even the newest, and applying it to the grass land in the spring, and by the cultivation of green crops, for which there are such extraordinary capabilities, this food is easily raised. The proper feeding of cattle during the winter, gives employ- ment to the members of the farmer's family and his paid-servants ; and it is also the means of producing more manure, thus insuring the production of better beef and mutton, a greater weight of butter and cheese, and heavier harvests of grain. Professor Johnston procured returns from all parts of Ncvv Brunswick, of the produce of each crop, and its weight per Winchester bushel. From these returns he deduced the following statement of the average product and weight of each, in the entire Province : — Crop. Wheat Per acre. Weight per basheL .20 bushels 60 11-12 lbs. Barley 29 Oats 34 Buckwheat 33J Rye 20t Iruiiiin Corn 413- Potatoes 226i Turnips 456 or 6 1-3 tons, or 13i tons. . .50 .38 ,48 8-11 .52i .5H .63 .66 "These average weights," says Professor Johnston, " over a whole province, where the land is new, and ma- nured only in rare instances, or at long intervals, indicate a capacity in the soil and climate, to produce grain for hu- man food, of a very superior quality." 1 most dift- d for the oare, they In Resti- )vince, the at Britain, equired to yet by the he newest, ig, and by 3 are such jsed. The es employ- ly and his ucing more ir beef and and heavier ill parts of op, and its returns he kge product lit per bastaeL » 11-12 Iba. I " ( " 1 8-11 " i I " Johnston, j\v, and ma- is, indicate a rrain for hu- DESCEIPTIVE AND STATISTICAL ACCOUNT. THE FOREST. 661 After agriculture, the forests of New Brunswick consti- tute at present its next greatest resource, in furnishing the materials for iis staple export of timber, and its principal manufactures — ship-building and sawed lumber. The whole surface of the province, in its natural state, J8^ with very few exceptions, covered with a dense forest of timber-trees. Among these, the most valuable, as well as the most interesting and majestic, is the white pine, so called from the perfect whiteness of its wood when freshly exposed. The wood is soft, light, free from knots, and easily wrought ; it is durable, and not liable to split when exposed to the sun. The white pine furnishes timber of large dimensions, and boards of great width ; and its wood is employed in far more divei'sified uses, and in greater quantities, than that of any other tree in America. The most usual forms in which white pine is extensively exported from New Brunswick are — as. squared timber, masts, spars, deals, plank, boards, scantling, clapboards, palings, shingles, and laths ; also in boxes, barrels, water- pails, and tubs. It would, however, be quite impossible to enumerate the variety of purposes to which it is applied, both in Europe and America. Next to the white pine in commercial value, is the hlach spruce. This tree is so multiplied in New Brunswick, as to constitute a third part of the forests with which the province is so uninterruptedly covered, and nowhere is it found of larger size or finer quality. It often attains from seventy to eighty feet in height, and from eighteen to twenty-four inches in diameter. The distinguishing properties of the wood of the black spruce are, strength, lightness, and elasticity. It furnishes as fine yards and topmasts as any in the world, and for these it has been long and extensively used. By many, the wood df the black spruce is preferred to that of the white pine for flooring ; but its great value arises from its i ! i 1 \%]'':l 562 DESCRIPTIVE AND STATISTICAL ACCOUNT. furnishing the spruce deals of commerce, which now con- stitute one of tlie largest and most valuable exports of New Brunswick. These deals are of the uniform thickness of three inches, not less than twelve feet in length, and nine inches in width. The most usual dimensions are nine and eleven inches in breadth, and lengths of twelve, four- teen, sixteen, eighteen, and twenty-one feet. Spruce bat- tens are twelve feet long, seven inches in width, and two and a half inches in thickness. The manufacture of spruce deals commenced in New Brunswick in 1819, and has since been steadily increasing. In 1851, there were five hundred and eighty- four saw-mills in the province, driven either by steam or water power, and since then the num- ber has been continually on the Increase. The extent and value of the exports of pine and spruce timber and deals, will be seen by reference to the tables hereafter. The next tree in the order of value is the American larch^ which is known under a variety of names. The French Canadians call it epinette rouge ^ the descend- ants of the Dutch in America have called it tamaraoh It is most generally designated in New Brunswick by its Indian name, hackmatack. In the northern portion of the province, and on the Gulf Shore, it is sometimes styled cypress, but much more frequently juniper, to neither of which designations has it the slightest claim. The American larch, like that of Europe, is a magnifi- cent tree, with a straight, slender trunk, eighty feet or more in height, and upwards of two feet in diameter. Trees of this size are most abundant in the north-eastern portion of the province, but, of greater or less size, they abound throughout New Brunswick. The wood of the American larch unites all the properties which distin- guish the European species, being exceedingly strong, and singularly durable. It is highly esteemed, especially for knees, the but of the stem and one of the principal roots forming together the angle required. Few descriptions of wood, if any, are superior to it for ship-planks and ship- DE3CUIPTIVK AND STATISTICAL ACCOUNT. 5(53 timber : and the clipper-8]iip3 of New Brunswick, built al- most wholly of its larch wood, have attained a world-wide celebrity for speed, strength, and durability. After the three principal trees already named, come the birch, the beech, the maple, the elm, the hemlock, the spruce, the butternut, the ash, and the white cedar. Each of these furnishes forest trees of large size ; and, in various shapes, they are of more or less value for home use, as well as for exportation. There are four species of hirch in New Brunswick, all of them tall trees. Of these, the black and vellow birch are the most valuable, and furnish timber of the largest size. The grain of the black birch is fine and close, whence it is susceptible of a brilliant polish : it possesses, also, very considerable strength. It is much used in ship- building, for the keel, lower timbers, and planks of vessels ; and, as it is almost indestructible under water, it is well adapted for piles, foundation timbers, sluices, and in general for any purpose where it is constantly wet. The wood of the yellow birch is believed to bo somewhat inferior to that of the black birch ; but the timber and planks from both trees are exported indiscriminately, under the general name of birch. Both species abound in New Brunswick, and they are almost always found on deep, loose, and wet soils, where they attain their largest size, which is from sixty to seventy feet in height, and more than two feet in diameter. There are two species of heech found in New Brunswick, the red and the white, but of these the red beech is far the most valuable. In some situations, the beech is so abundant as to constitute extensive forests, the finest trees growing in a deep moist soil, or level or gently sloping lands, which are suitable for the culture of grain. Tlie wood of the red beech is very valuable when preserved from humidity, and incorruptible when constantly in the water ; but it rapidly decays when exposed to the alterna- tions of dryness and moisture. In the bottoms of vessels, 36 7 504 DESCRIPTIVE AND STATISTICAL ACCOUNT. it has been known to remain sound for forty years. It Borves for slioe-lasts, tool-handles, plancc, and mallets, and its ashes afford good potash. The nuts of the red beech are produced every second year ; hogs fatten rapidly on these nuts, but the pork is not esteemed. Bears, part- ridges, squirrels, and mice, feed on them largely. Very solid and elegant hedges may be made with young beeches placed seven or eight inches apart, and bent in opposite directions, so as to cross each other and form a trellis, with apertures five or six inches in diameter. During the first year, they are bound with osier at the points of intersection, where they finally uecome grafted, and grow together. As beech does not suffer in pruning, and sprouts less luxuriantly than most other trees, it is well adapted for hedges. The red beech is reared without any difficulty from the seed; it grows rapidly, and, if the soil is in good order, a handsome and sufficient hedge may be produced in five or six years. The maples^ in general, are lofty and beautiful trees; they grow quick, are easily transplanted, and bear crop- ping. The grass flourishes under their shade. They prefer, and are generally found on a free, deep, and loamy soil, rich rather than sterile, and neither v ^t nor very dry. Of the several species of maple, the most, interesting and the most valuable is the sugar-maple, also known a? the rock aiaple, and !iard maple. It enters largely into the composition of the forests with which New Brunswick is covered, where it is found of the largest size, and in great perfection. It frequently reaches the height of seventy or eighty feet, with a proportionate diameter ; but it does not generally exceed fifty or sixty feet, with a diam- eter from twelve to eighteen inches. The sugar-maple is most frequently found on the steep and shady banks of rivers, and elevated situations whore the soil is cold and humid, but free, deep, and fertile, and not surcharged with moisture. The wood of the sugar-maple, when first cut, is white; irst c\it, is white; DESCRIPTIVE AND STATISTICAL ACCOUNT. 565 but after being wrouglit, and exposed for some time to the hp-ht, it takes a rosy tinge. Its grain is fine and close, and when polished has a silky lustre. It is very strong, and Bufticiently heavy, but wants durability ; when exposed to moisture it soon decays, and it is therefore neglected in civil and naval architecture. In the arrangement of the fibre, this wood frequently exhibits two accidental forms of much beauty, respectively known as "curled maple," and "birds'-eye maple." These make very handsome articles of furniture, and are much sought after by cabinet- makers ; they are exported in considerable quantities to the United Kingdom, where they bring a high price. The birches, the beeches, and the maples all furnish ex- cellent fuel, and for this purpose they are extensively used in I^ew Brunswick. The sugar-maple, however, furnishes the best fuel, and its ashes are rich in the alkaline princi- ple. The charcoal made from it is superior to any other ; it is one-fifth heavier than that made from the same species of wood in the Middle and Southern States, which sufficiently evinces that the sugar-maple acquires its char- acteristic properties, in perfection, only in a northern climate. But the most valuable property of this tree is the quan- tity of sugar it furnishes ; and the extraction of sugar from the maple is a valuable resource in a country where all classes of society daily make use of tea and coffee. The process by which it is obtained is very simple, and is everywhere nearly the same. Though not essentially de- fective, it might be rendered more perfect, and more profitable, by a little more attention to science. The work usually commences in the month of March, while the cold continues intense, and the ground is still covered with snow. The sap begins to be in motion at this early season, and is obtained by boring small holes in the trunks of the trees, from which it flows freely. It is then put into kettles ; the evaporation is kept up by a brisk fire, night and da}'^, and the scum is carefully taken off as it i., #1 w Vjll ,r B t T »! 4 i i 566 DESCRIPTIVE AND STATISTICAL ACCOUNT. rises. Fresli sap is added as required, and the heat is maintained until the liquid is reduced to a sirup, after which it is left to cool, and then strained to remove ihe remaining impurities. In boiling it for the last time, the kettles are only half filled, and by an active, steady heat, the sirup is rapidly reduced to the proper consistency for being poured into moulds. The molasses being drained oli' the moulds, the sugar comes out in hard, solid blocks. The larger the boiler, the more sugar is obtained ; and a copper vessel produces sugar of a fairer color than an iron vessel. Tiie sugar is lightly colored in proportion to the care with which it is made, and the judgment with which the evaporation is conducted. When refined, it equals in beauty the finest sugar used in Europe. The sap continues to flow for six weeks, after which it becomes less abundant, less rich in saccharine matter, and sometimes even incapable of crystallization. In this state, it is consumed in the state of molasses, far superior to that from the AVest Indies, and bears the name of " maple honey." The amount of sugar manufactured in a year, varies from difi'erent causes. A cold and dry winter renders the trees more productive than a cliaugeable and humid sea- son. When frosty nights are followed by dry and warm days, the sap flows abundantly, and from three to five gallons are then yielded by a single tree, in twenty-four hours. Three persons are found suflicient to attend two 'mndred and fifty trees. Each tree of ordinary size yields, in a good season, twenty to thirty gallons of sap, from which five or six pounds of sugar are made ; but the aver- age quantity, in ordinary seasons, is about four pounds to ciich tree. By the census return for I80I, it appears that the whole quantity of maj>le sugar made in JS'ew Brunswick in that year, was 350,957 pounds. There are two well-defined species of Elm in New Brunswick, known as the white elm and the red elm. DESCltlPTIVE AND STATISTICAL ACCOUNT. 507 Both species are beautiful, and well adapted to make shady walks, as they do not destroy the grass ; and their leaves are acceptable to cows, horses, goats, sheep, an*, swine. The white elm stretches to a great hei^'ht. In clearing the primitive forests a few stocks are sometimes left stand- ing ; and, isolated in this manner, tlie tree appears in all its majesty, towering to the height of eighty or one hundred feet, with a trunk of three or even four feet in diameter, regularly shaped, naked, and insensibly diminishing to the height of sixty or seventy feet, when it divides itself into two or three primary limbs. These diffuse on all sides long, flexible, pendulous branches, bending into regular arches and floating lightly in the air and giving to the tree a broad and somewhat flat-topped summit, of regular proportions and admirable beauty. In autumn, the bright golden foliage of the elm mixes kindly with the various hues of the poplar and the maples, which display all sh>.des of red, and from the deepest crim- son to the brightest orange. Its tint then contrasts favor- ably with the pale-yellow, sober foliage of the birch and beech, with the diff'ereut shades of brown in the basswood and the ash, or with the bulf-yellow of the larch. At that season, even the gloomy blackness of the flrs, by throwing forward the c-avcr tints, is not without its effect. Mr. McGregor, in his work on British America, speak- ing of the forests, says, — " It is impossible to exaggerate the beauty of these forests ; nothing under heaven can be compared to their eflulgcnt grandeui-. Two or three tVosty nights in th(3 decline of autuinn, transform the boundless verdure of a whole empire into every possible tint of bril- liant scarlet, rich violet; every shade of blue and brown, vivid crimson, and glittering yellow. The stern, inexora- ble fir tribes alone maintain their eternal sombre greer. ; all others, on mountains or in valleys, burst into the most glorious vegetable beauty, and exhibit the most splendid and most enchanting panorama on oarth." wm 'i ■ * • m 1.1 i If :.ii^-h] > i- '■t 568 DESCRIPTIVE AND STATISTICAL ACCOUNT. The white elm delights in low, humid, substantial soili», such as are called in New Brunswick, " intervale lands," along the banks of rivers or streams, or on the borders of swamps, where the soil is deep and fertile. The rich " iiitervales," formed by alluvial deposits, are necessary to its perfection. The wood has less strength than the oak, and less elasticity than the ash, but it is tougher and less liable to split. It is said to bear the driving of bolts and nails better than any other timber. When exposed to the alternations of dryness and moisture, it is liable to decay; it must be either wet or dry in the extreme. Consequently it is proper for waterworks, mills, pumps, aqueducts, and ship planks beneath the water-line. When fully seaioned, the wood is highly esteemed for the carriages of cannon, and for the gunwales and blocks of ships. The red elm is less multiplied than the white, and the two species are rarely found together, as the red elm re- quii'cs a substantial soil, free from moisture, and even delights in elevated and open situations. This tree is fifty or sixty feet high, and fifteen or twenty inches in diameter. The wood is less compact than that of the white elm, and of coarser grain ; but it is said to be stronger and more durable when exposed to tlie weather, and of better quality than the wood of the white elm. The hemlock spruce forms a large proportion of the evergreen forests of New Brunswick, and is abundantly multiplied in every favorable situation. It is always larger and taller than the black spruce, and frequently attains the height of seventy or eighty feet, with a diameter of two to three feet, and unitbrm for two-thirds of its length. The properties of this spruce are such as to give it only a secondary importance, notwithstanding its abundant diifu- sion : and it has heretofore been considered among the least valuable of the large resinous trees of New Bruns- wick. Yet it is well adapted for mining, for wharf-build- ing, or for use in situations where it is constantly wet. It gives a tight hold to nails, and iron driven into it will not J INT. stantial soib, srvale lands," le borders of e. The rich 3 necessary to than the oak, o-her and less of bolts and xposed to the ible to decay ; Consequently qneducts, and "uUy seasoned, ^es of c^mnon, rhite, and the le red elm re- tire, and even his tree is fifty es in diameter, white elm, and iger and more f better quality )portion of the is abundantly Is always larger quently attains a diameter of is of its length. ) give it only a abundant ditfu- red among the of New Bruns- 'or wharf-build- stantly wet. It into it will not DESCRIPTIVE AND STATISTICAL ACCOUNT. 509 corrode,. in or out of water. Large quantities are shipped to Great Britain in the shape of lath-wood, from which split laths are made. The wood of the hemlock spruce is firmer than that of the white pine ; although coarser grained, it gives a better hold to nails, and offers more resistance to the impression of other bodies. As two-inch plank, it is frequently em- ployed for threshing-floors, and also for grain-bins, because, as it is alleged, rats will not gnaw the wood. As inch- boards, its most common use is for the first coverino; of the frames of houses, called "rough-boarding," which is afterward covered either with clap-boards, siding, or shingles of white pine. When guarded from wet, the wood of the hemlock spruce is as durable as any other species of spruce, or even pine. The bark is extensively used in tanning. Only one species of the walnut is found in New Bruns- wick, which is well known by the name of butternut. It is abundant on the rich alluvial banks of the rivers, and in such situations frequently attains the height of eighty feet, and the circumference, at four feet from the ground, of six to eight feet. The fruit is commonly single, and suspended by a thin, pliable foot-stalk ; it is often two and a half inches in length, and five inches in circumference. The nuts are hard, oblong, rounded at the base, and terminated at tlie summit in an acute point. They are ripe in October, and in some seasons are so abundant, that one person may gather several bushels in a day. The kernels are very oily ; these the Indians, in former times, pounded and boiled, and separating the oily substance which swam upon the surface, mixed it with their food — hence the name of " butternut." The wood of the " butternut" is light, of little strength, and of a reddish hue ; but it possesses the advantage of lasting long, of being able to resist the effects of heat and moisture, and of being secure from the ravages of worms. Very considerable quantities of furniture are now made in » 570 DESCRIPTIVE AND STATISTICAL ACCOUNT. the province, of the butternut wood, and it is becoming in request for a variety of purposes. For wainscoting, and for fitting up libraries, it is well adapted, being easily worked, of a pleasing color, and susceptible of a good polish, which throws out the graining, and shows the wood to advantage. It has been recently employed in the high- est order of arcnitectural finishing, in the cathedral, and various churches and chapels of the province, in the arches and ceilings of which it is seen under favorable circum- stances and greatly admired. Bi/ternut wood has not yet become an article of export, but the large size of which it can be produced, and its va- rious good qualities, only recently become known, must render it in demand. Tlie propagation of this tree is very easy, either from the cuttings or from the nut; and as it grows to the greatest advantage in pastures, and along the sides of roads, it is advantageous to farmers to cultivate it, as well for the beauty of the tree itself, and the fruit it produces, as for the value of the wood at ma- turity. Of the ash,, there are two distinct species in ISew Bruns- wick, the wliite ash and black ash. The wood of the ash differs more, .from difference of soil and situation, than that of any other tree ; consequently there are several varieties in the province, but on close examination they may be referred to one of the two species named. The white ash is an interesting and valuable tree, from the qualities of its wood, the rapidity of its growth, and the beauty of its foliage : it abounds in New Brunswick. In favorable situations, it sometimes attains the height ot fifty or sixty feet, with a diameter of eighteen inches or more. The trunk is perfectly straight, and often undivided to the height of thirty feet. The wood of the white ash is highly esteemed for its strength, suppleness, ajid elasticity ; it is superior to every other wood for oars, and is second only to hickory for handspikes. Besides its extensive use by carriage and sleigh makers, it is in very general use for I T. is bdcoraing scoting, and )eing easily of a good ws the wood in the high- thedral, and in the arches iblc circum- le of export, i, and its va- :nown, must this tree is he nut ; and pastures, and to farmers to 30 itself, and wuod at ma- ; I^ ew Bruns- Dd of the ash ion, than that ^eral varieties they may he >le tree, from growth, and V Brunswick, the height ot ;en inches or ten undivided 3 white asli is ind elasticity; is second only ansive use by sneral use for DESCEirTIVE AND STATISTICAL ACCOUNT. 571 agricultural implements. It is among the exports of the province in the form of staves and planks. The black ash is a tree of smaller size than the white ash, and its wood is neither so strong nor so durable. Its wood is not therefore in great request ; but as it may be sepa- rated into thin, narrow strips, it is much used by the Indians for the manufacture of baskets. The lohite cedar abounds throughout New Brunswick. It grows almost always in wet ground ; in swamps, the trees sometimes stand so thick, that the light can hardly penetrate their foliage. It is sometimes upwards of forty feet in height, with a diameter of two feet and more at the base. Usually, however, it is not more than ten or fifteen inches in diameter, at five feet from the ground. It fre- quently occupies exclusively, or in great part, swamps from iifty to one hundred acres in extent, some of which are accessible only in winter, when they are frozen and covered with deej) snow. These " cedar swamps," when cleared anddraim \ are noted for producing large crops of clover. The wood of the white cedar is light, soft, fine-grained, and easily wrought. It haS a strong aromatic odor, which it preserves as long as it is guarded from humidity. The perfect wood resists the succession of dryness ami moist- ure for a great length of time, and this constitutes its great value for fencing. Rails of split cedar, deprivcKl of the bark, have been known to last for fifty years ; and shingles for upwards of thirty years. The largest stocks of the white cedar are much sought after by boat-builders, who use it for boats employed in the fisheries. It possesses superior fitness for various household utensils, especially pails, tubs, and churns, which, instead of growing dull lik( those of other wood, become whiter and smoother by use It is chiefly exported in the form of posts and palings , but as the committee of Lloyd's have just determined to admit white cedar of good quality for the third foot-hooks and top timbers of ships, of the six and seven years' grade, its value will hereafter be considerably enhanced. 111* ^11 : '■ fi'i II w t M bKSCKIl'lIVE AND STATISTICAL ACCOUNT. Ueriides the timber trees already inentioned, which are ul iimcii value in an economical and commercial point of view, there are a variety of other trees in the forests oi New Brunswick, of less size and value, but yet exceedingly useful in their way. Among these may be mentioned the red and gray oak, both trees of small size, but the latter furnishing wood of great Weight, strength, and durability, which is much in request for agricultural implements, as also for boats, car- riages, and sleighs. The white maple and red flowering maple are much smaller than the sugar-maple, and the sap from them yields only half the quantity of sugar. Their wood is much used in cabinet-work, in chair-making, and for a variety of domestic utensils. The white birch and canoe-birch are both trees of considerable size, furnishing much fuel; and the bark of the canoe-birch is exceed ingly useful for a variety of purposes, especially the con- struction of canoes, and the making of boxes, dishes, and a variety of ornamental articles. One of its many uses ia being placed in large sheets beneath the shingles and clap- boards, to render the houses drier, and less liable to be penetrated with cold. The alders, the willows, and the Mnld cherry-trees are all of small size, but useful for some purposes. The fruit of the wild cherry is oftentimes very abundant. Those wild cherries are about one-fourth of an inch in diameter, of a roundish form, purplish-black color, aiul edilde, but slightly bitter to the taste. They are made into a cordial by infusion in rum or brandy, with the addition of sugar ; this, when carefully made with brandy, is superior to the IfirsGhenwasser, imported from Co])on- hagen. There are two species of poplar, known* as the balsam poplar (or balm of Gilead) and the American aspen, both furnishing trees of considerable size, but of no great value, except for ornamental purposes. The Amer- ican lime, generally known as basswood, is a tree of large ilze in New Brunswick, but not very abundant. It is Bometimes met with more than eighty feet high, and four feet I, which are iial point of le forests oi exceedingly id gray oak, ing wood of is much in )r boats, car- ed flowering , and the sap usjcar. Their -making, and te birch and ;e, furnishing ;h is exceed ally the con- s, dishes, and many uses ia gles and clap- 3 liable to he lows, and the seful for some ■tentimes very le-fourth of aU ih-black color, ;e. They are [indy, with the e with brandy, . from Coi)on- known* as the the American size, but of no ?. The Amer- a tree of large lundant. It is ;h, and four feet UESCRIPTIVE AND STATISTICiLL ACCOUNT. 573 in diameter ; its presence indicates loose, deep, and fertile soil. The wood is soft, easily worked, and is used for the panels of carriages, seats of chairs, and fans of faiiuing- niills. The honiheam and ironwood are both found in New Brunswick somewhat extensively. The wood of eacli is exceedingly hard and tough, and capable of bear- ing great weight ; but as they are both trees of the third order only, their small size prevents their being so gener- ally useful as if of larger dimensions. Tiie white spruce is a tree of smaller size than the black epruce, and the wood is of inferior quality, although the deals made from it are mixed with those of black spruce, "ithout distinction. The fibres of its roots, macerated in \\ ater, are very flexible and tough ; they are used by the Indians to stitch their canoes of birch bark, their dishes, and water-pails, of the same material. The seams of the canoes, and of the water-pails, are rendered water-tight by a resin, improperly called gum, which exudes from knots and wounds on the trunk of this tree, whence it is gath- ered, melted, and boiled, to free it from impurities. The Ajnerican silver fir, sometimes called balsam fir, is found in greater or less abundance throughout New Brunswick. Its height rarely exceeds forty feet, with a diameter from twelve to sixteen inches. The wood of the silver fir is light, and slightly resinous ; it lasts longer in the air than in water, and its principal use hitherto has been in the form of boards, for the outside covering of farm-buildings. The great abundance and cheapness of white pine and spruce, have caused the silver fir to be much undervalued. The well-known fir balsam is procured from this tree. It is naturally deposited in vesicles on the trunk and limbs, and is collected ^^y bursting these tumors, and receiving the contents in a shell or cup. In England, it is celebrated for medicinal purposes, and is there generally known by the lame of Canada balsam. The following statement shows the quantities of the principal products of the forest, exported from New Brunswick during five years : 'P » i)<4 Timhorjiiins) Dlm1s(MIVmj,; lJo;inls A 5)lniik / (Mlbet) J Masts it spars (Xo.) Hliip-kiiw'S (Xo.). . Laliiwooil (cunls).. Sawo.l latlis(M)... Shiii^rles (M) Box-shooks (No.) . . THE FISIIKUIKS. 111,14) It J.tJS.') 23,511 25,5:i8 I is-«o. • ih:>o. I l^.M. !i;);t, (,')9 n;s,:{-ii|i()',i»i;.; n,t,>si(i 21,00(; 7,8:ii 2,S(!1 2,54-J 4,i;.")-j :iii,(i:!t; 7. 1 ')<; 8,2(;2 2,(t5:i| i!7 25.s!00l r.),25*; :i.7!U 15,218 2,221! 10,1)72 24, SI! 7 124,072 1«% 112,i:U 180,817 2:!,099 0,:'.9.3 Hi,S4G 1,005 :!),o:i:! :i 1.401 lio,02;t Besides tlic prineipal urtielcs shown in this statement, there were also c.Kported eoiisidarable quantities of tire- wood, tanners' bark, railway sleepers, piekets, c-edar posts, poles and riekers, handspikes, })alin: ii-rounds for these are near the entrance to the bay, and in the vicinity of the islands of Grand Manan, Camiio Bello, and the group known as West Isles, whence the fishing is pursued along the coast eastwardly to the harl)orof St. John, and some- times much further up the bay. The estimated annual value of these fisheries is about £-iO,000 sterling. The fishing for cod, pollock, hake, and haddock, is with hook and line only. It is chiefly followed by fishermen resident on the coast and adjacent islands, in small open boats, which 0:0 out in the morninf; and return in the evening, except in hake fishing, which is pursued during the night. The boats generally in use are from twelve to eighteen feet in length ; the twelve feet boat has one r 1S54. I 18.N5. 27,..tii 112, r.u j.S.OOl 15,218 2,22:i I'.MmJ 2l,s:!7 181),817 2:!,on'j (',,:•. 9 3 l(i,S4G l,t;i)j :!i,<):i:t :ii.4!)i 2.i,«72lllO,02;i statement, ties of tire- cedar posts, lap-boards ; lore or less the Bay of )0urids with possess tish- iu the Bay Gulf, they heries in the ick, herring, or these are nnity oi' tlio I the group irsued along u, and soine- ,ated annual ng. lock, is with •y lisheraieu small open iturn in the sued during )m twelve to Doat has one I THE FISUEBIE8. 575 man, the eighteen feet boat usually three men. These boats have sharp or pink sterns, witli one mast shipped very close to the stem, and a mainsail very broad at the foot, stretched well out with a light boom, and running up to a point at the top. They sail uncommonly well, and lie very close to the wind. Small schooners are also em- ployed for winter fishing, and for the distant banks or fishing grounds. Tiie cod of the Bay of Fuudy are large and of the finest quality, equal to any taken on the coast of Korth America. They bear the highest price in the United States market, being always selected for the best tables. The cod fishery may be followed nearly the whole year, when the weather permits, sometimes close to the land, and at others ten or fifteen miles from it, in very deep water, according to the season, and the course of the her- rings, or other fish upon which the cod feed at different times. When caught, the cod are usually split, salted, and dried, and in that state are known as the dry cod of commerce, which is always sold by the quintal of 112 lbs. At those seasons when cod cannot be dry-cured, they are salted in pickle, and packed in barrels ; these are called " pickled cod." The very best cod are taken at the close of winter, or very early in the spring, m about sixty fathoms water. These are a thick, well-fed fish, often attaining the weight of 70 lbs. or 80 lbs. and sometimes more. The oil extract- ed from the liver of the cod is valuable, and, when refined, sells at a higli price for medicinal purposes. The tongues and sounds of the cod are excellent eating; they are pickled and sold as an article of food. The heads of the cod contain much rich and delicate nutriment, which is highly recommended to persons of weak constitution, and to those whose systems have become debilitated ; but, owing to the abundance of other excellent fish, the cods'- heads are chiefly used for manure. When properly pre- pared with other substances, they are believed to stimu- Mil r :l 57<> THE FISHERIES. late vegetation nearly as much as gnano, while they greatly enrich the soil, and render it in a better condition lor future crops. TlwjM'lock is one of the few ocean fishes which range on l)oth sides the Atlantic ; on the coasts of Enghmd and Irchmd, it is commonly known as the coalfish. Its season for spawning is early in spring; in the early part of sum mer the fish is lank and almost worthless. It becomes in good condition in July, and improves as the season ad- vances. It frequently swims at no great depth, and, when attracted by bait, will keep near a boat or vessel until all are taken. Pollock fishing may be considered as one of the most valuiible deep-sea fisheries of the Bay of Fundy. They are often taken from boats at anchor, like the cod ; but, in general, the best fishing for them is in the strong currents between the islands of the bay, and in the " ripplings," or agitated waters, formed by the conflict of tides rushing through various narrow passages with great force. In these the lively pollock delight to play, as there they find abundance of small herrings for food. In the "ripplings" they are taken from vessels under easy sail, the bait being kept in brisk motion by the sailing of the vessel ; it then closely resembles a living fish darting through the water, and is eagerly chased by the pollock. They are split and dry-cured like cod. Their abundance, and the facility with which they are taken, often render this a profitable fishery. Their livers, in the latter part of summer and autuum, yield much valuable oil. T\i(i hake is a large fish, frequentl}' three feet in length; it is taken abundantly, chiefly by fishing during the night, on muddy bottoms. Its jaws are furnished with several rows of sharp incurved teeth, which rendej necessary an armature of six or eight inches above the hook, as this fish readily bites ofl' a common cod-line. It is split and dry- cured like cod, but requ'r'^'s much more salt. The pickle for hake is made of exceeding strength, a bushel of salt s THE FISHERIES. 577 being used for each quintal of fish. When sufficiently cured, it is exported to the markets of the United States and the West Indies. The haddock is a small fish, found almost everywhere near the shores of New Brunswick. It is exceedinjilv fine wlion eaten fresh, or when slightly salted and smoked, in the same manner as the Finnan haddocks of Scotland. This fish is too thin to be of much value when salted and dry-cured. The haddocks swim in immense shoals, and SI f are prone to change their ground frequently, no doubt in pursuit of food, their consumption being enormous ; but there are many localities in which they are almost certain to be found at all seasons of the year. They are in the best condition in autumn and winter, and are a favorite object of pursuit with those who follow deep-sea fishing as an amusement, affording good sport, and most delicious fresh fish. The pollock, the hake, and the haddock, when dry- cured, are designated by dealers, " scale-fish," and have only half the commercial value of the cod. The herHng is found in great yariety and abundance everywhere in the Bay of Fundy. The statements made by the older naturalists, as to vast armies of herrings coin- ing down annually from the Arctic Ocean, and making the circuit of the seas, is now supposed to be wliolly imaginary. It is at present believed that the herring fattens in the depths of the ocean, and approaches the shore in slioals, merely for the purpose of depositing its spawn. It is quite certain that the common herring is caught in the Bay of Fundy during every month in the year, which quite precludes the idea of its being a migratory fish ; and it is equally certain that particular varieties are always caught in well-known localities, and not elsewhere. Herrings are commonly taken in nets, set at night, in the same manner as on the coasts of the United Kingdom. These are cured in pickle, and packed in barrels ; they form the ordinary pickled herrings of commerce. The II, r ^ ''roperly cured are very savory. They are packed in boxes of about twelve dozens each, and sold at a low price ; the;^- enter largely into domestic consun'ption, and form an aiticle of export of very considerable amount. The mackerel is a iish rather erratic in its habits, and therefore no great de])endoiice can be placed upon tliis fishery in the Bay of Futuly. Formerly, mackerel were very abundant near Grand Manan and Campo Bello, where but few are now taken, althougli the quantity has increased of late years. Those taken are generally of small size, and not at all equal to the mackerel of the Gulf of St. Lawrence, of which mention is made hereafter. The halibut is a large flat iish, of the flounder family ; it is frequently caught when fishing for cod. This fish reaches the weight of 200 lbs., and sometimes much more. In summer it is taken in shallow water, often quite near the shore ; in winter it retires to deep water. The flesh, though white and firm, is dry, and the muscular fibre coarse, yet by many it is much esteemed ; the fins and flaps are delicacies, if the fish is in good condition. When a number of these fish are taken at one time, the fisher- men salt the fle:ih lightly, and then dry and smoke it for winter use. The sea-shad of the Bay of Fuiidy is one of tlie most delicious fish found in its waters. It is taken in long drift-nets, attached to •■ boat, and thus kept stretched across the tide, during the night oidy. Some are taken oft" the harbor of St. John, but the principal fishery is within Cumberland Basin, at the head of the bay. In the muddy waters of that basin they attain their highest ,nd coves, in •^tervals, and t is called a .t high water, leaves tliem L herrings aro red are very twelve dozens r largely into of export of ts habits, and 3ed upon this aackerel were 3 Bello, where ■ has increased of small size, lie Gulf of St. :er. under family; )d. This lish 33 much more, 'ten quite near :r. The flesh, nuscular fibre ; the flns and :litiun. When me, the fisher- id smoke it for le of the most taken in long kept stretched 5omo are taken 31 pal fishery is [' the bay. '^^n in their highest J p? W THE FISHERIES. 579 perfection, owing to the great abundance there oi their favorite food, the shad-worm and the shrimp. The usual weight of this fish is from 2 lbs. to 4 lbs., although it Bometimes attains the weight of 6 lbs. For winter use the shad is split down the back, and pickled ; it must be care- fully cleaned and freed from blood or other impurities, otherwise, from its exceeding fatness, it is apt to spoil. Upwards of two hundred boats and fi^e hundred men are employed in the shad fishery, every season, in Cumber- land Basin ; their annual catch is estimated at something more than 4,000 barrels, worth at least £5,000 sterling. Besides the sca-tish above described, ther' are others also taken, of less commercial value, which are usually eaten fresh. Among these are the silver hake, a fish resembling the whiting of Europe; the cunner, or sea- perch ; the torsk, or cusk, which is sonietimes salted and dried ; several varieties of flounder ; eols in great abund- ance and of good quality, occasionally pickle-salted fjr exportation ; the tom-cod, a small variety of the cod family ; skate in abundance, and of large size, seldom eaten, not being sufticiontly appreciated ; and that delicious little fish, the smelt, which in spring is taken in immense quiiiitities, and in great perfection. i)i shell-jish, there are lobstei*s in considerable numbers; large and i^mall clams ; a large flat shell-fish, known as the scallop ; the periwinkle ; and great abundance of shrimps, with which the market might be amply supplied, but for the scarcity of shrimp-fishoi's, who might here follow their vocation most profitably. Tho islards of Grand Manan, Campo Bello, and West Isles, uvvn and employ in the fisheries sixty-eight vessels, manned by 558 men ; 350 boats, manned by 900 men ; besides 200 men employed in connection with the herring- weirs. The settlers along the shores of the Bay of Fundy all fish more or less in their o.vn boats, chiefly for their own use. The value of their fishing cannot be stated with any degree of precision. 37 » i II 1, '..j, ■ 'W\m^ ■K 1'-; rS i'^~ Mf .i i .'*. 4 .^ It ^•:f ^Htpf! / ■■_: ■ 1 H ? « 580 THE FISHERIES. The rivers which fall into the bay yield a variety of fish ; but the most -valuable river fishing is in the harbor of St. John, at the mouth of the St. John River, which yields annually about 40,000 salmon, 12,000 to 16,000 barrels of alewives, and about 1,000 barrels of shad. The salmon are large and fine, precisely similar to the salmon of Europe. They are worth at St. John about jix-pence sterling per pound, and are sent in ice, in large quantities, to the United States, yielding a considerable profit, and forming a valuable export. The alevOif<' is a small species of shad, generally known in New Brunswick by the name of gaspereau ; its length is from eight to ten inches, tol- embly good when eaten fresh, early in spring, but very dry when salted. It is exported in pickle to the Southern States, where it is eaten by the slaves ; in that hot climate, a tatter fish will not keep. Shad are takea in the river, on the way to their spawning grounds, which are some distance above tide-water. The river shad are much inferior to those taken in the bay, or in Cumberland Basin, and, when salted, are but little superior to the gas])creau. The fisheries in St. John harbor give employment to two hundred boats and five hundred men ; their value is estim.vted at £20,000 sterling annually. The Gulf of Sr. Lawrenoe. — The fisheries in this gulf are prosecuted only from April until the end of No- vember, the ice preventing their being followed during the rest of the year. The princi])al fishery is for cod ; it commences early in oune, and cont'nucs unl'llatein Novemoer. In the early part of the season, cod are ii;al:en very near the shores ; as the soasori adva^ices, they diH\v oflf Into deep water. The best fisl'ing grounds, or, rather, those most frequented, are from Point Escv'i.rinac to Miscou, and thenco along the Bay of Ghaleur to the Restigouclu'.. The fishermen go out in boats, from one to fifteen miles from the land, in the morning, and v/hen at the longer distance do not If i ^! ^ THE ri.siiEiii?:s. 581 I a variety of in the harbor River, wliich 000 to 16,000 of shad. The to the sahnon bout oix-pence irge quantities, ,bl3 profit, and a small species ;k by tlie name ten inches, tol- >ring, but very to the Sonthern lat liot climate, ea in the river, ^hich are some ihad arc nuich in Cumberland superior to the employment to I ; their value is fisheries in this 1 the end of No- followed during iimences early in 2r. In the early ir the shores ; as loop water. Tlie most fre; 8 ail ;yi I 580 GEOLOaV OF THE PROVINCE. tlio westward, at the Clieputtiecticook Lakes and River St. Cruix, and also pursues a north-easterly course to J>ull Moose Hill, near the Bellisle in Kin<;'s (bounty, soon after which it disappears on meeting the coal measures. The Xere})is Hills are in this belt, which is narrower and less elevated than that to the northward. Both these belts of granitic rocks form anticlinal ridges, against which the stratiiied masses lean, or they border immense troughs containing the secondary and tertiary formations. The regions they occupy are generally stony, often rocky, and not susceptible of cultivation. In the less rocky portions excellent soils are fre(]^uently found when the loose stones are removed. The trap rocks, which unAvidc felspar, basalt, 'porphyry, green-stone trap, and others of a volcanic character, are found largely in connection with these belts of primary rocks, into which they send nunierous dikes, veins, and intruding masses. A tract of trap rocks, associated with granite and sienito, and froipiently passing into the true granitic rock, extends from Chamcook, near St. Andrew's, to the eastern extremity of the county of St. John. This tract is on the average about ten miles in width, and about ten miles distant from the northern shore of the Bay of Fundy, with the north-easterly course of which it runs nearly parallel. These traj) rocks occupy a largo space in the counties of King's, St. John, and Charlotte ; the lofty columnar basalt, of the island of Gran< w. «| ^ 588 GhOLOGY OF THE PROVINCE. i'J-li' which are less metamorphosed. They are not altogether incapable of yielding good soils; but this portion of the province is, for the most part, covered with soils of an i^iforior character. 4. The lower carboniferous rocks, or red sandstone, which form a narrow belt everywhere between the Silurian rocks and those of the coal measures. Tliey are also found extensively iuWestmoriand, Albert, King's, Queen's, Carle- ton, and Gloucester ; with small patclies iu St. John and Cliarlotte counties. In these sandotones, which are sit- uated beneath the coal measures, large deposits of gypsum are found, and salt springs often occur. This formation consists cliieily of rod conglomerate, fine-grained red sand- stone, and beds of red clav. The conglomerate does not produce so good a soil as the line-grained red sandstone, whifth crumbles into red and sandy soils, light and easy to work, often fertile, and under proper management yielding good crops. The beds of red clay, often called red marl, are interstratitied with beds of red sandstone, and crumble down into soils which vary from a fine red loam to a rich red clay. In the neighborhood of lime, these sandstones .•ire themselves rich in lime; and when associated with gypsum, combine to form some of the most generally use- ful, and, when properly drained, some of the most valuable upland soils in the province. 5. The carhoniferoua rocks, or coal measures, which cover a large proportion of the breadth of New Bruns- wick, consist chietly of gray sandstones of various i^ints, but sometimes of a dark and greenish hue, and at others of a pale yellow color. The district occupied by these coal measures, extends along the whole gulf shore of this province, from the boundary of Nova Scotia, at Bale Verte, nearly to Bathurst on the Bay of Chaleur, without interruption. It constitutes a large part of the counties of Gloucester and Northumberland; the whole of Kent; the most considerable portions of Westmorland, Queen s, and Suubury ; and extends also into Albert, King's, and GEOLOGY OF THE PROVINCE. 589 ; altogether rtion of tlie soils of an sandstone, the Silurian 3 also found ecu's, Carle- it. John and ich are sit- ;8 of gyps""^ is formation ed red sand- ate does not i sandstone, , and easy to lent yielding ed red marl, and erunible am to a rieh e sandstones oeiated with ;enerally use- nost vahiable .surcs, which New Bruus- v^arious tints, and at otliers ied by these shore of this )tia, at Baie deur, without the couuties lole of Kent ; and. Queen 8, :, King's, and York counties. This coal measure district is d stiniruislied by the general flatness of its surface, gently undulating, however, intersected by numerous rivers and several large lakes, but consisting principally of table lands, more or less elevated, over which forests of mixed g owth extend in every direction. The sandstones of this formation con- sist principally of silicious matter, cemented together by a small proportion of clay, chiefly decayed felspar; they crumble readily, form light soils, pale in color and easily worked, retaining little water, ploughed with facility early in spring and late in autumn, but needing much manure, and subject to being parched up in hot and dry sunnnei-s. Some of i,hese sandstones, however, contain grciiter pro- portions of clay, and form stifi*er soils; others, that are green or gray internally, weather of a red color, and form reddish soils of good quality. It has been remarked, that the coal measures of New Brunswi(!k contain a smaller variety of sandstones than those of England and Scotland, and are free froin those thick beds of dark-colored shale which occur in the coal- measures of the United Kingdom. The soils there, lying above the richest coal-fields, £■■ e often miserably poor, and greatly inferior to those furiiished by the carboniferous rocks of New Brunswick. 6. The tertiary deposits, which are found at nuineroua localities along the coast of the Bay of Fundy. These consist of beds of sand, marly clay, and marl, forming low and nearly level tracts, exposed to the sea, and frequently extending; some distance from the shores. In the nuirl aud marly clay of this formation, the remains of marine animals and plants are found in profusion. In the coun- ties of Gloucester and Restigouche, on the coast of the Bay Chaleur, these are similar to animals and plants which still exist in the province, and the marls of that district may therefore be referred to the pliocene period of the upper tertiary formation. There are two kinds of alluvium in the province, the i fi w '^'if » 590 MINES, MINEKALS, AND QUARRIES. fresh-water and the marine, botli exceedingly fertile. The first of these, eompo^;ed of tlie particles of rocks detached by the frost, heat, and moisture, which cause rapid disin- tegration, are carried downward by the rains, and trans- ported by the floods in early spring along the valleys and river sides, where, being deposited, they form the fertile intervales that border nearly every river in New Bruns- wick. The marine alluvia are carried inwards by the rapid tides of the Bay of Fundy, and spread along its estuaries, where, in the course of time, they become grass- bearing marshes, and being rescued from the sea by embankments, finally produce clover and wheat. These " diked marshes," as they are termed, possess extraordinary and enduring fertility, and exist extensively in the coun- ties of Westmorland and Albert, near the head of the Bay of Fundy, where the tides rise to the height of fifty feet and upwards. For information under this head the writer is indebted to the labors of Dr. Gesner, Dr. Kobb, Professor Johnston, and Mr. Logan of Canada, in addition to his own observa- tions in every part of New Brunswick. MINES, litlNERALS AND QUARRIES. As the geological character of New Brunswick can as yet be but imperfectly described, its minerals, at the pres- ent, are thereture only partially known. The principal mineral substances hitherto found in the province are as follows : — 1. Bituminous coal, of good quality, found in numerous localities in the coal measures of the province, of the fat and caking description, like the Newcastle coal of England. No seam of this coal thicker than twenty-one inches has yet been discovered. Tiie principal workings are in the vicinity of Grand Lake, Queen's county, and the seam is found, on the average, at about twenty feet below the surface. In 1851, nine hundred and forty tons were raised. 2. A highly bituminous mineral, found near the Petico- fertile. The ks detached } rapid disin- 5, and trans- } valleys and in the fertile New Bruns- ^ards by the ;ad along its )ecome grass- i the sea by 'heat. These extraordinary y in the coun- . head of the leight of fifty ;er is indebted 3Sor Johnston, own observa- nswick can as Is, at the pres- Thc principal ovinco are as d in numerous nee, of the tat al of England, one inches has ngs are in the and the seam feet below the ns were raised, ear the Petico- MINE3, MINERALS, AND QUARRIES. 691 diac river, in Albert county. A scientific dispute has arisen as to the precise character of this mineral, which one party designates asphalte, and the other j}iteh coal; hence it lias been proposed to establish it as a new mineral, under the name of alhertite. It is valuable for making the best illuminating gas, and also for the manufacture of various liquid hydro-carbons and illuminating and lubri- cating oils, which are distilled from it. The seam at pres- ent worked is vertical, and on the average about six feet wide. The deposit is supposed to be extensive. In 1851, fifteen hundred tons were raised. 3. Iron ores, of various descriptions and qualities, are foimd in almost every section of New Brunswick. An inexhaustible bed of hematite has been found at Wood- stock, near the river St. John ; extensive iron-works liave been constructed there, and in 1851, eight hundred and ten tons were smelted. No other iron-works have yet been established in the province, although rich ores exist abundantly, especially in King's and Queen's counties. 4. Various ores of manganese have been found in con- nection with the iron ore of "Woodstock. Gray oxide of manganese, highly crystallized and of fine quality, has been worked to some extent on the Tattagouche river, near Bathurst, and thence shipped to England. Black oxide of manganese has been found near Quaco, and of this considerable quantities have, at different periods, been shipped to the United States. 5. Plumbago {graphite) exists in one of the largest beds known in America, at the falls near the city of St. John. It approaches in some degree to a metamorphosed coal, hut is still sufficiently pure for the manufacture of lustre, and preparation of moulds for iron castings. It has been worked to some extent ; in 1853, eighty-nine thousand nine hundred and thirty-six pounds were exported. 6. Ores of lead {galena) have been found on the island of Campo Bello ; also at Norton, in King's county, and lately on the banks of the river Tobique, of very good m\ ■ I pi: 592 MINES, MINERALS, AND QUARRIES. quality. Tlio extent of the deposit, at the several places iiieiitioued, has not yet been ascertained. 7. Gray sulphnret of copper has been found in small quantities on the shores of the Bay of Fundy, in Charlotte county. It has also been found on the left bank of the river liepisiguit, near Bathurst, and a company was formed some years since to work the deposit ; but the irregular distribution of the mineral rendered their opera- tions uncertain, and the mine has been abandoned. 8. Granite, of the best description, is found on the right bank of the Saint John, above the Long Reach, in King's comity. Quarries were opened there some years sincfe, and many public and private buildings in the city of St. John are built wholly, or in part, of the granite quarried there. Although it exists largely in other portions of the province, no other quarries have yet been worked. 9. Gypsum exists In abundance at Hillsborough, about four miles from the Peticodiac river, to which it is trans- portetl on a tramway, and thence shipped in large quanti- ties to the United States. It is also found extensively at Martin's Head, in St. John county; at Sussex Yale, in King's county ; and near the river Tobique, in Victoria county. There is also a deposit neai Cape Meranguin, in AYestmorland. A snow-white gypsum, compact, translu- cent, and approaching the finest alabaster, is likewise found at Hillsborough, in considerable quantity. It works readily in the lathe, and makes beautiful ornament The quantity of gypsum quarried in 1851 was 5,465 tons. In 1853, no less than 15,712 tons were exported. 10. Limestones are found in various districts, but are princi[)ally burned for quick-lime, in large quantities, near the city of St. John, at L'Etang, in Charlotte county, and at Petit Rocher, on the Bay of Chaleur. Kilns exist at other places, where quick-lime is burnt on a small scale, for local consumption. Hydraulic limestones have been noticed in many localities. The old mountain limestone, abounding with fossils, is found near the Ocnab'^g lake, ral places I in small Charlotte ink of the ipany was ; but the :heir opera- ned. )n the right 11, in King's years sincb, 3 city of St. lite quarried rtions of the rked. rough, about di it is trans- large quanti- xtensively at ssexYale, in e, in Victoria Jleranguin, in pact, translu- r, is likewise piantity. It 'ul ornament MINES, MINERALS, AND QUARRIES. 593 In Queen's county, in its usual position with reference to the coal measures ; the whole thickness of the band does not, liowever, exceed one thousand feet. Magnesian limestone has been noticed near the coal mines at Sahuon river, in Queen's county. In 1851, the quantity of lime burned was 35,599 casks, of five bushels eacli. 11. Marbles of very fair quality are worked in the vicinity of St. John, and are also found near Musquadi, on the shores of the Bay of Fundy, as well as on the coast of the Bay of Chaleur. 12. Superior dark-red sandstones, as also gray and other sandstones, are quarried at Mary's Point and Grind- stone Island, in Albert county, and thence exported to some extent. Tliese sandstones are found in large blocks, n.nd are prized for building purposes. Excellent blue flagstones are likewise found at Grindstone Island. Good sandstones for buildings are found on the banks of the Miramichi, as well as in numerous otlier parts of the coal measures. 13. Grindstones are manufactured to a very consider- able extent in the counties of Albert and Westmorland, as also at Miramichi, and on the coast of the Bay of Chaleur, at New Bandon and Caraquet. They form an export of mucli value. There were 68,949 grindstones made in 1851. 14. Fine oil-stone (.lovaculite), equal to Turkish, is fou- I at Cameron's Cove, near the northern head ot Grand Manan, whence American citizens carry it off in quantities. Excellent blue whetstone has been worked to some extent near the Sevogle, a tributary to the North- West Miramichi. Fine stone of the like description is also procured from the banks of the Moose Horn brook, in King's county. 15. Double refracting or Iceland spar, of the best de- scription for optical purposes, is found at Belledune, in the county of Kestigoucho. 16. Roofing slate {anjUlaceous elate) of good quality is found on the banks of the Tattagouche, near Bathurst, iiii 7^ f7 J'Sl m „ I.^J it I :^ - )94 IINE8, MINERALS, AND QUARRIES. and the roof of the court-house at that phice is covered with it. Simihir slate has heen observed at the narrows oi the Tobique river, and on the left bankoftlie St. John, about three miles above Green river, in Madawaska. 17. Iron pyrites, or Hulphuret of iron^ abounds in New Brunswick, and may be used in the manufacture of cop- peras when it occurs in veins. Where dikes of trap-rock liave been injected into slate, the latter is often found charlaces. The finest pure crystals have been procured near the Musquash river, in the count; of St. John. 24. Ochres and the ochreous earths are found, in beds of considerable thickness, in the sandstones of the coal measures. From some of the ochres, of a ferruginous character, fire-proof paints have been manufactured, at the Scadouc river, near Shediac, in Westmorland. 25. Chlorite, the famous pipe-stone of the Indians, called by them Tomaganops, is procured at Grand Manan, and also at the Tomaganops brook, a tributary of the Xorth- West Miramichi, in Northumberland. When first procured from its native bed it is of a dark-green color, compact, soft, and easily worked; by the moderate action of firC; it becomes very black and quite hard. 26. Jade {nephriie\ a stone remarkable for its hard- ness and tenacity, of a light-green color, and of an oily appearance when polished, is found in the province, in localities known to the Indians. Some of them possess ancient scalping-knives and other weapons of jade, neatly polished, and bearing a fine cutting edge. 27. Jasper is found along the shores of the Bay of Cha- leur, and other localities in the northern part of the prov- ince. The ancient arrow-heads, spear-heads, and other Indian implements of stone, for use in war or the chaae, were chiefly formed of native blood -red jasper, exceeding 88 •I', ! I f. ; mV' iW' !PHi ■-:'r 696 MINES, MINKKAI.S, AND QUAURIK8. ly fine and hard, oftentimes emulating the appearance of the semipellucid gems. 28. Ilornstone, or chert^ is frequentl}'- found in the primary rocks, and has been especially noticed at Grand Manan and the Gannet Rock. It has been seen of various colors, and somewhat translucent. The Indians formerly used chert for the heads of their spears and arrows, al- though these were sometimes formed of white quartz. 29. Soapstoue {steatite) is found in the northern part of the province by the Indians. Cooking pots, and other utensils ofsoapstone, are often found near their ancient camping-grounds. 30. Salt-springs, affording a copious supply of water, exist at Sussex Vale, from which salt has been manufac- tured for many years, by evaporation in boiling. This salt is peculiarly fine, and is supposed to improve the flavor of the excellent butter made in that valley. Salt- spVings are also found along a small tributary of the Ham- mond river, in King's county, and near the river Tobique, in Victoria. The origin of these springs is yet an unsettled question; and whether they arise from some unknown chemical action in the bowels of the earth, or are produced by the solution of beds of rock-salt, remains to be determined. 31. Sulphureous and ferruginous springs, und those emitting carburetted hydrogen, are found in numerous localities, in the coal measures and siates of the province ; but as none of their waters have yet been analyzed, no precise description can be given of their several qualities. Very many of the various minerals above described have been observed by the writer, in the localities men- tioned ; and there is reason to believe that others will be found as the country becomes cleared and more minutely explored. In addition to the minerals already mentioned. Dr. Ges- ner states, that Talc and Talcose Slate, Mica Slate, Thompsonite, Stilbite, -^.pophyllite, Tourmaline, Serpen- ppcarance of found in the p.ed at Grand ^eenof various ians formerly [id arrows, al- te quartz. )rtliern part of ots, and other r their ancient pply of water, been nianufac- boilinj;. This improve the , valley. Salt- u-y of the Ilam- 3 river Tobique, ettled question; :nown chemical >roduccd by the determined. ings, und those id in numerous of the province; ;cn analyzed, no everal (pialities. above described localities men- at others will be more minutely ntioncd. Dr. Ges- ate, Mica Slate, maline, Serpen- SUII'-nUILDINO. 597 tme, Iserino, Asbestos, Amethysts, Agates, and Garnets, exist in New Brunswick, but he does not indicate their several localities. SHIP-BUILDING. The advantages of New Brunswick for ship-building were apparent to its earliest settlers. Jonathan Leavitt, one of the lirst settlers in the harbor of St. John, built a small schooner there before 1770. This vessel was nained the "Monneguash," that being the Indian name of the rocky peninsula on which the eastern part of the city of St. John now stands. In 1773, a large schooner was built at Miramichi, and named the " Miramichi," by William Davidson, the first British settler on that river. From these two schooners the province dates its ship-building, which ma}' be said to have grown up with it, gradually increasing until it has attained its present extent and value. The forests of New Brunswick supply timber of large gize, in any quaiitity, for building ships of the first cla,'s. Such ships are principally built of black birch and larch, or hackmatack. The black birch is used for the keel, floor timbers, and lower planking ; larch or hackmatack for all the other timbers, knees, and upper planking. American live and white oak are imported for the stems and posts of su- perior ships, and pitch pine for beams. White pine is used for the cabins and interior finishing, and for masts. The black spruce furnishes as fine yards and topinasts as any in the world. Elm, beech, maple, cedar, and spruce, are used in the construction of ships of the second class, and for Bmall vessels. Ship-building is prosecuted more extensively than else where at the ports of St. John and Miramichi, where it first commenced. Vessels are also built at St. Andrew's ; at various coves and harbors on the Bay of Fundy, es- pecially at Teignmouth and Quaco ; along the banks of the river St. John, for ninety miles from the sea, on the Kennebeckacis, one of its tributaries, and at the Grand Lake. Latterly, ship-building has been prosecuted to a % %hK- I - 'i fm Tv r} 598 SHIP-BUILDING. considerable extent on the banks of the Peticodiac river, and at Sackville, in Cumberland Basin. Within the Gulf of St, Lawrence, vessels have been chiefly built hith- erto at Shemogue, Cocagne, Buctouche, Richibucto, Kou chibouguae, Miramichi, and Shippagan ; at Bathurst and at Dalhousie, withiii the Bay of Chaleur ; and at Cambelton OL the Restigouchc. One of Lloyd's surveyors now resides in 'New Bruns- wick, and all large vessels are subjected to his strict and careful supervision while in course of construction. Sliips built under his inspection are classed before they go to sea ; and such ships have justly attained a high character. The "Marco Polo," renowned for her sailing qualities, was built in the harbor of St. John, and has been followed by a fleet of other ships, equally famous for their strength, speed, and durability. The following is a return of the new vessels registered in the province of New Brunswick, and their tonnage, in each year from the year 1825 to the year 1860, both years inclusive, including vessels built for owners in the United Kingdom, and sent home under certificate or governor's pass. Year. 1825. 1826. 1827. 1828. 1829. 1830. 1831. 1832. 1833. 1834. hS35. 183G. 1837. 1838. 1839. 1840. 1841. 1842. No. of vessels. Tons. 120 28,893 130 31,620 99 21,806 71 15,656 G4 8,450 62 9,242 61 8,571 70 14,081 97 17,837 92 24,140 97 25,796 100 29,643 99 27,288 122 29,167 164 45,864 ...168 64,104 119 47,140 87 22,840 Tear. No. of vessels. Tons. 1843... 64 14,550 1844 87 24.543 1845. 1846. 1847. 1848. 1849. 1850. 1851. 1852. 1853. 1854. 1855. 1856. 1857, 1858. 1859. 1860. . 92 28.972 .124 40,383 .115 53,373 . 86 22,793 ,119 39,280 . 86 30,356 , 99 49,505 .118 58,399 .122 71,428 ,135 99,426 . 95 54,561 .129 79,907 .148 71,989 . 75 26,263 . 93 38,330 .100 41,003 The vessels built in 1853, it will be observed, were of codiac river, Within tho ly built hith- hibucto, Kou Bathurst and at Cambelton New Bruns- lis strict and ction. Ships 'e they go to iffh character, qualities, was II followed by leir strength, jels registered ir tonnage, in 60, botli years in the United or governor's f vesselB. Ton*. 64 14,550 87 24,543 92 28.972 124 40,383 115 53,373 86 22,793 119 39,280 86 30,356 99 49,595 118 58,399 122 71,428 135 99,426 95 54,561 129 79,907 ,148 71,989 , 75 26,263 , 93 38,330 .100 41,003 served, were of MILLS AND MANUFACTOEIES. 699 large size, averaging no less than 585 tons each. The proportions in which they were built in different parts of the province, in 1854, may be judged by the following statement from the ports of registry :— St. John, 94 vessels, 66,452 tons; Miramichi, 21 vessels, 13,205 tons; St. Andrews, T vessels, 1,771 tons. The vessels registered at Miramichi include all those built in the guU"; and those retjistered at St. Andrews include all that were built in Charlotte county. At an average of eight pounds sterling per ton, the vessels ^uilt in 1854 were worth £795,408 sterlinar. As fully half the cost of each ship is expended in labor, the value of employment afforded by ship-building in New Brunswick may be readily estimated. The amount of daily labor in and abou». the hull and spars of a ship, is, on the average, ten days for each registered ton. The shipping belonging to the province of New Bruns- wick on the 31st December of each year, from 1854 to 1860, respectively, is shown in the following table : Tear. 1854.., 1855... 1856.., 1837.., 1858.., 1859.., I860.., No. ,582 .500 .583 .543 .497 .489 .492 John. Tons. 19,695. 10,4,-)1. :i.3,7i;?. ;i;i,G69. 14,457. 12,420. 23,125. Miramichi. No. Tons. .103 10,063., .105 13,209., .110 1(),031., .126 18,3G3. , .119 14,9'J3., .126 13,556., .132 14,910., S.iint Andrews. No. Tons. ..193 11,696., ..195 12,572., 12,462. 8,476., 9,713., 8,079., 8,748., .197 .188 .190 .190 .201 TotaL No. Tonat ..878 141,454 ..806 138,292 ..892 104,220 ..857 160,508 ..812 139,095 ..811 134,055 ..825 147,083 MILLS AND MANUFACTORIES. The number of saw-mills has increased very much in New Brunswick of late years; and recently they have been greatly improved in their construction and machinery. Water power is still used very extensively ; but the number of mills worked by steam is becoming large, especially at and near tiie various sea-ports. In 1833, the number of saw-nulls in the province was estimated at two hundred and thirty ; by the census of 1851, it appears that the number of saw-milla had then increased to five hundred IT?. ^ Dili' 1 1 1 1 600 INTEBNAL COMMUNICATION. and eighty-four — giving employment to 4,302 men. Many saw-mills on a large scale liave since been erected. By the census of 1851, it also appears that there were then in the province, 261 grist-mills, employing 36G men ; 125 tanneries, employing 255 men ; 11 foundries, employ- ing 212 men ; 52 carding and weaving establishments, employing 96 persons : and that there were also 5,475 hand-looms, at which 622,237 yards of cloth were made in a year; this was chiefly coarse woollen, for farmers' use. There were eight breweries, manufacturi.)g annually 100,975 gallons of malt liquor ; and 94 other manufactur- ing establishments, giving employment to 953 persons. The value of various articles manufactured in the prov- ince in 1851, is thus stated : — boots and shoes, £89,367 ; leather, £45,162 ; candles, £19,860 ; wooden ware (not cabinet-work), £20,505 ; chairs and cabinet-ware, £13,472; soap, £18,562 ; hats, £6,360 ; iron castings, £20,205. INTERNAL COMMUNICATION. The rivers of New Brunswick and their tributaries aro GO large, and aftbrd such facilities for reaching the interior of the country, that for a long period after its first settle- ment the construction of roads was greatly neglected. The principal river is the St. John, which is 450 miles in length. It is navigable for vessels of 100 tons, and steamers of large class, for eighty-four miles from the sea, up to Fredericton, the seat of government. Above Fred- ericton, small steamea's ply to Woodstock, about seventy miles further up the river ; when the water is high, they make occasional trips to the Tobique, a further distance of fifty miles ; and sometimes they reach the Grand Falls, which are about two hundred and twenty miles from the sea. Above these falls the river has bc?n navigated by a steamer about forty miles, to the mouth of the Madawaska; beyond that point the St. John is navigable for boats and canoes almost to its source. The Madawaska river is also navigable for small steamers thirty miles, up to Lake INTERNAL COMMUNICATION. 601 Teraiscouata, a sheet of water twenty e»even miles long, from two to six miles in width, and of great depth. From the upper end of this lake to the river St. Law- rence, at Trois Pistoles, the distance is about eighteen miles only. Another large sheet of water in connection with the St, John, is the Grand Lake, the entrance to Avliich is about fifty miles from the sea. This lake is about twenty nine miles long, and from two to seven miles in width. The Salmon river enters the Grand Lake near its head, and is navigable for small vessels and steamers for sixteen miles. The Maquapit and French Lakes are connected with the Grand Lake by a deep, narrow channel, through which small vessels can pass. The Washademoak Lake is about twenty miles long, and, on the average, three-quarters of a mile in width. The stream from it enters the St. John about forty miles from the sea. This lake is navigable for steamers to the mouth of the New Canaan river, which flows in at its head. The Kennebecasis river, a large tributary of the St. John, is eighty miles long ; it is navigable for steamers twenty -five miles from its mouth to Hampton, where ves- sels of 500 tons have been built. The Oromocto is another large tributary flowing from two large lakes, navigable for vessels drawing eight feet of water for twenty miles from its mouth. It enters the St. John from the westward, seventy-two miles from the sea ; within its mouth vessels of 1,200 tons are built. The Nashwaak, the Keswick, the Mactaquack, and the Nackawic are all considerable streams, entering the St. John from the eastward. The Tobiquo is a large river, eighty miles in length, with its tributaries watering a large tract of country east of the St. John There are many other tributaries of the St. John both from the eastward and *he westward, among which the A.roostook is the most considerable. The Peticodiac is a large river flowing into Cumber* lit! "^fmmmmm fl^ Hi 1.1 ? 1^ 1^^- Ii. 1 f n tf^T 1 ■nr'ljj 9n'] 1 1 i 1 t i 602 INTERNAL OOMMUNICATION. land Basin, near the head of the Bay of Fundy. It is navigable twenty-five miles for vessels of the largest size ; and for schooners of sixty or eighty tons burden for twelve miles further, to the head of the tide. The whole length of this rivgr is about one hundred miles ; above the head tide-water it is navigable for boats and canoes fully fifty miles. The Richibucte is a considerable river flowing into the Gulf of St. Lawrence. It is navigable for small vessels for fifteen miles above the harbor at its mouth ; the tide flows up it twenty -five miles. The Miramichi is a large river, navigable for vessels of 800 tons for twenty-five miles from the gulf, and for schooners twenty miles further, to the head of the tide, above which for sixty miles it is navigable for tow-boats. This river has many large tributaries spreading over a great extent of country. The Restigouche, at the north-eastern extremity of the province, is a noble river, three miles wide at its entrance into the Bay of Chaleur, and navigable for large vessels for eighteen miles from the bay. The principal stream of the Restigouche, is over two hundred miles in length. Its Indian name signifies " the river which divides like the hand," — in allusion to its separation, above the tide, into five large streams. The main river, and its large tribu- taries, widely spread, are supposed to drain at least 4,000 square miles of territory, abounding in timber and other valuable natural resources. The Bay of Chaleur, into which the Restigouche flows, may be described as one innnense haven, with many excel- lent harbors. Its length is ninety miles, and it varies in breadth from fifteen to thirty miles ; yet in all this great extent of length and breadth, there is neither rock, reef, nor shoal, nor any impediment to navigation. On the southern or New Brunswick side of this bay the shores are low, the water deepening gradually from them. On the northern or Canadian side, the shores are bold and itli; the tide INTERNAL COMMUNICATION. 603 precipitous, rising into eminences which may almost be called mountains. Besides the rivers mentioned, there are very many others, of such size as would entitle them elsewhere to bo deemed very considerable. An inspection of the map of New Brunswick will show how admirably the country is watered throughout, no portion of it being without run- ning streams, " from the smallest brook up to the navi- gable river," by which the country can everywhere be penetrated, as mentioned by the railway commissioners. Gkeat Roads have been made through those lines of country most thickly settle'd. Tlie principal of these is the line of great road from the harbor of St. John, up the valley of the St. John river to Canada. The next is the line of great road, from the United States frontier, at Ca- lais, across the province, eastwardly, to the city of St. John ; thence eastwardly, along the valleys af the Ken- nebecasis and Peticodiac, to the bend of the latter river. At that point, a branch diverge j southerly to the bound- ary of Nova Scotia ; the main line pursues its course to Sliediac, and thence northerly, along the Gulf Shore of the province, to the Canadian boundary at the Kest'gouche. There are also great roads that connect Fredericton with the ports of St. Andrew's and Miramichi ; with other great roads of less extent connecting several important points. The by-roads In each county are numerous, penetrating into every settlement; these are being extended continually, as settlers push their way into the wilderness. About £30,000 sterling is appropriated annually from the pro- vincial revenue, for the construction and improvement of roads and bridges. A wire suspension bridge has recently been thrown over the river St. John, situated near the city of St. John, where a toll is levied ; with that single exception, all the roads and bridges in the province are free. There are numerous waterfalls on the rivers and streams of the province ; very few are without, and some have m "JsjL h^ >j:fiip « n .;i ,'i fsli!!i* . !|i;'^.:<> 604 EAILWAY8. falls of great height and large volume. Tlie amount of water power in New Brunswick is exceedingly large, and almost beyond calculation. Few countries of its size pos- sess such facilities for obtaining power to an unlimited extent from running water. RAILWAYS. The province was early in the field of railway enterprise. It was only in the year 1825 that the Darlington railroad was opened to supply London with coal. The cars moved by steam at the rate of seven miles per hour, which was considered a marvel then. Inl827, three miles of railway were completed in the state of Massachusetts. In 1828, twelve miles of the Baltimore and Ohio railroad were completed. In 1830, the Liverpool and Manchester railroad, thirty-one miles in length, was opened. It was the opening and successful work- ing of this important line that gave the first grand impulse to railway enterprise. In 1844, only fourteen years after this great era in the means of travel and transit, the St. Andrew's and Woodstock railroad, in New Brunswick was commenced. The length of the line to Woodstock, is about ninety miles. Its progress has been slow, partly owing to the depression which occurred in the timber trade shortly after its commencement, partly owing to in- efficient management, and partly owing to the fact that the provincial energies were directed to the construction of other important lines of railway. In 1855, twenty-five miles of <^his road were completed. The company have a grant of one hundred thousand acres of land from the provincial government, ten thousand acres of which they have made over to the contractors at $5 per acre, in part payment for their contract. This road is just announced as being opened all the way to Woodstock station this month (June, 1862). Its cost per mile has been something near $16,000. It was originally intended to extend it to- «vard Quebec, so as to tap the great Canadian lines. In all probability it will be extended in the course of a few k'I^ihS^ frl imount of large, and Ds size po9- unlimited enterprise, ailroadwas ed by steam onsidered a } completed miles of the [n 1830, the lie miles in essful work- md impulse years after ^nsit, the St. answick was oodstock, is slow, partly the timber owing to in- tact that the struction of twenty-five ipany have a nd from the f which they acre, in part Bt announced : station this en something extend it to- an lines. In lurse of a few ELEOTEIO TELEGRAPH LINES. 605 years so as to tap the Intercolonial Line which is to be constructed forthwith. The line of railway between the city of St. John's on the Bay of Fundy and Shediac, a town on the Gulf of St. Lawrence, is the chief line in this province. It has been in successful operation for over two years. This road is one hundred and eight miles in length. The whole line with its full complements of stations, sidings, and rolling stock, has cost the province, up to November 1st, 1861, the sum of §4,548,564.59, or $42,116.34 per mile, equal to £8,774 4:S. Id. sterling per mile. The road is of superior quality, well-built, well-drained, well-ballasted, with wider cuttings and embankments than the Nova Scotia and Canadian lines, and therefore not costing so much for yearly upholdence and improvements. The capital amount of the above cost has been expended as follows : Engineering account $214,535.15 Permanent way 3,704,785.49 Buildings 192,281.94 Kolling stock and machinery 358,216.20 Miscellaneous stock 15,871.21 General expenses 63,424.60 $4,548,564.59 Other expenditures not included in the above 134,235.89 Grand Total $4,682,800.48 The total revenue of this line for the last year was $130,078.15, being an increase on that of the previous year of $14,452.75. This line has already been highly beneticial to New Brunswick and to the city of St. John's. It has attracted the trade and travel of Prince Edward Island toward that city. ELECTRIC TELEGRAPH LINES. The first line of telegraph communication was built in New Brunswick in the year 1848. There is, at present, -.**■ Ill-r iii ' m rflih 606 COMMERCE AND NAVIGATION. Bcven Imiulred miles of telegraph-line in the province of New Brunswick, being eight hundred miles less than that contained in Nova Scotia. The number of offices are twenty-four ; telegraphists, twenty-nine. Number of other employes, ten. The most important lines, viz. : the line from Sackville to Calais, and from St. John's to Woodstock, via. Freder- icton, are let to the American Telegraph Company on terms similar to that on which the Nova Scotia lines are let. The rates of tolls are very nearly the same as in Nova Scotia, making allowance for the diffisrence in the currency of the two provinces. COMMERCE AND NAVIGATION. The extent and value of the commerce and navigation of the province, will be best shown by the following sta- tistical tables, carefully compiled from official returns. The first is a statement of the numbers and tonnage of vessels, owned and registered in the province, on the 31st day of December, in each of the years mentioned : — Year. Number. Tons. Year. Number; Tons. 1848. ...7G3.., .113,825 1852. ...782.. .103,641 1849. ...775.. .117,475 1853. ...827.. .114,588 1850. ...807.. .121,996 1854. ...582.. .119,695 1851. ...796.. .118,288 1855. ...566.. .110,451 Estimating the population of the province in 1855, at 200,000 souls, the proportion of tonnage to population v^dll be eleven-twentieths of a ton for each man, woman, and child in the country — an unusually large proportion in any community. The following is a statement of the number of ships and vessels, and their tonnage, which entered inwards at the several ports of New Brunswick, from all parts of the world, during five years, — distinguishing the various countries from which they arrived : — t\ •m Sackville via. Freder- ^onipany on itia lines are same as in renee in the i navigation )llo\ving sta- COMMERCE AND NAVIGATION. 607 ? From United Kingdom. From British colonies. From United btatea. From foreign states. Total No. 325 233 273 219 248 208 126 Tons. No. Tons. No. 1,304 1,457 1,453 1,511 1,767 1,642 1,659 Tons. No. 51 68 57 49 78 109 42 Tons. No. 2,893 3,039 3,058 3,314 3,556 3,700 3,442 Tons. 1849 1850 1851 1852 1853 1854 1855 140,024 95,393 113,665 86,203 98,592 90,944 71,417 1,213 1,281 1,275 1,535 1,863 1,741 1,615 81,050 81,424 87,965 99,642 110,414 117,912 101,704 182,007 242,104 274,594 344,187 405,345 391,930 407,126 13.106 17,701 12,926 9,254 12,225 24,481 10,520 416,187 436,622 489.150 539,336 627,276 625,267 590,767 The next table contains a statement of the number of ships and vessels, and their tonnage, cleared outwards during five years, distinguishing the countries to which they sailed. The increase in the number of vessels inwards and out- wards, during the years stated, has been equal to the in- crease in imports and exports, and shows the steady ad- vanc( in trade and navigation. p To United Kingdom. To British colonies. To United States. To foreign states. Total. No. Tons. No. 1,172 1,241 1,182 1,465 1,784 1,680 1,578 Tons. No. Tons. No. 25 25 34 41 44 05 61 Tons. No. 2,891 2,971 2,981 3,2;)8 3,929 .3,745 3,381 Tons. 1849 1850 1851 1852 1853 1854 1855 769 768 815 793 902 930 523 300,806 203,617 347,757 353,013 413,796 436,007 324,908 68,097 70,155 73,280 86,652 102,216 97,130 95,256 928 937 950 999 1,191 1,064 1,219 84,742 87,925 111,772 1.35,580 158,523 155,985 233,075 3,769 3,286 5,717 6,227 6,763 11,764 10,742 457,414 464,983 538,528 581,472 681,478 700,886 663,981 The following table shows the value in sterling of the imports and exports of the province of New Brunswick from and to the United States, and from and to all countries, during the last thirty-three years, or between the years 1828 and 1860, both years inclusive. From ond to the United States. From and to all conntries. Imports. Exports. Imports. Exports. 1828. . . .£123,662 £18,084 £643,581 £457,855 1829 133,978 26,969 638,076 514,219 18.30 146,767 30,372 693,561 570,307 1831 77,476..... 18,017 603,870 427,318 1832.. . 123,192 30,798 704,059 541,800 il : m l-M'-' 11 ! i: ■ ■ 4 ' ■'' ■ r*!i i * ;:' f •■ % ! ; : I ■- : iKr m h ■J'. »v 608 COMMERCE AND NAVIGATION. From aiid to the United Stntcs. From and to all conntrles. Im|>ort8. Exports. Imports. E.xports. 18.13 i;iG,4.'?2 29,.S62 694,599 558,621 18a4 109,606 20,411 781,167 578,907 1835 102,839 24,299 969,860 652,154 1836 112,713 29,224 1,249,537 652,645 1837 124,991 25,185 1,058,050 650,615 1838 121,160 25,598 1,204,629 792,119 1839 249,298 35,472 1,513,204 819,291 1840 254,1.34 2.3,808 1,336,317 753,036 1841 207,852 18,522 1,291.611 700,699 1842 162,422 29,453 648,.307 487,479 1843..., 140,259 16,190 639,686 538,592 1844 207,484 16,909 850,099 598,837 1845 312,313 27,940 1,105,998 787,624 1846 298,006 15,861 1,036,016 886,763 1847 340,098 44,644 1.125,328 696,399 1348 244,276 44,553 629,408 639,199 1849 264,562 51,582 693,927 601,462 18,50 262,148 77,400 815,531 658,018 1851 330,835 83,028 980,300 772,024 1852 393,210 8.3,792 1,110,601 796,335 1853 574,070 121,858 1,716,108 1,072,491 1854 711,234 97,930 2,068,773 1,104,215 1855 782,762 123,127 1,431,3.30 826,381 1856 714,515 173,485 1,621,178 1,073,351 1857 628,510 158,697 1,418,943 917,775 1858 664,245 163,702 1,162,771 810,779 1859 675,095 236,014 1,416,034 1,073,422 1860 688,217 248,378 1,446,740 916,372 The following table is a return of revenue, in currency, of the wick, during each financial year years inclusive. Tear. Amount in currency. 1837 £7.5,320 1838 79,167 1839 123,285 1840 109,942 1841 110,983 1842 55,904 1843 59,498 13 1844 92,333 1845 127,753 1840 127,403 1847 127,410 1848 86,437 16 3 9 3 7 10 17 7 10 9 2 13 14 2 1 9 17 1 7 2 14 3 showing the gross amount province of New Bruns- from 1837 to 1860, both Tear. Amount in 1849 £95,536 1950 104,089 1861* 117,363 1852 138,220 1853 184,727 1854 203,054 1855 127,476 1856 149,248 1857 167,063 1858 136,357 1869 193,381 1860 208,331 currency. 17 4 9 6 10 1 2 4 4 14 11 3 11 7 6 18 10 15 1 1 1 10 The increase in the imports and exports during the last six years is worth of especial notice, as marking the * For elevec montha mtrie*. Exports. ,bS,b'l'l il 8,907 552,154 352,645 S50,615 792,119 819,291 753,036 700,699 487,479 638,592 598,837 787,624 886,763 696,399 639,199 601,462 658,018 772,024 790,335 1,072,491 1,104,21S 826,381 1,073,351 917,775 , 810,779 1,073,422 , 916,372 'OSS amount ew Bruns- 1860, both aunt In currcncj'. )5,536 17 4 )4,089 9 6 7,363 10 58.220 1 2 U,727 4 4 )3,054 14 11 27,476 3 11 49,248 7 6 67,063 18 10 36,357 15 1 93,381 1 08,331 1 10 ring the last marking the J FORM OF GOVERNMENT. 609 steady progress and continued advancement of the coun- try. Tlie apparent deficiency in each year between the value of imports and the value of exports, is amply made up by tlie sale of new ships in the United Kingdom, the freight of their cargoes to the place of sale, the earnings of the ships belonging to the province, and the prices ob- tained for articles exported beyond the official estimate of their value when shipped, leaving, on the whole, a large balance of trade in favor of the province. FORM OF GOVERNMENT. Tlie chief executive officer is the Lieutenant-Governor, appointed by the Sovereign of England, of whom he is the immediate representative in the province. Ilis func- tions are extensive, as he performs the duties of Comman- der-in-Chief, Vice-Admiral, Chancellor, Ordinary, and other higli offices. He administers the government with the advice of an Executive Council of nine members, who hold office only while they possess the confidence of the people, as expressed through their representatives in the Assembly, retiring on an adverse vote, precisely as the ministry in England. The Legislative Council, or upper House of the Legislature, consists of twenty-one members, appointed by the crown during pleasure, but usually hold- ing office for life. The lower House, or House of As- sembly, is the popular branch, and consists of forty-one members, elected by the people. The several counties, and the city of St. John, are thus represented in the As- sembly : Restigouche, two members ; Gloucester, two ; Northumberland, four ; Kent, two ; Westmorland, four ; Albert, two ; county of St. John, four ; city of St. John, two; Charlotte, four ; King's, three ; Queen's, two; Sun- bury, two ; York, four ; Carleton, two ; Victoria, two. The Legislative Council has the power of amending or rejecting bills sent to it by the House of Assembly, and may originate bills, except money bills. The members of the House of Assenbly are elected every four years, by '*['■ \4. .(h f ? " '' ? ! 1 ■ ■'■'' |3U flu V- \\ I ','»♦: iiHijiiiiiii 610 JUDICIAL INSTITUTIONS. freeholders in the several counties, and by the citizens in St. John. This House has tlie power of appropriating the public moneys, levyin<5 duties, investigatinf; the public ac- counts, and generally of legislating on the affairs of the province, as they are brought under its notice by the gov- ernment, by its own members, or by the petitions of the people. Bills which have passed both branches of the le- gislature, must receive the assent of the Lieutenant-Gov- ernor before they become law ; and they are then subject to the approval or disallowance of Her Majesty in Council. JUDICIAL INSTITUTIONS. The Courts of Justice are, the Supreme Court, Court of Vice Admiralty, Court for the trial and punishment of Piracy, Probate Courts, Courts of Marriage and Divorce, Inferior Courts of Common Pleas and General Sessions of the peace, and Justices' Courts. The Court of Chancery has been recently abolished, and its powers and duties transferred to the Supreme Court. This court consists of a chief-justice and assistant judges ; its jurisdiction ex- tends to all criminal cases, and civil suits where the amount in dispute exceeds five pounds, except in cases of appeal from the Justices' Courts. It sits at Fredericton, four terms in each year, and the judges go on circuit, and bold the assizes in each county, the same as in England. The Court of Vice- Admiralty is held at the city of St. Jonn, and is presided over by one judge, holding his com- mission from the Crown. This court decides maritime causes, and has jurisdiction over prizes taken in war. The Court for the trial and punishment of Piracy and other offences committed on the high seas, consists of the Lieu- tenant-Governor, the Chief-Justice and other judges of the Supreme Court, the members of the Executive Council, the Judge of the Vice Admiralty, the Provincial Secretary and the Provincial Treasurer, with the flag ofiicers and captains and commanders of ships of war on the station for the time be'ng. It sits at any place within the prov- tizcna in ating the •ublic ac- rs of the ' the gov- 18 of the of the le- lant-Cxov- m subject 1 Council. , Court of ihinent of Divorce, lessions of Chancery md duties consists of liction ex- where the in cases of redericton, nrcuit, and England, city of St. 12: his com- 5 maritime I war. The r and other )f the Liea- idffes of the ve Council, al Secretary oflicers and the station in the prov- h Ai \\mm i al 1 1 li .; 1 ;B ti 1 \ ,1 \ nP'tt ii i HhL££> '■'; m '•' 1 hi t .ft ' 1 n n T''i"j'i.i' jnr,«f}i irUuvuriuj' [.nine Court, r . .T;Mlvas 119,457 souls; in 1840, it was 154,000 souls ; and in 1851 (in the last census), it was 193,800 souls. At present the population is estimated at 210,000 souls, and upwards. The increase of population in New Brunswick has been greater than that in the neighboring State of Maine, by 7.29 per cent. ; than that of New Hampshire, by 11.79 per cent. ; and than that of Vermont, by 16.07 per cent. ; and it has exceeded their aggregate and average ratio by 10.86 per cent. AN ACCOUNT OP THE NUKBER OP IMMiaRANTS* ARRIVED IN THE PKOVIXCK OP NP;W BRUNSWICK BETWEEN THE YEARS 184-t AND 1^00, BOTH YEARS INCLUSIVE. Year. No. immigrants arrived, 1844 2,605 1845 6,133 1846 9,765 1847 14,879 1848 4,141 1849 2,724 1850 1,838 1851 3,470 1852 2,165 Ycnr. No. imraigrnnts arrived. 1853 3,762 1854 3,440 1855 1,539 1856 708 1857 607 1858 390 1859 230 1860 323 Immigrants arrived at the port of St. John in 1860, 315 " " atCaraquet 8 Total for New Brunswick in 1860, 323 DESCRIPTION OF THE PROVINCE BY COUNTIES. Restigouche. — This is the northernmost county in the province. It has a large fri>ntage on the Bay of Chaleur, and is bounded northerly by the forty-eighth parallel of north latitude, which is the dividing line between New- ♦ A duty of 2s. 6d. currency, or 2s. Id, sterling, was imposed by an act of the Colonial Legislature on each immigrant arriving in the province. In the year ending 3l8t December, 1860, the sum of £40 7s. Gd. currency was col- lected in this colony on account of immigrant duty. 40 £ E i 628 DEeCRIPTION OF THE PROVINCE BY COUNTIES. Brunswick and Canada in that quarter. It abuts west- wardly on Victoria county, and is bounded southerly by Gloucester and Northumberland. Tiestigouche county cc!'tains 1,426,560 acres of which 156,979 acres are granted, and 1,269,581 acres are still vacant. The quantity of cleared land is 8,895 acres only. The population, in 1851, was 4,161 ; of whom 2,353 were males, and 1,808 were females. Lumbering is carried on extensively in Restigouche, which will account for the excess of males. This county is divided into five parishes — Addington, Colborne, Dalhousie, Durham, and Eldon. The shire town is Dalhousie, a neat town at the mouth of the River Restigouche. It is built on an easy slope, at the base of a high hill; the streets are broad and clean. A crescent-shaped cove in front of the town is well shel- tered, and has good holding ground for ships, in six and seven fathoms water. There are excellent wharves, and safe timber ponds at Dalhousie, affording every conveni- ence for loading ships of the largest class. The eastern point of Dalhousie harbor is in latitude 48° 4' north, longi- tude G(j° 22' west. Variation of the compass, 20° 45' west. Neap tides rise six feet, and spring tides nine feet. From Dalhousie to the village of Campbelton the distance by the river is about eighteen miles. The whole of this distance may be considered one harbor, there being from four to nine fathoms throughout, in the main channel. At Camp- belton the river is about three-quarters of a mile wide; above this place, the tide flows six miles, but large ves- sels do not go further up than Canipbelton. In 1853, ninety vessels, of the burden of 18,217 tons, entered the port of Dalho«sie. The soil in this county is very fertile, and produces large crops ; it is especially noted for the excellent quality of its grain. The best wheat grown there weighs sixty-iive pounds per bushel; barley, fifty-six pounds per bushel; black oats, forty-two pounds per bushel ; white oats, forty- seven pounds per bushel. The productiveness in Kesti- JODNTIES. It abuts west- led southerly by ) acres of which 1 acres are still 8,895 acres only, whom 2,353 were ing is carried on account for the into five parishes bam, and Eldon. wn at the mouth I an easy slope, at broa' 4 'If / • ' : ; J ! ' I ; '' ' "'-■?" '"' f . ; ^ M' .' n^i ^ iiijnU* ii III \ t 1P1 — ^^ 1 '■ 1^ 634. DESCRIITION OF THE PROVINCE BY COUNTIES. for lumbering, fishing, und ship-building, in addition to its mines and quarries. Westmorland contains 878,440 acres, of which 577,440 acres are granted, and 301,000 acres are vacant. The cleared hind amounts to 92,822 acres. The population in 1851 was 17,814 souls, dwelling in 2,390 houses. There are seven parishes — Botsford, Dorchester, Moncton, Sackville, Salisbury, Shediac, and Westmorland. The shire-town is Dorciiester, a rural village about one mile from the eastern bank of the Peticodiac liiver. The Harbor of Shediac, 'n the gulf shore, is by tho coast, ten miles south of Cocagii Its entrance, at the southern end of Shediac Island, is ih ititude :G° 15' 15" north, and longitude 64® 32' 10" west. The longitude in time is 4h. 18 min. 8.40 seconds ; the variation of the compass, 19** west. During the summer solstice^ the time of high water, at the Adl and change of the moon, is 7 a. m. ; at and dur- ing tiio winter solstice, at 12 noon; neap tides rise two feet, and spring tides four feet. In the fair-way, or ship- channel, at the distance of two-and a half miles from the harbor, twenty-five feet water is found, which is continued, with little variation, up to the entrance. From thence there is nineteen feet in the channel, gradually lessening, until at the anchorage oif Point Du Chene, where sixteen and a half feet is found, at one-third of a mile from the shore. Two small rivers, the Shediac and the Scadouc, fall into this harbor. In 1853, two hundred and twenty- two vessels, of the burden of 21,226 tons, entered at Sche- diac. The terminus of the railway from St. John is near the entrance to this harbor, whence communication may be had, by steamers and sailing vessels, with Prince Ed- ward Island, thirty-six miles distant, and all other parts of the Gulf of St. Lawrence, as also the Great Lakes of Canada by the River St. Lawrence and its canals. It is therefore quite certain to become a place of much trade and business. Aboushagan and Tedish are boat harbors^ to the east- DESCRIPTION OF THE PROVINCE BY COUNTIES. 63i ward of Shediac, between that harbor and Cape BauM At Aboushagan there is live feet water on llie bar, with good sand beaches near the entrance. Tedish bar is dry at low water, but there is a fine sand beach, on which boats are easily drawn up. The harbors of Big and Little Shemogue are between Cape Bauld and Cape Tormentine. 13ig Shemogue is a good harbor for vessels of all sizes, up to 130 tons. At ordinary tides there is ten feet on the bar at high water, with a channel fifty fathoms wide. Inside, the harbor is capable of containing one hundred vessels, with anchorage in two and a half fathoms, well sheltered. Ship-building is prosecuted in this harbor, near which the best ship timber is said to be abundant. Little Shemogue is about three miles east of its larger namesake, but is only a boat- harbor, with two feet water on its bar. Westmorland has the advantage of cc-cral shipping ports on the Bay of Fundy, within Cumberland Basin, and along the Peticodiac River; from each of these there is considerable coasting and foreign trade. In 1853, eighteen vessels, of 1,328 tons, entered at Sackville ; ten vessels, oC 771 tons, entered at Dorchester ; and twenty-one vessels, of 1,64:6 tons, entered at Moncton. Vessels of all sizes, up to 1,000 tons, are built at each of these places. The rise and fall of tide on the shores of Westmorland, within Cumberland Basin, and up the river Peticodiac, are very great. At Dorchester Island, near the mouth of the Peticodiac river, an ordinary tide rises thirty- six feet, and spring tides forty-eight feet. The tide rushes up this river with great velocity, and with a tidal wave, usually called " the bore," which at spring tides is five or six feet high. At Moncton, usually called the Bend, because it is situated at the point where the river, which flows thence in an easterly course, turns suddenly, almost at a right angle, and flows to the southward, an ordinary tide rises forty- eight feet, ^nd spring tides fifty-seven feet. Moncton is a thriving village, its population increasing rapidly in con- ^i Mi f . iil lii %i ' f, i^y I' ; Jt :n 636 DESCRII'TION OF THE PKOVINCE BY COUNTIES. sequence of the operations for establishing railway eom- niunication with the Gulf at Shediac, and witli the city of St. John, A bank has been established there recently, for facilitatinr^ extensive business transactions, and this flourishinji; place bids fair to become an entrepot for trade with the northern counties, Prince Edward Island, and the Gulf of St. Lawrence generally. The fertile marshes and uplands of Westmorland are well adapted for grazing purposes. In 1851, 322,335 pounds of butter were made. In the same year, this county, with other crops, produced 33,037 rons of hay; 145,396 bushels of oats ; and 282,224: bushels of potatoes. Tlie quantity of maple sugar made was 43,485 pounds. Albert. — This county lies south and west of the River Peticodiac, with the Bay of Fundy in front, and abutting westwardly on St. John aiid King's counties. It was for- merly part of Westmorland, from wliich it was separated in 1845. Albert contains 433,560 acres, of which 233,700 acres are granted, and 199,860 acres are still vacant. There are 32,210 acres of cleared land. The population in 1851 was 6,313 souls. There is much good land in this county, and itrt diked marshes are extensive. A largo proj)ortion of the vacant land is of good quality, well adapted for settle- ment and cultivation. Besides its agricultm-al capabilities, Albert county possesses valuable resources iu its forests, its mines, and its fisheries. There are five parishes in this county — Coverdale, Elgin, IlutVey, IIillsl)orough, and Ilopeweil, The shire-town is at Hillsborough, on the western batdc of the Peticodiac River. Shipments take place at Hillsborough and Harvey, and at the former place ship-building is prosecuted. In 1853, thirteen vessels, of 1,401 ton3, entcied at Harvey; and sixty-seven vessels, of 11,377 tons, entered at Hills- borough. These vessels carried the various products of this country to places abroad ; and there were many coast- ers also employed in carrying produce to the port of St. DESCKII'TION OF THE PROVINCE BY COUNTIES. 637 Jolin. In 1851, there were 142,137 pounds of butter made in Albert, and 62,235 pounds of maple sugar. Saint John. — This county consists of a narrow strip of land, stretching for nearly ninety miles along the shores of tlie Bay of Fundy, with Albert county on the east, Cliar- lotte county on the west, and King's county to the north- ward. It contains 414,720 acres, of which 309,147 acres are granted, and 105,573 acres are still vacant, chiefly at tlie eastern and western extremes of the county. Its population, in 1851, was 38,475 souls. There are five parishes in this county — Lancaster, Port- land, St. John, St. Martins, and Simonds. The city of Saint John is the shire town; it contained, in 1851, a population of 22,745 souls, and the parish of Portland, its suburb, contained 8,429 souls, making togeth^A; 31,174 souls. At the present time (1854) the population of St. John and Portland may be estimated at 35,000 souls. Altliough this county cannot boast of its agricultural capabilities, yet in 1851 it produced, with other crops, 0,855 tons of hay, 30,961 bushels of oats, 9,758 bushels of buckwheat, 34,438 bushels of turnips, and 105,695 bushels of potatoes. In the same year, 102,716 pounds of butter were made, and 12,960 casks of lime were burned. The city of Saint John was established by Royal Char- ter in 1785, and is now divided into seven vvards. Of these, five are on the eastern side of the harbor; the other two are on the western side, and constitute that part of the city usually called Carleton. The city government, or connnon cou.icil, consists of a mayor and recorder, with an alderman and councillor from each ward. The mayor, aldermen, and councillors are elected annually by the citizens and freeholders; the recorder is appointed by the crown. All British subjects may become citizens on j;ay- ing certain fees, amounting to about £5 sterling ; but sons of citizens, born in the city, and those who have served an apprenticeship in it, become citizens at twenty-one years of age, on payment of about £1 sterling. i U-M m •' 638 DESCtlPTTON OF THE PROVINCE BY COUNTIES. In 1851, there were 3,885 inhabited houses in tlie city, and 133 in course of erection. The number of stores, barns, and outhouses was tlien 2,397 ; these numbers have considerably increased since 1851. There are many good buildings of brick and stone, especially in the business part of the city, where none others are now allowed to be built. The tide rises twenty-one to twenty-three feet at ordinary tides, and twenty -three to twenty -five feet at spring tides. At full and change of the moon, it is high water at eleven hours forty-four minutes. There is good anchorage within the harbor in ten to seventy fathoms water. Owing to the tide-falls a1 the head of this harbor it is never frozen, or in any way inrpeded by ice during the winter; vessels arrive and depart every day during the year. Its latitude is 45° 15' north, longitude 05° 3' 36" west; variation of the compass, 16° 30' west. The position of St. John harbor, at the mouth of a large river with numerous tributaries, and its entire freedom from obstruction by ice, give it great advan^-iges over all the northern ports in North America, and render it almost certain of becon,iing a place of much commercial impor- tance. The existing trade and commerce of the port, with its steady increase, will be best understood by the following BtateiMcnt of the numbers and tonnage of vessels entered inwards, and cleared outwards, during six years. No. Tons. 1850— -Inwards 1,695 260,429 Outwards 1,720 284,793 1851— Inwards 1,528 282,560 Outwards 1,515 a24,821 18M— Inwards 1,740 334,207 Outwards 1,746 302,917 1853— Inwards 2,1 17 400,216 Outwards 2,106 400,216 1854— Inwards 1,9 '^ 353,000 Outwards 1,990 405,812 1855— Inwards 1,886 367,521 Outwards 1,870 420,624 The amount of ship-building and the value of the fishing in the harbor of ^t. John, have been already stated under TIES. in the city, BY of stores, jinbers have many good nisiness part , to be bnilt. at ordinary spring tides. ter at eleven oragc within Owing to the frozen, or in vessels arrive ts latitude is riation of the nth of a large itire freedom <■ aires over all nder it almost lerelal iinpor- the port, with • the following Bssels entered ears. Tons. 260,429 284,793 282,566 324,821 334,267 362,917 400,216 400,216 353,060 405,812 307,521 420,624 B of the fishing y Btated under DE8CKIPTI0N OF THE PROVINCE Bf COUNTIES. 639 those heads. In the city and county of St. John, there were in 1851, fifty-one saw-mills, employing 803 men ; fourteen grist-mills ; seventeen tanneries , six foundries ; four breweries ; and sixty-one other factories, giving em- ployment to 1,120 men. The numerous ship-yards, and the large quantities of deals and timber continually ex- ported, afford much profitable employment for labor. There are three banks in the city of St. John — the Bank of New Brunswick, with a capital of £100,000 currency ; the Commercial Bank of Kew Brunswick, with a capital of £150,000 currency, and a branch of the Bank of British North America, established in London, with a ca}>ital of £1,000,000 sterling. By means of the electric telegraph, St. John is in imme- diate communication with Nova Scotia and Canada, and with all parts of the United States to which the telegraph has been extended. A railway from the harbor of St. John to Shediac, on the Gulf of St. Lawrence, a distance of 114 miles, is now in course of construction. It is proposed to extend this railway to the Nova Scotia boundary near Baio Yerte, to meet the railway now being built from Halifax to that point; and also northwardly from Shediac to Mira- michi, and to the St. Lawrence and Trois Pistoles, there to connect with the Grand Trunk Railway of Canada, and 60 with the Great Lakes and the far west. Another line of railway is also contemplated from the city of St. John, westwardly, to the frontier of the United States at Calais, by which connection will be had with the whole railwKy system of the United States. From this line it is proposed to construct a branch northwardly to Frederickton, and thence up the valley of the St. John, to give greater facili- ties for traftic, especially in winter. At present, consLont communication is maintained with Portland and Boston by first-claas steamers. The time from St. John to Portland by steamer, and thence by rail- way, either to Montreal or Quebec, is abo it thirty-five hours — to Boston thirty hours. ■■!■ ^ u - ' M i 1 "' 1 ■ i 1; 444.^ - y\:\ . i_ ,. . I-.,L - Mr; ff J • I f ! - 640 DESCRIPTION OF THE PROVINCE BY COUNTIES. Tlie city of St. John is lighted with gas and supplied with water by iron pipes, from a reservoir about four miles from the city. These water-works are to be immediately extended, so as to give every part of the city an ample supply of pure water. Oharlotie County. — ^This county occupies the south- west corner of New Brunswick, and is nearly square in form. Its front on the Bay of Fundy extends from Point Lepreaux to the St. Croix River, which is the boundary of the United States in that direction. Charlotte county con- tains 783,360 acres, of which 317,245 acres are granted, and the remaining 466,115 acres are yet vacant. The quantity of cleared land in 1851, was 45,656 acres, or about ouc-scventh part of the quantity granted. The population of the county in 1851, was 19,938 souls, chiefly engaged in fishing, farming, lumbering, and ship-building. There are ten parishes in Charlotte — Campo Bello (an island), Grand Manan (also an island), Pennfield, St. An- drews, St. David, St. George, St. James, St. Patrick, St. Stephen, and West Isles (a group of islands). The shire town is St. Andrews, which is pleasantly situated on a point of land between the St. Croix (or Schoodic) River, and the inner Bay of Passamaquoddy, on an easy slope, with a southern aspect. The parish of St. Andrews has a popu- lation of 3,910 souls. From the harbor of St. Andrews a railroad has been projected, which is at present in course of construction, toward Woodstock on the River St. John, a distance of about ninety railes. Of this railway, twenty- six miles are now^ completed and open for traffic ; and the intention is^ after reaching Woodstock, to continue the line by the valley of the St. John, to the River St. Law- rence, and thence to Quebec. The St. Croix is a large river, flowing from two chains of lakes, widely spread over a tract of country which has long furnished, and still continues to furnish, extensive supplies of timber. It is navigable to the head of the tide at St. Stephen, which is about 16 miles above St. Andrews. St. DESCRIPTION OF THE PKOVINCE BY COUNTIES. 641 Stephen and Milltown are two thriving villager on t]»e St. Croix, chiefly supported by the saw-mills in their vicinity, and the tratiic in sawed lumber of every (lescrij»tion. The Digdeguash and the Magaguadavic are t wocctiinider- able riveio falling into the Bay of Pai^samacj noddy, totiie eastward of St. Andrews. There are saw-mill. >n each of these rivers, and ships load with lumber at their mouths, as also at the entrance to Lepreaux River, in Mace's liay, at the eastern extreme of this county. The fisheries of Grand Manan, Campo Bello, and West Isles, have already been mentioned. All vessels which enter and clear at the various harbors and loading places in Charlotte county, are enu- merated as entering and clearing at the port of St. Andrews. The following is a statement of their numbers, tonnage, and men, during six years, distinguishing coun- tries : — VESSELS INWARDS. '«! United Kritish United Foreign Totals. E Kingdum. Colonies. ( States. States. No. 10 Tons. No. G(! Tons. No. Tons. No. Tons. No. Tons. Men. 1849 2,430 2,887 613 52,001 1 230 690 57,548 2,681 1850 12 3,437 84 5,475 634 63,531 2 250 732 72,693 3,851 1851 15 4,985 92 8,168 694 75,407 4 1,137 805 89,597 4,725 1852 9 3,916 57 4,262 675 81,693 2 424 743 89,845 4,322 1853 13 3, 7 GO 91 G,029 733 88,950 1,159 843 99,898 4,881 1854 8 2,882 55 4,586 716 110,958 3 1,318 782 119,744 5,115 1855 788 I ''7 689 5,516 VESSELS OUTWARDS. t r. o United Kingdom. British Colonies. U*Ued SUtM Foreign States. Totals. No. Tons. No. Tons. No. Toist. No. Tons. No. Tons. M n. 1849 1850 1851 1852 1853 1854 1865 50 59 85 94 88 121 17,548 24,044 34,191 42,846 47,558 63,340 8G 97 124 59 86 48 6,861 6,553 7,430 4,246 5,654 3,810 503 504 611 666 629 611 36,794 40,594 41,332 44,073 47,978 66,496 2 1 a 3 1 492 167 200 211' 641 GGl 722 VM 61,605 71,358 8.3,317 91,365 ) 01.402 1 o !, o .1 r. 2,829 3,867 4,274 4,334 4,909 7^*_\\.\/^xWsv^«).'4 \ ' rjr ^(in ni \dfHi V '"''44 I 1 - '/ ;iM il,f 612 T>ESCEIPnON OF THE PROVINCE BY COmTTIES. » There is abundance of both lime and marl in the county of Charlotte, as well as sea manure, and in those respects it possesses advantages over most other counties in the prov- ince. By the census of 1851, it appears the crops of that year were as follows: — hay, 17,076 tons; wheat, 3,203 bushels; barley, 7,206 bushels; oats, 69,988 bushels; buck- wheat, 14,304 bushels; peas and beans, 1,999 bushels; turnips, 72,419 bushels; potatoes, 163,117 bushels. The quantity of butter made during the year, was 441,522 pounds ; of maple sugar, 700 pounds : of lime burned, 15,100 casks. This county may be described as a hilly country, with a rocky sea-coast studded with islands, everywhere indent- ed with excellent harbors, and the neighboring waters abounding with lish. Numerous rivers and large lakes in- tersect the interior in every direction, and in the valleys and basins of these rivers and lakes, there is much good land. The quantity of available water power is wonder- fully great, and in many places it yet remains to be turned to profitable account. Kino's County. — This is an inland county, lying north of St. John, abutting westwardly upon Charlotte county, and widening to the eastward, where it is bounded by the counties of Albert and Westmorland. It contains 840,- 920 acres, of which 662,752 acres are granted, and only 187,168 acres are vacant. The quantity of cleared land in 1851, was 120,923 acres, and its population, 18,842 souls. King's county is divided into two parts by the River St. John, which passes across it from north to south. The eastern part is intersected by the River Kennebecasis, which passes through it from north-east to south-west, and renders much of tiuvt portion accessible by water. The western part of this county, on both sides of the St. Jolin, is hilly and dotted with numerous small lakes ; while the eastern portion, stretching towards the sandstones of the coal measures, and embracing the lower carboniferous JTriES. n the county liose respects ;s in the prov- crops of that wheat, 3,203 lushels; huck- ,999 hiishels; bushels. The was 441,522 lime burned, ountry, with a where indent- borinii; waters [ large lakes in- in the valleys 3 is much good rer is wonder- ns to be turned ty, lying north arlotte county, )ounded by the contains 840,- mted, and only )f cleared land ulation, 18,842 )y the Elver St. to south. The r Ivennebecasis, south-west, and by water. The of the St. John, akes ; while the mdstones of the 3r carboniferous 1 ( m ! , , i r • ■ \ 1 m IP i wtL^M «.,J" 1^ ■■-H- l^fl ^'^'i ^?%\ % \ .1' 1^ m / 1™ J liiN 1^ li: i 1 w ■ i i m M.,'>m: ' .rirn-; ^^■^^^^■l * ■ HI ^^■1 t ■^K-jtfiiijr ."' i\ ■ U-'t\ i- ^ i ! ■ , >n ' M , 11 IS 15 ft ^1 rrding to the most authentic accounts, on tlio 21st day of June, 1749, and forthwith began to lay out and build the city of Halifax, which from that time bo- came the capital of Nova Scotia. This city was so named by Cornwallis in honor of the Earl of Halifax, an active promoter of the enterprise which resulted in founding the city. A council of six persons, under Governor Cornwallis, performed the functions of government. Some live or six years later, Lunenburg was settled by ],453 Germans. What is now the province of New Brunswick was part of the province of Nova Scotia. Cape Breton n'as still in the possession of France. In 1755, the French population of Nova Scotia (then iiicluding New Brunswick) was 18,000 souls. These were a source of great annoyance and danger to the British settlers. They leagued with the Indians in conflicts with the British settlers. Both they and the Indians were tools in the hands of France, which it used against the British at dis- cretion. In the month of September, 1755, the French neutrals (Acadians) were removed from Nova Scotia and distributed among the other British possessions in North America. About 7,000 individuals — men, women, and children — shared tliis fate. Their projierty, with the exception of money and movables, was confiscated to the government. They had 1,269 oxen, 1,537 cows, 5,070 young cattle, 93 horses, 8,660 sheep, and 4,197 hogs. In the district of Minas (Horton) alone, 255 houses, 276 barns, 15 outhouses, 11 mills, and 1 church were destroyed. On the invitation of the governor of Nova Scotia, the lands vacated by the expulsion of the Acadians were set- E8. with their own out from Great lis, who was ap- r arrived at the ic, 1749. They accounts, on the )egaTi to hvy out om that time ho- itv was so uamed lalifax, an active 1 in foutiding the ernor Connvallis, rg was settled by province of Kew of Nova Scotia. 1 of France. In tia (then including lese were a source 3 British settlers, ts with the British were tools in the the British at dis- e French neutrals •tia and distributed II North America, n, and children— 1 the exception of o the government. young cattle, 93 III the district of )arns, 15 outhouses, ■ Nova Scotia, the Acadians were set- PR00RES3 OF NOVA SCOTIA. 659 tied by farmers from New England. The grandchildren and great-grandchildren of these inhabit, at this moment, the richest and fairest portions cf Nova Scotia. Louisburg, in Cape Breton, and Quebec, in Canada, were now the strongholds of the French in America. Louisburg was twice conquered by the British. It was finally ceded to Great ]>ritain by the treaty of Paris, (1763) in which the French relinquished all claims forever to Nova Scotia, Cape Breton, Canada, and all the islands in the Gulf of St. Lawrence. It was in 1758 that orders were given by Governor Lawrence for the election of the First Provincial Par- liament of Nova Scotia. It was convened in October of that year. It consisted of twenty-two members, elected by freeholders among the people, a council of twelve, and a governor appointed by the crown. In 1763 Cape Breton was annexed to Nova Scotia. In 1784 it was separated from Nova Scotia, and had a distinct government of its own. But in 1819 it was again joined to Nova Scotia, and has continued a part of that province to the present time. It was only in the year 1784 that New Brunswick was separated from Nova Scotia and erected into a separate province. In 1769, the parliamentary estimate for the province was £4,375. In 1772 the population of Nova Scotia and Cape Breton was 19,120. In the year 1776, after the re- volted American colonies had declared their independence, 1,000 royalists left Boston and arrived at Halifax. It is estimated that the population of the province was aug- mented by the number of 20,000 from this one source during the American War of Independence. From this time onwards the progress of Nova Scotia in population, and in the development of her great natural resources, has been marked, steady, regular, and will not Buffer by comparison with any of her older and more powerful neighbors. 42 I' :• p 'i V :■•-. !•..;! 660 SITUATION — EXTENT — ^NATURAL FKATUKES, ETC. CHAPTER II. SITUATION.— EXTENT.— NATURAL FEATURES.— CLIMATE, etc. Position. — As a glance at the map will show, Nova Scotia is situated on the eastern side of the continent of North Ajuerica. It lies between 43° 25 ' and 47° north latitude, and between 59° 40' and 66° 25' west longi- tude. It consists of a peninsula, called Nova Scotia pro- per, and the Island of Cape Breton, which is separated from the main land by the Strait of Canseau — an outlet of the Gulf of St. Lawrence, joining it to the Atlantic Ocean. The province projects in a southeast direction into the Atlantic. It extends about two hundred miles farther east than any other portion of the North American continent, except the coast of Labrador. This position gives it great and peculiar commercial advantages. It marks it as the great natural highway for travel between Europe and the continent of America, especially as regards the vast portions of that continent lying north and west of the province. Extent. — Nova Scotia proper is 256 miles in length, with an extreme breadth of 100 miles, and an area of 15,600 square miles. The Island of Cape Breton is about 100 miles in length, 72 in breadth, with an area of 3,000 square miLs. The whole superficial area of the province of Nova Scotia is, therefore, 18,600 square miles, or 12,000,000 acres. Still, with an area so limited, it is possessed of vast mineral resources — exhaustless shore fisheries — great diversity of soil, and has the capability of raising with profit a great variety of products. Natubal Features. — Its surface is undulating. Its hills, in some instances, are steep and high, though ha'*dly ever rising to the dignity of mountains, — the highest (the " Cobequid Chain ") being only 1,100 feet above the level of the sea. Excellent arable soil is found on the tops i " ETC. JIMATE, KTO. show, Nova continent of id 47" north west longi- a Scotia pro- is separated LU — an outlet the Atlantic sast direction undred miles rth American This position Ivantages. It ravel between ally as regards Lorth and west iles in length, nd an area of Breton is about 1 area of 3,000 the province of :s, or 12,000,000 is possessed of fisheries— great of raising with ndulating. Its 1, though ha'-dly ,— the highest )0 feet above the bund on the tops PROGRESS OF NOVA SCOTIA. 661 of the highest hills, and some of them are covered at this moment with rich crops of various grains and esculents. T Lakes 'dndliivers, or rsither&tn ms of the province, are very numerous. The latest maps give 400 lakes, but this is considerably short of the nuinbc We know four lakes in a single district, of considerable extent, and yielding excellent trout, wiMch have never yet found tlieir way into any map of the province. The lakes generally afford excellent trout. Lake Rossignol is the largest in Nova Scotia proper, being twenty miles in length. The next largest is Ship Harbor Lake, lifteen miles long ; and the i.cxt again. Grand Lake, near Halifax, nine miles in length. The lakes of Cape Breton are nnch larger and more im- portant. The principal of them are, however, inland seas rather than lakes. The great Bras d'Or Lake is a mag- nificent expanse of water, of great depth, about fifty miles in length, and abounding with the best quality of fish, — mackerel, herring, cod, &c. Of the Rivers of Nova Scotia, thirteen flow into North- umberland Strait ; four into St. George's Bay ; seventeen into the Atlantic ; and twenty-four into the Bay of Fundy. With two or three exceptions, all these are navigable for the ordinary coasting-vessels of the province, for distances varying from two to twenty miles. The most important are the Shubenacadie, the Avon, and the Annapolis, flow- ing into the Bay of Fundy ; the St. Mary's, Musquodo- boit. La Have, and Liverpool, flovv'ing into the Atlantic. Among the Bays of Nova Scotia, the most beautiful is Mahone Bay ; the largest and most remarkable is the Bay of Fundy, which is about fifty miles in width, and which, after extending 100 miles inland, divides into two branclx^s. The northern branch is called Chiegnecto Bay, and forms part of the boundary-line between Nova Scotia and New Brunswick. The southern bran(!li is called at its mouth, and for the diatance of eighteen miles, Minas Channel ; it then suddenly expands into a beautiful sheet of water about forty mile& in length, and nearly twenty in breadth, W?'i 662 SITUATION — EXTENT- -NATUKAL FEATURES, ETO. ■,; 1 1 iH ^WM i.iv 'Jf' called the Basin of Minas ; its Eastern extremity is called Cobequid Bay. The Bay of Fundy is famous the world over for the extraordinary height and rapidity of its tides, and the excellence of its shad fishery. At the mouth of Minas Channel, the spring tide rises about fifty feet, while at the mouth of the Shubenacadie, near the head of Cobe- quid Bay, at the spring tides it attains to the height of seventy -five feet. The Harbors of Nova Scotia are numerous, deep, and spacious. There is, perhaps, not another country in the world, of tlie same extent, possessed of so many and such excellent harbors. The JIarhor of Halifax ranks first in importance. It is pronounced by the highest authorities " one of the best in the world." It is of easy access for ships of every class. It is capacious enough to afford anchorage for the navies of all Europe ; it is also so situ- ated as to afford protection from every wind. It runs over fifteen miles inland^ and after passing the city of Halifax, and having considerably narrowed about three-quarters of a mile above the city, it suddenly expands into Bedford Basin, a beautiful sheet of water covering an area of nine square miles, completely shut in from the sea and affording good anchorage throughout, with from four to thirty fathoms of water. The coast line of Nova Scotia extends over a distance of 1,000 miles; and good harbors are accessible on every side. The best are, however, on the Atlantic coast. Between the mouth of the Bay of Fundy and the Strait of Canseau, a distance of about 300 miles, tliere are nineteen harbors easy of access, capacious, and secure for first-class ships. There are also on the same coast and within the same distance forty other harbors J inferior capacity, available for vessels of from 300 to 500 tons. There are some excellent harbors also on the north side of the province. The Island of Cape Breton is second only to Nova Scotia proper, in the number and capacity of its harbors. The " Big Bras d'Or," to which reference has already been 0. is called ^e world its tides, mouth of ieet, while . of Cobe- height of deep, and i;ry in the r and such iks first in authorities access for . to afford ilso so situ- 't runs over of Halifax, -ee-quarters ito Bedford ,rea of nine id affording r to thirty otia extends larbors are ever, on the ly of Fundy t 300 miles, pacious, and m the same r harbors J a 300 to 500 on the north ily to Nova its harbors. already been PKOGKESH OF NOVA SCOTIA. 663 made, is one grand harbor. The Strait of Canseau, which is eighteen miles in length, and varies from one-half to one and a lialf miles In breadth, with from fourteen to thirty fatlioms of water, comprises several good harbors. It is the grand hightoay for vessels running between the Gulf of St. Lawrence and all of the American coast lying west of its southern termination. It is often preferred to the more dangerous route by the north of Cape Breton, by vessels bound up the St. Lawrence from the east side of the Atlantic. ScENEKY. — The scenery of Nova Scotia is not grand or imposing, when compared with that of some other coun- tries. Still it is diversified, picturesque, and in some instances, of exceeding beauty. We know of no scenery — natural scenery — that can surpass that of Muhone Bay. It is for sight, not for description. The same may be said also of the view one obtains from the bluff of Cape Bio- 7nido)i, and souie heights of the North Mountain of Corn- wallis, — whence may be seen the rich and beautiful valley of Cornwallis — Ilorton with its Grand Pr:3 — the flourishing little towns of Canning, Kentville, and "Wolfville — 6,000 acres of the finest marsh-hind in the world — upward of 3,000 snow-white cottages and farm-houses — thirty church- es — twenty -six school-houses — six temperance halls — thou- sands of orchards in blossom, or laden with fruit, according to the season, — the Basin of Minas. with its numerous in- lets and little estuaries, and the twelve rivers that pour their waters into its bosom, may be all taken in with one sweep of the naked eye — while the glass will add still more to the number and beauty of the objects that consti- tute the entire scene. A portion A four of the finest counties in the province is before you, wh le the garden of Nova Scotia is at your feet. The view obtained from one of the [)eak8 of the North Mountain of Annapolis is scarcely inferior. The scenery of Truro, of Pictou, and Bections of Cape Breton, is also worthy of mention. Climate. — The climate of Nova Scotia is by no means ^'■'■m''' ! '! 6G4 NA.TCBAL FEATURES — CLI>L4 TE, ETC. 80 severe as it is reported to be, both in Great Britain and the United States. Though, at some seasons, the weather is very severe, as compared with England, Ireland, the South of Scotland, and a great portion of the United States of America, still it is more conducive to health than the milder but more humid corresponding seasons in those countries. The length and severity of Nova S:;otia winters are greatly compensated by the mildness and beauty of rutunm, — which is protracted, not unfre- quently, into the middle of December, — as well as by the months of steady slerghinj which follow. Temperature. — The tixtreme of cold is 24° Fahr. below zero ; the extreme of heat, 95° above, in the shade. These extremes are not ofren attained to of late years. The mean temperature of the year is 43°. Ihere are about 100 days in which the temperature is above 70° in sum- mer. There are about twenty nights in the year in which the temperature is below zero. The coldest season is from the last week of Decemher till the first week of March. The following table exhibits the annual mean temper- at-ire of several European c'.ties, as compared v»dth Halifax, No. <\ Scotia, and Toronto_ C. W. : JjitUude. F&brenheit. 44' 43 62 63 60 49 4C' Halifax 4^.8 39 Toronto 44.4 31 Barlin 47.5 23 Dublin 49.1 7 ... Frankfort 49.6 39 Oh,rboorg 52.1 ITEAN SUMUER TEMPERATURE. Fahrenheit. Halifax • 6i.O Toronto «4 5 Greenwich . . GO 9 Berlin 63.2 Cherbourg 61.9 The annual qu'mtity of rain which falls is about forty one inches. Of tliis quantity about six and a half inches fall in the form of snow. The annual depth of snow is . ve 70° in sum- PROORESS Oi" NOVA SCOTIA. 6G5 eight and a half Feet. Much of this quantity of snow is not allowed to rest long in its solid form. There are about 114 days of rain on the average in each year, and much of this rain occurs in winter. The average days of snow in each year is about sixty. Violent tempests are not of frequent occurrence in Nova Scotia. The prevailing winds are the south-west, west, and north-%vest. In summer the north, north-west, and west winds are cool and dry. In winter they are cold and piercing. The south and south-west are mild — agreeable — delightful. The north-east brings our greatest snow- frtorms ; the east and south-east our most disagreeable rain-storms. The Si;asons. — Spring commences in Nova Scotia with the beginning of April. Seed-time and planting continue till the middle of June. Summer begins with tiie latter part of June, and em- braces July and August, Vegetation is very rapid in the middle and western parts of the province, where the hay, crop, and usually nearly all the grain-crops, are harvested by the last week of August or first week of September. Autumn is the finest season in Nova Scotia. It is mild, serene, and cool enough to be bracing, and the at- mosphere is of a purity that renders it peculiarly exhil- arating and health-giving. The " Indian summer" occurs sometimes as late as the middle of November, and lasts from three to ten days. The Winter in Nova Scotia may be said to comprise about four months. It begins, some seasons, with the 1st of December, and runs into the month of April. Other seasons it be'l rili 'ii^ U 678 POPULATION, STATISTICS, ETC. Emigration from Scotland added largely to the popula^ tion of the province in the years 1770-1775. The eastern part of Nova Scotia proper and Cape Breton are indebted mainly to Scotland for their population. By the last census — that of 1861 — we have only 5,927 Negroes, 1,407 Indians, and 20,859 Acadians. The following table will give a view of the increase of the population of Nova Scotia, down to the census of 1861 : Dates, Population. Interral of years. r«te of IncreaM. 1755, 5,000, .. 1764, 13.000, 9, 1772, 19,920, 8, 1784, 32,000, 12, 1818, 82,053, 84, 156.41. 1828, 153,848, 10, 87.49. 1837, 199,906, 9, 29.93. 1851, 276,117, 14, 38.12. 1861, 300,857, 10, 19.82. Since the period of the American Eevolution, Nova Scotia has received no considerable addition to her popu- lation from immigration. A ship-load of immigrants from Scotland, and another from Ireland, might arrive at some of our principal ports, at the earlier period, once a year, latterly once in two or three years, and land half her passengers, and then proceed to Canada or the United States with the remainder. The prog* ess of our popula- tion cannot, therefore, fairly be compared with that of Canada or the United States, as a whole. Nearly three- fourths of the population of Canada, by the last census, and about one-half of the population of the United States, have arisen from immigration. When we compare the rate of increase of population in Nova Scotia with that of older countries, the result is highly gratifying to our patriotism. Let us compare it with some of the New England States. From the year of the peace of 1783 to 1850, the popula- tion of Connecticut increased less than twofold; Ehode Island and Massachusetts, nearly threefold ; New Hamp* r^te of Increaae. id; New Hamp- rEOQKESS OF NOVA SCOTIA. 679 shire, nearly rburfold. Nova Scotia proper increased, from 1784 to 1851, more than sixfold, and to 1861, more than eightfold; while, including Cape Breton, it increased more than tenfold. nSi. 1850. Rhode Island, 50,400 147,545 New Hampshire, 82,500 317,976 Connecticut, 206,000 370,792 Massacliusetts, 350,000 994,504: Nova Scotia (1784), 32,000 (1851) 276,117 The following table will show the increase of the popu- lation for the last ten years in the several counties of the province : POPULATION. Rate per cent. 1861. 1S61. Increase, of Increajo. Halifax (city) 19,949 25,026 5,077 25.44 " (outside city).. 19,163 23,995 4,832 25.21 Total in county 39,112 49,021 9,909 25.33 Colchester 15,469 20,045 4,576 29.58 Cumberland 14,339 19,533 5,194 36.22 Pictou 25,593 28,785 3,192 12.47 Sydney 18,467 14,871 1,404 10.42 Guysborough 10,838 12,713 1,875 17.30 Inverness 16,917 19,967 3,050 18.02 Richmond 10,381 12,607 2,226 21.44 S^'Setoa county [ "•"« \^^A ^-'^^ "-'^ Hants 14,330 17,460 3,130 21.14 Kings 14,138 18,731 4,593 32.48 Annapolis 14,286 16,953 2,467 17.26 Digby 12,252 14,751 2,499 20.39 Yarmouth 13,142 15,446 2,304 17.53 Shelburne 10,622 10,668 46 .48 Queens 7,256 9,365 2,109 29.06 Lunenburg 16,395 19,632 3,237 19.74 Totals 276,117 350,857 54,740 19.82 The average number of members in each family in tiie province is 6.07 ; in Canada, in 1851, the average was 6.26, and in Great Britain, at the same date, 4.73. Origin of the Poi^ulation. — Out of a population of 330,857, there are 294,706 native born, leaving only 36,151 who have come from abroad ; the proportion bom out cf the province being 10.92 per cent, of the whole. 'M r i 680 POPULATION, STATISTICS, ETC. The following abstract, prepared from the census of 1861, will give an interesting view of our population by origin : Native Nova Scotlans 294.706 Scottish 16.896 Irish 9,8i8 English 2,998 Welsh 97 Guern.'^ey 28 Jersey 62 Isle of Man . . 8 Canada 868 New Brunswick 2,"61 Newfoundland 927 Prince Edward Island 870 Magdalen Islands 12 West Indies 216 United States 1,960 Franco 88 Spain It Portugal 9 Siirdlnla. 1 Italy 14 Born at Sea 40 Turkey Places In the Mediterranean. Qcrinany Norway Belgium Denmark Hungary -■ ■■ d. Holland East Indies .... Russia Africa Australia Now Zealand... Prussia Poland Switzerland .... Sweden South America.. All other places. 189 ToUl populatloa 880,857 I 41 193 8 15 9 1 7 15 8 16 8 8 17 1 5 8 The Religious Census of Nova Scotia may be exhibited as follows : Episcopalians 47,714 United Presbyterians . . 69,466 I oq r o Church of Scotland . . . .10,068 ) '^'"'^^ Romanists 86,281 Baptists M,886 Wesloyan Methodists 34,055 Free Cl, -istian Baptists 6,704 Christian Disciples. 901 Congregationalists 2,183 Reformed Presbyterians 236 other Creeds not classed 822 Lutherans 4,382 Universalists Btt Quakers li)8 Sandenianians 46 Bible Christians lli Campbcllitos 82 Evangelical Union 143 Swedenborgians l!» Mormons 27 Deists » No creed given , 2,314 Total population 880,857 PEOPESSIONS, TRADES, AND OCOCPATIONSL Farmers 37,897 Farm Laborers 9,306 Fishermen 7,669 Mariners 6,242 Laborers 3,908 Carpenters and Joiners 4,463 Shocmakpri 1,9T6 M'?rchant8 1,472 Blacksmiths 1,618 Shipwrights 1,122 Coopers 1,146 Tailors. Tanners and Curriers. Traders Servants Painters Millers Lumberers Grooers Clerks Dreasmakera Masons Minera 670 853 868 474 208 692 607 212 494 209 686 666 Weavers IW Wheelwrights 178 Truckmen 176 Saddlers and Harness-Makers 15t Sailniakers 121 Shop-keepers 107 Millwrights 184 Hotel and Inn keepers , Cabinetmakers Carriage-makers Butchers Printers Bakers Brick-makers Accountants Calkers Grindstone-makers Qunrrymen Pilots Bricklayers Bigger* Plasterers Pliunbors. 141 162 147 115 90 91 4t 74 76 60 52 II the census of population bj I mean 41 198 S 16 9 1 7 15 8 16 8 8 IT 1 B 8 9 IM 880,85T lay be exhibited 84« lo8 46 llj 82 I 143 lb 2T 8 2,314 1 880,887 ONa 1911 178 176 iCBS-Makers 15T 121 107 184 !per» 189 147 163 147 115 9« 91 U 74 s 76 50 63 24 88 68 •» PEOOEE88 OF NOVA SCOTIA. 681 Miniiu'W 76 Machinists 85 Moulders 88 MsstDQukei'B 28 8«wyirrt 68 Tinsmiths 181 Tallofesses 94 Wttdi and Clockmakera 71 Stonecutters 82 Telegraph Operators. ; 21 Turners 84 Tobacconists 18 Seamstresses 90 Gardeners 46 Iron Founders IS Engineers 64 Dyers 17 Carders and Fullers 21 Confectioners g Civil Engineers 22 Boathuilders 71 Cab-drivers 20 Chemists and Apothecaries 42 t..rvers and Gilders IS Chainnakers IS Boarding-house keepers 18 Block and Pump makers 47 Brewers 16 Architects 18 Artists 27 Booksellers and Stationers 17 Brass Founders 12 Bookbinders 12 Bankers 8 Brokers 5 Auctioneers 8 Builders 6 Basketmakers 7 Boilermakers 4 Jewellers 11 Judges S Clergymen and Ministers 889 Pbysicians and Snrgeons 17C BarriKtcr and Attorneys 147 School Teachers 864 Students 98 MaKlstratts 1,220 High SherifTs 18 Coroners 88 Judges ofl'robato 14 Prothonotaries 18 Aldermen 18 Clerks of Peace 22 Register of Deeds 1 Collectors and Controllers of Cus- toms 61 Heads of Departments 8 Surgeons 85 Teachers of Deaf Mutes 2 Winedealers 8 Upholsterers 2 Trunkmnkers 2 Silversmiths 4 Stevedores 20 Kopcniakers 4 Nailcutters 8 Peddlers 16 Potters 9 Pianofortemakers 9 Papermakers 6 Matchmakers 7 Marble workers 16 Musicians 27 Light-house keepers 27 Lumber dealers 7 Iron-puddlers T Gasfitters 14 Gunsmiths 6 Farriers 12 Ferrymen 18 Distillers i Brushmakers T Dentists 6 All others. ST Diseases and Deaths. — The total number of deaths in one year — the year previous to the taking of the census of 1861 — was 4,769, being 1.41 per cent, of the entire population. 2,480 of this number were males, and 2,199 females. One-third of the total number of deaths is of persons under five years of age, and over two-fifths of this iiuinber take place under one year of age. The census of 1851 showed the mortality of that period to be 2,802, or about one per cent, of the population. The increased mortality, as shown by the census of 1861, is owing to the ravages of that fatal, and, in this province, compara- tively new disease, diphtheria. In the year immediately preceding the census it carried off upwards of one t/iousand persons. The only other disease that approaches it by half is consuTnpiion, which had swept off 767 in the same m^_ I ill 682 POPULATION, STATISTICS, ETC. year. Scarlet fever ranks next, being 210 ; tlien measles^ 152 ; next croup, 122 ; wflammation of the lungs and sore throat are the only other specitir diseases that have taken off as many as one hundred in the year. The mortahty in Upper Canada, in 1851, was under one per cent. ; in Lower Canada it was one and one-third per cent. ; in I^ew Brunswick it was the same as in Lower Canada.* * DEATHS AND CAUSES OP DEATHS. Class and Nature of Disease. Epidemic, Eitdemic, and Conta- gious ZHtteaaet. Cholera Cramp luti-rinittent Fever. Dii)htlieria Dysentery Typhus Fever Iloupinf; Cough InHuenza Measles Scarlet Fever Small Pox J>lseases of the Nervovs System. Apoplexy Urnin Fever Diseases of the Brain. Epilepsy Paralysis Insanity Convulsions Diseases of the Digestive Organs. Bilious Fever Disease of Liver Disease of Stomach Indli^estion Debility Jaundice InHumnuition of Bowels.. Inllammation of Stomach. Disease of Bowels Wornis Teething Deaths, 10 9 22 1,008 2 66 67 12 152 210 49 1,092 21 S2 74 5 41 7 84 Violent and Accidental Deaths. Burns and Scalds. Frozen Drowned Murdered Feigned. Other Accidents.. 284 60 42 7 13 2.') 26 93 23 42 26 9 871 22 1 95 1 8 63 m Class and Nature of Disease. IHseases of the Respiratory ami • Circulatin{/ Organs. Asthma. Bronchitis Consumption Cf onp Cough Disease of Lungs Disease of Ucart Inflammation of Lungs Inflammation of ( :hest Inflannnution of Heart PleuHsy Quinsy Sore Throat Diseases of Urinary and Genera- live Organs. Disease of Bladder Diabetes Inflammation of Kidneys. Puerperal Fever Child-bed Diseases of Uncertain Seat Abscess Cancer Colds Scrofula After Amputation Morliflcatlon Dropsy Old Age Frysipelos Intemperance Uheumirism Tumor Carbuncle Diseases of Eye and Ear. Disease of Eye. Disease of Ear,. Dauses not specified Total of Causes specified. Total. Deaths, 14 11 767 m 8 U 67 114 8 1 75 15 153 1,856 12 1 6 8 86 63 8 26 35 5 1 4 70 149 85 2 40 834 2 2 4 463 4,227 4,688 then measles, 'un(/s and sore at have taken The mortahty per cent. ; in cent. ; in I^ow lada.^ >f DUoose. Deaths. inriitori/ and rgans. 14 11 767 123 8 li 67 lU ;t 8 •t 1 75 15 153 1 and Oenera- ins. 1,859 13 1 neys 6 8 86 irtain Seat 68 8 26 85 5 1 4 70 149 85 2 40 8 1 and Ear. 884 3 3 4 453 •Ifled 1,237 4,«8g PKOQBESB OF NOVA SOOTIA. 683 Deaf and Dumb. — ^There is 1 of this class in every 1,100 of the population. In Canada, in 1851, there was 1 in 1,372 ; in the United States, 1 in 2,395 ; in Great Britain, 1 in 1,590 ; in France, 1 in 1,212 ; in Prussia, 1 in 1,364 ; and in Switzerland, 1 in every 503. The aver- age proportion of this class throughout the civilized world is estimated at about 1 in 1,550 of the population. The Blend. — There were 136 blind persons in Nova Scotia in 1851. The census of 1861 returns 185 of this class. It is not stated how many of this number were born blind, and how many became so by old age or dis- ease. Lunatics and Idiots. — In 1851, there were only 166 of this class of unfortunates, being 1 in 1,660 of the whole population. The returns for 1861 give 340. It is more than probable that the number in 1851 was understated. The number of idiots in the returns of 1851 was 299, and in 1861, 317. BELATITB PROPORTION OF BEXSB. . 1851. . , 1861. . Males. Females. Males. Females. Under 10 years of age. . . 44,000 43,452 45,563 44,561 From 10 to 20 88,791 83,444 40,843 39,715 " 20 " 30 20,277 22,385 27,998 30,148 « 30 " 40 14,615 14,665 17,447 18 618 " 40 " 50 10,616 10,271 12,898 13,056 Above 50 years 14,878 14,228 20,489 18,844 187,677 188,445 * 165,233 164,942 * Column of agett not given not included. m fm 5 t is '< ^ -'--tt-fil oSA INDUSTEIaL BE80UBCE8. CHAPTEK Y. INDUSTRIAL RESOURCES. Under thin head may be comprised the Agricultural^ Fishing, Mining, Com/mercial, 8hij>-huilding, Manufac- turing, and Lumbering interests, with the progress made in each of these departments. The natural resources of Nova Scotia in four of these departments are such as to afford scope for indefinite industrial progress. Her geo- graphical position affords eminent facilities for the pursuits of commerce. Her fisheries have no rivals. Her coal-fields — the umpires of the Great International Exhibition being judges — have no equal ^ and her iron, gypsum, and gold, no superior ; while a great portion of her soil is as fertile and productive as any in the world. Agkicultural. — That this is an important part of our provincial industry, will appear from the fact that there are 37,897 farmers, and 9,306 farm laborers, given in the census of 1861 — something considerably over onefourth of the entire male population of the province. In Upper Canada, which is eminently an agricultural country, only three-eighths of the male population claim to be farmers, in the census of 1851 ; while the State of New York, in the census of 1855, returned only 321,930, or about one- fiftli, as such. As a grazing country. Nova Scotia takes a very respec- table publtion among her neighbors. The counties of Kings, Annapolis, Cumberland, Colchester, and Hants, owing to their excellent and extensive marshes and inter- vales, are not to be urpassed by any other place in Brit- ish America, in thi.* respect. No finer heef is produced in America thft,n that of Kings county, and the praise of Annapolis cheese bids fair to be as wide-spread as that of Gloucester, Cheshire, or Duulop cheese. As a wheat pro- BBi^Hmp PE0GKES8 OF NOVA SOOTIA. 685 ducing country, Nova Scotia cannot take rank with tlie Great West. She does not raise her own bread. Still, in this article she surpasses five of the New England States, and twelve ot the more recently settled States and Territories. The Ibllowinff table will illustrate this fact : Bush. Rye. Gate. Buck- Barley. Tons LbB. Lbs. Huahols Wheat. 297,ir)7 wheat. Hay. Butter. Ohuese. Potftt,,efl. Nova Scotia 6T,433 1,884,437 170,801 196,097 287,887 8,618,890 642,06 . ■ ... a .... . . . • Mass 81,211 ■ ■ * ■ .... 105,892 112,385 .... .... R. Island... 49 .... 215,232 1,245 18,875 73,863 1,066,62.'^ 296^748 651,029 Coiinecti 'ut 41,726 1,268,738 .... 19,090 .... .... .... • . • DIst. of Col. 17.370 5,509 8.184 378 76 1,074 14.869 , , , , 28,293 Florida 1,021 1,152 66,686 56 2,690 875,653 18.824 7,828 Alabama.. . . 294,041 17,261 ■ • . * 848 8,968 81,801 .... 80,423 246,001 Mississippi . 187,990 9,606 • * . • 1.121 229 12,517 .... 20,314 201,483 Louisiana . . 417 476 26,878 8 . 20,672 658.136 1,148 9.5,683 Texas 41,198 3,108 178,883 66 4,776 8,897 2,819,574 92,018 93,!>48 Arkansas. .. I99,6;W 8,047 656,183 176 177 8,924 1,854,104 .... 198,882 Callfornli: .. 17,821 .... • . . . 9,711i, 2,638 705 .... 9,293 Minnesota.. 1,401 125 80,682 615 * • • . 2,069 1,100 .... 21,146 Oregon Ut;ih 211,943 106 65,146 ■ • * • .... 878 211,784 .... 91,836 107,702 210 10,900 a82 1,799 4,288 74,064 a t . . 43,963 Kew Mexico 196,617 • . • • .... 100 5 • . • . 101 .... 8 Missouri ... 44,268 28,641 9,861 116,284 .... . • . • 989,006 Kentucky . . .... .... 16,097 95,843 115,?96 .... .... 1,496,497 Wisconsin. • • . . .... .... 79,878 .... 888,816 .... 1,402.077 Iowa • > • . 19,916 52,516 25,098 84,598 1,983,128 . . . .' 276,120 Georgia .... 53,760 ... 11.601 28,497 .... 46,391 227.379 S.Carolina.. .... 43,790 283 4,588 25,427 2,979,976 4,810 136,494 N. Carolina.. • . * . .... 16,704 2,736 14.^,180 .... 96.048 620,313 Maryland .. • . > . . • ■ • ... - 108,671 748 145,070 . . . • 3,926 764,938 Tennessee.. t • . • 19,427 2,787 72,942 .... • • • • 1,067.844 Delaware. .. .... 8,066 60,461 8,615 66 80,169 1,634,867 8,187 840,643 New Jersey. • • ■ * • ■ * • 6,492 • . ■ • ■ . a ■ 500,319 .... Vlrninia .... .... «... .... ■ . ■ • 26,437 . . • • • . • * 4.'.U,^0'J ... a Illinois * • . * . ■ • • ■ > • • • • * . 110,795 • * . • ... a • • . a a a a ■ Indiana • • • • • > • . . ■ . • • • • • 45,488 • . . • a * . • .... . a a a Michigan. .. . . • . . . • * . . • . • • • . 76,249 . • ■ • . . a a .... aaa* Pennsylva'a. * * • . ... * .... > ■ ■ • 165,534 * . • • • . ■ • .... .... Vermont . . . .... .... .... .... 42,160 .... .... Tlie above table is based on the census of 1851. It ap- pears from the above, that in the growth of Bye, Nova Scotia exceeds sixteen of the neighboring States and Terri- tories ; in the growth of Oats, she excels thirteen ; in Buckwheat, twenty-three ; in Barley, every State and Ter- ritory in the Union, with theexceptiov. of Ohio and New York. In the growth of Hay, and in the produce of the Dairy, the larger, more populous, and older States only are in advance of Nova Scotia. In Hay, she is ahead of twenty-two ; in Butter, of fifteen ; in Cheese, of fourteen ; while in Potatoes she leaves twenty-three of them far be* :^M M^ '■' f- >,r^j|^5^f?^.Wp„v^. . ,^i 4, ; mii^-4h 3 686 INDUSTRIAL KEBOURCES. hind her In the growth of Indian corn, most of the States surpass Nova Scotia. The quality of the corn raised in the province is excellent, and the rate per acre is larger than in any place we know of. It is only in some of the western counties of the province that any effort has been made to raise it. Tlie progress of Nova Scotia in husbandry is not by any means what it might be, were skill, and industry, and en- terprise applied to her natural resources, as they have been in some neighboring countries. Too little attention is given to the laws of rotation — to the preservation and preparation of manures — to the management of live stock — to the using of improved implements and modes of cul- ture. There is need of a second Agricola, to give a new impetus to our agricultural interests. Agricultural socie- ties in many of our counties are but a mere form, without life or energy ; and the Central Board, if not entirely de- funct, is certainly asleep for all practical purposes. Comparison with the past, however, will show that we are making substantial progress. The number of acres under cultivation at three succes- sive periods were as follows : In 182T. 292,009 acres. In 1861. In 1861. 839,322 acres. 1,028,032 acres. Tlie cultivated land of the province is given in the cen- sus of 18G1, under the following heads . Salt marsh, 20, Y29 acres ; diked marsh, 35,487 acres ; cultivated inter- vale, 77,102 acres; and cultivated upland, 894,714 acres; making a total of 1,028,032 acres, the total value of which is estimated at $18,801,365, the average value given per acre is : of diked marsh, $62.06 ; of salt marsh, $26.04; of cultivated intervale, $27.45 ; and of cultivated upland, $15.58. This is undoubtedly an under-estimate of the value of every one of these classes of land. It is to be accounted for in a great measure by the local preju- dices of a great many people against giving tne full value PB PE0GBK8S OF NOVA SCOTIA. 687 most of the he corn raised acre is hirger 1 some of the fort has been is not by any ustry, and en- hey have been attention is servation and t of live stock modes of cul- to give a new cultural socie- form, without ot entirely de- rposes. I show that we ,t three succes- ren in the cen- alt marsh, 20, iltivated inter- 894,714 acres; ;otal value of average value of salt marsh, d of cultivated under-estimate land. It is to le local preju- : tne full value of their real estate to the enumerators, for fear that it would be made the basis of taxation. In some counties, cultivated upland sells for $50, $60, $80, and in some cases, $100 per acre ; while diked marsh of the most ordinary description brings $80, and the best from $200 to $350. COMPABATint STATEMENT OF AORIOULTURAL PRODUCE, ETC., roR 182Y, 1851, AND 1861 * 1827. 1861. 1861, Wheat, bush. 152,861 297,15V 312,081 Barley, " 196,097 269,578 Rye, 61,438 59,706 Oata, - 449,626 1,384,437 1,978,137 Buckwheat, " 170,301 195,340 Indian Corn, " 87,475 15,529 • Peas & Beans, " 21,333 Potatoes, " 1,986,789 8,824,864 Turnips, " 467,127 554,318 Ot'iier Roots, " 1^727 A pples, " 186, S4 Phuna, " 4,335 Hay, tons, 163,218 287,837 834,287 Maple Sugar, lbs., 249,549 Butter, " 3,613,890 4,632,711 Cheese, " 652,069 901,296 The value of the agricultural products of 1861 is esti- mated at $8,021,860. COMPARATIVE STATEMENT SHOWING INCREASE OP LIVE STOCK, FROM 1808 TO 1861. 180a 182T. 186t. Horses 6,763 12,951 28,786 Sheep 75,364 173,731 282,180 owine 27,695 71,482 51,533 Neat Cattle, including Milch Cows 56,972 110,818 Neat Cattle, exclusive of Cows 156,857 Milch Cows 86,856 1861. 41,027 382,653 53,217 151,793 110,504 The value of the live stock of Nova Scotia is estimated at $6,802,399. A good milch cow costs from $20 to $40. Sometimes cows of superior breeds sell for $60 and $80. \ i 688 INDUSTRIAL BESOURCE8. The best fatted oxen are produced in Kings county. The next best in the county of Cumberland ; Hants and Annapolis counties come next. A pair of fatted oxen of the first quality yield the owner from $190 to $300 at his own barn-yard. This re- fers specially to Cornwallis, Kings county. In the department of agricultural industry, Pictou ranks first, Colchester second, Cumberland third, Kings fourth, Annapolis fifth, Inverness sixth, Sydney seventh, Hants eighth, Lunenburg ninth, Halifax tenth, Cape Breton (county) eleventh, Yarmouth twelfth, Digby thirteenth, Victoria fourteenth, Guysborough fifteenth. Queens six- teenth, Richmond seventeenth, Shelburne eighteenth. It will be noticed that those counties which rank the lowest in agricultural, rank the highest in fishing industry. FisuiNG Industry. — If we except Newfoundland, Nova Scotia may be safely said to possess the finest fisheries in the world. There is no part of its coast of 1,000 miles, where, at one season or another, a profitable fishing may not be pursued. Its bays and harbors, and inland lakes, seas, and rivers, abound also with excellent fish. The following comparative statement of the number of vessels and boats employed, and men engaged in fishing, and the quantities of fish cured in Nova Scotia, in 1851 and 1861 respectively, will exhibit the progress being made in this department : 18BL 1B61. Vessels 812 900 Boats 6,161 8,816 Men employed 10,394 14,322 Quintals of Dry Fish 198,484 896,425 , Barrels of Mackerel 100,047 66,108 Barrels of Shad 8,536 7,649 Barrels of Alewives 6,343 12,565 Barrels of Salmon 1,669 2,481 No. of Smoked Salmon 2,738 Barrels of Herring 63,200 194,170 Boxes of Herring, smoked 15,409 85,657 The only kind of fish in which there is a decrease in the catch, as compared with 1851, is the mackerel. The migra- iings county. Hants and ,lity yield the ^ard. ThiB re- 7, Pictou ranks Kings fourth, eventh, Hants Cape Breton by thirteenth, 1, Queens six- jighteenth. It ank the lowest industry. undland, Nova est lisheries in )f 1,000 miles, le fishing may d inland lakes, t fish. the number of aged in fishing, Scotia, in 1851 ■ess being made 1861. 900 8,816 14,322 896,425 , 66,108 7,649 12,565 2,481 2,738 194,170 85,557 decrease in the el. The migra- PROGRESS OF NOVA SCOTIA. 689 tory habits of this fish will account for the difference. 230,979 gallons of fish-oil have been manufactured in the province in 1860. 43,965 nets and seines are reported in the census of 1861. The value of the vessels, boats, and nets used in the fisheries of the province is estimated at $1,780,450. The value of the fish and oil reported in 1861 is estimated at $2,376,721. Halifax ranks first in this de- partment of industry, Guysborough second, Eichmond third, Lunenburg fourth, Shelburne fifth, Yarmouth sixth, Digby seventh. Cape Breton (county) eiglith, Inverness ninth. Queens tenth, Victoria eleventh, Annapolis twelfth, Sydney thirteenth. Kings fourteenth, Pictou fifteenth, Colchester sixteenth, Cumberland seventeenth, Hants eighteenth. The set-line or " trawl" fishing is pursued to a large extent by foreign fishermen, to the serious injury of our fishing interests. It is maintained by good authorities on the oubject, that if this method is long persisted in the banks will be rendered entirely unproductive. Lines having hooks suspended to them, about three feet apart, are made to descend nearly to the bottom of the sea, where the mother fish repose to deposit their spawn. Tliese baited hooks are seized by these fish, generally the largest, before they have accomplished the important office of reproduction. The consequence will inevitably be, the extermination of that invaluable kind of fish in that most productive of all regions. Destroy the mother with her brood, her offspring, and the result is one and inevitabls in all nature. It is the interest of all governments to put an instant and peremptory stop to this suicidal practice. ^^-.■■v..-. .^-^»^^,^^f,^-f .;>-.- J!' ■?!■'■■ fmm 690 COMMERCIAL INDUSTRT. CHAPTEK YI. COMMERCIAL INDUSTRY. The geographical position of Nova Scotia is highly favor- able to commercial pursuits, — and as her natural resources become more fully developed, there is no doubt her com- merce will increase indefinitely. It was only in the year 1818 that Halifax and St. John were appointed free ports : Pictou and Sydney, C. B., in 1828. Now there are sixty free ports in the province. The largest portion of the exports of Nova Scotia is drawn from the fishing and agricultural interests. In 1860 the total value oifish exported, after supplying home con- sumption, was $3,094,499; in 1854 it was $2,093,415. The total value of live stock and agricultural products exported in 1860 was $786,526 ; of lumber, $767,136 ; products of mines and quarries, $658,257 ; furs, $72,218 ; manufactures, $69,978 ; vessels, $168,270 ; miscellaneous, $151,132 ; imported from other countries and re-exported, $1,019,788 : making the total exports for 1860, $6,787,- 804. The chief exports to Great Britain consist of ships built in the province, and squared and sawed timbers. The West Indies is the principal market for our fish. The United States is abo an important market for some kinds of our fish, also for potatoes, coal, gypsum, and freestone. The trade of Nova Scotia with Canada is rapidly increasing. Nova Scotia imports the greater part of what she needs of textile manufactures ; also, hardware, cutlery, pottery, chinaware, ship-chandlery, chemicals, glassware, &c., from Great Britain. Breadstuffs, tea, sugar, tobacco, wood ware, &c., are largely imported from the United States. The value of ^^^^llikW^' is liiglily favor- atural resources doubt her cora- n\y in the year nted free ports : ' there are sixty Nova Scotia is erests. In 1860 ying home con- svas $2,093,415. iltural products Iber, $767,136; ; furs, $72,218 ; ; miscellaneous, and re-exported, T 1860, $6,787,- ist of ships built i timbers. The ' our fish. The "or some kinds of i freestone. The lly increasing. * what she needs cutlery, pottery, sware, &c.,from ivrare, &c., are . The value of ^tP ilRillinPri a-h: i ft m ts^ COMMERCIAL INDUSTRY. 691 imports from the United States to tlie port of ITalifax alone, in 1861, was $1,736,879, and of those from Great Britain to the same port in that year, was $2,222,266 ; from the British North American provinces, $760,800 ; the "West Indies, $107,443 ; from all other countries, $678,571. Every one of the outports import largely from the United States ; Yarmouth imported goods to the value of $224,967 in 1861 from the United States, while the value of all her imports was but $323,597. The " Reciprocity Treaty" has given a very favorable impetus to our com- merce with the United States. All unmanufactured articles, the gi'owth and produce of Nova Scotia, may, by virtue oi" that treaty, be exported free of duty to the United States. The following statement will exhibit the value of the imports and exports of Nova Scotia from 1852 to 1861 : Imports. Exports. 1852, $5,970,877 14,853,908 1853, 7,085,431 5,393,538 1854, 8,955,410 3,C96,525 1855, 9,413,515 4,820,654 1856, 9,349,160 8,864,790 1857, 9,680,880 6,967,830 1858, 8,075,590 6,321,490 1859, 8,100,955 6,889,130 1860, 8,511,549 6,619,634 1861, 7,613,227 5,774,334 The value of ships exported is not included in the abova In 1860 that article amounted to 8,842 tons, valued at $295,054. VESSELS KNTERED INWARD AT THB PORTS OF NOVA SCOTIA IN 1861. Vessels. Tons. Men. Great Britain 194 97,538 6,111 British West Indies 259 81,436 1,916 British North America 2,681 227,596 14,451 United States 2,851 803,638 18,225 Other countries 838 36,555 2,101 Total 6,323 696,763 41,804 44 '^ . ■ 1 '■ ■ ffT""'^r?f"^'-?y '^ m 692 COMMERCIAL INDUSTRY. VESSELS CLEARED OUTWARD AT THE PORTS OF NOVA SCOTIA IK 186L VcBsels. Tons. Men. Great Britain 152 68,289 4,262 British West Indies 476 52,890 4,541 British North America 2,655 239,036 14,995 United States 2,509 806,333 15,836 Other countries 297 29,084 1,886 Total 6,089 695,582 41,520 In shipping Nova Scotia takes a high rank, in propor- tion to her extent and population. It was shown, in an official report from the governor of the province to the colonial secretary, in 1853, that Nova Scotia then owned one-third as much tonnage as France — that she surpassed the Austrian empire by 2,400 vessels, and by 69,000 tons ; that she owned 116,000 tons of shipping more than Bel- gium — 38,449 tons more than the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies — 90,783 more than Prussia. Holland, which once contested the supremacy of the sea with Great Britain, owned at that date (1853) but 72,640 tons of shipping more than Nova Scotia ; Sweden, with a population of three millions, surpasses Nova Scotia in shipping by only 36,927 tons. At the same date, only six of the United States of America exceeded Nova Scotia in tonnage, viz.: Maine, Massachusetts, New York, Pennsylvania, Mary- land, and Louisiana. In 1846, the tonnage of all the British North American colonies was 252,832 tons. That of Nova Scotia alone was 141,093 tons — something considerably over the half. In 1853, the tonnage of Nova Scotia had increased to 189,083 tons. It is now (1861) 248,061 tons. The num- ber of vessels is 3,258 ; estimated value, $6,487,490. Ship-Building. — Great facilities for ship-building exist in Nova Scotia, and it has attracted the capital and indus- try of many of the inhabitants, from the earliest settle- ment of the country. Correct statistics, showing the ex- tent to which this branch of industry was carried on in earlier years, are not attain; le. The greater number of vessels built in the province are comparatively small, and ^ COMMERCIAL INDUSTRY. 693 adapted to the coasting trade, and trade with the United States. Many are built, however, at Pugwash, New Glasgow, Pictou, Sydney, C. B., Shelburne, Windsor, and other places, of a superior description, and ranging from 300 to 1 ,200 tons ; and they command a ready market in England and elsewhere abroad. The following statement will exhibit the extent to which ship-building has been prosecuted, from 1853 to 1861 : Tear. 1853, 1854, 1855, 1856, 1857, 1858, 1859, 1860, 1861, Ko. of Vcgsels. 203 244 236 208 151 283 216 Tonnage. 31,376 52,814 40,469 89,582 i6,'366 20,684 23,634 Value. $1,557,090 2,546,595 2,240,710 1,852,540 757,900 ' '852,831 972,448 Lumbering. — This department of industry is not prose- cuted to the same extent that it had been some years ago, in Nova Scotia ; still, however, the products of the forest form an important part of our exports. Deals, boards, scantlings, spars, knees, and other ship-timber; hoops, staves, laths, shingles, and cord-wood, are all comprised under this head. There are in Nova Scotia 1,401 saw-mills ; 130 shingle mills ; 6 lath mills. In 1860, the saw-mills turned out 25,072 M. feet deals ; 46,607 M.' feet pine boards ; 36,422 M. feet spruce and hemlock boards. The return of staves for the same year is 7,659 M. Timber, 22,592. tons. The county of Queens takes the lead in this branch of industry. It saws more than one-half the pine boards that are sawed in the province. Lunenburg comes next, and then Digby. Pictou ranks fourth .; it exceeds all the other counties in hewed timber. Halifax exceeds the others in staves ; and Cumberland in the quantity of deals. In the census of 1861, only 507 give themselves as lum- berers. Many others, no doubt, devote part of their time WSH' '^ ■ \ -, ■ i !, 1 ■ it'tU » • ; ■ n--i\ iv ... dll li. ■-( il il S' C94 COMMERCIAL INDUSTRY to lumbering, while they are given in the census as farm- ers, or carpenters, or laborers. Manufacturing. — The manufacturing industry of No- va Scotia is but in its infancy. We are still dependent on Great Britain and the United States, to a very large ex- tent, in this department, as has already been indicated under the head of " Commerce." The position and inex- haustible natural resources of Nova Scotia, however, war- rant the expectation that in the course of some years, as her population increases, and these resources become de- veloped by the application of skill and industry and en- terprise and capftal, she will occupy the first position amongst all her neighbors as a manufacturing country. If she comes short of this, it will be through lack of energy and enterprise on the part of her sons. The number of saw-mills, shingle-mills, and lath-mills, has been already given under the head of " Lumbering." This class of in- dustry is usually placed under the head of Manufactures. In 1851, there were in Nova Scotia 398 grist-mills ; in 1861, 414. Hand looms, in 1851, 11,096; in 1861, 13,230. Cloth fulled in 1851, 119,068 yards; in 1861, 281,709 yards. Cloth not fulled, in 1851, 790,104 yards; in 1861, 1,039,214 yards. Malt liquor manufactured in 1851, 71,076 gallons ; in 1861, 109,867 gallons. The value of leather manufactured in 1851 was $210,500 ; of the earae article manutactured ii* 186% $240,386. There is not much room for comparison with former years in this de- partment of our provincial industry ; its history is simply from nihil up to something. That something, however, is hopeful. In addition to what has been already enumer- ated,' we can add the following : 77 carding mills, with 116 employes — value of mills, $39,440 ; 3 soap and candle factories, yalue, $7,000 ; 4 block factories, $1,650 ; 3 axe factories, $3,130 ; 2 rake factories, $1,400 ; 3 chair facto- ries, $4,400; 3 cloth factories, $14,800; 1 paper mill, $1,000 ; 1 tobacco factory, $800 ; 2 nail factories, $6,000; 11 iron foundries, $114,600 ; 10 carriage factories, $19,- isus as farm* COMMERCIAL INDUSTRY. 69£ 940 ; 44 tanneries, $74,600 ; 3 cabinet Victories, $7,100 ; 1 brush factory, $1,200 ; 1 gas factory, $180,000 ; 1 trunk factory, $300 ; 5 breweries, $46,000 ; 2 joiners' factories, $14,400 ; 2 brick factories, $8,200; 15 fulling n.iills, $18,- 800 ; 8 shoe factories, $4,000 ; 2 planing factories, $7,000; 1 plaster mill, $400; 1 grind-stone factory, $4,000; 1 coal-oil factory, $1,000; 2 baking factories, $7,000; 1 engine factory, $4,000; 1 pottery, $500; 6 bark-mills, $7j600; 1 pail factory, $100; various kinds of factories, 12 ; value, $59,U00. The number of bricks made in 1861 was 7,659 M. ; value, $51,703. The number of grind-stones made, 46,496 ; value, $44,100. Bushels of lime burnt, 136,848 ; maple sugar made, 249,549 pounds. By the census of 1861, it appears that 13,516 of our population are employed in manufacturing. CHAPTER VII. PUBLIC WORKS.— CROWN LANDS.— REVENUE, 4o. Sailwats. — ^The oldest piece of railway in Nova Scotia is in the county of Pictou, between the Albion Mines and " the loading ground." It is about eight miles in length ; it is owned by the General Mining Association, and was built upwards of twenty years ago. The Nova Scotia Railways, built and owned by the province, are of more recent date. They were commenced in April, 1854-, and completed in December' 15th, 1858. They consist of a trunk line from Halifax to Truro, and a branch line to Windsor. The number of miles completed is 92.75. The distance from Halifax to Truro is about sixty miles, and from " the Junction " to Windsor about thirty-three miles. The Windsor branch brings Halifax into railway communication with the Bay of Fundy ; the Eastern line, when extended to Pictou, will open railway f Ills ^^W^^^ ■rm^W'^ysT^m )k M 1 m , ■j^u'm^ -Md-BiAi 696 PUBLIC ■WOBKS, E'fO. communication with the Gulf of St. Lawrence. The line from Truro to Pictou is being located. The distance is forty miles. The cost to the province of the 92.75 miles already built may be stated as follows : Cost of building permanent way, including sidings, stations, and buildings $3,896,148 86 Cost of locomotives 231,179 00 Cost of rolling stock (as cars) 121,600 00 Total $4,248,927 86 There are on the lines twenty locomotives, ten first-class cars, eight second-class cars, one hundred and sixty other cars, two snow-ploughs. The road will compare favorably with Jiritish railroads, and is superior to the railroads on this continent, with the exception of portions of the Grand Trunk line of Canada. The station-houses are built, how- ever, with a special visw to economy. The railway is managed by a connnissioner who is a member of the gov- ernment, and who is responsible for its successful manage- ment. There are employed under the commissioner a superintendent of the locomotive department ; a superin- tendent of the trathc department ; and a general inspec- tor of upholdence and construction. All these are re- sponsible to the Commissioner for the management of the departments committed to them. The following table will exhibit the revenue of the Nova Scotia Railroad, for the last three years : Tear ondlni; Dec. 81, 1869. Year cndinii? Dec. 81, 1S60. Tear ending Dec. 81, 1861. Receipts from all sources,.. $102,872 57 $116,742 89 $120,917 66 Working expenses 111,274 88 96,472 26 94,114 88 $8,397 31 $20,270 63 $26,802 78 In 1859 the road did not pay working expenses ; in 1860, it earned $20,270.63 over and above working ex- PUBLIC WORKS, ETC. 697 ue of the Nova 63 $26,802 78 expenses ; in penses ; in 1861, $26,802.78 over working expenses, while 1862 promises to be far in advance of 1861. The rate for travel per mile is three cents first class, two cents second class cars ; rate of speed twenty m'-es per hour, including stoppages. Nova Scotia railway stock has readied as higli as 108 and 109 in the English market. Parties in England hold our debentures to the amount of $3,500,000, being interest at 6 per cent., payable half-yearly, on cost of rail- ways. The largest proportion of this interest must, for some years to come, be paid from the general revenue of the country. The extension of the Trunk line to the New Brunswick frontier, and onwards through that province till it unites with the Grand Trunk line of Canada, will cause this line to bo highly remunerative. It is highly probable that in the course of 1863, this great line will be located. This will make Halifax the grand winter terminus for British North America. The distance from Halifax to Riviere du Loup (the present terminus of the Grand Trunk line) i& 530 miles ; of this sixty miles is already made, that is, from Halifax to Truro, which leaves only 470 miles. This is by the north shore route. By the central route the distance is 478 miles ; from which deduct eighty-two miles already completed, and we have to be built only 396 miles. Again, there is the St. John River route, which makes the distance from Halifax to Riviere du Loup 593 miles, of which 237miles is constructed, and which leaves 355 miles to be made. Each of these routes has its advocates in New Brunswick. It has been agreed at an intercolonial convention to leave the decision of the matter to a commission consisting of two from Canada and one from New Brunswick and Nova Scotia, respectively — provision being made for the appointment of an umpire in case of the commissioners failing to agree in opinion. Canals. — In the year 1825 the " Shubenacadie Canal" was commenced. It is still unfinished. It is intended by means of this canal so to unite the Dartmouth Lakes and "Tmf^i»f^»p»--,i«( 698 PUBLIC WORKS, ETC. the Slmbenacadie River, as to connect tlie Halifax harbor with the Bay of Fundy. It consists of a series of locks and two inclined planes, one 1,320 feet, the other 500 feet in length, to be worked by machinery. Tlie locks are sixty-seven feet in length, seventeen in breadth, with five feet depth of water. It is very nearly completed. There is also the " St. Peter's Canal," which is to con- nect the waters of the Atlantic coast of the Island, with the great Bras d'Or lake. The whole length of this canal is to be only 2,300 feet ; its breadth, at water line, fifty feet ; and depth of water thirteen feet. It is to have one lock at the St. Peter's Bay termination, and a guard gate at the Bras d'Or. Length of lock, 120 feet ; width of gates, twenty-two feet. This canal was commenced in the autumn of 3S54. The work has been suspended for Boiiie time. Steamers. — The line of steamers from which Nova Scotia derives the greatest advantage is that of the Cunard Company. These call at Halifax to land and receive pas- sengers and freight, both from Liverpool to Boston, and on the return voyage to Liverpool. The freight by these steamers to Halifax is increasing every year. The finer description of merchandise, which was wont to be conveyed in sailing ships, is now almost without exception brought to Halifax in these steamers. When the great Interco- lonial Railway is finished, Halifax will undoubtedly have her weekly line of steamers from England, instead of fortnightly as at present. The Cunard Company have also a line of screw steamers, which ply regularly between Halifax and St, Johns, Newfoundland ; and Halifax and Bermuda. The steamers to Newfoundland receive a sub- sidy from the colonial government. There is a steamer also wliich plies between Halifax, Yarmouth, and Boston. There is a steamer that makes tri-weekly trips between Windsor and St. John, N. B. ; also, between Annapolis Royal End St. John, N. B., and connecting witli Boston steameid to that city. There is also a line that connects PUBLIC W0EK8, ETC. 699 B that connects Pictou with Charlotte Town, Prince Edward Island, She- diac, N. B., and Quebec. There is one also on the Bras d'Or lake, and one that plies between Halifax and the principal gold-fields on the Atlantic coast. Two little steamboats ply between Pictou town and New Glasgow, and two others between the city of Halifax and the town of Dartmouth. The legislature granted the sum of $7,700, in aid of steamers, packets, &c., in 1860 ; and $7,240 in 1861. Roads, Stage Coaches, &c. — The high roads of Nova Scotia are very numerous, and generally they are good. Legislative grants are made yearly to aid in opening new roads, and repairing the great post-roads. The grant for this object in 1850 was $96,800 ; in 1860 it was $103,855 ; and in 1861, $100,341 34. Tlie great roads of the province are : — From Halifax "Westward to Yarmouth, by the Atlantic coast, as follows : Halifax to Lunenburg, seventy miles ; thence to Liverpool, thirty-six miles ; thence to Shelburne, forty miles ; thence to Yarmouth, fifty -six miles,— making in all 202 miles from Halifax to Yarmouth. A tri- weekly Btage-coach runs this line. Another line of highway is from Halifax to Yarmouth via Windsor, Kentville, Annap- olis Royal, Digby, and Clare. The distance from Halifax to Yarmouth by this route is 214 miles. A stage-coach runs this line three times a week. Eastward from Halifax we travel sixty miles to Truro by railway ; from Truro to Amherst (within three miles of the New Brunswick line) the distance is sixty miles ; from Truro to Pictou the dis- tance is forty miles. An excellent line of stage-coaches nm this road daily. From Pictou to Antigonish, fifty miles ; thence to the Strait of Canseau Ferry, thirty-three miles. Total from Halifax to Canseau, 188 miles. On Cape Breton side, from Plaister Cove at Canseau, to Syd- ney town via South of Bras d'Or, seventy-six miles ; from Sydney via Sydney mines to Margaree, sixty-four miles ; from Plaister Cove to Port Hood, thirty miles ; thence to i ■! •"•'»l%-f;,*^'^--f.„^. ? 702 PUBLIC WORKS, ETC. pany, between Truro and Pictoii, in 1849. lii 1851, the legislature chartered the " Nova Scotia Electric Telegraph Company." This company purchased the government line from Halifax to New Brunswick, as well as the one from Truro to Pictou ; and they constructed nearly all the ex- isting lines between that date and 1856. In 1860, all the lines of the company were leased for fifty years to the " American Telegraph Company" — a wealthy organiza- tion, which controls a great proportion of the telegraphs on the American continent. Ckown Lands. — Only a little over the half of the area of Nova Scotia has been granted, or alienated from the crown. The price charged for crown lands in Nova Sco- tia is about forty cents per acre. The following statement will show the quantity of granted and ungranted land in the province : Quantity al- ready granted. Kemalnlng ungranted. Estimated as available for settlement. Lands open for settleineuts. f Nova Scotia proper. Cape Bretou Acres. 4,935,349i 813,543^ Acres. 4,112,384i l,207,438i Acres. 650,664^ 856,676i- Acres. 3,412,384j 777,438^ Total 5,748,893 5,319,8221 918,3401 4,189,822J The gross proceeds of crown lands sold during 1860, was $20,846.28. In 1861, $16,598.73. Kkvenue and ExPENorruKE. — The year 1861 shows a decrease in the revenue of Nova Scotia. This is owing, undoubtedl}', to the American war. Nova Scotia has suf- fered probably more from this war than any of the British North American colonies. Free trade is the policy of Nova Scotia. It has no pro- tection duties. Its ad valorem, duties are lower than those of any neighboring countries. The following statement will exhibit the gradual growth of our provincial revenue : mmm I I I '■*! lated land in d as for It. Lands open for settlciiieuts. t Acres. 3,412,384j 777,438i m 4,189,8221 1861 shows a PUBLIC WORKS, ETC. 703 Tears. Revenue. Tear*. Expendltnres. 1806, $82,309 50 1766, $19,464 00 1825, 196,455 65 1800, 22,160 00 1836, 185,864 00 1810, 40,660 00 1846, 331,104 00 1815, 52,860 00 1851, 433,120 00 1851, 423,742 00 1852, 485,582 00 1852, 482,895 00 1853, 510,192 00 1853, 458,712 00 1854, 752,642 00 1854, 776,802 00 1855, 833,069 00 1855, 783.052 00 1856, 691,015 00 1856, 696,397 00 1857, 726,666 00 1857, 793,809 00 1858, 716,025 00 185«, 737,108 00 1859, 698,938 00 1859, 690,595 00 1860, 870,055 00 1860, 852,133 00 This revenue is derived from import, excise, and light duties, from the crown lands, the mines, the provincial railway, and the post-office department. The expendi- ture is for the payment of all public officers, the interest of the public debt, grants for roads and bridges, educa- tion, agriculture, subsidies for steamers, mail packets, and ferries, militia, &c. , The estimated expenditure for 1861 was $870,771. Public Debt, CUitRENCT, &c. — The public debt has been mainly incurred in constructing the provincial railways. It is almost wholly represented by works of great public utility. At the close of the year 1860, the whole liability of the province was $4,9015305 42, viz : Provincial Bonds $4,000,000 00 Provincial Notes 447,458 00 Savings Bank 453,847 42 Total .' $4,901,305 42 The first provincial currency was eighteen shillings sterling to the pound currency, or £100==£90. The next change made the English shilling equal to one shilling and three-pence sterling, or sixteen English shillings equal to £1 currency. In common with New Brunswick and Canada, Nova Scotia has recently adopted the decimal mode of computa- i ■^ m \ k i-f ■■ ■ ■ 704 EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS, ETC. tion. Dollars and cents have taken the place of pounds, shillings, and pence, with us. In Nova Scotia, the British Bhilling is twenty-five cents — the British Florin fifty cents — the British crown $1 25 — and the British gold sovereign or pound, $5. The treasury issues £1 Nova Scotia currency, or $4 and $5 notes. The banks issue £5 or $20 notes and upwards ; but they are not permitted to issue notes of a less sum than $20. The par of Exchange ou England is 12i per cent. The oldest bank in the province is the " Halifax Banking Company," besides which, there are the " Bank of Nova Scotia," the " Bank of British North America," and the " Union Bank." There has never yet occurred an in- stance of a Nova Scotia bank having suspended pay ment. The new premises of the Union Bank, when com- pleted, will be the finest building in Halifax. CHAPTER YlH. EDUCATION AND P:DUCATI0NAL INSTITUTIONS. The history of the progress of education in Nova Scotia does not much differ from that of its progress in the neigh- boring states and provinces. Its progress has been in the face of many and formidable difliculties. The early settlers had to conquer the forest, build houses, make roads, and struggle hard to keep want and grim poverty out of their humble dwellings. They could neither afford to build school-houses nor pay schoolmasters — if they could be had. They had to teach their children at their own firesideg, after the toils of the day were ended, without the aid of many books, and often when they could not afibrd the luxury of lamp or candle to read by. Two of the most distinguished statesmen and orators Nova Scotia ever reared, were thus taught to read. On more than one oc- casion we have heard one of them relate, for the encour ^Uiii^j^^^ m M-ica," and the nk, when com- EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS, ETC. 705 agement of the young of his native city, how on the long winter 'evenings, at his father's knee, he ^^tudied history and literature with no other light than tliat furnished by the good old-i'ashioned fireplace. In the year 17S7, there was not a single school or school-house in what is now the populous and highly educated county of Pictou. Now there are 116 school-hoiises in that county, and as many schools, many of which are of a high order. Seventy years ago there were not thirty school-houses in all Nova Scotia, and the majority of those were but log-houses of the humblest description. Now there are upwards of twelve hundred school-houses, many of which are elegant, commodious, and well' furnished structures. Thirty years ago the legislative grant for the support of education was only $16,000. In 1861 it was $66,749.02, while that contributed by voluntary subscription was nearly three times that amount. Sixty and even forty years ago, an old soldier, who could read, write, and '' cipher as far as the rule of three" — a broken-down merchant, or an accountant, whose habits had become so unsteady that he could no longer serve witli efficiency in the counting-house, would be hired as a schoolmaster. Now it is only the graduates of our provin- cial normal college for the training of teachers, that can command any of our best common schools. It is not half a century since the " New England Primer," " Dil- worth," " The Collection," " Tutor's Assistant," \\\e ferule and the hirch, were accounted the orthodox and all-potent instrumentalities for teaching " the young idea how to shoot," and for restraining and correcting it, should it venture " to shoot" on its own account in any forbidden direction. At present our schools are supplied with the latest and best British and American text-books, and cor- poral punishment, in the best of them, is resorted to but very seldom, and that in extreme cases. Common Schools. — The province of Nova Scotia, in- cluding Cape Breton, is divided into thirty-three school " H ;■■ h t ■ ;f^ '1 ;;: ■ 1 h1 tr, i-.. jt.tjji W S '- ';■ ■ \\ ;! ■ 706 EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS, ETO, districts, each Imving a distinct board of school commis- sioners, whose duty it is to examine and license teachers, determine what shall be the nnmber and wliat the bound- aries of the schools, and distribute tlie government allow- ance among the several schools entitled to participate in it. There are 1,227 school-houses in tlie province, and 1,175 schools were in operation in 1857 (the only edu- cational census taken) ; G85 of this number were taught by male teachers, 520 by females. -A bout one to every seven of the population is attending school : — a small pro- portion when compared with some of the New England and Middle States, where the proportion is one to four, and in three of the States, Maine, New Hampshire, and New York, it is one to three. There are school libraries under the direction of every board ; 6,844 vols, were in circu- lation in 1857. The number of text-books reported was 6,360 ; wall maps, 2,521 ; blackboard , 640 ; globes, 56. Amount contributed for common-school education by voluntary contributions, $128,2:^^2.22 ; by the government, ,$53,519.25. Maximum salary of common-school teachers, $600; average salary, $180; average cost of each pupil per annum, $2.53. The best common schopls are in Pic- tou, Colchester, and Kings. Grammar Schools. — There were forty-four grammar schools in the province, by the late educational census. The winter attendance was 1,476, and the summer, 1,738. The number studying the classics and mathematics was 1,074. The support from the people, $9,814.09; from gov- ernment, $3,274.95. Latin, French, mathematics, includ- ing algebra and agricultural chemistry, are taught in the grammar schools, in addition to the branches taught usually in the common schools. Academies. — There are six academies at present in Nova Scotia, inclusive of SackvjUe Academy, N. B. All of them, with the exception of Pictou Academy, are under the control of some one religious denomination. The Windsor Academy, or Collegiate School, which is ool commis- se teachers, the bound* ment allow- irticipato in ovince, and le only edu- kvere taught me to every a small pro- ew England to four, and ;e, and New )rarie8 under ere in cireu- reported was globes, 5G. iducation by government, lool teachers, •f each pupil .8 are in Pic- )ur grammar tional census, immer, 1,738. hematics was 09 ; from gov- [latics, includ- re taught in anches taught it present in y,I5.B. All my, are under on. liool, which is ■»»' 1 - irvf^ J . , i I iitia-- r W • m ; 'Ofi^ •■ .'ATIONAL WaiTrtTTtOX, fxainme >*"<' Tiuinher rihiite' tin 'titled \\\\\'') I ration ji. i^-.j* . V..-. ....I. > . w-,.ii taken ; J ■■■■.) of \)nV >.-'«. h.-v br m:ilc toricherii, 520 by t'emaU' ! : ri;. .)v»puiiition it* attt*mline; w^hn. I portion wlien C'^rnpared I and Middle States, whero the pruporti ' the Stfttes, ]!i' ' ' • v Jiuuip.-^ii . ,> one i'tinTi . r.lio g!/- > M Uii ;-.;i'a ; -n (;< ■:uiMMi-Schoo. , ,,. , .„.. -tlarv, $1S0; average co»t of (..■ :i^Tium, )fti\53. 'r!u» bpst common tcb.oplti an 4 Bcb' uviiictt, by t! Tiiu Vinior atundauce was ' ' •Ti.. , .v,y,|)^>r etndjiiifr tbc ^ Tlie support from "h* ■nAaent, $3,5^74 ;; algebr ' ascriculti: ^.raniTnar seb' ■ ■ in the coiniuun boU'Aas. riMiTiS.— There afe ' • "tia, incbislvo of S.- . '■' the eXcoptinn of ? fi^rty-four dtlucation: ■' '• sumiji' iatliein-: • ': 4.09 , u ernati! - oraucli' L Sciiool, f 4 1^' ^ I :s X w ii§- lir^'^'.Tii^ (rt'« 1 i 1 '. --^m - vMP : ■•■• ■ WFW. ,, ' 1- F$'. , • y^ EDUCA.TIONAL INSTmJTIONS, ITTO. 707 i the oldest, is under the direction of the Episeopah'ans. It has three teacliers. The Pictou Academy comes next in point of age, and first, perhaps, in point of fame. It was started at the early part of this century, under the direc- tion of the distinguished Dr. McCulloch, and gave a powerful impetus to the cause of a thorough and sound education in the province. For many years it was under the control of the Presbyterian Church of Nova Scotia. At present it has but two teachers, and is only a high school for the town of Pictou. The Ilorton Academy^ at Wolfville, comes next in poinfe of age. It is under the control of the Baptists. It has a principal and two assistants. The Sacl'ville Academy is under the control of the- Wegu leyan Methodist body, and is equally patronized aiul' su|>- ported by the provinces of Nova Gcotia and New Bi'uns- wick. It has male and female departments^ The male department has seven teachers ', the fern ate- department, nine teacliers. The Preslyterian Academy^ in Halifax, was started in 1847, in connection with the Free Chuifch. It h9& four teachers. The Arichat Academy^ in the Isle of Madame, C. B., is in connection with the Roman Catholics. It has three teachers. The Sackville Academy stands, for theWesleyan Meth- odist body, instead of a college, theological hall, and preparatory high school. All the other academies enu- merated are but preparatory high schools. CoLLKGES. — There are six institutions in the province of Nova Scotia that go by the name of colleges. The oldest and best endowed of these is King's College^ at Windsor. It was commenced in 1788-9. From that date till about twelve years ago i*^ ^ ad annually received from the pro- vincial government a grant of $1,777.66. At present the annual grant is $1,000. It has/v« professors. It is under the control of the Episcopal Church. It was chartered in 45 I* ly'^f'^ff,^. \''^k^§ ' t 'f. •■■A. ^h'iwr -il'/i 7;^v^|:pv,ji|,^ 708 EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS, ETC. 1802, by George III., and has the Archbishop of Canter- bury for its patron. Acadia College is in "Wolfville, in Kings county. It is under the control of the Baptist denomination. It has four professors — one theological, and three for all the other branches taught. $1,000 of provincial aid, that was formerly given to this college, is now given annually to the academy in the same place and connection. The Presbyterians have two colleges at present, — a theological college in Halifax, with three professors ; a lit- erary and classical college at Truro, with thi'ee professors and one tutor. These institutions are endowed, by the liberality of the body with which they are connected, to the amount of $56,000. Arrangements are in progress by which the two may be consolidated. Goreham College, in Liverpool, Queens county, was set up hy the liberality of the late Mr. Goreham of that place, in connection w'th the orthodox Congregational body. The buildings were destroyed by fire a few years since, and have not been rebuilt. St. Marges College a theological school, in the Roman Catholic connection. Tlie number of professors, &c., is not made known to the general public. It receives $1,000 annually from the provincial government. It is situated in Halifax. St. Francis Xavier^s College is in the town of Atigo- nish, in the county of Sydney. It has five professors; three theological, and two for other departments. It is under the control of the Roman Catholic body, and re- ceives $1,000 from the government annually. Dalhousie College is in the city of Halifax. It is a handsome edifice, built of fieestone. It was built under the direction, and mainly through the influence, of the Earl of Dalhousie, when he was governor of the province ; he procured $39,000 out of the Castine fund for its per- manent endowment, and induced the legislature to grant $12,000 towards the erection of the building. It was in- '"*-»i*i4j,-:. liop of Canler- EDUCATIONAL INSTITrTroNS, ETC. 709 corporated in 1820, and was to be conducted on the model of the University of Edinburgh. Several attempts have been made to set it into operation, but hitherto without much success; the main hindrance being the existence of 80 many denominational institutions under the name of colleges. In the mean time the capital endowment fund has been so well managed by the governors of the college, that from $39,000 it has increased to about $60,000. Tiiere is the prospect at present of the Presbyterians and Congregational ists, and perhaps one or two other denomi- nations, combining their several secular colleges with this institution, and thus out of the whole forming one grand provincial university — each denomination to maintain its own theological institute, and the provincial grants that were wont to be given to these, to be given to the university. The province has no medical or law school or college, nor a single professorship devoted to these branches in any of the existing colleges. This clamant w^ant will be sup- plied in that university that is to he. Normal College and Model Schools. — These are sit- uated in the town of Truro, Colchester county, and are, as near as may be, in the centre of the province. They are provincial institutions. The act for the establishment of the Normal College passed the legislature in 1854 ; and the Rev. Alexander Forrester, D. D., was appointed prin- cipal of the institution, and superintendent of education, by the governor in council, in tiie spring of 1855 ; and opened the Normal College in November of the same year. The Model Schools were opened in June, 1857. There are five teachers in the Normal College, and six in the Model Schools. There is a model farm attached to these, which is worked under the direction of the principal. The annual cost of these institutions, and of the whole educa- tional supervision of the province, is only $4,680. The Normal College has already trained about 500 teachers, of whom 230 have taken certificates. gramnuir-school and first-class 31-1 .ij H,!.,., ■fff"^, .'#»*■'(.•' .1^„ 710 EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS, ETC. The establishment of these institutions has been an im- portant era in the history of education in Nova Scotia. They have been a very decided success. The natural or training system is that pursued. The mechanical^ ex- planatory, and objective systems are made use of only in so far as they enter into the full working out o^ the one selected. The Model School is conducted on the most approved graded method, having three departments, primary, intermediate, and high-school, each with its own regular teacher. Vocal music and physical exer- cise are very happily intermingled with the severer busi- ness of the school. There is a very great improvement in the furniture of school-rooms throughout the whole province since the establishment of the Model Schools; also in the quality of the education imparted to the young. Adequate support is the great want of our common and grammar schools, at presen . The public mind is steadily setting in for a system of general assessment of property and income for the support of schools ; the present method — voluntary subscriptions — being found in many sections of the country very inefficient. This appears from the startling disclosures of the late census (1861). It appears from the census, that while in some districts every man, woman, and child who is able to speak can read, and nearly all can write ; yet that when the province is taken as a whole, there are, between the ages of five and fifteen years, 36,430 who cannot read, and 45,012 who cannot write; while there are, over the age of fifteen years, 49,430 who cannot read, and 65,444 who cannot write; making in all, 85,860 illiterate persons in the province. This is a state of matters which no patriotic Christian mind can contemplate without the deepest concern for the future of the country. It may be proper to state that a few thou- sands may be deducted from one of the above items, when it is borne in mind that children in the rural districts of Nova Scotia, generally, do not attend school or learn to read and write till they are seven and often eight years of age. ■*^^*«4iAlikill mmm ECCLE8IASTICAL CONDITION, ETC. 711 iNsnTUTiON FOR Deaf AND DuMB. — TIiis institution is bnt in its infancy. It wascstablishud in 1858, under the present highly efficient superintendence. It has very commodious premises, in a very healthy and sightly position in tliQ city of Halifax. It derives its support from three sources : the contributions of the benevolent — fees from the pupils, when the parents are not poor, and legislative grants from the provinces of Nova Scotia and New Brunswick. The whole income of this institution for 1861 was $3,691.85. $2,000 of this sum was from the legislature of Nova Scotia, and $80 from that of New Brunswick. The attendance for the year 1861 was forty-four pupils, thirty of whom were males and fourteen females : eight of this number were from New Brunswick, the remain'iig thirty-six from Nova Scotia. The system of instruction is emphatically t/te natural system. The pupils are taught reading, writ- ing, English composition, arithmetic, geography, history, and the principles of Christianity, as taught in the Bible, with remarkable success. There is also an industrial de- partment in this school, both for boys and girls, where no small amount of work is very skilfully and cheerfuUv performed. The institution is managed by five directors, a secretary, treasurer, ]>rincipal, and assistant teachers ; a matron, physician, dentist, and a committee of eleven ladies. The Right Hon. the Earl of Mulgrave is patron, and lady Mulgrave patroness of the institution. The Rev. Mr. Cochran, the secretary, was mainly instrumental in starting this school. Its present high state of efficiency is owing to the indefatigable labors of the principal, J. Scott Hutton, Esq. CHAPTER IX. ECCLESIASTICAL CONDITION OF THE PROVINCE. Nova Scotia does not want for religious denominations or plpces cf worship. ITiere are 22 denominations and I ! ;Mi ; pcfli£^n ■>» -4:,..^J y" ■■-iin-f-^ '"^'fr^"''-rT, W 712 ECCLESIASTICAL CONDITION, ETC. 831 places of worship. Tliis gives a church for every 40C ^f the population. It is true that many of the buildings, called churches, are not such as to accommodate 400, but many others again are buildings that can comfortably seat 500,*800, 1,000, and in some cases 2,000. All religious denominations are considered equal in the eye of the law ; in other words, there is no church or re- ligious sect established by civil enactment in Nova Scotia, or in any of the lower provinces of British America. The Episcopal Church. — This denomination was at one time established by law in Nova Scotia. The law which gave it the supremacy in matters of religion has been re- pealed, and it is now on the same level with the other churches. It has 47,744 adherents in Nova Scotia and Cape Breton. It has 139 places of worship, and 64 clergy- men? The Episcopal bishop of Nova Scotia exercises jurisdiction over the Episcopal church in Prince Edward Island. This denomination has hitherto derived much of its support from the liberality of the Society for Propa- gating Reh'gion in Foreign Parts. There is at present a very creditable movement among the laity of the body, to raise an endowment fund for the permanent support of religion in that connection. Thk Presbyterian Church. — Under this may be in- cluded three different bodies, viz. : the Presbyterian churcli, which has 69,456 adherents, 144 places of worship, and 88 ordained clergymen ; the Church of Scotland in Nova Scotia, which has 19,063 adherents, 25 places of worship, and 20 ordained clergymen ; and the Reformed Presbyte- rian Church, which has (by late census) 236 adherents (ought at least to be double that number), 8 places of wor- ship, and 5 ordained clergymen. The Roman Catholic Church. — In the number of ad- herents this body ranks next to the Presbyterians. The number is 86,281 ; places of worship, 121 ; clergy, 42. It is under the control of the Archbishop of Halifax. It has two diocesan bishops, that of Halifax and Arichat. It S {• '«: ■■" -KMuyy^jJUy, ■w^ ECCLESIASTICAL CONDITTON, ETC. 713 for every 40C he buildings, date 400, but ifurtably seat equal in the church or re- Nova Scotia, merica. on was at one le law which has been re- ith the other va, Scotia and and 64 clergy- otia exercises rince Edward •ived much of 3ty for Propa- s at present a 3f the body, to 3nt support of is may be in- ^terian church, rorship, and 88 land in Nova ces of worship, •med Presbyte- 236 adherents i places of wor- nnmber of ad- lyterians. The clergy, 42. It [alifax. It has d Arichat. It owns some of the finest church buildings in the prov- ince. The Baptist CHURcn,— The Associated Baptists have 55,336 adherents, 182 places of worship, and 83 clergy- men. Other Baptists have 7,605 adherents, 34 places of worship, and 15 clergymen. The Wesley AN Methodist Church. — ^Thisbody is under the superintendence of the Eastern British North Amer- ican Affiliated Conference. It is a branch of the British Conference, and includes under its supervision the whole of the lower provinces, as well as Bermuda. The president is nominated by the colonial body. Its adherents in Nova Scotia are 34,055 ; places of worship, 136 ; clergy, 54. The Congregational Church. — This body has 2,183 adherents, 11 places of worship, and 10 clergymen. The Lutheran Church has 4,382 adherents, 4 places of worship, and 3 clergymen. The Universalhts have 846 adherents, 2 places of wor- ship, and 1 clergyman. There are 158 Quakers; 112 Bible Christians; 27 Mor- mons ; 13 Swedenborgians ; 143 Morisonians, or E. U. ; 46 Sandemanians ; 32 Carapbellites ; and 3 Deists. The British and Foreign Bible Society has a branch in Nova Scotia. Its headquarters are in Halifax, but it has numerous auxiliary branches throughout the province. There are five Young Men's Christian Associations in the province. The one in Halifax has an excellent library and reading-room, and has a course of twelve lectures, of a very high order, during the winter months. There is a mission to the Mic Mac Indians of the lower provinces, which is su})ported by all evangelical denominatiotis in common. The New Testament has been translated into the Mic Mac, through its means. The Presbyterians maintain 4 missionaries in the South Sea Islands. The Baptists at one time maintained a missionary in Hindu- stan ; but their agent having fallen a victim to the climate, the mission lias been abandoned by them. No other *•■ . .^ 1 716 POLITICAL STATE OF THE PKOVINCB. r€prese7itative assembly of Nova Scotia was on the second day of October, 1758. Robert Sanderson, Esq., was cho- sen speaker of this first assembly. In 1761 a new assembly was elected, consisting of twenty- four members. Tiie province was then divided into four counties — Halifax, Lunenburg, Annapolis, and Kings — each returning two members ; and into seven townships — Halifax, Lunenburg, Annanolis, Horton, Cornwallis, Fal- mouth, Liverpool — each sending two members, with the exception of Halifax, which sent four. The Pkesent Constitdtion of the Province. — The province had not a legislative council distinct from the executive council till the year 1838. Hitherto the council deliberated with closed doors. From this date the legis- lative council sat with doors open to the public. In 1841 " responsible government" was inaugurated in Nova€cotia. It was not fully established, however, till the parliamentary session of 1847-8. The departmental system was then fully acted upon for the first time. The highest authority is vested in the Lieutenant- Gov- . ej'nor^ who acts as the representative of royalty. He is styled lieutenant-governor, as being nominally subordi- nate to the governor-general of British North America. The governor is surrounded by an executive council of nine persons, appointed by the crown from the legislative council and house of representatives; these are his sworn advisers, in the exercise of his legislative and adminis- trative duties. They are responsible to the people for the acts of his adtninistration. That is one of the peculiariticb of responsible government. I^ive of the members of the executive council, in accordance with the existing consti- tution, are heads of departments : the attorney -general, solicitor-general, provincial secretary, financial secretary, and receiver-general. The Legislative Council is appointed by the crown. It consists of twenty-one members. They choose their own president, subject to the approval of the crown. They are «r'-. ^^^vltfjii^. POLITICAL STATE OF THE PROVINCE. 717 to US instead of peers. Tliey hold their seats for life, if they do not become insolvent. They are magistrates with- in the province. Tiie Ilouse of Representatives (iOix\^\?,i9, of fifty-five mem- bers, who are elected once in fonr years. They represent eighteen connties. Some counties are subdivided into dis- tricts ; others have townships. Universal suffrage is the law of Nova Scotia, subject to the following restrictions ; The elector must be twenty-one years of age ; nnist be nutive-born, or a naturalized subject of Great Britain. lie must be a resident one year in the county, district, or town- ship in which he votes. ^The members of this house must have a property qualification, and must take the oath of allegiance before they take their seats. The members of both houses are paid $4 per diem each, with travelling ex- penses during the sitting of Parliament. The salaries of the oflicers on the civil list, authorized by law, amount to $52,365. This is inclusive of $0,415 of pensions paid to retired officials. There is usually voted yearly, in addition to the above, $29,680 for clerks and contingencies. Laws and Cotjrts of Justice. — ^The laws and forms of judicial procedure of Nova Scotia are founded on those of England, while the common law of England is the law of Nova Scotia, where the case is not otherwise pro- vided for by special provincial enactment. The body of local enactments has been recently revised and consoli- dated under the supervision of the provincial government. The work is known by the name of "Revised Statutes." The punishment of death is limited by the law of Nova Scotia to the crimes of treason and murder. Justice's Court. — This is the lowest order of courts for the trial of civil causes. There are 1,412 justices of the peace in Nova Scotia. Each magistrate has jurisdiction throughout the whole county in which he resides. They can adjudicate in civil causes to the amount of forty dol- lars. In criminal matters their powers are very similar to I I ■ t 718 POLITICAL STATE OF THE PROVINCE. that of the same class of officers in England. Tliey can fine and cotntnit to tlie county jail for petty oftences, and bind over to keep the peace, or appear for trial at the Su- preme Court, for f^raver offences. They usually issue war- rants for the appearance of ofi'eiiders against the peace. General Sessions of the peace are held annually in each county, a'.d in some counties twice in the year. These are composed of justices of the peace and other officials, for the transaction of county business. They are presided over by the Gustos Rotulorum of each county. The Court of Probate is a county court, whi(;h has the custody of all wills, and disposes of tl " estates of deceased persons. The judge of this court, wh is usually a barris- ter of good standing, practises at the l \ but ca inot be a member of Parliament. The Supreme Court is by far the most important in Nova Scotia. It has civil and criminal jurisdiction in the highest causes. I*" is the only criminal court in the prov- ince. It has original jurisdiction in all civil causes over twenty dollars, and is the court of appeal from the decision of justices' courts. The province is divided into four cir- cuits, and the Supreme Court holds its sitting twice a year in every county of the province for the trial of civil and criminal causes. It sits in Halifax twice in the year as a court of equity, the Court of Chancery, which once ex- isted in Nova Scotia, having been abolished, and its juris- diction transferred to this court. It is presided over by a chief-justice and four assistant judges. These judges are appointed by the governor in council, and they hold office for life. Their appohitment must receive the royal sanc- tion before they can be considered as fixed in office. Their salaries are fixed upon the civil list of the province. The Court of Marriage and Divorce is composed of the lieutenant-governor, the executive council, one of the judges of the Supreme Court, a register, advocate, and proctor. It has full jurisdiction over all matters relating to marriage and divorce. '■^..). ■Rpapi EABLT HISTORY OF NEW BUUNSWICK. '19 Tlie Court of Vice- Admiralty includes Canada and all the lower provinces within its jurisdiction. The jijovernor- general of British North America is the vice-admiral, and Alexander Stewart, C. B., the judge of this court. It has surrogates, procurators, and advocates in all the British provinces. Its bank of admiralty deposits is the Bank of British North America. The Court of Error consists of the governor and coun- cil. Suits where the amount of the judgment is not less than $1,200, may be brought into this court. Cases for the commutation of capital punishment are also brought before the governor in council by petition. The last appeal is to the queen in council. It is the policy of the British gov- ernment not to interfere with any local matters in the colonies. We are instructed to make what laws we deem proper, and to appoint whom we choose to administer our laws. CHAPTER XL GENERAL CIVILIZATION.— SOCIAL PROGRESS.— LITERATURE, 4o. Geeat progress has been made in every section of Nova Scotia, during the last half century, in all that makes life comfortable and agreeable. The little, rude log-house of two, or at best three apartments, lias passed away, to make place for the snug white cottage of at least six or seven rooms, besides the kitchen, or the fine stately two-story house, with ten, twelve, or more apartments. Barns and outhouses have improved in a corresponding manner. The hand-mills, or "querns," of seventy years ago, have given place to excellent grist-mills, propelled by water-power or steam. Saw-mills, shingle-mills, carding-mills, dyeing- mills, foundries, and factories, have increased proportion- ately. Churches and school-houses of an improved style have sprung up in every bjttlement. Temperance halls and 'A\ t-^"— : ;Ti \\ 1 i 1 ,1 . 1 V-. - \ k %i>j£_^ ! V( rnir 'P |n 4 ■ 1 i ■ ^' fflB' ^^H' 720 GENERAL CIVILIZATION, ETC. other county and township public buildings are quite nu- merous in proportion to the population. There are 58,215 dwelling-houses in Nova Scotia. The city of Halifax contains only 2,635 of the a'uove number. There are 63,293 farms and outhouses. The number of stores and shops is 3,322 ; of that number the city of Hali- fax has 422. There are forty-nine temperance halls in the province, valued at $43,340. Nine of the number are in Hants county, and eight in Kings county. Tliere are only two counties without a temperance hall, viz. : Richmond and Victoria. There are ninety-three public county ard township buildings, estimated at $984,160. The vast improvements made in the mode of travelling, and in the mail communication of the province, have been already noticed. Parties are still living who can remem- ber when there was only a weekly mail between Halifax and Pictou, and when that mail was carried by one man, on his back, in a knapsack, making a journey of one hun- dred miles on foot. Now there is a daily mail to and from Pictou. Towns AND Tillages. — The oldest town in Nova Scotia is Annapolis Royal. From the earliest settlement of the country until the city of Halifax was built, this town was the capital of the province. It was the head-quartcs of the forces of France and England, as they alternately possessed the country. The conquest of " Port Royal " was, in those times, considered the conquest of the whole province. It is k small town still, and is not remarkable for any thing, ex"",>t its having been the ancient French and English capital of the province. Yarmouth is an important com- merciiil town, and owns much shipping. Pictou contests the honor of being the second most important town in the province, with Yarmouth. JVew Glasgow, en the East River of Pictou, has grown up lately into a town oi" almost the size of Pictou. Sydnetj and Arichat, in Cape Breton, Windsor, in Hants, Lunenburg, in the county of the same name, and Dartraoi th, opposite Halifax, are the remaining GENERAL CIVILIZATION, ETC. 721 ;s are quite nu- towns of the Province. There are besides, however, quite a number of villages and places near seaports, that are fast growina: into the magnitude and importance of towns. Among these may be named Baddeck, in Victoria ; Port Hood and Maylon, in Inverness ; Antigonish^ in Sydney ; Truro^ in Colchester ; Amherst and Piigwash, in Cumber- land ; Canning, and Wolfville. and Kentmlle, in Kings ; Lwerpool, in Queens; BAdgztown, in Annapolis; and Dighy and Shelhurne, in the counties of the same name. City of Halifax. — This city was founded by Lord Corn- wallis in the latter end of June, 1749. It became the seat of the provincial government early in the following year. It has a noble harbor, which we have already described. It is fortified by St. George's Island in the centre of the harbor; by the Citadel, which is on the hill which rises behind the city, to tlje height of two hundred and fifty feet above the level of the sea ; also, by the fortification of York Redoubt, and several masked batteries on both sides of the harbor. The strength of the fortifications of Halifax take rank next after those of Quebec. The city extends about two miles and a quarter north and south, on the slope of the hill, by the harbor. Its width, at the most, does not exceed three-quarters of a mile. Just one hundred and one years ago the town con- tained one thousand houses, and about three thousand in- habitants. At that time one-third of the population were Irish, one-fourth German and Dutch, the remainder Eng- lish, with a very small number of Scotch. "There were one hundred houses licensed to sell ardent spirits, and as many more houses that sold spirituous liquors without license ; so that," to continue the words of I)r. Styles, who records the fact, "the business of one-half the town is to sell rum, and the other half to drink it." About this time the city was divided into Halifax, Irish- town, and Dutchtown — Halifax the centre, Irishtown the south, and Dutchtown the north end. The population .'n 18G1 was 25,026. Some sections of thy city are now ex- 722 GKNEKAL CIVILIZATION, ETC. ceedingly well built. In the centre of the city, particular, ly on Granville street and Hallis street, wooden buildings have been replaced by brick, granite, and freestone struc- tures, which are not surpassed by any on this continent. Of public buildings, the "Province Building" is the chief. It is built of brown freestone, one hundred and forty feet in length, seventy in width, and forty-two in height. On its ground flat are apartments for the various provincial oflices — provincial secretary's, financial secre- tary's, receiver-general's, attorney-general's, customs, ex- cise, and crDwn-land department offices. On the second are the halls and committee-rooms of the two houses of Par- liament, and a very spacious and beautiful apartment oc- cupied by die provincial legislative libraiy. The Govern- ment House, the Admiralty House, Dalhousie College, the Asylum for the Insane, the Wellington Barracks, the Court House, the Hospital, the Penitentiary, and the City Mar- ket are tli(3 remaining principal public buildings. The Queen's Dockyard, in the north of the city, is an impor- tant public establishment. It was commenced in the year 1768. It is enclosed on the side toward the city by a high stone wall. It contains workshops, warehouses, and stores of various descriptions, besides very commodious buildings for the residence of its officers and workmen. The city is divided into six wards, and the corporation consists of a mayor and eighteen aldermen. The Mayor's Court is held on the second and fourth Tuesday of every month. The police office is open on every week-day from ten A. M. till three p. m. The fire department is under the control of the city corporation ; and also the water supi)ly of the city. The taxable property of tiie city, in 1861, was $14,400,000. Tliere are seventeen places of public worship in tlie city. Three of these belong to the Episcopalians, four to the Presbyterians, three to the Wesleyans, two to the Baptists, two to the Roman Catholics, one to the Congregationalists, one to the Universalists, and one to the Campbellites. ^t^lvyUL. wHm particular. 1 buildings itoue stnic- ontiuent. ing" is the indred and orty-two in tlie various ncial secre- ustoms, ex- e second are ises of Par- )artinent oc- riie Govern- CoUege, the ks, the Court he City Mar- Idings. The is an impor- }d in the year •ity by a high 3es, and stores ious buildings • e corporation The Mayor's isday of every ,veek-day from it is under the e water supi)ly y, in 1801, was hip in the city. 18, four to the :o the Baptists, grcgationalists, ;npbellite8. ■i; m * ok>'t:ral oivnjzATiox, ktc. ly on have ck, gr, h, .'■evcuty i: % im !;i». . . •u .o ^jcUU; .1 fr. pjwiucial offices— P' tary's, receiver-get cise, and crown-Ian thfcjialls and c leipoou, liamcnt, aijd a vorv spacii' cupied by tlie pr ' ..1 ; X ..> .. ,... ..-, , ..close*! on the ??'•'■"• <,■>"•. '-.^ ''•• st<»np wall. It contains ToH Hou3 descriptioiiK lor the residence of Tl" I.-i divideu inl cousisu oi ii mayor a^d ei. '^ sn.-f tj hold on the tiecoud The j)oiice oftipn \:i , till tliree F. ]ki. (utrol of the city corporatii. -f the city. The taxable pn. ^14,400,000. "' <"" are seventuuu {iLieub i-i puoiu: ' n)>so i'P^jMg to til' F"''- ■'■• . •/ •■ to the ■\^' (Pathol' ' ersaliatft, and ,mia to the i;*u)plu?llitti£. Wl ue iiwilittfis. Jl N; X 1 ,. •W" "jw;i'''^"^- -'si . 't I]* I^^^B^^H ^-i^H^H IB 1 !! !f ■!i« GENERAL CIVILIZATION, ETC. 723 There are in the city four commercial banks, and one savings bank, and a building society; the agencies of thir- teen British and four American life insurance companies, and of four British and sixteen American fire insurance companies. There are four public libraries in the city, two reading and news rooms, and benevolent societies of various descriptions and nationalities. There are one gas company, five gold-mining companies, and five other joint- stock companies. There are one public museum and one visiting dispensary. Halifax is important both as a military post and naval station. It is the military head-quarters of all the lower provinces. It is the chief naval station for the whole of British North America and the West Indies. Tiie admiral of the North American station resides at Halifax during the summer months, and in the winter at Bermuda. The commerce of Halifax is considerable. The exports from the port of Halifax, in the year 1860, were $3,902,638. The imports for the' same year were $6,431,581. Literature, &c. — Nova Scotia depends for literature, to a very great extent, on Great Britain and the United States. The quarterly reviews and monthly magazines of those countries are very extensively read in the province. There is no quarterly review published in the province, and the only monthly periodicals at present published are two of a religious character, under the direction of the Presbyte- rians. Of newspapers, there are twenty-two published in the pro 'i nee at present. In 1828 there were seven. Of these seven, six were in Halifax, and one in Pictou. The first paper started, out of Halifax, was the Pictou Colonial Patriot. The oldest of our existing newspapers is the Acadian Recorder. Of the twenty-two newspapers now published, thirteen are in Halifax, and the remaining nine are published in the following towns in the province : one in Sydney, one in Atigonish (the Casket^ partly English and partly Gaelic), two in Pictou, one in Liverpool, two in Yarmouth, one in Digby, and one at Bridgetown. "We 46 |i|^'.-:=?^;^.'--Vfl^r^^ 724 QENEEAl, CIVILIZATION, ETC. have no daily newspaper. There are six of the Hahfax papers that are published tri-weekly, on alternate days. Some are morning and some are evening papers. Four of the Halifax weeklies are in the interest of religious denomi- nations. There is also a monthly sheet devoted to the cause of total abstinence. The principal publishing house in Halifax is that of A. & W. Mackinley. The greater part of their pubhcations are school-books. Tb 3 principal literary productions of Nova Scotia are those of Judge Haliburton (Sam Slick), John Young, Esq., Principal Dawson (now of McGill College, Montreal), Pro- fessor Lyall, and the Rev. George Patterson. Ilaliburton's History of Nova Scotia is a standard work of over seven hundred and fifty pages octavo. It brings the history of the province down only to the year 1828. The lighter writings of the judge, under the nom de jphiiyie of Sam Slick, are very popular, and widely known. The " Letters of Agrieola," by John Young, Esq., have been already referred to. Dr. Dawson's works are chiefly on geology. His Acadian Geology and Archia are widely and very favorably known, both in Europe and America. His Remarks on Agricul- ture and Husbandry are also very valuable. His attain- ments in natural science are not second to those of any on this continent, while his style, for simplicity, elegance, terse- ness, and quiet power, is equalled only by very few living naturalists. " Intellect, Emotions, and the Moral Nature," has ranked Professor Lyall already with the foremost thinkers and writers of the present day. "Memoirs of Dr. McGregor," by the Rev. terson, is a work of much interest and well written. The late Dr. MacCulloch was a writer of no ordinary power, pnd has left behind him some theological works. The Hon. Joseph Howe, the present premier of Nova Scotia, is one of cur most beautiful and eflective writers. He has George Pat- mmmmifi devoted to the GENERAL CIVILIZATION, ETC. 725 produced some political brochures of great power — alvrays written in a fascinating style. No poet of any mark has yet made his appearance in Nova Scotia. There are nu- merous versifiers among us, but hardly any that has arisen to the dignity of a poet. The nearest approach to poetry has been made by some of our female writers. The following list of the governors of Nova Scotia is from Haliburton's History, as far as it comes down, and the remaining ones from personal knowledge : AT ANNAPOLIS KOYAL. 1. Colonel Vetch, Governor October 22, 1710. 2. Francis Nicholson, Esq 1 714. 3. Eichard Philips, Esq 1719. i. John Doucetj'Esq., Senior Councillor, administers government 1722. 5. Lawrence Armstrong, Esq., Lieutenant-Governor 1725. 6. John Adams, Esq., Senior Councillor Decembers, 1739. 7. Paul Mascarene, F^q., Lieutenant-Governor 1740. AT HALIFAX. Edward Cornwallis, Governor, July 14 1740 Peregrine Thomas Hopson, Governor, Aug. 3 1752 Charles Lawrence, Senior Councillor, Nov. 1 1753 do do Lieutenant-Governor, Oct. 21 1754 do do Governor, July 23 1756 Jonathan Belcher administers government, Oct. 9 1760 Mr. Ellis, late Governor of Georgia, is appointed Governor of Nova Scotia, but never leaves England Jonathan Belcher, Lieutenant-Governor, Nov. 21 1761 Montague Wilmot, Lieutenant-Governor, Sept. 26 1763 do do Governor, May 31 1764 Mr. Green, Senior Councillor, May 23 1768 Michael Franklin, Lieut. Governor, Aug. 26 1766 Right Hon. Lord Wm. Campbell, Governor, Nov. 27 1766 Benjamin Green, Senior Councillor, Oct. 30 1771 Michael Franklin, Lieut. Governor, June 30 1772 Lord Wm. Campbell resumes government, July 13 1772 Francis Legge, Governor, Oct. 8 1773 Mariot Arbuthnot, Lieut. Governor, April 27 1776 Richard Hughes, Lieutenant Governor, Aug. 17 1778 "Sir Andrew Suope Hammond, Lieut. Governor, July 31 1781 John Parr, Governor, Oct. 9 1782 Edward Fanning, Lieut. Governor, Sept. 23 1783 Richard Bulkley, Senior Councillor, Nov. 25 1791 John Wentworth, Lieut. Governor, May 14 1 792 Sir George Prevost, Lieut. Governor, April 18 1808 |[! ? 726 GENERAL CIVILI^JATION, ETC. Alexander Oroke, Senior Councillor, Dec. 17 1808 Sir George Prevost, Lieut. Governor, April 11 1809 Alexander Croke, Senior Councillor, Aug. 26 1811 Sir John Sherbrooke, Lieut. Governor, Oct. 16 1811 M«vj or- General Darrock, Commander-in-chief, Aug. 26 1814 Sir John Sherbrooke, Lieut. Governor, Sept. 21 1814 Mjyor-General Geo. Tracy Smith, Commander-in-chief, Juno 27 1816 Lieut. General Right Hon. Geo. Earl of Dalhousie, Lieut. Gov- ernor, Oct. 24 1816 Michael Wallace, Senior Councillor, Sept. 13 1818 Lord Dalhousie, resumes May 1 1819 Sir James Kempt, Lieut. Governor, June 2 1820 Michael Wallace, Senior Councillor, May 19 1824 Sir James Kempt, do do Aug. 22 1825 Michael Wallace, do do May 26 1825 Sir James Kempt, do do July 18 1828 Michael Wallace, do do Aug. 23 1828 Sir Peregrine Mailand do 1828 Sir Colin Campbell, Lieut. Governor 1834 Lord Falkland, Lieut. Governor 1840 Sir John Harvey, Lieut. Governor 1846 Colonel J. Bazalgette, Com 1852 Sir J. G. La Marchant 1852 Earl of Mulgrave *. 1858 During one hundred and fifty-five years, the province had forty- nine administrators of its government. SABLE ISLAND. This little island is a dependency of Nova Scotia. It is between 44 degrees and 43 degrees and 54 minutes north latitude, and between 60 degrees 12 minutes and 59 degrees 40 minutes west longitude. It is about eighty-seven geo- graphical miles from Cape Canseau, the nearest point in Nova Scotia to it. It is over twenty-five miles in length, and varies from one to two miles in breadth. It is merely a sand-bank thrown up by the sea and wind. Its highest hillocks are one hundred feet high. Coarse grass, cran- berry and whortleberry bushes cover the greater part of its surface. It is famous chiefly as the scene of numerous shipwrecks, for its position is in the usual track of ships sailing between Great Britain and Nova Scotia, and is sur- rounded by shoals, which aro very dangerous to navigators. A superintendent and a staff of men are now placed on the island, and maintained at the joint expense of Nova *(8^ GENERAX. CIVILIZATION, ETC. T27 Scotia and Great Britain, for the express purjiose of afford- ing assistance and protection to distressed seamen. Its cost to Nova Scotia for the year 1860 was $3,85J:.44. The island is visited statedly by a government vessel, for the two-fold purpose of conveying necessary supplies to the island, and bringing oft' those who have l)een thrown on shore. The island is searched all round after every storm. The commission takes possession of the wrecks and prop- erty saved, and sells them for the benefit of the owner, retaining a salvage for the benefit of the establishment. There is not a tree on the whole i'^a* i. It has one lake — Lake Wallace, eighteen miles long, and nearly a mile wide. Between this lake and the sea there is a narrow ridge or wall of sand, about two hundred yards in width. Some years ago a breach was made in this wall on the north side, by a violent storm, and an inlet was formed which con- verted this lake into a very commodious harbor for small coasters. A storm similar to that which opened it closed it again, blockading two small American shallops, which had taken shelter there. The house of the superintendent is on the north side of the lake, opposite its centre. Eng- hsli rabbits, and a species of ponies — "Sable Island po- nies" — are the only wild animals running at large, and subsisting on the products of the island. The rabbits are very numerous, and good for food. The ponies are small, but active and strong, and surprisingly hardy. Some hun- dred years ago this was a favorite resort of fishermen, for the purpose of killing morse and seal. They are now all but exterminated, especially the former. p' '»-/. 7*; 728 SITUATION, EXTKNT, ETC. PRINCE EDWARD ISLAND. CHAPTER I. SITUATION, EXTENT, GENERAL FEATURES, EARLY HIS- TORY, &c. Prince Edward Island is situated in that large recess in the Gulf of St. Lawrence wliich washes the shores of Cape Breton, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick. It is be- tween 45° 57' and 47 7' north latitude, and between 62° and 64° 26' west longitude. Its distance from New Brunswick at the nearest point is nine miles ; from Nova Scotia, fifteen miles ; from Cape Breton, thirty miles. On the epst, north, and west, it is bounded by the Gulf of Si. Lawrence, and on the south by the Northumberland Strait. ExTKNT. — Its extreme length is 130 miles ; its greatest breadtli, thirty-four miles. Its area is 2,133 square miles, or 1,365,400 acrtd. General Features. — In form, the island somewhat re- sem' !es a crescent, the concave side being toward the gnl* In general appearance it is flat and gently undu- 1f There are no mountains, and the several ranges o ills which lie across the country, nowhere rise to any CO derable height. he north-eastern and southern shores of the island are much indented by bays, harbors, and inlets ; on the west there is an almost unbroken shore, without bay or harbor. The principal Jay* are Holland, Grenville, Harris, Cove- head, Bedford, and St. Peter's, on the north; Egmont, Bedeque, Hillsborough, Pownal, and Orwell, on the south ; SITUATION, EXTENT, ETC. 729 EARLY niS- and Cardigan, Boughton, Howe, Rollo, and Colville on the east. The chief harbors are Charlottetown, Georgetown, Be- deque, Cascanipeo, Porthill, New London, and Murray 'liarbors. Tlie lakes are few and small. The ponds or lagosyis are •numerous. The principal rh'ers are the East, West, and North Rivers, meeting in the harbor of Charlottetown ; the Ellis, opening on Richmond J3ay ; the Morell, flowing into St. Peter's Bay ; and the Cardigan, Brudnell, and Montague, flowing into Cardigan Bay. The principal capes are North Point, Kildare Cape, Cape Tryon, Cape Turner, Eaet Point, Colville Point, Terras Point, Cape Bear, Point Prim, Cape Traverse, In- dian Point, Cape Egmont, and West Point. In Richmond Bay there are two isla/nds^ Lennox and Bunbury ; in Cardigan Bay are Panmure and Boughton ; in Hillsborough Bay are St. Peter's and Governor s Islands. Early History. — In all probability this island was discovered in the year 1497, after the discovery of New- foundland. Good authorities differ in opinion as to the exact date of its discovery, no details of Cabot's first voyage having been preserved. It was nearly two centu ries after its discovery before any attempt was made to colonize it. The Abenaki and Micmao Indians were its original inhabitants. It is mentioned, and accurately described, as to situa- tion and extent, by Champlain, the founder of Quebec, under the name St. John. It retained this name till the year 1800. It was included by the French in that exten- sive territory called New France. In 1663, it was granted to Sieur Doublet, a captain in the French navy, for fish- ing purposes. It was not, however, till early in the eigh- teenth century, that this island began to be the permanent home of Europeans. A few families from Acadia, with occasional settlers from Cape Breton, were its first settlers. iH^li!ii£m ■ mrrths.^ ■'*'**' •11 67»f k' ' IS', if -•1, -t 1^ J ^ I 730 SITUATION, EXTENT, ETC. In 1728, tlie European settlers were only sixty families. These sixty families were chiefly Acadians, who had re- moved from Nova Scotia after the Treaty of Utrecht. In 1752, the whole population of the .'sland was esti- mated at 1,35J:. The sections of the island at that time most thickly settled, were the lands on both sides of Point Prim, the lands about St. Peter's Bay, Savage Harbor, Charlottetov n Harbor, and Hillsborough Bay. The expulsion of the Acadians from No^a Scotia wa8 the means of more than doubling the population of the island. When it became a British possession, in 1758, the inhabitants numbered 4,100. By the treaty of Fontaine bleau, in 1763, this island was finally ceded to Great Britain. It was then placed under the government ot Nova Scotia. In 1764, in common with the other British American territories, the Britisli government ordered tlip survey of the island. This survey was begun in the spring of 1764, and completed in 1766. After the completion of the survey, no doubt remained as to the superior quality of the land of this island for agricultural purposes. Yari- ous plans for its settlement were proposed. Lord Egniont proposed that it should be settled on a feudal plan ; that he himself should preside as lord paramount, and that a number of baronies should be held from him, — v.ach baron to erect a stronghold, and Avith their under-tenants and men-at-arms to jjerform suit and service, after the cus- tom of the ancient feudal tenures of Europe.* This plan was rejected as impracticable. The plan adopted was far from satisfactory in its results. It was to the following etfect : — ^The island was divided into a given number of townships, or lots — sixty-seven. These townships, or lots, or parts of them, with certain reservations, were to be granted to parties having claims upon the government, upon certain conditions of settlement, and the payment of quit-rents. Lot sixty-six, about 6,000 acres, Avas reserved for the crovm. Lots forty and fifty-nine had already been * Moutgoiuerj Murtio. SITUATION, EXTENT, ETC. T31 promised to parties who had made improvements on them. Sixt^'^-four townships, or lots, remained to be disposed of. There were more applicants than lots. They vvere disposed of by means of the ballot-box. "When an individual was to receive a whole lot, his name alone appeared on the slip of paper ; in other cases two, and sometimes three naines were inscribed on one paper, as sharers in one lot. Upwards of one hundred individuals participated in these grants."* These grants were made in 1767. A town-lot and royalty were reserved in each county ; while each township was to furnish a glebe-lot of one hundred acres for a minister of the Gospel, and a lot of thirty acres for a school-master. The quit-rents were of three rates, six shillings, four shillings, and two shillings, annually, per hundred acres. The grantees were to settle on each lot a settler for every 200 acres, within ten years from the date of the grant. The settlers were to be Protestants, from the parts of Europe not belonging to Great Britain, or persons that had resided in America for two years prior to the date of the grant. Emigration from the mother country was then discouraged, from the prevailing notion that it would de- populate the country. At the request of the majority of the grantees, the island was separated from the province of Nova Scotia, and obtained a separate government, 1770. Its first governor as a separate colony was "Walter Patterson, Esq. When ten years had elapsed, there was b;'t very little done toward fulfilling the conditions on which the land was granted to the several proprietors. No atteini)t had been made to settle forty-eight of the sixty-seven lots, or townships, into which the island was divided. The pro- prietors of only ten lots had shown any conscicntioiis zeal in fulfilling the conditions of their grants Sir James Montgomery deserves to be named first among those who * Sutherland. Geography UTid Natural and Civil History of the Inland; an oxcellont work. ifJ^^nSNW.&i*- 'tf'*-' i, ! il .1 ^'f:1Hf; •jmi \ I \ Am 'i' ; 'ill 'if ^'' V !!!> r 732 SITUATION, EXTENT, ETC. had done their duty in this matter. The grand object of the majority of the proprietors was, how to make the greatest gain with the least troubl'i and expense. Tliis land question has been the standing grievance of the island for the last ninety yeai*s. In 1781, nine whole and five half townships were sold for the payment of quit-rents. In 1797, it was found upon investigation, under direction of the provincial parliament, that twenty-three lots, embracing 458,580 acres, had not a single family settled on them ; twelve other lots, containing 243,000 acres, had only thirty-six families ; six other lots, containing 120,000 acres, had only forty-eight families. The whole population at this time was estimated at 4,500. The knowledge of these facts led to an agitation for the escheat of the lands of those proprietors who made no effort to fulfil the conditions of their grants. In tUe year 1798, a bill passed the provincial legislature, changing the name of the island from St. John to PkinijK EnwARD. Inconvenience had arisen from the island hav- ing the same name with the capitals of two neighboring provinces. The people of the island were anxious to mark their gratitude to Prince Edward, Duke of Kent, the father of Her Majesty Queen Victoria, for kindness ex- tended to them; they therefore resolved to call their country by his name, the change to take effect from the cijmmencement of 1800. At this period the population of the island was not over 5,000. At the beginning of the present century the arrears of quit-runt amounted to .£59,102 sterling. A very liberal arrangement was made by the government for the pay- ment of tiieso arrears. The lots were divided into ,/jm dai^Hcs. The first, thopc which had the full number of settlers, were to pay only four years' quit-rent, for the amount of arrears from 1709 to 1801. The second class, those having only half the required number of settlors, were to pay five years' quit-rent. The third class, those having less than a half and more than a fourth of the re mtm SITUATION, KXTENT, ETC. 733 quired population, were to pay nine years' quit-rent*. Tlie fourth class, those which had less than a fourth of the required number of settlers, were to pay twelve years' rent. The fifth class embraced those lots or townships that were wholly unsettled ; fifteen years' quit-rent was required in their case in lieu of all arrears. This was less than half the amount owed by this class. This arrange- ment had a very beneficial eii'ect on the prosperity of tiie island. Rapid progress in population and social comfort followed. • There were some proprietors who did not avail them- selves of this commutation ; it became necessary, therefore, to proceed against them for the recovery of the quit-rents due from them. In 1804, judgments were obtained against ten townships, five half-townships, and one-third of a township. It seems, however, that the nonpaying proprie- tors had sufiicient influence with the home government to prevent the act under which their lands were seized from receiving the royal assent. Under the administration of Governor Smith, lots 15 and 55 were escheated. He was prevented from further progress with that work by ordei-a from the king. TIi6 old conditions for settling the island having been cancelled, as far as they required the immigrants to oe Protestants from the parts of Europe not belonging to Great Britain, and the quit-rents having been made light- er, a very healthy impetus was given to the prosperity of the island. In 1803, the Earl of Selkirk settled about 800 High landers on his lands, who soon, by dint of industry, became comfortable and prosperous farmers. In subsequent years immigrants continued to arrive from Scotland, Ireland, and England ; so that in the year 1832, the population in- creased to 32,292. From that time onwards, the history of this little colony has been that of true progress, in a.^ that tends to make a country truly great. ii 4 «-c'--- m NATURAL RESOURCES, CLIMATE, ETO. CHAPTER II. NATURAL RESOURCES, CLIMATE, tuc. .■-Ml This island differs from the neighboring provinces, in respect of natural resources, in having no mines or min- erals. Its chief natural resources may be comprised under these three : the forest, the soil, the sea. The Forest. — ^The whole island was at one time covered with a magnificent growth of /orest trees; birch, beech, maple, clni, ash, pine, spruce, hemlock, fir, juniper, cedar, willow, and poplar, are the chief varieties. There are hardly any barrens in this island ; even where destructive fires, or the constant encroachments of lumbermen, de- stroyed the original forest, a new growth of trees spring up with wonderful rapidity, and become fit for fuel or fence-poles. At one time a very extensive lumber trade was carried on in several districts of the island. Ship- building is still carried on to a considerable extent. TiiK Soil. — There is no portion of the lower provinces where agriculture can be prosecuted with better prospects of a good return than in this island. The soil is sti'ong and rich to an uncommonly uniform degree. Even the swamps, with which we meet occasionally, are hardly an exception to this statement, for when drained and limed, they make good hay land. The peat bogs, which, accord- ing to Dr. Gesner, are of excellent quality, will one day aft'ord good fuel. They afford also good material for com- posted manure. The most extensive of these is on the south side of Cascampee harbor. Such is the excellence of the soil, that good crops are produced immediately on its being redeemed from the forest, and for a long time the yield is good, though it remain entirely unmanured, it' any attention is given to the rotation of crops. The soil seems equally adapted t> the growth of wheat, oats, and potatoes. The facilities for making manure are very great. The MHM NATURAL RESOURCES, CLIMATE, ETC. 735 bogs, to which reference lias been already made, supply- one source. The rivers — rather, arms of the sea — creeks, and inlets, which almost everywhere indent the land, have deposited vast stores of sea-manure, which, when spread over the exhausted soil, has the most beneficial effect in fertilizing it. The quadrupeds and birds of this island are, with few exceptions, of the same kind with those of i^ova Scotia and New Brunswick. The Sea. — It is enough to say of the waters of Prince Edward Island, that they are not one whit behind those of Nova Scotia m the abundance and excellence of their fish. The rivers abound with excellent trout, eels, floun- ders, mackerel, oysters, lobsters, and salmon ; and the coast with cod and herring. The oysters of this island are very superior, and l.>.rge quantities of them are export- ed annually. The halibit- and sturgeons that are caught on the coast, are usually very large. In former times the walrus was wont to frequent the shores in large numbers, and was a source of considerable profit. The harbor seals and harp seals float on the ice toward the north shore in large numbers. Wild geese, wild pigeons, wild ducks, and brant are also very plentiful in their seasons. Climate. — This island, being situated in the centre of the temperate zone, has a climate that is neither extremely cold nor hot. The variations from the coldest day in winter to the hottest day in summer are however very considerable. On rare occasions, under a keen northwest wind the mercury will be found falling as low as 23 degrees below zero ; and on a calm day in July or August, it will rise as high as 90 degrees in the shade. In some sections of Nova Scotia and New Brunswick it rises higher in summer and fulls lower in winter than it ever does in this island. The moan tem- perature of the year is 40 degrees. The number of days of falling weather in a year ranges from 120 to 140 days. The climate of this island is conducive to health and longev- ity in a high degree. The atmosphere is pure, and re- markably free from fogs. The water is good and very 111 1(1 [i \ 'ifmff^^'ymit^ r= •i : W iim 736 INDUSTEIAL RESOURCES. abundant. Many of the prevailing fevers and diseases of the North Ainericf i continent are almost unknown in this island. Healthy and vigorous old age is rather the rule than the exception here. CHAPTEE III. INDUSTRIAL RESOURCES. Agricultural. — Agriculture overshadows every othei department of industry in this island. "When in the posses- sion of the French, large quantities of grain were supplied from this island to their fortresses at Louisburg and Quebec. They called it even then the granary of North America. Individual farmers were then wont to export 1,'200 bushels of grain annually. The soil and the climate are equally favorable to the pursuit of agriculture. Wheat, oats, barley, and : ye, of excellent quality, and at a highly remunerative rate per acre, are raised. The potatoes of Prince Edward Island are famous for their excellence, not only in the British provinces but also in the United States ; beans and peas, and all sorts of esculents and culinary vegetables, grow to perfection, and yield large returns. Apples, plums, cherries, currants, &c., grow well, and with due attention yield ample returns. Excellent si^echnens of live-stock are to be met with in every section of the island. Some of the hardiest and swiftest horses in the lower provinces are raised in Prince Edward Island. The following figures will indicate the progress made in this department of in- dustry during the last three-quarters of a century. In 1825 there were raised on this island 766 bushels of wheat ; 10,717 bush, oats, and 47,220 bush, potatoes. In 184:1 there was raised of wheat, 160,028 bush. ; of barley, 83,299 ; of oats, 611,824: ; of potatoes, 2,250. 114 bush. Num- ber of horses, 9,861 ; of neat cattle, 41,915 ; sheep, 73,050 ; hogs, 35,521. In 1860 (as shown by the census of 1861) INDUSTRIAL EK80URCE8. 737 there was raised of wheat, 346,125 bush.; of barley, 223,195 ; oats, 2,218,578; buckwheat, 50,127; potatoes, 2,972,335 ; turnips; 3-18,781:; hay, 31,100 tons ; horses, 18,705; neat cattle, 60,015 ; sheep, 107,242 ; hogs, 71,535. In 1841 there were 141,560 acres of land under cultiva- tion. In 1848 there were 215,389 acres cultivated. The number has largely increased since that date. The Fishing industry of this island is not what it might have been, if the skill, energy, and enterprise of the inhabit- ants had been a little more directed into that channel. There is however a decided progress, as shown by recent statistics. The late census (1861) gives as the product of the fisheries during the preceding year: herrings and gaspereaux, 22,416 barrels; mackerel, 7,163 bari'els; codfish, 39,776 quintals ; fish oil, 17,608 gallons. There were 89 fishing establish- ments, 1,239 boats, and 2,318 persons employed in the fishery. Ship-Building is not carried on to the same extent that it was some years ago ; still, a good many vessels are built an- nually, in proportion to the population. In 1846, 82 v t'illV^!Mmm^w,!l^, .<;■'■' m'\ NEWFOUNDLAOT). CHAPTER I. SITUATION, DISCOVERT, AND EARLY HISTORY. Situation and Extent. — Jfewfoundland is an island in th. form of an irrep;ular triangle, situate on the east side of the Gulf of St. Lawrence, and lying between the paral- lels of 46° 40' and 51° 39' north latitude, and the meridians of 52° 44' and 59° 31' west longitude. On the eastern shore it is bounded by the Atlantic ; on the north and northeast by the Strait of Bellisle — fifty miles long by twelve wide ; on the northwest by the Gulf of St. Law- rence ; on the south and southwest by the Atlantic. Ita extreme length, from Cape Race to Grignet Bay, is 420 miles; extreme breadth, from Cape Ray to Cape Bonavis<^a, 300 miles. Its circuit is estimated at 1,000 miles; its area, 38,000 square miles. It is nearer to Europe than any part of the American continent ; the distance from St. John's, in Newfoundland, to Yalenti, in the west of Ireland, being 1,656 miles. Discovery, Settlement, &c. — ^It is said that in the year 1001, A. D., Biorn, a sea-king of Iceland, took possession of this island, and settled near Harbor Grace. Both. Rob- ertson and Pinkerton are of opinion that its colonization was at least attempted by the Norwegians, in the eleventh and twelfth centuries, tfohn Cabot, the Venetian, under a commission for discovery from Henry YII. of England, on the 24th of June, 1497, observed a headland of this island, and taking it for a lucky omen, called it Bonavista, which is its name till the presen;, day. The island was then inhabited xyj a savage race of Indians, with whom it mmm aiiriiT - li. ^ SITUATION, DISCOVERY, &C. 745 •was very difficult to establish any amicable relations. They suffered greatly, in consequence, at the hands of the many adventurers who resorted thither. It is supposed that the last remnant of them emigrated to Labrador. It is some years since one of them has been seen on the island. A colony of Micmacs from Nova Scotia helped to drive them off. They have left many traces of their labors and energy behind them : one of these is a fence, which exter.ds over thirty miles. Its object was to be of help to them in catching deer. It was built from water to water, with one gap, close to which the hunters posted themselves, and watched for their prey. The earliest attempt at colonizing this island by the English, was in 1536. " Master John Hore," a London merchant, " with divers other gentlemen," sailed thither in that year, but were reduced to great extremities, and were compelled to return to England in the winter, and would have perished had they not met with a French ship laden with provisions, which they seized and brought with them to England. In 1578, another fruitless attempt was made to settle a colony there, by Sir Humphrey Gilbert, the half-brother of Sir Walter Raleigh. The island having now become a common resort for fishermen and traders of all nations, even pirates having made it a place of rendezvous witli impunity, Sir Humphrey Gilbct again, in 1583, embarked with 200 people, in several ships, landed at Bay St. John's, and took possession of it in the name of Queen Elizabeth of England, in the presence of the crews of thirty-six fishing vessels of various nations. Sir Ilum- plu-ey Gilbert was lost on his way home to Eni_'-^nd the succeeding winter, his little ship, the Little Squirrel, hov- ing foundered in a terrific gale near the Azores. Of nil the armament that went out with him, the Golden IIIikcI alone reached England, and she in the most dilapidated condition. Sir Bernard Diake made a further attempt a few years later, but without much success. The next ii' j'i '■' 746 SITUATION, niSCOVEUY, &C. attempt was made in 1610, under a patent granted by Jaipes I., to Lord Bacon and others, who established the first permanent colony on the Island at Conception Bay. In 1617, a Welsh settlement was established on the south part of the island, called Cambriol (now Little Britain), under the .direction of Captain Whitbourne. In 1623, Sir George Calvert — who afterward, as Lord Baltimore, settled Maryland — formed an important and prosperous settlomert ^u Forryland, where he remained about twenty years. A few years later, Lord Falkland (Cary) sent a small colony of Irishmen there. Aboui the year 1646 there were sixteen settlements planted on various parts of the coast. Sir David Kirk brought a number of settlers to the inland in 1054. There werti 350 British families there about this date. Tlie French liad a colony of some strength at Plac^ntia. For the next eighty years the colony suffered greatly for the want of regular govern- ment, which was mainly caused by the selfish cruelty and mistaken policy of the " Lords of Trades and Planta- tions," who iinagiiied th^'t a w^dl regelated o;overnment would be injurious to their interests there. They even moved the Lritif'h government, through tiieir misrepresen- tations and influi.nce, to 8"nd Sir Joh.i Berry out with orders for the doportaticn of the settlers, the destruction of their houses, and the wholesale demolition of a colony wliich had been planted and reared at a heavy cost of blood and treasure to the nation. Sir ;Tohn Berry was a mun of humane character, and while with his left hand he reluctantly and tardily can led out his orders, with his ri(/ht hand he pleaded successfully for the colonists. In 1696 all the Englisli settlements of Newfoundhnd> except Bonav'sta and Carbonear, were seized by the Frcr ch, who always set a high value on this island on account of its fisheries. It was the scene of much conflict betv^een Great Britain and Francp, for many subsequent years. The Treaties of Utrecht, 1715 ; of Paris, 1763 ; of Ver- mmma TOPOGRAPHY, NATURAL RESOURCES, &0. Y47 sallies, 1783 ; and of Paris, 1814 and 1815, all recognize this island as a British possession. It was in the year 1729 that Captain Osborne was ap- pointed the first civil governor of this colony. He was empowered to appoint justices of the peace. Courts of justice were appointed in 1789. A f(»w years later a chief-justice was appohited, and surrogate courts in vari- ous parts of the island. John Reaves, Esq., was the first chief-justice of this colony. In 1824: the island was divided into tiiree districte, in each of which a court was annually to be held. CHAPTER II. TOPOGRAPHY, NATURAL RESOURCES, COiilMATE, ''■ B3, ^ :! llii'l^ .A>- 750 TOrOGKAPUY, NATURAL EESOUKCES, ETC. country ; but the large growth of timber in the interior and toward the west indicates a rich soil, and proves that there is room for successful agricultural enterprise in New- foundland. The land close by thp sea-shore aifords no criterion by which to estimate the fertility of the inland districts. Potatoes yield well and are of excellent quality. Green crops thrive well in many districts. Wheat has been known to yield fifty bushels per acre. Apples, plums, and cherries have been raised wath success. Red, black, and white currants ; gooseberries, strawberries, and raspberries of very good quality are grown. The season for the growth and ripening of the fruits of the earth is brief, but fervent. Climate. — ^The climate, though severe, is not unhealthy. The rate of mortality, according to the population, is lower than in any other country in America. Old age is usually attended here with an uncommon degree of bodily vigor and mental activity. In 1829, Marten Galen, of Placentia Bay, was over one hundred years of age, lived in excellent health, and in company with his brother, caught that year nine quintals of fish. Seventy years previous to that date he piloied Captain Cook into Placentia Bay. Mrs. Tait died in the same place 135 years old. About twenty-five years since a woman died at Torbay, near St. John's, aged 125 years ; shortly before her death she sent for a doctor to see what was the matter with her poor child, who was sick. The child was ninety years of age ! The winter lasts from the beginning of December till the middle of April, and some- times till the end of that month. Frost is less intense here than in Canada. January and February are the coldest months. The bitterest winds are from the north- west. The south-east wind is warm; the north-easterly winds are cold, both in summer and winter. The follow- ing table contains the results of meteorological observa- tions for the years 1858, 1859, 1860, taken by E. M. I. Delaney, Esq., C. E. -— ■^ INDUSTRIAL EE80UKCE8. 751 ro. the interior proves that irise ill New- 3 affords no f the inland ility. Green jat has been 5, plums, and d, black, and id raspberries 3r the growth t', but fervent, ot unhealthy, ition, is lower age is usually bodily vi gor was over one lealth, and in nine quintals Lte he piloted dt died in the ve years since ^ed 125 years ; )r to see what vas sick. The lasts from the pril, and some- is less intense )ruary are the rom the north- north-easterly . The follow- ogical observa- en by E. M. I. 1858. M»?- height of harometer, oorrected to b«» level Min. do. do, Mean do. da Max. height thermometer Min. do. do Moan temperature for year (inantlty <>f rain, incliidtng melted snow Prevalli'n!; winds Rain fell on 98 days ; fog prevailed 66 days. 1859. Max. height of barometer, corroctod to sea level Min. do. do. Mean do. do. Max. height of thermometer Min. do. do Mean temperature for year Quantity of rain. Including melted snow Prevailing winds Kuin fell on 110 days; snow on 54; fog, 88; thnnder and lightning on 6. 1860. Max. height of barometer, corrected to cea level Min. do. do. Mean do. do. Max. height of thermometer. Min. do. do Mean temperature for year Quantity of rain and melted snow Prevailing winds liain fell on 117 days: snow on 48; fog, 109; thunder and lightniu; on 5. 80.88 Inches... 28.70 " . . , 29.61 " . . . 84" 2" 41" 50.860 Inches.. N. W Sn.56 Inches 28. T2 " .... 29.79 « .... 96- 8" 44" 64.220' inches! '. '. NNW. & 88 W, 80.86 Inches.. .. 29.,'i6 " .... 29.60 " .... 80- lU" 41" 82.040 inches... NW. &8SW.. January 16. March 26. Auu'URt 12. February 11, the year. January 26. Doccnibor 5. Jnly 13. March 8. the year. February 29. February 11. Aug. 11 & 15. February 8. the year. Grand Banks. — ^These are the most famous submarine elevation on the face of the globe. In the whole of their extent they occupy six degrees of longitude, and nearly ten degrees of latitude, being over 600 miles in length, and 200 miles in breadth, with soundings varying from twenty-five to 150 fathoms. The mean depth is estimated at forty fathoms. They swarm with cod and other I'iads of fish. CHAPTER III. INDUSTRIAL RESOURCES. Agriculture. — ^This important branch of industry was for centuries not only systematically discours^ged, but actu- ally prohibited by law in Newfoundland. The fii*st im- portant relaxation of the old system regarding the land was ¥■ ■' mhi \i\ 752 INDUSTRIAL BE80UBCE8. made by Governor Sir Richard Keats, in 1815. He was authorized to make small grants of land, limited from two to four acres. In 1825 a further advance was made ; un- der the government of Sir Thomas Cochrane grants of from 250 to 500 acres were made to enterprising settlers ; roads were made at the public expense, and agriculture encouraged. From the returns for 1836, we give the following items : 24,117 acres of land in possession. ll,062i " in cultivation; estimated value, $606,250 1,559 horses 5,832 neat cattle 6,923 sheep . 4,000 goats . 3,155 hogs 77,950 145,800 44,615 20,000 23,660 $918,275 The returns for the same year give 1,168,127 bushels of potatoes, 10,310 bushels of grain, and 6,975 tons of hay. The returns for 1845 give the following figures, which show a healthy progress : 83,435^ acres of land in possession. 29,656^ " under cultivation, valued at $2,990,625 2,409 horses . 8,135 neat cattle 5,750 sheep . 5,791 goats . '^,077 hogs . 120,450 203,375 23,750 28,955 39,075 $3,406,230 The same returns give 853,352^ bushels of potatoes; 11,695 bushels of grain ; 11,013 tons of hay and fodder. In 1857, the latest Census taken, the whole improved land of the Island, including dyke or marsh land, intervale, and upland, was 49,61 6 1 acres. Tons of hay cut, 16,250J ; bushels of oats raised, 9,438 ; bushels of wheat and barley, l,932f ; bushels of potatoes raised, 571,480; but^ els of turnips, 12,832 ; bushels of othor roots, 3,502 ; bushels of clover and timothy seed, 731 J Number of neat cattle, INDUSTRIAL RESOURCES. 753 12,962; milch cows, 6,924; horses, 3,509; sheep, 10,737; Bwiue and goats, 17,551. Butter made, 134,908 pounds ; cheese, 158 pounds. Mills and Factories. — ^There were in the Island, in 1857, fourteen-saw mills, valued at $28,500, and employ- ing fifty-four men ; and three grist-mills, valued at $5,000. worked by three men. There was one iron foundry, em- ploying seven men ; three breweries, employing thirteen hands. The oil factories and cod-liver oil manufactories are numerous ; but the returns of them are incomplete. In one electoral division aloile there are eight cod-liver oil manufiictories, and one common oil factory. *The shoes and boots manufactured the year preceding the census, are valued at $43,455 ; chairs and cabinet wares, $120 ; car- riages-, $490 ; otlier wooden wares, $31,220 ; lime manu- factured, 16,500 bushels, valued at $6,000. Snip-BuiLDiNG. — ^This department of industry has never been prosecuted to a very large extent in this colony. The native timber does not furnish materials for ships of the first class. The returns for 1857, give eighty-eight vessels as the number built, the tonnage of which was 2,427, which shows that they were vessels of very moderate size. ISTum- ber of boats built during the same year was 630 ; number of vessels owned in the island was 212 — tonnage, 6,229. Fishing Industry. — This is by far the most important department of industry in Newfoundland. The cod and seal fisheries rank first in importance. The fishing season opens in May, when herring are caught chiefly for bait. The cod fishing begins in the month of June, and continues till the end of September, and sometimes till the middle of October. It is carried on in large boats on the great banks, and in boats and shallops near the shore. The first is termed the bank fish- ery, the other the shore fishery. The bank fisheries are prosecuted chiefly by the, French and Amrricans, while the British direct their chief energies to aore fisherie?. The cod is caught on hooks baited with rring, mackerel, SMAGE EVALUATION TEST lARGET (MT-3) A / Js^ ///// U.x A 1.0 I.I 1.25 IM M 1.8 U 111 1.6 yw & /a ^l M o / /A Photographic Sciences Corporation 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, NY. 14580 (7)6) 872-4503 ^0 4 ^* i ^ .^fffm^fff^f^r-r^'ff^t^W:^ J%^-H\h f t 1 h 754: INDUSTKIAL RESOURCES, capelin, clams, &c. They are very voracious, and bite with great rapidity. One man often catches 250 good fish in a day. They are carried on shore for caring, with as little delay as possible. When landed, the fish is thrown on. a stage, and by a division of labor between four per- sons — respectively termed cut-throat, header, splitter, and Salter — they are rid of heads, opened, cleaned, and piled in salt to cure, at the rate of several hundreds per hour. When completely cured, the codfish are asserted into four difierent kinds, known as merchantable, Madeira, West India, and dun or broken fish. The first is prime fish ; the second is nearly as good ; the third is intended for the negroes; the fourth, which is incapable of keeping, is used at home. The tongues and bladders are cut ofi* from the refuse by the old msn, women, and children, and pickled in kegs. The livers are exposed to the sun in vats, until the oil drains oif ; the oil is then barrelled ; it is afterward boiled to extract the inferior quality. These several pro- ducts of this branch of industry are commonly sold by the fishermen to the wholesale merchants for goods or money. During the winter months many of the fishermen are en- gaged in hunting for game, or trapping for fur. Others are occupied in making boats, oars, staves, hoops, &c. In 1849, there were exported from Newfoundland 1,175,167 quintals of dried fish, valued at $2,825,895 ; in 1857, 1,335,649 quintals of fish were cured, the value of which would be over three millions of dollars. Next in importance to the cod, is the seal fishery. Tiie season for this fisliing commences in March. During win- ter, vessels of from eighty to one hundred and fifty tons are fitted out, and, manned with crews of from fifteen to forty men, set out for the seal regions early in Marcli. The men generally pay for their own provisions, and receive their wa- ges in such a proportion of the seal-skins caught, as may be agreed upon between themselves and the owners of the vessel. They have usually to cut a channel for themselves out of their harbor ; then they push their way to the fields =^ INDUSTRIAL RESOURCES. 755 of ice and bergs that float down from the Aictic ocean, and are often exposed to terrible dangers. The seals arc found in groups on the ice, sunning themselves, or asleep. These places are called " seal meadowsP When a " seal meadow" is reached, the men, armed with spiked clubs, beset them on every side, and with a knock on tlie head dispatch them with great rapidity. If not instantly killed, they utter the most piteous moans, like the cry of children. They are skinned at once and on the spot; and the skins, pelts, and scalps, with the inner coat of blubber on them, are then carried into the vessel, and strewed upon the deck until they have become sufficiently dry to be stowed below. As many as 800, and sometimes 1,000, liave been taken by a vessel in one day. The seals are o^foiir hinds : the bay seal, found on the coast ; the hooded seal, which lias a hood that it can draw over its head; the square flipper; and the harp seal, the last named being the most valuable. In 18'15 there went out, from the port of St. John alone, to the seal flsliery, 126 vessels, of 11,863 tons, and manned by 3,895 men. they took 302,363 seals. In 1852, the seal fishery of the Island employed 367 vessels, of 35,760 tons, manned by 13,000 men, and took 550,000 seals. During the same year, 7,333 tons, 220 gallons of seal oil, valued at $1,188,500 ; 387 tons, 237 gallons of blubber and dregs ; and 534,378 seal-skins, were exported, the whole being valued at $2,085,100. The census of 1857 ffives thenumber of vessels enn-aE'ed in the seal fishery at 802, tonnage 57,898J, men on board, 14,412. Number of seals taken, 428,143. Herrings are plentiful, but until recently have not en- tered much into the fishing industry of the colony. In 1857 there were 157,354 barrels of herring cured. The same remark applies to the salmon fishing. It has secured more attention of late years. In 1857, 2,940 tierces of salmon were cured, besides 913 fresh salmon that were disposed of in St. John's. The following is the nnm- 48 n r,, mffff-m-f^^l^^ M i: 11 l! I ' ¥4 1 756 POPULATION, ETC. ber of boats that were engaged in the shore fishery in 1857 ; large boats, from four to fifteen quintals, 10,497 ; large boats, from fifteen to thirty quintals, 797; large boats, from thirty quintals and upward, 1,244, — total, 12,538. Commerce. — Fish is the great staple of trade and com- merce in Newfoundland. The following statement of the imports and exports of the Island for a series of years, will indicate at once the amount of its commerce, and its stationary character. In 1829 the imports of the colony were valued at $4,096,995 ; the exports at $3,451,545. Imports. Er.ports, 1845 $4,00G,650 $4,697,190 1846 4,011,435 3,795,515 1847 4,217,045 4,032,825 1848 3,848.140 4,187,905 1849 3,700,912 4,207,521 1850 4,163,116 4,683,676 1851 4,609,291 4,276,876 1852 3,857,468 4,:}06,376 1856 6,356,830 6,693,985 1857 7,067,160 8,255,855 1858 5,864,310 6,594,180 1859 6,620,680 6,785,565 For 1860, the imports were valued at $6,270,640 ; the exports at $6,358,560. During the last 260 years, this Island has furnished fish and oil to the value of very nearly $650,000,000. CHAPTER IV- POPULATION, CIVIL AND RELIGIOUS INSTITUTIONS, kc Population. — In 1785, the population of the Island was estimated at 10,244; in 1806, it was 26,505; in 1825, 45,759 J in 1830, 73,705 ; in 1845, 96,295 ; in 1851, it was -^-^-M. POPULATIO^i, ETC. 757 rade and com- STITUTIONS, 4c. 101,600 ; and by the census of 1857, it was 122,638. The last census shows that 107,399 of the population were bom in Newfoundland; 3,516 born in England ; 7,383 in Ire- land ; 390 in Scotland ; 475 in the British colonies ; and the balance in foreign countries. In 1857, the religious census is stated as follows : — Church of England, 44,285 ; Eornan Catholics, 56,895 ; Wesleyans, 20,229 ; Kirk of Scotland, 302 ; Free Kirk, 536 ; Congregationalists, 347 ; Baptists and other denom- inations, 44. The places of worship are : Church of England, 75 ; Church of Rome, 63 ; "Wesleyans, 37 ; Kirk of Scotland, 1 ; Free Kirk, 2 ; Congregationalist, 1. Under the head of trades and professions, we have the following statement! — Clergymen, or ministers, 77 ; doc- tors and lawyers, 71; farmers. 1,697; mechanics, 1,973; merchants and traders, 694 ; persons engaged in catching and curing fish, 39,805 ; able-bodied seamen and fisher- men, 20,887 ; persons engaged in lumbering, 334. Buildings. — ^Tlie number of inhabited houses in the Island in 1857 was 18,364. These were inhabited by 20,187 families. Tlie number of uninhabited houses was 903 ; of houses then in process of building, 1,026 ; of storet- barns, and out-houses, 9,940 ; of fishing-rooms in actual use, 6,006. Schools. — Denominational schools prevail more in Newfoundland than in any of the lower provinces. De- nominational conflicts of a fierce and pernicious descrip- tion prevail there also. There are Episcopalian schoolc, Poman Catholic schools, and Protestant dissenters' schools. In 1836, there were but 79 schools in the colony. In 1845, there were 209 schools, with an attendance of 10,266 pupils. In 1857, there 280 schools, and the number of pupils in attendance was 14,136. The sum voted by the legislature for education, in 1859, was $55,968. There is a General Protestant Board of Education and a Roman Catholic Board. There are three academies in St. John's ; ,^r-.--f'f*f^-'^»'?^|i_ 'Tfi 758 POPULATION, ETC. one under tlie direction of the Chiircli of Eni»;land, Church of Rome, and the Wesleyan Churcli, respectively. There is a high school in connection with St. Andrew's Preshyte- rian Church. Tiiere is a grammar scKool of a superior character in Harbor Grace. Tliere are ten commercial schools of a superior character. Legi8la.tive. — ^The first legislature of Newfoundland met in the year 1832. The elective franchise was confer- red, in 1832, on the whole male population over twenty- one years of age, and occupying dwelling-houses, either as owners, or tenants for one year. The legislature consists of the governor in council and two houses of Parlianieut ; the upper house, called the Legislauve Council ; the lower, the House of Assembly. The executive council consists at present of five members ; the legislative council of twelve, and the house of assembly of thirty members. Judicial. — There is the Supreme Court, with a chief- justice and two assistant judges. The spring term of the court begins on the 20th of May ; the autumn term on the 20th of November. There is a central circuit court, the spring term of which opens in April, and the autumn term in October. There is a court of vice-admiralty, of which the chief justice for the time being is judge. There are also courts of the justices of tlie peace, BoAKD OF Works. — This board has the manaacement and superintendence of the public buildings and public works of the colony. Government House, the Colonial Buildings, Court Houses, Customs Houses, Hospital, Lunatic Asylum, and all other public buildings belonging to the Island are under its control. It has also the supervision of all light- houses, buoys, beacons, roads, highways, bridges, &c., &c. The various local boards act under the direction of the central board. Post Office Department. — There is a postmaster-gen- eral in St. John's. There are sixteen post masters and mistresses, and fourteen way-office keepers, in the various other districts of the Island. ^'^ ^ POPULATION, ETC. 759 with a chief- Tlie only route on which there is a daily mail is between St. John's and Portugal Cove. On two or three routes there is a tri-weekly mail, by wagon. About four more routes are run weekly, by boat or messenger; the remainder are run fortnightly in summer and monthly during winter. Eleotkic Teleouaphs. — ^I'here are five hundred and fifty miles of over-land telegraph in Newfoundland. The sub- marine line from Aspy Bay, Cape Breton, to Cape Ray, Newfoundland, is seventy-eight miles. This submarine line was laid in 1856. There are fifteen stations and twenty- two employes. The tariff from St. John's to Port Hood, C. B., is three dollars for ten words, and for each additional word, twelve cents. The local tariff is twenty-five cents for ten words. The great Atlantic electric cable was laid on the 5th of August, 1858. Its termini were Yalentia Bay, Ireland, and Trinity Bay, Newfoundland. Banks, &c. — The Savings Bank is governed by three members of the Legislative Council, and five members of the House of Assembly. The bank is operted every Mon- day for depositors' business, and on every Wednesday for discount business. Three per cent, is allowed on all sums not less than $4. No sum exceeding $1:00 is received, ex- cept on condition that it shall not be withdrawn without two months' notice. As audited the 31st December, 1860, the assets and liabilities were as follows : — Assets . . . . ; $930,G33 Liabilities .^ 839,711 Surplus and assets $90,892 The Union Bank and Commercial Bank are both in a prosperous condition, and are found sufficient for the accom- modation of the community in this department. There are fire, life, and marine insurance companies, and agencies for British and foreign ones. There are also benevolent, charitable, and religious voluntary associa- tions. ii vs! 760 POPULATION, KTC. St. John's City, — ^Tliis is the capital of the Island. It is built mainly of wooden houses. It is built at the mouth of one of the best of harbors, with highlands sheltering it on either side. It is entered from the sea through a narrow passage only about six hundred feet wide, between two lofty cliffs, which are strongly fortified. The city is lighted by gas, and supplied with water from a pond on one of the adjoining hills. One irregular street of about one mile in length comprises the chief buildings of the city. The Colo- nial Building is built of granite ; the Government House is a handsome building, which cost nearly $1,000,000. The new Roman Catholic Cathedral is also a handsome edifice. The Miquelkts. — These are three little islands on the south coast, at the mouth of Fortune Bay, being the only remaining possessions of the French in these regions. They are called Miquelon^ Little Miquelon (or Langley), and St. Pierre. The Miquelets are connected by a sandy beach, which is sometimes passable by foot travellers, and at other times c'ut througii by storms. The French main- tain a small military force there, and it is the head-quar- ters of their Newfoundland fisheries. Of late years it has been assuming the dignity aud importance of a naval station. ^•'^Hl^Jv. Island. It 13 vt the mouth sheltering it ngli a narrow between two ity is lighted on one of the it one mile in ty. TheColo- nent House is )00,000. The dsome edifice. slands on the )eing the only these regions. (or Langley), ed b}'' a sandy travellers, and French niaiu- ;he head-quar- ite years it has ice of a naval I N D E I. Abokioimeb of New Brnnawlck, 6til-626. Acadia College in Nova Scotia, 708. " Acadia" iron mine of Nova Scotia, 864. Acadia, New Brunswick first settled under the name of, 542. Acton copper mines, 825-828. Addinstoii colonization road, 306. Aericultural Association of Upper Canada, nistory of; 44-48 ; tables of the exhibitions of, 46-4T. Agricultural capabilities of New Bruns- wick, 564. Agricultural productions of Canada, 62-64; of Lower Canada, 35, 86; of Upper Can- ada, 61, 62; of New JJrunswick, 560, 62T- 668; of Nova Scotiii, 687; of Prince Kd- ward Island, 736; of Newfoundland, 762. Agricultural productiveness, comparative, of Nova Scotia, 635. Agricultural products exported from Can- ada, 291. Agricultural School at St. Anne, in Lower Canada, 89. Agricultural societies in Lower Canada, 87-89. Agricultural societies ' " Upper Canada, 89-50. Agriculture in Canada, history of, 82-64; en- couragement of, by government, 42. Agriculture in New Brunswick, 627-653. Agriculture in Newfoundland, 749, 751-753. Agriculture in Nova Scotia, 6S4-6S8. Agriculture in Prince Kdward Island JTSfB. Ague and fever unknown In New Bruns- wick, 566. " Albert"' coal of New Brunswick, remark- able properties of, 861. Albert county. New Brunswick, description of, 636. Albertite, where found In New Brunswick, 691. Albion coal mines of Nova Scotia, 350. Alewlfe fishery on the St John Itiver, 680; in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, 5S8. Alluvial soils of Nova Sootio, 671. Alluvium, two kinds of In New Bruns- wick, 689. American clergy In Canada, restrictions on, 876. American common school system, remarks of Mr. DuDCombe on, 896. American railroad contractors In Cftnadt, extensive operations of, 222-224. Anecdotes of an American railroad con- tractor. 222-224. Anticosti, island of, immense peat bog in, 346. Anticosti, ship route from, to Superior City, 19. Apatite, importance of, as manure, 338; where found in Canada, 889 ; value of per ton in England, 889. Architects of the Government buildings at Ottawa, 98. Area of Upper and Lower Canada, 1^; of New Brunswick, 552 ; of Nova Scotia, 660; of Prince Edward Island, 72>; of Newfoundland, 744 ; of the Labrador pen- insula, 81; of the Ottawa volley, 96; of the great basin ot Lake Winnipeg, 76; of the timber territories of Canada, 67 ; of 8<'d- imcntary and crystalline rocks in C'aii-.idu, 28; of Lake Superior, 14 ; of Lake Huron, 14 ; of Lake St. Clair, 16 ; of Lake On- tario, 16. Arichat Academy In Nova Scotia, 707. Ascott copper mine, nenr Sherbrooke, 326. Ash, two species of, in New Brunswick, 570. Atlantic and Pacific, importance of a prac- ticable route between, through British territory, 872. Atlantic coast of Nova Scotia, soils of, 608. Authors, distinguished, of Nova Scotia, 724. Banks, Grand, of Newfoundland, 751. Banks In Newfoundlard, 769. Banks In Nova Scotia, 704. Baptist Church in Ciinada, Literary Insti- tute of, at Woodstock, 489 ; theological text-books adopted by, 442. Baptist Church in Nova Scotia, 718. Baptist Seminary at Kredericton, 611. Bark f«noe. how constructed, 131-133. Bark jf theblreh-trec. numerous uses of, 138. Barley, production of. In t.'anada, 69. " Baron of llenfrew," the great timber ship, 286. Barytca, sulphate of, where found in Can- ada, 384. Basswood-tree in New Brunswick, 672. Batiscan, Eadnur forges at, 819. ■ '^'T.'l'- ■"'W^. ' 762 INDEX. Battoan, description and history of the, laa, 184. Bay of C'liftkMir cod, superiority of the, B81. Buy of Cliulcur, di'scriptinn of, 002. Bay of Fundy, si-a ashciics in. 674-680; fok'S on, 5r)U. Boys of Nova Sootlii fifil , Prince Edward Island, 7'2S; of Newfoundland, 747. Bcauhurnois canal, lenirth and course of, 167. BeaviT-sklns, eariy tax on, 275. Beavi,', the, the present symbol of Canada, 275. Beech, two Boeciet of. In New Bronswick, 568. Belleville Seminary near PIctoii, 4S3. Jiiehruniute of potash, how mouitfactured in Norway, 382. Bircli-biirk canoe, how constructed, 181-138. Birch, four species of, in New Brunswick, 563. Birch-tree and bark, volue of the, 188. Birds of Nova Scotia. 675. Bishop's College, Lennoxville, history of, 620 ; faculty of arts in, 621 ; faculty of divinity In, 522. Blind In Nova Scotia, 683. liourd of Works in Newfoundland, 768. Boards of Agriculture in Upper Canada, 43. Bobcivygeon colonization road, 805. Bog Iron ores of Canada, 819. JJo^ soils of Nova Scotia, 673. Bois bruUs, or lialf breeds, Canadian, 87. Books, value of, imported into Canada in 1«50-6I, 476. Botanicjil Society of Conada, 51, 472. Boundaries of Canada, 13. Boundary of New Brunswick b?ttled by treat v, 1S42, 551. Breadth of beam of vessels admitted by the St, Lawrence ond Welland canals, 182. BriAl ; electric tel- nd coiniiierco o^ of, 2U2-296; im- miiieral resources etch uf education jporations of, 380. irch, college of, at s ailoptcd by, 442. ' niss, 221. 1649, unguarded, wa, 471. )iito, 471. ite at Woodstock, 53-255; advantage 55. 8, 193-106. gland, 200. responsible" for Trunk Kailway, age engaged in, In 56, 15S-185; table id cost of, 177; re- r, 181. I the St. Lawrence, 17. of the, 181-133. Island, 729. Bay Company In ' Nova Scotia, sella r River, 307. nd mode of travd- runswlck, descrlp- lor of Now Bruns- Lawrence dlscor. srols found in Can [opolis opened at runswick favorable ' Brunswick. 671. a Scotia, 680. pper Canada, 51. )jccted, 150. •ge, 525. de, 298. af Canadian canals, irunswjck, descrlp* INDBX. 763 "Charlotte," the first river steamer in Upper Canada, 141. Chorlottutown, P. K. I., description of, 786. Chaudlery Kalis, 95. Chauveau, Dr., appoinced superintendent uf education In Lower Canada in 1865, 606 ; important services of, 506, 607. Chlorite, where found in New Brunswick, 695. Christian Brothers' Schools In Canada, 686. Chromic Iron, where found in Canada, 871. Church uf Knghuid parochial schools in Ujiper ('anada, 429. Church of Kuglond Schools of theology in Canada, 485; text-books used in, 441. Church of Uome, schools of theology of, in Upper Canada, 437; text-books used in the theological schools of, 441. Church of Scotland, university of, at King- ston, 4^38 ; theological text-books of, 441. Churches in New Brunswick, 618; in Nova Scotia, 712,718; in Prince Edward Island, 788 : in Newfoundland, 757. Civil List, revenue, and expenditure of New Brunswick, 617. CUissiciil and Industrial College of Bte. Amio de la Pocati6ro, 526; uf Ste. Marie de Mannoir, 527. Classical Cullcge and Theological Seminary of Montreal, 523; of Nloolet, 524: of St. Hyacinthe, 624 ; ofSto. Th^r^e deBlain- ville, 525. Classical College of Three Rivera, 680. Classical schools In Canada in 1785 and 1789, 876. Clay, plastic, where found in New Bruns- wick, 594. Clearing wild land in New Brnnswick, 621. Clergy, American, in Canada, restricMons on, 876. Clergymen, number of. In "New.Brunswlck, 618. Climate of Canada, 27-31 ; of New Bruns- wick, 656; of Nova Scotia. 66:J-66<); uf Prince Edward Island, 786; of Newfound- land, 750. Cloth manufactured in Upper Canada, 63. Cloudy days at Toronto, tub's of, 80. Coal, not found in Canada, 309; extensive fields of, in Nova Scotia, 851) ; amount of, exixirtod at Pictou in 1858 ;. Important mines ot^ at Cape Breton, 861; amount raised in Nova Scotia In 1851; in New Brunswick, 352, 360, 368 : in Newfound- laud, 360; found in British Columbia and Vancouver Island, 869; mining for, at Naniamo, 870; amount exported from Naniaino, 871. Coah bituminous, where found in New Brunswick, 590. Coal measures of New Brunswick, 860, 888. Cobalt, traces of, found In Canada, 829. Cod fisherv in the Bay of Fundy, 575 ; on the Oulf of St. Lawrence, 580 ; of New- foundland, 158. Coins, value of, in Now Brunswick, 618. Colborne, Sir John, endowment obtained by, for Upper Canada College, 892. College preparatory schools in Canada, 483. Colleges in Lower Canada, 508-640. Colleges in Upper Canada, 481-467 ; theologi- cal text-borks adopted in, 441-448. Colleges In Nova Scotia, TOT. Colonization roads In Canada, 61, 805. Colored separate schools In Canada, 428. Columbia, British, gold discoveries in, 266- 867. Coiiunerce and navigation in New Bruns- wick, 606-609. Commerce and trade of Canada, 268-807; of Nova Scotia, 690 ; of Prince Edward Is- land, 787; of Newfoundland, 766. Common School Act of Upper Canada, the flrst approorlations under, 884. Common Schools in Canada, from 1816 to 1822, 884; in New Brunswick, 61*-0I7; in Nova Scotia, 706; in Upper Canada, grants for, 419 ; Increase in the number oj^ 420. Common school system of America, re- marks of Dr. Duncomhe on, 896. Common school system of Upper Canada, distinctive features of, 409 ; permanency of, 411 ; support of, not compulsory on tha municipalities, 412 ; text-books, maps, &c., used in, 418-415; religious character of^ 416. Communications of Canada, bv wate , tso- 183. " Company of rianada." 270. "Company of One Hundred Partners," 269. Conference at Teronto, in relation to an inter- colonial railway, 289, Congregational Church in Nova Scotia, 718. Congregational Colleco of British North America, 440 ; text-oook used in, 448. ConstUution of Novo Scotia, 716. Continentid Church and bchool Society, 686. Convents in Upper anada, 480, 435. Contractors, Ainef oan railroad, extensive operations of, 222-224. Contractors of the Grand Trunk Co., gov- ernment controlled by, 210. Contracts of the Grand Trunk Co., defective provisions of, 209. Contracts, railroad, item, and per mile, com- pared. 232. Gop|>er Bay mine, 823. Copper, gray sulphuret of, found in New Brunswick, 692. Copper mines of Ijiko Iluron, produce ot, 823 ; at Acton, 825-828 ; Ascot, 826. Copper mining In thcMalie region, 321-323 , in Canada East, 824-827. Copper on Lake Superior, found in 1687, 271. Copper ores found in great abundance in Canada, 821 ; discoveries of, in New Bruns- wick, 362; in Newfoundland, 8W; in Vancouver Island, 367. Copper nyrltes, deposits of. In New Brans- Corduroy j-oads in Canada, 119. Corn Indian, production of, in Canada, 60. Cornwall canal, history of the, 107. Corporate names of railways in Canada, 193-196. Cost of public works connected with inland navigation In Canada, 179, 180. Cost of railways in Canada, 196. Coteau locks, tolls taken at, in 181&-'24,148 Cottoges, French Canadian, on the St. Law rence', 3u, Oounties. description of New Brunswick bjr, 627-653. 764 INDEX. Counties In Nova Scotin, afrricultaral rank of, 688; rank of, In flihini^ Industry, 660. County grammar schools in Upper Canada, 432. Coureura du Boia, Canadian, mode ot life of, 87. Course of study In the faculty of arts in Canadian universities, 468. Course of the seasons in New Brnnswick, 66T. Courts of Now Brunswick. 610: of Not* Scotlii, 717 ; of Prince Kdward Island, 740 ; of Newfdunduind, 758. Criminals, juvenile, schools for. In Upper Canada, 468; reformatory school for, at Isle aux Nulx, 538. Cronyn, Dr., Uishop of Huron, theological college, proposed by, 487. Crooks, Mr. Wm., remarks of, on the state of education in Cunaeaf and Dumb Asylums in Low er Canada, 5;is. Deaf and Dumb in Nova Scotia, 688; insti- tutions for. 711. Deaf and Dumb School in Upper Canada, 467. Deaths In Nova Scotia, 681, 682. Debt, public, of Nova Scotia, 708; of Princo Kdward Island. 741. Di'fenco, importance of an inter-colonial railwav for, 24.T-247. Dononvllle, M. D., hostility of, to English trading In Canada in 1686,271; letter of, to Gov. Dongan, 272. Deposits, sn|H'rficlal, of Canada, 818; tertiary, of New Brunswick, 589. Descriptive account of New Brunswick, 55'i ; by counties, 627-6.')8. Destroyers of wheat In Canada, 64-67. Dhectness of Canadian navigation, 180. Discovery and early fortunes of Nova Scotlfi. 654-059. Diseases, ordinary, In New Brunswick, 622; In Nova Scotia, 681, 682. "Documents de Paris," early history of Canada contained In, 27. Dogs, eiiiplovment of, in winter travelling In Canada, 90-94. Doollttlc, Kev. L., Bishop's College, Len- nox ville, projected by, MO. Dongan, Governor, letter of, to Denon ville (note), 2T2; letter o^ on beaver hunting, 276. Porcbester, Lord, action of. In relation Ur •duoation in Canada, ^77. Douglas, Pir Howard, governoi of New Brunsu ick, 1824, MO. Douglustown, destruction of, in the great Miramichi tire, 550. Duncombe, Dr., remarks o*', on the Com- mon Schools of America hi 1836 396. Dundas Street, established by Qovcrnof eimooe, 113. Durham boat, history and description of the, 184. Durham boats, expenses of, from Lnchtne to Kingston, 148; capacity of, 149: time and .expense of, fi-om Kingston to Lachlne, 149 ; trude done in, 149. Durham, Lord, inter-colonial railway pro- iMSed by, 238 ; remarks of, on education In Lower Canada, 502. Earlt educational efforts in Upper Canada, 874; in Lower Canada, 1682-1769, 485-4S8. Early history of New Brunswick, 542-546 ; of Nova ScoHa, 654-659; of Prince Kd- ward Island, 729-788 ; of Newfoundland, 714-747. Early navigation of the 8t Lawrence, 146- Early roads in Canada, 111, 112, 116. Early trade of Canada, 268-275. Earnings and expenses of railways In Canada, 196. Ecclesiosticul condition of Nova Scotia, 711-714. Educational ->ommunities in Lower Canada, Educational djpartment for Upper Canada, 421. Education.il legislation in Upper Canada, from 1806 to 1816, 381. Educational statistics of Lower Canado, 510. Education in Lower Canada, historical sketca of, 4S6-642 ; indebted 'o the Catho- lic Church, 488; from 1759 to 1800,4^5- 491 ; progress of, from 1801 to 1818. 41'!- 495; from 1819 to 1835. 495-499; from 1886 to 1840, 499-603; progress of, from 1841 to 1845, 603-806; from 1856tolS62, 606-608; public aid to, in 1862,640; table showing the progress of, in 1S88- '61, 541; parliamentary gnints for, 511. Education in New Brunswick, 614 41'.. Education in Newfoundland, 767 Education in Novo Scotia, 704-711. Education in Prince Edward Island, 739. Education In Upper Canada, histoi'loal sketch of, 878-481 ; history of, from 1783 to 1805, 874; legislation In regard to, from 1806 to 1816, 881; remarks of Mr. M. Smith on the state of, in 1808-12, 888; popular, from 1816 to 1822, 884: Mr. Gourloy's remarks on, in 1817, 3S5: letter of Mr. Wm. Crooks In relation to, in 1818, 887; fitful progress of, from 1822 to ia36, 390; parliamentary inqnlrj' as to, and its results, from 1836 to 184.^, 896; progress of, from 1844 to IS-^S. 899; higher and intermediate, from 1858 to 1860, 401 ; summary of institutions for, 407; progress of, 419; government ottice of, 421 ; additional supplementary aids to, 476; endowments ff, 80. Fever and ague unknown In New Bruns- wick, 6,%6. Fire, great destruction of pine forests by, 70 Fire, the great Miramlchi. of IS'A 546-551. First estikbllshment of com.non schools In Canada, 384. Fish cured in Nova Scotia it 1S51 and 186L 688. Fish, dried, exported from Newfoundland in 1849 and 1857, 754. Fish exported from New Brunswick, in 1850-1855,585. Fish, fresh-water, of Newfoundland, 749. Fish of Nova Scotia. 676. Fisheries of New Briitiswick, 674-5S5; of Nova Scotia, 688; of Prince Edward Island, 736, 737; of Newfoundland, 753-":)«. Fitful progress of cducutiou in Canada from 1822 to 1886, 890. Fogs on the Bay of Fundy, 656. Forest, tables of the produce of, in Canada, 71, 72; Canadian, value of the products of, ft'om 1853 to 1861, 2S7; product of, in New Brunswick in 1S49-1!?55, 574; in Prince Edward Island. 734. Forest industry of Cuna0, 299. Imports and exports of New Brunswick, from 1823 to 1860, 607; of Nova Scotia, 690,691; of Prince Kdward Island, 738; of Newfoundland, In 1845-1869, 756. Imports from the United States into Cana- da In 1861-01, 297. Imports Into Canada from British and for- eign ports, in 1852-61, 293 ; value oi; 293, 294. Imports, value of, at Gaspd Basin and Sault Ste. Marie, 297. Imports via tho St. Lawrence, in 1857-61, value of, 298. Improvement of the rirer St Iower Canada, 489, 491 ; oducHtlonal efforts ot, in Canada, bU. Johnston, Prof, on the agricultural capa- bilities of New Brunswick. 654. Juliette Industrial College, 526. Jnulo'nl inotitutlons in New Bnmswtck, 610; in Nova Scotia, 717; in I'rinw lid- ward Island, 740 ; in Newfoundland, 758. Ebefer, Mr. Thos. C, the originator of the Victoria Bridge, 267. Kennebecasis river, in New Brunswick, 601. Kent county. New Brunswick, descrlptloii 0^632. Kings College In New Brnnswick, 614. Kings College in Nova Scotia, 707. Kings College, Toronto, charter obtained for in 1827, 391; charter of, amended in 1887, 897; foundation stone of. laid in 1842, 899; name of, changed to University cf To- ronto, 400. Kings county. New Brunswick, description of, 642. Knox's Theological College, 899, 488. Labor, demand for. In New Brunswick, 620, Labrador, Peninsula, 80-88. Lachlne Canal and French River, proposed canals between, 168-101. Lachlne Cunal, when projected, 1 50; con- struction and enlargeiiiont of, 100. La Chute, Industrial and Commercial Col- lego of 623. Ladles of Ste. Croix, 537. Ladies of the Congro-ration of Notre Dame, schools of, in Canada, 630. Ladles of the Sacred Heart, 537. Lake Champlain, importance of a largo canal connecting it with the St Lawrence, 182. Lake Champlain route of navigation, 151. Like Huron and Ottawa cuiiaU, proposed, 158-161. Lake Huron, description of, 14; Importance of a railway to, from Quebec, 247. Lake Niplsslng, i)rcip()5cd ciinals to, 169-161 ; Iron ore found near, 816. Lake Ontario, descriiition of, 16, 10; the first Steamboat, on, 138-141 ; railway fh>m,to ■Ui I .il"1." ::||i£{: ,■! fir ^68 INDSS. the Falls of Nta^ra, 191 ; system of rocks on tbe north shore of, 312. LAkcs, tlio great, 14-20; comporatlTO area, eluvatiiin uiid depth of, 20; inUuunco of, oil the climate of CunoUo, 27; early navi- gation of, 136; nunil)cr and tonnage of Cunudiun vessels on. In 1S50-1861, 136; gteuiii vessels on, 141 ; passenger steamers on, no lon^;r sustained, 233. Lake St. Clair, description ot, IS. Lake St. Peter, chunncl of, deepened by dredging, lUT). Lakes of New Brunswick. 601 ; Nova Scotia, 061; Trince Edward Island, 729; New- foundland, 74a Lakes on the Ottawa river, 94 96. Lake 8ui)erlor, description o^ 14; commn- nlcatlons with, 7S; copper treasures of^ known In 16S7, 271. Lake Winnipeg;, great inland basin of, 74. Lainberville, Kother de, on the prices of beaver skins, 276. Land, tenure of. In New Brunswick, 612; clearlM!; wild. In New Brunswick, 621 ; granted and ungranted In Nova Scotia, 702. Land (juestion, the, the standing grievance of I'rincc Edward Island, 782, 742. Lands, free grants of, in Canada, 808; en- dowments of, for educational purposes in U|>per Canada, 477. Lands, crown. In Canada, 803; In New Brunswick, how sold, &53 ; la Nova Scotia, 702. Lands set apart for educational purposes in Lower Canada. 540. Lanil under cultivation in Newfoundland, 752. Lapralrie, railway from, to St. John's, 190. Lareli, .\uierican, In New Brunswick, 662. La Salle, voyage of, on the Lakes in the " Qrlffon," 270. L'Assoniption Classical and Industrial Col- lege, established In 1S32, 626. L'Assoniption College established at Sond- wlcli In 1865-6, 402. Laurentlaii series of rocks, 28, 27. Laurentiun system of rocks in Canada, 810, Laurentide Mountain';, 21. Laval, Bishon de, seminary founded by, at tluebec, 1078, 486. Laval, Industrial and Commercial College of, 628. Liu'iil, University of. at Quebec, 608-612. Law course In the Lpper Canada Universi- ties. 444. Law, disregard of railrof, 714; frenural lure of. -r£i. ;:itm(la, 8:^0, 331 ; rltish Columbia, iTow Brunswick, Kill, 59. Upper Canada, and trades In 0,141-146; lines cli, 333. swiok. ,TO5. Nuw Brunswiclt, u, Icffisl.itive pro- of, in 1791». 3S0. ' Canadit, 407 ; in vil governor of of, 448. f of, 90 : new par- 06-98. Canals, proposed, nization road, 61, tributaries of, 94; te of navigation, on, 166; table of canals on, 177. r, 96. ortoncc of a prac- tliroiigh British , 24-27. iinswick, 016-617. (■ducacionul pur- i82 to ISOl, 541. ttawa, 94. Sfotia, 059. provl.tions(if.303. e lalics, business ds, 288. vernor of Prince Canada, 70. ado, 60. 5; abundance of, 10 bo^ of, in tbo where found Id mDEX. 771 FembertOD, Mr., on the product of gold In British Columbia, 868. Pembina Mountain, in the Korth-Weet Ter- ritory, 7ft. Peninsula of Labrador, 80-88. Peniusc'.a, westeni, of Canada, roclcB of the, 818. Peru, magnificence of the ancient roads of, 108. Feticodlac river, in New Brunswiclc, 601. Petit Seminiiire at Montreal, 623. Petroleum, where found In Canada, 25, 846; oriein of, 347 ; discovery of, 347 ; llowing wells of, 349; commercial voluu of, 349; exportation of, from EnnlsklUcu to Kng- land, 350. Phosphate of lime, importance and uses of, 88S; where found in Canada, 839; value of, per ton in England, 339. Physical features of C■anadl^ 13-81. Pictou Academy In Nova Scotia, 706. Pictou coal nUnes, 850; coal raised at, 851. Pine, white, of New Brunswick, 561. Pipe-stone, Indian, where found in New Brunswick, 595. Plank roads in Canada, 122; length and cost of, 127, 128. Planks and boards, export of, to the United States from Canada, 69. Plants and trees of Nov;i Scotia, 606. Plates in the tubes of \ ictoria Bridge, 261, 262. Ploughs used in Canada, description of, 40. Plumbago, where found in Canada, 834-337 ; uses of, and modes of purifying, 837'; where found in New Brunswick, 691. Political state of Nova Scotia, 714-719. Pollock fishery In the Bay of Fundy, 676. Population of Conada, 82, 99, 102. Population of Now Brunswick, progress of, 627. Population of Newfoundland, 766. Population of Nova Seotli, in the years 176&-1861, 678; comparative increase ol^ 679 ; by counties, 679; origin of, 679. Vopulation of Prince Kdward Island, 788. Portage railways for grain, In Canada, 280- 288. Portland, Duke of, letter of. In favor of the establishment of schools in Canada, 879. Portland railway, leased by the Qrand Trunk Co., 208. Portland railroad gauge, how forced on Can- ada, 254. Post-ollices in Canada, table showing the in- crease of, 116; revenue and expenditures of. In 1852 and 1860, 116. Post-offices In Nova Scotia, 701 ; in New- foundland, 758. Post roads In Canada, tablo showing the progress of, 16, 116. Post travelling In Lower Canada, 110. Potash, production of, in Canada- 70. Potatoes, production of, in Canada, 60. Potsdam sandstone, Parliament bouses at Ottawa constructed of, 97. Prairie Plateau of Knperfs Land, 76. Prairies, winter Journey on the, in Canada, 90-94. Presbyterian Acadcmv at Halifax, 707. Presbyterian Church in Novo Scotia, 712. Presbyterian Colleges in Nuva Scotia, 708. 49 Presbyterians, College established by, at Kingston in 1841, 397,488; test-books adopted by, 442. Prescott, roads of Peru described by, 104. Present trade of Canada, 290-294. Prices of timber at Quebec, In 1868-61, 287. Prince Edward Island, extent and general features of, 728 ; early history of, 729 ; nat- ural resources of, 734; industrial re- sources of, 786 ; population of, TA^ ; re- ligious denominations in, 738; education in, 789; civil government, 739; revenue and expenditure of, 741. Prince of Wales, donations made by, to educational instltutiuns In Canada in 1861, 407. Private schools in Upper Canada, 480; in Lower Canada, .534. Prizes awarded at agricultural and cattle shows in Canada, 45-47. Produce trade of Canada, 290, 291. Productions of the forest In Canada, 71 ; In New Brunswick. In 1I>49-1S.')5. .574. Products, agricultural, exported from Can- ada, 201. Products, agricultural, of Lower Canada, S5, 86 ; of Upper Cunadl^ 01, 62 ; of New Brunswick, 560, 627-653 ; of Nova Scotia, 687; of Prince Kdward Island, 736; of Newfoundland, 752. Professional schools in Upper Canada, 435; in Ix>wer Canada, 532. Professions, trades, and occu")ation3 in Nova Scotia, 680. Progress of Canada, 99; of New Bruns- wick, 642-653; of Nova Scotii^ 051-727 ; of ewfoundland, 744-760 ; of Princo Ed- ward Island, 728-743. Progress of education in Upper Canada, 419. Progress of navigation in Canada, 131-141. Progress of population in New Brunswick, 627; in Nova Scotia, 678. Progress of roads in Canada, 116-124 Progress of travel in Canada, 110-116. Proposed Ottawa and Lake Huron Canals, 168-161. Prospectus of the Grand Trunk Co., de- ceptive statements of, 202, 209. Protestant separate schools iu Canada, 427; section of the law authorizing (note), 427. Provincial agricultural association of Upper Canada, 4^-48. Provincial Passengers' Act, provisions uf, 808. Provisions necessary for a settler's family going into the bush, 804. Public elementary schools In Canada, 409; not receiving h-'gialatlve aid, 429. Public Works of Nova Scotia, 695-702. Qdadrupkdb, native, of Nova Scotia, 674. Quarries, minerals, and mines in New Brunswick, 690-699. Quarternary deposits of Canada, 24. Quartz gold veins of Nova Scotia, 369. Quartz, milk-whl'to,abundont in New Bruns- wick, 696. Quebec, climote of, 27, 29 ; steam ond sail- lug vessels built at, 186: importance of • railway from, to Lake Huron, 247; ship- 772 INDBZ. bnUdlng at, In 1T18, S84; tomaga of ves- sels arnvrd at Quebec from IT&l to 1861, 274; tonnage of Tcssels built at, ft-oin 1791 to 1861, 286; exports of lumber from, 287; shipments of timber from, in 186(>- 62, 289; export of wheat from, 290; total exports fnini, in ISOS. 292; number of im- migrants arrived at, in 1850-61, 301. Quebec croup of rocks, 812. Quebec Seminaries, 512-616. Queen's county. New Brunswick, descrip- tion of. 644. Rafts on tlie great lakes, 167. Kailway clinrters granted in Canada, 191, 192. Railway contractors, American, extensive operations of, In Canada, 222-224. Railway contractors in England, extensive operations of, 200. Railway magnates and railway passengers, 213. Railway monopoly, danger from, to the Western peninsula of Canada, 236. Railway morality in America, England, and Canaila, 221-228. Railway passengers in Canada, annoyances occasioned to, by express companies, 250. Railway passenger traffic, influence of cheap fares upon, 248. Railway passenger traffic In Now England, 249. Railway policy in Canada, 247-248; injurious elfects of, 169-179. Railways, early, in England, 187-190. Railways, grain portage, in Canada, 236-238. Railways in Canada, history of, 190-2r.6. Railways in New Brunswick, 604. Railways in Nova Scotia, 695-697. Railways, municipal in Canada, 214-221. Railway traffic in Canada, how limited, 248. Railway transactions in England, discredit- able, 225-227. Rain, fall of, at Toronto, 28-81 ; at Hon- treal, 2a Rains in New Brunswick, 553. "Ramsay" lead mine, 820. Rapids on the St. Lawrence, efforts made to clear the channels of, 162, 163, 168; de- scent of, by steamers, 168. Reciprocity treaty, leading points of the, 296 ; table of Imports showing the effect of, 297. R6collet8, or Franciscans, the first mission- aries and teacuers in Canac^a, 634. Reglojiolis College (Cotholic), opened at Kingston in 1846, 895; founded by Bishop M'Uonnell, 437. Religious census of Nova Scotia, 880. Religious statistics of Newfoundland, 757. Religious teaching in the public schools of Canada, 416-419. Religious worship in New Bmnswick, 618. Reiiair of roads in Canada, 105-110. Reptiles of Nova Scotia, 675. Resources, natural, of New Brunswick, 626: of Nova Scotia, 666; of Prince Edward l8lftnw in New Brunswick, 567. Soapstone found in New Brunflwick, 696; where found in Canada, 884. Social prognM of Kova Scotia, T19. Societies, ogricDltural, in Lower CanadikST; in Upper Canada, 42-51. Societies, literary, of Upper Canada, 470; of Lower Canada, 689. Soil, deterioration of, in Canada from oyer- croiiping, 64. Soils of Canada, 22 ; of New Brunswick, 655 , of Nova Scotia, 067-673 ; of Prince Ed- ward Island, 784; of Newfoundland, 749. "South tJoggins Section" of New Bmiii wick, 862. Houth Saskatchewan valley, 77. diiearing salmon by torch-light in Labrador, 83-87. Special schools in Lower Canada, B32. Springs, mineral, abundant in Now Bruns- wick, 696. Spring wheat, yield of, per acre in Canadi^ 58. Spruce, black and white, in Now Bruns- wick, 501-573. Square timber, amount brought to market in Canada in 1845 and 1S47, 289. Stage-coaches In Nova Scdtia, 699. Stages, the first established in Canada, 118- 115. State endowments of education In Upper Canada, 481. Statistical account of New Brunswick, 652. Statistics of Canadi: :i railways, 198-196. Statistics of educi>iion in Upper Canada, 479-481 ; in Lower C-anada, 640. Stiitistics, population, &c., of Nova Scotia, 677-638. Statistics, religious, of Newfoundland 757. Steamboats, Introduction of, on Canadian waters, 118, 114, 187-141; number, ton- nage, and value of, on the great lakes, 141 ; Cana(iion, registered in 1861, 295; table of numl>er and tonnage of, built in Canada, 186, 141 ; Canadian, registered in 1861, 295; total tonnage of. engaged in Canadian trade in 1868-61, 295. Steamers, ocean, Canadian, 141-146; lines of, from Halifax, 698. Steotite, where found in Canada, 884. Stephenson, George, improvements made In locomotives by, 187-189. Stephenson railway gauge, sufficiency o£ 265. Stone, Lithographic, where found In Can- ada, 884. Strachan, Dr. (Bishop of Toronto), bio- graphical notice of (7)o/e), 880; grammar- school oi)ened by, at tlornwall. In 1804, 881 ; theological college established by, at Cobourg, 485. Street railways In Toronto and Montreal, 255; of little volue in winter, 256. Subsidies granted by the government of Canada to ocean steamship companies, 148, 144, Sugar, maple, manufacture ot, In New Brunswick, 566. Sugar maple of New Brunswick, 664. Sulphate of Barytes, where found in Can- ada, 884; where found In New Brunswick, 696. Summary of educational institutions ii Canada, 407. INDEX. 775 I Scotia, 719. li Luwer Canad*. 8T; Jpper Canada, 470; I Canada from over- Ji'w Brunswick, 555, |)73 ; of Prlnco Ed- Newfoundland, 749. In" of New Brum Ir Canada, 582. lunt In Now Bruns- |)cr acre in Canada te, in Now Bnins- broiijfht to market 184T, 289. H-(.tfn, 699. ^lifd in Canada, 113- cducaflon In Upper cw Brunswick, 652. of Newfoundland lere fonnd In Can- ture of; in New »1 inBtitntlonf li Banbury county, New Bmnswlok, deaerip- tion of, 645. Bunbnry, tiie first Englisit settlement in New Brunswick, MS. Bunday sciiools in Upper Canada, 429. 8upi>rint(.-ndents and visitors of sciiools in Canada, 410. Buporior sulioola in Canada receivine ie$;is- iutive aid, 481 ; nut receiving public aid, 4;j8. Siiliploincntary cducntionnl agencies in I'plier Canada, 407, 40S, 476. Siuviy for an iiitcr-colonial railway made umU'riinpcrial diri-otion, 238. SydiK'y, coal mines of, 951. ^yiiitngton, Wllliatii. the first steamboat "constructed by, 137. Synopsis of I'lans for a bridge at Montreal, Taiilk land of Labrador, 88. Taclio colonization road, 306. Taiif-'ier river, gokl found on, 857. Tarili's, Canadian, 300. 'I'nxi'S, direct, in New Brunswick. C21. Teuchers, American, In Canada, remarks of 1 )!■. Rolph on, 803. Tiaclicrs. number of, employed in the com- mon schools of Canada. 419 Teachers, v -n-oiit, [leusioned in Canada, 415. Tt aeldng, schools of, in Upper Canada, 458- 4:.7. Teii'itraph, electric, in Can.ida, 266; in Nova Scotia, 267, 701 ; in New Brunswick, 2fiT, 00.",; in Prince l«;dward li^land, 742; in Newfoundland, 769. TcMiiscou-ita colonization road, 306. TcMiipeniturc, cmiiparative, at Ilumiltnii, Toronto, Montreal, and Quebec, 29; table of, at Toronto, 30; inliiience of the rivers upon, in Canada, 129; ranite.'i of. In Is'ew Brunswick, 550. 557 ; comparative, of Nova Scotia, 004 • in I'l-ince ICdward Island, 735; in Newfoundland. 751. Tenure of land in New Urunswick, 612. Territories of the Hudson's Bay Co., 282, 273. Text-books, Irish iiation.il series of, adopted in Canaila, 414. Text-books, theological. In use in Upper Canada colleges, 441-443. Thoolotticfll Institute, established by the CongregntionalistB at Tori>nto, in 1840, 898. Theolofripjil Schools in Lower Canada, 532. riirco Kivers, St. Maurice forges at, 319. Timber, Canaillan, jirices of, 05; (jiuintlty and value of exports of. C6 ; Biitisli Amer- ican, whither exported, 288; shipments of, from Quel)ec in 1800-62. 289; prices of at Quebec, in 1858-01,289. Timber rafts on the gi;eat lakes, 1.67. Timber slides on tho Ottawa, 160. Timber territories of (Canada, 07. Timber trees of New Brunswick, 561-664. Titanium, ore oi; found at Bay 8t Paul, 819. Toll-gates on roads in Ui>per Canada, 124. Tonnage of vessels at Canadian ports in ]8.'>3-«l, 294. Torch-light, Bpearing Mlmon by, in Lkb- rador,88-87; Toronto, climate of, 28-81; Btreet railwara m, 255. Toronto an Indian village in 1777, 100. Toronto School of Mcdreine, 4.62, 458. Towns and villages in Nova Scotia, 720. Tracks of wild animals the llrst roads, 118. Trade of Canaila, early, 268-276; with Franco, 273; total value of, 294: total ton- nage engaged In, 295; with the United States, 299; total amount of, with the United States, 277 ; channels of, 298. Trades, professions, and occupations 1b Nova Scotia, OSO. Tratisportation. ancient modes of, 102; facil- ities for in winter in Canada, 117. Travel and Tnin.sporlation in Canada, 99- 260; in New iirnnswiek, OOO-OO."). Travel in Canada, jn'o-rress of, 110-115; &- cilltles for, in winter, 117. Tr.iveller, American, remarks of, in relation to education in (^ana.ia in 1794-9, 375. " Trawl" fishing. Injurious results of, 089. Treaty, tho iieciprocity, leailing i)oints of, 290; table of imports showing the eft'ect of, 297. Trees, enormous destruction of, in Canada, 64, 70. Trees, forest, In New Brunswick, 561-574, in Newfoundland, 749. Trinity College University, faculty of di- vinity estubiisbed in, 4.S6, regulations of the theological faculty in, 430. Trustees of public schools in Upper Canada In 1807 (note), 3S2. Tubes of the Victoria Bridge, 269-2Ba Turnips, production of, in Canada, 60. Turnpike roads in Canada, 122. Ukitkd Statks, education in, compared with education in Canaila.STS; import* from into Canada In 1851-01, 297. Universities in Canada, 467-107. Universities in Lower Canada, 508-680. University of Bishop's College, Lennox- ville, 520-523. University of Jjival at Quebec, 608-612; course of instruction in, 609; requisites for degrees in, 510, 511. University of McGiU College, Montreal, 616- 528. University of Queen's College, at Kingston, charter granted to In 1841.397; remarks on, 400; course In the faculty of arts In, 460; law course, 447, 449 ; medical course of, 461, 463. University of Trinity College law course, 447; remarks on, 461; course In the faculty of arts In, 406. University of Tonmto, buildings of, com- pleted in 1859, 404; coiirtnissioners' re- commendations for the reform and re-or- ganization of, 405-407 ; law course in, 446, 448; remarks on, 457; course in the faculty of arts in, 463 ; medical course oi; 460, 462. University of Victoria College, Cobourg, opened in 1841, 398; remarks on, 459 course Ih tho faculty of arts in, 405; law course in, 447 ; medical course of 461, 458 ),i. 776 mDEZ. Upp«r Conkdo, area of, U ; hlntory of agrl- cultaro In, 89-41; forest Industry In, 64- 74; travel ami transportntiou In, 99-250; history of rnllwavs In, 19()-2S6; coni- inerce nml tradu of, 20s-ao7; inlnernl in- soiirccs uf, 308-350; eduuatluu in, 873- 461. Ul>per Canada College at Toronto, 481 ; on- duwMient obtained for, by Sir Jolin Col- bome, 892. (Jrgulines, convent of, founded by Mmo. La Peltrlo In Quebec, 1G39, 535. Valley of the Ottawa, resources of, 96. Valley of the Saskutchownn. 76-80. Vancouver iBJimd and Hritisli Columbia, mineral resources of, 3ti.>-iJ71. Varennes, Industrial and Commercial Col- lejfc of, 530. Ve.,etable8 and fruits in Now Brunswick, 628. Vercheros, Industrial and Commercial Col- lesre of, 629. Vessels arrived at Quebec between 1764 and 1801, 274. Vessels belonging to New Brunswick, In lS.M-60, 599. Vcosels built at Quebec, between 1791 and ISCI, 280. Vessels built In New Brunswick, In 1825- 1800, number and tonnage of, 598. Vessels, Canadian, registered in 1801, 296. Vessels ensiigod In Canadian trade, total tonnage of, in 1858-61, 295. Vessels entered and cleared at Canadian nortsin 185.3-1861,294; at ports of New Brunswick in 1849-lSM, 607; at 8t. John, New Brunswick. 1850-1855, 638; at St Andrew's, New Brunswick, In 1849-1855, 641 ; at porta of Nova Scotio, In 1861, 691. 092. Vessels, number and tonnage of, owned In New Brunswick In 184S-55, 606. Vessels on the great lakes, number, value, and tonnage o^ 141. Vessels, sailing, on the great lakes, 136; tabic of number and tonnage of^ built in Canada, 186. Victoria Bridge, account of the origin of, 267; description of, 258-203; cost of, 203. Victoria county, New Brunjwick, descrip- tion of, 651. Villages and towns In Nova Scotia, 720. Voting fur a " consideration" in Congress, 222. Wabuadimoak L«ko. Now Brunswick, 60t Water eoinfininlcatloiis of Caiuiilii, 129-186. Water of the great lakes, purity of, 19. Welland canal, wlun projected, 150; history of llie, 171-170; table showing dinieiislou( auil cost of, 177 ; locks on, not adapted to side- wheel steamers, ISO. Welland Hallway, iinportjince of, for grain portage, 2-36; amount of grain transferred by, from lake to lake, 237. "Weiliugtoii" copper inisie, 323. Wesleyan Academy openccl at Ccbourg in 18.30, 893. Wesleyan Academy In New Brunswick, 015 Wesleyan Female College at HaMilllon, 484. Wesleyan theological text-books, 442. Wcsleyans in IViucc Kilward Island, 789. Wcstnioreiand county, New Brunswiwk, do scription of, 0.33. Wheat. i)ro(Iuct of, In Upper and Lower Canada, H'i-b'J ; exports of, from Canada, 290, 291 ; transportation of, by portage rail- ways, 230. Wheat midge, ravages of, In Canada, 54, 66; descriptioii of, 50. Wild beasts and game in New Brunswick, 624. Wilderness of Canada, invasion of the, 61; life In, 87; day in the, 88-90. Williamsburg canals, when constructed, 167. Win<'s at Toronto, table of direction and velocity of, 81. WInurlly of, 19. cti-tl, 150; history owinKiliniuiisioua III, nut aUui)tu(l to mice of, for grain r grain transferred i7. e, 323. !(l at Cobonrg In IV Brunswick, Old. at Hamilton, ■iM. ;-books, 442. lU'd Island, T89. c\v IJrunswioli, do Ipper and Lower ! of, from Canada, of, by portage rail- I In Canada, 64, 55; New Brunswick, ivaslun of the, CI ; 18-90. in constructed, 16T. I of direction aud va Scotia, 700. provisions relating 117. I, 117; on the Prai- )or acre, in Canada, n Canada, 57. )f overage prices of, 66. i\v Brunswick, 618. tago from Toronto constructed, 112. nswick, description n Associations In cposlts oi^ found in , 674-677. ; I