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Un des symboles suivants apparaitra sur la dernidre image de cheque microfiche, selon le cas: le symbole — ^ signifie "A SUIVRE ", le symbole V signifie "FIN". Les cartes, planches, tableaux, etc., peuvent Stre film^s d des taux de reduction diffdrents. Lorsque le document est trop grand pour Stre reproduit en un seul clich6, il est film6 d partir de I'angle sup^rieur gauche, de gauche d droite, et de haut en bas, en prenant le nombra d'images ndcessaire. Les diagrammes suivants illustrent la m^thode. 22X 1 2 3 1 2 3 4 5 6 HISTORY OF GREECE, 4 Fl UlVINt G( ^uthorucb lcxt-;l8ook ^criea HISTORY OF GREECE FOR JUNIOR CLASSES. BY LEONHARD SCIIMITZ, LL.D. CLASSICAL EXAMINER IN THE UNIVERSITY OK LONDON. WITH AN APPENDIX, UIVINO A SKETCH OF THE UISTORV FKOM THE ROMAN CONQUEST TO THE FHESENT UAV, BY A. GENNADIOS. LATE PROFESSOR IN THE UNlVEliblTV OK ATHENS. (JTamibxan OEoiJgright Oition. TORONTO COPP, CLARK & CO,, 47 FRONT STREET EAST 1878. It ' Df^i H 60^ Eu ered according to Act of the Parlia.nout of Canada, in t..e year on„ ^ousand ei«ht hundred and seventy-ei.-ht, ■»• Co... c.u.k . Oo Toronto. Ontario, in the Oi«ce of tho Minister of A,H..,.,turc PREFACE. The History of Greece here offered to the public is Intended as an introduction to the excellent larger works which are the pride of English scholarship. I have introduced a novelty which will be justified, I hope, by the more correct views now entei-tained in regard to the two great nations of antiquity. In all the school histories of Greece hitherto published, the Greek divinities are called by the names given to them by the Romans. This practice has led to an utter confusion of the religions of the two nations, which, in many respects, were totally different. The Romans may indeed be excused for identifying their gods with those of Greece and other s wi^xons, but I can see no reason why we should follow their example. I have, therefore, called the Greek gods by their Greek names; and wherever the Roman name presents any material difference, I have added it in brackets. The same system has been followed in re- gard to other proper names : as the Greek language has no c, the Greek letter k has been retained; and in- stead of the Latin termination ws, I have given the Greek oa. It would, however, be mere pedantiy rigor- ously to apply the same rule to all proper names, for in tJie case of some the Roman form, either in its entirety ■A if m fl oi' ill Ml iilu'id/^cd sliiipc. Iins altiinst. Imtoiiic a part of the EngliKli languiigc itself. The siiiiio systt'in, I am glad to find, lias l)oon adopted in 80iHe of the larger recent HistorieH of Greece. A brief sketch luis Ix'en auvhom a great deal has been written, but very little is known. It in cer- tain, however, that they were not materially difierent from the Hellenes, and belonged to the same mce as thev ♦br m the course of time, and without any wars or violent commotions, we find them united with the Hellenes into one nation speaking ever;y where essentially the same lan- guage, a^id entertaining essentially the same views about 10 IIISTOHY OF GREECE, their gods. Tho (lil}(>r(>nc(\s in iln.s rt!H|«('t apjtejiring in the different juirts of the conntiy, so far as the language is concerned, wore only of a diahjctical nature; and in like manner, though some of their gods were worshipped in one district more particularly than in others, yet all were recognised in all ])arts of the country. This nation of the Hellenes is one of the mo.st remark- able, if not the most remarkable, among the civilised peoples of the earth, and has exercised both on contem- porary nations and upon posterity an influence which it is scarcely possible to over-estimate. They were endowed by nature with the rarest qualities both of mind and body ; their minds were ever active and striving to im- l)rove upon what they had already attained; they at- lemptcd to solve the loftiest problems in religion, pliilo- sopliy, art, and literature ; they never rested satisfied witli what they had achieved, Ijut were ever eager to advance and iiii])rove. Nothing was stationary with th(!m, and although they disdained everything that was foreign, which they called barbarous, yet .hey never scrupled to ado})t whatever they found useful or beneficial among the barbarians, and so to assimilate it as to give it the stamp of their own character and genius. They did not, indeed, always succeed in their lofty aspirations after j>erfection, for in their religion they did not anive at the idea of one God as the creator and preserver of the uni- verse ; in their pin'losophy they at once boldly grappled witli the highest problems, which even yet are awaiting tlieir solution ; and in their love of freedom they passed through all the constitutional changes ft-om I'oyalty to a wild and unbridled democracy, until their political life was extinguished by the overwhelming power of Rome. liut in the arts and literature, they attained an eminence which has never been surpassed and hardly equalled. The ,. The nearest kinsmen of the Hellenes were the inhabit ants of the greater part of Italy— that is, those Itjilians who spoke Latin, or a dialect of Latin, for the resemblance between the Latin and the Greek languages is so great and so striking that we are forcest of Iiulia, thov, of cmirso took wil]i them not only their J.ino-.iM-e and n)i-ion, l.ut all those elements of civilisation which had already l.een ;i!.t;ained in their ancient common home. What that civili- sation was, is reveahid to us by a comparison of tlie kin- dred languages, and this comi)arison altogether disi)els the idea entertained by ancient and some modern historians, that the Greeks on their first appearance in Europe were savages living in caves, feeding upon acorns, and devoid ot any knowledge of agriculture or the breeding of cattle. ii. great variety of words expressive of a state of things tai- above that of the savage are common to the Greeks a 11(1 their kinsmen who remained in their Asiatic home, a o.(Mr proof that a considerable degree of civilisation had already been attained before the Greeks separated and (iutered upon their westward migration. There was a time when it was believed that the Hellenes had received their civilisation from forovni immigrants. Thus Kekroi)s was believed to have come irom Egypt and to Iiave built the Kekropia, the akro- polis oi- citadel of Athens; Kadmos, a Phamician prince who set out 111 search of his sister who had been carried oft, was supposed to lia^e arrived in Boeotia, and to have foundeil there the Kadmeia, the akropolis of Thebes- DanaoH, with his fifty daughters, was believed to have taken .-etuge in Hellas to escape from the vengeance of his brotluu- ^gyptos, and to have given the name of Danai to a i)ortion of the Hellenic people ; and Pelops, histly, a son of Tantalos, was said to have come from Piirygia or Lydia in Asia Minor, to have taken posses- sion ot a part of the southern peninsula of Hellas, and to have given it its name of Peloponnesus, that is, the island of Pelops. But most of these stories can be shown to have originated in Hellas itself, and some of them seem to have owed their currency either to the \anity of fore.igu nations, such as the E-^yptians, who claimed a sli.-ire in the civilisation of the Hellenes ; or, as lu the case of Pdops, (,],„ stoiy may liaM; origin/iled' in m.sl'oitV oi' (iUDKcl;. 13 8011H' Vii^uc and dim r(>colIcctiou of un ancient connection between IIcIIhs and Asia JNIinor. Tlie legend about Kadnios alone .seonis io have been founded upon some- thing more .subntantial ; for it is well attested that at a very early jx-riod, Pluenicians visited the islands and coasts of J fellas both as traders and as pirates, and tradi- tion is unanimous in stating that the art of writing was introduced into Hellas by Phtenicians. It would indeed be absurd to suppose that the Hellenes were not influ- enced at all by the nations round about them, for no nation can remain completely isolated without injury to itself; but. whatever ideas or institutions either individual innnigrants or bodies of innnigrants may have brought into Hellas, they were so completely altered and assimi- lated by the genius of the Hellenes, that in the course of time every trace of their foreign origin disappeared. The language of the Hellenes itself cojitains no trace of %TP^i^i^ ^^" '^iiy other foreign irifluence ; their religion is essentifdly that of theii- Aryan kinsmen, only modified and altei-ed by their own imagination, when the real significance of their gods and their attributes had been forgotten. The arts of the Hellenes can be traced in their own country from the rudest beginnings to theii- highest de\elopment ; and in their jjolitical and social institutions there is nothing that might point to an Egyptian or other Semitic origin — they form, in fact, the strongest contrast to the political and social institutions of the Semitic race. In sli(jrt, the whole ciAdlisation of the Hellenes bears the unmistakable mark of its having originated and de\'eloj)ed with the people itself. i !•• HOMEA. CHAPTER 1. THE MYTHICAL OR LEGENDARY PERIOD. This period, during which the gods were supposed to liave descended among men, and personally to have taken an active part in their affaira, extends from the remotest times to about B.C. 1100. All that the Greeks them- selves knew about that period, had been handed down by oral tradition, and had been so much altered and embel- lished by the poetical genius of the nation and by the poets of later times, that in most cases it is impossible to say what may have been the real groundwork of those ancient stories. But as they are not only constantly alluded to by the Greek and Latin writers, and, in tact, torm the foundations of most of their poetical produc- tio:is, but are also much interwoven with the poetry of modern nations, it will be necessary to give at least brief outlines of the most important of the early legends. t list m importance are the legendsof HerakUa (Hercules) i)anaos, the supposed immigrant from Egypt, had a grand- tlaughter Danae, who became by Zeus (Jupiter), the greatest among the Hellenic gods, the mother of Perseus, and trom him was descended Herakles, a son of Zeus by Alkmena, a gi-auddaughter of Perseus. Herakles is the greatest and most famous of all the mythical heroes of HelJfis: he was believed to have been a man of gigantic strength, and the most wonderful exploits are jiscribed to him. Ihe number of those extiaoidinary feats is twelve IIIST(»I!Y ol' (;HKK(K. 16 l)iit it sctniis cl»'iir tliiit tbt; (Ji-cckH Mscnlu'd to tbeir great hero what can never have Ihhmi th<' works of one man, even though he were a giant, hut iimst have been the resiilts of the bibonrs of whoh) geneiations of men arriv- ing in an uninhabited country, and ha\ing to contend with all manner of ditHcalties. Thus he is said to have cleft rocks, to have turned the courses of rivers, to have <)j)ened subterraneous outU^ts of lakes, and to have cleared the country of wild and noxious beasts. He is also represented as the protector of the weak and helpless, tis the chastiser of cruel tyrants, and as having traversed many foreign lands, wliere he achieved equally wondeiful feats. The imagination of the Greeks raised him to the rank of a god, to whom temphs were erected and sacri- fices offered. In works of art he is rejtresented as a sti-ong muscular man, armed with a club and cairying a lion's skin. Another great hero, who may be regarded as the Herakles of Attika, is These%is, a son of ^^geus and ^thra, a daughter of the King of Trojzen. The Athenians looked upon him as an ancient king who had united the various towns of Attika into one state, and laid the foiuidation of its political constitution. He was believed to have freed the country from daring and cruel robbers, and thereby to have nmdered the load over the isthmus of Korinth safe for travellei-s, to have slain giants and destructive animals. But the feat for which he was most famous was the manner in which he deliver(Kl Athens from a tribute which had to be paid to Minos, a mighty king of Krete. This tribute consisted of a number of young men and maidens, who were sent annually to Krete, there to be devoured by a monsttn- called the Minotaur, who lived in a labja-inihine cave. When the time came for sending out these victims, young Theseus himself desijcd to be one of them. On his arrival in Krete he won the love of Ariadne, the king's duughtt!!-, who furnished him with a thread by means of which, after slaying the Minotaur, he found his way out of the labyrinth. Having thus iVeed Athens i'or ever from the cruel tribute, he left the Ifi FirSTORY OF iiHEKCE. m it'li"',rN.;V'"''""; "'""■'.. I—-'. !..• .•..lMn,l„„o,l in served bya U- I c- e I . xi '" "".''"f^, """ I"''- pse& «£E5SSa uudKfivdSr°"r '"'"■,"■"?.'' ''"™^''«' a' ->^ y oiua Jia|yd„u_„,,d a immberof other inteiestini; legends ■!frso,T°t ':"'•'"";■'"'' ^'"'■""■''■'«' --«?•! aescoKUut ot .iolos—aii ancestor of Jason— wmiU sneoeed to the throne. Peiias, tl,erefore, Muccd the ho|,e that he would perish in it. Aceompanied bv nnnv o U-r heroes, he sailed in a la.ge ship, called to Co o. Tof tl" Pr^ l'4''" •^'?'»f'>'^). 'o Kolcbis, on thceS ventures the p rfj reUll Kd.^his"'' , ,^""' '"™^ "«'■ diffieulth.s 1,.„1 h, I *-'"■"' '^"''■'"K, and hero many more uimtulti, s h.„l U, l,e ovoi-conu.. JSnt J/,,M,,, the .lan-hter HISTORY OF GRKKt'K. 17 of A'A'ioH, the king of Kolcliis, who conceived a pa.ssion for Jiison, and was Hkilled in all manner of sorcery, iissist<'d Jason, and the foiit was successfully accomplished. Jason then returned, takin?? Medeia with him as his wife, and in order to detain her fathjtr who was pursuing lier, Medeia killed her young brother Al)syrto.s, and dismendjering his body, scattered the parts on hei- road, by the collecting of wliich her father's jnirsuit was checked. Tlie adventures of the heroes on their retin-n were as many and as dangerous as had been those on their way out. On Jason's arrival at lolkos, Pelias still persisted in refusing the kingdom to his rival, but he was murd(!i'ed, and Jason became king of lolkos. Some years later, though he had two children by Medeia, Jason fell in love with Kreiisa, daughter of the King of Koiinth. Medeia, stung with jealousy, liad recourse to her arts of sorcery, and caused" the death of her rival by steej)ing her gaiinent in a poison which con- siuned her body ; she then nuu-dered her own two chil- dren, and disappeared in a chariot drawn by winged dragons. This story implies that the Greeks even in those early times undertook voyages to distant lands. It is quite evident that the story, as it is related, cannot be believed, but it is impossible to say what historical event may have given rise to it, and we must tiike it as it stands, as a proof of what the childlike? imagination of the Greeks could be made to believe. The Roijal Home of Thelm.—Uskii^^Vm, a king of Thebes, was succeeded by liis son Laios, who married Jokasta, and })y her became tin; father of QMipus. Laios being informed by an oracle that this son would cau.se his death, exposed the infant in a forest on INIount Kithjeron, expecting that he would be killed l)y wild beasts. But the child was found by a sluipherd, wlio took it to Polybo.s, king of Korinth, and as the king's wife was childless, the cast-away was brought up as his own son. When he grew up to manhood lie naturally became anxious to know his ti-ue parentage, and i»roceeded to the oracle atDeli)hi. There he was told that he would cause his father's death, M 18 IirSTOKY OK (ilJKKCK. and in ord.r to avoul the possibility of su.l, a .nisfortune. he resolved not o return U> Korinfch, thinking that nos^ sibly Polyhos ni.ght after all be his father. During Ins wanderings he met his father Laios in a narrow defde A quan-el arose between the attendants of the two travel- lers, and m the ensuing fight Laios was slain by a5dii>us Ihebes Ihat city happened to be in great distress, on ac- count of a monster, called the Spliinx, half lion and half woman, who proposed a riddle to all persons passing by the k1«'?i. 'hf ' ^'^'^; ^""^ '""''y °"^ ^^« ^^« unable to solve the riddle, was hurled from the rock and killed. Mipus succeeded in solving the riddle, and the S,>hinx then cast herself from the rock. The widowed queen Joka^ta had made it known that, whoeverfreed Thebes from the monster should have her hand and share her throne CEdipus accordingly, without knowing it, married hLs own mother and became by her- the father of two sons, Tn^ Wne ^"^^""^^^' ^"^^ ^""^ ^-'g^ters, Antigone During the period of this unfortunate marriage, Thebes was visited by all sorts of calamities, of which no one knew the cause, until an oracle revealed all the horrible tacts. Jokasta in despair put an end to her life, and (Edipus having put oirt his eyes, wandered about as a r,Sv a'"". ' ^^^«"r?"',^ °"^^ ^y ^'^ affectionate dai ghter Aiitigone, and died on the hill of Kolonos in Attikji. His two sons succeeded him on the throne, but soon fell out with each other. Each secured allies and a war ensued called the war of the Seven against Thebes Ihe city was besieged, and the war lasted for a long time until ma fanal hand-to-hand struggle Eteokles and I'olyneikes pierced each other through the body Their descendants (the ^>^^om) also carried on a war against Ihebes to avenge their fathers, and the city of Thebes was aestroyed. The Trojan War is the most famous of all the enter- prises of the heroic age, and this fame it owes to the immortal ep.e of the Iliad which goes by the name of 1U8TOKV 0|- CiUKKCJK. H) Hoiiior, »n(\ '!s tln^ only one (»f tho niiiny <'|)ic i»o(MnH which ceU'hiatcd ihc exploits of tho h('ro«'S of Troy, that hivs coin(5 (losvn to otn- time. The story of the Trojuu war is briefly this. During a contest for beauty among the three goddesses — Hera (Juno), Athena (Minerva), and Aphro- dite (Venus), Paris, a son of Priam, king of Troy, was chosen to decide the dispute. He assign«'d the prize to Aphrodite, the goddess of love and beauty, who in return promised him the most beautiful wife. Helen, a daughter of Zeus and Leda, was of such passing beauty that all the Greek princes were suitors for her hand. Helen preferred Menelaos, king of Sparta, and her foster-father made all the Greek princes pledge themselves to jussist and support Menelaos, if ever he should get into trouble about his wife. On one occasion Paris visited Sparta, and, aided by Aphi'odite, he not only won the love of Helen, but with a gross violation of the laws of lu)spit5ility, carried her off, together with many treasures. The Trojans when summoned to send her back refused, and all the Greek chiefs, faithful to their promise, now undertook to avenge the wrong done to Menelaos ; and, united under the supreme command of Agamemnon, the brother of Menelaos and king of Mykonaj, they undertook a great expedition against Troy, sailing from the port of Aulis in about 1200 ships. Although Agamemnon had the su- preme command, another Greek hero, Achilles, a son of the goddess Thetis, surpassed him and all the other Greek chiefs in courage and valour. The principal hero among the Trojans was Hector, a son of Priam. On one occa- sion, Agamemnon gravely ofiended Achilles, in conse- quence of which the latter withdrew from the contest, and the Trojans nearly succeeded in driving the Greeks out of their land. But in the hour of extremity, when his OAvn friend Patroklos had fallen, Achilles again began to take part in the fight, and in the end killed Hector. He then tied his body by the feet to liis shariot, and dragged it thrice round the city. The war lasted ten years, and ended in Troy being taken by the Greeks siirough the ianious strattigem of the wooden 'f ' '' ■J 20 IIISTOHV OK fjRKKf'R. horn" Tl.o Tn.jans are «i,M ,,„ ),,,,, ,,,^„, j 1^- ti;:i:'z:;n::; '■'"^li.^:^^"-- ■-• '- •»»i«"o,l to th„ y,.,,, no 1184 ''"*■ '" ""'""o-'y ti.'H^.'is :,;:,\:i',''° """■-"""» *'"'"» .io,cn„ed ,•„ cr,.,.J..i ? . • *^' pot'ins, cannot, of course he ,,. Ti„+ ^i j^^ • -i vrreeks as the Ti-oian war itqplf bt n^:; to fij 'ti, nr" '"'""' '"■^'"•'-'■- ■"™«-^ « im«r« *° '"''•''•' ■'•«»i->le(i tlip ,,,<-tei' Lave Si,;t ™' ""'«'— '^f t«0'7 than anything p.™ COIN OF SMVnWA. nAORiricK or a bui.i,, CHAPTKR II. STATE OF CIVIMSATIOX DURING THR HElOFC AOE. As the Ti-ojan war and it.s immediate conseq euces form the close of the heroic a-e, it will be of intei-e.-t to cast a glance at th*; sUite of civilisation 'ixxving that period, so far as it is rcv^ealed to us in the poems of the fliad ind Udysscy tho earn.c.st prochiction. of Euroj.ean literature One of cne most characceristic featui-es of the heroic ago J.S the pec'ilKir i-3ioti.on b^jt^veen «ods and mei The jjoa. v..e believed to dwell on Mount Olympu.'in the noith-east ot Theasalyj taei-.cc. they often de^ •ended mingled among m^>rtal men, iook an active part i their allairs, and m tuDcs of war soma always sided ';vinh the one party, and othf^is with the otb.jr. Wh. n th-v -vd pearod among men, thoy usually assumed the f(, m of some mortal, and but rarely shewed themselves i all their majesty as gods, because it would have been ver- powering to the weak senses of men. But still they v^ere everj-where conceived as beings of the human forni. .oth male atid female. This anthropomorphism of the "ods however seems to have been a conception of a later tu b"* sometimes even a veiy rude image or a ..tone, supposed to have fallen from heaven, was reverently looked upon as the symbol of some god We must not, however, believe that the such Idolatry If it oyer did occur, arose only at a very .te period of Greek history, and even then was confined god^^leTs^W "'' ""'""^'^' '''' ^^'"^«^« -^^^ *^« poets as models of goodness and morality, thov were nevertheless, supposed to punish the misdeeds of men both in th,s ^. orm and in a future state, for they belies ed HISTORY OF OKEKCK. 23 't'lice as a in ca sort of* immortality of the soul, though its life in the nether world was believed to be so dismal that one of the great heroes is said to have declared he would rather be a beggar on earth than a king of the shades in the lower regions. Zeus, the supreme god, was looked upon as the protector of hospitality, of strangers, and of beggai-s. The violation of an oath was also believed to be avenged by Zeus. All men have a natural desii'e to know something of the future, and the Greeks fancied that such knowledge coidd be obtained in a variety of ways, from signs in the heavens, from dreams, and other natural occun'ences ; but there also were men, like Kalchas, Teiresias, and others, who were believed to have received the gift of prophecy from the gods. There were, moreover, certain localities in which the gods were supposed to reveal the future to mortals. The most ancient and most celebrated place of this kind was Dodona, with its oracle of Zeus, in Epirus. This was afterwards eclipsed by the renowned oracle of Apollo at Delphi, where states and cities, as well as pri- vate citizens, sought comfort and advice, and nothing great was ever undertaken without tii-st consulting the will of the gods. The arts of war and navigation were still in their in- fancy. The ships which conveyed the Greeks to Troy were open boats, some carrying 120, and others only 50 men. During the war itiielf, we hear, indeed, of armies, but the poets generally speak only of the combats of heroes, which always decide the issue of a battle, unless some god interferes. The masses apjxuir mostly only as a sort of background and foil for the heroes. Each hero, accompanied by a charioteer, fights from a chaiiot drawn by two horses, and is armed with sword, spear, and bow and arrows. No fjuarter was given to a ^'auquishetl enemy, whose dead body even was often savagely in- 8ult(id. Prisoners of war, esi)ecially women, were gene- rally distributed as slaves among the conquerors, while the men were put to death. The country of Greece, which was then uot yet desig- 24 HISTOHV OF (;KEF:fK. ii' Ml nated l.y u common name, was divid,.,! into h. o-.-oat nnn. l>or of principalities, oach of ^vl,ich was ^ov nl an hereditary kin<^ On m-ovr. ^ • ^^''^^^^Y? ' ''-^ wee of little aecouut Law. Cl '° Lf oftiT;'™ umes. ine nobles who were maiidy distin'niished fnv enrof s^avef t "'^' ""''^ severe in their treat- had their lands cnltivated either by hired freemen (^l cesses ,„ dnukmy are soavcely Sver n.ention.'f ' AlJ comnurce was carried on ]»v l>-.i-h>,. „/i Sefsj^4:"t'rtLn;r^^'wf3 I,, arts most Inghly j,n.<.d w<.,v those of Ij the ^nl .ise of arms, swiftness of fWot, and a ,o. K^ voice. li.e geograplM,..! knou h-d^e of this f^riod vv^ HISTORY OF GREECE. 25 'I'lncesses limitod to Greece, the surrounding islands, and the north- west coast of Asia Minor; all other coinitrics, even Itcily and Sicily, seem to have been utterly unknown, and most marvellous tales were current about them and other neighbouring countries. Of literature we can hardly speak m those early ages, for although the art of writing IS said to have been introduced into Greece at a very early period, it is nowhere mentioned in the stones that have come down to our time. Brt we have good reason for l)elieving that there existed a considerable amount of ballad poetry, celebrating the deeds of the heroes, and hymns of praise to the gods. The Iliad itself is probably a collection of ballads' of this kind, skilfully combined mto one gi-eat epic poem by a later hand or hands. Homer, the reputed author of the Iliad and Odyssey is commonly believed to have lived about B.C. 900. Hesiod another poet who flourished somewhat later, employs a language very like that of his predecessor, but his subjects are very diflferent, for he describes to us the origin of the gods and the peaceful ]>ursuits of ordinary life. "But both poets have greatly contributed towards fixing for all future time the ideas and conceptions about the Hellenic gods ii ll 5 Ji f I ;' il ii 1 ;;. ■V ).[ LION OATE OF MTRRN« Im ■J r-.-^\y -HY TREASURK HOUSE 0» ATRKUS. CHAPTER III. FfiOM THE TROJAN TIMES TO THE CONQUEST OF MESSENIA BY THE SPARTANS. The first century after the Trojan times was a period of migrations one ever giving rise to another. It may hei^ be observed that, although the Greeks throughout their country belonged to the same race, there yet were some important dillbrences, not only in language, but also m the national character and the institutfons of the various tribes. One very widely-spread branch of the nation was that of the Ach^ans, whom we meet with in J hessa y, and m a great part of Peloponnesus. Afterwards we hnd the nation divided into three great branches, the l>omns, lonians and ^^olians, each of which occupied a distinct part of Hellas, and all of which traced tE origin to a mythical ancestor of the name of Hellen. Ihe Dorians, originally confined to a small district in the H.'p 'l .1 ^-T* Parnassus, were a hardy, warlike v^e, and their dialect was broad and harsh ; the lonians whose dialect was soft and rich in vowels, were distin- guished for their subtle intellect and spirit of enterprise • they represented the ever prog,-e.Bivc principle, whiie the iJorians, being more conservative, remained in many respects stationary. The lonians inhabited the western part of (xrerco, the north of P(,loponnesus, and Attika HISTORY OF GREECE, 27 MESSENIA The ^olians, both in regard to their dialect and their national character, formed a kind of intennediat^ tribe between the other two, but their dialect preserved the oldest forms of the language. As each of these three tribes passed through its own peculiar development al- most independent of the others, their arts and literature also bore a distinct character, each tribe cultivating those powers with which Nature had specially endowed it, and which circumstances called into action. In Greece, there- fore, we find no system of centralisation or uniformity, and the works of Greek genius display an almost unexampled richness and variety. The first of the migrations we hear of occurred about sixty yeara after the fall of Troy. The Thessalians, a people dwelling in Epirus, came across the mountains into the country afterwards called after them Thessaly, and there reduced one part of the population to servitude, and compelled others to emigrate. Among the latter, the Boeotians migrated south, and took possession of the country henceforth called Bceotia. This latter country had until then been inhabited by Kadmeians and Min- yans, but they being now driven from their homes, and being joined by Achseans from Peleponnesus, are said to have sailed to the north-west coast of Asia Minor, and there to have established a series of settlements known by the name of the jEolmn Colonies. Another migration of far greater importance was that of the Boriam into Peloponnesus, of which they con- quered the greater and most fertile parts. This migi-ation is commonly assigned to the year B.C. 1104. It is said to have arisen out of a claim set up by the descendants of Herakles upon the possession of a portion of Pelopon- nesus. The Dorians, who can have formed only a small portion of the immigi-ants, were joined by adventurers from ^tolia and other countries, and with their help gradually overpowered the original inhabiiauts of the peninsula, and either reduced them to a state of servitude, or forced them to seek a new home in other lands. Ai-- kadia, the central highlands of Peloponnesus, alone re- iiM m m i 28 HISTORY OF GREECE. T.samenos, a grandson o/Agame^,on afor\ "'''• and found a refnge a„4 L JllLtl^'i^-lZa'tt* Meanwhile the Dorian chiefq in Pol Dorians; but one of their su^e^^'ritl aTr'^Sf .nhabrtonts of the country to the oonditiW ™b Lets and the inhabitants of the town cf Woi^„ i, i ,"J^^^^> ^nd o:Ce:litti?t:Lr£9-«--"^^^ time, but tbe^-ei..mci"L^Z£^ZZ:T! '*"'■' a town in Lakonia, Messenil t7eWhe"e dLTJ .ts mdepeudence for a loug ti^; The ZtS, hotet ,' HISTORY OF GREECE. 29 piished theu- conquests farther, and a descendant of Herakles, of the name of Aletes, made himself master of Kormth and there established a new dynasty. Durin- these wars of conquest, many parts of Peloponnesus had been laid waste, and thus compelled the conquerors to proceed to other parts. The talking of Korinth brought themL to the confines of Attika, which was then gov- erned by a king of the name of Kodros. Aletes led .wTr^'"' •"'*'' ^^f^^' ^" ^^-'-^^^l^ I^ad declared that the Dorians would be successful if they spared ^ ] /i-^'^ Athenian king. When the Athenians heard of this prophecy, their noble king at once re- solved to sacrifice himself for his country. In the disguise of a woodman he went among the invaders, and slew one of them, whereupon the Dorians, who had witnessed the deed, rushed on and killed him. When it became known to them that they had slain the Athenian king, they were seized with terror, and withdrew their forces from Attika, mile Attika thus escaped falling into the hands of the Dorians a portion of it, afterwards called Megara, was occupied by a Dorian colony from Korinth. The island of ^gina was likewise seized bv the Dorians A tar niore important conquest than these was that of the island of Krete. During the long troubles connected with the conquest of Peloponnesus, many Dorian adven- turers, either dis.s Lsfied with what they had got, or having been unable to obtain any share in the spoil, pro- ceeded to the islands of Rhodes and Krete. In the latter they are said to have met with few obstacles, as they tound the place almost depopulated by disease and famine. Ihey were accordingly enabled to establish themselves unhindered, and to preserve their ancient national char- acter and institutions. Although these institutions are commonly said to have been founded by the ancient kin- MmoH, to make them appear more venerable, yet it is quite certain that they were brought in by the Dorians themselves, for in whatever parts of Greece the Dorians established themselves, we find the same or very similar 1 1 i * ! 30 IIISTOItY OF OKfiECE. m institutions as those of KvMt^ ti.^- membersof the senate, orZ^LgTt^^ ::^:tJ;r' mg the title of geronia or huU W ^ I A ^^ ^^^'■ assembly consisWnf «n ^ ^ ^^? ^^^^ ^^ ^ P^P^^^r among the freemen aLtS ^ '"'''"S «»imV rfe corps HIHTOKY OK OHKECE. 1 outline is, livided into le last two nhabitants. «wns, and le to their ment were art of the I, and was ' set apart 'he Dorian le pursuit ed by the ided into ed by ten f Kosmoi, it become and bear- a popular ttained a have had measure* e it. an mode ic states, ng, took expense e called Such a ie corps ibed the s hai-sh ;h in all firmly A few il)Ietely akonia, is laws 31 ^It^iw '";^^r*^°"« ^'^ generally ascribed to the peat lawgiver Zy^-w^o.; but if we examine them ami compare them with those of other Doric sb.tes, we hn that their groundwork at least is the same as ev;ry^here else, whence we must infer that Lykurgos probabTv dW no more than collect and arrange in oL cofe wCad been the ancient usages of his countrymen. His historv ^ anything but certain. The date generally assigned to h' h?n 2oT '" '^' ^r "•"• ''^' '"^* other/place^im mm" than 200 years earlier. Sparta was always governed bv two kings, the descendants of Eurysthenes a^ndToklos^ one o%"^'' ""? Y^'^''^ ^ ^^^^ been connected S one of these royal houses. One of the kings it is s lid had died, and his widow wishiii.. to marv 1 Un, ' proposed to get rid of her son and .^Lre tLe s^ ctS such'aXme'^rV'' '"^r" ^^"^^ ^^ J"«*^- ^^^^^' sucn a scheme, and in order to escape the iiriDortunitip^ nrincrh'rfr;"' *° ""^^^ *^^ — -- J^ he you": prince, he left Sparta, and spent the best part of hi fe in foreign countries, where he gathered knowledge and ^tu^d 'Vf ' "* ?^^*' "^^^^ "^y ^"« countrynren; he L aXt of tb " T?V" '1 '^^^^ *^ ^^^- f-»^d Sp'ai^ in a state of the greatest disorder. The party favourable to him induced the Delphic oracle to declare him the wisest of mortals. Armed with this deckrition bi^ fnends easily persuaded their fellow-citil"eniru the necessaiy refor„,s ,,d legislation to him. He had still to contend with much opposition, but he neverthe less succeeded m enacting a series of aws by Xh the' cml and military constitution of the state, the diSibu! tionof property the education of the citizens and the regulation of their daily life were fixed. When he had accomplished his work, he departed to DelphT binding his fellow-citizens by a solemn oath not to make anf change m his laws until his return. But heTever d d return, and the Delphic oracle declared thit Sm- T i flourish so long as (t observe,^ the laws ofLfef^Bv this means the immutable character of Ms [jws was secm-ed, and the person of the lawgiver wa. entlly bs ;*! 33 IIISTOIIV Of lillKKUE. 0^.^ r r^'' '''^^ *^ "^<^ *^« «I«^rtans among them! selves us closely as possible. In order to put an end to lie quarrels and disputes about the land, C is s^fd to X'f rr'T^^ 'r '™" °^^" ihe landrd1,ro' e whole of iTo-^' ^' '"^^ ^' "^^"'"^^^^^^ ^^^-^ ti^at nc wnole ot Lakoma was not completely conquered bv he Donans till about a century after LykurX bu^ far as they were then masters of it he is sJd fn^! dmded it into 39,000 lots, of which 9000 .ii' ati'ned nfUr^rf ^- ^no*^er account assigns this division of landed proi.erty to a later period, wh?n MesLnil had become subject to Sparta. ^" luessema Had It is but natural to suppose that the ruling Sr»artans « dThe wri'"* 'T'' "' *^^ ^^^^ f«r themseief We hud the whole population divided into three classes- n\ he Spartans or ruling Dorians; (2.) the sWes or Hdlts^ S ei ii flv 'of'^h P^^P^^«f ^,-konia. The last con- vee oblifd.fr^' ^'^'^""* ^^^*^" inhabitants, who weie Obliged to live m open towns and villages as thp u Ills tJiey had to bear the heaviest burdens qnd i^ hght the battles of theii^ nUers ; but on tL o^r tani they were lu the undivided possession of alfthe tmdes and manufactures of the country, as the ruHng Sp tu JIISTOKY OV OREKCE. 33 looked upon all such pursuits ,i.s dc-raaing. The Helots were l.rol.ahiy those of the aneieut Achteaus who ha.1 most resolutely defended their liberty, l.ut being overpowered in the end, were reduced to a state of servitude. Their condition was more wretched than that of the slaves in any other inirt of Greece ; they were looked upon with tear and jealousy, an.l often treated with inhuman cruelty to make them teel the contempt in which they were held, and to break their spirits. They were buun.l to the soil, and could not be sold into another countiy. They nii-ht however, recover their freedom by zeal and industry, ami as they always accompanied their masters in wal^ thev might even enrich themselves by plunder. The ruling Si.artans had all equal rights, and formed a sort of aristocracy like that of the Roman patricians, and they alone constituted the really free citizens. As already observed, the Spartans were go\erned by two hereditjirv kings; and the constitution, api,roved as it had been bV the omcle, remained the same down to the latest times when Its very .spirit and soul had vanished. Thr popular assembly, in wliich, ofcour.se, the Spartans alone took part, was convened by the magistrates at stated times, but could only accept or reject the measures brought betore it. _ There was also a senate consisting of twenty eight or, including the two kings, thirty members : ir oore the name of (/ernsia—thut is, assembly of elders.' Ihey were chosen by the king.s, and none could become a member of the senate until he had completed his sixtieth year. Ihe function of the senate was to prepare the nieasures wliich were to be brought before the peoi^le, and the comitry seems, in fact, to hav(3 been governed by that body and the two kings alone, until at a somewhat later period a magistracy, called the ephms, was instituted, whereby the powers of both the kings and the senate were considerably reduced. The kings originally had the supreme command of the armies ; tbev were the hi<^h priests and supreme judges of the nation; they were revered as the chief magistrates, and as descendants of fferakles ; they possessed <'xtensive domains, and received u HI8TOKY OP GllEEOE. -£-'..'T;;;;r„,;'' ,■;■"■' -''-'v-we.. the™ u> uve « scended to thfeXt^son or " ^ "^^'''^* ^^'^^:^« d^' fldest dau.d.ter «H I.,,??' , ' '" ^'^^''"^* ^^ '^ ««»> ^ the The %irtans were Lve.^- fn '^^ ^- ""^^''^ pio,.rietor8. or pieces of i ^cLthu J i T' .^ • '""^ "'""^>^' ^"^ ^^^^'^ down to the la Lr r' Th?s r^^^ apply to the Lakonia rwho w^^^^^^^^^^^^ ^'\^-' commercial dealings w th otlTrsL.lt '^w"'" '" '^'''' ";uch more respected and ho^i,um at ^1^"^ ™ other j)ai-ts of Greece • n,i,l . ^ "" ,^** ^5 Sparta than in for the service of h^ ^iLZ.ll^ «f ^'-"^g -^n care, but all that wa aimed .Ti Tl "t^ f'^ ^'''^' train them as men who Wl f V -I' ^^^^^^^'^^^ ^as to and difficulty, an'd slouldt '. '^Xt of ^^^ mand. Sickly or deformed r^l ill. ^ ^^^ ^' *° *^°«^- forests of Mount IW^^^^^^^ and gymnastic exercSf ^^^ hetSiK^^ ^^^^^ admiration whic i' o^^^^^^^^ the high The Sj>artanr in .ir?l . ""^^ ^'^'^^^^^ "P«^^ them. sidered worthy of a Snn, f . ' A \ '^ °''^^ "^^'^^^6 con- infantry. Th^e Helots t T *^^^* «V^" ^^^^^ ^^"ned Spart^LverrcqH,tl Jn\T 1*^' ^^^'^* ^^^"^^*^->^' ^^^ years after fl.;. 1' !V t"^; ''''''^^ l"^^^-'" «"til years after the time of Lyl iiirifos. irly 500 HI.STOKY OF (;iikk(;e. 35 I to live in out whose n number, livil juris- 1 trihiines, oy became his sub- vere dedi- were his IS formed lecreased, Iways de- ll, to the accunm- ipriotors. and hiiVH currency did not in their en were than in ing men h. great 1 was to ' danger to com- i in the owever, ns were le high I them, ns and ce con- armed y, and ly 500 The legislation of J.yku.-;,ros .secun-d to Spurtji a well regiilated govornmont and .liscipljno; and when about 100 years later the whoi<, of Lakonia w,i« finally Hub- dued the Spartans might have (uijoy,..! a period of reiioso and tranquillity. But theii- warlike, spirit and the love ot conquest tostereil by so many y..nrs of warfare with the ancient Acha^ans, led them into a war with Argos for the possession of the eastern count of I.ikonia, which belonged to Argos, but was finally coiK.uered by the Spai'tans. ^ i j ^ A more important country which excited their iealonsv and covetousness was Messenia, on the west of Lakonia which was far inore fertile and productive than their own' Ihe Acha-ans m that couutiy, moreover, being treated by their conqiiei-ors with greater mildness and gentleness than those in Lakoma, v ere a comi)aratively hai),)y people the conquerors an.l the conquered being united as one people, and all enjoying tlu, same rights and privileges Jhe country, therefore, was prosperous, and as its in- habitants cultivated the arts of i)eace more than those of war, the Spartans thought it an easy matter to add that country to their domhiions. A pretext for war was eamly found. Frequent acts of hostility had been com- mitted on both si.les of the frontier, and a private wrona done by a Spartan to a Messenian led to the outbreak of ^aTI' ^o^'^l*^';*'^'' countries, which lasted from B.C. 74c{ to 724. The Sp.artaus bound themselves by an oath not to lay down their arms until they had made them- selves masters of the country; and invading it, thev massacred the defenceless inhabitants, and established themselves m the town of Amphia, in the noith-east of Messenia. The account we have of this war is full of poeti^l lays and popular traditions. But it seems certjiin that for several years the S]>artans, sallying forth from Amphia, ravaged the country far and wide. The Messen- lans, who suffered severely, fortified themselves on Mount Ithome, and an oracle prnmi.sed them the victory if thev sacrificed a pure virgin to the infernal gods. Ai-istodemos. a noble Messenian, accordingly offered his daughter as a 1 u 36 HISTOKY OF ^^ continued by ravaging inrlt ^^Sl/a X harvest time, when the Spartans destroyed the crops of the Messenians and thus tried to reduce them bySne ^Ihed battle' ^''''r'lf *^« reign of Aristo^dem a L end th^M^"'*^^^^ f^'^'f ' ^r^^* ^«f-t- But n the end the Messemans lost heart in consequence of un favourable oracles and several successful undeSils of ^^''"^r^^'^f"^'^'' "-^-P-- put aneifdto of a hope blTnr?;'? '''^* ^^^^"^^-^^^ *^'^ Messenians oi an nope, but not of then- courage, and once morP H.^v made a vigorous sdly from Mou^nt Ithome But whe^ thei, brave leaders had fallen, the people fled frorn Iheil fortress, leaving their lands in the pos ession of the con querors, and the war was at an end The mam body of the people dispersed to theii- homes but many took refuge in foreign countries. The SparCs disposed of the land at their pleasure, and the Me senians, who remained in their homes were reducpd f!; t:^^izt:^ tr town if^r 'r' " '-'■ r ^ Tf.,i,r +1 ^ • . , . " o* Jarentum m southei-n Italy, the colonists beiiiff the ofFsnrin wot only recovered '-«if^ ca&tem coast district of LHknni-i v^.^^^ .>, " . th. island of KytLe... BuJtZ:; t^^T^Z HISTORY OK (JMIOEC'K. 37 ihe death of Plieidon, and Sparta ai,oiin became the mistress of the south of Peloponnesus "^rom sea to sea 'The T:Sl.^rrM ' "'' *" ^^^^^ ^^"- ^^"^"-^« undisttuC Ihe enslaved Messenians and their exiled countrymen burned with the desire to recover their freedom IS^ nienos, a noble Messenian of gi-eat valour roustdh^ countrymen into action, and forx^ed allianc s.Xl™' Arkadia, and Ehs. The Messenians took up amsand commenced a second ^ar^^-Mok lasted from^c 685 o^ -S'r 7}'^ accounts of this war are even more mixed "he wf -f^f'-'f P'^f^^^ '^''^ *^^- *^« first t"ou^^ to hlv ^ T r '^^"^ "" ^°"^*- Aristomene's is said l-ilt hi K f' ^""'l*'-^"^^"' '^^d to have fought a a gieat battle before assistance could come from Sparta • but the victory was not decisive, though the Spart ns were tenor-struck by the unexpected inJurrec ion^ The Messenians wished to make Aristomenes their kinc. but extiaoidiiuiry daring to have entered the city of Sparta. Wh.!: J^- ^-1-t^^ a trophy in the temple'^of Attt When the Spartans consulted the oracle of Delphi the answer was that they should seek an Athenian counsellor and the Athenians sent them the warlike poet Tyrtios to assKst them in the war. The spirit of the Messenians was kept up by their exiled cLntrymen and bv th! the Spartans were completely routed, and for a time Messema was freed fron. her enen;ies. iLrwS Aristomenes even carried the war into Lakonia aud ;Twou7d " t ^'"'^'"' T'' '^^ i^^-°«"-- --"'op"' vwl ?i 1 T"" ^^^'''''^ ^*^*^^* t^^^ Spartans gained a victory through the treachery of the Arkadians Aristo menest uai fortified hin.self on Mount Eira, where he was besieged by the enemy, who laid waste the simoundTi^ W S;^^^^^^^^ ^-f perpetually haS I fiLiuiL^ miu j^akonia, and after somp 4 ]Z\7X tJieretoie felt more and for the Durno.; Af^ ' • ^^' ^PP^^^^ment of Drakon Drakons view, it is siirl oil ^«« -fitcoraing to =. fthf ""^r "{^^'^^ C or':fTe^- poncd in p r fil9 t^ ^ c* "ee state. J his h.a]) jp in rf :i sit, rs.iTK;:„t:.,i'^:,S"« i ' 42 HISTORY OF GREECE. ^nt of Megara. Before entering on any decisive step, Kylon consulted the oracle of Delphi, and its ambiguous answer led him to commence his operations on a wrong day. However, with the help of his supporters, he suc- ceeded in seizing the akropolis or citadel of Athens, where he was besieged by his brother nobles, who assembled all the forces of the country against him. Kylon, being hard pressed and despaii-ing of success, made his escape, and his followers were compelled to sun-ender to the &xc\ion Megakles, a son of Alkmseon, on condition that their lives should be spared. But the conquerors, in spite of this promise, slew the prisoners, and even killed some who had taken refuge at the altar of the Eumenides (Furies). As this sacrilege was committed with the sanc- tion of Megakles, he and all his house v/ere henceforth looked upon by the people with horror as accursed per- sons ; and the partisans of Kylon, no doubt, fostered this feelmg towards their enemies. Every misfortune that henceforth fell upon Athens was declared to be a sign of the divine wrath at the crime of Megakles ; and if matters had been permitted to go on ji this way, the result would undoubtedly have been a terrible civil war. In these circumstances, the government as well as the people were anxious to find a man capable of allaying the ferment and remodelling the constitution in a manner satis- factory to all. That man was Solon, a descendant of the royal house of Kodros, who had visited many foreign lands, everywhere gathering information and forming friendships with the most illustrious persons of his age. He had returned to Athens soon after the suppression of the Kylonian conspiracy, and found his country internally distracted and so weak as to be unable to resist even its weakest neighbours. The Megarians had taken the island of Salamis from the Athenians ; and the latter, after many fruitless attempts to recover it, had given up all hope, and even threatened with severe punishment any one who should induce the people to renew the war. But Solon, who was also a great poet, contrived by a splendid poem once more to rouse the spirit of his country men. The niSTOHY OK GUKECE. 43 the Ir '• 1^'' ^'""'f ""''' appointed commander of drL. ^l IS ''''^'' T'^ '^ ^-^^ ^0'^' ^^ succeeded in iW^^ ,*\« Megamns from Salamis. This victory greatly mcreaaed his power and influence, and, supported by the moderate party of the nobles, he prevailed upon Meglldes Zi^ T^^*"' to submit theii. case to a iourt of arbi- tnition The court found Megakles and his party guilty of sacrdege and in b.c. 597, all the descendants of Alk- ^ZZ^^y.^T^'t^'^ "^^^ ^^"^ ^^*« «-^«- As thl gods, Solon mvited Epimenides of Krete, a pei-son who ot superhuman wisdom. By certain religious rites Eni menides purmed the city to the satisfactionof ^ , 3 then returned to his native island When the minds of the people were thus freed from their supei^titious fears, Solon was elected archon for th^ received full authority to diw up a new constitution a^id a code of laws. In order to understand his legisla- wwA'' f^'^Tl^ ^ «^«<^ a glance at the condition in which he found his country. Many of the agricultm-al population had been reduced to a state of absolute depend- ence on their lords; political rights they had probably none at all ; and the law of debt^as so Lere,Ct the debtor when unable to pay his creditor, might be seized and sold as a slave into a foreign country." Those who suffered under such a system were naturally eager for any change, while the nobles wished to keep thtn^s as hey were The shepherds and poor peasants^of the hilfy a change that should secure them against the rapacity of their oppressors. The men of the cSust, mostly merchJnte and traders were indeed averse to violent measures bii? still joined the rest in demanding such reforms as wouW fort wH I \l ^'«^««f We complaints. The task, there- lore, ^vhich Solon had to imdertake, was of a twofold nature : he had first to relieve the existing distress of the comn^onalty, and secondly to enact sucli'laws as would 1 t I •I u HISTORY OF GKEECE. prevent the leciirrenee of the same or siniilar evils. His first measures, accordingly, freed the debtors of a portion of their debts, without causing any very serious loss to creditors, to restore the pledged lands to their owners, and to forbid creditors to seize and sell the persons of their debtors. Having settled these most urgent matters, he abolished the laws of Drakon, recalled a number of exiles, probably including the family of Megakles, and made some regu- lations about foreigners, many of whom had taken up their abode in Attika. The settlement of these minoi- naatters was followed by the remodelling of the constitu- tion. Hitherto, birth alone had determined a man's rights and privileges, but Solon now made landed pro- perty, or rather the produce of such property, the stan- dard by which his rights and duties were fixed. For this purpose, he divided the whole population of Attika into four classes, the first three being landed proprietora possessing more or less productive estates; the fourth class, called thetes, seem to have consisted for the most part of free labourers and artisans. The great offices of state were made accessible only to the members of the first or wealthiest class, while minor offices could, no doubt, be held by men of the second and third classes. The wealthier a man was, the heavier were his duties. Thus the men of the second class formed the cavalry, those of the third the heavy-armed infantry, and those of the fourth served only as light infantry, and at a later period as marines in the navy. Such a change, though most important in principle, at first left things much the same as they had been before ; but a man of talent and industry might, in the course of time, rise from a lower to a higher class, and thereby become capable of holding the highest offices in the state. In the popular assembly, moreover, the members of all the classes appeared on a footing of perfect equality, and its power henceforth was not limited to accepting or rejecting the measures that were brought before it, but it might amend or modify them as it thought fit ; and every man who had attained HISTORY OP GREECE. ^^ the age of twenty, was ullovved to speak and exi.ress his opmu^ns upon all questions. The new conSti^ had before, but they were made responsible for their^acts ^tZft ^""hl *^"' '"''^'^' *^'' clemoci-atic element very stiong, he at the same time chocked its power by estalf ishmg a senate of 400 members, to which no man unde • thn^ was eligible, and for which a certain proi^r^; qualification was required. The senators held tW dig^ liaw/Tn K^ ir'i ^'^'' ^* *^" "^^^ ^^ ^^^i«h they were conduct kl f T""- *' ''''^''' "^ ^'^^^^^ «f *t«»- mv.Ti cl^^ef business of the senate was to pre- paie the measures which were to be brought before the Son' ^T?''' ''T-^^ *^^ir^ ^^ - --- i<- on?; tunction. The second court, likewise intended to check IslTJ w' f ™''' ™ *^^* "^ *^« ^reiopagos, which eems to t V^'"' '^'f '^ ^™ ^ mythical times, but seems to have been newly organised by Solon, and to known that it took cogmsance of murder, maiming poisoning, and arson. ' xuaiming, Solon, fully aware that no reform, however good and useful, can be final, but must be modified from^ tL to time accordmg to altered circumstances, provided that the laws should be periodically examined' aLYmproved His legislation, like that of all ancient lawgivers, under- took to regailate the private life of the citizens as wdl a« the affairs of the state ; hence we find Solon laying down rules for the education of the young, and making veTy wa^ lather discouraged than otherwise. The state of the Athenian navy also engaged his attention, and the citi- zens were bound, at theii^ own expense, to equip a fleet of forty-eight galleys. Commerce and m'anufactSes were encouraged by inducing foreigners to settle in Attika many of whom received the franchise, while others en! i -'I ! j 46 HKSTOKY OF GKKKCE. joyed the ])j-otectioai of the law on iwiyiii^' ^ small alien tax. Slavery continued to exist in Attika an before, though the slaves were never so harshly treated as in other parts of Greece, especially at Spai-ta. After the completion of his legislation, Solon is said to have left Athens, and to have travelled in foreign coun- tries for a period of ten years, and to have become ac- quainted with Kroesus, king of Lydia, whose pride he is reported to have tried to subdue, by telling him that no man should boast of being happy until he had reached the hist day of his life. On his return to Athens, about B.C. ^Q2, he fouad that his country was again distracted by factions, and that his own great work was in danger of being destroyed. The people were divided into three parties, each headed by one of the nobles : they were the parties of the plain, the hills, and the coast. The leader of the last was Feisistmtos, a friend and kinsman of Solon. The lawgiver did all he could to bring about a reconciliation, but it wa- of no avail ; and Peisistratos, a man of great ambition and eloquence, had determined to make himself tyrant of Athens. He acted the part of a friend of the people, and one day exhibited some self-inflicted wounds, declaring that he had been asg9iled by his enemies, because he was an advocate of the rights of the people. By this stratagem, he prevailed upon the people to grant him a body-guard for the protection of his person, and with this force he took possession of the akropolis. Megakles, one of his rivals, quitted the city, while the other, Lykurgos, quietly submitted to the authority of the usurper. This happened in B.C. 560. Peisistratos continued to conduct himself as a simple citizen, avoiding all outward display of his real power. Solon died soon after ; and Lykurgos, allying himself with Megakles, succeeded in driving Peisistratos from Athens, his tyi-annis having lasted little more than one year. The two confederates now exercised the same power as Peisistratos had done before, but each was jealous of the other, and only thought of how he might ^et rid of him. Megakles, finding this stale of aftliiis intolerable, now rnsTonY of (inEKCK. 47 entoml into negotiations witli Mio exikMl roisiHtratoR, proinising to do uvorytliing in liis power to restore him to his position, and even gave him his daughter in mar- riage. PeisistratoH was brought back to Athens in a manner calculated to work upon the superstitious feelings of the multitude, for he entered the city in a chariot, having by his side a woman dressed uj) as Athena, the tutelary deity of Athens. However, the friendship between the two confederates did not last long, for Megakles, thinking himself insulted by Peisistratos,' now formed an alliance with Lykurgos, and Peisistratos was again driven out of Athens. He went to Eretria in Eubcea, where he would have spent the remainder of his life in peace, had not his eldest son, Hippias, urged him on to fresh efforts. He accordingly made preparaticas for invading Attika, and formed coimections with tyrants in other parts of Greece. After an exile of ten years, he landed with an army at Marathon. His enemies, whose government had not been particularly popular, marched out to meet him, but were utterly defeated. Peisistratos at once proclaimed an amnesty on condition that his enemies should quietly disiierse. This act disarmed all further ojjposition, and Peisistratos now entered Athens as undisputed master, while his rivals Lykurgos and Megakles had to go into exile. Peisistratos now adopted every means permanently to secure his usurped power ; he surrounded himself with a body of foreign mercenaries, and sent the children of his adversaries as hostages to the island of Naxos. At the same time he gained the goodwill of the poorer classes by affording them occupation in the erection of many public works, both useful and ornamental. By these and other means, he maintiiined his position without any fur- ther interruption for fourteen years, until his death in b.c. 527. Still he was not unmindful of what might happen^ and in order to secure a place of refuge in case of need, lie gave the town of Sigeum, which he took from the Mity- ieneans, to a natural son. In his administration he maintained the laws of Solon. The expenses incurred by 48 iriSTOlIV Ol" CHKKCK. il the erection of ti'mples jind jmhlic huiUliii<;s were def niyo! by ineuiiH of taxes levijul on the weM-ltliy for tlio puri»oHe of benefiting the i)ooivr oitizenn. It is fm-thoi- stjit<'d, that he was tlie first to collect the Homeric poi'ms ; he certainly had a taste for literature, for ho was the first Greek wlio estjtblislifd a imblic library. Taking all in all, it must be owned that he made good use of his usurped i)ower; and there are f(!w citizens to whom Athens owed a greater dcsbt of gratitude. The mild rule of Peisistratos had become so popular among the Atlntnians, that his three sons were allowed, without hesitation, to exercise the same power as their father. Had they been as wise as he, and remembered that they held only a usin-j .:i power, Athens might for generations have been quietly govcined by the desctMidants of Peisistratos. Hippias, the eldest, was at the \u\'A of affairs, and neither he nor his brothers scrupled to resort to violent measures against those whose enmity or in- fluence they feared. At last an event occur- 1, which led to the overthrow of the government, and m. impoi-tant change in the constitution. Harmodios, a young Athen- ian, had been insulted by Hipparchos, on(( of the thriie brothers, and being joined l.j his iv'n}.\\(}i Aiistogeiton, he determined to have his re\'enge. The two resolved to overthi-ow the Peisistratids, and the festi\ al of the Pan- athenaia was fixed upon is the day for carrying out their design. It was in the year B.C. 514, that the two con- spirators ^\'ith their friends, during the solemn i)rocession, attacked the sons of Peisistratos. Hippjirchos was killed in the fray, but Harmodios also fell ; and Aristogeiton, with many of his friends, was arrested juul put to death. After this occurrence, which revealed to Hippias the unpopularity of his family, he was tortured by fear and suspicion, which hul him to put to death many whom he suspected, and to increase the taxes foi- the sake of aug- menting his personal revenue. He also tried to strengthen himself by alliances, with othei* tyrants, and gave his daughter in marriage to the tyrant of Lanipsakos, a friend of the King of Persia. i iriSTOKV OF OUKKC'R. 49 But all wuH of MO rtvuil ; Hi|»j.iii.s Itoeame (liiiiy more iinpo])ular, and tli<3 exiled Alkinu'onids, perceiving' this, detorniined to return to their eonniry and drive out their rivals. Kleisthenes, who now headed tlusir party, secured the 8upj)ort of the Delphic oracle, by extraordinary liberality ; and whenever the Si)artans considted the oracle, they were told iliat they must free Athens from its tyrants. These repeated commands at length induced the Spartans to send an army into Attika. The mercenaries of Hippias were defeated, and, alarmed by this misfortune, he sent his children out of the country, but they fell into the hands of the Spartans, who consented to restore them only on condition of Hippias quitting Attika. The demand was complied with, and in B.C. 510, Hippias proceeded to Sigeum, and all the members of the family of Peisistratos were banished for ever, while Harmodios and Aristogeiton received almost divine honours as the liberators of their country. Kleistb ,, Who thus rose to the head of affairs, like Pei.sistrutoH, attached himself to the popular party, and planned a reform of the constitution, which was to'break the power of the nobles for ever. With the consent of the commonalty, and the sanction of the Delphic oracle, he abolished the four ancient tribes, and divided the whole of Attika into ten districts, also called tribes, each of which was subdivided into a numl-er of demi, each with a town or village for its centre, and each demos was governed by a magistrate called thmarchos. No one could be an Athenian citizen unless he was a member of one of these demi. The commcnaUy thus obtained an entirely new organisation, and was enabled to shake off the yoke of the nobles. The senate v, ^H increased from 400 to 500, and thus became the representative of the ten tribes, each furnishing fifty membei-s. The popular assem- bly henceforth met regularly four times in every nionth. Kleisthenes is further said to have established the process of ostracism, whereby any ppvson might be sent iiito exile, who by his influence and ]>oi)ularity, seemed to be dan- gerous to i)opular liberty. 3 M I i 60 HTSTOllY OK GRKKCK. Id government. ing of the Athenians to The nobles naturally looked iq^on these reforms as revolutionary, and contrived to win over the Spartans, who it all times supported an aristocratic against a democratic They accordingly sent a message, demand- banish the accursed race of the Alkmseonids; and Kleisthenes, in order not to involve his country in a war with the powerful state of Sparta, withdrew from Athens. But the Spartan king, not satisfied with this, and bent upon raising laagoras, the bitt(3i'est opponent of Kleisthenes, to the tyrannis, in- vaded Attika, banished 700 ftimilies marked out by Isagoras, and was making arrangements for putting the government of the country into the hands of a few nobles. But this scheme was resisted by the people of Athens with all their might, and the Spartan king and his adherents were besieged in the akropolis. After a few days they were obliged to surrender, but the king and Isagoras were allowed to depart unmolested, while their Athenian partisans were put to death, and Kleisthenes returned to Athens in triumph, B.C. 508. The Spartan king, deeply vexed at this defeat, fonned alliances with the Boeotians, Korinthians, and Chal- kidians, and determined to invade Attika a second time ; but as the Korinthians felt ashamed of what they were expected to do, and refused to join in the expedition, the undertaking had to be given up. The Athenians in their disti-ess had endeavoured in vain to obtain the assistance of Persia ; but when their enemies had withdrawn, they set about chastising the Boeotians and Clialkidians, against both of whom they were successful ; and Athens, being now freed from domestic and foreign enemies, became strong and ]>ow(u-f\il in the enjoyment of political freedom, and made such rapid progress that soon she outstripped all her rivals. Her foreign enemies, however, were only hushed for a time ; the Boeotians were secretly burning with the desire to avenge their defeat, and for this purpose allied them- selves with the island of ^jgina, an ancient enemy of Athens, and possessed of a jjowerfnl navy. The war HISTORY OF GREfciCK. 51 haf wTf ^' *^! ^P"'"*^"'' ^"^^ ^^^ discovered that they tTds tJ; W '\'" *^' '^P^^^^^^^ °f *J^e Peisistra- tids, mvit.a Hippias to return. A coneresa of Snai-ta and all her allies, was called upon to confider the meaS by which the return of Hippias might be effected At this congress the Korinthian envoy declared that it J^l Sr dennti!:^ rT' ™ '^ i"^pressive that all the other deputies declared against the scheme, which had to the court of Persia, and endeavoured to stir un its king to a wai- against his own country. ^ ATBKKA. ATHENIAN COIN. CHAPTER V. NATIONAL IN8TITUTI9NS — COLONIES — LITERATURE DOWN TO THE PERSIAN WARS. Beforf; proceeding to give an account of the momentous struggle between Europe and Asia, which was to decide whether the south-east of Europe was to remain free or become a province of an Asiatic empire, we will cast a glance at some of the national institutions of the Greeks, their numerous colonies, and the progress of literature since the days of Homer. It has already been observed that the Greeks at no time formed one compact state, and that the covmtry was divided into a number of small states, among which Sparta, after the Dorian conquest, became the largest and most influential. The oniy bond of union among them was their language and their religion, though even these presented considerable differences in the differ^mt parts of the country. But there existed from early times cer- tain associations for religious, and in part also for political, purposes, which acquired at least the appearance of national confederations. The most important of them bore the name of Amphiktvonies — that is, unions of several tribes with a common centre, generally a temple, at which meetings were held at stated times. The most celebmted was the Amphiktyony of Delphi, which held its meetings in the spring at Delphi, and in the autumn at Thermopylae. Its objects were to guard the temple of HISTORY OF GREECE. 53 Delphi, and to preveut cruelty and violence in war ; but this latter object appears to have been completely lost Mght of, for we hear of cases in which the members a' the league inflicted on each other the worst evils of war ■Hius the town of Krissa, which had deserved the censure ot Its confederates, was punished by a war which lasted tor ten years, at the end of which, in b.c. 585, it was razed to the ground, while its harbour was choked up and the surrounding country changed into a wilderness. A second class of national institutions consisted of festive games, celebrated at certain places and at fixed times, and open to all the Greeks in whatever part of the world they lived. The most famous among them were the Olympic Games, which were celebrated every four years at Olympia in Elis. They are said to have existed ftt a very early period, and after a long interruption to have been renewed i b.c. 776, after which time they were regularly held every four yeai-s, and that date was employed by the Greeks as a chronological era. Durin.^ the days of these games there was a cessation of all hostJities among the Greeks, to enable them to proceed to Olympia without fear or danger. The games con- sisted of races on foot, and with horses and chariots contests m leaping, wrestling, and boxing; but combats with weapons were strictly excluded. Nearly every kind of bodily skOl and activity was displayed in those games, and to gam a victory in any of the contests was regarded as the highest honour not only to the victor himself, but to the whole community to which he belonged, thou/ienes, who taught that air was the universal source of life; while Herakleitos, of Ephesus, attributed the same power to heat. We thus see that these infant philosophers attempted to solve problems which still baffle philosophers of our owi i time. Another school of philosophy arose at Elea, in the south of Italy, the founder of which, Xenopliams, based his system upon the assumption of a supreme intelligence; while his succepsors struck out into new paths of inquiry. It is remarkable that these Eleatic philosophers expounded their systems in verse. The most celebrated of the western schools of philoso])hy was that founded by Pytlior g&ras, of Samos, about b.c. 570. He is said to have been the first to assume the title of philosopher— that is, lover of wisdom. He was great as a mathematician, and several mathematical discoveries are attributed to him. He also taught the immortality of the soul in the form of transmigration, similar to that maintained by the Indian Brahmins. He is said to have much travelled in foreign countries, and on his return to have settled at Kroton, in Italy, where he formed a society of the HISTORY OF GREECE. 57 noblest young men, through whom he hoped to exercise an influence over all the Greek colonies in Italy, and to establish an aristocratic or oligarchic form of govern- ment. But this scheme failed; the commonalty rose against the selfishness of the nobles, and the house in which the followers of Pythagoras were assembled was destroye.l by fire in B.C. 504, when many of them perished. Pythagoras himself is said to have escaped to Metapontum, and to have died there soon after. The overthrow of the Pythagoraians was followed in all the towns of southern Italy by the establishment of demo- cratic forms of government. m ft I OLTtSSLKS ZBUa. A (JItKKK SHIP. CHAPTER VI. / I'HE PERSIAN WARS DOWN TO THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE SUPREMACY OF ATHENS. I I I The Greek colonies along the cotists of Asia Minor were exposed to the danger of being attacked and subdued by the great despotic monarchies of the East. The kingdom that was nearest to them was that of Lydia, whose kings conquered, one after another, the Greek cities ; and in the reign of Kroesus, the last Lydian king, all had to acknowledge his authority. But he had a great love and admu'ation of the Greeks, and allowed the cities to man- age theii' own afiairs very much as they pleased, so that they felt his rule scarcely in anything else than the neces- sity of paying tribute to ■ ira. Kra^sus himself at last became involved in a war with Kyros, the foimder of the Pei-sian monarchy, who made Krcesus his captive, and himself master of Lydia, including the Greek colonies, B.C. 546. The Greek cities would have readily submit- ted to their new conqueror, if he had granted them the same terms as Kroesus had done ; but as he demanded unconditional surrender, they resolved to resist him. Some seeing that they could not hope to be successful in the unequal struggle, emigrated with all they possessed to distant shores, establishing themselves at Massilia (Marseilles) and Ehegium (E-eggio), and at Abdera in Thrace. The rest of the Asiatic Greeks were subdued, one after another, by the lieutenants of Kyros, and had HLSTOKY OF (lUKKCE. 59 to acknowledge the supremacy of PeiKia. But the rule of the new masters does not appiair to have been much more oppressive than tl .t of the Lydians ; for they, too, did not much interfere with the Gi-ueks, so long as they paid theii- tribute regularly. The Asiatic Greeks therefore continued, without much molestation from Persia, to live in peace and prosperity until the reign of Darius, the third Persian king, when they allowed themselves to be enticed by an unprincii)led adventurer into open rebellion against their rulers, and thereby also involved the mother country in a war with Persia. During a gigantic expedition against the Scythians, in the plains between the Danube and the Don, King Darius and his army had been saved by I/istiteos, a Greek tyrant of Miletus, and on his return home the king had rewarded him })y giving him a large tract of country on the river Strymon in Thrace, while Ariatayoras, a cousin of Histiieos, succeeded him as tyrant of Miletus. Meanwhile the lieutenants of Darius conquered Thrace, and reduced the Greek colonies on its coast, together with the neighbouring islands. Even Ainyntas, king of Macedonia, did homage to Persia, whose king does not seem as yet to have entertained any thought of making himself master of Greece ; he pui-sued his con- quests in the East; and about the year B.C. 505, his empire extended from the borders of India to the ^gtean Sea, including Thrace and Macedonia. Meanwhile Histiseos drew upon hiuiself the suspicion of trying to form for himself an indei)endent principality in Thrace ; and Darius, to thwart this scheme, invited him to come to Persia, pretending that it was his desire to have such a valuable friend near his person. But Histiseos soon discovered that in reality he was kept in Persia as a captive. He could discover no means of escaping except by an insurrection of his countrymen, for which there appeared just then a favourable oppor- tiuiity. The assistance of his cousin Aristagoras had been sought by the aristocratic party of the island of Naxos, i Mm 60 IIISTOIIY Ol' OMKECK. who hiul been expelled hy the i)oople ; and believing that this uircnmstance allorded him a fair chance of uiakin-,' himself master of the island, he api)li d for aid to Arta- phernes, the king's satrap or governor of Western Asia. The satrap being told that the island might easily De conquered, and that Aristagoras would bear all the (expenses, a large fleet under a Persian admiral was placed at the dis]>()8al of Aristagoras, and all seemed to promise well. But soon a quarrel arose between Arista- goras and the admiral, and the latter avenged himself by giving the Naxians warning of their danger. The consequence was the utter failure of the undertaking, and Aristagoras had to return to Miletus without having effected anything. As he was now unable to make good his ])romise, he knew that his doom was sealed. While pondering what he should do to save himself, he received a message from Hi.stijeos, who was utterly disgusted with his captivity. Aristagoras assembl'^d all those whom he knew to be dissatisfied with the rule of Persia, to deliber- ate about the manner in which they might shake off the detested yoke; and in order to make himself popular among his countrymen, he not only resigned his own tyrannis, but caused the tyi-ants of other cities who were friendly to Persia to be arrested. Having gone thus far, Aristagoras resolved to seek the assistance of the Greeks of the mother country. He first applied to S})arta, where by large promises he was on the point of gaining his end, when the king, warned by his . little daughter, declined having anything to do with the matter. He was more successful at Athens, where it had become known that the Persian king intended to reinstate the exiled tyrant Hippias. The Athenian people resolved to send a fleet of twenty ships to support their Asiatic kinsmen. The little squadron, accompanied by five galleys from Eretria in Euboia, set sail in b.c. 499, and being strengthened on their arrival in Asia by many lonians, they marched straightway against Sardes. The Persian governor of the place took refuge in the strong citadel. The Greeks then plundered the lower niSTORY OF UREECK. 61 city iind sot. it on fire, and Imiw^ unable to take the citiidel, they returned to E[)h(^su8. Contrary to their expecta- tions, they were pursued by tlie Persian satrap, who had assembled a large force, and utterly defeated thi^ni in the neighbourhood of Ephesus, whereupon the loniana disjjersed, and the Atheuiians and Eretrians returned home. When Darius was infuimed of this, he was thrown into a violent passion, more on account of the pre- sumption of the obscure strangers who had supported his rebel'ious subjects than by anything else, and ho commanded one of his slaves daily to remind him of the Athenians. Meanwhile the insurrection of the loniana was spreading more and more ; and Histia^os cunningly prevailed upon the king to send him down to Ionia, which he promised to quiet without difficulty. The Pei-sian generals Kiduced the revolted cities one after another; and when Aristagoraa despaired of success, he withdrew into Thrace, where soon afterwards he was murdered. Histiaios, on his arrival in Asia Minor, was suspected of having had a hand in the revolt, and hence thought it advisable to escape to the island of Chios, where he formed the plan of putting himself at the head of the Greeks ; but being universally distrusted, he led for a time the life of a home less adventurer. At last he collected a small fleet with which he levied black-mail on all the merchant ships of the cities which refused to recognise him as the sovereign of Ionia. The rebellion of the lonians was in the meantime drawing to its close. The Greeks were disunited among themselves, and were defeated in B.C. 494 ; and the year following saw all the Greek cities brought back under the Pei-sian sway, but in some instances the inhabitants, from fear of the conquerors, left their homes and estab- lished themselves at Mesembria on the coast of the Euxine. After iiiis u-'successfui insurrection, the Asiatic Greeks were treated with much gi-eater severity than before; order and peace were restored, but ir freedom was ■ii. . It ■a e2 IIISTOaV OK UKEECK. gOIH5. hi' h INIurdonius, tlio successor of Ar(,:ij»lu'iiicH, howcvt-i, HomcMliat relaxed the severity, i)iit at the same time he had (HtliiiH to chastise Athens and Kretria tor their pre sumption. A large fleet wm sent out against them, but was overtjiken by a violent storm near Mount Athos, in which .■{00 ships and 20,000 men are said to have perished ; while the land army, commanded by Mardonius himself, was attiicked on its march through Thrace, and sullered such gieat losses that Mardonius thou .ht it best to retain to Asia. These disasters, however, did iiot shake the determination of Darius. He assembled fresh forces and sent heralds to the chief cities of Greece to demand earth and water, the customary signs of submission. At Athens and Sparta the envoys were put to death, but ^^gina and several other islands and cities complied with the demand, in consequence of which the Athenians charged JEgiim at 8])arta with high treason against the cause of Gi-eece. 'J'he Spsirtans tlien sent a forctj against the^ginetans, who were compelled to deliver up ten of Hieir leading men as hostages to the Athenians. This led to a succession of acts of hostility between Athens and ^gina, while the Persians were making prepamtions for invading Europe. In B.C. 490 a large Persian fleet assembled in Kilikia under the command of Uatis and Artaphernes, and having takim tlie army on board, sailed towards Eubiea, conv [jelling the islands during its piogress to submission. On the arrival of the Persians at Eretria, the town was besieged, and as some traitors in the place opened the gates to the enemy, Eretria was plundered and set on lire, while its inhabitants were tiiken prisoners and transported as slaves into Asia. After this the whole fleet, guided by Hippias, sailed towards the coast of Attika, and the army was landt^d on the plain of Marathon. As soon as this became known at Athens, all men capable of bearing arms, and even slaves willing to earn tljeir liberty, declared their n\-idine.sfs to defend the country. A messenger was at the same time sent to Sparta to solicit assistance against the common HISTouv OK (ii!i:i:ri.;. c;j *<'<•. But tlu! SpurtaiiH, IW-liii-,' tliciii.MKcs invUy .suciiic, (liHii.isst'd liii.i wiM, promLsus of fiitmv hf)}), allf<,nn^ sojiu) siipei-stitioiis misoii for tht'ir not setting out ut once. Tbo Athenians, inHliHniiiyt'd by this want of Hyni- I>athy, resolved to attack the invaders, having no otli.-r aJhea than a ^o^Jy of Phitteans, their ancient friends, rho army v us co- -uanded by ten geneiahs, one of whom was Miltidea^ bu; the i^Lnnarchus Kalliniachos was at their h 'fu; A > iscussion arose among them as to vvliether batt.'- Nhoniu be given at once, or wbetlier thtsy sJiould waiti:. the arrival of the Spartans. Miltiades, seemg the danger of delay, convinced his colleagues of the necessity of attacking the enemy at once. When the signal was given, the Athenians rushed with in-esistible forc(^ ui)on the barbarians, who at first looked with con- tempt upon the small number of their assailants. But they soon found themselves in close combat, and by the skilful management of Miltiades they were utterly routed and defeated. They fled in the utmost confusion back to the shore, and thousands of them perished either in the battle, or in the marshes, or in the attempt to reach their ships. The Persian fleet then sailed southward, with the intention of doubling Cape Sunion and attacking Attika from the west. J3ut the Athenians, who had foreseen this, promi>tly moved towards the point of danger, so that when the Persian fleet arrived, ihe Athenians were ready to receive the enemy. Thus baffled in their exi)ec- tation, they gave up all further attempts against Greece and returned to Asia, B.C. 490. The buttle of Marathon, in which the Athenians almost single-handed had defeated a countless host oi barbarians, filled their minds with a noble and just pride, and made them conscious of their own strength. When the battle was over, the Spartans arrived with a small force, but it was too late, and they had to return home with a feeling of shame that they had not done their duty, and had no share in the glorious achievement which saved Greece from becoming u province of an Asiatic desp it % r '4 a. I i: r-t| 64 HISTORY OF ORRECK. his army to victory, was a sad one, })iit probably not undeserved. Elated by his success, he prevailed upon his countrymen to furnish him with a considerable fleet, with which he promised to increase their dominions. But his real object was the chastisement of some private enemy. In this he failed, and being moreover wounded in the knee, he was obliged to return home without having eflfected anything. Being accused of having led the people into useless ex])ensos, he was sentenced to pay a fine of fifty talents (about ^9000) ; and as he was unable to raise that sum, he was thrown into prison, where soon after he died of his wound. The defeat sustained by the Persians at Marathon only incited their king to greater exertions, for he believed that the misfortune was owing only to his having sent insuflacient forces into Europe; he therefore now resolved to make the Greeks feel the whole weight of his arm. For three years preparations were made throughout his vast dominions, when suddenly his attention was diverted by an insurrection of Egypt, which was then a Peraian province, and before he was able to suppress the revolt, he died in B.C. 486. He was succeeded by his son Xerxes, who managed to reduce Egypt in the second year of his reign. A fresh invasion of Greece was now resolved upon, and the whole of Asia was again ransacked for a period of four years, to assemble as large a force as possible. A bridge of boats was constructed across the Hellespont, and a canal was dug across the low isthmus of Mount Athos, to avoid the necessity of sailing round the promontory where the fleet of Mardonius had been wrecked. In the spring of b.c. 480, Xerxes set out from Gardes with an army consisting, it is said, of nearly 2,000,(100 of men, including nations of all colours, costumes, arms, and languages. They crossed the Hellespont at Abydos, and marched along the coast through Thrace and Macedonia, towards Thessaly; while the fleet, consisting of 1207 triifnnes, and 3000 smaller vessels, sailed along the same coasts aoc:>tnpanying the army. HISTORY OF GllEKCE. 65 All true patriots felt that their safety rlepended upon union ; but nearly all the northern states, ])artly over- awed by fear, and partly compelled by their i-uling nobles, submitted to the demands of the enemy. The Phokians and the Boeotian towns of Thespise and Platsea? alone remained faithful to the cause of Greece. Athens and Sparta, however, with the greater pai-t of the Peloponnesians, exerted themselves to the utmost to meet the impending danger. The leading man in Athens then was Themistokles, distinguished for his extraordinary quickness in perceiving what had to be done in any given emergency, to ensure a definite end. His rival in popu- larity was Aristides, a man who by his honesty and disinterestedness had obtained the surname of the Just. Both men loved their country intensely, but Aristides's love was pure and simple, while Themistokles wished to make Athens great in order that he himself might com- mand in a large sphere. Two such men could not but come into collision with each other ; and in b.c. 483, Themis- tokles contrived to get Aristides banished by ostracism, whereby he was left in the undivided possession of the popular favour. Themistokles, seeing the necessity of increasing the Athenian navy, prevailed upon the people to forego the advantages they received from the silver mines of Laurion, and to devote them to the strengthen- ing of their navy. The number of their ships of war was thereby increased to 200 ; and, under the guidance of its able leader, Athens became a maritime power. While the two leading states were making every effort to meet the enemy, the want of union among the rest of the Greeks was most deplorable. Themistokles spared no trouble to silence disputes and brace the energy of his countrymen ; ani it was owing to his influence that the friends of liberty assembled at Korinth, where they bound themselves by an oath to defend their country and to consecrate to the Delphic god a tenth of the substance of every state which had surrendered to the enemy with- out being forced by necessity. A small band of Pelopon- nesians was sent to stop the ].rogress of the Persians iu I' 1 i I 66 HISTORY OF GREJJCE. the pass of Thermopi/lco; and the fleet, commanded by Eurybiades, took up a position at the northern entrance ot the ^boean channel, near a place called Artemision. Ihe Persian fleet in its southward course was over- taken by a violent storm which lasted for three days, during which 400 ships and innumerable lives were lost. However, this disaster was scarcely felt by the huge armada and Themistokles with difiiculty prevented the Wk fleet from dispersing. But at length the Greeks boldly sailed out to attack the enemy, and a general engagement ensued, in which the unwieldy mass of the enemy s ships was thrown into confusion and sustained great loss. The Greeks, however, also suffered much, and they now resolved to retreat, because news reached th^ about what had happened at Thermopylae The small band which had been sent there to bar the progress of the Persians, was commanded by the Spartan king, Leomdas. His whole force consisted of 300 Spar- tens, and a few thousands from other parts of Greece ihere was, however, a path across the mountain by which the pass could be evaded, which fact was at first unknown to Leonidas. But when it was discovered, he despatched the Phokians to occupy the heights. He had great difficulty in keeping the rest of his men together for they were terrified at the countless hosts of barbarians • fw ,t^''''''',r' ""?* ^ ^^**^^ astonished, when he heard that the small number of Greeks were awaiting his attack m all composure. But assault after assault proved fruit- less ; many of the barbarians were slain, and Xerxes was cST'l^ *"" .T^^""' T^^^ Ephialtes, a treacherous Gr^ek, betrayed to him the path across the mountains. When Leonidas heard of this, he allowed his allies, who wished It, to depart ; but he himself and his Spartans were determined to defend theii- post. Only the Thes- pians and 400 Thebans remained with him. When the Persians appeared on the heights, the Phokians withdrew • ^^4 ---'-"'';' •■^— ^^Jsi."i3 appeared ax tlie southern entrance of the pass, so that the Greeks in it were sur- rounded on all sides. L,>oni,lMs. howovor and his u^eu nisTOKY OF guee;ce. 67 were resolved • to sell their lives as dearly as possible. Several times the Persians were repulsed, until at last the Spartans, being surrounded on a hillock, were all slain by the darts of their assailants. All were afterwards buried on the sjiot where chey had fallen, end a suitable inscription recorded their heroism. The battle of Ther- mopylaj was fought in the summer of B.C. 480, and the Persians are said to have lost 20,000 men. The hostile army now advanced southward, devastating everything that came in its way. The temple of Delphi, the treasures of which attracted the barbarians, is said to have been miraculously saved, for a fearful thunderstorm burst upon them, and huge rocks rolling down from Mount Parnassus crushed many of them, in consequ-^nce of which they were terror-stricken and retraced their steps. The army then proceeded through Boeotia towards Attika ; and the Athenians, who had in vain hoped for assistance from Peloponnesus, on the suggestion of The- mistokles, sent to consult the god of Delphi as to what they should do. The answer of the god was, that they must defend themselves behind their wooden walls. This mysterious advice gave rise to many conjectures as to its meaning, but Themistokles of course had no difficulty in explaining the oracle, and told the people that they must defend themselves by their fleet. This explanation satisfied the people, and the Athenians with their allies sailed from Artemision to Salamis. On the advice of Themistokles, the Athenians further resolved to leave their city to the protection of Athena, its tutelary divinity, and to transport their families and movable propei-ty to Salamis, ^gina, and Trcezen. The Greek fleet assembh d at Salamis consisted of 380 ships, and it was the almost unanimous opinion that it should take up a position near the isthmus, where it might co-operate with the Peloponnesian army. But Themistokles, being convinced that the safest plan was to receive the hostile fleet in tho narrow strait of Salamis, and finding that his ai-guments had no effect, {»> last threatened that he and all Athenians would sail away [M 1 8 Hi 68 HISTORY OP GREECE. k ! ■'i and establish themselves in another country. This threat produced some effect, but as he still feared lest the Pelo- ponnesians should change their minds, ]ie resolved to bring on the decisive contest as soon as possible. He assumed the mask of a traitor, and sent a trusty slave to the Per- sian admiral, to tell him that the Greeks were on the point of dispersing, and that, if he attacked them at once, he would gam an easy and com])lete victory; whereas, if he allowed them to disperse, he would have to fic^ht against them one by one. This stratagem succeeded, and the following night the channels which separate Salamis trom Attika and Megara were blocked up by the Persian fleet. In the meantime Xerxes had oveiTun Attika. spreading devastation over the whole country The lower part of the city of Athens was taken and destroyed, and the few men stationed in the akropolis were easily overpowered, and the place was set fire to. It was the terrible sight of these devastations that made the Greek commanders doubt the propriety f remaining united at fealamis ; but the ruse of Them: V.kles forced them to hgnt betore they had time to dit,perse. When the enormous fleet of the enemy had entered the charmels and was pent up in such a manner that the ^ips could hardly move, the Greeks began the attack Xerxes, seated on a lefty throne on the coast, was viewing the great naval contest, expecting to witness the com* plete annihilation of the Greeks. But he was soon undeceived. The confusion among the Persian ships became so great that it was impossible to distinguish friends from foes, while the nimble triremes of the Cxreeks performed marvels of skill and bravery The battle lasted the whole day, until towards evening the remainder of the Persian fleet wif^ , to the port of 1 rfnn' J^^ t>arbarians are sa:.' ... , ,e lost on that day 500 ships and the Greeks : 1^ forty. Xerxes, though he still had a sufficient force to continue the con test, felt that such another defort would be ruinous and accoi-dingly resolved to retreat ; but he left behind' him Mardonius, who, with his land army of 300,000 men HISTORY OF GREKCE. 69 promised speedily to conquer the whole of Greece. Xerxes himself now prepai-ed to return across the Helles- pont. / When the Pei-sian fleet quitted the Saronic gulf and sailed northward, the Athenians, not considering it safe to pursue the enemy, contented themselves with chastis- ing the islands which had supported the invaders ; and Themistokles hurried the king's flight, by sending a mes- senger to inform him that the Greeks intended to break down the bridge across the Hellespont. When the king arrived at Sestos, the bridge had already been destroyed by storms, but the fleet carried him u-A his followers safely into Asia. Mardonius had accompanied his master as far as Thessaly, where he intended to take up his winter quarters. The fame of Themistokles, whose wis- dom and prudence had gained the victory of Salamis, resounded through all Greece, and even the Spai-t;an8 honoui'ed him in the same way as their own admiral. ' Soon after the battle of Salamis, which had been fought late in the s .-amer of B.C. 480, the Athenians returned to their city, ^^ d in the spring began to rebuild their houses, and to repair the damage done to their fields; but at the same time they did not lose sight of the enemy, for they knew that Mardonius with his army was still in Thessaly, and that a large fleet was still in the ^gaian. Mardonius formed a plan to detach Athens from the other Greeks, by oftering a separate peace and alliance with Persia. But the manly answer of the Athenians was, that so long as the sun held on its course there could be no alliance between them and Persia. Mardonius thereupon marched southward, and was zeal- ously supported by the Thessaliaat and Boeotians. On his approach the Athenians again left their city, and withdrew with their families to Salamis. Mardonius again tried to negotiate with them, but with no better result than before. The Spartans, instead of joining Athens against the common enemy, at first thought only of protecting themselves by fortifying the isthmus of Korinth, but at length Pausanias, the guardian of the m li 70 HISTORY OF GKUKCF, young k'lig, Plo^starchcs, v/as ord.:r..(S to leaJ an ar7ny of oOOO mvn into Ba^otm.. M.trcloniT,.s after having rav/ged Attika m every din ction, lik(3wise marched intS Bceotia, where he noped to 1 <> supi.orfced by the Thebans and otner J5ceot;.tus. -^A ^''^^^nVr^^ ^^'^ '^ ^''^ meantime, it is «aid, been raised to 110,000 me.., and tha Athenian fores w^" commanded by ^mi;*^^., who h.ui beon rocaKed ivom his honourable exile. For many davs the .. mies were facing .ach other engaging only in petty skirmishes and man- cuvres. it last Mardonius resolved to venture upon a ueasive battle The Greeks having received secret infbr- uation of his design, pi-epared Iwr the fight in the neigh- nTiVo .f S^'^''' ^^ ^^' ^''^'' ^^^«^ took pla^e in B.C. 479, the Persians at first fouoU bravely, but Mardon- ius was mortally wounded, and his fall decided the issue of the contest. The Persians ga^e way at once, and a body which was coming to their support, hastily returned northward to gam the Hellespont; the Greek auxiliaries dispelled, and only the B.'Botians continued to fight against the Athemans. The Persians at last shut themselves up in their camp and despair paralysed them to such a de^-ee. that they allowed themselves to be slaughtered without a s niggle and only 3000 of them are said to have escaped alive. Animmense amount of booty was found in their camp which Pausanias, the hero of the day, ordered to be collected ; a tenth part of it was dedicated to the gods, and a splendid present was selected for Pausanias The Persmns who had fled to the Hellespont reached Asia in safety, and Greece was now completely delivered hZ /T.r T'^r- ^^^ ^^^* «*^P ^^ tte clias- tisement of those Greeks who had supported the enemy. Ihe Greek army accordingly adv-noed to the gates of Ihebes, demanding the surrender the guHty, and as the demand was refused, the ei „ .as blockaded for tweay days, after which th m^, ot surrendered them- selves, and most of them wer: .v.u..od by Pausanias to b« put to death without a trial. ; ^^ ?■. was his first arbitrary and tyi-annical act, which was s,. ., i , he followed by otheiu HISTOIIV OF GREECE. 71 In the meantime the Greek fleet under the Spartan king, Leoty chides, was stationed among the Kyklades, watching the movements of the enemy. Its assistance was sought by the Samians against their own tyrant, a zealous supporter of Persia. When Leotychides a])- proached, the Persians, leaving their friend unprotected, sailed towards the mainland, where they joined the land army stationed near Mount Mykale, to keep the lonians in subjection. The Greeks pursued them, and called upon the lonians to cast off the Persian yoke. A battle ensued, in which the Asiatics were completely routed, and the carnage among them was fearful. The Greeks, after collecting the booty, returned to Samos. The battle of Mykale was fought and won on the same day as that of Platsese. As Greece and the islands were now safe, it was thought advisable for the present to let the lonians in Asia make the best terms they could with Persia, and Leotychides with the Peloponnesians sailed home; but the Athenian fleet, under the command of Xanthippos, sailed to the north, and laid siege to Sestos, where many Persians of rank were living. In the spring of B.C. 478 they were induced by famine to try to make their escape, but many of them were overtaken and put to death, whereupon the inhabitants opened their gates, and Xan- thippos with his fleet now likewise sailed home. The city of Athens had been changed into a heap of ruins, and the first cai-e of those retimiing home was to rebuild their private houses, the restoration of the temples being deferred to another season. The leading men, TJiemistokles and Aristides, being resolved to provide for the immediate and future security of the city, ordered the walls to be rebuilt and extended. The Spartans, looking with jealousy iipon the new fortifications of Athens, tried to stop its progress by intimating that Peloponnesus would always be a sufficiently safe refuge for all Greeks, if their country should ever be invaded But Themistokles, who saw through their selfish again. M scheme, tliwavted it in a very ingenious manner, and not M 72 HISTORY OF GREECE. onxy completed the fortifications of the city and its three harbours, but made Poiraeeus a port town,\vhere numer- ous traders and merchants, es{)ecially aliens, settled under the protection of the Athenian law. Athens thus went torth from the great war stronger than before, and con- scious of her position and power. In the spring of B.C. 477, the Greek fleet sailed to Kyprus, which was still in the hands of the Persians Its chief command was intrusted to Pausanias, while the Athenian contingent was led by Aristides and Kimon, the son of Miltiades. The barbarians wore driven from the ^land, and the fleet then sailed to Byzantium, which the Persians were likewise comi)elled to evacuate. These successes seem to have turned the head of Pausanias for he now began to adopt the manners of the Persians, and treated his Greek allies with overbearing insolence. He even went so far as to form the plan of betraying Greece into the hands of the Persians, and to ask for the hand ot Xerxes's daughter as a reward. The Greeks, especially the lonians, were the more disgusted with his conduct as It formed a strong contrast with the kindly and win- ning proceedings of the Athenian commanders. This feehng gradually led the Greeks to the resolution to place Athens m the position hitherto occupied by Sparta, and at last all the allies, except the Peloponnesians and ^gine- tans, ofiered to Athens the supremacy in all their com- mon afiairs. They accordingly formed a confederacy with Athens as its head, the object being the protection of Greece against the barbarians. All the membera of the confederacy were to contribute towards this common end, and Athens was authorised to collect and direct their torces. In its internal affairs, however, each state re- mained independent. A common fund was established in the island of Delos, and deputies from all the confeder- ates were to meet periodically there in the temple of Apollo Sparta thus lost her ancient position through the folly of Pausanias, who was indeed now recalled and m disgust she withdrew from the scene of action! leaving her rival triumphant. But she still remained ni.sTORY or (Ji{Ei:cE. 73 the heixd of tho Polopoiinosian allies, so that henceforth Greece was divided into two <,'reat confederacies. Atliens inaintiiined her proud position for about seventy-two years, until the end of the Peloi)onne8ian war. The organisation of the Athenian confederacy was the last and noblest work of Aristides, but he is also said to hnve been the author of some important political reforms, by which the archonshij) and the council of the Areiopagos were thrown open to all Athenians, ii-respective of any property qualification. He died in the enjoyment of the full confidence which his countiymen Jiad always placed in him. Very difierent was the fate of Pausanias and Them- istokles. The former, after his recall to Sparta, was sub- jected to a severe inquiry ; but as no satisfactory evidence of his guilt was produced, the accusation was ,h-opped. He then Avent to Byzantium, where he carried on his intrigues with Persia so openly that the authoritier - ■ obliged again to order him to return home. As again he could not be convicted, he was set free, and now tried to incite the Helots to a rebellion. At the same time he continued his treasonable correspondence with Persia, until at last he was denounced by one of his own slaves. When by a cunning contrivance the magistrates succeeded in hearing the truth from his own lips, they tried to arrest him ; but he fled into a temple of Athena, and the magistrates, in order not to pollute the sanctuary with blood, ordered the entrance to be walled up, am: Jei't him there to be starved to death. When he was on iiie point of expiring, he was carried out of the temple and died outside the sacred precincts, in B.C. 461. The fate of Pausanias involved that of Themhiokles. He too had beconie proud and indiscreet ; but what made him most unpopular was his selfishness and avarice, of yhich some signs hiid appeared immediately after the battle of Salamis. Numerous enemies therefore rose against him, and he was banished by ostracism as a person dangerous to i)opular liberty. He withdrew to A.rgos, where lie was residing at the time when Pausanias ^ I! J I \ t i. h h!i 74 HI8TOUV OP GREECB. was convicted. The Simrtana, who bore fiim a firudM ever since the fortification of Athens, all(>,i,^;d that in their inquiry about, P-nsanias, it had been' found that Thomistokles ... w^us iiupli.r'cd In the plot, and they demanded that tlio Athenians should punish him accord- ingly. Although no evidence was then or ever after i)i o- duced of his guilt, his enemies at Athens carried a decree that he should be arrested. Theniistoklos fled to Epirus, I ml thence to Pydna, where he took ship for Asia. 8oon after Iiis arrival there, Xerxes died, ij.c. 465, and was succeeded by Artaxerxes. Themisbokles went to the king's court, and succeeded in persuading him that he had claims upon his gratitude, and that lils present misfortune was the conserp-enco of his zeal for the interests of Persia. Ho became a great favourite n . the court, and the king at last sent him down into Asia Minor, assign- ing to him the revenues of three wealthy towns for his maintenance. lie thus spent the last veaivs of his life in princely splendour. The mannttr of his death is uncertain. »' I'l.AN 0» AKROPOriS OF AillENS. ix I PERIKLES. CHAPTER VII. THE SUPREMACY OF ATHENS DOWxV TO THE COMMENCEAIKN 1 OF THE PELOPONNESIAN WAK. After the withdrawal of Tlieniistokles, Kimcm was the most influential man in Athens. He belonged to the aristocratic party, but did not scruple to descend to the artifaces of a demagogue, in order to uiorease his poi)u- arity ; and Ins wealth enabled him to display a htvish iberahty towards the poorer classes. He was an excel- lent soldier and had already distinguished himself in the battle ol Salamis. Several successfu 1 enterprises, but more especially the reduction of Na xos in B.C. 466, subsequently increased his renown. For a time the Athenian con- tederacy went on prosperously, but the inhabitants of ^axos, seeing that Greece had nothing- mor to fear from Persia, refused to submit to the suiuemucy of Athens Iheir town was besieged and conquered by Kimon who treated it with the utmost severity ; and instead of being an ally, it now became the subject of Athens This example might have deterred othei states, but such was not the case, and all who revolted were puni.shed with the loss of their independence. Some of thn allied states commuted their personal serx ices for payments of n.onev, but then- i:.t... was not much bctUrcd thereby, for they lost their warlike spirit, and Athens acquii-ed ^ much power over them as over her subjects. ?■' 76 HISTORY OF ORKECE. u ] ■ ■• ( 1 In B.C. 465, Kimon gained a l»nlliant victory over a large Persian fleet stationed at the nuiuth of the river i^uryrnedon, in Pan.phylia ; he then sailed up the river and also routed th«^ enemy's land forces. On his return to the sea, he utterly destroyed a Persian squadron which was coining too late to strengthen the Peraian fleet. After this ti-eble victory, he sailed north and drove the last rem- nants of the Persians from the Thracian Chersonesus. While Kimon waa in the north of the ^gsean, the Athen- ians became involved in a war with the island of 77iaso8 about the gold mines in Thrace. The Thasians api.lied to bparta for assistance, and the latter was making prepara- tions for mvadmg Attika, when suddenly, in b.c 404 Lakonia was visited by a terrible calamity. During an earthquake, masses of rock rolling down from Mount laygetos spread terror and devast>ation far and wide. In hpartii only five houses are said to have been left stand- mg, and upwards of 20,000 persons were killed Amid t us terrible visitation, the Helots and Messenians seized the opportumty of avenging themselves ui)on their hard masters The Thasians liad, of course, to be left to their hite and became the subjects of Athens. The Messenians tortihed themselves on Mount Ithome, and as the Spar- tans were unable to reduce them, they did not blusli to send for assistance to Athens, against which they had just been preparing an expedition. The aristocratic party at Athens was at all times favourable to Sparta, and as It was just then all powerful, Kimon was sent out with a large force to besiege Ithome. But as he was not more successful than the Spartans themselves had been, they began to suspect his lionesty, and dismissed him with his ariny. The Athenians, feeling this insult most keenly, broke oft all connection with Sparta, and formed an alliance with Argos. Meanwhile the war against the Messenians was carried on for nearly ten years, until, in B c. 455, they were compelled to surrender on condition that they should leave their a -ntry for ever. The Athenians kindly assigned to the unfortunate exiles the town of Naupaktos, where they settled, waiting for better times. 1 "W 1 I HISTORY OP ORKECB. 77 ,1 The democratic party at A tlicns was then headed l)y Perikks, a sou of Xantliipiios, who as an orator, states- man and ,^'eneral far surpassed all his conteniporarieH While Knnou was engaged in his mUitary expeditions, rerikles took an active part in the discussions of the popular assembly. Ho became the leader of the demos, and a formidable opponent of Kimon and his brotiier nobles Penkles, even if he had had the wealth of Kimon, would have disdained using it to increase his poi)ularity. He considered it more honourable that the poorer classes should be supplied with the means of enjoyment out of their own, than to be dependent on wealthy nobles. Ho and his friends, among whom the honest Ephialtes deserves to be specially mentioned, carried a series of measures which enabled the poor to take part in public life and public enjoyments. He courted, indeed, popular favour, but never descended to low or demagogic exi)edi- ents. The contest between the two parties had been going on for some time, but it came to a head when Perikles and - Ephialtes tried to limit the functions of the Areiopagos / ' so much as to leave to it nothing but its venerable name The aristocracy was, of course, most bitterly exasperated, but as just at this time Kinion was slighted by Sparta, he and the whole aristoci-acy became very unpopular, and the measure of reducing the power of the Areiopagos was easily carried. Soon after this, Kimon was banished by ostracism. "^ About the year B.C. 460, an Athenian fleet was lyin<^ ofFKyprus, when Inarus and a great part of E^yi.t re- volted against Persia. Inarus asked for the assistance of the Athenian tieet, which at once sailed southward and enabled hiui to defoat the Persians. The fleet then sailed up the Nile to Memphis, which the Athenians besieged for Ave years,^after which they were compelled by large lersian rcmfoicements to withdraw, and beiiif' sur- rounded in an island of the river, they were nearlv all slaiji. "^ While the Athenian fleet was still engaged in Egypt, k^ ■ m f8 HISTORY OF GRRECE. the rupture with Sparta involved Athens in a war with Korinth, which was joined by ^gina and several Argive towns. Notwithstanding the absence of their forces in Egyi)t, the Athenians attacked their enemies with undaunted courage, and utterly defeated them. Myronides, who was then the soul of all the military undertakings of the Athenians, gained so complete a victory over the Korinthians that their whole army was destroyed, '"bis Korinthian war and the hostile spirit of Sparta, together with the fact that there existed at Athens a party ready to play into the hands of any enemy, if they could thereby recover their lost privileges, induced Perikles to complete the long walls connecting Athens with the port of Peiraeus, which had been commenced before; and it soon became evident how necessary it was to strengthen Athens in every way. In an engagement against the Boeotians, the Athenians were defeated through the treachery of their Thessalian allies; but this loss was amply re])aid a year later, B.C. 456, when Myronides gained a complete victory over the Boeotians and razed the walls of Tanagra to the ground. From this time the i.ifluence of Athens predominatt d in Boeotia ; and iEgina soon afterwards became subject to Athens. ^ About this time news reached Athens of the disaster in l;'gypt> but she nevertheless continued the war against Spartii and its allies as vigorously as before. In B.C. 453, Perikles himself effected tlie recall of Kimon from (ixile ; he siiw the necessity of all true patriots uniting against the scliemes of the oligarchical faction, for it was at this time that his friend Ephialtes, a man of the stern- est honesty, was assassinated. The reconciliation of the two men secured to Greece the enjoyment of peace for the next three years, after which a truce for five years was concluded, during which Kimon undertook his last cam- l)aign against the Persians. In Egypt another revolt had broken out, and agairi the Athenians were asked to ' succour. Kimon with a considerable fleet sailed to us, whence he sent i\ send Cyi itaehment to Egypt, while I: UTSTOllY OF GREECE. 79 i .he himself lairl siege to Kition. Durin- this sieffP in B^. 449, he died ; and his forces were com^pelled by wan" of provisions to stop the operation. On their return boZ nf%^"''-'' ^'"^?''T ^y ''-'' ""'"'^ ^y ^^^^ «^«^- large bodies of Persians, and then being joined by the detach- aTl^dtinf -^°-l^^^-«^-^ i^^ <^^J-t in Egypt, they In B.C. 448, the peace of Greece was disturbed by a quarrel between the Delj.hians and Pholdans about the fo Thl'T 1 '? *^J *'"'l' " ^^ ^^^1'^^' ^J^i^l^ ^^^ belonged to the Delphians from time immemorial, but had been wrested from them by the Phokians. With the help of ^parta the Delphians recove,-ed what had been lost But no soone.- had the Spartan forces withdrawn, than Penkles marched with a,i army into Phokis and restored the giiardianship of the temple to the Phokiaiis. In the year following, the Athenian influence in Bceoiia was destroyed by a revolution in which the party hostile to Athens gained the upper hand «n7^'"' '"" ''•'''• *^^'- *^"^^" y^""'-'' t'-^ce expired, Euba.a and Megara rose against Athen.s ; and while Perikles was engaged 1:1 quelling the insurrection in Eubcea, he learned that a Peloponnesian army had invaded Attika and was ravaging the country. By bribes he induced the Spartans to quit Attika, whereby he was enabled to complete the reduction of Eubcea. All parties seem now to have become tired of war ; and wishing for peace, they concluded, in b.c. 445, a truce which "was to lak for s ont^i/rr '' '!'' Athenians gave up their posses- sions in Peloponnesus, but their maritime empire remained undisputed. This truce was distasteful to the Ithenian Periklea bore down all opposition, for his power was now greater than ever. He was now in a condition to carry out his des^n of strengthening the Athenian empire and of raising the conhdence and self-respect of his nonntrv^ men to a level wdth their lofty position. The Athenian confedemcy was no longer wh.t it had been in the days of AristKles. Even in his lifetime, the common Lroasurv "M 80 HISTORY OF (JllEKCE. had boen tniusferred from Deles to Athens; tliose of the confederates wlio had revolted had been reduced to the condition of subjects, and the remaining states had been so much weakened, that Athens, from being the head of a confederacy, had become the mistress of an empire, over which she ruled with almost despotic power. Perikles raised the annual tribute of the allies from 400 to 600 talents, and all subject states had to adopt a democratic constitution ; but what was still more inconvenient and annoying to them, was the fact that all important law- suits were transferred from their local courts to the tribunals at Athens. In B.C. 440, Perikles had an opportunity of displaying his brilliant qualities as a military commander. The island of Sanios was governed by its aristocracy, which the demos was desirous to overthrow with the help of Athens. Perikles, who was sent out with a fleet to accomplish this object, at once established a democratic government, and sent 100 members of the aristocracy as hostages to Lemnos. Leaving a small garrison behind, he returned home. But during his absence some nobles, with the help of mercenaries, overpowered the new «„'o^'ernment, restored the old constitution, rescued the hostages, and renounced all connection with Athens. On hearing this, Perikles again set out with a fleet, drove tlie Samians into their town and blockaded it. Knowing that a Persian fleet was expected to support the Samians* lie sailed out to meet it, but it did not make its ai)pear- auce. On his return to Samos he found that his adversaries had gained some advantages, but his presence sooia changed the aspect of things, and after the war had lasted for nine months, the Samians were compelled to capitulate and became subjects of Athens. This event consolidated the Athenian empire, over which Athens henceforth ruled without o])])osition and without restraint. Athens was now in a condition to strengthen herself, and to provide for her poorer citizens by the foundation of new colonics, where they might be usf^ful to her. The '•'' ''I H HISTORY OF GREECE. 81 iwsition to which lier citizens had risen filled them with a teeling of pride; the Athenian franchise was highly valued, and every one not entitled to it was rigorously excluded. The jioorer classes, moreover, found profitable employ;ment, partly in the great architectural works which Perikles caused to be erected for the defence or embellishment of the city, and partly by their being trained for the navy. Among the architectural works we have already noticed the long walls; but the temples which adorned the akropolis, such as the Parthmcm, with its splendid approach, the Propyla^a, decorated with the masterworks of sculpture by Pheidias, stOl excite in their rumed state the admiration of the whole of the civilised world. Perikles also knew that a people cannot be truly happy without reasonable diversions and amuse- ments; he therefore provided the poorer classes, ou^, of the public funds, with the means of attending the theatre and takmg part in the public festivals. He also intro- duced the practice of paying jurors for their attendance in the courts of law. These regulations, at first perhaps tail' and just, afterwards became detrimental to the stivte especially when the amount of money thus spent wai mcreased by subsequent popular leaders. The period during which Perikles guided the destiny ot Athens forms the most brilliant epoch in her history I>own to the time of the Persian wars, Athens had not been distinguished in any way above other Greek cities but the victories she won in those wars stimulated the energy of her citizens, and rendered them capable of pro- ducing the mostwonderful works in art and literature which the world has ever seen. At the time when lyric poetry was gradually dying away, Atliens enriched literature with the drama, the highest and most complex of all poetical compositions, and the greatest dramatists in tragedy and comedy belong to the age of Perikles The first impulse was given by Phryuichos^ but the real father ot tragedy was yEschj/los, of whom seven pieces have come down to our time. His younger contemporary, SophoJcks, IS unsurpassed m the elmrm of his language and the r I 82 HISTORY OP GREECE. i IT by Xw^r wC'..'"'^ oonception. He wa, succeeded imf ., J^, lavoui. With these masters trajredv was «me of the pjr'° ""'.S'*"'''^ of ^ri„„pka„es, in the thaTi^^e^y "" °"'^'' "°'""™'' -^ titivated later perieucfSifn,t">f!r* '"''"' '"''' '» -""ke the ^d ex- hat«d Rul" ;"*"'? '" P!-""* t" ''■"y. jealousy, and Pheidias was accused of havin^ introduopd hi! ^^-^ntmg. tlcy at last (Iroi)ped tlieii- j.roceodings. Perikles V^ ^i«ipT|lilipf ria.iMKN-r ok i'AiiTiiMN,,,v. jr HEAD OF SOCRATES. CHAPTER VIII. was THE PELOPONNESIAN WAR. Although a truce of thirty years had been made in B.C. 445, it was evident that peace could not be main- tained long, for the ever-growing power and influence of Athens filled the other states, and especially Sparta, with jealousy and hatred. These feelings kept Sparta and her allies in close union, while Athens could scarcely depend uj)on the fidelity of her allies and subjects. Sparta, moreover, represented the Dorian and aristocratic interest; while Athens, an Ionian st>ate, everywhere fostered demo- cratic institutions. In this state of things, it only re- quired a spark to set the whole country in a blaze of war. That spark came from an unexpected quarter, and the resul*^^ was a war which lasted twenty-seven years, dis- turbed the peace of the whole of the Greek world,' and ended in the downfall of Athens. At Epidamnos, a colony of Kerkyra (Corcyra), in Illy- ncum, the aristocratic party, having been expelled by the demos, had obtained the assisfcince of a neighbouring tribe, and were attacking the town. The Epidamnians applied for help to their mother city, and as this was refused, they addressed themselves to Korinth, the mother city of Kerkyra. Korinth gladly seized the opportunity of punishing „er colon}- -.vliieli had neglected its duties towai-ds her. A Korinthiau army accordingly marched ^ .%i^amnus, and the Korkyraeautj at the same time 'n ■ 84 inSTOltV OF GliFKCE. r 1?^ ^ i; 'i|- sent out a lleot, deniamling the lu-storiition of the Katiished nobles, and tlie dLsuii.ssal of all Koiinthians from the town. As this was refused, the Kerkyraeans, joined by the exiles and others, blockaded Epidannms. The Kor- uithians now declared war against Kerkyra. In a naval engagement near the mouth of the Ambrakian Gulf, they were completely defeated, and at the same time the ij^pidamnians had to surrender to the besiegers, who sold the inhabiti),nts into slavery, and kept the Korinthians as jnisoners of war. This happened in B.C. 434. The Korinthians thereupon made every effort to sti-(!ngthen themselves by new alliances, and the Ker- kyraejins sent envoys to Athens to solicit assistance; but the Kormthians also sent ambassadors to counteract their enemies. After mature consideration Athens con- cluded a defensive alliance with Kerkyra, but did not declare war against Korinth. A small fleet accordingly was sent to Kerkyra with orders not to engage in any contest, unless Kerkyiu should be attacked. The Korin- thian and Kerkyraean fleets met near a place called feybota, and when the Athenians saw their allies hard pressed, they took part in the fight, whereupon the Kor- inthians declared that the Athenians had broken the peace. These first acts of hostility between Athens and Korinth took place in B.C. 432. While this was going on, Perdikkas, king of Mace- donia, tried to incite the cities in the north of the ^ganm to give up their alliance with Athens. One of these towns was Potxdma, a colony of Koiinth, and the Athenians at once ordered its inhabitants to demolish their fortifications and to give hostages. Spai-ta declared that she would protect Potidaea, in consequence of which its inhabitfints defied the orders sent from Athens. Several other towns followed their example. The Athenian fleet sent against them, finding itself too weak to f^iy^on the war against the revolted cities, turned Athenian admiral was zaiiiSv _L ei*i pr< vailed upon to make i)eace with the king, in order to I be able to direct all his forces, which had in the meantime HISTORY OF GREECE. 85 ('il m been much increased, against th(5 Korinthians and their tnends. The Korintliians were indeed defeated, but succeeded m throwing themselves into Potidsea, which wa^ now besieged by land and by sea. Amid these complications a congress of the Spartan allies was summoned to Sparta, and all states believing themselves to be unjustly treated by Athens, were invited to state their giievances. Many comi)laints were brought torward, but the Athenian envoys manfully defended the conduct of their countr^onen. The result, however, was that war was declared, in B.C. 432 ; but Sparta, with its usual slowness, did not take any active steps till the year tollowmg. Some attempts at negotiation continued to be made, but to no purpose. The sympathies of most of tiie continental states were in favour of the Spartans who declared themselves the champions of the liberty and independence of the Greeks. The allies of Sparta included all the Peloponnesians except Argos and she was furtlier supported by Megara, Phokis, Lokris, Jioeotia, and m general by all Dorian cities. The allies of Athens were Chios, Lesbos, Plat^se, the Messenians at Naupaktos, the greater part of Akar- nama, Zakynthos, and Kerkyra, and they were of course supported by the Ionian cities in Asia, on the Hellespont ^d the coast of Thrace, and by most of the islands in the ^gsean. All Greece was thus divided in two hostile camps, and both parties were making active preparations for the coming contest. A in ^-^-.f^^' *^® Spartan king, Archidamos, invaded Attika with an army, and devastated the country in order to draw out the Athenians to a decisive battle. 13ut Perikles was determined to maintain a defensive attitude, and towards the end of the summer Archidamos returned home and disbanded his army. In the mean- tune, however, the Athenian fleet had been retaliating by ravaging the coasts of Peloponnesus and T,r>kris and in the autumn Perikles himself' made a predatoiy Sroad into Megara. During the first five years of the wai- both parties annually made such ravaging incursions into each 86 HISTORY OF GREECE. other's territories, and neither seems to have been inclined to bring the war to a close by some decisive action. The war was raging in severfil ])arts of Greece, and the Athenians generally had the advantage over their enemies. Early in the following year, when Archidamos had again invaded Attika, a terrible plague broke out at Athens, which was then overcrowded with i)eoi)le from the country, who were seeking protection within its walls. 4000 citizens and 10,000 slaves were carried off by the pestilence, while the Lakedaemonians were ravaging the country for a period of forty days. But the Athen*^ ian fleet, as in the year before, made a ravaging toui- round Peloponnesus, and Potidsea was compelled by famine to surrender. In the year B.C. 429, Athens lost her great leader Perikles, who fell a victim to the plague. What the people had lost in him became evident but too soon, for unprincipled demagogues, by humouring the evil passions of the people, demoralised them, and it became impossible to make any great eftbrts abroad, though Phormion, the Athenian admiral, gained some advantages in the western sea and comjjelled the Pelo- l)onnesian fleet to take refuge in the Korinthian gulf. The Boiotian town of Plutcece, even before the outbreak of the war, had been treacherously attacked one night by a body of Thebans, but by the quickness of the Plata?ans nearly the whole band were taken prisoners, and many of them were put to death. Athens, the ancient friend of Piatseje, supported the place as far as she could ; but in the tliird year of the war, Archidamos, instead of invading Attika, directed all his forces against Platsese, whose uihabitants defended themselves with almost superhuman bravery, until, in B.C. 427, they were obliged to capitulate. All the male population was butchered, and the women were sokl as slaves. This act of wanton cruelty was the work of the Thebans. The fourth yt^ of the war, Archidariios repeated the invasion of Attika, the Athenians still maintaining the defenaiv*'. The most important event of this year was HISTOUV OF UUEKVK. 8-; the revolt of tl.e wealthy i.slaucl of Lesho,, where the ^.^cr.^c party f.voure.l Sparta, while the den.os chu^ to t e Athemau alliance. As reinonstraiiee witl, the •ebelhous city of Mitylene produeed no eflect, a flee w sent out against it. The Sp«rtan.s promised Iielp to The rebels, adnatted them into the PelopLnesian eonfyeracy and resolved to attack Athens itself But the pro nt' ness of the Athenians compelled them to abandon it the Atheiuan adnnral Paches, and no Peloponnesian fleet appeared to its relief until b.c. 427, when ^ he Smr tons again ravaged Attika in the hope 'of thereby com- M vlfn "" *,^.-i*^draw her forces from Lesbos^ But Mitylene was obliged to surrender before the Pelopon nesiaii fleet arrived. When Paches wa^ master ofTe ushmd, he sent the ringleaders of the revolt to Athens where it was to be decided what punishment shmild be inflicted upon the islanders Xleon, a leather merchant who was then the leader of the Athenian people?induced them to pass the bloody decree, that all tfe men shou d slave M ' ^"^ '^' ^""^^^ ^^^ '^^'^^'^^ «oId a^ slaves. Messengers were at once sent with this decree o Paches; but the Athenian people soon repented of e^^rs^d'at ^f " *'^ ^ "^^' '^^ ^^^ d^" reversed and it was resolved to inflict death only on the most guilty. Another ship was therefore sSit off oT MXrne'^B T t'T "l ^'^ *^^ -fortunLe peoif ISt Athens"* "^"'^ ^"'' ''' '^^^^^«^' -^ ^-- The bitterest hatred had gradually arisen everywhere between the aristocratic and democratic parties bi't nowhere was greater cruelty .nd ferocity displayed' than hid alm^s r ^''''^''^'y^ ^«d Ionian and democracy had almost become synonymous. Hence we find even i^ t5iedv the Doimn ooloni'- h-n^''^,^ K,. ^ ^ «cr.ii„«f fi... r • "" ;"'""'••' »^a.xfcu by oyrakuse, armyed against the Ionian towns ; and the Athenians were pre- fleet to biciiy, in b.c. ^ • /, which was to prevent rein- tiil V 88 HfSTORY OF GREEOU. I it forcen.onts being sent fVoui tl,e isl..u,l t-„ thu PeloDon- nesians. * iJ'^A ^'r...f ""*; y^^'^' *^« S|.artan8 intended again to doned the scheme, so that the Athenians ^v..re free to nnv^l, f^^'T^ ^"'"'."'^ '""^^ '^^ <^^^«"- ^'^^«mies in the north and west; even in Sicily tliey j^ained possession of ome important places. In tl,e year followinc, the Pelo! ponnesians indeed earned onfc their ,h.sii,m of invadinc. Attika ; but after a stay of only fifteen day,?, they rXi ed home, for hey learned that JJ.nwsthenel, L able A hen lan genera, had established himself at p;iosin Messenia and strongly fortified the place. The Spartan a^y wS eu^cordingly recalled fr„n. Attika, and several but Lit less attempts were made to recover Pylos. A body of nf W? nf'?T,'"f possession of the island of SphakJria, m front of the harbour of Pylos. All attacks of the '.Wvfr^^Ti! T'' '"^^"""^'' *"^^ *^« Spartans being o death f'"" ^" >""?' f'^^""'^' ^^""^-^ ^^-« b«-^ starved to death if provisions had not been smuggled into it by faithfid slaves. In order to save her men, Sparta was ready to conclude a peace or a truce, but the tlrms pZ posed by Athens, which was tlien guided by Kleon were such hat Sparta could not accept them. 4e Ath; Jai ^ at Pylos also began to suffer from want of provisions Itff h?b'r.f "^ '^^^1 ^" *^^ assembly^ Itlns; that if he had the command he would bring the Spartans captive from Sphakteria to Athens. The Athenian taking him a his woi.1, appointed him commander Sn LenTr if .^^^"'^".^"r^ '^••^^ ™^*^«rs had already been brought to a cnsis by the skilful management of Demosthenes, and being further assisted by favourable circumstances, he drove the Spartans into a cornex of the ^land and then compelled them to surrender, x^early one- half of the men had perished in the island, and the sur- vivors were carried as prisoners to Athens. The rash promise of KIcon was thus made good by accident Ihe Athenians at Pylos, being joined by many Mes- ««mans and Helots, caused great annoyance to SparS, illSTOKY OF GREECE. 89 which triod to recover its captive citizens by negotiation but without success; for tlie Athe.naii.s wore exorbitant m their doinauds, and in the end declared that they would put them all to death if the Peloponnesians again invaded Attika. Dui-ing f ' ear the Athenians were also successful in other , ,, and made themselves masters of the island of Kythera. These successes »3Mcouraged and emboldened them in the same proportion as they discouraged the Si)artims, who now began to con- fane themselves to the defensive, while the Athenians continued their ravaging expeditions. In Sicily a peace was concluded with Athens, on the advice of the wise and patriotic Syrakusan, IJermokrates, who showed his countrymen that, by fighting against one another, they were only preparing the way for a foreign conqueror. But the Athenian people, in their belief that greater advantages might have been gained in Sicily, punished some of the generals who had consented to the peace. The Spartans were at no time famous for kindness or affability, but there had arisen among them a man who conibined these qualites with those of a great captain That man was Brasidas. He first drove the Athenians from Megara, and then transferred the war to the pen- insula of Chalkidike and the coast of Thrace, hoping thereby to compel the Athenians to give up Pylos and Kythera. While these plans were being carried out, the Athenians suflfered a very severe defeat at DeliJn in Bffiotia, whither they had been invited by a party of Boeotians favourable to them. Their loss amounted to more than 1000 of their best soldiers. When Brasidas arrived in Macedonia, he was joined at once by the fickle King Perdikkas, and advancing into Chalkidike, he proclaimed himself the deliverer of the Greek towns from the tyranny of Athens. His winnin* manners captivated all, and made them desirous of join*'- ing the Spartan alliance; some towns declared themselves at once, and received Lakedsemonian garrisons. The success of Brasidas was inimense, though lie received littlc! support from honH^ Hut as tlui Spartans were ttilfi!| ;! , IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) fe A /, # ..V- ,^ < ^. .1^ > /A Photographic Sciences Corporation '%'■ 33 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. 14S80 (716) 872-4503 I I it I 90 HISTORY OF GREECE. bent upon recovering their captive fellow-ci^zens, a truce waa concluded, m B.C. 423, which wa^ to last for one year, and affi^rd an opportunity of negotiating a permanent ^WK ""^^ P''''*''''' "^^^'^ desirous J« ll ^^^ negotiations were going on, the Athenians in the north violated the truce by sev(a-al acts of hostility and at its expiration, in b.c. 422, Kleon undertook the' command of the Athenian forces. After having gained some advantages, he met Brasidas, who had in the mean- fame received large reinforcements, near Amphipolis. Z^M Q ""? ^"^ *^? ^""^"^y approach he retreated; !nd i f^w^""' Percemngthis, fell upon the Athenians and routed them. Kleon himself took to flight, but being overtaken he was slain by a common soldier, while the Athenians bravely continued the fight, until in the end they were overcome. Brasidas had been mortally wounded m the first part of the engagement, and wa^ earned from the field of battle to Amphipolis, where he After the death of Brasidas, his policy was abandoned by the Spartans, who were resolved to make peace and liberate their prisoners. The recent losses had consider- ably lowered the pnde of the Athenians, and Nikias, who now was their leading man, was in favour of peaje. Negotiations were accordingly commenced, and in .^e spring of b.c. 421 the outlines of a peace were arranged. It was agreed by both parties that all con- quests made during the war should be given back, that aJl the prisoners of war should be set free without ran- 8om, and that the peace (commonly called the peace of Nilaas) should last for fifty years. In the same year, Sparta concluded an oflTensive and defensive alliance with ii^r^'o^^ P'"^*??* ^^""'^^^ ^^^^^^ ^^-go^' l^er aixcient ; ^f /°"^"er states looked upon these arruage- ments with feai- and suspicion, and it was only too evi- dent that the peace could not last long. For nearly seven years the Athenians and Spartans did abstain from invading each other's territories, but neither strictly adhered to the terms of tlm peace, and each of the HISTORY OF GREECE. 91 I two states eagerly increased the number of its allies. Argos in the meantime put itself at the head of a new con federation, and declared itself in favour of Athens ; while Sparta entered into a separate understanding with Bceotia. Amid these difficult complications, AlkHnadea, still a youig man, was fanning the warlike spirit of the Athen- ians. He belonged to an illustrious family, and his very eccentricities made him a favourite with the people. His feelings were those of an aristocrat, but his ambition led hnn to c-^me forward as a popular leader. The alliance with Argos, which was to be both offensive and defensive, and to last for a hundred yeai-s, was mainly his work. The Athenians made use of this alliance for annoying Sparta; and in B.C. 418, Argos, incited by Alkibiades, went so far in her provocation that Sparta could endure it no longer. A war ensued, in which the Argives were completely defeated in a battle near Mantineia ; but the aristocratic party at Argos soon after brought about a peace with Sparta, in which its former allies were given up. Argos and Sparta now increased the number of their allies as much as possible, and supported aristocratic governments wherever obey could. In B.C. 417, the democratic party at Argos again gamed the upper hand, and renewed its connection with Athens. The year after, Alkibiades sailed with a fleet to Argos, and made 300 aristocrats his prisoners Soon after this, the Doric island of Meloa, declining to join the Athenian confederacy, was besieged and com- l)elled to surrender at discretion. The Athenians, with the utmost cruelty, changed the island into a wilderness, and then peopled it again with new settlers. The Spar- tans, still keeping to the terms of the peace, did nothing to assist Melos, but events were occurring at a distance which rendered the maintenance of peace impossible. '~ We have already noticed that the Athenians were vexed with their generals who returned from Sicil" without having made any conquests. After the death of Perikles, the demagogues, elated by the successes at home, mad(! the people believe that they might accom aiplish any- 92 HISTORY OF GREECE. thing if they only set resolutely about it. Politicians were divided into two parties : ^e one, headed by .Xikias, wished for i^eace at any price; the other, led by AUcir bmd&<, was full of projects of war and conquest. While opinions were thus divided, an embassy from Egesta appeared at Athens, in B.C. 416, to solicit aid against the town ot belmus, and made most liberal promises En- voys were at once sent to Sicily to look into the state of attairs, and on their return gave a most glowing account ot the wealth and power of Egesta. The Athenians, therefore, at once decreed to send out a powerful fleet mider the command of Alkibiades, Lamachos, and Mikias It was the most splendid armament that Athens had ever titted out, and worthy of the proud position she occupied among the states of Greece. When the fleet was almost ready to sail, nearly all the statues of Hermes, which adorned the streets of Athens, were found one morning overthrown or mutilated. This act of wantonness filled the minds of the people with alarm, it bemg believed that it could only be f ork of a con- spirswiy. Many persons were denounce .d those who took to flight were sentenced to death, and their property was confiscated. The name of Alkibiades was not men- tioned by any of the informers until the fleet had actually sailed On its arrival at Rhegium, in southern Italy, a detachment was sent to Egesta to gather information about its means of defence. The report brought back showed that the wealth of Egesta had been greatly exaggerated, but Alkibiades and Lamachos were never- theless resolved to assist the town, to gain as many allies as possible, and to attack Syrakuse, the chief of the Donan cities in Sicily. A i^M *^i^ "moment, envoys arrived from Athens to recall Alkibiades, that he might answ; r the charges which his enemies had in the meantime brought against him He ofiered no resistance, and sailed back with the envovs • but on their arrival at Thurii he landed and took to flight* The removal of Alkibiades deprived the expedition of the only man who might luu e carried tlie undertaking to a HISTORY OF GREECE. 93 Buccessful issue. He went into Peloponnesus, and his enemies at Athens caused him to be condemned to death, and nafi all his property confiscated. The war in Sicily was earned on without much energy, until, about the beginning of winter, the Athenians landed in the neigh- bourhood of S^jrakuse, and after an engagement, in which the Syrakusans narrowly escaped being beaten, the Athen- ians withdjew to Katana. During jhe winter, the Syrakusans, under the guidance ot Hermokrates, did all they could to strengthen them- selves, but found the Sicilian towns rather lukewarm in the cause. The Athenians also endeavoured to strengthen themselves by fresh alliances. The Syrakusans sent to bparta and Korinth for assistance, and Alkibiades, who had taken refuge at Sparta, strongly urged the govern- ment to send a large force and an able general to aid feyrakuse, and at the same time to take possession of JJekelem, in the very heart of Attika. The advice was at once acted upon, and Gylippos was sent with a force to Syrakuse. In the spring of b.c. 414, the Athenians besieged byrakuse, and several engagements took place, in one of which Lamachos was killed. Syrakuse was then closely invested, whereby its inhabitants were reduced to such a state of despair as to depose their faithful leader Hermo- krates. The Athenians, being now joined by many bicilian towns, were feeling sure of victory; but just at this time Gylipi)os arrived, and his mere j^resence revived the spu-it of the Dorian towns. Great numbers flocked to his standard, and the Syrakusans, giving up all thouc^hts of peace, attacked the nearly completed fortifications of the Athenians. The aspect of things was completely changed. Both the native Sicilians and the Greek towns joined Syra- kuse, while the Athenians had scarcely any allies except iNaxos and Katana. Nikias, now the sole commander of the Athenians, instead of besieging Syrakuse, found that he was himself besieged. He applied to Athens for rein- torcements, and wished to resign the command on the i " M 94 ill HISTORY OF GREECE. giound of 111 health. The last request wa^ refused, but two generals, Demosiimm and Eurymedcm, were sent with fresh troops to Sicily. A^ the pem^e between the hll ^^^!"g««*^*^« f . C^reece had now been openl llT' I ?.P^" ^.^'^^' ^^^^ ^^ «•«• 413, invaded Tn^^^^nf T^g^^g *^« country, fortified himself ^tUekeleia, from whence he could annoy the Athenians m many ways. The situation of Athens wa. despeir She had to carry on the war both at home and in Sicily : the sums of money required were immense, and he^ revenues were diminished. These circumstances created a leelmg of uneasmess and discontent, which ultimately found vent m a revolution. uitimaieiy fnr'^5''''^ Demosthenes and Eurymedon arrived with their forces a naval battle wa^ fought, in which the Athenians were victorious but their station on the coast was sei^ hL!l^' K \v^ ^y^Wos. The Athenians were much ha^sed by the enemy, a^d in a second naval battle they were compeUed to retreat. At this critical time, when andlurTJ ^^"^ ^ ^""'^ *^'^ P^^^^^g^' Demosthenes and Eurymedon arrived Demosthenes at once made a Zn^K^^t T ^''' ^//^' '"^^^« «f Syrakuse, and ^ough at first successful, he was at la^t defeated, ^'th ^at loss. As, m addition to this disaster, dise^;8 broke out among the Athenian troops, their comman^L became disheartened, and Demosthenes even thought 3 abandoning Sicily altogether. Nikias, though he foresaw the danger of such a withdrawal, at last a^eed with h^ coneague to retreat in secrecy. The Sy?akusan who had been informed of this design, atUcked their enemies ^etlt^^ T .!?^ ^l T' ' ^^ ^*^«^^"^ fl^^t ^as com- fi ill. . **^' ^"^^ Eurymedon was killed. The loss of «?1'^ fT-'^'^J^''^f'^^^^' ^""^ *^« Syrakusans now a^d at nothing short of the utter amiihilation of their opponents. They therefore resolved to try their stren^h m another sea fight, and the Athenians^now feltlhat their very existence w.o_s at stake. The land army, under Nikias, wa^ drawn up on the coast. In the ensuW engagement, the Athenian fleet waa compelled to rTr^t HISTORY OF GREECE. 95 towards the coast, and the land army broke up in utter ' confusion. The fleet, one-hnlf of which was destroyed was abandoned, and the Athenians endeavoured by fiij'ht to reach some inland place of sjifety, the sick and wounded being left behind. Nikias led the van, and Demosthenes the rear. The Symknsans purstied and harassed them m every way, and after some days forced ^ them to prepare for battle. The troops of Demosthenes were compelled to surrender their arms, but their lives were to be spared. When Nikias was likewise overtiiken and heard of the fate of his colleague, he could not beheire It, and continued his march amid the greatest diflioulties, until he too was forced to surrender. The captives, 7000 in number, were sent into a large stone quarry near Syrakuse, where they were kept for seventy days, crowded together, upon little food, and in a pestilen- tial atmosphere, for the bodies of the dead and dying were left in the midst of the living. At last the survivors were sold as slaves, and Nikias and Demosthenes were put to death. Thus ended the most splendid expedition that Athens had ever sent out. The heartless cruelty of the Syrakusans cannot but fill us with horror and detestation. When the news of this dreadful blow reached Athens, the people became desponding, and vented their wrath against those who had advised them to embark in the undei-takmg; but they soon recovered their spirits and determined to preserve whatever power they still pos- sessed. The general war was continued for nine years longer, partly by sea, and partly on the coast of Asia Minor, while the Spai-tans maintained their stron<^ posi- tion at Dekeleia. During the Sicilian expedition, Spai-ta had become a maritime power. The discontented allies of Athens, such as Euboea and Lesbos, seizing the oppor- tunity of her humiliation, entered into negotiation with bparta ; and even Pei-sia tried to sPourA h*"- »-"]« +- '^r'*— tne Athenians from their possessions in Asia Minor llie Spartiins gladly entered into the plot, and, in b c 412, sent Alkibiades with a small fleet to Chios, whose 1 1 96 HISTORY OF GKKKCE. mliul.ifcants were induced to renounce their alliance with Athens. Other towns followed their example, and the Athenians were unable to check the spirit of revolt At last a treaty was concluded between Sparta and Persia, m which the Asiatic Greeks were handed over to the barbarians. The Athenians, however, having assembled a large force, subdued and ravaged Chios, and compelled most of the revolted towns to return to their allegiance. Another torce, under PImjnuhos, attacked Miletus, where it had to contend against the Persian Tis8apher7ies and Alki- biades; but as a strong auxiliary force arrived from Syra- kuse, Phi-ynichos had to retreat to Samos. The Athenian ascendancy at sea was indeed maintained, but Miletus and some other towns remained in the hands of the ene- hlT-«^^'''% •^i^^^^'f"'' ""^^ ^^^ b^««^« suspected by Ins fepartan friends, induced Tissaphernes to withdraw his support from them, and to allow the Athenians and Spartans to weaken each other. This advice was followed and caused no small loss to Sparta. The object of Alki' blades, however, had not been to benefit Persia more than Athens. His desire was to weaken his countrymen only so f^ as to make them feel the need of himself, and thus to effect his recall. With this view, he worked upon the Athenian army at Samos, and induced Pewander to go to Athens with certain proposals and the assurance that l^ssaphernes was ready to join them. The plan, up to a certain point succeeded, but as Alkibiades in his pro- posals insisted upon the establishment of an oligarchical government, all negotiation was broken off. The oligar- chical party at Athens, however, in b.c. 411, succeeded m establishing a form of government after their own heart, and the same revolution was effected in many of the allied states. The change consisted in this : Ten men were appointed with unlimited power to prepare a senes of new laws ; a councU of 400 was elected, and the fmnchise^ w..,s limited to 5000 citizens. The 4ief pro- moted of this oligarchical scheme were PeAsander, Tlieni- men^, and the orator Antiphmc. The nev government UISTOKY OF GIJEECE. 97 int anay at Sau.os, liowcvor, was utka-ly oj)i)oscd to tlu- change; and when the cruel and arbitLy^ ™din' fll A' fit' ^r"^^* ^"^^^'^^ ^'«*J^ th« army and the fleet bound themselves by an oath to defend the^ rights of the people and to restore the democratic constitution f Durmg this perio^l of internal discord, Athens sus- t-ttned some severe losses abroad, for many' towns! the north, and even Eubcea, revolted, while the Spartans were chosen by the soldiei^ as one of theii- commanded and contrived U> make Tiss^xphemes believe that he wS aU powerful with his countrymen, hoping thereby to rnduel the satrap openly to declare agahist Sparte.^ Envoys from Athens row came to Samos to exculpate and justify the nihng oligarchs. But the army refused to listen t^ deolT^ T^^ t^^l ^?'^^^^^^ *« ^*^«^« at once to depose the oligarchs, had it not been for the moderate counsels of Alkibiades. The change, howe^e wal hi-ought about by the quaiTels. among the oli.^a Z the head of a countei--revolution, as the oligarchs were suspected of plotting with Spart;. When, thereforT •! mXZIZ Ti -^^"/weared off'the cotT'of Attika the people hurried to their ships and attacked it • but they were defeated with great loss which for /L moment, made them almost ^despair ' They 'sJo" t- covered however, and an assembly was convened \n Nvhich the oligarchy was deposed and Alkibiades reSl.d Pemnder and other leaders of the hateful party took to flight, and found shelter in the enemy's camp aV Dekeleif Mmlaros, the Spartan admiral, tired of wa^tinf fn vain for help from Tissaphernes, sailed to tho. nX^i^ to try his luck with F/umucbazus, another p^^^ •satrap. He was followed by the Athenian fleet which gained a great, victory ovc- bi.n ; .-ukI a second it a^ ij tl^i 98 HIHTOKY OF OUKKCE. battle was foutjht nour Abydon, in wlii(!h, owiii^' to the skilful iiiaiiitgciiiont of Alkil)iii^ aoiNs oy THJc akuopolib or atuens. i THUEE KIOIUKS moM J'AUUIEKON. CHAPTER IX PROM THE CLOSE OP THE PELOPONNESIAN WAR TO THE PEACE OF ANTALKIDAS. When the work of demolition was completed, Ly.sander changed the governnjent of Athens into an' oligarchy ^/ary men, commonly called the T/drt^/ TyranL ^Jvo sdected from among the pai^isans ^ " Spaxta, afd entn.sSd only 3000 citizens, who alone v..x-e allowed to carry SThLlaw ifr^'lr^'l^"'^^ ^^^^^^ the prot. ction wift K T' ^^"^ '?**^"'^ *^''° ^**^^'«' Lysander, laden with booty, returned to Spai-ta. T^e Thiity, headed by the wealthy KHtias, at first punished only the obnoxious demagogues, bu. by-and by ^Zi^r-v'"' t^ ^^ ^"^^"» I^^-^^^-*« f«r outlawing wealthy citizens, for no other reason but because the? wished to possess themselves of their property Thev maugurated m fact, a reign of terror, during wh Sh neariy 1400 Athenian citizens fell victims to thdr cruelty and avarice. About 5000 took to flight and even towns previously hostile to Athens toSk pity XVw\ ""^«"*:"^'^*«, ^^^^^- The reckless cruelty of the Thirty went so far that even Themmenes, one of then- number, expressed his disgust at their pmeP^din-s Kritias thereupon charged him with treason, and h.ui his name struck ort the list of citizens, whereby he became an outlaw. He was thrown into prison, and had to S J:.;l 102 HISTORY OF GREECE. Diaili «l I tlio deadly hemlock. He thus made some atonement for the offences of his "rather equivocal career. But the day of retribution was not far off. Thrasy- hulos, one of the exiles, and an able general, had at first gone to Thebes ; but being joined by seventy other exiles, he had taken possession of the small fortress of Phylse, in the north of Attika. Notwithstanding the- precautions of the Thirty, the number of exiles assembling in that place soon rose to 700 ; and supported by them, Thrasy- bulos, after defeating the forces of the tyi^ants, proceeded to Peirreeus. The Thirty, fearing treachery in the city, ordei-ed 300 suspected citizens to be put to death, and then marched down to Peii-aeus, where a battle was fought, in which the exiles were victorious, and Kritias, with many of his followers, was slain. The vanquished army retreated into the city, and the survivors of the Thirty withdrew to Eleusis. Their friends in the city, failing in the attempt to effect a compromise, sent to Sparta for assistance. An army, under Lysander, and a fleet were accordingly despatched to Athens; but the Spartan king, Pausanias, jealous of the military glory of Lysander, came to an understanding with Thrasybulos, who generously proclaimed a general amnesty, from which the survivors of the Thirty and their most guilty tools alone were exempted. After this, Thrasybulos i)roceeded to the city, and (exhorted the people to maintain jjeace and order, and to restore their old constitution. This advice was cheerfully followed ; but when it became known that the oligarchs at Eleusis were planning an attack upon Athens, the citizens marched out in a body, and inflicted summary punishment upon them. Such was the end, in B.C. 403, of the rule of the Thirty and of the year of anarchy, as It is called in Athenian history. The democmtic consti- tution was then restored, and a comniission of 500 men wsis api)ointcd to revise the laws. Athens, thouarh humbled and brnkmi down ol">"'a-i ." M Hi midst of its distress a spirit and a vitality such a6 HISTORY OF OUEECE. 103 m few other states have manifested in similar circumstances ller intellectual vigour and activity continued, as if nothing unusual had happened. Art and literature in some respects rose even to a higher point of perfection than that attained in happier days. In poetry alone there was a falling off, for the place of fancy and imagina- tion was gradua ly supplied by erudition and learning. Ihe losses which Athens had sustained were soon re- paired ; but the case of Sparta, though she had come out ot tlie war victorious, wa^' -ery diilerent. The effects of her victory were ruinous the character of ho.- iieople foreign manners and luxuries found their way into feparta, and formed a strong contrast to the spirit of her ancient constitution, of which the outward forms were nevertheless still observed. Owing to the intercourse with other nations, the use of money wa^^ introduced among the Spartans ; and as they were of an avaricious disposition, Spartan citizens soon became richer than those of any other state; but the gi-eat wealth was aecumulated in a few families. The number of 9000 citizens, owing to their spirit of exclusiveness, is said to have been reduced to 700, and even of these, no more than 100 enjoyed the full franchise, and lived in hauffhty seclusion from the rest of the people. At Athens, on the other hand, the number of citizens was not materially diminished by the war and the pesti- lence, for aliens, and even slaves, were frequently re- warded with the franchi^.e for having benefited the state by commerce or industiy. It is true that unprincipled demagogiies often exercised an injurious influence xipon the people, and led them to spend large sums upon plea- sures and amusements, which might have been bett-r employed m the public service, but the mass of the people on all occasions displayed a peculiarly noble and humane disposition. Under the guidance of the wise Thrasybulos they reformed the old constitution so lar aa to make it a moderate democracy, under the watchful supervision of the Areiopagos ; and henceforth Athena enjoyed a peiiod of internul t.anipiillity, until the time ;^' 104 IIISTOHY Ol' GKEECE. of Philip f»f Macedonia, when party animosities again began to disturb her peace and happiness. Tlie golden age of Attic art and literature embraces a period of about 200 years, from the beginning of the Pei-sian wars down to the death of Alexander the Great. During the first half of that period, poetry, as we have already seen, reached its highest development ; and dur- ing the latter, oratory, philosophy, and historiography were cultivated with unparalleled success by such men as Perikles and Demost/ieries, Sokrates and Plato, and Thuhj- dvles and Xenophon. Sokrates, indeed, did not himself write any works, and we know him chiefly through the writings of his disciples, Xenophon and Plato. He was tinily said to have called philosophy down from heaven, and to have introduced it into the habitatious of men, for before his time, philosophers had speculated about out- ward nature, the origin of the universe, etc. ; but he directed all his attention to the moral nature of man and his duties and relations to his fellowmen. The novelty and method of his teaching, t,ogether with his leaning towards an aristocratic form of government, led his ene- mies to charge him with corrupting the young, and with disregarding the publicly recognised gods. When brought to trial, he defended himself fearlessly, disdaining to em- ploy any unlawful means to obtain his acquittal, and when he was condemned to death at the age of seventy, he cheerfully drank the fatal cup, and died in B.C. 399. We must now briefly notice an episode which, though properly no part of the history of Greece, throws light upon the character of its people. Kyros, a younger brother of the Persian king, Artaxerxes, had formed the design to overthrow his brother and seize upon his throne. With this object in view, he had favoured Sparta in her war against the Athenians, and with her assistance he now collected an army of malcontents from all parts of Greece. With this army, he set out from Sardes, in B.C. 401. He encountered his brother at Kunaxa, where a battle was fought, in which Kyros was killed. But the Greeks refused to suri-ender, and after HISTORY OP r.REKCE. 105 UmII h.mng boon iroadiorously drawn into the interior of Asia then- leaders were murdered. Xenophon, the Athen- ian historian, who iiad accompanied the army tis a volunteer, now undertook the command of his country- men, dispe led their despair, and promised to conduct them back to Greece. They marched northward throu>hei-nes, not being ort ot fepai-ta, and transferred it to Athens. In Europe, the Spartans had, in the meantime, gained some advantages, and checked some of the proceedings ot the Athenians. In these circumstances, the lattei sent out the aged Thmsyhulos with a considerable fleet with which he was at first very successful on the coast of ihrace and in the ^g»an, but he U\ in an engagement at Aspendos. This brave and noble commander was succeeded by the reckless and efl'eminate Ayyrrhios, in ■consequence of which the Si)art:.n,s r.-co\ered many of ^tl I .11 I OS IIISTOUY OF ii\{\:\Ab'.. a their lost plivces, and (>vcn Icuuss.'.l Attikii from the island of Aiginii, of which thoy h:ul juade themselves masters. While these things wore going on in Greece, Antal- kidas again went to Asia, detfjnnined tliis time to bring about a \Wi\GQ with Persia. The i)lan was facilitated by the fiict that the Athenians, tired of the war, were also , turning their thoughts to peace. Accordingly, they also, joiiied by the Korinthians and Argives, sent envoys to Tiribazus; and a peace, commonly called the Peace of Antalkidas, was concluded in B.C. 387, on the following terms: That the Greek cities in Asia, together with Klazomenffi and Kyprus, should belong to Persia ; but that all other Greek towns should be free and indepen- dent, with the exception of the islands of Lemnos, Imbros, and Skyros, which belonged to the Athenians. According to this peace, the leading states ought to have set free the smaller towns in their respective territories. But Thebes and Argos, not being inclined to comply with this stipulation, had to be compelled by threats. Spartti, itself, v'hich ought to have set an example to the other states, contmued to exercise its sovereignty over Lakonia and Meijseuia. UUKEK WAKHIUU. liESTOKED PAKTUKNON. CHAPTER X. FROM THE PEACE OP ANTALKIDAS TO THE BATTLE OP CHiERONEIA. The peace of Antalkidas was never completely carried mit, so far as the towns of Greece were concerned, feparta not only maintained the sovereignty over her tormer subjects, but extended it over the whole of Pelo- ponnesus, with the exception of Argos, which maintained Its independence. Not satisfied with this, Sparta even presumed to interfere in the affairs of the states of Northern Greece. These latter endeavom-ed to secure themselves by a coalition, of which Olynthos was the head A report that Athens and Bceotia intended to join the coalition, led the Spartans to send out a force under Eudamidas, who at once took possession of Poti- claea. boon after, a larger army followed, under the command of Phcehdas. While he was parsing tlirough Boeotia the oligarchir^al party at Thebes betrayed the city mto his hands, and Ismenias, the leader of the popular party, was arrested and put to death. The prin- cipal men of the popular party, about 300 in number, took refuge in Athens. One of them was FehpidaJ, whose eminent friend Epaminondas remained at Thf^h^ unmolested, because there was nothing about him to frighten the oligarchs. The war against Olynthos lasted from b.c. 383 to 379 w^hen its inhabitants were compelled by famine to con' no HISTORY OF (iKKKCE. I il chide a ))eac(> in which they hinl to iccogiiisc the supriv inacy of thoir coiKiuorors. Si)art:i had now readied the height of its j)ower and influence, for tlie other stiites were too much weaktmed to venture \i\nn\ a fresh war. But tlie ytiar of, Sparta's greatest prosi)erity was also the beginning of her decline. Pelojrtdas, in conjunction with a small number of fellow-exiles, formed the plan of delivering his native city, which was kept in subjection by a Spartan garrison. One night he and his friends entered Thebes in disguise, and being joined l)y others, they proceeded to the houses of the oligarchs and put them to death. The citizens, being called out to assert, their freedom, assembled at daybreak in arms, while an Athenian force was hastening to their assistarice. The Spartan harmost was obliged to cajntu- late, but he and his garrison were allowed to depart unhurt, and only those who had ;issisted iii betraying the city into the enemy's hands were punished with death. When Spartsi was informed of these events, she resolved to crush Thebes by force of arms, and thus commenced the Tlieban War, which lasted from B.C. 378 to 362 ; but it was not confined to these two states, all Greece taking part in it more or less. Under the able guidance of Upaminondas, Thebes recovered the supremacy over the BcDotian towns, and Athens her maritime ascendancy, while Spartii was humbled. But the unfortunate war of Greeks against Greeks ])aved the way for their subjuga^ tion by Macedonia. During the first two years, the Spartans invaded and ravaged Bceotia, the Thebans maintaining the defensive behind their fortifications, while Pelopidas formed and trained an excellent army. Athens, now in alliance with Thebes, brought about a powerful confederation against Spartsi, and concluded alliances with the principal msiri- time stfites, such as Chios, Byzantium, Rhodes, and Mitylene, Its navy was thereby greatly increased, and its wisdom and moderation secured to it the confidence and attachment of its confederates. In the third year of the war, the Lakediemonians were repulsed by the li HI iiisTOKV oi' (;iu;r.(:i; 111 til I AtJicniiins ia tlu'ir iittcin|tt to miir.-li into I'xi'otia. Upon this tiie S])jirLiuis oquiitpwl u licet, p.uLly to truiisporL their ti'ooi)s into ixeotia, and partly to harass the coasts of Attika; but it was destroyed off Naxos by the Athen- ians under Chal/r'uis, and at the saiiK; time an Atlienian fleet under Timotheos hiid waste th(; coasts of Pelopon- nesus, and induced Kephalenia, Akarnania, and some Ei)irot tribes to join the Athenian confederacy. By this means, Thebes was prot»H-t(;d against any further attacks, and enabled to ellect tlu; submission of the Bu;otian towns. The success of Thebes, however, was beginning to excite fear and alarm at Athcnis, and thus led the Athenians to conclude a jieacc^ with 8[)arta, on the basis of that of An- talkidas. The Thebans, of course, refused to be a party to it; and some Bujotian towns trying to assert their freedom, were razed to the ground. Atliens, however, pursued her own course, leaving Sparta to continue the war against Thebes. The feeling then prevailing in Greece was almost like that which had divided the nation during the Peloponnesian war, for everywhere the oli- garchs were at war with the democracy, and being no longer supported by Sparta, the democrats nearly every- where gained the upper hand. The Athenian general Iphikrates was fighting successfully in the cause of demo- cracy, when in B.C. 373, negotiations for peace were again conmienced, the King of Persia being this time invited to act as mediator. Accordingly the peace of Antalkidas was renewed and accepted by both Athens and Sparta, but Thebes did not join in it, as she insisted upon main- taining her sui)remacy over the Boeotian towns. Immediately after the conclusion of this peace, the Spartan king, Kleomhrotos, invaded Boeotia, but the Thebans, though without allies, being commanded by her brave and able citizens, Pelopidaa and Epaminondas, gained a most complete victory at Leuktra, in B.C. 371. In that battle, Kleombrotos with 400 Spartans, and dpwards of 3000 I.akoniar.- wore slain. Sparta's mili- tary prestige was gone, an (•)• Peloponnc- , u subjects i J.A 112 HISTORY OK fiUKi:* i:. b(!;^'aii to tJirow oil' her \n]< munitioH unit('d jukI b( '•• All I lie Ark;iy sevend new uIliiinceH, invaded relopouuesus, in n.v. 300, nndni- the connnand of Pelopi- das and Epauiinondas. ( )n their arrival in the peninsula, they were joined by many PelopcMinosians, and ninrched against Sparta. The Spartans were; almost i)aralysed with fear, hut as the tirst attack oji th(^ city produced little eflect, Epaminondas pro(;ecdcd to Gytl/ion, which he set on fire, and then turned into Mess(;nia. Larrs Just at this crisis the King of Persia sent envoys, advisi].<' the belligerents to conclude peace, but the Thebans pei- emptorily declarc^d that they would not set free their sub- jects. The war therefore was continued, althouirh Umh f.luo. anothei nemy arose in the north, against whom Theb es : il IIISTOKV Ol' OHEKIE. 113 hhA to (mploy :i jKvrt of hor fovfcs. Joson, tyrant of riwnv, Avlio lijul tlir ciMuiniiiid of all tli(i Tlicssiiliiin towns, seenig tho (li.stivsscd stnto of Greece, hud conceived the idea of making liiniself master of it. He tJierefore had tried to interfere in the war between Thebes and Sparta, but soon after the battle of T.euktra he had been assa«- Hinated. Alexander, who afterwards succeeded to the tyrannis, became involved in a war with Thebes, in consequence of which Pelopidas in B.C. 3G8, invaded Thessaly, but was taken j)risoner, and it was only after repeated attempts that Epaminondas succeed(>d in effect- ing his liberation. Some years later, when Pelopidas had again entered Thessaly,' to free the towns from their cruel and reckless tyrant, he was killed in a battle at Kynoskephalje, though his army was victorious, and com- |>elled the tyrant to restore the indejiendence of the Thessalian towns, and to enter into an alliance with Thebes, B.C. 364. In the meantime the Arkadian state had been crushed, in B.C. 367, by the Spartans in a battle in which 10,0()() Arkadians and not a single Spartan are said to have fallen. The year after this battle, Epaminondas invaded Pelo- ponnesus for the third time, but without producing any lasting effect. Several states indeed wished for peace, but a war which broke out in B.C. 365, between Arkadia and Elis, destroyed all hope of it. Sparta supported Elis, but the Arkadians defeated both, and took posses- sion of the temple of Olympia. A dispute then arose among them as to what should be done with the temple treasures, and the Theban commander arrested a number of persons who had advised to spend the treasures upon the army. The Aikadians, INIantineia at their head, enraged at this interference, called upon all the Pelopon- nesians to assert their independence of Thebes. But Epaminondas was already approaching with allies from Eul)cea and Thessaly, and was joined in Peloponnesus by tiie Argives, Messcnians, and some Arkadian towns. The Lakonians wuh their allies were encamped near Mantineia, where Epann'iiondas resolved to light a d^.- 114 •tl.STOHY OF (JKKKCJ:. '"lii: cisive baitl... His first uttn.-k wn.s uv.uh with mich vehernorico, that tho (uicrnii^s w.!i«' oNcrpow^'icd and put to flight, hut ho himsolf was luoi-tally vvouihIcmI in hia hronat l.y a .spoar. Ho rofuwed to have tho wc^ipon extnictod, until ho was asanred of the! coinph-to victory of hiH tif).>ps. Wlwn ho was informed of this, th< iron was retnovod, and ho. hh^d to death. This hattlo of Mantinoia, which wius fou;,'ht in nc 302 is Olio of th(! most important in Greek history J hebos, winch had for a nhort period risen from compara- tive obscurity, ami exorcised its infliuuice in tiioaflliirs of Woe, sudd(Mdy fell from its prond positioi, for it owed Its power solely U^ its two -r(,at citizens, Rdopi.his ami hpaininondas, and afi*;r tlu^ir death there was no one to take their place. But Sj)arta's power was broken, and a peace was at leni (h concluded, in B.C. 301, in which tlui mdependonco of Mess(>nia was reco.^nised ThoLn-eat A<,esiho,s^ who had gone to Kjrypt to support a rebellion against Persia, died in tho same year. Ever since the time of the PiOcponnesian war, it had become more and more customary amon<,' the Greeks to carry on their wars by means of mercenaries, while tho citizens remained at home, enjoying the jileasures and luxuries ot life, and losing their warlike si)irit. Athens which m many respects was carried away by tho genera! current, nevertheless disi)layed at tim.^^! an enor<^y and a patriotism worthy of the descendants if >h< men who fought at Marathon and Salamis. Vnr.vl^^^^uties to a general congress which was to meet at Koriuth in B.C. 337. The Macedonian king was now the real master of Greece; but Atliens, under the alile management of men like Demosthenes, Phokion, and Lykurgos, still main- tained an honourable i)osition and a high degree of pros- perity. The Thebans had to pay dearly for having abandoned the alliance Avith Pliilip : their citadel was occupied by a Macedonian garrison, and they lost the supremacy over the Boeotian towns. The greater part of the Peloponnesians likewise acknowledged Philip as their sovereign. In the spring of b.c. 337, deputies from all parts of Greece mejb in congress at Korinth; Sparta alone was not represented. In this assembly, Philip declared that the final object of all his undertakings was to chas- tise Persia for the wrongs she had inflicted upon the Greeks. This declaration w^as received with general approbation, and the king was at once appointed com- mander-in-chief of all the Greek forces. Prei)arations were forthwith made on a large scale, and every Greek state had to furnish its contingent. Some troops were at once sent into Asia, under the command of Attalos and Parmenion ; Philip himself was detained in Europe by family aifairs. In the following year, B.C. 336, great festivities were going on in his capital of Pella, to cele- brate the marriage of his daughter, Kleopatra, with Alexander of Epirus, when Philip was suddenly mur- dered at the entrance of the theatre by a person who had been wronged by him. The people and the army at once demanded his son Alexander for his successor. That young prince, only twenty years old, had already distinguished himself on several occasions by his valour. The kingdom, at this nioment, was in a perOous position, for the death of Philip made a deep impression; and both the barbarians in the north, and the Greeks in the south were in commotion, imagining that the day had now coine for recovering their independence. But all difficulties were soon overcome b\ the genius of youn" Alexande> ,'oung DKMOSTUEKBa, CHAPTER XL GMW3U »IIRING THE liEIGN OP ALEXANDER THE GREAT. Alexander the Great had been most carefully educated by Aristotle, the greatest of all Greek philosophers, and his mind was so thoroughly imbued with a love of Greek art and literature, that he may be regarded as a real and true Greek. When his father's death became known at Athens, the old enthusiasm for freedom rose to such a pitch that the people voted a golden crown for the murderer of Philip, no one believing that the "Boy of jt-elia as they contemptuously called Alexander, would be able to keep the conquests of his father together : but they did not know the spirit and energy of the young king After he had gained possession of the throne hi marched into Thessaly to assert his supremacy over Cxreece, sword in hand. Little resistance was there ottered to hini, and with unexpected rapidity he advanced southward. The Amphiktyonic Council at once did homage to inm, and as the leading states, Thebes, Athens and bparta, did not send dei)uties to greet him he straightway marched into Boeotia and encamped at the very gates of Thebes. Tlic Athenians, now di.scovering ttiat they had judged hiu, wrongly, .sued for pardon^ wliicii was granted on condition of their sending deputies to the congress sitting at Korinth. Alexander liimself uppeaicd tl.eie, and was appointed comniuudcr-in chief ot ■ill the Grctiks agjiinst Pen \( > I isiu. The congr(is.s was en- 122 HISTORY OF GREECE. »■ !■ trusted with the Tiuuuigcnient of fill the ailuiis of Ciieece, and was to remain permanent until tlu^ king's return. Sparta alone stubbornly refused to sentl (le})uties. When the submission of Greece was thus secured, he returned to Macedonia, in is.c. 335, and immediately pro- ceeded against the northern and western barbarians who were threatening his kingdom. In these campaigns he had to encounter the most terrible dilliculties, biit his energy and personal bravery ovcu-canie them all. In Illyricum, however, he was detained for a consideral>le time, in consequence of which a report was spread that lie had been killed. This rumour stirred up all the Greeks that were hostile tp Macedonia, and the King of Persia caused large sums of money to be distributed among tbem. Thebes, together with several other states, at once rose in arms ; and the Athenian patriots, Demosthenes at their head, induced the people to declare war against Macedonia. At Thebes the Macedonian garrison was besieged in the akropolis, but all of a sudden Alexander appeared with a large army in Bceotia, and Thebes after a short but brave defence was taken. Alexander, wishing to make an example, inflicted the severest punishment u})on it; the city, vnth the exception of the temples and the house of the poet Pindar, was razed to the ground. Six thou- sand men had fallen during the siege, and the surviving 20,000 were sold as slaves. The fate of Thebes made a deep impression upon all Greece, and the Atl lenians were the first to send ambassadors to implore the king's mercy. The petition was granted on condition that Demosthenes and Lykurgos should be delivered up to him. But this demand was not insisted upon, i\.lexander being most desirous of securing the good- will of the Athenians, for whom he entertained the great- est respect. In the autumn he returned to Macedoma and made preparations for the expedition against Persia. In the spring of B.C. 331, he proceeded with a considerable army to Sestos, where his ileet was le^idy to carry them into Asui. AulljxUcr was left bchinil as regent of the kingdom. Aiexauthir's army, though small in comparison HISTOKY OF OREECE. with tlio niy.'iads nt tlio diH|.()sal of thv Persia ii )< con.sistt'tl of Maccd al)out 70()i) Greeks, for ] 123 intr. onians, Ijarharian snhjccts, and only dainin, a Rho- dian, who undertook the command of the Persian fleet, and kept up the connection between Persia and the Ei.roi.ean Greeks. ^ When Alexander entered Asia, he was accompanied by poets, historians, and philosophers, who were to immortal- 186 his exploits, and gather information about the nations and countries never before visited by Europeans. His generals were the most eminent of the time, ond two of them, Ftolemy and Aristobulos, afterwards wrote accounts ot tlieir master's expedition, but their works have per- ^Tx\ -if* ^^]^y ^^'"^ ^°"''S kiiig, an enthusiastic admii-er ot Achilles, offered sacrifices to the Greek heroes, which was of course flattering to the Greek portion of his army His first encounter with the Persian forces took place on the banks of the little river Granikos, where he completely defeated them, though they were far superior in numbers. Ifie result of this victory was that nearly all Asia Minor submitted to him, especially the Greek cities, which wel- comed him as a Greek delivering them from the barbarians, me city of Hahkarnassos alone ofl=ered a brave but uieflectual resistance. M ,non, who had done much by mejins of Persian gold to stir up the European Greeks, suddenly died, which must have been a great relief to the king, who now marchcul through Kilikia, where he con- tracted a severe illness by bathing in the icy waters of the river Kydnos, but he was saved by the skill of his ]>hy- sician, ^ -^ The Persian monarch now advanced with a large army to oi)pose the invaders at the mountain jiasses leading,' from Kihkia into Syria,, and a givat battle was fought at /.vms-, in B.C. 333, m wliich the bai))arians were completely routed. The booty made hy Alexander was immense ; and among the prisoners w(-re the king's moth.T. his wife ii 'I Ii 124 HISTORY OF GREECE. and two danglitcM-s, al) of whom were treat(;e Lamiau War, in which Athens lost her freedom and her democratic constitution. The Macedonians now prepared to turn theii- arms against il^]tolia, but the eventfc ^bich ^'fcie occurring in Asia prevented this undertaking, J\ m. aMEXANUEH TUK OP.EAT ll.il >|i|i! WAR CHAItlOT. CHAPTER XII. OBKEOli; UNDER THfe SUCCESSORS OF ALEXANDER UNTIL THE TIME OF THE ACU^AN LEAGUE. Kenotforth the history of Greece is inseparably inter- woven with that of Macedonia, of which, in fact, it was at times only a sort of province. When Alexander died, there was no one to succeed him, for he left behind him only a weak-minded brother and two infant sons. For a short time Perdikkas exercised the highest authority as regent of the whole empire. But he was murdered in B.C. 321, and the generals of Alexander claimed the sovereignty of those portions of the empii-e of which they had been ai)pointed governors, and Antigonos even claiiDed the sovereignty of the whole, while Antipater and his son Kassander kept Macedonia and Greece in their hands. The wives and children of Alexander and his brother w(!re kept in a sort of splendid captivity at Pella, and in the course of a fijw years all of them were murdered. The history of Alexander's family is perhaps the most tragic in all ancient history. After a great deal of fighting among the generals, there arose a great and protracted war against Antigonos, until at length, in R.C. 311, the vast empire was divided among the competi- tors. BuL the peace did not last long; a fresh war broke out, and five of the generals assumed the title of king. Matters, however, still remained unsettled in consecpience of the pretensions of Antigonos. But he was killed in a, great HISTORY OF GREECE. 131 haitle foutflit ;d fi^sus, m v,M 301. wlicifiijioii ;i, [)o;ice was coTicliideil in wliicli MacMloiiia, Thi'ueci, Syjia, and Egypt were recogni.se(l as iudtipeiidtuit kingdoms. During these sti-uggles ainoug the generals of Alex- ander, Greece bad of course to bear its share in them. At Athens there was a strong Macedonian party in favour of Kassander, the son of Antipater. It was headed by Pliokion, and wished to retain the JNlacedonian gan'ison at Munychia. The democratic pai'ty, on tlie othei' hand, fav- oured Polyspcrcho^t, whom Antipater had appointed his successor, because he promised to restore to the Athenians their demociutic government, and to allow the exiles to return. The democratic party gained the upper hand, and Phokion, being charged with treason, was put to death, in [I B.C. 317. A war then aiose })etween Kassander and Polysi^ei'chon, during wluch nearly the whole of Pelo})on nesus was conquered by the latter. The Atlienians, how ever, concluded peace with Kassander, in which theii" political independence was i'ecognis(;d and the fi'anchise extended. But at the same time Kassander appointed the popular orator Demetrios of P/uilerou governor of Athens, whose administration lasted from B.C. 318 to B.C. 307. At first he was extremely popular, and Athens recovered much of her former ])rospcrity ; he is even said to have been honoui'ed by the citizens with 360 statues, but his subsequent extravagances made him an object of general detestation. During that period Greece was always the bone of contention among the Macedonian candidates for power, and almost all of them were anxious to secure the goodwill of the Greeks by promises to restore their independence. But such promises were worth very little, as no one had sufticient j)ower to realise them. Kassander was at last forced by Ptolemy, then governor of Egypt, to quit Greece and return to Macedonia, in the pe ice of b.c. 311 the indei)endence of Greece was indeed guai'anteed, but a few years later KaBsander and Ptolemy agreed that each of them should remain in posses- sion of those parts of Greece which he had conquered. In the last year of Demetrios of Phaleron's adniinistra- ; I w -r-4 132 yiSTOlJV OF Iunychiii and Peiraious, and fortititnl the - hill of the Museum within the city. He then marched into Peloponnesus, and appeared before the very gates of Sparta, when he was suddenly called to Macedonia, where he ascended the throne in B.C. 294. He reigned 'for a period of seven years, during which all Greece paid homage to him; but in a war against Pyrrhus, being deserted by his troops, he fled into Syria, where he ended his restless career as a prisoner. Wlien Pyrrhus became king of Macedonia, the Athenians again rose in arms to assert their freedom, and the Macedonian garrisons were driven from their strongholds. Pyrrhus, instead of pun- ishing them, generously allowed them the enjoyment of their freedom ; and Demochares, being recalled, managed the affairs of the state in so able a manner, that for a time the Athenians might fancy that the hapi)y days of old were returning. Lysimachos, the successor of Pyn-hus, also concluded friendship with Athens, and allowed her the full enjoyment of her democratic constitution. About the year B.C. 280, swarms of Kelts or Gauls invaded Greece from the north. In Macedonia their progress was checked, though not until King Ptolemy Keraunos had lost his life in a battle against them. They then marched south towards Delphi, attracted, no doubt, by reports of the wealth of its temple ; but when they approached Delphi, in B.C. 279, the god himself is said, by thunder and lightning, to have terrified the invaders, as he had done two centuries before, when the Persians approached the sacred city. Upon this, the Gauls dis- persed, and a large body of them crossed over into Asia Minor, where, after roaming about for a long time, they settled in the country called after them Galatia. Antigonos Gonatas, who succeeded Ptolemy Keraunos (from B.C. 280, to b.c. 239), also claimed the sovereignty of Greece, but had to establish his claim by force of arms, and even thus succeeded only partially. In b.c. 269, he had to wage war against the Athenians, because they refused to admit a Macedonian garrison. The city was 134 HISTORY OF GREECE. besieged for .sevei-iil yciivs, iiiid thougli it was supported by Sparta and tlu; King of Kgy})t, it was compel led to IVIiiny- 2G2, and to receive garrisons in J surnnider m B.C. zbz, a chia, Peira^eus, and the Museum. But the coiupieror treated the Athenians with great indulgence, for he did not interfere with theu' democratic constitution, and soon after even withdrew the garrison froni the Museum.' Athens thus enjoyed a long period of peace, thoiigh she had the mortification of seeing her port towns occupied by Macedonian troops. In B.C. 229, Aratos, then the head of the Achaean leagiie, of which we shall have to Apeak hereafter, prevailed upon the Macedonian com- mander, by a bribe, to evacuate the port towns. He had hoped by this means to induce the Athenians to join the league, but they wei'e too much weakened to join in its warlike undertakings, and henceforth withdrew from taking an active part in the affairs of Greece. Throughout the Macedonian period, Sparta had shown considerable firmness in resisting the demands of the Macedonian rulers, but she had done little or nothing for the fieedom of the rest of Greece, and we have seen that in B.C. 294 she narrowly escaped being conquered by Demetrios. The city was then surrounded by walls, which alone shows that the ancient spirit of its citizens no longer existed. The state was in fact in a wretched condition, all its wealth being accumulated in the hands of a few families, while the great mass of the people were miserably poor. The ephore had become the highest power in the state, and the kings were little more than the representatives of two ancient families. In these circumstances King Agis (from B.C. 244 to B.C. 241) undertook the dangerovis task of reforming the constitution and bringing it into harmony with the spirit of the times. Supported by the younger generation of Spai'tans, he carried several laws to r'^lieve the jjoor. A fresh division of the land was made, and 4500 lots were set apart for the Spartans, and 15,000 for the Lakonians, and the small number of Spartans was to be increased by the admission of Lakonians to the franchise. Thes(i and IIIPTOUV OF GIJKKCE. 135 otiicr niefusuies ass through all the horrors for which the tyrants of that period are notorious in Greek history. | , The peace between Philij) and the Romans, according to which neither ought to have attacKod the allies of the other, was broken by Philip in more ways than one. It happened that at Athens two Akarnanian youths, who were believed to have profaned some religious mysteries, A^ere murdered by the excited populace. The Akai-nanians, supported by Philip, made ravaging inroads into Attika. Hereupon the Athenians, allied with King Attalos of Pergamos and with the Ehodians, declared war against Philip, who straightway proceeded to blockade Athens with his fleet. The Athenians, assisted by a Roman fleet, repelled him, in revenge for which he laid waste the country as far as he could. In B.C. 200, the Romans, formally undertaking the i)rotection of Attika, sent out the consul Sulpiclus Galba with a force against iMacedonia,, and thus commenced the second Macedonian war. The belligerents liad the same allies as before, but during tlie fii-st year nothing of any importance was accomplished. In B.C. 198, Quinctms Fliwiininus, however, succeeded in gaining the Acha^ans over to his side, and being thus supported by them, as well as by the ^tolians, he ad- vanced into Thessaly. As negotiations led to no satis- factory results, a great battle was fought, in b.c. 197, at a place called Kynoskephake, in which Philip war; totally defeated, mainly owing to the valour displayed by the iEtolians. Peace was then concluded on condition that niSTOKY 0-" GUKKCE. 141 Pliilip should witbdniw his garri.soiiH from all tlic (freok cities ; and that th(! tlirec great fortresses of Greece, Demetrias, Akrokorinthos, and Clialkis slionhl be occupied by the Romans. Tlie Athenians received back tlie ishmda of Pares, Imbros, Delos, and SkjTOs; but strange to say, .Egina was given to King Attalos. Th*; ^^Jtolians, to whom t})e victory of Kynoskepliahe was mainly due, being dissatisfied with these arrangements, openly declared that all the fair promises of Flamininus regarding the liberation of Greece were mere words, so long as the Romans themselves kept garrisons in the most important fortresses — the thi-ee fetters of Greece. In the year after the great battle, B.C. 196, Flamininus, during the celebration of the Isthmian games and before the assembled Greeks, proclaimed the freedom and inde- pendence of their country. This proclamation was re- ceived with the most enthusiastic joy and delight by the people, who did not perceive that they had only made a change of masters. After this, Flamininus remained in Greece for some time, as Hannibal was stirring up King Antiochos of Syria against Rome, and the tyrant Nabis refused to evacuate Argos. But Flamininus compelled him not only to leave Argos, but to accept a peace on very severe terms, though his tyrannis of Sparta was left untouched. Of this both the Achajans and -^tolians complained. In order to satisfy the Greeks, the Romans, in B.C. 194, evacuated the three fortresses. But Nabis, anxious to recover certain maritime towns ceded to the Achieans, commenced war against them. The Achwans being commanded by l*hilop(jemen, })lockaded Sparta, and the -^tolians, pretending to assist Nabis, miu-dered him and took possession of the citadel ; but the Spartiins rose against theii- treachei'ous allies and massacred nearly the whole of them. Amid this confusion, Philopcemen made himself master, not oidy of the city, but of the whole of Lakonia. and added both to the Achaean leasrue. wlpp}) now embraced the whole of Pelo})onnesus. Ever since the battle of Kynoskephalse, the ^tolians were bitterly exasperated against the Romans, and they p,3 1 :'■ fe'' 1.^'- I ii f r-'. ' %'■ : H 142 HIMTOIIY OF OUKECE. HOW inviUul An/ior/wsoi' Syria to conu! to (livoce, tlMi c'oiKjucst of which they ropniscntod to him aa a matter of no groat dilHculty. In lu:. 1s ; but in B.C. 18'J they were forced to accept a peace in wliich tliey were obliged to recognise the supremacy of lionie, to enter into an offensive" and defensive alliance with them, to dismiss all non-^tolian towns from their league, and to puy the expenses of the war. Their confederation was thus broken up and limited to the towns in ^tolia itself. After Philoi)oemen had made himself master of Sparta, the city remained quiet for a few years ; but in 188 a dispute arose betwocm him and the Spartans. Both parties applied to the Roman Senate to decide between them; but as its au.swer was ambiguous, Philopoemen took justice into his own hands : lie restored those who had been exiled by Nabis, put to death the leaders of tht» party hostile to the Acha;ans, aid even went so far a» to compel the Spartans to adopt a democratic form oi government. The Spartans, unable to resist these revo- lutionary proceedings, had to submit to them with deep but suppressed indignation. In B.C. 183 the Messenians revolted from the Achaeans, and Philopoemen had to march against them. On his way he was attacked and overpowered by some Messenian horsemen, who triumph- antly carried him in a dying state to Messene. The people there condemned him to death, which he bore with a calmness and intrepidity worthy of his whole life. He was succeeded hy Lykortas, the father of the historian Poly bios, who recovered Messenia and i)ut to death those who had taken the lead in condenininle works of art were conveyed to Rome, and many were lost in the sea during the transport. Not very long after this destructive war, Pompey and Julius Caisar, the two most eminent Roman generals of the time, contending for the soveieignty, bec;ame involved in a civil war which divided the whole empire into two hostile parties. The Greeks, ever hoping to recover their freedom, took jjart in the terrible contest which raged and was decided in Greece. The Athenians, Eaotians, and Pcloponnesians sided with Pompey, while the Akarnanians, .^tolians, and a portion of the Epirots supported C*sar, who ultimately defeated his rival in battle of Phar.salos in Thessaly, B.C. -18. All the great il' 150 HISTORY OP GREECE. Greece had now to submit to him, but he treated the people with more clemency than Sulla had done; the Megarians alone were severely dealt ^vith. The Athen- ians, whose ancient glory he respected and admired, were honoured with presents ; and Korinth, which ever since its destruction by Mummius had been in ruins, waa rebuilt in B.C. 46. Two yeai-s later, after Caesar was murdered at Rome, a new civil war broke out in Greece between Antony and Ovtavianus on the one hand, and Brutus and Cassius on the other. The Athenians again rose in aims and joined the latt<3r, while the Lakedsemonians united their' forces with the former. Antony and Octavianus utterly defeated their opponents in B.C. 42 in the great battles of Philippi, and then divided the Roman empire between themselves. Greece fell into the hands of Antony, who having himself been educated in Greece, treated' the Athenians with considerable generosity, and often took up his abode in their illustrious city, imitating their manners and cus- toms and proud of being called a Philhellene and Phil- atherueos (a friend of the Greeks and a friend of the Athenians). But the peace did not last long, and another civil war broke out betwo('n Antony and Octavianus, which again was carried on in the country of the Greeks, most of whom supported Antony. The latter was completely overpowered by his rival, in B.C. 31, in the battle of Aktion. Octavianus, or, as he was afterwards called, Augustus, tr(>ated the Greeks with kindness ; he ordered the town of Patrai to be relniilt, and on the spot where he had gained his great victory he built, in commemoration of It, the town of Nikopolis (city of victory). Patrse and Athens soon became the most populous and richest cities of Greece. The peace which the Roman empire enjoyed under Augustus and his successors, also exercised its beneficial influence u{)on Gi-eece, and many of its towns, especially Athens, retained their ancient self-government. Some of the first emperors, liowever, such as Caligula and Nero, carried away many of the art treasures of HISTORY OF GREECE. 151 reated the done ; the he Athen- lired, were ever since ruins, was at Rome, ntony and yassitis on and joined heir forces y defeated f Philippi, (lemaelves. iig himself lians with abode in 3 and cus- and Phil- nd of the • civil war liich again 3, most of completely battle of ds called, e ordei'ed where he smoration Pati'se and best cities e enjoyed rcised its its towns, ^ei'nment. Caligula iasures of G'-eoce ; while others, such fis Trajan and especially Ha- drian, neglected no opportunity of showing their affection and respect to the enslaved Greeks. Hadrian often resided in his beloved Athens, embellished it with public buildings, and was oven proud of the title of Ai-chon Eponymos of Athens. But notwithstanding all this, the condition of Greece became worse from year to year ; the many and bloody wars had depopulated the country ; the insecurity of pro- perty destroyed its commerce and industry, and the raj)acity of the Romans reduced the wealthiest towns to poverty. The corrupting influence of the coarser man- ners of the Romans and of their gladiatorial gunies also exercised a demoralising influence upon the people, and depraved tlioir taste in art and literature. While the country was in this sad condition, it was threatened by a terrible danger from the north. The Got/is, who occupied part of modern Russia and Northern Germany, commenced their invasions of the Roman empire, destroying everywhere whatever came in their way, and in the year 253 threatened to overrun Greece, ■'ihe Greeks, as in the days of Xerxes, occupied the pass of Thermopylai, the Athenians rebuilt their walls, and the Peloponnesians fortified the Korinthian isthmus. By this means and the fact that the Goths were defeated by the Romans in Thrace, Greece was saved on that occasion; but in 267 the Goths invaded Greece by sea and destroyed Korinth, Argos, and many other towns both on the mainland and in the islands. The Athen- ians, after a most heroic resistance, were overpowered ; their fair city was plundered, destroyed, and deluged with blood. After destroying the monuments, the barbarians also intended to burn the manuscripts in the libraries, when one of them saved them by contemptuously exclaim- ing, " Leave the Greeks their books, for while they are occupied with them, they will neglect the use of arms, and be conquered all the more easily." While the Goths after their victory were giving themselves up to barbaroub revelries, the historian l)exii>pos, the bold general of the m 152 IIISTOUY OF tiKEKCE. I'i i AtlioiiiauK, nssomblcd tlio remaining forces, took the hir- bariaiiK by siirjn-ise and utterly defeated tlieni. Tliose who escaped into lllyricum were almost annihilated V>y the Enijieror Gallienns. Two years later, the Goths in still greater numbers, attacked Tiirace, Macedonia, Thessaly, and other ])artH of Greec proper, with 2000 ships, but were everywhere repulsed l)y the Emperor Claudius and the Greeks. Since that time, Greece for two centuries was free from barbarian invasions, but suffered much during the continual disturbances within the Roman empire, which was becoming weaker and weaker. The most important event which took place in Greece, and through it exercised its influence over the whole of the civilised world, was the spread of Christianity About the middle of the first century after Christ, the apostle Paul had preached Christianity in Macedonia, especially at Thessalonike, and converted many Greeks. Being persecuted, he went to Athens, where he preached tlie Gospel, though apparently without much success. Thence he proceeded to Korinth, where lie was more suc- cessful, and whence Christianity rapidly spread over many parts of Greece. At that time the Greek language was sj)oken and imderstood by nearly all the nations round the Mediterranean : Egypt and a great portion of Asia had been Helleni.sed through the victories of Alexander the Great. This general diffusion of the Greek language was the gi'eat external means by which the new religion was easily made known throughout the ancient world. The Roman enipi)'e was decaying more and more, and its downfall was fist approaching; but there still existed on the other hand the elements of a better state of things, consisting in the vigorous and manly intellect of the Greeks, and in the in*esistible strength of Christianity. This appears to have been perceived by the lilniperoi' Constantino, commonly called the Great (306-337), who founded the Byzantirie empire and publicly recognised and established Christianity in his dominions. HISTORY OF GKEECE. 153 but CHAPTER 11. THE BYZANTINE EMPIRE, FROM 330 TO 1453. Constantine's mother, Heleiiu, seems to have sown the seeds of Christianity into the heart of her son, for he was born and brought up as a pagan. He became emperor in 3()G, and being involved in a war with Maxentius, is said before the battle to have seen a luminous cross in the sky with the inscription—" With this conquer." He regarded this sign as an indication of his future great- ness, and from that time he favoured the Christians. Henceforth he devised a new standard for his armies called the laharum, with the monogram of the name of Christ, and this labarum has ever since remained the symbol of the Greek nation. Under him Christianity became the religion of the empire ; Christian churches were richly endowed and protected, and Sunday was set ai)art as a day specially devoted to worship. The lower classes of the population, which had sunk into terrible misery through the long wars and revolutions, were taken care of by his wisdom and firmness, and order and justice were maintained by him with a firm hand. His far-seeing wisdom is perhaps nowhere more strid- ing than in his selection of a site for his eastern capital. He seems to have been convinced that thti western part of the empire could not endure much longer, and there- fore transferred the seat of power into the eastern or (heek part of his dominions. In the year 330 he built on the site of the ancient Byzantium the capital of the Eastern empire, called after himself Constantinopolis. Its situation is one of the most splendid in the whole world, and most favourable for commerce as well as for war. Many of the treasures of art and monuments of religion were transferred from the ancient to the new Home, and the city was embellished with palaces and splendid public buildings, while extensive walls and lowei-s were built for its defence. Eminent men from I? i { ■ 1 •1 Id4 fffPTORY OF GREECE. all partP of the ompiro woro invited to aottlo at Constan- tinople, and a nunierou.s population was attracted by prmJeges and other advantages. ThouHitiuM, st'ttlutl in Miiccdoiiiii, Tliessiily, KpiriiH, and the rest of Greece, adojjted Christianity, aind by degrees also the Greek hmguage, so tliat they peacefidly ainalgainated with the Greeks ; but some of them have continued to live isolated, as shepherds, down to th(! pre- s(>nt day, and their name has become synonymous with bhepherds. For more than five centuries the Byzantine eniperora were of Roman descent : Byzantium was the new Rome, and the emi)ire was called the Roman. The lang^iage of the government, esjiecially at first, was generally Latin ; but the irresistible inlluence of the Greek language and of the Church, in the course of time im]>erceptibly liel- lenised even the emperors of Roman origin and the whole government. In the year 8G7, liasilios, the Macedonian, was the first in a succession of genuine Greek emj)erors, who con- tinued to occupy the throne until the downfall of the empire. Under them the last remnants of the Ronian element entirely disappeared. Basilios and his succes- sors, Nikephoros Fhokas (9G3-9G9), Joannes Zimisces (969-976), and Basilios II. (976-1025), were great both as warriors and as statesmen. They repelled the Arabs In the East and in the South, and also took from them the island of Krete ; while in the North and West they defeated and subdued the Bulgarians. About that time the Ilussians, an equally barbarous people, under their king, Igor (941), advanced upon Constantinople, with 10,000 boats, but were entirely defeated by Phokas, and their fleet destroyed by the Greek fire. In the year 955 the Russian queen Olga went to Constantinoj)le, and was there converted to Christianity, and baptized under the name of Helena. Vladimir, 980, the most famous of the old Russian kings, also requested to be baptized by Greek priests. He received the name of Basilios, and married Anna, the sister of Basilios, who was then emperor. Anna, on going to Russia, was accom- panied by a number of Greek scholars and artisans, to HISTOUY OI" (JIlKECi:. 157 whom Russia owes the lirst (^Icuuiuta of OluiHtianity and of civilisation. During tbroe centuries the empire was powerful, tran- quil, and prosi)erous ; and commerce and navigation flourished. Litt!rature and science were so much (;ulti- vated among the (jrn"''..s t' at they not unjustly looked upon the western na' ions m-. barbarians. Theology and pul|)it elo(iuence, wh >3L. even '.uring [)revious centuries, under such men as tiv'a'.vies C irysostomos, Basilioa, and Oregorios, had risen U, ^ utight never sur|>assed, were studied and cultivated with great zeal. Public morality, though low and depraved, as is always the case under despotic governments, was still far better than it had been in Rome under the emperox-s. To this period also belongs the eventful separation (schism) of the Greek from the Roman Church. The pretimsions of J'ope NicoUms were vigorously and successfully repelled by the patriiirch Photios (858-891), the greatest scholar of his age, who exposed the unclu-istian character of the Papacy, both in its dogmas and in its conduct. Since then the Papacy has displayed an implacable hatred of everything Greek, and the nations of the West were urged to make war upon the Byzantine em{)ire, the riches of which furnished an additional incitement. As early as the year 1080, Robert Guiscm'd, prince of lower Italy, invaded E]>irus and Thessaly, but Alexis Komnenos repelled him. In the year 1146, Robert II., king of Sicily, took possession of the island of Kerkyra, which, however, v as soon recovered by the Greeks, and attacked and ravaged Korinth and other Greek cities. At last, in the year 1204, the Venetians, accom])anied by several French j)rinces and a powerful fleet, lussailed and took Constantinople. The city was plundei-ed, and, in- flamed by fanaticism, the conquerors slaughtered several thousand men. They proclaimed one of themselves emperoi-, and distributed the portions of the empii'e which they had conquered among several independent chiefs. Only thi-ee large Gi-eek provinces remained un- conquered and under Greek rulers — viz. in Asia Minor \'. ill 158 HISTORY OF ORKKCE. iVilcoM and Trapezns, and Epirvs in Europe. The prin- cipality of Nikaia, owing to the valour and skill of its rulers, Theodoros Laskaris and Joannes Dukas, became the most important. But the power of the foreign con- (luerors did not last long, partly on account of the feuds and discord among the Fi-ankish princes themselves, and l)a,rtly on account of the great hostility between Greeks and Franks. At last, in the year 1261, Alexis Strategopulos, general of Michael Palaeologos, prince of Nikjea, having discovered a subterraneous passage leading into Constan- tinople, entered the city by night with 800 men, and became msister of it ; and Michael Palaeologos soon after entered the city;with great pomp. Thus the Venetian empire of Constantinople came to an end, after an exist- ence of half a century ; but the greater part of Peloi)on- nesus, of continental Greece, and of the islands, remained for centuries in the hands of the Venetians. Scarcely had the empire been partially freed from the western conquerors when it was threatened by a more serious danger from the east. The Turks, after having conquered several Greek provinces in Asia, appeared, under their leader, Ourkhan, on the Hellespont, and con- quered Kallipolis. His son, Murat (1369-1389), made himself master of Philippopolis, Adrianopolis, and a great part of Thrace, Adrianopolis becoming the residence of the Turkish sultans. His successors continued irresist- ibly to extend their conquests. Meanwhile (1440), Con- stjintuie Palaeologos, brother of the Emperor of Byzantium, and prince of that part of Peloponnesus still belong- ing to the empire, succeeded in driving the Venetians, not only from the peninsula, but from Attika and the whole of northern Greece. But the Venetians now ap- plied for assistance to the Turks, who, united with the Franks, in the neighbourhood of Korinth (144G) con- onered Constantine, who thereupon withdrew to his j)os- sessions in Peloponnesus. The Turks, iired by religious fanaticism, and in their wild valour, were invincible. One man only was a match for them — that was Georgios Kastriotes, oommonly called Skauderbeg, prince of IIISTOHV or CUKFA'F.. 159 rhc prin- :ill of its I, became eign eon- bhe feuds ilves, and reeks and egopulos, 1, having Constan- nen, and oon after Venetian an exist- Peloj)on- remained from the r a more r having ippeared, and con- 9), made d a great dence of irresist- tO), Con- zantium, I belong- enetians, and the now ap- with the 1:40) con- his pos- religioiis vincible. Georgios rince of Albania, in no-ttiern E])iiu.s, nno of the grandest heic.cs in history. During tive-and twenty years he fouglit successfully against the numerous hosts, and his name was the terror of the Turks, while it inspired the Greeks with hope. It was only after his deatli that Albania was conquered, and the greater part of tiie AJbanians was forced to adopt the religion of Islam. Constantinople was thus gradually surrounded on all sides by Turkish conquests. Peloponnesus and part of continental Greece were the only portions of the gi-eat empire that were not subdued, when, in the year 1453, in the month of April, Sultan Mahomed II., a wild but able waiTior, approached Constantinople with an army of 300,000 men, and 400 ships. The chivalrous Empero)' Constantino Palseologos assembled the feeble remains of his forces, and with them resolved to resist the enemy even unto death. It was in vain that he had implored the assistance of the Pope and the Western princes. The former promised help, but only on condition of the Greeks acknowledging his supremacy, and reuniting with the Roman Catholic Church. But the Emperor and all the people of Constantinople exclaimed, " The Turkish turban is a thousand times better than the Papal tiara." There was now no other hope, and they resolved to die honour- ably. For seven weeks the Turks continued their furious assaults upon the city, but were each time repulsed by the brave determination* of the Greeks. The barbarians began to despair. Mahomed, maddened with anger and shame, then put himself at the head of his forces, declared that the lives and property of the conquered should belong to the soldiers, but the land and the stones to himself By this means he inspired his men with fresh courage, who were at the same time goaded on from behind by their officers with lashes and sticks. At last, on the 29th of May, the Turks succeeded in scaling the walls of the city, and Constantine, addressing the svjrvivQra of his subjects, said, "As it is not God^ will that we should save our country by our blood, let us at least leave to our descendants an example of virtue and valour, that they f hi , ^ ■ =■■ I 4;;| 160 HISTORY OP OREE(.'K. 11, : may preserve their faith and natiouality." For three days the Turks continued the butchery of the people and the devastation of their homes. The streets were covered with blood and corpses, and nothing was heard but the shrieks and lamentations of the victims, and the shouting and laughing of the barbarians. The sultan himself set the example of cruelty as he had done that of bravery ; for he ordered the body of Constantine, who had been slain by the enemy, together with his faithful followers, to be searched for among the corpses, trampled his head under his feet, cut it off, and sent it as a trophy into Asia. All the surviving members of the imperial family and all the notables of the empire were butchered before his eyes, while he was enjoying himself at a bancpiet ; and a fair maiden, of the name of Irene, was beheaded by himself, before the eyes of his soldiers. On the third day he ordered the slaughtering to be stopped, and to carry the rich booty to the ships. The fleet was filled with treasures of every kind, and thousands of men and women were carried into Asia to be sold as slaves. Thousands of manuscripts of ancient Greek authors were destroyed, or were sold for a mere trifle. The Greeks who had been able to escape took refuge in some Greek islands and in Italy. Among the latter there were many famous Greek scholars, who introduced a knowledge of the Greek language and literature into Italy, and thus paved the way for the revival of letters in the West, and for the Protestant Reformation, which was the result of it, Tne most illustrioits among these exiled Greeks were Constantine and John Laskaris, Theodore Gazis, Bessaiion, Chalkokondylas, Kallergis, and Mussuios. HISTORY OF GREECE. 161 liree days and the I covered but the shouting mself set bmveiy ; iad been bllowers, his head phy into al iamily sd before baiKjuet ; beheaded the third , and to foa filled men and a slaves. Lors were 3 Greeks ae Greek }re many ^ledge of md thus ^est, and result of eks were essai'ion, CHAPTER III. GREECE UNDER THE TUKKS, FROM 1453 TO 1821. After having satisfied the rapacity of his soldiers, Ma- homed proceeded to organise his conquest. All Greeks were declared slaves, who had no right to possess any- thing, and their very lives were at the mercy of the conquerors. Every Greek, therefore, from his tenth year, had to pay an annual tribute (haratzsch), which was to prove tha* he had purchased his life of the sulttin for one year. All the land was declared to be the property of the ruler, and was given partly to Turkish dignitaries, or set apart for the religious purposes of the Turks. All possessions, even the smallest, left to the Greeks were re- garded as a gi-acious gift of the sultan, which however might be L ken away at any time. The oppressive tribute, which was constantly and arbitrarily increased, rendered every kind of industry and commerce almost impossible, and when a man acquired wealth, it was at the risk of his life, for he was at once suspected of endeavouring to raise himself above the condition of slavery. But the most fearful tribute the Christians had to pay was this : One- fifth of all Christian boys were annually forced away from their families and educated in the religion of Islam, and out of them was formed the corps of Janissaries, who by their savage valour became the ten-or of the Christians themselves. Many Greek mothers, in order to free their sons from this terrible fate, killed them with their own hands, and then put an end to their own lives. Under such a government, mental culture, commerce, and in- dustry were impossible. Among all the misfortunes which the Greek nation had to endure ever since the conquest of Korinth, this was the most terrible, and the nation would have perished had it not been for the stupidity of its savage tyrants, and the noble ]>atriotism of its priests. The Turks, stupid, ignorant, and indolent, could not and would not take the trouble to jfovern their ■ ' s\ m fi\ i\ ii i hi III 162 HISTORY OP GREECE. Christian slaves. They found it most convenient and comfortable to have to deal with a single individual, re- presenting the whole Greek nation, whom they held responsible, and whom they might on the slightest sus- picion put to death. This person was the Patriarch, who after the fall of the empire remained the highest dignitary of the Greek nation. Fortunately there lived at the time a priest of the name of Gewgios Germadios, one of the greatest scholars of his age, and a profound and energetic politician, to whom the eyes of all the Greeks wore then directed, and who about that time was rjiised to the dignity of patriarch. Mahomed recognised ^im as the head of the Greek nation, and showed him personally great respect on account of his genius and eloquence, but at the same time held him responsible for the nation. Gennadios organised the patriarchate as both the political and ecclesiastical government of the Greeks. In every province the bishop, i j ondent on the patriarch, became the political as well as ..e ecclesiasticaJ" guide ^nd teacher of the Greeks, and his duties consisted not only in regulating the affairs of the Church, but in governing his diocese also politically. He was the freely- acknowledged judge in all private affairs. He had to superintend the schools which preserved the language, as well a« the churches which upheld the religion of the nation, and both together preserved the national character of the people. Thus it happened that in their disputes among themselves, the Greeks never appeared in Turkish courts of justice. As the bishop of a province was dependent on the patriarch, so the lower clergy in the villages were dependent on the bishoj), an^^ carried on the same patriotic business. In all thci' . - prayers the priests and bishops implored God m 'r 3 them the victory over the barbarians. Another . uiy patriotic power, that of the Primates (Archont^e), was united with and subject to this eoelesiastical hieiu;chy. These pri- mates were freely elected by the peoi.le themselves to re^ilate all their civil affairs ; they collected the different tributes, and hnudad them over to the Turlish authorities; I HISTORY OP GREECE. 163 they protected the people against the arbitrary proceed- ings of the Turkish civil and military powers, partly by persuading and pai-tly by bribing the pashas. They also regulated the revenues of every commune, and ad- ministered them with perfect freedom. They, like the priests, were recognised by the Turks as the representa- tives of the people, but, like the priests, they were also responsible for them. Thus the clergy and the primates preserved the nationality and self-government of the Greek nation even under the oppressive rule of the Turkish tyrants, and kept their people in absolute separation from the Turks. Hence no marriage ever took place between Turks and Greeks; no Greek adopted the religion of Mahomed, and no intercourse existed between the two nations. The only feeling between them was that of burning hatred. But priests and primates had often to seal their })atriotic mission with their blood, for at every rising of the Greek people, and whenever a suspicion arose, they were the tirst victims, whether they were patriarchs of Con8tantinoi)le, ' hops, or the poorest priests and primates of a commune. Independently of the clergy and the primates, the most important elements of the Greek nation under the Tui-kish dominion consisted of what were called the Klephts. This was the name of the warlike and in- vincible mountaineers of Epirus, Thesfaly, Akarnania, -^tolia, Arkadia, and Maina (Lakonia). Those moun- tainous countibs had always been inhabited by warlike tribes, and since the Turkish conquest, all men who loved their freedom and refused to recognise the Turkish do- minion, had taken refuge there. From t] oir mountains they carried on a perpetual war against Lhe Turks, led an entii-ely free life, and kept up an uninterrupted rebel- lion against the enemies of their country and their faith. Protected by their mountains, they despised the attjicka of the Turks, and sometimes they unexpectedly fell upon their enemies like flashes of lightning. They were al- ways in commotion, and, being as cautious as they were bold, they became the terror of the Turks. Their whole 1 il 164 HISTORY OF GREECE. life and happiness was to carry on war ; to dio on a sick bed was reganiod by them as tlie greatest inist'ortime and the greatest shame. The Icve of war was united with that of song and poetry, oiid every suc>xr?sful exploit against the Turks was immfidiatrly celebrated Li song. These songs are aicong the most boautiful of ))opiilar poems, a.;\d are like an epic history oi^ that uuint.'^n-upted iuaied protestation of the Greek monntjiii-i rr-rs against Tarki.'ih tyranny, and through them all there runs a firm belief Ihut a time will come when the nation shall be free ag;un The Greek nation after the Turkish conquest thn? lived under these three protecting elements. Let us now return to the conqueroi a. Mahomed was not satisfied with the conquest of Noithern Greece; he also made himself master of the island of Eubcea and of Atliens (where he changed the Parthenon into a mosque), and penetrated into Peloponnesus. Most of the cities and fortresses of Peloponnesus, as well as most of the islands, were then governed by the Venetians, who hence- foi-th became involved in bloody wars with the Turks which lasted for nearly 300 years. These wars were disr astrous for the Greeks, for their country was the perpetual scene of these protracted contests, and they always found themselves between two enemies, each of whom aimed at the enslaving of Greece and the destruction of its people. In those times, therefore, the position of the Greeks was most deplorable, for when they sided with the Venetians the most terrible vengeance was wreaked upon them by the Tui'ks (on one occasion all the inhabitants of a village in Peloponnesus were sawn through in the middle for this oflence) ; and if they supported the Tiu-ks, which scarcely ever happened, the Venetians treated them with almost equal cruelty (in one case v carried off from a single town 2000 Greeks, w' . they sold as slaves): nd when they rema' >d ^ utral, they were torturov' •/ both. Still the Gr .: .-uld not remain inditferent, for tiiey still cherishes *> hope of recovering their freedom by their arms. Th'' V uetians seemed to them a lesser evil, partly because the;, wure Chiistiana, HISTORY OF GREECE. 165 And partly because tlio cunning Italians always held out to theui the hope of freedom, if once the Turks were conquered. Their object, however, was to retain a firm hold on Greece, and to ruin its commerce and navy, in which they fully succeeded. The large silk manufac- tories of Athens and Korinth, which ever since the days of Justinian had been the first in Europe, were destroyed and transplanted to Venice and Genoa. In the year 1522 the great Suliman I. became master of the island of Rhodos, though not without great efforts, for the Greeks, united with the Venetians and the Knights Templars, defended themselves most heroically. The survivors of the knights took refuge in Malta. Soon after the Turks conquered several islands, and laid siege to Kerkyra, but being lepulsed by the inhabitants and the Venetians, they laid waste Zakynthos, Kephalenia, and other islands. Not long after he gained possession of the remaining Venetian fortresses in Peloponnesus, which induced the Venetians to solicit the fiiendship of the Turk. His successor, Selim, took the large and beautiful island of Kyprus fiom the Venetians, after a furious contest which had lasted a whole year from 1570 to 1571. This war attracted the attention of all the western nations on account of the heroic lesistance of the inhabi- tants and the mad cruelty of the barbarians. In the city of Leukosia 20,000 men were slaughtei-ed, and 40,000 sold as slaves. The town of Phramagusta capitulated after a brave resistance of ten months, being solemnly [)romised that the lives of the inhabitants would be spared, and that they would be allowed to depart im- molested. But this promise was broken as usual, and when the gates were opened, the men were butchered and the rest of the popidation carried off as slaves. Soon after, however, the bai'barians sulibred a severe loss, for the v/holo Tui-kish Heat, consisting of 200 ships, was entirely destroyed off Naupaktos by the allied fleets of the Venotians, the Pope, and the Emperor, under the command of Don J uan of Austria. Nearly the whole of ■■fl 166 HISTORY OF GREECE. tho Venetian fleet on tliat occasion was manned by Greeks, who as usual fought with enthusisism for Chris- tianity and their own independence. Kreta, the largest and most important island in the Greek seas, still owned the suprenijicy of the Venetians, and the struggle to retain possession of it lasted for thirty years; but the end of it was that the Venetians kept only a few fortreases in the island, and seeing the danger of losing all, they applied for help to all the Christian nations. France was almost the only power that sent out the flower of its nobility, and an army of GOOO men under the Dukes of Beaufort and Navarre. The Turks under Achmed Kyprisli, equally famous for his military ability, as for his diplomatic skill, in the end (1670) suc- ceeded in wresting the whole island from the Venetians, whose dominion in Greece for a time came to an end. But a few years later, 1685, the Venetians, commanded by the celebrated Morosini, and assisted by the Greeks, recovered the whole of Peloponnesus, and the year after Athens also fell into their hands. It was on that occa- sion that a Venetian bomb destroyed the Parthenon, which had been used by the Turks as a posvder magazine. After Morosini's death, the Venetians lost their conquests one after another, and in 1699 they concluded a peace with the Turks, in which Peloponnesus alone was left to them. But in 1715, under Achmed III., the Turks also conquered that peninsula, and since then all the countries inhabited by Greeks have belonged to Turkey, with the exception of the Ionian Islands, which in 1797 became subject to France, afterwards to Russia, and in 1815 were placed under the protection of England. But from that time the Turkish power became weaker and weaker, while they gave the reins to their rapacity, cruelty, and other vices. Even before that time they had ceased to force Christian children to embrace the religion of Islam, whereby they lost their best soldiers. The Greeks, on the other hand, although sufiering every kind of insult and ignominy, gradually began to recover themselves. Their provincial self-government was gra- HISTORY OF GREECE. 1G7 !fi annod by for Chris- nd in the i^enetians, for thirty ;ians kept be danger Christian that sent 3000 men rhe Turks J military 1670) suc- ^enetians, ) an end. mmanded 9 Greekrf, rear after ;hat occa- arthenon, magazine, conquests I a peace as left to hirks also countries with the 7 became in 1815 le weaker rapacity, ime they brace the aoldiers, Ing every o recover was gra- dually iiiorc! fully developed, and owing to the gross ignorance of the Turks tboy contrived, at tho end of the seventeenth century, to inbiiiuute themselves as gi-and dragomans or interpreters, doing all the business of tho foreign office of the empire, and thus gained consideraljlo influence in aF the afi'airs of the state, and had many opportunities of secretly supporting and benefiting their unhappy countrymen. Under their protection schools were established in all parts of the country. The most distinguished among these patriotic men was Alexander Maurokordatos, eminent both for his learning and his skill as a politician. Soon after these Greeks of Con- stantinople obtained from the Turks the suzerainty of Moldavia and Wallachia. The first of them was Nicholas Maurokordatos, son of Alexander, and like his father, an eminent scholar and politician. The Greek princes, who governed these provinces until 1821, were the first to introduce civilisation into those semi-barbarous countries, and by their enlightened measures promoted the education and commerce of the Greeks, who were gradually rising in material prosperity xmder the watchful care of the Church, the primatei, and the secret protection of the wealthy Greeks at Constantinople and elsewhere. But this revival of the Greek nation was terribly interrupted in 1769. The Empress Catharine of Russia was then at war with the Turks, and the Greeks, ever watchful of an opportunity to recover their freedom, availed themselves of this war and rose in arms in Maina and throughout Peloponnesus. The Empress promised to send armies and fleets for their support, but only a few ships appeared, under the command of OrloflT. The Turks called in the assistance of large numbers of wild Albanese, who everywhere raged with fire and sword. But in spii< •■' the heroism of the Greeks and especially of the IVx/.iiiots (the ancient Lakedsemonians), and of Audrutsus, a famous chief of the Klephts, the Turks sup- pressed the insurrection and desolated Peloponnesus by theii- ra values. The Russians abandoned their Greek allies and saileu oo Asia Minor, where in 1770, under the brave i.rf t«8 HrSTOUY OK OFIKKCE. i J Scotch Admiral I'^liiliiiistoiic tlioy liurned the Turkisli fleet near Tzesme. The Turks wroiikod thtnr vengeance on all jtarts of Greece, and mii'-'^lers wore the order of tho day. The Patriarch ^,;oit-Uu.s and many priests and primates at Constantinople were jiut to death with cruel tortures. The towns of Philippopolis, Larissa, Trikala, Smyrna, and others, were deluged in blood. When in 1787, the war between Russia and Turkey broke out afresh, the Greeks again rose in arms, especially in the mountainous districts. The Greeks now for the first time formed a small navy under Lambros Katsonis, a native of Lavidia, who often attacked and captured Turkish vessels. At the same time the heroic people of the Suliots, in the north of Epiros, appeared for the first time on the scene o^ war, and the valour they Hsplayed against \li, pasha of Epiros, gained universal adiuiration. They maintained themselves, shut in as they were within their mountains, without j)rovisions and without ammuni- tion, and weakened by diseases and deaths, imtil the end with a valour unparalleled in history. Women and boys fought for their liberty as well as men. When the ff ithless All demanded tha surrender of a mountain, threatening to kill the son of Tsavelas chief of the Suliots, the father replied, Ti'aitL' as Ali, ui may kill my son ; if it pleases God, my wife will give me other sons; but another country I cannot have." When the Suliots were at length re- duced to a -.oji- .less condition, Ali prired the Greeks with a burning love for their country and for freedom ; and in order to show them the whole extent "^^ the lands iuhai.ited by their fatheis, he published an atl 8 ^ , ( ,. ; ., *1 170 HISTORY OF (iUEECE. of fill tlio Greek countrieH ; and with iho int-^-nMon of bringing before them the aeliievenients and viitiu^s of th(Mr ancestors, he translated from the French the "Travels of Young Anacharsis;" and he even drew up a c() beheaded at Belgrade. Before his death, he said, "The Greeks will soon avenge my death." CIIAPTEK IV. RESTORATION OF THE GREEK NATION, FROM 1821 TO 1862. RiGAs' generous exertions and his mai-tyrdom, the daily increasing enthusiasm for the freedom of Greece, which was stimulated by the schools and by the Church, the heroic deeds of the Klephts and Suliots, combined with the contempt of the cowardice of the Turks, and the hatred of their brutality, cruelty, and fanaticism, at last led to the great revolution whic^* broke out in the year 1821. The whole Gi-eek nati ii, old and young, and women as well as men, rose, as the war song said, " for the holy faith in Cln'ist and the fieedom of their country." » I ; ■ T J M UlSTOUY OP GREECE. 171 TIio revolution broke out simultjiueously in tho far north, on the Danube, an:l in tbe mountains of Arkadia and La- konia. In Wallacbia, where, under the protection of the Greek i)rince8, the Hetairia had been long and success- fully active, and had organised the numerous Greeks residing in the country, the noble and brave Akxaiuler Ypsilantis, the son of a former prince of Wallachia, pro- claimed the insurrection of the Greek people. Young men from all parts of Greece assembled in the College of Bucharest, and, fired by the words and example of Georyios O'ennaJios, took up amis and formed themselves into a " sacred band," as the ancient Thebans had done under Pelopidus and Epaminondas. The Olympian Ciorgios ( properties confiscated, while thousands of others wen; sent as slaves into Asia : it was in fjict, a renewal of the terrible scenes enacted at the Laving of Constantinople. Adrianople, Thessalonike, "'ifts -It .Pill W'' il? 'ili 172 HISTORY OF GREECE. Smyrna, Kjprus, and other places, had to witness equal hoiTors. In Greece proper, however, the insurrection was more successful. The most influential Peloponnesians, on the Gth of April 1821, aHsembled in the monastery of Sancta Laura, in Arkadia, and took a solemn oath that they would die for their country'. There was Petros Mauro- inichaliSf the aged chief of Maina, who was joined by his brothers, children, aim grandchildren, all equally renowned for their vahnir and patriotism ; there was the most famous warrior of Peloponnesus, Theodoras Kolokotr&nis, the Odys- seus of modern Greece, inexhaustible in stratagems, and undaunted in danger, a man who, by his biiliiant, popular, and humorous eloquence, inspu-ed the Peloponnesians no less than by his heroic valour ; there also were the wise prijxiates, Zaimis, Lontos, and Delijiannis, and the Arch- bishop Germanos, who consecrated the blue banner. Two numerous Turkish armies, consisting for the most part of Albanese, entered Peloponnesus against the insurgents. One of them, consisting of 6000 men, attacked and sur- rounded a body of 1000 Greeks, commanded by Kiria- kulis and Johannes Mauromichalis. For two days and two nights the Greeks defended themselves manfully, when Kolokotronis arrived with his Arkadians, and at Valtetsi conq)lete]y defeated the Turks, whose survivors took refuge at TripolLs. At the same time, a body of 4000 Turks burst into the eastern parts of Greece to crush the insurrection there. Seven hundred Greeks occupied Thermopylu3 to stop their progress. They were com- manded by the Bishop of Amphissa, and by young Diakos, formerly a priest, who was the most popular among the leaders on account of his beauty no less tlum on account of his bravery and j)oetical character. After a most valiant resistance, the bishoj) was killed, and Diakos, covered with woinids, was taken prisoner by the Turks and cruelly murdered (5th of May). It was a bright sunny day, and when Diakos was taken to the place of execution, he exclaimed, ** Lo, what a beautiful day Charon has chosen to fetch me, when the flowers HISTORY OF GREECE. 173 •J iii are blooming, and the earth has pvit on her irreen *'ar- ment." & o The Turks i-avaged Phokis, Bceotia, and Attika, but in their rear Odysseus, a chief famous for his energy and bravery, again rallied the scattered Greeks. Five thou- sand Turks advanced against him. Odysseus, joined by Guras, occupied Thermopylae with 1000 men, and com- pletely overpowered the enemy in a bloody engagement. At last, on the 5th and 6th of September, when the whole of continental Greece rose in arms, a large fleet proceeded from Constantinople against the islands. The Greek fleet, consisting of ships chiefly furnished by Hydra, Spetsa, and Psara, sailed out to meet the enemy. Hydra was governed by a patriotic aristocracy; the character of its inhabitants resembled that of the ancient Spartans, whom they equalled in theii- pride, simplicity, and indomitable bravery. Having acquired great wealth by their commerce, their honesty, and skill, they now sacrificed all their treasures, all theii- ships, and in the end even their lives, upon the altar of their country. During the whole of the war of liberation, the leader of the Hydriots was Lazaros Kunturiotis, who distin- guished himself by his good sense, his virtue, and deter- mination, and devoted his whole fortune to his country. The Greek fleet met the ftir more numerous one of the Turks in th(! neighbourhood of the island of Lesbos, and on the 8th of June burned a Turkish frigate with 600 men on board, whereupon the Turkish fleet, in great terror, fled back to Constantinople. After these victories, the Greeks undertook to settle theii- future government. A national assembly meeting at Ej)idauros drew up a constitution, declaring before God and man that the Gi-eek people, after having endured a fearful martyrdom, Lad determined by every sacrifice to secure its independence, xmrave resistance, finding themselves ■It h 176 HI«TOHY OF GREECE. without aiiinmnition and provisions, were compelled again to leave their mountains, and to seek a new home in Kephalonia, whence soon afterwards they pi-oceeded to Messolonghi. All the Turkish forces were now directed against that place. But IMaurokordatos and its inhabi- tants were resolved to die or to conquer, for they wh;11 knew that the place was the greatest stronghold of Pelo- ponnesus. There were scarcely 350 men in the toA n, and their only means of defence consisted of fourteen old pieces of artillery ; the walls wei-e weak and old, and the Turkish fleet was blockading the place. Maurokordatos, in order to gain time, deceived the Turks by feigned negotiations, until Hydriot ships amved and forced the Turks to give up the blockade ; at the same time help came from Akarnania, ^tolia, and other parts. When the Turks, on the 6th of January 1823, attempted to storm the phice, they were gloriously beaten back, and in their flight sustained great losses, as they were pui-sued by the Greeks. In the year 1823, the sultan sent a formidable army of Albanese, with orders to take Messolonghi, the key to Peloponnesus. The little town, in spite of the heroism of its inhabitants, would scarcely have been able to defend itself, had it not been for the presence of Markos Bozzaris, the most glorious hero of the Greek Revolution, and the descendant of an ancient Suliot family. At the head of 1200 Suliots, who had come from Kephalonia, he formed the bold resolution to attack the advancing barbarians. Accompanied by 350 men, forming the centre of his little army, he assailed the Turkish camp during the night, and drove the terri- fied enemies from their fortified poyition. Bozzaris, though severely wounded, continued to fight until a bullet struck him in the forehead. The struggle, how- ever, continued. When the morning dawned, the Suliots, overwhelmed with grief at tho death of tlieir beloved leader, left the field of battle, carrying with them the body of the hero. The victory was deai-ly bought ; and the death of Bozzaris spread sorrow and constonation HISTORY OF GREECE. 177 tliroughout Gi-eoce. Six nioiitlis later, on the 1 9th o' April 1824, another piece of siul news filled all Greeco with pam and sorrow, for tlie illustrious j)oet, Lwd Byron, who, like many other enthusiasts for the emanci pation of Greece, had gone to assist that country in its struggles for freedom. He had formed, a^„ his own ex- pense a corps of Suliots, with whom he was resolved to hght for the liberation of Greece, when death overtook him This calamity filh'd the minds of all the Greeks with even greater sorrow than any of the many misfor- tunes that had previously befallen them. Meanwhile a body of 15,000 Turks appeared before Messolonghi, and attacked the island of Anatolikon, but the valour of the besieged, their sallies, the approach of winter, and the terror with which the fame of Bozzaris had filled them, obliged the Turks to retreat. After so many and fruitless efibrts to put down the Greek rebellion, the sultan applied for assistance to Mehemet, the pasha of Egypt. The latter, who had raised himself from the position of a common soldier to the governorship of Egypt, was a man of great ability and had formed large land and naval forces, ofhcerecl chiefly by Europeans, who had been attracted by his treasures, and had trained his armies. In order to insure his co-operation in the subjugation of Greece, the sultan gave him the island of Krete, which from the beginninrr of the revolution had supported the cause of freedom* until about the end of the year 1823 it was reduced to submission by Mehemet, whose son Ibrahim was now appointed governor-general of Peloponnesus, with orders to reconquer the peninsula for Turkey. A large Egyptian fleet (Jidy 1824) then attacked the little island of Kasos, whose brave inhabitants had boldly and vigorously sup- ported the Kretjins; and after a brief but desperate resistance the Kasians were partly massacred and partly sent as slaves into Egynt. Meanwhile a Turkisli Sect os 2X)y) sail appeared before the little island of Psara, th(= boldness of whose iiihal)itants had specially roused th^- anger of the sultan. The Psariots had fortified the-" i m \ !■ 178 HISTORY OF GREECE, •f ? '«« island, and had received a thousand auxiliaries from Macedonia. Relying too much upon these advantages, instead of preventing the Turks from effecting a landuig, they resolved to tight the enemy on land, and though they displayed theii- usual heroism, they were obliged to yield to superior numbers. Some of them, together with 000 Macedonians, fortified themselves in the monastery of St Nikolaos. After a desperate fight of two days, scarcely one-third of their number survived, and even these were nearly all wounded. Then they formed orui of those bold resolutions which we so often hear of in this war. They ceased firing, and allowed the Turks to enter the monas- tery; and when the building was filled with enemies, the whole structure was blown up, amid hurrahs for freedom and fatherland. All the Greeks perished, but with them 4000 Turks. The rage of the enemy was fearful : thousands of men were captured, and sent to the slave markets, and many mothers with their children threw themselves into the sea, in order not to fall into the hands of the Tiu-ks, A few thousands of the sur- vivors sought and found refuge in caves and mountains. The Greek fleet had not been able to prevent these un- foi'tunate occurrences, because the inhabitants of Hydra and Spezza, who had generously equipped the ships out of theii" own means, had come to the end of their resources. But the misfortune of Psara roused them to fresh efforts: they got ready a fleet under Geoi-gios Sachtwds, next to Miaiilis, the greatest admiral. The Turkish fleet was then making preparations for attacking the island of Samos. Another fleet was for the same purpose stationed near the Asiatic coast. The Greek fleet, reinforced by the surviving Psariots and Kanaris, sailed agiiinst them ; and near Mount Mykale the Greeks fought c-iree naval battles, in which, though inferior in numbers, they re- peatedly defeated the Tui-ks. Several of the enemy's ships were burnedj with their crews. The large Turkish army encampeti upon the Asiatic coast, terrified by these repeattid defeats, withdrew t * 182 HISTORV OF GIIKKCE. round uliout was covcii-cl by tlu Turkish and p]gypiian armies, and the swi Mas crowded hy tlie (iiu-my's Hoet. Within the city famiim and dis(visu had already carried off I/jOO of its defemU'rs, and lialf of the fortress itself was ah-eady in ruins. At this critical moment, Miaulis arriv(!d with his fleet, and on two successive days defeated tin; Turks. The blockade of Messoloni,dii was thus broken, and provision-s for two months were introduced, where- upon Miaidis returned to Hydra to take further measures. Ibrahim and Reshid, after long ])reparations, now iittempted to storm the place. After firing for two whole thiys, they gained, on the third, the possession of one fort, which, however, waa retiiken by the reeks on the fourth. The two pashas endeavoured to continue the assault, but tlnsir troops were demoralised, and had literally to be t'orcju !.f. fight. The Turks, now desjiairing of the possi- biJil} of fcjiking the town by assault, resolved to continue tlie l.utiihardment. Thtiy took possession of three sniidl islunds in front of Messolonghi. A fourth, called Klei- sova, was attiicked by Koshid. Its garrison, which had tbrtifi(id itself in a monastery, was commanded by Kitsos Tsavelas and 130 Suliots. Ueshid, after a hot contest, was wounded and repelled. Ibrahim had no idea of the bravery displayed by the Greeks, and wln^n Reshid was blamed for his defeat, he said to Ibrahim, " They are not men, they are devils; go and see yourself" But Ibrahim himself was soon obliged to retieat. Tsa\ (jlas then fell upon the Egyptians, and made such havoc among them that upwards of 1000 Turkish and Egyptian corpses for a long time floated in the shallow waters, and poisoned the atmosphere. Meanwhile famine and diseases decimated the Messo- longhites. Rations could no longer be given, and the destruction of houses within the town continued. Miaulis and his fleet were the only ho})e. The patriotic Hydriots, who for five years, with unexam]»led generosity, had uuiintained a fleet, had become impoA erished, and the government at Nauplia had no money. Still a fresh fleet M'aa formed, under the old admiral, though the ships were iii«'i<)ii,v ui' tiiM:i;(;fc;. 1H3 very luubly imiiiiKxl, soiiiuuf tht'iii iiHUj oil buiud. Miiuilis iriot the euciiiy iK'iU' Ciipf Aruxos, and iiiuuoii.si;ly sup* lior forces, he ventured upon a battle. The without any decisive result, but cessantly harassed the enemy by small skirmishes, and endeavoured by every means, though in vuin, to intro- duce provisions into Messiilonghi. At last the desperate condition of the Missolonghitcs determined the having scarcely twenty combined Meets of the notwithstanding the'ir resol'ih'ly and boldly ei inent rtMuained till orave admiral in admiral to risk everything, and to break through Hon -- J,., the blockading force, when the terrible news of the fall of MesHolonghi broke his heart. The suli'erings of every kind had risen in the city to the highest point. For twenty days the chief articles of food had been seaweeds and the leather of theii- shoes, which, softened by a little oil, was regarded as a delicacy. Diseases raged, and no medical assistance was to be obtained. In the streets, covered with ruins, there vvere seen lying old and young, men and women, sick, famished, or dead. Notwithstanding all this, the people had. to watch night and day to repel the enemy'8 attacks. Ibrahim, who knew the condition of the place, repeated his demand to surrendei-. But the heroic defenders contemptuously rejected every pro- posal. The leading men, however, saw that the defence nuist couH! to an (;nd, as in three or four days the whole population would be carried off by famine. It was re- solved, therefore, to make a sortie, and to save as much as possible. Out of 3000 men the bmvest warriora were selected, who, on the night of the 22d of April, were to force a passage, sword in hand, through the whole hostile army. This daring plan might have succeeded had it not been betrayed by a Bulgarian to Ibrahim, who imme- diately took measures to prevent the escape of that daring band. Wlien the moment arrived, the Greeks best able to fight took the lead, beuig followed by all the young men in arms. All the women were armed, and disguised aa men, carrying a sword in their riglit hand, and their > IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) k A (./ ^^ A 1.0 I.I 11.25 U 1^ m U 2.0 m U il.6 Hiotographic Sdences Corpomtion 23 WEST MAIN STRE'^T WEBSTER, NY. 14580 (716) 872-4503 \ V ■O' A \ ^9) V ^€^.%^^ :.'i;^- '# «? 184 HISTORY OF OHKKOR. infants m their left, or fastened to their backs. ITiey were followed by the old men and women, and children, under the prottiction of a body of soldiers forming the rear. A number of others, nnable to follow them, either from age or disease, or unwilling to leave their beloved honjBS and the tombs of their ancestors, remained behind. Ihey all assembled near a powder magazine?, and calmly awaited the end. Those who were to sally forth were waiting for the signal which was to be given to them by other Greeks, expected to come to their rescue. Ibrahim who knew everything, direct(!d his lire against them. For hours the valiant body of Greeks remained immovable tormented as much by the painful exi)ec.ation of succour as by the bullets of the enemy. No signal came from without. When ht last the moon rose, and enabled the GrecKS to survey the masses of Turks and Egyptians ready to receive them, a thundering voice cried out " Forward ! forward ! death to the barba ians ! " With superhuman courage the vanguard of the Greeks rushed upon the fortifications of the enemy. Nothing was able to stop their progress, and a broad way v.-as opened through the midst of the terrified Turks and Egyptians. But then some one called out with a terrible voice, " Back into the town ! " and a great number were driven back by terror. The infuriated Turks and Arabs followed them, cutting down every one they met. Fearful scenes were now enacted, which lasted the whole night In every street and in every house those who had it'mained behina now fought with the courage of despair, and many blew up themselves and the enemy by means of powder When a numerous body of the enemy broke into the powder magazine, where most of the aged and wounded were assembled, the aged Kapsalis set fire to it, and all were blown up together. The next morning Messolonghi was a bli) - J!.: 186 HISTORY OF GREECE. ; S. .' them, if they du not make a last effort. He summoned the wxves and children, who, bearing the cro.ss in their hands implored their husbands, on their knees, rather to kdl them with their own hands than let them fall into the power of the barbarians. The men were fired with fresh enthusiasm, and took a solemn oath to conquer or to die for their country. Every one was ;■. ady to sacrifice all he had tor the good of nis countrymen. All the horses were voJunttxrily offered, and a cavalry was formed to defend J^aup ha agamst the Egyptians. The aged Kolokotrmis skiltuUy directed everywhere a guerilla warfare, not ven- turmg upon any battle, but constantly attacking and harassing the Egyptians. The inhabitants of the open country took refuge in the mountains, or in caves, or in strong j)laces, abandoning their country to the fury of the enemy, ^ho was devastating it with fire and sword. lUe inhabitants of Maina, women as well as men, repelled a vigorous atfcick by Ibrahim, and inflicted severe losses upon him. Georgios Karaiskakis, who in a short time had acquired the reputation of the gi-eatest general of the revolution was sent as commander-in-chief of con^* ntal Greece against Reshid Pasha. He liad formr- , great and bold plan of driving the Tui-ks out of Euroj-e altogether Ji€shid had besieged and bombarded Athens, and in .spite ot the brave resistance of its inhabitants, had become master of the city, and was blockading the akropolis,' which was defended by the brave Guras, with 570 men Karaiskakis, who set out from Natiplia with 600 men increased his army at Eleusis to 3500, among whom the surviving defendera of Messolonghi distinguished them- selves. Twice he defeated detachments of Reshid's forces and captured nearly all the cattle and beasts of burden of his army. He now organised the resistance of the akro- pohs, and formed a grand plan of operations, by which he hoped to surround Keshid in the plain of Athens. The latter, m order to gain possession of the akropolis, oegan a fearful cannonade in the night of the 18th of October, during which a portion of the Erechtheion wa« IIISTOUY OF GUEECE. 187 destroyed; but lie was ropnlsed witli great loss. The garrison, which had l)eeu much weakened, was now rein- forced by Karaiskakis, with 450 warriors, who, under the guidance of two of his bold adjutants, succeeded in the night in making theii- way into the akropolis. Reshid's operations were constantly frustrated by the besieged. But the small garrison also was daily diminished, and was beginning to feel the want of ammunition, when the brave French colonel,^ Fabvier, a distinguished Philhellene introduced 659 Greek soldiei-s. This was effected in the night with great boldness and order. Even before this, Karaiskakis, after fortifying Eleusis and Salamis, had entered Boeotia, with a view of carrying out his great plan. He everywhere drove the Turks before him, and by quick and well-arranged movemouts he sim-ounded near Ai-achova, a body of 1500 of the best Albanese troops, who were intended as a reinforcement for Reshid and completely annihilated them. Rich booty fell into the hands of the Greeks on this occasion. Thence he liastened to Thermopylae, and there captured all the stores ot provisions which were on their way to Reshid. Im- mediately after this he hastened to ^tolia, Phokis, and Livadia, everywhere chasing the Turks before him, and everywhere occupying the most important places, and thus formmg a semicii-cle in the rear of Reshid. He then returned, with 1000 men, to the cocistof Salamis, in order to carry out his plan. Even before his arrival, the govern- ment had assembled 6000 men in Peirjeeus and Phaleron (February 1827) ; but this force, in the absence of Kar- aiskakis, had always been very unsuccessful against Reshid ihe latter soon after attacked Karaiskakis, but was re- P" 1 n^AnA^^^® ^''^""^ '^'"'"^ ^^ -^^^^^^ ^'^s soon increased to 10,000 men. In order to testify its respect and grati- uide to England— which, under the guidance of George tanmoig, had shortly before taken a Philhellenic tui-n— the Greek government appointed the two English Phil- hellenes, Cochrane and CJmrch, commanders— the former axlmiral of the fleet, and the latter commander-in-chief of the land forces. Both proceeded to Phaleron, whither - ^^1 .1;! ! i I 188 HISTORY OF OUEECE. leadily plam himself under the command of Cochrane. Cochrane wished at once to storm the Turkish entrench- ments and to make an attack upon the whole force of ltcL^r^!^f''V''}t ^^T'"'^ away a great number of theCreek chiefs; but the calm and thouglitful Karaiskakis, who knew the character of his enemies better, and had fo^ the laat twelve months made every preparation to secure success, was determined to gain possession of a few more strong pointe, and not to leave anything to chance. His great plan, as already remarked, was to harass the enemv to surround them, aiid thus gradually to destroy theia ^^''^?!'iv^"*"'"^^ to advance slowly from Phaleron, and Keshid began to see that he was being surrounded and that soon he would have no means of Sbtaining pro- visions and ammunition ; when all at once some Hydriots and Kretans carried away by impatience, cont/ary to the orders of Karaiskakis, ma^e an attack upon the lurkish .ortihcations on the river Ilissos. They carried with them a portion of the right wing, but Reshid sur- rounded them in the plain with hLs cavalry, where son.e wffl 7«rT '"*i° ^'-?'' ^^"^ *^^ remainder escaped with difficulty. Karaiskakis, who was ill in his tint rose up and flew into the melee, to save the fugitives mid prevent a general engagement. But he was morf , v wounded and, feeling the approach of death, recom mended his adjutants to carry out his own plan as the only means of saving Greece. Cochrane, now freed from the control of Karaiskakis, at once ordered the whole of hia nght wmg to advance against the enemy. The Orreeks, led by a commander who did not know them rushed on with great vehemence, but without order- while the centre and the left wing, having received no orders, remained immovable. When, therefore, they were sun-ounded in the plain by the numerous Turkish cavalry and artillery, they suffered a more terrible defeat than any that had yefc been sustained. Fiftrii\v Suliot HISTORY OP GREECE. 189 chief, was wounded, and on being taken before Eeshid. he broke his fetters, and plunged a dagger into his own neait. Cochrane and Church escaped to the fleet. The tormer sailed to Hydra, while the latter remained in Phaleron with 2000 men, who, however, Ijeing hard pressed by the Turks, were at last obliged to depart. iNine days later the akropolis also surrendered. The brilliant expectations which the Greeks had enter- tamed of the operations of Karaiskakis, and the anticipated amnhilation of Eeshid, were at once dispei-sed by the news of the death of Karaiskakis, and by the destruction ot the finest army. Greece was in despair, and its situa- tion tf^rrible. The whole of continental Greece was now in the hands of the Turks. Ibrahim, who had received large remforcements from Egypt, again began to ravage i'eloponnesus m the most fearful manner, having been appomted by the sultan governor of the peninsula! His object was to extirpate the whole of the Greek popula A \ ^""lu^^ ^^''y^'' *^^ ^o^"^<^^y ^ith Egyptians and Ai-abs. Thousands of captm-ed men and women were sent as slaves into Egypt. Such was the state of Greece, when, fortunately, a great change took place in the views of the great Euro- pean powers in regard to it. During the first yeara of tlie revolution their governments had looked uiK)n the C^reeks as perjured rebels against their legitimate sove- reign ; and the Austrian government, in particular, o])enly sided with the Turks. But after 1825 the heroism and martyrdom of the Greeks, and especially the fall of Mes- solonglii, and the horrors accompanying it, called forth a cry of indignation all over Europe. The most eminent poets, orators, philosophers, and divines, especially in trance, stiri^d up public opinion. Many enthusiastic men from all i)arts of Christian Europe, went to Greece to share its sufferings or assist in its liberation. Thev are generally known by the name of Philhdlenes-thit IS, fnends of Greece. In England many of the leading men stigmatised the policy of the government as unworthj of their country. In the year 1825 George Canning charac- jfi f'i ■■'.i\ 100 HISTORY OF tiREECE. tensed It a^ a monstrosity and a disgrace. He at once recog. nised the Greeks as belligerents, and endeavoured, though in vam, through the mediation of Sir Stratford Cannimr m Constantinople, to induce the Turks to grant a truce" Kussia and France, nowever, were made to sign at London on the 6th of July 1827, a protocol, in which it wai agreed rhat, if the Turkish government, within a month, did not consent to a truce, the three great powers would oifacially recognise the independence of Greece, and com- pel lurkey to observe the truce. In addition to this the three governments sent their fleets to Peloponnesus with the specuU object to stop the inhuman proceedings of Ibrahmi The three fleets, commanded by Admiral l.dward Codrimjtan, entered the harbour of Pylos (Nava- rino), where the whole Egyptian and Turkish fleet waa ymg at anchor. When the Egyptians fired at the Eng- lish ships, Codrington gave the signal for that memorable and glorious battle, in which the allied fleet destroyed near y the whole armada of the Turks and Egyptians, and killed 6000 men. That battle saved the honour of the Ghiistian and civilised nations, who by their indifler- ence had so long been the accomplices of the Turks. As the latter, even after that battle, refused to grant an ai-mistice, the Greeks at once continued the war. Church the commander-in-chief, in November sailed to Akarnania! whither Kostas Bozzaris likewise proceeded, hoping to retake Messolonghi, which was blockaded on the sea side by the English Philhellene, Hastings, who took the small island of Vasiladion. This brave and modest sailor, who had devoted his life and property to the service of Greece, atter many and successful skirmishes was killed before Messolonghi in June 1828. Meanwhile, about the middle of January 1828, Joannes Kapodwtruis, whom the Greek National Assembly at IVoezen had appointed governor of Greece, proceeded to the island of ^gina, for the purpose of centralising and w-ganising the government. Kapodistrias, a native of Kerkyra (Korfu), who had lived much in Russia and Switzerland, was patriotic, honest, industrious, and i)rac- HISTORY OF GUEKCK. 191 iicii], and at onco intioduced economy and order in ix)li- tical and niilitjiry affairs. Church, and esn,>cially Ypsi- lantis, m September 1829, coinpletclv defeated a Turkish army of 7000 men, whereby continentjil Greece was almost entirely freed from the Turks; and at the same time a French army of 1 4,000 men, under General Maison, sent by Charles X. to Peloi)onnesus, at length compelled Ibrahim Pa«ha, who had already slaughtered or sold one- tourth of the population, to embark and return to Alex- andna (4th and Sth of October). The Turks were thus driven out of Greece. Kapodistria-s, who in the meantime continued to reor- ganise the country, entirely mistook the national chara<;ter ot the people, and, misled by the injudicious advice of hia tnends, allowed himself to be induced to adopt several Illegal and despotic measures. This and foreign intrigues brought about his much lamented death, on the 9th of October 1831. Greece was of course still in a very un- settled state, and after many endeavours of the three powera to establish a monarchy and to select a king the kingdom of Greece was at length recognised by the treaty of London, on the 7th of May 1832, and Otho, son of the enthusmstic Philhellene, Louis, king of Bavaria, -.os chosen king. This choice was api)roved by the Nati. •> 1 Assembly of the Greeks on the 8th of August, and Turkey was obliged to acquiesce in it. Of all the Greek countries which for a period of ei^ht yeara had done and suffered everything to gain their Ireedom, only the part south of the Gulfs of PagasjB and Amprakia, down to Cape Taenaron, obtained its in- dependence. Euboea, with the surrounding islands, and tne Kyklades, were likewise incorporated with free u'Tl ^^\ ^P'"""" ^^^ ^"^^' Thessaly and Macedonia, which had done and suffered so much, and Krete (Can- dia), were compelled by that treaty again to submit to tbe^^brutal tyranny and the revengeful spirit of the Thus ended the Greek revolution, and history must acknowledge that during the war of liberation the Greeks •M ■1' 192 insTcmv OF ni{!:K('i.:. ' mm bad diH|)lfiy(>fl a Juiioisin ami a mulincss f« wiorifice everything, whicli lias no pai-allcl in liistory. King Otho, who arrived in (Jioccc on the 6th ox" Fubiu- ary, was what is commonly callt-d a good, mild, an.l indus- trious man ; hut he was stupid, s.-lf-willed, and a fanatii; lioman Catholic. Ho Wixs moreover jealous of every kijid of national independence, and dreaded every independent chanicter, whom he looked ui)on as dangerous and oflensive to his own majesty. He always allowed himself to h.j guided by the sinister influence of Austria. Although he had promised to comply with the wish of the nation, ex- pressed by its National Assemblies, to give the country a constitution, he never fulfilled his promise ; and it was only after many fruitless attemi)ts, that at last, on the 16th of December 1843, he was forced to giant a constitution. But although he took his oath to observe it, he continu- ally violated it, and allowed himself to be guided by the in- trigues of a petty and unworthy camarilla. Greece became the scene of continual internal disturbances and diplomatic intrigues. At length, after a national eflbrt, which was stifled in blood, Otho was expelled, in a unanimous risin«r of the Greek nation, on the 22d of October 1862. He had poisoned the fii-st growth and development of the people, more from incapacity than from evil intentions. Although during his reign the love of freedom was stifled. It again burst forth in 1841 in an insurrection of the Kretam ; but this was st}\nii)ed out by the combined forces of Turkey and Egypt. In 1854, Ej>iros and Thessaly rose in arms, but after the disi)lay of much bravery, they were again forced under tlie Turkish yoke, through the intercession of France and England, which took military possession of Peirteeus. After the expulsion of Otho, the Greeks, in order to testify their attacliment to constitutional government and their confldence in England, unanimously selected Prince Alfred of England for their king; but from want of faith m the stability of the country, he declined the honour. Prince George of Denmark, who was then proposed b^ Enghnid as king of the Greeks, w.ts unanimously ac aJMTOltV UF UHKK(;fc. 193 was matiH,n once tlu, govennacnt luis shown itself is im-.n able as the extortions of individu-ds l.-.w. l!! • • ^ and onliglitened When H . T ^ ""'' increasing robbers tl,m„„l, «: ^'"^'^"■"' Albanese, and Wa acbian ODBers thiongb the narrow mountain ,„u,ses. The Greek So' "°™t"!& -"d.'&Play^ ite flag in both henu- fdncaticr'an? c ItClr ZJoW "" ''""" ^ '"j""" years, has again recovered its freedom. m m II vmn H WMZwTO f ofijw J.SonaX-<'''Lmulfd.Ol.u,hr>,-f.i,„,ij^ ( ArwYETog, 17. Abyiios, 64; battl Achawn league, 1 Achmana. 26. V; "■■'< 'S, 145. W "9. 123. iiciiiiiCciabrio, 1 Achmed Kyprisli, Aclitned III., 166 Adamantios Kora Mgrna, 41, 51, 62. iEgos^wtami, 99. ^niilius Paullus, ^olian colonies, 2 Alolians, 26. Machines, 118, .aistiliyloa, 81. iEtoliatis, 137. Agamemnon, 19. Agesilaoa, 105, 114 Agiatis, 135. Agis II., 94, 105. Agia III., 127. Agia IV., 134. Agyrrhios, 107 Akarnania, 111. Akarnanians, 140. Akrokorinthoa, 13i Aktion, battle of, Alaric, 154. Albanese, 167. Aletca, 29. Alexander (of Phei Alexander the Ore Alexander (of Epir Alexandria, 124. Alfred, Prince, 192 Ali, pasha of Epirc Alkibiadoa, 91, 98. Alkmajoiiida, 50. AlksBOS, 56. Ambracian Gulf, 8( Amnion, 124. Amphiktyons, 116. Amphiktyony of Di Amphipolis, 90. Amphissa, 119. Amphiasa, bishop o Amy.itaa, King of J Anabasis, 105 AkH. I'ersian Women, 120. I'lialiKiii, OS. Plialockos, 117. Plinrnabazurt, 97, 100. Pliarsalos, luttlo of, 149. Phayllos, 110. Pheidiius, 82. Phi.idon, King, 36. Pherce, 113. Philhellenes, 189. Philip (of .Macedonia), 109. Philip (son of Amyntas), 115. Philip v., 138. Philippi, b.ittle of, 150. Philipiwpolis, lOS Philouielos, 110. PhiloixBmen, 140, Ml. Philotas, 126. Phoebidas, 109, 110. Phoenicia, 124. Phokaa Nikophoros, 168, Pliokians, 65, 79, 116. Phokion, 119, 131. Pliokis, 85. Phormion, 86. Photios, 157. Phramaguata, 165. Phrynichos (dramatist), 81. Phrynichos (general). 96. Phylae, 102. Pindai, 55. Piracy, 24. Plataeaj, 65 ; h&Ulo of, 70. 80. Platteans, 63, 86. Plato, 104. Pleistarchos, 70. Polemarchoe, 41. Polybios, 142, 143. Poly bos, 17. Polyneikes, 18. Polysperchon, 18L PomiHjy, 149. Poms, 125. Poseidon, 129. Potidsea, 84, 86, lOSl Primates, 162. Prokles, 28. Propyloae, 81. Prusias, King, 189. Psara, 169. Ptolemy, 123, 131. Ptolemy Keraunos, 188, Pydna, battle of, 143. Pylos, 88. Pyrrhus, 133. Pythagoras, 58. RE.SI1ID Mechmet Pasha, 181. Revolution of Greeks, 170. Uhogium, 38, 92. Rhod().s (island), 165. Uigaa Phera'os, 169. Robert 11., king of Sicily, 157. !:■ li iH M fl ' ^H 1 1 m ll 'i ilM 200 INDKX. Romans, 139. Hoyanii, l;!4. Itiissia, Eiiipioss Catheviiio of, ICT llUM.iiuim, lUT. .Sacmtuium, (it(i.i;,'i()8, 178. H.icroil Will-, Uti. SaguB, till) Hevoii, fifi. Hiilatuia, iulaiid of, 42. fSiilamis, battle of, 68. Simiians, 71. «aiuo3, 80, 07, 120. Saiicta Laura, IVii. iSappho, 5(1. .Sarilos, (10, f)%, Hu>tliiaiis, 59. Sokkon, 171. Beliin, lOfj. .Si:lillU8, 9". vSiilliwia, battle of, 138. ;S>'sto», 09, 71. iSUyioa, islatid of, 108< Slavonians, 150. Smyrna, lOS. Social War. 11. 'i, ^flO. Socioty of 1 ricnds, 170. SakratcB, !)1p 101 Solon, 42-40. Sophoklus, 81. Spuria, capital of Lakonia, SO: its institutions as settled by L3 k>:r- gos, 31 ; at war with Atliens, 78 ; at war with Thobes, 111 ; taken by Philoixumeu, 141 ; under the Romans, 148. Spartans, 33, 50, 103. SiMitsa, 109. Sphakteria, 88, 179. Sphinx, 18. Stenyklaros, battle of, 37. Strategopulos, Alexis, 158. Strymon, river, 69. Suliman I., 165. Sulla, L. Cornelius, 149. Suuion, Cai)e, 63. Susa, 124. Sybota, 84. Syrakuse, 87, 92. Syria,, 132. Tanaoka, 78. Turentum, 36. TaygetoH, Mount, 34, 76. Teiresias, 23. Tenedos, 175. Thales, 56. Thasiatis, 76. Thuuos, island of, 70. Theagenes, 41. Theban War, 110. Thebans, 80, 106. Thebes, 17, 70, 109, 113, 122 Themistoklos, 05, 68, 74. Tlieokles, 37. 'I'lii'oiMjuipoH, king of Sparta, 30. Tlii;ranielieH, itO, !K>, 101. ThiTUioii, l;i7. Tliorniopyl:«, battle uf, 07, 116, 142 Tiiu.seu8, 1,0, :J1». Thosniothuto), 41. Thcspin!, 05. Theasaliaiis, 27. Thessaly, 20, 121. Thetis, 19. Thimbron, 105. Thirty tyrants, 101. Thrace, 59. Thracian ChersoiuauH, 70. Thraaybulos, 97, 102, luT. Thurii, 92. Thukydides, 79. Tigris, 124. Tiniotlicos, 111, Tiribazus, 107. Tisanienos, 28. Tissaphcrnes, 96, 105. Tithraustes, 106. Trajan, 151. Trapezus, 105. Treasure House of Atreus, 26. Trikala, 1(>H. Trikorplm. battle of, 180. Troezen, ('7. Trojan War, 10. Troy, siege ot, 19. Tsamados, llydriot, 173. , Tsavelaa, 108. Tsavelas, Kitsos, 182. Turks, 158, 166. Tyre, 124. Tyrtscos, 37. Tzesnic, 168, Vaffe, 193. Valtetsi, 172. Vandals, 155. Venetians, 157. Venice, 165. Vladimir, 156. Wallaguians, 156. Xakthippos, 71. Xeuophanes, 56. Xonophon, 104, 106. Xerxes, 64. Ypsilantis, Alexander, 171. Ypsilantis, Demetrios, 174, 180. Zaimis, 172. Zakynthos, 85, 165. Zaukle, 38. Zeus, 22. ZiuuBces, ^oannes, 156. Zyjjos, Mount, 185.