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The principal objects aimed at in tnc follcwiuLr papers are : — f> » i 1. To arouse interest in the history of the mother- tongue. 2. To use the facts of language as the phenomena of a science and to make the study of that science a logical trammg m {a) observing, {b) cla.ssifying, {c) defining \d) generalizing. 3. To promote a familiarity with the rules of sentence- building, such as will tend to a pure and clear use of English. 4. To promote that clear knowledge of grammatical terms and their uses which is essential to a successful pursuit of other languages. It is believed that on these four grounds Grammar is hrmly established as an essential part of the mental equipment of an educated man. The more immediate cau.ses of the preparation of the.se questions are :_(i) To prevent unnecessary loss of time in showing p-upils the nature of their work • (2) T^ dis pel the vagueness that attaches to assigning part of a text-book to be read as a lesson : (3) To help those stu- dents who read for certificates without the assistance of teichers. (4) To assist young teachers to a clear com- prehension of what is possible and of what is desirable in teaching the subject of Grammr^r a"H {r^ ^u ,. ^ IV PKKPACE. make a move in the direction of winning for our educa- tional system a method of Grammar teaching which shall be scientific and truly English instead of mediaeval and classical or synthetic. While realizing the impossibility of logical exactness in grammatical classifications and definitions, and the necessity of retaining our cumbersome and inconsistent terminology, the present work would urge the great desirability of keeping as near as possible to the line of scientific precision in nomenclature and of defining and classifying in the light of the following simple and well- recognized rules of logic :— Classification. a. A classification should have one clear ground for the division of the larger groups into the smaller groups. b. The sum of the smaller groups (species) should exactly equal the original group (genus). c. The species should not overlap. Example .•— Sentences (genus). (Gr ound-) | No. of p rincipal statements I -| I. Simple — (species—) 2. Compound. DEFINITION. I. A definition must state the genus and the difiference of a species. Exmnple—S^QCits -= Genus -f- Difference. A dwelling = a house to live in. PKEFACE. V Here -5<- ^ / vvniten, DUt le- n- ..cno^ar v.n uiat dccount fancy for a moment that Vlll fRKPACE. this primary science can ever be removed from the curri- culum. In conclusion let me say, that the student who would understand the subtleties of the English construction should give himself up to the mastery of the "High School Grammar" to which this exercise book is meant to be a guide ; for it is the most profound and compre- hensive study of the subject that has yet appeared and I am very sure that this is the opinion of those who con- demn the present system as well as of the more conser- vative, and it is quite certain that no new work can im- prove upon it in completeness, m a satisfying elucidation of obscure constructions, or in an astute and delicate perception of the shading subtleties of blending forms of phrase and sentence In the hands of a teacher with definite and wise objects at the end of his grammatical vista and rational methods of attaining those objects the book IS all that can be desired: such a teacher can make good use even of the occasional fallacies of naming and classifying. The present handbook will serve its pur pose admirably if it makes clear the odjec/s and the rational methods and acts as an ^' open sesame " to a work which seems to me to be an inexhaustible store of know- ledge in its subject. M. F. LIBBY. Park DALE, May lyth, i8gi. CONTENTS. PAOR. 1 29 43 OUAPTRR. I. The Functions of words, phrases and clauses in sentence building II. The Mother-tongue III. Word-making IV. Nouns V. Pronouns ^* VI. Adjectives ®^ VII. Verbs .'...'....'..'.... ^^ Vni. Adverbs IX. Prepositions X. Conjunctions 100 103 • . . . 108 73 92 XI, Interjections XII. Sentence-Building XIII. Elementary questions in Philology Technical terms of Grammar 148 ;l ' \ N EXERCISES AND QUESTIONS IN ENGLISH aRAMMAR. m CHAPTER I. ||RELATIONS AND FUNCTIONS OF WORDS, PHRASES AND " SUBORDINATE CLAUSES IN SENTENCES. Exercises for Class-work. Exercise I. " ^«. incident, which happened at //..> period of Sir lexander's hfe, is so illustrative of his character >nd furnishes so strong a presumption that the thought r«/ humanity by which he was distinguished was not Ivholly the growth of his latter years, that, though t may appear to some trifling in itself, I will insert it in b.place,.with//.. occasion on which it was communi- la'ace/ hTn " ' ^7^' ^^''^ ""' '^' ^^^"^ Master's lalace / had observed a naval officer of distinguished herit hstenmg to Sir Alexander Ball whenever he joinld Lm^H^'Tr'^'"' ^^'^ '" ""^'^'^ ^ P^^^'«--' that it emed as if his very voice, independent of what he said ad been delightful to him ; and once, as he fixed hfs k on Sir Alexander Ball, I could not but notice the ^ixed expression of awe and aff^^tion v4»J-J- - ian common .„,,.„, to so manly a countenlnce 2 EXERCISES AND QUESTIONS lit! During his stay in the island this officer honored me not unfrequently with his visits ; and at the conckision of my last interview with him, in which I had dwelt on the wis- dom of the Governor's conduct in a r'^cent and difficult emergency, he told me that he considered himself as in- debted to the same excellent person for that which was dearer to him than his life. Sir Alexander Ball, said he, has (I dare say) forgotten the circumstance ; but when he was Lieutenant Ball, he was the officer zv/tom I accom- panied in my first boat expedition, being then a midship- man and only in my fourteenth year. As we were row- ing up to the vessel which we were about to attack, amid a discharge of musketry, I was overpowered by fear, my knees trembled under me and I seemed on the point of fainting away. Lieutenant Ball, who saw the condition I was in, placed himself close beside me, and still keep- ing his countenance directed toward the enemy, took hold of my hand, and pressing it in the most friendly manner, said in a low voice, " Courage, my dear boy ! don't be afraid of yourself ! you will recover in a minute or so — I was just the same when I first went out in this way." Sir added the officer to me, it was as if an angel had put I a new soul into me. With the feeling that I was not yet ; dishonored, the whole burden of agony was removed,! and from that moment I was as fearless and forward as the oldest of the boat's crew, and on our return, the lieutenant spoke highly of me to our captain. I ami scarcely less convinced of my own being than that I shouk have been what I tremble to think of, if, instead of hij humane encouragement, he had at that moment scofifedJ threatened, or reviled me. And this was the more kincJ in him, because as I ajterzvards understood, his own con- IN RNGLISH ORAMMAK. « loiiorcd me not inclusion of my velt on the wis- nt and difficult I himself as in- that which was er Ball, said he, nee ; but when whom I dccom- then a midship- is we were row- to attack, amid :red by fear, my on the point of w the condition and still keep- lemy, took hold friendly manner, boy I don't be minute or so — I t in this way." n angel had put ' at I was not yet ^ was removed,! ess and forward. 1 our return, thcj captain. I am^ tian that I should! if, instead of his moment scoffecij s the more kind| >od, his own con-l ■luct ,„ h,.s first trial had evinced to all appearances the ^:reatest fearlessness, and that he said this therefore only to g,ve me heart, and restore me to my own good opmion. s "vj a. With what word is each italicised word in this pas -sage most closely connected in sense ? b. State as clearly as you can the nature of the inti- mate connection in sense that exists between the two words m each instance. c. Give a name to the sense-connection or relation ex- istmg between the two words in each instance. Exercise II. " T\.^ death of Nelson was felt in England as something ^ore than a public calamity ; men started at the intelli- gence, and turned pale as if they /.^^ /,,w of the loss of ^dear fnend. An object of our admiration and affection )f our pnde and of our hopes, was suddenly taken /..;,; ^s ; and ,t seemed as if we had never^ till then, known low deeply we loved and reverenced him. wLt the buntry had lost in its great «Whero-the greatest of lur own and all former times- was scarcely Len into ^e account of grief, ^o perfectly, indeed, had he ^er- jrmed h,s part, that the maritime war after the battle \ Trafalgar was considered at an end : the fleets of the Inemy were not merely defeated, but destroyed • new k hem. beforethe;>.../^./.v,of their invading onr shoTes uld agaut be contemplated. It was not. th^efore from ^y selfish reflection upon the magnitude of our losl th" c mourned >^ him : the general sorrow was of a highe * 11,1 1,1 ' Hi. 4 EXERCISES AND QUESTIONS character. The people of England grieved that funeral ceremonies, and public monuments, and posthumous rewards, were a\\ which they could now bestow upon him, whom the king, the legislature, and the nation, would have alike delighted to honour ; whom every tongue would have blessed : whose presence in every village through which he might have passed, would have awakened the church bells, have given school-boys a holiday, have drawn children from their sports to gaze upon him, and "old men from the chimney corner," to look upon Nelson ere they died. The victory of Trafalgar was celebrated, indeed, with the usual forms of rejoicing, but they were without joy ; for such already was the glory of the British navy, through Nelson's surpassing genius, that it scarcely seemed to receive any addition from the most signal victory that ever was achieved upon the seas : and the destruction of this mighty fleet, by which all the maritime schemes of France were totally frust- rated, hardly appeared to add to our security or strength ; for, while Nelson was living to watch the combined squadrons of the enemy, we felt ourselves as secure as now, when they were no longer in existence. There was reason to suppose, from the appearances upon opening the body, that, in the course of' nature, he might heve attained, like his father, to a good old age. Yet he cannot be said to have fallen prematurely whose work was done ; nor ought he to be lamented, who died so full of honours, and at the height of human fame. The most triumphant death is that of the martyr ; the most awful that of the martyred patriot ; the most splen- did that of the hero in the hour of victory ; and if the chanot and horses of fire had been vochsafcd for Nelson's s as secure as IN ENOLISII GKAMMAU. 5 translation, he could scarcely have departed in a bnVhter bla.e of glory. He has left us. not indeed his mantle of inspiration, but a name and an example, which are at this hour inspiring thousands of the youth of England • a name which is our pride, and an example which will con- ' tinue to be our shield and our strength. Thus it is that j the spirits of the great and the wise continue to live and I to act after them." a. Point out the sense-relations of the italicized words. ^ b Group the words that have a common relation using I the following words to denote their relations -.-^Subjective (about which assertions are made); Objective (against which assertions are made); Predicative {m^V.n^ asser- 10ns); Attributive (modifying nouns and words used like nouns) ; Adverbial {^o^.iy'^n^ verbs, adjectives and adverbs) ■ Prepositional (showing relations of nouns to other words); Conjunctive {]o\v^,r.^ sentences and words used in the same relation in a clause) ; Independents words that have no close connection with any word in the sentence). c. What is a grammatical relation ? d. How many distinct relations have words in sen- [tences } " «. Do the parts of speech correspond to the groups of words that fill the same grammatical relations o L IsltencT? "'" '""""^"^'" '■""^"o- '" 'he Exercise III. "On the other side he looked down into . H..n ^oun Itain gien, wild, lonely, and shagged, the boUom^'filled ' EXKRCISEH AND ^''''STIONS With fragments /mm the impending cliffs, and scarcely lighted hy the reflected rays r s\ the setting sun. For some tUiic Rip lay musing on this sc.ne r evening was gradually advancmg ; the mountains began to throw their long blue shadows over the valleys ; he saw that it would be dark long before he could reach the village ; and he heaved a heavy sigh when he thought of encountering the terrors of Dame Van Winkle. " As he was about to descend, he heard a voice from a distance hallooing ^' Rip Van Winkle ! Rip Van Winkle!'' He looked around, but could see nothing but a crdw wmgmg its solitary flight across the mountain. He thought his fancy must have deceived him, and tuned again to descend, when he heard the same cry ring through the still evenittg air, "Rip Van Winkle' Rip Van Winkle ! "~at the same time Wolf bristled up his back, and giving a low growl, skulked to his master's side lookmg fearfully down itito the glen. Rip now felt a i vague apprehension stealing ox,er him ; he looked anxious- ly in the same direction, and perceived a strange figure ' slowly toiling up the rocks, and bending under the weight of something he carried on his back. He was surprised to see any human being in this lonely and unfrequented I peace, but supposing it to be some one of the neighborhood j m need of his assistance, he hastened down to y' - 1 ^ I " On nearer approach he was still more surpri.srxl a^ t'-- I singularity of the stranger's appearance. He Was a short I square-built old fellow, with thick bushy hair and a I grizded beard. His dress was of the antique Dutch \ fash: -'-a cloth jerkin strapped r^««^//,^^^^j^__3e^^,^^j I pair o) , . ' '.s, the outer one of ample volume, decorated I with rn:v. yf bt-Uons down the sides, and bunches nt M- ■ J IN KNOMSII ORAMMAK. J Unees. lie bore on his shoulders a stout keg that seemed full of liquor, and made signs for Rip to approach and assist him with the load. Though rather shy and dis- trustful of this new acquaintance. Rip complied ivith Uis usual alacrity, and mutually relieving each other they climbed up a i.arrow gully, apparently the dry bed Ufa mountan, torrent. As they ascended, Rip every now and then heard long rolling peals, like distant thunder, thai seemed to issue out of a deep ravine, or rather cleft Uetiveen lofty rocks, towards which their rugged path conducted. He paused for an instant, but supposing it to be the mutterings of one of those transient thunder |shQwers which often take place in mountain heights he i proceeded. Passing through the ravine, they came to a hollow, like a small amphitheatre, surrounded by per pen dicular precipices, over the brinks of which impending [trees shot their branches, so that you only caught I glimpses of the azure sky and the bright evening cloud \ During the whole time. Rip and his companion had [laboured on in silence, for though the former marvelled greatly what could be the object of carrying a keg of liquor up this wild mountain, yet there was something I strange and incomprehensible about the unknown that I inspired awe and checked familiarity." a Show from the italicized expressions that a group of « rrds consisting of a preposition and its regimen (what It governs) may have the same relation as a single word. ^ b. Show, by substituting, that a single word will some- times give about the same meaning as one of the groups or phrases. " • *t I ' i 8 EXERCISES AND QUESTIONS owl- ^^utr::^::^;^], t-- ^-^ ^^^^ phrases. regularly as if they were not in e. When would you say it is usele^^ f-r. .^ -a , rflatJr^r^o ^f «.u , ^ useless to consider the relations of the words within the phrases ? /. If the preposition were considered as ^n mfl ^- Exercise IV. "The great error in Rip's composition was an in,,, perable aversion to all kiuds of profitabir Lbor It" could not be for the want of assiduity or persever^ce for lie would sit on a wet rock witL ST ' heavy as a Tartar's lance, andth! da;l^:Jralr:' mur, even though he should not be encouraJTZ ^ niiUe. He would carry a fowling-p ceT hif I "^f and up hill and down dale to shoot a few squirrelTo; wild pigeons. He would never refuse to asskt T u bour even in the roughest toil, and was : oTmost" mt In TnTeT '*;' '"' ^^^^^ '"*- corn ^ruiM^^g stone lences. The- women of the village, too useH tt employ h™ to run their errands, and to do slich L e odd jobs as their less oUising husbands wouldT^ dot th,m;~m a word, Rip was ready to attend to Ik /f business but his own ; but as toVoing famHy dTtv^'^H In fact, he declared it was n^ .,o tZ ., .. , ..- -i^ use to oi/arfi on fits ■' P''--' Which by Exercise V. thJnl ^ ^T ^'"f '"'"'"'^ ^^^"^ Westminster Abbey ;nsc.ptions and al, the vene^abtrmri^s ^fTered' ment msp.re ! Imagine a temple marked with the hand of ant,qu.ty, solemn as religious awe, adorned t^th all the magn-iicence of barbarous profusion, dim wtadow IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 11 fretted pillars, long colonnades, and dark ceilings. Think, then, what were my sensations at being intro- duced to such a scene. I stood in the midst of the temple, and threw my eyes round on the walls, filled with statues, the inscriptions, and the monuments of the dead. " 2. Alas ! I said to myself, how does pride attend the puny child of dust even to the grave. Even humble as / am, I possess more consequence in the present scene than the greatest hero of them all ; they have toiled for an hour to gain a transient immortality, and are at length reared to the grave where they have no attendant but the worms, none to flatter but the epitaph. " 3. As I was indulging such reflections, a gentleman, dressed in black, perceiving me to be a stranger, came up, entered into conversation, and politely offered to be my instructor and guide through the temple. ' If any monument should particularly excite your curiosity, I shall endeavour to satisfy your demand.' I accepted with thanks the gentleman's offer, adding, that ' I was come to observe policy, the wisdom and the justice of the Eng- lish, in conferring reward upon deceased merit. If adula- tion like //«V continued I, 'be properly conducted, as it can in no way injure those who are flattered,' so it may be a glorious incentive to those who are now capable of enjoying it. It is the duty of every good government to tarn this monumental pride to Its own advantage; to become strong in the aggregate from the weakness of the individual If none but the truly great have a place in this awful repository, a temple like this will give the finest lesson of morality, and be a strong incentive to true .'' d. Define a noun. Define a pronoun." Exercise VI. A ?"' '""f If^' ^^^'' '^"' ^""^^ ^J°"^ bestows, And sensual bliss is all the nation knows In florid beauty groves and fields appear Man seems the only growth that dwindles here Contrasted faults through all his manners reign"- Though poor, luxurious : though submissive, vain • Though grave, yet trifling ; zealous, yet untrue • ' And even in penance planning sins anew. All evils here contaminate the mind, That opulence departed leaves behind • For wealth was theirs, nor far removed 'the date When commerce proudly flourished through the state- At her command the palace learned to rise. Again the long-fallen column sought the skies The canvas glowed, beyond e'en nature warm' The pregnant quarry teemed with human form ; Till, more unsteady than ihc southern gale, ' ' IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 13 Commerce on other shores displayed her sail ; While nought remained of all that riches gave, Bu*- towns unmanned and lords without a slave : And late the nation found with fruitless skill Its former strength was but plethoric ill. Yet still the loss of wealth is here supplied By arts, the splendid wrecks of former pride :' From these the feeble heart and long-fallen mind An easy compensation seem to find. ^^ Here may be seen, in bloodless pomp arrayed, The pasteboard triumph and the cavalcade : Processions formed for piety and love, A mistress or a saint in every grove ; By sports like these are all their cares beguiled ; The sports of children satisfy the child ; Each nobler aim, represt by long control. Now sinks at last, or feebly mans the soul ; While low delights, succeeding fast behind, In happier meanness occupy the mind : As in those domes, where Caesars once bore sway. Defaced by time and tottering in decay, There in the ru'n, heedless of the dead. The shelter-seeking peasant builds his shed ; And, wondering m?n could want the larger pile. Exults, and owns his cottage with a smile." a. Point out the words that limit the application of nouns without adding to their meaning. b. Point out words that limit the application of names but add some quality-notion to this m.eanino-. c. Point out words that modify the assertions made by m 14 EXERCISES AND QUESTIONS ill thetsl';""'"' "■""= circumstances connected with d. Define an adjective. wLfr ^T '^' "^^"'■^ ^^^^'- ^'^^ the adjective? What have the two classes in common ? Exercise VII. " O sleep I it is a gentle thing, Beloved from pole to pole ! ' To Mary queen the praise be given » She sent the gentle sleep from Heaven 1 hat slid into my soul. " The silly buckets on the deck, That had so long remained, I dreamt that they were filled with dew • And when I awoke it rained. " My lips were wet, my throat was cold My garments all were dank ; * Sure I had drunken in my dreams, And still my body dranJ^. " I ^^^'^^and could not>^/ my limbs • I was so light— almost W^^«^^/ that I ^«^^/^^in sleep. And was a blessed ghost. " And soon I /learcl a roaring wind ; It did not cowe anear • But with its sound it shook the sails i n3t Were so thin and sere. )nnected with IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 16 " The upper air Imrst into life ! And a hundred fire-flags sheen, To and fro they were hurried about ! And to and fro, and in and out, The wan stars danced between. " And the coming wind did roar more loud, And the sails did sigh like sedge ; And the rain poured down from one black cloud ; The Moon was at its edge. ^" " The thick black cloud was cleft, and still The Moon was at its side : Like waters shot from some high crag. The lightning fell with never a jag, A river steep and wide." a. Which of these verbs make assertions, which merely effect assertions ? b. It takes a copula-notion and a quality-notion to make an assertion : where is the quality-notion in the sentences whose verbs are mere copulas ? Where is the copula-notion in the assertion whose verbs are not mere copulas ? c. What is a verb ? d. In each assertion point out the part of the sentence which ekpresses : {a) That about which the assertion is made ; (^) That which is asserted about {a) ; {c) That which effects the assertion of (b) about {a). ' V I 16- tfll EXERCISES AND QUESTIONS Exercise VIII. ^ Loudly the Beattison laughed m scorn • Little care we>r thy winded horn Ne'er shall it be the Galliard's lot To yield his steed /(? a haughty Scott ' Wend thou to Branksome back on foot With rusty spur and miiy boot.'— He blew his bugle so loud and hoarse That the dun deer started at i^,t Crarkcross • He blew again so loud and clear IS .vTkT "''""''^" "^'"'^^'^ ^^ J-nces appear • And the third blast rang with such a din, ^^ ' That the echc^s answer'd from Pentoun-linn, And all his riders came lightly in. Then had you seen a gallant shock When saddles were emptied, Glances broke I /.^each scornful word the Galliard had said, A Beattison on the field was laid Kis own good sword the chieftain drew. ^J^ he bore the Galliard through and through • Where^ the Beattisons' blood mix'd with the Si,' ■ The Galliard's Haugh men call it still The Scotts have scatter'd the Beattison clan In Eskdale they left but one landed man ' The valley of Eske, from the mouth /. the source Was lost and won for that bonny white horse. ' Whitslade the Hawk, and Headshaw came And warriors more than I may name From Yarrow-cleuch to Hindbraugh-swair From Woodhouselee to Chester-glen. ' Troop'd man and horse, and bow — ^ -, 1-S5JVV cc«£t spear J IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. J 7 Their gathering word was Bellenden. And better hearts o'er Border sod To siege and rescue never rode. The Ladye mark'd the aids come in, And high her heart ^/" pride arose : She bade her youthful son attend, That he might know his father's friend. And learn to face his foes. ' The boy is ripe to look on war ; I saw him draw a cross-bow stiff, ^^ And his true arrow struck afar The raven's nest upon the cliff ; The red cross on a southern breast. Is broader than the raven's nest ; Thou, Whitslade, shall teach him his weapon to wield I And der him hold his father's shield.' " a. State the relations shown by the words in italics. b. What have prepositions and conjunctions in com- mon? c. How do conjunctions that join words used in the same way in a sentence differ from prepositions ? Exercise IX. « The natives soon found this out. They considered him as a fallen man, and they acted after their kind Some of our readers may have seen, in India, a crowd of crows pecking a sick vulture to death— no bad type of what happens in that country as often as fortune deserts one who has been great and" dreaded. In an instant all the sycophants who had lately been ready to lie for him '■■ '*l m !l 18 EXERCISES AND QUESTIONS to forge for him, to pander for him, to poison for him, hasten to purchase the favour of his victorious enemies by accusing him. An Indian Government has only to let it be understood that it wishes a particular man to be ruined, and in twenty-four hours it will be furnished with grave charges, supported by depositions so full and cir- cumstantial that any person unaccustomed to Asiatic mendacity would regard them as decisive. It is well if the signature of the destined victim is not counterfeited at the foot of some illegal compact, and if some treasonable paper is not slipped into a hiding-place in his house. Hastings was now regarded as helpless. The power to make or mar the fortune of every man in Bengal had passed, as it seemed, into the hands of the new Councillors. Immediately charges against the Governor- General began to pour in. They were eagerl>- v/elcomed by the majority, who, to do them justice, were men of too much honor knowingly to countenance false accusa- tions, but who were not sufficiently acquainted with the East to be aware that in that part of the world a very liUle encouragement from power will call forth in a week more Oateses and Bedloes and Dangerfields than West- minster Hall sees in a century. " It would have been strange indeed if, at such a junc- ture, Nuncomar had remained quiet. That bad man was stimulated at once by malignity, by avarice, and by ambition. Now was the time to be avenged on his old enemy, to wreak a grudge of seventeen years, to establish himself in the favour of the majority of the Council, to make himself the greatest native in Bengal. From the time of the arrival of the new Councillors, he had paid the most marked court to them, and had in consequence i ! ! IK ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 19 been excluded, with all incHo„ity, from the Government House. He now put into the hands of Francis, with great ceremony, a paper, containing several charges of the most serious description. By this document Hastings was accused of putting offices up for sale, and of receiving bnbes for suffering offenders to escape. In particular, it was alleged that Mahommed Reza Khan had been dis missed with impunity, in consideration of a great sum paid to the Governor-General." a. Make an assertion about every word in the fi^rst four sentences, about which an assertion can be made (The word is not to be changed in form : the relation of the word in the extract above is not to be considered.) b. Use as an attributive adjective every word in the first paragraph capable of that relation. (No change of form.) ^ c. Use every word that is capable of it as object of a preposition. d. Show the relation to other words of each word in the second paragraph, e State the functions in sentence-building of each word m the first four sentences. / Write out each sentence in the extract that has the relati(»n of a single word in another sentence ; state what that relation is. Exercise X. " His competitor was a Hindoo Bramin, whose name has, by a terrible and melancholy event, been insepar- auly associated with that of Warren Hastings, the Maha- 20 KXKRCI8E8 AND QUK8TION8 nijah Nimcotn.ir. This man had played an important part in all the revolutions which, since the time of Surajah Dowlah, had taken place in Bengal. To the consideration which in that country belong to high and pure caste, he added the weight which is derived from wealth, talents and experience. Of his moral character it is difficult to give a notion to those who are acquainted with human rviture only as it appears in our island. What the Italian is to the Englishman, what the Hindoo is to the Italian, what the Bengalee is to other Hindoos, that was Nuncomar to other Bengalees. The physical organization of the Bengalee is feeble even to effeminacy. He lives in a constant vapor bath. His pursuits are sedentary, his limbs delicate, his movements languid. During many ages he has been trampled upon by men of bolder and more hardy breeds. Courage, independence, veracit}', a. e qualities to which his constitution and his situation are equally unfavourable. His mind bears a singular analogy to his body. It is weak even to help- lessness for purposes of manly resistance ; but its supple- ness and its tact move the children of sterner climates to admiration not unmingled with contempt. All those arts which are the natural defence of the weak are more familiar to this subtle race than to the Ionian of the time of Juvenal, or to the Jew of the dark ages. What the horns are to the buffalo, what the paw is to the tiger, what the sting is to the bee, what beauty, according to the old Greek song, is to woman, deceit is to the Ben- galee. Large promises, smooth excuses, elaborate tissues of circumstantial falsehood, chicanery, perjury, forgery are the weapons, offensive and defensive, of the people of the Lower Ganges. All thest^ mjllions do not furnish IN isJIOLlSU GRAMMAR. 21 one sepoy to the armies of the Company But as usurers, as money-changers, as sharp legal practitioners, no class of human beings can bear a comparison with them." a. Show the effect of reading only the verb as predi- cate of the sentence in each of the simple sentences above. b. Illustrate from the passage, the fact that though a verb makes or effects an assertion in a sense, yet that assertion would often be incomplete without other words. c. What are the relations of the words (in the sentences above) used to complete the assertions of verbs ? What parts of speech are used as verb-completions ? d. From the complex sentences above determine whether it is reasonable to read a principle sentence with- out reading as part of it the subordinate sentences attached to it. Give a clear reason for your decision on this point. Exercise XI. "'Alas! gentlemen,' cried Rip, somewhat dismayed. ' I am a poor, quiet man.' " " Alas ! fair dames, your hopes are vain ! " a. Which is more striking in " alas ! " thought or feel- ing? If no other word but the first were used by Rip, could his hearers have known his thought ? If he had used only the sentence "I am a poor, quiet man," could, they have guessed his feeling ? b. When the poet says " Alas," why does he not stop instead of explaining by " your hopes are vain " ? 22 EXERCISES AND QUESTIONS c. In what respects is an interjection superior to a sentence ? In what respect is a sentence superior to an interjection ? Illustrate from above, d. State with reasons whether you think an interjection is on a level with a noun, a preposition, and other parts of speech, or on a level with the sentence in power of expression. e. Write interjections, and corresponding sentences to make the meaning of the interjections fuller and clearer. Point out the advantages of the interjection over the sentences. Exercise XII. "What horrors ///^zV dungeon there witnessed can only be guessed. But there remains on the records of Parlia- ment this letter, written by a British resident to a British soldier :— • " ' Sir, the Nabob having determined to inflict corporal punishment upon the prisoners under your guard, this is to desire that his officers, when they shall come, may have free access to the prisoners, and be permitted to do with them as they shall see proper.* "While these barbarities were perpetrated at Luck- now, the Princesses were still under duress at Fyzabad Food was allowed to enter their apartments only in such scanty quantities that their female attendants were in danger of perishing with hunger. Month after month this cruelty continued, till at length, after twelve hundred thousand pounds nad been wrung out of the Princesses Hastings began to think that he had really got to the bottom of their coffers, and that no rigour could extort IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 23 more. Then at length the wretched men who were retained at Lucknow regained their liberty. When their irons were knocked off and the doors of their prisoa opened, their quivering lips, the tears which ran down their cheeks, and the thanksgiving which they poured forth to the common Father of Mussulmans and Chris- tians, melted even the stout hearts of the English war- riors who stood by." a. Write notes on the meanings of the first three words in italics— " their," "there "and "there." Are they. all pronounced in exactly the same way? What is the grammatical value of each ? b. Show that each of the last three words in italics does the work of two words, that is, performs two sen- tence functions. State clearly their relations in both functions. pi PL m Exercise XIII. " Francis read the paper in Council. A violent alter- cation followed. Hastings complained in bitter terms of the way in which he was treated, spoke with contempt of Nuncomar and of Nuncomar's accusations, and denied the right of the Council to sit in judgment on the Governor. At the next meeting of the Board, another communication from Nuncomar was produced. He requested that he might be permitted to attend the Council, and that he might be heard in support of his assertions. Another tempestuous debate took place. The Governor-General maintained that the council-room was not a proper place for such an investigation ; that from per- sons who were heated by daily conflict with him he could ■I IhIj 24 fiXERCISJES AND QUESTIONS not expect the fairness of judges ; and that he could not without betraymg the dignity of his post, submit to be confronted wth such a man as Nuncomar. The majority however resolved to go into the charges. Hastings rose declared thesm.ng at an end, and left the room, foLwed by Barwell. The other members kept their selts, voTed themselves a council, put Clavering in the cha r and c^dered Nuncomar to be called in. Nuncomar no 'on J adhered to the original charges, but, after the fashion of the East, produced a large supplement. He stated tha Hastings had received a great sum for appointing rIh Goordas treasurer of the Nabob's household. !nd for comm,ttmg the cares of his Highness's person to the Munny Begum. He put in a letter purporting to bla' he seal of the Munny Begum, for the purpose^of esUb l.sh,ng the truth of his story. The seal^ whether forged as Hastmgs affirmed, or genuine, as we are rather inclSd to beheve, proved nothing. Nuncomar, as everybody knows who knows India, had only to tell the Mu„„y Begum that such a letter would give pleasure to the majority of the Council, in order to procure her attesta- tion. The niajority, however, voted that the charge was made out ; that Hastings had corruptly received beTw«n th,rty and forty thousand pounds ; and that he oug^t^o be compelled to refund. ^ " The general feeling among the English in Bengal was strongly m favour of the Governor-General. In talems for busmess. in knowledge of the country, in genera courtesy of demeanour, he was decidedly superior To h.s pe.secutors. The servants of the Compa^ny we ^ naturally disposed to side with the most distinguish^ metnber of the.r own body against a clerk from the W„ IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 25 Office, who, profoundly ignorant of the native languages and of native character, took on himself to regulate every department of the administration. Hastings, however, in spite of the general sympathy of his countrymen, was in a most painful situation. There was still an appeal to I higher authority in Eng'and." a. Classify the sentences above as simple and com- j pound, when simple means having one principal state- ment and compound means more than one principal (statement. b. Classify the simple sentences above, and the simple I parts of the compound sentences, as primary and com- plex, when primary means having no subordinate clause, and complex means having one or more than one subor- j dinate clause. c. Which of these terms are absurd :— Simple-primary, j simple-complex, simple-compound, primary-compound, comrlex-compound, primary-complex? Is it wise to confound two distinct classifications ? s Exercise XIV. " It is, indeed, impossible to deny that in the great art lof inspiring large masses of human beings with confidence land attachment, no ruler ever surpassed Hastings. If he Ihad made himself popular with the English by giving up Ithe Bengalees to extortion and oppression, or if, on the lother hand, he had conciliated the Bengalees, and alien- lated the English, there would have been no cause for jwonder. What is peculiar to him is that, being the chief jof a small band of strangers, who exercised boundless [power over a great indigenous population, he made him- y 26 EXERCISES AND QUESTIONS self beloved both by the subject many and the dominant few. The affection felt for him by the civil service was singularly ardent and constant. Through all his disas- ters and perils, his brethren stood by him with steadfast loyalty. The army, at the same time, loved him as armies have seldom loved any but the greatest chiefs who have led them to victory. Even in his disputes with dis- tinguished military men, he could always count on the sup- port of the military profession. While such was his empire over the hearts of his countrymen, he enjoyed among the natives a popularity such as other Governors have perhaps better merited, but such as no other Governor has been able to attain. He spoke their vernacular dialects with facility and precision. He was intimately acquainted with their feelings and usages. On one or two occasions, for great ends, he deliberately acted in defiance of their opinion ; but on such occasions he gained more in their respect than he lost in their love. In general, he carefully avoided all that could shock their national or religious prejudices. His administration was, indeed, in many respects faulty ; but the Bengalee standard of good government was not high. Under the Nabobs, the hur- ricane of Mahratta cavalry had passed annually over the rich alluvial plain. But even the Mahratta shrank from a conflict with the mighty children of the sea ; and the immense rice harvests of the Lower Ganges were safely gathered in under the protection of the English sword. The first English conquerors had been more rapacious and merciless even than the Mahrattas ; but that genera- tion had passed away. Defective as was the police, heavy as were the public burdens, ft is probable that the oldest man in Bengal could not recollect a st-ison of IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 27 equal security and prosperity. For the first time within living memory the province was placed under a govern- ment strong enough to prevent others from robbing, and not inclined to play the robber itself. These things in- spired good-will. At the same time the constant success of Hastings, and the manner in which he extricated him- self from every difficulty, made him an object of super- stitious admiration ; and the more than regal splendour which he sometimes displayed dazzled a people who have much in common with children. Even now, after the lapse of more than fifty years, natives of India still talk of him as the greatest of the English ; and nurses sing children to sleep with a jingling ballad about the fleet horses and richly caparisoned elephants of Sahib Warren H ostein." a. Point out five principal statements among these sentences. What objection is there to calling principal statements such as these independent ? b. Point out five subordinate statements. Why is subordhiative a more significant name for these than dependent ? c. Are -co-ordinate and subordinate contradictory terms when applied to clauses, or may a pair of clauses be both subordinate and co-ordir^^- at once? Explain the origin of the two terms. Exercise XV. "The Mussulmans alone appear to have seen with exultation the fate of the powerful Hindoo, who had attempted to rise by means of the ruin of Mahommed Reza Khan. The Mahommedcm historian of those times :M 28 EXERCISES ANl) QUESTIONS takes delight in aggravating the charge. He assures us that m Nuncomar's house a casket was found containing counterfeits of the seals of all the richest men of the pro- vince. We have never fallen in with any other authority for this story, which in itself is by no means improbable *' The day drew near : and Nuncomar prepared him- self to dte with that quiet fortitude with which the Ben- galee, so effeminately timid in personal conflict often encounters calamities for which there is no remedy. The sheriff, with the humanity which is seldom wanting in an English gentleman, visited the prisoner on the eve of the execution, and assured him that no indulgence consistent with the law, should be refused to him. Nuncomar expressed his g.atitude wrth great politeness and un- altered composure. Not a muscle of his face moved Not a sigh broke from him. He put his finger to his forehead, and calmly said that fate would have its vyay and that there was no resisting the pleasure of God' He sent his compliments to Francis, Clavering. and Monson, and charged them to protect Rajah Goordas who was about to become the head of the Brahmin^ of Bengal. The sher'ff withdrew, greatly agitated by what had passed, and Nuncomar sat composedly down to write notes and examine accounts. "The next morning, before the sun was in his power an immense concourse assembled round the place where the gallows had been set up. Grief and horror were on every face ; yet to the last the multitude could hardly believe that the English really purposed to take the life of the Great Brahmin. At length the mournful proces- sion came through the crowd. Nuncomar sat up in his palanquin, and looked round him with unaltered serenit" l^f ENGLISH GEAMMAR, 29 He had just parted from those who were most ne.rlv :pX h:E ''■" '^''' '''- -^ --ortLHad' appalled the European minis-rs of justice, but had not prisoner The .;./;. anxiety which he expressed was tAa^ ,„ k , , '^"'^P''^- He again des red to be remembered to his friends in tl,.. r- i scaffold with fi , <^ounc,l, mounted the caffold w,th firmness, and gave the signal to the execu- foner. The moment that the drop fell a howl of sorrow and despair rose from the innumerable spectators. hZ deds turned away their faces from the polluting sight fled w,th loud wailings towards the Hoogky and olunSd mto ts holy waters as if t^ „ r .1. , P'"nged „ I. r ,. . ^^"^' ^^ " 'o purify themse ves from thp guilt of having looked on such a crime. These fehw! were not confined to Calcutta. The whole province "a greatly excited ; and the population of oi^ca? ^pTr ticular gave strong signs of grief and dismay. ^ sev.°ev wJh '°"'r'J' '^ ™P°^^''"'= '" -/^^-^ too severely. We have already said that, in our opinion he acted unjustly in refusing to respite Nuncomlr 'no rational man can doubt that he took this course 1 order .. ^^.^^^ the Governor-General. If L had ev r had any doubts on that point they would ha™ been di pel ed by a letter which Mr. Gleig has published. Ha " .ngs, three or four years later, described Impev as ThJ man "to whose support he was at one time Sled fo! the safety of his fortune, honour, and reputat^ron " Th strong words can refer only to th; case oTnuu "„,„ and they must mean that Impey hanged NuncomH ;rder to support hastmg,,. ,t is, therefore, our dehbe ate 30 EXERCISES AND QUEStJONS opinion that Impey, sitting as a judge, put a man unjustly to death in order to serve a poHtical purpose." a. Construct sentences showing thac the italicized words may be used in more than one of the following relations, show the relation of the word in each case, and give as many relations for each as you can. ' 1. Subjective (that about which an assertion is made). 2. Assertive (making an assertion about the subject). 3. Attributive (modifying a noun or noun-equiva- lent). ^ 4. AdveA)ial (modifying a verb, adverb or adjective). 5. Objective (governed by a verb or a preposition). 6. Prepositional (joining a noun or a pronoun to another word). 7. Conjunctive (joining sentences, or words or phrases used in the same way in a sentence). 8. Independent (not in relation to any other word but standing alone, as an interjection or a nomi- native of address. It is hardly logical to call this one of the relations). b. Are there any words in the passage that cannot be used in more than one relation ? c. Use the words mile, hour, home, distance in the fol- lowing relations :— («) subjective, {b) objective, (tf) attri- butive, id) adverbial. d. Tell the relation of the infinitives in : 1. He was a boy to feel an insult keenly. 2. To tell a trouble is to lessen it. IN ENQLrSH GRAMMAR. 3. He loved to read Scott's novels 4. Some live to eat, we eat to live. 31 m^ n assertion is that cannot be EXAMINATION QUESTIONS. (ConsuU High School Grammar, Chapter II.) I. Have any two words the same meaning ? Compare fewerjess; haste, hurry; empty, vacant. 2 Have any two words the same use in the sentence, that IS, may the relation to other words in the sentence be the same for two words different in meaning ? Com- ^^re friendly, hostile; gracefully, awkwardly; run, walk. 3. What is grammatical relation ? 4. How many relations or places are there in the English sentence ? Assign names to these relations or functions. 5. Point out groups of words that may rather be said to denote relations than to sustain relations. 6. What is meant by the term Part of Speech ? 7. What is the difference between the term « part of speech and the term " word " ? 8. Would "part of speech " as used in grammar cor- respond exactly to " function-word " if the latter denoted a class of words performing a single sentence-function in common ? 9. When a thought is expressed what is the exores- sion called ? ^ 10. When a simple notion is expressed ivhat expression called ? ml IN I'.' 10 tllC 32 |l'/|! ! I If lilt I KXKROI8E8 AND QUESTIONS 11. Is it possible to have a thought in the mind with- out any corresponding words ? A feeling ? 12. Explain clearly the difference between " Flying birds " and " Birds fly." Has every sentence a copula- notion ? 13- What is the regular and most frequent form of sentence to be found in the Reader? What are the commonest variations of it > 14. Two words may express a complete thought, why are there usually more than two ? IS- " I dare do all that may become a man, Who dares do more is none ! " A verb is a word by means of which we r.an make or effect an assertion of some attribute about some thing. Bare is a word by means of which we assert the attri- bute daring- about J, therefore dare is a ver" . Prove in a like manner that maj/ become, dares and is are verbs. 16. The snow glistens. The dog barks. The sa^e thmks. Clouds change. Show that qualifying adjectives sometimes have cor responding verbs. What is the difference between such adjectives and their corresponding verbs ? 17. What is the function performed by the extension of a bare subject ? 18. Has the extension of a bare predicate always the same sentence-function? ^19. What is the precise relation of {a) a direct object • \J?) an adverbial adjunct ; {c) a completion ? . IN KNOLISH ORAMMAIL 33 c mind with- 20. Classify the parts of the following sentences under these headings : — Subject. Predicate. Extension of Subject. Ban Subject. Bare Predicate. Extension of Predicate. " The old horse is lame." " The boy lost his dog." " The soldiers fought bravely." 21. Classify the extensions of the three predicates as (a) objects, (d) complen.:-nts, (c) adverbial adjuncts. The only extensions usually called completions or complements are those that hold the attributive relation Classify the completions in the following sentences as subjective and objective completions according as they modify subject or object (while completing the verb) : — " Milton WPS blind." " Milton was a poet." " We painted the beat red." " We drained the ditch dry." 22. " The sun burns sere and the rain dishevels One gaunt bleak blossom of scentless breath." A noun is the language expression of the notion of a thing whether that thing be an object of sense or of thought only. Sun is the expression of our notion of the great heavenly body which lights and warms the earth there- fore sun is a noun. Prove similarly that some of the other words in the statement are nouns. 3 I'M 34 KItl!RC.81S AND (}IJ1!8T10N8 ^^ "Jack is careless; ho doc, n„. study." Whausthedifl-erencebetweeny..,,,.:;,,, 25. •' Tis all men's office to speak patience To those that wring u„der the load of sorrow But no man's virtue, nor sufficiency °"' TL^ru"?°"'"'''"''«^''all endue 1 he like himself." A pronoun is a word used to stand for a noun ^e IS a word used to Ktor.^ r pronoun. '^^""^ ^°^ ^^«« therefore /,. fs a Prove similarly that some of the ..k pronouns. ^^^ °t^er words are 26. Beyond the shadow of the ship I watched the water-snake.s ; They moved in tracks of shming white Fell ; \'''^ "^^^^ ^^^ elfish ijhf' Fell off m hoary flakes. ^ " Within the shadow of the ship I watched their rich attire Blue, glossy green and velvet black ihey coiled and swam • phH « WasaflashofgolITfirc ""^^^^^^• *'OhappyIivingthings!notongue Their beauty might declare : IN KNOLISII ORAMMAU. A sprin^r of lovo ^rushed from my heart, And I blessed thcni uPHwarc : Sure my kind saint took pity on me, And I blessed them unaware. " The selfsame moment I could pray ; And from my neck so free The Albatros fell off, and sank Like lead into the sea." An adjective is a word used to limit the application of a noun or to increase its descriptive power or to do both at once. Rich is a word used to limit the extension of aUire (luhng out poor and shabby attire), also to increase the descriptive power of attire. Prove that some of the other words are adjectives. 27. " Weave a circle round him t'ace." " 'Tis a consummation devoutly to be wished." " Time loosely spent will not again be won." " I have never heard Praise of love or wine, That panted with a flood of rapture so divine." An adverb is a wor used to modify a verb or some- times an adjective or another adverb. Thrice is a word used to modify the notion of weavtm hence it is an adverb. Prove similarly that some of the other words in these sentences are adverbs. 28. He is a man of wealth. The merchant lives in town in the winter. The book on the table Is yours 1 lie girl stood near the door. 85 ' 1, . 36 EXERCISES AND QUESTIONS A preposition is a word which joins a noun or pronoun to some other word and shows the relation between 'he otions they express, thus turning the noun or pronoun •nto an adverb or adjective phrase 0/is a word which joins ^eaM to man and shows the V alrintr'"^-''^"^" ^"' the wealth, thus turn ng wealth into an adjective phrase o/weaM pit^ioi""'"'^ '"" ^"-^ °f *^ -"- -^<^^ are 29. " I am in sackcloth and ashes." " Two and two make four." "Not a breath shall there sweeten the seasons hereafter, Of the flowers or the lovers that laugh now or weep " Seweiy'"' '"""'""^ '°^" ''"•''' ^""''^ ' ^«-d Mr. A conjunction is a word used to join sentences or phrasf or words used in the same way in a sentence Prove that some of the words in these sentences ansvjerthis definition. ciitences 30. " Fie, fie, unknit that threatening unkind brow." " Oh, it is monstrous, monstrous ! " " Ah ! no ; the voices of the dead Sound like a distant torrent's fall." "Alas, our young affections run to waste" An interjection is an exclamation expressive of feeling • It does not combine with other words to form a sentence and IS not in the same sense as the rest a part of speech ':ti!^":.-o^' ""'^ '■" ''' ^^^^^^'"^ -"^--^ ( IN ENGLISH OKAMMAR. 37 31. Show that an interjection may suggest a thought, or in other words contain a latent thought. 32. A sentence expresses a thought; an interjection expresses a feeling. Show that these are only half truths. 33. Show by examples that one word may sustain two functions in a sentence. 34. If a word were half pronoun and half conjunction as who in " The man who was here, is gone " ; would you call it a conjunctive-pronoun or a pronominal-con- junction ? 35. What is the grammatical value of the words yes and no? 36. " There is no flock, however watched and tended, But one dead lamb is there ! There is no fireside, howsoe'er defended, But has one vacant chair." " There is no Death, what seems so is Transition ! " " There he would sit by the hour counting his gold." " There it is just where I left it." What is the grammatical value of the meaningless tJure ? Are the two there's pronounced the same way ? 37. {a) Robert writes as well as John. ip') Robert as well as John will come. Compare in significance the " as well as " of {a) with that of {b). 38. Use the word " round " as (a) adjective, {b) verb, (t) noun, id) preposition, {e) adverb. Use " silver "' as {a) noun, (b) verb, {c) adjective. Use " that " as (a) substantive conjunction, (b) conjunc- 38 EXERCISES AND QUESTIONS tion of purpose, (.) conjunctive pronoun, {d) demonstra- tive pronoun, {e) demonstrative adjective. What truth about words can be learned from these phenomena ? If the language were highly inflected what difference would It probably make in such cases ? 39. Show that an adverb or an adjective may often be equivalent ,n function to a preposition followed by a noun. ^ Substitute a preposition and a noun for each of the Italicized words following : A city residence. A famous orator A pretentious house. A wealthy man A steel pen. a winter storm. 40. Substitute adjectives or adverbs for the italicized phrases in the following :— 'tiic.izea " A thing of beauty is a joy forever." " Lift her with care!' " We arrived in good time" 41. What sentence-functions may be performed bv phrases? ^ 42. A clause is a sentence used as a mere function- word in another sentence. What are the functions which one sentence may per- form within another ? Give examples. 43. When sentences are classified as {a) assertive {b) interrogative, {c) imperative, what is the ground of cla.ssification ? 44.^ When sentences are classified as simple and com pounu, wxiat IS the basis or ground of the classification ? IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 39 45. When sentences are classified as primary and complex, what is the ground of classification ? 46. Why is the classification into simple, compound and complex illogical ? 47. May a sentence be simple and complex at the same time ? each of the CHAPTER II. THE \ v'-HER-TONGUE. ;4( Ml 1. What necessitaccs language ? 2. Have all men language ? 3. In what sense may animals be said to have language? 4. Are different languages more or less numerous than in earlier ages of the world ? 5. What is the origin within historic times of the great bulk of the English language ? 6. Who were the Aryans? How have we learned what is known of them ? 7. Where are the Indo-European languages spoken ? 8. What are the names of the great divisions of the Indo-European group of languages ? In which of these does English occur ? 9. What languages are most nearly related to English in origin and structure ? 10. How may one language differ from another? In what respect may two languages be alike ? 1^:1 Ill ^0 EXERCI8E8 AND QUESTIONS ' words); their desceLan'rs:^!;!'''"'"!;^^'^""' ^c Where d,d the EngH.h ac;u::e":h2 ^ r^s? "°'''^- 14. Show clearly from history thaf fh. ten centuries following the la^d'g f th7En/H''^ of 'l,m', ''"°^'^^' ^^"^'^ --•" ^°' 'he wide spread i6- How many people speak English ? 17. How does English compare with the nH, languages .n literary, political^nd c::;rrc°:n;^pr rro"- ttrtriZd-rrSrHr^- ^"^'■•* ^^i-^er comparing? ^" ^ ^^^^ ^^ the means of 19- Does Enghsh change a*; fao- earher times ? ^ ' ^^'^ ^'^^ ^^ it did in 20. Is our EngHsh purely analytic? Was oIH P hsh purely synthetic? ^vas old Eng- What hastened th'e chargeTfE^iishr °' '"«-''-' ii— .. ux.v aijcicnr lintons. '^—in ana IN BNOLISH GUAMMAB. 41 -s gives the 23. State clearly the facts about the great acquisitions made by the English from the Latin tongues. 24. From what languages have we acquired words be- sides from the Ancient British and the Latin ? Describe these acquisitions. 25. Relate the story of the Norman Conquest and of the blending of the races. In this blending did French or English prevail ? 26. What social positions were held by the Normans ? By the English ? How were French and Latin used in England for 300 years after the Conquest ? 27. After the turbulent events of the middle ages what changes were observable in the mother-tongue as compared with the simple English of the Fourth and Fifth centuries ? 28. What is the very extraordmary position held by Chaucer in relation to the history of our language ? 29. Make a chart of the English vocabulary repre- senting it as a stream with tributaries (acquisitions from other languages). Mark the names and dates of the ac- quisitions. 30. Give a short account of the Revival of Learning and show its effect upon the growth of English. 31. What influences have made spelling more uniform in recent times ? Compare the spelling of Tennyson with that of' the old editions of Shakespeare and of Chaucer. 32. Our printed words are often far from representing the words as they are pronounced. Make a list of ten words that illustrate this truth. How is this truth ac- counted for? i» i •3f I>tl' I .EXERCISES AND QUESTIONS 33- otate some nf t-u^ „ Of a .efo™ of ourspli;?"™^"'' ^^-'-^ -"d in favo„ 34- What per centage""of th^ 36. How do you reconcile 'hf questions preceding? ^^ ^""^^^^ to the two La.„ words effective ? E„,Z? """ "">- -e J9- What number of wnr^o versation? Wl,at is tl,e av'rlTnrK '" "*""^ ^'>- vocabulary of an author of dLl?.' °^*°^''^ '•" 'he 41- What is a dialect ? Qh 7; whi:'^ °" '-.4 'Srr^-'- "- ^■•^■-•-ion cumstances ? "^ *''' """ ^"'"^ ^^ all countries and cir verrtio;r^"^"^''"'— ^forhook^andforcon- 45- What ideal of Em^lish „i, u learning to speak well ? ^ ''°''^^ *^ ^<'' before us in and in favour the English ^ey occur in to the two largest per h have the - Latin and 'vords over ^here are inary con- ^rds in the ovv many ^ Engh'sh moJogical i^iiization and cir- for con- re us in IN ENGLISH ORAMMAR. 43 46. Classify the principal violations of the rules of con- ventional English, and give examples of the classes 47. In what respects and to what extent is a good die tionao^ a safe guide to the student of English? 48. Indicate the best standards to be consulted in questions of English usage not settled by the dictionary 49- What is a grammatical rule? On what is a rule of grammar founded ? 50. What are the principal objects in the study of grammar? -^ 51. How is the use of good English to be acquired most rapidly and satisfactorily ? CHAPTER III. WORD-MAKING. {Cousu// H. S. G. Chapters III. and IV.) I. {a) Observe, observer, observing, observingly ob- servable, observableness, observably, observance, observ- ant, observantly, observation, observational, observative observatory. ' {b) Man, men, man's, men's, man-at-arms, man-eater man-engine, manful, manfully, manfulness, manhole' manhood, manikin, mankind, manlike, manliness, manly man-mercer, mannish, mannishly, mannishness, man-of- war, man-of-war's-man, man-rope, man-servant, man- slaughter, man-stealer, mantrap. How many letters are common to each Vr-ord of V ? What have all the words of {b) in common ?" ^"^^ 44 EXEKCiSES AND QUESTIONS s.LltTr"'''''''^ for.sf„(.)be called"the "thtLlVt/^-T ^'" ^'^ ^^-"^ -titled to be caned -ltl^r;el^r'd! ''''''-' '- -''-' ^'^•^'•^- are 3. When is a word said to be inflected ? 4. « O wedding-Guest ! this soul hath been AJone on a wide wide sea • So lonely 'twas that God Himself bcarce seemed there to be. "O sweeter than the marriage-feast; 1 IS sweeter far to me, To walk together to the kirk With a goodly company !— " To walk together to the kirk, And all together pray While each to his great Father bends, Old men and babes, and loving friends. And youths and maidens ga^ ! "Farewell, farewell! but this I tell To thee, thou Wedding Guest f He prayeth well, who loveth well Both man and bird and beast. " He prayeth best, who loveth best All thmgs both great and small • For the dear God who loveth us,' He made and loveth all IM ESOLISH GRAMMAR. 45 " The Mariner, whose eye is bright, Whose beard with age is hoar, Is gone : and now the Wedding-Guest Turned from the bridegroom's door. " He went like one who hath been stunned. And is of sense forlorn : A sadder and a wiser man, He rose the morrow morn." (a) Point out the words in this passage rhat are cap- able of taking other forms if new grammatical conditions should require it. (b) Point out words whose forms are selected to make them agree with other words. 5. Write a list of words that show change of form occasioned by the requirement of expressing differences of number, person, gender, case, comparison, mood, tense. 6. Are changed grammatical values of words always accompanied by change of form or may one form fill different grammatical offices ? Give examples. 7. Dogs, men, oxen, these, those, runs, .^akest, countess, dog's, him, warmer, sooner, soonest, wrote, killed. (a) Point out the flexional letters ir. these words. (d) State clearly the significance of the flexional letters in these words. {c) What different methods of inflecting appear in these words ? . - {d) Are any of these inflections capable of being trans- lated into separate words? (e) Are there any other methods of denoting changes 46 BXERCISES AND QUESTIONS 9< ^ II of grammatical values of », j . . «ons ? Give exu.npts * "^""^^ "^ "»^ °f inflfc- • pioTntcVrb ' ""^■•^-'^ "'^ ^'- in (.) nouns, (.) J.Whe„.-3a«,o.dsaMtobedeWved.o™a„othe. ^m^Howdoesa„,nflec.edwoHd,7r,.f,o™ade„Ved J^..^How doe. a derived wo.d m.r fro. „ ,„„,,„„, 12. Arise, awake, adoivn, afoot am.Vl = -., amend, amorphous, abduct I'h' '^'"^' ■''^'"■=»'e. accede, affirm, aggregate alluL"'"' "^'P'- admit, gant. assume, attrfbufe amS '""^''' "PP'-^d, arro- amphitheatre, anarchy?anTwe l""""'";^' ^"'Ph'bious, anabasis, a„tagonist,'^'anteced;„ °T Tf^''"' ='"^'°™y antidin,ax, apostle, apostate a "hip "'■ """"^^rist, tect, archangel, autoaralh 'I ''°"' ^'''^''bishop, archi below, benumb, besprinWe^ ' T"'' ''^^'''^- beneath biennial, bisec't. "Cuf ' cat™Lct'"=''r','"^''^"- '''•^^^''■ catholic, catechism, circumnavtrf' .'''="^'y^". catarrh stance, cisalpine, comb.^^coZ ^"'™""'''"' '""'"'- ■ collect, connect, corres^ ;X~ -°'"'"^"''' ^°^--^'- scend, denude, depart describe h' ,™""-a^ene, dc- d;agnosis, dialogue:^dis'art;^tHa.tr"dt°"' *'^"'^'-' disapprove, dysentery, dys^DsTr. u '^''' '"^^'feC ecstacy, eclectic, exodus. Sac: eT' ''^"■■'""' ^"^'^ enlarge, encaustic, energy ente' ' ""''''' <="^'"« ephemeral, escapj, euT^':SS"L'"'''"'' ^P'"^™'^ d.nary, forgive, foretell hemknhr^\ '^''^'*' '^^'''aor- homonym, hypercritical'Set-stir^'^' ''*^^''^'- ^ed. .nciude, immure, inact^^e, iSl^t^r:^^; f compound I. achieve, ■> admit, ud, arro- iphibious, matomy, ntichrist, •P, archi- beneath, ' bicycle, catarrh circum- coexist, 2ne, de- ameter, isbeJief, estate, enable, dermis, srtraor- 3caust^ e, im- ie, in- IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 47 terminglc, interior, intramural, introduce, juxtaposition, inaladminister, metaphysics, metonymy, misdeed, mis- adventure, monarch, multiform, never, none, obstacle, off- shoot, onset, outbid, overhead, panacea, pantograph, paradox, peninsula, perforate, perfidy, pellucid, peri- phrasis, polygon, portend, pollute, postpone, predict, pre- ternatural, produce, prologue, proselyte, prototype, recall, redeem, retrograde, secede, secure semicircle, sinecure^ subordinate, suspect, succeed, suffer, suggest, summon,' suppress, surreptitious, subterfuge, superhum. i, supra- costal, surface, synonym, sympathy, syllogisni, .o-day, together, transport, traverse, triangie, ultramarine, un- availing, undo, unlock, unloose, understand, upheave, with- stand, vv'ithhold. (a) Show the meanings of the prefixes in these deri- vative words. (d) Point out words of the list which remain complete words after the prefix is removed ; also other words which after the loss of the prefix are no longer words used in English. 13. Lovable, demoniac, herbaceous, tenacious, advant- age, foliage, parsonage, certain, captain, annual, pagan, Roman, abundance, mundane, contemporaneous, abund- ant, angular, coward, auxiliary, library, secretary, semin- ary, poetaster, animate, delicate, animalcule, kingdom, earldom, martyrdom, devildom, loved, good-natured, cold' flight, death, legatee, trustee, brigadier, charioteer, golden' leathern, heathen, chicken, kitten, oxen, soften, aqueous' righteous, baker, lawyer, liar, flicker, wander, sputter' mongrel, northerly, southern, archery-, brewery, soldiery' convalescent, Maltese, picturesque, authoress, billet' palette, auriferou.s, threefold, fanciful, beautify, homo- Hi # ai 48 U i I I •"KRorsEs Asn y>e in .. The D Ith of th:?°r' ^"''^ "-^ "^ Car show the force of the 11 ^:^«°'- " ("■ S. Reader; pounds. '^"^"'^'''^^"^cd in these com.' Irii 1 the suffixes find con- ood, foot, ^ by Car- Reader) ; 'ese com- IN BN0LI8H GRAMMAR. 49 • 9. What is the difference between a permanent com- pound and a temporary compound ? 20. Classify the followin^r words under the headings Siven below :- Woman, hundred-fold, hundredth, horses herome, cloudy, gave, richness, overgrow, watchful, jack- knife, housemaid, housekeeping, house-fly, hosta^re. port- able, sooner, girl, man-servant, better, man hn love Inflected Words, Derived WoKDS, Temp(>hak\ Compounds. I'ek anent Com )UNDs. If you find it impossible to place a word under any of these headmgs, give your reason for that decision. 21. What is the objection to a hybrid word? Write a list of five hybrids used in English. 22, Two Single Words. ge'ntle mAn kn'ee de'ep A Temporary Compound. A Permanent Compound. kn'ee-de'ep ge'ntleman While a compound is merely temporary it is written with a hyphen: a permanent compound iias but one accent and is written as a single word, without a hyphen Do the printers and the dictionary-rrakers always write permanent compounds (that is compounds having but one accent) as single words, without the hyphen ? 23. How do you accent the words "High School"? Under which heading in the preceding Question woul-' they be placed, if judged by the accentuation ? til i: 60 EXEHCISES AND QUESTIONS 24. Show some of the effects of the love of ease uoon the pronunciation of Enghsh words. ^ 25. What is meant by "mistaken analogy " when it ,'« said that the words cou^,, ri.kteous, soZeiTrhyZ Xvr' ''''''^ °^^ "^^^ ^^ - -i-2 n ^^' T'T\ 'f ^^^ '^^"^ °^ "^^h °f the following words • blast, any, silly, sorry, dizzy, weary ? 27 Prove that the following words are old com pounds :-Z>...^, ^,,^,,, ^,,,,^^ nostril tarZt icicle, lord, orchard, sheriff, steward stirrui> Z world, not, van, ' ^' -^^^^««, tion of such vyords as pumpkin, recognize, strength tl ^.^, J../.A l^arreKpunkn, reconize, 'strenk, tl!^, ':!t, oftsV'r ''""""''"" justifiable on the « principal 29. What are the principal advantages of knowing the meanmg of the root of a word ? ^ 30. Is the meaning of the Latin or Greek root of a retTpL^^^^^^"""^^'--P---ni; di^dei^rS^rZt::^^^^ 32. Is it possible to analyze English words completely wi^t^^ome knowle.,e of other languages P ' S^ IN ENGLISH GRAMMAK. ease upon " when it is ^gny rhyme, mistaken ? words: — lir, winter, ", bladder, old com- \ harbour, yeoman. 51 principal wing the oot of a leaning? nnot be ipletely Give CHAPTER IV THE NOUN. speti °r'r '''"'"' "^ "-'"' ^'-'fied to get the 5- What i3 it that makes fhp ri.'ffv..^ l noun and al, other s,J::rtZriZlT''" ''' proirr '"'"^ '•'''''"=' '-'-™ '-e no„„ and the 7. " Lz/e ! we've been long together ^Through pleasant and through cloudy weather; 1 IS hard to part when friends are dear • Perhaps 'twill cost a. .:^^, a /.^^; Ihen steal away, giy.^ little warning. Choose thine own time • f Jl is;: :J 52 EXERCISKS AND QUESTIONS (f) Show from this sentence th^f- riifc •speech may perform theT r '^"' ^^'^^ «^ building. ^ ' ^ '^"^^ ^""^t^°" ^"" f ntence- nouns'tarfin? ^'^ ^^^'^^"^ '" sentence-building that touch, (^ the sense of smell, (.) :hrs:;sf of^stT ^ '' 11. Name things not known to the minH fK u , senses (as objects of sense) tut knownToth. ""f '^' as objects of thought ""'""^ °"^^ 12. Classify the nouns in the fonn«.;,,rr abstract and concrete :- ^^^^owmg passage as "The thought of our past years in me doth breed Perpetual benediction : not indeed For that which is most worthy to be blest • Dehght and liberty, the simple creed ' Of Childhood, whether busy or at rest With new fledged hope still fluttering i„ his breast -^ Not for these I raise " The song of thanks and praise • But for those obstinate questionings Of sense and outward things, Fallings from u^, vanishings •' Blank misgivings of a Creature Moving about in worlds not realized High instincts before which dUr morial Nature Did tremble like a guilty thing surprised ; rent parts of in sentence- building that on the chief >ugh (a) the :he sense of taste. through the ■ mind only passage as breed breast re IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 53 But for those first affections, Those shadowy recollections, Which be they what they may, Are yet the fountain light of all our day, Are yet a master light of all our seeing;' Uphold us, cherish, and have power to make Our noisy years seem moments in the being Of the eternal Silence : truths that wake, "^ To perish never ; Which neither listlessness, nor mad endeavour, Nor Man nor Boy, Nor all that is at enmity with joy, Can utterly abolish or destroy ! Hence in a season of calm weather Though inland far we be. Our Souls have sight of that immortal sea Which brought us hither. Can in a moment travel thither, And see the Children sport upon the shore And hear the mighty waters rolling evermore." 13. If an object were constructed in all essential par- ticulars, like a table would it have a right to the name table ^ If a city were built in all essential respects like the city of Chicago would it on account of its similarity have a right to be called Chicago? What is meant by saying that a common noun is significant ? 14. Pat, Reginald, Englishman, Canadian, London Temperance, Meekness, Eternity, Sunday, July, Autumn' " The Times," " The House of Commons." ' n i; i ^fl j! Hi 54 EXERCISES AND QUESTIONS ..If P 1 I I (^) Classify these nouns as Proper and To there any nouns that are ne^th. Common : are (^) Are any 6f these nron; '''"''"' "°' ^°"^"^°" -^ IS Gi r "°""^ significant ? '6. State clearly the dl^r 1 """"'"e^- noun like "herd" o .fl'k-'"''/'^'"^™ ^ '=°"^«'« "oxen" or "sheep." *"^ * P'"™! noun like 'ai-je, The family ^,^, , „. „ ''^ f^m'ly a«.t people «»;«.? to the beach " « A ' ^ number of «Wf to the-beach," ' ^''^''* """"''" of People •n Ihe mat^lfof^^tT" "^'-^ ^"^^^^ and French fo^ 3howin, airero?s?A;':r^T'' ■•" f^"^" 2.. How do English nouns re^„ aX fo T" °™" 22. How does the love of .7 ^ *eirplurals? 2? WWf» : °'^ ^""^ ^T this inflection ? tionf; ^"'^ ^ ""'' °" "-^ '- of O. E „umber.i"flec- 24. Write notes on the plural of words in " f >- ,„d .... „ 25. G.ve a hst of nouns having each two plurlw 26. Exp.a,n pluralization of words in "„" ! 27. How do we pluralize /./, "'"' >'■" names for themselves .rji^ttaS^'^''"' ""* "^^ ^ 28. State some obsolete modes of „i ,. . g-ve some rem.-.ining examples P'^'-a'-'^ing and 29. Explain "double plural." IN BNGLISH GRAMMAR. 55 and "th." Jrals. ind "y." ds used as ^ing and 30. What was the commonest plural suffix in O. E.? 31. Give a list of plurals of foreign words in common use among us. 32. When is a word said to be Anglicized ? What is the test ? Name English nouns which were other parts of speech in other languages. 33. Give a list of singular forms with plural meanings; classify the list on some basis. 34. What nouns have singular forms only .? Why ? 35. When may proper names take plural forms ? Material nouns.? Can an abstract noun be plpra ized .? 36. What nouns have plural forms only ? 37. On what principal are some plural nouns considered as singular ? 38. Give examples of plural forms that have become altered in meaning in passing from the singular. Show that sometimes a plural form has different meanings. 39. Give rules for pluralizing compound nouns. 40. On what basis are nouns c. sified into cases ? If case were purely a matter of syn I.esis (relation ex- pressed by form) how many cases would we have ? If case were purely a matter of analysis (relation of mean- ing in sentence) how many cases would we have ? Having three cases, nominative, objective and possessive what is the conclusion about the basis oi .classification ? Shoulc^ we say " What is case " ? or « What is a case" ? or may we say either ? 41. How many cases where there in O. E. Why .:• 42. How may the relations expressed by cases be more oreciselv exnressed ? T)i concc msJil fv 43- V> ,,at is the use of ,1, case nouns? °' '"« apostrophe in „ fj vvrire notes on O P 46. When did the . ' ^'^''^'^'^^ endings, "e"? J.,,. ^^® apostrophe tat^ . '^ ^ ^"^'*eanv«p"^r ^L. ^^^^ ^'tc place nf*i, ^ ^^ ^^e apostrophe? "'^^^"^^ "ot yet .up- 47. Criticise and ev.^l • ■, -(a- Mason.) ' ^^'^'-n "John Smith his ,„„,., 4«- What c>, ,„,,.• • «* possessive? > m ? ""^^ '"'e the place nf .^ ^ ^^ rr ^*^^^«now? ^^^aysd-note i°- In what sensp hav. '"ustrate. """ns? IJh,strate. ''^^ "^ ^««">e dative case of ''ifJ^'^l:i^tJt:^^- - „se (. ^2. Nouns have n^ ^- • -"de.plain. WhI i^he f"'""" "^ ''-"on." .„ 53. V^^atisthes.letlr'"-""'"'''^''-' address ? r<: .v ■>;"'^actica] use of the \r • S; ^; ^t capable of niodificaLnK "^"^^^^^^^ ' ^*'s book." "atiVe of butes ? ■^"g with equi- -an the 2ual in IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 57 57. Ex. Give a classified list of Adjective-noun-equivalents. Discuss this use of adjectives. 5^". When does the adjective become a derivative noun and iiot merely an adjective-noun-equivalent ? 59. Give other species of noun-equivalents, with examples. fiiPi CHAPTER V. THE PRONOUN. I. " How can my muse want subject to invent, While thou dost breathe, that pour'st into \iy verse Thine own sweet argumeirt, too excellent For every vulgar paper to rehearse ? O, give thyself \h& thanks, if aught in me Worthy perusal stand against thy sight ; For whds so dumb that cannot write to thee^ When thou thyself dost give invention light? Be thou the tenth muse, ten times more in worth Than those old nine which rhymers invocate ; And he that calls on thee, let him bring forth ' Eternal numbers to outlive long date. If my slight muse do please these curious days The pain be mine, but thine shall be the praise." (Sonnet xxxviii.) {a) Do the words in italics differ from nouns in their sentence -functions ? \b) vjUDstitute nouns for the words in italics. r)8 ,; i 141 Is' I M'^BC.SBs a™ «™j,„^. yours, who, that whom u' *"' •>'°"' ''". your it -hoscP, whon, P. wh,:' ,™U: Hh-'^'if ' ^'^' ^ot myself, ourselves, your^elTtl '' "' ""''«' 'hose "-If, themselves, 'ea^hevtlX": ''™"'^' ""-!' many, few, all, both, onT^ot ' "f"' '°">'- -^y. 'h.ng, someone, somebody anvthl^^^'' "'"'^'"' ^"'^■ -verxthing, everyone, whoel- "^/ ^"y°"^- anybody, entiates ^^is^ToTZ,^ H'T "'''" "^"-h differ- hundred words) from o^r'p ^3 "j'"/ "^^ "^ °"e de erm,„e the secondary marks „ T*' P"'^'^'' to "-h-ch the whole class LT^" '"^characteristics by smaller classes. ™^ ''^ "^^^u'ly divided into W Point out the words nftu: ■• o changing form to de„t°^^ "^h are capable number or case. 'Terences of person, gender (^) What do you obser,r. pronoun inflection ? <^°"cerning the regularity of (e) Is it accidental tha<- i-h^ «how no gender differene ^ H""- ^ '^-. ^«. «-., ^afw^^trf -£ ^:.^^^^^^^ -^ as «e.. &, /^«>/ Completet™,^, '^ ^"■^'' P'on^-ns i v< IN ENOLtSH GRAMMAR. 59 irity of ou, we, ^ why >nouns [g) Is we the plural of /in the sense in which boxes is the plural of box ? 3. " Make room, and let him stand before our face. Shylock, the world thinks, and / think so too, That thou but lead'st this fashion of thy malice To the last hour of act." {a) Why does the Duke say our in one line and / in the next ? (b) When are we, our, used by a speaker or writer of himself? if) What is the difference in use between thou and the singular j^« ? id) If ''you was'' could be justified in its number would it be correct in person ? 4. Give examples of the use of pronouns as nomina- tives of address. 5. Why are he, it, and other pronouns of the third person called demonstrative ? In the H. S. Reader the speech of Shylock beginning "T have possessed your grace of what I purpose" offers a striking example of the demonstrative force of " he " : the pronoun refers to the expression " some men " and is used three times : the reference to men a plural, by he a singular, is a grammatical inconsistency occasioned by the distance of the antecedent. 6. The pronoun of the third person has gender forms. Why are they needed ? 7. Its has a peculiar his )ry ; what are the principal facts in the story of this now common word } V. x ronouns sometime- stand lor nouns used in the •■^ 1^^- 60 J;terar^ dcrfce known as n. •. ' S'cleration sliould th ^'^'"son.ficatfon. What . ^ive examples. 'o- // IS sometimes hq^w • can ^hat T" °' '"^^"'^^ "-and tell "' '"'""?'« »' ine usua. posit on) it .. ,-^ i^xpJain the J ''"' ^^^ ^^^dy d V ^>^' pidin tile ^Grammatical .,^ i ^^^ we." these sentences. "'^' ^;''"« o, -so" i„ each of IN EKQLl.SH ORAMMAK. 61 ■ ^o that one 2 examples of "carjyasyou supplied. 'e that would if placed in I subject to "bject then ^ and show 'tructifjn in ^ IS added ^e in force meaning " Why, we." each of I 1 6. The order of subject and verb is usually reversc(l in an interrogative sentence ; is this the case when an inten.gative pronoun is used? Give example:;. 17. "Who did that?" "Whom have you there?" " What have you there ? " By giving various answers to these questions find the difference in meaning that exists between the nouns %vho may stand for (or ask for) and the nouns what may stand for. 18. Compare the questions " Who did it ? " " What did it ? " and " Which did it ? " and find how which differs from zvho and what in its way of asking for the name of a thing. 19. Ar? who, which and what (interrogatives) used of both per,, as and things? Discriminate the three in this respecu 20. How did he demonstrative that and the interroga- tives whoy wi. an and w/^^t come to be used as conjunc- tive pronouns ? (When Shylock says " I hate him for he is a Christian " we see the preposition for becoming a conjunction : it is not surprising that a word that may govern a noun may become a word that may govern a noun clause ; govern- ing the noun clause for gets the force of the conjunction because. Similarly that the denominative adjective modifies a noun, then a noun clause and from the second use be- comes regarded as a substantive conjunction. Compare the use of that in [a) « I know that fact." {b) " I 'now *7n-y* -.T^-.-. ~„^ 1.:., J »N - I e>2 Hi' t ill . 21. What ,-., the pccu/rar 1, junctive pronoun ? characteristic of tj,,, ^„„_ Distinguish " My servant k *'"'P"ve. ■ ^-s wi„ acco^p!:,:;; :!, l";,."- ^- -th .e ten 24- What rules of Pfr.-^ ^ j' «• '="e the relative pr^rsT"' ''''' ""^ ^'-^^e regu- Js the only use of these rulw „r ff've of selecting the ptper form %"'? ''^ P°-'=^ '^ey other forn,s depend up'on Z f™, ^^'s'p '■^'^"™' ^ "' 25- Do the reJaf-iv*» ^ animaJs pn^ • ^^^'^® pronouns alJ refer f« cinimals and inanimate objects ? *° Persons, ^■'-tea,n,ypuT3:;3';™3: nothing- ^^ trash, tis something ''^^^::;nt '"■^' - "- heen siave to ^"•'-.esL^^pr^tdTed-""'^''^'''"' ^^^^)Jhat is the grammatical value of .,.,,,,^„, ill Ml f,:> IN ENQLISH OUAMMAR. 68 p., to persons. (d) Ifi)W does t/tai differ in gramniatical value from wAo in this passage ? 27. " I know what I am to memorize for to-morrow." (a) State clearly the two meanings of this ambiguous statement. (^) Parse w/iat for each meaning. 28. " I saw what he mentions myself." (a) Parse w/iaf. (b) What is the objection to parsing " that which " in- stead of what in such sentences ? ^ 29. What is the force of ever and soever in the com- pound indefinite conjunctive pronouns, such as whoever, whatsoever ? 30. Show by examples that the conjunctive pronoun may be omitted and yet its meaning perfectly well understood. 31. When, where, whence, why, whither, how, are adverbs, yet being of pronoun origin they are often used with the force of conjunctive pronouns. In this capacity they often begin adjective clauses. Write sentences illustrating this truth. 32. " The moping owl doth to the moon complain Of such as wandering near her secret bower Molest her ancient solitary reign." What is the grammatical value of as in this sentence ? 33. Some of the pronouns called indefinite may be classified as adjective noun equivalents. Point out such pronouns. 34. " They recognized each other. ^'^ " They all saluted one another" ^\ Y- W ' if •'■'I ' if*' (54 EXEKCISES AND QUESTIONS («) Parse mc/i other anH .,<« W Parse each, oZ T^e Z ^ ^ ^°™P°»ites. « What disttacti™ r mea„r h" "P""'^'^' ' '-en the two reciproca; pZ:::^ ''" P"-'« "^ke be- P™per"pT::."'" '"' ^°" '"""^^ '" 'Oat case, .„., ,„ ,,3 .•"Ss":re;Vn';r""'""^°''''^p'"-'^-'^^dist„-bu.ed -S Ilt^ ''"''"''' ''"-'"^ *« distributive powers or a^i^r-ro7;-^a: rtr"---'-" persons in particular thus •- ^"^^ ^° any person or now?" ^ "' "any pounds of sugar for a dollar ^Z:^Zc:^^r^i.^^^ p-ou„s b, -t to the first personal p'o^ou„ 7/"' °' '"^^ '^ ^-"- folfowiS^' " -"^ '"'""^'"^ P— ivepronouns in ,He "O beware, «g< lord, of jealousy;' If s the green-eyed monster which doth ■ The meat it feeds on." """^ •'•~^. IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 65 > composites. parately. nsts make be- ase, eac/i in its '^s distributed ive powers of imes used in ny person or oken ill of!" for a dollar ''onouns by £ni is near- )uns in the th mock Horatio. 'oil owing Word. Part of Speech AND Kind. Syntax. Inflections. "We" Pronoun Personal Subjective to "were" 1st plural, masc. nominative. " IVe were the first that ever burst Into that silent sea." " Bid me discourse, / will enchant t/tine ear." " TMi ivhich is now a horse, even with a thought The rack dislimns, and makes it indistinct." " Have you not heard it said full oft A woman's nay doth stand for naught ? " I. CHAPTER Vi. THE ADJECTIVE. He had brought his ghastly tools." He had brought his new tools." The younger Pitt is hated by the Irish." The magnanimous Richard forgave John freely." My sleep was broken besides v/ith dreams of the dreadful knife, And fears for our delicate Emmie who scarce would escape with her life." 1 1 % ^\^\ ~p- iil 66 EXERCISES AND goESTIONS " fZTZ " ^'"'•"^ ">-"'■"? ''-e I seen As those two ,„^r.,-„^ .^.^ ,^^ j;'^^^ ^^^_^ __ (a) Some adjectives limff f^^ 'hey belong to ;^o„eaX the S :•::•''" ^' '''^ "-- noun ; some Umit the aDDl.V.fV "^'"'P"™ Power of the «ve power at the sameTnle ' "'" '° '^^ •^^^^'P- long to. "*' ""==■"'"§ of the nouns they be- poiJtttSitirir ;° '-'^^ ^ -"•■■ used to modify nouns '"''^"''== '"'°™ *at are W Explain the words w/rzrf/™ and ^ • ■ plied to qualitative adjectives. <*-'«//^J'^ as ap. 2- "The day is done " V;' The hillside's dew-pearled." My soul is dark " noLXmt^;^f----"''-ed to agre^ J, ,,, in StULT '" ^"''^"'^^^ *" E"S"* to have inflection 4. What adjectives admit of comparison? 5. ""lat general principle guide, fl,„ to the comparison oLdjectivfs by .iL^S;" "^"^ IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 67 6. "Dissyllables ending in j/, ble, er, also dissyables ac- cented on the second syllable take -er and -estm forming the comparative and superlative degrees." Merry, jolly, happy, able, tender, severe, polite, dis- creet, direct, intense. Do all these adjectives give euphonious comparatives and superlatives when com- pared by the rule quoted above ? 7. What is the difference between saying " Eve was the fairest of her daughters " and " Eve was fairer than any of her daughters " ? What is meant by saying "the comparative is exclusive " ? 8. "This young boy is the best student of the whole class." What is meant by saying the "superlative is inclusive"? 9. The exclusive comparatives are usually followed by the comparative conjunction than : the inclusive superla- tives are usually followed by the partitive preposition of. What are the arguments for and against saying "the youngest of the two " } 10. When an adjective admits of comparison by its meaning, but not by its form, what substitute for com- parison by suffixes may be used ? Give examples. 11. "My Dearest Moore :" "Hail divinest melancholy ! " " Philomel will deign a song In his sweetest saddest plight." " Behold the wandering moon, Riding near her highest noon." I' •! 68 EXERCISES AND QUESTIONS ■ W I' t Is there any comparison implied in n, superlative forms ;■ ""= "''^ of these Express their meanin? as nearl,, using superlative forms. ^ ' ""^^ '^- «'"hout -encestosho^.hatl's^^rfo.tsre:""'" ^^ What changes of stem accompany the addition of the /J,'«.^r"^ ^''"'- '"'' '"' '»"e^ ^ny, w. 01,, ' '■. ""'='' 's the primitive form of the f„n • parahves: »„,, ,„, »/A^ j2 /°"°"""g ~™- i6. " How much ;;2^^^ ^/v^„ ^^. ^^ "Thiswasthe... J^lr - *f "'^ -"^3." _.__WWhatarethegrammatica,pecutLofthewords {b) What has led to these uses ? 17- My, mine, thy, thine, his her h.. v your, yours, their, theirs, whose ' ' '''' ""''' ^^^^^ suilSi^^^ni;^^^^^^^^^^^^ (0 attributive only; (. (^) Is there U^ro:tr°^-^^^^^^^^^ adjectives than for calling possessive n^ '" ^°'"^^' (-) What functions may eaeT of T"" """^'''''''^ sentence-building? ^^^"^ Perform in 18. Which adjective is more exDres.fv. r this ox that? expressive of sympathy Illustrate. r IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. QS use of these y be, without thy looks." of the words 19. How \s gender used in Engh'sh? 20. " Which book have you there .?" " What book have you there .?" Distinguish between these interrogative adjectives > 21. Each, every, either, neither, some, other, such, any, many, few, all, both, no. {a) Prove that these words may be used as indefinite adjectives. Classify them into groups that show (i) the power of distributing the meaning of a noun (2) the power of denoting comparison (3) the power of denoting number or quantity. 22. " A great many boys and a few men followed at his heels." Explain the grammatical value of the quantitative words. Is the value of many and few the same if we say, "Very many boys and very few men followed at his heels." 23. Explain the grammatical value and the origin of many in (i) "A great many people die daily." (2) " Many of them were bitterly poor." , (3) " Many waters cannot quench love." (4) " Many a time and oft In the Rialto, you have rated me." (5) " To know, to esteem, to love, and then to part, Makes up life's tale to many a feeling heart I " 24. "Give me, il" you please, d Itt.tl- soup." "Give me, if you please a iittie knife." What is the grammatical vsio.e of little in each sen- tence ? mi' M 70 M- I' EXERCISES AND QUESTIONS 25. "Thousands of their soldiers looked down from . their decks and laughed, '°!" Thousands of their seamen made mock at the mad httle craft." '^ " The good old Duke of York He had ten thousand men, He marched them up a hill And he marched them down again." 4wroftr"''"^^^'^^^^^^^— ^ 1 wo 01 the princes survived " Are the cardinal numerals adjecdves or substantatives ? a P«o?,ritrlf - *''- ^^ ^-^en as W What is the objection to saving " von .h m , exercise between every meal ? ^ ^"""^"^ ^^^^ 27. What is the origin of the English ordinal numerals ? 28. How do the following words diTer i. value and in meaning : '' '" grammatical (1) One, first, once. (2) Two, second, twice, half. (3) Three, third, three times] a third (4) Four, fourth, four times, a quarter .^ullT ^^^-^^-^^'^^ ^-- of.., ./.W..,^.,,^, 29. How did the demonstrative ^Ae and fh« come to be called ar^u/es ? ^^^ """^^^^^ ^ State the origin of each. IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 71 ^^ is taken as between is a should take 30. " The longer he considered the transaction the more bitterly he repented of his folly." What is the difference in value between the first and the second the ? 31. Should you write a or an in the blanks ? (i) " The premier wenr to — hotel." (2) " Mr. Blackmore has again produced —historical novel." (3) " It is — hypothesis which accounts for all the phenomena." (4) " The triangle has — hypothenuse of four feet." (5) "Barret's last play was ~ histrionic effort long to be remembered." (6) " — university of such wealth is a great power." (7) " We heard — ewe bleat for her lamb." 32. " Sugar is eight cents a pound." , " Father's gone ^-hunting." " Hand me a book." Show the meaning and the grammatical value oi a in each of these sentences. 33- " Nor cut thou less nor more, But just a pound of flesh ; if thou cut'st more Or less than a just pound Thou diest." {a) What is the grammatical value of a in each case ? ib) What is the meaning of just in each case ? 34. How does the demonstrative the differ from the demonstrative that ? 35. What is the principal use of the so-called definite article tJie ? ^2 36.J'Ihavedone,putby,/,nute.» Or leave a kiss within ,/™ ' And I'll not ,ook Z:tT " Sweet is the rose hi,f ^ cassock colored green." ''Sweet are //,,u3es of adversftv „ ^f ""^ P'ay the fool." ^^^Ironis/fekin ^^'^ , ""= t"^ '"'e I have used " "•« answer Jn this way it wiii be seen fh.^ • cases * is used to draw attentt" T '"'' ™^J°"'3' °f the noun expressed or unde stood '° '°""^ ^""bute of some uses of //« ^^,, diiTeren from tl .*■■"■ '"'>'«vcr, 37. Show by examoie 1 """''>'" "««■ speech may bo used as Liect:lS;^'f^ ^''«' "^ IN ENULI8U GKAMMAR. 73 1 brere ; bough." en.' nous, ?ad." ful." ■ ^y putting J noun f/ie ^e answer majority of attribute of -, however 'paJ use. parts of I. CHAPTER VII. THE VERB. " How s/eep the brave, who sinJ^ to rest By all their country's wishes d/esi\ When spring, with dewy fingers cold. Re/urns to deck their hallowed mould. She there shall dress a sweeter sod Than Fancy's feet have ever trod. By fairy hands their knell is rung By forms unseen their dirge is sung : There Honour comes, a pilgrim grey, To bless the turf that wraps their clay ; And freedom shall awhile repair, To dwell a weeping hermit there."— COLLINS. {a) " A verb is a word by means of which we can make an assertion," Which of the words in italics are words by means of which the author makes an assertion ? {b) Sleeping is the stem-notion of sleep ; name simi- larly the stem-notion of each of the other words in italics. (f) The stem-notion of hallowing is in the stem of hallowed, what notion is there in the -ed ? {d) How does the number of sentences in a passage, compare with the number of words by means of which assertions are made ? wi Iff ^XEUCHEH ANi) QUESTIONS (Questions and cnm,^ ^ modified forn^s of assern" '" '"^ ^""^'^^^^^ - 2. " '^^st cne swear to the tru^h c " A nice man zs a 1 / ""^ ^ '""ST ? " "dn ^j- a man of nasty ideas " Which of the v ^ in .v i- i" both voices > ^:,"^T, ^'""^ of being used W A verb is ,«id t„ bTused L v"'^'- a direct object, or -vi.en the at ,"""^ "''™ ''' '«k« '•' directed against the th,t de'^H k""!.'" '^ '"« ^"t" Are verbs capable of the .^ ^y the subject, transitively? Give exlpt ""^ "^^ ^'^^^^ "--d 3. What is the difference h^f a verb and a conjuga.^roTvertr" "' ""^■''^''"™ "^ 4- What is a modpl rs,- ^ j- Wbatisanirreg:,t^r'lrL-~"•' 5- In what respects Ha fU /• '^'"P^e^- upon the meaning of the suljlct? °' " '"' ""^"^ ^^^V^.:^^^^-^ verbs are i„. If, J IN ENGLISH OHAMMAH. 75 e considered as I song ? " icas." savage breast, -d oak." nations." he that ^^j it.' 'hiJosopher Patiently." g fiaf'l' / " used in both 3f being used ^hen it takes by the verb subject, always used U'ugation of Ltion ? 3, -rb depend bs are in- 7. A tense of a verb is a verbal form consisting of the stem of the verh and some modificatioii which places the stem-notion in one of the divisions of time. Give, ,(rave, shall give, shall have given, had given, liave given, am giving, was giving, shall be giving. {a) Writ- these forms each in its proper belt of time under these headings. Past Bei Present Belt. Future Belt. {b) It is the custom in grammar, in dealing with tense, to consider not only the question : " Which belt of time is the stetn-notion placed in ? " but also the question "Does the verb-form denote that the action of the verb is continuing in that belt, or completed in that belt ? " Point out those verbs above which denote the belt of time and the incompleteness or continuance of the act of ^ivi?tg. Point out those which denote tiie belt of time and the completen^ iS of the giving. {c) Which letters of the word give occur in all nine tenses, and thus keep up the original stem-notion ? Which parts of the tenses denote the belts of time? (O Which parts of the perfect tenses denote com- pleteness } {e) Which parts of the imperfect tenses denote con- tinuance ? 8. W^e sometimes hear of emphatic tenst- ; what notion aMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) k A {./ ^ .^«i. <*ie i< % 7a 1.0 I.I ^ I4£ 12.0 IL25 ■ 1.4 — 6" 2.5 2.2 18 1.6 V] /), ^> % ew :V> .* Photographic Sciences Corporation 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. 14580 (716)873-4503 4^ 1 V <^ "^A ^^w ^y^ ^ % <^ 76 EXERCISES AND QUESTIONS would such tenses contain besides the stem-notion and the notion of the belt of time ? 9. " She has been giving clothes to the poor." " He had been writing a new poem." "The lecturer will have been speaking half an hour when you arrive." {a) What notions do you find in the forms in italics ? ib) Can a stem notion be represented as both continu- ing and perfect at once ? 10. Simple Perfect Imperfect Emphatic ... Imperfect Perfect. On a table similar to that above write all the tenses of the verbs love, write, bring, be, sing, speak, finish, receive warn, hear. * 1 1. Students of English Grammar who also study any of the foreign languages are earnestly advised to give close attention to the correct understanding and naminjj of the tenses. To this end write the names of the Eng lish tenses and the corresponding names of the corres- ponding tenses on a table such as the following- IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. notion and ITense-Namk English Tense Name. English Verb. Latin Verb, IN 1-ATIN Grammar. Indefinite Present. loves Imperfect " is loving Perfect has loved Indefinite Past. loved Imperfect " was loving Perfect had loved Indefinite Future shall love Imperfect " will be loving Perfect will have loved ^ Emphatic Present. does love Past. did love ■ (It is to be regretted that the names of tenses in the grammars of different languages are not more uniform. Would it not be possible to use the tense- names of the English Grammars in teaching foreign tongues, where the tenses correspond in meaning ?) 1 2. " The combat deepens. On, ye brave, who rush to glory or the grave ! Wave, Munich, all thy banners wave, and charge with all thy chivalry." " The games were proceeding amid the clamorous joy of the multitude, when suddenly the sky grows black and peals of thunder approach from the horizon." " Are you going to hear Patti next winter V* " Time tries the troth in everything." " Every onii is as God made him, and oftentimes a great deal worse." " It was discovered that the two spheres have a mutual attraction." " I drink no more than a sponge. " 'ill '-1 ii-f 78 ii" EXERCISES AND QUESTIONS " O i it is excellent to have a giant's • strength : but it IS tyrannous to use, it like a giant." " Are you good men and true ?" " The lunatic, the lover, and the poet Are of imagination all compact." " Sir, I admit your general rule That every poet is a fool. But you yourself may serve to show it That every fool is not z. poet." " No profit grows where is no pleasure ta'en ; In brief, sir, study what you most affect." " He reads Greelc with the greatest ease " ^ ^^It IS said that after the loss of his son he never smiled "Coleridge spoke with as much grace, power and subtlety as he displayed in his writing." " In Xanadu did Kubla Khan A stately pleasure-dome decree : Where Alph, the sacred^river, ran Through caverns measureless to man Down to a sunless sea." (a) Point out the peculiar force attaching to the ten ses of the verbs in italics. 13- If we consider inflection as having no concern with auxiliary words in verb phrases but only with changes connected with the sterp itself how many inflected forms »■ '■ IN ENGLISH f/RAMHAR. 79 has the verb love? give ? write? Only words which can make assertions are to be considered verbs. 14. Which of the so-called rnoods have inflections peculiar to themselves ? 15. When we speak of the subjunctive mood do we consider the peculiarity of meaning or of form in the verb ? 16. " Fain would I climb, but that I fear to fall." " If thy heart fail thee, why then climb at all ?" ^ " If all the world and love were young And truth in every shepherd's tongue These pretty pleasures might me move To live with thee and be thy love," " If it Wbre done, when 'tis done, then *t were well • It were done quickly." " If all the years tvere playing holidays. To sport would be as tedious as to v.'ork." {a) Show the force of the mood-forms. 17. " If it rains we shall retire to the marquee." " If it rain on Thursday we shall postpone the pic-nic." Distinguish between rain and rains, and account for their use. 18. What view is taken of the condition following // when the verb of the conditional clause is indicative? ,r.ti %■■ 80 EXERCISES AND QUESTIONS 19. Why is it a logical absurdity to soeik nf . r . person or a third person of the impLtiv^'^ood p '"' you ^)*: -'• he sav^'lr.*'?"""""" '°"^'y'^ '° "^'"'" when we say ^e/ hm hiow my desire ?" wncn we 20. "My soul turn from them, /... ^, to survey Where rougher climes a nobler race display." Is /«^« an imperative of the first person ? , What does "we" mean ? . 21 Infinitives and participles "are not really verbs" What makes a word a real verb ? 22^ « I come to bury C^sar. not ^^/m/^, him " ^^ A man was seen to enter the palace." It /^ ^^ were as easy as to kno^uj what were P-nnH / " I wish to know what he thinks." " Dare to do right, dare to be true " .^^f.; What is the syntax of each of the infinitives in 33- " We saw a man chopping wood " "Thrv'^r/r "".'""^ '""■^''^^ f™™ th^/-^^* tree " They hiced /. «<^ stories in the summer-house." IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 81 {a) In what respect are the underlined words like the verbs from which they are derived ? {b) How do they differ from verbs ? {c) What parts of speech do they resemble in sentence - function ? 24. '* Seeing is believing" " To see is to believe!' How are these two kinds of verbal nouns named in grammar? 25. Deceiving, deceived; breaking, broken; writing- written ; killing, killed. {a) These imperfect and perfect participles are often called present and past. What reason is there for this, and what objection to it ? {b) The participles above are derived from transitive verbs, which of them has the better claim to be called passive ? active ? Illustrate your answer by framing sentences contain- ing these words. 26. « For who, to dumb forgetfulness a prey 1\{\^ pleasing anxious being e'er resigned, Left the warm precincts of the cheerful day Nor cast one longing, litigering look behind ?" " We fear our enemies, even bearing gifts." . "!^^! Emperor, fearing a conspiracy of anarchists, doubled the palace guard." "The shades of night v^Qxe falling fast and the len^- ihening shadows of trees and bushes darkened the lawm" 6 ;!' 92 EXERCISES AND QUESTIONS "The breaking o^Vx', word filled him with remorse." " lL\i^ thundering of cannon, the rolling of drums and the rattling of musketry excited the recruits." " They were alarmed by the coming of night." " They were tired of slaughtering game." " Here it comes sparkling. And there it lies darkling. Hqvc smoking aind frothing Its tumult and wrath in It hastens along conflicting strong ; Now striking and raging, As if a war waging, Its caverns and rocks among." {a) Indicate the exact grammatical value of the words ending in ing. 27 Grow grew, grown, telephone, telephoned, telephoned What IS the real distinguishing mark of the new con- jugation ? Why is the new conjugation called weak? 28. Why are the infinitive, the past tense and the per- fect participle known as Xh^ principal parts of the verb? 29. When is a verb of the new conjugation said to be irregular. 30. Why is it useless to attempt to classify the verbs of the old conjugation into regular and irregular.? ^31. Give the other principal parts corresponding to those in the following list : IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 83 remorse. r drums and ht." )f the words ■, telephoned. - new con- tid the per- the verb? said to be the verbs lar.? )onding to ( Infinitive. Abide. Awake. Bear. Beat. Bereave. Bid. Bring. Burst. Chide. Dare. Dream. Drink. Eat. Fling. Get Go. Hang. Heave. Lead. Lean. Leap. Learn. Lie. Light. Quit. Rid. Ring. Set. Perfect Participle. I :| a U EXERCISES AND QUESTIONS 1 — Infinitive. Past Tensl 1 -. ! Perfec r Participle. 1 Shine. 1 Shoe. Show. Sing. Sit. Sow. Sew. Spin. Spit. Spring. Steal. . - Sting. String. Swim. Swing. Tear. Thrust. Tread. Wake. C Wear. ■ Wend. ■• Wet. Wring. !^ W. There ,s reason to fear that the verbs of other la'n"^ ages are more precisely known by pupils than our own nregular verbs: ignorance of correct forms in En^h'sh is pernicious, not so much because it leads to misuse a IK ENGLISH GRAMMAK, 80 because it leads to non-use : this holds good of spelline and pronunciation as well as of meaning and grammar 12, It would appear that your uncle is come already" It would appear that your uncle has come with your cousms. ' {a) What is the peculiarity of the perfects of ^^,«,;> {b) Distmguish is come and has come. 33- Go,, went, gone. Am, was., been. {a) What is the stem-notion of the first verb ? Of the second ? ib) In the verb love, loved, loved, the constant part of the verb, l-o-v, holds the stem-notion loving In t\,^v^rh sing, sang, sun^, the ., the n and the ^ remam m all forms. As a rule the stem-notion of a verC IS denoted by certain letters common to all forms of the verb. How do you account for the irregularity in this respect of the verbs ^0 and (5^ ? 34- Discriminate sunk and sunken, drunk and drunken. 35- ^"""^^ ^^ good-natured, good-humored,talentedm^x from participles? ' 36. « How do you do ?" Discriminate these words as to 'grammatical value meaning and ongin, also the two words ^^ become^^ in "It does not become you to become so angry." 37. I have a skiff. I have bought a horse. Do as you wdl. You ^.//reach town before dark. Therein 1 the wi^ngofit. Whatever ^, ., right. The ^m ^^ ver. may become an auxiliary part in a verbal" phrase, If m 86 KXEltCISEH AND QUK8T10N8 w taking care to point out what force the auxiliary has in each case. 38. " Alfred has a letter." "Alfred has a written letter." " Alfred has a letter written." " Alfred has, written, a letter." " Alfred has written a letter." (a) In which of these sentences is //rtj a notional verb ? (d) In which is Aas merely auxiliary ? (c) In " Alfred has been writing a letter " is there any of the original notion of /invm£^ or possessing obsGYvahle? 39. What is the original grammatical relation of the auxiliary to the word in italics in the following ?~ " I will see the principal for you." " You may ^-o if yoU wish." " They do se// sponges." " You have /ost your Reader." " She can sm^ sweetly at times." « I shall see, Mrs. Spriggins, I shall see." Is the notion asserted by the subject contained in the auxiliary or in the word in italics ? 40. " I Aave done, put by the lute ; Songs and singing soon are over Soon as airy shades that hover Up above the purple clover : I have done, Put by the lute. Once I sang as early thrushes Sing about the dewy bushes Now Ffn mute ; I ant like a weary linnet, IN BNOLISU GltAMMAlt. 87 For my throat lias no son^ in it I have had my singing minute, I have done, Put by the lute." {a) Classify the words in italics as auxih'ary verbs and principal verbs. ip) Show the force of the auxih'aries as equivalents of inflections : how would their functions be performed in synthetic languages ? 41. " The lawyer was gone before the judge came." "The soldier tvas killed At the ford." "The orchestra was playing when they entered." What are the principal uses of the verb to be as an auxiliary ? 42. It is true in one sense that English has no future tense. In what sense ? 43. What means do we use of placing a verbal stem- notion in the belt of future time } 44. What is the radical and original difference between shall and will ? 45. " I shall drown and no one will help me." Show the effect of exchanging the places of shall and will in this sentence. 46. " Will I bring you a glass of water .?" What objection is there to saying "Will I V* 47. Distinguish " Well, gentlemen, will we support the measure?" from "Well, gentlemen, shall we support the measure ?" lAi! 88 hfK » I If li llllil -' If; II- IfiLt! EXERCISES AND QUESTIONS 48. (I I Will read for you at your concert (2 You will read for us at our concert. (3) He will read for us at our concert. 4 We will help you as much as we can. (5 You wi help us as much as you can. r ^ ^u J "1" ^'^P "^ ^' '""^h as they can (a) Show the effect of using ./,.// for ''JrTneach of these sentences. " ^^^^ o^ (^) Make each of thp^^//not smite thee by dav nor ^h by night." ^ ^ "°*^ *"e moon "Here sAa// thy proud waves be stayed." Thou ./.^// come to thy grave in a full a^e " Show the force of .r/.«//in these sentences oppL' h-r'^ "'^ '^ '-' ' "^^^ -"-^-- enough to What would be the effect of using s/^ou/^ here ? 53- How does s/ioi//d differ from ^,. /. , denote obligation ? "^""^^^ ^^^n both " You s/iou/d return your calls " "You C7«^/./ to attend church regularly." : ill IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 89 54- Show clearly how have came ^o be used as the auxiliary of perfect tenses in {a) Transitive verbs (b) In- transitive verbs. 55- («) " He can go if you wish." {b) " He could go if you wished." {c) " If it prove so, I shall go." (d) " If it proved so, 1 should go." What is the effect of changing from present to past in conditional sentences ? 56. Write sentences containing verb-phrases corres- ponding to these technical terms :— Conditional mood. Potential mood. Conditional perfect. Potential Past. Potential Perfect. Potential Pluperfect. Obligative mood. Obligative Perfect. • Phrasal Imperative. Perfect Infinitive. Imperfect Participle. Give also the corresponding progressive forms when possible. 57. When is a verb said to be in the passive voice? 58. What is the auxiliary of the passive voice ? 59. Why is it impossible to give a full passive conju- gation of the transitive verbs sing, telegraph, communi- cate, varnish^ engrave, and many others ? 60. To find a given tense of the passive voice of a verb, \f i. m 90 EXERCISES AND QUESTIONS M ( : 1 • « add the perfect participle of that verb to the corres- ponding tense of the verb to be. kuD^'^A' ";!' ""^ """'^"^ *^" "^"^ P""^'P-1 tenses of kill. (Indicative mood, third person, singular.) 6i. (i) He taught the hoys drawing, (2) The boys were taught drawing by him (3) Drawing was taught the boys by him {a) Which substantive gets most emphasis by the in- versions in (2) and (3) ? (<5) Show the sentence-relation of each of the sub- stantives. {c) Which of these passive forms corresponds to the usual passive? ^ 62. (I) This lily-of-the-valley smells sweet (2) This wine tastes sour. (3) This sand-paper feels very rough. (4) The music of the viohn sounds thrilling (5) That picture looks life-like. (6) His criticism reads harsh. Are the verbs of these sentences active or passive in form? In meaning? i-ct«xvc in 6z. "Such fellows are taken no notice of by us " Write the corresponding active voice. What is the grammatical value of the of in each sen- Impersonal verb. Frequentative verb Reciprocal verb. Intensive verb Reflexive verb. Causative verb •assive in IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 91 65. What other parts of speech are used at times as verb-equivalents ? Give examples. 66. Under the following headings write notes on the verbs and verb phrases in italics : — " Thou wast not dorn for death, Immortal Bird ! No hungry generations tread thee down : The voice I kear this passing night was heard In ancient days by Emperor and Clown : Perhaps the self-same song \k\3X found a path Thro' the sad heart of Ruth, when, sick for home, She stood in tears amid the alien corn ; The same that oft-times hath Charmed magic casements, opening on the foam of perilous seas, in faery lands forlorn." Word. Part of Speech Kind. Voice. Mood. Tense. No. Person. Syntax. - i 92 EXERCiSKS AND QUESTIONS CHAPTER VIII, THE ADVERB. [' "^'^«' ^'^"U I question Cassio." " If this suit lay ia Bianca's power ffow quickly should you speed ?» ;;They in^itated humanity .. abominably^ "Sl^T . '''^ '" ^''^^^' ^^'^ island'f name" Thou playd'st most foully for it.» "From all the sons of earth unrivalled I justlv claim " praise " What thou would'st /S?^/;^ That would'st thou holily ; would'st nol > A J P^^y false And yet would'st wrongly win." " Thou Shalt be king kereafterr - " Ha ha ! how vilely doth this cynic rhyme !" ia) What is the relation of each of fh. •. ,- • words.? °^ ^*^<^ Italicized (<5) Prove that some of the worH« «,o u into phrases without an, notleT^ c^^^y ^ ^ (Of course w /«,„ .4j»rm«« have precisely 1^" >■« and this question is not intended ofmni L """' adverb or an adjective is,.«..^ ^^.Ct n.TZ tN BNGLISH GRAMMAR. 93 respondin^r phrase ; -'a man of wealth" and " a wealthy man " are expressions that differ rather in emphasis than in meaning, however.) 2. " Here is your hat." " They rodQ forward at a rapid rate." " There were fast runners in the school tken." "The sixth form went dovfn first and the fifth second." " The ice is almost melted." " The noise was extremely harsh and loud," " It is «^/ uncommon to be late for the entertainment." {a) Write the questions which the adverbs in italics answer, ib) Write short lists of words that may answer the same questions. {c) Suggest names to designate each of these lists of adverbs. 3. Surely you will not disappoint them again!' ''Indeed you are as far as possible from the facts of the case." " Certainly, he may go if he wishes." "The lad was noways shy in the presence of the gentry." " Perhaps the witness forgets, possibly he- does not know, hut probably he is unwilling to reply." " We knew we were intruding, accordingly ^ftQ^ff{tMrQv,' at once." " When is the house to be prorogued ?" " Where \s Monaco?" " How old was Shakespeare when he wrote his firsf play?" ffl 94 I EXERCISES AND QUESTIONS (a) Show the grammatical relation of the words in Italics and classify them according to meaning. 4. A word, a phrase, or a sentence may perform the adverbia function : add to each of these sentences an adverbial sentence-function (meaning here an expression performing a sentence-function) under each of the follow- ing headings : Sentence, " She walked through the hall " ^ " He will be too feeble " "The world went very well" "He conducted his affairs " " He urged his troops " | "Caesar retired to his camp " You need not leave " Single Word Adverb, 'majesti- cally " Phrase Adverb. Subordinate sentence Adverb. ' with a (jueen' ly air." ' as a queen should walk." 5. Answer the following questions in aTmany different ways as you can : — " When did you first learn that news ? " " How did your uncle receive you ? " " Where do the Americans get their coffee ? " " Why do you persist in that dangerous course ? " ' •' For what purpose was he sent ? " « How carefully could you drive if I were to give you the reins ? " *> / « " On what condition will you give me that rose?" IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 95 ' words in srform the Jtences an expression the follow- tiate sentence dverb. ueen should k." different i?" five you i?" 6. *' They know (that our contention is just)." " (That Canadian claims in this dispute are fair and well-founded) cannot be reasonably questioned." " The Secretary of State (who opposes our claims) has not the support of fair-minded citizens." " (When these rights were first discussed) few argu- ments were urged against them." "Our ministers have acted (as patriotic ministers should act)." "The seals thrive best (where they find the best food)." •' He defies Great Britain (that he may win the support of her enemies)." " We insist upon our claims (because they are just and indisputable)." " England takes the affair more coolly (than many had expected)." "The Supreme Court of the United States is as able and as impartial (as any other tribunal in the world)." " (Though ou) affairs are ably managed) there is much difficulty in settling the dispute." " (If the trouble had never arisen) we should not know so much about our resources." {a) Show the relations of the sentences in brackets just as if they were single words. (b) State in each case what part of speech each of these subordinate sentences would belong to if sentences were called parts of speech : state also what class of adverbs the adverb-sentences would belong to if classi- fied according to their meaning. {c) Write out as clearly as possible the questions I, M HI 96 II i :4 ': EXERCISES AND QUESTIONS answered by the clause in brackets, fn each of the f. going sentences. ^^ ^"^ ^^^^- adve^'' '■' ""^ °"^'"^' °^ ^^*-' ■"-"■■ng of the word lo. What are the commonest suffixes and prefixes used m formmg derivative adverbs ? Give examples II." They soon v/ent /»«« after that " " The postman brought the pn„apa/ two letters and a magazine." " " ■^''" ^}"'"'" °f J"««ce spoke three W. on the reciprocity question." " We must «.^ do the work of men since we are "''''st:;tg:"" ' "^'^ •'"' '"-^ ='^«- "-f- Explain the grammatical value of the italicized words I'n whrr' '"""■' '^""- ''"'^"^' ^'"'' ^hamefulfy. In what sense is it true that- rr^rr,,.^ • • "^ flection of adverbs ? comparison is not an in- 13- " I am very much in the dark about it " " He has run quite through his patrimony » "^^. from the madding crowd's ignoble s'trife Their sober wishes never learned to stray" " Princes are but men." " Perhaps it is all a mistake." Explain the relations of the words in italics. m IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 97 14. VVhat was originally the grammatical value of the words j^j and no ? " Are you going to play tennis ? " " Yes." " When do you mean to begin ? " " Now." " We have a new set." " Oh I " Discriminate the grammatical values of the three responses, yes, now, oh. 15. " My parallel rulers are six inches long." " Tramp, tramp, tramp the boys are marching." " The iron was white hot." " The men fired at random." " Of old sat Freedom on the heights." " It is not at all kind of you." " He lives not so very far from here!' " The war being ended Caesar marched south." Explain the grammatical values of the expressions in italics. 16. Distinguish ay and aye in pronunciation and in meaning. CHAPTER IX. THE PREPOSITION. 1. The Latin words from which ''preposition" is formed, imply that it means a word placed before something. Before what words are prepositions used ? 2. "They built a bridge QUR8TI0NS li^ What k the {>rainmati(Ml value of the phrases in itah'cs? Write a lf«* of similar phrases. ro. " He is oy a , .ir ^^ of Kings." " The apartment o/ the King was closed." *' Their leader was a man of courage." " They set up a throne of gold." " He gave the man a glass ie inhabitants of Canada are industrious." " It was his habit to smoke and read of an evening." State as clearly as possible the precise meaning of "of" in each of these sentences. m . . CHAPTER X. THE CONJUNCTION. 1. Show in what respects the conjunction is "a very different kind of connective from the preposition." 2. " Conjunctions r*.;^ more a development of literature than any other part ol . ^ -.' ." Explain and illustrate. IN ENQLISri (IKAMMAH. 101 3. What is a co-ordinating conjunction ? A subonlin- ating conjunction ? 4 Classify "and," "or," "also," "but," "yet," "hence." ' for, according to meaning. ^^ 5- Classify "where," "when," "since," "though," "that," "lest," "than," according to meaning. 6. Write notes on the conjunctions " that," artd " than " and on thr.se in italics in the following: Ami do you thmk so ? He was there as well. In case a conjunction loses Its connective force what grammatical value is it most likely to acquire ? 7. Why are the words called conjunctions not likely to be a distinct class > 8. Give examples of words used solely as conjunc- tions. 9. "We did not know of his misfortune until after he had gone." f "I cannot meet them here/. in these expres- .he\ro?r„sxr '" ^'''^^^■"^- °r-"'^-'-"^ 8. Name all the emotions that ^/^ may express and show them by writing « ./. " ,ith sentences, thfco^text sadTwsr' "'"" °'^^'^ emotion : thus '^ Oh, that is jecdo!!!'"''"''''""'^ ''''^" "^^^ ^"^^ - -ter- Make a list of words that are primarily used as o^her parts of speech but have a secondary use as interjections besT; '" "''' ''''' "' '""'"''y ^° interjections flourish 11. What is the refined substitute for gesture and grimace as an accompaniment of interjections ? 12. "Heavens ! how unlike their Belgic sires of old " Marry, now I can tell." " What, talking with a priest ?" " Poor heart, adieu ! " ' " Zounds, who is there ? " " Who's there, ha ? " " Marry, amen ! " " Farewell, a long farewell to all my greatness ! "' III IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 10£ m " Ha, I have said." " Peace, you un<,n-acious clamours ! " •• Well, well ! why have you any discretion ? " " No more words Thersites, peace ! " " What shall, alas, become of me ? " " By that alas ! I plainly see That nothing lovely is but she." " Hark a glad voice the lonely desert cheers ; Hark, a drum ! " " Lo, earth receives him from the bending skies." " Fie on't, oh fie ! 't is an unweedcd garden." " " Ah no ! it is not dead ! " " Heigh ho, sing heigh ho ! unto the green holly!" " Ay me they little know How dearly I abide that boast so vain." " Hail bounteous May that dost inspire Mirth and youth," " Lo, vhat monsters in thy train appear." " Hark heard yet not that piercing cry ? " (a) Read these exclamative expressions so as to show their emotional force by the modulation of the voice Great care should be taken to read interjections with expressiveness. (d) Classify the interjections of these quotations as (i) Natural and (2) Artificial. 14. Scene \.~Dunsinane. Ante-room in the castle. Enter a -Docior of Physic and a Waiting- Gentle-woman. Doct. I have two nights watched with you, but can perceive no truth in your report. When was it she last walked ? . I." M 106 EXERCISKS AND QUKSTIONS Gent Since his majesty went into the field T h. yet all this while in a most fast sleep her say ? ' ' ^ ^'"'^' ^^^^ yo" heard Gent. That, sir, which I will not report after her ^ T-r^" '° "' ' "^' ' '^ "°^^ "^^^^ ^- «h-lcl. Cr^«/'. Neither to you nor anv nn^. • i.. • to confirm my speech. ^ ' ^^'''"^ "° ^^^"^^« ^«/^r Lady Macbeth ze.^//. ^ /^^,^. Lo you, here she .comes ! This is her v^r.. rr ■ upon « fast asleep. Obse^t XH^e^"''' iJoa. How came she by that light ? Gent. Why, itLstood by her • she h;,^ I,vi,f k u tinually ; 't is her command. ' ^''' ''^ ^'^^ ^^"- I>oa. You see her eyes are open. ^ G-^JW^. Ay, but their sense is shut. Doa. What is it she does now ? Tool- h. u . her hands. ' ■^°°^' ^°^ ^^e rubs Gent. It is an accustomed action with her, to seem thu. washing her hands : I have known her cont nut .u a quarter of an hour. continue in this Lady M. Yet here's a spot. • Doct. Hark ! she speaks : I will set doum , u . f.o. he. to satisf. ., r.r..n.J.::^7::^t:-- IN ENGLISH OUAMMAR. 107 Lady M. Out, damned spot ! out, I sav !— One • two • why, then 't is time to do 't.-Hell is murkv !-Fie my lord, fie ! a soldier, and afeard ? What need we fear who knows It, when none can call our power to account >~ Yet who would have thought the old man to have had so much blood in him. Doct. Do you mark that ? Lady M. The thane of Fife had a wife : where is she now ?— What, will these hands ne'er be clean ?~No more o' that, my lord, no more o' that : you mar all with this starting. DocL Go to, go to ; you have known what you should not Gent. She has spoke what she should not, I am sure of that : heaven knows what she has known. Lady M. Here 's the smell of the blood still : all the perfumes of Arabia will not sweeten this little hand Oh, oh, oh ! Doct What a sigh is there ! The heart is sorely charged. Gent. I would not have such a heart in my bosom for the dignity of the whole body. Doct. Well, well, well,— Gent. Pray God it be, sir, Doct. This disease is beyond my practice : yet I have known those which have walked in their sleep who have died holily in their beds. • Lady M. Wash your hands, put on your ni-htgown • look not so pale— I tell you yet again, Banquo 's buried • he cannot come out on 's grave. Doct. Even so ? Lady M. To bed, to bed ! there 's knocking at the r| I 1. 108 EXEKCISfis AND QUESTIONS gate; come, come, come cnm^ • Doct Will she go now to bed ? t^-^^'^- (^ent. Directly, Doct. Foul whisperings are abroad • unnatnr.l a . Do breed unnatural troubles ■ inf . J """^tural deeds To their deaf pillowst 1 dlcha^^^^^^^^ More needs she the divine trantL ''?''^^!^^'-^^^ '• God,Godrorgiveusalirltratrh~^ Remove from her the means of ,11 ' And still keep eyes up"n ho °^ """"^'O'^'^. My mind she hafmated and ^"' T' "'^'" ^ I think but dare nrs;'^ "' "^ ^«'^'' Gent. ^ , ^ood night, good doctor. («) Point out the interjections natnr.i a ^^''''''''^^ this passage and state the emo^na Ua LT f^ ^^ {l>) Give directions for the efferf-; ''^• interjections of the scene, "" '""^^'"^ ^^ ^he CHAPTER XII. SENTENCE-BUILDING. I. Make a list of all the English words th.f v. form as subject of a verb andt diffrent f^^ k'"' of a verb. Calling the former nomZt Ic c^ " t^^'^ words, and the latter objective cas^s " ' T °^ '^" ing;— •• ^ ^^^^^' answer the follow- IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. your hand, bed, to bed ! fal deeds ts ; 109 :tor. [Exeunt. tificial of ■ach. g of the Lve one object of the foIJow- {a) Which cases of these words are used as com pletions of the verbs to be, to become ? C\^. . {h\ WTu; u utcome r Lrive exanip es. W Wh,ch cases are used in addresses and invocat.ons 2. Is the distinction between the nominative case and n^rsrwr^r"''"".™""'^"" -'-- - --"" thTn :isno;;' ^"^ °' ■"°''= ""'"'^'='"- - Ens^^h 3. Attributes of the Subject. Bare Subject. Bare Predicate. Direct Oljject. Completion. r 1 jAdverbial j Adjuncts. X X X X X X X X X X X 1 X X 1 X X X X X X X X X X 1 - ■ • X X ■■ i — . X X X X X X ! X X X X X X X X 1 X {a) On a table similar to this write sentences contain mg the parts indicated by the X's. (If the oLt otect" or ije completion has attributes write^ them in Twth ^:: {b) Is it accidental that in asking question {a) a X lli II no EXERCISES ANp QUESTIONS occurred under " Bare Subject" and "Bare Predicate" for every sentence ? Give reasons • (c) Under which of the six headings, if any, may the foUownig grammatical forms occur?— "ay tne (I.) The objective case of a noun or pronoun. 2. The nominative case of a noun or pronoun {SO A nominative absolute. (4-) A nominative of address. (5-) An indirect object. (6.) An adverbial clause. (7-) A noun in apposition. (S.) A predicate nominative. (9.) A predicate adjective. (10.) A possessive case. 10.) A conjunction. (12.) An interjection. Give examples. numbe';."" ^ "'"' "^'"^ "'* "' '"^^''' ''" ?"»" -"d number'^ "''' """"'^'''' ""'* "^ ^"''i^'^' ■" P«so„ and (a) A grammatical /«M is a statement of observed facts o anguage. What is a grammatical rule? (i) Wr,te out other grammatical truths upon which our rules of syntax or sentence-building are founded 5- "I break this crayon." " I write this word." " I read this letter." " I know this fact." " I jump this fence." '* I run this race." IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Ill " I walk a mile." " He talked an hour." (a) In the first sentence the verbal stem-notion drea^. -^.s directed against the thing called a cra^ou -.^t umlar statements about the other sentences as ofteTas the statements are true. (fi) What is a direcf object ? 6. II The mayor handed the prince an address." ^^ Fetch your mother that paper from the desk." ^^ Give yourself as much credit as you deserve " " ^^ Henry brought Annie a letter but not Grace" bend me the book by return mail and give the / ^ xx;u. ^""f^^^^^' whatever he asks you for it," (« Which of the substantives in these sentences con- vey the same meaning as if they were made into phrases by havmg " to " written before them ? (<5) What is an indirect object ? (c) Is it correct to say that " to" is understood before these nouns and pronouns ? "i^ Jh.f '^ were converted into phrases by the use of io what would the relation of the phrases be ? (.) Into which division of the predicate of a sentence (see Question 3) does the indirect object properly gc ? 7. " Those men are brothers." " Your hair is turning gray." '• The noise of the trains became a great nuisance." ^^ It is growing late, we must go home." " Does your brother continue sullen } " "It looks impossible but you may try." " The plums taste sour." " S*and quiet a moment." ..t'll fii:v ' If i 112 EXERCISES AND QUESTIONS " How pretty that cliild is !" "The bread was burnt brown." " The trouble is that he cannot come." (a) Read these sentences stopping when you have read the verb. (l^) Read the predicate adjectives with the subjects thus— "^rtj/ /lair" to determine whether thcv modify the subjects or not. (c) What is a subjective completion ? 8. " He heated the iron red-hot." " He ripped the seam open." " He drew the line straight." " He took the Afghan prisoner." " The confectioner pulled the taffy stiff." " He kicked the door shut." " He beat the dog senseless." " The boy made his boots muddy." " He drank the wine-glass empty." " Mary keeps her pencils sharp." " They built the wall high." " He threw the window open." " .She fanned her hair dry." " He struck the man dead." " She whipped the cream stiff." " The nurse sang the child asleep." - " The girl baked the cake brown." "The boy hammered the wire flat." " They have the horse trained." " The sun faded the shawl white." " We have pumped the well dry." " They pulled the chain straight." I^f RNorjsn grammar. n;j " lie shot the bird dead." " The barber cut his hair short." "The tailor marked his prices low." " The gardener cut the stems short." " The artist painted the backtrround rrrav " 1 he boy wore his sleeves thin." I* The woman poh'shed the silver bright." " She chopped the lettuce fine." " He raised the curtain higher." " They brushed the cloth clean." " She wiped the dishes dry:' Dry is an attributive word (that is. used with adjective force) and It .very intimately connected with t e v rb wtped, thus unped-dry ; therefore it is a completion Drj. modifies the object of the verb, hence it 'is an objective completion (as distinguished from a subjective compU^ion). The dishes are dr, d.hes, because JpidX hence d,j. ,s a factitive objective completion ^' {aj Prove that there are factitive objective completions in the other sentences. "'"pietions 9. '^1 The doctor thought the man very sicjt." " They like the meat rare." " We heard the thunder ro/Hn^j' " They thought their son c/eve^" " He I Monounced the prisoner ^ui/tj " " ^^"^y believed the man ^ra^e/u/ " (a) Are the adjectives in italics factitive objective com pletions according to the tests in Question gT '''''" In what respect do they fail to answer those tests? 10. " She came in with her dishevelled locks " "She came in with her locks dishevelled." o Jf.r 114 BXERCI8KS AND QUESTIONS What is the (hTfcrence in grammatical vahio between these two uses of ''dishevelled" ? II. "Garrick the actor admired Shakespeare the dramatist." " He gazed upon the landscape, sky, fields, and sea, as a man gazes after a long absence." " The city of Toronto is the capital of the Province of Ontario." {a) Is actor in the subjective relation, the attributive relation, or both ? {b) What is distributive apposition ? {c) When is a word said to be a sign or mark of appo- sition ? ^^ 12. "(I being judge), your work is decidedly superior to his." "(The war being ended), Cassar turned southward." " (The queen being dead), the people shouted for the king." " (The trumpets having sounded), the troops packed their tents and prepared to march." "(The rope being very weak), he was afraid to climb." "(The captain having given the command) they pressed forward rapidly." " (The ship having been lost at sea) it was supposed that the heir was drowned." {a) Express the meaning of the parts in brackets by using subordinate clauses. {b) Express the meaning of the parts in brackets by phrases. {c) What is the sentence-function of the clauses and phrases got by answering {a) and {b) ? IS ENGLISH GRAMMA ft. 115 (d) What is the relation of the. absolute constructio.. to the sentence with whieh it stands connected ? 13- " Mc asked me wA/. you were.' " We wish to know 7fJiaf you want." " Tell me w/iom you saw there " di^tS;;:^"^"'^"^^'"^'^^^^-^^^^ senten^ ?'' " ''" "'" "' ''^ subordinate clause in each italics^'' '' '''' 8^^^"^'"^tical value of the pronouns in 14- "A mother's /^z;^." " The king's ru/e." " Gladstone's success in politics." "The firm's /rt//«r^." " England's rum." (a) Write sentences containing the stem notions /ovmjr ruling, succeedzng, failing, being rmned, expressed not in nouns, as they are above, but in verbs : thus a mother loves. What relation does the possessive word of the ongmal expression hold in the corresponding sentence^? I S. " Canada's governor" " Man's y««'^^." " Their teacher" If the stem-notion of the word in italics be regarded as assertive what is the relation of the stem-notion of the possessive word to it ? 16. What is the force of the of and of the 's in ? " Britain'^ isle." " Gibraltar'.? sullen strait." 116 FXERCISES AND QUESTIONS " The quality of mercy." " The town of Cobourg." .7. •■ It is me." <■ It is 1." Are there any arguments m favour of the former expression ? arguments Does good usage always support the form most con- sistent w,th grammatical rules? Give examples When we say that an expression " sounds wrong " do ;:"hatV° """"'"^ ''''^'^'- °f '"^ -P--«. or 18. "Now ;«^« to man and steeUo steel. A chieftain's vengeance thou shalt feel." " Heard ye the din of battle bray Z««^^ to lance and /z^rj^ to horse?" " The mountains rose heifa above height until their summits kissed the clouds of heaven." '• Only gazing alone to him wild shadows are shown, Deep^ under deep unknown, And height above unknown height." ia) Analyze these sentences according to the plan in Question 3. ^ P'^" '" ib) Sho^v the sentence functions of the words in italics 19. Is there any sentence in English that is neither simple nor compound ? "cicner (A simple sentence is none the less simple for having a subordinate clause in it. A subordinate claused nothing but ar. elaborate adjective or noun or adverb when considered as part of a simple sentence." arguments most Con- nies. wrong" do 3ression, or until their le plan in 3 in italics. Js neither or having clause is 3r adverb IN ENGLISH OKAMMAK. 117 20. All English Sentences. Simple. Compound. Primary. Complex. (a) State the ground upon which the genus « all Knghsh sentences" is divided into the species simple and compound. ^ C'^) State the ground upon which the simple sentence .s divided into the classes primary and complex. (NOTE.-DO not speak of a compound sentence as compound-complex : it is a confusion of two distinct classifications ; speak of the simple sentences that ^o to make up a compound sentence as primary or complex.) All English Words. 21. Simple. Compound Primitive. Derivative. (a) On what ground are "all English words" Hi.fded into simple and compound? ■Htl ' ■ ■!«;. '4 r 118 KXKRCISK8 AND QUESTIONS l?<' (d) On what ground are simple words subdivided intc primitive and derivative ? (c) Should one ask whether a compound word is deri yative or whether its simple parts are derivative? Illustrate. (^) Criticize the following classifications •— " Words may be classified as simple, compound, and derivative. ' "Sentences may be classified as simple, compound, and complex. "Nouns may be classified as proper, common, and abstract. 22. " You or I are to blame for this result." "The captain as well as the crew /ands at Gibraltai whenever the ship touches at that port." " You and not he is the cause of the alarm." " It is a s\y.-feet board fence." " Is it you who w the manager of this performance?" " No it is me who w the door-keeper." " More than your cousin ze/«j disgusted with the music » " Nothing but bread and butter are important to such people." {a) State your opinion concerning the agreement of the words in italics. (J?) Show how the grammatical difficulties involved in the use of these words might have been avoided by a better choice of expression. 23 " Vow me no vows." " Plot me no plots." " The lad dreamed a dream." " The woman saw a vision." IS ENGLISH GRAMMAR. jjg (a) Compare the stem-notion of the verb with the stem notion of the object in each sentence. What is a cognate object ? Give other examples of cognate object in two lists (j) objects havmg the same stem as the verb: (2) obW havmg a stem-notion allied in meaning to the s e.n notion of the verb. "" 24. "^^r/oftheNorth./^me..//! The hills grow ^^^^ On purple peaks a deeper s/^a^e descending; ' Th J ^^^ T' '^' S^^^-^orm lights hertpark The deer half seen, are to the covert wending AnH^r M.1'''^ '^"^' the/oun^am lending," And the wild dreeze, thy wilder minstrelsy • Thy «^^^.^.sweet with Nature's vespers ble;iding With distant echo from the fold and lea And herd-boy's evening pipe, and hum of housing (a) State the grammatical value of the words in italics. 25. EnUr Touchstone ani^ Audrey. M. There is, w.,' another flood ^ozmrd, and these couples are coming to the ark. Here ..J, a pair of very strange beasts, which in all tongues are called fool/ Jouc/i. Salutation and greeting to you all ! Jaq. Good my lord, bid him welcome : ' this is the motley-m.nded gentleman that I have so often Z. the forest : he hath been a courtur, he swears ^" Touc/i. If any man doubt that, let him put me to mv 12'T,\J !"'''''','. ^ — e^ I have flattered r lad>. . . have oeen pontic with my friend, smooth with 120 EXERCISES AND QUESTIONS mine enemy ; J have undone three tailors • r . u four quarrels, and like to have fought o„e ' ' '^'^ '^' >?. And how wa^ that ta'en up ' the'iTvttftu'se"^ ""' ^"' ^^""'^ ^^^ ^--1 was upon feli;': "'"" "^^"^^ --? Good my lord, like this ^^-^^ ^. I like him very well Touch. God 'ild vou sir • T A^r.- press in here. s,>, LIZ^^.^^IUC "' ''^ "'''■ ' tives, to swear and forswear "'^.'^°"""-y copula- binds and blood breaks TZ ' "^™^*"?='« ■"arriago thing, sir, but n,ine own' a^lrTf"' ""' T "'■''''""''' take that that no maZ'se wT uT' °^ '"'"'■ ='^' to a .niser, sir, in a poor UteT i ;:t''pr,V"^" f ^ 03'ster. -^ t>G^^i m your foul ^s.'^.izit^htto^iir ^^^--'^^^^^^^ cet diseasr^s. - ^ ' ^°^^' ^^^' ^"d such dul- Jag. But, for the seventh caiiK r- ^"""^^'^^^^^k seventh, the Lie Direct All thl ! ""'^'^^^ '^' the Lze Direct' nnJ ^°" may avoid but me Lte Direct, and you may avoid that too with an If I knew when seven justices could not take up a quarref but when the parties were met themselves one of th' thought ... of an If, .. ^^ If you said so, then safd o " and they shook hands and swore brothers. YTuru\. the only peace-maker ; much virtue in If ' Jaq^l. not this a rare fellow, my lord ? he's as good at any thing and yet a fool. ^ ^ ^^ DukeS. He uses his folly like a stalking-horse and under the presentation of that he uses his wit (^) Discuss the grammatical relations of'theexore. sions in Italics and note their grammatical peculiar^S ZO, " Hark Jiark ! the lark at heaven's gate sings. And Phcebus gins arise, It' j.fi Ml 122 EXEKCISES AND QUESTIONS His Steeds to water at those springs On chalic'd flowers that lies ; And winlcing Mary-buds begin To ope their golden eyes." {a) Point out an error in the matter of grammatical agreement m this passage. {b) Suggest a reasonable cause for the error. - ^7' ' " O, now, forever, Farewell the tranquil mind! farewell content f Farewell the plumed troop! and the big wars That make ambition virtue ! O farewell ! Farewell the neighing steed, and the ear-piercing trump. The spirit-stirring drum, the shrill y^^, The royal banner, and all quality, Pride, pomp and circumstance of glorious war I " {a) What is the grammatical value of farezvell in this passage ? {b) What is the relation of the nouns in italics ? 28. "0, what men dare do ! what men may do ! what men daily do, not knowing what they do I " {ct) Supply omissions. {b) Show the relation of the clause " what they do." 29. " Who so shall telle a tale after a man, He moste rehearse, as neighe as ever he can, Everich word, if it be in his charge. All speke he never so rudely and so large ; Or elles he moste tellen his tale untrewe. Or feinen things, or finden wordes newe," IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 123 f^' ■ammatical r, ~ontent ! '^g wars ir-piercing us war ! " >ell in this :s? do ! what ley do." lie can, arge ; we, we/- {a) Explain the grammatical 'value of the words in italics. 30. " A simple child, That lightly draws its Lreath And feels its life in every limb, What should it know of death ? " {a) What is the relation of " child" ? Of " it " ? (b) Write the nearest single- word-equivalent you can find for the subordinate clauses. 31. "I will roBx you as gently as any sucking dove : 1 will rodir you an 't were any nightingale." {a) What is the relation oiyou ? . 32. " I dare do all that may become a man, Who dares do more is none." {a) Write out the subordinate clauses and state- their kind and relation. {b) What is the meaning of become here .? How does it differ from become in " You will soon become a man " ? 33. " Turn, fortune, turn thy wheel with smile or frown; With that wild wheel we go not up or down ; Our hoard is little, but our hearts are great. " Smile and we smile, the lords of many lands ; Frown and we smile, the lords of our own hands ; For man is man and master of his fate." (a) Show the relations of the words in italics. 34. " Yet if he could but tarry a day or two, My self would worke eye dim, and fingers lame. Far liefer than so much discredit him." 124 EXEIICISES AND QUESTIONS italics ^*''''' ^""^ ^^"^ grammatical value of the words in 35. " Let never maiden think, however fair. That she is not fairer in new clothes \han old." {a) Parse let, fair, than, maiden, {b) What is the regimen of thi7tk ? tf If ■f DiiJ'l' ABSTRACT QUESTIONS FOR ADVANCED PUPILS. {Con«uU H. S. O. Chapters XIV-XVIII.) COMPOUND AND COMPLEX SENTENCES. COMBINATION OF SENTENCES. r. What advantages have compound and complex .sentences over simple primary .sentences? Is there any value m the mere combination ? In which of tie two «., compound or complex, do you consider the mere combmation more valuable ? Why? 2. Show that the simple primary sentence has also some advantage on its side. 3. Enumerate the classes of connective words used to combme pnmary sentences into compound and complex 4. For the purpose of more definite classification draw a distmction between simple and primary sentenc'r Can a .sentence be both simple and primary? H so what .s the value of the distinction ? Can a s.-mnt' sentence be a complex .sentence? Can a primary sentence be a compound sentence ? pnmary IV ENOLISH GRAMMAR. 125 S. " The combination of clauses into sentences is of two degrees, one closer and the other less close " The results of combination in each of these ways gives us what two kmds of sentences ? Why is the combination in one case spoken of as closer than the other ? f 1 ^''^'"'f ^^' "'' °^ ^^^ '"'"'^ " P'''''^'P^1 " '■" speaking of the members of a compound sentence and of the term "independent " in speaking of the members of a com- plex sentence. 7. Show the distinction between the clause and the sentence on one hand and the clause and the phrase on the other. Is it true that the only difference between a phrase and a clause is that the latter possesses a subject and a predicate while the former does not ? If not how would you have to restrict the term " clause " in order to make it true ? , 8. Do the terms co-ordinate and subordinate as applied to clauses include the species > Explain. (All clauses are either co-ordinate or not-co-ordinate and those that are not co-ordinate and those that are co-ordinate are either principal or subordinate ; therefore principal and subordinate cover one species and co-ordinate and not-co ordinate another.) 9. In the classification of clauses what relation do the species Substantive Clause, Adjective clause and Adverb clause bear to the genus " clause " ? Make a diagram showing the complete classification. 10. Define a compound sentence, a complex In making your definition what other kinds of sentences have you excluded from the species defined in each case ? fe i 126 EXERCISES AND QUESTIONS .K What ground ,s there for .saying that a clause may be both prncpal and .ub-ordinate ? Could you eve^ descnbe a clause as both dependent and independent? 12. Show from an example that a clause may beat the same time dependent and co-ordinate. ^ is It'a wHd'of """,' ''' ' "■"P-"d-compleK sentence > 14. Define an adjective-clause. In what relation ^an the^clausenot take the place of an adjective P 'Slain 15. What is meant by the classification of adiective auses accordmg to logical values ? Name the S„t ■oycal values and give one clear example under clch 16. Define a substantive-clause. How is it that ther-^ ■a no such thing as a pronoun-clause > nl J; ^/\ yy^'^^ of substantive-clauses used i„ place of substantives. 18. Give four groups of words used to introduce no.m clauses. Show how "it" is frequently used to, "IX" awkwardness of employing substantive-clauses. .9. Explain clearly the diflference between the direct and^the md.rect narration. State the advantage of Zh 20. What is meant by the « sequence of tenses " > Tf you accept the rule that presents follow presents' and pasts pasts ; how do you make allowance for tho.se „te, such as the future, which are formed by auxiliaries?' 21. How does English compare in this respect with IN EN0M8H GHAMMAil. 12^ Other languajrcs? Give examples of two exceptions to the rule. 22. Define adverb-clauses naming their duties in the order of importance. 23. Explain fully, using examples, the meaning of the terms " Conditional." " Concessive," and " Consequent." 24. What is meant by correlative adverbs ? Ex. 25. Show that by the omission of " that "" functional mterchange" has frequently taken place. INTERROGATIVE AND IMPERATIVE SENTENCES. CLASSES OF SENTENCES. 26. What is meant by classifying sentences according to « form " ? What are the classes obtained in this way? Are the classes thus obtained always distinct in regard to their arrangement? Illustrate fully. 2;. Show that these three forms of sentences sprin<. from che three chief purposes of communication between man and man, 28. How does it happen that the assertive rece-Ves in grammar more consideration than the other two forms ? Can a desire be conveyed by an assertive sentence.? Can an mterrogation be so conveyed? A feeling.? What are the usual means of expressing desires, inquiries and feelings > 29. Show that the interrogative sentence differs less than the imperative sentence from the assertive. 30. What are the two ways in which the interrogative sentence may vary from the assertive sentence. Kx. ■i 128 RXERCfSRS ANT> QPfrtiONS 11 ' f i m .|.. '■uni 3'. What is meant by inveitul order ? U/n . • ^I'tioiu-il inversion ? Ex. ''^ '^ ''"" 32. Can an interrogative sentence be dependent? 33. Uetine an imperative sentence. 34- Give representative examples of imner^rnr. u pfirases and analyze them. 'Operative verb- 35. Give imperatives having the force of conditionals. 30. Is the mipcrative the only means of nr. demand } Illustrate. ^ convcymg a of subject and p.Cca.. ,„ .he optativ^n^Lr ^'' jo. ti-xplam and illustrat-p " f K« .•.,4. shades into the imperat;::^.h^r^rr^^^ clamatory (sentences) shade into each otlfer ' 39. What is a " Rhetorical Question ''? 40. How are indirect questions and indirect cor. mands introduced? "uirect com- 41. State the rule of "the sequence of tenses " u does ,t apply to questions and commands P ' ^°" 42. "In questions the indirect construcHnn • times used for the direct." Illustrate '°'^" INFINITE AND PARTICIPLE CONSTRUCTIONS CHARACTER AND USE. 43- In what respects do infinitives differ 1,.^ derivative nouns like -giver " ::d ^ia'T Z 7 they differ from the ordinary forn,s of the ve;b ,s "Jve ° ..n"Heg,vesawayabo„L", Doewhe f '" hf e »N KSaUSn OKAMMAU. j 2;) do no. ad.Tof .lu:a,s.{ "' "'' '""''''' "°'- wny IS the infinitivr; so called ? « «,u '**'"'P°'-"'"«°f'l'ese differences. .•nfi'^tr:d7a;.!:pre?:.Hl ^T"';™^^ ''^'^-" nouns and verbs on .he oth^/p " ''"" ^"^ '""'""y 47. Wrte a note on the word " particinle " NT, classes of words which talten ;„ ,> P*" "?'«■ Name include. What is thi ill ' '''"'"*' '"="=« '* ""'gh' word ? *' *"'"'•"■•>' f"<=^ ^"igned to this •■.tnS"'\t:n";" "Vre^ """^ "-t-infinitive, terms equi'valen Does al'oL ° "' '"-' "^^^ 3pe.es of ,enus denoted h.Voth::. X;::-^^ ' -rsJnt^ercLToirct-:^"-"-- 50. What are the different forn.s of participles ? 5 1. The word « loved " or the ivord " sriven " ^.. v. three names applied to if wi, 7 ^ ? may have When is each nf fh! ^*' "'^ *^^^ ""mes ? nen^each of these names strictly appropriate,' 52. Write a note on the mqp. r^f r. 4.- • i tives in verbal phrases R / Participles and infini- the participle in "Th? k T ' ^°" '^P^"'" ^^e use of Pdiucipiein 1 have broken the chair"? wu ^ • the noun-force of "go" in «I will go"? ^ ^' '' 53. Ha^s the "to" prefixed to an infiniHv. a ^o^^^-t vcuue? iixpiain and illustrate — - ^ .o„.caut 9 130 EXERCISES AND QUESTIONS 54. Explain what is meant by the term "idiom." (Note that we u.se the term " idiom " in speaking of foreign languages and also in speaking of our own language and that consequently the word comes to have two distinct forces.) 55. Name besides, three ordinary cases of the omis- sion of the " to " and give an example of one archaic usage in this respect. 56. How do you account for the use of such peculiar forms of expression as " Go and see him." 57. What causes have led to the omission of the "to".? 58. Bearing in min(^ the fact that an infinitive is a substantive, do you draw any distinction between the construction of the infinitives in " He ought to go " and " He longs to go?" In the expression " It is pleasant to look at " is the gerundial form of the infinitive used or merely the other form of the root-infinitive .? 59. What is the specially peculiar construction of the gerundial ? Give an example of this form of the infini- tive used with a subjective, possessive and an example of its being used with an objective possessive. Which is the commoner of these usages ? 60. Why are such uses as, '* for the passing the Rubi- con " and " for passing of the Rubicon " not sanctioned by modern English ? 61. What is meant by saying that the infinitive is at times used as an adverbial objective? Illustrate. 62. Draw a distinction between the construction of " I told him to go," and " I saw him to be wrong," con- IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 131 to the finite sideling the relation of the word " him verb and to the infinitives. 63. What are the different duties performed by forms in ing ? Give one clear example of each use of the ing form. 64. Distinguish between the uses of "drunken" and "drunk," "swollen " and "swelled." 65. Does the participle take upon itself the full use of the adjective ? Illustrate. 66. Explain the grammatical differences and the differences in force of the following : " I saw him set down from his horse '• " I saw his getting down from his horse and I saw him getting down from his horse." 67. Write a note on the use of participles in absolute constructions. What is meant by saying such combina- tions are equivalent to adverb-clause? Illustrate. IRRE(;ULAR EXPRESSION. 68 What Ls a complete sentence ? What is abbrevia- wu[ u- '^" """'^ u^^^ers:joc^ used in analyses? What IS an elhpsis ? Ex.. 69. In what cases is abbreviation of sentences ;nost common? Why do certain styles particularly affec abbreviated forms? Where do we find "exceotiona abbreviation " ? exceptional 70. What is the simplest and commonest kind of abbreviation? Give examples. 71. Show how conjunctions become connective, of words and phrases rather than of clauses. '" " 132 EXERCISES AND QUESTIONS If 72. What is a compound member of a clause or sen- tence ? 73. Does a compound member imply a compound sen- tence? Discuss fully with examples. 74. What is the commonest co-ordinating conjunction ? Can all compound members having and as connective be used as singular members of co-ordinated clauses ? Ex. 75- Give examples of i relative word or of a depend- ent interrogative standing for a whole clause. 76. Why have thmi .and as come to be followed so fre- quently by incomplete expressions ? TJ. What is meant by calling «j sometimes an"apposi- tive connective " ? T6 what use of as has this use led ? 78. Explain the use of as in sentences where it pre- cedes if. (« I would thank her as if she had gone.") Explain the syntax of the connectives in "You are just as gay as when you are in health," " He is no weaker than when you saw him," " He stooped as if to drink," " And half I felt as they were come to tear me from a second home," « He led a well-armed though undiscip-. lined army." 79. Why is the omission of ?/no longer frequent even in poetry ? 80. Explain the connectives in " You must act so as to win," « My friends, poor as they are, are above being bought," " Much as I love you, I love honor more." 81. Show by examples the extent to which we carry abbreviation in questions and answers. Why do we abbreviate so much In these cases ? What were " Yes " and " No " originally ? Do they irnpiy ellipsis ? IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 133 ise or sen- 82 Write notes on so and do as substitutes. What are the commonest substitutes for repeated words ? 83. "You are younger than, but not brighter than, your sister. ' {a) What is the danger in the use of such " split con- structions ' ^ May we use to instead of the infinitive with to ? " He is afraid to." 84. Give examples oT omission of subordinate mem- bars. Enumerate some of the cases in which it is com- mon to omit an essential part of a sentence. Ex. 85. Show that both snM:,t and verb may be omitted, only the subordmate p? is remaining. 86. Explain the irregularities of: "What though she be a slave ! " " How if the sky were to fall ! " « Not that I ever feared him ! " « Not that I recollect." 8;. What does the Jc; imply in the construction " It was so dreadful" .? 88. Explain the abbreviation in « I heard a humming and that a strange one." ^' 89. On what grounds do you explain the expressiveness of abbreviation } 90. Give examples of abbreviated phrases used' along with interjections "or the purpose of specifying the emotion. Show also that abbreviated expressions quite similar occur apart from interjections. 91. Give examples of abbreviated explanations in which an infinitive is the most important word of the exclamative construction. m jl 1 134 EXERCISES AND QUESTIONS I J: 92. What is the explanation of the preposition in such exclamations as : "" F" ? on you ! " ? 93. Write a list of words used alone in exclamatory express.o -s until they have become virtually interjections. 94. Explain such exclamations as, " How to excuse myself!" 95- Give examples of the omission of the principal assertion when the dependent clause becomes exclam- atory. 96. The exclamatoi/ sentence is related to the inter- rogative. Give examples to provfe this statement. 97- What are interjectional phrases ? Ex. Show thiir relation to slang and profanity. 98. Give examples of interjected sentences. 99. Illustrate the changes effected in the character of vrords and phrases by abbreviation, using for examples the following: kept, got, along, alongside of, because, beside, for, directly, more than convinced. 100. Write a note on the propriety of supplying sup^ pressed words in analyzing sentences : try to indicate the line between the ellipses that should be supplied and those that should not. loi. Show by examples that there are cases in which it would be incorrect to supply the original ellipsis. 102. Explain the usual parsing of the words both—and, either— or, neither— nor, whether— than, scarcely — when •' hardly — when; other— than, 103. What are the most fruitful c^useg of irregularity vi constiUctit^n ? IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 135 ^W tion in such exclamatory nterjections. ^ to excuse Le principal les exclam- ) the inter- lent. ix. Show fiaracter of • examples 2usey beside^ flying sup- ndicate the )plied and :s in which llipsis. both — and, ' — when ; ■regularity ORDER OF WORDS. 104. Show by example the importance of the arrange- ment of words and the difference between arrangement and relation. 105. Can there be transposition without change of meaning > Without change of literary value ? 106. What is the essential difference between a syn- thetic and an analytic language in matters of arrange- ment > 107. What is the usual order of the parts of an Eng- lish sentence? On what principle has the arrangement been determined ? Discuss our arrangement of the noun and its modifier : of the active verb and its object. 108 What general principles of arrangement may be discovered by investigating English sentences ? 109. Exhibit the departures from the usual assertive form as seen in interrogative sentences and in relative clauses. Show by examples that the need of clearness, emphasis or euphony may cause a departure from the usual order. no. Show by numerous examples that a wrong arrangement may give a meaning never intended. State the principles of priority and proximity. 111. What are the emphatic positions of an expres- sion ? » 112. Why is it a fault to use inversion or transposition when no emphasis is intended ? 113. Should a sentence end with a preposition ? 1 14. What is a " Periodic Sentence " ? On wh^t principle is the arrangement forcible ? m 136 EXERCISES AND QUESTIONS 115. What is a "Balanced Sentence"? On A^hat principle do we use it ? When is it specially effectivfp 116. State some of the principles of euphony and rhythm in sentences. Show how these may be violated 117. In what case is the usual order of subject and verb regularly inverted? In what other cases' s the" order frequently inverted ? 118. Give examples of the inversion of the verb anH lach^caif ^^ complement, explaining the p^cjlet lie When may the object precede the verb? Ex 120 Why does the indirect object take a preposition when Its place is after the direct object ? ^ ^P°''^'°" 1 '^'* "^^Vl ^^^ "'"^' P°'^^'°" °f the objective com- plement? When may it take another place ? H 122. .If two or more adjectives precede and modify a noun, what rules of order govern their arrangement ? Show and explain inversions. ^ement ? 123. How do we overcome awkwardness of construe tion when many modifiers belong to the same word? 124. Does the adverb follow the verb or the object? ' Illustrate the inversions. -^ " ^ 125. What rule has been laid down for the order of adverl^s of different- classes (as to meaning)?^ ctusl 126 Illustrate the effect of shifting the position of an adverb, using " only " as the adverb. 127. When is the preposition called mc/zt/c? Ex 128. What is the usual position of a relational word? Show that conjunctions frequently take other posiHons IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 137 129. What rule governs the use of correlative con- junctions ? 130. What principle governs the position of interjec- tional expressions ? " CHAPTER XIII. ELEMENTARY QUESTIONS IN PHILOLOGY. ^^ (Consult Earle's Philolo^ of the English Tongue, Whitney's Life and Philology, Seath's Htsh School Grammar, Chapters I and XTY Sweet's Anglo-Saxon Primer.) ^ ^ ^^^• PART FIRST-PHONETICS. 1. What is the difference between phonetics and other branches of word-analysis ? 2. Using a set of diacritical marks indicate the phonetic value of the list of words below :— Eight, weight, balm, business, rogue, enough, beauty haughty, question, pedagogue. ^ _ 3. Mark closely the use made of the organs of speech m producing the simple sounds. What are stops? Fricatives or spirants ? ^ 4- What are " musical sounds " ? " Noises "? " Voral chords"? What are vowels ? 5. What are consonants ? Classify all simple sounds 6. Write out the full list of stops : classify them as flat and sharp; guttural, lingual, dental, labial and nasal- explaining clearly the terms used. i I. 'M? 138 EXERCISES AND QUESTIONS ;. Classify the spirants as flat and sharp, explaining ^e terms. Name the labio-dentals, labiaisld Wul' What are trills? What are semi-vowels? Wha"t aspiration? wudt ij, 8^ Explain the classification of vowels \nto front back h^gKn^^d and lo^. What is the objection to filing the- vowels of .//and on short and those of ../ and aZ the corresponding long vowels ? What are wide P.d narrow 9. Explain the term glide. Discuss the use of the term diphthong. °* ^^^ 10. Are there any consonant ^//^^j;> 11. Make actable of.classification (based on preceding answers) exhibiting all classes and sub-classes of simplf sounds as represented by letters and combinations 'of thJt f'^'T '^'' ^?' ^^'^'' '°"^" °f ^he truths about the state of our alphabet. 13. What are digraphs ? Orthographical expedients ? I A. Show some of the causes of " the wide gap between 15. What alphabet did the English use in the earliest times? *-aiiicb[ 16. Show the effects of the Conquest, the Wars of the Roses and the Rebellion on English spelling th JC l)?'V' '^","^^^^^'"°" ' How are we to determine the syllabication of words for purposes of pronunciation? How IS syllabication determined in printing ? 1 8, Grade the simnle cmmHic /%f f-u^ i , — ^ — ^„..u.j wi iiiQ wH^uage on the IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 139 basis of ease and smoothness. Exhibit some results of the love of ease acting upon pronunciation. Show how boys carry the love of ease farther than the dictionaries permit. What is assimilation in phonetics .? Illustrate. 19. Give some idea of the facts observed wh.ch led to the generalization known as Grimm's Law. 20. State Grimm's Law 21. K(c) H G K P F B T Th D. T Tres, dens, pater, caput, pes, fero, tenuis, cor, ager hortus, genus, frater, cornu. plenus, torqueo, flos, granum' gelu, gusto, domo, (d)jovis, caballus, clamare, calx, calor' capio, cupere, circus, tectum, civis, torridus, tumere, pecus' passus, pasco, pello, polis, pluma, pugnare, gnosco, vigil' edo, duco, hostis, homo, prehendere, trahere, veho' festus, facies, fervidus, finis, fides, flagrare, fligo, frango,' mater, izop, yovtj, faiyu,, iprnn, xi^ixi, duyaTTjp, yow. {a) In each of these classical words substitute the cor- responding English consonants (the consonants immedi- ately below in the table) and find the English word cor- responding to it. Thus tres by the substitution of tk for t becomes thres and suggests a word of the same meaning three ■ genus (dropping the ending) becomes ken which suggests a word allied to genus in meaning, namely kin. SECOND PART-PHILOLOGY. I. Define language. How is the term, restricted for scientific purposes ? till iVi I*; 140 KA«.«viSK8 AND QUESTIONS P'i -•gns « uttered o/sToken its °™' ^"' ^""^" cation"? "^ ^^"^^ of communi- 3. Have all men languages? 4. Is man the sole possessor of language? upon differences in intellectua power nf'" '?^"^ Does it depend on race distincdonsT '' '^'^'^" ^ structure ? '^""Suages ? and by studies in language («) What dan language teach about historv ;inH • in general? ''"'' "'^cory and science 7. Relate the history of the science nf u show its importance. * language ; also 8. What is the object of an »i linguistic science, or philology? ^'"^'"^^^^ ^^"^^ ^^ - 9. Distinguish grammar and philology 10. What is philology ? 11. What is meant by the " pvw.,oi , . language ? ^ external relations " of a the woHd." Explain thi/Ltlt TJ T r '^^ '" • """ "lustrate it IN ENGLISH GRAMMAB 141 I low is the truth it contains accounted for in the history of Knghsh ? ^ 14. What is the « great Indo-European family " of anguages? On what grounds are these languages known to be of common origin ? 15. What is meant by "consonantal transition"? Give simple examples of such transition of consonants m dialectic speech. 16. Is phonetic transition confined to any languaee or group of languages ? ^ & s » JL ^^''f ^ "'"''' "' ^^^'"'' "'""*^'' ^"""ral, thin, middle, and aspirate. 18. Give examples of consonantal transition between Latin and English. State Jacob Grimm's law of transi- tion of mutes between the classic languages and English • ■'9- What do these examples point to? What proof is needed of kinship of two languages ? ^ JO. What is the limit to the examples of Grimm's 21. How does the relation between Gothic and Classic anguages compare with that between subdivisions of the Gothic ? .ffhT M^t*"' ^^ '"■'"'^'''' °f ">« Gothic diviMon Of the Indo-European family. 22. Distinguish High Dutch and Low Dutch To ^hat periods are assigned Old. Middle and New Hi^h Dutch? To which of these do we in schoofgL ^ lame German ? ^ ^ 23. Is the term low Dutch a term of comoansnn or - geographical term ? ^ ■ ^i ^ 142 rr KXEKCISES AND QUESTIONS 24. Explain " All the outirrovvth and accretion of the ii.nglish lan^Hiage clusters round a Low Dutch centre." tJ^ "^^^^••'^^he languages of Scandinavia related to the Low Dutch? What is the post-positive article? lis" ^^'"'"^^^ ^^' ^'' "'' ''''''''^" ^"^^h "^' 26. Have the low Dutch Languages the passive verb ? i he Moesogothic ? 27. State and illustrate the law of consona'ntal transi- tion between Low Dutch and High Dutch. 28. Give a tabular n 37. Who were the British race? What had been their history during the 400 years preceding the con- quest ? "^ 38. Tell with aid of examples the nature of the words Brtons!""^ ^^''"' ""^'"^ '^' ^"^'"'^ P^"^"' "^ ^' "^ '^^ 39. " How far was the British population Ji.. mar zed?" 40. Distinguish the terms "Cymric," " Welsh." 41. Give some account of the influence of the kingdom of Northumbria on religion and language. 42. Relate Baeda's account of Caedmon. 43^ Relate the after-history of Northumbrian Litera- ture (Barbour, Burns and Scott.) 44. When the Danes had obliterated Northumbrian civilization, which kingdom got the supremacy? 45. Why did the people of Wessex call their language English instead of Saxon ? ^ ^ 46. What is the quality of the English of Alfred's reign. 47. What dates limit the predominance of West Saxon ? 48. State clearly the difference between an inflected and a non-inflected language. 49. Compare in this respect Latin, modern English and Anglo-Saxon. -^"gusn, 50. W^hat is meant by « a double mechanism for the "I, Mi M> It 144 EZERCISBS AND QUESTIONS purposes of syntax " ? How is it favourable to expres sion? Illustrate from Greek, Modern German and English. 51. What is the general relation of the newer vocabu- lary to the old Gothic ? 52. Show how the word man has altered in accidence, application, and convertible use. 53. Show English expedients for equivalents to the French on {dit) and the German man {sagt). Criticize the value of our English expedients. 44. Write notes on the alterations in thing, smith, heapy can, on, with, an. 55. How are the high qualities of the old Anglo-Saxon Literature accounted for ? 56. What were the immediate effects of the Norman conquest on Saxon Literature? (Chronicles, religious works, ballads.) 57. What were the immediate effects of subjugation on the syntax and vocabulary of English ? 58. " A bi-lingual condition lasted down to the middle of the fourteenth century." Explain the statement. What condition succeeded the bilingual condition ? Had not French gained ground in the three centuries ? 59. What is meant by the Transition ? How does Earle divide the Transition ? 60. Give some account of the substance and form of the works of Layamon a'^d Orm. 61. During the century and a half during which the French was the languag-." of education, society, business 145 Djugationon nd form of IN ENGLISH OIIAMMAK. and^^government, what class of words did English 4MXV^.T: " -"- "— '" '••e cen- 63. Write a note on " The Owl and Nightingale" 65. Give a list of words from Danish Are the French and English words blended in it > JL "^"'^ ' "°'' °" *"= ^'■™™='<= °f Robert of Glou. 68. "In the ,3th and ,4th centuries French was h, come an acknowledged subject of derision" Explat and amplify. -c-xpjam naSnaXTeV'^ """"" '^°'"' '°*-''^ ^-g"^" - a thifpeldt """' '"^ ^"''^^ ^'^-^ °^ English during 71. "The dialects offer DeculiaraH.,ar,f. .ca. discipline." What L'ratrhSfLl^^^^^^^^^ 72. What is meant by the " King's Engh'sh " > En;UTthtTmTr ''-''-' -- -^- ---^ Of ^t .^?."^"^!"^ o" *h^ terms the « The Kir..'. W^- ay, "The Uueen'Q Pnrrl.-oK" — "-o- Mjgu- vvay," " The yueen's Engh'sh." 10 U6 EXERCISES AND QUESTIONS 75. What was the documentary language of England before French was Used ? ^6. What were the qualities of the King's English used in proclamations and letters ? Tj. What have Chaucer and Gower in common ? 78. What is the philological value of a study of Chaucer ? Why is he called the " well of English unde- filed"? 79. Give some idea of the composition of Chaucer's vocabulary. Was he the inventor of the mixture ? 80. What does the truth that French and English synonyms often ran in couples (diglots ?) tend to prove ? 81. How may these couples be concealed from the student of Chaucer ? 82. Are these couples merely tautological or have they a justification ? 83. Have they any justification in modern English ? 84. Explain Chaucer's use of the word " wys " (in the Prologue) also of the relatives that and which, shewing their relation to the French usage. 85. Write notes on the etymology of " to boot " and " business " : what does the consideration of such words teach us ? 86. Account for the ambidextral habits of placing epithets in English poetry. 87. How has modern English taken advantage of the bilingualism of our vocabulary ? 88. " The Romanesque influence has given to the whole language a new complexion." Amplify this state- •rv«^^*^ff cal or have IN ENGLISH GRAMMAR. |^y 89. What was the i.nportance of the fact that Ch. was a courtier Staf^ f„n j , * Chaucer 9a Note the Scotch use of the word «*,f 93. What is the fundamental distinction h»^ ' T^TT ^" *^ "■°^"" ^".""h'diLct'r" general class of errors is exemplified ? 95. Compare the "purity" of Scoff f«K a i- the "undefiled" diction of Chaucer "'^'''" ^^'^^ 96. Is the great difference between the 0„« • t. lish and the old English one of ! I? ' ^"^■ Explain fully. ^ "^ °^ vocabulary mainly.? 97. What does Earle mean by saying that " . P u ' family sett ed in Enp^IanH .a ^'"^'/"^* a French language"? ^ ""^ ^"^ ^^^^^^^ ^he English 1! 148 GLOSSARY. Glossary of Technical Terms of Grammar. Space is left below to be filled by the student, with examples and definitions of the terms of the list. These terms should be defined, as necessity arises for a clear knowledge of them in the student's progress in the study. If any of the terms of the list seem to be uncalled for they should be left undefined : young students especially should rather master thoroughly the definitions of the important terms than burden their minds with less im- portant, and perhaps more difficult, technicalities. To learn thoroughly we!l the application of every term in the list would be, to remove the greatest barrier to the complete mastery of grammar ; only a fourth of the student's efibrt is required in understanding the use of a gerund or a predicate adjective, three fourths of his effort is spent in mastering the difficult name of the construc- tion. After each new lesson in grammar write examples and definitions of the new terms you have found need for. List of Terms. I. Absolute Nominative. 2. Abstract Noun. 3. Accent RAMMAR. tudent, with list. These for a clear in the study, uncalled for ts especially tions of the nth less im- calities. To ;ry term in irrier to the mrth of the the use of a of his effort he construc- ite examples found need 150 GLOSSARY. 4. Accusative Case. 5. Active Voice. 6. Adjective. 7. Adjective Adjunct 8. Adjective Clause. 9. Adjunct. 10. Adverb. II. Adveib Clause. Irn m 12. Adverbial Adjunct i.^. Adverbial Obiective, r ■ 1^ 152 GLOSSARY. 14. Adverbial Phrase. 15. Adverbial Relation. 16. Adversative Conjunction 17. Affirmative Sentence. 18. Affix. 19. Agreement. 20. Alternative Conjunction. 21. Alternative Interrogative Sentence; 22. Analysis. 23. Analytic Language. " ' ^^^K ^:.*}. :. u?i';"i ^ ' :i. i it. .l'>4 OLOSSARY, 24. Antecedent , 25. Apposition. 26. Appositive Adjective. 27. Appositive Connective. 28. Appositive Noun. 29. Article. ! I 30. Artificial Intarjection. 31. Aspiration, 32. Assertive Sentence. m f'p': 156 GLOSSARY. 34. Attraction. 35. Attributive Adjective. S6. Attributive (or Adjective) Relation. 37. Augmentative Noun. 38. Auxiliary Verb. 39. Balanced Sentence. I i 40. Bare Predicate. 41. Bare Subject. 42. Cardinal Numeral. 43. Caus itive Verb. A -' m 168 44- Classification. OLOSSABY. 45. Clause. 46. Clause equivalent. 47. Colloquialism. 48. Collective Noun. 49' Common Noun. i> ,s I 50. Comparative degree. 51. Comparative of Superiority. 52. Comparative of Inferiority. 53. Comparative of Equality. m < Ir : 160 54. Comparison. 55" Compensation. 56. Complement. 57- Completion. 58. Complete Predicate. 59- Complete Subject. 60. Complex Sentence. GLOSSARY. 61. Composition. i-i 62. Compound derivative. 63. Compound Indefinite Relative. ' ■ ■"•■~'-~-mnT II * 162 64. Compound word. GLOSSARY. 65. Compound sentence. 66. Concrete Noun. ill 67. Conditional Clause (or Protasis). In 68. Consequent Clause (or Apodosis). 6g. Concessive Adverb Clause. 70. Conditional Mood. 71. Conditional Inversion. 72- Conjugation. 73. Conjunction. 164 GLOSSARY. 74. Conjunctive Adverb. 75. Conjunctive Pronoun. 76. Connecting Elements. 'JT. Consonant. '1/ 78. Continuous tense forms. ; !i I II! 79. Copula. 80. Copulative Conjunction. 81. Correlative Adverb. 82. Correlative Conjunction. 83. Dative Case. 166^ GLOSSARY. 84, Declension^ 85. Decomposite. 86 Defective Verb. 87. Definition. 88, Degree. 89. Demonstrative Adjective. 90. Demonstrative Pronoun. 91. Dental. 92. Dependent Interrogative Clause. Q^. Dependent Question. ^•^ • m\ liiiij; I 168 GLOSSARY. 94. Dependent Interrogative Pronoun. > 95. Derivation. 96. Derivative Word. 97. Descriptive Adjective. 98. Descriptive Relative- 99. Digraph. I'M ■''■ all; ' I 100. Diminutive Nqun. 10 1. Diphthong. 102. Direct Narration. 103. Direct Object. IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) A k <' ^^^^""^ ■'„2. WM "^ 1.0 I.I ^ «£ 11° 11:25 |||U II 1.6 w Photographic Sciences Corporation 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. 14580 (716) 872-4503 o WM k I v .1, 1 70 OLOSSARV. 104. Distributive Adjective. 105. Distributive Pronoun. 106. Double Plural. 107. Dual Number. 108. Ect&sis. 109. Ellipsis. no. Emphatic Personal Pronoun. 'iilii; III. Emphatic Past Tense. 112. Emphatic Present Tense. 113. Enclitic ill ill '1 ^ liiiiilii!! I 172 GLOSSAKY. 114. Essential Elements. 1 1 5. Ethical Dative. 1 16. Etymology. 117. Exclamative Sentence. 118. Exclamatory Interrogative Sentence. 119. Extension of Subject. 1 20. Extension of Predicate. 121. Factitive Verb. V 122. Factitive Predicate Adjective. »M i'' |!| ill! 123. Factitive Objective Predicate Noun. 174 GLOSSARY. 124. Feminine Gender. 125. Finite Verb. 126. First Person. 127. Fractional Numeral. 128. Frequentative Verb. ill :i!;!;;ili^ 129. Fricative. 130. Function. 131. Future Tense. 132. Gender. 133. Gender-noun. II 7i\ l76 GLOSSARY. 134. Genitive Case. 135. Gerundial Infinitive. 136. Glide. 137. Government. k 138. Grammatical Gender. 139. Grammatical Relation. 140. Grammatical Subject. 141. Guttural. 142. Historic Past Tense. 143. Historic Present Tense. 178 144 Hybrid. 145. Hyphen. 146. Idiom. GLOSSARY. 147. Imperative Clause. 148. Imperative Mood. 149. Imperfect Tense-form. i|!l 4 1 50. Impersonal Object. 151. Impersonal Subject. 'Ill i\ 'm I, 152. Improper Inflection. 153. Inceptive Verb. 1 li iti: 1 180 UbOSMAKY. 1 54. Incomplete Predication. 155. Indeclinable Substantive, 156. Indefinite Tense-form. 157. Indefinite Relative Adjective. k 158. Indicative Mood. 159. Indefinite Adjective. 160. Indefinite Pronoun. :■ 'Ih ! 161. Indirect Question. {ilniliili'.: 162. Indirect Object. ;il '.^'." ii 163. Indirect (or oblique) narration. :!.■ :: II 5 1' If ■I !:L*Li i i.iimii »i •Saa 182 GLOSSARY. 164. Infinitive. 165. Infinitive Phrase. 166. inflection. rP i!i[ 1.1 M, 1 !;■ I ! Ml,jj}liiil m 'lliiiii 167. Intensive Verb. 168. Interjection. 169. Interjectional Phrase. 170. Interjected Sentence. 171. Interrogative Sentence. 172. Intransitive Verb. 173. Introductory Adverb. _^^UJA ' > ! II , H I III |ii i | r |i I || ) | | , I -^*"M.||.M| | ^m 1 \. If*** OLOSSAHY. 174. Irregular Verb*. 175. Inverted Conditional Sentence. 176. Labial. 177. Labio-dental. 178. Law of Priority. 179 Law of Proximity. 180. Lingual. i I iii! 'iHiil 181. Logical Predicate. 182. Logical Subject 183. Middle Voice. mi I i|S!:!!!! \l\:\,tt 186 GLOSSARY. 184. Mistaken Analogy. 185. Modal Verb Phrase. 186. Mood. 187. Multiplicative Numeral 188. Narrow Vowel. 189. Nasal. .190. Natural Gender. 191. Neuter Gender. 192. Neuter Verb. 193. Nominative Case. il 188 ' GLOSSABTf. 194. Nominative of Address. < 195. Non-significant Noun. 196. Notion. 197. Notional Word. 198. Noun. 199. Noun Phrase. 200. Noun Equivalent. 201. Noun Clause. wSC2. Number. 203. Numeral. ii )Liji.x*Ti >ss 190 GLOSSARY. ^>4. Objective Case. 205. Objective Predicate Adjective. 2 o Objective Predicate Noun. I ■ 207. Objective Possessive. 208. Obligative Mood. 209. Obligative Verb Phrase. ill ft 210. Optative Subjunctive Mood. 211. Orthography. 212. Orthographical expedient 213. Palatal. 102 OLOBSAItr. 214. PaFadigm. I 215. Parsing. 216. Parts of Speech. 217. Particle. 218. Participle. 219. Participle Phrase. 220. Passive Voice. 221. Passive Verb Phrase. 222. Past Tense. 223. Patronymic Noun. !lllili!li!! 104 nT,08aAnv. 224. perfect tcnsH? lorin. 225. Periodic Sentence. 226. Permanent Compound. 227. Person. 228. Personal Pronoun. 229 Phonetics. 2jO. Phrase. 231. Pluperfect Tense. ri 232. Plural. 233. Phrasal Ire}. »3!tion. ill; I'' I Oft QLOSSAUY. 234. Positive Degree. 235. Possessive Case. 236. Potential Mood. 237. Predicate Nominative. 238. Predicate Adjective. 239. Predicative (or Assertive) Relation. 240 Predictive Future Tense. M !i li 1 1 241. Prefi:!^. 242. Preposition. 243. Prepositional Adverb r..rase. if 1' ^gg OLOSSAUY. t 244 Present Tense. 245. Primary (or Principal) 'lenses. 246. Primitive Word. 247. Principal Clause. f I 248. Progressive Tense-form. 249. Promissive Future. 250. Pronoun. 251. Pronominal Adjective. jj Ql 252. Pronominal Adverb. 253. Pronominal Phrase. iiillliiiiii 200 GLOSSARY. I 254. Proper Noun. 255. Qualitative Adjective. 256. Quantitative Adjective. 257. Radical Part. u 258. Reciprocal Pronoun. 259. Reflexive Object. 260. Regular Verb. 261. Relation, Grammatical. 262. Relational Word. 263. Relative Pronoun. \ I 202 OLOSSAKY. I 264 Representative Object. 265. Representative Subject 266. Responsiv^s. 267. Restrictive Adjective. 268. Restrictive Relative. 269. Root. 270 Root- Infinitive. ■' ,ii liIMM 271. Root Syllable. 272. Root-Word. 273. Second Person. 204 GLOSSARY. 274. Secondary (or Historical) Tenses. a 275. Secondary Derivative. 276. Selective Interrogative Pronoun. ; 277. Semi-vowel. m 278. Sense-Construction. 279. Sentence. 280. Sequence of Tenses. 281. Significant Noun. 282. Simple Word. 283. Simple Sentence. 1 m wg«i » *#- .rffiWMWMn 20(f} nix)ssAaY. 284. Singular Number. 285. Spirant. 286. Split Construction. 287. Stem. 288. Stem-notion. 289. Stop. 290. Strong Verb. 291. Subject. 292. Subjective Completion. liSlUMI;!!:! I b 293. Subjective Predicate Adjective. asacr.-.-. 208 0I.0S8ART. 294. Subjective Predicate Noun. 295. Subjective Possessive. 296. Subjective Relation. 297. Subjunctive Mood. M 298. Subordinate Adjective Clause. 299. Subordinate Adverb Clause. 300. Subordinate Noun Clause. 30!. Subordinative Conjunction. 302. Substantive. 303. Substantive Claus< t i 210 ■ OLOSSAKY. 304. Substitute. 305. Suffix. 306. Superlative Degree. 307. Superlative Absolute. 308. Superlative RelatVe. 309. Supine. 310. Syllabication. 311. Syncope. 312. Syntax. 313. temporary Compound. 212 314- Tense. GLOSSAKY. 315. Tense Auxiliary. 316. Third Person. 317. Transitive Verb. 318. Trill. 319. Verb. 320. Verb-Equivalent, 321. Verb-Phrase. M 322. Verbal Noun. 323. Verbal Adjective. w< mm >'m. n m i m ggggg H^ lil,i 214 GLOSSARY. I 324. Vocative Nominative. 325 Voiced (or Flat) Vowels. 326. Voiceless (or Sharp) Vowels. 127. Vowel. ;;28. Weak Verb. 329. Wide Vowel. 330. Word. ^1 ! 5. S i . 'h^^^i^' .' ^' .i%:tf*tei ,;-*;;.*•*■ JT