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Maps, plates, charts, etc.. may be filmed at different reduction ratios. Those too large to be entirely included in one exposure are filmed beginning in the upper left hand corner, left to right and top to bottom, as many frames as required. The following diagrams illustrate the method: Les cartes, planches, tableaux, etc.. peuvent dtre filmds A des taux de rMuction diffirents. Lorsque le document est trop grand pour &tre reproduit en un seul cliche, il est film6 d partir de I'angle supirieur gauche, de gauche A droite. et de haut en bas. en prenant le nombre d'images nicessaire. Les diagrammes suivants illustrent la mAthode. 1 2 3 1 2 3 4 5 6 30 "7 ^^ c \ ~^-^*«^=f- ,«,,.•■•.: ■i iX A V ■■ f - GEOGRAPHICAL, HISTORICAL, ANO COMMERCIAL GRAMMAR. ..*■ »»• 9"iimi""PiiiHP J r' i.nKnos I PRrNTI-I) BV MII.I.S, JOHKrr, AND MIM.S, IIULT'lUllliT, f I.RK'raTKRET. ..-'^ s /^ ■■■i ^l■,■l,,//>4l>l^^ In/ Mm- if 7*7 ^vJ.Mawman .f rhr ctkrr prvpiirlvn. GEOGRAPHICAL, HISTORICAL, iiii I AND COMMERCIAL GRAMMAR; EXHIBITINO THE <•> ,^ PRESENT STATE OF THE WORLD ^ AND CONTAINING, I. The Figures, Motions, and Distances VI. Tiie Zoologry of each Country of the Planetf , according; to the New • tonian System, aud the latest Obser- vations : II. A general View of the Earth, consi- dered as a Planet; with several useful geographical Definitions and Problems ; III. The grand Divisions of the Globe into Land snd Water, Continents and Islands : IV. The Situation and Extent of Em- pires, Kingdoms, States, Provinces, and Colonies : V. Their Climates, Air, Soil, Vegetable Productions. Metals, Minerals, Na- tural Curiosities, Seas, Rivers, Bays, Capes, Promontories, and Lakes : TO WHICH ARE ADDED, VII. Observations on the Changes that have been observed upon the Pace of Nature, since the most early Periods of History : VIII. The History and Origin of Na->d' tions, their Forms of Government, Relif^on, Laws, Revenues, Taxes, Naval and Military Strength, &c. IX. The Genius, Manners, Customs, and HabiU of the People : X. Their Languages, Learning, Arts, Sciences, Manufactures, and Com* merce : XI. The chief Cities, Structures, Ruias> and artificial Curiosities : «i»*'->aii I^ GEOoaAPHiCAL Index, with the Names of Places alphabetically arranged, and their Latitudes and' Longitudes; II. A Table of Coins, and their Value in English Money ; III. A CitiioNOLO- oiCAL Table of remarkable Events, from the Creation to the present Time; and, IV. an Obituary oijjafAj^nt and illustrious Persons, of \ By. WILLIAM GB^HRIE, Esq. THE ASTRONOMICAL PART BY JAMES FERGUSON, F.R.S. ILLUSTRATED WITH A NJSW AND CORRECT SET OF MAPS. ^S"v*.^f ■ THE TWENTY-FOURTH EDITION, STUDIOUSLY REVISED AND CAREFULLY CORRECTED. LONDON : Printed for C. and J. Rivinoton ; V< Cuthell ; Longman aud Co.; T. Cadell ; Harvry and Co. ; .!ohn RicharoSW ; Baynes and Son ; J, and W. '1'. Clarrb ; J. Booker; Boosey and Sons: B. William«; W. Ginger ; R. Scholev : J.Mawman; Baldwin and Co. ; T. Tnne; Sherwood and Co.; Hamilton and Co.; J.Duncan; G. B. Whittakbu ; SARNO^iRs and Hodg&on; Simpkin And Marshall; J. Soutbr; J. Hearne; J.CoLLh^nvooD: O.Wilson; Smith and Co.; Baker and Fletcher; Poole and Edwarm; Wilson and Sons, York; and Stirling and Slade, Edinburgh. ^ 1827. 1 ' ,:| o.TADiiK)j;siu\wi7a)i 11*17.51 i)o:^;) .. , ' .11. • I I -n ,a/'.'i!! ' ■i..ii!'i'. r II! , ''Ji f.l'! •"•I'l '■> : '.'...I. „.,..,. (.=..... ' ' ; . • ( w- ■.,t)i.: jn>r { 'u.'. 4 ,((rj, !(r. V'-' {2 rt -^ jiitao.) .Villi ¥/ minlnii.-.! tiU / / ...I... f. *- til*. -M r'! ' -.1 (•r:/ Iff ti>v!> ' tif'i t«it.J:l/.jif' fi.tV ./I ... ,(■.- ».llfvl'i ,- /'"J^- ,''Ii ■..-i:/ "' ■■;;.•: ...U:; :.(!;: >Vi;.V>)*'.«. .'i:../''(Jl'! H* ""Nik. ., , ^ .amnA Sua !%f. •,;;..•/ > «.n a^K^H^T. K Js.ia#^jf t3krft.I§-be£ .SfVi.urf:|IJH-! : .i'i^,'jmmnrrn.\ it ni •j-jfi'jfm-jt ADVERTISEMENT. "^"^ .'>)iniV.! j/'jVlU-^ 'J-ftl . 'y^w iJ'f'^fM. ■.ai)fli;ffr»v»h(i 'fl'l'n'l/ f)ff/? 'Wri/>T\h; >/!/>•; ,'-/7''' .>'> M •■•,1^', '■ •Jfi'ifia/J dorr lr.V'jf> ;; /.'O'-S > f-uji iioijip';!-!'.: .inOJii; f; >!' \ .. // ci )»< I r/ fi", i , tj j)/*r I.i!li'/y T .It*;. .1 .. r J. The worldifl a most wonderful scene. Its remarkable or rather stupendous construction, and the nature, the movements and operations, of the animated beings who fret their short hours upon it, are, to a contem- plative mind, objects of serious reflexion and of intense deliberation. Every one, indeed, who is imbued with a rational spirit, must be desirous of bein^ acquainted with the affairs of the terraqueous g-lobe which he inhabits ; he must wish to know its origin, its progress, and every important circumstance connected with it. Of the higher world, or the solar and planetary system, he must also wish to acquire some knowlege, even if it be (as it necessarily is) imperfect. All the intelligence which can be obtained upon these heads will be found in a condensed form in the work which we now recom- mend to public notice. Long details and minute spe- cifications cannot be expected in a professed com- pendium : yet we may boldly declare, that our volume IS not only sufficiently informative for the middle class of the community and the generality of readers, but is calculated also to furnish amusement and instruction for the superior orders of society. It embraces almost every topic that can be named, except the most frivolous and msignificant; it affords a regular s^tatistic view of every country ; it treats of the different forms of i-eligioii and government ; it traces the course of arts and of refinement, and exhibits curious traits of character, and varied pictures of life and manners. As evenr successive edition of a work of this kind requires alterations, amendments, and substitutions, we have diligently attended to our duty in that respect. In our review of the kingdoms and states of Europe, we have endeavoured to procure the latest and ttjost If a ADVERTISEMENT. authentic intelligence. It is unnecessary to particularise all the documents which we have consulted : the mention of some of our authorities will, we hope, suffice. Front' Dr. Lyall, whose long residence in Russia gave him many opportunities of accurate survey, we have derived considerable and useful information. He was accused by the late emperor of prejudice and consequent falsification; but, although he may.have fallen into misconception and error, it does not appear that he has been guilty of wilful mis-statements. AVe have also profited by Mr. Henderson's communications respecting various parts of the same empire ; and Mr. Russell's account of a great portion of Germany has not, to us, been useless or nugatory. From Simond's travels in Switzerland we have borrowed occasional hirts: the inquiries and researches of Quin and of Bramsen in Spain have augmented oiu* knowlege of that country ; an anonymous writer has favored us with the means of improving our survey of Portuguese manners and customs ; and new light has been thrown upon the political state and general concerns of the Turkish empire, but more particularly on the afiairs of Greece, now convulsed by that revolt which, we hope, will terminate in the independence even of the dege- nerate posterity of Pericles and Leonidas. In our developement of the state and circumstances of Asia, we have been materially assisted by the labors of some ingenious and well-informed writers. Sir William Ouseley and Sir Robert Ker Porter have led us over the chief provinces of Persia, and introduced us to the court of the shah ; and Mr. Fraser has not only examined Khorasan, a dependency of that realm, with a curious eye, but has investigated, for the information of the public, the state of the romantic regions of Khowarasm and Great-Bokharia. The cultivated plains of China and the mountains of Tibet have been more accurately surveyed, and the wonders of Hin- doostan more fully disclosed ; and, from the increased connexions of our oriental company, and the late war between that powerful body and the Birmese sovereign, we have derived a mass of additional information re- specting the peninsula of India beyond the Ganges. ^ ^ The progress of discovery in Africa has lately extend- ll ADVERTISEMENT. ''9& ed itself to the kingdom of Houssa and the interior of Soudan, and we are in daily expectation of ulterior intelligence from that part of the world. The bold adventurers (major Denham and captain Clapperton), who passed b'^yond the great desert, and penetrated to the central territories within nine degrees of the equator, have opened a new scene to our view, and we have consequently included in our volume the substance of their interesting discoveries. To the great changes in America, which promise the most important results, we have devoted a considerable share of attention. The elevation of so many colonies to the dignity of independence, the progress of san- guinary contests, and the present state of each of the new governments, have been noticed with due care. On the first appearance of strong symptoms of discon- tent, we fanned the rising flame which has since spread from the great Rio del Norte to the strait of Magellan, paralysing in its course the nerves of despotism ; and we trust that the spirit of dissension, in the new states, will not be carried to dangerous extremes. I'he first voyage of Europeans into that great ocean which bounds America to the northward, may be said to form an sera in navigation ; and, although strong doubts may be entertained of the eventual utility of a passage through a sea which is for so short a season in a fluid state, that and the other Arctic voyages of captain Parry have been at least subservient to philo- sophical curiosity. The ant-Arctic voyage of Weddell is also memorable; and both th^se navigators seem to think th:}teven the North and the South Poles may be reached. In addition to the four quarters of the world, two important divisions are rising into increased notice. One is Australasia, the state of which, as far as it is known, we have illustrated by the aid of captain Philip King and Mr. Field ; the other is Polynesia, which com- prehends the numerous islands of the Pacific Ocean. Of the most flourishing of these, — namely, the Sand- wich groupe, — the labors of Mr. Ellis the missionary, and the more recent communications of the present lord Byron, have enabled us to give an accurate description. I Mr ADVERTISEMENT. : Wheto we add to these intimatioiu the announce- ment of a new set of Maps, surpassing those of the preceding edition in number and in correctness, we may xcaponably expect, because we may fairly claim, a continuance of public favor and support. , ,, ,,/ "J ■•' . , 1 Afay 1, 1827. :.i ,-i.'r.: . iJV',^v(-. .J ,i-< ■, ! !i.;.'. •,.;,( ., ! , ,Ui ,^!ij^'!;?'i.; J >/;M;.ii •'■■ ^':- '•■' '^'-^ •i;'''>;M':b o.ii; lirr .j.O!;: jt-r' lii:,- i'Ui. "i^;!., .1. ni}A<, furn\Wi!iiiJit\iihi'\ ■ '^::4'>/i aujili: H:n PREFACE TO THE EARLy EDITIONS. ■1 " ' rr ; '! Jji .»li ■■: .; ;• '[({ "H ■;::>! ;f!-.>'2 /Min 'iS(U To a man sincerely interested in the welfare of so- ciety and of his own country, it must be particularly agreeable to reflect on the rapid progress and general diffusion of learning and civility which, within the present age, have taken place in Great-Britain. What- ever may be the case in some other kingdoms of Eu- rope, we, in this island, may boast of our superiority to those illiberal prejudices which not only cramp the genius but sour the temper of man, and disturb all the agreeable intercourse of society. Among us, learning is no longer confined within the schools of the philoso- phei's, or the courts of the great ; but, like all the greatest advantages which Heaven has bestowed on mankind, it is become as universal as it is useful. Tliis general diffusion of knowlege is one effect of that happy constitution of government which, toward the close of the seventeenth century, was confirmed to us, and which constitutes the peculiar glory of this nation. In other countries, the great body of the peo- ple possess little wealth, have little power, and conse- quently meet with little respect; in Great-Britain the people are opident, have great influence, and claim, of course, a proper share of attention. To their improve- ment, therefore, men of letters have lately directed their studies ; as the great body of the people, no less than the dignified, the learned, or the wealthy few, have an acknowleged title to be amused and instructed^ Books have been divested of the terms of the schools, reduced from that size which suited only the purses of the rich and the avocations of the studious, and are adapted to persons of more ordinary fortunes, whose attachment to other ])ursuit8 admitted little leisure for those of knowlege. It is to books of this kind, more tta to the works of our Bacons, oqr I^ockes^ and; our X PREFACE. Newtons, that the generality of our countrymen owe that superior improvement which distinguishes them from the lower ranks of men in all other countries. To promote and advance this improvement is the prin- cipal design of our present undertaking. No subject appears more interesting than that which we have chosen, or seems capable of being treated in a manner that may render it more generally useful. The knowlege of the world, and of its inhabitants, though not the most sublime pursuit of mankind, it must be allowed, is that which most nearly interests them, and to which their abilities are best adapted: and books of Geography, which describe the situation, extent, soil, and productions, of kingdoms ; the genius, manners, religion, government, commerce, sciences, and arts, of all the inhabitants of the earth ; promise the best assistance for attaining this knowlege. The compendium of Geography, now offered to the public, differs in many particulars from other books on that subject. Beside exhibiting an easy, distinct, and systematic account of the theory and practice of what may be called Natural Geography, the Author has at- tempted to render thefollowingperformance an instruc- tive, though compendious, detail of the general history of the world. The characters of nations depend on a combination of many circumstances, which recipro- cally affect each other. There is a nearer connexion between the learning, commerce, government, &c. of a state, than most people seem to apprehend. In a work of this kind, the object of which is to include moral, or political, as well as natural Geography, no one of these topics should pass unnoticed. The omis- sion of any one of them would, in reality, deprive us of a branch of knowlege, not only interesting in itself, but which is absolutely necessary for enabling us to form an adequate and comprehensive idea of the subject in general. We have thought it necessary, therefore, that this work should comprehend the history and pre- sent state of learning in the several countries we de- scribe, with the characters of such persons as have been most eminent in the various departments of letters and philosophy. This ^vill, on a little reflexion, ap- pear requisite, when we consider the powerful in- PREFACE. ii> flueiice of learning upon the manners, goveniment, and general character, of nations. These objects, in- deed, till of late, seldom found a place in geographical performances ; and, even where they have been intro- duced, are by no means handled in an entertaining or instructive manner. Neither is this to be altogether imputed to the fault of geographical writers. The greater part of travelers, acting solely under the in- fluence of avarice, the passion which first induced them to quit their native land, were at little pains, and were indeed ill qualified, to collect such materials as are proper for gratifying our curiosity, with regard to these particulars. The geographer, then, who could only employ tlie materials put into his hands, was not enabled to give us any important information upon such subjects. In the course of the eighteenth cen- tury, however, men have bef^un to travel from diffe- rent motives. A thirst for knowlege, as well as for gold , has led many into distant lands. These they have explored with philosophic attention ; and, by laying open the internal springs of action, by which the in- habitants of different regions are actuated, exhibit to us a natural and striking picture of human manners, under the various stages of barbarism and refinement. Without manifest impropriety, we could not but avail ourselves of their labors, by means of which we have been enabled to give a more copious and perfect de- tr'S 3f what is called Political Geography, than has hitherto appeared. In considering the present state of nations, few cir- cumstances are more important than their mutual in- tercourse. This is chiefly produced by commerce, the prime mover in the cEConomy of modern states ; of which, therefore, we have never lost sight in the pre- sent undertaking. -J^Ij >a)..;s'i.; ,i;Mij,;V jii We are sensible that a reader cannot examine the present circumstances of nations with much entertain- ment or instruction, unless he be also informed of their state during preceding ages, and of the various revo- lutions and events, by the operation of which they have assumed theirpresent form and appearance. This con- stitutes the historical part of our work, in which, in- stead pf a meagre index of incoherent incidents, wo T ^ i Xii PREFACE. have drawn up a regular and connected epitome of the history of each country ; — such an epitome as may be read with equal pleasure and advantage, and consider- ed as a proper introduction to more copious accounts. Having, through the whole of tlie work, mentioned the ancient names of countries, and, in treating of their particular history, sometimes carried our researches beyond the limits of modern times, we have thought it necessary, for the satisfaction of such readers as arc unacquainted with classical learning, to begin our his- torical Introduction with the l ;mote ages of antiquity. By inserting an account of the ancient world in a book ot Geography, we afford an opportunity to the reader of comparingi not only the manners, government, and arts, of different nations, as they now appear, but as they subsisted in ancient ages ; which, exhibiting a general map, as it were, of the history of mankind, renders our work more complete than any geographical treatise extant. ^ In the execution of our design, we have constantly endeavoured to observe order and perspicuity. Ele- gance we liave sacrificed to brevity; happy to catch the leading features which distinguish the characters of nations, and by a few strokes to sketch, though not completely to finish, the picture of mankind. 1 What has enabled us to comprise so many subjects witliin the narrow bounds of this work, is the omission of many immaterial circumstances, and of all those fa- bulous accounts or descriptions, which, to the disgrace of the human understanding, swell the works of Geo- graphers ; though their falsity, both from their own nature and the concurring testimony of the most en- lightened and the best-informed travelers and histori- ans, has been long since detected. As to the various parts of the work, we have been more Or less diffuse, according to their importance to us as men and as subjects of Great-Britain. Our own country, in both respects, deserved the greatest share of our attention. Great-Britain, though she cannot boast of a more luxuriant soil or a happier climate than many other countries, has advantages of another and superior kind, which make her the delight, the envy, and the mistress, of the world : these are, the equity of HI PREFACE. xiU her laws, the freedom of her political constitution, and the moderation of her religious system. With regard to the British empir2 we have therefore been singularly copious. Next to Great.Britain, we have been most particular upon the other states of Europe, and always in pro-« portion as they present us with the largest field for useful reflexion. By comparing our accounts of the European nations, the important system of practical knowlege is inculcated, and a thousand arguments will appear in favor of a mild religion, a free government, and an extended, unrestrained commerce. £urope having occupied so large a part of our vo^ lume, Asia next claims our attention ; which, however, though in some respects the most famous quarter of the world, offers, when compared to Europe, very little for our entertainment or instruction. In Asia, a strong attachment to ancient customs, and the weight of ty- rannical power, bear down the active genius of man, and prevent that variety, in manners and character, which distinguishes the European nations. In Africa, the human mind seems degraded below its natural state. To dwell long upon the manners of this country, a country so immersed in rudeness and bar- barism, beside that it could afford little instruction, would be disgusting to every lover of mankind. Add to this, that the inhabitants of Africa, deprived of all arts and sciences, without which the human mind re- mains torpid and inactive, discover no great variety in manners or character. A gloomy sameness almost every where prevails ; and the trifling distinctions which are discovered among them seem rather to arise from an excess of brutahty on one hand, than from any perceptible approaches toward refinement on the other. But, though these quarters of the globe are treated less extensively than Europe, there is no district of them, however barren or savage, entirely omitted. America, whether considered as an immense conti- nent, inhabited by an endless variety of different peo- ple, or as a country intimately connected with Europe by the ties of commerce and government, deserves veiy particular attention. The bold discovery and barbarous conquest of this new world, and the man- XIV prefacf:. ners and prejudices of the original inhabitants, are objects which, together with the description of the country, deservedly occupy no small share of this per- formance. i In treating of such a variety of subjects, some less obvious particulars, without doubt, must escape our notice. But if our general plan be good, and the out- lines and chief figures sketched with truth and judge- ment, the candor of the learned, we hope, will excuse imperfections which are unavoidable in a work of this extensive kind. We cannot, without exceeding the bounds of a pre- face, insist upon the other parts of our plan. The Maps, which are executed with care by the ablest artists, will, we hope, afford satisfaction. The science of Natural Geography still remains in an imperfect state ; and the divisions and extent of countries, for want of geo- metrical surveys, are far from being well ascertained. With respect to these we have, however, constantly resorted to the best authorities which, in the present state of geographical science, we have been able to procure. !>f>ii'. .hjii:^ •■.yt !.rr; 'All rii^i'inil -jiU vt .-ij'.i.-.it' .t .'.:i 'i;; .hi' .""li-.i ",>..A. 'iU'iiiyCi i iiiisfji'iii- 1 .•C)--'!l ihU < ,iv.:'vtmt-'fb.ttiiJ'^-^v?iKv^ » i^) ;; /i'";d •J;;y:ir^>»- 'i--'il\}ilif-.n'}lv^ini\ 'iii|i.vtAi£iL jlii;;; li jiytjij ^u/i,v! •>!*.!;; 3 j-;if vJaudO, Ji /iii""!/* ' t'Ji "i^miMfii mm ,k' rou ii^M 'io ii^^sipoQ^yt^iJUVi^'is^'- ■'JiM )itants, are ;ion of the of this per- , some less escape our md the out- and judge- will excuse vork of this ids of a pre- The Maps, artists, will, e of Natural ate; and the irant of gee- ascertained. ♦, constantly the present jeen able to 1 , .3J ~ ' It;.) WiiiiJ! -:ir '■ -■-'■ r ■i'V ,li^hM -'»' 'J> i'i-.JJ lUn .in /.iV-V* ni I -j-fi. DIRECTIONS FOR PLACING THE MAPS, The World is to front the Title. The Sphere ^^84^ Europe ; 50 ' Denmark g » Sweden and Norway g^ Russia in Europe ,03 England and Wales *^g Scotland ^-g lf«'''°** ;;: 301 J- ranee „,- Netherlands ^^^r Germany, the northern part ^'^ the Pouthern part ^^ , Switzerland ^*^ Spain and Portugal ^^^ Turkey in Europe • • • ^'^^ Asia ^57 Turkey in Asia ^"" Persia 587 Russian empire in Asia G02 China ^\* Hindoostan 640 Africa 683 North America . . , . , < « "^'^^ United States 779 West Indies 815 Mexico w,. 823 South America , 834 Colombia and Peru , , 840 Brazil - 855 Australasia and Polynesia ., 87 1 N. B. In the 4r)4th page, not only n province i« misnamed, but it is improperly amalgamated with another ; for Austurias Leoitf therelore, reail Ailuriiis, Leon. — • Wc talie this opportunity of referring to our ttiume.ration of the royal family of Great-Britain. The duke of York is inentioDtol (iu p. 239) among the living jn-inces, because, when that sheet passed througli the press, \ye had nut lost his royal highness. We jiow ri-(|ucst the reader to supersede that paragraph, and insert, at the eud of the section, the foilowiug stuteineiit : — The king's next brother, Frederic duke of York, died on the 5th of January, 1827, in the 64th year of his age, leaving au- issue by the princess of Prussia, to whom he was married in 1791. cy I 5 \ 9?<^.'T M>0 tic* err " .• .,. .:!,':,.7/ ailT >'><\ ti. u«'i^,iii> tTi*! ..... i>'" • r.mn (,i«/i JnW! xi" ■M,'.J .<■-,» M. ;. -J. ifna .iiJ« . ? .!t .1 INTBODUCTION. PART L OF ASTRONOMICAL GEOGRAPHY. SECT. I. OF THE FIGURE AND MOTION OF THE EARTH, THE DIFFERENT SYSTEMS OF THE UNIVERSE, THE PLA- NETS, COMETS, AND FIXED STARS. The science of Geoorapht, in the more extenaire tignification of the woid, is ao intimately connected with that of Astronomy, that it will be necessary to begin this work with a ttugfimary view of the system of the world, and a brief account of the order and reroltttions of the heavenly bodies. The earth was lon^ considered as an extensive plane, of unknown thickness, beneath which were the abodes of the spirits of the dead— the regions of Elysium and Tartarus. The heavens, in which the sitn, moon, and stars, appeared to move daily from east to west, were con- ceived to be at no great distance from it, and to be only designed for its use and ornament. More attentive observation, however, soon showed that the earth, was of a globular figure. Thus, when a ship is sailing, the tops of the masts first become visible at a distance ; the letting sun may be distinctly seeu from the top of a hill, when it appears to those below to have sunk beneath the horuon ; and the shadow of the earth in a lunar eclipse is of a circular figure. But it is needless to insist on these proofs, since the frequent voyages of different navigators round- the world, from the time of Magalhaens, or Magsllan, whose ship first circum- navigated the globe between the years 1519 and 1522, to that of the repeated voyages of captain Cook, have fully demonstrated that the form of the earth is globular. The spherical figure of the earth being admitted, its ^idtion became much more probable from the very nature of its form; and, besides, an unansweralue argument for that motion was derived from considering, that, if the earth did not move round the sun, not only the sun, but tdl the planets and stars, roust move round the earth. Now as astronomers, by calculations founded on the principles of geometry, can ascertain very nearly the distances of the heavenly bodies from the earth and from each other, it appears that, if we should conceive these bodies to move^ round the earth, we must suppose them endowed with a motion or velocity so immense as to exceed all conception, whereas .all the appear^ ances in nature ma^ be as well explainwl by imagining the earth to move rodtd the sun u the space of a year, and to turn on its own axis onoe in tweqty-four hours. B 9 INTRODUCTION. The earth, therefore, in the course of twenty-four hours, nnoves front west to eaHt, while tlie inhabitants on the surface of it, like men on tlie deck of a ship, who are insensible of their own motion, and think that the banks move from them in a contrary direction, will conceive that the sun and stari move from east to west in the same time of twenty-four hours in which they, along with the earth, move from west to east. When we have once clearly conceived this diurnal motion of the earth, we shall easily be enabled to form nn idea of its annual motion round the sun; for, as that luminary seems to have a diurnal motion round our earth, which is really occasioned by the daily motion of the earth round itfl own axis, so, in the course of a year, lie seems to have an annual motion in the heavens, and to rise and set in different points of them, although these appearances are caused by the annual motion of the earth in its oibit or path round the sun, which it completes in a year. Now, as we owe to the former of these motions the difference of day and night, so to the second we are indebted for the difference in the length uf the days and nights, and in the seasons of the year. DiFFEKSKT SYSTEMS OF THE UNIVERSE.] Thales, the Milesian, who, about 600 years before Christ, first taught astronomy in Greece, had made a sufficient progress in this science to calculate eclipses, or the interpositions of the moon between the earth and the sun, or of the earth between the sun and the moon. Pythagoras, a native of Samos, flourished about fifty years after Thales, and was equally well acquainted with the motions of the heavenly bodies. He conceived an idea, which there is no reason to believe had ever been suggested before, namely, that the earth itself was in motion, and that the sun was at rest. He found that it was impossible, in any other way, to explain consistently the heavenly motions. His system, however, was so opposite to all the prejudices of sense and opinion, that it never was widely diffused in the ancient world. The philosophers of antiquity, despairing of being able to overcome ignorance by reason, endeavoured to adapt one to the other, and in some measure to reconcile them. Ptolemy, an Egyptian philo- sopher, who flourished 138 years after the birth of Christ, supposed that the earth was fixed immoveably in the centre of the universe, and that the seven planets, the moon being considered as one of the prima- ries, were placed near to it. Above them he placed the firmament of fixed stars, then the crystalline orbs, then the prt'mum mobile, and, last nf all, the caelum empyraum, or heaven of heavens. All these vast orbs he imagined to move round the earth once in twenty-four hours, and also to perform other revolutions round it, in stated and periodical times. To account for these motions, he was obliged to conceive a number of circles, called eccentrics and epicycles, crossing and inter- fering with each other. This system was universally maintained by the peripatetic philosophers, who formed the most considerable sect in Europe, from the time of Ptolemy to the revival of learning in the six- teenth century. At length, Copernicus, a native of Poland, a bold and original genius, adopted the Pythagorean or true system of the universe, and published it in the year 1543. This doctrine had remained so long in obscurity, that the restorer of it was considered as the inventor ; and the system obtained the name of the Copernican Philosophy. But Europe was still immersed in ignorance, and Copernicus bad many opponents. Tycho Br&he, in particular, a noble Dane, sensible of the defects of the Ptolemaic system, but unwilling to &cknowlege the motion of the earth, endeavoured, about the year 1586, to establish a new syBtem, which was INTRODUCTION. irB, moves from ike men on the and think that jnceive that the of twenty-four n west to east, lon of the earth, \ motion round il motion round ion of the earth BOS to have an ifferent points of lal motion of the jletes in a year, ence of day and ce in the length B, the Milefiian, nomy in Greece, ilate ecHp«eB, or lie sun, or of the native of Samo«, 1 well acquainted d an idea, which i heforo, namely, wa« at rett. He plain consiatently opposite to all the ,ly diffused in the ing of being able one to the other, . Egyptian philo- Christ, supposed jthe universe, and one of the prima- the firmament of mobile, and, last . All these vast ;wenty-four hours, ted and periodical ;ed to conceive a rossing and inter- fly maintained by Insiderable sect in larning iu the six- |Dd original geniui, Ise, and published \ long in obscurity, |; and the system it Europe was still [pponents. Tycho lie defects of the Ltion of the earth, System, which was still more perplexed than that of Pta^my. It allows a monthly motion to the moon round the earth, as the centre of iU orbit ; and makes the sun to be the centre of the orbits of Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn. The sun, however, with all the planets, is supposed to be whirled round the earth in a year, and even once in t\feuty-four hours. This system, notwithstanding its absurdity, met with many advocates. Longomontanus, and others, so far refined upon it, as to admit the diurnal motion of the earth, though they insisted that it had no an- nual motion. About this time, after a darkness of m&ny ages, the first dawn of learning and taste appeared in Europe. Learned men, in different countries, began to cultivate astronomy. Galileo, a Florentine, about the year 1610, introduced the use of telescopes, which afforded new arguments in support of the motion of the earth, and confirmed the old ones. The fury and bigotry of the clergy, indeed, had almost stifled the science in its infancy ; and Galileo was obliged to renounce the Copernican system, as a damnable heresy. The happy reformation of religion, however, placed a great part of Europe beyond the reach of th« papal thunder. It taught mankmd that the Scriptures were not given lor explaining systems of natural philosophy, but for a much nobler purpose, — to render us just, virtuous, and humane ; that, instead of opposing the word of God, which, in speaking of natural things, suitfl itself to the prejudices of weak mortals, we employ our faculties in a manner highly agreeable to our Creator, in tracing the nature of hit wrks, which, the more they are considered, afford us the greater reason to admire his glorious attributes of power, wisdom, and goodness. From this time, therefore, noble discoveries were made in all the branches at astronomy. Not only the motions of the heavenly bodies were clearly explained, but the general law of nature, according to which they moved, was discovered and illustrated by the immortal Newton. By this law of Oravity, or Attraction, any body falls to the ground, when dis* engaged from that which supported it. It has been demonstrated, that this law, which keeps the sea in its channel, and the various bodies which cover the surface of this ea.th from flying off into the air, operate! throughout the universe, retains the planets in their orbits, and preserves the whole fabric of nature from confusion and disorder. The Coperwican system.] In the solar system of Copernicus, as confirmed and demonstrated from geometrical principles by sir Isaao Newton, the sun is placed in the centre, and round him revolve the seven planets, the names of which are, beginning with the nearest to the sun. Mercury, Venus, the Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, and the Georgium Sidus, by foreign astronomers called Uranus. The last was discovered by Dr. Herschel with his telescope of great size and power, 40 feet in length, and 4^ in diameter, in the year 1781. Though it was not till then known as a planet, there are many reasons to suppose that it had been seen before, but had been coosiderpd as a fixed star. From the steadiness of its light, from the augmentation cf its diameter by high magnifying powers, and from the change which he had observed in its situation. Dr. Herschel first concluded that it was a comet ; but in a little time he, with others, determined that it was a planet, from its vicinity to the ecliptic, the direction of its motion, and its being stationary at the time and in the circumstances which correspond with similar appearances in other planets. When the moon is absent, it may be seen by the naked eye ; and the discovery of six satellites attendiiag it confers upon t« INTRODUCTION. it a dignity, and raises it to a conspicuous situation, among the great bodies of our solar system. It may here be observed, that another planet was discovered on the Ist of January, 1801, by Piazzi of Palermo, who called it Ferdinandia, in honor of his Sicilian majesty. It has its orbit between those of Mars and Jupiter. According to the latest observations, its period is Adur years 2*22 days. Its distance from the sun is to that of the earth as 267 to ICO, consequently above 250 millions of miles. It is not visible to the naked eye, and is so small, that glasses of a very high magnifying power will not show it with a distinctly-defined diame- ter: Dr. Herschel, however, estimated its diameter at ]60 English miles. Another planet has been added to the number previously known, by Dr. Others of Hambui^ : it is likewise situated between Mars and Jupiter. It has been named Pallas. Its distance from the sun is to that of the earth as 280 to 100, or nearly 270 millions of miles. It is extremely small, its diameter being calculated at only 116 miles. Two other planets have been discovered, styled Juno and Vesta ; but they are so small, that they may rather be called asteroids than stars. The magnitudes, annual periods, and mean distances from the sun, of (he several planets, are given in the table Subjoined. Their relative di- stances may likewise be thus stated in a manner more compendious and easy to be remembered. If the distance of the earth from the sun be sup- posed to be divided into ten parts, the distance of Mercury will be four sach parts, that of Venus seven, that of Mars fifteen, that of Jupiter fifty- two, that of Saturn ninety-five, and that of the Georgium Sidus one hundred and ninety. Beside these seven planets, there are eighteen which move round four of these in the same manner as the former do round the sun. Of these our Earth has one, called the Moon ; Jupiter has four, which were dis- covered by Galilseus Simon Marius, a German astronomer ; Saturn has seven, of which Cassini discovered four, Huygens one, and Herschel two ; and the Georgium Sidus, as we before observed, has six. They are called moons, from their resemblance to our moon ; and sometimes secondary planets, because they are attendants of the primary orbs. The orbits described by the planets are not exact circles, but ellipses or ovals : hence the same planet is not always at the same distance from the sun ; and the distance which is exactly between the greatest and least distance is called the mean distance. In the following table the inclinations of the axes of the planets to their orbits are given ; and the meaning of this term it may be necessary to explain. We have already said that the annual motion of the earth occasions the diversity of seasons; but this would not happen were the axis of the earth exactly parallel to, or in a line with, the axis of its orbit, because then the same parts of the earth would be turned toward the sun in every diurnal revolution ; which would deprive mankind of the grateful vicissitudes of the seasons, arising from the difierence in length of the d?.y8 and nights, produced by this inclination of the axis. The axes of several others of the planets are in like uianner inclined to the planes of their orbits, and the angle of their inclination is given in the following table. r\-'~-;i'.''!;]!'. iifkM:' :i^f ■ -j't- 1. \ m])i ■?•■)!■■ |>"ftj ;(/,;; ■ among the great INTRODUCTION. ■* A TABLE OF THE DIAMETERS, PERIODS, &c. OF THE SEVERAL PLANETS IN THE SOLAR SYSTEM. Mean di- -. Diame- stances from the sun, as Annual Diurnal Hourly Hourly motinn Inclina- Names ters in determined period rotation motion nf itfi tion of of the En- from observa- round the ou its in its Vi kV9 axis to Planets. glish miles. tions of the transit of Ve- nus in 1761. sun. axis. orbit. equa- tor. orbit. Y. D. H. U. H. M. / " Su.; 890,000 25 14 3,318 8 Mercury 3,245 36,841,468 87 23 unkn. 109,699 unkn. unkn. Venus 7,743 68,891,486 224 17 23 22 80,295 1,043 15 Earth 7,942 95,173,000 1 23 56 68,243 1,042 23 29 IVIoon 2,162 ditto 1 29 12 44 22,290 H 2 10 Mars 4,220 145,014,148 1 321 23 1 40 55,287 556 Jupiter 89,^00 494,990,976 11 315 14 9 56 29,083 25,920 Saturn 79,600 907,956,130 29 174 2 10 16 23,101 22,400 28 Geor^i- um Stilus 39,900 1,815,912,260 83 150 18 unkn. 15,000 unkn. unkn. Comets.] Beside the primary and secondary planets already enume- rated, there are other bodies which revolve round the sun. These are called Comets, and appear occasionally in every part of the heavens. Descending from the distant parts of the system with great rapidity, they surprise us with the singular appearance of a train, or tail, which accompanies them ; become visible to us in the lower parts of their orbits ; and, after a short stay, go off again to vast distances, and disap- pear. Tl.augh soiiift of the ancients had more just notions of them, yet the opinion having prevailed, that they were only meteors generated in the air, (like those we see in it every night,) and in a few moments va- nishing, no care was taken to observe or record their phcenomena with precision. Hence this part of astronomy is very imperfpct. The general doctrine is, that they are solid compact bodies, like other planets, and re- gulated by the same laws of gravity, so as to describe equal areas in proportional times by radii drawn to the common centre. They move about the sun in very eccentric ellipses, and are of much greater density than the earth ; for some of them are heated in every period to such a degree as x/ould vitrify or dissipate any substance known to us. Sir Isaac Newtoi: computed the heat of the comet that appeared in the year 16S0, when nearest to the sun, to be 2000 times hotter than red-hot iron, an' that, being thus heated, it must retain its heat till it comes round again, although its period should be more than 20,000 years ; and it is computed to be only 575. The comets are far more numerous than the planets which move in the vicinity of the sun. From the reports of hi- storians, as well as from modern observations, it has been ascertained that more than 450 have been already seen ; but those whose orbits are set- tled with suSicient accuracy to ascertain their identity when they may re-appear, are not more than sixty. The orbits of most of these are in- clined to the plane of the ecliptic in large angles, and the greater num- ber of them approaclied nearer to the sun than to the earth. Their mo- tions in the heavens are not all in the order of the signs, or direct, like those of the planets ; but the number whose motion is retrograde is nearly equal to that of those whose motion is direct. All which have been observed, however, have moved through the lethereal regions and the 6 INTRODUCTION. i-i I oth\U bt the planet8( without suffering the least sensible resistance in their motions ; irhich sufficiently proves that the planets do not move in solid orbs. Of all the comets, the periods of three only are known with any degree of certainty, being found to return at intervals of 75, 1 29, and 575 y^ars; and, of these, that which appeared in 1680 is the most remark- able. This comet, at its greatest distance, is about 1 1 ,200 millions of miles from the sun, while its least distance from the centre of the sun is about 490,000 miles, being less than one third part of the sun's semi- diameter from his surface. In that part of its orbit which is nearest to the sun, it flies with the amazing velocity of 880,000 miles in an hour ; aiid the sun, as seen :[rom it, appears 100 degrees in breadth, conse- quently 40,000 times as large as he appears to us. The astonishing di- stanbe that this comet ;xind out into empty space, naturally suggests to our imagination the vast distance between our sun and the nearest of the fixed Stars, of whose attractions all the comets must keep clear, to return periodically and go round the sun. A comet, which excited extraordinary and even anxious attention, was discerned by M. de Flauguergues, a French astronomer, in March 1811; and it was seen in England in the summer and autumn. On the 1 1th of July it was in its ascending node, at a distance of 138 millions of miles from the sun. The more nearly it approached the fountain of light and heat, its luniinosity, magnitude, and length of tail, increased. It was for some time observed near the Ursa Major. On the 22d of October it was at an equal distance from the earth and the sun. From that day to the 1 9th of November it made such progress as removed it 98 millions of iniles and a half farther frnm the earth. Its diameter could not be ac- curately measured, from the density of the surrounding atmosphere : but it was supposed to be much larger than the moon. The length of its tail, at oiie time, waS computed at 45 millions of rules. — In the year 1825 a Icomet appeared, not more remote from the sun, at one time, than twice the distance of the earth. It was scarcely noticed by the inliabitants of our world ; and it is not improper to add, that astronomers candidly confess tht ignorance of the real nature and use of comets in the system. The fixed stars.] Having thus briefly surveyed the solar system, which, though great in itself, is small in comparison with the immensity of the universe, we proceed to the contemplation of those other vast bodies called the Fixed Stars. These are distinguished by the naked eye from the planets, by being less bright and luminous, and by continu- ally exhibiting that appe? ranee which we call the twinkling of the stars. This arises from their being so small, that the interposition of the least body, of which there are many constantly floating in the air, deprives tis of the sight of them : when the interposed body changes its place, we again see the star, and this succession, being perpetual, occasions the twinkling. But a more remarkable property of the flxed stars, is their never changing their situation with regard to each other, as the planets, from what we have already said, must evidently be always changing theirs. The first observers of the heavens, in the early ages of the world, di- vided the stars into different assemblages or constellations, each of which they supposed to represent the image of some animal or other terrestrial object. These constellations have, in general, preserved the names which were given to them by the ancients, by whom twenty-one northern, and twelve southern, were reckoned: but the moderns have increased the number of the northern to thirty-six, and that of the southern to thirty- ^ M^ INTRODUCTION. two. Beside these, there are the twelre iignt, or conatellationg of the Zodiac, as it is called from the Greek word 5«w, an animal, because almost all these signs represent some animal. As to the number of the fixed stars, though, in a clear winter's night without moonshine, they seem to be innumerable, yet, when the whole firmament is idivided into constellations, not more than a thousand can at any time be seen with the naked eye. Since the invention of tele- scopes, indeed, the number of the fixed stars may be considered as immense, because, the greater perfection we arrive at in our glasses, the more stars always appear to us. Mr. Flamsteed has given us a catalogue of about 3000 stars. These are called telescopic stars, from their being invisible without the assistance of the telescope. Dr. Herschel, to whose ingenuity and assiduity the astronomical world is so much indebted, has evinced what great discoveries may be nutde by improvements in the instruments of observation. " In passing rapidly over the heavens with his new telescope," says M. de Lalande, " the universe increased under his eye; 44,000 stars, seen in the space of a few degrees, seemed to indicate that there were seventy-five millions in the heavens." But what are all these, when compared to those which fill the whole expanse, the boundless fields of aether? Indeed, the immensity of the universe must contain such numbers as would exceed the utmost stretch of tbo human imagination ; for who can say how far the universe extends, or point out those limits where the Ci-eator " stayed his rapid wheels," or where he " fixed the golden compasses ? " The immense distance of the fixed stars from our earth, and from each other, is, of all considerations, the most proper for raising our ideas of the works of God ; for, notwithstanding the great extent of the earth's orbit or path (which is at least 190 millions of miles in diameter) round the sun, the distance of a fixed star is not sensibly affected by it ; so that the star does not appear to be nearer to us when the earth is in that part of its orbit nearest to the star, than it seemed to be when the earth was at the most distant part of it, or 190 millions of miles farther removed from the same star. Tlie star nearest to us, and consequently the largest in appearance, is the dog-star, or Sinus. Modern discoveries make it prc^ble, that each fixed star is a sun, having planets and comets revolv- ing round it, as our sun has the earth and other planets revolving round him. Now the dog-star appears 27,000 times less than the sun; and, as the distance of the stars must be greater in proportion as they seem less, mathematicians have computed the distance of Sirius from us to be two billioiu and two hundred thousand millions of miles. A ray of light, therefore, though its motion is so quick as to be commonly thought instantaneous, takes up more Ume in traveling from the stare to us, than we do in making a long voyage. A sound, which, next to light, is considered as the quickest body we are acquainted with, would not arrive to us thence in 50,000 years ; and a cannon-ball, flying at the rate of 480 miles in an hour, would not reach ns in 700,000 years. The stars, being at such immense distances from the sun, cannot receive from him so strong a light as they seem to have, or that brightness which makes them visible to us ; for the sun's rays must be so scattered and dissipated before they reach such remote objects, tliat they can never be transmitted back to our eyes, so as to ren'ler those objects visible by reflexion. The stars, therefore, shine with their own native and unbor- rowed lustre, as the sun does ; and since each particular star, as well as the sun, is confined to a particular portion of space, it is evident that the stars are of the same nature with the sun. 'fmw 8 INTRODUCTION. rll It id far from being probable that the Almighty, who always acts with infinite wisdom, and does nothing in vain, should create so many glorious suns, tit for so many important purposes, and place them at such distances from each other, without proper objects near enough to be benefited by their influences. Whoever imagines that they were created only to give a faint glimmering light to the inhabitants of this globe, must have a very superficial knowledge of astronomy*, and a mean opinion of the divine wisdom, since, by an infinitely less exertion of creative power, the Deity could have given our earth much more light by a single additional moon. Instead then of one sun and one world only, in the universe, as the unskilful in astronomy imagine, that science discovers to us such an inconceivable number of suns, systems, and worlds, dispersed through boundless space, that if our sun, with all the planets, moons, and comets belonging to it were annihilated, they would be no more missed by an eye that could take in the whole creation, than a grain of sand from the sea-shore; the space they possess being comparatively so small, that it would sc&rcely be a sensible blank in the universe, although the Georgia m Sidus, the extreme planet, revolves about the sun in an orbit of 10,830 millions of miles in circumference, and some of our comets make excur- sions of more than ten thousand millions of miles beyond the orbit of the Georgium Sidus ; and yet, at that amazing distance, they are incom- parably nearer to the sun than to any of the stars, as is evident from their keeping clear of the attracting power of all the stars, and returning peri- odically, by virtue of the sun's attraction. From what we know of our own system, it may be reasonably conclu(}ed that all the rest are with equal wisdom contrived, situated, and provided with accommodations for rational inhabitants ; for, although there is an almost infinite variety in the parts of the creation which we have oppor- tunities of examining, a general analogy connects all the parts into one scheme, one design, one whole. Since the fixed stars are prodigious spheres of fire, like our sun, and at inconceivable distances from each other as well as from us, it is reason- able to conclude that, like that luminary, they were created for the most important and beneficial purposes — to bestow light, heat, and vegetation, on a certain number of inhabited planets, retained by gravitation within that sphere which is assigned to the activity of each. What a sublime idea does this suggest to the human imagination, limited as are its powers, of the works of the Creator ! thousands and thousands of suns, multip''.ed without end, and ranged all around us, at immense distances from each other, attended by ten thousand times ten thousand worlds, all in rapid motion, yet calm, regular, and harmonious, invariably keeping the paths prescribed to them ; and these worlds peopled with myriads of intelligent beings, formed for endless progression in virtue and felicity ! If so much power, wisdom, goodness, and magnificence, be displayed in the material creation, which is the least considerable part of the universe, how great, how wise, how good, must He be, who made and governs the whole ! ■ ' !- * Especially since there are many stars which are not visible without the assistance of a good telescope, and therefore, instead of gpiving light to this world, can only be seen by a few astronomers. J n fio always acts with te so many glorious tn at such distances to be benefited by sreated only to give e, must have a very linion of the divine re power, the Deity L single additional le universe, as the rers to us such an dispersed through moons, and comets Tiore missed by an n of sand from the y so small, that it oughtheGeorgium an orbit of 10,830 omets make excur- }nd the orbit of the e, they are incom- I evident from their and returning peri- asonably concluded ated, and provided Ithough there is an ch we have oppor- the parts into one ike our sun, and at m us, it is reason- 'eated for the most at, and vegetation, gravitation within iman imagination, )r ! thousands and d all around us, at housand times ten ', and harmonious, lese worlds peopled rogression in virtue ince, be displayed jrable part of the >e, who made and not visible without :ad of giving light ^j;^lval'Ll-^^ ^' ^"5 P ;/.;f ,.. -j^ ^, Zin>ilh -1:1 toruU-nFuhluhHl May 11*07 hyJ^""'-^^^ ****" f^^'""*^'- INTRODUCTION. 9 !^'s in y- SECT. II. OF THE DOCTRINE OF THE SPHERE. HAVING, in the foregoing section, treated of the Univkkse in ge- neral, in which the earth ha« been considered as a planet, we now pro- ceed to the doctrine of the Sphehe. In treating this subject we shall consider the earth as at rest, and the heavenly bodies as performing their revolutions round it. This method cannot lead the reader into any mis- take, since we have previously explained the true system of the universe, from which it appears, that it is the real motion of the earth which oc- casions the apparent motions of the heavenly bodies. There is also an advantage in this mode, as it perfectly agrees with the information of our senses. The imagination therefore is not put on the stretch ; the idea is easy and familiar ; and, in delivering the elemeate of science, this object cannot be too much attended to. - .; N. B. In order mofe clearly to compreli»tt^%hat follows, the reader may occasionally turn Itis eye to the aAhesi;^ plMb of the Artificial or Armillary Sphere. %>'• ■'" The ancients observed, that jail tlie stars twifned (in appearance) round the earth, from cast to west, in twenty-four hours ; ^at the circles which they detfcribed in those revolutions were pari||^el to each other, but notof thtfsame magnitude ; those paMing ovep'the middle of the earth being the largest, while the rest diminished in proportion to their distance firom it. The^ also observed, that there were two points in the heavens which al#ayt'Breservcd the same situation. These points they termed celestial poles, Decease the heavens seemed to turn round them. In order to imitate tlMii motions, they invented what is called the Arti' Jicial or Armillary Sfkwe, through the centre of which passes an Axis, whose extremities Me' 'fixed to the immoveable points called Poles. They faither obsOTved, that, on the 80th of March and 23d of Sep- tember, the circle described by the sun was at an equal distance from both the poles. This circle, therefore, must divide the earth into two equal parts, and on this accouit was called the Equator. It was also denominated the Equinoctial Linit. because the sun, when moving in it, makes the days and nights of equal length all over the world. Having also observed, that from the 21tt of June to the 22d of December the sun advanced every day towt^rd a certain point, and, having arrived there, returned toward that frOm which he had set out, from the 22d of December to the 21st df June, — they fixed these points, which they called Solstices, because thfc ^direct motion of the sun was stopped at them ; and represented the bounds of the sun's motion by two circles, which they named 7Vo/)tcSj .Vaeause the sun no sooner arrived there, than he turned back. Ast iWWMlB n i , observing the motion of the sun, found its quantity, at a mean rl|)i, to be nearly a degree (or the 360th part) of a great circle in thef|«avens, every twenty-four . hours. This great circle is called the Eclipiic ; and it passes through certain constellatioDS, distinguished by the naWes of animals, in a zone belt, called the Zodiac, within which the m«oa and all the planets or are constantly found. It touches the tropic of Cancer on one side, and that of Capricorn on the other, and cuts the equator obliquely, at an angle of twentv-three degrees t enty-nine minutes, the sun's greatest decliaation. To express this motion, they supposed two points in the heavens (equally distant from and parallel to this circle) called tb« Po(«c of the sodiac, which, turning with the heavens, by meaiw "10 INTRODUCTION. of their axis, dcBcribe the two polar circles. In the artificial sphere, the equinoctial, the two tropics, and two polar circles, are cut at right angles by two other circles called Colures, which serre to mark the points of the solstices, equinoxes, and poles of the zodiac. The an- cients also observed that, when the sun was in any point of his course, all the people inhabiting directly north and south, as f".r as the poles, have noon at the same time. This gave occasion to imagine a circle passing through the poles of the world, which they called a Meridian, and which is immoveable in the artificial sphere, as well as the Horizon, which is another circle representing the boinids between the hemi- spheres or half-spheres, or that which is above and that which 'u below it. ' SECT. III. DESCRIPTION AND USE OF THE TERRESTRIAL GLOBE. THE Terrestrial Globe is a representation of the surface of tlie «arth, on an artificial globe or ball, on which the several countries and places arc laid down according to their relative situations, and to which the articles of the sphere before described are transferred. This section, indeed, chiefly comprehends a transfer of the celestial circles to the re- presentation of the terraqueous globe. Axis and poles of the earth.] The axis of the earth is that imaginary line passing through its centre, on which it is supposed to tura round once in twenty-four hours. The extreme points of this line are called the Poles of the earth, and are exacUy under the two points of the heavens called the North and South Poles. Circles of the globe.] These are usually divided into the greater and less. A great circle is that whose plane passes through the centre of the earth, and divides it into two equal parts or hemispheres. A less circle is that which, being parallel to a greater, cannot pass through the centre of the earth, or divide it into two equal parts. The greater circles are six in number, the less only four. Equator.] The first great circle is the Equator, by navigators called the Line. The poles of this circle are the same with those of the world. It passes through the east and west points of the earth, and divides it into tlie northern and southern hemispheret. It is divided into 360 degrees, ^e use of which will soon appear. Horizon.] This great circle is represented by a broad piece of wood encompassing the globe, and dividing it into the upper and lower hemispheres. Geographers distinguidi the horizon into the sensible and rational. The farmer is that which bounds the utmost prospect of oar sight, when we view the heavens around us, ajyparently touching the earth or sea. This circle determines the rising or setting of the sun and stars in any particular place; for, when they begin to i^)- pear above the eastern edge, we say they rise ; and, when they go beneath the western, we say they are set. It appears that each place has its own sensible borizon. The other horizon, called the rational, encompasses the globe exactly in the middle. Its poles (that is, two points in its axis, each ninety degrees distant from its plane, as those of all circles are) are called the Zenith and Nadir, — the former exacdjr above our heads, and the latter directly under our feet. The broad wooden circle which represents it on the globe, has several circles drawn upon it ; of these the inmost is that which exhibits the number of decreets of the tWBlv« sigas of the zodiac, or thirty to each sign. INTRODUCTION. 11 3 artificial sphere, 28, are cut at right erre to mark the zodiac. The an< joint of his course, IS f".r 213 the poles, > imagine a circle Uled a Meridian, bU as the Horizon, etwcen the hemi- ind that which is TRIAL GLOBE. the surface of the veral countries and ;ionB, and to which red. This section, il circles to the re« f the earth is that is supposed to tura ints of this line are >e two points of the 7 divided into the passes through the Its or hemispheres. eater, cannot pass equal parts. The tor, by narigatOTB te with those of the of the earth, and tet. It is divided a broad piece of le upper and lower to the sensible and itmost prospect of mrently touching or setting of the |they begin to ap- id, when they go that each place lied the rational, jles (that is, two lits plane, as those |the former exactly feet. The broad las several circles ^hibits the number irty te each sign. Next to this are the niimes of these signs, together with the days of the month. Beside these, there is a circle representing the thirty-two rhombs, or points of the mariner's compass. Meridian.] This circle is represented by the brass ring on which the globe hangs and turns. It is divided into 360 degrees, and cuts the equator at right angles ; so that, if we reckon from the equator each way to the poles of the world, it contains four times ninety degrees, and di- vides the earth into the eastern and western hemispheres. Thii ircle is called the meridian, because, when the sun comes to the south part of it, it is then meridies, or mid-day, and then the sun has its greatest alti- tude for that day, which is therefore called its meridian altitude. Now, iiS the sun is never in its meridian altitude at two places east or west of one another at the same time, each of these places must have its own meridian. There are commonly marked on the globe twenty-four meri- dians, one through every fifteen degrees of the equator. Zodiac] The Zodiac is a broad circle, cutting the equator ob- liquely. In the middle is supposed another, called the Ecliptic, from which the sun never deviates in his annual course, and in which be advances thirty degrees in every month. The twelve signs of the Zo- diac are, ■•-■■^"'" '•"" ^" "^ ''■'■■ ■■ ..... 1. Aries 2. Taurus 3. Gemini 4. Cancer 5. Leo 6. Virgo h n il March April May June July August 7. Libra ^ 8. Scorpio t»i 9. Sagittarius f 10. Capricornus vp 11. Aquarius ;K? 12. Pisces X September OctoV»er November December January February. CoLURES.] If we imagine two great circles passing through the poles of the world, and one of them through the equinoctial points Aries and Libra, and the other through the Solstitial points Cancer and Capricorn, these are called the Colutes,— one the equinoctial, the other the solstitial Colure. — These are all the great circles. Tropics.] If we suppose two circles drawn parallel to the equinoc- tial, at the distance of twenty-three degrees thirty minutes from it, mea- sured on the brazen meridian, one toward the north, the other toward the south, these are called tropics, from the Greek word rpom), a turning, because the sun appears, when in them, to turn backward from his former course. One is called the Tropic of Cancer, the other of Capricorn, be- cause they pass through the first points of these signs. Polar circles.] If two other circles are supposed to be drawn at the like distance of twenty-three degrees thirty minutes, reckoned on the meridian from the polar points, these are called the Polar Cir- cles. The northern is called the Arctic, because the north pole is near the constellation of the Bear, in Greek, apivroi ; the southern the Ant- arctic, because opposite to the former. And these are the four minor circles. Zones.] After the four less circles were known, it was observed that the earth, by means of them, might be divided into five portions, and consequently that the places on its surface might be distinguished accord- ing as they lie in one or other of these portions, which are called Zones, from the Greek word ^vvii, signifying a girdle ; being broad spaces, like swathes, girding the earth. The torrid zone is a portion of the earth situated between the tropics. It was so called by the ancients, because they conceived that, being con- tinually exposed to the perpendicular or direct rays of the sun, it was 12 INTRODUCTION. rendered uninhabitable, and contained nothing hut parched and sandy deserts. This notion, however, has long since been refuted. It is found that the long nights, great dews, regular rains and breezes, which prevail almost tliroughout the torrid zone, render the eartli not only habitable, but so fruitful, that in many places they have two harvests in a year ; all sorts of spices and drugs are almost solely produced there ; and it fur* nishes the most peri'cct metals, precious stones, and pearls. In short, the countries of Africa, Asia, and America, which He under this zone, are in all respects the most fertile and luxuriant. The two temperate zones are comprised between the tropics and polar circles. They are called temperate, b('CiU8e, meeting the rays of the sun obliquely, they enjoy a moderate degree of heat. The two frigid zones are enclosed within the polar circles. During the greater part of the year, it is extremely cold in those parts ; and every thing is frozen so long as the sun is under the horizon, or only a little above it. However, these zones are not quite uninliabitable. Climates.] fieside the division of the earth into hemispheres and zones, geographers have also divided it into climates, which are nar- rower zones, each included between parallels of latitude, at such a di- stance from each other, that the length of the longest day under that nearest to the pole is increased by half an hour. As the length of the day under the equator is always twelve hours, and that of the longest day under the polar circles twenty-four hours, it is evident that there must be twenty-four of these climates between the equator and either pole. Within the ]w\m circles, where the longest day is always more tb».n twenty-four hours long, the climates are reckoned by the increase of the day by months, till we reach the pole, where the whole year consists only of six-months' day and six- months' night. Of these climates, therefore, there will be six, making the whole number, on each side of the equator, thirty. We here insert a table of climates, which will show the length of the longest day in most of the principal places in the world . TABLE OF CLIMATES. Lat. D. M. 8 25 IG 25 23 50 30 20 36 28 Breadth U. M. 8 25 8 7 25 6 30 6 8 LcDa. H.M 12 13 Names of Countries and remarkaMc Places, situated ill every Climate Norih of the Equator. 13 30 U 14 .30 .')0 I. Within the first Climate lie the Gold and Silver Coasts in Africa; Malacca in the East Indies; Cay- enne and Surinam in South America. II. Here lie Abyssinia in Africa ; Siam, Madras, and Pondicheri, in the East-Indies ; Straitof Darien, be- tween N. ami S. America; Tobago, Grenada, St. Vincent, and Barbadoes, in the West Indies. III. Contains Mecca in Arabia ; Bombay, ])art of Ben- gal ; Cantou in China ; Mexico, Bay of Campccli^J in North America; Jamaica, llispaiiiola, St. Chris- topher's, Antigua, Martinique, and Guadaloupe. | IV. Egypt, and the Canary Islands, in Africa ; Dchli.i in India; the Gulf of Mexico, and East Florida, in! North America; the Havanua, in the West- Indies. | V. Gibraltar; part of the Mediterranean Sea; the Barbary Coast ; Jerusalem ; Ispahan ; Nankin in China; California, New Mexico, West Florida, Georgia, and the Carolinas, in North America. INTRODUCTION. 18 irclied and sandy ited. It is found !es, which prevail ot only habitable, ists in a year ; all :here ; and it fur- pearls. In short, 9 under this zone, ! tropics and polar he rays of the 8un r circles. During those parts ; and horizon, or only a nhabitable. D hemispheres and es, which are nar- jde, at such a di- >st day under that the length of the of the longest day that there must be and either pole. always more th^s the increase of the i year consists only ;limate8, therefore, ide of the equator, the length of the hlc Places, situated le Equator. Gold and Silver East Indies; Cay- irica. SiaiD, Madras, and traitof Darien, be- hago, Grenada, St West Indies, uinbay, ])art of BeO' Bay of Caln|H'cll^ pauiuia, St. Chris- id Guadaluupe. | in Africa ; Debli, East Florida, iu II the West- Indies, rranean Sea; the pahan ; Nankin iu CO, West Florida, rth America. Lat, D. M. nreadtli U. M. 6 41 2^ 4 54 45 29 49 1 52 54 27 bd 58 59 8 9 10 II 12 1.3 14!«1 15,62 16|63 17,64 1864 1965 20l65 2l|66 22166 23 66 24^66 25 37 29 58 18 25 22 6 49 21 47 6 20 28 31 67 26 69 30;90 21 48 37 30 5 4 7 3 32 2 59 2 27 10 52 29 20 7 57 44 43 32 26 19 14 8 3 Lo.Da. H. M 30 15 15 30 16 16 17 17 18 18 19 19 20 20 21 21 22 22 2.1 23 24 Namei of Countries and remarkable Places, aituatedl in every Climate North of the Equator. VI. Lisbon ; Madrid ; Minorca, Sardinia, and part of Greece; Asia Minor: part of the Caspian Sea; Samarcand, in Great Tartary; Pekin, in China; Corca, and Japan ; Williamsburg, in Virginia ; Maryland, and Philadelphia, in North America. VII. Northern provinces of Soain ; southern parts of France; Turin,Geooa, and Rome; Constantinople, and the Black Sea ; the Caspian Sea, and part of Tartary ; New York, and Boston. VIII. Paris ; Vienna; Nova Scotia, Newfoundland, and Canada. IX. London, PraKue,Dresden, Cracow; the southern provinces of Russia ; part of Tartary ; the northern part of Newfoundland. X. Dublin, York, Hanover, and Warsaw ; Holland; Tartary ; Labrador, and New South Wales. 30 XI. Edinburgh, Copenhagen, Moscow. XII. The soKthera part of Sweden ; Tobolsk. 30X111. Orkney Isles; Stockholm. XIV. Hergen, Petersburg. " ' * XV. Hudson's Strait, North America. XVI. Siberia, andthe southern partof WestGreenland. XVII. Drontheim. ^ 30 30 30 U 30 XVIII. Part of Finland. XIX. Archangel, on the White Sea. XX. Hecla, in Iceland. ,XXI. The northern parts of Russia and Siberia. XXII. New North Wales, in North America. 30 XXIII. Davis' Strait. XXIV. Samoieda. Month. Mouths. Mouths. Mouths. 5 Months. 6 Months. XXV. The southern part of Lapland. XXVI. West Greeulaiid. XXVII. Zeinbia Australis. XXVIII. ZembIa Burcalis. XXIX. Spitsbergen, or East Greenland. XXX. Unknown. Quadrant of altitude.] In order to facilitate the performance of several problems, such as finding the altitude of the sun, measuring the distances and bearings of places, &c., globes are provided with a pliant narrow plate of brass, divided into ninety de^rrees, which screws on the brass meridian, and turns every way. This plate is called the Quadrant of Altitude. Hour circle.] This is a small brass circle, fixed under the brazen meridian, divided into twenty-four hours, and having an index moveable round the axis cf thu globe. Latitude.] The latitude of any place is its distance from the equator toward either pole, reckoned in degrees of the general meridian, and is northern or southern according as the place lies to the north or south of the equator. No place can have more than ninety degrees of latitude, because the poles, where the reckoning of the latitude terminates, are at that distance from the equator. If circles be supposed to be drawn parallel to the equator through every degree, or every subdivision of a degree of latitude, these circles are ctiM Parallels of Latitude. , ^;, ,} j,, 14 INTRODUCTION. LovoiTUDF..] The lonyitude of a place is it* distance from the first meridian, in degrees ot a circle passing tlirough it parallel to tlie equator; and it is reckoned either cast or west. The first meridian is an imaginary Bemicircle drawn through nny particular place from polo to pole. The situation of the first meridian, or the place from which the longitude is taken, is arbitrary. Formerly the meridian of Ferro (the westernmost of the Canary islands) was made, in general, the first meridian ; but at present the English astronomers usually reckon from the meridian of London, or rather that which passes through the Observatory at Greenwich ; the French from that of Paris, Arc. No place can have more than 180 degrees of longitude, because, the circumference of the globe being 360 uegrees, no place can be remote from another above half of that distance ; but formerly the French and other foreign geographers, in conformity with an ordonuance of Louis XI IL, reckoned their longi- tude from Ferro, only to the east, from the 1st to the 36Uth degree, or Suite round the globe. The degrees of longitude are not equal, like lose of latitude, but diminish in proportion as the meridians incline, or their distance contracts as they approach the pole. Thus, in sixty degrees of latitude, a degree of longitude is only one half of the length of a degree on the equator. The number of miles contained in a degree of longitude, in each parallel of latitude, may be found in the following table. A TABLE, Showing the Number of English Miles contained in a Degree of Longitude, in each Parallel of Latitude from the ! Equator. Degrees t 1 lOOth Decrees lOOth Degrees 100th of Miles Parts of ' of ^files Parts ofi of Miles 'Parts of 1 Latitude a Mile Latitude a Mile Latitude a Mile 0" 69 20 21 64 1 60 42 51 42 1 G9 19 ii 22 64 16 43 50 61 2 69 16 1 23 63 70 44 49 78 3 69 10 ' 24 63 22 45 48 93 4 69 05 I 25 62 72 46 48 07 5 68 95 1. 26 62 20 47 47 19 6 68 82 |: 27 61 66 48 46 30 7 68 68 '1 28 01 10 49 45 40 8 68 52 ' 29 60 , 52 50 44 48 9 68 35 30 59 ' 92 51 43 55 10 68 14 31 59 32 52 42 60 11 67 93 32 58 69 53 41 64 12 67 69 33 58 04 54 40 67 13 67 43 1 34 57 37 55 39 69 14 67 14 ' 35 56 69 56 38 69 15 66 84 1 36 55 98 57 37 69 16 66 52 ' 37 55 26 58 36 67 17 66 17 i 38 54 53 59 35 64 18 65 81 39 53 78 60 34 60 19 65 43 40 53 01 61 33 55 20 65 03 ; 41 52 23 62 32 49 INTRODUCTION. 15 distance from the it parallel tu tht> 3 first tneridinn ii ar |)laco from polo place frnia which iieridian of Ferro n general, the first lly reckon from the i^h the Observatory Nfo place can have cumference of the another above half )reign geograplicra, :koned their longi- le 360th degree, or re not equal, lik« meridians incline, 8. Thus, in sixty 5 half of the length itained in a degree id in the following id in a Degree he Equator. lie^ Miles 100th Parts of j a Mile 51 42 50 61 49 78 48 93 48 07 47 19 46 30 45 40 44 48 43 55 42 60 41 64 40 67 39 69 38 69 37 69 36 67 35 64 34 60 33 55 32 49 Derrces 100th Dcfrrees lOOth Derrees 100th of MHci Fart* of of Miles Parts uf of MllcN Parts of Latitude a Mile Latitu'le 72 21 a Mile LatituUo a Mile. 63 31 42 38 81 10 82 64 30 33 73 20 23 82 09 63 65 29 24 74 19 07 83 08 43 66 28 15 75 17 91 84 07 23 67 27 04 76 16 74 85 06 03 68 25 92 77 15 57 83 04 83 69 24 80 78 14 39 87 03 62 70 23 67 79 13 20 88 02 41 71 22 53 80 12 02 89 01 20 PROBLEMS PERFORMED BY THE GLOBE. ■>i:' i •■' ' Problf.m 1. To rectify the Olobe.'^ ■"•'''-' ' The globe being set upon a true plane, raise the pole according to the given latitude ; then Gx the quadran^ of hUitide in the zenith ; and, if there bo any mariner's compass upon the pedestal, let the globe be so placed that the brazen meridian may stand due south and north, according to the two extremities of the needle, allowing/or its variation. Prob. 2. To find the Longitude and Latitude of any Place. Bring the given place to the brazen meridian, and the degree it Is under is the latitude ; then observe the degree of the equator under the same meridian, and you will have the longitude. Prob. 3. The Longitude and Latitude of any Place being giveti, t9 ,. . fnd that Place on the Globe. \ . Bring the degree of longitude to the brazen meridian ; find upon the same meridian the degree of latitude, whether south or north, and the point exactly under that degree is the place desired. Phob. 4. The Latitude of any Place being given, to find all those Places that have the same Latitude. . j, .• The globe being rectified (a) according to the latitude / the sun's place, or nearly, at the time desirk,d. Prob. 7. The Month and Day being given, as also the particular Time of that Day, to find those Places of the Globe to which the Sun Js in th". Meridian at that Time. The pole being elevated according to the latitude of the place where ^ou are, bring the said place to the brazen meridian; and, setting the index rtf the horary circle at the hour of the day, in the given place, turn the globe till the index points at the upper figure of XII ; then fix thn olobe in that situation, and observe what places are exactly under the upper hemisphere of the brazen meridian ; for those are the places desired. PaoB. 8. To know the Length of the Day and Night in any Plact j of the Earth at any Time. (a) Prob. 1. (6) Phob. 6. Elevate the pole (a) according to the latitude of the given place ; find the sun's place in the ecliptic (b) at j that time ; which being brought to tiie east side of the horizon, set the index of the horary circle at noon, or the upper figure of XII ; and, turning the globe till the weetern side of the horizon be touched by the given place of the ecliptic, look upon the horary circle : and, where the index points, reckon the number of hours to the upper figure of XII ; for that is the length of the day ; the complement of which, to 24 hours, is the lengt'i of the night. , • ; - j,: .; ,.. Prob. 9. To know by the Globe what o'clock it is in any Part oftht World at any Time, provided you know the Hour of the Da]) wtiere you are at the same Time. Bring the place in which you are to the brazen mt^ridian, the pole being raised according to its latitude, and set the index of the horary circle to the hour of the day at that time. Then bring the des-'d place to the brazen meridian, and the adex will point out the hu\i! at that place. Prob. 10. ^4 Place being givm in the Torrid Zone, to find the two Days of the Year in which the Sun shall he vertical to the same. Bring the given place to the brazen meridian, and mark what degree of latitude is exactly above it. Mov3 the globe round, and observe the two points of the ecliptic that pass throrgh the said degree of latitude. Find upon the *vooderi horizon (or by proper tables of the sun's annual motion) on what days he passes through those poiats of the ecliptic ; for those 9U9 the days req"ired. t INTRODUCTION. 17 I graduated edge i^^ i the number of "^^ tance from each at any Time. upon the wooden i degree in which ed in the ecliptic, 'so the particular rhbe to which tk )f the place where ; and, setting the 11 the given place, e of XII ; then fix are exactly under lose are the places ight in any Plact \ the latitude of the the ecliptic (6) at te east side of the or the upper figure of the horizon be the horary circle: hours to the upper iplement of which, \n any Part of tht Hour of the Daii \ neridian, the pole adex of the horary ^ bring the des' • d Int out the hu\i! at te, to f 71(1 the two cal to the same. I mark what degree I, and observe the [degree of latitude. Tthe sun's annual bf the ecliptic; for Pbob. 1 1. The Month and the Day being given, to find by the Globe those Places of the Northern Frigid Zone, where the Sun begins then to shi7ie constantly without setting ; as also fhose Places of the Southern Frigid Zone, where he then begins to be totally absent. The day given (which must be always one of those either between the vernal equinox and the summer solstice, or between the autumnal equinox and the winter solstice), find the sun's place in thr 'tcliptic, and, marking the same, bring it to the brazen meridian, and eckon the like number of degrees from the north pole toward the equacor, as there is between the equator and the sun's place in the ecliptic, making a mark where the reckoning ends. Then turn the globe round, and all the places passing under the said mark are those in which the sun begins to sliine constantly without setting, on the given day. For the solution of the latter part of the problem, set off the same distance from the south pole upon the brazen meridian toward the equator, as was in the former case set off from the north : if you then mark as before, and turn the globe round, all places passing under the mark are those where the sun begins his total disappearance j'^'om the given day. Pkob, 12. A Place being given in either of the Frigid Zones, to find by the Olobe for what Number of Days the Sun constantly shines upon the said Place, and on what Day^ he is absent, as also the first and last Day of his Appearance. Bring the given place to the brazen meridian, and, observing its lati- tude, elevate the globe accordingly ; count the same number of degrees upon the meridian from each side of the equator, as the place is distant from the pole; and, making marks whem the reckonings end, turn the globe, and carefully observe what two degrees of the ecliptic pass exactly under the two points .'narked on the meridian. The northern arch of the circle, or that comprehended between the degrees marked, being reduced to time, will give the number of days when the sun constantly shines above the horizon of the given place ; and the opposite arch of the said circle will exhibit the number of days in which he is totally absent, and also will point out which days those are. And in the interval he will rise and set. Prob. 13. The Month and Day being given, to find those places on the Globe, to which the Sun, when on the Meridian, shall be vertical on that Day. The sun's place in the ecliptic being found (a), bring ^ . p»„B g the same to the brazen meridian, on which make a. ^ -^ ' small mark exactly above the sun's place. Then turn the globe; and those places which have the sun vertical in the meridian, will succecsively pass under the said mark. Prob. 14. The Month and Day bei:.g given, to find upon what point of the Compass the Sun then rises and sets in any Place. Elevate the pole according to the latitude of the place, and, finding the sun's place in the ecliptic at the given time, bring the same to the eastern side of the horizon, and it will show the point of the compass upon which he then rises. By turning the globe till his place coincides with the western side of the horizon, you may also see upon that circle the exact point of bis setting. - - "■" C 18 INTRODUCTION. Prob 15. To know by the Olobe the Length of the longest and short, est Days and Nights in any part of the World. Elevate the pole according to the latitude of the given place, and bring the first degree of Cancer, if in the northern, or of Capricorn, if in the southern hemisphere, to the eastern side of the horizon. Then, setting the index of the horary circle at noon, turn the globe about till the sign of Cancer touches the western side of the horizon, and observe upon the horary circle the number of lours between the index and the upper figure of XII., reckoning them according to the motion of the index ; for that is the length of the longest day, the complement of which, to 24 hours, ig the extent of the shortest night. The shortest day and longest night are only the reverse of the former. Prob. 16. The Hour of the Day being given at any Place, f< those Places of the Earth where it i$ either Noon or Midnight, or any other particular Hour, at the same Time. Bring the given place to the brazen meridian, and set the index of the horary circle at the hour of the day in that pla-'e. Then turn the globe till the index points at the upper figure of XII, and observe what placeg «re exactly under the upper semicircle of the brazen meridian ; for in them it U mid-day at the time given ; which done, turn the globe till the index roiots at the lower figure of XII ; and whatever places are then in the lower semicircle of the meridian, in them it is midnight at the given time. In the same manner we may fand those places "vhich have any other particular hour at the time given, by moving the globe till the index points at the hour desired, and observing the places that are then under the brazen meridian. Prob. 17. The Day and Hour being given, to find by the Olobe that particular Place of the Earth to which the Sun is vertical at that Time. The suTi's place in the ecliptic being found, and brought to the ( W 10 ^^^^^^ meridian, make a mark above the same; then (a) (a) rROB. 1 . ijjjj those places of the earth in whose meridian the sun is at that instant, and bring them to the brazen meridian; which done, observe that part of the earth which falls exactly under the aforesaid mark in the brazen meridian ; for that is the particular place to which the sun is vertical at that time. Prob. 18. The Day and Hoar at any Plcje being given, tcjind all those Places where the iSun is then rising, or setting, or in the meridian ; consequently, all those places which are enlightened nt that Time, and those which have Twilight, or dark Night. This problem cannot be solved by any globe fitted up in the common way, with the hour-circle fixed upon the brass meridian, unless the sun be on or near either of the tropics on the given day. But, by a globe fitted up with the hour-circle on its surfai e below the treridian, it may be solved for any day iu the year, according to the following neihod. Having found the place to which the sun is vertical at the given hour, if the place be in the northern hemisphere, elevate the north pole as mauv degices above the horizon as are equal to the latitude of that place ; if the place be ia the southern hemisphere, elevate the south pul« accord' ingly, and bring the said place to the brazen u«ridiaj). Th«0| ftU thoM INTRODUCTION. 19 place* which ue in the western semioircle of the horizon, htve the snn rising to th^m at that time, iind those in the eastern semicircle have it setting: to those under the upper semicircle of the brass meri- dian it is noon ; and to those under the lower semicircle it is midnight. All those places which are above the horizon are enlightened by the aun, and have the sun exactly as many degrees above them as they themselves are above the horizon. That this height may be known, fix the quadrant of altitude on the brazen meridian over the place to which the sun is vertical ; and then, laying it over «ny other place, observe what number of degrees on the quadrant are intercepted between the said piace and the horizon. In all those places that are 18 degrees below the western semicircle of the horizon, the morning twilight is just beginning; in all those places which are 18 degrees below the eastern semicircle of the horizon, the evening twilight is ending ; and all those places that aM lower than 18 degrees, have dark night. If any place be brought to the upper semicircle of the brazen meridian ; and the hour-index be set to the upper figure of XII, or noon, and tb«a the globe be turned round eastward on its axis,— when the place comes to the western semicircle of the horizon, the index will show the time of the sun's rising at that place; and, when the same place comes to th« eastern semicircle of the horizon, the index will show the time of the •un's setting. To those places which do not go under the horizon, the aun sets not on that day ; and, to those which do not come above it, the aun doe* not rise. pROB. 19. The Month and Day being given, with the Ptace qf Mf Moon in the Zodiac, and her true Latitude, tojind the exact Hour ('.'hen she wilt rise and set, together with her Southing, or Cotn^ 'y^: to the Meridian of the Ptace, ,, ,, , , i'-'-j .;con's place in the Zodiac may be found by an ordinary alma- nac; tiiJ ■v:r latitude, which is her distance from the ecliptic, by apply- ing the semicircle of position to her piace in the zodiac. For the solutioi^ of the problem, elevate the pole (a) according to the latitude , v p ^ n of the given place ; and the sun's place in the ecliptic at '*•' the time being found, and marked, as also the moon's place at the same time, bring the sun's place to iV brazen meridian, and set the index of the horary circle at noon ; then turn the globe till the moon's place SUQ* cessively meet with the eastern and western side of the horizon, as also the brazen meridian ; and the index will point at those various times the particular hours of her rising, setting, a.'d southing. GEOGRAPHICAL OBSERVATIONS. li.. 1. The latitude of any place is equal to the elevation of the pole above the horizon of that place, and the elevation of the equator is equal to the complement of the latitude, that is, to what the latitude wants of 90' degrees. 3. Those places which lie on the equator have no latitude, it being there that the latitude begins ; and those places which are situated oo C2 % so INTRODUCTION. W the first meridian have no longitude, it being there that thi Irtncitude begiutf. Consequently, that particular place of the earth where the first meridian intersects the equator, has neither longitude nor latitude. 3. All places of the earth equally enjoy the benefit of the sun, in respect of time, and are equally deprived of it. 4. All places upon the equator have their days and nights equally long, that is, 12 hours each, at all tiuesof the year; for, although the sun declines alternately from the equator toward the north and the south, ye". 9 T the horizon of the equator cuts all the parallels of latitude and aevi ' "' '"i halves, the sun must always continue above the horizon for.oci. ' *" if a diurnal revolution alwul the earth, and for the other halfbelo. . 5. In all places of the earth between the equator and poles, the dayi and nights are equally long, viz., 12 hours each, when the sun is in the equinoctial : for, in all the elevations of the pole short of 30 degrees (which is the greatest), one half of the equator will be above the horizon, and the other half below it. 6. The days and nights are never of an equal length at any place between the equator and polar circles, except when the sun enters Arieg and Libra ; for, in every other part of the ecliptic, the circle of the sun's daily motion is divided into two unequal parts by the horizon, 7. The nearer any place is to the equator, the less is the difference between the length of the days and nights in that place ; and the more remote, the contrary ; — the circles which the sun describes in the heavens every 24 hours being cut more nearly equal in the former case, and more unequal in the latter. 8. In all places lying upon any given parallel of latitude, however long or short the day and night may be at any one of those places at any time of the year, it is then of the same length at all the rest ; for, in turning the globe round its axis (when rectified according to the sun's declination), all those places will keep equally long above and below the horizon. 9. The sun is vertical twice in a year to every place between the tro- pics ; to those under the tropics, once in a year ; but never any where else ; for there can be no place between the tropics, but that there will be two points in the ecliptic whose declination from the equator is equal to the latitude of that place ; and there is only one point of the ecliptic which has a declination equal to the latitude of places on the tropic which that point of the ecliptic touches ; and, as the sun never goes without the tropics, he can never be vertical to any place that lies without them. 10. In all places situated exactly under the polar circles, the sun, when it is in the nearer tropic, continues 24 hours above the horizon without setting, because no part of that tropic is below their horizon ; and, when the sun is in the farther tropic, it is for the same length of time without rising, because no part of that tropic is above their horizon. But, at all other times of the year, it rises and sets there as in other places, because all the circles that can be drawn parallel to the equator, between the tropics, are more or less cut by the horizon, as they are farther from, or nearer to, that tropic which is all above the horizon ; and, when the sun 18 not in either of the tropics, its diurnal course must be in one or other of those circles. 1 1 . To all places in the northern hemisphere, from the equator to the polar circle, the longest day (and consequently the shortest night) is when the sun is in the northern tropic, and the shortest day is when that lumi- nary is io the southern tropic^ because no circle of the sun's daily motion INTRODUCTION. « that th") Irtntritude irth where the first nor latitude, efit of the suu, in ace between the tro- it never any where ut that there will be equator is equal to )oint of the ecliptic , on the tropic which rer goes without the 1 without them. irclesjthesun, when the horizon without lorizon; and, when gth of time without »rizon. But, at all ther places, because juator, between the are farther from, or and, when the sun be in one or other is so much above the horizon, or so little below it, as the northern tropic, and none so little above it, or so much below it, as the southern. In the southern hemisphere, a contrary effect is observable. 12. In all places between the polar circles and poles, the sun appears for some number of days (or rather diurnal revolutions) without setting, and at the opposite time of the year without rising; because some part of the ecliptic never sets in the former case, and as much of the opposite part never rises in the latter; and the nearer to, or the more remote from, the pole, these places are, the longer or shorter is the sun's continuing presence or absence. 13. If a ship should set out from any port, and sail round the earth eastward to the same port again, let her perform her voyage in what time she will, the people in that ship, in reckoning their time, will gain one complete day at their return, or count one day more than those who reside at the same port, because, by going contrary to the sun's diurnal motion, and being more forward every evening than they were in the morning, their horizon will get so much the sooner above the setting sun, than if they had remained for a whole day at any particular place ; and thus, by cutting off from the length of every day a part proportion- able to their own motion, they will gain a complete day at their return, without gaining one moment of absolute time. If they sail westward, they will reckon one day less than the people do who reside at the same port, because, by gradually following the apparent diurnal motion of the sun, they will keep him each particular day so much longer above the horizon as answers to that day's course, and thereby cut off a whole day in reckoning, at their return, without losing one moment of absolute time. Hence, if two ships should set out at the same time from any port, and sail round the globe, one eastward and the other westward, so as to meet at the same port on any day whatever, they will differ two days in reck- oning the time, at their return. If they sail twice round the earth, they will differ four days ; if thrice, then six, jcc. , OF THE NATURAL DIVISIONS OF THE EARTH. THE constituent parts of the Earth are two, the land and water. The parts of the land are these; a continent, island, peninsula, isthmus, promontory, cape, coast, mountain, &c. The land is divided into two great continents (beside the islands,) viz., the eastern and western con- tinents. The eastern is subdivided into three parts, viz., Europe, on the north-west; Asia, on the north-east; and Africa (which is joined to Asia by the isthmus of Suez, 60 miles over) on the south. The western conti- nent consists of North and South America, joined by the isthmus of Darien, nearly 70 miles broad. A continent is a large portion of land, containing several countries or kingdoms, without any entire separation of its parts by water ; as Europe. An island is a smaller part of land, surrounded by water, as Great Bri- tain. A peninsula is a tract of land, encompassed by water, except at one narrow neck, by which it joins the neighbouring continent, as the Morea in Greece ; and that neck of land which so joins it is called an isthmus. A promontory is a hill or point of land stretching itself into the sea, the end of which is called a cape ; as the cape of Good Hope. A coast or shore is that part of a country which borders on the sea, lllpyfttains, valleys, woods, deserts, plains, &c.; require no description. f (1 n INTRODUCTION. The parte of the water are oceans, geas, lakes, straits, gulfs, bays or oreeks, riven, &c. The watera are divided into three extensive oceaiis (beside smaller seas, which are only branches of these), viz., the Atlantic, the Pacifio, and the Indian Ocean. The Atlantic or Western Ocean divides the eastern and western continents, and is 3000 miles wide. The Pacific divides America from Asia, and is 1 0,000 miles over. The Indian Ocean lies between the East Indies and Africa, being 3000 miles wide. An ocean is a vast collection of water, without any entire separation of its parts by land ; as the Atlantic Ocean. A sea is a smaller collection of water, which communicates with the ocean, confined by the land ; as the Mediterranean and the Red Sea. A lake is a large collection of water, surrounded by land ; as the lake of Geneva, and the lakes in Canada. A strait is a narrow part of the sea, confined between shores, and opening a passage out of one sea into another ; as the strait of Gi- braltar, or that of Magellan. This is sometimes called a sound, as the •trait into the Baltic. A gulf is a part of the sea running up into the land, and surrounded by it except at the passage by which it communi- cates with the sea or ocean. If a gulf be very large, it is called an inland sea, as the Mediterranean ; when it does not go far into the land, it is called a, bay, as the bay of Biscay; if it be very small, tt creek, haven, station, or road for ships, as Milford haven. Rivers, canals, brooks, &c., need no description ; for these smaller divisions of water, like those of land, are to be met with in almost every country. But, in order to strengthen the remembrance of the great parts of the land and water which we have described, it may be proper to observe that there is a strong analogy or resemblance between them. The description of a continent resembles that of an ocean ; an island encompassed with water resembles a lake surroimded by land. A peninsula of land is like a gulf or inland sea. A promontory or cape of land is like a bay or creek of the •ea; and an isthmus, whereby two lands are joined, resembles a strait, which unites one sea to another. .'>>. OF THE TRUE FIGURE AND DIMENSIONS OF THE EARTH. Though we have hitherto spoken of the earth as n spherical or globular body, it is necessary to observe that it is not a perfect sphere. Its true figure was long the subject of great disputes among philosophers. Sir Isaac Newton showed, from mathematical principles, that the earth must be an oblate spheroid, or that it was flatted at the poles and jutted out to- ward the equator, so that a line drawn through the centre of the earth, and passing through the poles, would not be so long as a line drawn through the same centre, and passing through the east and west points. Cassini asserted precisely the reverse, when he maintained that its dia- meter was lengthened toward the poles. In order to decide this question, the king of France, in 1736, sent out some able mathematicians to Lap- land, to measure the length of a degree of latitude at the polar circle, and likewise others to Peru, to make the same admeasurement near the equator. Their observations confirmed the opinion of Sir Isaac Newton beyond dispute, and proved that the earth is flatter toward the poles than near the equator. The natuie of Sir Isaac's reasoning may be in some mea- sure elucidated by the simple experiment of fixing a bkU of soft clay on a INTRODUCTION. 23 spindle, ftnd whirling it round ; for we shall find that it will prqject toward the middle, and flatten toward the poles. From his theory, he had doter« mined that the polar diameter of the earth must be to the equatorial as 329 to 23U, or about 35 miles shorter. Maupertuis, and the other French mathematicians, who went to Lapland, deduced, from their mensuration of a degree, that the equatorial diameter is 7942 miles, and the polar 7852 miles ; so that the former exceeds the latter by 90 miles. According to these calculations, the circumference of the earth under the equator will be 24,951 miles, which, multiplied by the diameter, will give 198,160,842, the number of square miles (sixty-nine and a half to a degree) in the spherical surface of the earth ; and this number, multiplied by one sixth of the diameter, will gire 524,541,748,774, the nuiuber of cubic miles in its solid contents. We here subjoin a table exhibiting the superficial contents in square miles, sixty to a degree, of the seas and unknown parts of the world, of the habitable earth, the four quarters or continents ; likewise of the great empires, and principal islands, placed as they are subordinate to each other in magnitude ; premising, that the number of inhabitants, attri- buted to the whole known world, may thus be divided ; 150 millions for Europe, three times that amount for Asia, and 50 millions respectively for Africa and America. Square Miles. Islands. Square Miles. Islands. Square Miles. Cuba Java Hispaniola 2,749,3491 Ne\vfouudlaud35.500 The Globe - - 148,510,627 Seas and nnknown Parts 117,843,821 The Habitable World - 30,(i66,80G Europe Asia Africa America ... 9,153,762 Formosa Persian £m{»re under Darius 1 ,650,300 Auiau Rom. Em. at its utmost height 1,6 10,000 Gilolo Russian - - - 4,864,000 Sicily .38,400 38,250 36,000 10,257,487ICcylon 8,576,208 Ireland ih, exclusive of Settle-\,,, ,o^ jinAfricaand Gibraltar f *"»»"" Chinese Turkish Present Persian British, mentsi United States ISLANDS. Borneo . - . Madagascar . • • Sumatra . . . Japan . . - . Great Britain Celebes . - . Manilla . . . Iceland . . . Terra del Puego - Miudaoao . « • 1,298,000 Timor 652,960 800,000 923,000 228,000 168,000 129,000 118,000 77,243 68,400 58,500 43,260 42,075 39,200 Sardinia •■ Cyprus Jamaica Flore s Ceram Breton Socotra Caudia Porto Rico - Corsica Zeelaud Majorca St. Jago Negropont - Teneriffe - Gothland - Madeira 27,730 27,457 17,000 11,900 10,400 9,400 7,800 6,600 6,300 6,000 6,000 5,400 4,000 3,600 3,220 3,200 2,520 1,935 1,400 1,400 1,300 St. Michael • Sky Lewis Funen Yvi^a Minorca - • Rhodes - Cephalonia - Amboyua > - Pomona, Ork.- Scio Martinique - LeninoB - > Corfu Providence - Man Bombolm Wight - - Malta Barbadoes Zaute Antigua ' - • St. Christopher's St. Helena Guernsey • 1,272 Jersey 1,000 950 Bermuda Rhode • 920 900 880 766 625 520 480 420 400 324 300 260 220 194 168 160 160 ISO 150 140 120 100 80 80 50 43 40 36 To these islands may be added the following, which have lately been discovered or more fully explorod< Their enact dimensions are not ascertained. New Holland, New Guinea, New Zealand, ' " ' New Caledonia, New Hebrides, Otaheite and the .Society Islands, Friendly Islands, Sandwich Islands, Navigators' Islands, Palaos, or Pelew Islands, Marquesas, Foster, or Davis' Island. 84 INTRODUCTION. ' Before we conclude this introductory part of our work, it will be proper to give a brief explanation of the nature and cause of winds and tides. Winds.] The earth on which we live is surrounded by a fine invisible fluid, which extends several miles above its surface, and is called air. It is found by experiments, that a small quantity of air is capable of being expanded, so as to fill a very large space, or of being compressed into a much smaller compass than it occupied before. The general cause of the expansion of air is heat ; that of its compression, cold. Hence, if any part of the air or atmosphere receive a greater degree of cold or heat than it had before, its parts will be put in motion, and expanded or compressed. But, when air is put in motion, we call itwind in general; and a breeze, gale, or storm, according to the quickness or velocity of that motion. Winds, therefore which are commonly considered as things extremely variable and uncertain, depend on a general cause, and act with more or less uniformity in proportion as the action of this cause is more or less constant. It is found, by observations made at sea, that, from thirty degrees of northern latitude to thirty degrees south, there is a constant east wind throughout the year, blowing on the Atlantic and Pacific oceans, and called the Trade Wind. This is occasioned by the action of the sun, which, in moving from east to west, heats, and conse- quently expands, the air immediately under it, by which means a stream or tide of air always accompanies it in its course, and occasions a perpe- tual east-wind within these limits. This general cause, however, is modified by a number of particulais, the explanation of which would be too tedious and complicated for our present plan. The winds called the Tropical Winds, which blow from some par* ticular point of the compass withe >c much variation, are of three kinds : I. The General Trade Winds, which extend to nearly thirty degrees of latitude on each side of the equator in the Atlantic, Ethiopic, and Pacific seas. 2. The Monsoons, or shifting trade-winds, which blow for six months in one direction, and during the other six months in the opposite. These are mostly in the Indian or Eastern Ocean, and do not extend above two hundred leagues from the land. Their change is at the vernal and autumnal equinoxes, and is accompanied with terrible storms of thunder, lightening, and rain. 3. The Sea and Land Breezes, which are another kind of periodical winds, that blow from the land from mid- night to mid -day, and from the sea from about noon till midnight; these, however, do not extend above two or three leagues from the shore. Near the coast of Guinea, the wind blows nearly always from the west, south- west, or south. On the coast of Peru, the wind blows constantly from the south-west. Beyond the latitude of thirty north and south, the winds, as we daily perceive in Great-Britain, are more variable, though they blow ofteuer from the west than any other point. Between the fourth and tenth degrees of north latitude, and between the longitude of Cape-Verd and that of the easternmost of the Cape-Verd islands, there is a tract of sea condemned to perpetual calms, attended with terrible thunder and lightening, and such rains, that this sea baa acquired the name of the Rains. Tides.] By the Tide is meant that regular motion of the sea, accord- ing tr. which it ebbs and flows twice in twenty- four hours. Sir Isaac N«iWton was the first who satisfactorily explained the f r^use and nature of the tides, by his great principle of attraction, in coi-iquence of which all bodies attract each other, in proportion to their masses and distance. By the action of this power, those parts of the sea which are immedi- INTRODUCTION. 95 ately below the moon must be drawn toward it; and, consequently, wherever the moon is nearly vertical, the sea will be raised, which occa- sions the flowing of the tide there. A similar cause produces the flowing of the tide likewise in those places where the moon is in the nadir, and which must be diametrically opposite to the former ; for, in the hemisphere farthest from the moon, the parts in the nadir, being less attracted by that planet than the other parts which are nearer to it, gravitate less toward the earth's centre, and consequently must be higher than the rest. Those parts of the earth, on the contrary, where the moon appears on the horizon, or ninety degrees distant from the zenith and nadir, will have low water; for, as the waters in the zenith and nadir rise at the same time, the waters in their neighbourhood will press toward those places, to maintain the equilibrium ; and, to supply the place of these, others will move the same way, and so on to the places ninety degrees distant from the zenith and nadir, where the water will be the lowest. By combining this doctrine with the diurnal motion of the earth above explained, we shall be sensible of the reason why the tides ebb and flow twice in a lunar day, or about twenty-four hours and fifty minutes. The tides are higher than the ordinary rate twice every month, that is, about the times of new and full moon, and are called Spring Tides ; for, at these times, the actions of the sun and mo u are united, and draw in the same straight line ; and consequently the set. nust be more elevated. At the conjunction, or when the sun and moon are on the same side of the earth, they conspire to raise the waters in the zenith, and conse- quently in the nadir; and at the opposition, or when the earth is between the sun and moon, while one occasions high water in the zenith and nadir, the other does the same. The tides are less than ordinary, twice every month, about the first and last quarters of the moon, and are called Neap Tides ; for, in those quarters, the sun raises the waters where the moon depresses them, and depresses where the moon raises them ; so that the tides are only occasioned by the difference by which the action of the moon, which is nearest to us, prevails over that of the sun. These effects would be uniformly produced, were the whole surface of the earth covered with water ; but, since there are a multitude of islands and con- tinents which interrupt the natural course of the water, various appear- ances are to be met with in different places, which cannot be explained without considering the situation of the shores, straits, and other objects that have a share in causing them. CuRREXTs.] There are frequently streams or currents in the ocean, which set ships a great way beyond their intended course. Between Florida and the Bahama islands, a current always runs from south to north. A current runs constantly from the Atlantic, through the Strait of Gibraltar, into the Mediterranean. A current sets out of the Baltic Sea, through the Sound or strait between Sweden and Denmark, into the British channel, so that there are no tides in the Baltic. About small islands and head-lands in the middle of the ocean, the tides rise very little ; but in some bays, and about the mouths of rivers, they rise from 12 to 50 feet. CONSTRUCTION AND USE OF MAPS. 1 1 )/ >: Maps.] A map is a representation of the earth, or a part of it. A map of the world is a dcUueation in perspective of the globe, as it INTRODUCTION. I would appear to an eye placed in a particular point. The circles bound* ing such a map represent the brass meridian, and the curve lines, run« ning acroM at every ten degrees, show the latitude north or south of the equator. The top and bottom are the north and south poles ; and the curve lines uniting them are other meridians passing through every tenth degree of the equator, and showing the longitude east or west from the first meridian. The straight line intersecting these meridians, and pass- ing through the centre, is the equator, or equinoctial ; at proper distances from which, on each side, are curve lines representing the tropics aod polar circles. Maps and charts, especially the latter, are sometimes drawn on what ii called Mervator's Projection^ so called from the inventor, Gerard Mer- cator, an eminent geographer in Flanders, who, about the middle of the •ixteenth century, published a map of the world on this construction. In these maps the meridians and parallels are straight, and the former equidistant from each other. The degrees of longitude in every parallel are the same, while the degrees of latitude are all unequal, being length- ened toward the poles. Charts drawn on this plan are particularly of use to navigators, because the rhombs which point out the bearings of places, and consequently the courses to be steered to arrive at them, are all straight lines. We have annexed a chart of the world on this pro< jection. In maps of particular countries, the top is generally considered as the north, the bottom as the south ; and the cast is consequently on the right hand, and the west on the left Where this rule is not followed, ajleur- de-lys is usually placed on some part of the map,' pointing toward the north, by which the other points may be easily known. From the top to the bottom of the map are drawn meridians, or lines of longitude, ioi from side to side parallels of latitude. The extreme meridians and parallels are marked with degrees of longitude and latitude, by raeani of which, and the scale of miles commonly placed in the corner of the map, the situation, distance, &c., of places may be found. Thus, to find the distance of tw^o places, (suppose London and Paris), by the map, we hare only to measure the space between them with the compasses, and to apply this distance to the scale of miles, which shows that London is 210 milei distant from Paris. If the places lie directly north or south, east or west, from each other, we have only to observe the degrees on the meridiani and parallels ; and, by turning these into miles, we obtain the distance without .measuring. Rivers are described by black lines, and are wider near the mouth than toward the head or spring. Mountains are sketched on maps as on a picture. Forests and woods are represented by a kind of shrub ; bogs and morasses by shades ; sands and shallows are described by small dots ; and roads usually by double lines. Near harbours tbt depth of the water is expressed by figures denoting fathoms. iT OiJt V.-j(. MARINER'S CCylPASS. This instrument, of such essential use in navigation, was the inventioa of Flavio Gioia, of Amalfi in the kingdom of Naples, about the year j 1302; but no particular account has been transmitted of the man- ner and circumstances of this important discovery. Though it I was then applied to navigation, it does not appear that during the | fourteenth and fifteenth centuries there was any apprehension of itti pointing other ways than due north and south. Its variation is Said to have been first perceived by Columbus, in the voyage in which he (li>* INTRODUCTION. rhe circlet bound* I curve lines, run< th or south of tho ith poles ; and the trough every tenth or west from the ridians, and pau< at proper diatancee ng the tropics and s drawn on what it intor, Gerard Me^ the middle of the this construction, ht, and the former de in every parallel qual, being length* are particularly of out the bearings of arrive at them, are I world on this pro* y considered as tht quently on the right >t followed, a^eitr* minting toward the I. From the top to s of longitude, and erne meridians and latitude, by raeani in the corner of tht und. Thus, to find by the map, we have passes, and to applj lOndon is 210 milei south, east or west, on the nieridiani obtun the distance lines, and are wider intains are sketched •resented by a kind lUows are described Near harbours the ^thorns. I, was the inventioe 1 |e8, about the year j fitted of the man- Ivery. Though it I Tsar that during the I ipprehension of it» i Jrariation is itAi to le in wluoh he dla* covered the West Indies. It was afterward fouhd not only to diJfer in different places, but to vary at different times in the same place. The variation at London, in the year 1576, was 11" 16' east; from which time it diminished till, in 1667, it became 0.0; after which it turned westerly, and has continued increasing, yet very slowly, to the present time. , If the magnetic needle be so suspended that it can freely move ver- tically, the north end will, in this part of the world, dip, or incline to- ward the hoiizon. This is called the dipping needle. As we approach the southern parts of the earth, the dip will diminish, and at length the needle will become horizontal; and, in proceeding more southerly, the south end will dip. Length of miles in diffekent coitntiiies.] There is scarcely a greater vari • The German is more than 4 EugUsh. The Swedish, Danish, and Hungarian, is from 5 to 6 English. The French common league is near [] English. ■, The English marine league ia 3 English miles. PART II. 'ik\ OF THE ORIGIN OF NATIONS, LAWS, GOVERNMENT, AND COMMERCE. HAVING, in the course of this work, mentioned the ancient names of countries, and even sometimes in speaking of those countries carried our researches into early times, we have thought it necessary, in order to prepare the reader for entering upon the particular history of each country, to present him with a general view of the history of mankind, from the first ages of the world, to the reformation of religion during the 16th century. An account of the most interesting and momentous events which have happened among mankind, with the causes that have produced, and the effects which have followed from them, is certainly of great importance in itself, and indispensably requisite to the understand- ing of the present state of commerce, government, arts, and manners, in any particular country ; it may be called commercial and political Tl t9 INTRODUCTION. geography, and, undoubtedly, constitutes the most useful branch of that science. The great erent of the creation of the world, before which there wai neither matter nor form of any thing, is placed, according to the be«t chronologists, in the year before Christ 4004, and in the 710th year of what is called the Julian period, which has been adopted by some hi- Btoriana, but is of little real service. The sacred records have fully de- termined the question, that the world was not eternal, and have alto adjusted the time of its creation. It appears in general, from the first chapters in Genesis, that the world, before the flood, was extremely populous; that mankind had made considerable improvement in the arts, and had become extremely vicious, both in sentiments and manners. Their wickedness gave oc- f, casion to a memorable catastrophe, by which the whole human B. face he oids' '■^ce, except Noah and his family, were swept from the ' of the earth. The deluge took place in the 1656th year world, and produced a very considerable change in the soil and >- sphere of this globe, rendering them less friendly to the frame a ture of the human body. From this eera we may date the abridgement of the life of man, and the rise and continuance of a formidable train of diseases. A curious part of history follows that of the deluge— the repeopling of the world, and the rising of a new generation from the ruins of the former. Of the three sons of Noah, the first founders of nations, the memory was long preserved among their several descend- ants. Japheth continued famous among the western nations, under the name of lapetus ; the Hebrews paid an equal veneration to Shem, who was the founder of their race ; and, among the Egyptians, Ham was long revered as a divinity, under the name of Jupiter Hammon. It iippears that hunting was the principal occupation for some centuries after the deluge. The world teemed with wild beasts ; and the great heroism of those times consisted in destroying them. Hence Nimrod ■n n obtained immortal renown ; and, by the admiration which his 2247* ^^"''^S^ ^"^ dexterity universally excited, he was enabled to found at Babylon the first monarchy whose origin is particu- larly mentioned in4iistory. Not long after, the foundation of Nineveh was laid by Assur; and in Egypt the four governments of Thebes, Theri, Memphis, and Tunis, began to assume some appearance of form and regularity. That these events should have happened so soon after the deluge, whatever surprise it may have occasioned to the learned some centuries ago, will not excite the wonder of the present age. We have seen, in many instances, the powerful effects of the principles of population, and how speedily mankind increase, when the generative faculty lies under no restraint. The kingdoms of Mexico and Peru were incomparably more extensive than those of Babylon, Nineveh, and Egypt, during that early age ; and yet these kingdoms are not sup- posed to have existed four centuries before the discovery of America by Columbus. As mankind continued to multiply on the earth, and to ■n Q separate from each other, the tradition concerning the true God 1921* ^^^^ obliterated or obscured. This occasioned the calling of Abraham to be the father of a chosen people. From this period ancient history begins to expand itself. Mankind had not long been united into societies before they began to oppress and destroy each other. Chedorlaomer, king of the Elam- ites, or Persians, had already become a robber and a conqueror. His force, however, could not have been very great, since, in one of hjj «ty ^ ful bunch of that INTRODUCTION. 29 expedition!, Abraham, assisted only by his household, attacked him in his retreat, and, after a fierce engagement, recovered all the spoil that had been taken. Abraham was soon obliged by a famine to leave Canaan, the country where God had commanded him to settle, and to go into Egypt. This journey gave occasion to Moses to mention some parti- culars respecting the Egyptians, which evidently discover the charac- teristics of an improved and powerful nation. The court of the Egyptian monarch is described in the most brilliant colors. He was surrounded by a crowd of courtiers, solely occupied in gratifying his passions. The particular governments into which that country was divided were now united under one powerful prince ; and Ham, who led the colony into Egypt, became the founder of a mighty empire. We are not, however, to imagine, that all the laws which took place in Egypt, and which havn been so justly admired for their wisdom, were the work -f that early age. Diodorus Siculus, a Greek writer, mentions mimy successive princes who labored for their establishment and perfection. But in the time of Jacob, two centuries after, the first principles of civil order and regular government seem to have been tolerably linderstood among the Egyptians. The country was divided into several districts or separate departments ; councils composed of experienced and select persons were established for the management of public affairs ; many granaries were erected ; and, in fine, the Egyptians in that age enjoyed a commerce far from inconsiderable. It is from the Egyptians that many of the arts, both of elegance and utility, have been handed down in an uninterrupted chain to the modern nations of Europe. The Egyptians communicated their arts to the Greeks : the Greeks taught the Romans many improve- ments both in the arts of peace and war ; and to the Romans the present inhabitants of Europe are indebted for their civilisation and refinement. The kingdoms of Babylon and Nineveh remained separate for several centuries ; but we scarcely know even the names of the kings who governed them, except that of Ninus, the successor of Assur, who, fired with the spirit of conquest, extended the bounds of his kingdom, added Babylon to his dominions, and laid the foimdation of that monarchy, which, raised to its meridian splendor by his enterprising successor Semiraniis, and distinguished by the name of the Assyrian empire, ruled Asia for many ages. Javan, son of Japheth and grandson of Noah, was the stock from whom all the people known by the name of Greeks descended. Javan established himself in the islands on the western coast of Asia Minor, from which it was impossible that some wanderers should not pass over into Europe. The kingdom of Sicyon, near Corinth, founded by the Pelasgi, is generally supposed to have commenced in the year before Christ 2090. To these first inhabitants succeeded a colony from Egypt, who, about 2000 years before the Christian sera, penetrated into Greece, and, under the name of Titans, endeavoured to establish monarchy in that country, and to introduce into it the laws and civil polity of the Egyptians. But this empire was soon dissolved ; and the Greeks, who seem to have been at that time as rude and barbarous as any people in the world, relapsed into their lawless and savage manner of life. Several colonies, however, soon after passed over from Asia into Greece, and, by remaining in that country, produced a more considerable alteration in the manners of its inhabitants. The most ancientof these were t. p the colonies of Inachus and Ogyges; of whom the former loJn' settled in Argos, and the latter in Attica. We know very little of Ogyges or his successors. Those of laacbus endeavoured to unite the m 30 INTRODUCTION. dispersed and wandering Greeks ; and their exertions for this jpurpose were not altogether unsuccessful. . But the history of the race of Israel is the only one with which we are much acquainted during these a jos. The train of extraordinary events which occasioned t'le settling if Jacob and his family in that part of Egypt of whicli Tanis was the "apital, are universally known. ■n Q That patriarch died, according to *'a0 Hebrew chronology, only 1^8q' 1689 y^^"^** before Christ, and in the year of the world 2315. This is a remarkable sera with respect to the nations of heathen antiquity, and concludes that period which the Greeks considered as altogether unknown, and which they have greatly disfigured by their fabulous narrations. Let us examine, then, what we can learn from the sacred writings, witli regard to the arts, manners, and laws, of an< eient nations. It is a common error among writers on this subject, to consider all the nations of antiquity as being then alike in ihese respects. They find some nations extremely rude and barbarous, and hence they conclude that all were in the same predicament. They discover others acquainted with many arts, and hence they infer che wisdom of the firs<- ages. There appears, however, to have been as much difference between the inhabit- ants of the ancient world, with regard to arts and refinement, as between the civilised kingdoms of modern Europe and the savages of America, or the negroes on the coast of Africa. Noah was undoubtedly acquainted with all the science and arts of the antediluvian world : these he would communicate to his children, who would likewise hand tiiem down to their posterity. Those nations, therefore, which settled nearest to the original seat of mankind, and had the best opportunities to avail them' selves of the knowlege which their great ancestor possessed, early formed themselves into regular societies, and made considerable improve* ments in the arts which are most subservient to human life. Agriculture appears to have been known in the first ages of the world. Noah cul< tivated the vine ; in the time of Jacob, the fig-tree and the almond were well known in the land of Canaan ; and the instruments of husbandry, long before their discovery in Greece, are often mentioned in the sacred writings. It is scarcely to be supposed that the ancient cities both ia Asia and Egypt could have been built, unless the culture of the ground had been practised at that time. Nations which live by hunting or pas- turage only, lead a wandering life, and seldom fix their residence in cities. Commerce naturally follows agriculture ; and, though we cannot trace the steps by which it was introduced among the ancient nations, we may, from detached passages in sacred writ, discover the progress which had been made in it during the patriarchal times. We know, from the history of civil society, that the commercial intercourse between men must be considerable, before the metals begin to be considered as the medium of trade ; and yet this was the case even in the days of Abraham. It appears, however, from the relations which establish this &ict, that the use of money had not been of ancient date ; it had no mark to ascertain its weight or fineness ; and, in a contract for a bur^nng- place, in exchange for which Abraham gave silver, the metal was weighed in the presence of all the people. As commerce improved, and bargains of this sort became more common, this practice was laid aside, and the quantity of silver was ascertained by a particular mark, which saved the trouble of weighing it. But this does not appear to have taken place before the time of Jacob. The resilah, of which we read in his time» was a piece of money, stamped with the figure of a lamb| and of INTRODUCTION. 31 jrthia jpurpoje a precise and stated value. The history of Joseph shows that commerce was then regularly carried on. The Ishmaelites tn-d Midianites, who bought him of his brethren, were traveling merchants, resembling the modern caravans, who carried spices, perfumes, and other rich commodi- ties, from their own country into Egypt. Job, who (according to the best writers) was a native of Arabia Felix, and also contemporary with Jacob, speaks of the roads of Thema and Saba, i. e., of the caravans which set out from those cities of Arabia. If we reflect that the commodities of that country were rather the luxuries than the necessaries of life, we shall have reason to conclude that the countries into which they were sent for sale, and particularly Egypt, were considerably improved in arts and refinement. Those descendants of Noah, who settled on the coasts of Palestine, were the first people of the world among whom navigation wbjj made subservient to commerce : they were distinguished by a word which in the Hebrew tongue signifies merchants, and were the same nation after- ward known to the Greeks by the name of Phcenicians. Inhabiting a barren and ungrateful soil, they endeavoured to improve their situation by cultivating the arts. Commerce was their principal pursuit: and, with all the writers of pagan antiquity, they pass for the inventors of whatever tended to its advancement, In the time of Abraham they were regarded as a powerful nation ; their maritime commerce is mentioned by Jacob in his last words to his children ; and, according to Herodotus, the Phoenicians had by this time navigated the coasts of Greece, and carried o£f the daughter of Inachus. The arts of agriculture, commerce, and navigation, suppose the know- lege of several others : astronomy, for instance, is necessary both to agriculture and navigation ; and the art of working metals, to commerce. In fact, we find, that before the death of Jacob several nations were so well acquainted with the revolutions of the moon, as to measure by them the duration of their year. It had been a custom among all the nations of antiquity, as well as the Jews, to divide time into seven days, or a week : this undoubtedly arose from the tradition with regard to the origin of the world. It was natural for those nations which led a pastoral life, or Jived under a serene sky, to observe that the various appearai ^es of the moon were completed nearly in four weeks : hence arose the division of a month. Those, also, who lived by agriculture, would remark that twelve months brought back the same temperature of the air, or the same seasons : hence originated what is called the lunar year, — a division of time which, together with the observation of the fixed stars, naturally prepared the way for the discovery of the solar year. But, with regard to those branches of knowlcge which we huve mentioned, it is to be remembered that they were peculiar to the Egyptians, and a few nations of Asia. Europe offered a gloomy spectacle d uri ng this period . Even the inhabitants of Greece, who in later ages became the patterns of politeness and ' ^ every elegant art, were then a savage race, traversing the woods and \\'ild8, inhabiting the rocks and caverns, a prey to wild animals, and sometimes to each other. Those descendants of Noah, who had removed to a great distance from the plains of Shinar, lost all connexion with the civilised part of mankind. Their posterity became still more ignorant ; and the human mind was at length immersed in an abyss of misery and wretchedness. We might naturally expect, that from the death of Jacob, and as we advance in time, the history of the great empires of Egypt and Assyria would emerge from their obscurity. This, however, is far from being •Sp^ n INTRODUCTION. # the case ; we only obtain a glimpse of them, and they disappear q ^ for many ages. After the reign of Ninyas, who succeeded Se- jgg,* - miramis and Ninus on the Assyrian throne, we find an astonish- ing blank in the history of that empire for eight hundred years. The silence of arcient history on this subject is commonly attributed to thesoftness and effeminacy of the successors of Ninus, whose lives afforded no events worthy of narration. Wars and commotions are the great themes of the historian, while the gentle and happy reigns of wise princes pass unobserved and unrecorded. We find, however, that Sesostris, a prince of wonderful abilities, greatly improved, by his assiduity and attention, the civil and military establishments of the Egyptians. In the time of that prince and his immediate successors, Egypt was, in all probability, the most powerful kingdom , upon earth, and is supposed to have contained 27 millions of inhabitants. But ancient history often excites, without gratifying, our curiosity; for, during a series of reigns, we have little knowlege of even the names of the princes. Egypt occasionally poured forth her colonies into distant lands. Athens, that seat of learning and politeness, that n fi school for all who aspired to wisdom, owed its foundation to 1556* ^^^'fP^* w^o landed in Greece with an Egyptian colony, and ' endeavoured to civilise the rough manners of the original inha- bitants. From the institutions which Cecrops established among the Athenians, it is easy to infer in what a condition they must have lived before his arrival. Even the laws of marriage were not known in Greece. Mankind, like the beasts of the field, were propagated by accidental connexions, and with little knowlege of those to ^whom they owed their birth. Cranaiis, who succeeded Ceorops in the kingdom of Attica, pursued the same beneficial plan, and endeavoured by v'm institutions, to bridle the keen passions of a rude people. Whilst these princes used their endeavours for civilising this corner of Greece, the other kingdoms into which this country (by the natural boundaries of rocks, mountains, and rivers) was divided, and which had been peopled by colonies from Egypt and the East, began to as- n ^ sume an appearance of form and regularity. Amphictyon con* 1496* '^^^^^'^ the idea of uniting in one confederacy the independent kingdoms of Greece, and thereby delivering them from those intestine divisions which would render them a prey to each other, or to the first enemy who might invade the '•ountry. This plan he commu- nicated to the different kings or leader*, and by his eloquence and address engaged twelve cities to unite for their common preservation. Two deputies from each of those cities assembled twice in a year at Thermo- pyla>, and formed what, after the name of its founder, was called the Amphictyonic Council. In this assembly, whatever related to the ge- neral interest of the confederacy was discussed and determined. Am- phictyon also, sensible that those political connexions are the most permanent which are strengthened by religion, committed to the council the care of the temple at Delphi. This assembly was the great spring of action in^ Greece, while that country preserved its independence; and, by the union which it inspired among the Greeks, enabled them to defend their liberties against all the force of the Persian empire. Considered under all the circumstances of the age in which it was instituted, the Amphictyonic council is perhaps the most remarkable political establish- ment that ever took place among mankind. The Greek states, formerly uaconnected with each other, except by INTRODUCTION. 8a mutual inroads and hostilities, soon began to act with concert, and to undertake distant expeditions for the general interest of the confede- racy. Their first combined enterprise was the expedition of the Argonauts, Tt'hose object was to open the commerce of the Euxine Sea, -qs „ and to establish colonies in the adjacent country of Colchis. jjfiQ* TheArgo is the only ship particularly named, though we learn from Homer, and other ancient writers, that several vessels were em- ployed in that expedition. The fleet was long tossed about on different coasts; but at length it arrived on the Colchian coast, after performing a voyage, which, considering the mean condition of the naval art during that age, w^ not less important than the circumnavigation of the globe by our modern discoverers. During the interval between this « q voyage and the war against Troy, which was undertaken to re- jjoV cover the fair Helena, a queen of Sparta, who had been carried off by Paris, son of the Trojan king, the Greeks must have made a won- derful progress in arts, in power, and opulence. No less than 1200 vessels were employed in this expedition, each of which, at a medium, contained one hundred men. These vessels, however, were only half- decked ; and it does not appear that iron entered at all into tlieir con- struction. If we add to these circumstances, that the Greeks had not the use of the saw, an instrument so necessary to the ' piuiter, a mo- dern must form an unfavorable notion of the strengt olegance of this fleet. Having thus considered the state of Greece as a whole, let us ixamina the circumstances of the particular countries into which it was diviued. There appears originally to have been a remarkable resemblance, in political situation, among the states of Greece. They were governed each by a king, or rather by a chieftain, who was a leader in time of war, a judge in time of peace, and who presided over religious cere- monies. This prince, however, was far from being absolute. In each society there were a number of other leaders, whose influence, over particular clans or tribes, was not less considerable than that of the king over his immediate followers. These captains were often at war with each other, and sometimes with their sovereign ; and each state was, in miniature, what the whole country had been before the time of Amphictyon. Theseus, king of Attica, about the year B. C. 1234, had, by his exploits, acquired great reputation for valur and abi- lity. He saw the inconveniences to which his country, from being divided into twelve districts, was exposed ; and he conceived, that, by means of the influence which his personal character, united to tho royal authority, had universally procured him, he might be able to re- move them. For this purpose he endeavoured to maintain, and even to increase, his popularity among the peasants and artisans ; he detached, as much as possible, the different tribes from the leaders who com- manded them; he abolished the courts which had been established in different parts of Attica, and appointed one council-hall common to all the Athenians. He did not, however, trust solely to the force of poli- tical regulations. He called to his aid the eiHcacy of devotion and of spiritual power. By establishing common rites of religion to be per- formed in Athens, and by inviting thither strangers from all quarters, by the prospect of protection and privifeges, he raised that city from an inconsiderable village to a powerful metropolis. The splendor of Athens and of Theseus now totally eclipsed that of the other villages and their particular leaders. All the power of the state was united in oue city, I il: INTRODUCTION. and under one sovereign. The petty chieftains, being divested of all influence and consideration, became humble and submlcsive; and Attica remained under the peaceable government of a monarch. This is a rude sketch of the origin of the first monarchy of which we have a distinct account, and may, without much variation, be applied to the other states of Greece. This country, however, was not destined to continue long under the government of kings. A new influence arose, which in a short time proved too powerful both for the king and the nobles. Theseus had divided the Athenians into three distinct classes, — the nobles, the artisans, and the husbandmen. In order to abridge the exorbitant power of the nobles, he had bestowed many privi- leges on the two other ranks of citieens. This plan of policy was fol- lowed by his 8»iccessors ; and the lower ranks of the Athenians, partly from the countenance of their sovereign, and partly from the progress of arts and manufactures, which gave them an opportunity of acquiring property, became considerable and independent. These circumstances Were attended with a remarkable effect. On the death of Codrus, a prince of great merit, in the year before Christ 1070, the Athenians, under pretence that tliey could find no one worthy of filling the throne of that monarch, who had devoted himself to death for the safety of hia people, abolished royalty itself. The government of Thebes, another of the Greek states, about the flame time, assumed the republican form ; and other cities also erected themselves into republics. Bnt the revolutions of Athens and Sparta, two rival states, which, by means of the superiority they acquired, gave the tone to the manners, genius, and politics of the Greeks, deserve our particular attention. The Athenians, on the death of Codrus, created a perpetual magistrate, who, under the name of Archon, was invested with almost the same powers which their kings had en- joyed ; but, after that office had continued three hundred and thirty- one years in the family of Codrus, they endeavoured to lessen its dig- nity by shortening its (luration The first period assigned for the con- tinuance of the arch(>'iship in the same person, was three years. Af- terward, still more to reduce the power of their archons, it was deter- mined that nine annual magistrates should be appointed under this title. These magistrates were not only chosen by the people, but accountable to them for their conduct at the expiration of their oiEce. These al- terations were too violent not to be attended with some dangerous con- sequences. The Athenians, intoxicated with their freedom, broke out into the most unruly licentiousness. No written laws had been yet enacted in Athens ; and it was hardly possible that the ancient custonu of the country, which were naturally supposed to be in part abolished by the successive changes in the government .hould sufficiently restrain the tumultuous spirits of the Athenians in tiie first paroxysm of theif independence. The wiser members of the community, therefore, pre- ferring any system of government to anari hy and confusion, were in- duced to cast their eyes on Draco, a man of an austere but virtuous dis- position, as the fittest person for composing a system of law to bridle the furious multitude. Draco undertook the office about the year 628, but executed it with so much rigor, that, in the words of an ancient historian, " his laws were written with blood, and not with ink." Death was the indiscriminate punishment of every offence ; and the code of I Draco proved to be a remedy worse than the diseanc. Affairs again fell into confusion, which continued till those laws were reformed, abont the year 594. The wisdom, virtue, and amiable uiaoaers of iSoloiii INTRODUCTION. m ihy of which we ,Uon, be applied was not destined \. new influence ibr the king and ito three distinct en. In order to >wed many privi- [ policy was fol- Athenians, partly From the progress inity of acquiring >se circumstances cath of Codrus, a rO, the Athenians, filling the throne It the safety of hii states, about the cities also erected Uhens and SparU, ity they acquired, C8 of the Greeks, on the death of le name of Archon, heir kings had en- undred and thirty- 1 to lessen its dig- igned for the con- 3 three years, Af- hons, it was deter- ed under this title, e, but accountable ir office. These al- | me dangerous con- freedom, broke out aws had been yet le ancient custonn in part abolished sufficiently restrain paroxysm of theit ity, therefore, pre- confusion, were in- ire but virtuous dis- .1 of law to bridle about the year 628, irds of an ancient t with ink." Deatb > ; and the code u Affairs again fell ,re reformed, abont niaoners of fcioloa. | recommended him to the most important of all offices, the giving of laws to a free people. The first step of his legislation was to abolish all the laws of Draco, except those relative to murder. The piinishment of this crime could not be too great ; but to consider other offences as equally criminal, was confounding all notions of right and wrong, and render- ing the law ineffectual by its severity. Solon next proceeded to new- model the political law. He seems to have thought, that a perfect re- public, in which each citizen should have an equal political importance, was a system beautiful in theory, but not reducible to practice. H6 divided the citizens therefore into four classes, according to the wealth which they possessed, and the poorest class he rendered altogether in- capable of any public office. They had a voice, however, in the general council of the nation, in which all matters of principal concern were de- termined in the last resort. But lest this assembly, which was com- posed of all the citizens, should, in the words of Plutarch, like a ship with too many sails, be exposed to the gusts of folly, tumult, and dis- order, he provided for its safety by the two anchors of the Senate and Areopagus. The first of these courts consisted of four hundred persons, who prepared all important bills that came before the assembly of the people ; the second, though a mere court of justice, gained a prodigious ascendency in the republic, by the wisdom and gravity of its members, who were not chosen but aller the strictest scrutiny and the most serioUs deliberation. That country, of which Sparta afterward became the capital, was, like the other states of Greece, originally divided into several petty principalities, of which each was under the jurisdiction of its own im- mediate chieftain. Leiex is said to have been the first king, about the I year before Christ 1516. At length the two brothers, Eurysthenes and Procles, obtaining possession of this country, became con- n p I junct in the royalty ; and their posterity, in a direct line, con- iiqo* I tinned tarule jointly for almost nine centuries. The Spartan I government did not take that singular form which rendered it so re- jmarkable before the time of Lycurgus. The plan of policy t» p [devised by that extraordinary man comprehended a senate and qqa ' [an assembly of the people, and, in general, all those esta- [blishments which are deemed most requisite for the security of political lindcpendence. It differed from all other governments, in having two |kings whose office was hereditary, though their power was sufficiently circumscribed by proper restraints. But the great characteristic of the [Spartan constitution was this, that, in all his laws, Lycurgus had at least as much respect to war as to political liberty. With this view, ill sorts of luxury, all arts of elegance or entertainment, were abso- lutely proscribed. The citizens were forbidden to use money ; they ived at public tables on the coarsest fare ; the younger were taught to pay the utmost reverence to the senior citizens ; and all ranks capable of bfiaring arms were daily accustomed to the most laborious exercises. To the Spartans alone, war was a relaxation rather than a hardship ; lind they behaved in it with a spirit, of which scarcely any but a Spar- tan could even form a conception. In order to see the effect of those principles, and to connect under kne point of view the history of the different portions of the globe, we nust now cast our oycs on Africa and Asia, and observe the events ►hich happened in those groat empires of which we have so long lost bht. For some centuries before the conquest of Egypt by Cambyses the ersian, the people were more celebrated for the wisdom of their laws D2 » 36 INTRODUCTION. and political institutions, than for the power of their arms. Several of these seem to have been dictated by the true spirit of civil wisdom, and weie admirably calculated for preserving order and good govemment in an extensive kingdom. The great empire of Assyria likewise, which had so long disappeared, becomes again an object of attention, and affords the first instance that we meet with in history, of a kingdom which fell by its own weight, and the effeminate weakness of its sovereigns. Sarda- napalus, the last emperor of Assyria, neglecting the administration of affairs, and shutting himself up in his palace with his women and hii eunuchs, lost the regard and esteem of his subjects. The governors of his provinces, to whom, like a weak and indolent prince, he had entirely committed the command of his armies, did not fail to seise this oppor- tunity of raising their own fortune on the ruins of their master's power. Arbaces, governor of Media, and Belesis, governor of Babylon, conspired against their sovereign, and, having set fire to his capital, divided be- tween them his extensive dominions. These two kingdoms, some- times united under one prince, and sometimes governed each by a par- ticular sovereign, maintained the chief sway in Asia for many years, Phul revived the kingdom of Assyria ; and Shalmaneser, one of his suc- cessors, put an end to the kingdom of Israel, and carried the ten tribes captive into Assyria and Media. Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylon, also, in the year before Christ 587, overturned .the kingdom of Judali, which had continued in the family of David from the year 1055, and conquered all the countries round him. But, in the year 538, Cynis * D p the Great took Babylon, and reduced a considerable part of ,og * Asia under the Persian yoke. The manners of this people, brave, ' hardy, and independent, as well as the government of Cyrus in i all its various departments, are elegantly described by Xenophou. The sera of Cyrus is in one respect extremely remarkable (beside that in it the Jews were delivered from their captivity), became with it the history of the great nations of antiquity, which have hitherto engaged our attention, may be said to terminate. Let m\ consider, then, the genius of the Assyrians, Babylonians, and Egyp- tians, in arts and sciences ; and if possible, discover what progtea they had made in those acquirements which are most subser\'ierit to | the interests of society. The taste for the gn^at and the magnificent seems to have been tlie I prevailing character of those nations ; and they principally displayed it m their works of architecture. There are no remains, however, whick confirm the testimony of ancient writers with regard to the great worb that adorned Babylon and Nineveh. Three pyramids, stupendoui fabrics, are still seen in Egypt, which arc supposed to have been the burying-places of the ancient Egyptian kings. It was a superstition among the Egyptians, derived from the earliest times, that even after j death the soul continued in the body as long as it remained uncorrupl Hence proceeded the custom of embalming; and the pyramids wei«| erected with the same view. The arts in which those nations, next to architecture, chiefly ex- celled, were sculpture and embroidery. As to the sciences, they prin- cipally bestowed their attention on astronomy. It does not appear,! however, that they had madt, wreat progress in any species of rationill and sound philosophy ; as a proof of which it may be sufficient to ob-l serve, that the absurd reveries of magic and astrology, which alwajil , decrease in proportion to the advancement of true science, were in higbl esteem among them during Mte latest period of their goveromcnt. Tkl [18. Several of 11 wisdom, and goveoAment in vise, which had Aon, and affords )in which fell by ireigns. Sarda- dministration of women and hii ^he governors of , he had entirely seise this oppor- : master's power, ibylon, conspired pital, divided be- kingdoms, some- d each by a par- , for many years. sr, one of his suc- ied the ten tribei king of Babylon, ingdom of Judah, e year 1055, and year 538, Cynis ansiderablc part of f this people, brave, nment of Cyrus in ed by Xenophon. remarkable (.beside captivity), became uity, which ha« erminate. Let m onians, and Egyp- over what progrea most subservient to INTRODUCTION. W countries which they occupied were extremely fruitful, and without much labor aflforded all the necessaries, and even luxuries of life. They had long been accustomed to a civilised and polished life in great cities. These circumstances had tainted their manners with effeminacy and cor- ruption, and rendered them an easy prey to the Persians, a nation emerging from barbarism, and consequently brave and warlike. The history of Persia, after the reign of Cjrrus, who died in the year before Christ 529, offers little, considered in itself, that merits our re- gard • but, when combined with that of Greece, it becomes particularly interesting. The monarchs who succeeded Cyrus gave to the Greeks . an opportunity of exercising those virtues which the freedom of their government had created and confirmed. Sparta remained under the influence of the institutions of Lycurgus : Athens had recently reco- vered from the tyranny of the Pisistratidse, a family which had trampled on the laws of Solon, and usurped the supreme power. Such was the situation of those states, when Darius, at the instigation of an expelled mal-content, sent forth his numerous armies against Greece. But the Persians were no longer those invincible soldiers who, under Cyrus, had conquered Asia, Their minds were enervated by luxury and servitude. Athens, on the contrary, teemed with great men, animated by the late recovery of their freedom. Miltiades, on the plains of Marathon, n /-« with ten thousand Athenians, overcame the Persian army of a /qq ' hundred and ten thousand men. His countrymen Themisto- cles and Aristides, the first celebrated for his abilities, the second for his virtue, gained the next honors to the general. It does not fall within our plan to mention the events of this war, which, as the noblest monuments of the triumph of virtue over force, of courage over num- bers, of liberty over servitude, deserve to be read at length in the histori- cal works of the ancients. Xerxes, the son of Darius, came in person into Greece, xvith an im- mense army, which, according to Herodotus, amounted, the at- -n p tendants of the camp being included, to two millions and one /qq* hundred thousand men. This account has been justly considered, by gome ingenious modern writers, as incredible. Whatever might be the number of his army, he was defeated by sea and land, and escaped to Asia in a fishing-boat. Such was the spirit of the Greeks ; and so well did they know, that, " wanting virtue, life is pain and woe ; that, wanting liberty, even virtue mourns, and looks around for happiness in vain." But though the Persian war concluded gloriously for the Greeks, it is in a great measure to this war that the subsequent mis- fortunes of that nation are to be attributed. Not the battles in which they suffered the loss of so many brave men, but those in which they acquired the spoils of Persia, — not their endurance of so many hardships in the course of the war, but their connexions with the Persians after the conclusion of it, — subverted the Grecia^i establishments, and ruined the mofit virtuous confederacy that ever existed upon earth. The Greeks became haughty after their victories. Delivered from the common enemy, they began to quarrel among themselves ; and their dissensions were increased by Persian gold, of which they had acquired enough to make them desirous of more. Hence proceeded the famous t. p Peloponnesian war, in which the Athenians and Lacedaemonians Voi* acted as principals, and drew after them the other states of Greece, They continued to weaken themselves by these intestine di- visioiia, till Philip, king of Macedon, rendered himself the absolute 4 ■>* 3g INTRODUCTION. B.C. 338. master of Greece, by the battle of Chseronea. Thia conquest is one of the first we meet with in history, which did not de- pend 0. the event of a battle. Philip had laid his schemes so deeply, and by bribery, promises, and intrigues, gained over such % number of considerable persons in the several states of Greece to his interest, that another day would have put in his possession what Chse- ronea had denied him. The Greeks had lost that virtue which was the basis of their confederacy. Their popular governments served only to give a sanction to their licentiousness and corruption. The principal orators in most of their states were bribed to the service of Philip ; and all the eloquence of a Demosthenes, assisted by truth and virtue, was unequal to the mean but more seductive arts of his opponents, who, by nattering the people, used the surest method of gaining -heir af- factions. Philip had proposed to extend the boundaries of his empire beyond the narrow limits of Greece : but he did not long survive the battle of Chseronea, After his death, the Athenians and Thebans made a feeble effort for expiring liberty ; but they were obliged to yield to the vigo. of Alexander, the son of Philip, who soon after undertook an expedi- tion against the Persians, at the head of thirty thousand foot and five thousand horse. The success of this army in conquering the whole force of Darius in three great battles,^ in over-running and subduing, not only the countries then known to the Greeks, but various parts of India, whose very names had never before reached an European ear, consti- •p p tutes a singular part of the history of the world. Soon after ■^no ' this rapid career of victory and success, Alexander died at Baby- ' Ion. His chief officers, after sacrificing all his family to their ambition, divided among them his dominions. During the period which elapsed between the reigns of Cyrus and Alexander, the arts were cultivated with peculiar success. Though the eastern nations had raised magnificent and stupendous structures, the Greeks were the first people in the world who, in their works of architecture, added beauty to magnificence, and elegance to grandeur. The temples of Jupiter Olympius and of the Ephesian Diana were the first monuments of good taste. Phidias, the Athenian, who died in the year B. C. 432, acquired the higheui fame as a sculptor. Zeuxis, Parrhasius, and Timanthes, during the same age, first discovered the power of the pencil, and all the magic of painting. Composition, ia all its various branches, reached a degree of excellence in the Greek language, of which a modern reader can scarcely form an idea. After Hesiod and Homer, who flourished about 900 years before the Chris- tian aera, the tragic poctij, iEschylus, Sophocles, anu Euripides, were the first considerable improvers of poetry. Herodotus gave simpli- city and elegance to prosaic writing ; Isocrates gave it cadence and harmony ; but it was left to Thucydides and Demosthenes to discover the full force of the Greek tongue. It was not, however, in the fine arts alone that the Greeks excelled. Every species of philosophy flourished among them. Not to mention the divine Socrates, the vir- tues of whose life, and the excellence of whose philosophy, justly enti- tled him to high respect and veneration, — his three disciples, Plalo, Aristotle, and Xenophon, may, for strength of reasoning, justness of sentiment, and propriety of expression, be considered as equal to the best writers of any age or country. Experience, indeed, in a long course of years, has taught us many secrets in nature, with which INTRODUCTION. 99 I empire beyond ive the battle of IS made a feeble eld to the vigOi took an expedi- iid foot and five ; the whole force id subduing, not IS parts of India, pean ear, consti- >rld. Soon after ler died at Baby- s family to their those philoiophert were unacquainted, and which no strength of ge- nius could divine. But, whatever some vain cmfMrics in learning may pretend, the most learned and ingenious men, both in France and England, have acknowleged the superiority of the Greek philosophers, and have reckoned themselves happy in catching their turn- of think- ing and manner of expression. The Greeks were not less distinguished for their active than for their speculative talents. It would be endless to recount the names of their famous statesmen ,\nd warriors ; and it is impossible to mention a few without doing injustice to a greater number. War was first reduced to p. science by the Greeks. Theit soldiers fought from an affection to their country and an ardor for glory, and not from a dread of their superiors. We have seen the effects of this military virtue in their wars against the Persians ; the cause of it may bfe found in the wise laws which Amphictyon, Solon, and Lycurgus, had established in Greece. But wo must now leave this nation, whose history, both civil and philosophical, is as important as their territory was inconsiderable, and turn our attention to the Ro- man affairs, which are still more interesting, both on their own ac- count, and from the relation in which they stand to those of modern Europe. The character of Romulus, the founder of the Roman state, when we view him as the leader of a few lawless and wandering banditti, n p is an object of extreme insignificance. But, when we consider mco' him as the founder of an empire of wonderful extent, whose progress and decline have occasioned two of the greatest revo- lutions that ever happened in Europe, we cannot but be interested in his conduct. He possessed great military abilities ; and a wide field for their display was afforded by the political state of Italy, divided into a number of small but independent districts. He was continually em- broiled with one or other of his neighbours ; and war was the only employment by which ho and his companions expected, not only to aggrandise themselves, but even to subsist. In the conduct of hia with the neighbouring people, we may observe an adherence to wars the same maxims by which the Romans afterward became masterg of a very considerable portion of the world. Instead of destroying the nations he had subjected, he united them to the Roman state. Thus Rome acquired a new accession of strength from every war she under- took, and became powerful and populous from that very circumstance which ruins and depopulates other kingdoms. If the enemies with whom he contended had, by means of the art or arms they employed, any con- siderable advantage, Romulus immediately adopted that practice, or the use of that weapon, and improved the military system of the Romans by the united experience of all their enemies. Though principally attached to war, he did not altogether neglect the civil polity of his infant king- dom. He instituted what was called the Senate, a court originally com- posed of a hundred persons distinguished for their wisdom and experience. He enacted laws for the administration of justice, and for bridling the fierce and unruly passions of his followers ; and, after a long reign spent in promoting the civil and military interests of his countr)', was, accord- ing to the most probable conjecture, privately assassinated by some discontented senators. The successors of Romulus were all very extraordinary personages. Numa established the religious ceremonies of the Romans, and inspired them with that veneration for an oath, which was ever after the soul of their military discipline. TuUus Hostilius, Aqgu» Martins, Tarqui* 40 INTRODUCTION. aius Friscus, and Serviua Tulliua, labored, each during hit reign, for tfie greatness of Rome. But Tarquin the Proud, the seventh and last king, having obtained the crown by the execrable murder of his father- ia-law Servius, continued to support it by the most cruel and infamous tyranny. This, together with the insolence of his son, who, by disho- noring Lucretia, a Roman lady, affronted the whole nation, occasioned o p the expulsion of the Tarquin family, and with it the dissolution ^Zq' of the regal government. As the Romans, however, were con- tinually engaged in war, they found it necessary to have some officer invested with supreme authority, who might conduct them to the field, and regulate their military enterprises. In lieu of the kings, therefore, they appointed two annual magistrates, called consuls, who, without exciting the same jealousy, succeeded to all the powers of their former sovereigns. . When the Romans had gradually subdued all opposition in Italy, they turned their eyes abroad, and met with powerful rivals in the Cartha- ginians. This state had been founded or enlarged on the coast of the Mediterranean in Africa, some time before Rome, by a colony of Phoe- iiicians, in the year 869 ; and, according to the practice of their mother- country, they had cultivated commerce and naval greatness. Carthage, in these views, had proved wonderfully successful. She now commanded both sides of the Mediterranean. Beside that of Africa, which she al- most entirely possessed, she had extended herself on the Spanish side through the Straits. Thus mistress of the sea and of commerce, she Iiad seised the Islands of Corsica and Sardinia. Sicily found great diffi- culty in defending itself; tind the Romans were too nearly threatened, not to take up arms. Hence rose three Punic wars, in which the Carthaginians, with all their wealth and power, were an unequal match for the Romans. Carthage was a powerful re]mblic when Rome was an inconsiderable state; but she had become corrupt and efleminate, while Rome was in the vigor of her political constitution. Carthage employed mercenaries to carry on her wars : the Roman state was com- posed of soldiers. The first war with Carthage lasted twenty-three years, and taught the Romans the art of fighting on the sea. A Car- B C ^^^Si"i^" vessel was wrecked on their coast ; they used it for a ngQ ' model ; in three months fitted out a fleet ; and the consul Dui- ' lius, who fought their first naval battle, was victorious. The behaviour of Regains, the Roman general, (unless we question the au- thenticity of the story) may give us an idea of the spirit which then ani- mated this people. Being made prisoner in Africa, he was sent back on his parole to negotiate a change of prisoners. He maintained in the senate the propriety of that law which cut off, from those who suffered themselves to bo taken, all hopes of being saved ; and returned to cer- tain death. • Neither was Carthage, though corrupted, deficient in great charac- ters. Of all the enemies the Romans ever had to contend with, Hanni- bal, the Carthaginian, was the most inflexible and dangerous. Being appointed general at twenty-five years of age, he crossed the Ebro, the Pyrenees, and the Alps, and unexpectedly rushed down upon Italy. jj ^ The loss of four battles threatened the fall of Rome. Sicily sided 218 ^'^'^ }^^ conqueror ; and almost all Italy abandoned the Romans. In this extremity, Rome owed its preservation to three great men. Fabius Maximus, despising popular clamor and the military ardor of bis countrymen, declined coniing to an engagement. The strength of Rome had time to recover. Marcellus raised the siege of Nola, took INTRODUCTION; # tion in Italy, they is in the Cartha- t the coast of the I colony of Phoe- of their inother- tness. Carthage, enow commanded ca, which she al- the Spanish side »f commerce, she ' found great diffi- nearly threatened, irs, in which the an unequal match when Rome was it and efleminate, tution. Carthage n state was com- stcd twenty-three the sea. A Car- hey used it for a the consul Dui- victoriouB. The question the au- it which then an!- was sent back maintained in the lose who suffered returned to cer- in great cliarao- ;end with, Hanni- angerous. Being ised the Ebro, the down upon Italy, me. Sicily sided )ned the Romans. three great men. military ardor of The strength of !ge of Nola, took Syracuse, and revived the drooping spirits of hia troops. The young Scipio, atthe ageoffour and twenty years, rushed into Spain, where both hia father and uncle had lost their lives, attacked New Carthage, and reduced it at the flfst assault. Upon his arrival in Africa, kings submitted to him ; Carthage trembled in her turn, and saw her armies defeated. Hannibal was in vain called home to defend his country. Carthage was rendered tributary, and engaged never to enter oo g ^^ a war, but with the consent of the Roman people. gm * At this time the world was divided, as it were, into two por- tions: in one part fought the Romans and Carthaginians ; the other was .igitated by those quarrels which iiad lusted since the death of Alex- ander the Great, and in which the scenes of action were Greece, Egypt, and the East. The states of Greece had once more disengaged them- selves from a foreign yoke. They were divided into three confederacies, the ^toliaus, Acheeans, and Boeotians. Each was an association of free cities, which had assemblies and magistrates in common. Phi- lip, who then reigned in Macedon, had rendered himself odious to the Greeks by some unpopular and tyrannical measures j the i^tolians were most irritated ; and, hearing the fame of the Roman arms, called them into Greece, and overcame Philip by their assistance. The victory, however, chiefly redounded to the advantage of the Romans. The Macedonian garrisons were obliged to evacuate Greece ; the cities were all declared free ; but Philip bt^ame a tributary to the Romans, and the states of Greece were considered as their dependents. The iEtolians, discovering their first error, endeavoured to remedy it by another still more dangerous to themselves, and more advantageous to the Romans. As they had called the Romans into Greece to defend them against king Philip, they now called in Antiochus, king of Syria, to defend them against the Romans. The famous Hannibal, too, had recourse to the same prince: but Antiochus did not follow his advice so much as that of the iEtoIians; for, instead of renewing the war in Italy, where Han- nibal, from experience, knew the Romans to be most vulnerable, ho landed in Greece with a small force, and, being overcome without dif- ficulty, fled over into Asia. The Romans pursued him, and, t> p having vanquished him by sea and land, compelled him to submit iq/T' to a disgraceful treaty. ^"*'' In these conquests the Romans still allowed the ancient inhabitants to possess their territories. They did not even change the form of go- vernment. The conquered nations became the allies of the Roman people; which denon)ination, however, under a specious name, con- cealed a condition very servile, and inferred that they should submit to whatever was required of them. When we reflect on those easy con- quests, we have reason to 1)e astonished at the resistance which the Romans met with from Mithridates, king of Pontus, for the space of twenty-six years. But this monarch had great resources. Hia king- dom, bordering on the inaccessible mountains of Caucasus, abounded in a race of men whose minds were not enervated with pleasure, and whose bodies were firm and vigorous ; and he gave the Romans iriore trouble than even Hannibal. The different states of Greece and Asia, which now began to feel the weight of their yoke, but had not the spirit to shake it olf, were trans- ported at finding a prince who dared to show himself an enemy to the Romans, and cheerfully submitted to his protection. Mithridates, however, was at last compelled to yield to the superior fortune of the Romans. Vanquished succewively by ' Sylla and LucuUus, he was at 42 INTRODUCTION. length subdued by Pompey, and stripped of his dominions and bis !](«, in tne year before Christ 63. In Africa, the Roniau arms met with equal success. Marius, in conquering Jugurtha, gave security to th« republic in that quarter. Even the barbarous nations beyond tlie Alps began to feel the weight of the Roman arms. Gallia Narbonensis had been reduced into a province. The Cimbri, Teutones, and other northern nations of Europe, broke into this part of the empire. But Marius severely chastised the barbarians, who retired to their wilds and « p deserts, less formidable than the Roman legions. Yet, while lO'i* I^ome conquered the world, there subsisted an acrimonious war- fare within her walls. This species of hostility had continued from the first period of the government. Rome, after the expulsion of her kings, enjoyed merely a partial liberty. The descendants of the senators, who were styled Patricians, were invested with so many odious privileges, that the people felt their dependence, and became de- termined to shake it off. A thousand disputes on the subject arose between them and the patricians, which always terminated in favor of liberty. These disputes, while the Romans preserved their virtue, were not attended with any sanguinary consequences. The patricians, who loved their country, cheerfully resigned some of their privileges to satisfy their opponents; and the people, on the other hand, though they obtained laws by which they might be admitted to enjoy the fint offices of the state, and though they had the power of uominatioo, always named patricians. But when the Romans, by the conquest of foreign nations, became acquainted with all their luxuries and re- finements, the state, torn by the factions between its members, and without virtue on either side to keep it together, became a prey to iti own children. Hence arose the sanguinary seditions of the Gracchi, which paved the way for an inextinguishable hatred between the nobles and commons, and made it easy for any turbulent demagogue to put them in action against each other. The love of their country was now no more than a specious name : persons of the higher class were too wealthy and effeminate to submit to the rigors of miUtary discipline; and the soldiers, composed of the dregs of the republic, were no longer citizens. They had little respect for any but their commander : un- der his banners they fought, and conquered, and plundered ; and for him they were ready to die. He might command them to attack their country. They who knew no country but the camp, and no authority but that of their general, were ever ready to obey him. The multiplicity of the Ronan conquests, however, which required the maintenance of several armies at the same time, retarded the subversion of the republic. These armies were so many checks upon each other. Had it not been for the soldiers of Sylla, Rome would have surrendered its liberty to the followers of Marius. Julius Caesar at length appeared. By subduing the Gauls, he gained for his country the most useful conquest it ever made. Pompey, hit only rival, was overcome on the plains of Pharsalia. Caesar was victo* rious almost at the same time all over the world ; in Egypt, in Asia, in Mauritania, in Spain, in Gaul, and in Britain : conqueror on all sides, he was acknowleged master at Rome, and through the whole , -n Q empire. Brutus and Cassius attempted to give Rome her \i-< 1. ' berty by stabbing him in the senate-house : but, though they thus delivered the Romans from the tyranny of Julius, the re- public did not obtain its freedom. It fell under the dominion of Mark Antony; Octavius, nephew to Julius, wrested it from him by the ioB8 and bU li(o, arina met widi I security to th« beyond the Alpi Narbonensia had ones, and other he empire. But D their wilds and ions. Yet, while acrimonious war- y had continued the expulsion of scendants of the I with so many , and became de- the subject arose niinated in favor rved their virtue, The patricians, their privileges to er hand, though to enjoy tiie lirst jr of uominatioD, y the conquest of luxuries and re< ts members, and une a prey to iti s of the Gracchi, etween the noblei emagogue to put country was now er class were too I'.lary discipline; ic, were no longer commander : un- undcred ; and for 3m to attack their and no authority The multiplicity e. maintenance of )n of the republic. Had it not been its liberty to the Gauls, he gained Pompey, hi« Csesar was victo- Egypt, in Asia, conqueror on all trough the whole ive Rome her li' mt, though they )f Julius, the re- ominioa of Mark a bim by the these arms IKTRODUCTION, 4|^ sea-fight at Actium, and no Brutua or Cassius remained to put an end to his life. Those friends of liberty had killed themselves in despair ; and the young conqueror, with the name of Augustus and title of emperor, became the absolute master of the empire. During civil commotions, the Romans still preserved the glory of their among distant nations; and, while it was unknown who should he master of Rome, they were, without dispute, the masters of the world. Their military discipline and valor abolished all the remains of the Carthaginian, Persian, Greek, Assyrian and Macedo..ian glory; they were now only a name. No sooner, therefore, was Octavius established on the throne, than ambassadors from all the regions of the known world crowded to make their submissions. Victorious by sea and laud, he shut the temple of Janus. The whole earth lived in peace under his power; and Jesus Christ came into the world, four years before the common sera. During the first nges of the republic, the Romans neglected and despised all the elegant improvements of life. War, politics, and agri- culture, were the only arts they studied, because they were the only •I'-ts they esteemed. But, upon the downfall of Carthage, having no enemy to dread from abroad, they began to taste the sweets of se- curity, and to cultivate the arts. Their progress, however, was not gradual, as in the other countries we have described. The conquest of Greece at once put them in possession of every thing most rare, curious, or elegant. Asia, which was the next victim, ofiiered all its stores ; and the Romans, from the most simple people, speedily became acquainted with the arts, the luxuries, and refinements, of the whole earth. Eloquence they had always cultivated as the high road to emi- nence and preferment. The orations of Cicero are inferior only to those of Demosthenes. In poetry, Virgil yields only to Homer, whose verse, like the prose of Demosthenes, may be considered as inimitable. Horace, however, in his Satires and Epistles, had no model among the Greeks, and stands to this day unrivaled in that species of writing. In history, the Romans can boast of Livy, who possesses all the natural ease of Herodotus, and is more descriptive, more eloquent, and senti- mental. Tacitus, indeed, did not flourish in the Augustan age ; but his works do himself the greatest honor, while they disgrace his coun- try and human nature, whose corruption and vices ho paints in the most striking colors. In philosophy, "if we except the works of Cicero, and the system of the Greek philosopher Epicurus, described in the nervous poetry of Lucretius, the Romans, during the time of the republic, made not the least attempt. In tragedy they never pro- duced any thing excellent ; and Terence, though remarkable for purity of style, wants that vis comica, or lively vein of humor, that distin- guishes the writings of the comic poets of Greece, and those of our immortal Shakspeare. Returning to our history, we meet with a set of monsters, under the name of emperors, whose acts, a few excepted, disgrace human nature. They did not, indeed, abolish the forms of tho Roman republic, though they extinguished its liberties; and, while they were practising the most unwarrantable cruelties upon their subjects, they themselves were the slaves of their soldiers. They made the world tremble, while they in their turn trembled at the army. Rome, from the time of Augustus, became the most despotic empire that ever subsisted in Europe; and the courts of its emperors exhibited the most odious scenes of that caprice, cruelty, and corruption, which universally pie- 4 INTRODUCTION. vail under a despotic gorernment. When it is said that the Roman republic conquered the world, it is only meant of the civilised part of it, chiefly Greece, Carthage, and Asia. A more difficult task still re- mained for the emperors ; — to subdue the barbarous nations of Europe —the people of Germany, of Gaul, and of Britain. These nations, though rude and ignorant, were brave and independent. It was ra- ther from the superiority of their discipline, than of their courage, that the Romans gained any advantage over them. From the obstinate resistance of the Germans, we may judge of the difficulties which the Romans met with in subduing the other nations of Europe. The contests were bloody; the countries of Europe were successively laid waste; numbers of the inhabitants perished in the field, many were carried into slavery, and a feeble remnant submitted to the Roman power. This situation of affairs was extremely unfavorable to the happiness of man- kind. The barbarous nations, indeed, from their intercourse with the Romans, acquired some taste for the arts, sciences, language, and man- ners, of their new masters. These, however, were miserable consola- tions for the loss of liberty, for being deprived of the use of arms, overawed by mercenary soldiers, and pillaged by rapacious governors. The Roman empire, stretched out to such an extent, had lost its spring and force. It contained within itself the seeds of dissolution; and the violent irruptions of the Goths, Vandals, Huns, and other barbarians, hastened its destruction. These fierce tribes either inha- bited tl-.e various parts of Germany, which had never been subdued by the Romans, or were scattered over the vast countries of the north of Europe, and the north-west of Asia, which are now inhabited by the Danes, the Swedes, the Poles, the subjects of the Russian empire, and the Tartars. They met with a powerful resistance from the superior discipline of the Roman legions ; but this, instead of daunting men of a strong and impetuous temper, only roused them to vengeance. Great bodies of armed men (says an elegant historian), with their wives and children, and slaves and flocks, issued forth, like regular colonies, in quest of new settlements. New adventurers followed them. The lands which they deserted were occupied by more remote tribes of barbarians. These, in their turn, pushed forward into more fertile countries; and, like a torrent continually increasing, rolled on, and swept every thing before them. Wherever the barbarians marched, their route was marked with blood. They ravaged or destroyed all around them. They made no distinction between what was sacred and what was profane. If a person should be desired to fix upon the pe- riod in the history of the world, during whieh the condition of tlie human race was the most calamitous, he would, without hesitation, name that wliich elapsed from the death of Theodosius the Great, A.D. 395, to the establishment of the Lombards in Italy, A.D. 571. The contemporary authors, who beheld that scene of desolation, are at a loss for expressions t»; describe its horrors. The scourge of God, the destroyer of nations, are the dreadful epithets by which they distinguish the most noted of the barbarous leaders. • Constantine, who was emperor at the beginning of the fourth cen- ^A D *"'^' '"^'"^ "'"' ^^^ embraced Christianity, transferred the seat of ong* empire from Rome to Constantinople. The western and eastern provinces were in consequence separated from each other, and governed by different sovereigns. The removal of the Roman legions from the Rhine and the Danube to the East, threw down the western barriers of the empire, and laid it open to the invaders. INTRODUCTION. • Rome (now known by the name of the Western ^wipiVe, in contra- distinction to Constantinople, which, from its situation, was called the Eastern Empire), weakened by this division, became a prey to the bar- barous nations. Its ancient glory, vainly deemed immortal, was ^ j^ effaced: and Odoacer, a barbarian chieftain, was seated on the ^^g throne of the Casars. These irruptions into the empire were gradual and successive. The immense fabric of the Roman empire was the work of many ages ; and several centuries were employed in demo- lishing it. So efl&cacious was the ancient military discipline of the Romans, that the remains of it, which descended to their successors, must have rendered them superior to their enemies, had it not been for the vices of their emperors, and the universal corruption of manners among the people. Satiated with the luxuries of the known worid, the emperors were at a loss to find new provocatives. The most distant regions were explored, the ingenuity of mankind was exercised, and the tribute of provinces expended upon one favorite dish. The ty- ranny and the universal depravation of manners that prevailed under the emperors, or, as they are called, Csesars, could only be equaled by the barbarity of those nations of which the empire at length became the prey. Toward the close of the sixth century, the Saxons were masters of the southern and more fertile prodnces of Britain ; the Franks possessed Gaul; the Goths, Spain ; the Goths and Lombards, Italy and the ad- jacent provinces. Scarcely any vestige of the Roman policy, jurispru- dence, arts, or literature, remained. New forms of government, new laws, new manners, new dresses, new languages, and new names of men and countries, were every where introduced. From this period, till the 15th century, Europe exhibited a melancholy picture of Gothic barbarity. Literature, science, taste, were words scarcely in use during those ages. Persons of the highest rank, and in the most eminent stations, could not read or write. Many of the clergy did not understand the breviary which they were obliged daily to recite; some of them could scarcely read it. The human mind, neglected, uncultivated, and depressed, sank into the most profound ig- norance. The superior genius of Charlemagne, who, in the beginning of the ninth century, governed France and Germany, with part of Italy, — and Alfred the Great in England, during the latter part of the same century, — endeavoured to dispel this darkness, and to give their subjects a short glimpse of light. But the ignorance of the age was too power- ful ioT their efforts and institutions. The darkness returned, and even increased. A new division of property gradually introduced a new species of government, distinguished by the name of the Feudal System. The king or general, who led the barbarians to conquest, divided the lands of the vanquished among his chief officers, binding those on whom they were bestowed to follow his standard with a number of men, and to bear arms in his defoncc. The chief officers, who also distributed portions of land among their dependents, annexed ihe same condition to the grant; a system admirably calculated lor defence against a foreign enemy, but which degenerated into an engine of op- pression. The usurpation of the nobles became unbounded and intolerable. They reduced the great body of the people to a state of actual servitude, and deprived them of the natural and inalienable rights of humanity ; for they were slaves fixed to the soil which they cultivated, and were 46 INTRODUCTION. transferred with it from one proprietor to another, by sale or by con- veyance. Every offended baron or chieftain buckled on his armour, and sought redress at the head of his vassals. His adversaries met him in like array. The kindred and dependents, both of the aggressor and the defender, were involved in the quarrel ; they had not even tlie liberty of remaining neuter. The monarchs of Europe perceived the encroachments of their nobles with impatience. In order to create some power that might counter- balance those potent vassals, who, while they enslaved the people, con- trolled or gave law to the crown, a plan was adopted of conferring new privileges on towns. These privileges abolished all marks of ser- vitude ; and the inhabitants of towns were formed into corporations, or bodies politic, to be governed by a council and magistrates of their own nomination. The acquisition of liberty soon produced a happy change in the con- dition of mankind. A spirit of industry revived ; commerce became an object of attention, and began to flourish. Various causes contri- buted to revive this spirit of commerce, and to renew the intercourse of nations. Constantinople, the capital of the Eastern or Greek empire, liad escaped the ravages of the Goths and Vandals, who overthrew that of the West. In this city some remains of literature and science were p^eser^'ed : this, too, was for many ages the principal empo- » j-v rium ; and, when the crusades, which were begun by the Chris- lOQfi* ^^^^ powers of Europe with a view to drive the Saracens from Je- rusalem, had opened a communication between Europe and the East, Constantinople was the general place of rendezvous for the Chris- tian armies, in their way to Palestir*-, or on their return. Though con- quest was the object of these expeditions, and though the issue of them proved unfortunate, their commercial effects were both beneficial and permanent. Soon after the close of the holy war, the mariner's compass was in- vented, which facilitated the communication between remote nations. The Italian states, particularly those of Venice and Genoa, began to establish a regular commerce with the East and the ports of Egypt, and thence drew all the rich productions oT India. These commodities they disposed of to great advantage among the other nations of Europe, who began to acquire some taste for ele- gance, unknown to their predecessors, or despised by them. During the 12th and 13th centuries the commerce of Europe was almost entirely in the hands of the Italians, more commonly known in those ages by the name of Lombards. Companies or societies of Lombard merchants settled in every kingdom ; they became the carriers, the manufacturi-rs, and the bankers of Europe. While trade was cultivated in the south of Europe with such industry and success, the commercial spirit was awakened in the north, toward the middle of the 13th century. As the Danes, Swedes, and other nations around the Baltic, were at that time extremely barbarous, and infested that sea with their piracies, the cities of Lubeck and Hamburg, soon after they had begun to open some trade with the Italians, entered into a league of mutual defence. They derived such advantages from this union, that other towns acceded to their confederacy; and, in a «hort time, eighty of the most considerable cities, scattered through those largo countries of Germany and Flanders which stretch from the Baltic to the Rhine, joined in an allianc^, called the Hanseatic League, which became so formidable, that its friendship was courted and it» A. D. 1302. mxRODUCTlON. 47 compass was in- between remote le of Venice and ■ce with tlie East ch productions oT advantage among )me taste for de- )y them. During as almost entirely those ages by the nbard merchants he manufacturiTs, eomity dreaded by the greatest monarchs. The aiembera ofthis power- ful association formed the first systematic plan of commerce known in the middle ages, and conducted it by common laws enacted in their general assemblies. They supplied the rest of Europe with naval storer,, and selected dififerent towns, the most eminent of which was Bruges in Flanders, where they established staples, in which their commerce was regularly carried on. Thither the Lombards brought the productions of India, together with the manufactures of Italy, and exchanged them for the more bulky but not less useful commodities of the north. As Bruges became the centre of communication between the Lombards and Han- seatic morchauts, the Flemings traded with both in that city to such an extent and advantage, as diffused among them a general habit of industry, which long rendered Flanders and the adjacent provinces the most opulent, the most populous, and the best-cultivated countries in Europe. Admiring the flourishing state of those provinces, Edward III. of England endeavoured to excite a spirit of i'ldustry among his subjects, who, blind to the advantages of their situation, and ignorant of the source from which opulence was destined to flow into their country, totally neglected commerce, and did not even attempt those manufactures, the materials of which they furnished to foreigners. By alluring Flemish artisans to settle in his dominions, as well as by the enactment of judi- cious laws for the encouragement and regulation of trade, he gave a beginning to the woollen manufacture of England, and first turned the active and enterprising genius of his people toward those arts which have raised the English to the first rank among commercial nations. The Christian princes, alarmed at the progress of their inveterate enemies the Turks, endeavoured to gain the friendship and assistance of the khans of Tartary. The ambassies were managed chiefly by monks who, impelled by zeal, and undaunted by difficulties and danger, pene- trated to the remote courts of those infidels. The first regular traveler of the monkish kind, who committed his discoveries to writing, was Giovanni Carpini, who, with some of his brethren, about the year 1246 carried a letter from pope Innocent to the great khan of Tartary, in favor of the Christian subjects in the extensive dominions of that potentate. Soon after this, a spirit of traveling into Tartary and India became general : and it would not perhaps be difficult to prove that many Europeans, about the end of the fourteenth century, served in the armies of Timour, whose conquests reached to the remotest corners of India; and that they introduced into Europe the use of gunpowder and artillery, the discovery made by a German chemist being only partial asd accidental. After the death of Timour, who, jealous of the rising power of the Turks, had checked their progress, the Christian adventurers, upon tho> return, magnifying the vast riches of India, inspired their countrymen with the spirit of adventure and discovery, and were the first who sug- gested the practicability of a passage thither by sea. The Portuguese had long been famous for their application to maritime aflfairs- and to their discovery of the Cape of Good Hope, Great-Britain is at this day indebted for her Indian commerce. The first adventurers contented themselves with short voyages, creeping along the coast of Africa, dis- covering cape after cape : but, by making a gradual progress southrtord they, in the year 1497, at length discovered and doubled the extreme cape of that continent, which opened a passage by sea to the Eastern Ocean. While the Portuguese were intent upon a passage to India by the ' wWi«W-P,«M-.W'»"' 48 INTRODUCTION. east. Colon or Columbus, a native of Genoa, conceived a project of sailing thither by the west. After applying in vain to the kings of France, England, and Portugal, he at length obtained the command of three ships from the Spanish court, and set sail in 1492, upon one *of the most adventurous attempts ever undertaken by man. In this voyage he had many difficulties to contend with; and his sailors, who were often discontented, at length began to insist upon his return, threatening, in case of refusal, to throw him overboard ; but the firm- ness of the commander, and the discovery of America after a passage of 33 days, put an end to the commotion. From the appearance of the natives, he found to his surprise that this could not be the country of which he was in quest, and that he had accidentally discovered a : new world.- Europe now began to emerge out of that darkness in which she had 'been sunk sipce the subversion of the Roman empire. These discoveries, from which such wealth was destined to flow to the co.u nercial nations ,,of Europe, were accompanied and succeeded b;^ others of unspeakable benefit to mankind. The invention of printii g, the revival of learning, irts, and sciences, and, lastly, the happy reibrmation in religion, all ..distinguish the 15th and 16th centuries as the first .era of modern history. 'it was in these ages that the powers of Europe were formed into one great political system, in which each took a station, wherein it remained with Itttle variation. ■' • "•■.S^'*'' 7 ■ ■Mr ? EUROPE. EUROPE, though the least extensive quarter of the globe (for it 'contains only 2,749,349 square miles), is, in many respects, that which most deserves our attention. Here the human mind has made the great- est progress toward improvement ; and here the arts and sciences have ""been carried to the greatest perfection. If we except the earliest agei of. the world, it is in Europe that we find the chief varieties uf cha- racter, government, and manners; and from its history we derive the Tgreatest number of facts and memorials, either for our entertainment or instruction. Geography discovers to us two circumstances with regard to Europe, 5 which perhaps have had a considerable tendency in giving it the supe- riority over the rest of the world,— the happy temperature of its climate and the great variety of its surface. The effect of -a moderate climate, both on plants and animals, is well known from experience. The im- mense number of mountains, rivers, seas, &c., which divide the different countries of Europe from each other, may also be considered as exceed- ingly commodious for its iiibabitants. These natural boundaries check the progress of conquest or despotism, which has always been so rapid in the extensive plains of Africa and Asia. The seas and rivers facilitate the intercourse of nations ; and even the barren rocks and mountains are more favorable for exciting human industr}' and inven- tion, than the natural unsolicited luxuriance of more fertile soils. There is no part of Europe so diversified in its surface, >o interrupted by na- tural boundaries or divisions, as Greece; and it was iu that couotty ff'JfWt'l'' !.■> fm.l'l S ^ilD.I n ;siiii.J » 'iJniKvi red a project o( to the kings of i the command 1492, upon one y man. In this his sailors, who ipon his return, i ; but the firm- si after a paswge he appearance of ot be the country illy discovered a n which she had These discoveries, ,.ii nercial nations irs of unspeakable evival of learning, )n in religion, all of modern history. e formed into one herein it remained the globe (for it jspects, that which las made the great- and sciences have )t the earliest ages [f varieties of cha- Itory we derive the ir entertainment or regard to Europe, giving it the supc- [iturc of its climate , moderate climate, erience. The im- .divide the different Isidered as exceed- latural boundaiia has always been rhe seas and rivets barren rocks and LduBtrj' and inten- ertile soils. There interrupted by na- U in that couDti? (TaalM' Sr^.W, Smuul. hibliihtd M^y ifiStj Ify J.Mawman t ikr oiht }fby ir. the north-east; and 2500 broad, from north to south, from lie North Cape in Lapland, to Cape Metapan in the Morea, the most outhern promontory in Europe. It contains the following kingdoma nd states. Kingdoms and States. J ■3 ■s a CQ 1 30( 16C 160 120 400 150 Chief Cities. Distance and bearing from London. Differ- ence of Time fr. London. Religions. ; I i f England : g ^ Scoilanc j« t'reland 38C 27(1 28S London . . Miles. H.M. Calvin., Luth .&c. Calvioists, &c. Calvin., & Cath. Edinburgh . Dublin . . 400 N. 270 N. W. 12 aft. 26 aft. )cMinark . • 250 <>50 iOOO IfiOO 700 Cupeuhageu Stockholm . 500 N.E. 50 bet' Lutherans, Iweden . . 750 N. E. 10 bef. Lutherans. {(irway . . Christiania . 510 N. 1140 n.e; 24 bef. Lutherans. ,ussia . . . 1000 Petersburg . 2 4 bef. Greek Church. ;.of Pr. Dom. 300 Berlin . . .V40 E. 49 bef. Lutherans, & Cal. erinauy . . 650 210 530 Vienna . . 600 E. 600 E. 1 5 bef. 14 bef. Cath. Luth. &Cal. ohemia < • 175 Prneue . . Catholics. letherlaDds,! including > lolland J 360 260 Brussels Amsterdam 180 S. £. 130 E. 16 bef. 18 bef. Catholics, Calvinists. ranee . . . 600 620 350 260 550 510 Paris . . 260 S. E. y bef. 17 aft. Catholics, pam . . . Madrid . . «OUS. Catholics. uriugal . . 120 lOU Lisbon . . 850 S. W, 33 aft. Catholics. witzerland . Bern, &c. 420 S. E. 28 bef. Calvin., & Cath, taly . . . 650 840 200 600 Milan . . r'lorence lome . . Vaples . . 550 S. £. fiiiO S. E. ^20 S. E. )10 S. E. U 37 bef D 44 bef. 50 bef. 57 bef L'atholics. '"athoiics. l'atholics. Catholics. 'urkey in \ lurope J J Cunstan-1 \ tiuopie J 1320 S. E. 1 56 bef. 5 Mohammedans ;& Greek Ch. £ _, • , ^ DENMARK. In addition to the BRITISH ISLES before mentioned, EUROPE contains the following principal ISLANDS. .W- 1 ISLANDS. In the Northern^ Ocean . . Baltic Sea . Mediterranean . Sea ■ Adriatic, or Gulf of Venice Archipelago & Levant beas. ri|> I > ilia III I ••} Iceland. ■Zealand, Funen, Alsen, FaUter, Laaland, Laiigelaud, Femeren Muen, Bornholm . . . Gothland, (Eland . . Aland, OscI, Dae:'' .Usedoni, WoUiii gen ■Iviqa . . • . Majorca .... Minorca ., . > . . Corsica " '//• • . Sardinia .... • Sicily jCerigo, Corfu, Cephalonia, Zante, [ St. Maura, Paxo, Theaki .i; , Caudia, Rliodes, >(e(;ropont, Lem-. no«, Tenedoi, Scyros, Mitylfne, Scio, Samoa, Patmoi, Paros, San- torini, &c<, beinf part of ancient and modern Greece ChiefTcwus Suljjeot ;^ Reykiavik Copenhagen Ivi(;a Majorca Port Mahon Baitia . Carliari . Patermo . } Denmark. Ditto. * Sweden. Kussia. Prussia. Spain. Ditto. Ditto. Prance. K.ofSardiD K. of Sic. f Ionian (.Islands. Turkey. Beginning with the northern kingdoms And states, we shall first takt notice of the Danish realm, which consists of Denmark Proper, the duchjf of Holstein, and the island of Iceland. The dimensions and chief! toWnl of these countries are given in the following table. [ n > *-.;?'., Jutland . Sleswick . MoUtciu . Zeeland . Funen Falster . Laaland . Labgelaad Femeten . AlKb Moeii domholm Iceland . f A Square Miles. n fe,700 155 98 2,fl0() 70 63 2,700 90 50 2,100 60 60 1,274 40 30 mo 2.3 12 230 32 12 70 30 3 50 14 .') 50 15 6 40 14 5 150 20 12 42,000 330 21t) Chief Towns. Wiborg. ' Sleswick. - I Cluckstadt. ' Copenhagen. ' Odensee. ' Nyckiopiug. > Naskow. Rudkioping^. Borg. i Sunderburg. -, Stegc. I 1 Ronue. * Skalholt. /N. LE. •W Lat. LoD. 55.41 12.35 ! I ■■agM,! ■*,«>■» <4-- tioned, EUROPE DS. \ f TowDi Sulijeot to ! yrklavik enhagen ;a Deumark, Ditto. iSwedeik Russia. Prussia. iSpaiii. I Ditto. jorca •t MahonlJitto. •tia . I France. rliarl [ermo K.ofSardiD.! K. of Sic. I {Ionian i Islands. \ Turkey. '^. SB, we shall first tak« ark Proper, the duchy limensions and chief | able. f Town*. .{ U N. Lat.55.41• E.Lon. 12.35' 123 Hf iiiii iLfki I^w i.-«.*lMI*HII»fi'''V«H**w^ ■ v-^n*" u-^v.i«*^**tf«*7*'^r""V»'-!«*"'' .««•;? ^Hr-v*««^*.-*«- f^'*' -^Mta-W „^^^. , .. •■'y 1 * i f «»»;y*^.ifr«^»v^iVfe>.f»^»« i M W ii***' *^'»»*'^li*< tw^ >'W^»*peared to be about 2,017,000. If w? subtract 720,000 for the loss «f Norway, reckon the population of the substituted territory, and consider the probable increase, we may be dis- posed to attribute to the remaining monarchy about 1,400,000 subjects. Nation.al character and .manveus.] The ancient inhabitants of Denmark possessed a degree of courage which approached even to ferocity: but the modern Danes, without being deficient in bravery or spirit, are civilised and humaLe. They are not remarkable for vivacity or talent ; yet they are not so dull or heavy as the Dutch. The gentry are very fond of pomp and parade ; and they imitate the French in their manners, dress, and sometimy .some wandering fishermen in the twelfth century, but is now the metropolis. It is very strong, and defended by four royal castles or forts. The port is spaciou.«i, and is formed by a large canal flowing through the city, which admits only one ship tn enter at a time ; but the harbour (it is said^ is c.ipable of containing 50 vessels. This city contains some fine squares and handsome streets. The I king's new- market is surrounded by spacious edifices, one of which (the palace of Chttrlottenborg) is a])propriated to the purposes of an acadtniy of painting, sculpture, and architecture. In the Place of Arnalienborg, is a mansion-house to which the royal family removed, on the destruc- tion of the noble palace of Christianborg by fire; but a new edifice fori royalty is nearly finished in a grand and splendid style. The populatiojj of the city amounts to 100,000 persons. PENMARK. 63 ,18 fertile; and ^nd ; but, in the has for the most e, and agreeably lontains woods of Holstein produce 1 one year to the I, hops, and flax, it breed, both for sheep, and game, imark affords few n at Copenhagen, ere are preserved ither of silver, and iicles of gold and ntiquities, pictures )f sculpture, enrich 9, of the, people of ,c, and the counties ere said to amount and Greenlanders. id the number, with 0,017,000. If w? e population of the ase, we may be dis- 1,400,000 subjects. ancient inhabitants approached even to iciont in bravery or inrkablc for vivacity )utch. The gentry I the French in their kike other northern jnce in drinking, and Irevalent than it was liheir behaviour, and pquent among them. [en was originally a prmen in the twelfili L, and defended by and is formed by a L only one ship to |,le d containing M^^ hsomc streets. The L, one of which (the toses of an acadinit | lace of Amalienbor?, Vod,on thedcstnic lilt a new cditice tot I lie. The populauoi About twenty English miles from Copenhagen, is a large palace, called Fredericsborg. It was built by Christian IV., and, according to the architecture of his time, partakes of the Greek and Gothic styles. In the front of the grand quadrangle appear Tuscan and Doric pillars, and on the summit of the building are spires and turrets. Some of the rooms are very splendid, though furnished in the antique taste. The knights' hall is of great length. The tapestry represents the wars of Denmark, and the ceiling is a most minute and labored performance in sculpture. The chimney-piece was once covered with plates of silver, richly orna- mented ; but the Swedish invaders tore them all away, and rifled the palace, notwithstanding its triple moat and formidable appearance. About two miles from Elsineur is a small palace, flat-roofed, with twelve windows in front, said to be built on the spot formerly occupied by the palace of Hamlet's father. Sleswick, the capital of the duchy of that name, is the largest town in the Danish peninsula. It is a long, irregular, but handsome town, containing about si.x thousand inhabitants. — Kiel, in Holstein, is much more populous, and more enlivened by trade. Altona, situated on the Elbe, is a commercial town of great import- ance ; and manufactures of velvet, silk, calico, stockings, gloves, lea- ther, and mirrors, are here carried on with zealous industry. It is well built, and contains above 30,000 residents. Elsineur, or Helsingoer, is a flourishing town, and with respect to commerce is only e.xceeded by Copenhagen itself. It is well fortified both on the land side and toward the sea. Here all vessels pay a toll, and, in passing the Sound, lower their top-sailn- Manufactures and commerce.] The manufactures of Den- mark are not very numerous or important; but they flourish more than they did in the last reign, being encouraged by the crown, and by the patriotism of distinguished nobles. All sorts of woollen articles are fa- bricated; but the cloth made in Jutland is the finest. Neither in this nor in the linen branch, is a sufficient quantity manufactured even for the use of the natives. Cotton goods are also wrought with neatness, if not in that number or with that perfection which would enable them to rival those of Great-Britain. Calico-printing is carried on with spirit: some silken articles are not ill manufactured ; and, in Sleswick, lace of to-* lerable fineness is made even for exportation. In the art of making porcelain such progress has been made, that it is not much inferior to that of Dresden. Denmark is well situated for commerce ; its harbours are calculated for the reception of ships of ail burthens, and its mariners are very expert in navigation. Tiic dominions of his Danish majesty also supply a great variety of timber and other materials for ship-buiiding; and some of his provinces afford many natural productions for exportation. Among these, beside fir and other timber, are black cattle, horses, stock-fish, tallow, hides, train-oil, tar, pitch, and iron. The imports are, salt, wine, brandy, and silk, from France, Portusjal, and Italy. The Danes have great in- tercourse witli Britain, and thence import broad-cloths, and all other articles manufactured in the great trading towns of England. In 1822, our import a from Denmark amounted to 110,700 pounds, and our ex- ports to 363,700 pounds : in 1823, the former were 122,300 pounds, and the latter 511,700 pounds. Commercial companies are established in Denmark, which trade to I the East and West Indies, to the Mediterranean, and to Africa. In I the East Indies, the Danes possess the settlement of Tranquebar and the Nicobar islands ; in the West Indies, the islands of St. Thomas, St, 54 DENMARK. Croix, and St. John. On the coast of Guinea they have the fort of Christianborg. Civil constitution, government.] The ancient constitution of Denmark originally resembled the Gothic system. The king was chosen by the states or national assembly ; and, in conjunction with tlie senate, he was invested with the executive power. He also commanded the army, and decided finally all the disputes which arose among his subjects. The legislative power was vested in the states, which were composed of the order of nobility, and of the citizens and farmers. After the introduction of the Christian religion, the clergy were also admitted, Aot only to be an order of the states, but to have seats in the senate. These orders had their respective rights and privileges ; tlie crown had also its prerogatives, and a fixed revenue arising out of lands which were appropriated to its support. This constitution had evident advantages ; but, unfortunately, the balance of this government was ne- ver properly adjusted ; so that the nobles very soon assumed a dictato- rial power, and greatly oppressed the people, as the national councils were not regularly holden to redress their grievances ; and, when the Roman-catholic clergy came to have a share in the civil government, they far surpassed the nobility ih pride and ambition. The representatives of ihie (People had neither power, credit, nor talents, to counteract the efforts of the other two orders, who even forced the crown to give up its prero- gatives. Christian II., by endeavouring in an imprudent manner to stem nie torrent of their oppression, lost his crown and his liberty : but Chris- tian III., by uniting with the nobles and the senate, destroyed the power of the clergy, though the oppression of the common people by the nobility still remained. At length, in the reign of Frederic HI., when the nation had been exhausted by a war with Sweden, the people, exaspe- rated by the arrogance and tyianny of the nobles, who claimed as their privilege an exemption from all taxes, determined to render the king despotic. In consequence of this resolution, deputies from the clerg\- and the commons were appointed to make the king a solemn tender ot their liberties and services. The monarch accepted this offer, promising them relief and protection : the nobility, taken by surprise, were obliged to subniit : and, on the 10th of January, 1661, each of the three orders signed a separate act, by which they consented that the crown should be hereditary in the royal family, as well in the female as in the male line, and invested the king with absolute power, giving him the right to regulate the succession, and the regency, in case of a minority. After this extraordinary revoUitios, the king deprived the nobility of many of the privileges which they had before enjoyed ; but he took m method to relieve the people, who had been the instruments of investinc him with the sovereign power ; for he left them in a state of abject slavery. Laws.] The king enjoys all the rights of sovereign power. In a coim- cil, the members of which are named and displaced at his will, I he Inws are proponed, discussed, and receive the sanction of his high aiithorily | He 18 supposed to he present to administer justice in his supreme court; and, therefore, he not only presides nominally in the sovereign court of justice, 1). ! has a throne erected in it, toward which the lawyers always i address ilieir discourses in pleading, as do the judges in delivering thoir opinions. Fvery year he is present at the opening of this court, and often gives tho judges such instractions as he thinks proper. Their decision is final in all civil actions; but no criminal sentence of a capiial Tjatum can be carried into execution without the sanction of the royal j aigaaturc. DENMARK. it constitution The king was iction with the }u commanded we among his es, which were i and farmerg. ergy were also ve Beats in the privileges; the ig out of lands on had evident Vnment was ne- imed a dictato- ational councils and, when the overnment, they epresentativcs of iteract the efforu Lve up its prero- t manner to stem lerty : but Chris- itroyed the power lie by the nobility 111., when the B people, cxaspe- claimed as theit » vender the Ving from the clerg)- . solemn tender ot fis offer, promising trisc, were obliged If the three orders die crown should [le as in the male Ig him the right [se of a minority. id the nobility of but he took nn lents of investint! a state of abject power. In a coun- J, his will, llif ln«s lis hii!;h autlmrity \\a sninenie court; [sovereign court of Ihe lawyers always 1 in delivering llif" J of this court, and Ilka proper, 'rhen Intr-nce of a capita Iction of the royal The legal code, at present established in Denmark, was published by Christian V. : it ia founded upon the code of Waldemar. These laws are very just and clear; and, if they were impartially carried into execution, would be productive of many beneficial consequences to the people. 13ut, as the king can alter and dispense with the laws, and support his ministers and favorites in any acts of violence and injustice, there is always a risque of tyranny and oppression. From the time of the aristocratic usurpation to the year 1787, the peasants had been in a situation little better than the brute creation ; they scarcely could be said to possess any loco-motive power, since they had no liberty to leave one estate, and to settle on another, without purchasing permission from their masters ; and, if they chanced to move without that consent, they were claimed as strayed cattlo. Thesechains of feudal slavery were then broken, through the interest of his present majesty when heir apparent to the crown ; the prisoners (for such they certainly might be called) were declared free ; and other grievances, under which the peasants labored, were at the same time abolished. Revenues.] His Danish majesty's revenues have three sources: the taxes he levies upon his own Rvibjects ; the duties paid by foreigners ; and his own demesne lands, including confiscntions. The taxes arise from land and houses, and from different commodities , beside a poll-tax and stamp duties. The tolls paid by stiangers arise chiefly from foreign ships that pass through the Sound into the Baltic. This tax was often disputed, being nothing more originally than a voluntary con- tribution of the merchants toward the expense of the light-houses on the coast ; and certainly there was no reason for its payment on the part of the Swedes, who command the opposite side of the pass ; but th.1t nation and other powers, even Great-Britain, submitted to the demand. It has rarely produced more than KJO.OOO pounds. .Since the loss of Norway, the royal revenues do not exceed a million sterling. Army axd navy.] The present military force of Denmark consists of about 30,000 men ; and the royal navy is Paid to comprehend twenty ships of th<> line and frigates. Royal riTLrs, ORUEiis ov knighthood.] The sovereign bears the title of " king of Denmark and Norway, and of the Goths and Van- dals, duke of Sleswick and Holsteiu, Stormar and Ditmarsch, count of Oldenburg and Delmenhorst." The orders of knighthood are two ; that of the Elephant, and that of Danebrog. The baduje of the former is sus- pended to a sky-blue riband, worn over the right shoulder. The knights of the Danebrog order wear a white riband with red edges, decor«ted with a dumond cross, and an embroidered star on the left breast, sur- rounded with the motto, Pielatc et Justitia. Reiit. ION.] The religion of Denmark is tho LuthorAa. The kiiifr- doni is divided into seven dioceses, beside one in Iceland. There is no archbishop; but the bishop of Zerlinid is mctropolitiiii in Denmark, 'i'he income of his see is alwut ]0t)0/, a year : the revenues of the other prelates vary between 400/. and fiOO/. The bishops have no temporal power, nor more authority over xhc. inferior clergy than is necessary for the maiufenanc« of good order in the church. LiTKnATCRE antj THE FINE ARTS.] Th^e Daocs iu general hare made no great figure in literature ; but their astronomer Tych(^ Bralic was famous, Dorrichius was an able chemist and botanist, and the liar- thoMjies.flouri&hcd as jjliysiciUiis ; and the iloutid Tower and Christiwji's hi IK 1 i > 66 DENMARK. Haven display the mechanical genius of Longomoutanus. They hare subsequently made some promising attempts in history, poetry, and the drama : the names of Langebek, Suhm, Holberg, and Ewald, hare justly acquired celebrity; and the travels of Niebuhr are distinguished for intelligent research and accurate information. Among the Danish scholars and writers of recent times, may be mentioned the naturalists Fabricius and Vahl, the astronomer Bugge, the historians Haywish and Baden, the poets Guldberg and Baggesen, and the physician Cullisen. The most popular poet, now living, is, we believe, Ingemann. In the fine arts, the Danes are now striving to excel ; and, if they hare no great painter, they have at least a sculptor of distinguished ability — Thorwaldsen. Universities, schools, and literauy societies.] The university of Copenhagen is provided with funds for the gratuitous support of 168 students : it has some able professors, and is in a flourishing state. At Kiel there is also a respectable university; and Altona boasts of a similar institution. Schools are established in every parish; and, by a new law, parents are compelled to send their children to school twice a week. A royal academy of sciences, and one for the cultiration of northern history, were respectively founded in 1742 and 1746. Language.] The language of Denmark is a dialect of the Teutonic; but German and French are spoken at court ; and many of the nobility and gentry cultivate the English, which is now publicly taught at Copen- hagen as a necessary part of education. The Lord's Prayer, in Danish, is as follows: Vor fader, som er i himmelin, heiligt vorde dit nnffn; tilkomme. dit ryke ; vorde din villic pan jorden som i himmelin ; yif OS i dag vort dagliye brod : og forlud os vor sky Id, som vi /or lade vore skyldener; og leed os icke i frestelse, menfrels osfra ont ; thi reget er dit, og kraft og hcrgl':d i evighed. Amen. Antiquities.] The antiquities of Denmark consist only of some rude remains of the temples and cemeteries of the ancient Celtic and Gothic inhabitants of the country. In several parts of the Danish do- minions are found circles of upright stones, disposed in a manner similar to those of Stonehenge. There are also, on some rocks. Runic inscrip- tions, which, however, are unintelligible. History.] The most ancient inhabitants of Denmark, of whom we have any account, were the Cimbri. After the conquest of the country by the Goths, we find the possessors of it formidable to their neighbours, by their piracies and sanguinary depredations, in the fifth century, under the name of Jutes or Vitae, and Angles ; and, in the sixth, under that of Danes, But the history of Denmark is fabulous and .incertain before the tenth century. Harold Blaatand, who succeeded his father Gormo in 945, was the first Christian king of Denmark. He was followed by his son Swein, who invaded and ravaged England, and who was suc- ceeded, in 1014, by his son Canute the Great. Under Canute, Denmark may be said to have been in its zenith of glory, as far as extent of dominion can give sanction to the expression ; yet few interesting events in Denmark preceded the reign of Margaret, who acted as sovereign of Sweden, Denmark, and Norway. She was a princess of splendid talents, and of masculine courage ; but, her suc- cessors being destitute of her great qualifications, the union of Calmar, by which the three kingdoms were in future to be under one sovereign, lost its effect. In 1448 the crown of Denmark devolved to Christian, count of Oldenburg, ancestor of the present royal family. In 1513, Christian II., a tyrannical and sanguinary prince, ascended DENMARK. M IS. They have poetry, and the *)«| aid, have justly listinguUhed for ng the Danish [ the naturalists QB Haywish and y-sician Cullisen. ann. ind, if they have juished ability— :iETiE8.] The r the gratuitous is in a flourishing nd Altona boasts y parish ; and, by to school twice a the cultivation of 1 1746. t of the Teutonic; i ly of the nobility taught at Copen- rayer, in Danish, vorde dit naffn ; i himmelin ; yif !, som vi forlade s osfra ont ; thi iist only of sonic icient Celtic and the Danish do- a manner similar Runic inscrip- lark, of whom we ;st of the country their neighbours, fth century, under xth, under that of mcertain before lis father Gormo was followed by id who was sue- in its zenith of the expression ; jign of Margaret, orway. She was ; but, her suc- union of Calmar, ler one sovereign, Ived to Christian, prince, ascended the throne, and married the sister of the emperor Charles V. When he had been driven out of Sweden for his atrocious cruelties, the Danes rebelled against him likewise ; and he fled with his wife and children into the Netherlands. Frederic, duke of Holstein, was unanimously called to the throne, on the deposition of his cruel nephew. He em- braced the opinions of Luther; and, about the year 1536, the protestant religion was established in Denmark by that wise and politic prince, Christian III. Christian IV., in 1629, was chosen for the head of the protestant league formed against tlie house of Austria; but, though personally brave, he was in danger of losing his dominions, when he was suc- ceeded in that command by Gustavus Adolphus, king of Sweden. The Dutch having obliged Christian, who died in 1648, to lower the duties of the Sound, his son Frederic III. consented to accept an annuity of 150,000 florins for the whole. The Dutch, after this, persuaded him to declare war against Charles Gustavus, king of Sweden, which had almost cost him his crown. In 1657, Charles stormed the fortress of Fredericstadt ; and, in the succeeding winter, he led his army over the ice to the island of Funen, where he surprised the Danish troops, took Odc-nsee and Nyborg, and marched over the Great Belt to besiege Co- penhagen itself. Cromwell, who then governed England, interposed ; and Frederic defended his capital with great magnanimity till the peace of Roschild, by which he ceded the provinces of Halland, Bleck- ingen, and Schonen, the island of Bornholm, and Bahus and Dront- heim in Norway, to the Swedes. Frederic sought to elude these severe terms : but Charles took Cronenburg, and once more besieged Copen- hagen by sea and land. The steady intrepid conduct of Frederic, under these misfortunes, endeared him to his subjects; and the citizens of Co- ]>L'nliagen made an admirable defence, until a Dutch fleet arrived in the Baltic, and defeated the Swedes. The fortune of war was now entirely changed in favor of Frederic, who showed on every occasion great abi- lities, both civil and military, and, having forced Charles to raise the siege of Copenhagen, might have carried the war into Sweden, had not the English fleet appeared in the Baltic. This enabled Churles to be- siege Copenhagen a third time ; but, France and England ofl!"ering their mediation, a peace was concluded in thot capital, by which Bornholm was restored to the Danes, while Rugen, and the three conquered pro- vinces, remained with the Swedes. Though this peace did not restore to Denmark all she had lost, the magnanimous behaviour of Frederic, and his attention fo the safety of his subjects, even preferably to his own, greatly endeared him in their eyes; and he at length became absolute, in the innnner already related. He was succeedet' in 1670, by his son Cliristian V., who obliged the duke of Holstein-Gi ttorp to renounce all the advantages he had gained by the treaty jf Ros ;hild. He then recovered a number of plaros in Schonen: but his troipsweie dotVated in the bloody battle of I.unden, by Charles XI. of Swc ien. This drfcat did not put an end to the war, which Christian obitiuutely continued, until he was defeated entirely at the battle of Landscroon : and, having nearly exhausted his flominions in military joperations, aud being abandoned by his allies, he was forced to sign a treaty, on the terms prescribed by France., in 1679. He died in 1690, and was succeeded by Frederic IV,, who, like his predecessors, maintained his pretensions upon Holstein, and probably would have be- come master of that duchy, had not the English and Dutch fleets put an end to the siege ct Tonningf.'n, while the young king of Sweden, r'i, m DENMARK. Charles XII., landed within eight miles of Copenhagen, to assist the jduke. His Danish majesty now agreed to the peace of Travendaiil, which was entirely in the duke's favor. By another treaty, concluded with the States- General, Frederic obliged himself to furnish the confe- derates with troops, and afterward took a very active part against the French in the wars with queen Anne. Being still hostile to the Swedes, ,he attacked them Avith vigor, when their king was in exile at Bender, and made a descent upon Swedish Pomerauia, and another, in 1712, upon Bremen, and took the city of Stade. His troops, however, werp totally defeated by the Swedes at Gadcbusch, and his favorite city of Altona was laid in ashes. He revenged himself by seising a great part of Ducal Holstein, and forcing the Swedish general, count Stcinbock, to surrender himself prisoner, with all his troops. In 1716, his succtts was so great, by taking Tonningen and Stralsund, by driving the Swedes out of Norway, and reducing Wismar, that his allies began to suspect he was aiming at the sovereignty of all Scandinavia. Chailes, returning from exile, renewed the war against Denmark with the most implacable violence ; but, on the death of that prince, Frederic durst not refuse the ofler of his Britannic majesty's mediation ; in consequence of which, a peace was concluded, which left him in possession of the duchy of Sleswick. He died in 1730, after having, two years before, seen his capital nearly reduced to ashes by an accidental lire. His son and successor. Christian Frederic, or Christian VI., made the Iwst use of his power, and of the advantages with which he mounted the throne, by cultivating peace with all his neighbours, and promoting the happiness of his subjects, whom he relieved from some oppressive taxes. He died in 1746; and his pacific exaaiple was followed by his son Frederic V., who, though he was the son-in-law of king George II., declined all concern in the German war. Christian VII., who ascended the throne in 1766, married Caroline Matilda, sister of George III.; but this alliance, though seemingly auspicious, had a very unfortunate termination. In 1772, this princess, whose great influence over her husband had excited the jealousy and odium of the queen-dowager, was accused of an adulterous intercourse with count Struensee, a German adventurer, who had raised himself by his talents to the station vi prime minister. The count and his friend Brfindt were seised, put in irons, and very rigorously treated in prison : both imderwent long and frequent examinations, received, sentence of death, and were beheaded. Struensee at first absolutely denied having any criminal intercourse with tlic queen: but this he after^vards confessed: and, though he is said hy some to have been induced to do this only by the fear of torture, his confessions were so full and explicit, that his guilt was scarcely doubted. His Britannic majesty sent a small squadron to convey the queen to Germany, and appointed the city of Zell for the place of her j future residence. She died there of a malignant fever, in the twenty- fourth year of her age. In 1784, another court revoUuion took place. The queen-dowager's I friends were removed; a new council was formed under the auspices nf the prince-royal ; and, as the king appeared to have a debility of under- standing, it was required that every instrument should not only be signed by him, hut be countersigned by the prince. After a long interval of peace, the Danish court, in 1801, nccedoiltol the confederacy formed by the northern jmwers against the naval supe- riority of Great Britain, under the title of a Convention of Neutrality. But this league was quickly dissolved by the appearance of an English DENMARK. in, to assist the of Travendahl, reaty, concluded irnish the confe- part against the le to the Swedes, exile at Bender, .nother, in 1712, ||1 8, however, were. , favorite city of ng a great part ot mt iStoinbock, to [716, his success , by driving the is allies began to iinavia. Charles, irk with the most ;e, Frederic durst II ; in consequence n possession of the two years before, ital fire. His son nade the Iwst use ounted the throne, oting the happiness ire taxes. He died is son Frederic V., ; re II., declined all I vho ascended the r of George 111.; a very unfortunate influence over her uecn-dowager, was uensee, a Genmii [he station «f prime Lised, put in irons, [t long and frequent headed. Struensec .ercourse with tlic [ugh he is said by fear of torture, his ;uilt was scarcely Iron to convey the "or the place of her 'cr, in the twenty- he quecn-dowager'i Idcr the auspices of I I debility of under- 1 not only be signed | In 1801, nccedcilto Inst the naval siipe- 1 ntion of Neutrality. Ruceof an EngW fleet in the Baltic under the command of Nelson, who forced the line of defence formed by the Danish fleet, and compelled the Danes to agree to a cessation of arms to preserve their capital. In this short war they lost their islands in the West Indies, and their settlement of Tranquebar ; but, the dispute between England and the northern powers being soon after amicably adjusted, their foreign possessions were restored to them. Conceiving that the vast and still increasing power of the French em- peror rendered it impossible for Denmark to resist him, or to refuse any thing that he might demand, the British court resolved to obtain her fleet, that it might not be employed against our country. A secret expe- dition was therefore planned ; and, in August 1807, a great armament proceeded to Copenhagen. A proclamation was immediately issued by the commanders, declaring the circumstances under which they were ob- liged to make a descent ; that the Danish fleet was the sole object of their enterprise, which was undertaken entirely in self-defence to prevent the resources of Denmark from being directed against Great-Britain, and that, if the fleet should bo delivered up, every ship would be restored, after a peace with France, in the same condition in which it was then surren- dered. The Danish government, however, determined on resistance ; and the city was, therefore, bombarded for four days, until general Peiuian,_ seeing that any farther opposition must be unavailing, sent out a flag of truce. The articles,by which the fleet was delivered up, were then settled ; and the English brought away 16 ships of the line, 15 frigates, six brigs, and 23 gun-boats, beside vessels on the stocks, and a prodigious quantity of stores from the arsenals. The loss of the Briti.sli, in this attack, was trifling, while 1500 of the Danes lost their lives, and a considerable part of the city was consumed. While the war, which this dreadful outrage produced, continued be- tween Denmark and Great Britain, the iuibccile king died, on the 13th of March, 1808; and prince Frederic, who had long acted as sovereign, became king in his own right. He wished to inflict vengeance on his insolent enemies, while he had not the moans of making a powerful im- pression. Some small vessels were quickly con.structed ; and these, with a number of privateers, molested the British commerce ; but the trade of his people, at the same time, severely suffored. The Danes were also in- volved in a war with the Swedes, whom they wore desired by Bonaparte to attack : but, satisfied with the defence of Norway, they made little impression upon their northern enemies. When a successor to the throne of Sweden was required, in 181(\ the king of Denmark offered himself as a candidate : but ho was obliged to yield to the superior influence of marshal Bornadotto. Ho continued to be at variance both with the British and Swedish courts ; hut, while he thus gratified the ruler of France, he did not so far promote the ambitious views of that restless tyrant, as ^o send a great auxiliary army against the Russian emperor. When the I'lench, in 1813, were rapidly retreating from Germany, he began to dread the vengeance of Sweden. His troops were harassed in various conflicts ; and he could not have saved his con- tinental territories, if he had not agreed to an armistice, which led to a pacific treaty. He even purchased the forbearance of the confederates by consenting to the cession of Norway and of D.anish Laplmd, without regard to the inclinations of his subjects in those countries. After the settlement of the affairs of France, he acquiesced in the arrangements of the cnni^ress of Vienna; and his wishes were so moderate, that he accepted the insignificant duchy of Lauenburg, instead of the province of Pomerania and the isle of Rugen, which were at first offered to him 60 ICELAND. in return for Norway. When the Gennan empire, in 1815, aasumed a new form, he was admitted into the confederation an duke of Holstein ; and, since that time, he has pursued a quiet course, attending to the interest of his people, and promoting the prosperity of his diminished realm. He is, in the true sense of the expression, a patriot king. He is afifable, friendly, and humane ; frugal in his domestic expenditure, that he maybe better enabled to be liberal to others; he encouragci every useful art, patronises every philanthropic institution, and allays, by benevolence and equity, the sternness of power and the rigors of justice. Frederic VI., king of Denmark, was born Jan. 28, 1768, and, in 1790, was married to Maria Sophia Fredericaof Hesse-Cassel, by whom he has issue— Caroline, born Nov. 8, 1793; Wilhelmina Maria, born Jan. 17, 1808. Christian, the crown prince, cousin to the king, was born Sept. 18, 1786. In 1806, he espoused the princess Charlotte of Mecklenburg, and, after her death, a sister of the duke of Augustenburg. ICELAND. EXTENT AND SITUATION. Miles. Breadth 210 Length 330 i between Degrees. ^ 63 and 66, north latitude. ( 13 and 24, west longitude. Containing 42,000 square miles, with more than one inhabitant to each. Name.] ICELAND evidently derives its name from the great masses of ice which float in the surrounding ocean. Mountains, VOLCANOES, LAKES, uivers.] Enormous ice-moun- tains occupy a large portion of the surface of Iceland- These are called yokuls : and they have, in general, terrene and rocky mountains for their bases. The most extensive yokul is Klufa, in the eastern division of the island. It forms a vast mountainous chain, filling (it is said) a space of not less than 3000 square miles. The Oroefa yokul is the highest mountain on the island, its height being calculated at 6240 feet, though some represent Snoeft-ll as higher. It abounds with volcanic fissures, and exhibits the opposite effects of extreme cold and fervent heat. The most remarkable volcano is that of Hecla ; a niouutain which rises to the height of 5000 feet. Its eruptions \jave been numerous and dreadful ; but the greatest eruption in Iceland, if not the most tremendous of any recorded in history, was that in 1783, which is said to have extended eighty miles in length, and forty in breadth, dried up twelve rivers, and overwhelmed not only all the villages it found in its way, but likcvvitie many hills. The perpendicular height of the sides of this current was from eighty to a hundred feet, so that the entire surface of the country was in a state of fluidity, and formed a lake of fire, refiembling a mass of melted metal. It was not Hecla which thus exploded ; but Skafta, a volcano situated to the north-east of that mountain. It consists of twenty conical hills ; and these (says Mr. Henderson) served as so many fur- naces, from which the melted matter was discharged. " Immense floods of red-hot lava were poured down from the hills with amazing velocity, and, spreading over the low country, burned up men, cattle, churches, ICELAND. 61 1815, assumed a ike of Holstein; attending to the I his diminished atriot king. He itic expenditure, i; he encourages Lition, and allays, nd the rigors of t, 1768, and, io -Cassel.by whom lina Maria, born rn Sept. 18,1786. inburg, and, after latitude, longitude. nhabitant to each. the great masses lormous ice-moun- These are called jountains for their 'astern division of [(it is said) a space okul is the highest 6240 feet, though volcanic fissures, jrvent heat. The which rises to the JUS and dreadful; Iremendous of any to have extended [twelve rivers, and I way, but likevvine this current was Lce of the country 3mbling a mass of |d ; but Skafta, a consists of twenty as so many fur- " Immense floods amazing velocity, cattle, churches, houses, and every thing they attacked in their prosress. ' Famine and pestilence were the consequences of this horrible visitation ; and, within two years " not fewer than 9336 human beings, 28,000 horses, 11,461 head of cattle, and 190,488 sheep, perished on the island ;"— a very serious loss for such an ill-peopled and sterile spot ! Of the lakes of Iceland, that wljich is called Thingvalla \ atu, in the south-west, said to be about forty miles in circuit, and My Vatu, in the opposite part of the island, appear to be the principal. The chief nvers are the Skalfanda, the Oxarfiord, and the Bruara, which flow from south to north. , , . i , , . , Minerals, fossils.] No mines are worked in Iceland, though large pieces of silver, copper, and iron ore, have been found on the sur- face of the ground. The principal minerals are sulphur, pumice, zeo- lite, chalcedony, and malachite, or copper stalactites. The substance called surturbrand is a remarkable fossil : it is evidently wood, not quite petrified, but indurated, which drops asunder as soon as it is ex- posed to the air. It is found at a great depth, and indicates that trees were former!' 'nuch more abundant in the island than they are at present. Climate, >.( l.] The temperature of the air in Iceland, in its ordi- nary state, is moderate : the cold of winter is not rigorous ; but the weather in summer is subject to great inequalitit s ; and violent tempests, accompanied sometimes with pierciuj? cold, frequently destroy the fruits of the earth. The soil is tolerably frui' il in grass, but it varies according to different situations, being in som> 'laces sand\ , and in others a stiff clay. Veoktablf.s, \vi!\[.\ls.] As the iucerior of Ictuut and serviceable. Birds are extremely nn > us; there are several kinds of falcons, swans, and eider-ducks, wldi li furnish the inhabitants with egga and a valuable down. Natural cuiiiositi - j Among the curiosities of Iceland the hot spouting springs are particuiirly remarkable. .Some of these throw up columns of water, of several feet in thickness, to the height of seventy or eighty feet. From some the water flows gently, as from other springs, and it is then callt.l a bath : from others boiling water spouts with great noise. Though the decree of heat is unequal, yet Dr. Von-Troil says that he does not remember ever to have observed it under 1 88 of Fahren- heit's thermometer. At Gejser, RcBynum, and Laugarvalla, he found it at2l2 (the bailing heat); and in the last place, in the ground, in a small hot current, at 213 degrees. It is very common for some of the spouting springs to cf ate, and others to rise up in their stead. Frequent earth- quakes, and subterranean noises, heard at the time, cause grea' terror to the people. In several of these hot springs the inhabitants who live near them boil their victuals, only by hanging a pot, iuto which the flesh isputin cold water,iuthe water of the spring. .. . ^, . -n <,,. ^->. At o/*f«" IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) 1.0 I.I ■10 1.8 '•2^lll'-^ ' ^ 6" ► vl ^l. '/ ^ Hiotographic Sciences Corporation 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. MS60 (716) 872-4503 4it i A ICELAND. The largest sponting spring is called Geyser. In approaching it, a loud roaring noise is heard, like the rushing of a torrent precipitating itself from stupendous rocks. The water spouts several times in a day, but always by starts, and after certain intervals. The moveable ice-fields may be reckoned among the natural curiosities of this island. Some of the yokuls suddenly move, and masses of ice travel ovei* the adjacent country, and do nut stop or recede bet o they have committed great devastation. Accumulations of ice also 1, lently arrive on the coast of Iceland from Greenland. The field-ice is of the thickness of two or three fathoms, is separated by the winds, and less dreaded than the rock or mountain ice, which is often seen fifty and more feet above water, and is, at least, nine times the depth below water. These prodigious masses are frequently left in shoal water, fixed, as it were, to the ground ; and in that state remain for many months undis,. solved, chilling the ambient atmosphere. When many such masses are floating together, the wood, which is often drifted along between them, is pressed with so much violence, that it is said it sometimes take fire ;— a circumstance which has occasioned fabulous accounts of the ice being in flames. A number of bears arrive with the ice, which commit great ravages, particularly among the sheep; they are, however, generally soon destroyed, or driven back. Population.] The number of inhabitants in Iceland may rather be •sti:.iated under .50,000 than above. The country was formerly much more populous ; but it has frequently been ravaged by contagious diseases, The plague, in the beginning of tlie fifteenth century, almost depopulated the island; and, in 1707 and 1708, the small-pox carried off 16,000 persons. Iceland has also suffered extremely at . different times by famine. Inhabitants, manners, customs.] The Icelanders in general are middle-sized, and well made, though not very strong. A frank open countenance, a florid complexion, and yellow flaxen hair, are more fre* quently observable among them than contrary appearances. The womeo are shorter than the men, and more disposed to corpulence. The insa- lubrity of the climate, poorness of living, and the want of proper exercise, J treveot either sex from living to a great age. They are an honeit, aithful, well-meaning people, very hospitable and obliging. Their chief employment is, attending to fishing and the care of their cattle. On tlie coasts, the men employ their time in fishing both in winter and summer; and the women prepare the fish, and sew and spin. The men sIm prepare leather, and work at several mechanic trades ; and some work in gold and silver. They likewise manufacture a coarse kind of cloth, which they call wadmal. Their dispositions are serious, and they an much inclined to religion. Tiiey never pass a river, or any other dan* gerouB place, without previously taking ofi' tlieir hats, and imploring thi divine protection. They have a high regard for their clergy ; and tiie ministers in general so conduct themselves, as to deserve all the respect which they receive. The houses of the Icelanders are generally ill-constructed : in some places they are built of drift wood ; and in others tlioy are raised of lava, cemented with moss. Their roofs are covered with sods laid over raftert, or sometimes over ribs of whales, which arc more durable and less expeo^ •ive than wood. They have not even a chimney in any of their kitcheoi, but only lay their fuel on the hearth, between stones, and the smoke issuN frora a square hole in the roof. Their food principally coosisli of drifJ fish, sour butter, milk minced with water and whey, and a little mult> ICELAND. •0 chingit,aloud Bipitating iUeU i in a day, but .tural euriositie* i mawjes of ice sde bet o they ealsoi. lently eld-ice is of the winds, and less ;n fifty and more !th below water, ater, fixed, as it ly montht undis- gucb masses are between thero, is lines take fire;— g of the ice being lich commit great owever, generally and may rather be as formerly much •ontagious disease». almost deppP"}a»«J carried oft Ib.OOO different times by slanders in gen^rul mg. A frank open hair, are reore Ire- mces. The women lulence. The inss- of proper exercise, lev are an honcit, iiging. Theircbief ,eir cattle. On the inter and summer; •in. The men alw . and some work m Irsekind of cloth, ious, and they aw , or any other dan- , and imploring thi iir clergy; and tb« lerve all the respect nstructed: in fome ^ are raised of lava, Us laid over rafters, tblc and less expen. fny of their kitchew, Vttd the smoke issMJ lily consUU of dr»«« ' ind a lUUe n»«*'' Br^ad is so scarce among them, that there is hardly a peasant who eats it above three or four months in the year. With regard to the dress of the Icelanders, it may be observed, that the men wear shirts made of wadmal, blue waistcoats, jackets, and trowsers, edged with a red stripe ; and a large cloak is used to defend them from the rain or cold. The ordinary female dress consists of a chemise, a petticoat, and a jacket ; and, in their houses, many of the women are content with the two former : but they frequently cover and adorn their heads with a stiffened turban of white linen, which, after rising to the height of a foot by a backward curve, bends forward, and terminates in a square form. It is usually fastened to the head by a dark-coloured kerchief, so as completely to hide the hair; but, when it is worn by a bride, it is enriched by a fillet embroidered with gold lace. The state-dress of a lady is both cumbrous and ornamental. Two or three petticoats, fastened by a velvet girdle, which is studded with polished stones, — an apron bordered with dark velvet, and hung with trinkets of silver or gilt brass, — a rich bodice, a black jacket with long and tight sleeves, and a black cloak, beside a thick ruff embroidered with silver, and chains hanging from the neck with medals in front, — exhibit the pompous extreme of Icelandic fashion. Towns, trade, revenue.] Skalholt was long considered as the capital of Iceland : but that honor is claimed by Reykiavik, situated on the eastern coast, the present seat of government and justice. At this town is an annual fair, which, however, is very thinly attended. The commerce of the island was carried on by a Danish company before the year 1788, when it was declared free for every subject of the realm. The exports are fish, salted meat, tallow, train-oil, wool, coarse cloth, skins, eider-down, feathers, and sulphur: among the imports are corn, tea, coffee, tobacco, wine, brandy, salt, wood, iron, and fiax. As Iceland affords no incitement for avarice or ambition, the inhabi- tants depend entirely on the protection of Denmark, which derives from the country a revenue not exceeding 50,000 crowns. Government, laws.] The government of Iceland, after it became subject to Norway and Denmark, was at first regulated by a marine offi- cer who was sent every year to inspect the state of the island : but the king of Denmark now appoints a governor, who constantly resides there. Each district has an officer, who acts as a magistrate, and before whom actions are usually commenced ; but they may be carried by appeal to the courts of two superior judges, and thence to the supreme court of judi- cature at Copenhagen. Justice is, in general, administered according to the Danish laws, but sometimes according to the old Icelandic ordinances. Men convicted of capital crimes are put to death by beheading or hanging ; but, when a woman is condemned to die, she is sewn up in a sack and thrown into the sea. Religion.] Thorvald Kodranson, an Icelandic pirate, being con- verted to Christianity by a ,Suxon bisho]), introduced his new religion, in 981, among his pagan countrymen. The doctrines and forms of the church of Rome were followed for some centuries: but, in 1551, the Lutheran system was established. Two bishops, those of Skalholt and Holum, governed the church both before and after the Reformation; but, in 1797, the united sees gave way to one episcopate, which was founded at Reykiavik. The bishop's revenue is about 200/. All the ministers m natire Icelanders, and many of them receive a salary of four hun- dred rix-dollars from the king of Denmark, exclusive of what they obtain M ICELAND. from their congregations. Some, however, have not more than three or four pounds annually. Literature.] From the introduction of the Christian religion into Iceland, till the year 1264, when this island became subject to Norway, it was one of the few countries in Europe, and the only one in the North, in which the sciences were cultivated with zeal. It appears from some ancient chronicles, that astronomy, natural history, and other branches of science, were studied with success by many of the natives, who were also particularly conversant in poetry. It was on this island that the scalds or bards indulged their poetic taste with peculiar avidity ; and hence arose the Edda, in which the Scandinavian mythology is fancifully portrayed. At present, although there are few schools on the island, the people of the lowest class arc not so ignorant as they are in many parts of Europe ; and a peasant is seldom to be found, who, beside being well in- structed in the principles of religion, is not also acquainted with the history of his country and the works of its bards. Language.] The Icelandic is a very ancient dialect of the Gothic, and has been preserved so pure that any pative can understand the most ancient chronicles of his country. The Lord's Prayer in Icelandic is as follows : Fader vor, som est i himlum, halgad warde thitt nama : tilkomme thitt rikie: skie thitt vilie so som i himmalam so ogh po jordanne : wort dachlicha brodh gif os i dagh : ogh forlat os nora skuldar, so som ogh viforlate them os skildighe are, ogh inled os ikkie ifrestalsani utanjfrelsos ifraondo. Amen. Antiquities.] In Iceland are found circles of upright stones and transverse stones, in a manner similar, though under a smaller scale, to Stonehenge in England. They are there called domrings or circles of judgement. There likewise still exists a bath built by Snorro, the cele- brated Icelandic historian, in the thirteenth century. HisTOKY.] A Norwegian colony, under the conduct of two chiefs, named Ingulf and Hiorleif, settled in Iceland in the ninth century. Other colonies soon followed, consisting principally of emigrants who fled from the tyranny of Harold Harfagre, king of Norway. These formed separate independent communities, which, in time, united into one commonwealth under a supreme elective magistrate. In consequence, however, of internal dissension'^,, and the arbitrary conduct of some am- bitious citizens, the Icelandic republic, in the year 1264, submitted under certain conditions to Hacon king of Norway ; and afterwards became, with that country, a part of the dominions of the crown of Denmark, to which it still remains subject. THE FARO OR FEROE ISLANDS Are about 25 in number, though only 17 are said to be inhabited, and lie between 61 and 63 deg. N. lat. and 6 and 7 deg. W. long, from London. The space of this cluster extends about 70 miles in length and 40 in breadth, 300 miles to the westward of Norway; having Shet- land and the Orkneys on the south-east, and Greenland and Iceland on the north and north-west. Stromoe, the largest island of this groupe, twenty-four miles long, and eight broad. These islands are not unfruitful; but the few trees which they exhibit are small and feeble. I'he inhabi- tants amount to 5000 : their manners are simple and unaffected, aod their industry deserves commendation. They export feathers, eider-down, and some coarse aiticles of dress. ... )t more than three or /hristian religion into e subject to Norway, rily one in the North, It appears from some and other branches lie natives, who were this island that the eculiar avidity; and ythology is fancifully lols on the island, the are in many parts of beside being well in- acquainted with the ialect of the Gothic, understand the most yer in Icelandic is as itt nama : tilkomme ogh po jordanne : OS nora skuldar, so )s ikhie ifrestalsan: if upright stones and ;r a smaller scale, to omrings or circles of by Snorro, the cele- w*****^?***^*^ U> • ' n*(» i \ i -'• } %i / -If n: )< - ■/'! sf -JT*. •»»'»«,/^«ii.,«g*.. mmmmmm ■■^'t. ■yt-' |u I..., in ^,11. ! i w SWEDEN. EXTENT AXD SITUATIOK* w ^ .rt pir ■! » t.iwi*3'. • •.... ..*• ••i. •....«••.( -^ It i Nikoeping. CErebro. Westeras. ■. i Fahlun. ^ V Hedemora.jy' GOTHLANIJ. :, ' ' ^:::''M,'}SA/---^.''^,: ^ C East Gothland. Norkoeping. 1 Smaland Calmar. \ Island of (Eland Borgholm. '< (. Island of Gothland Wisby, ; C West-Gothland Gothenborg. { g" i posed of granite, calcareous stone, and slate. The basis of the raa^ jority is granite, which is frequently found in large separate masses, rising to a considerable height. Jetteberg, in West-GothUnd, forms a mass of this kind. Tab^rg, in Smaland, is composed entirely of iron ore. , Vast forests, principally of pine, overspread & great part of tjie coun- try, and the province of Dalecarlia in particular. Beside pine, birch, poplar, mountain-ash, and fir, abound in them. In these forests con. flagrations are remarkably frequent, which consume or score)) th^ trees to a great extent. These are to be attributed, in part, to the careless- ness of the peasants, who kindle fires in the woods without extinguish- ing them ; and in part to the privilege allowed to theiu to make use of the timber thus damaged in the croirn forests, without paying the usual tax on it. Lakes, riveiis, Ci^KALs.] The lakes arp very numerous. The largest is the Wener, which is about 100 English miles long, and be- tween .50 and 60 broad. It contains several islands, ^nd receives 24 rivers. The Weler is about the same length, but of unequal breadth, being from only 6 to 26 miles broad. It is reported to be 200 fathoms deep, contains two islands, and receives about 40 small streams. The Meelar is about 70 miles in length, and 30 in breadth. It contains i great number of small islands, some of which are three or four miles in extent, and extremely fertile. At Stockholm this lake communicate! with the Baltic, by two rapid currents. The Hielmar washes Sudet. Sianland and Nerike : it is about 40 miles in length, and 20 in breajth, and communicates with the Mselar. The principal river is the Dahl, which rises in the mountains that separate Sweden from Norway, and, after a course of about 260 miles, falls into the Gulf of Bothnia, about 10 miles to the east of Gefle. The rivers Gotha and Motala are the outlets of the lakes Wener and Wetcr. Inland navigation has not been entirely neglectefl by the Swedes. The canal of Trolhaetta, wliich was completed in 1800, was wrought with great labor, assisted by the force of gunpowder, through the midst of rocks. Its object was to open a communication between the North Sea and the Lake Wener, by forming a new channel where the Gotha is | rendere<^ innavij^able by cataracts, The length of this caaal. in which j are ^e Ipcks, i| parly three nicies, the width 36 feet, and the depth j SWEDEN. 67 na in t^at i inhabitantB eir places of ie face of the ;he beautiful; {led with ex- :kB, cataract!, ia the chain ,n Swucku is ]u of the lake other. Rsetvik, le level of th» den, aie com- sU of the mar e masses, rising forms a mass )f iron ore. rt of tjie coun- side pine, birch, ese forests con- scorch th* treeB to the careless- lout extiinjuisli- , to make use of aying the usual numerous. The es long, and be- hind receives 24 inequal breadth, , be 200 fathoms II streams. The 1. It contain* t ree or four milei ke communicates washes Suder- id 10 in breadth, L mountains tbtt I about 260 miles, 1st of Gefle. The lener and Weter. by the Swedei. pOO was wrought [through the midst Uween the North there the Gotha is [s ca»al, in which ] k«t, and the ' in some pUoes above 50. A canal has since been constructed fro^i the Wener to CErebro and the lake of Hielmar; and this has been extended through the sluices of Arboga to the lake of Meelar, so as to open an ad- vantageous communication with the Baltic. Metals, minerals.] The mines of silver, copper, lead, aad ifton, in Sweden, constitute the principal wealth of the country. In 1738 a gold-mine was discovered near Adelfors ; but it never was very mro- ductive, and at present will not defray the expense of working. The silver-mines, though greatly reduced in value, are more profitable ; but the most valuable are the mines of copper and iron, though these are much less productive than they were formerly. The copper-mines near Fahlun, in Dalecarlia, have been worked for nearly 1000 years : they are sunk to the depth of lOUO feet, and employ 1000 workmen. The copper is found, not in veins, but in great maMe«.° In the principal mine at this place. Dr.. Clarke found the heat so op- pressive, that he could not proceed to the bottom. When any air was admitted from the doors, and the sulpluireous vapors were thus pardally dispersed, whole beds (^pyritous matter appeared in a state of isnitiof^. Walls had been constructed to oppose the progress of this element, which, if not kept in subjection at the same time, by the smothering nature of its own exhalations, would destroy the mines. The iron-mines, near Danemora, in Smaland, are acuounted to pro- duce the best iron in the world. The metal is sometimes found in vast masses, of which the most remarkable is the hill of Taberg, which is one immense lump of iron ore, above 400 feet high, and three English miles in circuit. Sweden likewise produces porphyry, rock-crystal, cobalt, antimony, zinc, and molybdena ; and mines of coal have be^ discovered in Smaland. Climate, soil, aoriculture.] The cold of the winter in Swed^ is intense. When the spring has continued for a week or two, the heat of summer becomes extreme, from the great length of the days, and the reflexion of the sun's rays from the rock^ and mountains ; so that, in some uf the northern provinces, the harvest is sown and reaped in the iptLce of seven or eight weeks. Frequent winds purify the atmosphere, the i.Uubrity of which is evinced by numerous instances of longevity. The soil is in general indifferent, but in some valleys surprisingly ^r- tile. The peasants now follow the agriculture of France and England, and raise almost as muc)i grain as is requisite for the consumption of the country. The cultivation of tobacco has succeeded very well in this country. It grows in the greatest quantities in the province of Upland ; and Swede|i at present does not require any importation of this commodity from foreign countries, except to have it superior in quality to that of its own growth. Vegetables, animals.] The pine and the fir are the principal forest-trees of Sweden ; the birch grows in all the provinces ; but it h^a been remarked that no beeches grow to the north of East-Gothland, and no oaks beyond Upland. Wheat, rye, barley, oats, peas, and beans, are cultivated with success in Sweden; and, though beyond Geile and Biorneborg fruit trees are rarely to be met with, common cherries, gooseberries, strawberries, rasp- berries, currants, and several sorts of pears and apples, ripen in the open air in several of the provinces ; and melons, by artificial culture, are brought to perfection in dry seasons. The heaths ^nd woods abound I with tbe jump«r, thi9 Inlberry, and the cranberry. F2 Il SWEDEN. The vpild animals of Sweden are wolre«, bears, bearers, elki, rein-deer, foxes, hares, and squirrels. The Swedish wolves are not so fierce as those which infest the southern parts of Europe. In winter the foxes and squirrels become grey, and the hares as white as snow. The horses and oxen, and the cattle in general, are small, but hardy. About 300 specin of birds are found in the country ; the most remarkable is the falco vtnbrinus, a bird between the hawk and the eagle. The rivers and lakes abound in fish; and several species of them, pike and salmon in particular, are pickled and exported. Natukal curiosities.] These consist in the cataracts, and the scenery of the forests and lakes. About 50 miles from Gothenborg are the famous cataracts of Trolhaetta, formed by the river Gotha, which issues from the lake Wener, and, being united after several breaks, falli with its whole and undivided stream into so deep a bed of water, that large m&»ts, and other pieces of timber, precipitated down it, disappear ' for a very considerable time before they rise again to the surface. There is another cataract, on the river Dahl, about 10 miles to the east of Gefle, deemed !ittle inferior to that of the Rhine at Schaffhausen. Population.] The number of inhabitants amounted in 1751 to 2,229,661; in 1772, to 2,584,261. In 1809, when Finland formed a part of the realm, the population was calculated at 3,320,600 persons; but in 1811, when that province was no longer an appendage of Sweden, the amount was estimated at2,414,150 ; and, even without reckoning the inhabitants of the added kingdom of Norway, the number is now con« siderably greater. National character, manners, customs.] The Swedes are in general tall, well-formed, and capable of enduring the greatest fatipes. Tliey are lively in their conversation, good-humored, hospitable, indus- trious, sincere, honest, and brave. The upper classes imitate closely the manners of the French, the fashions of which nation have long been fol- lowed by the ladies, few of whom adopted the national dress which Gustavus III. endeavoured to introduce in 1777. This was worn, how- ever, by many of the men, and consisted, for them, of a close coat, very wide breeches, a girdle, a round hat, and a cloak. The women rere to wear a black robe, with puffed gauze sleeves, a colored sash, and ribands. The Swedes, in general, wear short dresses, of a blue or black hue. Veils are much used by the women of all classes ; even the fenDoIe Feasants, while at work in the fields, cover their heads with black crape, 'here is no country in the world where the women do so much work as in Sweden; they manage the plough, thresh the grain, row boats, serve the bricklayers, and carry burthens. Cities, chief towns, edifices.] An unusually small portion of the population of Sweden, or not more than a tenth part, is collected in towns, the number of which is estimated at 104. Of these, 24 are stapk-towns, where the merchants are allowed to import and export commodities in their own ships. Stockholm is situated upon seven small rocky islands, beside tvrr ; vH insulas, and is built upon piles. It strongly impresses a stranger wi !, >vs singular and romantic scenery. A variety of contrasted and erichant' . views are formed by numberless rocks of granite, rising boldly Ironi tli' surface of the water, partly bare and craggy, partly dotted wiib !i.v;;t«. or feathered with wood. The harbour, which is spacious and coht eii'^it though difficult of access, is an inlet of the Baltic : the water is rewiirk- ably clear, and of such a deptii that ships of the largest burthen can approach the quay, which is of considerable breadth, and lined with SWEDEN. 69 iber id now con< Of these, 24 are spacious buildinga and warehouua. Toward the Ma, about two or three miles from the town, the harbour is contracted into a strait, and winds among high rocks; and the prosi)ect is terminated by distant hills, over- spread with forests. The central island, from which the city derives its name, and the Ritterholm, are the handsomest parts of the town. The houses of the nobles, the mint, the exchange, and other public buildings, decorate the former isle : but its chief ornament is the palace, which in built in the Grecian style, and is very spacious and magnificent. In the northern suburb stands the opera-house, in which GustavusIII. was shot: externally, it is not splendid ; but the interior is very elegant. With aa exception of the suburbs, where the houses are chiefly of wood, painted red, the generality of the buildings are of stone, or brick stuccoed. The inhabitants are about 73,000 in number. Upsal, formerly the metropolis of Sweden, is famous for its university and Its cathedral, the finest church in Sweden, built in imitation of the church of Notre Dame at Paris. It is a small but very neat town, divided into two almost equal parts by a small river named Sala ; and the streets are drawn at right angles from a central kind of square. It only contains 3000 inhabitants, beside the students, of whom there are about 500. Gothenborg, the second city of Sweden in magnitude, stands partly on the ridges of rocks, and partly in a plain, and is consequently divided into the upper and lower towns. The latter is entirely level, intersected by several canals ; and its houses are all constructed upon piles. The upper part hangs on the declivities ; and rows of buildings rise one above another like the seats of an amphitheatre. The whole is regularly fortified ; and its circumference is nearly three miles, exclusive of the suburbs. The population, in 1791, scarcely exceeded 15,000 ; but, in IS 1 1, it amounted to 24,850. The estimate is now higher, as the trade of the town continues to increase. Carlscrona, the station of the royal navy, has a harbour capable of containing 100 ships of the line. It is celebrated for its covered docks, and for the practice of making an artificial rise and fall of water, to remedy the want of the ebb and flow of the tide. Its inhabitants amount to 15,000. Gefle u a considerable town, better built than many of the Swedish towns. It has about 1 1 ,000 inhabitants, who carry on a great foreign trade. Manufactures AND commkrce.] The manufactures of Sweden were very inconsiderable before the middle of the 17th century ; but then, by the assistance of the Dutch and Flemings, the natives began some manufactures of glass, starch, tin, woollen, silk, sope, and leather; and they have now some of sail-cloth, cotton, linen, fustian, and other stuffs. Vast quantities of copper are wrought by the Swedes. They have founderies for cannon, forges for anchors and fire-arms, armories, wire and flatting mills, mills also for fulling, and for boring and stamping: thpy likewise build many ships for sale. Their exports principally consist of iron, copper, timber, pitch, tar, herrings, and fish-oil. Their imports are, rye and other kinds of grain, flax, hemp, tobacco, sugar, colfee, silk, and wines. Government.] The government of Sweden has undergone many changes. The Swedes, like the Danes, were originally free, and during many centuries the crown was elective ; but, after various revolutions, Charles XII. became despotic. He was succeeded by his sister Ulrica, . who consented to the abolition of despotism, and restored the states to their former liberties; a,nd they, in return, associated her husband, tho ,> hM^ve of H(»Me*Ca8Ml, wi«h her i» the jfaveYnnmtt. A nmf muxlel of the constitntioiit was then drawn up, by which the royal power was brought too low J but, iH 1772, the whole system was changed by Gns- ttrtus III. ih the most unexpected manner. By that event the Swedes, iitotead of haVrag the particular defects of their constitution rectified, fbun8, Sparrman, Wallerius, Quist, Klingenstiema, and Thuriberg, ard especially conspicuous. Rudbeck, who patronised L'nnseus, is det^rvedly celebrated in the annalif both of anatomy and natural histbry. Croiistedt, $cheel^, and Bcrgmun, exCeiled in mineralogy and chemical analysis; and the fame of Bei'zelius is likewise high in those branches of science. The Swedes hRve also -Jot neglected the cultivation of general literature. Speaking of those who were patronised by queen ChriMina, Dr. Cl&ik^ iays, " In this list was signalised one whom the Swedes consider as th« greatest genius which their country has produced ; — namely, Stierrthielm ; known among them as a poet and philosopher of such eminence, that they hare bestowed upon him the name of Polyhistor.'' PufendoriF, indeed, who wfts distinguished among them in the reign of Charles XI., was not a native oi their country ; but, in more modern times, Dalin and Lager- bring acquired the fame of able historians ; Creutz was an ingenious poet ; and some interesting dramatists and miscellaneous writers might • he mentioned, among whom were Gustavus III., the count de Gyllenborg, Leopold, and Kellgren. The fine arts were zealously encouraged by Gustavus III. ; but no n SWEDEN. gntt arcbitect or painter aro«e under his sway, thougli the fame of Sergei, as a scultrtor, is deservedly high. ..... o j .. Universities.] There are only two universiUes in Sweden ; those of Upsal and Lund ; of which the latter is evidenUy declining, while the former is still in a flourishing state, having twenty-three professors, aome of whom are able and learned men, beside privileged teacl. , There are likewise twelve seminaries for the education of youth, called gymnasia. In every large town there is a school, maintained at the expense of the crown, in which boys generally continue till the age of eleven, when they are sent to the gymnasia, and thence, at sixteen, to one of the universities. There are also in Sweden many literary and sci- entific academies, most of which publish memoirs of their transactions. Language.] The language of Sweden, being derived from the ancient Gothic, bears a considerable resemblance to the Danish and Ice- Ijuuiic tongues. The Lord's Prayer in Swedish is as follows : Fader war, som ast i himlom, helyat warde tit namn ; tilkomme tit rike; she tin wilje, sasom i himmelen sa ock pajordene; gifoss i dag toart dagelige brod; och forlat oss ware skulder, sasom ock wt for' latom them oss skyldige aro : och inled oss icke ifrestelse, utanfrels OSS ifran ondo ; ty riket ar tit, och machten, och herligheten i ewighet, AMen. Antiquities.] Sweden contains numerous ranges of stones, similar in some degree, though not comparable in dimensions, to those of Stone- henge. There are also great numbers of small mounts or tumuli like the barrows of Britain, and ancient monuments inscribed with Runic chaiacteis. Near Upsal is the morasten, or stone on which the king used to be enthroned. History.] The early history of this kingdom is confused and often doubtful, but sufficiently replete with murders, massacres, and ravages. The first king is unknown ; and the reigns of his successors are whully uninteresting before the thirteenth century. The preceding government was far from being clearly ascertained or uniformly administered. The crown was elective, though in this election the rights of blood were not altogether disregarded. The great lords possessed the most con- siderable part of the wealth of the kingdom, which consisted chiefly in hind, commerce being unknown or neglected, and even agriculture itself in a very rude and imperfect state. The clergy, parUcularly those of a dignified rank, from the great respect paid to their character among the inhabitants of the North, had acquired an immense influence in all public affairs, and obtained possession of the lands that had been left unoccupied by the nobility. These two ranks of men, enjoyi.ig all the property of the state, formed a council, called the Senate, whioh deli- berated on all public affairs. This system of government was exvremely unfavorable to the national prosperity. The Swedes perished in the dissensions between their prelates and lay-barons, or between those and their sovereign ; they were drained of the little wealth they possessed, to support the indolent pomp of a few magnificent bishops ; and the unfortunate situation of their internal affairs exposed them to the in- roads and oppression of foreign enemies. These were the Danes, who, by their neighbourhood and power, were always able to avail themselves of the dissensions of Sweden, and to subject under a foreign yoke a country weakened and exhausted by its domestic broils. In this de- plorable state Sweden remained for more than two centurieg; sometimes SWEDEN. ^ les; sometimes under a nominal subjection to its own princes, sometimes united to the kingdom of Denmark, and in either case equally insulted and oppressed. Magnus, crowned in 1276, seems to have been the first long of Swe- den who pursued a regular system for the extension of his authority. He was one of the ablest princes who ever sat on the Swedish throne. By his art and address he prevailed upon the convention of estates to make very extraordinary grante to him for the support of his royal dignity. The augmentation of the revenue of the crown was naturally followed by a proportional increase of the regal power: and whilst, by the steady and vigorous exertion of this power, Magnus humbled the haughty spirit of the nobles, and created in the rest of the nation a due respect for the royal dignity, he, at the same time, by em- ploying his authority in many points for the public good, reconciled his subjects to acts of power which under former monarchs they would have opposed with the utmost violence. The successors of Magnus did not maintain their authority with equal ability ; and several commotions and revolutions followed, which threw the nation into great confusion. In the year 1387, Margaret, daughter of Waldemar king of Denmark, and widow of Hacon king of Norway, reigned in both those kingdoms. That princess, to the ordinary ambition of her sex, added a penetration and enlargement of mind, which rendered her capable of conducting the greatest and most complicated designs. She has been called the Semiramis of the North, because she was bold, artful, and ambitious. She obtained the crown of Sweden, by encouraging a revolt of the people from Albert of Mecklenburg. She projected the union of Calmar, by which the three kingdoms were to remain under one sovereign, elected by each in its turn. Several revolutions ensued after her death ; and at length Christian II. engaged in a scheme to render himself abso- lute. In order to establish his authority in Sweden, he laid a plot for massacring the principal nobility ; and this horrid design was actually carried into execution, Nov. 8, 1520. Of all those who could oppose the despotic purposes of Christian, no one remained in Sweden but GustavuH Vasa, a descendant of the ancient kings of that country. A great price was set upon his head ; but by his dexterity and address he eluded the most vigilant search, and escaped to the mountains of Dalecarlia. After undergoing innumerable dangers and fatigues, and working in the copper-mines to prevent being discovered, he at length engaged the savage but warlike inhabitants of that province to espouse his cause, and assist him against his tyrannical oppressor. Sweden, by his means, again acquired independence. Being at the head of a. victorious army, he was created, at first, administrator, and afterward king of Sweden, by universal consent. His circumstances were much more favorable than those of any former prince who had possessed this dignity. The massacre of the nobles had freed him from those proud and haughty enemies, who had so long been the bane of all regular govern- ment in Sweden. The clergy, indeed, were no less powerful than dan- gerous ; but the opinions of Luther, which began at this time to prevail in the North, and the credit which they had acquired among the Swedes, gave him an opportunity of changing the religious system of the country; and the exercise of the Roman -catholic religion was prohibited in 1544, under the severest penalties. Instead of a Gothic aristocracy, the most turbulent of all governments, and, when empoisoned by religious tyranny, of all governments the most wretched, Sweden, in this manner, became a regular monarchy. Some favorable effects of this change were soon vi- sible; arts and manufactures were estt^blijibed and improved ; navigation. 74 SWfiPKfl. a«d eftntnMKie hmn to Ikmkh; letters And 6Mt hni»r(rf eoMntv ^cm idtrtfdtieed; and a Wugdott, known only by name to the rest of Europe, be^n to bv fornidaMe by its arms, and to ha^e « certain weight ia all pabKe treaties and deKberations. GtuiafUs died in 155»,and was succeeded by his eldest son Eriel. The new king's caoseless jealousy of his brothers forced them to take arms ; and, the senate siding with them, he was deposed in 1566. His brother John attempted, by the advice of his queen, to re- establish the catholic religion in Sweden; but, though he made strong eflforts for that porporie, he was opposed by his brother Charles, and the scheiue proired ineffectual. On the death of John, Charles was chosen administrator of Swedes, i(» tlw name of his nephew Sigismund, who had been elected king of Folaad. The exclusion of the latter prince favored the pretensions of Charted/ who obtained the crown in 1599, but did not enjoy it in peace, Mag harassed both by the Polanders and the Danes. His successor, Gustavtis Adolphns, found himself, soon after his accession, in an em- bamttsing and dangerous predicament. Through the power and intrigues of thie Polanders, RnssiaaB, and Dsmes, he was engaged in a war with «H hiS' neighboars, under infinite disadvantages, all which he surmounted. He> iMtai nearly rendered himself sovereign of Russia. In16)7,underth« nedkcUon of James I. of England, he conduded a treaty of peace, by which htf recovered Livonia. The! ideaf of OusfavtiS began now to expand. He had seen much mMitary service i and he was assisted by the couiisels of La Gardie, one of (he best generals and wisest statesmen of his age. His troops had become the best -disciplined and most warlike in Europe. The princes of die house of Austria were, it is certain, early jealoutSof his enterprising Spirit, and supported his implacable enemy, Sigismund, whom he d^ fcaCMl. In I627« he formed the siege of Dautzic, in which he was un- Mcceasful; but the attempt, which was defeated only by the sadden riw el the Vistula, added so much to his military character, that the pro- testant prinees placed him at the head of the confederacy for humbling the bouse of Austria. His life, from that time, was a continued chain of wonderful success. After taking Riga, and overrunning Livonia, he entered Poland,- where he was victorious. In 1630 he landed in Po- merania, drove the enemy out of the duchy of Mecklenbm^, defeated the haUKMB count Tilly, the Austrian general, and over-ran Franconia. On the defeat and death of Tilly, Wallenstein, another Austrian general of equal reputation, was appointed to the command against Gustavu», #ho wast killed upon the plain of Lutzen in 1632, after gaining a victory, which, had hesarvived, would probably have put a pericni to the Austrian greatness. The abilities of this prince never appeared so fully as after his death, He left a set of generals trained by himself, who maintained the glory of the Swedish arms with astonishing valor and success. The names of dtike Bernard, Banier, Torstenson, Wrangel, and others, and their great actions in war, will long live in the annals of Europe. It is uncertain what course Gustavus would have pursued, had his life been prolonged, and his successes continued ; but there is the strongest reason to believe, that he had various schemes in view beside the mere relief of the pro- tastants and the restoration of the Palatine family. His chancellor Oxenstiern was as able and politic as his master was brave and warlike; and, during the minority of his daughter Christina, he managed the ftffiura of Sweden with such success, that she in a manner dicMed the liwttfetf. Tg, defeated the ^e« of iTeltplniSa (t648>, whieh gat* a iieWiiftMmt» Ike aSsin of ChriiitiMi wa# only dx year* of age, at the deiath of her fethef. She received a noWe Aducation; bat her fine genius took an imeommon and indeed wrtrttntic turn. Sho invited to her coort Descartes, Saltaasius, aod other learned me», to whom she was not, however, extremely liberal. She expressed a value for Grotius ; and she was an excellent judge of the polite arts, but gross and indelicate in the choice of her private fsvorites. She at the same time discharged all the duties of her high station: and, though her generals were basely betrayed by France* she Ooiitinned to support the honor of her crown. Being resoked not to mtntrf, she resigned her crown to her cousin Charles Qustarus^ son to tlie dirft* of Deux-Ponts, in 1654. Charles had great success against the Polanders : he drove their king, John Casimir, iiito Silesia ; and received from them an oath of allegknce^ which, with their usual inconstancy, they broke. His progress againue Denmark has been already mentioned ; and he died of a fever in 1660. Hie son and successor, Charles XJ., was not five years of age at his father's death ; and this rendared it neteessary for his guardians to conchidtf a peace witb their neighbours. All differences were accommodated at the same time with Russia and Holland ; and Sweden continued to make a^ Very respectable figure in the affairs of Europe. Charl^ received a sub^ sidy from Louis XIV.; but, apprehending that the liberties of Earopv were in danger from that monarch's ambition, he entered into the' al- liance with England and Holland. He afterwards joined with France against the house of Austria ; but, when he had been defeated in Oer' many, a povrerful confederacy wad formed against him. The elector of Brandenburg made himself master of Swedish Pomerania ; the bishop of Munster over-rant Bremen and Verden, and the Danes took Wismar, and' several places in Schonen : but Charles, by the treaty of St. Germain^ recovered all he had lost, except some places in Germany. He then made abase nse of the tranquillity which he had regained, by employing hiii army to enslave his people. The states lost all their power t and Sweden \ reduced to the condition of Denmark. This prince died in 1697, and was succeeded by his minor sob, the famous Charles XH. The will of the deceased king had fixed thtf' son's majority at eighteen; but it was set aside for an earlier date by the' management of count Piper, who became in consequence his itst mi-^ nister. Soon after his accession, the kings of Denmark and Polaind, and the czar of Moscovy, formed a powerful confederacy against him, encou- raged by the mean opinion they had of his youth and abilities. He ebtered into a war with them all ; and, besieging Copenhagen, dieteted the peace' of Travendahl to his Danish majesty, by which the duke of Holstein was re-established in his dominions. The czar Peter was at that time ravaging Ingria, at the head of 80,000 men, and had besieged Narva. The army of Charles did not exceed 20,000 men ; bat such was his impatience, that he advanced at the head of 8000, entirety rout' ed the main body of the Russians, and raised the siege. Such were his successes, and so numerous his prisoners, that the Russians attributed his actions to necromancy. Charles' then marched into Saxony, where his warlike achievements equaled, if they did not excel, those of Gustavus Adolphus. He dethroned Augustus king of Poland ; but stained all his laurels by putting the brave count Patkul to a death equally cruel and ignominious. He raised Stanislaus to the crown of Poland in 1705: and lus osmeoairied withit such terror, that he wat courted by all the powers 76 SWEDEN. I! of Europe, and among others by the duke of Marlborough in the name of queen Anne, amidst the full career of her success against France. His stubbornness and implacable disposition, however, were such, that he caa< sot be considered in a better light than that of an illustrious madman; for, in 1709, he lost, in the battle of Pultowa, which he fought iu hia march to dethrone the czar, more than all he had gained by his victories. His brave army was ruined, and he was forced to take refuge among the Turks at Bender. But his misfortunes did not cure his military madness ; and, after his return to his dominions, he prosecuted his revenge against Denmark, until he was killed at the siege of Fredericshall, in Norway, in 1718, when he was not more than thirty-six years of age. It has been supposed, with great probability, that he was Fhot by one of his officers, as it appears that the Swedes were weary of tkie government of a prince under whom they had lost their richest provinces, their bravest troops, and their national riches ; and who yet, untamed by adversity, pursued an unsuccessful and pernicious war, nor would ever have consented to restore tranquillity to his country. _ Charles XII. was succeeded by his sister, Ulrica, wife to the hereditary prince of Hesse, whose first care was to make peace with Great- Britain, which the late king intended^ to invade. The Swedes then, to prevent farther losses by the progress of the Russian, the Danish, the Saxon, and other arms, made many and great sacrifices to obtain peace from those powers. The French, however, about the year 1738, formed a danger- ous party in Sweden, under the name of the Hats, which disturbed the internal quiet of the kingdom, and led it into an unfortunate war with Russia. A contest at length arose for the succession to the crown ; but it was amicably decided by the influence of the Russian empress, who, having procured the high appointment for the bishop of Lubeck, uncle to the presumptive heir of her crown, granted to the Swedes an honorable peace. The favored candidate, Adolphus Frederic, entered into the possession of his new dignity in 1751. He was a prince of a mild and gentle temper, but much harassed by the contending Swedish factions, and found hie situation extremely troublesome, in consequence of the restraints and opposition which he met with from the senate. He passed the greatest part of his reign very disagreeably, and was at length, through the intrigues of the queen, brought over to the French party. He died in February 1771, and was succeeded by his son Gustavus III., who possessed abilities greatly superior to those of his father. In consequence of the death of Adolphus, an extraordinary diet was called to regulate the affairs of the government, and to settle the form of the coronation-oath. The new king, after his return to Sweden from France, bound himself by oath to maintain the rights and liber* ties of the states, the freedom and security of all his subjects, and to reign with equity according to the laws of the kingdom. But scarcely had he taken these oaths, when he resolved to govern at his discretion. Concealing his arbitrary intentions, he practised all the arts of popu- larity; and, when he found that he had deluded the people into the most favorable opinion of his patriotism, he commenced the execution of his unjustifiable scheme. Having taken measures for bringing a considerable number of the officers and soldiers into his interest, he secured the absolute command of the whole military forc^ of Stock- holm, made all the members of the senate prisoners, and issued a pro- clamation for an assembly of the states. Seated on his throne, sur- rounded by his guards, and a numerous band of officers, after having SWEDEN. 71 addressed a speech to the statei*, he ordered a secretary to read a new form of government, which he offered to the national representatives for their acceptance. As the plp.ce of meeting was encompassed by an armed force, they thought proper to comply with what waa required of them ; and thus was a bloodless revolution completed, in which the Swedes surrendered the constitution bequeathed to them by their fore- fathers, after the death of Charles XII., as a bulwark against any des- potic attempts of their future monarchs. The exorbitant power which Gustavus had thus assumed, he ex- ercised with some degree of moderation; and, at an assembly of the states in 1786, when many points had been referred to them by the king, and debated with great freedom, he dismissed them with conde- scension and gentleness, at the same time remitting a tenth part of the subsidy which they had granted him. Gustavus having been impelled into a war with Russia by the advice of the Porte, in 1788, hostilities commenced on the frontiers of Fin- land ; but, after various engagements both by land and sea, a peace, fixing the frontiers of Russia as they were before the war broke out, was signed at Werela. The reign of this prince was terminated by a pre- mature and tragic end. On the night of the 16th of March, 1792, while at a masquerade, he was shot by Ankerstroem, in consequence of a con- spiracy among some of the discontented nobles ; and having survived in great pain till the 29th of that month, expired, in the 46th year of his age, and 22d of his reign. The prince-royal, being fourteen years of age, was immediately pro- claimed king, by the name of Gustavus Adolphus ; and the duke of Sudermania, his uncle, in compliance with his father's will, was de- clared sole regent, and guardian of the young sovereign, till he should attain his majority, which was fixed at the age of eighteen. The reign of Gustavus IV. was at first pacific ; but, animated with a just indignation against the violence and ambitious encroachments of the ruler of France, he entered zealously into the war against that power; and, when the king of Prussia perfidiously took possession of Hanover, he bravely opposed him, and his troops occupied the district of Lauenburg ; but, after the unfortunate result of the battle of Fried- land, the French, being now enabled to act more vigorously against him, soon dispossessed the Swedes of Pomerania. Russia, likewise, then the abject instrument of France, declared against him, and in- vaded Finland in 1808, alleging, as a pretext, that he had connived at the recent seisure of the Danish fleet. The Swedes, under general Klingspor, behaved with great bravery, but were overpowered by the superior number of their enemies, who took Abo, and over-ran Finland. The king was equally unsuccessful in Norway; and the people, and even the army, began to be highly dissatisfied. To assist Gustavus in his difficulties, Great-Britain sent sir John Moore to the Baltic, with a force of about 14,000 mcii ; but this army, after having remained in the transports for several weeks, returned to England, without even at- tempting any thing. When the king found that the troops declined all offensive hostilities, he was so disgusted, that he ordered the arrest of the general, who, not without some difficulty, effected his escape to the fleet. As great discontent was occasioned by the ill success of the war, a conspiracy was formed against Gustavus by the nobles in 1809. The troops on the frontiers of Norway mutinied ; and this was the signal for the disaffected at Stockholm. The king, being informed of the advance ntniirnqgaiiia'iii'li'Vi 76 SWEDEN. of the ingurgmts, d^patched a courier to the westera army, with ordw to remove baron Cederstrom from the command ; but do effect resulted from this act of expiring authority. As his majesty was preparing to leave the palace, he was surrounded by major-general Adlercreutz and other officers, and quickly overpowered. Even the royal guard forbore to assist him ; and every voice seemed to call for his dethronement, at lie had plunged the country into serious danger, and did not possess suffi- cient sense or courage to stem the torrent. At the desire of the coDspi> ratoni, the duke of Sudermania declared himself protector of the king- dom ; and so unpopular was Gustavus, that the states not only deposed him, but declared his o&prin^ incapable of reigning. A small pensioi being assigned to him, he was obliged to retire from Sweden. The result of this revolution was the elevation of the duke to tlx throne under the appellation of Charles Xlll. and the termination ojf the war with France and Russia. Finland was ceded to Alexander, who would not otherwise desist from hostilities. The new king, howi* ever, found it impracticable to preserve peace, amidst the clasbing intereftg of other powers. He did not seriously regard the feeble aod desultory hostilities of Penmark : but he dreaded the effects of Bona- parte's resentment, if he should refuse to dechre war against his Bri- tannic majesty. While he was deliberating on this point, he concurred with th/B diet (in 1810) in the appointment of the prince of Augustenburg to the future possession of that throne which his own want of issue would render vacant at his death. So popular was this prince among the Swedes, although he was a Danish subject at the time of his elec- tion, that his sudden death, which was occasioned by a fit of apoplexy, but which tiie multitude imputed to poison, led to the assassination of count Fersen, who was unjustly suspected of the murder of the crown- prince. As the choice of another heir of the crown was now thought necessary, the difficulty of determination kept the nation for some time in anxious suspense. At length, without any visible exercise of French influence, an extraordinary proposal was submitted to the consideration of the diet. It was the general wish that the object of election should be distinguished by military talents, as well as by political abilities; and, as Bernadotte, whom Bonaparte had created prince of Ponte- Corvo, had conducted himself with integrity and moderation during a command which he exercised in the north of Germany, he was pro- poeed by his Swedish majesty as a candidate whose character was un- exceptionable. The nobles, clergy, burgesses, and peasants, acquiesced in the nomination, and confirmed the choice. Thus, by a remarkable instance of revolutionary caprice, a foreign adventurer was permitted to supersede the high claims of the illustrious family of Vasa, and to errc( a new dynasty in a kingdom with which he had no connexion. War was now declared against the British nation ; but neither the king nor the crown-prince intended that it should exhibit rancorous enmity or vigorous hostilities. This want of zeal disgusted Bonaparte, who, in revenge, ordered the seisure of Swedish ships, and the re-occupation of Pomerania. Listening to the voice of an insulted nation, Bernadotte thought it his duty, in his new character, to attend to the interest of Sweden ; and he anxiously hoped that an opportunity might soon be ofiered for the formation of such a confederacy as might crush or humble the haughty dictator. By the aid of a British subsidy, he put a consider- able force in motion; and, having received strong detachments from tlie Russifiu and F'usgian armies, he made dispositions for the defence ojf the lUMth <4 Germany. He rescued Berlin from daog«r by tbe hattle <^ NORWAY, 9f QmrBfitw, AQd,«»4ef bU •ttspicea, the French were etUl mn mmtAy checked at Dennewitz. In the memorable success at Leipsic, he had i^lso a respectable share ; and his measures for brioging the Danes within the pale of the grand sjhance were spirited and effective. When the conn federates, in 1814, weie marching to Paris, he stationed his army in the Netherlands, that he might be ready to meet any incidental storm of hostility ; and, when he was blamed for his inactivity, his friends asserted that his presence in France was not requisite, and ^at he was stiU sup^ porting the common cause, and promoting the general interest. Amidait the -apparent tranquillity of France, he directed his attention to Um aggrandjisen)eut of Sweden. The reluctance of the Norvvegians to the 'transfer of their allegiance did not diake his firmness, qt r^x Iiis amr bilious zeal. He invaded their country, and enforced their submission. When the escape o{ Bonaparti from ^ba hfui occ^Moned a reneval of the war, the Swedes were bound to assist x» the overthrow of the htae usurper ; but Uiere was no necessity for their inteiference, as the dtiU and courage of the British and Prussian ara,'.ie8 effected th^ moinentous object. The crown-prince then distinguished himself by a zealous cailr tivation of the arts of peace ; and, by his aiEability and CQurtesy, »nd hii seeming regard for the welfare and happiness of the people, he (inquired t high degree of popularity. In the mean time, the iuog, whose health had long been unsettled, visibly drooped ; but he lived to complete tkm sixty-nind) year of his age. He died on the ^th of F^ri;tary, 1918. He had displayed his courage in the rejgn of his brothers but hi# talcBts did not strongly appear after his elevation to the throne ; and his .char«£r ter suffered, in the opinion <^ many pbserver<9, from his rfsadiness tf supplant his nephew. The crown-prince ascended the throne lyitbout the lea^ opposition from the Swedes. Charles XIV. king of Sweden (formerly Jeian Baptiste Julied Bernar dotte) was horn at Paris, on the 26th of January, 1763. When he adopted the Lutheran religion, in com{Jiance with the requisition of his electors, he assumed the baptismal designation of Chaxles John. He was married in 1798 to Eugenia Bernardine ; and has a son, Joseph Francis Oscar, now the crown-prince, who was born on the 4th of July, 1799. On the 3d of May, 1826, the crown-princess gratified |the royal j^ndly by the birth of a son> o»med Charles Louis ¥lvg«9«* ■ ■;!■' •:•■>> NORWAY. f^XTEMT AKP SITUATION. > \. Miles, Degrees. "' Length 1000 } ij^j^ggn f 58 and 71 north latitude. Breadth 150 } ( 5 and 25 east longitude. Containing 112,000 square miles, with more than six inhabitants to eachj Name.] NORWAY signifies the Northern Way, or country. It was anciently called Norrike, or the Northern Kingdom. Boundaries and divisions.] Norway is bounded on the south by the entrance into the Baltic ; on the west and north by the Northern Ocean ; and on the east it is separated from Sweden by a long chain of mputttains. It i» divided into the four governments of Aggerhwu or Ghristiamai W|UJ«^lll.l.9*-"* m)ft^,m\tj^ 80 NORWAY. ChristiansaL ' Bergen, and Drontheim ; the last ia subdivided into the two provinces of Norland and Finmark. Mountains, lakes, RiviiRS.] Norway is one of the most moun- tainous countries in the world : continued mountains run through it from south to north ; to pass one of which, called the Ardanger, a mig must travel about sixty English mileH, and, to pass others, above fortj, Bofrefeld is the highest of these mountains. The rivers and cataracti which intersect those dreadful precipices, and that are passable orily bj slight tottering wooden bridges, render traveling in this country veij terrible and dangerous, though the government is at the expense of pro. viding, at different stages, houses accommodated with fire, light, and kitchen furniture. Detached from this vast chain, other immense moun< tains present themselves all over Norway ; some of them with reservoin of water on the top, and the whole forming a most stupendous landscape. The caverns in these mountains are more wonderful, perhaps, than those which are found in any other part of the world, though less liable to observation. That which is called Dolsteen was in 1750 visited by two clergymen, who reported, that they proceeded in it until they heard the sea dashing over their heads ; that the passage was as wide and ai high as an ordinary church, the sides perpendicular, and thereof vaulted; that they descended a flight of natural stairs ; but, when they arrived at another, they would not venture to proceed, but returned ; and that they consumed two candles in going and returning. In a mountain in Nor* way, called Torg Hallen, whose summit has fancifully been imagined to resemble the figure of a giant with a hat on his head, there is a vast pervious aperture a hundred yards high and above two thousand ia length, along vrhich a road runs. The lakes of Norway are numerous : the largest is the Mioss, about 60 miles in length, but of no great breadth except toward the centre, where it is from twelve to fifteen miles. It has in it an island about eight miles in circumference, llie lake of Rands-Sion is almost fifty miles long, but scarcely more than two broad. The lake of Fsemund ii thirty-five miles long and eight broad; and that of X!)jeren, formed by the river Glom, twenty-three miles long. Some of these laJces contain floating islands sixty or eighty feet in diameter, formed by the cohesion of roots of trees and shrubs; which, though torn from the main land, bear herbage and trees. The principal rivers of Norway are the Glom and the Dramme. The former, from its source among the mountains on the borders of Sweden, to the bay of Swinesund, where it falls into the sea, runs about three hundred English miles ; and the latter flows into the bay of Christiaoia. Metals, minerals.] GoU has been found in Norway, and some ducats were coined from it in 1645. The silver mines of Konigsberg, about forty miles from Christiania, were long very productive, but they are now declining. The copper-mines of Roraas afford a considerable revenue ; but the iron-mines near Arendahl are, perhaps, the most pro- fitable. Norway produces abundance of marble, quicksilver, sulphur, salt, coal, vitriol, and alum : mines of cobalt have likewise been discovered at Fossam. Climate, soil, vegetable productions.] The climate varies according to the latitude, and to the position with respect to the sea. At Bergen the winter is moderate, and the sea not frozen. The eastern parts are commonly covered with snow ; and the cold generally sets ia about the middle of October, and continues with intense seventy to the NORWAY. «t ibdivided into tht the most moun- g run through it Ardanger, a mm hers, above forty. in and cataracti passable only bj this country very e expense of pro< 1 fire, light, and r immense moun- sm with reservoin endous landscape. 1, perhaps, than though less liable 1750 visited by , until they heard I as wide and u 1 thereof vaulted; en they arrived at ed ; and that they mountain in Nor* been imagined to id, there is a vast two thousand in I the Mioss, about pward the centre, t an island about on is almost fifty ike of Fsemund ii ren, formed by the » contain floating cohesion of rooti and, bear herbage Dramme. The irders of Sweden, runs about three y of Christiania. orway, and some of Konigsberg, itive, but they are a considerable ps, the most pro- er, sulphur, salt, been discovered ■le climate varies ipect to the sea. n. The eastern generally sets in seventy to the middle of April, the waters being a';! that time frozen to a considerable thickness. But even frost and snow have their conveniences, as they facilitate the conveyance of goods by land. In the more northern parts of this countP)-, the cold is intense. In summer, the inhabitants can read and write at mi:bight by the light of the sky ; and in the most northerly parts, about mi»<.«immer, the sun is continually in view. In those parts, however, in the middle of winter, there is only a faint glimmering ot light at noon for about an hour and a half, from the reflexion of the sun s rays on the mountains. Nature; notwithstanding, has been very kind to the Norwegians; for, in the midst of their darkness, the sky is so serene, and the moon and the aurora borealis so bright, that they work at their several trades in the open air. The air in general is exceedingly pure, and many of the natives live to a very great age. The soil and climate, however, are certainly unfavor- able to agricuhure, and no parte of the country yield sufficient corn for interior consumption : yet, though it is deficient in arable land, it is rich in pasture. The principal vegetable production of Norway is wood. The exten- sive tbrests of this country consist of fir, oak, elm, ash, yew, birch, beech, and alder trees. The fir in Norway is in high estimation, being firnier, more compact, and less liable to rot, than that of most other countries. Of the large sums received from foreign nations for timber, one-tenth is paid to the king of Sweden, and forms no inconsiderable part of his revenue. Animals.] The horses, and in general the other cattle of Norway, are small, but strong, hardy, and active. Among the wild animals are the elk, hare, rabbet, bear, wolf, lynx, fox, glutton, leming, ermine, marten, and beaver. The elk is a tall ash-colored animal, its shape partaking at once of the horse and the stag ; it is harmless, and in the winter social. The hares are small, and are said to live upon mice in the winter, and to change their colour from brown to white. The bears are strong and sagacious. The wolves, though fierce, are shy even of a cow or goat, unless impelled by hunger: the natives are dexterous in digging traps for them, in which they are taken or killed. The lynx is smaller than a wolf, but as dangerous ; it digs under ground, and often undermines sheep-folds, making dreadful havock. Its skin is beautiful and valuable, as is that of the black fox. White and red foxes are likewise found in Norway, and partake of the nature of that wily animal in other countries ; they have a particular way of drawing crabs to the shore, by dipping their tails into the water, of which the crab takes hold. The glutton resembles a turn- spit dog, wiih a long body, thick legs, sharp claws and teeth ; his fur, which is variegated, is so valuable that he is shot with blunt arrows to preserve the skin unhurt : he is bold, and extremely ravenous. The er- mine is a little creature, remarkable for its shyness and cleanliness ; and its fur forms a principal part of royal magnificence. The leming, or Norwegian mouse, is of a reddish hue, and about five inches in length. Vast multitudes of these animals sometimes proceed from the mountains toward the sea, devouring every production of the soil, and spreading desolation like the locust. When they have consumed every eatable, it is said that they at last prey on each other. No country produces a greater variety of birds than Norway, especi- ally water-fowl. The auks, which breed on the rocks, frequently appear in such numerous flocks that they darken the air, and the noise they make with their wings resembles a storm. Various kinds of wild ducks and pigeons are also found here. The Norwegian cock of the wood is a noble tt NORWAY, bird ; it ig of a black or dark-grey colour, with an eye Ktombling that of a (iheaBant. Bugles of ditferent spvuieB broed among the inountaini and rocks of Norway ; some of which are of a prodigious size and strengtli, and will seise lambs and kids. 'I'he sua-cagles sometimes dart on larga fishes with stich force, that, being unable to extricate their talons, they are dragged into the water and drowned. The bird-men of Norway dii- play remarkable agility and address in mounting the steepest rocks, and bringing away the young birds and their eggs ; the latter of which art nutritive food, and are parboiled in vinegar. The seas and lakes of Norway are liberally productive of most kiadi of fish, which aro found on the sea-coasts of Europe. Stock-fish inou- merable are dried upon the rocks without salting. The haac-moren ii i species of shark, ten fathoms in length, and its liver yields three caiki of train-oil. The tuella flynder is an excessively large turbot, which hai been known to cover a man who has fallen overboard, to keep him from rising. The season for herring-fishing is announced to tire fishermea by the spouting of water from the whales while they follow the herring shoali, The coast of Norway may be said to be the native country of herriagg, Innumerable shoals come from under the ice, near the north pole, and, about the latitude of Iceland, divide themselves into three bodies. One multitude supplies the Western Ifiles and coasts of Scotland ; another directs its course round the eastern part of Great Britain, down the Channel; and the third enters the Baltic through the Sound. The; form a great part of the food of the common people ; and the cod, ling, kabeliau, and torsk fishes, follow them to feed upon their spawn, and are taken in prodigious numbers : tliese, especially their roes, and the oil extracted from their livers, are exported and sold to great advantage, The sea-devil is about six feet in length, and is so called from its mou- Btrous appearance and voracity. The sea-scorpion is likewise of a hideout form, its head being larger than its whole body, which is about four feet in length ; and its bite is said to be poisonous. Natural curiosities.] The dreadful vortex or whirlpool of Mael- strom, or Moskocstrom, is the most remarkable of the natural cuiiositiei of Norway. It is caused by a furious current, which runs among the Loffoden isles, particularly between the island of Moskoe and the point of Moskoenas, where its violence is greatest, flowing contrary to the n)o< tion of the tide, in a kind of circular stream. Twice in twenty-foiu hours, at the turn of ebb and tide, the current ceases, and the water ii calm during almost an hour ; after which it gradually increases, till it becomes tremendous, and roars with a noise unequaled by the loudest cataracts. It is heard at the distance of many leagues, and formi a vortex of ■''great extent and depth, so violent that, if a ship comes near it, it is immediately drawn irresistibly into the whirl, and there disappear!, being absorbed in a moment, and dashed to pieces against the rociu; and, when the water becomes again still, rises in scattered fragmeoti, scarcely to be known for the parts of the ship. Population.] Notwithstanding the great extent of Norway, 720,000 persons are supposed to form the whole number of its inhabitanti. Of these, above two-thirds occupy the southern division. Nationalcharacteu, manners.] The Norwegians in general are strong and brave ; friendly, but quick in resenting real or supposed in- juries. The women are handsome and courteous; and the Norwegiat modes of living greatly resemble those of the Saxon aAcestors of the present English. Every inhabitant is an artisan, and supplies his fanoily in all its necesisaries with his own manufactures ; «o Uu^t ia Norw^ Mwt NORWAY. 83 in few who art by proftMion batten, iboe-mftken, tailon, tunen, WMvera, oRipenten, imithf, orjoinen. They often mix with oat-meal the bark of the fir, made into a kind of flour; and they are reduced to very extraordinary shifta for supplying the place of bread or farinaceous food. The middling Norwegians lead that kind of life which we may say is furnished with plenty ; but tbey are neither fond of luxury, nor do they dread penury : and this middle state prolongs their lives surprisingly. Though their dress is in many reepecU accommodated to their climate, vet, by custom, instead of guarding against the inclemency of the weather, they outbrave it ; for they expose themselves to cold, without any covering upon their breasts or necks. A Norwegian of a hundred yean of age, is nut supposed too old for labor; and, in 1733, four couples were married, and danced before bis Danish majesty, at FredericshalJ, whose ages, when joined, exceeded 800 yean. Cities, chief towns.] Christiania i& accounted the capital of Nor- way, because it is the seat of the supreme court of justice. It is pleasant- ly situated on the shore of a bay, about the distance of 25 miles from the sea, and is considered as the handsomest town in the country, but is neither substantially built, nor defensible against an enemy. It contains about 14,000 inhabitants, who appear to live in ease and comfort. Ber- gen, however, is the largest and most commercial town in Nonvay, con- taining nearly 21,000 inhabitants. It is principally built of wood, and has suffered by repeated fires. A great number of its inhabitants are Du^^h and other foreignen. Drontheim (or Tronyem) was formerly the capital of Norway. It has a fine cathedral (resembling the remains of that of Elgin in Scotland), a public library, a museum, and commodious structures belonging to various useful institutions. The population is supposed to amount to 11,500. The inhabitants are agreeable and friendly in their mannen, if not so polished as those of Christiania. The affairs of the corporation are regulated by twelve pereons, chosen from the bocfy of traden. Commerce.] The exports of Norway are timber, hemp, flax, tar, turpentine, fish, tallow, copper, iron, glass, alum, the hides of oxen and goats, and the skins of bears, lynxes, and foxes. Government, laws.] When Norway became subject to the Danish crown, the general laws of the country were retained ; and even the peasants were permitted to enjoy that civil freedom which was not allow- ed to the Danes: but the diets or naUonal councils were discontinued, and political liberty was an empty name. The renunciation of all au- thority over them, in 1814, in consequence of the imperious demands of the enemies of Denmark, furnished the people with an opportunity of framing an independent constitution, in which they adopted the British model ; and, on the transfer of the country to Sweden, Charles XIII. bound himself to the observance of the new code. Revenue, army, navy.] Before the Swedes gained possession of Norway, its revenue did not amount to 300,000 pounds ; and we may suppose that it does not now exceed that sum. The military establish- ment may be estimated at 25,000 men ; but, as far as war is concerned, the navy is insignificant and contemptible, although the country has a mercantile fleet and resolute seamen. Religion.] The religion of Norway, like that of Denmark, is Lutheranism. Christian sects are tolerated by law ; but the Jews are not fitvored with that indulgence. Academical institutions, literature, language.] Chris- tianift h«8 an univenity; Bergen has a college; and; in the chief town G2 '■«'."»?" ■' I >->i,^miii!9rjfiii)Di,fmfmr.Ki!'!'w. u LAPLAND. of each diocese, there is a Latin school. The language of Ndrway is tbt Danish, witii a mixture of Swedish words: the gentry, and inhabitants of the principal towns, speak purer Danish than is usual even la Copenhagen. H1STOKY.3 The first inhabitants of Norway were probably tritxi of the Finnish race, the ancestors of the modern Laplanders. Tiiete were conquered and driven out by the Goths. Norway, before the close of ine ninth century, was divided into ten or twelve small states, under their seveial chiefs, which were then united into one nation by Harold Harfagre. From that time Norway remained a distinct and independent kingdom, except that twice in the tenth and eleventh centuries it was subjected, for a short time, to Denmark, and in the thirteenth united likewise, for a time, with Sweden. At length, by the marriage of Hacon king of Norway with Margaret of Denmark, and the succession of their son Olaf, in 1 380, it became an appendage to the crown of Denmark. With that kingdom it remained for many centuries in a state of union : but the insignificance of the protecting realm, and the subserviency of the Danish court to the dictates of Bonaparte, con- curring with the earnest wish of the enemies of France to attach the Swedes to the interest of the grand confederacy, led to an important change. Alexander, tbe Russian emperor, drew the court of Stockholoi into the Anti'-Gallican league, by promising to procure a cession of the whole Norwegian territory. After the successful campaign of the year 1813, the allies intimidated the king of Denmark into a resignation of all authority over Norway ; and preparations were made for enforcing the submission of the people, who were known to be unfriendly to the unjust and humiliating transfer. In the hope of warding off the storm, the Norwegians offered the sovereignty of their country to the Danish prince Christian, who, without reflecting on the improbability of success, under- took the task of governing and defending the menaced kingdom. Under his auspices, a new constitution was framed ; and he began to reign with the general assent of a nation which deserved to be free. But, wbea a Swedish army had passed the fror';iers, and when the chief ports were blockaded by British ships, the new king, after risquing some partial conflicts, relinquished all opposition to the will of the confederates. The diet of Norway assembled ; and the majority of the members, yielding t» necessity, transferred the crown, in November 1814, to the king of Sw^ den, who bound himself to an acceptance of the most material articles o( the new constitution. Discontent still prevailed among the people; but they were obliged to acknowlege the sovereignty of that prince whom the7 deemed an usurper ; and it does not appear that they have had reason to complain of niisgovernment or oppression. LAPLAND. THOUGH Lapland has no peculiar government as a distinct nation, but is divided between Sweden and Russia, the peculiar character and manners of its inhabitants entitle it to a distinct section; and, as the largest and most cultivated part of it belongs to Sweden, it appears mojt proper to place the account of it after that of the country on which it is principally dependent. Name.] The name of Lappe was given to the Laplanders by th» I Swedes, and is of uncertain derivation. Some say that it signifies exilw | or fugitives, because they are of the race of tho Fins driven out of their MPLAND. 85 own country; tJthow, that it signifies sorcerer*. The Laplanders call themselves Same, and their country Same-ednam ; whence it has been coiu'ectared that they are of the race of the Samoieds. Extent.] Lapland, taken in the i^regate, extends frc-n 64 to 71 degrees of northern latitude, and from 15 to 40 degrees of eastern longi- tude, and contains about 120,000 square miles. Both the southern and northern parts appertain to Sweden. The eastern extremity belongs to Russia. Mountains, lakes, rivers.] Lapland contains many mountains. but . -^ne with which we are sufficiently acquainted to notice them par- ticularly. The principal rivers are the Tornea, the Tana, and the Alten, The Tornea springs from the lake of the same name, and, after a course of 300 miles, falls into the Gulf of Bothnia. The Tana and Alten fall into the Frozen Ocean. The lakes in Lapland are numerous ; the Great Lake, Tornea, Lulea, and Enara, are the chief. Minerals, metals.] Lapland abounds in metals and minerals of every kind. Native gold has been found at Svappawara ; copper, iron, lead, zinc, and plumbago, or black-lead, are found in various parts ; and in the southern districts are mines worked by the Swedes. Limestone, marble, gypsum, rock-crystal, jasper, amethysts, and garnets, are also among the mineral productions of this country. Climate, soil, vegetable productions.] The winter in Lap- land is extremely severe. In the most northern parts the sun remains be- low the horizon from the 20th of November to the 10th of January: from the beginning of September to the middle of March the whole country is covered with snow and ice ; and in the depth of winter the lakes and rivers are generally frozen to a great depth. In summer, on the other hand, the sun continues in like manner two months above the horizon ; and, in the valleys and plains, the heat is excessive. Innu- merable insects are produced; and the inhabitants are infested with mosquitoes to an intolerable degree. With respect to the soil and vegetable productions of Lapland, the whole country is an immense wilderness, ^vhere agriculture is rarely practised, except in a very few parts in the south, in which corn (princi- pally rye and buckwheat) is cultivated. In the north, tracts of consider- able extent are overgrown with moss, which is th*; principal food of the rein-deer. The trees are the fir, birch, larch, and small beech, which form vast but not vt ry thick fors<)ts. Animals.] The animals are nearly the same with those described in the account of Norway ; but Lapland more peculiarly claims the rein- deer. Thjp very useful quadruped, which seems to have been provided by nature to recompense the Laplanders for the privation of the other comforts of life, resembies the stag, except that it droops the head, and the horns project. In summer the rein-deer provide themselves with leaves and grass, and in the winter they live upon moss; which they have a wonderful sagacity at finding, and, when found, scrape away the snow that covers it with their feet. The scantiness of their fare is inconceivable, as is the length of the journey which they can perform without any other support. In a kind of sledge, shaped like a small boat,the traveler, well secured from cold, is laced down ; having the reins, which are fastened to the horns of the deer, in one hand, and a kind of bludgeon in the other, to keep the carriage clear of ice and snow. The deer, harnessed in a very simple manner, and fixed to the sledge, sets out, and contbues the journey, with prodigious speed ; and is so safe and tractable, that the driver hat little trquble iq directing him. At night these ttnim&lfl look out for thefr own provender ; bid thiU faift Oft^h ^ontri- butes to support their master. Their instinct in ehoosing their wad, and directingtheir course, can only be accounted for by their being well acquainted with the fcountry during the summer months, when they live inthe woods. Their flesh is well tasted food, whether fresh or dried; their skins form excellent clothing both for the bed and the body; their milk and cheese are nutritive and pleasant ; and their intestines and tendons supply their masters with thread and cordage. When they rim about wild in the fields, they may be shot at as other game. But, if one be killed in a flock, the survirors, it is said, will gore and trample him to pieces ; therefore single stragglers are generally chosen. With all their excellent qualities, however, therein-deer have their inconveniences. It is diflScult in summer to keep them from straggling; they are some- times buried in the snow; and they frequently grow restive, to the great danger of the driver and his carriage. Their speed is scarcely credible ; for they are said to run at the rate of 200 miles in a day. None but a Laplander could bear the uneasy posture in which he is placed, when he is confined in one of these carriages or pulkhas; or would believe, that the rein-deer could learn, from a whisper, the place of his destination. Population, ikhabitants, manners, customs.] Lapland ig very thinly peopled. Russian Lapland scarcely contains 6000 persons, and the population of the whole of this extensive region is supposed to be not more than 40,000, or one person to about three square miles. Botli men and women are in general considerably shorter than more southern Europeans. Maupertuis measured a woman who was suckling her child, whose height did not exceed four feet two in ;bes and a half. The Laplander is of a swarthy and dark complexion ; his hair is black and short, his mouth wide, and his cheeks are hollow, with a chin somewhat long oaf lointed. The women are complaisant, chaste, and industrious. It wc ild not be readily supposed that their nerves are weak ; but it is said that they are as ready to faint at the smallest shock of apprehension or surprise, as the most sensitive or delicate lady in a region of refined civilisation. Agriculture is not much attended to among the Laplanders. They are chiefly divided into fishers and mountaineers. ' The former always make their habitations in the neighbourhood of some lake, from which they draw their subsistence. The others seek their support upon the mountains and their environ", possessing herds of rein-deer more or less numerous, which they use according to the season, but go generally on foot. They are excellent and very industrious herdsmen, and are rich in comparison with the fishers. Some of them possess six hundred or a thousand rein-deer, and have often money and plate beside. The fishers are also hunters, and choose their situation by its convenience for either purpose. They are active and expert in the chase ; and the in- troduction of fire-arms among them has almost entirely abolished the use of the bow and arrow. Beside looking after the rein-deer, the fishery, and the chase, the men employ themselves in the construction of their canoes, which are small, light, and compact. They also make sledges, harness for the rein-deer, cups, bowls, and various other utensils, which are sometimes neatly cirvcd, and sometimes ornamented with bones, brass, or horn. The women are employed in making nets for the fishery, in drying fish and meat, milking the rein-deer, making cheese, and tan- ning hides ; but it u mdm^oi to be the \fvmm ot the aen to look after the kitchen^ -' ' *" "' "■ *— ■^M LAPLANb. 8^ The Laplanders live in huts in the form of tents. A hut is from ftbout twenty-five to thirty feet in diameter, and not much above six in height. They cover them, according to the season and the means of the possessor, some with briers, bark of birch or of linden, — others with turf, coarse cloth, or felt, or the old skins of rein-deer. The door is of felt, made like two curtains which open asunder. A little place, surrounded with stones, is made in the middle of the hut for the fire, over which a chain is suspended to hang the kettle upon. They are scarcely able to stand upright in their huts, but constantly sit upon their heels round the fire. At night they he down quite naked ; and, to sepa- rate the apartments, place upright sticks at small distances. Tliey cover themselves with their clothes, or lie upon them. In winter they put their naked feet into a fur bag. Their houseliold furniture consists of iron or copper kettles, wooden cups, bowls, spoons, and sometimes tin or even silver basins ; to which may be added the implements of fishing and hunting. That they may not be obliged to carry such a number of things with them in tlieir excursions, they build in the forests, at certain distances, little huts, made like pigeon- houses, and placed upon the trunk of a tree, cut off at the height of about six feet from the root. In these elevated huts they keep their goods and provisions ; and, though they are never shut, they are never plundered. The rein-deer supply the Laplanders with the greatest part of their provisions : the chase and the fishery supply the rest. Their principal dishes are the flesh of the rein- deer, and puddings which they make of the blood, by putting it, either alone or mixed with wild berries, into the stomach of the animal from whom it was taken, in which they cook it for food. But the flesh of the bear is considered by them as their most delicate meat. They eat every kind of fish, even the sea-dog; as well as all kinds of wild animals. Their common bread is made of barley and chalF; and sometimes they make cakes of the inner bark of the fir-tree, and of the root of the water- dragon. They are fond of the angelica sylveslris, and of the sow- thistle, which has a milky stem. Their winter provisions consist chiefly of flesh and fish dried in the open air, both of which they eat raw, with- out any sort of dressing. Their common drink is water, sometimes mixed with milk. They make also broths, and fish-soups. Brandy is very scarce with them; but they are extremely fond of it. Whenever they are inclined to eat, the head of the family spreads ?. carpet on the ground ; and the men and women squat round this mat, which is covered with dishes. Every Laplander always carries about him a knife, a spoon, and a little cup for drinking. Each has his portion separately given him, that no person may be injured ; for they are great caters. Before and after the meal they make a short prayer ; and as soon as they have done eating, each gives the other his hand. In their dress the Laplanders use no kind of linen. The men wear close breeches, reaching down to their shoes, which are made of untan- ned skin; pointed and turned up before ; and in winter they put a little hay in them. A doublet is made to fit their shapes, and open at the breast. Over this they wear a close coat with narrow sleeves, the skirts of which reach down to the- knees, and which is fastened round them by a leathern girdle, ornamented with plates of tin or brass. To this girdle they tie their knives, their instruments for making fire, their pipes, and the rest of their smoking apparatus. Tlieir clothes are made pf fur, leather, or cloth ; the close coat, of cloth or leather, always bordered with fur, or bindings of cloth of difl'erent colorSo Their caps are edged with fur, pointed at the top, and the four seams adorned with 88 LAPLAND. list of a different color from that of the cap. The women wear breeches, shoes, doublets,-and close coats, in the same manner as the men; but their girdles, at which they carry likewise the implements for smoking tobacco, are commonly embroidered with brass wire. Beside these, they wear handkerchiefs, and little aprons, made of painted cloth, rings on their fingers, and ear-rings, to which they sometimes hang chains of silver, which pass two or three times round the neck. They are often dressed in caps folded after the manner of turbans. They wear also caps fitted to the shape of the head ; and, as they are much addicted to finery, chey are all ornamented with the embroidery of brass wire, or at least with list of different colors. A young man is not permitted to marry before he is able to take and kill a rein-deer. When he is thus qualified, and has chosen a female to whom he wishes to make proposals, he communicates his desire to his own family, who then repair in a body to the dwelling of the parents of the girl, taking with them a quantity of brandy to drink on the occasion, and a slight present for the young woman ; for instance, a girdle orna- mented with silver, a ring, or something of the like kind. When they come to the door of the hut in which she lives, the principal spokesman enters first, followed by the rest of the kindred, the suitor remaining in the open air. TJie orator fills out a bumper of brandy, which he offers to the girl's father, who, if he accept it, shows thereby that he approves the intended match. The brandy is handed round, not only to the girl's father and mother, and her assembled friends, but likewise to the in- tended bride; and, in the course of this compotation, leave is obtained for the young man to forward his suit in his own person. The orator then, in a set speech, makes a beginning : and in this stage of the court- ship the lover is himself introduced, but takes his seat at a distance from the rest, placing himself near the door. The parents of the girl at length signifying their full consent to the match, the suitor offers the maiden the present he has brought with him, and promises wedding-clothes to the father and mother. If the parents, after having thus given their consent, depart from their word, it is an established law amongst the Laplanders that all the expenses incurred must be made good, even to the brandy drunk at the first visit. The parties being thus betrothed, the young man is allowed to visit his mistress from time to time. On the day of the nuptials the bride appears dressed in her gala habit, with this difference, that, whereas her head is closely covered at other times, on this occasion her hair is left to flow loose upon her shoulders, and she wears a bandeau of variegated stuffs, and sometimes a fillet. Such of the guests as arc invited, make the bride a present of money, rein-deer, or something toward a stock. The Laplanders entertain a strong aversion to war ; and it has never been found practicable to convert them into soldiers : but this is rather to be attributed to their habits of life, which disqualify them for military discipline, as they will brave the fury of the tempestuous ocean with astonishing intrepidity, and skait without fear along the edges of tre- mendous precipices. Language.] The language of Lapland appears to have an affinity to the Finnish, with an intermixture of some words evidently of Gothic origin, derived from a frequent intercourse with the Danes and Swedes. The Lord's prayer, in this tongue, is as follows : Atki mijam juco lee almensisne. Ailis ziaddai tu nam. Zweigu- batta tu ryki. \ Ziaddus tu willio naukuchte almesne nauei edna man- nal. Waddemijaiudnimijan /cert pa/wen laibcbm, Jah andagasloite •1 Laplanders J the brandy le young man e day of the lis difference, this occasion rs a bandeau quests as are >r something it has never is is rather to 1 for military 1 ocean with edges of tro- ve an affinity ;ly of Gothic and Swedes. ». Zweigu- ei edna man- mdagasloite ..-■'fJt^t'-.'^'iyt'^:: RUSSIA IN EUROPE. 90^ •; lii ■nr . > CHIEP TOWNSi ';|. Archangel Archangel {^^I^J;^ *'^" Bratzlau Bratzlau. ' iJ Caucasia Astracan {e" Ion. 48. 2^* ; ■ Courland ....;... Mittau {^^J^^J^ '"'"' rKW.nn f N. lat. 46. 34. Ekaterinoslav ^Kher.on { E. ion. 32. ;)0. (Ekaterinoslav *"..• '"* (iL »!, CN. lat. 62. 1. ; Irkutsk Mrkutsic j E. long. 129. 43. r' vOchotsk. Kaluga Kaluga. Kasaa Kasan. Kharkof Kharkof. Kief Kief. Kolhjfvane Tomsk. Kostroma Kostroma. Kursk Kursk. ;,, Mohilef Mohilef. ^ ,, Minsk Minsk. , . , Moscow Moscow J ^; J^^; ^f ; ^^; Nishnei Novgorod Nishnei Novgorod. ,: ' Novgorod Novgorod. ;., , Novgorod Sieversk Novgorod Sieversk. Oloaetz Olonetz, Orel.. Orel. Pensa Pensa. Perm , , , Perm. Petersburg St. Petersburg. C N. lat. 59. 56. Podolia Kaminiek. ( E. Ion. 30. 19. Polotzk Polotzk. Pscove Pscove. Revel Revel. Riazan Riazan. • Riga p:„„ C N. lat. 56. 56. „ * ^^'^* ) E. Ion. 23. 58. S^ratof Saratof. Simbirsk Simbirsk. Slonim Slonim. Smolensk Smolensk. Tambof Tambof. ^^, : Taurida Sympheropole. ' Tobolsk Tobolsk ^?-/"*-^^!^ ( E. Ion. G8. 25. Chernikof Chernikof. Tula Tula. Tver , Tver. .-.'.•^^ (-Ufa. ., •"•••• 1°-^ ill:!;.^:t Vlaetka. Visetka. fttJSSiA tN ls0tl6P]& H : " CdviftJjMElrtB. CIllEjtOV^KS, . . ; Vilna Vilna. ;;| ^ Vladimir Vladimir, *;"- ' :_: .^, " ^: ^•- ^ Volojda Vologda. -": .^O^i^.H :. VoronetB » oronet?, ^ ^ . , Vorsnesensk Vorgnesensk, , .' . , ,i, «;> ,i; Vyborg Vyborg. Yaroslaf Yaroslaf. To these territories may now be added the western part of Finland, ceded by the Swedish government in 1809; also a dependent kingdom formed in Poland, having Warsaw for its capital ; and, on the side of Turkey, the province of Bessarabia, and the eastern part of Moldavia. Mountains, lakes, uivers, canals.] Russia is in general a level country ; but between Petersburg and Moscow are the high grounds called the Valday Mountains, though the highest is only 400 yards above the surface of the sea. Between the lakes Ladoga and Onega is the chain of Olonetz, which runs in a direction almost due north for a great extent. The vast Uraliatt chain, which divides European from Asiatic Russia, extends from about the 50th to nearly the 67th degree of N. lat. or more than 1000 English miles. The Russians call this range Lemnoipoijas, the Girdle of the Earth. Ural also is a Tartarian word signifying a belt or girdle. These mountains are supposed to be the Monies Hyperborei, or Ripheei, of the ancients. The principal lakes in European Russia are the Onega, in the govern- ment oi Olonetz, about 150 miles in length by 30 in breadth; the lake Ladoga in the government of Vyborg, situate between the lake Onega and the Gulf of Finland, 130 miles in length by 70 in breadth, being one of the largest lakes in Europe ; the Peypus, which divides the go- vernments of Petersburg and Riga, about 60 miles in length and 30 In breadth ; the Ilmen, on which stands the city of Novgorod ; and the Bielozersk, or White Lake, so called because it has a bottom of white clay. The most considerable river is the Volga, running east and south, which, after winding a course of 1700 English miles, falls into the Cas- pian Sea. Jt is remarkable, that in all this course there is not a single cataract to interrupt the navigation. As it approaches to its mouth, it divides itself into a greater number of arms than any known river. By means of this noble stream, the city of Moscow maintains a communica- tion, not only with all the southern parts of Russia, but even with Per- sia, Georgia, Tartary, and other countries bordering on the Caspian Sea. The Don, or TanaTs, divides the most eastern part of Russia from Asia, and discharges itself into the sea of Asof, about 400 miles from its rise. The Borysthenes, or Dnieper, which is likewise one of the largest rivers in Europe, runs through Lithuania, the country of the Zaporog Cosacks, and that of the Nagaish Tartars, and falls into the Euxine at Kinburn, near Oczakof: it has thirteen -cataracts within a small di* stance. To these may be added the Duna, which empties itself at Riga into the Baltic ; the Dwina, which has its source near the Ustiaga, and, dividing itself into two branches near Archangel, there falls into the White Sea ; and the Neva, which issues from the lake Ladoga, and falls into the Gulf of Finland below Petersburg. Though the plan of Peter L, to unite the Volga and the Don by a canal, failed in the execution, a communication between Astracan and- Petersburg is effected by the canal of Vishnei Voloshok, wliich unites the Twertza and the Sblina. The canal of Ladoga, which run* along the ^•^, 93 RUSSIA IN EUROPE. edge of thftt lake, join* the Volkof to the Neva, extrading the length of 67 miles, and communicatiog with the canal of Viahnei Voloshok, Another canal has been cut frono Moscow to the river Don ; and arrange* ments havo been recently made for connecting this wiUi the Volga. A new canal has also been planned to facilitate the commercial intercourN of Petersburg with Archangel. Metals, minerals.] The principal mines of the Russian empire ar» in Siberia ; but there are mines of copper and iron in the European part; and, in one of the mountains of Olonetz, a gold mine was discovered io 1739 ; but it yielded only 57 pounds of gold in the year. In one of the Urnlian mountains, u mine was found about the year 1803 ; but so smtU a quantity of gold was produced out of a great mass of ore, that the hopei of wealth yielded to disappointment. Climate, hoil, aouiculture.] The severity of the climate, in Iluaaia properly so called, is very great. At Petersburg, the cold, during the months of December, January, and February, is usually from 40 to 52 degrees below the freezing point. When a person wallcs out in that severe weather, the cold makes the eyes water, and that water, freei- ing, ^angs in icicles on the eye-lashes. As tlic peasants usually wear their beards, icicles are frequently seen hanging to their chins like a lump of ice. Sparrows, though a hardy species of birds, have been seen quite numbed by the intense cold, and unable to fly : and drivers, when sitting on their loaded carriages, have sometimes been found frozen to death in that posture. Boiling water thrown up into the air by an engine, BO as to spread, has fallen down perfectly dry, formed into ice. A bottle of strong ale has been frozen in an hour and a half; but in this lub- stance there was about a tea-cup>full in the middle unfrozen, which wai as strong and inflammable as brandy or spirits of wine. Notwithstanding this severity of cold, the inhabii aots have such various means and provi- sions to guard against it, that thev suffer much less from it than might be expected. The houses of peracuis in tolerable circumstances are so well protected, both without doors and within, that they are seldom heard to complain of cold. The method of warming the houses in Russia, is bj an oven constructed with several flues ; and they can regulate the warmth in their apartments by a thermometer with great exactness, opening or shutting the flues to increase or diminish the heat. When the Russians go out, they are clothed so warmly, that they almost bid defiance to the rigors of the season. One advantage which the Russians derive from the severity of their climate is the preserving of provisions by the frost. Good housewives, as soon as the frost sets in for the winter, kill their poultry', and keep them in tubs packed up with a layer of snow between them, and then take them out for use as occasion requires : by which means they save the nourish- ment of the animal for several months. Veal frozen at Archangel, and brought to Petersburg, is esteemed the finest they have ; nor can it be distinguished from that which has been recently killed , being equally juicy. The markets in Petersburg are thus supplied in winter with a variety of provisions, at a cheaper rate than woulo otherwise be possible ; and it is not a little curious to see the vast piles of hogs, sheep, fish, and other animals, exposed in the markets for sale. The method of thawing frozen provisions in Russia is by immerging them in cold water ; for, when the operation of thawing is effected by heat, it seems to occasion a violent fermentation, and almost a sudden putrefaction; but, when produced by cold water, the ice seems to be attracted out of the body, and forma a transparent incrustation round it. RUSSIA IN £UItOP£. M The MMoni, Id thfct part of Ruuia which is beyond the fifty-fifth de- gree of latitude, can scarcely be said to bo more than two, as the spring and autumn are very sliort And transient. That which is called the spring resembles the temperature of an English winter ; and some portions of the summer, as in Sweden, are oppressively hot. A diversity of soil necessarily results from the great extent of the empire. The most fertile land, perhaps, is that which is situated between the Don and the Volga. In other parts, likewise, ample supplies of corn might be procured, if the Russians would pay greater attention to agriculture than they have hitherto thought proper to bestow upon it. Yet it certainly is not so much neglected as some visitants of the country have pretended. In the middle and southern districts, it is carried on viih some spirit ; and the returns are abundant and valuable. Vegetable viioductions, animals.] Many extensive forests are found in Russia. Those in the north chiefly consist of pines : in other parts, the lime, elm, birch, alder, and maple, are more prevalent; and the oak, horn-beam, ash, and beech, also thrive with great luxuriance. Wheat, oats, barley, and rye, are cultivated with success : of rice in the south, and millet in almost every part, good crops arc afforded : the hop and the tobacco-plant prosper in the southe-a distrlc.s; and, in the Crimea or Taurida, the culture of the vine has heea prosecuted with advantage. Orchards abound in many parts; and, if they do not supply the nation with a sufficiency of fruit, it is because luxury requires a rich variety. The animals of the northern parts of Russia do not greatly differ from those of Denmark and Sweden. The lynx, famous for its piercing eye, is a native of this empire ; it makes prey of ever^ creature it can master, and is said to be produced chiefly in the fir-tree iorests. Hyoenas, bears, foxes, weasels, and sables, afford their furs for clothing the inhabitants ; and those of the black fox and ermine are more valuable in Russia than elsewhere. The dmmedary and camel were formerly almost the only beasts of burthen known in many parts of Russia. Peter the Great encouraged a breed of large horses for war and carriages ; but those employed in the ordinary purposes of life are small, as are the cows and sheep. The birds in Russia are similar to those of Sweden and Norway. The same may be said of fishes, except that the Russians are better provided than their neighbours with sturgeon, cod, salmon, and beluga. Of the roe of the sturgeon and the beluga they make the famous caviare, so much esteemed for its richness and flavor. Curiosities, NATURAL AND artificial.] In the former class the thirteen cataracts of the Dnieper may be enumerated, and also other cataracts in the government of Olonetz. The rocks of ice, of several miles in extent and surprising height, which float in the ocean to the north of Russia, may likewise be reckoned among the natural curiosities of this country ; as among the artificial may be commemorated the pa- lace of ice which the empress Anne caused to be built on the bank of the Neva in 1740. This edifice, constructed of square blocks of ice hewn in the manner of free-stone, was 52 feet in length, 16 in breadth, and 20 in height; the walls were three feet thick. In the several apart- ments were tables, chairs, beds, and all kinds of household furniture, of ice. In the front of the palace, beside pyramids and statues, stood six cannons, carrying balls of six pounds' weight, and two mortars, of ice. From one of the former, as a trial, an iron ball, with only a quar- ter of a pound of powder, was fired off : the ball went through a two* I i 94 RUSSIA IN EUROPE, inch board at sixty paces from the mouth of the cannon, and the pioce of ice artillery, with its carriage, remained uninjured by the explosioD. The illumination of the ice-palace at night had an astonishingly grand effect. This curioun structure remained entire for two months, and then began to melt away. The great bell of Moscow, belonging to the cathedral of the Assump- tion of the Virgin Mary at Moscow, may be termed an artificial curio* sity. It was cast in 1734, by tha command of the empress Anne. It -^eiglis 360,000 pounds : its height is nineteen feet, its circumference fit th" bottom twenty-one yards eleven inches, its greatest thicknev twenty-three inches. Population.! It is stated that, in 1722, all the Russian dominioni contained only fourteen millions of inhabitants. In 1818, they had in< greased to fo> ty-five millions and a half; and we have reason to believe that the preseut number is not under fifty millions ; of which number, about eight mlHions may be assigned to the Asiatic division of the empire. • National character, m'iNmers, customs.] The Russiau, properly so called, are in general a well-looking people, hardy, vigorous, and patient of labor. Their complexions differ little from those of the flngliaii ui Scots ; but the women think that an addition of red heightens their beauty, and paint seems to be es necessary an article in the dreu «f a Russian lady as linen. Their eye-sight seems to be defective, in con< sequence probably of the snow, which for the greater part of the year is eontinually present to their eyes. The ofiicers and soldiers always pos- sessed a large share of passive valor, and, in several of the late wan, have Ehown themselves as active as any troops in Europe. They are implicitly submissive to discipline, endure extreme hardships with great patience, and can content themselves with wretched fare. The nobles, in their mode of living, unite Asiatic pomp with an imi- tation of European refinement. They indulge in every luxury which opulence places within their reach, and domineer like sovereigns over large households. In the capital, thirty or forty resident slaves will content their pride ; but. In the country, some have five or six hundred connected with their mansions, in imitation of the practice which pre- vailed among the Romans, many nf whom employed slaves in every branch of art or manufacture. The emperor Alexander generously en- couraged the emancipation of these degraded beings ; and it is an increasing custom fi^r the great proprietorg of men to exact an annual rent from their vassals, and permit them to earn money by any kind of labor or business which they may prefer. Many of the nobles have released their slaves from all claims, and have thus entitled themselves to the highest respect and gratitude. •' The Russians, of the higher and middl" classes (says Dr. Lyall) are insinuating and cunning, deceitful and perfidious, sensual and immoral, given to levity, fond of novelty, and improvident. With the command of little money, they are avaricious pnd mean ; when cash aiMunds, they are generous, ostentatious, and prodigal. They are cheerful, good- humored, and social ; luxurious, hospitable and chari^^^able ; they love light occupations and amusements, but, above all, playing at cards. They have a great curiosity to '^ry into tue affairs of others ; they have quick apprehensions ; their talents for imitation are universally allowed ; they arc fluent in la.iguage8 ; a few are endowed with good parts anti ingenuity, a.td are men of literature ; the generality are moderately well ioibrmed and acooroplishcJ, aa to what regards the exterior of life, RUSSIA IN EUROPE. 94 i; and it is an while few are digtiDguished for their proficiency in the sciences. They are accustomed to good living, but are generally moderate in their cups. They are disposed to indolence, to a sedentary mode of life, and to much sleep; yet, when urged by affairs or r-cessity, they arj exceed ingly active, and withstand extraordinary hardships and fatigues." The same author speaks unfavorably of the beauty and morals of the Russian ladies. He allows that their manners are easy and agreeable ; but beautiful faces and elegant figures are, he says, rare among them, and they are not remarkable for chastity, _ . The higher clergy are respectable men; but the inferior ecr' siastics are, in general, ignorant and dissolute, and are treated with con empt by the gentry. The peasants are shrewd, lively » and active ; fond of drink- ing, and pleased with the song and the dance. Beside these amusements, which likewise belong to almost every nation, the use of the swing is a common diversion. The ice-hills also afford great amusement. A scaffold, about thirty feet high, is erected on some river ; on one side of it are steps for ascending to the platform on the top ; on the opposite side, a steep inclined plane descends to the river, supported by strong poles, ad protected at the sides by a parapet of planks. Large square blocks of ic > are laid upon the plane, and conso- lidated by water thrown over them. Each person, proviUed with a small sledge, mounts the ste})s, and glides with great rapidity down the plane, poising the sledge as he goes down. Summer-hills, in imitation of the ice-hills, are formed of a lofty scaffold with an inclined f 'ane, protected by boughs, a narrow four-wheeled cart being used instead of the sledge. There is one custom more general in Russia tlian in any other coun- try: that is, the use of the warm bath. This practice is found to be healthful ; and, although its frequency might be supposed to relax the frame, it does not appear to have that effec'. In almost every village, this passion is indulged, being at once subservient to cleanliness and to luxury. The mode of traveling in Russia is remarkable. In sledges of rude construction, drawn by small strong horses, longjsuineys are performed over the frozen snow with great ease and rapidity ; and sometimes a kind of coach is placed on the sledge, in which the convenience of re- pose is mingled witli the advantage of motion. Traveling is rendered less easy in the summer by the badness of the roads, which, in many parts, are formed of trees thrown across the earth, or ill-contrived wooden platforms. The nobility, and almost all the people of quality, drefss either in the French or the German faf.hioH ; and the ladies, even in the remotest parts of thA country, appear more modishly attired than would easily be imagined. The peasants, burghers, and most of the mercantile claaa, still adhere to the national dress. They let their beards grow, which are commonly long and bushy ; their hair is cut and combed. They wear a short shirt without any sort of collar, and loose trousers, over which tJie shirt usually hangs, girt round the waist with a string. Over the shirt they wear a short breast-cloth, or vest, furnished with buttons, and a coat girt about with a sash that passes twice round the body. The co- vering for the head is either a flat fur cap, with a narrow rim, or a cap which forms a bag of a span in depth, in which they keep the handker- chief on the head. Leg- wrappers are worn instead of stockings, especially by the lower class of people ; these are tied about their feet and legs with packthread, so as to makb them look very thick. The women wear a wraphn, or veit without sleeves, which is close about the neck, and sits M RUSSIA IN EUROPE. tight to the body down to the hips: from the hips it spreads without gathers, and reaches down to the shoes. On the facing it is garnished with a thick row of little buttons, from tie top to the very bottom : it jg also girt with a sash, from which the keys in ordinary use are suspended. The girls in general wear their hair uncovered more than the women : the former dispose it in three plaits, with ribands and beads tied to the points of them. In some provinces they wear a band across the forehead, decorated with pearls and beads of various colors ; in others they wear caps in the form of an upright ■ rescent. In the vicinity of Moscow, and in several of the neighbouring governments, the cap has a stiflf flap before, like a jockey-cap, and is adorned with pearls or glittering stones. The nuptial ceremonies, among the Russians of the lower class, are sufficiently remarkable to arrest our attention. When a man wish ? to provide himself with a female companion for life, he goes with a frit-n the house in which a young woman resides who may suit his taste, am says to her mother, " Produce your merchandise ; we have money to ex- change for it." The girl is brought fom'ard ; and if, on a private ex- amination, she should not appear to have any personal blemishes, and •hould at the same time be declared to possess a good disposition, she is acknowleged by the lover to be worthy of his affection ; and preparations are made for the nuptial solemnity. On the day of marriage, the bride ii crowned with a garland of wormwood ; and, 'vhen the priest has per- formed hi? duty, his clerk throws a handful of hops upon her head, wishing that she may prove as fruitful as that plant. She is then led is formal parade into another apartment : and, after the consi"vmation, an entertainment is given, at which a reputed magician attends, with a vm of repelling every sinister attempt of other dealers in witchcraft to the prejudice of the new couple. The men who are present testify their joy by the obstrep* -ous mirth of intoxication. In great towns the obsequies of persons of rank are conducted in much the same manner as in other countries of Europe ; but people of the lower class still retain some peculiar ceremonies. After the dead body is dressed, a priest is hired to pray foi' the soul, to purify the corpse with incense, and to sprinkle it with holy water while it remains above ground. When it is carried to the grave, which is done with many gesticulations of sorrow, the priest produces a ticket, signed by the bishop and another clergyman, as the passport of the deceased to heaven. This is put into the coffin, between the fingers of the corpse ; after which the company return to the house, where they drown their sorrow in intoxication, which is renewed occasionally during forty days. Within that period a priest every day recites prayers over the grave of the dc'jased ; for, though the Russians do not believe in purgatory, they imagine that their departed friend may be assisted by prayer in his long journey to the place of his destination after this life. Chief towns, edifices.] Petersburg is situate on the Neva, between the lake of Ladoga and the eastern extremity of the Gulf of Finland. In 1703, a few fishing- huts, on a spot so swampy, that the ground was formed into nins islands, marked the spot where now stands this celebrated capital, which contains every structure for magnificence, the improvement of the arts, revenue, navigation, war, commerce, ?nd the like, that is to be found in the n ost distinguished aud admired citias of Europe. " It is (says Mr. James) a city of new-built palaces, where the resiuenops of individuals vie with the effusions of imperial magnificence, and where the buildings, destined for public works, hold a rank of osten- tation still more striking, and are of a magnitude well agreeing with the RUSSIA IN fiUROPE. flffi> it spreads without ling it is garnished very bottom : it jg use are suspended. 9 than the women ; i beads tied to the icross the forehead, in others they wear ty of Moscow, and s a sti£f iiap before ing stones, le lower class, are 1 a man wish' 9 to les with a fritn suit his taste, aiii have money to ex- f, on a private ex- lal blemishes, and disposition, she is ; and preparations rriage, the bride is the priest has per- ps upon her head, She is then led in consr"imation, an ttends, with a view witchcraft to the nt testify their joy onducted in much eople of the lower he dead body ii fy the corpse with lins above ground, lany gesticulationi ishop and another This is put into hich the company itoxication, which lat period a priest . ; for, though the lat their departed the place of his tc on the Neva, of the Gulf of swampy, that the where now stands for magnificence, immerci., ?nd the admired citias of lalaces, where the -ial magnificence, i a rank of osten- Agreeing with the mighty concerns of this vast empire." On the right bank of the river stands the old town, in which is still seen the cottage of Peter the Great : on the left is the new town, through ivhich three canals pass, serving with ^heir bridges and quays of granite to embellish the city, and aifording a vent to the inundations which are occasioned by the temporary accumu- lation of the waters of the gulf. Here we may observe, that a dreadful inundation arose, in 1824, the effects of which are still felt. — FroTi the :^dmiralty, a spacious and magnificent edifice, three long and handsome streets branch out, intersected by others, in which the houses are of brick covered with stucco. Both the winter and summer palaces are admired for their architecture ; and some of the churches are elegant structures. That which was completed in 1813, after the labor of fifteen years, may be considered as the most beautiful ecclesiastical edifice that Russia can exhibit in the modern style. It is called the cathedral of the holy virgin of Casan. Other ornaments of the city are the civil and military hos> pitals ; and that of the dowager empress Mary may serve as a model for such establishments, whether we regard its exterior appearance or its in- ternal arrangements. Another decorative object, but of a different species, is the colossal equestrian figure of Peter ; it is the ingenious work of Fal- conet, a French artist, and stands upon a mass of granite, which was brought, by an extraordinary union of skill and l.ibor ( for it then weighed 1500 tons) from the province of Carelia to the capital. The immediate fortifications of the city are inconsiderable ; but the fortress of Cronslot, at the distance of thirteen miles, and the strong town of Cronstadt, the principal station of the imperial navy, serve to defend the entrance of the Neva. Petersburg is supposed to contain 280,000 inhabitants, and Cronstadt above 60,000. Moscow, formerly the capital of this great empire, stands on the river Moskwa. It was founded by the grand duke Geoi^e in 1156. Befu ' t h.t French invasion of Russia, it was a large and magnificent cit' (nr fhe Kremlin was a superb structure, or rather a motley m&s . •; ludy buildings, comprehending the imperial palace and cja['. :, '.he public offices, the cathedral and other churches, and thearst'^l Tl'.e circumference of the town was about twelve miles; but the interi.,. was not filled with houses or streets ; for it contained so many spacious lawns, gardens, and groves, that it seemed rather to be a cultivated country than a city. Dreadful havock was made on this spot, in 1812. To prevent the French from fixing their winter-quarters in a city which thdr presence profaned, the inhabitants set fire to many of the buildings, after the retreat of the n jor part of the population ; and the flames, spreading with unrestrained fury, destroyed or ruined above two- thirds of the ^own. Speaking of this extraordinary occurrence, Karamsin •?:.ys, " Eye-witnesses relate, that the carriage-market and the drug- .;; ketwere set on fire by the hands of tht shop-keepers themselves, and f I? y ot».T houses were fired by their owners ; " and Rostopchin, who wrtj gov^iiior at that time, says, " I can neither attribute the conflagra- tion exclusively to the Russians nor to the enemy. Half of the popula- tion remaining at Moscow consisted of vagabonds, and it is probable that they occupied themselves in extending the fire, that they might have an opportunity of pillaging during the consequent confusion," The Krem- lin, and the celebrated hospital for foundlings, were among the portions which were uninjured by the fire ; but Bonapart6, with wanton malignity, ordered the former to be blown up by mines, yet only with partial effect. As soon as the enemy had retired, the task of repairing and rebuilding commenced ; and, within two years, almost 3000 houses were recon- H ii.i ^i",i^p,i.Lniii,«'f ;'j«i?w(i^i'«.iwi»i I, ^ RUSSIA IN EUROPE. stracted or refitted. The work was continued with great spj.'t; and Moscow is again admired as one of the wonders of the world, it con- sists of five grand divisions. The first includes the Kremlin, where the cathedral of the Assumption of the Virgin Mary dazzles the eye with itt splendid decorations, and the imperial palace, though more simple in itt architecture, displays the most superb furniture of every description. The second division, though it is called the Kitai-gorod or Chinese-Town, is, in its aspect, the most European part of Moscow : it contains what is particularly called the Beautiful Place, one of the largest and finest squan •.. the world. The Beloi-gorod, or White-Town, exhibits many palaces t it. nobles, the Foundling Hospital, the Exercise-Home (a building .upendous magnitude and remarkable construction,) and much better i.^iises than this part of the city contained before the fire. The fourth division, styled the Earthen-Town, is handsome, but lesi splendid, and is surrounded by 35 suburbs, which form the fifth and leait striking division. The noblemen's houses are not uniformly built ; but the prevailing embellishments are central domes and ranges of columns, terraces, balconies, balustrades, statues, urns, vases, and reliefs. Novgorod, the ancient seat of a Sclavonian republic, and the subsequent residence of Ruric, is more remarkable for its former fame than for its present dignity or beauty. It has a large but insignificant fortress, a cu- rious cathedral, and churches ornamented with gilt spires. Kiow, or Kief, was also a seat of sovereignty ; and it is still a plaee of no small importance. Its university, if not very flourishing, is not wholly neglected. Under one of its monasteries are catacombs, exca- vated from a massy rock, containing the revered remains of many of the primitive Christians of Russia. To this spot frequent pilgrimages are made by the superstition of the Russians, many of whom will even un- dertake a pedestrian journey of seven or eight hundred miles for the performance of acts of devotion at the shrines of their saints. The for- tifications of Kief are in excellent repair; and its arsenal is a fine edifice, large enough to contain 100,000 stand of arms : but the town is ill-built, and most of the streets are unpaved, or boarded over. The population amounts to 23,000. This city belongs to Little Russia, (formedy the Ukraine,) in which division the finest town is Nejin, famous for its trade and for the splendid college founded by count Bezborodko. Nishnei-Novgorod is said to have been at first intended by Peter the Great for a new capital of his dominions. However that might be, this town is now the seat of the greatest internal trade of the empire. Makarief, on the Volga, used to be one of the most frequented marts in the world; but, in 1818, the fair which enriched it was removed to Nishnei-Novgo- rod ; so that the population of the latter town has been doubled within a few years. It has now about 23,000 residents ; and, at the time of the fair, which lasts about two months, it swarms with traders, agents, and occasional visitants, drawn to the spot from every considerable country in Europe and Asia. Archangel, situate at the mouth of the river Dwina, on the While Sea, was, before the time of Peter the Great, the only port by which Russia communicated with the rest of Europe. It is about three English miles in length, and one in breadth. The buildings are principally of wood; but the exchange is of stone. Notwithstanding the decrease of the trade of Archangel since the building of Petersburg, it still exports a considerable quantity of merchandise, partly procured from Siberia, Tar- tary, and the frontiers of China. Riga, a strong town (formerly the capital of lavoala) is, oext to RUSSIA IN EUROPE. 89 iroala) is, next to Petersbut^, the most commercial place in the Ruasian empire. It contains about 9,000 inhabitants within the fortifications, and in the suburbs 15,000. There is a floating wooden bridge over the Duna (2600 feet long and 40 broad) which, in winter, when the ice sets in, is removed, and in summer replaced. Abo, which was long the capital of Swedish Finland, now flourishes under the Russian government. It carries on a considerable trade, both inland and foreign. Manufactures of linen, silk, cotton, ropes, glass, and paper, are conducted with skill and efficiency ; and the population has increased in no small degree since the incorporation of the country with Russia. The university was rebuilt in a handsome style by th« emperor Alexander: the hall is beautiful, and, among other embel- lishments, it boasts of statuary ornaments from the hand of a pupil of Sergei. Kherson was founded in 1778, on the right bank of the Dnieper, as a convenient station for the trade of the Euxine ; and, for many years, it seemed to flourish, having at one time 40,000 inhabitants and 1 30 vessels : but, after the death of its patron, prince Potemkin, and of its imperial foundress, it fell into decay. Catharine made a triumphal pro- cession to this town in 1787, and was so elevated with the hope of making it a sort of stepping-stone to Constantinople, that she inscribed, over one of the gates, " Through this gate lies the road to Byzantium." Odessa was founded by Catharine II. on the shore of the Euxine : but it could scarcely be called a town before the year 1803, when it became the rallying-point of those nations which had extorted from the Turks the liberty of navigating that sea. It is a handsome well-built town ; contains a fine cathedral, a lyceum, a theatre, and other public edifices both useful and ornamental. The most numerous part of its population consists of Greeks : there are also many Jews ; but the most opulent inhabitants are English, French, and Germans. Its commercial success has gradually elevated the number of its occupants to 30,000. About 40 miles from Kherson is Nikolaef, which, though it did not exist before the year 1791, is now a veiy flourishing town. Almost all the houses are built of stone, and some of the public buildings are parti- cularly grand. The docks are extensive, and furnish many ships of war for the Black Seir, the admiral of which keeps a sort of court in the town. The inhabitants nearly amount to 1 1,000. Next to the government of Kherson is that of Taurida, including the Crimea, the former importance of which peninsula entitles it to a more extended notice than we should otherwise be induced to give. Bakchiserai was its ancient metropolis, but it is not at present in a flou- rishing state. It is a mean town, and the houses in general are con- temptible ; but the palace is a remarkable monument of Oriental magni- ficence. The present capital is Sympheropole, which consists of two parts, — the Tartarian division, and that which the Russians built after the conquest of the country. This town had been long declining ; but it is now increasing in extent and population, though it is not supposed to contain above 3000 inhabitants. The Tartars are sober, temperate, and chaste ; submissive: Jo their priests and nobles ; orderly and industrious, but not skilful in the mechanic arts, and still less acquainted with the sciences. CafFa formerly flourished under the Genoese sway ; but it is now in a low state of population, not being inhabited by more than 4000 persons. Many of its houses are unoccupied, and the town has a forlorn aspect. ^ The chief mart of the Crimea is Karassubazar. It carries on a con- siderable trade in horses and horned cattle, fruit and wine, leather, and H 2 >Kiiw»rdered Souvorof to assault the town. This peremptory order was executed with complete success ; but it is said that the siege and assault did not cost the Russians less than 10,000 men. The most shocking part of the transaction was, that the defenders (whose bravery merited, and would have received from a generous foe, the highest honors) were massacred in cold blood by the merciless Rus< sians, to the amount of 30,000 men. Great-Britain and Prussia, after a long and expensive armed nego- tiation, at length assented to the demand of the empress, that Oczakof, and the territory between the Bog and the Niester, should in full sove- reignty belong to Russia ; that the latter river should for the future deter- mine the frontiers of Russia and the Porte ; and that the two powers might erect fortresses on its shores. A treaty was concluded, in 1792, upon this basis. When the first coalition was formed against the French revolu- tionists, Gnstavus was to have conducted an expedition ; and Catha- rine, on this occasion, promised to assist the allies with twelve thou- sand men. She published a strong manifesto against the progress of the new principles of liberty ; but, content with idle promises and nu- gatory declarations, she merely sent a squadron to join the British fleet, without any intentions of effective service. While she pretended to aim at the ruin of the anti-royal party in France, she beheld, with pleasure, the greatest powers of Europe wasting their strength and treasures; and, undisturbed by foreign interference, made a second partition of Poland. By her intrigues, she also annexed to the crown of Russia ;he fertile and populous country of Courland. But the acquisition of coun- tries incapable of resistance was not sufficient to satisfy her ambition. She turned her arms against Persia; and her general, Valerian Zouboff, penetrated, at the head of a numerous army, into the province of Da- ghestan, and laid siege to Derbent. Having stormed a high tower which defended the place, he put all the garrison to the sword, and prepared to assault the city. The Persians, terrified at the barbarous fury of the Russians, sued for mercy ; and tl^e keys of the city were delivered up to Zouboff by the veteran commandant, who had surrendered the same RUSSIA IN EUROPE. lod town to Peter the Great. In a battle which soon followed, the Persiung were victorious; but they could not re>take the important city which they had lost. The martial schemes of the empress, and her plans of ambition, were interrupted by her sudden death, on the 9th of November, 1796. With respect to her political character, she was undoubtedly a great sovereign. From the commencement of her reign she labored to increase the power and political consequence of her country. She encouraged learning and the arts, and made every exertion to extend the commerce of her subjects. She enacted important regulations in the interior po- lice, and particularly in the courts of just ce. She abolished the torture, and adopted an excellent plan for the reformation of prisons. The new code of laws, for which she gave instructions, contributed still more to mitigate the rigor of despotism. In the execution, however, of her plans, for the aggrandisement of her empire, she appears to have acknow- leged no right but power, no law but interest. The fate of prince Ivan cannot be obliterated from history: the blood spilled in the long- conceived scheme of re-establishing the eastern empire in the person of a second Constantine, will not be expiated, in the estimation of humanity, by the gigantic magnificence of the project ; and the dissensions and civil wars industriously fomented in Pcland for a period of thirty years, with the horrible massacre which attended its final subjugation, will be a foul and indelible stain on the memory of Catharine. She was succeeded by her son, Paul I., who in the beginning of his reign appeared to display a more mild and pacific disposition than that of his mother. He ordered hostilities to cease with Persia ; and a peace was soon after concluded. He set at liberty the unfortunate Kosciusko ; behaved with liberality toward the deposed king of Poland : and reinstated many Polish emigrants and fugitives. In 1799, how- ever, he assumed a military attitude, and took a very active part in the war against France. His troops, under the command of Souvorof, co-operating with the Austrians, drove the French almost entirely out of Italy. He, at the same time, sent a considerable force to act with the English army which had invaded Holland. But suddenly, with a capriciousness which from this time appeared to attend all his actions, he recalled his army from Switzerland, and seemed to have become more hostile to England than he had been to France. He seised all the British ships in his ports, and confined the seamen : ii en- tered into an alliance with France, and excited a confederacy of the maritime powers of the north against the naval interest ot Great- Britain. His arbitrary spirit, and seeming derangement, alarmed some of his principal nobles; and, in March 1801, he was deprived both of his throne and life, being overpowered and strangled by a party of reso- lute nial-contenU. His eldest son Alexander immediately ascended the throne. The new emperor soon entered into a pacific accommodation with Great-Britain; and, at the same time, acted in conjunction with the first consul of France, in settling the indemnities alio ^d to the princes and states of the German empire. When the coalition was formed against France in 1805, he acceded to it, and prepared to bring an army into the field ; but the surrender of the Austrian troops at Ulm, and the rapid advance of tlie French, involved him in the defeat and disgrace which befell his allies at Austerlitz, and dictated the peace of Presburg. He continued, however, hostile to the ambitious ruler of the French, and, when the rupture took place between France and Prussia, promiaed 110 RUSSIA IN EUROPE. assittantie. But Prussia fell an easy victim to the vast power of France; and Russia fruitlessly continued the struggle, until, after the douk^ battle of Pultusk, the destructive conflict of Eylau, and the decisive vic- tory at Friedland, the emperor found it necessary to submit, and con- eluded, in 1807, a treaty of peace and alliance at Tilsit. The seeming readiness with which he entered into the views of Bonaparte, reflected no credit on his character. He was duped by the artful insinuations of the tyrant, and ir.eanly consented, with a simultaneoua view to hia own interest, to promote the ambitious schemes of his new ally. In a previoui instance, he had manifested a disregard to strict justice, in rushing into a war with the Turks, who had not attacked or provoked him. His troops over-ran those provinces which were nearest to his own dominions ; but their progress was subsequently checked by the riiiog spirit of the Turks. This war continued above five years, but wu less sanguinary than might have been expected ; and it terminated with the addition of Bessarabia and a part of Moldavia to the Russian ter* ritories. In the mean time, Alexander engaged in another war, from ade< sire of extending his dominions. He had long wished for the possei- sion of Swedish Finland; and the opportunity seemed particularly fa* vorable, as Gustavus IV. was neither a hero nor a statesman. Great- Britain, indeed, seut a respectable force to assist the endangered king; but the commander remained inactive, while the Russians overwhelmed all opposition. Sveaborg, whicU Gustavus fondly deemed impregnable, was quickly surrendered ; and the enemy would probably have appeared at Stockholm in the next campaign, if the discontent of the Swedes had not produced that revolution which hurled the unfortunate king from his throne. The emperor's good sense and judgement at length roused him from hii mean subserviency. He was ashamed of having connived at the usurp- ation of the Spanish throne, and at the humiliation of his Austrian friend; and his pride was wounded at the arrogance with which he was treated by his ambitious ally. He put an end to the appearance of war which ho had thought himself bound, after the ungenerous attack upon Copen- hagen, to maintain with Great-Britain, and renewed his encouragement of that commercial intercourse from which his subjects had derived import- ant advantages. He coolly disregarded the remonstrances of the haughty ruler of France, and resolved to act with an independent spirit. Enraged at these symptoms of a secession from the alliance. Napo- leon made extraordinary preparations for a northern expedition, that, by the conquest of Russia, he might become absolute master of the con- tinent. Troops, to the amount of 400,0J0 men, were led in 1812 to the banks of the Niemen, while the Russians, rather from caution than ti- midity, retreated before the motley host of invaders. Either at Peters- burg, or at the ancient capital, Bonaparte hoped to dictate his will in such a peremptory tone, that it should not be opposed or eluded. De- taching a part of his army to separate the chief Russian force from the modern metropolis, he advanced toward the Dnieper, and menaced Smo- lensk with an attacit. The fortified suburbs were stormed; and, on the spot which was thus seised, batteries were hastily erected, from which a furious fire poured upon the city. With a view of diminishing the ex- pected advantage of conquest, the citizens, inspired with an extraordi- nary effervescence of patriotic zeal, set fire to dift'erent parts of the town ; aod aU who hod an opportunity of escaping retired with the garrisoo> RUSSIA IN EUROPE. lit After soDie partial conflicts, a gereral engagement near Borodino exhi- bited t' e courage and obstinacy of both parties. The left wing of the Russii iS, after a long contest with a superior force, began to yield ; but, being supported by a fresh corps, rallied, and repelled the assailants. The other divisions also checked the impetuous advance of the foe: yet the advantage was so inconsiderable, that it could not properly be termed a victory ; and still less could the French fairly claim that honor, though ihey boldly asserted their pretensions to it. This was one of the most sanguinary battles of modern times ; for it is affirmed that 70,000 men (both sides included) covered the field, either dead or wounded. Regardless of the loss which they had sustained, the invaders pressed forward to the banks of the Moskwa ; and the van-guard profaned, by unhallowed intrusion, the sacred precincts of the Kremlin. Suddenly raging flames appeared in the heart of Moscow, confounding the pre- sumptuous enemy, who Jiad hoped to pass the winter in that city. The conseqiient havock was dreadful ; and a considerable loss of lives attended that destruction of buildings, which originated in the phrenetic despe- ration or the patriotic magnanimity of the inhabitants. Having checked the progress of the flames, the French lingered for some weeks in the town, while the Russians endeavoured to surround them. Kutu8offcom> manded the grand army : another assembled force had the gallant Wit- genstein for its general, and, in consequence of the conclusion of peace with the Turks (who had purchased it by an admission of the Russians to the Pruth and the Danube), a well-disciplined host returned to the north- ward to assist in the ruin of a malignant foe. When the French ven- tured to retreat, they were harassed in every mode ; and th' 'ors of a northern winter thinned their numbers, and increased the i of the survivors. Several conflicts, in which the French displayed ii a habi- tual courage sharpened by despair, marked the retreat. Their leader escaped, at a time when many thousands of his deluded followers and admirers perished in his sight. He treacherously ordered the bridges over the Berezina to be set on fire, after he had passed with his main body, and fled amidst the confusion which ensued. Traversing Lithuania with the utmost rapidity, he reached the Vistula, and found refuge at Warsaw : but he scarcely thought himself safe, even amidst a friendly population, fiom the fury of the Cosacks ; whose chief, the brave and enterprising Platoff, had offered a liberal reward for the seisure of the base and inhuman fugitive. The disgrace and ruin of the invading army, of which not more than a fi^ih part returned into Poland, revived the hopes and courage of the kuig of Prussia, who had been obliged to send an army even against his former friend. The remains of his auxiliary force now took an oppor- tunity of seceding from their constrained alliance with the French ; and the king entered into a new league with the northern potentate. These princes, however, had not a sufficient force embodied to defeat or to rep^ the French, whose leader again appeared in Germany with a powerful army. In two very sanguinary conflicts, they could not, with all their efforts, make the desired impression ; but, when they were joined by the Austrians and the Swedes, and liberally subsidised by Great- Britain, they became so successful, as nearly to ruin the opposing army at Leipsic. Alexander now flattered himself with a prospect of the speedy deli- verance of Europe. Not only Napoleon's principal army rapidly re- treated to the Rhine, but many of his garrisons relinquished the towns which they had long occupied; and the year 1814 commenced with an invaaion of France. The allied troops, forming two great armies, iaatead m^ RUSSIA IN EUROPE. of losing time in the attack of fortresses, which, they foresaw, would yield on the total defeat of the French, advanced with the most deter* mined alacrity, and, disregarding all the checks which lh?y received, threatened even the capital with a vigorous assault. Each army, op- posed in its turn by the exasperated and alarmed despot, still kept the grand object in view ; and, when both had formed a junction, while Bonaparte was endeavouring to cut ofif their retreat, they reached the heights near Paris, stormed the positions, and enforced a surrender. Entering the city in triumph, Alexander, without seeming to interfere, dictated his will to the senate. Napoleon was dethroned, and the head of the house of Bourbon was invited to the sovereignty. The escape of the deposed usurper from the island of Elba, which had been imprudently assigned to him as an independent principality, occa- sioned a renewal of the war. The troops of Alexander were not ready to act, when the French rushed into the Netherlands ; but, if the British and Prussian armies had been defeated, instead of triumphing at Waterloo, the Russians and Austrians, boldly advancing in the sequel, would have turned the tide against the enemy. In the congress of Vienna, the Russian potentate had the greatest influence. By him both the Austrian emperor and the king of Prussia were guided ; and the three princes did not attend less to their own interest than to the general benefit of Europe. Alexander assumed the crown of Poland, and promised to grant, to the inhabitants of that country, such a constitution as would be adequate to their wants and wishes. After a protracted absence from his native country, which, however, remained perfectly free from commotion, he again gladdened his people with his presence ; and his return was hailed by every class of his subjects, as the appearance of a beneficent being, who had sacrificed his own comfort and repose to the happiness of other nations. Having thus contributed to the restoration of general tranquillity, Alexander made it his study, for the remaining years of his life, to secure that peace which had been with such difficulty obtained. He exercised his influence in the suppression of those revolutions which arose in Spain, Portugal, and Naples, and strongly supported that " holy alliance" which he had concluded with Austria and Prussia against democracy. The strength of his constitution seemed to promise him a long life ; but, when he was employed in public duties near the sea of Azof, the climate made a rude attack upon his health, and he died on the 1st of December, 1825, in the 48th year of his age. It was supposed by some that he was assas- sinated ; h^^* *hete were not sufficient grounds for such a surmise. His death was sincerely lamented by his subjects ; and the loss even of an unfaithful husband seems to have had a serious effect upon the feelings of his wife (formerly princess of Baden,) who died in the ensuing year. Having an unfavorable opinion of the disposition of his brother Con- stantine, and of the ability of that prince for the task of government, Alexander, under the pretence of a degrading marriage with a lady of the Romish persuasion, who was not of princely or royal birth, had pro- cured from the grand duke a resignation of his pretensions to the throne ; and Nicolas, though younger by seventeen years than Constantine, was therefore proclaimed emperor, with the assent of the excluded prince. The cause of seniority was boldly espoused by a regiment of the guards; but the new czar acted with such vigor, that all resistance was quelled after a short though sanguinary conflict. The emperor Nicolas was born on the 2nd of June, 1796. In July, 1817, he was married to Louisa, princess of Prussia, by whom he has POLAND. tld^ had four children, namely, Alexander, (bora in 1818,) another son, and two daughters, Maria and Olga. Brothers and sisters of the emperor : Constantine, bora May 8, 1779; married in 1796 to the princess of Saxe-Coburg, and (after a divorce from her) to Miss Grudzinski, a Polish lady, in 1820. ' • • '" " ">'•«•• Helena, born December 24, 1784. Maria, bora February 15, 1786; married in 1816 to the prince of Orange. Catharine, born May 21, 1788 ; who became duchess of Oldenburg^ and queen of Wurtemberg, and died not long after her second marriage. Anne, born January 18, 1795. Michael, bom February 8, 1798. *^ '- POLAND. . -• a it.'. AS the greater part of Poland is now a dependency of the Russian empire, it will be proper to take notice of it in this place. Before the first partition, its length and breadth were estimated at 680 and 660 miles ; and it was supposed to contain 214,440 square miles, which were reduced nearly in the proportion of one third by the arbitrary spoliation. Another iniquitous defalcation took place in 1793 ; and, in the following year, the country ceased to be a separate kingdom. Mountains, forests, rtvehs.] Poland in general is a level country : but, toward the south-west, it exhibits the Carpathian mouni tains, which divide it from Hungary. It has some extensive forests, par- ticularly in the interior and eastern parts ; and its chief river is the Vis« tula, which takes a winding course through the western parts, and falls into the Baltic near Dantzic. Metals, minerals.] This country contains mines of iron, lead, and copper, and quarries of marble. Near Olkusch are mines of silver and leadjw The salt-mines of Wieliczka, near Cracow, which, in 1815, were ceded to Austria, are the richest and most productive in Europe. Among the mineral products we may also reckon rock-crystal, talc, alum, salt-petio, and pit-coal. Various kinds of earth are also dug up, admir> ably adapted to the use of the potter. Climate, soil, produce.] In the north of Poland, the air is cold, but temperate ia the other parts. Where morasses and woods abound, however, it is not very salubrious. The soil, more particularly in Galit- zia, is fertile in corn, hemp, and flax ; and the lands appropriated to pasture, especially in Podolia, are luxuriant and rich. Honey and wax are obtained in great abundance. Manna is produced by a herb that grows in the meadows and marshy grounds : in the months of June and July the inhabitants gather it by sweeping it into sieves, with the dew. The oak, the beech, and the pine, thrive in the woods. Animals.] The forests in the northern parts of Galitzia, and those of Warsovia, contain great numbers of buffaloes, whose flesh is deemed excellent. Wolves, boars, gluttons, lynxes, elks, and deer, are common in the woods : there are also wild horses and asses, and wild oxen. A kind of wolf, resembling a hart, with spots on its belly and legs, is found here, and affords the best fur in the country. The eUc is common in the U4 POUND. northern parte ; and its flesh forms the most delicious part of the greater feasts. Its body is of the deer make, but much thicker and longer; th« legs are high, the feet broad. Naturalists have observed, that, upon dissecting an elk, there are frequently found in the head some large flies and the brain almost eaten away ; and it is an observation sulSci«Qtly attested, that, in the large woods and wilds of the north, this poor ui- mal is attacked, toward the winter chiefly, by a larger sort of flies, which, through its ears, attempt to take up their winter-quarters in its head. This persecution is thought to affect the elk with the falling-sickness, by which means it is frequently taken more easily than it would be oflierwise. iPoland produces a creature called bohac, which resembles a Guinea. pig, but seems to be of the beaver kind. These animals dig holes in tie ground, which they enter in October, and do not come out, except occa- sionally for food, until Ajml : they have separate apartments for their provisions, lodgings, and their dead ; they live together by ten or twelve in a herd. In the northern parts of this country are found eagles and vultures. A species of titmoitse is frequently found in these parts, remarkable for the structure of its pendent nest, formed in the shape of a long purse with amazing art. - Natural ccriosities.] The talt-mines of Wielic^ka consiit of wonderful caverns, several hundred yards deep, at the bottom of whici ftre many labyrinths. Out of these are dug four species of salt ; os« •xtremely hard, likeorystal; another softer, and clearer; a third wliite, but brittle ; these are all brackish, but the fourth is less saline to the taste. These four kinds are dug in diflereut mines, near Cracow; od one side of them is a stream of salt water, and on the other one of freth, Into these mines the descent is usually made by means of a thick cable, to which the person is fastened by slings and buckles. Dr. Neale atya, 4hat, when he had been thus let down, he found himself at the entrance of a chapel, excavated out of the salt rock, containing altars, columu, mnd statues. When he had descended by winding passages from one chamber to another, to the depth of 900 feet, his progress was impeded by a large lake, formed by the springs that issue from the sides of the mine. " These springs (he says) dissolve large quantities of salt in tkeit passage, and, when at rest, deposit it in beautiful cubical crystalHsatioiis At the bottom of the lake, from which they are raked up by instrumeuti with long iron prongs." The mines are not likely to be soon exhautted; fgr, below the above-mentioned level, the workmen "have ascertained the existence of immense strata of suit, extending from oast to west to an unknown distance," Before they reach the fossil salt, the following strata are observed j^-first, loose vegetable mould ; secondly, argillace- ous earth or marie ; thirdly, fine sand mixed with water ; and, in the next place, black and very compact day. With regard to the subject of fossil salt, some philosophers hart thought that the sea has tlerived its saline taste from masses of salt which its waters have dissolved ; but others are of opinion, that it pro- .duces salt, which it deposits on the recession and evaporation of the water — an effect which is attributed to volcanic agency. ' The virtues of a spring iu the vicinity of Cracow, which increases and decreases with the moon, are said tc be wonderful for the preservation of life ; and it is reported that the neighbouring inhabitants live to a very great age. This spring is inflamn-able ; and, by applying a torch to it, it flames like the most subtile spi.it of wine. The flame, however, dances on the surface without faeatinp, tlio water ; and, if it b« not cxtio' POLAND. 115 guished, it oommunioates itself, by •ubterraneous conduits, to the roots of trees in a neighbouring wood, which it consumes. Population, NATIONAL CHARACTER, ) The population of Poland, MANNERS, AND CUSTOMS. j before its first dismember- ment, was estimated at 13,404,000 : it is now believed to be above fifteen millions. The Polanders, in their persons, are tall and well- proportioned : they have good features and fair complexions. ^ The gentry are brave, frank, and hospitable ; and the women are sprightly and agreeable in their manners : but both sexes are loose and licentious in their morals. The prevalent diversions are warlike and manly; vaulting, dancing, riding, hunting, bull and bear-baiting. The principal nobles live in great state. When they sit down to dinner or supper, they have trumpetsi and other instruments playing, and a number of gentlemen to wait on them at table, all serving with the most profound respect ; for the nobles who are poor, frequently find themselves under the necessity of serving the rich : but their patron usually treats them with civility, and permits the eldest to eat with him at his table, with his cap off. Though Poland had its princes, counts, and barons, the whole body of the nobility were naturally on a level, except the difference that arose from the public employments which any of them held. They did not value titles of honor, but thought a gentleman of Poland the highest appellation they could enjoy. They had many considerable privileges ; and, indeed, the boasted Polish liberty was limited to them alone, partly by the indulgence of former kings, but more generally from immemorial prescription. Over the peasants they wantonly exercised a high and commanding authority. Casimir the Great endeavoured, by various ordinances, to rescue the peasants from the brutality of their masters, and to meliorate their con- dition ; but his regulations proved ineffectual against the power of the nobles, and were either abrogated or eluded. Some of these lordly oppressors had estates from five to twenty leagues in extent, and were also hereditary sovereigns of cities, with which the king had no concern. One of the nobles sometimes possessed above 3000 towns and villages. Some of them could raise 8 or 10,000 men. The house of a nobleman was a constant asylum for persons who had committed any crime ; for none might presume to take them from it by force. They had their horse and foot guards, which were upon duty day and night before their palaces, and in their anti-chambers, and marched before them when they went abroad. They made an extraordinary figure when they attended the diet, some of them having 5000 guards and attendants ; and their debates in the senate were often determined by the sword. When great men had suits at law, the diet or other tribunals decided them ; yet the execution of the sentence was left to the longest sword ; for the justice of the kingdom was commonly too weak for the grandees. The peasants were at the absolute disposal of their masters. They were indispensably obliged to cultivate the earth ; they were incapable of entering upon any condition of life that might lead them to freedom, without the permission of their lords ; and they were exposed to the dismal and frequently fatal effects of caprice and cruelty. In modern times, indeed, a few nobles of enlightened understandings ventured to give liberty to their vassals ; and, as they soon found the good effects of their generosity, or their regard to justice, in the increase of population and revenue, the example has been followed by others. Tiie lives of th« .12 V7»'*7WW«r"»«^> W"^-)!- " ' l«^i«f 116 POLAND. peasants have been declared as sacred as those of other men ; and they are allowed to acquiri and to possess property. The Polish dress is remarkable. The men shave their heads, leaving only a circle of hair upon the crown ; and they generally wear large whiskers. A vest which reaches down to the middle of the leg ; a gown lined with fur, and girded with a sash ; wide breeches, making one piece with their stockings ; compose the usual dress of the gentry. They wear fur caps or bonnets ; their shirts are without a collar or wristbands, and they wear neither a stock nor a neckcloth. Instead of shoes, they wear boots, with thin soles, and deep iron heels bent like a half-moon. When they appear on horseback, they wear over all a short cloak, which a commonly covered and lined with fur. The women do not dress very differently from the men. As to the peasants, in winter they wear the skin of a sheep with the wool inwards, and in summer a thick coarse cloth; but linen is worn by few. Their boots are the rinds of trees wrapped about their legs, with the thicker parts to guard the soles of their feet. In a survey of the Polish community, the Jews are entitled to par- ticular notice. In former times, when they were persecuted by other nations, they were treated in Poland with marks of high regard ; and, except the nobles, they are still the most consequential and prominent figures in the population. " The enjoyment of liberty and of civil rights (says Dr. Neale) seems to have prod iced a strong effect on the physical constitution and physiognomy of thi/i singular race, bestowing a dignity and energy of character upon them, which we may in vain look for in those of other countries." They are the principal traders, the chief distillers of those spirituous compounds with which the common people intoxicate themselves, and almost the only innkeepers in Poland. Like their brethren in other countries, they live (if we except the very opulent families) without regard to cleanliness, as indeed do the Poland- ers in general. The inns are wretched buildings ; and some of them consist only of a long room, which serves for a stable, parlor, kitchen, and bed-chamber. Though the habitations of the Jews are better than those of the peasants, they are far from being commodious or comfortable. The latter are their own builders ; and thsir thatched log-huts scarcely shield them from the occasional inclemency of the weather. Chief towns.] Warsaw is situated near the Vistula, partly on a plain, and partly on a gentle ascent. It contains some magnificent pa- laces and other handsome buildings, with about 70,000 inhabitants ; but the streets, though spacious, are ill-paved, and the majority of the houses are mean wooden hovels. It is still capable of resisting an enemy by its fortifications ; and it has again become the seat cf government, being the residence of the Russian viceroy, and the place of meeting for the na- tional representatives of Poland. Cracow, the ancient capital of Poland, occupies a large space, but is not so well filled with houses or inhabitants as to be deemed a populous town. Its steeples, high walls, and antique towers, strike the eye at a distance ; and some of the streets are wide and handsome ; but the citadel and many of the houses are on the verge of ruin. In the time of its splendor, it contained 80,000 inhabitants ; but the existing numbf r scarcely exceeds a fourth part of that calculation. Lemberg, the capital of Galitzia, exhibits a fine cathedral and other handsome churches, and contains many lofty houses built of free-stone: but all parts do not correspond with this imposing aspect ; for the greater part of the city consists of ill-built houses, whose inhabitants grovel in dirt and squalor. This want of cleanliness is rather the effect of habit POLAND. «» than of absolute poverty ; for the town eiyoyg a flourishing trade, being the temporary depository of Russian exports froni Odessa, which are forwarded by its merchants to all parts of the Austrian dominions. Dantzic is still the most flourishing commercial town in the Baltic. For some centuries it was an independent city, nominally under the protection of the Polish government : but, in 1793, the kinp of Prussia, after a series of encroachments, took complete possession of it ; and, in 1815, it was ceded to that crown by the congress of Vienna. It is a place of considerable strength ; for, soon after the peace, it received the additional labors of the engineer. Lace, cloth, and stuffs, are hero manufactured ; and the products of Poland are largely exported. The population was formerly higher than the present amount, which is not supposed to exceed 4,'5,000 persons. Manufactures, commerce.] The manufactures of Poland are not very considerable, and are confined to articles of immediate necessity: they are, however, increasing and improving. Salt is the most important article of the exports, which also consist of corn, tobacco, cattle, wool, skins, tallow, bristles, honey, and wax. Government.] The old constitution of Poland differed little from aristocracy ; hence it was called a kingdom and commonwealth. The king was head of the republic, and was chosen by the nobility and clergy in the plains of Warsaw. They elected him on horseback ; and, in the case of a refractory minority, the majority had no control over them but to cut them in pieces with their sabres ; but, if the minority were suffi- ciently strong, a civil war ensued. Immediately after his nomination, he signed the pacta conventa of the kingdom, by which he engaged that the crown should be elective, that his successor should be appointed during his life, that the diets should be assembled once in two years, that every nobleman or gentleman in the realm should have a vote in the diet of election, and that, if the king should infringe the laws and privileges of the nation, his subjects should be absolved from their alle- giance. In fact, the king was no more than president of the senate, which was composed of the primate, the archbishop of Lemberg, fifteen bishops, and 130 laymen, consisting of the great officers of state, the palatines, and castellans. The palatines were the governors of the pro- vinces, who held their offices for life. The offices of the castellans in time of peace were merely nominal ; but, when the military or feudal services were required, they were the lieutenants of the palatines, and commanded the troops of their several districts. The diet consisted of the king, senators, and deputies from provinces and towns. The business of this assembly was, in general, previously discussed in dietines, or provincial diets, in consequence of a reference of various points of supposed importance from the king and the per- manent council. But, though affairs were thus prejudged, their final success was not ensured ; for the deliberations of. the diet might be rendered fruitless by one dissenting voice — an absurd custom, which frequently crushed in embryo the most promising schemes. After the nominal revival of the kingdom in 1815, a new constitution was framed for it by Alexander, who graciously condescended to limit his own authority, and to grant legislative powers, and the privilege of self- taxation, to a senate and a body of representatives. Undoubtedly, the despotic power which he claimed over the rest of his empire enabled him to acquire that commanding influence which rendered freedom in Poland an empty name ; but his benignity of character precluded tho exercise of glaring oppression. 119 POLAND. Relioiov.] The established religion of this country U the Romu. catholic : and the people of all ranks are prone to superstition. The monasteries are very numerous ; and the superior clergy are well pro- vided with the luxuries of life. The primate is the archbishop of Gnesna. Bigotry long obstructed the full toleration of sectaries : but they are now permitted to enjoy the free exercise of their respectiw systems and modes of worship. LiTEUATuaE.] Though Copernicus, the great restorer of the tnie astronomical system, Vorstius, and some other learned men, were nntivM of Poland, yet learning has never flourished in that country. Latin ii spoken, though incorrectly, by the common people in some parts ; but the contempt which the nobility, who placed their chief importance iq the privileges of their rank, showed for learning, the protracted servitude of the lower people, and the general prevalence of superstition, retarded for ages the progress of literature among the Polanders. Elegant liig. torians and pleasing poets, however, have occasionally appeared among them ; a taste for science has lately diffused itself among the nobles, and it is now regarded as an accomplishment. Universities.] The university of Cracow was founded in 1364. It consists of eleven colleges, and has the superintendence of 14 gram- mar-schools dispersed through the city. The other universities in Poland are those of Wilna and Posen. Language,] The native language of this country is the Polish: the German, however, is understood in many parts of it; and, as above observed, an impure and incorrect Latin is also in use. The Poligh language is a dialect of the Sclavonic ; and a specimen of it is given in the following translation of the Lord's Prayer : Oycze nass ktory na niebiesiech iestes ; niech sie swieci imie twoie; niech przyidzie ono krolestwo twoie, niech sie stanie ona wola twoia iako u niebie tak y na ziemi. Chleba nassego onego powssedniego day nam dzisia, y odpuse nam naise winy, iaho y my od pussczamy winowaycom nassym ; y nie u viodz nas u pokussenie ; ate wyrwi nas od onego slego : iz twoie test krolestwo, y moc, y chwaia na wieki, Amen. History.] The ancient history of Poland is very obscure. Before the ruin of the western empire, the country seems to have been chiefly occupied by the Sarmatians. In 830, Piast enjoyed the supreme authority under the title of duke; and, about the close of the tenth cen- tury, Christianity was introduced among the people by Mieczslauj, whose son Boleslaus encouraged the progress of that religion, and at the same time distinguished himself by his military spirit and ability. He assumed the royal title, and left his dominions, greatly extended, to hit son, whose successor Casimir was a respectable and patriotic prince. In 1059, Boleslaus XL added Red Russia to Poland by the marriage of its heiress. Casimir IL was a just and beneficent prince ; and the third king of that name was the first who gave written laws to Poland. Jagellon, who in 1384 mounted the throne, was grand-duke of Lithuania. He united his hereditary dominions to those of Poland ; which gave such influence to his posterity over the hearts of the people, that the crown was preserved in his family, until the male line became extinct in Sigismund Augustus, in 1572, who admitted the reformed, with Greek and all other sects, to a seat in the diet, and to all the honors and privileges v.hich were before confined to the catholics. He gave such evident marks of favor to the protestant confession, that he was suspected of being inclined to change his religion. At this time two powerful POLAND. Hd oompeUtow appeared for Ihe crown : these were Henry duke of Aiyou, and Maximilian of Austria. The French interest prevailed, in conse- quence of the arts of corruption ; but Henry had not been four months on the throne of Poland, when ho was called to France to receive a more important crown. The partisans of Maximilian endeavoured to revive his pretensions ; but the miyority of the Polanders made choice of Ste- phen Batori, prince of Transylvania, who, in the beginning of his reign, meeting with some opposition from the Austrian faction, took the wisest method to establish himself on the throne, by marrying Anne, the sister of Sigismund Augustus, and of the royal house of the Jagellons. Stephen produced a great change in military affairs, by establishing a new militia, composed of Cosacks, whom he settled in the Ukraine. On his death, in 1586, Sigismund, a Swedish prince, related to the royal family of Poland, was chosen king. By thus indulging his ambi- tion and his catholic Keal, he lost the crown of Sweden. He strenuously endeavoured to recover that dignity, and also to acquire the sovereignty of Russia : but, after long wars, he was defeated in both views. He died in 1632, and was succeeded by Ladislaus VH., who obtained some advantages over the Turks, Russians, and Swedes, but injured his repu- tation by provoking the Cosacks to a revolt, which they maintained against all his efforts. John Casimir, being also unfortunate in his war with the insurgent tribes, granted sue!, terms of peace as the nobles deemed dishonorable. Eager to profit by the general discontent^ the Russians invaded the country, and the Swedes under Charles X. followed the example. The latter nearly subdued the whole kingdom : but the resistance of Danteic gave the Polanders time to recover from their consternation. John was assisted against his enemies by the active courage of the Tartars : the dispersed parties of Swedes were attacked with indignation and success; and the Lithuanians disavowed the allegiance which they had been forced to yield to Charles, who returned to Sweden with the wreck of his army. It was during this expedition that the Dutch and English protected Dantzic, and the elector of Brandenburg acquired the sovereignty of Ducal Prussia, which had sub- mitted to the Swedes. After the restoration of peace, discontent still pervaded the realm. Some imputed to the king a want of capacity ; others accused him of an intention to rule by a mercenary army of Ger- mans. Casimir, who probably had no such intentions, and was fond of retirement and study, finding that cabals and factions increased, and dreading that he might fall a sacrifice to the public disgust, abdicated his throne, and became abbot of St. Germain in France, employing the remainder of his days in Latin poetical compositions, which are far from being despicable. Many loreign candidates now presented themselves for the crown ; but the Polanders chose for their king a private gentleman, of little interest and less capacity, one Michael Wiesnowiski, because ho descended from Piast. His reign was disgraceful to Poland. Large bodies of Cosacks had put themselves under the protection of the Turks, who conquered Podolia, ravaged the greatest part of Poland, and compelled the people to pay an annual tribute to the sultan. The honor of Poland, however, was retrieved by John Sobieski, the crown-general. Michael dying in 1673, Sobieski waa chosen king; and in 1676 he was so successful against the infidels, that he forced them to remit the tribute. In 1683, though he had not been well treated by the house of Austria, he was so public-spirited as to enter into the league for the defence of Christendom, and acquired immortal honor, by obliging the Turks to raise the siege of POLAND. Vienna, and making a terrible slaughter of the enemy. He died, after t glorious reign, in 1696. After the death of Sobieski, Poland fell into great distractiou. Many confederacies were formed ; and the crown was in a manner put up to sale. The prince of Conti, of the blood-royal of France, offered the highest terms : but, while he thought the election almost sure, he wu disappointed by the intrigues of the queen-dowager, in favor of her younger son, prince Alexander Sobieski. Suddenly Augustus, elector of Saxony, appeared as a candidate ; and after an irregular election, being proclaimed by the bishop of Cujavia, he took possession of Cra- cow with a Saxon army, and was crowned in that city in 1G97. The prince of Conti made several unsuccessful eflbrts to re-establish hit interest, and pretended that ho had been actually chosen ; but he waj afterward obliged to return to France, and the other powers of Europe seemed to acquiesce in the election of Augustus. For entering into the confederacy against Charles XII. of Sweden, the king was driven from his throne, and Stanislaus Leczinski received the crown from the hands of a victorious invader : but, when the Russians triumphed over the Swedes, the Saxon claimant recovered his throne, which, how- ever, he held upon precarious terms. The natives were attached to Stanislaus, and frequently formed conspiracies against Augustus, who was obliged to maintain his authority by means of his Saxon guards and regiments. He died, after an unquiet reign, in 1733. A war then arose, in which the French king maintained the interest of his father- in-law, Stanislaus, who was actually re-elected to the throne by a considerable party, of which the prince-primate was the head. But Augustus II., entering Poland with a powerful army of Saxons and Russians, compelled his rival to retreat to Dantzic, whence he escaped with great difilculty into France. In the history of Germany, the war between Augustus, as the Saxon ally of Russia and Austria, and Frederic III., king of Prussia, will be more regularly noticed. It ii sufficient to say, that though he was a mild and moderate prince, and did every thing to satisfy the Polanders, he could never gain their affection ; and they gave him little more than a place of refuge, when the king of Prussia drove him from his capital and electorate. He died at Dresden in 1763; and count Poniatowski was chosen king, by the name of Stanislaus Augustus. He was a man of talent and ad- dress; but, from various concurring causes, he had the unhappiness to see Poland, during his reign, fa scene of desolation and calamity, In 1766, a petition was presented to the king, in the name of all the protestant nobility, and in behalf also of the members of the Greek church, conjointly called the Dissidents, in which they demanded to be re-instated in their ancient rights and privileges, and to be placed upon an equal footing with the Roman-catholic subjects of the kingdom. The king gave no answer to this petition ; but, when it was referred to the %diet, the ministers of the courts of Petersburg, London, Beriio, and Copenhagen, supported their pretensions. The diet received the complaints of the dissidents with moderation, as.to the free exercise of their worship ; which gave some flattering expectations that the dispute would be happily terminated. But the intrigues of the king of Prussia appear to have prevented this : for, though he openly professed himself a zealous defender of the cause of the dissidents, it was manifest, from the event, that his great aim was to promote the views of his own am- bition. The intervention of the Russians in the affairs of Poland, at the same time, gave great disgust to all parties in the kingdom. The whole POLAND. 121 iermany, the war nation ran into confederacies formed in various provinces : the popish clergy were active in opposing the cause of the dissidents ; and this un • fortunate country became the theatre of the most cruel and complicated of all wars, partly civil, partly religious, and partly foreign. Confusion, devastation, and civil war, continued in Poland during the years 1769, 1770, and 1771 ; and, in addition to those evils, in 1770, a pestilence arose, which spread from the frontiers of Turkey to the adjoining pro- vinces of Podolia, Volhynia, and the Ukraine. Meanwhiiu some of the Polish confederates prevailed upon the Turks to assist them against their powerful oppressors ; and a war ensued between the Rus- sians and the Turks on account of Poland, The conduct of the grand signer, toward the distressed Polanders, was just and honorable, and the very reverse of that of their Christian, catholic, and apostolic neigh- bours. The king of Prussia, the queen of Hungary, and empress of Russia, now entered into an alliance to divide and dismember the kingdom of Poland. These powers, acting in concert, set up their formal preten- sion . '-> ♦'- respective portions which they had allotted for each other. They claimed Polish or Western Prussia, and some districts bordering upon Brandenburg, for the king, of Prussia; almost all the south-eastern parts of the kingdom bordering upon Hungary, with the rich salt-works of the crown, for the queen of Hungary and Bohemia; and a consider- able part of Lithuania for the czarina. But though each of these powers pretended to have a legal title to the assigned tenitories, and published manifestoes in justification of these arbitrary measures, yet, as. they were conscious that the fallacies by which they supported their preten- sions were too gross to impose upon mankind, they forced the Polanders to call a new diet, and threatened them with military execution, if they would not consent unanimously to sign a treaty for the cession of the demanded territories. The king gave his assent; and his example was followed by many of the nobles. The conduct of the king of Prussia was shamefully tyrannical. In 1771, his troops entered into Great Poland, and carried off, from that province and its neighbourhood, 12,000 families. In the same year, he published an edict, commanding every person, under the severest penalties and even corporal punishment, to take the money offered by his troops and commissaries, for any useful articles which they might wish to procure. He then, with base coin, bought corn and forage, sufficient not only to supply his army for two whole years, but to stock magazines in the country itself, where the inhabitants were forced to come and re-purchase corn for their daily subsistence at an advanced price, and with good money, his commissaries refusing to take the same coin they had paid. At the lowest calculation he gained, by this honest manoeuvre, seven millions of dollars. When he had stripped the country of money and provisions, his next attempt was to thin it still more of its inhabitants. To people his own dominions at the expense of Poland, had been his great aim : for this purpose he de- vised a new contribution ; the towns and villages were obliged to fur- nish a certain number of marriageable girls, the parents being ordered to give, as a portion, a feather-bed, four pillows, a cow, two hogs, and three ducats. His exactions from the monasteries and cathedrals, and also from the nobility, were so heavy, and so far exceeded their abilities, that the priests abandoned their churches, and the nobles their lands. These exactions continued, with unabated rigor, to the time when the treaty of partition was declared, and possession taken of POLAND. the usurped provinces. From these proceedings, it would &ppear tint his Prussian mAJcsty knew of no rights but his own ; no pretensions but those of the house of Brandenburg ; no rule of justice but his own pride and ambition. It is remarkable that Prussia, whose sovereign thus disgraced hii character, was formerly in a state of vassalage to Poland, which had not even acknowleged the Prussian royalty before the year 1764; that Russia, in the earlier part of the seventeenth century, saw its capital and throne possessed by a Polish prince ; and that Austria, in 1683, wu indebted to a king of Poland for the preservation of its metropolis, and almost for its very existence. W hen the unjust partition had been sanctioned by the intimidated diet, Poland remained for many years in a state of degradation and insignifi. cance, the king even acting as the vassal of Russia. But, when an importunity of exertion seemed to be offered by the involvement of the empress and the Austrian potentate in a war with the grand signor, many of the nobles resolved, in 1788, to assert the indepeudence of the state. A patriotic confederation was proposed and readily formed ; and tbo military force was augmented to 60,000 men. After long delay, a new constitution was framed, and, in 1791, sanctioned by the diet. It declared the throne hereditary in the Saxon line, gave the king a suffi* cient degree of authority, restricted the power of the nobles, and afforded protection even to the lowest class of the community. The emissaries of Prussia artfully promoted this revolution, with a view of obtaining a plausible pretence for such an interference in the affairs of Poland, as might gratify the rapacious ambition both of their sovereign and the empress. The new arrangements seemed to give general satisfaction; but they were not carried into full effect. A Russian army attacked the natives with success : Stanislaus was obliged to declare his strong dis- approbation of the new code; and, in a diet irregularly assembled, an- other partition was ordered. This renewal of injustice roused the people to arms. Thaddeus Kosciusko, who had imbibed in the American waf the principles of liberty, was invested, in 1794, with the chief command of the patriotic army ; and he soon found an opportunity of signalising his courage. With very small loss, he defeated general VVoronzof, of whose men above 1000 fell ; and, soon after, the Russians were baffled in an attempt to seise the arsenal at Warsaw, and driven out of the city with great slaughter ; but, when they had recruited their strength, they were suc- cessful in several conflicts, and captured the patriotic chief. They then attacked Praga, a fortified suburb of Warsaw, and, when they had overpowered the resistance of the garrison, began to murder the inhabit- ants. Af^er a respite of some hours, they set fire to the town, and renewed the massacre; and about 9000 persons, — unarmed men, de- fenceless women, and harmless infants, — perished either in the flames or by the sword, under the eye of tho lirutal Souvorof. The triumphal ^ntry of the victorious general into Warsaw annihi- lated the kingdom. That city, and the adjacent territories, were added to the Prussian realm : the town of Cracow and various palatinates were transferred to the Austrian dominion ; and the troops of Catharine took possession of the rest of the country. The king became a pensioned sub- ject of Russia ; but some atonement was made to the people for the injustice of the confederates, by the introduction of a more regular and efficient government than that which was subverted. After many years of quiet submission to the will of their nilers, the IH e intimidated diet, ition and insignifi. u But, when an nvolvement of the the grand signor, dependence of the idily formed ; and fter long delay, a d by the diet. It e the king a suffi. )bles, and afforded . The emissaries ew of obtaining a irs of Poland, as lovereign and the neral satisfaction; army attacked the re his strong dis- ly assembled, an- ... .jtJC-wnTn^-if :-'-- n a wmiMt im w-w**- *«''»v H^^i^.»U^J^J^^,;^'i«:^:^i^^^^l|l^'«|!||||gi their rulers, the ri 'v •?i,:^A.;i-iiije<'-- IH»M li™ I ll|f ^^^^^" "e 1 1 ^-il;|-«- 1 1 h c 1 ^ \ 1 « 1 ^j 1. 1 " •s •^ 1 i 'ill lilli-' il H, pr ENGIJIND. inhibitantt of Wankw wid the ueighKNuring pam of Polahd wei^gSJ. tified, in 1807, with a transfer of the\T conntry, under th* title of k grand' duchy, to the house of Saxony, waose government they were dii- posed to prefer to the Prussian sway, btcauie they expected that It would be more mild and conciliatory. Ihey received from their mtr master, who was one of Bonaparte's va^isal kings, a constitution Whicu ostensibly provided both for energetic government and for the enjoymeilt of liberty. ■ . 1 When Bonaparte was engaged in his memorable expedition to Rui- sia, in 1812, he flattered the Polanders with a hone of the re-establisH- ment of their kingdom, and declared that it should form a barrier between polished and barbarous nations. The diet, meeting at W^u-saA^, announced a general confederation, and proclaimed the revival of m independent realm ; but, as the Prussians and Austrians were then the allies of Napoleon, he would not allow their territories in Poland to enter into the composition of the restored kingdom, which, however, woutll have been sufficiently large, as it would have extended from the W^ta to the frontiers of Russia and Turkey. These arrangements, if they weie really intended, were precluded by that reverse of fortune which crusheji the hopes of the invader; and, in 1815, the congress of Vienna decided the fate of Poland. It was ordained, by the arbiters of Europe, th^t the greater part of the duchy of Warsaw ihould be added to tho«e ter- ritories which Alexander already - posseMed in Poland; that Craco|^ should be a free city, with a small circumjacent territory depending upon it ; that Galitzia and Lodomiria should continue to be subject to Austria ; and that Prussia, beside the recovery of Dantzic, should extend its swfy over Great Poland, in the western part of the ancient kingdom. - ■.:•>■; ■' .■■\: dl ENGLAND#^t EXTENT AND SITUATION. ^ Miles. Length 360 ) Breadth 300) between Degrees. • • > . • C 50O and 55» 45' North latitude. ( P 50' E. and 5« 40' West longitude.! England contains 50,595 square miles, with more than 222 inhabitanits to each. Name.] The name of England originated from the Angles (a nation of the Cimbric Chersonesus, or modern Jutland) who conquered a grejit part of Britain. Boundaries.] England, the largest division of Britain, is bound^ on the north by Scotland, on the east by the German Ocean, on the wejat by S^ George's Channel, and on the south by the English Ghanni|1, which separates it from Franco. Divisions, ancient and modern.] When the Romans pro- vinciated the country, they divided it into Britannia Prima, which con- tained the southern parts ; Britannia Secunda, comprehending the western parts ; Maxima Csesarieneis, which reached from the Trent jo the wall of Severus, between Newcastle and Carlisle, and sometimes to the Forth and Clyde; and Flavia CaesarieQsis, which contained the midland counties. i i J 124 ENGLAND. When the Saxons invaded the island, their chief leaders appropriated the counties which each had been the most instrumental in conquering ; and the whole formed, in 585, a heptarchy. In time of war, a chief was chosen from the seven kings, by public consent ; so that the Saxon heptarchy appears to have resembled the constitution of Greece during the heroic ages. -i .yii;.- f . i ; THE ANGLO-SAXON HEPTARCHY. JO KINGDOMS. COUNTIES. IF 1. Kent, founded by J ^^^^ Hengistin 457 .... j 2. South Saxons, ^ «„„„„ 3. East* Angles, ^Norfolk founded by Uffa in 3 Suflfolk 575 C Cambridge r Cornwall »i , I . \ Devon 4. West- Saxons, 1 Dorset founded by Cerdic< Somerset in 1519 1 Wilts I Hants V Berks /"Lancaster 1 York 5. Northumberland, |?"''l*™,"\ founded by Ida in/ F""l ^ ^ ^.m ■' \ Westmorland 1 Northumberland, and I Scotland to the frith I Edinburgh 6. East-Saxons, rEssex founded by Erchen- ■) Middlesex, and part of | win in 527 t Hertford ) -The other parts of Hertford Glocester Hereford Worcester Warwick Leicester Rutland Northampton L'ncoln Huntingdon Bedford Buckingham Oxford Stafford Derby Salop Nottingham ^Chester 4 •i k 7. Mercia, founded by Crida in 595 , . . . ' .lit CHIEF TOWNS. Canterbury Chichester Southwark Norwich Bury St. Edmund'* Cambridge Launceston Exeter Dorchester Bath Salisbury Winchester Abingdon Lancaster York Durham Carlisle Appleby Newcastle Chelmsford London Hertford Glocester Hereford Worcester Warwick Leicester Oakham Northampton Lincoln Huntingdon Bedford Aylesbury Oxford Stafford , Derby Shrewsbury Nottingham Chester ENGLAND. 125 It is the more necessary to preserve these divisions, as they account for different local customs, and some essential modes of inheritance, which to this day prevail in England, and which took their rise from different institutions under the Saxons. Since the Norman invasion, England has been divided into forty counties, all of which, except Middlesex and Cheshire, are comprehended in six circuits, or annual progresses of the judges, for administering justice to the subjects who are at a distance from the capital. Face or the country.] No nation in the world can equal the cultivated parts of England in beautiful scenes. The variety of high- lands and low-lands, the former gently swelling, and both of them forming the most luxuriant prospects, the corn and meadow grounds, the intermixtures of enclosure and plantation, the noble seats, comfortable houses, cheerful villages, and well stocked farms, often rising in the neighbourhood of populous towns and cities, decorated with the most vivid colors of nature, are objects of which an adequate idea cannot be conveyed by description. The most barren spots are not without verdure. But nothing can give us a higher idea of the English industry, than observing that some of the pleasantest counties in the kingdom, natu- rally the most barren, are rendered fruitful by labor. Mountains.] Though England is full of delightful rising grounds, and the most enchanting slopes, it contains few mountains. The prin- cipal are Sea-fell and Skiddawin Cumberland, Whern and Ingleborough in Yorkshire, Pendle in Lancashire, the Cheviot-hills on the borders of Scotland, the Peak of Derbyshire, the Chiltern in Bucks, Malvern in Worcestershire, Coteswold in Glocestershire, and the Wrekin in Shrop- shire. It may be observed, that the northern eminences in this list are chiefly composed of lime-stone, free-stone, slate, or schistus ; that granite abounds in the Malvern hills ; and those of Chiltern are a mass of chalk, mingled with flint ; while the Wrekin consists of a coarse grey whin, red on the surface from the oxydation of its iron ore. Forests.] The first Norman kings of England, partly for political purposes, that they might the more effectually enslave their new sub- jects, and partly from the wantonness of power, converted immense tracts of grounds into forests for hunting. These were governed by laws peculiar to themselves ; so that it was necessary, about the time of pass- ing Magna-Charta, to form a code of the forest-laws ; and Justices in Eyre, so called from their sitting in the open air, were appointed to see them observed. By degrees those vast tracts were disforested; and the chief forests, properly so called, remaining out of no fewer than 69, are those of Windsor, New-Forest, Dean, and Sherwood. These forests formerly produced great quantities of excellent oak, elm, ash, and beech, beside walnut-trees, poplar, maple, and other kinds of wood. In ancient times England contained large woods, if not forests, of chesnut trees, which exceeded all other kinds of timber for the purposes of building, as appears from many great houses still standing, in which the chesnut beams and roofs remain still fresh and undecayed, though some of them are above 500 years old. Lakes.] The lakes of England are few; though it is evident from history and antiquity, and indeed, in some places, from the face of the country, that meres and fens were frequent in England, until they were drained and converted into arable land. The chief meres remaining are those of Soham and Whittlesea in Cambridgeshire, and Ramsey in the county of Huntingdon. The lakes in Westmorland, Lancashire, and 196 ENGLAND. Cumberland, are well known, being frequently riaited for their pictur- esque beauties. RivuKS, SPRINGS, AND MINERAL WATERS.] The rivers in Eng. land add greatly to its beauty as well as to its opulence. The Thauieg, which, from the situation of the capital on its banks, naturally claims the first place among the rivers of England, rises on the confines of Glocei< tershire, a little S. W. of Cirencester ; and, after receiving the many tri> butary streams of other rivers, it passes to Oxford, then by Abingdon, Wallingford, Reading, Marlow, and Windsor; thence to Kingston, JElicKmond, and London ; and, al'ter dividing Kent and Essex, falls into the sea at the Nore. The Medway, which rises near Tonbridge, joins the Thames at Sheer- nesa, and is navigable for the largest ships as far as Chatham. The Severn, reckoned the second river for importance in England, and the first for rapidity, rises at Plinlimmon-hill in North Wales; becomei ^navigable at Welsh-Pool ; runs east to Shrewsbury ; then, turning south, visits firidgenorth, Worcester, and Tewkesbury, where it receives the .Upper Avon : after having passed Glocester, it t \kes a south-west direc- tion ; is, near its mouth, increased by the Wye and Uske, and dischai^eg itself into the Bristol Channel, near King-road, where lie the great ships which cannot get up to Bristol. The Trent rises in the moorlands of Staffordshire, and, running south-east by Newcastle-under-Lyme, dividei that county into two parts ; then, turning north-east on the confines of Derbyshire, visits Nottingham, running the whole length of that county to Lincolnshire, and, being joined by the Ouse and several other riven toward the mouth, obtains the name of the Hrmber, falling into :he sea south-east of Hull. Another considerable river in England is the Ouse, which falls into the Humber after receiving the waters of many other rivers. A second Ouse rises in Bucks, and falls into the sea near Lynn in Norfolk. The Tyne takes its course from west to east through Northumberland, and falls into the German sea at Tynmouth, below Newcastle. The Tees passes from west to east, dividing Durham from Yorkshire, and falls into the German sea below Stockton. The Tweed runs from west to east, on the borders of Scotland, and falls into the German sea at Berwick. The Eden flows from south to north through Westmorland and Cumberland, and, passing by Carlisle, falls into Sohvay- Frith. The Lower Avon runs west through Wiltshire to Bath, and then, dividing Somersetshire -from Glocestershirc, proceeds to Bristol, falling into the mouth of the Severn below that city. The Derwent runs from east to west through Cumberland, and, passing by Cockermouth, falls into the Irish sea, a little below. The Ribble runs from east to west through Lancashire, and, passing by Preston, discharges itself into the Irish sea. . The Mer- sey flows from the south-east to the north-west through Cheshire, and then, dividing Cheshire from Lancashire, passes by Liverpool, and falls into the Irish sea a little below that town. The Dee rises in Wales, and divides Flintshire from Cheshire, falling into the Irish channel below Chester. The champaign parts of England are generally supplied with excel- lent springs and fountains, though a discerning palate may perceive that they frequently contain some minetal impregnation. In some very high lands, the inhabitants are distressed for want of water, and supply themselves by trenches, or by digging deep wells. The constitutions of the English, and the diseases to which they are liable, have rendered ENGLAND. ill hare rendered tbem extrtmely inquisitive nfter salubrioua waters, for the recovery and preservation of their health; and, very fortunately, England con- tains as many nuneral wells, of known efficacy, as perhaps any coun- try in the world. The most celebrated are the hot-baths of Bath and Bristol in Somersetshire, and of Buxton and Matlock in Derbyshire : the mineral waters of Tonbridge, Epsom, Cheltenham, Harrowgate, and Scarborough. Sea- water is also strongly recommended by the guar- dians of our health ; and so delicate are the tones of the English fibres, that the patients can perceive, both in drinking and bathing, a difference between the sea-water of one coast and that of another. Canals.] Since the middle of the last century, a great number of navigable canals have been cut in various parts of England, which have greatly contributed to the improvement of the country, and the facilitation of commercial intercourse between the trading towns. The first, in point of date, is the Sankey canal, the act of parliament for which was obtained in 1755. It was cut to convey cotd from the ex* tensive pits at St. Helen's, near Prescot, to the Mersey, and to Liver-* pool, and is only twelve miles long. But the canals of the late duke of Bridgewater are of much greater importance, both for their ex* tent, and the natural ditficullies that were surmounted by the fertile genius of that extraordinary mechanic, Mr. Brindley. Of these great works, the iirst was begun in 1758, at Worsley-mill, about seven miles from Manchester, where a basin was formed, as a reservoir to the nAvi« gation. The canal runs through a hill, by a subterraneous passage large enough for the admission of long flat-bottomed boats towed by hand-raiie on each side, near three quarters of a mile, to the duke's coal-works. There the passage divides into two channels, one of which goes 500 yards to the right, and the other as many to the left. In some places the passage is cut through solid rock, in others arched over with brick; Air-funnels, some of which are 37 yards perpendicular, are cut, at certain distances, through the rock at the top of the hill. At Barton- bridge, three miles from the basin, is an aqueduct, which, for more than 200 yards, conveys the canal across a valley and the navigable river Irwell. There are three arches over this river ; the central one is 63 feet wide, and 38 feet high above the wuter, which will admit the largest barges to go through with masts and sails standing. The Grand Trunk or Staffordshire canal was begun in 1766, under the direction of Mr. Brindley, in order to form a communication be- tween the Mersey and Trent, and in consequence between the Irish - sea and the German ocean ; but it was not completed before 1777. Its length is 99 miles ; it is 29 feet broad at the top ; 26 at the bottom, and five deep. It is carried over the river Dove by an aqueduct of 23 arches, and over the Trent by one of six. At the hill of Harecastle in Stafford- shire, it is conveyed through a tunnel more than 70 yards below the surface of the ground, and 2880 yards in length. In the same neigh- bourhood there is another subterraneous passage of 350 yards, and at Preston on the Hill another, which is 1241 yards in length, i'rom the neighbourhood of Stafford a branch goes off from this canal, and joins the Severn near Bewdley : two other branches go, one to Birmingham, and the other to Worcester. The Braunston or Grand Junction canal (so called from its uniting the inland navigation of the central counties) extends from the Thames at Brentford, to the Coventry canal at Braunston in Northamptonshire. A great number of other canals have been cut in various parts of the kingdom! as the Lancaster can;il ; ooe frgw Liverpool to Leeds, carried ^^immmmi^mmfmm^ 128 ENGLAND. through an exMnt of 117 miles; the canal from Halifax to Manchester, 31 miles ; one from Basingstoke to the Thames at Weybridge ; another from Andover to the river near Southam|)ton ; and many others, which it would be tedious to enumerate. Some of these are carried at a great heigh . over rivers, or from one hill to another, by aqueducts of a very ioger.iouB construction. Metals and minerals.] Among the minerals, the tin-mines of Cornwall deservedly take the lead. They were known to the Phoenj. ciana some ages before the Christian sera; and, since the English have found a method of manufacturing their tin into plates and white iron, they are of great advantage to the nation. These tin-works are under peculiar regulations, by what are called the stannary laws ; and the miners have parliaments and peculin' ivileges. Iron is found in plenty in England : the principal mines of n .e in Colebrook-dale, Shropshire, Dean-forest in Glocest^rshire, and some parts of the north of England, Lead is obtained in Somersetshire, Derbyshire, Yorkshire, Northumber- land, and other counties. Gold has been found neai Selsoe in Bedford- shire ; but the produce of the ore is very scanty. Particles of this valu- able metal are found in tin-mines; and silver is frequently extracted from the ore of lead. We know a gentleman who has a complete service of plate, formed of the silver which was found in his lead-mines. — Copper is a part of the produce of Cornwall, Yorkshire, and Stafifordohire. Zinc, in the form of lapis calaminaris, is found in Cornwall and Derbyshire. Devonshire, and other counties of England, produce marble; but the besw kind, which resembles Egyptian granite, is excessively hard to work. Quarries of freestone are found in many places. Near Northwich ia Cheshire are immense mines of rock-salt. The quarries -extend over many acres ; and their crystal roof, supported by pillars, has a most beautiful appearance. The pit at Witton is of a circular form, 108 yards in diameter ; and the roof is supported by 25 pillars, each con- taining 294 solid yards of rock-salt. Cheshire likewise produces alum, The fuller's earth found in Berkshire, and in some other counties, is nf considerable consequence to the clothing trade. Coal is found in many counties of England ; but the city of London, to encourage the nursery of seamen, is chiefly supplied from the pits of Northumberland and the county of Durham. The cargoes are shipped at Newcastle and Sunder- land. The exportation of coal, toother countries, is also very consider- able. It has been remarked, as a providential or fortunate circumstance, that the counties which are most productive of metals, afford also an abundance of coal for the convenience of extracting and preparing the ore. Climate, SOIL, and aguiculture.] England, from its insular situation and its proximity to the continent, is liable to a great uncertainty of weather; in consequence of which, the inhabitants, especially on several parts of the sea-coast, frequently suffer by agues and fevers. In many places, the air is loaded with vapors wafted from the Atlantic Ocean by westerly winds ; and the weather is so excessively capricious, and unfavorable to certain constitutions, that many of the inhabitants are induced to remove to a more regular climate for the restoration of their health. It cannot, however, be considered as in general insalu- brious. In consequence of the mutability of the climate, the seasons are very uncertain. Spring, summer, autumn, and winter, come by rotation ; but in what month their different appearances will take place is by no means determined. The spring begins sometimes in February, and sometimes in April. In May, the face of the country ia often covered with hoar" ENGLAND. 129 frost instead of blosaomB. The beginning of June is sometimes as cold as the middle of December ; yet at other times the thermometer rises in that month as high as it does in Italy. Even August has its vicissitudes of heat and cold ; and, upon an average, September and October are the two moat agreeable months in the year. The natives sometimes expe- rience all the four seasons within the compass of one day. This incon- stancy, however, is not attended with the effects that might be naturally apprehended. A fortnight, or at most three weeks, generally make up the difference with regard to the maturity of the fruits of the earth ; and it is hardly ever observed that the inhabitants suffer by a hot summer. The soil of England differs in every county, not merely from the nature of the ground, though that must occasion a very considerable alteration, but from the progress made in each in the cultivation of lands and gardens, the draining of marshes, and other local improvementSi which are here prosecuted with greater skill and attention, than in any other part of the world, if we except China. In no country is agriculture better understood. Excellent institutions for its improvement are now common in England ; and their members publish periodical accounts of their discoveries and experiments. The proper cultivation of the soil is an object so peculiarly interesting to the community, that those who most assiduously attend to it are perhaps to be accounted the most meritorious citizens. Vegetables.] England produces in abundance wheat, barley, rye, peas, beans, oats, and other grain. It is almost needless to mention, to the most uninformed reader, in what plenty the most excellent fruit, apples, pears, plums, cherries, peaches, apricots, nectarines, currants, gooseberries, raspberries, and other hortulane productions, grow here; and what quantities of cider, perry, metheglin, and the like liquors, are made in some counties. The cider of Devon and Herefordshire, when kept, and made of proper apples, and in a particular manner, is preferred by some palates to French white wine. The natives of England have made the different fruits of the world their own, sometimes by simple culture, often by hot-beds and other means of forcing nature. The English pine-apples are delicious ; but they are not so abundant as to bear a moderate price. Our grapes are pleasing to the taste; yet their flavor is not exalted enough for making wine ; and indeed wet weather injures the flavor of all other line fruits raised in this country. Woad for dyeing is cultivated in Bucks and Bedfordshire, as hemp and flax are in other counties. In nothing, however, have the English been more successful than in the cultivation of clover, cinquefoil, lucem, and other meliorating grasses for the soil. It belongs to a botanist to recount the various kinds of useful and salutary herbs, shrubs, and roots, that grow in different parts of England. The soil of Kent, Essex, Surrey, and Hampshire, is most favorable to the difficult and tender culture of hops. Animals.] The English oxen are large and fat; but some prefer for the table the smaller breed of the Scotch and Welsh cattle, after they have been fed in English pastures. The English horses are the best in the world, whether we regard their spirit, strength, swiftness, or docility. Incredible have been the pains taken, by all ranks, for improving the breed of this favorite and noble animal: and the success has been answerable; for they now unite all the qualities and beauties of Indian, Persian. Arabian, and Spanish horses. The irresistible spirit and weight of the English cavalry reader them superior to all others in war; and an 130 ENGLAND. Engliah hunter will perforin what would appear incredible in a fox or •tag chase. The English sheep are of two kinds ; those which are valuable for their fleeces, and those that are proper for the table. The former are Tery large, and their fleeces constitute the original staple, commodity of England. In buine counties the inhabitants are as curious in their breed of rams, as in those of their horses and dogs. Mr. Bakewell was parti- cularly famous for his improvements in the breed of sheep. The finest fleeces are those of Herefordshire, Glocestershire, and Devonshire, whiJi the South-down sheep furnish the most delicate food. The English mastiffs and bull-dogs ure said to be the strongest and fiercest of the canine species in the world ; but, either from the change of soil or feeding, they degenerate in foreign climates. James I., bj way of experiment, turned out two English bull-dogs upon one of the fiercest lions in the Tower, and they soon conquered him. The mastiff, however, has all the courage of a bull-dog, without its ferocity, and ii particularly distinguished for his fidelity and docility. All the different species of dogs that abound in other countries, for the field as well u domestic uses, are to be found in England. What has been observed of the degeneracy of the English doge in foreign countries, is applicable to the English game-cocks. The courage of these birds is astonishing, and one of the true breed never leaves the pit alive without victory. The proprietors and feeders of this generoiu animal are likewise extremely curious as to his blood and pedigree ; bat we do not see the necessity of keeping up this sort of animal courage, because the feelings which excite it are not those of a civilised being, Of the wild quadrupeds of this country, the different kinds are not very numerous. We have the wild cat, the fox, the badger, the weawl, the otter, and some others. Deer abound in the parks of the gentry, contri- buting both to the amusement of the hunter and the luxury of the epicure, Tame birds are much the same in England as in other countriei. The wild sorts are bustards, wigeons, plovers, pheasants, partridges, woodcocks, grouse, quail, landrail, snipes, wood-pigeons, hawks of dif- ferent kinds, kites, owls, herons, crows, rooks, ravens, magpies, daws, jays, blackbirds, thrushes, nightingales, goldfinches, linnets, larks, and a great variety of small birds ; Canary birds also breed in England. Tlw wheat-ear is by many preferred to the ortolan, for the delicacy of its flesh and flavor, and is peculiar to England. Few countries are better supplied than England with river and sea fish. Her rivers and ponds contain plenty of salmon, trout, eels, piiw, perch, smelts, carp, tench, barbel, gudgeons, roach, dace, grey mullets, bream, plaice, flounders, and cray-fiah. A delicate fish, called char, is found in some fresh-water lakes of Wales and Cumberland. The eea- fish are cod, mackerel, haddock, whiting, herrings, pilchards, skait, soles. The dory, found toward the western coast, is reckoned a great delicacy, as is the red mullet. Several other fish are found on the same coast. Lobsters, crabs, oysters, shrimps, scallops, and many other small shell-fish, abound in the English seas. The whales chiefly visit the northern coast ; but great numbers of porpoises and seals appear in the Channel. Natural curiositiks.] Among the natural curiosities of this country, those of Derbyshire appear to deserve the first place. Elden Hole is a chasm in the side of a mountain, nearly seven yards wide, and fourteen long, diminishing in extent within the rock. A plummet once drew 884 yards of line after it, of which the last eighty wei*e wet, ENGLAND. 191 sredible in a fox or ates. James I., bj D8, magpies, dawi, without finding ft bottom. The entrance of Poole's Hole near Buxton, for several paces, is very low, but soon opens into a very lofty vault, like the inside of a Gothic cathedral. A current of water, which runs along the middle, adds, by its sounding re-echoed stream, very much to the astonishment of all who visit this vast cavern. The drops of water which hang from the roof, and on the sides, have an amusing effect ; for they not only reflect numberless rays from the candles carried by the guides, but, as they are of a petrifying quality, they harden in several places into various forms, which, with the help of a strong imagination, may pass for lions, fonts, organs, and the like. The entrance into the stupendous cavern at Castleton is wide at first, and more than thirty feet perpendicular. Several cottagers dwell under it, who in a great measure subsist by guiding strangers into the cavern, which is crossed by four streams of water, and then is thought impassable. The vault, in several places, makes a beautiful appearance, being chequered with various co- lored stones. Other extraordinary caverns are found in the mountains of the north of England, as Yordas Cave, in Kingsdale, Yorkshire, which contaiiiB a subterraneous cascade. Wethercot Cave, not far from Ingleton, is di** vided by an arch of limestone, passing under which is seen a largo cas- cade falling from a height of more than 20 yards. The length of this cave is about 60 yards, and the breadth 30. There are also, in various parts of England, many remarkable springs, of which some are impregnated with salt, as that of Droitwich in Worcestershire ; or with bituminous matter, as that at Pitchford in Shropshire. Others have a petrifying quality, as that near Lutterworth in Leicestershire, and a dropping well in the West Riding of Yorkshire. Some ebb and flow, as those of the Peak in Derbyshire, that of Settle in Yorkshire, and Laywell, near Torbay. Population.] At the time of the Norman Conquest, England, in the opinion of Sir Matthew Hale and Mr. Gregory King, scarcely con* tained two millions of persons ; but this is mere supposition, and th« calculation is seemingly too low. In the year 1600, the number of in- habitants, in all probability, exceeded 4,250,000. In 1700, it is sup- posed that above 5,100,000 persons occupied the country; but the amount declined in the ensuing ten years, in the ratio of a twentieth part. The lost number, however, was soon regained ; and, in 1802, the po- pulation exceeded 8,330,000. In 1811, it was abo',e nine millions and a half; and, in 1821, it rose to 11,261,437 ;— of which number 1,173,187 belonged to Yorkshire, and 1,144,531 were included in Middle- sex; and there is reason to believe that the amount is now (in 1826) much greater, perhaps, by one half of a million. National character, mankers, customs.] Englishmen, in their persons, are generally regularly-featured, commonly fair, well- formed, and florid in their complexions. The women in their shape, features, and complexion, appear so graceful and lovely, that England may be termed the native country of female beauty. But, beside the external graces so peculiar to the women in England, they are still more to be valued for their prudent behaviour, a tender a£fection for their hus- bands and children, and all the engaging duties of domestic life. In their dispositions the English are rather grave and phlegmatic, but not without an occasional mixture of vivacity, as they are perhaps not inferior to any nation in true wit and genuine humor. They are re- markable for a nervous sensibility, which has been considered as one of the sources of those singularities which so strongly characterise the Englidi K2 i 132 ENGLAND. I nation. They sometim'^a magnify the slightest appearances into realities and bring the most distant dangers immediately home to themselves; and yet, when real danger approaches, no people face it with greater re- solution or constancy of mind. They are fond of clubs and convivial associations ; and, when these are kept within the bounds oC temperance and moderation, they prove the best cure for those mental evils, which are so peculiar to the English, that foreigners have pronounced them to be national. The English nobility and gentry of great fortunes now assimilate their manners to those of foreigners, with whom they cultivate a more frequent intercourse than their forefathers did. They do not now travel only as pupils, to briug home the vices of the countries they visit, under the tuition perhaps of a despicable pedant, or family dependent ; but they travel for the purposes of society, and at the more advanced ages of life, when their judgements are mature, and their passions regulated. This has enlarged society in England, which foreigners now visit almost as fre- quently as Englishmen visited them ; and the efl'ects of the intercourse become daily more visible, especially as it is not now, as formerly, con- fined to one sex. Such of the English gentlemen as do not enter into the higher walks of life, affect a comfortable rather than a splendid way of irking. They study, and understand better than any people in the world, t-onveniency in their houses, gardens, equipages, and estates ; auud they spare no cost to purchase it. It has however been observed, that thih turn renders them . '38 communicative than they ought to be; but, on the other hand, the few connexions they form are sincere, cheerful, and indissoluble, The like habits are observable amonjx tradesmen. Comfort is more stu- died by the English than by any oilier people, and is the ultimate ead of all their application, labors, and fatigues. The English manifest their humanity in their large siiliscriptions for public charities. The persons who contribute to those collections are at the same time assessed in proportion to their property for the parochial poor, who have a legal demand for their maintenance ; yet, even at this day, when the poor-rates have risen to an alarming height, spontaneous liberality flows in a very copious stream. , The unevenness of the English in their conversation is very remark- able: sometimes it is delicate, sprightly, and replete with true wit; sometimes it is solid, ingenious, and argumentative ; sometimes it is cold and phlegmatic, so as almost to excite disgust ; and all in the same person, in many of their convivial meetings they are very noisy, and their wit is often offensive, while the loudest are the most applauded. This is more particularly the case in large companies ; hut, in smaller and more select parties, all the pleasures of rational conver- sation and agreeable society are enjoyed in England in a very high degree. The courage of the English is cool and firm; if they have not that ardor of attack which the French sometimes display, they can support , and defeat such an attack. I'heir soldiers will keep up their fire in the face of danger; but, when they deliver it, it has a most dreadful effect upon their enemies. Their seamen are equal in point of intrepidity to those of any other nation, and superior in alertness and skill. For invention the English are not remarkable, though they are fur their improvements upon the inventions of others ; and in the mechani- cal arts they surpass all their contcnijioraries. The intense application which an Englishutau gives to a favorite study is iucredible, and, as A ENGLAND. « were, absorbs all his other ideas. This is the cause of the numerous in- stances of mental absence that are to be found in the nation. One quality remains to be mentioned, not indeed as peculiar to the English, but as marking their character in a high degree — we mean, public spirit, or zeal for the service, honor, interest, and prosperity of the country. But it has been remarked, by a writer who prefers truth to flattery, that " this exterior patriotism does not preolude the most shameless rapacity among those who ostensibly serv ire state. How- ever insignificant may be their services, they seem U think that they cannot be too profusely rnvarded. In this point all parties agree ; and the people severely suffer by this systematic rapine. We are far from recommending an illiberal treatment of persons who are thought worthy of public employment ; but the grant of large pensions for life, in return for a short term of service, ciuinol be justified : still less can that misplaced lenity or connivance be vindicated, which suflfers the base purloiners of the public money to escape exemplary punishment, when ordinary robbery, which is certainly not more criminal, is deemed a capital oftence." The English are not so devoted to amusement as the French: yet they are far from being disinclined to occasional diversionsv They are fond of dramatic exhibitions, of operas, concerts, masquerades; and, iu almost every provincial town, there are periodical assemblies for cards and dancing. Their attention is strongly excited by liorse -races; hunt- ing and coursing are pursued with avidity by many of the gentry, who also amuse themselves with the destruction of feathered game. Cock- iighting, which was formerly a favorite diversion, is nearly disused ; and bull-baiting is deseivedly sinking into neglect. The athletic diversion of cricket is still kept up, and is sometimes practised by persons of the highest rank. Many other pastimes are common in Ei>gland, such as cudgel- ing, wrestling, and playing with bowls, nine-pins, and quoits; and, above all, ringing of bells, a species of music which the English boast they have brought into an art. The barbarous diversions of boxing and prize- fighting, which were as frequent in England as the shows of gladiators in Rome, are now prohibited, though often practised; and all places of public diversion are under strict regulations. Swimming, angling, row- ing, and sailing, may likewise be mentioned among the diversions of our countrymen. The last, if not introduced, was patronised and encou- raged by Frederic prince of Wales, and may bo considered as a na- tional improvement. The English are also fond of skaiting, in which, however, they are not very expert ; but they are adventurous in it, often to the danger and loss of their lives. Cities, CHIEF towns, v.diiices public and private.] Lon- don, the metropolis of the British empire, appears to have beon founded between the reigns of Julius Cajsar and Nero ; but by whom, is uncer- tain ; for we are told by Tacitus, that it was a place of great trade in Nero's time, and soon after became the capital of the island. It was first walled round, with hewn stones and British bricks, by Constantino the Great ; and the walls formed an oblong square, in compass about three miles, with seven principal gates. London is now, what ancient Home once was, the seat of liberty, the encourager of arts, and the admiration of the world. It is the centre of trade; it has an intimate connexion with all the counties in the king- dom; it is the grand mart of the nation, to which the active and indus- trious provincials send their commodities, whence they are difl'uscd over the world. Hence innumerable carriages by laud and water are con- niM ENGLAND. itantly employed ; and hence arises the circulation in the national body, which renders every part healthful and vigorous ; a circulation that is equally beneficial to the head and the must distant members. This city is situated on the banks of the Thames, a river which is remarkably commodious for commerce, and is continually filled with ressels sailing to or from the most remote climates. For ages, it was destitute of large wet docks ; but, within our own times, three capital works of that description have marked the opulence of the city and the India company, — the West-India docks in the Isle of Dogs, the London docks at Wapping, and the East- India docks at Blackwall ; and new docks are now in progress near the Tower. As London is about 60 miles distant from the sea, it enjoys, by meant, of its noble river, all the benefits of navigation, without the danger of being surprised by foreign fleets, or of being annoyed by the vapors of the sea. It rises regularly from the water-side, and, extending itself on both sides along its banks, reaches a great length from east to west, in a kind of amphitheatre toward the north, and is continued for many milei on all sides, in a succession of villas and villages. Its irregular form makes it diflScult to ascertain its extent. However, its length from east to west is above six miles, from Hyde-park Corner to Poplar : and its breadth in some places three, in others two, and, in some, considerably less than one. Hence the circumference of the whole is about 17 luiles. In London, properly so called, — that is, the part situated within the walls, — are 98 parishes ; in the city without the walls, eleven ; and, in Westminster, ten. Of the two former divisioris, the population, in 1821, was calculated at i '25,434 individuals, composing 28,068 families, and occupying 17,170 Jiouses; while Westminster had 182,085 inhabitasu, who resided in 18,502 houses. If we extend the environs to Finchley in the north, to Hammersmith and Acton in the west, and to £ow in the east, without including Southwark or any part of Surrey, we find that, in the same year, the population of the adjacent villages and districts swelled the amount of tVe metropoikan residents to 1,066,409; and, at the present time, perbap* 50,000 more may, on reasonable grounds, be added to the enumeration. London-bridge was first built of stone in the reign of Henry J I. about the year 1 163, by a tax upon wool. It was at various times altered and improved, particularly in 175(), when the houses which were upon it were taken down, and the whole renderexl more convenient. It crosses the Thames where it is 915 feet broad, and has 19 arches irregularly built, This bridge will soon be demolished, because great progress has been made in a new one, higher up the river, Westminster bridge is reckoned one of the most complete structures of the kind. It is buiit entirely of stone, and extends over the river at a place where it is 1,223 feet broad ; which is above .300 feet broader than at London-bridge. On each side is a fine balustrade, wiMi places of •helter from the rain. It consists of 14 piers, and 13 large and two small arches, all semi-circular, that in the centre being 76 feet wide, and the rest decreasing four feet each from the other. This magnificent structure was begun in 17.38, and finished in 1750. Blacl^tViars-bridge is not inferior to that of Westminster either in mag- nificence or workmanship ; but the situation of the ground on the two shores obliged the architect to employ elliptical arches, which, however, have a very fine effect. This bridge was fiaiahed in ten years : it vas opened to the public in 1770. ■ ENGLAND. 135 After a long interval of acquiewence in the aufficiency of theae thres bridges for general communication, the citizens and the inhabitants of the suburbs began to wish for additional structures of this kind. A bridge was therefore undertaken, by private subscription, from Mill-bank to Vauxhall. It was framed with skill and elegance : it consists of nine arches of neat and strong iron-work, separated from each other by sub- stantial piers of stone. Another was soon after proposed ; and, within six years, it was completed under the direction of Mr. Rennie. It crosses the Thames from the Strand, near Somerset-place, and bears the honor- able name of Waterloo. It was opened in 1817, on the second anniyer- sary of the battle, by the prince regent and the duke of Wellington. The length of this bridge is 1242 feet, the width 42. It is built of gra- nite, with a mixture of inferior stone ; the arches are elliptical ; the piers are well-constructed, each resting on 320 piles ; and the masonry of the whole work reflects credit on all who were employed in the labo- rious task. To correspond with the elevation of the structure, an excel- lent road has been formed on the Surrey side of the river, passing over forty arches of strong brick-work. An iron bridge has since been tlirown over the Thames, from Queenhithe to the borough of South wark, con- sisting of only three arciics. It may here be mentioned, that the English introduced the use of cast iron for erections of this kind. The bridge at Colebrook-dale was the first ; but that is not so well-constructed or so striking as the lofty and romantic iron bridge at Sunderland. The cathedral of St. Paul is the most capacious, magnificent, and regular Protestant church in the world. The length within is 500 feet ; and its height, from the marble pavement to the cross on the top of thd cupola, is 340. It is built of Portland stone, according to the Greek and Roman orders, in the form of a cross, after the model of St. Peter's at Rome, to which, in some respects, it is superior. It is the principal work of sir Christopher Wren, and, undoubtedly, the only work of the same magnitude that ever was completed by one man He lived to a great age, and finished the building 37 years after he himself had laid the first stone. It occupies six acres of ground, though the whole length of the church measures no more than the width of St. Peter's. The ex- pense of this building amounted to 747,900 pounds. The noble simpli- city of the centre, dignified by one of the finest cupolas that ever emt^ nated from human art, did not seem to require adventitious decorations j; and, therefore, monuments were long excluded from it: but many bar* been lately introduced in honor of distinguished men. The abbey-church of Westminster is a venerable Gothic pile. A reli* gious edifice first arose on this spot from the piety of Sebert king of the East-Saxons, who died in (J16. Edward the Confessor built a monastery and a church nearly in the same situation : but the bulk of the present building was reared by Henry III. The architectural taste of Henry VII* added a fine chapel to the east end of it. This is the receptacle of the deceased British kings and nobility ; and here are also monuments erected to the memory of many great and illustrious personages, naval and mili* tary commanders, philosophers, poets, &c. The inside of the church of St. Stephen, Walbrook, is admired for ita lightness and elegance, and does honor to the memory of sir Christo-* pher Wren. The same may be said of the steeples of St. Mary-le-Bow, and St. Bride, which are supposed to be the most complete in their kind of any in Europe. The simplicity of the portico of the church of Covent-Garden, built by Inigo Jones, is worthy of the purest ages of ancient architecture. That of St. Martin Li the Fields will appear more 136 ENGLAND. noble and striking when tlie avenues to it are (as tbey soon will be) widened and improved. Several of the new churches are built in an ele. gant taste ; and some of the chapels have grace and proportion to recom* mend them. The banqueting-house at Whitehall is only a very small part of a noble palace designed by Inigo Jones for the royal residence ; and, as it now stands, under all its disadvantages, its symmetry and ornaments are in the highest style and execution of architecture. Westminster-hall, though on the outside it makes no very advantageous appearance, is a noble Gothic building, and is said to be the largest room in the world, of which the roof is not supported by pillars; it being 230 feet long, and 70 broad. The roof is the finest of its kind. Here are solemnised the coronation-feastg of our kings and queens; and here the chancellor and the twelve judges hold their courts. The Monument, erected at the charge of the city, to perpetuate the memory of the great fire, is worthy of notice. This column, which is of the Doric order, exceeds all the obelisks and pillars of the ancients, it being 202 feet high, with a stair-case in the middle to ascend to the bal- cony, whence there are other steps to the top, which is fashioned like an urn, with a flame issuing from it. On the base of the monument, next the street, the destruction of the city, and the relief given to the sufferers by Charles II. and his brother, are emblematically represented in bas- relief; but the inscription asserts a gross falsehood, in attributing the fire to the malignity of the papists. This great and populous city is supplied with abundance of fresh water, from the Thames and a canal called the New River. Not only is this supply of essential service to every family, but, by means of fire-plugs, every-where dispersed, the keys of which are deposited with the pari!u in >thich the whole ib kept ; as well as by their hortulane and rural Jecoratians, vistaa^ opening landscapes, temples ;— all the result of that enchanting art of imitating nature, and uniting beauty willi niiignilicenci!. It cannot be expected that we should lieie outer into a particular de- tail of all the cities and towns of England, which would far exceed the limits of this work : we shall therefore only mention some of the most considerable. York is a city of great antiquity, pleasantly situated on the river Ouso. Here are twenty-three parish- churches, and a very noble cathedral, or 138 Jiw,' iffwwif .^uti5^,^»»w ii» "i «m»w' ENGLAND. minster, one of the finest Gothic buildings in Europe. It extends in length 525 feet, and in breadth 110 feet. The nave is larger than any in Christendona, except that of St. Peter's church at Rome. The windows are finely painted, and the front of the choir is adorned with statues of all the kings of England, from William the Norman to Henry VI. ; aod there are thirty-two stalls, all of fine marble, with pillars, each consisting of one piece of alabaster. Near the cathedral is the Assembly-house, a noble structure, designed by the earl of Burlington. Many of the pro- vincial gentry reside in this town during the winter : but it has few ma> nufactures and little trade, and is not very populous, the number of inha- bitants not far exceeding 20,000. Liverpool, which, in 1700, had only about 3000 inhabitants, had 77,6.50 in 1 801 , and now boasts of a population of 1 20,000. Its situation, naturally advantageous, has been greatly improved by art. It has an excellent harbour, furnished with many wet and dry docks. In the traffic for slaves, it had the largest share ; and, since the abolition of that odious branch of trade, it has prosecuted general commerce to such an extent, as to command a fourth part of the aggregate foreign trade of Great Britain. Bristol, which was for centuries the second commercial city in Great Britain, now ranks as the third. It is not in general well-built ; but ft contains a fine quay, a handsome exchange, a stately ancient cross, some elegant halls of trading companies, and one of the most beautiful Gothic churches which the kingdom can exhibit. By turning the Avon into a new channel, and other judicious operations, the inhabitants have lately formed a capacious dock, over a space of thirty -five acres, to remedy that inconvonieuce which attended the reflux of the tide, when the vcsseit ceased for a time to float. Many branches of art are prosecuted in this city with zealous industry. Works of iron, brass, and lead, are carried on ; cannon, during the war, were bored by the powerful aid of a steam-engine ; the glass manufacture flourishes ; and many articles of clothing are well fabricated. The population is estimated at 90,000 persons, in this city and its environs. The neighbouring city of Bath took its name from some natural hot baths, for the medicinal virtues of which this place has been long cele- brated. In the spring, it is most frequented for health, and in the autumn for pleasure ; when at least two-thirds of the company, consist- ing chiefly of persons of rank and fortune, come to partake of the amuse- ments of the place. In some seasons there have been 8000 persons at Bftth, beside its ordinary inhabitants, who amount to about 39,000. Some of the modern buildings are extremely elegant, particularly Queen- square, the North and South Parade, the Royal Forum, the Circus, the new and the old Crescent. Of the old town, the cathedral is the most striking. ornament. A fine tower rises from the centre: the western window is particularly admired ; and the interior displays many handsome monuments. The charitable institutions of Bath are numerous and well-conducted ; and it boasts of an agricultural and a philosophical society. Exeter was for some time the seat of the West-Saxon kings ; and the walls, which at this time enclose it, were built by Athelstan. It haa sixteen parish-churches, beside chapels and meeting-houses. Its trade is very considerable in coarse woollon goods; and it employs vessels in the Newfoundland and Greenland fisheries. Its inhabitants are about 25,000. Manchester, though deemed only a village, far exceeds in population ENGLAND. 139 ope. It extends in a is larger than any Rome. The windovg rned with statues of to Henry VI. ; and liars, each consisting e Assembly-houge, a Many of the pro- but it has few ma* the number of inlia. 30 inhabitants, had •,000. Its situation, by art. It has an dry docks. In the I the abolition of tiiat immerce to such an ate foreign trade of lercial city in Great il well-built ; but it ' ancient cross, some ost beautiful Gothic ing the Avon into a labitants have lately icrea, to remedy that le, when the vessels are prosecuted in irass, and lead, are ho powerful aid of a d many articles of itimated at 90,000 n some natural hot as been long ceie- ealth, and in the company, consist- take of the amuse- n 8000 persons at to about 39,000. articularly Queen- m, the Circus, the hedral is the most tre: the western ys many handsome re numerous and d a philosophical Ion kings ; and the \thcl8tan. It has Ihouses. Its trade employs vessels in libitants are about teds in population every town or city in England, even London itaelf (considered without regard to Westminster or the environs), the number of its occupant* not being less than 13.5,000. For this extraordinary- amount, and for ito flourishing state, it is almost entirely indebted to its excellence in the cotton manufacture. Leeds, which is equally eminent in the woollen branch, numbers about 85,000 persons within its circuit. Birmingham and Sheffield are famous for cutlery, plated and japan- ned goods, works in enamel, and hard-ware of every description. Mr. Burke called the former place the toy-shop of Europe. It contains about 109,000, inhabitants, while Sheffield has not more than 65,000. No other nation has such dock-yards, with all conveniences for navd construction and repairs, as Portsmouth, Plymouth, Chatham, Woolwich, and Deptford. The Royal Hospital at Greenwich, for superannuated seamen, is scarcely exceeded by any royal palace, for its magnificence and expense ; and Chelsea Hospital also deserves honorable mention, as a comfortable retreat for aged, infirm, or disabled soldiers, and a noble monument of national gratitude and liberality. Commerce and manufactures.] It is well known thatcommerce and manufactures have raised the English to be the first and most powerful people in the world ; but it was not before the reign of Eliza- beth that England began to feel her true weight in the scale of commerce. She planned some settlements in America, particularly Virginia, but left the expense attending them to be defrayed by her subjects ; and indeed she was too parsimonious to carry her own notions of trade into execution. James I. was an encourager of trade ; the India company flourished in his reign ; and British America saw her most valuable colo- nies rise under him and his family. The spirit of commerce kept pace with that of liberty ; and, though the Stuarts were not friendly to the latter, yet, during the reigns of the princes of that family, the trade of the nation greatly increased. It is not intended to follow commerce through all her fluctuations, but only to give a general representation of the commercial interest of the nation. The present system of English politics may properly be said to have taken rise in the reign of Elizabeth. At that time the protestant religion was established, which naturally allied us to the reformed states, and made all the popish powers our enemies. We began in the same reign to extend our trade ; and hence it became necessary for us also to watch the commercial progress of our neighbours, and, if not to incommode and obstruct their traffic, to prevent them from injuring our own. Wo like- wise settled colonies in America, which was then the great scone of European ambition ; for, seeing with what treasures the Spaniards were annually enriched from Mexico and Peru, every nation imngined that an American conquest or plantation would certainly fill the mother-country with gold and silver. The discoveries of new regions, the profit of remote traffic, and the necessity of long voyages, produced, in a few years, a great multiplication of shipping. The sea was considered as the wealthy element; and, by degrees, a new kind of sovereignty arose, called naval dominion. As the chief trade of Eiiro|ie, so the chief maritime power, was at first in the hands of the Portuguese and Spaniards, who had divided the newly- discovered countries between them : but the crown of Portugal having fallen to the king of Spain, or being seisod by him, he was master of the shipping of the two nations, with which he kept all the coasts of Europe in alarm, until the toiada he had raised at a vast expense for the con- I d ENGLAND. quest of England was destroyed ; which put a stop, and almost an end, to the naval power of the Spaniards. At this time the Dutch, who were oppressed by the Spaniards, and feared yet greater evils than they felt, resolved no longer to endure the insolence of their masters ; they therefore revolted, and, after a struggle in which they were assisted by the money and forces of Elizabeth, erected an independent and powerful common- wealth. When the inhabitants of the Low-Countries had formed their system of government, and some remission of the war gave them leisure to pro> vide for their future prosperity, they easily perceived, that, as their ter- ritories were narrow, and their numbers small, they could preserve themselves only by that power which is the consequence of wealth ; and that by a people, whose country produced only the necessaries of life, wealth was not to be acquired but from foreign dominions, and by a transportation of the products of one country to another. From this necessity, thus justly estimated, arose a plan of commerce, which was for many years prosecuted with an industry and success perhaps never seen in the world before ; and by which the poor tenants of mud-walled villages and impassable bogs erected themselves into high and mighty states, who set the greatest monarchs at defiance, whose alliance wag courted by the proudest, and whose power was dreaded by the fiercest nations. By the establishment of this state, there arose to England a new ally, and a new rival. At that time we were so imperfectly provided with the means of com- merce, that wc were glad to procure not only naval stores, but ships, from cur neighbours. Germany furnished us with all things made of metal, even to nails : wine, paper, linen, and other articles, came from France. Portugal furnished us with sugar : aU the produce of America was broup^ht to us from Spain ; and the Venetians and Genoese retailed to us the commodities of India at their own price. The legal interest of money was twelve ;jer cent., and the common price of our land ten or twelve years' purchase. We may add, that our manufactures were few, the number of English merchants very small, and our slii))ping much inferior to what belonged to the American colonics before their revolt. Great-Britain is admirably calculated for a commercial nation, as well from its situation as an island, as from the freedom and ex- cellence of its constitution, and from its natural ])roduct8 and consider- able manufactures. For exportation, our country produces many very useful commodities ; as cattle, wool, iron, lead, tin, copper, coal, alum, &c. Our horses are the most serviceable in the world, and highly va- lued by all nations for tlieir hardiness, beauty, and strength. With beef, mutton, pork, poultry, biscuits, we victual not only our own fleets, but many foreign vessels. Our iron we export manufactured in a va- riety of forms. Prodigious and almost incredible is the value likewise of other goods which are hence exported. Of the British commerce, that branch which we enjoyed exclusively, namely, our colonial trade, was long regarded as the most advantage- ous. Yet, since the separation of the American states from the British dominions, our trade, industry, and manufactures, have greatly increased ; and our trade with that republic is much more considerable than it was before the revolt. In corisequence, also, of the opening of new markets, the talents and skill of our artisans have taken a wider range ; the productions of their labor have been adapted to the wants, not merely of rising colonies, but of nations the most wealthy and refined; and our commercial system, no longer resting on the ENGLAND. 141 id almost an end, Dutch, who were Is than they felt, ire ; they therefore ted by the money owerful common- rmed their system in leisure to pro. that, as their ter- y could preserve e of wealth ; and ecessaries of life, inions, and by a ither. From tiiig lerce, which wag ss perhaps never its of mud-walled high and mighty ose alliance wag d by the fiercest ise to England a le means of com- s, but ships, from ;s made of metal, me from France, erica was brought 'tailed to us the iterest of money nd ten or twelve s were i'cw, the ig much inferior evolt. 3rcial nation, as cedom and ex- ts and consider- uces many very per, coal, alum, and highly va- trength. With our own fleets, tured in a va- valuo likewise ted exclusively, lost advaiitage- lates from the have greatly re considerable [he opening of Itaken a wider lapted to the most wealthy testing on the artiBcial basis of monopoly, has been rendered more solid as well as more liberal. „ .. . , . . f n • With the West-Indian islands, the English trade consists chiefly in sugar, rum, cotton, logwood, cocoa, coffee, pimento, ginger, indigo, materials for dyers, mahogany and manchineel planks, drugs, and pre- serves. For these, the exports from England are linen of all sorts, broad cloth and kerseys, silks and stuflfs, hats and red caps, stockings and shoes, gloves and millinery, all sorts of iron implements and uten- sils, articles of copper and brass, cabinet-ware, toys, &c. The trade of England to India constitutes one of the most stupendous political as well as commercial machines that history exhibits. For two centuries, it was exclusive, and was lodged in a company which had a temporary monopoly of it, in consideration of money advanced to the government. This company exported to the East-Indies all kinds of woollen manufactures, all sorts of hardware, lead, bullion, and quick- silver. Its imports consisted of gold, diamonds, raw- silk, drugs, tea, pepper, arrack, porcelain or China-ware, salt-petre for home-consump- tion ; and of wrought silks, muslin, calico, and all the woven manufac- tures of India, for exportation to foreign countries. To Turkey, our countrymen send woollen-cloths, tin, lead, iron, hard- ware, clocks, watches, verdegris, spices, cochineal, logwood, sugar, and rice; for which they receive, beside money, raw silk, carpets, skins, dyeing drugs, cotton, fruit, medicinal drugs, coflee, and some other arti- cles. To Italy are sent woollen goods of various kinds, peltry, leather, lead, tin, dried and salted fish, and the produce of the East and West- Indies, in exchange for raw and thrown silk, wine, oil, soap, olives, oranges, lemons, pomegranates, dried fruit, colors, pickles, &c. To Spain, England sends all kinds of woollen goods, leather, tin, lead, fish, corn, iron and brass manuiactures, haberdashery, assort- ments of linen, from Germany and elsewhere, for the American colonies ; and receives, in return, wine, oil, dried fruit, oranges, le- mons, olives, wool, indigo, cochineal, and other dyeing drugs, beside gold and silver. Portugal formerly was, on commercial accounts, the favorite ally of England, whose fleets and armies more than once saved her from ruin. England sends to that country the same kind of mer- chandise as to Spain, and receives nearly the same species of commo- dities. Our trade with France does not extend to a very great variety of articles. We import the wines of Champagne and Burgundy, claret, brandy, preserved fruit, corn, oil, liquorice, silk, cambric, millinery, kid-skins, and perfumery; and we supply the French with tin, lead, iron, and various manufactured goods, but not in suilicient quantities to preclude an unfavorable balance of trade. With Holland and the Netherlands we have considerable traffic ; but, since the late union of those countries, such heavy duties have been imposed by their sovereign upon the transit of our manufactured goods through any of his provinces to the Rhine, that this branch of trade is necessarily diverted to the Elbe, whence the commodities arc sent through the Hanoverian king- dom into many parts of Germany. With the great northern empire the English trade is by no means in- considerable. From Russia the chief exports to this country are iron, timber, hemp, flax, linseed, pitch, tar, tallow, hides, mats, and sheet- ing; in return for which, woollen and cotton goods, cutlery, glass, porce- lain, and other manufactured articles, are received by the emperor's subjects, who also employ many British vessels for the conveyance of 142 ENGLAND. their merchandise to other countries. From Sweden and Norway, we receive iron, deal, tar, and pitch ; but, from Denmaric, very few articles beside hides and corn. From Dantzic and Memel we derive large sup- plies of corn and timber ; mid our trade in the Baltic is evidently 8upe« rior to thr.t of other mercantile communities. The prodigious extent of the trade of England, and its great and rapid increase in modern times, will clearly appear from a comparative state- mentof the imports and exports at different periods; the value of which, including foreign merchandise and manufactures, in the years under* mentioned, may be thus stated : „/'■ )j Imports. Exports. , '..• 1772, 14,500,000/ 17,719,000/. 1... 1783, 13,325,000/ 14,741,000/. 1792, 19,629,000/ 24,878,000/. 1797, 21,450,000/ 28,917,000/. In 1802, the chancellor of the exchequer, Mr. Addington, stated to the house of commons, that the real value of imports in the year ending on the 5th of January, might be estimated at 58,680,000/. ; that the real value of British manufactures exported in 1801 might be estimated at 41,770,000/., and that of foreign merchandise at 15,750,000/., niak< ing for the whole of the exportation 57,520,000/. He at the same time stated, that 19,772 registered vessels, belonging to the British dominious, were employed in trade in 1801, their tonnage being 2,027,317, and their number of men 143,987. In 1815, the exports had so greatly increased, as to amount to 60,983,894 pounds, more than two-thirds of which consisted of British produce and manufactures ; and the imports were proportionally less, so aa to create a very favorable balance. With occasional fluctuations, our commercial success has since been still more striking and effective. Some of the towns which supply the exports that we have enumerated have been already specified ; but we will state farther particulars con- nected with that subject. Woollen manufactures are common to almost all the western counties. Dorsetshire affords marble and stone, prepares cordage and sail-cloth, makes a great quantity of lace, and feeds a vast number of sheep. Somersetshire, beside furnishing lead, copper, and lopis calaminaris, manufactures lace, stockings, and caps. Devonshire affords excellent carpets ; Wiltshire has fabrics of the same kind, and its cutlery is not despicable. Manufactures of all kinds are carried on in London and its neigh- bourhood. The varied and elegant forms of jewelry and glass-work, the best clocks and watches, cutlery superior even to that of Sheffield, figures and devices in artificial stone, articles of admirable workmanship in gold and silver, useful and ornamental furniture for houses, and silk and satin for the decoration of the person, evince the industry and skill of the artisans. In Essex, serges and other woollen commodities are well manufactured. Norwich, the populous capital of Norfolk, is famous for its stuffs, shawls, and crape. Lace is the chief production of art in Buckinghamshire. All sorts of stockings are furnished for general supply by the inhabitants of the counties of Northampton, Leicester, and Derby, and more particularly by the people of Nottingham. Good porce- lain is made at Derby ; but it is not equul to that of Worcester, a city which has also acquired reputation by its carpeta. The Derbyshire spar ENGLAND. 143 ?i?f hu becoma an article of exportation, when polislicd aad wrought into vases and other forms. In this process, the steani-cngine is employed, as it also is in many other branches of art : it is even used to propel vessels in canals against the wind, and in rivers both against the wind and tide. Wo may here observe, that the great use of this engine was not fully known before the present age. The marquis of Worcester, in the time of Charles I., merely applied it to the purpose of raising water by the force of expansion : but Mr. Watt so improved its construction, as to render it operative in many ways of which the inventor never thought. It now consists of a large cylinder or barrel, in which is fitted a piston. Steam is thus supplied from a large boiler, which, forcing up the piston, opens a valve, through which cold water rushes. Fresh steam is then introduced, which forces it down again, and drives the water out of the pipe with immense force; and, by this alternate motion of the piston up and down a large beam, which communicates to various kinds of ma- chinery the power of a hundred or more horses, the grandest operation* are performed. In StaiFordshii'- the art of the potter has been greatly improved, so as to produce vases wm«'h rival those of ancient Etruria, and many other well-formed articles. The porcelain of Salop is in some estimation ; but that county does not flourish in manufactures. Cheshire is famous for its cheese, which is occasionally exported to the continent. In Lanca- shire and Yorkshire, the manufacturing towns are numerous and well peopled ; and the commodities of the latter jnty are exported to various parts of Europe and America by the mercb, < of Hull, > hose trade an- nually increases. Newcastle, beside the great i,-"nefit of the roal trade, baa considerable manufacl';n«8 in hardware, and broad and narrow cloths. We might make great additions to this sketch, if we did ' it consider these remarks as sufficient, when so many other topics call for our at- tention. Constitution AND government, j Tacitus, in describing such a constitution as that of England, seems to think that, however beautifu * it may be in theory, it will be found impra^^ticable in the execution. Experience has proved this to be a mistake ; for, by contrvances unknown to antiquity, the English constitution has existed for ab«yve 560 vcars, if we reckon from the year 1265, when Montfort's parliament assembled. It must at the same time be admitted, that it has received, during that time, many amendments, and ^,% \ ^ !. piB)Wi;iJJiH."ll»i J A ■',! -11 144 ENGLAND. It is certain that they were in use among the earliest Saxon colonies; and we find traces of juries in the laws of all those nations which adopted the feudal system, as in Germany, France, and Italy. Royalty was not, strictly speaking, hereditary among the Saxons, though, in fact, it came to be rendered so through the affection which the people bore for the blood of their kings, and their zeal for preserving re- gularity of government. Even estates and honors were not strictly here- ditary, till they were made so by William the Norman. The first princes of the Norman line afterwards strenuoi. endea- voured to efface from the minds of the people the remembrance of the Saxon constitution ; but the attempt was fruitless. The nobility, as well as the people, had their complaints against the crown ; and, after much war and bloodshed, the famous charter of English liberty was extorted from king John, and confirmed by Henry III. It does not appear that, before the reign of this prince, the commons of England were represented in parliament, or the great council of the nation ; so entirely had the barons engrossed to themselves the disposal of property. In all states there is an absolute supreme power, to which the right of legislation belongs ; and which, in this realm, is vested in the king, lords, and commons. • Of tub king,] The supreme executive power is vested by our constitution in a single person, king or queen ; for it is indifferent to which sex the crown descends : the person entitled to it, whether male or female, is immediately intrusted with all the ensigns, rights, and pre- rogatives, of sovereign power. The grand fundamental maxim, upon which the right of succession to the throne depends, is, that the crown, by common law and constitutional custom, is hereditary, but that the right of inheritance may be changed or limited by act of parliament. That the reader may enter morn clearly into the deduction of the royal succession, it may be proper to inform him, that, on the death of queen Elizabeth without issue, it became necessary to recur to the other issue of her grandfather Henry VII. by Elizabeth of York his queen, whose eldest daughter Margaret having married James IV. king of Scotland, king James the Sixth of Scotland, and of England the First, was the lineal descendant from that alliance ; so that in his person, as clearly as iu Henry VIII., centred all the claims of the different competitors from the Norman invasion downward ; he being indisputably the lineal heir of William I. And, what is still more remarkable, in his person also centred the right of the Saxon monarchs, which had been suspended from the Norman invasion till his accession : for Margaret, the sister of Edgar Atheling, daughter of Edward the Outlaw, and grand>daughterof Edmund Ironside, was the person in whom the hereditary right of the Saxon kings resided. She married Malcolm III. king of Scotland : and •Henry II., by a descent from Matilda their daughter, is generally called the restorer of the Saxon line. But it must be remembered that Malcolm, by his Saxon queen, had sons as well as -daughters : and that the royal family of Scotland, from that time downward, were the offspring of Malcolm and Margaret. Of that family James I. was the lineal de- scendant; and he therefore united in his person every possible claim, by hereditary right, to the English as well as Scotish throne, being the heir both of Egbert and William the Norman. At the Revolution in 1688, the convention of estates, or representa- tive body of the nation, declared that the misconduct of king James II. amounted to an abdication of the government, and that the throne was therefore vacant. In consequence of this vacancy, and from a regard ENGLAND. US to the ancient linie, the cohvention appointed the next ptotestant heirs of Cliarles I. to fill the vacant throne, in the old order of succession ; with a temporary exception, or preference of the person of William III. On the impending failure of the protestant line of king Charles I. (whereby the throne might again have become vacant), the parliament extended the settlement of the crown to the protestant line of James I. — viz., to the princess Sophia of Hanover, and the heirs of her^ body, being pro- testants ; and she is now the common stock, from which the heirs of the crown descend. Though in some points the Revolution was not so perfect as might have been wished, yet, from that aera, the bounds of prerogative and liberty have been more accurately defined, the principles of government more thoroughly examined and understood, and the rights of the subject more explicitly guarded by legal provisions, than in any other period of English history. The convention avoided with great wisdom the ex- tremes into which the visionary theories of some zealous republicans would have led them. They held that the conduct of king James amounted to an endeavour to subvert the constitution, and not to an actual subversion or dissolution of the government. They therefore voted it to amount to no more than an abdication of the government, and a consequent vacancy of the throne. Thus the government war allowed to subsist, though the executive magistrate was gone, and the kingly office to remain, though James was no longer king ; and the constitution was kept entire, which, upon every sound principle of government, must other- wise have fallen to pieces, if so principal and constituent a part as the royal authority had been abolished, or even suspended. Hence it is easy to collect that the titl6 to the crown is at present he- reditary, though cot quite so absolutely hereditary as formerly ; and the common stoci', or ancestor from whom the descent must be derived, is also dififerent. Originally the common stock was king Egbert; then William the Conqueror; afterward, in the time of James I., the two common stocks united, and so continued till the vacancy of the throne in 1688: now it is the princess Sophia, in whom the inheritance was vested by the new king and parliament. Formerly the descent was ab- solute, and the crown devolved to the next heir without any restriction ; but now, upon the new settlement, the inheritance is conditional, beings limited to such heirs only of the body of that princess as are members of the church of England, and are married to none but protestants. In this due medium consists the true constitutional notion of the right of succession to the crown. The extremes between which it steers, have been thought to be destructive of those ends for which societies were formed. Where the magistrate, upon every succession, is elected by the people, and may, by the express provision of the laws, be deposed (if not punished) by his subjects, this may sound like the perfection of liberty, and look well enough when delineated on paper ; but, in practice, it will be found difficult and dangerous. On the other hand, divine indefea- sible hereditary right, when coupled with the doctrine of unlimited passive obedience, is surely of all constitutions the most thoroughly slavish and dreadful. But when such an hereditary right as our laws have created and vested in the royal stock is closely interwoven with those liberties which are equally the inheritance of the subject, this union will form a constitution, in theory the most beautiful of any, in practice the most approved, and probably in duration the most permanent. This consti- tution it is the duty of every Briton to understand, to revere, and to defend. The principal duties of the king are expressed in the oath taken at th^ iU SNQUNP; « coronation, which is administered by one of the archbishojps or biihopi of the realm, in the presence of all the people, who, on their parts, take the oath of allegiance to the crown. By this oath, the king engages to goTem the people according to the laws and customs of the realm, and the parliamentary statutes; to execute law and justice in mercy; to maintain the laws of God, the trae profession of the Gospel, and the protestant reformed religion established by law. In this summary are comprehended all the duties which a monarch can owe to his people. The king of Great-Britain is the greatest monarch reigning over a free people. His person is sacred in the eye of the law, which makes it high treason even to imaging or intend his death. In himself, he cantiiH be deemed guilty of any crime, the law taking no cognisance of his actions, but only in the persons of his ministen, if they infringe the laws of the land. As to his power, it is very great, though he has no ri^t to extend his prerogative beyond the limits prescribed by the con- tdtution ; he can make no new laws, nor raise new taxes, nor act in op> position to any of the laws : but he can make war or peace, send and receive ambassadors, make treaties of league and commerce^ levy armies and fit out fleets; grant commissions to his officers, both by sea and land, «r revoke them at pleasure ; dispose of all magaiinei, castles, &g. : summon the parliament to meet, and adjourn, prorogue, or dissolve it at pleasure; and refbse his assent to any bill, though it has passed bodi bouses ;— but this is a prerogative which the kings of England have not exercised since the reign of WUliam III. He possesses the right of choosing his own council : of nominating all the great officers of state, of the household, and of the church ; and, in fine, is the fountain of honor, from whom all degrees of nobility and knighthood are derived. Or THE FARLiAMtiTT.] It is agreed (says sir William Blackstcne) that in the main the constitution of parliament, as it now stands, was na^lced out so long ago as the year 1215, in the charter granted by king John, in which he promises to summon all archbishops, bishops, abbots, Iwds, and greater barons, personally, and all other tenants in chief under the crown, by the sheriffs and baiii£b, to meet at a certain place, with forty days' notice, to assess aids and scutages when necessary ; and this constitution hath subsisted, in fact, at least from the year 1266, then being still extant writs of that date to summon knights, citizens, and burgesses, to parliament. These writs were issued during the prevalence of the powernil earl of Leicester ; and the custom was continued, with Some intermissions, after his ruin and death. The parliament is assemUcd by the king's writs, and its sitting must not be intermitted above three years. Its constituent parts are, the king, sitting there in his royal political capacity, and the three estates of the realm, the lords spiritual and temporal, who sit together with the king in one house, and the commons, v.'ho sit by themselves in another. The king and these three estates, together, form the great corporation or body pcditic of the kingdom, of which the king is said to be caput, friitcipnem, et finis : for, upon their coming together, the king meets them, either in person, or by representation ; without which there can be no beginning of a parliament ; and he alone can dissolve the assembly. It is highly necessary, for preserving the balance of the constitution, tiiat the executive power should be a branch, though not the whole, of the legislature. The crown cannot begin of itself any alterations in the present established laws ; but it may approve or disapprove the alteratioas fuggMted b^ ths two bouiw, The legtilaturt , thenrton, cuuMt abridge BNQLAKD. U1 the necdHre power of any rights which it how has by law, without Ub own consent, since the law must perpetually stand as it now does, unlese all the powers should agree to alter it. And herein indeed consists the true excellence of the English government, that all the parts of it form a check upon each other. The loids spiritual are two archbishops and twenty-four bishops, with four from Ireland. The lords temporal are all the peers of the realm, tihe biahops hot being in strictness held to be such, but merely lords of pari- Uament. Some of the peers sit by descent, as do all ancient peers; some by creation, as do all the new ones ; others, since the unions with Scotland and Ireland, by election, which is the case of the sixteen peers who represent the body of the ScoUsh nobility, and the twenty-eight peers who represent the Irish nobility. The number of peers may be increased at will by the power of the crown. A body of nobility is more peculiarly necessary in our mixed and com* pounded constitution, in order to support the rights both of the crown and the people, by forming a barrier to withstand the encroachments ci both. It creates and preserves that gradual scale of dignity which pro- ceeds from the peasant to the prince, rising like a pyramid from a broad foundation, and diminishing to a point as it rises. The nobles therefore are the pillars, which are reared from among the people, more immedi- ately to support the throne ; and, if that should fall, they must also be buried under its ruinp. Accordingly, when the commons in the Long Parliament had determined to exUrpate monarchy, they also voted tho house of lords to be useless and dangerous. Tlie lower house consists of such men of property in the kingdom as have not seats in the house of lords. In a free state, every mai. who is supposed a free agent ought to be, in some measure, his own governor; and therefore a branch at least of the legislative power should reside in the whole body of the people. In so large a state as ours, it is very wisely contrived that the people should do that by their representatives which it is impracticable to perform in person,— representatives chosen for a number oi minute and separate districts, wherein all the voters are, or easily may be, distinguished. The counties are therefore represented by knights, elected by the proprietors of lands ; the cities and boroughs are represented by citizens and burgesses, chosen by the mercantile par^ or supposed trading interest, of the nation. These representatives amount to 658, of whom 100 are deputed from Ireland, and 45 from Scotland. Every member, though chosen by one particular district, serves, when elected and returned, for the whole realm ; for the end of his going thither is not particular, but general; not merely to serve his con- stituents, but also the commonwealth, and to give good advice to his majesty. These are the constituent parts of the parliament, — the king, the lords Spiritual and temporal, and the commons ; parts, of which each is so necessary, that the consent of all three is required to make any new law that shall bind the subject. Whatever is enacted for law by one, or by two only, of the three, is no statute ; and to it no regard is due, except when it relates to their own privileges. The power of parliament, says sir Edward Coks, is so transcendent and absolute, that it cannot be confined, either for causes or persons, within any bounds. It hath sovereign and uncontrollable authority in the making, confirming, enlarging, restraining, abrogating, repealing, reviving, and expounding, of laws, concerning matters ecclesiastical er temporal| eiVil, military, maritime, or crinunal ; this being the place L2 U8 ENGLAND. where that abflokte diespotic power, which must reside in all govern- ments, is intrusted by the constitution of this kingdom. All mischiefg and mevances, oppressions and remedies, that transcend the ordinary coutM of the laws, are within the reach of this extraordinary tribunal. It can regulate or new-model the succession to the crown, alter and esta- blish the religion of the land, change and create afresh even the consti- ttttion of the kingdom, and of parliaments themselves. It can, in abort, do every thing that is not naturally impossible; and therefore tBome have not scrupled to call its power, by a figure rather too bold, the omnipotence of parliament. Yet its power, being given to it in trust, ought to be employed according to the rules of justice, and for the pro- motion of general welfare. And it is a ihatter most essential to the liberties of the kingdom, that such members be delegated to this im- Iwrtaiit trust as are most eminent for their probity, fortitude, and know- ege; for it was a known apophthegm of the great lord-treasurer, Burghley, " that England never could be ruined but by a parliament; " and, as sir Matthew Hale observes, this being the highest and greatest court, over which none other can have jurisdiction in the kingdom, if by any means a misgovernment should fall upon it, the subjects of this king- dom are left without a legal remedy. In order to prevent the mischief that might arise from the consign- ment of this extensive authority to incapable or improper hands, it is -provided, that no one shall sit or vote in either house of parliament, unless he be twenty-one years of age. To prevent innovations in religion and government, it is enacted, that no member shall vote or sit in either house ivithout having, in the presence of the house, taken the oaths of allegiance, supremacy, and abjuration, and subscribed and repeated the declaration against transubstantlation, the invocation of saints, and the sacrifice of the mass. The most important privileges of the members of both houses are those of speech and of person. It is declared by the statute of 1 William and Mary, as one of the liberties of the people, " that the freedom of speech, and debates, and proceedings in parliament, ought not to be im- peached or questioned in any court or place out of parliament." Their lands and goods were also privileged ; but, in the year 1770, they con- descended to renounce the right of securing their goods, in cases of debt, from legal distress or seisure. Eiich peer has a right, by leave of the house, as being liis own repre- sentative, when a vote passes contrary to his sentiments, to explain and record his dissent, which is usually styled his protest. Upon particular occasions, these protests have been so bold as to give offence to the majority of the house, and have therefore been expunged from their jour- nals ; but this has always been thought a violent measure. The house of commons may be properly styled the grand inquest of Great-Britain, empowered to inquire into all national grievances. The peculiar laws and customs of the house of commons relate principally to the raising of taxes, and the elections of members to serve in parlia- ment. With regard to taxes — it is the ancient and indisputable privilege and right of the house of commons, that all grants of subsidies, or par- liamentary aids, begin in their house, and be first bestowed by them, although even these grants are not cifectual, to all intents and purposes, until they have the assent of the other two branches of the legislature. The general reason given for this exclusive privilege is, that the supplies are levied upon the body of the people, and therefore it is proper that they alone should have the right of taxing themselves; and tb<» com* ENGLAND. 149 moBS are so jealous of this privilege, that they will not permit the least alteration to be made by the lords in the mode of taxing the people by a money-bill : yet they are sometimes so complaisant as to adopt, in a new bill, the very amendment which they blamed the peers for introducing. The mode of making a law is nearly the same in each house. The act of the majority binds the whole ; and this m'^jority is declared by votes publicly and openly given, not privately, or by ballot. The latter method might, perhaps, be serviceable, to prevent intrigues and uncon- stitutional combinatioHi} ; but it cannot properly be practised with us, at least in the house of commons, where the conduct of every member is subject to the future censure of his constituents, and therefore should be openly submitted to their inspection. To bring a bill into the house of commons, if the relief sought by it be of a private nature, it is first necessary to prefer a petition, wluch must be presented by a member. This petition (when founded on facts that may be in their nature disputed) is referred to a committee of members, who examine the matter alleged, and accordingly report it to the house; and then (or, otherwise, upon the mere petition) leave is given to introduce the bill. In public matters the bill is brought in upon motion, without any petition. (In the house of lords, if the bill begin there, it is, when of a private nature, referred to two of the judges to examine and report the state of the facts alleged.) This is twice read, and, after each reading, the speaker opens to the house the substance of the bill, and puts the question whether it shall proceed. After the second reading, it is referred to a private committee, or (if the bill be of general importance) to a committee of the whole house. In the latter case, the speaker quits the chair (another member being appointed chair- man,) and may sit and debate as an ordinary representative. In these committees, the bill is debated, clause by clause, and sometimes is entirely new-modeled. After it has gone through the committee, the chairman reports it to the house with the amendments: it is then re- considered, and the question is repeatedly put upon every clause and amendment. The bill is then ordered to be engrossed on one or more long rolls of parchment, sewed together. Even at the third reading, amendments are sometimes made to it ; and the speaker, holding it up to view, puts the question whether it shall pass. After this it is pre- sented (usually by its original proposer) at the bar of the house of peers. It there passes through the same forms ns in the other house ; and, if it be rejected, no more notice is taken. But, if it be adopted, the lords send a message, importing that they have agreed to the same ; and the bill remains with the lords, if they have made no amendment to it. When any amendments are made, they are sent down with the bill, to receive the concurrence of the commons. If this house should disapprove the amendments, a conference usually follows between members de- puted from each house, who, for the most part, settle and adjust the difference ; but, if both houser remain inflexible, the bill is dropped. The same forms are observed, mutatis mutandis, when the bill begins in tha house of lords. But, when an act of grace or pardon is proposed, it is first signed by his majesty, and then read once only in each of the houses, without any alterations. The royal assent maybe given fo a bill in two ways : 1. In person. When the king sends for the commons to the house of peers, the speaker carries up the money-bills in his hand : and, in delivering them, he ad- dresses hu mtgesty in a solema speech, i^ which he seldom fails to extol tscr ^NQtANP. Hm tMibroktty and lapAtyitf the cftmmooi, »ttd «oii>«Utow vmi^t^ t^ toll W majesty how neceaswy it is to be frugal of the public money. It is upon this occasion that the commons of Great-Brjtam appear in theii hiichest lustre. The titles of all bills that hare passed bojh bouses are read ; and the king's answer is declared by the clerk of the parliameot ia the old Nonpan dialect. When the king consents to a public bill, the clerk declares, le roy le vent, ** the king wills it so to be : " and, when the bill is of a private nature, soit/aii comme il est desirS, " be it as it is desired." If assent be refused (a case which has not occurred in our times) the clerk makes use of this mild language, le roy s*avisera, "the king will consider of it." When a money-bill is passed, it is carried up and presented to the king by the speaker of the house of commons, and the royal assent is thus expressed : le roy remercie ses loyaux sujets, accepte leur benevolence, et ainsi le veut, " the king thanks his loyal subjects, accepts their benevolence, and wills it so to be." In case of an act of grace, the clerk thu9 pronounces the gratitude of the subject : kt prelats, seigneurs, et commons, en ce present parlement assemblSs, au nom de touts vos autres sujets, remercient tris humblement votre »ta> jesti, et prient d Dieu vous donner en sante bonne vie et longue ; " the prelates, lords, and commons, in this present parliament assembled, in the name oi all your other subjects, most humbly thank your majesty, and pray to God to grant you in health and wealth long to live." 2. By the statute 33 Henry iVIII. c. 21, the king may give his assent by letters^ patent under his great seal, signed with his hand, and notified, in his absence, to both houses assembled in the high house, by commissionerg consisting of certain peers named in the letters. The bill thus enacted, is placed among the records of the kingdom, no formal promulgation being required to give it the force of a law, as was necessary by the civil law with regard to the imperial edicts : because every man in England is, in judgement of law, party to the making of an act of parliament, being supposed to be present by bis representatives. However, copies of it are usually printed at the king's press, for the information of the public. From the above general view of the English constitution, it appears that no security for its permanence, which the wit of man can devise, jg wanting. If it should be objected that parliaments may become so cot- rupted, as to give up or betray the liberties of the people, the answer is, that parliaments, as every other body politic, are supposed to watch over their political existence, as a private person does over his natural life. If a parliament were to act in that manner, it must become felo de se, an evil that no human provisions can guard against. But there are great resources of liberty in England ; and, though the constitution has been sometimes dangerously wounded, and even overturned, its innate powers have recovered and still preserve it. ^ The king of England, beside his high court of parliament, has subor* dinate officers and ministers, who are responsible for their advice and conduct. They are made by the king's nomination, without either patent or grant ; and, on taking the requisite oaths, they become immediately privy-counsellors during the life of the king who chooses them, but sub- ject to removal at his pleasure. The duty of a privy-counsellor appears from the oath of office, which consists of seven articles: 1. To advise the king according to the best of his knowlege and discretion. 2. To advise for the king's honor, and good of the public, without partiality through affection, love, need, doubt, or dread : 3. To keep the king's coiuuel secret : 4. To avoid corruption: ENOUKP. 1^1 6. To help ud itrangthen the exeeation ef wh»X th^ll be there re«>lTed : e! To witMtand all persoiM who would attempt the contranr ; And, lastly, to observe, keep, and do, all that a good and true Qouoeellor QWght to do to his sovereign lord. As no government can be so complete as to be provided with laws th^t may answer every unforeseen emergency, the privy-council, in such cases, can supply the deficiency. Upon great and urgent occasions, such as that of a famine, or the dread of one, they can supersede the operation of the law, if the parliament be not sitting ; but this is considered as illegal, and an act of parliament must pass for the pardon and indemnification of those concerned. To prevent the necessity of an eventual application for a bill of indemnity, the ministers lately (iu 1826) requested the two houses to grant, prospectively, the power of mitigating the rigor of the laws, respecting the importation of corn, if there should, during the recess, bo any danger of a great advance of the price of that necessary article of consumption. The office of secretary of state was formerly divided into a southern and a northern department^ referring to the two grand divisions of Eu- rope. This distinction is now abolished ; and there is one secretary for foreign affairs, and another for the home department. During the Ame- rican war, there was a third secretary of state, whose office was revived in 1794, by the title of secretary for the department of war and the colonies. The cabinet-council is a committee of the privy-council, consisting of a select number of ministers and noblemen, according to the king's opi- nion of their integrity and abilities, or attachment to the views of the court ; but, though its operations are powerful and extensive, a cabinet- council is not essential to the constitution of England. This observation naturally leads us to mention the person who is so well known by the name of the^rs^ minister: a term unknown to the English constitution, though the office, in effect, is perhaps necessary. The constitution points out the lord-chancellor as minister ; but the affairs of his own court give him sufficient employment. When the office of first lord of the treasury is united with that of chancellor of the exchequer in the same person, he is considered as first minister. The truth is, his mi^esty may make any one of his servants his first minister. But, though it is no office, there is a responsibility annexed to the name and common repute, that renders it a post of difficulty and danger. The lord chancellor is an officer of the greatest weight and power of any now subsisting in the kingdom, and is superior in precedency to every temporal lord. He is usually the speaker of the house of lords : he is a privy-counsellor by his office : he appoints all justices of the peace : he is visitor, in right of the king, of all hospitals and colleges of the king's foundation, and patron of all the king's livings under the value of 20^. per annum in the king's books. He is the general guardian of all in- fants, idiots, and lunatics, and superintends all charitable uses in the kingdom. 'The post of high treasurer, formerly a distinct employment, is now vested in a commission, consisting of five persons, who are called lords of the treasury : but the fir'^t commissioner is supposed to possess the power which that great officer formerly enjoyed. He has the manage- ment and charge of all ti\e < evenues of the crown kept in the exchequer, as also the letting of the leases of all crown lands, and the gift of all placet belonging to the cuatoma in the several ports of the kingdom. '•I .^- 162 ENGLAND. It i« the duty of the president of the council to propoie M the buaineti transacted at the council-board, and to report to the king, when hit maiesty is not present, all its debates and proceedings. This is a place of great dignity as well as difficulty, on account of the vast number of American and West-Indian causes, captures, and the like affairs, th»t come before the board; all which may be abridged, to the great couTe. uience of the subject, by an able president. The keeper of the privy seal puts the king s seal to all charters, granU, and the like, which are signed by the king, in order to their passing the great seal ; and he is responsible if he should apply the privy seal to any thing against the law of the land. , , , . , The great chamberlain of England attends the king s person, on hU coronation, to dress him : he has likewise charge of the house of lords during the sitting of parliament; and of fitting up Westminster-hall for coronations, trials of peers, or impeachments. The office of high constable has been disused since the attainder and execution of Stafford duke of Buckingham, lu 1521 ; but it is occasionally revived for a coronation ; as is also that of high steward, who likewise presides, pro tempore, at the trial of a peer or peeress for a capital crime. Il time of war, the earl-marshal was judge of military causes, and decided according to the principles of the civil law. If the cause did not admit such a decision, it was left to a personal combat, which was attended with a great variety of ceremonies; the arrangement of which, even to the smallest trifle, fell within the marshal's province. To this day he (or his deputy) regulates all points of precedency accord- ing to the archives kept in the heralds' office, which is entirely withio his jurisdiction. He directs all solemn processions, coronations, pro- clamations, and general mournings. The office of high admiral of England is now holden by commission, and is equal in importance to any of the preceding, especially since the increase of the British naval power. The English admiralty is a board of direction as well as execution, and is in its proceedings independent of the crown itself. All trials upon life and death, in maritime affairs, are appointed and holden under a commission immediately issuing from that board ; and the members must sign even the death-warrants for execution. The board of admiralty regulates the whole naval force of the realm, and names all its officers, or confirms them when named ; so that its jurisdiction is very extensive. The commissioners appoint vice-admirals under them : but, from them, an appeal lies to the high court of admiralty, which is of a civil nature. All the proceedings of this court pass in the high admiral's name, or those of the commissioners, and not in that of the king. The judge of this court is commonly a doctor of the civil law, and its proceedings are according to the practice of that law ; but all criminal matters, relating to piracies, and other capital offences committed at sea, are tried and determined according to the laws of England, by witnesses and a jury. Courts of law, and laws.] The court of chancery is next in dignity to the high court of parliament, and is designed to relieve the subject against frauds, breaches of trust, and other oppressions, and to mitigate the rigor of the law. The chancellor sits as sole judge, and, in his absence, the master of the rolls. This court is always open ; and, if a man be sent to prison, the chancellor, in any vacation, may grant a habeas corpus. The king's bench— so called either because the king used to sit there ENGLAND. 153 in peNon, or because all matters determinable by common law between the king and his subjects are here tried, except such affairs as properly belong to the court of exchequer— is likewise a kind of check upon all the inferior courts, their judges, and justices of the peace. Here preside four judges, the first of whom is styled the chief justice of England, to express the great extent of his jurisdiction over the kingdom: for this court can grant prohibitions in any cause depending either in spiritual or temporal courts ; and the house of peers may direct the chief justice to issue his warrant for apprehending persons under suspicion of high crimes. In the court of common-pleas cognisance is taken of all pleas debatable, and civil actions depending, between subject and subject ; and in it, beside all real actions, fines and recoveries are transacted, and prohi- bitions likewise issue from it, as well as from the king's bench. There are four judges belonging to this court ; and only Serjeants at law are allowed to plead in it. The court of exchequer was instituterl for managing the revenues of the crown, and has a power of judging according to law and equity. In the proceedings according to law, four persons act as judges, who aro styled barons, because formerly none but barons of the realm were allowed to be judges in this court. But, when it proceeds according to equity, the lord-treasurer and the chancellor of the exchequer preside, assisted by the barons. All matters touching the king's treasury, revenue, customs, and fines, are here tried and determined. For putting the laws effectually in execution, a high-sheriff is annually appointed by the king for every county, except Westmorland and Mid- dlesex. His ofiice is both ministerial and judicial. He is to execute the king's mandate, and all writs directed to him by the courts of justice ; to empannel juries ; to bring causes and malefactors to trial ; and to see sentence, both in civil and criminal affairs, executed. He is likewise to decide the elections of knights of the shire, and to judge of the qualifica- tions of voters. As his office is judicial, he keeps a court called the county court, to hear and determine all civil causes under forty shillings. As the keeper of the king's peace, both by common law and special com- niuision, he is thu iir«t man in the county, during his office; and he may call out the posse comitat&s, or power of the county, when he is apprehensive of commotion or of danger. The next officer to the sheriff is the justice of peace. Several of these magistrates are commissioned for each county: and to them is intrusted the power of putting a great part of the statute law in execu- tion, with regard to the higliways, the poor^ felony, riots, the preservation of the game, &c. ; and they examine and commit to prison all who break or disturb tbe peace. In order to punish the offenders, they meet every quarter at the county-town, when twelve men, forming the grand inquest of the county, inquire into all delinquencies, and state their opinions of the propriety of proceeding to trial, or of the expediency of dismissing the offenders. If the former be their decision, a true bill of indictment is said to be found. Every city has a jurisdiction within itself, to judge in matters civil and criminal ; with this proviso, that civil causes may be removed from its court to the higher courts at Westminster, and capital offences are committed to the judges of the assize. A mayor, aldermen, and bur- gesses, make the corporation of the city, and hold a court of judicature. Some cities are counties, and choose their own sheriffs; and all of them have a power of making by-laws for their own government. In- 'V IM XNGUNO. .=^t Lia tmmUA.hmwi^'itMii nw]yc» the Mm« footinfi ntAt ibr tli^ tetttrgovflraaiMilcf YiUogM* th«l .nessof the matniTionial state is left entirely to the ecclesiasUcal law; the punishment, therefore, or annulment of incestuous or other unscrip. tural marriages, is the province of spiritual courts. There are two kinds of divorce ; one total, the other partial. The total divorce must be for some of the canonical causes of impediment, and those existing before the marriage ; as consanguinity, affinity, or corporal imbecility. The issue of such marriage, as it is thus entirely dissolved, are bastards. The other kind of divorce is when the mar- riage is just and lawful, and therefore the law is tender of dissolving it; but, for some supervenient cause, it becomes improper, or impossible, for the parties to live together; as in the case of intolerable ill temper, or adultery, in either uf the parties. In this case the law awards alimony to the wife, except when, for adultery, a total divorce is granted by the parliament. Our law in general considers man and wife as one person ; yet thers are some instances in which she is separately considered as inferior to him, and acting by his compulsion ; and therefore all deeds executed, and acts done, by her, during her coverture, are void, except it be a fine, or the like matter of record, in which case she must be solely and aecretly examined, to learn if her act be voluntary. She cannot by will devise land to her husband, unless under special circumstances; fur, at the time of making it, she is supposed to be under his coercion. For some f )nies, and inferior crimes, committed by her through constraint of her husband, the law excuses her; but this extends not to treason or murder. The husband also (by the old, and likewise by the civil law) might give his wife moderate correction ; for, as he is to answer for her mis- behaviour, the law thought it reasonable to intrust him with this power of restraining her by domestic chastisement, in the same moderation with which a man is allowed to correct his servants or children ; for whom the master or parent is also liable in some cases to answer. But, in the polite reign of Charies II,, this power of correction began to be doubted I and a wife may now have security of peace af^ainat her hu«< ^ rOVQUND. 150 btad, or mw % htiiAHMtd Ag*^ ^ w>^ < 7^^ ^^ ^^*' '1^'^ <>' I^Pl* «dll claim ud exprt their ancient privilege ; and the Gowrt« of li^v will «^li permit a hunband to restrain a wife of her liberty, io oa^e of grow piitbehaTiour. No other oonititution is provided with to many fepcee as that of England is, for the security of personal liberty. Everv man imprispoed has a right to demand a writ of habeas corpus ; and if a judge, after copsidenng the cause of commitment, should find that the offence is bailable, the person is immediately admitted to bail, until he in con- demned or acquitted in a proper court of justice. The rights of indi-r viduals are so attentively guarded, that the subject may, without the least danger, sue his sovereign, or those who act ia his- name and under his authority : he may do this in open court, where the king may be obliged to pay damages to his sul^ect. The ruling power eaoqot imprison the me^pest individual, unless he has, by some illegal act of which he is accused upon oath, forfeited bis right to liberty ; or except when the state is in danger, and the representatives of the people tjiink that the public safety makes it necessary to confine persons oh suspicion of guilt ; in which case, the habeas-corpus act is rendered nugatory by a temporary statute. The king has a right to pardon ; but neither he, nor the judges to whom he delegates his authority, can condemn a man as a criminal, except he be first found guilty by twelve men, who must be his peers or equals. That the judges may not be influenced by the king or his ministers to misrepresent the case to the Jury, they have their salaries for life, and not during the pleasure of their sovereign^ When jurors are named for a trial, the supposed offender may in open court peremptorily ol^ect to twenty or even mo.s of the number, until at last twelve unexceptionable men, living near the place where the alleged fact was committed, are brought forward, who take the following oath, that they " shall well and truly try, and true deliverance make between the king and the prisoner, whom they shall have in charge, according to the evidence." These only are the judges from whose sentence the prisoner is to expect life or death ; and upon their integrity and understanding the lives of all who are brought in danger ultimately depend ; and from their judgement there lies no appeal: they are therefore to be all of one mind, and, after they have fully heard the evidence, are to be confined without meat, drink, or candle, until they are unanimous in acquitting or condemning the pri- soner. Every juryman is therefore vested with a solemn and awful trust; and, if he should join ia condemning the prisoner without being fully convinced of his delinquency, he will entail upon himself the com* plicated guilt of perjury and murder. It is much to be regretted that persons of education and property are often too ready to evade serving the office of juror. Thus juries fre- quently consist of ignorant and illiterate persons, who neither have knowlege enough to understand their rights and the privileges of En- glishmen, nor spirit enough to maintain them. No man should be above servir; so important an office, when regularly called upon; and those who, from indolence or pride, decline discharging this duty to their coun- trv, seem not to deserve that security and liberty which the inhabitants of England derive from this institution. Juries have, indeed, always been considered as giving the most effectual check to tyranny : for, in a nation like this, where a king can do nothing against law, they are a ■security that he shall never make the laws, by a bad administration, the ioitrmPflBts of cruelty and oppression. Were it not for juries, the advice P 156 ENGLAND. % iriren by father Paul, in his maxims of the republic of Venice, might take effect in its fullest latitude: " When the offence is committed by a nobleman against a subject," says he, "let all ways be tried to justify him ; and, if that cannot easily be done, let him be chasUsed with greater noise than damag?. If it be a subject who has affronted a nobleman, let him be punished with the utmost severity, that inferiors may not get a custom of laying their hands on the patrician order." In short, were it not for juries, a corrupt nobleman might, whenever ho pleased, act the tyrant, while the judge would have that power which is now denied to our kings. But, by our happy constitution, all imaginable indulgence it allowed even to the meanest offenders. When a prisoner is brought to take bin trial, he is freed from all bonds ; and, though the judges are sup. posed to be counsel for the prisoner, yet, as he may be incapable of vindi. eating his owa cause, other counsellors are allowed him : he may ♦ry the validity and legaUty of the indictment, and may set it aside, if it lo cou- trary to law. As trials in England are very different from those of other nations, the following account may be useful to foreigners, and to others who have not seen those proceedings. The prisoner being called to the bar, the clerk commands him to hold up his hand, then charges him with the crime of which he is accused, and asks him whether he is guilty or not guilty. If the latter answer be given, the trial commences, even though the prisoner may have con- fessed the fact ; for the law of England takes no notice of such confession; and unless the witnesses, who are upon oath, prove him guilty of the crime, the jury must acquit him; for they are directed to bring in their verdict according to the evidence given in court. Formerly, when a prisoner refused to plead, that is, when he would not say in court whe- ther he was guilty or not guilty, he was pressed to death, with a load of iron upon his breast ; but at present the same sentence is passed on him as in case of conviction. When the witnesses have given their evidence, and the prisoner has, by himself or his counsel, cross-examined them, the judge recites to the jury the substance of the testimony, and bids them discharge their coH' sciences : when, if the matter be very clear, they commonly give their verdict without going out of the court ; and the foreman, for himself and the rest, declares the prisoner Guilty or Not guilty, as it may hap- pen to be. But, if doubts arise amongst the jury, they all withdraw into a room, with a copy of the indictment, where they are locked up until they are unanimous; and, if any one of the jury should die during this confinement, the prisoner will be acquitted. When the jury have agreed, the prisoner is again brought forward to hear the verdict. This is unalter- able, except in some doubtful cases, when the verdict is brought in spe- cial, and is therefore to be determined by the twelve judges. When an offender is capitally convicted, the sentence of death, after a summary account of the trial, is pronounced by the judge in these words : " The law is, that thou shalt return to the place whence thou earnest, and thence be carried to the place of execution, where thou shalt be hanged by the neck till thy body be dead ; and the Lord have mercy on thy soul ! " The sheriff is then charged with the execution. Of punishments.] The law of England includes all capital crimes under high treason, -petty treason, and felony. The first consists in plotting, conspiring, or rising up in arms, against the sovereign, or in counterfeiting the coin. By a law of Edward III., the traitor waa pu- nished by being drawn on a sledge to the place of execution, when, after ^ ENGLAND. 167 being h&ng^d for Bomb minutes, the body was cut down alive, the heart taken out and exposed to public view, and the entrails burned ; the head was then cut off, and the body quartered. All the criminal's lands and goods were forfeited ; his wife lost her dowry, and his children both their estates and nobility. But, though coining was adjudged high treason, the criminal was only drawn upon a sledge to the place of execution, and there hanged. Though the same sentence is pronounced upon all traitors, yet, with respect to persons of quality, the punishment is generally mitigated into simple decapitation. This is rather considered as a remission of the more horrible parts of the sentence, than as a different punishment. lo the last executions for treason, the criminals were not taken down from the gallows before they were dead ; and then their heads were cut off, and exhibited to the view of the gazing and shuddering throng. The punishment for misprision of high treason — that is, for neglecting or concealing it — is imprisonment for life, the forfeiture of all the offend- er's goods, and of the profit arising from his lands. Petty treason is when a child kills his father, a wife her husband, a clergyman his bishop, or a servant his master or mistress. Women guilty of this crime, or of high treason, were sentenced to be burned alive ; but this law has been repealed in our time ; and the law now makes no difference between one' murder and another. Felony includes murder, robbery beyond the value of forty shillings, highway-robbery even to the smallest amount, and forgery. These crimes are all punished by hanging ; only murderers are to be executed soon after sentence is passed, and then delivered to the surgeons for dissection. Persojs guilty of robbery, when there are some alleviating circumstances, are generally condemned to hard labor, or transported for a term of years, or for life, to New South- Wales. Manslaughter, which is the unlawful killing of a person without pre- meditated malice, is punished with imprisonment : but wounding or striking, with an intent to kill, is a capitad offence, even if no serious in- jury be committed. Perjury subjects the offender to imprisonment ; and petty larceny entails on the delinquent the disgrace of flagellation ; but women are no longer exposed to that stigma. Revenues of the \ The 'icing's ecclesiastical revenues consisted in GOVERNMENT. ji 1. the custody of the temporalities of vacant bishoprics ; 2. allowances and pensions, formerly due to the king, from monasteries ; 3. extra-parochial tithes ; 4. the first-fruits and tenths of benefices. The second branch is necessarily extinct, for r reason which will be obvious to every reader ; and the crown has relinquished the be- nefit of the rest. The king's ordinary temporal revenue consisted in, 1. the demesne lands of the crown ; 2. the hereditary excise, being part of the consideration for the purchasn of hk feudal profits, and the prerogatives of purveyance and pre-emption ; 3. an annual sum issuing from the duty on wine-licenses, being the residue of the same consideration ; 4. his forests ; 5. his courts of justico, &c., in lieu of all which, at theaccession of George III., the parliament allowed 800,000/. per annum, and, at the commencement of the present reign, above a million sterling. The extraordinary grants are usually called supplies, and are settled by the house of c9mmonB, who, when they have voted a supply to his majesty, resolve themselves into a committee of ways and means, to con- sider of the various modes of raising it. The taxes are — the land and malt-tax; the customs or commercial exactions; the excise, or inland impositions on a great variety of commodities; the post-office duty ; the 153 ENGLAND. * € aUaapt 6h paper, pawhmenl, &c. 5 the dntiei on hwam and wbdotnij licensee for hackney coaches and chairs ; and the duties on ofSces and pensions. . The produce of the ordinary revenue, in the year ending on the fit|» of July, 1826, was about 47,300,000/., including the imposts approprf. ated to the payment of the interest of the national debt ; — a remark, able appendage of the established government, which now calls for our notice. After the Revolution, when our increased connexions with the other powers of Europe introduced a new i^^stem of foreign politics, the ex. penses of the nation, not only in settling the new establishment, but in maintaining long wars, as principals, on the continent, for the' seen. rity of the Dutch barrier, reducing the French monarchy, settling the Spanish succession, supporting the house of Austria, maintaining the Ubeities of the Germanic body, and other purposes, increased the debt to an unusual degree; insomuch that it was not thought advisable to nam all the supplies of any one year by taxes to be levied within that year, lest the unaccustomed weight should excite serious discontent. It wu therefore the bad and certainly unjust policy of the times to anticipat mon seal, unleae by act of parliament ; they were not to trade, at sufibr any person in trust for them to trade ; but they might deal in bills of ex- change, in buying or selling bullion, and foreign coin. By a new act, they were empowered to enlarge their capital to 2 201 170/< It was then also enacted, that bank-stock should be a per- sonal and not a real estate ; that no contract, either in word or writing, for the purchase or sale of it, should be good in law, unless registered in the books of the bank within seven days, and the stock transferred in fourteen days ; and that it should be felony, without the benefit of clergy, to counterfeit the common seal of the bank, or any sealed bank-bill, or any bank-note, or to alter or erase such bills or notes. It was always understood, that the bank ought not to issue mere notes than that amount for which it had cash to answer; but, in 1797, ltd inability of giving specie, in return for offered notes, greatly alarnied the public, and led to a parliamentary inquiry, the result of whieh was il demonstration of its solvency and security ; and, indeed, its stabili^ must be coeval with that of the government All that it has advanced to the public must be lost, before its creditors can sustain anjr loss. No other banking company in England can rival it. It acts not only as an ordinary bank, but as a great engine of state. It receives and payi the greater part of the annuities that are doe to the creditors of th« public ; it circulates exchequer bills t and it advances to government the annual amount of various taxes. It likewise discounts the bills of merchants; and has upon several occasions supported the credit of the principal houses not only of England, but of Amsterdam and Hamburg.^ East-India compaky.] This company was instituted, in the reign of Elisabeth, for the direction and management of the rising trade with- the East-Indies. It soon began to flourish, and the dividends upon its stock were sometimes very considerable : but, in the reign of James IL, the king's partiality for the African trade, the losses which the company bad sustained in wars with the Dutch, and the revolutions Which had hap^ pened in the affairs of India, damped the ardor of the jutaple to sapport it ; so that, at the time of the Revolution, it was far from being in a prosperous state. As it had no parliamentary sanction, its stock was often sold for one half less than it was really worth ; and it was resolved that a new eompany should be erected under the authority of parliament.^ The opposition given to all the public- spirited measures of king William, by faction, rendered this proposal a matter of considerable difficulty ; but at last the new subscription prevailed; and the subscribers, ad- vancing two millions to the public at 8 per cent., obtained an act in their favor. The old company, however, retained a great interest beth in the parliament and nation: and, the act being found in some respects defective, so violent a struggle between the companies arose, that in 1703 they were united. In consequence of various loans to the state, the com- pany repeatedly procured a prolongation of the right of exdtisive tnlde. In 1730, when its privileges were extended for thirty-three years, the interest of its capital, which then amounted to 3,190,000/., was reduead to 3 per cent. That fund is different from the trading stock of the com- pany ; the proprietors of which, instead of receiving a regular annuity, have, according to their different shares, a dividend of the profits arising from the trade. A proprietor of stock to the amount of 1000/. whethor< man or woman, native or foreigner, has a right to be' a manager, and to give a vote in the general council. By ocMsional purchase^ hy grada«I aad systematio enentchBWtit, and m ENGLAND. by interfering in the wars of the native powers, the company acquired a great extent of territory, and a consequent increase of trade ; and, asitg establishment seemed to be an imperium «i imperio, or to involve a degree of authority which encroached on the more legitimate claims of the state, the parliament thought proper, in 1773, to render it more de- pendent and controllable. Ten years afterward, when the misconduct of the directors and servants of the company seemed to threaten the esta- blishment with ruin, Mr. Fox endeavoured to remedy the disorder by a bill which would have transferred the supremacy of British India to himself and his friends. This bill was approved by the commons ; but strong opposition was made to it in the house of lords, as placing too dangerous a powt-r in the hands of a party, which would be sure to operate against the legitimate authority of the crown ; and, after long debates, it was thrown out by a majority of sixteen peers. By Mr. Pitt's bill of settlement, which was substituted for the abor- tive scheme of Mr. Fox, six persons were nominated by the king as com. missioners for the tiffairs of India. This board was to superintend, direct, and contirol, all acts, operations, and concerns, which related to the civil and military government or revenues of the British territories in that part of the world. The directors were required to deliver to the commissioners all minutes, orders, and resolutions of themselves, and of the court of proprietors, and copies of all letters, orders, and instructions, proposed to be sent abroad, for their approbation or alteration. They wer« allowed to appoint the servants abroad ; but the king had a power, by his secretary of state, to recall any one of the governors or members of the councils, or any person holding an office in the settlements, and make void the appointment. This bill also gave, to the governor and council of Bengal, a control over the other presidencies, in all points which re- lated to any transactions with the country powers, to peace and war, or to the application of their forces or revenues ; but even that council was subjected to the absolute direction of the company at home, and, in all cases, except those of immediate danger and necessity, restrained from acting without orders Irom England. Some years after this arrangement, the capital of the company was allowed to be raised to five millions; and, in 1793, the monopoly was qualified by the permission of private traffic under certain restrictions. At the same time the parliament obliged the company to contribute 500,000 pounds per annum to the exigencies of the state. With regard to the progress of the trade, it may be observed, that the sale of tea, silk, piece-goods, salt-petre, spices, drugs, and other articles imported from the East, which, for sixteen years prior to 1757, had scarcely ex- ceeded the annual average of two millions, nearly amounted in 1806 to nine millions, the private trade being included. This favorable pro- spect, however, was clouded by the increase of the company's public debt, arising from frequent wars, and from the excess of expenditure, in the various establishments, above the revenue. When a renewal of the monopoly was solicited, in 1812, the parlia- ment listened to the public voice, rather than to the suggestions of the directors, and opened the trade with India to all merchants and specu- lators ; but the commerce with the Chinese empire was still left exclu- sively to the company, which obtained, for twenty years, a continuance of territorial power. South-Sea company.] During the long war with France in the reign of queen Anne, the sailors of the royal navy were obliged by their necessities to Bell the tickets, given to them for future payment, at a ENGLAND. 161 discount of 40/. and sometimes 50/. per cent. By this and other means, the unfunded debts of the nation, which amounted to 9,471,325/. fell into the hands of usurers. Mr. Hailey proposed a scheme to allow the proprietors of these debts and deficiencies 61. per cent, per annum, and to incorporate them under the title of The Governor and Company of Merchants of Great-Britain trading to the South-Seas. Though this companjr seemed formed for the sake of commerce, the ministry never thought seriously, during the course of the war, about making any set- tlement on the coast of South-America, which was what flattered the expectations of the people ; nor was it indeed ever carried into execution, or any trade ever undertaken by this company, except the Assiento for furnuhing the Spaniards with negroes. Some other sums were lent to the government in the reign of queen Anne, at 6 per cent. In the third year of George I. the interest of the whole was reduced to 5 per cent., and the company advanced two millions more to the government at the same interest. It was declared by statute, that this company might redeem all or any of the redeemable national debts ; in consideration of which, the directors were empowered to augment their capital according to the sums they should discharge, and indeed to raise such sums as in a general court might be judged necessary: but it was declared, that, if they should purchase lands or revenues of the crown on account of the corporation, or lend money by loan or anticipation on any branch of the revenue, other than such part only on which a credit of loan was granted by parliament, they should forfeit three times the value. The mischievous South-Sea scheme, transacted in 1720, was executed upon the last-mentioned statute. The company had set out with good success; and his mtcjesty, after purchasing 10,000/. stock, had conde- scended to be the ostensible governor. Things were in this situation, when the South-Sea bubble was projected ; the pretence of which was to raise a fund for carrying on a trade to the South-Sea, and purchasing annuities, &c,, paid to the other companies : and proposals were printed and distri-« buted, showing the advantages of the design, and inviting per- sons into it. The sum necessary for carrying it on, and the profits that were to arise from it, were divided into shares or subscriptions ; and, the better to carry on the deception, the directors engaged to make very large dividends, and actually declared that every 100/. original stock would yield 50/. per ""num; which occasioned so great a rise of their stock, that a share of lOO/. was sold for upwards of 800/. This was in July ; but, before the end of September, it fell to 150/, ; by which multitudes were ruined, and such a scene of distress occasioned as is scarcely to be conceived. Most of the directors were severely fined, to the loss of nearly all their property ; even those who had no share in the deception, because they ought to have opposed and prevented it. The East-India company, the Bank of England, and the South-Sea company, ate the only incorporated bodies to which the government ig indebted, except the million bank, whose capital is only one million, con- stituted to purchase the reversion of the long exchequer orders. As every capital stock or fund of a company is raised for a particular purpose, and limited by government to a certain sum, it necessarily fol- lows, that, when that fund is completed, no stock can be bought of the company, though shares, already purchased, may be transferred from one person to another. This being the case, there is frequently a great dis- proportion between the original value of the shares, and what is given for them when transferred ; for, if there are more buyers than sellers, a person who is indifferent about selling will not give up his share without M 162 ENGLAND. a considerable profit to himself; and, on the contrary, if many are dig. posed to sell, and few inclined to buy, the value of such shares will natu. rally fall, in proportion to the impatience of those who wish to turn their stock into cash. . These observations may serve to give our readers some idea of the nature of that unjustifiable and dishonest practice called stock-jobbing, the mystery of which consists in nothing more than this; the persons concerned in that practice, who are denominated stock-jobbers, make con- tracts to buy or sell, at a distant time, a certain quantity of stock; against V/hich time they endeavour, according as their contract is, either to raise or lower such stock, by spreading rumors and fictitious stories, in order to induce people either to sell out in a hnrry, and consequently at a low rate, if they are to deliver stock; or to become unwilling to sell it, and consequently to make it dearer, if they are to receive stock. The persons who make these contracts do not in general possess any real stock ; and when the time comes that they a i to receive or deliver the quantity for which they have contracted, they only receive or pay such a sum of money as makes the difference between the price which the stock bore when they made the contract and the present price. Hence it is no uncommon thing for persons not worth 100 pounds to make contracts for buying or selling 100,000 pounds of stock. The buyer is, in this case, called the Bull, and the seller the Bear ; one is for raising or tossing up, and the other for lowering or trampling upon, the stock. While the annuities, and interest for money advanced, are regularly paid, and the principal ensured by both prince and people (a security rarely found among other nations), foreigners will lend us their property, and ail Europe be interested in our welfare ; the paper of the companies will be converted into money and merchandise, and Great-Britain can never want cash to carry her schemes into execution. In other nations, credit is founded on the word of the prince, if a monarchy ; or that of the people, if a republic ; but here it is established on the strongest secu- rity, — the united interest of the prince and the people. Military and marike force | In a land of liberty it is extremely OF Great-Britain. 5 dangnrous to make a distinct order of the profession of arms. In fact, no man ought to take up arms, but with a view to the defence of his country and its laws : a freeman does not, when he enters the camp, relinquish the character of the citizen ; but it is because he is a citizen and would wish to continue so, that he makes himself for a while a soldier. The laws and constitution of this realm know no such state as that of a perpetual soldiery, bred to arms alone ; and it was not till the reign of Henry VII. that the kings of Eng- land had even a guard about their persons. In the mean time, however, the kiniliir saint of England, commonly enameled on gold, suspended from a blue riband. The garter, which is of blue velvet, bordered with gold, buckled under the left knee, was designed as an ensign of unity and combination : on it are embroidered the words, Honi soil qui mat y pense, *' Accursed or confounded may he be who evil thinks." Knights of the Bath, for many reigns, were created at the coronation of a king or queen, or on other solemn occasions. They wear a scarlet ENGLAND. 165 riband hanging from the left shoulder, with an enameled medal, the badge of the order, a rose issuing from the dexter side of a sceptre, and a thistle from the sinister, three imperial crowns being placed within the motto, Triajuncta in uno, " Three joined in one." This order, being discontinued, was revived by George I. in 1725. The origin of the English peerage, or nobility, has been already men- tioned. The titles, and order of dignity, are dukes, marquises, earls, viscounts, and barons. .Baronets enjoy the only hereditary honor under the peerage, and would take place even of the knights of the Garter, if the latter were not always privy-counsellors, there being no intermediate honor between them and the parliamentary barons of England. They were instituted by James I. in 1611. A koight signifies a soldier st rvlng on horseback ; a rank of no mean estimation in ancient armies, and entitling the parties themselves to the appellation of Sir. Other knighthoods formerly took place in England ; such as those of bannerets, bachelors, knights of the carpet, and the like; but they are now disused. The title of esquire formerly denoted any person, who, by his birth or property, was entitled to bear arms ; but it is at present applied to any man who can afford to live in the character of a gentleman, without trade; and even a tradesman, if he is a justice of the peace, demands the appellation. This degree, so late as in the reign of Henry IV., was an order, and conferred by the king, by putting about the party's neck a collar of SS, and giving liim a pair of silver spurs. Serjeants at law, justices of the peace, doctors in divinity, law, and physic, take place of other esquires. Xbe appellation of gentleman, though now be- stowed with little discrimination, is the root of all English honor ; for every nobleman is presumed to be a gentleman, though every gentleman is not a nobleman. Rkligion.] While we dismiss, as mere fiction, the stories of the predication of the Gospel in this island by St. Paul, St. James, Simon Zelotes, and Joseph of Arimathea, we have some authority for asserting, that, about the year 150, a great number of Britons professed the Chris- tian faith. From that period, Christianity advanced its benign and sa- lutary influence among the inhabitants ; and, in the reign of Constan- tine, it became the established religion of the state. It fled into Wales with the harassed Britons, when the pagan Saxons had erected their heptarchy. At length the invaders imbibed the evangelical doctrines from some papal missionaries ; and a hierarchy was gradually established. The Romish corruptions made as great progress in this country as in other parts of Europe ; and ages of superstition seemed to cement the fabric of spiritual authority. The memory of Wickliffe, who flourished in the reign of Richard II., is entitled to our esteem ; for he was the first person in Europe who publicly called in question, and boldly re- futed, those doctrines which had been current during so lon<^ a period. But the time of reform had not then arrived. The effectual exposure of error was re8er^'ed for Luther, whose pious endeavours led to the triumph of protestant orthodoxy. The Reformation, promoted by the violenceof Henry VIII., was established by the prudence and spirit of his daughter Elizabeth ; and our church then assumed that form which it still retains. The constitution of the Anglo-Saxon church was episcopal, and the benefices of the bishops were converted by the Norman conqueror into temporal baronies, in right of which every bishop has a seat and vote m EN(?LAJfD. EL in the house of peers. The benefice! of the inferior clergy are now frea. told; but in maiiy places the tjthes are impropriated, or vested in the iMty! The oeconomy of the church of Englan4 has been accused for the inequality of its livings ; some of them extending from two hundred to four thousar'l pounds fer annum; and many, particularly in Walei, being too small to maintain a clergyman, especially if he has a family, with tolerable decency; but this cannot easily be remedied, unless the dignified clergy would adopt and support a scheme of reformation. The bounty of queen Anne, and the deduction of the first-fruits of benefices, beside recent parliamentary grants, have contributed, though in a small degree, to the augmentation of poor livings. The church of England is governed by twenty-six prelates, whose re- venues have been highly augmented by the remarkable rise in the value of those lands which were originally annexed to the foundations. The archbishop of Canterbury is the first peer of the realm, as well as metro- politan of the English church. He takes precedence, next to the royal umily, of all dukes and officers of state. He is enabled to hold eccle- siastical courts upon all affairs that were formerly cognisable in the court of Rome, when not repugnant to the law of God, or the king's preroga- tive. Beside his own diocese, he has under him the bishops of London, Winchester, Ely, Lincoln, Rochester, Lichfield and Coventry, Hereford, Worcester, Bath and Wells, Salisbqry, Exeter, Chichester, Norwich, Glocester, Oxford, Peterborough, Bristol : and, in Wales, St. David'g, Llandaff, St. Asaph, and Bangor. By the constitution and laws of England, the primate has such ex. tensive powers, that, ever since the death of archbishop Laud, it ha« been deemed prudent to raise to that dignity men of very moderate principles : but they have generally been men of learning and abilities. This practice has been attended with excellent effects, with regard to the public tranquillity of the church, and consequently of the state. The archbishop of York takes place of all dukes not of the blond- roysd, and of all officers of state, the lord-chancellor excepted. He has in his province, beside his own diocese, the bishoprics of Durham, Carlisle, Chester, and Sodor and Man. In Northumberland, he has the power of a palatine, and jurisdiction in all criminal proceedings. The bishops examine and ordain priests and deacons, consecrate churches and burying-places, and administer the rite of confirmation. Their jurisdiction relates to the probation of wills : they grant admi- nistration of the goods of such as die intestate, take care of perishable goods when no one will administer, collate to benefices, grant institu- tions to livings, defend the liberties of the church, and visit their dioceses once in three years. Next to the bishops are the deans and prebendaries of cathedrals ; but it would perhaps be difficult to assign their utility in the church, farther than to add to the pomp of worship, and to make provision for clergymen of eminence and merit, though interest often prevails over merit in the appointment. The archdeacons visit the churches every year ; but their offices are less lucrative than they are honorable. Subordinate to them are the rural deans, formerly styled arch-presbyters, who signify the bishop's pleasure to his clergy, the lower class of which consists of priests and deacons. The ecclesiastical government of England is ostensibly lodged in the convocation, which is a national representative body or synod. This as- sembly, in the reign of queen Anne, entered warmly into the disputes between the Whigs and Tories; and aa the latter had the ascendency ENGLAND. 167 amoag tlio clergy, the foriner advued George I. to check the spirit of debate by a prorogation. Since that time, the convocation haa only met pro formd at the opening of a new parliament. The most ancient consistory of the province of Canterbury is the" court of arches, to which all appeals in spiritual affairs or causes, from the judgement of the inferior courts, arc directed. The processes run in the name of the judge, who is called dean of the arches ; and the ad- vocates who plead in this court must have taken the degree of doctor of the civil law at Oxford or Cambridge ; for the graduates uf less respect- able universities, or indeed of any other academical bodies, are inva- riably rejected. The prerogative court is that which grants probates of wills and letters of administration ; and it also decides ecclesiastical and matrimonial causes. From the court of arches, an appeal lies to the de- legates, who do not constitute a permanent court, but are occasionally appointed by the royal commission, two or more of the twelve judges b^.->g authorised to decide a particular cause with the aid of some ci- vilians; and, when the delegates have pronounced their opinions, the dissatisfied party may demand a commission of review. Every bishop lias also a court ; and archdeacons have likewise their courts, as well as the dean and chapter of every cathedral. The church of England is nov. , beyond any other national church, tolerant in its principles. Moderation is its governing character ; and in England no religious sect is prevented from wovshiping God in that manner which the conscience may approve. The wisdom of acknow- legiug the king as the head of the church is conspicuous, in check- ing all religious persecution and intolerance ; and, if religious sectaries have multiplied in England, it is from the same principle tliat civil licen- tiousness has prevailed — that is, a tenderness in matters that affect cither conscience or liberty. The bias which the clergy had toward popery in the reigns of Henry VIII. and Edward VI., and even so late as that of Elizabeth, occasioned an interposition of the civil power for a farther re- formation. Thence arose the puritans, so called from their maintaining a singular purity of life and manners. Many of them were worthy pious men, and some of them good patriots. Their descendants are the modern presbifterians, who retain the same character, and have true principles of civil and reli^'ious liberty ; but their theological sentiments have undergone a considerable change. Their doctrine, like that of the church of Scotland, was originally derived from the plan instituted by Calvin, and tended to an abolition of episcopacy, and an establishment oJf presbyteries for the government of the church. But the modern English presbyterians, in their ideas of church-government, differ very little from the independents, or congreg&tioaalists, who are so called from holding the independence of congregations, without any respect to doctrine ; and, in this sense, almost all the dissenters in England are now independents. As to points of doctrine, a great and increasing number of presbyterians are Arminians, or votaries of free will. The Baptists also form a nu- merous class of dissenters. They do not believe that infants are proper subjects of baptism : and in the baptism of adults they practise immersion. The Methodists arose about the year 1739, under the auspices of Mr. John Wesley, who had been regularly educated and ordained. Mr, George Whitefield also professed that methodical purity which gave rise to the appellation : but these pretended reformers did not long act in concert. Whitefield thought that the forms of ecclesiastical worship and prayers, whether taken from a common-prayer book or poured forth 168 ENGLAND. extempore, were mattewi of indifference ; he therefore made uie of both these methods. His followers are rigid observers of the doctrinal art!, cles of the church of England, and profess themselves to bo Calvinisu. Wesley preferred the doctrine of free-will to election and rci)robation. He erected a tabernacle near Moor-fields, and had under him a coniU deraSle number of subordinate preachers, who submitted to their leader very implicitly, and made proselytes throughout the kingdom with grew The sect of Quakers arose about the middle of the 17th century. They believe in the immediate influence of the Holy Spirit, and reject all forms in worship, even the sacraments of baptism and tho Lord's sup. per. They declare against oaths, adhering literally to Christ's positive injunction, " Swear not at all ;" and to war they have a rooted aversion. They disuse the names of the months and days of the week, as being In honor of the false gods of the heathens ; and avoid the custom of speak- ing to a single person in the plural number, as having arisen from mo. tives of adulation. They declare it their decided judgement that it is contrary to the Gospel to sue each other at law ; and they enjoin all to end their differences by speedy and impartial arbitration. If any refuse to adopt this mode, or, having adopted it, to submit to the award, it is the rule of the society that such be disowned. Upon the whole, they are an honest, upright, and moral sect. Many families in England still profew the Romish religion. They are excluded by law from corporations, from the highest offices, and from parliamentary privileges. They have frequently attempted to pro- cure a full admission to all the rights of British subjects; but, as they still retain their intolerant principles, and are still animated with the zeal of conversion, it is deemed unsafe and impolitic to trust them with power; and p government decidedly and constitutionally protestant can- not be blamed for securing itself i^ainst the eventual influence of such intruders. Beside a variety of religious sects, England has also its free-thinkers; but that term has been used in very different senses. It has sometimes been used to denote oppsers of religion in general, and of revealed re- ligion in particular ; but it has also been applied to those who have been far from disbelieving Christianity, and who have only opposed some of those doctrines which are to be found in public creeds and formularies, but which they conceive to be no part of the original Christian system. As to deists or infidels, there is reason to believe that they are much more numerous in some popish countries than in Eng- land. Christianity is so much obscured and disfigured by the fopperies and superstitions of the Romish church, that men who think freely are naturally apt to be prejudiced against it, when they see it in so disad- vantageous a form ; and this appears to be in fact very much the case abroad. But in England, where men have every opportunity of seeing it exhibited in a more rational manner, they have less cause to be pre- judiced against it, and are therefore more ready to enter into an exami- nation of the evidence of its divine origin. Nor does it uppear that the writings of the deists against Christianity have been of any real disservice to it : on the contrary, they have caiised the arguments in its favor to be used with greater force and clearness, and have been the means of producing such defences of it, as all the acuteness of modern infidelity has been unable to overthrow. Literature, and the arts.] England may be considered the seat of learning and the muses. Alfred cultivated both, when barbarism ENGLAND. 169 and Ignorance ovewpreftd the greater part of Europe ; and, even dur- ing the dark agei, some men occasionally appeared in England, who distinguished themselves by their writings or studies. Among the writers in the Anglo-Norman reigns, several historians may be named who united with their talents a respectable portion of learning, parti< cularly the two monks of Malmesbury and Newburgh ; and two poets may also bo mentioned with praise; namely, Hanville and Joseph of Exeter. The reign of the third Henry was dignified with the appearance of that prodigy of learning and natural philosophy, Roger Bacon, who was the forerunner in science of the great Bacon, lord Verulam, as the latter was to sir Isaac Newton. Among the curious works written by this illustrious man, we find treatises upon theology, philology, mathe- matics, physics, the flux and reflux of the sea, optics, geography, as- tronomy, logic, metaphysics, ethics, medicine, chemistry, and on the impediments of knowlege. The poets Chaucer and Gower, whose pro- ductions arc read with pleasure even in the present age, flourished in the reigns of Edward III. and Richard II. Since the Reformation. England resembles a galaxy of literature ; and it is only doing justice to the memory of cardinal Wolsey, though otherwise a dangerous and profligate minister, to acknowlcge that his example and encourage- ment laid the foundation of the polite arts, and greatly contributed to the complete revival of classical learning in England. As many of the English clergy had different sentiments in religious matters at the time of the Reformation, encouragement was given to learned foreigners to settle in England. Edward VI., during his short life, greatly encouraged these foreigners, and showed dispositions for cultivating the most useful parts of learning, had he lived. Elizabeth was a learned princess. She ad- vanced I lany persons of consummate abilities to high ranks, both in church and state ; but she seems to have considered their literary accom- plishments as only secondary to their civil. In this she showed herself a great politician ; but she would have been a more amiable queen, had she raised genius from obscurity : for, though she was no stranger to Spenser's muse, she suffered herself to be so much imposed upon by a tasteless minister, that the poet languished and died in obscurity. Though she relished the beauties of the divine Shakspeare, we know not that he was distinguished by any partMilar acts of her munificence; but her parsimony was nobly supplied by her favorite the earl of Essex, the most elegant scholar of his age, and his friend the earl of South- ampton, who were liberal patrons of genius. The encouragement of learned foreigners in England continued in the reign of James I., who was very munificent to Casaubon, and other foreign authors of distinction, even of dift'erent principles. He was him- self no great author; but his example had a considerable efiect upon his subjects ; for in his reign were formed tlinso great masters of polemic divinity, whose works are almost inexhaustible mines of knowlege. Nor must it be forgotten, that sir Francis Bacon was by him created viscount Verulam, and chancellor of England. He was likewise the patron of Camden, and other historians as well as antiquaries, whose works are to this day standards in those studies. Upon the whole, therefore, English learning is under obligations to James, though, as he had a very pedan- tic taste himself, he was the means of diffusing a similar taste among his subjects. His son, Charles I., cultivated the polite arts, especially sculpture, painting, and architecture. He was the patron of Rubens, Vandyke, Inigo Jones, and other eminent artists ; so that, had it nut been for the m ENGLAND. civil wars, he would probably have converted bis court and capital into 4 second Athens ; and the collections he niade for that purpose, if we con- sider his pecuniary difficulties, were astonishing. His favorite, the duke of Buckingham, imitated him in that respect, and is said to have ex. pended the vast sum of 400,000/. upon his cabinet of paintings and curiosities. The earl of Arundel was another Maecenas of that age, and greatly distinguished himself by his collection of antiquities, now pre- served at Oxford. Charles has been blamed for not patronising the poets of h' > time : but it is well known, that he increased the salary of his poet laureate, the famous Ben Jonson, from 100 marks to 100 pound* fwr annvniy and a tierce of Spanish wine. The public encouragement of learning and the arts suffered an eclipse, during the civil war and the succeeding interregnum. Many veiy learned men, however, found their situations under Cromwell, though be was no stranger to their political sentiments, so easy, that they quietly followed their studies ; and many works of great merit appeared even in those times of distraction. The reign of Charles II. was chiefly distinguished by the great profi- ciency made in natural philosophy, especially by the institution of the Royal Society. The king was a good judge of that branch of study ; and, though he was irreligious, England never abounded more with learned and able divines than in his reign. He admired painting and poetry, but was moxe munificent to the former than to the latter. The incom- parable Paradise Lost, by Milton, was published in his reign, but was not read or attended to in proportion to its inerit, though it was far from being disregarded so much as has been commonly apprehended. This reign, by some, is reckoned the Augustan age in England, and is dig- nified with the names of Boyle, Halley, Hooke, Sydenham, Harvey, Temple, Tillotson, Barrow, Butler, Cowley, Waller, Dryden, Wycherly, and Otway. The pulpit assumed greater majesty, a better style and truer energy, than it had ever kno' .) before. Classic literature re- covered many of its native graces : and the drama luxuriantly flourished. Though England could not, under Charles, boast of a Junes and a Van- dyke, yet sir Christopher Wren introduced a more general regularity than had ever been known before in architecture. Nor was he merely dis- tinguished by his skill as an architect : hit. knowlege was very extensive ; and his discoveries in philosophy contributed much to the reputation of the Royal Society. Some excellent English painters (for Lely and Knel- ler were foreigners) also flourished in this reigu. That of James II., though he likewise had a taste for the fine arts, is chiefly distinguished in the province of literature by the sermons and dissertations of the English divines against popery, which, for strength of reasoning and depth of erudition, never were equaled in any age or country. The names of Newton and Locke adorned the reign of William III., and he had a particular esteem for the latter, as he had also for Tillot- son and Burnet, though he was far from being liberal to men of genius. Learning flourished in his reign, merely by the excellence of the soil in which it had been planted. The most uninformed readers are not unacquainted with the improve- ments which learning, and all the polite arts, received under the aus- pices of queen Anne, and which placed her court at least on a footing with that of Louis XIV. in its most splendid days. Many of the great men who had figured in the reigns of the Stuarts and William were still alive, and in the f • 11 exercise of their faculties, when a new race sprang ENGLAND, 171 suffered an eclipse lurn. Many very Cromwell, though ', that they quietly appeared even in by the great profi. institution of the nch of study; and, nore with learned inting and poetry, tter. The incom- lis reigu, but was jh it was far from prehended. Thig ^land, and is dig- dcnham, Han'ey, ryden, Wycherly, better style and ssio literature re- riantly flourished. ones and a Van- al regularity than he merely dis- very extensive; the reputation of >r Lely and Knel- the fine arts, is the sermons and lich, for strength ed in any age ur of William III., also for Tillot- men of genius, ice of the soil iu rith the improve- 1 under the aus- east on a footing any of the grent William were still new race sprang til X un in the republic pf fparning and thjj arts, Addison, Prior, Pope, Swifl, lord Bolingbrpke, lord Shaftesbury, Arbuthnot, Congreve, Steele, Rowe and other excellent writers both in verse and prose, need only to be mentioned to be admired ; and the English were as triumphant m litera- ture as in war. Natural and moral philosophy kept pace with the polite arts • and even religious and political disputes contributed to the advance- ment of learning, by the great liberty which the laws of England allow in speculative points, and which has been found highly advantageous in the promotion of true and valuable knowlege. The ministers of George I. were the patrons of erudition, and some of them were no mean proficients. George II. was no Maecenas : yet his reign Yielded to none of the preceding in the number of learned and ingenious .aen it produced. The episcopal bench was never known to be more respectably ulled than it was in the early years of his reign ; a full proof that his nobility and ministers were judges of literary qualifications. In other departments of erudition, the favor of the public generally sup- plied the coldness of the court. In the reign of George III., a great progress was made in the polite arts in England. The Royal Academy was instituted, and the annual public exhibitions of painting and sculpture were exceedingly favorable to the arts, by promoting a spirit of emula- tion, and exciting a greater attention to works of genius of this kind among the public in general. During the long reign of his late majesty, almost every branch of hte- rature and of science was cultivated in England with ability and success ; and even short accounts of the persons who then distinguished themselves by their learning, talents, or various merits and services, would fill ^ moderate volume. To the theological attainments of former ages, in- deed, much could not be added, as the scriptural basis remained the same : yet the doctrines of the church were more clearly illustrated, an4 the concomitant interests of morality were more ably enforced. Natural philosophy was improved by an extension of the Newtonian system : a sedulous attention to chemistry was rewarded by various discoveries ; and science was rendered instrumental in the improvement of many useful arts. Geology became a favorite study, and mineralogy was pur- sued with equal zeal. The different branches of the healing art were practised in more judicious modes, and with more general efficacy. Hi- story, being illuminated and dignified by acuteness of remark, more fully answered that definition which represents it as a species of philosophy, teaching by example. Poetry was more gorgeous, picturesque, and fanciful, than it had been iu the time of Pope ; but it seemed to decline in perspicuity and coherence, in elegance and in force. If the tragiq drama did not then remarkably flourish, some excellent comedies were produced ; and the varieties of miscellaueous literature afforded, to an in- creasing nun-, Jw-r of readers, a considerable fund of instruction, and a high degree of entertainm nt. With regard to the present reign, it is sufiicient to observe that the literary fame of the nation has not declined in our time, and that the fine arts have been cultivated with redoubled zeal and corresponding suc- The king is a liberal encourager of learning and the arts. His cess. institution of the Royal Society of Literature is a proof of the former assertion, and his arrangements for the formation of a gallery of painting and sculpture exemplify the latter remark. Univeusities.] The universities of Oxford and Cambridge have produced more learned men than any in Europe. Their magnificent buildings, which in splendor and architecture rival the most superb 172 ENGLAND. royal edifices, tlie rich endowments, the liberal ease and tranquillity enjoyed by those who inhabit them, surpass all the ideas which fo. reigners, who visit them, conceive of literary societies. So respectable are they in their foundations, that each university sends two members to the British parliament, and their chancellors and officers have a civil jurisdiction over their students, the better to secure iheir independence. To Oxford belong nineteen colleges and five halls : the former are very liberally endowed, but in the latter the students chiefly maintain them. selves. This city is supposed by some fanciful antiquaries to have been a considerable place even in the time of the Romans ; and Camden says, that "wise antiquity did, even in the British age, consecrate thisplaw to the Muses." But there is no authority for concluding that any uni- versity existed on this spot before the reign of Alfred, who built three colleges, one for divinitj', another for philosophy, and a third for gram. mar. That which is now particularly called University College, arose from his foundation ; but the process of the work is not exactly known. The next college, in the order of time, was that of Balliol, founded, about the year 1268, by the father of the Scotish king. Walter of Merton, lord-chancellor of the realm, erected and endowed the third, in 1271 The liberality of the lord- treasurer Walter, bishop of Exeter, gave rise to another, in 1316. That of Oriel soon after arose, under the auspices of the almoner of king Edward 11. Eglcsfield, chaplain to Philippa of Hainault, founded Queen's College in 1340; and the next academical erection was that which is still called New-College, though it is now comparatively old. The fifteenth century produced Lincoln college, All- Soulfl, and Magdalen. Six colleges arose in the sixteenth century, namely, Brazen-Nose, Corpus-Christi, Christ-Church, Trinity, St. John's, and Jesus; those of WadSam, Pembroke, and Worcester, were founded in the sequel. The twentieth college was that of Hertford ; but, as this foundation escheated to the crown some years ago, the spot on which it stood was granted to the society of Magdaler -hall. Those who partake of the endowments of the colleges are about 1000 in number: the independent members are much more numerous. At Cambridge, the first collegiate erection was Peter-house, which Hugh bishop of E. founded in 1257: Clare-hall succeeded, in 1326: Pembroke-hall, Bene't or Cor]ius-Chri3ti college, and Trinity-hall, quickly followed. Gonville-hall was founded in 13-18 ; but, iu conse- quence of additional buildings and endowments from Dr. Cay, it became Caius-college in the sequel. The munificence of Henry VI. was distin- guished in 1441, by the foundation of King's-collcge, which is richly endowed, and celebrated for the beauty and majestic dignity of its chapel, built in the finest style of Gothic architecture. His queen exer- cised her liberality in a similar mode, but not in an equal degree, by founding an academical society which took its name from her splendid title. Catharine hall arose from the bounty of Robert Woodlark, chan- cellor of the university. Dr. Alcock, bishop of Ely, converted tho nun- nery of St. Radegund, in 1496, into the col!e<-e of Jesus; and Miirsarpt, the mother of Henry VII., early in the sixteenth century, founded the colleges of Christ and St. John. A new erection was nseditated by the duke of Buckingham, tho unfortunate victim of cardinal ^\'olsey's .imbi- tion and malignity; but the lord-chancellor Audley carried the scheme into effect, and the structure was dedicated to St. Mary Magdalen. These foundations were eclipsed in 1540 by the lustre of a royal work; for Trinity college was then planned by Henry VIll. Those of Emma- nuel and Sidney were organised in the reign of Elizabeth. Downing ENOLAVi>. 173 college is a recent foundation ; and it is so constituted, aa to be rather a convenient receptacle for men of reputed learning, than a place of educa* tion. The fellows and scholars at Cambridge are calculated nearly at 1100, exclusive of those students who entirely support themselves. The senate-house at Cambridge is a most elegant edifice, executed in the Corinthian order. Trinity-college library is also a magnificent struc- ture. The library of Bene't-college is not distinguished by architectural beauty ; but it contains a valuable collection of ancient manuscripts, which were preserved at the dissolution of the monasteries. Language.] The English language ,is principally a compound of the Saxon and the French ; the Saxon, however, predominates ; and the words which are borrowed from the French, being radically Latin, are common to other nations, particularly the Spaniards and the Italians. A great number of words, especially scientific and technical terms, have been introduced from the Latin and Greek. A more minute account of this language would be superfluous to an English reader ; but relatively it enjoys all the properties, without many of the defects, of other Euro- pean languages. It is more energetic, manly, and expressive, than either the French or the Italian ; more copious than the Spanish ; and more eloquent than the German, or the other tongues of Gothic origin. Antiquities.] The antiquities of England are either British, Ro- man, Saxon, Danish, or Anglo- Norm annic. The chief British antiqui- ties are those circles of stones which have been attributed to the times of the Druids. Stonehenge, in Wiltshire, is, by Inigo Jones, Dr. Stukely, and others, described as a regular circular structure. The body of the work consists of two circles and two ovals, which are thus composed : the upright stones are placed at three feet and a half distance from each other, and joined at the top by over-thwart stones, with tenons fitted to the mortises in the uprights, for keeping them in their due positions. Some of these stones are extremely large, measuring two yards in breadth, one in thickness, and above seven in height ; others arc less in proportion. The uprights are wrought a little with a chisel, and sometimes tapered ; but the transverse stones are quite plain. The outside circle is nearly one hundred and eighty feet in diameter, between which and the next circle there is a walk of three hundred feet in circumference, which has a surprising and awful ciTect upon the beholders. Monuments of the same kind as that of Stonehenge are to be met with in Cumberland, Oxfordshire, Cornwall, Devonshire, and many other parts of England, as well as in Scotland and the northern isles. The Roman antiquities in England consist chiefly of altars and monu- mental inscriptions, which instruct us as to the legionary stations of the Romans in Britain, and the names of some of their commanders. The Roman highways give us an idea of the civil as well as military policy of those conquerors. Their vestiges are numerous : one began at Dover, and ended at Cardigan ; another passed frow London through Lincoln j and a branch of it, from Pontefract to Doncaster, strikes out to the west- ward, passing through Tadcaster to York, and thence to Aid by. The remains of Roman camps arc discernible in many counties of England ; one particularly, very little defaced, near Dorchester in Dorsetshire, where also is a Roman amphitheatre. Their situations are generally so well chosen, and their fortifications appear to have been so complete, that there is some reason to believe that they were the constant habitations of the Roman soldiers in England ; though it is certain, froTi the baths and tesselated pavements found in different parts, that their chief oflScers lived in towns. The private cabinets of uoblemeQ and gentlemen, as I|II(IJ«|W. ■«!* 174 England. •well as the public repositories, contain a vast number of Roman artftj coins.^ftute, trinkets, and the like ; but the most amazing monument of the Roman power in England is the wall of Severus, commonly called the Picts' wall, running through Northumberland and Cumberland ; bt. ginning at the mouth of the Tyne, and ending at Solway-frith. The wall at first consisted only of stakes and turf, with a ditch ; but Severus built it with stone- forts and turrets at proper distances, so that each might have a speedy communication with the other ; and it was attended all along by a deep fosse to the north, and a military highway to the ■ south. There is also a fine remain of Roman antiquity, called Richbo. rough castle, near Sandwich in Kent. The Saxon antiquities in England consist chiefly of ecclesiastical edi- fices, and places of strength. The Danish erections in England are hardly discernible from the Saxon. Their camps are of a circular foraj and are generally built upon eminences : but their forts are square. England abounds with Anglo- Normannic monuments, which we choose to call so, because, though the princes under whom they were raised were of Norman original, the expense was defrayed by Englishmen with English money. York minster, and Westminster hall and abbey, are perhaps the finest specimens to be found in Europe of that Gothic man- ner which prevailed in building before the restoration of the Greek and Roman architecture. All the old churches in the kingdom are more or less in the same taste. It is uncertain whether the artificial excavations found in some parts of England are British, Saxon, or Norman, That under the old castle of Reigate in Surrey is very remarkable, and seems to have been designed for secreting the cattle and effects of the natives, in times of war and invasion. It contains an oblong hall, round which runs a bench, cut out of the same rock ; and tradition says that it was the room in which the barons of England met during the wars of king John. The rock itself is soft and very practicable ; but it is hard to say where the excavation, which is continued in a square passage, about six feet high and four wide, terminates, because the work has in many places fallen in. History.] The first inhabitants of Britain were a tribe of the Gauls or Celtae, as we may conclude from the evident conformity in their complexions, language, manners, government, and religion. When the island was invaded by Caesar, about fifty -five years before the Christian eera, his pretended victories were incomplete and indecisive ; nor did the Romans receive the least advantage from his two expedi- tions, but a better knowlege of the island than they had before. The Britons, at the time of his descent, were governed in the time of war by a political confederacy, of which Cassibelan, whose territories lay in Hertfordshire and some of the adjacent counties, was the head ; and this form of government continued among them for a considerable time. In their manner of life, as described by Caesar and the best authors they were rude and uncivilised ; but they certainly sowed corn, though they chiefly subsisted upon animal food and milk. Their clothing con- sisted of skins ; they lived in wattled huts ; and their fortifications were mere beams. They were incredibly dexterous in the management of their chariots ; and they fought with lances, darts, and swords. Women sometimes led their armies to the field, and were recognised as sovereigns in their particular districts. They painted their bodies with woad, which gave them a bluish cast ; and they are said to have had figures of ani- mals and the heavenly bodies on their skins. In their marriages they were not very delicate ; for they formed themselves into what we may fiNfdLANI). ii5 t&\\ matrimomal clubs. Twelve or fourteen men married as many wires, and each wife was common to them all ; but her children belonged to the original husband. The Britons lived, during the long reign of Augustus Csesar, rather as the allies than the tributaries of the Romans ; but the communi- cations between Rome and Britain being then extended, the emperor Claudius, forty-three years after the birth of Christ, undertook an ex- pedition into this island. His conquests, however, were imperfect; Caractacus, and Boadicea, though a woman, made noble stands against the Romans, The former was made prisoner, after a desperate battle, and carried to Rome, where his undaunted behaviour before Claudius gained him the admiration of the victors. Boadicea, being oppressed in a manner that disgraces the Roman name, and defeated, disdained to survive the liberties of her country. Agricola, general to Domitian, after subduing South-Britain, carried his arms into Scotland, where his successors had no reason to boast of their progress, every inch of ground being bravely defended. During the residence of the Romans in thid island, they erected walls to protect the Britons from the invasions of the Caledonians, or Scots. They introduced into it all the luxuries of Italy ; and under them the South-Britons were reduced to a state of vassalage, while the genius of liberty retreated to the northward, where the natives had made a brave resistance against these tyrants of the world. Though the southern Britons were unquestionably very brave, when incorporated with the Roman legions abroad, we know of no struggle they made in later times, for their independence at home, notwithstanding the many opportunities that presented themselves. The Roman emperors and ge- nerals, while in this island, assisted by the Britons, were frequently em- ployed in repelling the attacks of the Caledonians : but they seem to have had no difficulty in maintaining their authority in the southern provinces. Upon the mighty inundations of those barbarous nations, which, under the names of Goths and Vandals, invaded the Roman empire with infinite numbers, and with danger to Rome itself, the Roman legions were withdrawn from Britain, with the flower of the British youth, for the defence of the capital and centre of the empire ; and, that they might leave the island with a good grace, they assisted the Britons in rebuilding with stone the wall of Severus between Newcastle and Ca - lisle, which they lined with forts and watch-towers ; and, having done this good office, they left Britain about the year 420. The Ficts and Scots, finding the island finally deserted by the Roman legions, now regarded the whole as their prize, and attacked the wall of Severus with redoubled force, ravaging all before them with irresistible fury. The poor Britons (like a helpless family deprived of its parent and protector), already subdued by their own fears, repeatedly had re- course to Rome, and sent over a miserable epistle for relief (still upon re- cord), which was addressed in these words : " To Aetius, thrice consul ; The groans of the Britons : " and, after other lamentable complaints said, " that the barbarians drove them to the sea, and the sea back to the barbarians ; and they had only the hard choice left, of perishing by the sword or by the waves." But, having no hopes given them by the Roman general of any succours from that side, they began to consider what other nation they might call over to their relief. By the advice of Vortigern, the chief prince of South-Britain, they engaged two Saxon chiefs, Hengist and Horsa, to protect them from the Scots and Picts. Those adrenturerB readily accepted the inviiationa of the Britons, whom ^Km 176 ENGLAND. ^hey relieved by checking the progress of the enemy. But their own country was so populous and barren, and the fertile lands of Britain were so agreeable and alluring, that they began to meditate a settleraeat for themselves ; and, fresh supplies of their countrymen arriving daily, the Saxons soon became formidable to the Britons, whom, after a violent struggle, they subdued, or drove into Wales. Literature at this time in England was so rude, that we know little of ite history. The Saxons were ignorant of letters ; and public trans- actions among the Britons were recorded only by their bards, a species of men whom they held in great veneration. It does not fall within the design of this work to relate the history of every particular nation that formed the heptarchy. It is sufficient to say, that the pope in the time of Augustin supplied England with about 400 monks, and that the popish clergy took care to keep their kings and laity in the most deplorable ignorance, always magnifying the power and sanctity of his holiness. Hence the Anglo-Saxons, during their heptar- chy, were governed by .priests and monks, who persuaded many of their kings either to shut themselves up in cloisters, or to undertake pilgrimages to Rome, where they finished their days. Some brave, wise, and able princes, however, flourished in those times. Ethelbert, king of Kent, and Ina, the West-Saxon, distinguished themselves as legislators; Edwin and Oswald, the Northumbrian princes, extended the fame of their policy beyond the limits of Britain ; and Ofifa the Mercian, though his hands were stained with blood, exhibited dignity and elevation of character. The heptarchy was in a disordered state, when, in the year 827, the generality of the Anglo-Saxons, weary of the tyranny of their petty kings, called to the throne Egbert king of Wessex, the eldest remaining branch of the race of Cerdic. On the submission of the Northum- brians, he became king of all England, that is, the land of the Angles. He died in 836, and was succeeded by his son Ethelwolf. By this time England had become a scene of blood and ravages, in consequence of the Danish invasions ; and the king, after bravely opposing them, retired in a fit of devotion to Rome. His gifts to the clergy on this occasion were so prodigious, even the tithes of all his dominions, that they show his intellect to have been disturbed by his devotion. He divided his dominions between his sons Ethelbald and Ethelbert. The latter left the kingdom, in 866, to his brother Ethelred, in whose time the Danes became masters of the maritime parts. Ethelred being killed, his brother Alfred mounted the throne in 871. He was one of the greatest princes, both in peace and war, mentioned in history. He fought many battles with the Danes, with various success ; and, when defeated, found resources that rendered him as formidable as before. He was, however, at one time reduced to a state of the greatest distress, being forced to live in the disguise of a cow-herd : but still he maintained a secret cor- respondence with his brave friends, by whose assistance he gave the Danes signal overthrows, till at last he recovered the kingdom, and obliged the enemy, who bad settled in it, to swear obedience to his government. ^ Among the other glories of Alfred's reign, was that of raising a ma- ritime power in England, by which he secured the coasts from future in- vasions. He rebuilt the city of London, which had been destroyed by the Danes, and founded the university of Oxford aLout the year 895. He divided England into counties, hundreds, and tithings : or rather he revived those divisioos, and the use of juries, which had fallen into ENGLAND. 177 disuse by the ravages of the Danes. Having been educated at Rome, he was not only a scholar and a patron of learning, but an author ; and lie tells us, that, on his accession to the throne, he had scarcely a lay subject who could read English, or an ecclesiastic who understood Latin. He introduced stone and brick building into general use in palaces as well as churches, though it is certain that the English, for many ages after bis death, were content with habitations constructed chieny of wood. His encouragement of commerce and navigation may seem incredible ; blithe had merchants who traded in the jewels of India, and William of Malmesbury says, that some of their gems were reposited in the church of Sherborne in his time. He received, about the year 890, a full dis- covery of the coasts of Norway and Lapland, from one Octher, who told him in his memorial, "that he sailed along the coast so far north as com- monly the whale-hunters used to travel." He found faithful and useful allies in the two Scotish kings, his contemporaries, Gregory and Donald, against the Danes. He is said to have fought fifty-six pitched battles. He was inexorable against his corrupt judges, whom he used to hang up in the public highways as a terror to evil-doers. He died in the year 901 ; and his character was so completely amiable and heroic, that he was justly distinguished with the epithet of the Great. Alfred was succeeded by his son Edward the Elder, under whom, though a brave prince, the Danes renewed their invasions. He died in the year 925, and was succeeded by his son Athclstan. This prince greatly en- couraged commerce, and ordained, that every merchant who had made three voyages on his own account to the Mediterranean, should be consi- dered as equal to a thane or nobleman. He caused the Scriptures to be translated into the Saxon tongue. He engaged in several wars with the Scots, in which he was generally successful, and died in 941. The reigns of his successors, Edmund, Edred, and Edwy, were unimportant : but Edgar, who mounted the throne in 959, revived the naval glory of Eng- land, and is said to have been rowed down the river Dee by eight kings, his vassals, while he sat at the helm. Although he was the slave of priests, particularly St. Dunstan, his reign was honorable to himself and happy to his people. He was succeeded in 975 by his eldest son Edward, who was barbarously murdered by his step-mother Elfrida, whose son Ethel- red mounted the throne in 979. England, at this time, was over-run with barbarians ; and the Danes by degrees became masters of the finest parts of the country. In the vain hope of checking their piracies, the king agreed to pay them 30,000Z., which he levied by way of tax : it was called Danegeld, and was the first land-tax in England. In 1002 they had made such settlements in England, that Ethelred consented to a general massacre of them by the English ; but it is improbable that such an order was carried into execution. Some attempts of that kind were undoubtedly made m particular counties ; but they served only to enrage the Danish king Swein, who, in 1013, drove Ethelred into Normandy. Swein, dying suddenly, was succeeded by his son Canute the Great. Ethelred, returning to England, forced Canute to retire to Denmark, whence he invaded England with a great army, and obliged Edmund Ironside (so called from his great bodily strength), Ethelred's son, to divide with him the kingdom. Edmund being assassinated, Canute suc- ceeded to the undivided realm. He died in 1035, after having governed with ability for almost eighteen years. His on, Harold Harefoot, did nothing memorable ; and his successor Hardicanute was so degenerate a prince, that the Danish royalty ended with him in England. The family of Ethelred being now called to the throne, Edward the N 4* m :j il H 178 ENGLAND. Confessor mounted it, though Edgar Atheling had the lineal right. On the death of the Confeaaor, in 1066, Harold, son to Godwin earl of Kent, had sufficient influence to procure the crown. William, duke of Normandy, though of illegitimate birth, was then in the unrivaled possession of that duchy which had been wrested from the French, and resolved to assert his pretensions to the English crown, which, he said, had been bequeathed to him by Edward. For that pur. pose he invited the neighbouring princes, as well as his own vassals, to join him, and made liberal promises to his followers, of land and honori in England, to induce them to assist him effectually. By these means he collected about 60,000 men ; and, while Harold was embarrassed with an invasion from the Danes, the Normans landed in England without op. position. The king, returning from the north, encountered William near Hastings, and a fierce conflict ensued, in which the English were totally defeated. We have very particular accounts of the value of provisions and ma- nufactures in those days : a palfrey cost Is. ; an acre of land Is. ; a hide of land, containing 120 acres, 100s. : a sheep was estimated at Is.; an ox was computed at 6s., a cow at 4s., a man at 3/. ; but there is great di£5culty in forming the proportion of value which those shillings bore to the present standard of mouey. Silk and cotton were quite unknown. Linen was not much used. In the Saxon times, land was divided among all the male children of the deceased. Entails were sometimes practised in those times. With regard to the manners of the Anglo-Saxons, they were in gene- ral a rude uncultivated people, ignorant of literature, unskilful in the mechanical arts, and addicted to intemperance, riot, and disorder. But, amidst those defects, public liberty and personal freedom were well un- derstood and guarded by the Saxon institutions ; and we owe to them, at this day, the most valuable privileges of the English subject. The loss which both sides sufl'ered at the battle of Hastings is uncer- tain. Anglo-Saxon authors say that Harold was so impatient to fight, that he attacked William with half of his army, so that the advantage of number was on the side of the Norman; and, indeed, the death of Harol'^ seems to have decided the day. William then took possession of the throne, and made a considerable alteration in the constitution of Eng- land, by converting lands into kuights'-fees, which are said to have amounted to 62,000, and were holden of the Norman and other great persons, who had assisted him in his conquest, and who were bound to attend him with their knights and followers in his wars. He gave, for instance, to one of his barons the whole county of Chester, which he erected into a palatinate, and rendered by his grant almost independent oi' the crown : and here, according to some historians, we have the rise of the feudal law in England. He found it no easy matter to keep pos- session of his crown. Edgar Atheling and his sister were kindly received in Scotland ; and many of the Saxon lords took arms, and formed con- spiracies in England. The king, however, surmounted all difficulties, but not without exercising unjustifiable cruelties upon the Anglo-Saxons. He introduced the Norman laws and language. He built the stone square tower at London, commonly called the White Tower; bridled the coun- try with forts, and disarmed the old inhabitants : in short, he attempted every thing possible to obliterate every trace of the Anglo-Saxon consti- tution, though, at his coronation, he took the same oath that was taken by the Saxon kings. He caused a general survey of all the lands in Eogluod to be made, or rathtr to be completed (for it was begun in Ed- ENGLAND. 179 ward the Confessor's time), and an account to be taken of the villains or serrile tenants, slaves, and live-stock, upon each estate ; all which were recorded in a book called Domesday-book, still extant. The repose of this prince was disturbed in his old age by the rebellion of his eldest son Robert, who had been appointed governor of Normandy, but began to act as an independent ruler of that province, with the aid of the king of France. William, seeing a war inevitable, entered upon it with his usual vigor ; and with incredible celerity transporting a brave English army into France, was every where victorious, but died before he had finished the war, in the year 1087, the sixty-fifth of his age. The succession to the crown was disputed between the Conqueror's sons Robert and William (commonly called Rufus, from his red hair), and was carried in 'avor of the latter. He was a brave prince, but no friend to the clergy, who were therefore hostile to his memory. He was likewise hated by the Normans, who loved his elder brother; and, consequently, he was engaged in perpetual wars with his brothers and rebellious sub* jects. About this time the crusades to the Holy Land began ; and Ro- bert, who was among the first to engage, accommodated his dispute with William for a sum of money, which he levied from the clei^. Rufus was accidentally killed, as he was hunting in the New- Forest in Hamp- shire, in the year 1100, the forty-third of his age. He was succeeded by his younger brother, Henry L (surnamed Beau- clerc on account of his learning), though Robert was then returning from the Holy Land. Henry may be said to have purchased the throne ; first, by the royal treasure, which he seised at Winchester ; secondly, by a charter, in which he restored his subjects to the rights and privileges they had enjoyed under the Anglo-Saxon kings ; and, thirdly, by his marriage with Matilda, niece to Edgar Atheling. His reign in a great measure restored the clergy to their influence in the state ; and they formed, as it were, a separate body, dependent upon the pope; which afterwards created great convulsions in England. Henry, partly by force and partly by stratagem, made himself master of Robert's person and his duchy, and detained him a prisoner above twenty-seven years, until his death. He was aften^-ard engaged in a bloody, but successful, war with France ; and, before his death, he settled the succession upon his daughter Matilda (widow to Henry V. emperor of Germany) and Henry, her son by GeoflFrey Plantagenet, earl of Anjou. Henry died of a surfeit, in the sixty-eighth year of his age, in 1135. He was able and politic, rather than humane or benevolent. Notwithstanding the late settlement of the succession, the crown was claimed and seised by Stephen, earl of Blois, grandson of William the Conqueror. Matilda and her son were then abroad ; and Stephen was assisted in his usurpation by his brother the bishop of Winchester, and other prelates. Matilda, however, found a generous protector in her uncle David, king of Scotland, and a brave and faithful friend in her natural brother Robert, earl of Glocester, who headed her party. A I mg war ensued ; and Stephen was defeated and made prisoner in 1141. Matilda was proud and weak : the clergy were bold and ambitious ; and, when joined with the nobility, who were factious and turbulent, were an over-match for the crown. They demanded to be governed by the Saxon laws ; and, finding Matilda refractory, they drove her out of England. Stephen, when he was exchanged for the earl of Glocester, who was also a prisoner, found that his clergy and nobility had in a great measure excluded him from the government, by building HOC castles, where each owner lived as an independent prince. He attempted tQ N 2 I 180 ENGLAND. force them to declare his son Eustace heir- apparent to the kingdom ; and this exasperated the clergy so much, that they invited over young Henry of Anjou, who accordingly landed in England with an army of foreigners. This measure divided the clergy from tiio barons, who were apprehensive of a second conquest ; and the earl of Arundel, with the heads of the lay aristocracy, proposed an accommodation, to which both parties agreed. Stephen, who about that time lost his son Eustace, was to retain the name and office of king ; but Henry, who was in fact invested with the chief executive power, was acknowleged his successor. Though this accommodation was only precarious and imperfect, it was received by the English with great joy ; and, Stephen dying very oppor- tunely, in 1 154, Henry mounted the throne. Henry II. was the greatest prince of his time. He soon manifested extraordinary abilities for government ; and had performed, in the six- teenth year of his age, actions that would have dignified the most experienced warriors. At his accession to the throne, he found the con- dition of the English boroughs greatly improved by the privileges granted to them in the struggles between their late kings and the nobi- lity. Henry perceived the good policy of this, and still farther extended the franchises of the boroughs, so that, if a bondman or servant remained in a borough a year and a day, he was by such residence made free. This gave a vast accession of power to the crown, because the king alone could support the boroughs against their feudal tyrants ; and it enabled Henry to reduce his overgrown nobility. Ho resumed the excessive grants of crown-lands made by Stephen, which were represented as ille- gal. He demolished many of the castles that had been built by tlie barons ; but, when he began to attack the clergy, ho found their usurpa- tions not to be shaken. He perceived that the root of all the enormous disorders lay in Rome, where the popes had exempted churchmen, not only from lay courts, but civil imposts. Unfortunately for Henry, the head of the English church, and chancellor of the kingdom, was the celebrated Thomas Becket. This man was violent, intrepid, and a deter- mined enemy to temporal power of every kind, but at the same time cool and politic. The king assembled his nobility at Clarendon, where some constitutions were enacted, which, in fact, abolished the authority of the Ronush see over the English clergy. Becket, finding it in vain to resist the stream, signed those constitutions until they could be ratified by the pope, who, as he foresaw, rejected them. Henry was then embroiled with the neighbouring princes ; and the see of Rome was in its meridian grandeur. Becket, having been arraigned and convicted of robbing the public while he was chancellor, fled to France, where the pope and the French king espoused his quarrel. The eft'ect was, that all the English clergy who were on the king's side were excommunicated, and the laity absolved from their allegiance. This disconcerted Henry so much, that he submitted to a compromise with the rebel prelate, who returned in triumph to England. His return swelled his pride, and in- creased his insolence, until both became insupportable to the king, who, finding that he was in fact only the first subject in bis own dominions, was heard to say, in the anguish of his heart, " Is there no one who will revenge his monarch's cause upon this audacious priest ? " These words reached the ears of four knights, who, without apprising Henry of their intentions, went over to England, where they beat out the brains of the unfortunate prelate before the altar of his own church. The king was in no condition to support the act of his kniglits ; and the public reeentmeat rose so high, on the supposition that he was privy to the mur- ENGLAND. 181 who, der, that he submitted to be scourged by monks at the tomb of the pretended martyr. Henry distinguiahed his reign by the reduction of Scotland to a state of vassalage, and also by the conquest of Ireland ; and, by marrying Eleanor, the divorced queen of France, but the heiress of Guienne and Poictou, he became almost as powerful in France as the French king himself, and the greatest prince in Christendom. In his last years he was unhappy, having embarrassed himself by intrigues with women, particularly the fair Rosamond. His infidelity was resented by his queen Eleanor, who even engaged her sons, Henry, Richard, and John, in repeated rebellions, which alfected their father so much as to throw liim into a fever; and he died at Chinon, in France, in 1189, at the age of fifty-six years. The sum he left in ready money at his death has perhaps been exaggerated; but the most moderate accounts make it amount to 200,000 pounds of our money. Richard I., surnamed Coeur-de-Lion from his great courage, was the third but eldest surviving son of Henry II. He engaged in a most mag- nificent but ruinous crusade to the Holy Land, where he took Ascalon, and displayed his valor by many heroic acts. After several glorious but fruitless campaigns, he concluded a truce of three years with the sultan Saladin; and, as he was returning to England, was treacherously sur- prised by the duke of Austria, who, in 1193, sent him a prisoner to the emperor Henry VI. His ransom was fixed by the sordid potentate at 150,000 marks, about 300,000/. of our present money. On his return, he found his dominions in great disorder, through the practices of his brother John, whom, however, he pardoned ; and by the invasions of the Fre.^ch, whom he repelled ; but he was slain while besieging the castle of Chalons in the year 1 199, the forty-second of his age. The reign of his brother John, who succeeded him, is infamous in the English history. He put to death Arthur, the eldest son of his brother Geoffrey, who had the hereditary right to the crown. The young prince's mother, Constance, complained to Philip, king of France, who soon after deprived John of his Norman duchy. This monarch became at last so apprehensive of a French invasion, that he rendered himself a tri- butary to the pope, and laid his crown and regalia at the foot of the legate Pandulph, who kept them for five days. The great barons re- sented his meanness, by taking arms : but he repeated his shameful sub- missions to the pope; and, after experiencing various fortunes of war, he was at last brought so low, that the barons obliged him, in 1215, to sign the great deed so well known by the name of Mafjna Charta. Though this charter is deemed the foundation of English liberty, yet it is in fact no other than a renewal of those immunities which the barons and their followers had possessed under the Saxon princes, and which they claimed by the charters of Henry I. and his grand-son. As the principles of liberty, however, came to be more enlarged, and property to be better secured, this charter, by various subsequent acts and explanations, be- came applicable to every English subject, as well as to the barons, knights, and burgesses. John had scarcely signed it, when he retracted, and called upon the pope for protection ; on which the barons withdrew their allegiance from him, and transferred it to Louis, the eldest son of Philip Augustus. This gave offence to the pope ; and the barons, being appre- hensive of the subjection of their country to France, returned to their allegiance. John died in 121G, in the fifty-first year of his age. The city of London owes some of her privileges to him. Tlie office oi m 182 ENGLAND. mayor, before Wt reign, wm for life; but he empowered the citizens to choose a mayor out of their own body annually, oud to elect their sheriffs and common-council, as at present. . , . Eoeland was in a deplorable state when the crown devolved upon Henry HI., the late king's son, who was only nine years of age. The earl of Pembroke was chosen his guardian ; and, the pope taking part with the young prince, the French were defeated and driven out of the kingdom, and their king obliged to renounce all claims upon the crown of England. The regent, who hr.d thus retrieved the independence of his country, died in 1219; and the regency devolved upon the bishop of Winchester. The king was of a feeble disposition, and had been per- suaded to violate the Great Charter. Indeed he seemed always endea- vouring to evade the privileger which he had been compelled to grant and confirm. A baronial association was formed against him and his govern- ment ; and, a civil war commencing, Henry seemed to be abandoned by all but his Gascons and foreign mercenaries. His profusion brought him into great difficulties ; and the famous Simon de Montfort (who had married his sister, and was made earl of Leicester) being chosen general of the association, the king and his two sons were defeated, and made prisoners, at the battle of Lewes. A difference happening between Mont- fort and the earl of Glocester, a nobleman of great authority, prince Edward, Henry'" eldest son, obtained his liberty ; and, assembling as many as he could of his father's subjects, he gave battle to the rebels, whom he defeated at Evesham in 1265, their leader falling in the field. Prince Edward being afterwards engaged in a crusade, Henry, during his absence, died in 1272, the sixty-sixth year of his age, and fifty- seventh of his reign. For the parliamentary arrangements which gave lustre to a reign otherwise inglorious, we refer the reader to our sketch of the constitution. To the interented policy of Simon de Montfort, some attribute the rise of the house of commons. Edward I. was a wise and able prince-, and his regulations, and refor- mation of the laws, have justly given hhn Uic title of the English Jus- tinian. He purified the judicial courts, und corrected gross abuses in the practice of the law. He passed the iviortmain act, by which all per- sons " were restrained from giving, by will or otherwise, their estates to (those so called) religious purposes, and to the societies that never die, without a license from the crown." He gave greater freedom and dig- nity to the popular branch of the constitution, and improved, in various respects, the general state of the nation. 'This prince uas involved, by the ambition of Philip the Fair, in a war with France, and was deprived of the duchy of Guienne : but this loss was compensated by the subjugation of the whole principality of Wales. He also conquered Scotland, after having bestowed the disputed crown by arbitration upon John de Baliiol : but the tyranny of his otticers exas- perated the people into a revolt, and Robert de Brus was proclaimed king. Edward resolved to chastise that prince ; but death, in July 1307, put an end to all his schemes and enterprises. His son and successor, Edward II., showed an early propensity to the encouragement of favorites. A Gascon, named Gavaston, who had been banished by the late king, was recalled by the new monarch, and loaded with honors. The barons insisted upon the re-expulsicn of the arrogant and odious favorite: but, when the king had confirmed Magna Charta, he procured the consent of his nobles to the unmolested resi- ENGLAND. 183 dence of his friend in England. The king's renewed misconduct pro* diiced a confederacy against him ; he was obliged to resign his power to 11 baronial committee, and his favorite was put to death. The progress of Robert de Brus in Scotland roused Edward from his indolence ; and he marched with a great army into Scotland ; but, as he was unable to direct tlio operations of the troops, the enemy disgraced him by a signal defeat. Ho was now ruled by another favorite, Hugh le Despenser, against whom the earl of Lancaster and other noblemen rose in arms; but the insurgents were defeated, and their powerful and popular leader was capitally punished. As the king did not exercise his triumph with modemtion, he forfeited the public favor, and, in 1327, fell a victim to the arts of an adulterous wife and the revengeful spirit of an incensed party. Being unsupported by the nation against the leaders of a new rebellion, he was taken while he was eudeavoring to escape, and constrained to resign the crown, which was transferred to his son Edward, who was only in the fifteenth year of his age. His death goon followed : queen Isabella and Roger de Mortimer employed two ruffians to murder him in Berkeley-castle. He was a weak prince, and >hi8 government was capricious and arbitrary : but his intentions are allowed to have been good, and his memory is entitled to respect for his zeal in the encouragement of agriculture and commerce. Edward III., during his minority, acquiesced in the sway of the queen- dowager, (Isabella of France) and Mortimer; but, when he ! ad nearly completed his eighteenth year, he assumed the personal ndn.Iiistration, confining his mother and putting her paramour to death. After govern- ing for many years with ability, he entered into a war with France, pre- tending that he had a right to the crown of that kingdom, as the nephew of the three last kings. He had already distinguished himself by his warlike spirit in a brilliant campaign against the Scots; and he hoped to be equally fortunate against the French. In this contest, the dif- ference between the feudal constitution of France (which then subsisted in full force) and the government of England, more favorable to public liberty, strikingly appeared. The French otiicers knew no subordination. They and their men were equally undisciplined and disobedient, though far more numerous than their enemies in the field. The English free- men on the other hand, having considerable property to fight for, knew its value, and had learned to defend it by providing themselves with ar- mour, and submitting to military exercises and proper subordination in the field. The war, on the part of Edward, was therefore a continued scene of success and victory. At Creci, in August, 1346, above 100,000 French were defeated, chiefly by the valor of the prince of Wales, called from his armour the Black Prince, who was only in his seventeenth year. The loss of the French nearly equaled the amount of the English army, while the conquerors, who were about 32,000 in num- ber, lost not a thirtieth part of their force. The battle of Poictiers was fought in 1356, between the prince of Wales and the French king John, but with very superior advantage of number un the part of the French, who wore totally defeated, and whose sovereign and his favorite son Philip were made prisoners. Edward's glories were not confined to France. His queen Philippa (daughter to the carl of Hainault) had the good fortune to capture the king of Scotland, who had ventured to invade England. Thus Edward had the glory to see two crowned heads his captives at London. After the treaty of Breligni, into which he is said to have been terrified by a dreadful storm, Ids fortunes declined. He had resigned hU French 184 ENGUND. dominions entirely to the prince of Waleo ; and he lost his popularity at home by his attachment to his mistress, Alice Ferrers. Soon after the immature death of his illustrious son, the king died, dispirited and neg- lected, on the 2l8t of June, 1377, at the age of sixty- four years. Edward was so attentive to the interest of his people, as to invite fuller? dyers, weavers, and other artificers, fronj Flanders; and he established the woollen maniifacture among the English, who before his time generally exported the unwiought commodity. In his reign few of the English ships, even of war, exceeded forty or fifty tons. Historians are not agreed whether he made use of artillery in his first invasion of France ; but it certainly was well known before his death. The magni- ficent castle of Windsor was built by him ; and it is remarkable, that he assessed almct every county in England to send him a certain number of i.'ifm for that great worK. Richard II., son of the Black Prince, was not eleven years of age ■when he mounted the throne. During his minority, the doctrines of Wickliffe, who opposed the errors of popery, took root under the influence vi the duke of Lancacter, the king's uncle, and gave enlarged notions of liberty to the lower ranks of people. The duke's connexions with the crowns of Portugal and Spain Avere of prejudice to England ; and so many men were employed in unsuceeesful wars, that the commons of England, like powuer receiving a spark of fire, flamed out into rebel- lion, under the conduct of Ball, a priest, Wat Tyler, Jack Straw, and others, the IcTTCst of the people. The conduct of these insurgents was very violent ; but it cannot be denied that the common people of Eng- land then labored under many oppressions. Richard wps not then fifteen ; but he acted with great spirit and wis- dom. He faced the storm at the head of the Londoners, while Walwortli the mayor, and Philpot an alderman, had the courage to put Tyler to death, in the midst of his adherents. Richard then resigned himself to the sway of favorites. The discontented barons took arms, and forced him into terms ; but, being insincere in all his compliances, h» was on the point of becoming more despotic than any king of England ever had been, when he lost his crown and life by a sudden catastrophe. A quanel having occurred between the dukes of Hereford and Norfolk, the king banished both peers, with particular acts of injustice to the former, who now became duke of Lancaster by his father's death ; and, when he had transported a great arriy to quell a rebellion in Ireland, a strong party formed itself in England, and oflfercd the crown to the duke, •who having landed from France at Ra.'enspur, was soon at the head of 60,000 men. Richard buried back to England, where, his troops re- fusing to fight, and his subjec'^^s generally deserting hi:ii, he was made pri- soner with no more than tv/enty attendants; and, being carried to Lon- don, was deposed in full parliament, in 1399, upon a formal charge of tyranny and misconduct ; and soon after is supposed to have been star\'ed to death in prison, in the thirty-fourth year of his age. . Though the nobility of England possessed great f ^wer at the time of this revolution, we do not find that it abated the influence of the commons. They had the courage to remonstrate boldly in parliament against various oppressions and grievances ; and, if they did not meet with the desired success, they at least made some udvances in dignity and consequence. Henry the Fourth (son of John of Ghent duke o Lancaster, fourth son of Edward III.) being settled on tlie throne of England, in prejudice to the elder branches of Edward's family, the great nobility were in hopes that this glaring defect in bis title would reader him dependent ENGLAND. 185 upon them. At first some conspiracies were formed against him by the dukes of Surry and Exeter, the earls of GLoester and Salisbury, and the arcnLhhop of York ; but he crushed them by his activity and steadi- ness and formed a plan for the humiliation of the aristocracy. This was understood by the Percy family, the greatest in the north of England, who complained that Henry had deprived them of some Scotish pri- soners whom they had taken in battle ; and a aang -rous rebellion broke out under the old carl of Northumberland, and his son Henry, surnamed Hotspur ; but it ended in the defeat of the rebels, chiefly by the valor of the prince of Wales. With equal good fortune, Henry suppressed the insurrection of the Welsh, under Owen Glendower or Glyndourdwy, and, by his prudent concessions to his parliament, he at last overcame ..1 opposition. He died in 1413, in the forty-seventh year of his age. The marine was now so greatly increased, that we find an English vessel of 200 tons in the Baltic, and many other ships of equal burthen, carrying on a great trade all over Europe, and with the Hanse towns in particular. With regard to public liberty, Henry was the first prince who gave to the commons their due weight in parliame it. It is however sur- prising, that learning was at this time in a much lower state in England, and all over Europe, than it had been 200 years before. Bishops, when testifying synodal acts, were often forced to do it by proxy, in the follov/- ing terms, viz., " As I cannot read m^ -elf, N. N. hath subscribed for me :" or, " Ae my lord bishop cannot wriia himself, at his request I have subscribed." By the influence of the court, and the intrigues of the c'ergy, an act was obtained in 1401, for the burning of heretics, in con- sequence of the great increase of the Wickliffites or Lollards ; and, imme- diately after, Sautre, a pious divine, was burned alive. At the accession of Henry V., the Lollards were exctosiveJy numerous; and, lord Cobham having joined them, it was pretended that he had agreed to put himself at their head, with a view of overturning the go- vernment ; but this appears to have been a groundless accusation by the clergy, though he was put to death in consequence oi it, His only offence was the spirit with which he opposed the superstition of the age. The ambition of Henry engaged him in a contest with France. He demanded a restitution of Normandy, and other provinces that had been taken from the English in the preceding reigns; and, availing him- self of the dissensions between the Orleans and Burgundy factions, he first took Harfleur, and then defeated the French in the battle of Azin- court, which equaled those of Creci and Poictiers in glory to th« English. Bein;^ as great a politician as a warrior, he made such alliances, and divided the French among themselves so efl'cctually, that he forced the queen of France, whose husband Charles VI. was a lunatic, to agree to his marrying her daughter Catharine, to disinherit the dauphin, and to declare Henry regent of France during her Imsband's life, and him and his issue successors to the French monarchy, which must at this time have been ruined, had not the Scots furnished the dauphin with vast sup- plies, and preserved to him the French crown. Henry made a trium- phal entry into Paris; and, after receiving the fealty of the French no- bility, he returned to England to levy a force that might crush the dau- phin. He probably would have been succes-;''!.!, had he not died of a pleuritic disorder, in 1422, in the thirty-fifth year of his age. Henry's success in F'rance revived the trade of England, and at the same time increased and established tlie privilege,s and liberties of the English commonalty. By an authentic and exact account of the ordinary revenue of the crown during this reign, it appears to have 186 ENGLAND. amounted only to 55,714/. a year, which ia nearly the same with that of Henry III. The ordinary expenses of the government amounted to 52,507/. ; so that the king had only 3,207/. for what is now termed the civil list. This sum was far from being sufiBcient even in time of peace; and, to carry on his wars, this great conqueror was reduced to the great- est diflRculties ; he contracted many debts, and ;; awned his jewels, and sometimes the crown itself. Henry VI. was not nine months old when he was proclaimed king of France as well as England. He was under the tuition of his two uncles, the dukes of Bedford and Glocester, who were princes of great accom- plishments, but were unable to preserve their brother's conquests. On the death of Charles VI. the aflfectio- s of the French for his family renved in the person of his son and successor. The duke of Bedford, who was regent of France, performed many glorious actions, and at last laid siege to Orleans ; but the siege was raised by the courage and good conduct of Joan of Arc. This extraordinary woman was a mere servant at an inn ; but, conceiving herself to have been born for the rescue of the endangered monarchy, she boldly took arms, and led her countrymen to repeated victories. Being at length taken by the English, she was cruelly committed to the flames as a witch. The death of the duke of Bedford, and the agreement of the duke of Burgundy, the great ally of the English, with Charles VII., contributed to the entire ruin of Henry's interest in France, and the loss of all his provinces in that kingdom. The principal misfortune of England, at this time, was its disunion at home. The duke of G'ocester lost his authority in the government; and the king married Margaret of Anjou, daughter to the indigent king of Sicily, a woman of a high spirit, and an implacable disposition ; while the cardinal of Wincliester, who was Mie richest subject in the kingdom, presided over the treasury, and by hip avarice injured the interest of England, both at lioine and abroad. Next to the cardinal, the duke of York, who was lord-lieutenant of Ireland, was the most powerful "lubject in England. He descended by the mo- ther's side from Lionel, the second son of Edward 111., and had conse- quently a claim preferable to that of Henry. He lost no opportunity of forming a party to assert his right, but acted at first with profound dis- simulation. The duke of Suffolk was a favorite of the queen, who was a professed enemy to the duke of York : but, being inipeached in parlia- ment, he was banished for five years, and decapitated on ship-board by a common sailor. This was followed l)y an insurrection of 20,000 Kentish men, headed by one Cade, who sent to the court a list of grievances; but hn was defeated by the courage of the citizens of Loudon, and the queen seemed to be perfectly secure against the* duke of York. The persons in high power and reputation in England, next to the duke of York, were tlie earl of Salisbury and his son the ea-' of Warwick. The latter had more extensive landed property than any other subject; and his great abilities, joined to some virtues, rendered him highly popu- lar. Both were partisans of the duke, who, during the king's temporary indisposition, was made protector of the realm. When the queen had again brought forward the royal puppet, the duke, perceiving that she aimed at his ruin, took up arms. The royalists were defeated at St. Alban's; and the king became a prisoner. The duke was once more declared protector ; but it was not long before the queiu resumed ali lirr influence in the government. The duke at length openly claimed th ^ crown ; and the queen was again defeated by the earl of Warwick. A parliament being assembled, ENGLAND. 187 it WM enacted that Henry should possess the throne for life, but that the duke should succeed him, to the exclusion of all Henry's issue. The queen refused to agree to this compromise ; and, assembling a fresh army, she advanced to Wakefield, where the duke of York was de- feated and slain, in 1460. His son Edward prepared to revenge his death, and obtained several victories over the royalists. The queen, however, proceeded toward London ; and, defeating the earl of Warwick, in the second battle of St. Alban's, she delivered her husband ; but the disorders committed by her northern troops disgusted the Londoners so much, that she durst not enter th'i city, in which the young duke was favorably received and proclaimed king, in 1461. Margaret soon raised another army, and a battle ensued at Towton. After prodigies of valor had been performed on both sides, the victory remained with young Edward, and 35,000 men hv dead on the field of battle. .',er a respite of some years from the horrors of civil war, Margaret :, .,^r husband, who had received protection in Scotland, returned with an army into England : but she was still unfortunate in her martial enterprises. The Lancastrians were routed at Hexham ; the queen passed over to the continent ; and Henry was sent to the Tower. Jealous of the overgrown power of the Warwick family, the new king resolved to take every opportunity of humbling the earl's pride and pre- sumption ; and he was encouraged in that resolution, if not originally instigated to such measures, by the suggestions of lady Grey of Groby, whom he had lately married, and to whose father and brothers he gave his full confidence. Ho first attacked the earl in the person of his bro- ther the archbishop of York, whom lie abruptly deprived of the chan- cellorship. Warwick was then accused of a treasonable correspondence with Margaret; but the charge was quickly abandoned. His partisans excited an insurrection, in which the father of the new queen was put to death by the revolters. Another rebellion soon followed, which was stii! more eviH'iisJf produced by the earl's instigation, after one of his brothers ho/ 'i**J" vompelled to relinquish the earldom of Northumber- land. Wtii -vi' ^.' length openly revolted ; and his great military pre- parations ri, Ob the king, that he fled with a small retinue to the continent, iin: js « now replaced Henry on the throne, in 1470; but Edward, being inviio-* ca return by his brother the duke of Clarence, who promised to desert the potent kiny-nutker, re-appeared in Eng- land, and defeated and slew his great opponent in the battle of Barnet. He also triumphed at Tewkesbury over Margaret, whose captive son Edward was coolly murdered by some of the courtiers. He gave orders (as we nave reason to believe) for the deat' .»f Henry ; and, even amidst the tranquillity of his subsequent sway, affecting to dread the machina- tions of the duke of Clarence, he commanded him to be privately put to death. This monarch, partly to amuse the public, and partly to supply the exfi' i 8 of his court, pretended sometimes to juarrel and sometimes to trea* •' i*' the French king, who even allowed him a pension ; but his irregularities broi^ht him to his death, in the year 1483, the forty-first of his age. Notwithstanding the turbulence of the times, the trade and manu- factures of England, particularly the woollen, increnscd during the reigns of Henry VI. and Edward IV. So early as 1440, a navigation act was proposed, as the only means of preserving to the English the benefit of being the sole carrier. favor among the nobility, found means to bastai- dise her issue, by act of parliament, under the pretence of a pre- contract between their father and another lady. The duke, at the same time, was declared guardian of the kingdom, and at last accepted the crown, having first put to death the men of rank whom he thought to be well affected to the late king's family. Whether the young king and his brother were murdered in the Tower, by his direction, is doubtful. Some have supposed that they were clandestinely sent abroad by his or- ders, and that the elder died, but that the younger survived, and was the same who was well known by the name of Perkin Warbeck. Be this as it may, the English were so strongly prepossessed against Richard, as being the murderer of his nephews, that Henry earl of Rich- mond, a descendant of the house of Lancaster, was encouraged to invade England at the head of about 2000 foreigners, who were soon joined by 7000 English and Welsh. A battle between him and Richard, who was at the head of 15,000 men, ensued at Bosworth- field, in which the king, after displaying astonishing acts of personal valor, lost his life, having been first abandoned by a main diviijion of his army, under lord Stanley and his brother, in the year 1485. Though the same act of bastardy affected the daughters as well as the sons of Edward IV., no disputes were raised upon the legitimacy of Elizabeth, his eldest daughter, who was now married to the earl of Richmond, Henry VII., — an auspicious union, which happily put an end to the war between the families of York and Lancaster, Henry, however, rested his right upon conquest, and seemed to pay little re- gard to the advantages of his marriage. He was the first who insti- tuted the guard called Yeomen; and, while he thus secured himself, he curbed the power of the barons by liniuing the number of their depend- ents, and abolishing that practice by which every malefactor could shelter himself from the law, on assuming a nobleman's livery, and at- tending his person. The despotic court of Star-chamber owed its ori- ginal to Henry; but at tlie same time it must be acknowleged, that he passed many acts, especially for trade and navigation, that wore highly for the benefit of liis subjects ; and, as a finishing stroke to the feudal tenures, an act passed, by wliich the barons and gentlemen of landed interest were at liberty to sell and mortgage their lauds, without fines or licenses for the alienation. After the suppression of insurrections in England and Ireland, Henry interfered in the politics of the continent. When he had tamely suf- fered Charles VIH. of France to gain possession of Bretagne, he un- dertook an expedition against that monarch, but was soon pacified by a ENGLAND. 189 bribe. He was now attacked in the possession of his throne by Perkin Warbeck, who pretended to be the duke of York, second son of Edward IV. and was acknowleged as such by the duchess of Burgundy, Edward's jster. We shall not follow the adventures of this young man, which were various and uncommon ; but it appears that many of the English, with the courts of France and Scotland, believed him to be what he pre- tended. Henry endeavoured to prove the death of young Edward and hig brother, but never did it to the public satisfaction. Perkin, after various adventures, fell into the king's hands, and was sent to the 'Tower, whence he endep.voured to escape with the innocent earl of Warwick ; for which both 'vere put to death. In 1499, Henry's eldest son Arthur was married to Catharine of Arragoii. On the death of that prince, such was the king's unwillingness to refund her great dowry (200,000 crowns of gold), that he consented to her being married to his second son, on pretence that the first match had not been consummated. Soon after, his daughter Margaret was sent to Scotland, where she was married to James IV. Henry, at the time of his death, which happened in 1509, the fifty- third year of his age, is said to have possessed 1 ,800,000Z. sterling, equi- valent to nine millions at present ; so that he may be supposed to have been master of more ready money than all the kings in Europe beside possessed. He was immoderately fond of replenishing his coifers, and often prevailed on his parliament to grant him subsidies for foreign alliances which he never intended to form. His parsimony would not suffer him to accept the offer of Columbus ; but he made some compen- sation to his subjects, for this instance of illiberality, by encouraging Cabot, a Venetian, who discovered the continent of North-America ; and we may observe, to the praise of this monarch, that sometimes, in order to promote commerce, he lent to merchants sums of money without interest. Perhaps no prince ever entered with greater advantages on the exercise of royalty than Henry VIII. Young, vigorous, and rich, without any rival, he held the balance of power in Europe ; but it is certain that he neglected those advantages in commerce with which his father became too lately acquainted. Imagining that he could not stand in need of a supply, he did not improve Cabot's discoveries; and he suffered the East and West Indies to be engrossed by Portugal and Spain. His va- nity engaged him too much in the affairs of the continent ; and his flatterers encouraged him to make preparations for the conquest of France. These projects led him into incredible expenses. He became a candidate for the German empire, during its vacancy : but soon re- signed Ilia pretensions. In the hostilities which arose between Francis I. of France and the emperor Charles V., his conduct was directed by the views of cardinal Wolsey upon the popedom, which the ambitious minister hoped to gain by the interest of Charles ; but, finding himself twice deceived, he persuaded his master to declare for Francis. Henry was at first the great enemy of the Reformation, and the champion of the Romish church. He wrote a book against Luther, for which the pope gave him the title of Defender of the Faith. But, about the year 15'27, he began to have some scruples with regard to the validity of his marriage witli his brother's widow. It may be difficult to say at present how far he might be influenced by scruples of conscience, or aversion to the queen, or the charms of the famous Anne Boleyn, whom he married before he could obtain from Rome the proper bulls of divorce from the pope. The difficulties which occurred in this process 190 ENGLAND. ruined Wolsey, who died heart-broken, after being stripped of his im. mense power and possessions. Pride and resentment, rather than judgement or good sense, prompted Henry at last to throw ofif all relation to, or dependence upon, the church of Rome, and to cause a reformation ; in which, however, many of the Romish errors and superstitions were retained. He could not have ef. fected this important change, if he had not, by the violence of his dig. position, and by taking advantage of religious dissension, over-awed his parliamentary subjects into servility. Upon a slight suspicion of liij queen's infidelity, and after a mock trial, he sacrificed her to his brutal ca- price, and put to death some of her nearest relatives ; and in many «. spects he acted in the most arbitrary and cruel manner. The dissolu- tion of the religious houses, and the great wealth which he acquired by seising ecclesiastical property, enabled him to give full scope to hi« san- guinary disposition ; so that the best and most innocent blood of England was shed on scaffolds, and seldom any long time passed without being marked with the fall of some illustrious victim of his tyranny. His third wife was Jane Seymour, who died in bringing Edward VI, into the world. His fourth wife was Anne, sister to the duke of Cleves. He disliked her so much, that he soon obtained a divorce. His fifth queen was Catharine Howard, niece to the duke of Norfolk, whom he caused to be beheaded for ante-nuptial incontinence. His last wife was Catharine Parr, in whose possession he died, after she had narrowly escaped being brought to the stake for her religious opinions, which favored the Reformation. Henry's cruelty increased with his years, and was now exercised promiscuously on protestants and catholics. He put the brave earl of Surrey to death, without a crime being proved against him ; and his father, the duke of Norfolk, must have suffered the next day, had he not been saved by the death of Henry himself, in 1547, in the 56th year of his age. The state of England, during Henry's reign, is, by the means of print- ing, better known than that of his predecessors. His attention to the naval security of England was highly commendable ; and it is certain ihat ^t^ piiployed his arbitrary power, in some respects, for the glory and interest of his subjects. Without inquiring into his religious motives, it must be candidly confessed, that, had the Reformation gone through all the forms prescribed by the laws and the courts of justice, it probably never could have taken place, or at least not for many years ; and, what- ever his personal crimes or failings might have been, the partition he made of the property of the church among hia courtiers and favorites, by rescuing it from dead hands, undoubtedly promoted the present greatness of England. Of learning and the arts Henry was a liberal patron. He gave a pension to Erasmus, the most learned man of his age. He in- vited to England, encouraged, and protected, Hans Holbein, that excel- lent painter and architect ; and in his reign noblemen's houses began to have the air of Italian magnificence and regularity. He was a constant and generous friend to Craumer : and though he was, upon the w'nole, rather whimsical than settled in his own principles of religion, he ad- vanced many who became afterward the instruments of a more pure re- formation. No considerations, however, can excuse the atrocious and multiplied cruelties wliich he committed, under the forms of perverted law. In this reign the Bible was ordered to be printed in English, Wales was incorporated with England, and Ireland was erected into a kingdom. Edward VI. was only nine years of age at the time of his father's ENGLAND. 191 death ; and after some disputes the regency wa« settled in the person of his uncle, the earl of Hertford, afterward duke of Somerset, a declared friend and patron of the reformed faith. The Reformation was not effected without many public disturbances. The common people, during the reigns of Henry and Edward, being deprived of the last relief they had from the monasteries, and ejected from their small corn-growing farms had often taken arms, but had been as often pacified by the crovernment ; and several of these insurrections were crushed in this reign. The new system, however, proceeded rapidly, through the zeal of Cran- mer and others. In some cases, they lost sight of that moderation which the reformers had before so strongly recommended ; and some cruel exe- cutions, on account of religion, took place. Edward's youth excuses him from blame; and his charitable endowments, as Bridewell and St. Thomas' hospitals, and also several schools which still exist and flourish, show the goodness of his heart. He died of a consumption in 1553, in the 16th year of his age. Edward, on his death-bed, from his zeal for religion, had made a very unconstitutional will ; for he set aside Mary, Henry's daughter, by Ca- tharine of Arragon, from the succession, which, at the instigation of the ambitious duke of Northumberland, who had brought the protractor Somerset to the block, was claimed by lady Jane Grey, daughter to a niece of Henry V HI. This lady, though she had scarcely rea'-.hed her 17th year, was a prodigy of learning and virtue; but the bulk of the nation recognised the claim of Mary, and Jane was beheaded. Her husband, lord Guildford Dudley, also suffered death. Mary, being thus seated on the throne, suppressed an insurrection under Wyat, and proceeded like a female Fury to re-establish popery. She recalled cardinal Pole from banishment, made him instrumental in her cruelties, and lighted up the flames of persecution, in which arch- bishop Cranmer, the bishops Ridley, Hooper, and Latimer, and many other illustrious confessors of the English reformed church, were con- sumed, beside a great number of other individuals of both sexes and all ranks. The bishops Bonner and Gardiner were the chief executioners of her bloody mandates ; and, had she lived, she would probably have endea- voured to exterminate all her protestant subjects. Mary now married Philip H. of Spain, who, like herself, was an un- feeling bigot to popery ; and the chief praise of her reign is, that, by the marriage articles, provision was made for the indiepcndence of the English crown. By the assistance of troops which she furnished to her husband, he gained the important battle of St. Quintin ; but that victory was so ill improved, that the French, under the duke of Guise, soon after took Calais, the only place then remaining to the English in France. This Iocs is said to have broken the heart of Mary, who died in 1558, in her forty- third year. " In the heat of her persecuting flames (says a contemporary writer of credit) were burned to ashes, 1 archbishop, 4 bishops, 21 divines, 8 gentlemen, 84 artificers, and 100 husbandmen, servants, and laborers; 26 wives, 20 widows, 9 virgins, 2 boys, and 2 infants ; one of them whipped to death by Bonner, and the other, springing out of the mother's womb from the stake as she burned, thrown again into the fire." Several also died in prison, and many were otherwise cruelly treated. Elizabeth, daughter to Henry VIII. by Anne Boleyn, mounted the throne under the most discouraging circumstances both at home and abroad. Popery was the established religion of England ; her title to the crown, on account of the circumstances attending her mother's mar- riage and death, was disputed by Mary queen of Scotland, grandchild to 192 ENGLAND. Henry VII.'s eldest daughter, and wife to the dauphin of France; and the only ally she had on the continent was Philip, who was the main support of the popish cause, both abroad and in England. She was no more than 25 years of age at the time of her inauguration ; but her suffer- ings under her bigoted sister, joined to the superiority of her genius, had taught her caution and policy ; and she soon surmounted all diffi. culties. , , . , ..,.,. r In matters of religion she succeeded with surprising facility; for, in her first parliament in 1559, the laws establishing popery were repealed, the royal supremacy was restored, and an act of uniformity passed ; and it is observed, that, of 9400 beneficed clergymen in England, only 150 re- fused to comply with the Reformation. With regard to her title, she took advantage of the divided state of Scotland, and formed a party, by which Mary was obliged to renounce, or rather to suspend, her claim. Not content with this, she sent troops and money, which supported the Scotish malcontents, till Mary's unhappy marriage with lord Darnley, and then with Bothwell, the supposed murderer of the former, and her other misconduct and misfortunes, drove her to take refuge in Elizabeth's do- minions, where an honorable asylum had often been promised to her. It is well known how unfaithful the queen was to this profession of friend- ship, and that si: j detained the unhappy prisoner eighteen years in Eng- land, then brought her to a mock trial, pretending that Mary aimed at the crown, and, without sufficient proof of her guilt, put her to death— an action which greatly tarnished the glories of her reign. Philip had offered to marry the queen ; but she dexterously avoided his addresses ; and, by a train of skilful negotiations between her court and that of France, kept the balance of Europe so undetermined, that she had leisure to unite her people at home, and to establish a regular government in her dominions. She supported the protestants of France against their persecuting princes and the papirts, and gave the dukes of Anjou and Alen^on, brothers of the French king, the strongest assur- ances that one or the other of them should be her husband ; by which she kept that couit, which dreaded Spain, at the same time in so good humor with her government, that it showed.no resentment when she beheaded queen Mary. When Pliilip was no longer to be imposed upon by the arts of Eliza- beth, which had amused and baffled him in every quarter, he employed the immense sums he drew from Peru and Mexico in equipping the most formidable ffeet that perhaps ever had been put to sea, and a nu- merous army of veterans, under the prince of Parma, the best general of that age, and procured a papal bull for absolving Elizabeth's subjects from their allegiance. The great size of the Spanish ships proved dis- advantageous to them on the seas where they fought. The lord admiral Howard, and the brave sea-officers under him, engaged, beat, and chased the Spanish fleet for several days; and the waves and tempests finished the destruction which the English arms had begun, so that only 53, out of 130 ships, recovered their ports. Next to the admiral, sir Francis Drake, and the captains Hawkins and Frobisher, distinguished them- selves against this formidable inva!. ><'-)inst the government ; and the supply of the continental war forced tli par- liament to open new resources for money. A land-tax was imposed, the lands of every subject being taxed according to the valuations given ia by tlie several counties. But the greatest and boldest operation in fi- nance that ever took place was established in that reign, which was, the borrowing of money upon parliamentary security, the interest being pay- able by permanent taxes. The chief projector of this scheme is said to have been Charles Montague, afterwards lord Halifax. His principal ar- gument for such a project was, that it would oblige the moneyed part of the nation to befriend the revolution interest, because, after lending their money, they could have no hopes of being repaid but by supporting that interest, and the weight of taxes would oblige the commercial people to be more industrious. William, notwithstanding the great service he had rendered to the nation, met with so many mortifications from the two houses of parlia- ment, that he actually resolved upon an abdication, and had drawn up a speech for that purpose, which he was prevailed upon to suppress. He long bore the affronts he met with, in the hope of being supported in his war with France; but at last, in 1697, he was forced to conclude the peace of Ryswick with the French king, who acknowleged his title to the crown of England. William had lost his queen in 1694; but the government was continued in his person. After peace was restored, the commons obliged him to disband his army, except an inconsiderable number, and to dismiss his favorite Dutch guards. Toward the end of his reign, his fears of seeing Spain and its dependencies in the possession of France at the death of the catholic king Charles II., which was every day expected, led him into aa impolitic measure ; for he concluded a m ENGLAND. convention with Louiii, for a partition of tlie Spanish doiniDioni between the houses of Bourbon kad Austria. Some of his ministers were im. peached for recommending this treaty ; and he saw his error when it waj too late. The death of James soon disclosed the insincerity of the French court, which immediately proclaimed his son Icing of Great-Bnta»n. This perfidy rendered William again popular in England. The two houses passed a bill of abjuration, and voted an address to him for ^ War with France. The last great transaction of his reign was the en- actment of the bill for settling the succession to the crown in the house of Hanover, in 1701. His death was hastened by a fall from his horse, soon after he had renewed the grand alliance against France, on the 8th of March, 1702, in the 52d year of his age. This prince wm not formed by nature for popularity. His manners were cold and forbid- ding; he seemed sometimes almost to lose sight of those principles of liberty, for the support of which he had been raised to the throne ; and, though he owed his royalty to the Whigs, he often favored the Tories. The rescue and preservation of public liberty, however, rendered Wil- Ham's reign memorable and glorious. Anne, princess of Denmark, being the next protestant heir to her ikther James II., succeeded to the throne. As she had been ill treated by the late king, it was thought that she would have deviated from hit measures ; but the behaviour of the French in acknowleging the title of her brother, thiB Pretender, left her no choice ; and she resolved to ful- fil all William's engagements with his allies, and to give her full confi- dence to the earl of Marlborough. She could not have made a better choice of a general and statesman , for that noblemen excelled in both capacities. No sooner was he placed at the head of the English army abniad, than his genius and activity gave a new turn to the war, and he 'became as nmch the favorite of the Dutch as his wife A'as of the queen. Charles H. of Spain, in consequence of the intrigues of France, left his dominions by will to Philip, duke of Anjou, grandson of Louis XIV.; and the young prince was immediately proclaimed king of Spain. But his succession was disputed by the second son of the emperor of Germany, who assumed the title of Charles 111., and whose cause was favored by England, Holland, and other powers. A strong confederacy was thus formed against the house of Bourbon. In the course of the war, several [ijlorious \ ictories were obtained by the earl, who was soon made duke of Marlborough. Those of Blenheim and Ramillies gave the first effectual checks to the French power. By that of Blenheim, in 1704, the empire of Germany was saved from ruin. Though prince Eugene was on that day Joined in command with the duke, the glory r>f the day principally rested with the latter. About 20,000 French and Bavarians were killed, woimded, or drowned in the Danube, beside 1 3,000, who were taken. In the same year, sir George Rooke reduced Gibraltar, which still remains in our possession. The battle of Ramillies, in 1706, was fought and gained und« r the duke of Marlborough alone. On this occasion, about 1.5,000 of the vanquished were killed, wounded, or captured, while few more than 1000 fell on the part of the allies. After the battle of Ramillies, the states of Flanders aRscmbled at Ghent, and recognised Charles for their sovereign, while the ( onfederates took possession of Louvain, Brussels, Mechlin, Oudenarde, Bruges, and Ant- werp ; and, while the cause of that prince thus prospered in the Nether- lands, his partisans were so active in Spain, that Madrid, Toledo, and Other considerable tcwns, acknowleged his authority. BifdLAilO. m Tli« war 6ein^ ci>tliihii(kl in (He NMhertands, the French were 4g&in defeated by the duke of Marlborough. At Oudenarde, in 1708, they sererely sufiFered ; and, at Malplaquet, in the following tear, their loss was still more dreadful. These flattering successes were balanced, how- ever, by great misfortunes. The queen had sent an army to assist Charles in Spain, under the command of lord Galway ; but in 1707, after he had been joined by the Portuguese, the English were defeated in the plains of Almanza, chiefly through the cowardice of their allies. An expedition to Toulon was also Unsuccessful, after the most expensive preparations ; and, though some advantages were obtained at sea, that branch of the war in general was carrifed on to th^ detriment, if not the disgrace, of England. At the same time this country severely felt the scarcity of hands in carrying on trade and manufactures. As Louis XIV. professed a strong desire of peace, the Whigs at last gave way to a treaty, and conferences ensued, in 1710 ; but all the offers of the French were reje<5ted, as only intended to amuse and divide the allies. The unreasonable haughtiness of the English plenipotentiaries, and the expected change of the ministry in England, saved France ; and affairs from that day took a turn in its faVor. Means were found to persuade the queen, who was faithfully attached to the church of England, that the war, in the end, would prove ruinous to her and her jieople, and that the Whigs were no friends to the national religion. The general cry was, that " the church was in danger ;" which, though groundless, had great effects. Henry Sacheverel, a zealous Tory, had this clamor in one of his sermons, with the ridiculous, im- practicable doctrines of passive obedience and non-resistance. It was, as it were, agreed by both parties to try their strength in this man's cause. He Was impeached by the commons, and found guilty by the lords, who ventured to pass upon him only a slight censure. After this trial, the queen's affections were entirely alienated from the duchess of Marlborough, and the Whig administration. Her friends lost their places, which were supplied by Tories ; and even the command of the army was taken from the duke of Marlborough, in 1712, and given to the duke of Ormond, who produced orders for a cessation of arms ; but they were disregarded by the queen's allies in the British pay. And, indeed, the removal of the duke from the command of the army, while the war continued, was an act of the greatest imprudence, and excited the astonishment of Europe. So numerous had been his successes, and so great his reputation, that his very name was almost equivalent to an army. But the honor and interest of the nation were sacrificed to private court-intrigues, managed by Mrs. Masham, a relative of the duchess of Marlborough, who had supplanted her benefactress, and by Mr. Harley. Conferences were opened for peace at Utrecht, to which the queen and the French king sent plenipotentiaries ; and the allies, being defeated at Denain, became sensible that they were no match for the French, since they were abandoned by the English. A treaty was therefore concluded, by which it was agreed, that Philip should be established on the Spanish throne, but should renounce all claim to the crown of France ; and the heirs to the French monarchy in like manner should renounce all right to the crown of Spain. The rest of the queen's life was rendered uneasy by the dissensions of her ministers. It is well known that she was inclined to call her brother t6 the Mccession. The Whigs demanded a writ for the electoral prince 204 ENGLAND. of Hanover, as duke of Cambridge, to come to England ; and she was obliged hastily to dismiss her lord-treasurer, when she fell into a lethaigic disorder, which put an end to her life on the first of August, 1714, in the fiftieth year of her age. , . , ^ , ,<, . Anne had no strength of mind, by herself, to carry any important resolve into execution ; and, on her death, the succession took place in the terms of the act of settlement; and George I., elector of Hanover, son of the princess Sophia, grand-daughter of James I., was proclaimed king of Great Britain. He came over to England with strong prepos- sessions against the Tory ministry, most of \yhom he displaced. Thig did not make any great alteration to his prejudice in England ; but many of the Scots, by the influence of the earl of Mar and other chiefs, were, in 1715, driven into a rebellion, which, however, was quickly suppressed. The nation was in s»ich a disposition that the ministry durst not call a new parliament ; and the members of that which was sitting voted a continuance of their duration from three to seven years. Several other extraordinary measures took place about the same time. Mr. Shippen, an excellent speaker, and member of parliament, was sent to the Tower for saying that the king's speech was calciUated for the meridian of Hanover rather than that of London ; and one Matthews, a young jour- neyman printer, was hanged for composing a silly pamphlet, that in later times would not have been thought worthy of animadversion. The truth is, the Whig ministers were excessively jealous of every thing that seemed to affect their master's title : and George, though a sagacious moderate prince, undoubtedly rendered England too subservient to his continental connexions, which were various and complicated. On account of these he entered into a dispute with the emperor of Russia ; and, if Charles XII. of Sweden had not been killed so critically as he was, Great-Britain probably would have been invaded by that northern conqueror, consider- able preparations being made for that purpose, — he being incensed at the conduct of George, as elector of Hanover, for purchasing Bremen and Verden of the Danes, which had been a part of his dominions. In 1718, a war commenced with Spain on account of the quadruple alliance that had been formed by Great-Britain, France, Germany, and the States-General ; and Sir George Byng destroyed the Spanish fleet at Syracuse. But this war soon ended ; and the Spaniards delivered up Sardinia and Sicily to the duke of Savoy and the emperor. The year 1720 was rendered remarkable by the fraud practised on the nation in the sudden rise of South-Sea stock, of which an account has already been given under the article PrisLic Companies. The Jacobites eagerly hoped to avail themselves of the national dls- conteat at the South-Sea scheme, and at the new connexions with the continent. Layer, a barrister, sufl'ered death for high treason. Several persons of distinction were apprehended on suspicion : but the storm fell chiefly on Francis Atterbury, bishop of Rochester, who was banished for life. There was some irregularity in the proceedings against him ; and therefore the justice of the sentence has been questioned, though there is no reason to doubt his delinquency. So fluctuating wasthestate of Europe at this time, that, in 1725, a new treaty was concluded at Hanover, by the kings of Great-Britain, France, and Prussia, to rx)untcrbalauce an alliance which had been formed be- tween the courts of Vienna and Madrid. A squadron was sent to the Baltic to prevent the Russians from attacking Sweden, another to the Mediterranean, and a third, under Hosier, to the West-Indies, to watch (be Spanish plate-fleets, The last was a disast.'ous and an inglorious ENGLAND. 205 expedition. The admiral and most of his men perished by epidemical diseases ; and the hulks of his ships rotted so as to render them unfit for service. The Spaniards were not more fortunate. They lost nearly 10,000 men in the siege of Gibraltar, which they were obliged to raise. A rupture with the emperor was the most dangerous to Hanover of any that could happen; and, though an opposition was formed in the house of commons by sir William Wyndham and Mr. Pulteney, the par- liament continued to be lavish in granting money and subsidies, for the protection of Hanover, to the kings of Denmark and Sweden, and the landgrave of Hesse-Cassel. Such was the state of affairs in Europe, when George I. suddenly died on the llth of June, 1727, at Osnaburg^ in the sixty-eighth year of his age. Sir Robsrt Walpole was considered as first minister of England when George I. died ; and some differences having arisen between him and the prince of Wales, it was generally thought, on the accession of the latter to the crown, that Sir Robert would be displaced. That might have been the case, if another person could have been found equally capable of managing the house of commons, and of gratifying that predilection for Hanover which George II. inherited from his father. No minister ever understood belter the temper of the people of England, and none, per- haps, ever tried it more. He filled all places of power, trust, and profit, with his own creatures ; and peace was his darling object, because he thought that war would be fatal to his power. During his long adminis- tration, he never lost a point that he was earnestly desirous of gaining. The excise scheme was the first measure that gave a shock to his power ; and even that he might have carried into effect, if he had not been alarmed at the rising spirit of the people. Caroline, consort to George II., had been always a firm friend to the minister ; bnt she died in 1 737, when a variance subsisted between the king and his son the prince of Wales. The latter complained, that through Walpole's influence he was deprived not only of the power but of the provision to which his birth entitled him ; and he put himself at the head of the opposition with so much firmness, that it was generally foreseen Walpole's power was drawing to a close. Admiral Vernon, who hated the minister, was sent, in 1739, with a squadron of six ships, to the West-Indies, where he took and demolished Porto-Bello ; but being a hot, intractable man, he miscarried in his other attempts, especially that upon Carthagena, in which some thousands of British lives were wantonly thrown away. His miscarriages were im- puted to his not being properly supported by the government. When a new parliament met, Walpole could not secure a majority ; and, after some unsatisfactory divisions, he retired from the house in 1742, and resigned all his employments. The king bore the loss of hia minister with the greatest equanimity, and even conferred titles of honor,, and posts of distinction, upon the heads of the opposition. At the same time, the death of the emperor Charles VI., the danger of the pragmatic sanction, throjigh the ambition of France, which had filled Germany with troops, and other concurrent causes, induced his majesty to take the leading part in a continental war. He was encouraged to this by lord Carteret, an able but headstrong minister, and indeed by the voice of the nation in general. He accordingly put himself at the head of his army, and gained the battle of Dettingen, in 1743. The year 1742 had been spent in negotiations with the courts of Petersburg and Berlin, which, though expensive, proved of little or no service to Great- Britain : so that the victory of Dettingen left the French ao6 ENGLAND. troops in much the same tituation as before. A difference between the admirals Matthews and Lestock had given an opportunity to the Spanish and French fleets to escape out of Toulon with small loss ; and soon after the French, who had before only acted as allies to the Spaniards, de- dared war against Great-Britain. The Dutch, the natural allies of England, during this wa. carried on a most lucrative trade ; nor could they be persuaded to act against the French till the people entered iuto associations and insurrections against the government. Their matiae was in a miserable condition; and, when they at last sent a body of troops to join the British and Austrian armies, which had been wretchedly commanded for one or two campaigns, they did it in such a manner, that it was plain they did not intend to act in earnest. When the duke of Cumberland took upon himself the command of the army, the French, to the great reproach of the allies, were almost masters of the barrier of the Netherlands, and were besieging Tournay. The duke at- tempted to raise the siege ; but, by the coldness of the Austrians, aud the cowardice of the Dutch, whose government all along held a secret correspondence with France, he lost the battle of Fontenoy, and 7000 of his best men ; though it is generally allowed that his dispositions were exceljbnt, and that he and his troops behaved with unexampled intrepi> dity. To counterbalance such a train of misfortunes, admiral Anson re> turned this year to England with a great treasure, which he had takes from the Spaniards in his voyage round the world ; and commodore Warren, with colonel Pepperel, took from the French the important for« iress of Louisbourg, in the island of Cape Breton. Such was the state of affairs abroad in 1745, when the Pretender's eldest son, at the head of some Highland followers, surprised and dis- armed a party of the king's troops in the western Highlands, aud ad- vanced with great rapidity to Perth. The government never so tho- roughly experienced, as it did at that time, the benefit of the public debt for the support of the Revolution. The friends of the excluded family had laid a deep scheme for distressing the bank ; but common danger united jthe great body of the people in the defence of one interest, which was pri- vate property. The merchants undertook, in their address to the king, to support it by receiving bank-notes in payment. This seasonable mea- sure saved public credii' ; but the defeat of the rebels by the duke of Cumberland at CuUoden, in the year 1746, did not restore peace to Europe. Though the prince of Orange, son-iii-law to George II., was, by the credit of his majesty, and the spirit of the people of the United Provinces, raised to be their stadtholder, the Dutch never could be brought to act heartily in the war. The allies were defeated at Val, near Maestricht, and the duke of Cumberland was in danger of being made prisoner. They suffered other disgraces on the continent: and it now became the general opinion in England, that peace was necessary to save the duke and his army from total destruction. By this time, how- ever, the French marine and commerce were in danger of being annihi- lated by the English at stia, under the command of the admirals Anson, Warren, Hawke, and other gallant oiEcers : but the English arms were not so successful as could have been wished under rear-admiral Bosca- tion, the obnoxious article in the North-Briton (No. 45) was declared to be a gross libel; and, in 1764, he was expelled from the assembly. Not appearing to take his trial in the court of king's-bench for the libel, and for an obscene Essay on Woman, he was subjected to outlawry. He re- sided for some years in France ; and the zeal of party did not subside during his absence. The earl of Btite, after acting for a short time as prime-minister, found himself so unpopular, that he resigned his station in 1763; and Mr. George Grenville was his successor. By the advice of the new premier, and also of his predecessor, the king resolved to impose taxes Upon his subjects in North-America, for the relief of the British nation, which had so long fostered and protected the colonies ; and a bill, or- daining stamp-duties, passed through both houses, notwithstanding a Spirited opposition. As soon as it was known in North-America that the bill was enacted, the whole country was kindled into a flame ; and when the act, printed by royal authority, reached the colonies, it was treated with every mark of indignation and contempt. Several acts of violence were likewise committed with a view of preventing the operation of the statute ; and associations were also formed in the different colonies, by which the people bound themselves not to import or purchase any British manufac- tures, till the act should he repealed. The nial-contents also established committees from every colony to correspond with each other, and even appointed deputies from these committees to meet at New York. They assembled iii October, 1765 ; and this was the first congress holdeu on the American continent. These commotions occasioned so great an alarm in England, that th^ king thought proper to dismiss his ministers. The marquis of Rocking- ham was appointed first lord of the treasury ; and some of his friends suc- ceeded to the vacant places. In March, 1766, a bill passed for repealing the American stamp-act. This bill was countenanced and supported by the new ministers ; and Mr. Pitt, though not connected with them, spoke with great force in favor of the repeal. The marquis and his friends did not long continue in aamlnistration. During their sway, several public measures were adopted, tending to the relief of the people, and to the security of their liberties. But, in July, 1766, the duke of Grafton became first lord of the treasury ; the earl of Shelbume, secretary of state ; Charles Townshend, chancellor of the exchequer; and Mf. Pitt, afterwards created earl of Chatham, was ap- ,(3i ENGLAND. 211 pointed keeper of the priry-Beal ; but his acceptance of a oeerage, as it removed hiin from the house of commonB, greatly lessened his weight and influence. Indeed, this political arrangement was not of long continu- ance. Mr. Townshend made for some time a considerable figure both in the cabinet and in parliament; but, on his death, in 1767, the place of chancellor of the exchequer was supplied by lord North, who afterwarda became prime minister. The rpturn of Wilkes to England, in 1768, strongly excited the public attenticii. He was chosen representative for Middlesex, but was again expelled from the house of commons for being the author of some severe remarks on the conduct of one of the ministers. In the vote for his ex- pulsion, his former offences, for which he was now suffering imprisonment, were complicated with this charge ; and a new writ was ordered for Middlesex. The rigor with which he was prosecuted only increased his popularity, which was also much augmented by his spirit and firmness. Before his expulsion he had been chosen an alderman of London : and he was soon re-elected member for Middlesex, without opposition. The return having been made to the house, it was declared that, having been expelled u> that session, he was incapable of being elected a member of that (. ' 'i' - mt. The freeholders treated that resolution with contempt ; and he wus re-chosen when the sheriff had received a new writ. It was again declared by the house, that he was not a lawful member; and colonel Luttrell offered himself a candidate for the county. Though the whole weight of court-interest was thrown into the scale in this gentle- man's favor, a majority of near four to one appeared against him on the day of election. Notwithstanding this, it was voted, that he ought to have been returned ; and the deputy clerk of the crown was ordered to amend the return, by erasing the name of Mr. Wilkes, and inserting that of his opponent, who accordingly took his seat in parliament ; hot this was deemed so gross a violation of the rights of the electors, that it excited general discontent. To preclude a recurrence to this subject, it may here be mentioned, that Wilkes quietly took his seat in the next parliament; and, in 1783, all the declarations, orders, and resolutions of the house of commons, respecting his election, were ordered to be expunged from the journals, " as being subversive of the rights of the whole body of the electors of this kingdom." It ought also to be remembered, that, in consequence of his contest with the government, general warrants were declared to be illegal, and an end was put to the unlawful seisure of papers by state-messengers. The repeal of the stamp act seemed to tranquillise the colonies ; but the impolicy and arbitrary spirit of the court soon re-produced dira^st and complaint. In 1767, duties were imposed on tea and other com^- modities which might be imported into North- America ; but, by a subse- quent act, only tea was taxed. As it was not the amount of the duties, but the right of the parliament to impose taxes in America, which was the subject of dispute, the repeal of the other duties answered no purpose while one remained. It could not, therefore, be supposed that discontent would wholly subside : yet, for some years, exterior tranquillity prevailed in the colonies. At length, in 1773, the arrival of several ships at Boston^ laden with tea, excited such a ferment, that a party of mal-contents, rushing on board, threw all the chests into the sea. This behaviour was SI) resented by the British government, that an act passed for shutting up the port. Another bill was soon after enacted, " for better regulating the government of Massachuset Bay." The intent of this act was to alter the constitution of that proviQce> to take the whole executive power out P2 212 ENGLAND. of the hands of the people, and to vest the nomination of the counsellore, judges, and magistrates of all kinds, including sheriffs, in the crown, and in some cases in the king's governor, and to make them all removeable at the pleasure of the crown. Another act also passed, which was con. sidered as highly injurious, cruel, and unconstitutional, empowering the {governor to send persons accused of crimes in that province to be tried in England. The conduct of the court had so exasperated the colonists, that many provincial and municipal meetings were holden, in which they avowed their intention of opposing, in the most vigorous manner, the measures of administration. Agreements were concluded in the different colonies, whereby the subscribers bound themselves, in the most solemn manner, and in the presence of God, to suspend all commercial intercourse with Great-Britain from the last day of August, 1774, until the Boston port bill, ami the other obnoxious laws, should be repealed. The flame con- tinued to increase, and at length twelve of the colonies sent lilty-one deputies to attend a general congress at Philadelphia. These delegates voted a petition to the king, in which they enumerated their grievances, and solicited peace, liberty, and safety. They likewise published an address to the people of Great-Britain, another to the colonies in general, and another to the inhabitants of the province of Quebec. Soon after these events, some measures were proposed in the par- liament of Great-Britain, for putting a stop to the commotions which unhappily subsisted in America. The earl of Chatham, who had been long m an infirm state of health, appeared in the house of lords, and ex- pressed in the strongest terms his disapprobation of the ministerial system. He also made a motion for immediately recalling the troops from Boston ; but it was rejected by a large msyority, as was also a bill which he brought in fur settling the American troubles. The methods proposed in the house of commons for promoting an accommodation met with a similar fate. The troops were augmented ; and an act passed restraining the commerce of the New England colonies, and prohibiting their fisheries on the banks of Newfoundland. A motion was, indeed, afterwards made in the house of commons, by lord North, for sus- pending the exercise of the right of taxation in America, in those colonics which should, in their general assemblies, raise such contributions as might be approved by the king in parliament. This proposal was adopted ; but, when it had been communicated to some provincial assemblies, it, was rejected by them as delusive and unsatisfactor}', and only calculated to disunite them. Amidst the irritation of both parties, an appeal was made to the sword. It was on the 19th of April, 1775, that the first blood was drawn in this unhappy civil war. General Gage having sent troops 10 destroy some military stores which were at Concord, they suc- ceeded in their design, but were extremely harassed, and forced to a qui i. retreat ; and, soon after, numerous bodies of the American militia invested the town of Boston, which was occupied by the king's troops. The continental congress met at Philadelphia, and soon adopted such measures as confirmed the spirit of the people. Among its first nets, were resolutions for the raising of an arir.y, and the establishment of a large paper-currency for its payment. The assembly also strictly prohibited the supply of the British fisheries with any kind of provisions ; and, to render this order the more effectual, stopped all exportation to those co- lonies, islands, and places, which still retained their obedience. In the progress of the war, a sanguinary conflict took place at Bunk- erVHill near Boston, in which the king's troops gained the advantage, ENGLAND. 213 but not without severe loss. After this action the Americans threw up works upon another hill, opposite to it, on their side of Charles-town neck ; 80 that the troops were as closely invested in that peninsula as they had been in Boston. About this time the congress appointed George Wash- ington, a gentleman of large fortune in Virginia, of great military talents, and who had acquired experience in the preceding war with France, to be commander-in-chief of all the American forces. A declaration was now voted, in which the deputies styled themselves " The Representatives of the United Colonies of North-America," and assigned their reasons for taking arms. A second petition to the king was likewise voted, and it was presented by one of the pjoprietors of Pennsylvania; but Mr. Penn was soon after informed, that no answer would be given to it. An address now also was published, by the congress, to the inhabitants of Great-Britain, and to the people of Ireland. But, as no conciliatory measures were adopted, hostilities still continued ; and an expedition was planned by the Americans against Canada, to which they were induced by a commission given to general Carle ton, governor of that produce, by which he was empowered to embody and arm the Canadians, to march out of the country for the subjugation of the other colonies, and to pro- ceed even to capital punishment against all whom he should deem rebels and opposers of the laws. The expedition was chiefly conducted by Richard Montgomery, who possessed considerable military skill; but, in attempting to gain possession of Quebec, he was killed by the first fire from the battery. The besiegers immediately quitted their camp, and the siege was for some months converted into a blockade. During these transactions, the troops at Boston were reduced to great distress for want of provisions ; the town was bombarded by the Ame- ricans ; and general Howe, who now commanded the royal army, was obliged to quit the town in the spring of 1776. Washington eagerly took possession of the place, and prepared for more important enterprises. On the 4th of July, the congress promulgated a solemn declaration, assigning reasons, in forcible language, for a separation from the autho- rity of Great-Britain. In the name and by the authority of the inha- bitants of the united colonies, they declared that they then were, and of right ought to be, " free and independent states : that they were absolved from all allegiance to the British crown, and that all political connexion, between them and the kingdom of Great-Britain, was totally dissolved ; and also that, as free and independent states, they had full power to levy war, conclude peace, contract alliances, establish commerce, and do all other acts and things which independent states may of right do." They likewise published articles of confederation, in which they assumed tho title of " The United States of America." The new British commander seemed disposed to act with spirit. He was at the head of a great army ; and the fleet was under the orders of his brother. Both were invested with a power (under the title of ** Com- missioners for granting peace to the colonies,") of granting pardon to those who would lay down their arms. But their offers of this kind were treated with contempt. An attack upon the town of New- York seems to have been expected by the provincials, and therefore they had fortified it with all their skill. On Long Island they had also a large body of troops encamped, and several works thrown up. When the British troops had made a descent on that island, various conflicts occurred, and the Americans suffered ex- ceedingly. Finding themselves overpowered, they retired in the night to New- York, which they Ukewies soon after abandoned. The roynl SI4 ENGIAND. army obtained some other advantages over the Americans, at the White t*lain8, taking Fort Washington, with a garrison of 2500 men, and Fort Lee with a great quantity of stores j and these losses obliged the American general to retreat to a great distance. On the 8th of De. cember, general Clinton and sir Peter Parker obtained possession of Rhode Island ; and the British troops covered the Jerseys. This was the crisis of American danger. All their forts were taken ; the time as- signed for the service of the greater part of their army had expired; and the few men who remained with their officers were in a destitute state, with a well-supplied and disciplined army pursuing. Had general Havre pushed on at that time to Philadelphia, he might perhaps have put an end to the contest ; but his delay gave time for numerous volunteer reinforcements to join general Washington, who, in the night of the 25th of December, amidst snow, storms, and ice, with a small detachment, crossed the Delaware, and surprised a brigade of the Hessian troops at Trenton. He attacked another post with success, and thus revived the drooping spirits of his countrymen. The next campaign commenced unfavorably for the Americans, who, after failing in a partial conflict, were defeated on the banks of the BrandywinC; and deprived of the city of Philadelphia. But tliis ill success was compensated by the event of a British expedition, intended by its projectors for the ruin of the colonial cause. The command of thii expedition had been given to lieutenant-general Burgoyne, who set out from Quebec with an army of near 10,000 men, and a fine train of ar« tillery, and was joined by a considerable body of savages. For some time he drove the Americans before him, and made himself master of Ticonderoga ; but at length he encountered such diihculties, and was to vigorously opposed by the Americans, under Gates and Arnold, that, after two severe actions, in which great numbers fell, he and his men, to the amount of ,'5600, were obliged, on the 17th o/ October, to surrender themselves and their arms to the exulting enemy. During this war, the colonists received occasional supplies of arms and ammunition from France ; and that court thought this a favorable con- juncture for lessening the power of Great- Britain. Some French oflicerg also entered into the American service : and an alliance was formed, in 1778, between Louis XVL and the thirteen united colonies. In this treaty it was declared, that its essential and direct end was " to main< tain effectually the liberty, sovereignty, and independence, of the United States of North America, as well in matters of government as of com- merce." The parliament and people of Great-Britain now began to be alarmed at the mischievous tendency of the American war; and commissioners were sent by his majesty to settle the disputes between the mother-coun- try and the colonies. But it was now too late : the terms which, at an earlier period of the contest, would have been accepted with gratitude, were now rejected with disdain ; and the congress positively refused to enter into any treaty with the British commissioners, if the independence of the United States of America should not be previously acknowleged, or the British fleets and armies withdrawn from America. Neither of these requisitions being complied with, the war continued to be carried on with mutual animosity. The conduct of France toward Great-Britain occasioned hostilities between those nations, though without any formal declaration of war on either side. Two French frigates being taken by admiral Keppel, orders ; were immedia^ly issued by the French ^ourt for making reprisals; and ENGLAND. 215 on the 27th of July » battle was fought oflf Brest, between the English aud French fleets. The former consisted of 30 ships of the line, and the latter of 32, beside frigates : they engaged for about three hours, but the action was not decisive. After the engagement, there was much mur- muring throughout the English fleet, because a decisive victory had not been obtained over the French; and the blame was thrown upon vice-admiral sir Hugh Palliser, who soon after preferred a charge against the admiral. Both were consequently tried by couits-roartial. Keppel was honorably acquitted ; and sir Hugh was also pronounced not guilty. In the East Indies, Pondicheri surrendered to the arms of Great-Britain; and, in the West, the island of St. Lucia was taken from the French ; but they made themselves masters of Dominica, and, in the following year, they obtained possession of St. Vincent and Grenada. The count D'Estaing, arrinng at the mouth of the river Savannah with a con- siderable armament, attacked the British troops ; but the latter defended themselves so well, that the assailants were driven off with great loss. By the intrigues of the French court, Spain was at length brought to engage with France in the war against England. One of the first en- terprises in which the Spaniards engaged was ^he siege of Gibraltar, which was defended with great vigor. The naval force of Spain was also added to that of France ; and the combined fleets for a time rode almost triumphant in the British Channel. So great were their arma- ments, that the nation seemed to dread an invasion ; but they did not venture to make an experiment of that kind, and, after parading for some time in the Channel, they retired to their ports. On the 8th of January, 1780, sir George Brydges Rodney, who had a large fleet under his com- mand, captured seven Spanish ships of war, and a number of trading vessels; and, soon after, the same admiral engaged, near Cape St. Vin- cent, a Spanish fleet, consisting of eleven ships of tliu line aud two fri- gates. Four of the largest vessels were taken by his exertions ; one was driven on shore, and one blew up during the action. In April and May three conflicts occurred in the West Indies, between Rodney and the count de Guichen ; but, in these actions, not a ship was taken on either side. Admiral Geary took twelve valuable French merchant-ships from Port-au-Prince ; but the combined fleets of France and Spain took five English East-Indiamen, and fifty merchant-ships bound for the West Indies, — one of the most complete naval captures ever made. On the American continent, sir Henry Clinton made himself master of Charles-town, and earl Cornwallis obtained a victory over general Gates near Camden. Soon after, major-general Arnold deserted the ser- vice of the congress, made his escape to New York, and was made a bri- gadier in the royal service. Major Andre, who negotiated this desertion, and was concerting measures with him for betraying the important post of West-Point into the hands of the English, was taken in the Ameri- can lines, on his return to New- York, and being considered as a spy, suf- fered death accordingly, much regretted for his annabic qualities. The year 1780 was distinguished by one of the most disgraceful ex- hibitions of religious bigotry that had ever appeared in this country, especially if it be considered as happening in an age in which the ^)rincip!es of toleration prevailed. An act of parliament had lately passed for relieving the Romanists from certain penalties and disabilities imposed upon them in the 11th and 12th years of the reign of king William III. This act was generally approved by men of sense and of liberal seotiineiits, by whom the laws against papists were justly 216 ENGLAND. deemed too severe. It seemed at first to give little offence to persons of any class in England ; but in Scotland it excited great indignation, though it did not extend to that kingdom. Resolutions were formed to oppose any laws for granting indulgences to papists in Scotland ; and i Romish chapel was burned, and the houses of several papists were demolished at Edinburgh. The contagion of bigotry at length reached England; a number of persons assembled, with a view of promoting a petition to parliament for a repe?.! of the late act, and assumed the title of the Protestant Association. Under the guidance of lord George Gordon, thirty thousand persons assembled on the 2nd of June in St. George's Fields, whence they proceeded to the house of commons. In the course of the day several members of both houses of parliament were grossly insulted and ill-treated by the populace ; and on the same evcn> ing two Romish chapels were nearly demolished. After a day's respite, another mob assembled, and destroyed a popish chapel in Moor-fields, On the 5th the rioters demolished several houses, and destroyed all the household furniture of sir George Saville, one of the most respectable men of the kingdom, because he had brought in the bill in favjr ot he papists. On the following day, great numbers again assembled, and oe- haved so tumultuously, that both houses thought proper 1 1 adjourn. In the evening, a most daring and violent attempt was made to force open the gates of Newgate, in order to release the confined rioters ; and, the keeper having refused to deliver the keys, his house was set on fire, the prison was soon in flames, and great part of it consumed, though a new stone edifice of uncommon strength ; and more than three hundred pri- soners made their escape, many of whom joined the mob. Two other prisons, and the houses of lord Mansfield and sir John Fielding, were set on fire : the King's-Bench prison, the New Bridewell in St. Georgc's- fields, some popish chapels, several private houses of the papists, and other buildings, were destroyed by the rioters ; and every part of the metro- polis exhibited violence and disorder, tumults and conflagrations. At length large bodies of troops were brought to London ; and an order was issued, by the authority of the king in council, for the soldiers to act without waiting for directions from the civil magistrates. The troops exerted themselves with diligence in the suppression of these alarming tumults : a great number of the rioters were killed ; many were apprehended, who were afterwards put to death as felons ; and the me- tropolis was at length restored to order and tranquillity. Lord George Gordon was tried for high treason ; but, as it did not appear that his inten- tions were traitorous, he was acquitted, chiefly in consequence of the forcible impression made upon the jury by the vehement elwiuence of Erskine. About the close of this year a war with Holland commenced, in con- sequence of the clandestine commerce carried on between the Dutch and the Americans ; it was prosecuted with great vigor ; and that republic soon suffered a severe blow in the loss of the island of St. Eustatius. In the summer of 178 1 , an engagement occurred between an English fleet under the command of Hyde Parker, and a Dutch squadron unrier ad- miral Zoutman, off the Dogger-Bank. Both squadrons fought with great gallantry, and by both the victory was claimed. The war continued to be prosecuted with various success ; the French made themselves masters of Tobago, and the Spaniards of West-Flo- rida, with little resistance. Earl Cornwallis obtained a victory over the Americans in North-Carolina ; but it was productive of all the conse- quences of a defeat ; for, three days after, he was obliged to leave many of his sick and wounded to the care of liis enemy, and to make a long ENGLAND. 217 retreat before he could find shelter. By different reinforcements, his force amounted to about 7000 men ; but itis situation became at length very critical. The most effectual measures were adopted by Washington, in concert with the French general Rochamb^iau, for surrounding his army ; and it was closely invested in York-Town, and at Glocester on the opposite side of the river, both by soldiery and a Ukwal force. The works which had been raised by the British sunk under thv^ weight of the hostile batteries ; the troops were much diminished by the sword and sickness, and worn down by constant watching and fatigu j ; and, all hope of re- lief failing, on the lyth of October lord CornweJlis surrendered himself, and his whole army, as prisoners of war. This misfortune threw a gloom over the court and cabinet, and anni- hilated the hopes of those who had flattered themselves with the subju- gation of the colonies. The surrender of this second British army may be considered as the closing scene of the continental war in America ; for the great accumulation of public debt it had brought upon the nation, the waste of human blood it had occasioned, the diminution of trade, and the vast increase of taxes, were evils of such magnitude, as could scarcely be overlooked even by the most insensible and stupid. Accord- ingly, on the first of March, 1782, after repeated struggles in the house of commons, the house addressed the king, requesting him to put a stop to the war against the American colonies. This was a most important event : it rendered a change of counsels and of measures absolutely ne- cessar)', and filled the kingdom with joy. Those country gentlemen who generally voted with the ministry, saw the dangers to which the nation was exposed in a complicated war, without a single ally ; and, feeling the pressure of the public burthens, they at length deserted the standard of administration, and a complete revolution in the cabinet was effected, under the auspices of the marquis of Rockingham, who-was appointed first lord of the treasury. Pacification was the first business of the new ministrj'. Mr.Grenville wns invested with full powers to treat at Paris, and was directed to pro- pose the independence of the Thirteen United States of America in the first instance, instead of making it a condition of a general treaty. Peace every day became more desirable to the people. A series of losses agitated their minds. Early in the year, the French had taken Nevis; Minorca was recovered by the Spaniards; and St. Christopher's was given up to the French. Jamaica, in all probability, would soon have shared the same fate, had not the British fleet fallen in with that of the French under the count de Grasse, in their way to join the Spanish fleet at St. Domingo. The French van was too far advanced to support the centre; and a signal victory was obtained, on the 12th of April, by sir George Rodney, who sank one ship by a broadside, and captured five sail of the line, one of which quickly blew up. This victory revived the drooping spirits of the nation ; and the gallant defence of Gibraltar by general Eliot had also an enlivening effect. The formidable attack, on the 13th of September, with floating batteries of 212 brass cannon, &c., in ships from 1400 to 600 tons burthen, ended in disappointment, and In the destruction of all the ships and most of the assailants. The death of the marquis of Rockingham, on the 1st of .luly, occa- sioned a violert commotion in the cabinet, and lessened the hopes which had been formed of important national benefits from the new administra- tion. The earl of Shelburne succeeded the marquis, without the con- sent or even knowlege of his colleagues. By the treaty which was concluded in 1783 between Great-Britain nu ENGLAND. and France, the former ceded the islands of Tobago, St. Lucia, St. Pierw, Miquelon, and Goree; with Pondicheri, Karical, Mahe, Chandenagoie and Surat, in the East-Indies, which had been conquered from the French during the war. France, on the other liand, restored to Great. Britain Grenada and the Grenadines, St. Cliristopher's, St. Vincent, Pominica, Nevis, and Montserrat. By the treaty with Spain, Great-Britain gave up to that power East- Florida, and ceded West- Florida and Minorca. With Holland it wa» stipulated that Great- Britain should restore Trincomalo (but the French had already taken it), and that the Dutch should give up Negapatatn and its dependencies. In the treaty with the United States of America, the king of Great-Britain acknowleged New-Hampshire, Massachuset- teay, Rhode Island and Providence Plantations, Connecticut, New- York, New- Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, North-Cara- lina, South-Carolina, and Georgia, to be/?-ee, sovereign, and indepen- dent states : and, for himself and his heirs, relinquished all claims to the government, property, and territorial rights of the same. Thus a period was put to a most calamitous war, in which Great- Britain lost the best part of her American colonies, and many thousands of valuable lives, and expended or squandered nearly 150 millions sterling. The terms of peace were strongly condemned by many ; and the address in approbation of the treaty, though carried in the house of lords by a majority of 72 to 59, was lost in the house of commons by a majority of 224 to 208. The enlistment of the majority of the commons, on this occasion, under the banners of the famous coalition leaders, Mr. Fox and lord North, plainly indicated the approach of a ministerial revolu- tion ; and the peace-makers were obliged to withdraw from power. The two new friends were appointed secretaries of state, and the duke of Portland first lord of the treasury, in April, 1783. Mr. Fox soon after brought into parliament his bill for regulating the government of the India company, and its commercial afi'airs and territories. As it was supposed by the court, that this bill would render the king a mere tool in the hands of the coalition, by giving to Mr. Fox and his friends the whole patronage of India, the royal influence was exerted against it; and it was rejected in the upper house by a majority of 19 votes. The two secretaries were immediately dismissed with contempt ; and Mr. Pitt (son of the late earl of Chatham), who had acted as chancellor of the exchequer under the earl of Shelburne, was placed, in 1784, at the head of the treasury. A strong contest ensued between the parties, which could only be terminated by a dissolution of the parliament. On the 1 8th of May a new parliament assembled ; and Mr. Pitt then brought in his India bill, of which we have given an account under the article Public Companies. In 1786, the plan of the same minister for establishing a sinking fund, and employing a million annually in the reduction of the national debt, was proposed, and received the sanction of the parliament. While Mr. Pitt attended to the national concerns, he did not neglect foreign politics. He observed, with disgust, that the leaders of the republican party in Holland aimed at the humiliation of the prince of Orange, and that they en''eavoured to deprive him even of his lawful authority; and, while the French king abetted their views, it seemed to be the interest of our court to support the stadt-holder. Tlie threatening jBtorm burst forth in the year 1787. As the king of Prussia concurred .with Great-Britain on this occasion, the French court contented itself with piere promises. When the prince was seriously menaced with the ruin of bis power, military and naval preparations were ordered by the ENGLAND. m Englisli mioistry; but the dispute was settled by the unaided eflforts of a Prussian army. Amsterdam was takep by assault ; and the stadt-holde? ,. .:: '^'Titified with a considerable augmentation of power. "As no war seemed likely to arise for some years, the minister had full leisure to promote the commerce and industry of the nation : but there was one branch of traffic which he rather wished to suppress than encourage. The trade carried on by this country, and other European nations, upon the coast of Africa, for the purchase of negro slaves, to be employed in the cultivation of the West-Indian islands and certain parts of the con- tinent of America, had not been considered with that general attention wluch such a practice might have been expected to excite ; a practice so repugnant to the mild principles of modern policy and manners. The first public attempt, we believe, that was made to put a stop to this traffic, was by the Quakers of the southern provinces of America. In Great-Britain the same society also took the lead, and presented a similar petition to the parliament of this kingdom. The cause soon after became highly popular. Many pamphlets were published on this subject ; emi- nent divines recommended it from the pulpit, and in printed discourses ; and petitions were offered to the legislature by the two universities, and by some of the most respectable towns. Thus stimulated, the ministers instituted an inquiry, before a committee of the privy-council, into the allegations of both parties; and Mr. Wilberforce proposed, in the house of commons, the abolition of a trade which (he said) was one mass of iniquity from the beginning to the end : but, for many years, the parlia- ment did not attend, in this instance, to the voice of the people. In the autumn of 1788, the nation was suddenly alarmed by the king's illness. Its precise nature was for several days unexplained ; but at length it was known to have fallen upon the brain, and to have pro- duced a temporary privation of reason. A species of interregnum took place, though unaccompanied by any of those circumstances which usually characterise and accompany that unfortunate state. The king- dom betrayed no symptoms of confusion, anarchy, or civil commotion. Yet, as it was necessary to provide for t!ie due exercise of the royal functions, the parliament decided that the prince of Wales should be invited and requested to accept the regency under certain limitations. While the bill for this purpose was in progress, the king became conva- lescent, and was consequently restored to the exercise of his fiinctions. While France was convulsed with revolutionary troubles, and other states of Europe were involved in war. Great- Britain exhibited a pic- ture of complete serenity. This calm was scarcely disturbed, in 1790, by a frivolous dispute with the Spaniards, who dislodged the English from Nootka-Sound in North-America, but were obliged by menaces of war to restore it. An alarm soon after arose from the increasing am- bition of the Russian empress, who aimed at the extension of her domi- nions on the side of Turkey ; and Mr. Pitt was induced, by a sense of policy, to equip an armament as a ^heck to her pretensions. She con- sented to conclude peace with the Turks, but insisted on the cession of a considerable territory, reaching to the Niester ; and our court at length acquiesced in her demands. A greater alarm was excited by the sup- posed progress of republican opinions in this country; and, in 1792, a proclamation against seditious writings, followed by an order for embo- dying the militia, engaged a considerable share of the public attention. It had the intended effect, and produced many addresses, testifying the loyalty of the people. , .t„ii evinced their zeal against a feeble neutral, by the remarkable expedition to Copenhagen, of which an account has been given in our sketch of the history of Denmark. They did not seise the Portuguese navy, because the prince of Brazil, by their desire, transported himself and his court to Riode .laneiro. In the following year, the disordered alfairg of Kpain excited tlie anxious attention of the British cabinet. The causes and circumstances of that revolution which ensued will be more properly related in our history of Spain : but we may hero observe, that, when the arts and me- naces of Bonaparte had produced the resignation of Charles IV. ur/i jm son, the indignation of tli« people at the intrusion of a French army, and at the cruelties committed by the invader.-*, could not long be controlled. They took up arms in most of the provinces, and recpiested inanediute aid from Great-Britain, forgetting tliat they were still at war with this country. Various supplies were quickly sent, and the natives were sue- cessful in several engagements ; but the close of the campaign seemed to threaten them with ruin ; and, in 1809, an army which their now allies had sent to the peninsvda found itself obliged to rc-omi)ark, after the battle of Corunna, that it might not be overwheln\ed by the enemy. ENGLAND. 229 While this war raged, hostilities again arose between France and \ustria. Tlie emperor was not, as it was reported, instigated to a nevV ivarl)vtlit' British ministers; but he was subsidised by them as soon as he hall taken arms; and, partly with a view of promoting his interest by a diversion, they sent out a great armament to the isle of VValcheren. That island was conquered; but the intention of seising or destroying the French fleet at Antwerp was not carried into effect, as so much time had been lost in unnecessary magnitude of preparation, and in the tardy prnirrrss of the troops. This exjiedition was not only useless, but dis- astrous. The concjueet was not retained; and some thousands of men perished in con8e(|iience of the autumnal fever of Walcheren. When another army had been sent to Spain, it was exposed to great danger by the insufficiency of its amount ; and it required all the skill and courage of sir Arthur Wellesley to save it from ruin. He had 22,.500 men under his command; and, if the two Spanish armies whicii were apparently ready to co-operate with him had been animated with that undaunted and determined spirit which his troops displayed, he might have crushed the force which the usurper .Josepii led against him. But, as one of the native armies did not advance to Talavera, so as to take the smallest share in the action, and as the other did not perform tiiat important service which might resusonably have been expected from a very numerous l)ody, breathing revenge, and armed for the defence of an endangered country, the British troops were obliged to be content with the glory of repelling 47,000 men, who were unquestionably brave, and inahifih state of discipline. The French siiftored a severe loss on this occasion; but they could easily repair a much greater loss; and they lerceived, with joy, that tiie general who drove them from the field found himself obliged to retreat in his turn. At the close of this campaign, a partial change of the ministry resulted from the death of the duke of Portland. The court condescended to invite earl Grey and lord Grenville into the cabinet; but, as those noble- men were unwilling to occupy subordinate stations, no coalition took place. I\Ir. Perceval was placed at the head of the treasury ; and the war in Spain, which the two peers, because they were not in power, loudly condemned as unnecessary and hopeless, was prosecuted with in- creasing zeal. When the parliament re-assembled, in 1810, an Inquiry was instituted into the expedition to Walcheren. The popular orators endeavoured to prove, that it Avas an ill-judged and ill-conducted enterprise; but the majority of the house of commons entertained a different opinion. Dur- ing this inquiry, an order for the exclusion of strangers gave offence to the public; and the chief speaker of a society called the British Forum ventured to condemn it in strong terms. He was sent to prison by the irritated commons ; but his conduct was vindicated by sir Francis Bur- dett, with that freedom of remark which excited still greater indignation ; and the popular baronet, for vilifying the hou.^c, and denying the legiti- macy of its authority, as it did not, in his opinion, represent the people, nag confined in the Tower to the end of the session, ft was certaiidy his duty to acquiesce in the decision of the assembly; but he would not submit l)ofore violence was used, and some lives were lost in the riots vhich arose on this orcasion. The ensuing campaign was not particularly active, on the part of Great-l'ritain. When the French had again entered Portugal, they were met ou the hill of Dusuco by tliu native troops and the English, who re- 1 I 230 ENGLAND. pelled them with great slaughter ; yet this success did not encourage tlie British general to resume an offensive attitude. He selected an advan. tageous station for the defence of the capital, and remained iiihispost about five months, the French not daring to attack him. Great-Britaio, at the same time, was at war with the king of Denmark, and with the Russian emperor, who had been encouraged by Bonaparte to resent the hostilities of the English in the Baltic; but these disputp, in the north were not productive of very serious mischief or memorable incidents. Near the close of this year, the return of that mental imbecility wliicli had formerly prevented the king from continuing the exercise of liispo- litical functions, alarmed a loyal nation. He more particularly gave in. dications of a disordered mind, when the princess Amelia, Iiis youngest daughter, who had been long declining in health, exhibited such appalling symptoms as precluded all expectations of her recovery. A regency ml became necessary ; but it was not settled without warm and acrimonious debates. The prince of Wales, as might have been expected, was ap- pointed regent, and, although he openly expressed his disapprobation oi the restrictions imposed upon his authority, he commenced his political career with patriotic good- will, and with some manifestation of spirit and vigor. The war in the peninsula excited the chief attention of the regent, In the progress of this war, the defensive firmness of lord Wellington (formerly sir Arthur Wellesley) exhausted the patience of the Ficndi, who, in the spring of the year 1811, quitted their station in Portugal from an apprehension of famine, after losing a great number of their comrades by disease, and hastened into Spain. In their retreat tliey committed sanguinary outrages and brutal enormities, for which they were not sufficiently punished by the rigors of a warm and resentful pur. suit. The Spanish war was still carried on, without affording the pro- spect of a speedy decision, although the British troops acquired fame on the banks of the Albuera, and on the hill of Barrosa. When tlie restrictions upon the regent's power expired, in 1812, he made a faint attempt to draw the lords Grey and Grenvilh^ into the cabinet; but they declined all «!oncern in the management of puhlio affairs, while the influence of Mr. Perceval seemed to be so prevalent; and, when this minister had fallen a victim to the daring violence of an assassin, named Bellingham, who had demanded redress from the court for pre- tended grievances and sufferings in Russia, where ht; had acted in a mercantile capacity, they refused to jdin the earl of Liverpool and his friends. The earl, being elevated to the ehitl' ministerial dignity, grati- fied the public by a revocation of those orders of the privy council, which liad for some years checked the freedom of trade, and had consequently injured the manufacturing interest. When Bonaparte found, as eaily as tlie year 1H06, that the lVr;i commerce was reduced to a low ebb, while that of Great- Britain rapidly increased, he issued a decree from Berlin, prohibiting all intercourse and correspondence with the British doininioiis, and ordering the seisureofull commodities which iiud been purchased or |)rociired from our country- men. Ah this edict was answered, on the part of our cmirt, by an ordi- imncfi, requiriii^' all neutrals to stop at some British port, and pay a duty for the privilege of y< needing to I'rance, the ex-ispcrated ruler of that country declared, tiial every vessel which should submit to the ndv deniaJid should be seised and condemned as a lawful prize. The presi- ENGLAND. 231 dent and congress of the United States, resenting the conduct of both powers, prohibited all mercantile connexion with the subjects of either state ; and the effect of this.order was severely felt in Great-Britain. The rigors of this dispute were occasionally softened by the grant of particular licenses : yet great discontent prevailed, until the orders were annulled. The revocation did not so opportunely take place as to prevent an open rupture with the Americans ; nor would it, in all probability, have had that conciliatory effect, even if it had not been so long delayed. Mr. Madison vas at tlie head of that party which favored the French, and bad been accustomed to oxclaini against the selfish spirit of the British Iraders and the arrogance of the court ; and nothing would satisfy his jealous resent- ment or his republican animosity, but a trial of military and naval strength with this country. His influence over the congress procured a majority of votes for war; and, in the hope of subduing a considerable portion of Canada, he gave orders for an invasion of that province. Neither the aggressors nor the defenders had a great force : but, as the former took the field with a number which trebled that of their antagonists, the latter had recourse to the savages for aid, and thus procured a sujiply of reso- lute warriors, whose hostilities wf re particularly dreaded by the regular troops of the United States. The battalions which brigadier Hull led into action, and subsequently another corps, were obliged to surrender themselves to captivity, to avoid destruction. This disgrace could not easily be palliated by the evasive sophistry of the Americans: but they gloried in the capture of some frigates, which, however, were far infe- rior to the opposing ships both in the weight of metal and in the com- plement of men. The war in Spain assumed a more promising aspect. Some import- ant fortresses were taken, but not without great loss : and, in the battle of Salamanca, lord Wellington increased his claims upon the applause and gratitude both of Britain ami Spain. Some ill success, indeed, followed ; yet the general effect of the campaign was auspicious to the common cause. The ensuing campaign was more fortunate than it was expected to prove, even by those who reflected with joyl'ul hope on the ruin of the mighty force which the infatuated ruler of France had led into the wilds of Russia. A new coalition was formed by the just indignation of the northern emperor, and the reviving energy of the king of Prussia ; and, as it was not sufficiently efficacious in checking the renewed career of Napoleon, the Austrian poicntate was induced, by the promise of a Bri- tish subsidy and the hope of triumph, to add his force to the confederacy, which was also in some degree strengtliened by the aid of Sweden. The battle of Leipsic, and other instances of success, uearly ruined the new army which blindly followed the blood-thirsty enemy of the continent ; and he was obliged to restrict his efforts to the defence of his own empire. In the mean time, the great champion of Spain, having subdued that jealousy which bad weakened the attachment and gratitude of the su- preme junta and tire people, prepare*! to make a decisive impression upon the French party in that kingdom. The strength of the enemy's position at V'ittorin rather served to animate than to discourage him. HestornH>i the luljacent heinhts, seised every j)o.st, and obtained a compI<^e victojy. He over-ran Navarre; drove the dispirited foe to the Pyrenees; and, by invading France, pointed out to the confederales in ( iermiiiiy the coutNO which they might with little danger pursue. The prince regent cncoiuagtd liis allies, by repeated persuasions and by new pecuniary grants, to act with the utmost vigor. He did not send a large army to join the troops that were pieparing (in 1814) for a march 233 ENGLAND. to PftriB ; but ho ordered a considerable corps to take a position in tlie Netherlands. As the chief incidents of the memorable marcii arc no- ticed in our history of France, it will bo sufficient bore to observe, tint the Austrians and their gallant associates, disregarding the tMcnsional checks which they received from the desultory fury of the hunted tyrant, boldly advanced to the French capital, and, by storming the fortifications wbich defended it, alarmed the inhabitants with the dread of piliaifoand massacre. Having no such intentions, the allied princes granted ho- norable terms to the capitulating citizens; and, while tlio coimucring troops remained in the neighbourhood, the sovereignty was quietly restored to the house of Bourbon, whoso representative hastened from England to secure his legitimate inheritance. Lord Wellington, leaving IJayonne under blockade, had already reached the Garonne, and received under his protection the royaiists of Bourdeaux : Toulouse was taken, but not with- out a severe loss ; and ho intended to cross the country to l-yons : hut the intelligence of the late success at Paris reduced him to a state of inaction. When the French, by the treaties which their new sovereign s]s;mA with the princes who bad placed him on the throne, had boon ohligodto abandon the territorial nc'iuisitions of the revolutionists, and the deposed adventurer bad been sent to Elba by the moderation and lenity of his adversaries, the British nation hoped to enjoy some years of peace. The Americans, however, were not yet disposed to relinquish their hostile views. They continued the war with a seeming increase of animosity; and in the excess of that feeling their opponents ccrtaiidy did not yield to them. Having taken Fort-Erie, the republicans defeated a British corps; but, in the next conflict, they were disgracefully routed by a force which they greatly out-numbered. Li the vicinity of the Potow- mac, the invaders were eminently successful ; for they defeated 8000 men at Bladensburg, and captured and wivaged the city of Washington. A pacification was at length concluded ; but the treaty left the disputed points unsettled. While apparent tranquillity prevailed, the escape of Boiiapartr, in 1815, re-kindled the flames of war, as his invasion of Franco restored him to that power which he had constantly used for the most mischievous purposes. When a respectable army, composed of British and subsidiary troops, had taken positions in the Netherlands, a Prussian host also ap- peared, ready for action and enterprise. Napoleon did not suffer the com- bined force to remain long in suspense : he advanced with seeming alacrity, and dislodged the troops of Blucher, the Prussian general, from various posts. A battle ensued near Ligny, in which the French iiad evidently the advantage. An engagement took place, al)out the same time, to the detriment of the French, who wore repelled with no small loss by the troops wbich the duke of Wellington commanded. A contlict of far greater importance followed. The duke, whoso courage was tem- pered with prudence and judgement, resolved for the present to stand upon the defensive; and, on the other hand, Napoleon was eager for of- fensive hostilities. About 85,000 men advanced, on the 18th of June, to attack the British troops and German subsidiaries, whose amount did not exceed 6.5,000. The duke's positions were not particularly strong: but the zeal and courage of his troops inspired liiui with confident hopes of repelling every assault. The British right was first attacked. .Jerome Bonaparte commanded in this part of the field ; and he acted with ap- parent courage, but did not make any permanent impression upon the hostile line. The troops of Brunswick- Wolffenbuttel, eager to avenge the death of their young sovereign, who had fallen ia. the preceding battle, ENGLAND. ditllnguished themselves by thoir determined spirit and perseverance, and, withthe aid of well-served artillery, thinned the opposing ranks. The central bodies, at the same time, fiercely combated, without any visible ndvantage on cither side. Some of those wcll-disciplint^d battalions and Muadrons which were included in the liritish left, displayed remarkable firmness and resolution, more particularly the cavalry, by whom the cuirassiers, pronounced by their enthusiastic countrymen invincible, were repelled with great slaughter. Repeated assaults were made by the French, with that H|)irit which even their adversaricH admired ; but their courage was Bur|)assed by the firumess with which the attacks were sustained. When the battle had raged for nix hours, without the de- cisive preponderance of either army, a PriiBKian division, commanded by Bulow, approached the I'Vench right, and endeavoured, by assailing it in flank, to prevent it from giving effectual aid to the centre. J31uchcr was at the same time advan(;ing with tlie main body ; but Napoleon hoped to prevail by the redoublt-d (snergy of a new attack, before the arrival of the Prussian hero, lie therefore ordered his guards to storm the post of Mont-St. .lean, with ail the troops tiiat could be easily collected ; and some of the columns actually j)eiietrated to the heart of the position, diffusing temporary disorder, but not dismay, among their opponents. The British infantry, formed into close and well-arrauged bodien, were so severely harassed by the cavalry, that some of the B(|uares were either forced, or at least were in danger of losing their compactness. The duke's example, however, and his personal endeavours to rally the disordered ranks and support each wavering phalanx, tended to check the alacrity of the foe, ami to prevent a ruinous advance. Without the aid of the Prussians, the Uritish general would now have desisted from the conflict, content with allaying the fury of the storm : but the certainty of Bluchcr's co-operation promptcul him to move forward with all his disposable force, for an attack of the most vigorous complexion. This bold resolution was carried into immediate and decisive effect. The I'rench centre was pa- ralysed by the shock : the riglit was broken !)y the simultaneous efforts of the Prussians ; and the left, seised witli tiie same panic, joined in the flight. The leader of the routed host escaped witli difficulty, and fled in consternation to Paris, while the Prussians, jiursuing with eagerness, made great havock among the fugitives. It is supposed that .'30,000 of the French were killed or wounded in this memorable (conflict, called from a neighbouring village the battle of VV^aterloo ; and it appears that, on the part of the victors, 7,700 men suflered, without reckoning the loss or the personal injury sustained in the ranks of the sulisidiary troops. The splendid success of the allies ruined tlif hopes and fortune of Napoleon. He was driven from the throne, and sent to St. Helena by the prince regent, to whose protection he .surrendered himself. A new treaty was concluded between Great-Britain and France, confirming the restitution of all the conquered colonies and territories, except the islands of St. I.iicia, Tobago, and Mauritius; and it was properly re- quired by the allies, that eighteen fortresses should be consigned to their custody for five years, and that the French should allow during that term the continuance of 150,000 foreign soldiers in their country, to secure the return of a turbulent nation to habits of order and tran- quillity. The blessings of restored peace were not, for a considerable time, felt by the nation. Commerce, during the later years of the war, had at- tained a forced elevation, in consequence of the ruin of the French and Dutch trade ; and agriculture and manufactures flourished in proper- 334 ENGLAND. tion : but, when the contracte of the government for supplies of all kinds were suspended or greatly diminished, the sudden reduction of prices confounded the farmers; and, at tlie same time, the stoppage of foreign demand alarmed the manufacturers, throwing multitudes in all parts of the country out of employment. Indigence necessarily foj. lowed, and seemed to become general ; and the enormous increase of the rates for the poor severely harassed the occupants of houses. The abandonment of the oppressive tax upon income, demanded from a re- luctant cabinet by the spirit of the popular representatives, afforded some relief to the middle class; and liberal subscriptions saved the poor from absolute famine : yet misery long prevfiiled, and diffused a great degree of discontent. No other than a gradual remedy could lie ex- pected for this evil ; and the good sense of a great proportion of the people taught them to wait with patience for better times. In the mean while, a new expedition called off the public attention from the anxious observance of individual misery. It was a prevailing opinion in Europe, that Great-Britain, satisfied with the security of her own trade, had no wish to put an end to the piratical practices of the states of Barbary; and, indeed, it could not reasonably be expected that her arms and treasure should be employed for the protection of the subjects of other powers, for which she might have no other return than the illiberality of ingratitude. It was the duty of other states to defend their commerce by their own exertions, or to form a grand confederacy for the suppression of a predatory system, the toleration of which was an apparent disgrace to the humanity of Europe. The rash audacity of the pirates at length prompted them to attack even British vessels; but the menaces of lord Exmouth procured compensation for these outrages. While that commander was engaged in this expedition, the port of Bona, in which the English, by a pecuniary grant, had obtained the freedom of trade and otiier privileges, became the scene of a horrible massacre, perpetrated by the animosity of the infidels upon the Christians whom they found in the town. Ignorant of these atrocities, he left Algier, and returned to England, whence, with a more considerable squadron, he sailed to the African coast to chastise the brutal barbarians. Not receiving any answer to a demand of satis- faction from the Algerine dcy, he proceeded, on the 27th of August, 1816, to an attack of the works which defended the harbour of the capi- tal. He was assisted on this occasion by a small fleet belonging to the king of the Netherlands; but the greatest share of the danger was en- countered, and the chief service performed, by the British seamen and marines. The batterirs of the enemy were well-manned, and the efiect of their fire was severely felt, as above 800 men were killed or wounded in the vessels which passed along the mole : hut, in seven hours, the object of the enterprise was achieved. The batteries were then in a state of dilapidation and ruin ; the vessels of war and trade were involved in flames ; and the arsenal and store-houses were destroyed. Humbled by these misfortunes, the dey condescended to treat with the British admi- ral ; and it was stipulated that all slaves should be given up without delay, and Christian slavery be abolished in his dominions. On these terms peace was concluded ; but lord Exmouth was no more justified in affirming, that he had " destroyed for ever the insufferable and horrid system of Christian slavery," than a plenipotentiary would be in saying that he had established perpetual peace between liis sovereign and another prince, merely because it was so slated in the first article of the treaty which he had signed. . Asthesplend laistrcssof the j |,vii.ter,intosed I pretended ineni I and, when an lofthenamcot I city, with a vie gun-smith'ssho having seised a attacked the loi without any ser I appearance ot t were apprehcnt law, The you „.ho was an v ),igh,treason w guilty of turbul I jury acquitted 1 they were resto I country, many commotions, oi ing governmen custody, and, i I detained for se i the credit of j tranquillity WJi and suftered tli The continu counties, prod power. The i hamshire. Jt which openly went with otl nianding arms he brutally fir( Having augm in a military ; some dragooi precipitately only persons of his most a sion, except i As the ger prevailed ; a January, 18! session passe prorogation, who had pre persons asse pcrate resoli armed yeon lUitragkJ was over the cc unfortunate public in gc ENGLAND. 235 As the splendor which thus shone upon the nation did not remove the I distress of the people, the discontent of many broke out, in the ensuing I winter, into seditious outrages. A meeting iiaving been called l)y some pretended friends of the poor, the populace assembled in the Spa-Fields j land, when an inflammatory speech had been delivered by a young man of the name of Watson, a numerous body attended the orator into the citV) with a view of procuring fire-arms. A stranger who was found in a gun-smith's shop was sliot, though not mortally wo\uided ; and the rioters, having seised a quantity of arms and ammunition, paraded the streets, attacked the lord-mayor and the corps tie police at the Royal Exchange without any serious effect, and were at length dispersed by the seasonable appearance of troops. Some of the instigators and agents of disturbance were apprehended ; and one offender suffered death by the sentence of the law. The young demagogue escaped to North- America ; but his father, who was an unemployed apothecary, was sent to prison, and tried for liidi-treason with some of his supposed accomplices. That they were (Fuiity of turbulence and sedition, few were disposed to deny: but, as the jury acquitted them of the higher crime with which they were charged, ' they were restored to the enjoyment of freedom. In various parts of the country, many individuals who had eitiicr been engaged in transient commotions, or were suspected of entertaining views hostile to the exist- ing government, or dangerous to the peace of society, were taken into custodv, and, in consequence of tlm suspension of the haheas-corpus act, detained for several months in confinement. We ought to mention, for the credit of the earl of Liverpool and his colleagues, that, as soon as tranquillity was apparently restored, they repealed the act of suspension, and suffered the liberty of the subject to remain on its legitimate basis. The continued distress of the manufacturers, in some of th(! midland counties, produced meetings and combinations which alarmed the civil Mwer. The most serious disturbance was that which arose in Notting- hamshire. Jeremiah Urandreth was the leader of a seditious i)arty, which openly professed an intention of reforming the government. He went with other manufacturers to different houses, in June, 1817, de- manding arms; and, in one instance, when the answer involved a refusal, he brutally fired through a window, murdering an inoffensive individual. Having augmented his party to more than a hundred men, he marched in a military form, and diffused terror over the country; but, as soon as some dragoons ajjproached, the insurgents threw down their arms, and precipitately fled. Tbirty-five of the number were apprehended ; but the only persons sacrificed at the shrine of justice were Brandreth and two of his most active associates, whose death excited no feelings of compas- sion, except among the advocates of radical reform. As the general distress had only been partially allayed, discontent still prevailed ; and, when the prince regent opened a new parliament, in January, 1819, the public anxiety was poignant and severe. Yet the session passed without any serious disturbance. About a month after the prorogation, at the desire of a bold mal-contcnt, named Henry Hunt, who had presided at a tumultuous meeting in Smithlield, about .'50,000 persons assembled near Manchester, and were proceeding to vote intern • perate resolutions, when they were assaulted by a detachment of the armed yeomanry, and (not without some loss of lives) dispersed. This iiiitrage was termed a massacre by the people, and it excited a flame ovor the country. Many public bodies called for an inquiry into this unfortunate affair; but neither the two houses of parliament, nor the public in general, deemed the investigation expedient or necessary. I \ 236 ENGLAND. Reflecting on these commotions, tlie ministers introduced six billi, t, which they procured, but not without Btrnne; remonstrances, tlie asMit of the two houses. By one of these acts, tlio authors of seditious liheij were ordered to be punished with additional severity; l)y unnthpr, meet. ings for the purpose of training or drilling were declared illegal; by i third act, private houses were liable to be searched for fire-arnis, wlijcl) with an exception of such as were kept for defence against robbers, were to be given up to the officers employed by the magistrates; a fiurthgta. tute, without expressly prohibiting meetings for the discussion of pnlitid topics, subjected them' to vexatious restrictions ; and, by two otheig, every thing which might bear an aspect of sedition, or might have a tendency to the excitation of discontent, was discountenanced by thethreaUof rigorous punishment. These were the last acts of serious importance that distinguished the reign of George the Third; but that prince had no concern in them; for, from the cause which we before stated, he had long ceased to act in a public character. While the new acts were in a course of operation, he died in the 82nd year of his age, on tlie 29th of January, ISiO, after the longest reign recorded in the English annals. As the generality of his subjects entertained a high opinion both of his private and public character, his death occasioned that deep regret which could be allayed only by the consideration of the merit of his illustrious succossor. Accustomed to power, and prepared for action, the regent now com. menced with spirit the exercise of royalty in his own name; and, while he continued the war with zeal against a foreign foe, he acted witli wjiial vigor against the disturbers of internal peace. An affair wliicli urged him to wield the sword <>f justice with spirit, occurred soon after his accession. Thistlewood, who had been concerned in the preceding com- motions, devised, with other seditious mal-contents, a new scheme of out- rage. They pretended that all the members of the cabinet were the most pestilent enemies of their country, and that no just or constitutional government could be expected wliile the king was influenced by the per. nicious counsels of such men; and it was therefore, in their opinion and language, an " act of public virtue," rather than a murderous crime, to put to death these wicked ministers. An opportunity of executing their atrocious scheme would, they thought, be afforded by the meeting of the obnoxious premier and his official confederates at a cabinet-dinner; but, before the appointed time arrived, their machinations were disclosed by one whom they regarded as an accomplice, while he was in reality a spy, Being apprehended after one of them had murdered an officer of the police, they were tried, convicted, and condemned to death. Tiiisfle- wood declared that he had not enjoyed the benefit of a fair trial, and that only the most profligate wretches had given evidence against him; but he could not expect that this bold assertion would operate in his favor. He and four of his associates suffered death, some with coolness, others with the most hardened eftrontory. The country was also thrown into a high degree of agitation by the return of the queen from the continent. This lady was the princess of Bruns- wick, whom her husband, from personal dislike, had discarded about a year after his marriage, and whose conduct at length excited unfavorable suspicions. Exasperated at her defiance of his authority, as he had offered her a handsome settlement on the condition of her remaining abroad, he resolved to subject her to a parliam .iitary prosecution. Sho was tried by the house of peers ; many witnesses were examined against her; and the lords, by a majority of nine, voted for the '* bill of pains KNGKAND. •237 and penaltiea ;" but the i>i'nnc ininUtor, not satisfied with this tippoaiancc nf triumph, relinquished tlio l)iii, altliough some of his colleagues ex- horted him to persist in it. The abandonment ot" the bill was regarded a triumph by the queen and lier friends, and the metropolis was, for three nights, illuminated on the occasion: but it is proper to add, that the boasted triuuiph was unsatisfactory ; for, altlioiigli the same income ivas voted which had been jjromiscd to her lu-fori! her return to Eni;land, two of her requests were pereniplorily refused. One was, that her name should be specified in the liturjty ; tlic other, that she should bo crowned witlitlio king, '"^ho now considered herself as stigmatised and disgraced: vet she \v:is not discouraged from appearing occasionally in public. She not only enjoyed the society of s(!lcct iViend.s^ butfre(piented various places of resort with seeming contentment, if not with cheerfulness. She was witnessing a theatrical entertainment, when tin; effect of an internal dis- ease induced her to retire. Medical aid jyroved fruitless, and the hand of death smote her with irresistible force. The king, in the mean time, observed, with an anxious eye, the state of affairs on the continent. lie vvislicd that Spain, Portugal, and Naples, niiclit be favored wih n'|)resontati\ ^rovornmeiits, but di(l not exactly ap» prove the mode in which tin; iiisurgt ts of those countries etfocted their rt'siiective rt-vnlntions ; nor w as he inclined to countenance the (ireeks in that ri'volltii wiiicii they had been encouraged by tlie P.\;imp!e of other communilies, ratlier than impelled by any rei'cnt a'-ts of outrageous ly- rannv 'he generality of our connliynicn seemed to wish -uccess to the revoluti> lary party in each of these slates ; but nur poi ment, for a considerable time, denied or doubted ilie propriety of inten uce. While these political disputes attracted the serious atteu ion of the cabinet, the distress of the agricultural jKirt of the community, wliich had been allayed for a time, became more severe than any one could reason- ably have expected. Many farms were given up for want of the means of cultivation : many land-holders were impoverished by t'no loss of their rents; and their complaints and remonstrances induced tiie ministers, in 18'.''2, to make new regulations in the system of the corn laws, more favorable to ihem than to the public in genera!. In the samt session, the parliament, while it disgusted the stock-holders, relieved the over-bun - eiied payers of the interest of the national debt, by a reduction of the fue per cent, funds to four ; and it was also resolved, that the Bank should resume payments in cash, which for many years the directors had been allowed to withhold. A more important <•':. ■ o was made in the com- mercial concerns of the kingdom. The jwiiii .h ut relaxed the rigor of the navigation laws, and gave, in various v .-ocjts, proofs of the derelic- tion of old prejudices, from an idea that ;. indom of trade woidd be beneficial to the major part of the commuiiV.y, though it might be in- jurious to the artisans in particular branches, — for instance, in the silken manufacture, in which the French are so distinguished. Mr. Huskissoa was the chief adviser of this innovation; and, a.? it was reinforced by the suggestions of Mr. Canning, the earl of Liverpool was at length induced to agree to it. The good effects of this liberality have not yet appeared, because few other powers have been willing to promote our views by similar concessions. The minister who, for- some years, had taken the most active part in the business of the parliament and the nation, was the marquis of London- derry, who, though not an able speaker, was a skilful manager of the house of commons. Amidst the fatigues of public duty, lie manilested occasional symptoms of derangement : he lost his recollection, and became feverish and irritable; and, being for a short time left alone, he pierced himself with a penknife in the jugular vein. Fe was succeeded as IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) V^ ^ /y.. ^^ 1.0 I.I m m ^ lis IIIIIM 1.8 1.25 1.4 m M 6" - ► Photographic Sciences Corporation 4^ 4^^ 33 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. 14S80 (716) 872-4503 4- 238 ENGLAND. secretary fur foreign afifairs by Mr. Canning, whom be had formerh challenged and wounded for what he considered as insidious rivalry. A congress had been ordered at Verona for the consideration aui settlement of the affairs of Europe, and the marquie had been deputed to represent our sovereign in that assembly. On his death, the duke of Wellington became a negotiator, and earnestly endeavoured to dissuade the continental princes from their scheme of violent interference in the concerns of Spain : but the emperors of Aus'ria and Russia declared that it was absolutely necessary to interpose, r , at their desire, the king of France, being more particularly interested in die event readily consented to undertake the task of coercion. Soon after the prorogation of the parliament, his Britannic majesty, who, in the preceding year, had visited Ireland and the Hanoverian realm, honored Scotland with his presence. His reception in that coun- try was less warm in appearance than that which had gre'etcd him in Ireland; but, in all probability, it was equally cordial. These visJu seemed to be the more-agreeable, as the .ate king had confined his excut- sions to the narrow limits of England, and Geiirge 1. and II. had never felt themselves disposed to visit either North-Britain or Ireland. When the king re-assembled his parliamentary subjects, in 1823, he declared that he had used his most anxious endeavours to avert a war between France and Spain ; and the prime minister spoke more strongly on the subject, intimating that the proposed attack upon an unoffending nation was both unwise and unjust. The leaders of opposition blamed the court for not supporting its negotiation in this case by a show offeree; but the majority, in both houses, vindicated the conduct of the niinistrv. The other business of the session was not particularly important; but it was beneficial in one respect, namely, a diminution of the burthens of the people. When the prog; ess of the contest, both in North and South America, between the Spaniards and the colonists, had extinguished, on the part of Ferdinand, all reasonable hopes of reclaiming the revolters, our court resolved to send consuls to each of the new states, alleging that the only ground of refusing such a connexion was removed by the impracticability of restoring the tie between them and the mother-country. The Spanish court warmly remonstrated against the bold decision of our cabinet, and the allied powers of the continent wore shocked at this encouragement of rebellion ; «till more were they displeased when the ..sommercial agree- ments were strengthened by more explicit stipulations, and by an open acknowlegement of the independent governments: but Mr. Canning and his colleagues defied the indignation of the offended potentates. The British commerce, if not considerably augmented by these treaties, (for it had been freely carried on in those parts long before), ol)tained additional security; but our merchants, in the zeal of over- trading, over- stocked these and all other foreign markets ; and this sanguine spirit, combined with the rage for new joint-stock companies, and all sorts of idle and wanton speculation, gradually led to serious distress, which reached its acme in the year 1826. The number of bankruptcies then exceeded all former estimates ; and almost every branch of trade suffered a great depression. The liberality of the king was displayed in frequent and considerable donations for the relief of the distressed manufacturers; but the parliament did not deem it necessary to vote the public money on this occasion. The ministers alleged that such a grant would form abad precedent, as it would teach the people to rely too confidently on future grants, and that it would be more advisable to trust to the progress of time, the ordinary course of events, and the effect of patience. They waited for these remedies, and the clamor subsided. WALES. 239 While the distress was yet unallayed, a dissolution of parliament was ordeied. The contests for seats were not so numerous as they had gene- rally been ; yet some counties and boroughs were vehemently disputed, aot without incidental riots. The chief questions which divided the electors were, the expediency of revising and altering the corn laws, and the propriety of acceding to the claims of the catholics. As far as we can judge from the new elections, the former point will probably be allowed in the approaching session ; but the latter will long remain a lubject of dispute, because the policy of the grant may very reasonably be questioned. The catholics may be tolerated without d&nger; but they cannot safely be admitted to power, under a government which is professedly and constitutionally protestant. George (Augustus Frederic) IV. was bom on the 12th of August, 1762. His mother was Charlotte, princess of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, who died in November, 1818. He espoused, April 8, 1795, his cousin, the princess Caroline of Brunswick, by whom he had one daughter, Char- lotte Augusta, who was married in May, 1816, to the prince Leopold of Saxe-Coburg, but died in the ensuing year, to the great regret of the nation. Brothers and sisters of the king, now living : Frederic, duke of York, born August 1 6, 1763 ; married, io September, 1791, to the princess Frederica of Prussia, who died without issue. William Henry, duke of Clarence, born August 21, 1765; married, in July, 1818, to Adelaide, princess of Saxe-Meinungen. Charlotte Augusta Matilda, born Sept. 29, 1766 ; married in May, 1797, to Frederic, prince (afterward king) of Wurtemberg. Augusta Sophia, born November 8, 1768. Elizabeth, born May 22, 1770; married, in 1818, to the hereditary prince (now landgrave) of Hesse-Homburg. Ernest Augustus, duke of Cumberland, born June 5, 1771; married, in 1815, to his cousin Frederica, princess of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, by whom he has a son. Augustus Frederic, duke of Sussex, born January 27, 1773. Adolphus Frederic, duke of Cambridge, born February 24, 1774; married, in 1818, to a princess of Hesse-Cassel. Mary, born April 25, 1776 ; married, in 1816, to her cousin the duke of Glocester. Sophia, born November 3, 1777. The king's brother, Edward duke of Kent, died in 1 82Q, in his 53rd year, leaving, by a sister of the prince Leopold, a daughter named Alex- iaadiina, born in 1819. WALES. EXTENT AND SITUATION. Miles. Degrees. Breadth 130 ) , , C 51,26 and 53,25, North latitude. Length 90 J between ^ 2,41 and 5,20, West longitude. Wales contains 7425 square miles, with more than 102 inhabitants to each. . Name.] The Welsh are supposed to be the descendants of the Cym- raig Gauls, who made « settlement in England before the first descent of Julius Ct^SAT. J^ m WALES. Boundaries, divisions.] Wales was formerly of greater extent than it is at present ; but, after the Saxons had made themselves masters of the southern and midland parts of England, the Welsh, or the de- scendants of the ancient Britons, were obliged gradually to retreat to the westward. It does not however appear that the Saxons ever made any farther conquests in their country than Monmouthshire and Herefordshire, which are now reckoned parts of England. Wales is divided into twelve counties: those of Montgomery, Merioneth, Denbigh, Caernarvon, Flint, and Anglesey, form the northern division ; while the southern portion comprehends the shires of Glamorgan, Caermarthen, Pembroke, Cardi- gan, Radnor, and Brecknock. Mountains, lakes, rivers.] Wales abounds in " mountains, especially in the northern part. Snowdon and Cader-Idris are the prin- cipal : the height of the former is 3568 feet above the level of the sea. The mountainous situation of the country greatly assisted the natives in withstanding the assaults of the Romans, Saxons, and Normans.^ The ascent of Snowdon is toilsome and terrific. After passing over craggy rocks, the traveler reaches a verdant expanse ; and he then labors up another series of crags. The mountain seems propped up by four vast buttresses, between which are deep hollows, having one or more lakes lodged in them. It is bicapitated; the higher head rises almost to a point ; the other appears with serrated tops. Cader-Idris is steep and craggy on every side ; and the southern descent is nearly perpendicular. The summit rises to the height of 2850 feet above Dolgelle. Of these two mountains, the chief rocky ingredients are granite and porphyry. PlinUmmon is also a considerable mountain, dignified by the rise of some fine 'rivers. The Welsh lakes are very numerous ; but they are in general small and unimportant. That of Bala, called Llyn-Tegid, is about four ipiles in length, and less than a mile in breadth. Its greatest depth is forty feet. The Dee, with little probability, is said to pass through it without a com- munication of water. Llyn-Savathan, in the shire of Brecknock, is fa- mous for the multitude of its fish. A considerable number of rivers diffuse over the principality their fer- tilising streams. The Severn rises in a chalybeate spring, on the eastern side of Plinlimmon, becomes navigable near Welsh-Pool, passes through several English counties, and at length contributes to the formation of the Bristol channel. On the southern side of the same mountain the Wye starts into existence, and, after a devious course, falls into the Severn below Chepstow. The Dee is formed by the junction of two small streams in Merionethshire, and is enlarged into an sestuary below Chester. A picturesque vale in Denbighshire derives its appellation from the Clwyd ; the rapid Conway flows through a beautiful vale, and is navigable from Trefriew to the Irish sea : the Tivy and the Towy are also not undistinguished among the rivers of this interesting country. Many canals were formed in Wales during the reign of George III. Some of them occasionally pass under the highlands through tunnels ; and one is carried over the Dee at Pont-Cyssylte, between Llangollen and Chirk, by an aqueduct composed of plates of cast iron, supported upon stone pillars, some of which are 125 feet in height. Metals, MINERALS.] Wales contains many quarries of free-stone and slate, several mines of lead and iron, and abundance of coal-pits. The Parrys mountain, in Anglesey, is a rich mine of copper, not found in veins, but in a prodigious heap, which is worked in the manner of a quarry. This valuable mine was discovered in 1768. At Llanbenis, WALES. 241 and near Pont-Aberglaslyn, mines of copper have been found, the ore of which is superior in quality to that of Anglesey. The mine at Llanvair, and that of Cwmsimlog, contain silver, lead, and quart/. Climate, soil.] The seasons are nearly the same as in the northern parts of England, and the air is sharp, but wholesome. The soil of Wales, especially toward the north, is mountainous, but contains rich valleys, which produce crops of wheat, rye, and other corn. Vegetables, animals.] In these Wales differs little from England. The horses are smaller, but can endure great fatigue; the black cattle are small likewise, but afford excellent beef; and the cows are remarkable for yielding large quantities of milk. Great numbers of goats feed on the mountains. Natural cuuiosiyies.] Among the natural curiosities of this country are the following. At a small village called Newton, in Gla- morganshire, is a remarkable spring near the sea, which ebbs and flows contrary to the tide. In Flintshire is St. Winefred's-well, at which, ac- cording to the legendary tales of the common people, miraculous cures have been performed. The spring boils with great impetuosity out of a rock, and is formed into a beautiful polygonal well, covered with a rich arch, supported by pillars ; and the roof is exquisitely carved in stone. Over the spring is also a chapel, a neat place of Gothic architecture, but in a very ruinous state. King James II. paid a visit to the well of St. Wine'red in 1686, and was rewarded for his piety by a present of the very shift in which his great-grandmother, Mary Stuart, lost her head. The spring is supposed to be one of the finest in the British dominions, and is found to throw out about twenty-one tons of water in a minute. Near Carmarthen is a fountain, which, like the cea, ebbs and flows twice in twenty-four hours. Population, inhabitants, \ The inhabitants of Wales nearly MANNERS, AND CUSTOMS. } amount to 760,000, of which num- ber Glamorganshire contains about a seventh part. The Welsh are, if possible, more jealous of their liberties than the English, and far more irascible : but their anger soon abates, and they are remarkable for their sincerity and fidelity. They are very fond of carrying back their pe- digrees to the most remote antiquity ; but we have no criterion for the authenticity of their manuscripts, some of which they pretend to be coeval with the beginning of the Christian sera. It is however certain^ that a great part of their history, especially the ecclesiastical, is more ancient, and better attested than that of the Anglo-Saxons. Wales was formerly famous for its bards, particularly Taliessin, who lived about the year 560, and whose works were certainly extant at the time of the Reformation, and clearly evince that Geoffrey of Monmouth was not the inventor of the history which makes the present Welsh the descendants of the ancient Trojans. This poetical genius seems to have inspired the ancient Welsh with an enthusiasm for independence ; for which reason Edward I. is said to have perpetrated a general massacre of the bards ; an inhumanity which was characteristic of that ambitious prince. The Welsh are more an unmixed people than most other nations, and were long remarkable for maintaining the ancient hospitality, and for their adherence to ancient customs and manners. This appeared even among gentlemen of fortune, who in other countries commonly follow the caprices of fashion. Some of the customs of tha Welsh peasants are remarkable. One, • which is indeed declining, is rather indelicate. A lover is allowed by the parents of his favorite, or by her master, to converse with her in a bed-chamber between blankets : and it would perhaps be a libel to aflurm R 242 WALES. that any improper familiarity takes place at these interviews. When a marriage is fixed upon, a friend goes about the neighbourhood as a bidder, and invites the people to bring presents, which are returned on similar oc- casions. At a funeral, provisions are sometimes given over the body to poor persons of the same sex with the deceascJ, who are expected to bring herbs and flowers, which are put into the coi&n. All who are present then kneel down, and the Lord's prayer is repeated ; and, at every cross- way, in the progress toward the church, the same ceremony is renewed. Flowers are also planted over the grave, and varied in their species according to the age of the defunct. Credulity and superstition are still parts of the Welsh character. Many continue to believe in the existence and influence of spirits ; and they are apt to be deluded by itinerant Methodists into an adoption of sectarian principles and all the mysteries of grace. Cities, towns, edifices.] Wales contains no cities or towns that are remarkable either for populousness or magnificence. Wrexham, in Denbighshire, is a well-built town, with a fine church, and it is a great mart for flannel. Caernarvon has a good harbour, is frequented as a bathing-place, and exhibits the remains of a stately castle. Amlwch in Anglesey, before the year 1768, was a small and wretched village ; but the discovery of the valuable copper-mines in the neighbourhood raised it to a considerable town. The best-built town in South-Wales, except Swansea, is Carmarthen, and its inhabitants, with the same exception, are the most polished. Swansea is a place of great resort for bathing and for amusements: it is the most populous town in Wales, having 10,500 inhabitants. Cardigan is a thriving town, situated in the vicinity of lead-mines. Brecknock has some manufactures of cloth and hose ; and iti> situation is picturesque and romantic. Cardiff has a commodious harbour, in which various articles of traffic are shipped for Bristol. It also sends out great quantities of iron, which it receives by a canal from Merthyr-Tydvil, a flourishing town, enriched within our memory by the discovery of mines of lead and coal. Commerce and mamufactures.] The Welsh have some inland trade, and send to England a great number of cattle. Swansea has con- siderable copper and iron works, a pottery and rope-walks ; and employs many vessels in the exportation of stone, coal, and other useful articles. Pembroke also, which enjoys the benefit of the great haven of Milford, carries on a lucrative trade. Some branches of the woollen manufacture occupy many of the people in different counties ; and the Welsh flannel is preferred to that of England. Constitution and government.] Wales was united and in- corporated with England in the 27th of Henry VIII. ; when, by act of parliament, the government of it was modeled according to the English form, and the inhabitants were admitted to a participation of all the English liberties and privileges, particularly that of sending members to parliament. By the 34th and 35th of the same reign, four circuits were ordained for the administration of justice, each of which was to include three shires. By the 18th of queen Eliztibeth, an assistant was given to each of the former judges. Religion.] The established religion of Wales is that of the church of England ; but the common people in many places are so tenacious of their ancient customs, that they retain several of the Romish supersti- tions, and some ancient families among them are still catholics. The principality also contains a great number of protestant dissenters. For BiSUOPHics, — see England. In former times, Wales contained WALES. ftiore bishoprics tlian it does now ; and, about the time of the Norman invasion, the religious foundations in that country far exceeded the wealth of all the other parts of the principality. Literature, learning, and learned men.] Wales was a seat of learning at a very early period ; but it suifered much by the re- peated massacres of the bards and clergy. Wickliffism took shelter in Wales, when it was first persecuted in England. The Welsh and Scots dispute about the nativity of some learned men, particularly four of the name of Gildas : but there is no doubt of the Cambrian birth of Giraldus, an ingenious writer, who lived in the time of Henry II. ; and Leland mentions several learned men of the same country, who flourished before the Reformation. Since that period, Wales has produced several excellent antiquaries and divines, and other distinguished men ; and, notwithstanding all that Dr. Hickes and^ other antiquaries have said to the contrary, it furnished the Anglo-Saxons with an alphabet, as is clearly demonstrated by Mr. Llhuyd, and confirmed by monumental inscriptions. The history of Henry VIII., written by lord Herbert of Cherbury, may be mentioned as a valuable production of Welsh litera- ture ; but it ought to be observed, that he is grossly partial to the memory of that tyrant. In modern times, the Welsh may boast of the merit of Mr. Pennant, an able and accurate naturalist, and an intelligent and amusing tourist. Language.] The Welsh have still preserved their ancient language, which is a branch of the i Celtic, though considerably different from the Erse or Irish. The Lord's prayer, in that dialect, is as follows : Ein Tad, yr hwn wyt yn y nefoedd, sancteiddier dy enw: deued dy detjrnas; bydded dy ewyllys ar y ddaear, megis y mae yn y nefoed: dyro in i keddyw ein bara beunyddiol; a maddeu i ni ein dyledion, fely maddeuwn nii'n dyledwyr; ac nac arwain ni i brofedigaeth eithr gwared ni rhag drwg : canys eiddot ti yw'r deyrnas, a'r gallu, a'r gogoniant, yn oes oesoedd. Amen. Antiquities.] Wales abounds in remains of antiquity. Several of its castles are of large dimensions ; and, in some, the remains of Roman architecture are plainly discernible. In Brecknockshire are some rude sculptures, upon a stone six feet high, called the Maiden-stone ; but the remains of the Druidical institutions, and places of worship, are chiefly visible in the isle of Anglesey, wliich was the chief seminary of the Druids. Caerphili castle in Glamorganshire is said to have been the largest in Great-Britain, except Windsor ; and the remains of it show that it was a most beautiful fabric. One half of a round tower haS fallen quite down, while the other overhangs its basis more than nine feet, and is as great a curiosity as the leaning tower of Pisa in Italy. History.] The ancient history of Wales is uncertain, on account of the number of petty princes who governed it. That they were sove- reign and independent, appears from the English history. It was formerly inhabited by the Silures, DimetSB, and Ordovices, who were never entirely subdued by the Romans, though part of their country was bridled by garrisons; and, during the sway of the Saxons in Eng- land, they I'emained an independent people, governed by their own princes and laws. They made many brave attempts to maintain their liberties against the Norman kings of England. In 1237, the crown of England was first supplied with a pretext for the future conquest of • Wales, the old and infirm prince Llewelyn, in order to be safe from the persecutions of his undutiful son Gryffyth, having put himself under the protection of Henry III., to whom he did homage. But aa caphu- R2 244 ENGLISH ISLES. lation could satisfy the ambition of Edward I., who resolved to annex Wales to the crown of England ; and, as young Llewelyn disdained the idea of subjection, Edward raised an army, with which he penetrated as far as Flint, and, taking possession of the isle of Anglesey, drove the Welsh to the mountains of Snowdon, and obliged them to consent to a tribute. They renounced this disgraceful stipulation, and» in 1282, attacked the fortresses which Edward had erected in their country : but their gallant prince was defeated and slain. He was succeeded by his brother David, the last independent prince of Wales, who, falling into Edward's hands through treachery, was by him most barbarously and unjustly hanged ; and the king, from that time, pretended that Waleg was annexed to the crown of England. It was about this time, proba- bly, that he gave orders for the massacre of the Welsh bards. Per- ceiving that this cruelty was not sufficient to complete his conquest, he sent his queen, in 1284, to be delivered in Caernarvon castle, that the Welsh, having a prince born among themselves, might the more readily recognise his authority. This prince was the unhappy Edward II.; and from him the title of prince of Wales descended to the eldest sons of the English kings. The history of Wales and England may from that time be deemed inseparable. We may here observe, that the kings of England found it their interest to soothe the Welsh with particular marks of regard. Their eldest sons not only held their titular dignity, but actually kept a court at Ludlow; and a regular council, with a preM- dcnt, was named by the crown, for the adniinistrntion of all the affairs of the principality. But, in the reign of Henry VIIL, these arrange- ments were no longer deemed politic or necessary. ENGLISH ISLES. THE ISLE OF WIGHT is situate opposite the coast of Hampshire, from which it is separated by a channel, varying in breadth from two to seven miles; it is considered as part of the county of Southampton, and is within the diocese of Wincliester. Its greatest length, extending from east to west, measures about twenty-two miles ; its breadth, from noith to south, above thirteen. The air is in general healthy, particu- larly in the southern parts : the soil is various ; but so great is its I'crti- lity, that it was many years ago computed, that more wheat was raised here in one year than could be consumed by the inhabitants in eight; and it is supposed that its present produce, under the great improvement of agriculture, and with the additional quantity of land lately brought into tillage, has more than kept pace with the increase of population. Hills, which afford fine pasture for sheep, extend from east to west, through the middle of the island. The interior parts of the island, as well as its extremities, present many beautiful and picturesque prospects, not only in the pastoral but also in the great and romantic stylo. Of these beauties the gentlemen of the island have availed themselves, as well in the choice of situations for their houses, as in their other im- provements. The farm-houses in general are built of stone, and even the cottages are neat and comfortable. From the purity of the air, the fertility of the soil, and the beauty and variety of the landscapes of this island, it has been called the gar- den of England ; it has some very fine gentlemen's seats ; and it is often visited by parties of pleasure on account of its delightful scenes. ENGLISH ISLES. 245 It is divided into thirty parishes. According to an accurate calcula- tion made in the year 1777, the inhabitants then amounted to eighteen thousand and twenty-four, exclusive of the troops quartered there : in 1811, the number exceeded 24,000; and, in 1821,31,600 composed the amount. Newport stands nearly in the centre of the island, of which it may be considered as the capital. It derives some benefit in point of trade from the Medina, which, though not a considerable river, is navigable to the sea at West-Cowes. Three of its streets extend from east to west, and are crossed at right angles by three others, which are spacious, clean, and well-paved. Carisbroke castle, in this island, has been rendered remarkable by the imprisonment of king Charles I. After his decapitation, it was converted into a place of confinement for his children ; and his daughter Elizabeth died in it. There are several other forts in this island, which were erected about the 36th year of the reign of Henry VIII. In the English channel are four islands subject to England : these are Jersey, Guernsey, Alderney, and Sark; which, though they lie much nearer to the coast of Normandy than to that of England, are within the diocese of Winchester. They lie in a cluster in mount St. Michael's bay, between Cape la Hogue in Normandy, and Cape Frebelle in Bretagne. JERSEY, anciently CiESAREA, was known to the Romans, and lies farthest within the bay, 18 miles west of Normandy. The north side is inaccessible through lofty clifis; the south is almost level with the water; the higher land, in the midland part, is well planted, and abounds with orchards. The valleys are fruitful and well cultivated, and contain cattle and sheep iu abundance. The inhabitants neglect tillage too much, being intent upon the culture of fruit, the prosecution of com- merce, and more particularly the manufacture of stockings. The honey in Jersey is remarkably fine ; and the island is well supplied with fish and wild fowl of almost every kind, some of both being peculiar to the spot. The island is twelve miles in length, and six in breadth ; and it is di- vided into twelve parishes. In Camden's time, it was said, there was here no business for a physician ; but, though the air is salubrious, me- dical advice is occasionally found necessary. The inhabitants are in number about 25,000. The capital town of St. Helier, or Hilary, has a good harbour and castle, and makes a handsome appearance. The current language is French, with which English words are intermingled. Knitstockings and caps form the staple commodities ; but the inhabitants carry on a considerable trade in fish with Newfoundland, and dispose of their cargoes in the Mediterranean. The governor is appointed by the crown ; but the civil administration rests with a bailiff, assisted by twelve jurats. As this island is the principal remain of the duchy of Normandy depending on tlu kings of England, it preserves the old feudal forms, and particularly the assembly of states, which is, as it were, a miniature of the British parliament, as settled in the time of Edward I. GUERNSEY is about twelve miles from south-west to north-east, and eleven where broadest, east and west. It is divided into ten parishes, which have only eight churches. Though this is naturally a finer island than that of Jersey, it is less valuable, because it is not so well cuUivated or so populous. Want of fuel is the greatest inconvenience under which both islands labor. The administrative convention consists of a governor, coroners, jurats, clergy, and constables. The islanders have commercial 246 ENGLISH ISLES. concerns with Newfoundland and the Mediterranean. The staple ma- nufacture is knit stockings. The only harbour here is at St. Pierrc-le- Port, which is guarded by two forts. ALDEllNEY is about eight miles in compass, and is separated from Normandy by a strait called the Race, which is a dangerous passage in stormy weather, when the two currents meet ; otherwise it is safe, and has depth of water for the largest ships. To the west, extending near three leagues, lie the rocks called the Caskets, among which are several very dangerous whirlpools or eddies. This island is remarkable for a fine breed of cows. SARK is a dependency upon Guernsey ; the inhabitants are long-lived, and enjoy from nature all the conveniences of life ; their number is about 300. The inhabitants of the three last-mentioned islands, in the aggre- gate, are thought to be about 22,000. In all the four islands the religion is that of the church of England. The SCILLY ISLES arc a numerous cluster of dangerous rocks, situated about thirty miles from the Land's End in Cornwall. By their situation between the English Channel and that of St. George, they have occasioned the destruction of many ships and lives. Sir Cloudesley Shovel, returning from a fruitless expedition against Toulon, was lost here in October, 1707, with about 900 seamen; and two other ships foundered at the same time. St. Mary's is the largest of these islands, being about nine miles in circumference, and containing as many houses apd inhabitants as all the rest. It hrs a good harbour, with a population of about 800 persons. The ISLE OF MAN is in St. George's Channel, almost at an equal distance from England, Scotland, and Ireland. The Mona mentioned by Tacitus was not this island, but Anglesey. Mona, indeed, seems to have been a generic name with the ancients for any detached iRiiind. The length of Man, from north to south, is thirty miles, its breadth from eight to fifteen. The air is wholesome, and the climate nearly the same as that in the north of England. The hilly parts are barren, and the champaign fruitful in wheat, barley, oats, rye, flax, hemp, roots, and pulse. Of the mountains, which nearly divide the island, and %v1)icli both protect and fertilise the valleys, the highest is Sneafell, which r(«Dg more than 2000 feet above the sea. The coasts abound with sea-fowl ; and the pulfins, which breed in rabbet-holes, are almost lumps of fat, and esteemed very delicious. Mines of i^on, lead, and copper, and quarries of marble and slate, are found in various parts of the island. It contains seventeen parishes, and four towns on the coast. Castle -town is the seat of its government. Peele flourishes much more than it formerly did: Douglas has the best market and best trade in the island, and is the richest and most populous town, on account of its excellent harbour, and its fine mole. It contains about 950 houses : the buildings are lofty, but the streets are narrow and close. Ramsay has likewise a considerable commerce, on account of its spacious bay, in which ships may ride safe from all winds except the north-east. The established religion of Man is that of the church of England. The bishop of Sodor and Man enjoys all the spiritual rights and pre-emi- nences of the other bishops, but does not sit in the British house of peers— his see never having been erected into an English barony. One of the most excellent prelates who ever adorned the episcopal character was Dr. Thomas Wilson, who presided over the diocese of Man for more than fifty-seven years, and died in 1755, at the age of ninety-one. He f/a» eouQently distinguished for his piety, ^neyolence, and hospitality, ENGLISH ISLES. 347 and bis unremitting attention to the happiness of the people intrusted to his care. He encouraged agriculture, established schools, translated some of his devotional pieces into the Manks' language, and founded libraries in every parish. Some of .his notions respecting government and church discipline were not of the most liberal kind : but his failings were so few, and his virtues so numerous and conspicuous, that he was a great blessing to the island, and an ornament to human nature. Cardinal Fleury had so much veneration for his character, that, out of regard to him, he ob- tained an order from the court of France, that no privateer of ths c nation should ravage the Isle of Man. The ecclesiastical government is well maintained in this island, and the livings afford a competent support to those incumbents who are not devoted to luxury. The language is radically Erse, or Irish, with a mixture of other dialects. The natives, who amount to about 33,0U0, are inoffensive, charitable and hospitable. The superior inhabitants live in stone houses, and the poor iu thatched huts; and their ordinary bread ii made of oatmeal. Their products for exportation consist of wool, hides, and tallow. This island affords some curiosities which may amuse an antiquary. They consist chiefly of Runic sepulchral inscriptions and monuments, of ancient brass daggers, and other weapons of that metal, and partly of pure gold, which are sometimes dug up, and seem to indicate the splen- dor of its ancient possessors. With respect to the history of this island, it was the rendezvous of the Scandinavian rovers, and their chief force was here collected ; and hence they annoyed the Hebudes, Great- Britain, and Ireland. The kings of Man are often mentioned in history ; and, though we have no regular account of their succession, and know so few of their names, they un- doubtedly were for some ages masters of those seas. About the year 1263, Alexander III. king of Scotland, a spirited prince, having defeated the Danes, laid claim to the superiority of Man, and obliged the king to acknowlege him as lord paramount. It seems to have continued tri- butary to the kings of Scotland, till it was reduced by Edward I. ; and till' Fnglieh monarchs from that time exercised the superiority over the island ; though we find it still possessed by the posterity of its rianish princes, in the reign of Edward III., who dispossessed the last queen of the island, and bestowed it on the earl of Salisbury. His family honors and estate being forfeited, Henry IV. bestowed Man, and the pittronage of the bishopric, first upon the Northumberland family, and, that being disgraced, upon sir John Stanley, whose posterity, the earls of Derby, enjoyed it, till, by failure of heirs male, it devolved upon the duke of Athol, who married the sister of the last lord Derby. Reasons of state rendered it necessary for the crown of Great-Britain to purchase the regalities and customs of the island from the Athol family; and the bar-^ gain was completed by the payment of 70,000Z. to the duke in 1765. This agreement was considered, at the time, as final : but Mr. Pitt pro- cured from the parliament, in 1805, the grant of a large additional sum to the courtly peer, on pretence of the extraordinary increase in the value of the island. The king has now the same rights, powi^rs, and preroga- tives, which the duke formerly enjoyed ; but the peer retains his territorial property in the island, and the inhabitants also preserve many of their ancient constitutions and customs. mm 248 r SCOTLAND. EXTENT AND SlTlTATIONi Miles. Length 270 Breadth 160 \ between < Degrees. 55 and 59 North latitude. 1 and 6 West longitude. Containing 27,500 square miles, with more than 72 inhabitants to each. Name.] SCOTLAND was known to the Romans by the name of Caledonia ; a name, according to some, derived from a Celtic word, signifying forests or mountains : or, perhaps, it is related to the word Oael, by which name the inhabitants of the Highlands still call them- selves. After the expiration of the Roman power, Scotland becanip the country of the Picts or Peohts, a colony from the south of Norway. At length, in the eleventh century, the Scoti coming over from Ireland and establishing themselves in Scotland, the name of Scotia was transferred to the country. Boundaries and divisions.] Scotland is bounded on the south by England ; and on the north, east, and west, by the Deucaledonian, German, and Irish seas, or more properly the Atlantic ocean. It Ib divided into the counties south of the Frith of Forth, and those to the nnvth of the same river. This was the ancient national division ; hut some modern writers have divided, it into Highlands and Lowlands, oq account of the different habits, manners, and customs of the inhabitants of each. Eighteen counties, or shires, are allotted to the southern divi- sion, and fifteen to the northern : and those counties are subdivided into sheriffdoms, stewartries, and bailiwics, according to the ancient tenures and privileges of the landholders. The most populous of these counties are those of Lanark, Edinburgh, Aberdeen, Perth, Ayr, Fife, and Forfar; while the most insignificant in point of population are those of Selkirk and Kinross. The western isles are included in three counties, the northern parts of the group being assigned to the shire of Ross, the middle to that of Inverness, and the southern to Argyleshire. Face of the countuy.] The appearance of the jouthern part of Scotland has a great resemblance to that of England ; and, with respect both to the general aspect of the country, and to the progress of cul- tivation, exhibits every kind of rural variety : the northern part is chieily an assemblage of vast dreary mountains, not, however, without some fertile valleys on the northern and eastern coasts. Argyle-shire, the western part of Perthshire, and the counties of Ross, Sutherland, and C^thness, are the parts which are usually comprehended under the denomination of Highlands. The nudity of the country in many parts, in consequence of the want of wood, is generally observed by visitants from the south ; but the extensive plantations of trees, formed during many years past by the nobility and gentry, must greatly remedy this defect. Scotland is in general diversified with a pleasing i-.;'«rmixturB of natural objects. The vast inequalities of the ground, i' ww Hvorable to the labors of the husbandman, are particularly pleasing to n t it ^ler, and afford those delightful situations for country houses, ( f whicli many of the opulent inhabitants have so judiciously availed thenisch'ps. li is their situatioq, more than any expensive magnificence, that r»!ii'Jei * the seats of the dukes of Argyle and Athol, of the earl of Hopetoija, aod many others, so striking. J n the south icaledonian, cean. It is those to the ivision ; hut owlands, on inhabitants iithern divi- iirided into lent tenures nany parts, )y visitants ned during emedy this '^rmixturc rorable to ^ > .»ler, and 1 many of Iv is their i the seats ood many i * presents ■BT SCOTLAND. 249 MouKTAiKH.] The principal mountaias in Scotland are the Gram- pian Hills, wliich run from east to west, from the vicinity of Aberdeen to Cowal in Argyleshire, almost the whole breadth of the kingdom. The Pentland Hills run through Lothian, and join those of Tweed-dale. A third chain, called Lammer-Muir, rises near the eastern coast, and runs westward through the Merse. Beside those chains, among which we may reckon the Cheviot or Teviot Hills on the borders of England, Scotland conttuns many detached mountains, which, from their conical figure, are sometimes called by the Celtic name. Laws. A remarkable mountain is Ben Fouaish, in the east part of Ross-shire. It rises nearly in the form of a rick of hay to the height of 4200 feet, and ends in a flat :u.~!riit or plain three miles long, and half a mile broad. Ben Nevis, near Fort William, is reputed to be the highest mountain in Britain, being 4350 feet above the level of the sea. Its summit is usually co- vered with snow. Cairngorm rises to the height of 4060 feet, and generally has a snowy top. Forests.] The face of Scotland, even where it is most uninviting, presents us with the most incontrovertible evidences of its having for- merly abounded with timber. The deepest mosses, or morasses, con- tain large logs of wood ; and their waters, being impregnated with tur- pentine, have an antiseptic quality. The Sylva Caledonia, or Caledo- nian forest, is supposed to have been Ettrick Forest, by which name the whole county of Selkirk was formerly called. Several parts of Scot- land are still denominated forests : as Abernethy Forest, Parff, Reay, and Broachiltive. Fir-trees grow in perfection almost all over Scot- land, and form beautiful plantations. The Scotish oak is excellent in the Highlands, where some woods reach 20 or 30 miles in length, and four or five in breadth. Lakes.] The lochs or lakes of Scotland are too numerous to be particularly described. Loch-Tay, Loch-Lomond, Loch-Ness, Loch- Au, and one or two more, present us with such picturesque scenes as are scarcely equaled in any other country of Europe. Several of. these lakes are beautifully fringed with woods, and contain great quantities of fresh-water fish. The Scots sometimes give the name of a loch to an arm of the sea; for example, Loch-Fyn, which is 60 miles long, and four broad, and is famous for its excellent herrings. The loch of Spinie, near Elgin, is remarkable for swans, which are tempted, as some think, by the attractions of the plant olorina. Near Loch-Ness is a high hill, on the top of which is a lake of cold fresh water about 30 fathoms in length, so deep that it has not yet been fathomed, and which never freezes ; whereas, only 1 7 miles from it, the Lake Loch-Anwyn, or Green Lake, is constantly covered with ice. The ancient province of Loch- aber receives that name from being the mouth of the lochs. The coasts of Scotland are in many parts indented with large, bold, navigable bays, or arms of the sea, as the bays of Glenluco and Wigton: sometimes they are called friths, as the Solway Frith, which separates Scotland from England on the west, the friths of Forth, Moray, Cromartie, and Dornoch. Rivers.] The largest river in Scotland is the Forth, which rises in the southern part of Perthshire, and, passing by Stirling, after a num- ber of beautiful meanders, discharges itself near Edinburgh into an arm of the German sea. Second to the Forth is the Tay, which issues out of Loch-Tay, and, running to the south-east, passes the town of Perth, and falls into the sea at Dundee. The Spey, the most rapid river ia Scotland, issues from a lake of the ,.Ame name in fiadenoch, and, SCOTLAND. running from south- vrest to north-east, falls into the sea near Elgin* while the rivers Dee and Don, which run from west to east, disem« bogue themselves at Aberdeen. The Tweed rises on the borders of La- narkshire ; and, after many windings, it discharges itself into the sea at Berwick, serving as a boundary between Scotland and England, on the eastern side. The Clyde is a large river on the west of Scotland has its rise in Annandale, runs to the north-west, and, after passing by Lanark, Han)ilton, Glasgow, Renfrew, Dunbarton, and Greenock, fallg into the frith of Clyde, opposite to the isle of Bute. Beside these prin- cipal rivers, Scotland contains many of inferior note, which equally en- rich and beautify the country. Several of those rivers have the name of Esk, which is an old Celtic word for water. Canals.] A canal, forming a junction between the rivers Forth and Clyde, wasbegtin in 1768, and finished in 1790. It is deeper and wider than any English canal. Its length is 35 miles; and, iu the course of the navigation, the vessels are raised, by means of 20 lociu, to the height of 155 feet above the level of the sea. Proceeding on the summit of the country, for 18 miles, it then descends by 19 other locks to the Clyde. It is carried over 36 rivers and rivulets, and two great roads, by 38 aqueducts of hewn stone. By one of these, 400 feet in Jength, it passes the Kelvin, near Glasgow, at the height of 70 feet above the bed of the river in the valley below. It crosses the great road from Edinburgh to Glasgow, by a fine aqueduct-bridge ; and is carried over the water of Logie by another aqueduct«bridge, the arch of which is 90 feet broad. The great utility of this communication between the eastern and western seas to the trade of Great-Britain and Ireland must be evident, from the consideration that it shortens the distance between them by the shortest passage, that of the Peutland Frith, near 600 miles. Another great work of this kind is styled the Caledonian canal, which forms a communication between the east and west seas. Among the early operations connected with this canal, it was thought necessary to form new courses for the rivers Spean and Ness, that the canal might occupy the old bed of each river; and, as the work proceeded, some lochs were deepened, so as to form an useful part of the line. The ex- pense of this undertaking was enormous ; but, as it was defrayed by the parliament, it was not seriously felt ; and its advantages have already been very considerable and important. Metals and minerals.] Though Scotland does not at present boast of its gold-mines, yet it formerly afforded a considerable quantity of that metal for its coinage. James V. and his father contracted with certain Germans for working the mines of Crawford-Muir ; and, when the former married the French king's daughter, a number of covered dishes, filled with coins of Scotish gold, were presented to the guests by way of dessert. The civil wars and troubles which followed, under his daughter, in the minority of his grandson, drove those foreigners from their works, which since that time have not been resumed. Some small pieces of gold have been found in those parts, washed down by the floods. It likewise appears by the public records, that the beautiful coins of James V., called bonnet pieces, were fabricated of gold found in Scotland. The lead -mines of Scotland are very prodifctive and profitable, and contain considerable quantities of silver ; but there are no silver-mines that are worked at present. Some copper-mines have been found near Edinburgh ; and many parts of Scotland, in the east, west, and northern SCOTLAND. 251 counties, produce excellent coal of various kinds, large quantities of which are exported. Lime-stone is found here in great plenty, as are also free-stone and several kinds of marble. Lapis lazuli is dug up in Lanarkshire ; alum mines have been found io Banffshire ; crystal variegated pebbles, and other transparent stones, which admit the finest polish for seals, are found in various parts ; as are talc, potter's clay, and fuller's earth. The new earth of the modern mi» neralogists and chemists, called strontian, is found in Argyleshire. No country produces a greater plenty of iron ore, both in mines and stones, than Scotland ; from which the proprietors derive great profits in their founderies, (as at Carron) and other metalline manufactures. CtiMATE, SOIL, AND AGRICULTURE.] The air of Scotland is more temperate than could be expected in so northerly a climate. This arises partly from the variety of its hills, valleys, rivers, and lakes ; but still more, as in England, from the vicinity of the sea, which affords those warm breezes, that not only soften the natural keenness of the air, but, by keeping it in perpetual agitation, render it pure and healthful, and prevent epidemic distempers. In the neighbourhood of some high mountains, however, the air is keen and piercing for about nine months in the year. The soil in general is not so fertile as that of England ; and, in many places, it is less fitted for agriculture than for pasture. At the same time, there are particular plains and valleys of the most luxuriant fertility ; though experience has proved, that many vegetables and hortulane pro- ductions do not come so soon to maturity in Scotland as in England. The soil may be rendered, in many parts, nearly as fruitful as that of England. It is even said that some parts of the Lowlands exceed in value English estates of the same extent, because they are less exhausted than those of the southern parts of the island : and agriculture is now perhaps as well understood, both in theory and practice, among many of the Scotish landlords and farmers, as it is in any part of Europe. Vkget AMBLES.] Scotland in general produces wheat, rye, barley, oats, hemp, flax, hay, and pasture. In the southerii counties the finest garden fruits, particularly apricots, nectarines, and peaches, are little, if at all, inferior to those of England ; and the same may be said of the common fruits. The uncultivated parts of the Highlands abound in various kir j.. ^f salubrious and pleasant-tasted berries, though it must be owned that many extensive tracts are covered with a strong heath. The coast produces the nlga marina, and other weeds or plants, which are eaten for nourishment or pleasure. Animals.] This country contains few or no kinds either of wild or domestic animals that are not common with its neighbours. Wolves were not extirpated before the year 1 680, and the wild cats have not yet dis- appeared. The red deer and roe-buck are found in the Highlands ; but their flesh is not comparable to English venison. Hares are much more abundant than deer. The heath-cock, a most delicious bird, the capper- kaily, and the ptarmigan, are also found by sportsmen ; but these birds are scarce even in the Highlands, and, when discovered, are very shy. Eagles and beautiful falcons are not infrequent here, and the shores abound in various kinds of sea-fowl. The numbers of black-cattle that cover the hills toward the Highlands, and sheep that are fed upon the beautiful mountains of Tweed-dale, and in other parts of the south, are almost in- credible ; and the black cattle, when fattened on the southern pastures, have been reckoned superior to English beef. Formerly the Scotish kings took great pains to improve the breed of l^orses, by importing a larger and more generous kind from the continent : 254 SCOTLAND. but, notwithstanding all the care that was taken, it was found that the climate and soil of Scotland were unfavorable to those animals ; for they diminished both in size and spirit ; so that, about the time of the union, few horses, natives of Scotland, were of much value. Great efforts, however, have been made in our time, to introduce the English and foreigQ breeds, and such care has been taken to provide them with proper food and management, that success has almost equaled the most sanguine expectations. Natural curiosities.] Traces of ancient volcanoes are not infre- quent in Scotland. The hill of Finhaven is one instance ; and the hill of Bergonium, near Dunstaifage castle, is another, yielding vast quan- tities of pumices or scorice of different kinds, many of which are of the same species with those of the Icelandic volcanoes. Among other na- tural curiosities of this country is a heap of w uite stones, most of them clear as crystal, found with great quantities of oyster and other sea-shells, on the top of a mountain called Scorna-Lappich, in Ross-shire, at the distance of twenty miles from the sea. Slanes, in Aberdeenshire, is re- markable for a petrifying cave, called the Dropping, Cave, where water, oozing through a spongy porous rock at the top, quickly consolidates after it drops to the bottom. Like other mountainous countries, Scotland abounds in wild and picturesque scenes, rocks, cataracts, and caverns. Population.] The population of Scotland, in 1755, was only 1,265,380 ; but by the returns made to the population bill, in 1801 , the number stated was 1,599,068 ; and the addition of 8690, the estimated number of inhabitants in the places from which no regular returns were made, increased the amount to 1,607,758. In 1811, the regular enu- meration swelled the list to 1,805,688, exclusive of the army and navy, and sea-men in registered vessels ; and, ten years afterwards, the number exceeded two millions. National character, manners, and customs.] The people of Scotland are generally raw-boned ; and a kind of characteristical feature, that of high cheek-bones, prevails in their faces : they are lean, but clean-limbed, and can endure incredible fatigues. Their adven- turous spirit was chiefly produced or stimulated by their laws of succes- sion, which invested the elder brother, as head of the family, with the inheritance, and left a very scanty portion for the other sons. This obliged the latter to seek their fortunes abroad, though no people have more affection for their native soil than the Scots in general have. It is true, this disparity of fortune, among the sons of one family, prevails likewise in England ; but the resources which younger brothers have in England are numerous, compared with those of a country so narrow, and so little improved, either by commerce or agriculture, as Scotland was formerly. An intelligent reader may easily perceive that the ridiculous family- pride, which is perhaps not yet entirely extinguished in Scotland, arose from the feudal institutions which prevailed there longer than in England. The family-differences, especially of the Highlanders, familiarised them to blood and slaughter ; and the most ferocious j)assions Avere authorised and cherished by their chieftains. Their kings, except some, who were endued with extraordinary virtues, were considered only as commanders of the army in the time of war; for, during peace, their civil authority was so circumscribed, that every clan or family, even in the most civilised parts of Scotland, looked upon its own chieftain as its sovereign. These prejudices were confirmed even by the laws, which gave those petty tyrants a po\ ally execute! party was a| vying each flrithout bloo was a blind of his name, lion of the y attempt tore ideas. His were gradua The gentr present, in tl of the like ff are confined to their stati sions, to be bounds of tl their constit instances of yet it nmst clined in ou The peop but, when t with which lelcd ; and arising frou were manaj that which 1 government and some ol 500/. anne: to bring the sexes, undt defeat at Ci The inha have a nati tunes is re merry strai meat for v lously supi Mary, reft country, ii music, loi was chiefl] an air dur no other e music itse The CO their ance beadle is and with ceased, a) men. Tl officers ; s SCOTLAND. 253 tyrants a power of life and death upon their own estates ; and they gener- ally executed their hasty sentences in four-and-twenty hours after the party was apprehended. The pride which those chieftains had of out- vying each other created perpetual animosities, which seldom ended without bloodshed ; so that the common people, whose best qualification was a blind devotion to the will of their master, and the aggrandisement of his name, lived in a state of continual hostility. But, after the rebel- lion of the year 1745, Archibald, duke of Argyle, had the patriotism to attempt to reform his dependents, and to banish from them those barbarous ideas. His example was followed by other nobles ; and the Highlanders were gradually reconciled to the milder habits of society. The gentry of Scotland who reside upon their estates differ little, at present, in their manners and style of living from their English neighbours of the like fortunes. The peasantry have tiieir peculiarities ; their ideas are confined, but no people can adapt their tempers better than they do to their stations. They are taught from their infancy to bridle their pas- sions, to behave submissively to their superiors, and live within the iwunds of the most rigid ceconomy. Hence they save their money and their constitutions ; and, more particularly during the last century, few instances of murder, or of other atrocious crimes, occurred in Scotland : yet it must be observed witli regret, that the Scotish morality has de- clined in our own times, in proportion to the increase of luxury. The people seldom used to enter singly upon any daring enterprise ; but, when they acted in concert, the secrecy, sagacity, and resolution, with which they carried on any bold undertaking, were not to be paral- leled ; and their fidelity to one another, under the strongest temptations arising from their poverty, was still more extraordinary. Their mobs were managed with all the caution of conspiracies ; more particularly that which put Porteus to death in 1736, in open defiance of law and government : though the agents in this bold scheme were well known, and some of them apprehended and put on their trials, with a reward of 500/. annexed to their conviction, no evidence could be found sufficient to bring them to punishment. The fidelity of the Highlanders of both sexes, under still greater temptation, to the young pretender, after his defeat at CuUodcn, could scarcely be believed, were it not well attested. The inhabitants of those parts of Scotland, in which pasturage flourishes, have a natural vein for poetry ; and the beautiful simplicity of the Scotish tuues is relished by all true judges of nature. Those of a lively and merry strain have been introduced into the army by the fife, an instru- ment for which they are remarkably well suited. It has been ridicu- lously supposed that Rizzio, the Italian secretary of the unfortunate Mary, reformed the Scotish music. This is a falsehood invented by his country, in envy to the Scots. Their finest tunes existed in their church music, long before Rizzio's arrival ; nor does it appear that Rizzio, who was chiefly employed by his mistress in foreign despatches, ever composed an air during the short time he lived in Scotland : but even if there were no other evidences to confute this report, the original character of the music itself is suflicient. The common people of Scotland retain the solemn decent manner of their ancestors at burials. When a relative dies in a town, the parish beadle is sent round with a passing-bell : he stops at certain places, and with a slow melancholy tone announces the name of the party de- ceased, and the time of his interment, to which he invites alibis country- men. The procession is sometimes attended by the magistrates and their officers; and the body is carried in a coifin, covered by a velvet pall, with 254 SCOTLAND. chair-poles, to the grave, where it is interred, without any oration ■or address to the people, or prayers. The funerals of the nobility and gentry are performed nearly in the same manner as in England, but without any regular service. The Highland funerals were generally preceded by bagpipes, which played certain dirges, called coronachs, and were accompanied by the voices of the attendants of both sexes. Dancing is a favorite amusement in this country ; but little regard ig paid to art or gracefulness: the whole consists in agility, and in keeping time to the tune, which is usually done with great exactness. One of the peculiar diversions practised by the gentlemen, is the Gaff, which requires an equal degree of art and strength : it is played with a bat and a ball, and resembles that of the Mall, which was common in England in the middle of the seventeenth century. The diversion of Curling is perhaps, peculiar to the Scots. It is performed upon ice, with large flat stones, often from twenty to two hundred pounds weight, which they hurl from a common stand toward a mark at a certain distance ; and whoever is nearest to the mark is the victor. The dress of the Highlanders is a kind of national characteristic, a description of which must not be omitted. The plaid is composed of a Woollen stuflf, sometimes very fine, called tartan. This consists of various colors, forming stripes which cross each other at right angles ; and the natives value themselves on the judicious arrangement, or what they call sets of those stripes and colors, which, when skilfully managed, pro- duce a pleasing effect to the eye. Above the shirt, the Highlander wears a waistcoat of the same composition with the plaid, which commonly con- sists of twelve yards in width, and which he throws over the shoulder nearly in the form of a Roman toga, as represented in ancient statues; sometimes it is fastened round the middle with a leathern belt, so that part of the plaid hangs down before and behind like a petticoat, and sup- plies the want of breeclies. This they call being dressed in a fhelig ; but the Lowlanders call it a kilt. Sometimes they wear a kind of petti- coat of the same variegated stuff, buckled round the waist ; and this they term the phelibeg, which seems to be of Milesian extraction. Their stockings are likewise of tartan, tied below the knee with tartan garters formed into tassels. The poor wear upon their feet brogues made of untanned or undressed leather ; for the head a blue flat cap is used, called abonnet, of a particular woollen manufacture. From the beltof the phelibeg hung generally their knives, a dirk or dagger, and an iron pistol, sometimes of fine workmanship and curiously inlaid with silver. The introduction of the broad sword of Andrea Ferrara, a Spaniard (which was always part of the Highland dress), seems not to have been earlier than the reign of James HI., who invited that excellent workman into Scotland. A large leathern purse, richly adorned with silver, hanging before, was always part of a Highland chieftain's dress. The dress of the Highland women consisted of a petticoat and jerkin, with close sleeves, trimmed or not trimmed, according to the quality of tlie wearer. Over this they wore a plaid which they either held close under their chins with the hand, or fastened with a buckle. On the head they wore a kerchief of fine linen of different forms. The plaid was worn by them in a graceful manner, the drapery falling toward the feet in large folds. The attachment of the Highlanders to this dress rendered it a bond of union, which often proved dangerous to the government. Many efforts were made by the legislature, after the rebellion in 1715, to disarm them, and oblige them to conform to the Low-country dresses. The dis- " SCOTLAND. 955 arming Bcheme was the most successful ; for, when the rebellion broke out in 1745, the common people had scarcely any other arms than those which they look from the king's troops. Their overthrow at Culloden rendered it no difficult matter for the legislature to force them into a total change of their dress. The parliament, however, after an interval of forty years, consented to its restoration, as it was found better adapted to the freedom of motion, than the close garments of the English. The dress of the higher and middle ranks of the Low-country differs little from the English ; but many of the peasants retain the bonnet, for the cheapness and lightness of the wear. Cities, chief towns, and edificks.] Edinburgh claims the (int place under this head. It is said to have been built by the Saxon king Edwin, whose territory reached to the frith of Forth ; and it did not fall into the hands of the Scots before the reign of Indulphus, who lived in the year 953. The town was built for the benefit of protection from the castle ; and a more inconvenient situation for a capital can scarcely be conceived ; the High-street, which is on the ridge of a hill, lying east and west, and the lanes running down its sides north and south. In former times, the town was environed by water, except toward the east ; so that, when the French landed in Scotland during the regency of Mary of Guise, they gave it the name of ITsle-Bourg, or the insular town. This situation suggested the idea of building very lofty houses, divided into many stories, each of which contains a suite of rooms, ge- nerally large and commodious, for the use of a family. The High-street makes a grand appearance, especially as it rises a full mile in a direct line and gradual ascent from Holyrood-house on the east, and is termi- nated on the west by the rude majesty of its castle, built upon a lofty rock. The castle not only overlooks the city and a fine neighbouring country, but commands a most extensive prospect of the river Forth, the shipping, the opposite coast of Fife, and even some hills at the distance of 35 or 40 miles, which border upon the Highlands. It contains some good apartments, a tolerable train of artillery, and a large magazine of arms and ammunition. Holyrood-house is a stately palace ; the quadrangle of which, begun by James V. and finished by Charles I., is of magnificent modern archi- tecture, built according to the plan and under the direction of sir William Bruce. Round the quadrangle runs an arcade, adorned with pilasters ; and the inside contains magnificent apartments. Its long gallery is adorned with figures, some of which are from portraits, but all of them painted by modern artists, of the kings of Scotland down to the time of the Revolution. The hospital, founded by George Herlot, goldsmith to James VI., com- monly called Heriot's Work, stands to the south-west of the castle. It is the finest and most regular specimen which Inigo Jones (who went to Scotland as architect to queen Anne, wife of king James VI.) has left us of his Gothic manner, and far exceeds any thing of that kind to be seen in England. One Balcanquil, a divine, whom Heriot appointed his executor, is said to have prevailed upon Jones to admit some barba- rous devices into the building, particularly the windows, and to have in- sisted that the ornaments of each should be different from those of the others. It is, however, upon the whole, a noble fabric, and adorned with gardens not inelegantly laid out. It was built for the maintenance and education of poor children belonging to the citizens and tradesmen of Edinburgh, and is under the direction of the city magistrates. Among the other public edifices of Edinburgh, befoie the Revolutido, 356 SCOTLAND. was the college, which claims the privileges of an university, founded by king James VJ in 1580, and by him put under the direction of the ma- gistrates, who htKfe the power of chancellor and vice-chancellor. The original buildings which composed it were calculated for the sober lite- rary manners of those days : but it has been rebuilt in an elegant style. It is supplied with excellent professors in the several branches of learning; and its schools for every part of the medical science are superior to any in Europe. This college is provided with a library, founded by one Cle- ment Little, which has been greatly augmented since his time; and a museum belonging to it was given by sir Andrew Balfour, a physician. The Parliament Square, or (as it is there called) Close, was formerly the most ornamental part of the city : it is formed into a noble qua- drangle, part of which consists of lofty buildings ; and iu the middle ia a fine equestrian statue of Charles H. The room built by Charles I. for the parliament-house, though not so large, is better proportioned than Westminster-hall ; and its roof, which is executed in the same manner, has been by good judges deemed superior. It is now converted into a court of law, where a single judge, called the lord-ordinary, presides by rotation: in a room near it sit the other judges; and adjoining are the public offices of the law, exchequer, chancery, shrievalty, and magistracy of Edinburgh, and the valuable library of the advocates. This is equal, in the opinion of the Scots, to the best libraries in England. The col- lection has been made with exquisite taste and judgement ; and it in- cludes the most valuable manuscript remains of the Scotish history, chartu- laries, and other papers of antiquity, beside a series of medals. The high-church, called that of St. Giles, is now divided into four churches, and a room for the general assembly. It is a large Gothic building, and its steeple is surmounted by arches, formed into an impe- rial crown, which has a good effect. The modern edifices in and near Edinburgh, such as the Exchange, public offices, hospitals, and bridges, demonstrate the improvement of the Scotish taste in public works. Parallel to the city, on the north, the nobility, gentry, and others, erected a new town many years ago. The streets and squares are laid out with the utmost regularity, and the houses are elegantly built with stone. Between the city and the new town lies a narrow bottom or vale, at the west or upper end of which the castle looks down with awful magni- ficence. Its easteirn extremity is bounded by a lofty bridge, the middle arch being ninety feet high, which joins the new buildings to the city, and renders the descent on each side of the vale more commodious for carriages. Edinburgh contains a theatre, sanctioned by act of parliament ; and concerts, assemblies, balls, music meetings, and other polite amusements, are as frequent and brilliant here, hs in any part of his majesty's domi- nions, London and Bath excepted. In the new town are several hand- some and convenient hotels, and the coffee-houses and taverns in the old town are much improved. The city is governed by a lord-provost and other magistrates, annually chosen from the common-council. The provost is colonel of the town- guard, a military institution to be found in no part of his majesty's domi- nions but in Edinburgh : they serve for the city watch, and patrole the streets, are useful in suppressing inconsiderable commotions, and attend the execution of criminals. The number of inhabitants, in 1801, did not exceed 82,560; but the amount is now about 140,000. Leith, though near two miles distant, may be properly called the har« provmg realm. SCOTLAND. 257 did bonr of Edinburgh, being tinder the same jurisdiction. It contains nothing remarkable but the remains of a citadel, fortified and bravely defended by the French, under Mary of Guise, against the English, and afterwards repaired by Cromwell. The neighbourhood of Edinburgh is adorned witli noble scats, some of which yield to few in England. About four miles from Edinburgh is Roslin, noted for a stately Gothic chapel, esteemed one of the most curious pieces of workmanship in Europe ; founded in the year 1440, by William St. Clair, prince of Orkney, and duke of Oldenburg. Glasgow, situated near the Clyde, in the shire of Lanark, is, in point of population, the second city in Scotland, the most flourishing in trade aud manufactures, and one ot the first in Europe for the elegance, regula- •; and beautiful materials of its buildings. The streets cross each ouier at right angles, and are broad, straight, well paved, and conse- quently clean. The houses make a grand appearance, and are in gene- ral four or five stories high ; and many of them, toward the centre of the city, are supported by arcades, which form piazzas, and give the whole an air of magnificence. Some of the modern churches are in a fine style of architecture ; and the cathetlral is a stupendous Gothic building, hardly to be paralleled in that kind of architecture. It contains three churches, one of which stands above another, and is furnished with a very fine spire springing from a tower ; the whole being reckoned a masterly fabric. The university is spacious, aud elegantly built. The tovn-house is a lofly structure, and has fine apartments for the magi- strates. In this city are several well-endowed hospitals ; and it is par- ticularly well supplied with large and convenient inns, proper for the accommodation of strangers, even of high rank. Its population may be estimated at 148,000. The port belonging to the city is Greenock, a large and flourishing town, where ship-building is carried ou with great spirit. Aberdeen consists of the old and new towns. The latter is the shire- town, and was evidently built for the purpose of commerce. It has a spacious and secure harbour, which, however, is not easily entered by large vessels. Its trade is very considerable ; and many mercantile ships are here built; yet the population is less than might be expected, scarcely exceeding 26,000. It has twenty-one places of worship, among which are only two parochial churches ; one is a fine structure in the Gothic style, while the other exhibits the attractions of modern elegance. The old town, though almost joined to the new one by means of a long village, has no dependence on the other ; it is moderately large, but has no haven. In each there is a well-endowed college, both being termed the university of Aberdeen, even amidst a separation of government and discipline. Perth has a considerable trade with the north of Europe, and an im- proving linen manufacture. It was once the capital of the Scotish realm. Here the courts of justice sat, the parliament assembled, and the king resided : it was then defended by a strong castle, and is at present one of the most regular and handsome towns in Scotland : it contains about 20,000 inhabitants. Dundee, in the shire of Forfar, is far more populous than Perth, and has a very flourishing trade. CoMMEUcE, Manufactures.] The trade and manufactures of Scotland are in most respects similar to those of England (though on a smaller scale), and for many years past have been rapidly improving. The exports .are cotton and linen goods, iron, lead, glass, woollen, leather, giain, sope, &c.; the imports are timber, hemp, flax, wine, S T 258 SCOTLAND. brandy; and, from the Wot-Iiidies and tho American continent, nim suffar, ricu, cotton, and indigo. The fishcrifsof Scotland are well conducted, and produce large suppjieg for the English and foreign niarkctB. The busses, or vessciseniploycd in the great herring- fishery on tho western coast, are fitted out from the north- west parts of England, and the north of Ireland, as well as the numcrout ports of the Clyde and neighbouring islands. The grand rundezvougis at Campbelltown, a commodious port of Argyleshire, which has cou,t- qucntiy risen from a mere village into a flourishing town. The chief manufactures of Scotland are those of cotton and linen. At Glasgow, the former branch is carried on to a very great extent ; for it appears that, in one year, ending on the Ist of May, 1818, the exports of cotton goods, including all articles of that description in which silk ii partly used, nearly amounted to 46 millions of yards, beside cotton-hn«e, thread, twist, and yarn ; and it is supposed that a still greater quantity was manufactured in that town and neighbourhood, within the same period, for home consumption. Paisley is famous for its manufactures of lawn, muslin, and gauze. The inhabitants of Perth and Dundee make various kinds of linen. Sail-cloth and cordage are well prepared in various parti; and, if the Scots do not equal the English in the fabric of iine woulleos, they make an useful ordinary sort of cloth, and strong carpets. The iron works at Canon, near P'alkirk, have long been distinguished; and all sorts of iron goods are there made, from the smallest article to the largest cannon, a great quantity of which are exported. The short piece of ordnance called a carronade was first made here, and hence received its name. Constitution, goveunment, and laws.] The ancient con- stitution and government of Scotland have been highly applauded, as flxcellently adapted to the preservation of liberty ; and it is certain that the power of the king was greatly limited, and that there were many con- stitutional checks upon him, which were well calculated to prevent his aa- suinption of a despotic authority. But the Scotish constitution was too aristocratic to afford to the common people that equal liberty which they had a right to expect. The king's authority was sufficiently restrained; but the nobles, chieftains, and great landholders, had it too much in their power to tyrannise over their tenants and the generality of the people. The parliament of Scotland anciently consisted of all who held any portion of land of the crown, by military service. This assembly fixed the time of its own meetings and adjournments, and appointed committees to superintend the administration during the intervals of parliament ; and, indeed, it had a conmianding power in all the affairs of government. The king had no negative voice, nor could he declare war, make peace, or conclude any other public business of importance, without the advice and approbation of the parliament. His prerogative was so bounded, that he was not even intrusted with the executive part of the govern- ment : he was merely the first servant of his people. Some of the kings, however, notwithstanding this paramount power in the parliament, found means to weaken and elude its force ; and in this they were assisted by the clergy, whose revenues were very great, who had little dependence upon the pope, and were always jealous of the powerful nobility. This was done hy establishing a select body of members, who were called the lords of the articles. These were chosen from the classes of the clergy, nobility, knights, and burgesses. The bishops, for instance, chose eight peers, and the peers eight bishops ; and these sixteen jointly chose eight barons (or knights of the shire), and eight commisoioners for burghs; SCOTLAND. 950 uid to all thoae were added eight great officers of state, the chancellor bsing president of the whole body. Tlieir business was to prepare all questions and bills that might bo brought into parliament; so that in fact, though the king could give no negative, yet, as he was, by the lubserviency of the clergy, and the places he had to bestow, generally lure of the lords of the articles, few matters cuuld come into parliament that could call for his negative. It must be acknowleged that this institution leems to have prevailed by stealth ; nor was it ever brought into any regular system ; even its modes varied : and the greatest lawyers are ig- norant when it first took place. The Scots, however, never lost sight of their original principles; and, though Charles I. wished to form these lords of the articles into regular machines for his despotic purposes, he found it impracticable ; and the melancholy consequences are well known. At the Revolution, the Scots gave a fresh instance how well they undei^ itood the principles of liberty, by omitting all pedantic debates about abdication and the like terms, and voting at once that James had for- feited his crown. This spirit of resistance was the more remarkable, as the people of Scotland had groaned under the most insupportable ministerial tyranny ever since the Restoration. If it be asked. Why did they submit to that tn-anny ? — the answer is, In order to preserve that independence which Cromwell and his parliament endeavoured to destroy by uniting them with England. They therefore chose rather to submit to a temporary evil ; but they took the^rst opportunity of freeing themselves from their oppressors. Scot! ud, when it was a separate kingdom, cannot be said to have had toy peers, in the English sense of the word. The nobility, who were dukes, marquises, earls, and barons, were by the king made hereditary members of parliament ; but they formed no distinct house ; and the commons had the same deliberative and decisive vote with them in all public affairs. A baron, though not a baron of parliament, might sit upon a lord's assise in matters of life and death ; nor was it necessary for the assi era, or jury, to be unanimous in their verdict. Before the union, the kings of Scot' nd had four great and four in- ferior officers of state : the great were, the chancellor, treasurer, secre- tary, and keeper of the privy-seal ; the others were, the lord-registrar, advocate, justice-clerk, and treasurer-depute. Since the incorporation, the three first offices, and the last, have been discontinued. The officers of the crown were, the high- chamberlain, constable, admiral, and marshal. The employments of constable and marsiial were hereditary. A nobleman has still a pension as admiral, and the post of marshal is exercised by a knight-marshal. The chancellorship of Scotland, and the other suppressed offices, differed little from those of England. The lord-registrar was head-clerk to the parliament, convention, treasury, exchequer, and session, and keeper of all public records. Though ihis office was only during the king's pleasure, yet it was rendered very lucrative by the disposal of the depu- tatian, which lasted during life. He acted as teller to tha parliament, and it was not prudent or safe for any member to dispute his report of the numbers upon divisions. The lori advocate's office resembles that of the attorney-general in England ; but his powers are more extensive, because, by the Scotish laws, he is the prosecutor of all capital crimes before the justiciary, and likewise concurs in all pursuits before sovereign courts, for breaches of the peace, and also in all civil matters, wherein the king, or his donator, hath interest. S2 T 260 SCOTLAND. I I The privy council in Scotland, before the Revolution, possessed, ot assumed, inquisitorial powers, even that of torture; but it is now sunk in the parliament and privy council of Great-Britain ; and the civil and criminal causes in Scotland are chiefly cognisable by two courts of judU cature. One is the college of justice, which was instituted by James V., after the model of the French parliament, to supply an ambulatory com- inittee c " parliament, who assumed the names of the lords of council and session, which the present members of the college of justice still retain. This court consists of a president and fourteen ordinary mem- bers, beside extraordinary ones named by the king, who may sit and vote, but have no salaries, and are not bound to attendance. It may be called a standing jury in all matters of property. The civil law is the guide of the judges in all cases which come not within the municipal laws of the kingdom. It has been often matter of surprise, that the Scots were so tenacious of the forms of their courts, and the essence of their laws, as to reserve them by the articles of the Union. This, how- ever, may be easily accounted for, because those laws and forms were essential to the possession of estates and lands, which in Scotland are often holden by modes incompatible with the laws of England. The lords of council and session act likewise as a court of equity ; but their decrees are (fortunately perhaps for the subject) reversible by the British house of lords, to which an appeal lies. The supreme criminal judge was named the Justiciar, and the justiciary court succeeded to his power. The justice-court is the highest criminal tribunal in Scotland ; but in its present form it was institxited so late as the year 1672, when a lord- justice-generai, removable at the king's pleasure, was appointed. This lucrative office still exists in the person of one of the chief nobility ; but the ordinary members of the cour* are the justice-clerk and five other judges, who are always nominated from the lords of session. In this court the verdict of the major part of a jury condemns or acquits. Beside these two great courts of law, the Scots, by the articles of the Union, have a court of exchequer. This court has the same power, authority, privilege, and jurisdiction, over the revenue of Scotland, as the court of exchequer iu England has over the revenue of that country. The Scots have also a court of admiralty, with an independent jurisdiction. The college of advocates, answering to the English inns of court, may lie called the seminary of Scotish lawyers. They constitute within them- selves an orderly court, and their forms require great precision and ex- amination to qualify the candidates for admission. The inferior pro- fessor? of the law, or, as they may be called, attorneys, denominate themselves writers to the signet, because they alone can subscribe the writs that pass the signet ; they likewise have a bye-government for their own regulation. The counties in Scotland were formerly governed by sheriffs and stew- ards, courts of regality, baron-courts, commissaries, and justices of the peace. Formcily sheriffdoms were generally hereditary ; but, by act of parlia- ment, they are now all vested in the crown ; it being enacted, that all high sheriffs, or stewards, shall, for the future, be nominated and ap- pointed annually by his majesty, his heirs, and successors. Stewartries vere formerly part of the ancient royal domain ; and the stewards had much the same power in them as the sheriff had in his county. SCOTLAND. Courts of regality of old were holden by virtue of a royal jurisdiction vested in the lord, with particular immunities and privileges : but these were so dangerous and so extravagant, that all the Scotish regalities were dissolved by act of parliament. Baron-courts belong to every person who holds a barony of tne king. Id civil matters they extend to causes not exceeding forty shillings ster- ling; and, in criminal cases, to petty actions of assault and battery. It is remarkable that even these courts were in former days invested with tiie power of life and death. Thcourts of commissaries in Scotland answer to those of the English diocesan chancellors, the highest of which is kept at Edinburgh ; where* in, before four judges, actions are pleaded concerning wills, the right of patronage to ecclesiastical benefices, tithes, divorces, and causes of that nature ; but in almost all other parts of the country there is only one judge in these causes. According to the present institution, justices of the peace in Scotland exercise nearly the same powers as those in England. In former times their office, though of verj' old standing, was insignificant, being cramped by the powers of the great feudal tyrants. The legal punishments in Scotland are the same as in England. De- capitation was performed by an instrument called the Maiden, which resembled the French guillotine ; and of which the model was taken from Halifax in England, to Scotland, by the regent Morton, where it was first used for the execution of himself. From this short view of the Scotish laws and institutions, it is plain that they were radically the same with those of the English. The latter allege, indeed, that the Scots borrowed, in substance, their Regiam Ma- jestatem, their oldest law-book, from the work of Glanville, who was a judge under Henry il. of England. The Scots, on the other hand, say that Glanville's work was copied from their code, even with the peculia- rities of the latter, which do not now, and never did, exist in the laws of England. The royal burghs in Scotland form, as it were, a commercial parlia- ment, which meets once a year at Edinburgh, consisting of a rep. csen- tative from each buigh, to consult upon the common good of the whole. Their powers are extensive ; and before the Union they made laws rela- tive to shipping, manufactures, and commerce. Their conservator is indeed nominated by the crown ; but their convention regulates his power, approves his deputies, and appoints his salary ; so that in truth the whole staple trade is subjected to their management. This is a Te- markable institution, and sufficiently proves the great attention which the governrnLnt of Scotland formerly paid to trade. It took its present form in the ieign of Jarf.es III.j and had excellent consequences for the benefit of commerce. The conformity between the practice of the civil law of Scotland, and that in England, is remarkable. The English law-reports are of the same nature with the practice of the Scots; and their acts of sederunt answer to the English rules of court ; the Scotish wadsets and reversions, to the English mortgages and defeasances; their poinding of goods, after letters of horning, is much the same as the English executions upon outlawries; and an appeal against the king's pardon, in cases of murder, by the next of kin to the deceased, is admitted in both countries. Some other usages aio the same in both. There was in particular an ancient custom, which proves the similarity between the English and Scotish constitutions. la old times, all the freeholders in Scotland met together ' d62 SCOTLAND. in the presence of the king, who waa seated on the top of a hillock, called the Moot-hill ; all national affairs were here transacted, judgements given, and differences ended. This Moot-hill was probably of the same nature as the Saxon Folcmote, and signified only the hill of meeting. Order of the thistle.] This is a military order, instituted, as the Scotlsh writers assert, by their king Achaius, upon his making an offensive and defensive league with Charlemagne ; or, as others say, by Constantiue, on pretence of a victory oyer Athelstan, king of England, when he vowed in the kirk of St. Andrew, that he and his posterity should ever bear in their ensigns the figure of that cross on which the saint suffered. It consists of the sovereign and twelve companions, who are called Knights of the ThisJe, and have on their ensign this significant motto, Nemo me impune lacesset, '* None shall provoke me with impunity." Religion.] Ancient Scotish historians, with Bede and other writers, pretend that Christianity was first taught in Scotland by some of the disciples of St. John the Apostle, who fled to this northern country to avoid the persecution of Domitian, the Roman emperor ; but it does not appear to have been publicly professed before the beginning of the third century, when a prince, whom historians call Donald the First, his queen, and several of his nobles, were solemnly baptised. It was farther confirmed by emigrations from South-Britain, during the persecutions of Aureliaa and Diocletian, when it became the established religion of Scotland, uqder the management of certain learned and pious men, named Culdees, who seem to have been the first regular clergy in Scot- land, and were governed by overseers or bishops chosen by themselves from among their own body. Thus, without any dependence upon the church of Rome, Christianity seems to have been taught, planted, and finally confi .med in Scotland as a national church, where it flourished in its native simplicity, till the arrival of Palladius, a priest sent by the bishop of Rome in the fifth century, who fou"d means to introduce the modes and ceremonies of the Romish chuu i, which at length prevailed. Scotland thus became involved in that darkness which for ages overspread Europe, though its subserviency to the pope was very slender, when compared to the blind subjection of many other nations. The Culdees long maintained their original manners, and remained a distinct order, to the time of Robert de Brus, when they disappeared. Soon after the power of the pope in England was destroyed by Henry VIIl., a similar reformation began in Scotland, in the reign of James V.: it made great progress imder the sway of his daughter Mary, and was completed through the preaching of John Knox, who had adopted the doctrines of Calvin, and was the chief reformer of Scotland. The religion at present established by law in Scotland, differs chiefly from that of the church of England, in having for its fundamental prin- ciple a parity of rank and authority among ita clergy ; all its ecclesias- tics, or presbyters, being equal in dignity, and forming among themselves a kind of ecclesiastical commonwealth of the democratic species. It agrees with the reformed churches of the continent in its opposition to popery; but it is modeled principally after the Calvinistic plan esta- blished at Geneva. This establishment, at various periods, proved so tyrannical over the laity, by having the power of excommunication, which was attended by a forfeiture of estate, and sometimes of life, that the kirk sessions, and other bodies, are no longer allowed to exercise their arbitrary and dangerous powers. SCOTLAND. 263 The highest ecclesiastical authority in Scotland is that of the geyieral assembly, consisting of commissioners (some of whom are laymen) from presbyteries, royal burghs, and universities. The king sends his repre- sentative (who is always a nobleman) to preside in this assembly ; but he has no voice in its deliberations. A clergyman is chosen for its mode- rator, or speaker. Appeals are brought to it from all the other ecclesias- tical courts in Scotland ; and no appeal lies from its determination in religious matters. Provincial synods are next in authority. They are composed of a number of the adjacent presbyteries, over whoni they have power. Sub- ordinate to the synods, are presbyteries, of which there are sixty-nine in Scotland, each consisting of a number of parishes. The ministers of these parishes, with one ruling elder chosen half-yearly out of every ses- sion, compose a presbytery. A kirk session consists of ministers, elders, and deacons. The deacons are laymen, and act nearly as churchward- ens do in England. The elders are supposed to act in a kind of co- ordinancy with the ministers, and to be ready to assist them in some of their clerical duties. The ministers preach, administer the sacrament, cate- chise, pronounce church-censures, ordain deacons and ruling elders, and assist at the imposition of hands upon other ministers. The established religion of Scotland formerly partook of all the auste- rities of Calvinism, and of too much of the intolerance of popery ; but at present it is mild and gentle ; and the sermons and other theological writings of many of the modern divines are equally distinguished by good sense and moderation. In the Low-lands, there arc many who dissent from the presbyterian establishment and doctrines in several par- ticulars, and are called Seceders. They maintain their own preachers; and scarcely any two congregations agree cither in principle or practice with each other. The other dissenters, in Scotland, consist of the episcopalians, a few quakers, and many baptists, beside some sects which are denominated from their preachers. Episcopacy, from the Restoration to the Revo- lution, was the established religion of Scotland ; and would probably have continued so, had not the bishops, who were in general very weak men, refused to recognise king William's title. The parusans of the excluded prince retained the episcopal religion : and king William's government was rendered so unpopular in Scotland, that, in the reign of queen Anne, the episcopalians were more numerous in some parts than the presbyte- rians; and their meetings, which they held under the act of toleration, were as well attended . A Scolish episcopalian thus beconii ng another name for a Jacobite, they received some checks after the rebellion in 1715 ; but they recovered themselves so well, that, before the year J 745, they again became numerous ; after which the government found means to invalidate the acts of their clerical order. Their meetings, however, still subsist, but thinly; and there are titular bishops among them. The defection of some great families from the cause of popery, and the extinction of others, have rendered its votaries few and inconsider- able in Scotland, They are chiefly confined to the northern parts, and the islands, and are as quiet and inoflensive as protestant subjects. Literature.] Scotland is said to have produced St. Patrick, the celebrated apostle and literary instructor of Ireland. The writings of Adamnanus, and other authors who lived before and at the time of the Norman invasion, are specimens of early Scotish learning. Charle- magne unquestionably held a correspondence by letters with the kings of Scotland, with whom he entered into a league ; and employed Scots in S64 SCOTLAND. planning, settling, and ruling, his favorite univerbities, and other semi, naries of learning, in France, Italy, and Germany. After an interval o{ darkness, we meet with a poet named Thomas of Erceldon, who flou- rished about the year 1270 ; and, in the following century, John Bar- hour was the enlightened contemporary and rival of Chaucer. In con- sequence of the destruction of the Scotish monuments of learning and antiquity, the early &.nnals of the country are lame, and often fabulous; but the Latin style of Buchanan's history is equal in classical purity to that of any modern productions, and the letters of the Scotish kings to the neighbouring princes are the finest compositions of the times in which they were written. The important discovery of the logarithms may be mentioned as the indisputable right of Napier of Merchiston ; and, since his time, the mathematical sciences have been cultivated in Scotland with great suc- Keil, in his physico-mathematical works, to the clearness of his cess. reasoning, has sometimes added the coloring of a poet. Of all writers on astronomy, Gregory is one of the most perfect and elegant. Maclau- rin, the friend of sir Isaac Newton, was endowed with all that precision and force of mind whicTi rendered him peculiarly iitted for bringing down the ideas of that great man to the level of ordinary apprehensions, and for diffusing that light through the world which Newton had confined within the sphere of the learned. His Treatise on Fluxions is regarded by the best judges as the clearest account of the most refined and subtile speculations on which the human mind ever exerted itself with success. While Maclaurin pursued this new career, a geometrician no less famous distinguished himself in the almost deserted track of antiquity. This was Dr. Simson, so well known for his illustrations of the ancient geometry. In the department of history great celebrity has been acquired by Scotish writers. Hume was the first who, with any pretensions to clas- sical elegance, wrote the history of England. Dr. Robertson began his literary career of glory with the history of his own country. This was followed by that of all Europe, in the reign of the emperor Charles V. The captivating account of the discovery of America was next presented to the world ; and an historical disquisition concerning India was the last production of this philosophical historian. Dr. Gilbert Stuart was also an able historic writer ; and, in Dr. Henry's history of Great-Britain, we meet with an accurate, methodical, and perspicuous detail, under distinct heads, of every thing interesting in the civil history, constitution, learning, arts, commerce, and manners of the people, from tho earliest times. The investigations of Dr. Adam Smith on the subject of national wealth and politics, have perhaps never been equaled ; and the moral philosophy of Hutcheson is allowed, even by its opponents, to be ingenious and plau- sibly supported. In poetry, if the Scots have not risen to the greatest height, many have certainly far surpassed mediocrity. Foreigners who inhabit warmer climates, and conceive the northern nations incapable of tenderness and feeling, are astonished at the poetic genius and delicate sensibility of Thomson, and at the various powers of Armstrong, Seattle, and Burns. By researches in metaphysics and morals, and by critical taste, lord Kames was highly distinguished ; Adam Ferguson studied history and philosophy with intelligent acuteness; the novels of SmoUet place him in the next rank to Richardson and Fielding ; and those of Mackenzie are marked with elegance, nature, and pathos. The most ingenious and able Scotish writer, now living, is Sir Walter Scott, if we consider hira SCOTLAND. 263 ig the author of Waverley ; and, if we acquiesce in his denial of all claim to the praise of a novelist, his poems at least have established his fame. In this sketch, the state of the medical science ought not to be omitted. For a century past, the Scotish physicians have been eminent for saga- city and skill, and for all the learning which their profession requires. The names of Cullen, Pringle, Gregory, Hunter, Pitcairn, and Heber- den may be mentioned, on this occasion, with approbation and respect ; and others who have lengthened the life of man might easily be added to the number. Universities.] The universities of Scotland are four — that of St. Andrew, founded by bishop Wardlaw, in 1411, consisting of three col- leges, two of which are now united : that of Glasgow, established by bishop TurnbuU in 1453 ; that of Aberdeen, composed of two colleges, one in the old town, founded by bishop Elphinston in 1500, and one in the new town, erected by George Keith, fifth earl-marshal, in 1593 ; and that of Edinburgh, founded by James VI. in 1580. These are re- spectable foundations ; and some of the professors are men of distin- guished ability. Language.] The Erse or Gaelic, a dialect of the Celtic, is still spoken in the Highlands ; but the language of the Low-Countries, which is of the same origin with the English, is continually extending. The English and Scotch are written in the same manner ; and the pronun- ciation of the latter is scarcely more different from that of London than we find it in many of the northern and western English counties. Antiquities.] The Roman and other antiquities found in Scotland have of themselves furnished matter for large volumes. The stations of the Roman legions, their castella, the praetentures or walls reaching across the island, have been traced with great precision by antiquaries and histo- rians ; so that, without some new discoveries, an account of them can afford no instruction to the learned, and little amusement to the ignorant, because at present they can be discovered only by critical eyes. Some mention of the chief, however, may be proper. The course of the Roman wall (or, as it is called by the country people, Graham's Dyke, from a tradition that a Scotish warrior of that name first broke over it), between the Clyde and Forth, which Avas first marked out by Agricola, and completed by Antoninus Pius, is still discernible, as are several Roman camps in the neighbourhood. A camp, at the bottom of the Grampian Hills, is a striking remain of Roman antiquity. It is situated at Ardoch, in Perthshire, and is generally thought to have been the camp which Agri- cola occupied before he engaged the Caledonian king Galgacus. It is the most entire and the best-preserved of any Roman antiquity of that kind in North-Britain, having no less than five rows of ditches and six ramparts on the south side ; and, of the four gates which lead into the area, three are very distinct and plain, viz., the prmtoria, decumana, and dcxlra. The Roman temple, or building in the form of the Pantheon at Rome, or of the dome of St. Paul's at Loiidon, stood upon the banks of the river Carron, but was barbarously demolished by a neighbouring Goth, for the purpose of mending a mill-pond. Its height was twenty-two feet, and its circumference at the base was eighty-eight feet. It is thought to have been built by Agricola, or some of his successors, as a temple to the god Terminus; for it stood near one of the boundaries of the empire. Danish camps and fortifications are easily discernible in several northern counties, and are known by their square figures and difficult eituatioQS. Some houses or stupendous fabrics which remain in Ross- ' 266 SCOTLAND. shire, are probably Norwegian structures, built about the fifth century, to favor the descents of that people. Two Pictish monuments, as they have been supposed to be, of a very extraordinarj' construction, were lately standing in Scotland : one of them at Abernethy in Perthshire, the other at Brechin in Angus ; both of them were columns, hollow in the inside, and without the stair-case ; that of Brechin was the most entire, being covered at the tup with a spiral roof of stone, with three or four windows above the cornice ; it consisted of sixty regular courses of hewn free-stc^iC, laid circularly, and regularly tapering toward the top. The vestiges of erections by the ancient Scots themselves are not only curious but instructive, as they regard many important events of their history. That people had amongst them a rude notion of sculpture, by which they transmitted the actions of their kings and heroes. At a place called Aberlemno, near Brechin, four or five ancient obelisks are still to be seen, called Danish stones. They were erected as commemorations of victories, and are adorned with bas-reliefs of men on horseback, and many emblematical figures and hieroglyphics, not intelligible at this day. Other historical monuments of the Scots have been discovered ; but it must be acknowleged that the ordinary interpretations of them are fan- ciful. Among these the stone near Fortrose, in Moray, far surpasses all others in magnificence and grandeur, " and is," says Mr. Gordon, " per- haps one of the most stately monuments of that kind in Europe. It rises about 23 feet above the ground, and is, as I am credibly informed, no less than 12 or 15 feet below ; so that the whole height is at least 35 feet, and its breadth near five. It is all one single and entire stone ; great variety of figures in relievo are carved on it, and some of them are still distinct and visible ; but the injury of the weather has obscured those toward the upper part." Though this monument has been gene- rally considered as Danish, it is not improbable that it is Scotish, and was erected in commemoration of the final expulsion of the Danes out of Moray, where they hold their last settlement in Scotland, after the defeat they received from Malcolm, a few years before the Norman invasion. At Sandwich, in Ross-shire, is a splendid ancient obelisk, surrounded at the base with large well-cut flag-stones, formed like steps. Both sides of the column are covered with various enrichments, in well-finished carved work. One face presents a sumptuous cross, with a figure of St. Andrew on each hand, and some uncouth animals and flowerings under it. The central division on the reverse exhibits a variety of curious figures, birds, and other animals. The ruins of the cathedral of Elgin are very striking ; and many parts of that fine building have still the remains of much grandeur and dignity. The west door is highly ornamented ; there is much elegance in the carvings, and the whole edifice displays very elaborate workmanship. Among the remains of ancient castles, may be mentioned that of Kildrumy, which was formerly a place of great strength and magnifi- cence, and often used as an asylum for noble families in times of civil war. Inverugie castle is also a large and lofty pile, situated on the steep bank of a river; two very high towers bound the front, and, even in their decaying state, give the castle an air of grandeur. I-ong rows of venerable trees, enclosing the adjoining garden, add to the effect of the buildings. Near Huntley are the ruins of a castle. On the avenne that leads to it, are two large square towers, which had defended the gateway. The castle seems to be very old, and a great part of it is de- molished ; but there is a massy building of a more modern date, in SCOTLAND. Mif wbicb aome of the apartments, and, in particular, their curioua ceilings,. are still in tolerable preservation. They are painted with a great variety of (ubjects, in small divisions, in which are contained many emblemati-i cal figures. Historv.] Though the writers of ancient Scotish history are too fond of fable, it is easy to collect, from the Roman authors, and other evidence, that Scotland was formerly inhabited by different people. The Caledonians appear to have been the first inhabitants. With re« gard to the Picts, some have supposed that they were the Britons who vere forced to the northward by the Belgic Gauls, about eighty years before the descent of Julius Caesar, and who, settling in Scotland, were joined by great numbers of their countrymen, that were driven in the same direction by the Romans ; but it seems to be ascertained that they came from Norway. The tract, lying southward of the Forth, ap- pears to have been inhabited by the Saxons, and by the Britons, who formed the kingdom of Alcluyd, the capital of which was Dunbarton : but all these people in process of time were subdued by the Scots. It does not appear that the Caledonians, the ancient Celtic inhabit- ants of Scotland, were attacked by any of the Roman generals before the time of Agricola, who invaded their territories in the year 83. The name of the prince with whom he fought was Galdus, by Tacitus named GalgacuB ; and the history of that war is not only transmitted with great precision, but corroborated by the remains of the Roman encampments and forts, raised by Agricola in his march toward Dunkeld, the capital of the Caledonians. The brave stand made by Galdus against that great general, does honor to the courage of both people ; and the sentiments of the Caledonian, concerning the freedom and independence of his country, appear to have warmed the noble historian with the same gene- rous passion. It is evident, however, that Tacitus thought it for the honor of Agricola to conceal some parts of this war ; for, though he makes his countrymen victorious, they certainly returned southward to the province of the Horesti (the county of Fife) without improving their advantage. Qaldud, otherwise called Corbred, was, according to the Scotish his- torians, the twenty-first in a lineal descent from Fergus I., the founder of their monarchy ; and, though this genealogy has been disputed, no- thing can be more certain, from the Roman histories, than that the Ca- ledonians, or Scots, were governed by a succession of brave and wise princes, during the abode of the Romans in Britain. Their valiant resistance obliged Agricola himself, and, after him, the emperors An- toninus Pius and Severus, to build the two famous praetentures or walls, one between the Friths of Clyde and Forth, and the other between Tinemouth and the Solway-Frith, to defend the Romans from the Cale- donians and Scots ; whence it appears that the independence of the latter was never subdued. At the time of the introduction of Christianity into Scotland, about the year 201, the Picts had gained a footing in that realm ; and, being often defeated by the ancient inhabitants, joined the Romans against the Scots and Caledonians, who were of the same original, and consi- dered themselves as one people ; so that the Scotish monarchy suffered a short eclipse ; but it broke out with greater lustre than ever, under Fergus II., who recovered his crown ; an. his successors gave some se- vere overthrows to the Romans and South- Britons. When the Romans left Britain, the Scots, as appears from Gildas, were a powerful uation ; and, in concert with the Picts, they for many years 268 SCOTLAND. severely harassed the South-Britons, who, calling the Saxons to tlielr aid, rushed into equal or greater danger, the effect of which we hare already seen. While the new war raged in the south, Dongard wa» king of Scotland ; and it appears from the oldest histories, and thow which are least favorable to monarchy, that the succession to the crown continued in the family of Fergus, but in general devolved collaterally; till the inconveniences of that mode of succession were so much felt that by degrees it fell into disuse, and it was at last settled in the de' sccnding line. About the year 796, the Scots were governed by Achaius, a prince go much respected, that his friendship was courted by Charlemagne, and a league was concluded between them, which continued inviolate, Avhile the monarchy of Scotland had an existence. No fact of equal antiquity is better attested than this league, together with the great service per- formed by the learned men of Scotland, in civilising the extensive domi- nions of that great conqueror. The Picts still remained in Scotland as a separate nation, and were sufficiently powerful to make war upon the Scots; who, about the year 843, when Kenneth Mac-Alpin was king of Scotland, finally subdued them, but not in the savage manner men- tioned by some historians, by extermination ; for he obliged them to incorporate themselves with their conquerors, by taking their names, and adopting their laws. The successors of Kenneth maintained fre- quent wars with the Saxons on the southward, and the Danes and other barbarous nations toward the east ; who, being masters of the sea, harassed the Scots by occasional invasions. The latter, however, were more fortunate than the English: for, while the Danes were erecting a monarchy in England, they were overthrown in Scotland by bloody battles, and at last driven out of the kingdom. The Saxon and Danish princes who then governed England were not more successful against the Scots, who maintained their freedom and independence, not only against foreigners, but against their own kings, when they thought them endangered. The feudal law was introduced among them by Malcolm II. Malcolm III., commonly called Canmore, from two Gaelic words which signify a large head, but most probably from his great capacity, ascended the throne in 1057. Every reader Avho is acquainted with the tragedy of Macbeth, as written by the inimitable Shakspeare, who adheres to the facts stated by historians, can be no stranger to the fate of Malcolm's father, and his own history, previous to his ac- cession. He was a wise and magnanimous prince, and in no respect inferior to his contemporary the Norman conqueror, with whom he was often at war. He married Margaret, daughter to Edward the Outlaw, son to Edmund Ironside. By the death of her brother, Edgar Atheling, the Saxon right to the crown of England devolved upon the posterity of that princess, who was one of the wisest and worthiest women of the age ; and her daughter Matilda was accordingly married to Henry I. of England, Malcolm, after a glorious reign, was killed, with his son, treacherously, it is said, at the siege of Alnwick, by the besieged. Malcolm III. was succeeded by his brother Donald VII,, and he was dethroned by Duncan II., whose legitimacy was disputed. They were succeeded by Edgar, the son of Malcolm III., who was a wise and va- liant prince; he was succeeded by Alexander, ansd, upon his death, David mounted the throne. David was one of the greatest princes of that age, whether we regard William, sun SCOTLAND. 269 him M a man, a warrior, or a legislator. To him Henry II., one of the most powerful princes in Europe, in a great measure owed his crown ; and his possessions in England, joined to the kingdom of Scotland, placed David's power in Britain nearly on an equality with that of England. The laws which he promulgated do his memory immortal honor. They are said to have heen compiled under his inspection by learned men, whom he assembled from all parts of Europe in his magnificent abbey of Melross. He was succeeded by his grandson, Malcolm IV,, and he by William, surnamed the Lion. William's, son, Alexander II., was suc- ceeded, in 1249, by Alexander III., who was a good king. He married, £rat, Margaret daughter to Henry III. of England, by whom he had Alexander, the prince who married a daughter of the earl of Flanders ; David ; and Margaret, who married Hangowan, or (as some call him) Eric, son to Magnus IV., king of Norway, and bore to him a daughter, commonly called the Maiden of Norway ; in whom king William's whole posterity failed ; and the crown of Scotland returned to the descend- ants of David, earl of Huntingdon, brother to Malcolm IV. and William. This detail has been given, because it is connected with great events. On the death of Alexander III., John Balliol, who was great-grandsoa to David, earl of Huntingdon, by his eldest daughter Margaret ; and Robert de Brus (grandfather to the great king Robert I.), grandson to the same earl of Huntingdon by hie youngest daughter Isabel ; became competitors for the crown of Scotland. The laws of succession, which were not so well established in Europe as they are at present, rendered the case very difficult. Both parties were almost equally matched in in- terest ; but, after a confused interregnum of some years, the great nobi- lity agreed in referring the decision to Edward I. of England, the most politic and ambitious prince of his age. He accepted the office of arbiter : but, having long had an eye to the crown of Scotland, he revived some obsolete absurd claims of its dependence upon that of England ; and, finding that Balliol was disposed to hold it by that disgraceful tenure, he awarded it to him ; but afterwards dethroned him, and treated him as a slave, without exciting his resentment. i After this, Edward used many endeavours to annex the crown of Scotland to his own, which were often defeated ; and, though for a short time he made himself master of Scotland, the Scots were ready to revolt against him on every opportunity. Those who were so zealously attached to the independence of their country, as to be resolved to hazard every thing for it, were indeed few, compared to those in the interest of Ed- ward and Balliol, which was the same : and for some time they were obliged to temporise. Edward availed himself of their weakness and his ewn power. He accepted a formal surrender of the crown from Bal- liol, to whom he allowed a pension, but detained him in England ; and sent every nobleman in Scotland whom he in the least suspected, to dif- ferent prisons in or near London. He then forced the Scots to sign in- struments acknowleging their subjection to him, and with flagitious baseness carried off or destroyed all the monuments of their history, and the evidence of their independence, particularly the famous fatidical or prophetic stone, which is still to be seen in Westminster Abbey. These severe proceedings, while they rendered the Scots sensible of their slavery, revived the ideas of their freedom ; and Edward, finding that their spirit could not be subdued, endeavoured to conciliate them, and affected to treat them on a footing of equality with his own subjects, by projecting an union of the kingdoms. The Scotish patriots treated this project with disdain, and united under the brave William Wallace i 270 SCOTLAND. to expel the English. Wallace performed actiong that entitled him to eternal renown, in executing this scheme. Being however no more than a private gentleman, and his popularity daily increasing, the noblei, among whom was Robert de Brus, grandson of the first competitor, began to suspect that he had an eye upon the crown : especially after he had defeated the earl of Surry, Edward's viceroy of Scotland, in the battle of Stirling ; had reduced the garrisons of Berwick and Roxburgh ; and wa» declared by the states of Scotland their protector. Their jealousy ope- rated so far, that they formed violent cabals against Wallace. Encou- raged by these dissensions, Edward once more invaded Scotland, at the head of the most numerous and the best-discipiined army that England had ever seen ; for it consisted of 80,000 foot, 3000 hoisemcn completelj armed, and 4000 light-armed, and Avas attended by a fleet to supply it with provisions. These, with the troops who joined him in Scotland, formed an irresistible body ; Edward, however, was obliged to divide it, reserving the command of 40,000 men to himself. With these he attacked the Scots under Wallace at Falkirk, while their disputes ran so high, that the brave regent was deserted by Comyn, the most powerful nobleman in Scotland, who was at the head of the best division of his countrymen. Wallace, whose troops did not exceed U0,000, being thug betrayed, was defeated with great loss, but made an orderly retreat, during which he found means to have a conference with Brus, and to convince him of his error in joining Edward . Wallace still continued in arms, and performed many gallant actions against the English ; but wai betrayed into the hands of Edward, who most ungenerously put him to death at London, as a traitor. That monarch died as he was preparing to renew his invasion of Scotland with a still more desolating spirit of ambition, after having destroyed 100,000 of her inhabitants. Brus died soon after the battle of Falkirk, but not before he had in- spired his son, who was a prisoner at large about the English court, with the glorious resolution of vindicating his own rights, and the indepen- dence of his country. He escaped from London, and with his own hand killed Comyn, for his attachment to Edward ; and, after collecting a few patriots, among whom were his four brothers, he assumed the crown, but was defeated by the English (who had a great army in Scotland) at the battle of Methuen. After his defeat, he Hed to the western isles and parts of Scotland, where his fatigues and sufferings were as extreme, as the courage, with which he and his few friends bore them (the lord Douglas especially), was incredible. Though his wife and daughters were sent prisoners to England, where the best of his friends and two of his brothers w jre put to death, yet such was his persevering spirit, that he recovered all Scotland, except the castle of Stirling, and improved every advantage that was given him by the dissipated conduct of Edward IL, who raised an army more numerous and even better appointed than that of his father, to make a total conquest of North-Britain. It is said that it consisted of 100,000 men; but this is an exaggerated computa- tion : however, it is admitted that the army of Brus did not exceed 30,000 ; but all of them were veterans who had been bred up in a detes- tation of tyranny. Edward, who was not deficient in courage, led his powerful army toward Stirling, then beisiewed by Brus, who had chosen, with the greatest judgement, a camp near Bannockburn. The chief officers under Edward were, the earls of Glocester, Hereford, and Pembroke, and sir Giles Argenton. Those under Brus were, his own brother sir Edward, who, next to himself, was supposed to be the best knight in Scotland ; Us nephew, Randolph, ea Scotland, the courage a did so effect! are recorded bravest part himself. Tl 50,000 men ; a more strikii and calculate into the handi to the gates o and decisive The remai and so well and so unfett they sent to for debasing they would tt make the like brother Edwi quered a grei by exposing li an advantag character of The glory Robert, who prince ; but of his great i he married, effect the con original com] and Edwarc Balliol was : patriots. Di battle of Du paid 100,001 devolved upt daughter of wise and bn whose age a forced to coi auibitioua pi crown for hii send his son by Henry 1 obliged to p in England, height in F £ngland, a kingdom. James, tl great talent people. H reigns of H SCOTLAND. 271 Randolph, earl of Moray ; and the young lord Walter, high steward of Scotland. Edward's attack was exceedingly furious, and required all the courage and firmness of Briis and his friends to resist it, which they did so eil'ectually, as to obtain one of the most complete victories that are recorded in history. The great loss of the English fell upon the bravest part of their troops, who were led on by Edward against Brus himself. The Scotish writers make the loss of the English amount to 50,000 men ; but this is an absurd amplification, though there never was a more striking defeat. The English camp, which was immensely rich, and calculated for the purpose rather of a triumph than a campaign, fell into the hands of the Scuis; and Edward himself was pursued by Douglas to the gates of Berwick, whence he escaped in a fishing-boat. This great and decisive battle happened in the year 1314. The remainder of Robert's reign was a series of glorious success ; and so well did his nobility understand the principles of civil liberty, and so unfettered were they by religious considerations, that, in a lettsr they sent to the pope, they acknowleged that tkey had set aside Balliol for debasing the crown, by holding it of England, and declared that they would treat Robert with the same mark of indignation, if he should make the like attempt. Robert, having thus delivered Scotland, sent bis brother Edward to Ireland, at the head of an army, with which he con- quered a great part of that country, and was proclaimed its king ; but, by exposing himself too much, he was killed. Robert, in the sequel, made an advantageous peace with England. Ho died in 1329, with the character of being the greatest hero of the age. The glory of the Scots may be said to have been in its zenith under Robert, who was succeeded by his sou David II. He was a virtuous prince ; but his abilities, both in war and peace, were eclipsed by those of his great and powerful enemy, Edward III. of England, whose sister he married. Edward, who was as eager as any of his predecessors to effect the conquest of Scotland, espoused the cause of Balliol, son to the original competitor. His progress at first was amazingly rapid, and he and Edward defeated the royal party in several bloody battles ; but Balliol was at last driven out of his usurped kingdom by the Scotish patriots. David had the misfortune to be taken by the English at the battle of Durham ; and, after continuing above eleven years in captivity, paid 100,000 marks for his ransom. He died in 1371, and the crown devolved upon the family of Stuart, whose representative had married the daughter of Robert I. The first king of that name was Robert II., a wise and brave prince. He was succeeded by his son of the same name, whose age and infirmities disqualified him from reigning ; so that he was forced to confide the government to his brother, the duke of Albany, an ambitions prince, who seems to have had an intention of procuring the crown for his own family. Robert, in a moment of alarm, attempted to send his son James into France; but he was most ungenerously intercepted by Henry IV. of England, and, after suffering a long captivity, was obliged to pay an exorbitant ransom. During the imprisonment of Jamea in England, the military glory of the Scots was carried to its greatest height in France, where they supported that tottering monarchy against England, and their generals obtained some of the first titles of the kingdom. James, the first of that name, upon his return to Scotland displayed great talents for government, enacted wise laws, and was beloved by the people. He had received an excellent education in England during the reigos of Henry IV. and V., where he saw the feudal system refined from 272 SCOTLAND. many of the imperfections which still adhered to it in his own kingdom; he resolved therefore to abridge the overgrown power of the nobles, and to recover such lands as had been unjustly wrested from the crown during his minority and the preceding reigns : but tiin execution of tliesn designii cost him his life ; for ho was murdered in his bed by some of the chief nobility in 1437, at the age of forty-three years. A long minority succeeded ; but James II. would probably have equaled the greatest of his ancestors both in warlike and civil virtues, had he not been suddenly killed by the accidental bursting of a cannon, in the thirtieth year of his age, as he was besieging the castle of Roxburgh, which was defended by . e English. Suspicion, indolence, immoderate attachment to females, and all the errors of a feeble mind, are visible in the conduct of James III., whose turbulent reign was closed by a rebellion of his subjects. He was slain in battle in 1488, aged thirty-five. His son James IV. was the most accomplished prince of his atje ; he was naturally generous and brave : he loved magnificence ; he delighted in war, and was eager to obtain fame. He encouraged and protected the commerce of his subjects, so that they greatly increased in riches ; and his court, at the time of his marriage with the daughter of Henry VII., was splendid and respectable. Even this alliance could not cure him of his family distemper, a predilection for the French ; into whose cause he rashly entered, and was killed, with the flower of his nobility, by the English, in the battle of Flodden, in 1513, when he was in the fortieth year of his age. The minority of his son, James V., was long and turbulent : and when he grew up, he married two French ladies ; the first being daughter to the king of France, and the latter of the house of Guise. He instituted the court of session, enacted salutary laws, and greatly promoted the trade of Scotland, particularly the workinfrof the mires. At this time the balance of power was so equally poised between the contending princes of Europe, that the friendship of .lames was courted by the pope, the emperor, the king of France, and his uncle Henry VIII. of England, from all of whom he received magnificent presents. But he took little share in foreign affairs ; he seemed rather to imitate his predecessors in their attempts to humble the nobility : and, when the doctrines of the Reformation began to be propagated in Scotland, he permitted, at the instigation of the clergy, a religious persecution, though it is generally believed, that, had he lived longer, he would have seised all the church- revenues, in imitation of Henty. As he slighted some friendly overtures made to him by the king of England, and thus gave great umbrage to that prince, a war at length broke out between them. A large army, under the command of the duke of Norfolk, entered Scotland, and ra- vaged the country north of the Tweed. After this short expedition, the English army retired to Berwick. James then sent ten thousand men to the western borders, who entered England at Solway- Frith ; and he fol- lowed them at a short distance, ready to join them upon occasion. He soon after gave great offence to the nobility R,.id the army, by imprudently depriving their general, lord Maxwell, of his commission, and conferring the command on Oliver Sinclair, a private gentleman, who was his favorite. The troops were so much disgusted at this alteration, that they were ready to disband, when a small body of English horse appeared, not exceeding five hundred. A panic seised the Scots, who immediately fled, supposing themselves to be attacked by the whole army. The English horse closely pursued them, slew a great number, and captured seven lords, two ISLES OF SCOTLAND. 273 hundred gentlemen, and eight hundred soldiers, with twenty-four pieces of artillery. This disaster so much affected king James, that it threw him iato a fit of illness, of which he soon after died, on the 14th of De- cember, 1542. His daughter and successor, Mary, was only a few hours old at the time of her father's death. Her beauty, her misconduct, and her mis- fortunes, are alike famous in history. It is sufficient here to soy, that during her minority, and while she was wife to Francis H. of France, the Reformation advanced in Scotland ; that, being called to the throne of her ancestors while a widow, she married her cousin-german, the lord Damley, whose untimely death has given rise to so much controversy. The consequence of her husband's death, and of her marriage with Both- well, who was considered as his murderer, was an insurrection of her subjects, from whom she fled into England, where she was ungenerously detained a prisoner for eighteen years, and afterwards, on motives of state- Eolicy, put to death by queen Elizabeth in 1587, in the forty-fifth year of erage. Mary's son, James VL of Scotland, succeeded, in consequence of hia descent from Henry VII., on the death of Elizabeth to the English crotrn. This union of the two crowns, in fact, destroyed the independ- ence, as it impoverished the people, of Scotland : for. the sent of go- rernment being removed to England, their trade was checked, the ir agri- culture neglected, and their gentry obliged to seek for situations in other countries. James, after a splendid but troublesome reign over his three kingdoms, left them, in 1625, to his son, the unfortunate Charles I. The despotic principles and conduct of that prince so irritated both his Scotish and English subjects, that they took up arms. It was in Scotland that the sword was first drawn against him ; but, wheu the royalists were totally defeated in England, the king put himself in the power of the Scotish army. The officers at first treated him with re- spect, but afterwards delivered him up to the English parliament, on con- dition of the payment of 400,000 pounds to the Scots, said to be due to them for arrears. However, the Scots afterwards made several spi- rited but unsuccessful attempts to restore his son, Charles II. That prince was defeated by Cromwell, at the battle of Worcester, in 1651 ; after which, to the time of his restoration, the commonwealth of Eng- land and the protector gave law to Scotland. The state of parties in England, at the accession of queen Anne, was such, that the Whigs once more had recourse to the Scots, and offered them their own terms, if they would agree to an incorporative union. It was long before the majority of the Scotish parliament would listen to the proposal ; but, at last, partly from conviction, and partly through the effects of money distributed among the indigent nobility, it was agreed to ; since which event, the history of Scotland becomes the same with that of England. ISLES OF SCOTLAND. THE Isles of Scotland consist of three clusters ; the Hebrides (cor- ruptly so called for Hebudes) or Western Islands, the Orkneys, and the Shetland Isles. T 274 ISLES OF SCOTLAND. The WESTERN ISLANDS are situated on the north-west coast of Scotland. About 200 of them are reckoned ; but many of them are uninhabited. Those which are most worthy of notice are, Arran, Bute Iluj, Jura, Mull, Skye, Lewis and Harris which form one island, North Uist, and South Uist, Lvna, Staffa, and St. Kilda. Arran ia about twenty-two miles in lengtli, and (where widest) about twelve in breadth. It consists chiefly of a series of rough and broken mountains, from one of the highest summits of which, named Goatfeli, in the centre of the island, the view extends at once to Ireland and the Isle of Man, and even into South Britain. There are several rivulets and lak^i of fre8>' water in this island. It is occupied by 7500 oersons and the chief place is the village of Ranza. Bute is about twelve miles long and four broad ; and its chief town is Rothsay, which has a castle, and gave the title of duke to the eldest sens of the kings of Scotland, as it now does to the prince of Wales. Rothsay is likewise a royal burgh. Bute contains about 5500 inha- bitants. . Hay is twenty-three ttiiles long and nearly eighteen broad, and is not less populous than Arran. The so?? is good, and might by industry be rendered extremely productive. A lead-mine wasdiscovered herein 1763. Jura, about twenty-two miles long and seven broad, is one of the most rugged of the western islands, which are in general mountainous. Tlie mountains called the paps, which are a range of conical eminences, present a singular appearance. One has been found to have an eleva- tion of P 50. yards, though it is greatly exceeded in height by the loftiest, named Ben-an-Oir. Mull is necrly thirty miles long, and in some places almost as broad. It is very rugged and mountainous, like the other western isles. It con- tains about 7500 people, resident in two parishes, with only one town, named Tobermory. There are several ruins of ancient castles in this island. Skye is about forty-five miles in length, and, in some places, above twenty broad. It abounds, especially in the interior parts, in rocks, mountains and bogs. The inhabitants are about 15,500 in number. A remarkable cave has been discovered in the south-eastern angle of this island, exhibiting stalactitic appearances and curious figures, like the grotto of Antiparos. Long island, to the westward of Skye, consists of two peninsulas, the northern of which is d<;nominated Lewis, and the southern Harris. Their extent is about seventy -niles, from north to south ^ and the breadth is ten or twelve, and in some parts twenty. The isles of North Uist, South Uist, and Barra, continue this chain of islands to the south 85 miles nr ore, including about sixteen miles of water. The number of inhabitants, in the whole chain, may be computed at 23,000. The only town is Stornaway, in the eastern part of Lewis, a considerable and flou .ishing place, with an ex- cellent harbour. At the village of Classerness, or Calern'sh, in the south- west part of the same peninsula, is what some call a Gothic court of ju- dicature ; but it is supposed by others to be a Druidical temp'e, as well preserved and perfect, tho"gh not of such large dimensions, as that of Stonehenge. lona or Hyona, called also Hui or Hy, and I Coluim Kill, or the isle of Columba's church, seems to have served aF a sanctuary for St. Columba, and other holy men of learning, while Ireland, F.ngland, and Scotland, were immersed in barbarism. The church of St. Mary, which is built in the form of a cathedral, is a beautiful fabric. It contains the bodies of ISLES OP SCOTLAND. 375 ggme Scotish, Irish, and Norwegian kings, with Gaelic inscriptions. The tomb of Columba, who lies buried here, is uninscribed. The bteeple ia luge, the cupola is twenty-one feet square, the doors and windows are curiously carved, and the altar is of the finest marble. Staffa> situated ten miles to the north-eant of Zona, is a small island, only one mile long and half a mile broad, and inhabited by a single funily. It is, however, remarkable for consisting of one entire pile of basaltic pillars, arranged in natural colonnades wonderfully magnificent. Sir Joseph Banks, in relating his voyage through the Hebudes, says, " We f era struck with a scene of magnificence which exceeded our expectations, though founded, as we thought, upon the most sanguine foundations : the whole of that end of the island (Staffa) supported by ranges of natural pillars, mostly above fifty feet high, standiug in natural colonnades, ac- cording as the bays or points of land formed themselves, upon a firm buis of solid unformed rock ; above these, the stratum which reaches to the soil or surface of the island, varied in thickness as the island itself formed into hills or valleys ; each hill, which hung ovei the columns below, formiog an ample pediment ; some of these, above sixty feet in thickness jrom the base to the point, formed, by the sloping of the hill on each side, almost in the shape of those used in architecture." The cave of Fingal, a vast and magnific at cavern in this island, 371 feet lung, 53 broad, and 117 high, composea of such pillars, is tLus de- scribed by sir Joseph Banks : " We proceeded along the shore, treading upon another Giants' Causeway, every stone being regularly formed into a certain number of sides and angles ; till, in a short time, we arrived at the mouth of the cave, the most magnificent, I suppose, that ha<> ever been described by travelers. The mind can hardly form an i'iea more magnificont than such a space, supported on each side by ranges of columns, and roofed by the bottoms of those which have been broken off in order to form it : between the angles of which a yellow stalagmitic matter has exuded, which serves to define the angles precisely, and, ai the same time vary the color, with a great deal of elegance ; and, to render it still more agreeable, the whole is lighted from without ; so that the extremity is very plainly seen from without ; and the air within, being agitated with the flux and reflux of the tide, is perfectly dry and wholesome, free entirely from the damp of vapors, with which natural caverns in general abound." To the norlh-west of Mull are the islands of Tirey and Col : the fc mer of which produces a beautiful marble of a rose-color. Tirey is level and fertile, but Col is rocky, or rather one continued rock, covered with a thin stratum of earth. The laUer island is about thirteen miles long and three broad, and contains about 900 inhabitants. Hirta, or St. Kilda, is the mosc western island of the Hebudes, and is three miles long and two broad. The soil is fertile : but the arable land scarcely exceeds eighty acres, though by industry more might be added. The mountain or rock of Congara, in this island, is accounted the Tenerifife of the British islands, its height above the level of the sea being 1800 yards. The whole island is surrounded with the most tre- mendous rocks, and has only one landing-placp ; and even there it is im- possible to land except in calm weather. About thirty-five families reside here, in a small village on the eastern side of the island. These people display the most astonishing courage and dexterity in climbing the dreadful precipices in quest of sea-fowls and their eggs, which furnish them with food during a great part of the year. The multitudes of these birds are prodigious, the rocks round the island being so covered with T2 w mm 276 ISLES OF SCOTLAND. them that they appear like mountains covered with snow ; yet they so entirely disappear in November, that from the middle of that month to the middle of February not one is to be seen. The people of the Hebudes are clothed and live like the Highlanders. Tiiey are similar in persons, con- stitutions, customs, and prejudices ; but with this difference, that the more polished manners of the Lowlanders are rapidly gaining ground in the Highlands. Perhaps the descendants of the ancient Caledonians, in a few years, will be discernible only in the Hebudes. These islands alone retain the ancient usages of the Celts, as described by the oldest and best authors, but with a strong tincture of the feudal constitution. Their shanachies, or story-tellers, supply the place of the ancient bards, so famous in history, and are the historians, or rather ge< nealogists, as well as poets, of the nation and family. The chief was attended, when he appeared abroad, with his musician, who was ge nerally a bagpiper, and dressed in the manner of the English minstrels bf former times, but more elegantly. Notwithstanding the contempt ihto which that music has fallen, it is almost incredible with what care and attention it was cultivated among these islanders for many ages. They had regular colleges and professors, and the students took degrees ac- cording to their proficiency. Many of the Celtic rites, some of which were too barbarous to be retained, or even mentioned, are now abolished. The inhabitants, however, still preserve the most profound respect and affection for their several chieftains, notwithstanding all the pains that have been t^ken by the British legislature to break those connexions, which experience has shown to be so dangerca to the government. The '*.ommon people are little better lodged than the Norwegians -nd Lap- landers ; but they certainly fare better ; for they have oatmeal, plenty of fish and fowl, cheese, butter, milk, and whey ; and also mutton, beef, venison, and the flesh of kids and goats. They indulge themselves, like their forefathers, in a romantic, poetical turn ; and the agility uf both sexes in the exercises of the field, and in dancing to their favorite music, is remarkable. The inhabitants of the Hebudes, particularly of the isle of Skye, formerly pretended, at least many of them, to the power of foreknow- ing future events by what is termed the second sight. This gift, which in the Erse language is called Taish, is supposed to be a supernatural faculty of seeing visions of events before they happen. The adepts of the second sight pretend that they have certain revelations, or rather pre- sentations either really or typically to their eyes, of certain events wliich are to happen in the compass of twenty -four or forty-eight hours. We do not, however, from the best information, observe that any two of these adepts agree as to the manner and form of the re^'.lations, or that they have any rule for the interpretation of the typical appearances. The truth seems to be, that these islanders, by indulging themselves in lazy habits, acquire visionary ideas, and overheat their imaginations, till they are presented with phantasms, which they mistake for fatidical oV prophe- tic manifestations. They instantly b^'gin to prophesy ; and it would be absurd to suppose, that, amidst many thousand predictions, some may not happen to be fulfilled; and these, being well attested, gis-c a sanc- tion to the whole. Many learned men have been of opinion, that, the Hebudes boins; the most westerly islands where thi Celts settled, their language nuut remain there in its greatest purity. This opinion, ti;ough plausible, has failed in experience. Many Celtic words, it is true, aii well as customs, Are there found ; but the great intercourse which the islanders had with the Danes, Not no affinity with i„at it approach called Erse, wh the opposite coa among whom tl The religion, establishid in -t still too prevale The ORKNl ofDuDgsby-hec la .d by a temp . and ten br e inhabi ries; the forme and the latter h The largest Pomona, but s< that name. It some places ui figure. It con Kirkwall, the c in length, but ( cathedral is a converted into on each side, 5 the church are and elegantly f The other pi Saada, Wr .'.n South -li" sbout seve :■; miles in Ic;. ;,- into two isles height of 16i June, and Jul seen at a disi proach. The The ause of of the rays c sought, has hi mitage cut ou eighth, broai feeiV ii.'. foi With) I i I Is e of the btoric, couch, and ii ney. The isl and of an e; two broad. one in bread I The inhal] consist of th Scots. Thej than their ISLES OF SCOTLAND. 277 the Danes, Norwegians, and other northern people, whose language has DO affinity with the Celtic, has rendered their dialect a compound ; so iiiat it approaches in no degree to the pun .y of the Celtic, commonly called Erse, which was spoken by their neighbours in Lochaber and on the opposite coasts of Scotland, the undoubted descendants of the Celts, among whom their language remains more unmixed. The religion, professed in the Hebudes, is chiefly presbyterian, as establish->d in the church of Scotland : but popery and ignorance are still too prevalent. The ORKNEY ISLANDS, anciently the Orcades, lie to the north ofDungsby-head, being separated from the most northern part of Scot- la .d by a tempestuous strait called the Pentland Frith, twenty miles ■ and ten broad. They are sixty-seven in number, but only twenty- c inhabited, the rest consisting of what are called holms and sker- ries ; the former of which are islands entirely consigned to pasturage, and the latter barren rocks. The largest island of the group is called the Mainland, also styled Pomona, but seemingly without any allusion to the heathen goddess of that name. Its length is about twenty-four miles, and its breadth in some places nine, in others only two, as it is of an extremely irregular figure. It contains four excellent harbours, one of which is that of Kirkwall, the capital of the Orkneys. This town extends nearly a mile in length, but contains only about three hundred and thirty houses. The cathedral is a fine Gothic building, dedicated to St. Magnus, but now converted into a parish church. Its roof is supported by fourteen pillars on each side, and its steeple by four large pillars. The three gates of the church are chequered with red and white polished stone, embossed and elegantly flowered. The other principal islands of this group are South Ronaldsha^ Hoy, Sanda, Wc.'n, and North Ronaldsha. South ^li ' U'a is one of the most fertile of the Orkneys: it is sbout spve ri n Iniig, and from two to five broad. Hoy is about ten miles in lo; yJ. :^i four or five in breadth, and is divided at high tides into two isles. n '.'.'.s island is a mountain called Wart-hill, of the height of 1620 feoi; the summit of which, in the months of May, June, and July, shines and sparkles in an extraordinary manner when seen at a distance, though this brightness disappears on a nearer ap- proach. The peasants on this account call it the enchanted carbuncle. The ause of this phaenomenon has been supposed to be the reflexion of the rays of the sun from some wa r ; but no such water, when sought, has been discovered. In a dark valley of Hoy is a kind of her- mitage cut out of stone, called the dwarfie-stone, thirty-eight feet long, eighth broad, and nine thicV; in which is a square hole, about two feel ' a., foi an entrance, with a stone of th > same size for a door. Witiiiii V 1-j ei' ti^je is the resemblance of a bed, with a pillow cut out of the siono, large enough for two men to lie on : at the other end is a couch, and in the middle a hearth, with a hole cut ol. above for a chim- ney. The isle of Sanda is twelve miles long, from one to three broad, and of an extremely irregular form. Westra is eight miles long and two broad. North Ronaldsha is only about three miles in length and one in breadth. The inhabitants of the Orkneys, who are about 28,000 in mimber, consist of the mixed descendants of Norwegian colonists and Lowland Scots. They now speak the language ci the latter, and are more civilised than their Highland neighboura. Kirkwall has some trade, whicb. t ; 278 ISLES OF SCOTLAND. howerer, is lesa considerable than it might easily be rendered. The ix. porta consist of beef, pork, butter, tallow, hides, salted fish, linen yam^ coarse linen, and kelp, of which Sanda in particular produces great quantities ; and the imports of coal, wood, sugar, spirits, wines, to- bacco, snufif, hardware, printed linens and cottons, &c. The general soil of the country, though shallow, is far from being infertile : but the landholders do not sufficiently encourage agriculture ; and the incon- veniences and rigors attendant upon the remains of the feudal system check ♦^lat industry which would otherwise animate the natives. Cattle of a sn i 'r'^^s abound in some of the islands ; sea-fowl and fish are still moivs • -ous. The trees are few and stunted ; yet, in some of the morasst ,, unks of old trees have been found, about the length of thirty feet. Iron is found in various parts; and it is probable that the discovery of other useful minerals would reward the activity of research. Among the antiquities of the Orkneys may be mentioned the tumuli or funeral hillocks in Westra, the upright stones of Stennis, a camp in Rousa, and a number of Picts' houses, formed of large stones without cement, rising from a circular base into the shape of a truncated cone. The SHETLAND ISLES are situated about twenty leagues to the north-eaat of the Orkneys. Forty-six are reckoned, beside many holms and skerries. The principal, called the Mainland, is about 57 miles la length, and 10 in breadth ; but it is so broken by creeks and inlets, that scarcely any part of it is distant more than two miles from the sea, These inlets form at least 20 harbours, six of which are very spacious and commodious. The town of Lerwick, the only town of these islands, stands on the eastern side of Mainland, opposite the harbour called Biassa-Sound, which is capable of containing above 2000 ships commo- diously and safely. This town contains about 330 families. Skalloway, on the western side, which was once a town of some importance, is now a very inconsiderable village, though the ruins of a castle are still to be seen there, and it is the seat of a presbytery. The other islands of this group present nothing which merits particular notice. Yell, situate to the north-east of Mainland, is 16 miles long, and five or six broad, h contains eight considerable harbours. Unst is eight miles long, and four broad, and has two excellent harbours. The coasts of all these islands are in general rugged and precipitous, presenting in many places scenes truly grand and magnificent ; and their interior is a rugged and bleak scene of barren rocks, with scanty portions of cultivated ground. They are at present destitute of trees, though there is reason to believe that they were not in former times. The air is keen and salubrious, and many of the natives live to a very great age. From their northern situation, they enjoy, during two months in the middle of the summer, almost perpetual day — there being sufiicient light at midnight, in the months of June and July, for any person to see to read, when the sky is clear. In the opposite season of the year the duration of the night is correspondent. Though there is little frost or snow, fogs, rain, storms, and a tempestuous sea, prevent the Shetlanders from having any communication, during six or seven months, either with the neighbouring islands or other countries. A remarkable instance of this is, that a Scotish fisherman was imprisoned in May, 1689, for stating that the prince and princess of Orange had been raised to the throne of England in the preceding November ; and he would probably have been hanged, had not the news been confirmed by the arrival of a ship, The number of inhabitants in the Shetland islands (computed, in 1798 ,''"«" yam, "^"ces great !;*"«», to- ^"e general Jle: but the ' tneincoi). '" strong, and hardy, and are frequently employed to draw the car- riagoB of the wealthy and curious of the capital, especially the ladies, on account of their diminutive size and beauty. The trade consists princit* pally in the export of fish. The natives of these islands differ little in their character and habits ^m the Lowland Scots, except that their manners are more simple, and their minds less cultivated. Their religion is the protestant, ac- cording to the discipline of the kirk ; and their civil institutions the same; with those of the country to which they belong. - , Tlie islands both of Shetland and Orkney were anciently subject to Norway, and were sold, in the thirteenth centuiy, by Magnus of Norway, to Alexander, king of Scotland. They were anerward claimed/by, and becai|io subject to, the crown of Denmark. Christian L, in the reign of Jame^ IIL, conveyed them in property to the crown of Scotland^ as a marr|age4portion with his daughter Margaret : and all future pretensions' were)Rntirely ceded on the marriage of James VI. of Scotland^' with Anne of Denmark. They arc so inconsiderable iq apolitical point of viewy that jhey are only allowed to depute one member ^ the ptirliamettt.of the viited kingdom. i-tt lOi^th iresidth ./--• IRELAND. -Mr y. •/^ SITITATIOW AND EXt^NTt? Miles. 160 I between .-v ^MA >; Degrees. . , TBI, 30 and '55,20 North la^lfe. \ 6,20. and 10,16 West loagi«v)ft.|'' ..~ ^ • '5.-'" Ireland contains 27,450 squaro biiles, i to each. m 14 almOM 164 Inhidbitailtt Ni^MG, BotTNDARiEs, DIVISIONS.] IT appcars that Ireland jfTftA know» to the Greeks by the name of Juverna. The Romans called it Hibe<^ia. In the middle ages it was frequently termed Scotia, whith namelwas transferred to Scotland when the Scoti from Ireland Bottled ia that country. Its native.denomination is Srin, or the land of the West i from frhioh probably the English name originated. Byithe boundaries of an island we must be understood to mean the different names given to the: .Sea by which it is surrounded in different partsJ With regard to its boundaries, which are necessarily aquatio^ Irelai d has, to the north, ^vest, and south, the Atlantic Ocean : and to the ei tt St. George's Channel, which separates it frOm Wales ; the Irish Sea, ifhich divides it from Lancashire and Cumberland ; and tlie North Chan lel, which separates it from Scotland. The distance from Dublin to Ha yhead in North Wales is about 60 miles ; but from Donaghadee t0 the ft uU ^f Galloway in Scotland, it ia only 20 miles. jThe c()untrj^,i4 280 IRELAND. divided into four provinces, Leinster, Ulster, Connaught, and Munster; in which are 32 counties. The first and the last are the most populous. Face of the country.] Ireland is in general a level country, the face of which is pleasingly diversified by nature with occasional hills and gentle undulations, and clothed by the mild temperature and humidity of the air with an unfading verdure. Yet a great part of the island, from the scarcity of trees, and the want of that improvement which it seemed to invite, presented only a naked aspect, before the late extraor- dinary progress of cultivation. Mountains.] Although Ireland is far from being a mountainous country, several chains of lofty hills are found in different parts. In the county of Down are ridges, called the mountains of Moume and Iveagh, one of which (Mouut Donard) has been calculated at a perpen- dicular height of 2800 feet. Mangerton, in Kerry, is about 2500 feet high. Nephin and Croagh Patrick, in Mayo, are 880 yards high. The latter is in the form of an immense cone, and discernible at the distance of no miles. Forests.] There were formerly extensive forests in the counties of Donegal, Tyrone, Fermanagh, and Antrim ; and considerable woods in those of Wicklow, Wexford, Tipperary, and Cork. But these have now disappeared, or at least have been greatly diminished, partly by the extension of tillage, and partly by the consumption of them in fuel for domestic uses, and for the iron-manufactories. Bogs.] The bogs of Ireland, or, as they are called by the northern Irish, mosses, form a principal feature of this country. They differ from the English morasses in being rarely level, but rising into hilla. In Donegal there is a bog which represents a perfect scenery of hill and dale. Many of them are very extensive ; that of Allen, although it has been much diminished by reclaiming a great portion of it, still ex- tends 50 miles in length, and is computed to contain 190,000 acres. There are many others of great extent, and smaller ones are scattered over the whole island. In the county of Cavan, for instance, ninety bogs are reckoned. Where they do not occupy too great a proportion of the land, they are very useful to the inhabitants, by the abundance of fuel which they furnish. The waters of these bogs, far from emitting putrid exhalations, like standing pools and marshes, are of an antiseptic and strongly astringent quality ; as appears from their preserving for ages, and even adding to the durability of, the timber which is found buried beneath their surfaces, and from their converting into a kind of leather the skins of various animals which have had the misfortune of being lost in them. According to the report of a committee of inquiry, in 1814, the extent of peat soil, in Ireland, exceeds 2,830,000 acres, of which above a million and a half may be said to consist of fiat red bog, convertible, with due care and attention, to the general purposes of agri- culture, while the remainder forms the covering of mountains, of which a very large proportion might easily bo improved for pasture, or still more beneficially applied to the objects of plantation. Lakes.] There are in Ireland a great number of lakes, or, as they were formerly called, loughs, particularly ia the provinces of Ulster and Connaught. The principal are, that of Erne, in the county of Fermanagh, which is more than 30 English miles in length, and twelve in its greatest breadth, at its northern extremity; that of Corrib, in the shire of Galway, about 20 miles in length, and from two to five wide; and the great lake Neagh, in the province of Ulster, above 18 miles in length, and nine in breadth, occupying an area of nearly ?■" 4' -: -A «-,j>^-.ii J»t_ .f, ^-^ *lc •*'r«-' «-«^"'vfftv.»'(i^n**|f'M>' ->-! IRELAND, 38t 60,000 Irish, or above 90,000 English acres. The w^ter of the last- mentioned lake is said to have a petrifying quality. Some of the Irish lakes afford beautiful and romantic prospects, particularly that of Kil- laraey, in the county of Kerry, This lake, which may bo divided into three, is surrounded with mountains, rocks, and precipices, the decli- rities of which are covered with woods, intermixed with evergreens, from near their tops to the lakes themselves ; among which are a num- ber of rivulets tumbling over the precipices, some from heights of little less than 300 f4et. On the top of one of the surrounding mountains is a small round lake, about a quarter of a mile in diameter, called the Devil's Punch-bowl. From the surface of the lake to the top of the cavity, or brim of the bowl, may be about 300 yards ; and, when viewed from the circular top, it has a most astonishing appearance. The depth of it is vastly great ; but not unfathomable, as the natives pre- tend. The discharge of the superfluous waters of this bowl through a chasm into the middle lake, forms a fine cascade. The echoes among the hills surrounding the southern part of the lake, which is mostly en- closed, are equally delightful and astonishing. The proprietor, the earl of Kenmare, has placed some cannon in the most proper places, for the amusement of the visitants ; and the discharge of these pieces is tremen- dous, almost resembling the rolling of a violent peal of thunder, which seems to traverse the surrounding scenery, and die away among the distant mountains. Here also musical instruments, especially the horn and trumpet, afford the most delightful entertain, lent, and raise a concert superior to that of a hundred performers. Among the vast and craggy heights that encompass the lake, is one stupendous and frightful rock, the front of which toward the water is a horrid precipice, called the eagle's nest, from the number of those birds which have their nests in that place. Rivers.] The largest river in Ireland is the Shannon, which issues from Lough-Allen, in the county of Leitrim, serves as a boundary be- tween Connaught and the three other provinces, and, after a course of 150 miles, forming in its progress many beautiful lakes, falls into the Atlantic Ocean, between Kerry-point and Loop-head, where it is al- most nine miles broad. The navigation of this river was interrupted by a ridge of rocks spreading across it, south of Killaloe ; but this incon- venience has been remedied by a short canal ; and communications have also been made with other rivers. The Bann flows into the ocean near Coleraine ; the Boyne falls into St. George's Channel at Drogheda, as does the Liffey at the bay of Dublin, and is only remarkable for wa- tering that capital, where it forms a spacious harbour. The Barrow, the Nore, and the Suir, water the southern parts of the country, and, after uniting their streams below Ross, enter the Channel by the haven of Waterford. Bays AND iiARBOUUS.] The bays, havens, harbours, and creeks, which every where indent the coast, form the chief glory of Ireland, and render that country beyond any other in Europe best fitted for foreign commerce. Among the most considerable are those of Carrickfergus, Strangford, Carlingford, Dundalk, Dublin, Waterford, Dungarvon, Cork, Kinsale, Baltimore, Bantry, Dingle, Shannon-mouth, Galway, Sligo, Donegal, Lough-Swilly, and Lough- Foyle. Canals.] The improvements of inland navigation have not been neglected in Ireland. By the canal of Newry a communication is formed between the great lake Neagh and the bay of Carlingford ; and by that of Lisburno a navigation is opened between the same lake and the bay of I S82 IRELAND. Cairickfemu. A cdnal has also been cut from the Liffey through tin shire of Kildare and King's-County to Banagher, where it meets tht Shannon ; it also communicates in a diflfereut direction with the Barrow at Athy ; so that the inhabitants of the capital have acquired the convenience of internal navigation to Waterford, and also to Lime. rick and the Atlantic Ocean. Metals and mikerals.] Ireland contains mines of iron, copper, lead, silver, and gold. The last-named metal was discovered, in 1797, in the county of Wicklow; but the hopes of ample produce were not gratified, and the mine was soon left to itself. A mine, in the shire of Antrim, yields a pound of pure silver from thirty pounds of lead. There are also silver mines, though not equally productive, in the shires of Sligo and Tipperary. There is a rich mine of copper at a place called Crone Bawn in the county of Wicklow, and another at Redhills lat of Kildare. Extensive iron-works have been established witl '^ few years, at Arigna, in the shire of Leitrim. Some of the Irish marble-quarries contain a kind of porphyry, which is red, striped with white. Quarries of fine slate are found in most of the counties. Mines of coal are found in many parts of Ireland, par- ticularly near Castlccomcr in the county of Kilkenny ; the coal from which, being of a hard sort, and pr >per for the forging of iron, is con- veyed, even by land carriage, to very distant parts of the island. Climate, soil, and aoriculture.] The climate of Ireland differs not much from that of England, except that it is more moiBt, From the reports of various registers, it appears that the number of dayg on which rain had fallen in Ireland was much greater than in the same years in England. But, in many respects, the climate of Ireland is more agreeable than that of England, the summers being not so hot, and the winters less severe. The moisture above alluded to, being peculiarly favorable to the growth of grass, has been urged as an argument why the inhabitants should confine their attention to the rearing of cattle, to the total desertion of tillage, and consequent injury to the growth of population ; but the soil is so infinitely various, as to be capable of almost every species of cultivation, suitable to such latitude, with a fertility equal to its variety. This is so conspicuous, that Mr. Young, comparing Ireland with Eng- land, attributes the superiority of natural fertility to the former. Agri- culture, indeed, has not been properly encouraged, and the farmers are oppressed by the middle men, who rent farms of the landlords, and let them out to the occupiers : yet (says the same writer) " in proportion to the extent of thb two countries, Ireland is more cultivated than England, having much less waste land." He adds, "The circumstance that strikes me as the greatest singularity of Ireland, is the rockiness of the soil, which should seem at first sight against fertility ; but the contrary is the fact. Stone is so general, that I have good reacon to believe the whole island is one vast rock, of different strata and kinds, rising out of the sea. I have rarely heard of any great depths being sunk without meeting with it. In general it appears on the surface in every part of the kingdom ; the flattest and most fertile parts, as Limerick, Tipperary, and Meath, have it at no great depth, almost as much as the more barren ones. May we not recognibc in this the hand of bounteous Providence, which has given, perhaps, the most stony soil in Europe to the moistest climate in it ? If as much rain fell upon the clays in England (a soil very rarely met with in Ireland, and never without much stone), as falls upon the rocks of her sister-island, those lauds could not be cultivated. But the IRELAND. 983 loeb here are clothed witTi verdure ; thoie of limeitone, with only a thin covering of mould, have the softest and inott beautiful turf imaginable." Vegetables.] The vegetable productions of Ireland are nearly the game as those of England. Few countries yield better grain than what ii produced in the parts of the island where the culture of it receives duo ittention. Great quantities of hemp and flax are raised, especially in the northern counties, where the linen-manufacture is principally carried m. Potatoes, as is well known, seem Especially to suit the soil of the country, and are a particular object of cultivation in all parts of Ireland. Animals.] Wolves were formerly found in Ireland, and were not exterminated till near the end of the seventeenth century. The Irish wolf-dogs, a species of large greyhounds, near four feet in 1 ight, are nearly extinct. In some parts of the country some herds of red-deer are itill found wild, particularly in the mountainous tract near the lake of Kiliamey. Whether it may be attributed to the soil or the climate, it is certain that in Ireland there are neither moles nor toads, nor any kind of lerpents. The magpie and the nightingale are strangers to that country ; and it is said that the latter bird, if brought over in a cage, soon pines and dies. Some other birds likewise, and several kinds of hsh, which abound in England, are unknown in Ireland. Natural curiosities.] The greatest natural curiosity iii Ireland ii the Giants' Causeway, in the county of Antrim, about eight miles from Coleraine; which is thus described by Dr. Pococke, bishop of Onory. He says, " that he measured the most westerly point at high water, to the distance of 360 feet from the cliff ; but he was told, that at low water it extended 60 feet farther upon a descent, till it was lost in the sea. Upon measuring the eastern point, he found it 540 feet from the cliff; and saw as much more of it as of the other, where it winds to the east, and is, like that, lost in the water. " The causeway is composed of pillars, all of angular shapes, from tliree sides to eight. The eastern point, where it joins the rock, ter- minates in a perpendicular cliff, formed by the upright sides of the pillars, (ome of which are thirty-three feet four inches high. Each pillar con- lists of several joints or stones, lying one upon another, from six inches to about one foot in thickness ; and, what is very surprising, some of these joints are so convex, that their prominences are nearly quarters of spheres, round each of which is a ledge, which holds them together with the greatest firmness, every stone being concave on the other side, and fitting in the exactest manner the convexity of the upper part of that beneath it. The pillars are from one to two feet in diameter, and generally con- sist of about forty joints, most of which separate very easily ; and one may walk along upon the tops of the pillars as far as to the edge of the water. " But this is not the most singular part of this extraordinary curiosity, the cliffs themselves being still more surprising. From the bottom, which is of black stone, to the height of about sixty feet, they are divided at equal distances by stripes of a reddish stone, that resembles a cement, about four inches in thickness ; upon this there is another stratum of the same black stone, with a stratum five inches thick over the red. Over this is another stratum, ten feet thick, divided in the same manner ; then a stratum of the red stone twenty feet deep, and above that a row of upright pillars ; above these pillars lies another stratum of black stone, twenty feet high ; and, above this again, another stratum of upright 284 IRELAND. i pillarsj rising in some places to the tops of the cHfFs, in otiiers not so high, and in others again above it, where they are called the Chimneys. The face of these cliffs extends about three English miles." Ireland abounds in cataracts, caverns, and romantic prospects. The scenery of th? lake of Killarney hta been already described. la the side of the mountain of Kishecorraii , in the county of Sligo, are six ca- verns, which extend to the distance of 80 or 90 feet. The sides are covered with a smooth white substaacp, like plaster. The largest has, at the entrance, a kind of hall of acirci lar form, about 30 feet in diameter, and as many in height. Near Cork t.iere is a vast subterranean labyrinth, called the Oven, the extent of which has never been fully explored, though several bold investigators have advanced into it to the distance of a quarter of a mile or more. But the most remarkable cavern in Ireland is the cave of Dunmore, near Kilkenny. This has only been explored aa far as a subterranean river, which runs through it about a quarter of a mile from the entrance, where is a difficult descent of about 100 feet. One part of this cavern resembles a grand Gothic structure in ruins ; the other has the appearance of a magnificent temple, from the ceiUng of which depend stalactitic concretio^iS, in the forms of inverted cones and pyramids, which, when strongly illuminated, shine with astonishing brilliance, and produce a most extraordinary effect. The largest cataract in Ireland is that of Adragool, in Bantry-Bay. On the iop of a rocky mountain, which rises almost perpendicularly, ig a lake of considerable size, from which issues a sheet of water at first 30 feet v.'ide, which expands as it descends, and, dashing from rock to rock, forms a series of cataracts, till it is projected, in the form of an arch, over a lower hill into the sea. It is visible at the town of Bantry, at the distance of 14 miles. PopuLATiox.] In 1672, there were, according to sir William Petty, no more than 1,100,000 persons in the whole extent of Ireland. In the reign of queen Anne, there were at least two millions ; and we may now calculate the number at four millions and a half. National ciiAHACTEn, manners, and customs.] It is justly observed by Dr. Leland, witli regard to the manners of the ancient Irish, that, if we make our inquiries on this subject from English writers, we find their representations odious and disgusting ; if from writers of their own race, they frequently break out into the most animated encomiums of their great ancestors. The one can scarcely allow them any virtue : the others, in their enthusiastic ardor, can scarcely discover the least imper- fection in their laws, government, or manners. The historian of England sometimes regards them as the most detestable and contemptible of the human race. The antiquary of Ireland raises them to an illustrious eminence above all other European nations. Yet when we examii:o their records, without regard to legendary talcs or poetic fictions, we find them, even in their most brilliant periods, advanced only to an imperfect civi- lisation ; a state which exhibits the most striking instances both of the virtues and the vices of humanity. With respect to the present descendants of the old Irish, or, as they are termed by the protestants, the mere Irish, they are generally repre- sented as an ignorant, uncivilised, and blundering sort of people. Im- patient of abuse and injury, they are implacable and violent in all their affections ; but quick of apprehension, courteous to strangers, and patient of hardship. Though in these respects there is, perhaps, little difference between them and the more uninformed part of their neighbours, yet their state of barbarism may more easily be accounted for, from acci* IRELAND. 285 lot so high [eys. The lets. The la the |are six ca- |e sides are pst has, at p diameter, f 'abyrinth, ^ explored, distance of in Ireland explored as later of a I J 00 feet, ruins; the ' ceiling of rted cones isto ■ " dental than from natural causes. The far greater number of then> are papists ; and it is the interest of their priests, who govern them with ab- solute sway, to keep them in the most profound ignorance. They have also labored under many discouragements, which in their c'"n country have prerented the exertion both of their mental and bodily faculties ; but, when employed in the service of foreign princes, they have been distin- gniahed by intrepidity, spirit, and fidelity. Many of their surnames have an 0, or Mac, placed before them, which signify grandson and son. Formerly the was used by their chiefs only, or such as piqued them- selves on the antiquity of their families. Their favorite musical instru- ment is the harp ; but, like their Caledonian brethren, they also make use of the bagpipe. Their tunes are generally of a melancholy strain ; though some of their latest airs are lively, and, when sung by an Irish- man, are extremely diverting. The old Irish is generally spoken in the interior parts of the kingdom, where some of the old uncouth customs still prevail, particularly their funeral bowlings. The custom of placing acorpse before their doors, laid out upon a table, having a plate upon the body to excite the charity of passengers, is practised even in the environs of Dublin. The convivial meetings on Sunday afternoon, with dancing, and more often quarreling among themselves, are ofifensive to every stranger. The common Irish, in their manner of living, seem to resemble the an- cient Britons, as described by Roman authors, or the savages of North- America. Mean huts, or cabins built of clay and straw, partitioned in the middle by a wall of the same materials, serve the grand purpose of accommodating the family, who live and sleep promiscuously, having their fires of turf in the middle of the floor, with an opening through the roof for a chimney ; the other being occupied by a cow, or such pieces of furniture as are not in immediate use. Their wealth consists of a cow, sometimes a horse, some poultry, and a spot for potatoes. Coarse bread, potatoes, eggs, milk, and sometimes fish, constitute their food ; for, however abundantly the fields may be stocked with cattle, that animal food of which the higher and middle classes are so fond, is a rarity to the Hibernian poor. Yet their children, amidst scanty and wretched fare, are plump, robust, and hearty ; and eren the laborers, for whom better nourishment would seem to bo neces- sary, are by no means deficient in personal strength. The descendants of the English and Scots, since the conqii<;st of Ire- land by Henry II., though not the most numerous, form the :nost respect- able and opulent part of the nation. Of this description nre most of the nobility and gentry, and also the principal traders, who inhabit the east- ern, northern, and southern coasts, where most of the trade of Ireland is carried on. It is remarkable that a great part of the north of Ireland, though the poorest soil, is, next to Dublin and its neighbourhood, the best-cultivated and most flourishing part of the kingdom. Here a colony of Scots, in the reign of James I., and other presbyterians who fled from persecution in that country in the succeeding reigns, planted themselves, and established that great staple of Irish wealtii, he linen-manufacture, which they have since brought to perfection. From this short review, it appears, that the present inhabitants are composed of three distinct classes ; the old Irish, poor, ignorant, and de- pressed, who inhabit, or rather exist upon, the interior and western parts; the descendants of those English who gave a new appearance to the whole coast opposite to Britain, by the introduction of arts, commerce, science, and more liberal ideas of religion ; and thirdly, emigrants from IRELAND. \l Scotland in the northern provinces, who, like the others, are so zealoudt attached to their own religion and manner of living, that a very long period may be expected to elapse before the inhabitants of Ireland will be so thoroughly consolidated and blended as to become one people. The gentry, and the middle class, differ little in language, dress, manners, and customs, from those of the same rank in Great-Britain, whom they imi. tate. Their hospitality is well known ; but in this they are soraetimeg suspected of more ostentation than real friendship. Indeed, their affec< tation of friendship cannot be very sincere, when the very man who pretends to feel a high regard for his guest or visitant, will suddenly &ncy that his honor is wounded by a remark uttered in the laxity of inadvertence, and will call his friend into the field, reducing him to the alternative of losing his life for no real offence, of driving his irritable antagonist from the world, or of being stigmatised in every company ai a despicable coward. Cities, chief towks, and edifices.] Dublin, the capital of Ireland, is, in magnitude and number of inhabitants, the second city in the British dominions. It is about ten miles in circumference, being nearly two miles and a half in length, and as much in breadth ; and ig supposed to contain abogt 170,000 inhabitants. It stands about seven miles from the sea, upon the river Liffe'y, which divides it almost into two equal parts, and is banked in, through the whole length of the city, on both sides, which form spacious and noble quays, where vessels below the first bridge load and unload before the merchants' doors and ware- houses. To protect the harbour from the winds, a mole has been con- structed, nearly four miles in length, with a light-house on its extremity, and another corresponding to it on the opposite promontory, called the Hill of Howth. A stranger, on entering the bay of Dublin, which it about seven miles broad, and in stormy weather extremely dangerous, it agreeably surprised with the beautiful prospect on each side, and the distant view of the Wicklow mountains ; but the city itself, from its low situation, makes no striking appearance. Many parts of it, however, are very fine; and, while the old streets are narrow and mean, the new streets are as elegant as those of Westminster. Sackville-strcet, which is sometimes called the Mall, is particularly noble. The houses are elegant, lofty, and uniformly built, and a gravel-walk runs through the whole at an equal distance from the sides. The river Liffey, though navigable for considerable vessels as far as the custom-house, or centre of the city, is small, when compared with the Thames at London. It is crossed by si . bridges, three of which are ele- gant, especially Sarah'a-bridge, con^idting of one arch, 106 feet in the span or width across the stream, pad 28 feet high. . Many of the public edifices of Dublin are very magnificent ; among which may be enumerated the late parliament-house (now a naiional bank), the university, the courts of justice, the custom-house, and the royal exchange, an elegant structure of stone, with semi-columns of the Corinthian order, a cupola, and other ornaments. The castle, which is the residence of the viceroy, stands on a rising ground , near the centre of the city, and consists of two courts, one of which is of an oblong rect- angular form, the other a less regularly shaped quadrilateral. St. Stephen's-green is a very spacious and beautiful square, round Ht^hich there is a gravel -walk, a mile in circuit. Many of the houses in this square are very elegant ; but a want of uniformity is observable. In ^his respect it is greatly exceeded by the new square near it, called Merrion-Bquar«;. the bouses of which, being lofty and unilbnni and IRELAND. 087 built wiih Btone as high as ih' first floor, give the whole an air of mag' acence, not perhaps exceeded by any place in England, except Batli. The civil governinent of Dublin is by a lord-mayor, &c., the same as in London. Every third year, the lord-mayor, and the twenty-four companies, by virtue of an old charter, are obliged to perambulate the city a ad its liberties, which they call Riding the Franchises. On this occasion the citizens vie with each other in show and ostentation, which ii sometimes productive of disagreeable consequences to many of their families. In Dublin there are twenty parishes, a cathedral, eighteen parish-churches, eight chapels, three churches for French and one for Dutch protestants, seven presbyterian meeting-houses, two for methodists, two for quakers, and sixteen Roman-catholic chapels. There are also two theatres ; a royal hospital, like that at Chelsea, for invalids : a lying- i|i-ho8pital, with gardens, built and laid out in the finest taste ; an hos- pital lor lunatics, founded by the famous dean Swift, who died insane ; and other hospitals for patients of every description. Dublin appears to have felt the consequences of the union. The removal of its parliament has not only diminished its dignity, but has increased the number of emigrating nobility and gentry, and protracted the period of their absence. Yet, as it boasts of a splendid court, still possesses the great tribunals, and exhibits other marks of honor and respectability, while the flow of its commerce is quickened by an infusion of British capital, the inhabitants ought not to complain loudly of the particular inconveniences of a measure which has been salutary in its general efiiects. Cork is the second city in Ireland, for magnitude and , tion. It lies 120 miles south-west of Dublin, and contains about 86/ inhabit- ants. Its haven is deep, and well sheltered from all winds ; but small vessels only can come up to the city, which stands about seven miles n> the river Lee. Its trade is very considerable ; and there is, perhaps, a greater quantity of beef, tallow, and butter, Bhipped off here, than in all the other ports of Ireland taken together. Hence there is a great resort of ships to this port, particularly of those bound from Great-Britain to the West-Indies, which put in here to victual and complete their lading. Some spacious and well-built streets have been added to the town ; and the public buildings, if they are not all handsofne or elegant, are large 9od commodious. Limerick occupies the third rank among the commercial towns of Ireland. It exports provisions to a great amount, and carries on the linen, woollen, and paper manufactures with success. Its flourishing state is proved by the increase of its population, which now amounts to ^5,000, — Waterford, which declined after the rebellion in 1798, has since retrieved its affairs, and enjoys a considerable share of foreign trade. Its inhabitants are about 40,000 in number. — Belfast, situated on a river which flows into the bay of Carrickfergus, is a large well-built town. Among its manufactures are those of linen, cotton, glass, and earthen ware ; and, while it enjoys the benefit of commercial reputation, it derives additional respectability from its literary institutions. — London- derry, on the verge of Lough- Foyle, is a strong little city, having linen- manufactures, with mercantile shipping ; and Donegal is a place of some trade, as likewise Enuiskillen. _ CoMMEiiCE A'Hn MANUFACTURES.] The exports of Ireland are linen, lawn and cambric, horses and black cattle, hides, tanned leather, cfdf-ikiiu dried, horns of oxen aad cows, ox-hair, horse-hair, lead, 289 IRELAND. copper ore, dried fish, otter-skins, goat-ekins, and some other commodi< ties. The Irish have carried their inland manufactuicj, even those of luxury, to a considerable height ; and their viceroys and their courts have lately encouraged them by their examples, and, while they are in that government, make use of no other. Go VERN MENT AND LAWS.] Before the union, Ireland was governed by its own parliament, consisting of a house of commons, composed of 300 members, and a house of peers, while the king was represented by a lord-lieutenant or viceroy : but, by the articles of union, which took place in 1801, the two islands have become one realm, by the name of the United Kingdom of Great-Britain and Ireland. The oflSce of lord- lieutenant is still continued. Of the peers of Ireland at the time of the union, four spiritual lords, by rotation of sessions, and twenty-eight tem- poral peers for life, sit and vote in the house of lords ; and one hundred commoners (two for each county of Ireland, two for the city of Dublin, two for the city of Cork, and one for each of the thirty-two most con- siderable cities, towns, and boroughs), form the number of representatires of Ireland in the united legislature. The laws of Ireland differ very little from those of England ; for, after the conquest of Ireland, the laws of England were received by the Irish nation, assembled at the council of Lismore ; and, by subsequent particular acts made in Ireland, the statutes in force in England hare been adopted, and decisions in common law have been taken as pre< cedents ; so that the laws of the two countries are nearly the same. For the regular distribution of justice, there are in Ireland four terms in every year for the decision of causes ; and four courts of justice— the chancery, king's-bench, common-pleas, and exchequer. The high- sheriffs of the several counties were formerly chosen by the people, but are now nominated by the viceroy. Revenue and debt.] The revenue is now in a great measure combined with that of Great-Britain ; but it was settled at the time of the union, that, while Britain should contribute fifteen parts toward the general expenditure of the united kingdom, Ireland should only pay two parts. The deficiency of the Irish revenue before the union led to an accumulation of debt: but the amount is small, compared with the general debt of the empire ; and it is now subjected to the operation of the English sinking-fund. Knighthood.] The order of St. Patrick consists of the sovereign and .Iilrteen knights-companions. Their riband is of light blue, and their badge is three crowns united on a cross, with the motto round, Qw/sse- parabitf. 1783, fastened by an Irish harp to the crown imperial. Religion.] The established religion of Ireland is the same with that of England. Among the bulk of th( people in the most uncul- tivated parts, popery, and that too of the most absurd, illiberal kind, is prevalent. The Irish papists still retain tlieir nominal bishops and dig- nitaries, who subsist on the voluntary contributions of their votaries. But even the blind submission of the latter to their clergy, does not pre- vent protestantism from making a considerable progress in the towns and communities. Ireland, in proportion to its extent, contains as many protestant sec- taries as England, particularly presbyterians, baptists, quakers, and methodists. Great efforts have been made, ever since the days of James I., in erecting free schools for civilising and converting the Irish papists to protestantism. The institution of the incorporated society for pro- moting English protestant working-schools, has been exceedingly sue- IRELAND. 289 cessful) as have been many institutions of the same kind, in introdu- cing industry and knowlege among the Irish. The archbishoprics are four ; Armagh, Dublin, Cashel, and Tuam ; and the bishoprics areeighteen; viz., Clogher, Clonfert, Clo.yne, Cork, Derry, Down, Dromore, Elphin, Kildarc, Killala, Kilmore, Killuloe, Leighlin, Limerick, Meath, Ossory, Raphoe, and Waterford. LiTERATUiiE,] Learning seems to have been cultivated in Ireland ata very early period. It is said, that, when St. Patrick landed in Ire- land, he found many holy and learned Christian preachers, whose vota- ries were pious and obedient. Camden observes, that " the Irish scho- lars of St. Patrick profited so notably in Christianity, that, in the suc- ceeding age, Ireland was termed Sanctorum Patria. Its monks so greatly excelled in learning and piety, that they sent whole flocks of most learned men into all parts of Europe, who were the founders of many monasteries." We have also the testimony of Bede, that, about the middle of the seventh century, many nobles, and other orders of the Anglo-Saxons, retired from their own country into Ireland, either for instruction, or for an opportunity of living in monasteries of stricter dis- cipline ; and that the Scots (as he styles the Irish) maintained them, taoghtthem, and furnished them with books, without fee or reward : " a most honorable testimony," says lord Lyttelton, " not only to the learn- ing, but likewise to the hospitality and bounty of that nation." In modem times, the Irish have also distinguished themselves in the republic of letters. Archbishop Usher does honor to literature itself. Dean Swift, who was a native of Ireland, has perhaps never been ex- celled in the walks of wit, humor, and satire. The sprightliness of Far- quhar's wit is well known to all lovers of the drama; and among the men of distinguished genius whom Ireland has produced, we may also mention sir Richard Steele, bishop Berkeley, Parnell, Sterne, and Goldsmith. To these we may add Burke, an admirable orator and a masterly writer, and Sheridan, whose eloquence was exceeded only by his ability in dra- matic composition. Collegiate voundations, 7 Ireland contains only one univer- AND LITERARY SOCIETIES. J sity, which is denominated Trinity College. It consists of two quadrangles, in the whole of which are thirty-" three buildings of eight rooms each. It was founded and endowed by queen Elizabeth ; but the original foundation consisted only of a provost, three fellows and three scholars ; which has from time to time been aug- mented to twenty-twp fellows, seventy scholars, and thirty inferior stu- dents. The whole number of students, including those who pay for their education, may be calculated at five hundred. There are thirteen professors of various sciences. Trinity-college has a power of conferring the degrees of bachelor, master, and doctor, in all the arts or faculties. With a liberal spirit of toleration, and from a wish to prevent the emigration of the catholics to the continent for the purpose of receiving instruction, the royal college of St. Patrick was erected at Maynooth, in 1795, by order of the Irish parliament; and it continues to flourish under the patronage of the imperial legislature, being supported by an- nual grants. An Irish Academy was incorporated in 1786, not only (like the Royal Society of London for the advancement of philosophy and science, but also for the study of antiquities and the promotion of elegant literature. Many of its published papers are interesting and valuable. Language.] The Irish language is a dialect of the ancient Celtic. Its usage occasions among the common people, who speak both that and 990 IRELAND. ! the English, a peculiar tone in speaking, which is general among the vulgar, and prevails even among persons of a higher class, who do not i^nderstand Irish. It is not improbable that, in the course of another century, the latter will be accounted among the dead languages. The Lord's prayer in Irish is as follows : Ar nothairne ata ar neamh, naomhthar hairm ; tigeadh do riogachd; deuntar do ihoil, ar an ttalamh mar ata ar neamh ; tabhair dhuin a niu ar naran lethamhail ; agus maithdhuira ar bhfiaca amail mar maithmidrne mar bhfeitheamhnuibbfein; agzis na leig sinn a cath- ughadh, achd mor sinn o olc : oir is leatfein an rioghachd, agui an cumhachd, agus an ghloir guffioruige. Amen, Antiquities.] Among the principal antiquities of Ireland are the round towers, which are tall hollow pillars of stone and lime, of a nearly cylindrical form, but narrowing upward, with a conical roof. Fifty of these towers, from fifty to a hundred and fifty feet high, and from eight to twelve in diameter, are still standing in different parts of Ireland. Antiquaries do not agree with respect to their origin and use ; some sup- posing that they were built by the Danes and Norwegians in their pira- tical incursions, who made use of them as spy-towers, light-houses, or beacons; and others, that they served as belfries to the monasteries; which, it is said, is agreeable to the import of their Irish name, cloghad, From their resemblance to the Picts' houses in the Orkney and Shetland islands, the l(>rmer opinion is the more probable. In Ireland likewise are found cairns, carnedhs, or piles of loose stones heaped up on the tops of hills for the celebration of some pagan rites; circles of stones ; barrows or artificial hillocks ; cromlyeeaghs, or large fiat stones raised from the ground, horizontal or inclined, intended probably for the purposes of superstition ; and we may add, that the ruins of stately castles, erected in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries by the Anglo-Norman colonists, are found in almost every part of the country. History.] The history of Ireland has been carried to a very remote Antiquity, and may, with greater justice than that of almost any other coun- try, be distinguished into the legendary and authentic. In the reign of Ed- ward 11. an Ulster prince boasted to the pope of an uninterrupted suc- cession of one hundred and ninety-seven kings of Ireland, to the year .1170. Even the more moderate Irish antiquaries cany their history up to 500 years before the Christian ssra, at which time they assert that a cojony of Scythians, immediately from Spain, settled in Ireland, and in- troduced the Phoenician language and letters into this country : and that, although it might have been peopled still earlier from Gaul or Britain, Heber, Heremon, and Ith, the sons of Milesius, gave a race of kings to the Irish, distinguished by the name of Gadelians, and Skuits, or Scots. But, as our limits will not permit us to enlarge, on the dark and c<)ntested parts of the Irish history, we shall only observe that, about the middle of the fifth century, the celebrated St. Patrick was employed in the propa- gation of Christianity in Ireland, though that country had been long be- fore visited by Christian missionaries, by whose means it had made a considerable progress among the rude inhabitants. After this period, Ireland was occasionally invaded by the Saxon kings of England ; and, in the years 795 and 798, the Danes and Norwegians, or, as they were called, Easterlings, invaded the coast of Ireland, and were the first who erected stone edifices in that kingdom. The natives defended themselves bravely against the Easterlinp.s, who built Dublin, Waterford, Limerick, Wexfoffd, and Cork, but reuc'ad chiefly at Dublin, or in its aeighbourbood, IRELAND. ttl which, by the old Irish, was called Fingal, or the Land of Strangers. The people, about the year 962, seem to have called to their assistance the Anglo-Saxon king Edgar, who had then a considerable maritime potrer ; and this might have given occasion for his clergy to call him king of a great part of Ireland. It is certain that Dublin was about that time a flourishing city, and that the Irish gave the Easterlings several defeats, though the latter were supported by their countrymen from the continent, the Isle of Man, and the Hebudes. Id the twelfth century, Henry the Second of England formed a de- sign of annexing Ireland to his dominions. He is said to have been in« dueed to this by the provocation he had received from some of the Irish chieftains, who had afforded considerable assistance to his enemies. His design was patronised by the pope, and a fair pretext of attacking Ireland vu offered in the year 1168. Dermot Mac-Morrogh, king of Leinster, an oppressive tyrant, quarreled with all his neighbours, and carried off the wife of a petty prince, O'Roirk. A confederacy being formed against liigi, under Roderic O'Connor (who, it seems, was the paramount king of Irelfind), he was driven from his country, and took refuge in the court of Henry, who proniised to restore him, if he would take an oath of fidelity to the crown of England, for himself and all the petty princes depending 00 him, who were very numerous. Henry, who was then in France, re< commended Mac-Dermot's cause to the English barons, particularly to Richard Strongbow, earl of Pembroke, Robert Fitz-Stephen, and Mau- rice Fitzgerald. Those noblemen undertook the enterprise upon the same motives and principles which actuated the Norman and Breton lords in the expedition to England under William I.; and Strongbow was to amny Dermot's daughter. In 1169, the adventurers reduced the towns of Wexford and Waterford ; and the next year, Strongbow arriving with a considerable reinforcement, his marriage with the fair Eva was celebrated. The descendants of the Danes continued to possess Dublin, which, ifter tome ineffectual opposition made by Roderic, was taken and plun- dered by the English. On the death of Dermot, Henry became jealous 01 Strongbow, seised his estates in England and Wales, and recalled his fill(iects front) Ireland. The Irish about the same time, to the amount of 50,000, besieged Dublin under their principal king: but, though all Strongbow's Irish friends and allies had now left him, and the city was reduced to extremity, he forced the enemy to raise the siege, after a fi[reat diminution of their number ; and, returning to England, he appeased Henry by swearing fealty -to him and his heirs, and resigning into his hands all the towns and forts which he held in Ireland. In 1171, Henry, attended by 400 knights, 4000 veteran soldiers, and the flower of his nobility, landed near Waterford ; and not only all the petty princes of Ireland, except the king of Ulster, but even the chief potentate, submitted to the English monarch, who pretended that O'Connor's submission included that of Ulster, and that consequently-he was the sovereign of Ireland. He kept a magnificent court, and held a parliament at Dublin, where he distributed the manors of Ireland among the English nobility, and settled a civil administration. Thus the conquest of Ireland was effected by the English almost with as much ease as that of Mexico by the Spaniards, and for much the same reasons, — the rude and unarmed state of the natives, and the dissensions that prevailed among their princes or leaders. Renry gave the title of lord of Ireland to his son John, who, in 118.5, WWt 9ver to that ^untry : but the prince and his giddy Norroan eourtiera ^2 292 IRELAND. made a very ill use of their power, and rendered themselves odious to the Irish, who -.vere otherwise very well disposed toward the English, Richard I. was too much occupied with the crusade to pay any great regard to the affairs of Ireland ; but king John, after his accession, made amends for his former behaviour toward the Irish. He prosecuted hia father's plan of introducing into Ireland the English laws and officers, and he erected those parts of the provinces of Leinster and Munster, which were within the English pale, into twelve counties. We find, how- ever, that the descendants of the ancient princes, in other parts, gratified him with no more than a nominal subjection. They governed by their old Brehon laws, and exercised all acts of sovereignty within their own states. The unsettled reign of Henry III., his wars and captivity, detracted from the high opinion . "'.ch the Irish had formed of the English govern- ment ; but they seem to have continued quiet under his son Edward I, Gavaston, the favorite of Edward II., acquired great credit while he acted as lieutenant of Ireland ; but the successes of the Scotisli king, Robert de Brus, had almost proved fatal to the English interest in Ireland, and suggested to the Irish the idea of transferring their allegiance from the kings of England to king Robert's brother Edward. That prince ac- cordingly invaded Ireland, where he gave repeated defeats to the English governors and armies : and he was actually crowned king at Dundalk ; but he seems to have been violent i',i the exercise of his sovereignty, and he was at last defeated and slain. After this, Edward II. ruled Ireland with great moderation, and enacted judicious laws for the benefit of that country. During the minority of Edward III. commotions were renewed in Ireland, and not suppressed without great loss and disgrace on the sidec' the English. In 1 333 a rebellion broke out, in which the English in- habitants had no inconsiderable share. A succession of vigorous, brave governors, at last quieted the insurgents; and, about the year 1361, Edward's son Lionel (ancestor of the house of York), having married the heiress of Ulster, was sent over to govern Ireland, and, if possible, to re- duce its inhabitants to an entire conformity with the laws of England. He rendered himself highly popular by his administration ; but he did not accomplish his grand object. In 13d4, Richard II., finding that the execution of his despotic schemes in England must be abortive without farther support, passed over to Ireland, with an army of 34,000 men, well armed and appointed. As he made no use of force, the Irish looked upon his presence to be a high compliment to their nation, and admi.ed the magni.lcence of his court. The king, on the other hand, courted them by all the arts he could employ, and bestowed the honor of knighthood on their chiefs. In short, he be- haved so as entirely to win their affections. But in 1399, after having acted in a very despotic manner in England, he undertook a fresh expe- dition to Ireland, to revenge the death of his lord-lieutenant, the earl of March, who had been killed by the wild Irish. His army again struck the natives with consternation, and they threw themselves upon his mercy. The Irish, after Richard's death, still retained a warm affection for the house of York, and, when that family asserted its claim to the crown, embraced its cause. Edward IV. made the earl of Desmond lord lieutenant of Ireland for his services against the Ormond party and other adherents of the house of Lancaster, and he was the first Irish chieftain who obtained this honor. Even the accession of Henry VII. to the crown of England did not reconcile the Irish to hia title as duke of Lan* IRELAND. 293 eaiter: they therefore readily joined Lambert Simnel, the impostor; but they were defeated in their attempt to invade England. This made them unwilling at first to join Perkin Warbeck, notwithstanding his plausible pretence of being the young duke of York. He was, however, at last re- cognised as king by the Irish ; and, in our history of England, the resder may learn the event of his pretensions. Henry behaved with mo- deration toward his favorers, and was content with requiring the Irish nobles to take a fresh oath of allegiance to his government. This lenity had the desired effect during the administration of the two earls of Kil- dare, the earl of Surry, and the earl of Ormond. Henry VIH. governed Ireland by supporting its chiefs against each other ; and, when the em- peror Charles V. endeavoured to gain them to his interest, the king ap- pointed his natural son, the duke of Richmond, lord-lieutenant. This did not prevent the Irish from breaking out into a rebellion in 1540, under Fitz-Gerald, who had been lord -deputy, and was won over by the em- peror, but was at last put to death by the king's order. About the year 1542, James V., king of Scotland, formed some pre- tensions to the crown of Ireland, and was favored by a strong party among the Irish themselves. It is difficult to say, had he lived, what the consequence of his claim might have been. Henry, understanding that the Irish had a mean opinion of his dignity, as his predecessors had hitherto assumed no higher title than that of lords of Ireland, declared himself king of that country; and his new dignity made a great impression upon the natives, who thought that allegiance was not due to a mere lord. It produced a more ready submission of the people ; and even O'Neil, who pretended to be successor to the last paramount king of Ireland, swore allegiance to Henry, who created him earl of Tyrone. In the reign of Edward VI., the pope and the emperor kept up an ioterest in Ireland, and the latter even sent troops into that country to oppose the government ; but the views of those bigots were frustrated by the spirit of the lord-deputy, and that religious reformation which the young king patronised took place in the English part of Ireland with little or no opposition. The Irish seem to have been very quiet under the government of Mary ; but they proved thorns in the side of Elizabeth. The perpe- tual disputes she had with the Roman-catholics, both at home and abroad, gave her great uneasiness ; and the pope, and the emperor's son Philip of Spain, always found new resources against her in Ireland. The Spaniards gained possession of Kinsale; and the rebellions of Tyrone, who baffled and outwitted her favorite general the earl of Easex, are well known in English history. The lord-deputy Mountjoy, who succeeded Essex, was the first En- glishman who gave a mortal blow to the practices of the Spaniards in Ireland, by defeating them and the Irish before Kinsale, and bringing Tyrone prisoner to England, where he was pardoned by queen Eliza- beth, The lenity shown to such an offender, is a proof of the queen's dread of the popish interest in Ireland. James I. confirmed the pos- sessions of the Irish ; but such was the influence of the pope and the Spaniards, that the earls of Tyrone and Tyrconnel, and their party, planned a new rebellion, and attempted to seise the castle of Dublin ; but, their plot being discovered, the chiefs fled to the continent. They were not idle abroad; for in 1608 they instigated a young chieftain, named O'Dogherty, to a fresh rebellion, by promising him speedy sup- plies of men and money from Spain. He was killed in the contest, and bis chief adherents were put to death. The attainders of the Irish 294 IRELAND. rebels, which passed in the reigns of Elizabeth and Jatnes, vested in (bt crown 511,465 acres, in the counties of Donegal, Tyrone, Fermanagh, Cavan, and Armagh; and enabled the king to make that protettaot plantation in the north of Ireland, by which the most rebellious province of the kingdom was converted to habits of order and of tranquil industry. Those prodigious attainders, however just and necessary they might be, operated fatally for the English in the reign of Charles I. The Irish catholics in general were influenced by their priests to hope not only to repossess the lands of their forefathers, but to restore the po- pish religion in Ireland. They therefore entered into a conspiracy for massacring all the English protestants in that kingdom. In this they were encouraged by the unhappy dissensions that broke out between the king and the parliaments of England and Scotland. The discovery of their execrable scheme, by the ruling power at Dublin, prevented that city from falling into their hands. They, however, partly executed, in 1641, their horrid scheme of massacre; but authors differ as to the number of persons who were murdered; the amount has been exaggerated by warm protestant writers, some of whom have extended the calcula- tion to 150,000: authors less inflamed with zeal have estimated the amount of the sufferers at 40,000; other accounts speak of 10,000 or 12,000; and some have diminished that number. From that time to the death of Charles, Ireland was in a state of disorder and commotion, When Cromwell was sent by the parliament to subdue the royal party is that kingdom, he met with speedy and complete success, and, in the course of the campaign, he retaliated upon the catholics (but in a most unjustifiable and atrocious manner at Drogheda) the cruelties which they had inflicted upon the protestants. So severely did they sufifer, that they were quiet during the reign of Charles II. His popish suc- cessor, and brother, James II., even after the Revolution took place, found an asylum in Ireland ; and was encouraged to hope, that, by the assistance of the natives, he might remount his throne ; but he was de- ceived, and his own pusillanimity co-operated to his disappointment. He was driven out of Ireland by his son-in-law, after the battle of the Boyne, the only evident victory that king William ever gained in per- son ; a victory, however, on which depended the safety of the protestant religion, and the liberties of the British empire. Had James been vic- torious, he probably would have been reinstated ; and, being irritated by opposition, and free from every restraint, he would have trampled upon all rights, civil and religious, and pursued the most arbitrary designs. The army of William consisted of 36,000 men ; that of James of only 33,000, but advantageously posted. James, it is tnie, fought at the head of an undisciplined rabble : and his French auxi- liaries were far from behaving like heroes, It must be acknowleged, however, that he left both the field and the kingdom too soon for a brave man. The forfeitures that fell to the crown, on account of the Irish rebel- lions and the Revolution, are almost incredible ; and, if the acts of parlia- ment which gave them away had been strictly enforced, Ireland would have been almost entirely peopled with British inhabitants. But po- litical reasons occurred for not driving the Irish to despair. The friends of the Revolution and the protestant religion were sufficiently gratified out of the forfeited estates. Too many of the Roman-catholics might have been forced abroad ; and it was proper that a due balance should be preserved between the catholic and the protestant interests. It was therefore thought prudent to relax the reina of government, and not to IRELAND. '20S: put th* fbrfeltiires too rigorously into execution. Experience lias con* inari the wisdom of this sciieine of policy. Tlie lenity of the measures pgnued with regard to the catholics, and tlie great pains taken for the iutruction of their children, with the progress which knowlege and the gttihare made in Ireland, have greatly diminished the popish interest; ud the spirit of industry hoa enabled the Irish to know their own stWDgth and importance. But, though some laws and regulations had occasionally taken place faTorable to Ireland, it must be acknowleged that the people labored under considerable grievances, in consequence of some unjust restraints of the parliament of England respecting their trade. These restraints had injured Ireland, without benefiting Great-Britain. The Irish had been prohibited from manufacturing their own wool, in order to favor the wooHea manufacture of England : the consequence of which was, that the Irish wool was smuggled over into France, and the people of that oonntiy were thereby enabled to rival us in our woollen manufacture, aad to deprive us of a part of that trade. An embargo had also been laid on the exportation of provisions from Ireland, which had been extremely prejudicial to that kingdom. The distresses of the Irish manu- facturers, as well as those of Great-Britain, had likewise been much iocreated by the consequences of the American war. These circum- staoves occasioned great murmuring in Ireland, and attempts were made for the relief of the inhabitants of that Kmgdom in the British parliament, but for some time without success ; for a partiality to the trade of Eng'- land prevented justice from being done to Ireland. But several inci^* dents, which happened afterwards, at length o^ierated strongly in favor of that kingdom. When a large body of the king's troops had been withdrawn from Ireland, in order to be employed in the American war, a considerable number of Irish gentlemen, farmers, traders, and other penons, armed and formed themselves into volunteer companies for the' defence of Ireland against invasion. By degrees these associations became numerous and well-disciplined ; and it was soon discovered, that they were inclined to maintain their rights at home, as well as to resist foreign enemies. The Irish now began to assume a higher tone than that to which they had before been accustomed ; and their remonstrances met with unusual attention, both from their own parliament and from that of Great-Britain. The latter, in 1779, voted an address, recom* mending to the king's most serious consideration the distressed and impoverished state of the loyal and well-deserving people of Ireland, and desiring him to give orders for a communication of such particulars relative to the trade and manufactures of Great-Britain and Ireland, as might enable the national wisdom to pursue effectual measures for pro- moting the wealth, commerce, and interest, of his majesty's subjects in both kingdoms. "To this address the king returned a favorable answer ; and, in the same year, both houses of the Irish parliament also voted' addresses, in which they declared, that nothing but the gmnt of a free trade could save the kingdom from ruin. Being disposed to doubt the patriotism of the members, the people of Dublin, assembling before the parliament- house, endeavoured, by clamors and menaces, to compel all who entered to swear that they would 8U|)port the interest of their country by voting for a short money-bill ; and they demolished the house of the attorney-general. The tumult at length subsided : and two BMmey-biils for six months only were sent over to England, where they passed the great seal, and were immediately returned, without any di»> MtisfactioQ at the limited grant 296 IRELAND. In the mean time the memhcrs of the op|)08ition in the British pjr. liament strongly represented the necessity of an immediate attention to tiie complaints of the people of Ireland, and of a compliance with thju wishes. The arguments on tliis side of the question were also enforced by the accounts which stated, that the volunteer associations in that kingdom amounted to forty thousand men, unpaid, self-appointed, and independent, well armed and accoutred, daily improving in discipline, and increasing in number. The ministry appeared for some time to bj undetermined what part they should act in this important business ; but the remembrance of the fatal effects of rigorous meafiures respecting America, and the critical situation of Great-Britain, induced the first lord of the treasury to bring in such bills as were calculated to afford effectual commercial relief to the people of Ireland. The freedom of trade, thus conceded, gave great joy to the Irish, who were encouraged to aim also at important constitutional reformations; and, in various counties and cities, the right of the British parliament to make laws, which should bind Ireland, was denied in public resolutions, By degrees the spirit which had been manifested by the leaders of the Irish parliament seemed to subside ; and a remarkable instance of this Avas, their agreeing to a perpetual mutiny bill, for the regulation of the 1 Irish army, though that of England had always been passed, with a true constitutional caution, only from year to year. This was much exclaimed against by some of the Irish patriots; and it is indeed not easy to clear their parliament from the charge of inconsistency: but this bill was afterwards repealed. The reviving zeal of the leading members at length proved completely successful; and, in 1782, (he two houses were fully emancipated from the jurisdiction of the British parliament. In the following year, the government, nobility, and people of Ireland, vied with each other in giving an asylum to many families of the Gene- vese who were banished from their city, and to others who voluntarily exiled themselves for the cause of liberty, not willing to submit to an aristocracy of their own citizens, supported by the swords of France and Sardinia. A large tract of land in the county of Waterford was allotted for their reception, a town was marked out, and a sum of money granted for erecting the necessary buildings. These preparations for their accommodation were, however, rendered ultimately useless by some misunderstanding which arose between the parties. In 1788, the lords and commons of Ireland addressed the prince of Wales, requesting him to assume the government of that kingdom during his majesty's indisposition, under the style and title of Prince Regent of Ireland : and to exercise and administer, according to the laws and con- stitution of the realm, all the royal autliorities, jurisdictions, and preroga- tives. The lord-lieutenant having declined presenting the address, as contrary to his oath and the laws, the tno houses appointed delegates, who delivered it to his royal highness. His majesty having, to the great joy of his subjects, recovered from his severe indisposition, the prince returned an answer fraught with the warmest sentiments of regard for the kingdom, and of gratitude to the pariiameut for that offer which was thus happily rendered nugatory. The parliament of Ireland afterwards extended liberal indulgences to the Roman-catholics of that kingdom, by establishing the legality of intermarriage between them and the protestants, by admitting them to the profession of the law and the benefit of education, and by removing all obstructioas upon their industry ia trade and nauufac- IRELAND. 297 toiMi Md, in 1793, a bill passed the legislature, by which the cath- olici, being freeholders, were permitted to become parliamentary electors. I'hey were not fully satisfied with these concessions, but vtthed for a repeal of all remaining disqualifications ; and when, in the beginning of tlie year 1795, earl Fitzwilliam was appointed lord-lieu- tefinnt of Ireland, they considered the disputed points as conceded by th ■ ministry. But, when a bill had been introduced for their gratifica- tion, the great power and influence of the Bcresfords, a family distin- guished by inordinate ambition and rapacity, occasioned the recall of the popular viceroy, who was superseded by earl Camden. The whole lygtem of administration was now changed ; all ideas of concession on the part of the government were abandoned, and coercive measures alone employed to silence all complaints. Of this harsh and unyielding system, the factious and disaffected took advantage to promote their views, and increase the number of their adherents. About the beginning of the year 1791 , a society was instituted under tht appellation of United Irishmen, the ostensible principles of which > •ore irliamentary refurm, and what they chose to term catholic eman- cipuiion, or a restoration of the catholics to all the privileges of Irish subjects. This society is said to have owed its origin to Theobald Wolfe Tone ; and its constitution evinced much ability and political knowlege. The principal article of the confederation expressed, that " the society was constituted for the purpose of forwarding a brotherhood of affection, a community of rights, and an union of power, among Irishmen of every persuasion ; and thereby to obtain a complete reform in the legis- lature, founded on the principles of civil, political, and religious liberty." For several years, from the secrecy and circumspection with which its affairs were conducted, it attracted little of the attention of government. But the violence of party disputes which followed the recall of earl Fitz- william considerably increased the number of its adherents, and added to them several persons of abilities and influence ; particularly Arthur O'Connor, Dr. Mac-Neviu, counsellor Emmet, and Oliver Bond, an opulent citizen of Dublin. From the confession of these very persons, it appears that, when they joined this society, the views of its leader were BO longer confined to parliamentary or constitutional relief of any kind ; since, in 1795, through the medium of Mr. Tone, a regular communica- tion was opened between the French directory and the United Irishmen ; and, in the summer of 1796, lord Edward Fitzgerald proceeded to Switzerland, and had an interview near the French frontier with gene- ral Hoche, when it is believed the whole plan of an invasion was finally adjusted. An attempt to carry it into execution was made in the fol- lowing winter, when the French fleet took the opportunity, afforded by a thick fog, to elude the vigilance of admiral Colpoys, by whom it had been for several months blocked up in Brest, and set sail for Ireland. But the fleet was dispersed by violent storms : a part of it, however, con- sisting of eight two-deckers, and nine other vessels, anchored in Bantry bay. The violence of the weather preventing any attempt to effect a landing, they quitted the coast in despair. A considerable degree of alarm was excited in Ireland by the appearance of this armament ; but the people in general evinced the most determined loyalty, and mani- fested the greatest readiness to meet and resist the enemy, if a descent should be attempted. The failure of the expedition under Hoche did not, however, discou- rage the members of the Irish Union ; they, on the contrary, endea- voured more firjuly to cement their alliance with France, and eeta- 996 IRELAND* blisbed a fegdlar communication and correspondence with that coao' try. New arrangements were made for an invasion; and Dr. Mac- NeVin, about this time, transmitted to the French government a me. morial, in which he stated that 150,000 United Irishmen were enrolled and organised in the province of Ulster. During the summer of 1797 great preparations were therefore made for a second attempt, both at Brest and in the Texel; it having been determined that the Dutch should supply a fleet and land-force to co-operate in this design. But the plan was rendered abortive by the memorable victory of lord Duncan over the Dutch fleet. The most active and vigorous measures were now adopted by the government. A very considerable addition was made to the military force of the kingdom ; a bill was enacted prohibiting seditious meetings; the habeas corpus act was suspended ; whole counties were pro- claimed out of the king's peace, and seisures made of great quantities of concealed arms. In the enforcement of these measures, many acts of rigor, and even of cruelty, appear to have been committed by the agents of the government ; but it shoiUd be at the same time remem- bered, that numerous acts of atrocious barbarity were likewise committed by the rebels. These rigorous measures were likewise, in some degree, justified by a complete discovery of the traitorous designs and proceedings of the society. A person of the name of Reynolds, hoping to profit by a dis- closure of the conspiracy, communicated such information as led, in March 1 798, to the apprehension of many of the most active mal-con- tents.v New directors were immediately chosen, and anxious consulta- tions were holden by the alarmed conspirators. Finding that their renewed schemes were imparted to the viceroy by another informer, they resolved to hazard an insurrection, while they yet possessed the means of action. To checW their views upon the metropolis, the guards of the castle and of all the principal objects of attack were trebled, and the whole city in fact converted into a garrison. The infatuated multi- tude, however, implicitly obedient to arbitrary directions, rose in various parts of the country; and about 15,000 appeared, ill-armed indeed and wretchedly accoutred, in the neighbourhood of Wexford. They made themselves masters of that town, where they liberated from prison Mr. Beauchamp Bagenal Hervey, who was afterwards nominated to the chief command of their army. Under him they attacked the town of New-Ross, but were repulsed with great slaughter : they were likewise re- pelled in assaults upon other places. The royal forces, however, suffered a check on the 4th of June, when, the strong post of the rebels being attacked by colonel Walpole, he was unfortunately killed in the begin- ning of the action, and his corps, being in a situation in which it was unable to act, was forced to retire to Arklow. Encouraged by this suc- cess, the rebel army, on the 9th, presented itself before Arklow, where general Needham commanded a considerable body of the king's troops; but the position which he had taken, and the dispositions he made, were such that they were defeated with great loss. On the 21st of June, general Lake made his grind attack on the strong position of the rebels on Vinegar-hill near Enniscorthy, having gradually collected troops from every part till he had almost surrounded them. They fought with an appearance of spirit, but at length tied with precipitation, leaving a great number of killed and wounded. Immediately after this action, a large body of the king's forces advanced to Wexford, which general Moore entered so opportunely as to prevent the town from IRELAND. 399 beiiiglaid in asheit The insurgents, before thdy retired, offered to treat ; but geiHiral Lake refused to sign any terms with armied rebels, though to the deluded multitude he promised pardon, on condition of instant sub- miision. Hervey had quitted the army soon after the battle of New Ross ; but, being discovered and taken with some others in a care, he was tried by ft court-martial, and hanged on the bridge of Wexford. In the beginning of June alarming commotions likewise took place in the north of Ireland, and the insurrection soon became almost general iathe counties of Down and Antrim; but on the r2th the rebels rMcired a total defeat at Ballinahinch. They fought with great obstinacy ; and their leader Monro was made prisoner, to whom no mercy was 8bown. The British ministry, in the mean time, though not dissatisfied with the conduct of lord Camden, resolved to give Ireland a military lord- lieutenant ; and when the marquis Cornwallis had assumed the reina of government, his conduct was temperate and judicious. He sent a message to the house of commons, intimating that he had received his miyeaty's commandsto acquaint them, " that he had signified his gracious iutention of granting a general pardon for all offences committed on or before a ceitain day, upon such conditions, and with such exceptions, as might be compatible with the general safety : — but these offers of mercy to the repentant were not to preclude measures of vigor against the obstinate. ' A special commission was now opened in Dublin for the trial of the principal deUnquents, several of whom were punished with death. Among them Bond was tried, convicted, and condemned : but the court consented to pardon him, and to desist from any farther prosecution of the other leaders of the conspiracy, who on their parts engaged to make a full confession of all the proceedings and plans of the society ; after vhich they were permitted to transport themselves to any country not at war with his majesty. Bond survived his pardon only a few days : and O'Connor, Mac-Nevin, and the rest, after having been a considerable time confined in Ireland, were removed to prisons in Scotland; whence, after the conclusion of peace in 1802, they were permitted to transport themselves to France. After the failure of the expedition under Hoche, France, fortunately for Great-Britain, made no attempt to assist the Irish insurgents till it vu too late ; and the aid then sent was very feeble, and inadequate to the end proposed. Some frigates and transports from France appeared in Killala bay, and landed about a thousand men, with a quantity of arms and ammunition. Few insurgents joined the invaders ; but the French general Humbert, by his conduct, proved himself an officer of ability, and worthy of command Avhere there was a fairer prospect of success. He advanced without loss of time to Castlebar, where Lake was collecting his forces ; attacked, and compelled him to retreat ; after which he ad- vanced toward Tuam ; but, on the 7th of September, the marquis Corn- wallis came up with the French in the vicinity of Castlebar, when they retired ; and the next morning, after a slight resistance, they surrendered at discretion. The rebels who had joined them were dispersed, and a great number of them killed or taken. Every estimate of the number of those who lost their lives in this deplorable contest must be vague and uncertain. Some have stated it at thirty thousand, while others have swelled it to a hundred thousand— of whom they say, nine tenths were of the insurgents ; the loss of the royalists being about ten thousand men. ' It is sufficient to observe, that even the 300 IRELAND. former account appears to be an exaggeration. Slaughter and desolatloo at length procured a kind of peace ; but the great problem was to discover by what means the flames ot discord might be prevented from burstiDg out afresh. As the most effectual preventive of a repetition of these ca- lamities, government recommended a legislative union of the two king- doms. A proposition for such an union was submitted to the two parlia- ments on the same day (January 22, 1799) ; and, in the British legig. lature, the address, which was considered as an approbation of the measure, passed without a division. A similar address was carried in the Irish house of lords by a majority of 33, but rejected in the other house by a majority of two, which the next day increased to six against the measure : it was therefore laid aside for that time. Government, however, by no means totally abandoned it ; for, in the beginning of the next session, the proposition was again submitted to the parliament of Ireland. The address in the house of lords passed without a debate ; and, after an animated discussion in the lower hodse, which lasted till the noon of the following day, it was approved by a majority of forty-two. The act of union afterward passed through the two parliaments ; and the incorpo* ration took place at the commencement of the year 1801. At the first view, it seems difficult to discover how a legislative union could remove the cause of the civil commotions which distracted that unfortunate kingdom ; how it could lessen religious prejudices, or prevent, what it seemed rather calculated to increase, the expenditure of Irish property at a distance from the country whence it was derived. Yet it must not be denied that unity in government has many advantages, and is indeed essentially necessary; and that a firm consolidation of the three kingdoms, with an impartial a;.d equal distribution of protection and rights, fairly granted and faithfully maintained, must tend to infuse new life into every part of the united nation, while it adds to the pro- sperity, the wealth, and the power of the whole. For some years after the union, a spirit of disaffection continued to manifest itself among the lower orders in many parts of Ireland . The agents of the leaders in the last rebellion, renewed their attempts to ex- cite an insurrection similar to the former ; but, fearing that their designs were discovered, in consequence of the explosion of a quantity of gun- powder in a house which they had hired for a depot, they were induced to rise before their plans were matured. On the 23d of July, 1803, great number"* of persons of the lower classes suddenly flocked to Dublin from different parts of the country, and a riotous mob assembled with a view of surprising the castle. Meeting with lord Kilwarden, the chief justice of Ireland, who had conducted the prosecutions, after the last re- bellion, as attorney-general, they forced him and his nephew out of his carriage, and barbarously murdered them with their pikes. The delay which the perpetration of this atrocious act occasioned, afforded time for some troops to assemble, and the insurgents were attacked and dispersed. Many were apprehended and tried, and several suffered death, for this feeble and rash attempt at rebellion. Among those who were not spared was Emmet (son of the counsellor), the director and leader of tlie mis- guided rabble. Since that time, no open insurrections have occurred in Ireland ; but com- motions have occasionally arisen in different parts from the remaining dis- content of the inferior people, the pressure of indigence, and the strug- gles of religious faction. Many acts of violence have been perpetrated, and sometimes whole families have been murdered with the most brutal barbarity. Some are of opinion that these disorders cannot be fully 4i(»:-.Xj|**l!»^' i»^'^ ^l^u ^ ^^ p^^f" sa.< Wi } 9 r* rt tao-il y \5* /^ \ nA S^ J \a>Jf (<^ ,<- Vaucluse Avignon. naissin j Each department forms three, four, or five districts, called arroH- dissements. These are subdivided into cantons, which are composed of a certain number of communes. A commune is sometimes a single town, and sometimes an aggregate of several villages, possessing a mayor and municipality. All the considerable cities are divided into several communes. Face of the country.] France is in general a plain country; but its appearance is very various in different parts, and many districts are finely diversified with hills and dales. The departments of Upper Vienne and Correze, and others in the south, afford many rich and beautiful landscapes ; while those of the old provinces of Bretagne, An- jou, and Maine, present extensive wastes of heath, and have almost the apptarance of deserts. Mountains.] The chief mountains in France or its borders, are the Alps, which form its boundaries on the side of Italy ; the Pyrenees, which divide it from Spain ; the Vosges, which separate the department of that name from those of Upper Saone and Upper Rhine ; Mount Jura, which divides France from Switzerland ; and the Cevennes in the south, a chain which comprehends the highest mountains in France. Forests.] The chief forests are those of Orleans (containing 14,000 acres of wood of various kinds) and Fontainebleau ; and near Morchismoir is also a fine forest. Beside these, there are numbers of woods, some of which, though not called forests, are worthy of the name. Lakes.] Few lakes are found in this country. There is one at the top of a hill near Alegre, which is so deep that the vulgar report it to be bottomless, There is another at Issoire, in Puy de Dome : and one 304 FRANCE. at La Besse, into which if a stone is thrown, it causes a noise like thunder. Rivers.] The principal rivers in France are the Loire, the Rhone, the Garonne, and the Seine. The Loire takes its course north and north-west, being, with all its windings from its source to the sea, sup. posed to run about 500 miles. The Rhone iiows on the south-west to Lyons, and then runs to tlie south till it falls into the Mediterranean. The Garonne rises in the Pyreneau mountains, takes its course first north-east, and has a communication with the Mediterranean, by means of a canal : it afterward turns to the north-west, and proceeds to the Bay of Biscay. The Seine, rising in the Cote d'Or, runs to tlio north-west, visiting Troyes, Paris, and Rouen, in its way, and falls into the English Channel ' llavre-de-Grace. To these we may add the Saone, which falls into tli lone at Lyons ; the Charente, which rises in the department of the Lpper Vienne, and discharges itself into the Bay of Biscay at Rochefort ; the Rhine, which, having its source in Switzerland, is the eastern boundary between France and Germany, and receives the Moselle and the Saar in its progress ; the Sonime, which rises in the department of Aisne, and, passing by Peronne and Amiens, falls into the English Channel below Abbeville , the Var, which runs to the south- ward from the Alps, dividing France from Italy, and falling into the Mediterranean, west of Nice; and the ;:dour, which rises near the Pyrenees, and, running from east to west by Tarbes and Dax, flows into the Bay of Biscay below Bayonne. Canals.] The advantages which arise to France from those rivers, are greatly improved by the canals which form the chief glory of the leign of Louis XIV. That of Languedoc was one of his works: it was intended for a communication between the Ocean and the Mediterra- nean, for the more speedy passa;^e of the French fleet : but, though it was carried on at an immense expense for 100 miles, over hills and val- leys, and even through a mountain in one place, it has not answered that purpose. By the canal of Paris, travelers easily pass by water to St. Omer, Gravelines, Dunkirk, Ypres, and other places. The canal of Orleans is another noble work, and runs a course of eighteen leagues, to the great benefit of the public and the royal revenue. France abounds with other canals of the like kind, which render her inland navigation exceedingly commodious and beneficial. Mineral waters and ^ The waters of Barege, which lie ne. r REMARKABLE SPRINGS, j the borders of Spain, under the Pyrencan mountains, have been preferred to all others in France, for the reco- very of health ; but probably the cures said to have been performed by them may be more reasonably attributed to their accidental success with some great persons, and the salubrity of the air and soil, than to the virtues of the waters. The waters of Sultzbach, in the department of the Upper Rhine, are said to cure the paralysis, weak nerves, and the stone. At Bagneres, not far from Barege, are celebrated mineral waters and baths, to which people resort, as to the English baths, in the s])ring and autumn. Forges, in the department of the Lower Seine, is celebrated for its mineral waters ; and those of St. Amand cure the gravel and obstructions. It is unnecessary to enumerate all the other mineral wells in France, or all the remarkable springs ; but there is one near Aigne, in Puy de Dome, which boils violently, and makes a noise like water thrown upon lime ; it has little or no taste, but has a poisonous quality. Metals and minerals.] France has many unworked mines, which would be very productive, if proper attention should be paid to them : ■ FRANCE. 305 but at present they do not yield a sufficiency for consamption. Exer- tions, however, have been made to bring into use the mines of iron with which the northern departments abound ; and these and some other mines have been worked with success. The late province of Languedoc is said to contain veins of gold and silver. Alsace has mines of silver and copper. Alabaster, black mar- ble, jasper, coal, and jet, are found in various departments. Bretagne abounds with mines of iron, copper, tin, and lead. Saltpetre is made in every part of the kingdom. In Berri there is a mine of ochre, which serves for melting metals, and for dyeing, particularly the best drab cloth ; and in the province of Anjou are several quarries of fine white stone. Turquoises and other gems are found ; and great care is taken to keep the mines of marble and free-stone open all over the kingdom. Climate, SOIL, AND agricultcui:.] The air, particularly in the interior parts of the country, is in general mild and wholesome ; but some authors think that it is not so salubrious as is pretended, and that the French have been too successful in giving false prepossessions in fa- vor of their own country. It must, indeed, be owned, that their weather is more clear and settled than in England. In the northern provinces, however, the winters are more intensely cold, and the inhabitants not 80 well supplied with firing, which in France is chiefly of wood, though coal has been lately brought more into use than it ever was before our time. The soil is excellent, and produces corn, wine, oil, and almost every luxury of life. Some of the fruits have a higher flavor than those of England ; but the pasturage and tillage are not comparable to ours. Vegetables.] Oak, elm, ash, and other trees, common in Eng- land, are found in France ; which also abounds with esculent roots, all kinds of salads, and excellent fruits, particularly grapes, figs, prunes, chesnuts, apples in the northern provinces, and capers iu the southern. It produces hemp, flax, manna, saffron, tobacco, and many drugs. Silk is so abundantly produced, beside what is imported, as to afford a flourishing trade. The French wines are so well known that they need only to be mentioned. It is sufllicient to observe, that, though they differ very sensibly in their taste and properties, all of them are excel- lent, particularly those of Champagne, Burgundy, Bourdeaux, Pontac, Hermitage, and Frontiniac: and there are few constitutions, be they ever so valetudinary, to which some one or other sort is not adapted. We may add, that the French brandy is better than any other produc- tion of vinous spirit. Olive oil is made in large quantities, particularly in the provinces nearest to the Mediterranean ; but the consumption is so great that much is imported from Italy : the inferior sort supplies the sope manufactories of Marseilles. Languedoc produces the herb called kali, which, when burned, makes excellent barilla. The French were formerly famous for horticulture ; but they are at present inferior to the English in the management of their gardens. France contains few animals, either wild or tame, that are not to be found in England, except wolves and wild boars. The horses, black cattle, and sheep, are far inferior to the English ; nor is the wool of their sheep so fine : but the hair and skin of the chamois, or mountain-guat, are more valuable than those of the English goats. We know of no dif- ference between the marine productions of France and those of England, but that the former country is not so well served, even on the sea-coast, with salt-water fish. Natural curiosities.] The natural curiosities of France consist X I 306 FRANCE. chiefly in subterraneons caverns and remarkable springs. Near Salini, in the department of Jura, are several remarkable caves, the length of which, taken together, is about 400 feet, and the breadth GO. The de- scent is by 40 stone steps, and 20 of wood. At the bottom, by the aid of lighted torches, may be seen six springs of salt water, and two of fresh, gushing out and running with great rapidity. The streams are kept separate by proper trenches, which conduct them into other vaults, supported by large pillars ; wherein are placed reservoirs for the recep- tion of the salt water, which is afterwards conveyed to the top by proper engines: it is then put into pans, and great quantities of salt are extracted from it. At Baulme, in the department of Doubs, is a cavern above 300 feet under ground, full of icicles : and at the bottom is a little river, of which it has been frequently said that it flows in the winter, and is frozen in the summer : but this assertion is not true. In a calcareous hill near Arci, in the department of the Yonne, are some curious caves, one of which is divided into many chambers, containing great quantities of sta- lactites in the most fantastic forms. A remarkable spring is that of Vaucluse, which, instead of rising with gentle murmurs and with fluid transparency, is at once a turbulent and foaming stream, issuing under a rock, which is 300 feet high, and forcing its way down a deep descent among dark moss covered with blocks of stone. Aoiong the natural curiosities of this country may likewise be reckoned the plain of Crau, in Provence, which is perhaps the most singular stony desert in Europe. It is about five leagues in diameter, and contains be- tween '20 and 25 square letigues, or about 150,000 English miles. It is entirely composed of round gravel ; some of the stones are as large as the head of a man. Population.] The population of France, before the revolution, was estimated at about 26,000,000 ; and that number is supposed to have been nearly augmented to thirty millions. National character, manners, and customs.] The French, in their persons, are not so tall as their neighbours ; but they are well proportioned and active, and more free than most other r^ations from bodily deformities. The ladies are celebrated more for their sprightly wit than their personal charms : yet many have very pleasing features and interesting countenances. The female peasants, in general, are re- markably deficient in beauty, and are best described by being contrasted with women of the same rank in England," The upper classes accomplish themselves with the exercises of dancing, fencing, and riding, in the practice of which they excel all their neighbours in skill and gr.iceful- ness. They are fond of hunting ; and the gentry, before the revolution, had left off their heavy jack-boots, the huge war-saddle, and monstrous curb-bridle, in that exercise, and accommodated themselves to the Eng- lish manners. The genius and manncra of the French are well known, and have been the subject of many able pens. A national vanity is their predo- minant characteristic ; and they are perhaps the only people ever heard of, who have derived great utility from a national weakness. It supports them under misfortunes, and impels them to actions to which true courage incites other nations. This character is so conspicuous both in the higher and middling ranks, as to produce excellent officers ; and it also appears in the common soldiers of France, who, it must be confessed, in the late war against the allied powers, exhibited prodigies of valor. y The French affect freedom and wit ; but faehiusable dresses and di- FRANCE. SOT versions engross too much of their conversation. Their diversions are much the same with those of the English ; but their gallantry is of a different complexion. Their attention to the fair degenerates into gross foppery in the men, and in the ladies it is kept up by admitting indecent freedoms ; but the seeming levities of both sexes are not so frequently attended with criminality as persons unaccustomed to their manners would be induced to expect. Perhaps, indeed, there are more instances of a violation of the conjugal vow in France than in other countries ; but ap- pearances of grossnesa and of indelicate familiarity must not always be construed into guilt. That politeness which pervaded every class before the revolution, suf- fered a severe shock from the ebullition of those fierce and licentious passions which wore brought into action by the convulsions of the state. The ordinary manners assumed a strong tincture of rudeness, sometimes approaching to brutality ; and, though this coarseness subsided on the return of interior tranquillity, the former refinement has not yet been fully restored. Perhaps the resentment and ill-will with which the French were inspired against the English, for promoting every measure which led to their humiliation and disgrace, obstructed the display of that po- liteness which our countrymen were previously so ready to acknowlege. When this quality, however, flourished in full luxuriance, it was far from being indicative of cordiality or friendship, A Frenchman would lavish compliments, and repeat his offers of service^ without affixing any serious meaning to the terms which he employed. This practice seemed to have a good effect, in making persons pleased with theuii>c!v'es ; but no man of penetration could be duped by such insincerity. It in not unworthy of remark, that this external polish prevailed in France, more than in any other European country, above seven hundred and fifty yoara ago, when William the Norman sailed from its coast upon his expedition to our island. This polish, as we learn from experience, is not incompatible vvith the tnost unfeeUng barbarity. The massacre of St. Bartholomew will not be forgotten by the readers of history ; and the still more horrible enormities^ deliberately perpetrated, and coolly vindicated, in the progress of the re- volution, seem to indicate a callosity of disposition. This censure may appear harsh ; but there is apparently a strong foundation for it. Gaiety went hand in hand with cruelty : and he who had stained himself with the blood of his fellow-creatures, would repair from the scene of guilt to the theatre, and enjoy the prevailing mirth, as if he had felt no compunc- tion, or had been the most innocent of mankind. Another proof of the want of feeling may be drawn from that fondnesd for military glory which has for ages prevailed in France. Such a passion is necessarily inconsistent with humanity and with the refined feelings of the soul ; and the licentiousness of the warlike character has a tendency to subvert or impair domestic habits and private virtues. The idleness which it introduces also prompts to the practice of gaming, which is diffused by the force of example among other classes of the community, and is productive of serious mischief. This habit spreads even among the women ; and its effects are not altogether favorable to their chastity or their morals. In French society, the females make a more prominent figure than io other communities. Being remarkably free from difiidence or reserve, they take the lead in conversation, discuss every subject with an air of authority, and settle even the most important political questions with the same ease with which they expatiate upon points of dress and external decoration. They are more active and assiduous in the management of X 2 308 FRANCE. ordinary trade than their husbands, who, acquainted with the superior iniluence of the fair in recommending the produce of the shop, or in procuring a good price for an indifferent arti'-le, variously amuse them- selves in the mean time. The fashions of dress, in France, are extremely variable. The women have great taste in affairs of that kind ; but they do not always exercise it with effect, because a fondness for variety must sometimes militate against decorative elegance. In the earlier years of the revolution, the men affected to disregard dress, and seemed to be proud of that slovenly appearance which, in their opinion, suited republican plainness ; but their fondness for finery gradually resumed its sway, though the ridiculous and fantastic foppery of a petit-mattre of the old school is now rarely witnessed. Upon the whole, the French may be characterised as a gay, lively, volatile people, more influenced by sentiment and passion than by sedate judgement, impelled by the ideas of the moment without regard to the probable result of future reflexion, destitute of fixed principles of morality and virtue, floating between superstition and infidelity, and exhibiting, amidst the most temperate hubits in ordinary life, a. warmth and vehe- mence at which phlegmatic observers are surprised and disgusted. Chief TOWNS.] The French capital is iiiehJy worthy of particular notice. When Gaul was imder the Rommn irovernnient, Lutetia stood nearly on the same spot where Paris is now situated. The modern name was given to it by the Franks, because it was the chief town of the Parisii, a Gallic nation. It was the royal seat of Clovis; and, though it was not inhabited by Charlcnuigne, he attended to its aug.nentation and improvement, tt was nearly destroyed by the Normans; but it was quickly rebuilt, and it gradunUy acquired sufficient strength to withstand and baffle a long siege from those fierce invaders. In the Seine are two small islands, called St. Louis and Notre-Dame : on the former stood the ancient city. The present extent of Paris, along the river, is almost four miles and a half: its breadth is between three and four miles from the new southern wall to that of the north. Many of the streets are narrow, dark, and dirty ; and, even amidst the recent improvements, few of them have pavement for the accommodation of foot-passengers, who are there- fore exposed to the constant danger of personal injury from the negligence of unfeeling horsemen, and of the furious drivers of coaches and ca- briolets. The houses in general are built of stone, are very high, and have a distinct family on each floor. Instead of presenting a full front to the street, many of them exhibit only the side of a large wing ; and a massy gate opens into a spacious court, surrounded with buildings. In some' parts of the town, the shops attract by elegant fronts and a tasteful display of commodities : but, in most of the streets, they have a very unpromising appearance, far different from the inviting aspect of the shops in the British metropolis. The streets are generally crowded, particu- larly with coaches, so as to suggest ideas of wealth and grandeur; though, in reality, there is more show than substance. The glittering carriages that dazzle the eyes of strangers are mostly cnmmonjiacrcs, hired by the numerous foreigners who visit that city ; and, in truth, a great part of the trade of Paris arises from the constant succession of visitants who arrive daily from every r.aticm and quarter of the globe. For this attractive influence, the people are indebted to the reputation of their language, their public buildings, their libraries, and collections of paintings, that arc open to the pu!)lic ; the cheapness of provisions, the excellence of the wine, and the general purity of the air and climate of France. With all these advantages, Paris, in general, will not bear a comparisoa FRANCE. 309 with London, in the more essential circumstances of a thriving foreign and domestic trade, the cleanness of the streets, the neatness of the houses (especially within) or the plenty and goodness of water. In the houses the floors are frequently of brick, and have no otlier kind of clean- ing than that of being sprinkled with water, and swept once in a day. These floors, the stone stairs, the want of wainscoting in the rooms, and the thick party-walls of stiiiie, are, however, good preservatives against lire, which seldom does any damage in t lis city. Instead of wainscoting, the walls are covered with tapestry or il;. tnask. The beds in general are very good, and well ornamented with testers and curtains. Squares, which are the chief ornaments of cities, abound in Paris; above seventy are reckoned, many of which, however, have no attractions. The mof-t striking are tlio Royal Square or Place, those of Victory and Vendome, of Louis XV, iiiul (lio Dauphin. The bridges are not particu- larly remarkable for beauty or grandeur; but that of Neuilly, at some distance from the city, is one of the finest in Europe. The gates of St, Denys and St, Martin are elegant triumphal arches, which do honor to the age of Louis XIV., and some of the barriers, situated at tho avenues of the suburbs, arc handsome and stately. The public structures in Paris are numerous and magnificent. His majesty principally resides at the Tuileries, a palace which Catharine de Medicis left unfinisiied, and which was completed by Louis XIV. The front consists of four hntidHonie pavilions, beside a large one in the centre: these are connected by four ranges of building; but there is an obvious want of uniformity, as the live orders of architecture are incoherently mingled. The grand entrance to this edifice was adorned by Napoleou with a beautiful triumphal arch, which the king has suffered to remain, though the statue of the tyrant, which appeared in a car over the cen- tre, has been indignantly removed. The Luxembourg palace surpasses the Tuileries in magnificence, and the bold style of its architecture is accompanied with elegance and regularity. It is now the place of meet- ing for the peers, who represent the whole body of French nobility; wliile the commons meet in the hotel do Bourbon. The most ancient royal palace is the Louvre ; but the beautiful and splendid additions to it are not of an earlier date than the reign of Louis XIV, In this building is kept the royal museum, which, notwithstanding the removal of the rich spoils of Italy and Germany, still exhibits many admirable Morks of art. The Palais Royal, which passed from the crown to the Orleans family, is in the form of a parallelogram, consisting of the most elegant modern architecture. It was consigned by the late duke to the purposes of trade, amusement, pnd debauchery. Among the religious edifices, the cathedral (or church of Notre-Dame) is pre-eminently distinguished. It is referred by some antiquaries to tho eleventh century, by otliers to the twelfth. It is supported by 1 20 columns, which form a double colonnade, extending from one extremity of the fa- bric to the other. In the eastern front are three portals, profusely and curiously ornamented. Over this part are two towers, rather stately than elegant. Forty-five chapels are included in the spacious church : the choir, which has been modernised, is superl), and adorned with the attrac- tive beauties of painting and sculpture. The abbey-church of St, Ger- main des Pres exhibits the remains of ancient magnificence. That of St. Etienne du Mont, though irregularly built, is greatly admired. Some of the modern churches are constructed in a style of elegant simplicity. The Pantheon has the air of a pagan temple, rather than the appearance of a Christian church. It was principally intended for a receptacle 310 FRANCE. of the remaine of great men and estimable citizenfl : but the part which was designed for a church is not yet completed. During the republican government, many of the churches were used for profane or secular pur- poses : but some were restored by Napoleon to their former use, when he affected a zeal for religion, and others were re-opened on the return of the Bourbon family. There are many hospitals and charitable institutions at Paris ; and some of the suppressed monasteries are rendered subservient to these be- neficent pur{X)ses. The most ancient establishment for the cure or relief of disease, is the Hotel-Dieu, which, for a long period, was under the most negligent and improper management, but is now conducted with the most attentive care. A magnificent building is appropriated to the re- ception of infirm or disabled soldiers : it is called the Hotel of Invalids, or of Mars, and aSords excellent accommodation for itsnumerous inmates. In the hospital of Pity, 2000 children of soldiers, wlio have fallen in the cause of their country, are maintained and educated. The Foundling Hospital is under judicious regulations, and the facility of introducing an infant within its walls, without a disclosure of its mother's shame, may be mentioned as a contrast to the diificulty experienced in a similar institution near London. Some maybe of opinion that this facility tends to encourage vicious propensities ; but it certainly operates to the pre- vention of infanticide. The institutions for the blind, and for the deaf and dumb, ought not to pass without notice. These establishments are so ably managed, that the inmates are not only enabled to live in comfort, but are rendered useful to society by the various works and manufactures which they are taught to execute. With regard to tk»e j>opulation of Paris, we may observe, that it declined, as might have been ex|)ected, during the most turbulent period of the re- volution ; but it now ai)perir8 to be progressive. The natives, when they are questioned on this subject, exaggerate the amount; and some even swell it to 800,000 ; but it is supposed, by more accurate observers, not to exceed 7.'j0,000, with an in<"lusion of the environs. The palace o' Versailles, though magnificent, and adorned with all that art can furnish, is a collection of i)uildings, each of exquisite ar- chitecture, but iK)t forming a whole, agreeable to the grand and sublime of that art. The gardens, and water- works (which are supplied by means of prodigious engines, across the Seine at Marli), are astonishing proofs of the fertile genius of man, and highly worthy of a stranger's attention. Trianon, St. Germain en J.aye, Meudon, and other royal palaces, arc laid out with taste and judgement ; each has its peculiar beauties for the en- tertainment and amusemt'nt of the court, and the gratification of popular and foreign curiosity. St. Cloud, the favorite residence of Napoleon, was purchased by Louis XVf., who manifested his taste in the selection of this romantic spot. The building is handsome, the apartments arc elegantly decorated, and the gardens ace greatly admired. The chateau of Marli was destroyed amidst the revolutionary convulsions; but the park and gardens are still visited with pleasure. Lyons enjoyed the next rank to Paris in magnitude and population, before the order for its demolition was issued by the vindictive malignity of the convention. The order was only executed in part ; and, after the elevation of Bonaparte to the supreme power, the city again began, through his encouragement, (o flourish by the industry of its manufacturers, whose silken articles are still in high request. It is situated at the confluence of the Rhone and the Saone, both rivers flowing through the city, with well- })uilt houses of stone on each bank. It contains some handsome squares, FRANCE. 311 particularly La Belle Cour, two sides of which were erected by Bonaparte, who also built the best bridge which the town exhibits. The cathedral is a fine building in the Moresque style, and the archbishop's palace is stately, but not elegant. The population of tliis city is far short of what it was before the revolution ; but it is still supposed to amount to 95,000. Bourdeaux is not equal to Lyons as a manufacturing town ; but ita colonial and foreign commerce renders it more flourishing than that city. The interior parts of the town are not handsome or striking ; but some magnificent public buildings, and many elegant private houses, are seen indifferent parts. Among the former may be mentioned the cathedral, the palace built by Napoleon, the exchange, the old town-house, and the ducal palace, long occupied by the parliament. Beside the university, this city is honored with an academy of sciences, and one for the culti- vation of the polite arts. Marseilles is one of the finest citit's in France. The old town, indeed, is not distinguished by beauty of structure, though many parts appear to have some curious remains of Roman brick- work: but the new town compensates the deficiency of its neighbour. As its c-ommerce increases, so does ibers, and in a legislative body composed of a council of elders (two hundred and fifty members) and a council of five hundred. In 1799 this conslilulion was likewise overthrown, and a new form of government erected, con.sisting of a conservative senate of eighty members, a tribunate of one hundred, a legislative body of three hundred, and three consuls, nominated for ten years. In 1 S02, lionaparte was declared first consul for life ; and he pretended to act under the forms of this code, alter he liad assumed the title of emperor. On his abdi- cation, in 1814, the senate ordered a new constitution to be prepared, on the basis of a limited monarchy; but Louis XVllI., who would not suffer it to be imposed u])on him, made material alterations in it. It was decreed that a clianiber of peers shoiild be selected for life by the king, and an assembly slionid be chosen by tlie people, which should be renewed in five years ; that the two assemblies should never be prevented from having one session in a year ; and that no law should pass, nor any tax be imposed, without the assent of both ; but that the king alone should propose the subjects or points of legislation. ^^'ith a view of se- curing the maturity of wisdom, it was required that every deputy should have completed tlie fortieth year of his age ; and, to prevent the choice of indigent members, all candidates were expected to pay above forty pounds per annum in direct taxes. The elections, as settled by this code, were not so numerous or so free as the people wished ; iov only 262 deputies were to be chosen ; and political colleges, that is, bodies of men formed from the ma.ss of the freeholders by tlie crown, were authorised to conduct the procef.s. The ministers of state were declared to be re- sponsible for the advice which they should give to the king, or for acts of delinquency and criminality ; and, in case of that impeachment which tin- popular representatives might bring f>rward. they were to be tried by the peers. Tiie judges were to be a|>i\nuted !>y the crown, but not in- fluenced in any other respect. When Louis, in the following year, dissolved the chamber of deputies, who had acted under (lie sway of Nupoleon, he convoked another body, augmenting the number, and allowing eligibility at the age of twenty-five years. Other alterations were subsequently made ; but the choice of numbers still remained too much in the power of the court. Law s.] With respect to the judicial administration of the country, it is grounded on the Roman or civil law, and local customs. Each district has a primary judicial tribunal, and each department a criminal 9U FRANCE. judicature. To 6v«ry aggregate of three departments, a tribunal of ap. peal ia allowed, which takes cognisance of all the causes determined b; the tribunals of the districts under its jurisdiction. Each canton has a justice of the peace. All the courts of appeal acknowlcge a superior tribunal, called the court of cassation, possessing the power of annulling those sentences which appear to be illcgal,,and of referring the examina- tion of the cause to any other court. Revenue.] The revenue, in the year 1788, was 20 millions and a half sterling ; and the ordinary expenditure exceeded the revenue by five millions and a half. The extraordinary expenses of the war carried on by the republic were principally defrayed by the seisure of church lands, confiscations, requi- sitions and contributions imposed on the conquered countries. In 1799, the receipts were computed at 476,000,000 francs, or 19,833,300/. sterling, and the expenses at 726,000,000 francs, or 30,250,000/. sterling. This was an alarming deficiency; but, as the war was not then closed, it was not very diilicult to supply the demand, particularly as the practice of borrowing was also a part of the French system of finance. In 1816, the supplies requisite for the public service were estimated at 800 millions of francs, or 33,333,300/. sterling, including the interest due to the national creditors. In 1733, the public debt had declined to about 85 millions sterUng, from a much larger sum ; but, in 1784, it had so far increased as to demand 8,933,000/. for the mere interest. After the storms of the revolution, and the occasional dread of a national bankruptcy, or of the application of a sponge to the whole debt, it amounted, in 1814, (according to the baron liignon,) to 2919 millions of francs, or 121,625,000/. sterling. In 1820, the public expenditure ex- ceeded 21,300,000 pounds, and the interest of the debt was about nine millions and a half sterling. Army axd navy.] In the reign of Louis XIV. the magnitude of the army proved very oppressive to the people ; and, under his grandson, even the peace establishment was nearly augmented to 200,000 men. In 1792, before the war arose with Austria, the force was estimatod at 152,000. When hostilities became more general, it is supposed that France had, beyond and within her frontiers, at least 650,000 men in arms. When Louis XVIII. was placed on the throne by the allied princes, they insisted on a reduction of the army to a low standard ; yet, in 1821, it exceeded the amount of 140,500. Before the commencement of the seventeenth century, the French go- vernment had no standing navy, being in the habit of purchasing or hiring ships from the merchants. Louis XIII. was so far sensible of this deficiency and inconvenience, that lie created a small navy ; and his son paid great attention to that branch of national defence making gradual additions to his fleet, until it amounted to 100 sail of the line : but it was greatly diminished in the battle of La Hogue, and in other engage- ments with the English. In 1799, the republican navy consisted of 40 ships of the line and 50 frigates: but, in the war which then pre- vailed, it suffered severely from the superiority of the British marine. During the short peace which ensued, it had not time for revival ; and the imperial navy, under Bonaparte, received a dreadful shock in the battle of Trafalgar. Farther losses reduced it to so low an cbl), that, at the return of peace, it did not far exceed the amount of forty ships, frigates included. In 1820, it consisted of seventy-six vessels, in- cluding brigs ; and we do not believe that the amount is at present greater. Titles, &c.] The first national assembly after the revolution abo- FRANCE. 315 lighed all nobility, hereditary distinctions, difference of orders, titles, and prerogatives. Even tlie appellation of Monsieur was disused, and that of Citizen substituted for it. When Bonaparte, however, had assumed the sovereignty, the latter term was laid aside. He took the title of hit Imperial Majesty, and his brothers were styled their Imperial Highnesses. He appointed marshals of the empire, grand dignita- ries, an arch-elector, arch-chancellor, &c. He likewise instituted what was called a legion of honor, the commanders and members of which were nominated by himself. This was intended as an intro- duction to orders of uobility and hereditary distinctions, which he revived in the sequel. Under the French monarchy, various orders of knighthood were insti- tuted, some of which are now revived. One is the order of the Holy Ghost, which was established in 1579 by Henry III. A necessary pre- parative for this order is that of St. Michael. The badge is a golden cross, with the representation of a dove and of the arch-angel. Louis XIV. founded the knighthood of St. Louis for military merit; but, as he confined it to catholics, his successor gratified protestant officers with a similar decoration. The badge is a cross of eight points, with a sword on one side, and a chupiet of laurel on the reverse. Religion.] By the laws of the constitution framed by the first national assembly, no man was to be molested for his opinions, or inter- rupted in the exercise of his religion. The territorial possessions of the Galilean church were claimed as national property, and disposed of through the medium of paper currency for the creditors of the state ; and the clergy were made dependent on pensionary establishments, paid out of the national treasury. By a subsequent constitution, it was de- clared that there was no predominant religion in France, and that none sliould be patronised or paid by the state ; but that all sects and modes of worship should enjoy equal tolcrati(>n. But, when the administration was vested in Bonaparte, he concluded, in 1801, a concordat or conven- tion with the pope, by whicii the catholic faith was declared to be the religion of the great majority of the French citizens, and the government engaged to make a suitable provision for the bishops and ministers. The protestant religion was also tolerated, and the maintenance of the minis- ters, when necessary, provided for in like manner by the state. Before the revolution there were in France nineteen archbishoprics, and 118 bishoprics: by the concordat, only 10 archbishops and 50 bishops were allowed for the whole kingdom ; and, to the former, 15,000 francs were assigned as an annual income, while the latter were obliged to be content with 10,000. Louis XVIH., not fully approving this set- tlement, increased tho number of prelates, and made some additions to the clerical funds. Literature and the arts.] The French, like the other nations of Europe, were for many centuries inpmersed in barbarism. The first learning they began to acquire, was not of that kind which improves the understanding, corrects the taste, or regulates the affections. It consisted in a subtile and quibbling logic, which was more calculated to pervert than to improve the faculties. But the study of the Greek niul Ro- man writers, which first arose in Italy, diffused itself among the French, and gave a new turn to their literary jiursuits. This, with tlie encourage- ment Avhich the polite and learned Francis I . gave to all men of merit, was highly beneficial to French literature. During the reign of that prince, many natives of France greatly distinguished themselves by their wriviugs ; among whom were Buda^us, Clement Marot, Peter du Chtitel, 316 FRANCE. ♦• Rabelais, and Peter Ramus. The names of Henry and Robert Etiennj are also mentioned by every real scholar with respect. It was not, how- ever, till the seventeenth century, that the French began to write with elegance in their own language. The Acadcmie Fran^oise was formed for this purpose ; and though its labors, considered as a body, were not so successful as might have been expected, some particular academicians have done great service to letters. In fact, literary copartnerships arc seldom very successful. Of this we have a remarkable example in the present case. The academy published a dictionary for improving the French language, which was universally despised ; Fiiietieres, a single academician, published another, that met with universal approbation. Louis XIV. was the Augustus of France. The protection he gave to literature, and the pensions he bestowed on learned men, both at home and abroad, which, by calculation, did not amount to above 12,000/. per annum, gained him more glory than all the military enterprises upon which he expended so many millions. The learned men, who appeared in France diH-ing his reign, are too numerous to be readily mentioned. The tragic poets, Racine and Corneiile, deservedly obtained a very high reputation; the former was distinguished for skill in moving the passions; the second, for majesty; and both for the strength and justness of their painting, the elegance of their taste, and tbeirstrict adiierence to the rules of the drama. Moliere would have exhausted the subjects of comedy, were they not every where inexhaustible, and particularly in France, in ■works of satire and criticism, Boileau, who was a close imitator of the ancients, possessed uncommon merit. Bossuet, Bourdaloue, FiccMer, and Massillon, carried the eloquence of the pulpit to a height which our divines have been unable to reach. In the historical department, De Thou is entitled to the highest praise ; and who is ignorant of Pascal, or of the archbishop of Cambray ? Few men have done more service to re- ligion, either by their writings or their lives. As for Montesquieu, he is the legislator of nations : his works are read in every country and language ;and, wherever they are read, they enlighten and invigorate the human mind. In the belles-lettres, the lighter kind of poetry, lively essays, and miscellaneous works, no nation ever produced more agreeable writers; among whom we may place Montagne,d'Argens, Voltaire, and Rousseau, as the most considerable. In epistolary composition the French are also distinguished ; and, if any of our writers have attained the elegance of Madame de Sevigne, they have not acquired the graceful ease with which it is accompanied. Many French novels, and sentimental talcs, have excited attention and interest. Without referring to those of a distant period, we may observe, that the productions of Marmontel, Madame de Stael, and Mademoiselle Cottin, are lively and interesting. De-Lille is an ingenious and pleasing poet ; and the comic drama is indebted for some lively pieces to the talent of Beaumarchais. But neither in our own time, nor at any former period, has France produced an epic poem that can be compared with Paradise Lost, or a genius of the same exten- sive and universal kind with Shakspeare, equally fitted for the gay and the serious, the humorous and the sublime. Before the immortal Newton appeared in England, Des-Cartes was the greatest philosopher in modern times. He was the first who applied algebra to the solution of geometrical problems; which naturally prepared the way for the analytical discoveries of Newton. Many eminent mathe- maticians subf.equently flourished, particularly Clairault, Bezout, and d'Alembert; the last of whom, to the precision of a geometrician, united the talents of a fine writer. FRANCE. 317 ''^W Scientific men have been very numerous in France since the middle of the last century; and persons of this description, notwithstanding the volatility of the French character, have been remarkably assiduous, pa- tient, and persevering. Their discoveries in chemistry are particularly important ; and they have illustrated almost every branch of philosophy. ButTon would deserve to be reckoned among men of science, if he had not been still more remarkable for his eloquence than fur his philosophy. He is to be regarded as a philosophical painter of nature ; and, under this view, his Natural History is the first work of its kind. As painters, Poussin, Le Brnn, and above all, Le Sueur, did honour to the age of Louis XIV. Since their time the French have had none who can be compsired with them in the more noble kind of painting, unless we consider David as their rival. Sculpture is in general better understood in France than in most other countries of Europe. En- graving, an art allied to the former, has also been practised by the French witli a great degree of excellence. Yet such liberal patronage has been afforded to English artists, that they now surpass even their in- genious neighbours. The treatises of the French on ship-building stand unrivaled ; but in the practice of the art they arc outdone by the English. No genius has hitherto equaled Vauban in the theory or practice of fortification. The French were long our superiors in architecture ; but we now are their equals in this art. Universities, public colleges, and academies.] Before the revolution, there were in France twenty-eight universities or public col- leges, which were suspended during the progress of pretended political reform. Many of the number, after the storm had in some measure subsided, were re-organised as superior schools ; particularly those of Angers, Bourdeaux, Caen, Montpelier, Orleans, Ilhcims, &c. The uni- versity of Paris, which was founded in the reign of Louis VII., was sup- pressed in 1 792 ; but it has since been re-established, under the title of the Royal University of France, and invested with a controlling autho- rity over the task of education in all parts of the kingdom. It consists of four colleges, situated in different divisions of the city, respectively devoted to theology, law, medicine, and to literature and science. The royal college, erected by Francis I., still exists, furnishing many students with gratuitous instruction. The following literary establishments were sup])orted out of the na- tional treasury : the French Academy, those of the Belles-Lettres and the Sciences, the Royal Society of Medicine, King's Library, Observa- tory, and the Free School of Design. I'nder the republic, primary, cen- tral, and special schools were formed ; — a primary school for each can- ton ;• a central school for each department; ami special schools for the higher sciences, such as astronomy, and for those arts which require a particular education for the public service, such as medicine and surgery. In lieu of the three academies above-mentioned, the republican rulers of the state organised the National Institute; a society which Louid XVIII. thought proper to continue, because ho considered it as useful and honorable to the nation. Each member is entitled to a salary of 1500 francs; and ])rizes arc annually di8trii)uted among those proficients in science who make discoveries, those literati who produce any valuable work on a given subject, and those artists who exhibit excellent speci- mens of their genius and taste. To this institution, which is now deno- minated the Royal Academy, belong the most in(j;emouti<^.ud celebrated m 318 FRANCE. men in France ; and honorary membcre from Great-Britain, Germany, and other countries, are occasionally added to the illustrious assemblni^o. Lanouaoe.] The French language is chiefly composed of words ra- dically Latin, with many German derivatives introduced by the I'ranks. It is now rather on the decay; its corner-stones, fixed under Louis XIV,, are, as it were, loosened; and, in the present mode of writing and express- ing themselves, the French too often disregard that purity of expression which alone can render a language classical and permanent. The en- couragement given by that monarch to every proposal that tended to the refinement and perfection of the French language, was a prudent and politic scheme. He succeeded so far as to render it the most general of all the living tongues ; a circumstance that tended equally to his greatness and his glory ; for his court and nation thereby became the school of arts, sciences, and politeness. As to the properties of the language, they are greatly inferior to the English : but it is well adapted to subjects void of elevation or passion, to dalliance, compliments, and common conversation. The Lord's Prayer in French is as follows : — Notre Pcre, qui es aitx cieux, ton nom soit sanctifie ; ton regne vienne ; ta volontc soitfaite en la terre comme au del; clonne nous aujourd hui nufre pain qnoti' dien ; et pardonne nous nos offenses, comme moms pardonnons a ceitx qui nous ont offenses; et ne nous indui point en tetitatiou, mais nom delivre du mal : car (} toi est le regne, la puissan et la gloire,aux $iicles des sidcles. Amen. AN*riQuiTiES.] Few countries can boast of more valuable remains of antiquity than France. Some of the French antiquities belong to the time of the Celts ; and consequently, compared with them, those of Rome are modern. Father Mabillon has given us a most curious account of the sepulchres of the French king's, discovered so far back as Phara- mond; some of which, when broken open, were found to contain orna- ments and jewels of value. At Rheims, and in other parts of France, are to be seen triumphal arches ; but the most perfect and beautiful one is at Orange, erected on account of the victory obtained over the Cimbri and Teutones by Marius and Catulus. At the same town are the remains of a theatre ; but time has obliterated all its ornaments, though its great extent and dimensions may still be traced. When Gaul had been re- duced to a province, the Romans took delight in adorning it with mag- nificent edifices, botli civil and sacred, some of which are more entire than those of Italy itself. The ruins of an amphitheatre are to be found at Chalons, and likewise at Vienne. Nismes, more particularly, exhibits valuable remains of ancient architecture. The famous Pont du Gard was raised in the Augustan age, by the Roman colony of Nismes, to convey a stream between two mountains for the use of that city : it consi-sts of three bridges, or tiers of arches, one above another ; the height is 1 74 feet, and the length extends to 723, Many other ruins are found at Nismes. The chief are the temple of Diana, the amphitheatre (which is thought to be the finest and most entire of any in Europe), and the house erected by the emperor Hadrian, called the Maison Carree. The architecture and sculpture of this building are so beautiful, as to enchant even the most ignorant. " We do not (it is said) possess a more perfect monument of Roman grandeur, combined with exquisite taste. This remarkable tBdifice has six columns in front, and eleven on its sides. They are of * the Corinthian order ; the capitals are decorated with olive leaves, in which great beauty is displayed, as well as in the ornaments of the entablature. The profiles are perfect, and the cornice of the pedi- FRANCE. 319 ment forms a VPry rich frame. Tlie length of this edifice is seventy- two feet, the breadth thirty-six, and the height in proportion. The portico is ascended by twelve steps ; and the only entrance ia by a gate under the portico, the richness of which coincides with that which excites our admiration in tlie whole of the building." At Paris, in the Rue de la Harpe, may be seen the remains of the Thermae, supposed to have been built by Julian the Apostate, about tho yoar 356, upon the same model as the baths of Diocletian. The remains of tViis ancient edifice are many arclies, and within them a large saloon. It is fabricated of a kind of mastic, the composition of which is not now known, intermixed with small square pieces of free-stone and bricks. But the most extraor- dinary artificial curiosity is the subterraneous cavern at Paris* For the first building of that city, it was necessary to get the stone in the 'en- virons. As the town was enlarged, tho streets and suburbs extended to and were built on tho ancient quarries from which the stone had been taken; and hence proceed the caverns or frightful cavities which are found under the houses in several quarters of the city. Eight persons wme years since perished in one of them, a gulf 150 feet deep, which jiyduced tho police and government to cause a number of buildings to be propped up by pillars : but, as the lofty buildings, towers, and steeples, seem to tell the eye that what is s< 'n in the air is wanting under the feet, so it would not require a very violent shock to throw back the stones to the places from which tu. y were raised. At Aries in Provent * an obelisk of oriental granite, 52 feet high : tiic dianwterat the base i even feet ; and the whole is composed of only one stone. Roman tempi-s and aqueducts are freqiir-nt in France, The most remarkable are iu Burgundy and Guienne: t^e passage cut through the middle of a rock near Briany.n in Dauphine is supposed to be a Roman work, if iwt of greater antiquity. The round buckler of massy silver, taken on' of the Rhone in 1665, being twenty inches in diameter, and weighing twenty-one pounds, contain! ntj the story of Scipio's continence, is thought, but seemingly without sufiicK^nt authority, to be coeval with that great general. HiSTOttY.] The history of no c nintry is better authentkalid than that of France; and it is particularly interesting to an English rader. This country, which was by the Romans called Trans- Alpine Gaul, or Gaul beyond the Alps, to distinguish it from Cis-Alpine Gaul, on the Italian f''. ^f the Alps, was probably peopled from Italy. Like other European k-ai lories, it soon became a desirable object to the ambitious Romar;.- ; an*], after a brave resistance, was annexed to their empire, by the invj r>r [lAi: arms of Julius Ctesar, in the fifty-first year before the birth of Ci! I. Gaul continued in the possession of the Romans till the downfall of their empire in the fifth century ; when it became a prey to the Goths, the Burgundians, and the Franks, who subdued but did not extirpate the ancient natives. The Franks themselves, who gave it the name of France, or Frankenland, were a collection of several nations inhabiting Germany ; and particularly the Salii, who lived on the banks of the river Saal, and wlio cultivated the principles of jurisprudence better than their neighbours. The Salii had a rule, which was subse- quently applied by the Franks to the succession of the throne, excloding all females from the inheritance of sovereignty : it is well known by the name of the Salic Law. Tho Franks and Burgundians, after estab ishing their power, and reducing the natives to a state of slavery, distributed the lands among their principal leaders; and succsediug king^ found it necessary to contirm IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-S) 1.0 I.I ^128 Hi 2.5 1.8 1-25 1.4 III 1.6 ^ 6" ► V] <^ / '/ •^ Photographic Sciences Corporation 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. 14580 (716) 873-4503 320 FRANCE. their privileged, allowing them to exercise Bovereign authority in their respective governments, until they at length assumed independence, ooly acknowleging the king as their head. This gave rise to the numeroui principalities which formerly existed in France, and to the several par- liaments ; for every province became, in its policy and government, an epitome of the whole kingdom : and no laws were made, or taxes raised without the concurrence of the grand council, consisting of the clergy and nobility. Thus, as in other European nations, aftc he dissolution of the Roman empire, the &rst government in France is to have been a mixed monarchy, the royal power being extremely circumscribed and limited by the feudal barons. Among the Franks, the first Christian monarch was Clovis, who began his reign in 481, and was baptised, and introduced Christianity, in 496. His mind had been affected by the pathetic account which he received from missionaries of the death of Christ; and, insensible of the beneficial consequences of the mysteriors sacrifice, he exclaimed, with religious fervor, " Had I been present with my valiant Franks, I would have revenged his injuries !" But, though he publicly professed to ac- knowlege the truth of the Gospel, iU divine precepts were little respected either by him or his subjects. From this period the French history is well known, and is frequently important ; and we find the nation generally engaged in domestic broils or foreign wars. Some of its princes, in the eighth century, found cruel enemies in the Saracens, who over-ran Italy and Spain, and retaliated the barbarities of the Goths and Vandals upon their posterity. In 800, Charlemagne, king of France, the glory of those dark ages, became mas- ter of Germany, Spain, and part of Italy, and was crowned king of the Romans by the pope. He divided his empire, by will, amon;*' his sons ;— a measure which proved injurious to the power and prosperity of his fa- mily. Soon after this, the Normans, a fierce warlike people from Scan- dinavia, ravaged the kingdom of France ; and, about tiie year 900, obliged the French to yield Normandy and Bretagne to Rollo, their leader, who married the king's daughter, and was persuaded to profess himself a Christian. This laid the foundation of the Norman power in France, which afterwards gave a king to England, in the person of William duke of Normandy. The success of that prince over Harold proved unfortunate to France, as it engaged the nation in almost perpe- tual wars with England, for which it was not an equal match, notwith- standing its numbers, and the assistance it received from Scotland. T!ie rage of crusading, which broke out at this time, was of infinite service to the French crowq, in two respects : in the first place, it car- ried off many thousands of its turbulent subjects, and their leaders, who were almost independent of the king ; in the next, the king suc- ceeded to the estates of many of the nobility, who died abroad without heirs. Passing over the dark ages of the crusades, the expedition to the Holy Land, and wars with England, we shall proceed to that period when the French began to extend their influence over Europe, in the reign of Francis I. This prince, though he was brave to excess in his own person, and had defeated the Swiss, who till then were deemed in- vincible, was an unfortunate warrior. He had great abilities and great defects. He was a candidate for the imperial throne of Germany, but was disappointed in his hope<* by the rivalry of Charles V. of Austria. Jn 1620, Frai^cia having invited Henry VIII. of England to an inter- FRANCE. 321 '*''"nty in their Pendence, on|, *'>e numereu, >« several par. «vernment, an r taxes raised, w the clergy o^the Roman jeen a mixed P and limited ^lovis, who ^Christianity, 'nt which he insible of the •aimed, with "ks, I would ressed to ac. t'e respected '8 frequently mestic broils found cruel 'd retaliated y- In 800, ecame ma^ •^'ogofthe his sons , •— -y of his fa- tVom Scan- year 900, lollo, their I to profess man power s person of I'er Harold ost perpe- f notwith- land. >f infinite B, it car- leaders, king sue- 1 without n to the It period , in the w in his med in- id great ny, but Austria. > inter* riew the two kings met in an open plain, near Calais ; where they and their attendants displayed their magnificence, with such emulation and profuse expense, as gave it the name of the Field of the Cloth of Gold, Feats of chivalry, and entertainments of gallantry, with such exercises and pastimes as were in that age reckoned manly or elegant, rather than eerious business, occupied both courts during eighteen days. Francis jnade some successful expeditions against Spain, but suffered his mother, of whom he was very fond, to abuse his power; by which he disobliged the constable of Bourbon, the greatest of his subjects, who joined in a confederacy against him with the emperor and Henry VIII. In his adventurous expedition into Italy, he was made prisoner at the battle ofPavia, in 1625, and obliged to agree to dishonorable terms (which he oerer meant to peribrm) to regain his liberty. His non-performance of thwe conditions occasioned another war between him and the em- peror; and the rivalry of these princes tended to cherish the warlike spirit of the age, but not without the infliction of serious mischief upon society. Notwithstanding his misfortunes and the turmoils of his reign, France was, at the time of his death, in a flourishing condition. la 1547, he was succeeded by his son Henry II., who, upon the whole, vas an excellent and fortunate prince. This monarch continued the war with the emperor of Germany to great advantage for his own domi- nions; and he was so well served by the duke of Guise, that, though he lost the battle of St. Quentin against the Spaniards and the English, he retook Calais from the latter, who have never since possessed any part of France. He married his son the dauphin to Mary of Scotland, in the hope of uniting that kingdom to his crown ; but in this respect he was unsuccessful. He was unintentionally killed, in 1559, at a tilting- matcb, by the count of Montgomery. He was succeeded by his son, Francis II., a weak, sickly, inactive prince, whose power was engrossed by a prince of the house of Guise, uncle to the beautiful queen of Scotland. This arbitrary assumption of poner so disgusted Antony, king of Navarre, the head of the Bourbon family, that he joined some of the most powerful nobles of the realm in a strong opposition to the court ; but. the queen-mother (the famous Catha- rine of Medici) being obliged to take part with the Guises, the confe- deracy, which had adopted the protestant cause, was nearly dissolved, when the sudden death of Francis happened, in 1560, at the age of sixteen years. This event took place while the prince of Conde, brother to the king of Navarre, was under sentence of death for a conspiracy against the court ; but the queen-mother saved him, to balance the interest of the Guises; so that the sole direction of affairs fell into her hands, during the minority of her son Charles IX. Her regency was a series of dis- simulation, treachery, and murder. The duke of Guise, who was the scourge of the protestants, was assassinated by one Poltrot, at the siege of Orleans ; and the murderer was unjustly tliought to have been insti- gated by Coligni, admiral of France, who was then at the head of the protestant party. Three civil wars succeeded. At length the court pretended to grant the Huguenots a very advantageous peace ; and a match was concluded between Henry, the young king of Navarre, a protestant, and the French king's sister. The protestant leaders were invited to celebrate the nuptials at Paris, with the infernal view of mur- dering them all, if ])0S8ible, in one night. The project proved loo suc- cessful, though it was not completely executed, on St. Bartholomew's Y 322 FRANCE. day, 1572. The king himself assisted in the massacte, in which Co. ligni fell. The signal of slaughter was to be made by striking the great bell of the palace. At that dreadful knell, the work of death began, and humanity recoils from the horrors of the fatal night of St. Bartholomew- yet the reader may expect, amidst the general carnage, that some few moments should be devoted to the fate of Coligni. He had long retired to rest, when he was aroused by the noise of the assassins, who had gnr. rounded his house. A German, named Besme, entered his chamber' and the admiral, suspecting his intentions, prepared to meet death with that fortitude which had ever distinguished him. Incapable of reaijt. ance, from t'ae wounds he had received in a late attempt to assassinate him, he had scarcely, with an undismayed countenance, uttered theie Avords, " Young man, respect these grey hairs, nor stain them with blood," when Besme plunged his sword into his bosom, and, with his barbaroui associates, threw the body into the court. The young duke of Guige contemplated it in silence ; but Henry, count d'Angouleme, natural bro- ther to Charles, spumed it with his foot, exclaiming, " Courage, my friends ! we have begun well ; let us finish in the same manner." It is said about 30,000 protestauts were then murdered at Paris, and in other parts of France ; and this brought on a fourth civil war. Though a frejh peace was concluded in 1573 with the protestants, yet another war broke out in the next year, when the blood-stained Charles died without heirs. His third brother, the duke of Anjou, had some time before been cho- sen king of Poland. From that country he with some difficulty escaped to France, where he took quiet possession of the throne, by the name o{ Henry HI. Religion at that time supplied to the reformed nobles of France the feudal powers which they had lost. The heads of the protestants could raise armies of Huguenots. The governors of provinces behaved in them as if they had been independent ; and the parties were so equally balanced, that the name of the king alone turned the scale. A holy league was formed for the defence of the catholic religion, at the head of which was the duke of Guise. The protestants, under the prince of Cond^ and the duke of Alcn9on, called the German princes to their as- sistance ; and a sixth civil war broke out in 1^7, in which the king of Spain took the part of the league, chiefly because the duke of Alcn(;:on had declared himself lord of the Netherlands. The war was finished within the year, by another pretended peace. The king, from his accession, had plunged himself into a course of in- famous debauchery and religious extravagance. He was entirely govern- ed by his profligate favorites ; but he possessed natural good sense. He began to suspect that the proscriptions of the protestants, and the exclu- sion of the king of Navarre from the succession, on account of his reli- gion, were connected with an intention of placing the duke of Guise, the idol of the catholics, on the throne, to which he had some distant pre- tensions. Amidst this collision of interests, intestine broils were renewed in 1579 ; and the flame again burst forth in 1585, to the disadvantage of the protestants, through the abilities of the duke of Guise. The king thought him now so dangerous, that, when he and his brother had been invited to court, in 1588, they were by his majesty's orders, and almost under his eyes, basely assassinated. The leaguers, upon this, declared that Henry had forfeited his crown, and was an enemy to re- ligion. This obliged him to throw himself into the arms of the pro- testants ; but, while he was besieging Paris, where the leaguers had their greatest force, he was in his turn assasaioated by one Clement, » fhance. 323 enthusia6ti nasteries, and ten thousand houses, were destroyed during their con- tinuance. That dreadful havock and enorm us outrages were perpe. trated, we have no reason to doubt ; hut these calculations are gene- rally the offspring of mere conjecture, teeming with exaggeration and excess. Richelieu, by a masterly train of politics, though he was bigoted to popery, supported the protestants of Germany, and Gustavus Adolphus against the house of Austria. After quelling the rebellions and con- spiracies which had been formed against him in France, he died some months before Louis, who, in 1643, left his son to inherit his throne. During the minority of Louis XIV. the kingdom was convulsed under the administration of his mother, Anne of Austria, by the factions of the great, and the divisions between the court and parliament, for the most trifling causes, and upon the most despicable principles. The prince of Conde flamed like a blazing star ; sometimes a patriot, sometimeg a courtier, and at other times a rebel. He was opposed by the celebrated Turenne, who from a protestant had become a papist. But the qneen- mother having made choice of cardinal Mazarin for her first minister, he found means to turn the arms even of Cromwell against tbe Spaniards, and to divide the domestic enemies of the court so effectually among themselves, that, when Louis assumed the government, he found himself the must ab- solute monarch that had ever filled the throne of France. He had the good fortune, on the death of Mazarin, to put the internal administration into the hands of Colbert, who formed new systems for the commerce and ma- nufactures of France, in which he was exceedingly successful. To write the history of this reign, would be to write that of all Europe. Ignorance and ambition were the only enemies of Louis : through the former, he was blind to every patriotic duty of a king, and promoted the interests of his subjects only that they might the better answer the pur- poses of his greatness : by the latter he embroiled himself with all his neighbours, and wantonly rendered Germany a dismal scene of devasta- tion. By his impolhic and unjust revocation of the edict of Nantes in 1685, and his persecutions of the protestants, he obliged them to take shelter in England, Holland, and Germany, where they established the silk manufacture, to the great prejudice of their own country. He was so blinded by flattery, that he arrogated to himself the divine honors paid to the pagan emperors of Rome. He made and broke treaties for his own convenience, and at last raised against himself a confederacy of almost all the other princes of Europe. He was so well served, that he fur some years firmly withstood this alliance ; but, when he had provoked the English bj his infidelities, the success of their arms under the duke of Marlborough, and of the Austrians under the prince Eugene, rendered the latter part of his life as miserable as the beginning of it had been splendid. His reign, from the year 1702 to 1712, was a series of defeats and calamities: but, when he was reduced, in his declining years, to the desperate reso- lution of collecting his people, and dying at their head, he was saved, in 1713, by the imbecility of the English Tory ministry. He died on the 1st of September, 1715. The partiality of Louis to his natural children might have involved France in a civil Avar, had not the regency been assumed by the duke of Orleans. After this prince had governed with ability about eight yeiirs as regent, and the duke of Bourbon fur three years as prime minister, the young king nominated his preceptor, al'terwards cardinal Fleury, to be the FRANCE. 325 chief director of the national concerns. Though the system of thig igioitter was entirely pacific, yet the situation of affairs in Europe, on the deithof the king of Poland in 1734, embroiled France with the house of Austria. The intention of Louis was to replace his father-in-law, Stanislaus, on the throne of Poland. In this he failed, through the in- terposition uf the Russians and Austriacs ; but Stanislaus enjoyed the title of king, and the revenues of Lorrain, during the remainder of his life. The connexion between France and Spain forced the former, in the lequel, to take a principal share in that war against Great-Britain, which was terminated by the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1748. While the debauched and dissolute king was in the enjoyment of peice, which was only disturbed by his disputes with the different par- liaments of the realm, his life was threatened by the fury of a fanatic mal- content, who wounded him with a pen-knife, as he was preparing to enter his coach. The daring assassin had mingled with the crowd of courtiers, liut was instantly betrayed by his distracted countenance. He declared that it was not his intention to kill the king ; but that he only meant to wound him, that God might touch his heart, and incline him to restore the tranquillity of his dominions by re-establishing the parliament of Paris. In this declaration he persisted, amidst exquisite tortures ; and hit judges, tired out with his obstinacy, consigned him to a death, the in- humanity of which was increased by the evident madness that stimulated hiffl to the desperate attempt, and which might fill the hearts of savages witii horror ; he was conducted to the common place of execution, amidst a rut concourse of the populace; stripped, and fastened to the scaffold by iron gyves. His right hand was bu;ned in liquid flaming sulphur; hu thighs, legs, and arms, were torn with red-hot pincers ; boiling oil, melted lead, resin, and sulphur, were poured into the wounds ; and, to complete the horrid catastrophe, he was torn to pieces by horses. The Jesuits, having rendered themselves universally odious by their share in the conspiracy against the king of Portugal, fell in France under the lash of the civil power, for some fraudulent mercantile transactions. They refused to discharge the debts of one of their body, who had become bankrupt for a large sum, and who was supposed to act for the benefit of the whole society. The parliaments eagerly seised an opportunity of humbling their spiritual enemies. The Jesuits, in various provinces, were cited before those high tribunals in 1761, and ordered to do justice to their creditors. They seemed to acquiesce in the decision, but delayed payment under various pretences. New suits were commenced against tbam in 1762, on account of the pernicious tendency of their writings. In the course of these proceedings, which the king endeavoured in vain to prevent, they were compelled to produce their Institute, or the rules of their order, hitherto studiously concealed. That mysterious volume, which vas found to contain maxims subversive of all civil government, and even of the fundamental principles of morals, completed their ruin. All their colleges were seised, all their effects confiscated ; and the king, ashamed or afraid to protect them, not only resigned them to their fate, but banish- ed them, and abolished their order in France. Elate with this victory over ecclesiastical tyranny, the French parlia- ments attempted to set bounds to the absolute power of the crown, and seemed determined to confine it within the limits of law. Not satisfied with refusing, as usual, to register certain oppressive edicts, or with re- monstrating against them, they ordered criminal prosecutions to be com- menced against the governors of several provinces, acting in tlie king's name, who had enforced the registration of tho9Q edicts. The magna- 326 FRANCE. pimity of these awembUes had awakened new idea$ in thebosomiof tb; French; they were tc^Ught by the late remonstrances to consider their in. herent rights ; and this flame, in the succeeding reign, burst forth wltli accumulated force. As to the war with Great-Britain, which was ended by the peace of Fontainebleau in 1763, its chief incidents, so hunliliating to France liave been already mentioned in the history of England, and therefore need not be recapitulated here. Corsica, a small island in the Mediterranean, had long resisted with manly firmness the tyranny of the Genoese, who claimed the sovereignty over it by right of conquest. Unable to support those pretensions, Genoa transferred them to France, on condition that Louis should put hej in full possession of the adjacent island of Capraia, which the Corsicani had lately invaded and reduced. The king, to secure the prize at which he ainied, sent a considerable army to Corsica, while the natives, whose free sufifrages had summoned Paoli, one of their chiefs, to the supreme government of the island, w<:re intent upon a spirited defence. A brisk war was now carried on in the mountainous parts of the island ; and it was not till after the French had severely experienced, in two cumpaigns, the enthusiastic courage which animates the champions of freedooi, that they overwhelmed, by their superior numbers, this unfortunate people ; nor had Louis much reason to triumph in the acquisition of a rugged and unproductive island, which he h^d purchased with the lives of several thousands of his bravest troops. Louis XVL, who had already married the daughter of Maria Theresa, succeeded his grandfather in 1774. He reinstated the different parlia- ments which the late king had suppressed, and testified, in other re- spects, a regard for the wishes and interests of his people. Findiog the finances deranged, he gave the direction of that department to M, Necker, a Swiss protestant, and a friend of liberty. If this minister had swayed the cabinet with regard to foreign politics, the court, in all probability, would not have interfered in the contv.iit between Great- Britain and her American colonies. Louis, who was a man of hoooi and moderation, was not inclined to violate the treaty of peace ; but the prime minister Maurepas, and the queen's party, would not suffer such {^p opportunity of injuring a rival nation to elude their grasp. As we have already recorded the chief incidents of the war which then arose, we shall merely observe, in this place, that, when the independence of the American states had been acknowleged, the success of their struggle for freedom invigorated that desire of shaking o£f the yoke of despotism, which the French had lately imbibed under the auspices of the parlia- 'nentary leaders. For some years, the growing spirit served only to enliven conversation : but, when the finances were involved in great dis- order by the heavy charges of the war and the extravagance of the court, the politicians assumed a higher tone, and ventured to propose a reform of the administration. M. de Calonne, the new financial minister, be- ing unable to remedy the disorder, advised the king to call an assembly of notables, or respectable and distinguished persons, for the purpose of deliberation. When this meeting took place in 1787, the minister re- commended a territorial impost, in the nature of the English land-tax, . from which no rank or order of men should be exempted, and an in- quiry into the possessions of the ecclesiastics. The various branches of internal taxation were also to undergo a strict examination ; and a con- siderable resource was presented in mortgaging the demesne lands of the crown. FRANCE. 327 ^sonMof the sider their in. St forth will the peace of 'g to France, «nd thereW le the ice resisted with " sovereigoty pretensions, houldputiij, ■"« Coisican, Tize at which atives, whoM supreme Abrijl ; and it 10 campaign,^ oi freedom, unfortunate icquisition of *d with tlie aria Theresa, erent parlia- in other re. Finding the tment to M, minister had court, in all *'een Great- an of honor ice ; but the t suflPer such isp- As we I then arose, pendence of >eir struggle t" despotism, the pariia- 'ed only to n great dis- f the court, 8e a reform inister, be- 1 assembly purpose of linister re- land-tax, nd an in- ranches of nd a con- lands of The grand and euential object of reform was to equalise the public burthens, and, by rendering the taxes general, to diminish the load of the lower and most useful classes of the people. The ancient nobility and the clergy had ever been free from all public assessments ; the crowds of new noblesse, who had purchased their patents, were by that shame- ful custom exempted from contributing proportionally to the expenses of the state: the magistrates likewise throughout the kingdom enjoyed their share of exemptions : so that the weight of the taxes fell almost en- tirely on those who were least able to bear them. Thus the nobility, clergy, and magistracy, were united against the minister ; and their in- trigues raised against him so loud a clamor, that, finding it impossible to stem the torrent, he not only resigned his post, but retired to England from the storm of persecution. The notables proceeded in their inquiries ; and it was now suggested that an assembly of the states should be called, which had not met since the year 1614. This proposal was far from being agreeable to the court; and, as the notables, refused to give their sanction to any new taxes, they were dismissed by the king, who, having ordained some stamp-duties, dtsired the parliament of Paris to register the edict. When the magi- strates protested against it, he banished them to Troyes ; for even this mild prince could not consent to surrender, without a struggle, that au- thority which had been so long exercised by his predecessors. He im- prisoned several members for having spoken freely at a royal session, and made such arrangementH as diminished the dignity and authority of the parliamentary bodies. Tliese and other arbitrary proceedings excitc4 strong and general disgust. No alternative remained now to Louis, but to plunge his country into all the calamities of civil war, or to comply with the wishes of his people, and re-establish the states-general. In the first case, he must have eipected to encounter the majority of the people, animated by the ex- hortations and examples of their magistrates : the peers of the realm had expressed the strongest disapprobation of his measures, nor could he depend upon the support even of the princes of his blood ; but what afforded most serious matter of alarm was the spirit lately displayed among the soldiery, who, during some disturbances in the provinces, had reluctantly been brought to draw their swords against their countrymen ; and many of those officers, who had recently served in America, publicly proclaimed their abhorrence of despotism. It was under these impressions, that an arret was published, which fixed the meeting of the states-general at Versailles, for the 1st of May, 1789. At the same time every step was taken to secure the favorable opinion of the public. New arrangements took place in the admi- nistration ; and Necker, whom the confidence of the people had long followed, was again introduced into the management of the finances ; the torture, which by a former edict had been restricted in part, was entirely abolished ; every person accused was allowed to enjoy the a&- sistance of counsel, and permitted to avail himself of any point of law; and it was decreed, that, in future, sentence of death should not be passed on any person, unless he should be pronounced guilty by a m^o- rity of three judges. The eyes of all Europe were now turned on the states-general. But the minds of the French had long been agitated by various rumors ; the unanimity that had been expected was extinguished by the jarring pretensions of each order of the states ; and their mutual jealousies ven attributed by the suspicions of the people to the intrigues of thga 328 FRANCE. courtiers, who were supposed already to repent of the hasty assent that had been extorted. A dearth that pervaded the kingdom increased the general gloutn and discontent ; and the people seemed ripe for revolt. The sovereign also, equally impatient of the obstacles which he encouai tered, could not conceal his chagrin ; the influence of the queen in the cabinet was again established, and was attended by the removal of Necker. This step, which evinced a total change of resolutions, and which, from the popularity of the minister, was likely to produce a vio- lent fermentation, was followed by some movements which seemed to indicate violent intentions. The states-general were surrounded by detachments of the guards, who waited only the orders of the court to proceed to extremities against the obnoxious representatives of the nation. Had these manifestations of vigor been sustained by instantly attacking and entering Paris, it is not ^ be doubted that the capital would have been without difficulty reduced to obedience. But the delay which sue- ceeded gave the inhabitants time to recover from their first emotions of surprise and apprehension. They saw the timidity and imbecility of the government, which, having sounded the charge, dared not advance to the attack. They profited by this want of exertion, and took up armg against their rulers. Joined by the French guards, who, from a long re- sidence in the capital, had been peculiarly exposed to seduction, and who at this decisive moment abandoned their sovereign, the Parisians broke through every obstacle by which they nad hitherto been restrained. 'Ilie supplies of Arms and ammunition which had been provided for their sub- jugation, were turned against the crown ; and the Hdtcl des Invalides, the great repository of military stores, surrendered, after a faint resistance. The Bastille was the next object of attack; and that awful rngineof despotism, of which the name alone di£fused terror, was entered (on the 14th of July) by the victorious assailants, who put the governor to death, on pretence of his having fired upon the people, after he had displayed a flag of truce. Very few prisoners were found in the fortress; but, to prevent it from being again used for the purpose of confinement, and to intimate an abhorrence of the cruelties which had been |>»i- petrated in former reigns within its walls, it was eagerly and totally demolished. With the Bastille expired that despotism which long prescription and military strength seemed to have rendered sacred and unassailable. The king was confounded at the shock ; he dismissed the troops which he had collected, and declared his readiness to concur with the national assembly (for the commons had already usurped the undivided autho- rity of the three orders) in every measure which might gratify his people. Necker was reinstated in his ministerial functions ; and the assembly un- dertook the work of reform, with greater zeal than judgement. The titles and privileges of the higher orders were abolished : the parliaments were suppressed : monasteries were dissolved, and the possessions of the church seised for other uses. The first anniversary of the revolution was celebrated by a grand confederation ; and, on that occasion, an altar was erected in the Champ de Mars ; at which, after the solemnisation of mass, the king, the national representatives, the army, and the people, took an oath for the observance of that constitution which was then in progress. Before it was completed, the king, finding himself a prisoner of state, suspected and watched by the democratic leaders, endeavoured to escape to the frontiers, that he might have greater liberty of action, un- der the protection of troops that were not infected with the prevailing FRANCE. 329 'y assent th^ •ncreaaed the Pe for revolt. '" ne encom. queen in the e removal of "'"'wns, and Toduceavio. B" seemed to rrounded by the court to ttives of the Jtly attacking ' would have y which sue. It emotions of •ecilityofthe »t advance to ook up arm, )«! a long re- ion, and who isians broke allied, 'fhe for their siib. es Inralidcg, [nt resistance, ful onpfinpof tered (on the nor to death, displayed a rcss; but, to confinement, i been pw- and totally Bription and lable. The •8 which lie he national ided aulho- his people, isembly un- lent. The parliaments ioDs of the revolution n, an altar nisation of lie people, as then in a prisoner deavoured ction, un- prevailing ipirit: but he was unfortunately discovered, and compelled to return tothesceneof his degradation. His two brothers, bowe\'er, made their jicape ; and many of the nobility and clergy were also glad to effect a re- treat as various commotions, in which they were exposed to peculiar danger, had already occurred. The new constitution, which, under tlie form of monarchy, tended to the establishment of democracy, was presented to the king in Sep- tember, 1791. He declared his acceptance of it in writing; and, ap- pearing before the assembly, solemnly consecrated the assent which lie had given, and concluded with an oath, "to be faithful to the nau-a and to the law, and to employ the powers vested in him for the main- tenance of the constitution, and the due execution of the laws." Soon after this the second national council assembled. The protection found in Germany by the emigrants, excited France to vigorous resolutions ; and a manifesto, addressed to all states and na- tions, made its appearance. The forcible measures pursued, had the effect of intimidating the German princes; and the emigrants were constrained to an ignominious dispersion from the frontiers. In the mean time, the emperor Leopold, more eminent for the mild virtues of peacothanfor the exertions of war, seemed to be undetermined how to act. He had acknowleged the national flag ; he had declared that he regarded the king of the French as absolutely free ; — while the league of Pilnitz (which, as was avowed by the court of Vienna, was not only in- tended to secure Germany from such a revolution as France had expe- rienced, but even to extinguish the dreaded source), and the protection afforded to the emigrants, were infallible proofs that he could not be re- garded as a friend. His sudden death, in 1792, excited great conster- nation among the aristocratic party, and afforded joy and exultation to the supporters of the constitution. Another event no less unexpected, happened in the death of the Swedish monarch : and the superstitious vulgar imagined that they beheld the peculiar protection of Heaven, in the removal of the two chief foes of France, in so short a time. In the progress of the negotiations between the national assembly and the cSwisi guards, few of whom escaped. Another outrage was soon after perpe- trated : for a great number of unfortunate royalists, who had been sent to different prisons without- having committed any offence, were mur< dcred by the emissaries of Robespierre and Danton, tlie flagitious leaders of a disorganising society, called (from the monastic liall ia whic^ its meetings were holden) the Jacobin club. A convention was now called, as a substitute for the legislative assem- bly ; and its first act was the subversion of the monarchy. A republic w.u ordered to commence from the 21st of September, 1792 ; and it was resolved that a process should be instituted against Louis, as a tyrant, and a treacherous promoter of foreign hostilities. In the mean time, the combined troops met with great difScultles in their progress, and found that the conquest of France was a more ardu- ous task than they bad fondly imagined. Want of provisions, the pre- valence of disease, and the danger of being surrounded, iuduced the duke of Brunswick, after insignificant instances of success, to retreat from France. As the king of Sardinia was known to be friendly to the anti-Gallicaa confederacy, the invasion of Savoy was ordered, and the expedition ' proved quickly successful. The imprudence of the convention, in de- creeing the incorporatiou of that duchy with France, excited wonder. After frequent declarations that the French would enter into no war with a view to conquest, their conduct in this respect was absurd and impoliuc. It subjected them to the merited reproach, that, under the pretence of liberty, they maintained the destructive maxims of their ancient govern- ment, and that their wishes to increase their territory, perhaps to sub- jugate Europe, remained the same. Admiral Truguet, commanding a squadron in the Mediterranean, captured Nice, Villa-Franca, and the fortress of Montalban, belonging to tha king of Sardiuia. The conquest of Savoy was regarded as a trifle ; but, when Custine hegan his acquisitions in Germany, every eye was turned to the rapidity and importance of his progress, till diverted by the wonders of Duraou- riez. Spire yielded to the French arms, and the conquest of Worms followed : ample supplies of provisions and ammunition were found in those citie% Custine, pursuing his course along the Rhine, nfKi cap- tured Mentz, and afterwards Franckfort. He was eager tc j a.oe'.'d to Coblentz, that noted seat of the counter- revolutionists ; but tl.e FL^otians and Austrians indicated a renewal of hostilities by ganli^oniiii, "^liat town, and encamping in the adjacent country. The conquest of the Austrian Netherlands formed the n» ;c e, and object. Dumouriez had promised to pass his Christmas at Drussels ; io4 what wa^ regarded aB a'^ idle vaunt, proved very modest ; for that FRANCE. 331 pilvvMia liii hands on the 14th of November. Tliat able gencal, btyiog entered the Netherlands with forty thousand men, and with a foriniaable train of artillery, occupied five days in repeated engagements viththe Austrian army, which, however, exceeded not twenty thousand. At leogthi on the 6ih of November, a battle was fought at Gemappe, which decided the fate of' the Netherlands. The contest was very general : all the points of the enemy's flanl plause. The president then ordered one of the ushers of the hall to take the tyrant into custody : but such was the awe which the presence of this man was accustomed to inspire, that the oificer hesitated to perfonn his duty, till Robespierre himself made a sign of obedience, and followed the usher out of the hall. The prisoners were conducted by a fevv peace-officers to the prison of the Luxembourg : but the administrator of the police, who was one of their creatures, refused to receive them ; and they were then led, rather in triumph than as prisoners, to the town-hall. Hcnriot, another leader of the party, had also been arrested, but found means to escape and raise his partisans, who took post with him and Ro- bespierre in the hall, where they pretended to form themselves into a new convention, and declared the other representatives traitors to their country. The people, however, did not espouse their cause ; the national guard forsook them ; and the deputies, who had been despatched for that pur- pose, boldly attacked them. Bourdon de I'Oise, after having read the proclamation of the convention, rushed into the hall of the commune, with a sabre and pistols ; the insurgents were completely deserted, and now endeavoured to turn their arms against themselves. Robespierre discharged a pistol in his mouth, which, however, failed of its effect, and only wounded him in the jaw. Le-Bas shot himself, Couthon stabbed himself twice with a knife, and Henriot was thrown out of a window. The prisoners were immediately conveyed before the revolutionary tribu- nal ; and, their persons being identified, they were condemned to suffer death, in July, 1794, to the number of twenty-two, amidst the execrations of the spectators. In the campaign of this year, the arms of the new republic were suc- cessful on every side against the allies. In Flanders, Jnurdan gained th^ battle of Fleurus ; and Charleroi, Ypres, Bruges, and Ccurtray, surren- dered to the French ; Ostend was evacuated ; general Clairfait was de- feated near Mons, which immediately surrendered ; and the prince of Saxe-Coburg was compelled to retreat with precipitation. Thus the Ne- therlands, which had been in a great measurs recovered by the Austrians, again fell under the French yoke. Landrecy, Quesnoi, Valenciennes, and Cond^, were re-taken ; and the French armies, pursuing their suc- cess, took Aix-la-Chapelle, defeated Clairfait near Juliers, and made themselves masters of Cologne and Bonne. Maestricht and Nimeguen were likewise taken. The United Provinces began now to be seriously alarmed. The states of Friseland were the first to feel their danger; and, in October, these the court, the family, itadtholder, On the 2 the head o1 loudest accl the French 27th, and i In the n performed Austrian f each othe place, on i pine, w ended in Hii Pruss peace by The Pi republic progress ' immediai were ca] masters and wer were th( of a tre Abou XVI, FRANCE. gtatec determined to acknowlege the French republic, to break their al- liance with England, and to enter into a treaty of peace and alliancs ffith France. In some of the other provinces, resolutions, hostile to the gtjdthoider and his government, were likewise adopted ; ahd such ap* oeared to be the temper of the people, even at Amsterdam, that the go* reruntent of Holland published a proclamation, prohibiting the presenta* tion of any petition or memorial on public or political subjects, and all popular meetings. The French made a feeble attempt to cross the Waal, and were re- pulNd with loss ; but the frost soon commenced vrith unusual rigor, and opened a new road to the invaders, who, having marched over the frozen MaeR, attacked the allied army for an extent of above twelve leagues, and, according to the report of general Pichegru, " were, as usual, victoriouH iu every quarter." The confederates retreated before them, and endured gnat hardships from the severity of the weather and the want of neces* iarietl< In January, 1795, Pichegru, having completed hid arrangements, made his grand movement. The French crossed the Waal at di£ferent points with a force (according to some accounts) of 70,000 men. A ge- oeral attack was made upon Walmoden's position between Nimeguen and Arnheim. The allies were defeated at all points ; and, being Utterly utli prepared either for resistance or flight, th>'>y suffered equally puties delivered up to Austria by the treachery of Dumouriez, and for the two ambassadors, Semonville and Maret, who had been seised by an Austrian corps. The emperor, after some hesitation, acceded to the proposal. In the course of this year, an expedition was planned by the English ministry to invade the coast of France, in that part where the royalisu were in arms against the republic. The fo'ce employed consisted chiefly of emigrants, under the command of M. Puisaye, M. d'Hervilly, and the count de Sombreuil. They landed in the bay of Quiberon, and took fort Feuthievre ; but soon after experienced a sad reverse ;— the fort being surprised by the republicans, who killed or made prisoners the greater part of the emigrants and their associates. The count de Som- breuil, the bishop of Dol (with the clergymen who accompanied him), and most of the captives, were tried by a military tribunal, and put to death. In the spring of the ensuing year, the revolt in this part of Fiance was quelled ; and the chiefs of La Vendue (Charette and Stofflet) were shot. In the year 1796, the rapid and signal victories of the republican troops, under the command of the celebrated Bonaparte, ended, in little more than a month, the war with the king of Sardinia. The battles of Monte-Lezino, Mondovi, and Monte-Notte, compelled that prince to accept such terms as the conquerors thought proper to offer ; and a treaty of peace, by which he ceded Savoy and Nice to France, was signed on the 15th of May. Bonaparte pursued his success; and, again defeating Beaulieu, the Austrian general, at the battle of Lodi, forced the shattered remains of the Austrian army to retire toward Mantua, pursued by a part of the republican force, while the rest entered Milan ; and the French gained possession of the whole of Lombardy. The army, under general Jourdan, gaining considerable advantages over the Austrians, advanced into the heart of the empire ; while anotiier army under Morcau, passed the Rhine at Strasbourg, took the fort of Kehl, and, penetrating through Bavaria^ nearly to Ratisbon, endeavoured to form a junction with Jourdan. This attempt, however, did not succeed ; both armies experienced a reverse of fortune, and were obliged to re- treat till they re-crossed the Rhine. The situation of Mureau was highly critical : and his retreat is acknowleged to have been conducted with great military skill. The archduke Charles, who commanded the Austrian army, followed Moreau in his retreat, and invested Kehl, which he re-took after a most obstinate resistance on the partof the French. To restore the affairs of Italy, the emperor assembled a new army, composed of the flower of the German troops serving on the Rhine, and gave the commf.nd of it to Wurmser, one of the oldest and ablest of the imperial generals. This force, on its first arrival, was successful : the French were repulsed, defeated, and compelled to raise the siege of Mantua. Bonaparte, however, soon returned to the charge ; and, after a series of spirited actions, Wurmser was obliged to shut himself up in Mantua, where he was closely besieged by the victors, who at the same time made incursions into the Tyrol, and, by the battle of Rotrercdo, and the possession of Trent, became masters of the passes that led to Vienna. The Auathaos, at the same time, madt a great effort, under Alvinzy, to lescuethel , completely H Xhe victol andtheinfeiT thought pro^ iB Italy, at I gtyled the CiJ After the tj Tyrol, and dil Charles was! lepublican til utmost alarm! remove to Oil majesty opej tgieed to : ^ In the mi many Frenc the ancient St Mark's? and territory definitive tr fusal of the him the city Mantua. T October, 17 of the Neth( in return th were to poss During tb new revoluti and an asse anexecutivi deprived oi and, when t dire'. "\l The condu that an ope opposition troops in 1 these disp republic. sures they fidence on council of Barthelen on a pron On the him, orde besurrou with the dressed t only to soldiers ' mand, a FRANCE. 337 rMcne the gallant Wunnser and his besieged army ; but the battle of Arcole completely defeated their views, and Mantua was obliged to surrender. The victories of Bonaparte compelled the pope, the king of Naples, lod the inferior princes of Italy, to conclude such treaties as the French thought proper to dictate. The victors likewise founded a new republic in Italy, at first called the Cispadane, but afterwards (when augmented) styled the Cisalpine republic. After the taking of Mantua, the victorious general penetrated into the Tyrol, and directed his course toward the Austrian capital. The archduke , Charles was opposed to him, but was unable to check his progress. The republican troops had at length advanced so near to Vienna, that the utmost alarm and confusion prevailed in that city. The bank suspended its payments ; and the emperor was preparing to forsake his capital, and remove to Olmutz. In this critical situation of his affairs, his imperial majesty opened a negotiation with Bonaparte ; a short armistice was agreed to : and preliminaries of peace were signed at Leoben. la the mean time, a tumult having taken place at Venice, in which many French soldiers were murdered, the army on its return abolished the ancient government of Venice, planted the trc3 of liberty in St Mark's Place, established a municipality, and proposed to annex the city and territory to the new Cisalpine republic. But the conclusion of the definitive treaty of peace with the emperor being protracted by the re- fusal of the French to restore Mantua, they at length agreed to cede to him the city and a part of the territory of Venice, in compensation for Mantua. The treaty was signed at Campo Formio, on the 17th of October, 1797. By this treaty the emperor ceded to France the whole of the Netherlands, and all his former territories in Italy. He received io return the city of Venice, with Istria and Dalmatia; the French vere to possess the Ionian islands and a part of Albania. During the negotiation, the disputes of two contending parties led to a new revolution in France. The convention had been dissolved in 1795 ; and an assembly of elders, and a council of 500, had been chosen with an executive directory. In 1797, the two councils drew th.. lots, which deprived one third of their members of their seats in the legislature ; and, when the new deputies took their seats, it appeared that the anti- dire<. '\1 party had received a considerable accession of strength. The conduct of the directory was freely censured ; and it was evident that an open rupture was approaching. Unfortunately for the party in opposition to the directory, the armies took part with the latter. The troops in Italy transmitted to the directory a violent address relative to these disputes, and its example was followed by the other armies of the republic. The leaders of opposition we're slow and irresolute in the mea« sures they took for their defence ; they probably relied with too much con- fidence on their supposed strength, as they had a decisive majority in the council of five hundred, and two out of the five directors, Carnot and Barthelemi, were in their interest. Their adversaries, however, resolved on a prompt and violent measure, which effectually decided the contest. On the 4th of September, Barras, and the two directors who acted with him, ordered the alarm-guns to be fired, and the halls of the councils to be surrounded with a military force. General Augereau, who was charged with the execution of these orders, repaired to the barracks, and ad- dressed the guard of the legislative body, assuring them that he came only to preserve the republic from the conspiracy of royalists. The soldiers declared, with shouts of approbation, that he had only to com- mand, and they were ready to obey. Thus reinforced by the very men Z 338 FRANCE. to whom alone the couoeiU could look for defence, Augereau entered the hall of the five hundred, seised Pichegru, the president, and ordered many of the most distinguished members to be arrested. Carnot and Daithe- Icmi were implicated in the fate of their friends. The former took ad-> vantage of the tumult and fled ; the latter calmly awaited the gtono, Barthelemi, Pichegru, Ramel, and their obnoxious associates, were trtmi ported to Cayenne, whence the two former, and some others, found meani to return to Europe. The power of the directory, or rather of the party of Barras, being now rendered complete by this decisive victory over the councils, new schemes of ambition and conquest were projected, in order to give em< ployment to the armies, and afford them an opportunity of enrichlDg themselves by plunder. A tumult having arisen at Rome, in which a French general was killed, the troo[ subverted the government of that city, deposed the pope, and erected a republic. The French likewiu found a pretext to invade Switzerland, which they endeavoured to subject to their arbitrary sway. Of these invasions the reader will find a far- ther account under the heads of Italy and Switzerland. After the conclusion of peace with the emperor, the army became a burthen which it was found difficult to support : and, notwithstanding the two late expeditions, there still remained a great military force in a state of inactivity that might ultimately prove dangerous to the govern- ment. An immediate invasion of Great-Britain was therefore announced, and an army collected along the northern coast of France, to which was given the pompous title of the Army of England. Convinced, however, of the impracticability of such an invasion, the directory changed the pro- ject for another, likewise sufficiently absurd, which was an expedition to Egypt, and the ultimate object of which, it is believed, was to penetrate to the Indian Ocean, embark the troops, and, by a co-operation with the sultan Tippoo, endeavour to effect the overthrow of the British empire in the East. Bonaparte embarked with about 40,000 men, and sailed from Toulon to Malta, in the spring of the year 1798. In that island the French consul and other emissaries of the republic had already pro- pagated a spirit of disaffection : and, when the general, on pretence of inhospitable treatment, had ordered an attack of the forts, the resistance was so spiritless, that the whole island was quickly subdued. Proceeding on his voyage, he arrived in safety at Alexandria, having escaped the British squadron which was detached in pursuit of him under the command of sir Horatio Nelson. The town was taken by assault, with the loss of between two and three hundred men : and the French then advanced to Cairo, wiiich was defended by Morad with a considerable body of Mamelouks ; but on the 23rd of July, it was attacked with success. The beys, however, at- tempted to rally, and collected a formidable force in the neighbourhood of Cairo ; but the battle of the Pyramids rendered the French masters of the greater part of the country. In that engagement, twenty-three beys, with all the forces they could bring into the field, were completely defeated. Two thousand of the Mamelouks were slain, and four hundred camels with their baggage, and fifty pieces of cannon, were taken, with a loss comparatively small on the part of the French. Tlie conquest of Lower Egypt appeared to be complete ; but, on the 1st of August, the expedition received a terrible blow in the defeat and destruction of the fleet, of which an account has been given in our historical summary of the affairs of England. The French land-force, however, remained in possession of Egypt; and, to secure his con- qvmtf Bonaparte iidvaaced into Syiioi irhere, ^fter gftiaiog Bome ad^ FRANCE. iintigea, %e teMired a decblvb eheck before Acret The Engligh iiquk- droo, under sir Sidney Smith, intercepted a flotilla which was bringing bii Inttering-artillery and ammunition from Egypt ; and, sir Sidney icdog in concert with the Turks, he was repulsed in every assault, and obliged to raise the siege, ana retreat to Egypt with the shattered re- ooina of his army. He soon after took an opportunity of returning to Fiance, where, as we shall presently see, he became the author of A new and extraordinary revolution. The unprincipled attack on Egypt, contrary to the faith of treaties, M incensed the Turks, that they immediately declared war against the French republic ; and the emperor of Russia, having accepted a sub- aij from Great-Bdtain, entered into a treaty of alliance with the Porte and with England, and gave orders for a large army to be raised to act against France. Austria likewise appeared disposed to avail it-* Mifof the assistance of this new ally ; and the French directory, having applied to the emperor for an explanation of his views, and receiving BO satisfactory answer, sent orders to general Juurdan, in the spring of the year 1799, to pass the Rhine, with the avowed intention o£ forcing the diet of Ratisbon to declare against the march of the Rus> naa troops. About the same time, Bernadotte, at the head of an anny of observation, approached Philipsburg, and summoned that for- treu to surrender, while general Ney enforced the submission of Man-^ heim. The cabinet of Vienna being now certain of the aid of Russia, the Autrian army took the field, under the command of the archduke Charles. Fortune, at first, appeared to declare in favor of the French. A body of troops of that nation^ advancing through Schaffhausen toward Suabia, were opposed by a detachment of Austrians, whom they defeat- td. They were also successful for a short time in Italy. Their troops occupied the whole of Tuscany ; and the king of Sardinia was reduced to the necessity of renouncing the sovereignty of Piedmont, and retiring with his family and adherents to the island whence he derived his title. The king of Naples, likewise, having taken up arms and invaded the Roman republic, after being at first so successful as to obtain pos> aenion of Rome, was totally defeated, and obliged to take refuge in Sicily. But, soon after the commencement of hostilities with Austria, the French arms experienced a reverse of fortune. On the 25th of March, Jonrdan attacked the Austrians near Stockach, but was obliged to retire in disorder ; and, on the 26th, general Kray prevailed over the French on the Adige near Verona, and again defeated them on the 30th. Marshal SouvorofF arrived in April with the first column of the Russian troops; and the success of the allies became rapid and uninterrupted^ On the 24tli, the Austrians and Russians passed the Oglio, and drov4 the French before them. They then crossed the Adda, and, on the 27th^ defeated Moreau at Cassano: and so decisive was the victory, that Milan opened its gates to the conquerors. In Piedmont, the French^ notwithstanding the efiorts of Moreau, Macdonald, and Joubert, beheld themselves successively deprived of all their strong-holds. From Mantua they were also driven, after a short siege for so strong a town ; and such was their ill success in the campaign, that tliey were obliged to abandon the whole of Italy, except Genoa, and a small portion' of the adjoining territory. On the 25th of August a desperate battle was fought between the French and the Austrians and Russians at Novi, ia which 8000 of the French were killed or wottadcd; but Z 2 340 FRANCE. this victory was purchased with a iosa nearly as great on the pait of the allies. On the side of Switzerland, the a£fairs of the republic at first wore a less disastrous aspect — Massena having obtained some slight advan- tages. These, however, were soon counterbalanced by events more favorable to the allies ; the French general being obliged to abandon Zurich, which was immediately occupied by the Austrian troops under Hotze. Italy being now in a great measure rescued from the power of the French, it was resolved that SouvorofF should proceed with his army into Switzerland, to drive the French back into their own territories and enter France, where he was to endeavour to re-establish the t'aileQ monarchy. The directors were now convinced of their danger, and made every exertion to reinforce their armies in Switzerland, and the most active preparations for a vigorous defence. Massena, who com- manded the republican army in that country, displayed great military genius, and evinced uncommon abilities in all his enterprises. Know- ing that, if Souvorofif should effect a junction with the troops already acting against him, he must be inevitably overpowered, he determined to attack the latter ; and, in a variety of actions during four whole days, repeatedly defeated the Austrian and Russian armies— many thousands being killed or made prisoners. Souvorofif consequently, on his arrival in Switzerland, found it im- possible to join his defeated and dispirited allies ; his plans were all rendered abortive ; he was under the necessity of immediately with- drawing into Germany ; and, during his retreat over mountains co- vered with snow, and through roads nearly impassable, he suffered severe loss. On the 13th of October, Bonaparte, having found means to escape from Egypt, and elude the vigilance of the British cruisers, arrived in France, accompanied by general Berthier and some other oiScers. The recent losses which the republic had sustained, and the imminent dan- ger which threatened its very existence, had greatly weakened the au- thority of the directory, and prepared the way for that revolutionary change which had probably been projected by the abbe Sieyes, and which the popularity and enterprising spirit of Bonaparte enabled liim to carry into execution. The first step toward this revolution was taken by the council of an- cients, which ordained the removal of the legislative body to St. Cloud, and commissioned Bonaparte to superintend the execution of this decree, investing him with the command of all the troops in Paris and its en- virons. That artful and politic general soon after appeared at the bar, with several officers of rank, and addressed the members in a short speech, in which he represented that the republic was perishing, and the/ knew it, but that their new decree had saved it : — " Yes," said he, " we will have a republic founded on true liberty, and national representation. I swear it in my name, and that of my companions in arms." Most of the members present received these exclamations with applause ; and the assembly broke up with shouts of " Live the republic !" At St. Cloud, on the 10th of November, the council of 500 appointed a committee of seven members, to make a report on the situation uf affairs. The sitting was very tumultuous, many members exclaiming — " No dictator ! No dictatorship !" The secretary read a letter from Barras, stating that " the glory which accompanied the return of the illus- trious warrior, to whom he had had the happiness to open the career of all appeared, same day, the of which day likewise votei of a consular members wer national reprcj man, and the A new CO annies, and, appearance < whole power Bonaparte, ' peace to Ore Vienna; but, active prepa war. The last c of the invac 1800, Masj general Mel compelled t( two months till every hf been cxhav army was i Austrians r la the r passed the apparently himself m course of t1 ticahiUty < sures to o] the FRANCE. 341 renowo, the distinguished marks of confidence shown to him by the legis- litire body, and the decree of the national representation, had convinced him that the perils of liberty were then surmounted, and the interest of the amies secured ; and that he returned with joy to the rank of a gjinp citizen, happy to transfer, complete, and render more respectable than bver, the destinies of the republic, of which he had been one of the depositories." While some of the representatives were urging the pro- priety of choosing another director in the room of Barras, Bonaparte entered the hall, attended by some officers and grenadiers, and walked up toward the president. A violent agitation ensued among the mem« here, some of whom rushed precipitately from their seats, and endea- Toured to seise him: others cried — " Outlaw him!" and one attempted to stab him, but the blow was warded off by a grenadier. The tumult increased ; all the members quitted their seats ; — the president, Lucien Bonaparte, laid down bis badge of office on the table, . and resigned ; upon which the doors of the hall were opened, and an oificer entered with a guard, exclaiming — " General Bonaparte orders the hall to be cleared. The arbitrary order was immediately carried into effect. The sittings were resumed in the evening, and Lucien took the chair. A decree passed, abolishing the directory, and appointing a consular government of three, namely, Sieyes, Bonaparte, and Roger Ducos, who ail appeared, and took the oath to be faithful to the republic. On the same day, the council of ancients met also at St. Cloud ; the proceedings of which day were almost a copy of those of the other assembly. They likewise voted the suppression of the directory and the appointment of a consular executive of three persons. By the same decrees, sixty-one members were expelled from the legislative body ; and thus was the national representation, with the boasted constitution, overturned by one man, and the bayonets of a few soldiers. A new constitution was then formed, which was accepted by the armies, and, apparently at least, by the people. By this code, the appearance of a representative government was authorised; but the whole power of the state was substantially vested in the first consul, Bonaparte, who commenced his administration by making proposals of peace to Great-Britain. He made a similar application to the court of Vienna; but, his overtures being rejected by both those powers, the most active preparations were made on all sides for the prosecution of the war. The last campaign had closed with the taking of Coni, and the retreat of the invaders into the territory of Genoa. In the spring of the year 1800, Massena, who commanded the French army, was attacked by general Melas, and forced to retire to S^ona and Vado. whence he was compelled to fall back to Genoa. In Genoa he defended himself during two months with the most determined obstinacy, and did not surrender till every hope of succour had vanished ; till every kind of provision had been exhausted ; till 1 5,000 of the inhabitants had perished, and his army was reduced to only 8,000 men. That city was given up to the Austrians on the 5th of June. In the mean time Bonaparte, having assembled an army at Dijon, passed the mountains of St. Gothard and St. Bernard, and, surmounting apparently insuperable obstacles, entered Italy, where he soon made himself master of Milan, Pavia, Piacenza, Cremona, and the whole course of the Po. Melas appears to have been so confident of the imprac- ticability of the route which the French had taken, that he took no mea- sures to oppose the passage of Boaapart6 till it was too late. At length 342 FRANCE. ha deapatchtd Otto with thirty batttliona, to stop the progr«is of ^ French army, which wa« marching toward Piedmont ; but that general wa- defeated at Ca»teggio, with great loss. This victory waa a prelud, to the battle of Marengo, which fixed the fate of Italy. Melas, hariog Msembled the whole of his furce, marched to meet hia enemy, and took post in the village of Marengo. In the battle which ensued, victon seemed at first to have declared for the Austrians. The, French ceatre was compelled to retreat with great slaughter ; but the body of reserve under Desaix, impetuously charging the Austrians, who werethrowo into some conf^ision by the eagerness of pursuit, turned the fortune of the day, and gave the French a complete victory. About 10,000 of the vanquished were killed, wounded, or captured ; and, in all probability, the French suffered nearly in the same proportion. So important watt'.' battle in its conseqnences, that the next day Melas, finding his situation no longer tenable, proposed an armistice, which was accepted by Bona- parte, and by which Genoa was immediately surrendered to the French with all the strong places of Lombardy and Piedmont. In Germany the French had opened the campaign with similar suc- cess. They crossed the Rhine in three divisions, at Kehl, Brisach, and Basle, and forced the Austrian army to fall back on the line of Stockach, where a battle took place on the 4th of May, in which the French were victorious, and which in a great degree decided the fate of the campaign, as the Austrians were not able afterwards to make any effectual resis- tance, but continued to retreat and suffer successive defeats. When the armistice was concluded in Italy, the commander of the emperor's army in Germany endeavoured to avail himself of it, to put an end to the progress of the troops under Moreau ; but the French general would not listen to such a proposition ; on the contrary, being ia posset'fiion of the greater part of Bavaria, he detached Lecourbe toward the Tyrol to seise the Voralberg and the Grison territory, and form a junction with the army of Italy. The offer of a suspension of arms, however, having been repeated, and count 8t. Julien having arrived at Paris with proposals of peace, a truce was at length concluded for the armies in Germany. In the negotiations at Paris, the court of Vienna intimated that it waa bound in honor to treat only in concert with Great-Britain. The first consul signified his consent that the negotiation should include a peace with Eng;Iand, but required a naval armistice as a prelimioary. This demand, under certain conditions, the British ministry did not reject; but they would not permit the Brest fleet to be supplied with stores, or ■uccours to be sent to the French army in Egypt. Bonaparte now re- fused to negotiate with England, and the emperor declared that he would not ratify the preliminaries which had been signed by his envoy. The rupture of the ne^Totiation was followed by that of the armistice in Germany, which had been renewed by the emperor, at the expense of surrendering Ulm, Ingolstadt, and Phtlipsburg, into the hands of the French, as a pledge of his sincere desire of peace. The oampaign then recommenced ; and, in the beginning of December, the Austrians were defeated by Moreau at Hohenlindeo : the archduke Charles was also vanquished, and the emperor was convinced that he line! no resource but in a peace. Negotiations were opened at Luneville, where a treaty was signed on the 3d of February, 1801. The cession of the Belgic territory to France, as stipulated by the treaty of Campo Formio, was confirmed ; the whole country on the left side of the Rhine was likewise given up to France ; the bpundaries of the Cisalpine or Italiaa FJIANCE. 943 Progrew of jiu ""ny. and took "sued, victon ^ench centi, <'''y«f reserve « 'verethrowo' the fortune of .10,000 of the 3rohability,ihe rtant wa«t!; '? his aituatiijj Pted by Bona- to the Prencli, ' similar (uc. I Brisach, and eotStockach, French were the campaign, snectuai resis- lander of the of it, to put pt the Freacii ^ry, being ia Murbe towani and form a 'ion of arnij, D? arrived at uded for tiie ated that it ritain. The d include a preliminary, d not reject; h stores, or irte now fe- at he would ay. e armistice the expense i hands of ' oampaign ) Austrians Jharles was DO resource , where a ion of the •o Formio, Ihiiie was or Italian iMMblie were enlarged ; and the dukes of Tuscany and Modena were coapelled to relinquish their territories, and accept such indemnities as iliould be provided for them in Gerninny. Of the conclusion of the peace oi Amiens between France and Great- Britsin, and the causes of its rupture, a conbise account has been giren in our history of England. As soon as the preliminaries of the latter peace were signed, and the cesiation of hostilities with England had left the seas open to tlie French aitfine, Bonaparte fitted out a great expedition for St. Domingo, to re- atore, as he said, the French colonies to tranquillity and ordof. In the fleet, and the transports which accompanied it, he embarked an army of 25,000 men, the flower of the French soldiery, and completely equipped. The famous negro chief, Tousaaint I'Ouverture, was defeated, and at length concluded a capitulation with the French generals ; who after- wards seised him, pretending they had discovered that he was engaged in a plot against them, and sent him to France, where he soon ended his days in a dungeon. The renewal of the war with Great-Britain having deprived the first consul of the means of sending any reinforcements to bii troops in St. Domingo, the French, after suffering still more from the climate than from the enemy, were at length entirely driven out of (be island. The unbounded ambition of Bonaparte now began to display itself in its true colors. He had assumed the title of president of the Italian re- public, with the same unlimited authority which he exercised in France ; and, not content with holding the title and power of firiit consul, accord- ing to the constitution which he had introduced, he procured himself to be appointed consul for life, with the power of nominating his successor. These new assumptions were, however, only steps to the imperial throne to which he aspired. In the beginning of the year 1804, a conspiracy, it appears, was fbnned against him, in which general Pichegru, and Georges, formerly a leader of the insurgents in La Vendue, were engaged. They had en- deavoured to induce general Moreau, who lived in retirement, and had never condescended servilely to flatter Bonaparte, to join them ; but this be wems to have refused, probably disapproving some part of their plan. Befdre they could determine whether they should proceed or abandon their designs, they were discovered and apprehended hy the spies and agents of Bonaparte. Pichegru was found dead in his bed before his trial, having fallen, as was pretended, by his own hands; Georges and ten others suffered death by the guillotine ; and Moreau, who was con- demned to two years' imprisonment, was permitted by the des{)Ot to take his departure for America. In consequence of this conspiracy, the abject and venal senate of Bonaparte, at the suggestion of his creatures, solicited him to take on himself the imperial dignity, and declare it hereditary in his family, under pretence that the government of the republic would thus become permanently established, and secure from the attacks of all its ene- mies. With this request he was graciously pleased, for the public good, to comply ; and he accordingly assumed the title of Emperor of the French. His two colleagues, the second and third consuls, having proved their fidelity to him by not interfering in the smallest degree in the affairs of government, except as directed by him, were gratified with the high-sounding titles of arch-chancellor and arch-treasurer of . the empire. . About the same time, likewise, Bonaparte contrived to cbaBg« the 344 FKA^<^^E• coMtitutlon of the Italian republic, transforming it into a kingdom, tnd crowning himself at Milan ; and, near the cio«« of the year, he obliged the pope to undertake a journey to Paris, and was crowned by him em- peror of the French. The principal hostilities that took place Instween Franco and England for some tiino after the rupture of the peace of Amiens, were confined to the preparations for the threatened invasion of England by the Bou- logne flotilla on the part of the former, and the defensive efforts of the latter to make a victorious resistance in case of any such attempt. On the continent, the French over-ran and took possession of the territory of Hanover, almost without resistance, from the great superiotity of their land-force. But at length the cabinet of England succeeded in its endeavours to engage Austria to make new exertions against the formidable power of France : Russia also engaged to enter into the contest. The first act of hostility on the part of Austria (and an injudicious one it appears to have been) was a peremptory order to the elector of Bavaria, to join the Austrian army with all his forces. The elector re- quested to be permitted to remain neuter, which being refused him, he •with his whole court withdrew to Wurtzburg, and the Austrians entered Munich without opposition ; thus forcing, as it were, Bavaria to become the ally of France. Bonaparte now took the field with alacrity. Bernadotte had previ- ously with his corps reached Wurtzburg ; and, the other French corps rapidly advancing, Mack, the Austrian general, found himself in such a position at Ulm, that on the 1 7th of October he capitulated with his whole army. The first division of the Russians had in the mean time arri'/ed on the banks of the Inn ; but, after their junction with the Aus- trians, the whole force did not exceed 75,000 men, while the French army advancing against them nearly amounted to 100,000. The allies therefore determined to retire, in order to eflfect a junction with the second Russian division under general Buxhofden ; and, crossing the Danube, left Vienna to the French. Bonaparte entered that city, con- cealing his joy under the appearance of moderation, and declaring that he would treat the inhabitants with lenity and kindness. Proceeding against the combined troops, he engaged them, on the 2d of December, at Aug- terlitz in Moravia. He concentrated his great force, while they inconsi- derately extended their line, so as to weaken their efforts. Five of their columns, acting without sufficient concert, involved themselves in great danger, while the centre, posted on an eminence, received such shocks as dislodged and defeated it. The French, at length, were completely vic- torious. The loss of the Russians, who were the principal sufferers, was said by the enemy to have amounted to 22,000 killed and wounded, and 20,000 prisoners ; but an official report published at Petersburg asserted that the entire loss in the campaign, on the part of the Russians, did not amount to more than 17,000 men. One hundred pieces of cannon and 45 standards fell into the hands of the enemy. Two days after the en- gagement, an interview took place at the French advanced posts, between Bonaparte and the emperor of Austria: an armistice was adjusted, which was followed by a regular negotiation ; and a treaty was signed at Pres- burg on the 25th of December. By this treaty, of which Bonaparte may be said to have dictated the terms, the emperor was deprived of the Venetian territory, the Tyrol, and the Voralberg, beside being obliged to make various cessions to the kings of Bavaria and Wurtemberg. The peace of Presburg did not restore complete tranquillity to Europe. FRANCE. 345 llioagh the emperor Alexander had withdrawn his troojM, he had not coDeloded peace with the French. The Rucwian forces were still kept M to their establishment, or rather indeed considerably increased by new I leriei' A Russian force in the Mediterranean had suddenly attacked a piimttian fortress, which by the treaty of Presburg was part of the ter- ^torr ceded by Austria to France, and gained possession of it. Bona- parte insisted that the Austrians should retake it from the Russians, and delirer it to him as had been stipulated. By this dispute he was fur- nished with a specious pretext for not withdrawing his troops from Ger- jjany; and the Austrian prisoners, who had not already returned to their own country, were detained. In the mean time, the king of Prussia, having agreed to accept the territory of Hanover, in compensation fur certain sacrifices which he had been required to make, incurred the resentment and hostility of England. But he soon after found, that, in the negotiations between England and France, Bonaparte did not seem unwilling to permit the restoration of Hanover to its former sovereign, though, at his desire, Prussian troops had taken possession of it. Incensed at treatment that appeared so con- temptuous, and relying too much on the military character which Prussia had ODce maintained in Europe, the king prepared for war. The elector of Saxony took part in the contest as his ally, and Russia consented to aisitt with a large force. But the rapidity of the movements of Bona- parte rendered it impossible for the Russians to come up in time to avert the blow which ho meditated against Prussia. The French army, in three divisions, marched in the autumn of 1 806 to meet the Prussians, wbo'juk a strong position to the north of Frankfort on the Maine. At FJoleitz, a conflict arose between the armies, and the Prussians were de- feated. The battle of Saalfekl followed, which was also advantageous to the French. At Auerstadt, the victory which they obtained, on the Mlh of October, was much more important. The duke of Brunswick received a mortal wound ; and his place was not properly supplied by the king's military inexperience ; nor did the troops display their usual cou- rage and firmness. About 20,000 men were killed or wounded, and m),000 captured. The battle of Jena was also very disastrous to the Fnissians and their allies. The g rrisons of the chief fortresses, panic- stricken by these victories, if not influenced by ti'eachery, submitted to the conquerors, almost as soon as they were summoned. The French took possession of the capital ; and the king, with a small remnant of his army, made his escape into East-Prussia, the rest of his dominions being in the hands of the enemy. The advanced guard of the Russians under general Beningsen had at length crossed the Vistula. Their reconnoitring parties however soon as- certaining the great superiority and rapid march of the enemy, the Rus- sian general thought it most prudent speedily to retire and re-cross the river. Bonaparte, again putting himself at the head of his army, crossed the Narew, and overtook the enemy. On the 26th of December was fought the destructive but indecisive battle of Pultusk, in which the vic- toiy was claimed by both sides ; and which v/as followed, on the 8th of February, 1807, by the sanguinary conflict of Eyiau, one of the most obstinately-contested battles that have been fought in modern times. It was, for some time, favorable to rue Russians ; but the superior number of the French enabled them to prevent the triumph of their adversaries; and, when the Prussians took part in the engagement, they merely checked the progress of the foe. Great exertions were now made on both sides to recruit the armies 346 FRANCE. wasted by the havock of this sanguinary contest. The emperor AW ander and the grand-duke Constantine arrived with a great reinforcement and the efiforts of Napoleou to repair his loss, and accumulate a force fully equal to the great struggle which still remained, were unremittiiiir, The French laid siege to Dantzic, which was taken on the 27th of Mar and, on the 14th of June, after a variety of manoeuvres and actions of minor importance, was fought the great and decisive battle of Friedland It was at first partial ; and the Russians seemed to have a prospect of success; but, when it became general, the determined spirit of the Frencli enabled them to prevail. Of their number, about 7000 were killed or wounded, while above 12,000 sutfered in the vanquished army. Weary of the contest, Alexander requested an armistice. An interview ensued between him and his conqueror, on a raft which floated at an equal distance from each bank of the Niemen ; and, after a negotiation at Tilsit peace was concluded on the 7th of July. The two potentates then aepa. rated with mutual expressions of attachment, after exchanging the decorations of their respective orders. On the same day peace wag re- stored between France and Prussia. By this treaty the king was deprived of extensive and valuable terri- tories, some of which were incorporated with a new kingdom erected by Bonaparte in favor of his brother Jerome, and styled the kingdom of Westphalia. Warsaw was declared a duchy, and given to the elector of Saxony, who at the same time received the title of king. Bonaparte had also lately made one brother king of Holland, and another king of Naples ; and Alexander consented o adm'^ these titles. He also expli- citly aeknowleged the^ confederat. : a of Liv Rhine. For these conce^ sions he was rewarded with the donation of a part of Poland, wrested from Prussia. In the beginning of the year 1808, the designs ^f Bonaparte upou Spain began to be deve!< ped, fc ^ brief account of which we refer the reader to our historical summary jf the affairs of that country. When the Spaniards had opposed his invasion with determined resist- ance, and in some cases with unexpected success, the Austrian euiperor, who had been for a considerable time dissatisfied with France, and intent on secretly increasing his fuices and military preparations, began to think that an opportunity had now presented itself to engage in another con- test for independence, while the forces of his enemy seemed to be fully employed on the other side of the Pyrenees. In April, 1 809, therefore, he published a hostile proclamation, and took the field against the king of Bairaria, who, in consequence of t'nis invasion, quitted his capital. Bo- naparte, having put in motion several divisions of his army with hit: usual celerity, made his appearance on the banks of the Danube. The battles of Abensberg, Landshut, Eckmuhl, and Ratisbon, soon followed ; and, in the course of a week, the Austrians lost nearly 30,000 men by captivity, and eighty pieces of cannon. On the 10th of iVlay, Bonaparte appeared before Vienna, of the sub- urbs of which he immediately became master ; but the city itself made some resistance. The emperor, before the French invested the city, had left his capital, and removed into Moravia. The army of the archduke Charles, having attempted too late to relieve the capital, posted itself on the other side- of the Danube in array of battle. The ruler of Fiance, being equally ready for action, resolved to attack that commander in his position. This attempt, which was made on the 21st of May, and was called the battle of Aspern or Essling, failed ; and, in this dreadful battle, SOyOv^O of the French (it has been asserted) were killed, wounded or cap- FRANCE. 347 emperor Alex. reinforcement •nulate a force' re unremittiiif e27thofMa;; »nd actions of j eofFriedland ;e a prospect of '«f the French^ W'ere killed or ^™y. Weary terview enjued . at an equal tiationatTiisi',, ites then gepj' cchangii]g tie peace was re- valuable terri- f>m erected by e kingdom of > the elector of Bonaparte had other king of He also expli- these conces- jland, wrested >naparte upon we refer the itry. rmined resist- "ian eiiiperor, ce, and intent egan to think another con- d to be fully therefore, he tthe king of iap-tal. Bo- I'ith his usual The battles ivedjand.in by captivity, I of the sub- itself made he city, had le archduke ed itself on of France, mder in his y, and was •dful battle, led or cap- fglti. Five of their generals were killed, and eight were wounded, one of whom, marshal Lasnes, soon after died. The Austrians likewise sus* taioed great loss, 20,000 of their number being either deprived of life, or personally injured in different degrees. After this severe repulse, Bonaparte remained inactive and cautious tUl the beginning of July, repairing the damage which his bridges and works from time to time suffered by the river. He was, however, inces- laptly employed in making the most formidable preparations, not only to protect himself against an attack from the archduke, but also to enable himself to resume offensive operations, in such a manner as might ensure "{ess. In 14 days he raised a bridge of six arches, so broad, that three carriages could pass abreast over a very rapid river. A second bridge, eigtit feet broad, was constructed for infantry : there was also a bridge of boats. Each bridge was covered and protected by a tete-de- mt 160 fathoms long. Yet these bridges and works were only intended as a feint ; for it was not the intention of Bonaparte to pass where he knew the enemy to be strongest and fully prepared. In the night, he con- stnicted several bridges at a different part of the river; one bridge of a single piece, 80 fathoms long, was fixed in less than five minutes : three others, of boats and rafts, were also thrown over the stream ; and, in the morning, the whole French army had crossed, and stood in order of battle at the extremity of the left flank of the Austrians. The ark.hduke now found himself completely out-generaled, and all his works rendered uieless. He was therefore compelled to abandon his positions, and fight the French on the ground chosen by themselves. On the 6th, at day- break, the archduke incautiously weakening his wings, Bonaparte made a general and powerful attack on the centre, and gained a complete vic- tory near Wagram. This battle was considered as so decisive, that an armistice was concluded on the 12th of July; but the definitive treaty of peace was not signed and ratified before the middle of October. By this treaty Austria ceded Saltzburg, with the Tyrol, to Bavaria ; Trieste and Fiurae to France ; Western Galitzia, with the city of Cracow, to Saxony ; and a large portion of Eastern Galitzia, to Russia. Bonapart^, on his return to Paris, by a formal act of separation, repu- diated hia empress Josephine, alleging, as his sole motive, his desire to obtain an heir for the em})ire. He seemed for some time to hesitate in choosing her successor, but at length fixed his choice on the arch-duchess of Austria, Maria Louisa, whom he espoused with great pomp on the Ist of April, 1810. It could not have been readily supposed that the pride of the Austrian family, or a dignified sense ot honor, would have sub- mitted to this arrogant demand, advanced by a base adventurer : hut Francis was so humbled by the ill success of the war, that he had not the ipirit to oppose the requisition ; and his daughter seemed to exult in the idea of becon 'ng empress of France. By this marriage. Napoleon hoped to become the progenitor of a race of French princes, and to form a flourishing and permanent dynasty ; and his power seemed then to be to firmly established, that his friends and admirers considered his expec- tations as not altogether improbable. As his external influence was exercised with the most odious arro- gance, his internal government was shamefully tyrannical and oppress- ive. He domineered over persons of all ranks ; employed spies to take advantage of the freedom of social intercourse; iiaprisoned, or otherwise ill-treated, all who dared to speak freely of his government ; imposed taxes at ids pleasure, or (which was the same thing) by the medium of the servile assemblies that formed a part of his despotic system; and, ■i I ■; I II 348 FRANCE. by the moat unjustifiable conscription, dragged the youth of his empin into the wars which arose from his insatiable and sanguinary ambition More inhuman than Alaric the Goth, he has been more properly com- pared with Attila the Hun ; and his name will be as odious to posteritj as that of Louis XL, the most seltish and unfeeling of all the tyrants of France. The peace with Austria left Napoleon contending only with Great- Britain, and with the Spanish and Portuguese patriots. Having lost his inflaence in Portugal, he ordered Massena, in 1810, to re-conquer that kingdom. His choice of a general appeared to be judicious: but that commander was opposed by an officer of superior ability. The French reduced Almeida, rither in consequence of an accident which befell the garrison, than by the vigor of their operations ; and they then advanced to the capture of Coimbra, hoping to complete their success by the speedy seisure of Lisbbn. But, at Busaco, they felt the severe effects of the courage and discipline of the allies ; for even the Portuguese are said to have exhibited, on that occasion, a degree of warlike energy, nearly equal to that which the British troops displayed. Satisfied with having given this repulse to the enemy, lord Wellington took the most judicious precautions for preventing the conquest of the country ; while Massena, unwilling to assault his rival in a position which was remarkably strong, passed a long interval in a state of inactivity, suffering many inconveni- ences and privations, and losing a multitude of bis men. In Spain, the French were more successful. They over-ran the provinces of Andalusia and Granada, kept possession of the two Castiles, and otl)er considerable portions of the kingdom, and menaced the whole with subjugation. The retreat of Massena, in the following year, baffled Napoleon's hopes of driving the English from Portugal ; and another Spanish campaign was not so fortunate as he expected it to prove : yet he resolved to persist in the iniquitous scheme of usurpation. Eve/, while he was involved by his furious ambition in a war with Russia, he did not entirely neglect the promotion of his interest in Spain. The rupture, between Napoleon and Alexander, arose from the do- mineerii ^ arrogance of the former, who, finding that the northern em- peror was inclined to renew a friendly intercourse with Great-Britain, and trusting to the probability of making a strong impression upon the territories even of that powerful prince, resolved to employ a great array in this rash enterprise. Of the war which ensued, we have stated the most remarkable occurrences in our sketch of the history of Russia ; but we may here observe, that some fierce conflicts, in the advance of the French toward the capital of Lithuania, convinced them of the cool and steady courage of their new enemies, who vigorously opposed a very superior force. The vanity and arrogance of the invaders prompted them to stigmatise the Russians as barbarians, unfit to contend with the polished and scientific warriors who had been bred in the school of the illustrious Napoleon : but the charge was vague and unsupported, unless we attribute the voluntary burning of Smolensk and Moscow to a tincture of ferocity and barbarism. In the progress of the campaign, although the enemy seemed to have a prospect of signal success, the Russians in general, and tiie nobles in particular, did not despair. If Petersburg had fallen wlien Moscow was taken, and if great defeats had thinned the number of the patriots, tliey would still have trusted to the population and spirit of the empire; and, if the French had even dared to pass the winter in Russia, the conquest of the country would not necessarily have followed. FRANCE. 349 The despotism to which Napoleon had subjected the French, and the oppresuon by which they were justly punished for having submitted to a man of his character and complexion, enabled him to levy another great trmy, after he had outraged the laws of God and man by consigning so many myriads of his fellow-creatures to a premature death. In the mean time, he did not neglect the prosecution of his ambitious views in Spain : buteven the fifth campaign in that kingdom did not put his brother in full poggedsion of the sovereignty. Marmont, the French general, was not particularly distinguished by skill, activity, or circumspection. He sulfered two of the chief fortresses to be taken by the confederates, almost within view of an army which considerably exceeded their num- ber: he was defeated in a general engagement ; and, though some retro- (rrade movements on the part of his adversaries marlced the close of the campaiga, he did not profit by their temporary depression. The dreadful loss sustained in Russia did not allay the tyrant's thirst of blood, or inspire him with sentiments of moderation and forbearance. Enraged at the new league which had been formed against him, he breathed vengeance against all his enemies, particularly against the king of Prussia, who had so long been his subservient vassal, and whom he hoped to humble so effectually, that he should no more be able to rise. In the spring of 1813, he took the field with above 100,000 men, and presented himself before the allies, to whom the Austrians had not yet added their strength. On the plain of Lutzen, which had been rendered memorable by the fall of Gustavus Adolphus, the heroic defender of the liberties of Germany, he obstinately aimed at the subjugation of the empire ; for he was not yet so far humbled as to attend only to defensive measures, or to follow the dictates of humanity. The battle which ensued was extremely sanguinary. His centre, to which he usually gave the greatest strength, was thrown into disorder by the vigorous efforts of his adversaries; but it was enabled to escape defeat by the arrival of a strong corps from the left. It cannot perhaps be affirmed with truth, that cither army proved victorious on this occasion, though each party pretended to be master of the field. In the neighbourhood of Bautzen, a more tremendous conflict occurred. It extended over such a considerable space, that it seemed rather to be a variety of simultaneous actions than one battle. Many posts were tlie objects of spirited contest ; they were alternately gained and lost ; and, at the close of the day, success was undecided. A Kussiun division retreated to avoid ruin, and serious havock was made among the Prussians ; but the French sustained a far greater loss than their ojiponents. A partial engagement followed ; the effect of which, added to the former losses, inclined the contending po- tentates to agree to a suspension of hostilities. The augmentation of military strength was the chief object which occupied the attention of both paities during the armistice. Bonaparte repaired his losses by ordering an additional conscription, to supply the place of those troops which were sent without delay from France: and, while Alexander and the Prussian monarch were devising the means of more vigorous hostility, the Austrian prince was persuaded to enter into the confederacy. Napoleon would not easily believe that his father-in- law was disposed to desert his interest, which he thought he had suffi- ciently secured by the ostensible union of the two families: but he deceived himself by his implicit confidence in the continued subserviency of Francis, and was confounded at the report of the warlike determina- tion of that prince. The great preparations of Austria, and the zeal which seemed to ani- 350 FRANCE. mate the emperor and his court, and to pervade the military rub menaced the French with the extinction of their arbitrary influence ovel the continent. The storm, so long suspended, was gatltering around the tyrant, and threatened to overwhelm him. He faced it, however, with spirit, and resolved not to fall, or to lose his power, without A\S\am carnage and misery to a wide extent. He still found a multitude of abject slaves ready to march under his banners, and to perpetrate eTery outrage, under the idle pretence of acquiring high fame and railltan glory. When he re-opened the campaign, he posted himself in the heart of Saxony, oppressing, with heavy exactions and cruel injuries, the subjects of a prince whom he called his friend and confederate. He had a great disposable force ; but the allies, by the addition of the Austrian army, had obtained the advantage of numerical superiority. Theit troops, beside detachments, formed three large armies ; one commanded by the prince of Schwartsenberg (who had in the preceding year con- ducted an auxiliary force into Russia under the orders of Napoleon); the second by the celebrated field-marshal Blucher ; and the third by Berna- dotte, the crown-prince of Sweden. Blucher was first attacked in Sile- sia, and obliged to retreat with loss; but he retrieved his credit b; a considerable victory, by which he rescued that province from hostile incursions. The crown-prince particularly attended to the defence of Brandenburg ; but it was chiefly by the efforts of the Prussians, that he triumphed at Grosz-Beren. When Napoleon had fallen back to Dres- den, which he had strengthened with additional works, a fierce attack was made upon that station ; but it was too defensible to be taken by a coup de main. In an engagement near that city, general Moreau, who had been gladly received into the service of the allied princes, and whose zeal in the cause was apparently equal to that which they felt, was so miserably shattered by a cannon-ball, that he soon after died. As the grand army, after the failure at Dresden, retreated into Bo- hemia, for the supply of its physical wants, the French were en' couraged to pursue the Austrian commander by the hope of an eas^ victory. He was not displeased at the incautious eagerness of Van- damme, because it furnished him with an opportunity of chastising that general, whose division he nearly ruined in the battle of Culm. It was for some days believed by the French, that the vanquished com- mander had lost his life : but he merely lost his military reputation, and was captured amidst the disorder into which his followers were thrown. Since the battle of Marengo, Napoleon had not at any time been in such a dangerous predicament as that in which he now stood. The time seemed to approach, when his ruin would be effected by the mul- titude of his euemies. He endeavoured to over- awe them by menacing movements ; but he merely enforced a temporary retrogradation. The victory obtained at Dennewitz by the Prussians and Swedes, and other advantages, induced the allied princes, who attended the grand army in Bohemia, to relinquish their cautious system, and assume the boldest attitude of offensive warfare. This determination was more partic. larly agreeable to the resolute spirit of Blucher, who hastened to the banks of the Elbe, passed it with little difficulty, and advanced toward Leipsic, where the French had taken some strong positions. The two other armies directed their march to the environs of tliat city ; and fierce attacks were made upon various posts, with dreadful loss on both sides. The imper- fect success which attended the opeiations of the first day, served only totlimulate the aUiea to redoubled vigor; and a renewal of assault effected FRANCE. 351 |ke lodgement of their adversaries from the circumjacent positions. Yet the city was retained, wliile the tyrant deliberated with his chief officerton the means of escape. He found an opening for that purpose ; •aij, when he had retired with a part of his force, a bridge was blown up k big order to check the rapidity of the pursuit. Beside his recent loss, about 30,000 of his men were deprived of life, wounded or captured^ He still had the means of repelling the Bavarians, who attacked him near the Rhine ; and, hastening to his capital, he seemed to forget his disgrace asiidBt the acclamations of a deluded and despicable populace. Holland and the kingdom of Westphalia were now rescued from his grasp ; and France, which he fondly deemed a sacred territory, was menaced with the intrusion of exasperated enemies. In Spain, likewise, the campaign m highly unfavorable to his arms. His formidable adversary, the dnkeof Wellington, drove the French into Navarre ; and, having obtained I ngDal triumph at Vittoria, pursued the fugitives into their own coiifinej. This invasion galled the pride and inflamed the resentment of marahal Soult, whose redoubled efforts, however, could not prevent tht allies from taking up their winter-quarters on the French side of the Pyrenees. Even the severity of the season did not present any serious obstacles to the progress of the powerful armies which had expelled the tyrant frna Germany. As the princes were of opinion that delay would be injurious to their cause, the troops were ordered, at the commence- ment of the year 1814, to cross the Rhine, and to prosecute their march without the investment of fortresses. To meet the danger of invasion. Napoleon made such preparations as the time allowed ; but he h^^d so drained the country in the two last campaigns, that he could not procure a force suflScient for the purposes of defence. Scorning, however, the apparent meanness of dejection, he boasted of his ample resourcen, and threatened the daring foe with a speedy expulsion. He was unable to execute his menaces; yet he displayed great remains of spirit, and alternately checked the two advancing armies. A fierce conflict occurred It Brienne, in which he gained- the advantage. A more general action tooi( place near Chaumenil, where success long remained equally ba- lanced : but the French centre and wings were ultimately forced, after the fall of a great number of men. Several towns near the Seine and Marne were soon after taken ; and each of the allied armies madt such' approaches as menaced the proud capital of the great empire with subju- gation and disgrace. Of the battles which attended the progress of the confederates, the most remarkable seem to have been those of Vauchamp, Laon, and Fere-Champenoise. In the first, Blucher was the acting commander. After an engagement at Mont-mirail, which was followed by a pursuit of the retiring Prussians and their northern associates, Napoleon em- ployed the bulk of his cavalry in the most vigorous assaults upon the compact infantr}' of the field-marshal ; and the French, on this occasion, were at first so successful, as to reduce their adversaries to the verge of tuio. Blucher's danger was extreme ; and the hope of extrication seemed viiionary. During the retreat, his men were attacked in every direction but one ; for they were only not surrounded : yet they escaped by their extraordinary exertions and the skill of their general. This was considered u a triumph by Uie French, whose leader also made a considerable im« preuion upon the chief army of his opponents, and enforced a temporary letrogradation. A contest for the possesion of Soissoaa bAviog terouQ&ted in the retreat 352 FRANCE. of Blucher to Laon, Napoleon was encouraged to attack tkis positjog even though his force was inferior to that of the Prussian general. For a whole day he persisted in a repetition of assaults, but without the desired effect ; for the greater part of his army retreated after a seriouj loss. The rest hazarded a new attack on the following day, and did not desist before the danger of being overwhelmed became so dreadfully urgent, thai the desire of escape banished all thoughts of victory. After some intermediate actions, and the failure of a negotiation in which honorable terms were offered to the tyrant, who would not however relinquish his territorial usurpations, the invaders, by that forwardness which seemed to him to proceed from a want of circumspection, tempted him to digress from the object of immediate defence, and to move to a considerable distance, in the hope of inducing the chief army to {al| back toward the Rhine. Instead of taking only tliat part of his amy which most commanders would have deemed sufficient for such a ma- noeuvre, " he pushed his object so far (says sir Charles Stewart) by the passage of the Aube with his whole army near Vitry, as to leaie himself completely open to that bold and magnificent decision which was immediately adopted." The prince of Schwartzenberg now resolved to form such a concert with Blucher as might enable each to assist the other with facility ; and both generals were ready to advance to the completion of the grand object of a protracted war. To mask this movement, the march of the commander in chief was first made to Vitry, where the Russian emperor also arrived with his guard, encouraging the troops by his patient and cheerful submission to the rules of war and the fatigues of the service, Having adjusted the desired comnmnication, the general formed the whole force into four divisions, and directed his course to Fere-Cham- penoise. A hostile corps, not suspecting that any enemies were so near, incurred the risque of being surrounded. Not only the infantry, but also the cuirassiers, were attacked by the Russian light cavalry, and harassed into a precipitate retreat, in which they suffered great loss. Another body, nearly amounting to 5000, likewise approached, and, after a short but gallant resistance, submitted to captivity. The subsequent inter- ruptions of the march were of little moment ; and, on the 30th of March, the army appeared before the entrenchments and the gates of Paris. It was declared, in a moderate and judicious proclamation, that the object of the march was to effect a sincere and permanent reconciliation with France ; that no hope of terminating the misfortunes of the country could be entertained while there existed, in the very power of the govern- ment which oppressed the people, an insurmountable obstacle to peace; that the allied sovereigns recommended the organisation of such a salu- tary authority in France, as might promote and cement the union of all other nations with that power ; and that it was incumbent on the Pari- sians to accelerate the peace of the world, by making such political arrangements as the crisis required. As thisaddress did not produce submission or acquiescence, prepara- tions 'were made for an assault. The national guard, assembled for the defence of the city, amounted to about 30,000 men, under Hulin, the governor; while general Compans commanded 8000 regulars, who were reinforced by the few troops which had fled with Marmont from Fere- Champ^noise. An eminence at Bell ville, and other heights, formed a station for the right wing: the centre stood behind the canal of L'Ourquc, having the benefit of some well-furnished redoubts ; and the left extended its ranks to Neuillj. The right was first attacked ; and the resistaace FRANCE. 353 nee, prepare- was spirited, but ineffective. In the centre, the contest was prolonged, so as to inflict severe loss on the assailants ; yet, in the course of a few hours the attacks upon every post, except Montniartre, were successful. The consternation into which this triumph threw the Parisians may easily be conceived. They dreaded the outrages of the Cossacks, and the rengeance of the Prussians ; and, if the mode of treatment had been left to the uncontrolled decision of those troops, the effect would have been dreadful. But the humanity of the allied princes, and of that general to whom they gave a plenitude of authority, revolted from all ideas of pillage, conflagration, and massacre. They allowed the defenders of the city to capitulate, and gave promises of friendly protection to all the inhabitants. It was agreed that the troops should retire to a distant spot, and that the allies should take possession of the capital. This success would have been very imperfect, if a change of govern- ment had not resulted from it. The tyrant had hastened back from his imprudent march, as soon as he had received intelligence of the alarming movements of his adversaries : but he could not reach Paris, so as to superintend the defence ; and his troops refused to support him, when they found that the city had been captured. Without being openly influenced by the victorious princes, who affected to avoid all interference, the conservative senate assigned the task of temporary government to live pereons of distinction, and ordered a new constitution to be prepared without delay. It was also voted, on the 2d of April, that, as Napoleon had been guilty of many acts of tyranny and oppression, and had involved the country in danger, he should no longer be treated or acknowleged as the sovereign of France. When his deposition had been thus decreed, with an exclusion of his whole family from the succession, his rage seemed to be unbounded ; but he soon found that it was useless to resist the torrent which ran so forcibly against him, and therefore resigned all pretensions to the throne, both in his own name and in that of his son. While a constitution favorable to liberty was in progress, a considerable part of the population of Paris called for the immediate elevation of the brother of Louis XVI. to the throne; and, though some members of the senate would have preferred the duke of Orleans, it was deemed more advisable to follow the ordinary rules of succession. Louis XVIII. was chosen to supersede the dynasty of Napoleon ; and deputies were sent to England, where that prince had long resided in privacy, to request his presence in the re-organised kingdom. He readily accepted the invita- tion, trusting to that desire of peace, which, after a series of commotions and of war, might be supposed to influence the majority of the nation. After some farther hostilities in the south, the war ceased to rage. Bonaparte was sent to Elba, pensioned by the new court, and permitted to rule over the island. Louis took quiet possession of the throne; and, on the 30th of May, a treaty was adjusted, by which he agreed to the demands of the princes to whom he owed his crown. He resigned the territorial usurpations of the republic and of Napoleon, and reduced France within those frontiers which had been established before the revolutionary war arose with Austria. The principal colonies, which might have been safely retained by Great-Britain, were restored to the siibjects of Louis with unnecessary liberality ; and both the king and his people were treated with respect and with kindness. Louis governed with moderation, yet not without spirit, being aware of the ill effects which had resultcil from the passive mildness of bis brother. lie endeavoured to conciliate all parties, without the sacri- fice of his authority. He found, however, that tliQ army had etill a 2A 354 FRANCE. great influence over the country, and that the ofilcers studiously pro. pagated a disrespectful and contemptuous opinion of a prince who had not been bred to arms, and whose disposition prompted him to con- sider military glory as inferior to civil virtues. When he had reigned for ten months, pursuing " the noiselegs tenor of Jiis way," the ill consequences of that lenity with which a sanguinary oppressor had been treated, appeared in the most alarming form, Na- poleon took an opportunity of escai>ing unobserved, and landed in France, in March, 1815, with a small party, which was quickly in- creased by the adjunction of various regiments in the south. He crossed the kingdom without oppositian, as if he had been returning in triumph from a glorious enterprise; resumed his power; and en- forced the retreat of the whole royal family. If he had deliberately re- flected on the determined spirit of the allied potentates, and had not implicitly trusted to his fame and influence, he would not have risqucd this bold attempt. They were settling, at Vienna, the complicated affairs of the continent, when they received intelligence of his invaiion. They immediately declared him an outlaw and a public enemy, and menaced him with that vengeance which he deserved. In reply to this denunciation, he maintained his right of profiting by the favor and re- gard of the French, who had restored him to that power which they might lawfully grant, and which no other nation could be justified in controlling. He professed a wish for peace, and exhorted the princes to be equally attentive to its preservation. Finding that they had bound themselves by new engagements to oppose him, he prepared to meet the storm which he could not ward off; and, to secure the popu- lar interest, he enacted a constitutional code, resembling that which had been lately accorded to the nation. He then marched to the Netherland frontier with all the troops that his influence could procure, and became the aggressor in a new war. He was for a short time suc- cessful ; but his laurels faded in the field of Waterloo. Having entered into some detail respecting that memorable conflict in our survey of the history of England, we proceed to observe, that the leader of the defeated army was never before thrown into such con- sternation as that which then oppressed him. When he reached Paris, he seemed eager to hide his shame in seclusion ; but the necessity of consulting his confidential ministers roused him from his melancholy. Some advised him to act in the most arbitrary manner, dissolve the two assemblies which he had recently called into political existence, and defy the public clamors and censure ; consoling him with the hope that a new army might easily be levied, and that victory might attend his renewed efforts. Others recommended coolness and moderation, and a temperate appeal to the zeal and patriotism of the legislature. The lat- ter advice was that which he resolved to follow ; and, even when he found that the resentment and indignation of the national deputies me- naced him with dethronement, he did not dare to order a dissolutiun. His pride and presumption were so far subdued by his reverse of fortune, that he consented to a dereliction of his power, if the two chambers would secure the nomination of his son to the imperial dignity. The off'er was gladly accepted ; and he who had domineered over Europe with the most unfeeling an'ogance, retired with seeming humility into the privacy of ordinary life. •The allies, in the mean time, were employed in overpowering that resistance which his partisans were yet disposed to make. Some forti- fied towns were reduced; and the king, who, during the renovated FRANCE. aaft "^-'^elew tenor :n a sanguinanr ng form. Na. and landed in vas quickly in. le south. He been returninif ower; and en- deliberately re. » and had not •t have risqued le complicated f his invaion. enemy, and n reply to this lavor and re- 'er which they he justified in ted the princes that they had le prepared to 3ure the popu- ng that which arched to the could procure, ihort time sue- arable conflict erve, that the ito such con- eached Paris, necessity of 8 melancholy. dissolve the KJstence, and he hope that ht attend his •ation, and a re. The lat- i-en when he deputies me- dissolution. e of fortune, mbers would he offer was 3e with the the privacy vering that Some forti- rcnovated iffay of his rival, had kept his court at Ghent, returned in safety within his own frontiers. The dulse of Wellington and Blucher, with divided but communicating armies, advanced towards the capital. The Prus- giaoa stormed Versailles, and forced the position of Issy ; and, when the two generals were fully prepared for an attack upon Paris, the troops and the citizens capitulated. Yet the legislative assemblies continued to deliberate, with an intention of opposing the restoration of Louis, if he should refuse to sanction the new political arrangements whiVh they had devised on Napoleon's abdication. Before the king re-ente i the city, he sent a peremptory mandate for their dissolution, which they did n t presume to disobey. Driven from Paris by the requisition of the temporary rulers of France, Napoleon had retired to the coast, where he remained in a state of anxious alarm, apprehending that he might be punished by those princes whose keen resentment he had aroused. He was suffered tc enjoy his liberty, as he had no remains of power : but, as his fears did not sulwide, he sought an opportunity of embarking at Rochefort, with a view of tmnsporting himself to the territories of the United States. As such a scheme did not offer, to the European public, any security against the renewal of his mischievous practices, the British cruisers hovered about the port for the purpose of obstruction ; and, when he found himself pre- cluded from escape, he gave notice of his wish to accept protection from his most persevering enemies. He was therefore received into a British ship of war, and conveyed to the coast of Devon, where innumerable throngs gazed at him, when he appeared upon the deck, as a hero or a monster. He probably expected to be introduced to the prince regent, and treated with the most respectful politeness, as he had filled the highest station in political society : but he was not even permitted to disembark; and, after a detention which he bore with impatience, he was confounded by a mandate for his confinement in the island of St. Helena. He warmly protested against this treatment : but no regard was paid to his expostula- tions ; and he lived for some years on that secluded spot, exhibiting a melancholy picture of mortified ambition. He died of a cancer in his stomach, on the 5th of May, 1821, in the 52d year of his age, loudly accusing the allied princes of having cruelly condemned him to a prema- ture death. The humanity of the restored monarch did not prevent him from in- flicting capital punishment on some of those officers who had joined Napo- leon on his return to France. It was the opinion of many, that he had not sufficient courage to sign a warrant for the execution of Ney, styled the prince of the Moskwa, an intrepid and able general ; but he was not in- timidated by the loud clamors of the ex-emperor's partisans, and this act of spirit had a great efi'ect in over-awing the mal-contents. He was, at the same time, assailed with obloquy for tamely suffering the allied troops to carry off the pictures, statues, and manuscripts, which had been seised by the French in Italy and other countries: but the chief ground of re- proach arose from the new treaty (concluded on the 20th of November), by which eighteen fortresses were given up for five years, to be garrisoned by 150,000 foreign soldiers, whom the French were obliged to maintain during that period, beside paying 700 millions of francs or livres, as a partial indemnification to the various governments whidi had been driven into war by encroachments and injuries. Thus was the continent rescued from oppression and tyranny by the persevering efforts of Great-Britain and other 'powerful states, whose zealous exertions claim our applause. Some acts of the liberators of 2 A 2 356 FRANCE. Europe, indeed, particularly their arbitrary transference of terrltorici may be justly blamed; but the general spirit of those arrangementj which emanated from the congress of Vienna may safely be commended because they tended to maintain the balance of power, and to secure peace. The allied princes, having attentively watched the conduct of the French, were disposed to believe that the peace would be permanent, or at least, would not for some years be disturbed. They therefore con- sented (by a convention signed on the 9th of October, 1818), to subtract two years from the terms specified in the last treaty, and to withdraw their troops without farther delay. This concession allayed the animosity of the French, but did not suiiiciently conciliate their good-will to our coun- trymen, whom they still seem to view with unfriendly eyes. The king continued to govern with the advice of the legislative body; but it was easy to comply in that respect with the constitution, when the elections were so managed, that a majority of servile members were con- stantly procured. Some commotions and partial insurrections, in 1821 and 1822, gave him temporary uneasiness, but did not seriously shake his throne. He chiefly favored those ministers who were friendly to the constitution, while his brother encouraged the advocates of the old regime. The zeal of the latter faction seemed at length to infuse itself into the royal breast, and it was resolved that the revolutionary spirit of the Spaniards, who held their king in bondage, should be repressed by hos- tilities, as the contagion of their example might otherwise reach the good city of Paris. Having procured the sanction of the two chambtrs to the intended enterprise, Louis ordered his nephew, the duke d'Angou- leme, to put his army in motion ; and about 80,000 men commenced their march, in five divisions, toward the Pyrenees, In Navarre the in- vaders were favorably received ; and, in their progress to Madrid, towns which might have been defended were readily surrendered. As Ferdi- nand and the curtcs had left that city, a new government was quietly or- ganised by the arrogant enemy, while the constitutional rulers, forcing the king to accompany them, were seeking refuge within the fortifications of Cadiz. In the mean time, iVIina harassed the French in Catalonia with great spirit, but with ineffective success. Ballasteros seemed to be equally zealous ; but, being defeated in a brisk conflict, he submittid to the new government, lliego had too small a force to act with decisive vigor; and, being closely watched, he was obliged to yield to his pur- suers. The cortes strengthened the posts in the isle of Leon ; but the reduction «)f the Trocadero and another fort, and a fierce bombardment from the French fleet, diffused such a panic, that ulterior resistance was deemed hopeless. The assembly ceased to act ; the king was re- stored to full liberty : and the duke returned to France, leaving a con- siderable force in Spain for the preservation of the tranquillity of despo- tism. In the mean time, the king gradually declined in health and in strength. He felt the ill effects of habitual intemperance, by which his frame was bloated and corrupted. He died on the 16tli of September, 1 824, in the 69th year of his age. He had good sense, tvithout great talents; possessed a greater firmness of character than his unfortunate predecessor ; and was in general attentive to the interest and welfare d his people. His brother quietly ascended the throne, and gratified the public with an abolition of that censorship of the press which the late king had in- troduced ; but, by giving his confidence to the Jesuitical bigots, and 5 of terrltoriM, I awangementj' be commended, and to secure conduct of the permanent, or, therefore con.' 18), to subtract withdraw their le animosity of 'ill to our coun. I. gislative body; Jtion, when the ibers were con- :tions, in 1821 seriously shake Iricndly to the es of the old to infuse itself ionary spirit of pressed by hos- reach the good ) chambers to uke d'Angou- n commenced avarre the in- Hadrid, towns I. As Ferdi- 38 quietly or- ulers, forcing ; fortifications in Catalonia seemed to bo submitted to with decisive d to his pur- ion ; but the )ombardmcnt or resistance cing was re- aving a con- ity of despo- alth and in )y which his •September, ■ithout great unfortunate d welfare of public with ing had in- bigots, and enacting a I checked mi to attend li| Charles ( 1773, Mar| two sons,' former, no\1 cousin, thej came, in ]820, he wl against thrf Bourdeauxl KIN< m m BELGIUM. 367 enacting a severe law against sacrilege (an offenco which he might have checked without arbitrary rigor), he soon lost the popularity which seemed to attend him on his accession. Charles (Louis Philippe) X. was born Oct. 9, 1757. He married, in 1773, Maria Tlieresa, princess of Sardinia, who died in 1805, leaving two sons,— Louis and Cha les, dukes of Angouleme and Bern. The former, now the dauphin, was born in 1775, and, in 1799, espoused his cousin, the daughter of Louis X VI. The latter was born in 1778, and be- came, in 1816, the husband of Caroline princess of Naples ; but, in 1820, he was murdered by Louvel, who cherished a malignant animosity against the whole house of Bourbon. He left a f .., styled the duke of Bourdeaux. THE KINGDOM OF THE NETHERLANDS; j i .; .' COMl'REH ENDING ; ' 2 • '. THE BELGIAN PROVINCES AND THE LATE REPUBLIC OF j J , , . HOLLAND. Although these territories are now (as they formerly were) united under one sovereign, it seems advisable to speak of them in two divi- sions, because, having been so long disjoined in the important points of religion and government, they are not yet fully amalgamated. BELGIUM. MileSn Length 155 ) Breadth 150) EXTENT ANU SITCATIOK, Degrees, id 51,30, 40 and 6,10, East longitude. between C 49,20 and 51,30, North latitude. ^2,4C Containing 9,500 square miles, with more than 289 inhabitants to each. Name, boundaiiies, divisions.] The seventeen p^ivinces, ex- tending from the French frontier to the river Ems, formerly composed a part of Belgic Gaul, and afterward of the circle of Belgium or Bur- pindy in the German empire. In consequence of their low situation, they were called the Netherlands. Two of the nurabtr (Artois and the Carabresis) were conquered by the French : seven revolted from the Spaniards; and the rest, during the greater part of the eighteenth cen- tury, were known by the name of the Austrian Netherlands. The last are bounded on the north by Holland ; on the east by the Prussian ter- ritories ; on the south by the French departments of the North, Ardennes, and Moselle ; and on the west by a part of France, and by the tee. whic;li separates Britain from the continent. They are divided into IV 'r'iriitfniT< 858 BELGIUM. the proTinces of Flandert, Brabant, Antwerp, Malines, or Mechlin, Limburg, Namur, Hainault, and Luxemburg. Liege, which was long deemed a part of Germany, is also included. The two first are the most flourishing of the whole number, and are supposed to contain a far greater number of inhabitants than all the rest taken together. Face of tiie country.] The Netherlands are a flat country, con. taining no mountains, and few hills. The rural scene presents iiere pleasing prospects on all sides : fields crowned with fruitful crops, mea. dows covered with numerous herds, neat and commodious farm-houses set sin-jly or in groups, cheerful and extended villat^es, embowered among trees, and divided from each other by small intervals; while through such fair landscapes the rivers wind, and the clear canals pursue their useful course. Forests.] In Brabant is the forest of Soig'"3s; and in Hainault and Luxemburg are ample remains of the foi« to. ■ '""nnes, which for- merly extended from the Moselle to the sea. Rivers, canals.] Among the chief rivers aro the Maes, Schelde, Sambre, Demer, Dyle, Geete, Rupel, Scarpe, Deule, and Dender. The Maes, or Meuse, rises in France near Langres, enters the kingdom of the Netherlands near Givet, and flows across the country into South- Holland. The Schelde originates to the southward of Cambray, passes through the province of Hainault, proceeds to Antwerp, and flows, by two great branches, into the German Ocean. The principal canals are those of Brussels, Ghent, and Ostend. Metals, minerals.] Mines of iron, copper, lead, and sulphur, are fouhd ill Luxemburg and Limburg, as are some marble quarries ; and in Namur are coal-pits, ahd a species ui bituminous fat earth, proper for fuel, with great plenty of fossile nitre. Climate, soil, agriculture.] The air of Brabant, and upon the coast of Flanders, is bad ; in the interior parts it is moro healthful, and the seasons are more settled, both in winter and summer, <'\'"'. they are in England. The soil and its produce are rich, espe :. I; iii c^u and fruit. There is an abundance of pasture; and Flander :s< i'^ i^^ been reckoned the granary of France and Germany, and s^'; • ;;, ,'& England. The most barren parts for corn rear far more profitable c ps of flax, which is here cultivated to great perfection. The state of agri- culture, in the Netherlands, has received the highest praise from those v.'ho are well qualified to judge of it, and has, indeed, been celebrated for these fiOO years past. Upon the whole, these provinces, by the culture, commerce, and industry, of the inhabitants, were formerly the richest and most beautiful spot in Europe, for the variety of manufac- tures, the magnificence and riches of the cities, the pleasantness of the roads and villages, and the fertility of the land. Vegetables, animals.] Great quantities of c ; , flax, and madder, and also hops and tobacco, are raised in the N: .-lands, and the pasturage is particularly abundant. The cattle, wbiu. i pur*"' '-.c' lean in Germany, soon increase in bulk ; and the native caUn-j iu most of the provinces, show by their size the luxuriance of the soil from which they are fed. The animals are neariy the same as in France. Natural curiosities.] No j recipices, cataracts, nor any grand and romantic natural scenery, can bo expected in thij flat and low country. A stone-quarry, under a hill near Maestricht, which is worked into a kii i of subterranean palace, supported by pillars twenty feet liigh, may be mentioned undi?r this head, though it may seem rather an artificial than a natural curiosiiy. BELGIUM. 359 Population.] It was affirmed, by the French, that these provinces contained above three millions of souls under their sway : but this cal- culation seems to have transcended the truth ; and it does not appear that the present number, with all the increase which has taken place since the rescue of the country from their grasp, exceeds two millions and three quarters. National ciiaracteu, manners.] The Flemings, by which name the natives of the Low-Countries were usually called, though the appellation was strictly applicable only to thoso of Flanders, were gener- ally considered as a heavy, blunt, honest people, ignoraut, bigoted, and superstitious. When they were under the yoke of their Gallic neigh- bours, being less oppressed than the former subjects of France, they seemed to shake off their habitual gravity, and to iuatate the vivacity of their new masters, whose example, at the same time, did not tend to improve their morality : but they did not, in general, suffer their catholic zeal to be relaxed by the suggestions of scepticism. Chief towns, edifices.] Brussels, the former residence \,I the Austrian governor, is now the capital of the Netherland kingdom. It is partly built on an eminence, and partly on a plain watered by the small river Senne. Its fortifications were destroyed, or rendered useless, in a military point of view, by the emperor Joseph II. ; but the ramparts, being planted with trees, form beautiful walks round the city. Srme of the squares are spacious and handsome ; and a neat regularity of building prevails in the town. That extensive tract which is called the Park is a public garden, intersected by walks, and varied by lawns, ornamented with fountains and statues. It is surrounded by magnificent buildings ; and the whole is calculated to excite the admiration of strangers. The old palace, which is rather stately than elegant, contains a fine col- lection of pictures, a cabinet of natural history, and a valuable library. The most admired religious buildings are the church of St. Gudule and the chapel of Notre Dame. About 85,000 persons compose the popu- lation ; and among them are many families of British emigrants, who have been attracted to this spot by the supposed salubrity of the air, tlie beauty of the situation, and the comparative facility of subsistence. Antwerp, in the sixteenth century, was the great emporium of the con> tinent: but the selfishness and jealousy of the Dutch ruined its commerce by obstructing the navigation of the Schclde. It is now rapidly recover- ing from its long decline ; and its commerce perhaps will soon be equal to that of Amsterdam or Hamburg. Its merchants receive the commo> dities and manufactures of most of the Belgian towns, and conduct on a large scale thr usiness of exportation ; and its port is so well frequented, that, in the year 1817, it boasted of the arrival of 999 trading vessels. While It was possessed by Bonaparte, he enlarged and improved the harbour, constructed extensive docks and store-houses, and strengthened the town by the skilf •! labors of the engineer. The population is increas- ing, and is supposed to amount to 75,000. Among the public edifices, the cathedral, the old church of the Jesuits, the tov.n-house, and ex« 'change, are particularly d'ltinguished. Ghent was formerly a more considerable town than it is at present ; but it is still populous, and carries on a profitable trade in linen and corn. Bruges and Ostend are also commercial towns of some im- portance. Luxemburg is more famous for its natural and artificial strength, than for the extent or value of its traffic. It is romantically situated on two abrupt rocks, whioh overhang the Else. Namur is likewise a strong m 360 BELGIUM. town ; and its population doubles that of Luxemburg ; for it contains about 21,000 persons, who are employed in iron and leaa ";:!:-. Jj^^j is a large and well-built town, containing about 27,000 inhabitanU, who profit by manufactures and coal-mines. Liege, which was long the seat of a bishop who was a prince of the empire, is still a considerable town. In the time of its independence, it was called the paradise of priests, who were its most opulent inhabitants; but some of its churches are now in ruins, and ecclesiastical tyranny has yielded to civil influence. The manufactures carried on in this city and its envuons evince thf? industry of the people, and an appearance of com- I'nt is pleasingly observable among them. The situation is remarkable- (. .wn is narrowed by the proximity of lofty hills to the Maes, and the plied branches of the river form many islands, which are bor. dered i.> well-constructed quays, and communicate by bridges of varied forms. On the same river stands the strong, beautiful, and flourishing to'.vn of Maestricht. Manufactures, and commerce.] Some important manufac- tures are prosecuted by the artisans of the Netherlands with great spirit and success. Their lace (of which the finer sort is made at Brussels and Antwerp, and the stronger species at Mechlin and Bruges) is not equaled by that of any other country ; and their linen is also in high estimation. Silken, cotton, and woollen articles, are likewise fabricated to advantage, if not with that skill which is displayed in Great-Britain or in France. Fire-arms, stoves, and cutlery, are well manufactured: earthen-ware is also made for exportation ; and many refineries of salt and sugar are established over the country. Government.] When these provinces were subject to Austria, they had no regular constitution, as it had been subverted by the emperor Joseph, who^ though he was bound to adhere to the guaranty of the joyeuse entree and of all the privileges of his Netlierland subjects (sti- pulated on the accession of his grandfather Charles VL), consulted only his own arbitrary will and caprice. Even Leopold, when he re- claimed the revolters, meanly avoided a compliance with their just ex- pectations. Yet his despotism, and that of his son Francis, did not proceed to the extreme of tyranny. Under the French yoke, it could not be supposed that great regard would be paid to the rights of the people : but, when the success of the allies put the prince of Orange in possession of the country, he condescended to grant a new consti- tution to the Netherlands, in 1815, on the basis of a complete uniun with Holland. He promised that a general assembly, freely elected, should exercise its deliberations alternately in each country ; that the government should be administered with a due regard to the suggestions and advice of the national representatives; that all citizens, Whether catholics or protestants, should have an equal chance of being admit- ted to public offices and employments ; and that the Belgians should be gratified with a full participation of all the commercial and colonial advantages which were already enjoyed by the Hollanders. Religion.] Before the conquest of Belgium by the French, the established religion was the Roman-catholic ; but protestants, and other sects, were not molested, though they were not allowed to have public places of worship. When the country formed a part of France, it was subject to the regulations of the concordat concluded between that power and the see of Rome. The archbishopric of Mechlin was the metropolitan see ; Cambray was also an archbishopric. The bishoprics wero Ghent, Bruges, Ant- werp, Arrae, Ypres, Tournay, St. Omer's, Namur, and Roermond, BELGIUM. 361 ,"•:■"• Moos Jprincoofthe tPendence, j, I'lJiabitants. J/^au'iy has" f '»« t-'ty and fnceofcoDi. 1 remarkable ■ l?^i<^s,and ['<='» are bor. P of varied "' nourishing '* maniifac. -great spirit Brussels and 'Ses) is not a'so i« high 2 fabricated ^eat-Britain i/'factured : i'es of salt istria, they ^ emperor 'ty of the lyects (sti- <-'onsuIted iien lie re- 'Jr just ex- is. did not ■} it could 'ts of the ^ Orange 'w consti- etc union elected, that the ?e:pstiong WJiether admit- s should colonial ich, the «. and have ■"ranco, Btween mbray Ant- The catholic hierarchy is still preserved even by a r05'al Calvinist ; but he is not disposed to gratify the Belgian prelates with exclusive supremacy, or the arbitrary direction of religious affairs. Literature and the arts.] The society of Jesuits formerly produced the most learned men in the Austrian Low-Countries, in which they had many eligible settlements. Works of theology, and the civil and c!;non law, Latin poems and plays, were their chief productions. SUT'.Ja is an elegant historian and poet. The interesting historians Froissart and Philip de Comines were natives of Flanders : the learned Lipsius was born near Brussels. The Flemish painters and sculptors have great merit, and form a school by themselves. The works of Rubens and Vandyke cannot be sufficiently admired. The models for heads of Fiamingo, or the Flem- ing) particularly those of children, have never yet been equaled ; and the Flemings formerly engrossed the art of tapestry-weaving. Universities.] These were at Louvain and Tournay. The former was founded in 1426, by John IV. duke of Brabant; and by a grant of pope Sixtus IV. it had the privilege of presenting to all the livings in the Netherlands. It was suppressed by Joseph II. ; and some of its colleges now form the hotel of invalids. Language.] The vernacular language of this country is the Fle- mish, a dialect of the Dutch ; but it is nearly superseded, except among the peasantry, by the French. Antiquities.] Some Roman temples and other buildings, and the remains of Roman roads, are found in the Netherlands. There are also many churches and monasteries, venerable for their antiquity ; and the magnificent old edifices of every kind, in all the cities, give evidence of their former grandeur. In 1607, some laborers found sixteen hundred gold coins, and ancient medals, of Antoninus Pius, Marcus Aurelius, and Lucius Verus. History.] About a century before the Christian sera, the Battse removed from the country now called Hesse to the marshy country bounded by the Rhine and the Maes, and gave the name of Batavia to their new territory. Generous and brave, the Batavians were treated by the Romans with great respect, being exempted from tribute, go- verned by their own laws, and obliged only to perform military service. Upon the decline of that empire, the Goths, and other northern people, possessed themselves of these provinces first, as they passed through them in their way to Gaul and other parts of the Roman empire ; and afterwards being divided into small governments, the heads of which were despotic within their own dominions, Batavia became inde- pendent of Germany, to which it had been united under one of the grandsons of Charlemagne, in the beginning of the lOth century, when the supreme authority was lodged in the three united powers of a count, the nobles, and the towns. At last, they were swallowed tip by the house of Burgundy in 1433. To the house of Austria they were transferred in 1477, in consequence of the marriage of the archduke Maximilian with the heiress. The tyranny of that prince's great- grandson, Philip II. of Spain, occasioned an insiirrection of the pro- vincials, at whose head appeared the counts Hoorn and Egmont, and the prince of Orange ; and Luther's reformation gaining ground about the same time in the Netherlands, his disciples were forced by perse- cution to join the mal-contents. Philip, in consequence, introduced a kind of inquisition (which, from the inhumanity of its proceedings, was called the Council of Blood), in order to suppress the revolt ; and ^ 362 BELGIUM. many thousands were put to death by that court, beside those trho perished by the sword. Hoorn and Egmont were taken and beheaded- but the prince of Orange (whom the insurgents elected for their stadu holder) retiring into Holland, that and the six adjacent provinces entered into a treaty for their mutual defence, at Utrecht, in 1579. And thouirh these revolters at first were thought so despicable as to be termed Beggars by their tyrants, their perseverance and courage were such, under the able direction of the prince of Orange, and with the aid afforded to them by queen Elizabeth, both in troops and money, that they forced the crown of Spain, in 1609, to declare them a free people ; and they were acknow- leged by all Europe as an independent state, under the appellation of Tu£ United Provinces. After this separation, the Spaniards remained masters of ten provinces or, as they are termed, the Netherlands or Low-Countries, until the duke of Marlborough, as general of the allies, gained the memorable victory of Ramillies, in 1706 ; after which, these provinces acknow- ledged Charles VL, afterwards emperor of Germany, for their sovereign; and his daughter, Maria Theresa, continued to possess them until the war of 1741, when the French reduced them, except a part of the duchy of Luxemburg, and would have retained them from that time, but for the exertions of the Dutch, and chiefly of the English, in favor of the house of Austria, which continued in undisturbed possession of the part of the Netherlands secured to it by the peace of 1748, till the disputes which took place between these provinces and Joseph IL in the years 1788 awd 1789. The quarrel originated, like those in other countries, from the prero- gatives assumed by the emperor, which were more extensive than his sub- jects wished to allow. He pretended to be humane and philanthropic ; but he did not treat the insurgents with lenity. A proclamation was issued by count Trautmansdorff, governor of Brussels, intimating, that no quarter should be given to them, and that the villages in which they concealed themselves should be set on fire. General Dalton marched with 7000 men to retake the fortresses, proclaiming that he intended to become master of them by assault, and would put every soul found in them to the sword. Almost every town in the Austrian Netherlands now showed its deter- mination to oppose the emperor. A formidable army soon took the field ; which, after some successful skirmishes, obtained possession of Ghent, Bruges, Tournay, Mechlin, and Ostend. A battle was fought before Ghent, in which the patriots were victorious, though with the loss of 1000 men. It reflects indeUblc disgrace on the emperor, as well fcson the commanders of his troops, that they committed the most dreadful acts of cruelty on the unhappy objects who fell into their hands. Orders were given to plunder and destroy wherever they could obtain any booty ; while the merciless savages not only destroyed the men, but killed women and infants. By these horrible barbarities, they ensured success to their adversaries, who made the most rapid conquests ; insomuch that, before the end of the year, they were masters of every place in the Netherlands, except Antwerp and Luxemburg. Although the provinces thus appeared fur ever separated from the house of Austria, the death of Joseph, happening soon after, produced such a change in the conduct of the government, as gave a very unex- pected turn to the situation of affairs ; and the mild and pacific dispo- sition of Leopold, the conciliatory measures which he adopted, and the mediation of Great*Britain, Prussia, and Holland, led to an amicable HOLLAND. S63 Mtdement. In 1790, a convention was signed at Retchenbach by the iiiirh contracting powers, which had for its object the re-establishment of peace and good order in the Beigic provinces of his imperial majesty. When the French revolution was in its progress, its effects were not imaiediately lelt by the Netherland provinces ; but their proximity to the agitated country, and the menacing aspect of their sovereign, ex- posed them to the early violence of the storm. The speedy success of the invaders, in 1792, we have already recorded. After the transient recovery of a great portion of the country, a repetition of conquest fol- lowed, on the part of the French, who retained the Netherlands with the teeming acquiescence of the people, until the year 1814, when the fall of Paris produced a momentous change in the state of the continent. The emperor Francis, in consideration of his acquisitions in Italy, end from a desire of giving additional power and respectability to the prince of Orange, waved his pretensions to the provinces which he had re- ceived from his ancestors ; and it was resolved, even before they were secured by the battle of Waterloo, that they should compose, in con- junction with Holland, the kingdom of the Netherlands. Some pecu- niary grants, out of the French contributions, were appropriated to the reparation of the fortresses, that a new barrier might be formed against future invasion. That catholic bigotry, and that jealousy of the preponderance of Hol- land) which at first excited some degree of repugnance in the minds of the Belgians to the proposed union, seem to be gradually subsiding under the government of a moderate and well-disposed prince ; and the new kingdom flourishes as a secondary state, if not as a first-rate power. HOLLAND. EXTENT AND SITUATION. Miles. Length 150) Breadth 120 ) between Degrees. X 51,20 and 53,30 North latitude. ( 3,30 and 7, East longitude. Containing 9400 square miles, with 308 inhabitants to each. Name.] This country was a part of that which was inhabited by the Batavi : it is usually called Holland, from the name of the chief pro- vince, the word implying a hollow or low country. Boundaries.] It is bounded on the north and west by the German ocean, and the Zuyder-Zce ; on the east by Germany ; and on the south by Belgium. Divisions,] The United Provinces were, in strictness of speech, eight, namely, Holland, Over-Yssel, Zealand, Friseland, Utrecht, Gro- ningen, Guelderland, and Zutphen ; but, the two last forming only one province, they are generally termed the Seven United Provinces. Be- side these, the Dutch republic contained the county of Drenthe, a kind of separate province in Over-Yssel, which had no share in the govern- ment; and what was called the Land of the Generality, or Dutch Brabant, Dutch FlanderB, and the part of Limburg which beh>nged to the republic 364 HOLLAND. After the expulsion of the stadt-holder, the French restored to the coun- try its ancient name, and divided it into eight departments, which are now superseded by a revival of the old divisions. Face of the country.] Holland is situated on the east side of the English channel, and is only a narrow slip of low swampy land be- tween the mouths of several great rivers, gained from the sea by means of stupendous dykes. Here are no mountains or rising grounds, no plant- ations, purling streams, or cataracts. The whole face of the country, when viewed from a tower or steeple, has the appearance of a continued marsh or bog, drained at certain distances by innumerable ditches ; and many of the canals, which in that country serve as high roads, are in the summer months highly offensive. RiVEHs, LAKES, CANALS.] The chief rivers of Holland are the Rhine (on'3 of the largest rivers in Europe), the Maes, the Dommel, the Waal, the Yssel, and the Schelde. There are many small rivers that fall into these. The principal lake of Holland is that of Haerlem ; leas considerable lakes are found in North-Holland, in Friscland, and Groningen. The canals of these provinces are almost innumerable. The usual way of passing from town to town is by covered boats, called treck-schuits, which are dragged along the canals by horses on a slow uniform trot, so that passengers reach the different towns where they are to stop precisely at the appointed instant of time. This method of traveling, though to strangers rather dull, is extremely convenient to the inhabitants. By means of these canals an extensive inland commerce is not only carried on, but, as they communicate with the Rhine and other large rivers, the pro- ductions of every country arc conveyed at a small expense into various parts of Germany and Flanders. A treck-schuit is divided into two apart- ments, called the roof and the ruim : the former for gentlemen, and the other for common people. Near Amsterdam and other large cities, a traveler is astonished when he beholds the effects of an extensive aud flourishing commerce. Here the canals are lined with neat country- houses, seated in the midst of gardens and pleasure-grounds, intermixed with figures, busts, statues, temples, &c., to the very edge of the water. Metals, minerals.] Holland produces neither metals nor minerals, except a little iron ; nor any mineral waters. Climate, soil, agriculture.] The air of the United Provinces is foggy and gross, until it is purified by the frost in winter, when the east wind usually sets in for about four months, and the harbours are frozen up. The moisture of the air causes metals to rust, and wood to mould, more than in any other country, which is the chief reason of the per- petual rubbing and scouring, and of the brightness and cleanliness in the houses. The soil is unfavorable to vegetation ; but, by the industry of the inhabitants in making canals, it is rendered fit for pasture, and in many places for tillage. Vegetables, animals.] The quantity of grain produced here is not sufficient for home consumption ; but, by draining the bogs aud marshes, the Dutch have formed many excellent meadows, which fatten lean German and Danish cattle to a vast size ; and they make prodigious quantities of the best butter and cheese in Europe. Their country pro- ducep. turf, madder, tobacco, some fruit, and iron ; but all the pit-coal aud timber used there, and, indeed, most of the comforts, and even some of the necessaries of life, are imported. They hai a good breed of sheep, whose wool is highly valued : and their horses and horned cattle are of a larger size thaa in any other European state. Storks build aud hatch on their country about t January foUowi their sea-fish at in deep water, cellent oyster-b the inconvcnie plenty of the i terms (except t CuKiosiTir grand scenery is intersected traveler; and t teen ells in thi< preserve their c suffered 80 muc honseof Ams world : it stan theinsideisbc taining antiqui in Holland an Leyden. Populatk peopled of anj 1785, nccordi 1400 villages, Lands of the < very oppress! v Napoleon, whi warlike enterp number nearh Nation A habits, and e^ situation, and ' preserved by the artificial petual repair. butter and cl parts of life. herring-fishei English and of their clinr body and m liquor. Eve to every obje in all other Their valor 1 be at stake ; boors aie s Their seame neral are up words; and, money, no i for strangci ercise the HOLLAND. 365 tatch on their chimneya ; but, being birds of passage, they leave the country about the middle of August, with their young, and return in the January following. Their river-fish are much the same as ours ; but their sea-fish are generally larger, in consequence perhaps of their fishing in deep water. No herrings visit their coasts ; but they have many ex- cellent oyster-beds about the islands of the Texel. Notwithstanding all the inconveniences, the industry of the Hollanders furnishes as great a plenty of the necessaries and commodities of life, and upon as easy terms (except to strangers), as can be met with in any part of Europe. CuKiosiTiES.] Holland, like Belgium, presents none of the vast and grand scenery of nature. The numerous canals with which the country i8 intersected may be considered as interesting to the curiosity of the traveler; and the prodigious dykes (some of which are said to be seven- teen ells in thickness), mounds, and canals, constructed by the Dutch, to preserve their country from those dreadful inundations by which it formerly suffered BO much, are works equally stupendous and singular. The stadt- honse of Amsterdam is one of the best buildings of that kind in tho world: it stands upon 13,659 large piles, driven into the ground: and the inside is both commodious and magnificent. Several museums, con- taining r.nliquities and curiosities, artificial and natural, are to be found in Holland and the other provinces, particularly in the university of Leyden. Population.] The Seven United Provinces are apparently the best peopled of any spot of the same extent in the world. They contained in 1785, according to a public account then given, 113 cities and towns, 1400 villages, and 2,768,632 inhabitants, beside the people in the Lands of the Generality ; and, though the population declined during the very oppressive government to which the Dutch were subjected by Napoleon, who nearly ruined their trade, and destroyed their youth in his warlike enterprises, we may perhaps be justified in elevating their present number nearly to 2,900,000. National characteh, manners, customs,] The manners, habits, and even the minds of the Dutch, seem to be formed by their situadon, and to arise from their natural wants. Their country, which is preserved by mounds and dykes, is a perpetual incentive to labor ; and the artificial drains, with which it is intersected, must be kept in per- petual repair. Even what may be called their natural commodities, their butter and cheese, are produced by a constant attention to the laborious parts of life. Their principal food they earn out of the sea, by their herring-fisheries ; for they dispose of most of their valuable fish to the English and other nations for the sake of gain. The air and temperature of their climate incline them to phlegmatic, slow dispositions, both of body and mind ; and yet they are irascible, especially if heated with liquor. Even their virtues seem to originate in their coolness with regard to every object that does not immediately concern their own interests; for, in all other respects, they are quiet neighbours, and peaceable subjects. Their valor becomes warm and active, when they believe their interests to be at stake ; witness their naval wars with England and France. Their boors are slow of understanding, but are manageable by fair means. Their seamen are plain, blunt, rough, and surly. Their tradesmen in ge- neral are upright and honest in their dealings, and very sparing of their words; and, as they are generally plodding upon ways and means of getting money, no people are so insocial. In consequence of their want of feeling for strangers, and their inherent selfishness, they have been known to ex- ercise the most dreadful inhumanities for interest abroad, where they r 366 HOLLAND. thought themselveB free from discovery ; but they are in general quiet and inoffensive in their own country, which exhibits few instances of murder rapine, or violence. As to the habitual drinking charged upon both sexes' it may be attributed, in a great measure, to the nature of their soil and climate. In general, all appetites and passions seem to run lower and cooler among the Dutch than in most other countries, that of avarice ex- cepted. Their tempers are not airy enough for joy, or any unusual strains of pleasant humor ; nor warm enough for love ; so that the softer passions seem no natives of this country ; and love itcelf is little better than a mechanical affection, arising from interest, convenience or habit ; it is talked of sometimes among the young men, but as a thini; they have heard of, rather than felt, and as a discourse that becomes them, rather than affects them. In whatever relates to the management of pecuniary affairs, the Dutch are certainly the most expert of any people ; as, to the knowlege of acquiring wealth, they unite the no less necessary science of pre- serving it. It is a kind of general rule for every man to spend less than his income ; for it does not often enter into the heads of this sagacious people, that the common course of expense should equal the revenue; and when this happens, they think, at least, they have lived that year to no purpose ; and the report of it used to discredit a man among them, as much as any vicious or prodigal extravagance does in other countries, But this rigid frugality is not so general among the Dutch as it was for- merly ; for luxury, and extravagance have made some encroachments. Gaming is practised by many of their fashionable ladies ; and some of them even discover a propensity to gallantry. No country can vie with Holland in the number of those inhabitants whose lot, if not riches, is at least a comfortable sufficiency ; and no where fewer failures or bank* ruptcies occur. Hence, in the midst of heavy taxes and numerous contributions, many of them flourish and grow rich. By this systema- tic spirit of regularity and moderation, joined to the most obstinate per- severance, they succeeded in the stupendous works of draining their country of those immense deluges of water, which had overflowed so large a part of it during many ages, while, at the same time, they brought under their subjection and command the rivers and seas that surround them, by dykes of incredible thickness and strength, and made them the principal bulwarks on which they used to rely for the pro- tection and safety of their territories against invasion. They covered their frontiers and cities with innumerable sluices ; by means of which, at the shortest notice, the most rapid inundations were let in, and they seemed to be inaccessible. Yet their attempts of this kind did not prevent the temporary subjugation of their capital by the duke of Brunswick, or preclude the success of the French. In both cases, indeed, a very strong party favored the invaders, and checked the zeal of de- fensive exertion. By that frugality and perseverance, by which they were so much cha- racterised, the Dutch were enabled, though laboring under the greatest difficulties, not only to throw off the Spanish yoke, but to attack that powerful nation in the most tender parts, by seising her rich galleons, and forming new establishments in Africa, and the East and West In- dies, at the expense of Spain, and to become, from a despicable province, a most potent and formidable enemy. Equally wonderful was the rise of their military and marine establishments ; maintaining, during their celebrated contest with Louis XIV. and Charles II., not less than 150,000 men, and eighty ships of the line. But, a spirit of frugality HOLLAND. 367 yiiii DOW less prevalent among them, the rich traders and mechanics bMia to approximate to the luxuries of the English and the French ; and tlieir nobility and high magistrates, who have retired from trade, rival thow of any other part of Europe in the elegances of the table, in their koildings, furniture, and equipages. The diversions of tho Dutch differ not much from those of the English, vbo seem to have borrowed from them the neatness of their drinicing- bootbi, nine-pin grounds, and bowling-greens, not to mention their hand- orgaoi and other musical inventions. They are the best skaters in the world. It is amazing to see the crowds in a hard frost upon the ice, and the great dexterity both of men and women in darting along, or rather ijinf, with inconceivable velocity. The most permanent amusement of iHoUaoder is smoking. His pipe and tobacco-box are his constant companions. The English (except the higher ranks) are also too fond of this disgusting practice. The dress of the Dutch formerly was noted for the large breeches of the men, and the jerkins, mob-caps, enormous hats, short petticoats, ud other oddities of the women ; all which, added to the natural thick- oeM and clumsiness of their persons, gave them a very grotesque appear- uce. These dresses now prevail only among the lower ranks, and more particularly among the sea- faring people. In the towns, persons of the middle claes difiPer very little in their dress from the English, ex- cept that their clothes are of a coarser fabric. The men, in their per- mt, are short and stout : and the women (which is certainly not the cue in England) are in general taller than the n^^jn, and not remarkable for elegant or expressive features-. Some have attributed the white lod fishy face, which is noticed with surprise by strangers, to the pre- posterous treatment of infants, who are swathed and in a manner over- whelmed with clothing, and deprived of the benefit of fresh air. The domestic virtues of the women are topics of praise ; and their manners are less repulsive than those of the men. Their great attention to clean- liaess is a pleasing trait in their characters ; but it is more studiously I bestowed upon their houses than their persons. The practice of using s chauffe-pied under their petticoats cannot tend to the purpose of neatness ; nor is it absolutely necessary for the communication of that wannth which might be obtained with sufficiency in a less indelicate node. Cities, chief towns, edifices.] Amsterdam, situated- at the conflux of the Amstel with a sort of creek called the Y or Wye, was the residence of only a few fishermen at the beginning of the thirteenth cen- tury; but it became a commercial town about the year 1370, from vhich time it gradually rose to importance and to opulence. Its form is semi-circular; and its circumference is about nine miles. Being built in the midst of a morass, almost the whole city stands upon oaken piles, fixed with great labor in the mud or humid earth. It is a forti- fied town ; but the works are not remarkably strong. Most of the streets are intersected by canals, and adorned with rows of trees. No fine squares, like those of Brussels, are observable ; but some of the streets are wide, and furnished with stately mansions. The public buildings most worthy of notice, beside the stadt-house, are those of the East apd West India companies, the exchange, the bank, the post-ofiice, the arse- nals, the admiralty, the orphan-house, and those churches which are particularly called the old and the new. There are literary societies that are well supported, and charitable institutions which are under judicious maoagemeat. Many theatres arc occasioaally opeo iox general enter* 368 HOLLAND. tainment. For peraiitting such amusements, the magistrates may not be thought to deserve blamo ; but, when we find that they also regularly iicense houses of ill fame, we are disposed to censure the Ir.xity of thej, morals. The population of this city, in 1785, amounted to '2:)O,000' but, during the decline of its commerce, it fell below 200,000. Itj^ now, however, gradually increasing. The Hague was long the seat of government, though it was only considered as a village, being neither walled, nor indulged with the privilege of sending deputies to the states. The magnificence of some of its buildings, the elegance of i)ther8, and the neatness of the greater part, are noticed by every visitant. The streets are long and wide, and handsome squares vary the scene. About 37,000 personi reside on this spot; and it has been remarked, that they more le- semble the English in their appearance and manners, than any other portion of the Dutch community. Rotterdam, next to Amsterdam, is the most flourishing ■ -cial town in Holland. It stands near the confluence of the th the Maes; and, in consequence of the depth of its canals, the largest vessels may closely approach the warehouses. The prevalent style of ' Dutch building is more particularly observable in this town. The houses are very lofty, with projecting stories : the walls are composed of very small bricks, and the windows are exceedingly large. A num- ber of mills for sawing timber, and other purposes, rising from the summits of various buildings, some whimsically painted, and others adorned with grotesque figures, have an extraordinary appearance. The finest street is the Boom-quay, extending about a mile along a branch of the Maes. This city- was dignified by the birth of Eras- mus, and is honored by the institution of a scientific academy. With regard to its population, the accounts materially difl'er ; but we may pre- sume that it is not less than 53,000. The academical city of Ley- den is equally, if not more populous ; and it is one of the finest towns in Holland. Utrecht is a large, handsome, and populous town, pleasantly si- tuated on one of the channels of the Rhine. It was formerly the see of an archbishop ; and the ruins of its cathedral exhibit an ndmired specimen of ancient magnificence. From the cloisters of that cdilice are formed the lecture-rooms of the university. The city is occupied by 35,000 persons, many of whom are employed in various branches of manufacture. Commerce, manufactures] An account of the commerce of the Dutch, previous to the French revolution, would have comprehended that of almoct all Europe. There is scarcely a manufacture that they did not carry on, or a state with which they did not trade. In this they were assisted by the populousness of their country, the cheapness of their labor, and above all, by their water-carriage, which, by means of their canals, gives them advantages beyond most other nations. The United Provinces were the grand magazine of Europe ; and commo- dities might be purchased here sometimes cheaper than in the countries where they grow. The India Company had the monopoly of the most valuable spices, and, before the last war with Great-Biitain, was ex- tremely opulent and powerful. liven at the present time, the trade and manufactures of the Dutch are very considerable. Wool, linen, silk, and cotton, are wrought with silk into various articles of dress and ornament : the prfictice of bleaching is carried on with peculiar success : porcelaia, paper, hemp, leather, and HOLLAND. 369 a multiplicity of other commodities, aro made for exportation. Beside tbeu articles, the products of the colonies are sent to almost every country in Europe: the carrying- trade is still prosecuted to advantage ; and the buiinew of exchange is more extensively carried on by the merchants of Amsterdam, than by those of any other continental city. Public trading companies.] Of these the principal is the East- India company, incorporated in 1(302. By the channel of this esta- blishment, the Dutch formerly acquired immense wealth, and divided forty per cent, and sometimes fifty, about the year 1660 ; at present the dividends are much reduced ; but, in a hundred and twenty-four years, the proprietors, one year with another, shared twenty-four per cent. In 1760, they divided fifteen per cent., while the West-India company shared no more than two and a half per cent. This society was incorporated in 1621. The bank of Amsterdam was thought to be inexhaustibly rich, and was under an excellent direction. a r Wil- liam Temple said, that it contained the greatest treasure, either real or imaginary, that was known any where in the world. What may sfem a paradox, is, that this bank was so far from paying any interest, that the money in it was worth more than the current cash is in com- oioo payments. Mr. Anderson supposes, that the cash, bullion, and pavoed jewels in this bank, which were kept in the vaults of the Stad(^ house, amounted to thirty-six (others say thirty) millions sterling, if this treasure had existed in the year 1795, the French invaders would hare quickly embezzled it ; but it is said that scarcely any remains of it were then found, as the valuable deposits had been lent out at different times on the faith of bonds, which were preserved in lieu of the subtract- ed treasure. CoNSTiTUTiOK, GOVERNMENT, LAWS.] Before the French entered Holland, the United Provinces formed a common confederacy; yet each prorince had an internal government or constitution independent of the others. Each had its states, and the delegates from them formed the slates-general, in which body the sovereignty of the whole confederacy was Tested. The council of state consisted likewise of deputies from the several provinces, and it was composed of twelve persons. Guelderland. sent two; Holland, three ; Zealand, two ; Utrecht, two ; Friselaud, one ; Orer-Yssel, one; and Groningen, one. These deputies did not vote proviocially, but personally. Their business was to prepare estimates, and ways and means for raising the revenue, as well as other matters that were to be submitted to the states-general. The states of the pro- vinces were styled Noble and Mighty Lords ; but those of Holland, Noble and Most Mighty Lords; and the states-general. High and Mighty Lords, or the Lords of the States-general of the United Nether- lands, or their High Mightinesses. These two bodies had under them a financial chamber, composed of provincial deputies, who audited tho oational accounts. The admiralty formed a separate board, and the executive part of it was committed to five colleges in the three maritime provinces of Holland, Zealand, and Friseland. In Holland the people had no concern either in the choice of their representatives or their magistrates. At Amsterdam, which took the lead in the public delibera- tions, the magistracy was lodged in thirty-six senators, who were chosen for life ; and every vacancy was filled up by the survivors. The same senate also elected the deputies to represent the cities in the province of . Holland. These particulars are mentioned, because, without a knowlege of them, it is impossible to understand the history of the United Proviacea » B VHP 370 HOLLAND. 11 from the death of king William to the year 1747, when the stadtholder- ship was made hereditary in the male aud female representatives of the family of Orange. This office in a manner superseded the constitutioi already described. The stadtholder was president of the states of every province ; and as, by his power and influence, he could change the de- puties, ma'jistrates, and officers, n every province and city, he moulded at his will the assemMy of the si ates-general, though he had no voice in it : in short, though he had not tl.™ title, he had more real power than some kings; for, beside the infiuencd and revenue which he derived from the stadtholdership, he had feveral principalities and large estates, The stadtholder, whom the Frenca expelled in 1795, and who never re- covered his power, was William V. prince of Orange and Nassau, son of William Charles, who married Anne, princess royal of Great- Britain, and died in ITTA. Though Holland under this constitution was called a republic, its go- vernment was far from being of the popular kind : nor did the people enjoy that degree of liberty which might at first view be supposed. It was indeed rather an oligarchy than a commonwealth. Very few persons dared to speak their real sentiments freely ; and the citizens were gene- rally educated in principles so extremely cautious, that they could not relinquish them when they ente'ed more into public life. On the conquest of Holland by the French, a convention was assem- bled to administer the government, and frame a constitution for the new Batavian republic. The first plan presented for this purpose was re- jected by the people in the primary assemblies ; but another was after- wards drawn up, which was accepted. This constitution was changed ' in several particulars in 1798 ; and the republic was then governed by a directory of twelve members, the president of which was changed once in three months, and of which one member went out annually ; and by a legislative body of 35 members, which assembled twice or more frequently in the year, and appointed a committee of twelve of its mem- bers to examine and report on the laws and regulations proposed by the directory. In the year 1806, it pleased iiapoleon to erect Holland into a n gal go- vernment, giving to it a king in the person of his brother, Louii Bona- parte. By the new constitution, then introduced, the king was to possess the complete exercise of the executive government, and all the power necessary, to carry the laws into effect. A legislative body of thirty-eight members, however, and a council of thirteen, were at the same time or- ganised ; and with these the ministers were required to deliberate. But, as this form of government quickly passed away, it does not demand far- ther notice. As the king of Holland was more disposed to favor the people than his tyrannical brother wished, he was dethroned in 1810 by an imperial order ; and the whole country was more fully subjected to France by a regular incorporation. When this close connexion had subsisted for three y-;ars, it was dissolved by the victory of Leipsic ; and an early re- sult of the restoration of the house of Orange was the grant of«a new constitution, allowing, instead of the aristocratic system which had long prevailed, a body of popular representatives, as a check both upon the higher assembly and the king. With respect to the administration of justice in this country, every province has its tribunal, to which, except in criminal causes, appeals lie from the petty and county courts ; and it is said that justice is no where distributed with greater impartiality. Revenue. the taxes acco posU consi8te( hearth-money three millions half of this n show the opm volution, of th Of ev( tr Zeal Fris Utr< Gro Gu( Ove Of the 420 nished 320,00 60 numerous, 1 thing exempt allowed to bre goods and mei The povert] in consequeno nental system, consequence o the present go nience and wi kingdom of t 6,783,000/. si imall loan bee Army, na period, of ab( not at present «r flourishing The navy liam III., wa the line, forty the Dutch we j contributed i I naval force ; RELIGIOli Holland, in Wished or pa the country i tained any o and had thei indeed, this c fits arising to to worship G of the most peace. No pressed on ac by advaacin HOLLAND. 371 Reveuue.] The old government of the United Provinces proportioned the taxes according to the abilities of each province or city. Those im- posts consisted of an almost general excise, a land-tax, poll-tax, and hearth-money; so that the public revenue amounted the Calvinistic system ; and none but presbyterians ob- tained any office or post in the government ; yet all sects were tolerated, and had their respective meetings or assemblies for ^. ..blic worship. And, indeed, this country may be considered as a striking instance of the bene- fits arising to a nation from universal toleration. As every man is allowed to worship God according to the dictates of his own conscience, persons of the most opposite opinions live together in the most perfect harmony and peace. No man in Holland has any reason to complain of being op- pressed on account of his religious principles : nor can he have any hopes, by advancing his religion, to form a party or to break in upon the go- 2B2 m HOLLAND. vernment; and, therefore the people live together as citizens of the world- their differences in opinion make none in affection, and they are associ^ ated by the common ties of humanity and bonds of peace, under th« protection of the laws of the state, with equal encouragement to arts and industry, and equal freedom of speculation and inquiry. Literature.] Erasmus and Grotius, who were both uaiives of this country, stand almost at the head of modern learning. Haerlera dis- putes the invention of printing with the Germans, and the magistrates keep two copies of a book entitled Speculum Salvationis, priuted by Koster in 1440 ; and the most elegant editions of the classics, in the se- venteenth century, came from the presses of Amsterdam, Rotterdam, Utrecht,Leyden,and other towns. The Dutch haveexcelled in controversial divinity, which insinuated itself so much into the state, that, before prin- ciples of universal toleration prevailed, it had almost proved fatal to the government ; witness the violent disputes about Arminianism, predesti- nation, and other doctrines. Beside Boerhaave, Holland has produced excellent writers in all branches of medicine. Grsevius, Gronovius, both the father and son, and Burman, are celebrated commentators upon the classics. Some Dutch poets have also appeared, among whom Cats and Joost VandeU'^Vondel are the most admired. Universities.] These are, Leyden, Utrecht, Groningen, Harder- wick, and Franeker. The university of Leyden, which was founded in 1575, is the largest and most ancient in all the Dutch provinces. Beside a great numbcrof printed books, its library contains above two thousand oriental manuscripts. The university of Utrecht was changed from a school into an university in 1636 ; but it has not all the privileges of the other universities, being entirely subject to the magistrates of the city. The botanic garden be- longing to it is very curious : and for the recreation of the students, on the east side of the city, is a beautiful mall, consisting of seven straight walks, two thousand paces in length, regularly planted with limes. To these seminaries many young men of rank, or sons of opulent traders, are sent from other European countries ; and the force of example is strikingly exhibited ; for, as frugality in expense, order, a composed be- haviour, attention to study, and assiduity in all things, are the character- istics of the natives, strangers who continue amongst them soon adopt, but not perhaps permanently, their manners and form of living; and though the students live at their discretion, and study as much or as little as they think fit, yet they are in general remarkable for their sobri- ety and good manners, and the diligence and success with which they apply themselves to their studies. No oaths are imposed, nor any reli- gious tests ; so that Roman critiiolic parents, and even Jews, send their children hither with as little eoruple as protcstauts. Lanouaoh.] The Dutch language is a corrupted dialect of the German ; but the gentry speak English and French. The Lord's Prayer runs thus: Onse Vader, die in de hemlim zyn, uwen naain worde geheyligt : uvu konirKjkryk home : vwe iville geschiede gelych in den kernel zoo oolc op denardcn: ons dageticks hroot geef oiis hceden; ende vergeeft onse schulden, gelyk oak wy vergeeven onse schukicn- aaren : ende cnlaat ons niet in versoeckinye, maer vertast om« van der booscn. Amen. Antiquities.] Holland contains few antiquities. Near Catwyck is a ruinous Roman tower ; and in the middle of Leyden is an artificial mount, on which is a round tower, built, according to traditional report, by Hengist, the leader of the Saxous who invaded England. HOLLAND. 373 'IisTORY.] After the Sevra United Provinces had obtained their it ipendence, as related in our summary of the history of the Nether- landsi they soon became distinguislied as a commercit*' and maritime state ; and in their wars with England, under the commonwealth, Crom- well, and Charles 1 1„ justly acquired the reputation of a formidable naval power. When the house of Austria had so far declined as to be no InDfc'er formidable, and when the public jealousy was directed against that of Bourbon, which was favored by the political leaders in Holland, who had deprived the prince of Orange of the dignity of stadtholder, such was the spirit of the people, that they revived it in the person of the prince, who was afterwards William III. king of Great- Britain ; and during his reign, and that of queen Anne, they were principals in the grand confederacy against Louis XIV. of France. They consequently shared the reputation and glory of the great victories which were ob- tained by the duke of Marlborough; and, in concert with that fortunate general, they would have humbled Louis more eft'ectually, if the career of success had not been checked by the intrigues of the queen's Tory ministers. As a continuance of the war, however, without the assistance of Great-Britain, seemed to be a hopeless task, the states-general were content to yield. Anne complimented them by fixing upon their city of Utrecht for the place of ostensible negotiation, while the substance of the treaty was settled without their advice or interference. To their barrier such additions were made as gave them, when coupled with the fonner grant, the power of garrisoning the principal towns in the Austrian Netherlands ; and they reverted to a state of peace, in which they long continued. In 1718, they joined the king of Great-B n and other princes in a league against Spain ; but they rather gave tliLi< name than any effective strength to the confederacy. They concurred witii Gforge II. in the alliance which accompanied the treaty of Seville; but, when that prince unnecessarily embarked in the continental war, in 1742, they aid not think themselves bound to co-operate with him, alleging that he had not been attacked. As their commerce flourished during the war, they wished to secure the advantages of neutrahty : yet, when their barrier was seriously endangered, they complied with the king's importunate so- licitations, and sent their troops into the field. By the treaty of Aix-la- Cbapelle, they saved their barrier : and their joy at the return of peace may easily be conceived. , When a new war broke out, in 1755, they studiously avoided all concern in it; and, on the rupture with the Ame- rican colonies, they were more inclined to assist the rcvolters than to sup- port the British government. The pensionary, van Berkel, without re- gard to the authority of the stadtholder, framed a commercial compact with the colonial loaders, whom his countrymen supplied even with naval and military stores. Of the war which the Dutch thus provoked, we have already stated the chief incidents. They did not suft'er that extent of mischief which, if Great-Britain had not been assailed by a formida- ble league, would certainly have been inflicted upon them for their ingra- titude and treachery ; and, by the treaty of 1783, they procured a resti- tution of every conquest except their oriental settlement of Negapatam. In the following year, a dispute occurred between the states and the em- peror Joseph, on account of a design he had entertained of opening the Schelde for the benefit of his Netherland provinces ; and preparations for war were made on both sides; but France and Prussia interposed as ne- gotiators, and succeeded in effecting a reconciliation. A factious and republican spirit at this time prevailed in the pro- ▼incM. Eocouraged by the success of his American friends, vaa Berkel 374 GERMANY. resolved to make such attacks upon the authoribr of the prince of Oraiige,ai would, if successful, turn the scale of power in favor of republicanism. H, accused the stadtholder of having injured the interest of his country, by favoring the English in the late war ; and also imputed to him the most arbitrary views and intentions. The prince's friends, on the other hand inveighed against the unconstitutional views and dangerous designs of the pensionary and his associates ; and, in 1786, hostilities arose from the animosity of the two parties. The neighbouring powers did not view this contest with indifiference. Louis XVI., according to the usual policy of the French court, promised to assist the stadtholder's adversaries- while Great-Britain and Prussia expressed their readiness to support the prince against all the encroachments of faction. By the contrivance of the English ambassador, the princess of Orange, who was the sister of the Prussian monarch, was stopped in a journey by a party of republicans; and this trifling insult served to accelerate the determination of that prince, who, having in vain demanded a satisfactory apology, sent 18,000 men to assault the Dutch capital. The zeal of Louis being cooled by the consideration of his pecuniary embarrassments, no troops were isent from France into Holland ; and the Prussians, therefore, found little difficulty in overpowering the prince's opponents, who, trusting to the arrival of a French army, did not make those defensive dispositions which tlie crisis required. Amsterdam was quickly taken by storm : van Berkel and his chief friends were incapacitated from all public functions ; and the stadtholder was gratiiied with new prerogatives. The resentment which the defeated party felt on this occasion, tended to facilitate to the French the task of subduing the country. Of the rapid success of the revolutionary arms, in 1795, the reader has been already informed. Tlic vassalage of the Batavian republic, under its arrogant conquerors, continued to the peace of Amiens ; and, after a short interval of independence, its subjection was renewed in 1803. Even the royal title, with which it was for some years outwardly honored by its Gallic masters, did not confer dignity on a servile nation. This oppressed community, however, found, in the course of events, an opportunity of (Mnergiti>4 from thraldom, and of re-uniting its fate with that of the Belgians. William Frederic Louis, king of the Netherlands, duke of Luxemburg, and prince of Orange-Nassau, was born on the 24th of August, 1772, and married, in 1791, to Frederica Sophia Wilhelmina, sister to Fre- deric William III. king of Prussia; by whom he has issue, i. William Frederic George, born in December, 1792, who married, in 1816, the Russian princess Maria. 2. William Frederic Charles, born in Febrtiary, 1797. ? 3, Wilhelmina Frederica Paulina, born in March, 1800. I i I ^ GERMA NY. KXTENT AND SITUATION. Miles. Length 650 Breadth 530 ? between < Degrees. 45| and 55, North latitude. 6, and 19, East longitude. Containing 180,000 square miles, with more than 172 inliabitants to each. ' Name.] A large portion of modern Germany was situated in ancient 1! '\ '■'."**« 13S&, ■ ^^liutwnn If,,,.,, BAunV^^ j /Culm lyfii' 1^ ^ 4 Radmu ^^ ItRAfk.'E I.on^tU(ii> "if IT hylilmrmmt' lir otkrr frvprinors. ~JifJJo«iffirrel»iry>2 Siti- Gaul; and the ^ Many fanciful de that it is compoui signifies a warhkj names, such aa / their most ancien country Teutschli Boundaries ocean, Denmark and Hungary; Switzerland; am France. Divisions.] Southern, and th great circles ; an in 1552 ; but, th Low-Couutries) confine ourselvef north, three in t of Upper and I. the Upper and I Swabia, Bavari new arrangemei cal divisioiLS, wi petty state or pi to enumerate tl acts of the con; The circle oi chiefly divided the anti-Gallic gress transferrer two divisions < of Franconia"), tachment to Ni whose kingdom other territorie To the grand < Meinungen, ai with small add the Saxon prii and whose ter Betnburg, and Reuss family. Lower-Sax( kingdom of 1 tel, Mecklenb Lubeck, and Prussian terril In the circ square miles, elioprics of M considerable these provinc( which is now and the duel GERMANY. 375 Gaul; and the word Germany itself may be considered as modem. Many fanciful derivations have !)een given of it ; the most probable is, that it is compounded of Ger- Man, which, in the Teutonic language, giffnifies a warlike man. The Germans were called by various other names, such as Allemanni, Teutones ; which last appears to have been their most ancient designation ; and even the present natives call their country Teutschland. Boundaries.] Germany is bounded on the nortl; by the German ocean, Denmark, and the Baltic; on the east by Prussia, Galitzia, and Hungary; on the south by the Adriatic Sea, Italy, and Switzerland ; and on the west by the kingdom of the Netherlands and France. Divisions.] Germany was formerly divided into the Upper or Southern, and the Lower or Northern. Maximilian I. divided it into ten great circles ; and the division was confirmed in the diet of Nuremberg, in 1552 ; but, the circle of Burgundy (or the seventeen provinces of the Low-Couutries) being afterwards detached from the empire, we must confine ourselves to nine of those divisions. Of these, three are in the north, three in the middle, and three in the south. The first are those of Upper and Lower Saxony, and Westphalia. The middle circles arc the Upper and Lower Rhine, and Franconia ; and those of the south are Swabia, Bavaria, and Austria. As these circles, notwithstanding the new arrangements of the German confederacy, still serve for geographi- cal divisions, we shall here retain them : but, as a specification of every pt'tty state or i)rincipaiity would be very unnecessary, it will be sufiicient to enumerate those which were thought worthy of distinct notice in the acts of the congress of Vienna. The circle of Upper Saxony contains 31 ;500 square miles, and is chiefly divided between the kings of Prussia and Saxony. To reward the anti-Gallican zeal displayed by the former potentate, the con- gress transferred to him the duchy of Saxony (properly so called), the two divisions of Lusatia, and the county of Henneberg (in the circla of Franconia), out of the spoils of the latter prince, whose apparent at- tachment to Napoleon had excited the displeasure of the allies, and whose kingdom was therefore reduced to the margravate of Meissen and other territories, extending from Leipsic to the frontiers of Bohemia. To the grand duke of Weimar, and the dukes of Saxe-Gotha, Coburg, Meinungen, and Hildburghausen, their former territories were allowed, with small addition^ to sonic of them, under the general appellation of the Saxon principality. Other princes, who have votes in the new diet, and whose territories are in this circle, are those of Anhalt- Dessau, Bernburg, and Coethen, the two princes of Schwartzburg, and two of the Reuss family. ' Lower-Saxony comprehends 17,950 square miles, and includes the kingdom of Hanover, the duchies of Holstcin, Brunswick- Wolffenbut- tel, Mecklenburg-Schwerin and Strelitz, the free cities of Hamburg, Lubeck, and Bremen, with the principality of Halberstadt and other Prussian territories. In the circle of Westphalia, which embraces an extent of 22,300 square miles, the duchy of Cleves, the county of Mark, the former bi- shoprics of Munster and Paderborn, the grand duchy of Berg, and other considerable tracts, belong to the king of Prussia, whose subjects in these provinces are computed at one half of a million. East-Friseland, which is now a Hanoverian dependency, the principality of Osnahruck, and the duchy of Oldenburg, are also in this circle ; and the duke of 376 GERMANY. Nassau, and two princea of the Lippe faniily, derive from their West, phalian possessions the privilege of voting. The circles of the Upper and Lower Rhine contain, respectively 8500 and ,7600 square miles. In the former division we find the do^ minions of the Hessian princes, one of whom, during the sway of Na- poleon, enjoyed the title of elector of Hesse-Cassel ; also those of the Nassau family, the principality of Waldeck, the free city of Franckfort and the duchy of Deux-Ponts, a recent appendage to Bavaria. To the Lower Rhine belong the late archiepiscopal electorates of Mentz Treves, and Cologne, now possessed by the king of Prussia ; and also the Palatinate of the Rhine, a dependency partly of ]3aden and partly of the Bavarian realm, with which the principality of Aschaffenbufis also incorporated. The dimensions of Franconia scarcely exceed 8,350 sqiiaro miles, This circle is in a great measure divided between the kings of Bavaria and Prussia. — In Swabia, which contains 11,750 square miles, the kingdom of Wiirtemberg is comprehended : the grand duchy of Baden is within its boundaries; svs arc also the territories of the prince of Lichtenstein, and of two princes of the HohenzoUern family, to whom votes in the diet are allowed. It may readily be supposed, that the greater part of the Bavarian circle appertains to the king. About 17,500 square miles form its ad- measurement. The largest circle is that of Austria, to which 44,500 square miles are assigned. It extends from the frontiers of Hungary to the Alpine boundaries of Italy. Face of the countrv.] The southern part of Germany is moun- tainous and hilly ; the northern presents wide sandy plains, with few hills, On the eastern side are the most extended plains, and the greatest chains of mountains. Mountains.] The Vogesian ridge, commencing in the .Sundgau, and extending into the Lower Palatinate, — the Schwartz-Wald in Swabia, — the Alps on the borders of Switzerland and Italy,— Kalenberg in Austria,— the Er/gebirge (or Mountains of Ore) between Saxony and Bohemia,— the Fichtclberg in Franconia, — and the Hartz in Lower Saxony, — are among the chief mountains of Ger- many. Many other elevated tracts are found in diflerent parts of the empire. Forests.] The great passion which the Germans have for hunting the wild boar is the reason why, perhaps, there are more woods and chases yet standing in Germany than in many other countries. The Hercynian Forest, which in Caesar's time was nine-days' journey in length and six in breadth, is now cut down in many places, or divided into woods, which bear particular names. Most of the woods consist of pine, fir, oak, and beech. There are many forests of less note in every part of this country ; almost every count, baron, or gentleman, having a chase or park, adorned with pleasure-houses, and well-stocked •with deer (of which there are seven or eight sorts), hares, foxes, and boars. Some of the woods also abound so much with wild fowl, that in many places the peasants have them, as well as venison, for their or- dinary food. Lakes.] The chief lakes of Germany, not to mention any inferior ones, are those of Constance and Bregentz. Beside these, are tin; Chiem-see, or the lake of Bavar'a; and the Zirnitz or Cirknitz-sce, in the duchy of Carniola, whose waters run off, and return, in an irre- gular and extraordinary manner. Rivers.] N than Germany. called from the computed at 150 navigable at U'" tainly not 120, mouths into the guishablein the UnyistheRh. the account ot Giant-mountains atOendorff. It and enters the 1 united Werra a tnrics. The Ol Moravia, l)egin! extent of Silcsi to the forniatior theBalticby tl MiNEUAL A more of these t Seltzer and Py still more celeb Little Bath ; a cool ten or tw cinal waters of ported to be springs at the wine, and the den iiave bee clans, and use^ virtue ascribei amusements o pany which ( do not repair nient. Mf.talsa of this count lead, sulphur, vered in the < found in Aus amethysts, j turquois stou greatest prir of curious m side other fo the terra sic pretended tc Climati all extensiv( tualiou to I improvemer most mild try, at an ( is sharp ; t GERMANY. 377 Rivers.] No country can boast a greater variety of rivers than Germany. At their head stands the Danube or Donau, so called from the swiftness of the current, and the course of which is computed at 1500 miles. It rises at Donaschingen in Swahia, becomes navigable at Ulm, receives a multitude of tributary streams (but cer- tainly not 120, as some have asserted), and discharges itself by five mouths into the Euxine, with such rapidity, that its current is distin- ffuishabic in the sea for several miles. Another great river in Ger- many is the Rhine, the rise and progress of which will be noticed in the accoiuit of .Switzerland. The origin of the Elbe is found in the Giant-mountains of Silesia : it is formed by two rivulets, which unite at Gendorff. It flows through Saxony, chiefly in a north-west direction, and enters the North-sea near llitpobuttel. The Weser consists of the united Werra and Fulda, and principally waters the Hanoverian terri- tories. The Oder rises out of a rock in a forest, on the frontiers of Moravia, begins to be navigated at Ratibor, runs through the whole extent of Silesia, also waters Brandenburg and Pomerania, contributes to the formation of the lake of Damm near Stettin, and pours itself into the Baltic by three channels. MiNEUAL WATERS A N' I) DATiis.] Germany is said to contain more of these than all Europe beside. The .Spa waters, and those of Seltzer and Pyrmont, are well ;..iown. Those of Aix-Ia-Chapelle are still more celebrated. They are divided into the Emperor's Bath, and the Little Bath ; and the springs of both are .so hot, that they let them cool ten or twelve hours before tliey use them. The baths and medi- cinal waters of Ems, Wisbuden, Schwjvlbach, and Wildungen, are re- ported to be extremely ellicacious in many diseases. 1"he mineral springs at the last-mentioned place are said to intoxicate as soon as wine, and therelore they are enclo.icd. The baths of Carlsbad and Ba- den have been described and recommended by many eminent physi- cians, and used with great success. A ])art, however, of the salutary virtue ascribed to these waters may be attributed to the exercises and amusements of the patients, and the number and variety of the com- pany which crowd to them from all parts of Europe; many of whom do not repair thither for health, buL for diversion and social enjoy- ment. Mf.talsand minruals.] Germany abounds in both. Many parts of this country contain mines of silver, quicksilver, copper, tin, iron, lead, sulphur, nitre, and vitriol. Even mines of gold have been disco- vered in the circle of Austria. Salt-petre, salt-mines, and salt-pits, are found in Austria, B.ivaria, and the Lower Saxony ; as are carbuncles, amethy.sts, jaspers, sapphires, agates, alabasters, several sorts of pearl, turquois stones, and the line.st of rubies, which adorn the cabinets of the greatest princes and virtuosi. In Bavaria, and the Tyrol, are quarries of curious marble, slate, chalk, ochre, red lead, alum, and bitumen, be- side other fossils. Several of the German circles possess cnal-pits ; and the terra sigillata of Mentz, with white, yellow, and red veins, has be.en pretended to be an antidote against poison. Climate, soil, aguicultuuu.J The climate of Germany, as in all extensive countries, differs greatly, not only on account of the si- tuation to the north, or south, or east, or west, but according to the improvement of the soil, which has a great efl'ect on the climate. The most mild and settled weather is found iu the middle of the coun- try, at an equal distance from the sea and the Alps. In the north, it is sharp ; toward the south it is more temperate. The seasons vary as 378 GERMANY. much as the soil : in tho southern and western parts they are more regular than in those that lie near the sea, or which abound with lakes and rivers. The soil of Germany is not improved to the full by culture; and therefore in many places it is bare and sterile, though in others it is ex. tremely fertile. A greater attention, however, is now given to agricul. ture in this country, and various improvements have been made ia Ijte years. ViiCiETABLES.] Among the vegetable productions of Germany are all kinds of grain, flax, hemp, hops, sailron, tobacco, and cxcillent orchard-fruits. The vine is found to flourish throughout nioie than the half of Germany ; but the most esteemed wines arc produced in the cir- cles of Swabia and the Rhine ; and they differ from those of oilier countries in a peculiar lightness, and detersive qualities, more etllcacioiis in some diseases than any medicine. Animals.] Germany yields abundance of excellent heavy horses: but the horses, oxen, and sheep, are not comparable to tliose of England, probably from tiie want of skill in feeding and rearing them. The German wild boars differ in color from our common hogs, and are four times as large. Their flesh, and the hams made of it, are pre- ferred by many even to those of Westmorland, for flavor and grain, The glutton of this country is said to be the most voracious of all ani- mals. Its prey is almost every thing that has life, which it can ma- nage, especially birds, .hares, rabbets, goats, and fawns; which it sur- prises artfully and devours greedily. Ou these it feeds so ravenously, that it falls into a kind of torpid state, and, not being able to move, is killed by the huntsmen; but, though both boars and wolves will kill it in that condition, they will not eat it. The color of this animal is a beauti- ful brown, with a faint tinge of red. Some parts of Germany are remarkable for fine larks, and a great va- riety of singing birds, which are sent to all parts of Europe. CuniosiTiES, NATUUAL AN» AiiTi Fiti A ],.] Ncxl to tiic lakcs and waters, the caves and rocks are the chief natural curiosities of (Jermany. There is said to be a cave near Blankenburg, in Hartz-forcst, of which no person has yet found the end, though many have advanced into it for twenty miles. But the most remarkable curiosity of that kind is near Hamelen, about thirty miles from Hanover, where at the mouth of a cave, stands a monument which conmiemorates the loss of 130 children, who were there swallowed up in 1284. This staten:ent, however, hag been disputed by some critics. P'requent mention is made of two rocks near Blankenburg, exactly representing two monks in their proper habits; and of many stones which seem to be petrifactions of fishes, frogs, trees, and leaves. With respect to artificial curiosities, the Germans have always ac- counted, as one of the principal, the great cask at Heidelberg, which holds 800 hogsheads, and, though now empty, was formerly full of the best Rhenish wine, from which strangers were seldom suffered to retire sober. Tliis cask has now lost its pre-eminence, by the superiority of the vessels or vats used by some of the brewers of London. In almost every court of Germany, a cabinet of curiosities, artificial, and natural, ancient and modern, may be seen. That of Vienna is par- ticularly admired. The city itself, indeed, is a curiosity : for here may be seen the greatest variety of inhabitants to be met with any where, as Greeks, Transylvauians, Sclavonians, Turks, Tartars, Hungarians, Croats, Germans, Polanders, Spaniards, French, and Italians, in their proper habits. The count of Its f' among which andthemanu itt Hebrew, !s i,ut the antiq plewTestame lold letters, v POPUI-ATI temporary los estimated at Ifljt about thi^ lino of t*>« ^ agree, in 181 the time ot v the conscript niovinces, a flu:ument Chapelle, millions; in (but not Hu The docu tions the am A P in GERMANY. 379 hsbito. The imperial library at Vienna is a great literary rarity, on ac- count of its ancient manusciipts. It contains 300,000 printed volumes, among which are a great number of rare specimens of early typography; and the manuscripts form 12,000 volumes, including many compositions in Hebrew, Syriac, Arabic, Turkish, Armenian, Coptic, and Chinese; !,ut the antiquity of some of the number may be doubted, ])articularly a New Testament in Greek, said to have been written 1500 years ago, in gold letters, upon purple. Population.] The population of the German empire, before the temporary loss of the territory on the left side of the Rhine, was generally estimated at between 2G and 27 millions. By that cession, Germany |fl»t about three millions and a half of inhabitants ; but, by the humilia- tion of the French, and the treaties to which they were constrained to agree, in 1815, the territorial spoils of the empire were restored. During the time of Gallic occupancy, the population suft'ered from the effect of the conscription ; yet it did not scorn materially to decline even in those inovinces, and it increased so much in the rest of Germany, that, in a aujument presented to the princes and plenipotentiaries at Aix-la- Chapelle, in 1818, the whole population is computed at more than thirty millions; in which calculation, as in the former, Bohemia and Moravia (but not Hungary and its dependencies) are included. The document to which we have referred thus distributes and appor- tions the amount of the people in the dilTercnt states : Austria 9,482,227 Prussia (without reckoning the king's ) „ g.-,g 439 sbare of Poland) j ' ~ ' Bavaria 3,560,000 Saxony 1 ,200,000 Hanover 1 ,305,55 1 Wurtemberg 1,395,462 Baden 1,000,000 Electorate of Hesse 540,000 Grand Duchy of Hesse 619,500 Holstein 360,000 Luxemburg 214,058 Brunswick- Wolffenbuttel 209,600 Mecklcnburg-Schwerin 358,000 Ni^ssau 302,769 Saxe-Weimar 201,000 Gotha 185,682 Coburg 80,012 Meinungen 54,400 Hildburghausen 29,706 Mecklenburg-Strelitz 71 ,769 Oldenburg 217,769 1 Anhalt-Dessau 52,947 Bernburg 37,049 Coethen 32,454 Schwartzburg-Sondershausen 45,117 Rudelstadt 53,937 Hohenzollern-Fleckingen 14,500 4v> Lichtenstein 5,546 -T- Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen 35,360 Waldeck 51,877 380 GERMANY. Reuss, the cider branch ,' ^S.^S.I —the younger 52,20.5 Schaumburg-Lippe 24,000 Lippe-Detmold 69,063 Hesse-Homburg ' 20,000 City of Lubeck 40,650 Bremen 48,500 Hamburg 129,800 In this enumeration, Frankfort on the Maine is omitted, to which we may assign, on probable grounds, a population of 43,000. With this addition, the aggregate will be found to amount to 30,089,201. Many of these calculations are apparently too high, and, indeed, the enumera- tion cannot be depended upon; and, perhaps, notwithstanding the con- siderable increase of population from the year 1818 to 1826, the present amount is under thirij -one millions. National ciiARACTEU, MANNERS, customs.] The Germans in their persons are tall, fair, and strongly framed. The ladies have gene- rally hnc complexions ; and some of them, especially in Saxony, have all the delicacy of features and shape, so bewitching income other countries. Both men and women used to affect rich dresses; and the men of a higher class were excessively fond of gold and silver lace, especially if they were in thu army : but that pomposity is now declining. The ladies at the ])rincipal courts differ not much in their dress from the French and English, and at Vienna are said to be as fond of paint as the former. At some courts they appear in rich furs ; and all of them are loaded with jewels, if they can obtain them. The female part of the burghers' families, in many of the German towns, dress in a very different manner, and some of them in modes which are inconceivably fantastic; but in this respect they are gradually reforming. As to the peasants and laborers, they dress, as in other parts of Europe, according to tbeir emj)loyments, convenience, and circumstances. The most un- happy part of the German community are the tenants of little needy princes, who squeeze them to keep up their own grandeur; bnt, in general, the circumstances of the common people are more comfortable than those of their neighbours. The Germans are naturally a frank, honest, hospitable people, free from artifice and disguise. The higher orders are ridiculously proud of titles, ancestry, and show. The Germans in general are thought to want animation, as their persons })roniise more vigor and activity than they commonly exert, even in the field of battle. But, when commanded by able generals, they have performed great exploits, both against the Turks and the French. Industry, application, and perseverance, are the great characteristics of tlie German nation, especially the mechanical part of it. Many of their works of art reflect credit on their talents. They excel in the manufacture of clocks and watches: they cut, polish, and arrange jewels with admirable skill : they practise all kinds of turnery with neatness and dexterity; their porcelain is admired for beauty of color, richness of gilding, and elegance of form ; and they are far from being despicable as draughtsmen, jiainters, sculptors, and architects. The Germans have been charged with intemperance in eating and drinking, and perhaps not unjustly, in consequence of the great plenty of wine and provisions cf every kind ; but such excesses are now less com- mon. At the grest'wSt tables, though the guests drink freely at dinner, TOWNS Vienna, family so 1 the capital where a br is ftlso the GERMANY. 381 the repast is commonly finished by coffee, after tliiee or four public toasts have been given. But no people have more feasting at mariiages, funerals, and on birth-days. The German nobility are generally men of so much honor, that a sharper, in other countries, especially in England, meets witii more credit if he pretends to be a German, than if he should declare himself of any other nation. All the sons of a nobleman inherit their father's title; a circumstance which greatly perplexes the heralds and genealo- gists of that country. The German h'lsbands are not so complaisant as those of some other countries to their ladies, who are not entitled to any pre-eminence at the table ; nor indeed do they seem to aft'ect it, being far from either ambition or loquacity. Many of the nobility, having no other hereditary estate than a high-sounding title, readily enter into the army. Their fondness for title is attended with other inconveniences. Some men of rank and property think the cultivation of their lands, though it might treble their reverie, below their attention, and that they should degrade themselves by being concerned in the improvement of their grounds ; but this prejudice is daily losing its influence. The domestic d 'versions of the Germans are the same as in England ; billiards, cards, dice, fencing, dancing, and the like. In summer, peo- ple of fashion repair to places of public resort, and drink the waters, or partake of social amusements. ' s to their field diversions, beside their favorite one of hunting, they '. .^.e bull and bear baiting. The inhabit- ants of Vienna live luxuriously, a great part of their time being spent in feasting and carousing ; and in winter, when the several branches of the Danube are frozen over, and the ground covered with snow, the ladies take their recreation in sledges of different shapes, such as tigers, swans, scallop-shells, &c. }Iere the lady sits, dressed in velvet lined with rich furs, and adorned with lace and jewels, having on her head a velvet cap ; and the sledge is drawn by one horse, stag, or other creature, set oft" with plumes, ribands, and bells. As this diversion is taken chiefly in the night-time, servants ride before the sledges with torches ; and a gentle- man, standing on the sledge behind, guides the horse. Among other entertainments, those of the drama are in great vogue among the Germans ; and some of their chief towns exhibit very able performers. Wiien theatrical diversions are discontinued on days of particular sanctit}', a species of exhibition, called a Tableau, is al- lowed ; the nature of which is to represent, by groups of living figures, with a judicious introduction of light and shade, the composi- tions of celebrated sculptors or painters. This amusement is more prevalent in the higher circles than among the common people, who do not fed themselves interested in this tranquil display of motionless attitudes. Chief towns, forts, and EnincEs.] This is a copious head in all countries, but more particularly so in Germany, on account of the numerous independent states which it contains. TOWNS IN THE AUSTRIAN DIVISION OF GERMANY. Vienna, being the metropolis of the dominions of that prince whose family so long held the imjicrial supremacy, is generally considered as the capital of Germany. It is situated in Lower-Austria, on that spot where a branch of the Danube is joined by the little river Wicn, which is also the German uame of the city itself. Oii this spot the Romans 382 GERMANY. had a legionary station. The town which they built fell successively into the hands of the Goths and the Huns ; and it was afterwards an- nexed to the dominions of Charlemagne. Under the auspices of the margraves and dukes of Austria, the city was extended and improved but by slow degrees. It now consists of two parts, per^Vctly distinct! The interior division is svirrounded by walls, bastions, and a dry fosse • and the other portion is included within lines of circumvallation having barriers at all the openings. Of the former, the circumference is about three miles, and that of the latter twelve. The imperial castle or palace is a structure of extraordinary magnitude, rather than of pre-eminent splendor. It is composed of various buildings, which without aptly harmonising to the eye of taste, contain large and com- modious apartments, richly decorated and splendidly furnished. Con- nected with it is a riding-school, in which, during the last congress, a kind of tournament was performed by twenty-four knights, all of noble birth, in a style of the most imposing magnificence, and in a manner that served to exemplify the chivalrous spirit which had subverted the domination of the Corsican tyrant. Another imperial palace is that of Belvedere, erected by prince Eugene for his summer residence, in which are 1350 pictures of the Italian, German, and Flemish schools, — one of the finest collections in Europe. Many of tlie mansions of the nobles also embellish the city ; and some of their cabinets abound with curious works of art, both ancient and modern. The other re- markable buildings are, tlie archiepiscopal cathedr.il of St. Stephen, distinguished by its beautiful steeple and its roof of mosaic work; the fine church of the Trinity, several monastic houses and chapels, the edifice belonging to the university, the town-house, the imperial chan- cery, the mint, bank, and arsenal. In the old town, the streets are narrow, and, from the height of the houses, not sufficiently ventilated; but, in the suburbs, a more open plan of building has been followed, the houses are constructed in a better style, gardens and places of re- creation are pleasingly intermingled with the habitations, and ample space is afforded to the industry of artificers and manufacturers. Be- tween the old and new towns, an extensive area is kept entirely free from buildings ; but, though the air diffused over this space contri- butes to the preservation of health, Vienna is not a salubrious abode; for it is affirmed by a medical writer (Dr. Neale,) that, out of a popu- lation of 230,000, the annual mortality of that city is in the proportion of one to fifteen, whereas in London it is only one in thirty. It is not from a want of able j)hysicians that the mortality is so great ; far, since the empress Maria Theresa reformed by her institutions the medical education and practice in the Austrian dominions, many eminent men have exercised the healing art in the capital ; and, in several well- conducted hospitals, the poor, by seasonable relief, are frequently re- scued from the dangerous effects of indisposition. With regard to the trade and manufactures of Vienna, Mr. Ra:rdansz observes, that the city has become a very considerable entrepot, and may be deemed a rendezvous of various nations for the pui])oses of commerce. The most important branch of its trade is that which is carried on with the subjects of the Porte, who receive glass and hard- ware, various kinds of cloth, and many other articles, in return for cot- ton, silk, goats'-hair, leather, coffee, fruit, and the wines of Greece. The chief manufactures are those of plate glass, porcelain, cutlery, gold and silver lace, musical instruments (particularly those which imitate French horns), and mills tor a variety of operations. In the unsettled GERMANY. Js that of iidence, in isli schools, ' mansions 'ets abound 5 other re- Stephen, work ; the bapels, the ?rial Chan- streets are ventilated ; 'I followed, aces of re- iiid ample rers. Be- itirely free ■ce contri- us abode; >1 a popu- proportion It is not for, since 5 medical lent men •ral well- lently re- koerdansz pot, and poses of vliicli is id liard- for cot- Creece. 7. gold imitate nsettled 383 state of the continent, the silk manufacture was so little encouraged, that 6000 looms, which had been fully employed at Vienna before the French revolution, were t^educed to a very small number; but that bmnch of art has since revived. The capital of Upper-Austria is Lintz, where the states of the pro- vince assemble, but with little influence in the direction of public af- fairs. It is situated at the conflux of the Traun with the Danube ; has good fortifications, and a considerable garris amidst delightfu churches, and tl Aix-la-Chape from a chapel bv gatded as the ct perors were cro' of which have 1 are well-built, a of St. Adelbert, prince above- m brought forwan strangers. The those of wooUei GERMAl MUNICH, lofty, and the esteemed the r inhabitants. more intereslii other palaces : admired for it Ratisbon, o ble, is of cons inhabited by / fifteen arches Augsburg ii between the i flow to the D spr.t trailic is cotton, paper traders are d Italy. Thci who are now taught in th technic scho GERMANY. 385 blishments in tlie town for the relief of the poor. Some manufactures are carried on, but not with great spirit ; and the people do not entirely nedect the interests of commerce; for hey send -wine, timber, slates, and earthen-ware, to the kingdom of the Netherlands. Mentz is more famous for its strength and defensibility, than for its . beauty, or its commerce and mamuactures. The cathedral, the ce and castle of the late elector, soma of the monasteries, the build- I of the university, and the town-house, are among the most striking edifices; but the streets are narrow and irregular, and the houses in general are neither well-built, nor kept in a state of neatness. About 28,000 persons occupy this ancient city. Wo mention Treves or Triers, not for its present dignity or importance, but because it was for many centuries the seat of an elector. Its anti- quity is carried to an extravagant height by an absurd inscription upon the town-house, importing that it existed 1300 years before the founda- tion of Rome : but there is no doubt of its having been the early seat of a considerable community. It is pleasantly situated on the Moselle, amidst delightful vineyards ; and it contains stately palaces, handsome churches, and the fine remains of conventual buildings. Aix-la-Chapelle derives its denomination from its warm baths, and from a chapel built on the spot by Charlemagne. It was formerly re- garded as the capital of the empire ; and, until the year 1531, the em- perors were crowned in this city. It abounded with monasteries, most of which have been suppressed. In several parts of the city, the houses are well-built, and some even aspire to elegance. In the collegiate church of St. Adelbert, the sword and other pretended reliques of the illustrious prince above-mentioned, and also many vestiges of pious fraud, are brought forward to gratify the curiosity or stinmlate the devotion of strangers. The town flourishes in trade and mamifactures, particularly those of woollen cloth and needles ; and the population exceeds 28,000. GERMAN TOWNS BELONGING TO THE KING OF BAVARIA. MUNICH, the Bavarian capital, stands on the Iser. The houses are lofty, and the streets spacious, with canals in several of them. It is esteemed the most elegant city in Germany, and contains about 41,000 inhabitants. The royal mansion is a noble edifice, and is rendered still more interesting by its fine collection of paintings. The king has two other palaces at a short distance from the city ; that of Nympheuburg, admired for its gardens, and that of Schlesheim. Ratisbon, or Rcgensburg, where the diet of the empire used to assem- ble, is of considerable size, but of a dark and dull appearance. It is inhabited by 23,000 persons. It is remarkable for an ancient bridge of fifteen arches over the Danube, in length 350 yards. Augsburg is the largest and most ancient city in Swabia, It is situated between the rivers Lech and Wertach, which unite in its environs, and flo« to the Danube. It was once a place of great trade ; and its pre- sent trallic is far from being inconsiderable. It has manufactories of cotton, paper, mirrors, and of various articles in gold and silver; and its traders are diligently employed in forwarding merchandise to and from Italy. The magistracy is divided between the catholics and protcstants, who are now so concordant, that the students of both persuasions are taught in the same classes in the academy, the Lyceum, and the poly- technic school. 20 386 GERMANY. TOWNS IN THE KINGDOM OF SAXONY. DRESDEN, the capital, is an object of general admiration. " Na. ture and art (says Dr. Neale), beauty and {^randeur, are here united in forming one of the finest scenes to bo found in any inland city of Europe. — In its local position, Dresden has greatly the advantage orer Berlin, being situated in a fertile soil, on the banks of the Elbe, sur- rounded by precipitous hills, covered with vineyards and orchards, and enlivened with villas and farm-houses in a very picturesque manner." It is remarkable for its fortifications, palaces, churches, and charitable foundations, and is the school of Germany for sculpture, painting, en- ameling, and other ingenious arts. Three towns form the aggregate city, all adorned with architectural objects of attraction. The royal palace, which embellishes the old town, is a magnificent structure, but is more distinguished by its collection of pictures, library, and cabinet, than by its external beauty. In the opinion of many persons of taste, the most striking ornament of this city is the church which Augustus III, erected for the catholic worship. The form is oblong, with semicircular ends: the bell-tower is finely proportioned, and rises to an elevation of 450 feet : the roof is encompassed by a double balustrade, which sup- ports sixty colossal statues of saints. To the body of the church are annexed four elegant chapels, with nine altars, over the chief of which the assumption of the Virgin Mary is beautifully represented by the genius of Mengs. The taste of decoration which prevails throughout, is chaste and imposing. The trade of Dresden is very considerable, chiefly in the produce of the country. Among its principal manufactures are those of jiorcelain, glass, linen, and woollen ; its dyed stuffs are in great request: and it has extensive founderies for bells and cannon. The population nearly amounts to 63,000. Leipsic, in Upper Saxony, is situated in a pleasant and fertile plain on the Plcissc, and contains about 35,000 inhabitants. It has large and well-built suburbs, with handsome gardens. The fortifications seem rather calculated for the recreation of the inhabitants, than for defence. The streets are clean, commodious, and agreeable; and many of the houses are both lofty and elegant. Leipsic has long been distinguished for the liberty of conscience allowed to persons of different sentiments in religion. Here is an university, which is still very considerable, with six churches for the Lutherans (theirs being the established reli- gion), one for the Calvinists, and a chapel in the castle for those of the Romish church. The academical library comprehends about 30,000 volumes. Here is also a library for the magistrates, consisting of about 36,000 volumes and near 2000 manuscripts; to which are added cabi- nets of urns, antiqiies, and medals, with many curiosities of art and na- ture. The exchange is an elegant building. Next to Hamburg, this is the chief commercial city in Germany. It suffered by the violence and rapacity of the French, who made it a seat of war in 1813 : but it is gradually recovering itself from the shock. Its various manufactures nourish : its three fairs are still greatly frequented ; and it has a more exfif'nsive trade in books than any other continental town. FREE C LUBECK eclipsed by t are still sho' ticed in our communicati boats, throuj carried on b low rate at ^ burg a paltr GERMANY. 387 CHIEF TOWNS IN THE KINGDOMS OF HANOVER AND WUllTEMBERG, THE GRAND DUCHY OF BADEN, AND THE PRINCIPALITY OF HESSE. HANOVER is situated on the Leine, amidst productive gardens and pleasant villas. The old town boasts of the palace, and the chief public offices: but the new town is built in a better style: considered in con- junction, they contain about 20,000 inhabitants, who carry on a con- fined trade in linen and woollen articles of their own manufacture. A military school was established in this city by George Ifl. ; but its insti- tutions for the dissemination of mental culture, tend more to promote the fame of the new kingdom. Stutgard is a handsome town near the Necker, the seat of the king and states of Wurtemberg. It contains an academy of sciences, a military academy, and a library which is particularly rich in copies of the Scrip- tures, and in historical works. The inhabitants are about 22,000 in number ; and their trade is not inconsiderable in wine, corn, and silken and woollen goods. The seat of government, for the duchy of Baden, is at Carlsruhe, which was not founded before the year 1715. A hunting castle and a few wooden houses gave a beginning to the town, which, though in an unBnished state, is now well-built of stone, and is inhabited by about 11,500 persons. Two cities now belonging to the grand duke, Heidel- berg and Mannheim, were successivelj the electoral capitals of the Palatinate, before that territory devolved to the Bavarian family. The former is evidently declining ; but its university is still respectable, and it is not destitute of varied trade. Mannheim is a large and flourishing town, built with great neatness and regularity, near the conflux of the Necker with the Rhine. Cassel, the seat of the elder branch of the house of Hesse, was for some years the capital of the Westphalian kingdom, which Bonaparte erected in favor of his brother Jerome. The inhabitants, whose num- ber may be estimated at 21,500, reside in three towns, two of which exhibit the old and uncouth style of building, while the third has some pretensions to elegance. Few places of the same extent possess so many public buildings ; of which the most remarkable are the various oices of government, the church of St. Martin, the college, or great school, the principal library, the arsenal, the parade square, the bar- racks, and the house of correction. Cassel has also a literary society, and an academy of painting and sculpture. Its trade is not very im- portant; but it has manufactures of woollen cloth, linen, hats, and porcelain. I i I I FREE CITIES OF THE GERMAN CONFEDERATION. LUBECK, once the proud liead of the Ilanseatic confederacy, is now eclipsed by the connnercial fame of Hamburg. To strangers the rooms are still shown, in which the directors of that far-f;imed league (no- ticed in our introduction) held their meetings. The town has some communication with the German ocean by means of flat-bottomed boats, through the rivers Steckenitz and Elbe: but its chief trade is carried on by the medium of the Baltic. One proof of its decline is the low rate at which even capital houses may be procured, while at Ham- burg a paltry habitation bears a high rent. The government is in the 2C2 ^ •^WF 388 GERMANY. hands of the Lutherans, whose intolerant spirit, which injured the in. terest of the city, is now allayed hy the increasing liberality of the times. Frankfort, on the Maine, is situated in a spacious and fertile plain, on the borders of Franconia, with rising ground in the surrounding distance, and mountains toward the north-west. Saxenliausen, on the opposite bank of the river, is considered as a part of the city ; and both divisions are supposed to contain CO, 000 inhabitants. The fortifications are regular, having ten bastions and various outworks : but they did not protect the town against the violence of the French revolutionists, who repeatedly plundered the magistrates and the inhabitants, it was the usual place of the imperial election and coronation ; but tiiat privilege is superseded by the new organisation of the Germanic body. Some of the streets arc narrow and ill-built ; while others are wide, fur- nished with good houses, and open into handsome squares. The tno annual fairs are thronged with traders ; and the place serves for a me- dium of beneficial tratlic between the northern and southern parts of Germany. Hamburg is the most flourishing commercial town in the whole ex- tent of Germany. It exhibits a proud monument of the ])ower of com- merce, and strikingly exemplifies the advantages of freedom. It fornn a republic within itself, governed by wise laws, and carefully pro- viding for the comfort of the people. It is well fortified in the old style ; and the walls are so thick as to afford room for carriages to ])ass upon them. It docs not rival the magnificence of Berlin or the beauty of Dresden ; yet, while most of the streets are narrow and winding, and the houses ill-built, wide and regular streets, ornamented with hand- some houses, appear in various parts of the city; and some progress has been made in the improvement of its worst portions, its situation on the Elbe, which is about three miles wide, and interspersed with cultivated islets, — the fertility of the soil in the environs, — the ram- parts, which aiford pleasing walks and rides, between avenues of line lime-trees, — the hospitality of the inhabitants, — the number of public libraries, and the increasing variety of i)laces of resort, — render it one of the most agreeable abodes for a stranger in the north of Germany. The most striking edifices are the town-house, the exchange, tlie arse- nal, bank, and orphan-house. The principal church, being a massy Gothic structure, has an imposing aspect: but it is built of brick, and the lofty steeple (which, like the tower of Pisa, has declined from its perpendicular) is constructed of wood, sheathed with copper. Many charitable institutions reflect hiinor on this city. The Foundling Hos- pital, in particular, is well endowed, and judiciously conducted. To the ■ great convenience of the poor, a bank has been long established for the loan of money upon pledges, at a very low rate of interest ; and a pub- lic granary is kept up, from which, in times of scarcity, corn is sold at a moderate price. The trade of this city was greatly injured by the oppressive sway of the French; and the sugar refineries, and the manufacture of silken stutfs, were nearly ruined : but, for some years past, they have been gradually advancing to their former state. Com- merce is promoted by the smailness of the imposts levied by the ruling power. Corn, yarn, linen, tin, copper, coined gold and silver, and books, are free from duty on importation ; and all the manufactured articles of the city are exempt from duty on exportation. The population, even of this flourishing town, does perhaps not exceed 133,000. While the French domineered over Hamburg, the English, being ex- GERMANY. 389 eluded from that part of the continent, occupied Heligoland, an island near the mouth of the Elbe, not however subject to the Hamburghers, but to the Danes. It is chiefly a mass of sand-stone, less than one mile long, and very narrow. The cliff has a plain at the top, on which is a village ; and from this part a broad wooden stair-case leads to the beach on the opposite side, which is so far elevated above the high- water mark, as to afford a residence to adventurous fishermen and pi- lots. The inhabitants amount to about 2500. To the women the task of cultivating the poor soil, and other labors, are assigned. The jgjaiid seems to bo gradually crumbling away ; but the people are not wriously alarmed at the process of decomposition. This small territory was ceded to Great-Britain at the pacification. Bremen has a considerable trade by means of the Weser. It consists of two towns, both of which are fortified ; but, for want of a harbour, the merchants are obliged to content themselves wuth the port of Ve- gcsach, distant about thirteen miles from the city. The houses in general are well-built ; and the public structures most worthy of no- tice are the cathedral, the town-house, and the exchange. While the Lutheran religion is predominant at Hamburg, Calvinism prevails at Bremen : but the rulers of both cities observe a system of toleration. Commerce and manufactures.] Germany has vast advan- tages, i:i point of commerce, from its situation in the heart of Europe, and its command of the navigation of great rivers. Its native materials forviommerce, beside niiinerals, are hemp, hops, flax, anise, cumin, tjbacco, saffron, madder, truffles, variety of excellent roots and pot- herbs, and fine fruits, equal to those of France and Italy. Germany exports, to other countries, corn, tobacco, horses, lean cattle, butter, cheese, honey, wax, wine, linen and woollen yarn, j)aper, ribands, silk anjj cotton stuffs, gold and silver lace, toys, turnery-ware in wood and metals and ivory, goat-skins, wool, timber both for ship- building and houses, cannon and bullets, bombs and bomb-shells, iron plates and stoves, tinned plates, steel-work, copper, brass-wire, porcelain, mirrors, hogs' bristles, beer, tartar, smalt, zaft'er, Prussian blue, printers' ink, and many other articles. The revocati )n of the edict of Nantes by Louis XIV., which obliged the French protestants to settle in different parts of Europe, was of infi- nite service to the manufactures of Germany. Its inhabitants now make velvet, silk, stuffs of all kinds, fine and coarse linen and thread, and every thing necessary for wear, in great perfection. The porcelain of Meissen, in the electorate of Saxony, and its pictorial decorations, have been long in great repute. Constitution, government, and laws.] Before the resigna- tion of the imperial dignity of Germany by Francis II., on the 6th of August, 1806, almost every prince in the empire (and there were then nearly three hundred of them) was arbitrary with regard to the govern- ment of his own estates ; but the whole body formed a great confederacy, governed by political laws, at the head of which was the emperor, whose power was not directorial, but executive : yet even that gave him vast influence. The empire was hereditary under the race of Charlemagne ; but it afterward became elective. In the beginning, all the princes, nobility, and deputies of cities, enjoyed the privilege of voting ; but at length the chief officers of the empire altered the mode of election in their own favor. In 1239, only seven electors were allowed and acknow- leged ; among whom the archbishops of Mentz, Treves, and Cologne, 390 GERMANY. were honored with the foremost rank, in compliment to their spiriiml characters. Two were added in tlio seventeenth century ; and, about the heRinnintt of the nineteenth, in consequence of various secularisatiniu and otlier alterations which were made in tlie constitution of tlie etnuire' under tlio influence of Franco and Russia, the electors hecame ten in nunil)er, one ecclesiastical and nine secular princes. The dignity of the empire, though elective, had for some centuries belonged to the house of Austria, as being the most powerful of the German princes; but, hy French nianas^enient, on the death of Charles VI., the elector of Bavaria was chosen to that dignity, and dinl, as itji supposed, heart-broken, after a short and comfortless reign. The power of the emperor was regulated t'^ he capitulation he signed at his election* and the person who, in his 1 me, was chosen king of the Romans succeeded, without a new tin lion, to the empire. Me could confer titles and enfranchisements upon cities and towns; but, as emperor, he could levy no taxes, uor make war or jioace, without the consent of the diet. When that consent was obtained, every prince was bound to con- tribute his quota of men and money, as valued in the matriculation roll, though, perhaps, he might espouse a ditTerent ''de from that of the diet, This formed the intricacy of the German constitution; for George 11. of England, sis elector of Hanover, was obliged tr furnish his quota against iho house of Austria, while he was fighting tor it. The emperor claimed a precedency for his amhassadors in all Christian courts. The ten princes who had the privilege of electing the emperor, were, at the time of the abolition of the Germanic constitution, the elector prince archbishop of Hatisbon (or Aschaft'enburg), arch-chancellor of the empire — the king of Bohemia (the Austrian emperor), who was styled grand cup-bearer, — the king of 15iivaria, who was grand sewer, or the officer who served out the feasts, — the king of Saxony, the great marshal, — the elector of Brandenburg (king of Prussia), arch-chamber- lain, — the elector of Hanover (king of Great-Britain), arch-treasurer,— the elector of Saltzburg, — the king of AVurtemlerg, arch-pantler,— the electors of Baden and Hesse. It was necessary for the emperor, before he called a diet, to have the advice of those members; and, during the vacancy of the iniperia! throne, the Saxon and Bavarian princes had jurisdiction, the former over the northern, and the latter over the southern circles. The diet was comjmsed of the colleges of electors, princes, and im- perial towns. The first consisted of the ten electors above enumerated, each of whom had a persoual vote, termed hy the German lawyers votum virile. The second college was divided into two classes— the proper princes of the empire, as dukes, margraves, landgraves, princea, and princely counts, who had each a personal vote, and the counts and lords of the empire, who were arranged in four colleges or benches, viz. the Wetteravian, Swabian, Franconian, and Westphalian, each of which had one vote, styled votum curiafuvt. Of this college Austria and Saltzburg had the direction by turns. The college of imperial cities consisted of deputies from those towns which were free republics under no particular soA'ercign, but immediately under the emperor and the empire. The imperial chamber, and that of Vienna (better known by the name of the Aulic council), were the two supreme courts for determining the great causes of the empire, aii.sing among its members. The former council consisted of fifty judges or assessors. The president and four of them were appointed by the emperor : each of the electors chose one, 1 GERMANY. 391 tod the olher princes and states the rest. Tliis court was liolden at \Vet2Iar, but formerly met at Spire ; and causes miy;ht I)e brought before it by appeal. The iiulic council was originally only a financial court for the dominions of the louse of Austria. As the power of that family increased, the jurisdiction of this council was extended upon the powers of the imperial chamber, and even of the diet. It consisted of a presi- dent, a vice-chancellor, a vice-president, and a certain number of aulic counsellors, of whom six were protestants, benide other olHcers ; but thn emperor, in fact, was master of the court. Tiiese courts followed tiie ancient laws of the empire for their guides, the golden bull, the pacifica- tion of Passau, and tii(! civil law. Beside these courts of justice, each of the nine circles had a director to take care of the peace and order of the circle. Ho was in general one of the most powerful princes of the circle. In case of great public olfences, after the votes of the diet had been collected, and iHtMitence pronounced, the emperor, by his prerogative, committed the execution of it to a par- ticular prince or princess, whoso troops lived at free quarter upon the eitfttes of the delinquent. Every state which acted directly or indirectly against the fundamental iaffsof the empire, was subject to the punishment of tiie ban, or pro- scription, of the empire. The ban was of two kinds ; the one privatory, the other provisional. The former consisted in depriving a prince or itate of all rights, privileges, and dignities ; the second in taking away the actual government of the states, and committing them to the care of loine other, until it was otherwise ordered. But this sentence of pro- scription was not easily obtained, because it was dilficult to unite all tho orders of the empire in the same measure. The execution of it belonged to the director of tho circle where the prince resided, and every feudal state of the empire was subject to it. It may here be proper to inform the reader of the meaning of a term which freijucntly occurs in the German history — that of the Prag- matic Sanction. This was no other than a provision made by Charles VI. for preserving the indivisibility of the Austrian dominions in the person of the next descendant ot' the last possessor, whether male or female. This provision was often disputed by other branches of the house of Austria, who weic occasionally supported by France from political views, though ilie pragmatic sanction was t,trong!y guaran- tied by almost all the powers of Europe. The emperor Charles Vil. elector of Bavaria, and Augustus, king of Poland, attempted to over- throw it, on the ground of their descent from the daughters of the emperor .Joseph, elder Iirother to Charles VI. It was likewise re- peatedly opposed by the court of S|i;un. The cunii)rous and intricate Germanic system received so rude a shock, in 1806, from the arbitrary policy ot Bonaparte, that Francis II. disclaimed all future concern in the general gov> inment, and, re- nouncing that dignity which ho had acquired by election, declared himself emperor of Austria. Tho act of confederation, imposed upon many of the German princes by the presumption of Napoleon, or- dained, that the kintrs of Bavaria and Wurtemberg, the arch-chan- cellor or elector of AschalVenburg, and the elector of Baden, should concur with other princely members of the empire in forming new ar- rangements of policy and war, under the protection of the sovereign of France. The king of Prussia endeavoured, but with little effect, to counteract this alarming confederacy by a similar as",ociation ,in the north of Germany. Many acts of territorial spoliation were 392 GERMANY. I allowed by the unprincipled autlior of tlie new treaty, for tlie gratifiea. tion of his base dependents; and those princes who were not before 80 despotic as they were inclined to be, were encouraged to tyrannise over their subjects, in imitation of their illustrious patron. The king of '"urteniberg, whose authority, under the limitations affixed to it by a representative government, had been guarantied, in 1771, by bis I3ri(annic majesty, disgraced himself by taking an immediate ad* vantage of his new situation, and subverting the constitution of his country ; and the king of Bavaria, who had obtained tho Tyrol by the treaty of Presburg, annihilated in that province the jjriviU'ges of tin people. After the success of tho allies in the deliverance of Europe, a new organisation was given to the Germanic body. It was ordained by the congress of Vienna, in 1815, tliat the princes and free cities sbouid be united in a perpetual confederation, the objects of which sliould be the maintenance of the interests and security of Germany, and the preservation of the independence and inviolability of the component states. Ail the members of the confederacy were declared to be cfjual in their rights, and were equally bound to the strict support of the union. Ordinary affairs were to be discussed and decided by a diet, in which the princes and free towns should vote by their plenipoten- tiaries, under the presidency of an Austrian minister. The votes on these occasions were to be only seventeen, each of the chief princes having one, and the other votes being given by three or four mem- bers collectively. When fundamental laws were to be enacted, or changes to be made in the existing laws of that description, or when the act of confederation was to be revised and examined, sixty-nine votes were to be given, the leading powers respectively having four, others three, some two, and some only one. In the ordinary assembly, questions were to be decided by a mere majority; but, in tlie other diet, nothing was to be determined without the assent of two-thirds of the number. All the states of the confederacy were required to defend or assist each other, in case of an attack or of danger ; but no internal hostilities were allowed, as the diet would bo armed witii that authority which ought to preclude serious discord. One article in this compact is particularly memorable. The princes seemed willing to yield to the growing spirit of the people in the German states ; and it was ostensibly agreed, that the members of the confederation should concur with their subjects in framing, with all convenient speed, a representative government, so far popular as to remove the charge or reproach of despotism. The grand duke of Baden and other princes have already complied with this .stipulation; but tho principal con- federates have evinced a strong reluctance to such concessions. Revenues and military force.] Both the military force and revenue of the emperor, merely as the head of the Germanic league, were very insigniiicant. He had only an annual income of about 5000 or 6000/. sterling, arising from some inconsiderable fiefs in the Black Forest, and some trifling contributions from the imperial cities, of which, it is said, scarcely 2000Z. came into the imperial treasury. The extraordinary revenues levied on the diifercnt states were called Roman Months, because they were formerly raised by monthly assess- ments, for the maintenance of the troops who escorted the emperor to Rome, when that was the place of his coronation. A Roman month was about 6000/. ; and each state paid a certain number of these sums, according to the proportions for the different princes and states, vl GERMANY. 393 reffiitered in what was called the Matriciilation-Book, kept by the jrch-chancellor of the empire. In the same book were registered the contingents or number of troops to be raised by cacli state, when war was decreed by the diet. These, united, would compose an army of about 30,000 men ; but the whole force of the empire, were it exerted in one etFort, would amount, exclusive of tliose countries which, thou^rh subject to Ger- man princes, are not a part of (icrnmny, to 400,000 men; and the re- venues of the different princes and states of the empire, with the same limitation, were estimated, before the lato changes, at almost seventeen millions sterling. ImI'EIIIAL, IIOYAL, AND OTIlEa TITLES, ARMS, AND OUDRHS.] The emperor of Germany affected to consider himself as successor to tiio emperors of Homo, and had long, on tiiat account, been admitted to a tacit precedency on all public occasions among the powers of Eu- rope. Austria, indeed, was only an archdukedom; nor had he, as the head of that house, a vote in the election of emperor, which was limited to Bohemia; but the titles of principalities, dukedoms, baronies, and the like, with which he was invested as archduke, were very numerous ; and paramount to all is his new title of Hereditary Ein< peror of Austria. The arms of the empire are a black eagle with two heads hovering with expanded wings in a field of gold ; and over the heads of the eagle the imperial crown is seen. On the breast of the eagle is an escutcheon quarterly of eight, for Hungary, Naples, Je- rusalem, Arragon, Anjou, Gueidres, Brabant, and Bar. It would be useless to enumerate all the different quartcrings and armorial bea:- ings of the archducal family. Every elector, and indeed every inde- pendent prince of any importance in Germany, claim a right of insti- tuting orders ; but the emperors pretend that they arc not admissible unless confirmed by them. The Austrian emperor, and the king of Spain, as descendants of the house of Burgundy, conferjthe order of the Golden Fleece, The empress dowager Eleonora, in 1(}62 and 1666, created two orders of ladies or female knights, and the daughter of Charles VI. established the order of St. Theresa. The Order of the Golden Fleece was instituted at Bruges, in 142!), by Philip duke of Burgundy, on the day of his marriage with his third wife. It is supposed tiiat he chose the badge, as being the chief of the staple manufactures of his country. It at first consistra of thirty knights, who were of the first families in the Low Countries. At present there are two branches of it; of one the emperor is sovereign, and the king of Spain of the other ; all must prove their noble descent from the twelfth century. The motto of the order is " Pvctium non vile laborum." The Teutonic Order owed its origin to some religious Germans in Jeru- salem during the crusades, who assumed the title of " Teutonic knights, or brethren of the hospital of our Lady of the Germans at Jerusalem." Conrad, duke of Swabia, invited them into Prussia, about the year 1230 : goon after, tliey conquered Prussia for themselves, and became one of the most powerful orders in Europe. But, by their internal quarrels, they lost their power and possessions; and Albert, marquis of Brandenburg, grand- master of the order, on his abjuration of popery, abdicated the gi'and- mastership, subdued Prussia, and expelled all the papists who would not follow his example. In 1690, John-George, elector of Saxony, and Frederic III. of Bran- denburg, on terminating their disputes, established the Order of Sincerity, as a pledge and confirmation of their amity. The knights wear a 394 GERMANY. I bracelet of gold ; on one side are the names of the two princes, withtliig device, " Amitit sincere ;" on the other side are two armed hands, joined and placed on two swords, with two palm-branches crossed, with tiiis motto, " Unis pour jamais." The great order of Wurtemberg is that of the Chase, instituted in 1702. On the left side of the coat is a silver star embroidered, ot the same figure as the badge, in the middle of a green circle, with tliu motto ** Amicitite Virtutisque Fcedus. In 1709, the elector Palatine revived the Order of St. Hubert, first instituted by a duke of Juliers and Cleves, in memory of a victory ijained by him on St. Hubert's day, in 1447. All the ktii>rlits have eitiier mi- litary employments or pensions. The archbisliop of Saltxhurs;, iu i'Ol, instituted the order of St. Rujiert, in honor of tlie founder and imtronof the see which he held, who was also the apostle of his country. ArIIip archbishop was the richest and in-jst jiowerful prini-o of Bavaria, next totlie elector, his order is in considerahio ('stiuiatiou. In 17-9, Alljcit, ulc'ctnr of Bavaria, instituted tlio Order of St. Geonje, the Defender of the Im. maculate Conception, the knie;hts of which are obliged ta prove their nobility by father and mother for five generations In 1813, the emperor of Austria, witii a view of rwrrninti^, by a snnse of honor, the great contest in which lie and his alli^^ were ensxa^ed tor the deliverance of the continent from the tyraniiv ot France, introduced a new order, called the Inni Cross. The badge is of tliat ligcxe ai:d metal, an enddem of strength and foiiitiidc. Religion.] It is natural to su])poso, and wc are taught to bejipve, that a sense of religion [prevailed in the earliest ages of the world. The idea of a great Creator of tiie universe and of mankind, must have offered itself even to rude and tinrnlighteniHl minds; and reveieiitial hnmatre was the result of this suggestion. Tlie purity of primitive woisliip was at length corrupted ; superstition (iiled tlic weak mind w ith imaginary terrors; the sentiments of gratitude for existence and continued support, and thu fear of oflending an all-powerful Deity, |)rodiu( d a desire of acknow- legiiig and propitiating a plurality of divine i)ein«:s ; and the grossncssof idolatry was substituted for the relinement of spiritual adoration. When agts had thus passed in the observance of polytheism, an insj)ircd legis- lator announced tiie will of God for the propagation of a correct system of religion, inculcating the unity of the divine essence, and combining strict morality with a pious belief of important and salutary doctrines. Such was the origin of the Mosaic dispensation, or the old covenant between God and man; but thissj-stem, which was not generally diffused over the world, was at length corrupted by human dejiravity ; and a new covenant was established in the revered name of the Son of God. The proijress of Christiaiuty was lonq; obstructed by the efl'orts of the pasrun philosophers, and by the disinclination of the people to any religions change; and its votaries were even (Tueily persecuted for presuniiiiir to entertain opinions repugnant or ui>.favorabie to the established creed, 'i his unnatural tyranny . over the conscience was exercised, with some inter- mission, until the sovereignty of tlio Roman empire was acquired by Constantine the Great, whope encouragement of tiie new religion reflected honor on his character. It tiien became the general faith through the wide e.xtent of the civilised world : but, though many of the Jew s were converted to it, the great body of that nation reniaii;od obstinately deaf to the exhortations of the Christian proaeliers. As all estaljiishnients are liable to abuse and corruption, even tiie apostolic religion (?radutilly de- clined into a mass of superstition; or, if that censure should be toolmisli, u deaenerated, ui comr nd of scr.p primitive snnphct; 'other dignitary o aodtheloveotpW have pursued a co ob^'ured by a m ^ther considered medium of spiriti In this slate t and other parts great temporal j people; and.wh duties, the indole mianswere the tained ideas ot Morning Star oi that lig^>t w^'"'' of Pragdo heeai Constance had tcform languishf arose, whos^c dis to unuinsk tlie gainst those er ttstants. He condemned the of saints, llie n ance of traditii sacramental cu scriptures whic reform was ini] substantiation, (ion. The Lu flames ot perse system was ea| in defiance of emperor Char Confession of to recornuiend created a schi Chauvc), a 1 endeavoured the ecclesiast into the chur was more ac Brandenliurg also received the Lower P varia, in tlie devout zeal : their princei blishuient. ■with ambit protcstantisi CEHMANY. 395 it degenerated, under the nianaj^einent of llie Runimli pontlflFa, into a compound of scriptural tnitli and traditional absurdity or error. Tlie primitive simplicity of an apostle was no Ioniser found in a ijishop or any other dignitary of the aggrandised clninli : arrogance, tyranny, rapacity, aodthe love of pleasure, disi^racud tiie cliavacturs of those vvlio ouglit to have pursued a course diametrically opposite : the esseiice of piety was obm-ured by a multitude of ceremonial oliservances : and religion was rather considered as a lucrative trade to u privileged class, than as a medium of spiritual comfort or of moral improvemei ♦, In this state Christianity remained for many ceiitirics, in Germany and other parts of Europe. Many of the German prelates possessed mat temporal power, and tyraimised both over the princes and the people; and, while the secular clergy in general were negligent of their duties, the indolent monks rioted in llie Hpoils of the public. The Bohe- mians were the (irst, within llic lioiiiidailes of the empire, Avho enter- tained ideas of reforujution. To the writings of Wickliffe, called the Morning Star of the Reformation, they were principally indebted for that light which shone upon their minds; and Jidin IIuss and Jerosne of Praxuo hecuuu! the fore-runners of laitiicr. When the council of Constance had triumphed over those unfortunate martyrs, the cause of reform languished for a rcnlury ; and J\iartin Luther, a Saxon friar,then arose, whose disgust at tiie progress of religious corru(jtion prompted him to uaniask the deformities of jjopery ; and, aa his follower? piotested tgoinst those errrna and abuses, they received the denomination of pi'o- testanis. He exclaimed against tiie vicious lives of the clergy ; and condemned the unnecessary multiplication of sacraments, the invocation of saints, the use of private masseSj tiie adoiatioii of images, the observ- ance of traditional dognias, the grant of indulgeiues, the refusal of the gacramental cup to the laity, and the restrictions of the perusal of those scriptures which were the only true guides \n faith and morals: yet his reform was inijjerfect, because In; did not explode the absurdity of tran- sulKtantiation, but merely (pialilied it by the rpiibblo of consuhstantia- iion. The Lutheran doctrines ipiickly made a great progress, amidst the ilaDies ot persecution. By the elector and the people of Saxony, the new system was eagerly adopted ; and it spread over the north of Germany, in defiance of ".11 the efforts of the Romanistp. It was presented to the emperor Charles V. in a connected form, in K)3t), under the title of the Confession of Augsburg : but that prince was not disposed to adopt or to reconiinend it. A new reformer soon after ap|x'ared, whose opinions created a schism in the protestant community. 'I'his was Calvin (or Le Chauve), a learned Frenchman, but of a stern and morose spirit, who endeavoured to explode all forms and ceremonies, to simplify the dress of the ecclesiastics, abolish the superiority of episcopal rank, and introduce into the cliurch a republican or prcsbyterian government. As his plan was more accordant than that of Luther to the taste of tiie people of Brandenburg, it became the prevailing religion of that electorate : it was also received by the majority of the Hessians, and it found its way into the Lower Palatinate, as did also the Lutheran creed. Austria and Ba- varia, in the mean time, continued to chevisii the catholic worship with devout zeal : and even the Bohemians suffered the arrogant bigotry of their princes to subdue them into an acquiescence in the Romish esta- blishment. After several wars, in which religious variance concurred with ambition and political animosity to inllame the minds of men, protestantism was solemnly confirmed ia Germany by tht treaty of II ^ 11 ;■' 1 1 ; I I 396 GERMANY. Westphalia, wlien it was agreed that tlie members of both cburclies should enjoy an ecjuality of rights and privileges. Literature.] No country has produced a greater variety of an. tViors than Germany, and tiiere is no where a more general taste tor read- ing, especially in the protestant countries. Printing is encouraged to a fault; books are profusely multiplied in every department of literature' and thousands of theses and disputations are annually published ; for no man can be a graduate in the universities, who has not published at lea.st one disputation. Many of the Germans have greatly distinguished themselves in vari- OTIS branches of learning and science. They have written largely upon the Roman and canon laws. Stahl, Von Swieten, Storcli, Hotfinann, In- genhoiisz, and Franck, have contributed greatly to the improvement of medicine; Kuvinus and Uillenius, of botany; Heister, of anatomy and surgery ; Neumann, Zinimermann, and Margraff, of chemistry. In astro- nomy, Kepler deservedly obtained a great reputation ; and Pufeiidorif jj one of the first writers on the law of nature and nations, and lias also merit as an historian. l>ut, at the end of tlie seventeenth centurv, and the beginning of the l.ist, Germany, by her divines, and by her religious sects, w:is so much involved in disputes about systematic theology, tliat few comparatively paid any attention to other parts of learning, or to iio- lite literature. 'J'lie style of writing also in German books, which at the time of the Refoimaiion was _)ure and original, became ridiculous, hya very frequent intermixture of Latin and French words; which, though they we. J not understood bv the peojile in general, were thought to give an air of superiority to tU- writers, and therefore much affected ; for an opinion prevailed amo. ', the i«-arned in Germany, that compiling huge volumes, and loading them villi (piotiitions from all sorts of authors, and from all languages, formed the true t(^st of grrnt erudition. Their productions, therefore, bccauie heavy and pedantic, and were con.se- quently disregarded by more relined nations. It was about the year 1 7.J() that tbe prospects of literature in Germany began to brighten. 1,< ibnitz and N^ olft opened the way to a belter phi- losophy than had before prevailed. (iott«i-hed, an author and professor at Leipsic, who was greatly iionored by Fiederic 111. king of Prussia, in- troduced a better taste of writing, by publishing a German grammar, and instituting a literary society for polishing tlie language, and promoting the study of the hr/les-tct/rcs. We may <-oiisider this as the epocha from which the Germans liegan to write with eleg;Mice ,n their own language upon learned subjects, and to tree tljcmsclves, m a ('onsiderable degree, from that verboseness and pedantry by wIikIi they h;id been characterised, About this time several young men in the university of Jjei|)sic, and odier parts of Lower Germany, united in publisliing some jieriodical works, calculated for the general entertainment of persons of literary taste. Kome of the.sc gentieiiicti afterwards became eminent authors; and their work.s are still in high estimation. Tlie style of preaching among the German divines also nowunderwent a considerable change, 'i'liey began to tianshitt' the best Knglioh and French sermons, parlictdarly those of Tillolson, Sherlock, Saiirin, Boui- daloue, and others. They improved by these models ; and iMosheim, Spalding, Zollikoter, and others, published sermons which would do credit to any country ; but they still retniii too much of that proli\ity for which German divines and commentators have been so nmch censured; nor can it bo denied, tliat great numb(!rs of the German preachers, even in large and opulent towns, are still too much disiinguished by vulgar GERMANY. 397 ygnijge, absurd opinions, and an inattention to the dictates of reason and good sense. Some of the English periodical writings, such as the Spectator, Tatlcr, and Guardian, being translated into the (iennan language, excited great emulation among the writers of that country, and a number of periodical papers appeared, of various merit. One of the fir^t and best appeared at Hamburg, under the title of the Patriot, in which Dr. Thomas, bishop of Salisbury, was concerned, who was at that time chaplain to the British factoryat Haniliurg. tjollert, one of the most elegant German authors, and one of tbe most esteemed, greatly contributed to the improvement of their taste. His way of writing is particularly calculated to totich the heart, and to inspire sentiments of morality and piety. His fables and narrations, his letters, and his moral romances, are so much read in Germany, that even many of the ladies have them by heart. 1 lis comedies are also very popular, though they are rather too sentimental, and better adapted for the closet tlian for the stage. Beside Gellert, Hagedorn, Gleim, Kleist, Ramler, Voss, and others, have excelled in poetry. Schlegcl, Croncg, Lessing, Wielan- , Wiese, Goethe, Schiller, Kotz-jbue, and illland, have acijuiied fame by their dramatic ))roductions. Schiller is also an able liistoiian. Rabener has, by his satirical works, immortalised his name among tlie Germans ; though siime of his ])ieccs are of too local a nature, and loo much con- fined to German customs, manners, and characters, to be .,'ad with great pleasure by persons of other nations. The Messiah of Klopstock has raised him to a higher degree of fame than even GessniT, the Swiss painter, accpiired by his Death of Abel, a wHil-known work of a poetic kind, written in animated prose. Reimar, Zimmermann, Abt, Krestncr, Sop^oer, Lambert, Mayer, Kruger, and Snlgcr, distinguished themselves by their philosophical writings: and Masco, Bunau, Putter, Gatterer, (j(>baur, and Schmidt, excelled in historical works. In the com])osition of novels and romances, the Germans are not ecjual to the English or the l-'rencii. They do not appearto be so deeply ac(piainted with human nature, or so conversant in the art of exciting interest. Yet Kotzebue, Wieland, Augustus La- Fuiituine, and Kramer, produced some pleasing works in tliis depart- ment ; and, if Goethe's Sorrows of Werter had a better moral, the work would be more annising and attractive, if not more pathetic. In works relating to anti(piity, and the arts known among the an- cients, the names of Winckeiman, Klog, and Lessing, are familiar with tlmsc who are skilled in this branch of literature, in ecclesiastical, philosophical, and literary hi.story, the names of Fabricius, Mosbeim, Semler, and Brucker, are well known among us. liaphelins, Micliaelis, and Waluh, are famous in sacred literature. Cellarius, l^urman, Taub- man, Reiske, Ernesti, Reimar, Havercamp. Ileyne, VV yttenbach, Wollf, and Brunck, have publislied some of the best editions of Greek and Latin classics. In the cultivation of the line arts, the Germans have not been defi- cient. Their country has produced some good painters, architects, sculptors, and cigravers. They even pretend to have been the in- ventors of engraving, etching, and mezzotinto. Printing, if invented in Holland, was soon after greatly improved in Germany. That country has likewise given birth t() some excellent musical coiiiposers, — Hand d, Bacii, Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven, and von Weber; of whom Handel stands at the head, having arrived at the sublime of music. Univeusitiks.] There are at present in Gerniaiiy thirty-one ; M at' ■ ii '1 1 :i«f I! 398 GERMANY. tinivereitles, of which fourteen, viz. those of Leipsic, Rostock, Griefswalde "Wittenberg, Tubingen, lena, Helmstadt, Giessen, Rinteln, Altorf, Kiel' Halle, Goettingen, and Erlangen, arc Lutheran ; three, viz. Frankfort on the Oder, Marburg, and Duisbnrg, are Calvinistic : twelve, vn, Prague, Vienna, Wurtzburg, Freyburg, Landshut, Dillingen, Olmutz Gratz, Padcrborn, Sallzburg, Fulda, and Bamberg, are catholic ; and two, Heidelberg and Erfort, mixed, or both catholic and protestant. Colleges, gymnasia, pedagogies, and Latin schools, are also dispersed over the country ; and there arc many academies and societies for pro. moting the study of natural philosophy, the liclles-letlres, antiquities painting, sculpture, architecture, «fcc. : as the Imperial I-eopoldine Academy of the NnturcE Cnriosi ; the Academics of Sciences at Vienna Berlin, Munich, Goettingen, Erfort, Leipsic, Duisburg, Giesseii, and Hamburg. At Dresden and Nuremberg are academies for the fine arts; at Berlin a royal military academy ; and at Augsburg is tlie Im- I)erial Franciscan Academy of Fine Arts ; to which we may add liie Latin and German Societies at lenn. Of the public I'brarios, tl\e most celebrated are those of Vienna, Berlin, Halle, Wolfenbuttel, Hanover, GoRttingen, Weimar, and Leipsic. LANOi'Ar.E.] The German language is derived from the Teutonif, which sprang from the Gothic. It varies considerably in its (iialects as spoken in diii'erent parts of the country, and is purest in Saxony and Hanover, and in the Eouthern and eastern provinces most corrupted and uncouth. The (lerman Paternoster is as follows : Unscr Vatcr, der dn hist m himmel, rjcheiliget werde dcin nam ; zukommc dcin rcich ; drin tcilk gcscliehc, ivic im himmel also atich avfcrdcn. Unscr ttvglivh hrod gib una heule ; undvergib uns unsere schuldcn, als uir vcrgchcv unscru schuldigei'n : und fuehre vns nicl>t in vcrsuchung ; sondrrn erlasr uns von dcm bascn; den dvin ist das rcich, und die krafft, unfldic herrlichkeit, in exvigkcit. Amen. Antiquities.] Some remains of Roman edifices and otlicr antiqui- tics are found in Germany. The vast Gothic palaces, catlicdrals, casties, and, above all, town-houses, in Germany, arc very curious, and im- press the beholder with their rude magnificence: many castles liave the same appearance, probably, as thoy had ^00 years ago ; and their fortifications generally consist of a brick-wall, trenches filled with water, and bastions, or hali'-moons. History.] The manners of the ancient Germans are well dei^cribcd by the elegant and forcible ])eii of Tacitus. They were a brave and independent race of men, and peciiliarly distingiiished by their love of liberty and arms. They opposed the force of the Homan eni|tire, not in its origin, or in its decline, but after it had arrived at maturity, and when it contitmed in its full vigor. The country was divided into a number of principalities, independent of each other, though orcasion- ally connected by a military union for defending tlieniselves ngainst such enemies ns threatened the liberties of all. At length, the llouiau pov.er, supported by art and policy, prevailed over a eonsideriildc |inrt of Germany, and various portions of the cmuilry weie provinciated. When the great empire was Hlmttered by the nortliein bailwrians, Germany was over-run by the i''ranln to 1 of the empire, confer the em snwrior'.fy ove liil4:!8. Alb dignity contin One of his sm of Ikirgundy the Netlierlar grandson «.f P mother, was ( Peru were c( reformation was not conl ( GERMANY. 399 oneof tho«e eccentric and superior geniuses who sometimes start up in a barbarous age, first extended his military power, and afterwards his civil authority, over the whole of this empire. His posterity inherited the nl)ole or different part« of his dominions until the death of Louis I If., in 911 • at which time the diil'erent princes, resunring their original inde- pendence, rejected tlie Carloviugian line, and placed Conrad, duke of Franconia, on the throne. From that time, Germany was considered as an elective monarchy. Princes of different families, according to the prevalence of their interest and arms, were called to the throne. Of these, the most considerable, until the Austrian line acquired the imperial power, were the houses of Saxony, Franconia, and Swabia. The reigns of these emperors contain nothing more remarkable than the contests be- tueen them and the popes. From these, in the beginning of the thir- teenth century, arose the factions of the Giielphsand Ghibelines, of which the former were attached to the pope, and the latter to the emperor ; and both, by their violence and inveteracy, tended to disqiiiet the empire for several ages. The emperors too ware often at war with the Turks ; and (omedmes the Gerumn princes (as happens in all elective kingdoms) with one another aliout the succession. But what more deserves the attention of a judicious reader than all those noisy but uninteresting disputes, is 'he progress of government in Germany, which was, in some measure, op()osite to that of the other kingdoms of Europe. When the empire raised by Charlemagne fell asunder, all the independent princes assumed the, right of election ; and those who were afterward distinguished by tlie name of electors had no peculiar or legal influence in appointing a suc- cessor to the imperial throne ; they were only the officers of state or of the king's household. By degrees, as they lived near the royal person, and, like all other princes, bad independent territories belonging to them, they increased their influence and authority; and, in the reign of Otho II., of the houKe of Saxony, in 984, acquired the sole right of electing the emperor. 'J'liiis, while, in other kingdoms of Europe, the dignity of the great lords, who were all originally allodial ov independent barons, sas diniiaished by the power of the king, as in France, and by the influ- ence of the people, as in Great-Britain; in Germany, on the other hand, the po—cr of the elci-tors rose upon the ruins of the emperor's supremacy, and ot liie impular jurisdiction. Otho i. having, in 9(J2, united Italy to the empire of Gern)any, procured a decree from the clergy, that he and his successors should have the power of nominating the pope, and grant- ing investitures to bishops. Henry V., a weak and wicked prince, in 1122, surrendered the right of investiture and other powers, to the dis- !fr«ce of the imperial (iignity ; but, when pope Benedict XII. had refused »b8(ilutiv>n to Louis \ . of Bavarin, in l.'3'<8, it was declared, in tne diet of thi empire, that the majority of suffrages of the electoral college should confer the empire without the consent of the pope, and that h\i had no wprior^ty over the emperor, nor any right to reject ( to coidirtn elections, ill 14'38, Albert, arcltluko of Austria, was elect*M emper^^r; and that dignity continued in the male line of his fHUiily loi three hundred years. Olio ot" his suecessors, Maximilian, married the heiress of ('harles duko of Hurguiidy ; ami thus the (lukedoin, and (he Heventeen provinces of the Netherlands, were annexed to the house of A'l.stria. Charles V., grandson (,f Maximilian, and heir to the kingdom ol Spain in right of his imillier, was elected emperor in the year LOIQ. Under him Mexico and Peru were conquered by the Spaniards : and in his reign happened the reformation of religion in several parts of Germany ; which, however, was not confirmed by public authority before the year l(i48, when the i Ih ^ ) 'fvn mmm 400 GERMANY, i > I treaty of Westphalia was concluded, in tliexeign of Ferdinand III. Ti,j reign of Charles V. w as continually disturhed by his wars with the Ger. man princes, and the French king, Francis I. Though he was successful in the beginning of his reign, his good fortune toward the conclusion of it began to forsake him ; which, with other reasons, occasioned his abdi- cation. His brother, Ferdinand I., who in 1558 succeeded to the throne proved a moderate prince with regard to religion. He had the address to procure his son, Maximilian, to be declared king of the Romans, in his own life-time, and died in 1564. By his last will he ordered, that if either his own male issue, or that of his brother Charles, should fail his Austrian estates should revert to his second daughter Anne, vifo to the elector of Bavaria, and her issue. This destination is noticed, as it gave rise to the opposition made by the house of Bavaria to the i)ragniatic sanction in favor of the queen of Hungary, on the death of Charles VI.' The reign of Maximilian II. was disturbed by internal commotions and by an invasion from the Turks; but he died in peace in 1576. He was succeeded by his son Rodolph, who was involved in a war with the Hungarians, and in differences with his brother Matthias, to whom he ceded Hungary and Austria in his life-time. To him succeeded in the empire, in 1611, Matthias, under whom the Lutherans and Calvin- ists were so much divided among themselves as to threaten the empire with a civil war. The emperor's endeavours at last reconciled them; but the Boheniinns revolted, and threw the imperial commissaries out of a window at Prague. 1 his gave rise to a ruinous war, which lasted thirty years. Matthias hoped to subdue both parties ; but they formed a confederacy, called the Evanyelic League, which was counterbalanced by a Catholic League. Matthias, dying in 1618, was succeeded by his cousin, Ferdinand II.; but the Bohemians offered their crown to Frederic the elector palatine, the most powerful jirotestant prince in Germany, and son-in-law to his Britannic majesty, .lames I. That prince was so inconsiderate as to accept the crown ; but he lost it, being entirely defeated by the duke of Bavaria and the imperial generals, at the battle of Prague : and he was also deprived of iiis own electorate, the best part of which was given to the duke of Bavaria. The proteatant princes of Germany, however, had among them, at that time, many able coujuiauders, who weriat the liead of armies, and continued the war witli great lirmness and intrepidity: among them were the margrave of Baden-Durlath, Christian duke of Brunswick, and count Mansield ; the last was one of the ablest generals of the age. Christian IV., king of Denmark, declared for them ; and Richelieu, the French minister, did not wi»h to see the house of Austria aggrandised. The emperor, on the other hand, had excellent generals; and Christian, having put himself at the head of the evangelic league, was defeated by Tilly, an imperialist of great reputation in war. Fer- dinand so grossly abused the advantages obtained over the protcstants, that they formed a new confederacy at Leipsic, of which the celebrated Gustavus Adolphus, king of Sweden, was the head. 11 is victories and progress, till he was killed at the battle of l,ut;^en in 163"2, have already been related. But the protestant cause did not die with liim. He had bred a set of heroes, fiuii as the duke of Saxe-Weiniar, Torstenson, Banier, and others, whoso s]>irited efforts shook the Austrian power, till, under the mediation of Sweden, a general peace was concluded among the powers at war, at Munstcr, in 1648. Ferdinand II. died in 1637, and was 6ucceeded by liis son, Ferdi- GERMANY. 401 nand III., who died in 1657. Leopold, a prince of little merit or ability, was the next emperor. He Imd two great powers to contend with; France on one side, and the Turks on the otlier ; and he was a loser in his wars with both. France took from him Alsace, and other terri- tories on the frontiers of the empire ; and the Turks would have taken Vienna, Iiad not the siege ))een raised by .John Sobieski, king of Po- laud. Prince Eugene of Savoy was a young adventurer in arms, about the year 1697. Being one of tlie imperial generals, he gave the Turks the first checks they received in Hungary; and by the peace ofCarlo- witz, in 1699, Transylvania was ceded to the emperor. The empire, however, could not have withstood the power of France, had not king William III. of England laid the foundation of the grand con- federacy against the French power, the consequences of which have been already described. The Hungarians, secretly encouraged by the French, and exasperated by the unfeeling tyranny of Leopold, were still in arms, under the protection of the Porte, when that prince died, in 1705. He was succeeded by his son Joseph, who put the electors of Co- logne and Bararia to the ban of the empire ; but, as he was very ill served by prince Louis of Baden, the general of the empire, the French partly retrieved their affairs, notwithstanding their repeated defeats. The duke of Marlborough, though he obtained very splendid victories, had not all the success he expected or deserved. .Joseph himself was suspected of a design to subvert the Germanic liberties; and it was evident, by his conduct, that he expected England would take the princijuil part in the war, which was chiefly carried on for his benefit. The English were disgusted at his slowness and selfishness; but he died in 17J 1, before he had reduced the Hungarians ; and, leaving no male issue, was suc- ceeded in the empire by his brother, Charles VI,, whom the allies were endeavouring to place on the throne of Spain, in opposition to the duke of Anjou. When the peace of Utrecht took place, in 1713, Charles at first made a show as if he would continue the war ; but found himself unable, when he was forsaken by the English. He therefore was obliged to conclude a peace with France, at Baden, in 1714, that he might op- pose the progress of the Turks in Hungary, where they received a signal defeat from prince Eugene, in the battle of Peterwardoin. They received another, of equal importance, from the same general, in 1717, before Belgrade, which fell into the hands of the imperialists ; and in the following year the peace of Passarowitz was concluded. Charles was continually employed in making arrangements for increasing and preserving his hereditary dominions in Italy and the Meiiili'rranean. Happily for him, the British crown devolved to the house of Hanover; an event which gave him a decisive weight on the continent, by the con- nexions of George I. and H. with the empire. Charles was sensible of this, and behaved with such arrogance, that, in 1725, a breach ensued between him and George I., and so unsteady was the political system of Europe at that time, that the principal powers often changed their old alliances, and concluded new ones, contrary to their interest. Without entering into particulars, it is sufficient to observe, that the interest of Hanover was the main object of the British court, as that of the emperor was the establishment of the pragmatic sanction, in favor of his daugh- ter, Maria Theresa, he having no male issue. Mutual concessions upon those great points restored a good understanding between George II. and the emperor Charles; and the elector of Saxony, allured by the prospect 3 D 402 GERMANY. of gaining tlie throne of Poland, relinquished his claims upon the Austrian succession. Tiio emperor, after this, had very ill success in a war with tlio Turku which he had undertaken chiefly to indemnify himself for the tcrcat sa- crifices he had made in Italy to the princes of the house of Bourbon, Prince Eugene was then dead ; and he had no general to supply his ])Iace.. The system of France happened at that time to he pacific; and cardinal Pleury obtained for him, from the Turks, a l)etter peace than lie had reason to expect. To pacify the German and other European l)ilnces, he gave his daughter in marriage to the duke of Lorrain, a jirince who could bring no accession of power to the Austrian family. He died in 1740; and his favorite scheme must have been overthrown had it not been for the firmness of the king of Great-Britain. His daughter's succession was strongly opposed. The young king of Prussia with a powerful army, entered and conquered Silesia, which, he said, had been wrongfully wrested from his family. The king of Spain and the elector of Bavaria set up claims directly incompatible with the prag- matic sanction ; and in this they were joined by France, tlious;h all those powers had .solemnly guarantied it. The imperial throne was filled by the elector, who took the title of Charles VII., in .lanuary, 1742. The French poured their armies into Bohemia, where they took Prague : and the queen of Hungary, to take off the weight of Prussia, was forced to cede the most valuable part of the duchy of Silesia, by a formal treaty. The youth, beauty, and sufferings of Maria Theresa, and the noWe fortitude with whirh she bore lier misfortunes, touched the hearts of the Hungarians, under whose protection she threw herself and her infant son; and, though they bad always been remarkable for their disaffection to the house of Austria, they declared unanimously in her favor. Her generals drove the French out of Bohemia; and George II., at the head of an English and Hanoverian army, gained the battle of Dettingcn, in 1743. Charles VII. was at this time distressed on the imperial throne, and driven out of his electoral dominions (as had been his an- cestor, in queen Anne's reign, for siding with France), and would have given the queen of Hungary almost her own terms; but she haughtily rejected all accommodation, though advised to it by his Britannicma- jesty, her best and indeed only friend. This obstinacy gave a co- lor for the invasion of Bohemia, under pretence of supporting the impe- rial dignity ; but, though the Prussian monarch, on this occasion, took Prague, and subdued the greatest part of the kingdom, he was not sup- ported by the French ; upon which he abandoned all his conquests, and retired into Silesia. In the beginning of the year 1745, the unfortunate emperor died; and the duke of Lorrain, then grand-duke of Tuscany, was chosen to succeed him, by the title of Francis I. This election .strengthened the interest of his active and politic wife; but the ill success of the allies against the French and Bavarians in the Netherlnnds, and the loss of the battle of Fontenoy, retarded her operations against his Prus- sian majesty. The latter defer.ted the emperor's brother, prince t'h;?rle5 of Lorrain, who had before driven the Prussians out of Bohemia; and George H., disgusted at the ingratitude of the empres.?, thought proper to guaranty to him the possession of Silesia, as ceded by treaty. Fre- deric, soon after, pretend od that he had discovered a secret convention which had been concluded by Maria Theresa with the empresr of Uus- sia, and tho king of Poland, as elector of Sa-xony, to strip hinj of liis GERMANY. 403 dominions, and to divide them among themselves. Upon this he suddenly attacked the king of Poland, drove him out of Saxony, defeated his troops, and took possession of Dresden, which he held till a treaty was adjusted under the mediation of his Britannic majesty, by which the kinc of Prussia acknowleged the duke of Lorrain as emperor. The war continued in the liOW-Countries, not only to the disadvantage but to tho discredit of the Austrians and Dutcli,' till it was finished by the treaty of Aix-la-Cliapelle, in 1748, By that treaty, Silesia was once more guarantied to the king of Prussia. It was not long before that monarch's jealousies were renewed and verified ; and the views of the Russian empress coinciding with those of the empress-queen and the king of Poland, who were unnaturally supported by France in their new schemes, a fresh war was excited in the empire, in 1756. The king of Prussia declared against the admission of the Russians into Germany, and his Britannic majesty against that of the French. Upon those two principles, all for- mer dift'erences between these monarchs were forgotten ; and the British parliament agreed to pay an annual subsidy of 670,000/. to Frederic during the war, the flames of which were now rekindled with greater fury than ever. • His Prussian majesty now invaded Saxony, defeated the imperial gene- ral Brown at the battle of Lowositz, and forced the Saxons to lay down their arms, though almost impregnably fortified at Pirna; and the elector of Saxony again fled into Poland. After this, Frederic was put to the ban of the empire; and the French poured, by one quarter, their armies, as the Russians did by another, into Germany. His con- duct, on this occa«ion, is scarcely to be paralleled in history. He rushed once more into Bohemia with inconceivable rapidity, and triumphed over an army of 100,000 Austrians, under general Brown, who was killed, as the brave marshal Scbwerin was on the side of the Prussians. He then besieged Prague, and plied it with a most tre- mendous artillery ; but, as he was beginning to imagine that his troops were invincible, they were repelled at Colin by the Austrian general Daun, and obliged to raise the siege. The operations of the war now multiplied every day. The imperialists, under count Daun, were formed into excellent troops ; but they were defeated at the battle of Lissa, and the Prussians took Breslau, and obtained other great ad- vantages. The Riissians, after entering (u^rmany, gave a new turn to the aspect of the war; and the cautious yet enterprising genius of count Daun laid his Prussian majesty under infinite difficulties, not- withstanding all his great victories. vVt first he defeated the Russians at Zorndorf; but an attack made upon his army, in the night, by count Daun at Hochkirchen, had nearly j)rove(l fatal to his aftairs, though he retrieved them with admirable presence ot" mind. He was obliged, however, to sacrifice Saxony for the safety of Silesia ; and it has been observed, that few periods of history afford such room for reflexion as tliis campaign did: six sieges were raised almost at tho same time ; that of Colberg, by the Riissiaus ; that of Leipsic, by the duke of Deux-Ponts, who commanded the army of the empire; that of Dresden, by count JDaun ; and those of Neiss, Cosel, and Torgau, also by the Austrians. Many important events which passed at the same time in Germany, between the I'rench, who were driven out of HanoVv'r, and the English, nr their allies, must be omitted on account of the brevity which this (i)inpendium requires. The operations on both sides are of little importance to history, because nothing was done that was decisive, 2D2 'Hit; 404 GERMANY. though the war was extremely bloody and burthensome to Great- Britain. Great was the ingratitude of the Queen of Hungary to hij Britannic majesty and his allien, who were now daily threatened with the ban of the empire. The Russians had taken possession of the kingdom of Prussia, and laid sie^e to Coiberg, tlie only port of his Prussian majesty in the Baltic. Till then, he had entertained too mean an opinion of the Russians ; but he soon found tliat they were his most formidable enemies. They advanced, under count Soltikoif, in a body of 90,000 men, into Silesia. In this distress he acted with a courage and resolution that bordered upon despair ; but was, at last defeated by the Russians, with a very severe loss, in a battle neat Frankfort on the Oder. He became now the tennis-ball of fortune. Succeeding defeats seemed to announce his ruin, and all avenues to- ward peace were apparently shut up. He had lost many brave and able generals, beside those who were wounded and made prisoners. At Landshut, Laudohn defeated his army under Foufpiet, on which he had great dependence, and thereby opened to the Austrians an easy passage into Silesia. None but Frederic HI. would have thouglit of continuing the war under such repeaterl losses; but every dpfcat he received seemed to give him fresh spirits. It is not, perhaps, very easy to account for the inactivity of his enemies after his defeat near Frankfort, but by the jealousy which the imperial generals entertained of their Russian allies. They had taken Berlin, and laid inhabit- ants under pecuniary contributions ; but, toward the end ot the cam- paign, he defeated the imperialists in the battle of Torgau, in which count Daun was wounded. This was the best-fought action in which the king of Prussia had ever been engaged : but it cost him 10,000 of his best troops, and was attended with no great consequences in his favor. New reinforcements which frequently arrived from llussia, the taking of Coiberg by the Russians, and of Schweidnitz by the Austrians, seemed almost to have completed his ruin, when his great enemy, the empress of Russia, died in 1762, George II. had pre- viously resigned his breath. The deaths of those illustrious person- ages were followed by important consequences. The ministers of George III. were solicitous to put an end to the war; and the new emperor of Russia recalled his armies. His Prussian majesty, how- ever, was so weakened by his losses, that Maria Theresa probably would have completed his destruction, had it not been for the prudent reluctance of the other German princes to the annihilation of the house of Branden- burg. At first the queen rejected all terms proposed to her, and ordered 30,000 men to be added to her armies: but the visible unwillingness of her generals to execute her orders, and the success of Frederic, at last prevailed upon her to agree to an armistice, which was soon followed by the treaty of Hubertsburg, in February, 176.1. On the death of Francis, in 176'5, his son .Joseph succeeded him. The new emperor had an active mind, and, though not of a warlike character, was encroaching and ambitious : yet, for some years, he ex- hibited an appearance of moderation, attending with zeal to the concern! of internal policy. The disorders of Poland at length attracted his no- tice; and he was easily persuaded by the Russian empress to join in the first partition of that defenceless country. After another interval of forbearance, he aimed at the seisure of a great portion of the Bavarian territories, on the decease cf the elector without issue : and a war arose, in 1778, from his arrogant and unjustifiable pretensions: but the spirit of the Prussian monarch, whom Joseph was afraid to meet personally in GERMANY. 405 the field, cooled his ardor, and impelled him Into a speedy pacification. He afterwards demanded of the Dutch the free navigation of the Schelde; but in this scheme he likewise failed. He endeavoured, how- ever, to promote the happiness of his subjects ; granted a most liberal re- ligious toleration, and suppressed most of the religious orders of both Mxes, as being utterly useless, and even i>erniciou8 to society ; abo- lished the remains of servitude and villanage ; fixed the fees of the rapacious agents of law at a moderate amount, granting them a jxjd- sioninlieu; abolished the use of torture in his hereditary domiuions, and removed many of the grievances under which the peanaiits and common people labored. He was a prince who treated his subjects with an ease and affability which are very uncommon in persons of his rank. He loved the conversation of ingenious men, and appeared solicitous to acquire knowlcge. Peter- Leopold, grand-duke of Tuscany, succeeded his brother Joseph, in 1790, and engaged the public praise by repeated instances of modera- tion and SI)! '' principles. His former government of the Tuscan duchy, which was pni-dent and beneficent, showed that he aspired to more just reputation than can be acquired by the mere splendors of royalty. But his moderation did not prevent him from acting with that spirit which overawed the insurgents of the Netherlands, and the discontented Hunga- riaDB, into full submission. The French revolution now attr;' '•'d the attention of the powers of Europe ; and, In a conference at Pil, ^, the emperor, the king of Prussia, and the elector of Saxony, anxiously > 'liberated m the critical state of affairs, and disle ; i ut despotism sometimes led him into acts of t}'ranny; and his cvu , ii in the final partition of Poland proved that he was not invariably iiiHi t^iced by a due sense of justice. The next war in which the emperor engaged was short, but sanguinary. As the most important incidents of that and the preceding war have been narrated in ,ur sketch of the history of France, it is unnecessary to give a repetition of statement. He did not lose much by the treaty of Luneville, which was chiefly a confirmation of that of Campo-Formio. He was still a very powerful prince, and was still regarded by the continental powers as one who would give a future check to the wanton encroach- ments of Napoleon. Yet he was at that time so weary of war, that he made little opposition to the arbitrary dictates of the tyrant, in 1802, in the settlement of the affairs of Germany, He was jealous of the aggran- disement of Prussia and Bavaria on that occasion, but was disposed to be content, when his brother Ferdinand was in some degree fr.vored. When he had remained for several years a quiet spectator of the conduct of France, he was roused into a new war by Uie »eal of Mr. Pitt, wjionj be IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) /. ^ M^ 1.0 [f 1^ IIM ■^ 1^ III 2.2 I "" IIM UUt. I.I Illll 1 fl 1.25 1.4 1.6 - 6" y] Photographic Sciences Corporation ^ \5 ^> \ \\ rv '^*^^ '^.V o\ 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. 14980 (716) 873-4503 o\ !^ 406 GERMANY. even suffered to recommend general Mack, an incompetent, if not trea- cherous officer, as the chief commander of his army. In a few weeka' during the autumn of 1805, the defeats and losses, to which the AusttianI •were subjected, were severe and afflictive ; and the emperor, despairinirof the defence of his capital, left it to be profaned by an insaltiug foe, i{, did not, however, relinquish the contest before his Russian allies, who had the principal share in the battle of Austerlitz, were compelled to retnat on that disastrous day. It appears that the pacification which ensued waa solely the work of Francis, whom the Russiai monarch in vain itiom. lated to a continuance of hostilities. The ten of the treaty of Preg. burg were extremely unpleasing to the vanquishtd prince, who not onlv lost the spoils of Venice and a considerable part of his German territo- ries, -but was obliged to acquiesce in other arrangements which he strongiT disapproved. In the following year, when the Prussians were in danger of ruin, he made no attempt to assist their monarch, because he was un- prepared to renew hostile operations ; and an additional reason may perhaps be assigned ; — he did not consider Frederic William as entitled to assistance, since, by declining all concern in the preceding coaIitioo,lie had hastened the humiliation of the head of the empire. The peace between France and Austria would not so soon have been violated by the latter, if Napoleon had not, with all the rashneBs of am- bition, involved himself in a hazardous war with Spain. Hoping to profit by this opportunity of re- action, the emperor called all his disposable force into the field, in 1809, and gave orders not only for an invasion of Bavaria, whose sovereign continued to be the obedient vassal of France, but for an expedition into the Venetian territories, which, he thought, might be easily recovered. Fortune seemed for a time to smile upon hig arms; but disasters were subsequently experienced, and the defeat of his principal force at Wagram induced him to solicit peace, which he pur- chased by important cessions, resigning different parts of Poland to the Saxons and Russians, ana a part of Austria to the Rhenish confederacy, and even admitting the subjects of his great enemy to the possession of the right bank of the Save. He seemed now to be effectually humbled; and exhibited a strong proof of his despondency, by consenting to the marriage of his eldest daughter with the oppressor of Germany. This inglorious connexion kept him in a dependent state, and r.o far bound him to Napoleon, that he did not even refuse, like a man of honor and spirit, to send an auxiliary force to the mighty army which invaded the domi- nions of his northern friend. But it is said, that the general whom he selected for that ostensible service (the prince of Schwartzenberg) acted with such caution and scrupulosity, as rarely to expose the troops to great danger ; and, at the same time, with an appearance of alacrity, which •eemed to preclude the tyrant's suspicions. When the effect of the invasion had manifested itself in the oppor- tunity which it afforded for a new coalition, Francis, though he hrid placed his army on a formidable basis, (V,.d not seem disposed to risque a new war with Napoleon; and he suffered the French, in 1813, to harass the Russians and their German associates with all the rigors of hostility, while he was anxiously deliberating whether he should in- terfere or remain neutral. But the persuasions of his able minister, prince Metternich, and the suggestions of his generals, at length pre- vailed upon him to enter into the confederacy. This determination gave new life and vigor to the continental interest ; and a mighty host appeared in the most terrific attitude, ready to take vengeance upon the daring and profligate eaemies of mankind. As almost every victory ^ discipline' id «oon turns SeofthBoPP ble abatement o SeofSwedei lroop»at8uchp ^.ersarUscooU sistance. i»« seemed prec;ino rery severe loss, hiiarmy. Tbe success ftomencroachn gtess of victor: frontiers. 1" filled the count wassuBpe*^^^"' of their own sa ever xeal he n ence, would n ^hose splendi sions: but, M allies to breal than his Ru« nation which two armies, m each other tc nents withii pital, being powers. R" stituted autl poleon and already bee invested wit Henry IV., the settlem and plenip< suddenly i retreat. ^ tions, the and Pruss part in tlu ment of a Germa of the coi verted; i their pro] Peace the iuflu GERMANY. 407 shicii the French had obtained had more cvideniy resulted from the aJwntJge of number, in the field, than fro!n the superiority of courage •nd discipline, it was not perhaps difficult to foresee that the tide would soon turn against them, in consequence of the transcendent mag- nitude of the opposing force. They fought, however, without any visi- ble abatement of spirit; and their emperor moved alternately to the centre and the right, against that part of the allied force which Blucher coimDanded,and that still greater army which the prince of Schwaitzen- beig led into the field ; while his former friend Bernadotte, the crown- prince of Sweden, threatened his left with an attack. After various con- licti he retired to the neighbourhood of Leipsic, and stationed bin troops at such points as presented an appearance of defensibility. His adrenaries coolly surveyed his positions, and derided his means of re- sistance. The various assaults were so far successful, that his escape seemed precarious : but he found an avenue fur retreat; and, after a reiy severe loss, he escaped to the Rhine with the shattered remains of hiiarmy. The success of the new coalition rescued Germany and Holland from encroachments and usurpations; and the next step, in the pro- gress of victory, was the dictation of peace to F"rance within her own frontiers. This was the object of that well-concerted march, wliich jlled the country with alarm, and shook the tyrant on his throne. It was suspected, by some of those politicians who had an exalted opinion of their own sagacity and penetration, that the Austrian emperor, what- ever seal he might affect to display in the cause of national independ- ence, would not proceed to the extremity of deposing his son-in-law, to whose splendid throne his own grandson seemed to have fair preten- sions : but, when the blind obstinacy of Napoleon had constrained the allies to break off all negotiation with him, Francis was not less dis^Msed than his Russian friend to ])ut an end to that proud and insolent domi- nation which the reviving spirit of Europe could no longer brook. The two armies, which had for some time been at too great a distance from each other to act with due concert, were brought by seasonable move- ments within the means of convenient co-operation ; and the French ca- pital, being assaulted with energy, was left to (he clemency of foreign powers. Reasonable terms of capitulation were granted ; and the con- stituted authorities were permitted to re-organise the government. Na- poleon and his family were excluded from the throne, as the reader has already been more fully informed; and, when Louis XVUl. had been invested with that sovereignty which he claimed by his descent from Henry IV., a congress convoked by the emperor at Vienna proceeded to tlie settlement of the affairs of Europe. The deliberations of the princes and plenipotentiaries were di8t\irbed by the perfidy of Bonapart6, who, suddenly appearing in France, re-obtained the throne by the king's retreat. While Francis was diligently employed in military prepara- tions, the usurper was ruiued by the magnanimous efforts of the English and Prussians ; and, when the Austrian army began to take an active part in the contest, little remained to be performed, except the adjust- ment of a treaty for the humiliation of France. Germany and Italy were the chief countries to wliich the deliberations of the congress were directed. To some of its acts we have already ad- verted ; and it^ other resolutions and arrangements will be noticed under their proper heads. Peace has since prevailed in Germany ; and the emperor, aided by the influence of the holy alliance, has over-awed his subjects into that 408 GERMANY. ■**---*iH*r?'-»:";* hiimble forbearance which precludes him from the necessity (though n„ the moral obligation) of performing his promise with regard to a repre!! sentative government and a free constitution. But, in Italy, the intrigued of the Carbonari (a society of the friends of freedom) produced revolu, lions which roused the despot from his dream of security. In the Neapolitan and Piedmontese territories, even the soldierv I joined the people in demanding a reform, and new governments were hastily organised. Francis, apprehensive that the inhabitants of hjj Italian provinces would catch the rising flame, summoned the king of I Naples to the congress of Laybach to answer for his weakness and neirli. gence in suffering himself to be enslaved by a faction, and sent him back with instructions for the regulation of his future conduct. He also ein- ployed a considerable army in crushing the insurrection; and the invad- ers, after defeating general Pepe, took possession of Naples, and re. stored the former government. The commotions in Piedmont were quelled before an Austrian force arrived, and affairs resumed a tranquil course. The emperor, to secure his authority in both countries, garri. fioned the principal fortresses ; and revolutionary attempts have not since been renewed. Francis, emperor of Austria, was born on the 12th of February, 1768 and was married, in 1788, to a princess of Wurtemberg ; after whose death, in 1790, he espoused his cousin Maria Theresa, daughter of Fer- dinand IV. king of Naples. His third wife was Maria Louisa, who was also his cousin, being a daughter of the late archduke Ferdinand. To this lady he was married in 1808, and after her death, in 1816, he gave his hand to Charlotte, daughter of the king of Bavaria. He had no issue by his first marriage. By the jsecond he has Maria- Louisa, born December 12, 1791, married to Napoleon, when he was emperor of France, April 1, 1810 ; now duchess of Parma. Ferdinand-Leopold-Francis-Joseph-Crescentius, prince imperial, bora April 19, 1793. Leopoldina-Carolina-Josepha, born January 22, 1797; married, in 1817, to don Pedro, now emperor of Brazil. Maria-Clementina- Frances-Josepha, born March 1, 1798, married, in 1816, to the prince of Salerno, second son of Ferdinand IV. of Naples. Joseph- Francis- Leopold, born April 9, 1799. Carolina- Ferdinanda-Josepha-Demetria, bom April 8, 1801. Francis-Charles- Joseph, born December 7, 1802. Maria- Anna-francisca, bom June 8, 1804. Brothers and Sisters of the Emperor. Charles-Louis, born September 5, 1771 ; vice-roy of Bohemia. Joseph-Antony, born March 9, 1776 ; palatine of Hungary. Antony- Victor- Joseph, born August 31, 1779. John-Baptist- Joseph, born January 20, 1782. Regnier- Joseph, born September 30, 1783; vice-roy of Lombardy. Louis- Joseph, born December 14, 1784. Rodolph-John-Joseph-Regnier, born January 8, 1788; cardinal and archbishop of Olmutz. Maria-Theresa- Josepha-Charlotta, born January 14, 1767; married, in 1787, to Antony, brother to the king of Saxony. Dot I ■ Wpre. i intrigue, I soldi tents lieiy Were | In'sofhijl king of md negli. I him bai also em. invad. and Pont re. Were ■ tranquil les, garri. «ot since L. ..F. ^.«tl - '-**^1 ii*rt* .. .aflfc.jai-«»*»«'s ••**»••*-«»■•■ TIniUt Sc.3i2. ttruia. £t'nJtni hihU'jfwil AIt{f t'^ifirj h- J.MitHinan 21 ^TiWi'otiloAv ,V Scllwei^ln^ ^umherg \ 1 .r^^ »i Utt\ .. "^'rjfc/j ,qy^** ytJ/.nw* \T JiJL—-'-^"'"' POL tfltiiot' Sandomirr!:^ Ul0UUk I B«J* \«Lom Kyrvi ..■'■■y—ifti'riH^ 7 LS»c fitiM riiftu a\>^^ 'tJzpri'/ti l»W*wr ttau'vl" yiUrmriP y\i ,^» .. 1 ) ■ , }t: b . , •fr,.-»A jittfttf'tti' AUSTRIA. I — -* ytf < ftf» Jlrit/jk SUInlr Milrf ID I niHuhi-J .Vtffl'fiStj ir J.Afaoman t lir in'i1>>n. , — -I AUSTRIAN EMPIRE. .„ 409 MaHa-Anpa'Ferdinanda, born April 21, 1770; abbeu of tlie chapter '/•U:'; ofPrtg<»«' Cblrles Louis, king of Bavaria, is a descendant of the ancient dukes of that country, and was born on the 2.'5th of August, 1786. He married Theresa, princess of Hildburghausen, by whom he has issue, both male. and female. | Frederic Augustus, king of Saxony, traces his descent from the mar-' gravel of Misnia, and was born on the 23d of December, 1750. He espouted Maria Amelia Augusta, princess of Deux-Ponts, by whom he has one daughter. From the year 1807 to 1815, he ruled over a coa- siderable part of Poland, as grand-duke of Warsaw. { Frederic William, king of Wurtemberg, derives his^origin from the count! of Beutelsbach, one of whom received from the emperor Maxi- niliaa, in 1495, the title of duke of Wurtemberg. He was born on the 27th of September, 1781, and, in 1814, was married to the duchess of Oldenburg, who died in 1819. He afterwards espoused Paulina (the daughter of his uncle, the duke Alexander), by whom he has a son, Chivies Frederic Alexander, bora in 1823. --'■■■■'' ■ ■ . ', I &-'--'n THE AUSTRIAN EMPIRE. The name of Austria was formed by the Italian and French pronun- ciation of the German words Oiter-Reich, the eastern kingdom, which name this territory received on account of its situation with respect to the msteru empire established by Charlemagne. The archduchy of Austria' Proper exceeds almost every other province of Germany in the fertility of its soil, the abundance of its pastures, and the salubrity of the air. It ia divided by the river Ens into Upper and Lower Austria, and is said to contain 35 cities and 256 market-towns. The capitals of those divisions we have already described. The duchy of Styuia, situated to the south of the archduchy of Austria, is about 1 25 miles long, and 70 broad. Though a mountainous country, it is, well cultivated, and produces every kind of grain. The mountains contain silver, lead, copper, and particularly iron. The iron mines have been worked above 1000 years ; yet they continue to be very productive; and the Styrian steel is in great estimation. The chief mines are in the' neighbourhood of Eisenserts, to the westward of Leoben. Here a bed of sparry ore forms the greater part of a small hill called the Erzberg ; and the whole produce of this district, in the course of the eighteenth century, amounted to 65,757,650 centners of ore (each being equal to 123 pounds of avoirdupois), which yielded 21,919,210 centners of raw iron. As these mines are now worked with greater attention and skill, they have in the present century been proportionally more produc- tive. Tiie salt-mines of Sandling and Ausee are likewise worked to great advantage. That article is procured in two modes, either as rock-salt in square masses, cut from the solid walls of the pit, or (when it is less pure) by introducing water into chambers formed for the purpose. At Ausee there are ninety sets of chambers, each consisting of about 750. Fine quarries of marble are also found in the limestone districts of this province. The forests, though extensive, have been neglected ; and the Gultiire of the vine is not perfectly understood by the people ; yet, in somie J 410 AUSTRIAN EMPIRE. farts, great quantities of excellent wine are made. The population of the whole province is supposed to exceed 820,0fl0. Gratz, the capital, was regularly fortified at the time of the French in. vasion, in 1809; but its castle was then demolished, and most of the other works were afterwards destroyed by the emperor's order. It stands in a romantic valley, and some parts are well-built ; it is adorned with handsome churches, and is rich in charitable institutions, and in establishments for education. Among the former, the most remarkable is a comprehensive system for the cnre of the poor, consisting of geven departments : one is a general hospital ; another relates to the comforta. ble accouchement of unmarried women ; the third part of the institutioD provides for the support of orphans and foundlings ; by the fourth, an asylum is established for lunatics ; the aged arc maintained in the fifth division ; and the two last comprise "leemosynary funds connected with the hospital and the alms-house. The principal place of education is the Lyceum, which bears one great character of an university, as it confera degrees in theology and philosophy : but the instruction is not confined to those branches ; for medicine, law, and political ccconomy, are also objects of attention. The annexed library consists of 1 10,000 volumes, which are open to general perusal. An institution, called the Johannsum from the archduke John, deserves notice for its importance and utility, That intelligent prince, having employed himself in repeated surveys of Styria, had collected a large store of minerals, a great number of botanic specimens, a variety of manufactured products, a large li- brary, and many sets of philosophical instruments ; and, for the benefit of the citizens and provincials, he deposited these accumulations in a spacious house, with a view to the cstabli.sJmient of scientific lectures, Considerable additions were made to the collection by a noblcniiin nnuii'd Egger, and other votaries of science; and the institution has dilTused in- formation and improvement. In the city and its neighbourhood, several manufactures are conducted with spirit, not only in those branches which are connected with tlie mineral produce of the country, but in the articles of silk, cotton, leather, paper, and glass. The population of the town amounts to 35,000. The duchy of Carintiiia, situated to the south-west of Styria, is still more mountainous and woody than that province, and contains mines of iron and lead ; but there are many fertile valleys which yield wheat and other grain, though not sudicicnt to supply the wants of the inha- bitants. This territory is 100 miles in length, and 40 in breadth, and its population is about 300,000. It is divided into the circles of Clagenfort and Villach, which are so named from the chief towns. The former city is small, but not ill-built; the streets are broad, and some of them open into spacious squares. It has some monasteries, which escaped the re- forming spirit of the emperor Joseph ; — an university, a lyceura, a society for the encouragement of agriculture and the useful arts, and an asylum for the orphan children of soldiers. Many of its inhabitants (whose whole number is about 1'2,000) are employed in manufactures of silk, fine cloth, ribands, and muslin. It is rendered an insalubrious abode by the vicinity of a lake, from which a canal leads Ui the town. — Villach, which is situated at the coniluence of the Geyl with the Dravc, has a fortress, some handsome houses, and a brisk trade, particularly in iron and steel. The duchy of Cakniola, to the south of Styria, is also in general mountainous ; yet many parts yield not only good pasturage, but excel- lent corn, millet, hemp, and the best ilax in the Austrian dominions. In the mouutaios are mines of iiou, lead, and copper; and precious stones Lrtosame* found ;*aturalc«no« Thedewentwbyst 'Sourk. .Vanou attleandhorsesar Lid. those which j;^ also some ^ MBount ot .Jy> 4e,are » robust ^bbours. T»,bachi«the' 1^ it is not a h Bunber of it« ^nh' to««ver, some tr liaen and some sil iegenemted into « A considerable oent of the coast, {torn the Trevigia ladooof430,0_0( eluded the penin jjjged to Veniw town on an islam » bridge of very oioouteries, a y ojue peninsula, former town) by lemuDS of a fin of Utria is not ^ it i^ords good timber; and its eimers,— -a Gev towns, the peop ^e rural distri The countie boundaries of chief towns hi bishopric, and literary and si The most ll getscs a spaci Its inhabitan Greeks, Luth silk, velvet, chief trade is rimost every for Ifce mere court of V; rendered mo considerable and ronven consequenci the covu ■-«*.. ■■-r-^>" AUSTRIAN EMPIRE. 411 1 1^ DUMtioiM found. The mines of Idria, in thia duchy, may be considered utBStural curiosity. They are well worked, and are very productive. ]lie dMcent is by stone stairs and ladders, and the galleries extend to the length of 1^80 feet. The principal rivers are the Save, the Laybach, and tbeGurk. , Various kinds of fruit, as chesnuts, walnuts, olives, oranges, eibooi, lemons, pomegranates, almonds, and figs, abound here; and black tittle and horses are bred in great numbers. The principal manufactures, lieiida those which depend on mineralogy, are woollen, linen, and lace: tjien are also some extensive glass-houses. The inhabitants, who exceed tJK tfflount of 390,000, are, for the most part, of Sclavonian origin : they are a robust and hardy race, less indolent tliaa their Carinthiaa jtwhbours. Uybach is the capital of this province, and the see of an archbisliop ; |)ut it is not a handsome town, nor is it flourishing or populous, the goober of its inhabitants scarcely exceeding 11,500. They carry on, liowever, some trade in oil, wine, and cutlery, and manufacture good linen and some silken articles. The mountainous castle of this city has degenerated into a prison. A considerable part of this duchy has lately been'added to the govern- ment of the coast, or the maritime provinces, — a spacious tract, extending from the Trevigiano to the borders of Dahnatia, and containing a popu- latioaof 430,000. In the Litorale (as this territory is styled) is in- cluded the peninsula of Istria, which, before the French revolution, be- kuged to Venice, and the capital of which is Capo d'Istria, a small town on an island in the gulf of Trieste, connected with the continent by I bridge of very uncommon length, and containing a cathedral, several Donasteries, a well-contrived aqueduct, and s^lt-works. Pola, in the tane peninsula, is situated upon a mountain, dignified (as well as the fonoer town) by an episcopate, and rendered an object of curiosity by the lemains of a fine amphitheatre, and other Roman antiquities. The air of Istria is not very salubrious, and the soil is not the most fertile ; but it affords good pasturage, produces oil, and supplies ship-wrights with timber ; and lis vineyards annually furnish wine to the amount of 120,000 eimerg, — a German measure equal to 15 English wine-gallons. In tlie towns, the people are chiefly of Italian extraction ; but the inhabitants of the rural districts are of Sclavonian descent. The counties of Goritz and Gradisca are comprehended within the boundaries of the Litorale. They produce corn, wine, and oil ; and the chief towns have some trade and manufactures. Goritz is an arch- bishopric, and Gradisca an episcopate ; and the former town boasts of a literary and scientific society. The most nourishing town in this maritime tract is Trieste, which pos- seiics a spacious and secure harbour, and the advantages of a free port. Its inhabitants are about 35,000, among whom are Roman-catholics, Greeks, Lutherans, Calvinists, and Jews. Its manufactures are those of silk, velvet, thread, porcelain, sope, sugar, paint, and leather ; but its chief trade is by commission. It supplies the Austrian dominions with almost every article of foreign produce, and is, in particular, a great depot for tfce merchandise of the Levant. Its trade is more encouraged by the court of Vienna than that of Venice, though the latter might be rendered more important and beneficial. Fiume is also a free port, and has considerable trade. Tlietown is well-built, and adorned with churches and conventual structures. Buccari has likewise a thriving traffic, in consequence of its commodious harbour. "iPhe coimty of Tyrol coaaects the Austriaa territories in Gerraaqy 418 AUSTRIAN EMPIRE. with the new kingdom of Lombardy, or (m it is sometimes called) (h« Lombardo- Venetian realm. It is 150 miles long and 1'20 broad, with ' population of about 800,000. It is extremely mountainous, the chain of ! the Noric or Rhaetian Alps running through its whole length, and ri. valing the Alps of Switzerland in numerous glaciers. It contain* minei of silver^ copper, and lead, and produces com and wine, very fine flax and silk. The wild animals arc bears, wolves, and foxes; and the do- mestic, horses, black cattle, and sheep. The capital is Innspruck situ. ated in a charming valley on the banks of the Inn. It is a well-built town, but neither very large nor particularly strong. In the castle, the hall and picture-gallery are entitled to the notice of strangers, to Tviiom the library, treasury, and armoury, are also shown among the curioaitiei of the place. Some fine churches and monasteries likewise embeliith the town. The university is less flourishing than it formerly was, beiq; degraded into a Lyceum : but it still presents considerable advantages to the votaries of literature. Manufactures and trade, at the same time usefully exercise the industry of the inhabitants. Gloves, bonnets, and other articles of dress, are here made both lor immediate consumption and exportation : all kinds of glass are prepared with skill ; and the varied produce of the country is sent to many parts of Germany and Italy. The territories of Trent and Brixen are included in the county o{ Tyrol : but the bishops are no longer invested with temporal jurisdic- tion. Trent has acquired fame in ecclesiastical history, by the council which met in one of its churches from the year 1 545 to 1 562. It is a well-built town ; but it does not flourish in point of trade, and it is rendered a disagreeable abode by the violent heat of the summer and the intense cold of the winter. Brixen is much less populous than Trent, having only about 4000 inhabitants. In both cities, the people manifest a greater tendency to the manners of Italy than to those of Germany. The Tyrolese, properly so called, are a brave and hardy race, simple and frank in their manners, and temperate in their habita. When governed with moderation, they are not licentious or refractory: but, when treated with tyrannic cruelty, as they were by the French, and also by the king of Bavaria, during that temporary sway which he ob- tained over them by his connexion «ith Bonaparte, they are ready to rush into arms, and to take severe revenge for the provocations which they have received. On such occasions, the females partake of the indignation which animates the men, and display the most un- daunted spirit. In all these provinces, the established religion is the Roman catholic, attended indeed with a toleration of other modes of worship. The language, in general, is the German, though impure; but in some parts the Wendisb, or Sclavonian, is spoken by the common people; and, in the southern provinces, the Italian, at least a dialect of that language, prevails. The other countries which compose the Austrian monarchy, an: are considered as being out of Germany, will be described Re}.ir'..^;y in order. Revenue.] The revenue of the emperor of Austria, delved front his hereditary dominions, did not, in 1808, far exceed 16 niiliion^ aiti a quarter, in sterling money, if indeed it amounted to that sum; :iniit is stated that the exigencies of that year were calculated at 21 niil- lions. In 1814, the deficien'"/ of regular supply was considerably greater ; so that it became necessary to issue an additional number of Itank-bilta; and th LWic credit, m Uiterli.ng'*"; Imentedthepu TJuogethercre ..tional treasury Ul«»»Vbe *. b«thenfo"« on AWV.] T»u intheyeaf 18" It has, Mnc« 7 dudeinthecaU Buiarkable roih the chief feature ofthehereditarji God, elected eir of Austria, kin? Austria, duke ol pavii BOHEMIA AND MORAVIA. 413 ■^.bills; ftnd the government has sometimes relieved itself by an ar- biinrr reduction of the value of these bills, to the great detriment of I gublie credit. In 1808, the general funded debt amounted to 75 mil- Cot iterling, exclusive of the debt of each province, contracted on its g«o lecurity. The war of 1809, and the succeeding war, greatly igflDcnted the public debt ; but it is now in a train of liquidation. It is not altogether creditable to the government, that the contributions to the iidonal treasury are ill-proportioned to the means of individuals, the goblet and the clergy being assessed in a partial degree, while the chief burtheo falls on the middle class. Abmy.] The military force of Austria, on the peace establishment, in the year 1801, was stated, from official returns, at 328,600 men. It has, since that time, been considerably more numerous, if we in- clude in the calculation all the dependencies of the empire. Of the remarkable military system, adopted in Hungary and other provinces, the chief features will be hereafter displayed. TiTLB.] The title of the sovereign o( Austria, since his assumption of the hereditary imperial dignity, is as follows : Francis, by the grace of God, elected emperor of the Romans, always august, hereditary emperor of Austria, king of Hungary, Bohemia, and Lombardy, archduke of Austria, duke of Lorrain, Saltzburg, &c. BOHEMIA AND MORAVIA. SITtTATlON AND EXTENT OP BOHEMIA. Miles. Length Degrees. 12 and 16, 30 East longitude. ''O and 51 North latitude. I 200 ) , . C 12 a Breadth 175 } ''*'*^««" { 48, Contaiciog 14,000 square miles, with more than 239 inhabitants to each. SITUATION AND EXTENT OP MOllAVIA. Miles. Length 130 Breadth 90 } Degrees. . , C 15, 30, and 1 8, 30 East longitude, between j 48, 40 and 50 North latitude. Containing 6,400 square miles, with more than 226 inhabitants to each. Names.] BOHEMIA, or Boheim, or Boienheim, signifies the home or residence of the Boii, a Celtic nation, who removed into that country from Gaul, before the expedition of Julius Caesar, The present inhabit- ants call themselves Czechy, from Czech, the name of one of their ancient chiefs. They are of Sclavonic origin. Moravia derives its name from the river Morau, which runs Uirough it. Boundaries.] Bohemia is bounded on the north by Misnia and 414 BOHEMIA AND MORAVIA. Lusfttia, on th« east by Sileeia and Moravia, on the south by the archdacliT of Austria, and on the west by Franconia and Bavaria. ^ ' Moravia is bounded on the north by Silesia, on the east by Hunirarv on the south by Austria, and on the west by Bohemia. '* Divisions.] Bohemia is divided into the sixteen circles of Dunttlan Ktenigiugratz, Chrudim, Kaurzim, Beraun, Rakonitz, Saatz, Leutmerite' Bitschau, Czaslau, Tabor, Budweis, Prachin, Klattau, Pilgen aj,} EInbogen. The city of Prague is not included in any one of these circles, but forms a district of itself. Moravia forms six circles, namely, those of Olmutz, Brunn, Znaiin Iglau, Hradisch, and Prerau ; which are the names of their legpectife chief towns. MouNTAiKS AND FORESTS.] Bohemia is Surrounded with mountaijj and woods. On the north-west it is divided from Upper Saxony br the Erzgcbirge, and to the north-east from Silesia by the Sudetie chain and the Giant mountains ; on the south-east and south it U nt. parated from Moravia and the archduchy of Austria by the Moraviaa heights : and on the west it has for its boundaries the Fichtel mountains and the Bohemian forests. Rivers and lakes.] Beside the Elbe, which we have noticed in our account of Germany, the chief rivers of Bohemia are the Moldau and the Eger, or Egra. The former rises in one of the southern moun- tains, and, after running about 50 miles to the south-east, turns to the northward, and joins the Elbe near Melnick. The latter rises in Fran. conia, runs to the eastward through the territory of Bayreuth into Bohe- mia, and falls into the E'be near Leutmcritz. In the county of Glatz the Morau first appears, and, when it has traversed Moravia, discharges itself into the Danube, to the west of Presburg. In Bohemia are several lakes ; but they are not extensive or remarkable. Metals and minerals.] Bohemia contains rich mines of silver, quicksilver, iron, copper, lead, and especially tin ; also sulphur, salt- petre, cobalt, zinc, bismuth, antimony, vitriol, alum, and coal. Above a hundred towns and places might be named where mine-works have been established. Various species of marble, and many kinds of pre- cious stones, an; found here ; but, ' in general, they are deficient in hardness. In Moravia, in the circle of Bruun, are iron-mines and quarries of marble ; and in the circle of Znaim were formerly gold* mines : at present there are mines of iron, sulphur, salt-petre, and vitriol. Climate, soil, and produce.] The climate of Bohemia is warm, pleasant, and cot insalubrious : the soil is in general rich, but in some places sandy. It is very fertile in corn, in pasturage, garden and orchard fruits, and excellent hops. Moravia resembles Bohemia in its climate, soil, and produce ; but agriculture is better understood and conducted in the latter country. Animals.] The wild animals of Bohemia are bears, lynxes, wolves, foxes, martens, badgers, beavers ; while the tame quadrupeds are black cattle, sheep, and an excellent breed of horses. The woods abound in game and wild fowl. In Moravia is found a species of leopard of the size of a dog, but thicker, called rysowe by the inhabitants. Population and national ) The population of Bohemia was CHARACTER. ) estimated by Hoeck, in 1801, at 2,806,493, and that of Moravia at 1,2.06,240; but the present amount is supposed to be above 3,350,000 in the former country and 1,4.')0,000 in the latter. The Bohemians of a superior class, in their persons, habits, fwd manners, resemble the Qermaiw ; but the rest of the people have .rteatersimilaritj ti was, among t .vereign, and eve. ,l,e Bohemian peM lanage in which th ordered the nobles this instance, atter tamanityoftheti Although the B. or anns, they for jaertorsofcml r« troduction of the fe»u which they lies for lndepend< despotic masters into subserviency greatly contribute The Moravians A small tract, ne p^bythenati earliest Jnhabitai tribe. Their mj sober and temper it is palliated, as women are distil the neat adjustm men also are gf war an ill-looki brown woollen < or a wolf. Chibf tow* in the centre ol than twelve mil ants, who occu part stands in churches of cm the greatest nu hibiU the arsei and aichiepisci division which ture in the Go tern hill, overl part of the citj silver tomb of monuments oi the statues o frequent reso diatof^i betwe town, the ni plays its ven( times, are n< the Holy C churches of formerly bel worship, % I BOHEMIA AND MORAVIA. m Meater similarity to the Hungarians and Sclavonians. For ages, there was, among them, no middle state of people ; for every lord was a ttinte\«o, and every tenant a slave. Joseph II. generously discharged the Bohemian peasants, on the imperial demesnes, from the state of vil- laasge in which they had been so long and so unjustly retained ; and he ordered the nobles to follow his example. His commands were not, in this instance, attended with general obedience ; but, from the increasrog humanity of the times, slavery is now gradually declining. Although the Bohemians, at present, are not remarkable either for arts or arms, they formerly distinguished themselves as the most intrepid aaertors of civil and religious liberty in Europe : witness the early in* troduction of the reformed religion into their country, the glorious de" feati which they gave to the Austrian power, and their generous strug- (let for independence. But, as no means were left unemployed by their despotic masters for breaking their spirit, they were at length over-awed ioto sabaervieocy ; and, indeed, their internal jealousies and dissensions greatly contributed to their subjection. The Moravians are partly of German and parly of Sclavonian origin. A small tract, near Olmutz, is occupied by the Haunacks, who are sup- poied by the native statistic writers to be the unmixed descendants of the earliest inhabitants of this country. They are apparently a Sclavonic tribe. Tlieir manners are simple and unaffected : they are remarkably sober and temperate ; and, if they are liable to the reproach of indolence, it is palliated, as they allege, by the fertility of their soil. Their young women are distinguished by the grace and elegance of their forms, and the neat adjustment of their dresses, which are very picturesque ; and the men also are gay in their summer clothing ; but, in the winter, they vear an ill-looking fur cap, and sometimes throw over their shoulders a brown woollen cloke^ but more frequently the undressed skin of a sheep or a wolf. Chief towns.] The capital of Bohemia is Prague, situated almost in the centre of the kingdom, on both sides of the Moldau. It is more than twelve miles in circumference, and contains about 85,000 inhabit- aota, who occupy four towns, or divisions of the city. The most ancient part stands in a valley near the river; it has broad streets, and some churches of curious architecture. That which is called the new towr. has the greatest number of houses, most of which are well-built : it also ex- hibits the arsenal, and the Wisse-gorod, a decaying fortress. The royal and aichicpiscopal palaces, and the chief public hu'ldings, are In that diriaion which is denr ninated Hradschin. The cathedral is a fine struc- ture in the Gothic style, beautifully placed on the steep side of the wes- tern hill, overlooking the river, the magniPcent bridge, and the greater part of the city. It contains four angels of cast silver upon two altars, the silver tomb of St. John Nepomuc, a number of revered reliques, and the monuments of many of the Bohemian kings. The bridge is adorned with the statues of twenty-nine saints,— an attraction which occasions the frequent resort of catholics, who implore the favor of those supposed me- diator between God and sinful men. In that which is called the old town, the niversity, founded in 1348 by the emperor Charles IV., dis- plays its venerable buildings, which, however, in comparison with former times, are nearly deserted by the votaries of learning. The church of the Holy Cross, famous for its columns, cupolas, and paintings, — the churches of St. Michael and St. James, — and the Clementine college, formerly belonging to the Jesuits, but now comprehending five places of worship, a medicAl apartmextt; a room appropriated to mathematical aad 416 BOHEMIA AND MORAVIA. philosophical pursuits, an observatory, a valuable library, a printlnff. office, aud an elegant theatre, — are also among the ornaments of this division. The Jews, who form about a tenth part of the population of Prague, are crowded in wretched habitations, which are considered as a part of the old town ; but they are separated from it by six gates, which are shut at night. They are allowed to have synagogues ; and '.' ghg^ in the general trade, which, notwithstanding the inland situation of the city, is far from being inconsiderable. Olmutz was regarded as the capital of Moravia, before it was eclipwil by the fame of Brunn. It is a strong town, but is unpleasantly situated among the marshy branches of the Morau. The buildings are massive and substantial ; but they are too lofty and very inelegant, raised for the most part upon square buttresses, with arcades. It had an UDivereity which has dwindled to a modern Lyceum. Its trade is inconsiderable and its population scarcely exceeds 12,000. Brunn is now the station of the chief public offices connected vith the Moravian government ; but the states of the province meet alter- nately at this town and at Olmutz. The fortifications of Brunn are very ancient, and were formerly important ; but the bastions have been suffered to faii into decay, and the fosses and other parts are occupied by dye-works and tan-pits. Beside the religious edifices, the most considerable buildings are the meeting-house of the states, the town* house, and the palace of prince Lichtenstein. The nianulacttires are vrell-conducted and flourishing; and that of fine woollen even begins to rival the broad cloth of England. About 23,000 persons (some say, 25,000) occupy this city and its suburbs. Manufactures and commerce.] ,A great variety of useful articles are fabricated in these provinces. Linen is manufactured to a large amount ; cotton and silk stuffs are neatly wrought : the woollen branch is rapidly increasing ; hats, paper, leather, glass, wooden articles, and musical instruments, are also produced by the ingenious and industri- ous artisans. In addition to these articles of traffic, great quantities of metals, vegetable products, and cattle, are exported ; and the balance of trade is considerably in favor of the citizens and provincials ; but it has been remarked, that " the non-residence of the land-holders (who are at the same time proprietors of the manufactures) prevents the country from reaping the benefits that might be derived from this favorable ba- lance, as the profits, instead of adding to the general capital, are for the most part squandered in the Austrian metropolis." Constitution and government.] In early times, the Bohe- mians enjoyed the advantage of a representative government : but that apparent freedom is now merely nominal, though the states of the realm are suffered to meet, and offer humble arlvice to their sovereign. They consist of four orders, — the prelates, nobles, knights, ai.d burgesses, — whose privileges are superseded by that despotism which regulates the affairs of the country in the Bohemian chancery at Vienna, and in a ministerial council at Prague. Each circle has a separate court of judicature, from which an appeal lies to the supreme tribunal of Prague. The political and judicial concerns of Moravia are regulated in a similar mode. Revenue and armt.] The Bohemian revenue is said to exceed two millions and a quarter sterling, a great part of which is appropriated to the support of garrisons. About 50,000 men compose the military establishment of Bohemia during peace ; and about 15,000 are main- tained in Moravia, out of a revenue which is less than a million. RBtlOlON.] cathoac: yet then ance the reign ot of their favorite w Catholicism; but 4e Moravians ha propagated by the The manners ai They are neither opinions of both temity; butthe iotal duties, di jity in the closest habit, a committ direction of their ftrict. Tlieyatt ^riculture; and which all are m; infinn live as cor stinctions of rich USIVEUSITII vinces, we refer adding, that the present century 1 Language.] vonic; that of 5 cosmonly spoke quainted with t\ History.] manni; and th< goths, Lombarc by the Sclavi. new inhabitants though they pn They were govt nity was grantc 1208, Otho IV, to the dignity laus v., in 13C crown devolvcc emperor Charl improved. Hi reformers. Job iniquitous sent to the danger with the Hui Austria, a dei of the realm i ing a native Polish prince, monarch, ass fluenced by tl of the atbitra for their so*' with a rod o: ' BOHEMIA AND MORAVIA. 417 Religiok.] The established religion of Bohemia is the Roman* cathdic: yet there are many protestanta among the inhabitants, who, lioce the reign of Joseph II., have been tolerated in the free exercise of their favorite worship. The religion of Moravia is in like manner Catholicism ; but there are many Lutherans ; and a great number of ihe Moravians have embraced a particular system, which they have propagated by their zealous missionaries in various parts of the globe. The manners and practices of this sect deserve more particular notice. They are neither Lutherans nor Calvinists, but entertain some of the oplDioDS of both those sects. No regular priests belong to their fra- ternity ; but the most respectable elders alternately perform the sacer- dotal duties. Brotherly love unites all the members of the commu- nitr in the closest links of friendship. In each village which they in- liabit, a committee is chosen from the elders, and invested with the diiection of their affairs, under the control of a committee of the di- strict. Tliey attend more to manufacturing industry and trade, than to agriculture ; and their profits are deposited in a general fund, out of which all are maintained on a footing of equality. Thus the old and infirm live as comfortably as the young and able-bodied ; and the di- Etinctions of rich and poor are wholly unknown among them. UsivERSiTiEs.] For the collegiate institutions in these two pro- viocee, we refer the reader to our account of the chief towns ; merely adding, that the progress of education has been greatly promoted in the present century by the erection of new schools. JiANCUAGE.] The language of Bohemia is a dialect of the Scla- rnnic; that of Moravia differs very little from it; but German is very cozmonly spoken in both countries, and most of the gentry are ac- quainted with the French language. History.] The Boii were driven out of Bohemia by the Marco- manni; and the country became afterwards a province of the Ostro- ^ths, Lombards, Thuringians, and Franks, till in 534 it was overrun by the Sclavi. Charlemagne and some of his successors made these new inhabitants tributary ; but they soon regained their independence, though they preserved a certain connexion with the German empire. They were governed for some centuries by dukes ; but the royal dig- nity was granted in 1061 to Ladisiaus, by the emperor Henry IV. In 1208, Otho IV. admitted the king of Bohemia, as a privileged prince, to the dignity of an elector of the empire. On the death of Wences- laus v., in 1305, the male line of the Sclavonian kings failed, and the crown devolved to the house of Luxemburg. Of this family was the emperor Charles IV., by whose wisdom the state of the country was improved. His son Sigismund disgraced his character by suffering the reformers, John Huss and Jerome of Prague, to be put to death by an iniquitous sentence of the council of Constance ; and he was exposed to the danger of losing the Bohemian crown by the war which arose with the Hussites. He was succeeded by his son-in-law Albert of Austria, a descendant of Rodolph count of Hapsburg; but the states of the realm afterwards exercised their right of free election, by choos- ing a native nobleman for their king. On the decease of Louis, a Polish prince, Ferdinand of Austria, having espoused the sister of that monarch, asserted his pretensions to the crown; and the states, in- fluenced by the great power of his brother Charles V., and not aware of the arbitrary character of the new candidate, elected him, in 1527, for their sorereign. In return for their kindness, he governed them with a rod of iron, when they had refuse^ to join him in a war against i E 418 HUNGARY. the protestant princes of Germany ; and he arrogantly declared Bolw. mia an arbitrary, hereditary kingdonn. His son, the emperor Maxi. milian II., and his grandsons Rodolph and Matthias, had sufficient power to prevent their exclusion from the sovereignty. In the reim of the last of those princes, the states consented to accept hig nephew Ferdinand as king ; but his protestant subjects, complaining of the in. fringement of the privileges granted to their body, invited the elector Palatine to supersede the Austrian prince. He inconsiderately yielded to their solicitations, and soon felt the effect of his imprudence, beiii» defeated in the battle of Prague, and dispossessed even of his electoral dominions. Bohemia then became what Ferdinand I. had declared it to be ; and it has from that time been a mere appendage to the Austriao monarchy. Moravia was formerly inhabited by the Quad!, who were overpowered in the sequel by Sclavonian adventurers. During three centuries, it appears to have formed an independent kingdom : but it was subdued by the Bohemians about the year 1050, and has subsequently followed dw fate of their realm. HUNGARY. Length Breadth Miles. 320 210 SITUATION AND EXTENT. Degrees. . . 5 '6 and 24 East longitude. Detween ^ ^g ^^^ ^g j^^^^j^ latitude. Containing 45,.'>00 square miles, with more than 1 53 inhabitants to each, Name.] THE name of Hungary has been usually derived from the Huns, who anciently possessed this country ; but Mr. Gibbon finds its origin in that of the Ugri, or Ugours, a Tartarian tribe who migrated from the confines of China, and, after over-running a great part of Germany, established themselves in this country in the tenth century. Boundaries,] Hungary Proper (for it formerly included Transyl- vania, Sclavonia, Croatia, Morlachia, Servia, and Walachia) is bounded on the north by Galitzia, on the east by the l?ukovine and Transylvania, on the south by Sclavonia, and on the west by the circle of Austria. Divisions.] It is divided into Upper and Lower Hungary, situated on opposite sides of the Danube. These respectively form two circles, •which are sub-divided into yespanschafts, or counties, in number fifty-two. The Banat or province of Temeswar has been considered as distinct from Hungarj', because it was formerly governed by an independent king; and it has sometimes been in the possession of the Turks ; but, when the Austrians were complete masters of the country, it was incorporated with the kingdom of Hungary. It is ninety-four miles long, and sixty-seven broad, containing about 3,850 square miles. It is divided into four districts, Csanad, Temeswar, Worscbez, and Lugos. Mountains.] The Carpathian mountains, which divide Hungary from Poland and the Bukovine, are the principal, though many detached mountains are found in the country. The grand chain extends in a se- micircular form, from the mountain of Javornik toward the north-west: it afterward bends to the south-cast. Near the centre of the chain is tlie Lomnitz peak, the highest point of the whol« mass, about 8640 feet above HUI^GARY. 419 tbt Icral d the ae&. The Krivan is nearly as high ; but ^vett these MttioDS of the mass are not so elevated above moderate temperature, as ^exhibit glaciers or any other tokens of perpetual frigidity. They are iai«ly visited, except by the hunters of the chamois, or by some adven- tunn who, in the hope of finding gold and precious stones, despise the daneenof the ascent. Among the detached mountains are those of Matra (near the centre of the kingdom), Avas, and Farkas. RtvERSi tAKES, AND MINERAL SPRINGS.] The principal rivcfs uethe Danube, Theiss, and Drave. The first enters the country near pretburg, passes through Raab and Komorn, divides Bnda from Pesth, and then runs to the southward until it reaches Sclavonia. The Theiss riiN in a link of the Carpathian chain, receives the Koros and the Maros, ud falls into the Danube near Belgrade. The Drave forms a boundary between Hungary and various parts of Croatia and Sclavonia, and joins the Danube below Essek. ^ Some considerable lakes are found in this country, particularly that fbich bears the name of Balaton or Flatten. It is not very deep, for it nrely exceeds 27 feet in that respect ; but its length is computed at 45 milet, while its breadth varies from four to nine. Its shores are in general lotv ; but in some parts they are precipitous. It abounds with tine fish ; and the shores are frequented by the white pelican, the bittern, and many other species of wild-fowl. Mineral springs are particularly numerous in the northern parts of Hungary; and, in the Saros county alone, above seventy-two are men- tioned by those who have made inquiries respecting their number. Some of these springs are hot, and others cold and acidulous. Of the former, tlie most remarkable are at Pesth and Grosswardein : of the latter, the most frequented arc those of Fared, Bartfeld, and Neulublau. MrtaLs AND MINERALS.] Hungary contains mines of gold, silver, lead, copper, very rich antimony, coal, salt, and alum. The gold-mines are at Cremnitz, about 40 miles to the south of the Carpathian moiui- tains ; and the silver at Schemnitz, about 20 miles farther to the south. The mine of Catharina-Stollen is the richest, and not only yields the more valuable metals, but also produces excellent copper. In the mining district of Scliemnitz, there are five principal mineral courses, which run almost par, ' " to each other nearly east and west, and are connected by vafioug branches. They have been explored to the depth of 300 fathoms. Each course has scattered, veins of rich ore, from tw(» to four inches in thickness, opening h^re and there in cavities coated by crystals of the ore, with quartz, calcareous spar, &c. In this part there are twelve royal mines, beside many which belong to private individuals, who are obliged to dispose of the ore to the government at a fixed rate. The country is intersected at different levels by the galleries of mines, forming a stu- pendous subterranean tract, which to strangers would be a labyrinth, but which is defined and divided with little difficulty by the crown miners and those who work for private proprietors. In the Schmalnitz mining district, the chief produce is copper, with which silver is sometimes inter- mixed : but there are also mines of very good iron, and a mine has been discovered at Czerweniza, containing that beautiful gem, the opal, which has not been found in any other country. In the Nagy-Banya division, some gold-mines are worked, without producing any great quantity of metal. The mineral produce of the Banat is not considerable, as it comprehends very little copper, less silver, and no gold. In the mines, forges, and works, of these four districts, about50,000 persons are employed. To promote the skilful management of these pursuits, a college has been 2 E 2 w 420 HUNGARY. organised at Schemnitz, where lectures are given by intelligent chemists I and mineralogists ; and it is expected that all who wish to become officers of the mines, or to direct the operations, should study for three year, and obtain certificates of their proficiency. ' Climate, soil, and produce.] The climate of the southern pan of Hungary is rendered unhealthful by its numerous lakes, stagnant waters and marshes ; but, in the northern part, which is mountainous and barren, the air is pure and wholesome. Few countries can boast a richer soil than that plain which diifuscs itself to a wide extent between Preshure and Belgrade, and produces corn, grass, tobacco, saffron, asparagus melons, hops, pulse, millet, and fine fruit of various kinds. In speakingof the produceof this kingdom, the culture of the vineseemsto require particular notice, because wine is a valuable article of exportation, The vines are planted both upon stony hill ind in fertile valleys : in the for! mer situation, their vegetation is feeble, but, when they have received due attention, they yield rich and generous wine : in the latter position they produce a much greater quantity of fruit, which, however, makes very inferior wine. The propagation of this plant is eft'ected in three modes. Cuttings, or small twigs, are collected in the spring, bound to* gether, and put into the earth in some shady place, where they lake root; and, in the month of June, they are planted out in their proper places;— or a branch is bent down, inserted in the ground, and, when it has taken root, separated from the parent stem ; — or the whole old stock is laid down and the branches are so distributed, as to give new trees in tlie direction required. Above 200 different sorts of wine are reckoned. That of Tokay is the best: but there are many less palatable sorts which pass under that denomination ; and the wine of Menes is thought by some to be scarcely inferior to Tokay. Not content with procuring wine from the fresh grape, ausbruch (a sweti, liquor) from the raisin, brandy from the skin, and syrup from the unfermented juice, the Germans and Hungarians have even endeavoured to procure oil, for burning and for other purposes, from the stone, — an attempt which, though it has not completely succeeded, has not entirely failed. Animals.] The horses of Hungary have been praised as an excel- lent breed ; but it appears that they have not Justly obtained their high reputation, though it must be allowed that they arc strong, and capable of bearing great fatigue. Uncommon pains have been recently taken to improve the breed ; and some noblemen have introduced horse- races on the English plan. The horned cattle are large, active, and vigorous. The original breed of sheep had coarse hairy wool, and up- right spiral horns ; but, by crossing and varying the stock, that breed has been greatly diminished. DuH'aloes are not uncommon in this country; and they are used, like oxen, in agriculture. Among the wild animals are wolves, bears, and boars ; but the two last are very rare. Natural curiosities.] Near Szadelo, about 30 miles from Ca- schau, is an extraordinary cavern, of sucii extent, that it is reported by the natives to reach several miles under the hills, and has never been completely explored. It includes within it different caves and passages, which contain numerous stalactites of various sizes. *' It is such a labyrinth (says Dr. Townson) that I firmly believe that a man, once lost in it, though he might have lights and food enough to last him a month, would not be able to find his way out." And Korabinsky, a German writer, says that it is of such astonishing length, that two members of the Royal Society of London, who were sent some years ago into Hungary, to examine this and other curiosities, after remaining in it threo days, could never get to the end of it, or find an opening. jletf Siilitz. is ,50iDleagtV";"' "ves the samel (reeling pom*- , Population.] pie, Hungary Y;a8 .ent to the in^>a adrantagesofthei supposed that ab JludingTransyl National ci JIEWS AN far caps, the clos ,le,whichi8 8oc hand may be aV They shave their Their usual arms their fire-arms. of Austria; and fastened before ^ ,„ the French a they call the mii inns upon the rol be met with. 1 peasants, and th their owners: d\ commodation, ai bmtes. The diversion They are in gen tors were so je over by the hou tion of the Ottc standing the pr remembered to They were c quent wars wh be influenced hii disposition A part of t the natives Cz those tribes wl soa Joseph er seem to have now rarely foi country than and they are which the Ist and their off: ■■* HUNGARY. 421 (eofficem liempart |o«8 and |a richfr rresbiirg pparagus, ffearSzilitz, is another celebrated cavern, about 100 feet in breadth, liO in length, and 25 in height. From the roof at the end, hangs an ioineMe icicle, or rather a congeries of icicles ; and in one corner is a peat mass of ice. This ice, it is said, thaws in the winter, when the Round without is covered with snow, and freezes again amidst the heats of summer. But tliis is an exaggeration, in consequence of the ob- jerrers depending too much on their feelings; the cave, probably, always menu the same temperature, which has been found to be that of the trcezing point. Population.] Before the Turks obtained possession of Constantino- ple, Hungary was one of the most populous and flourishing kingdoms in Europe; and, if the house of Austria should give the proper encourage- ment to the inhabitants to clear their fens, and profit by the natural adrantages of their country, it might become so again. At present, it is juppoaed that about seven millions compose the population, without iifluding Transylvania or the Bukovine. National character, man- ^ The Hungarians, in their per- NERS AND CUSTOMS. 5 ^ons, are well made; and their fiir caps, the close-bodied coat girded by a sash, and the cloke or man- tle, which is so contrived as to buckle under the arm, so that the right band may be always at liberty, give them an air of military dignity. They shave their beards, but preserve their whiskers on their upper lips. Their usual arms are the broad-sword, and a kind of pole-axe, beside their fire-arms. The ladies are reckoned more handsome than those of Austria; and their sable dress, with long sleeves, and tlieir stays fastened before with gold, pearl, or diamond buttons, are well known to the French and English ladies. Both men and women, in what they call the mine-towns, wear fur and even sheep-skin dresses. I'he inns upon the roads are miserable hovels, and even those are seldom to be met with. The hogs, which yield the chief animal food for the peasants, and the poultry, frequently live in the same apartments with their owners: but there arc n)any cottages which afi'ord superior ac- commodation, and allow a proper distinction between human beings and brutes. The diversions of the Hungarians arc of the warlike and athletic kind. They are in general a spirited and magnanimous people. Their ances- tors were so jealous of their liberties, that, rather than be tyrannised over by the house of Austria, they often put themselves under the protec- tion of the Ottoman court; but their fidelity to Maria-Theresa, notwith- standing the provocations they received from her family, will always be remembered to their honor. They were equally faithful to her grandson Francis, during the fre- quent wars which he maintained with the French : he Avould therefore be influenced by gratitude to govern them with moderation, even if bit disposition did not naturally incline him so to act. A part of the population of Hungary consists of Gypsies, called by the natives Czygani, who are, in general, less squalid and thievish, than those tribes which wander over Great-Britain. Maria-Theresa and her son Joseph endeavoured to civilise them by various ordinances, which seem to have had some effect, as the nomadic or wandering gypsies are now rarely found ill Hungary. The Jews are far more numerous in that country than the supposed descendants of the Egyptians or the Hindoos ; and they are said to betray the same illiberal and over-reaching spirit which the Israelites in other regions exhibit. Emigrants from Walachia, and their offspring, may also be mentioned among the inbabitauts of the i 422 HUNGARY. Hungarian realm. Tliey amount to more tlian one half of a .„, while the Jews scarcely exceed the number of 1H5,000. They underatlli the culture of the vine better than the generality of the peasants; and great number are useiully employed in metallurgic operations. ' ' CuiEi' TOWNS AND EDIFICES.] Buda, by the Germans called Of; is the seat of the Hungarian government ; but the cities of Buda and Pesth may be considered as one, for they are only separated by the D nube, over which there is a bridge of boats half a mile in lenwi Buda now contains 36,000 inhabitants, and Pesth has about 21 to) At Buda, the Hungarian regalia are now kept. The crown, in \U year 1784, was removed to Vienna by order of Joseph II. But this measure gave so great offence, and excited such violent discontent that it was sent back to Budr, in 1790, where it was received with the most extravagant testimonies of joy, the whole city and suburbs being ilJumi. nated. This crown was sent, in the year 1000, by pope Sylvester II to Stephen king of Hungary, and was made in imitation of that of the Greek emperors ; it is of solid gold, weighing nine marks and three ounces, ornamc-ated with fifty-three sapphires, fifty rubies, one We emerald, and three hundred and thirty-eight pearls. Beside these stones, are the images of the apostles and patriarchs. The pope annexed to this crown a silver patriarchal cross, which was afterwards added to the seven towers, the eagle, and the sun and moon, which are dis- played in the arms of Hungary. At the ceremony of the coronation a bishop carries it before the king. F'rom the cross is derived the title of Apostolic King, the use of which was renewed in the reign of Maria- Theresa. The extensive fortrees of Bud.-i, which occupies a high rock, contains the palaces of the viceroy and of several nobles, many churches and streets, and forms within itself a complete town. Another town is si. tuated at the foot of the hill, along the western bank of the river; and there are two other divisions of Buda, one of which is almost entirely peopled with Rascians, a distinct Sclavonian community. Pesth, which is the central point both of inland and foreign trade, is annually increasing in its extent, and displays many good streets and handsome houses. It has four fairs in the year, which rival the most frequented fairs of Germany ; and, as in those of England, various en- tertainments and diversions are mingled with the concerns of traffic. It has also two theatres, one for German pieces, the other for the native drama: oue building is large and elegant, the other small and con- temptible. A national library was formed in this city, in 1804, by the liberality of count Szecheny : the subsequent donation of a cabinet of natural history has extended the utility of the scheme; and a palace has been purchased for the reception of whatever may conduce, witii the former contributions, to the formation of a literary and scientific reposi- tory. There is likewise an university at Pesth, founded on a liberal plan, without requiring any of those tests which would confine its benefits to the votaries of the established religion. It is usually attended by about 700 students, and the professors and their assistants amount to 90. Presburg, the former capital, scarcely contains 25,000 inhabitants, It stands on a hill of moderate elevation, which maybe considered as the commencement of the Carpathian chain, overlooking that exten- sive plain through which the Danube flows. Dr. Bright says, "The town is insignificant: many of the streets are steep and narrow; the good houses are few; and the shops bear a poor and retail character;" but prof$9§or Seonowitz declares, that it is handsome and well-built. 1( \.d» honored J»te the amc yt occupied ^^ notable maofio ;!i-VBat (s»« count m S of the da 1 dwellings « that the women S which th. lisies, approach sex. The men aad look under appearance ott jaSmelancholj estrauged fro.n famous for it* ' tare is not neg cathoUc school {tequented. Except Bud gary. It « t] Greek bishop. Hungarian pr uortance. ManufaC yijion of raw period, were been the firs promotion of bet of artisar weaving and greatly Houri made in Hi ikUfuUy yv woollen fall those of M kind of felt i» produced Various ar Dor in abur corn, wine, of the mil the balanc* Const I the remaii or parliam o{ magna HUNGARY. 423 J"*: and, ^"da and ■'the Da. nlengti, 21,000, -•» 10 He 't«ot,tlm I ' "le most ']? iUumi- .'''ester II F''atof(|„ jand three •?" '«'Se I'^e these B annexed ' added to , ' are dij. ronation a ^••e title of ' Maria. cntirelj Lii tba honor and benefit of a royal catholic academy and a Lutheran rtjjBMJu'nJ but it h*** V'5''y ''ttle trade, being merely a market for lae »ad f^f t*** interchange of the produce of different parts of Hungary' Debretiia is the most populous town in the whole kingdom, if we leparate the amount of the inhabitants of Buda from those of Pesth. It u occupied by 40,000 persons ; yet they are so inattentive to their J, jjcoinmodation, that tlie town scarcely exhibits one large or re- sp«ctable mansion ; for almost all the habitations are tiiatched cottages, ilji a place of great trade ; but it is destitute of tliat bustle and ani- mation which extensive business is apt to create. " The blank walla iaii couiit Bathyani), tlie dark retail shops, the sellers of tobacco- nipet, the smokers, and the dogs, the stillness which ruigns in the giidit of tlie daily business, bring to the niiud a lively recollection of the dwellings of our eastern neighbours. You are induced to believe that the women are intentionally concealed. The black handkerchiefs ffitli which they cover their heads resemble hats, and their blue pe- iiwes, approaching to the uniform of the hussar, almost disguise their sex. The men are covered with large clokes, generally of a dark-blue, and look under their broad hats as from beneath an umbrella ; and the appearance of the multitude, in other places so varied, is here uniform and melancholy." The inhabitants in general live in rural simplicity, estrauged from the luxury and dissipation of great cities. Tlie town is famous for its bread, its sope, salt-potre, and tobacco-pipes ; and litera- ture is not neglected amidst the concerns of trade; for, beside a largo catholic school, there is a reformed or Calvinistic college, which is well frequented. Except Buda or Pesth, Temeswar is the handsomest town in Hun- gary. It is the seat of a council of finance, and the residence of a Greek bishop. — Gran is more distinguished by being the see of the Hungarian primate, than by beauty of structure or commercial im- portance. Manufacturer and commerce.] Notwithstanding an ample pro- vision of raw materials, the manufactures of the Hungarians, for a long period, were few and inconsiderable. Maria Theresa seems to have been the first of their sovereigns who took serious measures for the promotion of that branch of industry and proGt. She sent for a num- ber of artisans from the Netherlands, and particularly encouraged silk- weaving and the woollen and cotton branches ; but these arts did not greatly flourish, with all her care and attention. The linen which is made in Hungary is of a coarse kind ; the cotton articles are not so skilfully wrought as to invite orders from other countries ; and the woollen fiibrics, though they are improving, are greatly inferior to those of Moravia. Glass and earthen-ware are well manufactured: a kind of felt is made for hats, impenetrable to the rain ; common paper is produced in sufiicient quantities, while the finer sorts are imported. Various articles in iron and steel are fabricated, but neither with skill oor in abundance. The exports chiefly consist of horses, cattle, swine, corn, wine, tobacco, hides, tallow, saffron, honey, wax, and the produce of the mines; and, in comparing the value of these with the imports, the balance is usually found to be in favor of Hungary. Constitution and uoviiUNMENT.] Tiie Hungarians have preserved tlie remains of various checks upon tiie regal pouer. They have a diet or parliament, which consists of two tables or h.nises ; the first composed of magnates, or the great oiScers of the crown, princes, counts, barons, 424 HUNGARY. ! archbishops; and the second, of the abbots, prelates, and deputies from the chcters and each of the two-and-fifty f/cspanschafts, or counties into which the kingdom is divided. These houses, however, form oaly one body, as their votes are taken together. Tlie diet, beside beinR con- vened on all great national events, ought to meet at stated times. Under Matthias Cor^-inus and Ferdinand 1. it was decreed that the meetlDi should be annual; and, under Leopold I., that it should be triennial- which was confirmed by Charles VI., and is still considered as the con- stitutional period. But sovereigns and their ministers often wish to shake off these encumbrances ; and, from 1764 to 1790, no diet was holden though many important affairs had happened within that period. Thii assembly met in 1 808 ; and the number of the nobles and deputici who were present amounted to 696 : but it does not appear that any great national benefit, or any improvement of the state of their country, resulted from their deliberations. The influence, indeed, which the emperor derives from his general power, enables him to govern Hungary by the mediumof a. chancery at Vienna, without the necessity of consulting the diet. The privileges enjoyed by the Hungarian nobles are greater than a just or well-constituted government may be thought to require. They hold courts for the decision of points connected with their estates, or with the cultivators of the land : they are allowed to exercise high authority, yet not so unlimited as it formerly was, over the peasants ; and they arc free from all taxes except such as they think proper to impose upon themselves, while the unfortunate rustics or laborers may be plundered without mercy or moderation. Every county has its ruling assembly, in which the nobles, prelates, and deputies of the royal free towns (as the privileged corpo- rations are styled), regulate provincial affairs, and harass, if they do nut always oppress, the peasants. From the lord's court, in case of delin- quency, an appeal lies to the county court, to the judicature of the district, the royal tribunal at Budn, and finally lo the king himself, without whose sanction no capital punishment can be inflicted, although supposed of- fenders arc for many years immured in dungeons by unfeeling nobles, into whose arbitrary conduct no inquiry is instituted. Revenue.] The Hungarian revenue, it is said, is about two millions and a half, arising from the crown lands, the mines and salt-works, duties upon merchandise, the taxes paid by the Jew.s and the free towns, the annual contribution demanded by the court, and other sources. Army.] The emperor can bring into the held, at any time, seventy or eighty thousand Hungarians in their own country, but seldom draws out of it above twelve thousand : those arc generally light-horse, and well known in modem times by the name of Hussars. Their expedition and alertness have been found so serviceable in war, that tlie greatest powers in Europe have troops that go by the same name. Their foot are called Haiduks, and wear feathers >i their caps, according to the number of enemies they pretend to have killed : both horse and foot are an excellent militia, very good at a pursuit or in ravaging and plundering a country, but not equal to regular troops in a pitched battle. The sovereign may summon the Hungarian nobility to take the field and defend their country. This service is called an insurrection, and from it the high clergy are not exempt. In the frequent wars in which Hungary was formerly engaged, principally against the Turks, this service was a severe obligation. Each brought into the field a number of combatants proportioned to his estate. The archbishop of Gran, and the bishop of Erlau, brought each tno stands of colors, and under each stand a thousand men ; the archbishop of Colocza, and several bisliops, a thousand each. In the battle of Hohtf«,«evenb«vl :„e »um«noned « ,„„teer fof ' ^ towns and p"*»«T Insists of twelve RtUOlON.l ' catholic; but the entire freedom ot I schools and semiJ «'e», and to a su ihere are tvvd «'*r^ W^tl Churches), y^j Keusohl.andUo^ The archbislic] lord-lieutenant the exclusive ng archiepiscopal te whilethatof th» the diocesan pr« revenues, twenty abbote, forty-on honor of the tit norary canons, < hundred and toi andiwenty-eigh The memberi^ They are divid- themselves to_ t Romish pontitt and those who been admitted regular establi The claims < by the treaty I injustice of th a long interv CalvinisU fou friend in his 1 of their wisl churches ha^ the number ( have also be of these pe support; bu conform the priests havi fund for tlu suppressed new bishop Univei Pesth, whi which is J HUNGARY. 425 [rofiii only Under li nobles, IKohacs, (even bishops were left on the field. Insurrections of this kind fere suininoncd by the emperor in 1800, and in other years of war ; tod, at those times, beside the amount u'^ich he expected, a great vo- liiDteer force, well armed and accoutred, came forward from the free towns and privileged districts. In time of peace, the standing force consists of twelve regiments of infantry, and ten of hussars, forming in the aggregate above ()0,00() men. Religion.] The established religion of Hungary is the Roman- catholic ; but the protestnnts enjoy couiplete toleration. Thoy have an entire freedom of public worship, with churches and bells, and their own ichoois and seminaries of learning, and are admitted to all the public *'es, and to a seat in the legislative council, liiere are two archbishoprics, Gran and Colocza. The bishoprics jre those of Erlau, Nitra, ilaab, Waitznn, Funf-kirt-hcn or (Five Churches), Wetz-prim, CJross-Wardein, Csanad, Stulil-VVeissenburg, Neusohi, and Roscnau. The last three were foimdcd in 1777. The archbishop of Gran, by virtue of his ecclesiastical character, is lord-lieutenant of the county, primate and chancellor of Hungary ; has the exclusive right of crowning the king, and can create nobility in the archiepiscopal territories. His annual revenue is about 36,000/. sterling, while that of the archbishop of Colocza is not more than 5000/. Beside the diocesan prelates, there arc at present sixteen bishops who have no rerenues, twenty-two rulers of abb'-ys, a hundred and twenty-four titular abbots, forty-one provosts with revenues, seventy v,ho have merely the honor of the title, two hundred and seven prebendaries, sixty-seven ho- norary canons, two thousand seven hundred and eighty-two priests, four hundred and forty-eight local chaplains, and one thousand nine hundred and twenty-eight assistants. The members of the Gn-ek church are also very numerous in Hungary. They are divided into two branches, — those who have so far united themselves to the catholics, as to acknowlege the supremacy of the Romish pontiff, while they retain some of their peculiar ceremonies ; and those who have refused to enter into this union. Even the latter have been admitted to an equality of civil rights with the members of the regular establishment. The claims of the protestants to the full rights of citizens were allowed by the treaty of Vienna in IGOG, and by that of Lintz in 1G45 ; but the injustice of the government violated or eluded those engagements. After a long interval of discouragement and depression, both Lutherans and Calviiiists found a protector in the emperor Joseph H., and a still greater friend in his brother Leojjold, who, in 1791, gratified them to the extent of their wishes. In consequence of this liberal policy, the Lutheran churches have been more than doubled since that time, having risen from the number of 213 to 450 ; and those of the other branch of protestants have also been more generally diffused over the country. The ministers of these persuasions have not, in general, a great provision for their support ; but they endeavour to narrow the circle of their wants, and to conform their desires to their circumstances. The majority of the catholic priests have a yet smaller income, notwithstanding the formation of a fund for their relief, out of the estates which belonged to the monasteries suppressed by Joseph, and out of the contributions demanded from every new bishop. Univeusities.] The principal university of Hungary is that of Pesth, which has an annual income of 20,000/. sterling, a fifth part of which is allotted to pay the salaries of the professors. The seminaries m HUNGARY. •t Raab and Cawhtu are likewite ityled univenitiea] but they ariratliirl academiea founded by the Jcsuit«. At Funf-kirchen, an uuiverdty wi, built and endowed by Louia I. in 1364, which at one tiino was atteodnl by 1000 atudenta ; but it was ruined after tho battle of Mohacz, and thii town did not again flourish as a place of education before lti*J4, w]„g the Jesuits erected a college, which, by their zeal and luaruioij, wuioon brought into high repute. Lamouao£.] As the Hungarians are mixed with Gorniang, Sclavo. nians, and Walachians, they have a variety of ditilccls. The Hunita- rian Proper seems to be radically different from the Sclavonian, aud has been supposed to be a branch of tho Finnic. The upper and mid. dling classes of people speak German and Latin, though with th« latter they continually mix words that can only be understood by those who are acquainted with the Hungarian, Sclavonian, or Gerniaa languages. The Lord's Prayer in Hungarian is as follows: — Mi ati/ank ki vm a mennyekben, zcntelssek mey a te nevcd ; jojjon el a le onnmi Legyen meg a te akaratod, minr a tnenybcn, vyy ilt ejoldonnu. f^ mi mindenuapi, henyerunket ad mv.g nehunhma ; es hotsasd mnj a mi vetkeinhet, nnkcppin miis megbotsutuiik azoknak a kik mi ellenunc vetkezteneh ; es ne vigy minket a kesertethe : de zabudits mey minki a gonosatol; mert tied az orssag, a hutalotn, cs a dirsoseg mind orokke. Amen. Ai(TiQurriE8.] Many Roman antiquilieg, such as military roadii, ruins, and coins, have been found in Hungary and other parts of the ancient province of Dacia. About twenty miles from Belgrade, are the remains of a magnificent Hoinan bridge. Hungary was formerly remarkable for its coinage; and there are still extant, in the cabinets of the curious, complete sets of coins of their former kings. More Greek and Boman medals have been discovered in this country than, perhaps, in any other in Europe. History.] The Huns, after subduing this country in the middle of the third century, communicated their name to it, being then part of the ancient Pannonia. They were succeeded by the Goths; these were expelled by the Lombards ; they by the Avari ; who were followed by the Sclavi in the beginning of the ninth century. Near its close, the Ugours emigrated from the banks of the Volga, and took posses- sion of the country. Hungary ftirmerly comprehended an assemblage of different states. The greater part of it was afterward governed for » century by dukes, one of whom, called Stephen the Holy, assumed the royal title, and eclipsed the fame of his predecessors by the strength uf bis mind, the extent of his kuowlege, and his zeal for the diHusiouof Christianity. He was also a spirited warrior, and compelled the Tran- sylvauians and Dulgarians to abstain from incursions, and respect the superiority of his character. When he had fixed the tranquillity of his realm, the establishment of a code of laws occupied iiis attention; and, in 1016, it was sanctioned in an assembly of his nobles and clergy. He was succeeded, in 1038, by his nephew Peter the German, as he had lost his only son. The tyranny and cruelty of the new king ex- cited such a warmth of general indignation, that he was driven from the throne. Aba, the prince who superseded him, was murdered for his inhumanity by his own aHendants, and Peter was restored by the assistance of the emperor Henry HI. As his disposition had not been corrected or improved by adversity, his continued misconduct occa- sioned bis seQopd d.ethroQ^uieat; be was deprived of bis sight, in 104(1, HUNGARY. ill IAmImWi a descendant of the ancient dukes, who procured bis own ilion to the sovereignty. Tliis prince, being involved in a dispute ■ill) bis brother Bela, was defeated and slain ia 1059. After various reigns, of which few imi>ortant or authentic particulars are jfOKivi, Ladislaus,in 1077, ascended the throne ; and, while he extend- ^ hit realm by conquests, he established his fame by political ability. Coloman reigned witli less reputation ; and Stephen II., after signalising liii courage in war, evinced his mental weakuess by abandoning the duties of his station, and retiring into a monastery. Other princes, of flipn some are praised by historians, and some censured, governed Hvogary during the dark ages. At length Andrew 11. became king, tod rsigned for many years in unmolested peace. Weary of tranquil- lity, he engaged in a crusade, and left the kingdom to the risque of mis- Sreniment and commotion. After his return from Palestine, he imed a new system of law ; but he imprudently confiriyed and aug- DMDted the privileges of the nobles, without sutficiently providing for the liberty and welfare of the people. He died in 1235, after a reiga of.'iO years. With his grandson, Andrew III., the line of Stephen ter- mioated, iu 1301 ; but that was deemed a point of little moment, as the lUtes assumed the privilege of monarchical election. After the euccessive choice of a Bohemian and a Bavarian prince, Chtrles Robert, of the house of Anjou, obtained the crown in 1310, He wu victorious in war, humane and moderate in peace. His son Louis (liitioguished himself by an act of exemplary justice, which he performed at Naples, where the king his brother had been murdered by Joan, the waotor and profligate queen. He put some of her accomplices to death; and, when he might have placed himself on the Neapolitan throne, contented himself with the revenge which he had taken in that remarkable expedition. Sigismund of Luxemburg, who had espoused Mftiy, a temporary queen, the daughter of Louis, was chosen king iu 1387, and reigned for fifty years, also occupying, during a considerable part of that time, the imperial throne of Germany, but not with high or iMsullied reputation. His succesor v>'as Albert the Austrian, wlio endeavoured to secure the throne to his infant son Ladislaus; but the Hungarian nobility made choice of ^nothei' prince of that name, who was then king of Poland. This monarch having lost his life in a rash war with the Turks, in 1444, hh young competitor was declared king; during whose reign, John Huniades, vaivode of Transylvania, gallantly defended Hungary and its dependencies against the encroaching infidelsi who were not, however, prevented, by all the eflforts of the Christians, from gaining possession ot Constantinople. The death of Ladislaus was followed by a violent contest for the crown, which was bestowed on Matthias, the son of Huniades, a prince of great ability, who made some bold attempts, not wholly without effect, for the humiliation of the nobles. As the next king did not display that vigor which was necessary to maintain the superiority acquired by his predecessor, the aristocratic influence revived. This con- test for power filled the kingdom with commotion ; and, in the reign of Louis 11., the Turks were encouraged by the continuance of disorder, and by the ambition of Soly man, to aim at an important conquest. In 1526, a great army of those buibarians rushed into Hungary, and triumphed in the field of Mohacz, where the king lost his life. The sultan took possession of Pesth, after the murder of many of the inha- bitants : but he suddenly retired, without securing the city by a gar- rison, Joba Zapol, vaivode of Traasylvaoia, obtained hy his io^uence / fj. 428 TRANSYLVANIA. TRAT the vacant sovereignty. Another powerful candidate also offered him. self, pretendin g that his marriage with the sister of the late king gavj him a preferable claim. This was Ferdinand, king of the Romans whose attempts for the establishment of his pretensions induced the reigning prince to implore the aid of Solyman. Pesth beinj; taken bv the Turks from the Austrian claimant, they gave it up to John, who ex. ercised a divided sway until the year 1540. After his decease, the Turks seised the most considerable portion of the realm, while the aristocratic partisans of Ferdinand governed the rest in his name. The partition of Hungary, between the Christians and tlie infide'- continued far beyond the middle of the seventeenth century. The Turkish yoke was then sliaken oft" by the spirit of the Austrian troops who recovered Buda and Pestli, and established the sway of Leopold | Joseph, son of that prince, was crowned king of Hungary, in IfiS?- and the diet even recognised the hereditary pretensions of his family' Yet the people, and more particularly the protostants, were in a stale of discontent ; and, as Ragotski, the Transylvanian, had fomented the disorders of the country in the reign of Ferdinand 111., Tekeli, a tiir. bulent Hungarian, now followed a similar course, in concert witii the Ottoman cabinet. Again was the realm invadod by the Turks, who re-took the '■ounties to the eastward of the Tlieiss : but the victory obtained at Zenta, by prince Eugene, Leopold's illustrious general checked their career ; and the treaty of Carlowitz, concluded in l(i99 left the Austrians in possession of »ll Hungary except the Banat, and also of Transylvania and Sc!:\vor.ia. .V'hen a new war had arisen from the perfidy of the Porte, the battle of Peterwardein cooled the inilitarj' rage of the barbarian? ' and olner |)roofs of the Austrian superiority in arms produced a pacilication, by wliich the Banat was restored to the Hungarian realm. The si V'H]uent history of this kingdom being inti- mately connected with tliu of Germany, wc n)ny here close the separate sketch. TRANSYLVANIA, THE BUKOVINE, SCLAVONTA, CROATL\, DALMATIA, AND THE .AIlLrrARY FRONTIERS. TRANSYLVANIA is bounded on the norMi by the Carpathian moun- tains, which divide it fiam Galitzia, on the east by Moldavia, on the south by Walachia, and on the v.cst by Hungary. Its length is about 180, and its breadth 120 miles: it contaiirs nearly 14,000 s((uare miles, and is surrounded by high mountains. Its produce, vegetables, and ani- mals, arc nearly the same with those of Hungary. Tiio mirres are the chief sources of wealth in this country. To the north-east of Dcva is a mine which contains g'lld, mingled with antimony, arsenic, lead, and iron. The air is temperate and sahibriotis; and the soil is, in many parts, fertile in grain: but agriculture is not suliicicnlly encouraged. Many vineyards jiour forth their luxurious stores, which, however, do not jdease strangers like the wines of Hungary. It is remarkable that the \N'alacliians, in this province, exceed the number of the Transylvaninns, properly so called ; and tliongh, accord- ing to the laws of the country, they aro not entitled to (he rights of free citizens, that pr-ohibition is not rigorously errforced. Many free fanri- !ies are dispersed over the country ; an.i the rest of the race are not oppressed by the government, but acquire consecpience and property in various modes, particularly by the breeding of cattle. They are of a TRANSYLVANIA AND THE BUKOVINE. 429 I H gave fuced the ' taken hj It who ex. J '^' Turk, ('•istocratic e infide'. '"•y- Tlie >n troops^ •lupoid [, n 1687; family, I" -1 stale nted tile '. a tiir. "ith tlie '■'^s. who '■iciory general, ill 1699, "at, and st'ii from milifarj. iority in I <() the 'n? inti. ■"t'l'arate short stature, but of a strong and compact frame, with expressive fea- tures. The women are more industrious than the men ; they spin even while they are going to market, with a basket upon the head, and manufacture the greater part of their own apparel and that of their families. , . r The great land-liolders enjoy the remains of feudal authority ; and the mvernnient has an air of moderation, being conducted in concert with a regular diet, whicb, liowever, is more influenced by the crown than a na- tional assembly ought to be. The seat of power is Hermanstadt, which contains about 17,.500 inhabitants, and is a large, strong, and well-built city. Clausenburg is situated on a river called the Little Szamos, in a ror.",fltic valley, encompassed by high mountains. The greater part of the town was consumed by fire in 1798 ; but the mischief was gradually repaired. The jjresent town is built in & quadrangular form, and con- tains some fine churches and elegant streets. About 10,000 persons com- pose the population. Transylvania is part of the ancient Dacia, the inhabitants of which Ion" employed the Uoman arms before they could be subdued. It was overrun hy the Goths on the decline of the Uoman empire, and then by the Huns. The jjrescnt inhabitants retain the same military cha- racter. The population of the country is estimated at IjG.'iO.OOO. The military force consists of about 20^000 men, whose loyalty and courage ' are undisputed. Hermanstadt is the only bishoi)ric ; and the Transylvanians at |)re- sent seem to trouble tiiem.selves little eij,her about learning or religion, though the Roman-catholic is the established church. Stephen, king of Hungary, introduced Christianity into the country; and it was af- terwards governed by a Hungarian viceroy. The various revolutions in the goi'crnmeiit prove the impatience of the people under slavery; and though tiie treatv of Carlowitz, in 1()99, gave the sovereignty of Transyl- vania, as well as Sclavonia, to the house of Austria, yet the natives enjoy what we may call a loyal aristocracy, which their sovereigns do not think proper to invade. In ()ctol)er 1784, or* account of the real or pretended oppressions of the nobility, Ifi.OOO men ascmbled, and committed great outrag"s on those whose conduct had been obnoxious tC; them : but, being disappointed in an attempt upon Clausenburg, they promised to separate, and to retire in peace, on the terms of a general pardon, better treatment from the nobility, and a freedom from vassalage. Lenient terms were grantent of IIJiYRIA, the pro- vinces of Carniola and Croatia were curtailed of their fair pioportions. To the fruitful. It exhibit ILLYRIA AND DALMATIA. 431 Thenanie was formerly given to Croatia, Sclavonia, and a part of Dalma- tia, 88 a general appellation ; but it is now particularly distinguished from tliose provinces, and from that which is called the Maritime Government or Coast District. It includes the eastern portion of Carniola and the western part of Croatia, and has a population of 470,000. TheMiLiTARY Government, partly bordering upon Illyria, consists (as might be supposed) almost entirely of armed men. When the Turks had been driven out of Hungary, it became the great object of the Austrian government to defend its frontiers on that side against a renewal of encroachment ; and it was therefore resolved that the line which separated the two countries should be placed on a secure basis, by making military service the indispensable condition on which lands in the bordering districts should be holden. This system was gradually adopted ; but, after it had long prevailed, it began to be neglected, as no longer neces- sary. In 1807, however, the whole scheme was re-organised and improved ; and the military frontiers, extending from the Bukovine to the Adriatic sea, formed a line of about 500 miles. Regiments both of infantry and cavalry were raised and disciplined ; and four circles were formed, each being under the command of a general officer, subject to the supreme direction of a council of war at Vienna. About 80,000 men were thus kept in readiness for the defence of the country; and the inhabitants within the military districts were bound to promote the public service, not only by contributions, but by personal labor in such works as the com- manders might point out. Tiic lands which had devolved to the crown, or had been obtained by purchase or exchange, or those estates over whose proprietors the emperor coidd exercise an authoritative influence, were leased out upon the old feudal tenure ; and certain portions were consigned to the management of a patriarch, who superintended the cul- tivation, and provided for the support of the soldiery. The patriarchs were assisted by the appointment of an agricultural officer, in each com- pany, who, with eleven corporals, made occasional surveys of the di- strict; and a court, composed of the captain, some inferior officers and heads of families, decided disputes, and administered justice in ordinary cases. This government is subdivided into] the Transylvanian military frontier, the Banat and Sclavonian frontiers, the Warasdin territory, and that of Carlstadt ; and the population of the whole is said to amount to 950,000. DALMATIA extends along the coast from the vicinity of Fiume, so as to include the northern part of Albania; and it also comprehends Mor- lachia, of which Sogna is tlie capital. This is a royal free-town, fortified both by nature and art, and situated near the sea, in a mountainous and barren soil. Here are twelve churches and two conventual foundations. The governor resides in the o'd palace, called the Royal Castle. Otto- schatz is a frontier fortification on the Gatzka. That part of the fortress where the governor and the greatest part of the garrison reside, is sur- rounded with a wall and some towers ; but the rest of the buildings, which are mean, are erected on piles in the water, so that one neighbour cannot visit anotlier witliout a boat. Carlo-pago stands at the foot of a craggy mountain, near the strait which separates the isle of Pago from the continent. It has two harbours, constructed by the order of Joseph II. ; and the inhabitants carry on some trade in wood, suit, honey, wax, and fisu. To the soutiiward of Morlachia, the country is mountainous, but fruitful. Spalatro has a fine harbour, and is the see of an archbishop. It exhibits the interesting ruins of the palace of Diocletian. Zara is 432 DALMATIA. another considerable town, so well fortified that it is deemed almost Im. pregnable. Sebenico is likewise a strong town. The natives of this part of Dalmatia carry on a considerable trade, and are said to be the best mariners of all Italy. The Dalmatians, who are about 320,000 in number resemble the Sclavonians in their manners, and speak a similar lanouaw! They profess the Roman-catholic religion. In this part of Dalmatia is the small aristocratic state of Poglissa, formerly under the protection of Venice, but now under that of the Austrian government. This state contains about 21,000 inliabitants, and its chief magistrate bears the title of welike cnes, or great lord, and is chosen annually from some noble Hungarian families which are settled there. In proceeding to the southward, we approach the ill-peopled territor)- of Hertzgovina, of which Castel-Nuovo, a place of considerable strength, is the most important town. This district was never fully subdued by the Venetians ; nor does it appear that the authority of the Austrian emperor is generally acknowleged by the provincials, some of whose tribes are in an unsettled state. To the north-east of Hertzgovina, is the territory of Montenegro, in- habited by a remarkable community, partly of Grecian, and partly of Sclavonic origin. Its population, having been frequently diminished by war and famine, scarcely exceeds 55,000. Tiie men are in general tall and well-formed, uncommonly brave, and high-spirited ; they endure hardships without repining, but will not submit to an insult. Tiiey are hospitable and friendly, and, with occasional exceptions, just in their dealings. They attend more to pasturage than to agriculture, which they leave chiefly to the women. Tiicy employ themselves only in such manufactures as appear to them to be absolutely necessary, and they have much less trade than they might easily command, lew of them can either read or write : yet they cultivate botii oratory and poetry. They have no regular code or system of law ; but the chiefs try ol^oiuiers and decide civil causes, with the allowance of an appeal to tlie bishop. The Turks claim authority over the Montone;^rins, but do not take very active measures to subdue them, being content with desultory bo.stilitii's. The Russians profess to be the protector.s of the state, and allow a pension to the bishop, but do not arbitrarily interfere in the government, which is at present exercised by the prelate, with the aid of a temporal governor. The established religion is that of the Greek cliurch ; but, in many of the villages, the inhabitants follow the catholic system. (jnegu.-.si is tlie seat of the governor, and Cethigiii' that of the bishop: but both places arc rather villages than considerable to.vns. The houses are built in the most irregular way, almost every housekeeper being his own architect. Mats or carpets, spread out upon the floor, .serve for beds ; paltry stools, and .sometimes large stones, are the substitutes for chairs ; and tables are far from being in general use. 'i'he thurches and monasteries, however, being deemed worthy of greater care and attention, arc well built by foreign artisans. Near the Albanian frontier is Cattaro, a small but stronsj town, envi- roned by rocky heights, which even obscure the fact; of day. About thirty-live miles from this town, stands the city of Ragusa, which extends its sway over a neighbouring territory of .'J50 square miles. Its harbour, formed by the isle of Croma, is sai'e and commodious ; and its fortili- cations enabled it, in 1806, to withstand a vigorous siege from the Mon- tenegrins, who were assisted by a Russian armament : yet it would not have so effectually resisted, if it had not been garrisoned by the French, .ho had prevailed them. When Dal success of the allies now enjoys some r The city is not abo ,nd contains some 1 religion; but other p all the citizens are Tonian, while others are great earners m at peace with the pi THE PRUS EXTENT AND SIT Miles Length 24( Breadth 14( Name.] THE bitants, the Boruss near, and Russi ; s BoUNDAUlES.] by the Baltic sea f on the south by G burg and Pomerani Divisions.] to stretch with lit Rhine and the Mo eastern (formerly Posen; Silesia, B Other territoriei ject to the same pi Face of the c is in general a h forests and woodi abounds in lakes. See, and the Gne broad. It is saic Prussia 1(30 ; but Rivers, can Memel, the Netz Frederic's canals Vistula. PRUSSIA. 43J ifho had prevailed upon the inhabitants by plausible pretences to admit them. When Dalmatia changer', its masters, in consequence of the success of the allies in Germany, Ragusa also shook oif the yoke ; and it now enjoys some remains of privilege, under the protection of Austria. Tiiecityis not above two miles in circumference; but it is well-built, and contains some handsome edifices. The Ragusans profess the Romish religion ; but other persuasions and modes of worship are tolerated. Almost all the citizens are traders. Tiie language of the lowest class is the Scla- ronian, while others spciik the Italian. They have many trading vessels, and are great carriers in the Mediterranean, like the Dutch, being constantly at peace with the piratical states of Barbary. THE KINGDOM OF PRUSSIA, AND THE PRUSSIAN DOMINIONS IN GENERAL. EXTENT AUD SITUATION OF TIIE KINGDOM OF PRUSSIA mOPER. Miles. Degrees. Length 240 i . H? and 23, 30, East longitude. Breadth 140 ) '^<^""^'^« \ 53 and 55 North latitude. Name,] THE name of Prussia is derived from its ancient inha- bitants, the Borussi, or Porussi ; so called from the Sclavonic word po, near, and Russi ; signifying the people who lived near the Russians. Boundaries.] Prussia, properly so called, is bounded on the north by the Baltic sea and the Russian territories, on the east by Lithuania, on the south by Great- Poland and Silesia, and on the west by Branden- burg and Pomerania. Divisions.] The whole Prussian monarchy is now so txtenslve, as to stretch with little interruption from the borders of Lithuania to the Rhine and the Moselle. Its principal divisions may thus be enumerated ; eastern (formerly ducal) Prussia ; western Prussia ; the grand duchy of Posen; Silesia, Brandenburg, and the grand duchy of the Lower Rhine. Other territories are supposed to swell the whole number of souls, sub- ject to the same prince, to the amount of twelve millions. Pack OF the countuv, iokests, lakes.] The kingdom of Prussia is in general a level country: there are no mountains ; but extensive forests and woods appear in different parts of the country. It also alwuiids in lakes, the principal of which are the Sperling See, the Manor See, and the Gneserich Lake. The first is 18 miles long and as many broad. It is said, that East-Prussia contains 300 lakes, and West- Prussia 160 ; but many of these are mere pools. Rivers, canals.] The chief rivers are the Vistida, the Pregel, tlift Memel, the Netze, the Bro, and the Warte. The two canals called Frederic's canals, and that of Bromberg, unite the Netze with the Vistula. 2 F ^ 434 PRUSSIA. At the mouths of the rivers Vistula and Memel, singular havens, called by the Germans haffs, arc formed by long narrow tracts of land. This tongue of land in the Frisch-haff, at the mouth of the Vistula, is 50 miles in length, and from three to seven in breadth. It is said to have been thrown uji by tempests about the year 1190. Metals, min krals.] Prussia yields no metals, except alittlc iron ore : its peculiar and valuable mineral is amber, which is usually found about the depth of 100 feet, and is often washed on shore in storiny weather. It is now generally supposed to be a vegetable production mineralised by some unknown operation of nature. Ci.iM.vTF., son,, I'uoDUCE.] The cHmate of Prussia is more damp and raw, and the cold more lasting, than in Germany; but tlie air is salubrious, and the Tiatives frequently attain to a considerable age. Tlie soil is tolerable ; and produces corn, flax, hemp, liops, tobacco, varioua kinds of fruit, and timber in al)undance. Animals.] The uri or bison, a kind of wild ox, and a species of beaver, are found here, as are also lynxes, bears, and fox(!8. Tlie horses, cattle, and sheep, lesemble those of the northern part of Ger- many. CniF.F towns] Konigsberg, the capital of Prussia Proper, is partly situated on an island formed by the Pregel, over which it has seven bridges, and jiartly on the main land. With its suburbs it is seven miles in circumference, and contains about 63,000 inhabitants. Many of its houses are large and elegant, and some of the public buildings arc stately and magnificent. It has an university, which is well supjilied with professors ; several otiuu' respectable seminaries, and many well- conducted charitable institutions. The majority of the inhabitants are Lutherans; but Calvinists, catliolics, and .lews, are mingled with them. They carry on a great trade; yet only small vessels can reach the town; and, therefore, it has been found expedient to make tiseof Pillau, a town 30 miles distant, as the port of Konigsberg. In 1817, 1098 vessels entered that harbour for commercial purposes: 300 of these were the ships of Prussian subjects, 144 were British, and 2(39 sailed from Dutch and Belgian ports. In some of the subse(juent years, the numher ex- ceeded that amount. Marienwcrder, the seat of the government of West-Prussia, stands on the Vi.stula. The cathedral is the largest church in the kingdom of Prus- sia, being 320 feet long. It appears by its strong brenst-works to have formerly served as a fortress. Here is also a si)acious palace, built in the Gothic style. FJbing, which is also in West- Prussia, near the Frisch-haff, is a thriving conunercial town. Before the Fnglisli established their maca- ziiies there, as a company of merchants, the town hnd not an extensive trade ; but, from that time, its trailic gradually increased. About 19,000 per.sons compose the population. Memel, situated at the extremity of F.ast-Prussia, surpasses Elhina; in the (piantity and value of its exports, among which timber is a leading article. The town is rendered defensible bv strong works; the liouses, if not generally handsome or eleu;a!)t, are suHiciently large and com- modious; and the harl)our is considered, by many merchants and mari- ners, as the best in the Baltic. Nationai, c"ii auactku, j'wnkus, crsTOMs.] The character, manners, and customs of the inhabitants of the old kingdom of Prussia, are nearly the same with those of their neighbours in the north of Ger- many. Those of the Polanders have been already described. PRUSSIA. 435 Commerce and manufactuhes.] The Prussian manufactures are not inconsiderable : they consist of glass, iron-work, paper, gunpow- der, copper, and brass mills; manufactures of cloth, camlet, linen, silk, stockings, and other articles. The inhabitants export corn, hemp, flax, linseed, amber, pot-ash, tobacco, bristles, tallow, wax, and other com- modities. Religion.] The religion of Prussia is very tolerant. The established religions are those of the Lutherans and Calviiiists, chiefly the former ; but papists, antipsedobaptists, and all other sectaries, are indulged with toleration. Universities, mteiiature, language.] The university of Konigsberg was founded in 1544 ; that of Frankfort on the Oder in 1506, by Joachim, elector of Brandenburg. To these we may add the Polish university of Posen, now subject to Prussia. There are many schools and seminaries in the kingdom, but it has produced few men of eminent literary abilities. The language of Prussia is the German ; but, in the territory ac- quired from Poland, the Polish, as may be expected, prevails. Constitution and government.] His Prussian majesty is ab- solute through all his dominions. The government of this kingdom is by a regency of four chancellors of state; namely, the great master, the great burgrave, cbancellor, and marshal. There are also some other councils, and 37 bailiwics. The provincial states consist of counsel- lors of state, and of deputies from the nobility and commons. Beside these institutions, Frederic HI. erected a board of commerce and navi- gation. Revenue.] Frederic I. had a scanty revenue, not perhaps exceeding a million and a half of pounds sterling. His son increased it to about two millions ; and the great Frederic is said to have derived, from his augmented dominions, about five millions and a half. The extravagance of his successor dissipated more than the regular produce of his resources, and consequently involved the nation in debt. The present king and his people were so severely harassed, and so shamefully i)lundered by the French, both before and after the peace of Tilsit, that the revenue must have been reduced to a very small amount, while the public debt was enormously augmented. The baron Bignon calculates the encum- brance of the nation, at the time of the pacification of Paris, in 1814, at a very high amount. The arrears of the old debt, he says, were 100 millions of francs, or 4,1 6(5,666 pounds sterling: the debt, con- tracted during the exercise of French tyranny and rapine over the kingdom, might be estimated at six times that amount : the pro- vincial debts were above 8,300,000 pounds; and the stores furnished to the French army, without an oiiuivaleut, were valued at four millions. But the Prussian share of the money, paid l)y Fiance, according to the treaty of 1815, indemnified the gi)vernment in a considerable degree, and, after the return of peace, the public debt was put into a proper train of liquidation. Army.] Since the time of that elector who became the first king of Prussia, and who, even in time of peace, maintained an army of 100,000 men, the government of that country has exhibited a form, perhaps, more decidedly military than that of any other state in Europe. The present king, in the year 180.3, is said to have had 2,30,000 men ready for action, when the Austrian emperor as exposed to such danger, as to require the aid of every prince who had any regard for the welfare of Germany and the iudependence of the continental powers. But his present 2 F2 ilij •': '»■■■; 1 ■ 436 PRUSSIA. establishment is on a more limited scale, though higher than a free nation would suffer. Orders of knighthood.] There are six orders of knighthood- the order of Concord, instituted by Chiistian Ernest, margrave of Bran- denburg, in 1660, to distinguish the part he had acted in restorin>< peace to many of the princes of Europe. The elector Frederic, in 1G85, in- stituted the order of Generosity. The knights wear a cross of eiwht points, pendent to a blue riband. The same prince founded the order°ot' the Black Eagle in the year 1700, the number of knights, exclusive of the royal family, being limited to thirty. Tiic knights wear on tlic left side of the coat a silver star, in the middle of which is a black eawle with the motto Suuni Ciiiqne. The order of Merit was instituted by Frederic III., in 1740, to reward the merit of persons either in arms or arts, without distinction of birth, religion, or country. That prince like- wise established the orders of St. Stephen and St. John. History.] The ancient history of Prussia is lost in the clouds of fiction and romance. The early inhabitants, the brave and warlike descendants of the Sclavonians, refused to sii!)mit to the neighbouring princes, who, on pretence of converting them to Christianity, endeavoured to subject them to slavery. They made a noble stand against tho kiiii's of Poland; and they continued independent and pagans, till the kiiiglits of the Teutonic order, about the year 1227, undertook their conversion by the edge of the sword. A long series of wars followed, in which the inhabitants of Prussia were almost extirpated by the religious knights, who, after committing the most horrible barbarities, peopled the country with Germans. In 14()6, a peace was concluded between the knighu and Casimir IV. king of Poland, who had undertaken the cause of the oppressed people ; by which it was agreed, that the part now called Polish Prussia should continue a free province, under the king's protec- tion, and that the kniglits and the grand-master should possess the other part, acknowleging themselves vassals of Poland. This gave rise to fresh %vars, in which the knights endeavoured, but unsuccessfully, to throw off their vassalage to Poland. In \51'), Albert, nuiigrave of Brandenburg, the last grand-master of the Teutonic order, laid aside the hal)it of Ins order, embraced Lutheranism, and concluded a peace at Cracow, by which ho was acknowUged duke of the eastern part of Prussia, but was to hold it as a fief of Poland. In 16.57, the elector Frederic ^Viiliam of Brandenburg, deservedly called the (Jrcat, shook off the Polish yoke; and he and his descendants were declared sovereign lords of this prt of Prussia. As the protestant religion had been introduced into this country by the margrave Albert, and the electors of Brandenburg followed that i)ersua- aion, the protestant interest favored tlioni so much, that Frederic, the son of Frederic William the Great, was raised in 1701 to the dignity of king of Prussia, in a solemn assembly of the states, and soon after acknowleged as such by all the powers of Christendom. His grand.son, Frederic 111., in the memoirs of his family, gives us no high idea of this prince's talents for government, hut ex|)atiates on those of his own father, Frederic William, who succeeded iu 1713. This prince, who was endowed with strong natural abilities, considerably increased the revenues of his country, but too often at the expense of humanity. At iiis death, which happened in 1740, he is said to have left seven millions sterling in his treasuiy, which eiuvbled his son, by his wonderful victories, and tiie more wonderful resources by which he re])aired his defeats, to become the admiration of the age. The new monarch imj)roved the arts of peace as PRUSSIA. 437 well M of war, and distinguished himself as a poet, philosopher, and legislator. Some of the principal transactions of his reign have been al- ready related in our sketch of the history of Germany. la 1783 he published a rescript, signifying his pleasure that no kneeling should in liiture be practised in honor of his person, assigning for his reason, that this act of humiliation was not due but to the Divinity ; and near 2,000,000 of crowns were expended by him, in 1782, in draining marehes, establishing manufactures, settling colonics, relieving distress, and in other purposes of philanthropy and policy. He died in \7?'^- . after having; preserved his dominions in peace, with only a slight inter .ption, from the year 1763. Frederic William II. (or Frederic IV.), the nephew of the philosopher, commenced his reiga with a reform of abuses ; but he did not uniformly act the part of a patriot. Indolence and love of pleasure diverted his atten- tion from public duties, and he quickly lost the reputation which he wa« beginning to acquire. The spirit which he displayed, however, in the cause of his brother-in-law the prince of Orange, for whom he procured, by the reduction of Amsterdam, a considerable augmentation of power, was ap- plauded by the princes of Europe. He also dislinguished himself by his early display of zeal against the French revolutionists, whom he hoped to crush in one campaign ; but his expedition was unfortunate, and he returned with a diminished and dispirited army. In 1794, while he received a subsidy from Great- Britain on condition of acting with vigor against the French, he employed his troops in subduing Poland ; of which realm he added a considerable portion to the share seised by his uncle. Content with this success, he concluded peace with France ; but he did not long enjoy that voluptuous repose which he wished to obtain ; for he died in November, 1797. His son of the same name ascended the throne. This prince, for many years, studiously observed a system of neutrality, which exposed him to the obloquy of the zealots. He seemed inclined to take up arms, in 1805, when the Austriaus were engaged in a new war with France: but he suffered that opportunity to elapse; and, when he roused himself in the following year, he met with that ill success which has been already noticed in the history of France. Although he derived powerful aid from Russia, he found it expedient, in 1807, to agree to a trea- ty, by which he was involved in a state of humiliation and even of distress. He was deprived nearly of one half of his dominions ; and, in the por- tion which he retained, he was insulted by the intrusion of Frencli troops, and pillaged by arbitrary commissaries. Aware of the overbear- ing spirit of his great enemy, he did not loudly complain of this treat- ment, but submitted to it with piiilosophic calmness, waiting for an op- portunity of vigorous exertion and of just revenge. In this state of com- parative insignificance he remained above five years ; and ,his disgrace seemed to be completed by that subserviency which rendered him an ally of France, in 1812, against his former friend, the Russian empe- ror. He probably hoped, that his arrogant oppressor might meet with such a reverse of fortune in his nortliern expedition, as would encou- rage other powers to form a new confederacy against him : yet a be- nevolent king must have felt poignant regret at the loss of so many of his own subjects as perished in that iniquitous enterprise. When the result seemed to portend the ruin of the tyrant, Frederic resolved to take arms against him. For several years, he had endeavoured, as far as the jealous vigilance of the French would allow him, to keep up a mi- litary spirit among his people, and to prepare them by discipline for a future war. In the preceding war against France, they had not mala- 438 SILESIA. tfiined their fortner reinitation : but their zeal was now as fervent tt that of their sovereign, on whose foes they were ready to wreak their vengeance. 'I'hey displayed great couiagc in tlie saiignitmry conflicts of the year 181ii: they shared th? dangers and glory of that invasion which was followed by the reduction of Paris : and, when the war anain broke out, they promoted the success of the British amis at Watci^loo, By these services they procured for the king, not merely a it'stitiition of territories, but a greater extent of dominion than he had evor before possessed. Frederic William TIL, or Frederic V., was born August 3, 1770; and, in 1793, married Louisa-Augusta Wilhclmina-Amelia, princess of Meek- lenburg-Strelitz, who died in 1810, and !)y whom he has issue — Frederic- William, born October Ift, 1795. Frederic- William-Louis, born March 22, 1797. Frederica-Louisa-Charlotta-Wilhelmina, born .July 13, 1798, Charlfs-Frederlc-Alexa.ider, born June 29, 1801. Frederica-Wilhelmina-Alexandrina, born February.23, 1803. Louisa- Augusta-Wilhelmina-Amelia, horn February 1 , 1 808 SILESIA. SILESIA is bounded on the north by Brandenburg and Lusatia, on the east by Galitzia and South-Prussia, on the south by Hungary and Moravia, and on the west by Moravia, Bohemia, and Lusatia. It be- longs to Prussia, except a small part of Upper or Southern Silesia. The Prussian part contains 10,960 square miles, and two millions ofpenple, The Austrian part contains 1290 square miles, and about 300,000 inlia- bitants. Lower Silesia is divided into the territories of Breslau, Brieg, Scliweid- nitz, .lauer, Lignitz, Wolilau, and Glogau, which are in direct siibscr- viency to the Prussian monarch, beside such lordships as have some of his subjects for their masters ; and the Upper into the imiiipdiate prin- cipalities of Munsterburg, Oppcln, and llatibor, beside some mediate principalities and inferior lordshij)s. The Austrian portion is divided into the circlesof Jagcrndorf and Teschen. This province is separated from Boliemia by the Riesengebirge, ov Giant-Mountains. The Elbe and Oder have their sources am .ing these mountains ; the latter of which divides the country nearly into two equal parts. Beside these, the principal rivers are the Vistula, Niesse, Oppa, Bober, Quies, and Elsa. In the northern parts are several small lakes and morasses. The mountainous parts contain mines of gold and silver, but they are not rendered productive : they also afford copper, lead, iron, sulphur, salt-petre, alum, and vitriol. The soil, in the vicinity of South- Prussia and Lusatia, is sandy, and therefore not very fruitful ; but this deficiency is compensated by the fertility of the other and krgor j)art of Silesia, which produces wheat, rye, barley, oats, maize, buck-wheat, linseed, peas, hops, and madder. Tar, pitch, and resin, are made from the pine and fir, and the larch-trees yield turpentine. The sliecp of this country are said to be very prolitablc on account of the excellence of their wool. The wild animals are lynxes, which frequent only the mountainous parts ; a few bears and wolves ; and foxes, weasels, otters, SILESIA. 430 and beaven. In tlie Oder are caught salmon, cturs^eon, skate, and lam- picfi. Tlie other rivers, but especially tiiu lukua and ponds, abound in nnoui kind* of fish. Silesia is said to contain 180 cities and towns, and 4,000 villages : but tbii is an apparent exaggeration. 7'lie capital is Breslau, situated at the confluence of the Oder with the small river Ohlau, which runs through several of the strtets. It is a largo well-built fortified city, containing about 73,000 inhabitants, one-third of whom are catholics, while nine-tenths of the other two-thirds are Lutherans; yet the pro- testsnts have only nine churches, while the catholics have twenty-six. The power and influence of the latter have been considerably impaired by the present king, who has suppres-ed many of their monastic founda- tions: but, in other respects, they have full toleration. Breslau is the see of a catholic bishop, whose ecclesiastical jurisdiction extends over the whole of Silesia. The cathedral was founded about the year 1 1.00, and contains several magnificent chapels, which were added to the body of the church by different bishops. The chief protestant place of wor- ship is the Lutheran church of St. Elizabeth. In the library belonging to this church is wliat may be considered as a curious manuscript ; to the naked eye it appears to be a drawing with a pen of the Venus de Medici, upon n half-sheet of folio paper : but, on examining it with a magnifying- glass, it is found to be a copy of Ovid's Art of Love, perfectly legible, and the five books are wholly contained within a compass of ten inches in length and three in width. Breslau has an university, which was founded in 1702 by the emperor Leopold : about 550 students usually belong to it. Schweidnitz is a handsome town, and its fortifications are very con- sklerable. It contains 7500 inhabitants, about one-fourth of whom are catholics; and it claims the intolerant and disgraceful privilege of suf- fering no Jews within its walls ; but the rigor of this privilege is softened by modern humanity. Brieg is likewise a well-built town, and the seat of government for Upper-Silesia. It is occupied by 8500 persons. Trop- pau is regarded as the capital of Austrian Silesia ; but it is not so populous or flourisbing'as Teschen, which contains about 5500 inhabitants. The principal manufactures of Silesia are those of thread, twine, linen, flax, and damask ; the chief exports are madder, mill-stones, thread, yarn, linen, and woollen-cloth. Since the country has fallen under the dominion of the kings of Prussia, commerce has been consi- derably improved, and some excellent regulations have been made for that purpose. The German language is generally spoken in Silesia, and the speaking of French is considered as an alVeclation. Silesia was anciently inhabited by the Suevi, a Teutonic nation. In the seventh century the Sclavnnians made themselves masters of the country. The people embraced Christianity in the ninth century. Silesia was afterwards united with Poland, and acknowleged the Polish dukes and kings as its sovereigns. In the fourteenth century the Silesian princes rendered themselves independent of Poland, and the whole of the duchy became subject to the kings of Bohemia. On the death of the emperor Charles VI., in 1740, the king of Prussia claimed certain principa- lities of Silesia, and supported his claim so powe"fully by his arms, that the Lower and the greater part of Upper Silesia, with the county of Glatz, were ceded to him by the treaty of Breslau, and have ever since remained subject to Prussia. The cuuaty of Glatz is situated near the north-east frontier of Bohe- 440 SWITZERLAND. mia, and is about 40 miles in length and 25 in brcadtli. It it lurrounded by mountains, wliich contain mine* of coal, copper, and iron, aad q«ir- riesot'stono and marble. It lias excellent pastures, which feed grem numbers of cattle. Glatz, the principal town, is a welUfortified place, inhabited by 7500 persons, many of whom arc employed to great advm! tago in the manufactures of leather and linen. ^ SWITZERLAND. I--/ )• I SITUATION AND TXTENT. I Miles. ', Degrees. I I Length 230 ) ,,„,,„„„„ V 6 and 11 East longitude. Breadth 120 ) 'J"wcen ^ ^^^ ^.^ ^^^^^^^ latitude. ■. .,.1 . ! r Containing 13,900 square miles, with more than 161 inhabitanti i I to each. *'^ Name.] SWITZERLAND was considered by the Romans as a part of Gaul, and inhabited by the Helvetii on the west, and the Uha!ti on the east. The modern name seems to bo derived from that of the can- ton of Schweitz, one of the earliest in forming the league by which the liberty of the country was asserted against the dukes of Austria. While it was under the French yoke, it bore the name of the Helvetic Kepublic. Boundaries.] it is bounded on the north by the circle of Swabia in Germany, on the cast by Tyrol, on the south by Italy, and on the west by France. Divisions.] Switzerland, before the year 1798, was divided into thirteen cantons ; namely, Zurich, Bern, Lucern, Uri, Schweitz, Unter- valden, Zug, Glarus, Basil or Basle, Freyburg, Spleure or Solothurn, Schaif hausen, and Appcnze|. Beside these there were certain districts and towns which were the subjects of the cantons, and some small states who were their allies. New arrangements were made, in 1802, aftf-r that partial insurrection which was soon suppressed by the power of France. Nineteen cantons were then formed by the order of Bonaparte, the new ones being Argovia or Aargau, the Grison territory, Tessin, St. Gall, Thurgau, and the Pays de Vaud. When the Swiss were restored to a state of independence by the allies, a new division was adjusted by the congress of V'ienna ; or we may rather say that three cantons were incorporated with the rest ; namely, the republics of the Valais and Ge- neva, and the principality of Ncuf-chatel. The last- mentioned territory, with the county of Valengin, wad been subject to the king of Prussia from the year 1707, when it was ceded to him by the states, on the failure of the line of princes : but, being rendered a very powerful mon- arch by the result of the Anti-Gallican league, he condescended to re- sign this insignificant appendage of his crown. Face of the countuy, mountains.] The face of Switzerland is in general so mountainous, that even the parts of it accounted level abound with such cmiDcaces 09 in other couatries would be called mounlainB. L J J.eiuU'n Pubtish€j Mi^v •f.Ci fy J.Mattman t thr cthrr l Nefl^il Hi- ^fi?. utlMUt* f*j.t% / h%' J.Afawnutn 4> tke vther I^vpn'elttrf. J- i i4-s-l^ An^V' ■ii't^^ . -■.•♦■■■>W'---^i^*^ -'*^'-- *^n»y>smff*miMi^'*v>^y^mm^f^^^j^ /.^ifts»hj^^*ft#^>^-»H*^^^a^ Kature leems be The towering sun 1 ciers which resernl astonishment and lating and woodec south-west t country. The m( I (which the Swist ' Jung-frau or Vir Gothard: but al j though it bordei Savoy. Lakes.] Th( I also called the B breadth; and tb greatest breadth. Thon, Bienne or ties of some of t all persons of tas Rivers.] 1 by the confluen Baduz, apart « Luckmanier, an( sentis; and the unite near Coir proceeds to the whence it flows iiortiierly course '!rt^H,nd the •■; n' ;,' divide :•„,.■ the IV . ;\r" eeds tfle.' -e . Vt being culli ' ib' subsequent divi falls into the scanty stream, , The Rhone Geneva, and, \ to mix with it, The Aar make Schreckhorn, [ th« Rhine nea tln'AI.S Al ctyna., virgin are also found with, particiik most celebrate recommended Climate, nature of this more than 10 being scarcely renders the st mountains tli SWITZERLAND. 441 Nature »eems here to have formed every thing on her grandest scale. The towering summits of stupendous mountains, dreadful precipices, gla- ciers which resemble seas of ice, rocks in varied and fantastic forms, excite astonishment and awe ; while occasional contrasts are afforded by undu- lating and wooded slopes, verdant vales, and scenes of cultivation. From tho south-west to the north-east a mountainous chain pervades the country. The most conspicuous heights are the ridges of Mount -Jura (ffliich the Swiss share with the French), the Finster Aar-horn, the JuDg-frau or Virgin, the Eiger, the Schreck-horn, the Twins, and St. Gothard: but all these are inferior in height to Mont-Blanc, which, though it borders on Switzerland, is situated within the frontiers of Savoy. Lakes.] The principal lakes of Switzerland are, that of Constance, also called the Boden-Sea, which is about 45 miles in length and 15 in breadth; and the lake of Geneva, about 40 miles long, and 10 at its greatest breadth. Other lakes are those of Neuf-chatel, Lucern, Zurich, Thun, Bienne or Biel, Brientz, and Wallenstadt. The picturesque beau- ties of some of these lakes, particularly that of Geneva, are admired by all persons of taste. Rivers.] The Rhine is the chief river of Switzerland. It is formed by the confluence of three streams. One hses in a mountain called Baduz, a part of the Crispalt chain : the second originates in Mount- Luckmanier, and, after a course of 24 miles, joins the former near Di- sentis; and the third rises in the Vogelsberg. The first and the last unite near Coire, and the river then becomes navigable for rafts. It proceeds to the northward, and passes through the lake of Constance, whence it flows to the westward until it reaches Basle. It then takes a northerly course, separating Suabia from Alsace ; receives the Maine near '! ■nfi'., ;ind the Moselle near Coblentz; andj near Fort-Schenck in Gueld- •.'km. ;,^ divided into two branches; one of which, called the Wahal, is '{.,«. . I' the Maes at the isle of Bommel, while the other, flowing to the (^:;^ pro eeds in two channels, one only retaining the original name of tne ' ■« . \t Duerstede, another disjunction takes place, one stream being cullt ' the Leek, the other the crooked Rhine. This forms two subsequent divisions, namely, the Vcht, and the proper Rhine. One falls into the Zuyder-Zee : the other, traversing South-Holland in a scanty stream, joins the sea at Catwyck. The Rhone rises in Mount-Furca, runs impetuously to the lake of Geneva, and, having passed thrr- gh that body of water without appearing to mix with it, pursues its course amidst a romantic country into France. The Aar makes its tirst appearance in a valley at the foot of Mount- Schreckhorn, passes through the lakes of Brientz and Thun, and falls into th« Rhine near Zurzach. l>!''rAr,s AND MINERALS.] The mountains contain mines of iron, cry> u., virgin sulphur, and springs of mineral waters. Copper and lead are also found, but not abundantly; and nuarries of rock salt are met with, particularly in the Pays de Vaud. Among the mineral waters, the roost celebrated are those of Pfeiler, between Sargans and the Rhine, recommended for various chronical disorders. Climate, soil, and aguicultuue.] From the mountainous nature of this countiy, around which tho Alps form an amphitheatre of more than 100 miles, the frosts are very severe, some of the eminences being scarcely ever free from snow. In summer the inequality of the soil renders the same province very unequal in its seasons ; on one side of the mountains the inhabitants are often reaping, while they are sowing 443 SWITZERLAND. on another. The valleys, however, are warm and fruitful, and well cultirated. With regard to fertility, the canton of Thurgau is superior to most of the others, while that of Appenzel is particularly barren, and hag scarcely a field of corn in its whole extent. It ought to be observed, that the agriculture of Switzerland has been considerably improved by the adviw of Fellenberg, who keeps a great school near Bern for the particular pro. motion of that art, as well as for general education. There is, perhaps, no country in the world, except Holland, where the tii >^iOus effects of unwearied and persevering industiy are more renti .y conspicuous than in Switzerland. In passing over the moat, tainoui. |;arts, the traveler is struck with admiration, when he observes rocks that were formerly barren now planted with vines, or aboundiw with rich pasture, and marks the traces of the plough along the sides of precipices so steep, that a horse could not even mount them withoutgrtat ditlicult)'. In short, the inhabitants seem to have sunnounted miy obstruction which soil, situation, and climate, have thrown in their war, and to have spread fertility over various sjwts of the country, which nature seemed to have consigned to everlasting barrenness. The feet of the mountains, and sometimes also the very summits, are covered with viiie>yards, corn-fields, meadows, and pasture-grounds. Other parts of this country are more dreary, consisting almost entirely of barren and inaccessible rocks, some of which are continually covered with snov or ice. The valleys between these mountains appear like so many smooth frozen lakes; and, from the latter, vast fragments of ice frequently fall down into the more fruitful spots beneath. In some parts there is a regular gradation from extreme wildness to high cultivation ; in otheri the transitions are very abrupt, and very striking. Sometimes a con* tinned chain of cultivated mountains, richly clothed with wood, and studded all over with hamlets, cottages above the clouds, pastures which appear suspended in the air, exhibit the most delightful landscape that can be conceived ; and in other places appear rugged rocks, cataracts, and snow-clad mountains of a prodigious height. These varieties an found within a smaller space in the Valais, than in any other canton. In that territory', contrasts between objects the most imposing, the most savage, and the most agreeable, every- where present themselves. Vegetables ash animals.] Switzerland produces wheat, barley, oats, rye, flax, and hemp; plenty of apples, pears, grapes which afford excellent wine, nuts, cherries, plums, and chesnuts ; the parts toward Italy abound in peaches, almonds, figs, citrons, and pomegranates ; and most of the cantons have timber. Beside game, fish, and fowl, there ai« found, in some of the higher and more inaccessible parts of the Alps, die bouquetin (or goat of the rocks) and the chamois, whose activity in scour- ing along the steep and craggy rocks, and in leaping over the pri-cipiceB, is hardly conceivable. The blood of each animal is of so hot a natarc, that the inhabitants of some of these mountains, who are subject to the pleurisy, take a few drops of it, mixed with water, as a remedy for that disorder. The chase of the chamois is a favorite amusement; and even the great danger which attends it does not sufficiently check the practice. Many of the hunters lose their lives among precipitous rocks; and, when the chase is long and difficult, some of the rash adventurers perish by the united attacks of cold and hunger. The marmot is also hunted, but with less danger than the chamois, because it docs not >o much entangle the chasseur among the precipices. Wolves likewise haunt the Alps ; and here are also yellow and white foxes, which in win- ter sometimes come down into the valleys. SWITZERLAND. 443 Curiosities, natural and artificial.] Every part of Switzer- land abounds in natural curiosities; continually presenting precipices, irlaciers, torrents and cataracts. The glaciers are immense fields of ice, which usually rest on an inclined plane : being pushed forward by the pressure of their own weight, and weakly 8uj)ported by the rugged rocks beneatli, they are intersected by large transverse crevices, and present the npptarancc of walls, pyramids, and other fantastic shapes, observed at all heights and in all situations, where-ever the declivity is beyond thirty or forty degrees. In traveling over these glaciers, a long pole spiked widi iron, and shoes guarded by spikes of the same metal, are considered as indispensable accompaniments ; but these will not always secure the adrentiirer. Some of the Alpine passes in this country are tremendously grand. Those of St. Gothard and the Siniplon are the most frequented. The former mountain is 8300 feet above the level of the Mediterranean ; the latter, 6600 feet. To lessen the dangers of these terrific spots, roads have been formed along the edges of precipices, bridges have been thrown over frightful chasms, and tunnels cut through rocks ; and the seeming obsta- cles interposed by nature have been removed by the skill and boldness of art. From the baths of l-.euk, the pass over the Gemmi is extremely hazardous; and, in descending, the path hurries the adventurer down the almost perpendicular side of the mountain. Near Schaffhausen is a tremendous cataract, down which the Rhine dashes headlong from a height of fifty feet. Viewed in front, it ap- pears divided into three cascades, by two craggy rocks. The foaming waters shoot over, join themselves, separate, and change their forms with such rapidity, that the eye is unable to follow them. The spray which rises from the bottom is so rarefied, that it is carried away by the wind like dust ; and it occasionally exhibits rainbows of exquisite beauty. Near Rosiniere is a famous spring, which rises in the midst of a na- tural basin of twelve square feet, 'i he force that acts upon it must be prodigious; after a great shower of rain, it carries up a column of water as thick as a man's thigh, nearly a foot above its surface. Its temperature never varies: it is clear as crystal, and its depth is un- fathomable, — probably the end of some subterraneous lake, that has never found an issue for its waters. Among the artificial curiosities may be mentioned an extraordinary hermitage two leagues from Freyburg, formed by the hands of a single hermit, who labored on it for twenty-five years. It contains a chapel ; a parlor twenty-eight paces in length, twelve in breadth, and twenty feet in height; a cabinet, a kitchen, a cellar, and other apartments, all cut out of the rock. At Schaffhausen was a very extraordinary bridge over the Rhine, admired for the singularity of its architecture. The river is extremely rapid, and had already destroyed several stone bridges of the strongest construction, when Grubenman, a carpenter of Appenzel, offered to throw a wooden bridge of a single arch across the river, which is 365 feet wide. The magistrates, however, required that it should consist of two arches, and that he should, for that purpose, employ the middle pier of the old bridge. He was obliged to obey, and thus exercised his skill : the sides and top were covered, and the road, which was almost level, was not earned as usual over the top of the arch, but (if the expression may be allowed) let into the middle of it, and therefore suspended. A man of the slightest weight felt it tremble under him, though waggons heavily 444 SWITZERLAND. laden might pass over it without danger. If we consider tho boldness of the plan and construction, it must appear extraordinary that the architect had not the least tincture of literature, was totally ignorant of mathema- tics, and not A^ersed in tho theory of mechanics. The bridge was finished in less than three years, and cost about 8,000/. sterling. It was destroyed in 1799, by the French invaders. At the famous pass of Pierre Pcrtuis, the road is carried through a solid rock near fifty feet thick ; the height of the arch is twenty-six and its breadth twenty-five. At Lucern is to be seen a topographical representation of the most mountainous parts of Switzerland, executed by general Pfiffer. It is a model in relief, and well deserves attention. It is about twelve feet ion? and nine and a half broad. The composition is principally a mastic of charcoal, lime, clay, a little pitch, with a thin coat of wax : and is so hard as to be trodden upon without receiving the least damage. The whole is painted with different colors, representing the objects as they appear ia nature. Not only the woods of oak, beech, pine, and other trees, are distinguished, but also the strata of the several rocks are marked, each being shaped upon the spot, and formed with granite, gravel, calcareous stone, or such other natural substances as compose the original mountains. The plan comprises mountains, forests, lakes, towns, villages, and even cottages. The general took his elevations from the level of the lake of Lu- cern; which is about fourteen hundred feet above the Mediterranean. This model conveys a sublime picture of immense Alps piled one upon another, as if the story of the Titans were realised, and they had succeeded in heaping Ossa upon Pelion, and Olympus upon Ossa. There is also at Zurich a model of this romantic country, more curious and accurate than that of which the people of Lucern boast. Population.] It was computed, in 1799, that the number of people in Switzerland, including the allies of the cantons, amounted to two mil- lions, of which the Bernese territory contained more than a sixth part; but this calculation was not generally admitted as indisputable ; and it is probable that the estimate which reduced the amount to 1,866,700 was nearer to the truth. At present, the population seems nearly to reach the amount of 2,250,000. National characters, manners, customs.] The Swiss are a brave, hardy, industrious, people ; remarkable for their fidelity, and their zealous attachment to the liberties of their country. Like the old Ro- mans, they are equally inured to arms and agriculture. A general simplicity of manners, an open and unaft'ected frankness, with a love of freedom, are the most distinguishing characteristics of the inhabitants of Switzerland. A striking proof of the Rimplicity and openness of manners of this people, and of astonishing confidence, is mentioned hy Mr. Coxe, who says, that, on each side of the road that runs through the valley of Muotta, in the canton of Schweitz, there are several ranges of small shops uninhabited, yet filled with various goods, of which the prices are marked : any passengers who wish to become purchasers, enter the shops, take away the merchandise, and deposit the price, for which the owners call in the evening. They are in general an enlightened nation; the common people are more intelligent than the same rank of men in most other countries ; a taste for literature is prevalent among those who are in better circumstances, and even among many of the lowest rank ; and a genuine and artless good-breeding is particularly conspicuousin the Swiss gentry. On the first entrance into this country, tho traveler cannot but obeen'e the air of content which appears in the countenances of the inhabit- SWITZERLAND. 445 ants. The cleanliness of the houses, and of the people, is peculiarly striking; and in all their manners, behaviour, and dross, some strong outlines may be traced, which distinguish thcin from those nations who labor under the oppressions of despotic government. Even the Swijss cottages convey the liveliest image of neatness and simplicity, and strongly impress upon the observer a pleasing conviction of the ease and comfort of the inmates. In some of the cantons, each cottage has its little territory, consisting generally of a field or two of fine pasture-ground, and frequently skirted with trees, and well supplied with water. The chalets, or mountain-houses, being much larger and more curious than the cottages or huts, deserve more particular notice. They are not all built on the same plan ; but many of them are constructed in the follow- ing manner. Posts of larch or the ordinary fir are fixed into the earth, and the sides of the house are formed of well-seasoned and durable timbei* connected with these posts. The sloping roof is composed of large shingles, intermingled with flag-stones. The ground-floor is occupied by horses, asses, mules, oxen, cows, sheep, and goats, and it also sei-ves for a store- room. An outside staircase leads to the first floor, which is more par- ticularly inhabited by the family. A work-shop is also fitted up, and even a library is sometimes an appendage of the establishment. Sumptuary laws are in force in most parts of Switzerland ; and no dan- cing is allowed, except upon particular occasions. Silk, lace, and several other articles of luxury, are prohibited in some of the cantons ; and even the head-dresses of the ladies are regulated. All games of hazard are also strictly forbidden ; and, in otlier games, the person who loses a sum exceeding nine shillings of our money, incurs a considerable fine. The diversions of the Swiss, therefore, are chiefly of the active kind; and, aa their time is not wasted in games of chance, many of them employ a part of their leisure hours in reading, to the great improvement of their under- standings. The youth are diligently trained to various exercises, such as running, wrestling, throwing the hammer, and shooting both with the cross-bow and the musquet. The men, in their persons, resemble the Germans, and the women are rather comely than handsome. The inhabitants in some parts of this country, particularly in the Valais, are subject to goitres, or excrescences of flesh that grow from the throat, and often increase to an enormous size ; and (what is more extra- ordinar}') idiotism also abounds among them. It was concluded by many observers, that the excrescences in question arose from the use of snow water; but, as they are found in the environs of Naples, and also in the island of Sumatra, this opinion has given way to a more probable conjec- ture, im])orting that, where goitres are common, the springs are impreg- nated with a calcareous matter caller, tiif, wlych, though apparently dis- soked, may be introduced in impalpable particles into the glands of the throat. Judging from some accounts, we might suppose that the natives, without exception, are either idiots or goitrous ; hut, in fact, the Valaisans in general are a robust race; and all that with truth can be affirmed ia, that goitrous persons and idiots are more abundant in some districts of the Valais than perhaps in any other part of the globe. It has been asserted that the people respect these idiots, and even consider them as blessings from heaven, and as souls of God without sin ; and this opinion has a good eftect, as it disposes the parents to pay greater atten- tion to such helpless beings. These idiots are suft'ered to marry, as well among themselves as with others. This practice ought not to be tolerated by the government, as idiotism may thus become hereditary. CiiUF TOWNS, AND £i>iFiC£s.] Bern, pleasantly situated on a 446 SWITZERLAND. declivity near the Aar, is a neat and handsome city, the streets wide and long, and the three principal ones having piazzas or arcades oo both sides. It is fortified on the western side with a wall, fosse, and bastions. The cathedral, founded in 1421, is a stately Gothic edifice and the other churches do not disgrace the general beauty of the town The college was re-organised in 1 805, and now consists of an eleraentan schoolj a classical school, and an academical institution, to which beloDi; professors of philology, mathematics, divinity, law, and medicine. The town is not enlivened with the bustle of trade, or dignified by parade or splendor of living, though many of the citizens arc rich. A more populous town than Bern is Basil or Basle, which also has i much greater share of trade, as all merchandise from Germany, Hullud and other parts of the continent, must pass through it. It is famous f«t the manufacture of libands ; other silken articles are also neatly fabri- cated by the inhabitants, who are likewise employed in the cotton and linen branches. It is not a fine or handsome town, though its priDcipal church and some other buildings are worthy of notice. The towa-houw, which stands on the Birsec, is supported by very large pillars, and iu great hall is finely painted by Hans Holbein, who was a native of this city. The situation of Basle is pleasing ; the Rhine divides it into tha upper and lower towns ; and it is considered as one of the keysof Switier- land. It has a population of 15,500. Zurich is also a manufacturing and commercial town, and a depol for articles from Italy and the Netherlands. It is not in general well- built ; but it has many edifices of rich and respectable appearance, and a catliedral with two square towers, surmounted by octagonal spires. In this church may be seen the monument of Lavater, the celebrated physiognomist, who was killed u))on the bridge in the town, in an in- surrection of the people, by a French soldier. The Wasser-kirch, or Water-Church, is converted into a public library, in which, among many valuable manuscripts, are some letters, written in a style of pure Latinity, by lady Jane Grey, the unfortunate and innocent usurper, to BuUinger, the reformer. Several literary and scientific societies are established in this town ; and among its inhabitants are some men of learning and research, aiid many who unite polished manners with strict integrity ; yet they are not, in general, so social or well-bred as the people of many other towns, and their custom of separating the sexes, in their conversational meetings, cannot be approved by the admirers of the fair. Lucern is the capital of that state which was regarded as the head of the catholic cantons. It borders upon the northern extremity of » lake which abounds in picturesque scenery : the Reuss flows in a brttd and rapid current through the town, where it is crossed by two bridges, which, with the lofty mountain of Pilate in the distance, with woods, meadows, and pastures on one side, and some fine buildings on the other, form an agreeable assemblage of objects of considerable diversity and interest. As the Reuss flows into the Rhine, the inhabitants trade with Germany; and, as the town is on the road to Mount St. Gothard, they havt: also a great intercourse with Italy. .joleurc, which is also the capital of a catiiolic canton, is more re- markable for its antiquity than for tlie general !-cauty and elegance of its buildings : yet it has a fine church and cr ! -e, formerly belonging to the Jesuits, a very large monastery of the Cordeliers, and a hand- some town-house. It occupies a hill, sloping toward the Aar; audits fortifications give it a respectable appearance. SWITZERLAND. 447 Geueva is far more populous than any of the capitals of the old can- tooi; for it contains about 25,000 inhabitants. It is situated at the southwestern extremity of the Leman Lake. " Two rapid streams (says a modern tourist) issue from this point of the lake, and, leaving a small iilaDd between, unite into one precipitous current called the Rhone, after they have passed through the town, which is built on both sides, but with its principal portion toward the south. There is a large street which is distinguished by the singular construction of arcades raised as high as the tops of the houses, and dissimilar from the rows at Chester, having; the whole space perfectly open from the bottom to the top." The houses in general are built of free-stone, with limestone basements ; and most of the streets are wide and well-paved. The public siruc- torei are large and commodious rather than magnificent. The university it well frequented, and the professors are usually selected for merit, not promoted by interest and cabal. The public library is rendered more uieful than most institutions of that kind, by the permission of borrowing bool»— a more encouraging practice than that of obliging the votaries of literature to study within the walls of the building. Among the manu* factures of Geneva, those of clocks and watches are particularly cele- brated; but an Englishman may affirm, without that excess of national vanity which would deviate from truth, that his countrymen are still more expert in the fabrication of those useful and ornamental articles. MANiTFACTuiies, COMMERCE.] Linen, dimity, lace, : stockings, glorei, handkerchiefs, ribands, silk, woollen cloth, and printed cotton, are common in Switzerland; and the inhabitants, notwithstanding their sumptuary laws, fabricate silk and velvet. They export horned cattle, horses, sheep, cheese, butter, leather, linen, lace, wrought cotton and silk, and watches. They import corn, flax, silk, cotton, spices and salt, beside ail sorts of manufactured goods. Constitution and government.] The old constitution and government of Switzerland were very complicated, as the cantons, though belonging to the same body, were partly aristocratic, and partly demo- cratic. Every canton was absolute in its own jurisdiction ; but those of Bern, Zurich, and Lucern, with other dependencies, were aristocratic, with a certain mixture of democracy, Bern excepted. Those of Uri, Schweitz, Unlerwalden, Zug, Glarus, and Appenzel, were democratic. Basle, though it had the appearance of an aristocraey, rather inclined to a democracy. But even these aristocracies and democracies differed in their particular modes of government. However, in all of them the real interests of the people appear to have been much attended to ; and they enjoyed a degree of happiness not to be expected in despotic govern- ments. Each canton prudently reconciled itself to the errors of its neighbour, and cemented, on the basis of affection, a system of mutual defence. The confederacy, considered as a republic, comprehended three divi- sions. The first were the Swiss, properly so called ; the second the Grisons, or the states confederated with the Swiss for their common protection ; the third consisted of praefectures, each of which, though subject to the other two, by purchase or otherwise, preserved its par- ticular magistrates. Every canton formed within itself a little re- public ; but, when any controversy arose that might affect the whole confederacy, it was referred to the general diet, which sat at Baden, where, each canton having a vote, every question was decided by the majority. This assembly consisted of two deputies from each cauton, beside oue from the abbot of St. Gall, aod the cities of St. Gall aad 44t SWITZERLAND. Bienne. It Wft8 observed by Mr. Coxe, before the Frencli revoliitinn broke out, that there was no country in which hapyiinoss and content more generally prevailed among the ppoj>le; for, wliether the govern. meat was aristocratic, democratic, or mixed, a si)iiit of liberty pervadfj and actuated the several constitutions ; so that even the oligarchic states (which, of all others, are usually the most tyrannical) were here peru. liarly mild ; and the property of the subject was securely guarded against every kind of violation. A harmony was maintained by the concurrence of their mutual felicity ; and their sumptuary laws, and equal division of their fortunes among their children, seemed to ensure its continuance. There was no part of Europe which contained, within the same extent of region, so many independent commonwealths, and such a variety of go- vernments, as were collected in this remarkable country ; and yet, with such wisdom was the Helvetic union composed, and so little were the Swiss actuated by the spirit of conquest, that, since the complete esta- blishment of their general confederacy, and till the unprovoked invasion of their country by the French, they scarcely ever had occasion to em- ploy their arms against a foreign enemy, and had no commotions among themselves, except such as were soon happily terminated. In the year 1798, Switzerland, obliged to yield to the intrigues and arms of France, abolished the old constitution, and framed another on the French model ; by which the whole country was declared a republic one and indivisible, and the government vested in two councils and a directory. But, in 1802, this constitution was likewise abolished by the authority of the first consul of France, and another presented for acceptance, which the majority of the Swiss rejected, as still more re- pugnant to their political principles and habits than the former. Their opposition was so determined that they had recourse to arms; and the first consul thought proper to withdraw his constitution, and oftVr them a new one, which they consented to accept. By this, as under die ori- ginal constitution of Switzerland, each canton had its distinct internal government, which, in seven of them, (Schweiiz, Appeiizel, Glarug, Unterwalden, Uri, Zug, and the Grisons,) was of the democratic kind, all the male inhabitants above twenty years of age having voices in the landesffenieine, or assembly, in which all laws and regulations proposed by the magistrates and public officers were discussed. The govern- ments of seven others, Bern, Zurich, Soleure, Freyburg, Lucern, Basle, and Schafl'hausen, were of the aristocratic form, being administered by a great and little council, the composition and privileges of which va- ried in the different states. The five new cantons which were then or- ganised by the French were likewise aristocratic, and governed by two councils. The general government of the country was administered by a diet, to which each canton sent a member, and which assembled an- nually at Freyburg and other principal towns in rotation. The |>resident of the diet acted as the chief magistrivie, and was styled landamman of Switzerland. The diet decided on war and pence, and concluded trea- ties of alliance and commerce ; but, on these subjects, it was necessary that three-fourths of the cantons should concur. Considerable alterations liave been made in this code since the French influence has been anni- hilated in Switzerland ; and the difi'erent governments have been nearly restored to their former state. Revenue.] The revenue of Switzerland, before that country vas oppressed and plundered by the French, was estimated at 1,050,0001. sterling, and it does not appear to be much higher at present. It is de- rived from the profits of the demesne land, a tenth of the produce of all SWITZERLAND. 449 the lands of the country, customs and duties on merchandise, the reve- nues arising from the sale of salt, and some occasional taxes. Beside this general revenue, a fund is raised by every corporation for the relief of the poor. MiLiTAiiY FORCE.] The internal strength of the Swiss cantons, bo- side the militia, lately consisted of 13,400 men, raised according to the population and abilities of each. It was required, that every burgher, peasant, and subject, should exercise himself in the use of arms, appear on the stated days for shooting at the mark, furnish himself with proper clothing, accoutrements, powder and ball, and be always ready for the defence of liis country. The Swiss engaged in the service of foreign princes and states, cither merely as guards, or as marching regiments : in the latter case the government permitted the enlistment of volunteers, though only for allied states, or those with which they had entered into a previous agreement on that article. No subject, however, was to be forced into foreign service, or even to be enlisted without the concurrence of the magistracy. Religion.] Though all the Swiss cantons form one political republic, they are not united in religion. The inhabitants of the cantons of Lu- cern, Uri, Schweitz, Unterwalden, Zug, Freyburg, and Soleure, are catholics; those of Bern, Zurich, Basle, and Schaffhausen, Calvinists; and those of Appenzel and Glanis, of both religions. With regard to the new cantons, we may observe, that the Leman or Pays-de-Vaud, and the Tessin, are catholics; while the Grisoi.s, Argau, St. Gall, and Thurgau, are of both religions. The catholics are under the jurisdic- tion, in ecclesiastical matters, of the bishops of Basle, Lausanne, Sion, and Coire, and the abbots of St. Gall and Einsiedlen. The Valais, though formerly the scene of cruel persecution on account of its aifection to protestantism, is catholic. The people of Neufchatel are chiefly Calvinists ; but all sects-of religion are tolerated ; and the new canton of Geneva is likewise a Calvinistic establishment. These differences in re- ligion formerly created many public commotions, which seem now to have subsided. Ulric Zwingli, or Zuingliiis, born at Wildhausen, was the apostle of protestantism in Switzerland. He was a moderate reformer, and difi'ered from Luther and Calvin only in a few speculative points ; so that Calvin- ism may be said to be the religion of the protestant Swiss. But this must be understood chiefly with respect to the mode of church-govern- ment ; for, in some doctrinal points, they are far from beivig universally Calvinistic. There is, however, too much religious bigotry prevalent among them : and, though they are ardently attached to the interests of civil liberty, their sentiments on the subject of religious toleration are, in general, much less liberal. LiTEnATUiiE.] Schudi is mentioned by M. Simond as the earliest and best historian of Switzerland; he died in 1572. Calvin, Avhose name is so well known in all protestant countries, instituted laws for the city of Geneva, which are deemed wise and judicious by the learned na- tives. The ingenious and eloquent Rousseau, whose works have been received with so much ai)probation, was a citizen of Geneva. Rousseaa gave a force to the French language, which it was thought incapable of receiving. In England he is generally known as a prose-writer only ; but the French admire him as a poet. His opera of the Devin de VUlagCy in particular, is much esteemed. M. Bonnet, and Mess, de Sanssure and' de Luc, also deserve to be mentioned with applause. Haller,. a native of Bern, deserves the highest eulogy as a poet, physiologist, and philoso-- 3 1 450 SWITZERLAND. pher. Genncr, the ingeniouB author of the celebrated romance of tin Death of Abel, was also a native of Switzerland. Univuusities and Scju)ols.] The university of Basle, founded in 14/)9, has a very curious botanic garden, which contains the clioicMi exotics; and adjoining to the library, which possesses some valuable mt. nnscripts, is a uiuscuni well furnished with natural and artillciui curiosj. ties, and with a great number of medals and paintings. In the cabium of Erasmus and Anierbach, which also belong to this university, there are no less than twenty original pieces of Holbein. Tiie other univerti. ties, which indeed are commonly only styled colleges or academiei, an those of Bern, LauE,vas attacked and taken by the French, and 13,000 men marched to Soleure, which capitulated to general Schauen- bourg on the first requisition. Freyburg was immediately after reduced by Brune, and the Swiss troops were constrained to retreat. The French now advanced toward Bern, where all was confusion, both in the city and in the army, the left division of which had mutinied, and put to death some of the officers. The Swiss army was reduced by desertion to 14,000 men, exclusive of a rabble of undisciplined peasants, raised by the landsturm, or levy of the country en masse. About 8,000 of the regular forces were '♦ationed at Newenech, aud 6,400 held the position of Frauenbrun, against which Schauenbourg advt need with 18,000 men. Both posts were now attacked by the Fn nch. Tiie defenders of Newenech repelled the enemy ; but those at the other post, after a vigorous resistance, were compelled to retreat. M. d'Erlach rallied his men at Utercn, where a second engagement took place, but with no better success on the part of the Swiss. They afterwards, how- ever, made a stand at Grauholtz, but were thence driven to the gates of Bern, where, after another severe battle, they were entirely defeated; and general Brune entered the city by capitulation. The other divisions of the Swiss army retreated ; and the soldiers of one column, in a fit of rage and despair, murdered their officers, and, among others, their unfortunate general d'Erlach. The defeat of the Bernese produced the submission of several cantons; but the democratic republics still made a stand, defeated Schauenbourg, and forced him to retire ^ith the loss of 3,000 men, after he had consented to a treaty by which he engaged not to enter the smaller cantons. After this revolution the Swiss confederacy changed its constitution, and even its name. Provincial governments, under the direction of the French generals, were established in the different districts, and the whole assumed the name of the Helvetic Republic. Contributions and requi- sitions were levied, as usual, by the French commissioners, and the most shocking enormities perpetrated. During the campaign of 1799, the northern part of Switzerland became the seat of war between the Am- *.rtMt I. „ fllftifc, ■ ^^^ ■t.-A^ ,..» . 1 t ^ tmtmmm ,mm i.,i mmm9\'*9m Mi*i'-mi*iK»«M>«MMM«b«fw^w'^*«» Kam rrom 2 Cicfimlcli ll.A.d hililUhnl .lAji. ;«;,».,- h J .U,i„ Hi.lll .<■ the .•l/l,-i- /i>;;i,-f.ix ^TS 1- 1 ESS copending armH When the cou Lar,andespecia zerland became { but this form no he had become* Swiss, which W£ people in genera patucularly Alo 1 his country aga some advantage stinate conflict i j and forced the i These abject cr( diately, in ansv them that his time, that depu meet at Pans t objectionable t farther resistai met at Paris ii Reding was a; tranquillity w£ In the subsc were not rcqui sionallytook ( army, and tained the fortune, the from the cong cm mi "l Length Breadth CoDtaiaii Name.] ancients bj was, about the Citerio and the U beyortd th; received it p" SPAIN. 453 triaai And the French ; and the cantons of Scha£[hau8en and Zurich, and especillly the latter, suffered the severest distress from the ravages of the ' contending armies. Wlien the country, however, was no longer exposed to the horrors of var and especially after the conclusion of the peace of Luneville, Swit- zerland became gradually more reconciled to its new form of government; but this form not perfectly according with the views of Bonaparte, when ho had become dictator in France, he proposed a new constitution to the Swiss, which was accepted by the senate, but gave such offence to the people in general, that they took the field, in 1802, under several leaders, particularly Aloys Reding, who had distinguished himself in defending his country against the first invasion of the French. Tliey obtained some advantages over the French and their associates, and, after an ob- stinate conflict under the walls of Bern, obliged that city to capitulate, and forced the members of the new government to retire to Lausanne. Tiiese abject creatures of France applied to the first consul, who imme- diately, in answer, signified his resolution of acting as mediator, assuring them that his mediation should be efficacious ; requiring, at the same time, that deputies from the senate, and from each of the cantons, should meet at Paris to assist in forming a government which might appear less objectionable to the people. The Swiss, fearing the consequences of farther resistance, reluctantly acquiesced in the proposal : the deputies met at Paris in 1802; the new constitution was framed and accepted; Reding was appointed landamman of Switzerland ; and on these terms tranquillity »vas restored to the country. In the subsequent wars between France and other powers, the cantons were not required to take an open part as principals : but Napoleon occa- sionally took the liberty of incorporating some Swiss regiments* with liis army, and employed them both in Spain and Russia, where they main- tained the military reputation of their country. In the decline of his fortune, the republic co-operated with his adversaries, and received, from the congress of Vienna, some insignificant territorial accessions. '^■ SPAIN. EXTENT AND SITUATION. '-3 ' "'i ^ Miles. Degrees. Length fiOO^ . ( 9, 17 West, and 3, 10 Breadth 500 j ^^^^ '^^^ l 36 and 43, 40 North latitude East longitude. Cootaining 147,335 square miles, with more than 77 inhabitants j • to each. « ■s^ Name.] SPAIN formerly included Portugal, and was known to the ancients by the name of Iberia, and Hesperia, as well as Hispania. It was, about the time of the Punic wars, divided into Citerior and Ulterior: the Citerior contained the provinces lying north of the riverlbcnis, or Ebro; and the Ulterior, which was the largest part, comprehended all that lay beyond that river. The name of Hispania, from which this country has received its different denomiQatioi)s in the modern languages, has b^en 454 SPAIN. supposed to be derived from Ilispan, one of its ancient kings, or from the town of Hispalis, the modern Seville; but this conjecture ig equally unsupported with that which derives the name o'* Britain from Brutug the Trojan. BouNDARiKS.] Spain is bounded on the west by Portugal and tbe Atlantic ocean ; by the Mediterranean on the east ; by the Bay of Biscay, and they Pyrencan mountains, wliich separate it from France, on the nortlt; and the strait of Gibraltar on the south. Divisions.] Spain is divided into fourteen provinces (which were formerly separate kingdoms), beside islands in the Mediterranean. These provinces are, New and Old Castile, Gallicia, the Austuriaj Leon, Biscay, Navarre, Catalonia, Arragon, Valencia, Murcia, Granada Andalusia, and Estremadura. Of these, Andalusia is the most populous and Murcia and Navarre have the smallest number of inhabitants. Face of the country.] Spain in general presents abundant pas. tures, vineyards, groves of orange-trees, and hills covered with aro- matic plants. In some parts are extensive plains, almost destitute of trees and verdure, hounded by ridges of lofty mountains, the sum* mits of which are covered with snow during a considerable purtiou of the year. Mountains.] Beside the Pyrenees, there are various chains of mountains in this country. The highest part of that remarkable boundary is Mont-Perdu, which rises to the height of 10,578 feet above the level of the sea. From the Pyrenees, a chain runs from east to west, nearly parallel with the northern coast, and terminates at the Gallician frontier. Another chain runs from north to south, begin- ning near the source of the Ebro, and crossing the country into the province of Murcia ; but there are few of its peaks which soar to an elevation even of 3,800 feet. A higher range branches from the latter, near the centre of the kingdom, and proceeds to the Portu- guese frontier. To the southward of this, a comparatively low chain also passes into Portugal. More southerly is the well-known Siern Morena. The highest chain is that which separates Murcia and Gra- nada from Andalusia; and the peaks of Mulhacen and Veleta, included in this range, exceed the hoisrht of Mont-Perdu. A hill remains to be mentioned, with which no Englishman ought to be unacquainted. We here allude to Mount Calpe, now called the Hill of Gibraltar, and in for- mer times one of the Pillars of Hercules ; the other. Mount Abyla, is opposite to it in Africa. We ought to add, that many of the mountains are in a great measure composed of fine marble. Among the mountains of Spain, Montserrat particularly deserves attention, being one of the most remarkable in the world, for situation, shape, and composition. It stands in a vast plain, about thirty miles from Barcelona. It is called Monte Serrado, or the sawed mountain, and is so named from its extraordinary form ; for it is broken and divided, and crowned with a great number of cones, or pine-heads, so that it has the appearance, when seen at a distance, of the work of man ; but, upon a nearer approach, is seen to be evidently the production of nature. It is a spot so admirably adapted for retirement and contemplation, that it has, for many ages, been inhabited only by monks and hermits, whose first vow is, never to forsake it. When the mountain is first perceived at a distance, it has the appearance of an infinite number of rocks cut into conical forms, and built one i.pon another to a ]u'odigious height, and seems like a pile of grotto vork, or Gothic spires, On a nearer view, each cone appears of itself a mountain, aiid thQ whole cow* SPAIN. 455 poKi an enormous mass, about 14 miles in circumference. The Spa- oJa^g, with their usual exaggeration, compute it to be two leagues in height; but it is not more than 3,300 feet above the level of the tea. As it is like no other mountain, so it stands unconnected with any, though not far distant from some that are very lofty. A convent is erected on the mountain, dedicated to our Lady of Montserrat, to which natholic pilgrims resort from various parts of Europe. All the poor who come here are fed gratis for three days, and all the sick received into the hospital. On different parts of the mountain are a number of hermiti^es, all of which have their little chapels. The inhabitant of a particular hermitage, supposed to be more dignified than the rest, has the privilege of giving an annual entertainment on a certain day, on which day all the other hermits are invited, when they receive the sacra- ment from the hands of the mountain vicar, and, after divine service, dine together ; but, at other times, they live in a very solitary manner, per- fonn various penances, and adhere to rigid rules of abstinence. They never eat flesh ; nor are they allowed to keep within their walls a dog, a cat, a bird, or any living thing, lest their attention should be with- drawn from heavenly to earthly atiections. They have regular degrees of accommodation : the first place which a new hermit occupies, is the most remote from the monastery ; and they descend as vacancies occur in the low^r cells. The habitation of the first hermit is built upon various patches of level ground, on precipitous summits; and the second has his cell and its rude appendages on a rocky point, over a preci- pice that descends almost to the very bed of the Llobregat. On a rock which hangs over this cell was formerly a fort, the harbour of banditti, who frequently compelled the hermits to supply them with the necessaries of life, but who were at length dislodged by force. Filabres is another remarkable detached mountain, distant about three leagues from Almeria, in the province of Granada. It consists entirely ofa single stone, or solid block, of white marble, a league in circuit, and near 700 yards in perpendicular height. Forests.] Spain contains many forests. The mountainous districts of Catalonia are covered with the beech, the pine, the oak, and the cork- tree ; and new plantations are thriving. Though the forests of Biscay have been thinned, extensive woods are still found in that province ; and, in some parts of the Valencian territory, there are tine forests of palm- trees. Rivers, lakes.] The principal rivers of Spain are the Douro, for- merly Durius, which falls into the Atlantic, below Oporto in Portugal ; the Tajo or Tagus, which enters the same ocean below Lisbon ; the Guadiana, which joins the sea near Cape Finisterre, as does the Gua- dalquivir at St. Lucar ; the Ebro, the ancient Iberus, which flows into the Mediterranean to the southward of Tortosa ; and the Minho, which divides the northern division of Portugal from Gallicia. The river Tinto, the qualities of which are very extraordinary, rises in the Sierra Morena, and empties itself into the Mediterranean near Huelva. The name of Tinto has been given to it from the tinge of its waters, which are as yellow as a topaz, hardening the sand, and fetrifying it in a most surprising manner. If a stone should happen to fall in, and rest upon another, they both become, in a year's time, per- fectly united and conglutinated. This river withers all the plants on its banks, as well as the roots of trees, which it dyes of the same hue as its waters. No kind of verdure will grow where it reaches, nor any fish live ill its Stream. It kills worms iu cattlo wbea given theui to drink ; but io 1 456 SPAIN. general no animals v. "11 drink out of tliis river, except goats, ^ho«e fle»h nevertheless has an excellent flavor. These singular properties continue till other rivulets run into it and alter its nature. Several lakes in Spain abound with fish, especially excellent trout • and the water of a lake near Antequera is made into salt by the heat of the sun. The medicinal waters of Spain are little known: but many salutiferoiis springs are found in the provinces of Granada and Andalusia. Through. out Spain the waters are found to have such healing qualities, that they are excelled by those of no country in Europe. Canals.] The emperor Charles V. commenced the canal of Arra- gon ; but the work was soon discontinued, and not resumed before the year 1770: it was then prosecuted with an appearance of spirit, and was found to be very beneficial. Other canals were lately in progress; but they are obstructed by indolence and the want of capital. Metals and minehals.] Spain abounds in both, and in as great variety, and of the same kinds, as in other countries of Europe. Cor> nelian, agates, loadstones, hyacinths, turquois-stones, copper, sulphur, alum, calamine, crystal, marble, porphyry, the finest jasper, and even diamonds, emeralds, and amethysts, are found here. At Alinaden in La Mancha is a mine of quicksilver, th? most ancient known in the world. Near Cardona in Catalonia is a mountain of fossil salt, a leagnc in circuit, nearly 500 feet high, and extending downward to an unknown depth. The Spanish iron, next to that of Damascus, furnishes the best arms in the world, and, in former times, brought in a great revenue to the crown ; and Spanish gun-barrels, and the swords of Toledo, are still highly valued. Among the ancients, Spain was celebrated for gold and silver mines : and silver was in such |)lenty , that , when the Carthaginians took possession of >S])ain, their domestic and agricultural utensils were of that metal. Most of these mines have now disappeared ; but whether by their being exhausted, or through the indolence of the inhabitants in not work- ing them, we cannot say ; though the latter cause seems to be more probable. Mines of lead and tin are found in various parts ; and coal would appear in great abundance, if proper search should be made for it. Climate, soil, troduce.] Except during the equinoctial rains, the air of Spain is dry and serene, but excessively hot in the southern provinces in June, July, and August. The vast mountains that run through the country, are, however, very bcnelicial to the inhabitants, by the refreshing breezes that come from them in the southernmost parts; though those toward the north and north-east are in the winter very cold. Such is the moisture of the hills, bounded on the north by the Bay of Biscay, and to the south by the snowy mountains, that the utmost care is not sufficient to preserve the fruit, the grain, or the instru- ments of iron, from mould, rot, and rust. Both the acetous and the putrid fermentation here make a rapid progress. Beside the relaxing humidity of the climate, the ordinary food contributes much to the prevalence of most of the diseases which infect the principality of the Asturias. Yet, although subject to such a variety of endemical mala- dies, few countries can produce more instances of longevity ; many live to the age of a hundred, some to a hundred and ten, and others much longer. In Gallicia, the curate. of San-Juan de Poyo, in 1724, administered the sacrament to thirteen persons, whose ages together made one thousand four lumdred and ninety-nine, the youngest of SPAIN. 457 these being one hundred and ten, and the oldest one hundred and twenty- seven; and in Villa de Fofinanes, one Juan de Outeyro, a poor laborer, died in 1726, aged more than one hundred and forty-six years. The soil of Spain was formerly very fruitful in corn ; and, in many parts, that product is still abundant. Andalusia is the granary of Spain, and Leon and Old Castilo are almost equally productive. Delicious fruits, particularly grapes, oranges, lemons, citrons, almonds, figs, and mulberries, grow luxuriantly. The wines of Spain, especially sack and sherry, are in high request among foreigners. There are, in the district of Malaga, some thousands of wine-presses employed in making the rich wine which, if white, from the nature of the country, is called Mountain ; if red, from the color, vino Unto, known in England by the name of Tent. Spain indeed exhibits large tracts of unpromising, because unculti- vated, ground; but no country perliaps maintains such a number of inhabitants who do so little work for their food ; such are the generous qualities of the soil. Even sugar-canes thrive in Spain ; and it yields honey, rice, tobacco, saffron, barilla, madder, flax, hemp, and silk. The sheep-walks afford the finest wool, and are a treasure in themselves. Some of the mountains are clothed with rich trees, fruit, and herbage to the tops ; and a great variety of aromatic herbs arc produced, which render the taste of the kids and sheep exquisitely delicious. Animals.] The Spanish horses, especially those of Andalusia, are thought to be the handsomest of any in Europe, and at the same timo are very swift and serviceable. The king endeavours to monopolise the finest breeds for his own stables and service. Spain furnishes likewise mules and black cattle ; and the wild bulls are remarkable for their fero- city. Wolves are the chief beasts of prey in Spain, which is well stored with all the game and wild-fowl that are to be found in the neighbouring countries. The Spanish seas afford excellent fish of all kinds, particu- larly anchovies, which are here cured in great perfection. This country is much infested with locusts, which have sometimes appeared in the air in such numbers as to darken the sky ; the clear atmosphere of Spain has become gloomy, and the finest summer-day in Estremadura has been rendered more dismal than the winter of Holland. Their sense of smell- ing is so delicate, that they can discover a corn-field or a garden at a con- siderable distance ; which they will ravage almost in an instant. Many persons are of opinion, that the peasants, by timely attention and obser- vation, might destroy the eggs of these formidable insects, and thereby totally extirpate them. Natural curiosities.] Among the natural curiosities, the me- dicinal springs, and some lakes in which extraordinary noises are heard, form a principal part. The river Guadiana, like the Mole in England, runs under ground, and then rises again. It disappears near Alcazar de San-Juan, in the country of La Mancha, and, running under ground nearly eight leagues, emerges at some lakes called the Eyes of the Guadiana. In the royal cabinet of natural history at Madrid, many curiosities are contained. Every thing in this collection is ranged with neatness and elegance, and the apartments are opened twice a week for the public, beside being shown privately to strangers of rank. The mineral part of the- cabinet, containing precious stones, marbles, ores, &c. is very per- fect : but the zoological collection at present is not large. Here is also a curious collection of vases, basins, ewers, cups, plates, and ornamental pieces, of the finest agates, amethysts, rock crystals, &c. mounted in 4.58 SPAIN. gold and enamel, set with cameos, intaglios, &c. in elegant taste, and of very fine workmanship, said to have been brought from France by Philip V. The cabinet also contains specimens of Mexican and Pent. vian vases and utensils. In blowing up the rock of Gibraltar, many pieces of bones and teeth have been found incorporated with the stone, some of which have been brought to England, and deposited in the British Mtiseum. On the western side of the mountain is the cave called St. Michael's, eleven hundred and ten feet above the horizon. Many pillars, of various sizes some of them two feet in diameter, have been formed in it by the drop. pings of water, petrified in falling. The water perpetually dripg from the roof, and forms an infinite number of stalactites, of a whitish hue, composed of several coats or crusts, and which, as well as the pillars, continually increase in bulk. From the summit of the rock, in clear Weather, not only the town of Gibraltar may be seen, but the bay, the strait, the towns of St. Roqne and Algcsiras, and the Aipuxara mnun. tains, mount Abyla on the African shore, with its snowy top ; the cities of Ceuta, Tangier, and a great part of the Earbary coast. Population.] Spain, formerly the most populous kingdom in Eu. rope, is now thinly inhabited. This diminution of number may partly be ascribed to the numerous emigrations to America, and partly to the indolence of the natives, who will not labor with suiHcient diligence to raise food for their families. Another cause used to operate, — namely, the vast number of ecclesiastics of both sexes, who led a life of celibacy ; but that cause is now dying away. Some writers have assigned several other causes, such as the wars with the Moors, and the final expulsion of that people, 'i'he present inhabitants of this kingdom have been computed by some authors at 12 millions, and by others at 11 ; but the number probably amounts to 1 1,500,000. National character, } The persons of the Spaniards aregene- MANNEUS, customs. 3 rally tall, especially the Costilians; their hair and complexions are swarthy, but their countenances are very ex- pressive. Charles III. endeavoured to clear their upper lips of whisk* ers, and to introduce among them the French dress, instead of their black clokes, short jerkins, flapped hats, and long Toledo swords. His zeal on this occasion provoked an insurrection in 1766; yet he re- newed his prohibitory edict, and it was at length honored with ob- servance. The lofty dignity of the Spanish character is more particularly no- ticed in Castile. An old Castilian, who sees none above him, thinks himself the most important being in nature ; and the same pride is usually communicated to his descendants. Ridiculous as this pride is, it is productive of the most exalted qualities. It inspires the nation with generous and virtuous sentiments, it being seldom found that a Spa* nish nobleman, gentleman, or even trader, is guilty of a mean action. During the most embittered wars they have had with England, we know of no instance of their venturing (as they might easily have done) to confiscate the British property in their galleons and plate-fleets, which was equally secure in time of war as iu peace. This is the more sur- prising, as their kings have been often needy, and their counsellors or favorites not very studious of the preservation of good faith with Great- Britain. The chief ministers, indeed, have rarely been men of honor and integrity. The kings of Spain, of the house of Bourbon, seldom ventured to employ native Spaniards of great families as their ministers. These were generally Italians, who rose into power by the most iofa* SPAIN. 459 nous arti, and sometiinoa from abject stations. Hence the French kioKi of Spain, for more than a century, were indifferently served in the cabinet. Alberoni, though he had some talents and genius, embroiled hit majBter with all Europe, till he was driven into exile and disgrace ; and Orimaldi hazarded a rebellion in the capital by his oppressive and unpopular measure. Godoy, though not a foreigner, was a man of the lowest extraction, and equally ready to humor the court, or to insult and harass the nation. The Spanish character is thus drawn by Mr. Swinburne. " The Ca- taloiiians oppear to be the most active stirring set of men, the best cal- culated for business, traveling, and manufactures. The Valencians are a more sullen sedate race, bettor adapted to the occupation of bus* bandmen, less eager to change place, and of a much more timid, su- spicious cast of mind than the former. The Andalusians seem to be the greatest talkers and rhodomontaders in Spain. The Castilians hare a manly frankness, and less appearance of cunning and deceit. The New Castilians are, perhaps, the least industrious of the whole nation ; the Old Castilians are laborious, and retain more of the ancient limplicity of manners ; — both are of a firm determined spirit. The Arragonese arc a mixture of the Castilian and Catalonian, rather inclining to the former. The Biscayans arc acute and diligent, fiery and impatient of control, more resembling a olony of republicans than a province of an absolute monarchy ; and the Gallicians are a plodding pains-taking race of mortals, "that roaui over Spain in search of a hardly- earned subsistence." The beauty of the Spanish ladies reigns chiefly in their novels and romances; for, though it must be acknowleged that Spain produces as fine women as any country in the world, beauty is far from forming their general character. " Few (says Mr. Swinburne) are strikingly beautiful; but almost all have sparkling black eyes full of expres- gion." In their persons, they are mostly small and slender ; but they are said to employ great art in supplying the defects of nature. If we tbould hazard a conjecture, we might reasonably suppose that those artifices rather diminish than increase beauty, especially when they have reached the age of twenty-five years. The priiCtice of painting the skin was one of those arts ; but this is now upon the decline. The ladies are fond of society ; and, though they are ill-educated and uninformed, they are not deficient in wit and vivacity. Among the good qualities possessed by the Spaniards, their temperance in eating and drinking is remarkable. Their breakfast is usually choco- late, tea being seldom taken. Their dinner is generally beef, mutton, veal, pork, bacon, greens, &c. all boiled together: but the poor, for want of meat, are frequently obliged to content themselves with bread and vegetables, boiled with oil and vinegar. They live much upon gar- lick, chives, salad, and radishes'; which, according to one of their pro- verbs, are food for a gentleman. The men drink little wine, and the women scarcely any. Old and young men, and even many of the females, are fond of smoking tobacco, in the form of a cigar, — a thin roll of the leaves of the plant. Both sexes usually sleep after dinner, and take the air in the cool of the evening. This is the common practice in warm cowitries, such as Italy, Spain, and Portugal, where, in general, the weather is clear, and the inhabitants are mostly in the habit of lising much earlier than in England. The human body cannot furnish spirits sufficient to resist the cft'ects of the violent heat, through the whole day, without some such refreshmeat ; it is, therefore, the uaiversal practice to 460 SPAIN. go to sleep for some hours after dinner, which is soon finished in thote couutries ; and this time of repose is called the Siesta. Dancing is such a favorite entertainment, that you may see a grandmother, mother, and daughter, all in the same country-dance. Tiie dances of the Spaniard! are lively ; but the fandango is something more ; for it is loose and wanton. Gaming is also a frequent amusement of both sexes. Many of their theatrical exhibitions are insipid and ridiculous bombnst. The prompter's head sometimes appears through a trap-door, above the level of the stage, and he reads the play loud enough to bo heard by the audience. Gallantry is a ruling passion in Spain. Jealousy, since the acc(s< sion of the house of Bourbon, has slept in peace. I'he nightly musical serenades of mistresses by their lovers arc still in use ; but they are not so frequent as they formerly were. The married women continue to havo their cortcjos or gallants, from whom they expect the most polite and ceremonious attention, and who are viewed by the husband with eyes of indifference, rather than with sensations of jealousy or disgust. It is worthy of remark, that not a few of these amorous attendants arc priests ; and, even if we had a higher opinion than that which is generally entertained of the morals of the Spanish clergy, we should not suppose that all the ecclesiastical companions of the ladies are innocent and virtuous. Many of these connexions are doubtless suthcicntly pure and Platonic ; but the practice evidently puts the firmness of virtue to a hazardous test. The fights of the cavaliers, or bull-feasts, formerly made a striking trait in the genius and manners of the Spaniards. On these occa- sions, young gentlemen had opportunities of showing their courage and activity before their mistresses ; and the valor of the cavalier was proclaimed, honored, and rewarded, according to the number and fierce- ness of the bulls he had killed in these encounters. Great paius were used in settling the form and weapons of the combat, so as to give a relief to the gallantry of the cavalier. This diversion is undoubtedly of Moorish original, and was adopted by the Spaniards when upon good terms with that nation, partly through complaisance, and partly through rivalry. It was propibited by Charles IV. ; but it is not yet totally disused. The Gitanos, or the Gypsies of Spain, form a remarkable race, so fa' differing from the rest of the nation as to require distinct and particu* lar notice. They are found in every province of the realm ; but they abound most in the southern and south-eastern parts, which they pre- fer on occount of the superior natural advantages of those provinces. Being disinclined to agricultural pursuits, they are rarely found in vil- lages ; but they abound in the worst quarters of large and populous towns. Their chief sedentary occupation is the manufacture of iron utensils, by which some of them acquire comparative opulence. Some wander through the streets, selling trifling metallic articles, and also act as tinkers. When bull-fights were a common amusement, the matador, or he who killed the animal after the cavaliers had teased and wounded him, was usually a Gypsy. Many persons of this denomina- tion are also theatrical performers; and some of these are private teachers of the fandango. Others are dealers in horses, asses, and mules ; and it may easily be supposed that they practise various tricks and deceptions in this branch of trade. Many, particularly at Cadiz, thrive in the capacity of butchers ; and some act as publicans. Among the women, dancing, vocal and iastruQiental music, and fortune-tell- SPAIN. 461 igtf are the prevailing pursuits. Beside these, who are in a great neiiure settled, some tribes lead erratic lives among the woods and mountains, pilfering or begging. They are hated or despised by the people; even the lowest of the rabble consider them as unworthy of the honor of association. Either in consequence of this supercilious treat- ment, or '^loin native baseness, they are in general deficient in courage. Their cowardice is accompanied with a vindictive spirit, which they lometimea exercise in the most cruel manner, when they think they can escape detection. In their demeanor to persons whom they consider as their superiors, they are abject and servile, and prodigal of fulsome com- pliments ; but, among themselves, they are savage in their behaviour. Their color is a shade darker than that of the swarthy Andalusian : their eyes and hair are black, and their noses are slightly hooked : and, t» in other countries, they have a marked peculiarity of aspect. The men affect gay apparel, and the women are fond of artificial flowers, tintel, and embroidery. Their marriages are attended with indecent cerem '^ies, tnd enlivened by the sounds of the guitar. When a death happenti, L : i datives and friends seat themselves round the body, weep, and recount the adventures of the deceased ; and the females cling to the corpse, until it is carried oiF. Widows are not allowed to marry again. With regard to religion, it is necessary that the Gypsies should profess their adherence to Catholicism, as they would not otlierwise be entitled to the privileges of Spaniards, to which they were admitted by an edict of Charles III., who allowed them to bear the honorable appellation of New-Castilians. Chief towns, edifices.] Madrid, though unfortified, it being only surrounded by a mud wall, is the capital of Spain, and contains about 160,000 inhabitants. It stands on several low hills, in the midst of an extensive plain, bounded, on the side of Old-Castile, by the mountains of Guadarama, whose summits are frequently covered with snow. It is well pared and lighted, and some of the steets are spacious and handsome ; but many are narrow and crooked, like those in the old city of Paris. The principal houses are laid out chieiiy for show, convenience being little considered : thus you will usually pass through two or three large apartments of no use, in order to come nt a small room at the end where the family sit. The houses in general arc lofty, but look more like prisons than the habitations of people at their liberty; the windows (beside having a balcony) being grated with iron bars, particularly the lower range, and sometimes all the rest. Separate families generally inhabit the same house, as in Paris and Edinburgh. Foreigners are very much distressed for lodgings at Madrid, as the Spaniards are not very willing to take strangers into their houses, especially if they are not catholics. A curious account is given by Fischer of the passing scenes at Ma- drid. " Women in black, and veiled; men in long clokes, water-car- riers, fruit-sellers, magnificent equipages, dusty diligences, light ca/e- tas, waggons drawn by mules, a multitude of asses with their pack- Baddies and bells, and herds of goats, with peasants going from door to door to milk them ; farther on, blind musicians singing their tornadillas or popular songs, alguazils crying the orders of police, and a crowd of Gallegos or porters ; processions of chaplets, guards following the drum, confraternities escorting a funeral and singing psalms, the tinkling of bells at the churches ; and, lastly, the solemn procession of the ve»e- rabiU or host, when, the bells of the choral children being heard, every one kneels down, all tongues are silent, and all hats off, all the 462 SPAIN. I carriages slop, and the tumultuous mass seems instantaneoiiRly petriiled' but two minutes have scarcely elapsed, before tlie accustomed clangor is renewed." The royal palace stands on an eminence, on the west side of the city; it is a spacious roagniHceut structure, consisting of three courts, and com- mands a %'ery fine prospect. Each front is 470 feet in length, and 100 high ; and there is no palace in Europe fitted up with greater nia^ai. ficence : tlie great audience -chamber is 120 feet long, hung with crimson velvet richly embroidered witii gold, and ornamented with 12 looking. glii£ses made at St. Ildefonso, each ten feet high, and with 12 tables of the finest Spanish marble. I'he palaces round it are designed for hunting- seat ' . houses of retirement for the king. Some of them contain fine paintings and good statues. The chief of these palaces are the Buea Retiro (now stripped of all its best pictures and furniture), Casa del Campo, Aranjuez, and St. Ildi ^nso. At Aranjuez is a park many leaguei^round, intersected, in different parts, by alleys of two or three miles in extent, each being formed by double rows of elm- trees. The alleys are wide enough to admit four coaches abreast ; and betwixt the rows there is a narrow channel through which runs a stream. Here are also thick groves of smaller trees of ra- rious kinds ; and deer and wild boars wander at large, beside hares, rab- bets, pheasants, and partridges. The Tagus runs through this place, and divides it into two unequal parts. The central point of this great park is the king's palace, which is partly surrounded by the garden, and is ex- ceedingly pleasant, adorned with fountains and statues; and it also contains a vast variety of the most beautiful flowers, both American and European. As to the palace of Aranjuez itself, it is rather an elegant than a magnificent building. The palace of St. Ildefonso is built of brick, plastered and painted ; but no part of the architecture is agreeable. It is two stories high, and the garden front has thirty-one windows, and twelve rooms in a suite. The gardens are on a slope, on the top of which is a great reservoir, which supplies the fountains : this is furnished from the torrents which pour down the mountains. The water-works are excellent, and far surpass those at Versailles. The great entry of the palace is similar to that of Versailles. In the gardens are twenty-seven fountains ; the basins are of white marble, and the statues, many of which arc excellent, are of lead bronzed and gilt. These gardens are in the formal French style, but are ornamented with sixty-one very fine marble statues, as large as the life, with twenty-eiglit marble vases, and twenty leaden vases gilt. The upper part of the palace contains very valuable paintings, and the lower part displays antique statues, busts, and basso-relievos. The pride of Spain, however, is the Escurial; and the natives say, perhaps with justice, that the building of it cost more than that of any other palace in Europe. The description of this palace forms a con* siderable volume; and it is said that Philip II., who was its founder, expended upon it six millions of ducats. It is situated cibout twenty miles from Madrid, in a deep recess at the foot of the Gundarama mountains. It contains an extraordinary number of windows, 200 in the west front, and in the east 366 ; and the apartments are decorated with an astonishing variety of paintings, sculpture, tapestry, ornaments of gold and silver, marble, jasper, gems, and otiier curious stones. This building, beside its palace, contains a church, large and richly or- namented ; a mausoleum, <*'.oi.ster8, a convent, and a college. It has also a library, in which are about 30,000 volumes: but this is mote SPAIN. 463 particularly valuable for the Arabic and Greek manuscripts with which it is enriched. Above the shelves are paintings in fresco, by Carducho, the subjects of which are taken from sacred and profane history, or refer to the sciences of which the shelves below present to us the elements. Thus, the council of Nice is represented above the books which treat of theology ; the death of Archimedes, at the siege of Syracuse, indi- cates those which relate to the mathematics ; and Cicero pronouncing his oration in favor of Rabirius, the works relative to eloquence and the bar. A singular circumstance in this library is, that, on viewing the books, they are found to be placed the contrary way, so that the of tlie leaves are outward, and contain their titles written on them. The reason for this custom is, that Arias Montanus, a learned Spaniard of the sixteenth century, whose library had served as a foun- dation for that of the Escurial, had all his books placed and inscribed in that manner, which without doubt appeared to him to be the most commodious method of arranging them. \le introduced his own method into the Escurial ; and since his time, and for the sake of uui- fonnity, it has been followed with respect to the books which have been added. Here are also large apartments for all kinds of artists and mecha- nics ; noble walks, with extensive parks and gardens, beautified with fountains and costly ornaments. The nausoleum, or burying-place of the kings and queens of Spain, iscallec Pantheon, because it is built upon the plan of that temple at Rome, as the church to which it belongs is upon the model of St. Peter's. It is thirty-six feet in diameter, and iocrusted with fine marbles. Allowing to the Spaniards their full estimate of the enormous sums bestowed on this palace, and on its furniture, statues, paintings, columns, rases, and the like decorations, which are amazingly rich and beautiful, yet we hazard nothing in saying, that the fabric itself discovers a bad taste upon the whole. The conceit of building it in the form of a gridiron, because St. Laurence, to whom it was dedicated, was broiled on such an utensil, and of multiplying the same figure through its principal orna- ments upon the doors, windows, altars, rituals, and sacerdotal habits, could have been formed only in the brain of a tasteless bigot, such as Pliilip II. who erected it to commemorate the victory he had obtained over the French (l)ut by the assistance of the English forces) at St. Quintin, on St. Laurence's day, in 1557, The part which is peculiarly assigned to the king forms the handle of the gridiron. The building is a long square of 640 feet by 580. The height of the roof is 60 feet. It was enriched and adorned by some of his successors ; but its outside has a gloopiy appearance, and the inside is composed of different structures, some of which are master-pieces of architecture, forming, however, a disa- greeable whole. We may add that many of the pictures and statues which have found admission here arc excellent, and some of them aro not to be equaled even in Italy itself. Cadiz stands on an island separated from the continent of Andalusia, without the Strait of Gibraltar, by a very narrow arm of the eea, over which a fortified bridge is thrown, joining it to the main land. The bay is two-fold, one branch extending from the city to the village of St. Mary and the salt-works, the other comnienciiig at the forts Matagorda and Puntal, and forming a secure harbour for the whole royal navy. The town is walled, and has bastions on the land-side. Most of the streets are narrow, and, in consequence of the height of the houses and the smallness of the windows, have a gloomy appearance. The square of St. Antony is cousidered as an oruameat to the town, as are aUo the custom- 1 3 464 SPAIl^. house and the great hospital, aud some of the churches ; but Cadiz can* not justly be called a handsome city; and, among other inconveniences which attend it as a place of residence, the streets, in the night, are not only infested with dogs, but with rats. Since tlie separation of the American colonies from the mother-country, the trade by which this city was long enriched, has declined into insignificance. In 1804, the population amounted to 70,000; but the present number, we have reason to believe is much less. Cordova, formerly a Roman town, and subsequently a Moorish capi- tal, exhibits considerable remains of the walls erected by its early pog. sessors, and a splendid edifice built for a mosque by Abdalrahman l,,now used as an episcopal church. This structure is so fantastic and irregular, that it is difficult to describe it. On the eastern side, the whole length is divided by buttresses into thirteen parts ; and seventeen gates lead into the cloister and the church. The former has, on three sides, a por- tico of sixty-two pillars ; and in the middle are fountains and shady groves. The church consists of seventeen ailes, separated from each other by rows of marble columns of different hues and veins, the capitals of which are, in general, inelegant imitations of those of the Corinthian order. In the south-cast angle is an ornamented building, which the Moors regarded as particularly sacred. It has a screen in the front, supported by two ranges of low columns of colored marble, with capitals most minutely carved and gilt. In the centre appears a modern choir, which in another situation would be greatly admired, but which impairs the general effect of the ancient mosque ; and many chapels constructed among the pillars also interrupt the enfilade, and spoil the view. — The town is large ; but the houses in various parts are in a state of dilapida- tion ; and it does not appear that the population exceeds 30,000. Many of the inhabitants manufacture silken and woollen stuffs, and prepare, with habitual skill, the skins of goats and of kids, or cordovans and maroquins, for the use of shoe-makers, to whose chartered company in London the appellation of Cordwainer was given in reference to this branch of trade. Seville, the Julia of the Romans, is, next to Madrid, the largest city in Spain, but is greatly decayed both in riches and population, though it still contains 90,000 inhabitants. Its shape is circular, and the walls seem of Moorish construction ; but they arc of little use in the present state of the art of war, and the new fas-cine batteries are scarcely more serviceable. Some of the gates are magnificent, particularly that of Triana, which leads to the bridge of boats over the Guadalquivir. The suburb which begins at this gate is as large as many towns, and remarkable for its gloomy Gothic castle, where, in 1481, the inquisition was first established in Spain. The cathedral is a fine Gothic building, with a curious steeple or tower, having a brazen figure of Faith at the top, called La Giralda, which, though it weighs two tons and a half, turns with the slightest breeze. This steeple is reckoned one of the greatest curiosities in Spain, and is higher than St. Paul's in London; but the cathedral, in Mr. Swinburne's opinion, is by no means equal to York minster for lightness, elegance, or Gothic delicacy. The first clock made in the kingdom was set up in this church in 1400. There arc two buildini^s at Seville which have the appearance of palaces, rather than of ordinary structures, and yet are appropriated to vulgar purposes. One is the royal snuff-manufactory, erected by Ferdinand VI. ; the other is the Lonja, built in the reign of Philip II. for the use of the merchants. The college which the Jesuits formerly possessed is also an elegant edifice. This city, SPAIN. 465 in the seventeenth century, acquired celebrity as a school of painting: an academy for tliat art was founded under the auspices of Murillo, and some of the finest pieces of that admired artist are exhibited in the churches and conventual chapels. Of the trade of Seville, which was formerly very extensive, there are small remains : yet oil and fruit are exported; and the silken articles manufactured by the inhabitants are preferred in North-America to those which are fabricated in Eng- land. Barcelona is a large circular city, built round the old Roman town, of vhich some traces are yet visible. The sea has so far retired from it, that a whole quarter of the city stands upon the sands which formerly composed the bottom of the harbour. The port is handsome, and tiie mole is a masterpiece of solidity and convenience. The citadel is ap* parently strong, but would not now withstand so long a siege as the town sustained in 1714, when the inhabitants had revolted from the govern- ment. In the old part of the town, the streets are narrov^ and crooked ; but, in the new division, some broad and fine streets uic obsci'vable. On the fronts of many of the houses there are tolerable paintings in fresco. The cathedral is a majestic edifice, and under its sanctuary is a very handsome chapel. The most elegant church in the whole city is that of St, Mary of the Sea, though the ornaments of the high altar are in a bad taste, Among the other public buildings, the hotel of the royal audience, and the exchange, are the most striking. The artisans of this town supply the kingdom with most of the clothing and arms for the troops, and the other manufactures are numerous and considerable. An attention to trade has not narrowed the ideas of the people, who are more intelligent and less unpolished than those of ot! c parts of Spain. They have academies for jurisprudence, medicine, natural philosophy, history, and the fine; arts. The whole population of the city, and of the suburb called Barcelonetta, may be computed at 120,000. Valencia is a large city, with lofty walls. It possesses a line cathedral, some handsome palaces, and a noble exchange ; but the houses areill-built, dirty, and ill-furnished, and many are in a ruinous state. The inhabitants areabout 75,000 in number, and are, in general, well employed in various manufactures ; yet mendicity, which the count O'Reilly banished from many parts of Spain, exists here in a striking degree. Carthagena is a large city, but has few good streets, and fewer re- markable buildings. The port is very complete, formed by nature in the figure of a heart ; and the arsenal is a spacious square, south-west of the town, well defended toward the sea, but not by land. About 30,000 persons occupy this city, which serves as a port for Murcia, the chief town of the province. The latter is situated in a very fertile vale, ana has a stately cathedral, with a handsome bridge over the Segura : its inhabitants are notorious fur indolence, ignorance, bigotry, and insocial manners. Granada is a declining city : yet it has, at present, above 60,000 in- liabitants, and a considerable trade in silk, wine, oil, fruit, hemp, and hx. The Alameda, along the banks of the Xenil, is as pleasant a walk as any in Spain ; but the town is by no means handsome. The cathe- dral is magnificent without elegance ; and the same remark may be ex- tended to the building which is appropriated to the court of chancery. The famed Alhambra will be described among the antiquities. Malaga has a small but commodious harbour; and its trade is brisk and lucrative in wine, fruit, and other products. The city is occupied by 55,000 persons ; and some accounts considerably increase that number, 2H 466 SPAIN. 1 It is surrounded by a double wall, strengthened by stately towers. The old houses, like those of Seville, are built in the Moorish style, about the four sides of a court, in the aiidst of which many have refreshing foun- tains. The streets are narrow, and the churches are in a manner lost among the houses : but the Alameda, or public walk, has magnificent appendages and great attractions. The cathedral is a fine structure: its style is a mixture of the Roman and Gothic modes of building. The interior is finished with exquisite taste; it is an oblong spheroid, with a row of Corinthian pillars, around which is the nave : these pillars sup. port a lofty roof of well-turned arches. The high altar and tlie pulpit are of beautiful flesh-colored marble, and the choir is so elegant, and u finely ornamented, that it is called by Palomino (the biographer of Spi. nish artists) the eighth wonder of the world. Bilbao, on the Ybaizabal, is the chief town of Biscay. !t contains about nine hundred houses, with a large square by t'ue wate'-side, veil shaded with pleasant walks. The houses are sul istantial and lofty, the streets well-paved, and the town is enlivened by co.nmeice. Salamanca is of a circular form, built on three small sand-stone hills and two valleys, in a nook formed by the river Tormes, over which is a stately bridge of twenty-five arches, — twelve of Roman construction, the rest modern. The finest part of this city is the great square, built in modern times. The liouses arc of three stories, with iron balconies, and a stone balustrade on the top of them : the lower part is arched, and forms a piaz/a all round the square, which extends two hundred and ninety-three feet on eacii side. Over some of the arches are medallions, with busts of the kings of Spain, and several eminent men, in stone bas-relief. The cathedral is admired : but it does not exhibit the best style of Gothic architecture. The university is declining ; the town has a dull and gloomy aspect, and the eifccts of the siege in 1 812, when even its monasteries were fortified by the French against the English, are still visible. Toledo is one of the most ancient cities in Spain, and, during se- veral centuries, it held the rank of its metropolis. But the neighbour- hood of Madrid has, by degrees, stripped it of its numerous inhabitants, and it would have been almost entirely deserted but for its cathedral, the income of which, being in great part spent here, contributes chiefly to the maintenance of the few thousands who are left, and assists, in some degree, those small manufactures of sword-blades and silk stuffs which are established in this city. The situation is romantic, resembling that of Durham ; but the town is ill-built, poor, and mean. Burgos was the ancient capital of the Castilian kingdom. The cathe- dral is one of the most magnificent structures of the Gothic kind, now in Europe. Its form is exactly the same as that of York minster, and at the east end is an octagonal building, like the chapter-house at York, The city in general is ill-built: but it has one handsome square, a fine palace, and some beautiful churches and chapels. Badajoz claims our notice, as a place of great antiquity, and of mo- dern fame. It is the capital of Estremadura, and the see of a bishop. It is not large, populous, or commercial ; but it is considered as the keynf Spain on the Portuguese frontier, and its strength was evinced in the n< which commenced in 1808. Compostella, the capital of Gallicia, deserves notice for its ormer ra- ther than its present fame. Pilgrims used to flock to this town from all parts of Spain, and from other countries, to visit the shrine of St. Jatncs, whose remains (the people say) were deposited in the cathedral, and the SPAIN. 467 multiplied offerings were exceedingly valuable; but this superstitious folly has declined in modern times. The city hi. a some stately public edifices; but it is not in general well-built, nor do^s it flourish iu point of population, as it has not, we believe, more than 14,000 inhabitants. — In the same province is Ferrol, a place which, having: a large and excel- ieut harbour, rose, after, the year 1752, from the obscurity of a fishing hamlet to the dignity of a considerable town, and is now the chief naval Btation in Spain. Gibraltar, in Andalusia, has been a dependency of Great-Britain ever since the year 1704, when it was taken by the adventurous courage of a party of sailors. Repeated attempts have since been made tore-take it, hut without success. It is a commodious port, and formed naturally for commanding the passage of the Strait, or, in other words, the entrance into the Mediterranean and Levant seas : but the road is neither safe against an enemy nor storms. The bay is about twenty leagues in cir- cumference. The length of the strait is about 33 miles, and the breadth 14. The fortified rock is regarded as one of the keys of Spain, and is always furnished with a garrison well provided for its defence. Its har- bour is formed by a mole, which is well fortified and planted with guns. The place is accessible on the land-side only by a narrow passage be- tween the rock and the sea ; but that is walled and strengthened both by artand nature, and so enclosed by high steep hills, as to render access exceedingly diiBcult. It has two gates on that side, and as many toward the sea. The town is situated behind the principal bastions, and rises in tiers of mean houses a considerable way up the declivity. About 12,000 persons, of whom 1600 are Jews, compose the population. As the soil produces scarcely any thing, all their provisions are brought to them either from England, or from the opposite coast of Barbary. Formerly Gibraltar was entirely under military government; but, that power producing those abuses which are naturally attendant on it, the parliament thought pro- per to erect the town into a body corporate, and the civil power is now lodged in its magistrates. Commerce and manufactuue.s.] When gold and silver were profusely drawn from the colonial possessions of Spain, those metals were chiefiy consigned to the merchants of other nations, in return for a variety of manufactured goods and other commodities. Seville was the principal seat of this commerce for two centuries ; but, in 1720, it was transferred to Cadiz, which, even after other ports had been opened, enjoyed the greatest part of the trade of Spain. New manufactures were gradually introduced by the natives, and their exports were so far varied, as to render the balance of trade less uufavorable to them. At St. Ildofonso the glass manufacture is carried on with a degree of excellence even superior to that which is displayed in England. The largest mirrors are made in a brass frame, 1 G2 inches long, 93 wide, and six deep, weighing near nine tons. Here is also a manufactory of linen ; but it is not in a flourishing state. In the city of Valencia, a few years ago, five thousand looms, and three hundred f.toc);ing-fram€;s, gave employment to more than 20,000 of the iuiiabitants, without enumerating those who exercise professions relative to the manufacture, such as persons who prepare the wood and iron work ol so great a number of machines, or spin, wind, or dye the silk. The woollen branch is also cultivated in this city with success. At Alcora, in the same neighbourhood, a manufacture ot porcelain has been intro- duced, and the artisans have acquired reputation for their painted tiles. At Valencia, the best apartments are floored with these, which are re- 2 H 2 468 SPAIN. markable for neatness and coolness, and are stronger and more beautiful than those of Holland. At Carthagena they make great quantities of the esparto ropes and cables, some of them spun like hemp, and others plaited. Both opera- tions are performed with surprising rapidity. These cables are excellent because they float on the surface of the water, and are therefore not liable to be cut by the rocks on a foul coast. The esparto makes good mats for houses, and it is also spun into fine thread for the purpose of making cloth, If properly encouraged, there is no doubt that the manufacture maybe brought to such perfection as to make this once useless rush a source of abundant wealth to the southern provinces of Spain ; for it is the peculiar and natural production of all the high and uncultivated mountains of the south. As to the hempen cordage which is made in Spain for the use of the royal navy, Bourgoing observes, that it is better and more durable thaa that of the principal dock-yards and magazines in Europe, because, in combing the hemp, all the towy part we leave in it is taken out, and used in caulking ; whence results the double advantage of more solid cordage, and the better caulking of vessels. Another custom in our rope-yards, which the Spaniards have avoided adopting, is the tarring of the cordage, and keeping it a long time piled up. In this state the tar ferments, and heats the hemp, and the cordage is extremely apt to break even after being very little used. The Spaniards formerly obtained their hemp from the north ; but now the provinces of Granada, Arragon, and Navarre, furnish them with the greatest part of the hemp they use. All the sail-cloth and cordage in the magazines at Cadiz are made with Spanish hemp, the texture of which is even, close, and solid. The most important production of this country, and the most valua- ble article of commerce, is barilla, a species of pot-ash. It is used for making sope, for bleaching, and for glass. All the nations in Europe, by the combustion of various vegetable substances, make some kind of pot- ash ; but the superior excellence of the barilla has hitherto secured the preference. The country that produces it is about sixty leagues in length, and eight in breadth, on the borders of the Mediterranean. Spain is one of the richest countries in Europe in saltpetre ; and the manufacture is curious. " I observed (says Mr. Townsend) a large enclosure, with a number of mounts, about twenty feet high, at regular distances from each other. These were collected from the rubbish of the city of Madrid, and the scrapings of the highways. They had re- mained all the winter piled up in the manner in which I found them. At this time men were employed in wheeling them away, and spreading abroad the earth to the thickness of about one foot, whilst others were turning what had been previously exposed to the influence of the sun and air. In the preceding summer these heaps had been washed ; and, being thus exposed, they would yield the same quantity of salt again, and, as far as appears, the produce would never fail ; but, after having been washed, no saltpetre can be obtained without a subsequent exposure. Some of this earth they can lixiviate once in a year, some they have washed twrrnty times in the last seven years, and some they have sub- jected to this operation fifteen times in one year, judging always by the eye when they may wash it to advantage, and by the taste if it has yielded a lixivium of a proper strength ; from which, by evaporating the water in boiling, they obtain the saltpetre." The other manufactures of Spain are chiefly those of wool, copper, and SPAIN. 469 h»rd-ware ; but the people do not work up the first of these articles with that skill which is displayed by the English. It might be supposed that their jealousy would prohibit the exportation of so useful a commodity: yet, by their kindness or "negligence, other nations are benefited. Even the'finer sorts of wool are most frequently exported. Those sheep which eraze during the summer on the mountains of Leon, and are driven in the autumn, for the advantage of a warmer climate, into Estremadura, where they remain till April, when they are taken into Castile to be shorn, furnish wool which is not only soft and fine, but strong, particularly after it has been washed at Segovia. From Bilbao this article is chiefly exported ; and the other exports from that town are iron and nuts, while its imports are dried fish, fish-oil, hemp, flax, colonial produce, and British manufactured goods. Constitution and government.] Spain, from being the most free, is now the most despotic kingdom in Europe ; and the poverty which is 80 visible in most parts of the country is in a great degree the result of shameful raisgovernment, as a proper degree of attention is not paid to the interest and welfare of the people. The monarchy is hereditary, and females are capable of succession. It has even been questioned, whether his catholic majesty may not bequeath his crown, upon his demise, to any member of the royal family whom he may prefer. It is at least certain, that the house of Bourbon mounted the throne of Spain by virtue of the last will of Charles II. Each of the Spanish kingdoms, or principalities, had formerly its cortes or national council, which shared the chief authority with the sovereign ; but these assemblies gradually gave way to the encroachments of despotism, and were exploded or disused as superfluous encumbrances. Even in Arragon, the justiciary of which realm claimed and asserted, in the name of the people, the right of dethronement, the power of Charles of Austria and his successors subverted all remains of privilege : yet, in Biscay, they suffered the people to enjoy a remnant of freedom under the authority of the provincial states. During the late usurpation nf tlie Spanish throne by Joseph Bonaparte, the cortes met, and acted in many instances with spirit and propriety; but the want of general support compelled the assembly to acquiesce in the revival of royal tyranny. The chief business of the privy council, which is composed of a number of noblemen or grandees, nominated by the king, is to prepare matters, and to digest papers for the cabinet, which consists of the secretary of state, and three or four great officers, named by the king, who have the direction of all the executive part of government. The council of war takes cognisance only of military affairs. That of Castile is the highest law tribunal of the kingdom. The several courts of the royal audiences arethose of Gallicia, Seville, Majorca, the Canaries, Saragossa, Valencia, and Barcelona. These judge primarily in all causes within fifteen miles of their respective cities or capitals, and receive appeals from inferior jurisdictions. Beside these there are many subordinate tribunals, for the police, the finances, and other branches of the administration. The foreign possessions of the crown of Spain are now limited to the towns of Ceuta and Oran on the coast of Barbary, — the Canaries, a groupe of islands to the westward of Africa, — the Philippines, the La- drones, and other clusters of islands in the Indian ocean. Revenue, army, and navy.] In the present debility of Spain, and amidst the dilapidation of its resources under a government which unites imbecility with tyranny, little can be said of the national finances, 470 SPAIN. I except that they are in a state of the greatest disorder. Schemet o( reliet have been proposed, but not adopted ; and the wisdom of the cabinet appears to be unequal to the exigency. Before the year 1808, the royal income, arising from Spain alone, was computed at six millions gterliD|r< and it was supposed that the whole revenue of the Spanish dominioni nominally amounted to fourteen millions ; but this sum was exposed to great defalcations before the rest reached the treasury. At present, the revenue is very inconsiderable, and the army and navy are in a very ineffective state. Royal ahms, titles, kobimty, and orders.] Spain formerly comprehended twelve kingdoms, all of which, with several others, were by name, stated in the royal titles, so that they amounted in all to thirty, This absurd custom is still occasionally continued ; but the kin^^ is now generally contented with the title of His Catholic Majesty, The sovereigns of Spain are inaugurated by the delivery of a sword, without being crowned. Their signature is, I the kino. The king's eldest son is called Prince of Asturias, and his younger childr n are, by way ofdi- Btinction, called infants or infantas. The arms of Spain exhibit a shield, divided into four quarters, con. taining a castle with three towers for Castile, three lions for Leon, and three lilies in reference to the descent of the present family from the French royal line. The general name for those Spanish nobles and gentlemen who are unmixed with the Moorish blood, is Hidalgo. They are divided into princes, dukes, marquises, counts, viscounts, and inferior titles. Such as are created grandees may stand covered before the Mng, and are treattd with princely distinctions, A grandee cannot be apprehended without a royal order ; and cardinals, archbishops, ambassadors, and some other dignified persons, both in church and state, have the privilege, as well as the grandees, to appear covered before the king. The order of St. James of CompostcUa is the richest in Spain. It was divided into two branches, each under a grand master ; but the office of both was given, by pope Alexander VI., to the kings of Spain and Portugal, as grand masters in their respective dominions. Tlie order is highly esteemed in Spain, and only conferred on persons of noble families, The same may be said of the order of Cnlatrava, instituted in II 58 by Sancho king of Castile, after that fortress had been taken from the Moors. The number, influence, and possessions, of the knights of this fraternity, became so considerable as to (sxcite the jealousy of the crown, to which, at length, their revenues, and the office of grand master, were annexed by pope Innocent VIII. The celebrated order of Alcantara derived its origin from that of St. Julian, or of the Pear-tree ; but, after Alcantara was taken from the Moors, and made the chief residence of the knights, they derived their designation from that town, and laid aside the old device. The order of the Lady of Mercy is said to have been insti- tuted by James I., king of Arragon, about the year 1228, on account of a vow made by him to the Virgin Mary, during his captivity in France, and was designed for the redemption of captiv.es from the Moors, in which were expended large sums of money. It was first confined to men: but the increasing influence of the fair sex procured its extension to females, The knights of Montesa arose at Valencia, near the close of the thirteenth century, in the place of the Templars, and enjoyed their possessions, Their chief seat being the town of Montesa, the order thence derived its name, and St, George was selected for their patron. In 1771, Charles III. instituted an order to wliich he gave bis own name, in commemora* SPAIN. 471 tioD of tho birth of a grandson. The badge is a star of eight points, ensDieied wliite, and edged with gold : in the centre of the cross is tlie jpjjge of the Virgin. The motto is, Virtuti et Merito. None but per- toDt of noble descent can belong to this order. Religion.] The Romish religion is the only one tolerated in Spain. The infamous court of inquisition, which was erected for the support of the prevailing faith, is indeed no longer allowed to exercise its murderous rigor* ; but the prelates retain the power of proceeding against heretics. Siiperetition is still the order of the day, and mingles itself with all tho transactions of life ; and the temporary check which it received from the leaders of the late cortes did not prevent the complete revival of its influence on the return of P'erdinand VII. from captivity. As the monas- tic establishment is connected with this corrupt state of religion, it is so far encouraged by that prince, that he has restored many of the convents which were suppressed by Joseph Bonaparte, the usurper of the throne. Archbisiioi'Iiics and Bisiiopkics,] In Spain there are eight archbishoprics, and forty-si.\ bishoprics. Tho archbishop of Toledo is styled the primate of S|>ain ; he is great-chancellor of Castile, and has a princely income ; but the Spanish court has many ways of lessening the refCDues of the churcii, as by pefisions, donations to hospitals, and pre- miums to the societies of tigricuiture. This archbishopric pays annually Ij.OOO ducats to thieces of marble. The grand entrance is ornamented v.ith columns of. jasj)er, on the pedestals of which are representations of battles, in marble basso-relievo. The Moorish palace has no external beauty : it is a mass of liou.ses and tower.^, walled round, and built of stones of different dimensions. The walls are entirely destitute of ornament, and are daubed over with stucco by a very coarse hand : but, within (says Mr. Swinburne), " it is indisputably the most curious place that exists in Spain, perhaps in Europe. Nothing to be met with any where else can convey an idea of this edifice, except you take it from the decora- tions of an opera, or the tales of the Genii." The first court has a fountain ia the middle, aud a peristyle paved with marble, the arches 474 SPAIN. betriitg upon very slight pillars, in proportions and style differing from all the regular orders of architecture. The walls are encruited whii fret-work in stucco, which is regularly repeated at certain digtanccf and, in every division, are Arabic sentences, some of a religious import' others in praise of the founder. The ceiling is gilt or paintKd; and time has not impaired the brilliancy of the colors. Mosaic yi(„\^ appears on the lower part of each wall, disposed in festoons and fan- tastic knots. The next court takes its name from twelve figures of lions which support a marble basin : it is encompassed with a fine colonnade; two porticoes project into the court at the two extremities, the ceilii)« of which are very neatly finished : the capitals of the coliimne are curiously wrought, but have not that uniformity which modern taste would require. A circular hall, not far from this court, is greatly admired for its form, the elegance of its cupola, and tlie exquisite manner in which the stucco is designed, painted, and finished. Opposite to this hall is the entrance into the tower of the two sisters, so named from two beautiful slabs of extraordinary dimensions, wliich form part of the floor. From the queen's dressing-room, which is a small square apartment, finely decorated, in the middle of an open galier)', a long passage leads to the hall of ambassadors, which Mr. Jacob thus describes: " It is a square of fttrty feet, eighty feet in height, with nine windows, opening upon balconies, from which the views of the country arc extremely fine. The Arabic inscriptions are worked in porcelain, with exquisite skill, so as to unite with the stucco ornaments, which every where abound. The ceiling is very beautifully inlaid with wood of various colors, and is adorned with a nuinber of gold and silver ornaments, in the forms of circles, crowns, and stars." The king's bed-chamber has two alcoves, in which the beds were placed, upon a raised pavement of blue and white tiles; and it was kept cool in the summer by a fountain. Behind the alcoves are the royal baths, which are lighted from the roof, and beautifully finished. History.] Spain, in all probability, was first peopled by the Cells from Gaul ; and it afterward received successive bodies of adventurers from Africa. The Phoenicians also sent colonies thither, and built Cadiz and Malaga. On the rise of Rome and Carthage, the possession of this country became an object of contention between those powerful republics ; but at length the arms of the Romans prevailed, and Spain remained in their possession until the decline of that empire. The Suevi, Vandals, and Alans, divided this kingdom among thcin : but, in 585, the Visi-Goths became the masters nearly of the whole peninsula, after having, for above a century and a half, ruled over a considerable part of it. The prince who achieved this conquest was Leovigild, whose victories over the Suevi established his warlike reputation, while he lost the more honorable fame of humanity by putting his own son to death, for supporting the catholic faith against Arianism. The throne was subsequently filled by seventeen princes of the same race, few of whom were worthy of that dignified station. Roderic, having taken arms against the tyrant Witiza, procured the crown for himself, in 710; but he did not govern with wisdom or equity. The two sons of the late king, dreading his vindictive cruelty, fled to Ceuta, in Africa, and communicated their fears and their resent- ment to their uncle, the archbishop of Seville, and to the governor of the colony. As Roderic, in the wantonness of power, had oflfered violence to the daughter of count Julian, this nobleman also emigrated to Africa, and implored the aid of the Saracens for the dethronement of the king) SPAIN. €n whom he repreiented as very unpopular. Mousa, who then acted m the lieutenant of the khalit' Walid, exulted in the opportunity of adding Spain to the dominiong of his master ; and, in 713, sent over 7,000 men under Tarik. The Saracens, having taken Heraclea, ujron Mount Calpe, rare to the rocky height the appellation of Gebel-Tarik, or the moun- tain of Tarik, — a name since corriipted into Gibraltar ; and, boldly nrowcuting their success, defeated all the troops that ventured to oppose them. When Tarik had been reinforced, and Iloderic had taken the field with a great army, of which one division was commanded by tho archbishop, success seemed long to bo e(|ually balanced in the battle of Xeres ; but the traitorous prelate, by joining tiie infidels, gave victory to their arms. Tho king cither fell in battle, or was drowned in his flight. At Ecija, soon after, the opposite armies contended with great fury ; and the Moors (as the invaders were called, because they came from Mauri- tania) were again victorious. Yet Spain was not subdued by these early efforts. In many of the towns, tho spirit of the inhabitants pro- tracted the surrender; and some were not taken before famine had para- lysed the operations of the defenders. To accelerate the desired conquest, Mousa made a descent with 18,000 men. He ravaged the country vitb fire and sword, and filled the provinces with terror and dismay ; and his son Abdalazix pursued the same object with equal zeal, but with less cruelty, A great number of the niitives, disdaining to submit to the enemy, fled to the mountains which separate the province of Leon from the Agturias; and they found a leader in the person of Pelajo, who traced his descent from the royal lino. The Cantabrians, or the people of Biscay, also flocked to his standard ; and lie kept the Moors in alarm by occasional irruptions into the territories which they had unwar- rantably seised. One of their best ofhcers marched against him, ac- companied by the archbishop of Seville, who in vain urged him to submit to the necessity of the times. Retiring to a mountainous defile, Pelajo baffled all the efl'orts of the assailants, slew their commander, and put the prelate to death, as an enemy of his country. Of his sub- sequent conduct and exertions we have no certain knowlege ; but be preserved the remains of the Visi-Gothic kingdom, and transmitted the crown to his descendants. Abdalaziz having espoused the widow of Roderic, she advised him to assume the title of king of Spain; and, as he refused to violate his duty to the khalif, she contrived, by lowering the door of his apart- ment, to make his officers bow or stoop when they entered. Pretend- ing that they had saluted him as king, she placed on his head a golden crown. He was instantly assassinated by the indignant warriors : but the country was more misgoverned after his death. Elhor fixed the seat of power at Cordova, and exercised the most tyrannic sway, not only over the Christians, but also over the Moslems. Not content with the commanding influence which was thus exer- cised in Spain, Abdalrahman wished to add France to the Moham- medan conquests: but his expedition into the heart of that country, in 733, was so disastrous to himself and his army, that it completely checked the ambitious views of the infidels upon that part of Europe. The Visi-Gothic king, dying in 735, was succeeded by his son Fa- vila, whose death consigned the throne to Alfonso, surnamed the Ca- tholic, son-in-law of Pelajo. While this small kingdom was slowly augmented by the recovery of towns and districts, intestine war arose among the Moors ; and, as the authority of the khalif, or of his viceroy ; 476 SPAIN. I in Africa, could not effectually repress these commotions, the idea o{ forming an independent kingdom in Spain occurred to Abdalrah- man, the son of Moawiah, a man of talent and courage, who, takine advantage of the disaffection of the Moors to a new family, which had wrested the khalifate from tlie Omniiad princes, assumed the royal title in 755, on pretence of his descent from the family of Mohammed, and prepared to govern with that policy and vigor which seemed to promise a restoration of order and tranquillity. He did not, however, establish his power without the intervention of arms. He was repeatedly attacked by the Moorish governor, over whom he was enabled to triumph by the superioi number and determined zeal of his partisans. His administration was occasionally thwarted and disturbed by faction: but he boldly withstood all the efforts of his enemies, and died in peace after a reign of thirty-two years. The arts and sciences liourislied under his sway ; and few princes of that period were equal to him in political ability. The kingdom of Oviedo, as that realm was called which Pelajo re- tained, was exposed to the danger of a powerful attack from Ali- dalrahman: but, uhen he was on his march for that pnrpuw bew;^ recalled by the r^iti r of a commotion, and did not resume Jii- enter- prise- Froila, son . - Alfonso, maintained the dipnitr of the Christian kingdoir and ! :\U'r>ded its frontiers by liis vigilance ana activity. When the grea • • jiart of Gallicia had been recovered, it was again in- vaded by the M.«\!?i, who destroyed tlio clinrches, and made dreadful havock; but they were so harassed in their retreat, that only a small part of their army escaped, lleshani, the son of Abdalrahman, gave orders for a new invasion, wiiich, however, did not ansuir his expecta- tions. This prince emulated liis predecessor in the eiHonrficrcnieiit of the arts; and Ins son, AlHakeni, did not degenerate in tliatrespecl. The new khalif (for that venerated title was asaiiinfd by the Moorish kings of Spain) would have been a very formidable enemy to the Christians, if he had not been frequently harassed by scditidn and re- volt. His successor, Abdalrahman 11., commenced his rei;^n, in 822, with great preparations for war; and, as Catalonia had been formed into a separate government by the united efforts of the Spaniards and F.ench, he particularly aimed at the conquest of its capital. He ac- complished that object ; but he did not, during the remainder of his reign, so seriously impair the Christian interest, as his friends e.xpected, or his enemies api)rehended. In defiance of his power, a new state arose; for, in 828, the kingdom of Navarre was founded as a barrier against his arms. He took the city of Leon, which !iad been added to t)ie Asturian realm, jiillaged it, and involved it in iiames : but he was severely chastised for this insult by Ramiro, who had succeeded Alfonso the Chaste. His troops were thrown into confusion near Calahorra, intimidated into the most disoruceful ili;j;ht, and pursued with un- sparing vengeance. In the reign of Ordono the Christians were also victorious over Mousa, a distinguished [general, who had revolted from Abdalrahman's son Mohammed ; but, when they had joined the son of that rebel, they suffered a sanguinary defeat, .'\lfonso 111., who ascend- ed the throne in 8()2, wa.s a gallant and able defender of their cause: but, unfortunately, they were not animated by a spirit of concord. Their dissensions gave him great uneasiness: he was harassed with uoaspiracies and insurrections, and was at length induced to resign his crown. Ordono II., son of Alfonso, transferred the seat of his monarchy to SPAIN. 411 Leon a^wt ^^^ y**' ^^^' ^® ^^'^^' ^^ *^^ ^^""^ time, complete master of Gallicia ; and a great pavt of Old-Castilo had been recovered before his accession ; but, in consequence of liis tyranny, tiiat province slinok off his yoke. Encouraged by the di\ isinns among the Moslems, he in- vaded New-Castilc, and defeated, near Talavera, the troops of Abdal- rahman III., who was so alarmed at tliis bold intrusion, that he sent to Africa for military aid. The king of Leon, not disfoiiraged, advanced to meet the enemy; and the Douro was tinged witli the blr ! of the exasperated combatants, who fell in heaps .on both sides. TIjc victory, which was long doubtful, gave lus re to the Christian arms ; and the khaiif accepted such terms of peace as Avere dictated by his triumphant adversary : but he quickly violated the treaty, and rushed into Gallicia, where Ordono engaged him with indecisive effect. He then made an irruption into Navarre, and furiously ravaged lliii (;()untry. After a long intermission of hostilities, Raniiro II. marched to the southward, stormed Madrid, and destroyed its fortifications. The Moors in return, advanced into Old-Castile, where they were routed by Ramiro and the count, who, entering Arragon, compelled the governor of Saragossa to become a tril)utary vassal. The battle of Simancas soon followed, in which the king's success was signal and com[)lete. On this occasion, Abdalrahman escaped with the greatest diHiculty, when about .')0,0()0 of ids men had been killed or wounded. Notwithstanding the occasional misfortunes of his uigp, the Moslem empire in Spain seems to linvo been in its greatest RpU'iiilor, though not at its widest extent, at the time of Abdalrahman's death. Towns and villages were abundantly diffused over the peninsula: the population was far superior to that of modern times: agriculture flourished ; mines of the precious metals poured forth their stores; varied manufactures and extensive commerce exercised the industry of tlu people ; and tho ordinary barbarity of tlie Mohanimedan character was softened by the spirit of chivalry, the progress o; refinement, and the increase of general Isnowlcgc. AI-Hakem II., who succeeded Abdalrahman in 9G1, was more de- sirous of the preservation of pe.ace, than intent on a continuation of the war: yet he gratified the animosity of his people by 8un)e expeditions against the Christians. His contemporaries in the kingdom of Leon were Sancho and Ramiro III. It is .said of the former king, that iio applied to a physician of the khalif's court for the removal of his corpu- lence, and was destroyed by the quackery, if not by the treachery, of his profeiisional adviser : and it appears that the latter prince betrayed such profligacy and cruelty, as to rouse the indignation of his nobles, who drove him from the throne. The minority of Ilesham II., son of Al-Hakem, furnished a bold and ambitious officer with an opportunity of acquiring an exorbitant degree of pwer, which he continued to exercise after iiis sovereign had at- tained a maturity of age. Mohammed Al-Mansour, acting with un- disputed authority, renewed the war, in 982, by an incursion into Gal- licia, and the capture of Compostella. In the next campaign, he in- vaded tiie Asturias, and, when he was on the point of being defeated by Veremond II., suddenly turtied the tide against the Spaniards, whom he so totally routed, that a mere wreck remained of their army. It is said, that he triumphed in fifty battles; but, if this be true, we may pre- sume that most of them were partial and insignificant. He deprived Veremond of his capital after a long siege, and was so irritated at the obstinate defence of the garrison, that he ordered a general massacre of 478 SPAIN. the inhabitants, and nearly destroyed the city. His subsequent success roused tliree princes to the utmost vigor of exertion. Veremond drew the king of Navarre and the count of Castile into a league, and, in 998 led a great army into the field. Both ])arties displayed, during the day' all the enthusiasm and energy of courage ; and night alone separated the combatants. While the Christians rested upon their arms, without boasting of the honor of victory, the Moors, by retiring in disorder, con- fessed their defeat. Al-Mansour was so confounded at this disgrace that he refused to take that sustenance which is necessary for the Sup. port of life. His son Abdal-Malec assumed the chief political authority, and occasionally acted as a general ; but, being defeated by the Casti- lians, he resigned to more intrepid and experienced oflicers the dangers and labors of the field. After his death, several aspiring men contended for the advantages of ministerial power, and a civil war ensued, during which Hesham was constrained to abdicate the throne, which was seised by Solyman, one of his relatives. The usurper, having excited general odium by his cruelty, was delivered up Ijy the citizens of Cordova to \m principal enemies, by whom he was put to death. Other usurpations followed; and persons who were related to the Ommiad family were sometimes elevated to a short-lived pre-eminence. At length, in 1038, the line of Abdalrahman failed ; and the governors of towns, profiting by the disorders of the times, assumed the royal title, and governed witii independent authority. Before this dis: smberment of the great Moslem kingdom, an import- ant union of power mose from the snocesa of Ferdinand, an ambitious and able prince. His father, Sari'f.o the Great, one of whose prede- cessors had added, tiie nortb-eajtern part of Arragoii t/) Navarre, had espoused the sisster of the count of Old-Castile, and declared himself king of that country ; and, on bis death, the son was involved in a war with V^eremond III., king of I..eon, whom lie hIcw in battle. Tlie victor seised the vacant crown, and thus became, hi iOJfcl, sovereign of tiie whole country from tlie coast of Galiicia to tl-ie frontiers of Navarre and Arragon, while those two kingdoms were governed by his brotliers, Garcias and Ramiro ; and, when t\w partition of sway t(><nd his father might he accommodated by the per- suasions and arbitration of a friendly potentate. He complied with the request, and was detained at Bayonne by his artful enemy, who also prevailed upon (/harles to undertakt* the same impruiiint journey. The consequence was such as migbteasilyhave hf-en foreseen by all who were nut blinded by credulity. Both the father 4 the son were inveigled or inlimidated into an if solute abandonmen t their pry the neglect of every department of the public service, during the sway of an unworthy and even treacherous minister, that only a disordered government, an empty treasury, and the shadow of an army, existed. This prospect did not discourage the people : t! " trusted to the magnitude of the national resources, to their own spiii: ;. ''. patriotism, and to tiie assistance which they had reason to ex[)ect rVon. -.ome of the powers that were inimical to France: but their applic ;' ■ for aid were successful only in one instance; for Great-Britaiu - 1 Nie was wilUng or ready to comply with their urgent solicitations. Hostilities arose in different parts before the irregular assembly at Bayonne, consisting of timid or treacherous Span- iards, voted for a gi ant of the sovereignty of their country to Joseph Bonaparte, who had no other pretensions than those of an aspiring and rapacious adventurer. The patriots were successful in their early operations, more paiticularly in the affair of Baylcn. With such effect did they harass Dupont, that they compelled him, after a spirited conflict, to surrender himself and all his troops to their disposal.. They also baffled the views of the enemy at Saragossa, which, though it could scarcely be termed a fortified post, was defeuded by extraordinary exertions of courage and zeal, with g eat loss on both sides. But the French, soon after, met with such sue cess, as flattered their sovereign with the liope of establishing his brother Joseph en the Spanish throne. They defeated general Blake at Keynosa, and IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) // fe. i' /A^*, / *, 7, 1.0 I.I I vs. |l|o *- ._ Ill 1.8 1.25 1.4 1.6 < 6" ► V] Va c^m rf»3 7: y /^ Photographic Sdences Corporation 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. 14580 (716) 873-4503 a \ X \ <> 48» SPAIN. dispersed his army ! they routed, near Tudela, the troops which Castanos led into the field ; and re-opened to the usurper the possession of Madrid from which he had retired in a moment of consternation. The ministerial choice of sir John Moore, as the commander of an army destined to oppose a powerful enemy, was not the most judicious. His courage was unquestioned, and he was acquainted with ordinary tactics ; but he had not the talents or the f titude of a great general, He listened to every idle report of the a^ ach of the French : he dreaded, from their increasing force, the ruin of h'j army; and he seemed to be solely intent on escaping from a country which the natives. he pretended, were unwilling to defend. His officers were ready to act in the most spirited manner, rather than disgrace themselves by a rapid retreat : and, though he reprimanded them, in public orders, for presum- ing to dictate to him, he was urged by their zeal and impatience to a display of boldness and resolution, Hf advanced with 29,000 men to attack marshal Soult, who then had only 16,000 under bis command: but the arrival of terrific intelligence quickly induced bim to resume his retreat with accelerated movements, notwithstanding the defensibility of many parts of the Gallician province. In the disorderly march, a great number perished by cold, fatigue, and famine; and, when the rest of the army reached Corunna, a battle (in January 1 809) became unavoidable, before an embarkation could be attempted, Soult, whose force had been so far augmented, as to give him the advantage over his opponents, ordered an attack in dense columns, one of which seemed likely to make a serious impression upon the British right, when Sir John Moore had been carried ofif the field mortally wounded: but the troops, not dis- couraged, frustrated every attempt to force their position. The centre and left also repelled the impetuous foe, with few pieces of artillery, and without the aid of cavalry, inflicting a loss considerably greater than that which they suffered in the battle : yet, from the commencement of the march, to that embarkation which immediately followed the repulse of the French, it is supposed that the British loss did not fall short of 7000 men. A greater misfortune would not have paralysed the zeal of the court; and, therefore, the Spaniards did not long remain unassisted. Although it was the opinion of the unfortunate general, that Uiey were 80 destitute of patriotic zeal, as to be absolutely unworthy of aid or support, the ministers resolved not to neglect the prosecution of the new war. Preparations were made for another expedition to the peninsula, even while the French were triumphing in the acquisition of various pro- vinces, and eagerly endeavouring to create, among their opponents, an impression of being too powerful to be resisted ; while (in the language of colonel Jones) " a half-starved disorganised band, with some fugitive corps in La Mancha and Estremadura, formed the only remaining mili- tary force of Spain ; and while the number of the enemy, spread over the country, fell little short of 200,000 men," At this crisis the exertions of some of the Spanish generals restored order to the dispersed troops, re-embodied the patriotic force, and checked the progress of the French detachments. 13ut the prospect was still gloomy ; and the enemy proved victorious in the battles of Medellin and Ciudad-Real, and made dreadful havock among the heroic defenders of Saragossa, which was taken after a second siege. Sir Arthur Wellesley at length appeared in Spain with a considerable army ; ai;d he concerted, with the Spanish general Cuesta, a plan of operations, by which it was hoped that the metropQlig wpuld be recovered, and other important advan- tages obtained. SPAIN. VBsr Bodi ftnnies advanced against marshal Victor, not expecting that he foold immediately be reinforced : but that commander, aware of the intentions of the hostile generals, readily augmented the number of hit troops, and moved forward so expeditiously, that Cuesta was obliged to retreat to the Alberche, to avoid a ruinous attack. In the mean time, sir Arthur, having judiciously arranged his force, awaited an assaolt with a firm countenance. After a partial action, the French brought up their whole force on the 28th of July, and the infantry made a fierce attack upon the British line, while the cavalry paraded in die rear, with a view of completing the victory by an overwhelming charge on that point which might be first penetrated. But the resist^ ance was so spirited, that no opportunity of making a decisive impres- sion was offered to the eager wishes of the enemy. That furious charge which was made upon the left, supposed to be the key of the British position, was repelled, yet not without the ruin of a regiment of light dragoons, whose courage bordered upon rashness. In other parts of the line, the most strenuous efforts of the French were checked by the same determined spirit; and, if the claim of victory was not fully substantiated on the part of the allies^ because the Spa- niards did not zealously endeavour to promote it, it may at least be affirmed, that the battle of Talavera was honorable to tho military character of Great-Britain. About 9,500 of the French lost their lives or were wounded ; and almost 6000 of the confederates suffered, ac- cording to the English and Spanish narratives of the engagement. Rescued from danger, rather than gratified with triumph, the British troops hastened toward the frontiers of Portugal ; while the French, who had even resigned a part of their artillery, that their retreat from the field of Talavera might not be delayed , re-advanced with a reno- vated force, routed a nimierous army of the patriots in New-Castile, and defeated a still greater host in the same province. In Arragon, likewise, the Spaniards were enfeebled by disastrous conflicts: in Ca- talonia they suffered great loss in the obstinate defence of Gerona ; and, in Leon, tlie last battle of the year seemed dreadfully ominous to those advocates of the Spanish cause who were prone to despond- ency ; for the troops displayed so little firmness or spirit, that they were broken by the first charge of cavalry, and fled in consternation. In the mean time, a supreme council which had been formed by a delegation of two members from the junta of each province, adminis- tered the affairs of tho realm with some degree of prudence, but not with that energy which the crisis required. The public therefore loudly called for a convocation of the cortes, or that general assembly which had been so long discontinued, that it seemed to have been nearly consigned to oblivion. A proclamation was reluctantly issued for that purpose by the rulers of the kingdom ; and the people, appa- rently satisfied, acquiesced in the prolonged sway of tlie constituted authorities. The campaign of the year 1810 threatened to be more disastrous to the Spaniards than it ultimately proved. As the French had trium- phantly closed the war with Austria, they had a greater disposable force : and their arrogant master did not scruple to pledge himself for the speedy expulsion of the English from the peninsula. Having taken some strong towns in the province of Leon, marshal Massena invaded Portugal ; and, as lord Wellington deemed it more particularly expedient to watch the enemy in that kingdom, the Spaniards were left for a time to their own exertions. "-•■ i-^"" ■ .« I •V"'' '*>(•"'€ *^*^ff "^^'^^ SPAIN. It was attiiis dmeth&t the ^uerr»//a branch of the war commenced, which the French affected to deride, while they were severely harassed by tht alertness of the various parties that scoured the country, and skilfully eluded pursuit. When th» enemy over-ran Andalusia, Cadiz was oppor. tunely secured against intrusion, and became the chief seat of power being in vain besieged or blockaded. The supreme junta being thought too numerous for an executive body, five distinguished persona were invested with the regency ; and the vigor of the government seemed thus to be augmented. In the autumn, the cortes assembled ; and the majority soon displayed a popular spirit. Various reforms were proposed, with a view of preparing the nation for the enjoyment of freedom ; but the in- tended gift was coolly received by an ignorant and priest-ridden nation, From the increasing strength, or the more resolute exertions of the enemy, the Spaniards suffered greater loss and injury, in 1811, than they had sustained in the preceding year. Their British and Portugueu associates, indeed, under the command of sir William Bcresford, boldly supported their cause at Albucra, by the defeat of marshal Soult, 7000 of whose men were killed, wounded, or captured ; and general Grahan; triumphed over a superior force at Barrosa : but these advantages were dearly purchased ; and the French, by the murderous siege of Tarragona and the reduction of Valencia, obtained a commanding sway over the whole eastern coast. The next campaign was opened by lord Wellington with an im- portant siege. H'! invested Ciudad-llodrigo with a full detcrraina. tion of reducing it, unless the loss which might attend the progress of the siege should be extremely severe. He confounded the enemy by the celerity of his operations, and, amidst the rigors of winter, ef- fectually stormed the fortress. The capture of Badajoz being thought equally necessary, he besieged it for three weeks, and then assaulted it with similar success. Encouraged by these acquisitions, he marched in the summer against the French army in Leon, and engaged Mar- moQt near Salamanca, when that commander had made some injudi- cious movements. There was no great disparity of force on either side; but, in point of position, the advantage was on the side of the French. When the marshal endeavoured to turn the right of lord Wellington's position, that scheme was counter-acted by the oppor- tune addition of strength to the menaced division, and the French left was boldly and dexterously out-flanked. At the same time, a Portuguese brigade received a check, in attempting to gain the bold height of the Arapiles ; and some British divisions, which, having assailed the centre with impetuous vigor, were pursuing their early success along the crest of the enemy's position, were exposed to danger by the sudden approach of a strong corps from the eminence toward their left flank : but, by altering the direction of a reserved brigade, the advancing troops were checked, and the arrival of another division completed their confusion. The French right yet remained to be routed; and that service was ably performed. After this victory, Madrid and Seville were re- taken, and Cadiz was relieved from blockade: but the British arms failed in the siege of Burgos, and even lord Wel- lington was obliged to seek an asylum on the western frontiers. As tliis disappointment and apparent disgrace did not, in the opinion of tfi« cortes, detract from that fame which the general had established by his victory at Salamanca, they invested him with the chief com- niand of the native armies, promising that at least 50,000 men should be ready, not merely to appear in arms, but to act with d«terniiiied vigor; HPAm^y^ 491 ^, itidle the French empire felt the effects of the rash expedition to Riwift, there was a great probability of the speedy and complete recovery of Spain. Without reckoning the disposable Spanish force, 71,000 men (British, German subsidiaries, and Portnguese) composed that army which left its cantonments in the spring of the year 1813, to force in the first instance the passage of tho Douro. All the movements for that purpose were effective; and the enemy, surprised at this bold advance, retired to some noiitioDS in Old-Castile. The hopes of the allies were elevated by the coofiiiion which appeared 'Among the usurper's troops ; and it was re- iclred that an attempt should be made to bring them to a decisive oonflici:. The desired opportunity presented itself in the environs of Vittoria. An attack was made, on the 2l8t of June, by the British fight, which dislodged a strong corps from a mountainous post, and, eigeriy prosecuting the advantage, stormed a village, the loss of which deprived the hostile centre of its chief support. This division was then anaulted, and quickly driven in disorder toward the city. The rest of the engagement was a spirited contest for various positions ; and the mult was a signnl victory on the part of the allies. About 8000 of the French were killed, wounded, or made prisoners, and the remains of their army fled in consternation toward the Pyrenees. When farther luccess had attended the British arms, and when the troops of the chief continental princes were marching to Paris, Bonapart^, making a virtue of necessity, accommodated ail disputes with Ferdinand, and permitted him to return to Spain. The conduct of the restored king excited general surprise and disgust. Instead of testifying his gratitude for the zeal of the cortes, and the faithful services of his people, he denied the legality of the assembly, and extended over all ranks the rigors of despotism. He a&nulled the constitution which the cortes had prepared, alleging that it violated the rights of the crown, and tended to encourage popular licentiousness; and he imprisoned and harassed some of the leading members, as if they had been audacious democrats or vile incendiaries. He gave his confidence to priests and inquisitors, and acted more like the narrow-minded ruler of a monastery than the politic sovereign of a great kingdom. An insurrection, to which his misgovernment exposed him, was quickly suppressed, because it was partial and ill-concerted ; and he continued his former career, without reflecting on the odiam which would necessarily attend it. While he affected to admire that display of British courage and military skill, which had contributed to the preservation of his crown, he threw out illiberal insinuations against the iMretical soldiery, whose inattention to forms and ceremonies had shocked his pious subjects ; and he requited the zealous aid ot our government and nation, by diminishing the facilities and conveniences of commerce. He pretended to join in the new league against the perfidious prince of Elba, but did not promote, even in the smallest degree, the success of the renovated war. For some years, the king viewed with great anxiety the progress of that revolt in his South-American colonies, which commenced when he was a captive in France. He made repeated attempts to interest the regent of Great-Britain and other princes in the cause of order and regular government, alleging that it was the duty of every court to oppose the disorganising spiHt of democratic insurgents : but they heard his complaints with indifference, and coolly left him to his own exertione. He was on th point of sending out an army to reclaim or aubdue the 492 PORTUGAL. revolters, when (on tlie 1st of January, 1820) some batlalions stationed near Cadiz, detesting his arbitrary spirit, confined the officers who re- fused to join them in an insurrection, and called for a representative government. While the insurrection was rapidly spreading, a horrible massacre was perpetrated at Cadiz by the treacherous cruelty of the royal party ; but it rather promoted than checked the views of colonel Riego and other popular leaders, to whose dictates the king was obliged to submit. The cortes met on the 9th of July, and undertook the task of reform ; but their proceedings gave such disgust to the haughty members of the holy continental confederacy, that, when the Austriam had re-adjusted, according to the emperor's discretion, the affairs of Naples and Piedmont, the French, in 1823, invaded Spain with similar views, and (in the manner which we have stated in our history of France) restored Ferdinand to the exercise of arbitrary power. Since that time, he has acted in the most tyrannical manner, disregarding the true interest of his country, violating all law, severely punishing suspected mal-contents, and constraining many of his most respectable subjects, by the influence of terror, to seek in England an asylum from his brutality. Ferdinand VII. was born October 14, 1784; was first married to Maria Antonia, princess of Naples ; secondly, to Maria Isabella, second daughter of John VI. king of Portugal ; and, thirdly, to Maria Josephina, uiece of the king of Saxony. Brothers to the king : — Carlos Maria Isidor, born March 29, 1788 ; married to the princess Maria Francescina of Portugal ; — Francisco de Paula, born March 10, 1794; married to Louisa Charlotte, grand- daughter of Ferdinand IV. of Naples. PORTUGAL. BITUATIOK AND EXTEKT. Miles. Length 350 Hj, Breadth 120 > between < Degrees. 37 and 42 north latitude. 6 and 9, 15 west longitude. Containing 27,070 square miles, with above 92 inhabitants to each. Names.] PORTUGAL was known to the ancients by the name of Lusitania, derived by the mythologists from Lysias, the son of Bacchus, who is said to have settled a colony in that country. The modern name of Portugal is allowed to be derived from Cale, the ancient name of Oporto, with the addition of Porto, or port, on account of the excellence of its harbour. In the eleventh century this name was extended to the whole kingdom. Boundaries.] It is bounded by Spain on the north and east, and on the south and west by the Atlantic Ocean, being the most westerly kingdom on the continent of Europe. Divisions.] By the longitudinal form of the country, it is naturally divided into three parts, which contain six provinces. In the northern division are those of Eutre Douro e Minho, and Tras os Montes ; in the middle portion are Beira and Estremadura ; and, in the southern, Aleutejo and Algarve. These provinces contain a population of about two inillioas and a half. PORTUGAL. 493 Face of the couvtut, mountains.] The face of Portugal is mouotainous, or rather rocky, for the mountains are generally barren ; the chief are those which divide Algarve from Alentejo ; those of Tras os Montes; Arrabida and Monte-juntu in Estremadura ; Estrellain Beira; Osia in Alentejo ; and Cintra, about five leagues south-west of Lisbon, well known to navigators as being the mo^t westerly part of the continent of Europe. The cape contiguous to i'c, at the mouth of the Tiyo, is called the rock of Cintra, or of Lisbon. FoBESTS.j Portugal contains few forests; but there is one which is very extensive, beginning at Marinha Grande, about 57 miles from Li«bon, consisting almost entirely of pine-trees, which used to afford all the timber that was required for ship-building. Rivers, lakes, mineral waters.] The Tagus or Tajo was anciently celebrated for its golden sand. It has its source in the moun- taina of Molina, near the borders of Arragon ; !whence it runs for the moat part to the west, till it reaches Lisbon, and falls into the Atlantic Ocean, after traversing, in the whole of its course, 450 miles, of which 150 are in Portugal and the remainder in Spain. This river annually overflows itsbanksas regularly as the Nile, particularly about Villa Franca and Santarem, so as to render the soil exceedingly fertile. The Minho and Douro are the boundaries of the province Entre Douro e Minho. Portugal contains several small lakes and springs, some of which absorb even the lightest substances, such as wood, cork, and feathers. The batlis called Caldas da Rainha, about 45 miles from Lisbon, are medicinal and sanative ; and some hot baths are found in the little kingdom or rather province of Algarve. Metals, minerals.] This country appears to have been as cele- brated in ancient times for its gold and silver mines as South America is at present ; but no mines of these metals are now worked. There are lead-mines which yield silver at Mursa and Lamego, and there is a mine of copper at Elvas. The iron-mines are well known, but are neglected for want of fuel, though coal has been found in different parts. Por- tugal produces beautiful marble, almost every kind of precious stones, and iodeed minerals of every description. Climate, SOIL, agriculture.] Though Portugal is one of the smallest countries in Europe, its climate is very various in different parts ; in the northern provinces it is cold, in the middle and near the sea tempe- rate, and in the southern hot. The air, especially about Lisbon, is reck- oned soft and beneficial to consumptive patients ; it is not so scorching as that of Spain, being tempered by the sea-breezes. The soil of Portugal is not in general equal ta^that of Spain for fer- tility, especially in corn ; and agriculture is greatly neglected. According to the best information, two thirds of the kingdom are at present lelt untilled, and the portion that is under vines, olives, corn, pulse, wood, &c., is not in general in that state of improvement of which it is susceptible. Vegetable productions.] Fruit of every kind known in Europe, and particularly oranges, lemons, citrons, figs, grapes, apricots, peaches, almonds, and melons, grow here in many places almost spontaneously : in general, however, they are not so highly flavored as those of Spain. The Portuguese winc'*, when old and genuine, are esteemed to be very friendly to the human constitution. Akimals.] These are nearly the same as in Spain. The horses are few, and of an inferior breed ; but the mules arc strong, hardy, and sure- footed. The sheep are not very- numerous. Large herds of swine are PORTUGAL. found in various parts of the country, the flesh of nrhich, as they feed chiefly on grass aud acorns, has an excellent flavor, whence the Portu- guese hams are preferred in most parts of Europe to those of othtr countries. Matorai. curiosities.] These consist principally of the Iskes already mentioned, and some extraordinary caverns. In the province of Tras OS Monies, at a place called Son Miguel das tres Minhas, are three immense mines generally 8up|)08ed to have been worked by the Romua. The mouth of the largest, which has been cut through the solid rock, is a mile and a half in circumference, and above 500 feet in depth. At the bottom it is 2400 feet in length, and 1400 in breadth. Near this is ano- ther of great dimensions, and a third in ao elevated situation called Covas, the length of which is 2600 feet, the breadth 1300, and the depth 500. The lake of Escura, on the summit of the mountain of Estiella, ii of a depth hitherto unascertained ; its water is of a dark-green ctdor and it has never been known to yield fish of any kind. Fragments of the masts of ships, it is said, have been found in it, whence it has been sup- posed to have a subterranean communication vnth the s^, notwithstand- ing its inland situation. It is added, in corroboration of this conjecture, that it is smooth or agitated as the sea is tranquil or rough, and that in «tormy weather it makes a rumbling noise, which may be heard at the distance of many miles. The cork convent or hermitage, near Lisbon, may be called bod) a natural and artificial curiosity. It has subterranean apartments, which receive light from holes cut obliquely in the rocks, and are lined with cork, to guard against humidity ; but the church, sacristy, and chapter- 4MMise, are built over the surface. The cells are occupied by twenty monks or hermits of the order of St. Frauds, who follow the most abste- mious and temperate mode of living. National CHARACTER, I The modern Portuguese retain little MANNERS, cvsTOMS. ) of that adventuroub, enterprising spirit -which rendered their forefathers so illustrious 300 years ago. I1iey have, «ver since the house of Braganza mounted the throne, degenerated in all their virtues, though some noble exceptions are still remaining among them. Treachery, ingratitude, an intemperate passion for revenge, and other bad qualities, have been imputed to them : among the lower people thieving is too commonly practised ; and all ranks are ac- cused of being unfair in their deaUngs, especially with strangers. The Portuguese are neither so tall nor so well-made as the Spauiards, whose habits and customs they imitate ; only persons of quality affect to ■be more gaily and ric||||r dressed. The ladies are thin and small of sta- ture. Their complexion is olive, their eyes are black and expressive, and their features generally regular. They are esteemed to be generous, modest, and witty. They dress like the Spanish ladies, with much awk- wardness and affected gravity, and are very fond of dark mantles and veils. They are taught by their husbands to exact from their servantsa homage that is paid, in other countries, only to royal personages ; yet many, on the other hand, treat their domestics with too great familiarity. The furniture of tlie houses, especially of tlie grandees, is rich and superb to excess; and they maintain a great number of domestics, as they rarely discharge any who survive after serving their progenitors. The poorer sort have scarcely any furniture at all ; for they, in imitation of the Moors, •it cross-legged on the ground. I'he Portuguese peasant has reaped little advantage (except a few goldeu trinkets for the female part of his idniiy) icom the benefits of iureiga trade and of colonial possesaions. PORTUGAL. 4d5 lakes ince of retliree , *, is a |At the isaao- called le depth !ila, is color, of the !n sup- thstand- yecture, that in 1 at the jUflOit the only foreign luxury he is yet acquainted with is tobacco ; and, when his feeble purse can reach it, he purchases a dried Newfoundland cod; but this is a regale which he seldom obtains. Some bread made of Indian corn, rice, and a salted pilchard, or a head of gariick, or grains of gmjgeed, to give that bread a flavor, compose his standing dish ; and if he cao get a piece of the hog, the ox, or the calf, which he himself fattens, to regale his wretched family at Christmas or Easter, he has reached the piooacle of happiness in this world ; and indeed whatever he might possess bcTond this habitual penury would quickly be taken from him, or rather he wwild willingly part with it, being tauglit by his spiritual comforters, vjth whom his country swarms, to l(>ok forward for ease and happiness to another state of existence, to which they are themselves the infallible guidu and conductors. To these remarks we shall subjoin those of Mr. Murphy ; for, though he did not very lately visit that country, the difference between Ids time and the present, is not very considerable. " The common peo- ple of Lisbon and its environs are a laborious and hardy race. It is painivl to see the trouble they are obliged to take for want of proper impiements to carry on their work. Their cars have the rude ap* pearance of the earliest ages ; these vehicles are slowly drawn by two stout oxen. The corn is shelled by the treading of the same animals. They have many other customs which to us appear very singular : for example, women sit with the left side toward the horse's head when they ri^e. A postilion rides on the left horse. A tailor sits at his work Uke a shoemaker. A hair-dresser appears on Sundays with a sword, a cockade, and two watches, at least two watch-chains. A taren is known by a vine-bush, a house to be let by a piece of blank paper, the door of an accoucheur by a white cross, and a Jew by his extra-catholic devotion. A Portuguese peasant will not walk with a superior, an aged person, or a stranger, without gi\'ing him the right- hand side, as a mark of respect. He never passes by a human being without taking off his hat, and saluting him in tliese words — * The Lord preserve you for many years I* In speaking of an absent friend he always says — ' I die with impatience to see him.' They all imagine that their country is the blessed Elysium, and that Lisbon is the greatest cityin the world.'* Chief towns, edifices.] Lisbon is situated near the mouth of the Tagus, on seven hills, and contains many grand and stately edifices, among which one of the principal is the patriarchal church, "nre treasures of sacred reliques, gold, silver, precious stones, and costly furniture of this venerable structure, are immense. The square called Pra9ado Comercio, is 615 feet long, and 550 broad; in the centre is a noble equestrian statue of bronze of Joseph I. A church built by the late queen, is the largest and most magnificent edifice erected in Lisbon nnoe the earthquake in 1755. The Portuguese, in some measure, availed themselves of thi.v misfortune, and, like the English after the fire of 1666, turned the temporary evil into a permanent good. All the streets subsequently formed in Lisbon are capacious, regular, and well pared, with convenient foot-paths, as in the streets nf London. In point of cleanliness, Lisbon is no longer a subject of so much animadversion to strangers as formerly ; but all is not yet done, as it still wants common sewers, pipe-water, and other conveniences. The population of this city is said to be about 250,000. Its harbour is spacious and secure, and its trade is flourishing and extensive. The church and monasteiy of Belem, where the kings of Portugal 496 PORTUGAL. are buried, are very magnificent. The chapel of St. Roche is probably one of the finest and richest in the world : the paintings are motaic work, so curiously wrought with stones of all colors as to astonish the beholders. The pavement is also wrought in mosaic ; and the piUan are blocks of jasper, verd antique, Egyptian granite, lapis-lazuli, and alabaster. The doors are of brass, exquisitely wrought and gilt ; and the altar is composed of lapis-lazuli and amethyst, round which ii a broad gold margin. At Mafra, 19 miles west from Lisbon, is a spacious and magnificent structure, erected by John V., in consequence of a vow which he made, during a dangerous illness, to found a monastery for the pooreit friars in his kingdom. It includes a palace and a church with the conventual foundation, built of white marble. It is entered by a grand flight of steps, lea''--)g to a portico, which is decorated with twelve colossal statues of saints. The interior of the church is hand* some ; the cupola is encrusted with compartments of marble, beauti. fully carved, and over the numerous altars, instead of pictures, are well executed sculptures in bas-relief. In the monastic part of the building are three hundred cells, the dimensions of which are twenty feet by eighteen. When Napoleon's troops were in possession of Lisbon, they profaned this edifice (as Oliver Cromwell's soldiers did the English cathedrals) by making use of it for barracks. The founder of this gigantic pile also disting.ishcd himself by the erection of a stupendous aqueduct at Alcantara, which collects a number of springs from diflTerent heights, and conveys their joint produce for several leagues (in one part over a vale by very lofty arches) to a large re- servoir, near the north-western extremity of Lisbon. Near ^Ibiijarota, in Estremadura, is the Dominican monastery of Bntalhn, so called from that battle which secured the crown to John I. The church is admired for its architectural beauty, for the ornamental elegance of its columns and arches, and the fine proportions of the open or trans- parent tower. In the same province the Cistercian abbey of Alco- baya was an object of admiration: but, in 1811, it was reduced to a ruinous state by the brutality of the French invaders. The second city in this kingdom is Oporto, which is well-built and finely situated, but by no means strong. The chief article of commerce in this city is wine. The merchants assemble daily in the chief street, to transact business, and are protected from the sun by sail-cloths hung across from the opposite houses. The town has a romantic appearance, the houses gradually rising, one row above another, on a steep hill, near the mouth of the Douro, which affords a tolerable harbour and a line quay. Some manufactures, particularly those of linen and hats, are carried on by the citizens. On the southern bank of the river there are two towns, Gaya and Villa-Nova, which are considered as the suburbs of Oporto, and are supposed, with the city itself^ to contain 50,000 inhabitants. Coimbra stands on a mountain near the Mondego, in a district abounding with vines and olive-trees. It is not so populous as its magnitude or importance might induce us to expect; for not more than 15,000 persons reside within its walls or in the suburbs. Braga and Evora have nearly the same number. Elvas is a well-built town, in a mountainous situation, distinguished by its strength and dcfensi- bility. Manufactures, commerce.] The Portuguese exchange their wine, salt, and fruit, and most of their own materials, for foreign PORTUGAL. 497 otnni&ctureB. They make a little linen, and some coarse silk and woollen, with a variety of straw-work ; they also make earthen ware and glass, ud are skilful in masonry and ship-building. The commerce of Portu- gal, tiiough seemingly extensive, proves of little solid benefit to her, as the European nations, trading with her, engross the productions of her colonies, and also her native commodities, in exchange for the numerous manufactures, and the vast quantity of corn and salt-fish, supplied by thow European nations, and by the North- American states. The Por- tuguese foreign settlements are, however, of great value. These are the iilMof Cape Verd, Madeira, and the Azores, beside extensive territTies in Africa, and the remains of oriental conquest. Constitution, government, and laws.] The Portuguese, like other nations of Gothic descent, had originally a free constitution ; but, after the discontinuance of the meetings of the cortes, the government became as despotic as any in Europe. The people had no more share in the direction of public affairs, in the enactment of laws, or in the regu- Ittion of commerce, than they had in the government of Russia or China* Ererjr man had no other alternative than to yield a blind and ready obedience, in whatever concerned himself, to the decrees and laws of the despot, as promulgated from time to time by his secretaries of state. How would an Englishman, alive to all the feelings of civil li- berty, have trembled at reading the preamble of every new law published io Portugal, which ran thus : " I the king, in virtue of my own cer- taio knowlege, of my royal will and pleasure, and of my full, supreme, and arbitrary power, which I hold only of God, and for which I am accountable to no man on earth, do, in consequence, order and com- mand," &c. All great preferments, both spiritual and temporal, were disposed of in the council of state, which was composed of an equal number of the clergy and nobility, with the secretary of state. A council of war regu- lated all military affairs, as the treasury courts did the finances. The council of the palace was the highest tribunal that could receive appeals ; but the Casa da SuppIica9ao was a court from which no appeal could be brouti;ht. We speak on this occasion as if the sams state of things no longer pre- railed. Indeed, Don Pedro has recently (in 1826) granted anew von- ttittttion to his people, combining a considerable degree of freedom with monarchical power ; and, though it has not yet been brought into opera- tion, it may be expected to produce important changes. The laws of Portugal are contained in three small Volumes, and have the civil law for their foundation. Among the additions made to this groundwork, may be mentioned the code framed at Lamego, in 1145, called the magna charta of Portugal. By this code the crime of rob- bery was not to be punished with death before the fourth offence. Mur- der is a capital crime in the Portuguese law, as it ought to be deemed in erery country : but, when it arises from revenge, the assassin is fre- quently, to the great disgrace of the government, suffered to escape with impunity. The clergy were formerly amenable only to the canon law; liut, by an ordinance of the late queen, they were subjected to th^ laws which affect the laity. Revenues, army, and navy.] The revenues of the crown amount to about three millions and a half sterling. That part which Arises from commercial duties, may be termed exorbitant, as these some- times amount to 25 per cent. With regard to the army aad navy, the a K m PORTITQAL. foMiet, ^nce the late war, has beea on a respectable footiog; but th« narine is greatly neglected. Royal titles.] The king's titles are, king of Portugal and of Algarve, lord of Guinea, and of the conquest, navigation, and commerce, of Ethiopia, Arabia, and Persia. John V. was complj. mented, by the pope, with the designation of « his most Faithful Miyesty." Nobility AND oRPEiis.] The titles and distinctions of the nobi. lity are nearly the same as those of Spain. The orders of knighthood are three; 1. That of Avis or Aviez, at first instituted by Alfonio Henriquez, king of Portugal, in 1147, as a military and religiom order, on account of his taking Evora from the Moors ; 2. The Order of St* Jamts, instituted in 1310, and endowed with great privilegw. t'he laigbts profess chastity, hospitality, and obedience ; and only thow are admitted candidates who can prove the gentility of their blood : their ensign is a red sword, the habit white ; 3. The Order of Chritt was instituted in 1317, to engage the nobility to act with vigor againit the Moeaded entirely upon the pope, except when a quarrel subsisted between the courts of Rome and Lisbon. The power of his holiness in Portugal has been serioiulj curtailed in modern times ; the royal revenues have been increased at the expense of the religious institutions ; and the inquisition has bees abolislied. The archbishopiies fire two, Braga and Evora, and there are ten biihop- H«». The patriarch of Lisbon takes precedence of all the clergy in the kingdom, and is a cardinal of the consistory at Rome. Liteaature.] The men of learning whom this country has pro* duced are so few that the glaring deficiency is mentioned with indig- nation, by such of the Portuguese as have the smallest tincture d literature. Some efforts, tJioiigh very weak, have bevm made by a few, to draw their countrymen from this deplorbble state of ignorance, h Ss nniversally allowed, that the defect is not occasioned by the want of genius, but of a proper education. The ancestors of the present Portn- guese had more true knowlege, with regard to astronomy, geography, and navigation, than perhaps any other European nation, about the middle of the 16th century, rnd for some time after. Camoens, who himself was a great adventurer and voyager, possessed a true, bat neglected, poetical genius. Ooes, Barros, a>nd de Faria y Sonsa, may he deemed respectable historians ; and the poetry of Pereira, Barbosa, and of Ferreira da Lacerda (a female philosopher), may be read without disgsst. Universities.] That of Ooimbra, founded in I?'V! is arapl_, en- f nuncs. There is also a miHtary and manine academy, where young gen:L'u<£a are educ&ted in the scjence of eCoiBeering and naval tactics. Lancvaoz.] The Portuguese language differs less froc> that of PORTUGAL. 49t that of Sfik, thi^i ^^* Dutch from the German. The Lord's Prayer ie aa ^awt:---Padrt nosso, que ettaa nos ceoa, santificado teio o tu nome; mka a no$ iuo reyno, teia feita a tua votade, asii nos ceoa, como na timt pao nosso de codidia, dano lo nns nesto dia ; e perdoa nos as MiMl dtvidas, assi como nos perdoamos a os nossos devedoret { e nao Ml dexes cahir om tentafao, mas libra nos do mal. Amen. Antiquities.] The Roman bridge and aqueduct nt Coimbra are iloMMt entire, and deservedly admired. The walls of Saniarcin are likiviie said to be of Roman origin. At Evora are the ruins of a temple of Diana, and an aqueduct ascribed to Sertorius. Near Braga in (he remains of a temple supposed to have been dedicated to ^'scu- hpiui. At Chaves have been discovered the ruins of a magnificent iqosduct, bafli8, cisterns, several fragments of columns, and capitals and eonicce of jasper, exquisitely worked. There are also remains of Moorish ciitiM, particularly at Torres- Vedras. History.] This kingdom comprehends the greatest part of the ueisDt Lusitania, and shared the satne fate with the other Spanish princes, in the contest between the Carthaginians and Romans ; and, when the latter were unable to secure or retain it, it was successively ilwbJeetioD to the Suevi, Alans, and Vifii-Goths. It was conquered by the Moors, soon after their triumph over Roderie, king oi Spain, and nnainsd for some ages in their possession : but, in the eleventh century, leTcrsl towns and districts were rescued from their yoke by the valor of tjie Chriitian warriors of Leon and Castile ; and Alfonso VI. rewarded Heoiy, a descendant of Robert king <^ France, for his bravery and assist^ uce against the Moors, with his daughter, and that part of Portugal vhieh was then in the hands of the Christians. Henry was succeeded, in II 28, by his son Alfonso Henry, who gained a decisive victory over five Moorish kings in July, 1139. This victory proved the origin of the monarchy of Portugal ; for Alfonso wen then jMwlainied king by his soldiers. He did not, however, before the year 1147, gain possession of the city of Lisbon, which was then a flourishing ton, and so well fortified, as to sustain % siege for five months. He lived todie age of seventy-six, and, after a reign of fifty-seven years, of which few particulars are authentically recorded, left the throne, in 1185, to his MM Saneho, who augmented his territories by the expulsion of the infidels &tm varioHS districts. Alibnso II., who began to reign in 1211, obtained some advantages orer the Moorish princes of Seville and Cordova ; and Saneho II., his luoecssor, also extended the limits of the realm ; but it is said that he wu expelled from his dominions for cowardice. The next sovereign was Alfonso III., who conquered the kingdom of Algarve. Dionysius, etlled by the Portuguese Don Diniz, succeeded his father in 1279, and reined with reputation above forty-five years. He tempered justice with fflercy; encouraged and rewarded merit of every kind; and, for his beneficent and wise government, was honored with the title of Father of his country. He instituted some respectable military orders, erected and fortified a number of towns, and founded the university of Coimbra. Tlie character of Alfonso IV. was less estimable; but he was success- &1 in some military enterprises both against the Castilians and the Moore. Peter, who mounted the throne in 1357, distinguished himself by his Kgard for justice. Like Titus, he considered every day as lost in which he bad not performed some act of duty, of prudence, or beneficence. It ii said, that he pcobibked liie employnaent of advocates ip bk courts of 2 K 2 c_ 500 PORTUGAL. judicature, being' aware of the effect of artful eloquence in promotiov the escape of the guilty, or the condemnation of the innocent, and ia procuring erroneous decisions of civil causes. Ferreira Lobo says, that he ruled with inflexible justice, and granted innumerable favors to his deserving subjects. His son Ferdinand improved the police of Lisbon and other cities ; but he is represented as a votary of pleasure and dig- sipation. After his death, his illegitimate broiher John obtained the crown, in 1 385, by his spirited eiforts ; and the Portuguese still celebrate on the 14 th of August, the triumph of this prince at Aljubarota, over his Castilian competitor. During a long reign, John so fully established his character for policy and patriotism^ that he was styled the father of his o antry . His militaij enterprises were not numerous ; but his courage was unquestioned; and he evinced it in an expedition to Ceuta, which he annexed to hia dominions. His son Henry was an astronomer and navigator, and di< stinguished himself by his zeal for maritime discovery and colonlsatioa. The veign of Edward, called by the Portuguese don Duarte, via short and inglorious. Alfonso V. was honored with the epithet of the African, for hig ex- ploits against the Moors, from whom he took Tangier, Arzila, and other maritime towns. The coast of Guinea was also discovered under hb auspices ; and, under the sway of John H., Congo was visited, and the Cape of Good-Hope was reached, but not doubled before the reign of Emmanuel, styled the Great, who, by encouraging the adventurous spiiit of his people, greatly promoted their commercial opulence and colonial power. His fleets opened a way to the Indian ocean ; and, in the west, Brazil was introduced to the knowlege of Europeans. John in. succeeded in 1621 ; and, while he lost some of his African setde- ments, made new acquisitions in India. He sent the famous Xavier as a missionary to Japan, and, in the height of his zeal, established that infernal tribunal, the inquisition, in Portugal, in 1526, in defiance of the entreaties and remonstrances of his people. Sebastian, his grandson, succeeded him in 1557, and undertoolc a crusade against the Moors in Africa. In 1578, in a battle with the king of Fez and Morocco, on the banks of the Lucco, he was defeated, and either slain or drowned. Henry, a cardinal, the sou of Emmanuel, succeeded, but died without issue, in 1 580 : on which Antony, prior of Crato, was chosen king, by the states of the kingdom; but Philip II. of Spain, pretending that the crown belonged to him, because his mother \\'at the eldest daughter of Emmanuel, sent the duke of Alva, with a power- ful force, who subdued the country, and proclaimed his master king of Portugal. The viceroys under Philip and his two successors behaved toward the Portuguese with great rapacity and violence. The Spanish ministers treated them as vassals, and, by multiplied acts of oppression and tyranny, 60 excited the hatred and courage of the Portuguese, as to produce a revolt at Lisbon. The people obliged John, duke of Braganza, the ligiti- mate heir to the crown, to accept it ; and he acceded to the throne ia 1640, by the title of John IV., almost without bloodshed ; and the foreign sctttlements also acknowlcged him as their sovereign. A fierce war subsisted for many years between the kingdoms, and all the efforts of the Spaniards to re-unite them proved vain ; so that a treaty was concluded in February, 1668, by which Portugal was declared to be free and independent. The Portuguese could not have supported themselves under theii PORTUGAt. 501 nrolt from Spain, had not the latter power been engaged in wars with Eoeland and Holland ; and, on the restoration of Charles II., that mon- ircb having married a princess of Portugal, influenced the Spanish court to resign all pretensions to that kingdom. Alfonso VI., son to John IV., was then king of Portugal. He had the misfortune to disagree at once with his wife and his brother Peter ; and they, uniting tlieir interests, not only forced Alfonso to resign his crown, on the charges of incapacity and misconduct, but obtained a dispensation from the pope for their marriage, which was actually consummated. They had only a daughter ; but Peter, by a second marriage, had sons, the eldest of whom was John, his successor. John, like his father, joined the grand confe- deracy formed by king William ; but neither of them contributed much to the humiliation of the power of France. On the contrary, John greatly injured the allies, by occasioning the loss of the battle of Almanza, in 1707. He died in 1 750, and was succeeded by his son Joseph, whose reign was neither happy to himself, nor fortunate for his people. A dreadfol earthquake, in 1755, overwhelmed a great part of his capital, and shook his kingdom to the centre. His succeeding administration WIS not distinguished by the affection that it acquired at home, or by the reputation which it sustained abroad. It was deeply stained with domes- tic blood, and rendered odious by horrible cruelty. In September, 1758, the king was attacked by assassins, and narrowly escaped with his life, in a solitary place near his country mansion at Belem. The families of Awiro and Tavora were destroyed by torture, under the charge of having coupirei against his life; but they were condemned without pro- per evidence, and their innocence has since been manifested. From this supposed conspiracy is dated the expulsion of the Jesuits (who were conjectured to have been privy to the plot) from all parts of the Portu- guen dominions. The marquis de Pombal, who was at this time prime minister, governed the kingdom for many years with that unbounded authority which was sometimes directed to the most arbitrary and inhu- man purposes. In 1762, when a war broke out between Spain and England, the Spaniards and their allies, the French, attempted to force the king of Portugal into their.alliance, and offered to garrison his maritime towns against the English. He rejected this proposal, and declared war against the Spaniards, who, without resistance, entered Portugal with a consi- derable army, while a body of French threatened it from another quarter. Some have doubted whether these courts were in earnest an this occasion, and whether the whole of the pretended war was not concerted to force England into a peace with France and Spain, in consideration of the apparent dai^ger of Portugal. It is certain, that both the French and Spaniards earned on the war in a very dilatory manner, and that, had they been in earnest, they might have been masters of Lisbon, long before the arrival of the British troops to the assistance of the Portuguese. However, a few English battalions put an effectual stop, by their courage and conduct, to the progress of the invasion. Portugal was saved, and a peace was concluded at Fontainebleau, in 1763. As Joseph had no son, his eldest daughter Maria was married, by a dispensation from the pope, to don Pedro, her own uncle, to prevent the crown from devolving to a foreign family. She ascended the throne in 1777; and an early act of her reign was the removal of the marquis de Pombal from power ; an event which excited general joy, as might naturally be expected from the oppressive nature of his administra- tion ; though it has been alleged in his favor, that he adopted various 602 PORTUGAL. public measures which were calculated to promote the real inteititof Portugal. While the queen had the full and perfect use of that limited under, standing which she derived from nature and education, she was unac- quainted with the art of good government. Being very weak and super- stitious, she at length declined, from an excess of piety, to a state of derangement; and, in 1792, the prince of Brazil, presumptive heir to the crown, published an edict, declaring that, as his mother, from her unhappy situation, was incapable of managing the affairs of government, he would act as regent till tlie return of her health. Portugal, as the ally of England, professed herself the enemy of revo- lutionary France; but she merely furnished Spain with a few auxiliaiy troops, and sent a small squadron to join the British fleet. After Spain had made pence with France, a war took place between the former country and Portugal, without producing aiiy important events. In August 1797, a negotiation commenced between France and Portugal and a treaty was actually concluded ; but the French directory refused to ratify it, alleging that the queen, far from showing a disposition to adhere to its ai tides, had put her forts and principal ports into the possession of the English. After the failure of this attempt at negotiation, Portugal continued a member of the alliance against France, though her aid was very ineffective. Peace was restored, in 1801 , on the cession of Oltvensa to Spain, and the grant of territorial advantages in Guiana to the French. When the war was renewed, in 1803, between Great-Britain and France, it was natural to suppose that the weakness of Portugal would invite encroachment and encourage insult. The first exercise of irre- gular influence on the part of France, was the arrogant demand of a certain sum, as the price of neutrality ; and, while the regent was thus degraded into a tributary prince, the French ambassador at Lisbon arbitrarily interfered in the government. To this insolence the prince tamely submitted ; but his acquiescence did not, after the peace of Tilsit, secure the realm against the menaces of hostility, Bonaparte then became more imperious and peremptory in his demands, and re- quired that Portugal should join the confederacy of the continental powers against England. The Portuguese government so far complied as to order the ports of the kingdom to be closed against the ships of war and mercantile vessels of Great-Britain; but, knowing how much was to be feared from that power, and how little confidence was to be placed in any peace or favor obtained by submission to the tyrant, the court, after much hesitation, resolved to emigrate to Brazil, and remove thither the seat of government. Accordingly, in November 1807, the whole of the royal family of Braganza, and a consldeiable number of persons of distinction, sailed from the Tagus in a fleet of eight sail of the line, four frigates, and several other vessels of war, bes'de a number of Bra- Eilian ships, conveying together about 18,000 Portuguese subjects. They arrived in South-America without any adverse accident. After the departure of the royal family, the French took possession of the capital, and general Junot assumed the administration. But, when the affairs of Spain encouraged a hope that an effectual resistance might be made to French usurpation, the British court, in 1808, sent an army which, after having defeated the French in the battle of Vimeiro, obliged them to evacuate Portugal, by the convention of Cintra. Being thus rescued from disgraceful tyranny, the Portuguese remainciiimr r-*j^ ^'.f ■*|Mf*'^«Mi(Y^;vy -«t ..■-•^■ly'-ffcH*.!*^'--^'-. 1 ^^ :«. ,>-v»«.-i^--'«a-— « are extensive plai appearance, and i the air unwholcsi rich groves of oli^ mingled with cor mulberry-trees, ^ while transparent Ihe valleys, exhib and forming the i Mountains] of France, Switz along the coast ( Italy, generally Mediterranean. one in the tetrito of the Salso, V Tiber,— the high —and Mount G markable for tl exceeding 7870 The volcanoe vicinity of Napl reserve the descr Lakes, rivi inltaly, arethe about 27 miles : in length and eight broad ; ai The principal in Mount Viso and, after a coi Not far from oi gea, after flowi Veronese. Th into the sea of through that ci Mineral spr Baia, near Na are medicinal the Cheltenhai Metals, m emeralds, jaspi In Savoy and and silver ar( produce copp( papal territor of view: but ploration. B that of Carra the rest. Climate, some parts of which accide di Roma, viY iiaow almoi l.>^!w.»^»« » »_^i ^ ..» > »st^^jW^,p^WSIg|| fe l g ^ ^^ J ,'»i(B«*_^, ITALY. £05 an extensive plains which have rather a naked, though not a barren appearance, and in others niarshos and standing waters, which render the air unwholesome ; but the general aspect of tlie country presents rich groves of olive, orange, citron, almond, and other fruit-trees, inter- mingled with corn-fields, enclosed by rows of tall poplars, elms, and mulberry-trees, which support the luxuriant branclies of the vine ; while transparent streams ilow down the eminences, and meander through ihe valleys, exhibiting at once the image of the most exuberant fertility, and forming the most varied and enchanting landscapes. Mountains] The principal mountains are the Alps on the borders of France, Switzerland, and Germany ; and the Apennines, which run along the coast of Genoa, and then pass through the whole length of Italy, generally approaching nearer to the Adriatic than to the Mediterranean. Connected with the Apeunine chain are four groupes,— <• one in the territory of Sienna, — another to the southward of the valleys of the Salso, Velino, and Nera, and to the eastward of that of the Tiber, — the highlands in the district where Mount Vesuvius is situated, —and Mount Gargano on the eastern coast. The Apennines are not re- markable for their elevation, the highest point (iVIonte Velino) not exceeding 7870 feet above the sea. The volcanoes of Vesuvius and ^tna are situated, the former in the vicinity of Naples, and the latter in the island of Sicily ; but we shall reserve the description of these for the head of Natuual Curiosities. Lakes, rivers, mineral waters.] The most considerable lakes in Italy, are the Lago Maggiore, or the Greater Lake, called also Locarno, about 27 miles in length and three in breadth ; that of Como, 32 miles in length and two and a half in breadth; Garda, 30 miles long and eight broad ; and the lakes of. Lugano, Perusia, Tcrni, and Celnno. The principal rivers are the Po, Adige, Tiber, and Arno. The Po rises in Mount Viso on the Piedmontese frontier, crosses the north of Italy, and, after a course of 300 miles, joins the Adriatic sea by four channels. Not far from one of the mouths of that river, the Adige enters the same , «ea, after flowing from the Grison territory through the Tyrol and the Veronese. The Tiber and the Arno rise in the Apennines, and fall into the sea of Tuscany, the former near Rome, after having flowed through that city, and the latter near Pisa. Mineral springs are found in various parts of Italy. The baths of Baia, near Naples, were celebrated in the time of the Romans. At Pisa are medicinal springs, one of which is said exactly to resemble in taste the Cheltenham water in England. Metals, minerals.] The mountains abound in mines that produce emeralds, jasper, agate, porphyry, lapis-lazuli, and other valuable stones. In Savoy and Piedmont are mines of iron and copper, and even gold and silver are found in the principality. Parma and Tuscany also produce copper, lead, and iron. The kingdom of Naples and the papal territories are not particularly rich in a mineralogical point of view: but the supposed deficiency m^y only arise from want of ex- ploration. Beautiful marble is one of the chief productions of Italy : that of Carrara and of the Sienncse may be considered as superior to the rest. Climate, soil, produce.] The climate of Italy is various, and lome parts of the country exhibit melancholy proofs of the alterations which accidental causes make on the face of nature ; for the Catnpagna di Roma, where the ancient Romans enjoyed the most salubrious air, ii now almost pestilential, through the decrease of inhabitants, wlilcU '^ir'r. • 506 ITALY. has occ. \oned a stagnation of waters and putrid exhalations; for the task of draining, undertalten by Pius VI., proved only a partial and very imperfect remedy. Tiio air of tlie nortliern parts, wliicli lie amoni; the Alps or in tlieir neigl)bourhood, is keen and piercing, tlie ground being in many places covered witli snow in winter. The Apenninw have also a great elVect on the climate ; tlie countries on the gouth being warm, those on the north mild and temperate. The sea-breezes refresh the kingdom of Naples so much, that no remarkable incon- venience of nir is found there, except tlie enervating warm wind called the sirocco. In general, the air of Italy may be said to be dry and pure. Speaking of the climate, Mr.' Eustace observes, that" the principal and almost the (mly inconveniences arise from the equinoctial rains and the summer heats. The iniiuencc of both is felt all over Italy. That of the former is particularly inconvenient, and even sometimes dnngeroui especially in the northern provinces and along the eastern coast." The rivers, he adds, when swelled with continued rains, overflow their bankg- and these inundations do not always subside so soon as might be ex- pected from the general heat and dryness of the climate: "their per- nicious effects are sometimes felt for months afterward." We are jorry to observe, that this ingenious and worthy man foil a victim to that climate which he thus describes. The happy soil of Italy liberally produces the comforts and luxuries o( life : each district has its peculiar excellency and commodity ; wine, the most delicious fruit, and oil, are the most general productions. Ai much corn grows here as serves the inhabitants; and, if the ground should be properly cultivated, the Italians might export all sorts of grain in abundance. In Lombardy, a crop of corn, another of silk, and another of wine, are obtained every year from the same land, the vines being planted in rows, with mulberry-trees for their support, and the intervening spaces sown with corn. Hemp and flax are likewise produced in great plenty : rice, sugar, tobacco, and saffron, are also among the objects of culture. Wool of a good quality is obtained in some provinces ; but sheep are not bred in such numbers as to render the importation of that commodity unnecessary. Great attention is paid in many parts to the breeding of horses, asses, mules, horned cattle, and swine ; yet greater industry might be exerted in those useful departments of rural cnconomy, without seriously encroaching on the time or the indolence of the people. Animals.] There is little difference between the animals of Italy, and those of France and Germany already mentioned : but it has been remarked, tliat the European buffalo is almost peculiar to Italy. Natitral cukiositii'.k.] Among the natural curiosities of Italy, the most conspicuous arc its volcanoes. Mount Vesuvius is about seven miles distant from the city of Naples. The declivity of tliis mountain toward the sea, is planted with vines and fruit-trees, and it is equally fertile near the bottom. The circumjacent plain affords a delightful prospect, and the air is clear and wliolesome. The south and wc«t sides of tlie mountain form very different views, being, Hke the top, covered with black cinders and stones. Its height has been computed to be 3,900 feet above the sea ; and it has been a volcano beyond the reach of history or tradition. An animated description of its ravagei in the Jear 79, is given by the younger Pliny, who was an eye-wilncsi of the tremendous scene. From that time to the year 1631, its erup* tious were small and moderate ; then, however, it broke out with acci|> ITALY. 607 ■oltledfury, and desolated the country for many miles. In 1694 there wii t great eruption, which contir.'.'.ed near a month, when burning Miter was thrown out with such force, that some of it fell at the distance of twenty-five miles, and n vant quantity of liquid lava ran down lilce irirer for three miles, carrying every thing before it which lay in its way. lu 1707, such quantities of cinders and ashes were thrown out, that it waidark at Naples at noon. In i7G7, a violent eruption occurred, which is reckoned to be the 27th from that of the year 79. On this occasion, the uliei, or rather small cinders, showered down so fast at Naples, that the people in the streets were obliged to use umbrellas, or adopt some other expedient, to guard themselves ugainst them. The tops of the houses and balconies were covered with these effusions ; and ships at Ml, fifteen leagues from Naples, were covered with them, to the great utoniihment of the sailors. An eruption happened also in 1766, another in 1779, which have been particularly described by sir William Hamilton in the Philosophical Transactions; and another in June 1794, which nraged a considerable tract, and destroyed a great number of hahi- Utioni. In 1804 there M'as a.so an eruption, and another in 1805, when the ground occupied by the lava was actually on fire. It has been observed, that, though Mount Vesuvius often fills the neighbouring country with terror, yet, as few things in nature are so ibiolutely noxious as not to produce some good, even this raging roicano, by its sulphureous and nitrous manure, and the heat of its lubterraneous fire, contributes not a little to the uncommon fertility of the country, and to the profusion of fruit and herbage with which it is covered. Besides, it is supposed that v/hilc open and active the mountain is less hostile to Naples, than it would he, if its eruptions ihould cease, and its struggles be confined to its own bowels ; for then might ensue the most fatal shocks to the tmstablc foundation of the whole Terra di Lavoro. Mount ^tna is 10,954 feet in height, and has been computed to be 180 miles in circumference at its base, while Vesuvius is only about 30. It stands separate from all other mountains, its figure is circular, and it terminates in a cone. The lower parts of it are very fruitful in com and sugar-canes ; in the middle are woods, olive-trees, and vines ; and the upper part is almost for the whole year covered with snow. Its fiery eruptions have rendered it famous : in one of these, which happened in lfi69, fourteen towns and villages were destroyed, and there have been wveral terrible eruptions since that time, particularly one which destroyed Catania in 1693, and another in 1755. In 1811, several new mouths, opening on the eastern side, discharged, with the greatest force, torrents of burning matter. Thereisgenerally an earthquake before any great eruption. Near the lake Agnano and Pozzuolo there is a valley called Solfatara, because vast quantities of sulphur are continually forced out of the clefts by subterranean fires. The grotto del Cane is remarkable for its poison- ous steams, and is so called from its killing dogs that enter it, if forced to remain there. Among the curiosities of Italy, those vast bodies of snow and ice, which are called the glaciers of Savoy, deserve to be particularly men- tioned. There are five glaciers, which extend almost to the plain of the vale of Chamouni, and arc separated by wild forests, corn- fields, and rich meadows; so that immense tracts of ice are blended with the highest cultivation, exhibiting striking vicissitudes and all the force of contrast. All these valleys of ice, which lie chiefly in the hollows of the mountains, and are some leagues in length, unite at the foot of Mont Blanc, the 508 ITALY. highest mountain in Europe. According to the calculations of M. de Luc, the heigljt of this mountain above the level of the gea in 2391 French toises or 15,300 English feet. The highest part of this remarkable mountain is in the form of a compressed hemisphere : from tliat point it sinks gradually, and exhibits a kind of concave surface of snow, in the midst of which is a small pyramid of icn: it then rises intoaaecond hemisphere, and thence descends into another concave surface, terminat- ing in a point. The first person who reached the summit was Ur Pacard. Ho ascended, in 1786, with the aid of one Bui ma, who, Id searching for crystals, had discovered the only practicable route. They were employed about fifteen hours in reaching the " giddy height," and only 6ve hours in descending. The snow and wind rendered them, for a time, almost blind ; their faces were excoriated, and their lips iwoUeD. A more philosophical observer was M. de Saussure, who found that of all the organs, that of respiration was the most affected by the ascent! Having marched over turf or on the solid rock, he and his attendants passed the first night in tents on the top of La Cote, a mountain which is about 5440 feet above the sea. The rest of their adventurous journey was over ice or hardened snow. The next morning, they traversed a glacier which was intersected by wide and deep chasms, some of which could only be passed by bridges of snow ; and thus they reached the foot of a small chain of rocks, enclosed in the snows of the principal mountain. In the afternoon they reached what may be called the second stage, and encamped for the night at the height of 12,760 feet above the sea. On this resting-place there was no appearance of vege- tation, and nothing but snow of a daz;iling whiteness could be seen around, while the sky was exceedingly dark. On the ensuing morn, occasionally cutting places for their feet with hatchets, they proceeded to the utmost elevation. The air was so rarefied as they approached the summit, that they were obliged to stop almost continually for the pur|)osc of taking breath ; and the dryness of the atmosphere, which ct)ntained only a sixth portion of the humidity of the air of Geneva, harassed them with a burning thirst. A rival of Mont Blanc is the mountain Rosa, which was long s\ipposed to be higher than the former ; but, according to some late trigonometrical observations, the latter is about 575 feet lower. A late tourist (Mr. Bakewell) says, " The most striking object in the valley of Chamouni, next to the glaciers, and more deserving of the labor of a journey than Mont Blanc, is the Aiguille de Dru, a spire of granite, which shoots up to the height of 1 1 ,00U feet above the level of ' the sea, and is apparently detached from all the surrounding mountains. The upper part is utterly inaccessible ; its sides are rounded, and are said to have a polish or glazing like that which is sometimes seen on granite rocks exposed to the action of the sea. I have neither seen nor have I heard of any pinnacle of granite in the Alps that can be compared with it for the elegance of its form or the length of its shaft," The cascade of Ter;ii is the finest object of the kind that Italy can exhibit. The river Velino, at a short distance from its junction with the Nar, falls suddenly down a precipice, nearly 300 feet in height, and dashes with such violence on the rocks below, that a great part of its stream rises in vapor. It afterwards falls down two other preci- pices, almost as high as the first, its waters each time rising in a kind of mist. The aggregate height of the three falls is supposed to be about 750 feet. Near Tivoli is a small but beautiiul cascade, the river Teverone (the ancient Aaio) falling about 50 feet. ITALY. 509 Natiowai character, manners, customs.] The Italians are MMrtlly well-proportioned, and have such meaning in their looks, that ^y have greatly assisted the ideas of their painters. The women are fell-ihaped, and many of them are very handsome ; and they are as loioroiu as those of Spain. The marriage ties, especially of the higher clus are said to be of very little value in Italy. Every wife has bten represented to have her gallant or cicisbeo, with whom she keeps cofflpaoyi and sometimes cohabits, with very little ceremony, and no offence on either side. But this is an exaggerated statement, as it can- got be supposed that the generality of husbands are so regardless of their honor, as tamely to acquiesce in the abominable criminality to which the full extent of this practice would lead. Although the characters of the nations of Italy exhibit various ap- pearances, they agree in some respects. Sobriety and temperance may be considered as pervading all the communities, and appearing in every dan of society. The people are rather vindictive than brave, and fflon superstitious than devout. The middling ranks were long attached totheirnative customs, and seemed to have few ideas of improvement; but that disinclination to change or reform is now declining. With exterior courtesy, a supercilious pride is sometimes mingled; for, though perhaps all Italy does not contain many descendants of the ancient Romans, yet the present inhabitants speak of themselves as luccetsors of the conquerors of the world, and seem to look upon the rest of mankind with contempt. T-e people of Lombardy appear to be the most respectable of all the Inlian nations (except perhaps the Savoyards), in morals, benevolence, and gond-nature ; and the Tuscans, for goodness of character, seem to claim the next place. The Piedmontese are considered as the Gascons of Italy. Among the Neapolitans and Sicilians, a thirst of revenge is more prevalent than in the other Italian states: but we are pleased to find, that the shameful laxity of the police, which suffered so many assas- rinations to be committed with impunity, is gradually yielding to a conviction of the necessity of repressing such outrages by all the energy of law.— The Genoese are a calcu' .ting race, and the generous feelings which ought to influence every community, are repressed among them by sordid selfishness. Their marriages are regulated by motives of interest, and are usually settled by the parents or relatives without the least regard to the inclinations of the young persons. Their women (saysM. Vieusseux) " are among the handsomest of Italy. They have, in general, elegant figures, delicate complexions, dark hair and eyes, and pretty features; and their deportment is remarkably graceful." Persons of the higher class at Rome are less refined and intellectual, and less upright than those of Florence or Milan ; and the people of the ecclesiastical state are in general indolent and ignorant, and evince, by low cunning and a want of manly spirit, the debasing effects of arbi- trary misrule. Religion.] The religion of Italy is the Roman>catholic. It is pretended that St, Peter was the founder of the Romish church, and that he gave it pre-eminence and authority over every other Christian establishment: but this assertioi; is strongly controverted and peremp- torily denied by protestants. However that may be, it appears that the bishops of Rome began, at an early period, to claim spiritual supremacy, and gradually secured the acquiescence of many nations in the validity of their pretensions. A pompous establishment, inconsistent with the limplicity of religion, was at length formed in the imperial city ; and no ITALY. temporal power was added to spiritual dignity. Beside the pope, «eventv cardinals are allowed ; but that number is seldom complete : they are appointed by his holiness, who, in promoting foreign prelates to the car- dinalship, attends to the nomination of the princes who profegg that religion. His chief minister is the cardinal patron, generally lug njj. relative, who improves the time of the pope's reigu by amassing all the V alth that he can procure. Tlie cardinals, when they meet in a con- sistory, pretend to control the pontiff in matters both spiritual and tem- l>orai, and have been sometimes known to prevail. The reign of a pope is seldom of long duration, as those who are elected are generally old men. The conclave is a scene where the cardinals principally endeavour to display their abilities, and where many transactions pass very incon- sistent with their pretended inspiration by the Holy Ghost. During the election of a pope in 1721 , the animosity rose to. such a height, that they made a violent use of their hands and feet, and 'i.hrew the ink-standg at each other. ' We will here give an extract from the creed of pope Pius IV. (1560), before his elevation to the chair, which contains the principal points wherein the church of Rome differs from the protestant churches. After declaring his belief in one God, and other heads wherein Christiang in general agree, he thus r>roceeds: '* I most firmly admit and embrace the apostolical and ecclesiastical traditions', and all other constitutions of the church of Rome. " I admit the Holy Scriptures in the same sense that the holy molher- '-hurch doth, whose business it i8tojudg( of ..fi true sense and inter- pretation of them ; and I will interpret them according to the unanimous consent of the fathers. " I profess and believe that there are seven sacraments of the law, properly so called, instituteJ by Jef \e Christ our Lord, and necessary to the salvation of tniiukind, thov.^a not all of them to every one; namely, baptism, confirmation, eucharist, penance, extreme unction, orders, and marriage : and that they confer grace ; and that of there, baptism, confirmation, and orders, may not be repeated without sacri- lege. I also receive and adaiit the approved rites of the catholic church in her solemn administration of the above-mentioned sacraments. " I embrace and receive every thing tliat hath been defined and declared by the holy council of Trent concerning origiral sin and justifi- cation. " I also profess that in the mass there is offered to God a true, propfir, and propitiatory sacrifice for the quick and the dead ; and that in the most holy sacrament of the euchaiist the body and blood, the soul and divinity, of our Lord Jesus Christ, are really and siibstantially present, and that there is a conversion made of the whole substance of the bread into the body, and uf the whoir substance of the wine into the blood; which conversion the catholic church calls Transubstautiation. I confess that under one kind only, whole and entire, Christ and a true sacrament are taken and received. " I firn)ly believe that there is a purgatory ; and that the souls kept prisoners there receive help by the suffrages of the faithful. " 1 likewise believe that the saints reigning with Christ are to be wor- shiped and prayed to ; and that they offer up prayers to God for us, and that their reliques are to be had in veneration. *' I Moat firmly assert, that the images of Christ, of the blessed Virgin the mother of God, and of other saints, ought to be had nnd retai&ed, ai:d tiujA iduQ hooor aod Tcoeratioa ought to be given to them. ITALY. BU I' I likewise affirm, that the power of indulgences was left by Christ to the church, and that their use is very beneiicial to Christian " I acknowlege the holy catholic and apostolical Roman church to be the mother and mistress of all churches ; and I promise and swear true obedience to the bishop of Rome, the successor of St. Peter, the prince of theapostles, and vicar of Jesus Christ. " I undoubtedly receive and profess all other things which have been delivered, defined, and declared, by the sacred canons and oecu- menical councils, and especially by the holy synod of Trent. And all oth 'diings contrary thereto, and all heresies condemned, rejected, and anathematised, by the church, I likewise condemoj reject, and anathe- matise." Learning and learned men, painters, statuaries, ar- eaiTSCTS, AND ARTISTS.] In the Introduction, we have particularised some of the great men whom ancient Italy produced. In modern times, that is, since the revival of learning, some Italians have excelled in con- troversial literature ; but they are chiefly celebrated by bigots of their own persuasion. The mathematics and natural philosophy owe much to Galileo, Torricelli, Malpighi, Borelli, and several other Italians. Strata is an excellent historian : and the History of the Council of Trent, by the celebrated father Paul, is a standard work. Guicciardiui, Beu- tivogiio, and Davila, have been much commended as historians. Ma- cliiavel is equally famous as an historian and a political writer. His comedies have great merit : and the liberality of his sentiments, for the age in which he lived, is amazing. Among the prose writers in the Italian language, Boccaccio has been thought one of the most pure and correci. in point of style: he was a very natural painter of life and man- ners, but his productions are too licentious. Petrarca, who wrote both u I^tifl and Italian, revived among the moderns the spirit and genius of ancient literature: bui, among the Italian poets, Dante, Arioslo, and Tasso, are the most distinguished. There are said to be more than a thousand comedies in the Italian language, though not many that are excellent : but Alficri was a masterly tragedian, and Metastasio acquired a great reputation by writing dramatic pieces set to music. Gaun'-zarius, Fracastorius, Bombo, Vida, and other natives of Italy, distinguished themselves by the elegance, conoctness, and spirit, of their Latin poetry, many of their compositions scarcely yielding t^ the classics themselves. Sucinus, distinguished by his opposition to the doctrine of the Trinity, was a native of Italy. The Italian painters, sculptors, and architects, are unrivaled, not only in their number, but in their excellence. The revival of learning, after lue conquest of Constantinople by the Turks, revived taste likewise, £ 516 ITALY. cised in modern times ivith such lenity, that many of the Venetians would rather wish to revert to it than to be subject to Austrian domina- tion; and it is said that the arbitrary treatment of the people, during the emperor's first possession of the country, before the French witiidrew it from his yoke, gave them a strong disgust to that transfer to which their weakness obliged them to submit, fiut it does not appear that, since the incorporation of the province with the Milanese, the yoke has been so grievous or oppressive as to produce general discontent. While the superb Genoa stands on the shore, the equally stately city of Venice seems to be in the sea. It is seated on a great number of islands near the northern extremity of the Adriatic, and is separated from the continent by a lake of four miles in breadth. The grandeur of this city is almost beyond expression. " Its churches, palaces, and public build- ings of every description (says Mr. Eustace), and sometimes even its private edifices, have in their size, materials, and decorations, a certaiu air of magnificence truly Roman." Among the churches, those of St, Mark and St. Zeminiano, della Salute, and the greater St. George, are, if not the most splendid, highly worthy of the most attentive notice. Tlie ducal palace is a fabric of vast extent, of great solidity, and of venerable appearance. A late tourist says, " The richest palace in interior decora- tion that I saw, was that of the Grimani family. Its floors are of marble, the tables of precious stones, the chairs and curtains of rich silk, the walls covered with looking-glasses ; and it contains a cabinet of valuable antique sculpture, and some of Titian's finest portraits. All that it want- ed of an eastern palace was light and air, with distant vistas of hill and grove." The arsenal of Venice is one of the best in Europe, considered as a repository : but it is miserably deficient in arms, stores, and shipping. The celebrated Rialto is a very bold arch, ^of an extraordinary but not unprecedented span, thrown over the grand canal. Tliis spot is said to have been the seat of the original city, founded in the fifth century. The halls and chapels of various commercial fraternities are all of noble proportions, richly furnished, and decorated, like the churches, with masterly works of the pencil. It is perhaps unnecessary to observe, that a city which, viewed from some distance, seems to be in a manner built in the sea, must not only be an unhealthy but an incommodious place of resi- dence. The flatness of the situation, the eflluvia from so many canals, the narrowness of the streets, the necessity of making use of gondolas, or of crossing a multiplicity of ill-constructed bridges, and the want of pleasant rides and walks, are sufficient to deter a stranger from settling in this renowned city. Before the revolution in this state, the capital contained 150,000 inhabitants; but the population is supposed to have decreased consi- derably since that event. The commerce of the city has also declined: yet it is not insignificant or contemptible : for the excellent mirrors produced by the Venetian manufacturers, their scarlet cloth, wrought silk, velvet, embroidered articles, and gold and silver stuifs, are still in great request; and their merchants copiously receive and re-export the commodities of other nations. The harbour is not very convenient, nor is it altogether safe at the entrance ; but, to protect the city and port against the swell and the stornis of the Adriatic, a strong ram- part has been formed of blocks of Istrian stone for many miles along the shore. The navy of Venice, at the commencement of the fifteenth century, was very formidable, if it consisted (as we are informed) of 300 ships of war, ITALY. 517 in which 80,000 men were ready to act, and of 145 galleya, in which II goo served. The mercantile vessels, at the same time, amounted to 3000; but, in 1782, not so many as 400 were employed. Before the gubversion of the republic, the navy dwindled to twelve ships of the line and frigates, and fifteen galleys, beside a few sloops and cutters. To maintain this fleet, and an army of about 15,000 men, and to provide for other branches of the public service, the state had a revenue of a luiilion and a half sterling. In ecclesiastical affairs, Venice had two patriarchs ; the authority of one extended over all the provinces, but neither of them had much power. All religious sects, even Jews, Mohammedans, and pagans, were tolerated by the government in the public exercise of their reli- gion, except protestants, who were only suffered to worship God in private. The Venetians are a lively ingenious people, extravagantly fond of tiieatrical amusements, with an uncommon relish for humor. Tliey aro in general tall and well made ; and many fine manly countenances are met with in the streets of Venice, resembling those which are transmit- ted to us by the pencils of Paul Veronese and Titian. The women are of a fine style of countenance, with expressive features, and have an easy address. The common people are remarkably sober, obliging to strangers, and gentle in their intercourse with each other. As it was very much the custom to go about in masks at Venice, and great liberties were taken during the time of the carnival, an idea has prevailed, that there was much more licentiousness of manners here than in other places; but this opinion seems to have been carried too far. Great num- bers of strangers visit Venice during the time of the carnival ; and the ceremony of espousing the Adriatic, by throwing a ring into the sea, on Ascension-day, was also an object of attraction ; but that custom is now discontinued. Verona is beautifully situated near the A dige, partly on a hill, which forms the last swell of the Alps, and partly on the borders of an im- mense plain, extending from those mountains to the Apennines. Most of the streets are narrow and crooked ; but some are wide, regular, and handsome. In the middle of that which is called the Corso, stands a double Roman gate, built of marble, and highly ornamented. The more pleasing remains of another gate form the front of an insignificant house; and a stately modern gate is also admired. Some fine palaces and reli- gious structures likewise decorate the city : among tlie latter, the chapel of St. Bernardino and the painted cloister of St. Zeno are more particu- larly striking. The Museum is elegantly built, and contains a large collection of antiquities, principally formed and arranged by Maffei, a learned Veronese. When the French, during the revolutionary war, were masters of this town, they destroyed its fortifications, and wan- tonly injured some of the buildings, beside committing many base acts of depredation. For several centuries, Verona and the neighbouring terri- tory composed an independent republic, which at length submitted to the superior power of Venice. Its present population is not inconsiderable, as it is supposed to exceed 57,000. Vicenza, having been consigned to the flames by the emperor Fre- deric II., cannot be expected to di-^play any Roman fabrics; but it con- tains numerous productions of modern genius, particularly many beauti- ful works of Palladio, who w^as born within its walls. The Olympic theatre, which was built in 1584, and is considered as his master-piece, is uow used for the meetings of a literary society. Twenty palaces, inferior I 518 ITALY. to those of Genoa in materials and magnitude, but superior inbeautv are attributed to that celebrated architect, and form the glory of Vi' cenza. Both Verona and Vicenza have some silken manufactmes which, however, do not greatly flourish. ' Thedeclineof Padua has been frequently noticed, and travelers have repeated the observation, that grass grows in most of the streets: yet (says Mr. Eustace) " it is still a great, and in n^any respects a beau- tiful city, as its circumference is near seven miles, its population about 50,000 persons, and, notwithstanding the general narrowness of its streets, many of its buildings, both public and private, are truly m^. nificent." The abbey of St, Justina and its church are in the hiohest style of architecture ; and the piazza before it is one of the largest and noblest in Europe. The town-hall is rather spacious than elegant ; but the academical buildings are handsome, though they are so little fre- quented, that scarcely 650 students usually belong to an university which formerly boasted of having 18,000 assembled within its precincts. There are also literary and scientific societies ; and the town is not wholly de- stitute of manufactures and trade. Mantua is a large city, with wide streets and well-built houses; and the strength of the citadel and other works fully appeared in the long siege which it sustained from the French. The situation of the town is not very salubrious, as it stands on the borders of a large lake, formed by the Mincio. Its most remarkable buildings are the cathedral, the palace which the dukes inhabited, the hall of justice, the church and library of the Franciscans, and the structures belonging to the univer- sity and the imperial academy. The duchy of SAVOY and principality of PIEDMONT, after being for many years under the sway of France, were restored, in 18 14, to the king of Sardinia. Of the former territory Chamberri is the capital, and Turin of the latter. There is a great difference in the population of each of these cities; for Chamberri, in 1815, contained only 11,763 inhabit- ants, when the gay metropolis of the principality had about 85,000. The chief town of the duchy is situated in a fertile valley : it is defended by a citadel and other works in the old style of fortification, and is nearly surrounded by eminences, which are covered with neat villas. It is the seat of a royal council, and is honored with the residence of some of the Savoyard nobles. Turin is divided into the old and new towns : in one, the streets are narrow and irregular, and the houses ill-built ; in the other, the streets are wide, and the buildings in general are of a superior kind. The royal palace is more distinguished by interior elegance than by external mag- nificence, while that of the hereditary prince has a more imposing aspect, The citadel is a regular pentagon, and comprehends a well-stored arsenal and a cannon-foundery. In the street of the Po, the finest in the whole city, stands the university, of which it may be said, that the edifice is stately, and the institution is respectable. Various manufactures are carriecron in the town, and the trade in silk is very considerable, because that commodity, produced in Piedmont, is, on account of its fineness and lightness, considered as the best in Europe. GENOA is now a dependency of Piedmont, or of the Sardinian crown. The territory of the late republic was not very extensive, as it only con- tained 1 ,440 square miles ; and its revenue, at the lime of the arbitrary transfer, is said to have been less than 200,000/. sterling; but it ought to ITALY, 519 be observed, that the state dorivcd additional re.aources from the flou- rishing bank of St. George. It was in a state of subjection to the French io 1528, when Andrew Doria roueed the spirit of the people, and de- livered his country from a disgraceful yoke. The capital is situated between mountains and the sea, and it makes a noble appearance to thme who enter the harbour, being finely and romantically built upon a declivity, in a semicircular form. It is protected by a double range of fortifications, and the outworks enclose all the hills from which the city might be annoyed by an enemy. By the natives it is called the Super and not without some reason ; for, beside many handsome private houses, it exliibits many magnificent churches, and fine palaces of marble : yet it has only two wide streets, the rest of the city being intersected by very narrow dark lanes, full of ill-built and incommodious houses. The church of the Annunciataa is considered as the finest in the whole town; but it does not attract so many strangers as the little church of San- Stefano, which exhibits a picture of the Martyrdom of St. Stephen, the united work of Rafifaelle and Julio Romano, — or as the chapel of the Aibergo dei Poveri (a noble charitable institution), which displays a beautiful alto-relievo by Michael Angelo, and a sculptured altar-piece by Puget. The chief manufactures of the city are velvet, damask, gold and silver tissue, and paper. It contains about 105,000 inhabitants. Its maiidmc power has dwindled to a few galleys. The common people are wretched beyond expression, as is the greater part of the soil of its ter- ritory, though near the sea some parts are tolerably well cultivated. The old government of Genoa was aristocratic, being vested in the nobility ; the chief magistrate was called the doge ; to which dignity no person was promoted before he had completed his fiftieth year. Once in two years a new doge was chosen, and the former became incapable, during five years, of holding the same post again. The doge gave audience to ambassadors; all orders of the government were issued in his name, and he was allowed to have a guard of two hundred Germans. The duchy of PARMA, to which Placentia and Guastalla are united, forms one of the most flourishing states in Italy, in proportion to its extent. The soil is fertile in corn and fruit; and considerable manufactures of silk are carried on by the inhabitants. The city of Parma is the seat of a bishop, and has an university ; and some of its churches and palaces are enriched vith the beautiful productions of Correggio. It contains about 40,000 inhabitants, and Placentia about .32,000. Both are em- bellished with magnificent edifices. The late duke of Parma was a prince of the house of Bourbon, being son to don Philip, the younger brother of Charles III. of Spain. His court was thought to be the politest of any in Italy; and his revenue amounted to 175,000/. sterling a year. After his death in 1803, the French took possession of the duchy. On the ruin of Napoleon, the allies granted the sovereignty of it to his wife Maria Louisa. The duchy of MODENA, after a patient endurance of Gallic tyranny, was restored by the congress of Vienna to the house of Este, with the ducal territories of Mirandola and Massa. The united country is nearly of the sauio extent with the duchy of Genoa, or that of Parma ; and the population is said to amount to 350j000, of whom about 23,000 occupy the capital, which stands in a delightful plain between the Secchia and tlie Panaro, and is strengthened by a citadel. Of this city a female visitant of Italy ^ays, " It is not large, but has that air of liveliness which ){ 620 ITALY. distinguishes a capital. Its general architectHre is exceedingly elegant and somewhat striking to a stranger, the niajority of the streets beiiw huilt with open arcades, which add greatly to the beauty of the place, The ducal palace is a handsome structure, not (like that of Parma) on too great a scale for the state, but completely Bnished, superbly furnished and kept up in a suitable style. Among its decorations is a rare and very beautiful marble, called scogliato, of a bright azure blue, slightly mixed with deeper shades of the same color. The library of this palace in numerous and excellent, and the picture-gallery is esteemed one of the finest in Italy." To the grand duchy of TUSCANY, the king of Naples was obliged to resign the state delli Presidii (a part of the Siennese), and his share of the isle of Elba. About 7,250 square miles form the dimensions of the country. Florence, its well-known capital, contains about 85,000 inhabitants. It is situated between mountains covered with olive-trees vineyards, and delightful villas, and divided by the Arno. It is a place of some strength, and its large old structures, which were occasionally used as fortresses, have an imposing aspect, while its modern buildings make a more pleasing impression. The valuable antiquities accu- mulated in the courts and gardens of the mansion of the Medici family by Lorenzo the. Magnificent, and the permission givon by him to the Florentine artists to examine such fine models, rendered his residence a sort of studio, and led to the establishment of the celebrated ^d'.cij, The busts of the Roman emperors and other personages are very striking; two statues of Apollo, and the representation of tlie death of Laccoiin and his two sons, are viewed with earnest attention ; but, of the sculp- tural remains, the most admired is the statue of \'t'nus, which, from the inscription on its base, appears to have been fabricated by Cleomcnes, an Athenian, the son of Apollodorus. It'is of white marble, and is a model of fine proportions, beauty, and elegance. The palace Pitti is now the residence of the grand duke ; and it is a brilliant school of pictorial art. Some of its apartments arc decorated by many of the finest portraits and history-pieces that the world can exhibil, and the walls are said to " breathe an air of the Iiighest art." The other chief towns of Tuscany are Pisa, Leghorn, and Sienna: the first and last arc much decayed; but the second, which the Italians call Livorno, is a very handsome city, built in the modern style with such regularity, that both gates are seen from the market-place. It is well fortified, having two forts toward the sea, beside the citadel. The ramparts aftbrd a very agreeable prospect of the sea, and of many villas on the land side. Here all nations, even the Mohammedans, have free access, and are allowed to settle. The inhabitants are reckoned at 47,000, among whom are said to be 20,000 Jews, who live in a particu- lar quarter of the city, have a handsome synagogue, and, though subject to heavy imposts, are in a thriving condition. This town has a fine harbour; and its merchants supply a great part of Italy with colonial produce, the commodities of the Levant, and the general merchandise of Europe. The inhabitants of LUCCA are the most industrious of the Italians. They had improved their country into a beautiful garden, so that their annual revenue amounted to 80,000/. sterling. Their capital is Lucca, which contains about 42,000 inhabitants, who deal in silk, wine, and fruit, especially olives. The vicinity of the grand-duchy of Tuscany kept the people < their freedom; Biony could alone liberty, whose I vts not only in all their public publican freedoi Jilaria Louisa. The republic curiosity. It* * few eminences n preserved their 1,300 years. enslaved by th( pendence. The ECCL of Rome, form city is thirteen amounts to 165 when compared The castle o to be of small standing upon thatitisdiffici it was original! is the strongest magnificence ( was mistress ol church; and architecture, i temples, thouj been an amaz: more magnifn palaces we & meats of anti various poin survey of its palaces, thos and academi most striking the spectatoi The citie with their t the three, ai is rich, beau Modena, it a number mansions c Bolognese, have added certain wei for both » obliged to ITALY. 521 kept the people of Lucca constantly on thoir guard, in order to preserve their freedom ; for, in such a situation, universal concord and Iiar- oony could alone enable them to preserve the blessings of their darling liberty, whose name they bore on their arms, and whose imago vta not only impressed on their coin, but also on the city-gates, and ail their public buildings. They have now, however, lost their re- publican freedom, being subjected to the authority of the infanta Maria Louisa. The republic of ST. MARINO is here mentioned as a geographical curiosity. Its territories consist of a high craggy mountain, with a few eminences near the bottom ; and the inhabitants boast of having preserved their liberties as a republic, with little intermission, for 1,300 years. It was under tho protection of the pope, before it was enslaved by the French. It has since resumed an aspect of inde- pendence. The ECCLESIASTICAL STATE is dignified by the possession of Rome, formerly the splendid capital of civilised paganism. That city is thirteen miles in circumference, and its population probably amounts to 165,000. It stands upon the Tiber, an inconsiderable river when compared to the Thames, navigated only by small boats and barges. The castle of St. Angelo, though its chief fortress, would be found to be of small strength, if it should be regularly besieged. The city, standing upon the ruins of ancient Rome, lies much higher, so that it is difficult, if not impossible, to distinguish the seven liills on which it was originally built. When wo consider Rome as it now stands, there is the strongest reason to believe that it exceeds the old town in the magnificence of its structures. Nothing perhaps in the city, when it was mistress of the world, could come in competition with St. Peter's church; and probably other churches in Rome exceed, in beauty of architecture, and value of materials, utensils, and furniture, her ancient temples, though it must be acknowleged that the Pantheon must have been an amazing structure. No city, in its general appearance, can unite more magnificence and poverty than this, as adjoining the most superb palaces we see the meanest habitations, and temples, the boasted orna- ments of antiquity, choked up by sheds and cottages. It is, however, in various points of view, a most attractive spot : and even a cursory survey of its curiosities would occupy a long period. The pope's three palaces, those of the chief nobility, the religious structures, the colleges and academies, concur with the numerous remains of ancient art (the most striking of which we have mentioned in another place) to interest the spectator in a very high degree. The cities of Bologna, Fcrrara, and Ravenna, have been restored with their territories to the pope. The first is the most flourishing of the three, and therefore deserves, at least, transient notice. Its situation is rich, beautiful, and picturesque. Villas and villages form itssuburbs. Like Modena, it has numerous arcades ; and, like other cities of Italy, it has a number of fine paintings distributed among its churches and the mansions of its principal inhabitants. Lady Morgan says, " The Bolognese, always characterised by the Italians as franchi e giocondi, have added since the French revolution, to these amiable qualifications, a certain weight, which is the result of their improved system of education for both sexes. By the overthrow of monastic institutions parents are obliged to educate their children at home, or to send them to the liberal 522 ITALY. BchooU nowly established, ^vhich are calculated to prepare tlic males for the universities, nnd then for the world, and the fenniles for domestic duties, once so little known in Italy. The abolition of vain distinctions, which served only to separate and distract, was more willingly submitted to in Boloena than in any other city of the peninsida ; and the per< manent effects of this change are visible in the actual position of society in which birth forms no ground of exclusion against those who can produce credentials of talent and education." Ancona, situated on the Adriatic, is a place of considerable trade and contains about 2.5,000 inhabitants, it was made a free port by Clement XII., who formed a mole on the ruins of the ancient one raised by the emperor Trajan, above 2,000 feet in length, 100 in breadth' and about 60 in depth, from the surface of thu sea. Near this stands the trium])hal arch of Trajan, which, next to the MaisonQuame at Nlsmes, is the most entire monument of Roman magnificence existing. The rest of the ecclesiastical state contains many towns celebrated in ancient history, and even now exhibiting the most striking vestiges of tbeir former splendor : but they are at present little better than desolate. Loretto, in the mean time, an obscure spi)t, never thought or heard of in times of antiquity, became the admiration of the world, for the riches which it contained, and the prodigious resort to it of pilgrims and other devotees, from a notion industriously propagated by the Romish clergy, that the house in which the Virgin Mary is said to have dwelt at Nazareth wa« carried thither through the air by angels, and that all the trees, on the arrival of the sacred mansion, bowed with the profoundest reverence. The imago of the Virgin, and that of the divine infant, are of cedar, placed in a small apartment, separated from the others by a sil vsr balustrade, which had a gate of the same metal. The two figures wi re loaded with gold chains, rings, and jewels, emeralds, pearls, and ruMes; and the angels of solid gold, placed on every side, were equally enriched with precious stones. To the super- stition of catholic princes Loretto was indebted for this mass of treasure. But, on the approach of the French, after their invasion of the papal state, this treasure was privately withdrawn, and tlie invaders found little to gratify their rapacity : indeed it was very generally supposed, that all the gold and jewels had been carried away long before, and ordinary metals and stones of less value substituted in their place. There is nothing very particular in the pope's tem])oral government at Rome. Like other princes, he has guards, or slnrri, who keep the peace of the city, under proper magistrates, both ecclesiastical and civil. The Campagna di Roma, which contains Rome, is under the inspection of his holiness. In the other provinces ho governs by legates and vice-legates. The king of NAPLES and SICILY, or, as he is sometimes styled, the king of the Two Sicilies, possesses the largest dominions of any prince in Italy, as thoy comprehend the ancient countries of Saninium, Campania, Apulia, Magna Gra^cia, and the island of Sicily, containing in all about 30,000 square miles. They are bounded by the Medi- terranean and the Adriatic, except on the north-west, where Naples borders upon the ecclesiastical state. The air is hot, and the soil fruitful. The city of Naples, which is adorned with all the profusion pf art. and richesji and it^ charming neighbourhood, WQuld be 9, most are excessr ITALY. 523 dellglitfiil place of rcsldenoo, were it not for the vicinity of Vesuvius, vhlch gometimes threatens the city with destruction, and for the number of insects and reptiles, some of which arc venomous. Tlie liouses are inadequate to the population, but in general are five or six stories ia height, and flat at the top ; on which are placed numbers of flower- vajes, or fruit-trees, in boxes of earth, producing a very gay and tffreeablo efl'ect. Some of the streets are very handsome : no street in Rome equals in beauty the Strada di Toledo at Naples, or the streets which are open to the bay. Though above two-thirds of the property of the nation were in the hands of the ecclesiastics, before the French seised the kingdom in 1806, the protestants lived here with great freedom ; and though his Neapoli- tan majesty presented to his holiness every year a palfrey, as an acknow- legement that his kingdom was a fief of the pontificate, yet no inquisi- tion was established in Naples. Tiic royal revenue amounted to alxjut 1,400,000/. sterling a year, of which Sicily only contributed 280,000/. The exports of the kingdom were legumes, hemp, wool, oil, wine, cheese, lish, honey, wax, manna, saffron, gums, capers, macaroni, salt, pot-ash, flax, cotton, silk, and various manufactures. The king had a numerous but generally poor nobility, consisting of princes, dukes, marquises, and other high sounding titles ; and his capital, i^a most |>opulous in Italy, contained at least 350,000 inhabitants. Among thebc «.;iere were 30,000 lazaroni, or blackguards, the greater part of whom had no dwelling- houses, but slept, every night in summer under porticoes, piazzas, or any kind of shelter they could find ; and in the winter, or rainy time of the year, which lasts several weeks, the rain falling in torrents, they re- sorted to the caverns under Capo di Monte, where they slept in crowds like sheep in a fold. Those who had wives and children lived in the suburbs of Naples, in huts or in caverns. Some gained a livelihood by fishing, others by carrying burthens to and from the shipping; many walked about the streets ready to run on errands, or to perform any labor in their power for a very small recompence. As they did not meet with constant employment, their wages were not sufficient for their main- tenance : but the deficiency was in some degree supplied by the soup, bread, and other provisions, which were distributed at the gates of the convents. But the success of the French, and their spirit of reform, oc- casioned a great change in some of these respects. If their hostility to monastic foundations soon showed itself, their conduct in that instance ought not to be severely blamed : but they deserve the asperity of cen- sure for having aggravated the general poverty by extortion and rapine : they neither encouraged trade nor the arts, nor properly attended to the welfare and happiness of the nation. In one point, however, they acted in such a manner as to claim our praise. It is well known that the hor- rible practice of assassination was encouraged under the preceding go- vernment by impunity : but the usurpers Joseph and Joachim repressed that enormity by condign punishment. With regard to the present state of the country, we may observe, that it is not very flourishing; the energies of the people, which might make it a most desirable spot, are not properly called into action ; and a gene- ral reform is requisite to give it its due rank among civilised kingdoms. Although there is so much poverty among the middle and lower classes, there is a great appearance of wealth among some of the nobles, who are excessively fond of show and splendor. This appears in the bril- liancy of their equipages, the number of their attendants, the richness of their dress, and the grandeur of their titles. The clergy also ^re 524 ITALY. addicted to parade and ostentation. Religious processions arc more nu merous and splendid at Naples thun in Rome : the churches are more magnificently decorated, and more rich in silver. In all parts of the kingdom of Naples the traveler may be said to tread on classic ground. There are still traces of the memorable town of Cannae, as fragments of altars, cornices, gates, walh, vaults, and grana- ries; and the scene of action, between Hannibal and the Romans is still marked out to posterity by the name ofpezzo di sanguc, " the field of blood." Tarento was once the rival of Rome ; but it is at present ji arcely remarkable for any thing but its fisheries. Sorrento stands on the verge of steep rocks that overhang the bay, and, of all the places in the kingdom, has the most delightful climate. Brindisi, formerly Brun- dusium, has a fine port ; but the buildings are poor and ruinous; and the fall of the Grecian empire under the Turks reduced it to a state of inacti- vity and poverty, from which it has not emerged. Except Rome, no city can beast of so many remains of ancient sculpture as Benevento while Reggio contains nothing remarkable but a Gothic cathedral. IxALf AN Islands.] Of these, the largest is SICILY, which is 180 miles in length, and 90 in breadth. Both the ancients and moderns have maintained that it was originally joined to the continent of Italy, but gradually separated from it by the encroachments of the sea, and the shocks of earthquakes, so as to become a perfect island. Its climate :s so hot, that even in the beginning of January the shade is refreshing: and chilling winds ai? only felt a few days in March, and then a small fire "s sufficient to banish the cold. The only appearance of winter is fc-'ud near the summit of Mount ^tna, where snow falls, which the jnhabitant.s preserve for use, as our pastry-cooks do ice. — Next to yEtna, the chief mountains of Sicily (says captain Smyth) are " the Madoria and Pelorian or Neptunian ranges, from which inferior chains diverge in various ramifications. These are of primitive formation, more or less covered with calcareous strata, intermixed with pyrites, schistus, talc, and marine deposits, and abounding with mineral riches and organic remains." — The soil is of coniiderable depth, and, by the genial influence of the climate, with the aid of volcanic impregnations, vegetation is rendered very quick and abundant. With regard to the aspect of thi; country, he observes, that " the appearance of the coast is romantic, and formed by nature into strong positions of defence, while the interior presents a comoination of mountains, lavincs, and valleys, the last of which in mn.iy parts branch out into extensive plains, possessing a soil exuberantly feftile, and animated by numerous flocks and herds. The hilly regions, presenting alternately undulating .slopes, bold crags, and rugged elevations, with woody declivities, complete the prospect." The Sicilians in general have good natural capacities, , Icii, however, they do not properly cultivate. In conversation they are cheerful, fan- ciful, and inquisitive ; their delivery (like that of the people of Naples) is vehement, rapid, full of action, and their gesticulation violent; the latter is so significant as almost to possess the powers of speech. But (says Mr. Smjth) the principal tr.ait of iicilian character is an " effemi- nate laziness among per.sons of easy circumstances, wiiich they attempt to excuse, by alleging tho intense heat of the climate, without either taking example from the warmer regions of Egypt and India, or the energy of the British colonists in the torrid zone, or attending to ..•i. practical illustration which they have near them, in the h.ardy labor and patient industry of the peosauls and porters of Malta." ITALY. ns or the Literature and science appear to be at a low ebb in Sicily. A con- siderable number of literati, and of extemporaneous versifiers, may indeed be fount!, and there are many who have a smattering of science ; but the learning which they display is rather the varnish of a base metal, than the polish of a true gem. Palermo, the capital, is supposed to contain 125,000 inhabitants: a hundred years ago, it comprehended a far greater amount. The two principal streets, crossing each other, form a regular square, embellished with handsome and uniform buildings. The palaces of the viceroy and the archbishop, the cathedral and many other churches, the town-house, several hospitals, and the porta-felice, or happy gate, are striking ob- jects in a view of the city ; but, in the opinion of Mr, Gait, all these are inferior in construction and in embellishments to that edifice which was formerly a college of the Jesuits. Before the earthquake of the year 1783, Messina was a large, hind- some, and flourishing city. By that dreadfl accident, a great part of its lower district, and of the port, was destroyed, and no small damage done to the lofty range of buildings called the Palazzata, in the shape of a crescent; but the force of the earthquake was inconsideiable at Mes- sina or Reggio, compared Avith it violence in the plain; for of 30,000, the supposed population of the city, only 700 are said tc have perished. " The greatest mortality fell upon those towns anu countries situated in the plain of Ulterior Calabria, on the western side of the mountains Dcjo, Sacro, and Caulone. At Casal-Nuovo, the princess Gerace, and upwards of 4000 of the inhabitants, lost their lives : ? <. Bagnara, the number of dead amounted to 3017 : Radicina an'. Pjilmi count their loss at about 3000 each; Terra-Nuova about 1400; Seminari still more. The sum total of the mortality in both Calabrias and in Sicily, by the earthquakes alone, according to the returns in the office of the secretary of state at Naples, was 32,367;" but Sir William Hamilton says, he has good reason to believe, that, including strangers, the number of lives lost must have been considerably greater ; 40,000 at least may be allowed, he believes, without exaggeration. Messinn has recovered in a great degree from the eflects of the earthquake ; all traces of which will probably in a few years disappear. Its advantageous situation for com- merce, its good harbour, its silken manufactures, the fruit and wine and other products of its environs, will command trade, if the inhabitants are ■ attentive to their own interest. Catania, after the earthquake of 1693, rose from its ashes, like the phoenix, with fresh splendor. The city is elegantly built : manufactures and trade are carried on with spirit and success ; and the inhabitanta are disti'iqruished by their superiority to the rest of the islanders in politeness and social virtues. Syracuse displays some vestiges of its an-iient importance. The ruins of its theatre and amphitheatre, having been excavated in the rock on which the city was built, are still considerable; and the catacombs remain, to excite the wonder of the spectator. It has two harbours, between which stands 'he citadel, a work of great strength ; but its trade is insignificant, and its population scarcely exceeds 19,000. The island of SARDINIA, which giv^s a royal title to the duke of Savoy, lies about 150 miles sjuth by west of Leghorn; is 135 miles in length, and 60 in breadth ; and is intersected from north to south by mountains, the summits of some of which are generally covered with snow, The lower grounds are fertile, and produce the Cnest wheat I 526 ITALY. n and barley, oil, and wine : but the land does not receive a proper degree of cultivation. In the banc's of an industrious and intelligent people, this island would be far more productive than it now is, and might be rendered the seat of a very lucrative commerce. It has mines of silver and of lead, a variety of precious stones, and quarries of granite and porphyry. A tunny fishery is carried on along the coast; the natives also fish for coral with success; salt is a great article of exportation ; an i barilla, though inferior to that of Spain, is furnished in considerable quantities. The skins of wild and tame animals may be procured in abundance ; and all kinds of provisions may be obtained on more reasonable terms than in any other pari of tlie Mediterranean, except Algier. Cagliari, which is the Sardinian capital, has about 30,0,; l.iV bitants. Many of the houses still show traces of Spanish guu ,pi,i ; but an air of decay is visible through the whole town. Yet a castle and oriier fortifications give an air of dignity to the place, and the university adds to its respectability, though it has not diffused any great degree of learning over the island. There is also a seminary for the particular instruction of the rustic children, who, when they are invited to the metropolis for that purpose, are allowed to attend the school even while they are in domestic service. The citizens are courteous and civilised in comparison with the peasants, who are so wild and ferocious, that it is dangerous to venture into the country without an armed escort. The unsettled state of the country may be conjectured from the ne- cessity of appointing a military officer to assist the prefect, in each division of the island. Before the present reign, the nobles had ac- quired su-h power from the weakness of the government, that they usually soared above tlie law: but some steps have lately been taken to render them amenable to justice, and to prevent their tenants or de- pendents from taking arms in their defence. The ecclesiastical power has also been diminished, if not sufficiently humbled. The islanders are a motley assemblage, in consequence of the number of nations that have at different times possessed the country. The Iberi from Spain are suppposed to have been the first inhabitants: the Carthaginians, Romans, Vandals, Saracens, Pisans, Genoese, Spaniards, and Piedmontese, have successively exercised their sway over tlie island. 'J\) the house of Savoy it has belonged since the quadruple alliance of the year 1718. During the long usurpation of Savoy and Piedmont by the French, it was honored with the residence of the sovereign ; but it is now consigned to a vice -regal administration, as the kii.g is more pleased with tke nrjrcmens of Turin, and the manners of his continental subjects, than witli the meanness of Cagliari or the rudeness of the skin-clad provincials. The island of CORSICA is about 110 miles long, and 45 in breadth. A mountainous chain traverses the country from north to south, the highest point being 8700 feet above the level of the sea. The hiat of the Slimmer is moderated by the sea-breeze ; but the coi'! of the winter j« intense ; and the exhalations from low grounds are frequently productive of disorders. The soil is not infertile ; and corn, wine, oil, and fruit, might be produced in great abiuidance, if the natives were active and industrious. Mines of copper, lead, and iron, and quarries of marble, are found in the island. The strongest and most populous town is Bastia, which is occupied by 9350 persons, whose skill in the length a Tgs; Tuscany 'i: I'errjii), ITALY. b^i fabrication of the stiletto is 6qual to the malignitjf with which they jfpjjionally use it. Ajaccio, the birth-place of Bonapart6, is the seat of government, is well-built, and has a good harbour ; and Corte has the honor of an university. The island has been successively in the hands of the Carthaginians, Romans, Goths, Saracens, Pisans, Genoese, French, and English. Our countrymen were not suffered long to retain it though they endeavoured to conciliate the inhabitants by the grani. of a representative government. It was recovered by the French in 1796; but they derive little benefit from it. Hospitality is the chief virtue of a Corsican ; it is one of the first duties instilled into his mind in his infancy. But his general character is not so friendly as that circum- stance would induce us to suppose ; for there is a degree of fierceness in his demeanor which is unpleasant and repulsive. He compels his wife to be his drudge and his slave ; he rides on his mule, while she paces along at his side ; and he expects that she will attend to the concerns of agriculture, while he smokes his pipe in the shade, or roams about the mountains with his dog and his gun. It might be thought that the fondness of the Corsicans for poetry would soften their manners in this respect; for a poetical turn is usually accompanied with gallantry. They are great improvisatori, and some of the songs and other pieces which they compose or recite are very interesting. CAPRI, the ancient Caprea, is an island to which Augustus Cresar often retired for his health and recreation, and which Tiberius made a scene of the most infamous pleasures. It extends four miles in length from east to west, and about one in breadth. The western part is, for about two miles, a continued rock, very high, and inaccessible next to the sea; }et Ano-Capri, the largest town, is situated here; and in this part ir 3i:\e~A places which have a very fruitful soil. The eastern end of '-■i^lftid also rises in precipices that are nearly as high, though not i<'f li iong, as the western. Between the rocky mountains, at each ■ '• I i p of lower ground that runs across the island, and is one of tht p; IS at r>t spots that can easily be conceived. It is covered with myrtlet, v: -uus fruit-trees, vineyards, and corn-fiolds, which look ex- tremely fresh and beaiitiful, and afford a most delightful little land- scape, when viewed from the tops of the neighbouring mountains. In the midst of this fertile tract rises a hill, probably covered (in the reign of Tiberius) with buildings, some remains of which still appear : but the most considerable ruins no at the extremity of the eastern promontory. ELBA is a small island near the Tuscan coast, about twelve miles in length and five in breadth. It was divided between the grand duke of Tuscany and the king of Naples, one of whom possessed the port of ierr.-'io, and the other that of Longone. On the deposition of the em- peror . apoleon, he was allowed to exercise full sovereignty over it; but he was soon disgusted with the insignificant grant, which however ex- ceeded his deserts. The metallic wealth ol the island was known to the Romans. Beside iron, it has mines of copper, tin, and lead : vitriol, sulphur, and the load-stone, are also among its products; but it is not fertile in corn, though it boasts of oil and wine. The LlPARI ISLANDS lie to the north of Sicily, and were anciently called the jEolian islands. They are twelve in number, are subject to the king of Naples, and produce great quantities of alum, sulphur, nitre, cinnabar, and most kinda of fruit, in great perfection ; and some of their 528 ITALY. wines are much esteemed. Great quantities of pumice »:. ^a orted from Lipari. All these islands are of volcanic origin, and Stromboli has a considerable volcano, which is remarkable for being continually in j state of eruption. Lipari contains about 9,500 inhabitants, and Strom- boli 1000 ; but Vulcano is uninhabited, and several of the other are little more than barren rocks. We may here introduce MALTA, though it is not properly ranked • '^^V the Italian islands. It is the southernmost island in Europe, and k 81 f ' ' "^tween Sicily and Africa. Its circumference is about fifty-five mile ' 'ength twenty, and its breadth twelve. It contains two cities andtv.v /-two villages. The old town is called Medina, that is, the city, by way of eminence ; and its most remarkable structures are the cathedral and the palace of the grand master. The catacombs under it excite nearly as great attention as the buildings on its surface ; they are very extensive, and, as they contain regular streets in all directions, they have procured for the place the appellation of the subterraneous city, On a peninsula, which is defended by the fort of St. Elmo, stands tiie city of Valetta, neatly built of stone. Most of the houses have balconies, and the roofs form a terrace, furnished with pipes leading to the cisterns, so as to preserve, in a place where fresh water is scarce, every drop of rain. Some of the churches were very rich before the arrival of the French, who studiously reduced them to their ancient poverty, being probably of opinion that plainness and simplicity were more suitable to a holy place than gorgeous ornaments. Of the other public buildings, the most striking are the hotels of the different knightly fraternities, the uni- versity, the treasury, town-hall, and palace of justice. The air of Malta is clear, but excessively hot. The whole island is a white rock, covered with a thin surface of earth ; yet, by industry and perseverance, the inhabitants have overcome all apparent obstacles to cultivation ; and " the shallow soil (says Mr. Roerdanz) is in a manner forced to support its cultivators; for, although it produces very little grain, the cotton raised in the island is a great source of wealth to the inhabitants. The trade of Malta does not, however, consist so much in the exportation of its produce (among which oranges and all kinds of fruit are not the least considerable), as in the supplies of various articles received in English, French, and Italian vessels, and in large importa- tions of grain from Italy." The cotton gloves and stockings, manufac- tured in this island and in Gozzo, are in high repute. From the reign of Charles V. to the time of the French revolution, the island remained under the government of the gallant knights of St. John of Jerusalem, a religious and military order founded in 1104, soon after the first crusade. Being driven by the Turks from the isle of Rhodes, they were permitted by the emperor, in 1530, to settle in Malta. When the English took the island from the French, who had treacherously seised it, they were willing to recognise the authority of the knights, if the independence of the order should be guarantied by the chief powers of Europe ; but the intrigues and encroachments of Napoleon induced our court to retain an important station, which, by the convenience of its situation and its extraordinary strength, might contribute with Gibraltar to secure the command of the Mediterranean. The population of the island is said to amount to 63,000. The ma- jority of the inhabitants are of African descent. They are characterised by M. de Boisgelin, as " very industrious, active, faithful, (Economical, courageous, aad the best sailors iii the Mediterranean :" but he » ver, which attended the arms of the Austrians and Russians in the campaign of 1799, aided by the powerful co-operation of the British fleet under lord Nelson, again expelled the French both from Naplea and Rome, and Ferdinand re- turned to bw cap the conditions of was compelled to which neither the pirt^, at length,* Ued a decree i A powerful Fren and obliged buns brother Joseph 01 remove him to &{ Murat; anadvei quality which is high a degree a power until the Mtted the allies second usurpatii of concealment he deserved) b joy with which he had learnc( have had a mu( ment, or rewarc their interest. The congress of Italy. Besi( Tuscany, and t Genoa to the k porated with th their influence people, to take Although tlw the associated an experiment society of the 1 of Naples. T body of soldie posing sufficic torrent. The affairs, as to I yoke; and, i garrison, aj)d troops from N The princes o the king of I him to apply army at len^ several confli Neapolitans were therefi should be g aid of provi and kept ii severe puni were constr The revo ITALY. 533 turned to his capital. But the victory of Bonapart6 at Marengo, and the conditions of the peace of Luneville, which the emperor of Germany vit compelled to conclude, again gave the French that power in Italy, which neither the pope nor the king of Naples could withstand. Bona- parte at length, flushed with the success of his campaign against Austria, issued a decree in 1806, declaring that the king had ceased to reign. A powerful French army took possession of his continental dominions, and obliged him again to retire into Sicily. Napoleon then placed his brother Joseph on the throne of Naples, and, when he thought proper to remove him to Spain, supplied his place with his brother-in-law, Joachim Murat; an adventurer who had scarcely any other merit than courage, a quality which is frequently possessed by the lowest of the people, in as high a degree as by the most elevated characters. He remained in power until the year 1815, when, although he had for some time sup- ported the allies, he was punished, for his concurrence in Napoleon's second usurpation, with the loss of his kingdom. After some months of concealment, ho landed at Calabria, and was put to death (as he deserved) by martial law. Nothing could exceed the apparent joy with which the restoration of Ferdinand was attended.; and, if he had learned wisdom in the school of adversity, the joy would hare had a much better foundation. But he did not improve the govern- ment, or reward the attachment of his people by a studious attention to their interest. The congress of Vienna made some important alterations in the state of Italy. Beside confirming the restitution of Savoy, Piedmont, Modena, Tuscany, and the territories of the church, the allied princes gave up Genoa to the king of Sardinia, and the Venetian dominions were incor- porated with the new kingdom of Lombardy. But the despots, wherever their influence extended, would not sufl'er any change, favorable to the people, to take place in the mode of government. Although the Italians in general were aware of the arbitrary views of the associated princes, some of their communities were willing to make an experiment of reform. In 1820, the influence of the Carbonari, a society of the friends of freedom, produced a revolution in the kingdom of Naples. The new Spanish constitution was proclaimed at Nola by a body of soldiers, and adopted in every province ; and the king, not re- posing sufficient confidence in the rest of the army, yielded to the torrent. The people of Sicily hoped to profit so far by this change of affairs, as to be enabled to withdraw themselves from the Neapolitan yoke; and, in the fury of zeal, the rabble of Palermo attacked the garrison, ajjd committed sanguinary atrocities : but, on the arrival of troops from Naples, the insurgents and citizens were compelled to submit. The princes of the holy alliance now interfered, and, having summoned the king of Naples to appear beforo them at Laybach, haughtily desired him to apply proper remedies to the disorders of his realm. An Austrian army at length appeared within the boundaries of the kingdom, and several conflicts occurred, in which the invaders were successful. The Neapolitans could not be roused to energetic exertion, and their generals were therefore content to negotiate. It was agreed, that the realm should be governed by a council of state named by the king, with the aid of provincial assemblies, and that the country should be occupied and kept in order by Austrian troops. In this disgrace, and in the severe punishment of" the chief promoters of the revolution, the people were constrained to acquiesce. The revolutionary spirit also brpke out ia Piedmont. The count of 534 EUROPEAN TURKEY. Sania Rosft, and other mal-contents, felt the pulse of the people, and seemed to think that it pointed to a political change. Even a prince nf the royal blood, Charles Albert, appears to have embarked in the scheme of reform, with a view to the subversion of the Austrian power in Italy but he was so unsteady in his principleij, that no confidence could be re^ posed in him. The opposers of the court, having drawn a part of the army into their schemes, proclaimed at Alessandria the constitution of the Spanish reformers ; and, as the flame of liberty began to spread over the country, the intimidated king resigned the sovereignty. As his brother declined the succession, Charles Albert acted as regent; but he toon re- linquished his office. On the advance of an Austrian force, a alight conflict ensued, and the insurgents were over-awed into submission. The king persisting in his abdication, Charles Felix consented to mount the throne, and the transient storm subsided. I ) Annibale della Genga, bom in August 1760, became pope in 1823, under the appellation of L^o XII. Charles Felix, king of Sardinia, was born in April 1763, and married, in 1 807, to Maria Christina, daughter of Ferdinand IV. of Naples. Francis IV., duke of Modena, was born in 1779, and married io 1812, to the daughter of Victor, king of Sardinia. Maria-Louisa, duchesa of Parma, and archduchess of Austria, was born on the 12th of December, 1791, and married, in 1810, to the emperor of France, on whose dethronement she returned to her father's court. She has a son, Charles Napoleon, styled duke of Reich^tadt. Leopold, II., grand duke of Tuscany, was born in 1797, and ma.ried, in 1817, to the niece of the king of Saxony. Maria- Louisa, princess of Lucca, sister of Ferdinand VII. king of Spain, was born in July 1782, and has a son and daughter by Louis of Parma, who was for a time king of Etruria. Francis Januarius, king of Naples and Sicily, bom in 1777, succeeded his father in 1825, and espoused, first, an Austrian princess, by whom he has a daughter, widow of the duke of Berri, — secondly, a Spanish princess, by whom he has Ferdinand and other sons. EUROPEAN TURKEY. SITUATION AND EXTENT. Miles. Length 830 ) Breadth 560 5 between Degrees, J 36 and 48 North latitude. ( 16, 30 and 29, East longitude. Containing 150,000 square miles, with above 53 inhabitants to each. Name.] THIS extensive empire derives its name from that of its - conquerors and possessors, the Turks or Turkmans^ a word which, I according to some writers, signifies wanderers. The Turkish historians derive this name from that of Turk, who they say was their ancestor, and the Bonof Yafez or Japheth. , « ,„w.-'^ .,11" :!\ •\ . vw.«<«14.Wir^M vine, Trtnsylv j,,e ptoponUB MediterwneaD Austrian temt divided- North of the are the pro' South of the are, . • • On the BoflJ Hellespont South of Mfl dope, or i the nortbe Greece. . • On the Adi or Gulf ( part of III South of th Lepanto, cient P* Formerly Ct Seas ah Awph, the Levant, wo> particularly vantage bo or Dardant forthepast and for tha king, for tl bridge of 1 two lovere, mistress; drowned. much cele MoUNI the chain Olympus nassus in Lakes in Albao celebrity. EUROPEAN TURKEY. 535 South of the Danube^ are BouVDARlVB.} Turkey in Europe is bounded by Russia, the Buko- •ne Transylvania, and Sclavonia, on the north ; by the Black Sea, , 'pfopontis, Hellespont, and Archipelago, on the east ; by the Medit«mnean, on the south ; by the same sea, the Adriatic, and the Austrian territories, on the west. Divisions.] The following are the provinces into which it is liinded : Provinces. Chief Towns. Sq.M. /Moldavia, formerly . n .u T».„.,K«.\ I^acia Yassi., 13,000 North of the Danube l^^j^^j^jj^^ we the provinces of J ^^ ^j^^ ^^^j^^^ ^^. ( cia Bucharest 19,000 Bulgaria, the east part of the ancient Moesia. Sophia 24,500 Servia, the west part of Moesia Belgrade 16,000 Bosnia, part of the ancient Illyricum.. . Seraio 7,500 Oo the Bosporus and ( Romania, part of Constantinople, N. L. Hellespont \ Thrace 41. E. L.29.— 23, 500 South of Mount Rho- C Macedonia Salonica 15,000 dope, or Argentaro, 1 Thessaly, now Janna Larissa 5,000 the northern part of | Livadia, the ancient Greece (. Achaia and Bceotia Athena. , 3,250 On the Adriatic Sea C Albania Scutari 8,000 or Gulf of Venice, J^^^j^i^^CroaUa Bihacz 3,000 part of Hlyricum... ^ ' South of the Gulf of ^ „ „^ ^^^^ Lepanto, the an-J^*"® **"'™*- • " '. • ^''*^°" ^'^^^ cient Peloponnesusj Island of Candia. . . , Candia. ... ... 5,000 Ponnerly Crete ^ Seas and straits.] The Euxine, the Palus Mseotis, or Sea of Aw^h, the Sea of Marmora, the Archipelago, the Ionian Sea, and the Levant, would, were they properly improved, give to European Turkey, particularly that part of it where Constantinople stands, every ad- rantage both for trade and dominion. The strait of the Hellecpont or Dardanelles is about two miles and a half in breadth, and is I'amoua for the passage of Xerxes over it, preparatory to ' ' ' invasion of Greece, and for that of Alexander in his expedition against Asia. The Persian king, for the more easy transportation of his numerous forces, formed a bridge of boats over it. Tt is also celebrated by the poets in the story of two lovers, Hero and Leander, of whom the latter swam across it to his mistress ; but, on repeating his adventurous visit, he was unhappily drotvned. The Bosporus is about the same breadth, but has not been so much celebrated by historians and poets. Mountains.] The principal mountains of Turkey in Europe, are the chain of the ancient Haemus, now called Eminch ; Mount Athos) Olympus and Findtis, which separate Thessaly from E])irus ; and Par- nassus in Achaia, formerly consecrated to the Muses. Lakes.] This country affords no lakes of considerable extent; but in Albania and the Murea are found some small ones of classical celebrity, ' u\ 536 EUROPEAN TURKEY. Rivers.] The chief rivers of European Turkey are the Danube which we have described and traced in our account of Germany; the Save, the Mariza, and the Vardari. The Save is the boundary between Bosnia and Sclavonia. The Mariza, or Hebrus, rises in the mountainous chain of Hasnius, and falls into the gulf of Eno ; and the Vardari, or Axius, runs from Mount Scardus to the gulf of Salonica, where it is lost in the iEgean Sea. Metals, mineuals.] Mines of iron, lead, and copper, are found in several parts of Turkey, but tliey are neglected by the ignorance and indolence of the people. In Macedonia were anciently gold-mines, which annually produced to Philip, the father of Alexander the Great, 1000 talents or nearly three millions sterling, Tiie ancient Phrygia, and the Troad, are likewise said to abound with silver. Alum and sulphur, perfectly pure, are found in Greece; where also arc quarries of the most beautiful marble. The island of Paros has been in all ages celebrated for its marble of an exquisite whiteness. Climate, soil, agriculture.] The climate is salubrious, except when it is corrupted from the neighbouring countries, or through the indolence and uncleanliness of the Turkish manner of living. The seasons are here regular and pleasant ; the soil is luxuriant beyond de- scription ; and it is necessary that it should be so for the subsistence of the inhabitants ; for agriculture is not practised by the Turks either with diligence or with skill. Vegetable productions.] These are excellent all over Turkey, especially when assisted by the smallest degree of industry. Beside licrbs and plants of almost every kind, this country produces, in great abund- ance and perfection, oranges, lemons, citrons, pomegranates, grapes of an uncommon sweetness, figs, almonds, olives, and other fruits. In addition to these, many drugs, not common in other parts of Europe, are produced here. Animals.] The Thessalian or Turkish horses are e.Kcellcnt.both for their beauty and utility. The black cattle are large, especially iu Greece, The goats are a most valuable part of the animal creation to the inhabitants, for the nutriment which they afford both in milk and flesh. The large eagles which abound in the neighbourhood of Bada- dagi furnish the best feathers for arrows for the Turkish archers, and they are sold at a high price. Partridges and other game are abundant in Greece; and, indeed, most of the ordinary birds, as well as qua- drupeds, are found in all parts of European Turkey; but the Turks and Mohammedans in general are not very fi nd of animal food. Natural curiosities.] Amojg the.se we may class mount Atlios in Macedonia, called Monte Sarito from the numerous monasteries erected on it. It is situated on a peninsula which extends into the .^gean Sea, and is indeed a chain of mountains, reaching the whole length of the peninsula ; but it is only a single mountain that is pro- perly called Athos. Tliis is so lofty, that on the top, as the ancients relate, the sun-rising was beheld four hours sooner than by the inha- bitants of the coast; and, at the solstice, its shade reached into the agora or market-place of Myrina, a town in Lemnos, which was distant eighty-seven miles, eastward. There are twenty-two convents on mount Athos, beside a great number of cells and grottos, with the habitations of about six thousand monks and hermits ; though the proper hermits, •who live in grottos, are not above twenty : the other monks are anchorets, or such as live in cells. These Greek monks, who call themselves the inhabitants of the holy mountains, are so far from being a set of slothful EUROPEAN TURKEY. 537 people, thai, beside their daily offir .8 of religion, they cultivate the olive and thf /ine, are carpenters, masons, clotVi-workers, tailors, &c. They also livt a very austere life ; their usual food, instead of flesh, being ve- getables, dried olives, iigs, and other fruit ; onions, cheese, and, on certain days (Lent excepted), fish. Their fasts are many and severe, and conduce, with the salubrity of the air, to render longevity common. It appeas from iElian, that anciently this mountain was considered as very healthy, and conducive to long life ; whence the inhabitants were called Macrohii ; and we are informed by Philostratus, in the life of Apollonius, that many philosophers used to retire to it, for the better contemplation of the heavens and of nature ; and after their example the monks doubtless built their cells. The cavern or grotto, in the island of Antiparos, is one of the greatest natural curiosities in this country, or perhaps in the world. It is above 70 yards high, and 100 wide. From the roof hang a variety of marble stalactites, of the most elegant and picturesque forms ; and on the floor are large masses of stalagmite, one of which, in the centre, resembles a beautiful marble pyramid. The famous cave of Trophonius is still a natural curiosity in Livadia. It is a square cavern, with a bench on each side of it, hewn out of the rock, and a round hole at one end, scarcely largo ^enough for a man to pass through. PoPLTLATiON.] The population of this great empire is by no means equal either to its extent or fertility ; nor is it possible to state it with perfect accuracy. It certainly is not so great as it was before the Christian sera, under the emperors, or even a century n \ urious causes have been assigned for this decline of number. ,.< is, the tyranny under which the natives groan ; yet that has been the uii*' for many centuries. Another cause is said to be the prevalence of polygamy ; but this also has prevailed for ages. Such a practice is undoubtedly un favorable to population, as may be evinced by various reasons, and par- ticularly by the consideration, that the Greeks and Armenians, by whom itisnot followed, are much more prolific than the Turks. The plague is mentioned as a third cause ; brt that disease docs not in general make such dreadful ravages as it formerly did. Whatever may be the prin- cipal or the subordinate causes of the modern depopulation of Turkey, it is presumed that the sultan's dominions in Europe do not contain above eight millions of inhabitants ; and not more than ten millions are sup- posed to occupy his territories in Asia. It is absurd to include the Bar- bary states in this calculation, as they are merely tributary to the Porte; and, though Egypt, since it was rescued from the power of France, has been in some degree more dependent on the grand signer than it Avas before, it cannot properly be deemed a subject province. National cuaracteh, manners, customs.] The Turks are ge- nerally well-made and ro!)ust men : in youth, their comjilcxions are fair, and their faces handsome : their hair and eyes are black, or dark brown. The women, when young, are commonly handsome ; but they generally look old at thirty. They usually grow corpulent as they advapcc in years ; and this increase of person is not considered as a deformity : on the contrary, a degree of plumpness is admired in Turkey, and this habit is consequently rather encouraged than avoided. In their demeanor, the Turks are hypochondriac, grave, sedate, and passive ; but, when agitated by passion, furious, raging, ungovernable ; lull of dissimulation, jealous, suspicious, and vindictive beyond con- ception; ia matters of religion, tenacious, superstitious, aud morose. 538 EUROPEAN TURKEY. Though the generality seem hardly capable of much benevolence, or even humanity, with regard to Jews, Christians, or any who uiffe'- from them on religious topics, they are far from being devoid of social affections for those of their own religion. But interest is their supreme good; and when that comes in competition, all ties of religion, consanguinity or friendship, are, with the generality, speedily dissolved. The morals of the Asiatic Turks are far preferable to those of the European. They are hospitable to strangers, and the vices of avarice and inhumanity reign chiefly among their great men. They are like< wise said to be charitable to one another, and punctual in their deal' ings. Their charity and public spirit are most conspicuous in their building of caravanserais, or places of entertainment, on roads that are destitute of accommodations, for the refreshment of poor pilgrims or travelers. With the same laudable view they search out the best springs, and dig wells, which in those countries are a luxury to the wandering poor. The ideas of the Turks are simple and confined, seldom reaching be- yond the walls of their own houses, where they sit conversing with their women, drinking coffee, smoking tobacco, or chewing opium. To wit and agreeable conversation they are, for the most part, absolute strangers; and they rarely think of the improvement of the mind. They have little curiosity to be informed of the state of their own, or any other country. If a vizir, pasha, or other officer, be dismissed, or strangled, they say no more on the occasion than that there will be a new vizir or governor, seldom inquiring into the reason of the disgrace of the former minister. The Turks dine and sup early, and supper is their principal meal, during which they sit cross-legged upon mats. Among the great people, the dishes are served up one by one ; but they have neither knife Dor fork, and they are not permitted by their religion to use gold or silver spoons. Their victuals are always highly seasoned. Rice is the common food of the lower sort, nnd sometimes it is boiled up with gravy; but their chief dish is pilau, wuich is mutton and fowl boiled to rags; and, the rice being boiled quite dry, the soup is highly seasoned, and poured upon it. They drink water, sherbet, and coffee; and the only debauch they know is in opium, Vihich gives them sensations re- sembling those of intoxication. Guests of high rank sometimes have their beards perfumed by a female slave of the family. Tluy are temperate and souer from a principle of their religion, which prohibits the use of wine, though in private many of them indulge themselves in strong liquors. Their common salutation is by an inclination of the head, and by laying the right hand on the breast. They sleep in linen waistcoats and drawers, upon mattresses covered by a (|i 't. Few or none of the considerable inhabitants of this vast empire have any notion of walking or riding either for health or diversion. The most religious among tliem find, however, sufficient exercise when they • onform themselves to the frequent ablutions, prayers, and rites, prescribed to them by the Mo- hammedan law. Their active diversions consist in shooting at a mark, or tilting with darts, at which they are very expert. Some of their great men are fond of hunting, and take the field with numerous e(|uipaj!;cs, which are joined by their inferiors ; but this is often done for political purposes, that they may knoiv the strength of their dependents. Within doors, chess and draught-boards are their usual amusements: and if they play at games of ciiance, they never bet money, that being prohibited by the Koran, EUROPEAN TURKEY. 539 With the entertainments of the genuine drama the Turks have no con- cern" but tliey sometimes have a sort of show or spectacle, in which, be- side rope-dancing and wrestling, somethijig like a farce is acted, chiefly by Jews. Their music is not very refined ; for the performers play by the ear rather than by notes. The usual instruments are the dulcimer, the flute, the Arabian violin, a kind of guitar, and a tambourine, resem- blins the ancient tympanum. A frequent practice is warm bathing, which the Turks consider as an amusing pastime and a luxurious enjoyment. In all the great towns, public baths are provided, in which the body is not merely dipped or washed, but is rubbed, kneaded as it were, and handled with such violence as would almost excite in strangers a dread of dislocation. Yet, with all their ablutions, neither the men nor the women are remarkable for cleanliness, as the articles of dress which are close to their persons are rarely washed ; indeed, they have no regular change of linen. The men shave their heads, leaving a lock on the crown, and wear their beards long. They cover the head with a turban, which they never put oflf but when they sleep. The shirt is without collar or wrist- band: over it a long vest is worn, which is tied with a sash; and the exterior garment is a loose robe. The breeches, or drawers, are of a piece with the stockings ; and instead of shoes slippers are worn, which are put off in entering a mosque or house. Christians, or others who are not Turks, are not suffered to wear white turbans. The Turks (says Mr. Thornton) do not attempt by art or by dress to improve or to correct the hutnan shape. The clothes of persons of both sexes and of all ages, though more in quantity than the climate teems to require, are free from ligatures. They neither confine the nei-k nor the wrist, the knees nor the feet ; and, though their clothes may encumber them in quick motion, they sit easily and gracefully upon them, when walking with their usual gravity, or when reclining on a sofa. The female dress differs little from that of the men ; only the ladies wear stiffened caps upon their heads, with horns resembling a mitre, and wear their hair down. When they appear abroad, they are so muffled up as not to be known by their nearest relatives. Such of the women as are virtuous, make no use of paint to heighten their beauty, or to disguise their complexions ; but they often tinge their hands and feet with henna, which gives them a deep yellow. The men make use of the same expe- dient to color their, beards. Marriages in this country are chiefly negotiated by the females. When the terms are adjusted, the bridegroom pays a sum of money, a license is procured from a magistrate, and the parties are married. The bargain is celebrated with mirth and jollity, and the money is generally employed in furnishing the house of the young couple. The Turks are not allowed by the law to have more than four wives; but they may have as many concubines as they can maintain. The burials of the Turks aie decent. The corpse is attended by the relatives, chanting passages from the Koran ; and, after being deposited in a mosque, it is buried in a field by the imam, or priest, who pro- nounces a sermon at the time of the interment. The male relatives ex- press their sorrow by alms and prayers ; the women by decking the tomb on certain days with flowers and green leavefi ; and, in mourning for a husband, they wear a particular head-dress, and relinquish all finery for twelve months. The Greeks, who compose a large portion of the inhabitants of Turkey in Europe, are gay, witty, and crafty. They exercise various trades, and ^40 EUROPEAN TURKEY. apply themselves to maritime affairs. They delight in music and dan. dug. The rich are well informed, supple, and very intriguing. They study languages, and make every exertion to bo employed as physicians interpreters, or agents, by the Turks who hold *he first places of the empire. The ancient families court the honor of furnishing the first interpreter to the Porte, and of being appointed hospodars, or sove- reigns of Walachia or Moldavia, notwithstanding the danger attached to those eminent places. They are at the same time, in general, timid superstitious, and exact observers of fasts. Their priests are very nu. merous, and affect austerity of manners. The superior clergy exhibit some marks of mental cultivation, and have sufficient incomes for re- spectability of appearance ; but the other ecclesiastics are ignorant and poor. The peasants, in point of character, form the best part of the Greek population. They " possess (says colonel Stanhope) a large share of rustic virtue. They were within the sphere of Turkey's oppression, but without the sphere of her corruption." The iuhaliitants of the towns, he also observes, are avaricious, artful, intriguing, and deficient in honor and integrity. The captains are frank and simple iu their manners, but addicted to plunder. The soldiers are brave and hardy, and preserve their gaiety amidst dangers and privations. The people of the highest class are in general arbitrary, rapacious, unprincipled, and luxurious. A national resemblance pervades the persons of the Greeks ; yet, in general, the complexions of the islanders are more dark, and they have stronger frames than those of the continent. Tlieir faces and forms, as far as we can judge, are like those which served for models to the an- cient sculptors. They have large dark eyes and regular features: their shoulders arc broad ; yet they are slender about their waists : their legs are apparently larger than those of persons who are accustomed to a tight dress, but are strong and wdl-madc; and tlieir usual stature is above the middle size. " Both the faces and forms of the women (if we may trust to the depreciating statement of a late observer) are very in- ferior to those of the men. Though they have the same kind of features, their eyes are too languid, and their complexions too pale. Tliey are generally .below the height which we are accustomed to think becoming in a female, and, when a little advanced in life, between twenty-five and thirty years of age, are commonly rather fat and unwieldy." He adds, in a positive tone, that he did not see any verj- pretty Greek women while he was in their country ; but other tourists have viewed the Gre- cian ladies with more favorable eyes, and have paid due homage to their personal charms. The dress of a male Greek resembles that of the Al- banians. A female wears a chemise of cotton, — a vest which is tight near the bosom, but rather wide and relaxed at the waist, — a gown, (sometimes made of fine flowered silk) flowing loosely behind, with long sleeves, — a riband or girdle immediately under the bosom, — and a sliawl wrapped round the body as a lower zone, either tied in a spreading knot, or fastened in front by a clasp or other metallic ornament. The women sometimes wear small red caps, with gold tassels ; but, in the house, tlie head is usually uncovered. When they go out, they are mullled in large clokes, and conceal their faces witii long veils. Many of them color the lower parts of their eye-lashes vith a mixture of antimony and oil, and also daub their faces with paint : some also dye the hair so as to give it an auburn hue, and others imparc to their tresses a black or very dark tinge. Marriage is usually preceded by the formality of betrotliment, when the mother of the future bhsband puts a ring on the finger of the EUROPEAN TURKEY. 541 young lady, and kisses her cheek ; and the ceremony is followed by an en- tertainment. The matrimonial iforms, as practised at Athens, are of the following nature. The two lovers stand near the altar, each holding a lighted candle. The priest reads and chants, and then, taking two rings, and two garlands sprinkled with gold leaf, puts them on the iingers and heads of the couple, then recites another part of the service, and trans- poses the rings and the wreatlis. This transposition is rapidly repeated, until the rings are left on the fingers which they are intended to fit, and the garlands are laid aside. Some bread, which has been blessed and marked with the sign of the cross, is then broken and eaten by the bride and bridegroom, who also take wine. The lady presents pieces of bride-cake to her attendant friends, and receives money in return, for which she kisses the hands of the donors. On the same or a subsequent day, she is conducted by her husband to his house, in solemn procession, amidst the acclamations of his friends and the sounds of the rebeck or lute. Chief towns, edifices.] Constantinople, the capital of this great empire, is situated on the European side of the Bosporus. It Avas built by Constantine upon the ruins of the ancient Byzantium, as a more in- viting situation than Rome for the seat of empire. It became afterwards the capital of the Greek empire; and, having escaped the destructive rage of the barbarous nations, it was the greatest as well as the most beau- tiful city in Europe, and the only one, during the Gothic ages, in which there remained any traces of the ancient elegance in manners and arts. While it remained in the possession of the Greek emperors, it was the only mart in Europe for the commodities of the Indies. It derived great advantages from its being the rendezvous of the crusaders ; and, as it was then in the meridian of its glory, the European writers, in the ages of die crusades, speak of it with astonishment. Constantinople is at this day one of the finest cities in the world, by its situation and its port. The prospect from it is noble. The most re- gular part is the Bezestein, enclosed with walls and gates, where the mer- chants have their shops excellently ranged. In another part of the city is the Hippodrome, an oblong square of 350 paces by 100, where, as the name imports, equestrian exercises were formerly and are still practised and enjoyed. The Meidan, or parade, is a large spacious square, the general resort of all ranks. On the opposite side of the port are four towns, but considered as a part of the suburbs, their distance being so short, that a person may easily be heard on the other side. They are named Pera, Galata, Scutari, and Tophana. In Pera the foreign ambassadors and all the Franks or strangers reside, not being per- mitted to Uve in the city. Galata, also, is mostly inhabited by Franks or Jews. This city contains about 300 mosques. That which is the most inter- esting to a Christian, if not the most magnificent, was formerly a Greek church, dedicated to the Holy Wisdom, or Sancta Sophia. It was built by the emperor Justinian : its form is quadrangular; its length is 270 feet, and its breadth 240. The cupola, which is lined with mosaic work, rests on pillars of marble, and has a fine effect ; but it does not give suffi- cient light to the building. Tlie interior, though many of its ornaments have been defaced, still retains considerable traces of its ancient gran- deur, and the pavement is entirely composed of marble, worked in orna- mental compartments. Ur. Neale says, that many of the other mosques appeared to him to be more worthy of admiration than this, particularly thoM of the sultans Solyman and Ahmed ; and tlr^t a small mosque, , I i 54!i EUROPEAN TURKEY. built by Selim III., lined with highly- polished slabs of grey marble, and simply adorned w'*h tablets bearing golden inscriptions from the Koran struck him as very beautiful. The churches which the Christians are allowed to frequent are unadorned with regard to the exterior ; but some of them exliibit internal elegance. The greater part of the city is ill-built, consisting of low wooden houses* and the streets, with few exceptions, are narrow, irregular, and inconve- nient. Thus the pleasure which arises from a distant view, sinks into disgust on a close inspection ; and the insalubrity of the situation, with the danger of fires, must prevent this boasted capital from being a de- sirable abode. Both the magnitude and population of Constantinople have bee^ ex> aggerated by credulous travelers. Some have estimated it to contain nbove 800,000 inhabitants, and others 600,000 ; but, according to more accurate observers, they do not far exceed 390,000, even if we include the occupants of the suburbs. Of these, '200,000 are Turks, 90,000 are Greeks, and the remainder Jews, Armenians, and Franks. The palace of the sultan, called the serai, is so extensive that it is said to occupy the whole of the ground on which the ancient city of Byzan- tium stood. The treasures contained within this imperial residence, are prodigious ; and its furniture is distinguished not by its variety, but the richness of the materials of which it is composed, — silk and cloth of gold are substituted for cotton and woollen stuffs; fringes arc strung with pearl and inferior jewels; and the walls are wainscoted with jasper, mother- of-pearl, and veneered ivory. In the audience-chamber is a tlirone as resplendent as the mines of the East can make it, with a canopy of velvet fringed with jewels, under which the sultan sits for a few minutes to hear the compliments of the sovereign who solicits bis friendship. The ladies of the seraglio are a collection of beautiful young women, chiefly sent as presents from the provinces and the Greek islands, most of them the children of Christian parents. 1 he number depends on the taste of the reigning monarch. Selim is said to have had 2,000; but the present sultan is content with a smaller number. On their admis- sion, they are coniniitted to the caro of old ladies, taught to sew and embroider, instructed in music, dancing, and other accomplishments, and furnished with the richest clothes and ornaments. They are scarcely ever suffered to go abroad, except when the grand-signor removes from one place to another, when a troop of black eunuchs convey them to the boats, which are enclosed with lattices and linen- curtains ; and, when they go by land, they are put into close chariots, and signals are made at certain distances, to give notice that none may approach the roads through which they march. Among the sultan's attendants are a number of mutes, who act and converse by signs with great quickness ; and also some dwarfs, who are exhibited for his di- version. Opposite to the seraglio, on the Asiatic side, is Scutari, adorned with an imperial mosque and villa. On the brow of an adjacent hill is a grand prospect, embracing in one view the city of Constantinople, the subtirhs of Galata and Pera, the small seas of the Bosporus and Proponti,?, with the adjacent country on each shore. The fortifications of Constantinople are not remarkable for strength. They consist of three ranges of walls, extending across the neck of the isthmus, from the sea of Marmora to the end of the harbour, furnished at intervals with square and round towers, and with a fosse thirty feet wide, faced by a low wall or counterscarp. The harbour is both deep aud spa- country, which is ler EUROPEAN TURKEY. 543 cioui: it is not on the side of ttio sea, but in a long inlet, running along the northern side of the town. Adrianople stands on a rising ground near the confluence of the Arda, Touna, and Mariza ; and the bridge over the first stream is so elegantly and substantially built, that it M'ould not discredit a more splendid city. The mosques in this town were formerly very numerous ; but, at this day, many of them are hastening to ruin. That of Selim is particularly mag- nificent, and the bazar of the pasha Ali is also a line edifice. The popu- lation of the city is about 83,000, the Greeks forming a fourth part of the number. The palace is pleasantly situated, being separated from the city by the stream of the Arda, and commanding an extensive view of the country, which is fertile, and celebrated for its excellent plantations of vines. The Mariza, being navigable to the Archipelago, procures a con- siderable trade for the city. Salonica was formerly a celebrated city of the Greek empire, under the appellation of Thessalonica. It is now the capital of the Macedonian province in Turkey, and, for a Turkish town, is populous and flourishing. The Jews in this city are more favored than the Greeks, being less severe- ly taxed; and they are the chief managers of the commercial establish- ments. Their ancestors, it is said, bargained for certain privileges, when they transplanted themselves to this province. One street is chiefly occu- pied by workers in iron, who trace their origin from Egypt. Tliey pro- fess the Mohammedan faith, but the Turks do not esteem them as true believers. A considerable trade is carried on in wool, cotton, silk, corn, and tobacco ; and manufactures connected with the three first of these articles exercise the industry of the inhabitants. The town is fortified with a wall, castles, and towers ; but it would not be deemed strong by a skilful engineer. The houses in general are not handsome or well- built; the streets are narrow and ill-payed, and the bazars are mean. Among the remains of antiquity are a triumphal arch and a beautiful colonnade. The church of St. Demetrius, now a mosque, is greatly admired ; but it seems to have been formed out of the remains of other edifices ; and, after the effect of the first view, the eye is offended at the disorderly rudeness with which shafts and capitals have been joined. Commerce and manuiactures.] These objects are little attend- ed to in the Turkish dominions. The nature of the government destroys that happy security which is the mother of arts, industry, and com- merce ; and such is the debasement of the human mind, when borne down by tyranny and oppression, that all the great advantages of com- merce, which nature has, as it were, thrown under the feet of the inha- bitants by their situation, are here neglected. The advantages of Tyre, Sidon, and Alexandria, and all those countries which carried on the com- merce of the ancient world, are overlooked. The Turks command the navigation of the Red Sea, which opens a communication with the southern ocean, and holds out to their view all the riches of India. Whoever looks on a map of Turkey must admire the situation of their capital, upon a strait that separates Europe from Asia, and communicates on the south with the Mediterranean Sea, thereby opening a passage to all the European nations, as well as the coast of Africa. The same strait, communicating northwards with the Black Sea, opens a passage, by means of the Danube and other great rivers, into the interior parts of Germany, Poland, and Russia. In this extensive empire, where all the commodities necessary for the largest plan of industry and commerce are produced, the Turks content themselves with mauulacturing cottoa stuffs, carpetS; leather, aud sope. r I 544 EUROPEAN TURKEY. The most valuable of their commodities, such as silk, a variety of druffj and dyeing stuffs, they generally export without giving them mududdi-' tional value by their own labor. The internal commerce of the empire is very inconsiderable, and is chiefly managed by Jews and Armenians. In their traific with Europe, the Turks are altogether passive. The En- glish, French, Dutch, and other Europeans, resort hither with their com- modities, and take back those of Turkey in the same vessels. The na- tives seldom attempt any distant voyages, and possess only a few coastin? vessels in Asiatic Turkey, their chief imperial navy lying on the side of Europe. The inattention of the Turks to objects of commerce, is perhaps the best security to their government. The balance of power established among the princes of Europe, and their jealousies of one another, secure to the Turks the possession of countries, which, in the hands of Russians or any active state, might endanger the commerce of their neighbours especially their trade with India ; yet that jealousy will not, perhaps, long continue to operate, when the obvious imbecility of Turkey offers such attractions to an ambitious power. Constitution, government, laws.] The Turkish government is commonly exhibited as a picture of all that is shocking and unnatural in arbitrary power ; and there is great truth in the representation, what- ever sir James Porter may say of the sultan's obligation, by the laws of the Koran, to attend to the dictates of justice and equity. " The grand signor (says Mr. Thornton) may riot freely in wantonness or cruelty. He may murder his father and his brothers, his wives and his children. He may shed the blood and seise the substance of his subjects. He may indulge the most vicious inclinations without any dread of censure or control, if, in his general goverrmient, he be sufii- ciently vigilant to provide for the wants, or sufficiently severe to restrain the murmurs and seditions of his people. If he guard his frontiers from encroachment, if he occupy and reward his soldiery, if he cause justice to be administered in cases where "the interests of subjects only are con- cerned, his government will be loved, his person will be sacred, bis crimes will be palliated, his injustice will be forgotten, and his memory will be dear to his people. The Turkish casuists indeed attribute to the emperor a character of holiness which no immoral conduct can destroy ; and, as he is supposed to perform many actions by the divine impulse, of which the reasons or motives are inscrutable to human wisdom, they allow that he may kill fourteen persons every day without assigning a cause, or without the imputation of tyranny. Death by his hand, or by his order, if submitted to without resistance, confers martyrdom ; and some, after passing their lives in his service, are reported to have aspired to the honor of such a consummation, as a title to eternal felicity." What can we say of such a government, but that it is a complete picture of deS" potism ? The Asiatic Turks, or rather subjects of the Turkish empire, who hold their possessions by a kind of miUtary tenure, on condition of their serving in the field with a particular number of men, think themselves, while they perform that agreement, almost independent of the emperor, who seldom calls for the heads or the estates of such individuals as are not the immediate servants of the court. The most unhappy subjects of this government are those who approach the highest dignities of the state, and whose fortunes are constantly exposed to sudden alterations, and depend on the breath of their master. There is a gradation of great officers in Turkey, of whom the vizir, or prime- minister, his deputy the kiaya, &c. the reis-efiendi, or secretary of state, are the most considerable. These, EUROPEAN TURKEY. 5-15 ai well as the mufti, the pashas or governors of provinces, the civil judges, and many others, are commonly raised from the meanest stations in life, and are often the children of Christian sla;\'cs taken in war. Tutored in the school of adversity, and arriving at pre-eminence through difficultiea and dangers, these men are generally as distinguished for ahilitics as deficient in virtue. They possess all the dissimulation, intrigue, and corruption, which often accompany ambition in an humble rank ; and they have a farther reason for plundering the people, because they are uncertain how long they may possess the dignities which they have ob- tained. The administration of justice, therefore, is extremely corrupt over the whole empire ; but this proceeds from the nianneis of the judges, and not from the laws of the kingdom, which arc founded upon equitable principles. Revenues.] The revenues arise from the customs, and a variety of taxes which fall chiefly on the Christians, and other subjects, not of the Mohammedan religion. These exactions amount to about five millions sterling ; but they are trifling, when compared with the vast sums ex- torted from the governors of provinces, and officers of state, under tho name of presents. These harpies, to indemnify themselves, exercise every species of oppression that their avarice can suggest; but, when their opulence has subjected them to a pretended susi)icion of disloyalty or misconduct, the whole fortune of the supposed oftender devolves to the crown. The devoted victim is selo^^m acquainted with the nature of the offence, or the names of his accusers ; but, without giving him the least opportunity of making a defence, an officer is despatched with the imperial decree to take off his head. The unhappy pasha receives it with the highest respect, putting it on his head, and, after he has read it, says, " The will of (3od and the emperor be done !" or uses similar expressions, testifying his entire resignation to tho will of his prince. Then he takes the silken cord, which the officer has ready in his bosom, and, when he has tied it round his own neck, and said a short prayer, the officer's ser- vants throw him on the floor, and soon strangle him ; after which his head is cut off, and carried to court. Army, navy.] There are two species of militia in the Turkish em- pire. To the maintenance of one class certain lands are appropriated, while the others are paid out of the treasury. Those who have lands are about 268,000. Beside these, there are auxiliary forces raised by the tributary countries of this empire. In every war, also, there are great numbers of volunteers, who live at their own charges, in expectation of succeeding the officers. The forces which receive their pay from the treasury are the spahis or horse-guards, and a new body of infantry lately formed, on the suppression of the sultan's body-guards, called Janisaries, who, having testified a strong disinclination to the European discipline which Mahmoud wished to introduce, were assailed (in June 1826) by the fierce resentment of that cruel prince, and murdered in troops. The naval force is very inconsiderable. In the last war with Russia, the grand fleet consisted of not more than seventeen sail of the line, and those were not in very good condition ; at present the number is lessened. The galleys now are of no use as ships of war ; but there are large vessels Avliich belong to the merchants, and in time of war are taken into the ser\'ice of the government. Titles and arms.] The emperor's titles are swelled with all the pomp of Eastern magnificence. He is styled by his subjects, the " Sha- dow of God, a God on earth, Brother to the Sun and Moon, Dispenser of all earthly Crowns," &c. At court, when mention is made of the sul- 2N ml 546 EUROPEAN TURKEY. tan, the appellation of alem penah (refuse of the world) is usually added to his title of padishah, or emperor. His loftiest title, and the most esteemed, beciuise given to him by the kin^^s of Persia, is Zilnlkh (shadow of God) ; and the one the most remote from our manners, though common among all ranks of his subjects, is hnnkiar (the man-slayer), which is given to him l)ecauso tlio law has invested him alone with ah- solute power over the lives of \m subjects. His arms exhibit a frescetit crested willi a turban, adorned with a phnue of heron's cjuills. Tht motto breathra tlie most aspiring ambition; donee tolum implcal orhem —implying an intention of prosecuting a glorious course until the fame of the empire shall fill the whole world : but we hope that his misclilDvoiis and odious career will soon bo checked, and that the sway of such a barbarian will at least be confined to Asia. Rei.ioion.] The established religion is the Mohammedan, so called from Mohammed, the author of it, some account of whom the reader will find in our history of Aral)ia. The Turks profess to be of the sect of Omar, in opposition to that of Ali, who, in the opinion' of the Persians, ought to have immediately succeeded Mohanuned. The mufti or sheik islam is the supremo chief of tlie religion of Turkey, the oracle who is consulted, and who solves all the questions which are put to him; his decisions are called _/e(/as. The grand signor has recourse to him in ali difficult and intricate cases, and promulgates no law, makes no decla- ration of war, and establishes no impost, without having obtained a fetfa. It is the mufti who girds on the sultan's sword on his accession to the throne, at the same time reminding him of the obligation of defend- ing and propagating the religion of the prophet. The ulcmas, or doctora of religion and law, constitute a powerful body, sometimes formidable to the throne itself. They possess lucrative employments, are secure from the extortions of pashas and great men, and cannot legally be put to death without the consent of the mufti. Their property, after their decease, passes as a right to their heirs, and cannot be appro- priated by the imjierial treasury, unless they have accepted some office under the government. The imams, who serve in the mosques, and the muezzins, whose employment is to ascend the minarets five times a day to call the people to prayers, do not belong to this body : they may be dis- missed from their office, or voluntarily resign it, and return into the class of private persons. The toleration of the Turks has been much extolled ; but they n.ake this toleration a source of revenue. The Christians are tolerated where they are most profitable ; hut the hardships imposed upon the Greek church are such as must always dispose that people to favor any revolu- tion of government. Constantinople, Jerusalem, Alexandria, and Antioch, are patriarchates ; and their heads are indulged, according as they pay for the privilege, with a civil as well as an ecclesiastical authority over their votaries. The same may be said of the Nestorian and Armenian patriarchs ; and every great city that can pay for the indul- gence, has its archbishop'or bishop. AH male Christians pay also a capita- tion tax from seventeen years of age to sixty, according to their stations. The insulting distinction of Christian and Mohammedan is carried to 80 great a length, that even the minutia of dress are rendered subjects of restriction. A Christian must wear only clothes and a head-dress of dark colors, and such'as Turks never wear, with slippers of black leather, and must paint his house black, or dark-brown. The least violation of these frivolous and disgusting regulations is punished with death. Nor is it at all uncommon for a Christian to have his head stricken off in the EUROPEAN TURKEY. 647 street, for indulging in more foppery of dress than the sultan or vizir, whom he may meet incognito, may be inclined to approve. If a Christ- ian strilces a Mohammedan, ho is put to death on the spot, or ruined by fines and severely bastinadoed ; and if he strikes, though by accident, a sherif, or descendant of Mohammed, who wears the green turban, of wlom there are hundreds in some cities, it is death without re- missiuit. Literature.] The Turks are very far from being a le"rned or literary nation ; but they are not so totally uninformed as many have supposed. Some have affirmed, that Mohammed prohibited the cul- tivation of learning or science ; and the language and conduct of tho khalif Omar, who is said to have burned the Alexandrian library, may hare given rise to that opinion : but the Koran itself recommends the improvement of the mind, and, over the door of the imperial library at Constantinople, a sentence is inscribed, intimating that true believers are commanded to study the sciences. The Turks have certainly not obfyeu this command with zeal ; nor, on the other hand, have they ffii-;', ..iglected it. Or-khan, t.ieir second emperor, instituted and endowed an academy at Bursa, which gradually became a celebrated seminary. Other sultans followed his example ; and it is particularly stated, that Morad 11. not only erected, in every city which he con- quered, a mosque and a caravanserai, but also a school. Mohammed II. founded at Constantinople an academy resembling an university, com- posed of sixteen colleges, in which 300 votaries of learning were main- tained as well as educated. Many other academies arose in different reigns; and, in 1780, a new one was instituted, in which ten branches of study are cultivated, namely, the elements of grammar, syntax, logic, ethics, the science of allegories or rhetoric, philosophy, jurisprudence, theology, the investigation of the Koran, and an inquiry into the oral laivs of the prophet. For the dissemination of learning, the art of print- ing was introduced among the Turks in 1726, by the permission of Ahmed III.; but it was opposed by prejudice and bigotry, and discontinued. It was alternately revived and disused. The unfortunate Selim III. was a great encourager of the art ; but, after his death, it was exploded. It is now restored to some degree of activity, with an exception of copies of the Koran, and of commentaries on that sacred volume, which the Turks wisli to retain in the ancient form, and in all the elegance of pen- manship. But, while many of the Turks so far profit by these means of in- struction, as to remove the reproach of disgraceful ignorance, the general education is merely that of reading and writing ; and it has even been observed, that the jurisprudence and theology of professed students consist only of commentaries on the Koran ; that their astro- nomy is mere astrology, and their chemistry alchemy, while the history and geography of other countries are very imperfectly known to them. Some understand astronomy, so far as to calculate the time of an eclipse; but, the number of these being very small, they are looked upon as extraordinary persons. To astrology they are greatly addicted ; the munejim bashi, or chief of the astrologers, is an officer of the sultan's household, and is consulted on all occasions which relate to tlie health, the safety, or convenience of his master. It is even deemed essential to the public welfare to follow his opinion in determining the day, or the precise instant, when any important public business is to be under- taken ; such as the march of an army, the laying of the foundation-stone of a public building, the conferring of any new dignity, and especially the 2 N 2 i 548 EUROPEAN TURKEY. appointment of a grand vizir. The sultans religiously perpetuate this custom, which was delivered down to them by the khalifs, notwithstand- ing its repugnance to the general spirit and positive institutions of the doctrine and law of the prophet, who expressly denominates astrolooy a false science, and stigmatises its professors as liars. Language.] The Turkish language is derived from the Zagatai, a dialect of the Tartarian. It is the easiest of any we are acquainted with, because it is the most regular. It has only one conjugation of verbs, one declension of nouns, and no gender. There is no exception nor any irregular verb or noun in the language. It is not very copious; yet it is manly, energetic, and sonorous. To supply the want of words tfie writers frequently mix with it the Arabic and Persian. The Lord's Pr' \vr in Turkish is as follows : ha^amuz hangherjuiglesson,chudiiss olssnm ssenunyhadun; gehon ssenung memlcchetnn ; olssunt ssenungh istegung ni esse yugthauk gyrde ; echame gumozi here non vere hize begun, zem Imssa hize bo slygomozi; nyeze hizde basiaruz borestiglero Jnosi ; hem ycdmahize ge heneme ; de churtule bizyjaramuzdan. Amen. The Greeks speak a modernised Greek, called Romaic, and in the Asiatic provinces the Arabic and a dialect of the Syriac are spoken. K specimen of the modern Greek follows in their Paternoster : Pater hemas, opios iso ees tos ouranous : hagiasthito to onoma sou; na erti he basilia sou : to thelema sou na gcnetez itzon eu to ge, os is ton ouranon : to ptsomi hemas doze henias semcron: km sichorasehe- mos ta crimata liemon, ilzone km hemas sichorasomen ckiiiQUs opou hemas adikoun : de meu ternes hemas is to pirasmo, alia soson hemas apo to kaxo. Amen. Antiquities.] Almost every spot of ground, every river, and every fountain in Greece, exhibit the ruins of antiquity. On the isthmus of Corinth, the ruins of Neptune's temple, and the theatre where the Isth- mian games were celebrated, are still visible. The remains of an oracu- lar temple of Apollo are still discernible at Castri, on the south side of Mount Parnassus; but the most interesting remains are at Athens; and these will be hereafter noticed. The history of the Turks will be given at the end of our account of Turkey in Asia, from which country they derived their origin and ex- tended their conquests into Europe : but we will here subjoin various particulars respecting some of their European provinces. The Guecian Paut oftheTuukish Empire. ALBANIA extends in length from 39 to 42 degrees of northern lati- tude ; but its breadth is inconsiderable, rarely exceeding eighty miles. On the accession of Selim III., tliis country was divided into five govorn- ments, one of which (that of Jcmnnina or Yanina) was enjoyed by All, a bold adventurer, whose extraordinary character claims that notice wliich is due to courage and talents. He commenced his career as tiie leader of a predatory party ; and, when he had followed this course for many years with considerable success, he purchased a jiasbalic nom the Porte, and gradually increased his authority by encroaching on the power and jurisdiction of the neighbouring governors. He no longer regarded the banditti as his friends, but exercised the greatest severity upon them, whenever they fell into his power; and, when he had thus excited that terror which gave security to his government, he accepted the services of many parties of robbers, and enrolled them among his troops. He encouraged both iuland trr.de and general commerce ; erected bridges EUROPEAN TURKEY. 549 orer deep rivers, formed good roads, raised causeways across marshes, and adorned the towns with new buildings. Though an illiterate barba- rian, he exhibited marks of a comprehensive mind, and seemed in some instances to have a sense of justice; but his rapacity was inordinate, and he was frequently guilty of excessive and horrible cruelty. After acting for many years as an independent prince, he was attacked by the troops of the Porte, and put to death, in the year 1822. As there was a time when the territories which form this province were nearly depopulated by war, misgovernment, and anarchy (for this jg said to have been the state of the country about the close of the seventh century), we may conclude that it contains few tribes which can pretend to a descent from the ancient Illyrians. The Bulgarians, and other barbarous nations, extended their conquests into this country ; but the time when its name was altered to its present appellation, and the cause of the change, cannot be precisely determined. There is little reason to suppose that the Albanians of Asia had any connexion with it. The country fell, in the sequel, under the p^wer of the Constantinopoli- tan emperors ; but their authority over it was not so complete as to pre- clude the occasional independence or desultory tyranny of its princes or chieftains, many of whom appear to have exercised a clashing jurisdic- tion, when George Castriot rose into power, and so far united their pre- tensions as to be enabled to withstar ' ♦''o Turkish armies, and to extort from his harassed enemies the honoio>' denomination of ScanderBeg, or Lord Alexander. After his death the province was over-run by the Turks : it was sometimes recovered in part, but was at length so far sub- dued by Selim II. in the sixteenth century, that it was thenceforward considered as an appendage of the Turkish empire. The Albanians or Arnauts, as distinguished from the Greek inhabi- tants of the province, are generally of a middle stature, muscular and straight in their frames, but not large ; and few of them have the least appearance of corpulence. Their chests are full and broad, and their necks long ; their faces arc of a long oval shape, with prominent cheek- bones. They have expressive eyes, arched eye -brows, small mouths, high and straight noses. They shave the beard, and the fore-part of the crown, leaving whiskers on the upper lip, and suffering the hair to flow unrestrained from the back of the head. When young, they have very white complexions : but, by labor and exposure to heat, they contract a dusky hue. Many of them, like the Illyrians and some other nations of an- tiquity, make figures on their arms and legs, which they color with gunpowder. Their dress consists of a cotton shirt and drawers, a woollen under-waistcoat, a vest or jacket with sleeves, a coarse shawl drawn tightly round their waists by a belt, and a great-coat or mantle, which, however, they rarely wear in the summer, except at night, when it serves for a sleeping-habit. On the top of the head a small red cap is worn by ordinary persons ; but their superiors add a kind of turban to it, which, in the winter, is drawn round the neck, being com- posed of a shawl. The legs and feet are usually bare ; but leathern san- dals are sometimes worn, which, as well as other parts of the genernl dress, almost every Albanian can manufacture. To the bolt a pistol is a constant appendage ; and, when its peaked handle is worked in rough silver, its possessor is particularly proud of his ornamented weapon. A long gun is also found in every cottage; but it is made with little skill, and the powder which is used with it is large-grained and very bad. The belt holds a knife, the handle and sheath of which are often attached to 550 EUROPEAN TURKEY. each other by rows of silver chains, — a species of ornament sometimes worn even by the men about their necks, and likewise used for the de- coration of an ink-stand, which, whether they can write or not, is affixed to the girdle. The Albanian women are frequently taller than the men, stronir and not ill-featured ; but they bear in their countenances all the marks of wretchedness, ill-treatment, and hard labor. The female dress varies considerably in different parts. Some wear gowns of red cotton with a turban-like shawl. Others are arrayed in white woollen, with a kind of scull-cap, composed of pieces of silver coin strung together while the hair falls down in braids to a great length, also enriched with suspended money: but this fashion is confined to the younger part of the sex. Both the men and women are uncleanly in their per- sons : yet tlieir habitations in general are kept in a state of neatness. Two rooms are supposed to complete an ordinary house, and a garden is usually annexed to it. Bread made of wheat or of barley, cakes of boiled or roasted maize, cheese made of the milk of goats, rice mixed with butter, eggs, dried fish, olives, and common vegetables, form the daily food of the inhabitants. On holidays, or on extraordinary occa- sions, they gratify themselves with the flesh of kids or sheep, or pouj. try. Their usual drink is the simple element : but even thoao who are of the Mohammedan persuasion sometimes have recourse to the in- dulgence of wine, and also partake of an ardent spirit which they ex- tract from grape-husks and barley. Like the Turks,Ahe Albanians are an indolent race, not indeed in- active in a military capacity, but disinclined to industry or labor. Yet they are not deficient in vivacity; and, when inflamed with anger, they are as violent and furious as the inhabitants of Constantinople or Aleppo, roused from their ordinary torpor. They are not malignant or deeply vindictive; nor are they treacherous or ungrateful. A re- markable trait in their general character is that contemptuous disre- gard which they evince for their women, whom they seem to consider as their cattle or their household goods, rather than as objects of a sen- timental passion, or as amiable and interesting companions. Their honesty is not of the most consistent kind : for they detest ordinary pilfering, while they do not think it disgraceful to rob in parties on a large scale. As warriors, they bear a high reputation in the East ; and, when they are not engaged in hostilities, they cherish their mar- tial spirit by a lively amusement, resembling the Pyrrhic dance of the ancients ; in which, notwithstanding their habitual indolence, they indulge with the most persevering energy and outrageous transport. With regard to religion, the majority of the Albanians, or at least an equal number, are Christians, some being followers of the Greek ritual, others of the Latin: and they are more observant of their devo- tional duties than the Moslems. Catholic prelates are allowed to act in the chief towns, under the direction of an archbisiiop, whose see is at the strong town of Antivari. It is difficult to determine which is the capital of Albania ; but, at present, the most flourishing town is .loannina, which is said to contain 30,000 inhabitants, of whom about three-fourths are Christians. The Greeks are the chief traders ; and they procure, by land-carriage, from Durazzo and other ports, Venetian cutlery, glass, and paper, and various English and German manufactured merchandise, in return for wool, oil, corn, and tobacco. They send flocks of sheep and goats, and droves of cattle, to the Ionian islands ; and, into the inland parts of Turkey, many EUROPEAN TURKEY. 551 embroidered articles, which are here wrought with considerable skill. The town exhibits many woll-bnilt houses, which have respectively a square court, ware-roouis or stables on the ground, an open gallery, and private apartments above : but the habitations in general are ill- constructed and incommodious ; and some of the best houses are ren- dered gloomy by the smallness of the windows, which are latticed with cross-bars of wood. Four |)iilaces adorn tlie city and suburbs : they are handsomely and comfortably fitted up, but are far from being magnilicent structures. The province of LIVADIA is ennobled by the possession of Athens, the remains of which attest its former magnificence. It has been re- marked, that, Avhile the ruins of Delphi, Dclos, Olympia, Argos, Sparta, Corinth, and otiier celebrated towns of ancient Greece, disup- point the modern observer by their insignificance, " those of Athens remain, for the most part, in a state little inferior to their original splendor." Tliis assertion is a palpable exaggeration ; yet beautiful vestiges are discernible. The most interesting objut is the acropolis or citadel, situated on an abrupt and lofty rc^k, commanding, in tiio capacity of a modern fortress, the scattered divisions of the city. 'J'ho walls of the ancient fortifications were crowned with an ornamental entablature, some parts of which still remain ; and these, and every other structure, were of the purest Pentelic marble. Rising above the rest of tiio buildings, the Partlienon, or temple of Minerva, en- chanted every eye by its beauty and magnificence: but, of this cele- hrated structure, only a few columns and dilapidated parts appear. Some elegant pieces of sculpture, in bas-relief, belonging to the met- opes of the peristyle, are in private hands ; and others, which were brought away by lord Elgin, are deposited, wit' many other works of Grecian art, in the British Museum. The Ercchtheum, and the ad- joining chapel of Pandrosos, are in a ruinous state, but evince archi- tectural taste and elegance. An octagonal building is still entire, called the Tower of the Winds, adorned with the beauties of sculpture. The monument of Lysicrates, called the Lantern of Demosthenes, con- sists of a basement, a circular colonnade, and a cupola of the Corinthian order; and, considered as a work which was erected above 2100 years ago, it is in an excellent state of preservation. A Doric portico also exists, supposed to have formed an entrance to a temple dedicated to Augustus, the deified emperor. Beside the larger ruins, fragments of statues, pedestals, and capitals of colimins, arc still to be seen in the walls and courts of many of the houses ; and others have been dug uj) in the neighbouring fields, or found in wells. In the environs of the town, the most striking ruin is that of a building finished by Hadrian, called by some the Pantheon, and by others tlie temple of the Olympiaii Jove. Of 120 columns, only sixteen are now remaining, wliich are fluted Co- rinthian pillars, six feet in diameter, and si.\ty feet in height. "^I'lie tomb of Pliilojjappus also deserves notice. Its t'orm is elliptical ; and the con- cave part of the ruin contains two oval niches, in ea 1 5000 4110 2500 1300 1000 2000 200 1000 450 800 3,801,000 50,000 2.000,000 400,000 500,000 I'obolsk I'eHis Chyiiian Lassa Hoklia ra PeUin 2I(iONE. 1920 E. tl80NE. 5780 E. 2U00 E. Cb.&J'a. Mo.&Lli. Pngans Pagans Pagans Cliiiia i;t:t(i lO.tO 1,100,000 1320 SE. 7 24 bef. Pagans Hindoo - Stan 1700 l(i.50 1200 1,000,000 Oehli 3720 S.E. 5 16 bef. Moh. P. & Cb. Ind.l)cyoiHl the Ganges 800 700,000 Mew Ava (800S.E. 6 44 bef. Pa. & M. Persia 1200 !)00 700,000 leheran Mecca 2300 S.E. 2(;ios,|v 3 20 bef. Molmm. .\rai)ia 1400 1100 i)00,llOO J 52 bef. Moham. Ch.&Mo. Syria 200 100 80 30,000 \leppo l8(iOS.E. 2 30 bef. Hsly Land 50 10,000 Jerusa- lem 1920 S.E. 2 24 bef. Ch.&Mo. Vatulia (iOO 380 180,000 Bursa 1440, S.E. 1 48 bef. Moham. 3 r. < i Diarbtker, or Meso- potamia ;i20 180 70,000 Diarbe- ker 2000 S.E. •i 56 bef. \ Mo- ham- medans \with some few • Christ- ians. 1 Irak, or Chaldea 250 200 30,000 Bagdad 2240 S.E. 3 04 bef. Turcoma- niaor Armenia 350 250 45,000 Erze- roum 18608. E. 2 44 bef. Courdistan \ or Assyria 200 150 30,000 Solyma- ni 2220 E, 3 — bef. Moll am . M !:'iii. 660 ASIATIC TURKEY. The chief Asiatic iHlands are those which constitute the empire of Japan, Borneo, Sumatra, Celebes, Java, Ceylon, the Philippines, and the Spice islands. ASIATIC TURKEY. SITUATION AND EXTENT. Miles. Degrees. , Length 950 ? , C 27 and 45 East longitude. Breadth 690 ] ^^etween j oj ^^^ 4^ fj^rth latitude. Containing 265,000 square miles, with more than 37 persons to eadi. Boundaries.] This country is bounded by the Black Sea and Circassia on the north ; by Persia on the cast ; by Arabia and the Levant Sea on the south ; and by the Archipelago, the Hellespont, and Propontis, which separate it from Europe, on the west. Divisions. Subdivisions, Ciiief Towuj. ri. The Arabian Irak, or Chaldea Bagdad. The astern 1 2, Difirboker Diarbcker. provinces are | 3, Courdistan Solymani. (,4. Turcomania, or Armenia, . , . Erzeroum. Natolia, or T 1. NatoHa Proper Bursa. Asia the } 2, Amasia Amasia, Less, on j 3. Aladulia Adana, the west. (.4, Caramania Konieh. . East of the C Syria, with Palestine, or the? ^, j^^^,^^,^^,^ Levant Sea. ( Holy Land, 3 Mountains] These are famous in sacred as well as profane writ- ings : the most remarkable are Olympus, Taurus, Anti-taurus, Ararat, Lebanon, and Hermon. RivEKs, T.AKES, MiNEUAi- WATERS.] Tlio chicf rivcrs arc, the Euphrates, which rises in the mountains of Armenia, and fails into the Persian Gulf, after a course of about 1,300 English miles; tlie Tigris, which flows into the Euphrates about fiO miles to the north of Bassora, after a course of nearly 800 miles ; the Mteander, the Sarabat,or ancient Hermus, the Oronles in Syria, and the Jordan, The lake of Van, in Courdistan, is about 80 mi'?8 long, and 40 broad, The lake of Rackama, to the south of Hilleh, is about 30 miles in length, and has a comumnication with the EuphratcB, The lake of Asphaltitcs, u.sua]ly called the Dead Sea, in Palestine, into which the Jordan flows, i' about 50 miles in lengJi, and 12 in breadth. The mineral waters of Bursa arc in great estimation. The water smokes, and is so hot as to scald the hand. There arc several other hot and mineral springs in dififerent parts of Asiatic T-ikey, Metals, minkrals.] The mountainous provinces of Turkey in Asia may be supposed to possess a variety of valuable niiuerals and ine- s\n. 1?.'^ X- !»uaiir! - ^ f "jyihan .' IIi'ImhIi mii< •*" l.iiii;;illi!'' I'limi (ii iiw'uli li" l| I /''/*.»,- I>y .1. .U,ntm,ut Kl/w ilJuf /\\'prit1iir> . J«V JoJSvVir« ;vVj Suvuid -_ / Is; but the i| are so great, tli Climate.] utmost degree, such is tlio ec his benefits, th I by the plague ; but here doubl; and their supe from using the I calamity. Soil and p vinces of Asia, duces all the lu nine, oil, honej odoriferous plar nhich is practi; citrons, lemons are highly dclic mere trifle, and uncommonly lai tries in size. I apparent perfect Animals.] especially, are improved that i ppculiar to thes ilie use of mai strength, their drinking, which manufacture w of a mixture wool and silk, As to birds well known by lampreys, mul those that were Natural though they scribed by trav remains of anti( abound. Provinces TOWNS same time very greatly declin serves a respect the capital of most of the Tu a large court, ning round it, material in th compass, stand delis erected, now in many i I of mi ASIATIC TURKEY. 561 tals; but the ignorance and indolence of those who possess the country are so great, that nature has lavished her gifts in vain. Climate.] Though the climate of this country is delightful in tho utmost degree, and naturally salubrious to the human constitution, yet such is the equality with which the Author of Nature has dispensed his benefits, that Turkey, both in Europe and Asia, is often visited by the plague ; a dreadful scourge to mankind wherever it takes place, but here doubly destructive, from the native indolence of the Turks, and their superstitious belief in predestination, which prevents them from using the proper precautions to defend themselves against this calamity. Soil and produce.] As this country contains the most fertile pro- vinces of Asia, it is scarcely necessary to inform the reader that it pro- duces all the luxuries of life in the utmost abundance. Raw silk, corn, wine, oil, honey, fruit of every species, coffee, myrrh, frankincense, and odoriferous plants and drugs, are natives here almost without culture, which is practised chiefly by tho Greeks and Armenians. The olives, citrons, lemons, oranges, figs, and dates, produced in these provinces, are highly delicious, and in such plenty, that they cost the inhabitants a mere trifle, and, it is said, in some places nothing. Their asparagus is uncommonly large ; and their grapes far exceed those of other coun- tries in size. In short, nature has brought all her productions here to apparent perfection. Ammals.] The breeds of the Turkish and Arabian horses, the latter especially, are valuable beyond any in the world, and have considerably improved that of the English. We know of no quadrupeds that are pfculiar to these countries ; but they contain all that are necessary for the use of mankind. Camels are here in much request, from their strength, their agility, and, above all, their moderation in eating and drinliing, which is greater than that of any other known animal. That manufacture which is known by the name of camelot, was originally made of a mixture of camel's hair and silk, though it is now often made with wool and silk. As to birds, here are wild fowl in great perfection : the ostriches are well known by their tallness, swiftness in running, and stupidity. Except lampreys, mullets, and oysters, the Roman epicures prized no fish but those that were found in Asia. Natural curiosities.] The natural curiosities of Asiatic Turkey, though they must be numerous, seem to have been little explored or de- scribed by travelers, who have in general been more attentive to the remains of antiquity with which almost all the provinces of this empire abound. Provinces, cities, chief \ The cities and towns of Turkey ia towns, EDiiicKs. 3-'^''* ^re very numerous, and at the same time very insignificant, because they have little trade, and have greatly declined from their ancient grandeur. Alepjio, howi'ver, pre- serves a respectable rank among the cities of Asiatic Turkey It is still the capital of Syria, and is superior in its buildings and conveniences to most of the Turkish cities. The houses, as usual in the East, consist of a large court, with a dead wall to the street ; an arcade or piazza run- ning round it, paved with marble ; and an elegant fountain of the sauio material in the middle. Aleppo, and its saLurbs, are seven miles iu compass, standing on eight small hills, on the highest of which the cita- del is erected, but of no great strength. An old wall, and a broad ditch, now in many places turned into gardens, surround the city, which was 2 O I If niP ^^'\:m I 662 ASTATIC TURKEY. eatirHated by the late Dr. Russel to contain 230,000 inhabitants, of whom 30,000 were Christians and 5000 Jews ; but, at present, it does not contain more than 150,000. Whole streets are uninhabited, and ba- zars abandoned. It is furnished with most of the conveniences of life except good water, within the walls, and even that is supplied by an aqueduct, distant about four miles, said to have been erected by the empress Helena. The streets are narrow, but well paved with large square stones, and are kept very clean. The gardens are pleasant, be- ing laid out in vineyards, olive, fig, and pistachio trees : but the country round is rough and barren. Foreign merchants are nimierous here, and transact their business in caravanserais, or large square buildings, con- taining their warehouses, lodging-rooms, and compting-liouses. This city abounds in neat mosques, some of which are even magnificent; in public bagnios, which are very refreshing ; and bazars, which are formed into long, narrow, arched, or covered streets, with little shops, as in other parts of the East. The coffee is excellent, and considered by the Turks as a high luxury ; and the sweetmeats and fruit are delicious. European merchants live here in greater splendor and safety than in any other city of the Turkish empire, in consequence of particular capitula- tions with the Porte. Coaches or carriages are not used here ; but per- sons of quality ride on horseback, with a number of servants before them, according to their rank. The English, P'rench, and Dutch, have con- suls, who are much respected, and appear abroad, the English espe- cially, with marks of distinction. Scanderoon, or Alexandretta, about 70 miles to the west of Aleppo, and the port of that city, is now al- most depopulated ; but its vicinage is dignified with superb remains of antiquity. As the mosques and bapnios, mentioned above, are built in nearly the same manner in all the Mohammedan countries, we shall here gire a general description of them. Mosques are of a square form, and generally of stone : before the chief gate there is a square court, paved with white marble, and it has low galleries round it, the roof of which is supported by marble pillars. Those galleries serve for places of ablution before the Mohammedans go into the mosque. About every mosque there are six high towers, called minarets, each of which has three little open galleries, one above ano- ther. These towers, as well as the mosques, are covered with lead, and adorned with gilding and other ornaments ; and from them, without the use of a bell, the people are called to prayer by certain officers ap- pointed for that purpose. No woman is allowed to enter a mosque; nor can a man with his shoes or stockings on. Most of these buildings have in their vicinity a place of entertainment for strangers during three days. The bagnios in the Mohammedan countries are admirably well con- structed tor the purpose of bathing. Sometimes they are square, but more frequently circular, built of white well-polished stone or marble. Each bagnio has three rooms ; the first is used for dressing and undressing; the second contains the water, and the third the bath; all of them are paved with black and white marble. The operation of the bath we have already mentioned. Bagdad, built upon the Tigris, was the capital of the ancient Chaldca, and, for some centuries, the metropolis of the khalifate, under the Sara- cens. This city retains few marks of its ancient grandeur. It is in the form of an irregular square, ill-built, and rudely fortified ; but thecon- veniency of its situation renders it one of the seats of the Turkish ASIATIC TURKEY. ^3 »(jvemment,'and it has still a considerable trade, being annually visited by the caravans from Smyrna and Aleppo, and supplied also witb the produce of Persia and India. The houses are generally largo, but rarely exceed one story : they are built of brick and cement, and arciied over to admit the free circulation of the air; many of the windows are made of elegant Venetian glass, and the ceilings ornamented with chequered work. Most of the houses have a court-yard before them, in the middle of which is a small plantation of orange-trees. The bazars are tolerably handsome and spacious, filled with shops for all kinds of merchandise. These were erected by the Persians, when they were in possession of the place, as were also the bagnios. In the north-west corner of the city stands the castle, which is of white stone, and commands the river, con- sisting of curtains and bastions, on which some large cannon are mounted, ivith two mortars in each bastion ; but in so bad a state as to l)e sup- posed unable to suj)port one firing. Below the castle, by the water-side, is the palace of the Turkish governor ; and there are many summer- houses on the river, which make a fine appearance. The Arabiaiia who inhabited this city under the khalifs were remarkable for the purity and elegance of their dialect. Bassora, or Basra, which is situated below the part where the Ti- gris joins the Euphrates, is considered as the second city of the pashalic of Bagdad ; but it has greatly declined from its former wealth and imi)ortance, though it still boasts of a population of 50,000, Avho carry on an extensive trade. The houses are meanly built; the bazars are miserable structures; and, of forty mosijues, only one is worthy of the name. The Arabs form the most numerous class of the inhabitants ; but the Armenians are the chief njanagers of the foreign trade. For the merchandise of British India, tliey cliiefly exchange bullion, pearls, copper, silk, dates, and gall-nuts; and their horses, which are strong and beautiful, are also articles of exportation. Mosul, which is situated on a plain near the Tigris, was a handsome and flourishing town ; but it is now visibly declining, though it still has about 35,000 inhabitants ; among whom, beside Turks, are many Kourds, Arabs, Jews, and Armenians. Diarbeker, the ancient Amida, was formerly the capital of an iadependent state, and is now the seat of a powerful pasha, who is BOt altogether subservient to the Porte. It is surrounded by a wall of black stone, supposed to be a Roman work, famous for its height and solidity. Many of the houses are very handsome ; one mosque is particularly magnificent, and the castle is a great ornament to the town. Manufactures and commerce are prosecuted with some degree of spirit; and the inhabitants, who nearly amount to 40,000, bear a letter character than those of most other Turkish towns. They indulge their women with a degree of liberty uncommon in the East, and treat itrangers with courtesy and respect. The capital of Kourdistan is Solymani, which contains about 15,000 inhabitants. The houses are built of mud and un.burned bricks, with flat roofs, and few of them have two stories. The coiintry is not only divided between the Turks and Persians, hut among independent tribes, which bave their own beya or emirs. The tribes are partly eriatic and partly •lationary. Speaking of the former, lieutenant Heude says, " They are all life, fire, and animation ; robbers by profession, and constantly on the watch for prey. They have thick manly beards, with dark musta- chios, which are often contrasted with keen eyes of liquid blue. They 2 2 i ^^:\^ n s wr m ASIATIC TURKEY. are constantly armed with pistolb, a dagger, and a well-tempored falchion ; and the ruddy glow that bursts through an olive complexion finislies tlie picture, and stamps the daring outlaw as the healthful hardy mountaineer. The Kourdish ladies well suit their lords : mountain-nymphs in their youth, and lovely, laughing, nut-brown maids, they arc Amazons in their middle age, and follow their husbands in all their wanderings. The Kourds are exceedingly fond of hunting the antelope, and commonly pursue at full speed over every kind of ground, without hesitation or mishap ; their horses being in this respect certainly remarkable, that, unlike the greater part of the mountain-breeds we are acquainted with, they are commonly of the larger size, and as beautiful and spirited as they are indefatigable and sure." Erzeroum is a large fortified town : but the houses are low, and constructed chiefly of wood. Of 80,000 inhabitants, not more than 14,500 are Armenians, though it is the chief town of their province. They have three celebrated monasteries near the city, and enjoy an identity of privilege with the Turks. Bursa, or Prusa, was formerly the Turkish capital. With the sub- urbs, it is about six miles in circumforence. It is romantically Kituatcd on the declivity of Mount Olympus ; and a castle rises in tlic middle (if the city over perpendicular rocks. A mosque built by Or-khan displnvs some degree of elegance : that of Bayezid is still more admired ; and two shrines near the citadel, while tliey aflord a delightful view of the country, excite the reverence of the Moslems. The town aboii 'Is in a remarkable manner with springs, some of which are salubri i and sanative. There are, in this neighbourhood, seven public baths naturally •warm, which are much frequented ; and it is said that the private baths amount to 3000. The inhabitants of the town are industrious, more particularly the Christian and Jewish parts of the poptilation: they manufacture a great deal of silk, velvet, and gauze, and also colored linen ; and their fruit, confectionary, and bread, are excellent. Angora is a strong town, embosomed among mountains. It is neatly built, and has some trade, particularly in that yarn of which shalloons are made, and in shawls of goat's hair, which rival those of Cashniii-. It was near this town that Timour obtained his famous victory over Bayezid. The south-eastern part of Asia Minor, called Caramania, is an extensive province, fertile, though mountainous, and enjoys the ad- vantage of a fine climate : but it has few important towns ; and tlie people in general are rude and uncivilised. Some of the provincial governors can scarcely be called subjects of the Porte, as they seem to pay only a nominal allegiance ; and they find great ditHculty in taming the spirit of the natives, many of whom subsist by robbery and piracy. Smyrna is the most considerable town in Asia Minor. It contains about 130,000 inhabitants. The excellence of its harbour renders it the centre of all tlie tratHc carried on between Europe and the Levant, and preserves it in a flourishing state ; but the other parts of this country, comprehending the ancient provinces of Lydia, Paniphylia, Pisidia, Lycaonia, Cilicia, Cappadocia, and Pontus (territories cele- brated in the Greek and Roman history), are now, through the Turkish indolence and tyranny, either forsaken, or a theatre of ruins, The sites of ancient cities are still discernible ; and so luxuriant is nature in those countries, that in many places she triumphs over lier forlorn condition.— Of Smyrna we may farther observe, that it is about ASIATIC TURKEY. 565 ,jur miles in circumference, and makes a very ha idsomo appearance wliea approached by sea. Its domes and minarets, interspersed with cypresses, rise finely above the tiers of houses, and the summit of the hill varies the view by the display of a spacious fortress. The town is not so ill- built as many other Turkish towns are ; and the abundance of all the necessaries of life, and the general civility even of the Moslem inhabitants, contribute to render this a desirable abode, except for three months, when the heat, though tempered by a westerly wind in the day, and by a land-breeze in the night, is scarcely endurable, and is attended with very unpleasant attacks from stinging flics and still more troublesome mosquitoes. — The Greeks in this city seemed to thrive and flourish in ti ade and in progressive education, when the intelligence of the revoh of their brethren in Europe readied the magistracy ; but they were then ex- posed to shocking insults and sanguinary outrages, and cannot be con- sidered as secure while the same cause of irritation subsists. Tyria, though little known, is a well- built town, situated on the sloping borders of a very fertile valley. The inhabitants appear to live in a comfortable way, and some manufactures, particularly that of shoes, are extensively f-arried on. Sardis, fornui v the capital of the Lydian realm, is reduced to a few huts; but the village and its neighbourhood may boast of two very interesting remains of antiquity. One is the burying-place of the Lydian kings, the other is the vast Ionic temph; of Cybele. Opposite to the isle of Lesbos, was a village called Aivali, which, in consequence of the exertions of some lerprising Greeks, rose into im- portance, and recf ived such accessions a early swlI ■ d its population to 30,000. The inhabitants were all Greek, the Turks tmng excluded by a decree of the J^'>rte. Various branches of manufactures and trade flourished at this place ; and, in 1803, a college \\ as er- cted, in which the number of scholars sometimes amounted to 150. But, when a body of Greek insurgents from Europe had landed in that frart of Asia, with a view of extending the revolt, tue pasha of Bursa sent a military force to protect Aivali, or rather to take possession of the place. t.Hiar- rels arose between the inhabitants and tl e insolent intruders; and one half of the intimidated popidation emigrated to (liferent islands. A Greek armament afterwards appeared in tlio harbour, and conflicts ensued between the Turks and those who disembarked. The Greeks being victorious, the enraged Turks set fire to the town in their retreat, and the greater part beca'^ f a heap of ruins. Konieh (formerly Iconiuci; has an "imposing appearance (says cap- tain Kinneir) from the liiun!;. i and size of its public buildings ; but these stately edifices are cruml ' j.;. ; .to ruins, while the houses of the inhabitants consist of huts built of sui>j ied bricks, and hovels thatched with reeds. The chief ornaments of the city are its mosques, of which there are twelve large and a hundred small. The colleges are also numerous, but only one is now inhabited. Some of the gates of these old colleges are of singular beauty ; they are formed entirely of marble, adorned with a profusion of fret-work and fine entablatures in the Moresco fashion." — The inhabitants make good carpets, and prepare blue and yellow leather: they also send out cotton and wool. They boast of the sanctity of their town, because it contains the tomb of a revered saint, and consequently attracts a number of Mohammedan pilgrims. Damascus is still a flourishing city. It stands (says Mr. Buckingham) on the western edge of a fine plain, having a chain of hill ; pressing close upon it to the north-west. The buildings being constructed chiefly of stone below and bricks of a light yellow above, while the principal ^y V M l^:,i ^m IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) 1.0 11.25 ■so US 1^ — I^KI U 11.6 7 Hiotographic Sciences Corporation 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. 14580 (716) 872-4503 ^>7 666 ASIATIC TURKEY. public edifices are painted in the gayest colors, the aspect of the whole i| light and airy in the extreme. The castle, with its outer court uhI massive walls, and the great and splendid mosque near the centre of tht city, bok imposing by their magnitude, and the light and taperbg miga. rets that rise in every quarter of the town, give a peculiar character «f elegance to the whole." — The city Tsays'Mr. Legh) " is long and nanow and the houses, built of mud briclu, have an exterior extremely mean' which little corresponds with the interior magnificence The floors of the rooms are generally inlaid with white and variegated uiu. . le, the W'ndovi arc frequently of stained glass, and the walls are beautifully paiated ia fresco, with representations, not of flowers or arabesques, but of the mott curious and intricate angular patterns and mathematical figures."— Thu place is famous for its coffee-houses, built on the banks of the Barrada and consisting of a high pavilion roof, supported by wooden pillan, Smoking is a part of the recreation at these houses, and another amiue- ment is story-telling. The sword-blades for whiuh Damascus wag for< merly so celebrated, have yielded to au inferior manufacture: but the «lk and cotton commodities are still in great request, and the cabinet work is represented as admirable. The population is about 1 25,000. Said, the ancient Sidon, has a tolerable harbour, but is not populous, and its trade has been in a great measure transferred to Bayrout (Beiy- tus), which has about 12,000 inhabitants, many of whom (perhapt the most industrious of all) are Druses ; — a circumstance which prompts us to take transient notice of a remarkable community. These half-Christ- ians reside upon and about Mount Lebanon ; they arc subject to an emir, who is tributary to the Turks, but rules in an independent manner. Their seat of government is Dair-al-Kamar, where a sort of national council is holden. Their mountainous villages, being strong by natu.3, are not fortified by art. They subsist chiefly by the culture of silk and cotton. The general opinion is, that they are the descendants of parties of crusaders, who, instead of returning to Europe, established their resi- dence among the Syrian mountains. In their persons they are for the most part fair, and their women, of whom they are excessively jealous, are said to be very handsome. The male dress is rich and picturesque; and the women, to the elegance of their clothing, add the ornament of a silver horn, which, affixed on the crown, the right or the left side of the head, respectively indicates a virgin, a married woman, and a w: Jovr. Tyre, or Sur, so famous formerly for its rich dye, is now inhabited by scarcely any but a few miserable fishermen, who live among the ruins of its ancient grandeur. There are strong walls on the land side, of stone ; but the circumference of the place is not more than a mile and a half, and Christians and Mohammedans only make up the number of about five hundred. St. John d'Acre (Ptolemais), is a considerr.ble town in point of popu- lation and of trade. It was for many years the seat of the pasha Al« Gezzar, who, though a most inhuman tyrant, adorned the place with fine public buildings, and promoted in some respects the interest and wel- fare of the people. Jerusalem contains a stately temple, or rather a groupe of mosquei, erected at different times on the spot whicli is supposed to have been formerly ennobled hy Solomon's magnificent structure. Al Aksa, one o{ the number, consists of seven naves : at the end of the central one is a handsome cupola: seven arches slightly pointed, resting on cylin- drical pillars, support this nave. The cupola has two rows of windows, and is embellished with arabesque painting and gilding. Al-Sakhara, ASIATIC TURKEY* 667 ft the mosque of Omar, is an octagonal edifice, surmounted by an I ' ijioued cupola, and entered by four gates, before one of which is a fine ' portico in the Corinthian style. The exterior is incrusted with marble to acoasiderable height: the remainder is faced with small bricks of vinous colon. The houses of this city, says the vicomte de Chateau- briand, are heary square masses, very low, with scarcely any windows; thgy hare terraces on the top, and look like prisons or sepulchres. Tho whole would appear to the eye as an uninterrupted level, if the steeples and the minarets, the summits of a few cypresses, and the clumps of nopals, did not break the uniformity of the view. — By others who have visited this sacred epot, the town is described as an ill-built, gloomy, dirty place of re- sidence, unenlivened by open-hearted sociability or true comfort. The population does not exceed 25,000. Antiquities.] The remains of ancient edifices and monuments in Adatic Turkey are so numerous, that they have furnished matter for many voluminous publications. The provinces which compose tbi« country contained all that was rich and magnificent, in architec- ture and sculpture ; and neither the barbarity of the Turks, nor the depredations of the Europeans, seem to have diminished the number of these valuable antiquities. They are more or less perfect accord- ing to the air, soil, or climate, in which they stand ; and all of them bear deplorable marks of neglect. Many of the finest temples are con- verted into Turkish mosques, or Greek churches, and are more disfigured than those which remain in ruins. Amidst such a vast variety of curiosi- tities, it will be sufficient to select some of the most striking. The neighbourhood of Smyrna contains some noblo and beautiful antiquities. The same may be said of Aleppo, and many other places celebrated in ancient times. The site of old Troy cannot be di- stinguished by the smallest vestige, and is known only by its being o{^te to the isle of Tenedos, and by the name of a brook which the poets magnified into a wonderful river. A temple of marble, built in honor of Augustus Csesar, at Milasso in Caria, and a few structures of the same kind in the neighbourhood, are among the an- tiquities which are still entire; and three theatres of white marble, with a fine circus near Laodicea, now Lutakia, have suffered littls iqjury from time or barbarism. Some ruins, which are still to be seen at Hilleh, 50 miles from Bagdad, are supposed to be the remains of the famed city of Babylon. A spacious and lofty pyramid, and one of smaller dimensions, crowned with a small square tower, have been particularly described : but neither the time of their erection, nor the nation which raised them, can be ascer- tained ; and all the late deductions and conclusions on this subject are as fimciful and visionary as the dreams with regard to Troy. Baalbec is situated on a rising plain, between Tripoli and Damascus, at the foot of Mount Libanus, and is the Heliopolis of Ccelo-Syria. Its remains of antiquity display, according to the beat judges, the boldest plan that ever was attempted in arcliitecture. The portico of the temple of the Sun is inexpressibly superb, though disfigured by two Turkish towers. The hexagonal court behind is now known only by the magnificence of its ruins. The walls were adorned with Corin- thian pilasters and statues, and it opens into a quadrangular court of the same taste and grandeur. The great temple to which this leads ii now so ruined, that it is known only by au entablature, supported by nine lofty columns, each consisting of three pieces, joined by iron pina without cement. Some of these pins are a foot long, and a foot ia 568 ASIATIC TURKEY. diameter ; and the sordid Turks frequently destroy the columu for the sake of the iron. A small temple is still standing, with a pedestal of eight columns in front and fifteen in fiank, and is ornamented with figures in alto-relievo, and the heads of gods, heroes, and emperon. To the west of this temple is another, of a circular form, of the Coriothiaa and Ionic orders, but disfigured with Turkish mosques and houses. The other parts of this ancient city are proportionally beautiful and stupendous. Various have been the conjectures concerning the founders of these immense buildings. The inhabitants of Asia ascribe them to Solomon' but some make them as modern as the time of Antoninus Pius. Per.' haps they are of different seras ; and though that prince and his suc- cessors may haVe rebuilt some parts of them, yet the boldness of their architecture, the beauty of their ornaments, and the stupendous execution of the whole, seem to fix their foundation to a period before the Christiaa sera, though we cannot refer them to the ancient times of the Jews, or Phoenicians, who probably knew little of the Greek style in building and ornamenting. Baalbec is at present a small town, encompassed with a wall. The inhabitants, who are about 2000 in number, chiefly Greelts, live in or near the circular temple, in houses built out of the scattered ruins. A free-stone quarry in the neighbourhood furnished the stones for the body of the temple ; and one stone, not quite detached from the bottom of the quarry, is 70 feet long, 14 broad, and 14 feet five inches deep: its weight must be 1135 tons. A quarry of coarse white marble, at a greater distance, furnished the ornamental parts. Palmyra, or, as it was called by the ancients, Tadmor in the desert, is situated in the wilds of Arabia Petrsea, 150 miles to the south-east of Aleppo. It is approached though a narrow plain, lined as it were witli the remains of antiquity. The temple of the Sun is a mere ruin, but the access to it is through a vast number of Corinthian columns of white marble. Superb arches, a colonnade extending 4000 feet in length, terminated by a noble mausoleum, temples, fine porticoes, peristyles, intercolumniations, and entablatures, all of them in the highest style, and finished with the most beautiful materials, appear on all hands, but so dispersed and disjointed, that it is impossible from them to form an idea of the whole when perfect. These striking ruins are contrasted by the miserable huts of the wild Arabs, who reside in or near them. Nothing but ocular proof could convince any man that so superb a city, formerly ten mil<^s in circumference, could exist in the midst of what now are tracts of barren uninhabitable sands. Nothing however is more certain than that Palmyra was formerly the capital of a great kingdom, that it was the pride as well as the emporium of the Eastern world, and that its merchants traded with the Romans and the western nations, for the merchandise and luxuries of India and Arabia. Its pre- sent altered condition, therefore, can be accounted for only by natural causes, which have converted the most fertile tracts into barren deserts. The Asiatics think that Palmyra, as well as Baalbec, owes its origin to Solomon ; and in this they receive some countenance from sacred history. In profane history it is not mentioned before the time of Marc Antony ; and its most superb buildings are thought to be of the lower empire, about the time of Gallienus. Odcnathus, the last king of Palmyra, was highly caressed by that emperor, and even declared Augustus. His widow, Zenobia, reigned in great glory for some time ; and Longinus, the celebrated critic, was her secretary. Unwilling to submit to the Roman tyranny, she declared war against the emperor Aurelian. who took her prisoner, led her in triumph to Rome, and murdered her principal no- ASIATIC TURKEY. 560 Mm and, among others, Longinua. ' He afterwards destroyed her city, ind'massacred its inhabitants, but expended large sums out of her trea- am in repairing the temple of the Sun, the majestic ruins of which have been mentioned. The Palmyrene inscriptions do not reach above the Christian aera, though there can be no doubt that the city itself is of macb higher antiquity. The emperor Justinian made some efforts to restore it to its ancient splendor, but without effect ; for it dwindled, by degrees, to its present wretched state. It has been observed, very justly, that its architecture, and the proportion of its columns, are by no means equal to those of Baalbec. Betnreen the rivers Euphratec and Tigris, where some superstitious and visionary people have sought the situation of Paradise, there are gome tracts which undoubtedly deserve that name. The different niios, some o'' them inexpressibly magnificent, that are to be found io these im-jense regions, cannot be appropriated with certainty to their orig^al founders ; so great is the ignorance in which they have been b' ried for a long course of ages. It is, indeed, easy to pro- nounce whether the style of their buildings be Greek, Roman, or Saracenic ; but all other information must come from their inscriptions. Nothing can be more futile than the boasted antiquities shown by the Greek and Armenian priests in and near Jerusalem, which is well known to have beer, so often rased to the ground, and rebuilt, that no scene of our Redeemer's life and sufferings can be ascertained ; and yet those ecclesiastics subsist by their forgeries, and by pretending to guide travelers to every spot mentioned in the Old and New Testament. They are, it is true, under severe contributions to the Turks ; but the trade still goes on, though much diminished in its profits. The church of the Holy Sepulchre, as it is called, said to be built by He- lena, mother to Constantinc the Great, is still standing, and of tolera- bly good architecture; but its different divisions, and the dispositions made round it, are chiefly calculated to support the forgeries of its keepers. Other churches built by the same lady are found in Pale- stine; but the country is so altered in its appearance and qualities, that it is useless for a modern traveler to attempt to trace in it any vestiges of the kingdom of David and Solomon. But the most fertile country, abandoned to tyranny and wild Arabs, must in time become a desert. Thus oppression soon thinned the delicious plains of Italy • and the celebrated countries of Greece and Asia the Less, once the glciy of the world, are now nearly destitute of learning, arts, and people. Origin and history of the Turks.] It has been the fate of the more southern and fertile parts of Asia, at different periods, to be conquered by that warlike and hardy race of men who have inhabited the vast country known to the ancients by the name of Scythia, and among the moderns by that of Tartary. The Turks, a nation belonging to this race, extended their conquests under various leaders, and during several centuries, from the shore of the Caspian to the Dardanelles. As many of them were long resident in the capacity of body-guards at the Saracen court, they embraced the doctrine of Mohammed, and acted for a long time as mercenaries in the armies of contending princes. Their chief residence was in the neighbourhood of Mount Caucasus, vhence they removed into Armenia; and, after being employed as mer- cenaries by the sultans of Persia, they seised that kingdom about the year 1037, and spread their ravages over the neighbouring countries. Bound by their religion to make converts, they never were without a pre- tence for invading the dor '.nions of the Greek emperors, and were 8ome« 57a ASIATIC TURKEY* times oomnianded by very able generals. On the declension of the Saracen empire, they made themselves masters of Palestioe ; aud the visiting of the holy city of Jerusalem being then deemed rart of the duty of Christians, in which they had been tolerated by the Saraceog the Turks laid the European pilgrims under such heavy contributiooa and exercised such cruelties upon the Christian inhabitants of the coun- try, as gave rise to the famous crusades. It unfortunately happened, that the Greek emperors were geuerally more jealous of the progress of the Christians than of the Turks ; and though, after oceans of blood were spilled, a Christian kingdom wa« erected at Jerusalem, under Godfrey of Bouillon, neither ho nor his successors possessed any real power of maintaining it. The Turks about the year 1299, had extended their dominions on every side, and gained possession, under Othman, of some of the finest provinceb in Asia, of Nice, and Prusa in Bithynia, which Othman made his capital He, as it were, first embodied them into a nation : hence they took the name of Othraans from that leader, who was succeeded by a race of the most warlike princes recorded in history. About the year 1357 they passed the Hellespont, and gained an establishment in Europe; and Amurath, or Morad, settled the seat of his empire at Adrianople, which he took in 1360 : under him the order of Janisaries took its rise. Such were their conquests, that Bajazet, or Bayezid, after conquering Bulga- ria, and defeating the Greek emperor Sigismund, laid siege to Constan- tinople, in the hope of subjecting all the Greek empire. His greatness and insolence provoked Timour, who had recently returned from his Eastern conquests, to declare war against him. A decisive battle was fought between those rival conquerors, in Natolia, when Bayezid was defeated and made prisoner, but not (as is generally supposed) shut up in an iron cage. The successors of Timour, by declaring war against each other, left the Turks more powerful than ever; and, though their career was checked by the valor of the Venetians, Hungarians, and the famous Scanderbeg, a prince of Epirus, they gradually reduced the dominions of the Greek emperors; and, after a long siege, Mohammed H. took Con- stantinople in 1453. Thus, after an existence of eleven centuries, from its commencement under Constantino the Great, ended the Greek em- pire: an event long foreseen, and occasioned by many causes; tlte chief of which were the total degeneracy of the Greek emperors them- selves, their courts and families, and the dislike their subjects had to the popes and the western church, — one of the patriarchs declaring publicly to a Romish legate, " that he would rather see a turban than the pope's tiara upon the great altar of Constantinople." As the Turks, when they extended their conquests, did not exterminate, but reduced the nations to subjection, the descendants of the ancient Greeks still exist, as we have already observed, and, though under grievous oppressions, profess Christianity under their own patriarchs of Constantinople, i\lexaudria, Antioch, and Jerusalem ; and the Armenians have three patriarchs, who are more opulent than the Greek prelates, because their people are more conversant in trade. The conquest of Constantinople was followed by the submission of all Greece ; and from this time the Turks have been considered as an Euro- pean power. Mohammed died in 1481, and was succeeded by Bayezid H., who car- ried on war against the Hungarians and Venetians as well as in Persia and Egypt. This prince, being tortured by the gout, became indolent, ASIATIC TURKEY. 571 He wtstlaoliaRurKl by family differences, and, at laat, by order of hit lecond son Selim, was poisoned by a Jewish physician. Sclim afterwards ordered his eldest brother Ahmed to be strangled, with many other princes of his family* He defeated the Persians and the prince of mount Taurus ; bat being unable to penetrate into Persia, he turned his arms againt £ffypt, which, after many conflicts, he annexed to his own dominions, in 1517, as he did Aleppo, Antioch, Tripoli, Damascus, Gaza, and many other towns. He was succeeded in 1520 by his son Solyman the Magnificent, who, Ukiug advantage of the differences which prevailed among the Christian poven, took Rhodes, and drove the knights from that island to Malta. His subsequent reign was almost a continual war with the Christian powers; and he was generally successful, both by sea and land. He took Buda, the metropolis of Hungary, and Belgrade, and carried off near 200,000 captives in 1526, and two years afterwards advanced into Austria, and besieged Vienna, but retired on the approach of Charles V. He is considered as the greatest prince that ever filled the throne of Othman. Hd was succeeded, in 1566, by his son Selim II. In his reign the Turkish marine received a dreadful blow from the Christians, in the battle of Lepanto. This defeat might have proved fatal to the Turkish power, had the blow been pursued by the Christians, especially the Spa- niards. Selim, however, took Cyprus from the Venetians, and Tunis from the Moors. He was succeeded in 1675 by his son, Morad III., who forced the Persians to cede Tauris, Teflis, and many other cities, to the Turks. Mohammed III. ascended the throne in 1595. The me- mory of this prince is infamously distinguished by his ordering nineteen of his brothers to be strangled, and ten of his father's concubines, who were supposed to be pregnant, to be thrown into the sea. He was often unsuccessful in his wars with the Christians, and died of the plague in 1603. Though his successor Ahmed was defeated by the Persians, he forced the Austrians to agree to a treaty in 1606, and to consent that he should keep what he possessed in Hungary, Mustafa, who succeeded in 1617, was soon deposed for his imbecility and incapacity ; and his ne- phew Osman, a prince of great spirit, who was only in the thirteenth year of his age, was invested with the supremacy. Being unsuccessful against the Polanders, he was put to death by the Janisaries, whose power he intended to reduce. Morad IV. succeeded in 1623, and took Bagdad from the Persians. His brother, Ibrahim, succeeded him in 1640; a worthless prince, who was strangled by the Janisaries in 1648. His suc- cessor, Mohammed IV., was well served by his grand vizir Cuperli. He took the island of Candia from the Venetians, and also met with success in Poland : but, when he had attempted the reduction of the Austrian capital, he was repelled with severe loss and disgrace. In 1687, he was imprisoned by his discontented subjects, and succeeded by his brother, Solyman II. The Turks were unsuccessful in their wars during his reign, and that of his brother, Ahmed II. ; and Mustafa II., who ascended the throne in 1695, was defeated by prince Eugene. He was deposed in 1702, his mufti was beheaded, and his brother Ahmed III. mounted the throne. This was the prince who gave shelter, at Bender, to Charles XII. of Sweden, and put an end to a war with the Russians, by a peace con- cluded near the Pruth. When the Russian troops were surrounded without hopes of eseape, the czarina inclined the grand vizir to peace, by a pre- lent of all the money, plate, and jewels, that were io the camp ; and 572 ASIATIC TURKEY. advantageous termi were obtained by the Turkg, Ahmed had afterwards a war with the Venetians, which alarmed all the Christian powers. Th« scene of action was transferred to Hungary, where prince Eugene gave so many defeats to the infidels, that they were forced to conclude a dit- graceful peace at Passarowitz, in 1718. During a war with the Per- sians, the populace demanded the heads of the vizir, the chief admiral and secretary, which were accordingly stricken ofif : the sultan also was deposed, and Mahmoud advanced to the throne. He was unsuccessful in his wars with Kouli Khan, and at last obliged to recognise that usurper as king of Persia. He was engaged in a war with the Impe- rialists and Russians : against the former he was victorious ; but the success of the latter, which threatened Constantinople itself, constrained him to agree to a hasty treaty with the emperor, and also to a pacifica- tion with the Russians. He died in 1754. The reign of Osman III, %vas short and unimportant. He died in 1757, and was succeeded by his brother Mustafa HI., who engaged in a war with the Russians, of which some account has been given in the history of their country, h the course of this war, a Russian fleet sailed to the Morea, and a descent was made on the southern coast. The Mainotes, the descendants of the Lacedaemonians, and who still possessed the country of their ancestors, under subjection to the grand -signor, immediately flew to arms in every quarter, and joined the Russians by thousands, from their aversion to tlio tyranny of the Turks. The other Greeks immediately followed their example, or rather only waited to hear of the arrival of the Russians, to do what they had lung intended ; and the whole Morea seemed in mo- tion. The open country was quickly over-run, while the Russian ships, that had been separated, arrived successively, and landed their men in different places, where every small detachment soon swelled into a little army. The Greeks slaughtered the Turks without mercy ; and the rage and fury with which the inhabitants of the continent were seised ex- tended itself to the islands, where also the Turks were massacred in great numbers. They were, indeed, unable to make head against the Rus- sians and Greeks in the field ; their only protection was found within the fortresses. The malcontents had so much increased since the first debarkation of the Russians, that they invested Napoli di Romania, Corinth, and the castle of Patras, with several places of less note. But, whilst they were employed in these enterprises, an army of thirty thousand men, composed chiefly of Albanians and Epirotes, entered the Morea, commanded by the pasha of Bosnia. This general reco« vered all the northern part of the peninsula as soon as he appeared in it ; and all the Greeks who were found in arms, or out of their villages, were instantly put to death. The invaders were now driven back to their ships ; but, about the same time, another Russian squadron, com- manded by admiral Elphinston, arrived from England. The Turkish fleet also appeared, and an obstinate engagement ensued in the channel of Scio. The Turks had fifteen ships of the line, from sixty to ninety guns, beside smaller vessels ; the Russians had only ten ships of the line, and five frigates. Admiral Spiritoff encountered the principal Turkish ship; and, when the two vessels were in a manner locked together, the Russians, by throwing hand-grenades from the tops, set the hostile ship on fire; and, as they could not now be disentangled, both ships were equally in flames. Thus dreadfully circumstanced, without a possibility of succour, both at ength blew up. The commanders and principal ofllicers were saved ; but the crews were almost totally lost. The dreadful fate of these ships, as well as the danger to those that were near them, produced a kind of I ASIATIC TURKEY. 573 pidM on both sides ; after which the action was renewed, and conti- aged till night, without any material advantt^^e on either side. When it became dark, the Turks cut their cables, and ran into the bay of Chetme : the Russians surrounded them thus closely pent up, and in the night some fire-ships were introduced, by the intrepid behaviour of lieutenant Dugdale, an Englishman in the Russian service. The fire took place so effectually, that in five hours the whole fleet was destroyed, except one man of war and a few galleys, that were towed off by the RuHians ; after which they entered the harbour, and bombarded and cannonaded the town, and a castle that protected it, with such success, that, a shot having blown up the powder-magazine in the latter, both were reduced to a heap of rubbish. Thus was there scarcely a vestige left, at nine o'clock, of a town, a castle, and a fine fleet, which had been ill in existence at one the same morning. After a most unfortunate war on the side of the Turks, peace was concluded between them and the Russians, on the 21st of July, 1774, a fev months after the accession of Abdoulhamed ; and, for many years, no fresh rupture occurred, though some sources of discord were left open. The pretensions of Catharine, the aspiring empress, at length rekindled the flames of hostility ; and Jodeph II. took part in the war, in the hope of sharing valuable spoils. While the storm im- pended over him, the sultan died. He had filled the throne of Con- stantinople without disgracing his country, and appears to have been a mild and humane monarch. His prime minister Yusef, during the three last years of his life, though by no means consistently great, mait be allowed to have merited applause, and will be better known to posterity as the patron of the Turkish translation of the Encyclopedie, than as the victorious and skilful rival of the Austrian arms in Tran- sylvania. In the progress of the war, Choczim and Oczakoff surrendered to the anns of Russia, and the Austrians took Belgrade. Bucharest also sub- mitted, and Bender was surrendered. The garrison of Orsova, indeed, made an obstinate resistance. Marshal Laudohn was obliged to raise the siege, but it was renewed, and the place was taken. The war then languished on the part of the Austrians, and, in August 1790, a treaty was concluded with the Porte, by which the emperor restored all the places he had conquered. On the part of Russia, how- ever, hostilities were continued, and several important victories were obtained by the troops of the czarina. During the war, the mediating powers were not inactive: Great- Britain and Prussia, in particular, declared themselves determined to support the balance of Europe, and to force the empress into reasonable tenns of peace. Catharine haughtily replied to the first applications of the English minister, — " The British court shall not be permitted to dictate the terms of peace." In the course of the negotiation, however, her demands became more moderate ; and, as the northern powers, and particularly Denmark, began to exert themselves for the prevention of hostilities, she confined her views to the possession of Oczakoff, with the district extending from the Bog to the Niester; nearly on which terms a peace was concluded on the 1 1th of August, 1791 . The fortress of Oczakoff was certainly of considerable importance to Russia, Avhich, by this cession, obtained the secure and undisturbed possession of the Crimea. The treacherous and unjust Invasion of Egypt, by the French, without Bten the pretence that the Porte had given them any offence, provoked •574 ASIATIC TURKEY. the Turks to declare war against France ; but of the hostilitiM which took place betw'>en these powers, and which were nearly confined to the attack of Egypt, and some towns in Syria, an account is given ia an- other part of this work. When, by the aid and exertions of a British force, the French hid been compelled to evacuate Egypt, and Bonaparte, returning to Fraace had usurped the government, the Porte not only became reconciled to France, but was influenced by the intrigues of Napoleon's emissariei; and, on this pretence, the emperor Alexander sent an army to invade the Turkish provinces. The British cabinet thought it expedient to counteract the schemes of France, and attempted to effect an accom- modation between the belligerent powers. With this view, admiral Duckworth was sent, in 1807, with seven sail of the line, to force the Dardanelles, and bombard Constabi.iiople, if certain terms should not be acceded to by the Turkish government. The expedition, however, did not prove successful. The fleet, indeed, passed the Dardanellee, and anchored within about eight miles of the city. But the weather being unfavorable, and the Turks protracting the negotiation, and at the same time having made the most formidable preparations for de- fence, it was judged adviseable to retire. This retreat was attended widi considerable loss. One ship was stricken by a granite shot of six hundred weight, which nearly cut through the mail mast, and killed a number of men. In the same year, an English armament, under general Eraser, sailed to Egypt. The troops took Alexandria, but failed in an attempt oa Rosetta. The English held the former city for some months ; but, when a formidable force had been collected to expel them, the commander sent a flag of truce, announcing that, on the delivery of thu Britiih prisoners, the army under his command should evacuate the country. This condition was immediately accepted. By the failure of these expeditions, the influence of France over the divan was materially strengthened, and Sebastiani, the French agent, was consulted on almost every emergency, and obtained almost the entire direction of the affairs of the Porte, while Great-Britain met with a new enemy. In the mean time the Russians, advancing in consider- able strength, over-ran Moldavia and Walachia, and proceeded toward the Danube. They at the same time had, on the south of that river, allies who co-operated with great activity and effect. These were the Servians, who had declared themselves an independent nation, and, under their leader Czemi George, defeated the Turks in several en- counters. A Russian fleet cut off the communication between the Black Sea and Constantinople, and deprived that city of the requisite supplies. These accumulated misfortunes produced in the capital great discontents, which were increased by the dissatisfaction of the soldiery, on account of the introduction of a new system of dress and tactics agreeing with the European mode, of which several of the ministers, and more particularly the sultan Selim, had been the supporters. In May 1807, the Janisariec crowded from all quarters, intent upon suppressing an in- stitution by which their consequence was so much diminished. They were soon joined by the mufti ; and a proposition was made that the grand- aignor should issue a decree, abolishing the new discipline. The sultaa at first refused, and attempted to defend the seraglio; but, the torrent proving irresistible, he was at length compelled to abdicate the throne on die 29tb of May, and his cousin Mustafa, was proclaimed emperor. - Th« new aultui bad not aofficieat vigor to reprtw the arrogaoce of du ; f ASIATIC TURKEY. 576 JuuMurici, in whote attachment to him he had no reason to confide. Hit weakness and their tyranny furnished an aspiring officer with a pretence for interfering in the administration. Mustafa, styled Bai- (gctar or the standard-bearer, had risen from the dishonorable meanness of piracy to the dignified station of pasha of Rudshuck. Like most of those who have obtained high offices in Turkey, he was rude and illiterate ; but his enterprising spirit and vigor of mind supplied the de- ficiency of education, and qualified him for daring projects. With 36,000 men, of whom the majority were Albanians, be advanced to ttkm or to seise the government ; and, encamping near the walls of ConstaDdnople, he assembled the most distinguished public characters, ud procured their assent to the gradual suppression of the order of Jasisaries. While the grand-signor slumbered on his throne, the bold general was for several months in full possession of the supreme power. He at length resolved to act more decisively, and dethrone the prince by whom his patron Selim had been supplanted. On his approach to the palace, he found the gates closed and the guard under arms, and ordered animraediate assault. The contest was short; but the interval was &tal to Selim, who was instantly strangled by the command of the ragniog prince, that he might not be restored to the throne. When BJractar had forced the gates, he desired to see the imprisoned sultan. "There he is!" said the attendants, producing the body of the murdered prince. The pasha shed tears at the sight ; but his grief was quickly absorbed in indignation and resentment. He rushed into the presonce- ehanber, drew Mustafa from his throne, and announced the elevation of his younger brother Mahmoud. The leaders of the former insurrection were put to death : order and tranquillity were fully restored by a rigor- ous police ; and even the Janisaries were obliged to acquiesce in the away of the new emperor, and the administration of his vizir Bairactar. Concluding that they were reconciled to the change, he proposed a grand entertainment, at which they met the provincial troops, and outwardly abjured all animosities. He was not aware of their profound dissimula- tion. A nuuieri^>u8 body, at night, set fire to the vizir's habitation ; and, when he had Hed to a powder-magazine, he desperately blew himself up. Slaughter and confiagration raged for several days in the city ; and the contest ended in the triumph of the Janisaries. During these dreadful commotions, the friends of Mahmoud murdered the deposed sultan Mustafa, without giving offence to the victorious soldiers, who recognised the pretensions of the reigning emperor. In the mean time, the war with the Russians continued, though peace bad been restored between the Turkish and British nations. The cam- paign of the year 1808 was more favorable to the troops of Mahmoud than to the Russians or the Servians ; and, in the two succeeding years, the war bore a doubtful complexion : but, in 1811, the success of the invaders diffusied alarm even to the gates of Constantinople. Alexander would probably have acted with an increase of vigor, if the irruption of the French into his country had not induced him to listen to the sultan's overtures ; and a treaty was concluded in 1812, by which the Pnithwas declared to be the boundary of the two empires. After many years of peace, the sultan was involved in an unexpected war. As the Carbonari stimulated the Neapolitans to an insurrection, the Heteeria, a similar society, impelled by its persuasions the Greeks to arms. The patience of these oppressed Christians seemed to be at length exhausted ; and so other remedy than an insurrection was recommended Iqr those iy))$).h»4tba gr«Atest iafl(WO«« «««( tbe ^|p|Ie,^ thQu^^h muu* 676 TURKISH ISLANDS IN ASIA. cautious and timid persons hinted, that the remedy might be worse than the disease. The insurgent leaders began their operations in Moldaria in 1821, under the auspices of Alexander Ypsilanti ; but their warlike attempts tended only to inflame the rage of the grand-signor, who immediately ordered a great number of unoffending Greeks to be put to death, at Constantinople, and in other parts of his dominions. From that time to the present year (1826), the contest haa raged with little intermission. The Greeks have organised an independent gorern- ment, framed a constitution on judicious principles, and established more regular courts of judicature, than they had before under the captaiu or princes of the country, the primates or village chiefs, and the priests : but their internal dissensions have obstructed the progress of their anni though they have obtained important advantages in naval actions, and also evinced their spirit in the field. They have repeatedly applied to Great-Britain, and to the continental courts, for such aid as may save them from extirpation ; but their infidel enemies, their iohumaB oppressors, have had sufficient influence (because the grand-signor ia a legitimate prince) to secure the neutrality of the Christian powers. Bein^.; desirous of strengthening his military force by an adoption of Europe: I u tactics, the sultan lately ordered the regiments of Janisaries to be newly disciplined ; but they were so unwilling to exchange their old habits for a system pursued by those whom they detested, that they peremptorily refused to obey the imperial mandate. He wreaked his vengeance upon a great number of them by the cruelty of massacre, and suppressed that martial body which had long constituted the chief defence of the empire. Mahmoud II., bom in 1785, was proclaimed emperor in 1808. As his eldest son is dead, Solyman,bom in 1817, is his presumptive heir; but, if the father should die while this prince is a minor, the strict order of Buccession, ia all probability, will not be observed. ISLANDS BELONGING TO ASUTIC TURKEY. THE greater part of the Grecian islands in the Archipelago are con- sidered by geographers as situated in Europe ; but those which are very iiear to the Asiatic coast, and also Cyprus in the Levant or Eastern Sea, must be referred to Asia. Metelin, the ancient Lesbos, the principal city of which was My- tilene, is situated to the north of the gulf oi Smyrna, about ten miles from the coast of Asia. It is about forty miles long and twenty-four broad. Its mountainous appearance is pleasingly diversified with inlets of the sea, and plantations of the vine, olive, and myrtle. Its wine was anciently, and is still, in high estimation. It is famous for having been the native country of Sappho. The ancient Lesbians were acc'.uHf dissolute manners; and the modern inhabitants too much resem >ic '''^oi in this respect. Scio, anciently Chios, lies about eighty miles west of r,nyn)a, and is about one hundred miles in circumference. This island, thoui^^i i'r*c'^y and mountainous, produces wine, oil, and silk, but scarcely any ct-m. it was inhabited, in 1821, by 100,000 persons, chiefly Greeks, who carried on manufactures of silk, velve*^ gold and silver stuffs, and appeared to enjoy the comforts of life. The women of this and other Greek islands have in all ages been celebrated for their beauty. Dr. Chandler, when he TURKISH ISLANDS IN ASIA. 677, niittd Scio above fifty ^ears i^o, was delighted with the appearance, mtniMn, and industry, oi the female inhabitants. Hesays," The beauti- ful Greek girls are the most striking ornaments of Scio. Many of these irtre sitting at the doors and windows, twisting cotton or silk, or em- ployed in spinning and needle-work, and accosted us with familiarity, bidding us welcome as we passed. The streets on Sundays and holidays ire filled with them in groupes. Thoy wear short petticoats, reaching oolfto their knees, with white silk or cotton hose. Their head-dress, wlueh is peculiar to the island, is a kind of turban ; the linen so white and thin, it seemed snow. Their slippers are chiefly yellow, with a knot of red fringe at the heel. Some wore them fastened with a thong. TMr garments were silk of various colors ; and their whole appearance 10 fantastic and lively as to afford us much entertainment. The Turks inhabit a separate quarter, and their women are concealed. Among the Cand historians said to have been bom here, the inhabitants reckon er, and show a little square house, which they call Homer's school." This island suffered dreadfully in 1821, merely on account of a partial and trifling insurrection. A Turkish armament made a descent near the chief I town ; and the infidels, having quickly overpowered all resistance, com- menced a course of murder and devastation. The town was set on fire ; its churches and monasteries, its celebrated college, and its well-built houses, were reduced to a heap of ruins. Many thousands of both sexes and of all ages were massacred : thousands of women and girls were carried off to be sold as slaves; and, while a considerable number eicaped to other islands, those who remained were involved in the most severe distress. Samos lies opposite to Ephesus, on the coast of Asia-Minor, about stren miles from the continent. It is thirty milee long, and ten broad. The inhabitants are nearly all Greeks. The women are notorious for their total want of beauty ; in this forming a remarkable exception to the other Greek isles. The muscadine Samian wine is in high request; and the island also produces wool, oil, and silk It is supposed to have been the native country of Juno : and the ruins of her temple, and of the ancient city of Samos, are viewed by antiquaries with admiration. To the south of Samos lies Patmos, about twenty miles in circum- ference, but so barren and dreary, that it may be called a rock rather than an island. It hlis, however, a convenient haven: and the few Greek monks who are upon the island show a cave where St. John is wpposed to have written the Apocalypse. Stanchio, the ancient Cos, near the coast of Asia-Minor, is about twenty-five miles long and ten broad. It abounds with cypress and turpentine trees, and a variety of medicinal plants. It has a town of the same name, situated in a bay, with a harbour defended by a castle. Cos is famous for having been the birth-place of the great father of medicine, Hippocrates, and the celebrated painter Apelles. Rhodes is distant about twenty miles from the continent, and is about thirty-six miles long and fifteen broad. The population is com- puted at 30,000. This island is healthful and pleasant, and abounds in wine, and many of the necessaries of life. The chief town is situated on the side of a hill fronting the sea, and is three miles in circumference, interspersed with gardens, minarets, churches, and towers. The harbour is the grand signer's principal arsenal for shipping, and the place is es- teemed among the most considerable fortresses belonging to the Turks. The colossus of brass, which anciently stood at the mouth of the harbour, and was fifty fathoms wide, was deservedly accounted one of the wondera 2 P 5tft ARABIA. of the world : one foot being placed on each tide of the hftrbotir, are said to have passed between its legs ; and it held in one hand a light- house for the direction of mariners. The face of the colosgus repre- sented the sun, to whom this image was dedicated ; and its height was about 135 feet. The inhabitants of this island were formerly roasters of theses and the Rhodian law was the directory of the Romans in maritime affairs! The kniglits of St. John of Jerusalem, after losing Palestine, tooic this island from the Turks in 1308, but lost it to them in 1522, after a brave defence, and retired to Malta. The remains of the palace of the grand master have en air of magnificence, and serve to show how luxuriously and splendidly the knights lived. Cyprus is situated at the distance of 35 miles from the i yrian coast: its length is 135 miles, and its breadth fifty. It was formerly famoci for the worship of Venus, the Cyprian goddess ; and, during the time of the crusades, it was a rich flourishing kingdom, inhabited by Chrigtiani, It was seised by Richard Coeur-de-Lion, in revenge for the treachery of its sovereign : but he soon transferred it to Guy de Lusignan. On the death of James, its last king, without issue, in 1477, the Venetians, vho were then in the 2enith of their power, took possession of the island : bnt, in 1572, they were compelled by the Turks to relinquish it. The natural produce of the island is so rich, that many European nations find their account in keeping consuls residing upon it. It produces great quantities of grapes, from which excellent wine is made: cotton of a very fine quality is here cultivated ; and the printed articles of that description are in great request, as are also the carpets which are here manufactured. The mines of copper, from which the island probably derived its name, are no longer found : but it may be presumed that the two chains of mountains which traverse the country contain a much greater variety of mineral treasures than the modern inhabitants have discovered, who appear to have found little beside jasper, agate, and rock crystal, called the Paphian diamond. It is remarkable that this island is destitute of rivers, except such as do not flow in the summer ; and its harbours are said to be more sultry than any others in the Levant. Famagusta, the ancient metropolis of this fine island, has a good har. hour. The present capital, Nicosia, stands in the interior of the country, and is the see of an archbishop. The late prelate, Cyprian, was a wortiiy and respectable man, who, because the Greeks of Europe were in a state of revolt, was treacherously invited to the palace of the Turkish governor, on pretence of urgent business, and murdered. Many other clergymen were put to death at the same time, and the gentry and merchants were treated with similar cruelty. Confiscation and rapine ensued, and tht island was ravaged with brutal fury. ARABIA. SITUATION AND EXTENT. Miles. Length 1350 Breadth 1050 between Degrees. Sq. Miles. 36 and 58 east longitude. ^ o.ir aqq 13 and 29 north latitude. > ' NAAiE.] IT is remarkable that this country has always preserved it ancient name. The word Arab, it is generally said, signifies a robber, ARABIA. ^179 orfnebooter.' The word Saracen, by which one tribe is called, is said to dgoify both a thief and an inhabitant of the desert ; but we may leadily conclude that the word did not originally signify a thief, bebg oolyused in this sense after the people of that territory became thieves. Boundaries.] Arabia is bounded by Turkey, on the north ; by the Peruaogulf and the Arabian Sea, onjthe east; by the Indian ocean, to the tonthward ; and by the Red Sea, which divides it from Africa, on the west. It forms three grand d:. visions,— P«^rG, surrounded by a double piazza, the fronts of the two longer sides presenting thirty- six arches, and the two shorter sides twenty-four, slightly pointed, sup- ported by columns of greyish marble. Each side is compsed of two naves, formed by a triple row of arches; and, in the whole, there maybe ARABIA. ^.. iMjkoBediODore than 500 columns and pilasters. Some of the capitals of thepillare are exquisitely carved, and few of them are mean or unhand- looe. The greatest curiosity of the place, and the only part which lays claim to high antiquity, is the Kaaba, which is dignified with the appel- • btionofthe house of God. This is a quadrilateral tower, thirty -four feet high, and its sides vary from twenty-nine to thirty-eight feet in length. The keepers of this holy place boast of the possession of a gtoue, which (they ssiy) was brought from heaven by the angel Gabriel, and became black frrui being touched by an impure woman. This is in iact, a fragment of volcanic basalt, sprinkled about its circumference with small pointed and colored crystals, and varied with red feldspath on a dark ground like ^al. The interior of the Kaaba consists simply of a nom or hall, with two wooden pillars, which, as well as the wdls, are corered with rose-colored silk, which is variegated by flowers embroidered in eilrer. This covering is changed for a new one by every sultan on his acceseion; but the black cloth which covers the whole building, and is called the tob or shirt, is annually renewed. Another appendage of the temple is the well of Zemzem, which supplies the pilgrims wiUi an abundance of warm water. The keeper of this well is next in rank to the sherifat prioce of Mecca : he is called the poisoner, though the water is said to be wholesome; but he is so styled, because he is sometimes ordered or bribed to send troublesome or obnoxious men out of the world by giving them a draught of this water, contaminated by some deleterious infusion. At Medina, a poor town distant about fifty miles from the Red Sea, is a stately mosque, called the Most Holy by the Turks, because in it is placed the coffin of their prophet, covered with cloth of gold, under a caaopy of silver tissue . The story of the suspension of this coffin between heaven and earth by the power of a loadstone, is a mere fiction. Over its foot is a rich golden crescent, curiously wrought, and adorned with precious stones. To this spot the pilgrims resort, as to Mecca, but not in Bach numbers. The other principal cities of Arabia are Sanaa, Mocha, Jedda, Mascat, and Lachsa. Sanaa is considered as the capital of Yemen, or Arabia FeKx, It has a castle, and contains a number of mosques and several palaces. It is about four miles in circumference, and surrounded by a brick wall with seven gates. The environs produce abundance of fine grapes, of above twenty difi'erent species ; and the inhabitants carry on a considerable trade in a variety of commodities. Mocha is well-built : the bouses are lofty, and are, with the walls and forts, covered with chinam or stucco, which imparts to them a dazzling whiteness. The harbour is semicircular, the circuit of the wall is two miles, and there are several handsome mosques in the city. Its exports chiefly consist of co£fee, gum Arabic, myrrh, and frankincense. Jedda is the place of the greatest trade in the Red Sea ; for there the commerce between Arabia and Europe meets, and is interchanged, the former sending her gums, drugs, &c., and cloth, iron, furs, and other articles, being transmitted from Europe by the way of Cairo. The town is well-built, and occupied by about 5000 persons. Mascat is a considerable town, Avith an excellent harbour, and has been, from early times, a mart for Arabia, Persia, and the Indies. It was taken by the Portuguese in 1508, and retained by them during a century and a half; but it is now governed by an independent prince. English ships from Hindoostan carry on a trade with this town. Lachsa is a large and well-built town, situated near a rapid stream, which falls into a bay opposite to the isi^. of Bahrein, celebrated for the 5S2 ARABIA. pearl fishery. Here we may observe, that the ruins of Petra, the amaent capital of Arabia Petrsea, have been lately discovered in the form of rocky excavations, adorned with sculpture, containing the remains of a temple, a street of tombs, &c. In the Arabian towns few manufactures are established ; for a race more unskilful in the mechanic arts than the inhabitants are, canDot easily be found. Few of them can even make their own slippen or sandals, or perform those operations which are most common in other countries. * let, with the aid of foreigners, the linen manufacture is carried on in some places; articles in glass are fabricated ; good carpels and tent-covers are made of the hair of camels; and, by the Jewish artisans who are incorporated with the natives, various kinds of work ia gold and silver are produced with some degree of skill. Government, laws.] Arabia is under the government of many petty princes, who are styled sheiks and imams, both of them including the offices of king and priest, in the same manner as the khalifg of the Saracens. These princes appear to be absolute, both in spirituals and temporals; the succession is hereditary, and they have no other laws than those found in the Koran, and the comments upon it. The northern Arabs owe subjection to the Turks, and are governed by pashas residing among them ; but receiTO large gratuities from the grand-signor, for protecting the pilgrims who pass through their country, from the robberies of their countrymen. The Arabians have no regular standing militia; but their sheiks command both the persons and purses of their subjects, as the necessity of affairs may seem to require. Religion.] Of this the reader will find an account in the following history of Mohammed their countryman. Many of the wandering Arabs are still little different from Pagans ; but in general they profess the doctrines of their pseudo-prophet. Learning and language.] Though the Arabians in former ages were famous for their learning and skill in all the liberal arts, there is scarcely a country at present where the people are so generally ignorant: yet it is said that some of tliem retain that poetic talent by which their ancestors were distinguished. The vulgar language used is the Ara- besque, or corrupt Arabian, which is likewise spoken, with some variation of dialect, over a great part of the East, from Egypt to Hindoostan. The pure old grammatical Arabic, which by the people of the East is accounted the richest, most energetic, and copious language in the world, is taught in their schools, as Greek and Lati,i are amongst Europeans, and used by the Moslems in their worship : for, as the Koran was written in this language, they will not suffer it to be read in any other ; they look upon it to have been the language of paradise, and think no man can be a master of it without a miracle, as it consists 0/ several millions of words. Tlie books which treat of it say they have no fewer than a thousand terms to express the word camel, and five hundred for that of a lion : but, even if we include among these the metaphorical expressions and images of their poets, the assertion is very remote from the truth. The Lord's Prayer in Arabic is as follows : Abuna elladhifl-ssamwat •,jetkaddasismAc ; tati malacutac : taouri masebiatic, cama jft-ssama ; kedalcc ala lardh aating chobzena kefatnn iaum beiaum ; wagsor lena domibena wachataina, cama noyfor nachna lemen aca doina ; wala tadalchalna Jihajarib ; taken mejjina me nescherir. History.] The history of this country, in some measure, differs from that of all others; for, as the slavery and subjection of other nations make ARABIA. 583 {I gntt part of their history, that of the Arabs is entirely coniposAd of their coaqnests or independence. The Arabs are the descendants of Ishmael, of whose posterity it was foretold, that they should be invincible, "have their hands against every man, and evenr man's hands against them." They are at present, and have remained from the remotest ages, during the various conquests of the Greeks, Romans, and Tartars, a convincing proof of the divinity of this prediction. Toward the north, and on the coast of Arabia, the inhabitants are, indeed, kept in awe by the Turks ; but the waoderiag tribes in the southern and inland parts acknovvlege themselves the subjects of no foreign power, and do not fail to harass and annoy all strangers who come into their country. The conquests of tlie Arabs make as wonderful a part of their history, as the independence and freedom vbich they have ever continued to enjoy. These, as well as their religion, began with one man, whose character forms a singular phaenomenon ip. the history of mankind. This was the famous Mohammed, who was bora at Mecca in the year 569, in the reign of Justinian II. emperor of Con- stantinople. Though descended of mean parentage, illiterate and poor, he was endued with a subtile genius, like those of the same country, and possessed a degree of enterprise and ambition peculiar to himself, and much beyond his condition. He had been employed in the early part of his life, by his uncle, Abou-Taleb, as a factor, and had occasion, in that capacity, to travel into Syria, Palestine, and Egypt. He was afterwards taken into die service of a rich merchant, on whose deatli he married his widow, Khadija, and by her means possessed both great wealth and a numerous family. During his peregrinations, he had observed the great variety of sects in religion, whose mutual hatred was strong and inveterate, though, at the same time, there were many particulars in which the greater part of them agreed. He carefully took advantage of these ; by means of wliich, and by addressing himself to the love of power, riches, and pleasure, passions universal among men, he expected to raise a new system of religion, more general than any which had hitherto been established. In this design he was assisted by Sergius, a monk, whose libertine disposition had made him forsake his cloister and profession, and engage in the service of Kha- dija, with whom he remained as a domestic when Mohammed was taken to her bed This monk was qualified, by his learning, to supply the de- fects which nis master, for want of a liberal education, laboured under, and which, in all probability, would have obstructed the execution of his design. It was nt.cessary, however, that the religion they proposed to establish should have a divine sanction ; and for this purpose Mohammed turned a calamity, with which he was afflicted, to his advantage. He was often subject to fits of epilepsy, a disease which those whom it afflicts are desirous of concealing. He therefore declared, that these fits were trances into which he was miraculously thrown, and that he was then instructed in the divine will, which he was commanded to publish to the world. By this strange story, and by leading a retired, abstemious, and austere life, he easily acquired the reputation of superior sanctity. Wlien be thought himself sufficiently fortified by the numbers and enthusiasm of his followers, he boldly declared himself a prophet sent by God into the world, not only to teach his will, but to compel mankind to obey it. As we have already hinted, he did not lay the foundation of his system on so narrow a scale, as only to comprehend the natives of his own country. His mind, though rude and enthusiastic, was enlarged by the survey of distant regions, whose maunersand religion he had made a peculiar study. He proposed that his system should extend over all the neighbouring na- to whoge doctrines and prejudices he bad taken care to ad^pt it, 534 ARABIA. Many of the inhabitants of the Eastern countrie« were at tliis time addict- ted to the opinions of Arius, who denied that Jesus Christ was equal to God the Father, as is declared in the Athanasian creed. Egypt and Arabia abounded with Jews, who had fled into those parts of the world from the persecution of such princes as had threatened the total extine< tion of that people. The other inhabitants of these countries were pagans. These, however, had little attachment to their decayed and derided idolatry ; and, like men whose religious principle is weak, had given them- selves over to pleasure and sensuality, or to the acquisition of riches, to be the better able to indulge in the gratifications of sense, which, together with the doctrine of predestination, composed the sole principles of their religion and philosophy. The new system was exactly suited to these three kinds of men. To gratify the two : jrmer, he declared that there was one God, who created the world and governed all things in it; that he had sent various prophets into the world to teach his will to mankind, among whom Moses and Christ were the most eminent ; but the endea- vours of these had proved fneffectual, and God had therefore now tent his last and greatest prophet, with a more ample commission. He had ordered him not only to publish his laws, but to subdue those who were unwilling to believe or obey them ; and, for this end, to establish a king- dom upon earth, which should propagate the divine law throughout the world. God, said the artful impostor, had designed utter ruin and de- struction to those who should refuse to submit to him ; but to his faithful followers he had given the spoils and possessions of all the earth, as a reward in this life, and had provided for them hereafter a paradise of all sensual enjoyments, especially those of love ; that the pleasures of such as died in propagating the faith would be peculiarly intense, and vastly transcend those of the rest. These, together with the prohibition of drink- ing strong liquors (a restraint not very severe in warm climates), and the doctrine of predestination, were the principal articles of Mohammed's creed. They were no sooner published, than a great number of his coun- trymen embraced them with implicit faith. They were written by the priest before mentioned, and compose a book called the Koran by way of eminence, as we say the Bible, which means the Book. While the com- mon people adopted his system, some of those who were less blind and credulous resolved to expose and punish the impostor ; but he made his escape to Medina, where he was received with open arms. From this flight, which happened in the 622nd year of Christ, the fifty-fourth year of his age, and the tenth of his ministry, his followers compute their time; and the sera is called, in Arabic, Hegira or Hejra, i. e. the Flight. Mohammed, by the assistance of the inhabitants of Medina, and of others whom his insinuation and address daily attached to him, brought over all his countrymen to a belief, or at least to an acquiescence, in his doctrines. The speedy propagation of his system in Arabia was a new argument in its behalf among the inhabitants of Egypt and the East, who were previously disposed to it. Arians, Jews, and Gentiles, all forsook their ancientfaith, and became Moslems, or believers. In a word, the contagion spread over Arabia, Syria, Egypt, and Persia ; and Mohammed, from a deceitful hypocrite, became a powerful monarch. He was proclaimed king at Medina, in 627 ; and, after subduing part of Arabia and Syria, died in 632. As the propagation of religion by the sword formed a part of the Mohammedan system, the fanaticism which it inspired had a rapid effect, when every warrior thought himself a saint. Abou-Beker, the father of Mohammed's wife, who was chosen khalif (that is, successor a momentoi ARABIA. 585 to the prophet), in preference to Ali, the cousin and son-in-law of tbe deceased adventurer, was intent upon the reduction of Syria, when he died in the third year of his reign. Omar prosecuted with great vigor the schemes of conversion and of conquest. He subdued Syria and Palestine, invaded Persia with success, and carried his vic- torious arms into Egypt; but was murdered in his career of barbarous triumph by a Persian slave. 0th man was equally successful in his martial enterprises ; and his fate was similar to that of Omar. Ali was then called to the throne, by the unanimous su£frages of the Moslem chiefs : but this seeming assent did not preclude the animosi- ties of subsequent competition. Even the widow of Mohammed ex- cited an insurrection against him, though he was one of the most intimate friends and zealous supporters of her husband. After a tur- bulent reign, he was pierced by an envenomed sword, and died at Cufa, in the year 660. His son Hassan resigned his pretensions to Moawiyah, one of Omar's most distinguished officers, who maintained himself on the throne for nineteen years, — a length of duration which may be thought very extraordinary, in a government apparently so unsettled. The new khalif ruled with vigor and ability. He quelled a revolt with ease, secured general obedience, and extended his eastern frontier into Great Tartary. He was succeeded by his son Yezidj but the people of Cufa supported the claim of All's son Hoscin, whose death in the battle of Kerbela was considered by the Persians as a martyrdom, because he suffered for his zeal in the defence of Ali, who had reformed the Moslem faith by rejecting those traditions by which some doctors of the law had corrupted the simplicity of the Koran. Yezid exposed his character and memory to severe obloquy, not only for his hatred to the family of Ali, but for the massacre committed by one of his generals in the sacred city of Medina, when the inhabitants had rebelled against him. His feeble but upright son quickly abdicated the sovereignty, which was conferred upon two candidates by different factions. They reigned with divided power ; but, after the death of Merwan, his son Abdalnialek suppressed all competition. Al-Walid so far extended the Saracen power, that his authority was acknowleged from the city of Samarkand to the coast of Portugal. His brother Soliman, in 716, sent an army to besiege Constantinople; but the expedition was abortive, and was attended with dreadful loss. He named for his successor, in preference to his own family, Omar, the son ofAbdalaziz, who, though he governed with mildness and moderation, was poisoned by a factious leader. Yezid, the son of Abdalmalek, then procured the diadem, which he did not long enjoy; for he died of grief for the loss of a favorite mistress, whose death he had uninten- tionally hastened in a frolic. The reign of his brother Hesham was distinguished by the total defeat of a very numerous army, which had advanced into the heart of France, and which, if its invasion had been as successful as it was expected by the Moslems to prove, would have made a momentous change in that part of Europe, and have unhinged the frame of Gothic policy. The fate of Al-Walid H., the next khalif, was re- markable. He was an avowed infidel, at a time when the generality of his people were animated with devout zeal ; and, as his debauchery and profligacy kept pace with his impiety, lie was deposed and put to death, in 743, by his Syrian subjects. The dynasty of khalifs of the house of Ommiyah, which had com- menced with Moawiyah, terminated iu 750, with Merwan II., who lost m ARABIA: his life in \n in«urrectiou excited against him by Abou'1-Abbu, a if scendant ot Mohammed'* uncle. The chief of the revoltera then ob. tained the sovereignty, which he transmitted to hia posterity for maoT generations. His hrother Abou>Jaafar derived from his military guccesi the appellation of Al-Mansour, or the Victorious. This prince put to death Abou-Moslem , a celebrated general, not because, in accoHiplishioe and maintaining the late revolution, he had wantonly murdered myriads of people, but from the impulse of jealous policy. His successor A\- Mahadi reigned with reputation ; but his fame was eclipsed by that of his son Haroun Al-Rashid (or the Just) whose reign was long and glo. rious. " His court (says Gibbon) was adorned with luxury and science; he was the most powerful and vigorous monarch of his race, illus- trious in the west as tbe ally of Charlemagne ;" and his name is familiar to youthful readers, as the hero of the Arabian Tales. He subjected the Greek empire to the disgrace of tributary submission ; and to the fame of his power he added the reputation of humanity and justice. He died in 809 ; and, after a sanguinary contest between his sons, AN Mamoun established himself in the khalifate. That regard for learn- ing and the arts, by wliich Haroun distinguished himself, shone still more conspicuously in the character of the new couunauder of the faith- ful, whose studious attention to the progress of science contributed to render Bagdad (the new metropolis of the Saracen umpire) the seat of comparative elegance and refinement, when the greater part even of the civilised world seemed to be immersed in ignorance and barbarism, .Damascus had already enjoyed that distinction ; but Bagdad soared to higher fame. After some intervening reigns which do not demand particular no* tice, we find the throne occupied by Al-Mostain, who was harassed by commotions and insurrections. Al-Motasem, one of his predecessors, observing and lamenting the decline of that elevated courage which had led the Arabs to glory and conquest, had taken into his service a large body of Turks, without considering the danger that might at- tend the encouragement of such barbarians. Their daring spirit and insolence soon appeared. Their officers interfered in tbe administra- tion, and presumed to dictate to the khalif. They even rebelled against AI-Mostain, in 865, and had sufficient power to place Ids bro- ther on the throne, whom, however, they did not suffer long to reign. The outrages which they perpetrated excited general indignation ; and the empire was convulsed with the most alarming commotions. Some- times, a resolute prince found means to check the progress of dis-> order, and to maintain the dignity of the throne : but the vigor of the executive power was at other times relaxed, and the government fjc- came a mass of confusion. At length, about the middle of the tenth century, the empire was nearly ruined by the ambition of various chiefs, who had erected so many principalities, that the khalif became merely the feeble ruler of Bagdad and the circumjacent country. Yet this con- temptible government continued to exist until the year 1258, when it terminated with the khalif Motasem, who wasmurdered by the ferocious leader of a Monghol army. Even the khalifs, in the plenitude of their power, were not complete masters of Arabia. Many of the roving tribes were independent, and disdained the idea of submitting to a servile yoke : but at length the Turks extended their oppressive yoke over a great part of the country, and were not dispossessed of their usurped authority before the year 1630. The princes, who were thus left to themselves, kept tbe country in a the ■/rtrtwXuhs.-W''-, « landfn. Puilithtd Mf^r i'.' itir if,. '^iU« ^ ^v-^v^*^ — "■""ex" >^'' -^/^lUT"-!— r^^T/ v"^^*^^ '■^4- — ' \ •liMu\ (^'rrnt Suit Drre't^.., ~^ «* JiJfiffiflT 'T!%"»'""*) li'^^l*'/^'''^' W-/>- jf' *:'v .. - -^ ,1 <■'■ Juan y ..0^ lonJon I'ubluhed itar i'.' igrr bfJ.Matrman i tht oi/ur Prvprvtort . ITrclriilr.lAlStr mo, wben v liAM of reio -iBti, conden llher opinioM gfl pbdually 1 ^poral powe ^thebegionii ikned by a gr( iKiildiogB, lea\ ^pped Medi commercial w «nt from Eg^ fibdue them. It »ppea™» |j^pt,in r«t [flowed to act minal authori Length 1 Breadth Name.] f erMui, the derived from 4uu and Pi 4p. The I ; BOUNDAI % the river l^thelndiai and by the ' Divisioi Provir Fars ^ristan .. Irak Ageaii Aderbijan (huaistan Mazanderai Khorasan. . Qhilan... Sableetaa^ ^9taa ., Mekran . l|erqan . M^NT. qounitains tbfe cou PERSIA. m ^jtonr&qviniity, which waa not materially disturbed before thi year 1720t wben Wahab, a politic or fanatic aheilc, began to propagata doc- fioM of reform. Ho deuied al! inspiration, opposed the ^ors^ip of gtisU condemned all finery in dress and in furniture, and broached T{,,r 'opinions wliich were deemed heterodox by the devout Modems. He BLOually made many proselytes, and also acquired a great de^ee of ^poral power. After his death, the sect continued to advance; and, 4t the beginning of the present century, the sanctity of Mecca wa^ pro- Imei by a great body of Wahabis, who destroyed many of its religious ItoildiogS) leaving however the temple itself uniiyurcd. Tliuy afterwards gripped Medina of its troasurcs, but failed in their attempt upo|^ the Qominercial wealth of Mocha and Jedda. Troops were at different times «Dt from Egypt against these rebellious sectaries, without being able to lubdve them. It appears, from recent accounts, that Mohammed AH, tho pasha of t^pt, in return for his services against tho Greek revolters, has been allowed to act, in a great measure, as sovereign of Arabia, under the no* sinal authority of the Porte. PERSIA. / SITUATION AKD EXTENT. between Degrees. Sq. Miles. C 46 and 66 east longitude. ) roc nnn X 25 and 38 north latitude. J '^^^»""" Miles. i Length 1100) Breadth 900 j I Name.] PERSIA, according to the poets, derived its name from PerMUS, the son of Jupiter and Danae. Less fabulous authors suppose it derived from Paras, Pars, or Pars, which signify a horseman,— the Per- uana and Parthians being always celebrated for their skill in horseman- ship. The natives have given to their country tiie appellation of Iran. j Boundaries.] Persia is bourn' }d by the Caspian Sea, on the north; % the river Oxus or Gihoun, on the north-east ; by India, on the east ; bgrthe Indian Ocean, and the gulfs of Persia and Ormus, on the south ; and by the Turkish territories on the west. i Divisions.] This kingdom contains the following provinces '.-*• Provinces. Ancient Names, Chief Towns, Fars •.••••• . Persis, or Persia propria Shiraz ^ristan Persis Lar v j IfakAgemi Media Ispahan ' Aderbijan Media Atropatene Tauris, now Tabijz Khusistan ...... Susiana Suster Jazanderan .... Margiana Sari horasan Margiana and Aria .... Meshed Ohilan Gela Reshd ^iblestan Bactriana Bost %gestan .^ ..... , Arachosia Zareng Vekran Gedrosia Kej lerinan Carmania Kerman MOUNTAINS.] These are Ararat, Caucasus, and the vast chdn of I ounltains called Taurus, and their divisions, which run through the middle thfe country from Asia Minor to India. 588 PERSIA. Ri VETis.] It has been observed, that no country, of so great an extent has so few navigable rivers as Persia. The most considerable are the Kur, anciently Cyrus ; and Aras, formerly Araxes ; which rise in or near the mountain of Ararat, and, joining their streams, fall into the Caspian Sea. Some rivulets falling from the mountains water the country; but the'r streams are so inconsiderable, that few of them can be navigated evi^a by boats. In consequence of this deficiency, water is scarce • but .he defect, where it prevails, is admirably supplied by means of reser- voirs, aqueducts, and canals. Metals and minerals.] Persia contains mines of iron, copper lead, and, above all, turquois-stones, which are found in Khorasan. Sulphur, saltpetre, and antimony, are found in the mountains. Quarries of red, white, and black marble, have also been discovered nearTauris. Climate.] Those parts of Persia which border upon the mountaing near the Caspian Sea are in general cold, as those heights are coffl~ monly covered with snow. In the midland provinces of Persia, the air is serene, pure, and exhilarating; but, in the southern provinces, it ig hot, and communicates noxious blasts, which are sometimes mortal. Soil, vegetable productions.] The soil is far from being luxu- riant toward Tartary and the Caspian Sea ; but with cultivation it might produce abundance of •• '-n and fruit. To the south of mount Taurus, the country abounds in corn, fruit, wine, and the other necessaries and luxuries of life. It afiFords oil in plenty, senna, rhubarb, and the finest drugs. Great quantities of excellent silk are H''''.wise produced in this country; and the Gulf of Bassora formeriy lurnished great part of Europe and Asia with very fine pearls. Some parts, near Ispahan espe- cially, produce almost all the flo; !rs thut are valued in Europe; and frcni some of them, particularly roses, they extract waters of a salubrious and odoritic kind, which form againf' " '.juiniodity in trade. Few places produce the necessaries of life in grea.cr abundance and perfection than Shiraz ; and a more delightful spot in nature can scarcely be conceived, than the vale in which it is situated, either for the salubrity of the air, or for the profusion of every thing necessary to render life comfortable and agreeable. The fields yield plenty of rice, wheat, and barley, which they generally begin to reap in May, and by the middle of July the harvest is completed. Most of the European fruits are produced here, and many of them are superior in size and flavor to what can be raised in Europe, particularly the apricot, grape, and pomegranate. The last is good to a proverb ; the Persians, in their pompous style^ call it the fruit of Paradise. Animals.] The horses vary in the different provinces, some of which have fine breeds, and others the contrary. The best are those which are produced near the western frontier ; but even these are not so swift or so beautiful as the .Arabian steeds. The mules are smaii, but strong and finely proportioned ; the wild asses also are fine animals, and their flesh is considered as dainty food ; and the camels of Khurasan are not inferior to those of Arabia. Sheep are most abundant in the northern parts of the country, and they are in general fine creatures. The oxen are large and strong; but their flesh is seldom eaten by the natives, who confine themselves chiefly to that of sheep and fowls. The wild quadrupeds are lions, bears, wolves, jackalU, foxes, zebras, deer, hares, &c. The birds are nearly the same with those of Europe. In the interior, he people are not much annoyed by insects ; but, at Miana, and other places, there are bugs which inflict shocking wounds, cliiefly upon strangers, so as to occasion fevers and sometimes death. Locust^ PERSIA. 589 ippear in the soulhern parts, where snakes and scorpions are also eonmoii. Natural cuuiosities.] The baths near Gomroun are medicinal, and esteemed the natural curiosities of Persia ; but the most remarkable object, under this head, is the burning phsenomenon, mention<^d under the article of Religion. There is another curiosity which particularly deserves notice. " It consists (says Mr. Morier) of certain ponds or plashes, whose indolent waters by a slow and regular process stagnate, concrete, and petrify, and oroduce that beautiful transparent stone called Tabriz marble, which ibrms a chief ornament in all the buildings of note throughout the country. A strong mineral smell arises from the ponds. In one part, the water is clear ; in a second, it appears thicker and stagnant ; in a third; quite black ; and, in its last stage, is white like a hoar frost." It seems (he adds) as if the bubbles of a spring, by a stroke (»r magic, had been arrested in their play, and metamorphosed into marble. Population, manners, customs.] The people of Persia may be divided into four classes. The pastoral tribes that live in tents, in the western parts, form the first division. Another class consists of the Tur- coman tribes, a rough and hardy race of Moslems ; the third, of the inha- bitants of towns, and the agricultural part of the community ; and the fourth, of the Arabs, who occupy the country between the mountains and the Persian gulf. Sixteen millions may be supposed to constitute the amount of the present population. The Persians of both sexes are generally handsome ; and the swar- thy complexions of the southern natives do not detract from their dignity of aspect. The men shave their heads ; but the young men suffer a lock of hair to grow on each side, and their beards to reach their temples ; and religious people wear long beards. Men of rank and quality wear magnificent turbans. Thoy arc so desirous of keeping their heads very warm, that they never ptill off their caps or their turbans out of respect eren to the king. Their dress is very simple. Next to their persons they wear calico shirts, and over them they have a vest, wh'ch reaches below the knee, c;irt with a sash, and over that a loose garment some- what shorter. The materials of Aeir clothes, however, are commonly very expensive, consisting of the richest fur, silk, muslin, or cotton, em- broidered with gold and silver. They wear linen trowscrs, loose boots, and slippers. They are fond of riding, and very gay in their equipages. The collars of their shirts and clothes, are open; and their dress upon the whole is better adapted for the purposes of health and activity than the long flc ing robes of the Turks. The dress of the women, as well as that ofthempn, is very costly ; and they take great pains to heighten their beauty by art, colors, and washes, particularly by rubbing their eye- brows and eye-lids with the black powder of antimony. The Persians accustom themselves to frequent ablutions, .which are the more necessary as they seldom change their linen. In the morning early they drink coffee, and about eleven dine upon fruit, sweetmeats, and milk. Their chief meal is at night. They eat at their repasts cakes of rice, and others of wheat flour ; and, as they deem it an abomination to cut either bread or any kind of meat after it is dressed, these cakes are made thin, that they may be easily broken with the hand ; and their meat, whirh is generally mutton or fowl, is so prepared that they can divide it with their fingers. They use opium, though not in such abun- dance as the Turks ; and, though they are temperate, are not very deli- r I £90 PERSIA. cat6 in their entertainments of eating and drinking. They are so immo* derately fond of tobacco, which they smoke through a tube fixed iif water that, when it has been prohibited by their princes, they have been known to leave their country rather than be debarred from that enjoyment. The Persians are generally polite, and, though accused of insincerity and dissimulation, have a pleasing and plausible address. Their chief foibles seem to be an ostentation in their equipages and dresses, and a jealousy of their women. They are fond of music (in which, however they have little skill), and take pleasure in conversing in large compa- nies; but their chief diversions are hawking, hunting, horsemanship, and the exercise of arms. They excel, as their ancestors the Parthians did, in archery. They are diverted by the performances of wrestlers, jug. glers, buffoons, story-t^-llers, and dancing boys : but dancing girls, not being allowed to appear at court, are rarely seen, except in the towns tvhich are remote from the capital. Exhibitions of fighting beasts highly gratify them ; fire-works and puppet-shows are among their occasional amusements ; and they privately play at games of chance. The present king is particularly fond of the chase : he is an expert marksman and an excellent horseman. In his retired hours, he amuses himself with the pleasantry of a fool or jester, and the varied talcs of an official nanator of anecdotes and adventures. A man of rank rises at day-break, recites his prayers, and then enters the hall appropriated to business. His pipe is brought to him, and some- times fruit ; and here he expects visitants. With them he is engaged until nine o'clock, listening to the reports of the morning, adjusting dis- putes, and arranging domestic concerns, He then pays a visit to the king, or the governor of the town or province, if it be convenient for him in point of distance. He returns to take his diraer, repeats his mid-day prayers, and retires to sleep. When he has t.ms refreshed himself, he again receives or visits his friends. The afternoon prayers are not neglect- ed : at dusk carpets are spread in the open air, where he and his friends pass the eve 'ng in conversation, sometimes varying the scene by witness- ing the perffmances of Georgian boys, who sing, play on various instru- ments, and display their address in feats of activity. There are places in Shiraz distinguished by the name of Zour Khana, the house of strength, or exercise, to which the Persians resort for the purpose of exercising themselves. These houses consist of one room, with the floor sunk about two feet below the surface of the earth; and the light and air are admitted to the apartment by means of several small apertures made in the dome. In the centre is a large square ter- race of earth, well beaten down, smooth and even ; and on each side are small alcoves, raised about two feet above the terrace, where the musi- cians and spectators are seated. When all the competitors are assembled, they immediately strip themselves to the waist. Each man then puts on apair of thick woollen drawers, and takes in his hands two wooden clubs, of about a foot and a half in length, and cut in the shape of a pear ; these they rest upon their shoulders ; and, the music striking up, they more them backward and forward with great agility, stamping with their feet at the same time, and straining every nerve, so as to produce a profuse perspiration. After continuing this exercise about halt an hour, upon a signal given they all IcaVe oil', quit their chibs, and, joining hands in a circle, begin to move their feet very briskly in unison with the music, which is all the while jdaying a lively tune. Having continued this ex- ercise for some time, they commence wrestling ; in which the master of the house is always the cliallenger, and, being accustomed to the exercise, PERSIA. 591 Moeinny proves conqueror. This mode of exercise contributes to health, and adds strength, vigor, and a manly appearance, to the frame. The Persians, witli respect to outward behaviour, arc certainly the most polished people of the East. While a rude and insolent demeanor pecu- liarly marks the character of the Turkish nation toward foreigners andChrist- ians, the behaviour of the Persians would, on the contrary, do honor to the most civilised nations. They are courteous and obliging to all strangers ; they are fond of inquiring after the manners and customs of Europe : and, in return, readily afford any inforraation in respect to their own country. The practice of hospitality is with them so grand a point, that a man thinks himself highly honored if you will enter his house and partake of what the family affords ; whereas going out of a house without smoking or taking any refreshment, is deemed, in Persia, a high affront ; they say that every meal, in which a stranger partakes with them, brings ablessing vpon the house. In their conversation they aim much at elegance, and frequently repeat pisgages from the works of their favorite poets. They also delight in jokes and quaint expressions, and are fond of playing upon each other, which they sometimes do with great elegance and irony. Marriages.] When the parents of a young man have determined npon marrying him, they look out among tlieir kindred and acquaintance for a suitable match ; they then go to the house where the female resides, whom they intend to demand. If the father of the woman approves, he immediately orders sweetmeats to he brought in ; which is taken as a direct sign of compliance. After this the usual presents on the part of the bridegroom are made, which, if the person be in middling circumstances, generally consist of two complete suits of apparel, of the best sort, a ring, a looking-glass, and a small sum in ready money, which is to provide for the wife in case of a divorce. I'here is also provided a quantity of house- hold stuff of all sorts, such as carpets, mats, bedding, utensiLs for dressing victuals, &c. The contract is witnessed by the cadi. The wedding-night being come, the bride is brought forth covered from the head to the feet in a veil of red silk, or painted muslin ; a horse is then presented for her to mount, which is sent expressly by the bridegroom ; and, when she has mounted, a large looking-glass is carried before her by one of the brids- maids, all the way to the house of her husband, as an admonition to her, that it is the last time she will look into the glass as a virgin. The pro- eegsionis conducted in the following order : — first, the music and dancing girls ; afterwards, the presents in trays borne upon men's shoulders ; next come the relatives and friends of the bridegroom, all shouting; who are followed by the bride herself, surrounded by all her female friends and kindred, one of whom leads the horse by the bridle, and several others on horseback close the procession. Rejoicings on this occasion generally con- tinue eight or ten days. Men may marrj for life, or any determined time, in Persia, as well as through all Tartary ; and all travelors or merchants, who intend to stay sometime in any city, commonly apply to the cadi for a temporary wife. The magistrate, for a stated gratuity, produces a num- bsr of girls, whom he declares to be honest, and free from disease; and he becomes surety for them. A Persian may divorce his wife at pleasure. If a husband sues for a separation, he must pay his wife's dower; but she loses it if she should •olicit a divorce. Adultery, on her part, is punishci' with death. Beside four wives, a man may entertain in his family an unlimited number either of slaves or free women, to whom he may dispense his amorous favon» 592 PERSIA. FuNER A L9.] The funerals of the Persians are conducted in a manner similar to those in other Mohammedan countries. The relatives and friends of the deceased, being assembled, make loud lamentations over the corpse; after which it is washed, placed on a bier, and carried to the place of interment without the city- walls, attended by a moulah or priest, who chants passages from the Koran all the way to the grave. If any Moslem should chance to meet the corpse during the procession, he is obliged, by the precepts of his religion, to run up to the bier, and offer his assistance in carrying it to the grave, crying out at the same time ** There is no God but God." After- interment, the women of the family make a mixture of wheat, honey, and spice, which they eat in memory of the deceased ; sending a part of it to their friends, that they may also pay him a like honor. Cities, chiep towns, edifices.] Teheran, in the north-M'estern part of the province of Irak, is now considered as the capital of Persia, because it is the seat of government. It is about four miles in circum- ference, situated in a dreary plain, which is only partially cultivated. It is furnished with a citadel, and surrounded by a strong wall ; but it is not a handsome or well-built town. Within the fortress is the palace, which displays no external magnificence. So excessive is the heat of the summer in this neighbourhood, that the king and the greater part of the inhabitants annually leave it for two or three months. The population is then under 15,000 ; but, during the rest of the year, it amounts to 50,000. Ispahan, which was formerly the Persian capital, is seated on a fine plain, within a mile of the river Zenderoud. It contains some fine squares and noble houses ; but the streets are neither wide nor regular, and the town in general is wretchedly built. It bears evident marks of neglect; yet it is not so deserted, as to have only a small population ; for it is still occupied by about 55,000 persons. The bazars are so extensive, that you may walk for two or three miles under the shelter which they afford. »The best manufactures of the place are those of silk and cotton: the latter stuff resembles nankin, and is worn by all ranks from the king to the peasant. The chief ornament of the town is the Palace of forty Pillars, called also the Persian Versailles, of which Sir Robert Ker Porter speaks in a rapturous strain. " I'he exhaustless profusion (he says) of its splendid materials, may be said to reflect, not merely their own golden or crystal lights on each other, but all the variegated colors of the garden ; so that the whole surface seems formed of polished silver and mother-of-pearl, set w'^.h precious stones. In short, the scene seems almost to realise an eastern poet's dream, or some magic vision. The roof is sustained by a double range of columns, each being forty feet high, and shooting up from the united backs of four lions of white marble, while their shafts are covered with arabesque patterns and foliage. The ceiling is adorned with the representations of flowers and animals, in gold, silver, and painting, amidst hundreds of intermingling compartments of glittering mirrors." There is (he adds) " a vast interior saloon, in which all the caprices, and labors, and cost of eastern magnificence, liave been lavished to an incredible prodigality." Shiraz lies about 225 miles to the south-east of Ispahan. It is an open town, and its neighbourhood is inexpressibly rich and beautiful. This town has a college for the study of Eastern learning, and is adorned by many noble buildings; but its streets are narrow and inconvenient; the houses in general are mean and dirty, and not above 4000 of them are inhabited, in which, perhaps, about 20,000 persons reside. It has some good bazars and caravanseiais ; that distinguished by tho appellation of PERSIA. 593 the Vakeel's bazar (so called from its being built by Kerim Khan) is the handsomest. The city also contains many .ine mosques, particularly that built by Kerim. This is of a square form ; in the centre is a stone re- serroir of water, made for performing the necessary ablutions, previous to prayer; on the four sides of the building are arched apartments allotted for devotion, some of the fronts of which are covered with China tiles. The police in Shiraz, as well as all over Persia, is very strict. At sun-set, the gates of the city are shut ; no person is permitted either to come in or go out during the night, the keys of the different gates being alvays sent to the hakem or governor, and remaining with him until noniiiig. During the night, three drums are beaten at three different times; the first at eight o'clock, the second at nine, and the third at half past ten. After the third drum has sounded, all persons whatsoever found in the streets by the daroga, or judge of the police, or by any of his people, are instantly taken up and conveyed to a place of confinement, where they are detained until the morning, when they are led before the hakem ; and, if they cannot give a very good account of themselves, are punished, either by the bastinado or a fine. Tabriz stands on a plain bounded by mountains, which, though barren, recede into a w^ell-cultivated vale. In the seventeenth century it was considered as the second city in Persia ; but, if it had not become the principal residence of the heir apparent of the Persian crown, it would by this time have declined into insignificance. He has improved the for- tifications, formed a great arsenal, and built a palace fur himself; he en- courages the industry of the inhabitants, and promotes the European arts and inventions. The population of the town is about 45,000. Ardebil was formerly a large and flourishing town ; but it has now only 4O0O inhabitants, though it possesses a great object of Moslem vene- ration, — namely, the magnificent mausoleum of that sanctified sheik who vas the founder of the Sefi family. Meshed, though the capital of Khorasan, is not so populous or flourishing as Herat, having only about 40,000 inhabitants. Its manufactures (says Mr. Fraser) are not extensive ; but it still retains its former cele- brity for some articles. Its velvets are considered as the best in Persia ; but its silks and cottons are less famous. Sword-blades of good temper are here fabricated, their excellence bein^ derived (it is said) from the skill of many descendants of a colony of artisans, transplanted from Damascus to this province by Timour. — The city is built of sun-dJed bricks: the houses in general make a wretched appearance, and the apartments are meanly furnished ; and a great part of the city is in ruins. Yet some of the public buildings have an air of magnificence, particu- larly a mosque founded by the wife of one of Timour's sons, and the medressoR, or endowed religious colleges. The most admired structure in the town is the mausoleum of the imam Reza, whose memory is still re- vered. On approaching it a noble square strikes the eye, surrounded by two stories of apartments, which open in the front into a handsome ar- caded gallery. In the centre of each side is a very lofty gateway, and the whole is incrusted with mosaic work of tiles, painted and glazed, and arranged in figures of the most tasteful patterns and colors. The most striking external ornaments of the mausoleum are two minarets of a very beautiful model; the central chamber looks like the nave of a cathedral, and, in a neatly-decorated octagonal room, is the shrine which covers the remains of the saint, enriched with jewels by the liberal piety of the present monarch. Most of the Persian towns have some kind of defence : this (says sir 2 Q 594 PERSIA. John Malcolm) is generally a high mud wall, which is flanked by turrets and sometimes protected by a deep dry ditch and a rude glacig. The habitations of ordinary persons, according to the same author, are usually formed of mud ; but the apartments are generally better than their ex- ternal appearance would seem to indicate. While terraced roofs are the most frequent, a dome roof is sometimes preferred, with a view of dimi- nishing the necessity of making use of wood. The houses of men of quality in Persia are seldom above one story high, built of bricks, with flat ronfs and thick walls. The hall is arched the doors are clumsy and narrow, and the rooms have no coinmuDication but with the hall ; the kitchens and office-houses being built apart. Few of them have chimneys, instead of which they have a round hole in the middle of the room. Some of these mansions, however, exhibit an airof light and pleasing architecture ; the halls are frequently supported hy pillars which are exquisitely carved and gilt ; and the windows of the apartments are curiously ornamented with stained glass. The furniture chiefly consists of carpets ; and the beds are two thick cotton quilts which are used likewise as coverlets, with carpets under them. Manufactures and commerce.] The Persians equal, if notex- ceed, all the manufacturers in the world, in silk, woollen, mohair, carpets, and leather. Their works in these join fancy, taste, and elegance, to richness, neatness, and show ; and yet they are ignorant of painting: for their drawings are very rude, and they have no idea of perspective. Their dyeing excels that of Europe. Their silver and gold lace, and thread, are admirable for preserving their lustre. Their embroidery and horse-furniture are not to be equaled ; nor are they ignorant of the pottery and window-glass manufactures. On the other hand, their car- penters are very indifferent artists ; which is said to be the consequence of the scarcity of timber in Persia. Their artisans in jewel- work, and in gold and silver, are very unskilful ; and they are ignorant of lock- making, and the manufacture of looking-glasses. Upon the whole, they lie under great disadvantages from the form of their government, which renders them slaves to their kings, who often engross either their labor or their profit. Constitution, government, and laws.] These are extremely precarious, as resting in the breast of a despot. The Persians, howeyer, had some fundamental rules of government. They excluded from their throne females, but not their male progeny. Blindness likewise was a disqualification for the royal succession. In other respects, the king's will was a law for the people. The instances that have been given of the cruelties and inhumanities practised by the kings of Persia are almost incredible, especially during the two last centuries. The reason given to the Christian ambassadors, by Shah Abbas, was, that the Persians were such brutes, and so insensible by nature, that they could only be gorerned by exemplary rigor : but this was a wretched and ill-grounded apology for his own barbarity. The favorites of the prince, female as well as male, are his only couns^ellors, and the smallest disobedience to their vill is frequently attended with death. The Persians have no degrees of nobility, so that the respect due to every man on account of his high station expires with himself. The laws of Persia, where the will of the sovereign does not interfere, are supposed to be founded on the K ."tin ; but the laws of immemorial custom are also admitted. Civil matters are determined by the ordinary magistrates, and ecclesiastical ones (particularly divorces) by the head of the faith. Justice is administered la JPersia in a very summary manner; PERSIA. 695 theientence, whatever it may be, being always put into execqtion on the| spot. Theft is generally punished with the loss of the nose and ears ; for robliiRg on the road, the belly of the criminal is sometimes ripped up : but the most common punishments for great crimes are strangling, stab- bing, or decapitation. Fateb Ali is rather humane than remarkably severe or cruel ; but some of his predecessors, in the wantonness of power, were accustomed to put out the eyes of their subjects for trifling offeocea, and sometimes for no real delinquency. His tyrannical uncle ordered a soldier, who had relieved him when he had fallen into a fit, to be deprived of his sight for repeatedly looking at him; and, when he vat contending for the sovereignty, he put out ^he eyes of five thousand inhabitants of Kerman, beside the massacre of an equal number, because they refused to submit tamely to his usurpation, and suffered his compe- titor to escape from their city. Revenues.] The king claims one third of the cattle, corn, and fruit, of his subjects, and likewise a third of silk and cotton. No persons, of wbfttever rank, are exempted from severe taxations and services. The goreroors of provinces have particular lands assigned to them for main- taining their retinues and troops ; and the crown lands defray the ex- penies of the court, the king's household, and great officers of state. ThQ wat^r, that is let into fields and gardens, is subject to a tax; and foreigners who are not of the established religion, pay a ducat a head» Yet, according to Mr. Kinneir, the revenue does not far expeed tbre^ millions sterling. Military force.] This consisted formerly of cavalry, and it is DOW thought to exceed that of the Turks. Soon after the beginning of the last century, however, the kings raised bodies of infaptry. Sinc^ the last war with Russia, it has been deemed expedient to introduce the European discipline ; and Abbas, the heir apparent, has under his com- mand 12,000 men, who were first instructed by French and afterward by British officers. There is another grand division of infantry, nearly tmouDting to the same number ; but the men belonging to it are not so well paid, clothed, or disciplined, as those of the forpier corps, who an- nually receive ten tomans. Large bodies of cavalry are furnished by the warlike and wandering tribes of the country, and commanded by their owo chieftains, who affirm that the king can bring into the field 80,000 men of this description. He has also an equestrian guard, composed of 3500 men, who are liberally paid, and whom he inspires with a high opinion of their own importance. Beside this force, Persia boasts of a militia, to the amount of 150,000 men, who are severally armed with a matchlock, sabre, and dagger. With regard to maritime force, we may affirm that it either does not exist at all in Persia, or is too inconsiderable for notice. Nadir Shah made some attempts to raise a navy ; but the scarcity of wood and other diicuhies baffled his views in that respect. Arms and titles.] The arms of the Persian monarch are a lion couchant, looking at the rising sun. His title is Shah, or Sovereign ; Kban, and Sultan, which he assumes likewise, are Tartarian titles. To acts of ^te, the king does not subscribe his name ; but the grant runs in this manner : '* This act is given by him whom the universe obeys." Religion.] The Persians are of the sect of Ali ; for which reason the Turks, who follow the succession of Abu Beker, Omar, and Othman, stigmatise them as heretics. Both na; ons agree in the principal doc- trines of the Mohammedan religion : but the Persians, reflecting with pioui indignation on the insult ofl^red to Ali, who, being the cousin (uad 2 Q2 ; nli 596 PERSIA. son-in-law of the prophet, and the first convert, justly claimed the imme- diate succession, execrate the three supplanters of their favorite, and deny the authority of the traditions which were brought forward by those khalifs and copiously illustrated by four celebrated doctors of the law, — Hanifa Malec, Shafiei, and Hanbal. Their religion is, in some tliin;:;.o, uiuie fan- tastical and sensual than that of the Turks : it is also mingled with gome Brahmin superstitions. A comparison may be made between the Brah- mins and the Persian Guebres or Gaurs, who pretend to be the disci- ples and successors of the ancient Magi, the followers of Zoroaster, or Zerdusht, the celebrated philosopher, who, according to some authors flourished in the reign of the first Darius. That both of them held origi- nally pure and simple ideas of a Supreme Being, may be easily proved; but the Brahmins and Persees accuse the Gaurs, who still worship the fire, of having sensualised those ideas, and of introducing au evil principle into the government of the world. A combustible ground, near Badku, in the north of Persia, is the scene of the devotion of the Guebres. Tiiis ground is impregnated with inflammable substances, and contains serera! old little temples ; in one of which the Guebres pretend to preserve tlie sacred flame of the universal fire, which rises from the end of a large hollow cane stuck into the ground, resembling a lamp burning with very pure spirits. The long wars between the Persians and the Romans seem early to have driven the ancient Christians into Persia and the neighbouring coun- tries. Even to this day, sects are found that evidently have Christiamtj for the ground-work of their religion. Some of them, called Sefis, who are a kind of quietists, sacrifice their passions to God, and profess the moral duties. The Sabean Christians have, in their religion, a mixture of Ju- daism and Mohammedanism, and are numerous toward the Persian Gu'f. The Armenians flourished in this country under the protection of the Shah Abbas ; but they arc now a declining sect, though they are still tolerated in their adherence to the ancient doctrines of the Greek church, and are allowed to have places of worship and monasteries. The Persians observe the fast during the month of Ramadan with great strictness and severity. About an hour before day-light, they take refresh- ment, and from that time until the next evening at sun-set they neither eat nor drink of any thing whatever. From sun-set until the next morn- ing they are allowed to refresh themselves. This fast, when the month Ramadan falls in the middle of summer, as it sometimes must do (the Mohammedan year being lunar), is extremely severe, especially to those who are obliged by their occupations to go about in the day ; and is ren- dered still more so, as there arc also several nights (while it continues) which they are ordered to spend in prayer. The I'ersians more particularly observe two ; one being the anniversary of the lamented death of All, who was wounded by an assassin ; while the other refers to the night when the koran was brought down from Heaven. LiTEUATURE.] The Persians, in ancient times, were famousfor po- lite literature, and their poets renowned all over the East. There is a manuscript at Oxford, containing the lives of a hundred and thirty-five admired Persian poets. Ferdoiisi and Sadi were among the most cele- brated. The former comprised the history of Persia in a series of epic poems, which employed him for near thirty years, and which are styled by Sir William Jones " a glorious monument of Eastern genius and learn- ing." He died in the year 1020, before the Persian throne was sullied by the intrusion of the Turks. Sadi, who was a native of Shiraz, flourished in the thirteenth century, and wrote many elegant pieces both in prose and verse. Nizami, as an epic poet, is placed in the next rank to Ferdousi; PERSIA. 697 and Oelaleddin is admired both for acuteness and sublimity. Nakhsheb wrote in Persian an amusing worli called the Tales of a Parrot. Jami was a most animated and elegantpoet, who flourished in the middle of the fifteenth ceotary. Hariri composed, in a rich, elegant, and flowery style, a moral work, in fifty dissertations, on the changes of fortune, and the various condi- tions of human life, interspersed with a number of agreeable adventures, and several charming pieces of poetry. Khond-cmir and Mir-khond, who are uffletimes confounded, are celebrated in the historic department. Of the sprightly and voluptuous bard of Shiraz, the name and character ate sufficiently known to orientalists. We here allude to Shemseddin, surnamed Hafiz, who conciliated the favor of an offended potentate by the delicacy of his wit and the elegance of his Verses ; whom the most power- ful princes of the East sought in vain to draw from literary retirement ; and whose works werenolonly the admiration of the jovial and the gay, but the manual of mystic piety to the superstitious Moslem, the oracle which, like the iSor^es Fir^t7tanlsk, Kolhyvan, and Irkutsk, are called by the general name of Siberia, from an ancient town named Sibir, which is said to have stood on the banks of the Irtish, near the present oty of Tobolsk, and to have been the residence of the former sovereigns of this prrt.of Asia. The government of Tobolsk is divided into the two pro- vin^w of Tobolsk and Tomsk ; and that of Irkutsk into the four proTincet of Irkutsk, Nershinsk, Yakutsk, and Okotsk. Mountains.] The mountains of Asiatic Russia are the Uraliao chain, those of Causasus, Altai, and Nershinsk. Rivers.] The chief rivers of this country are the Ob or Ol/, the largest in the Russian enipire, ihe length of its course being 1800 miles; and the Yenisei, whioh has a course of about 1 650. The former falls iatothe Frn«en Ocean, in which also the Yenisei terminates. The other principal rivers arc the Irtish, which flows into the Ob; the Lena; the Angara, which falls into *he Yenisei ; the Argoun, the btjundary between tibe Russian and Chinese territories ; the Selioga, and the Yaik or Ural. In the Bouthei n part of Siberia, near the confines of Chinese Tartary, is the lake or se) of Baikal, 300 miles lo ig and about 35 broad. There are some lakes uf less note, which wo aro not required to particularise. Metals, MINERALS.] Siberia contains mipen of gold, silver, copper, iron; Md, jasper, and lapi»-Iaz(ili : but those of gold and silver are not very productive. Asiatic J^nssia also affords sulphur, alum, sal ammoniac, vitriol, nitr?, and natron, in abundance. , Climate, soil), PRODUCE.] Tbegovernmentof Caucasia, and ingene- 1*1 the southern parts of this extensive region, ore exceedingly fertile, more from nature than industry. The parts that are cultivcted produce ex* cellent fruit of almost all the kinds known in Europe, especially grapes, which are reckoned the largest and fine''t in the world. The summers aievery dry, and, from the end of July to the beginning of October, the air is corrupted, and the soP. aometimes ruined, by immense quantities of locusts. Tne climate of Siberia is extremely cold ; but the air is so pure and wholesome, ':hat its inhabitants, in all probability, would live to a vor^ great a(;8, if they were not so much addicted to &u immoderate use oi I .l'Miv*i*» i.'i imW» im l/ii* thtfM5if*^t '■mmmmttm/m rnii^nitr '.. i D/iy from (frmiwirli /,.^ great care of the education of their children, who are taught to read and write, and are instructed in the Arabic tongue, in the principles of their religion, and in sound morality. Even the smallest village has its chapel, school, priest, and schoolmaster. The best Tartarian academies in tlie Russian empire are those of Kasan, Tobolsk, and Astracan, which are under the direction of the gagouns or high-priests. It is not uncom- mon to find small collections of historical anecdotes in manuscript, in the huts of the boors ; and their merchants, beside what those little libraries contain, are acquainted with the history of their own people, and that of the circumjacent states. The Tartarian citizens of Kasan, Orenburg, and other governments, carry on commerce, exercise several trades, and have some manufactories. Their manner of dealing is chiefly by way of barter ; coin is very rarely seen among them, and bills of exchange never. They are not in general very enterprising ; but, as they extend their connexions by partners and clerks, many of them have extensive business, which their parsimonious way of lite renders very lucrative. At Kasan they make a trade of pre- paring what is called in England Morocco leather. The villages of these people comprehend from ten to one hundred farms. Most of them also contain tanners, shoemakers, tailors, dyers, smiths and carpenters. The habitations and manner of living of the Tartarian citizens and villagers of Astracan are perfectly similar to those of the Kasanians. In the city of Astracan they have a large magazine for goods, and carry on an important commerce with the Armenians, Persians, Indians, Bokha- rians : and their manufactures of leather, cotton, camelots, and silk^, are in a very thriving state. The Chouwashes dwell in the governments of Kasan and Orenburg. They never live in towns, but assemble in small villages or huts, and choose the forests for their habitations. They are very fond of hunting, and procure for that purpose screw-barrel muskets, which they prefer to the bow. Among their marriage ceremonies one is mentioned wliicli seems intended to show the authority that a husband ought to have over his wife. On the wedding night the bride is obliged to pull off the bride- <»r,>onr8 boots. The husband exercises a lordly authority over the wife, and she is obliged to obey all his commands without r, ;)ly. The Votiaks, who are a Finnish race, chiefly inha'i the government of Kasan. Some of them are Christians ; but many are pagans, though RUSSIAN EMPIRE IN ASIA. 607 enn these believe the doctrine of a future state of rewards and punish* oents. The Ostiaks, who are likewise a Finnish race, are one of the most numer- 008 nations of Siberia. Before they were subject to Russia, they were regularly governed by princes of their own nation. They divide them- selves into different stocks or tribes, and choose their chiefs from the pro- geny of their ancient rulers. These maintain peace and good order, and superintend the payment of the taxes. The Voguls are rather below the middle stature. Their principal occu- pation is the chase, in which they discover great eagerness and address ; using indiscriminately (ire- arms, the bow, and the spear. They are also akilful in contriving traps and snares for various kinds of game. The Kalmucks are a branch of the Mogul or Monghol nation, which originally inhabited the country to the north of China. They are in general law-boned and stout. Their faces are eo flat, that the scull of a Kalmuck may be easily known from others. They have thick lips, a small nose, and a short chin, with a complexion of a sallow brown. Their clothing is oriental, and their heads are exactly Chinese. Some of their women wear a large golden ring in their nostrils. Their principal food consists of animals, tame and wild : and even their chiefs will feed upon cattle that have died of distemper or age, though the flesh may be putrid; so that in every horde the flesh-market has the appearance of a lay-stall of carrion : they eat likewise the roots and plants of their deserts. They eat freely, but can abstain for a long time. Both sexes snioke con- tinually: during the summer they remain in the northern, and in the winter in the southern deserts. They sleep upon felt or carpeting, and cover themselves with the same. The Tongusians, who are of the race of the Manchews, form a very numerous'nation. They are under the middle stature, well made, and of a good mien. Their sight and hearing are remarkably acute and deli- cate; but their organs of smelling and feeling are considerably more blunt than ours. They are acquainted with almost every tree and stone within the circuit of their usual perambulation ; and they can even de • jcribe a course of some hundred miles by the conflguration of the trees and stones they meet with, and can enable others to take the same route by such descriptions. They are alert on horseback, good hunters, and very dexterous in the use of the bow, or the rifle. Cai)tain Cochrane says, " They are characteristically honest and friendly, robbery being considered by them as unpardonable. They are thankful for kind treat- ment, but are exceedingly irascible, and will permit no one to abuse them. They bear fatigue, cold, and privations, to an extraordinary de- gree.— The dress of each sex consists of a jacket and trowsers of the rein-deer skin, with the hair inside, and stockings and boots of the same material. They also wear caps and gloves of leather, and guards for the forehead, ears, nose, and chin, and their beds are made of the skin of a bear or a deer, with a sort of blanket lined with fur, in the shape of a bag, in which their legs and feet are enclosed." The Kamchadals have a lively imagination, a strong memory, and a striking talent for imitation. Their chief employments are hunting and fishing. The chase furnishes them with sables, foxes, and other game. They are very expert at fishinsf, and are well acquainted with the proper seasons for it. They eat and drink great quantities ; but, as what they eat is always cold, their teeth are very fine. Dogs are their only domes- tic animals: they put a high value upon them; and they travel in small carriages drawa by dogs. They believed the immortality of the soul, 608 RUSSIAN EMPIRE IN ASIA. even before they were prevailed upon to embrace the Christian religion, They are superstitious to extravagance, and strangely capricious in the different enjoyments of life, particularly their convivial entertainments. The manners of the Siberians were formerly so barbarous, that Peter the Great thought he could not inflict a greater punishment upon his capital enemies, the Swedes, than by banishing them to Siberia. The effect was, that the Swedish officers and soldiers introduced European usages and manufactures into the country, and thus contributed to the civilisation of the inhabitants. *' Chief TOWNS.] Astracan, situated on an island formed by the Volga, near its entrance into the Caspian sea, is a large and populous city, containing about 65,000 inhabitants. It is about a league in cir- cumference, and is surrounded by a wall. It is well supplied with churches, and is the seat of a Russian and an Armenian archbishop. Kasan is occupied by about 40,000 persons. It is situated partly on a declivity, and partly on a swampy plain. Many parts of the town are well-built, and it exhibits some handsome churches, one of which gave rise to the admired Kasan church at Petersburg, though its architecture would rather seem to denote a theatre. Orenburg, the capital of the government of Ufa, was built in 1738, by order of the empress Anne, at the conflux of the Or and Ural: but, that situation being found inconvenient, the inhabitants were removed, and the town was built lower down on the Ural, in 1740. It is now a place of considerable trade. Tobolsk, the capital of Western Siberia, stands at the confluence of the Irtish and the Tobol. It consists of two towns, the upper and lower, both of which are secured by walls, towers, and bastions. The popu- lation scarcely exceeds 15,000, and the trade declines in consequence of the rivalry of Irkutsk ; but it is an agreeable abode, because the in! xh\- tants are social and friendly, places of amusement common, aud provi- sions abundant. Irkutsk, the seat of government for Eastern Siberia, has wide streets and respectable public buildings ; but most of the houses are constructed of wood. It has a flourishing trafllic, as the caravans which trade be- tween Russia and China pass through it. — Tomsk, on the Toura, is also a commercial town, containing about 9000 inhabitants. Yakutsk, on the Lena, is an ill-built town, but by no means destitute of trade. Okotsk has about 1500 inhabitants, whose maritime situation renders it conve- nient for many of them to become shipbuilders, and finds employment for others in salt- works. The towns in the peninsula of Kamchatka are poor and insignificant, except New-Kamchatka and Bolcheretsk, which make a decent ap- pearance. The nearest town to the Chinese frontier is Kiakta, which is neatly and regularly built of wood, and contains 4000 inhabitants. At this spot a mere brook separates the two empires : he Chinese have a small un- fortified town near it, and no marks of jealousy appear between the traders on each side. Manufactures, commeuce.] There are manufactures of silk, leather, and isinglass, at Astracan ; and a considerable trade is carried on there in salt, produced in great quantities from the salt lakes and marshes in the vicinity of the Caspian sea ; as also in fish procured from the same sea. To Persia, woollen cloth, linen, furs, iron, steel, and lead, are sent from the same city ; and the imports are silk, cotton, tapestry, drugs, gold; pearls, and diamonds. The principal trade of Siberia is in RUSSIAN EMPIRE IN ASIA. 609 gables and other furs, which are purchased with avidity by the Chinese, wbo in return bring tea, silk, and other commodities. Religion.] Many of the Tartars, since the Russians have been settled in their countr)', have become converts to Christianity ; but the majority are still attached to their old superstitions. Tobolsk is an archbishopric ; Irkutsk and Ncrshinsk are episcopal sees. Antiquities.] In the environs of Astracan the ruins of the old city are very visible ; and the rubbish and ramparts of another respect- able town still exist near Tzaritin, on the left shore of the Volga. Be- low the mouth of the Kama, which flows into that river, are many superb monuments of the ancient city Bulgari, consisting of towers, mosques, houses and sepulchres, all built of stone or brick. The oldest epitaphs have been there more than eleven centuries, and the most modern at leant four hundred years. Not far from this spot, on the Cheremcham, are found ruins more injured by the depredations of time ; they are those of Boulmer, an ancient and considerable city of the Bulgarians, The Tartars have erected upon its ruins the small town of Bilyairsk. In the fortress of Kasan is a monument of the Tartarian kingdom of that name. Its lofty walls are so broad, that they serve at present for ramparts ; the turrets of which, as well as the old palace of the khan, are built of hewn stone. Ascending the river Kasanha, we meet with epitaphs, and the strong ramparts of the old city of Kasan. Near the Ufa are cemeteries and sepulchral vaults. The ramparts of Sibir, the ancient capital of Tartary, are still seen near Tobolsk. The lofty vails of Tontoura appear yet in the Baraba, a little gulf in the Om ; and near the mouth of the Ural are the ditches of the city Sarachik. In many parts of Siberia, particularly near the Yenisei, are stone tombs with rude sculptures of human faces, camels, horsemen with lances, &c. In these tombs are found human bones, as also the bones of horses and oxen, fragments of earthen-ware, and various ornaments and trinkets. History.] The Russians, though they had made some incursions into the interior parts of Asia as early as the middle of the fifteenth cen- tury, bad no regular establishments there before the middle of the six- teenth, when Strogonoff, a merchant of Archangel, having found means to open a trade for furs with Siberia, the czar then on the throne, John Basilowitz, to whom he disclosed the nature of his connexions, promised him protection, and in 1558 assumed the title of lord of Sibir or Siberia. Soon after, Yerniac, a chief of the Don Cosacks, being compelled by the progress of the Russian conquests to submit, or seek some distant place of refuge, retired with a number of his followers into Siberia, where, having defeated the Tartar khan of Sibir, he seised his capital, and made it his residence ; but, finding himself too weak to preserve his acquisitions, he applied to Russia for aid and protection, and sent a deputation to do ho> mage to the czar as his sovereign. In the course of two or three years, almost all the Cosacks were killed in repeated battles, and Yermac was drowned in attempting to leap into a boat. The Russians, at length, after many conflicts, secured to themselves the possession of this ex- tensive country, and by the middle of the seventeenth century had ad- vanced to the Amur, where they built some forts, which occasioned hosti- lities between them and the Chinese, who destroyed the Russian forts. These disputes were terminated by the treaty of Nershinsk, concluded in 1689, by which the Argoun was made the boundary of the Russian and Chinese territories. The limits of the former were enlarged in 1727. Kamchatka was reduced under the power of the Russians about the year 1711. ^ 2R 610 ASIATIC ISLANDS BELONGING TO THE RUSSIANS. THE sea which separates the southern point of the peninsula of Kara. chatka from Japan, contains a number of islands in a position from north-east to south-west, which are called the KUIIILE ISLANDS. They are upwards of twenty in number, are all mountainous, and ia several of them are volcp.noes and hot springs. The priccipal of these islands ure inhabited; but the small ones are unpeopled. They differ much from each other, in respect both to their situation and natural cod. stitution. The forests in the northern isles are almost entirely co''-'>,t', ». , ■' ■ ; 2 R 2 612 INDEPENDENT TARTARY. EXTENT AND SITUATION. Miles. Length 1050 ) . , Breadth 750 J ^*^««° Degises. Sq. MUes. C 36 and CI North latitude. ) ,„„ „.. tsSard /2 East longitude, j^""'™"' Boundaries and divisions.] ON the east, the mountains of Belur separate this part of Tartary from Little Bokharia, which is now subject to the Chinese ; on the south, the mountains of Gaur divide it from Persia and the provinces of Candahar and Caboul, in Hindoostan. Its boundaries, on.the west, are the Caspian sea, the river Ural or Yaik, and the Uralian mountains ; and, on the north, the Russian dominions i.i Asia. Mountains, lakes, rivers.] The principal mountains of this country are the Belur Tag, the ancient Imaus, and the mountains of Argoun and of Gaur. The most corsiderable lakes are that of Aral, 'about 200 miles in length, and 70 in breadth ; and that of Balcash, 140 miles long and 70 broad. The chief rivers are the Amu or Gihoun, and the Sir, or Sihoun. The former rises in the mountains of Belur, and falls into the lake of Aral, after a course of about 900 miles ; the latter has its source among the same mountains, and falls into the same lake, after a course of about 550 miles. Metals, minerals.] Gold, silver, iron, copper, vitriol, and sal ammoniac, are among the products of this country. Rich quarries of lapis lazulia bound in Great Bokharia, and several kinds of valuable stones, particularly rubies, are found there ; hut the natives have neither skill nor industry to derive much advantage from the mineral riches of their country. Climate, soil, produce.] The climate appears to be temperate and salubrious ; and the soil, in i\ . southern parts at least, very pro ' >,- tive ; for the grass, it is said, sometimes grows there above the height of a man. Rice, and other kinds of grain, as also exquisite melons, pears, md apples, are among the productions of Great Bokharia. Animals.] The animals here are nearly the same as in Tibet, the north of Persia, and other adjacent countries. The grunting ox, chamois, and wild ass, ;.ire found among tlbe mountains. Inhabitants, manners, customs.] The Kirghises, who inhabit the northern part of this country, lead a wandering life. They consist of three great hordes, each of which has its particular khan. They dwell in portable huts, and remove to different places in search of pasturage, which constitutes their principal occupation. Many of them have horses, camels, cattle, sheep, and goats, in great abundance, and those who have none commit depredations in strong parlies upon the rest : this practice they do not deem criminal ; but, when an individual robs, he is punished with death. They have flat noses, small eyee, a sharp, but not a fierce look, and a frank and prepossessing air. The decoration of their horses employs them almost as much as that of their persons ; they have generally elegant saddles, handsome housings, and ornamented bridles. They wear a vest, a short robe, and very long trousers. They are addicted to gluttony, and they also smoke tobacco to e.xcess. Men, women, and children, all smoke and take snuff, which they usually keep in little horns fastened to their INDEPENDENT TARTARS. 613 The great and wealthy pass their lives in the same manner a^. the rest of the people, and are distinguished only by the numerous train that accompanies them in their cavalcades, and the number of huts which sur- round their quarters, inhabited by their wives, children, pnd slaves. Their chief amusements are wrestling, racing, shooting at a mark, and hunting. Many (says Nazarof) go to the chase with dogs and large eagles : they take the latter before them on the saddle, with the head covered. As soon as they see a hare, a fox, or a wild goat, they take off the bird's hood, when it instantly pounces on its prey, seises it in its talons, and holds it until its master comes up. They are so fond of these birds, that a hunter will sometimes give several houes, and even Kalmuck cap- tives, for one of them. The women frequently Join the men on these oc- casions, and also in the field of hostility. The same author distinguishes the tribes of Turkestan from the Kir« ghises, and represents them as less bold and spirited, but more civilised and industrious, and, though crafty, more upright in their dealings. The Usbecks, who inhabit the southern parts of this country, are ad- dicted to predatory warfare, and frequently make sudden incursions into the Persian provinces. Many of these Tartars reside in tents in the sum- mer, but take up their abode in the towns and villages during the winter. Those of Balk are the most civilised, and carry on a considerable trade with Persia and Hindoostan. The Bokharians belong to this race ; but the Tanjecks seem to be of a different origin. They have fair complexions and well-formed countenances, and their women are praised for their beauty. They are more stationary than the Usbecks, and more attached to agriculture and mechanic occupations than to pasturage. Cities, chief towns.] Samarcand, situated on the southern bank of the river Sogd, was anciently Timour's seat of empire. It is fortified with strong bulwarks of earth : the houses are principally of hardened clay, though some are built with stone procured from quarries in the vici- nity. There is a citadel which is now in a dilapidated state ; but the town is reviving under the government of the present khan. Of Bokhara, which stands on the same river, the houses are meanly built'; but many of the mosques, caravanserais, and colleges, are hand- some structures ; and the town flourishes in population, as it is said to contain 80,000 inhabitants. Balk, on the Dehash, is also large and po pulous, with houses of brick and stone, and a palace or castle built almost entirely of marble. Tashkend, formerly the capital of an independent state, is rtill a con- siderable town, situated in a fertile country, and containing within the walls many fine vineyards and very productive gardens. It is a place of great resort, both for traffic and for amusement. Khokand is a large city, built in the midst of a well-cultivated territory, tlie soil of which is re.narkably impregnated with salt. It abounds with mosques ; and in its vicinity, as well as in many other parts of Tartary, are curious ruins of ancient buildings. Khyvah is the chief town of Khowarasm, which was a flourishing kingdom in the middle ages. It is a place of son. trade ; and wc are sorry to observe, that slaves are among the articles of tralfic. The male inha- bitants are prone to sensual indulgence, and are in general rude and un- civilised ; and the women, though handsome in their persons, are not very elegant in their manners. Trade.] The Kirghises trade with the Russians : their traffic is en- tirely carried on by barter, and they exchange their horses, cattle, and •beep, for manufactures, principally clothing and furoiture. Arms of 614 CHINA. every kiud are refused to them by the Russians ; but they procure theti by the same kind of barter, from the southern parts of the country. The Bokharians are a very commercial people : their caravans tratel through a great part of Asia, and traffic with Persia, Tibet, China, and Russia. Their lamb-skins are in great request ; they also dispose of wool, cotton stuffs of their own manufacture, vests, and the silken articles of Hindc/Stan, beside salt-petre and dried fruit. Government.] This is, for the most part, despotic; and the two tttoat powerful princes are the khans of Khokand and Great- Bokharia. Relision.] The religion of almost all the Tartarian tribes is thatnf Mohammed, according to the tenets of the sect of Omar. Learning.] The reader may be surprised to find this article in an account of the Tartars ; yet nothing is more certain, than that under Genghiz and Timour, and their early descendants. Western Tartary was the seat of learning and politeness, as well as of empire and magnificence. Modern luxury, be it ever so splendid, falls short of that of those princes. The encouragement of learning was the lirst care of the prince, and it was generally cultivated by his own relatives and the grandees. They wrote in the Persian and Arabic tongues. The name of UIui^ Beg, the grandson of Timour, is well known to astronomers ; and Abulgaii, the khan of Khowarasm, wrote the history of his country. Samarcand wjs a celebrated university for eastern science, and, even in the last century, was a flourishing school for Mohammedan literature. Antiquitiks.] These consist of the ruins of edifices erected by Genghiz, Timour, and their successors. Remains of ditches and ram- parts are frequently found, which either surrounded small towns, nowde* molished, or were intended for the defence of camps, forts, or castles, the vestiges of which are sometimes discovered. Many of them are still in tolerable preservation. In the uncultivated tracts occupied by the Kirghises, are many relics of opulent cities. Some gold and silver colas have likewise been found, with several manuscripts, neatly written, some of which are in the language of Tibet, while others arc of a doubtfiil complexion. History,] In our account of Chinese Tartary, we shall take some notice of the history of this country. THE EMPIRE OF CHINA. THIS empire includes China Prep jr, Chinese Tartary, and Tibet ; the Chinese emperors of the Tartarian race having, within the last century, greatly extended their authority and influence over the wandering hordes inhabiting the countries to the north and the west of China. We sliall treat separately of these divisions. CHINA PROPER. !■ SITUATION AND EXTENT. Miles. Degrees. Sq. Milflg. Length 1330) i.„h.,„.„ f 22 and 41 North latitude. ), ..nnno I Breadth 1030 } ^•'^"'•^^" { 100 and 121 East longitude, j ^'^O*^'"^ j Name.] The Chinese call their country Chong Qua, or the kingdom I of the centre, because they cuaaider China not only as situated in the I %m- . *• •- --•r**%- —..—'. ... ..,.»v, . . . „. I ^1 If l.(ll\)^llllll- Nil K.HHl IVllIll Jti IWlM l.,'ii,l,.ii ful'Minl V.it i-i/ii/li .IMmiHum.X'llf'llin'/h /,'..///■// , '1 KOHl Ironi yjr.j Ciri-ciiwicli A'.; ^■VTy.'ft'i*-ti't middle of J> China (in th« ancient mons tunes before nifying silk. BOUUDA' wall on the America, on Tartarian co Divisioi teen provinc and opulence • but it is not The popu the argumen ciousandun than 151 pe Iowa calci population ( Face ov country in ( pected to b chen, ares Chekian ha of Kian-na numerous ii the country FORESTI encumberec producing t ornament a down, can Lakes.] hoo, in the cumferenc< leagues in marliable i method of Bometimes which, at in their b: does not from swa pleased to this occa lake, wit by it. RlVEl the Kian hy the n tains of "^ TheKia city of r the mo\ There » CHINA. 615 middle of the world, but as its most distinguished region. The name of China (in the east Chin, or Tsin) is derived, by some, from one of their ancient monarchs of that name, who reigned, it is said, about two cen- turies before the Christian sera; and, by others, from the word chin, sig- nifying silk. Boundaries.] China is bounded by Chinese Tartary and a long wail on the north; by the Pacific Ocean, which divides it from North America, on the east ; by the Chinese sea, on the south ; and by the Tartarian countries and Tibet on the west. Division and population.] The empire is divided into seven- teen provinces, each of which might, for its extent, fertility, populousness, and opulence, rank as a distinct kingdom. The largest is that of Sechueen ; ' but it is not so populous as Pechelee, in which stands the capita!. The population of China has been calculated at 333 millions ; but all the arguments of sir George Staunton in favor of that estimate are falla- cious and unsatisfactory, and asubtractionof one half will still allow more than 151 persons for each square mile, though this will be deemed too low a calculation by those who consider the far superior (proportional) population of England and Holland. Face of the couNTav, mountains.] The appearance of the country in China is very diversified, as every extensive region may be ex- pected to be. The provinces of Yunan, Koeicheou, Sechueen, and Fo- chen, are so mountainous as greatly to obstruct cultivation ; and that of Chekian has lofty and precipitous mountains on the west. In the province of Kian-nan there is a district full of high mountains, which are also numerous in the provinces of Shensee and Shansee. The greater part of the country, however, is level, and most assiduously cultivated. Forests.] Such is the industry of the Chinese, that they are not encumbered with forests or woods, though no country is better fitted for producing timber of all kinds. They suffer, indeed, none to grow but for ornament and use, or on the sides of mountains, whence the trees, when cut down, can be conveyed to any place by water. Lakes.] China contains several extensive lakes, as that of Tontint- hoo, in the province of Hou-quan, which is about e ghty leagues in cir- cumference, and that of Poyan-hoo, in the province of Kian-see, thirty leagues in circuit. The lakes of Weechan-hoo and Tai-hoo are also re- markable for their picturesque scenery. On some of these lakes a singular method of fishing is practised. Thousands of small boats and rafts are sometimes seen on them, and in each boat about ten or a dozen birds, which, at a signal from the owner, plunge into the water, and bring out in their bills fish of an enormous size. They are so well trained, that it does not require either ring or cord round their throats to prevent them from swallowing any portion of their prey, except what the master is pleased to return them for encouragement and food. The boat used on this occasion is of a very light construction, and is often carried to the lake, with the fishing-birds, by the men who are there to be supported by it. Rivers.] The two principal rivers of China, are the Hoan-ho and the Kian-ku ; the former, called the Yellow River, from its discolorment by the mud which its waters bring down, has its source among the moun- tains of Tibet, and falls into the Yellow Sea, after a course of 1 850 miles. The Kian-ku rises near the source of the Hoan-ho, and, after passing the city of Nankin, falls into the sea about one hundred miles to the south of the mouth of the Hoan-bo, having traversed a course of 2000 miles. There are many riven of inferior note in China ; but the water of this 616 CHINA. country ia in general very indifferent, and, in some places, must be boiled to make it fit for use. Canals.] Thef" are sufficient to entitle the ancient Chinese to the character of a most wise and industrious people. The commodiousness and length of their canals are incredible. The chief of them are lined with hewn stones ; and they are so deep, that they carry large vessels, and sometimes extend above 1000 miles in length. Those vessels are fitted up for all the conveniences of life ; and it has been thought by some (though it is evidently a gross error) that in China the water contains as many inhabitants as the laud. The canals are furnished with stone quays, and sometimes with bridges of an amazing construction. The navigation is slow, and the vessels are sometimes drawn by men. No precautions are neglected that can be formed by art or perseverance, for the safety of the passengers, if a canal be crossed by a rapid river, or exposed to tonents from the mountains. These canals, and the variety that is seen upon their borders, render China delightful in a high degree, as well as fertile, la places which are not so by nature. Metals, minehals.] China (if we are to believe some naturalists) produces all metals and minerals that are known in the world. White copper, called by the Chinese peton, is peculiar to that country; but we know of no extraordinary quality which it possesses. Tutenag is another peculiar metal, a mine of which, in the province of Hou-quao, yielded many hundred-weight in the courtie of a few days. One of the fundamental maxims of the Chinese government is that of not introducing a superabundance of gold and silver, for fear of diminishing industry. Their gold>mines, therefore, are partially and slightly worked ; and the currency of that metal is supplied by the grains which the people find in the sand of rivers and mountains. The silver specie is furnished from the mines of Honan. Mines of iron, lead, and tin, must be very common, since these metals are sold at a low rate in all parts of China ; and it appears, from authentic documents, that the use of iron in particular was very ancient in that country. Quarries and coal-mines also abound in almost every province. Coals are found in great plenty in the mountains of the provinces of Shensee, Shansee, and Pechelee; they are used by workmen in their furnaces, in all kitchens, and in the stoves with which the Chinese warm their apartments during the winter. Climate, soil, agriculture,] The climate of China varies ac- cording to the situation of the places. Toward the north it is cold, in the middle mild, and in the south hot. The soil is, either by nature or art, fruitful of every thing that can minister to the necessities, conveniences, or luxuries of life ; and agriculture is carried to a high deg:ee of ex- cellence. Vegetables.] Many of the rare trees, and aromatic productions, either ornamental or medicinal, that abound in other parts of the world, are to be found in China, and some are peculiar to that country. The tallow-tree has a short trunk, a smooth bark, crooked branches, red leaves, shaped like a heart, and is about the height of a common cher- ry-tree. The fruit which it produces has all the qualities of our tallovr, and, when manufactured with oil, answers the purpose of a candle ; bui it has a strong smell, and does not afford a clear light. Of the other trees peculiar to China, some yield a kind of flour ; some partake of the nature of pepper. The gum of some is poisonous, but affords fine varnish. After all that can be said of these, and other beautiful and useful trees, the Chinese, notwithstanding their industry, are so wedded to their ancient cutoms, that the The isme may be from being 80 delM liecaase the Chm« know little of expe The tea-plant d and pnined to pre' George Staunton) Fochen. Its perp collecting its leave the course of the most from the root rose-tree, and the that of the rose, concurred in affin which it grew, an as well as upon t oldest leaves, whit lowest classes of manipulation, stil to most fresh plai essential flavor, c without diminuti( ration before th( through the fingei assumed before i( aflerwrrds placed thinner than can said, in the count puqiose. Indeed chief application placed over a chi leaves, rendering tea are thought t( plucked, and wh The Portuguei introduced amoni it in the first act in 1660. Cath? common at his a universal remed; to be merely a c brought to Euro this instance al counts of China Animals.] ros, bear, buffa^ a very small br there, beside se of England, co but the asses a fine animals. CuRiosrri ties present tl under precedii CHINA. 617 cttitODUi, that they are very little, if at all, meliorated by cultiTation. The same may be said of their richest fruits, which, in general, are far from being so delicious as those of Europe, or indeed of America. This is becaiue the Chinese never practise grafting or inoculation of trees, and know little of experimental gardening. The tea-plant deserves more particular notice. It is planted in rows, and pruned to prevent luxuriancy. " Vast tracts of hilly l&nd (says sir George Staunton) are planted with it, particularly in the province of Fochen. Its perpendicular growth is impeded for the convenience of collecting its leaves, which is done first in spring, and twice afterwards in the course of the summer. Its long and tender branches spring up al- most from the root, without any intervening naked trunk. It is bushy like a rose-tree, and the expanded petals of tbe iiower bear some resemblance to that of the rose. Every information received concerning the tea-plant concurred in affirming that its qualities depended both upon the soil in which it grew, and the age at which the leaves were plucked off the tree, as well as upon the management of them afterwards. The largest and i/idest leaves, which are the least esteemed, and destined for the use of the lowest classes of the people, are often exposed to sale with little previous manipulation, still retaining that kind of vegetable taste Avhich is common to most fresh plants, but which vanishes in a little time, whilst the more essential flavor, characteristic of each particular vegetable, remains long without diminution. The young leaves undergo no inconsiderable prepa- ration before they are delivered to the purchaser. Every leaf passes through the fingers of a female, who rolls it up almost to the form it had assumed before it became expanded in the progress of its growth. It is afierwrrds placed upon thin plates of earthen-ware or iron, made much thinner than can be executed by artists out of China. It is confidently said, in the country, that no plates of copper are ever employed for that pur|)ose. Indeed, scarcely any utensil used in China is of that metal, the chief application of which is for coin. The earthen or iron plates are placed over a charcoal fire, which draws all remaining moisture from the leaves, rendering them dry and crisp. The color and astringency of green tea arc thougltt to be derived from the early period at which the leaves are plucked, and which, like unripe fruit, are generally green and acrid." The Portuguese had the use of tea long before the English ; but it was introduced among the latter before the Restoration, as mention is made of it in the first act of parliament that settled the excise on the king for life, in 1660. Catharine of Lisbon, wife to Charles II., rendered the use of it common at his court. — The ginseng, so famous among the Chinese as the universal remedy, and monopolised even by their emperors, is now found to be merely a common root, and is abundant in North America. When brought to Europe, it is little distinguished for its healing qualities ; and this instance alone ought to teach us with what caution the former ac- counts of China are to be read. Animals.] The lion is not found in China; but the tiger, rhinoce- ros, bear, buffalo, and wild boar, are natives of the country. Camels of a very small breed, some of which are not hif,'her than horses, are found there, beside several species of deer. The horses are smaller than those of England, coarse, and ill-shaped, and are not very strong or active; but the asses are large and well-shaped, aad the mules in general are fine animals. Curiosities, natural and autificial.] Few natural curiosi- ties present themselves in China, that have not been comprehended under preceding articles. Some volcanoes, and rivers and lakes of par- 618 CHINA. ticular qualities, are to be found in different parts of the empire, Tlit volcano of Linesung is said sometimes to make so furious a discharee of fire and ashes, as to occasion a tempest in the air ; and some of the Itku are said to petrify fishes wlien put into them. The artificial mountains present, on their tops, temples, monaiteriet and other edifices. The Chinese bridges cannot be sufficiently admired' they are built sometimes upon barges strongly chained together, yet w as to be parted, and to let the vessels pass that sail up and down the river. Some of them run from one mountain to another, and coniiit only of one arch ; that over the river Saffrany is 400 cubits long and 500 high, though a single arch, and joins two mountains ; and some in the interior parts of the empire are said to be still more stupendous. The triumphal arches of this country form the next species of arlidcial curio- sities. Though they are not built in the Greek or Roman style of archi- tecture, yet they are superb and beautiful, and erected to the memory of their great men, with vast labor and expense. They are said in the whole to be eleven hundred, two hundred of which are particularly magnificent. The sepulchral monuments make likewise a great figuiv. The towers, the models of which are now so common in Europe, under the name of pagodas, are striking embellishments to the face of the country. They seem to be constructed in regular order, and all of them are finished with exquisite carvings and gildings, and other ornaments. That at Nankin, which is two hundred feet high, and forty in diameter, is the most admired. It is called the Porcelain Tower, because it is lined with Chinese tiles. The temples are chiefly remarkable for the fanci- ful taste in which they are built, for their capaciousness, their whim- sical ornaments, and the ugliness of the. idols which they contain. The Chinese are remarkably fond of bells, which give name to one of their principal festivals. A bell at Pekin weighs one hundred and twenty thousand pounds : but its sound is said to be disagreeable. Their build- ings, except the pagodas^ being confined to no order, and susceptible of all kinds of ornaments, have a wild variety, and a pleasing elegance, not destitute of magnificence, agreeable to the eye and the imagina- tion, and present a diversity of objects not to be found in European ar- chitecture. Nationai, character, manners, customs.] The Chinese, in their persons, are middle-sized, their faces broad, their eyes black and small, their noses blunt, and turned upwards ; they have high cheek- bones, and laree lips. They have particular ideas of beauty ; they pluck up the hairs from the lower part of the face by the roots with tweezers, leaving a few straggling ones to serve for a beard. Their Tartar princes compel them to cut off the hair of the head, and, like Mohammedans, to wear only a lock on the crown. Their complexion, toward the north, is fair, but in the south swarthy ; corpulence is esteemed a beauty in a man, but considered as a palpable blemish in the fair sex, who aim at preserving a slimness and delicacy of shape. Men of quality and learning, who are not much exposed to the sun, are delicately comi plexioned ; and they who are bred to letters let the nails of their fingers grow to an enormous length, to show that they are not employed in ma- nual labor. The women have little eyes, plump rosy lips, black hair, regular features, and a delicate, though florid, complexion. The smallness of their feet is reckoned a principal part of their beauty, and no swathing b omitted, when they are young, to give them that accomplishment; so that, when they grow up, they may be said to totter rather than to walkf CHINA. m « of most of the women we saw (says sir George Staunton), even in the middle and inferior classes, the feet were unnutnrally small, or rather truncated. They appeared as if the fore-part of the foot had lieen accidentally cut off, leaving the remainder of the usual size, and bandaged like the stump of an amputated limb. They undergo, in- deed much torment, and cripple themselves in a great measure, in imitation of ladies of a higher rank, among whom it is the custom to stop by pressure the growth of the ancle as well as foot from the earliest infancy, and, leaving the great toe in its natural position, forcibly to bend the others, and retain them under the foot, till at length they ad- here to, as if buried in, the sole, and can no more be separated. It is laid, indeed, that this practice is now less frequent than formerly, at least among the lower sort in the northern provinces." The exterior demeanor of the Chinese is very ceremonious. It con- sists of various evolutions of the body, and inclinations of the head, in bending or stiifening the knees, and in joining or disengaging the hands; all which are considered as the perfection of good-breeding and deport- ment; while the nations who arc not expert in such discipline are thought to be little better than barbarians. When, however, these cere- monies are once shown off, the performers of them relapse into ease and fiimiliarity. — In their address to strangers they are not restrained by any bashfulness, but present themselves with an easy, contident air, as if they deemed themselves the superiors, and as if othing in their manners or appearance could be deficient or objectionable. By some censorious speakers and writers, the Chinese have been re- presented as the most dishonest people in the world, employing their na- tural quickness only to improve the arts of cheating the nations with which they deal, especially the Europeans, whom they cheat with great ease, particularly the English, while they observe that none but a Chinese can cheat a Chinese. Duplicity and deceit, it is said, are notoriously prevalent among them ; the cordiality of friendship is very rare ; true benevolence is far from being the general feeling ; and exterior and me- chanical forms are more attended to than the actual practice of virtue. This picture is overcharged in point of coloring; but the representation is, in a great measure, founded on truth. Dress.] This varies according to the distinctions of rank, and is entirely under the regulation of the law, which has even fixed the colors that distinguish the different conditions. Tlie emperor, and princes of the blood, have alone a right to wear yellow ; certain mandarins are entitled to wear satin of a red ground, but only upon days of ceremony ; in general they are clothed in black, blue or violet. — White is only worn for mourning, and cannot be too much soiled for the occasion, to avoid every appearance of personal care and ornament. The hue to which the common people are restricted, is blue or black; and their dress is always composed of plain cotton cloth. The men wear caps on their heads, of the fashion of a bell ; those of persons of quality are ornamented with Jewels. The rest of their dress is easy and loose, consisting of a vest and sash, a coat or gown thrown over them, silk boots quilted with cotton, and a pair of drawers. Dress is seldom altered in China from fancy or fashion. Even in the apparel of the ladies there is little variety; except, perhaps, in the disposition of the fiowers or other ornaments of the head. They generally wear over a silk netting, which is in lieu of linen, a waistcoat and drawers of silk, trimmed or lined in cold weather with furs. Above this is worn a long satin robe, which is gracefully latbered round the waist, and confioed with a saah. The various parts I 620 CHINA. of their apparel are usually each of a different color, in the selection ud contrast of which the wearers chiefly display their taste. They luffer their nails to grow, but reduce their eye-brows to an arched line. Marriages.] The parties never see each other, in China, before the matrimonial bargain is concluded by the parents, and that is generally when they are mere children. When the nuptials are celebrated, the lady is carried (as yet unseen by the bridegroom) in a gilt and gaudy chair hung round with festoons of artificial flowers, and followed by reiatirei attendants, and servants, bearing the paraphernalia, being the only por- tion given with a daughter in marriage by her parents. Next to bein; barren, the greatest scandal is to bring females into the world : and, if a woman of a poor family happens to have three or four girls successively, it not unfrequently happens that she will expose them on the high roads, or throw them into a river : for, in China, parents, who cannot support their female children, are allowed to cast them into the river ; but they fasten a gourd to the child, that it may float on the water ; and there are often compassionate people of fortune, who are moved by the cries of the children to save them from death. Funerals.] The Chinese, among other superstitions, arc particu- larly scrupulous about the time and place of burying their dead. The delay occasioned before these ditHcuIt points are ascertained, has oftea long detained the coffins of the rich from their last repository ; many are seen in houses and gardens, under temporary roofs, to preserve them in the mean time from the weather ; but necessity forces the poor to overcome their scruples in this respect, and to deposit at once, and with little cere- mony, the remains of their relatives in their final abode. The following is the description of a Chinese funeral procession, ob- served by sir George Staunton, passing out at one of the gates of Pekia: it " was preceded by several performers on solemn music ; then followed a variety of insignia, some of silken colors, and painted boards with devices and characters, displaying the rank and oflUcc of him who was no more, Immediately before the corpse the male relations walk, each supported by friends, occupied in preventing them from giving way to the excesses and extravagance of grief, to which the appearance of their countenances implied that they were prone. Over the mourners were carried um- brellas with deep curtains hanging from the edges. Several persons were employed to burn circular pieces of paper, covered chiefly with tin foil, as they passed by hurying-groundsand temples. These pieces, in the popular opinion, like the coin given to Charon fur being conveyed to the Elysian fields, are understood to be convertible, in the next stage of exist- ence, into the means of providing the necessaries of life." The public burying-grounds are extremely extensive, in consequence of the respect paid to the dead by the Chinese, which prevents them from opening a new grave in any spot where the traces of a former one remain upon the surface. Every Chinese keeps in his house a table, upon which are written the names of his father, grandfather, and great-grandfather; before which they frequently burn incense, and prostrate themselves ; and, when the father of a family dies, the name of the great, or Puckoachim, which is derived, as they told me, from Pue, eignitying northern, and Koachim, snow ; that is, th« jnowy rfgion of the north." The Chinese call it Tsang. Boundaries.] Tibet is bounded on the north and north-west by the great desert of Gobi in Tartary, on the cast by China, on tho south byAsauiand Birmah, and on tho south-west and west by Hindoostan. Divisions.] This country is divided into Upper, Middle, and Lower Tibet. The Upper is also called Nagari, and forms the provinces ot'Sangkar, Pourang, and Tamo. The provinces of the middle division are Shang, Ou, and Kiang ; those of the lower, Congbo, Kokang, and Takbo, or Boutan. The last is an extensive country, considered as distinct from Tibet Proper. Face of the country, mountains, forests.] Tibet at first view appears to be one of the least-favored countries under heaven, and seems in a great measure incapable of culture. It exhibits only low rocky hills without any visible vegetation, or extensive arid plains, both of the most stern and stubborn aspect, promising as little as they produce. Boutan, however, or the most southern part, though it pre- sents only the most mis-shapen irregularities, has its mountains covered with verdure, and rich with abundant forests of large and lofty trees. Lakes.] The most considerable lake, with respect to dimensions, is that of Terkiri, which is about 80 miles in length and 25 broad ; but the most remarkable is that of Jamdro or Palte, which is represented as a wide trench, about two leagues broad, surrounding an island of about twelve leagues in diameter. Rivers.] The principal river of Tibet is the Sanpoo, or Burram- pouter, which is also a river of Hindoostan. The Ganges likewise has ita source among the mountains of Tibet, as have also the Chinese rivers Hoauho and Kianku, the great river Maykan of Laos and Cambodia, and the Sarjoo or Gagra, which, after a course of about 550 miles, falls into the Ganges, near Chupra. Metals, minerals.] Boutan is not known to contain any metal except iron, and a little copper ; but in Tibet Proper gold is found in great quantities and very pure ; sometimes in the form of gold dust in the beds of rivers, and sometimes in large masses and irregular veins. There is a lead-mine about two days' journey from Teeshoo Loomboo, which probably contains silver. Cinnabar abounding in quicksilver, rock salt, and tiucal, or crude borax, are likewise among the mineral productioos of this country : the last is found in inexhaustible quan- tities. ^r!rtt 1 ^ 1 ' 1 636 TIBET. Climate, soil, produce.] The climate of Tibet is cold and bleak in the extreme, from the severe effects of which the iiiii!il)itaiits are obliged to seek refuge in sheltered valleys and hollows, or amidst the warmest aspects of the rocks. In the temperature of the s asons, however a remarkable uniformity jjrcvails, as well as in their periodical duration' and return. In Boutan almost every mountainous part which is coated with the smallest quantity of soil is cleared and adapted to cultivation- but, in Tibet Proper, the nature of the soil checks the progress of agri- culture. Wheat, barley, and rice, are raised in Boutan. ANiiMALS.] The variety and quantity of beasts of prey, flocks, droves and herds, of wild-fowl and game, in Tibet, according to Mr. Turner are astonishing: but, in Boutan, he tells us, he met with no wild ani- mals, except monkeys. The horses, cattle, and sheep of Tibet are oi a diminutive size, as are most of the beasts of prey. The musk deer is a native of this country. This animal is about the height of a moderate- eized hog; he has in the upper jaw two long tusks, directed downwards, which seem intended to serve him to dig roots, his usual food: tiiemusk, which is only found in the male, is of a black color, and formed in a little bag or tumor near the navel. These deer are deemed the property of the state, andjhunted only by the permission of the government. In Tibet there is also a beautiful species of goat, with straight horns, having, unaer tie exterior coarse coat, a very fine hair, from which the shawls of iuuBLare manufactured. Natural curiosities.] To the north of Tassisudon, Mx. hinders, who accoE ,inied captain Turner into Tibet, obscived a singular rock projecting over a considerable fall of wafer, iind forming in front m or seven hundred angular .scnii-pillars of a grt-at circumference, and some hundred feet high. 7\inong thr nioundiins of lloutan is a watpr-l'all cp.lled Minzapeezo, which issues in a collected body, but descends from 60 great a perpendicular height, that, Ix'foro it is reccivfd in the thick shade below it is nearly dissii)ated, and appears like steam. iNiiAni ..NTS, MANNKiiM, cusioMs.] The pcopio of IJoutan and Tibet are much more robust and less swarthy than thtir southern neigh- bours of Bengal. Humanity, and an inartilicial gentleness of dispftsition, says Mr. Turner, are the constant inheritance of a Tibetian. Without being servilely officious, they are always obliging ; the higher ranks are una8sumi'.)g, the inferior respectful in their behaviour; nor are they at all deficient in attention to the female sex ; hut, as we find them mo- derate in all their passions, in this respect also their conduct is equally remote from rudeness and adulation. A remarkable custom prevails in this country (contrary to the usual customs of the cast), by which a woman is permitted to marry all the brothers of a family, without any restriction of age or numbers. The ceremonies of marriage arc neither tedious nor intricate. The lover of a damsel makes his proposal to her parents; and, if the offer be accepted, they repair with their daughter to the suitor's house, where the male and female acquaintance of both parties meet and carouse for the space of three days, with music, dan- cing, and every kind of festivity. At the expiration of tl:!" time the mar- riage is complete. The priests have no share in these cerernoniL.% or in ratifying the obligation. Mutual consent is the only bond of unioi , ::nd the parties present are witnesses to the contract, which is formed in hsso. lubly for life. The Tibetians expose their dead bodies within walled areas, which are left open at the top, and have passages at the bottom to admit birds, dogs, and beasts of prey. No funeral rites are performed but such as TIBET. 637 m tend to facilitate the destruction of the body by the voracious animals, who are, as it were, invited to devour it. Some bodies are conveyed by the friends of the deceased to the summit of some ueigbbouiinsi; bill, where they are disjointed and nians^led, that they may become a n)ore easyprey to carnivorous birds. Tiio bodies of the sovereign lainas are, however, deposited in shrines, which are (iver after considered as sacred, and visited with religious awe: those of the inferior priests are burned, and their ashes preserved in little hollow images of metal. An an- nual festival is observed in Tibet, as in Bengal, in bmiDr of the dead ; which is celebrated by a general illumination of the houses i .'1 other buildings. CiTiis, ciiiKF TOWN'S, KDiru'is,] Lassa, or Lahassa, is consi- dered as the capital of Tibet, and is .situated in a spacious jdain ; the houses arc not nunieroiis, but they arc; built of stone, and are large and lofty. The celebrated mountain of Piitala, on which stands the palace of the grand lama, is about seven miles to the eimt of the city. Teeshoo Loomboo, ov l-ubrong, the scat of Teeslioo I.ama, and the capital of that part of Tibet which is immediately subject to his autho- rity, is, in fact, a large monastery, consisting of three or four hundred houses, inhabited by f/y/nxcys (a kind of monks or priests), beside t(Mii|)les, mausoleums, and the piiliice of the pontiiV, with the residences of the various subordinate oHicers, both erx.lesiastical and civil, belonging to the court. It is included within the hollow face of a high rock ; and its l)uilding8 are all of stone, none less than two stories high, flat-roofed, and croned with. a parapet, The castle or palace of TiiBsisiidon, in Boiitan, stands near the centre ofthe valley of the same name. It is a stone building of a (juadran- gular form. The out(!r walls are lofty, being above thirty feet liigli, and enclose a central scpiare building, which is the habitation of the chief lama of the district. There is no town near the palace ; but a few clusters of houses are distributed in different iiarts among the fields. " A Tibet village," says Mr. Turner, '* by no nu-anri makes a hand- some figinc. The peasant's house is of a mean construction, and re- sembles a brick-kiln in shape and size more exactly than any thing to which I can compare it. It is built of rough st(mes, heaped u[)on each other without cement; and, on account of the strong Aviiids that perpe- tually prevail here, it has never more than three or four small apertures to admit light. The roof is a flat terrace, surrounded with a parapet wall two or three feet high ; on this are commonly placed piles of loose stones, intended to support a small flag, or the branch of a tree , or else as a fastening for a long line with scraps of paper, or white rag, strung upon it, like the tail of a kite : this, being stretched from one house to another, is a charm against evil genii, as infallible in its elKcacy as horse-shoes nailed upon a threshold, or us straws thrown across the path of a reputed witch." Manufactukks, com.mehcf..] The mar.ufacturos of Tibet are principally shawls and woollen cloth. The exports, which go cbielly to China and Bengal, consist of gold-dust, diauionds, pearls, coral, musk, rock salt, woollen cloth, and lamb-skins; in return for which, silk, satin, gold and silver brocade, tea, tobacco, and furs of various kinds, are received from China ; and, iVom Bengal, the productions of that country, and a variety of English commodities and manu- factures. QovEnNMENT, RELIGION.] The government of this country is 638 TIBET. intimately connected with its religion, the civil authority, as well agtlie spiritual, being in the hands of the lamas, or pontiffs, of Avhom the chief, called the Dalai Lama, is not only submitted to and adored by the Tibetians, but is also the great object of veneration among the various tribes of Tartars who roam through the vast tract of continent which stretches from the banks of the Volga, to Corea, on the Sea of Japan. Every year they go from different parts, to worship and make rich offerings at his shrine ; even the emperor of China does not fail in acknowledgments to him in his religious capacity; though the Jamais tributary to him, and actually entertains, at a great expense, in tlie palace of Pekin, an inferior lama, deputed as his nuncio from Tibet. The opinion of those who are reputed the most orthodox is, that, when the grand lama seems to die either of old age or infirmity, his soul in fact only quits a crazy habitation to look for one that is younger or better- and it is discovered again in the body of some child, by certain tokens known only to the lamas, in which order he always appears. In 1774, the grand lama was an infant, which had been discovered some time before by the Teeshoo Lama, who, in authority and sanctity of character, is next to the grand Lama, and, during his minority, acts as chief In 1783, when Mr. Turner went on his ambassy into Tibet, the Teeslioo Lama was in like manner an infant, under tiie guardianship of a regent; and that gentleman has given a curious and interesting relation of a visit which he was permitted to make to him. " Teeshoo Lama," he tells us, " was at that time eighteen months old. He was placed, in great form, upon his musnud. On the left side stood his father and mother, and on tlie other the officer particularly appointed to wait upon his person. The musnud is a fabric o^' silk cushions, piled one upon another, until the seat is elevated to the height of four feet from the floor ; a piece of em- broidered silk covered the top, and the sides alM* were decorated witli pieces of silk of various colors, suspended from liie upper edge and hanging down. Though the little creature was unable to speak a word, he made the most expressive signs, and conducted himself with astonish- ing dignity and decorum. His complexion was of that hue Aviiich in England we should term rather brown. His features were good; he had small black eyes, and an animated expression of countenance." The religious votaries of the lamas are divided into two sects, the gijlookpa and the shammar, at the head of each of which are three lamas. Over the gylookpa sect three personages preside ;— namely, the Dalai Lama, whose residence is at Pootalab, near Lassa; the Teeshoo Lama, who dwells at Teeshoo Loomboo ; and the Taranaut Lama; who resides at Kharka in Kilmank. Tiiis sect j)revails over the greatest |)art of the country. The three lamas who in like maimer pre- side over the shammar sect, have their residence in Boutun, in separate monasteries, but from the limited extent of that country, at no great distance from each other. Tiiese sects are distinguished by the color of the dress of their i)riests. 'I'hose of the gylookpa wear long robes of yellow cloth, with a touic cap of the same color, having flaps to lull down and cover the ears. The dress of the other sect is red, and the tribes are known as belonging to the red or the yellow cap. The former, it is said, difler princi])ally from the others in admitting the marriage of their priests; b t the latter are considered as the most orthodox, and possess the greatest influence, since the emperor of China is decidedly a votary of this sect, and has sanctioned his preference of the yellow color by a sumptuary law which limits it to the service of relijjlon and the imperial use. These sects foriucrly engaged in violent ielit[iuus TIBET. 639 iran each destroying, when successful, the monasteries of the other, jnd establishing its own in their stead ; but these animosities have declined into comparative moderation. There are in this country numerous monasteries containing a "reat number of gylongs or monks, who are required to be strictly sober, to forego the society of women, and confine themselves to the austere practices of the cloister. On the establishment of the monastery of Teeshoo Loomboo, three thousand seven hundred of these gylongs were reckoned. There are also a number of convents, containing annees, or nuns ; and the strictest laws exist to prevent any woman from even accidentally passing a night within the limits of a monastery, or a man within those of a nunnery. " The religion of Tibet," says Mr. Turner, '* seems to be theschisma- tical offspring of that of the Hindoos, deriving its origin from one of the followers of that faith, a disciple of Boudh, who first broached the doctrine which now prevails over the wide extent of Tartary. It is reported to have received its earliest admission into that part of Tibet bordering upon India (which hence became the seat of the sovereign lama), to have tra- versed over Manchou Tartary, and to have been ultimately disseminated over China and Japan. Though it differs from the Hindoo in many o! its outward forms, it still bears a very close affinity to the religion of Brahma, in some important particuiars. The principal idol, in the temples of Tibet, is Mahamoonie (a name which in Sanscrit literally signifies (/ren^ saint) the Budha or Boudh of Bengal, who is worshiped under these and various other epithets throughout Tartary, and among all the nations to the eastward of the Burrampouter. In the wide-oxtended space over which this faith prevails, the same object of veneration is acknowleged under numerous titles : among others, lie is styled Godama or Gowtama, jnAsam and Ava; Samana in Siam; Amida Buth in Japan; Fohi in China; Budha or Boudh in Bentjal and Hindoostan ; Dherma Raja and Mahamoonie in Boutan and Tibet. Durga and Kali ; Ganeish, the emblem of wisdom ; and Cartikeah with his numerous heads and arms, as well as many other deities of the Hindoo mytholog'y ; have also a place in their assemblage of gods. " The same places of popular esteem, or religious resort, as I have already hinted, are equally respected in Tibet and in Bengal. Praag, Cashi, Durgeedin, Sangor, and Jagarnaut, are objects of devout pil- grimage ; and I have seen loads of the sacred water taken from the Ganges, traveling over those mountains (which, by the bye, contribute largely to its increase), upon the shoulders of men, whom cnthusiawts have deemed it worth their while to hire at a considerable expense for so pious a purpose. " As far as I am able to judge respecting their ritual or ceremonial, it differs materially from the Hindoo. The Tibetians assemble in chapels, and unite in prodigious numbers to perform their religious service, which they chant in alternate recitative and chorus, accompaiued by an extensive band of loud and powerful instruments ; so that, wheneve;- I heard these congregations, they forcibly roc^allcd to my recollection both the solemnity and sound of a Roman-catholic mass." Lancuagi'..] The langnge of Tibet is said to be radically dift'ercnt both from those of the Ma i-'hous and the Mongols. According to Mr. Turner, it consists almost entirely of nasal and guttural sounds. The alphabetic characters are of two ki'ids, the uchcm and the iimin. The former is the character in which the sacred writings are preserved, and coiuidorably reseutbles the 8auiicrit ; the other is tlic alphabet used for III i^-M 640 HINDOOSTAN. business aiid common correspondence. The vowels are indicated by marks or points, and the order of writing, contrary to the usual practice in the east, is from the left to the right. Printing with blocks of wood ia the manner of the Chinese, is said to have been known in Tibet, in a very remote age. History.] It is said that the succession of kings and lamas of Tibn began many ages before the birth of Christ ; but, if this be true, we know nothing of the successive reigns. It appears, that, about the beginning' of the twelfth century, the Chinese emperor arbitrarily interfered in the government, by giving to a distinguished lama the regal power; but, after an interval of several ages, we learn from father Andrada, who was iu Tibet in 1624, that the country was governed by a secular sovereien named Tsan-pa-han, who was a zealous protector of the Christian religion, and seemed greatly inclined to embrace it. The Tartar history of the same period corroborates this circumstance ; for it relates that this prince despised the lamas, abandoned the law of the god Fo, and sought every opportunity of destroying it. The Dalai Lama, being highly incensed at not receiving the homage of Tsan-pa-han, formed a league with the Tartars of Kokonor, who, under their prince Kouchi, entered Tibet, at- tacked Tsan-pa-han, defeated him, and caused him to be put to death. To this Tartar prince the lama was indebted for his sovereignty over all Tibet : for, instead of appropriating to himself the fruits of his victory, Kouchi declared himself a vassal of the supreme chief of his religion, satisfied with receiving from him the title of khan. •-■■ Cv ' ■■ ■■■■..:. -' : ■ ->. ,■'■■. -■■<.>■■ i INDIA ON THIS SIDE OF THE GANGES, on HINDOOSTAN. V > ' " « -1 .. SITUATION AND EXTENT. Miles. Degrees. Length 1700 { , . C 8 and 115 North latitude Breadth 1200 5 '^'^"^'''^" ( 67 and 92 East longitud Sq. Miles. I' I 900,000. Name, boundahies, and divisions.] THE name of India is derived from the river Indus, and is extended to all countries to the south of Tartary, between that rivor and Cliiiia. It is deuoniinatcd Hindoo.stan by the Persians; but the Hindoos call it Bliarata. It is bounded on the north by ILsbeck Tartary "and Tibet; on the oast by Asam, Aracan, and tlu; bay of Bengal ; on the south by the Indian Ocean ; and by the same ocean and Persia on the west. Grand Divisions. Hindoostan Pro- ticr — Provinces fh.« N. E. and N. of tbo Provinces. Chief Towns. 'Bengfil Calcutta. Bahar Patna. Allah-abad Allah-abad. Oude Lucknow. Gange; 8. Agra, •Dehli , Agra. __ Dehli. VsSl^- t',H n\ ■!>. i^y # i -^ •V^^M^^UHt'l Tl Grand Divisions. Hindoostan Pro-j per— Provinces^ totheN.W. , The Decan, or' gouthern Pro-^ vinces of the Hogd empire.] Southern Hindoo- Stan, (impro- ?irly) called the eninsula of Hindoostan. The provinces ( gunnahs, the for latter to hundredf or viceroys soubal Present pol Nadir Shah so wi of the different ] leged a very pre other, called in a who had been or on the coasts. *] discipline, becan: vbich at length 1 doostan; and thu cessions from the is extent, and su doms of Europe. Hyder Aii, a s Gfsnd Divisions. Hindoostan Pro- per—Provinces totheN.W. The Decan, or Bouthern Pro- vincea of the Mogul empire. HINDOOSTAN. Provinces. Chief Towns. Caboul Caboul. Candahar Candahar. Labor Labor. Casbmir Cashrnir. Moultan Moultan. Sind Tatta. Ajmir Ajmir. Guzerat Abmed-abad. Malwa Gualior. iCandeish Berhanpour. Berar Nagpour. Orissa Cuttack. Dowlat-abad or Uureng-abad. Ahmed-nagour. . . . ) ^ Visiapour or Bejapour Visiapour. ^"^S*;* ^'J "y*;^'; } Hyder-abad. The northern Circars. . Ganjam. 641 / Southern Hindoo- Stan, (impro- perly) called the Peninsula of Hindoostan. South- east coast, ^ usually called the^ coast of Coroman- del. Carnada, or the Car- natic. ■ Madras. Seringapatam. 1 Mysour. ... \ Tanjour Tanjour. Madoura .... Madoura. South-west ^ coa8t,usu- jTravancour . . Travancour. ally called \ Calicut Calicut. the coast /^Canara Bednour. of Mala-\The Concan,. Bombay. V^ bar. -^ The provinces of the Mogul empire were divided into circars and per- gunnahs, the former of which may be compared to counties, and the latter to hundreds. The provinces are called soubahs, and the governors or viceroys soubahdars, and navaubs or nabobs. Present political divisions.] The invasion of Hindoostan by Nadir Shah so weakened the authority of the emperor, that the viceroys of the different provinces either threw off their allegiance, or acknow- leged a very precarious dependence ; and, engaging in wars with each other, called in as allies the India companies of France and England, who had been originally permitted, as traders, to form establishments on the coasts. These, profiting by the great superiority of European discipline, became in a '^hort time principals in an obstinate contest, which at length terminated in the ruin of the French influence in Hin- doostan; and thus a company of British merchants acquired, partly by cessions from the native powers, and partly by conquest, territories equal in extent, and superior in wealth and population, to most of the king- doms of i'lirope. Hyder Aii; a soldier of fortune, who had learned the art of war from 2T 6M HINDOOSTAN. the Europeans, having niaed that part of th« ancient Carnatic called the kingdom of Mysour, within a few years acquired, by gradual conquest, a great portion of the Bouthern part of Hindoostan. This able and actire prince, dying in 1782, left his possessions to his son Tippoo, wlioengageil in two wars with the English, in the former of which he lost a coiuider- able part of his territories, and in the latter his life and the remainder o[ his dominions, which were divided among the British, the Nizam, and the Mahrattas. In consequence of these revolutions, the present Mogul, a (lescendait of the Great Timour (such is the instability of human greatness), is merelj a nominal prince, of no importance in the politics of Hindoostan: heii permitted to reside at Dehli, which, with a small adjacent territory, is all that remains to him of the vast empire of his ancestors. The sovereignty of this great country is, therefore, now divided among the British ; some ntibobs or governors tributary to and dependent on then; the nizam or soubahdar of the Decan ; the Mahrattas ; some independent rajahs, or Hindoo princes ; and, in the north, the king of Caboul and the Seiks. The British territory consists of the provinces of Bengal, Bahar, and Orissa; those of Dehli and Agra ; the city and district of Cuttack and portof Balasour ; the northern circars ; the jaghir,or territory, of Madras; the territories and portsof Cudalour, Devicotta, and Negapatam ; the island and city of Seringapatam ; the late kingdom of Canara ; part of Ouzerat; the island and fortress of Bombay on the gulf of Cambaya ; varii, por- tions of theMahratta territories ; and some parts of the kingdom of iNapal. The original countries of the Mahrattas were the province of Can- deish and the district of Baglana,or the north-western part of Dowlat-abad, They extended their territory to the west and south along the coast from Surat to Canara, through that narrow tract of land called the Concan, o( which, in 1818, the British government took possession. The fouadtrof their statue was Sevagi, a descendant of the rsyah of Oudeipour ; who, revolting from Aurengzebe, was imprisoned at Dehli, but found the means of escape, and erected his standard at Sattarah. He was pardoned by the aged emperor, and permitted to govern the principality which he had founded. After his death, in 1682, his son Sahoo inconsiderately granted a very extensive power to Bissonauth Balaji, a Brahmin, under the title of peishwah, or leader of the Mahratta chieftains, and official ruler of the slate. This ambitious minister transmitted his power to his family; and the rajah gradually became a state prisoner at Sattarah, while the peish- wah governed the principality without control. The Mahrattas are now the chief possessors of Cektral Txcia, which extends £rom Chittour in the north to the Rapti river in the south, and from the district of Bundelcnnd to the province of Guzerat. Their prin- cipal state is that of Malwa, which they wrested in 1732 from the Great Mogul, to whom, however, they pretended to be still sub8er^'ient. Bajetov was their leader in this expedition ; but he was less successful in his inva- sion of the Decan. He died in 1740, and was succeeded in the administra- tion by his son Balaji, in whose time Holkar, Sindiah, and other chief- tains, shook off the yoke of the peishwah. In 1761 , the heads of most of the great families formed a confederacy against Ahmed the Afghan, whose ambition menaced all his Hindoo neighbours with subjugation ; but they suffered a very sanguinary defeat at Faniput. Their warlike spirit was not depressed by this disaster : they engaged occasionally in other wars, which will be noticed in our sketch of the history of India. The Findarris have been tompared wHh the first Mahrattas, whom, HINDOOSTAN. 643 iadeed, they reaembled in character and habits, though they bad not the game ties of religious or of national feeling. From being obscure free* I hooters, they rose into sufficient importance to be deemed useful auxiliaries I by the Mahratta chieftains, and at length assumed an air of independence. I The only Mohammedan prince of any consequence in Central India, I Bays Sir John Malcolm, is the nabob of Bopal, who is of Afghan origin ; and this officer has given a curious account of a memorable siege sustained in the capital of that territory, which, though it had a high and strong wall, had no other works that could deserve to be called fortifications. The nabob defended the place, however, for six months against a numerous army of Mahrattas, and compelled the enemy, in 1814, to relinquish the liege. In 1817 he became an ally of the India company, and received, for his services against the Pindarris, a small province which had been taken from a Mahratta chieftain. The possessions of the nizamor ruler of the Dec an comprise the pro- vince of Golconda, that is, the ancient province of Tellingaiia (situated between the Kistna and Godaveri rivers), and the principal part of Dow- lat-abad ; with tin western part of Berar, subject to a tribute of a fourth part of its net revenu<« to the rajah. His capital is Hyder-abad, on the Moussi river. The descendant of the rajah, who was dispossessed by the usurper Hyder Ali, was, on the fall of Tippoo, restored t(» iiie sovereik^i.ty of a great part of Mysour under British protection. Most of t he other rajahs are dependent OD tome of the great powers. The north-western provinces of Hindoosi are posscv-ed by the Ab- DALUS and the Seiks. The A bd all is (also ';alled Diira;as, from the custom of wearing a pearl in one of their ears), are properly a sect or tribe of Afghans, or the inhabitants of the mountainous country in tl)o north and vest of Hindoostan ; but the name seems to he applied to the Afghans in general. They possess a territory stretching from the mountain* of Tar- tary to the Arabian Sea, and from the Inrjus to the conBnes of Persia. They are rude and unpolished in their manners ; and many of their tribei^. being addicted to predatory warfare, avow a fixed contempt for the occu- padons of civil life. They are consequently sti<^matise(; by the Persians as stupid and ignorant barbarians; but Mr. Elphinston declares it as his opinion, that, " the bulk of the people are remarkable for prudence, good sense, and observation ;" and it also appears that they have a degree of curiosity which is more creditaM** to their understandings than the apathy of the Hindoos. Th^y are in.'.is. js and laborious, when they are stimu- lated by any object of busii; ^ss t. of pleasure. Their desire of gain is as strong as their love of indep .>di),:^e. From the former passion they seem to have imbibed the meanntc- o» ' nvy and jealousy ; and, from their high sense of personal dignity, they are resentful and vindictive, yet not so implacable as the Portuguese. When they were first visited by Europeans, they seemed to have few vices or corruptions : but they have since dege- nerated, and have become more insincere, immoral, and debauched, than they were before. Even their priests are depraved and licentious, with ali their pretensions to sanctity, and all their aft'ectation of austerity. These directors of the national faith are distinguished by their powerful influence, which they sometimes exercise over the highest civil oificers, and even over the king himself. They are the administrators of the law, professors of medicine, and conductors of education. For erudition they are not remarkable; and, indeed, the country (says Mr. Elphinston) is ovsr-run with half- taught ecclesiastics, who rather impede than promote the pvogress of real learniog, Peshawer, however, is so far io repute for literature, 2 T 2 If!!. I M It. !-k. %^ v^, .0^.. \^''-., A IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) 1.0 I.I 1.25 lis "^ 1^ IIIIIM iiii UUi. 11= U IIIIII.6 6" III V] v2 7: 7 ^ Photographic Sciences Corporation 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. M580 (716)872-4503 ^4 1 644 HINDOOSTAN. that students repair to that town even from Bokhara, a famous seat of Mohammedan learning. The principal cities of the Afghans are Candahar and Caboul. The former was considered as the capital in the time of Ahmed, by whom it was strengthened and improved, and whose sepulchre, which hag the privilege of an asylum , stands near the palace. The town is more regularly constructed than most of the Asiatic cities. Four bazars meet at a circular area, covered with a dome : the houses lofty, and some of them are eleguntly built ; and the place is surrounded with gardens and orchaids. Caboul, which is now the seat of government, is situated on the eastern side of two united hills of a semicircular form, in the midst of an extensive and fruitful plain. It is surrounded by a brick wall, with towers at the angles ; and it Has also a citadel, in which are included the palace and other public buildings. The houses in general are constructed of rough stones and clay, and have a mean a[ pearance ; but there are four well- built bazars, and a considerable trade is carried on by the inhabitants. A Hindoo town existed on this spot in the seventh century. It was taken by the Saracens, but was soon recovered ; and, after various changes of masters, it became the capital of Baber, the great Mogul. It was seised by the shah Nadir, but he lost it by the revolt of Ahmed. The province of Cashmir was added by Ahmed, in 1754, to the king- dom which he had recently formed out of the Persian empire. It chiefly consists of a spacious valley, sheltered by mountains from the cold winds: the climate is delightful, and the soil, being well-watered, is abundantly fertile. The inhabitants are industrious, and employ themselves in various branches of manufactures and trade. Their shawls, made from the hair of the Tibet goats, are well known in' Europe, and have not yet been excelled or even equa 'ed by the similar fabrics of any other country. Both sexes have been praised for personal beauty : the men, indeed, are stout and well-formed ; but their features are often coarse and broad, and the women in general are not very handsome. The dress of the former con* sists of a shirt, trowsers, a loose woollen coat, a shawl girdie, and a large turban : that of the latter, of a crimson cap or bonnet, a shawl scarf, and a long cotton robe, beside trowsers. The chief to wa of the province extends between two and three miles on each side of the, Jeloum, and is, in some parts, almost two miles in breadth. Many of the houses have three stories, and are built principally of wood, parted by brick walls : the roofs are of wood, in a sloping direction, and are covered with earth, which exhibits, in the proper season, a profusion of flowers. The streets are narrow, and tue suffered, by the gross negligence of the inhabitants, to be generally in a very dirty state. No fine buildings appear within the city ; but the remains of handsome palaces are seen in the neighbourhood. The territories of the Seiks border upon the kingdom of Caboul, and consist of great portions of the pru/ince of Labor, the Panjab, and Moui- tan. Tiieir different states are under the arbitrary sway of independent chieftains, who do not, however, so oppress the people as to prevent them from enjoying the fruits of their industry ; — a quality which, nothwith- standing their predatory and unsettled habits, they possess in a highdegree. They are of the Brahminical persuasion ; but they differ, in some points which are of little moment, from the orthodox Hindoos. The founder of their sect was named Nanock, and lived in the beginning of the sixteenth century. They are tiie descendants of his disciples, the word seiks bear- ing that signification in the Sanscrit language. ^ . Another country which claims notice in a survey of India is Beloo- CHiBTAK, bounded on the north by the territories of the Afghans, by Siad HINDOOSTAW. 645 onthe ettrt, the Indian ocean to the southwturd, and Persia on the west. A gnat part of it consists of a sandy desert, and the eastern division is ■aouotainous. The rivers are rather mountain torrents than regular streanu, and do not prevent the inconvenience of a scarcity of water. Mines of iron, lead, copper, and tin, are not uncommon ; and gold and sil- ver are likewise f^und : marble, rock-salt, alum, saltpetre, and sulphur, are alio procuredfrom the spontaneous bounty of the soil. Dates thrive amidst the sands: and, in other paits of the country, the finest fruits are produced, and all sorts of grain are cultivated with success. The ordinary cattle an ounaerous ; and camels and dromedaries are equally abundant and useful. Of the few towns which the people occupy, Kelat is the principal, being the seat of government, and the abode of the khan. It contains aboat 3750 houses, which, in general, are wretchedly built. The families vbich do not dwell in towns lead a pastoral life, and wander from one spot to another, erecting commodious tents of blankets stretched over wicker- woric. Though the Belooches have given their name to the country, they are not its sole possessors ; for the Brahoos divide it with them. The for- mer are less respectable in their characters than the others, and more addicted to the practice of depredation, which, however, they publicly exsrdse in neighbouring t'erritories, not among the individuals of their own community ; for they have a great contempt for petty or private thieves. Bnrgiary and highway robbery are capital offences among them ; and, in cases of murder, the khan acts personally as judge. They are votaries of the Mohammedan system, without being so strict in their religious perfor- mances as the Moslems of other countries. All the chieftains were tribu- taiy to the khan, and were obliged to send troops to his camp at his requi- sition; but some of them have shaken off his yoke ; and, as his authority is thns declining, he has not sufficient power to maintain due subordination and tranquillity, or to check the commotions which occasionally arise from tbe jealousy or ambition of the chiefs. Mountains.] The chief mountains are those which separate Hindoo- stan from Tibet, and are called by the natives Himalaya, or the abode of snow, with which they are constantly covered. This stupendous chain, it is said, exhibits a continued welUdefined line of white cliffs, extending througii two points of the compass, and is seen at the distance of 150 miles. Lieutenant Webb, who examined many of the peab of this chain, declares that nineteen are higher than Chimbora9o, the loftiest summit of the Andes. The highest point, by his account, is 35,669 feet above the level of the sea, whereas, according to Mr. Reddell, the South- American mountain is only 20,900 feet in height. In southern Hindoostan tbe mountains called the Ghauts (though this word properly siitnifies a pass in a mountain) extend from the river of Surat to Cape Comorin. They are called the Ballaghaut and the Payenghaut, or the npoer and lower Ghauts. They are in many places a mile and a quarter in neight, overgrown with forests, and have their summits frequently enve- bped in snow. At their termination near Cape Comorin, they may be seen dght or nine leagues out at sea. Rivers, LAKES.] The Ganges ((jrangfa or river, by way of eminence) iinot only the principal river of Hindoostan, but one of the noblest in the world. It issues from Kentaisse, one of the vast mountains of Tibet, and, after a long course, enters Hindoostan at the defile of Kupele, supposed by the natives to be its source. Hence this great river, which the Hindoos hold in reUgious veneration, believing that its waters have a virtue which will purify them from every moral transgression, flows through delightful plaiu, with a smooth navigable stream £rom one to three miles wide« toward 646 HINDOOSTAN. the bay of Beng&l, into tvhich it falls by two large; and a multitude of smaller channels, that form and intersect a large triangular island the base of which at the sea is near 200 miles in extent. The whole navigable course of this river, from its entrance into the plains of Hindoostan to the sea, extending with its windings above thirteen hundred miles, ig noi^ possessed by the British, theirallies and tributaries. The western branch called the Little Ganges, or river of Hougli, is navigable for large ebipg! The Ganges receives eleven rivers, some of which are equal to the Rhioe' and none inferior to the Thames. The Burrampouter, or Brahmi^pouter (that is, the son of Brahma), ig superior to the Ganges both in leneth of course and in width. It rigei near the head of the latter river, in the mountains of Tibet, on the opposite side of the same ridge, and takes its course in a contrary direction, till it is 11 00 miles distant from it, having proceeded to within about 200 milei of Yunan, the most western province of China, when it returns, and joioi the Ganges near the sea. During the last 60 miles, it forms a stream which is regularly from four to five miles wide. In Tibet it is called the Sanpoo, and, when it joins the Ganges, the Megna. Another considerable rive^ in this part of Hindoostan is the Jumna. It rises in the mountains of Serinagour, and pursuing a course nearly parallel to that of the Gauges for 500 miles, falls into this river at Allah-abad. The Indus, called by the natives Sindeh, is the western boundary of India. It derives its origin from ten streams springing at a distance from each other, out of the Persian and Tartarian mountains, one of which originates in Cashmir. In its course to the Indian sea, it receives the Behut or the ancient liydaspes, and four other streams, which form the Pan* jab, or the country of the five rivers. The Indus is also called the Nilab, or the Blue River, and the Attock. Its whole course is about 1000 miles. In sduthdrn Hindoostan, the principal rivers are the Nerbudda, which falls into the Indian sea, after a course of about 600 miles, and is considered as fbrtiiing the northern boundary of the Decan ; the Godaveri, which falls into the bay of Bengal, after a course of nearly the same extent} the Kistna or Krishna, which is the boundary of the Decan to the souths and the Caveri, which surrounds the city of Seringapatam. The two last rivers fall into the bay of Bengal, after a course of about 450 miles each. Metals, minerals.] The principal mineral production of Hin< doostan is that most valuable of gems, the diamond, which is found chiefly in the provinces of Golconda and Visiapour, and also in that of Bengal. Raolconda, in Visiapour, and Gandiootta, are famed for their mines, as is Couluur in Golconda. The diamond is generally found in the narrow crevices of the rocks, loose, and never adherent to the strong stratum. The miners, with long iron rods, which have hooks at the ends, pick out the contents of the fissures, and wash them in tubs in order to discover the diamonds. In Coulour they dig in a lerge plain to the depth of ten or fourteen feet ; forty thousand persons are employed, the men to dig, and the women and children to carry the earth to the places in which it is to be deposited before the search is made. Diamonds are alto found in the gravel or sand of rivers, washed out of their beds, and carried down with the stream. The liver Gonel, near Sumbulpour, is the most noted for them. Many other precious stones are found in this country ; but there seem to be no mines, either of gold or silver, though particles of gold are found in some of the rivers in the northern parts of Bengal. Climate, soil, aobiculture.] The winds in this climate geoM ally Mow for nx months from the soathi and i^ fiom the north. HINPOOSTANf 647 Ami), U^jf fii th« t^gipoipg of June, are exceauvel; l^ot, but refreshed ]fl na breevea i and, io some dry geaaons, the hurricanes, which tear up ^ laiKis, and }et thein fall in dry showers, 9/ce extrei&ely disagreeable. He EngUsh, and consequently the Europeans in general, who arrive in )]jn4(KiStsn, are oomnionly seised with some illness, such as flux, or feyer, in their different appearances-; but when properly treated, especially if the pitients are abstentious, they recover, and afterward prove healthy. Hepatic {00i|>laints are not uncommon among those who have resided long in tite country ; and, some years ago, the cholera, in particular, was very f-erslent, not oaly among the troops serving against the Mahrattas and iadarris, but also in many of the towns. It has been less fatal, however, to the Europeans, tban to the sepoys and other natives. In the southern part of Hindoostan, the mountains, running from north to south, render it winter on one side, while it is summer on the other. About the end of June a south-west wind begins to blow from the sea, on the coast of Malabar, which, with continual rain, lasts four months, during which time all is serene upon the coast of Coromandel. Near the end of October, the rainy season and the change of the monsoons begin on the latter coast ; and, as it is destitute of secure harbours, ships are thei^ obliged to leave it- The air is naturally hot in this division of India; but it is refreshed by breezes, the wind altering every twelve hours ; that is, from mi<^2)ight to noon it b)ows off the land, when it is intolerably hot, and during the other twelve hours from the sea, which proves a great refreshment to the iphabitanta pf the coast. The soil of this country is in many parts so excellent as to consist of black vegetable mould, to the depth of six feet. In Bengal the Ganges anaually overflows the country to the extent of more :han 1 00 miles in width, which inundation greatly fertilises the land; and the periodicrl raioi and intense heat produce an extraordinary luxuriance of vegetation. Tb« lands are tilled with very simple instruments, and the harvests gathered inby the ryots or peasants, who live in the utmost penury and wretchedness, and have for their sustenance scarcely any other share of the rich produce of the soil, than some coarse rice and a few pepper^pods. Vkoktable faoduct}ons.] Large forests are found in various parts of this extensive country, and on the coast of Malabar they consist of trees of a prodigious size. The teak-tree affords a strong and durably timber, which is well calculated for ship-building, as teak shins that have been in service for thirty years are not uncommon in the Indian seas, while an ^uropean-built ship is ruined there in five years. The cocoa-tree If remarkable for its extensive utility : of the body or trunk the natives umJui boats, and frames for their houses and rafters ; they thatch their houses with the leaves, and, by slitting them lengthwise, mal^e mats and bullets. The out affords food, drink, and a valuable oil. From the bniiches, when cut, exudes a liquor called toddy, from which fermented ii (tistilled an excellent arrack. The Indian fig, likewise called the btayan and the wonder-tree, is sometimes of an amazing size, as it is contiQually iqcreasing : every branch proceeding from the trunk thrown eutloqg fibres which take root in the earth, and shoot out new branches, wltich again throwout fibres that take root, and continue in this state of pror grfssion as long they find soil to nourish them. Of fruit-bearing trees the number is very gr^at, and the fruit delicious, especially pomegranates, orangesi lemons, citrons, dates, almonds, mangoes, pines, melons ; and, io ths northern parts, pears and apples. Hindoostan produces almost every kind of grain, especially rice. Among Otiwr vtgvtftbUii we cucumben, radishes, carrots, and yan». The sugarr 648 HINDOOSTAN. cane nowhere grows with greater vigor, or ia more productive of iti juice or more capable of being manufactured into fine sugar, than in Bennl' Tobacco, which was introduced into this country about the year 1617 'a now produced here in great quantities. Animals.] Of the wild animals of Hindoostan, the tiger, forhU nze and strength, may claim the first place ; for lions, if there be any, are extremely rare. The royal tiger (as he is called) of Bengal, grows, it U said, to the height of five or six feet, with a proportional length, and has such strength, that he can carry off a bullock or a buffalo with ease. Elephants are here very numerous and large. Here are also leopards panthers, lynxes, hyenas, wolves, jackals, and foxes, with various species of apes and monkeys, and many beautiful antelopes, particularly that large kind called the nil>ghau. Wild buffaloes are frequent here, which are very fierce, and have hornsof extraordinary length. With respect to domestic animals, the cattle are generally of a large size, well-formed and strong, and the sheep are covered with hair instead of wool, except in the northern parts, Among the birds are peacocks, and various species of parrots. Poultry in a wild state are found in great numbers in most of the jungles or thickets. The natives are extravagantly fond of cock-fighting, and pay greater attention to the training and feeding of these birds, than we ever did, even when that diversion was at its height. The serpents of Hindoostan are very numerous, and some species are venomous in an extraordinary degree. At Bombay, and near Madras, a small snake is found, which the Portuguese call cobra de morte; it is only from six to nine inches long, but from its bite death almost instanta* neously ensues. Natural curiosities.] Among these may be enumerated the northern mountains, sometimes called the glaciers of India, and which make the most majestic and awful appearance, even at the distance of 100 miles ; the ice rises often into lofty spires on a very grand scale, and the light sides appear stained in the most elegant manner with a roseate color. At the Gangontra, or Fall of the Ganges, sometimes called the Cow's Mouth, that river, after having flowed through a subterraneous passage, again emerges. Two miles to the west of Gocauk, the Gutpurba river, where it is 169 yards broad, falls perpendicularly down 174 feet; a fall exceeding that of the famous cataract of Niagara in North America. Population.] The Mohammedans, or, as they are improperly called. Moors of Hindoostan, were computed by Mr. Orme, when he wrote the history of this country, to be about ten millions ; and the Hindoos, about a hundred millions. This calculation seems to transcend the truth in a high degree ; and we may more reasonably suppose, that the whole po- pulation does not exceed seventy millions. Inhabitants, manners, customs.] The Hindoos, or (as they are likewise called) Gentoos, have from time immemorial been divided into four great tribes. To the first and most noble tribe belong the Brah* mins, who alone can officiate in the priesthood, like the Levites among the Jews. They are not, however, excluded from government, trade, or agriculture, though they are strictly prohibited from all menial offices, by their laws. The second in order is the Sittri tribe, who, ac- cording to their original institution, ought to be all military men ; but they frequently follow other professions. The third is the tribe of Beise, who are chiefly merchants, bankers, and shopkeepers. The fourth tribe is that of Sudra, who ought to be menial servants ; and they are inca- pable of raising themselves to a superior rank. If any of them should be excommunicated from one of the four tribes, he and his postmty are for evef *"* ^t of the " tribes, and eircumstance ^ suffer thf f^gi one arti( thodoxy. Beside th easts and sm four of these particular cit dian of an i the customs not vindicate victuals prep not partake ( rior cast. " the rest of th the memberi one another, others for th The mem forefathers, followed en . lence which docs; and, checlc the s] such an exp advantages ments, hav< workmansh nufactures < nations, the of the peof toch an ab onlysupplii around the To this ( a striking] tutions, an BOW is in 1 the feroci( querors, n ttderable « same am maxims ol cultivated AU the them den of them tt have beer lessscrup yet, like eoDsistso: hot spic^ HINDOOSTAN. 649 tat wet abut out from the society of every person in the nation, except tbtt of the Harricast, who are holden in detestation by all the other tribes, 9nd are employed only in the meanest and vilest offices. This eircumatance renders excommunication so dreadful, that any Hindoo will suffer the torture (and some even death itself), rather than deviate ftop one article of that faith which i^. supposed to be the criterion of or- thodoxy. Beside this grand classification, the Gentoos are subdivided into easts and small tribes ; and it has been computed that there are eighty- four of these casts. The order of pre-eminence of all tlie casts, in a particular city or province, is in general indisputably decided. Thu In- dian of an inferior cast would think himself highly honored by adopting the customs of a superior : but the latter would give battle sooner than sot vindicate its prerogatives. The man of an inferior cast receives the victnais prepared by a superior cast with respect ; but the superior will not partake of a meal which has been prepared by the hands of an infe- rior cast. Their marriages are circumscribed by the same barriers as the rest of their intercourse ; and hence, beside the national physiognomy, the members of each cast preserve an air of still greater resemblance to one another. There are some casts remarkable for their beauty, and others for their ugliness. The members of each cast adhere invariably to the professions of their forefothers. From one generation to another, the same families have followed one uniform line of life. To this may be ascribed that excel- lence which is so conspicuous in many of the manufactures of the Hin- doos; and, though veneration for the practices of their ancestors may check the spirit of invention, yet, by adhering to these, they acquire such an expertness and delicacy of hand, that Europeans, with all the advantages of superior science, and the aid of more complete instru- ments, have never been able to equal the equisite execution of their workmanship. While this high improvement of their more curious ma- nuftctures excited the admiration, and attracted the commerce of other nations, the separation of professions in India, and the early distribution of the people into classes attached to particular kinds of labor, secured nch an abundance of the more common and useful commodities, as not only supplied their own wants, but ministered to those of the countries around them. To this early division of the. people into casts, we may likewise ascribe a striking peculiarity in the state of India; the permanence of its insti- tudons, and the immutability in the manners of its inhabitants. What BOW is in India, always was there, and is still likely to continue : neither the ferocious violence and iUiberal fanaticism of its Mohammedan con- querors, nor the power of its European masters, have effected any con- siderable alterations. The same distinctions of condition take place, the sane arrangements in civil and domestic society remain, the same nutxims of religion are venerated, and the same arts and sciences are cultivated. All the casts aeknowlege the Brahmins for their priests, and from them derive their belief of the transmigration of souls ; which leads many of them to afflict themselves even at the death of a fly, although it might have been occasioned by inadvertence. But the majority of casts are less scrupulous, ana eat, although very sparingly, both of fish and flesh ; yet, like the Jews, not of all kinds indifferently. Their diet chiefly consists of rice and vegetables, dressed with ginger, turmeric, and other hot spicei, which grow almost spontaneously in their gardens. They 600 HINDOOSTAN. desm milk the'purest of food, beoauM tbey think it partakes of aome of the propertiea of the nectar of their gods, and because they esteem the cow itself almost like a divinity. Their manners are gentle ; their happiness seems to consist in the k-^ laoes o£ a domestic liie; and they are taught by their religioo, tbit matrimony is an indispensable duty in every man, who does not eotirelr separate himself from the world from a principle of devotion. Their reli« gion also permits them to have several wives ; but they seldom have more than one ; and it has been affirmed that their wives are distinguished by a decency of demeanor, a regard for their families, and a fidelity to their vows, which might do honor to human nature in the most civilised countries : but other accounts attribute gross and frequent immorality to both sexes. The soldiers, commonly called rajah-pouts, or descendants of rajahg abound in the northern and middle provinces, and are generally more fair-complexioned than the inhabitants of the southern parts. They are a robust, brave, faithful people, and enter into the service of those who will pay them ; but, when their leader falls in battle, they think tbat their engagements to him are finished, and they run u£f the field without any stain upon their reputation. Some of the members of this fraternity have raised themselves to the rank of princes, more particularly in Cen^ tral India. The majority still retain their military reputation ; but, since they have been so widely spread over the country, many of their tribes have seceded from the profession of arms, and pursue a variety of civil occupations, without the tricking and knavish spirit for wbioh so many of the Hindoos are notorious. The complexions of the Oentooa are black, their hair is long, their persons aro straight and elegant, their limbs finely proportioned, their fingers long and taper, their countenances open and pleasant, and their featuree exhibit the most delicate lines of beauty in the females, and in the males a kind of manly softness. Their walk, manner, and whole depertment, are graceful in the highest degree. 1 ne male dress ii a kind of cIose*bodied gown, and wide trowsers, resembling petticoats, reaching down to the slippers. Such of the women as appear in publio have shawls over their heads and shoulders, short close jackets, and tight drawers, which come down to their ancles. Hence, the dres" of the men gives them, in the eyes of Europeans, an appearance of effeminacy, while that of the women seems rather masculine. The houses of persons of distinction cover much ground, and have •pacious galleries; but the apartments are small, and the furniture, not very elegant, if we except the rich Persian carpets. The grandeur of a palace consists in its bath and its lenana. The latter, which is the resi-< dance of the women, is removed from the front of the house, and receives the light only from a square space in the centre of the whole building. The apparel of the women is exceedingly rich ; they have jewels on their fingers and about the neck, and also in the ears and QostrUs, with braces lets, and even ornaments for their ancles. Females of the lower classes are frequently enslaved in India. Not only children but adults of this sex are openly sold by those who claim authority over them. Even the Brahmins encourage this practice, and take slaves into their houses. The dancing girls are all in that degraded state, and are condemned to a life of toil and vice for the profit of others. 'With regard to the amusements of the Hindoos, we may observe, that they are chiefly gratified with religions shows and festivals. Speaking of the nativw of the ««QtntI tenitoriw, Sir John Makolm says,, " Though HINDOOSTAN. 6fil itii principikUy at their festivali that they ei\joy themaelvea, they partftke ^y of the games and amusementa common to other parts of India. In tlM town*, gambling with dice is a prevalent vice, but it is little known ia thevillages. Those personsof the military profession, who have horses, pass a great part of their time in training and exercising them, and in learning the use of the spear ; and both these and the poorer warriors study the use of the sword under competent teachers, and practise with matchlocks till they come to great perfection : they also improve their activity and itrength by gymnastic exercises. Dancing girls are the luxury of large towns, while the villages have attached to them (living in huts or tents) men and women of the lower tribes, who are tumblers, rope-dancers, jqgglers, or minstrels. The villages are also frequently visited by drolls and strolling players : many of the latter are very clever. The subjects of the plays, or rather farces, which they represent, are as often their mythological fables, as the measures of their earthly rulers. The pea- sants appear to be a remarkably cheerful race. They are particularly fond of tinging: the men, after the labor of the day is over, will sit for hours in circles singing in chorus, or listening to some stor}', the subject of which is generally religious, mixed with tales of their former princes, and the deeds of their forefathers. The women all sing ; and it is usual to see them returning in groupcs from a well or river with water for the use of their families, chanting in chorus some favorite song. At the vil- lage-marriages the women join in dances, and in every other scene of innocent merriment, with a libeity that is not exceeded by the usages of the same class in any part of the world." The Mohammedans of India are the mingled descendants of Arabs, Fenians, Turks, and Tartars. They are at present in a state of humi<« liation, in consequence of the wonderful progress of the British power, and have therefore suffered their former arrogance to subside. They hare, however, few good qualities, and are faithless, unprincipled, and immoral. Persons ot rank, among them, delight in hunting with the bow ai well as the gun, and often train leopards to the sports of the field. All classes encourage tumblers, mountebanks, and jugglers: they are fond of rude music, both of wind and stringed instruments, and play at cards in their private parties. They live on friendly terms with the Hin* doos, forgetful of religious distinctions. 7he Persees, whose name indicates their origin, are a most industrioui people, particularly in weaving, and in architecture. They worship the lUD and the element of fire, as emblems of the divinity. Provinces, cities, chief towns, edifices.] Bengal, of all the Indian provinces, is the most interesting to an English reader. In this part of Hindoostan, not indeed our trade, but our Indian empire, may be said to liave commenced. It is about 400 miles in length, and 300 in breadth ; and Bahar, which adjoins it, is less extensive only by a third part. In both provinces, the soil is said to be more prolific than that of Egypt after being overflowed by the Nile; and the produce con* lilts of rice, sugar-canes, corn, tobacco, cotton, hemp, flax, small mul* berry and other trees. The calico, muslin, and silk, here manufactured, are well known and admired: salt»>petre, opium, wax, indigo, various drugs, and many other articles, are exported in large quantities ; and pro* visions of all kinds are in great plenty. The country is intersected by canals cut from the Ganges for the benefit cf commerce, and abounds with towns, forts, and villages. An ancient kingdom existed in Bengal ; but of its origin and progrea- in biitoiy we hay« no certaio iotelligencc. Et^tly in the tbirteenthi 652 HINDOOSTAN. century, it wac so far subdued, that the people were reduced to tributary submission, under the Afghan sovereign of Dehli. This disgrace wag endured till the year 1 340, when Fakro 'ddin, an officer of the government, seised the chief power, and founded an independent kin^om. This state of a£Fair8 continued for two centuries ; after which the country became an appendage of the Mogul empire. On the decline of the imperial power, the subjection of this province was little more than nominal; and, in 1765, the rising fame and powerful influence of the encroaching English, who had previously obtained the privilege of collectine the revenue, secured the effective sovereignty. Bengal contains five military stations, beside Fort- William ; and it is divided into three circuits, in each of which is a court of judicature. In civil causes, regard is paid to the Hindoo and Mohammedan laws; but, in criminal cases, the natives are amenable to the laws of Great-Britain. They enjoy a full religious :oleration, and are not oppressed by their European rulers. The metropolis of Bengal, and also of British India, is Calcutta. This city is about one hundred miles from the sea, situated on the western branch of the Ganges, which is navigable up to the town, but not for the largest ships. It extends from the western point of Fort-William along the banks of the river, almost to the village of Cossipour, that is, above four miles, while the breadth is in many parts inconsiderable. It exhibits a striking mixture of European and Asiatic manners. The differences of countenance and figure, of dress and equipage ; — the passing ceremonies of the Hindoos of various casts ; — the amicable collision of Ar- inenians, Jews, Arabs, Persians, Chinese, and people of the Indian islands, with the English and the Anglicised citizens ; — and a variety of other cir- cumstances, — excite in a high degree the attention of strangers. — " As you approach Chandpal-Ghaut (says an officer) and see a lurge, rvgulur, and handsome fortress, a palace-like government-house, a wide and grand es- planade, many magnificent houses on one side of it, and a range of stately edifices beyond it, an anchorage crowded with shipping, and a close>built city, containing not less than 80,000 houses, — whatever your expectations may have been, they are surpassed." — The population is said to amount U\ .f:00,000, of whom comparatively few are Europeans. The houses occupied by the Hindoos are meanly and incommodiously built, many being com- posed of bamboos covered with matting, and not a few of mud surmounted by thatch. In 1750, an unhappy event took place at Calcutta, which is too remarkable to he omitted. The Indian nabob or viceroy, Seraj-ed-DowIah, having a dispute with the company, invested Calcutta with a considerable force. The governor and some of the principal persons of the place threw themselves, with their chief effects, on board of the ships in the river ; they who remained, for some hours bravely defended the place : but, when they had expended their ammunition, they surrendered upon terms. The tyrant, instead of observing the capitulation, forced Mr. Holwell, the gOTernor's chief ^rvant, and 145 British subjects, into a prison, called the Black Hole, a place about eighteen feet square, and shut up from almost all communication of free air. Their miseries during the night were inexpressible, and in the morning no more than twenty-three were found alive, the rest dying of suffocation, which was generally attended with a horrible phrensy. Among those who were saved was Mr. Holwell himself, who has written a most affecting account of the catastrophe. - Mourshed-abad was the capital of Bengal before the establishment of the English power \n India. A few domes and minarets, and a number HINDOOSTAN. of houses built of brick, with terraces, small verandahs, flat roofs, and painted doors and windows, give to this city, in spite of the mean huts crowded behind them, a very pleasing appearance. It is ostensibly under the government of a nabob, who is subject to British influence. Hougli, which lies fifty miles to the north uf Calcutta, upon the Ganges, iia great commercial town. The Dutch had here a well-fortified factory. — Dacca is said to be the largest city in Bengal. The weaving business, the great trade of India, is carried on in this town to a perfection 'inknowa ifl other parts; and the muslin, here manufactured, is exquisite!; fine, Patna is the chief emporium of the province of Bahar, anu la con- lequently populous and flourishing. Benares stands on the northern bank of the Ganges, about four hundred and fifty miles from Calcutta. It is more celebrated as the ancient seat of Brahminical learning, for which it is a kind of university, than on any other account. It contains many Hindoo temples, and in the middle of the city is a large mosque, built by Aurengzebe, who destroyed a magni- ficent pagoda to erect it on its site. It is four miles in length, and two ia breadth, and has an extraordinary population, amounting, as some affirm, to 530,000. It has been subject to Great-Britain from the year 1775. AUah-abad, in the province of tho same name, is situated at the conflux of the Ganges and the Jumna, where the waters of the former river, which are in all parts of India deemed holy, are thought to be peculiarly sanctified ; whence the city has received the name of Allah' abad, — that is, the Citif of God. It belongs to the nabob of Oude, and contains a spacious fort and several magnificent structures. At a short distance, to the north-west, are the diamond mines of Penna, in the province of Bundelcund. Lucknow, which is the present capital of Oude, having superseded Fyz-abad, is a large town, but meanly built. The houses are on a level with the worst houses in Calcutta ; but the palaces of the nabob (now styled king) are very large and stately, if not elegant or tasteful structures. Fyz-abad is of great extent, and appears to contain a great number of penple, but they are chiefly of the lowest class ; for the court, being re- moved to Lucknow, drew after it the great men, and the most eminent of the merchants, bankers, and shroff's, or money-changers. Near vhis town are the remains of the ancient city of Oude, which is said to have been the first imperial city of Hindoostan, and ,the capital of a great empire twelve hundred years before the Christian sera ; but, whatever was its former magnificence, few traces of it now remain. It is considered as a holy place, and the Hindoos resort thither on pilgrimage from all parts of the country. Agra, situated on the south side of the Jumna, was made the capital of the Mogul empire by the emperor Acbar. It was then a small fortified town, but soon became one of the largest and most celebrated cities of Hindoostan, being twelve miles in circumference, regularly fortified in the Indian manner, with a fine citadel, and displaying many magnificent palaces; but, after the removal of the court to Dehli, it rapidly declined, though, in 1813, it still contained 60,000 inhabitants. It is now gar- risoned by British troops, being taken from the Mahrattas in 1803. To the south-east of Agra is a beautiful mausoleum, erected by the shah Jehan for his beloved wife, and called Taje-Mahel, or the Crown of Edifices. When this building is viewed from the opposite side of the river, it exhibits, from the excellence of the materials and the workmanship, a degree of beauty, which is only surpassed by its grandeur, extent, and general magnificence. M4 HIND008TAN. Dehli ii the nominal capital of Hindoostan, and was the real one from 1647, wlien the shah Jehan made it his residence to avoid the heat of Agra, till the dissolution of the empire. It is about seven mileain cir- cumference, and has, on three sides, a wall of brick and stone, with seven gates built of free-stone. Though this city may be said to be now in ruins, it contains a number of mosques, some of which are very magni- ficent, and the remains of many noble and splendid palaces, with baths of marble. The gardens of Shaliumr, laid out by order of the shah, though not more than a mile in circumference, are said to have cost a million sterling in rich and profuse decorations, and to have been nine years in completing. When the British troops took possession of this city, the environs appeared little more than a shapeless heap of ruins, and the surrounding country seemed equally desolate and forlorn ; but it now wears a better aspect. Of the province of Sind, which is tributary to the king of Cnboul, the capital is Tatta, a large city, which was formerly distinguished for its ma- nufactures in silk and cotton. A plague, which happened in 1699, carried off above sixty thousand of the inhabitants employed in them, and ihey have since greatly declined : but it is still famous for its manufacture o ' palanquins, a kind of canopied couches, on which the great men all over India, Europeans as well as natives, repose when they appear abroad. They are carried by four men, who will trot along, morning and evening, forty miles in a day ; ten being usually hired, who carry the palanquin by turns, four at a time. Considerable portions of the provinces of Ajmir, Candeish, and Malwa, are possessed by the Mahratta chief, l^ndiah, whose usual residence was for many years at Ougein, an ancient and spacious city, surrounded by a strong wall, with round towers. He has lately made Gnalior the seat of government, probably because it is one of the strongest places in India. Holkar has aJso extensive territories in the two last-mentioned provinces. Another potent Mahratta prince is the rajah of Berar, whose tenitories are situated to the eastward of Candeish and Dowlat-abad. Guzerat is a maritime province on the Gulf of Cambaya, and one of the finest in India . It is inhabited by a fierce, rapacious community, which Is now controlled by British influence. Its capital is Ahmed-abad, which is said to vie in wealth with the richest towns in Europe. At the distance of about one hundred and ten miles to the south, stands Surat, on the Tapti, which is one of the most flourishing commercial towns in Hindoo- stan, and contains 300,000 inhabitants, though the harbour is small and incommodious. Among the islands situated on the same coast, is that of Bombay, belonging to the India company. Its harbour can conveniently contain one thousand ships at anchor. The island itself is about seven miles in length, and eighteen in circumference ; but its situation and harbour are its chief recommendations, as it is destitute of almost all the conveniences of life. The town is about a mile long, and poorly built ; and the climate was fatal to English constitutions, till experience, caution, an^^ ^ j. perance, taught them to guard against its insalubrity. The fort is .' r ,; r being a mixed breed of the natives and Portug; egi;, and the other the aborigines of tho country, llie English have found methods to render this spot, under all its disadvantages, a safe, if not va agrecAble HINDOOSTAN. 6fi6 ntiijencC' The troops on the island are commanded by GnglUh rfficera ; and the natives, wlien formed int«) regular companies, and disciplined, are bsra, and all over the East Indies, called Se|)oy8. Thecity of Goa, the capital of the Portiigiiose settlements in Indiu, lies about two hundred and sixty miles south of Bombay. The island on which it staods is about twenty«seven miles in compass, and the harbour is one of the best in India. This was formerly a most superb settlement, and vts surpassed, either in bulk or beauty, by few of the European cities. It iisaid that the revenues of the Jesuits on this island equaled those of the orown of Portugal. The territory of Canara begins about forty miles to the sout^i of Qoa, and reaches to Calicut ; its soil is abundantly productiveof rice, with which oommodity it supplies many parts of Europe and India. The Canarines, it is said, were always governed by a queen, whose son had the title of rajah; but the country was conquered by Hyder AH, and, since the death ofTippoo, has been in possession of the English. The principal ports oif this province are M angabur and Onour. To the east of Canara, on the other side of the Ghauts, is the country of Mytour, the capital of which, Seringapatam, is now possessed by the Eogli«h. This celebrated city, the conquest of which shed such lustre on tite British arms, is situated on an island of the river Caveri, four mile* loBg, and about a mile and a half broad. On the western side is a fortress with regular outworks ; and the city contains several magnificent palaces and stately mosques. The mausoleum of Hyder, erected by his son, is a sumptuous edifice ; in the environs are noble gardens. Iliough Malabar gives name to the whole south-west coast of the peain- nila, the appellation is sometimes restricted to the country lying on the Borth-west of Cape Comorin. The principal places on this coast are Tellicheri, an English settlement, in a beautiful situation, remarkable for its salubrity, whence it is the great resort of invalids ; Calicut, memorable ii>r having been the first Indian port visited by the Portuguese under Vasco de Gama, and as the seat of the Samorins, the sovereigns of the country, who at that period appear to have po "esscd the whole Malabar coast from Goa to Cochin : and Cranganour, formerly a Dutch settlement. Cape Comorin, the southernmost point of Hindoostan, though not above three leagues in extent, is famous for uniting in the same garden the two seasons of the year ; the trees being loaded with blpssoms and fruit on one lide, while on the other they are stripped of all their leaves. This sur> prising phaenomenon is produced by the ridge of mountains, traversing the whole country from south to north. The Caraatic is well known to the English. It extends from north to south about three hundred and fifty miles, and one hundred and fifty in breadth from east to west. It has been subject to the British government siace the year 1801, when only a small part was allowed to the nabob, an (dd ally of the company. The country is in general healthful, fertile, and S»pulou8. Within this territory lies Fort St. David, or Cudalour: the rt is strong, and of great importance to our trade. Five leagues to the north lies Pondicheri, a handsome city, formerly the great emporium of the French, now comparatively insignificant; repeatedly taken by the English, and as often restored by the treaties of peace. Fort St. George, better known by the name of Madras, is the capital of tiie presidency of that name. Great complaints have been made of the situation of this fort; but no pains have been spared by the company in lendering it impregnable to any force that can be brought against it by tbe AAtireo. It protects two towos, called, frooi the coniplexjlws of their d56 HINDOOSTAN. respective inhabitants, the White and the Black. The White town ig more regularly and handsomely built than the other, and is more worthy of the dignity of Great Britain, The want of a harbour at this plaoe ig a serious deficiency, which is not sufficiently supplied by the goodness of an open road. To the north of the Carnatic is the ancient city of Golconda, now principally belonging to the nizam. The whole of the Decan, extending from the Nerbudda to the Kistna, was governed by the progenitors of this prince ; but such defalcations were made from it at different times by the Mahrattas, that the present nizam has only the south-eastern division, of which the capital is Hyder-abad, a large and populous, but not fine city. In the south-western part of the Decan, is Poonah, the capital of the Mahratta state ; a city which is neither remarkable for strength nor for beauty. It was taken by sir Arthur Wellesley in 1803 ; and, in a recent war, it has also been left to the mercy of the company. The province of Visiapour, or Bejapour, before its conquest by the great Mogul, was a large kingdom, the rajah of which, it is said, had a revenue of six millions sterling, and could bring into the field one hun- dred and fifty thousand soldiers ; it was gradually subdued, in the sequel, by the Mahrattas. The capital is of the same name, and the country very fruitful. The province of Dowlat-abad adjoins to Visiapour on the north , the capital is Aureng-abad, one of the most populous cities in Hindoostan, built by Aurengzebe near the old capital, which has a veiy strong citadel, seated on a lofty mountain. The territory of Orissa lies to the north of Golconda, extending from 6ast to west about two hundred and thirty miles, and from north to south about one hundred and forty. The capital and the port of Balasour were ceded to the English by the treaty which concluded the short hut successful war of 1803; an acquisition the more valuable, as it secured a communication between the British territory on the Ganges, and that on the coast of Coromandel. In this province stands the temple of Jagarnaut, which is said to he attended by five hundred priests. The idol id an irregular pyramidal black stone of about four or five hundred pounds weight, with two rich diamonds near the top, to represent the eyes, and the nose and mouth painted with vermilion. Near this temple is kept a very large wooden car, curiously carved, in which the idol is placed ; and the maciiine is drawn along, at certain seasons, by a number of devotees, while others spontaneously fall prostrate in the way, and entitle themselves, as they confidently hope, to future happiness, by being crushed to death beneath the wheels. To the southward of Orissa, the five Circars form a tract of sixty or seventy miles in breadth, and 300 in length. Four of these governments were ceded to the company by the Mogul, Shah Aalum, in 1765 ; but the other was not added to the number of our acquisitions before the year 1789. Beside the usual agricultural products of India, this country affords very fine timber for ship-building; and it is inhabited by an in- genious and industrious race, whose cotton manufactures arc particularly valuable ; but, unfortunately, the whole coast has not a harbour fit for the reception of large vessels. The territory of Napal, bordering upon British India, may here be mentioned, though it has been considered as a part of Tibet. It chiefly consists of a vast plain, between the Tibetiau mountains and those which tenninate the provioce of Oude. It is said to be 200 miles in HINDOOSTAN. 657 circumference : it bears the title of a kingdom ; and it abounds with populous towns and villages. The capital is Catmandu, in which are about 18^000 houses, containing perhaps 70,000 inhabitants : but Lelit, situated to the south-west, is a more considerable town in point of magnitude, having about 24,000 houses. Not far from this town ii a magnificent temple, which excites the admiration of strangers. Another large town is called Batgan, in which are some stately reli- gions structures. Two sects divide the people ; one involves a schism from the religion of Tibet, the other leans to the Hindoo system. The people are of a darker hue than their Indian neighbours; and the goitre is not an uncommon blemish among them. They are a brave and spirited race, as the English who fought against them are ready to illow. Manufactures, commerce.] The manufactures of Hindoostan consist principally of muslin and Silk. The inhabitants, in all handi- craft trades that they understand, are more industrious and skilful than most of the Europeans; and in weaving, sewing, embroidering, and some other manufactures, it is said that they do as much work with their feet as their hands. Their painting, though they are igno- rant of the art of drawing, is amazingly vivid in its colors. The fineness of their linen, and their filagree work in gold and silver, are beyond any thin;^ of those kinds to be found in other partt^ of the world. The com- merce of India, in short, is courted by all trading nations in the world, and probably has been so from the earliest ages ; it was not unknown even in Solomon's time ; and the Greeks and Romans thence drew their principal materials of luxury. The greatest share of it is centred in England, the trade of the French with this country being at present . nearly annihilated ; nor is that of the Portuguese, Danes, and Dutch, of much importance. — Among the exports from Hindoostan are dia- monds, raw and wrought silk, rice, sugar, spice, and drugs. The Mohammedan merchants carry on a trade with Mecca, from the western parts of this country, up the Red Sea. This trade is prosecuted in vessels called jun^s, the largest of which, we are told, beside the cargo, will carry above 1000 Moslem pilgrims to visit the tomb of their prophet At Mecca they meet with Abyssinian, Egyptian, and other traders, to whom they dispose of their cargoes for gold and silver ; so that a junk, returning from this voyage, is often worth 150,000 pounds. Government, laws.] The government of the Mogul emperor was despotic, and tsuch is that of the different native sovereigns who rule the country at present. The empire was hereditar)', and the sovereign was heir to his owa officers. All lands devolved in the hereditary line, and continued in that state even down to the subtenants, while the lord could pay his taxes, and the latter their rent, both which were regularly fixed in the public books of each district. The imperial demesne lands were those of the great rajahs, which fell to Timour and his successors. Certain portions of them were called jaghirs, and were bestowed by the crown on the great lords, and, upon their death, reverted to the emperor ; but the rights of the subtenants, even of those lands, were indefeasible. 3uch are the outlines of the government by which this great empire long subsisted, almost without the semblance of virtue among its greats officers either civil or military. It was shaken, however, by Kouli Khan's invasion, which was attended by so great a diminution of the im- perial authority, that the soubahdars and nabobs became absolute in their own governments. Though they could not alter the fundamental laws 2U 658 HINDOOSTAN. of property, they invented new taxes, which beggared the people, to pay their armies, and support their power ; so that many, after being unmer- cifully plundered by collectors and tax-masters, were left to perkh through want. To sum up the misery of the inhabitants, the Moslem governors employed the Gentoos themselves, and some even of the Brah- mins, as the ministers of their rapacity and cruelty. Hindoostan thus became a scene of mere anarchy or stratocracy ; eve*, great man pro- tected, himself in his tyranny by his soldiers, whose pay far exceeded the natural riches of his government. To these circumstances the Englkh were principally indebted for their success in India; and whatever may be said of the occasional misconduct of the company and its civil and military servants, it is certain that, wherever their power extends, the natives are less oppressed, and enjoy, with less restriction and greater comfort, the fruits of their industry. With regard to the Hindoo govern- ments, Sir John Malcolm observes, that, " the head of a principality is an hereditary and absolute prince :" but, when he affirms, that this " head is the chief of his clan, which extends his power in some respects, but checks it in others," he in a great measure contradicts his former assertion. The fact is, that these princes endeavour to govern abso- lutely, bnt cannot do it so effectually as they wish. They have no re- presentative government to control them, but are checked by the inter- ference and remonstrances of the chieftains and other persons of distinc- tion : yet this check does not effectually conduce to the purposes of good government ; for the people are scarcely more regarded and relieved than they are under the tyrannical Moslems. Religion.] The theological system of India is so ancient that no time can with any degree of probability be assigned for its origin. Brahma is the supposed prophet and legislator of the Hindoos. It is pretended that he was an angel ; that he was permitted to assume the human form, commissioned to act as the sovereign of India, and ordered to im- part the divine will to a pagan nation. He represented the Deity as a self-existent being, all-seeing, omnipotent, wise beyond human concep- tion; benevolent, mingling mercy with justice, and determined to save all who are not incorrigibly sinful and wicked ; and even the worst sin- ners, he declared, would not suffer eternal but only temporary punish- ment. The tr;>.nsmigration of one body into that of another animal, in the way of trial and probation, was a part of his creed ; and that absti- nence from the consumption of flesh, which was afterwards recom- mended by Pythagoras, was enjoined as a proof of moral purity and hu- manity. This religion, in the progress of time, degenerated into a system of gross idolatry, ceremonial absurdity, and shocking cruelty. Other representatives of the Deity, other incarnate angels, or (as some say) human beings deified, are supposed to have follo\ved Brahma at different periods. Vishnu was one of these, and anotlier was Boudh, whose doc- trines have been dift'used over a great part of Southern Asia. These personages, and other objects of reverence, are represented, by uncouth figures, to which worship is paid with little meaning and with no true pietj. The spiritual institutions of the Hindoos are, in some respects, the most remarkable instances of the degradation of the human mind. Religion, or r.ather superstition, forms the most prominent feature in the aspect of Hindoo society; and, therefore, the Brahmins or priests are tho most distinguished persons in the community, and exercise an arlntrary and imposing influence. They are regarded by the ordi- nary natives as scarcely inferior to the gods. Sometimes they are even objecta of ftdoiatioa, aad this circuwftaace will not excite oiu HINDOOSTAN. 659 ptiOiu^meQty wh^n we consider that the cow, the Qionkey, and vaMy other (U)im(^s, receive from the deluded people a species ot' worship, and that the piincipal rivers of the country are deemed sacredo There ia perhaps no part of Hindoostan, says sir John Malcolm, where *' the tribes of brahmins are so various and their numbers so great, as to Ceotral India; and, at the same time, there is no province or district fhere eo few of them are either wealthy or learned, or where less attention a paid to th? religious rites of the Hindoo faith, or to its priests, by the restof the r .pulation." He also states, that a great number of Brahmins anived in Central India after it had been wrested by the Mahrattas from the Moslems, and those who were more worldly-minded than the rest were employed in civil and military offices. Their amount, he says, *' may be computed at about two thousand families; and, if we suppose two ipales to have arrived at mature age in every family, and add four thousand mes of this tribe who have no settled homes, but are iu the service of Mahratta princes and chiefs, we shall not have less than eight thousand edacated men, a very small portion of whom are devoted to religious duties, at the utmost not more than one thousand, while the remaining seven thousand constitute that active body of men of business, who carry qoail the duties of the Mahratta government, and are the most industrious and intelligent, both of the higher and lower classes of merchants and clerks. We may assume, that there is not one of tliis class who has not been instnipted to read and write ; that they are, from the habits of their order, exempt from ebriety and idleness ; and that, though very subtile and often unprincipled, they are almost all of decent demeanor, and have remarkable industry and perseveiance. The consequence is, they are (generally speaking) the real masters, though only nominal servants, of the rolers by whom they are employed, and the wealth they obtain adds to their influence, both as individuals and as a community." The ceremonies prescribed by this religion are more numerous and complicated than those of any other system with which we are acquainted. A detail of these ritual observances would be tedious and uninteresting. Tbey deform the purity of religion, and rather obstruct than promote the ioiueoce of true piety, with which they have no real connexion ; but they nay be termed innocent, when compared with the cruel practices which form a part of the same system. A long continuance in the most irksome and harassing postures may be deemed sufficiently absurd : but the devotees are not content without the infliction of positive torture. They wound themselves with knives in various parts of their bodies, swing upon hooks thrust through the muscles of their backs, recline upon spikes of iron, walk on fire, and fall from a height upon sharp instruments ; and some suffer themselves to be crushed by the moving car of idolatry. Murder it also a part of their horrible system. Children are drowned in the Cianges, as offerings to that divine stream: sometimes a child is hung upon a tree in a basket, and totally deserted : others are buried alive ; and the aged and infirm are frequently left to perish on the banks of a sacred riTer, or thrown into the stream. The custom of consigning widows to the flames may also be deemed, in one sense, an act of murder on the part of the Brahmins, when (as is generally the case) they influence the wretched female to this unnatural practice. It has been said, that this custom ia declining ; but there have been numerous instances of it in the face of the British government, which ought to interfere in the moat authoritative manner for its suppression. The temples or pagodas of the Geiitoos are stupendous stone buildings, met«d in every oapital. Ia pro^^rtion to the progress of the diffieraBt 2 U 2 HINDOOSTAN. countries of India in opulence and refinement, the structure of their temples gradually improved. From plain buildings they became highly ornamented fabrics, and, both by their extent and magnificence, are mo- numents of the power and taste of the people by whom they were erected. In this highly-finished style there are pagodasof great antiquity in different parts of Hindoostan, particularly in the southern provinces, which have been less exposed to the destructire violence of Mohammedan zeal. In ordier to assist our readers in forming a proper idea of these buildings, we sLall briefly describe two, of which we have the most accurate accounts. The entry to the pagoda of Chillambrum, near Porto Novo, on the Coro- mandel coasts holden in high veneratior on account of its antiquity, is by a stately gate, under a pyramid, a hundred and twenty-two feet in height, built with large stones above forty feet long, and more than five feet square, and covered with plates of copper, adorned with an immense variety of figures neatly executed. The whole structure extends one thousand tliree hundred and thirty-two feet in one direction, and nine hundred and thirty-six in another ; and some of the ornamental parts are finished with great elegance. The pagoda of Seringham, superior in sanctity to that of Chillannbnim, surpasses it as much in grandeur. It is composed of seven square en- closures, one within the other, the walls of which are twenty-five feet high, and four thick. These enclosures are three hundred and fifty feet distant from one another, and each has four large gates with a square tower, "which are placed, one in the middle of each side, and opposite to the four cardinal points. The outward wall is nearly four miles in circumference, and its gateway to the south is ornamented with pillars, several of which are single stones thirty-three feet long, and nearly five in diameter, while those which form the roof are still larger : in the interior are the chapels. If the Brahmins are masters of any uncommon art or science, they frequently turn it to the purposes of profit from their ignorant votaries. They know how to calculate eclipses ; and judicial astrology is so pre- valent among them, that half of the year is taken up with unlucky days, the chief astrologer being always consulted in their councils. The Mo- hammedans likewise encourage those superstitions, and look upon all the fruits of the Gentoo industry as belonging to themselves. Though the Gentoos are entirely passive under all oppressions, and, by their state of existence, the practice of their religion, and the scantiness of their food, have nothing of that refinement in their nature which animates the rest of mankind, yet they are susceptible of avarice, and sometimes bury their money, and, rather than discover it, put themselves to death by poison or otherwise. The reasons above-mentioned account likewise for their being less under the influence of their passions than the inhabitants of other countries. Rice, their chief food, gives them little nourishment ; and their marryini; early, the males before fourteen, and the women at ten or eleven years of age, keeps them low and feeble in their persons. A man is in the decline of life at thirty, and the beauty of the women is on the decay at eighteen ; at twenty-five they have all the marks of old age. We ought not, therefore, to wonder at their being soon strangers to all personal exertion and vigor of mind. It ia with them a frequent saying, that it is better to sit than to walk, to lie down than to sit, to sleep than to wake, and death is the best of all. Learning.] The Brahmins descend from the Brachmans who are mentioned to us with so much reverence by antiquity; and, although much HINDOOSTAN. 661 inierior, either as philosophers or men of learning, to the reputation of their ancestors, the doctrines which they maintain as priests, are still im- plicitly followed by the whole nation; and, as preceptors, they are the tource of all the knowlege which exists in Hindoostan ; but that knowlege is very scanty and imperfect. Of mathematics they know little : they have a good ideaof logic, but it does not appear that they have any treatises on rhetoric ; their ideas of music, if we may judge from their practice, are barbarous; and, in medicine, they derive no assistance from the bowlege of anatomy, since dissections are repugnant to their religion. The poetry of the Asiatics is too turgid, and full of conceits, and the diction of their historians very diffuse and verbose ; but, though the manner of Eastern composition differs from the correct taste of Europe, there are many things in the writings of Asiatic authors, that deserve the attention of literary men. Mr. Dow observes, that in the Sanscrit, or learned language of the Brahmins, which is the grand repository of the religion, philosophy, and history of the Hindoos, there are many hundred volumes in prose, which treat of the ancient Indians and their history. He adds that the Sanscrit records contain accounts of the affairs of Western Asia, very different from what any of the Arabian writers have traounitted to posterity ; and thinks it more than probable, that, upon ex- amination, the former will appear to bear the marks of more authenticity, and of greater antiquity than the latter. Colleges, schools.] The great seat of Brahminical learning is Benares ; beside which there is an academy of the same kind at Triciur, on the Malabar coast, that is in great repute. There is also a celebrated Bmhmin school at Cangiburam, in the Camatic, which appears, from the testimony of Ptolemy, to have existed in the first century of the Christiaa teta, and the members of which are equal in celebrity to the Brahmins of Benares. While these pagan establishments are tolerated by the British government, antidotes to their influence have been provided by the leal of Christian piety. A college was founded at Calcutta, in the year 1800, with a view of keeping up a regular supply of r>iiii8ters for the conversion of the Hindoos, and many schools for the instruction of the natives have been organised by the missionaries who are dispersed over the country. LANGUAGE.] The Sanscrit is an original and extremely artificial language; it is written with fifty-two characters, and abounds in compound words. The languages in common use, within the wide extent of this great country, are various ; the Persian was generally spoken at the court of Dehli ; the Devanagaric, or Hindoostanic, is spoken at Benares, and its mode of writing has been introduced into all the northern part of India. The Bengalese is a very corrupt dialect, used at Calcutta. The Gttzeratic is spoken in the provinces of Guzerat and Sind. The Marashda is prevalent through all the country of the Mahrattas. The Talenga, an harmonious and nervous language, is spoken on the coast of Orissa, on the river Kistna, and as far as the mountains of Balangat. The Tamulac is used in the Decan, Mysour, Madoura, and some parts of the Malabar coast, though there the Malabaric principally prevails. The Canarese, or language of Canara, extends to Goa. To these may be added the Na- palese tongue, which has a great similarity to the Devanagaric. Antiquities.] Near Bombay are several other islands, one of wliich, called Elephanta, contains the most inexplicable antiquity perhaps in the world. A figure of an elephant, of the natural size, cut coarsely in stone,, presents itself on the landing-place, near the bottom of a mountain. An eaiy slope then leads to a temple formed in a rock, eighty or ninety feet 663 HINDOOSTAN. lODf , and forty broad. The ronf, which is cat flat, is supiported by ttigtAar rowi of pillars, about ten feet high, with cajiltals, resembling round cusliions, as if pressed by the weight of the incumbent mountain ; and at the end are three gigantic figures, which the Portugtiese endeavoured in vain, with the aid of battering-cannon, to demolish or dislodge ; but a part of otae) some years ago, suddenly fell. Beside the temple dre variont images, and groupes on each hand, cut in the stone-^otle of the latter bearing a rude resemblance to the Judgettieut of Solomon : there is also i colonnade, with a d6or of regular architecture. All these antiquid^ are TBry different from the usual works of the Hindoos. The wonders of Elora are still more worthy of notice, and one of the number is thus described r-^— " Conceive my surprise (says captain Seely) at suddenly coming upon a 8tup«>ndouft temple within a large open tourt, hewn out of the solid rock, with aa its pairts perfect and beautiful, staudlng proudly alone upon its native bed, and detached from the neighbouring mountaih by a spacious area all round, nearly 250 feet deep and 160 feet broad. This unrivaled fane rears its rocky head to a height of nearly 100 feet, and its length is about 145 feet, and its breadth 62. It has welUformed door-\Vay8, windows, staircases Irt its upper floorj containing fine large rooms of a RMooth and polished surface, regularly divided by rows of pillars. Thb whole bulk of this immense block of insulated ex- cavation is above 500 feet in circumfeiience> and, extraordinary as it may appear, it has beyond its arteas three haiidsome galleries or verandas, supported by regular pillftrs, with compartments hewn oilt of the boundary Sbarp, containiiig 42 curious gigantic figures of the Hindoo tnythology— the galleries in continuity enclosing the areas, and occupying the almost incredible space of nearly 420 feet of excavated Wck, And being, on the average, about 13 feet broad all round, and in height 14 feet and a half, while d^ove these, again, are some large excavated rooms." Another temple is equalljf magnificent, and a neighbouring mansion, from its immensity of excavation, massy pillars, and rich sculpture, also claims the admiration of the spectator. History.] The first warrior Whose invasion of India is authentically recorded, was the fatuous Alexander of Macedon. Genghiz, the khan of the Mongols, also directed his force thither, and, in 1221, drove the Emperor from his capital ; but, long before that fiertee barbarian invaded the country, sohie Saracen leaders had found their way into it, and esta- blished their spurious religion and their despotic sway. Mahmoud, full of ambition and fanaticism, ih\'aded the north-western parts of the country about the beginning of the eleventh century. He treated the Indians with all the rigor of a conqueror, and all the fiiry of a zealot, plundering treasures, demolishing temples, and itourdering the people throughout his route. The wealth found by hihi in Hindoostan was immense. He founded the dynasty of the Gaznavides, who maintained themselves in power until the year 1155, When Kosrou, the thirteenth and last prince of that race, was deposed by Hosein Gauri. The dynasty of the Gaurides furnished five princes, who possessed nearly the same dominions as their predecessors the Gaznavides. SheabeddiU', the fourth of the Gauride emperors, conquered the kingdoms of Moultan and Dehli, and drew tnence prodigious treasui\'s. But an Indian who had been rendered desperate by the pollutions and insults to wh'.ch he saw his gods and temples exposed, made a vow to assassinate Sheabeddin, and executed it. The hice of Gaurides finished in 1212, in the person of Mahmoud, who was also cut off by the swords of assassins. Ser^ral other revolutions occulta before tfie time of Timour, who HINDOOSTAN. eirttt«d India in 1398, descending more terrible than all its former in* nndations, from the centre of the northern part of the Indian Caucasus. Thh invincible barbarian met with no resistance sufficient to justify, even by the military maxiR>« of Tartars, the cruelties with which he marked hik way; and, after an immense slaughter of his fellow-creatures, he at teofth rendered himself lord of a gigantic empire. He did not, however, complete the conquest of India, — a task which was reserved for hia gnndsoa, Zehireddin Mohammed Baber, who, having defeated and slaiu Ibrahim Lodi, emperor of Hindoostan, in the battle of Paiiiput, assumed the government under the title of the Great Mogul. This prince died in 1530; and his successors, Hamaioun and the legislator Acbar, extended the bounds of the empire. At length, in 1659, the famous Aureng- lebe procured the sovereignty by the deposition of his father Shah- Jeban, and the murder of his eldest brother. Though he commenced his career so iniquitously, he proved an able and politic prince, and greatly improved the resources and exalted the dignity of the empire. He died in 1707, in the 89th year of his age. Four of h(i grandsons disputed the empire, which, after a sanguinary con- test, fell to the eldest, Mauzeddin, who took the name of Jehander Shah. This prince was a slave to his pleasures, and was governed by his mistress so absolutely, that his great officers conspired against him, and raised to the throne one of his nephews. The new emperor, whose name was Ferntkbeir, was influenced and at last enslaved by two bro- thers, chiefly known by the name of the Seyds, who abused their power so grossly, that, being afraid to punish them publicly, he ordered them both to be privately assassinated. They discovered his intention, and dedironed the emperor, whose diadem they bestowed upon a grandson of Aarengzebe, a youth of seventeen years of age, after imprisoning and strangling Ferrukhsir. The young Mogul soon proved disagreeable to the Seyds; and, hanng deposed him, they raised to the throne his elder brother, who took the title of Shah Jehan. The rajahs of Hin- doostan, whose ancestors had entered into stipulations, or what may be called pacta conventa, when they admitted the Mogul family, took the fidd against the two brothers ; but the latter were victorious, and Shah Jehan was put in tranquil possession of the empire. He died in 1719, and 'was succeeded by Mohammed Shah (a great-grandson of Aureng- »be), in whose feeble reign the empire was neariy ruined by that formi- dable invasion which we have noticed in the history of Persia. As to the various spoils seised by the invaders, some accounts make them atnonnt to two hundred and thirty-one millions sterling, as mentioned by the London Gazette of that time. But this estimate is far beyond the truth; and we may more reasonably believe, with Mr. Fraser the orifcntalist, that Nadir's share did not exceed eighty-seven millions and a half, while his military followers carried off about twelve and a half. That invasion may be considered as putting a period to the greatness of the Mogul empire in the house of Timour. Nadir, however, when he was satiated with blood and pillage, reinstated the Mogul in the BOTfeneignty, and returned into his own country. A general defection of the provinces ensued, none being disposed to yield obedience to a prince deprived of the power of enforcing it. The empire began to tot- ter t() its foundation, every petty chief, by counterfeiting grants from Dehli, laying claim to jaglurs and to districts. The comitry was torn to pieces by civil wars, and groaned under every species of domestic mifeery. Anidat these convulsions, the English acquired^ an extraordinary 1 664 HINDOOSTAN. degree of power in India. They had been allowed, in 1696, tofortif* that part of Calcutta which contained their mercantile establighment. Thny afterwards obtained complete possession of the town, which they enlarged and improved; and, in 1757, by taking advantage of tb« internal dissensions of the natives, they raised a dependent priace to the chief authority in Bengal. By continued encroachments, they were gratified with effective power in the provinces of Bengal, Dahar, and Orissa, as tributaries to the nominal emperor, or the king of Dehli. While they were employed, after this great success, in the arts of peace, they found themselves engaged, in 1767, in a dangerous war with Hyder Ali, the sovereign of Mysour. This man had originally been a military adventurer, who learned the rudiments of the art of war in the camp of the French, and had distinguished himself in their service. Having been advanced to the command of the army of Mysour, he had deposed his sovereign, and usurped the supreme authority, under the title of regent In a short time he extended his territories on all sides, except the Carnatic, until at last his dominions nearly equaled the island of Great-Britain in extent, with an annual revenue of not less than four millions sterling. The discord which took place in various parts of Hin- doostan, particularly among the Mahrattas, enabled him to aggrandise himself in such a manner, that his pow^er soon became formidable to his neighbours; and in 1767, be found himself in danger of being attacked on one side by the Mahrattas, and on the other by the troops of the company. The former were pacified with a sum of money, and the lat- ter were in consequence obliged to retire, but, soon afterward, several obstinate engagements took place ; and the British, for the first time, found a steady opposition from an Indian prince. When the war had continued with various success for three campaigns, Hyder, with a strong detachment of his army, advanced within a short distance of Madras, where he intimidated the government into a peace upon his own terms. The advantages gained by this peace, however, were quickly lost by an unfortunate war with the Mahrattas, from whom, in 1771, he received a dreadful defeat. He was now reduced to the necessity of allowing his enemies to desolate the country, till they retired of their own accord ; after which he retrieved his affairs with incredible perseverance and diUgence, so that in a few years he became more formidable than ever. In 1772, the Mahrattas made some attempts to gain possession of the district of Corah, and other parts of the province of Oude, but were op- posed by a British force, which, in the next year, defeated and drove them across the Gauges, when they had invaded the country of the Rohillas. On this occasion the latter had acted only as the allies of the nabob Shujah, to whom the Rohilla chiefs had promised to pay forty lacks of rupees for the protection afforded them ; but, when the money was demanded, it was, under various pretences, refused; the consequence of which was, that the Rohilla country was, in 1774, invaded and con> quered by the British, beside other large tracts. During the administration of Warren Hastings, a new war arose in India, rather in consequence of his ambitious spirit, than from that necessity which alone could justify it. The Mahrattas were attacked with vigor; and, though the English were at first unsuccessful, they were at length gratified with important advantages. During this war, Hyder Ali, probably expecting assistance from tho French, made a dreadful irruption into the Carnatic, at the head of 100,000 men, in the year 1780. For some time he carried every thing before him : and, wbea he bad nearly destroyed a detacbment of the British army, it was HINDOOSTAN. 665 imlgioed that the power of the India company would soon be annihi- Uted. By the happy exertions of sir Eyre Coote, however, the progress of this formidable adversary was stopped, and he became weary of a war, which was attended with incredible expense to himself, without iny reasonable prospect of success. He therefore intimated a wish for a pacific treaty ; but he died before it could be brought to a conclusion. Hewas succeeded by his son Tippoo, whose hostility to the British go- reroment was deeply rooted. The peace which this prince concluded at Maiigalour, in 1 784, did not permanently secure hia fidelity ; and the splen- did ambassy which, not long after that event, he despatched to France, afforded reason to apprehend that some plan was concerted between tho old government of that country and the t3;rant of Mysour, for the annoy-> ance of Great-Britain in its Indian possessions ; but this plan was de- feated by the French revolution. The increasing power of Tippoo was not less formidable to the Dutch, than to the English ; and t'ue vicinity of their settlement of Cochin to his territories, made them tremble for its safety. Beside that town, the Dutch possessed in the same part of India two forts, which Tippoo par- ticularly wished to obtain. To avoid the seisure of these settlements, they sold them to the rajah of Travancour, the ally of the British govern- ment. This contract was declared by the sultan to be invalid without his con8eut,a8 the two settlements were within his boundaries; and he resolved to chastise the rajah by hostilities. He even deprived that prince of his chief town, and thus drew upon himself the resentment of the powerful company, which, having formed alliances with the nizam and the Mah- rattas, declared war against him. The^ first campaign was uuimix)rtant : but, in 1791^ some forts of remarkable strength were reduced, and dispo- sitions were made for entering the small island which contained his capi- tal When a lodgement had been effected on the isle, all possible prepa- rations were made for a vigorous assault ; but he avoided the danger by seaaonable submission. He ceded one half of his dominions to the allied powers, and engaged to pay three millions and 300,000 pounds sterling. The ambition of the sultan was for a time repressed by the victories which had forced him to sign this treaty : he retained, however, the same enmity to the British government, with a strong desire of revenge ; and therefore, when a war had arisen between England and France, in con-, sequence of the French revolution, he listened to the suggestions of French emissaries, that, by entering into an alliance with that republic, he might receive from it such aid and support as should not only enable him to regain the territory he had lost, but even to drive the English out of Asia, and share their dominions with the French. In February 1 798, a proclamation was issued ^y the governor of the Isle of France, importing that envoys had arrived in that island with letters from Tippoo, addressed to the executivedirectory of France, propos- ing to conclude an offensive and defensive alliance, to subsidise whatever troops the French might furnish to the sultan, and to commence against , the British power in India a war of aggression, fur which that prince declared himself to be fully prepared. The circumstances attending this proclamation, on inquiry, establi'ihed the fact, that Tippoo had formed such an alliance as was mf ntioned in it ; and, as it was strongly suspected that the French expedition to Egypt had for its ultimate object the execu- tion of a plan for the invasion of the British settlements in India, in con- junction with Tippoo, the earl of Mornington (now the marquis Wellesley), having in vain remonstrated with the sultan by letter, made preparations for hostility. The new wiii' was quickly closed. After the battles of Sidasir rtmbdosTAN. and Mal&relli, in which the British troops were victorious, the eity of ^eringapatam was invested by general Harris, and a practicable breach Wus made in the walls. Moving from the trenches with alacrity, th« •elect battalions crossed the rocky bed of the Caveri, and mounted to the assault, in despite of every obstacle which the difficulty of the passace and the resistance of the enemy could oppose. Their impetuous attack was cothpletely successful. Every jiost was forced : the sultan was found under one of the gates, pierced with many wounds ; and ample spoils re- warded the courage of the assailants. Thus ended the power and life of a formidable enomy of the BritiBh government. His death gave a security to our possessions in that country, which they never could have had during his life. His territories vore shared by the company, the nizam, and the peishwah, e.\c«pt ce districts, which were assigned to a descendant of the ancient rnjahs, on condition of his being a subsidiary to the British governmont. Tippoo, when he fiell, was about fifty years of age. Ho was tall in stature, his face was round, with large full eyes, and his countenance full of fire and animation. In his disposition he was cruel, passionate, and revengeful. His abilities were over-rated ; for he was neither so wise a statesman, nor so able a general, as he was supposed to be. • Though he possessed a considerable share of prudence, and was not, in general, defi- cient either in promptitude or judgement, he at last fell a victim to ill-con- certed schemes, dictated by his ambition and thirst of revenge. His death restored, for a time, tranquillity to India; but, in 1803, hostilities recommenced between the British aud native powers. Tlie peishwah, who was considered as under the protection of the company, had been repeatedly attacked, and his power reduced to a shadow, by the Mahratta chiefs Sindiah and Holkar, who, though they professed to him a nominal obedience, were desirous of securing to themselves both hin person and authority. Sindiah appears first to have succeeded in this attempt, and was attacked by Holkar, who endeavoured to reduce both him and the peishwah to subjection. The harassed prince applied to the company for protection, which was readily granted. Sindiah and the rajah of Berar now assembled their forces near the nizam's frontiers, and refused to disband them on the requisition of the governor-general. ITiia refusal led to vigorous hostilities. The British troops were put in motion, and they met with their usual success. General Wellesley crossed the Nerbudda, and on the 23d of September, 1803, gained the splendid victory of Assl, while Lake defeated the Mahrattas and their French auxiliaries at Coel, took the fottress of Ali-Gour, and gained the battles of Dehli, Agra, and Laswari. The province of Cuttack, and the districts of Baroach and Cambay, in Guzerat, were wrested from Sindiah, who was compelled to conclude a peace, by which these possessions were confirmed to the EngJ*sh. In the mean time, Holkar remained in a kind of sullen inactivity, but tiis troops kept the field, and menaced and occasionally attacked the neighbouring powers which were under British protection. After Sindiah had given up the contest, general Lake marched against Holkar, who wai joined by the rajah of Bhurtpour. The defensibility of this town sub- jected the besiegers to a severe loss ; but a continuance of the siege inti- midated the rajah into a promise of subservience ; and his ally, being defeated at Deeg, and deprived of various fortresses, submitted, in 180^1, to the demands of the company. After this extension of the British power in India, peace preATiiled for many years, with the exception of some hostilities against refractory cMfcftiinS. The ; with the people ttf British territories, b^d resiitatice, t rtmained in peac The Mahratta PtwDtih by the B rtllgious forbearai degree of courage courage they see ♦hich they knew iwAfently concili Hostilities arose r dttultory inCUrsio fiats of the com incttased the furj miost the Engl defeat. During ■ ftollitag ; and the kind, was atten artillery had pi Mdered the exte an assault, the i had admitted a himself into th miffiion, the fift' Arabs, who pere be inclined to pr means of entrac vera thus sacri idieii they had movements. A instantly subjec on one of the b mitted the outri The chieftaii plicit agreemer former, repentii men, and was him a mere vi (styled the nal vernment, whi more resolute, bidpour crush( the abrupt bar Europeans am fiinithed hatt was approachi defeat reachet into dispersioi the predatory k 1818, und< While lord ifenemy. The Fra, & bold u HINDDOStAff. Mt gUfeftliSnil. The horizon was at length darkened, in 1815, by a rupture widithe people of Napal, who, it was affirmed, had encroached on the Britiih territories, and behnred with arrogance and injustice. After a bi^d reiiataiice, they resigned a part of their frontier, and have since rtmained in peace. The Mahrattas had long been disgnsted nt the influence exercised at PttOD&h by the British resident. With simplicity of manners, and a rtllljioas forbearance of appetite, they unite an enterprising spirit, and a degree of courage which surpasses that of the other Hindoo tribes. This courage they seemed willing to exert, even in defiance of that power *hich they knew by experience to be very great. Endeavours that were ippnrtntly conciliatory, served only to inflame both parties into animosity. Hostilities arose in the Dccan, near the close of the year 1817 ; and the dtsoltory inCOrsions of the Pindarris, or provincial marauders, into those parts of the countrj' which were under British authority or protection, iflct«a«ed the fury of the storm. The rajah of Berar joined the peishwah against the English ; bnt he was chastised for his presumption by a serious defiiat. During this war, some cliieflains took the opportunity of re* ° Tbltibg ; and the attacK of Talneir, which arose from an incident of that kind, was attended with some remarkable circumstances. When the artillery had played with considerable eflect, the British commander diimi the exterior gate to bo stormed. Dreading the consequences of an assault, the possessor of the fort offered to capitulate; and, when he had admitted a party of the besiegers to the third gate, he surrendered himself into their hands. Notwithstanding this appearance of sub- mittion, the fifth gate was closed by the garrison, consisting chiefly of Arabs, who peremptorily demanded an assent to such terms as they might be inclined to propose. Several officers and a few attendants, finding the means of entrance, were furiously attacked ; and, as some valuable lives vere thus sacrificed, severe vengeance was taken by their associates, then they had forced a passage by the determined boldness of their movements. About 300 men, forming the remains of the garrison, were instantly subjected to military execution, and the chieftain was hanged on one of the bastione, though it was not certain that his men had com- mitted the outrage with his connivance. The chieftains Sindiah and Holkar had bound themselves by an ex- plicit agreement to co-operate with the peishwah in this war ; but the former, repenting of his rasliness, was an ineffective ally to his country- men, and was easily persuaded to form such engagements as rendered him a mere vassal of the encroaching company. A Patau chief also (styled the nabob Amir Khan) was induced to submit to the British go- vernment, which he found himself unable to withstand. Holkar, being more resolute, boldly contended with the enemy ; but the battle of Ma- hidpour crushed his hopes. The strength of the Mahratta position on the abrupt bank of the Sipra served only to stimulate the courage of the Em'opeans and their native associates, who stormed a range of well- iiintished batteries, and obtained a complete victory. A Pindarri chief was approaching with fiOOO men to join Holkar, when the news of the defeat reached him : he was eagerly pursued ; his men were harassed into dispersion ; he threw himself on the mercy of his adversaries ; and the predatory confederacy was dissolved. This success was obtained, in 1818, under the vigorous administration of the marquis of Hasting^. While lord Amherst acted as governor-general, a war arose with a neW enemy. The Birmese, when they were subject to the sway of Alom- Fra, la bold usurper, had augmented their military fame and political 63d INDIA BEYOND THE GANGES. power ; and, under his son Sliembuan, they had repelled with gignal BHCcesB, in 1767, a formidable invasion from China. They continued to flourish in several succeeding reigns, until at length mutual jealouty, ra- ther than any strong provocation on either side, led to sanguiuary hoiti- lities. An asserted claim to tlio isle of Shapuree, and an unjustifiable interference in the afiiairs of Cachar, were alleged by the company at grounds of war. Fierce conflicts occurred in that territory and the Cliiu tagong province, before the grand armauicnt from Hindoustnn rciiched the port of Rangoon, in May 1824. That town was not defended by the Birmese ; but they furiously ravaged their own country in the hope of obstructing the progress of the invaders, and formed in various parts such stockades or fences of trees, earth, and other substances closely com- pacted, OS wer& declared by their astrologers to be impregnable, mure par- ticularly when the invulnerable s joined in the operations. I'lic warriora so called, were distinguished by the short cut of their hair, the pecu- liar manner in which they were tatooed with the figures of wild beasts and the custom of wearing pieces of gold and silver (and sometimes precious stones) in their arms, supposed by our officers to have been introduced under the skin at an early age. When some of these posts had been forced with difiiculty, others gave equal trouble to the adverse party, and a pagoda was so well dci'ended that the assailants were repelled with considerable loss ; but, when it was on the point of being attacked by an additional force, it was abandoned. The province of Martaban was now redused by tho advancing troops ; and, when the grand Birmese army appeared, sir Archibald Campbell, with his gallant battalions, withstood a series of attacks for six days, and drove his op[>onents from all parts of the field. Their war- boats and fire-rafts were, about the same time, brought into action in the Irrawaddi ; but the British vessels, aided by a steam-boat, soon baffled this attack. Farther hostilities so favored the invading host, that the discouraged foe consented to purchase peace by various cessions. A treaty was signed ; and, when it had been violated by the Birmese prince, it was sanctioned by a renewal. He resigned to the company the province of Aracan, and the districts of Mergui, Tavoy, and Zea, and agreed to the nomination of the future princes of Asam and Cachar by the British government. INDIA BEYOND THE GANGES. ft SITUATION AND EXTENT. Miles. Length 1650) Breadth 800 j between Degrees. Sq. Miles. 5 2 and 27 north latitude. ) _^f, fvA(x I 92 and 109 east longitude, j '""'""" ' BouK D AKiES.] THIS country is bounded by Tibet and China on the north ; by China and the Chinese Sea on the east ; by the same sea and the strait of Malacca on the south ; and by the Bay of Bengal and Hiudoostan on the west. It consists of the following states and pro- INDIA BEYOND THE GANGES. 669 lincM,— Asam, Aracan, Pegu, Ava, Martaban, Siam, Malacca, Laos, Cambodia, Cochin-China, and Tonquiii. The country of Asam is situatod to the east of Bengal. The Bur- nmpouter divides it into two parts, of which the northern is called Uttar- cul, and the southern Dacshincul. I'he products are cocoa, pepper, ginger, sugar, and various kinds of fruit, as oranges, mangoes, and pine- apples. Gold is found in every part of the country by washing the sands 01 the rivers, and is one of the sources of the public revenue. Asam was governed, some years ago, by a r(\iah wlio resides at Oher- gong, the capital. This city is encompassed with a bound hedge of bam- boM, and has four gates constructed of sto.-.o and clay. Before every house is a garden, and the whole resembles a fortified enclosure of vil- lages. A river flows through the town, and on its banks stands the rajah'a C&lace, decorated with lattice-work and carving, and containing lofty alls, about one of which are arranged polished stones and plates of brass or iron, which, when the solar rays strike upon them, shine like mirrors. That prince assumed the title of the heavenly being, pretending that one of his ancestors came down from the heaven of the Hindoos by a golden staircase, and settled in Asam, because he regarded it as an earthly paradise. In consequence of this notion of his superior nature, he offered no homage to the common idols, which, indeed, are not much respected by any one. The people are not very enlightened, but they are a stout and brave race. They had repeatedly resisted invasicms with success ; but, in the year 1817, the Birmese made themselves masters of the country; and, in the year 1825, another change of government arose from the success of the British arms. The fort of Ilungpour, which commands the capi- tal, was taken, and the Birmese were obliged to relinquish all authority over the territory of Asam, which, on the adjustment of a treaty of peace, was ordered to be given up to a prince whom the European conquerors should select for the government of the country, Aracan was governed by a rajah whose predecessors had flourished in a state of independence, when it was invaded (near the close of the last century) by the Birmese, and reduced to subjection. It remained under their yoke until the year P25, when it was subdued by the British arms. It consists of four provinces, extending along the bay of Bengal. The climate is insalubrious; but the soil in general is fertile, and the crops of grain are abundant. A considerable trade is carried on between the natives and the people of Bengal ; the former exporting lead, tin, some of the precious metals, various kinds of fruit, rice, bees'-wax, ivory, and small horses. The capital stands on a rocky plain, surrounded by hills. As it is liable to inundations, the houses are raised upon strong piles. They are chiefly thatched huts, constructed of bamboos and timber; and their amount is said to exceed 18,000; but a considerable number at- test, by being unroofed or damaged, the injurious effects of war. Within the city is an old stone fort, which was the seat of government, and there is a hill surmounted by four pagodas. The surrounding heights likewise abound with temples, in which is a profusion of painting and gilding. Some of the porticoes of these buildings ar<^ handsome, and there are rocky excavations, ornamented with images of Boudh, and curious sculp- tures on the walls. Thi inhabitants are more civilised than the Asam- ese, and also more industrious. The women are tolerably fair; but the longest ears are reckoned the most beautiful, and in these they wear many rings. Pegu formerly flourished as an independent kingdom ; and its capital €70 INDIA BEYOND THE GANGES. was a large and splendid city 5 but, about the beginning of the seven- teenth century, the country was conquered by the king of Ava or Bir- mah, and the kingdoms were united till about the year 1740, when the Peguans rebelled, and in a few years subdued, in their turn, the king. dom of Ava. In 1757, however, the Birmeae, under Alom-Pra, who became their sovereign, shook off the yoke, and again subdued Pegu. The brutal conqueror destroyed the chief town, and dispersed the inhabi- tants; but, about the year 1790, Minderaji, one of his successors, gave orders for re-building the city. The streets of the new town are wide and regular, and well paved with brick ; the houses are formed of mats and boards, supported on posts. The most striking object is the pagoda of Shoe-Madoo (the golden God), the body of which stands on one ter- race raised above another. It is a brick building, octagonal at the base, and spirt^l at the top : each side of the base extends to 162 feet, a breadth which diminishes abruptly. A wide projection, lower than the inferior terrace, encompasses the base, and exhibits iifty-seven small spires; and on a higher ledgo are fifty-three ; and tlie whole building is crowned with a sort of umbrella, of open iron-work. On an angle of the upper terrace two handsome saloons have been erected, and at other angles are miniature temples, resembling the great one. On both terraces are flags, raised on bamboo poles, and on the top of each flag-staff is a goose, the symb-^ ' both of the Birmese and the Peguans. AvA, or (as it is called by the natives) Miama, is divided from Ara- can by a mountainous ridge, and extends southward to Pegu. Its sove- reign, the Birman emperor, had so extc ^?d his territories by military success, that, when he was embroiled with the India company, he had, in all probability, nine millions of subjects, and almost 4.50,000 capable of bearing arms. These uil , in war, are bold, alert, and enterprising; but, in peace, they are inactive and indolent. — At home (says major Snodgrass, who tbught against' ' ui) " they are decidedly lazy, and averse to work, the wife being allowed, or rather compelled, to toil for the sup- port of the family, while the husband passes his time in idleness, smok- ing, or chewing betel, the favorite pastime of natives of all ranKs. His wants, however, are few and simple ; rice and a little pickled fish consti- tute the chief articles of tood, while water is his only drink : naturally good-humored and contented, he seems happy and resigned, bearing all the oppressions, to which he may be subjected, with apathy and indiffer- ence ; and in his own house he is kind and affecUonate to his children. Yet it must be allowed, that the Birmese are little guided or restrained in their conduct and actions by any moral principle : selling their daugh- ters, even to strangers, is a common practice among them ; nor does the transaction reflect either disgrace or shame on the parties concerned. Got'ernmcnt, upon political grounds, strictly prohibits any woman from leaving the country ; and the unhappy females, who are sacrificed to this disgraceful custom, generally return to their families, in no way slighted or degraded, but more frequently, as objects of envy, from the little stock of wealth they bring back with them. — It has often been objected to the Birmese, that they are given to pilfering, lying, and dissimulation, as w«ll as insolent and overbearing to strangers; but the remark may be, in a great measure, confined to the numerous government functionaries and their followers, with whom every town and village in the kingdom abound : these are indeed a vile race, who exist by fraud and oppres- sion, and who, upon numerous pretences, are always ready to rob and pli'"der all who come within the influence of their authority ; the poor people, on the contrary, the best pftxt of the nation, are frank and hospi- ttble, and by no more civilised nat acute, intelligent with high notions tostrangersor ioi their character, those of educatioi government. ' The Birmese buUhey have no ,hip as their Bib Rpmanists. Thf Un'w, *vhich is f( and they are add pay great respcc to save a crimin The priesU are^ monasteries, shaven, drink w In their shapi and lank locks, tribes. The wo cately formed ; to corpulence ; tall, but active : the custom of as of a short, of a lozenge, th bones it is verji arc verj narrow the highest ; th that feature in piouth is in gei who reside in Hmdoo or tlie empire rver ac pie of both sex wrapped round and descends with locg slee the waist, whi it, and, round twice, and re; The late c; by Minderagi city." A git from Ava, t' structed than The i)alace, 1 former consi while the an structure gHt ^nt emperoi of restoring The chief INDIA BEYOND THE OANGES. 671 table, and by no means deficient in qualities ^hich would do honor to more civilised nations. They, very generally, can read and write ; are acute, intelligent, and observing ; and, although frequently impressed with high notions of their own sovereign and country, show no illiberality to strangers or foreigners who reside among them. In a word, to sum up their character, their virtues are their own, and theik faults and vices those of education, and the pernicious influence of a cruel and despotic government." The Birniese seem to have borrowed their religion from Hindoostan : but they have not go steadily or uniformly preserved their faith and wor- ihip as their Brahmin neighbours. In some respects they rosemble the fcj Rpraanists. They are fond of processions; they observe a speci.s of lent, tvhich is followed by public festivity; in praying they use rosaries; !^d they are addicted (but not the women) to monastic seclusion. Tiiey pay great respect to their priests, whose influence is sometimes allo"">d to save a criminal from execution, merely by touching him on his way. The priests are bound to celibacy, and generally reside together in the inonasteries. They wear coarse yellow garments, have their heads shaven, drink water, and receive alms. In their shape and stature, their square features, yellow complexion, and lank locks, the Birmese bear a strong resemblance to the Monghol tribes. The women are fairer than the Hindoo females, but not so deli- cately formed ; they aro, however, well made, though in general inclined to corpulence ; their hair is blaek, coarse, and long. The men are not tall, but active and athletic, and have a very youthful appearance from the custom of plucking theu' beards. Dr. Buchanan describes them as of a short, squat, robust, fleshy make, with a face in the shape of a lozenge, the forehead and chin being sliarpened, while at the cheek bones it is very broad. Their eye-brows project very little, their eyes are very narrow, and placed rather obliquely, the external angbs beijg the highest ; the nose is small, but has not the flattened appearance of that feature in the negro ; the nostrils are circular and divergent ; the fuouth is in general welhshaped ; the hair harsh, lank, and black. Those who reside in the warmest climate do not acquire the deep hue of the Hindoo or the Negro ; nor do such as live in the coldest parts of the empire rver acquire the clear bloom of an European. The common peo- ple of both sexes often wear only a single garment like a sheet, which, wrapped round the body, and tucked under each arm, crosses the breast, and descends to the ancles : but men of a higher class wear a tight coat, with hug sleeves of muslin or fine nankin, and also a silk wrapper round the waist, while the women of equal rank have a short shift, a jacket over it, and, round the waist, a long piece of silk or cloth, which encircles them twice, and reaches to the feet. The late capital of the empire was Amerapoura, which was dignified by Minderagi, who built it in 1783, with the appellation of the " immortal city," A great quantity of materials for this town had been removed from Ava, the old metropolis ; but it is not more handsomely con- structed than the old collection of wooden houses and huts of matting. The palace, however, and the fort, are fine buildings. One part of the former consists of a square building with battlements and a flat roof, while the angles are adorned with Tuscan pilasters ; and the body of the structure glitters with gilding. Not satisfied with the new town, the pre- sent emperor began, in 1824, to erect a palace at Ava, with an intention of restoring the former capital to its ancient importance. The chief Birman port is Haogooo, where the Irrawaddi ia very com- i 672 INDIA BEYOND THE GANGES. modious for shipping. The town forms a square^ environed by a hieh stockade ; and there is a fort, within which the officers of the govern- ment and the principal inhabitants reside.- On account of the vicinity of extensive teak-forests, ship-building forms a very considerable part of the occupation of the natives, who follow, in this branch of art, the French model. The commercial articles received at this port consist chiefly of coarse piece-goods, broad cloth, glass, and hard-ware, sent ^from British India ; and the returns are almost entirely in teak, though the Birmese have many other valuable products and romniodities,— namely, cotton, indigo, ivory, marble, the finest metals, and precious stones.— The country bordering upon this town is not flat and swampy, like many parts of the Birman territory, but rises in gentle slopes, not »• tificial (as some say) but natural. The soil is fertile, producing rice of a good quality In great plenty ; and the pastures abound with fine cattle. The air is pure, and its general salubrity is evinced by the appearance of the inhabitants, who are a hale robust race. Martaban is a country to the south-east of Pegu, and was formerly an independent kingdom, but now makes a part of the Birman empire, The soil is fertile in rice, fruit, and wine. The capital was once a much* frequented sea-port, and one of the most flourishing commercial towns in the East, being situated on a capacious bay, affording an excellent harbour for the largest ships ; but, after the conquest of the country by the Birmese prince, he caused a number of vessels, filled with stones, to be sunk at its entrance, so that it is now only navigable for small ves- sels. The chief trade is now in earthen-ware and fish. The kingdom of Si am was formerly rich and flourishing, and it still soars above contempt. It has withstood, yet not without territorial loss, the enterprising ambition of the Birmese, and maintains the dignity of independence. The country may be coi>sidered as an immense valley, formed by a double chain of mountains : in some places its breadth ex- ceeds 230 miles, and it is about 500 miles in length. Its capital is Ban- kok, situated so near the Meinam, that few of the most distant houses extend above 150 yards from the hanks: the majority have a still closi connexion with the stream, for they float on bamboo rafts, secured to the bank. These aquatic habitations, which are chiefly occupied by Chinese, are divided into several apartments, and those which serve as shops in the day-time are sleeping-rooms at night. They have a neat appearance, and arc more substantially constructed than the houses of the Siamese. The mansions of the nobles are covered with a diminishing series of three or four tiled roofs, sometimes terminated by a spire. The royal palace is sitrated on the left bank of the liver, upon a long but narrow island. It is surrounded by a wall which has many bastions and gates. Not only the king and his ministers, but all who arc connected with his court, reside within this space. The greater part, however, ot the spot enclosed by the wall, consists of waste ground, swamps, and fruit- gardens. The temples in general have rows of buildings within the sacred enclosure ; but the place of worship itself is merely one spa- cious hall, fantastically ornamented, having many idols on a broad plat- form or altar, and displaying on the interior wall, in tasteless portrai- ture, various subjects of Hindoo mythology. The most common artisans in the town are black-smiths, tin-smiths, and curriers. The tin articles are polished so as to look like silver ; and the preparation of leather is carried on to a great extent, not for the purpose of making shoes, which are scarcely used, but for covering mat- tresses and pillows, and for exportation to China. INDIA BEYOND THE GANGES. 673 The Siamese, in general, are rather below than above the middle stature. A face remarkably large, a very broad forehead, prominent on each side, the hairy scalp very low, large cheek-bones, a swollen lower- jaw, teeth blackened from choice, a yellow complexion, and other beau- ties, mark the genuine native. The people generally go naked from the waist upwards, sometimes throwing a piece of cloth over the shoulders. Old women usually expose the bosom : but the young and the middle-^ aged wear a short piece of cloth round the chest, of sufficient length ta form one knot in front, thus leaving the shoulders and arms bare. From the loins to the knees a place fof colored cloth extends, over which per- sons of a higher class wear Chinese crape or a shawl. Women enjoy far less freedom and consideration in Siam than they do in the Birmese empire. The wife is not allowed to eat with her husband, or even to sail in the same boat. She must attend no public amusements, butconfine herself to her domestic duties. Even the heaviest labor devolves on the females, of whom, we may add, the men are allowed to marry more than one. As the men thus domineer over the women, so the king tyrannises over the men. The Siamese are fond of amusements. They gamble with avidity ; witness dramatic representations with delight ; divert themselves with bull-races, cock-fights, wrestling, rope-dancing, and fire-works. The peninsula of Malacca is not less than 450 miles in length; but it is very narrow. Its chief produce consists of tin, ivory, canes, pepper, and gums. The people are considered by some geographers aa a branch of the Mongol or Tartaric race ; while others maintain that they are a distinct race. They are fierce and vindictive, but are not wholly destitute of good qualities. Traces of a people still ruder than the Malays are to be found in the mountainous parts of this country. It has been supposed that this is the Golden Chersonesus of the an- ciects. Its situation is certainly excellent for trade with India ; so that, when it was first discovered by the Portuguese, who were afterwards ex- pelled by the Dutch, Malacca was the richest city in the East, next to Goa and Ormus. Its wealth and importance, however, are now on the decline ; and this degeneracy of the Malays, who were formerly an in- dustrious, ingenious people, is easily accounted for, by the long-conti - nued tyranny of the Dutch, who did not wish that they should recover from their degrading state of ignorance and slavery. This town was taken from the Dutch by the English, in August 1795, before which tune the latter used to carry on a smuggling kind of trade in their country- ships, from the coast of Coromandel and the Bay of Bengal. This com- merce was connived at by the Dutch governor and council, who little regarded the orders of their superiors, provided that they could enrich themselves. In the treaty of the year 1824, it was agreed, that not only the city and fortress should be ceded to his Britannic majesty, but that the subjects of the king of the P' -stherlands should never establish a fac- tory in any part of the peninsula, or conclude treaties with any of the native princes or states. Sincapour, a town on the coast, is also a Brit- ish possession, and its commerce is not inconsiderable. The Dutch re- peatedly remonstrated against the occupation of this settlement by their rivals in trade ; but they were apparently satisfied when the English re- signed all their possessions in Sumatra to those who had no claim to such indulgence. The kingdom of Laos, or Lahos, formeily included that of Jangoma : but this is now subject to the Birmese emperor. We know few particu- lars of it that can be depended upon. It is said to be very populous, to 2X i 674 INDIA BEYOND THE GANGES. abound in all the rich commodities as well as the gross superstitions of the East, and to be divided into many small principalities, which, however are dependent on one despotic sovereign. CAMBODIA is abundantly productive of the necessaries and luxu- ries of life. It was formerly a considerable kingdom, but 'vas at length in a great measure divided amongst the neighbouring powers. The pro- vince of Chantibond, which was wrested from its sovereign by the Cochin- Chinese, from whom it was taken by Peyatac, the Chinese usurper of the throne of Siam, may serve as a specimen of the rest of the country. It is diversified by lofty mountains, extensive forests, and fertile valleys and plains. COCHIN-CHINA and TONQUIN are now under the government of one sovereign. About two centuries ago, a prince of the Ton* quinese royal family rebelled against the king, and, being defeated, fled with his adherents into Cochin-China, where a settlement was easily obtained. The fugitives and their posterity gradually seised the whole country, and a flourishing kingdom evinced, during many reigns, the political wisdom of the rulers of the nation. Intestine and sanguinary commotions at length arose from the ambition of three brothers, one of whom added Tonquin to the fwrner realm. The vigor of Kangshun, however, in 1804, restored peace and order to the state, and that prince died in 1820, with the reputation of a great general and an able states- man. His son now reigns over both realms, which appear (as far as population is a criterion of national prosperity) to flourish under his sway; but Mr. Finlayson denies this inference, and asserts that the Cochin- Chinese, in particular, exist in a state of debasing poverty, chiefly pro- duced by an " avaricious, illiberal, and despotic government." They bear a greater resemblance to the Chinese, in their appearance and man- ners, than to the subjects of the Birmese prince ; but they have neither the talent nor tlie industry of the people of the " celestial empire." The capital of Cochin-Chinais Hue, or Hoa, which, when visited by Mr, Finlayson in 1822, made a strong impression upon him and his ac^'.ociates by the magnitude of its fortifications and the abundant stock of its spa- cious arsenal ; but he adds, that the town itself is " rather paltry, and the greater part of the ground on which it stands appears to be laid out in ill-cultivated gardens, attached to miserable huts. The bazars bare an appearance of poverty ; yet the regularity of the streets gives an air of neatness to the place, and the view both of the country and town, as seen from the rampart, must be considered very fine. The public granaries consist of a vast number of well-built substantial storehouses ; the palace is surrounded by handsome rows of barracks, which are very complete in their structure, and would lose little in comparison with the best that we have in England." Cachao, or Kesho, the chief town of Tonquin, is not better built than Hue; but the inhabitants seem tu be more industrious, and to enjoy a greater degree of comfort, because they are more benefited by the metallic and other products of their country, than the Cochin-Chinese. They carry on the silken manufacture with success, and supply their neighbuurs with the fruit of their skill. Chiampa, or Siampa, was an independent state ; but it is now subject to the king of Cochin-China. Saygon, its principal town, is exceedingly pc^ulous ; and the inhabitants are distbguished by their skill in ship* buildiag. 675 THE INDIAN AND ORIENTAL ISLANDS. THE Japan islands consist of three large and many smaller islands, ffWch constitute an extensive monarchy. The largest is called, by the Japanese, Nipon; but, by the Chinese, Sipon and Jepuen, whence arose the European name of Japan. It is about 700 miles in length, and 75 in breadth. The whole country consists almost entirely of mountains, hills, and valleys, and an extensive plain is scarcely to be seen. There are several volcanoes in these islands, one of which is constantly in a state of eruption. Gold is found in several parts; but the people are prohibited from digging up more than a stated quantity ; nor can a mine of any metal whatever be opened and wrought, without the emperor's ex- press permission. The heat in summer is very great, and would be in- supportable, were not the air cooled by the sea-breezes. The cold in winteris equally intense. A great deal of rain falls for some weeks, rendering the soil, which is most industriously cultivated, exuberantly fertile. There seem to be no peculiar animals in these islands. There are buffaloes, wolves, foxes, and dogs. The horses, cattle, and sheep, are very few for a country so populous. Its population, however, is not known with cer- tainty ; but if, as some accounts have stated, it maintains nearly half a million of men in arms, the number of inhabitants may be conjectured to be between twenty and thirty millions. The complexions of the Japanese are in general yellowish, although some few, chiefly among the women, are almost white. Their narrow eyes and eye-brows are like those of the Chinese and Tartars, and their noses are short and thick. Their hair is universally black. Their dress may with more propriety be termed national, than that of any other part of the world, as it not only differs from that of every other nation, but is uniform from the monarcn down to the lowest subject, similar in both sexes, and (which almost surpasses belief) has been unchanged for the space of 2500 years. It consists of one or more loose gowns, tied about the middle with a sash. People of rank have them made of silk, but the lower class of cotton stuff. Women generally wear a greater number of them than men, and much longer, and have them more orna' icnted, often with gold or silver flowers woven into the stuff. Their houses are built with upright posts crossed and wattled with bamboo, plastered both with- out and within, and white-washed. They generally have two floors ; but the upper one is low, and seldom inhabited. The roofs are covered with pantiles, large and heavy, but neatly made. The floors are elevated two feet from the ground, and covered with planks on which mats are laid. The public buildings, such as temples and palaces, are larger, it is true, and more conspicuous, but in the same style of architecture ; and the roofs, which are decorated with several towers of a singular appear- ance, form their greatest ornaments. The towns are sometimes of a considerable size, always secured with gates, and frequently surrounded with walls and fosses, and adorned with towers, especially if the governor of a province keeps his court there. Jeddo, the capital of Nipon, and of the whole country, is said to be twenty-one-hours' walk in circumference, or about twenty-one leagues: the streets are straight and wide, and at certain distances divided by gates; aad at each gate there is a very high ladder, from the top of which 2X2 676 THE INDIAN AND ORIENTAL ISLANDS. any fire that breaks out may be discovered, — a very frequent accident in that city. The furniture of a Japanese house is as simple as the style of building. Cupboards, bureaus, sofas, beds, tables, or chairs, are rarely found Id the apartments. To the greater part of these the people are utter strangers. Their soft floor-mats serve them for chairs and tables. A small board about twelve inches square, and four in height, is set down before each person in company at every meal, which is served up one dish only at a time. Mirrors they have, but never fix them up in their houses as orna- mental furniture; they are made of a compound metal, and used only at their toilettes. Notwithstanding the severity of their winter, which obliges them to warm their houses from November to March, they have neither fireplaces nor stoves ; instead of these they use large copper pots standing upon legs. These are lined with loam, on which ashes are laid to some depth, and charcoal lighted upon them, which seems to be pre- pared in a mode that renders the fumes of it not at all dangerous. The first compliment ofi'ered to a stranger, is a dish of tea ; and a pipe of tobacco constitutes the next offer. Fans are used by both sexes equally, and are, within OP without doors, their inseparable companions. The people are naturally cleanly ; every house, whether public or private, has a bath, of which constant and daily use is made by the whole family. Obedience to parents, and respect to superiors, are the characteristics of this nation. Their salutations and conversations between equals abound also with civility and politeness ; to this children are early accus- tomed by the example of their parents. Their penal laws are very severe; but punishments are seldom inflicted. Perhaps there is no country where fewer crimes against society are committed. Commerce and manufac* tures flourish here ; though, as these people have few wants, they are not carried to the extent which we see in Europe. The islands of Japan are governed by a despotic sovereign called the Kubo ; beside whom there is a spiritual or ecclesiastical emperor called the Dairi. The veneration entertained for the latter is little short of the honors paid to the gods. He seldom goes out of his palace, his person being considered as too sacred to be exposed to the air, to the rays of the sun, or the view of the common people. He is brought into the world, lives, and dies, within the precincts of liis court, the boundaries of which he never once exceeds during his whole life. He always wears silken appa- rel, which, from the first preparation of the article to the completion of the dress, is manufactured by the unsullied hands of pure virgins. His hair, nails, and beard, are accounted so sacred that they are never suffer- ed to be cleaned or cut by day-light ; but this must be done by stealth, during the night, while he is asleep. He never eats twice off the same plate, nor uses any vessel for his meals a second time : they are imme- diately broken to pieces after they are used, to prevent their failing into unhallowed hands. He has twelve wives, only one of whom, however, is styled empress. He confers all titles of honor ; but the real power is exercised by the kubo, who secures that advantage by keeping the imperial xeveiiue in his owr» hands, and by not allowing to the dairi any share in the command of the army. The ancestors of the latter were for many centuries in the possession of undivided power ; but, about 230 years ago, a military commander seised the administration, which he left to his pos- terity ; and the Dairi became tli' nceforward little more than the chief priest of the empire. The whole power, however, is not monopolised by the Kubo ; for the empire (says captain Golownin) consists of many distinct principalities, beside the provinces which he governs by his repreien- THE INDIAN AND ORIENTAL ISLANDS. 677 tadvea. Of the ruling princes, he adds, there are more than two hundred ; and,'when the prince of Sindai appears in the capital, he some- times brings 60,000 persons in his train. The military force is very numerous; but the artillery is nearly in the same state as it was in Europe when cast cannon began to be used. The cavalry have rich dreues and good horses, and are armed with sabres, pikes, and pistols. The infantry, beside the two first weapons, have matchlocks, daggers, bows, and arrows. The religious system of Japan partakes of idolatrous superstition ; and the people ostensibly adore a multiplicity of reputed deities. On approach- ing a mountain in their travels, they are expected to pray to the God who is supposed to be enshrined in it ; but, to avoid that formality, they turn an iron plate round the top of a post, near the sacred spot, and this mechani- cal operation is deemed equivalent to a prayer. Three times in a day they pray in the temples ; and prostration before the supreme God, in his holy house, is one of their principal ceremonies, which must not, however, be performed without a preparatory ablution. It is said that their great men particularly detest Christianity : but it is less from a dislike to that religion, than from a political dread of that revolution which might result irom an encouragement of it. To the useful arts, particularly agriculture, the Japanese pay great attention. They are excellent workmen in iron and copper ; their manu- factures of silk and cotton yield to those of no eastern country; the excellence of their lackered or japanned ware is well known; and their porcelain is deemed superior to that of China. Instead of confining the benefit of their trade to the Dutch, who procured that indulgence by mean compliances, it now appears that they suffer the Russians to partake ofit ; and, with a view of promoting it, they have even established a com- mercial gazette, and created a paper currency. FORMOSA is situated to the eastward of China, and is divided by mountains which run through the middle, from south-east to north-west. This is a very fine island, and abounds in all the necessaries of life. That part which lies to the west of the mountainous chain belongs to the Chinese, who consider the possessors of the eastern portion as savages. The inha- bitants of the cultivated parts are Chinese, or at least have adopted their manners and habits. The Chinese have likewise made themselves masters of several other islands in these seas, among which, that of Hainan is about sixty leagues long, and fifty in breadth. It is distant only twelve miles from the main laud of the province of Canton. The original inhabitants are a shy and timid people, and live in the most unhealthy part of the island, while the coast and cultivated parts, which are very valuable, are possessed by the Chinese. Between Formosa and Japan, are many islands, some say thirty-six, of which Leoo-Keoo, or Loo-Choo, is the principal. Napchan, in the north- western part of the great island, is the seat of government ; and the natives enjoy the honor and benefit of a literary college, founded by the emperor Kang-hi. The people are gay and courteous : and jtheir manners partake more of the Japanese than the Chinese character : but the king- dom, which was independent before the fourteenth century, is tributary to China. The LADRONE islands, o*' which the chief is Guam, are about twelve in number. Their name signifies the island of robbers, the natives, when they were first discovered by Mi^lhaens, being, like most other savages, m THE INDIAN AND ORIENTAL ISLANDS. much addicted to pilfering. These islands were then, it is said, vory popu. lous, Guam, which is about forty leagues in circuit, having thirty thou- sand inhabitants. Tinian is well known from the romantic description given of it by the ingenious narrator of Anson's voyage : but it has since been discovered that the account is much too favorable. The PHILIPPINES form a very numerous groupe of islands, in the Chinese Sea, of which Manilla, or Lu^onia, the chief, is 400 miles lone and 150 broad. The inhabitants consist of Chinese, Ethiopians, Malays, Spaniards, Portuguese, Pintadoes, or painted people, and Mestizoj, a mixture of all these. The islands belong to the king of Spain, las they were conquered by the Spaniards in the reign of Philip II. Their situa- tion is such, between the eastern and western continents, that the inha- bitants trade with Mexico and Peru, as well as with all the islands aud ports of the East Indies. The country is fruitful in all the necessaries of life, and beautiful to the eye. Venison of all kinds, buffaloes, hop, sheep, goats, and a large species of monkey, are found her? in great plenty. The nest of the bird saligan affords that dissolving jelly which is so voluptuous a rarity at European tables. Many European fniits and ilowers thrive surprisingly in these islands. If a sprig of an orange or lemon- tree be planted here, it becomes within the year afruit- beariiig tree ; so that the verdure and luxuriance of the soil are almost incredible. The tree amct supplies the natives with water; and there is a kind of cane, which, if cut, yields a sufficiency of clear water for a draught; this abounds in the mountains, where water is most wanted. The city of Manilla contains about 20,000 inhabitants ; its port is Cavite, lying at the distance of three leagues, and defended by the castle of St. Philip. The town is well built, and exhibits many splendid churches ; and its fortifications are not contemptible : yet it was reduced in 1762 by the English, who took it by storm, and humanely suffered the archbishop, who was the Spanish viceroy at the same time, to ransom the place for about a million sterling. The bargain, however, was ungene- rously disowned by him and the court of Spain, so that a great part of the ransom never was paid. The natives of Luconia are intelligent, dexterous, and docile ; and, though the warmth oi the climate encourages indolence, many of them are very diligent and industrious. They are treated by the Spaniards with unmerited contempt, and are oppressed by the injudicious policy of the government, which, while it abridges the accommodations of the peo- ple, obtains not a tenth part of the benefit that might be derived from an enlightened management of the commercial and civil concerns of the colony. The other Philippine islands, particularly Mindanao, the largest next to Manilla, are governed by petty princes of their own, many of whom are called sultans, and are of the Mohammedan persuasion. Though these islands are enriched with all the profusion of nature, they arc sub- ject to dreadful earthquakes, thunder, rains, and lightening ; and the soil is pestered with many noxious and venomous creatures, and even herbs and flowers, whose poisons kill almost instantaneously. Some of the mountains are volcanic. The MOLUCCAS, commonly called the Spice or Clove Islands, are not out of sight of each other, and lie all within the compass of twenty-five leagues to the south of the Philippines. There are five of them, namely, Bacbiao, Machian, Motyr, Ternate, and Tidore. As these THE INDIAN AND ORIENTAL ISLANDS. 679 iilaods produce neither corn nor rice, the inhabitants live upon bread made of sago. Their chief produce consists of cloves, mace, and nut- ojefi, in vast quantities; which are monopolised by the Dutch with so much jealousy, that they destroy the plants, lest the natives should sell the supernumerary spice to other nations. These islands, after being subject to various powers, are now governed by three sultans in subordi- nation to the Dutch. Bachian is the largest of these islands, being about fifty miles in length and twenty in breadth. It resembles a double oval, with a ' ' d of Isthmus in the centre. Gold dust is said to be found here. — Tei..ate is not more than twenty-five miles in circumference : but the sultan has a respectable force, both military and naval. The ten BANDA Islands are small territories, the largest of the number being not more than eiglit miles in length and five in breadth. They were subject to the Dutch, but were taken by tiie English in 1796, at which time their annual produce Avas about 163,000 pounds of nut- megs, and 46,000 pounds of mace. They were restored in 1802 ; and, though also taken in the last war, are again in the possession of the Dutch. The nutmeg-tree grows to the size of a pear-tree ; the leaves resemble those of the laurel ; and it bears fruit from the age of ten to one hundred years. The great nutmeg-harvest is in July and August. AMBOYNAis 70 miles in circumference, and is chiefly a mountainous country. The climate is hot, but not insalubrious, and the vegetable products are numerous ; but the clove-tree is the principal object of at- tention. The interior is inhabited by a wild race, of malignant propen- sities: in other parts, there are people of different features and appear- ance, indolent and effeminate : and many Chinese and Europeans have at various times settled in the island. The capital is neatly and regularly built; and, beside the fortifications by which the town is defended, strong posts are formed in other situations. The British court, having appa- rently forgotten the horrible massacre committed on the English colonists of this island by the Dutch, in the reign of James I., restored it at the late pacification. The island of CELEBES, or MACASSAR, is situated partly under the equator, between Borneo and the Spice Islands, and is about 500 miles long and 150 broad. This island, notwithstanding its heat, is ren- dered habitable by breezes from the north, and periodical rains. It contains mines of gold, but its chief articles of trade are pepper and opium ; and the natives are expert in the study of poisons, with a variety of which nature has furnished them The Dutch have many settlements on this island ; but the interior is governed by independent chieftains. In this, and indeed in almost all the oriental islands, the inhabitants live in houses built on l-irge posts, which are accessible only by ladders, which they pull up in uhe night-time, for their security against venom- ous and dangerous animals. They are said to be hospitable and faith- ful, if not provoked. They carry on a great trade with the Chinese. Their port of Jampoden is the most capacious of any in that part of the world. GILOLO, which is likewise under the equator, is about 200 miles long and 30 broad, and produces rice and sago, but no spice, though it lies near the spice islands. It is inhabited by a fierce and savage race. CERAM is about 150 miles long and 30 broad. The Dutch have a fort here ; and they have destroyed almost all the clove-trees on the islaad, to enhance the value of those of the other islands. I I THE INDIAN AND ORIENTAL ISLANDS. The SUNDA ISLANDS comprehend Borneo, Sumatra, Java, Banca, &c. BORNEO ia said to be 800 miles long, and 600 broad, and, till New Holland was discovered to be an island, was considered as the largest island in the world. The inland part of the country is marshy and un- healthy: and the inhabitants frequently dwell in towns built upon floats in the middle of the rivers. The soil produces rice, cotton, canes, pepper camphor, the tropical fruits, gold, and excellent diamonds. The famous ouran-outang is a native of this country, and is thought, of all irrational beings, to resemble a man the most. The inhabitants of the internal parts are a brutal race : yet sonic say that they are not worse than the Malays, or the other inhabitants of the coast. The chief port of this is- land is Benjar-Masseen, and the inhabitants carry on a commerce with all trading nations. SUMATRA has Malacca on the north, Borneo on the east, and Java on the south-east, from which it is separated by the strait of Sunda; it is divided into two equal parts by the equator, and is 900 miles long and 150 broad. It produces so much gold that it has been thought to be the Ophir mentioned in the Scriptures ; but Mr. Marsden, the able historian of the island, thinks that it was unknown to the ancients. The English India company long possessed Bencoolen and the ad- jacent parts of this island ; but these settlements have been lately trans- ferred to the Dutch, rather in the spirit of generosity than of sound policy. The king of Achen is the chief of the Moslem princes '>vho possess the coasts. The interior parts are governed by Pagan princes j and il.; natural products are nearly the same with those of the neighbouring islands. Rain is very frequent here ; sometimes very heavy, and usually at- tended with thunder and lightening. Earthquakes arc not uncommon, as there are several volcanoes on the island. The people who inhabit the coast are Malays, and, .as they belong to a remarkable race, they claim more than transient notice. They are (says Mr. Anderson) of a dark yellowish complexion, stout in general ; their limbs are well sliape^, their persons upright, and they walk rather gracefidly. They are low in stature. The men wear their hair long, and their teeth are filed when young, having a jet-black glossy appearance. The men pluck the hair from their chins, very few having the smallest appearance of a beard. Ti>e women are fair, with dark expressive eyes ; but their ears are disfigured by large holes, into which rings of gold filagree, of an enormous size, are intro- duced ; the poorer classes contenting themselves with a ring of wood, or a piece of plantain leaf rolled up, which fills the aperture. The men are usually dressed in jackets of European chintz or white cloth, with Achenese trowsers, a tartan petticoat, and a batik or European kerchief on the head ; and a handkerchief which contains betel is usually hung over one shoulder. The women wear long garments of blue or white cloth, with a cotton or silk sarong or petticoat. Their hair is neatly fastened by long gold, silver, or copper pins, according to the rank of the individual. Females of the higher order wear also a zone of silk or cloth, fastened round the waist with a gold binding, and a handkerchief slung over the left shoulder. The men are not a very civilised race ; but, when they are not roused to anger or resentment, they are social and friendly ; fond of their wives, and still more of their children. Any man who can afford to support four wives, may have that number. If one should be cast off for misconduct or barrenness, he may supply her place by another. There is no limita- tion of the number of concubines. The crime of adultery is punishable by the death of both offeadere. THE INDIAN AND ORIENTAL ISLANDS. G81 In the Malayan towns and villages, the greater part of the habi- tations may be termed huts ; but even these are commodiously cou- itructed. Mr. Anderson's description of Jambi, on the eastern coast, will genre to show the style of building. — " Many of the houses are sided and partitioned in a neat manner with planks, and roofed with tiles of excel- lent manufacture. A few arc covered with thatched roofs, and soino have their sides constructed of large thick pieces of bark. Beside these and the huts of matting, there are many houses upon rafts of huge trunks of trees, which, during the periodical swellings of the river, are afloat and moveable, but in the dry season arc generally lodged on a sandy flat. There are also little rafts supporting small huts, attached to the better IS- class of houses, and used for the convenience of bathing, of which the all women in particular seem to be very fond." The Malays in general profess the Mohammedan system of religion ; but they are not rigid observers of its ordinances. Their governmenis are arbitrary, their sultans and chieftains being uncontrolled by law, and little influenced by a sense of humanity. The interior parts of the island are chiefly occupied by a different race, who have hitherto had little connexion with the Europeans, and who live in small villages, most of which are governed by separate chiefs. Ail these communities have laws, some written ones, by which they punish offenders, and terminate disputes. The have ahnost all of them, and particularly the women, large swellings in the throat, like the goitres of the Alps. A part of the country, extending across the island to the bay of Tappa- nooli, is inliabited by a people called Battas, who differ from the other nations of Sumatra in language, manners, and customs. They have no king, but live independently, and their tribes are generally at variance with one another. They fortify their villages very strongly with double fences uf camphor plank, pointed, and placed with their points projecting; and between these fences they place pieces of bamboo, hardened by fire, and likewise pointed, which are concealed by the grass, but which will run through a man's foot. Such of their enemies as fall into their hands, it is said, they put to death and eat ; and their skulls they hang up as tro- phies iu the houses where the unmarried men and boys eat and sleep. They allow polygamy ; a man may purchase as many wives as he may wish to have ; but their number seldom exceeds eight. All their wives live in the same house with the husband, and the houses have no parti- tion; but each wife has a separate fire-place. It is in this country that most of the cassia sen* o '^urope is produced. The cassia-tree grows to fifty or sixty feet in height, with a stem of about two feet in diameter, and a beautiful and regular spreading head. BANCA, near the south-eastern part of Sumatra, is about 95 miles long and 30 broad. It is famous for its mines, from which four millions of pounds of tin are annually obtained for the Dutch by the industry of the Chinese colonists. It was for some years in the possession of the En- glish ; but they gave it to the king of the Netherlands in exchange for Cochin on the Malabar coast. JAVA is more known for being the chief seat of the Dutch power in India, than for the general importance of the island. Its length is about 600 miles, and its breadth 90. Notwithstanding the insalubrity of the climate in tlie maritime parts, tlie Dutch erectea on its north-western coast the city of Batavia, in 1619, which, with the exception of a short interval of British possession, they have retained to the present time. Their fondness for water prompted them to divide and disperse the stream of the neighbouring river into numerous stagnant canals, so as to deprive 682 THE INDIAN AND ORIENTAL ISLANDS. i ui k of the natural impctos which would have kept its channel clear and froe from impnritieR. Thus they increased the unncalthineM of the spot ; but with their usual phlegmatic indifference, they disregarded all dangeru of this kind. This city, for its magnificence, was called the queen of the East; but (says sir Stamford Radles) little of that splendor is now to be found. " Streets have been pulled down, forts demolished, and palacu leveled with the dust." Those portions which arc occupied by the Javanii Malays, Chinese, and other Orientals, are meanly built; and, though the houses in the division appropriated to the Europeans are spacious, they are inelegant and even the public edifices are neither numerous nor splendid. A literary society, which was instituted in 1777, cannot l)o said to flourish, or to illuminate, in any great degree, the dullness of the place or the people. It is said, that the population amounted, about fifty years ago, to 150,000 ; but the present number is only a third part of that estimate. To the west of Batavia is Bantam, a port which was formerly much frequented by European vessels. This was the capital of a considerable monarchy, founded by a Mohammedan prince; but the Dutch made gradual encroachments on the territories of the natives, and at length brought the king completely under thoir yoke. The city was easily taken by the English, in 1811; and it appears that, during their sliort sway, they arbitrarily deposed the vassal prince, and placed another on the throne, who soon resigned his power. There are still, however, several princes on the island, whose power has witltstood the intrigues and efforts of the Hollanders. The products of Javaare nearly the same with those of the other oriental islands. Its coffee is esteemed : rice, sugar, pepper, and the finest fruit, are produced in abundance. The story of the upas, or poisonous tree, attributed to this island, is totally discredited. The ANDAMAN and NICOBAR islands are situated near the en- trance of the bay ft" Bengal, and furnish provisions, consisting of tropical fruits and other nee ssaries, for the ships that touch there. Of the former groupe, the larger t: island is about 130 miles in length and 20 in breadth, It has several good harbours ; and it abounds in large trees, one of which affords oil, and another the bread-fruit. The inhabitants are a savage' race, seemingly of African origin ; but it does not appear that they are canibals, as some have reported. — The island of Nicobar, peculiarly so called, is 38 miles long and 18 broad, and has a good bay on the north side. The people have Tartarian features ; and though, from appearing almost naked, they have the air of barbarians, they are mild and civil in their demeanor. CEYLON is situated in the Indian Ocean, near Cape Comorin, and is 250 miles long, and 150 broad. The natives call it the terrestrial para- dise. It produces, beside excellent fruit, long pepper, the finest cinnaraoo, cotton, silk, ivory, ebony, musk, crystal, saltpetre, sulphur, lead, iron, copper, gold, and silver, and all kindsof precious stones, except diamonds. All sorts of fowl and fish abound here. Every part of the island is well wooded and watered ; and it contains numerous herds of cattle and many other useful animals, among which tame elephants may be reckoned. Colombo and other maritime towns in this island were formerly pos- sessed by the Portuguese, from whom they were taken by the Dutch. The English attacked these settlements with success in the war which arose from the French revolution, and, being fully sensible of the value of the acquisitions, did not restore them at the return of peace ; but, after having quietly enjoyed them for some years, they we-e involved in a war with the sovereign of the inland territory. Thoy took his capital, called ^4 '^*^yjw-<>* -. f ^U*4te.> KK-Jl^u^-* ^Ji^fOtl^^ * <» > ' * — I I ^ U hPH^ MIM I^ Kandii an ill- with ^ood ; ai the throne vac war, rtassacrei colonial distric long interval Idng was deth was ceded to 1 origin; butth The MALI near Cape C carry on some useful product or thirty tons are all fabric! of sustenance. We have a With regai can be said. Chinese, For them, that it The same ma certainly Paf and other 8U[ i ! AFRICA resemblance it, which ru top of the p; prodigious e over, betwei isthmus of Bona in the and the bi.. strait of Ba on the nort on tke east by which it and «n the the equato the far gre almitet insi of the sun, banks of ri habited, Fro«) wha of ciimatef and it is nfttiiwiat AFRICA. 683 Kandr^ an m'-built town situated in a plain, amidst mountaioft covered with vlooA ; and, finding him averse to an accommodation, they declared the throne vacant, and filled it at their own discretion. He renewed the war, massacred a part of the British garrison at Kandi, and invaded ijie colonial districts ; but hostilities were soon after discontinued. After: a long interval of mutual forbearance, a new ruoture arose in 1816 : tJie king was dethroned by the chiefs of his own rp/don ; and the whole island was ceded to the British monarch. The natives are apparently of Hindoo origin ; but they are less civilised than the inhabitants of the continent. The MALDIVES are a cluster of isles, or small rocks above the water, near Cape Comorin. They are chiefly resorted to by the Dutch, who carry on some trade with the natives. The cocoa tree is one of the most aseful products of these islands. With its timber they build vessels of twenty or thirty tons ; and the hulls, masts, sails, rigging, anchors, and cables, are all fabricated from this tree, which also provides a wholesome article of sustenance. We have already mentioned BOMBAY in speaking of Hindoostan. With regard to the language of all the Oriental islands, nothing cerlttin can be said. Each island has a particular tongue ; but the Malaylin, Chinese, Portuguese, Dutch, and Indian words, are so frequent among them, that it is difficult far an European to know the radical langus^e. The same may be almost said of their religion ; for, though its original is certainly Pagan, yet it is intermixed with many Mohammedan, Jewish, and other superstitions. •\ AFRICA. AFRICA, the third grand division of the globe, in shape bears some resemblance to the form of a pyramid, the base being the northern p^t of it, which runs along the shores of the Mediterranean; and the poini or top of the pyramid, the Cape of Good Hope. Africa is a peninsula of a prodigious extent, joined to Asia only by a neck of land, about sixty tiiles over, between the Red Sea and the Mediterranean, usually called- the isthmus of Suez ; and its utmost length from north to south, from Cape Bona in the Mediterranean to the Cape of Good Hope, is 4,900 miles ; and the bi...idest part, from Cape Verd to Cape Guardafui, near.' the strait of Babel-Mandeb, is 4,300 miles from east to west. It is bouiided on the north by the Mediterranean Sea, which separates it from Euribpe : on the east by the isthmus of Suez, the Red Sea, and the Indian Ocean, by which it is div.ded from Asia ; on the south by the Southern Ocean ; and w the west by the Atlantic, which separates it from America. As the equator intersects this extensive country almost in the middle, and the far greater part oi it is within the tropics, the heat is in many parts almost insupportable to an European ; it being there increased by the rays of the sun, from vast deserts of burning sand. The coasts, however, and banlfs of rivers, are generally fertile ; and most parts of this region ale in- habited, though it is far from being so populous as Europe or Asia. Froi what has been said, the reader cannot exjjcct to find here a variety of climates. In many parts of Africa, snow seldom falls in the plains ; and it is rarely found but on the tops of the highest mountains. The natiiw in thei* worahioR reg^oo* would as Boon expect that marble afiouid L_^ 684 AFRICA. melt, and flow in liquid streams, as that watei bv freezing should lose its fluidity, be arrested by the cold, and, ceasing to flow, become like the solid rock. Tlie most considerable mountains in Africa are, the Atlas, a ridge extend- ing from the Western Ocean, to which it gives the name of Atlantic, as far as Egypt ; it derived its appellation from a king of Mauritania, a greac lover of astronomy, who used to observe the stars from its summit ; m which account the poets represent him as bearing the heavens on his shoulders ; — the Mountains of the Moon, extending themselves between Abyssinia and Monomotapa or Mocaranga, and which are still higher than those of Atlas ; — thdse of Sierra Leone, or the Mountains of the Lions, which divide Nigritia from Guinea, and extend as far as Ethiopia. The last were styled by the ancients the Mountains of the God, on account of their being subject to thunder and lightening. The Peak of Teneriffe, which the Dutch make their first meridian, is about two miles high, in the form of a sugar-loaf, and is situated on an island of the same name near the coast. The most noted capes or promontories in this country are Cape Verd, so called because the land is always covered with green trees and mossy ground ; the most westerly point of the continent of Africa — and the Cape of Good Hope. The most remarkable rivers in Africa are the Nile, Niger, Senegal, Gambia, and Zair or Congo. The source of the first is not where Mr. Bruce placed it, (for he only discovered a subordinate or inferior spring,) but ia a distant part of the country from his land of Geesh, as will be more par- ticularly noticed in the sequel. It was long supposed that the Senegal and Gambia were branches of the Niger ; — an opinion which lias been fully disproved in our time ; and it is still thought by many geographical inquirers, but without sufficient reason, that the Zair is an outlet of the Niger. In the heart of Africa, the rivers do not appear to be so numerous as they are in other extensive regions ; and even those with which the country is furnished, arc not so useful as with proper industry and atten- tion they might be rendered. The situation of Africa for commerce is exceedingly favorable, standing as it were in the centre of the globe, and thus having a much nearer com- munication with Europe, Asia, and America, than any other quarter has with the rest. That it abounds with gold, we have not only the testimony of the Portuguese, Dutch, English, and French, who have settlements on the coast of Africa, but that of the most authentic ancient historians. It is, however, the misfortune of Africa, that, though it has almost 10,000 miles of sea-coast, with large and deep rivers, it should have little navigation, and not receive any important benelit from them ; and that it should be inhabited by an innumerable people, almost ignorant of commerce, and of each other. At the mouths of these rivers are excellent harbours, sheltered from the wind, and capable of being made perfectly secure by fortifications ; but nearly destitute of shipping, trade, and merchants, even where there is plenty of merchandise. In short, Africa, though a very extensive portion of the globe, stored with an inexhaustible treasure, and capable of producing so many valual)ie commodities within itself, is greatly neglected, not only by the natives, but also by the more civilised Euro- peans who are settled in it, particularly the Portuguese Africa formerly contained several kingdoms and states eminent for the liberal arts, for wealth, power, and commerce. The kingdoms of Egypt and Ethiopia, in particular, were much celebrated; and the rich and powerful state of Carthage, that once formidable rival to Rome itself, extended her commerce to every part of the then known world ; even the British shores wi tania, but tributi Romans, who, w and, by degrees, natives, constar governors sent fi of their lands tl of the Roman ei run by the Van arts and science Saracens made the seventh cei being of the M with them, the completed. The inhabitai ded into three The first are th( from the tropic rally black. 1 Egypt, and aln Barbary coast, denominated C are also some J mercial concen Though we the names, of i be divided ace AFRICA. 685 British shores were visited by her fleets, till Juba, who was king of Mauri- tania, but tributary to the republic of Carthage, unhappily called in the Romans, who, with the assistance of the Mauritanians, subdued Carthage, and, by degrees, all the neighbouring realms and states. After this, the natives, constantly plundered, and consequently impoverished, by the governors sent from Rome, neglected their trade, and cultivated no more of their lands than might serve for their subsistence. Upon the decline of the Roman empire, in the fifth century, the north of Africa was over- nin by the Vandals, who contributed still more to the destruction of the arts and sciences; and, to add to the misfortunes of this country, the Saracens made a sudden conquest of the coasts of Egypt and Barbary, in the seventh century. These were succeeded by the Turks ; and both being of the Mohammedan religion, whose professors carried desolation with them, the ruin of that once flourishing part of the v>'orld was nearly completed. The inhabitants of this continent, with respect to religion, may be divi- ded into three sorts; namely. Pagans, Mohammedans, and Christians. The first are the most numerous,possessing the greatest part of the country, from the tropic of Cancer to the Cape of Good Hope ; and these are gene- rally black. The Moslems, who are of a tawny complexion, possess Egj'pt, and almost all the northern shores of Africa, or what is called the Barbary coast. The people of Abyssinia, or the Upper Ethiopia, are denominated Christians, but retain many Pagan and Jewish rites. There are also some Jews in the north of Africa, who chiefly conduct the com- mercial concerns of that part of the country. Though we are little acquainted with the boundaries, or even with the names, of many of the inland countries of Africa, that continent may be divided according to the following table. u M >. m 686 AFRICA. 1 Lower Guinea. Up. Ethiopia. Barbary. Nations. e W g. Square MUes Chief Cities. Dist. and bearing fr.Lond Diff.of time fr. London. Religion. Morocco Algier Tunis Tripoli Barca.with*) Cyrenaica j 450 430 200 650 300 400 100 150 200 280 230 219,000 143,000 54,000 75,000 66,000 Mequinez Algier Tunis Tripoli Dcrua 1080 S. 920 S. 990 S.E. 1260 S.E. 1440 S.E. 24 aft. 13 bef. 39 bef. 56 bef 1 26 bef. Moham. Moham. Mob am. Moham, Moham. Egypt 550 141,000 Grand Cairc 1920 S.E. 2 21 bef. M.&Ch. Biledulgcrid 2500 350 485,000 Dara 1565 3. 32 aft. Pagans. Sahara 3000 660 740,000 Tegessa 1800 S. 24 aft. Pagans. Negroland 2200 840 1,026,000 Mandinga 2500 S. 38 aft. Pagans. Guinea IBOO 360 450 510,000 Benin 2700 S. 20 bef. Pagans. Nubia 600 300,000 Nubia 2418 S.E. 2 12 bef. M.&Pag. Abyssinia 700 500 400,000 Gondar 2880 S.E. 2 30 bef. Christi,ini The middle parts, called Lower Ethiopia, are very little known to the Eu- ropeans, but may be computed at 1,500,000 square niiJes. Loango 350 200 50,000 Loango 3300 S. 44 bef. Ch.&Pa. Congo 400 300 173,000 St.Salvador 3480 S. 1 Obef. Ch.&Pa. Angola 300 200 39,000 Luanda 3750 S. 58 bef Ch.&Pa. Benguela 400 150 64,000 Benguela 3900 S. 58 bef. Pagans. Mataman 450 240 144,000 No Towns • • « • « • Pagans. Ajan 800 300 234,000 Brava 3702 S.E. 2 40 bef. Pagans. Zanguebar 1400 350 275,000 Melinda 4440 S.E. 2 38 bef. Pagans. Vfunomotapa 960 660 223,000 Monomotapa 4500 S. 1 18 bef. Pagans. Pagans. Moneraugi 900 660 310,000 Chicova 4260 S.E. 1 44 bef. Sofala 480 300 97,000 Sufala 4600 S.E. 1 18 bef. Pagans. I'erra de Nat. 600 350 184,000 No Towns * « • • • • Pagans. Cafraria or*! heHotten-S' ot countryj 700 650 200,000 Cape of G. Hope 5200 S. 1 4 bef. Pagans. The islands c( seas and Atlan the Comoro Islei sion, the Cape-' VVe now proc tries of Africa, i accounts; begir TE UNDER th Tunis, Tripoli, The empire ( Sea; on the 8( Aljcerine territo The Algerine by the Mediteri the dominions i Tunis is boi Algier on the v south. Tripoli is bo south, by the < gerid, and the assigning these territory. The Barbar pendent each greater differei dom, in the cu Climate, of Algier, and July and Aug the Roman en and to have a luxury. The nished all Ital wine, and oil. the oppression only in the al moods, apple! nates, beside grow on the f salt ; and lea Barbary. MOUNTAI Cape Geer t The most eli Toeco, some the plain, th( to tfa« torrid THE STATES OF BARBARY. 687 The islands considered as belonging to Africa are situated is the Indian seas and Atlantic Ocean, The principal are the following; — Socotra, the Comoro Isles, Madagascar, Mauritius, r no strangers to the medley of Italian, French, Spanish, Sic. so wel' , in all the ports of the Mediterranean, by the name of Zzn(/ua Franca, Antiquities.] The reader can scarcely doubt that the countries which contained Carthage, and the pride of the Phoenician, Greek, and Roman works, possess curious remains of antiquity. Memorials of the Mauritanian and Numidian greatness arc still to be met with ; some striking ruins point out the Julia Cresareaof the Ilcinans, which was little inferior in magnificence to Carthage itself; and a few of the aqueducts of Carthage are still remaining. Fallen columns, ruined arches, curious pieces of sculpture, and tcsselated pavements, have also been occasionally discovered in that neighbourhood. Near Tripoli, is an arch which waserected in the timeof Marcus Aurelius, said to be as handsome as any of those which still exist in Italy. It is composed of stones of extraordinary size, put together without cement; the ceiling is beautifully sculi)tnred, and on the outside are groupcs of whole-Ienpth figures ; but these are very much injured by time. At Zavia is an amphitheatre in a tolerable state of preservation. On the spot where Cyrene stood, the vestiges of two temples, a theatre, baths, and other ruins, are visible, but the most remarkable antiquities in this neighbour- hood are nine rocky sepulchral grottoes, in one of which is a superb sar- cophagus of white marble, adoi ned with caryatides, while others contain paintings which are still so far distinct, as to explain the subjects chosen by the artists. Some of the tombs, as well as the cells, bear a preat analogy to some ruins which have been discovered on the coast of Cara- mania. — Among the ruins of Ptolemais are the traces of a temple, a barrack, and tombs, in the inside of one of which is some highly- finished •work, and in the desert of Barca are some Saracenic castles. History.] Under the Roman emperors, the states of Barbary formed the fairest jewels in the imperial diadem. These countries were after- ward seised by the Vandal chieftains and Greek emperors, from whose sway they passed under the Saracen yoke. Several flourishing states existed for ages on the coast, which for some time acknowleged the authority of the Asiatic khalifs. Kairwan, about fifty miles to the south of Tunis, was the magnificent capital of one of these states: but it is now in ruins. At length the Turkish pirates, and other Moslem adventurers, formed principalities, extending from Egypt to the eastern frontier of Morocco. The emperors or kings of Morocco are the successors of those sove- EGYPT. 693 reigns of that country who were called sherifs, and whose powers resem- bled those of the khalifa. They have been, in general, and still are, a ut of bloody tyrants, though they have had among them some able princes, particularly Muley, who defeated Sebastian, king of Portugal. They were frequently in a state of warfare with the kings of Spain and other Christian princes ; and their rovers from Salee emulated the pira- tical fame of the Algerines and Tripolines. That spirit of depredation has, in the case of Algier, received a severe check, as the reader has keen informed in our sketch of the history of England ; and for some years past, notwithstanding occasional reports of a renewal of piracy, the base spirit of outrage seems to have yielded to the feelings of con- strained moderation. )ii. EGYPT. UnUATION AND EXTENT. Miles. Length 5ri0i Breadth 230 ) Degrees. Sq. Miles. .„,„,„„„ ( 24 and 32 North latitude. ) i^nnnn between J gg and 34 East longitude. J ^^^'^OO- Boundaries and divisions.] Egypt is bounded by the Mediter- ranean Sea, on the north ; by the lied Sea, to the eastward ; by Abys- sinia, on the south ; and by the desert of Barca, and the less known parts of Africa, on the west. It is divided into the lower and upper provinces of which Cairo and Girgch are respectively the capitals. That part which is between the branches of the Nile and the Mediterranean, was anciently denominated the Delta, from the resemblance of its triangular shape to the Greek letter of that name, and is still so called by Euro« peans, but by the Arabs Bahira. Mountains, deserts, oases.] Egypt, to the south of Cairo, is a long valley, through which the Nile flows, shut in by mountains, be- yond which, on both sides, are vast sandy deserts. In some parts of these deserts, at the distance of one hundred miles or more to the west of the Nile, are small fertile spots of cultivated land, situated like islands in the midst of an ocean of sand : they are called Oases, the name by which they were known to the ancient Greeks, and by the Arabs Elwah. The great Oasis is said to be twenty leagues in length, and four or five in breadth. I'hat of Siwah is about six miles long, and four wide. A large proportion of this space is filled with date-trees ; but there are also pomegranates, figs, olives, apricots, and plantains, and the gardens are remarkably flourishing. A considerable quantity of rice is cultivated here. This has been supposed to be the Oasis where the famous temple of Jupiter Ammon formerly stood. Mr. Browne found here the ruins of an edifice which appeared to be the work of the ancient Egyptians, as the figures of Isis and Anubis were conspicuous among the sculptures. Here are also catacombs, or ancient places of sepulture. The mountains which border the Nile, in Upper Egypt, are of a calca- reous nature ; but this composition ceases about sixty miles to the north'* ward of the cataracts, and is succeeded by free-stone in beds ; and, near Syene, granite is the chief component part. In the eastern chain, abrupt precipices frequently appear, reseinbling long walls, and approaching the banks of the river. Ui 694 EGYPT. I Rivers.] The only river in this country is the celebrated Nile, which is formed by the juncticr. (in the country of Sennaar) of two great streams, one of which, called the bahr el azrek, or the blue river, rises in Abyssinia, where its source is honored as the head of the Nile. The other river, which, as being the longest .ind largest stream, is the true Nile, is called the b".hr al abiad, or the white river, and rises at a place named Donga, among the gebel el cumri, or mountains of the moou. Donga, according to Mr. Browne, lies in about 7 degrees of north latitude, and 25 uf east longitude. — The whole length of the course of the Nile maybe e'llmated at about 1900 miles. Lakes.] In Lo/er Egypt are several lakes, the largest of which is the lake of Menzaleh, which is sei)arated from the Mediterranean only by an extreinely narrow ridge of land, and communicates with that sea by one or two outlets. It is fifty miles long, and from two to twelve broad. The lake of Berelos, which adjoins in like manner to the Medi- terranean, between Damictta and Rosetta, is twenty-five miles long, and about eight broad. The ancient lake of M^rcotis is now almost dry. The lakes in the desert ought also to be mentioned, whioh produce na- tron, a substitute for barilla. Metals, MINER VLS.] Egypt appears not to be productive of any metals, except a email quantity of iron ; but the mountains contain various kinds of marblo, as porphyry, the celebrated verde anlico, or green marble, with white and dark spots, and many valuable gems, as the emerald, topaz, chalcedony, onyx, &c. Climate, aiu.] It is observed by M. Volncy, that during eight months in the year (from March to November) the heat is almost in- supportable to an European. " During the whole of this season, the air is inflamed, the sky sparkling, and the heat oppressive to all unaccus- tomed to it." — The other months are comparatively temperate. The southerly winds which sometimes blow in Egypt, are by the natives called poisonous winds, or the hot winds of the desert. They are of such extreme heat and aridity, that no animated body exposed to them can withstand their pernicious influence. During tlie three days of the southern blast, / -i streets are deserted ; and woe ♦ the traveler whom this wind surprises remote from shelter! when it exceeds three days, it is insupportable. Very frequently the inhabitants ure almost blinded with drifts of sand : but these evils are, in a great measure, remedied by the rising and overflowing of the Nile. Soil and produce.] Whoever is in the least acquainted with geo- graphy ,^ knows that the vast fertility of Egypt is not produced by rain (little falling in that country) but by the annual overflowing of the Nile. It begins to rise when the sun is vertical in Ethiopia, and when the au- tiual rains fall there, from the latter end of May to September, and sometimes October. At the height of its flood in the Lower Egypt, no- thing is to be seen in the plains, but the tops of forests and fruit-trees, the towns and villages being, for that reason, built upon eminences either natural or artificial. When the river is at its proper height, the inhabi- tants celebrate a kind of jubilee with great festivity. The banks, or mounds, which confine it, are cut by the Turkish pasha, attended by his grandees ; and, after this ceremony, the water is led into what they call the khalij, or grand canal, which runs through Cairo, whence it is distri- buted into cuts, for supplying the fields and gardens. This being done, and the waters beginning to retire, such is the fertility of the soil, that the labor of the husbandman is next to nothing. He throws his wheat ftnd barley into the ground in October and May. He turns his cattle out two at a time, ai EGYPT. (595 tograee in November; and, in about six weeks, nothing can be more charming than the prospect which the face of I \e country presents, iu rising corn, vegetables, and verdure of every sort. Oranges and lemons perfume the air; dates, grapes, and figs, cheer tlie eye; and palm-trees, which afford the means of making wine, are blooming and abundant. The culture of pulse, melons, sugar-canes, and other plants which re- quire moisture, is supplied by small but regular cuts from cisterns and reservoirs. March and April are the harvest months, and they produce three crops; one of lettuces and of cucumbers (the latter being the ordi- nary food of the inhabitants), one of corn, and one of melons. The Egyptian pasturage is equally prolific, most of the quadrupeds producing two at a time, and the s'.eep four lambs in a year. Among the vegetable products of Egypt, should also be mentionea tho papyrus, of which the ancients made their paper, though their mode of preparing it is now unknown; and the lotus, a kind of water-lily, sibound- ingin the nile. The pith of the papyrus is said to be a nourishing food. The trees are the sycamore, acacia, willow, &o. The Egyptian mode of hatching chickens in ovens is very curious, and has been practised in Europe with success. Not less extraordinary and ingenious is the manner of raising and managing bees in that country. When the verdure and flowers fail in one part of Egypt, the projirietors of bees put their hives on board of large boats, each marking his own hire. The boatman proceeds with them gently up the river, and stops with them where-ever he perceives flowery meadows. The bees swarm from their cells at break of day, and collect honey, returning several times loaded with what they have obtained, and in the evening re-enter their hives, without ever mistaking their abode. Animals.] Egypt abounds in black cattle; audit is said, that the inhabitants employ every day 1. 5*^,000 oxen in raising water for their grounds. They have a fine large breed of asses, upon which the Chris- tians ride, not being sufifered by the Turks to mount any other beast. The Egyptian horses are very fine ; they never trot, but walk well, and gallop with great speed, turn short, stop in a moment, and are extremely tractable. The hippopotamus, or river-horse, an amphibious animal, resembling an ox in its hinder parts, with the head like that of a horse, Is found in the upper province. Hyaenas, camels, antelopes, apes, cam«»leon8, and the rat called ichneumon, are natives of Egypt, The crocodile was formerly thought peculiar to this country ; but there does not seem to be any material difference be; "een it and the alligators of India and America. They are both amphibious animals, in the form of a lizard, and some grow till they are sixteen feet in length, and have four short legs, with large feet armed with claws, and their backs covered with a kind of impenetrable scales like armour. The crocodile waits for his prey in the sedge, and other covers, on the sides of rivers ; and, resembling the trunk of an old tree, sometimes surprises the incautious passenger with his fore-paws, or beats him down with his tail. This country also produ'-es great numbers of eagles, hawks, pelicans, and water-fowl of all kinds. The ibis, supposed to resemble a curlew, was deified by the ancient Eg, >tian8 for its utility in destroying serpents and pestiferous insects. They are thought to be peculiar to Egypt ; but a species is said to have been lately discovered in other parts of Africa. Ostriches are common here, and are so strong, that the Arabs sometimes ride upon them. Population, manners, customs.] It is not easy to ascertain the amount of the inhabitants of Egypt ; but it is supposed that three i 696 EGYPT. millions are rathei beyond than under the real number. The majority of the people may be considered as the descendants of foreigners, who have not become fully naturalised to the climate or soil. The Copts appear to be the only offspring of the original inhabitants, not however ' iinixed •with the ancient Persian, Greek, and Roman races. Their distinguishing features are a flat forehead, a dusky yellow complexion, dark hair and eyes, thick lips, puffed features, and a short but elevated nose. For acuteness or penetration they are not remarkable ; yet, as most of them can read and write, and are assiduous and attentive in busines:. they seem to engross the learning of Egypt. They are, in general, of a grave if not melancholy temperament, quiet and patient rather than active or alert ; and, like many demure persons in Europe, are addicted to sensuality, and fond of spirituous liquors ; but avarice is said to be the predominant disease of the race. Their females are generally elegant in form, and interesting in feature ; and we do not find that they are stigmatised for licentiousness or immorality. The Copts are said to amount to 250,000. The people who inhabit the country, at a considerable distance from the Nile, consist of Arabs, or their descendants, who are of a deep swarthy complexion : they usually live in tents, attend to their flocks, and have no fixed place of abode. Those who wander within a hundred miles to the north of the Cataracts, are of a short stature, but vigorous and active ; have complexions almost black ; and do not cover their heads. They are accused of eating flesh torn or cut from the living animals ; but this they deny, though they acknoAvlege that they sometimes open the veins of a sheep or a dromedary, and drink the warm blood. They are armed with lances, of the length of seven feet, and defend themselves with round shields, made of tlie hide of the hippopotamus, which are not easily cut with a sabre, or penetrated by a musket-ball. Tliey are said to be more shrewd and intelligent than the Arabs of the lower province. The Turks who reside in Egypt, retain all their Ottoman pride and insolence, and tlie Turkish habit, to distinguish themselves froin the Arabs and Copts, who dress in a very plain manner, their chief finery being an upper garment of white linen, and linen drawers, while their ordinary dress is of blue linen, with a long cloth coat, either over or under it. The Christians and Arabs of the meaner kind content themselves with a linen or woollen wrapper. The Jews wear blue leather slippers; the other natives of the country wear red, and the foreign Christians yellow. The dress of the women is tawdry and unbecoming ; but their clothes are of silk, when they can afford it ; and such of them as are not exposed to the sun, have delicate complexions and features. The Mohammedan females are not admitted into the society of men, even at table. When the ric'i are desirous of dining with one of their wives, they give her previous notice, when she accordingly prepares the most delicate dishes, r.nd receives her lord with the greatest attention and respect. The women of the lower class usually remain standing, or seated in a corner of the room, while the master of the house is at dinner; present him with water to wash, and help him at the table. . The dancing girls are more free in their manners, and wander about the country, performing their evolutions at nuptial festivities, and on other occasions, and sometimes reciting tales, and singing to the sounds of the drum and the flute. Chief towns, edifices.] Among the cities of Egypt, Alexandria, both for its ancient and modern fame, may be thought to claim primary notice. It was once the emporium of the civilised world ; and, by means of the Red Sea, furnishod Europe, and a conBiderable part of Asia, with therichei of It Great. It rose \ for the light Jiou the direction of i world. A great were formed the These arches sti partly Roman. T two beautiful ob« of the Ptolemies There are two h modern city is si cations, and con very actively, soi occupied by Eui case with the rei is drawn by tl convey the imj through the strt to depict the vi tumult in thes camels, mules, people to take mountebanks ; picturesque dn regular Arabia anxiously gazii the female wee their hair an( cortege ; the cl and lastly, the hunger and mi you ; each and at every instan Rosetta, or Alexandria, ar ful prospects, v Cairo, or (a is a large anc pestilential aii less than 275 and New, and mile in circun at the west en are covered w these apartme paring the lu called Joseph deep. The n granaries are by his name. being probabl are meanly ( built of soft s or elegant. EGYPT. 697 the riches of India. It owes its name to its founder, Alexander the Great. It rose upon the ruins of Tyre and Carthage, and was famous for the light iiouse which was erected on the opposite isle of Pharos, for the direction of mariners, deservedly esteemed one of the wonders of the world. A great part of the ancient cit;, stood upon arches, under which were formed the cisterns that preserved the water of the Nile for daily use. These arches still exist, and are, in their construction, partly Greek and partly Roman. Manyotherremainsof antiquity attract notice, particularly two beautiful obelisks, which formerly adorned the entrance to the palace of the Ptolemies, and Diocletian's (commonly called Pompey's) Pillar. There are two harbours, and on the neck of land that divides them the modern city is situated . It is encompassed by a lofty wall and other fortifi- cations, and contains about 14,500 inhabitants, who carry on, though not very actively, some manufacturing and commercial concerns. The houses occupied by Europeans have a respectable appearance, which is not the case with the rest of the habitations. The following sketch of Alexandria is drawn by the baroness von Minutoli : — " It would be difficult to convey the impression made on me, whilst passing for the first time through the streets of this city. It would require the talent of Hogarth to depict the varied scenes of the magic lantern. The movements and tumult in these narrow streets, continually obstructed by numberless camels, mules, and asses ; the cries of the drivers incessantly warning the people to take care of their bare feet ; the vociferations and grimaces of mountebanks; the brilliant costume of the Turkish functionaries; the picturesque dress of the Bedouins, their loii:r beards and grave and regular Arabian features; the half-naked hantons, surrounded by anxiously gazing groupes ; the multitu ' nl negro slaves ; the howligs of the female weepers, who, as they acco. /any a corpse to the grave, tear their hair and beat their breasts; tlic >ii.sy merriment of a nuptial cortege ; the chants of the imams, calling to prayer from the minarets; and lastly, the deplorable picture of wretches dyii! in the streets from hunger and misery, and the troops of wild dogs that pinsue and torni'-nt you ; each and all of these beset your path, and excite your astonishment at every instant." Rosetta, or Rashid, stands thirty-five miles to the north-east of Alexandria, and is recommended for its beautiful situation, and lielight- ful prospects, which command the Delta. It is also a place of gr^ t trade. Cairo, or (as it is called by the Arabs) Kaliirab, the capital ot Egypt, is a large and pojjulous but disagreeable residence, on account of its pestilential air and narrow streets. It cannot be supposed to contain less than 275,000 inhabitants. It is divided into two towns, the C)[^i and New, and defended by an old castle, the works of which me mile in circumference. The castle is said to have been built by Saladiu ; at the west end are the remains of very noble apartments, some of which are covered with domes, and adorned with pictures in mosaic work ; but these apartments are now only used for weaving embroidery, and pre- paring the hangings and coverings annually sent to Mecca. The well, called Joseph's well, is a curious piece of mechanism, about 270 feet deep. The memory of that patriarch is still revered in Egypt, where granaries are shewn, beside other works of public utility, that are honored by his name. They are certainly of great antiquity ; but it is far from being probable that they were erected by him. The houses in general are meanly constructed of earth and ill-burned bricks; but some are built of soft stone, and many are large and commodious, if not handsome or elegant. The edifices on which architectural ornament has been 698 EGYPT. chiefly bestowed, are the mosques, some of which are magnificent; and the tombs of the beys, in the suburbs, are also admired, as they are well built of white marble^ and most of ihjnri have carved, painted, or gilt . domes. An aqueduct near the canal which traverses the city, is a noble work : it is an hexagonal building, each side being about 80 feet ia length, and nearly of an equal height: the wheels by which the water is raised are turned by the patient labor of oxen. The police of Cairo is strict, and the streets are generally quiet ; but they are occasionally enlivened by the procession of a bride to one of the baths, and by the performances of jugglers, tumblers, mountebanks, and dancing girls. Another favorite exhibition is that of dancing-camels, which, when young, are placed upon a heated floor : the intense heat makes the poor creatures caper ; and, being plied all the lime with the sound of a drum, they dance whenever they hear it. Girgeh, in Upper Egypt, exhibits nothing particularly remarkable, except a large Coptic monastery, dedicated to St. George. The largest town in that province is Siout, built on the banks of a wide canal which skirts the desert. The inhabitants of this town and its environs have an appearance of opulence and industry. There are some sepulchral excava- tions near it, various parts of which have an air of magnificence. Manufactures and commi^rcf..] The Egyptians manufacture linen, prepare leather for various purposes, and make carpets; and, beside these articles, they export flax, thread, cotton, wool, yellow wax, sal ammoniac, saffron, sugar, and cassia. Cairo maintains a communication with the more inland parts of Africa by caravans, which bring gold, ivory, gums, hides, and (we are sorry to add) a great number of slaves. Constitution AND GOVRRNMENT.] When the French invaded Egypt, the pasha, appointed by the Porte, had little more than a noioi- nal authority ; for the beys, or Mamelouk nobles, held the chief sway. They composed a divan, of which the president was chosen by the mem- bers, with the assent of the pasha. Each was arbitrary in his own terri- tory, and exercised sovereign power ; and, if the grand signor's represen- tative acted in opposition to the sense of the beys, or attempted to violate their privileges, they would not suffer him to continue in his post. This government A\as subverted by the French ; and, when it had been restored by British aid, the Turks took an opportunity of annihilating, by violence and outrage, the power of the Mamelouks. The Porte, however, profits little by this apparent revolution, as the pasha governs without that implicit subserviency which is usually manifested by a viceroy. Religion.] The majority of the inhabitants of Egypt are votaries of the Mohammedan system ; but the Copts profess themselves to bo mem- bers of the Greek church, agreeing however with the Roman catholics in the doctrine of transubstantiation, and borrowing from the Moslems the custom of frequent prosi tioiis during divine service, ablutions, and other ceremonies. While the Mohammedans have their saints, the Copts have their monks, who occupy fortified retreats in the deserts. Literature.] Thoui^h it cannot be doubted that the Greeks derived all their knowlege from the ancient Egyptians, few vestiges of it remain among their descendants. This may arise in some degree from the bigotry and ignorance of their Mohammedan masters ; but here it is proper to make one observation. The khalifs who extended their sway over Egypt, were of three descriptions. The first made war, from conscience and principle, upon all kinds of literature, except the Koran ; and hence it was, that, when they took possession of Alexandria, which contained the most magnificent library the world ever beheld, its valuable manuscripts EGYPT. 699 were U8«d for some months in cooking their victuals, and warming their bathi. The same fate attended the other Egyptian libraries. The lihalifs of the second race were men of taste and learning, but of a peculiar character. They purchased all the manuscripts that survived the general . conflagration, relating to astronomy, medicine, and some useless parts of philosophy ; but they had little taste for the Greek arts of architecture, sculpture, or painting, or for genuine science; and learning was confined to their own courts and colleges, without ever finding its way back to Egypt. The lower race of Moslem princes, especially those who called themselves khalifs of Egypt, disgraced hiimau nature ; and the Turks riveted the chains of barbarous ignorance which they imposed. All the learning, therefore, of modern Egypt, consists in arithmetical calculations for the despatch of business, the jargon of astrology, a few nostrums in medicine, and some knowlegc of the Koran. Language.] The Coptic is the ancient language of Egypt. This was succeeded by the Greek, about the time of Alexander the Great ; and that by the Arabic, when the Saracens dispossessed the Greeks of Egypt. The Arabesque is now the current language ; for the Coptic may be considered as nearly extinct. Antiquities.] Egypt abounds more with these than perhaps any other part of the world. Its pyramids have been often described. Their antiquity is beyond the researches of history, and their original use can only be conjectured ; but there is little doubt that they were sepulchral monuments. The altitude of the largest, when entire, was 448 feet ; the length of the base, 716 ; and that of the inclined side, 574. It contains a room thirty-four feet long, and seventeen broad, in which is a marble chest, but without either cover or contents, supposed to have been designed for the tomb of the founder. In short, the pyramids of Egypt are the most stupendous, and, to appearance, the most useless structures that ever were raised by the hands of men. The catacombs, containing the mummies, or the embalmed bodies of the ancient Egyptians, are subterraneous vaults of a prodigious extent ; and it is said (but there are few who will believe) that some of the bodies are perfect and distinct at this day, though buried 3000 years ago. The labyrinth in Upper Egypt is a curiosity, thought to be more wonderful than the pyramids themselves. It is partly under ground, and cut out of a marble rock, consisting (it is said) anciently of twelve palaces or halls, and 1000 chambers, the intricacies of which occasioned its name. The lake Moeris was dug by the order of an Egyptian king, to correct the irregularities of the Nile, and to communicate with that river, by canals and ditches, which still subsist, and are evidences of the utility as A^ell as grandeur of the work. Wonderful grottoes and excavations, mostly artifi- cial, abound in Egypt. Cleopatra's needle, and its sculptures, are admi- rable. Pompey'b (or rather Diocletian's) pillar is a fine regular column of the Corinthian order, the shaft of which is one stone, being eighty-eight feet nine inches in height, or ten diameters of the column ; the whole height is 114 feet, including the capital and the pedestal. The Sphinx, as it is called, is no more than the- head and part of the shoulders of a woman, hewn out of the rock, and about thirty feet high. The pyramids are rather monuments of labor than of skilful art : but the temple of Dendera, or Tentyra, is a striking specimen of the latter, and displays the ancient architecture of Egypt in its finest form. The portico consists of twenty-four columns, in three rows, each being thirty- two feet high, and twenty-two in circumference, and covered with hiero- glyphics in alto-relievo : the capitals £.re square, with a representation of the face of Isis on each side. All the walls and ceilings of the interior arc f a I 700 EGYPT. profusely adorned with sculpture. Some of the delineations are rcligioui, others astronomical ; and, in one of the apartments, the figures refer to a human sacrifice. The western wall is particularly admired for its oriia* ments. To the south of Lendera are the remains of Thebes, the ancient capital of Upper Egypt, the boasted " city of the hundred gates." The two great masses of Thebaic ruins are near Carnac and Luxur. At the for< mer place, one temple is so large as to suggest the idea of sculptured mountains: that v-hich adorns the latter village is of smaller dimen- sions, but is built in a much better taste. Bclzoni highly admired the stupendous ruins of Carnac. He speaks with rapture of a " forest of enormous columns adorned all round with beautiful figures; gates, walls, pedestals, and architraves, decorated in every part with symbolical repre- sentations, in basso-relievo and intaglio, of battles, triumphs, feasts, and sacrifices; a sanctuary wholly formed of fine red granite; the high portals seen at a distance from the openings to this vast labyrinth of edifices, and various groupes of ruins of other temples within sight." At Edfou, two temples are still seen, which are more majestic than those of Dendera, and one of which appears like a noble fortress, commanding the circumjacent country. The figures annexed to this building arc of colossal magnitude, and are executed in a spirited and masterly style. The ruins at Esneh ought not to be passed over in silence. A portico is there seen, which belongs to a temple that is concealed and inaccessible. The sculptural representations u^ion it are grotesque and curious, and apparently of very remote antiquity; and •' their variety is such (says Mr. Hamilton) as seems to offer to posterity the amplest field for the study of the whole range of the learning, mythology, and superstitions, of the ancient Egyptians." History.] When the princes of the line of Pharaoh had govorned Egypt for a long succession of ages, the country wassubdued by Canibyscs the Persian. After the death of Alexander the Great, to whom, as tliu conqueror of Persia, it devolved, it was subjected to the sway of Ptolemy, one of his favorite officers ; under whom and his successors the country flourished in commercial and general fame. In the reign of Cleopatra, it was viewed with ambitious eyes by the Romans, to whose powerful arms it submitted after a fruitless resistance. On the decline of the Roman supremacy, it became subject to the Greek emperors, from wliom it was wrested, in the seventh century, by the Saracens. It passed through various Mohammedan dynasties, and was at length degraded by the des- potism of the Mamelouks, or men who had risen to power from a state of slavery. The first sultans of that description were the offspring of Turks, who had been sold in Egypt by the Tartars, and who were employed as a guard by the famous Saladin and other princes. They acquired the supremacy in the year 12.00, and retained it for 132 years. The next race of sultans had also a servile origin, but were of Georgian or Circas- sian descent. In 1.017, the last prince of this dynasty was vanquished and dethroned by the Ottoman emperor, Selim I. ; and, after that revo- lution. Egypt long remained in a state of quiet submi8.sion to the Porte: but the Manielouk beys continued to enjoy some share of power ; and they gradually encroached on the authority of the pasha, who acted in the name of the grand signer. While the Tu.ks were engaged in a dangerous war with the Russians, in the reign of the empress Catharine II., an attempt was made to deprive the Porte of all remains of power in Egypt, not indeed by the leading Mamelouks, bu^ by the bey Ali, who, having embraced the Mohammedan religion with vie^ rendered himself having been add Constantinople; death the messen mounted the thro laid claim to Syri to the ancient sul these pretensions game time introi system which soi ries ; but a partj in 1773 by the 1: received. The throw the state peace, and the I country. It was not at its mischiefs intc considerable arn to attempt the cc lower province v rections arose, t efforts of general from the countr; while the beys e> Mohammed Ali, Mamelouks. On were then at d against the Wa them when the) del, and those to Salame, abo death in the ca assumed the w to Constant! nop governs with so throughout Egy the European a Miles. Length 70 Breadth 50 BOUNDAUI kingdom of S south by Ging tains the folio hara, Walaka, Face of ti is generally EGYPT. 701 religion with views of policy, and being a man of abilitieg and address, rendered himself exceedingly popular in Egypt. A false accusation having been adduced against liiiri, \m bead was ordered to be sent to Constantinople; but, being apprised of bis danger, he seised and put to death the messengers who brouglit tliis order, raised an army, and boldly mounted the throne of Egypt. Not content with that kingdom, he also l»id claim to Syria, Palestine, and that part of Arabia which had belonged to the ancient sultans. He marched at the head of his troops to support these pretensions, and subdued the neighbouring provinces. He at the game time introduced a regular form of government, and pursued a system which soared above the barbarism of IiIh Egyptian contempora- ries; but a party was at length formed against him ; and, being defeated in 1773 by the bey Abou-dahab, he died of the wounds which he had received. The sanguinary contest for power was prolonged, so as to throw the state into great disorder ; but it gradually subsided into peace, and the beys Morad and Ibrahim became the chief rulers of the country. It was not at first probable thai the French revolution would extend its mischiefs into Africa : but, in 1798, the Parisian directory, having a considerable army at leisure, sent it, under the command of Bonaparte, to attempt the conquest of Egypt, as we stated on a former occasion. 7'he lower province was quickly revolutionised; and, when occasional insur- rections arose, they were quelled by sanguinary rigor; but, in 1801, the efforts of general Abercrombie and other commanders expelled the French from the country. The nominal authority of the Porte was now restored, while the beys exercised the chief sway. The ostensible ruler was the pasha Mohammed Ali, who at length resolved to extinguish the power of the Mamclouks. On the22d of February, 181 1, having invited ail the beys who were then at Cairo to witness the ceremony of creating bis son general against the Wahabis, he ordered a body of military ruHians to fire upon them when they were entangled in a narrow passage leading to the cita- del, and those who escaped from the firing were decapitated. According to Salamc, about 660 Manielouks, with almost all the beys, were put to death in the capital and in other parts of the country. I'hc pasha then assumed the whole power of the state, merely sending an annual tribute to Constantinople to show that he was a vassal of the grand signor. He governs with some degree of ability, maintains tranquillity and order throughout Egypt, promotes commerce, and encourages the adoption of the European arts and manufactures. 1.. > i". ■ ABYSSINIA. SITUATION AND EXTENT. Miles. Length 700 ). , C ( Breadth 500 } ^''*'''' \ 31 Degrees. a and 16 North latitude, 33 and 42 East longitude, Sq. Miles. I 400,000. Boundaries, divisions.] IT is bounded on the north by the kingdom of Sennaar, or Nubia; on the east by the Red .Sea; on the south by Gingiro and Alaba ; and on the west by Kordofan. It con- tains the following provinces ; Masuab, Tigre, Samen, Begemder, Am- hara, Walaka, Gojam, Dainot, Maiuha, Dembea, Kuara, and Xara. Face of the countky, mountains] The surface of this country is generally rugged and mountainous; it abounds with forestt and 702 ABYSSINIA. morasses, and it is also interspersed with many fertile valleys and plains. About the centre of the kingdom are the mountains of Lamalinoo, and those of Amhara and Sameno, which latter are said to be the loftiest in the country, and in them numerous rivers arise and flow in all directions. Lakes.] The lake of Tzana or Dembea is the largest expanse of water known in this country. Its greatest breadth is thirty-five miles, and its length forty-nine. The Nile, by a current always visible, crosses the end of it. In the dry months, from October to March, the lake shrinks greatly in size ; but, when all those rivers are full which are on every side of it, and fall into the lake, like radii drawn to a centre, it swells, and widely diffuses itself over the level country. There are about eleven inhabited islands in the lake. These were formerly used as prisons for the great, or for a voluntary retreat on account of some disgust or misfortune, or as places of security to deposit valuable effects during turbulent times. Rivers.] The chief river is the Nile, or the branch named the Blue River. TheTacaze is another considerable river, and there are many smaller streams. Metals, minerals.] Some gold is found among the sands of the rivers, and there are mines of salt. The Abyssinians, in lieu of sniail money, frequently make use of pieces of rock salt, which are as white as snow and hard as st;^^ne. According to some accounts, this country pro- duces fine emeralds. Climate, SEASONS, soil, produce.] The rainy season, it is said, continues for six months of the year, from April to September ; and it is succeeded by a cloudless sky and vertical sun ; but the heat of the day does not prevent the nights from being exceedingly cold. The soil, though in many places thinly spread, is rendered fertile and productive by the rains and rivers. Wherever it can be tilled and well watered, it yields very large crops of wheat, barley, millet, and other grain. The inhabitants have two, and sometimes three, harvests in the year: and, where they have a supply of water, they may sow in all seasons; many of their trees and plants retain their verdure, and yield fruit and flowers, throughout the year: the west side of a tree blossoms first, and bears fruit; then the south side ; next the north side ; and, at last, the east side goes through the same process, toward the beginning of the rainy season. Beside that corn which resembles the grain of Europe, the Abys- sinians raise great quantities of teff, which thrives in every kind of soil. It consJEt of a stalk rising from a number of weak leaves, and from the top many branches spring, containing minute seeds or grains in capsules: these are bruised, and made into bread. They have also the ensete, the stalk of which is said to be palatable and nourishing. The balsam, myrrh, and other juicy and odoriferous plants, are likewise abundant ; and the date-tree, the acacia, the rack (which supplies tim- ber for boats) and a variety of trees equally useful, are scattered over the country. Animals.] Of the wild beasts of Abyssinia, the hyaena is the most ferocious. Even the streets of the capital and other towns are infested with these animals, which, to the great annoyance and danger of the people, rush into the houses. The elephant, rhinoceros, hippopotamus, lion, leopard, and panther, are also found in this country ; and the rivers abound with crocodiles. The buffaloes are wild and mischievous, as the inhabitants do not take proper pains to render them useful. Ante- lopes are comm( many parts. T in the Galla coi Among the b storks, snipes, The only insect buzzing intinii( whose sting inll Natural c great cataract ( as the most mr forty feet. W by rains, and f an English mil fume or haze c stream, both a not seen. The could discern, i twenty differen it fell, seeming well as forwarc ebullition. Inhabitai neral tall and features are pi noses rather h white and hai and docile, ani The dress ( cotton, tied s have only a p same linen, w women of lh< according to general are ai men, without commonly sut in their cond their husband laborious oihc family, whicl Although V deal about nii more truly th unless it be tt subsisting or to be renewc There is no s class of Abyj The Abyss or purify eve and even ci tells us, that a cow befon the higher ps ABYSSINIA. 703 lopes are conamon ; the zebra ia sometimes seen ; and monkeys sv^rann in many parts. The cattle resemble those of Europe, except that th? oxen in the Galla country have horns of an enormous length and magnitude. Among the birds are eagles of a very large species, vultures, falcons, storks, snipes, pigeons, and swallows; but water-fowl are uncommon. The only insect that deserves notice is a fly, about the size of a bee, whose buzzing intimidates into flight the fiercest quadruped of the forest, and whose sting inflicts a painful wound. Natural curiosities.] Under this head may be mentioned the great cataract of the supposed Nile, at Alata, which Mr. Bruce represents ai the most magnificent si^hi that he ever beheld. The height ia about forty feet. When he saw it, the river had been considerably increased by rains, and fell in one sheet of water, without any interval, above half an English mile in breadth, with a force and noise truly terrific. A thick fume or haze covered the fall all around, and hung over the course of the stream, both above and below, marking its track, though the water was not seen. The river preserved its natural clearness, and fell, as far as he could discern, into a deep pool in the solid rock, which was full, and in twenty different eddies to the very foot of the precipice ; the stream, when it fell, seeming (part of it) to run back with great fury upn the rock, as well as forward in the line of its course, and thus raising a wave, or violent ebullition. Inhabitants, manners, customs.] The Abyssinians are in ge- neral tall and well made. They are of a dark olive complexion ; their features are proportionate ; their eyes large, black, and sparkling; their Duses rather high than flat ; their lips small ; and their teeth extremely white and handsome. With respect to their dispositions, they are mild and docile, and in their general conduct sober and temperate. The dress of persons of quality is a long fine vest, either of silk or cotton, tied about the middle with a rich scarf. The common people have only a pair of cotton drawers, and a kind of scarf, or piece of the same linen, with which they cover the rest of the body. The habit of women of the superior class consists of the richest silk, ornamented, according to their rank, with jewels, trinkets, and images. Women in general are allowed to appear in public, and to converse freely with the men, M'ithout any of those restrictions to which the Turkish women are commonly subject. The women of superior condition are not very guarded in their conduct ; but those of inferior rank are in general faithful to their husbands, and they also willingly submit to the meaner and more laborious oflices of domestic life. It is their business to grind corn for the family, which they perform daily by means of hand-mills. Although we read in the accountsof the Jesuits, says Mr. Bruce, a great deal about marriage and polygamy, there is nothing which may be averred more truly than that there is no such thing as marriage in Abyssinia, unless it be that which is contracted by mutual consent,without other form, subsisting only till it is dissolved by the dissent of ont^ or the other, and to be renewed or repeated, as often as it is agreeable to both parties. There is no such distinction as legitimate and illegitimate children, in any class of Abyssinian society. The Abyssinians neither eat nor drink with strangers ; and they break or purify every vessel which has been used by them. They eat raw flesh, and even cut it from the living animal, according to Mr. Bruce, who tells us, that, in the neighbourhood of Axum, he saw some men driving a cow before them. He afterwards found that they cut steaks from the higher pait of the buttock : tbey thea closed the wouad by drawing the 704 ABYSSINIA. skin over it, and applied to it a cataplasm of clay. He reprPAcnts tliis brutal mode of gratifying the appetite as a common and favorite pinctice: and Mr. Salt's statement does not fully invalidate tlie report ; for, tiiouRh be says that the animal is previously killed, and not snifered to live in tt mangled condition for future feasts, he admits that the raw llcsli is grocdily devoured, while the fibres are quivering]; with the remains of life. Chief towns.] Gondar, the metropolis of Abyssinia, is situated upon a hill of considerable height ; and the population consists of ahnut ten thousand families in time of peace. The houses are chicHy of clay, and the roofs are thatched^n the form of a cone, which is the usual con- struction within the tropical rains. On the west of the town is tliu king's house> which was a square building flanked with square towers : a great part of it is now in ruins, having been burned at different times ; but there is still ample lodging in the lower part, the audience-chamber being above one hundred and twenty feet long. The palace and contiguous btiiidingg are surrounded by a substantial stone wall, thirty feet high, with battle- ments upon the outer wall, and a parapet roof between the outer and inner. Axum was formerly the capital of Abyssinia, and its ruins are now very extensive. In a square, which seems to have been the centre oftho town, there are forty obelisks, without hieroglyphics. One j)icce of granite composes each of them ; and, on the top of that which is standing, there is a patera, exceedingly well carved, in the Greek taste, AdoWa, the chief town of the province of Tigre, contains about 800 ill- built houses, divided between Christians and Mohammedans. The brisk trade of the place is chiefly carried on by the latter. A considerable manufacture of cotton, and other branches of art, give to this city a superiority over most of the Abyssinian towns. Masuah, near the Red Sea, is also a commercial town ; and among its exports slaves are particularly mentioned. GovEHNMBNT AND ARMY.] The government ofAbyssinia has always been monarchical and despotic, the sovereign exercising absolute domi- nion over the lives, liberties, and fortunes, of his subjects, and possessing uncontrollable authority in all matters, ecclesiastical as well as civil. His will is the universal law, there neither being, nor ever having been, any written laws to restrain the royal power, or to secure the property or privi- leges of the subject. The crown is hereditary in the pretended race of Solomon, but elective as to the individual. A peculiar custom formerly prevailed of conlining all the princes of the blood-royal in a palace on a high mountain, during their lives, or till they were called to the throne; but this practice has fallen into disuse. The military force of this country has been greatly exaggerated. The household troops are about 8000 infantry ; and the whole royal force does not exceed 35,000. The common men are wretchedly clad , and poorly accoutred. The majority, it is said, have no other weapon than a spear. Religiov.] The inhabitants of Abyssinia chiefly consist of Chris- tians; but about one-third is composed of Mohammedans: there are also many Jews ; and the Gallas are pagans. Some ecclesiastical writers, rather from attachment to particular systems, than from any conviction that the opinion they espouse is truth, would persuade us, that the con- version of Abyssinia to Christianity happened in the days of the apostles ; but it appears that this was effected by the labors of Frumentius in the year 333, who introduced among the people the religion of the Greek church. They receive the holy sacrament in both kinds ; and they also gtnians, connec ABYSSINIA. pinctiHe circumc'iHion. Tho church h governed by a hixhop or fnotropo- litan, styled Abuna (our father), sent Ijy tho Coptic [atriarch of Alcxun- (Ina, reoidiiig at Cairo, wlio is the onlypiMKou that ordaiim jiricMtii. LiTKiiATU iiK,] With rcHpect to artH and KciencuH, th«! AbyHHiniarm am very uninformed, and will probably long continue ho, lw»lli from the form of ihuir government and their natural indolence, and from tho little inter- course they have with enlightened nationu. Lanouaoe.] a variety of languages are Hjwkenin \.h\n country. Tho Jews speak a dialect of tlie Hebrew ; the Moora, an in)pure Arabic ; tho GallaiJ have likewiBC a language of their own. The dialect of the court i« that of Amhara ; that of Tigre, liowever, approaches ncarcHt t«* the old Ethiopic, which has a considerable ainnity to the Arabic, and i«t called leihone (jeez, or the learned language, and is still used not only in reli- gitius and other books, but also in public instrunutnts and records. HisToiiY.] It is generally supposed, that Abyssinia was originally colonised by the descendants of Cush, the eldest son of Ifam; and it is said, that, when some generations had lived in caves, the increase of civilisation prompted their |)osterity, in the days of Abraham, to build the city of Axum. The next colonists are called shcphnrdii ; but, with regard to these or the former possessors of the country, we have no satis- factory information. There is reason to believe that a kingdom wa« formed in Abyssinia at a very early [)eriod ; but we may easily conclude, that the people remained for many ages in a state of barbarism and ignorance, from which, indeed, at the present day, they can scarcely be said to have emerged. It is stated, on the foundation of that slender authority which is derived from the pnitcnded Abyssinian records, that Meniiek, son of the queen of Shcba or Saba, wliose visit to Solomon is a memorable scriptural incident, was contemporary with Scsae or Sesos- trig, the ambitious and powerful king of Egypt, by whom a considcrablo part of the realm was subdued. The disgraceful yoke, however, waA shaken off by one of the subsequent princes ; and even the Romans, ia the meridian of their power, made little impression upon the Abyssiniaa territories. After the introduction of Christianity among the people, they became in some degree more civilised, according to the usual in- fluence of that religion ; but it had not its full cifect upon minds which were unprepared fur its reception. In the mean time, the political inde- pendence of the realm continued, without any extraordinary respectability of moral character, either in the higher or lower classes. After a series of obscure reigns, we hear of an expedition of the Abys- sinians, connected with what the Arabian historians call the War of the Elephant. It is aihrined, that an army invaded Arabia, under the con- duct of Abreha, who was mounted on a white elephant; that Mecca was besieged, on account of the rivalry lietween the pagan temple in that city and a religious structure founded by the Abyssinian king ; and that the invaders suffered a disastrous defeat, which was followed by the loss of all the Arabian territories dependent upon their kingdom. But they compensated this loss by successive acquisitions in Africa, so as to attain a very considerable extent of dominion. The population of Abys- sinia was occasionally augmented by the intolerant spirit of the Saracens, who, by harassing the Christians in Egypt, drove a great number into exile. A multitude of Jews, for the same reason, also settled in the kingdom. Some respectable princes arose at different times ; and the government was sometimes disgraced by men of a different character. Amda Sion, who began to reign in 1312, was a brave and wariRte priuce ; but that character algne never yet lendered a man estimable. 3Z h VI: Ntr I 1 f. 7 700 ABYSSINIA. Zarali Jacob, who wan contein|)orary with our Henry VI., was regarded by hia admiring subjects as a second Solomon, and his conduct wag deemed a model for kings: but, says Mr. Bruce, he was not Justly en- titled to that high encomium ; ibr he was so illiberal and inhuman, as to be the first prince who introduced religious persecution into the Abyssinian governntcnt : yet it ought to be added, that he .n length checked bimsc^if in his career of injustice. In a sub8e(|uent reign, the Portuguese introduced themselves to the knowlege of the king, being desirous of inquiring into the means of instituting a commercial inter- course with the Eat»t-Indie8, and of ascertaining the supposed identity of Prester (or Presbyter) John with the Abyssinian prince. That pontifi- cal character rather belonged to the grand lama of Tibet than to any African potentate ; but, when the error was discovered, it did n>it pre- vent the formation of an alliance between the princes, though the Por- tuguese iu vain endeavoured to convert the Abyssinians from the syRtem of the Greek church to Catholicism. Religious dissensions a se from this source, as both persuasions were supported by powerful partii-. : but these disputes were less injurious to the royal authority, than «: o ambi- tion of provincial governors, or the wild ferocity of the Gallas and other rude tribes, which frequently convulsed the kingdom with civil war. Even in our times, that has been the occasional state of affairs. An able prince restores the public tranquillity ; but it is again disturbed, when a feeble ruler slumbers on the throne. 7'he lawful king is master only of a part of the realm, while various chieftains domineer over the rest, NUBIA has been sometimes considered as a part of the Abyssinian empire : but, if it be not an independent state, it certainly is less mo- lested by the hostilities or the claims of the Abyssinian king, than by those of the Egyptian government. Dongola, the capital, is a large and pleasant town, though ill-built. A king of Dongola is mentioned, by Mr. Waddington, who also speaks of Tombol, the king of Nubia, and says that he was introduced to both those princes. The latter is guarded by half-naked barbarians, and is scarcely more enhghtened than the lowest of his people. His habitation is either a mud-fortress, or a hut constructed of straw and the stem and branches of the palm-tree. The men in general are ill-clad, and the majority of the women are content with a wrapper about the waist. The peoph of the north have olive complexions, expressive features, and short curled black hair, not woolly; while those of the south approach more nearly to the negro aspect. Their characters are not very estimable, and little dependence can be placed on their honor or humanity. The valley which is intersected by the Nile, continues, after passing the southern boundary of Egypt, to be confined on one side by sandy de- clivities, and on the other by precipices of granite, for many miles; but it afterwards widens, and not only exhibits pleasing traces of cultivation, but curious vestiges of antiquity. At Oufeddouni and Taifa, captain Light discovered the remains of some Christian churches on the primitive model. At the former place he found a Nubian chief; but the country, in his opinion, displayed few traces of law or government. He did not proceed so far as Mr. Waddington, who, soon after he had reached Ethio- pian ground untrodden by modern footsteps, arrived at the Pass of the Water's Mouth, where he was astonished at the grandeur and delighted with the variety of the scenery, and in his progress discovered two tem- ples and many pyramids, at £1-Berkel and Belial, which he considered ^ more ancient than those of Egypt. la one of the former buildings, INTERIOR COUNTitlES OF AFRICA. 707 y |e- r- m m ut )i- lame granite pedeatals were exceedingly well sculptured, nnd, in the chambers of the other temple, the walls were curiouHly ornamented. In the southern division of Nubia is the territory of Scnnaar, in which a Moslem chief has considerable sway, though his authority is disputed and opposed. Tlio town of that name is very populous ; the houses are formed of clay, and (except those of the great olHccrs of state) have only one story. The soil of the adjacent country is exceedingly fertile in corn and other produce; but Mr. Bruce says, t at the unctuous fatness of the earth is peculiarly unfavorable to the jjropaf^ation of animals, who can only thrive or be reared on the neighbouring sands. He allows, however, that the Nubians have an excellent breed of horses. INTERIOR COUNTRIES OF AFRICA. AS it had long been a subject of regret, that Europeans had a very imperfect knowlege of the interior of Africa, a number of leirned and opulent individuals formed themselves into a society for the encourage- ment of progressive discovery. The association was formed in the year 1788; and a committee of its members soon made choice of two persona, who seemed to be eminently qualified for making the proposed researches. One was Mr. Ledyard ; the other, Mr. Lucas. Mr. Ledyard undertook, at his own desire, the diflicult and perilous task of traversing from east to west (in the latitude attributed to the Niger) the widest part of the continent of Africa. When he reached Grand Cairo, he transmitted such accounts to hisemployers as manifested him to be one who observed, reflected, and compared ; and such was the information which he collected in that city from the slave-merchants, and from others, respecting the interior districts of Africa, that he was impa- tient to explore them. He wrote to the committee, that his next com- munication would be from Sennaar ; but death arrested him at the com- mencement of his researches. Mr. Lucas embarked for Tiipoli, with instructions to proceed over the desert to Fezzan ; but instnictions for great enterprises are more easily given than executed ; and only a small part of the plan was this geogra- phical missionary able to carry into execution. He set out, indeed, in 1789, with some native guides, and the party proceeded in a southerly direction; but an alarm suddenly arose on the fifth day of the journey, and the reported proximity of a band of roving Arabs checked the pro- gress of thi adventurers, who, abruptly returning, contented themselves yrHh reporting the intelligence which they procured from others, respect- ing Fezzan and the more southern countries. Horneman, a German adventurer, more persevering than Lucas, found an opportunity of visiting Fez/.w, in company with a party of traders from Egypt. The people, he says, are of an ordinary stature; tlicir com- plexions are of a deep brown ; their hair black and short, and their noses less flat than those of negroes. Their limbs are far from being muscular ; and their mien, walk, and every motion and gesture, denote a want of energy either of mind or body. Their dress consists of a shirt or frock, made of a coarse linen or cotton cloth brought from Cairo, and coarse woollen cloth (^ their own manufacture, called abbe. Persons of the mid- 2 Z 2 708 INTERIOR COUNTRIES OF AFRICA. die class wear frocks of dyed blue cloth. The richer people, and ihe Mamelouks of the sultan, are clothed in the Tripoline habit; over which they wear a Soudan shirt of variegated pattern and colors, and likewise the abbe. The ornamental distinctions of dress are chiefly confined to the head-dress, and to rings on the arms and legs. Women of a higher class divide their hair into curls or tresses, to which they iix pieces of coral and amber, and little silver bells. They also fasten to the top of the head silver cords, on which arc strung a number of silver rings, hanging on each side toward the shoulder. The meaner females wear merely a string of glasa beads, and curl their hair above the forehead into large ringlets, into which severally is stuifed a paste made of lavender, caraway-seeds, cloves, pepper, mastich, and laurel-leaves, mixed up with oil. The women generally have a great fondness for dancing ; and the wanton man- ners and public freedoms in which, although Mohammedans, they arc permitted to indulge, astonish the Moslem traveler. The men are^much addicted to drunkenness. Their beverage is the fresh juice of the date- tree, or an into.xicating drink prepared from dates. The commerce of Fezzan is considerable, as Mourzouk (Its capital) is a depot for the ])roductions and commodities of Egypt, Tripoli, Bornou, and Soudan. The houses in that town are constructed of clay, and have flat roofs, formed of the boughs of trees (the date and the palm), over which earth is spread. The people boast of the luimber of walled towns in their country, elevating the amount to 109. Traghan, formerly the capital of a prince who governed the eastern part of Fezzan, is famous for the manufacture of carpets, which are said to be nearly equal to those of Constantinople. Fezzan is governed by a sultan descended from the family of the sherifs. His power, over his own dominions, is unlimited ; but he holds them under a tribute to the pasha of Tripoli. The throne is hereditary ; but the crown does not, in all cases, descend directly from father to son : the eldest prince of the royal family succeeds, perhaps a nephew iu preference tu a son who is younger. This custom frequently occasions contest and bloodshed. Tlie sultan's palace is situated within the castle of Mourzouk, where he lives retired with no other inmates than the eunuchs who wait on him. His haram, occupied by a sultana and about forty slaves, is contiguous ; he never enters it ; but the female whom he at any time wishes to see is conducted to his apartment. On days of state and ceremony, his apparel consists of a large white frock or shirt of stuff, brocaded with silver and gold, or of satin, interwoven with silver. Under this frock he wears the ordinary dress of the Tripolines ; but the most remarkable appearance is that of his turban, which from the fore to the hinder part extends a full yard, and ii not less than two-thirds of a yard in breadth. His revenues arise from a tax on cultivated lands, duties on foreign trade paid by the caravans, from royal domains, and predatory exptdi- tioiis. To the south and west of Fezzan, the Tuauek tribes are dispersed over an immense space. They profess the Mohammedan religion, but are not l)igoted or intolerant. They are chiefly of an erratic description, and evince a free independent spirit. They are stouter than the wild Arabs, and have fairer com|)Iexions than tlie Fezzanese ; and the women, in particular, are lively and animated in their manners and behaviour. The travels of Mr. Mungo Park, in 1796, opened various countries to the knowlego of Europeans. Having passed through the territory of Wouli, which, he observed, was diversified with hills, dales, and woods;, and cultivateil beyond his expectations, he reached the kingdom oi INTERIOR COUNTRIES OF AFRICA. 709 BoNPor, inhabited by tribes of the Foulah race. This country appeared to him to be remarkably fertile, and the people pleased him by their mild- ness and civility. But major Gray, who lately visited Bondou, has given a better account of the region and its inhabitants than Mr. Park was enabled to communicate ; and he says, " The face of the country is in general mountainous, but particularly so in the northern and eastern parts, those mountains which are chiefly composed of rock, are small, and for the most part thinly covered with low stunted wood. The valleys, wherein are situated the towns and villages, arc for the most part cleared for the purpose of cultivation, to which the soil, being alight sand mixed with brown vegetable mould, seems well adapted. Innumerable beds of torrents intersect these valleys in all directions, and serveduring the rains, being dry at all other times, to conduct the water collected by the high grounds to the Faleme and Senegal. Great numbers of tamarinds and baobabs, and of tHe rhamnus, lotos, and other fruit- trees, are beautifully scattered over these valleys, which are rendered still more pictu.esque by the frequent appearance of a village or walled town, in whose vicinity are always anumber of cotton and indigo plantations." " The people of Bondou (says the major) are of the middle size, well made, and very active ; their skin is of a light copper color, and their faces are of ' ''■" 'i approaching nearer to those of Europe than any of the other tribes ' ' jstern Africa, the Moors excepted. Their hair too is not so short or woolly as that of the black, and their eyes are, with the advan- tage of being larger and rounder, of a better color and more expressive. The women in particular, who, without the assistance of art, might vie, in point of figure, with those of the most exquisitely fine forms in Europe, arc of a more lively disposition and more delicate form of face, than cither the Serrawollies, Mandingoes, or Jolofis. They are extremely neat in their persons and dress, and are very fond of amber, coral, and glass-beads, of different colors, with which they profusely adorn their heads, necks, wrists, and ancles ; gold and silver, too, are often formed into small buttons, which are intermixed with the former on the head, and into rings and chains worn on the wrists and ancles. They always wear a veil thrown loosely over the head : this is manufactured by themselves from cotton, and is intended to imitate thin muslin, at which they have not by any means made a bad attempt. The other parts of the dress, with few exceptions of silk and printed cotton which they obtain from the coast, are entirely of their own manufacture." In the territory of Kayaaga, according to Mr. Park, the air and climate are more pure and salubrious than at any of the settlements near the coast : the country exhibits a pleasing variety of hills and valleys, and the windings of the Senegal, which descends from the rocky hills of the interior, make the scenery on its banks very picturesque. The inhabitants are attached to commerce, and their government is a despotic monarchy. In the kingdom of Kassox, the number of towns and villages, and the extensive cultivation around them, surpassed every (hing which Mr. Park had previously seen in Africa. A gross calculation might be formed of the number of inhabitants in this delightful plain, from the fact, that the king of Kasson could raise four thousand fighting men by the sound of his war-drum. At Kemmoo, the capital of Kaauta, he had an audience of the king, who advised him to return to Kasson, telling him that it was not in his power to afford him much assistance, as all kind of communication between Kaarta and Bambarra had been interrupted by a war. He resolved, how- ever, to continue his journey ; and, in his progress, he sent presents to n 710 INTERIOR COUNTRIES OF AFRICA, All, king of LuDAMAU, requesting permission to pass through his terri- tories. Several days afterwards, one of Ali's slaves arrived with instruc' tions, as he pretended, to conduct him ns far as Gnomba ; but, before he arrived there, he was seised by a party of Moors, who conveyed him to Benoum. The king detained him a prisoner more than three months; but he found means to make his escape, in the confusion which ensued in consequence of the success of the king of Knarta, who liad invaded the country. His joy at his escape, he tells us, it is impossible to describe ; but he soon found that his real situation was distressful in the extreme: he was in tho midst of a barren wilderness; and, after traveling a long time, exposed to the burning heat of the sun, reflected with double violence from the hot sand, his suffering from thirst became so intolerable, that he fainted on the sand, and expected the immediate approach of death, Nature, however, resumed its functions : he continued his peregrinations, and at length beheld the Niger. " I saw," says he, " with infinite pleasure, the great object of my mission — the long-sought for, majestic Niger, glittering to the morning sun, as broad as the Thames at West- minster, and flowing slowly to the eastward. I hastened to the brink, and, having drunk of the Water, lifted up my fervent thanks in prayer to the Great Ruler of all things, for having thus far crowned my endeavours with success.'' Having settled that long-disputed point, he proceeded to Sego, the capital of Bambakka, which he thus describes : — "Sego, pro- perly speaking, consists of four distinct towns; two on the nurthein bunk of the Niger, and two on the southern. They are all surrounded with high mud walls; the houses are built of clay, of a square form, with flat roofs; some of them have two stories, and many of tliem are wliite- washed. Bet^ide these buildings, Moorish mosques are seen in every quarter ; and the streets, though narrow, are broad enough for every useful purpose, in a country where wheel-carriages are entirely unknown. From the best inquiries I could make, I have reason to believe that Sego contains about thirty thousand inhabitants. The view of this extensive city, the numerous canoes upon the river, the crowded population, and the cultivated Ptaie of the surrounding country, formed a prospect of civi- lization and magniticence which 1 little expected to find in the bosom of Airica. But, when he had advanced to Silla, his progress was unfortunately stopped by the tropical rains, the low state of his finances, and other dif- ficulties ; and he terminated his travels to the eastward, " at a point (says major Rennell) more than sixteen degrees east of Cape Verd, and precisely in the same parallel. The line of distance arising from this difference of longitude, is about 941 geographical miles, or 1090 British, within the western extremity of Africa ; a point which, although short by two hundred miles of the desired station, Timbuctoo, was far beyond what any other European was known to have reached." A second journey of exploration was undertaken by Mr. Park in 1805, at the request of the British ministry. With a party of soldiers from the garrison of Goree, and a few artificers, he again directed his adven- turous course to the eastward, passed through the sylvan wilderness of Tenda, crossed the Falemo, reached the gold pits of Dindikno, and be- held with delight the villages romantically built in the mountainous glens of Konkodoo : but, when he approached the Niger, his prospect was gloomy and ominous. Of thirty-eight men who had accompanied him, many had fallen victims to fatigue and indisposition ; others were unable to proceed ; and he was almost deserted when he arrived at Snn- saodin, whence he intended to fMa doij'n the river, imagbing that it If might lead him ous voyage, but, In an Arabic Youri in the kii their vessel stri states, that they dangered, and Mr. Park and I: Of the far-fa we would gladi,'' authorities by w meats have bee advocates of di Mr. Park and 1 sible accounts o timony; but, at raontade of the cities and town and Cairo, we ( than his penetri It appears, f was founded a were warlike pr they had a aph try flourish. African discove were never tern the reports. interior; and 1 name ; but, fro that it will not Before eithe derable kingdc with the trade The dimension tion is between many parts co of the land from the midc face of the camels, horsei hyenas, wolvi quent, go, ac< The populatio Cobbe, the ci tants. This and the housi tion of groun houses are of of plaster, ani people is mo' tised by the ously. But lying, cheati No property, CO INTERIOR COUNTRIES OF AFRICA. 711 might lead him into the kingdom of Congo. He commenced his hazard- ous voyage, but, as we believe, perished in his progress. In an Arabic document, it is stated tliat some Cliristians arrived at Youri in the kingdom of Yaour, and afterwards reached Boussa, where their vessel struck upon a rock, and all jjcrished. Another account states, that they were attacked by the natives when they were thus en- dangered, and forcibly drowned. If either of these statements be true?, Mr. Park and his companions may have been the; unfortunate suil'erera. Of the far-famed city of Timbuc.too, the object of anxious research, we would gladly give a detailed account, if we could depend upon the authorities by which it is ostensibly supported. J.oose and vague state- ments have been given with an affectation of accuracy; and the zealous advocates of discovery liavc listened to every idle and improbable tale. Mr. Park and Mr. Jackson gratified the ea<^iirness of inquiry with plau- sible accounts of the town and its dependencies, founde;! on hearsay tes- timony; but, as the latter |.9ntleman gave credit to the absurd rhodo- raontade of the Jenne negroes, who mentioned tlie existence of 1200 cities and towns on or near the banks of the Nile, be'wcf.'ii Timbuctoo and Cairo, we cannot refrain from observing, that his credulity is greater than his penetration or judgement. It appears, from Leo Africanus, that, in the year 121J, a kingdom was founded at Timbuctoo by a Moorish ciiiei'; that some of its rulers were warlike princes, and extended their frontiers in all directions ; that they had a splendid court, encouraged commerce, and made their coun- try flourish. When the Portuguese were prosecuting their career of African discovery, they received pompous accounts of the kingdom, but were never tempted to s'certain, by ocular evidence, the authenticity of the reports. Other visitants of the coast were equally negligent of the interior; and Timbuctoo contirmes to be knt)wn to Europeans only by name ; but, from the increasing eagerness for its discovery, it is probable that it will not much longer elude research. Before either of Mr. Park's journeys excited public curiosity, a consi- derable kingdom was discovered by Mr. Browne. From Egypt he went with the traders to the south-west, in 1793, and reached D.iH-Fouii. The dimensions of this country cannot be inecisely stated ; but its situa- tion is between Kordofan and Bergou, to the west of Abyssinia. It is in many parts covered with wood. During the dry season, the appearance of the land is sterile ; but the rains which fail here for three months from the middle of June, in greater or less (juantity, suddenly invest the face of the country with a delightful verdure, 'i'he tame animals are camels, horses, sheep, oxen, and dogs; the wild ones, lions, leopards, hyenas, wolves, jackals, and elephants, "'iiich, in the places they fre- quent, go, according to report, in large herds of four or five hundred. The population of the country Mr. Browne estimated at 200,000 souls : Cobbe, the capital, he thought, did not contain more than GOOO inhabi- tants. This town is more than two miles in length, but very narrow j and the houses, each of which occupies within its enclosure a large por- tion of ground, are divided by considerable wasted. The walls of the houses are of clay, and the people of higher rank cover them with a kind of plaster, and color them white, red, and black. The disposition of the people is more cheerful than that of the Egyptians. Dancing is prac- tised by the men a« well as the women, and they often dance promiscu- ously. But their gaiety is attended with dishoncc^y ; and the vices of lying, cheating in bargains, and pilfering, are here almoat universal. jS'o property, whether considerable or trifling, is safe out of the owner '• r ''5 712 INTERIOR COUNTRIES OF AFRICA. sight. The people are also very licentious in sexual intercourse. Po- lygamy is freely practised, as no limitation checks it; and matrimonial infidelity is not deemed criminal or disgraceful. But, though the women are objects of love and regard, they are not particularly favored in other recpects. To them are assigned the most laborious employments: they till the ground, gather corn, make bread, and even build houses. The government is desjwtic, though the monarch can do nothing con- trary to the Koran. He speaks of the soil and productions as his per- sonal property, and of the people as his slaves. His revenues arise from the tenth of all merchandise imported ; the tribute of the Arabs who breed camels and cattle ; and some other duties : he is also the chief merchant in the country, and despatches with every caravan a great quantity of his own commodities. The misfortunes of Mr. Park ^nd his companions did not deter the ministry from farther attempts for th>' exploration of Africa. Captain Tuckey, an otficer of great nerit, unJertook the task of ascendiog tlic Zair or Congo river, in the hope of meeting another party, which, under the conduct of major Peddic, would follow the course of the Nij^er. When the captain and his associates had reached Shark-Point, tliey were molested with visitants from Embomma, who intimated the readi- ness of the chief to forward their enterprise; but this was a mere com- pliment, as it did not appear that he had suiHcient sense to comprehend the nature of a scientific expedition ; for he thought that strangers could only come to make war, or for the purpose of trading. While the party remained in this neighbourhood, it was observed that the chief ob- jects of culture were maize, beans, and tobacco ; that sugar-canes were not wholly neglected, and salt was an article cf trade ; that the cotton plant giew wild ; that the only native fermented li(,uor was aftorded by the palm-tree ; and that agricultural labors were performed entirely by females. Beyond Noki, the navigation was so obstructed by whirlpools and ledges of rocks, that the boats could not proceed ; and the rugged nature of the countrj- prevented the party from dragging them by land to a place where the river might again become navigable. Marching over steep hills, an4 through deep ravines, the fatigued and unaccom- modated strangers reached a point at which the river seemed to be free from obstruction; and, having procured two canoes, embarked with re- novated confidence. But illness soon diffused its appalling ravages : some of the captain's chief assistants were sent down the river in a very invalid state ; and, the party being reduced to a wreck, no hope of suc- cess remained. This disappointment hastened the death of the unfortu- nate leader, who declined into a state of debility, and at length expired from mere exhaustion. Major Peddie's expedition was likewise dis- astrous. When he had arrived at Kakundi, a fever put an end to his life ; and captain Campbell, who succeeded him in the direction of the enterprise, advanced to the eastward, until he was slopped by a Foulah chief, under the pretence of a war in the interior ; and he died soon after his return to the coast. Captain Lyon did not even reach the extremity of Fezzan ; but Horne- man proceeded as far to the southward as the tenth degree of nr>rthern latitude: yet, as his progress to that extent (though undoubted) has not been specifically described, all the credit of the recent information is due to to major Denham and captain Clapperton, who reached Musfeia, which is situated about nine degrees to the northward of the equator. They passed from Tripoli, through Fezzan and a sandy desert, to the Tin boo territory, and were met near Bilna (the capital) by the sultan, about fifty spear-roen, IM and a hundred ; singing anddanci low walls of nuu nished with the i which they find i tall; have sharp are lively and ac the Arabs. Arriving in th the strangers n inthebestof whi For a long time they now found reached Kouka, then resided, with a favorable BoiiNOO is c northern latitud the eastward it thousand miles March to the e mometer freque light, when it s lightening is p occur, and the which is the m ' breezes then re during the dar numbers in eve As the Bor profit by that country. Yet i of millet (the > The only imp made from th< of their wrctcl of their grain on the earth ; and indigo grf are very scar( attend more t burthen chief and distincti( major) " is a about the si; partridges v« ostrich, the Balearic era the crane sp the Guinea season appr tiger-cat in the hyena, gray, and 1 near the To INTERIOR COUNTRIES OF AFRICA. 7] 8 and a hundred wo.nen, wlio amused themselves and the strangers by singing and dancing. The town stands in a liollow, and is surrounded by low walls of mud; tie inhabitants are poorly lodged, and scantily fur- nished Avith the necessaries of life, though they carry on a trade in salt, which they find in the neighbouring lakes. They arc well-made, but not tall ; have sharp copper-colored faces, large eyes, and flat noses ; they are lively and active, but not so bold or courageous as the Tuareks or the Arabs. Arriving in the Kanem territory, a province of the empire of Bornou, the strangers rested at a town consisting of ciroilar rush-built huts, in the best of which are two apartments, divided by mat-work for each sex. For a long time they had not been accustomed to the sight of trees ; but they now found themselves in a well-wooded country. At length they reached Kouka, where the emperor, who is styled the Sheik of Spears, then resided. To this prince tliey were introduced in form, and honored with a favorable reception. Bornou is comprehended between the tenth and fifteenth degrees of northern latitude, and the twelfth and eighteenth of eastern longitude. To the eastward it is bounded by the Lake Tchad, wliich covers several thousand miles of country, and contains many inhabited islands. From March to the end of .June, the heat of the climate is excessive, the ther- mometer frequently rising to 1 07 degrees, except a few hours before day- light, when it sinks to 8t). In May there are violent tempests, and the lightening is particularly mischievous. In .luly, almost continual rains occur, and the lakes and rivers overflow to a great extent. The winter, which is the most agreeable season, commences in October, and the cool breezes then restore health and strength to the people, who suffer severely during the damp weather from fevers and agues, which carry oflf great numbers in every year. As the Bornouese are not very industrious, they do not sufficiently profit by that fertility which their soil possesses in many parts of the country. Yet they raise some wheat, barley, maize, rice, a great quantity of millet (the chief food of the common people), and four species of beans. The only implement of husbandry which they use, is an ill-shaped hoe, made from the iron found in the mountains of Mandara; and the labors of their wretched agriculture devolve almost entirely on the women. Most of their grain is reaped within two or three months of its being scattered on the earth ; for the operation can scarcely be called sowing. Cotton and indigo grow wild ; and the latter is of a superior quality. Fruit-trees are very scarce, and their produce is far from being excellent. The people attend more to the rearing of cattle than to agriculture. The beasts of burthen chiefly used are the ox and the ass. Only persons of opulence and distinction have camels in their possession. — " Tlie game" (says the major) " is abundant, and consists of antelopes, gazelles, hares, an animal about the size of a red deer, %vith annulated horns, called koorigum, partridges very large, small grouse, wild ducks, geese, snipes, and the ostrich, the flesh of which is much esteemed. Pelicans, spoonbills, the Balearic crane, in great numbers, with a variety of other large birds of the crane species, are also found in the marshes. The woods abound with the Guinea fowl. The wild animals are, the lion, which in the wet season approaches the walls of the towns, panthers, and a species of tiger-cat in great numbers in the neighbourhood of Mandara, the leopard, the hyena, the jackal, the civet cat, the fox, hosts of monkeys, black, gray, and brown, and the elephant ; the last so numerous as to be seen near the Tchad in herd^ of from fifty to four hundred. This noble animal <« 714 INTERIOR COUNTRIES OF AFRICA. IN they hunt, and kill for the sake of his flesh, as well as the ivory of hit tusk. The buffalo, the flesh of which is a delicacy, has a high gaiiiu flavor. 'J'hc crocodile and the hippopotamus are also miuierous, and the flesh of both is eaten. That of the crocodile is extremely fine: it has a greeu firm fat, resembling the turtle, and tlie callipue has the color, flmi* ness, and flavor of the finest veal. The giraffe is secu and killed by the buffalo hunters in the woods and marshy grounds near the Tchad. 'I'hc iii> sects and reptiles consist of scorpions, centipedes, and disgusting Inrge toads, serpents of several kinds, and a suake said to bo harmless, of the Congo kind, sometimes measuring fourteen feet in length." Many of the towns are surrounded by thick walls; and the houses of the higher class (says major Denhaui), more particularly at Kouka, hav(; several court-yards, about which arc rooms for slaves: they have also an interior court, leading to the habitations oi the different wives, who liuvi>, respectively, a square walled space and a thatched hut. Thence a stair- case leads to the apartments of the gentleman himself, which consist of two buildings like turrets, with a terrace of couimunicatioit botwucn tlicni affording a view into the street from u castellated window. The walls uru made of reddish clay, as smooth ns stucco, and the roofs are tastefully arched with branches, and thatched with a species of grass. The horns of the antelope serve as substitutes lor nails or pegs, and on them ant hung quivers, bows, spears, and shields. Huts of mud, straw, and matting, without chimneys or windows, are the wretched lodgings of the peoipe in general. They sleep on mats, or on rushes, and they cover their beds, which are sometimes elevated on six or more poles or posts, with the skins of various animals. Their most common utensils are well-made earthen pots and wooden bowls : they drink water (their only beverage) out of a large gourd. They have no coin in use, their circulating medium being strips of cotton. Of conversation they are so fond, that they meet in the evening either in the court-yard of some great house, or under the shade of mats in the open places of the town, where prayers are said at certain hours by the imam. Among their amusements they have a game resembling clu'ss, which they play with beans, making twelve holes in the sand for that purpose. The Arabs have a game similar to this; but they are far from being such skihul players as the Bornouese. Tlie people of Dornou (properly so called, as the empire contains several subject nations) have large unmeaning faces, with the usual Negro nose, mouths of great dimensions, good teeth, and high foreheads. They are in general peaceable (says the major), quiet, and civil ; " they salute each other with courteousness and warmth ; and there is a remarkable good- natured heaviness about them which is interesting." He adds, that they arc extremely timid , and no warriors ; yet it appears that the sheik has profited in no small degree by their military services. The women are almost as ugly as the men ; and their custom of ta> tooing does not increase their attractions in the eyes of strangers ; for they have twenty cuts or lines on each side of the face, one on tlie forehead, six on each of their arms, legs and thighs, four on each breast, and nine on each hip ; nor do they dress their hair in a becoming manner ; for it is brought over the top of the head in three or more thick rolls, covered with bees'-wax and tinged with indigo — a dye which they also use for their eye-brows, hands, arms, feet, and legs, while they give the red tint of henna to their nails and their palms. Though their appearance is not liandsome or elegant, they have two good qualities : they are " particularly cleanly," and also the " most humble of females, never approaching their husbands except on their knees, or speaking to any of the male sex, other- wits than kneelii the matrimonial obedient women, thBtBpe«;iesof c capital punishmj times hanged or The Bornouef three wives at i storing the dow general, con ten and the bride n gees justice doi among the rich, the sheik espoui fixed at the pn forces of the i wretches were sold as slaves. The usual ( tobet, or garmi and the womei tightly round lower down: v A man of rani bare-headed, encourage its ( of the undres! There is no the will of thi questionably < dations shouU as in Great-R manity, one \ missed from " Repeated 1 or by buryini above gnmn( eighteen hou mosquitoes, however, of Judge himse When a n)a pushing his the demand, however, t withheld, which trou seldom find other hand, his poverty means ; ' — to trade wli him with e all superflu pf bis debi INTERIOR COUNTRIES OF AFRICA. 716 wi«e than kneeling with tlie head and fare covered ; and, when summoned to tlie matrimonial bed, they invarial)ly enter at tiie foot." Such modest and obedient women, we may suppose, do not often deviate into adultery. From thatspec.ieBof criminality tliey uro indeed Htrongly deterred by the ri|{orsof capital punishment; and unmarried women ofloose characters arc also some- times hanged or strangled hy the rigid inhumanity of the arbitrary sheik. The Bornouese, even of the higher class, rarely have more than two (jr three wives at a time ; and they divorce these at their pleasure, on re- storing the dowry which they received. I'ersons of inferior rank are, in general, content with one wife. Before marriage, both the bridegroom and the bride name an arbitrator who, in case of subsequent disagreement, gees justice done to the aggrieved individual, The matrimonial portion, among the rich, partly consists of HJaves ; and it is remarkable that, when the sheik espoused the daughter of a neighbouring prince, the dowry was fixed at the produce of an expedition which was to be undertaken by the forces of the allied barbarians; and the result was, that at)out 3000 wretches were dragged from their homes by the ruthan marauders, and sold as slaves. The usual dress of a Bornoueso man consists of one, two, or three tohei, or garments resembling shirts, according to the means of the wearer ; and the women appear in a cotton or linen turkadi or wrapper, drawn tightly round the body, and reaching from the bosom to the knees ur lower down : when a second is worn, it is flung over the head and shoulders. A man of rank wears a cap, while the generality of the people go alMUt bare-headed. The men keep the head free from hair, while the women encourage its growth. Both sexes wear sandals, some of leather, others of the undressed hide. There is no regular code of law in the empire ; and much depends on the will of the sovereign. All who arc guilty of nmrder are (as they un- questionably ought to be) put to death ; but thieves, even if their depre- dations should be frequent and considerable, are not so severely punished as in Great-Britain, v-here, without regard either to good sense or to hu- manity, one who robs another to a certain and even a small amount is dis- missed from tlie world by the remorseless vengeance of the law — " Repented thefts (says Mr. Denham) are punished by the loss of a hand, or by burying the young Spartan, if he be a beginner, with only his head above gnmnd, well buttered or honeyed, and so exposing him, fur twelve or eighteen hours, to the torture of a burning sun, and innumerable flies and mosquitoes, who all feast on him undisturbed. 'Ihese punit^hments are, however, often commuted for others of a more lenient kind. Even the judge himself has a strong fellow-feeling for a culprit of this description. When a iqan refuses to pay his debts, and has the means, on a creditor pushing his claims, the cadi takes possession of the debtor's property, pays the demand, and takes a handsome centage forhis trouljje. It is necessary, however, that the debtor should give his consent ; but this is not long withheld, as he is pinioned and laid on his back until it is given ; for all which trouble and restiveness, he pays handsomely to the cadi: and thejr seldom find that a man gets into a scrape of this kind twice. On the other hand, should a man be in debt, and unable to pay, on clearly proving his poverty, he is at liberty. The judge then says, ' God send you the means ;' — the bystanders say, ' Amen : ' and the insolvent has full liberty to trade where he pleases. But if, at any future time, his creditors catch him with even two tobes on, or a red cap, on taking him before the cadi, all iuperfluous habiliments are stripped off, and given towards the payment 9f bU debts." ii ilia 716 INTERIOR COUNTRIES OF AFRICA. Of the literature of the nation we cannot say much. The langtiago is a mixture of Arabic with some African dialects, and the clerks or scribos of the government make use of the Arabic characters. The people in general do not trouble themselves much with reading or writinj,', except that they are fond of cabalistic papers or written ciiarms, in which, con- sidered as tending to procure benefit or avert evil, they are so superstitious as to place great confidence. The conduct and exploits of the present ruler of Dornou ought not to pass without notice. He was born in Fezzan, and, after visiting Egypt, l)roceeded to the Kancm territory, of which his parents were natives, and was there respected as a pious sheikh, and as a moral and upright man. Observing, with disgust and indignation, ilie prevalence of the Felatahs, a nation of Arabian origin, in Dornou, he boldly advanced against tliem and obtained such advantages over them as enabled him to acquire the chief sway. He then placed on the throne the brother of a former sultan, reserving to himself the chief authority, like the peishwah in the chief Mahratta principality. He added other territories to the Bornou state, and was engaged in a new war of ambition when he was visited by the British adventurers. His force principally consists of cavalry, and is supposed to amount to ."iO.OUO men, while his infantry can scarcely be said to exceed 10,000. 'I'he chief officers, as well as his own guard, wear closely-linked jackets of iron, with scarfs over them. A powerful neighbouring prince is the sultan of Mandaha, whose people are intelligent and lively, with large sparkling eyes, wiry curled hair, and noses inclining to the aquiline form. Being harassed by the active vigoi' of the Felatahs, he found so little defence from the walls ol' his chief town against their attacks, that he built the town of Mora in a mountainous spot of great natural strength. He is also occasionally mo- lested by the Kerdies, whose tribes almost surround his dominions. The fortifications by which he endeavours to secure his country consist of pa- lisades well pointed, and fastened together with thongs of raw hide, six feet high, extending from one hill to another. Mandara is a fine romantic country. I'he scenery is, in many parts, rich and beautiful; lofty peaks appear with clustering villages on their atony sides : even some of the valleys have an elevation superior to that of any part of the Bornou territory, and they abound with fruit-trees, aromatic plants, and flowers. The hills extend in apparently inter- minable ridges to the east and west, and, to the south, rocky mountains spread themselves out in almost every picturesque form that can be imagined. Iron is found in the hills in great plenty; and hinges, small bars, hoes, and other useful articles, arc not only made for the immediate use of the Mandarese, but are sent for sale to the towns of Bornou. To the south of the lake Tchad is the kingdom of LoociouN. Its capital, Kernouk, stands on the hanks of the Shari, has high walls, and contains a population of about 15,000. The principal street is very wide, and has large houses on each side, built with great uniformity, (ach having a court-yard in front, and a handsome entrance by a strong door hasped with iron. The people are more intelligent and industrious than the Bornouese, and the women, in particular, are very lively and agreeable. Several branches of manufacture are carried on by both sexes with great spirit and success. They make neat tobes or shirts of linen, to which they give a fine gloss ; and to their cotton they impart that deep blue dye which is admired by the African tribes. On the frontiers of this country, and in many other parts of central Africa, the Siiouaas arc found in great numbers. They are apparently men, while th INTERIOR COUNTRIES OF AFRICA. ni of Arabian descent ; but (says the major) they have scarcely any resem- blance to the Arabs who are found in the north of Africa. They have fine open countenances, with aquiline noses and large eyes ; their com- plexion is a light copper color ; they possess great cunning with their courage, are great charm-writers, and, by pretending to a natural gift of prophecy, find an easy entrance into the houses of the black inhabitants of the towns, where they often show their pilfering propensities. Tliey bear, indeed, a strong resemblance, both in features and habits, to the gypsies of England . Eager for additional exploration, the British adventurers directed their course to the kingdom of Houssa, in the territory of Sou dam. In their way to it, they visited the province of Katagoum, subject to the sheik of Bornou. The city of that name was the strongest that they had seen since they left Tripoli ; and some of its houses, though built of clay, were superior to any which he had seen in Central Africa. The fields and villages also exhibited appearances of industry and comfort. Houssa likewise smiled with cultivation ; the markets in the towns were well supplied, and trade appeared to be brisk. Kano, the great emporium of the kingdom, appeared to him to contain above 30,000 inhabitants. The governor's mansion resembled a walled village, and within the enclosure \vii3 a mosque. Many of the houses, which in general were built of clay, were neat, clean, and commodious. " The market-place (says captain Clapperton) is filled with stalls of bamboo, laid out in regular streets. Here are displayed scissors and knives of native workmanship ; crude antimony and tin, both the produce of the country ; unwrought silk of a red color, which the people make into belts and slings, or weave in stripes with cotton into the finest tobes ; beads of glass, coral, and amber ; bracelets of brass, rings of ])ewter, and a few silver trinkets; sword- blades from Malta ; tobes, turkadis, and turban shawls ; coarse woollen and calico; Moorish dresses; pieces of Egyptian linen, checked or striped with gold ; French writing-paper, brought from Barbary, and many other articles of traffic." A market for slaves of both sexes, ano- ther for all sorts of corn and fruit, and one also for cattle, are holden near the same spot, numerously attended, and admirably regulated. In this town and neighbourhood, " the unmarried girls, whether slaves or free, and likewise the young unmarried men, wear a long apron of blue and white check, with a notched edging of red woollen cloth. It is tied with two broad bands, ornamented in the same way, and hanging down behind to the ancles. This fashion is ])eculiar to Sou- dan, and forms the only distinction in dress from the people of Bornou. Both men and women color their teeth and lips with the flowers of the gourji (a dwarfish kind of oak) and of the tobacco plant. These flowers give a blood-red tinge, which is here thought a great beauty. — SnufF, instead of being taken in our way, is chewed by both sexes in Soudan, and only by the men in Bornou. Smoking is the general practice of the men, Avhile the women are debarred from it." Proceeding to Sackatoo, the chief town in the territory of Bello, sul- tan of the Felatahs, king of Houssa, and the most powerful prince in Soudan, the captain was delighted with the appearance of the country, some parts of which renjinded him of the parks of the English gentry. He had several friendly conferences with the sultan, whom he found willing to form an amicable connexion with Great-Britain, and who requested that a consul and a physician might be sent from our country to reside among his people. Sackatoo (says the captain) " occupies a long ridge which elopes 718 INTERIOR COUNTRIES OF AFRICA. gently toward the north, and is apparently more populous than any other town which I visited in the interior of Africa ; for, unlike most other towns in Houssa, where the houses are thinly scattered, it is laid out in regular well-built streets. The houses approach close to the walls, which Were built by the present sultan in 1818, the old walls being too confined for the increasing population. The new wall is between twenty and thirty feet high, and has twelve gutes, which are regularly closed at sun- set. There are two large mosques, beside several other places for prayer. There is a spacious market-place in the centre of the city, and another large square in front of the sultan's residence. The dwellings of the principal people are surrounded by high walls, which enclose numer- ous huts and flat-rnot'ed houses, built in the Moorish style, whose lart^e water-spouts of b; clay, projecting from the eaves, resemble at the first sight a tier of L,uns. The inhabitants are principally Felatahs, a brave and active race, and possess numerous slaves, to whom they are not nnkind. Such of the latter as are not employed in domestic duties, re- side in houses by themselves, where they follow various trades, of which the master, in course, reaps the profit. Their usual employments are weaving, house-building, shoe^making, and iron- work. Those who are occupied in raising grain and tending cattle, of which the Felatahs havn immense herds, reside in villages out of the city. It is customary for private individuals to free a number of slaves every year, according to their means, during the great feast after the close of Lent. The enfran- chised seldom return to their native country, but co.U!nue to reside near their old masters, still acknowleging them as their superiors, and pre- senting them yearly with a portion of their earnings. In this town the necessaries of life are very cheap ; butchers' meat is in great plenty, and very good. The exports are principally civet and blue check tobes, which are manufactured by the slaves from NyHi, of whom the men are considered the most expert weavers in Soudan, and the women the best spinners. The common imports are large nuts brought from the borders of Ashantee ; also coarse calico and woollen cloth in small quantities, brass and pewter dishes, and some few spices. The Arabs from Tripoli bring unwrought silk, perfumes, and spices ; and slaves are both exported and imported. A great quantity of Guinea corn is taken every year by the Tuareks, in exchange for salt. On the north side of the tow n there is a low marsh, with some stagnant pools ; and this is perhaps the cause of the great prevalence of ague, as the city stands in a fine airy situa- tion." Such is the most material part of the information which we have de- rived from the late travels in Central Africa. The disordered state of the country, and other circumstances, diverted the two officers (after they had lost their friend Dr. Oudney by an illness which all his skill could not cure) from the prosecution of their interesting journey. By reaching Sackatoo, they penetrated (according to the major's account) within 400 miles of Silla, the place at which Mr. Park htopped ; but they had no opportunity of tracing the course of the Niger, or or discovering either the place of its rise or its mouth. It probably turns to the southward after a long course toward the east, and may perhaps flow into the Bight of Benin. of 1815. Near 719 THE WESTERN COAST OF AFRICA. PROCEEDING to the southward from the frontiers of Morocco, we pans the western extremity of the Sahara or Desert, which extends from Biledulgerid over an immenso space in almost every direction. We may here observe, tliat, to the soutiiward of tlie Algerine and Tunisian terri- tories, a sandy and iiarren country, wliich few tribes inhabit, is called Biled' ulgcrid (eitlier tlic Land of Dates, or the Dry Country) : it is not destitute of rivulets, and springs are found by digging; but it seldom rains, and the drought precludes the production of corn. The Sahara has been termed " a vast sea of lifLJess sand," and also a •• prodigious expanse of red sand and sand-stone rock ;" and the interspersed oases are not very numerous or extensive. The tribes which occupy the country nearest to the western coast, are the Monselemines, Mongearts, Wadelims, Labdessebahs, and Trasarts, who extend nearly to the mouth of the river Senegal, where the French had a fort and factory, and were entire masters of the gum-trade. It is called Furt-Louis ; was taken by the English in 1758, and confirmed to them by the peace.of 1763, and also by the treaty of 1815. Near Cape Verd isthe island of Goree, considered as one of the safest and most pleasant settlements in all A frica : it is now subject to France. Tothesouthwardof the same cape is the settlement of Sierra- Leone, formed from the purest motives of humanity, under the patronage of a respectable society of gentlemen in London, in the year 1 79 1 . The benevolent purposes for which it was intended are, to introduce the light of knowlege and the conaforts of civilisation into Africa, and to cement and perpetuate the most confidential union between the European colony and the natives of that country. In 1794, a French squadron attacked this settlement, carried off or destroyed all the stores and whatever they could find belonging to the company, and burned all the public buildings and houses of the Europeans. The colony, however, has not been abandoned ; but the spot is so un-> healthy, that its European population is very scanty. It is now chiefly inhabited by many thousands of negroes, who have been rescued by British humanity from the hands of the Spanish and Portiiguese ruffians, who continue that abominable traffic in slaves which the general voice of Europe has indignantly condemned. A settlement of a similar nature was formed on the fertile island of Bulam, belonging to the Bissago groupe. It was ceded, in 1792, by the king of a neighbouring island ; but many of the colonists were massacred by the natives of the shore at the mouth of the river Gambia, who were accustomed to make annual plantationsof rice in Bulam ; and the survivors took refuge among their countrymen at Sierra Leone. This insular groupe claims transient notice. Sixteen of the islands are considerably larger than the rest ; and Bissao, in particular, is said to be forty miles in length, and thirty in breadth. It is inhabited by a hardy and warlike race, called Papels; and the Portuguese have long had settlements upon it. The Biafaras formerly occupied some of the islands ; but they were expelled by the superior courage and more turbulent sjdrit of the Bissagoes or Bijugas. Guinea comprehends the grain-coast, the ivory-coast, the gold- coast, the slave coast (which includes Whidah and Ardrah, now subject to Dahomi), and Benin. The principal kingdom, in this part, ifl Dahomi, the monarch of which 6ul)dued and annexed to his do- flunions Whidah and Ardrah, between the years 1724 and 1727, The ?20 WESTERN COAST OF AFRICA. country of Dahonii is Hupposod to reach from tlio coast about iTiO or 200 miles inland. Its soil is a deep licli clay of a reddish color, ^vitll a little sand on the surface. It produces inaixc and millet, (iiiiiica* corn, and several species of beans. 'I'lie people cultivate yams, potiitocs of two sorts, the cassuda or manioc: the plantain and the hiinann, |)iiM'- apples, melons, oranges, limes, gtiavas, and other tropical fruits, alfsit abound in this fertile country, which likewise supplies ))roduction8 adapted for commerce and manufactures ; such as indigo, cotton, the BU};:ir-cune, tobacco, palm-oil, and a variety of spices, particularly a species of pejjpcr very similar in flavor, and indeed scarcely distinguishable from the black pepper of the East Indies. Dahomi abounds with buffaloes, deer, sheep, goats, hogs both wild and domestic, poultry of various kinds, particularly Guinea-fowl, and ducks like those ot Russia. The elephant is uspd as food by the natives, and dogs are reared for the same purpose. The dross of the men consists of a pair of striped or white cotton drawers of tlio manufacture of the country, over which they wear a large square cloth of the same, or of European manufacture. This cloth is about the size of a common counterpane for the middling class, but much larger for the grandees. It is wrapped about the loins, and tied on the left side by two of the corners, the other hanging down, and sometimes trailing on the ground. A piece of silk or velvet, of sixteen or eighteen yards, makes a cloth for n grandee. The head is usually covered with a beaver or felt hat, according to the quality of the wearer. A hat, enriched with gold and silver lace, and decorated with a feather, is thought too fine for any person except the king and some of his ministers. The arms and upper part of the body are usually naked : and the feet are always bare, none but the sovereign being permitted to wear sandals. The dress of the women, though simple, consists of a greater number of articles than that of the men. They use several cloths and handkerchiefs ; some to wrap round the loins, and others to cover occasionally the breast, and the upper part of the body. They adorn the neck, arms, and ancles, with beads and cowries, and wear rings of silver or of base metals on their fingers : girls, before the age of puberty, wear nothing but a string of beads or shells round their loins, and young women usually ex|)ose their bosoms. The general character of the Uahomese is marked by a mixture of ferocity and politeness. The former appears in the treatment of their enemies : the latter they possess far above the African nations with whom we have hitherto had any intercourse ; this being the country where strangers are least exposed to insults, and where it is easiest to reside in security and tranquillity. The language is that which the Portuguese call Linr/ua Gernl, or General Tongue, and is spoken not only in Da- homi Proper, but in Whidah, and the other dependent states. With re- spect to the religion of the people, it consists of a jumble of superstitious ceremonies, of which it is impossible to convey any satisfactory idea. The government is perfectly despotic; the policy of the country admits no degree of subordination between the king and a slave, at least in the royal presence, where the prime minister is obliged to prostrate himself with as much abject submission as the meanest subject. A u)inister of state, on his entrance, crawls toward the apartment of audience on his hands and knees, till he a])pears before the king ; he then lays himself flat on his belly, rubbing his head in the dust, and uttering the most humiliating expressions. Being desired to advance, he receives orders, or communicates any particular business, still continuing prostrate, for no person is permitted to sit, even on the floor, in the king's presence, except the women, and even they must ki^ ilie ground when they, rtcelve or dellvi standing army, c nate military offii upon all occasio these troops chi( they are engage) bear arms are (i ceer or grander the king takes tl ciea, at the hea( palaces in Daho dreds of whom ordinate officers under the agac through their ev They have large gical instrument The As II AN I homi and the n even by name I loosely and vag cipalities in tril king's sway, he in 1806, advan( routed body of the approach ol into forbearanc inhabitants (chi with such deter after suffering invasion was n petrated upon t were nearly re (commonly cal coast, was bloc resolved, in 18 liate their mon hazardous mis they were met a kind of mili< were astonishc offered valnab establishment been instilled tiation ; and 1 treaty was coi The limits to be an extei and, from eas and regularly springs, tliat a fine forest, and four miU of the houses with clay. WESTERN COAST OF AFRICA. 721 feceive or deliver a royal mcssagcf. The king nmintaiim a considerable stnndiiisf army, commanded by an ai,'aow or general, with Beveral siihordi- natemiiitary officers, who must hold thom8<:lv«-H in readiness to take the field upon all occasions, at the command of llie Hoveroign. The payment of these troops chiefly dnpcinds on the succefis of the expeditions in which they are engaged. On extraordinary occasions, ail tlie males able to bear arms arc obliged to repair to the geiicrurN standard, every cabo- ceer or grandee marching at the head of iiis own people. Sometimes the king takes the field at the head of IiIh troopH, and, on great emergen^ ciea, at the head of his women. Within the walls of the different royal palaces in Dahomi, are confined some thousands of women, several hun- dreds of whom are trained to arms under a female general, and sub- ordinate officers appointed by the king, in the same manner as those under the agaow. These warriors are regularly exercised, and go through their evolutions with as much expertness us the male soldiers. They have large umbrellas, flags, drums, trumpets, flutes, and other mu- sical instruments. The AsiiANTKE or Assentai kingdom, situated to the west of Da- homi and the north of the Gold Coast, was not known to Kuropcang even by name before the beginning of the last century. It was thea loosely and vaguely mentioned as a powerful state, having inferior prin- cipalities in tributary subjection : but, notwithstanding the extent of the king's sway, he was wholly uiiactjuainted with the coast, when his army, in 1806, advanced to the Dutch fort of Cormantine, in the pursuit of a routed body of Fantees. The British governor of Aiiamabo, alarmed at the approach of the invaders, in vain endeavoured f* soothe the king into forbearance. The town was stormed, and some thousands of the inhabitants (chiefly Fantees) were massacred : but tl e fort was defended with such determined spirit by a very small garrison, that the enemy, after suffering considerable loss, retreated in confusion. In HJll, the invasion was renewed; and, in I81G, such dreadful cni.'-i'ies were per- petrated upon the w retched Fantees, that the remains of the jjopulation were nearly reduced to absolute despair. Kven the fort of Cape-Corse (commonly called Cape-Coast), the principal British station upon that coast, was blockaded by the intrepid Ashantccs; and it was therefore resolved, in 1817, that a deputation should be sent to pacify and conci- liate their monarch. Mr. Bowdich, and two associates, undertook the hazardous mission with alacrity; and, on their arrival at the chief town, they were met by 5000 persons, chiefly warriors, whose leaders performed a kind of military dance. When they were introduced to the king, they were astonished at the brilliant display of barbaric magnificence. They offered valuable presents, solicited 4iis friendship, and requested the establishment of a commercial intercourse. Some jealousy having been instilled into his breast, diificulties arose in the course of the nego- tiation ; and the gentlemen were detained for several months, before a treaty was concluded to their satisfaction. The limits of this kingdom cannot be precisely stated ; but it appears to be an extensive realm. From north to south, it may reach 350 miles, and, from east to west, 800. The metropolis, called Coumassi, is large and regularly built ; it is insulated by a marsh, which contains many springs, that supply the town with water ; and it is also encompassed by a fine forest. 'Ihe figure is oblong, and the circumference between three and four miles : the principal streets are very long and w ide. The walls of the houses are formed of stakes and v.-attle-work, filled up and coated with clay. They have gable ends, and thick poles support a frame of 3 A 722 WESTERN COAST OF AFRICA. bamboo, over wliicb interwoven pahn-lcaves are placed for thatch. In general they have only one floor* and, where thciy have two, tlie lower part is divided by a wall, to support the rafters for the upper room, wliich are usually covered with a frame-work thickly stuccoed wiih ochre. The doors consist of an entire piece of wood, cut with great labor out of the stems or buttresses of the cotton- tree ; and the wimiowK are open wood-work, carved in fanciful figures and intricate |)attorns, and painted red. " The palace (says Mr. Bowdich) is an iinuiciisc building of a variety of oblong courts and regular squares, the former with arcades along one side, some of round arciies symmetrically turned, having a skeleton of bamboo ; the entablatures exuberantly adornbd witli bold fan and trellis work of Egyptian character. They have a suite of rooms over them, with small windows of wooden lattice, of intricate but regular carved work; and some have frames cased with thin gold. The squares have a large apartment on each side, open in front, with two supporting pillars ;" and this kind niprosceiivini. is a mark of distinction ; for none but military officers, lieside the king, are permitted to build in this mode. Chairs and stools embossed with gold, and beds of bilk, are among the articles of royal furniture. The population of the capital is al)oux 15,(KiK), and that of the wliolc kingdom is perhaps one miliiujo, a fifth part of which is included in the military force. The men are well mmde, but not so muscular as tliy Fantees: the women a^e not remarKable .lor beauty; yet some luvvo fine features and expre.Ht,ive countenances. Both screes (except those of the lowest clnas) are very attentive to the neatne.->s of their persons, " the women washing themselves, and the men being washed by tlieui daily on rising, from head to foot, with warm water and Portuguese Hope, using afterward a vegetable grease or butter, which i.s a line cos- metic." The chief part of their a|)|)arel is dyed or painted cloth of tbcir own manufacture. Some wear a vcbt and a tunic ; others, particularly the slaves, are more slightly clad. 1 lead-cloths, of coarse silk, are frequently worn by the females. J'olygamy is allowed ; hut tlie peoj)Ie in general are content with numoganiy, and most of the slaves are un- married. The king is allowed by law to have 3333 wives, rather f';r the purpose of presenting one occasionally to a deserving subject, than for his exclusive gratification or domestic comfort. When they appear in public, they are preceded and surrounded by troops of boys, who clear the way with whips or thongs, and check the freedom of ocular observation. The prevailing amusements are draughts, which both negroes and Moors play well, and worra, a similar game: they also divert themselves with dancing, in which their movements are graceful and even elegant. The chief public diversion is a periodical exhibition, connected with tlie maturity of the yam, their chief object of cultivation. The very com- mencement of this parade argues a shocking mixture of barbarity with the growing civilisation of the Ashantees; for, when the chieftains ar- rive with their armed dependents, they sacrifice a slave in each quarter of the town. These leaders are splendidly arrayed and accoutred. A garment of interwoven silk and cotton, of variegated hues and patterns, thrown over the shoulders like a Roman toga, a helmet decorated with the feathers of eagles, a silken fillet round the temples; neck-laces of massy gold, curiously wrought ; suspended Moorish charms or amulets, enclosed in rich cases; ornaments at the knees and ancles ; swords with golden hilts and glittering appendages; and other displays either of uti- lity or enibellishoicnt ; attest the dignity of tiie chicftainSi The captains are also dressed ii riora, with ornan ghoulders, caps of tlieliides of leo|)a diadem |iainted oi of ornaments, chi with gold, with tl ficont stool holdei ills gay courtiers The 8onn Is of ho wine is taken by I cncd beards are i morning, the kin^ city: free men ai paiiK to partici|)at intoxication ensue fore the terminat jority of whom an the altar of natio which the first ya liiiiB, as if the ol thin|{8. This ciih death of a person llitt Uiitisli envoy immediately put liced by the kin killed in the marl the body was b wanton barbaritj ttab a free man it u 'I he gov(!rnm( king is controlU of the chieftains but they are not for the public s( of every deceasi nearest relative from a large sli other spots whi mere exposure rarely followed or child is put ment, a man should wilfully his own hands : 6ne, payable to they are guilty when the huab accused of ,«or from the sense glaring point by Mr. Bowdir are supposed to the term seem WESTERN COAST OF AFRICA. 723 are also dreaacd in a costly mid funciful inunncr; mid llio infi'iior war- riora, with ornamcnta ol" lens value, knivos cliistc'icd on tli«;ii lii|)^ nnd shoulders, r.npH of hIuiih willi loiii? tailn, aiid lon^ niiiHr)n(it.s ;idorncd wifli dieliidi'fl of Uioimrds, iniiko u Ktiikiiii^ ii|)|i<;!iiiiiic(;. 'I'Ik- kiiif;-, liiiviiig a diadem painted on liis forcliead, miiiriy ojipniHsod willi aKiiptjniliundance ofornamcntH, clad in a silkisn rolic, sualwl in a diair of ebony inlaid with gold, with tlio tails of (ileplianlH waviii)? hcforo liini, and a ma^/^ni- ficent Btool holden up under a Kpleiu!' I iinilireiia, a|)pearH in tlie inidHt of his gay courtierH, and hails the ai ■ 'vorKary with Joy and satiufaction. The goiin Ih of horns and dniniH fill up the paiigeH of muKipietry. I'alm- wiiie in taken hy the chief oUicors, wliihi IIk; diuppin^'s from their moist- ened beards are cauj;ht in howls hy kneeling hoys. On the following niorniiif,', the kiii|; Kcrids a (,'n'at (piantity of mm to various parts of the city: free nmn and hIiivi'M, women and children, crowd around the brass pail* to |)articipate id the exhilarating beverage ; and a. confused scene of intoxication ensues, amidst disi;ordant music and licentious songs. I)e- foie (lie t(!rmiiiation of this celelirily, about nhundriid |iersonH, the ma- jority of whom are delimpients reserved for punishment, are sacrificed at the altar of national siiperstilion ; and into that part of the earth from which the first yam is taken, blood is niadi; to flow from some of the vic- tims, as if the ollering would lend to propitiate the (liver of all good things. This custom of human sacrilici; is alio an accninpaniment of tho death of a [lerson of dislincti in. On the decease of a courtier's mother, the Uiitish envoys wiliK^sHed the horrible ceremony. Three girls were iiiiniediately jiiit to death at the door tt( the house, one being sacri- ficed hy the king's particular oidi;r; thirteen men were mangled and killed in the market-place; and more blood was shed in the bush where ihe body was buried. .Sometimes the number is augmented by the wanton barbarity of the at < ndants at the funeral, who will suddenly itab a free man that is a spectator, roll iiiin into the grave, and close it up. The government is aristocratic, undear in a glaring point of view from the mention of various partit^ulars stated by Mr. Bowdich. He says, thnt fetinhcx are sul)ordinate deities, who are supposed to inhabit particular rivers, woods, and mountains; but the term seems to bo more frequently used in the sense of Obi, the :j a 2 ' 'mm 'r' ' ;»,! 724 WESTERN COAST OF AFRICA. fabricated and concentrated magic of the We3t-Indian slaves. The fetish-men form two orders in the community. By one class a re- puted oracle is consulted with regard to the future fortune of a state or an individual, and artful answers are invented for the credulous, These expounders of the pretended will of the Deity are the priests of tlie kingdom ; and the dignity is hereditary. Persons of the other class, while they pursue their various occupations in society, act as ordinary fortune- tellers or conjurors. There are also fetish- women, who, bcinu; considered as skilful herbalists, are consulted on the remedial uses of vpgetubles. Not satisfied with their own superstitions, the Ashantees, though a negro race, borrow absurdities from the Moors, whose fetishes they eagerly purchase, and carry about them as securities and preservatives against ail accidents or misfortunes except sickness. In various arts and manufactures, the Ashantees have considerable Rkill. Their architecture we have already noticed. In weaving they arc very expert: their looms ;ire constructed on the same principle with those of Great-Britain. They use a spindle, not a diataft, fur s])inning, holding it in one hand, and twisting the thread, which has a weight at the end, witli a finger and the thumb of the other. The fineness, variety, brilliancy, and size of their cloths, are astonishing even to an European ; and the richest silks are dexterously unraveled to be woven into them. They have two dye-woods, a red and a yellow ; and they make a green color by mixing the latter with a blue dye, procured from a plant called the acassie. In pottery they excel ; and the black articles in that branch of art aie highly polished. They are good goldsniitlis; but, as blacksmiths, they are less expert. They have no idea of making iron from me, as some of the interior nations do ; nor can they make locks like the people of Houssa. The art of tanning is not unknown to them : and they make neat sandals, belts, and pouches. Umbrellas and canopies are well manufactured. The guitar and other instruments are artfidly fabricated, because the people have a strong inclination for music, which is therefore less rude among them than night be imagined. A considerable tr.ade is carried on by this nation with the interior parts of the country; and it is now extended to the Europeans on the coast, The dealers import iron, lead, gunpowder, silken articles, and other mer- chandise, for which they barter the native produce, or pjiy in gold dust. Of the variety and abundance with whicli their markets are supplied, tiie following enumeration will afiord a specimen ; " Among the commodities produced for sale at Coumassi (says Mr. Bowdich) were beef and mutton, the flesh of wild hogs, deer, and monkeys, fowls, peltry, yams, plantains, corn, sugar-canes, rice, encruma (a plant resembling asparagus), pepper, vegetable butter, oranges, papaws, pine-apples, bananas ; salted and dried fish from the coast; large .snails, smoke-dried ; palm-wine, rum ; pipes looking-glasses, sandals, silk, cotton cloth, small pillows, white and blue cotton- thread, iy.c," The climate of tiiis country is not remarkable for salubrify. luting . more elevated than the coast, it is less sultry; yet it is often o|)pressivcly hot ; the rains are frequent and heavy, and are occasionally accompanied with furiuus tornadoes. The most comoion diseases are those of the cu- taneous species, dreadful ulcerations, and interior pains; and, in the capital, fevers and the dysentery are very prevalent, and, for want of proper medical aid, often fatal. Before we were acquainted with the A.shantecs, their superior civilisa- tion was loudly proclaimed : but the report was rather delusive than well- founded. Th« puerile fondness of the higher class for iJle show and preposterous ornan of some European understandings : their brutality ; ai their characters a who speaks in son order of people are said, he believed I and not comparal add, that they a lately were) ignor TheAshanteeki the British colonif allies of the Euro] and tributaries, a they were dedari Charles Mac-Cai tribes to revolt, a numb' r much Icsi portunity of surrt furious vcngeanci another action, tl hostilities. The of Aquimboo an tribes, were eage aspiring prince. Europeans, while was reinforced b away, he (in Au^ contest, a ))art o rockets and gra an attack upon fortune of thed wounded, or m lives, and 2000 humbled the enc a BENIN is a east of Dahomi and crocodiles, rich wear cotton The women nsi variety of form hundred wives. so of Em-opean the women can whi' ? man, the of strangers, orcised in the string of coral, vast spiice, but and broad, are with the comn- i« occupied by commodious, WESTERN COAST OF AFRICA. 725 or liese ItllB Jliilu line- prfd lies, cgro Jerly (tail preposterous ornaments, however it may coincide with the militaTy foppery of some European princes, can only be mentioned as discreditable to their understandings : their zealous propensity to war is a disgusting proof of their brutality ; and their horrible sacrifices reflect indelible disgrace on their characters and dispositions. Even in the opinion of Mr. Bowdich, who speaks in some instances too favorably of the naticn, " the lower order of jjnople are ungrateful, insolent, and licentious. The king repeatedly said, he believed them to be the worst people existing, except the Fantees and not comparable with many of their inland neighbours." We may add, that they are immersed in the darkness of paganism, and are (or lately were) ignorant even of the elements of literature. The Ashantee king, exulting in his powerand resources, seemed to despise the British colonists at Cape-Corse castle, and again attacked the African allies of the Europeans. Ilecompelled the Fantees to become his vassals and tributaries, and intimidated their protectors into a treaty, by which they were declared to be the tenants of the barbarian potentate. But Sir Charles Mac-Carthy, disregarding this agreement, encouraged the Fantee tribes to revolt, and encountered about 10,00' of the Ashantees with a numb' r much less than a tenth part of that amount. They took an op- portunity of surrounding his small army, and he was sacrificed to their iurious vengeance. In the next conflict his troops were repelled, and, in another action, they suHcred so severely, tliat he was glad to desist from hostilities. The war was renewed as soon aa I. appeared that the kings of Aquimboo and Aquapini, the queen of Aikini, and other heads of tribes, were eager to join colonel Purdon in an (expedition against the aspiring prince. It is stated, that this gallant offic(;r could only muster 560 Europeans, while the Ashaiitce army amounted to 20,000 men ; but, as he was reinforced by more than 10,000 natives, who promised not to run away, he (in August i8'2fi) boldly engaged the enemy. After an hour's contest, a part of his right wing gave way ; but, by a destructive fire of rockets and grape-shot, his adversaries were in their turn disordered, and an attack upon their left flank by the king of Aquimboo decided the fortune of the day. About 5000 of the Ashantees (it is said) were killed, wounded, or made prisoners; and, in the victorious army, 800 lost their lives, and 2000 were wounded. Whether this victory has sufficiently humbled the enemy, we have not yet learned. BENIN is a country situated in a very unwholesome climate, to the east of Dahomi. Among its wild animals are elephants, tigers, leopards, and crocodiles. The dress of the natives is neat and ornamental. The rich wear cotton petticoats; but the tipperpartof thebody is usually naked. Tiie women use great art in dressing their hair, which they adjust in a variety of forms. Polygamy is common, and the king is said to have six hundred wives. 'J'liongh the men are jealous of each other, they are not so of Europeans; and, while many think it impossible that the taste of the women can be so depraved as to induce them to grant liberties to a whi' ^ man, there are some who will offer their wives for the gratification of strangers. Their religion is paganism. An absolute authority is ex- ercised in the king's name by three gre:it offi<;ers, distinguished by a string of coral, wlio continually attend him. Benin, the capital, fills a vast spti'^e, but it is not very closely built. In the streets, which are long and broad, are many shojw filled with European merch ndise, as well as with the commodities of the country. A considerable part of the town is occupied by the royal palace, which, however, is neither elegant nor commodious, I-: n 726 WESTERN COAST OF AFRICA. In proceeding to the southward, we meet with the kingdom of LOANGO, which was formerly a dependency upon that of Congo. The people are industrious, and notonlyoccupy themselves in various arts but engage also in commercial pursuits. Thoy are superstitious, like other African tribes, and trust to the effect of sorcery and the power of charms. The climate is remarkably warm, and a long dry season regularly follows along continuance of rain. The cocoa and banana thrive beside the more common fruit-trees ; and the cotton-plant and sugar-cane are cultivated with success. CONGO is bounded on the north by Loango, on the south by Angola, and on the east by the territory of the Giagas. The climate is extremely hot in summer ; but the winters are as mild as the finest springs of Italy, The wild animals are elephants, lions, leopards, panthers, wolves, zebras, buffaloes, &c. The country is likewise infested with a variety of ser- pents, some of which are of a monstrous length and thickness; with rattle- snakes, vipers, scorpions, and venomous insects of various kinds, both flying and reptile. Among the insects the most wonderful are the ter- mites or white ants, which construct works in the most ingenious manner, and apparently in a scientific form, and compose an orderly and well regu- lated community. Their earthen structures are sometimes raised to the height of seven or eight feet, and appear like the huts of the natives. These little creatures not only destroy the fruits of the earth, luit iii the night surround beasts, and sometimes men, in j)rodigious swarm.?, and devour them iu a few hours, leaving only the bones. This country was discovered, in 1487, by the Portuguese, who formed settlements on the coast, and endeavoured, but not with effective success, to convert the natives to Christianity. A more intelligent and judicious nation would have civilised the people with whom a connexion was thus established ; but it appears, from the hints of captain Tuckey and his companions, that those who were most conversant with the Portuguese, were " sulky-looking vagabonds," dirty in the extreme, and barbarians in their appearance and manners, though some of them pretended to be zealous Christians. Society, in Congo, is divided into the following classes: the chen or chief, and his family ; the civil and financial officers, who also engasjc in trade ; the yeomanry, who are the owners of houses and lands ; fi,slier- men and laborers, and domestic slaves. The rights of property are strictly recognised, and even minutely distinguished. Agriculture is rudely practised ; but the fertility of the soil compensates this want of skill. The habitations, in general, are wretched huts of mats or reeds, and matted grass serves both for bedding and clothing. Many chieftains are dispersed over the country, who appear to act arbiuarily within their own boundaries, while they acknowlegc the supremacy of the great king. To the southward of Congo is the kingdom of ANGOI,A, which used to supply the I'Vench and other dealers in slaves with multitudes of tliosfl wretched and degraded beings, and still furnishes the Spaniards and Portuguese with a considerable number, as those nations continue the abominable traffic, in defiance of the general voice of Europe. I;i Loanda, which is the chief town, the Portuguese have a settlement, which is the great mart of slaves. Farther to the south is the territory of BENGUELA, with which the Portuguese are also connected. The climate of this country is particu- SOUTHERN AFRICA. 727 Iwly ihsalubrioud, and the people are rude and barbarous. Mines of cop- per exist among the mountains; but they arp not rendered, even by the European colonists, subservient to general use. SOUTHERN AFRICA. A GREAT extent of country in this division is comprehended under the general nameof CAFRARIA, or Cafi u-i,an'o ; the limits of which, however, are very differently given by geographers. Some carry it to the northward of the equator, while others confine it to the distance of 700 miles from the Cape of Good Hope. It is apparently divided into various states, of which no accurate knowlcge has l)een obtained. The men among the Ciifirs, says lieutenant Paterson, are from five feet ten inches to six feet high, and well proportioned, and in general evince great courage in attacking lions, or any beasts of prey. Their com- plexions are black, their teeth are white, and their eyes large. The clothing is nearly the same for both sexes, consisting entirely of the hides of oxen, which are as pliant as cloth. The men wear tails of different animals tied round their thighs ; pieces of bra.ss in their hair, and large ivory rings on their arms : they are also adorned with the hair of lions, and feathers fastened on their heads, and other fantastic ornaments. They are extremely fond of dogs, which they receive in return for cattle; and to such a height do they carry this passion, that, if one particularly pleases them, they will give two bullocks in exchange for it. Their exer- cises are hunting, fighting, and dancing. They are expert in throwing their lances, and in time of war use shields made of the hides of oxen. The women are employed in the cultivation of their gardens and fields. They raise several vegetables which are not indio^enous to their country : such as tobacco, water-melons, a sort of kidney-beans, and hemp. They also make baskets, and the mats on which they sleep. The men have great pride in their cattle ; and they cut their horns in such a way as to be able to turn them into any shape whatever ; and they teach them to answer a whistle. The soil of this country is a blackish loamy ground, so fertile, that every vegetable substance, whether sown or planted, grows in it with great luxuriance. Itseldom rains except in the summer, when it is accompanied with thunder and lightening. The country, however, is very well sup- plied with water, not only from the highland toward the north, Init from many fountains which arc found in the woods. The woods also produce a variety of arboreous plants, an(" ome of a greai size ; they are inhabited by elephants, btift'aloes, &c. The-*- are »}«o varieties of beautiful birds and butterflies. To judge of the Cafirs by those whom I saw, says M. I,e ^'aillant, they are talUir than the IlottcntolH of the colonies, or even than the Gona- quas, though they greatly resemble the latter, hut are more robust, and possess a greater deforce of pride and courage. Their features are like- wise more agreeable. Their faces do not contract tc i\'ard the bottom ; nor do their cheek-bones project in the uncouth manner of the Hottentots ; nor have they large flat faces and thick lips like their neighbours, the negroes of Moeauibic^ue, but a well- formed contour, an agreeablu mac, ; I, ns SOUTHERN AFRICA. -with ej'es sparkling and expressive : so that, if we set aside our prejudice with regard to color, there are many women among them who miglit bo thought handsome by the gide of an European lady. They do not dis- figure themselves by daubing their eye-brows, like the Hottentots ; yet they are very much tatoocd, particularly about the face. We have already mentioned the fond iiess of the Calirs for ornaments; but they only wear them in the warm season : when the weather is cold, they make use of krosscs, or clokes, made of the skins of calves or oxen, which reach to the feet. One particularity which deserves attention, is, that the Cafir women care little for ornaments. Indeed, they arc wdl made, and pretty, when con)pared with other savages ; and never use tlie uncouth profusion of Hottentot finery, not even wearing co|)per bracelets. Their aprons, like those of the Gonaquas, are bordered with small rows of beads, — the only vanity which they exhibit. The skin that the female Hottentot ties about the loins, the Cafir woman wears as high as her shoulders, tying it over the bosonj, whicli it covers. They have krosses, as well as the men ; but neither men nor women cover their heads. Sometimes, indeed, I have seen the head of a Calir adorned with a feather stuck in the hair ; but this sight is by no means common. One part of the daily occupation of the women is the fabrication of cartbeu-ware, which they fashion as dexterously as their husbands ; lliey likewise make a curious kind of baskets, of a texture so compact as to contain milk ; and they also prepare the fields for seed, scratching the earth, rather than digging it, with wooden pick-axes, The liuts of the Cafirs are hii:,her and more commodious than those of the Hottentots : tliey form perfect hemispheres, and are composed of wooden work, very strong and compact, covered both within and without by a mixture of earth, clay, and cow-d'.ing. 'i'lu; opening, or door-way, is so low, that to enter the dwelling you nuist crawl on your hands and knees ; which m:ikes it easier to defend themselves against animals, or the sudden attack of an enemy. The hearth, or fire-place, is in the centre, surrounded by a raised border. Their wives are usually purchased with cattle. When the bargain is adjusted, the chief of the tribe publicly gives the nuptial exhortation, by desiring the bride to manage domestic concerns with sedulous zeal, to assist in the cultivation of the earth, and to be a chaste and dutiful wife. He also gives advice to the bridegroom, for the i)ro])er government of his family, and particularly rocommends a constant attention to tlu* support of his wife and future offspring, not forgetting to intimate the duty of pro- viding for the occasional entertainment of tlie chief, and the payment of the tax to wliich he is entitled. Tiie marriage is supposed to be completed, when the bride has taken some milk that is offered to her. The friends of the hapjiy pair rejoice, drink, and dance, for several days after the ceremony. Industry is a leading trait in the character of the Cafirs. Some arts, taught indeed by necessity, a love of agriculture, with a few religious dogmas, di»tin the Dreec cal inund Fish rivei Thecl of heat consider monsoon their (I be molt to that Deceml variabh winter, very st' east ar SOUTHERN AFRICA, 729 attended nor feared, but respected and beloved, and frequently poorer than many of his sulyects. As lie is permitted to take many wives, who think it an bonor to belong to him, it is necessary that he should iiavo a larger portion of land to cultivate, ami a (greater number of cattle : tliese being his only resources for the maintenance of bis numerous family, ho is frequently in danger of being ruined. His cabin is neither higher nor better decorated than the rest; bis whole family live around him, com- posing a groupe of twelve or fifteen huts: the adjoining lands are gene- rally of his own cultivation. In the southernmost part of Cafraria is included the colony of the CAPE of GOOD IIOPK, which is divided info four districts: the Cape district, that of Stellenboscb and Drakonstein, that of Zwellendam, and that of Graaf lleynet. Of that extensive territory which is considered as dependent on the colony, a groat portion may hv considered as an unprolitablc waste, unfit for any sort of culture, or even to be employed as pasture. Level plains, consisting of a bard impenetr..')le suiface of clay, lliinly s|)rinkle(l over with ciystailiscid sand, coudeuuied to pinpetual drought, and producing only a feiv straggling tufts of acrid, saline, and succulent ))lants, and chiiins of vast mountains that are either totally naked, or clothed in parts witli sour grasses only, or such plants as are noxious to animal life, com- pose nearly one half of the colony of the Cape. Two of ibese chains of mountains enclose the great Karroo, or dry desert, extending 250 miles in length, and HO in breadth, and uniubahiied. liebind the town called Cape-town, are the Table Mountain, the Devil's Mountain, the Lion's Mead, and the Lion's Hack. The first is a stupendous mass of naked rock, the north fiont of wbicb, directly facing the town, is a horizontal line, or very nearly so, about two miles in length. The bold face that rises almost at right angles to meet this line has the appearance of the ruined walls of some gigantic fortress ; and tbe.-.e walls rise above the level of Table Hay to the height of '.iriHl feet. The Devil's Mountain on one side, and the Lion's He.id on the other, niake. in fact, with the Table, one mountain : the height of the former is .'l.'Jl.'j, and that of the latter 2160 feet. 'I'be Devil's Mountain is broken into irregular points; but the upper part of the Lion's Head is a solid mass of stone, rounded and fashioned like a work of art, and resembling, from some points of view, the dome of St. Paul's, placed upon a liigb cone- shaped hill. From these mountains descend several rivulets wbicb fall into Table and False Bays; but the principal streams of the colony are the lierg or Mountain river; the Breede or Broad (called also the Oninge) river, wbicb has its periodi- cal inundations like the Nile, and its cataructs ; the Sunday and the Great Fish rivers. 'I'he climate of the Cape appears to be in gentiral free from the extremes of beat and cold, and not unhealthy. It was usual with the Dutch to consider the year as consisting of two periods, called the good and the bad monsoon; but, as these are neither regular in their returns, nor certain in their continuance, the division into four seasons, as in l'',urope, stems to be more proper. The spring, reckoned from the beginning of September to that of Decendier, is the most agreeable season; the summer, from December to March, is the hottest ; the auUinin, from March to .lune, is variable weather, generally fine, and the latter part very pleasant ; the winter, from .lune to September, iliough in general pleasant, is frequently very stormy, rainy, anSouthern Africa, M. le Vaillant has given an amus- ing account. The Gonatjuas, he thinks, are of a mixed breed between the Cafirs and the ordinary Hottentots. 'J'heir dress re8eml)Ics that of the latter; but, as they are taller, they make their mantles of tlio skins of calves instead of those of sheep. Several of them wear, hanging from their necks, a ))iece of ivory, or very white I'p-bone ; and this contrast of hue j)roduccs a good effect, and is vers becoming. When the weather is excessively hot, the men lay aside every part of their dress that is superfluous, and retain oidy what they name their jackals. This is a piece of skin of the animal so called, with which they cover what nature bids them «'on>.eal, and which is fastened to the girdle. This veil, however, negligently arranged, may be considered as an useless ap- pendage, and is of very little service to their modesty. The women, much more fond of dress than the men, employ greater care in adorning their persons. They wear a kross or mantle like the latter ; but the apron which conceals their sex is larger than that of the Hottentots. During the great heat they retain only this apron, with a skin which descends behind from the girdle to the calf of the leg: girls below the age of nine years go entirely naked ; when they attain that age, they wear nothing but a small apron. " Their huts (says the same author), constructed like those of tlie Hottentots in the colonies, are eight or nine feet in diameter, and are covered with the skins of oxen or of sheep, but more commonly with mats. They have only one opening, very narrow and low ; and it is in the middle of the hut that the domestic Are is kindled. The thick smoke with which these hovels are filled, and which has no other vent but the door, added to the smell which they always retain, would almost suffocate Europeans ; custom, however, renders it supportable to these savages. " The two hues for which they show the greatest fondness are red and black. The former is composed of a kind of ochrey earth, which is found in several parts of the country, and which they mix and dilute with grease ; this earth lias a great resemblance to brick-dust, or tiles reduced to powder. Their black is nothing but soot, or the charcoal of tender wood. Some women, indeed, are content with painting only die prominence cf the cheeks ; but in general they daub over the whole body, in compartments, varied with some degree of symmetry; and this part of their drees requires no small length of time. These decorative materials nre al ig not very agr( perhaps, find s the boughoii hi pernicioiis to tl female Hotten never knows w ache. Theme of both color! which they en substance emi lovers 80 far i this point tlu> over the hear infer that the daily and use Separated fr< by desert mc these people On the cont Nature addi than in any give themsel them. •' The wi exercise tin they place ; for th'im al their poison view of thei tive weupo dangerotis, eye, and c they uiake and the fl part, if it I avoidable. ^.:^^ ..: of (lull -," -ous :tv()i(l it. " They pa it u rage kill the la dered th( is the mil of their li their ani Europe, recpiires wltich w acquire when th intend f the serv this ace SOUTHERN? AFItlCA. 733 matonals arc always perfumed with tlie powder of the AoMflf//OH, which is not very nureeable to the smcil oi' an European. A Hottentot would, periiaps, find some of our odors and «s8en(H's no less instipportiible ; but the bougho\i has over our rouge and pastt's the advantage of not being pernicious to the skin, of not attackini^ and injuring tlie Kings ; arui the female Hottentot, wlio is nnacquainled with amber, musk, or benzoin, never knows what it is to i)e ojjpresscd by vapors, spasms, and the head- ache. Tlie men never paint their faces; lint they use u preparation made of botii colors mi.xed to paint the upi)er lip as tar as the nostrils ; by which they enjoy the advantage of continually \nhaling the odor of the substance employed for this purpose. Youni; i^irls sometimes favor their lovers 80 far as to apply this paint for them under the nose ; and on this point they show a kind of coquetry, wliidi has a powerful influence over the heart of a Hottentot novice. The reader, however, must not infer that the women pay so nuich attention to dnss ns to neglect thost- daily and useful occupations to which nature and their ns:iges call them. Separated from Kiiropo by an inunenfiity of sea, aiui fron) the colonists by desert mountains and rugged rocks, too much comnninication with these people has not yet led theui to the excesses of our depravation. On the contrary, when they liave the happiness of becoming mothers, Nature addresse, them in a ditferent language ; they assume, more than in any other country, a spirit suitable to their state, and readily give themselves n to those cares which she -^o imperiously requires of them. " The w ild Hoi itots are r^ narkably fond of hunting, and in this I xercise tiiey displav great dexterity, lieside i^ins and snares, which they place :it convenient spots to catch lartiie ani, lala, they lie in wait for them also, attack them ft soi' as they appear, and kill them with their poisoned arrows, or with their nssrujai/s or laiices. On the first view of their arrows, one would not (-uspect tliat they were very destruc- tive weapons: but their smallncss render- them so much the more dangerous, as it is impossible to perceive md follow them with the eye, and conscfpuntly to void them, Tli" slightest wound which they make always proves mortal, if tlii! poison should reach the blood, and the flesh be torn. The surest remedy is to amputate the wounded part, if it be a limb; but, if the wound he in the body, lieath is un- avoidable. The assiigav is generally a very feeble weapon in the han'ls of a Hottentot ; but, beside this, its length renders it not dun.>f'0U8, for, as it may be seen cleaving the air, it is not difficidt to :ivoid it. " I'hey pay little attention to agriculture, but are very attentive to paiturage. Though they rear abundance of sheep and oxen, they seldom kill the latter, unless some accident happens to them, or old age has ren- dered them unfit for service. Their princi|)al nourishment, therefore, is the milk of their e./es and cows; beside which they have the produce of their hunting-excursions, and Kiiiieiiinea they kill a sheej). To fatten their animals, they employ a process, which, though not practised in Europe, is no less efficacious, and has this peculiar advantage, that it requires no care. They bruise, betueen two Hat stones, those parts of which wc deprive them by the knife; and, when thus compressed, they acquire in time a prodigious bulk, and become a most delicate morsel •when they have resolved to sacrifice the animal. Those oxen which they intend for carrying burthens must be broken and trained very early to the service ; otherwise they would become absolutely intractable. On this account, when the animal is still young, tiiey pieice the cartilage ^1' 'tl^ ti:' iiJIMr' ■»% *. IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-S) A .^/ ^^ J^^4^. ^y^:%^ .sr .^ . mi^. 1.0 !i:«^ I.I 2.5 Ui 1.8 ■ 1.25 1.4 1 1.6 < 6" ► V "» Hiotographic Sdences Corporation 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. 14SS0 (716) 872-4503 is. .s° mp. tf ^ MP [v 734 SOUTHERN AFRICA. which separates the nostrils, and thrust through the whole a piece of stick about eight or ten inches in length, and almost an inch in diameter. The task of milking the cows and the ewes belongs to the women ; and, as these animals are never beaten or tormented, they are exceedingly trac- table. " Of sheep and kino each village has one common herd, every inha- bitant taking his turn to be herdsman. This chr ^e requires many pre- cautions very different from those which are taken our herdsmen, beasts of prey beiiig much more numerous and fierce in ihe soutHarn parts of Africa than in Europe. Lions, indeed, are not very common; but there are elephants, leopards, hyenas, wolves, and other furious animals that abound in the forests, and occasionally make excursions toward the Cape, and destroy the tame cattle. To prevent these misfortunes, it is the busi- ness of the herdsman to go or send every day round his district, in order to discover if any beast of prey be lurking in that quarter. In this case he assembles the whole village, and makes his report ; when a party of the stoutest among them arm themselves with javelins and poisoned arrows, and follow the person who may have discovered the beast, to the cave or covert where he is lodged. Here they arrange themselves in two lines ; the herdsman entering the cave, and endeavouring to provoke the beast to follow him out, when he is inevitably destroyed. " When a Hottentot dies, he is buried in his worst kross, and the limbs are disposed in such a manner that the whole body is covered. The rela- tives then carry it to a certain distance from the horde, and disposing it in a pit dug for this purpose, and which is never deep, cover it with earth, and then with stones. Such a mausoleum proves a very weak defence against the attacks of the jackal and the hyena : the body indeed is soon dug up and devoured. However badly this last duty may be discharged, the Hottentots are not much to be blamed, when we call to mind the funeral ceremonies of the ancient and celebrated Persees, still attached to the custom of exposing their dead on the tops of high towers, or in open cemeteries, in order that the crows and the vultures may feed upon them and carry them away in morsels." M. le Vaillant thus speaks of the personal appearance of the Hot- tentots : '* A physiognomist, or modern wit, would entertain his company by assigning to the Hottentot, in the scale of beings, a place between a man and the ouran-oulang. I cannot, however, consent to this syste- matic arrangement ; the qualities which I esteem in him will never suffer him to be degraded so far; and I have found his figure sufficiently beau- tiful, because I experienced the goodness of his heart. It must indeed be allowed, that there is in his features something peculiar, which in a certain degree separates him from the generality of mankind. His cheek- bones are exceedingly prominent ; so that, his face being very broad in that part, and the jaw-bones, on the contrary, extremely narrow, his visage continues still decreasing even to the point of the chin. This configura- tion gives him an air of lankness, which makes his head appear very much disproportioned, and too small for his full and plump body. His flat nose rises scarcely half an inch at its greatest elevation ; and his nostrils, which ftro excessively wide, often exceed in height the ridge of his nose. His mouth is large, and furnished with small teeth well enameled and per- fectly white : his eyes, beautiful and open, incline a little toward the nose, like those of the Chinese : and, to the sight and touch, his hair has the resemblance of wool ; it is very short, curls naturally, and is as black as ebony. He has very little hair, yet he employs no small care to pull out by Uie TOoU put pf wb»t be hu ; but tb* oMundi thiaaow of hit eye* *|IF".*«'«^.''f' '.T SOUTHERN AFPICA. 735 brows saves him from 'chis trouble in that part. Though he has no beard but upon the upper lip, below the nose, and at the extremity of the chin, he qever fails to pluck it out as soon as it appears. This gives him an effeminate look ; which, joined to the natural mildness of his character, destroys the commanding fierceness usual among savages." Their general character he delineates in favorable colors. After the mention of their natural timidity, phlegmatic reserve, and profound indifference to the affairs of life, he says, " they are the best, the kindest, and the most hospitable of men. Whoever travels among thew> may be assured of finding food and lodging; and, though they will receive pre- sents, they never ask for any thing. If the traveller has a long journey to accomplish, and if they learn from the information he requires that there are no hopes of his soon meeting with other hordes, that which he is going to quit will supply him with provisions as far as their circumstances allow, and with every thing else necessary for continuing his journey, and reaching the place of his destination." This praise is corroborated and confirmed by Mr. Barrow, who says of the Hottentots, " Low as they are sunk in the scale of humanity, their character seems to have been much traduced and misrepresented. It is true, there is nothing prepossessing in the appearance of a Hottentot ; but infinitely less so in the many ridiculous and false relations by which the public have been abused. They are a mild, quiet, and timid people ; perfectly harmless, honest, faithful ; and, though extiemely phlegmatic, they are kind and affectionate to each other, and not incapable of strong attachments. A Hottentot would share his last morsel with his compa- nions. They have little of that kind of art or cunning which savages generally possess. If accused of crimes of which they have been guilty, they generally divulge tlie truth. They seldom quarrel among themselves, or make use of provoking language. Though naturally of a fearful and cowardly disposition, th^y will run into the face of danger, if led on by their superiors ; and they suffer pain with great patience. They are by no means deficient in talent, but they possess little exertion to call it into action." To the north of the colony is the Boshuana territory, inhabited by tribes that have made a greater progress in civilisation and the arts than the other natives of Cafraria. They display a greater degree of skill in the construction of their houses; they are better cultivators of the earth ; and their government is more settled and regular. They have even a con- siderable and populous town called Latakoo, where the houses are built in a circular form, with a fourth part open, and the other three parts walled up with clay and stones, having a separate room for keeping utensils and articles of dress. Mr. Campbell, a missionary, visited this part of the country, and was introduced to the king of Latakoo, whose government in some ntiasu.e resembled the feudal system, as there were many chief- tains to whom he assigned lands in conbideration of their subser\'iency. His people were in the habit of forming connexions with individuals of other nations, making mutual presents, and residing for a considerable time at each other's houses. This practice seems to evince a friendly dis- position ; but, like the rest of the Boshuana tribes, they are guilty of cruel acls ; for the old and infirm among them are frequently left to perish, and, when women have twins, one child is sometimes put to death. Mr. Campbell also penetrated into the Maroutzi kingdom, the capital uf which is said to contain about 16,000 inhabitants. The ruler of this state ucca- donally held a sort of parliament, ia which speaking and dancing were •Iternfttely prActu^d. 736 THE EASTERN COAST OF AFRICA. THE Portuguese are better acquainted with this part of Africa than other Europeans; but they are not very communicative of tlie knowlege which they have acquired of it. Of the Terra de Natal we know so little, that it is useless to speak of that country. Proceeding along the coast, we find the bay of Delagna, into which the Mafumo runs. The neighbouring districts have a fertile soil, and are inhabited by Cafirs ; and the bay is visited by ships which are employed in the southern whale fishery. In the port of Sofala, the Portuguese have a settlement, which is pro- tected by a fort built on a small island near the mouth of a river. The natives of Sofala are for the most part black, with short curled hair, there being very few tawny or brown among them. Those on the coast speak the Arabic language ; for they are not the descendants of the original natives, but the posterity of Arabs who settled on this coast. Sofala, ac- cording to the report of the Portuguese settlers, contains some gold-mines of considerable value. To the northward of Sofala is Monomotapa or Mocaranga, between the 1.5th and 20th degrees of south latitude. The climate is temperate, and the soil is not only very fertile in rice, but also in sugar-canes, whiclt grow without cultivation. There are here vast herds of elephants, and great numbers of ostriches. This country possesses mines of gold and silver. The inhabitants are negroes. Like most of the other nations of Africa, they admit unlimited polygamy. The army of the king consists only of infantry ; for there are no horses in the country. Beyond Mocaranga stretches the extensive country of Zanguehar, con- taining the kingdoms of Mosambique, Melinda, and several others. Of Mosambique we have scarcely any knowlege; but it appears that the kingdom of Melinda produces gold, ivory, ostrich feathers, wax, drugs, rice, sugar, and cocoa-nuts. Some of the natives are black, and some merely swarthy ; the women are mostly of an olive complexion. The dress, among the females of a higher class, is very elegant ; for they wear handsome veils, and garments of fine silk, decorated with rich gold or silver girdles, and collars and bracelets of the same, or something equally valuable. The men wear a kind of turban ; in other respects their dress consists of a piece of cotton wrapped about the middle, and descending a little below the knees ; their legs, feet, and the rest of the body, are quite bare. The meaner sort, and those who live farther from the coast, wear little more than a piece of cloth round the middle. Their weapons are the shield, the bow and arrows, the broad sword and javelin. Their govern- ment is monarchical; and with such veneration is the king honored by his subjects, that, whenever he stirs out from his palace, he is carried in a sedan on the shoulders of four or more of the greatest noble.i of the kingdom, and incense and other perfumes are burned before him, as he goes through the streets of any city, by a groat number of ladies, who exert their musical talents in his praise. Tiic population is estimated at about 200,000 pennons. With respect to religion, the generality are Pagans, some are Mohammedans, and some Christians, converted by the Portuguese, who have in the capital (likewise named Melinda) many churches, monasteries, and warehouses well provided with European goods. The city is surrounded by fine gardens, and has a good harbour defended by a fort; but the entrance is dangerous, on account of the AFHiCAN ISLANDS. •737 great number of shoals, and rocks under water. — Near the coast of Zanguebar is the island of Mombassa, of which the English took pos- session in 1824, at the request of the inhabitants, who, having long before shaken off the Portuguese yoke, wished to free themselves front the tyranny of the imam of Muscat. It has a large and excellent harbour, and furnishes traders with grain, cocoa-nuts, ivory, and gum copal. The country of Ajan is the boundary of Zanguebar toward the north. It lies between 2 and 12 degrees of northern latitude, extending from the river Magadoxo to Cape Guardafui, and contains several states or king- doms, concerning which scarcely any thing is known that a geographer can state with certainty. All the eastern .coast of Ajan is said to be sandy and barren ; but to the north the country is more fertile. The kings of Ajan are frequently at war with the emperor of Abyssinia, and sell their captives. They trade ia ivory, gold, and horses of an excellent breed. AFRICAN ISLANDS. OF the African islands, some lie in the Eastern, or Indian Ocean, and ftome in the Western, or Atlantic. We shall begin with those in the Indian Ocean ; the chief of which are, Socotra, the Comoro islands, Ma- dagascar, Mauritius, and Bourbon. SOCOTRA is situated thirty leagues to the eastward of Cape Guar- dafui. It is eighty miles long, and fifty- four broad, and has two good harbours. It is very well peopled, and yields most of the fruits and plants which are usually found within the tropics, with frankincense, gum- tragacanth, and aloes. The inhabitants are of Arabian extraction, and are under the government of an independent prince or sheik. The COMORO ISLES are five ; Joanna, Mayotta, Mohllla, An- gazei, and Comoro. The Grand Comoro is 50 miles long and 15 broad, and is chiefly composed of mountains, which unite near the centre, where the summit is about 7500 feet in height. Joanna, or Hinzuan, is about thirty miles long and fifteen broad, and affords plenty of provisions and tropical fruit. The inhabitants are partly of Arabian descent, and partly of African origin, and are in general mild and humane. MADAGASCAR is the largest of the African islands, being above 900 miles in length from north to south, and generally between 200 and 300 miles broad. The sea rolls with great rapidity, and is extremely rough, between this island and the continent, forming a channel or passage, through which European ships iu their voyage to and from India fre- quently sail. Madagascar is a pleasant, desirable, and fertile country, abounding in sugar, honey, fruit-trees, valuable gums, corn, cattle, poultry, precious stones, iron, some silver, copper, and tin. It affords an agreeable variety of hills, valleys, woods, and plains; and it is watered by numerous rivers. The air is generally temperate, and said to be very healthy, though in a hot climate. Among the inhabitants are white and black tribes, and also people of color. The whites and those of a tawny complexion, who inhabit the ccsts, are the offspring of the Arabs, as is evident from their 3 B 738 AFRICAN ISLANDS. language and their religious rites ; but here are no mosques or temples, nor any stated worship, except that they offer sacrifices of beasts on par- ticular occasions : as when sick, when they plant yams or rice, when they hold their assemblies, circumcise their children, declare war, enter into new-built houses, or bury their dead. Some of their ceremonies and practices resemble the Jewish, whence it has been conjectured that they are the posterity of Jews who formerly settled here. This island was discovered by the Portuguese, and the French took possession of it in 1641 ; but, the people disliking the government, they were driven out in 1652 ; since which time the natives have had, with the exception of a few settlements of Europeans, the sole possession of the island, under a number of petty princes, who make war upon each other for slaves and plunder. MAURITIUS was so called by the Dutch (who first touched hero in 1598) in honor of prince Maurice their stadtholder ; but it is now gene- rally styled the Isle of France. It is about 400 miles east of Madagascar. It is of an oval form, about 140 milesin circumference, with a fine harbour, secure against any wind that blows, and 1 00 fathoms deep at the entrnnce. The climate is healthy and pleasant. The mountains, of which there are many, and some so high that their tops are covered with snow, produce excellent ebony, beside various other kinds of valuable wood, two of which gready resemble ebony in quality ; one red, the other yellow. The island is well watered, and, though the soil is not the most fruitful, yields plenty of tobacco, rice, fruit, and feeds a great number of cattle, deer, goats, and sheep. It was formerly subject to the Dutch; but the French gained possession of it in 1715. By the English it was taken in 1810, and is siill in our possession. BOURBON is situated about 300 miles east of Madagascar, and is about 90 miles in circuit. There are many good roads for shipping round Bourbon, particularly on the north and south sides ; but hardly a single harbour where ships can ride secure against those hurricanes which blow during the monsoons. Indeed the coast is so surrounded with blind rocks, sunk a few feet below the water, that coasting is at all times dangerous. On the southern extremity is a volcano, which continually throws out flames and smoke, with a hideous roaring noise. The climate, though ex- tremely hot, is healthy, being refreshed with cooling gales, that blow in the morning and evening from the sea and land : sometimes, however, terrible hurricanes shake the whole island almost to its foundation, but generally without any other bad consequence than frightening the inha- bitants. The island abounds in springs and brooks, and produces aloes, ■white pepper, ebony, palm, and other kinds of wood, and fruit-trees. Many of the trees yield odoriferous gums and resins, particularly benzoin of an excellent sort, in great plenty. The rivers are well stocked with fish, the coast with land and sea tortoises, and every part of the country ■with horned cattle, as well as hogs and goats. Ambergris, coral, and the most beautiful shells, are found upon the shore. The woods are full of turtle-doves, perroquets, pigeons, and a great variety of other birds, beautiful to the eye and pleasant to the palate. The French first settled here in 1G72; and, though they were dispossessed of the island by the English in the last war, they regained it by the treaty of peace. Leaving the Indian Ocean, we now turn round the Cape of Good Hope, which opens to our view the Atlantic, an immense ocean lying between the two grand divisions of the globe, having Europe, Asia, and Africa (or the old world) 01 toward whic various islanc The first if about 1 100 1 America. I cumference. end of a bay eluding the perpetually f thunder and produce aqi serious griev bananas, gra great part is necessary to and potatoes every side a 1 and the inha which they i exchange sh arrack, suga: St. Helen 1502, on th( does not ap[ and the En^ it without in surprise. I until the ye; ment, from want of du( the governn dangerous tent, and About which rece Ascension chiefly ex most rugg( than nine British for Helena ; harbour, which are The Ci name on they lie, 1460 by of them, Sant-Iagr a mere v( very hot, AFRICAN ISLANDS. ?sg old world) on the east, and America (or the new world) on the west ; toward which division we now steer our course, touching in our way at various Islands near the African coast. The first island on this side of the Cape is ST. HELENA, which is about 1 100 miles west of the continent of Africa, and 1700 east of South America. It is a very high and sledp rock, about twenty-one miles in cir- cumference. On the north-west side is a small town in a valley at the end of a bay, well defended by forts and batteries. The inhabitants, in- cluding the garrison, nearly amount to 3000, The wind blows almost perpetually from the south-east : the air is coul, pleasant, and healthy : thunder and lightening are scarcely known ; and light flying showers produce a quick vegetation ; but the want of rain is sometimes a very serious grievance. The plantations afford, among other useful supplies, bananas, grapes, kidney-beans, and Indian corn: of the lafit, however, a great part is devoured by rats, which harbour in the rocks : so that it la necessary to import flour from England ; and, in times of scarcity, yams and potatoes are used instead of bread. Though the island appears on every side a hard barren rock, it is agreeably diversified with hills and plains ; and the inhabitants have great plenty of hogs, bullocks, and poultry, with which they supply the passengers and sailors in the India ships, taking in exchange shirts, drawers, or any light cloths, pieces of calico, silk, muslin, arrack, sugar, &c. St. Helena is said to have been first discovered by the Portuguese in 1502, on the festival of Helena, mother of Constantine the Great. It does not appear that the Portugaese ever planted a colony in the island; and the English India company took possession of it in 1 600, and held it without interruption till the year 1673, when the Dutch took it by surprise. It was subsequently recovered, and retained by the company, until the year 181.'), when, 'being considered as a safe place of confine- ment, from which a prisoner could not escape without treachery or a want of due vigilance on the part of the garrison, it was transferred to the government for the reception of Napoleon, the most determined and dangerous enemy of Great- Britain, who, thus exiled, lived in discon- tent, and died in despair, in the year 1821. About 600 miles to the north-west of St. Helena, is ASCENSION, which received its name from its being discovered by the Portuguese on Ascension-day. It rose from the sea by volcanic force, and its precipicea chiefly exhibit masses of lava, in which are veins of opal. It bears a most nigged aspect, and has no appearance of fertility. It is not more than nine miles in length, and its breadth does not exceed six. A small British force was stationed here, when Napoleon was a prisoner at St. Helena ; but the island is now, we believe, uninhabited. It has a good harbour, where the India ships, occasionally, touch to procure turtles, which are very numerous, and of a large size. The CAPE-VERD ISLANDS are so called from a cape of that name on the African coast, near the river Gambia, over against which they lie, at the distance of 300 miles. They were first discovered in 1460 by the Port'guese, and are about twenty in number; but some of them, being only barren uninhabited rocks, are unworthy of notice. Sant-Iago, Antonio, and Nicola, are the most considerable. One is a mere volcano, and is therefore called Fogo. The air is frequently very hot, and, in some of these islands, very unwholesome. They are 3B 2 740 AFRICAN ISLANDS. inhabited by Europeans, or the descendants of Europeans, and ne< groes. SANT-IAGO is 140 miles in circuit, and is the most fruitful : yet it is mountainous, and has much barren land in it. Its produce i<; sugar, cotton, some wine, Indian corn, cocoa-nuts, oranges, and other tropical fruits, plenty of roots, and garden vegetables ; but the plant of most consequence is the madder, which grows in abundance among the cliffs. Praya (famous for a conflict between an English and French squadron) is on the east side, has a good port, and is seldom without ships, those outward-bound to Guinea or to the East-Indies, from England, Holland, and France, often touching here fur water and re- freshments. In the island of MAYO, belonging to this groupc, immense quantities of salt are made by the heat of the sun from the sea-water, which, at spring-tides, is received into a sort of pan formed by a sand-bank that runs along the coast for several miles. Here the English carry on a con- siderable trade for salt, and have commonly a man of war to guard the vessels which come to load with it. The salt costs nothing, except for raking it together, wheeling it out of the pond, and carrying it on asses to the boats, which is done at a very cheap rate. Asses are aUo an article of trade at this island, whence they are conveyed to the West- Indies. The CANARIES, anciently called the Fortunate Islands, are situated at the distance of 150 miles south-west of Morocco. Their particular names are, the Grand Canary, Teneriflfe, Palma, Gomera, Hiero or Ferro, Fuerte-ventura, and Lancerota. These islands enjoy a pure tem- perate air, and abound in the most delicious fruit, especially grapes, from which a rich species of wine is made. The Cauaries also produce those beautiful birds which bear their name, and are now so common and so much admired in Europe. TENERIFFE, the largest island of this groupe, is about 120miifs in circuit ; a fruitful country, abounding in corn, wine and oil, thougii it is encumbered with mountains. The highest point is called the Peak or Pic. The accent to this elevated spot is nut so very hazardous or difficult as it was long imagined to be. From Orotava a deep ravine commences ; a chesnut forest then appears, covering the flank of those mountains which form a central chain across the island. A series of verdant hills follow ; after which the track leads across a steep mass of lava rock, worn into ravines, and exhibiting a thin surface of yellow pumice. At length an undulated plain spreads itself, like a fan, to a great extent, until it terminates in the second region of the peak and a range of precipices. A steep mountain of pumice is next ascended, and varied masses of lava require to be passed, before the summit of this stage of the mountain is attained. The foot of the cone is then reached ; and the subsequent ascent is rendered troublesome and fatiguing by the excessive steepness of the cone. The feet of adventurous visitants sink into the ashes at every step, and quantities of pumice and lava are rolled down upon them. Of the highest part, the superficial extent is about an acre and a half; and this is itself a small crater, in which sul- phureous heat is observable. The height of the Pic ia calculated at 13,265 feet. AFRICAN ISLANDS. 741 Santa Cniz is the capital of Teneriffe, and the seat of government for all the seven islands. Though not large, it is a well-built city. Laguua exceeds it in magnitude, but has a mean appearance. Out of 150,000 persons, who form the whole population of the Canaries, 60,000 may be assigned to TenerilVc. This island, in November 1826, suffered severely from the fury of a hurricane, the violence of rain, and the force of swollen waters. At Santa-Cruz the mischief was not very serious ; but, on that side of the island where Port Orotava stands, several vessels were lost with many of their navigators, and a well-cultivated valley exhibited a scene of deso- lation. I'he torrents from the mountains swept away a great number of houses with their inmates, destroyed vineyards, and inflicted other damage. Above 100 dead bodies were found in one district. Fuerte- Ventura is larger than the Grand Canary ; but it scarcely con- tains 9000 inhabitants, while the latter has about 45,000. One island is remarkable for drought : the other has a sutlicient supply of moisture to produce such fertility, that there are two, and sometimes three, harvests of wheat and maize in one year : hence the Great Canary is called the granary of the insular groupe. These islands were first discovered and planted by the Carthaginians : but they remained , for a long course of ages, unknown to the European nations. Bethencourt, a French gentleman, endeavoured to colonise them in 1402 ; and a Castilian, named Herrcra, made similar attempts in 1464. Other efforts were made by the Spaniards on a larger scale; and, at length, the islands were subdued, after the Guanches, or descend- ants of the original inhabitants, who appear to have attained a consider- able degree of civilisation, had been nearly extirpated by the inhumanity and bigotry of the invaders. Madeira, which is also reckoned among the African islands, derived its appellation from its being formerly almost covered with wood. It is about 60 miles long and 40 broad, and consists of one continued hill of a considerable height, extending from east to west; the declivity of which, on the south side, is cultivated, and interspersed with vineyards. In the midst of this slope the merchants have fixed their country-seats, which form a very agreeable prospect. The chief town, named Fonchal, stands on the southern side of the island : toward the sea, it is defended by a high wall with a battery, and is the only place where it is possible for a boat to land ; and even there the beach is covered with largo stones, and a violent surf continually beats upon it. Of the bay, on which the town borders, the extremities are formed by two steep pro- montories, composed of volcanic rocks. It may rather be called an in- convenient road than a good harbour. Though the city is tlie seat of the governor, the bishop, and the court of the inquisition, it is far from being elegant or handsome. It is irregularly built ; the streets are nar- row, crooked, and ill-paved, and are generally in a very dirty state. The churches and convents are numerous; but they are not remarkable for beauty or magnificence, though some (and more particularly the cathe- dral) are richly decorated. The population of the town is about 12,000; and, of the whole island, 70,000. Though this island seems to havo been known to the ancients, it lay concealed for many ages, and was at length discovered by the Portuguese in 1519; but others assert that it was first discovered in 1344 by Robert Machin, an Englishman, who, eloping with a young lady, landed with her on the island after a tempes- tuous voyage. Be that as it may, the Portuguese took possession of it, and are still its masters. Finding'it little better thau a thick forest, they if 5 I 742 AFRICAN ISLANDS. rendered the ground capable of cultivation, by setting fire to this wood ; and it is now so fertile aa to produce wine and fruit in great abundance. It IB less f'^uitful in corn, from the rocky nature of the soil. Sugar- canes used to thrive in it ; but they are not at present much cultivated. The inhabitants make excellent sweetmeats, and have the art of pre. serving citrons and oranges, and making marmalade and perfumed pastes, which exceed those of Genoa. The little sugar they make is very fine, and has a fragrant odor. This indeed is said to be the first place in the west where that manufacture was set on foot ; whence it was car- ried to Brasil. The climate of Madeira is very liot for a great part of the year, but is BO far from bein^i; insalubrious, that invalids resort to it from other countries: and, notwithstanding its heat, it is remarkably free from ve- nomous animals. It has a rainy season, which necessarily varies the temperature. Some years agt, -^ water-spout (as it was called), or a sur- charged cloud, burst over the island, and swelled the rivulets to such an excess, that dreadful inundations ensued. The country, and the envi- rons of the city, were rrvaged by the torrents: houses and farms were Avashed away, and many lives were lost. — The natives are generally of a middle stature, and have dark or swarthy complexions. The peasants are hardy and active, while the gentry are prone to indolence. Persons of all ranks are sober; but those of the higher class are addicted to gourmandise. The ladies are not remarkable for beauty ; but they are well-bred and polite, and some have even a striking elegance of man- ners. They are fond of music and dancing, without suil'ering those di- versions to engross that time which is required for more useful objects and pursuits. Leaving Madeira, with whir h we close the account of Africa, we con- tinue our course westward, through this immense ocenn, wliicli brings us to the Azores, or, as they are called, the Wt-stern Islands, situated between 25 and 32 deg. west long, and between 37 and 40 north lat. 900 miles west of Portugal, and as many east of Newfoundland, lying almost in the mid-way between Europe and America. They are nine in number, and are named St. Mary, St. Michael, Terceira, St. Gmr-gc. Graciosa, Fayal, Pico, Flores, and Corvo. They were discovered alhiiit the middle of the fifteenth century, by Joshua Vander-Berg, a Flemish merchant, who, in a voyage to Lisbon, was, by stress of weather, driven to these islands, which he found destitute of inhabitants. On his arrival at Lisbon, he boasted of his discovery; on which the Portuguese set sail immediately, and took possession of them. They were called the Azores, from the great number of hawks found among them. All these islands enjoy a serene sky, with a salubrious air, but are exposed to violent earth- quakes, from which they have frequently suffered ; as they have also by inundations of the surrounding wares. They are fertile in corn, wine, and fruit ; they also abound in cattle, fowls, &c. St. Michael is the largest, being nearly 100 miles in circumference, and containing 50,000 inhabitants ; but Terceira is the most important of these islands, on account of its harbour, which is spacious and has good anchorage, though it is exposed to the south-east wind. Its capi- tal, Angra, contains a cathedral and five churches, and is the residence of the governor, as well as of the bishop. Among the natural curiosities of the Azores, may be mentioned a re- markable mountain in Fayal, at the top of which is one of the most perfect basins ever formed, said to be three quarters of a mile in circuit, and 600 feet deep, with two lakes at the bottom. The coast is aurrounded by black rock spriDg8,whicl while some c( ternally. Th covered with i ferno, or the WE now p which, thougl more to that i ticular circuni and, before ' regard to its Near thee powers in Eu rence of intt perior. She the most vali the inland p£ this state of known by hi knowlege of notions of tl India by a b source of oj the Genoese wp'ft conder Columbus r< but, accordi English cou character of eluded thai imaginable spirit of ad reason to c selves with turing boh courage hii animates there, afte interest of the most a which the had man) variation i that the Is only guidi AMERICA. 748 by black rocks of lava.— In tlie island of St. Michael are sulpliurcous springs, which are used as warm baths for the cure of the rheuuiatism, while some cold mineral waters iu the same neighbourhood are taken in- ternally. The valley, in which the ca/c^etra$ or hot springs are found, is covered with sulphur, alum, and pumice-stone, and is called Boca do In- ferno, or the Mouth of Hell. AMERICA. WE now proceed to treat of a countryof vast extent and fertility, and which, though little cultivated by the hand of art, owes in sonic respects more to that of nature than any other division of the globe. The par- ticular circumstances of this country require that we should vary our plan, and, before we describe its present state, afford some information with regard to its discovery. Near the close of the 15th century, Venice and Genoa were the only powers in Europe which owed their support to commerce. An interfe- rence of interests produced rivalry ; but in traflic Venice was much su- perior. She engrossed the commerce of India, (then, and indeed always, the most valuable in the world,) but hitherto entirely carried on through the inland parts of Asia, or by the way of Egypt and the Red Sea. In this state of affairs, Christoval or Christopher Colon (more generally known by his Latinised name, Columbus), a native of Genoa, whose kiiowlege of the true figure of the earth was far superior to the general notions of the age in which he lived, conceived a project of sailing to India by a bold and unknown route, and of opening to his country a new source of opulence and power. This proposal, however, was rejected by the Genoese as chimerical, and the principles on which it was founded wr-A condemned as absurd. Stung with disappointment and indignation, Columbus retired from his country, and applied to the court of France ; but, according to the practice of that people, he was coolly ridicuied. The English court was his next resort ; yet, if he had sufficiently known the character of the base and mercenary Henry VII., he would have con- cluded that the cautious politics of that prince were the most opposite imaginable to a scheme of a precarious nature. In Portugal, where the spirit of adventure and discovery about this time l)egan to operate, he had reason to expect better success. But the Portuguese contented them- selves with creeping along the coast of Africa : they had no idea of ven- turing boldly into the open sea. These disappointments did not dis- courage him, as he was inspired with that noble enthusiasm which always animates an original genius. Spain was now his only resource; and there, after eight years' attendance, he succeeded, chiefly through the interest of queen Isabella. He set sail, in 1492, with three ships, upon the most adventurous attempt ever undertaken by man, and in the fate of which the inhabitants of two worlds were interested. In this voyage he had many difficulties to contend with; the most formidable was the variation of the compass, then first observed, and which seemed to threaten that the laws of nature were altered in an unknown ocean, and that the onl^ guide he had left was on the point of forsaking Iiim. His sailors, B\ 744 AMERICA. always discontented, now broke out into open mutiny, and insisted on their return : but his firmness, and much more the discovery of land, after a voyage of 33 days, put an end to the commotion. He first landed on one of the Bahama islands; but, to his surprise and sorrow, he dis- covered, from the poverty of the inhabitants, that this spot could not belong to the country which he sought. In steering southward, however, he found the island which he called Hispaniola, or St. Domingo, abounding]; in all the necessaries of life, inhabited by a humane and h()8|)itiil)lo people, and (what was of still greater consequence, as it ensured his fa- vorable reception at home) promising considerable quantities of gold. This island tliereforc he proposed to make the centre of his discoveries; and, having left upon it a few of his companions, as the ground-work of a colony, he returned to Spain to procure the necessary reinforcements. The court was then at Barcelona. Columbus traveled thither from Seville, amidst the acclamations of the people, attended by some of the inhabitants, the gold, arms, utensils, and ornaments, of tiie fine country which he had discovered. This entry into Barcelona was a species of triumph more glorious than that of conquerors, mere uncommon, and more innocent. In this voyage he had acquired a general knowlege of the islands in tho great sea which divides North and South America ; but he had no idea that there was an ocean between him and China. The countries which he had discovered were considered as a part of India. Even after the error which gave rise to this opinion was detected, and the true position of the new world was ascertained, the name has remained, the appellation of the West Indies being given to the country by all the people of Europe, Thus were the West Indies discovered by seeking a passage to the East, and, even after the discovery, were still conceived to be a part of the eastern hemisphere. The present success of Columbus, his former dis- appointments, and tho glory attending so unexpected a discovery, rendered the court of Spain as eager to forward his designs now, as it had been dilatory before. Seventeen vessels were quickly prepared ; all the necessaries for conquest or discovery were embarked ; 1500 men, among whom were some of high rank and fortune, prepared to accompany Columbus, now appointed governor with the most ample autliority. He sailed to Hispaniola, where he established a colony; and erected forts in the situations most advantageous for securing the dependence of the natives. Having spent a considerable time in this employment, and labored to establish this colony, with as much zeal and assiduity as if his views had extended no farther, he proceeded to ascertain the importance of his other discoveries, and to examine what advantages were most likely to be derived from them. He had already touched at Cuba, which, from some specimens, seemed a rich discovery ; but he knew not whether it was an island, or a part of some great continent. To ascertain this point was the present object of his attention. In coasting along the southern shore of Cuba, he was entangled in a multitude of islands ; and, in the same voyage, Jamaica was discovered. But to so many rJifHcultie was he exposed, on an unknown sea, among rocks, shelv':'^, Hid sands, that he returned to Hispaniola without learning any thirv; os-^tain with regard to Cuba. As his success excited jealousy and envy, he was obliged to re nppearin Spain for the defence of that reputation which wai iii,uil?d by the voice of calumny; and it was not without great diffi', ally that he Tras enabled to enter upcn a third expedition. He intended to steer to the southward of the Canaries until he should aach the fqui- AMERICA. 745 noctial line, and then to proceed directly westward, that ho might discover what opening that might aflord to India, or what new Elands or continent might reward his labor. After being long buried in a thick fog, and suffering groat inconvenience from the excessive ht-at and rain between the tropics, the navigators were favored with a brisk gale, and went before it seventeen days to the westward. A seaman then saw land, which was an island, now called Trinidad. Having passed this island, and two others whicli lie mi the mouth of tho Oro- noco, the admiral was surprised at an appearance which he liad never before witnessed : this was the friglitful tumult of the waves, occa- sioned by a conflict between the tide of the sea and the rapid current of the river. Sailing forward, he plainly discovered tliat tliey were in fresh water; and judging rightly that it was improbable any island should suj)- ply so vast a river, he imagined that he had discovered the continent. When he left the river, and found that the land continued on the west- ward to a considerable distance, he was convinced of it. Satisfied with this discovery, he yielded to the uneasiness and distress of his crew, and tailed to Hispaniola. About this time the spirit of discovery spread itself widely, and many adventurers in various parts of Europe wished to acquire the reputation of Columbus, without possessing his abilities. The Portuguese discovered Brasil, which long formed the most valuable part of their possessions : Cabot, a native of Bristol, surveyed a part of that country which after- wards composed the British empire in North- America: and Americo Vespuccio, a merchant of Florence, sailed to tho southern continent of America, and, being a man of address, had the honor of giving his name to the new world. But no one is now imposed on by the name; all know that Columbus, or Colon, was the first discoverer. To be deprived of the honor of giving name to such an iumiense territory was one of the smallest mortilications to which this great man was compelled to submit ; for such were the clamors of his enemies, and the ingratitude of the court of Spain, that, after discovering the continent, and making settle- ments on the islands, of America, he was treated like a traitor, and brought back to Europe in irons. He enjoyed, however, the glory of rendering one half of the world known to the other ; a glory so much the more precious, as it was untainted by that spirit of cruelty and rapine which disfigured all the exploits of those who came after him, and accom- plished the execution of his plan. He fully vindicated himself at court, was restored to favor, and, after another voyage, not particularly memo- rable, died at Valladolid in \506, in the ^^th year of his age. The succeeding governors of Cuba and Hispaniola endeavoured to pur- chase the same advantages by the blood of the natives, which Columbus had obtained by his good sense and humanity. These islands contained mines of gold. The Indians only knew where they were situated ; and the extreme avarice of the Spaniards, too furious to work by the gentle means of persuasion, hurried them to acts of the most shocking violence and cruelty against those unhappy men, who, they believed, concealed from them a part of their treasure. In a few years they depopulated Hispaniola, which is said to have contained three millions of inhabitants ; and Cuba, which had about 600,000. Bartholomew de las Casas, a witness of those barbarous depopulations, says that the Spaniards went out with their dogs to hunt after men. The unhappy savages, almost naked and unarmed, were pursued like deer into the forests, devoured by dogs, killed with gun-shot, or surprised and burned in their habitations. The Spaniards had hitherto only had a glimpse of the coatineut, i'rom ■t 1 m AMERICA. what they saw, or learned by report, they conjectured that this part of the new world wotild afford a still more valuable conquest. Cortez was despatched from Cuba in 1619, with 600 men, 18 horses, and a small number of field-pieces. With this inconsiderable force, he proposed to 8ubdue the most powerful state on the continent of America ; this was the empire of Mexico, rich, powerful and inhabited by millions of people passionately fond of war, and then headed by Motezuma, whose fame in {irms struck terror into tlie neighbouring nations. Never history, that was true, was more improbable and romantic than that of this war. The empire had subsisted for ages, and its inhabitants were rather polished and intelligent than rude and barbarous. They knew, like the Egyptians of old, that the year consisted nearly of 265 days. Their superiority, in military affairs, was the object of admiration and terror over the continent ; and their government, founded on the sure basis of laws combined with religion, seemed to bid defiance to time itself. The capital, situated in the middle of a spacious lake, was the noblest monument of American industry. It communicated witji the con- tinent by immense causeys, which were carried tlirough the lake. Tlie city was admired for its buildings, ail of stone, its squares and market- places, the shops which glittered with gold and silver, and the sumptuous palaces of Motezuma. But all the grandeur of this empire could not defend it against the Spaniards. Cortez, in his march, met with a feeble opposition from the nations along the coast of Mexico. The warlike animals on which the Spanish otlicers were mounted, the artificial thunder which issued from their hands, the wooden castles which had wafted them over tlie ocean, struck a panic into the people. Where-ever the invaders marched, they spared neither age nor sex, nothing sacred or profane. At last, the inhabitants of Tlascala, and some other states upon the coast, despairing of the success of opposition, entered into their alliance. Cortez, thus reinforced, advanced toward Mexico ; and, in his march, disco- vered a volcano of sulphur and salt-petre, whence he could supply him- self with powder. Motezuma heard of his progress without daring to oppose it; and, by sending a rich present of gold, which only excited the avarice of the Spaniards, he hastened their approach. No resistance was made to their entry into his capital. A palace was appropriated to Cortez, who had good reason, however, to distrust the affected polite- ness of the emperor, under which he suspected that some plot for his destruction was concealed ; but he had no pretence for violence. Mote- zuma loaded him with kindness, and with gold in greater quantities than he demanded ; but, at last, a circumstaLcc occurred, which aftbrded him a pretext for hostilities. In order to secure a communication by sea for the necessary reinforcements, he left a small garrison at Vera Cruz. He understood that the Americans in the neighbourhood had attacked this garrison in his absence, and that a Spaniard was killed in the action ; that Motezuma was privy to this violence, and had issued orders that the head of the slain Spaniard should be carried through his provinces, to destroy the prevailing belief of the immortality of the Europeans. He now, with some of his officers, visited the emperor; and, by artful per- suasion, and the influence of determined courage over weakness of mind and timidity, prevailed upon a powerful prince to put himself into the hands of a small party of invaders, who, while they aimed at his ruin, professed for him great friendship and regard. In a tumult which soon after arose, when the captive prince seemed to side with the enemies of his country, a stone, from an unknown hand, struck him on the temples, which, ia a few days, occasioned hia death. The Mexicans imnaediately elected Guatin vered an impl conduct, they had offered t( management o Mexico. The tribute the crown of S amazing quant his soldiers, st willing to peril however, now i and despair i Guatimozin an who, when he to discover int( high-priest, wl expressed his t I lie on a bed an act of obed into his hands While Cort. obtained in tell in gold and sil' only other cou dom. The ta Pizarro, a low tioos of Lucqu only 310 men the Peruvians cans, in favor itill more soft has been sai( force, Pizarro particular cin as they discloJ and of the staf be improper tJ Mango Cai uncommon m| passions oi glory. He a particular M from that lur authority he I deceived a cj hisjurisdictij and the dece and civilised! and trained rolent religid and the arts! 3uch mild Mango, dist| on th« thrc AMERICA. 747 •lected Guatimozin for their sovereign, who, from the beginning, disco- vered an implacable animosity against the Spanish name. Under his conduct, they rushed against those very men whom a little before they bad ofifered to worship. The Spaniards, however, by the dexterous management of Cortez, were too firmly established to be expelled from Mexico. The tribute which the grandees of this country had agreed to pay to the crown of Spain, amounted to 600,000 marks of pure gold, beside an amazing quantity of precious stones, a fifth part of which, distributed among his soldiers, stimulated their avarice and their courage, and made them willing to perish rather than part with so precious a booty. The Mexicans, however, now made strenuous eiforts for independence ; but all their valor and despair itself, gave way to what they called the Spanish thunder. Guatimozin and the empress were made prisoners. This was the prince who, when he was stretched on burning coals, that he might be forced to discover into what part of the lake he had thrown his riches, said to hi$ high-priest, who was condemned to the same punishment, and who loudly expressed his sense of the pain that he endured, " Do you imagine that I lie on a bed of roses ?" The high-priest remained silent, and died in •n act of obedience to his sovereign. Cortez, by getting a second emperor into his hands, made a complete conquest of Mexico. While Cortez and his soldiers were employed in reducing Mexico, they obtained intelligence of another great empirs, which was said to abound in gold and silver, and precious stones. This was the empire of Peru, the only other country in America that deserved the name of a civilised king- dom. The task of subduing this territory was undertaken by Francis Pizarro, a low adventurer, who was assisted by the pecuniary contribu-* tioos of Lucques, an opulent priest. He commenced the enterprise with only 310 men, and twelve small pieces of artillery. If we reflect that the Peruvians naturally entertained the same prejudices with the Mexi- cans, in favor of the Spanish nation, and were, beside, of a character itill more soft and unwarlike, we shall not be greatly surprised, after what has been said of the conquest of Mexico, that, with this inconsiderable force, Pizarro should make a deep impression on the empire. There were particular circumstances likewise, which conspired to assist him, and which, as they disclose some traces of the history and religion of these countries, and of the state of the human mind in this immense continent, it may not be improper to relate. Mango Capac was the founder of this monarchy. He was one of those uncommon men who, calm and dispassiont te themselves, can observe the passions oi their fellow-creatures, and turn them to their own profit or glory. He observed that the people were naturally superstitious, and had a particular venerat'on for the srn. He pretended, therefore, to descend from that luminary, whose worship he was sent to establish, and whose authority he was entitled to bear. By this romantic story he easily deceived a credulous people, and brought a large extent of territory under bis jurisdiction ; a larger still he subdued by his arms ; hut both the force and the deceit he employed for the most laudable purposes. He united and civilised the dispersed barbarous people ; he subjected them to laws, and trained them to arms ; he softened them by the institution of a bene- volent religion : in short, there was no part of America where agriculture and the arts were so assiduously cultivated, and where the people were of such mild and ingenuous manners. A race of sovereigns succeeded Mango, distinguished by the title of Yncas. The twelfth prince was now OQ th« throae, ood named Atabalipa. Hi« father, Guiaua Capac, had '■ i 748 AMERICA. conquered the province of Quito: to secure himself in th6 possession, he had married the daughter of the natural prince of that country, and from this marriage sprang Atabalipa. His elder brother, named Huescar, by a different mother, had claimed the succession to the whole of his father's dominions, not excepting Quito, which devolved on the younger by a double connexion. A civil war had been kindled on this account, which after greatly weakening the kingdom, ended in favor of Ju lalipa, who detained Huescar as a prisoner. In this feeble and disjointed state was the kingdom of Peru when Pizarro advanced to attack it. The oinhioiis predictions of religion, too, as in most other cases, joined their force to human calamities. Prophecies were recorded, dreams were recollected which foretold the subjection of the empire by unknown pereons, whose description exactly corresponded with the appearance of the Spaniards. In these circumstances, Atabalipa, instead of opposing the invaders, endeavoured to secure their favor. Pizarro, however, whose temper partook of the meanness of his education, had no conception of dealing gently with those whom he called barbarians, but who, though less acquainted with the cruel art of destroying their fellow-creatures, were more civilised than himself. While he was engaged in a conference with Atabalipn, hia men, as they had been previously instructed, furiously attacked the guards of that prince, and, having murdered 3000 of them, as they were pressing forward to defend the sacred person of their monarch, seised Atabalipa himself, Avhom they carried off to the Spanish quarters. That prince having offered a large sum for his hberty, Pizarro was treating with him on the subject, when Almagro, who was at lirsthis principal associate, interfered in an authoritative wianner, and claimed a moiety of the ransom. That the common cause might not suffer by a rupture between the chiefs, this arrangement was agreed to. The ransom was paid without delay, — a sum exceeding tlieir conception, but not sufficient to gratify their avarice. It amounted to 1,500,000/. sterling, and, even after the large deductions which were made for the king, for the two rival commanders, and the officers, each private soldier had above 2000/. With such fortunes it was not to be expected that a mercenary army would readily submit to the rigors of military discipline. They insisted on being disbanded, that they might enjoy the fruits of their labor in quiet. Pizarro complied with this demand, concluding that avarice would still detain a number in his army, and that the return of many who had been thus enriched would induce new adventurers to pursue the same plan for acquiring gold. The magnitude of this ransom was only an additional reason for detain- ing Atal)alipa in confinement, until it was discovered whether he had another treasure to gratify the avarice of the Spaniards. But, whether they believed that he had no more to give, and weM unwilling to employ their troops in guarding a prince from whom they expected no farther advantage ; or that Pizarro had conceived an aversion to him, on account of some instances of craft and duplicity which he observed in his charac- ter, and which he conceived might prove dangerous to his affairs ; it is certain, that, by his command, Atabalipa was put to death. A contest for the succession led to a civil war ; the battles which ensued accustomed these harmless people to blood ; and such is the preference of a spirit of any kind raised in a nation to a total lethargy, that, in the course of these disputes among themselves, the inhabitants of Peru assumed some courage against the Spaniards. The losses which the invaders met with in these quarrels, though inconsiderable in themselves, were rendered dangerous, by lessening the opinion of their invincibility. This cousideution engaged AMERICA. r49 Plzarro to Concliide a trace ; and he employed the interval in laying the foundationB of the city of Lima, and in settling the Spaniards in the country. But, as soon as an oi)portunity offered, he renewed the war and, after many difficulties, made himself master of Cusco. While he was engaged in these conquests, new grants and supplies arrived from Spain. Pizarro obtained a territory of 200 leagues along the sea-coast, to the southward of what had been before granted, and Almagro ?00 leagues to the southward of Pizarro's government. This division occa.noned a warm dispute between them, each reckonino' Cusco within his o .. n district ; but the dexterity of Pizarro effected a reconcilia- tion. H« persuaded his rival that the country which really belonged to him lay to the southward of Cusco, and that it was by no means inferior in riches, and might be as easily conquered as Peru. He offered him his assistance in the expedition, the success of which he did not even call in question. Almagro, that he might have the honor of subduing a kingdom for him- self, listened to this advice; and, joining as many of Pizarro's troops to his own as he judged necessary, he penetrated, with great danger and difficulty, into Chile, losing many of his men as he passed over mountains of an immense height, and always covered with suow. He reduced, how- ever, a very considerable part of that country. But the Peruvians had become too well acquainted with war, not to take advantage of the division of the Spanish troops. They made an effort for regaining their capital, in which, Pizarro being indisposed, and Almagro removed to a considerable distance, they were very nearly successful. The latter, however, had no sooner been informed of the siege of Cusco, than, relinquishing all views of distant conquest, he returned to secure the grand objects of their former labors. He raised the siege, with great slaughter of the assailants ; but, having obtained possession of the city, he was unwilling to give it up to Pizarro, who now approached with an army, and knew of no other enemy than the Peruvians. This dispute occasioned a long and bloody struggle between them, in which the turns of fortune were various, and the resentment fierce on both sides, because the fate of the vanquished was certain death. This was the lot of Almagro, who, in an advanced age, was sacrificed to the security of his rival. Pizarro, not satisfied with his success, was still urged by his ambition to undertake new enterprises. The southern countries of America offered the richest conquest. Toward this quarter, the mountains of Potosi, abounding with silver, had been discovered. He tlierefore followed the track of Almagro into Chile, and reduced another part of that country. Orellana, one of his commanders, passed the Andes, and sailed down to the mouth of the river of Amazons ; an immense navigation, which dis- covered a rich and delightful country ; but, as it is mostly flat, and there- fore does not abound in minerals, the Spaniards then, and ever since, neglected it. Pizarro, meeting with repeated success, and having no superior to control, no rival to keep him within bounds, now indulged the natural ferocity of his temper, and behaved with the basest tyranny and cruelty against all who had not concurred in his designs. This conduct raised a conspiracy against him, to which he fell a sacrifice in his own palace. The partisans of old Almagro now declared his son their viceroy ; but the greater part of the nation, though extremely well satisfied with the fate of Pizarro, did not join in this declaration. They waited the orders of the king of Spain, who sent Vaca de Castro to be their governor. This man, by his integrity and wisdom, was admirably well fitted to heal the wounds of the colony, and to place every thing on the most advantage- 750 AMERICA. 0U8 footing, both for itself and the mother-country. By his prudent management, the mines of La Plata and Potosi, which were formerly private plunder, became an object of public utility to the court of Spain. The parties were silenced or crushed, and tranquillity was restored to Peru. It seems, however, that Castro had not been sufficiently skilled in gaining the favor of the Spanish statesmen, by proper bribes or promises, which a ministry would always expect froui the governor of so rich a country. By their advice counsellors were sent over to control Castro, and the colony was again unsettled. Party-spirit began to blaze anew; and Gonzalo Pizarro set himself at the head of his brother's partisans, with whom many new malcontents were united. It was now no longer a dispute between governors about the bounds of their jurisdiction. Gon- zalo Pizarro only paid a nominal submission to the king. He strength- ened himself daily, and even went so far as to decapitate a governor who was sent overto curb him. He gained the confidence of the Spanish admiral in the South Sea, by Avhose means he proposed to obstruct the landing of any troops from Spain ; and he had a view of uniting the inhabitants of Mexico in his revolt. Such was the state of affairs, Avhen the court of Spain, sensible of its error in not sending into America men whose character and virtue only, and not cabal, pleaded in their behalf, despatched, with unlimited powers, Peter de la Gasca, a man differing from Castro only by being of a more mild and insinuating behaviour, but with the same love of justice, the same greatness of soul and disinterested spirit. All who had not joined in Fizarro's revolt flocked to his standard ; many of his friends, charmed with the behaviour of Gascn, forsook their old connexions; the admiral wai gained over by insinuation to return to his duty ; and a full pardon was offered to Pizarro himself, provided that he would return to his allegiance. But so intoxicating are the ideas of royalty, that he was incliniid to incur every hazard, rather than submit to any officer of Spain. With those, therefore, who continued to adhere to his interest, he risked a battle, in which he was defeated and captured. His execution soon followed ; and thus the brother of him who had conquered Peru for the crown of Spain, fell a sacrifice for the security of the Spanish dominion over that country. OF THE ORIGINAL INHABITANTS OF AMERICA. THE discovery of America not only opened a new source of wealth to the busy commercial part of Europe, but an extensive field of specu- lation to the philosopher who was disposed to trace the characters of men under various degrees of refinement, and to observe the movements of the human heart, or the operations of the understanding, when un- tutored by science, and untainted by corruption. So striking seemed the disparity between the inhabitants of Europe and the natives of America, that some speculative men ventured to affirm, that it was impossible they should be of the same species, or derived from one common source. This, however, was an ill-founded conclusion. The characters of man- kind may be infinitely varied according to the different degrees of im« provement at which they have arrived, the manner in which they acquire the necessaries of life, the force of custom and habit, and other circum- Atances too particular to be mentioned, and too various to be reduced under any gene discovered amo distinguish one When the th Atlantic, they i they call barbai ence and noble Peru and Mexi most every Eur vated very spai acquiring the n (heir mountains gave a strength The same caus rays of the sui proportioned, heads flattish, but their count as ttiat of a hoi among them, a Their characte modes of life, precarious sub gaged in war much gaiety ol in general, grs which is obser Ignorant of the in conversatior they had some words, and e^ natural to mei to them were entirely on w honor, and ev< 'teution to ject to attach wherever they abundance, did not posset son, very sma try, arts, agri viduals, who small tribes sert frontier, boundless for Liberty wi vernment, than by the from despisir wisdom, whi under the ba learned to re engaged in cause the i ui AMERICA. 751 under any general head. But the great outlines of humanity are to be discovered among them all, notwithstanding the various shades which distinguish one nation from another. When the thirst of gold carried the inhabitants of Europe beyond the Ariantic, they found tlie inhabitants of the new world immersed in what they call barbarism, but which, however, was a state of honest independ- ence and noble simplicity. Except the inhabitants of the empires of Peru and Mexico, the natives of America were unacquainted with al- most every European art ; even agriculture was hardly known, or culti- vated very sparingly. Tlie only method on which they depended for acquiring the necessaries of life, was by hunting the wild animals, which (heir mountains and forests supplied in great abundance. This exercise gave a strength and agility to their limbs, unknown among other nations. The same cause, perhaps, rendered their bodies, in general, where the rays of the sun were not too violent, uncommonly straight and well- proportioned. Their muscles were firm and strong; their bodies and heads flattish, which was the effect of art ; their features were regular, but their countenances fierce ; their hair long, black, lank, and as strong as that of a horse. The color of their skin was a reddish-brown, admired among them, and heightened by the constant use of bear's fat and paint. Their characters were altogether founded upon their circumstances and modes of life. A people constantly employed in procuring the means of precarious subsistence, who lived by the chase, and were generally en- gaged in war with their neighbours, could not be supposed to enjoy much gaiety of temper, or a high flow of spirits. They were, therefore, in general, grave even to sadness ; they had not that giddy vivacity which is obser^'ed among some nations in Europe, and they despised it. Ignorant of the arts of amusement, of which that of agreeable trifling in conversation is one of the most considerable, they only spoke when they had something important to communicate ; and all their actions, words, and even looks, were attended with some meaning. This was natural to men who were almost continually engaged in pursuits which to them were of the highest importance. Their subsistence depended entirely on what they procured with their hands ; and their lives, their honor, and every thing dear to them, might be lost by the smallest in- 'teution to the designs of their enemies. As they had no particular ob- ject to attach them to one place rather than to another, they hastened wherever they expected to find the necessaries of life in the greatest abundance. Cities, which are the effects of agriculture and arts, they did not possess, The different tribes or nations were, for the same rea- son, very small, when compared with civilised societies, in which indus- try, arts, agriculture, and commerce, have united a vast number of indi- viduals, whom a complicated luxury renders mutually useful. These small tribes lived at an immense distance ; they were separated by a de- sert frontier, and concealed in the bosom of impenetrable and almost boundless forests. Liberty was the prevailing passion of the Americans ; and their go- vernment, under the influence of this sentiment, was better secured than by the wisest political regulations. They were very far, however, from despising all sorts of authority ; they were attentive to the voice of wisdom, which experience had conferred on the aged ; and they enlisted under the banners of the chief, in whose valor and address they had learned to repose their confidence. Among those tribes which were most engaged in war, the power of the chief was naturally predominant, be- cause the idea of having a military leader was the first source of hia 75i AMERICA. superiority, and the frequent exigencies of the state, requiring such a leader, continued to support and even to enhance it. His power, how- ever, was rather persuasive than coercive ; he was revered as a father, rather than feared as a monarcli. He liad no guards, no prisons, no officers of justice ; and one act of ill-judged violence would deprive him of his authority. Among some tribes, a species of aristocracy prevailed, the elders having the chief sway ; while in several communities a kind of hereditary nobility existed, wliose influence surpassed that of the elders. Public business was conducted with the utmost simplicity, such as might recall, to those who are acquainted with antiquity, a picture of the most early ages. The heads of families met in a house or cabin ap< pointed for the purpose. Here the affairs of the tribe were discussed ; and here those who were distinguish-^d by eloquence or wisdom had an opportunity of displaying their talents. The orators, like those of Homer, spoke in a bold figurative style, with gestures apparently violent, but often very natural and expressive. When the business was over, and they happened to be well provided with food, they appointed a general feast upon the occasion. The feast was accompanied with songa, in which the real or fabulous exploits of their progenitors were celebrated ; and dancing was also a part of the festivity. War and the chase were the only employments of the men ; every other concern was left to the women. The most common motive for entering into a war, was, either to revenge the death of some lost friend, or to acquire prisoners. These wars were either undertaken by some private adventurers, or at the instance of the whole community, In the latter case, all the young men who were disposed to go out to bat- tle (for no one was compelled) gave a piece of wood to the chief, as a token of their intention of accompanying him. The chief, who was to conduct them, fasted several days, during which he conversed with no one, and was particularly careful to observe his dreams, which the pre- sumption natural to savages generally rendered as favorable as he could desire. Other superstitions and ceremonies were observed. One was, to place the war-kettle on the tire, as an emblem that they were going out to devour their enemies ; which, among some nations, might for- merly have been the case. Then they despatched a large shell to their allies, inviting them to come and drink the blood of their enemies. Tiiey were of opinion that those in their alliance must not only adopt their enmities, but have their resentment wound up to the same pitch with themselves. And, indeed, no people carried their friendships or tlieir resentments so far as they did : and this is what might be expected from their peculiar circumstances ; for that principle in human nature, which is the spring of the social affections, acts with the greater force the more it is restrained. The Americans, who lived in small societies, see- ing few objects and few persons, became wonderfully attached to those objects and persons, and could not be deprived of them without feeling themselves miserable. Their ideas were too confined, their breasts too narrow, to entertain the sentiments of general benevolence, or even of or- dinary humanity. But this very circumstance, while it rendered them cruel to an incredible degree toward those with whom they were at war, added a new force to their particular friendships, and to the common tie which united the members of the same tribe, or those different tribes which were in alliance. Their wars were conducted with great art and address. The great qualities in their warriors were vigilance and attention, to give and to »void a surprise ; and }o these they wer« superior to other nationii. As they were acci captions were respect accordi acuteness. T by the smoke ( their feet on th could count an them no superi they went out, by which they lire to warm tl ground all da} along in fdcs, traclcs of the i their foes ; an used to massa prisoners only On the other '. would throw t cealment, an< utmost fury ii the dead bodi blood, and sc their captives killed many o adopt, they ti his body, ant out his nails I and tore the it was, into t bacco: then pulled off th( gashes in th^ with red-hot pulled off greediness, horror and ] bare nerves others were that could hours. Th fury, to fresh the variety an profound awake hir all over w they would with pince his flesh fr exhibited in such a peeled the on the nal gering wit th AMERICA. 753 they were accustomed to continual wandering in the forests, as tlieir per- ceptions were sharpened by Iceen necessity, and as they lived in every respect according to nature, their external senses had a high degree of acuteness. They could trace out their enemies, at an immense distance, by the smoke of their fi-es, which they could smell, and by the tracks of their tieet on the ground, imperceptible to an European eye, but which they could count and distinguish with the utmost facility. This, however, gave them no superiority, because their enemies were equally skilful. When they went out, therefore, they took care to avoid making use of any thing by which they might incur the danger of a discovery. They lighted no fire to warm themselves, or to prepare their victuals ; they lay close to the ground all day, and traveled only in the night; and, as they marched along in files, he who closed the rear diligently covered with leaves the tracks of the feet. In this manner they entered unawares the villages of their foes ; and, while the flower of the nation were engaged in hunting, used to massacre all the children, women, and helpless old men, making prisoners only those who had strength enough to be useful to their nation. On the other hand, when they found the hostile tribe approaching, they would throw themselves among bushes for the purpose of temporary con- cealment, and suddenly rise with tremendous shouts, and rush with the utmost fury into the conflict. When victorious, they would insult over the dead bodies, tear the scalp from the head, wallow like beasts in the blood, and sometimes even devour the flesh. They frequently treated their captives with the most horrible cruelty. Fixing upon one who had killed many of their friends in the battle, and whom no family would adopt, they tied him to a stake, began to torture him at the extremity of his body, and gradually approached the more vital parts. One plucked out his nails by the roots, one by one; another took a finger into his mouth, and tore the flesh off with his teeth ; a third thrust the finger, mangled as it was, into the bowl of a pipe, made red-hot, which he smoked like to- bacco: then they bruised the toes and fingers between stones; thsy pulled off the flesh from the teeth, cut circles about his joints, and made gashes in the fleshy parts of his limbs, which they seared immediately with red-hot irons, cutting, burning, and pinching them alternately ; they pulled off this flesh, mangled and roasted, bit by bit, devouring it with greediness, and smearing their faces with the blood in an enthusiasm of horror and fury. When they had thus torn off the flesh, they twisted the bare nerves and tendons about an iron, tearing and snapping them, while others were employed in pulling and extending the limbs in every way that could increase the torment. This was continued often for five or six hours. They occasionally unbound him to give a breathing to their fury, to think what new torments they should inflict, and to re- fresh the strength of the sufferer, who, wearied out with such a variety and excess of torments, would sometimes fall into so profound a sleep, that they were obliged to apply the fire to awake him and renew his sufferings. They would then stick him all over with small matches, that easily took fire, but burned slowly ; they would ru.i sharp reeds into every part of his body, drag out his teeth with pincers, and thrust out his eyes ; and lastly, when they had burned his flesh from the bones with slow fires, had so mangled the body that it exhibited the appearance of a continued wound, had mutilated his face in such a manner, that it seemed to have nothing human about it, had peeled the skin from the head, and poured red-hot coals or boiling water on the naked scull, they would unbind the wretch, who, blind and stag- gering with paiu and weakness, assaulted and pelted on every side with 3C 754 AMERICA. clubs and stones, now up, now down, falling into their fires at eTery step, would run hither and thither, until one of the chiefs, whether out nf com- passion, or weary of cruelty, put an end to his life with a club or a dagger. The women, forgettine the human as well as the female nature, and tranR< formed into something worse than Furies, would even outdo the men in this scene of horror, while the principal persons of the country sat round the stake, smoking, and looking on without the least emotion. What is most extraordinary, the sufferer himself, in the little interrals of hi.s tor. ments, would smoke too, ap[)ear unconcerned, and converse with his tor- mentors about indifferent matters. Indeed, during the whole time of his execution, there seemed to be a contest, which should exceed, they in inflicting the most horrid pains, or he in enduring them with a firmneas and constancy almost super-human : not a groan, a sigh, or a distortion of countenance, would escape him ; he would recount his own exploits, inform them what cruelties he had inflicted upon their countrymen, and threaten them with the revenge that would attend his death ; and, though his reproaches exasperated them to the utmost rage, he would continue his insults even for their ignorance of the art of tormenting, pointing out more exquisite methods, and more sensible parts of the body to be afflicted. This resentful and malignant barbarity did not preclude, in the or- dinary concerns of life, the greatest warmth of social kindness. To those who lived in the same district, or were in alliance with the tribe, the nrost friendly regard was shown : and, if any one had been un- successful in the chase, or had met with any misfortune, he felt no other effect from it, than that it gave him an opportunity of expe- riencing the benevolence and attachment of his neighbours and allies. The feast of the dead, — a periodical solemnity among the savages, — exhibited the force of their friendship. All wlio had died during the last eight or ten years were taken out of their graves, and conveyed to a particular spot, where many tribes assembled to testify their sorrow. The bodies were cleansed, as far as it was possible to purify them ; the sepa- rated bones were preserved with religious care ; and, after a feast, in which no mirth prevailed, a re-interment took place. These practices and ceremonies are not so habitual as they formerly were. European connexions have had some effect both in softening the cruelty of the savages, and in weakening the force of their unsophisticated feelings. They are still inhuman to their captives, but not to the same extent of brutal ferocity ; and they are still friendly and grateful, though not to that romantic excess in which they formerly indulged. Their religious feelings claim some notice. The god of war is revered by most of their tribes. Him they invoke before they go into the field ; and, as his disposition may be more or less favorable *o them, they con- clude that they shall be more or less successful. Some tribes worship the sun or moon; among others there are various traditions relative to the creation of the world, and the history of the gods ; traditions which, while they resemble the Grecian fables, are still more absurd and incon- sistent. But religion is not the prevailing character of these barbarians; and, except when they have some immediate occasion for the assistance of their gods, they pay them no sort of worship. Like all rude nations, however, they are strongly addicted to superstition. They believe in the existence of a number of good and bad genii, spirits who interfere in the affairs of mortals, and produce all our happiness or misery. The minis- ters of those beings are the jugglers, who are also the only physicians among the savages. These men are supposed to be inspired by the good gtnii, most eominonly in thsir dreams, with the knowlege vi fiitnre events; tliey be informed l manner they their system the same ren of which is soaked with him from thi coarse mcth cures. The efficacy; an plication of magical cere It should been mentio appearance found those generality ol in their feat seemed inca dolence, an(J tants of thi feebleness o{ of South-Ar of their app far exceede mits, while, the America devoured m though the was their as own consul! the product! easily traim such a smt scanty stor America, c( their framt dastardly s] THISgi 4000 in bi affords. It Atlantic, « Pacific, by continents, dom of M one part, i the ocean! great gulf southern * luge, mot AMERICA. 76S una, n in Bund at is tor> tor- his y in mess ereats ; tfiey are called to the atisiatance of the sick, and are gupposed to be informed by the spirits whether their patients will recover, and in what manner they must be treated. But these spirits are (ixtrcmely simple in their system of physic, and in almost every disease direct the jiigijier to the same remedy. The patient is enclosed in a narrow cabin, in the midst of which is a stone red-hot ; on this they throw water, until he is well soaked with the warm vapor and hisown perspiration. Then they hurry him from the bagnio, and plunge him suddenly into the next river. This coarse method, which costs many their lives, often performs remarkable cures. The jugglers have likewise the use of some specifics, of wonderful efficacy; and all the savages are dextrous in curing wounds by the ap- plication of herbs : but the power of each remedy is attributed to the magical ceremonies which form a part of the process. It should he observed by the reader, that the particulars which have been mentioned, relate to the natives of North- America. On the first appearance of the inhabitants of the New World, their discoverers also found those of the south to be, in several particulars, very unlike the generality of the people of the ancient hemisphere. They were different in their features and complexions ; they were not only averse to toil, but teemed incapable of it ; and, when roused by force from their native in- dolence, and compelled to work, they sank under tasks which the inhabi- tants of the other continent would have performed with ease. This feebleness of constitution seemed almost universal among the inhabitants of South- America. The Spaniards were also surprised at the smallnesg of their appetite for food. The constitutional temperance of the natives far exceeded, in their opinion, the abstinence of the most mortified her- mits, while, on the other hand, the appetite of the strangers appeared to the Americans insatiably voracious ; and they affirmed that one Spaniard devoured more food in a day than was sufficient for ten Americans. But, though the demands of the natives for food were very sparing, so limited was their agriculture, that they hardly raised what was sufficient for their own consumption. Many of the inhabitants confined their industry to the production of a few plants, which, in a rich and warm climate, were easily trained to maturity ; but, if a few Spaniards settled in any district, such a small addition of supernumerary mouths soon exhausted their •canty stores, and brought on a famine. The inhabitants of South- America, compared with those of the north, are generally more feeble in their frames, less vigorotis in the efforts of their minds, of a gentle and dastardly spirit, more enslaved by pleasure, and more addicted to indolence. A GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF AMERICA. THIS great western continent extends about 9000 miles in length and 4000 in breadth, and enjoys all the variety of climates which the earth affords. It is washed by the two great oceans. To the eastward it has the Atlantic, which divides it from Europe and Africa ; and to the west the Pacific, by which it is se,>arated from Asia. It is composed of two great continents, one on the north, the other on the south, joined by the king- dom of Mexico, which forms a kind of isthmus 14.00 miles long, and in one part, at Darien, so narrow, as to make the communication between the oceans by no means difficult, being only sixty miles across. In the great gulf which is formed between the isthmus and the northern and •outhern continents, a multitude of islands are found, many of them large, moat of tbom fertile, and denomioated the West Indies, in con- 3 C 2 756 AMERICA. tr-'listinction to the countries and islands of Asia beyond the Cape of Goou Hope, which are called the East Indies. Before we proceed to treat of separate countries in their order, it will be proper to take notice of those mountains and rivers which disdain, as it were, to be confined within the limits of particular kingdoms or pro- vinces, and extend over a great part of the continent. America is not, in general, a mountainous country ; yet it has sonic mountains of stupend- ous heiglit. The Andes exceed in length any chain of mountains in tlie other parts of the globe : extending from the isthmus of Darien to the strait of Magellan, they divide the whole southern part of America, and run a length of more than 4000 miles. Their height is as remarkable as their length. Cbimbora90 rises to 21 ,000 feet ; and its summit is alv - ' covered with snow. Compared with the Andes, tlie North- American mountains, though in some parts very high, arc insignificant. America is, without question, that part of the globe which is best wa> tered, not only for the support of life, and all the purposes of fertility, but for the convenience of intercourse and traiiic. In North-America, those vast tracts of country, situated beyond the Apalacbian mountains, are watered by spacious lakes, which not only communicate with each other, but give rise to several great rivers, that receive many others in their course. These streams, spreading over an immense space, lay open the inmost recesses of this great continent, and afford such an inlet for commerce, as must produce the greatest advantages, when- ever the country adjacent shall be fully inhabited by an industrious and civilised people. The eastern side of North- America also possesses many rivers of great depth, length, and commodious navigation. South- America is, in this respect, equally fortunate. It enjoys the river of Amazons, the RiodelaPlata, the Orinoco, and many other noble streams. A country of such vast extent on each side of the equator must neccs- sarily have a variety of soils as well as climates. It is a treasury of na- ture, producing most of the metals, minerals, plants, and trees, which are found in the other parts of the world, and many of them in greater quantities and higher perfection. The gold and silver of America have supplied Europe with such immense quantities of those metals, that they have become much more common ; so that the gold and silver of Europe now bear little proportion to the high price set upon them before the discovery of America. This country also produces diamonds, pearls, emeralds, amethysts, and other valuable stones, which, by being brought into Europe, liave contributed likewise to lower their value. To these may be added a great number of commodities, which, though of less price, are of much greater use ; ^s, cochineal, indigo, log-wood, red-wood, fustic, lignum vita, rice, gi.>ger, cacao or the chocolate- nut, sugar, cotton, tobacco, the Peruvian bark, a variety of balsams, and many other articles of traffic, to some of which we were entire strangers, while we were obliged to purchase others at an extravagant rate from Asia and Africa. With respect to the quadrupeds of this new world, it may be observed in general, that they are Ices than those of the old ; even such as are carried hence to breed there, are often found to degenerate, and are rarely, if ever, seen to improve. If, with respect to size, wo should com- pare the animals of the new and the old world, we shall find one very disproportioued to the other. The American wild beasts seem to be divested of that courage which is so often fatal to man in Africa or Asia. The cougar and the jaguar, indeed, arc sometimes fierce and r '.-4m*- . mo w<> r — I |,KI L1II IZ<> IHtl MM* '-Xi '«» •% \^ WOJiTM AMSmiCA , .50 wo too ^"hlO ^iHi tU>o tkHi JiW -Britirh 3tahitf Milrs I^ndoi, ISihlishtd Mayi^iStj !»■ J.MawmMi X- hhlislieti Mqvifjgt} l Newfoundland, June 1610 By John Guy. ■"'■• New York \ about 16 14 By the Dutch. ' "r . ^ J^ew Jersey \ ».,«,.! ,.>«A ( By a part of Mr. Robinson's congre- Plymouth 1620 J ^ g^\i„„_ 5 By a small English colony, near the New Hampshire 1623^ mouth of the Piscataqua. Delaware J ^q^I By the Swedes and Finlanders. j;^ . Pennsylvania J „ t , t. ,• . ' ■ .' Massachuset- Bay .... 1628 ByJohn Endicot. ,,,,•« .m.?i„. 1 no $ By a colony of Roman-cathohca, under Maryland 16J3 J ^^^^ Baltimore. - \%, ^ .•nv*f.>^ | Connecticut 1635 By Mr. Fenwick. i^onnctiicui f By Mr. Roger Williams, and his perse- Rhode Island 1635 < p^^gj brethren. C Granted to the duke of York by Charles N«w Jersey .... 1664.5 H. hut settled some time before this I ! .'*' ......".w ,. ^ bytlie lilngUbU. , ,-.. . . j i ■ ***" * __, *►». I lli i I «i « ! ■ ■■. .. m i/.^— y aw" ir 758 AMERICA. South Carolina California . . . . Pennsylvania . . Louisiana North Carolina Georgia Kentucky . . . . Vermont Territory N. W. of the Ohio river Indiana Tennessee 1669 1679 1681 1699 1729 J 1732 1773 .1777 I 1787 179.5 1796 By governor Sale By the Spaniards. By W. Penn, with a colony of Quakers. By French adventurers. Erected into a separate government, but settled before by the English. By general Oglethorpe. By colonel Daniel Boon. By emigrants from Connecticut, and other parts of New England. By the Ohio and other companies. By a variety of colonists. By emigrants from North Carolina. From the year 1 8 1 7 to the present time, the Missisipi territory and other spacious countries to the west of the United States have been suc- cessively added to the territories of that republic as federal states. THE GRAND DIVISIONS OF NORTH AMERICA. Countries, Leu. Brea. Square Miles. Chief Towns. Di8t.& bearing from London. Belonging to New Britaiu .... lO.iO 1000 400,000 Great Brit. Canada 750 47.5 1. to, 000 Quebec Ditto New Scotland. . \ New IJrunswicli J .350 250 57,000 Ha!i'as St. Anne's Ditto United States of Nor '\-America. 1300 2000 (i50 1100 9.50,000 Washington 3600 SW. Mexico, iiiclud- ' iug California 1250 500 580,000 Mexico 4«00 SVV. Independent Guatemala 100,000 New-Gua- 1 temala J 4650 SW. Independent GRAND DIVISIONS OF SOUTH AMERICA. Countries. Len. 1300 1400 Brea. 105b Square Milea. Chief Towns. Dist.& bearing from London. Belonging to Culombia 5.50,000 Bogota 4500 SW. Independent Peru 450 675,000 Lima .5000 SW. liidepeiidcnt AmazoHia, a very extensive country, little kno««n to the Europeans. | Uuiaua 500 JI50 4.50 1000 230,000 890,000 belougiugto various Powers. Brazil St. Sebastian 6000S W. Independent | Paraeaay ur La Plata ■ 1550 900 70o;ooo Buenos-Ayres 6040 SW. 1 1 Independent Chilfe 1220 230 280,000 Sant-Iago 6600 SW, Terra Majcella-"J nica or Fata- > gouia J 700 300 200,000 Left to the Natives. GREENLAND. 759 The principal islands of North- America are, Newfoundland, Cape Breton, and St. John's in the Gulf of St, Laurence; the West-Indian groupe, between North and South America, the Bermuda and Bahama ieles in the Atlantic. GREENLAND. THIS extensive country, though it has been said to belong properly neither to America nor to Europe, ought certainly to be referred to the former continent, whether it be an island, or united to the main land to the north of Baffin's Bay, by which it is bounded on the west. To the south it terminates in a point called Cape Farewell ; on the south-east it is washed by the Atlantic ; and on the east it is bouiided by the Icy Sea, and the strait which separates it from Iceland, from which it is distant about 200 miles ; to the north its limits are not yet ascertained. The climate of this country is extremely severe, the greater part of it being generally covered with ice and snow. Among the vegetables which it produces are sorrel, angelica, wild tansey, and scurvy-grass. Europeans have sown barley and oats, which have grown as high as in warmer climates, but have seldom advanced so far as to ear, and never, even in the warmest places, have come to maturity. The stunted trees are the juniper, willow, and birch. The animals are white hares, foxes, rein- deer, and white bears, which last are fierce and mischievous. The only tame animals are a species of dogs resembling wolves. The shores are frequented by the walrus, and several kinds of seals ; and the seas contain various species of whales, some of which are white, and other" black ; the black sort, the grand bay whale, is in most esteem, on account of its bulk, and the great quantity of fat or blubber which it affords. This animal is usually between sixty and eighty feet in length ; its tongue is about eighteen feet long, enclosed in long pieces of what is called whale- bone, which are covered with a kind of hair like horse-hair ; and on each sidd of the tongue are 2.50 pieces of this whalebone: the bones of its body are as hard as those of an ox, and of no use. A number of ships, chiefly English and Dutch, are annually employed in the whale-fishery. When a whale appears, the boats are sent out, of which each ship has four or five, carrying six or eight men ; and the person who stands at the head of the boat, strikes the creature with his harpoon or barbed dart. Finding itself wounded, it dives down into the deep with such velocity of motion, that, to prevent the wood of the boat from taking fire by the violent rubbing of the rope against thesis e of it, one man is constantly employed in wetting it. After the whale has run some hundred fathoms, it is forced to come up again for air, when it spouts out the water with a tremendous noise. On its emerging, the process of harpooning is repeated ; and the vital parts of the raging victim are pierced with speai-s, until streams of blood are spouted out. The boats follow for some miles, and at la.<: the dying animal turns itself upon its back, and is drawn to the shore, or to the •hip if the land be at a great distance: there they cut the huge body in pieces, and, by boiling the blubler, extract the oil, if they have conve- niences on shore : otherwise they barrel up the pieces, and bring them home. The vast fields and mountains of ice in these seas, many of which are tbove a mile in length, and 100 feet in thickness, are truly stupendous, ^^i. •^ t 760 GREENLAND. and, when illuminated by the sun's rays, dazzling and beautiful. Their splendor is discernible at the distance of many leagues. In one place, it is said, at the mouth of an inlet, the ice has formed magnificent arches, extending above 20 miles. But when the pieces floating in the sea are put in motion by a storm, and dash one against the other, the scene they exhibit is most terrible. The Dutch had thirteen ships crushed to pieces by them in one season. The Greenlanders are low of stature, few exceeding five feet in height. Their faces are broad, eyes small, noses flat, and lips thick. Their hair is long, straight and black ; but they have seldom any beards, because it is their constant practice to root them out. They have high breasts and broad shoulders, especially the women, who are obliged to carry great burthens from their early years. They are very light and agile, and can also use their hands with much skill and dexterity. They are not very lively in their tempers ; but they are good-humored, friendly, and uncon- cerned about futurity. Their food })rincipally consists of fish, seals, and sea-fowl. The men hunt and fish ; but, when they have towed tlicir booty to land, they trouble themselves no farther about it : it would be ac- counted beneath their dignity even to draw out the fish upon the shore. The women are the butchers and cooks, and act as curriers, shoemakers, and tailors. They also build and repair the houses and tents, so far as relates to the masonry, the men doing only the carpenters' work. They live in huts during the winter, which is incredibly severe ; yet, in the longest summer-days, the weather is said to be so hot, from the long continuance of the sun's rays, that the inhabitants are obliged to throw otf their summer garments. One Gunnbeorn, an Icelander, who had been driven out to sea in a storm, discovered Greenland, and, on his return, made a favorable report of the country, as neither too distant nor too inhospitable for colonisation ; but no attempts were made to plant it, or to take possession of it, before Eirik the Red, in 982, proceeded thither on a voyage of exploraUon. He surveyed the coast and examined the country during two years, and then returned to Iceland, where he prevailed upon as many of his countrymen as;filled twenty-five small vessels to put themselves under his direction, of these only fourteen reached the spot where he fixed the cradle of his colony. Settlements were multiplied along the coast; churches were built, and a man of learning and merit was appointed to direct the ec- clesiastical concerns of the new establishment. This prelate resided at Garde ; and, under him and his successors, the church continued to flourish. A regular intercourse, friendly and commercial, was maintained with Denmark or Norway until the year 1400. The accumulation of ice then obstructed the continuance of correspondence ; and the colony was neglected, if not forgotten. At length, in 1720, Hans Egede, minister of Vigen in Norway, conceived the idea of going in search of the remains of the ancient colony, if any existed ; and having, with some difficulty, pro- cured an approbation of his plan from the court of Copenhagen, he went to Greenland, where he continued till 1735, preaching the Gospel to the natives, and making many converts. His example was followed by several other missionaries ; and about thirty years afterwards the Moravians began their settlements, which were chiefly formed in the south-western part of the country. East Greenland, or Spitspeugen, was long considered as a part of West or Old Greenland ; but it is now known to be a cluster of islands, lying between 76 and 80 degrees of north latitude, and 9 and 24 of east longitude, and is generally referred to Europe. It was disco- GREENLAND. 761 rered, according to so.ne, by sir Hugh Willoughby, in 1553; or, as others suppose, by the Dutch navigator Burentz, in 1596. It obtained the name of Spitebergen (or Craggy Mountains) from the height and ruggedness of its rocks. The principal island is about 300 miles in length from north to south. The products are nearly the same with those of the American Greenland. The mountains and islands of ice present the same appearance ; and the whale-fishery is carried on along the coast. The Russians claim this dreary country, and have settlements on some of the islands. As it was reported, by some of the mariners who were employed in the whale-fishery of Greenland and Davis' Strait, that the northern seas were less clogged with ice, than they had been for a whole previous cen- tury, the British ministers, in a time of full peace, directed their atten- tion to the discovery of a passage to the Pacific Ocean by the north. Four vessels were equipped for that purpose,*fortified with an additional coat of oak plank, and strengthened within by many transverse beams, to resist the pressure of ice ; their bows were covered with strong plates of iron; and extraordinary accommodations of every kind were provided for the bold adventurers who were to man them. The Isabella and Alexander were sent to BaflSn's-Bay, under the command of captain Ross, and the Dorothea and Trent more directly to the northward, under Buchan. They reached the Shetland isles in the spring of the year 1818, and a separation then ensued. When the two first ships had passed the sixtieth degree of latitude, they met with many icebergs, which appeared like immense rocks of white marble rising out of the sea. They at length approached the coast of Greenland, and were visited by many of the natives, who were clad in seal-skins, and came off in very long and narrow canoes made of the same kind of skins, sewed tightly together on a wooden frame, which they managed with great dexterity. When they reached VVaygat island, it was found to bo as sterile a spot as nature ever formed : yet the ruins of huts proved that it had been in- habited. Near Jacob's Bight, on the western coast, a Danish settle- ment was observed, and some of the natives were seen in sledges of fir, drawn by dogs. About the 76th degree, some of the inhabitants ap- peared, who, though seemingly of the sa'ue race with the other Green- landers, did not know of the existence of any tri'/es to the southward, were unacquainted with the use of a canoe, and were lost in astonish- ment at the sight of the vessels. A species of whale, called the narwhal, or sea-unicorn, furnished them with bone and horn for various purposes; and they knew the use of iron, as it was found in the neighbourhood. Having little or no wood, they were uncommonly eager for the possession of it. They seemed to have an idea of the impropriety of theft ; for one of them, having taken up a sledge-hammer which he found on board, threw it upon the ice, that he might run off with it; but, being pursued, he left it, and was ashamed to return. They were not so well clothed as the southern natives, from whom they differed also in having long beards. In the spot where Baffin placed the Carey islands, captain Ross found a groupe, of which three were of considerable dimensions ; and, in the nearest part of the continent, it was imagined that an opening appeared to the westward, which might lead to an important discovery: but, after a careless search, he altered his course to the south-west. Sir James Lancaster's soiind seemed to excite strong hopes, from the swell and depth of the sea, the disappearance of ice, and the breadth of the inlet, supposed to be from ten to twelve leagues. The captain, however, fan- 765 NEW BRITAIN. ii 1 1 cied that he could discern land at the end, and relinquished the search. In his southerly course, he sent a party on shore in the 74th degree of latitude; and the country, though uninhabited, seemed a less repulsive spot than any which had been seen in those parts. A wide stream of fresh water was found : its banks had a considerable stratum of soil ; many shrubs and plants wore observed, and limestone was seen in abun- dance. In the voyage of cap'ain Buchan, the first appearance of ice was near Cherry island, about 150 miles to the soutli-east of the Spitsbergen groupe. He then sailed to the west, in the hope of getting round to tlie north ; but, his progress in the former direction being impeded by bar- riers of ice, he tried a direct northern course ; and both ships were quickly surrounded by immense masses. For ten days they remained nearly stationary, before they were extricated from their perilous situa- tion by partial openings of the ice, through which they forced tlieir way. They soon after anchored in Fair-Haven, near Vogel-Sang, where they continued a week. On that and the neighbouring islands, numerous herds of rein-deer were observed, which, though it was near the end of June, had not entirely lost the whiteness of tlieir winter dress. Resum- ing a northerly course, the vessels proceeded to the latitude of 80 degrees and a half, and were again blocked up. All hopes of advance were then abandoned, and the ships, rescued with extreme difficulty from the icy blockade, returned to England. The ministry, not discouraged by these fruitless voyages, sent out captain Parry in 1819, for the piiqMse of exploration ; but our account of the three voyages of that enterprising officer will lie more properly reserved for the next head, as he greatly extended the boundaries of New Britain. NEW BRITAIN. Situation and extent.] On these heads we cannot speak with precision or accuracy, as the country is so little known. We shall merely observe that New Britain, or the country lying round Hudson's Bay, and commonly called the country of the Esquimaux, comprehending Labrador, and New North and South Wales, is bounded on the north by a sea ge- nerally frozen and lands very imperfectly known ; on the east by the At- lantic ocean ; by the bay and river of St. Laurence and Canada on the south ; and by unknown lands on the west. Bays, straits, and capes.] These are numerous, and take their names generally from the English navigators and commanders by whom they were first discovered. The chief bay is that of Hudson, and the principal straits are those of Hudson and Belleisle. The passage into Baffin's bay is called Davis' Strait ; but it is too wide to be so called with propriety. Mountains.] In the northern parts of this country are mountains covered with eternal snow : and the winds, blowing thence during three quarters of the year, occasion a degree of cold in the winter which is not experienced in any other part of the world in the same latitude. Rivers, lakes] The principal rivers are the Wager, Monk, Seal, Pockerekesko, Churchill, and Nelson : all of which fall into Hudson's and James* bays from the west and south. The mouths of all these rivers are fiill of shoals, except the Churchill, in which the largest ships may float, though tei u far at they I Down these ri return is a labc fall into the Ai lakes, formed n Metals, m \a iron ore. ^ from the count lakes by the I covered. Sev( lybeate taste. Climate, country, in cor Bay, even the earth has beei miserable shru earth in this and long cont lioned by it, i perate parallel Animals ] faloes, wolves, wild cats, anc and all kinds c the fish are wl the rivers and Almost all i soft, warm fur the colors of three months, sort of beast, but it is yet have been cai tirely change< thicker coat < iNIlARITi ferent tribes; appear to be they are pari have small clothed in sk and docile, resemble the Asia. DlSCOVEl China, capta the coast of Davis, in 15 name to a la whence he stopped by venture; in entered a sti a great part "T' NEW BRITAIN. 763 loat, though ten mileg higher the chan nel i8 obgtructed by gand^banks. All, u far as they have been explored, have a number of rapids and cataracts. Down these rivers the Indian traders find a quick passage ; but their return is a labor of many months. Copper-mine and M'Kenzie's rivers fail into the Arctic or Northern ocean. The valleys are in general full of lakes, formed not of springs, but of rain and snow. Metals, minerals.] The mountains of Labrador appear to abound ia iron ore. White spar is very common; and that beautiful kind, called from the country Labrador spar, is collected on the shores of the sea and lakes by the Esquimaux, or natives; for the rocks have not been dis- covered. Several small springs have been found which have a weak cha- lybeate taste. Climatk, SOIL, piionucE.] The climate is intensely cold, and the country, in consequence, extremely barren. To the northward of Hudson's Bay, even the hardy pine-tree is seen no longer, and the cold womb of the earth has been supposed incapable of any better production than some miserable shrubs. Almost every kind of European seed committed to the earth in this inhospitable climate has hitherto perished. This severity and long continuance of winter, and the barrenness of the earth occa- lioned by it, are experienced in the latitude of Afty-two,— in the tem» perate parallel of Cambridge. Animals] These are the moose and rein-deer, bears, tigers, buf. faloes, wolves, foxes, beavers, otters, lynxes, martins, squirrels, ermines, wild cats, and hares. The birds are partridges, bustards, geese, ducks, and all kinds of wild foAvl. The chief amphibious animal is the seal ; and the fish are whales, <;od, and a white fish preferable to a herring ; and in the rivers and fresh waters are pike, perch, carp, and trout. Almost all the quadrupeds of these countries are clothed with a close, toft, warm fur. In summer there is here, as in other places, a variety in the colors of animals. When that season is over, which continues for three mouths, they all assume tlie snowy livery of winter, and every sort of beast, and' most of the fowls, are white. This is a surprising fact ; but it is yet more astonishing, that the dogs and cats from England, which have been carried to Hudson's Bay, on the approach of winter have en- tirely changed their appearance, and acquired a much longer, softer, and thicker coat of hair than they originally had. Injiabitants.] The natives of this country are 'composed of dif- ferent tribes; those of Labrador are called Esquimaux, or Iskimos. These appear to be a different race from the other native Americans, from whom they are particularly distinguished by a thick and bushy beard. They have small eyes, large teeth, and black and rugged hair. Tliey go well clothed in skins, principally of bears, and are said to be mild-tempered and docile. They seem to be the same people with the Greenlanders, and resemble the Laplanders and Samoieds of the north of Europe and Asia. Discovery.] In the hope of discovering a north-west passage to China, captain Frobisher sailed to North-America in 1576, and reached the coast of Labrador, but made little progress beyond that latitude. Davis, in 1585, sailed along the western coast of Greenland, gave his name to a large inland sea, and penetrated to the 72d degree of latitude, whence he would have proceeded to the westward, if he had not been •topped by masses ol ice. Hudson made three voyages on the same ad- venture; in 1607, 1608, and 1610. This bold and judicious navigator entered a strait which led into a new Mediterranean (called however a bay), a great part of which he coasted ; and his ardor for the discovery not m I M 764 NEW BRITAIN. |: being abated by tlic difficulties with which ho struggled in this empire of winter, and world cf frost and snow, he remained there until the spring, and prepared to pursue his discoveries; but his crew, who suffered equal hardships without the same spirits to support them, mutinied, seised liim and seven of those who were most faithful to him, and committed them to the fury of the icy sea in an open boat. He and his companions wero either swallowed up by the waves, or, gaining the inhospitable const, wore destroyed by the savages ; but the ship and the rest of the men ri'turued to England. The exploration of Hudson's Bay was followed, but not immediately, by the establishment of a company, authorised to form settlements and erect forts in the surrounding countries, and to carry on trade with tlio natives. This corporation still subsists, and the traffic is very consider* able and productive. It was by the direction of the company that Mr. Hearne, in 1769, imdertook a hazardous journey, with a view of discovering the northern limits of the American continent. He reached the mouth of a river, which derives its name from the cop|)er-mines in the neighbourhood. He had then attained the 113th degree of western longitude, and the 70th of northern latitude : and it is evident that he had reached not merely an inland sea, but the Arctic ocean. He visited one of the mines, and observed that the copper was beaten out by the aid of fire and two stones, and that the natives, who were Esquimaux, had sufficient skill to make hatchets and knives of that metal. An equally adventurous expedition was undertaken by Mr. Mackenzie, who, in 1789, proceeded to the Great Slave Lake, whence he advanced to the north-west, on a river called by his name, as far as the sea, if we may give credit to his own account. In 1792, ho renewed his bold researches, and ncttially traversed the continent to the coast of the I'acilic, observing with delight and surprise the beauties and curiosities of an unexplored country, of which some notice will be taken when wo treat of the United States. After a long discontinuance of exploration in this part of North- America, captain William F.dward Parry sailed with two vessels and select crews to Davis' Strait. Being baffled in his attempt to penetrate the ice to the western coast near the entrance of that strait, he pushed forward to Baffin's Bay without obstruction, until he met with a formidable barrier of ice in the middle of it. Even this difficulty did not paralyse his efforts. He passed through the barrier, and reached Lancaster Sound, with all the confidence of hope, which, however, was checked for some days by the con- trariety of the wind. An easterly breeze at length sprang up; the ships crowded all sail, rapidly passed several headlands, and entered the Akctic or Polar Sea. In their progress, land was observed to the northward, consisting of a series of islands; and, after many obstructions, and a tedious navigation from fogs and ice, they arrived at an island to which the captain gave the name of Melville. Proceeding to the westward, they crossed, on the 4th of September, 1819, the meridian of 110 degrees west, in the latitude of 74 degrees and 44 minutes ; and thus the bold adventurers became entitled to a parliamentary reward of 5000 pounds. Casting anchor in a roadstead, which Mr. Parry named (from the two ships) the bay of the Hecla and the Griper, he hoisted the ensigns and pendants ; and (he says) " it created in us no ordinary feeling of pleasure, to see the British flag waving for the first time in these regions, which had hitherto been considered beyond the limits of the habitable part of the world." But this pleasure was damped by the consideration of the increasing dangers and difficulties attendant on a continuance of the voyage to the westward. The rapid formation of the ice, the shortness of the day-ligh shore by the ice, her, compelled winter-quarters The labor of ci ships in a state when they are last were secur endurance of si experienced. . frame-work wai which waggons and sails, were on the upper-di ever the weathe the intrusion of to each man, ac considered that the body, he fo atrical amuscn established, bi " North-Georg tributions of tl those who furni gloomy prospei stoutest heart. sun ; and for r Sometimes the for a night, tl cart, to which saw on these plovers, and poppy, and sa ranunculus in We may ea of the summe: our seasons cn natives were return of the BaHin's Bay, proached wit suspicion ly perceive th like a song, o words, could own desire, p at once came sisted of an from uinetee their vocifera add, their create no les any thing w pressed their times continii V NEW BRITAIN. 765 of the day-light, and the effects which the crow of the Griper, forced on Bbore by the ice, beRan to feel fiom the efforts constantly necessary to work her, compelled the captain to turn his thoughts to the providing of winter-quarters, for which he fixed on the eastern side of Melville Island. The labor of cutting a canal through very thick ice, in order to place the ghips in a state of safety for the winter, may be imagined by our readers, when they are informed that its length was 4082 yards. The ships at last were securely harboured, and the men made up their iinds for the endurance of such a winter and such privations as they had never before experienced. A wooden housing was erected over each ship, and this frame-work was roofed over with a cloth composed of wadding-tilt, with which waggons are usually covered ; and the boats, spars, running rigging, and sails, were removed onshore, in order to give as much room as possible on the upper-deck, to enable the crew to take exercise on board, when- ever the weather should be too inclement for walking on shore. To obviate the intrusion of the scurvy, a quantity of vinegar was allowed with the meat to each man, and lime-juice and sugar were also given ; and as the captain considered that the health of the inind has no small influence on that of the body, he found amusement for the men in reading, writing, and the- atrical amusements. Even a weekly news-paper (we will not say, was eslablishcd, but) was carried on for some months, under the title of the " North-Georgia Gazette and Winter Chronicle ; " and the weekly con- tributions of the otiicers not only agreeably employed the leisure hours of those who furnished them, but diverted the minds of the readers from the gloomy prospect which would sometimes obtrude itself even on the stoutest heart. For three months, the adventurers did not even sec the sun ; and for more than ten months they lingered in this dreary abode. Sometimes they varied the scene by excursions, and, when they stayed out for a night, they took tents, fuel, and provisions' with them, in a light cart, to which blankets were appended as sails. The animals which they saw on these occasions were deer, musk-oxen, swallows, geese, ducks, plovers, and ptarmigans ; the vegetables were the dwaif-willow, sorrel, poppy, and saxifrage; and, in one spot, they were surprised at (iudinga ranunculus in full flower. We may easily suppose, that, to persons thus circumstanced, the return of the summer (which, to the Esquimaux, may be said to comprehend all our seasons except the winter) must hivve been exceedingly agreeable. No natives were seen amidst the Georgian groupe of islands ; but, on the return of the ships, four canoes were seen paddling toward the Hecla in Baflin's Bay, and tlie persons who were in them (says the captain) " ap- proached with great confidence, without the least appearance of fear or suspicion. While paddling toward us, and indeed before we could plain* ly perceive their canoes, they continued to vociferate loudly ; but nothing like a song, or even like any articulate sound which can be expressed by words, could be distinguished. Their canoes were taken on board at their own desire, plainly intimated by signs, and with their assistance, and they at once came up the side without the least hesitation. These people con- sisted of an old man, apparently much above sixty, and three younger, from nineteen to thirty years of age. As soon as they came on deck; their vociferations seemed to increase with their astonishment, and, I may add, their pleasure ; for the reception which they met with seemed to create no less joy than surprise. Whenever they received a present or any thing was shown to them which excited fresh admiration, they ex- pressed their delight by loud and repeated ejaculations, which they some- times continued till they were quite hoarse and out of breath with the e.xer« I' 766 NEW BRITAIN. tion. This noisy mode of expreming their gatisfaction waa accompanied by a jumping which continued for some minutes, according to the degree of passion which excited it, and the bodily powers of the person who ex- ercised it, the old man being rather too infirm, but still doing his utmost to go through the performance." The behaviour of another tribe of the natives seemed still more to amuse and interest the strangers. While the officers were employed iu astronomical observations, the Esquimaux amused themselves in the moat good-natured and cheerful manner with the crew of one of the boats. Lieutenant Hoppner endeavoured to take a likeness of a young native ; but such was his inclination to jump about, when pleased, that it was exceedingly difficult to make him sit still for a few minutes. His activity was still more manifested, when a looking-glass was shown to him : he jumped for joy, and was quite in raptures, while an old man, having had one smile at his own queer face, looked uncommonly grave on the occasion. In an interview with some women, the word pitletay (give me) resounded from every one ; all wished to get buttons or other ornamental trifles. A woman who was the owner of a sledge readily gave it in exchange for some pikes, which she licked as soon as she had received them : another female gave a dog for an axe ; and various bargains were subsequently adjusted without any wish, on the part of the natives, to practise that dis- honesty which is very frequent among savage tribes. At the end of the long winter, the ships were in perfect condition ; the seamen were zealous in the cause of discovery ; and ih» captain eagerly hoped to profit by the return of favorable weather. On thji Ist of August, 1820, he set sail to the westward, and continued his course, amidst temporary obstacles, during one half of the short season which is allowed for the navigation of that part of the Polar Sea, — a period not exceeding seven weeks. He had almost reached the longitude of 114 degrees, when the consideration of the increasing peril induced him to return to Baffin's Bay, as he had then no chance of penetrating to Behring's Strait. He carefully explored the western side of that bay, and met with some whale-fishing vessels in a latitude previously deemed in- accessible. He returned by the way of Scotland, and, after an absence of about eighteen months, safely arrived in the Thames. Hardened agrtinst intense cold, by which none of the voyagers had very severely suffered, the captain, in 1821, undertook another voyage to the north, but did not return to the Georgian islands. He passed the short summer chiefly in an examination of Repulse-Bay, (a peninsula extending fVom about 66 to 70 degrees,) and of some inlets which proved to be merely channels running deep into the land ; and, when the winter commenced, he chose Winter- Island for his station, situated in a comparatively low latitude, yet to the north of the Arctic Circle. For almost three quar- ters of a year, the ships were ice-bound in this spot ; and , during four months of that time, the adventurers saw no human beings except their own party : but, in addition to their own exercises and amusements, their solitude was at length enlivened by the appearance of a body of natives, who had never before seen any Europeans. Pleased rather than alarmed at the sight of strange machines and strange men, they boldly entered the vessels, and one of them earned an old man upon his back to show him the ama/ing sight. Some of the sailors quickly returned the visit, and were received in the huts of the Esquimaux with marks of the moat friendly joy. These huts were formed of blocks of hard snow, fitted to each other like courses of masonry, to the height of about eight fe«t, the upper part having the form of a cupola. Do ; thiri, when attacked, it sprinkles plentifully on its tail, and throws it on the assailant. There are two sorts of bears here, one reddish, and the other black : the former is the most dangerous. The bears are not in general fierce, unless when wounded, or oppressed with huE^ger. During the winter they remain in a kind of torpid state. Scarcely any thing is undertaken with greater solemnity tha.~; the pursuit of the bear ; and an alliance with a noted bear-hunter, who has killed several in one day, is more eagerly sought than that of one who has rendered himself famous in war. The reason is, because the chase supplies the family both with icod and raiment. With regard to the feathered creation, eagles, falcons, goshawks, ter- cols, partridges, grey, red, and black (with long tails, which they beauti- fully spread out as a fan), are among the wild birds of Canada. Wood- cocks are scarca ; but snipes and other water-game are found in abun- dance. Here are blackbirds, swallows, larks, many species of ducks, and a great number of swans, turkeys, geese, bustards, teal, cranes, and other large water-fowls ; but always at a distance from houses. The Canadian woodpecker is a beautiful bird. Thrushes and goldfinch 3» are foucdhere; but the chief Canadian bird of melody is the white-bird, which is a kind of ortolan, very showy, and remarkable for announcing the return of spring. The fly-bird, or humming-bird, is thought to Le the most (beautiful of any iii nature; with all its plumage it is not larger than an English btutle or May-bug, and makes a noise with its wings like the humming of a large fly. Among the reptiles of this country, the rattle-snake chiefly deserves attention. What is most remarkable in this animal is the tail, which is scaly like a coat of mail, and on which it is said there grows every year one ring or row of scales ; so that its age may be known by its tail, as we know that of a horse by its teeth. lu bite is fatal, if a remedy be not immediately applied. In all places where this dangerous reptile is bred, 3D 2 nhi I 77« CANADA. there grows a plant, which is called rattle«6nake herb, the root of which (such is the goodness of Prmdence) is a certain antidote against its ve< nom, even with the most simple preparation ; for it requires only to be pounded or chewed, and applied to the wound. The rattle-snake seldom bites passengers, unless it is provoked, and never darts itself at any per- son without first rattling three times with its tail. When pursued, if it has a little time to recover, it folds itself round, with the head in the middle, and ther darts itself with great fury and violence again it its pursuers ; nevertheless, the savages chase it, and find its flesh very good : it also possesses medicinal qualities. — The black snake, though ve> nomnus, is not so mischievous as the rattle-snake ; and, in one respect, it is a friend to the Canadians, if (as Mr. Talbot says) it embracei ihe rattling reptile within its ample coil, and with its tail whips th. nev to death. It is also said to possess the power of fascination more ' -lin..^^ j .aan any other species of snake. Some writers are of opinion, that the fisheries in Canada, if properly improved, would be more likely to enrich that country than even the fur trade. The river St. Laurence contains perhaps the greatest va- riety of fish of any in the world, in the greatest plenty and of the best sorts. Beside a great variety of other fish in the rivers and lakes, are sea- wolves, sea-cows, porpoises, the lencornet, the goberque, the sea-plaisc, salmon, trout, turtle, lobsters, the chaourason, sturgeon, achigau, gilt- head, tunny, shad, and lamprey. The sea- wolf, so called from its howl- ing, is an amphibious creature ; some are naid to weigh two thousand pounds; their flesh is good eating; but the profit of it lies in the oil, which is proper for burning, and dressing leather ; their skins make ex- cellent coverings for trunks, and, though not so fine as Morocco leather, they preserve their freshness better, and are less apt to crack. The slin.s and boots made of those skins let in no water, and, when properly tati. v. form very good coverings for seats. The Canadian sea-cow is i>. ir-? than the sea-wolf, but resembles it in figure; it has two teeth if ■ • thickness and length of a man's arm, that, Avhcn grown, look like hons, and are very fine ivory, as well as its other teeth. Some of the porpoises of the river St. Laurence are said to yield a hogshead of oil ; and of their skins waistcoats are made, which are excessively strong, and iniisquet- proof. The lencornet is a kind of cuttle-fish, quite round, or rather oval : there arc three sorts of them, which differ only in size ; some being as large as a hogshead, and others only a foot long; they catch only the last, and that with a torch. The goberque has the taste and sniell of a small cod. The sea-plaise also supplies palatable lood. It is usually taken with long poles armed with iron hooks. The chaourasnp is an armed fish, about five feet long, and as thick as a man's thigh, r< -, ' ibling a pike; it is covered with scales that are proof against a d /i^e-; it>i color is a silver grey; and there grows under its mouth a long 1 ;' i- s.ib- Btance, ragged at the edges. It may easily be conceived, than an ani- mal so welt fortified is a ravagcr among the inhabitants of the water; but we have few instances of fish making prey of the feathered creation, ■which this fish does, however, with much art. He conceals himself among the canes and reeds, in such a manner that nothing is to be seen beside his weapon, which he holds perpendicularly above the surface of the water ; the fowls which come to take rest, imagining the weapon to be only a withered reed, perch upon it; but they have no sooner alighted, than the fish opens its throat, and makes such a sudden motion to seise his prey, that it seldom escapes hiui. This fish is an iababitaut of the CANADA. 773 iicb ve- be Idoni Jper- |if it the its I very ve- Itisa Itling |ealh. any ; va- best lakes. The sturgeon is both a fresh and salt-water fish, from eight to twelve feet long, and proportionally thick. There is a small kind of stur- geon, the flesh of whic.i is very tender and delicate. Natural curiosities.] These are the vast lakes, rivers, and ca- taracts, of the country. Among the last, the principal is the stupendous fall, or cataract, which is called the fall of Niagara. The water here is about half a mile wide, where the rock crosses it, not in a direct line but in the form of a half-moon. When it comes co the perpendicular fall, which is 130 feet, no words can express the consternation of tra- velers at seeing so great a body of water falling, or rather violently thrown, from so great a height, upon the rocks below, from which it rebounds to a very great height, appearing as white as snow, being all converted into foam, thiough those violent agitations. The noise of this fall is often heard at the distance of ten miles. The vapor arising from the fall mav sometimes be seen at a great distance, appearing like a cloud, or pillar of smoke, and exhibiting the resemblance of a rainbow, whenever the sua and the position of the observer favor the view. Many beasts and fowls here lose their lives, by attempting to swim, or cross the stream, in the rapids above the fall, and are found dashed in pieces below. Sometimes the savages, through carelessness or intoxication, have met with the same fate. Population, inhabitants.] The inhabitants of Canada, of French and English descent, and indeed all except the scattered savages, are supposed to amount to 1 50,000. Those of the first description denote their descent by that presence of mind, address, and politeness, which in general they display. They have dark complexions, small and sharp eyes, and are generally thin, though strong. Those of the second class have more agreeable countenances, but are less courteous and accommo- dating in their manners. Both classes are fond of sensual indulgence, card-playing, dancing, music, and gaiety. The savages nearly resemble those tribes which are dispersed over the whole country between the towns of the United States and the Rocky Mountains. Mr. Ilowison speaks of the farmers of the upper province as a diiferent set of men from any other Sody or class in the colony, ** After surmounting the difficulties which at first checked their course, these men (he says) now reap the full pro- duce of their labor, being neither burthened by rents, nor encumbered with taxes. Many of them possess thirty or forty head of cattle, and annually store up two or three thousand bushels of grain in their barns ; but this melioration mi their condition, unfortunately, has not produced a corresponding effei>c on their manners, characters, or modes of life. They are still the same untutored incorrigible beings that they probably were, when, being the ruffian remnant of a disbanded regiment, or the outlawed refuse of some European nation, they sought refuge in the wilds of Upper Canada, aware i.iat they might neither find the means of sup- port nor be countenanced in any civilised country. Tiieir original de- pravity has been confirmed and increased by the circumstances in which they are placed. Possessing .arms which render them independent of the better classes of society, they can, within certain limits, be as bold, unconstrained, and obtrusive as they please, in their behaviour to their superiors ; for they neither look to them for subsistence, nor for any thing else. They now consider themselves on an equality with those to whom, in former times, the hope of gain would have made them cringe like slaves ; and tacitly avow their contempt of the better parts of society, by avoiding the slightest approximation toward them, ao far as regards habits, ap- pearance, or mode of life." i ' 774 CANADA. NC Chief towns.] Quebec, the capital, not only ot' Lowof Canada, but of all British America, is situated at the confluence of the rivers St. Lau- rence and St. Charles. The former stream, which from the sea hither is four or five leagues broad, suddenly narrows to about a mile. The haven, which is opposite to the town, is safe and commodious, and about five fathoms deep. The harbour is flanked by two bastions, that are raised 2.5 feet from the ground, which is about the height of the tides at the time of the equinox. Tlie fortifications on the land side are very elaborate and com- r'«te : and, in other parts, the natural strength of the place is sufficient for < 'T?nce. Substantial stone buildings line the streets both of the upper and /er towns ; and in the former are the French and English cathedrals, the Jesuits' college (now a barrack), and the convent of the Ursulines. From Quebec to Montreal, in sailing up the St. Laurence, the eye is entertained with beautiful landscapes, the banks being in many plares very bold and steep, and shaded with lofty trees. The farms are very numerous ; several gentlemen's houses, neatly built, show themselves at intervals, and there is all the appearance of a flourishing colony; but there are few towns or villages. The town called Trois Rivieres, in the mid-way between Quebec and Montreal, has its name from three rivers which join their currents here, and fall into the St. Laurence. It is much resorted to by the savage tribes, who, by means of these rivers, come hither and trade with the in- habitants in various kinds of furs and skins. The country is pleasant and fertile, and many handsome houses stand on both sides of the rivers. Montreal (that is, Mount-Royal) stands on an island in the St. Lau- rence, which is ten leagues in length, and four in breadth, at the foot of a mountain which gives name to it. While the French had possession of Canada, both the city and the isle belonged to private proprietors, who had improved them so well, that the whole island became a most de- lightful spot, and produced every thing that could administer to the con« Teniences of life. The city forms an oblong square, divided by regular and well-formed streets ; and, when it fell into the hands of the English, the houses were built in a very handsome manner; and every house might be seen at one view from the harbour, or from the southernmost side of the river, as the hill falls gradually to the water. The place is surrounded with a wall and a dry ditch ; and its fortifications have been much im- proved by the English. Notwithstanding the number of English residents, the population of the town has still an aspect decidedly French. York-town, rtear the lake Ontario, is ccmsidered as the capital of Upper Canada ; but it has little trade, and is neither strong nor populous. The largest town in this province is Kingston, which, however, has not above 6,500 inhabitants. Most of the houses are built of lime-stone, of which there are extensive quarries in the vicinity, "^he bay affords so fine a harbour, that a vessel of 1*20 guns might lie close to the quay. The place is strong, both by nature and art, and might be rendered almost impreg- nable. Trade.] The exports consist of wheat, flour, biscuit, flax-seed, fish, pot-ash, and various medicinal roots, but principally of peltry. The imports consist of rum, brandy, coffee, sugar, wine, tobacco, salt, provi- bions for the troops, and dry goods. Government.] By the Quebec bill, enacted in 1791 by the par- liament of Great Britain, it was ordained that there should be, in each of the Canadian provinces, a legislative council and an assembly, which, with the consent of the governor appointed by the king, should have power to make laws within two ye consist of not Canada, to b( king. They 1 of four years. The house of from Upper, the several to called togetlu tinue four ye; Religion are Roman-Cc sects. The f duties than tl Lakguag Ebglish bein^ number than History. 18 1497; but who retained British arms, crown of Gie: continued. NOVA Mil Length Breadth BOUNDAI LAND, in 'bounded by nects that st the same oc( This coun Nova Scotii peninsula, extremity Cape Breto of St. Laur New Brunsi Atlantic Oc south-west, miles ; but, sor, it is on! New Br the said ri J' Nova scotia and new Brunswick. 775 to make laws ; but that the king might declare his dissent at any time within two years after receiving any bill. The legislative council was to consist of not fewer than seven members for Upper, and fifteen for Lower Canada, to be summoned by the governor, who must be authoilsed by the king. They hold their seats for life, unless they forfeit them by an absence of four years, or by transferring their allegiance to some foreign power. The house of assembly was to consist of not less than sixteen members from Upper, and fifty from Lower Canada, chosen by the freeholders in the several towns and districts. The council and assembly were to be called together at least once in the year ; and evory assembly was to con- tinue four years, unless it should be sooner dissolved by the governor. Religion.] About nine-tenths of the inhabitants of these provinces are Roman-catholics, while the rest of the people are protestants of various sects. The former, it may be observed, are more attentive to religious duties than the latter. Languacse.] The general language of this country is the French; Ebglish being confined to the British settlers, who are much fewer in number than the inhabitants of French descent. History.] This country was first discovered by the English as early as 1497 ; hut the first settlement in it was made by the French in 1608, who retained possession of it till 1760, when it was conquered by the British arms, and, by the treaty of Paris in 176it, ceded by France to the crown of Gieat-Britain, under the goveriunent of which it has ever since continued. NOVA SCOTIA AND NEW BRUNSWICK. SITUATION AND EXTENT, Miles. Length 3.50) Breadth 250 j between Degrees. C 44 and 49 North latitude ( 60 and 67 West Sq. Miles, ',l'4uut. l'"."™ Boundaries, divisions.] NOVA SCOTIA, or NEW SCOT-- ^ LAND, in the original and more extensive application of the name, is bounded by the river St. Laurence on the north ; by the gulf which con- nects that stream with the sea, and the Atlantic Ocean, on the east j by the same ocean, south ; and by Canada and New England, west. This country, in 1784, was divided into two provinces or governments, Nova Scotia iProper, and New Brunswick. Nova Scotia Proper is a peninsula, joined to the continent by a narrow isthmus, at the north-east extremity of the Bay of Fundy : it is separated on the north-east from Cape Breton, by the gut of Canso ; on the north it has a part of the gulf of St. Laurence, and the strait of Northumberland ; on the west it has New Brunswick, and the Bay of Fundy ; on the south and south-east the Atlantic Ocean, Its length is about 235 miles from Cape Sable on the south-west, to Cape Canso on the north-east. Its extreme breadth is 88 miles ; but, between the head of Halifax harbour and the town of Wind- sor, it is only about 22 miles broad. New Brunswick is bounded on the westward of the river St. Croix, by the said river to its source, and by a line drawn due north to the southern 776 NOVA SCOTIA AND NEW BRUNSWICK. i boundary of the province of Quebec; to the northward by the game boundary as far as the western extremity of the Bay de Chaleur ; to the eastward by the said bay to the gulf of St. Laurence, to the bay called Bay Vert ; to the south by a line in the centre of the Bay of Fundy, drawn from the river St. Croix to the mouth of the Musquat river ; by the said river to its source, and thence by a due lino across the isthmus into the Bay Vert, Nova Scotia is divided into eight counties, viz. Halifax, Hants, King's, Annapolis, Cumberland, Sunbury, Queen's, and Lunenburg. These are divided into above 40 townships. Rivers.] The principal rivers in New Brunswick are St. John's, which is navigable for small vessels about sixty miles ; and St. Croix, which divides this province from the district of Maine. Metals, minerals.] Copper has been found at Cape D'Or, on the north side of the basin of Minas ; and there are mines of coal at Cumberland, and on the east river, which falls into Picton harbour. Cli M ATE.] The climate of this country, though within the temperate zone, has been found rather unfavorable to European constitutions. They are involved in the gloom of a fog during a great part of the year, and for four or five mouths it is intensely cold ; but though the cold in winter, and the heat in summer, are great, they come on gradually, so as to prepare the body for enduring both. Soil and produce.] From such a climate little can be expected. Nova Scotia, till lately, was almost a continued forest ; and agriculture, though attempted by the English settlers, made little progress. In most parts, the soil is thin and barren ; the corn itproduces is of a shriveled kind, like rye, and the grass intermixed with acold spongy moss. However, it is not uniformly bad ; there are tracts in the peninsula, to the southward, which do not yield to the best land in New England, and, by the industry and exertions of the loyalists from the late colonies, are now cultivated, and likely to be fertile and flourishing. In general the soil is adapted to the produce of hemp and flax. The timber is very proper for ship-building, and produces pitch and tar. Animals,] These provinces are not deficient in the animals of the neighbouring countries, particularly deer, beavers, and otters. Wild fowl, and all sorts of game, and many kinds of European fowls and qua- drupeds, have, from time to time, been introduced, and thrive well. At the close of March the fish begin to spawn, when they enter the rivers in such shoals as are incredible. Herrings come up in April, and the stur- geon and salmon in May. But the most valuable appendage of New Scotland is the Cape Sable coast, along which is one continued range of cod-fishing banks, navigable rivers, basins, and excellent harbours. Chief Towns.] Tlie capital of Nova Scotia is Halifax, which stands upon Qhebucto Bay, very commodiously situated for the fishery, and has a communication with most parts of the province, either by land- carriage, the sea, or navigable rivers, with a fine harbour. The town has an en- trenchment, and is strengthened with forts of timber. A town of less note is Annapolis Royal, which stands on the east side of the bay of Fundy, and was formerly the capital of the province. It has one of the iinest harbours in America, capable of containing a thousand vessels at anchor in the utmost security. The chief towns of New Brunswick are these : St. John's, Frederic- town, St. Andrew's, and St. Anne's, the present seat of government. HisxoiiY AXD s£Tii.£M£KX.] Notwitlistandiog the forbidding ap« I BRITISH ISLANDS IN NORTH AMERICA. 777 pearance of this country, it was here that some of the first European set- tlements were made. A great part of it was assigned by James I. to his gecretary, Sir. William Alexander ; but it frequently changed hands, from one private proprietor to another, and from the French to the English nation, backward and forward. It was not confirmed to the English till the peace of Utrecht ; and their design in acquiring it does not seem to have so much arisen from any prospect of direct profit to be obtained by it, as from an apprehension that the French, by possessing this province, might have been enabled to annoy our other settlements. Upon this' principle, 3000 families were transported, in 1749, at the charge of the government, into this country, where they erected the town of Halifax 80 called from the earl of that name, to whose wisdom and care we owe this settlement. Tlie colony did not malce a rapid progress^; and, even at the present moment, it is very unproductive, in point of revenue, to the parent state. BRITISH ISLANDS IN NORTH AMERICA. THE islands belonging to Great Britain in North America are New- foundland, Cape Breton, St. John's, and the Bermudas. NEWFOUNDLAND is situated on the east side of the gnlf of St. Laurence, and is separated from Labrador by the Strait of Belleisle, and from Canada by the Bay of St. Laurence ; being 350 miles long, and 200 broad. The coasts are extremely subject to fogs, attended with almost continual storms of snow and sleet, the sky being usually overcast. The cold of winter is here long-continued and severe, and the summer heat, though sometimes violent, is not sufficient to produce any thing very valuable, the soil being rocky and barren. It is, however, watered by several good rivers, and has many large and excellent harbours. This island seems to be rather hilly than mountainous, with woods of birch, small pine, and fir ; but on the south-west side are lofty headlands. It is chiefly valuable for the great fishery of cod, carried on upon those shoals which are called the banks of Newfoundland. The numbers of cod, both on the great and smaller banks, are inconceivable; and several other species of fish are also caught there in great abundance. The chief towns are Placentia, Bonavista, and St. John's; but not above 1000 families remain here in the winter. A small squadron is sent in the spring to protect the fisheries and inhabitants, the commander of which, for the time being, is governor of the island, beside whom there is a lieutenant-governor, who resides at Placentia. This island was discovered by Sebastian Cabot, in 1497 ; and both the French and English had made settlements there in the beginning of the seventeenth century. After various contests and disputes, it was entirely ceded to England' by the treaty of Utrecht, in 1713; but the French were left at liberty to dry their nets on the northern shores of the island ; and, by the treaty of 1763, they were permitted to fish in the gulf of St. Laurence, with a proviso that they should not approach within three leagues of any of the coasts belonging to the English. These privileges were confirmed by the treaty of Amieus, and, in 1 814, by the pacificatioa of Paris. Jh 778 UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. CAPE BRETON. This island is about 100 miles in length, atid 50 in breadtii. Tiie soil is barren, but it has good harbours, particularly that of Louisbourg, which is nearly four leagues in circumference. The French began a settlement here in 1714 ; of which, however, they were dispossessed in 1745, by the bravery of the inhabitants of Ne\V England, with little assistance from Great Britain ; but, by the treaty of Aix-la- Chapelle, it was restored to the French, who spared no expense to fortify it. It was again reduced, in 1758, by the British troops, and has since remained in our possession. , The ISLE (tf ST. JOHN, in the gulf of St. Laurence, is about (50 miles in length, and 30 in breadth, and has several fine rivers; and, though situated near Cape Breton and Nova Scotia, has greatly the advantage of both in pleasantness and fertility of soil. On the reduction of Cape Breton, the inhabitants of this island submitted quietly to the British arms. It was so improved by the French, that it was styled the granary of Canada. Charlotte -town is the present seat of government. The inhabitants are estimated at about five thousand. • BERMUDAS, or SOMERS' ISLANDS. These received their first name from their being discovered by John Bermuda, a Spaniard ; and were called the Somers' Islands, from Sir George Somcrs, who was shipwrecked on their rocks in 1609, in his passage to Virginia. Their distance from the Land's End is computed to be near 1400 leagues, from Madeira about 1100, and from Carolina about 250. The Bermudas are small, not con- taining in all above 20,000 acres; and they are very difficult of access, being, as Waller the poet, who resided some time there, expresses it, " walled with rocks." The chief island has several ports, two fortresses, and a town consisting of about 500 houses. The whole insular population amounts to 10,350 persons, of whom almost one half are negroes or mu- lattoei. The air has been always esteemed h«aUhful ; and the beauty and richness of the vegetable productions are delightful ; but frequent storms of thunder and lightening, and dreadful hurricanes, in some degree coun- terbalance those advantages. Though the soil is adapted to the cultiva- tion of the vine, the chief business of the inhabitants, who are not fond of agriculture, is the building and navigation of light sloops and brigantines) which they employ chiefly in the trade between North America and the West Indies. These vessels are as remarkable for their swiftness, as the cedar, of which they are built, is for its hard and durable quality. THte UNITED STATES OF NORTH AMERICA. Ir* ■^- EXtEKT AND SltUATlOV. v; MiteSi Degrees. ,!^^\il-. I Sq. Miles. Length 1300 1 . .„,^„„ ( 29 and 48 North latitude. 7 atn nnn Breadth IIOO} ^«*^««° { 68 and 92 West longitude. T^'^**^^^; THE breadth of this territory might be n -le far more considerable, by extending it (as some do) to the rocky movui tains, or (as others hare done) to the Pacific ; but, we have avoided the inclusion of an imnlense mass of ttnsettled'country. ^ . • ; ___■ __ ^ ■} •' ' ■ """ •' '-'—^ '"~ ■ """""' ' I 150 (riy [he pre lla. lico v*!^': '<♦ f\ ¥ 1> £*K LtiuUiH ANMieJ Mjyififfij h- /. MiiMman t nMiriuJ JlCfyififitj tvf.M^fKuin * i*<-i*f''^^»''f^^ UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 779 crease < The pTogresB of this republic excites universal attention. The rapid in- ■ease of its population, the great augmentation of its territory and power, the extraordinary extension of its commerce, and the enterprising spirit of its people, are calculated to make a strong impression not only upon the njinds of reflecting politicians, but even upon the feelings of ordinary observers. We shall first enumerate the component parts of the rising state ; and then, as it sprang from colonial establishments, regularly trace its history, before we enter into a geograjjhical and statistic survey. The United States aru twenty-four in number, having separate govern- ors, constitutions, and laws, cemented by a general federal constitution, administered by an elective head, and by a proportional number of repre- sentatives of the people from all the states. They may bo classed in four grand divisions, namely, I. The New-Enoland or Nortii-Easteun Statks. Massachuset Maine New Hampshire Rhode Island Connecticut Vermont III. The Southern States. Maryland Virginia North Carolina South Carolina Georgia Kentucky Tennessee IT. The Middle States. New York New Jersey Pennsylvania Delaware Ohio IV. The North-Western, Western, and South- western States. Illinois Indiana Missouri Louisiana Alabama Missisipi To these states we may add the following territories ;— the district of Columbia, including the city of Washington ; the north-west and Michigan countries, and the extensive space between the rocky mountains and the Pacific Ocean. The last, indeed, can scarcely be called an iutegral part of the republic : but it is peremptorily claimed by the congress ; and neither the high pretensions of the Spaniards will invalidate the claim, nor can their declining power prevent its enforcement. History.] It was reasonable to expect that the discovery of a new quarter of the world would be followed , in an age of enterprise, by occu- pancy and colonisation : yet a long period was suffered by the English to elapse before they appropriated any part of America to the purpose of habi- tation. Cabot took possession of a part of North-America in the name of king Henry VII., as early as the year 1497 ; but no steps were taken for its colonisation, before Sir Walter Raleigh sent a small body of adven- turers to that part of the coast which is now included in North-Carolina., The early attempts were abortive. At length, in 1607, captain Newport, landing with another company of emigrants, by the authority of a charter from James I., established a colony in Virginia (so called in compliment toour virgin queen, Elizabeth) ; and James-town, the first that was erect- ed by the English in the New World, rose into existence. It was at first a collsction of mere huts, defended by a barricade formed by the trunks of :h 780 UNITED STATES OP AMERICA. trees. Various wants and difficuUi-*-, for some time, obstructed the pro- gress of the settlement to consequence and power ; and it was frequently in danger of being ruined by famine, and the hostility of the savages. It was, however, gradually established ; its frontiers were extended : a coun- cil and general assembly were formed ; and the laws of England were adoj>ted as provincial instit itcs. While the new colony was slowly advan- cing, the Dutch took posse,"sion of an extensive territory to the north of Virginia, giving it the appcllauon of the New- Netherlands; and, in 1620, a party of English puritans, disgusted with a government which deprived them of the free exercise of their religion, embarked for North-America, under the auspices of a chartered company, and, landing near Cape-Cod, built a town, to which they gave the name of Plymouth. They began to cultivate the country with zeal and diligence, and took the best steps for the advancement of their infant colony. New adventurers, finding them- selves, for the same reason, uneasy at home, passed over into the land of religious and civil liberty. By the close of the year 16?0, they had erect- ed four towns, Salem, Dorchester, Charles-town, and Boston, which last became the capital not only of the new (or Massachuset) colony, but of the more comprehensive terrtory of New-England. But, as necessity is the natural source of that accive and frugal industry which produces every thing grear among mankind, sa an uninterrupted flow of prosperity and success occasioned those dissensions which are the bane of human affairs, and often subvert the best-founded establishments. The inhabitants of New England, who had fled from persecution, be- came in a short time strongly tainted with this illiberal vice, and were eager to introduce an uniformity of religion among all who entered their territories. The minds of men were not in that age su])erior to many prejudices; they had not that open and generous way of thinking which at present distinguishes the natives of Great Britain ; and the doctrine of universal toleration, which, to the honor of the first settlers in America, began to appear among them, had few advocates, and many opponents. Many of them were bigoted Calvinists ; and, though they had felt the weight of persecution, '' / had no charity for those who \ ofcssed senti- ments different from their own. It was not the general idea of the age, that men miglit live comfortably together in the same society, without maintaining the same religious opinions ; and, where-ever these were at variance, the members of different sects kept at a distance from each other, and established separate governments. Hence several slips, torn from the original government of New- England by religious violence, planted themselves in a new soil, and spread over the country. New- Hampshire was one of these scions ; and another was Rhode-Island, whose inhabitants were driven from the Massachuset colony, for sup- porting the freedom of religious sentiments, and maintaining that the civil magistrate had no right to control the speculative opinions of man- kind. These liberal men founded a city, called Providence, which they governed by their own principles; and, f"ro:n the connexion between just- ness of sentiment and external prosperity, the territory of Rhode-Island, though small, became populous and flourishing. Another colony, driven out by the same persecuting spirit, settled on the river Connecticut, and received frequent reinforcements from England, of such as were dissatis- fied either with the religious or civil government of that country. America, indeed, became the main resource of all discontented and en- terprising spirits; and such were the numbers which embarked for it from England, that, in 1()37, a proclamation was published, prohibiting any person from sailing thither, without an express licence from the go- UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 781 vernment. The want of this licence prevented Cromwell, Hampden, and others of the party, from going to New-England. In the progress of the New-England colony, a party of Swedes, arriving on the banks of the Delaware, purchased a great tract of land from the natives, and began to erect and fortify a small town. The Dutch afterwards obtained possession of this spot ; and from them it was transferred to the English, in consequence of an authoritative demand, supported by an armament. Protestants had hitherto been the colonial leaders and founders ; but, when the catholics bec.me the objects of increasing hatred in Engi'nd, on account of the indulgence with which they were treated by the court, lord fialtimore obtained, from king Charles 1., the grant of a part of the Virginian province ; and, in honor of the queen, the name of Maryland was given to the subtracted portion. About '200 catholics, some of con- siderable distinction, embarked with the conscientious peer to enter into possession of this territory. These settlers, who had that liberality and good-breeding which distinguish gentlemen of every religion, bought their lands at an easy price from the natives: they even lived with them for some time in the same town ; and harmony continued to subsist be- tween the Jiations, until the savages were imposed on by the malicious insinuations of some planters in Virginia, who envied the prosperity of this popish colony, and inflamed the Indians against them by ill-grnunded reports, such as were sufficient to stir up the resentment of men naturally jealous, and who from experience had reason to be so. The colonists, however, did not neglect their own safety on this occasion. Though they continued their friendly intercourse with the natives, they erected a fort, and took every other precaution for their defence against sudden hostihties : the defeat of this attempt gave a new spring to tlie activity of the plantation, which was also strengthened by frequent reinforcements from England. During the sway of Cromwell, lord Baltimore was de- prived of his rights, and a new governor was substituted for him ; but, at the Restoration, he was reinstated, and fully discovered how well he de- served to be so. He established a perfect toleration in all religious mat- ters; the colony increased and flourished, and dissenters of all denomina- tions, allured by the prospect of ease and comfort, flocked into Maryland. The territories near the Hudson and Delaware rivers, called by the Dutch colonists the New- Netherlands, we. granted immediately after their scisure, in 1(564, to the duke of York, Avho, in the sequel, transferred a considerable part of them to lord Berkeley and sir George Carteret. The appellation of New-Vork was given to the northern division, and New-Jersey to the southern ; and the Delaware counties, considered at first as dependencies upon the former, at length became a separate colony, governed by its own representative assembly. Carolina was comprehended in the original grant to sir Walter Raleigh ; but, as his schemes of colonisation did not take effect, Charles II. assigned that territory to lord Carteret, and other distinguished per- sons ; and a constitution was fr led for it by the celebrated Locke, whose plan, however, being too aristocratic for the popular spirit of the colonists, and also adverse to religious freedom, led to discord and confusion, which did not entirely subside before the government was rendered, by the crown, more conformable to the general wish. To the west of New-Jersey, a spacious and fertile territory had been planted, first by the Swedes, and afterwards by the Dutch. Charles H. promised a grant of it to admiral Penn, the conqueror of Jamaica; on whose death, bis son, the celebrated Quaker, availed himself of this t J 782 UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. promise, and, after much solicitation, obtained the performance of it. Though as an author and a divine Mr. William Penn be little kno' a but to those of his own persuasion, his reputation, in a character JO less respectable, is universal among civilised nations. The circum- stances of the times engaged great numbers to follow him into his new settlement, to avoid the persecutions to which the Quakers, like other Factaries, were then exposed ; but it was to his own wisdom and abilitv that they were indebted for that charter of privileges which placed this colony on so respectable a footing. Civil and religious liberty, in the utmost latitude, was laid down by that great man as the chief and only foundation of all his institutions. Christians of all denominations might not only live unmolested, but have a share in the government of the colony. No laws could be made without the consent of the inhabitants. Even matters of benevolence, to which the laws of few nations have extended, were by Penn subjected to regulations. The affairs of widows and orphans were to be investigated by a court constituted for that purpose. The disputes between individuals were not to be subjected to the delay and chicanery of the law, but decided by wise and honest arbitrators. His benevolence and generosity extended also to the savage tribes : instead of taking immediate advantage of his patent, he purchased of those people the lands he had obtained by his grant, judging that the original property, or the oldest right, was vested in them. William Penn, in short, had he been a native of Greece, would have had his statue placed next to those of Solon and Lycurgus. His system, being founded on equity, serves for the basis of the present constitution of Pennsylvania. After a long interval, during which the colonies in general remained tranquil, and continued to thrive and increase, a thirteenth was added to the existing number. Under the pretence of converting slaves to the Christian religion, the governor of Florida encouraged the escape of those belonging to Carolina, and formed them into a military corps. To check this encroachment, a fort was built on the Alatamaha ; and, when it had been destroyed by Gre, the British court resolved to establish a colony between that river and the Savannah, A number of individuals who were either adventurously disposed, or were not favored with the gifts of fortune, among whom were many insolvent debtors, crossed the Atlantic, and, by erecting the town of Savannah, in 1733, gave a beginning to that colony which derived from the king the name of Georgia. It re- mained for many years in a feeble state, though it was zealously encou- raged by the government and by private contributors. Its progress was retarded by the hostilities of <^he Spaniards and the savages, by internal dissensions, and the suppr sed insalubrity of the climate : but it ulti- miately surmounted all dithculties. An the French viewed with a jealous eye the colonial power of Great- Britain, such encroachments were made in various parts by the governors of their American provinces as roused the indignation of the court, and led to a war between the nations. The success of that war we have noticed in the history of England. As the colonists had been so ef- fectually aided and defended by the parent-state, it was alleged by the king and his ministers, that they ought to pay for the protection which they had received, in addition to the small duties which had hitherto been exacted from them. They v/ere willing to contribute to the exigencies of the state ; but they insisted on the privileges of their own assemblies, and denied the right of the British parliament to tax them, as they were not represented in that body. The coujt persisted in its impolicy ; a rvpture ensued* aod thecoosequeuce ww the formation of an independent UNITFD STATES OF AMERICA. 783 gtate. The n ost remarkable incidents and circumstances of that memo- rable contest we have already related. It was on the 4th of July, 1776 (the second year of the war), that the Trnr.s-Atlantic congress published a solemn declaration, assigning continued tyranny and oppression as the reasons for withdrawing allegiance from the king. In this manifesto, the inhabitants of the United Colonies of New Hampshire, the Massa- chuset Bay, Rhode Island and Providence Plantations, Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia, declared that they then were, and of right ought to be, free and independent states ; and that, as such, they had full power to levy war, conclude peace, contract alliances, establish commerce, and do all other acts and things which independent states may of right do. They also published articles of confederation and per- petual union, in which they assumed the title of " The United States of America ; " and by which each of the colonies contracted a reciprocal treaty of alliance and friendship, for their common defence, for the main- tenance of their liberties, and for their general and mutual advantage ; obliging themselves to assist each other against all violence that might threaten all or any oneof them, and torepel in common all the attacks that might be made upon all or any oneof themonaccountof religion.sovereignty, commerce, or under any other pretence whatever. Each colony reserved to itself the exclusive right of regulating its internal government, and of framing laws in all matters not included in the articles of confederation. But, for the more convenient management of the general interest of the United States, it was determined that dili"j;ates should be annually ap- pointed, in such manner as the legislatu t each state should direct, to meet in congress on the first Monday in .... mbtT of every year, with a power reserved to each state to recall itsdelegau,^, or any ul them, at any time within the year, and to send others in their stead tor the remainder of the year. No state was to be represented in congrtbs by less than two, or by more than seven, members; and no person was capa le of being a delegate for more than three years, in any term of six years ; nor was any person, being a delegate, capable of holding any office under the go- vernment, for which he, or any other for his benefit, should receiv.' any salary, fees, or emolument. In determining questions in the congress each state was to have one vote, and to abide by the determination of tliat as-* sembly. The articles of confederation were to be inviolably observed by every state, and the union to be perpetual; nor was any alteration thence- forth to be made in any one of them, unless previously adopted in a ge- neral congress, and afterwards confirmed by the legislature of that • It was on the 30th of January, 1778, that the French king concludiu a treaty of amity and commerce with the Thirteen United Colonies, as in- dependent states. Holland acknowleged them as such, in 1782 ; and, on the 30th of November, in that year, provisional articles were signed at Paris by the British and American commissioners, in which his Bri- tannic majesty acknowleged the late colonies to be free, sovereign, and independent states ; and these articles were, in due time, ratified by a de- finitive treaty. As it was found, by experience, that the government of the new republic was not sufficiently compact for all the purposes of union, it was the advice of general Washington, that the ties of the confede- ration should be drawn closer. "Willi this view, the constitution was superseded, in 1789, by a new code. It was ordained that a president, chosen for four years, should command both the army and navy ; that he might conclude treaties, and appoint ambassadors, minifiters, and It $' t w I i li if m 'X3 Ml '■ t^immmtiiim' 784 UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. the supreme judges, with the assent of two-thirds of the senate ; that this assembly should consist of two delegates, chosen once in six years by each state ; that popular representatives, r.ot exceeding the number of 200, should be elected in every second year ; and that no particular state should assume any kind of general authority, but that each must confine itself to the mere concerns of ordinary administration within its own boundaries, according to the separate constitution which had been framed for every component part of the confederacy. Upon this basis the government was ably administered, first by Washington, and subse- quently by Adams, Jefferson, and Madison. Duringthe sway of the last president, a war arose from disputes which had long subsisted with the British court. The causes and chief incidents of that war having been already stated, we proceed to take notice of the gradual augmentation of the territories and power of the republic. To the west of New-Hamp- shire, various settlements had been formed at different times, iu a terri- tory to which the colonists gave the name of Vennont from the green aspect of the mountains. The inhabitants were among the first who op- posed the high claims of the British government ; but they were not re- warded by an admission into the federal union before the year 1791. In the following year, an extensive territory to the west of Virginia was added to the union, under the name of Kentucky, which had excited the notice of adventurers in 1754, and, after a long contest with the savage claimants, had been secured by colonial parties. To the south of Kentucky, the Cherokees had been gradually dispossesed of their lands: and a new state, named Tennessee, was thus formed in 1796. The next state that Avas annexed to the union extends from the Ohio to Lake Erie: it was not regularly colonised before the year 1788. Eleven years after- ward, in consequence of that increase of population which included 5000 free male inhabitants of full age, it was declared to be a distinct state ; but the advantage of a separate constitution was delayed to the year 1802, when the growing amount of the whole colony reached 60,000. Still intent on territorial aggrandisement, the congress purchased from the French, in 1 ^03, the province of Louisiana, and thus extended its dominion to the i^ulf of Mexico. As, between this state and Georgia, a very spacious iiact remained nearly unoccupied, it was resolved, in 1817, not only that the Alabama territory should be declared to be an appendage of the republic, but that the country extending 150 miles from the left bank of the Missisipi, and reaching the borders of Ten- nessee on the north, should form an integral part of the union, — an hi nor which was also granted to Indiana, between Lake Michigan and Ken- tucky. The thirteen states which commenced the independent confe- deracy were thus augmented to twenty : and others have since been added, in consequence of their increasing population. Face of the country, .imate, sou., puoduck.] The most prominent feature is a mountainous range, the length of which is esti- mated at 900 miles, while il^ breadth varies from 50 to 150. It ex- tends from the river St. Laun nee in the north to the Georgian province in the soutli ; and its.higlicsi ridge preserves nearly an equal distance of 250 miles from the Atlantic shore, and an almost uniform elevation above it of about 3000 feet. These mountains form the Apalachian chain, or rather two chains, the eastern being called the Blue Ridge, and the western known by the name of the Cumberland and Gauley mountains, and afterward by that of Aleghany. The most elevated point of the whole mass is Mount- Washington, which soars more than 6000 feet above the level of the sea. The other parts of the country form chiefly UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 785 an immense level, spacious plains and valleys, extensive forests, prairies or meadows, and savannahs or swamps. So extensive a country involves great varieties of climate. The coldest is that which prevails in the north-east, where the winter is usually very severe for three months, and the summer, though hot for a time, is very short: a more temperate climate is felt in the middle states; and the heat is so great to the south of Virginia, that frost is unknown beyond the 29th degree of latitude. The winds which chiefly blow are the north-west, south-west, and north-east. The first, when it blows from the elevated country, is particularly dry and cold. On the coast of the Atlantic, where it meets warm clouds and warm currents of aifj it produces snow, hail, and sometimes rain ; and, along the banks of the Missisipi and Ohio, it is frequently accompanied with rain in winter and storms in summer. The south-west is chiefly a summer wind, and is more constant on the western than on the eastern side of the Apalachian mountains. The north-east, crossing a great extent of sea, brings cold and humidity on the whole Atlantic coast : and, both at the vernal and autumnal equinoxes, it produces violent and disastrous hurricanes. The maritime parts of North-America are affected in their climate by what is called the gulf-stream. This immense current runs from Florida to Newfoundland, at the rate of four or five miles in an hour, with a breadth of forty-five or fifty miles, and at the distance of twenty-three leagues from the shore. Its temperature is from ten to twenty-two de- grees warmer than the contiguous water, and the warm vapors which ascend from it are condensed into mists or fogs. More rain falls in the United States than in the European regions. Gentle showers are very rare, and the rains resemble the torrents of tro- pical climates. It has been ascertained, on the other hand, that these states enjoy a greater proportion of sunshine and unclouded weather than most parts of Europe : but, that the climate in genersil is not very salu- brious, may be inferred from the prevalence of many diseases which are most injurious to life. The yellow fever sometimes rages with pestilen- tial malignity ; and it rather appears to be generated by the miasmata of the atmosphere, by heat and moisture, than to be imported, as was supposed, from tropical countries. Intermittent and bilious fevers are also frequent ; and the former disease occasionally assumes the appear- ance of the yellow fever. It was generally supposed that the country became more healthy as it was more cleared and cultivated : yet it ap- pears, that, in the state of New-York, the borders of the lakes and rivers have become subject to an intermittent fever since the commencement of cultivation ; the good effect of which, therefore, is slow and gradual. The pulmonary phthisis or consumption is not uncommon : the rheuma- tism is prevalent in many parts; and the dysentery often shows itself after very warm weather that is followed by coolness and moisture. There is another disorder, which, though not dangerous, is particularly injurious to female beauty : it is a premature decay of the teeth, or scurvy in the gums. Volney divides the soil into five regions, namely, that of granite, in- cluding secondary rocks, extending from Long-Island to the mouth of the St. Laurence ; the transition rocks near Hudson's River ; the calca- reous or limestone districts; the region of sea-sand; and the alluvial soil. In such a wide extent of country, the productiveness of the soil necessarily varies. That of New-England is most fertile where it consists of black mould upon red loam or clay. The soil of New- York is more 3 E ?'! I 786 UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. fruitful than that of Maryland or New Jersey. Pennsylvania has every kind of soil. The states of Ohio and Kentucky contain the most fertile parts of the whole country ; and the climate is even favorable to the cul- ture of the vine. The Indiami and Illinoisstates are also distinguished by general fertility ; and, in that of the Missisipi, the lands near the rivers are renr/arkably productive. The objects of culture are numerous. Maize seems to be more gene- rally cultivated than any other species of corn, not only because it is adapted to a greater variety of soils and situations than wheat, but because it usually yields double the produce. In the middle and western states, wheat of a very good quality is raised ; but, in other parts, the crops often fail. Oats, rye, and barley, are raised in all the northern and in the upper districts of the southern states ; and, of the last grain, two crops in a year are sometimes obtained. In the western parts of the country, very good hemp grows naturally, and it is cultivated, as well as flax, in all the states. Hops also grow in many parts, but do not seem to meet with that attention which they certainly deserve. The sugar-cane is more particularly cultivated in Georgia, the Missisipi state, and Louisiana. Rice also thrives in those provinces, and in Carolina. Tobacco flourishes in Virginia and Maryland, more than in the southern states. From the Roanoke to the Missisipi, cotton is so abundantly produced, that, after the full supply of domestic consumption, large quantities are exported ; and the spontaneous growth of the mulberry-tree liberally furnishes the basis of an ornamental manufacture. Notwithstanding the great progress which has been made in the clearing of land, very extensive forests still cover the territory of the United States. Many of them abound with oak-trees, of which twenty-six species are reckoned. The white oak is the best wood; what is called the rock chesnut oak, holds the next rank, and the live oak, being hard and durable, is much used in ship-building. Of pines, the best and the most abundant species is that which has long leaves, growing in the low grounds of the southern states. The white pine is a lofty and magnifi- cent tree, found in the northern states and mountainous parts. The silver fir is chiefly esteemed for its resinous produce, which is considered as sa- lutary in pulmonary disorders. The cypress and white cedar afford a light but useful wood for the construction of houses. That which is par- ticularly styled the sugar maple is a common tree in the northern and middle states : it is the sap which furnishes the saccharine juice. The hickory, or the American nut-tree, is very frequently seen ; but the wood is seldom used except for fuel, and few species supply palatable fruit. Of the birch, the ash, and the beech, some species are rarely used, while others supply useful wood for a variety of purposes. The wild orange- tree, a magnificent ever-green, embellishes the southern states. The wood of the wild cherry-tree is much employed for furniture, and that of the red mulberry in ship-building. Little use is made of the poplars or the willows, nor are the bays or laurels very serviceable as timber ; but the white and the red elm afford very good materials to the artisan. The fruit of the cucumber-tree, steeped in brandy, is used as a febrifuge. A more beautiful and useful tree is the magnolia, which rises to the height of 80 feet : its white blossoms are succeeded by crimson cones, contain- ing red seeds, which, falling from their cells, remain for several days sus- pended from the seed-vessel by a long silky thread. Rivers and la\E9.] Few countries are better supplied in this re- spect than the territory of the United States. The streams of the greatest exi Delaware, but these ai particular i Erie, and ' of fresh wa about .380 i rendered di harbours, long ; but I waters of f( of St. Mar that not m( Lake Huroi deep near t which com mackinac, northern m lake is aboi which affo ference, an Niagara iv Over th( dispersed ; and Georg( during the Fort Frede burg also, i Metal! and mines New-York many parti mines are from Mexi Silver exis in any of may flourit rare prodm coal, lime, western sta Anima: though th< stature am the mamnc exist in thi The couga which is si Bears like plantations the same soon be st taken by 1 baits. W( they steal lar vein. UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 78» greatest extent are the Missouri, Missisipi, Ohio, Potowmac, the James, Delaware, and York rivers, the Savannah, Hudson, and Connecticut • but these and other rivers will more properly be noticed in the surveys of particular states. The great lakes are the Superior, Huron, Michigan, Erie, and Ontario. The first (says Mr. Warden) is " the greatest body of fresh water on the face of the globe." Its length from east to west is about 380 miles, and its breadth 120. The navigation is, in many parts, rendered dangerous by rocks, and it is not well furnished with bays or harbours. It contains a number of islands, one of which is 90 miles long; but they are not desirable spots for habitation. It receives the waters of forty streams, which it discharges into Lake Huron by the strait of St. Mary; but the quantity which escapes by evaporation is so great, that not more than a tenth part, perhaps, passes through this channel. Lake Huron is 225 miles in length, and 175 in breadth; and it is so deep near the middle, that its waters are unfathomable. Near the strait which connects this lake with that of Michigan, is the isle of Michili- mackinac, a fertile spot, defended by a fortress, which is the most northern military post in the United States. The length of the Michigan lake is about 225 miles : it has, on its north-west side, an extensive bry, which affords a fine harbour. Lake Erie is about 550 miles in circum- ference, and that of Ontario 425. These two lakes are connected by the Niagara river. Over the northern parts of the country many smaller lakes are dispersed ; among which it will be sufficient to mention those of Champlain and George. The former had on its shores several forts (well known during the revolutionary war), which have been since demolished ; but Fort Frederic remains, commanding the passage of the lake, and Plats- burg also, near the lake, is a place of some strength. Metals, minerals.] Iron ore may be found in every province ; and mines of that metal are worked with great effect in New-England, New- York, New-Jersey, and other states. Copper has been found in many parts, particularly in the north-western territory : but so few of the mines are worked, that supplies of this metal are required and obtained from Mexico. The Missouri districts afford the greatest quantity of lead. Silver exists in variou i parts ; but it does not appear that gold is found in any of the lands bi longing to the republic ; and certainly a country may flourish without possessing mines of that description. Mercury is a rare product ; but Kentucky affords it, as well as plenty of nitre. With coal, lime, and salt, few countries are more amply provided than the western states. Animals.] The American zoology is varied and important, even though the wild animals may be thought to be of a less imposing stature and more insignificant than those of Africa and of Asia. Of the mammoth, a much larger animal than any of those which now exist in the United States, no traces are found except scattered bones. The cougar is not often found in these states; and the mountain cat, which is almost as fierce and strong as that animal, is of rare occurrence. Bears likewise are now uncommon, as their ravages in corn-fields and plantations roused a general zeal for their extermination. Wolves, for the same reason, are declining in number; and, probably, they will soon be seen only in the unsettled parts to the westward. They are taken by log-traps, into which the ravenous prowlers are decoyed by baits. Wolverenes are more common, particularly in the northern parts : they steal beavers from the traps, %nd kill the deer by tearing the jugu- lar vein. Other wild animals are the lynx, fox, porcupine, ernwxe, 3E 2 ■fi !'^ ■ \ iif ijf.' ?i, f t 788 UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. racoon, skunk or pole-cat, otter, and opossum. Elks nre rarely seen to thp eastward of the Missisipi: but, in the Missouri state, they appear in great numbers, feeding with buffaloes and red deer. The moose is sometimes confounded with the elk ; but the horns of the former are palmated and spreading, not round or cylindrical. The horns, when full grown, are four or five feet from the head to the tip, and have shoots or branches, which sometimes spread about six feet. When this animal goes through a thicket, or under the boughs of a tree, he lays down his horns back on his neck, to place them out of his way ; and these prodi- gious horns are shed every year. He does not spring or rise in going, like an ordinary deer ; but a large one, in his common walk, has been seen to step over a gate five feet high, When unh-rboured, he will run a course of twenty or thirty miles before he takes to bay ; but, when chased, he generally runs to the water. Ail the woody country, from Vermont to Louisiana, abounds with deer of a light-brown hue, which have slender round branched horns, bending forward, and are about the size of the European fallow deer. The tame quadrupeds are not so dif- ferent from those of Great-Britain, as to require distinct notice. Among the birds of prey are eagles and vultures ; and the more common sorts are in general mere varieties of the species found in Europe : but Mr. Wilson, who has diligently studied the ornithology of the United States, speaks of six genera vs^ peculiar to the country ; namely, the grakle, tanager, turkey, parrot, nianakin, and humming-bird. He also claims, for the American birds which nearly resemble those of Europe, not only the praise of superior beauty, but greater musical merit. The mocking- bird, he says, can excel the nightingale in her own song, as he excels all other birds in their different melodies. While the woods and fields display the beauties of plumage or resound with melody, they are rendered dreadfully insecure by the venom of the serpent tribe. The rattle-snake of North- America is well-known, and we have already described it j and many other serpents are found, some- times in the middle states, but more frequently in the more southern parts of the country. Not only, however, will medicinal applications occasionally cure the bites of those reptiles ; but Providence has kindly diminished the danger to which the inhabitants are exposed from their venom, by furnishing an enemy in the wild hog, by whom they are at- tacked and destroyed. In consequence of the possession of a long range of coast, and a number of lakes and rivers, the American ichthyology is abundantly varied. Whales appear on the north-eastern coast ; and there is a great fishery for those animals off the isle of Nantucket, The cod, salmon, halibut, sturgeon, pike, cat-fish, shad, black-fish, sheep's-head, rock-fish, perch, mullet, all sorts of shell-fish, and a great number of other tenants of the waters, are taken by the vigilant industry of the inhabitants. But, while these stores are poured out for their gratification, the southern rivers infest the country by harbouring alligators, or American croco- *liles, which sometimes grow to the length of twelve feet, and, not satis- fied with devouring inferior animals, venture, in the rage of hunger, to uttack human beings. The caiman of Louisiana is an animal of the same species ; but it very rarely assaults men, and is only dreaded by dogs and hogs. Population, manners.] It has been frequently remarked, that population, if not materially checked by war, pestilence, or famine, will double itself in twenty years. In 1753, the thirteen colonies compre- hended about 1,046,000 persons; and, though that number was not UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. doubled even in twenty-seven years, yet, from 1780 to 1800, tije in- crease far exceeded the ratio of mere duplication, proceeding from two to five millions. In 1810, above seven millions were olficially enume- rated : in 1820, the amount reached nine millions and a half; and, at the present time, it probably borders upon ten millions and a half. The most populous states are Virginia and New- York. With regard to the character and manners of the people, it may seem invidious to speak freely : yet we cannot, on this occasion, employ the language of panegyric. Vanity, presumption, and an overweening con- fidence, are prominent featiires, which excite the notice of almost every stranger.. An ungracious demeanor, illiberal selfishness, a cold disre- gard to the feelings of others, and a want of social urbanity, are strikingly prevalent. Undoubtedly, amidst such a varied population, there must be many exceptions, detracting from the universality of these charac- teristic remarks ; but they seem to be true in their general application. Religion.] In the United States, there is no religious establish- ment supported by the ruling power, as it was thought more just and prudent to leave religion to its own operations, than to endeavour to in- fluence conscience or belief, by holding out a prospect of distinction or emolument to those who exercise the religion of the state. Notwith- standing this seeming neglect, the people in general are as religiously disposed as they are in most other countries. The Congregationalists and Presbyterians are the most numerous classes: both profess the Calvinistic doctrines ; but the former have independent congregations, while the latter are subject to the government of synods and presbyte- ries. The Baptists are the next in point of number; and, in general, they are Calvinists in persuasion, and Independents in discipline. The Episcopalians are an increasing and respectable 'class, following the system of the church of England ; and their affairs are regulated by a con- vention of two houses, one consisting of bishops, the other of clerical and laic delegates. Methodists, Quakers or Friends, members of the Dutch reformed church, German Calvinists and Lutherans, Moravians or United Brethren, Roman-catholics, Universalists or advocates of univar- sal salvation, and other followers of varied schemes of Christianity, aie dispersed over the republican territories. Jews are found in some pares of the country ; but their amount is inconsiderable. Government and laws.] Having mentioned the grand outlines of the federal government, we may remark, that the system of polity adopted by the republic is apparently calculated to secure the advantages of liberty ; and that such abuses as gradually undermine freedom in other states which have ostensibly abjured despotism, have not had sufficient time for mischievous operation. Cabal and corruption, if is said, prevail in all pnrts of the union ; and a factious spirit is more observable than even in Great-Britain, the native soil of party: but this will appear to many to be the mere offspring of freedom. The judicial part of the constitution is apparently correct in its fratne, if it be not altogether pure and incorrupt in practice. The code which is principally followed consists of written law ; namely, the constitution of the United States, the acts of congress and treaties. The unwritten law of a particular state may be adopted ; but it is only by virtue of the written law that the adoption can be accomplished. The laws seem in general to correspond with those of England. Mr. Fearon says, upon what he terms good authority, that great corruption exists in the minor courts ; and, as some of the judges are of a low stamp, there is probably some foundation for the charge. There are very few countries in ^ *^- 790 UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. which justice is administered with that integrity which prevails in Great- Britain. Akmy, navy, commerce, uevenue.] When the peace of the re- public seemed to be fully secured, after the animated contest which esta- blished its independence, a very small regular force was maintained i but, when the nation rushed into a war in the year 181*2, the troops were 80 far augmented, that the charges of the military department became twelve (instead of two) millions of dollars; and, in 1814, twenty mil- lions and a half did not prove more than adequate to the demands of the state. In that year, the regular army amounted to 63,4'20 men ; and it was proposed that 30,000 more should be raised ; but the peace of Ghent prevented that alarming requisition. The present establishment is under 10,000. The navy of the United States, at the beginning of the year 1812, consisted only of seven frigates, a few sloops, and some smaller vessels : but it was increased, in three years, to sixty-nine, including captured ships, without reckoning sciiooners and gun-boats. Only five of the ships had seventy-four guns ; but the frigates were constructed upon so large a scale, as to be almost on a par with ships of the line. . In commerce and zjavigation, the Americans have made a great pro- gress, since their acquisition of the advantages of independence. They have multiplied their trading vessels with the most sedulous xeal, and have visited every coast, without regard to distance or danger. Their exports, in 1800, were officially valued at 70,970,700 dollars, almost one- half of the amount consisting of articles of domestic growth, produce, or manufacture. In 1807, 108 millions formed the estimates; but they are now higher, having been very considerably augmented, in 1 826, by the re- laxation of the rigor of the British navigation-laws. The exports are, flour, Indian corn, rice, flax-seed, cotton, tobacco, pot-ash, timber, naval stores, animal products, &c. Their internal trade also flourishes, in consequence of the number of navi- gable rivers, with the occasional aid of canals. Commodities are trans- ported from Boston even to the Mexican territories, with surprising quickness, partly by waggons, and partly by steam-vessels, which the Americans first introduced. From commercial duties the greatest part of the national revenue arises. That of the year 1816 was stated at 36,743,574 dollars, of which the customs formed three-fourths, the rest being procured by light and easy taxation, and by the sale of public lands. Most of the taxes im- posed during the war have been repealed ; and, though there have been fresh loans even in some years of peace, only four millions of dollars are requisite for the payment of the interest of the whole national debt. The expenditure, in 1823, did not exceed 15,200,000 dollars. LiTERATUKE AND THE FINE ARTS.] By literary taste, or scientific profundity, the subjects of the United States are not remarkably distin- guished : but they are improving in both respects. Works of some merit occasionally appear, and the transactions of societies and academies are periodically published. In no country is knowlege more diffused than by newspapers, the amount of which far exceeds the number annually produced in the British dominions; in no country, we may add, is greater attention paid by the government to general education. In the polite arts, there are few celebrated names : but we may observe, that West, the painter, is claimed by the Americans for their countryman ; and that, though they have uo good sculptors, they have some ingenious and skilful architects. UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 7'JJ DIFFERENT STATES, CHIEF TOWNS, &c. THE MASSACHUSET STATE is distinguisbed by tlie possession of Boston, wbicb was long considered as tlie capital of Britisb America. This country is watered in its southern part by the Connecticut and Merriinac rivers, and, in the north, by the St. John and Kennebec. It is moun- tainous in many parts; but the greatest elevation does not exceed 4000 feet. Iron ore is found in great quantities in various parts of this state ; copper ore, black lead, pipe-clay, yellow and red ochre, alum, and slate, are also among its products ; and some mineral springs have been disco- vered at Sim and other places. In this territory are to be found all the varieties of soil : it is capable of yielding, in abundance, Indian corn, rye, wheat, barley, oats, hemp, flax, hops, potatoes, field beans and peas, apples, pears, peaches, plums, cherries, &c. Boston is situated on a peninsula of irregular form, at the extremity of Massachuset Bay, and is joined to tiie main land by an isthmus at the south end of the town. It is two miles long, but of unequal breadth. In 1790, it contained 18,000 inhabitants; but the increase has since been so considerable, that above 33,000 are now reckoned, among whom there are no slaves, as the rulers of this state, many years ago, abolished slavery within i'- boundaries. The harbour is sutficiently capacious for 500 vessels to ride at anchor in good depth of water, while the entrance is so narrow as scarcely to admit two ships abreast. The wharfs and quays are about eighty in number, and very convenient for vessels. The Charles-river and West-Boston bridges are highly useful and ornamental to the town : one is 1503 feet long, 42 feet broad, and stands on 75 piers ; while the other, which is more elegant, rests on 180 piers, and is 3480 feet long. The view of the town, as it is approached from the sea, is beautiful and picturesque. It lies in a circular and pleasingly irregular form round the harbour, and is ornamented with spires, above which the monument of Beacon Hill rises pre-eminent ; on its top is a gilt eagle, bearing the arms of the union, and on the base cf the column are in- scriptions commemorating some of tbe most remarkable events of the re- volutionary war. On a rising ground at the upper part of the Mall (a space of 40 acres kept free from the exercise of the building mania), stands the State-house, a structure (says Mr. Duncan) " of humbler pre- tensions, as to size and materials, than the city-hall of New- York, but in situation and architectural outline greatly superior." The same writer speaks favorably of the general character of the Bostonians, though he is disgusted at their propensity to the Socinian d'^ctrines ; and in a literary point of view, he says, their city is far before a^y other American town. Plymouth was the first town built in New- England, and is peopled prin- cipally by the descendants of the first settlers. The rock on which their forefathers landed was conveyed, in 1774, from the shore to a square in the centre of the town, where it remains as a national monument. The situation of the town is pleasant and healthful. Many important manufactures are carried on by the people of this state. Ship-building is eagerly prosecuted : arms are skilfully fabricated ; cabinet-work, tin-plate-work, earthen-ware, various articles in brass and steel, optical and musical instruments, clocks and watchec, are well pre- pared both for foreign and domestic trade. Amidst this attention to profitable employment, literature and science, as we before hinted, are not neglected. At Cambridge, four miles from Boston, there is an luaiversity 'i I rfl ■ ? i 792 UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. ^vhich generally has from 250 to 300 students ; and, as to its library, philosophical apparatus, and profesHorships, it is the most distinguished literary institution on this continent, though it is thought by many to bo inferior in its discipline and arrangements to Yale College. It takes date from the year 1()38. In May 1780, the Massachuset legislature passed an act for incorporat- ing and establishing an academy for the cultivation and promotion of the nrts and sciences. Other societies that tend to enlighten the state and tvhich reflect credit upon the citizens, are connected witli the pursuit of natural history, the improvement of medicine, the diffusion of polite learning and general knowlege, and the propagation of religious truth. MAINE, which was long included in the Massachuset state, now en- joys the advantage of a distinct government. The country is barren in the inland parts, but fruitful on the banks of the rivers and near the sea. The heat is intense in the summer, and the cold of the winter is exceed- ingly severe. Portland, the chief town, has a very good harbour, and flourishes in point of trade. With regard to the people, it appears u.at they are orderly, industrious, and hospitable.. NEW-HAMPSHIRE, situated to the westward of the district of Maine, is intersected by several ridges of mountains, among which are the Blue Hills, and those which divide the Connecticut and Mcrriinac rivers, denominated the Height of Land', but the White or .Snowy Mountains which run through this state, are undoubtedly the highest in all New-England. Their height is 3500 feet above an adjacent meadow, which is itself 3500 above the level of the sea. The most elevated point, which makes a majestic a])pearance along the shores of Massachuset, has been distinguished by the name of Mount VV'ashington. iron, lead, and copper, are found in this state. It also produces red and yellow ochre, steatites or sope-rock, tiie best lapis speculaiis, a kind of talc, commonly called isinglass ; crystal, alum, vitriol, free-stone, and black lead. The air of New-Hampshire is healthful, and the weather is com- monly serene, and not so subject to variation as in the more southern states : but it is extremely cold in winter, and in summer the heat is great, though of short duration. The shore is mostly a sandy beach, adjoining to which are salt marshes, intersected by creeks, wiiich pro- duce good pasture. The wide-spreading hills are warm and rich ; cattle thrive on the rocky moist land ; the drained swamps iiave a deep mellow soil, and the valleys are generally very productive. Agriculture is the chief occupation of the inhabitants. Corn, hops, and hemp, are raised in great quantities, and the uncultivated lands are covered with forests of pine, cedar, oak, &c. Portsmouth is the chief town of this state. Its harbour is one of the finest on the continent, having a suflicient depth of water for vessels of any burthen, and being so well defended against storms by the land, that ships may securely ride there in any season of the year. Concord is a flourishing town, pleasantly situated on the Merrimac. The constitution of New- Hampshire, like that of the Massachuset state, provides for the existence of a senate and a body of representatives, and for the election of a governor and a council of state by the people. This, indeed, forms the government of every one of the North-American states; but, in the territories which are not yet admitted in due form into the union, the president and the congress depute a distinguished citizen to exercise the administrative functions. Slavery is not prohibited in UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 793 t\\\t state ; but there are few slaves, and tliose wlio remain in that con- dition are treated with humanity. RHODE-ISLAND, including Providence plantation, is cue of the smallest members of the confederacy, possessing only an area of IfiSO square miles. The chief rivers are Providence and Taunton. Iron ore is found in great plenty in several parts of this state ; there is also a mine of copper, mixed with iron, strongly impregnated with load- stone. It is as healthy a country as an^ in America. The winters, in the maritime parts, are milder than in tlie inland country, the air being softened by a sea vapor, which also enriches the soil. The summers are delightful, the heat being allayed by breezes from the sea. The principal towns are Providence and Newport. The former is situated at the head of Narraganset bay, and is a large and handsome town, containing several elegant buildings, and about 6750 inhabitants. It had two philosophical societies, whicli are now united. — Newport stands at the south-west end of Rhode-Island. A fine harbour spreads westward before the town, and the entrance ia easy and safe. The town of Bristol prosecutes a considerable trade with Africa, the West-Indies, and different parts of the United States ; but the chief commerce of Rhode-Island is at present carried on by the inhabitants of Providence. The exports are, flax-seed, lumber, horses, cattle, grain, provisions of various kinds, cotton, and linen ; and the imports consist of European and West-Indian goods, and log-wood from the bay of Honduras. CONNECTICUT is situated to the south of the Massachuset state, and stretches 90 miles along the coast. The river of that name tra- verses the province, and the country is also fertilised by the Housatonic and the Thames. Ores of iron, copper, and lead ; native silver, con- taining arsenic, and united with bismuth ; marble, and fine red stone ; dolomite, or magnesian lime-stone ; jasper, beryl, and garnets, are found in this state. Tlie climate and vegetable produce are nearly the same as in Massachuset. The inhabitants are almost entirely of English descent : there are no Dutch, French, or Germans, and very few Scotish or Irish people, in any part of the state. There are many pleasant towns, both maritime and inland, in Connec- ticut. It contains five cities, which have extensive jurisdiction in civil causes. Two of these, Hartford and New-Haven, are alternate capitals of the state. The former is regularly built, and the streets intersect each other at right angles. The other cities are New-London, Nor- wich, and Middleton. In the small towns and villages, the houses are generally built of wood, sometimes with only one story; their sides are painted white ; their sloping roofs are covered with shingles; and painted of a slate color; and, with sash windows, green Venetian shades on the outside, neat rails and steps, they make a pretty appearance. The country is well cultivated, and the people seem to enjoy competence and comfort. All religions that are consistent with the peace of society are tolerated in Connecticut; yet there are few sectarian varieties in this state. The bulk of the people are congregationalists, and there are also episcopalians and baptists. Yale college, at New-Haven, is a respectable seminary of learning: it was founded in the year 1701. Academies have likewise been esta- blished at Greenfield, Plainfield, Norwich, Windham, and other places. <'Al 794 UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. Almost every town in the state is divided into districts, and each district has a public school kept in it during a greater or less part of every year. A thirst for learning prevails among all ranks of people ; and more of the young men, in proportion to their number, receive a public education, than in any other state. VERMONT is an inland country, and is hilly, but not rocky. To . the west-ward of the mountains is a very spacious tr.act, well adapted for tillage. The land is well watered, and affords the best pasturage; very fine oxen are reared in this state : horses also arc bred for exportation. Birch, sugar-maple, ash, butter-nut, white oak of an excellent quality, and many other trees, are abundantly furnished. The soil is well fitted for wheat, rye, barley, oats, flax, hemp, &c. Mines of iron are worked in this state with skill and effect. Jasper, pyrites, fine porcelain clay, and beautiful marble, are found in various parts; and among the curiosities may be mentioned a natural stone bridge, affording a passage over the river Lamoille. There are few towns in this state. The most populous place is Ben- nington; but Windsor and Rutland are more dignified, being alternately the seats of the legislature. With regard to the manners and habits of the people, Mr. Warden says, " Every member of the family is actively employed. The labors of the field are performed only by tlie men, except in harvest, when the women assist. Mothers nurse their own children, and the young daughters cook, spin, weave, and knit. In winter, the favorite amusement is dancing. The farmer and day-laborer partake of the same fare. Like the inhabitants of most new countries, they are hardy, indus- trious, frugal, and jealous of their freedom." NEW-YORK is an extensive and flourishing province. Its length, from east to west, is about 310 miles, and its breadth 290. It boasts of the Hudson or North River, which rises in an elevated spot to the west of Lake Champlain, and flows into the sea after a course of 250 miles. It is navigable, for sloops of eighty tons, to Albany, and for ships to the city of Hudsou. On the Mohawk, which joins it above Albany, is a large cataract, called the Cohoes, the water of which falls thirty feet perpendicular ; but, including the descent above, the fall is sixty feet. Great quantities of iron ore are found in this state; and a silver-mine has been worked at Philipsburg. The mineral springs of Ballstown, Saratoga, and New Lebanon, are in great repute. The springs of Onon- d ago produce excellent salt ; and a spring has been discovered in the Susquehannah county, impregnated with nitre. This province enjoys a favorable temperature of climate. The air is healthy, and 'agrees with almost every constitution. Though the face of the country is low, flat, and marshy toward the sea, yet, as you recede from the coast, the eye is entertained with the gradual swelling of hills, which become large in proportion as you advance into the country. The soil is fertile, producing wheat, rye, Indian corn, oats, barley, flax, and fruit, in great abundance and perfection. Tiie timber is nearly the same with that of New-England. The city of New- York stands on the south-west end of York Island, which is twelve miles long, and near three in breadth, admirably situated for trade, at the mouth of Hudson's river, where it is three miles broad, and proves a noble conveyance from Albany and many other inland towns toward Canada and the lakes. The city is in length above two miles, UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 795 snd Hi mean breadth about a mile. It is defended by a fort and battery : in the fort is a spacious mansion-house for the use of the governor. Many of the houses are very elegant ; but most parts of the town are irregu- larly built. A great proportion of the inhabitants, who probably amount to 73,000, are the posterity of those Dutch families which remained here after the surrender of the New Netherlaads to the English. The state of society and manners, in this city, may thus be sketched. I'lie men are fond of social meetings, and prone to indulgence both in eating and drinking, more particularly in the latter practice ; they are more civil than polite, more ^ood-humored than friendly. The ladies are not deficient in personal attractions ; their manners are agreeable, and they dress with neatness and elegance, without closely copying the fashions either of London or Paris. Albany, being situated on a fine river, at the head of sloop-navigation, surrounded with a rich country, and the storehouse of the trade with Canada and the lakes, cannot but flourish in wealth and consequence. The situation of 1. j\v-York, with respect to foreign markets, has de- cidedly the preference to any of the states. It has at all seasons of the year a short and easy access to the ocean. It commands the trade of a great proportion of the best-settled and best-cultivated parts of the United States. It contains a great number of persons who are em- ployed in vario'is manufactures, particularly wheel-carriages, sadlery, cabinet-work, » • y, glass, clocks, watches, mathematical and musical instruments. A college was erected at New- York, by act of parliament, in the year 1 754 ; but, as the assembly was at that time divided into parties, it was formed on a contracted plan, and has for that reason never met with the encouragement which might naturally be expected for a public semi- nary in so populous a city. It is now called Columbia College. It has about one hundred and forty students, beside those who devote them-, selves to medicine. Union College was established at Shenectady in 1794, which has now about ninety votaries of learning; and, in 1813, that of Hamilton, in Oneida county, was founded. There are also, in different parts of the state, eleven incorporated academies ; and it is pro- vided that schools shall be established, one at least in every district of four square miles. A respectable society, of a literary and philosophical description, was founded in the capital, in 1815; history is peculiarly cultivated by another association ; an academy has been formed for the promotion of the fine arts, and another for natural history. NEW- JERSEY extends about 150 miles to the east of Pennsylvania. Its chief rivers are the Hackensac, Ilariton, and Passaic ; on the last of which is a cataract : the height of the rock from which the water falls is about 70 feet perpendicular. The climate is nearly the same with that of New York ; the soil is various ; at least one-fourth part of the province ii barren sandy land, producing pines and cedars; the other parts in general are good, and produce excellent wheat, barley, rye, and Indian corn. In this state are many iron-mines, and in Bergen county is a very valuable mine of copper. Trenton is the capital of New-Jersey ; but it neither flourishes in trade nor in population. The chief manufactures of the province are those of iron, leather, glass, woollen, and cotton. Agriculture is the most prevalent pursuit; and, at the same time, learning is not despised or disregarded; for there are two colleges, and sixteen incorporated academies ; and a lite- rary and philosophical society was instituted in 1825. I'r W 796 UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. PENNSYLVANIA is iu the form of a parallelogram, 280 miles long, and 160 broad. Its rivers are, the Delaware, which is navigable more than two hundred miles above Philadelphia; the Susquehannah and Schuylkill ; which, with- the numerous creeks in Delaware bay, capable of containing the largest fleets, render this state admirably suited to carry on an inland and foreign trade. Iron-ore abounds in the province ; and copper and lead are found in some places. Lime-stone is common, as are also several kinds of marble ; and in the middle and western parts of the country there is abundance of coal. The face of the country, air, soil and produce, do not materially diflFer from those of New York. If there be any difference, it is in favor of Pennsylvania. The air is sweet and clear. The winters continue from December till March, and are so extremely cold, that the Delaware, though very broad, is often frozen over. The months of July, August, and September, are almost intolerably hot ; but the country is refreshed by frequent cold breezes. It may be remarked, in general, that in all parts of the United States, from New York to the southern extremity, the woods are full of wild vines of three or four species, ail different from those we have in Europe. But whether from some fault in tlicir nature, or in the climate, or the soil where they grow, or, what is much more probable, from a fault in the planters, tliey have yet produced no good wine, though the savages from them make a sort of wine, with which they regale themselves. It may also be ob- served of the timber of these states, that toward the south it is not so good for shipping as that of the more northern countries. The farther south- ward you go, the timber becomes less compact, and rives easily ; which property, however, while it renders it less serviceable for ships, makes it more useful for staves. The Pennsylvaniaiis are principally the descendants of English, Irish, and Germans, beside the posterity ot Scots, Dutch, Swiss, Swedes, and Danes. The Friends and Episcopalians arc chiefly of English extraction, and compose about one-third of the inhabitants. They live chiefly in the metropolis, and in the counties of Chester, Philadelphia, Bucks, and Montgomery. The Irish are mostly Presbyterians, but some are Roman- catholics. The Germans compose almost one-quarter of the inhabitants; they are of various persuasions, but resemble each other in the habits of temperance, sobriety, industry, and oeconomy. The Baptists are chiefly the offspring of emigrants from Wales, and are not numerous. A propor- tionate assemblage of the national prejudices, manners, custonifi, religious and political sentiments of all these, may be said to form the Pennsylva- nian character. Pennsylvania contains several very considerable towns, such as Lancas- ter, Carlisle, and Pittsburg : but Philadelphia eclipses the rest. This city was built according to the plan of the famous William Penn. It is situ- ated about 110 miles from the sea, by the course of the bay and river, and 65 in the south-east direction. It forms an oblong square, about one mile from north to south, and two from east to west ; lying in the narrowest part of the isthmus, between the Delaware and Schuylkill, about five miles in a right line above the confluence of those rivers. It is intersected by a great number of streets crossing each other at right angles. Of these there were originally nine, which were crossed by twenty-three, running north and south. The squares formed by these streets, in the original plan, were 184 ; but, as several of them have lately been intersected by new streets, the number now exceeds 300. The greater part of the city is well paved with brick, and furnished with common sewers and gutters, so that the streets are, ia general, kept very clean and neat. The houses are generally of without mu building; a State-house, one merely { in a fine styl 77,000, and Philadelf organised o proved by tl seminary h: schools, a p charitable i lations; foi fanity, it is In this stat( capitally pu have since < The DEI ing only 22 parts, wher The soil al country, is the swampf here in sue flour throuQ its superior dant crops Dover, 1 Wilmingto contain on Philadelpl MARY In length, branch is I The clima capital, e? lias not n this state, the Pataf around or of science principall; Indies, ai export tol ceive, in sugar, an The cc tinue to ) sects. T number, of Washi compose UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 797 generally of brick, three stories high, constructed in a plain decent style, without much display of ornament. The state-house is a magnificent building ; an elegant court-house, or town-hall, stands on the left of the State-house, and, on the right, a philosophical hall ; and two public banks, one merely provincial, the other for the United States, have been erected in a fine style of Grecian architecture. The population of this city is about 77,000, and it contains 65 places of worship. Philadelphia abounds with useful institutions. The university was organised on a plan proposed by Dr. Franklin, which has since been im- proved by the suggestions of others. The medical school belonging to this seminary has long enjoyed great celebnty. There are also eight free- schools, a philosophical society, an academy for the fine arts, and many charitable institutions ; and the prison is celebrated for its admirable regu- lations ; for, instead of being a scene of idleness, debauchery, and pro- fanity, it is a place of well-conducted labor, and a school of reformation. In this state, by a very proper and laudable regulation, no offences are capitally punished, except muraer and the burning of a house ; and crimes have since declined both in frequency and in atrocity. The DELAWARE state is a small tract along that river, comprehend- ing only 2200 square miles. The air is in general healthy ; but in some parts, where there are large quantities of stagnant water, it is insalubrious. The soil along the river, and as far as eight or ten miles in the interior country, is a rich clay, adapted to the purposes of agriculture: thence to the swamps it is light, sandy, and of an inferior quality. Wheat grows here in such perfection, as not only to be particularly sought by dealers in flour throughout the Union, but also to be distinguished and preferred for its superior qualities in forci; .i markets. This territory also produces abun- dant crops of Indian corn, barley, rye, oats, flax, and potatoes. Dover, being the seat of government, is considered as the capital ; but Wilmington is the most considerable town in the state ; yet it is said to contain only 3500 inhabitants. It is regularly laid out in squares, like Philadelphia. MARYLAND is divided by the bay of Chcsapeak, which is 180 miles In length, and has on each side many navigable branches. The greatest branch is the Potowmac, forming the western boundary of this province. The climate is warm, and the soil in general fertile. Annapolis, the capital, exhibits many elegant mansions, and a noble state-house ; but it has not more than 2500 inhabitants. Baltimore is the largest town in this state, and has a population of 40,000 ; it stands on the north side of the Patapsco, at a small distance from its junction with the Chesapeak, around one of the finest harbours in America. It boasts of an academy of science and literature, founded in 1821. The trade of Maryland is principally carried on from this town witii the other states, with the West Indies, and with some parts of Europe. Tiie planters and merchants export tobacco, wheat, flour, pig-iron, lumber, and flax seed ; and re- ceive, in return, clothing for themselves and their slaves, wine, spirits, sugar, and other commodities. The balance is generally in their favor. 'J'he catholics, who have a cathedral and a college at Baltimore, con- tinue to predominate in Maryland ; but they tolerate all the protestant sects. The Episcopalians and Presbyterians are next to them in point of number. Several colleges flourish under their sway, particularly those of Washington and St. John, at Chestertown and Annapolis, wliich jointly compose the university of Maryland. i; \B 798 UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. VIRGINIA possesses great natural advantages. It abounds with minerals; it has a multitude of rivers, and a fertile soil: but the climate is not the most desirable. In the summer the heat is excessive, though not without refreshing breezes from the sea. The weather is changeable, and the changes are sudden and violent. The frosts come on without the least warning. A warm day is sometimes succeeded by such an in- tense cold in the evening as will freeze over the largest rivers. The air and seasons here depend very much upon the wind, as to heat and cold, dryness and moisture. In winter, tl»e air is usually clear and dry. The spring is about a month earlier than in England ; in April there are frequent rains; in May and June the heat increases; and the summer is, for some weeks, liite that which we enjoy : but, in July and August, the air becomes stagnant, and violently hot. In September the weather generally changes, and heavy rains ensue, which occasion all the train of diseases incident to a moist climate. Thunder and lightening are here frequent, but not very mischievous. Among the Virginian rivers, &t>- the JaMes, York, and Rappahanoc. The first has many navigable braiches ; and the three streams, at several places, approacli within a mile of oic'; other. Where the navigation is interrupted by rapids and falls, short canals supply the desired continuity. The forests of this country abound with all sorts of lofty trees, and no underwood or bushes grow amidst them ; so that people travel with ease through them on horseback, under a fine shade, which defends them from the sun : the plains are enameled with flowers and flowering shrubs of the richest colors, and most fragrant scent. Silk grows spontaneously, the fibres of which are as strong as hemp. Medicinal herbs and roots, particularly the snake-root and ginseng, are here in great plenty; and there is no sort of grain but might be cultivated to advantage. Unfavorable accounts are given of the generality of the people of this state. The young men are said to be gamblers, jockeys, and fond of brutal sports. At almost all the taverns or inns on the public roads there are billiard-tables and back-gammon boards, cards, and other implements for various games. A passion for the barbarous diversion of cock-fighting is particularly predominant. This dissipation of manners is the consequence of indolence and luxury, which arc the fruit of African slavery. Mr. Warden makes no mention of these diversions ; but says, that " the amusements of the Virginians are hunting the deer and the fox, also horse-racing, ball-playing, fowling, and dancing." He also atfirnis, that the " hoiiible practice of gouging, or putting out the eye by an artful exertion of the thumb, has entirely ceased." The principal towns of Virginia are, Richmond, the capital, Williams- burg, and Norfolk. Richmond contains 500 houses, and about 4500 inhabitants. Williamsburg is regularly laid out in parallel streets, with a pleasant square in the centre, through which runs the principal street, about a mile in length, and more than 200 feet wide. Norfolk is the most considerable rommercial town in Virginia, and has a safe and com- modious harbour. The houses in the towns are generally of scantling and boards, lathed and plastered within, and painted on the outside; and the roofs are covered with shingles. The habitations of the poor are log-huts. the interstices of the wood being filled up with mud; but the rich planters build, more substantially, of brick or stone. There is a college at Williamsburg, founded by king William III., who gave two thousand pounds toward the building, and twenty thousand acres of land fur the eadownieut. It bas a president, six professors, and other officcrfi into a colleg accommodai Mr. Jeffei and distingi public virtue lion of an u ments than Virginia. 1 and consists style, comp called), hot( health, a g\ dertaking h promises to From the in 1801, fo A stately cc viously erec the Potowm not a healtl which rece regular plai private pro] mented vali commodioui public buil( cess of a b which prod house, the mental par in a better suburbs, north-west north-east thinly scat feet in brt the city, bridge cor said, that the legisla place whic gress. NORTI sea, is pei and is bni the Roane are also the other Sixty milt Wheat, rj ments; Ir ably cultiv t( UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. m other officers. The academy in Prince-Edward county has been erected into a college by the name of Hampden-Sidney college ; but it will only accommodate sixty students. Mr. Jefferson, who was for some years president of the United States, and distinguished himself in that honorable station by his ability and public virtue, resolved to devote a great part of his property to the erec- tion of an university, on a better i)lan and with more judicious arrange- ments than those which already appeared in the collegiate seminaries of Virginia. It is situated at the foot of a mountain, near Charlotte-viile, and consists of four parallel ranges of handsome buildings in the Grecian style, comprehending pavilions (as the lodgings of the professors are called), hotels, and chambers for 212 students; and, for the promotion of health, a gymnasium has been added to the institution. This wreat un- dertaking has been promoted by the liberality of the government and promises to flourish in utility and in fame. From the states of Virginia and Maryland a small tract was withdrawn, in 1801, for the formation of a distinct territory, called COLUMBIA. A stately edifice, bearing the classic name of the Capitol, had been pre- viously erected for the meetings of the legislature, at the confluence of the Potowmac with its eastern branch, on a pleasant and picturesque, if not a healthy spot ; and a considerable town quickly rose into existence, which received the honored name of W^ashington. It was built on a regular plan, upon such portions of land as were ceded to the state by private proprietors, who expected to reimburse themselves by the auo-. mented value of the remaining part. The private houses are neat and commodious; but there are few which are particularly handsome. The public buildings were exposed to hostile outrage, in 1814, by the suc- cess of a body of British invaders, who, in revenge for that aggression which produced the war, set fire to the hall of assembly, the president's house, the treasury, war-office, navy-yard, and other useful and orna- mental parts of the new city ; but the mischief has since been repaired, in a better style of architecture. The city is said, without reckoning the suburbs, to contain about 13,500 inhabitants. It extends from the north-west to the south-east about four miles and a half, and from the north-east to the south-west about two and a half; but the houses arc thinly scattered over this wide space. The Pennsylvania-street is 160 feet in breadth, and a mile in length. A canal has been cut through the city, on which passage-boats ply ; and a strong but not elegant bridge connects the town with the western side of the river. It is said, that the chief object of this change of the capital was, to secure the legislature from insult or intimidation, by fixing its meetings in a place which is under the immediate control and authority of the con- gress. NORTH-CAllOLINA, in its whole width, for sixty miles from the sea, is perfectly level. A great proportion of this tract lies in forests, and is barren ; but on the banks of some of the rivers, particularly of the Roanoke, the land is fertile. The western hilly parts of the state are also fruitful, abounding with springs and rivulets; and through the other parts are glades of rich swamp, and ridges of good oak-land, Sixty miles from the sea, the country rises into hills and mountains. Wheat, rye, barley, oats, and flax, grow well in the back hilly settle- ments ; Indian corn in all parts. Cotton and hemp are also consider- ably cultivated, and might be raised in much greater plenty. Thecottoil m I 800 UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. is planted yearly ; for the stalk dies with the frost. The ^u'imj. of or;" man will produce 1 000 pounds in the seeds, or 2.G0 fit for manufactur- ing. The large natural growth of the plains in the low country is almost universally pitch-pine, which is a tall handsome tree, far superior to the pitch'pine of the northern states. The swamps abound with cypress and bay-trees. Newbern is the largest town in North-Carolina, and was formerly the residence of the governor: its population is 2450. Edenton, Wilmington, Halifax, Hillsborough, Salisbury, and Fayette-ville, have, each in its turn, been the seats of the general assembly. Raleigh, which stands near the centre of the state, has lately been established as the capital, though it is an insignificant town in point of extent and population. Before the American revolution, the inhabitants of this province were attached to brutal diversions and barbarous practices, particularly boxing, gouging, and cock-fighting : but this is not the general character of the present race. From the charge of intemperance, however, they cannot so easily be vindicated. They are fond of drinking spirits undiluted, par- ticularly whisky and peach-brandy ; and, indeed, in almost every state of the union, this practice is shamefully prevalent. North Carolina has the honor and the advantage of an university. It is situated on Chapel hill, in Orange county, and generally has about a hundred students, though there are only two professors. A medical society Avas incorporated in 1800; and there are academies of considerable reputation at Warren-town and other places. SOUTH-CAROLINA is traversed by ranges of finely-wooded moun- tains ; and the coast is bordered with a chain of islands, the soil of which is generally better adapted to the culture of indigo and cotton than the main land, and less suited to rice. The land, to the extent of eighty miles from the sea, is low and level, and little better than an unhealthy salt-marsh ; but the country, as you advance in it, improves continually ; and at the distance of 1 00 miles from Charlc-,-town, where it begins to grow hilly, the soil is of a prodigious fertility, fitted for every purpose of human life ; nor can any thing be imagined more pleasant to the eye than the variegated disposition of this back country. Here the air is pure and wholesome, and the summer heat much less violent than on the flat sandy coast. This province is watered by many navigable rivers, the principal of which are the Savannah, Santee, Edjsto, Pedee, and their branches. The first forms the boundary on the side of Georgia. It rises from two sources in the Apalachian mountains, and pursues a south-east course to the Atlantic. The Santee flows in the same direction through the middle of the state. It is remarkable that the great branches of this river are each wider than the channel of their united streams. South-Carolina abounds with lead, copper, and iron; but it is thenu'a- fortune of the operators, that'they are deficient in the knowlege of chemistry, and do not properly extract the respective metals. There are likewise rock-crystal, pyrites, marble beautifully variegated, abundance of chalk, crude alum, nitre, and vitriol. Theclimate,as in all this part of America, admits sudden transitionsfrom heat to cold, and from cold to heat, out not to such violent extremities as in Virginia. The winters are seldom so severe as to freeze any consider- able water, aflecting only the mornings and evenings ; the frosts have never sufficient strength to resist the noon-day sun, so that many tender plants, which do not stand the winter in Virginia, flourish in South-Carolina; for UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 801 they have oranges in great plenty near Charles-town, and excellent in their kinds, both sweet and sour. The salubrity of the air varies in different parts. Along the coast, bilious diseases, and fevers of various kinds, are prevalent between July and October; one cause of which is the low marshy country, overflowed for the sake of cultivating rice. The upper country, being in the medium between extreme heat and cold, is as healthful as any part of the United States. The vegetable productions of this state are wheat, rice, Indian corn, barley, oats, hemp, flax, cotton, tobacco, indigo, olives, oranges, citrons, cypress, saxifrage, oak, walnut, cassia, and pine-trees ; and white mulberry trees for feeding silk-worms. There is a kind of tree from which runs an oil of extraordinary virtue in curing wounds ; and another which yields a balm thought to be little inferior to that of Mecca. Nothing surprises an European more at first sight than the size of the trees here, as well as in Virginia, and other American provinces. Their trunks are often from fifty to sixty feet high, without a brancli or limb; and sometimes above thirty-six feet in circumference. Of tiiese trunks when hollowed, the people of Charles-town, as well as the savages, make canoes which serve to transport provisions from one place to anotiier ; and some of them are so large, that they will carry thirty or forty barrels of pitch, though formed of one piece of timber. Of these are likewise made curious pleasure-boats. Charles-town, the capital of this state, is situated at the confluence of two rivers, one of which is navigable for ships twenty miles above the town, and for boats and largo canoes near forty. The harbour is good in every respect but that of a bar, which prevents vessels of more than 200 tons burthen, loaded, from entering. The streets intersect each other at right angles ; and those which run east and west extend three quarters of a mile from one river to another. In some of the streets the houses are lofty, handsome, and spacious, adorned with balconies and verandas; but, in other parts of the town, the habitations are of a very inferior description. Trees, of that species which is called the Pride of India, are planted along the paths, and afford, by tlieir large leaves and spreading branches, shelter from the solar heat, while the poisonous qualities of the leaves prevent insects from harbouring upon them. About 24,500 persons, among whom are more people of color than whites, compose the population. Columbia is a small town in Kershaw county, on the east side of the Congaree, below the confluence of the Saluda and Broad rivers. It is now the seat of government ; but the public oflices have, in some measure, been divided for the accommodation of the inhabitants of the lower counties, and a branch of each is retained in Charles-town. Since the revolution, by which all denominations were put on an equal footing, there have been no disputes among religious sects. They all agree to differ. The upper parts of this state are settled chiefly by presbyterians, baptists, and methodists. The episcopalians and independents are also scattered over the province. The literature of this state is not very flourishing ; but the desire of education rapidly increases; and, though there are some colleges which are not encouraged, others, particularly that of Columbia, are well frequented. A literary and philosophical society was formed at Charles-town in 1814, which promises to be useful to the community. GEORGIA is a large, but not well-peopled province, having only 70,000 inhabitants upon an area of 60,000 square miles. Its coast is bordered with fertile islands ; and its chief livers, beside the Savannah 3 F m' m 802 UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. are the Ogechee and Alatamaha. The climate is warmer than that of South Carolina ; and the winter is the most pleasant season. The eastern part is level, without a hill or stone ; but, at the distance of 40 or 50 miles from the salt-marsh, the lands begin to be more or less uneven, until they gradually rise to mountains. The termination of the Apalachian chain is in Georgia ; and, from its lower part, a spacious plain of the richest soil extends, in a latitude and climate well adapted to the cultivation of most of the productions of the south of Europe, and of the East Indies. Rice is at present the staple commodity of the state ; tobacco, wheat, and indigo, are the other great articles of produce. Beside these, the country yields cotton, silk, Indian corn, potatoes, oranges, figs, olives, and pomegranates ; and the south-western parts, with the neighbouring territory of Florida, will probably, says Dr. Morse, become the vineyard of America. Tlie forests chiefly consist of oak, hickory, mulberry, pine, and cedar. The principal towns are Savannah, Augusta, and Louis-ville. Savan- nah, formerly the capital of the state, is commodiously situated both for inland and foreign trade, seventeen miles from the sea, on the river of the same name, which is navigable for boats above 200 miles. Ships of the burthen of 300 tons can lie within dix yards of the town, and close to a steep bank, extending near a mile along the river-side. The town is regu- larly built, in the form of a parallelogram; it contained, in 1787, only 2,300 inhabitants ; but, in 1810, it had 5200, and it is now inhabited by a much greater number. Augusta was for some time the seat of govern- ment ; but it is not large or populous, though it is the medium of trade be- tween the lower and upper parts of the state. Louis-ville, on the Ogechee, is now the place of meeting for the legislature. With regard to the religion of the Georgians, it appears that the presby- terian system has the predominance ; and the methodi^ts are the next in point of number; but there are very few regular ministers among the dif- ferent sects. The task of general education is not neglected by tlie rulers of the state. There is an university at Athens, in Clarke county, and academies are established in various parts of the country. KENTUCKY is nearly equal to Pennsylvania in dimensions, and yet contains only 410,000 inhabitants, one half of the population of the other province. Jt is well watered by many branches of the Ohio, without being rendered unhealthy by a profusion of humidity. The people do not ex- perience the extremes of heat and cold, none of the neighbouring states enjoying so constant a temperature. There are some iron mines in this state ; but the metal is of an inferior quality. Lead ore is found in some parts ; and there are many caverns which afford large supplies of nitre. The soil is so fertile, that the lands of the first rate are too rich for wheat, and will produce 50, 60, and, in some instances, 100 bushels of corn for every acre. In common, the land will produce 30 bushels of wheat or rye an acre. Barley, oats, flax, hemp, and vegetables of all kinds, common in this climate, yield abun- dantly. Cotton is with difiiculty brought to perfection ; but the soil appears to be peculiarly suitable to tobacco. The banks, or rather precipices, of the rivers Kentucky and Dick, may be reckoned among natural curiosities. Here the delighted eye beholds 300 feet of solid perpendicular rock, in some parts, of the limestone kind, and in others of fine white marble, curiously chequered with strata Ox astonishing regularity. Ic various parts caves are found amazingly large, m fiome of which you may travel several miles under a rock, supported by extraordinary arches and pillars. In most of them run rapid streams. UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 803 Near Lexington are to be seen curious sepulchres full of human skeletons. There are three springs or ponds of bitumen near Green river, which dis- charge themselves into a common reservoir ; and, when used in lamps, it answers all the purposes of the finest oil, Kentucky contains no very large towns ; the principal are Lexington, Louis-ville, Washington, and Frankfort. Lexington contains about 4250 inhabitants. Frankfort, which is now the seat of government, is lesspopu- loiis, Louis-viile, on the Ohio, is a thriving town, and a port of entry; and between this place and New-Orleans steam-boats regularly convey passengers and goods, ascending in twenty-five days, and descending in eight or nine. Almost all the commerce of this state is carried on by the merchants of Lexington. Most of the fabricated articles consumed in Kentucky, as well as in other parts of the United States, are imported from Great- Britain. They consist principally of coarse and fine iron goods, cutlery, nails, and tin-ware ; drapery, mercery, drugs, and fine pottery. Muslin, nankin, tea, &c. are imported directly from India in American vessels ; and they obtain coffee and sugar from the West Indies. These are ex- changed for the produce of the country, principally by barter, on account of the scarcity of coin. The legislature of Virginia, while Kentucky belonged to that state, made provision for a college in it, and endowed it with considerable funds. It is called the Transylvanian University, and comprehends five profes- sorships in the following departments — natural and moral philosophy, mathematics, classical learning, and the modern languages. Many aca- demies have been incorporated : common schools are established in every county ; and so general is education throughout this state, that it is not easy to find a white person who cannot read or write. TENNESSEE is so well watered, that scarcely any part of it is distant above twenty miles from a navigable stream. It is crossed by the Cumberland mountain, which exhibits in different parts amazing piles of craggy rocks. In one place particularly, near the summit, there is a remarkable ledge of rock, about twenty-five miles in length, and 200 feet thick, showing a perpendicular face to the south-east, more noble and grand than any artificial fortification, and nearly equal in point of apparent regularity. Through this stupendous pile, according to a mo- dern hypothesis, it was necessary for the waters of all the upper branches of the Tennessee to force their way. Iron ore abounds in several districts, and some lead-mines have been discovered. The savages say that there are rich silver-mines in Cum- berland mountain, but cannot be tempted to discover any of them to the white people. It is said that gold has been found here ; but the parti- cular spot is not pointed out. Springs, strongly impregnated with sul- phur, are found in various parts. The climate is in general healthful. The summers are cool and plea- sant on the eastern side of the mountainous range ; while, on the other side, the heat is much greater, which renders that part better calculated for the production of tobacco, cotton, and indigo. The soil is luxuriant, and will afford every production which is the growth of any of the United States. The usual crop of cotton is 800 pounds to the acre, of a long and fine staple; and of corn from 60 to 80 bushels. A few years since, this country abounded with large herds of bisons, but the improvident or ill-disposed colonists destroyed multitudes of them out of mere wantonness. They are still to be found near some of II » m 804 UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. the southern branches of Cumberland river. The elk and the moose are eeen in many places, chiefly among the mountains; but the ordinary spe- cies of deer are so scarce, that no person makes a business of huntint; them for their skins only. Too many bears and wolves yet remain ; and alligators have been seen in a branch of the Cumberland. The Enchanted Mountain, about two miles south of Brass-town, is famed for the curiosities on its rocks. There are, in several rocks, a number of impressions resembling the tracks of turkeys, bears, horses, and human beings, as visible and perfect as they could be made in snow or sand. The last were remarkable for having uniformly six toes each, one only excepted, which appeared to be the print of a negro's foot. One track was very large ; the length of the feit sixteen inches, the distance of the extremities of the outer toes thirteen inches. One horso- track was of an unconi' size. The transverse and conjugate diame- ters were eight by ten n. .cs; perhaps the horse which the great war- rior rode. What seems to corroborate the opinion of their being the real tracks of the animals which they represent, is the circumstance of the horses' feet having slipped several inches, and recovered their position, and the figures having all the same direction. If it be a lusiis Naturw, the old dame never ?ported more seriously : if the operation of chance, perhaps there was never more apparent uesign. If it be the work of art, it may be intended to perpetuate the remembrance of some remarkable event, or some battle fought on the spot. Tho vast heaps of stones near the place, seem to favor the latter supposition. The texture of each rock is soft: the part on which the sun had the greatest influe.^ce, and which ■was the most indurated, could easily be cut with a knife, and appeared to be of the nature of the pipe-stone. Some of the Cherokees entertain an opinion that it always rains when any person visits the place, as if sympathetic Nature wept at the r<'collection of the dreadful catastrophe which these figures were intended to commemorate. The chief towns are Knox-ville, Nash-ville, and .Tones-borough : but all of them are small, and scantily peopled. The first is appropriated to the deliberations of the senate and representative body, while the second has the greatest share of trade. Four colleges have been en- dowed : that which more particularly flourishes is at Green-ville, in Green county. THE OHIO state derives its name from that great river which is formed by the union of the Monongahela and Aleghany streams, and which, receiving fifteen considerable rivers in its progress, runs above 1000 miles to join the Missisipi, within the 37th degree of northern lati- tude. Its area is about 40,000 square miles ; and it is said to have, in proportion to its extent, more land capable of cultivation, than any other state of the union. The climate is generally mild and temperate. Springs and considerable streams abound in this territory : it produces many of the finest trees that are indigenous to America; and no coun- try is better stocked with wild game of every kind. Innumerable herds of deer and wild cattle are sheltered in the groves, and fed in the ex- tensive bottoms that every where abound ; an unquestionable proof of the great fertility of the soil. Turkeys, geese, ducks, swans, teal, phea- sants, and partridges, are, from observation, believed to be in greater plenty here than the tame poultry are in any of the old American settle- ments. The remains of ancient fortifications, found in this country, excite the admiratioa of the curious. At Cincinnati there is a circular embank- UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 805 ment, 800 feet in diameter, thirty at the base, and from three to six in height; and walls, partly built of stone, enclosing a great extent of ground, appear in many parts; and arrow-heads of flint, spear-heada of copper, stone hatchets, and various utensils, formed of pounded sheila and clay, have been dug up. At Piqua are five circular works and an elliptical enclosure. One, which is situated on the eastern bank of tho Miami, is 125 feet in diameter, and has a most commanding position on the brow of a hill. It is covered with large trees, and on the top of the parapet was the trunk of a tree which had evidently grown long after the rampart was constructed, and which, from the number of concentric layers of the trunk, major Long and his exploring associates concluded to have been at least 500 years old when it was felled. Speaking of these works, professor Keating says, " We are well warranted, from all their characters, in assigning to them an antiquity of more than a thou- sand years." These appear to have been military fortifications; but, at no great distance from them, traces of a work were discovered, which seemed to be a religious monument. The capital bears the name of Cincinnati. It contains about 32^0 inhabitants, who carry on various manufactures, particularly in the woollen and cotton branches, cordage, and glass. It has an university, which, however, is ujmn a small scale. There is one at Athens (on a peninsula formed by the Hockhocking river), wliich promises to be more considerable. The increase of population, in this state, has been very rapid. It U said to have been only 3000 in 1791 ; it amounted to 42,000 in 1800 ; and it now exceeds 275,000, exclusive of the savages, of whom scarcely 3000 are reckoned. The chiefs of the Wyandots and other tribes, in 1817, ceded to the encroaching republic all the lands which they pos- sessed between Lake Erie and the Ohio, to the extent of seven millions of acres ; and they are at present confined to the north-west corner of the province. To the honor of the Ohio government, involuntary servitude is abo- lished. A slave no sooner touches the soil of this state, than he becomes free, as in Great-Britain ; but he is not allowed to exercise the right of suffrage ; and both negroes and mulattoes are precluded (by an ordinance which is not altogether just or liberal) from giving evidence against white persons. The state of INDIANA is 280 miles long and \50 broad, but is not populous in proportion to its great extent. Along the Wabash, and most of the rivers that water this state, there are tracts of rich alluvial soil, which terminate in meadows, rising considerably above the former, adorned with copses of beautiful shrubs, and bounded by lofty forests. With some exceptions, the soil is fruitful ; and, in the opinion of general Harrison, the finest country in all the western world is that which is bounded to the eastward by Wayne, Franklin, and other counties of Indiana. In the upper parts, the climate is very friendly to health. Among the mineral products are iron, copperas, and coal ; the sulphates of pot-ash and magnesia have been found in several caves, and salt-petre is also abundant. The forests are full of the finest trees, and abound with deer ; but they at the same time afford shelter to bears and wolves; and the rattle-snake and copper-head snake, which are rarely seen on the low lands, infest the woody country. There are very few towns in this province : and the settlements extend chiefly along the Ohio, the branches of the Great Miami, the Wabash, and the White-water. Corydon is ^isl 806 UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. the seat of government. Forts have been erected to guard against the hostilities of the savages, who, having only sold or rclin(|nishud certain parts of the territory, claim the sovereignty of the rest. Their numbers have been thinned by the military operations of the colonists, who, prompted by selfish rapacity and intolerant jealousy, will probably soon dr>'"^ the occupants of Indiana to thu Rocky Mountains, or reduce them to absolute subjection. LOUISIANA is bounded on the east by the Missisipi, on the south by the gulf of Mexico, and on the west by the new Mexican state. Beside the great river which we have mentioned, the Missouri, the St. Francis, the Black and Red Rivers, and many other fine streams, increase the natural fertility of the soil. The Missisipi (that is, the mother of the waters) rises within the 48th degree of northern latitude, and between 95 and 96 degrees of western longitude ; and its various windings are supposed to include 2000 miles : but its course is much shorter than that of the Missouri, which originates in the rocky or stony mountains, and joins it near the town of St. Louis. As the Missouri is a longer, broader, and deeper river than the Missisipi, and, after the junction, preserves its muddy turbulence, without partaking of the clearness of its companion, it may more properly be said to receive than to flow into it • and, therefore, the grand stream which enters the gulf ought rather to bo called the Missouri, though established custom has given it the name of the Missisipi. The climate of this extensive country is necessarily different in various parts. In the north, the cold is greater than that of Europe under the same parallel : but the air is in general serene and salubrious, except where the rivers diffuse their damp exhalations. In the south, the heat is less violent and oppressive than in the corresponding portions of Africa. The soil is particularly adapted to the culture of hemp, flax, and tobacco: maize and other species of corn are raised with facility : the cotton plant also thrives in the province : rice is abundantly produced : indigo is culti- vated with great success ; and the sugar-canes luxuriantly grow on the banks of the Missisipi. In some parts of the country, mines of iron and lead are found: but they have not yet been wrought with very productive effect. Salt-pits are not uncommon ; alum and sulphur are abundant ; and coal is sometimes dug up, or rather vegetable matter in its progress to the formation of that useful substance. From a rocky hill near the Washita, hot springs ig8ue,*8upposed to arise from the proximity of bitumen, aided by the effect of martial pyrites. Among the natural curiosities we may reckon the rafts upon the Red River : these are masses of drift-wood, brought down by every considerable swell, covering the stream for a great number of miles, and even supporting a vegetation of plants and trees. Near the source of the Washita, is an eminence called the crystal or shining mountain, from the multitude of hexagonal prisms of very transparent and colorless crystal, found on its surface. Many savage tribes of different denominations are scattered over Louisiana. When it was first visited by Europeans, the Missouris were the most numerous horde in the long line of country watered by the river of that name; but their wars with other tribes, and the ravages of the small-pox, have greatly reduced their number. The Osages form one of the most distinguished communities in this part of America : their popu- lation, though declining, is about 4500. They claim a great extent of country; but, when they are not employed in hunting, they chiefly reside near the Three Forks of the Arkansa, and about eighty leagues up the UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 807 Osage river, on the south side. Tlie Sioux are tlie most fierce and war- like of nil the barbarians of this territory. They are divided into tlio men of the woods, and of the meadows : tlie latter are represented as par- ticularly tall, well-made, and agile. Few of their tribes are ai^ricultiiral or stationary. The Panis arc distributed into three branches, and inhabit the banks of the lied Uiver and other fertile sjxjts, where they raise more corn, gourds, beans, and tobacco, than their personal wants require, and are consequently induced to trade with the neighbouring tribes for skins, horses, and mules, and with the merchants of St. Louis for a variety of articles. The Hictans have no settled abodes, but wander in parties about the country, hunting buft'alocs, and catchtng wild horses. One of their tents, which are made in the f,000 : but in this calculation the d.'--ccii(taiHtsof the oiigiiud natives are not included, who are said to iiniuuaii lo -0,000. 'i'hey are chiefly Cherokees, Choctaws, and (Miickasaws Thev have made, some progress in civilisation: many are farmers, and -.ome inn-keepers: a con- siderable nuud)er can even read .md write. The towns in this state are scarcely woitliy of the name. I'vcn Wash- ington, which is the seat of government, is a very small town. Natchez is chiefly oeenjiied by cotton-|)lanlers and slaves; and, from this plaie, the chief trade; of the < olony is carried on. The state ot AI.Ai'AM A, to the west of (leorgia, is supposed to com- prehend .'!.'!,()00 s(piar<- miles, with rather mo:;> than one inhal>itnnt to each. In the low southern parts the heat is intense, while the climate, ?n the rest of this country, reseud)le8 that of (ieorgia. The principal river is the Mobile, of which the Alabama is one great branch, and the Tombigbee another. l?(!tween those branches, tim best soil for agricul- ture is found ; and, in other parts, almost all the varieties of trees luxu- riantly grow. The largest town is that of Mobih;, occupied by about 1500 persons, who trade with the merchants of Boston, New-York, and New-Orleans, chiefly exporting cotton. St. Stephen's, eighty miles above Mobile, is the seat of government. The Creeks have a nund)erof villages near the Alabama and (Ihatahouche, where many of their tribes act both as cultivators and manufacturers. Tho ILLINOIS state is traversed by a river of that name, which affords for large boats an uninterrupted navigation of 2.']0 miles, 'i'lie lands between that stream and the Missisipi are very rich; and, indeed, tho soil in general is fertile, and tlui climatt; agreeable. As the country has not been fully explored, few minerals have been discovered ; but fu- ture search may disclose many. Tlu; forest-trees aro very numerous: and the living tenants of the woods are e(pially abundant, the species being nearly the same as in Indiana. Ancient fortifications and tiumdi are seen in many parts; and the latter are considered by all the savages as places of sepulture. The chief tribes that yet renuiin are the Saukis, Piaukushaws, and Mobcuatiuij : the Kaskaskius wero formerly distiit- UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 809 guished, but they are now reduced to a state of insii,'ni(icance. It was t'roui their ancestors tliiil a party of Frencli emigrants from Ciinad'n above a century ago, pun liased or procured that district on which lliry erected the town of Kasliuskia, now tiie seat of (^ovcrmnent. 'I'he popu- lation of tliis territory, in iHiO, was only about Iv'.UDO; but, at present it amounts to 'iO.UOO. ' Tho MISSOURI state extends from the Missisipl to tlio Rocky Mountains, and from liie I'.ll. Hivir to f-ouisiana and tiie Mexican terri- tories. Jt is, for the most part, a U-ve .cuntry. Tiio most fertile portion is that which stretv-hes al)ove tlie Osage, on each side of tiie Missouri over an arta of iiO.OOO scpiare miles, — three-iiftlis consistinir of undu- lating meadow-ground, the rest of wood-land watered by various streams and the wiiole surface susceptive of cultivation, 'i'he climate is subject to violent transitions from heat to cold ; hut tlie general temperature is mild and agreeahlt!. Rrsido Ihe great rivers which w(! have mentioned, tlie chief stream is the Arkansa, which Hows into the Missisipi after a winding course of IfM) miles. The White Hiver is also a fine stream, navigable through a space of ITti) miles. St. Peter's river, in the northern part of lliis state, has a course of about .OtJO miles; hut it is not altogether con- venient for navigation. Lead, iron, copper, zinc, pyrites, marble gypsum, alum, nitre, coal, salt, and other mineral substances, abound in this extensive tract. Among the wild animals are Ixmrs, wolves, lynxes foxes, buffaloes, elks, antelopes, porcupines, and heavers, and the feathered tribes are numerous and varied. There are not many towns in this wide expanse of country. The chief town is that of St. l.ouis, below the mouth id' the Missouri. Most of the lioiises are built of lime-stone, and have gardens or paddocks. The next towns, in point of consecpu'nce, arc Si. ( harles and New-Madrid: the trade of the latter is ra|)i(lly imreasing. The population of this state; (!.)es not yet, we believe, amount to 'J0,00(). The majority of the peo|)le in the interior appear to be hunters, divided by their complexions into the red and tin; white. 'J'lie Osages, who are not confined to Louisiana, are fierce warriors and bold hunters, and, while they molest tho white Missourians in one way, rival them in tho other pursuit. In their excursions they form renuukable camps, which they ar- range in the neatest order. — " The forisi of ea(di of tlieir tents " (says Mr. Schoolcraft) " may be compared to an inverted bird's nest, or hemisphere, with a small aperture left in the loj) for the escape of the smoke, and a similar but larger one at one side for passing in and out. It is formed by cutlhig a number of .slender tlexible green poles of equal length, .sharp- ening them at each end, and sticking them in the ground like a bow, so that they cross at right angles at the t<»ji, while the points of entrance into the ground form a circle. Small twigs are then woven in, mixed with the leaves of cane, moss, and grass, until tho structure is perfectly tight and warm. These tents are arranged in large circles, one within another, according to the numljer of persons intended tobeacconnnodated. In the centre is a scaffolding for meat, from which all are supplied every morning, under the inspection of a chief, whose tent is conspicuously situated at the head of the encampment, and differs from all the rest, resembling a half-cylinder inverted. 'I'heir women and children generally accompany them on these excursions, which often occupy three months." — The white hunters, we may observe, are not so addicted to rambling, and ge- nerally erect substantial log-bouses; aud they, at the same time, keep sotno acreii in autute of cultivutiun. r ■■iitiig^"'-' 810 UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. The MICHIGAN territory, situated to the east of the lake of that name, is not yet so populous as to be thought worthy of admission to the dignity of a federal state. It is so imperfectly settled, that it contains only 13,000 colonists upon an area of 32,000 square miles: yet it is a con- venient spot for the northern and western trade ; the soil is far from heing unproductive ; and the climate is in general salubrious. Some of the hills near the lake are crowned with a stunted growth of white pine, while others are hare. The beach is covered, in many parts, with frag- ments of rocks, evidently primitive, and probably derived from the de- composition of the same masses, which by their destruction have j^iven rise to the immense deposit of sand and pebbles, forming the bottom of the lake ; and the hills seem to have been produced by the progressive accumulation of sand blown from the beach by the strong north-westerly winds of the winter. The agricultural and mercantile establishments are chiefly near Detroit, on the Miami and Raisin, and the lakes of Huron and St. Clair Detroit is a small town, defended by a fort, honored by a college, and distinguished by commercial privileges. Almost one half of its population n ay be traced from Canada, or from France. About 3000 savages still inhabit various parts of this territory ; and many of them arc agricultors, graziers, and manufacturers. The chief exports are corn, pulse, fruit, and fish : the imports consist of various provisions ; and, though the colonists make great quantities of whisky, they procure from the Ohio state an additional stock of their favorite beverage. That extensive tract which is called the NORTH-WEST territory (to the west of Lake Michigan), abounds with lakes and rivers, mineral trea- suies, and the varied produce of the forest ; but its soil is not distinguished by fertility. Its elevation and northerly position would seem to indicate a great degree of cold, which, ho^wever, is so far modified by the aquatic masses of the lakes Superior land Michigan, that it is not so severe as might be expected. Few countries are better supplied with fish and game than this territory : valuable furs are afl'orded by the beavers, otters, and sables; and, with proper care and attention, all sorts of cattle would thrive on its fields und meadows. 'J'he water-fowl contend with the Selvages for the wild oats that abundantly grow on the humid expanse ; and both parties manifest some degree of skill in the contest. So thinly peopled is the country, that only a few villages are scattered over 130,000 square miles. Tiie largest settlement is one which consists of about sixty houses, inhabited by 400 persons, who are chiefly o*' P'rench origin, with a mixture of barbarian blood. Tlie people are courteous in their mannerg, and apparently well-disposed. From the Rocky Mountains to the Pacific Ocean, the country has been repeatedly traversed by American adventurers. The captains liewis and Clarke were sent by the government to survey it; and, alter a very fa- tiguing and hazardous journey, they found themselveson the shore of the Pacific Ocean, in the 46th degree of mrthei.i latitude. They did not accurately examine the height of the mountains ; but it is supposed that the most elevated ridge, being perpetually covered with snow, is not less than 8500 feet above the level of the hca. Another great chain, nearly parallel to the former, extends across the country near the coast. Retween these chains, a spacious plain expands itself, heing in some parts 3.'50 miles wide. This tract is crossed by the Columbia, the banks of which are inhabited by savage tribes, who chiefly su'jsist upon the fine and nu- tritive salmon aflfoided by the river. A valley, situated between the UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 811 hills near the coast and some distant heights, excited the particular at- tention of the two officers. It abounds with wood, of which the greater part of the country is destitute ; the soil is apparently fertile in a high degree ; and the climate is milder than that of the states near the Atlantic in the same parallel. They passed the winter on the coast ; and the season was tempestuous and rainy, without the severity of cold. Near the mouth of the river to the north, is Cape Disappointment ; and Clarke's Point, to the southward, rises almost 1 000 feet above the sea • but tiie shore is in general low and flat. At Astoria, fourteen miles from the former cape, a settlement was formed, and a fur company established • and other parts of the coast have since been colonised. To this survey of the United States, we may now add a description of Florida, which was ceded to the Americans in 1819, in consideratiim of the payn)entof five millions of doUa's, by the congress, to those subjects of the republic who had claiins upon the Spanish govornnient. It extends 450 miles from east to west, and 270 from north to south, containing about 50,000 square miles. 'I'iie climate is very warm, and the winter so mild, that even the orange and banana trc( rarely receive any injury from the temperature of that season. Iron ore, copper, (luicksilver, and j)it-coaI, are produced in considerable quantities. The soil is various in diflerent parts. East-Florida, near the sea, and forty miles back, is flat and sandy. But even thi) country round St. '^u'justine, in all appearance the worst in the province, is ftain Vancouver was sent out in 1790. He procured the restitution of the captured settlement, and restrained the Spanish claims within moderate limits. He accurately surveyed theAvestern coast, from lat. 30 to 60; but he did not find any considerable inlet which pene- trated far into the co\mtry, and therefore concluded that the desired pas- sage could only be found by sea. This coast, to a very great extent, has the appearance of one conti- nued forest, l)cing covered with pines of different species, intermixed with alder, birch, and other trees. The natives of the northern parts are in general short in stature, with faces flat and round, high cheek- hones, and flat noses. They have some peculiar customs of mutilating or disfiguring their persons, jjrobably by way of ornament, though to us they appear disgusting and even hideous. At port 'I'rinidad, in lat. 41 deg. north, the custom, says captain Vancouver, " was particularly sin- gular, and must be attended with much pain in the first instance, and great inconvenience ever after. All the teeth of both sexes were, by some process, ground uniforudy down, horizontally to the gums; th« women especially, carrying the fashion to an extreme, had their teeth r*'^ I.iin-i^'lfi'r \Vi'Hl »o rnmi (.ii'«"\Mi«-'« /.riUn nMLilMl M.;, I ' i.t:; hy .1 M,i„m,„i .( XXV, ) f f ^X ITZST IITBISS. llriti\li Siiitiitr Mili'N Tt ^Jonkiit A>/f l^kiifHtf 30; Jn>«)...i'"f.rl,- nj-ll.l/inhl-l»n{fitnftc \t'i-Ht |lir> t'niiii (in-iMiwirli. ino N»»l*. ic ,^S^ I'ttAni hMii^td ifn%- 1 fifiif fy J. ifahmaii * the oriur Prvprietirt. -^•1" I * ▼ernmont, 1 the dislodge accomplishe islands duri dctachnient The ffrca lation ol sai peara to coi form of sai In many pi to eighteen rocks. Of the B This is call( and distingi portions of t and has so cassava, are great succes shores and < frequent th( mingoes. M] Length Breadth BOUNDA of Guatema north partly the east by Face oi racts, delici union of the scene in the of nature, are concent lantic and (when they ing from t preserves it Groupes of which is ca in height. In the [ the centre ; wears a dre fumishecl w RlVEflS L ' K*«U« ic i&i StHtnd 1^' MEXICO. 393 rernmont, in 1718, to send out captain Woodcs Rogers with a fleet for the dislodgement of the |>ir«t«», and tor making a setlleweut. Thi» ho accomplished, and 'a fort was erected. The Spaniards capture i theeo islands durinf^ the American war ; but they were retalica, in 1783, by a dctachnient from St Augustine. The ffrcat Bahama hank is a natural curiosity. It is a vast accumu- lation olsand, above 100 leagues in length and forty in breadth. It ap- pears to consist, in a great measure, of the reliques of sea-shells in the form of sand, more or less worn and rounded by the artion of water. In many parts of this bank, tho depth of water is only from fourteen to eighteen feet, and tho sand seems to be underlaid by calcareous rocks. Of the Bahama isles, the largest is 70 miles long and nine broad This is called tho Groat-Bahama; hut New-Providence is more known and distinguished, and is the seat of government for all tho inhabited portions of tho groupe. Nassau, tho chief town, is neatly built of stone, and has some handsome public structures. Indian corn, yams, and cassava, are abundantly raised in these islands ; cotton is cultivated with great success ; and timber and dye-woods are liberally afforded. The shores and creeks abound with turtles and excellent fish ; and many birds frequent the islands, particularly wild ducks, snipes, pelicans, and fla- mingoes. MEXICO, including CALIFORNIA. •.v3v i SITUATION AND EXTENT. Degrees. Sq. Miles. , ^ C 90 and 122 west longitude. ) /-ra nnn between J j- ^^^ 40 north latitude. } ''''^'^^^' Miles. Length 1900 » Breadth 1550 j Boundaries.] IT is bounded to the south-east by the new state ofGuatemala.on the south and the west by the Pacific ocean, on the nortli partly by unappropriated territoiies and partly by Louisiana, and on the east by the gulf of Mexico. Face of the country.] Mountainous ridges, precipices, cata- racts, delicious vales, fertile plains, picturesque lakes ana ivers, and an union of the trees and plants of the old and new worlds, diversify the scene in the Mexican territories, and attract the attention of the admirers of nature. The ranges of the Andes, which traverse South-America, are concentrated at the isthmus of Darien, and, passing between the At- lantic and Pacific oceans at a comparatively low elevation, expand (when they enter North- America) into a large district of table-land, vary- ing from 6000 to 8500 feet above the level of the sea. This land preserves its height as far as Durango, and then insensibly declines. Groupes of lofty volcanic mountains rise from it in various parts. One, which is called the smoking mountain ( Popoca-Tepetl), is 17,500 feet in height. , , . , In the peninsula of Old-California, a mountainous chain pervades the centite ; but its elevation is inconsiderable. That country in general wears a dreary aspect. New-California is more picturesque, tnd better furnished with wood and water. RiveIls, lakes.] Mexico has the benefit of many large nvers. ed wit EilS, ] I 824 MEXICO. among which are the Alvarado, Coatzacualco, and Tabasco. The prin- cipal lakes are those of Nicaragua, Chapalan, and Pazaquaro; those of Tezcuco and Chalco occupy a great part of the vale of Mexico, which is the finest tract of country in the whole state. The waters of Chalco are sweet ; those of Tezcuco brackish. These two lakes are united by a canal. The lower lake, or lake Tezcuco, was formerly 20 miles long and 17 broad ; and, lying at the bottom of the vale, i? the reservoir of all the waters from the surrounding mountains. Metals, minerals.] Mexico is famous for silver; and gold is not only found in the brooks and rivers, but also in mines, tliough in small quantities. The mines of silver are found in several parts ; but the richest spot in that respect is the neighbourhood of Guanaxuato, where one mine, during forty years, did not yield less to its proprietors, in annual profit, than from 80,000 to 120,000 pounds sterling. Some of the mines, since the revolution, have been wrought by British skill and labor, but not with that productive effect which was fondly expected by greedy speculators. The mountains likewise abound in iron, copper, and lead. Here are also found variouB kinds of precious stones ; as emeralds, tur- quoises, amethysts, and a few diamonds. Climate, soil.] Mexico, being partly within the torrid zone, is in that division excessively hot ; and on the eastern co^st, where the land is low, marshy, and constantly flooded in the rainy seasons, it is likewise very insalubrious. The inland country, however, assumes a better aspect, and the air is of a milder temperament. On the western side the land is not so low as on the eastern, is much better in quality, and full of plantations. The climate of Old California is very fine, and the sky is generally serene and cloudless ; but the soil is sandy and barren, with the exception of a few places, where maize and manioc grow vigorously, and the vines yield rich grapes. In New-California, the climate is mild and agreeable, and the black spongy earth is highly favorable to cultivation. In some parts of this province there falls in the morning a great quantity of dew, which, settling on the rose-leaves, candies, and becomes hard like manna, having the sweetness without the whiteness of refined sugar. We are also informed that the interior of the country contains plains of salt, quite firm, and as clear as crystal. Produce.] Like all the tropical countries, Mexico seems to be more productive of fruit than of grain ; yet the crops of corn are in many parts rich and luxuriant. In the temperate districts, the wheat is of a fine quality, equal to that of Andalusia ; but maize, the manioc root, and the banana, are more generally cultivated for the purposes of suste- nance, and the maguey furnishes a favoiiie fermented liquor called pulque, while its fibres supply a sort of hemp and paper, and its prickles are used for pins and nails. The fruits of the country are pine-apples, mangoes, pomegranates, oranges, lemons, citrons, figs, cocoa-nuts, and other kinds. Mexico produces also a prodigious quantity of sugar, espe- cially toward the gulf. Many gum-yielding trees are found in different parts ; and cedar and logwood abound about the bays of Campeche and Honduras; the maho-tree also, which has a bark with such strong fibres, that they twist and make ropes of it. There is also a tree which is called light- wood, being as light as cork, of which they make floats to carry their merchandise on the coasts. But the two most valuable products of this country, next to its gold and silver, are cochineal and cocoa (or cacao). The former is of the animal kind, and of the species of the gall insects. It adheres to the plant called opuntia, and sucks the juice of the fruit, which is of a crimson color. It is from this juice that the cochineal de« nves its va MEXICO. 825 rives its value, which consists in dyeing all sorts of the finest scarlet, crimson, and purple. It is also used in medicine as a sudorific and a cordial. The nut, of which chocolate is made, grows on a tree of a middling size, which hears a pod about the size and shape of a cucum- ber. This country likewise produces silk, but not in such quantity as to form a remarkable part of its exports. Cotton is here in great abundance, and, on account ot its lightness, is the common wear of the inhabitants. Akimals.] Horses, asses, sheep, goats, hogs, dogs, and cats, have been transported into this country from the old continent, and have all multiplied. Horned cattle are found wild, in lierds of many thousands, and are killed merely for their hides. Among the native animals are the puma and jaguar, or American lion and tiger; the Mexican or hunchbacked dog, a kind of porcupine ; wild cats, foxes, squirrels, ar- madillos ; also the cociote, a quadruped which seems to be compounded of the wolf, the fox, and the dog. Venomous serpents and other dangerous reptiles may be supposed to thrive in this country ; but they are not for- midably numerous or'particularly mischievous. Eagles, vultures, beautiful hawks, and an amazing number of smaller birds, of whose plumage the general cast is plain, are observed in various parts ; but, of those species which are peculiar to Mexico, we have no accurate accounts. Chief towns, population, manners, customs.] Tenochtitlan, Motezuma's capital, was situated on a groupe of islands in the midst of the lake Tezcuco ; but, from the progress of evaporation, occasioned by the great heat of the sun, and in some measure from the effects of draining, that lake consists at present of a comparatively small body of water, and the present city of Mexico is situated entirely on the main land : yet the cathedral occupies exactly the ground on which the chief pagan temple stood at the time of the Spanish invasion. This church is about 500 feet in length, and has a grand and imposing aspect, but its exterior is not uniformly elegant or magnificent ; for a part of the front is low and of bad Gothic architecture, while the other part, which is of recent con- struction, is built in the Italian style, and displays both symmetry and beauty. The interior is gaudily rather than tastefully decorated. Like most of the churches in this part of America, it exhibits a profusion of massive carved and gilt ornaments, pictures, and painted statues. Within the enclosure is a cylindrical mass of porphyry, adorned with sculptured figures, called, from its subserviency to the immolation of human victims, the Stone of Sacrifices. Few cities are more neatly and regularly built than Mexico, and in few can a finer place bo seen than the grand square. While the cathedral dignifies the eastern side, the palace of the government and the public offices appear on the north ; and handsome ranges of stone-built houses ■ occupy and adorn the other sides. In the centre of this square is a co- lossal equestrian statue of Charles IV. of Spain, on a pedestal of Mexican marble: it was executed by Tolsa, and is said to be the finest specimen of casting in the New World. Mexico has some, but not many, useful establishments. An university, a public library, a school of mines, and several charitable foundations, b..iy here be mentioned ; and there is an institution, which, though it has not a dignified aspect or a jiompous appellation, is very serviceable to the community. It is, in fact, an office for the loan of money on pledges of property ; and the honest poor are thus accommodated, while the facili- ties for disposing of stolen goods are diminished. Although the fine arts do not greatly flourish in Mexico, and some of the mechanic arts are not very skilfully cultivated, yet the people of the I: ! I 8 826 MEXICO. race display an aptitude for the arts of imitatian, and also excel in various branches of industry. The manufacture of gold and silver lace is carried on with considerable dexterity and taste, coach>making is practised in a neat and substantial manner, carving in wood is well executed, and other arts attest the skill and experience of many of the citizens. In those branches in which they fail, they hav lately been instructed and assisted by British emigrants. The population of this great city, in 1802, was calculated by Humboldt at 137,000, of whom 2500 were Europeans, 65,000 were Creoles, 26,500 mestizoes (the offspring of white persons and of the descendants of the ori- ginal natives), 10,000 mulattoes, and 33,000 individuals of the ancient race. About 3000 of that number were priests, monks, and nuns. Ac- cording to the report of a late writer, the present aggregate is not less than 155,000. Vera-Cruz, situated near the Gulf of Mexico, is a well-built town, and a place of considerable trade ; but it is one of the most unhealthy spots in the world, and its population and importance are gradually declining, though it is the only port on the eastern coast that can receive large ships. In 1 802, the number of inhabitants, exclusive of the militia and sea- faring people, did not exceed 16,000 ; and the present amount is much less. Puebla de los Angelos, in 1820, contained about 60,000 persons, and its population has since rather increased than diminished. The town is compactly and uniformly built. The houses are of stone, generally of two stories, with flat roofs ; and the fronts of many of them are inlaid with painted tiles, highly glazed, while others have their fronts gaudily and fantastically painted, like the houses of Genoa. The churches amount to sixty-nine, and those which have not a magnificent exterior are inter- nally rich and splendid. The people formerly excelled in the woollen manufacture; but that of glass is now the best. If population be a proof of the flourishing state of a town, Guada- laxara must be a thriving city ; for it is next in that respect to the capital of the new state, having above 65,000 inhabitants. Guanaxuato, though a mining town, is far less populous. Santa-F^, the chief town in the northern part of this state, stands at no great distance from the Rio Grande del Norte, or the great river of the North, which rises in the latitude of 40 degrees, and falls into the great gulf, after a winding course of 1 100 miles. The town is in some degree fortified, because the citizens and the provincials are exposed to the hostilities of the unsubdued tribes of barbarians. The houses are, in general, only one story high, and the windows, in most of them, are composed of flakes of talc: The neighbouring country is mountainous and barren, and very scantily peopled: The seat of government, both for Old and New Calif >rnia, is Monterey." It stands in the latter division, and is rather a garrison vhan a town. The two provinces, at first, were chiefly colonised by ecclesiastics, who, with the aid of soldiers, undertook the conversion of the rude inhabitants. Thus missions and garrisons were spread over the country ; but the people have not derived, from this kind of association, all the blessings of good government. The northernmost station is Port- Francisco, which has a handsome church for the converted natives, and a monastery for the missionaries. With regard to the population of the whole Mexican state, we cannot speak with perfect accuracy : but it is supposed to be not less than six millions aqd a quarter. The people of the race found by Cortez at the conquest form, perhaps, two-fifths of the aggregate number. 'the manne dent Spanian even with'the extraction. 1 sidered them ; posed to joint that the Creol that courag.'>, part of the . jp dicated the gr ITiey were lu great parade 5 more than a j stitution, alm( ladies, in cons virtues." The not destitute o The genuin cials, are desc when they are ment. They t their features something terr of repose to vi want of gaiety into the noble respects, a pi condition than barefooted. The mestiz rency. The sm indicate their milder charac of passion, vo By an Amer are thus chars their large est confer, seek m attainments, fact, exercise nobles. The} Europeans, an in importance sufficiently nui might possess of the countr towns, the lai trious and ord most of them < hawked about in the countrj industrious, bi priests or masi overcome by t bore a part: 1 MEXICO. 627 iTie manners of the various races may be expected to differ. The resi- dent Spaniards, before the revohition, were not inclined to amalgamate eren with' the Creoles, who, though natives of Mexico, were of European extraction. They felt still greater contempt for the other races, and con- sidered them as classes of subordinate beings ; and the Creoles were dis- posed to join them in this unwarrantable arrogance. It has been observed, that the Creoles had " all the bad qualities of the Spaniards, without that courag.'', firmness, and patience, which constitute the praise-worthy part of the .Spanish character. Naturally weak and effeminate, they de- dicated the greatest part of their time to loitering and inactive pleasures. They were luxurious without variety or elegance, and expensive with great parade and little convenience ; and their general character was no more than a grave and specious insignificance. From idleness and con- stitution, almost their whole business was.ainour and intrigue; and their ladies, in consequence, were not distinguished by chastity and domestic virtues." The coloring of this picture is apparently overcharged, but it is not destitute of the features of truth. Tlie genuine Mexicans, more particularly the copper-colored provin- cials, are described by Humboldt as grave, melancholy, and silent, except when they are under the influence of intoxication or very strong excite- ment. They throw a mysterious air over the most indifferent actions. In their features the more violent passions are seldom painted ; but there is something terrific in the change, when they suddenly pass from a state of repose to violent agitation. Their music and dancing partake of that want of gaiety by which (hey arc characterised. They were long divided into the noble natives and the tributaries. The former were, in some respects, a privileged class, wliile the latter were scarcely in a better condition than slavery, were clothed in coarse tunics, and went about barefooted. The mestizoes are nearly white, with a skin of remarkable transpa- rency. The small beard, small hands and feet, and an obliquity of the eyes, indicate their descent from the old Mexicans. They are of a much milder character than the mulattoes, who are distinguished by violence of passion, volubility of speech, great activity and energy. By an American gentleman who lately visited Mexico, the different casts are thus characterised. — " The Creoles, satisfied with the enjoyment of their large estates, and with the consideration which their rank and wealth confer, seek no other distinction ; and they are not remarkable for their attainments, or for the strictness of tlieir morals. The lawyers, who, in fact, exercise much more influence over the people, rank next to the Creole nobles. They are the younger branches of noble families, or the sons of Europeans, and are distinguished by shrewdness and intelligence. Next in importance are the merchants and shopkeepers ; for the former are not sufficiently numerous to form a separate class: they are wealthy, and might possess influence, but have hitherto taken little part in the politics of the country, probably from the fear of losing their property. In the towns, the laboring class includes all casts and colors; they are indus- trious and orderiy, and view with interest what is passing around them ; most of them can read, and, in the large towns, papers and pamphlets are hawked about the streets, and sold at a cheap rate. The laboring class, in the country, is likewise composed of different casts: they are sober and industrious, but so ignorant and superstitious that they may be led by their priests or masters to good or evil. Their apathy has in some manner been overcome by the long struggle for independence, in which most of them bore a part: but they still remain under the influence and direction of the ^l1if 828 MEXICO. priests. The last class, unknown as such in a well-regulated society, consists of beggars and idlers, drones that prey upon the community, and who, having nothing to lose, are always ready either to swell the cry of popular ferment, or to lend their aid in favor of imperial tyranny." Among the females of Mexico, the most polished, next to the Euro< peans, may be supposed to be the Creoles. They are not, incjeed, re« markably well informed, but are good-humored, obliging, and hospitable, and are fond of conversation, music, and dancing. The women of the old race are less lively, but more attentive to decorum and morality. All classes of females are outwardly strict in devotional observances ; but it does nut thence follow that their hearts are much impressed with real piety. Religious processions and festivals are numerously attended ; and, on these occasions, the ladies pride themselves on being well-dressed. In the streets, a black dress generally prevails, with a veil instead of a hat or bonnet ; but, in the domestic or friendly party, that sombre hue is ge- nerally discarded. A worked chemise, a light open jacket, and an em- broidered or spangled petticoat of briglit-colored soft cloth, are the usual coverings of the fair form. The women of the lower orders, in general, wear only a petticoat and short jacket, and plait their long tresses with red tape. The gentlemen are fond of finery in their dress. A large hat, colored and laced, a worked shirt, embroidered small-clothes (frequently of co- lored leather, decorated with broad silver lace), a jacket of printed calico, a cloke of velvet or fine cloth, and ornamented gaiters, compose the apparel of a great number, while the inferior people wear a straw hat, a jacket of coarse woollen cloth or leather, short breeches, sometimes trowsers, and rough sandals, instead of the soft shoes of the gentry. But it must be observed, that the dress varies in the different provinces, so as not to be fully described without superfluous minuteness. Anttjjuities.] Although the Mexican empire was a novelty to the discoverers of America, it was not then a new state or an infant govern- ment. How long it had subsisted before the time of the conquest, we cannot ascertain ; but monuments of civilisation, anterior by some ages to that sera, have been found in various parts of the country. The palace of Mitla,in the province of Oa\aca,is one of the most remarkable of these curious remains. It was constructed over the tombs of princes, and the ruins still exhibit walls covered with a kind of mosaic work, — avast hall, the ceiling of which is supported by six columns of porphyry, — a spacious court, surrounded by small structures, — an interior court, galleries, &c. Between Mexico and PueLla de los Angelos, a pyramidal hill, 177 feet high, attracts the attention of antiquaries to the east of Cholula. It is an artificial elevation, constructed of iinburned bricks and clay, in four stories. In its interior is a square chamber, formed of stone, and supported by beams of cypress. It is not arched, but the bricks must have been so arranged as to diminish the pressure upon the roof. On the summit was a temple, which has been superseded by a catholic chapel.— In the province of Vera-Cruz, near Papantla, is a pyramid much lower than the other, but more symmetrically built of well-cut blocks of stone. At Palenque, on the frontier of Guatemala, extensive ruins have been discovered. The interior of the largest building found on this spot ex- hibits a style resembling the Gothic ; hut the chambers, though not ill constructed, are dlsg;raced by stucco devices of the rudest kind. Another edifice has square pillars, an outer gallery, and a paved hall, ornamented with female figures in basso-relievo of the natural size. Commerce.] During the colonial government, the trade of Mexico was subjected yet the prodiic European nati as a convoy, Vera-Cruz ab every commod landed and dii other commod where they m( by Carthageni were collected Acapulco, c munication wa About the mon a convoy, annu though in a c1 the rich comm the annual shij two millions o hiable commoc Several other same occasion, world were bai prepared for h had been tho' carried on enti minions, were commercial stt the Spanish ir lence which ri chants to furni leons were la ployed ; but t the Spaniards this branch of cpt,..3d by the Govern M majesty, the ( called Audien France. In t of all the chi power was in and a new foi history of the The public 1789, exceed ducting the c for the use of court of Mad was found to and, therefore for several loa sixteen miliio calculated th 10,690,600; MEXICO. 829 wag subjected to illiberal restrictions by the jealousy of the Spanish court : yet the produce of the country found its way into the ports of the chief European nations, Aftota from Cadiz, composed of three men of war as a convoy, and fourteen large merchant-ships, annually arrived at Vera-Cruz about the beginning of November, with a cargo consisting of every commodity and manufacture of Europe. When all the goods were landed and disposed of, the fleet took in the plate, precious stones, and other commodities for Europe. In May the ships sailed to the Havanna, where they met the galleons, which carried on the trade of Terra- Firma by Carthagena, and of Peru by Panama and Porto-Bello. When all were collected, they steered for Old-Spain. Acapulco, on the coast of the Pacific, was the port by which the com- munication was long kept up between Spanish America and the East-Tndies. About the month of December the great galleon, attended by a large ship aa a convoy, annually arrived there. The cargoes of these ships (for the convoy, though in a clandestine manner, likewise carried goods) consisted of all the rich commodities and manufactures of the East. At the same time the annual ship from Lima came in, and was not computed to bring less than two millions of pieces-of-eight in silver, beside quicksilver, and other va- luable commodities, to be expended in the purchase of the galleon's cargo. Several other ships from diiicrent ports of Chile and Peru, met on the same occasion. A great fair, in which the commodities of all parts of the world were bartered for one another, lasted thirty days. The galleon then prepared for her voyage, loaded with silver, and such European goods as had been thought necessary. The Spaniards, though this trade was carried on entirely through their hands, and in the very heart of their do- minions, were comparatively small gainers by it ; for, as they allowed the commercial states to furnish the greater part of the cargo of the flota, so the Spanish inhabitants of the Philippines, tainted with the same indo- lence which ruined their European ancestors, permitted the Chinese mer- chants to furnish almost the whole cargo of the galleon. When the gal- leons were laid aside, smaller vessels, called register-ships, were em- ployed ; but the trade was still conducted with impolicy on the part of the Spaniards. As the Philippine islands are still under the yoke of Spain, this branch of commerce is now suspended, while all other branches are cpt..c!d by the liberality of the rising states. Government and revenue.] Under the sway of his catholic majesty, the civil government of Mexico was administered by tribunals called Audiences, which bore a resemblance to the old parliaments of France. In these courts the viceroy presided. He had also the patronage of all the churches, — a circumstance of great moment where so much power was in the hands of the clergy. This government is now exploded, and a new form has been adopted, of which we shall take notice in the history of the revolution. The public revenue of New-Spain, including that of New-Mexico, in 1789, exceeded nineteen millions of dollars; out of which, after de- ducting the charges of the i)rovincial government, and sending large sums for the use of other colonies, only 4,800,000 dollars were received by the court of Madrid. During the late contest for independence, the revenue was found to be inadequate to the demands of the increased expenditure ; and, therefore, applications were made to the opulent citizens of London forseveral loans. One was for twenty millions of dollars, and another for sixteen millions. In the legislative session of 1 825, the minister of finance calculated the expenditure at 17,986,670 dollars, and the revenue at 10,690,600 ; but a committee, after an investigation of the subject, gav? a i It,, ill 830 MEXICO. very different statement, allcginp; that the produce of national property, the conimercial duties and all other taxes, the tenths uf the bishoprics^ and part of a foreign loan, made up a sum which would defray every exjiense, and afford a surplus of two millions of dollars. Religion.] In the creed and worship of Mexico no alterations have been made by the new government ; for the popular reformers, content with the doctrine and discipline to which they have been habituated, are will- ing to preserve their faith, while they discard their intolerance. There are eiglit bishops in the establishment, whose revenues, being too large for the purposes of piety, ought at least to be rendered subservient to the augmentation of the incomes of the inferior clergy. History.] The early history of this country is involved in obscu- rity, and no dependence can be placed on the result of the pretended re* searches into this subject. HumboL. is of opinion, that the I'oltccs left China, and proceeded to the north-eastern coast of Asia, whence they crossed over by Behring's Strait to America, and gradually passed 80 far to the southward as to colonise Mexico in the seventh century ; that they introduced agriculture and some mechanic arts, and were fol- lowed at various times by the Chichimecs, Nahuatlacs, Acolhuans, and Aztecs, the last of which nations arrived in the year 1196. From these communities sprang the subjects of Mutezuma, of whose state, as well as of the Spanish conquest, we have already taken notice. When Spain kept possession of those extensive Trans-Atlantic coun- tries which Columbus opened to her view, her government had a degree of vigor and efficiency which promised to keep tlie settlements, however distant, in full subserviency to her will; and this submission she conti- nued to enjoy long after her energy had declined. Commotions some- times arose, but they were speedily quelled ; and it was not before the treacherous usurpation of the Spanish throne, in 1808, that the colonists were induced, by the captivity of their legitimate prince, to turn their thoughts to the assumption of independence. To submit to the base usurper would have been a great disgrace, unworthy of the Spanish name; and, therefore, when protection ceased on the part of the former govern- ment, the indignant people, in some of the South-American provinces, erected the standard of independence. I'he colonists in North-America at length followed the example of justifiable revolt. The viceroy of Mexico, in 18 JO, was Iturrigaray, who, when he received contradictory orders from the divided government of Spain, proposed the formation of a provisional junta, but was arrested by the royalists, and sent to Europe. The tyranny of Venegaa, the new viceroy, hastened that ex- plosion which he wished to prevent. The descendants of the original natives, led by an o))scure priest, took up arms in the province of Gua- naxuato, and, being joined by the garrisons of several towns, commenced an intestine war. The insurgents were severely harassed in several con- flicts ; but, under the command of another priest, named Morelos, they continued the war with great spirit. Shocking cruelties were commit- ted on both sides, but more particularly by the royalists. After the death of Morelos, who was captured and put to death, XavierMina was invited to act in the cause of independence ; ]>ut he was so ill-supported by the revolters, that he could not save himself from military execution, and the war then declined into the desultory operations oi detached parties. But, in 1821, don Augustin Iturbide, a Mexican officer, gave a new sti- mulus to the revolutionary zeal, by proposing that Ferdinand VII. should be allowed to be the king of Mexico or New-Spain, on condition of his submitting to constitutional limitatigns, and declaring the realm indc- GUATEMALA. 831 pendent of Old-Spain, and of every oilier country. The proposal waa adopted by the greater part of tlie army ; and, in the following year, deputies met for the purpose of political reform. Iturbide now procured from the soldiery and tlie people a tumultuary vote for his elevation to the imperial dignity ; and ih'j choice was reluctantly sanctioned by the representatives. But this usurpation could not be expected lo be dura- ble. Don Augustin, resenting the opposition of the deputies to his va- rious proposals, dissolved the assembly; and, by this and other arbitrary measures, exposed himself to general indignation. Harassed by insur- rections, he resigned his jwwer, in 1823, and embarked for Europe. General Bravo, and two other men of courage and talent, were allowed to assume the executive authority ; and, under their auspices, a " repre- sentative, popular, federal republic" was organised with general consent, though not without opposition. Under the pretence of allaying the dis- sensions which arose in the new state, Iturbide rashly ventured to re- appear within its confines ; but he was treated as Murat was in Italy,,.^ put to death as an outlaw. In 1825, the new government was brought into full and regular exercise, and the nation exulted in the acquisition of independence. The republican state was divided into sixteen departments, extending from New-California to Chiapa. The legislative power was assigned by the constitution to a senate, and to a chamber of deputies freely chosen, constituting the general congress of the confederacy : the executive autho- rity was intrusted to a native citizen, not under <')5 years of age : all his decrees and orders were to be signed by the secretary of that branch of administration to which the business belonged; and he and the vice- president were liable, during the limited term of office, and for one sub- sequent year, to be impeached and tried for illegal acts and unconstitu- tional conduct. A supremo court of judicature was also framed for the whole state, to which appeals might be made from the provincial tri- bunals. GUATEMALA, or CENTRAL AMERICA. Miles Length O/IO Breadth 4 no i .50 J SITUATION AND KXTENT. Degrees. , C 84 and 94 West longitude. between J k, ^nd 17 North latitude. Sq. Miles. 95,000 Boundaries.] The territories of this new repulilic nre bounded on the west by the province of Vera-Cruz, on the north by Yucatan and the gulf of Mexico, on the east by the same gulf, and on the south by the Pa- cific ocean, and, at the south-eastern extremity, by thut isthmus which divides North from South America, or by the frontiers of the Colombian fitfl.tP fIce or THE Country.] This is, for the most part, a level country ; but it exhibits a mountainous range, apparently a continuation of the Andes, crested with volcanic cones. Near Old-Guatemala is a mountain, the circumference of which at the base is said to be above 45 miles. Its lower parts are cultivated, the middle region is woody, and the summit is covered (but not perpetually) with snow. LAKiis, RivfiRs.] The most extensive lake is that of Nicaragua, about 832 GUATEMALA. 400 milea in circumference. It communicates on the north-west with the Lake of Leon by a navigable channel ; and both are suihcientiy deep for lai^e vessels. A canal of only twelve miles, it is said, would be the only requisite for completing a navigation in this part of the country, from the Pacific to the Atlantic. Among the rivers are the Lempa and the Gua> calat. The former is the widest stream in the whole state, and the latter, at Istapa, where it falls into the Pacific, contributes to form, with the coast, an excellent anchorage. Climate, Soil, produce.] The climate is warm, and in some parts so humid as to be insalubrious. The soil is in general fertile, and the products are numerous and valuable. In several districts, the quality of the land is so peculiarly adapted to the growth of timber, that, after a tree has been cut down, the root will send out five or six shoots, which, in four years, will become very considerable trees. Some of the cedars exceed seven fathoms in circumference. Wood, admirably calculated for maRts, is very abundant, and the pita, which is much more fit for rope-making than the esparto, grows in great luxuriance. All sorts of grain, the finest fruits, the chocolate-nut, sugar, rich balsams, tobacco, indigo, various gums, &c. are furnished in plenty. Metals.] The province called la Costa Rica abounds with mines of gold, silver, and copper ; but they are in r. great measure neglected, though the new government is inclined to promote the proper working of them by English skill, industry, and capital. Animals.] These are, in general, the same with those of Mexico : but Juarros mentions some which, he says, are peculiar to Guatemala. The zachin is one of these : it is a quadruped resembling a rat, which preys upon snakes and poultry. Two species of birds, called the quetzal and the raxon, also confine themselves to this country : they are not vocalists, but are admired for their beautiful green plumage. Provinces AND chief Towns.] This state is divided into fifteen provinces, two of which contributed with other districts to form the ancient kingdom of Quiche, the most powerful government in this part of New- Spain. Some of these provinces are small and insignificant, while others are lai^e and flourishing. The most populous is that of San>Salvador, in which, it is 8aid,about '200,000 persons reside. In this part of the new state, the people of the old race are more civilised than in any other part of Guatemala, and coalesce more cordially with those inhabitants who are of Spanish origin. The province of Comayagua or Honduras is that part of the American continent, on which the Spaniards first landed ; between this province and that of Nicaragua, are several districts, peopled by the descendants of the original natives, and known by the appellation of the Mosquito Shore. The English long exercised some authority over these tribes for commercial purposes; but, in 1786, Great-Britain consented to abstain from all exercise of power in those parts. The paltry town of Poyais, well known for the delusive colonial attempt of Mac-Gregor, is situated in this territory. That adventurer aflirined that the district was unappropriated ground ; but it is now claimed by the Colombian state in a tone which will probably extort acquiescence. The old city of Guatemala being greatly damaged by an earthquake in 1773, the present capital was erected on a spot more distant from that volcano which had occasioned such havock. It stands on a spacious plain, fertilised by various rivulets and lakes, under the influence of a benignant climate. The houses, though built low for fear of earthquakes, are commodious, pretty in appearance, and have gardens and orchards at- tached to them. The principal square is handsome, and is ornamented by a colonnade. GUATEMALA. 833 a colonnade. Near its eastern side is the cathedral, built by an Italian artist, in a correct and magnificent style of architecture. On one side of the cathedral is the archiepiscopal palace, and on the other a college. In the same part of the town are the. palaces of government and of justice, and various public offices. The churches are elegantly constructed ; and attention is particularly anested by a beautiful amphitheatre of stone, de- stined for the barbarous amusement of bull-baiting. There is a well-built university, where law, theology, medicine, mathematics, experimental philosophy, and natural history, are taught. The senate-house, and the hall in which the popular representatives meet, are not striking edifices ; but the use to which they are applied compensates every deficiency in that respect. The city is inhabited by 40,000 persons, who are characterised by Juarrosas •' humane, courteous, liberal, docile, and inclined to piety, but too generally prone to pusillanimity and indolence." The city of San-Salvador is pleasantly situated, well-built, and has about 1.5,000 inhabitants ; but 'A has very little trade, except in indigo. Leon, near the lake of that name, is an episcopal see, and has the ad- vantage of an university : but, in point of trade, it is less flourishing than the village of Masaya, in the same province. — The most thriving and opu- lent village in this state is Quezaltenango, which has about 12,000 inha- bitants, among whom are many able workmen in the linen, cotton, and woolen branches of manufacture. Population.] It is very difficult to ascertain the number of inhabi- tants in this or any other of the new states. Some have swelled the amount to two millions ; but, in all probability, it is less than a million and a half. Religion, government, and uevenue.] Of all the states res- cued from the Spanish yoke, the predominant religion is that of the church of Rome, which the original invaders, like the Arabian pseudo-prophet, propagated by sanguinary violence ; but the new governments leave the votaries of other creeds unmolested. Guatemala has the benefit of a government founded on popular repre- sentation, and its courts of justice are better constituted than those which acted under the tyranny of Spain. One of the first acts of the independent administration evinced a due regard for liberty. No one who was con- cerned in the slave trade was to be deemed a citizen ; every person belong- ing to the republic was declared free; and all strangers who arrived in its territory, if they were slaves before, were instantly released from that species of degradation. In consequence of the reduction of taxes, the revenue of Guatemala became so inadequate to the necessary expenditure, that it was found ex- pedient to borrow seven millions and a half of dollars from the opulent citizens of Loudon. Under the old government, the revenue did not ex- ceed a million of dollars ; and it is said that the charges of the present establishment may be defrayed by one half of that amount ; but this sum is evidently too small for the reasonable expenses of the state. History.] On this head it will be sufficient to observe, that the example of revolt and independence did not forcibly influence the provin- cials of Guatemala before the year 1824 ; and then don Manuel Aria and other spirited citizens proposed" the erection of a new state, as the republic of Mexico might be expected to allow a little defalcation from its spa- cious territory. The revolution appears to have been quietly settled: deputies were chosen for the purpose of framing a constitution fit for free- men ; and, when the new code had been wisely adjusted, an upper and lower assembly, like our houses of lords and commons, began to act for the public good. 311 884 COLOMBIA. SITUATION AND EXTENT, u-.^cMw^'^ "■■ ■""1 Miles, length 1300 ) Breadth 1050) between Degrees. 60 and 80, West longitude.") 3,30 S. and 12, N. latitude.^ Sq. Milei. 600,000. BovNOA«i£s AND DIVISIONS.] It 13 bounded on the north by the Caribbean sea, and extends so far to the north-west as to include Veragua, which is properly a part of North America. On the south it is bounded by Amaaonia and Giuiana, on the south-west by Peru, and on the north- east by the Atlaptic. It consists of three grand divisions, — Venezuela, N«w-uranada, and Quito ; and in these are twelve departments, which are subdivided into thirty-eight provinces. Face of the country.] Many parts of this state are very moun* tainouB, and embosomed amidst the lofty summits are fine valleys, which had been long the seats of industry and civilisation, before America was known to the Europeans. The mountains, which are a prolongation of j the Cordillera of the Andes, compose three great ranges, two of which, the eastern and the central, form the eastern boundary of the basin of Almaguer, and run at no great distance from each other until they reach the fifth degree of northern latitude. The former then proceeds to the coast of Coro, having one side so precipitous as to preclude cultivation, while on the other some plains recline which form an extensive table-land, situated in some parts at an elevation of more than 8000 feetabove the sea. The central range pursues its course to Carthageua, imprisoning in its way (between itself and the western Cordillera), the valley of Cauca, which, if if it could be properly cultivated, would be one of the most productive districts of Colombia. In this range are several volcanoes and nevadas , or SBOwy sumnsits, one of which (that of Tolima) is the highest spot in any of the chains of the Andes to the north of the equator, being 17,190 feet above the sea. But, to the south of that line, there is a mountain almost '4000 feet higher than the Tolima; — we mean Chimboraco, in the depart- , ment of Quito. The bulk of this mighty mass is so prodigious, that the part : which the eye embraces at once, near the limit of the snow, is above four nulcs in breadth. Humboldt had the courage to venture within 1600 feet of ' the summit, being aided in his ascent by a train of volcanic rocks de- stitute of snow. A wide crevice then obstructed his progress, and he de* scended to a more securv. station. The llanos, or plains, extend over immense spaces with such a general uniformity of level, that in some parts, for thirty square leagues, there is not an eminence higher than a foot. They are miserably dull and dreary ; but they aboimd with pastoral wealth. Bays.] The principal bays are tho^ of Panama and St. Michael in the South Sea; the Bay of Porto- Bello, the Gulf of Darien, Carthagena bay and harbour, and Uie Gulf of Maracaybo or Venezuela. Lake, rivers.] The lake of Maracaybo, in the province of that name, is a sea of uesb water nearly circular, and about 90 miles in dia- meter. As its shores are unhealthy, the natives build their hovels upon stakes of hard wood, whence arose the Qame of Venezuela or Little I s "-WittfMiMJWIIlll III. l>.]P.i||p .-,>^".■ *>• ♦tfc-s! . ^ixtnir^ ».*t-M^ * t' ■JW '-^ Venice. 1 inany othei river Orino westward u meets the / For more tl to the progi navigation i miles. Th 900 miles b of the count the greater Metals productive however, is washing of sometimes ] dollars; bui mines of sil productive : extremity oJ worked wit] nezuela. I dering on tl neglected b^ the state w plain is r:ch are some ce ^mong t there was oi the working 150 men wt this specula schemes of purchased tl of Colombia are found \x regular, Tl cure any val The grant v does not pre in search r-i CuMATi raises the va inundate the variety of cl healthy coui Soil an: and fruitful ductions rai; fruit cf the ] The torrid zi in perfection Cundinamar responda wil U-./')-««'i •«v-JW. M »iMW *-<■ vlgnt" •«i*i*art>'> ' COLOMBIA. I9« Venice. Thia Uke is navigable even for large vessels, and the Sulia and many other rivers convey to it the products of the interior. The great river Orinoco rises in the eastern division of this state, and runs to the westward until it is joined by the Guaviare ; it then flows to the n '>rihward, meets the A pure, and afterwards takes an easterly direction to the sea. For more than 700 miles from its mouth, it presents no serious obstacles to the prioress of a steam-vessel ; but rapids and cararacts obstruct the navigation in other parts. Its course is lengthened by its windings to 1250 miles. The Magdalena issues from the lake of Papas, and runs about 900 miles before it discharges itself into the Caribbean sea. Some parta of the country through which it passes are cultivated and flourishing ; but the greater part is unhealthy and desolate. Metals, minerals.] The western division of Colombia is mor9 productive of gold than any other part of the country. This metal, however, is not obtained by the usual process of mining, but by the washing of an auriferous soil. The gold-washers, before the revolution, sometimes procured as much metal as was valued at three million^ of dollars; but the subsequent produce has been less considerable. Some mines of silver were worked long ago, but are now found to be not sufficiently productive : those which are supposed to be the richest are near the northern extremity of the valley of Cauca. Several mines of copper have been worked with effect, particularly those of Aroa, in the department of Ve- nezuela. Iron ore is known to abound in the mountainous country bor- dering on the plain of Bogota; and, though that useful mineral was neglected by the impolicy of the Spanish government, the new rulers of the state will, without doubt, extract it from its recesses. The same plain is rich in pit-coal, and in the mountains to the north-east of the citjr are some celebrated salt mines. Among the speculative companies recently formed in Great Britain, there was one styled the Colombian Mining Association, which undertook the working of four silver mines in the province of Mariquita. About 150 men were sent out with proper machinery; and it is probable that this speculation will not be so unproductive as to prove, like many other schemes of the present day, a mere bubble. Another set of schemera purchased the privilege of fishing for pearls with machinery on the coast of Colombia. These pearls are not of so beautiful a water as those which are found in the Californian gulf, but their forms are more pleasing and regular. Though fhe adventurers, in their early attempts, did not pro- cure any valuable pearls, perseverance may render them more successful. Tlie grant which the) have obtained is not an absolute monopoly ; for it does not preclude the negroes or the natives from plunging into the sea in search oi pearls, without the use of the diving-bell. Climate.] The 1, at of this country is frequently intense, and it raises the vapor of the sea, which is precipitated in such heavy rains, as inundate the country to a great extent. In the interior there is a greater variety of climate ; but Colombia, in general, cannot properly be called a healthy country. Soil and produce.] The soil is, in many parts, remarkably rich and fruitful ; but the coasts generally consist of barren sand. The pro- ductions raised for ordinary subsistence are, maize, yams, potatoes, the fruit cf the plantain, and the yuca root, a valuable substitute for bread. The torrid zone is unfavorable to the growth of wheat ; yet it is produced in perfection i;. various parts of Venezuela, and on the table lands of Cundinamarca and Boyaca, where the mean heat of the year nearly cor- responds with that of the summer in Scotland. The chocolate-nut, 3H2 iW' m COLOMBIA. cofifee, sugar, tobacco, indigo, a bark like the Peruvian, sarsaparilla, vanilla, cochineal, lignum quassise, and many resins and gums, are also reckoned among the useful commodities of the country. The cotton plant grows luxuriantly in this climate ; but it is not properly prepared for use. The trees most remarkable for their dimensions are the caoba, the cedar, the maria, and balsam-tree. The manchineel tree bears a fruit resembling an apple ; but, under this specious appearance, it con- tains a most subtile poison, against which common oil is found to be the best antidote. The habella de Carthagena is the fruit of a species of willow, and contains a kernel nisembling an almond , but less white and exceedingly bitter. This is said to be an infallible remedy for the bite of the most venomous vipers and serpents, which are very numerous in this country. Animals.] In treating of North-America we have taken notice of many of the animals which are also found in the southern parts. Among those peculiar to this country, the most remarkable is the sloth. This creature bears a resemblance to an ordinary monkey in shape and size, but is of a most wretched appearance, with bare hams and feet, and a corrugated skin. He stands in no need of either chain or hutch, as he does not move unless compelled by hunger ; and he is said to be several minutes in moving one of his legs, nor will blows make him mend his pace. When he moves, every effort is attended with such a plaintive, and at the same time so disagreeable a cry, as at once produces pity and disgust. In this cry consists his whole defence ; for on the first hos- tile approach it is natural for him to be in motion, which is always accompanied with disgustful bowlings, so that his pursuer flies much more speedily in his turn, to be beyond the reach of this horrible noise. When this animal finds no wild fruit on the ground, he eagerly looks out for a tree well loaded, which he ascends with the utmost uneasiness, moving, and crying, and stopping, by turns. At length, having mounted, he plucks off the fruit, and throws it on the ground, to save himself such another troublesor journey; and, rather than be fatigued with coming down the tree, he gathers himself into a ball, and with a shriek drops to the ground. The monkeys are very numerous; twenty or thirty, in company, ramble over the woods, leaping from tree to tree ; and, if they meet with a single person, they chatter and make a frightful noise, throwing things at him ; they hang themselves by the tail, on the boughs, and stem to threaten him all the way he passes ; but they usually scamper away where two or three people are together. Natural Curiosities.] The water-fall of Tequendama is reckoned among the wonders of America. The river Bogota, after wind- ing through a plain with a breadth of 140 feet, contracts itself, on reach- ing a perpendicular rock, into a bed only 40 feet wide, and precipitates itself, at two liounds, to the depth of 650 feet. " This overwhelming body of water (says an observer of the phsenomenon), when it first parts from its bed, forms a broad arch of a gioasy appearand*; lower down, it assumes a fleecy form, and ultimately, in its downward progress, shoots forth into millions of tubular shapes, whicli seem to chase each other like sky-rockets. The changes are as beautiful as they are varied, from the difference of gravitation, and the rapid evaporation that takes place before reaching the bottom. The noise with which this immense body of water falls is quite astounding; it sends up dense clouds of vapor, which rise to a considerable heigiit, and mingle with the atmosphere, forming in their ascent the most briiliaxit rain-bows. The most conclusive prooif of the extra runs ofl fron is asserted tl the stream, a few of his all the gran the immens tributary str impetuously a dark wine stand to wit and are com sive prospec covered mou Another ( crossed, at t 46 feet long About 60 i'i tual adhesio Chief T de Bogota v residence of the new repi town in the Popayan tl: lively, Mara< stands on an a mile in ler of the street quence of tl commodious having no d vice-roys sai — namely, t contenting h regulations f and the buil unworthy of stately and endowed. ' expected, as pressed. Tl natural and both by ecci cently fornn plan. — The j as it stands stance from Carthagoi town suffere it still has a portance. T bability, woi streets are i town in Co ^M COLOMBIA. 837 of the extraordinary evaporation is the comparatively small stream which runs off from the foot of the fall. To exemplify its tremendous force, it is asserted that experiments have been made by forcing a bullock into the stream, and that no vestige of him has been found at the bottom but a few of his bones. To enhance the effect, nature seems to have lavished all the grand accompaniments of scenery : and from the rocky sides of the immense basin, hung with shrubs and bushes, numerous springs and tributary streams arise. At the bottom the water that runs off rushes impetuously along a stony bed, overhung with trees, and loses itself in a dark winding of the rock. From the level of the river, whore you stand to witness this sublime scene, the mountains rise to a great height, and are completely covered with wood ; and at one opening is an exten- sive prospect, which, on a clear day, encompasses some distant snow- covered mountains in the province of Antioquia." Another curiosity is the natural bridge of Icononzo. A torrent Is crossed, at the height of 300 feet above its level, by a rocky arch about 46 feet long and 35 broad ; and this arch is 2850 feet above the sea. About 60 feet below this bridge is another, formed by the fall and mu- tual adhesion of three huge masses of rock. Chief Towns, Population, Manners.] The city of Santa Fe de Bogota was for some centuries the capital of New-G.'-anada, and the residence of the Spanish vice-roy. It is now the seat of government for the new republic ; and M. Mollien represents it as the most agreeable town in the whole state, adding that Carthagena is the best-fortified, Popayan the best-built, Guayaquil the richest, Zipaquira the most lively, Maracaybo the best-situated, and Quito the most populous. Bogota stands on an elevated plain, 8500 feet above the sea. It is not more than a mile in length, and its widest part is only half a mile in breadth. Most of the streets are narrow, but regular ; the houses are low, in conse- quence of the apprehension of earthquakes ; and they are neither very commodious, nor well-furnished. The town is generally in a dirty state, having no drains, and not being provided with scavengers. One of the vice-roys said, that it had four kinds of police-officers to keep it clean, — namely, the vultures, the asses, the pigs, and the rain ; but, instead of contenting himself with mere pleasantry, he ought to have made effectual regulations for the purification of the place. The house of the president, and the buildings in which the two branches of the legislature meet, are unworthy of the dignity of the republic ; but many of the churches are stately and rich, and some of the monasteries are well-built and amply endowed. That they will long flourish in the latter respect, cannot be expected, as the smaller foundations of that kind have been lately sup- pressed. There are three well-conducted colleges, in which theology, natural and moral philosophy, mathemat: s, and pliilology, are taught both by ecclesiastics and laymen. A school of mineralogy has been re- cently formed, and schools have been established on Mr. Lancaster's plan.— The population of this city is supposed to amount to 33,000; and, as it stands between ridges of mountains, though at a considerable di- stance from each range, the climate has an agreeable temperature. Carthagena has a fine harbour, though the entrance is difficult. This town suffered great injury in the late revolutionary contest, and, though it still has a considerable trade, evidently declines in population and im- portance. The fortifications give the place an imposing air, but, in all pro- bability, would not long withstand the assaults of a British armament. The streets are narrow and dark, the houses ill-furnished and dirty; and no town in Colombia ia more unhealthy, or more infested by venomous P fl'^ 898 COLOMBIA. inwcts. The tntde inhabitatits are thus characterised by M. MoUien :-~ "they are ingenious jewel-workers, good carpenters, indifferent joiners, unskilful masons, excellent shoe-makers, tolerable tailors, bad painters." Quito is situated in a ravine, between the mountain Pichincha and a range of smaller hills. It is a flourishing town, distinguished by the be- nign temperature of the air, the civilisation of the inhabitants, and the elegance of its public buildings. It had two famous universities, which were united by Charles III. From this city many volcanic mountains may be seen; and the earthquake of the year 1797, produced by the Eruptions of one of these, will not soon be forgotten. No great damage, indeed, was then sustained at Quito; but many parts of the country, more particularly the province of Riobamba, se^'«rely suffered by this dreadful calamity. The city of Caracas was flourishing beyond most of the Colombian towns, and had at least a population of 40,000, when an earthquake blasted the hopes of a continuance of its prosperity. During live months before the 26th of March, 1812, not a drop of rain had fallen in the whole pro- vince; that day was remarkably hot, the air calm, the sky unclouded; and, as it was Holy-Thursday, the churches were filled. A sudden shock made the bells toll ; the ground undulated, and seemed to heave up like a boiling liquid. A subterranean noise, louder than ordinary thunder, was soon after heard ; perpendicular and undulatory movements crossed each other; the shocks increased, the greater part of the town was overthrown, and 9000 persons were buried under theruinis of the churches and houses. The revolutionary war, and the emigration of multitudes, subsequently thinned the population, so that it is now under 2.0,000 ; and, for the space of a mile, the town exhibits heaps of ruins, and streets uninhabited, and overgrown with weeds. The whole Colombian state is supposed to have about two millions and a half of inhabitants. The Europeans and Creoles, perhaps, form a seventh part of this number ; the Mestizoes, a fourth part ; the Mulattoes and other mixed people, a third ; the descendants of the old inhabitants, and the negroes, make up the rest. As the characters of the citizens and provincials do not appear to be very different from those of the Mexican population, and as even the variations which the visitants of the two countries pretend to have observed are not stated with due precision, we shall content ourselves with offering a few hints on the subject. Tho people of the higher class in the capital are fond of pleasure and gaiety, of bull-baiting, cock-fights, theatrical amusements, and gambling ; and the ladles are as fond of tertulias, balls, and masquerades, as they are of religious processions. An anonymous writer says, " Bogota is the most justly-celebrated place in the whole re- public for beautiful women ; " but captain Cochrane says, that the majority of the females are by no means handsome. They are very amorous, and, being left at full liberty, go about intriguing, with their faces muffled up, as if they were the most pure and modest of all beings. But, if the ladies of the metropolis are thus licentious, the women in all other great towns do not follow the example ; for Mr. Stevenson informs us, that the " private characters of the ladies of Guayaquil are as free from levity as their public demeanor is from prudery," and at Cumana, we believe, and also at Quito, chastity and decorum are far more prevalent than in the capital. With regard to the inferior parts of the population in the last-mentioned city, it appeais that the mestizoes " partake of the virtues of the whites, but exceed them in their vices, and are equally void of fixed determination," and that the people of the old race, when employed as domestics, are COLOMBIA. m patient, obedient, and industrious, but, when they act for themsolves, are remarkably indolent, and prone to excess in drinking. Constitution and goveunment.] In 1811, a constitution was framed for the new government of Venezuela; but it was rendered nugatory by the unavoidable embarrassments and misfortunes of the insurgents, and, when Bolivar had subsequently met with important success, a species of dictatorship was conferred upon him. He afterwards resigned a great part of this temporary authority, when a provisional government had been formed at Angostura. In 1821, the new rulers made Cucuta the seat of their power, and, by a fundamental law, confirmed in the strongest terms those resolutions of independence which had been already adopted. They prepared a constitutional code resembling that of the United States of North-America, but gave it, in one respect, too much of an aris- tocratic form, by unwarrantable restrictions of the elective privilege. They thought perhaps, that the people, having recently emerged from slavery, were not yet fit to be intrusted with power, and therefore made such enactments as seemed, to the enlightened part of the population, to be inconsistent with the grand object at which all parties aimed. Hence it was shrewdly and indignantly remarked by some of the citizens, " Somos indepcndientes, pero no somos libres," — We are independent, but not free. — It is evident, however, that the new regime is far preferable, with all its imperfections, to the old colonial system. Of the twelve departments, each sends four members to the senate or upper house, and the popular representatives arc, at present, about one hundred. One legislative session must be holdcn in every year, and each member receives nine dollars per diem for his ser\'ices, beside an allowance for the expense of traveling from the place of his residence to the capital. The president of the republic receives thirty thousand dollars per annum ; — a sum which many will deem inadequate to the dignity and labors of his office. HisTOUY.] It has been said, that the independence of a large colony is innate ; that it arises from the natural order of things, and is the ne- cessary consequence of the attainment of a certain degree 'o{ maturity. This was the state of the Spanish colonies, when tiieir royal master became, from captivity, unable either to protect or oppress them. After the discovery of the territory of Cumana, in the third voyi^eot Columbus, the northern part of South-America long remained unexplored, or at least uncolonised ; but, in 1536, Sebastian de Benalcazar and Gon- zalo de Quesada took possession of the country about the lake of Mara- caybo, and the settlements were at length extended to the Amazon river and the borders of Peru. The whole colony remained forages under the Spanish yoke, which the people, however discontented many of them might be, did not seriously endeavour to shake off before the present century. Miranda, a native of Caracas, projected a scheme of revolt, wliich, he hoped, might be as successful as that of the British colonies in North-America; and, when he had la.iJed, with a small party of colonial exiles, on the coast of Coro, he endeavoured to rouse the provincials to action ; but the attempt rather exposed him to ridicule than the govern- ment to danger. After the invasion of Spain by the French, the colonists remained quiet until they were insulted by the' cortes ; and then they or- ganised a republican government, in 1811, under the appellation of the Confederate Provinces of Venezuela. But when the effects of that earth- quake which destroyed the greater part of the city of Caracas had cooled the ardor of the people, who thought that this disaster was a proof of the in- dignation of Heaven at their conduct, the progress of the revolutlou was .^ - 840 PERU. arrested, and the royalists recovered their sway. Miranda was sent oiT to Cadiz, (where he died in confinement) while Bolivar, one of his hravest officers, escaped. As this was only a suspension, not an extinction, of the popular spirit, Bolivar, having procured a military force from the zeal of a congress which had been formed in the territory of New-Granada, boldly re-erected, in 1813, the revolutionary standard. After several in- decisive conflicts, ho was invested with the chief command of all the forces of Venezuela ; but, being twice defeated with great loss, he re- treated from the scene of hostility. When Ferdinand was restored to his throne, he endeavoured to con- ciliate the revolters ; but, as he merely promised an amnesty, without en- tertaining the least thought of placing ihem on a par with native Spaniards, they resolved to oppose him with redoubled euersiy. To Morillo he prin- cipally trusted for the re-establishment of his authority ; and, if cruelty could have achieved that object, the choice was such as a tyrant's friends might be disposed to approve. The new general took Carthagena, marked hit rouie to Santa-Fe with slaughter and devastation, and restored the royal authority in New-Granada. He then harassed the republicans in Venezuela, until he was brought to a general engagement by Bolivar^ on the 7th of August, 1819, at Boyaca, where his troops were totally routed. On this occasion, a battalion of British subjects fought with such courage and alacrity, as to entitle themselves to the gratitude of all the votaries of independence. The royalists being still unsubdued, Bolivar again en- countered them, and was again most usefully aided by his British asso- ciates. He proved victorious in the field of Carabobo, in 1821, and the cause which he supported was then pronounced to be triumphant. To the new republic the territory of Quito was added, in 1822, in conse- quence of the battle of Pichincha, and the whole country that was rescued from the Spanish yoke received, for an obvious reason, the appellation of Colombia. In defiance of the remonstrances of Ferdinand, it was ac- knowleged as an independent state by Great Britain, and the coniniercc which had been allow ed to that nation during the long contest was sanc- tioued and extended by a regular commercial treaty. ;>.. PERU. ■< SITUATION AND EXTENT. Miles. Degrees. Sq. Miles. Length 1400 | ,,„,,„„„„ ( 3 and 25 South latitude. ) nmnn Breadth 450 i ^'^''"''' { 72 and 8 1 West longitude. J ^^^'^^^' BouNDAniEft.] Peru is bounded by the Pacific on the west, by Chile and the same ocean on the south, by the Colombian territories on the north, and on the east by Amazonia and the territory of La Plata. The country is not sufficiently settled to allow a |)reci8e Htatement of its divisions. Upper Peru appears to have disjoined itself from the first revolutionary confederacy ; but it is hoped that this impolitic separation of interest will not be confirmed. Mountains .vnd biveus.] The Andes partly belong to this state; L m 1 3 but that portic to Chimbora^ source of that a few armed v of the Amazoi issues from th ous course, ni 3,500 miles, been navigate degrees of so Negro, one o) runs into tlie in many plac the streams ' whicii is calle composed of the borders oi Metals, silver too is fo decay, new ( which will a|: poses to whic ver. A verj where it is fui stance is volat vessels, in wli forms a pure stance called may almost v The chief Pasco. Silvi affords coppei from the towi and this is a operations of some years ag ry, because i liberation of capitalists. Climate, yet having oi the Andes, it is generally cl ever rains in dew which fa plants and g Along the co rivers, where parts. This of those whic cotton, which lected ; and \ vine, receive i cularly useful salutary food PKRU. 841 but that portion of the chain which appears in Peru has no elevation equal to Chimbora^o. In the Andes rise many rivers; and Peru claims the source of that noble stream, to which a Spanish officer, merely from seeinir a few armed women on its banks, absurdly gtive the appellation of the river of the Amazons. It is formed by two large rivers— the 'lunguragua (which issues from the lake Lauricocha) and the Ucayal. It receives, in its sinu- ous course, more than 150 tributary streams, and, after a progress of above 3,500 miles, falls into the Atlantic by a great number of channels. It has been navigated to its confluence with the Pachitea, between eight and nine degrees of southern latitude, where its current is gentle ; and by the Rio Negro, one of its branches, it communicates with the Cassiquiari, which runs into the Orinoco. Its waters abound with alligators, and its' banks in many places, are covered with woods, the haunts of wild beasts. Of the streams which flow into the river of Amazons, the principal is that whicii is called Madera from the abundance of wood on its banks and is composed of several rivers issuing from the eastern slope of the Andes on the borders of Peru. Metals, Minerals.] There are mines of gold in different parts : silver too is found in abundance in various provinces; and, as the old mines decay, new ones are opened. Peru also produces quicksilver ; an article which will appear to be of immense value, if we consider the various pur- poses to which it is ajiplied, and especially the puriiication of gold and sil- ver. A very productive mine of this semi-metal is at Guancavelitia, where it is found in a whitish mass, resembling bricks ill-burned. The sub- stance is volatilised by fire, and received in steam by a combination of glass vessels, in which it condenses by means of a httle water at the bottom, and forms a pure heavy liquid. In Peru likewise is found the remarkable sub- stance called platitia, which may he considered as an eighth metal, and may almost vie with gold itself. The chief mineral wealth of Peru is in the mountains which surround Pasco. Silver is often found almost pure in this favored spot, which also afibrds copper, iron, and tin ; and there arc mines of gold about five leagues from the town. Excellent coal may be found in the same neighbourhood ; and this is a great advantage when steam-engines arc employed in the operations of mining. To the working of the silver mines a stop was put some years ago by a royalist general, who destroyed the expensive machine- ry, because it belonged to a friend of the popular cause ; but, after the liberation of the country from despotism, the concern devolved to British capitalists. Cli mate, soi L, PRODUCE.] Though Peru lies within the torrid zone, yet having on one side the South Sea, and on the other the great ridge of the Andes, it is not so hot as other tropical countries. The sky too, which is generally cloudy, defends it from the direct rays of the sun ; yet it scarcely ever rains in Lower Peru ; but this defect is sufiiciently supplied by a soft dew which falls gradually every night on the ground, and so refreshes the plants and grass, as to occasion, in many places, the greatest fertility. Along the coast is generally a dry, barren sand, except by the banks of rivers^ where the soil is very fertile, as are all the low grounds in the inland parts. This country produces fruits peculiar to the climate, beside most of those which thrive in Europe. The culture of maize, of pimento, and cotton, which the Spaniards found already established, has not been neg- lected ; and wheat, barley, cassava, potatoes, sugar, as also the olive and vine, receive duo attention. The algarroba, or carob-tree, is found parti- cularly useful : its pods, containing seeds like beans, furnish goats with salutary food ; afford, by iufusiou and fermentation, a palatable liquor ; ''is ■9. i^m>i\ 842 PERU. and, whon pounded, supply ttio common people with tolerable cakes. An imiwrtant article in the commerce of this country ia the Peruvian bark. The trees which produce it grow in the mountainous parts of Peru. The best bark is always found in the high and rocky grounds ; the tree which bears it is about the size of a cherry- tree, and has a kind of fruit resembling the almond: but it is only the bark that has those excellent qualities which render it so useful in intermitting fevers, and other disorders to which daily experience extends the application of it. An iM AL9.] The principal animals peculiar to Peru are the lama, vi- cuna, and guanaco. The lama has a small head, resembling that of a horse and a sheep at the same time. It is about the size of a stag : its upper lip is cleft like that of a hare, through which, when enraged, it S|)itsa kind of venomous juice. The flesh of the lama is agreeable and salutary ; and the animal is not only useful in affording a fine kind of wool and fond, but also as a beast of burthen. It can endure amazing fatigue, and will travel over thf? stee|>est mountains with a great burthen. It feeds very sparingly, and rarely drinks. The vicuna is smaller and swifter than the lama, and produces wool still finer in quality. In the vicuna is found the bezoar, regarded as a specific against poison. The guanaco is much larger than the lama, and its wool is long and harsh ; but in shape they are nearly alike. Among the feathered part of the creation in Peru, the condor is most conspicuous. The flight of this bird is majestic : it rises with an almost imperceptible tremulous motion of the wings, and descends in the same maniier : it pounces on its prey, and bears it off to a neighbouring hill : if the lamb or other animal be too large, the bird will feed on it until it is unable to fly ; the villagers then limit it, and kill it with clubs. Natural cuniosirtES.] A^jiong these may be classed the volcanoes of the Andes, which, from the aiidst of immense heaps of snow, pour forth torrents of fiery matter anu clouds of smoke. Here are streams which, in their course, cover whatever they pass over with a stony incrustation ; and fountains of liquid matter, called coppey, resembling pitch and tar, and used by seamen for the same purposes. Antiquities.] About fifteen miles from Caxamarca are the remains of an old town, built long before the conquest of the country. Many of the houses are yet entire. They are constructed of stone ; some consist of seven tiers of rooms ; and on the summit of a rocky hill are curious ruins, apparently of a palace or fortress. The extraction of such masses of stone from the quarries without machinery, and the shaping of them without iron tools, argued some degree of skill and contrivance in the builders. Near Pataviica, ruins are visible to a great extent, supposed to have been the fortified palace of one of the royal vassals of the Incas. The chief building stood on an eminence, and the walls wern continued to the foot of it, like regular circumvallations. Chief TOWNS, population, man'"f,rs.] The situation of Lima, in the midst of a spacious and delightful valley, was fixed npon by the fa- mous Pizarro as the most proper for a city, which he expected would pre- serve his memory. The town was flourishing, as far as Spanish despotism M'ould allow, when a most tremendous earthquake, in 1746, laid three- fourths of it level with the ground, and entirely demolished Callao, the port belonging to it. It is said, that, out of three thousand inhabitants of Callao, only one was left to record this dreadful calamity, and he exaped by a providence the most extraordinary. This man, who happened to be on a fort which overlooked the harbour, perceived the people running from tlieir houses in the utmost terror and confusion ; the sea, as usual on such PERU. 643 oecaiionB, receding to a coiwidcrable distance, returned in mountainous WETeg, foB'ning with the violence of the aijitation, and buried tho inhabi- tants In its dark bosom. Immediately all was silent; but the same wave which destroyed the town, drove a boat to the place where the man stood, into which he threw himself. " The streets of Lima (says Mr. Caldcleugh) are all built at right angles; they are formed of small rounded stones, washed down from the mountains ; all those in the direction of east and west have a small stream of water running down them, and the Rimac, a mountain torrent, which flows to the sea, passes through a part of the town. The great square, which is said to be five hundred feet above the sea, is built on two sides with shops and stalls. The seat of justice occupies another side, — a building very much in the Chinese style ; and in front of it is the cathedral, a very handsome pile. The riches which ha»e been lavished at various times upon the interior of this edifice are icarcely to be credited any where but in a city which once paved a street with ingots of silver to do honor to a new viceroy. The balustrades sur- rounding the great altar, and the pipes of the organ, are of silver. It may be mentioned, as a proof of the ubvmdance of s.iver o'-nr\!i ents, that different articles of that metal, weighing a ton and a half, have been taken from the various churches, without being missed, to meet the exi- gencies of the state. The church of San-Pedro is remarkable for its architecture, and a small church built by Pizarro, which has never been totally ruined by the earthquakes, is visited by all strangers. The monastic establishments are very numerous, and of great extent and splendor. The Franciscan convent, which is said to cover an eighth part of the city, seems to form a small town within itself. The other public buildings most worthy of notice are the palace of the arch> bishop, the mint, the palace of the inquisition (when it existed in Peru), and a noble establishment for retired secular clergymen. The Jesuits' college is converted into a foundling hospital. The bridge over the Remac has nothing to recommend it ; but, on the right bank of the river, the late viceroy, Amat, laid out large sums in forming a public walk, at the termination of which the bull-ring is seen. Another object to which strangers are directed is the Pantheon, or a biuial-place for a part of the city, surrounded and divided by a wall with niches for the reception of the dead. Many years ago, a municipal order was published to prevent the towers of the churches from being constructed of any other materials than wood and painted canvas. This was with a view of ob- viating the horrors which occurred during earthquakes, from the flight of the people to the churches ; but latterly they l»ve been built of clay, which in time takes the hardness of stone. For the same reason the majority of the houses have only a ground-floor ; and, when they have an upper floor, an overhanging wooden balcony is attached to the wind- ows: they are all constructed of unburned bricks, with a court and garden in the rear. The walls of the court and gate way are covered with fresco paintings ; and, when there is a dead wall in the front of the house of any respectable person, it is decorated in the same way. The rooms are gaudily adorned, and the floors are generally tiled ; an estrada, or long narrow sofa, fills up one side, and a piece of carpet covers that por- tion of the room. The roofs of all the houses are perfectly flat, and, in general, are merely composed of lath and plaster." The university of Lima ought not to pass without notice. Some emf- ftent characters have issued from it, whose portraits adorn the walls of the great hall. The building is handsome, the room for disputation has II 11 1 ■ m |,r f\i^ fib 844 PERU. a dignified and academical air, and the library is well furnished with the means of instruction ; but it is said that the professors neglect their du- ties. The young men have better opportunities of improvement at some of those seminaries which are ostensibly inferior ; and there are useful schools annexed to the monasteries. The population of the city is calculated at 75,000. The Creoles, who with the Europeans, compose less than a fourth part of that number, are careless, olatile, improvident, fond of variety, and prone to dissipation ; , but good-natured, generous, and friendly. The gentlemen nov, imitate the English modes of dress, and the ladies also generally follow that example; but the latter have a peculiar walking-dress, for they wear a petticoat of velvet, satin, or stuff, which, though rather elastic, sits cIoro to the body, and distinctly shows the shape : with this they wear a short cloke of thin silk, which is drawn round the waist, and over the breast aud the head , so as to conceal nearly the whole of the face. With regard to the rest of the population, we may observe, that the mestizoes are kind, well-meaning, and disposed to make themselves useful to the whites ; that the mulattoes have lively imaginations, and are very loqua- cious; that many of them are intelligent and well-informed, able ma- nagers of great domestic establishments, and so faithful that implicit con- fidence is reposed in them by their employers. Tiie descendants of tlie old Peruvians are capable of great labor without the zeal of true dili- gence, and submissive to the whites, without being attached to them. Their chprr.sters have been deteriorated by the depressed state in which they we.fc Kept for ages : but they are far more respectable than the Chinoes, the mingled offspring of their own race and the negroes. Mr. Caldcleugh thus speaks of the state of society at Lima. — " The figures of the ladies boast that rich fullness of person whi.h is the truest symptom of health in a warm country. Their manners are extremelv agreeable, and they are as kind and attentive to foreigners as the Spanish women every-wbere show themselves. In their persons they are very cleanly (taking the cold bath several times a day), although it must be stat- ed that they smoke a little, and occasionally take snulf. They get rid of the unpleasantness which attends the former operation by chewin<; paper. It is not unusual for them to smoke a little at the theatre; but they al- ways choose small cif^ars, and, placing their fans before them, retire to the back of the box. This custom may therefore be considered on the wane : it proceeds in a great measure from the almost constant fogs which prevail in Lima, and from an idea, not without foundation, that it prevents attacks of the stomach. The habits of the people have gene- rally a tropical turn in every thing. Dances are not so common as in Chile, nor any of those games so prevalent in that country. Cards, chess, and music, which require little exertion, a.id sitting tranq^. . at the bull-ring, are the more usual enjoyments of Lima. Persons of rank rise early, and their servants bring them directly a light breakfast of choco- late and fruit; sometimes, it must Le confessed, stewed meat is added. Dinner takes place about two o'clock, and consists of excellent fish, and meat dressed in r. variety of ways, and hig..ly seasoned, The wine is cither Peruvian or European. Tb«> siesta follows until six o'clock, and about nine a cup of chocolate forms the supper. At evening-parties, which are of constaMt occurrence, punch is the more usual beverage." Cusco, tie ancient capital of the Peruvian empire, is supposed to have been founded in 1043. On a hill to the north of the city, are still seen th" ruins of a fortress, built of sto;ie by one of the incns, with some de- gree of skill. Tlie houses in general ore constructed of the same mate* PERU. S45 rial, and are of fine proportions. Tlie cathedral is large, handsome, and rich; and thv^ other public buildings have an air of dignity and splendor. The town is occupied by 25,500 personu, of whom , le majority sprang from the old race. These are very industrious and skilful in the manu- facture of cloth and other articles ; and many of them excel in painting, some of their productions being admired even in Italy. Truxillo was founded by Pizavro. It is neatly and regularly built ; but the houses are low, an-d the streets, being unpaved, arc generally in a very dirty state. The cathedral is handsome, and opposite to it is the bishop's palace, which is fitted up in a curious style of antique magnifi- cence. The population is about 8500, and the colored part of it is said to be free from those stains which frequently render the complexions of such persons very disagreeable. Caxamarca contains about 7000 inhabitants, many of whom are famous for their workmanship in silver and iron. The town is pleasantly situated in a fertile valley; the climf te is fine; and kindness, hospitality, and innocent amusements, characterise the citizens. Lambayeque is a place of considerable trade. The inhabitants are both ingenious and industrious. They su iply their neighbours, and also distant traders, with excellent leather made from the skins of goats, counterpanes, table-cloths, sail-cloth, and rush-hats. CoMMERCi:.] Under proper regulations, the trade of a country so highly favored by nature would be prosperous and lucrative; : id, in- deed, it is now increasing. The cotton plant grows spontaneously in some parts, and will soon furnish a valuable article of exportation. Wool might be more liberally exported than it now is ; and a much greater quantity of flax might be raised with little difficulty. The chocolate- nuts and coffee-berries are chiefly used at home, w!ien it would be easy to aflford copious supplies to other nations or communities. Coarse linen and cotton goods are manufactured in Peru ; but, as the higher and middle classes in the towns are very fond of dress, they receive all fine articles of that description from Europe. History.] When the Spaniards had subdued Peru, they did not find it a very arduous task to keep the natives, who were not a very spi- rited race, in strict subjection. A small military force was generally found sufficient for that purpose. I'he colonists, proud of tli-'^ir supe- riority, treated the conquered tribes with contempt, and studiously checked their advancement in the scale of dignity. The progress of such a government furnishes few incidents to the historian, as every thing proceeds in an uniform tenor. At length, however, the horizon of Peru exhibited a cloudy aspect. In 1781, Rupac Amaro, pretending that he derived his descent from the incas, erected among the mountains the standard of revolt. The civil war which thus arose continued for two years; and then, after having reduced many considerable districts, the rebel chief was tak^n with his family, and punished with torture and with death. From that time, the country remained undisturbed, until Spain was disordered and convulsed by the ambitior jf Bonaparte. The vice- roy of Peru then exerted all his influence to check that zeal for liberty fthich animated tha generality of the Creoles, and even sent troops to chastise and reclaim the revoltcrs of Chile. In the mean time, an insur- rection broke out at (aisco, but it was soon quelled. The arrogance of the royalists rose or fell according to the intelligence which was received from Chile. At length, in 1820, the appearance of lord Cochrane, near Cdllao, as the commander of a Chilean fleet, diffused a great alarm among that party at Lima, and his operations on the coast of Peru were .^1^' N:l 846 PERU. so spirited, that the advocates for a revolution conceived strong liopes of success. The viceroy Pcsuela was cninpulled to relinquish his authority; but the troops that enforced his resignation were so far from hcing in- clined to join tlie popular party, that they nominated a new governor, whom they deemed better qualified for maintaining the interest of Spain, San-Martin, the commander of the Chilean army, now prepared (to use \m own expressions) to " break those chains which Pizarro, 'MO ynarH be- fore, had forged with his blood-stained hands." Having defeated a strong division of the royal troops, the Chileans desisted from hostility, leaving the citizens of Lima at leisure to organise a new government. Tliio niua- sure was carried into efi'ect in July, 1821. Peru was declared to bo free from the Spanii>h yoke, and entirely independent ; but a considerabh time elapsed before a regular administration was formed. In the meai time, San-Martin acted as protector of the new state, while the royalists retained possession of Callao and some other stations. In 1822, the pro. tector and the council of state ordered, that deputies should be elected for the purpose of framing a constitution. The war being still conti- nued, the Chilean troops were attacked by the enemies of freedom, and much loss was sustained. The people were now discontented; and, as Monteagudo, a minister employed by San-Martin, had conducted him- self in a very impolitic and arbitrary manner, the municipality sent him into exile. The constituent congress, however, complimented the pro- jector with a vote of thanks, and he reti-.icd into Chili', while lord Cochrane, who was honored in a similar mode, embarked for Urxil, being invited to command the navy of that em|)ire. Dissensions having arigcn between the congress and the republican army, the {teople loudly called for unanimity, w ithout which they despaired of the success of their cause. In the next campaign, the royalists were at first victorious, but were af- terwards defeated by general Sucre. While it was yet doubtful on which side the scale would preponderate, Bolivar made his appearance at Lima, and was invested pro tempore with the chief power ; and troops arrived both from Colombia and Chile. The immediate o|)erationB, however, were not decisive ; for the royalists maintained their ground with spirit. Near the close of the year 1824, the contending parties seemed deter- mined to bring the contest to a close. Sucre, having taken a position in the plain of Ayacucho, was attacked by La-Cerna ; and, though he bad an inferior force, with only one piece of artillery, he triumphed with little difficulty over the too-confident enemy. The result of the battle was a capitulation, importing that the royalist soldiers should be conveyed to Spain at the expense of the Peruvian state ; that all prisoners should be set at liberty, and that no one should be called to account for his former opinions, or for his zeal in the royal cause. The port and fortress of Callan still remained in the hands of the king's adherents; but the leaders of the congress now acted as if the whole state had been under their autho- rity. That strong-hold was at length reduced in 1826; the republic was then more regularly organised, and the good effects of a re|)re8eutative and constitutional government were felt by all classes of 80( iety. 847 'f * -■■■ Miles. Length 1200 ) Breadtli 230 > CHILE. SITUATION AND KXTRNT. Uogrct's, Sq. Miles. between { ^.'j and 4:\ South latitude. J I 70 and 75 West longitude. ) ■'°">"""' Boundaries.! IT is bounded by Peru on the north, by La Plata ihe east, by Patagonia on the south, and by the Pacific Ocean on tlie west. Rivers, lakes.] The chief rivers are the Salado, or Salt River, the Guasco, Coquimbo, Chiapa, Biobio, and the Valdivia, all scarcely navigable but at their moutlm. The principal lakes are tlio.se of Tagatagua and Paren; beside which, there are some salt-water lakes, that have a communication with the sea for a part of the year. In stormy weather the sea forces a way through them, and leaves them full of fish ; but in tlie hut season the water con- geals, leaving a crust of line white salt a foot thick. Metals, minerals.] Gold, silver, copper, tin, quicksilver, iron, Uid lead, abound in this country. The richest silver mine is that which extends to the plain of Us|)allata; the vein, it is said, has been traced to the extraordinary length of ninety miles. In one district, copper is f '.; Alt l' ci,untr}', being more oLservable at a distance from the sea. In the valleys near the Andes, vegetation is parti'ularly luxuriant and rigorous, and the animals are larger and stronger than in the other parts of Chile. Maize, barley, and other sorts of grain, thrive exceedingly; the Kugar-cnne is very productive, the vine and the tobacco-plant grow wild, and various speuies of fruit are abundant and delicious. Extensive foiesta are spread over the country ; plenty of coal is also afforded, and free-stQiie and lime-stone aie found in various parts. Animals.] In the rivers and lakes there is a quadruped whioh re- lembles the hippopotamus of Africa. That animal vliich most reseui- Ues a lion is sufliciontly bold to attack a horse, but never ventures to rush ujioa a man. A species uf horse is sometimes set'n with cloven £set, II iJi Ssf 848 CHILE. POPUL voy or ageii ; inhabitants oi conquered nativti more wild and swift than the vicuna. The tame horses of this country arc in high estimation, and prodigious numbers of oxen, goats, and sheep, are fattened in the luxuriant pastures. Turkeys, geese, and all kinds of poultry, are found in the same profusion. The coasts abound with various kinds of excellent fish: there are also many whales and seals. ION, INHABITANTS, MANNEUS.] A NoTth-Amcrican en- but with evident exaggeration, that the number of the imounted,in 1818, to 1,200,000, exclusive of the un- The latter are the Araucams, the descendants of those brave men who scorned submission when liberty could be maintained by arms. Their four territorial divisions are governed by four chieftains, who hold provincial assemblies; but, when affairs of general concern de. mand attention, a council is convoked, consisting of deputies from each division. They have no written laws ; but they have traditional rules for the administration of justice and the protection of property. They prac- tise both agriculture and pasturage, and in all work of the former kind they are greatly assisted by the women, over whom they exercise a high degree of authority. Their complexions are between a red and a brown hue ; they are not tall, but robust and well- formed, and have a bold and manly, if not a pleasing aspect. A face nearly round, with scarcely any beard, small and lively eyes, a flattish nose, well-shaped legs, small and flat feet, are the usual appendages to the persons of these barbarians. The men wear a woolen shirt, doublet, tight small-clothes, and a poncho or mantle, frequently fringed and ornamented, reaching to the knees. A blue woolen gown without sleeves, a short mantle, a girdle, and a variety of silver ornaments, which even the poorest can obtain, compose the attire of the women. Towns being considered as prisons, their habitations are widely scattered over the country ; and , in these, they exercise all the kind- ness of hospitality. Polygamy being a general custom, the houses are divided into as many rooms as there are wives in the family; and the competition for the husband's favor does not preclude mutual harmony. Feasting is very common, and fermented liquors are too agreeable to the men to allow them to be temperate. Not only when they are intoxicated, but at all other times, they arc confident and presumptuous, and disposed to treat persons of a different race or nation with supercilious contempt. They are not destitute of a sense of religion, for they believe in the exist- ence of a Supreme Being, and the immortality of the soul ; but they min- gle with their creed all the absurdity of superstition, for they attend to dreams and omens, give credit to the secret operations of witchcraft, and fancy that the spirits of the dead visit the living. Of the Creoles of Chile Mr. Myers sneeringly says, " Though they may be said to possess in no degree a single virtue, they have the credit of possessing fewer vices than other Creoles : there is a passiveness, an even- ness about them approaching to the Chinese, whom they strongly resemble in many respects. Even in their physiognomy they have the broad low forehead and contracted eyes ; they have the same cunning, the same egotism, and the same disposition to petty theft. They arc remarkable, too, for extreme patience and endurance under privations ; they can seldom be moved to passion, and are most provokingly unfeeling." Of their learning or acquired knowlege he speaks with the same contempt. — " Education can scarcely be said to exist among them. In the country parts schools are absolutely unknown, and, even in the capital, instruction is at the lowest ebb. — The egotism and self-conceit of the Chilenos are proportioned to their igDoranoe, and they pride themselves in not requiring the knowlege CHILE. 841) of books ; they liave indeed scarcely any ; nor can they endure the trouble of reading those whicii they have," — Mr. Stevenson and captain Hall, however, speait of tliis part of the community in more candid and liberal terms. CitiEP Tov.KS.] Sant-Iago is the seat of the new government, as it was of the o'li. It is built with great neatness, and the houses, though low,, are commodious. Tliose of the superior inhabitants encompass a square court, and have in the front an ornamented porch, with a stable and coach-house on its two sides. Behind almost every house is a garden, beyond which runs a clear rapid stream. The cathedral, which is a hand- some building, was erected by native workmen, under the superintendence of an English architect. The population exceeds 40,000. Before a late dreadful accident occurred, Valparaiso was partly built on a narrow strip of land, between clifls and the sea ; another part had stran- gled up the sides and bottoms of the numerous ravines which intersect the hills ; a suburb called the Almond-Grove, larger than the town itself, was spread over a low sandy plain, near a semi-circular bay ; and the popula- tion seemed to be thriving in apparent ease and comfort, when an earth- quake, on the 19th of Noveml)er, 1823, irreparably damaged a great part of the town : but it is said that, amidst the scene of ruin, few of the inha- bitants lost their lives. The city of Conception is pleasantly situated, and has a tolerable harbour ; but, from ihe eftect of revolutionary convulsions, nearly one half of the town is in a ruinous state. Its inhabitants are still friendly and hospitable, lively in their manners, and gay in their apparel. Valdivia is one of the best ports on the western coast of South- America, and also one of the strongest both by nature and art. The place was taken trom the royalists by lord Cochrane, in 1820. The province to which it belongs is chiefly peopled by the old race. Missions are formed, as in California, for the conversion of the tribes to Christianity ; but some of the caciques or chieftains refuse to admit into their districts either missionaries or civil officers. CoMMF.iicr..] The chief trade of Chile is carried on with Great-Bri- tain, the United States, and the new rulers of Peru and La Plata. The exports, beside gold, silver, and copper, are hemp, cordage, liides, wine, and oil. History and oovernment.] About the middle of the fifteenth century, Yupanqui, emperor of Peru, sent an army to attempt the conquest of Chile; and it is said that the invaders subdued the country as far as the river Rapel, to the south-west of Sant-Iago. In IftSo, Diego Almagro extended the sway of the Spaniards over a considerable partof the country, and another iwrtion was over-run by Pizarro ; but the establishment of the Spanish colony was reserved for Valdivia, the founder of that city which bears his name. The Araucans, though they did not act with that energy which could save the whole country from a foreign yoke, retained many districts; and, while they harassed their enemies with desultory warfare, avoided complete subjugation. Their population suft'ered from hostilities, but they compelled even the Spaniards to respect them. After a long interval of colonial tranquillity, the example of Vene- iiuela influenced the inhabitants of Chile. The majority resolved, in the year 1810, to assert their pretensions to independence; and when two parties had warmly contended for the pre-eminence, that which was con- ducted by don Bernardo O'Higgins, thedescendantof an Hibernian family, obtained the chief power. In 1814, the insurgents were defeated at Rancagua, and fled over the Andes in dismay : yet their party conti> 31 11 Id, ...ai •■ '"'HI: III 850 RIO DE LA PLATA. imed to resist the abettors of the old regime. On the other hand, tlie battle of Chacabuco was disastrous to the royalists, but it did not para- lyse their eftorts ; for, in 1818, they gained the advantage in the battle of Talca. Tiieir success, however, on this occasion, had no other effect than that of rousing the leaders of the opposite party to redoubled vigor. San-Martin, who had served with reputation in the army of Old-Spain, strenuously labored to rally the troops, augment their numbers, and im- prove their discipline, while the citizens of the capital liberally provided the sinews of war. About 7000 men, including the militia, now ad- vanced to the plain of Maypu, where they were met (on the 5th of April) by 5000 regulars under the command of Osorio. When the con- flict had continued for a great part of the day, an Irish officer intimated to San-Martin his apprehensions that the famous regiment of Burgos would speedily form a compact square which might eventually be irre- sistible, and therefore proposed an immediate assault with the cavalry. This advice was readily followed ; the royalists were routed with great slaughter; and thus was established the independence of Chile. From that time, however, some years elapsed before a political settlement was adjusted. A form of government now prevails, resembling that of the United States of North- America. The people, even of the lowest class, have been invested with the rights of men ; the property of every one is fully secured bv law; justice is more equitably and impartially admini- stered ; education is encouraged by the new government, and the moral virtues are placed on a more substantial basis. UNITED PROVINCES OF THE RIO DE LA PLATA. SITUATION AND EXTENT. Miles. Degrees. Sq. Miles. Length 1550) ..„„„„ C 1 4 and 37 South latitude. } r-anano. Breadth 900 J ^'*^''''^" { 56 and 70 West longitude. } '^^'^^^- BouNDAtiiES.] This country is bounded by Amazonia on the north, by Brazil on the east, by Patagonia on the south, and by Peru and Chile on the west. RiVF.Rs, LAKES.] Not only many small rivers flow through this Btate, but it is also watered by three principal ones, the Paraguay, Uru- guay, and Parana, which, united near the sea, form the famous Rio de la Plata, or River of Silver. This stream has a course of about 1700 miles, and is remarkable for its breadth at its mouth. It falls into the South Atlantic, between the capes St. Antony and St. Mary, which are 130 miles apart from each other; and at Monte-Video, a fortified town above 90 miles distant from the sea, the land of either shore cannot be seen from a vessel in the middle of the channel. This country abounds with lakes, one of which (that of Xarayes) is sometimes 250 miles in length, when the immense plain to the eastward of the Andes has been inundated by the mountain rivulets. Climate, Soil, Produce, and FACn op the Country.] The climate is ia some parts extremely hot, in others temperate and pleasant, RIO DE LA PLATA. 851 The soil is very fertile, producing cotton in great quantities, tobacco, and the valuable herb called Paraguay, with a variety of fruit ; and in the rich pastures are bicd such herds of cattle, that the hides of the beasts are all that is properly bought, the carcases being given into the bargain. The great plains, or Pampas, between La Plata and the mountains, form a remarkable feature in t!ie face of the country. They extend (says captain Head) about nine hundred miles from east to west, and may be divided (at least, in the lower latitudes) into three regions, — one of clover and thistles, one of long grass without weeds, and one of low trees and shrubs, growing in great order. The second and third divisions have nearly the same appearance throughout the year ; but the first region varies with the seasons. In the winter, the clover is rich and strong, and the thistles are thriving : in the spring, the former plants have vanished, and the latter are luxuriantly spreading: earlyin the summer, the thistles have shot up into a wood, to the height of nine or ten feet, and their stems are so close that they apjiearlike a natural fortification ; but, before the end of that season, they fade and wither, and are blown down by the violence of the wind, and clover again covers the earth with verdure. Wild horses, asses, and dogs, abound on these plains, as well as ordinary cattle, and the bulls and horses are caught in a peculiar manner. A kind of rope is made of strips of untanned hide, having a slip-knot at one end, the other extremity being fastened by an eye and button to a ring in a strong surcingle or hide-belt, bound tightly round a tame horse; and the noose is thrown with great dexterity over the wild animal, so that it cannot disentangle itself. Metals.] The metallic opulence of this country is well known. Mines of gold and silvef are numerous ; but it appears that few of the former are now worked. Some silver mines in the neighbourhood of Potosi used to yield 35,000 dollars in a week ; and these, under the new government, will not long be neglected. The benefit of a mine is open to all who choose to avail themselves of it, on the payment of a certain portion of the produce (usually a fifth part) to the ruling power. CiiiKF TOWNS, POPULATION, MANNERS.] That city which de- rived, from the supposed excellence of its air, the appellation of Buenos- Ayres, stands on the south-western bank of the Rio de la Plata, the water of which is conveyed into every garden by a kind of sluice made of osiers. That part of the town Avhich the negroes and people of color inhabit, has a dirty and miserable apppcarance ; but the other parts are neatly built, and many of the houses are richly or handsomely furnished. The cathedral and other churches are built of a very white kind of stone found in the neighbourhood, and the interiors are gaudily ornamented. The monastic edifices are neat and commodious, as also are the hospital for foundlings and the as3dum for orphans. The town also possesses an university and many public schools, to which great attention is paid by the new government. A well-built town-hall, a fine piazza, and a number of good houses, decorate the great square, in the centre of which is an obelisk, pompously styled the altar of liberty. There is a fortress, which has not an imposing air of defensibility ; but, when the British invaders, after having taken the place with ease, were driven from it, the flat- roofed houses served as posts of annoyance. The popidation of the city is said to be 60,000, and that of the whole state about two millions. Next in importance to the capital, and much more populous, is the city of Potosi. It was founded in 1545, on the side of a mountain^in ^ glea formed by a rivulet. The mint was established in 1562, and 3 I 2 , .,1, i^ ^?' iti ,f ti -fp. ^^. 852 RIO DE LA PLATA. I! ! has ever Bince continued to pour forth its stores for the convenience of Europe. Meudoza, at the foot of the Andes, is a place of increasing trade, though the houses are low and ill-built. There are few places where horses and cattle, and all sorts of provisions, can be procured at so reasonable a rate. The air is generally as dry as that of Buenos-Ayrcs is damp. " The inhabitants " (says captain Head) " are apparently a very quiet, respectable set of people. The men are dressed in blue or white jackets), without skirts. The women in the day are only seen sitting at their windows in deshabille ; but in the evening they come upon the Alameda, or public walk, arrayed with much taste, in full dresses and in low gowns, and completely in the costume of London or Paris. The manner in which all the people seem to associate, shows a great deal of good- feeling and fellowship, and I certainly never saw lessapparent Jealousy in any place." The inhabitants of Buenos-Ayres compose a motley groupe, of which the most influential part is the Creole population. The Spaniards lost their credit by the unwillingness of most of them to promote the revo- lution ; and those who still remain, are no longer the haughty beings whose arrogance over-awed the community. The Creoles are still fond of plea- stire ; but they have roused themselves in a great measure from their su- pineness and indolence, and the mixed races, being taught to believe that they are entitled to some advantages beyond mere protectiim, assume a higher tone. They have imbibed, from the English and North- Americans, a spirit of improvement, which manifests itself in their altered dress, manners, and modes of life. Of the various tribes of the old race dispersed over the inland parts of the country, the nomades or rovers of the Pampas seem to be the most remarkable. They are beardless, have dark complexions, low broad fore- heads, faces rather flat, high cheek-bones, large jaws, and scowling eyes placed widely apart ; they are ill-made and rather short, but muscular and strong. The apparel of eachsex consists of little more than a poncho doubled about the waist, and kept in its place by a long sash of colored worsted. Both plait their hair in tails, which are variously ornamented by the women, who also wear ear-rings, bracelets, and ancletsof tin. When they have chosen a spot for temporary abode, they make tolerable huts with poles and hides. They live in small hordes, each community being under the government of a chieftain. They have a sense of religion, but no forms of worship. When they lose a relative, they burn the flesh, bury the bones, and testify their grief, like the wild Irish, by howling and drinking. Like the gentry of civilised nations, they settle their disputes by duels. They ride (for they rarely walk) to Buenos-Ayrcs and Mendoza in quest of spirits, dyeing commodities, knives, bits for their horses, &c., for which they give, in exchange, salt, skins, reins, and lassos. At an entertain- ment given to a numerous party of these barbarians by general San- Martin, he treated them in a way which suited their taste. He ordered a number of mares to be killed ; the flesh was served up raw, and the blood mixed v.-ith gin ; and first the men, and afterwards the women, bru* tally gorg'-d and intoxicated themselves. CoMJiEiiCB.] The products of Peru and Chilfe arc 'ent overland to Buenos-Ayres, to be exchanged for the commodities .rd manufac- tures of Europe, which are transmitted to that city. They are con- veyed in waggons over the spacious plains, and on mules across the Andes. The exports from the Plata are hides, tallow, wool, cop- per, tin, &c. ■^■p RIO DE LA PLATA. 853 History, akd government.] After the failure of an early at- tempt for the colonisation of this country, don Pedro de Mendoza sailed from Spain with 2650 men, and began to erect a new fabric of colonial power. The invaders gradually extended their possessions, and esta- blished their authority amidst the servitude of the harassed natives, whom, with the zeal of devout Christians, they also endeavoured to con- vert. As the priests made slow progress in the task of conversion, the Jesuits at length took an opportunity of interfering. They represented to the Spanish court, that the ill success of the missionaries might be im- puted to the scandal which the immorality of the Spaniards never failed to give, and to the hatred which their insolent behaviour caused in the South-Americans. They insinuated, that, if it were not for that impe- diment, the empire of the Gospel might have been extended into the most unknown parts of America; and that all those countries might be subjected to his catholic majesty, without expense and without force. This remonstrance met with success ; the sphere of action was marked out, uncontrolled liberty was given to the Jesuits within these limits, and the governors of the adjacent provinces had orders not to interfere, nor to suffer any Spaniards to enter this pale, without lioense from the fa- thers. They, on their part, agreed to pay a certain capitation-tax, in proportion to their flock, and to send a certain number to the king's works, whenever they should be demanded, and the missions should be- come populous enough to supply them. On these terms the Jesuits gladly opened their spiritual campaign. They began by collecting about fifty wandering families, whom they persuaded to settle : and they united them into a community. This was the slight foundation upon which they built a superstructure that amazed the world; for, when they had made this beginning, they labored with such indefatigable diligence, and such masterly policy, that, by degrees, they mollified the minds of the most savage tribes, fixed the most rambling, and subdued those to their government who had long disdained to submit to the arms of the Spaniards and the Portuguese. They prevailed upon many thousands to embrace their religion ; and these soon influenced others to follow their example, by magnifying the peace and tranquillity which they enjoyed under the direction of the holy fathers. Our limits do not permit us to trace, with precision, all the steps which were taken in the accomplishment of so extraordinary a conquest over the bodies and minds of so many people. The Jesuits left nothing undone that could confirm their subjection or increase their numbers ; and it is said, that above 340,000 families were subject to them ; living iu obedience, and an awe bordering up in adoration, yet procured without any violence or constraint : that the natives were instructed in the mili- tary art, and could raise 60,000 men well armed : that they lived in towns ; they were regularly clad ; they labored in agriculture ; they ex- ercised manufactures ; some even aspired to the elegant arts ; and that nothing could equal the obedience of the people of these missions, ex- cept their contentment under it. Some writers have treated the charac- ters of these Jesuits with great severity, accusing them of ambition and pride, and of carrying their authority to such an excess, as to cause not only persons of both sexes, but even the magistrates, who were always chosen from among the natives, to be corrected before them with stripes, and to sufier persons of the highest distinction within their jurisdiction, to kiss the hems of their garments, as the greatest honor. The priests themselves possessed large property; all manufactures were carried on by H !ii ^i'r 854 RIO DE LA PLATA. their orders, and apparently more for their benefit than for that of tlio people: tiie natural produce of the country was put into their hands; and the treasures, annually remitted to the su|)(;rior of their order, Reemed to evince that zeal for religion was not their only motive in form- ing these missions. In 1757, when a part of the territory was ceded by Spain to the court of Portugal, in exchange for Santo-Sacramento, the Jesuits refused to comply with this arrangement, or to suffer themselves to be transferred from one hand to another, like cattle, without their own consent, and the natives actually took up arms ; but they were easily de- feated by an European force. In 1767, the Jesuits were sent out of America, and their late subjects were put upon the same footing with the other inhabitants of the country. When the desire of independence began to animate the colonists of V'enezuela, the flame was quickly communicated to the provincials of the vice-royalty of La Plata. Ihose who had made a trial of their strength in the expulsion of the tiiitish invaders, were induced to believe that they had the power of shaking off the Spanish yoke. In 1810, many of the citizens of Buenos- Ayres prevailed on the viceroy Cisneros to summon a deliberative assembly, and the result was the popuhir elec- tion of an executive body, styled the provisional junta. This measure was strongly opposed by Elio, the governor of Monte-Video, and other Spaniards, as a revolutionary and rebellious act ; and an intestine war arose from the zeal of the royalists. A bold adventurer, named Artigas, distinguished himself in several conflicts, in which the insurgents were victorious; and he then invested Monte- Video, which, being taken after a long siege, was dismantled. The Portuguese, by interfering in the war, gained possession of the territory to the north-west of La I'lata, between the Uruguay and the Atlantic. After si.x years of confusion, a declaration of independence was promulgated by a congress of represen- tatives, and two legislative assemblies were constituted on that funda- mental principle which recognises the free will of the people as the sole origin of the legitimacy of governments. Useless oilices were abolished ; the holders of those which were allowed to subsist were rendered com- pletely responsible for iheir conduct ; the judicial system was meliorated; Bome taxes were repealed, and others diminished ; the privilege of pri- mogeniture was annulled, and the practice of enslaving a fellow-creature condemned as a gross violation of justice. As Patagonia is in a great measure dependent on the new state of La Plata, we may, not improperly, here take some notice (though it must be short and imperfect) of that ill-peopled and almost unknown ter- ritory. Pigafetta, who accompanied Magellan in his voyage round the world, asserted that the natives of Patagonia were uncommonly large and tall; and commodore Byron, who landed there in 1764, says, that one who ap- peared to be a chief " was of a gigantic stature, and seemed to realise the tales of monsters in a human shape :" yet this man was under the height of seven feet, and therefore was not prodigiously tall, though his figure might be more broad and muscular than the general forms of those Europeans who attain the same height. He adds, that the stature of the shortest among 500 of these barbarians did not appear to be less than six feet and a half. They wore skins with the hair inwards, and had no other clothing, except that a few of the number had something like a boot on each leg. The faces of both sexes were streaked with paint of various colors, which g%ve them aa uupleasing appearance. They were 1^1 111. ■*' I' ^- ,«. r^ M I 2^ ^T BRAZIL. 855 mild rather than fierce in their demeanor, and seemed to invite the so- ciety of the strangers. They had a great number of horses, which the men managed well, and on which the women rode astride. More recent observations tend to confirm the account of the general tallnessof both sexes in the maritime parts of this country; but the inland districts are occupied by a race similar to the inhabitants of the Pampas. The former are great hunters, and many practise pasturage rather than agriculture, while the latter cultivate the earth, particularly in the fertile spots near the Black R iver, with advantage and success. Some settle- ments have been formed in various parts by the rulers of the state of La- Plata ; but they are not yet in a flourishing str.ie, though trade is carried on in wool and other commodities. Fisheries are established on the coast, and they have in. some seasons been very productive. As the sand-banks abound with sea-elephants of the phoca genus, those traders who are de- sirous of procuring blubber send out boat-men with spears and fire-arms, who make great liavock among those animals. The sea-lions are less molested, because they have very little fat ; but the sea-wolves arc at- tacked for the dark-grey fur which they afford. THE EMPIRE OF BRAZIL. 1 if^j , i !^ i SITUATIO>f AND EXTENT. ■'^-1 i _?-- Miles. Degrees. j Length 2150) ,,..„,„„„ C The Equator and 32, S. latitude. I Breadth 1000 ) '^^"^•'<'" \ 35 and 55, West longitude. Boundaries and divisions.] Brazil is bounded on the north by the mouth of the Amazon river, and the Atlantic ocean ; by the same sea on the east ; by the mouth of La-Plata on the south ; and by a chain of mountains, which divide it from Paraguay and the country of the Amazons, on the west. It is divided into twenty-two provinces, from Solimoens and Para, in the north, to Uruguay in the south. Metals, minerals.] Not only iron, lead, tin, and quicksilvt;, but even gold and diamonds, are among the products of Brazil. Gold is found either in the channels of rivers or in deep valleys ; in some of which, where water appears, frequent excavations occur, made by the gold-washers, sixty or seventy feet wide, and twenty feet deep. At other times, they meet with gold almost immediately under the roots of the grass. It is generally found in a stratum of rounded pebbles and gravel, called cascalhao, resting upon the solid rock. At the commencement of the mining system in Brazil, the common method of proceeding was to open a square pit, until the workmen reached the cascalhao: this they iN'oke up with pick-axes, and, placing it in a wooden > sel, broad at the lop and narrow at the bottom, exposed it to the action of running water, shaking it from side to side, until the earth was washed away, and the metallic particles had all subsided. Lumps of native gold were some- times found of the weight of seven or eight pounds ; but these were insu- lated pieces, and the ground where they were discovered was not rich. All the first workings were in the beds of rivers, or in the table-grounds on tbeir aides. In 1724> the method of mining was altered. Instead of ■aait*-.-. ^56 BRAZIL. opening searching-places by hand, and carrying the cascalhao thence to the water, the miners conducted water to the mining ground, and, Avashing away the mould, broke up the cascalhao in pits under a fall of the water, or exposed to the same action in wooden troughs, and thus human labor was greatly diminished. At the beginning of the present century, there was a general complaint in Minas Gcraes, that the ground was exhausted of its [,old ; yet it was the opinion of all scientific men, and still continues to be so, that hitherto little more than the surface of the earth had been scratched, and that the veins were for the most part untouched. The mining was either in the beds of the streams or in the mountains. In process of time the rivers had changed their beds : the miners discovered that the primary beds were above the recent level ; the next step was to the ground on the side of the present body of the stream. The first bed was easily worked , because little or no water remained there ; only the surface was to be removed, and then the cascalhao was found. In the second step, wheels were often required to draw oif the water : the new bed could only be worked by making a new cut, and diverting the stream. The wheel was a clumsy machine, which it was frequently necessary to remove, and fifty slaves or more were employed for many hours in removing it. This was the only means in use for saving human labor, for not even a cart or hand-barrow was to be seen ; the rubbish and the cascalhao were carried in troughs upon the heads of slaves, who in many instances used to climb up steep ascents, where inclined planes might have been formed with very little trouble, and employed with great advantage. River- mining, however, was the easiest task, and the most effectually performed ; it was, therefore, the most common. The moun- tains at length began to tempt adventurers. The mode of working in such ground is not by excavation, but by what is called the open cut,— laying the vein bare by clearing aw ay the surface. This labor is im- mense, if water cannot be brought to act upon the spot ; and even when there is water, it is not always easy to direct it, nor will the nature of the cut always allow its use. When the miners found no cascalhao in the mountains, they suspected that the stones might contain gold, and they were not deceived in the supposition, when the stones had been broken by iron mallets. When the gold is enveloped in earth or stone, each substance is pounded, and boiled with one tenth of its weight of quicksilver : this, by its attractive nature, absorbs the gold, and may be separated by pressure through bags of leather, and by subsequent distil- lation. So productive were the mines in the province of Minas Geraes, that, in little more than one hundred years, Vi''i-llica, the chief town, sent out of its smelting-house two millions of pounds of gold. The Brazilian diamonds are chiefly procured in the mountainous di- strict called Serrado Frio, in a stratum similar to that which contains gold; and sometimes both are found together. The substances which accom- pany diamonds (says Mr. Mawe), and are considered as good indications of them, are, bright bean-like iron ore,- a slaty fiint-like substance of iron texture, black oxyd of iron in great quantities, rounded bits of blue quartz, and yellow crystal. It is said that the number of diamonds sent to Lisbon during the first twenty years after the discovery of the mines in question, exceeded one thousand ounces in weight. Topazes are found in abundance near Capao. Artificial hues are some- times given to them by means of heat ; but the natural color of the stone is greyish, or bright yellow, or a medium between this and the carnation hue, very rarely dark-red. Many are large, clear, and brilliant ; but some are found to be of so imperfect a color, and so full of flaws, that they BRAZIL. 857 are deemed unworthy of the 'ibor of polishing, and are thrown away. Cli .lATE, RIVERS, SOIL, AND PRODUCE.] In the noftiiem parts, which are situated near the centre of the torrid zone, the air of the lower tracts, near the banks of the Amazonian river, is sultry and oppressive ; but, even here, vegetation is kept in vigor by the humidity of the atmo- sphere. In this division of the empire, there is little distinction of seasons ; the ground is constantly covered with flowers, the foliage is evergreen, and the abundant dews, the shade of die forests, and the agreeable coolness of the nights, are represented as giving the country the appearance of perpetual spring. Near the coast, the cooling effects of the trade-wind, after it has swept over the breadth of the Atlantic, are permanently experienced. In ascending toward the sources of the great rivers, the heat is allayed by the elevation of the ground ; and, in many parts of the interior, fertile valleys are found, enjoying a temperate climate, where the vegetables of Europe are matured in the vicinity of those which are indigenous to a tropical soil. In some of the inland districts, indeed, the west wind, passing over vast marshy forests, is found unhealthy ; but these blasts are much corrected by the influence of the aromatic plants. The northern provinces, particularly in March and September, are subject to heavy rains, variable winds, storms, tornadoes, and the utmost fury of the ele- ments, while the southern division of the country is blessed with a settled and temperate climate, and is particularly salubrious. In our account of Peru, we have taken notice of the river of the Amazons. The largest river of Ikazil that is unconnected either with tl' mighty stream or the Plata, is the Francisco, which, after running to lorth- ward for a great distance along the great longitudinal valley at tlie toot of the Brazilian Andes, turns to the east, and falls into the Atlantic after a course of 8.50 miles. The aestuary of La Plata is the great drain for all the central waters south of the tributary streams of the Amazons. The land which divides one of these great rivers from the other, attains its greatest height between 13 and 14 degrees of southern latitude ; and here the Para- guay has its rise. This stream takes the name of the Rio de la Plata (River of Silver), after it has received the Parana, which is formed by the accumulated waters of several extensive valleys. To the southward of the latter river is the Uruguay, which rushes into the Plata near Buenos- Ayres. These three rivers have, in the course of ages, produced some of the most extensive alluvial plains which exist on the face of the globe. Only a comparatively small part of this immense country is cultivated ; but, where the soil has been explored and tried, it appears in general to be highly fertile. Even the sandy soil near the coast promotes the growth of the cocoa-tree to a greater thickness and height than that of India assumes. The wood from which the country derives its name is very hard and heavy, takes a high polish, affords a crimson dye, and is subservient to medi- cinal purposes : the tree to which it belongs is not lofty, but, at a short distance from the ground, spreads out a number of branches in a straggling manner. Various trees resembling the oak and larch, and many others which are useful for ship-building and cabinet-work, thrive remarkably. There is a species of palm tree, which has long, serrated, lancet-formed leaves, composed of a multitude of fibres, almost equal to silk in fineness and in strength. The tea- plant is cultivated with success; the sugar-cane flourishes ; and, from the fine grapes which are produced, good wine might be made with proper care and attention. Maize, beans, and cassava, the ordinary food of the inferior people, are Rbundantly furnished ; as ars ' -JCii 858 BRAZIL. also yams and rice. The cotton plant supplies the merchants with a G;ood article of exportation : they also export hides to a large aiMo.:nt. tobacco, coffee, drugs, dye-woods, and other commodities, for which they receive all kinds of European manufactures, beside corn, wine, and oil. Animals.] The woody |)arts of the country abound with wild beasts, among which the most ferocious are the hysena, jaguar, ounce, wolf, tiger- cat, and saratu, an animal resembling a fox. Wild hogs arc common, hut they do not particularly molest the people. The largest (piadriiped is the tapir, which is in form like a hog, but grows to the size of a heifer : it is amphibious, and dives to the bottom of a lake or a pool, where it re- mains a long time without respiring. It is timid and harmless, and is easily killed by the hunters, who feed upon its flesh, which, they say, differs little in taste from that of an o\. The domestic animals are gene- rally of the Euro|>ean sjjecies, having sprung from those which were in- troduced by the first settlers. Of the birds, the largest is the emu or ostrich, the fiercest is the vulture, and the smallest is the humming bird. The parrots and maccaws of Brazil are well known ; and many other birds with brilliant plumage haunt the fi«!ld8 and the forests. Of the reptiles the most formidable is the boa constrictor, a serpent as long and large as that species which is the pest of Surinam : it will so distend itself as to swallow a young bull entire. Chief towns, rorui.ATioN, man vers.] The capital of Brazil was San-Salvador, frequently called Bahia. Its harbour is one of the finest in the world. The upper town is built on a high and steep rock, having the sea on one side, while a lake, forming a crescent, invests it almost wholly, so as nearly to join tiie sea, on the other. Its natural situ- ation is very strong, and it is well fortified by art. The population was calculated, in 1803, at 100,000, and we believe that it is not much less at present. The present capital is San-Sebastiano, usually called Rio Janeiro. Its style of building is in general mean, resembling that of the old division of Lisbon; but many parts are constructed in a better style, and the recent improvements are striking. When i Ik! late king of Portugal began to re- side within its precincts, its population did not exceed 1 00,000 ; but the number of pei-sons who emigrated with liim, and the extraordinary aflhix of foreigners, greatly swelled the amount. The opening of this and other porta gave a stimulus to commerce ; the markets were better su|)plic(l ; conveniences fell more within the reach of the common people; white servants Wv.t more generally seen ; and the black slaves were treated with comparative mildness and humanity. The j>ln,c;e then began to as- sume the appearance of an European city ; the idea of a colony seemed no longer to be entertained ; and Portugal became, as it wore, a province of Brazil. The imperial palace is unworthy of the dignity m the sovereign, being small, ill-built, and inconvenient. The bishop's palace is superior to it in every respect except that of internal decoratio ; but the cathedral in which he presides is a low, plain, and mean-looking edifice, and the churches in general are neither splendid nor elegant. In some of the squares are fountains supplied with water by a noble aqueduct, built in imitation of that which John V. erected near Lisbon. The harbour is large, secure, and commodious, and the trade of the town is particularly flourishing. In 1817,the exports, in the five chiefarticles (sugar, coffee, cot- ton,hide8, and tobacco), amounted to 1,3.'50,000 pounds sterling, and they are at present considerably more valuable, while the imports are much less. BRAZIL. 859 The chiof town of the province of Pernambuco is next in commercial importance to the two cities wliicli we have just mentioned. It compre- hends Olinda, built about tl»o year l.Oll.G, and llecife, erected by the Dutcli under the government of prince Maurice. Tlio former division is finely Hituated, but is far from being bo well-built or so populous as the latter. Both parts contain an aggregate of 70,000 persons, of whom the whites nearly form a third part. Para, formerly called Belcm, is a well-built, populous, and flourishing city, situated in one of the (iiieHt and most fertile provinces of the empire. It is annually visited by tradorn from Liverpool, who carry off its drugs, gums, spices, hides, and timber. Some of its inhabitants are exj)ert ship- builders; many are skilful in other branches of art ; and the rest of the people aru daily shaking off that indolence which ntarked them a few years The city of Santo- Paulo deserves notice, not only becaiige it is the old- est in Brazil, but for the strength, activity, and enterprising spirit of the male inhabitants, and the uncommon beauty and gracefulness of tho fe- males. The town, indeed, is not well-built ; nor does it flourish in point of trade; but the population exceeds 27,000, and ease, comfort, and gaiety, appear to prevail. The ]K)pulation of the whole empire is supposed to amount to four mil- lions, the slaves being included in the calculation. The Europeans and the Creoles do not bear the best characters ; for they are represented aa proud and haughty in their deportment ; insincere in conversation, and nut altogether honest in dealing ; Kometimos meanly penurious, at other times extravagantly juofuse ; dissolute and unchaste, much more fond of show, slate, and attendance, than of tho pleasures of free society ; ex- tremely indolent, and disinclined to mental improvement, and to all those studies which require, for due proficiency, a length of time and a steadi- ness of patience. Some of the harsh outlines of this portrait appear to have been softened in the progress of the late revolution ; and there is one point which may be mentioned as creditable to their characters: — though they continue the slave-trade, they treat their slaves with lenity, and suffer those degraded beings to enjoy, in general, tho comforts of life. Slavery in Brazil (says Mr. Southey) has mitigations which are unknown in the British colonial islands. With regard to their persons, the men have neither the look of health nor of strength; and the women, though pretty in their youth, derive from their secluded and indolent habits, and frequently from early marriage, a disagreeable corpulence, and, like the women of Scotland, lose all their beauty before they reach the age of twenty-five years. 'I"he men dress chiefly in the European mode ; and the ladies, more particularly in the capital, also begin to follow our costimie ; but, in private, they arc insuHi- ciently and even immodestly clothed, appearing to their familiar friends with only a chemise, tied round the waist by the strings of a petticoat. Both sexes are attached to music, and the guitar is the favorite instrument, though the piano-forte is rising into vogue among the ladies. They are not very fond of theatrical amusements, and the drama is therefore in an unre- fineid state even in the most populous towns. Religious festivals and pro« cessions are more numerously attended, and an air of pious zeal is then exhi- bited. When the gentry appeared abroad on these and on other occasions, they caused themselves to be earned out in a kind of hammock, called ser- pentine, and were thus borne on the shoulders of negroes, by the help of a bamboo about twelve or fourteen feet long. Most of these hammocks were blue, and adprned wUb IVinges of the same color : they had a velvet pillow, m 860 BRAZIL. and a kind of tester, with curtains ; so that the person carried could not be seen, unless he wished to show himself, but might either lie down, or sit up leaning on his pillow. When he had a wish to be seen, he pulled the curtains aside, and saluted his friends whom he met in the streets ; for they used to take pride in complimenting each other in their hammocks, and would even hold long conferences in them ; but then the two slaves who car- ried them made use of a strong staff, with an iron fork at the upper end and pointed below with iron : this they stuck fast in the ground, and rested the bambooon two of these, until the conversation wasconcluded. Scarcely any man of fashion, or lady, would pass the streets without being carried in this manner ; but this mode of conveyance is now giving way to the uso of a cabriolet or chaise. Many of the indigenous tribes of Brazil are not in full subje-'tion to the Portuguese, against whom, in the inland parts, they occasionally rise with fierce animosity Against one of the tribes in the eastern part of the em- pire the charge of canibalism is still adduced, but it does not appear to be fully proved. The appellation of Botocudo has been given to this tribe by the Portuguese, in consequence of the strange habit of inserting, more for ornament than convenience, a circular piece of wood in each ear and in the lower lip. These savages are strong and well-proportioned, and, though they have high cheek-bones, small eyes, and thick lips, have not such unpleasing countenances as many of the other tribes exhibit. They have strong, jet-black, shining hair ; many eradicate the eye-brows and the beard, and the women are such determined enemies to hair, that they discard it entirely. The latter wear necklaces of hard berries or the teeth of animals, and some of the chiefs wear a sort of feathered diadem. Every man attaches a knife to his neck by a cord ; and a bow and arrows are also among theij ordinary implements. When they are engaged in hunting, they are capable of great physical exertion ; but, at other times, they are remarkably indolent. When they associate with the civilised provincials, they will submit to the trouble of being clothed ; but, in their own districts, they go entirely naked. They construct tolerable huts, but do not sleep in nets or hammocks, like most of the Brazilian tribes, being content with reposing on the ground, the bark of a tree supplying them with a rude bed. In a moral respect, they are not the worst of the tribes ; and, however ferocious they may be, they are not wholly destitute of the feelings of domestic affection, of friendship, gratitude, or compassion. They bury their dead in or near a hut, and then abandon the spot. They attribute to the moon a wonder-working power in the system of nature, have a tradition of a general deluge, and believe in the existence and ma> lignant practices of demons. The Patachoes are as brave, but not so fierce, as the Botocudoes. They compose a numerous tribe of naked savages, rude and uncouth in their manners, and particularly unwilling to be on friendly terms with the pro- vincials, with whoH), however, they are glad to barter their trifling com- modities for knives and red handkerchiefs. In the province of Matto-Grosso we find the Guaycurues, a powerful tribe, consisting of three divisions, hostile to each other. Three classes constitute the community, — a species of noblesse, the subordinate war- riors, and captives. The women are usually covered with a mantle of colored cotton, which is fastened Ly a broad girdle, while the men have no other clothing than a belt of tl e same cloth. Many of the for- mer encompass their necks, arms, and legs, with ornaments of silver or shells, and the latter wear feathers of • arious hues for the purpose of deco- ration. The men are diligent in hunting, fishing;, gathering honey and BRAZIL. 861 wild frultfl, and in tlie manufacture of arms and canoes, while the females spin, make clothing, cords, and mats. Pasturage is preferred to agricul- ture, which, indeed, they despise. To avoid the trouble consequent on a large family, not only recourse is had to the means of procuring abortion, but even the guilt of infanticide is contracted. While the Guaycurues chiefly dwell in the open country, the woods which border on various streams flowing into the Parana, are inhabited by the Cahans, a half-civilised tribe, supposed to be the descendants of the people who were converted and enslaved by the Jesuits of Paraguay. They still have some practices bordering on barbarism, but retain a sense of re- ligion and morality. History and oovehnment.] A Spaniard named Pinzon, who accompanied Columbus on his first voyage, crossed the equator in the year 1500, and reached the coast of Brazil, to the southward of Pernam- buco. He took formal possession of the adjacent country, but did not make any settlement. In the same year, Cabral, who was sent from Portugal to India for the purposes of conquest and colonisation, sailed so far to the westward, to avoid the calms which prevailed near the African coast, that he unexpectedly found himself on the shores of South -America. To the place where he landed he gave the appellation of Porto- Seguro; but it is now, in honor of him, called Cabralia. Americo Vespuccio afterwards disembarked on this coast, and commenced a friendly inter- course with the natives, whom he soon found to be canibals. A settle- ment was formed in the year 1503; but the hostilities of the natives checked its progress, and it was not before the year 1 549 that a regular plan of colonisation took place under the auspices of John III. Thomas , de Souza, being then appointed governor-general, was ordered to build and fortify a city, which was to be called San-Salvador; and, near the Bay of All-Saints, he carried the royal mandate into effect. The colo- nists, at first, met with some interruption from the king of Spain, who considered the whole continent of South- America as belonging to him. The dispute, however, was at length accommodated ; and it was agreed that the Portuguese should possess all the country between the rivers Amazon and Plata. The French also made s ime attempts to plant colo- nies on this coast, but were expelled by the Portuguese, who remained without a rival till the year 1578, when, in t\ie meridian of their prospe- rity, they felt one of those severe blows which generally decide the fate of kingdoms. Don Sebastian lost his life in an expedition against the Moors ; and by that event the Portugoiese lost their independence, and became the subjects of his catholic majesty. The Dutch, soon after this, having thrown off the Spanish yoke, and not being satisfied with supporting their independence by a successful defensive war, but flushed with the ju- venile ardor of a growing commonwealth, pursued the Spaniards into their remotest territories, and became rich, powerful, and formidable, by the spoils of their former masters. They particularly attacked the possessions of the Portuguese ; they took almost all their fortresses in the East Indies, and then turned their arms upon Brazil, where they reduced seven of the captainships or provinces, and would have subdued the rest, if their career had not been stopped by the archbishop, at the head of his monks, and a few scattered troops. The Dutch were, about the year 1654, entirely driven out of Brazil ; but their West India company still continuing their pretensions to this country, and harassing the Portuguese at sea, the latter agreed, in 1601, to pay the Dutch eight tons of gold, for a renun- ciation of their interest in that territory. Frona that time to the year 1807, nothing particoJarly memorable I-li W :i;.; I: .., ■ ^1 V'l i VI 863 BRAZIL. occurred in the history of Brazil ; but, as tlic ambitious violence of the French then menace'' Portugal with subjugation, the regent of that realm (afterwards John VI.) adopted a resolution, which had been frequently suggested, of retiring witli his court beyond the Atlantic, to a country which his enemies, for want of maritime power, would be obliged to leave unassailed. Having collected his ships of war, he bade adieu to his European realm, and, on his arrival at San-Salvador, was received with the loudest expressions of joy. Transferring to Rio-Janeiro the dignity of the capital, he resided in this city for some years, and improved by judicious regulations the state of the country. In 1815 he elevated Brazil to the rank of a kingdom, and seemed to be more interested in its prosperity than in that of his old realm ; but, when the revolution '^ad broken out in Portugal, he was induced, in 1821, to return to Lisbon. The Brazilians were now so sensible of their consequence and their power, that they resolved toshakeoff all dependence on Portugal; and, when the king's son, don Pedro, acted as viceroy, they urged him to resist the views and intentions of the popular leaders at Lisbon, who hoped to reclaim them to colonial subjection. The prince was now recalled to Europe by the ruling assembly, but refused to quit Brazil, and concurred with the people in sending away the Portuguese troops. It was the general wish that a representative government should be organised in the new kingdom, and a decree was therefore promulgated by the prince for the election of burgesses and provincial deputies. Being menaced with war by the Portuguese, the leading Brazilians testified their resentment by disclaiming all political connexion with the mother-country, and even conferred the imperial dignity on don Pedro, who, when he received the new crown, bound himself by oath to defend with his sword the country, the people, and the expected constitution. This settlement, however, was not universally approved, because it was the wish of many that a republic should be established. Intestine commotions now arose: some of the richest churches of San-Salvador were stripped of their plate by the roal-content party, and the public chest was carried off. Lord Cochrane, •who had been api>ointed admiral of Brazil, intercepted several ships in their retreat from the bay, but had no opportunity of recovering the spoils of the city. Para was, at the same time, convulsed with all the acrimony of dissension. Three parties contended for pre-eminence ; — the republicans, the adherents of don Pedro, and the friends of Portugal. Many rioters, aided by a military force, committed brutal outrages in the town, until a body of seamen, detached by lord Cochrane, acted in defence of social order. A number of volunteers joined the sailors, and reduced the disturbers of the public peace to full submission. Five of the rioters were instantly shot, and about 150 were sent to a prison-ship, which, with its former inmates, contained 250 men, including a few Europeans. Of the whole number, it is said, only four remained alive on tlie ensuing morning, after a mutual massacre of the most savage nature. By the new constitution, which was completed in 1824, the govern- ment was declared to be an hereditary and representative monarchy ; a senate was to be formed by popular election, and its members were to enjoy their dignity for their lives; deputies, of twice the number of the se- nators, were to be chosen for four years ; but the emperor might dissolve this branch of the legislature whenever he might think proper, though he was bound to order new elections without delay: the civil and political rights of all the citizens (among whom, however, slaves were not included) were pronounced inviolable : the judicial power was rendered perlectly in- dependent, so faith was state ship were to bi At the time revenue, whic had been less millions sterlir 50,000 compos This extenslv [ English, Frencl geographers: bi the west, and to Atlantic and thi government is S are Ciudad-Rea province is verj among the interi. an immense vail «ea near the gu in a year; for it for one month, i is attributed to tl Dates. British Guian and Berbice. 'J and the last on J cultivation, even Hollanders. M, wtablished in 16 a state of great i are much more vs new possessors, w seemingly borrows wffee, cotton, suj blacks and people Savage tribes are the colonists are i they are urged by They rarely wear '^ist ; and this, •"•ads or other orn in an arbitrary an compel them to p* barbarians, the po Dutch Guiana to the English, bul lands were obtaint »nd the chief settl ''I'nisPanuaaiiU GUIANA. m dependent, so as tosecure'the impartiality of law ; and, while the Romish faith was stated to be the religion of the empire, all other modes of wor- ship were to be tolerated, though not allowed to be publicly solemnised. At the time when this constitution began to take eft'ect, the publio revenue, which, when John VI. commenced his residence in Brazil, had been less than 000,000 pounds, nearly reached the sum of four millions sterling : the regular army amounted to 27,500 men, and ^0,000 composed the militia. GUIANA. ^Wk This extensive country is divided among the Spaniards, Portuguese, English, French, and Dutch. The Spanish portion is variously given by geographers : but it seems to be bounded by the Orinoco on the north and the west, and to extend on the south to the river Negro, while it has the Atlantic and the British and Dutch Guiana on the east. The seat of government is San-Tom^, or Old Guiana; the other considerable towns are Ciudad-Real, Maypurea, and Real-Corona. The population of the province is very scanty, not far exceeding 35,000. The river rises among the interiormountainsof the province of Caracas, and flows through an immense valley, receiving many tributary streams, until it reaches the sea near the gulf of Paria. It is remarkable for rising and falling once in a year ; for it gradually rises during five months, and is then stationary for one month, after which it falls for five months. This phsenomenon u attributed to the rains that fall on the mountains from which it origi- nates. British Guiana comprehends the three colonies of Essequibo, Demcrara, and Berbice. The first borders on the country occupied by the Caribs, and the last on Surinam. These three settlements flourish in point of cultivation, even more than they did when they were possessed by the Hollanders. M. de Pradt says, that the colony of Berbice, which was Mtablished in 1626, has, after passing through various hands, fallen into a state of great weakness ; and he adds, that Essequibo and Demerara are much more valuable : but the first has also been greatly improved by its new possessors, who have peopled and brought into use an extensive tract seemingly borrowed from the sea. The principal objects of cultivation are coffee, cotton, sugar, and rice. Almost the whole population consists of blacks and people of color ; but the chief power is exercised by the whites. Savage tribes are dispersed over the country. They are as indolent as the colonists are industrious; for they only have recourse to labor when they are urged by the necessity of procuring fresh supplies of sustenance. They rarely wear any other apparel than a piece of cloth tied round the waist ; and this, by the women, is sometimes decorated in the front with beads or other ornaments. The men practise polygamy, treat their wives in an arbitrary and imperious manner, watch them with jealous eyes, and compel them to perform the most laborious tasks. Exclusive of these barbarians, the population may be estimated at 70,000. Dutch Guiana includes the colony of Surinam, which once belonged to the English, but was given up to the Hollanders when the New-Nether- lands were obtained by Great-Britain. The interior parts are ill-peopled, Ind the chief settlements arc not very distant from the sea. The chief town is Paramaribo, inhabited l^ 5000 persons. It stands on the Surinam 1 L« iih 864 GUIANA. river, and is a place of considerable trade. " The eye (says M. do Pradt) contemplates with surprise and jileasure the wonderful effecU of the patience and perseverance of the Dutch, who, striving against naturu itself, have converted a marshy country infested with reptiles into a chi'er- ful abode. Never did people submit to more painful labor; but they have received the reward of it in the prosperous cxtcnsinn of tlicir agriculture for more than twenty leagues." The progress of interior cul- tivation, however, is checked by the occasional hostilities of the savages, who cannot patiently submit to the continued intrusion of strangers, and who are sometimes joined by negro rcvolters ; and ail the elTorts of the Europeans are incapable of rendering this country a desirable abode. In some expeditions against the insurgents, the soldiers have been obliged to march almost up to their necks in water. The climate is very unhealthy; venomous insects, and the most mischievous serpents, harass and alarm the colonists; vampires suck their blood when they are sleep- ing; and wild beasts augment the danger to which they arc exposed. The chief productions of the country are cotton, flax, coflee, sugar, tobacco, and dyeing-drugs. All the towns and forts in this province were taken by the English with little diiliculty, in the year 1804; but they were restored by that treaty which closed the war. French Guiana extends 3U0 miles to the north of the Portuguese di- vision. The French began to colonise this country about the year UJlll; but, for twenty years, tlie settlers made very small progress. Many of the Buccaneers, in ranging along the coast, cast an eager eye upon this spot, and were apparently inclined to put an end to their wanderings, when they thought of plundering Surinam. They failed in that enter- prise, and were driven by the French from their possessions in Cayenne. This is the name of an island which borders on the coast uf Guiana ; but the appellation is sometimes given to the whole French i)rovince. The island is about forty-five miles in circuit. Its air is unhealthy, and the soil poor. The chief town is fortified with walls and bastions ; hut it is ill-built and weakly garrisoned. When the French were dispossessed of Canada, they sent 9000 persons to compensate that loss by the improvement of the colony of Cayenne: but the greater part of the number perished miserably in the rainy season, for want of the common conveniences and comforts of life. The island and its dependencies were taken by the English and Portuguese, in 1809, but were restored with some augmentation at the peace. The Oyapoc was then made the boundary between French and Portu- guese Guiana. From the mouth of that river, M. Bodin, a French ofli- cer, set out in the year 1824 for a discovery of its source. In his progress lig met with the tribe of tho Oyampis, and exacted from their chieftain an oath of allegiance to the king of France. He found that they cul- tivated the cotton plant with success, and that in other respects they were usefully employed ; but he conceived an unfavorable idea of their dispositions, when he observed a tree of which tho sap and the leaves were poisonous. From this source, he had reason to believe, they de- rived the means of rendering their arrows more decisively fatal. Portuguese Guiana is scantily peopled and imperfectly known. It ex- tends 900 miles from east to west, but is not proportionally broad. The remotest station to the west is the fort of St. Joseph, on the left bank of the Rio Negro. Between this fort and Lamalonga, about 350 miles below, there are seventeen small towns or villages, chiefly occupied by natives ■who have been half'-civilised by the Portuguese ccclcsiatics. The town which takes its name from the river, is rendered iu some degree floiuish- AMERICAN ISLANDS. 8G5 iog by manufactures and trade. The Japura fertilises a part of this pro- vince, but ito more contributes to its salubrity than the great Amazonian river, which infects the air witii it» slimy deposits. Montalegre is a con- (iderable town in the eastern division, and the neighbouring country is fertile and well cultivated: the cluve-tree in said to prosper iu this district. AMERICAN ISLANDS, BELONGING TO DIFFERENT POWERS. In the West-Indies, the largest island is Cun.\, which still belongs to the declining and feeble monarchy of Spain. It was conquered by a very small army under Velasvjuex, in 1^11. It is divided by a chain of mountains, from which, it is said, above a hundred streams pour down into the plains, some of them contributing gold to the avidity of the colo- nists. At the foot of each mountain, the country opens into extensive meadows, which afford abundant pasture to numerous herds of animals, both wild and tame. The air is less sultry than that of Hispaniola, be- ing cooled by the breezes from the nor!' and east. July, August, and lometimes September, are rainy months : the rest of the year, with the exception of a short winter, resembles a continued spring. The products are maize, manioc, aloes, cassia, mastic, coffee, ginger, sugar, honey, and the best tobacco. The country does not abound with mineral riches ; but it appears, that some mines of copper and iron have been discovered. Havanna is the seat of government, and is so well fortified, that the Spa- niards consider it as impregnable : but, if a new war should arise, the English would probably again convince them of their error. The houses of this city, in general, have only two floors, and are usually painted with tome bright color. All the good houses are built in the following mode: a gallery, surrounded by a piazza, extends around the first floor, and forms, with the court below, a place of recreation in the evening, and a shelter from the heat during the day. The inhabitants are gay, and fond of amusement. Balis, plays, bull-fights, and other diversions, alternately enliven them ; and the drawing of the national lottery, which takes place in every month, is so conducted as to resemble a fair or a festival. The men who compose the lower classes, — namely, the common Spaniards, the people of color, free negroes, and slaves, — are in general very disso- lute and unprincipled ; and the city (says Mr. Howison) " is the scene of more outrages and daring crimes than any other of its size in the civi- lised world." The population of the whole island is supposed to amount to 410,000. PoRTO-iiico was reduced under the Spanish yoke, by Ponce de Leon, about the year 1509. k is beautifully diversified with woods, valleys, and plains ; and is very fertile in the usual products of the West- Indies. It was on account of the gold that the Spaniards settled here ; but there is no longer any considerable quantity of this metal found in it. The capital stands in a small island on the north side, forming a capacious harbour, joined to the chief island by a causey, and defended by forts and batteries, which render the town almost inaccessible. It was, however, taken by sir Francis Drake, and afterwards by the earl of Cumberland i if 1 1 i^ li i 1 y :■ \ i 1 t. i il i '; i r.i: ^ K- 1 866 AMERICAN ISLANDS. but not retained. This island is tio longer in the humble state of a Spanish colony ; for the people, some years ago, shook oiF the degrading yoke. Hayti, the Hispaniola of Columbus, (also called ST. DOMINGO,) was for a long poriud possessed by the Spaniards alone ; but the Bucca- neers subsequently settled on various parts of the coast, and the treaty of Ryswick gave an establishment to a French colony, with which the pira- tical adventurers were incorporated. The face of the island presents an agreeable variety of hills, valleys, woods, and rivers, and the Koil is exceedingly fertile, abundantly producing sugar, coffee, cotton, tobacco, maize, and cassava. The European cattle have Ix^come so numerous here, that they run wild in the woods, and, as in South-America, are hunted for their hides and tallow only. In the most barren parts of the rocks silver and gold were formerly discovered ; but the colonists are now content with procuring those metals in the way of trade. The most ancient town in this island, and in all the New World, built by Europeans, is St. Domingo. It was founded in 1504 by Bar- tholomew Columbus, who gave it that name in honor of his father Dominic. It is situated on a spacious harbour, and is a large well- built city. While the French continued to occupy the most fruitful part of the island, the town which took its name from Cape Fraofois, situated on the northern coast, was their capital. It stood on the borders of a well-watered and highly-cultivated plain, 50 miles long and ten in breadth, intersected by straight and wide roads, lined with hedges of lemon and lime-trees, leading to plantations which produced a greater quantity of sugar than any other spot of the same extent in the world. Before the year 1793, it had a ])opulation of 8000 ; but it was then set on fire amidst the commotions of the colony, and the white inhabitants were massacred by the negro revolters, who were encouraged to insflrrec- tion by the affected zeal of the national assembly of France for the emancipation of all slaves. After the French division of the island had been for some years convulsed with civil war, the English inconsiderately interfered, and took possession of various {losts; but, after a creadful loss of men in that sultry and unhealthy climate, they at length aban- doned their acquisitions. An African, who had received the French name of Toussaint I'Ouverture, was afterwards invested with the chief command of the negroes and mulattocs. He ap])ears to have been a man of some ability, and to have exercised his authority in many in- stances with prudence and moderation Bonaparte sent out an armament to reduce him to a state of dependence upon France, and restore order in the colony. After several encounters, the negro chief was induced to submit, and to accept terms apparently favorable : but the French per- fidiously seised him, under an ill-founded charge of treacherous prac- tices, and sent him to France, where he perished in a dungeon. The other black chiefs who had submitted (Christojdic and Dessalines) saved themselves by flight ; the negroes and mulattoes again liew to arms, and the French troops rapidly fell victims to the climate. The survivors were given up as prisoners to a British fleet ; and Dessalines obtained the chief sway. When that tyrant had lost his life by the indignation which his conduct had provoked, Christophe assumed the title and authority of a king ; and this adventurer was not so unenlightened as to neglect the means of promoting the civilisation of his people ; for he endea- voured to subject them to the restraints of judicious laws, and esta- blished a number of schools for their instruction. For his occasional AMERICAN ISLANDS. 867 crueltie*, however, he deservedly suffered, in 1820, tho fate of hU pre- decessor. The French had obtained, from tlio iting of Spain, a cession of lii^ division of the island ; but tbey only so far profited by it, as to keep tho city of St. Domingo for a few years. It was tlion ru-taken by the Spa- niards, who were assisted on that occasion by Britisli troops. Whpn tho revolutionists of Colombia had shaken off tlio Spanish yoke, the inhald- taiitJ« seemed desirous of placinir their town under the protection of tho new state; but, before any stipulations of that kind wou adjusted, Boyer, wlio had raised himself to tho chief power, under tho title of president, found an opportunity of annexing tliat part of the island to the territories of the Haytian republic. In 1825, he purchased of tho French king, for 6,250,000 pounds sterling, a renunciation of all claims to the sovereignty of tlie island. This supposed net of justice was far from being expected by tho less honest politicians of Europe ; and ho was therefore censured for his profuse liberality. To please bis new friends, he at the same time deprived tho British merchants of that favor and preference which they had for some years enjoyed at Port-au-Prince and nti.ei ports of the island. Martinique is about 120 mlles to the north-west of Bnrbadoes, and is distinguished at a considerable distance by a lofty mountain near the centre. From its hills are poured out, on every side, agreeable and useful rivers, which adorn and enrich it in a high degree. The products of the soil are cotton, indigo, tobacco, ginger, and the finest fruit: but sugar is the principal commodity, of which a great quantity is exported annually. The bays and harbours are numerous, and so well fortified, that they used to bid defiance to all attacks. However, in tho war that commenced in the year 1755, when the English arms were triumph- ant in every quarter of the globe, this island was added to the British empire ; but it was given back at the treaty of peace. It was again taken in 1794, but restored to the French by the treaty of Amiens. A subsequent seisure was also followed by restitution. The island contains some well-built towns ; and St. Pierre, in parti- cular, makes a better appearance than Fort-Royal, the capital. The in- habitants are gay, lively, frank, and generous, but proud, arbitrary, and lelf- willed. GUADALOUPE scarcely yields to Martinique in value, or import- ance. It is about 75 miles to the south of Antigua, and is divided into two parts oy a small arm of the sea, or rather a narrow channel, through which no ships can venture ; but the inhabitants pass it in a ferry-boat. Itssoii is equally fertile with that of 31artiniquc, and the produce is of the same kind. The island is in a flourishing state, and its exports of sugar are very abundant. In 1759 it was reduced by tho British arms, but was given back at the peace of 1763. It was captured in 1794, but eva- cuated a few months afterward. When it had fallen into our hands in the last war, it was transferred to the Swedes, in return for their siccession to the grand confederacy against France ; and, when it was deemed expe- dient to conciliate the French by a restoration of their principal colonies, we kindly gave the Swedes a million sterling, that they might be induced to relinquish the island with a good grace. The isle of ST. BARTHOLOMEW, which the French resigned in 1785, is the only spot in the West-Indies possessed by the Swedes ; and 3 K 2 t '1 868 AMERICAN ISLANDS. it is so small and sterile, that the ac(iiiisition appears to be one of very little value. The produce is confined to a small quantity of cotton, by the sale of which the poor in the interior principally subsist. Sour-sops, prickly pears, and some other wild fruits, grow here spontaneously, as also a few tamarind'trees, and the poisonous manchineel in great abund- ance. ST. EUSTATIUS, or EUSTATIA, ^hree leagues north-west of St. Christopher's, makes a remarkable appearance, as it rises out of the sea in the form of a huge pyramidal rock. The sides of the mountain are dis< posed in pleasant settlements ; but the inhabitants have neither springs nor rivers. They raise sugar and tobacco, and rear hogs, goats, and poul- try, in such abundance, that they can supply their neighbours as well as themselves. The population is said to exceed 20,000, of whom the whites com;*' ?-i X fourth part. The island has a bay, but no harbour; and theie is only one landing-place, which is therefore well fortified. The Dutch, in various wars with the English, have been dispossessed of this settle- ment; but they have never failed to recover it on the return of peace. CURASAO is likewise a colonial dependency upon the kingdom of the Netherlands. It seems as if it were fated, that the ingenuity and patience of the Hollanders should every where, both in Europe and America, be employed in fighting against an unfriendly nattire ; for this island is not only barren, and dependent on the rains for water, but the harbour is na- turally one of the worst in America. Yet they have in a great measure remedied that defect ; and they have, upon this harbour, one of the best towns in the West Indies. Tlie public buildings are handsome, the pri- vate houses commodious, and the magazines large, convenient, and well- filled. All kind of labor is here performed by engines, some of them being 80 well contrived, that ships are at once lifted into the dock. The island produces a considerable quantity both of tobacco and sugar; it has also good salt-works, for the produce of which there is a brisk demand from the English islands, and the colonies on the continent. SAINTE CROIX, or SANTA CRUZ, and the isle of SAINT THOMAS, while they remained in the hands of the Danish West-India company, were ill managed, and of little consequence to the Danes; but, when the king had purchased the company's stock, and laid the trade open, both islands began to flourish, and they are now in a high state of cuhiva- tion. They were taken by the English in 1801, but were restored a few months afterwards. They were again captured in consequence of the war which followed the seisure of the Danish fleet in 1 807 ; but they were re- placed under their former government in 1814, when the Danes had con- sented to give up Norway to our Swedish allies. Passing along the eastern coast of South-America, we find, almost at the southern extremity of that region, The FALKLAND or MALOTJIN islands, which were disrovorcd by Sir Richard Hawkins in l.'J94. The name of Falkland was [^'obahly given to them by captain Strong, in 1639; but the French call them tlic Ma- louin islands, from the people of St. Malo, whom they consider as the dis- coverers. Tlipy occasioned a contest between Spain and Great Britain ; but, being of very little worth, they were abandoned by the latter in 1774, j to avoid giving umbrage to the Spanish court. AMERICAN ISLANDS. 8G9 The island which the Spaniards call TIERRA DEL FUEGO derived its name from the volcanoes observed upon it. It is separated from the main-laud of South-America by that strait which was explored by Ma- galhaens, a Portuguese adventurer in the service of Spain, who sailed through it in 1 .020, and thus discovered a passage from the Atlantic to the Pacific ocean. He has been since considered as the first navigator that sailed round the world : but, as he lost his life in a skirmish with some savages before the ships returned to Europe, the honor of being the first circumnavigator is more ])roperly assigned to Sir Francis Drake, w'ho, in 1574, passed the same strait in his way to India, whence he returned to Europe by the Cape of Good Hope. In 161(), Le Maire, a Dutchman, keeping to the southward of that strait, discovered, between the isle called Staten-Iand and Tierra del Fuego, another passage, since known by his name ; and this route, which has been generally preferred by succeeding navigators, is called the doubling of Cape-Horn. Some mariners were induced to avoid these straits and islands, by running down to Gl or 62 degrees of southern latitude, before they uet their faces westward, to the South-Sea ; but both passages seem now to have lost their terrors. Of the people of this dreary and inclement spot, the latest account is given by captain Weddell, who, in quest of new fisheries and a new con- tinent or an extensive island, proceeded, in 1823, 214 geographical miles farther to the southward than any r'eceding adventurer. When he had reached the latitude of 74 degrees, -. ,vas stopped in his course by the prevalence of a south wind, and was iiierefore induced to return, enter- taining, however, a confident opinion that the South Pole is more attain- able than the North. The latter, he says, has a great deal of land about it, which generates field ice, while the former, though in a hemisphere proportionally colder than the northern, exhibits a sea perfectly free from field ice in a latitude equal to 84 degrees in the north. The only animals which he observed "n tliis part of his voyage were birds of the blue petrel kind and whales. Having given to this part of the ocean the denomi- nation of George the Fouith's Sea, he sailed to Tierra del Fuego, and anchored in St. Rlartin's Cove. The natives were filled with amazement at the sight of the vessels, and fear at first prevented them from approach- ing ; but some of them at last ventured on board. These islanders, he says, " are of low stature, rarely exceeding five feet five inches. They have small eyes, flat noses, small arms, full and well-formed chests ; their legs are ill-shaped, in consequence perhaps of the custom of sitting on their calves, in which position their appearance is truly aukward. The women are better-featured than the men ; many of their faces are inter- esting ; and, in my opinion, they have a more lively sense of what passef. The only clothing which the males wear is a skin over their shoulders, reaching little more than half-way down the back ; some have not evtn this sorry garment, The females have generally larger skins over their shoulders, and are in other respects clothed as decency requires." The women seem to do almost all the work that is deemed requisite. They construct the huts ; they paddle the canoes, while the men sit at their ease ; collect shell-fish for the sustenance of the family ; and make baskets of plaited grass. With regard to their mode of living, they appear to have every thing in common ; no system of government prevails among them ; and their families live in nuUual friendship, in a state of patriarchal simplicity. Beyond Cape Horn, as we proceed northward in the Great South-Sea, we arrive at CHILOE, which has some harbours well fortified. It is si- 870 AMERICAN ISLANDS. tuated near the coast of Chile, and is about 120 miles long, and 30 broad. It is the chief island of a considerable groupe, about forty in number thirty of which are inhabited by Europeans, Creoles, mulattoes, and con- verted natives of the old Chilean race. The land is mountainous, and covered in many parts with almost impenetrable thickets. The rains are frequent and excessive, and are sometimes accompanied with tremendous hurricanes. Castro was formerly the chief town ; but San-Carlos after- wards became the seat of government. Chiloe remained in the pos- session of the king of Spain for many years after the revolutionists had organised the Chilean state ; but it was at length reduced by the vigor of their arms. About 300 miles to the west from the coast of Chile is an island called JUAN FERNANDES from the adventurer by whom it was first disco- vered. It is famous for having given rise to the celebrated romance of Robinson Crusoe. It seems that one Alexander Selkirk, a Nortii-Briton, was left on this solitary spot by his captain, where he lived some years, until he was discovered by captain Woodes Rogers in 1 709. When taken up, he had forgotten hisnativelanguage, and could scarcely be understood, seeming to speak his words by halves. He was dressed in the skin of a goat, would drink nothing but water, and it was some time before he could relish the ship's victuals. During his abode in this island he had killed 500 goats, which he caught by running them down ; and he marked as many more on the ears, which he dismissed. Some of these were caught thirty years after by lord Anson's people ; their venerable aspect, and ma- jestic beards, discovered strong symptoms of antiquity. Selkirk, on his return to England, was advised to publis'. an account of his life and ad- ventures in his little kingdom. He is said to have put his papers into the hands of Daniel Defoe, to prepare them for publication ; but that writer, by the help of these communications and a lively fancy, transformed Alexander Selkirk into Robinson Crusoe, and returned the papers to Sel- kirk ; so that the latter derived no advantage from them. They were probably too indigested for publication, and Defoe might derive little from them but those hints which gave rise to his own celebrated performance. This island was colonised by the Spaniards in 1767; and a small town was built and fortified near the north-west point. It is, for the most part, a rocky spot ; but it contains some fertile valleys, abounding with trees. The other islands which claim transient notice are the Galapago Isles, situated four hundred miles west of Peru, under the equator; and those in the Bay of Panama, called the King's or Pearl Islands. The former are so called from the turtles with which they abound : some of them are well-wooded, and others have a fertile soil ; and the climate is more tem- perate than might be expected from their situation. Having thus conducted our readers through the four quarters of the terra(iueou8 globe, we might repose under the idea of a termination of our labors, if we did not consider that some parts of the world, not in- cluded in any one of those great divisions, call for our notice. The terri- tories to wliich we allude are styled Austhalasia and Polynesi.v. ki p i,m. Limiloll niMithnl .Vilv tl'ltt'n hy .1. Mimnuin * XSi^ i . . ^ L ^""^ "^""P -**''-*' :,^^/ '^^^1! i Oponl^iAtmr ihmiu i^ifaum _-^^^--^ i«** JmAtIm-I^ •r;WV* tlniml . ^(S^ THEl regarded seded by i and its pi extent; I tion and i very of tli to be mor parts of tl From thai eastern c( upon an i that appe! of the cor who perhi their guilt their situ? When the for a settle fifteen tn'i miles wide containing whose proj the south ( neck of la rocky, thai sufficient n soil about 1 while other vated n^ith Brazil and Most of th red and bl fruits i^ SOI ash, 8i^.. particidarlj specief of Europ*, ai woodbine ; sembl^g a an usdPul g spear for tl the fufnitu mahogany Fewspe garoo and a head like fore-legs, a springe forv 871 ii AUSTRALASIA. M THE largest island in the world is New-Holland: it may rather bo regarded as a continent. Its former appellation has been lately super- seded by that of Australasia, which implies both its southern situation and its propinquity to Asia. Its inhabitants are few, compared with its extent; but, in the lapse of time, it will undoubtedly flourish in popula- tion and in arts. Some geographers have attributed the original disco- very of this territory to the Spaniards or Portuguese ; but that honor seems to be mQre justly claimed by the Dutch, who, in 1616, surveyed various parts of the coast, and, in 1642, made almost the circuit of the island. From that time it received little notice, until captain Cook explored the eastern coast. As he made a favorable report of the country borderino- upon an. inlet which he called Botany- Bay, from the number of plants that appeared on the spot, it was resolved that a colony should be formed of the convicts of both sexes who filled the prisons of Great- Britain, and who perhaps might be reclaimed by being removed from the scenes of their guilt to a distant country, in which the novelty and exigencies of. their situation might rouse them to the exertions of honest industry. When the first party landed, in 1788, the bay was ibund less advantageous for a settlement than Port Jackson, which is situated at the distance of fifteen faiiles to the northward. From an entrance not more than two miles wide this port gradually extends into a noble and capacious basin, containing a great number of small coves formed by narrow necks of land, whoso projections aiford shelter from the winds. Sydney Cove lies on the south side of the harbour, about five miles from the entrance. The neck of land that forms this cove is mostly covered with wood, yet is so rocky, that it is not easy to comprehend how the trees could have found sufficient nourishment to bring them to so considerable a magnitude. The soil about Port Jackson is of variousqualities. Some parts are very fertile, while others are sandy and barren. Wheat, barley, and maize, are culti- vated nHth success by the colonists ; and various fruit-trees, imported from Brazil |ind the Cape of Good Hope, thrive as well as in their native soil. Most of the indigenous trees are ever-greens, and among these are the red and blue gum-trees, different species of oak, and trees which bear fruits io some degree resembling the ordinary kindsof Europe, the cypress, ash, (M*'. Among the more curious trees and plants found here we may partictdarly mention the lofty cabbage-palm, the gigantic lily, a very strong speciea of vine ; the finger-flower, more beautiful than the fox-glove of Gurop^, and exceedingly fragrant; the purple shell-flower; the scarlet woodbine ; the serrated star-plant ; the fern pine, which bears a fruit re- eembliiig a chesnut ; and a low tree, which bears long coarse grass, exudes an us«ul gum, has flowers full of honey, and furnishes, by its stem, a spear for the natives. The most useful kinds of wood, for building or for the fuNiture of houses, are the red and white cedars, the blue-gum, and mahogany ; but the last is very scarce. Few species of quadrupeds were found by the colonists, beside ilekan- garoo and a wolf-like dog. The former is about the size of a sheep, has a head like that of a deer, a thin and finely proportioned neck, very short fore-legs, and stout and long hind-legs, on which, instead of running, it spring forward. Its general position, when at rest, is that of standing on its :l| 872 AUSTRALASIA. Iiind-feet. It is a timid quiet animal; but, when it is attacked, defends itself by its tail. The female, like the opossum, has a large pouch to which its young occasionally retire as a place of shelter and security. Among the birds are eagles, hawks, king-fishers, penguins, crows, quails, snipes, rollers, wattle-birds, parrots, cockatoos, thrushes, the short-billed goose, the black swan, and a bird between the turkey and the vulture. There are few reptiles ; but the snakes which appear are particularly dreaded by the natives, because almost all of them are venomous. The climate is subject to violent variations of temperature, but is not so unhealthy as that of the East or the West Indies. Mr. Weatworth, indeed, says that it is highly salubrious. I'he winter is sometimes frosty, but not eeverely cold. The rains are not of long duration, and fogs are very infrequent. The thermometer is sometimes as high as the hundredth degree, during the dry land-winds ; but this excess of heat is transient. Violent storms of thunder and lightening occasionally happen, and inun- dations ravage the country ; proving only, that the blessings of life are mingled with disadvantages. The chief mineral product of the country is iron, whi«^h is said to be purer in some places than in any other part of the world : it is sometimes found imbedded with copper pyrites. Coal of a good quality is very abundant ; and that which has been found to the south of Hunter's river particularly displays its vegetable origin. Granite, lime- stone, and slate, are procured in suiHcient plenty ; and the Blue Mountains are principally composed of sand-stone. The capital of this colony is Sydney, which stands on two hills and in the intervening valley. From the extent of ground included in its circuit, it might be supposed to contain at least 20,000 persons ; but ti:*; houses are so scattered, and so much ground is annexed to the majority of the number, that the population is not much more than one half of that amount. The houses are in general low, but commodious; and some of the public buildings are handsome, yet not splendid or magnificent. For twenty-five years the limits of the colony were occasionally ex- tended, but not beyond forty miles to the westward. At length, in the year 1813, when a favorable report of the country situated beyond the Blue Mountains had been given by Mr. Evans, who had ventured to explore a passage over them, governor Mac-Quarie and other gentlemen Tesolved to make a personal survey. A new road was previously formed by the convicts, who volunteered their servic«!s, and were employed for six months in the laborious work. About sixteen miles from Emu Ford, the lofty ornaments uf the forest gave way to stunted trees, and the gentle slope yielded to mountainous ruggedness. Ten miles farther, an extensive plain appeared, constituting the summit of the principal mountain. On the south-west side of this plain, called the King's Table-Land, at the bottom of abrupt precipices, a romantic glen was discovered. The ridge which forms one boundary of this glen terminates in a precipice of the height of 676 feet, down which the road had been recently conducted witli great skill. The valley below this descent consists not only of good pasture land, but of soil fit for cultivation. Several rivers, not indeed very considerable, were observed as the party proceeded, with extensive and fertile plains along their banks. After a continuance of the journey through a succession of hills and vales, the exploration ceased at the distance of one hundred miles from the Ford, or 140 from Sydney. A river navigable to a great extent being the chief desideratum in the opinion of the colonists, captain Flinders explored various parts of the country in the hope of finding such an addition to the other advantages AUSTRALASIA. 873 of New South-Wales ; but, after a diligent search, he declared it to be an ascertained fact, that no river of importance intersected the eastern coast betvven 24 and 39 degrees of southern latitude ; but, notwithstand- ing this peremptory decision, Mr. Oxley, surveyor-general of the colony, discovered in 1 824 the Brisbane river, the largest stream of fresh water yet found in New South-Wales, four hundred miles to the northward of Port-Jackson, with a rich soil upon its banks, and fine opportunities of cuUivation. This discovery was the more agreeable, as great disappoint- ment had attended his survey of the rivers Lachlan and Mac Quarie, which were found to terminate suddenly in swamps or shoal lakes. The principal settlement, near the latter river, is Bathurst; but it is an ill- built town, the houses (from the scarcity of wood) being in general con- structed of [turf, and roofed with straw or reeds. On the banks of the same stream, eighty miles beyond Bathurst, the town of Wellington has aince been erected, and is now thriving. After captain Flinders had examined a great part of the coast of New- Holland, captain Philip King was commissioned to complete the survey, and for four years he diligently persevered in that laborious and perilous employment. In sailing to the north, along the eastern coast, he did not observe, between the latitutb' of 22 degrees and Torres- Strait, for the space of 700 miles, any thing like a considerable river or inlet; and, within that distance, the, soil was in general very shallow, and the trees were •mall and stunted, except about the 1 7th degree, where the country was well wooded, and an air of fertility appeared. Near the North-Cape the gulf of Carpentaria begins, which, he says, is about 400 miles deep (he means lony) and 300 broad. The eastern side is low and sandy ; the western has many fine harbours, and is bor- dered by some large islands. The Wellesley isles, at the end of the gulf, abound with iron ore, but their soil is very unfruitful. Between Cape Wesel and Cape Van-Diemen, is a river to which the captain gave the name of Liverpool, and which he ascended for forty miles without finding a pleasant country or a fertile soil. He saw many alligators in this part of his progress, and a few birds, particularly a species of heron. To the westward of this river are the Goulburn isles, in some of which the fierce natives attacked his party, but with little etfect. Near these islands he was surprised by the appearance of a fleet of Malay proas from Macassar, fishing along the coast. M. de Freycinet met with a similar flota, and found that the voyage was annual, and that the visitants were generally involved in hostilities with the natives. Near the western extremity of the northern coast is a deep opening (called, by the Dutch, Van-Diemen's Bay), which the captain found to be an extensive strait, separating two large islands from the main-land. In this strait is a considerable gulf, at the end of which he found several rivers, meandering through a vast extent of low level land. Proceeding to the southward, he reached Cambridge gulf, near which he saw bold precipitous ranges of detached hills, rising from a low plain ; and, near one of the inlets in which this gulf terminates, he descried a quadrangu- lar fortress-like mass of hills, so strong by nature as to be seemingly im- pregnable. He afterwards sailed along a low sandy coast to the North- west Cape, between which and Dampier's Archipelago he observed a groupe of rocky barren isles, called the Montebello Islands by commo- dore Baudin ; and he was convinced that " these were neither more nor less than that redoubtable danger in the Indian ocean, the Trial Rocks." From that cape the western coast extends for more than 7.^0 miles. It ii fronted by a rocky shore, and is inaccessible to boats, except in a few 874 AUSTRAI.ASIA. places. The only openings in it are IMack-Swan River and Shark Bay* tho former is an unimportant stream, and, in tiio nciuhbourhoud of eacli the country hears an unpromlMin|^ aspect. The capti in gives tho following summary of tho natural productions of tho great line of coaist whicli he visited. " There is a great plenty of iisli in all ;)art8 ; l)ut they are not very easily caught with hook and line. Turtles arc also abundant within the tropic and of largc|size: they arc both of tho green and the hawk's bill species, and, from tlie latter, great quantities of tortoise-shell might bo procured. Wuior-siiakes were seen in all parts near the coast; but I do not think they are venomous, 'i'ho. longest we saw did not measure more than four feet. Sboll-fish socnicd to abound, from the large (piantities of liroliMi shells that were thrown upon tho beaciies. At Shark IJay, wc 1. great numbers of various kinds ; and on tho nuifs of the eastern coawi i here is also abundance, but not in any great variety. The only land animals seen by us were kan- garoos, kangaroo-rats, dogs, the ojMssum, and a large vampire. The traces of emus were met with, but the I)ird8 themselv(!s wore not seen. There are no edible fruits |of any importance. The cabl)age-palin and the betel-nut were occasionally met with, and the sago-pa'-u was abun- dant on all parts of the northern coast, Two species of nutmeg were found, but they were not fit for use. Wc saw no trees lit for navl pur- poses, except in the vicinity of the trojuc, on tho eastern coast, where the Norfolk-Island pines grow, but not to large dimensions. In appearance they seem not worth a trial ; but experience has fully proved their value as masts, provided that a tree be chosen of tho exact size of the spar wanted ; for it loses its strength by reducing it." With regard to the characters of those colonists who were convicts, it may be observed, that the majority are more orderly in their demeanor, and less immoral in their conduct, than might have been expected. It may be said, indeed, that they are over-awed by the commanding air and: necessary strictness of the government to which they are subjected : yet they claim some merit for their forbearance and moderation. Some have occasionally been favored with small grants of land in consideration of their good behaviour, instead of continuing to cultivate the public land, or of doing other work by the governor's order. The free settlers also encourage them by taking the most steady and industrious of them into their service. Undoubtedly, a complete reformation is retarded by the occasional accession of new convicts; yet tho ratio of amendment appears to be progressive. The savages of New-Holland form a remarkable variety of our spe- cies, if they do not constitute a peculiar race. Various attempts have been made by philosophers to classify mankind ; but scientific men, like ordinary mortals, sometimes diil'er widely in their opinions and conclu- sions. The most philosophical division of man seems to be that of pro- fessor Blumenbach, into the Caucasian (the branch to which the Euro- peans belong), the Mongolian, the Ethiopian, the Malayan, and tho Ame- rican; but even this is liable to considerable objections. Diifercnces in the formation of the scull, in the shape or size of the body, the com- plexion, language, genius, and habits, have led these investigators into a variety of arrangements, some of which are arbitrary and fanciful, while others are apparently well-founded. Without entering into a discussion of this kind, it will be sufficient to observe, with regard to tho natives of Australasia, that they seem to belong to the Ethiopian race, though they have in some respects degenerated from the old standard. They are nearly as black as negroes, thin, and ill-made ; their noses are flat, AUSTRALASIA. 675 their nostrils and montlis widc.tlioir lips thick, their oycs deeply fixed in their largo heads. Wlion they wcro'firHt visited hy our rountrymen, they had a strange custom of «'xtracting ono of tlio teeth from the upper jaw, as if they liad no occahion for it, and many Jiscd to perforate the cartilage of the nose, and tiirust a large hone or reed throngli it, which some of captain Cook's sailors humorously calK'd their sprit-sail-rjnrd: it was also common for the women to cut oil" two joints of the little finger; but these practices are now declining. Tlieir ininds are as ill-constituted as their hodics are unhandsome; lor, though tlu-y liave quick conceptions and ready powers of imitation, they l\ave no reflection, judgement, or foresight. " The most i)ers(!vering attcnipla (says Mr. I'ield, the chief judge of tin- colony) liave been made to induce thcin to st'ttie, and avail themselves of the arts of iile ; hut they cannot be lixed, nor is it possible by any kindness to aftadi them. Many of llicm have been brought up by Us from infancy in our nurseries, and yet the woods have seduced them at maturity, and at once elicited the savage instincts of linding their food in the trees, and their paths tbrou<;ii tlie forests, — propensities which civil education had only smothered. — They have no wants but such as are immediate ; and they have tiierelorc n»!ver beciinie either builders or cultivators, or mechanics, or mariners; nor had tiiey ever any civil government or religious superstition, like the Otaheifeans, the Sandwich islanders, and New-Zealanders." It it remarkable that these savages, though one would think that they must bo vexed or depr(>8sed (as even tlieir sujjeriors, the South-sea islanders, evidently are) by the considtnation of their great inferiority to Europeans, have no ideas of tiiat kiiul. Some will attribute this to stu- pidity or apathy, while others may think tiiat it borders on manliness of spirit, 'i'hey bear themselves erect, and address you with confidence always with good humor, ami oftcMi witii grace. The naked, the house- less Australasian, avouUI apiimach the proudest and most powerful despot on a footing of presumed equality. Ihit they are not all naked and house- less; for, though (he majority consider clothing as an useless encum- brance, those who wander al»out the south-west coast wear a mantle of kangaroo-skin, and some of those who occasionally associate with Euro- peans wear houghs round theii* waists ; and, while many are content with the shelter of a hollow tree, others construct huts of sticks, with roofs of bark. Hunting and fishing are their chief employments. They make use of a spear in both these occupations, and sometimes use it with great dex- terity, after fixing it in a throwing-stick. They are also navigators; but their canoes are wretchedly fabricated, and some, in their aquatic excur- sions, use only a mangrove log, on which they sit astride, moving it along by paddling. They are in general cheerful, and fond of social converse; and among their amusements there is one which strangers witness with some degree of interest. This is the corrohory or night-dance, which is executed in very good time, and in a tune not unpleasing. The vocal part of the entertainment is performed by several men and women who do not join in the dance. One of the band beats time by knocking one stick against another. The music begins with a high note, and gradually sinks to the octave, whence it rises again immediately to the top. The dancers breathe in chorus like pavers ; the general step consists in opening the knees with a convulsive shake to the music ; and the dance, in its pro- gress, works up the performers to an enthusiastic fervor. To the south of Ncw-Holland is an island (separated only by a strait 671 AUSTRALASIA, 50 miles wide) which the Dutch first discovered. Tasman, in the year 1642, took temporary possession of a bay, and gave to the country, in honor of the governor of Batavia, the appellation of Van Dienien's Land. A favorable report of the island induced the governor of New South- Wales (the British div'-on of New- Holland), to give directions, in 1803 for the colonisation of this spot. The colony did not rapidly advance to a flourishing state ; for, so late as fifteen years from the foundation of Hobart-town, the cajjital, the houses in general were little better than uiiserable huts or cabins ; but it is now a more considerable town than could have been expected from the slowness of its progress. It stands about ten miles from the mouth of the Dcrwcnt, near a mountain which rises to the height of 4000 feet above the level of the sea. Seve- ral fine rivulets How down its sides, by one of which the town is pleasantly intersected. Mills for grinding corn have been erected on this . stream, affording to the inhabitants a material advantage over those of Sydney, who use wind-mills for that purpose, and also over the people of the inland towns and districts of New Soutli-Wales, who usually have recourse to hand-mills. The town is now sufficiently large to acconi- niodate 2000 persons, and it is progressively extending its limits. The new colonists add brick houses of considerable elevation to the low and insubstantial dwellings of the former settlers, who arc thus encouraged to take an early opportunity of improving their habitations. Most of the houses have gardens, which are kept in a good state of cultivation ; and, if those fine fruits which require a very warm sun are not brought to per- fection, wholesome vegetables and common fruits are reared in sufficient quantities for domestic consumption. In the northern part of the island is Port-Dalrymple, a good harbour. Launceston, connected with this port, was the chief suat of the government for this division ; but that dignity is now possessed by George-town, which is rapidly increasing in extent and importance. With regard to the general surface and appearance of the island, , Mr. Evans informs us, that itis "richly diversified by ranges of moderate hills and broad valleys, presenting the most agreeable scenes, and replete with the useful products of a rich soil and fine climate. The hills are for the greater part wooded, and from their summits are to be seen levels of good pasture land, thinly interspersed with trees. These plains are generally of the extent of 8 or 10,000 acres; and this description is to be considered as common to the whole island." — He also observes, that the scenery along the whole course of the Derwcut is beautiful^ and in some places highly romantic and picturesque. Lofty perpendicular rocks, rich groves of ever-greens, luxuriant meadows, and numerous farms in a good state of cultivation, tend to vary the prospect along its banks. Ships of any size may find good anchorage in every part, from its southern en- trance to twelve miles above Hobart-town. Indeed, whateveris connected with the Derwent seems to offer ample rewards to settlers. The climate is more temperate than that of the colonised parts of New- Holland, and more congenial to the constitutions of British emigrants. The intermittent fever, so common in an uncleared country, is here un- known ; yet some disorders must be expected to diffuse their occasional ravages. Those which are most frequent are the rheumatism, consumption, and dysentery. This island is destitute of cedar, mahogany, and rose- wood ; but the inhabitants find good substitutes in the black wood and the Huon-river pine : the latter, which resembles the yew-tree, affords . timber of great durability. The harvests of grain are very abundant, and the wheat is superior to that of the main-land. The natural grassss AUSTRALASIA. 877 poMMS such nutritive qualities, that the cattle attain a much larger size than those of the older colony, and they are also more prolific, particularly the ewes. The wool, indeed, is not so fine ; but, by the introduction of the Merino sheep, it has been so far meliorated as to become a valuable article of exportation. This spot is not infested by many beasts of prey. That canine species, which is so destructive to the sheep of the other colony, does not exist on this Island ; and its only fierce and mischievous quadruped is an animal of the panther kind, which is as dreadfully hostile to flocks as the European wolf, although it rarely attacks human beings. The population of an increasing colony cannot be precisely stated. About 1000 persons formed the number that commenced, in 1788 the settlement at Port- Jackson : the amount, in 1804, exceeded 7400 the settlement in Van-Diemen's Land being included: in 1810, it nearly reached 12000, with the soldiery : in 1817, there were found to be 20 328 persons, among whom were only 6297 convicts ; and we have reason to believe that, at the present time, there are not less than 35,000, of which number perhaps about 10,000 occupy Van-Dienien's Land. NEW-GUINEA was supposed to bo the northern coast of an extensive continent, and to be joined to New-Holland ; but captain Cook dis- covered a strait between them, which runs north-east; and thus it was found to be a long narrow island. The country consists of a mixture of hills and valleys, interspersed with groves of cocoa-nut trees, and most of the trees, shrubs, and plants, which are usually found in the islands of the Pacific ocean. The savage inhabitants, called the Papuas^ appear to be of the same race with the New-Hollanders. To the north-east of New-Guinea is New-Britai n, a hilly and well- wooded island, furnished with fine rivers, and exhibiting in the valleys and plains an aspect of fertility. The people are of the same race with those of New-Guinea. NEW-IRELAND extends in length, from the north-west to the south- east, about two hundred and fifty miles, but is in general very narrow. It abounds with a variety of animals, and also of trees and plants. The inhabitants are black and|woolly-headed, like the negroes of Guinea ; but have not their flat noses and thick lips. The PALAOS ou PELEW ISLANDS were probably known to the Spaniards at a distant period ; but from a report, among the neighbouring isles, of their being inhabited by a savage race of canibals, it appears that there never had been the least communication between them and any of the Europeans, until a British vessel was wrecked on one of them in 1783. These islands are long but narrow, of a moderate height, and well covered with wood ; the climate is temperate and agreeable ; the lands produce sugar-canes, yams, cocoa-nuts, plantains, bananas, oranges, and lemons; and the surrounding seas abound with the finest and greatest variety of fish. The natives are stout and well-made, above the middle stature : their complexions are of a far deeper color than what is understood by the Indian copper, but not black. The men in general appear without clothing, and the women wear only two small aprons, one behind and one before, made of the husks of the cocoa-nut dyed with different shades of yellow. Their government is monarchical, and the king is absolute; but his power is usually exorcised more with the mildness of a father than with the rigor of a sovereign. 1 i i !'■ m POLYNESIA. To the west of the Pelew Islands, at a considerable distance, are the CAROLINES; the largest of which, named Hogoleu, is 80 miles in length, and 35 in breadth. The inhabitants of some of these isles re- semble those of the Philippines: in others, particularly Ulea, tlioy evince a greater conformity with the people of Pelew. They seem to enjoy some regularity of government ; and, though they have no exti;- rior worship, they listen to the counsels of their priests, and believe in a future state. They have an idea of astronomy, which they propfrly consider as urter;jl in navigation. In boat-building they are more skiifiil than in the construction of houses, the laltcr being in general wretciied huts, while their barks arc neat and commodious. Of dancing they are as fond aa the French or the negroes ; and they also amuse themfielves with warlike exercises, when they arc not engaged in actual hostilities. POLYNESIA. UNDER this head we arrang(! the multitude of islands disprrsad over the North and South Pacific, without incliidint; those which arc z\: an inconsiderable distance from the continental coasts. The largest (it uieut arc the two islands which compose the country called New-Z^saland. The Dutch, having discovered this spot, in lG4'i, Kavc it the name of Staten-Land; and they supposed it to be a portion of a soiitliern conti< nent; but captain Cook found a strait, about 1') miles broad, which se- parates the northern from the southern part. Of the two islands, one is fur tiie most pare mountainous, rather barren, and thinly inhabited; but the other is comparatively fertile, and has n better appearance. Proiu the vegetab '^ found here, the winters seem to bo milder than those in England, an'i the summers not hotter, though more ecpiably warm. Hero are forests of vast extent, fdled with very large trees; and among the plants are bind-.v'id, nightshade, speedwell, sow-thisMe, virgin'sbower, euphorbia, crann's-bill, cudweed, knot-grass, and rusKes : but tln^ species of each ani diiferent from those of Europe. A plan', grows in the mari- time parts, more particularly in the southern islanci, producing a line silky flax, from which the natives manufacture large garments by the process oi knotting. The leaves of the philadelphus form a tolerable sub- stitute for tea, and plants resembling celery and scurvy-grass are good in- gredients in soup or in (x>ttage. No quadrupeds, except rats and dogs, were observed by the first visitants; but various animals have since been introduced from Eurojie. The natives are stout and robust, and equal in stature to the tallest luiropeans. Their color in general is brown, but in few deeper than that of a Spaniard who has been exposed to the sun, and in many not so deep ; and both sexes have good features. 1'lioy smear their heads and faces with red earth, and hang in their cars beads, pieces of jasper, or bits of cloth. With regard to dress, it appears that the men do not deem it absolutely necessary either for warmth or for de- cency ; yet they usually wear some covering. It consists of a mat made of flax, which is very fine and silky, and skilfully woven by the women. It is thrown over the shoulders, and another mat, of the same substance and texture, is fastened round the waist by a belt. In winter, at night, or in wet weather, they use a very coarse kind of mat, which is very warm, and impervious to rain, and so large as to envelope the whole body. The dress of the women is the same as that ol the men ; and tlicy arc POLYNESIA. 879 sHglitly tatoocd on tlie upper lip, in ilu; iciilio of tho "chin, and above the eyebrows. Some of ihem have a few lines upon their legs, ntliers upon their breasts, and some are tatooed lUMuly as much as tlio men. Many wear necklaces of sharks' teeth, or Iniiirluis of long beads, niid some have triangular aprons, adorned with feathers or shells, fastened about the waist with a double or treble row of cords. These islanders are ingenious in various ai t>^ ; they are good weavers, and construct boats with sonu; degree of skill; hut v cannot highly praise their architectural dexterity. Some of their storo liouses, indeed, are not ill-built, and their ornamental carving is curious; but their dwelling-houses are neither s< Iwtantial nor commodious. The houses of the chiefs arc built upon the ground, not (like tho store-houses) upon stages, or posts floored over ; the floor and the space in front are neatly paved; but they are so low that few of the net npants can stand upright in them, and the small sliding-door of eiilrume is the only aperture for light or air. The veraiulahs and carved work, how(>ver, being painted red, have a showy appearance. The huts of thi- inferior peoph; are wretched, being very little better than sheds; but the practice of sleep- ing in the open air is so couunon, that it uuist be very bad weather that can forco them to seek the shelter of their houses. When we aillrm that thi! nu-n (d' New- Zealand are guilty (d' the enor- mity of canibalism (for neither the spirit of our navigators, nor the renum- 8tranc.es of o\ir ndssionaries, have enforced the HUppression of this abomi- nable custiuu), it may readily be concluded (hut tin ir dispositions arc ferocious. They are paHsionate and vindictive toward their own sex, and frcqiuuitly treat tho nuld and |)ati(!nt females with great brutality: yet they are not altogether destitute of natural allectimi or of social feel- ings, and have sonu' notions of religion and morality. The government is aristocratical, being chiefly c( iiducted by tho chief- tains and (he elders. It nught be sup|)osed, from the fierceness of the people, that they woidd not tamely subnnt to arbitrary sway ; yet, like tho Turks, they acquiesce in it, being apparently satisfied with being allowed to tyrannise over their families, and to exercise cruelty upon those enenuos against whom they are desired to take the field. When the chiefs prepare fur an expedition of this kind, the war- dance is ordered to be practised. In the common dance, there is a striking air of violence ; but (he war-dance is still more accordant to the ferociouscharacterof the nation. " It is perhaps (says captain Cruise) as frightful an exhibition as i-an be witnessed. The performers, who are entirely naked, assemble in an irre- gular groupc, and jump perinmdicularly from the ground, as high and as irequently as possible, uttering a most piercing and savage yell. As the dance continues, their countenances biH-onu! violently distorted ; and they appear under the influence of an ungovernable phrensy, which, they sup- pose, inspires them with courage to attempt the most daring actions." Proceeding from NEW ZEAT,AND to the north-west, we find NEW CALEDONIA, which is above 2'M) miles in length, but not more than 30 in its utmost breadth. It exhibits a mountainous iispect, and the greater jjart of the country is a])parently not, very fertile ; yet it affords the bread-fruit, cocoa-nuts, the sugar-cane, and some other useful vegetables. The complexions of the inhabitants are nearly black : their manners are rude and uncouth, and their dispositions ferocious. Only a broad leaf, or apiece of bark, partially hides the nakedness of the meii ; and a short EBtticoat of bark contributes to secure the decency of the women. Their uts arc in the forn» of bee-hives, uud arc nearly destitute of furniture : «80 POLYNESIA. some are encompassed by neat palisades ; and they are not all scattered over the country ; but many are collected so as to form villages. It is said that these savages sometimes make war on the neighbouring tribes not so much from motives of animosity or rivalrj', as for the purpose of satiating their hunger with human flesh. To the north of NEW CALEDONIA are the NEW HEBRIDES, which are in general mountainous. They abound with wood and water and with the usual products of the tropical islands. The natives of some of these islands are apparently of the Ethiopian race, while, in others, the people seem to be of Malay origin. Directing our course to the eastward, we meet with an insular groupc called by captain Cook the Friendly Islands, on account of the friend- ship which appeared to subsist among the inhabitants, and also for their courteous behaviour to strangers. As this character does not properly be- long to them, (for they are almost as fierce as the New-Zealanders,) the name of Tonga, the most flourisiiing island, has since been given to the whole groupe. This island, called Amsterdam by the Dutch, by whom it was first discovered, is about fifty-five miles in circumference, and the land is nearly of an uniform height, not in any part more than 80 feet above the level of the sea. It is regularly laid out in plantations; for the people are diligent cultivators. Their fields of yams and plantains are of great extent; and of the latter they make a sort of bread, by putting them under ground before they are ripe, and keeping them until they fer- ment, when they are taken up and formed into balls. Their habitations in general are mercy thatched roofs or sheds, supported by posts and rafters, and closed on the weather side with strong mats, or branches of the cocoa-nut tree, plaited or interwoven with each 'ither. The finiiiture consists of wooden stools, which serve for pillows ; of baskets, in which combs, fish-hooks, and tools, are kept : and of lx)wls, in which they prepare kava. an intoxicating liquor, from a species of pepper-plant. Their canoes are made of the bread-fruit tree, with great neatness and skill ; and the double ones are even fit for distant navigation. Their military w^eapons are clubs, spears, and darts. The amusements are dancing both by day and night, singing, playing iipon a bamboo flute, spear- throwing, wrestling, boxing, and shooting with bows and arrows at rats, which the common people frequently cat. The people of the Tonga islands are generally of the middle stature ; their figures are strongly made, and well proportioned, and their features are not unpleasing. Their complexions are usually a shade deeper than the copper brown ; but many have an olive hue. Both sexes dress nearly in the same manner ; the chief garment, for those who are not of the lowest order, is a long and wide j)iece of cloth or matting, drawn round the body, and hanging from the breast half-way down the legs. The com- mon people are coutciit with small pieces, and many have only a kind of sash, made of the leaves of plants. The men are tatooed, but not the women. The latter are the chief manufacturers not only of apjiarel, but of other articles of ordinary use; and the mats which they make for a variety of purposes arc not mer wuiiu>n pride themselves on its length ; but here the women cut it short rouiiil their ears, n 11(1 the men (cxci>pt llu; fisliors, wlin are alinoitt coiiliiiiially in the water) snllcr it to spread over their sliouhicrfi, or t'w. it up in :i liiiiich on tlm lop. The youth of both sexes, when ihey are about twelve or fourteen ye .^ of ago, arc tutooed on wvcral parts of the body, and in various figures. Their principal manul'ucture is their cloth, of which thrre are throe sor s^, nmde of the bark of three kinds of trees. The lincst and whitest speuca 'u made «jf the papei-mulberry-tree, and this is cliiclly | worn by | matting, t sort servei They are ] are of a tli Among hies the e£ When a g^ threatened, for the com great dext< heavy woo{ constructed constructed With regi and at the s; believe the s death, it flui that it contii sage to a cer has existence Their only p] Here they oi sacrificed the; propitiation, missionaries, ticesare faljii of infanticide promiscuous c the same pioiJ The chief ."i among that gi first is about 3 are the same The inhabitan the women .• other circums. have boat-hou to the south-w so fertile uor here are plant; from Ulietea I'iles broad, similar, in sp. four leagues to ed hy a reef , mountain in tl Soulli-Walcs, Diaiefuctors. About 700 „ covered an ink a cluster of hi, roamic pinnaci! **a." The toj- f 'aces, cadi ha POLYNESIA. 883 worn by persons of distinction. Another considerable manufacture is matting, some of which is finer than any we have in Europe ; the coarser sort serves them to sleep upon, and the finer to wear in wet weather They are likewise very dexterous in making wicker-work ; their baskets are of a thousand different patterns, and many of them exceedingly neat. Among the Otaheiteans, a subordination is established, which resem- bles the early state of the European nations under the feudal system. When a general attack is made upon the islmd, or when it is merely threatened, every district is obliged to furnish its proportion of warriors for the common defence. Their weapons are slings, which they use with great dexterity, and clubs, about six or seven feet long, made of a hard heavy wood. They have a great number of boats, many of which are constructed for warlike operations ; and the new ones are more skilfully constructed than their former vessels. With regard to their religion, it appears that they adore a Supreme God, and at the same time acknowlego a number of subordinate deities. They believe the soul to be immaterial and immortal ; that, during the pangs of death, it flutters about the lips, then ascends, and is eaten by the Deity ; that it continues in this state for some time ; after which it takes its pas- sage to a certain place, destined to receive the souls of human beings, and has existence in eternal night, or rather in a kind of dawn or twilight. Their only places of worship were the morais, or receptacles of the dead. Here they offered fruit and animal food to the Deity, and sometimes sacrificed their fellow-creatures, chiefly criminals, for the same purpose of propitiation. But, in consequence of ihe zealous exhortations of the missionaries, who have introduced Christianity among them, these prac- tices are falling into disuse, if they arc not yet abolished ; and the crime of infanticide, so prevalent among tlie profligate associations devoted to promiscuous concubinage, is said to have yielded in a great measure to the same pious influence. The chief SOCIETY ISLANDS, beside Otahcite (which some reckon among that groupe), are Huaheine, Ulietea, Otaha, and Bolabola. The first is about 30 leagues to the north-west of Otaheitc, and its productions are the same ; but vegetation appears to be more forward by a month. The inhabitants seem to be more stoutly made than those of Otaheite ; the women are fairer ; but, in dress, languaj^e, and almost every other circumsv.i.icc, they are the same. Their houses are neat, and they have boat-houses which are remarkably large. Ulietea is eight leagues to the south-west of Huaheine, and is a much larger island, but is neither so fertile nor so populous. The principal refreshments to be procured here are plantains, cocoa-nuts, yams, hogs, and fowls. Otaha is divided from Ulietea by a strait, whicii, in the narrowest part, is not above two miles broad. This island atfords two good harbours, and its produce is similar, in species and *>i by a h fty inountam in the centre. In one respect, it rescnibW our ctilouy in New Soiiih-Wales, as the earliest inhabitants are said to have been banished malefactors. About 700 miles to the south-east of Otaheito, captain Vancouver dis- covered an iHJand called Opaio " Its principal character (ho says) is a cluster of high, c.aggy mountains, forming in several places most ro- mantic pinnacles, with perpendicular difts nearly from their summits to the sea," The tops of six of the highest hills Ncemed to him to be fortified places, each having a #ort of block-house with palisades. The inhabitants 3 L 2 884 POLYNESIA. whom he saw, were exceedingly well made, and had cheerful open coun- tenances ; they had no other covering than a wreath round the waist formed of a long-leaved plant, and were not tatooed. Their canoes were neatly made ; much better, indeed, than could have been expected from the wretched tools used in the construction of them. EASTER ISLAND is 35 miles in circumference, and stands nearly at an equal distance from the coast of Chile and from Otaheite. It contains fiome remarkable monuments, consisting of pyramidal heaps of stones and, on scattered platforms, are colossal statues, or rather busts, pro- bably erected in honor of the most distinguished chieftains. It has been supposed by some, that these figures were the work of men superior in mechanic skill, to the present race of inhabitants : but others, not with- out reason, think that the latter are fiiUy equal to the task. Their planta- tions are well managed ; they regularly cultivate the yam, banana, and sugar-cane ; and they appear to be acute and intelligent. Of the islands called the MARQUESAS, situated to the north-east of the Society Isles, the most considerable are, Dominica, Christina, and Pedro. The first is about 40 miles in circuit, and its inhabitants, in lan- guage, manners, and religion, resemble those of Otaheite ; but the women are more distinguished by personal beauty, and some of them are nearly as fair as Europeans. Both Dominica and Christina seem to be volca- nic islands: they abound with rugged hills, rising in ridges directly from the sea, and separated by deep valleys, which, as well as the sides of the hills, are clothed with fine trees. Passing to the northern latitude of '20 degrees, we arrive at OWHYHEEor HAWAII, which isabout27.0 miles in circumference. This and ten other islands form a fine groupe, known by the appellation of the SANDWICH ISLANDS. The climate is less sultry than that of the West Indies, and the violent winds and hurricanes which agitate and ravage that part of the world, do not here prevail. The vegetable productions are nearly the same with those of the Tonga and Society Islands. The quadrupeds found by the English were hogs, dogs, and rats ; and to these the strangers added, from their own stores, the horse, the bull, the cow, the sheep, goat, rabbet, and mouse. The bird of Paradise, and other beautiful birds of New Guinea, are not found on any of these islands ; and, though the birds are nuuit-rous, the variety is not great. Some are only occasional visit- ants, while others are residi-nts. The tropic-bird is very common, and its beautiful rose-colored tail-featiiers are highly valued i)y the natives, who pull them from the birds as they sit in their nests. Fly-catchers, thrushes, rails, o vis, noddies, plovers, pigeons, and birds from which red feathers are procured, are also frequently found here. Tlie uho, though its chief hue is black, has under its wings and at the tail some yellow feathers, which are greatly admired as appendages to clokes and other articles or dress. The insects arc few, and small copper-colored lizards are sometimes seen; but there are no snakes or serpents. Sharks are too common along the coast ; the bonito, flying-lish, red and grey mullets, and fearl oysters, abound ; and corals and zoophytes vary the maritime scene, u a geological point of view, the islands may generally be described as a groupe of volcanoes, rising amldtit coral banks and reefs. On the island of Hawaii are some remarkable mountains, tlie most elevated of which is iMoiina Keali. This is ab(Hit 1(3,000 feet high, and its suiomit id iicvcr entirely free from suow. Its eruptions have for a POLYNESIA. 885 long time ceased ; but the volcano of Peli, on the flank of Mouna Roa, is frequently and dreadfully active. From the edge of the crater, there is a downward view for more than 1300 feet, over rocks of lava and masses of sulphur, to a rugged plain, where many cones, raised by the action of the fire below, throw up columns of flame, while floods of fire slowly wind through ashes. Within the sunken plain, the stream from below, by its condensation, forms pools, to which wild birds resort, and in which the water is fresh and cool. The best harbour at Hawaii is Byron bay : it is not, indeed, perfectly easy of access, but it leads into an extensive and safe basin. The scenery about it is beautiful : sloping lawns, decorated with orcliards of bread- fruit and palms, extend upwards for some miles, and thick woods then succeed, and clothe the sides of the mountains. The north-east coast of Hawaii is very remarkable. From Toarra point the land gradually rises to lofty, abrupt, dark-colored clifts, between which numerous cascades pour down in every direction. This kind of scenery continues for about ten miles, when it terminates in two valleys of extraordinary richness and beauty. The cliief town in this island is Kalrua, where the governor occupies a very good house, built in the European style, near a fort which has super- seded a famous moral. This town has a population of 3000. The neigh- bouring country is covered with lava of difterent ages, and wears a dark and forbidding aspect; but the beach is adorned with cocoa-nut and oil- nut trees, and a distant valley is fertile in taro, a species of yam, whinh is found very useful for sustenance. It was on this island that captain Cook, in the year 1779, lost bis life. He entertained (not without reason) a favorable o))inion of the general characters and dis|)08itionsof the islanders : but, by trusting too much to his influence over them (for they seemed to regard him as a demi-god), he involved himself in a fatal quarrel. A cutter having been stolen, he laid an embargo on the flotilla of canoes, and was ])rocceding to take the king on board as an hostage ; but, wlien the natives resisted the attempt, he gave up the point. They did not seem disposed to ofler him any personal injury, before it was reported that one of their chiefs bad been shot by a boat's crew ; then they attacked him with stones ; and, when lie bad killed one of the assailants, he was stabbed in the back, and pierced with many wounds, to the great regret not only of his countrymen, but even of the islanders themselves, when cool reflection succeeded the transient burst of indignation. The three voyages of this celebrated navigator round the world may here, not improperly, be noticed. In the first, he discovered the Society Islands, made a complete survey of New Zealand, and accurately exa- mined the eastern coast of New Holland for the space of 2000 miles. In the second voyage, he solved the great problem of a soutiuun conti- nent, having traversed that hemisphere between the latitude of 40 and 70 degrees, in such a manner as not to leave tiie least probability of its exist- ence ; discovered the great island of New-Caledonia, and also Sandwich Land, which ho considered as the Thulc of the soutii, but which has lost that mark of distinction by the appearance of the South-Shetland Islands to subsequent navigators. Tho third voyage was ennobled I)y the disco- very of the Sandwich Islands, by tbi! exploration of tlie north-western coast of America for 3500 miles, and by the ascertainment of the prox- imity of the two great continents of Asia and America. We ought to add, that, by his judicious precautions, he prevented the ravages of the scurvy in tli'> vessels which ho commanded, and convinced ' w< ■ 886 POLYNESIA. the world of the possibility of preserving the health of seamen, in voyages of extraordinary duration, under every change of climate. Next to Hawaii, the island of MOWEE, or MAUI, is the most populous of the whole groupe ; and the district of Lahaina, in that island, is particularly fertile and picturesque, abounding with useful produce, and exhibiting the finest trees. In this neighbourhood, the practice of irrigation, as it seldom rains, is found essentially necessary ; and there- fore water is brought from the mountains in stone courses, which arc carefully closed every evening. Few of the huts, in this part of the island, are more that ten feet long, eight feet wide, and six feet high; and through the very low door the owners are obliged to crawl. In the sum- mer, indeed, these huts are not generally used as placesof abode; forthe people are then content with the shelter of the bread-fruit tree. A church has been here built forthe use of the new Christians', its walls are formed of reeds, lined with broad woven leaves, and the leaf-covered roof is sup- ported by strong poles. The chiefs have given a house and some land to the officiating minister, to whose exhortations the people listen with profound attention. The seat of government for the Sandwich-island kingdom, is now at Honoruru, in the isle of OAHU. This town has some regular streets, a house built of stone forthe court, and several very commodious wooden houses, the frames of which were imported from North-America; but the habitations in general are rudely constructed of poles fastened with cords made of the twisted fibres of various plants, and covered with broad leaves or a long kind of grass. Near the entrance of the harbour is a well-built fort, furniched with forty pieces of artillery, and there is a small pier to fa- cilitate the unloading of vessels. To this capital the remains of the king and queen of the Sandwich Is- lands were conveyed in a British vessel, in 1825, with a view of cement- ing, by an unusual mark of respect, the connexion which had already been formed between the governments. When captain Cook visited Hawaii, its sovereign was Terrecoboo or Teraiopu, who also claimed authority over other islands, but was checked in his ambition by the independent power of the chieftains. Kevalao, one of the sons of that prince, asserted his pretensions to the kingly power, but could not prevent the seisure of a part of the island bv bis cousin Tamehameha, an enterprising and aspiring chief. It is said that these competitors fought for seven days, in 1781, and the contest was then decided by the fall of Kevalao. On the arrival of captain V'ancouver in 1792, both Hawaii and Maui were subject to the sway of Tamehameha ; and he was then engaged in war with the kings of Taui and Oahu. In the hope of securing the favor of British naviga- tors and traders, he made a formal cession of Hawaii to king George III., and from that time he continued to treat our countrymen with peculiar kindness and respect. He at length procured a considerable quantity of fire-arms and a number of schooners, and effected the subjugation of the whole groupe of islands. He improved the state of the country in point of agriculture, promoted the mechanic arts, encouraged Europeans to establish shops in his principal towns, and even sent out vessels to trade with China. To his temporal power he added the chief spiritual authority ; and it is supposed that he meditated the subversion of idolatry, but delay- ed the accomplishment of his religious schemes, because he thought they required the most mature deliberation. After a long and certainly not inglorious reign, he died in 1819, sincorely lamented by his subjects. His son lolani or Riho-Riho, unjustly stigmatised by the navigator Kotzebue ■■'■■''J POLYNESIA. 887 M the most stupid of all brutes, succeeded him, and commenced his reign by an act of spirit and magnanimity. Ho repaired to the isle of Taui, crushed at once the competition of an ambitious chieftain, pardoned him, and made him his friend. Ho tiien deHberated on the state of religion, and resolved to desecrate or secularise the moraici, destroy the idols, and put an end to the taboo. He was opposed in his views by an idolatrous chief, who even took up arms in the cause of reputed piety ; but Karai- moku, the friend and minister of the late king, attacked and slew the rebel, whose war-god he carried off in triumph. The victorious commander and his brother Boki, soon after, declared themselves converts to Christianity, and were baptised by the chaplain of M. Freycinet, the French circum- navigator. Some missionaries from the United States were now allowed to erect a church in Oahu, to teach the doctrines of Christianity and the elements of literature, and to introduce the art of printing. After governing for some years with reputation, Tamehameha H. (as lolani was called), being jealous of the encroaching spirit of the Russians and the people of the United States, and desirous of securing the friend- ship of the British monarch, appointed Karainioku regent of the islands, and undertook, with one of his wives, a voyage to England. The digni- fied strangers were received with every mark of attention and respect ; but they did not live to revisit their native country. The queen sickened of the measles; the king, who had caught the infection, might perhaps have recovered ; but her death gave him such a shock, that all the sym- ptoms of his disorder were fatally aggravated. He died in 1824, in the 28th year of his age. He was succeeded l)y his brother KiaukiauH, du- ring whose minority the political ability of Karaimoku is still exercised. The nature of the government requires some notice. The king has the right of imposing taxes for the maintenance of his household and the sup- port of his dignity. He has the power of punishment, but is not author- ised to take away the life of any one of his subjects for a supposed offence without the concurrence of twelve chiefs. He ia not allowed to deprive the chiefs or the gentry, at his discretion, of the lands which they hold, but must suffer them to be inherited by the legitimate offspring of a de- ceased chief. The people are free, and not bound to the service of a par- ticular chieftain, or proprietor of land. We are not precisely informed of the prevailing modes of punishuient ; l)ut it appears that high treason is deemed a capital offence ; for a chief who revolted from the minor king was condemned to death, and, being permitted to choose his manner of atoning for his crime, preferred drowning. With regard to the personal appearance of the islanders, we may ob- serve, that in general they exceed the middle size, and are stoutly but not finely formed, with long rather than round visages, nut-brown complex- ions, good eyes and teeth, and noses spread at the tip, in consequence per- haps of the usual mode of salutation, which is a mutual touch or pressure of noses. They usually wear a piece of coarse cloth, which passes between the legs, and is fastened round the waist ; the women sometimes throw loose pieces of fine cloth over their shoulders, like the Otaheitean females ; but some of the chiefs, and the women of rank, occasionally array them- selves nearly in the European mode. Both sexes wear necklaces, consist- uig of small shells strung together ; and bracelets of various kinds also adorn the women. Tatooing is not so common as it was ; but it is still practised, and the punctures are neatly executed in various forms. Mats or short clokes are used by the men, as an indication that they are pre- paring for war : they are made of the leaves of the paadanus, and, like m 888 POLYNESIA. their cloth, aro beautifully worked in various patterns, and stained with different colors. In pointof intellect, thejf are by no meansdeilcient: they have strongpowerg of observation, and many, by natural reasoning, can draw conclusions as justly as a pedantic logician. They are inquisitive, not out of idle curio- sity, but from a real desire of information, and they generally retain what they learn. They are cheerful and good-humored, without being giddy or volatile; and arc mild and affectionate in their social characters; yet they did not, until lately, treat their feiiuiles witl> due respect and atten- tion. The married persons, in general, are chaste ; and even the unmar- ried are not so licentious as the inhabitants of many other islands in the Pacific. Among their amusements we may reckon games of chance, races between boys and girls, — the habit of swimming and diving amidst a violent surf with a floating-board attached to the body, — pugilism and the practice of wrestling, — also dancing and minstrelsy. In the two last diversions European refinement has little or no share ; for the dancing, although it exhibits great activity of motion, chiefly consists in the advance of one step in the front or in the rear, to the right or the left, while two calabashes fastened together serve for a drum, and dogs' teeth, appended to the buskins of the dancer, rattle in uniaon ; and the songs of the bards, though not unpleasing, do not display the force of talent, or the charms of elegance. Such is our view of the world, such are our delineations of its wonder- ful scenes both in nature and in art, and such are our portraitures of its varied and multiplied inhabitants. We have concentrated, within the narrow limits of a compendium, the essence of a great number of copious volumes; and, as we have studiously aimed at truth and accuracy, we rest assured that the purity of our intentions will concur with the obvious difficulty of our task to suggest a ready e.xcusc for errors and imperfections. 889 ~"^ A NEW GEOGRAPHICAL TABLE, Containing the names and situations of tlie chief CitieA, Towns, Seas, Gulfs, Bays, Straits, Capes, and other remarkable places in the known World ; collected from the most authentic Charts, Maps, and Obscn-- ations. !|:^ NoMtsofPlaces, Ptovinces, Abbeville, Aberdeen, Abo, Acapulco, Achen, Adrianople, AdriaticSea>or GulfofVenice, Adventurelsle, Agde, Agen, St. Agnes (lights), Agra, Aix, Albany, Aleppo, Alexandria, Algier, Amboyna, Amiens, Countries or Seas. Somme, France, AberdeenshireScotland, Finland, Sumatra, Romania, Russia, Mexico, India, Turkey, Quarter, Latitude, Longitude. D. M. D. M. 50-7 N. 1-50 E. ^-22 N. 2-3 W. 60-27 N. 22-13 E- 16.50 N. 99-46 W- Europe Europe Europe N. Amer, Asia Europe 5 2'2N. 41-45 N. 95-34 E. 26-27 E. between Italy and Turkey, Europe Pacific Ocean, Herault, France, Europe Aveiron, France, Europe Mediterranean Sea. 17-5 S. 144-17 W. 43-18 N. 44-12 N. Atlant. Ocean, 1. rope India, Asia 49-06 N. 27-10 N. Scilly fsiles, Agra, MoutliK fthe Rhone, France, Europe 43-31 N. New York, United States.N. Amer. 42-59 N. 3-27 F. 0-36 E. 6-46 W. 77-56 E. AMSTERDAMjHoUand, New,Berbice, Anamookalsle. Ancona, Syria, Turkey, Asia Lower Egypt, Africa Algier, Barbary, Africa Amboyna l8le,lndia, Asi.i Somme, France, Europe Netherlands, Europe Guiana, America March of An- Tt cona, Tercera Isle, Syria, Brabant, Pac. Ocean ;!^ Europe Angra, Antioch, Antwerp, Archipelago, Archangel, Ascension Isle, Astracan, Astracan, Athens, Livadia, Archangel, Atlara. Ocean,Europe i'tikc}, Asia Netherlands, Europe Isl. of Greece,Europe Russia, Europe S. Atl. Ocean,Africa Russia, Asia Turkey, Europe 5-8 E. 73-30 W. 36-25 N. 37-10 E. 31-11 N. 30-10 E- 36-49 N. 3-30 E. 4- 1 5 S. 127-25 E. 49-.'.} N. 2-18 E. .52-21 N. 4-51 E. 6-20 N. 57-1 5 W. 20-15 S. 174-31 W. 43-37 N. 13-29 E. 38-39 N. 27-12 W. 36-iO N. 36-40 E. ^l-U N. 4-23 E. Mediterranean Sea. 64-34 N. 38-59 E. 7-56 S. 14.0 W. 46-5 N. 47-40 E. 38-5 N, 23-52 E. St.Augustin, East Florida, United States.N. Amer. 30-8 N. 81-35 W. St. Augustin, Madagascar, S. Indian Sea, Africa 23-35 S. 43-8 E. Aurora Isle, S. Pac. Ocean, 15-08 S.I68-17 E. Ava, Ava, India, Asia 20-25 N. 95-30 E. Avignon, Vaucluse, France, Europe 43-57 N. 4-53 E. Bagdad, Arabian Irak, Turkey, Asia 33-20 N. 43-51 E. Balbec, Syria, Turkey, Asia 33-30 N. 37-0 E. I IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) // V .^ . MP. 1.0 I.I 1^ 2.0 1.8 L25 IIIIU IIIIII.6 6" V] .^# <* '^:> d? / / ^. Photographic Sciences Corporation f^^ i-V \\ m^ Ci^ 23 WEST MAIN STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. 14580 (716)873-4503 w i/j ^ 890 A NEW GEOGRAPHICAL TABLE. Namei of Places. Provinces Baltic Sea, Barcelona, Basse-Terre, Bastia, Batavia, Bath, Bay of Bengal, Bay of Biscay, Countries Quarter. Latitude. Longitude, or Seas. D. M. D. M. between Ger. & Swed. Europe Bayonne, Belgrade, Bencoolen, Bender, Berlin, Bermuda Isles, Bern, Berwick, Bilbao, Birmingham, Black or Eux- ine sea, Bog ia, Bokhara, Bolabola Isle, Bolcheretz, Bologna, Bombay, Boston, Bourbon Isle, BourdeauXf Breda, Bremen, Breslau, Brest, Bridge-town, Bruges, Brunswick, Brussels, Bucharest, Buda, Buenos-Ayres, Byron-Bay, Coast of India, Coast of France, Low. Pyrenees, France, Catalonia,. Spain, Europe 41-23 N. 2-13 E. Guadaloupe, Carib. Sea, N. Amer. 15-59 N. 61-59 W. Corsica, Italy, Europe 42-30 N. 9-40 E. Java, India, Asia 6-12 S. 106-53 E. Somersetsh. England, Europe 51-22 N. 9-16 W. Asia Indian Oc< :. Europe Atlantic Ocian. Europe 43-29 N. 1-25 W Servia, Turkey, Europe 45-0 N. 21-20 E Sumatra, India, Asia 3-49 S. 102-15 E. Bessarabia, Russia, Europe 46-40 N. 29-0 E. Brandenburg, Germany, Europe 52-32 N. 13-22E. Atlant. Ocean, N.Ame- rica 32-35 N. 63-23 W. Bern, Switzerland, Europe 47-0 N. 7-20 E. Berwickshire, Scotland, Europe 55-48 N. 1-45 W. Biscay, Spain, Europe 43-26 N. 3-18 W. Warwicksh. England, Europe 52-30 N. 1-50 W. Turkey in Europe and Asia Colombia, S.Am. 4-10 N. Usbeck Tartary, Asia 39-15 N. Pacific Ocean, Asia Kamchatka, Russia, Asia Bolognese, Italy, Europe 44-29 N. Bombay Isle, India, Asia 18-56 N. New England, United States,N. Am. 42-25 N. Indian Ocean, Africa 20-51 S. France, Europe 44-50 N. Netherlands, Europe 51-40 N. Germany, Europe 53-35 N. K. of Prussia, Europe 51-3 N. France, Europe 48-22 N. Gironde, Brabant, Low Saxony, Silesia, Finisterre, Barbadoes, Flanders, Low. Saxony, Brabant, Walachia, 73 -SOW. 62.45 E. 16-32 S. 151.47W 52-54 N. 156-42 E. 11-26E. 72-43 E. 70-32W. 55-25 E. 29 W. 4-40 E. 3-20 E. 17-13 E. 4-29 W. Atlant. Ocean.N. Am. 1 3-5 N. 58-35 W. Netherlands, Germany, Netherlands, Turkey, Lower Hungary, La Plata, Hawaii, 3-5 E. Cadiz, Andalusia, Spain, Caen, Calvados, France, Ca£fa, Crimea. Russia, Cagliari, Sardinia, Italy, Cairo, Lower Egypt, Calais, Strait of Calai8,France, Calcutta, Bengal, India, Callao, Peru, Calnuur, Smaland, Swedes, Europe 51-16 N Europe 52-30 N. 10-30 E. Europe 50-51 N. 4-26 E. Europe 44-26 N. 26-13 E. Europe 47-40 N. 19-20 E. S.Am. 34-35 S. 58-26 W between Asia and Amer. 19-43 N. 155-8 W. Europe 36-31 N. 6-6 W. Europe 49-11 N. -16W. Europe 45-6 N. 35-12 E. Europe 39-25 N. 9-38 E. Africa 30-2 N. 31-93 E. Europe 50-57 N. 1-55 E. Asia 22-34 N. 88-34 E. S. Amer. 12-1 N. 76-53 E. Europe 51M0 N. 16-26 £. ■•^p il . ". ._-«sr-: A NEW GEOGRAPHICAL TABLE. m E. E. ;\v. E. E. E. E. E. W 6W. 2E. 8E. 3E. 15 E. 14 E. 13 E. k6£. tfamei tf Plaees. Provincet. Cambodia, Cambodia, Cambray, North, Campbelltown Argyleshire, Canary, N. E. Point, Counttiei or Seas, India, France, Scotland, Quarter. LatUudet Longitude* D.M. M.D. Asia 13-30 N. 105 E. Europe 50-10 N. 3-18 E. Europe 55-30 N. 5-40W- Candia, Candi, Canso Port, Canterbury, Canton, Cape Clear, x-Comorin, —Corse, — Finisterre, — of Good Hope, —Horn, Canary Isles, Atlant. Ocean,Africa 28-13 N. 15-33W. Candia l8land,Mediter. Sea, Europe 35-18 N. 25-23E. Ceylon, Nova Scotia, Kent, Canton, England, China, Irish Sea, India, Fantee countryGold-coast, Galicia, Spain, Indian Ocean, Asia, 7-54 N. 79-0 E. N. Am. 45-20 N. 60-50W. Europe 61-18 N. 1-14 E. Asia, 23-7 N. 113-7 E. Europe 51-18 N. 9-50W. Asia 7-56 N. 78-10 E. Africa 5-18 N. 2.25W. Europe 42 51 N. 9-12W. Murciu, — Verd. — St. Vincent Algarve, Carlscrona, Schonen, Carthagena, Carthagena, Casan, Caspian Sea, Casse), St. Catha- rine's Isle, Cattegat, Cayenne, Cette, Cafraria, Terra del Fue- go Island, Western coast of Africa Portugal, Sweden, Spain, Colombia, Casan, Russia, to the N. of Persia, Hesse-Cassel, Germany, Africa 34-29 S. 18-28 E- S.Ame. 55-58 S. 67-21 \V. 14-45 N. 17-28W Europe 37-2 N. 8-57W. Europe 56-7 N. 15-31 E. Europe 37-35 N. l-SW. S. Am. 10-26 N. 7.5.42W. Asia 55-43 N, 49-13 E. Asia Europe 51-19 N. 9-34 E. Channel, Cheshire, Charlton Isle, Chartres, Cherbourg, Cherson, Chester, St. Christo- pher's Isle, CivitaVccchia,Patr. di S, Petro, Gierke's Isles, Clermout, Atlantic Ocean, S. Am, 27-35 S. 49-12 W. between Swed. & Den. Europe Atlantic Ocean. " ~ S. Am. 4-56 N. 52-1 OW. Europe 43-23 N. 3-42 E. A iia 22-51 N. 88-34 E. N. Am. 32-45 N. 80-39W. 79-OW. 1-33 E Europe 49-38 N. l-33w! Europe 46-38 N. 32-50 E. Europe 53-58 N. 3, 4 W. Cayenne Isle, Guiana, Herault, France, Chandenagour,BengaI, India, Charlestown, South Carolina Hudson's Bay,N. Am. 52-3 N. Eure et Loire, France, Europe 48-26 N. France, Russia, England, Caribbean Sea,N. Am. 17-15 N.62.38 W. Italy, Europe, 42-5 N. 11-51 E. Atlant. Ocean,S. Am. 55-5 S. 34-37\V. Puy de Dome, France, Europe 45-46 N. 3-10 E. Colmar, Upper Rhine, France, Cologne, Duchy of the Germany, Rhine, Suabia, Romania, Germany, Turkey, Constance, CoNSTANTI NOPLE, CoPBMiAOEN, Zceland Isle Denmark, Corinth, Morea, Turkey, Cork, Munster, Ireland, Europe 48-4 N. 7-27 E. Europe 50-55 N. 6-55 E. Europe 47-37 N. 9-12 E. Europe 41-1 N. 28-58 E. Europe 55-40 N. 12-40 E. Europe 37-30 N. 23-0 E. Europe 51-53 N. 8-23W. 892 A NEW GEOGRAPHICAL TABLE. NanutofPtaee$. Provinces. Countries or Seas. Bengal, Syria, Holland, Kent, Saxony, Leinster, Kent, N.Department,France, Cowes, Cracow, Cura9ao I., Cusco, Dacca, Damascus, Dantzic, Delft, Dehli; Dendera, Dieppe, Diu, Del, Dominica, Dominica, Dongola, Dover, Dresden, Dublin, Dungeness, Dunkirk, Easter Isle, Eastern Ocean Edinburgh, Edystone, Embden, Eng. Channel Ephesus, Erzeroum, Ethiop. Sea, Eustatius, Evreux, Exeter, Falmouth, Fayal Town, Ferro Town, Ferrol, Florence, Fonchal, France (Isle of) Franckfort, Upper Rhine, Fran^oisjCape, Isle of Wight, England, Poland, West Indies, Peru, Quarter. Latitude, Longitude. D.M. D.M. Europe 50-46 N. 1-14W. Europe 50-10 N. 19-55 E. Am. 11-56 N. 68-20 W. S.Am. 12-25 S. 70-OW. India, Turkey, Prussia, Netherlands, India, Upper Egypt, France, India, Lower Seine, Guzerat, Isle et Vilainc, France, Windw.IslandsWest Indies, the MarquesaSjPacific Ocean, Nubia, England, Germany, Ireland, England, ^sia Asia Europe Europe Asia Africa Europe Asia Europe Am. Africa Europe Europe Europe Europe Europe 23-30 N. 33-15 N. 54-22 N. 52-6 N. 29-0 N. 26-15 N. 49-55 N. 21-37 N. 48-33 N. 15-18 N. 9-39 S. 19-20 N. 51-7 N. 51-0 N. .53-21 N. 50-52 N. 51-2 N. 89-20 E. 37-20 E; 18-38 E. 4-5 E. 76-30 E. 32-45 E. 1-4 E. 69-30 E. 1-41W. 6 1-22 W. 1 39-5 W. 32-3 E. 1-13 E. 13-36 E. 6-lW. 1-4 E. 2-27 E. ,betw.theN.W Edinburghsh. Eng. Channel, Westphalia, Natolia, Armenia, Caribbean Sea Eure, Devonshire, Cornwall, Azores, Canaries, Galicia, Fez, Tuscany, Madeira, Pacific Ocean, ,ofN.Am.&N Scotland, England, Germany, betw.Eng.&Fr. Turkey, Turkey, CoastofGuinea West Indies, France, England, 27-6 S.109-41W. E. of Asia, N.Pacific Ocean. Europe 55-57 N. 3-7W. Europe 50-8 N. 4-19W. Europe 53-25 N. 7-10 E. Europe Atlantic Ocean. Asia 38-1 N. 27-30 E. Asia 39-56 N. 40-55 E. , Africa Atlantic Ocean. N.Am. 17-29 N. 63-5W. Europe 49-1 N. 1-13 E. Europe 50-44 N. 3-29W. England, Europe 50-8 N. 4-57W. Atlant. Ocean,Europe 38-32 N. 28-36W. Atlant. Ocean, Africa 27-47 N. 17-40W. Spain, Europe 43-30 N. 8-40W. Morocco, Africa 33-30 N. 5.30W. Italy, Europe 43-46 N. 11-7 E. Atlant. Ocean.Africa 32-37 N. 17.0W. Indian Ocean, Africa 20-9 S. 57-33 E. Germany, Europe 49-55 N. 8-40 E. Ilayti, Amer. 19-46 N. 72-18W. 6-5 E. 8-45 E. Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland, Europe 46-12 N. Genoa, Genoa, Italy, Europe 44-25 N. St. George's Isle, oneofthe Azores, in the Atlant. 38-39 N. 28-OW. St. George's Town, Bermuda, Amer. 32-45 N. 63 35\V. Gibraltar, Andalusia, Spain, Europe 30-5 N. 5-17VV. Nameto^ Glasgow Goa, Gondar Gothenl Gottingt Guadal( Island Halifax, Hamburi Hanov] Havanna St. Helei La Hogui Hoooruru Horn, Ca Huaheioc Hull, Janeiro, I Jerusalem Ispahan, Isthmus 01 Kano, Kingston, Land's En Leghorn, Leyden, Lima, Ij'merick, Lifltz, Lisbon, Lisle, LoNDoy, Londonderr Loretto, Louisbourg, Louvain, Louveau, Lubeck, St. Lucia Is Lunden, Lyons, Macao, ar. Madras, Madrid, Mahon, Port Majorca, Isle! >5fi'i A NEW GEOGRAPHICAL TABLE. 893 Nametof Places, Provinces. Countries Quarter. Latitude. Londitude. or Seas. D.M. D. M. Glasgow, Lanerkshire, Scotland, Goa, Malabar, India, Gondar, Amhara, Abyssinia, Gothenborg, Gothland, Sweden, Gottingen, Hanover, Germany, Guadaloupe Island, Carib. Sea, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Hamburg, Holstein, Germany, Hanover, Germany, Havaona, Isle of Cuba, St. Helena, La Hogue, Cape, La M anche, France, HoDoruru Oahu, betw. Asia andAmer. 21-18 Horn, Cape, Tierra del Fuego,Amer. 5f)'58 Huaheine, S.Pacific 16-43 Hull, Yorkshire, England, Europe 53-45 Europe 55-51 Asia 15-31 Africa 12-34 Europe 57-41 Europe 51-31 Amer. 15-59 Amer. 44-39 Europe 53-30 Europe 52-21 Amer. 23-11 S.Atlantic 15-55 Europe 49-43 N. 4-15W. N. 17.45 E. N. 37-33 E. N. 11-39 E. N. 9-53 E. N. 61.41W. N. 63-16W. N. 10-1 E. N. 9-47 E. N. 82.15W. S. 5^9W. N. 1.51W. N.157.56W. S. 67-26W. S. 151-lW. N. 0-1 5W. Janeiro, Rio, Brasil, Amer Jerusalem, Palestine, Asia Ispahan, Irak, Persia, Asia Isthmus of Suez, joins Africa to Asia, Parien, joins North to SouthAmerica. Kano, Kingston, Land's End, Leghorn, Leyden, Lima, Limerick, Lintz, Lisbon, Lisle, LoNDOK, Londonderry Loretto, Louisbourg, Louvain, Louveau, Lubeck, St. Lucia Isle, Lunden, Lyons, Jamaica, Soudan, West Indies, Africa Amer. 22-54 S. 42-43W. 31-49 N. 35-25 E. 32-25 N. 52-55 E. 12-0 N. 9-20 E. 18-15 N. 76.35W. Cornwall, England, Tuscany, Italy, Holland, Netherlands, Peru Limerickshlre, Ireland, Austria, Germany, Estremadura, Portugal, North, Middlesex, Londonderry, Pope's Territ. France, England, Ireland, Italy, C. Breton Isle, Brabant, Netherlands, Siam, India, Holstein, Germany, Windw. Isles, West Indies, Gothland, . Sweden, Rhone et Loire,France, Europe 50-3 Europe 43-33 Europe 52-10 S.Amer. 12-1 Europe 52-35 Europe 48-16 Europe 38-42 Europe 50-37 Europe 51-31 Europe 55-10 Europe 43-15 N.Amer. 45-53 Europe 50-53 Asia 12-42 Europe 54-0 N.Amer.13.24 Europe 55-41 Europe 45-45 N. 5-41W. N. 10-25 E, N. 4-32 E. S. 76-44W. N. 8.48W. N. 13-57 E. 9-4W. 3-9 E. I St. Mer. 7-40W. 14-15 E. N. 59-48W. N. 4-49 E. N. 100-56 E. N. 11-40 E. N. 60-46W. N. 13-26 E. N. 4-54 E. N. N. N. N. N. Macao, Canton, Macassar, Celebes Isle, Madras, Coromandel, Madrid, New Castile, Magdalena Isle, MahoD, Port, Minorca, Minorca, Isle, China, Asia 22-12 N.113.51 E. India, Asia, 5-9 S. 1 19-53 E. India, Asia 13-4 N. 80-33 E. Spain, Europe 40-25 N. 3-20 E. S. Pacific Oc. 10-25 S.138-44W. Med" err. Sea,Europe 39-50 N. 3-53 E. Mediterr. Sea,Europe 39-35 N. 2-34 E. 894 A NEW GEOGRAPHICAL TABLE. Names of Placts. Provinces, Malacca, Malines, StMalo, Malta Isle, Manilla, Countries Quarter, Latitude. Longitude, or Seas. D. M. D. M. Malacca, Brabant, Morbihan, Mediterranean Sea, Lu9onia, Phi- India, lip. Isles, Lombardy, Italy, India, Asia 2-12 N.102-10 E. Netherlands, Europe 51-1 N. 4-33 E. France, Europe 48-38 N. i-SGW. Africa 35-54 N. 14-33 E. Asia 14-36 N.120-58 E. Europe 45-20 N. 10-47 E. Mantua, Marie -galante Isle, Atlan. Ocean,S. Am. Marseilles, Department of France, Europe the Rhone. Martinique, Caribbean Isl.,West Indies, Amer. St. Mary's IsIe,Scilly Isles, Atlantic Oc. Europe St. Mary's To. Azores, . . . - - Maskelyne Isle, Mauritius, Mayo Isle, Cape Verd, Meaux, Seine et Marne, Arabia Felix, Arabia, Asia North Georgia,New-Britain, N. Am. Lower Rhine, Germany, 15-55 N. 61-GVV. 43-17 N. 5-27 E. Atlantic Oc. Europe S. Pacific Oc. Indian Ocean, Africa Atlantic Oc. Africa 15-10 N. France, Europe 48-57 N. 14-44 N. 49-57 N. 36-56 N. 16-32 S. 20-9 S. 61.5W. 6-38W. 25-06W. 168-4 E. 57-25 E; 23-OW. 2-57 E. Mecca, Melville Isle, Mentz, Mequinez, Fez, Messina, Mexico, St. Michael's Isle, Azores, Middleburglsle, Barbary, Sicily, Mexico, Atlantic Oc. S. Pacific Oc. Italy, Arabia, Italy, France, Milan, Lombardy, Mocha, Arabia Felix, Modena, Modena, Montpelier, Herault, Montreal, Canada, Montserrat I., Caribbec Isles, West Indies, Moscow, Moscow, Russia, Munich, Bavaria, Germany, Munster, Westphalia, Germany, Africa Europe N.Am. Europe Europe Asia Europe Europe N.Am. Amer. Europe Europe Europe 21-45 N. 41-0 E. 75N.110W. 49-54 N. 8-25 E. 34-30 N. 6-0 E. 38-30 N. 15-40 E. 19-54 N. 100.5W. 37-47 N. 21-20 S. 45-28 N. 13-40 N. 44-34 N. 43-36 N. 45-35 N. 16-47 N. 55-45 N. 48-9 N. 52-0 N. 25.37W. 174.29W. 9-16 E. 43-50 E. 11-17 E. 3-37 E. 73-1 IW. 62.12VV. 37-38 E. 1 1-35 E. 7-16 E. Nagasaki, Namur, Nanci, Nankin, Nantes, Naples, Narva, Newcastle, New York, Nice, Nieuport, Norfolk Isle, Nootka Isle, North Cape, Norwich, Japan, Namur, Meurthe, Kiangnan, Lower Loire, Naples, Livonia, Northumberl. New York, Piedmont, Flanders, Wardhus, Norfolk, N. Pacific Oc.Asia 32-32 Netlierlands, Europe 50-28 France, China, France, Italy, Russia, England, Europe 48-41 Asia 32-4 Europe 47-13 Europe 40-50 Europe 59-0 Europe .55-3 N.128-51 E. N. 4-49 E. N. 6-10 E N. 11 8-52 E. United States, N. Am. 40-40 Italy, Europe 43-41 Netherlands, Europe 51-7 S. Pacific Oc. 29-0 N. Pacific Oc. 49-36 Lapland, Europe 71-10 England, Europe 52-40 1-28 W. 14-18 E. 27-35- E. 1-24W. 74-OVV. 7-22 E. 2-50 E. 8.168-15 E. N. 1 26-42 W. N. 26-29 E. N. 1-25 E. N. N. N. N. N. N. N. Names t Nuremb Ochotsk Oleron I Olinda, OlmutK, St. Omei Oporto, Oran, Orenburg L'Orienti Orleans, Orleans ( Osnaburg Ostend, Oxford C vatory, ■"'"Si A NEW GEOGRAPHICAL TABLE. 893 Nama dfPlaeti, Provincei, Nuremberg, Franconia, Cttuniriea or Seas. (Quarter. Germany, Europe 49-27 N. 11-12 E. Latitude. Longitude. D. M. D. M. Ochotak, Oleron Isle, Olinda, OlmutK, St. Omer's, Oporto, Oran, Orenburg, Siberia, Low.Charente, Flanderb, Douro, Algier, Ufa, L'Orient(Port)Morbihan, Orleans, Loiret, Orleans (New) Louisiana, Osnaburg Isle, Ostend, Flanders, Oxford Obser- vatory, Oxfordshire, Russia, France, Brazil, Moravia, Netherlands, Portugal, Barbary, Russia, France, France, United States S. Pacific Oc Netherlands, Asia Europe S. Am. Europe Europe Europe Africa Asia Europe Europe ,N. Am. Europe 59-20 N.143-17 E. 46-2 N. 1-20 W. 8-13 S. 49-30 N. 50-44 N. 41-10 N. 36-30 N. 51-46 N. 47-45 N. 47-54 N. 35- OW. 16-45 E. 2-19 E. 8-22W. 0-5 E. 55-14 E. 3.20W. 1-59 E. 29-57 N. 89-53W. 17-52 S.148-1 E 51-13 N. 2-55 E. England, Europe 51-45 N. 1-lOW. Pacific Ocean, between Asia and America, Padua, Paduano, Palermo, Palliser's Isles, Falma Isle, Canaries, Palmyra, Syria, Panama, Darien, Paris Obser- vatory, Isle of France,France, Parma, Parmesan, Italy, Patna, Bengal, India, Pau, Low. Pyrenees,France, St. Paul's Isle, S. Indian Italy, Sicily, S. Pacific Oc Atlant. Ocean, Africa Turkey, Colombia, Europe 45-22 N. 12-0 E. Europe 38-30 N. 13-43 E. 15-38 S.146-25W. 28-36 N. 17.45W. Asia 34-5 N. 38-15 E. S. Am. 8-47 N. 80.16W. Pegu, Pekin, Pembroke, Pensacola, Perigueux, Perth, Pegu, Peche-lee, Pembrokesh. India, China, Wales, Europe 48-50 N. 2-25 E. Europe 44-45 N. 10-51 E. Asia 25-45 N. 83-0 E. Europe 43-15 N. 0.4W. Oc. 37-51 S. 77-53 E. Asia 17-0 N. 97-0 E. Asia 39-54 N. 1 16-29 E. Europe 51-45 N. 4-50 W. West Florida, United States, N. Am. 30-22 N. 87.20W. Dordogne, Perthshire, Perth-amboy, New Jersey, PETERSBURG,Ingria, St. Peter's Isle, St.Peter's Fort, Martinique, Fetropaulo8koi,Kamchatka, Europe 45-11 N. Europe 56-22 N. 40-30 N. 59-56 N. 0-48 E. 3-1 2 W. 74-20W. 30-24 E. France, Scotland, N. Am, Russia, Europe N. Atlant. Oc.Amer. West Indies, N. Am. 14-44 N. 6I-16W. Russia, Asia 53-1 N.158.40 E. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States, N, Am, 39-5G N. 75-9W. Pitcaime's Isle, South Pacific, Europe, 25-2 S.133.21W. Pines, Isle of, N. Caledonia, Pacific Ocean, 22-38 S.167.43 E. 46-46 N. 56.12W. Piss, Tuscany, Italy, Placentia, Newfoundland Isle, Plymouth, Devonshire, England, Plymouth, Massachuset, United States, Pondicheri, Coromandel, East Indies, Port-Royal, Jamaica, West Indies, Port-Royal, Mtutiniquei West ladies, Europe 43-43 N. N. Am. 47-26 N. 10-17 E. 55-OW. Europe 50-22 N. 4-7W. N. Am. 41-48 N. 70.25W. Asia 11-41 N. 79-57 E. Amer. 18-0 N. 76-40 W. Amer. 14-35 N. 61-4W. II ^ 896 A NEW GEOGRAPHICAL TABLE. Namtt of Placet . Proviiuts. Countries Quarter. Latitude. Longitude, or Seas, D.M. D.M. Porto-Bello, Colombia, S. Amer. 9-33 N. 79.45W. Portland Isle, S. Pacific Oc. 39-25 S. 178-I7E. Portland Igle, N. AtlantOc. Europe 63-22 N. 18.49W. Portsmouth, Hampshire, England, Europe 50-47 N. 1-5W. Potosi, • La Plata, S. Amer. 19-50 S. 70-1 5W. Prague, Bohemia, Europe 50-4 N. 14-50 E. Presburg, Up. Hungary, Europe 48-20 N. 17.30W. Prince ofWales Fort, New N. Wales, N. Amer. 58-47 N. 94.2W. Pulo Condor, Indian Ocean, Asia 8-40 N.107.25 E. Quebec, Canada, N. Amer. 46-55 N. 71.5W. Queen Char- lotte's Isles, S. Pacific Oc. 10-11 S.164.35E. Quito, Colombia, S. Amei -. 0-13 S. 77-50W. Ragusa, Dalmatia, Ratisbon, Bavaria, Germany, Rennes, Isle et ViIaine,France, Resolution Isle, S. Pacific Oc. Reykiavik, Iceland, Rhe Isle, Low. Charente,France, Rheims, Marne, France, Rhode Island, United States^ Rhodes, Rhodes Island, Levant Sea, Riga, Livonia, Russia, Rochefort, Low. Charente,France, Rock of Lis- Mouth of Ta- bon, gus river, Portugal, Rome, (Saint Pope's Terri- Peter's) tory, Italy, Rotterdam, Holland, Netherlands, Rotterdam Isle, S. Pacific Oc Europe 42-45 N. Europe 48-56 N, Europe 48-6 N, 17-23S. 64-9 N, Europe 46-14 N. Europe 49-14 N, N.Amer.41-25 N. Asia 36-20 N. Europe 56-55 N. Europe 46-2 N. 18-25 E. , 12-5 E. 1.36W. 141-40W. , 21 -SOW. 1.20W. . 4-7 E. 71-20W. , 27-55 E. 24-0 E. . 0-53W. Europe 38-45 N. 9.30W. Europe 41-53 N Europe 51-56 N, 20-16 N. 12.34E. 4-33E, 1 74-24 W. St. Domingo, [City] — George's Channel — lago, — Salvador, Sackatoo, Salonica, Santa Cruz, Santa Fe Savannah, West Indies, betw, England & Amer. 18-20 N. 70-OW. Ireland, Brasil, Macedonia, TenerifFe, Georgia, Atlant. Chil^, Soudan, Turkey, Oc. 71.0W. 38.0W. 6-12 E. Europe. S. Amer. 34-0 S. S. Amer. 13-0 S. Africa, 13-4 N Europe 40-41 N. 23-13 E. Atlantic Ocean,Africa 28-27 N. 16-1 IW. Mexico, N. Amer. 35-ON. 105-50W. N.Amer.31.24N. 81-OW. England, Europe 54-18 N. 0-1 OW. Scotland, Europe 56-'24 N. 3-lOW. Sea of Azof, Little Tartary, Europe & Asia, Sea of Marmora, Turkey in Europe & Asia, Black Sea. — Okhotsk, betw. Siberia and Kamchatka, Asia, N. Pacif. Ocean. — - Yellow, between China and Corea, North Pacific Ocean. Senegal, Negroland, Africa 15-53 N. 16-26W Seville, Andalusia, Spain, Europe 37-15 N. 6-5W. Scarborough, Yorkshire, Scone, Perthshire, •f" A NEW GEOGRAPHICAL TABLE. 897 !.>l:'« Barnes of Places. Provinces. Sheerness, Siam, Sidon, Smyrna, Soolo Isle, Sound, Kent, Siam, Holy Land, Natolia, Philippines, Counh-'tes Quarter. Latitude, Longitude, or Seas. D.M. D.M. England, Europe 51 -25 N. 0-50 E. India, Asia 14-18 N. 100-5o E. Turkey, Asia 33-45 N. 36-15 E. Turkey, Asia 38-28 N. 27-24 E. East Indies, Asia 5-57 N. 121-20 E. 14-53 E. 18-8 E. betw. Denmark & Sweden, Baltic Sea. South West Cape, Van-Diemen's land, S. Pacific 43-39 N. 145-50 E. Southampton, Hampshire, England, Europe 50-55 N. 1-25W, Stettin, Pomerania, Germany, Europe 53.32 N Stockholm, Upland, Sweden, Europe 59-20 N Strait of Babelmandeb, between Africa and Asia, Red Sea. Strait, Behring's, between North America and Asia, in the Frozen Ocean. Strait of Dover, between England and France, English Channel. Strait of Gibraltar, between Europe and Africa, Mediterranean Sea. Strait of Magellan, between Terra del Fuego and Patagonia, South America. Strait of Le Maire, in Patagonia, South America, Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. Strait of Malacca, between Malacca and Sumatra, Asia, Indian Ocean, Strait of Ormus, between Persia and Arabia, Persian Gulf. Strait of Sunda, between Sumatra and Java, Indian Ocean, Asia. Strait of Waigat, between Nova Zembla and Russia, Asia. Stralsund, Strasbourg, Suez, Sunderland, Surat, Syracuse, Pomerania, Low. Rhine, Suez, Durham, Guzerat, Germany, France, Kgypt, England, India, Sicily, Europe 54-23 N. Europe 48-34 N. Africa 29-50 N. Europe 54-55 N. Asia 21-10 N. Europe 36-58 N. 13-22 E. 7-46 E. 33-27 E. 1-lOW. 72-27 E. 15-5 E. Tanna Isle, Tauris, Aderbijan, Teflis, Georgia, TeneriffePeakj Canaries, Tetuan, Fez, Thebes, St. Thomas' I. Virgin Isles, Thorn, Prussia, Timor, S. W. Point, S. PaciBc Oc. 19-32 S. 169-46 E. Persia, Asia 38-20 N. 47-17 E. Russia, Asia 42-5 N. 46-10 E. Atlant. Ocean,Africa 28-12 N. ]6-24\V, Barbary, Africa 35-40 N. 5-1 8 W. Upper Egypt, Africa 25-40 N. 32-30E. West Indies, Amer. 18-21 N. 64.26W. Europe 52-56 N. 19-0 E- Tobolsk, Toledo, Tonga-Taboo Isle, Tornea, Toulon, Trapesond, Trent, Tripoli, Tripoli, TudU, Twin, Turtle Isle, Siberia, New Castile, Bothnia, Var, Natolia, Trent, Tripoli, Syria, Tunis, Piedmont, India, Russia, Spain, Asia 10-23 S. 124.4W. Asia 58-12 N. 68-17 E. Europe 39-50 N. 3-25 £. S. Pacific Sweden, France, Turkey, Germany, Barbary, Turkey, Barbary, Italy, S. P. Ocean, 3M Oc. Europe Europe Asia Europe Africa Asia Africa Europe 21-9 65-50 43-7 41-50 46-5 32-53 34-30 36-47 45-5 19.4d S.174.41W. N. 24-7 E. N. 6-1 E. N. 40-30 E. N. 11-2 E. N. 13-12 E. N. 35-50 E. N. 10-0 E. N. 7-45 E. S. 17S.2W. 89^ A NEW GEOGRAPHICAL TABLE. NaniaofPlacet, Pr&vinces. Tyre, Palestine, Ulietea tsle, Upsal, Upland, UshanI'. Isle, Finisterre, Utrecht, Holland, Ctmntries or seas, Turkey, Quarter. Asia S. Pac. Ocean, Sweden, Europe France, Europe Netherlands, Europe Latitude. Longitude, D. M. 1). M. 32-32 N. 36-0 E. 16-4.'5 S. 151-26\V. 59-51 N. 17-43 E. 48-28 N. 4-59 E. 52-7 N. 5-0 E. Venice, Venice, Italy, Vera Cruz, Mexico, Verona, Veronese, Italy, Versailles, Seine et Oise, France, Vienna, Austria, Germany, Vigo, Galicia, Spain, Europe 45-26 N. 1 1-59 E. N. Amer. 19-12 N. 96-25 W. Europe 45-26 N. 11-23 E. Europe 48-48 N. 2-12 E. Europe 48-12 N. 16-22 E. Eur«"e 42-14 N. 8-23 W. Warsaw, Masovia, Russian Pol. Europe 52-14 N. 21-5 E. ■Washington, Columbia, United States,N .Amer. 38-53 N. 77-48 W. Whitehaven, Cumberland, England, Europe 54-38 N. 3-36 W. Whitsuntide Isle, S. Pacific Oc, 15-44 S. 168-25 E. Williamsburg, Virginia, N. Amer. 37-1 2 N. 76-48 W. Willes' Isles, SouthGeorgia.Atlantic Oc, America 54-0 S. 38-24 W. Wilna, Lilliuania, Poland, Europe 54-41 N. 25-32 E. Wittenberg, Up. Saxony, Germany, Europe .11-49 N. 12-46 E. Wurtzburg, Francouia, Germany, Europe 49-46 N. 10-18 E. Yakutsk, Siberia, Russia, Asia 62-1 N. 129-52 E. Yarmouth, Norfolk, England, Europe 52-43 N. 1-48 E. York, Yorkshire, England. Europe 53-59 N. 1-6 W. Greenwich Observ. Kent, England, Europe, 5l» 28' 40" N. 0" 5' 37" £. of St, Paul's, London. 899 \''$ MODERN TABLE OF REAL AND IMAGINARY MONEY, EXPLANATION. By real money is understood actual coin, representing in itself the value denominated thereby, as a uuin'ka, &u. * This mark is prefixed to the imaginary money, which is generally used in keeping accounts ; signifying a fictitious pieco which is not in being, or which cannot be represented but by several other pieces, as a pound sterling, &c. All fractions in the English value are parts of a penny. ENGLAND AND SCOTLAND. £. s. d. A Farthing — — — H 4 Farthings m — — 1 \i Pence "^ a Shilling — 1 5 Shillings ^; a Crown — 5 10 Siiillings ::: a Half-Sovereign 10 20 Shillings ~^ a Sovereign 1 — a* Pound sterling 1 21 Shillings — • a Guinea 1 1 u K'-\ FRANCE. A Sol >_ __ •— « P^-mm Oh A Franc, or Livre, compre-^ bending 100 centimes or^ — — 10 teu decimes > 6 I'ranca — an Ecu — 5 24 Francs == a Louis d'Or 1 THE KINGDOM OF THE NETHERLANDS. A Cent ~ .MM W^^ osV A Stiver ~ ^m^ m— 1 Vff A Quarter*Florih == _ — 9i A Gilder or Florin = __ — 1 2 Fioriag and a half = A Rix-dollar 3M2 4 oi m I '»i 000 A MODERN TABLE OF MONEY. 3 Florins and 3 Stivers = 10 Florins = 14 Florins = 20 Florins = £. s. d. A Ducatoon n 7 a Gold coin 17 8 a Ryder 1 4 f) a Gold Ducat 1 15 5 The kingdom of PRUSSIA, and the grand duchy of the LOWER RHINE. A Grosch Groschen • 3 Florins 4 Florins 8 Florins A Frederic d'Or — — H a Florin 1 1 * a Dollar 3 3 a Rix-dollar 4 4 a Ducat 8 8 _ — 17 4 a Florin 2 2 a Dollar 3 3 a Rix-dollar 4 4 a Gold-coin 6 6 a George u'Or 16 3 The kingdom of HANOVER. IG Groschen es a Florin and a half = 2 Florins zs 2 Dollars sa 5 Dollars ss N. B. In the kingdom of Saxony the coins, except the last, are of the same value and denomination. In the kingdom of Wurtemberg, 28 schillings make a rix-florin (2s. Gd.), and a florin and a half make a rix-dollar. In Bavaria, beside the silver coin, a Carolin d'or is used, equivalent to ten florins and 42 kreutzers, or rather more than a pound sterling. In Austria, the florin is abouc Is. llrf. and the gold co.as are ducats and sojiverains, the former being four florins and a half, and the latter six florins and two-thirds. Groschen, florins, rix« dollars, and ducats, are the prevailing coins in Austrian and Prussian Poland ; but, in the Russian division, the coins of that empire are also current. A Copeck s 100 Copecks = A Gold'coin of ten roubles RUSSIA. a rouble 0^? 3 3 ' 1 12 G A Skillin 4 Skillin 4 Marks 3 Dollar . A Ducat HAMBURG, AND THE NORTH OF GERMANY. A Schilling _. ••n. _ H 16 Schillings SS a Mark 1 6 3 Marks — a Rix-dollar 4 6 1 Skillif 4 Marks — a Ducatoon 6 16 Skiliir A Ducat (gold) = 11 3 4 Marks 6 Marks A Dua A Kreut 60 Kreutz 2 Florins In most used in pi nari; but, pence in sc six lire an usually equi that of Pic politan carl or 3s. 6rf. ; from 15 to ; 2 Maravei 17 Ochavos 32 Ochavos 8 Reals 10 Reals " A Ducat A PistoU * A Re 20 Res 480 Res A MODERN TABLE OF MONEY. 901 SWEDEN AND NORWAY. A Skilllng 4 Kkillings 4 Marks 3 Dollars A Ducat S a silver Mark S a Dollar SS 3 Rix-gcld £. «. 1 4 8 d. H 6 9 DENMARK. 1 Skiliing 16 Skilling.s 4 Marks 6 Marks A Ducat = *a Mark SS a Crown SS a Rix-dollar 3 4 9 6 SWITZERLAND. A Kreiitzer 60 Kreutzors 2 Florins and a half := a Florin :=: a Mark 2 6 I' 3 ITALY. In most parts of this country, the lira, which is no real coin, Is used in pecuniary calculations. It consists of 20 soldi, or 240 de- nari ; but, as these are not the same in all the states, it is about six- pence in some parts, and eight in others. A Venetian ducat contains six lire and a quarter ; a Milanese Jilippo, seven lire ; a zechin is usually equivalent to nine shillings ; the scudo of P '^me is about 4s. Sd.; that of Piedmont is higher, as is also that of Tuscany. The Nea« politan carlino is four-pence, and the ducat comprehends 100 grant, or 3$. 6(2. ; while an oncetta amounts to three ducats. A pistole varies from 15 to 16 shillings. pi jr IS I than the and 1 rix- R»ian I also 1 SPAIN. 1 2 Maravedis s an Ochavo 0,Vjr 1 17 Ochavos s a Real de Velon 2^ H 32 Ochavos s: a Real de Plata •5* ■ 8 Reals r; * a Piastre 3 4 ■ 10 Reals -3 a Dollar 4 H ■ ** A Ducat •5 — — . 4 9 1 A Pistole = •"• "• 16 3 PORTUGAL. i'iff ♦ A Re s __ __ Of% ^1 20 Res S3 a Vinteni IvV 480 Res : 3 a Crusade 2 8 ■4i 902 A MODERN TABLE OF MONEY. 50 Vinteras 6400 Res £. s. d. a Milre (1000 Res) 5 7 a Joannes 1 15 8^ TURKEY. An Asper A small Piastre 80 Aspers A Zochiu a Grand Piastre 0* 1 7^ 4 8 9 A Shahi A Mainouda 4 Shahis 50 Abbassis PERSIA. an Abbassi a Toman 4 8 I 4 3 6 8 INDIA. An Ana s — — 16 Anas rz a Rupee 3|- Rupees =: a Pagoda 7 15 Rupees tr: a Mohur 1 10 N. B. In China rupees are also current, beside dollars and crowns; and a mace passes for eight-pence, ten ol* which make a tale. In Japan, fifteen maces, at four-pence each, make an ounce of silver; and thirty, an ingot ; and pieces of gold are used, each weighing an ounce. 6 3 Aspers 10 Medines .'{0 Medines 200 Aapers EGYPT. a Mcdine H a DucatcUo 1 ^ a Griscio. 4 2 a Sultanin 3 A Blankil <20 Blankils 53 Blankils 100 Blankils THE STATES OF BARBARY. — __ 2 a Silver Zechin 3 4 a Gold Zechin 8 10 a Pistole 16 8 THE UNITED STATES OF NORTH AMERICA. A cent 100 CenU 10 Dollars a Dollar a Golden Eagle 2 4 0^ c N. B. Halves and quarters of 9Agle3 and of dollars are also circulated ■903 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF REMARKABLE EVENTS, DISCOVERIES, AND INVENTIONS ; ALSO THE BRA, THE COUNTRY, AND WRITINGS, OF LEARNED AND EMINENT MEN: THE WHOLE COMPREHENDING, IN ONE VIEW, THE AKALVal* OR OUTLINES OF GENBBAb HISTORY, FROM THE CREATION TO THE PHE8ENT TIME. Bef. Christ. 4004 The world rises into a regular form, from a chaotic mass; and Adam and Eve are brought into existence. 4003 Cain is born — the first offspring of a woman. 2348 The whole world is destroyed by a deluge. 2247 The tower of fiabel is built about this time by Noah's posterity, upon which God niiraculuusly confounds their language, and thus disperses thcin into different nations, 2183 Misraiin, the son of l|am, founds the kingdom of Egypt. 20r)9 Ninus, the son o; Bclus, erects the kingdom of Assyria. 15)21 The covenant of God is made with Abraham, when he leaves Haran to go into Canaan, which l)cgins the 430 years of sojourning. 1897 The cities of Sodom and Gomorrah are destroyed for tlieir wickedness, by fire from Heaven. 185G (or, as some think, 1560) the kingdom of Argos, in Greece, begins under Iiiachus. 1822 Memnon.the Egyptian, invents letters. I(i35 Joseph dies in Egypt, which concludes the book of Genesis, containing a period of 23()9 years. 1574 Aaron is born in Egypt; 141)0, appointed by God first high priest of the Israelites. 1571 Moses, brother to Aaron, is born in Egypt, and adopted by Pharaoh's daughter. 1556 (or 1371) Cecrops brings a colony of Saites from Egypt into Attica, and founds the kingdom of Athens, in Greece. 1546 Scamander lands in Phrygia from Crete, and founds the k'ngdom of Troy. 1493 Cadmus curries tlie Phonician letters into Greece, and builds the citadel of 'J'hebes. 1491 Moses performs a number of miracles in Egypt, and departs from that kingdom with 600,000 Israelites. 1453 The firstOlympic games ".re celebrated at Ojympia, in Greece. i4.')2 Moses dies, aged 120 years. 14,')1 The Israelites, under .loihua. enter the land of Canaan. 1406 Iron is found in Greece, from the accidental burning of the woods, 1193 (or 1095.) The Trojan wur arises from the rape of Helen by Paris. 1184 (or 1086) Troy is totally destroyed. 1048 Uavid is sole king of Israel. 1004 The ti'irplc solemnly dedicated by Solomon. 894 Money first ^nade of gold and silver at Argos. 869 The city of Carthage, in Africa, founded by queen Dido. 814 The kingdom of Maccdon begins. 776 The first Olympiad begins. 753 /Era of the building of Rome, in Italy, hy Romulus. 720 Samaria taken, after three years' siege, and the kingdom of Israel finished by the Assyrians, who carried the ten tribes into captivity. The first eclipse of the moon on record. 904 A CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. ()58 Byzantium (now Constantiuoplel built by a colony of Athenians. fi04 By order of Necho, king of Egypt, some Phoenicians sail frouj the Red Sea round Africa, and return by the Mediterranean. tiUO Thalcs, of Miletus, travels into Egvpt ; acquires a knowledge of geometry, astronomy and philosophy ; returns to Greece ; inculcates general notions of the universe, and maintains that one supreme intelligence directs and regulates all iis motions. Maps, spheres, and sun-dials, invented by Anaximander.tlie scholar of Thaks. .^87 'Jhe city of Jerusalem taken, after a siege of 18 months. 5fi2 The first comedy at Athens, acted upon a moveable scaffohl. .'i.^;* t'vrus, the first king of I't-rsia. b'M The kiiigdon of Babylon finished, that city being taken by Cyrus, who, in t}'Mi, issues an edict for the- rctui-u of the Jews. 531 The first tragedy is acted at Athens, in a waggon, by Thcspis, and his itine- rant com|)anions. 52() Learning is greatly encouraged at Athens, and a public library founded, 515 The second temple at Jerusalem is finished under Uarius. 50!) Tarquin, the seventh and last Roman king, is expelled, and Rome is guverued by two consuls. 481 Xerxes, king of I'ersia, begins his expedition against Greece. 4.58 Ezra is sent from Babylon to Jerusalem, with the captive Jews. 4.')4 The Romans send to Athens for Sidon's laws. 401 Retreat of 10,000 Greeks, under Xeuophon. 400 Socrates, the founder of moral philosophy in Greece, believes the immortality of the soul ; for which, and other sublime doctrines, he is put to death by his ungrateful and inhuman countrymen. 3.31 Alexander the Great, king of Macedon, conquers Darius king of Persia, and various natinns of Aiia, 323 He dies at Babjlou; and his empire is divided by his generals into four kingdoms. 285 Dionysius of Alexandria began his astronomical oira on Monday, June 26, being the first who found the exact solar year to consist of 365 days, 3 hours, and 49 minutes. Ptolemy Philadelphus, kingof Egypt, em ploys "2 interpreters to translate the Old Testament into the (ireck language, which is called the Septuagint, 269 The first coining of silver at Rome. 2M The first Punic war begins. 2C0 The Romans first apply themselves to naval affairs. 218 The second Punic war begins. Hannihal passes the Alps, and defeats the Ro- mans in several battles. 190 The Ronmns first enter Asia, and, from the spoils of Antiochus, bring the Asiatic luxury to Rome. 168 Perseus defeated by the Romans, which ends the Macedonian kingdom. 167 The first library erected at Rome, of books brought from Macedon. 1G3 The government of Judea, under the Maccabees, begins, and continues 126 years. 146 Carthage, the rival of Rome, is 'Jestroyed by the Romans. h^i Julius L'rosar makes his first expedition into Britain. 47 The battle of Pharsalia between Ctcsar and Pumpcy, in which the latter ii defeated. [ 45 The war of .\frica, in which ("uto kills himself. The solar year introduced by Caisar. 44 Ctesar, having overturned the liberties of his country, is killed in the senate- house. 31 Tlie battle of Actiuin, in which Mark Antony and Cleopatra are totally de- feated by Octavius, nephew to Ca-sar. 30 Alexandria is taken by Octavius ; iijmn which Antony and Cleopatra pu', them- selves to death, and Egypt becomes a Roman province. 27 Octavius.by a decree of the senate, obtains the title of Augustus, the imperial dignity, and an absolute exemption from the laws. 1 The temple of Janus is shut by Augustus, as on emblem of universal peace ; and Jp;sU-S CHRIST is supposed to hpve been born iu September, or uu Monday, December 2.j. A.D. .33 The crucifixion of our Re2 Ruric, a (iothic adventurer, erects, at Novgorod, a grand duchy, which leads to the formation of the Russian empire. S% Alfred the Great, after snlxltiing the Danish invaders, composes a body of laws; divides England into counties, hundreds, and tithiu^s ■ erects county-courts, and founds the university of Oxford. 915 The university of Cambridge founded. !W6 The Saracen empire divided into seven kingdoms. ■ !)75 Pope Boniface VII. deposed and banished for his crimes. V7'J (.'oronation oaths said to be first used iu England. 991 The Hgures in arithmetic brought into Europe by the Saracens, 996 The German empire is declared elective. 999 lioleslaus, the first king of Poland. 1000 Paper, made of cotton rags, was in use ; that of linen rags iu 1170 : the ma- nufacture introduced into England, at Dartford, 1588. 1005 A great number of churches are built about this time iu a new aud grand style. 1015 Children forbidden by law to he sold by their parents in England. • 1017 Canute^ king of Denmark, obtains possession of England. 1041 The Saxon line restored under Edward the Confessor. 1043 The Turks (a nation of adventurers from Tartary, serving hitherto in the armies of contei>ding pritues) become formidable, and take possessiuu of Persia. 1054 Leo IX. the first pope who maintained an army. . 10C6 The battle of Hastings, between Harold and William (surnamed the Bas- tard) duke of Normandy, iu which the former is slain. The duke be- comes king of England. 1070 William introduces tiic feudal law. Musical notes invented. 1080 About this time the Guelf.s and Ghibellines, or partisans of the popes and the (ierman emperors, convulse Italy by their factious animosities. 1086 Domesday book compiled by order of William, from a survey of all the estates in England. The Tower of London built by William, to curb his English subjects. 1096 The first crusade to the Holy Land undertaken by several Christian princes, to drive the infidels from Jerusalem. 1110 I^dgar Atheling, the last Saxon prince, dies in England. 1118 The order of the Knights Templars instituted, to defend the sepulchre at Jerusalem, and to protect Cliristinn strangers. 11.39 Commencement of the kingdom of Portugal. 1151 The canon law c(dlected by Gratian, a monk of liologna. ' 1163 London Bridge, consisting of 19 small arches, first built of stone. 1164 The Teutonic order, combining war with religion, begins in Germany. 1172 Henry II., king of England, takes possession of Ireland, which, from that period, has been governed l>y an English viceroy. 1176 England is divided by Henry into sixciuuits, and justice is dispensed by itinerant judges. 1180 Glass windows begin to be used in private houses in England. 1181 The laws of England are digested about this time bv Glauville. 1186 The great conjunction of the sun and moon and all the planets in Lihra, in September. 1192 The battle of Ascalon, in Palestine, in which Richard, king of England, defeats Saladin's very numerous army. 1200 Chimneys were not known in England, Surnames now begin to be used ; tirst among the nobility. 1204 The court of inquisition is established on the continent. 1208 London incorporated, and obtained the first charter, for electing a lord- mayor and other magistrates, from king John. 1215 Magna Charta signed by king John and the barons of England, (.'ourt of Common Pleas established. 1227 The Tartars, under Genghiz Khan, emerge from the northern parts of Asia, aud over-ruu all the Saracen empire. Wu A CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE: 907 1227 The bouses of London, and other cities in England, France, and Germany, still thatched with straw. 1253 The famous astronomical tables arc compiled by Alphonso the Wise, kin j of Castile. 12.')8 The Tartars take Bagdad, and put an end to the Saracen empire. 1264 The commons of England are summoned to parliament. 1273 The empire of the present Austriau family commences in Germany. 1282 Wales subdued by Edward I. 1285 The crown of Scotland is claimed by twelve candidates, who submit their pretensions to Edward I., whence arises along war between the British nations. 1293 From this year we may date a regular succession of English parliaments. 1298 The Turkish empire begins in Hiihynia under Othman. .1302 The mariner's compass invented or improved by Gitiiaof Naples, 1307 The Swiss cantons commence tlieir confederacy. 1311 The battle of Bannockburn between Edwaril 11. and Riitiert de Brus. 1,33(> The woollen manufacture introduced into England from the Netherlands. 1337 The first comet whose c 1543 1544 1545 154i!> ]5(J0 I5()3 1572 1579 1580 1582 1587 1588 1589 1597 1(;02 1603 \rm l(i08 IGIO IfilO i(;20 162G 1628 1632 1635 1641 1642 1643 1646 1649 1654 1655 1638 1660 1662 1665 1666 1667 1668 1678 Religious houses dissolved by Henry Vllf. Tlie first English edition of the Bible authorised ; tiic present translation finished in 1611. About this time cannon bc^an to be used in ships. Silk Btoikings first worn by the French king: first used in England by quecu Elizabeth, 1561 ; the steel frame for weaving invented by the Rev. Mr. Lee, of St. John's (College, Cambridge, ir)89. Goijd lands let in England at one shilling per acre. The famous council of Trent begins, and continues 18 years. First law in England establishing the interest of money at ten per cent. The Reformation in Scotland <'uiitple(i'etrated by the Catholics. King Charles impeaches five members, who had opposed his arbitrary measures; and a civil war arises in England. Excise on beer, ale, &c. first imposed by the jiarliament. Episcopacy abolislied in Rni^laiid. Charles I. beheaded at Whitehall. Cromwell assumes the protectorshi]). The English, under admiral Penn, take Jamaica from the Spaniards. Cromwell dies, and is succeeded in the protectorship by his son Richard. King Charles II. is restored by Monk, commander of the army. Episcopacy restored in Great- Itritain. The people of Denmark, being oppressed by the nobles, surrender their privileges to Frederic 111. who becomes al)solute. The Royal Society established by Charles II. The plague rages in London, and carries ofl'OHjOOO persons. The great fire of London, began Sept. 2, and continued three days, in which were destroyed 13,00() houses. Tea first u'^ed in England. The peace of Breda. The peace of Aix-la-Chapelle. The peace of Nimeguen. The habeas-corpus act. n^ A CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 909 1GB3 India stock gold from 3(i0 to 500 i>er cent. * 1685 The duke of Monmouth raises a rebellion against James II., but is dercateJ at the battle of Sedgetnoor, and beheaded. The edict of Nantes is infamously revoked by Louis XIV. and the Pro- testants are cruelly peruecuted. I(i88 The revolution in Great-Britain. 1689 William prince of Orange and Mary, the daughter of James, are raised to the throne. A bill for a land-tax enacted in England. The toleration act passed. 1690 The battle of the Boyne, gained by William aa;nin8t James in Ireland. 161>2 The English and Dutch fleets defeat the French olT La Hogue. 1693 Bayonets at the ends of loaded musqucts first used by the French against the confederates, in the battle of Turin. Bank of England established. The first public lottery was drawn In this year. Massacre of Highlanders at Glencoe by king William's troops. 1694 Stamp duties instituted in England. 1695 The peace of Ryswick. 1701 Prussia erected into a kingdom. A society is instituted in England for the propagation of the Gospel in foreign parts. 1702 A vigorous war is carried on against the French by a powerful confederacy. 1704 Gibraltar taken from the Spaniards. The battle of Blenheim won by the duke of Marlborough and the allies, 1706 The treaty of union between England and Scotland. The battle of Ramillies, gained by the confederates. 1708 Minorca taken from the Spaniards. The battle of Oudenardc won by the allies. Sardinia erected into a kingdom, and given to the duke of Savoy. 1709 Peter the Great, czar of Moscovy, defeats Charles XI I. at Pultowa, who ftiea into Turkey. The battle of IVlalplaquct won by the allies. 1710 The cathedral church of St Paul, London, rebuilt by sir Christopher Wren, in 37 years. 1713 The peace of Utrecht. 1714 Interest reduced to Ave per cent. 1715 A rebellion in Scotland. 1716 An act for septennial parliaments in Great-Britain. 1719 The Missisippi scheme at its height in France. Lombe's silk-throwing machine, containing 26,586 wheels, erected at Derby. 1720 The South-Sea scheme in England began April 7, was at its height at the end of June, and quite sunk about September 29. 1727 Inoculation tirut tried on criminals with success. 1732 Kouli Khan usur]>s the Persian throne, and con(|uers the Mogul empire. 1739 War is declared against Spain, and, in 1744, agninst France. 1744 Commodore Anson returns from his voyage round the world. 1745 The allies lose the battle of Fontcnoy. A rebellion breaks out in Scotland ; and the pretender's troops are deieatcJ at Culloden, April 16, 1746. 1748 The peace of Aix-Ia-Chapelle. 17.')0 Westminster bridge is finished, after the labor of twelve years. 1752 The new style introduced into Great-Britain ; the third of Septi reckoned the fourteenth. 1755 A new war ,vith France. Society of Arts, Manufactures, and Commerce, instituted in London. 1755 Lisbon receives dreadlul injury froiii an earthquake, Nov. 1. 1756 One hundred and forty-six Kii<;lislinicn confined in the black hole at Cal- cutta, by order of the nabob of Bengal, and 123 found dead in the morning. U.IO General Wolfe killed in the battle of Quebec, gained by the English. 1762 War is declared by George III. against Spain. Peter III., emperor of Russia, is deposed, imprisoned, and murdered. American philosophical society established in Philadelphia. I"fi3 A treaty of peace concluded at Paris. The bold spirit of Wilkes involves him in a contest with the court, and ex- cites a name over the kingdom. ' September being ■ena 910 A CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 1764 The parlianient g;ranted 10,000/. to Mr. Harrison, for the discovery of the louf(itU(le by his time-|>iece. 17(i5 His majesty's royal charter passed for incorporating the society of artist:,. 17ri8 Royal academy of paintings, sculpture, and architecture, established in Lon- don. 1770 Blackfriars bridg;e is opened. 1771 Dr. Solauder and Mr. Banks return \vith captain Cook from a voyage round the world, having made several important discoveries in the I'ucilic Oceau. 1772 The kingof Sweden changes the ronstitction of that kingdom. The emperor of Germany, empress of lltissia, and the king of Prussia, strip the king of Poland of a great part of his dominions, whicli tiiey liiviite among themselves, in violation of the most solemn treaties. 1773 The Jesuits expelled from tlie pope's domiuious, and suppressed by his bull, August 2i), A war, between the Russians and Turks, proves disgraceful and disastrous to the latter. 1774 Peace is concluded between those powers. Deputies from the several American colonics meet at Philadelphia, as the first general congress, September 5, 1775 April li>, the lirstactiun liappens in America between the king's troops and the provini'ials at Lexington. May 2U, articles of confederation and perpetual union among the American provinces. 177C The American colonies are declared, by the congress, to be free and inde- pendent states, July 4. 1777 Lieutenant-general Burgoyne is obliged to surrender his army, at Saratoga, to the American general Gates. 1778 A treaty of alliance concluded at Paris between the French king and the thirteen United States of North-America. Commissioners are scut to treat with the Americans; but all overtures ari rejected. 1779 The Spaniards join the French against Great- Britain. After the discovery of the Sandwich islands, captain Cook loses his life in a sudden commotion of the natives. 1780 Torture ill courts of justice abolished in France. The Protestant Associators go up to the House of Commons, with their pe- tition fur the repeal of an act passed in favor of the Papists, That event is followed by the must dariug riots in the city of London and in .^uuthwark, for several successive days, in which some popish chapels are destroyed, together with the prisons of Newgate, the King's Bench, the Fleet, &c. These alarming riots are at length suppressed by the inter- position of the troops, and many of the rioters are tried and executed fur felony. Dreadful hurricanes in the West Indies. A declaration of hostilities against Holland, IX'cember 20. 1781 Earl Cornwallis, and a cousiderable British army, surrender themselves prisoners of w ar to the American and French troops, October 19. 1782 The commons address the king against the prosecution of offensive war on the continent of North America, March 4. Admiral Rodney obtains a signal victory over the French lleet, near Domi- nica, April 12. The bill for the repeal of the declaratory act of George I. relative to the legislation of Ireland, received the ro_\ id assent, ,!une20. The Spaniards defeated in their grand attack on Gibraltar, September \'A. Treaty concluded betwixt the Republic of Holland and the United States of America, October 8. * Provisional articles are signed at Paris, by which the American colonies are acknowleged by his liritannic majesty to be free, sovereign, and inde- pendent states, Novcndier ;}0. 178.'1 Three eartlHiuakes in Calabria Ulterior, and Sicily, destroying a great num- ber of towns and inhabitants, February i"), 7, and 28. Definitive treaties of jieace are concluded between Great-Britain and its princijjal adversaries; and, in 17H4, with Holland. A conveyance through the air, in a car attached to a balloon— the ingenious but hazardous invention of Moutgolfier— is repeatedly risqued in Frauce. 1784 The memory of Haudcl commcHioratcd by a grand jubilee at Westminster- Abbey, May 20". A CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 911 1764 Lunardi ascended with u balloon from the Artilleryground, Moorfields^ September 15, — the first attempt of the kind in England. 1786 Gustavus ill., king of Sweden, prohibited the use of torture in his dominions. Commercial treaty signed between England and France, September 26. 1787 The Prussians, under the duke of lirun^iwicl^, tnlce Amsterdam by a coup tie main ; and the power of the stadt-liulder is augmented. 1788 In the early part of October, the first symptoms appeared uf a severe disorder which incapacitated tliu British monarch for the exercise of his higli functions ; but he recovered before a bill of regency was completed. 1789 Revolution in France, capture of the Bastile, &c. July 14. 1792 The king of Sweden died on the 2yth of Alarch, in consequence of being wounded by Aukerstrom. The French revolutionists abolish the old government, and erect a republic, September 21. 1793 Louis XVI, is unjustly put to death,after a pretended trial, January dl. By the French convention war is declared against the king of Great-Britain and the stadt-hulder, on account of tlie supposed hostility of those princes to the new arrangements. The queen of France is decapitated, October 16. 1794 An important victory is obtained by earl Howe over the I'rencli fleet, June 1. The multiplied murders committed by Robes))ierre and his partj under the forms of law, are punished by the law of retaliation, July 28. 1795 The prince of Orange is driven from Holland to Great-Britain: andthe Dutch republic is revolutionised by the French. The trial of Warren Hastings concludes with his acquittal, above seven years after its comnienccmeut. 1796 The French meet with great success in Italy, and compel the king of Sardinia to cede the duchy of Savoy. The Cis-Alpine repul)lic is organised by Bonaparti^ in the North of Italy. 1797 A signal victory is gained over the Spanish Heetby Sir John Jervis, after-i wards created earl St. Vincent, February 14. An alarming mutiny arises in the channel fleet at Spithead, April 1'). It spreads among other ships; but is suppressed by the spirit of the govern- ment. The French democratise Venice and Genoa. A great victory gained over the Dutch fleet by admiral Duncan, October 1 1. Peace between France and Austria, signed at t.'atnpo Formio, ()ctol)er 17. 1798 A dreadful rebellion in Ireland, not quelled without much bloodshed. The glorious victory of admiral Nelson at AI)oukir, August 1. 1799 The war against France recommenced by the emperor. Seringnpatam taken by licutenaut-geueral Harris, and the sultan Tippou killed. May 4. The directorial governmeut abolished in France, and a new constitution framed, according to which Bonaparte was to l>e first consul for ten years. 1800 The battle of Marengo gained by Bonaparte. The missionary system is established on a large scale, and an institution is formed, under the appellation of the Church Missionary Society to Africa and the East. 1801 The union with Ireland takes place, January 1. The peace of Lunevilie, l)etween France and Austria, signed February 9. The battle of Alexandria gained by the British troops, IVlarch 21. Paul, the Russian em))cror, is murdered, March 24. Lord Nelson destroys the Danish fleet near Copenhagen, April 2. 1802 A treaty of peace between Grcut-Britaia and the French republic, signed at Amiens, March 27. Very large and commodious docks are opened for the ships concerned in the West-Indian trade ; and a new dock, on a large scale, is also undertaken at Wapping by the merchants of Loudon. 1803 The war is renewed with France. An insurrection in Dublin. 1804 The duke d'Enghten, seised by order of Bonaparte on a neutral territory, is shot in tiie night in the wood of Vincenne<: 1805 The Cis-Al|)ine or Italian republic declared an hereditary monarchy, by the title of the kingdom of Italy. Great-Britain and Russia agree to a third coalition against France. General Mack surrenders to the French w ith his army, consisting of 25,000 Austrians, October 17. Memorable battle uf Trafalgar, glorious but fatal tolurd Nelson, Oct. 21. i 912 A CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 1805 Battle of Austerlitz, in which the Austrians and Russians were defeated by the French with j^reat loss, December 2. Peace between Austria and France concluded at Presburg, December 26. 180G The Cape of Good Hope taken by the English. Joseph Bonaparte becomes king of Naples and Sicily, February 15. Battle of Mb' '<«, gained by the English in Calabria. Holland is declared by the French to be a kingdom ; and Louis Bonapartti is the new king. The French triumph over the Prussians in the battle of Jena, October 14. 1807 The battle of E^lau, February (>. The slave trade is abolished by the British parliament. The battle of Friedland, where the Russians were defeated by the French, June 14. Treaty of Tilsit, between Russia and France, concluded July 7. The kingdom of Westphalia erected in favor of Jerome llonapartt'', Sep- tember 7. Copenhagen bombarded, and the whole of the Danish navy surrendered to the English, September 7. The prince regent and court of Portugal emigrate to Brasil, November 21*. 1808 The king of Spain, Charles IV., abdicates the crown in favor of his koii, who is proclaimed king under the name of Ferdinand VII., Marcli VJ. Bonaparte, by artiiices and threats, prevails on Charles and Ferdinand to resign their respective rights in his favor; after which, they are confined in the interior of France. Joseph Bonapartt^ assumes the sovereignty of Spain, July 12. The Battle of Baylen gained by the Spaniards. Battle of Vimiero in Portugal gained by Sir Arthur Wellcsley, August 21. The convention of Ciutra signed, liy which the French arc quietly suffered to retire from Portugal, August 30. 1809 Battle of Corunna ; death of general Moore, January 16. A revolution in Sweden. — Gustavus Adulphus IV. is deposed, and his uncli-, the duke of Sudermania, chosen king, by the title of Charles XIU., March 13. Hostilities again commence between Austria and France, April 9. Bonaparte, after several battles, in which he is constantly successful, and the Austrians sustain great losses, enters Vienna, May 12. The pope, Pius Vll., is deposed by the French, May 17. The battles of Aspern and of Esling, in which the French are repulsed, May 21,22. The decisive victory of Wagram, obtained by the French, July 5, Battle of Talavera in Spain, July 27. Disastrous expedition to the isle of VValchereu, Peace concluded between Sweden and Russia, September :'>. Definitive treaty bciwecu France and Austria, signed at Vienna, October .'!. 1810 Imprisonment of Sir Francis Burdett in the Tower, for a supposed libel on the house of commons, April 9. The union of Holland with France declared by a French decree, July 9. Bernadotte, the French general, chosen crown-prince of Sweden, August 18. The colonists of Venezuela revolt from the king of Spain, and form a new goverament, which, after a long contest, becomes the republic of Cu< lombia. 1811 The king being incapable of acting as sovereign, the prince of Wales is invested with the regency, February C. The British arms triumph at Barrosa and Albuera, in Spain, Mardi 5, May 16. Batavia and the other Dutch settlements in the island of Java ore captured by the English, Riots break out in Nottinghamshire, among the distressed manufacturers, and spread into otiier counties. 1812 Mr Perceval, the prime minister, is assassinated at the entrance of the house of commons. May 11. The French are deefated at Salamanca by the English and Portuguese, July 22. The United States of America declare war against Great-Britain. The French, under the conduct of Napoleon, invade Russia; but, after several conflicts, they are driven from the country with dreadful loss and disgrace. I8i;i The duke ot Wellin^lon defeats the French nt Vittoria, June 21. A CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. m fd 1., tud ay Mil 18. » ; h 5, 1817 red 1818 rs, use |se, Iter loss 1813 The French are totally defeated at Leipsic, October VJ. Holland, the kingdum of Westphalia, and other vassal states, are encournj^cd to shake oft' the French yoke. 1814 The allies cross the Rhine, with a full determhiation of enforcing the suhniis* sion of France. Great-Britain, Austria, Russia, b-.iJ Prussia, conclude a treaty of alliance nt Chaumont, engaging to bring into the field the wbule military power of their respective states, or at least ir)0,000 men each, with a view of crushing the dangerous predominance of France, and restorin<' the iude* pendence of the European states. Bouapartt^ resigns Spain to Ferdinand VII. After some well-contested battles, the combined troops approach Paris ; the fortified posts are stormed, and the city capitulates, March .31. Bonaparte, having rejected reasonable terms of peace, is deposed by the senate, and sent to Elba ; and Louis XVIII. is placed ontne throne. The pope is restored to freedom and to power. Treaties are concluded (May 30) between the French and the confederate powers, reducing the kingdom nearly to the same boundaries which cir- cumscribed it in 17!)2 ; and the foreign troops return to their respective countries. Peace i> restored between Britain and the United States by the treaty of Ghent, December 24. 1815 Bonapart^ emerges from his retreat, invades France, and recovers the impe- rial dignity. Having gained an advantage it LIgny, he is encouraged to attack the British. Belgian, and subsidiary troops, near Waterloo. He seems to be on the point of prevailing ; but, on the march of Ulucher to join the duke of Wellington, he is chastised by a memorable defeat, June 18. Paris is again taken by the allies (July 3) ; the king is restored to the throne ; and the tyrant, not having an opportunity of escaping to America, sur- renders himself to the commander of a British ship of war. The disposal of his person being left to the decision of the prince regent, he is coutined in the island of St. Helena. The French are compelled, by a new treaty, (November 20) to give up a number of their fortresses for temporary occupancy, and to submit tu other unpleasing demands. By a congress of princes and ministers at Vienna, the affairs of Europe, so long disordered and convulsed, arc deliberately adjusted. 181G To chastise the Algerines for their piratical outrages, a British armament is sent out under lord Exmouth. Humbled by the ruin of his fortifications and the destruction of his ships, the dey consents to the liberation of his European captives, and promises to abolish Christian slavery in his dominions. A new state is formed in South-America, under the designation of the United Provinces of the Rio de la Plata. 1817 The prince regent and the duke of Wellington open, with great solemnity, a new bridge over the Thames, extending from the Strand to the county of Surrey, built with remarkable substantiality and skill, and dignitied by the name of Waterloo. Partial insurrections are produced in England by the severe distress of the manufacturers ; but they are easily quelled. The death of the princess Charlotte of Wales, the presumptive heiress of the crown, diffuses over the nation a temporary gloom. 18 In several of the German states, the Lutherans and Calvinists, formerly so hostile, enter into an union. In consideration of the tranquil and peaceable demeanor of the French nation, the allied |K>wers (October 9) consent to the evacuation of the kingdom by their troops, two years before the time specified in the last treaty. A French dynasty commences in Sweden. The independence of the Chilean state, in South-America, is established, 1819 A new bridge from London to Southwark is opened, consisting of three arches of cast iron, of an extraordinary span, and of curious construction. The United States of America procure, from the imbecile court of Spain, a cession of East and West Florida. Captain Parry penetrates to the Arctic Sea, and reaches a latitude and longitude far beyond the former progress of European navigators. 1820 Od the accession of George IV., a conspiracy is formed against bis minis- ters ; but it is detected, and the leaders are capitally punished. 3 N 914 A CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 1820 Caroline, the new queen, in tried in the liiKli co irt of !»i8ri for adultery- but the penal bill in abanduncd. A rcvohitiou occum iu Spain, aud alto in the kingdoms of Portugal ami NapluK. 1821 The Neapolitan revolutionists are attacked by an Austrian army, and obliged to ai(|uioace in the plenitude of the royal authority. The people, in Roinu ol the province* of Greece, revolt from the Turks, and the most tanguinary hoiitilitiei commence. Napoleon dicsiu exile. The now republic of Venezuela, or Colombia, it secured by Bolivar's victory at Cnrabobo. 1822 An independent empire it erected in Bratil by Don Pedro, ton of the king of Portugal. 18''3 The French invade Spain, and restore the king to full power. A countt^r-revulution it effected in Portugal. The ngriculturistB in Great-Britain are reduced to a state of the most alarming dittresi. A republican government it formed in Mexico. Captain Wedilell tails much farther to the southward than any preceding navigator, and discovert aitenfree from ice in the latitude ot 74 detrrvts. 1824 A war breakt out between the India company and the Birraeie, anil also between the British colonists iu Africa and the Athantees. A republic is organised in Guatemala, or Central America. 182!i A grand Jubilee takes place at Kome. A rash spirit of speculation is ditfused over Great-Britain, and many thou- sands are seriously injured by embarking their pecuniary property in delusive schemes, and trusting to the credit of joint-stock companies, framed in numerous instances by artful knaves. On the death of AleKander, the Russian potentate, hit eldest brother Con- stantine is proclaimed emperor ; but as he had been, long berore, in- duced by the late czar to resign his pretensions, the grand duke Nicolas ascends the throne, not without a conflict between his supporters and the military friends of his absent brother. 1826 A war breaks out between the Persians and the Russians. The grand signor, irritated at the opposition of the Janisarics to the intro- duction of new tactics and discipline, suppresses thatjiudy of soldiers, formerly so influential aud powerful, and riutt in the effusion of their blood. The triumph of the republican interest io Peru is completed by the reduction of Callao. The Birmese purchase peace by territorial surrenders and pecuniary grants. The king of Great-Britain sends troops to Portugal, to defend the new con- stitution, granted by Don Pedro, against the attempts of the Spanish court for its subversion. MEN OF LEARNING AND GENIUS. N. B. By the Date is implied the Time whrni the ff 'tilers died i but, when that Period happens not to be fcMwn, the j4ge in which they flourished is signpieil by fl. The Aameiin Italics are those who have given the best English Trantlu- tions. Bef. Ch. 907 Homer, the first profane writer and Greek poet, flourished. P(^e. Ctiwper, Hesiudjthe Greek poet, sup|io$ed to have lived near the time of Homer. Elloii, 884 Lycurgus, the Spartan legislator. COO Sappho, the Greek lyric poetess, fl. Fawkei. 558 Solon, lawgiver of Athens. fiSfi i^Jsop, the first Greek fabulist. Croxnl. 548 Thales, the first Greek astronomer. .•iOO Zoroaster, or Zerdusht, the Persian philosopher, fl. 497 Pythagoras, founder of the Pythagorean philosophy in Greece. Rove. 474 Anacreon, the Greek lyric poet. FawAet. Moore.' .w A GENERAL OBITUARY. •U /^:,G iEjchylits, the first Greek tragic poet. Potter. 4.15 Pinilor, the Grei'k lyrlr poef. freit, O'reen. Pye. 4i;j HenHlotiis of Greece, the first writer of profane history. LHIIebury, Beloe, 407 Ari»tophaiK'«, the Greek comic poet, fl. JVhite, Kiiripiilcs, tlie (iroek trugic poet. IfoodhuH, Potter. 40(J Sophocles, I'ranckliii, Potter. 4U(i_or, as Home say, r>0() — Coiifuciufl, the Chiocse philosophci ^ flt 40U Socrates, the Grecian phih)sopher. ;)91 Thucydiiles, the (ircek historian. Hobhca. Smith, ;i()l Hippocrates, the Greek |)hysician. Clifton. ])eniocritus, tlie Greek pliilosopher. ;(,')!) Xcnoplion, the historian. Smith. Spelmnn, Ashley. FicUinfi: ;}.|8 I'luto, the Greek pliilosopher, and disciple of Socrates. Sydenham, 3;l(( Isocrutes, the (ircek orator. Gillies, 320 Aristotle, the Greek philosopher, Hobbes. Pye. Gillies. .11;} Demosthenes, the Athenian orator, poisoned himself. Ldand, Francis. 288 Theophrastus, the Grenk philosopher, and scholar of Aristotle. Budgell, 28.') Theocritus, the lirst Greek pastoral poet, fl. Fawhes. Polwhele. 277 Euclid, of Alexandria in Kgypt, the mathematician, fl. 11, Simson. 270 Epicurus, founder of the Epicurean philosophy in Greecei 264 Zeno, founder of the Stoic philosophy. 244 C'allimachus, the Greek elegiac poet. T^Mer. 2U8 Archimedes, the Greek geometrician. 184 Plautus, the Koman comic noet. Thornton. 159 Terence, of Carthage, the Latin comic poet. Colman. 15.5 Diogenes, of Babylon, the Sioic philosopher. 124 Polybius, of Greece, the historian. Hampton, 54 Lucretius, the Roman poet. Creech. Good. Bushy. 44 Julius Ciesar, the Koman historian. Duncan. Diodorus Siculus, of Greece, the universal historian, fl. Booth, Vitruvius, the Roman architect, fl. 43 Cicero, the Roman orator and philosopher, put to death. Guthrie. Melmoth, Cornelius Nepos, the Roman biographer, fl. Rowe. .14 Sallust, the Roman historian. Gordon, lioive. Stuart. ;10 Dion":ius of Halicarnassus, the Greek historian of Rome, fl. Spelman, 19 Vf gil, the epic poet. Dryden. Pitt. fFarton. 11 Catullus, Tibullus, and Propertins, Roman poets. Grainger. Dart, Lamb, 8 Horace, the Roman lyric and satiric poet. Francis, Boscauien. A.D. 17 Livy, the Roman historian. Hay. Baher. 19 Ovid, the Roman elegiac poet. Garth. 20 Celsus, the Greek philosopher and physician, (I, Crievet 25 Strabo, the Greek geographer. .1,1 Phaidrus, the Roman fabulist. Smart. 43 Puterculus, the Roman historian, fl. Xeu'come, 62 Persius, the Roman satiric poet. Brewster. Drummond. Gifford. 64 Quintus Curtius, the historian of Alexander the Great, fl. Digby. Seneca, of Spain, the philosopher and tragic poet, put to death. JU Estrange, , 65 Lucan, the Roman epic poet. Roue. 79 Pliny the eldei', the Roman natural historian. Holland. 93 Joscphus, tiie Jcrtish histori.in. If-^histon. 94 Epicietus, the (ireek Stoic philosopher, fl. I\lrs. Carter, 95 Quintilian, the Roman orator and advocate. Guthrie. % Statius, the Roman epic poet. Lewis. 98 Lucius Florus, of Spain, the Roman historian, fl. 99 Tacitus, the Roman historian. Gordon. Murphy, lOO .Silius Italicus, the Roman poet. 104 Martial, of Spain, the epigrammatic poet. Hay. Valerius Flaccus, the Roman epic poet. 116 Pliny the younger, a polite writer. Melmoth, Orrery. 117 Suetonius, the Roman historian. Hughes.' Thomaon. 119 Plutarch, of Greece, the biographer. Dryden. Ijntighorne. 128 Juvenal, the Roman satiric poet. Dryden. Gifford, 140 Ptolemy, the Egyptian geographer, mathematician, and astronomer, fl. 150 Justin, the Roman historian, fl. Turnimll. 161 Arrian, the Greek historian and philosopher, fl. Roohe. Justin, of Samaria, the oldest Christian author after the apostles. 1(7 1'ausauias, the Grecian antiquary, fl. 3N 2 916 OBITUARY. 180 Lucian, the humorous and satirical Greek writer. Ditnsdale. JDryden, FranckHn. Carr. Tooke. Marcus Aur. Antoninus, tlie Roman emperor and philosopher. Collier, Graves. Elphinston. 200 Galen, the Greek philosopher and physician. Diogenes Laertius, the Greek biographer, fl. 229 Dion Cassius of Greece, the historian, fl. 2:<0 Apollonius Rhodius, the Greek poet, fl. Ekins, 2'ii Origen, a Christian father, of Alexandria. Herodian,of Alexandria, the historian, fl. Hart, 258 Cyp an, of Carthage, suffered martyrdom. Marshall. 273 Longinus, the Greek orator, put to death by Aurelian. Smith, 320 Laotantius, a father of the church, fl. 336 Arius, a priest of Alexandria, founder of the sect of Arians. 342 Eusebius, the ecclesiastical historian and chrunulogist. Hanmer. 379 Basil, bishop of Caesarea. 389 Gregory Naziau^en, bishop of Constantinople. 397 Ambrose, bishop of Milan. 405 Claudian, the Rumau poet, fl. Hawkins, 407 Chrysostom, a father of the church. 415 Macrobius, the Roman granimariaa. 428 Eutropius, the Roman historian. 430 St. Augustine, a father of the church. 4K0 Sidonius Apollinaris. 524 Boetius, the Roman poet aud Platonic philosopher. Bellamy. Preston, Redpath. 529 Procopius, of Ctesarea, the Greek historian. Holcroft. 530 AgatLiias, the Greek historian. Here ends the illustrious list of ancient or classic authors, for whom mankind are principally indebted to Greece and Rome, those two theatres of human i^lorv; hut it will ever be regretted, that small portions only of thri- writings have coii'ie to our hands. This loss was occasioned by the barbar lus , :.icy of those illite- rate pagans who, in the fifth century, subverted the Roman empire ; \n which practices they were afterwards joined by the Saracens Constantinople alone had escaped the ravages of the barbarians; aii' to the few /(Vrrn^t who sheltered themsclvps within its walls we chiefly owe the preservation of those valuable re* mains ot antiquity. To learning, civi'lsation, nl refineioent, succeeded worse than Gothic ignorance — the superstition aud h\ jonery of the church of Rome. Europe therefore produces few names worthy of record during the space of a thousand years ; a period which historians, with great propriety, denominate the dark ages. Vet, even in those times, some eminent men, who were comparatively ealight- ened, appeared in various countries ; and, since the reformation of religiou and the invention of printing, a copious and splendid list may be exhibited. In a work of general geography and history, it may not be deemed altogether just or equitable to confine the enumeration, as in former editions, to the distinguished persons of our own country: wc shall therefore introduce many remarkable names from other parts of the civilised world, not only in literature, but also in the arts. A.D. 709 Aldhelm, bishop of Sherborne ; excelled In poetry and polite learning. 735 Bedc, a Northumbrian monk, wrote the history of the Anglo-Saxons. 887 Vhutius, patriarch of Constantinople ; Hibliutheca, Numo-Canuii. 901 King Alfred; history, ethics, and poetry. 904 Alcuin, abbot of Canterbury; theology, morals, and poetrj-. 1020 Ferdousi, Persia; poetry. 103fi Ebn Sina, (Aviconna) born in Usbeck Tartary ; philosophy and medicine. 1140 William, a monk of Malmesbury , fl. — history. 1164 Peter the Lombard ; scholastic theology. 1208 William, a monk of Newburgh; history. 1209 Mos>.t ; poems and romances. 1588 Paid of Verona (Paolo Veronese) ; shone as a painter. 1594 Tintoretto, Italy ; a painter. li)95 Tasso, Italy ; a poet. 1598 Edmund Spenser, London ; a poet. 1600 Richard Hooker, Devonshire ; wrote on ecclesiastical polity. 1601 Tycho Brahe, Denmark ; cultivated astronomy. 1602—09—19 Augustino.Annibale.and Lodovico Carracci, Italy ; were celebrated painters. 1605 Theodore Bcza, France ; was a reformer. 1607 Rev. Dr. John Raiuolds, Devonshire ; was one of the most learned men of his time. 1608 Thomas, carl of Dorset ; wrote poctrj . h I 91 ft OBITUARY. !Ji)9 James Arminius, Holland; theology. Joseph Justus Scaliger; LaUii poetry and criticism. IG15— 25 Francis Beaumuat and John Fletcher ; dramatic pieces. 1616 William Shalcspeare, Warwickshire ; tragedies and comedies, Cervantes, Spain ; romance of Don Quinote. 1617 Tbuanus (deXhou), Paris; history. 1618 Sir Walter Raleigh, Devonshire ; history. 1622 John Napier, of Merchiston ; discovered the logarithms. 1623 William Camden, London j wrote history and antiquities, 1624 Mariana, Spain ; history. 1626 Francis Bacon, lord Verulam ; natural philosophy, and literature in geiiernlt Lancelot Andrews, bishop of Winchester ; theology. 1628 Malherbe, France ; poetry. 1630 Kepler, Geraiany ; astronomy. 1634 Sir Edwanl Coke, Norfolk ; was a judge, and a writer upon law. 1635 Davila, Italy ; wrote history. Lope de Vega, Madrid ; dram'Uic pieces. 1637 Benjamin Jonson, Loudon ; t lie drama. 1638 Jansen, bishop of Ypres; tbr^ology. 1639 Philip Massinger, Wilts ; di-amatic pieces. Martin Opitz, was the father of German poetry. 1640 Sir Peter Paul Rubens, a painter of the Flemish school. 1641 Meursius, Holland; wrote on classical antic^uitics. Domenichino, Italy ; was a painter. Vandyck, Netherlands ; a painter. 1642 Galileo Galilei, italy ; studied natural philosophy. Guido, Italy ; was a painter. 1644 Wilham Chillingworth, Oxford ; wrote on theology, fientivoglio, Italy ; history, letters. 1645 Grotius (Groot), HoUaud ; divinity ,civil law, history and philology. Qucvedo, Madrid ; poems and miscellanies. , 1648 Edward lord Herbert, of Cherbury ; history, and deistical philosophy, Marin Mersenne, .France ; natural philosophy. Voiture, France ; poetry and miscellanies. 1649 William Drummond, of Hawthornden ; history and poetry. t Teniers, was a Flemish painter. 1650 Ren^ Dcs-Cartes, France ; wrote on philosophy. 1651 Inigo Jones, London; was au able architect. 1653 '''almasius (Saumaise), Paris ; wrote on classical critlfi^m. 1654 John Selden, Sussex ; antiquities, law of nations. 1C55 Gassendi, France ; mathematics and philosophy. 1G5(> James Usher, archbishop of Armagh ; ecclesiastical antiquities and theo- logical criticism. 1657 Dr. William H. vey, Kent; discovered the circulation of the blood. 1660 James Cat/,, Hciland ; wrote poetry. ir'62 Pascal, France; Provincial Letters. 1665 Nicolas Poussin, France ; was a capital painter. 1666 Guercino, Italy ; a painter. 1667 Jeremy Taylor, bishop of Down ; wrote on theology. Abraham Cowley, London ; poetry. 1668 Rembrandt, Holland ; was a painter of the Flemish school. 1671 Bourdon, France; a painter. 1672 John Wilkins, bishop of Chester; wrote on divinity and philosophy. 1673 Moliere, France ; comedies. Sa'vator Rosa, Italy ; was a painter. 1674 John Milton, London ; wrote the Paradise Lost. Edward Hyde, earl of Clarendon, Wills ; history, 1677 Rev. Dr. Isaac Barrow, London ; natural philosophy and theology, Thomas Ilubhes, Wilts; was a sceptical philosopher. 1680 Samuel Butler, Worcestershire; wrote burlc&tiue poetry. Sir Peter Lely, Germany; was a |>ainter. The duke dc la Rochcfoucault, I'rauce ; wrote maximSi reflections, and memoirs. Bernini, Italy; was a sculptor. 1682 Claude, of Lorrain ; a painter. Murillo, Spain ; aho a painter. 1683 Francis Mezeray, France ; wrote history, Algernon Sidney ; politics, OBITUARY. 919 1685 1687 1688 1689 1690 1691 1694 1695 16!)6 1697 1699 1700 1703 1704 1705 1706 1707 1710 1711 1713 1714 1715 1716 1718 1719 1721 1723 1724 1725 1726 1727 1729 1731 1732 1735 1737 1738 1740 1741 Peter Corneille, France ; tragedies. Thomas Otway, Sussex ; tragedies and comedies. George, duke of Buckiughain ; comedies. Edmund Waller, Warwickshire ; poems, speeches, letters, &c. Dr. Ralph Cudworth, Somersetshire ; theology and metaphysics. John Bunyan, Bedfordshire ; the Pilgrim's Progress. Dr. Thomas Sydculiam, Dorsetshire ; mediciuc. Nathaniel Lee, London ; tragedies. Robert Barclay, Edinburgh ; Apology for the Quakers. Robert Boyle, Ireland ; divinity and philosophy. Richard Baxter, Shropshire ; theology. John Tillotson, archbishop of Canterbury ; sermons. PufendorfT, Germany ; history and the law of nations. Huygens, Holland ; mathematics and astronomy. La-Fontaine, France ; fables and tales. Henry Purcell ; Or])heus Britannicus. The marchioness of Sevignd, France ; letters. Redi, Italy ; medicine, natural history, and poetry. Sir VVilliani Temple, London ; politics and miscellanies. John Drydeu, Northamptonshire ; poems and dramatic pieces. Groivius, Germany; classical antiquities and criticism. Rev. Dr. John VVallis, Kent ; divinity, logic, and mathematics. John Locke, Somersetshire ; divinity, metaphysics, politics. Louis Uoiirdaloue, France ; sermons. James Bossuet, bishop of Meaux ; divinity and history. Luca Giordano, Italy ; was ait eminent painter. James Bernouilli, Switzerland ; wrote on the mathematics. John Ray, Essex ; theolofiy and Ijotany. Peter Bayle, France ; <'ritical biography. Simon Patrick, bishop of Ely ; theology. George Farquhar, Londonderry ; comedies. Vauhan, France ; was a great engineer. Flecbier, bishop uf Nismes; wrote sermons, orations, biography. Nicolas Boilcau, France ; poems. Antony, earl of Shaftesbury ; Ciiaracteristics. Carlo Alaratti, Italy ; shone as a painter. Corelli, Italy ; a musical composer. Dr. John Radcliife, Yorkshire ; a celebrated physician. Gilbert Buniet, bishop of Salisbury ; wrote on divinity, history, &c, William Wycherley, Shropshire { comedies. Fenelon, archbishop ef Cambray; the romance of Telemachu!!, political morality. iVIalebrancbe, France ; theology and moral philosophy. James Gronovius, Germany ; classical antiquities and criticism. Godfrey Leibnit/., Germany ; mathematics and natural philosophy. Nicolas Rowc, Bedfordshire ; dramatic pieces. Joseph Addison ; Spectator, poem.), politics. Rev. John Flamstccd, Derbyshire ; astronomy. Sir Samuel Garth, was a physician and a poet. Dr. John Keill, Edinburgh ; wrote upon niatbematics and astronomy. Matthew Prior, London ; |)oetry. Sir Christopher Wren, London; was a very able architect. Sir Godfrey Kneller, Germany ; a painter. Rev. William Wollastou, Staffordshire ; wrote on theological philosophy. Rapin de Thoyras, France ; History of England. Sir John Vaubrugh ; comedies. Sir Isaac Newton, Lincolnshire ; natural philosophy. Dr. Samuel Clarke, Norwich j divinity, natural philosophy, and classical criticism. William Congreve ; dramatic pieces. Sir Richard Steele, Dublin ; comedies and periodical papers. Francis Atterbury, bishop of Rochester ; sermons and conli-oversial pieces. John Gay, Devou^ibire ; poems and dramatic pieces. Dr. John Arbuthnot, Mearns-shire ; medicine, miscellanies. Elizabeth Rowe, Somersetshire ; devotional pieces and miscellanies. Herman Bocrhaave, Holland ; medicine. Philip Baratier, Germany ; was a prodigy of learning for his years. John Baptist Rousseau, Paris j wrote poetrv, I 923 OBITUARY. 1 742 Dr. Edmund Hallcy, London ; natural philosophy, astronomy, and nav gation. Rev. Dr. Richard Bentley, Yorkshire; classical learning and cnticisiui. 1744 Alexander Pope, London ; poetry. , . „ • 1745 Dr. Jonathan Swift, Dublin; poetry, politics, and miscellanies. 1746 Colin Maclaurin, Argyleshire ; natural philosophy. 1747 Rev. Jeremiah Seed, Cumberland; sermons. Dr. Francis Hutchcson, Ayrshire ; moral philosophy. 1748 James Thomson, Roxburghshire ; poetry and the drama. Rev. Dr. Isaac Watts, Hants ; divinity, logic, philosophy, poetry. l/.iO Rev. Dr. Conyers Middleton, Yorkshire ; theology and classical biography. I'.M Dr. Philip Doddridge, London; was an emineui dissenting minister. Henry, viscount Bolingbroke ; wrote on politics and metaphysics. 1752 Joseph Butler, bishop of Durham ; the Analogy of Religion. 1753 George Berkeley, bishop of Cloyue ; theology and philosophy. Dr. James Foster, Devonshire ; theology. 1754 Dr. Richard Mead, London ; medicine. Heniy Fielding, Somersetshire; novels and comedies. 1755 The baron de Montesquieu, France ; Spirit of Laws. K.M) William Collins, Sussex; poetry. 1757 Fontenelle, France ; philosophy and miscellanies. 1758 James Hervey, Northamptonshire; Meditations. 1759 Handel, Germany ; music. Kleist, Germany ; poems. Maupertuis, France; natural philosophy. 17Q1 Thomas Sherlock, bishop of Loudon ; sermons and controversial divinity. Benjamin Hoadly, bishop of Winchester ; polemic theology. Samuel Richardson, Derbyshire; novels. 1763 William Sbenstone, Shropshire ; poems. 1764 Dr. John Leland, Lancashire; was adefender of Christianity against Dtlsm. Charles Churchill ; wrote poems. William Hogarth, London ; excelled in humorous and characteristic painting. 1765 Rev. Dr. Edward Young, Hants ; religious, moral, and tragic poetry. 1768 Rev. Laurence Sterne, Ireland ; Sermons, Sentimental Journey, Tristram Shandy. 1770 Thomas Gray, London ; poems. Dr. Mark Akenside, Northumberland; poems. Thomas Chatterton, Bristol ; imitations of ancient poetry. 1771 Dr. Tobias SmoUct, Dunbartonshire; history and novels. 1773 Philip, earl of Chesterfield ; letters. George, lord Lyttelton ; history and poetry. 1774 Oliver Goldsmith, Ireland ; poetry, history, and the comic drama. 1776 David Hume, Kdinburgh ; history and metaphysics. 1777 Samuel Footc, Cornwall ; conifdics. 1778 Liiuia:us (von Liiiut^), Sweden ; natural history. Voltaire, France ; history, the drama, miscellanies. John James Rousseau, Geneva ; was an eccentric philosopher. 1779 William Warhurton, bishop of Glocester ; wrote on theology and criticism. David Garrick, Hereford ; flourished as th2 Britlth Roscius. Dr. John Armstrong, Roxburghshire ; wrote poems. 1 780 Sir William Blackstoue, Loudon ; was a learned and elegant commentatoron tlielaws of Knglnnd. 1781 Solomon Gessner, Switzerland; r rote the Death of Abel. 1782 Henry Home, lord Karnes, Scotland ; metaphvsics, morals.laws.and criticism. 1783 Dr. William Hunter, Lanorksliire ; medicine. John d'Alembert, France ; philosophy and history. 1784 Dr. Samuel Johnson, Staffordshire ; lexicography, biography, essays, aud poetry. 1785 Richard Glover, London ; epic and tragic poetry. 1787 Dr. Robert Lowth, hishop of London ; biblical criticism and grammar. 1788 Thomas Gainsborough, Suffolk ; was u distinguished painter. George Louis le CIcrc, count de Biiffon, France"; wrote on natural historj-. l/!)0 Dr. William Cullen, Lanerkshire; medicine. Dr. Benjamin Franklin, Boston, New-England; natural philosophy, and miscellanies. Adam Smith, Fifeshire ; moral and political philosophy. 2790-1800 Thomas and Dr. Joseph Warton, Hants : iwetry, criticism, and mis- vcUanies. OBITUARY. 921 1791 Rev. John Wesley, Lincohisbire ; was the founder of the sect of Methodists. Mozart, Germany ; a nmslclan and composer. 1792 Sir Joshua Reynolds, Devonshire ; wrote discourses on the art of painting, which he so ably cultivated. 1793 Dr. William Robertson, Edinburgh ; history. 1794 Edward Gibbon, Surrey ; history. Lavoisier, I'aris ; philosophical chemistry. Sir William Jones, London ; law, oriental learning, and miscellanies. 1796 Robert Burns, Ayrshire ; poems. 1797 Edmund Burke, Dublin ; politics, modern history. 179i) Marmontel, France; moral tales and miscellanies. 1799 Dr. Joseph Black, professor of medicine at Edinburgh ; chemistry and philosophy. Spallaiizani, Italy ; experimental philosophy, and natural history. John Bacon, Surrey ; excelled in sculpture. 1800 William Cowper; wrote poems. Rev. Dr. Hugh Blair, Edinburgh ; sermons. 1801 Cimarosa, Italy ; excelled in musical composition. 1802 Dr. Erasmus Darwin, Nottinghamshire ; wrote botanic and philosophical poetry. 1803 Dr. James Beattie, Kincardineshire ; poetry and moral philosophy. Klopstock, Germany ; was author of the Messiah. 1804 Dr. Joseph Priestley, Yorkshire ; wrote uu natural philosophy, theology, politics, and miscellanies. George Morland, London ; was an admirable painter of rural scenes and ordinary life. 1805 Rev. Dr. William Paley, Northamptonshire ; wrote upon theology and moral philosophy. Frederic Schiller, Germany ; tragedies, history, and miscellanies. 1806 Elizabeth Carter, Kent ; poems, and a translation of Epictetus. 1808 Richard Hurd, bishop of Worcester ; theological works, critical disserta- tions, moral and political dialogues. Richard Porson, Greek professor at Cambridge ; classical erudition and criticism. 1809 Anna Seward, Staffordshire ; poems and letters. 1811 Richard Cumberland ; dramatic pieces, essays, and epic poetry. 1815 Dr. John Coakley Lcttsoni, West Indies, the philanthropist; published medical and miscellaneous tracts, 1816 Richard Wutson, bishop of Llandatf ; wrote on theology and chemistry. Richard Brinsley Slicridan, Ireland; dramatic pieces. 1817 Madame de Stael, Paris ; politics and miscellanies. 1819 John Wolcot (called Peter Pindar), Devonshire; satirical and humorous poetry. Au«;ustus vou Kotzebue, Germany ; dramatic pieces, politics.and miscellanies. James Watt, Scotland ; tlourished as an en);ineer. 1822 Berthollet, Savoy ; was a philosophical chemist. William Herschel, Germany ; shone as an astronomer. Antonio Canova, Italy ; was a great sculptor. 1823 Anne Radcliti'e ; a romance-writer. Thomas, lord Erskine, Scotland ; an orator. Robert BlooniHeld ; a self-taught poet. Joseph Nollekens ; a sculptor. 1824 George lord Byron ; a great poet. 1825 Dr. Samuel Parr, Middlesex; an eminent divine and acele1>rated scholar. 1826 Karanisin, Russia; a distinguished historian and poet. David, France ; a celebrated painter. Talma, France ; an admired performer in tha tragic drama. 1827 Volta, Italy ; au enlightened cultivator of natural philosophy. L Abdalli India, Abdalral Aberdeei Abo, citj Abyssinii history Acapulco Acre, por Adriauup! ^^ilscliylus /Etna, a « ' Af§^baug, Africa, j survey " C85 to 707. Agra, city Agricola, ( Ajao, l(iiig Aivali, rise Aix-ia-Chi pital, 38. Albania, a Aleppo, cit Aleutian is Alexander Alfred, the Algier, city Albainbra i Allah-abadj Amazon riv Amboyaa, « Anierapourt America, d descriptio North -Alt United Sti Amphictyoni Ancona, city Andes, a moi 840. Angelos, Put Autigua, isla Antwerp, citi Arabia, desci the Arabiai Aracau, a Br Archangel, o Argouautic e) Arts, rise au( 43. Asam, a par Ganges, fifij, Afhaatee Kiuj INDEX. Abdallis, or Duranis, a nation of India, (J43. Abdalraliiiiau the Great, reign of, 476. Aberdeen, Old and New, 257. Abo, city of, 99. Abyssinian empire described, 701 ; history of its princes, 705. Acapulco, a Mexican town, 829. Acre, port of, 566, Adriauople, city of, 543. yKschylus, the poet, 38. ^tna, a volcanic mountain, 507. Afghans, a nation of India, 944. Africa, j^eneral description of, 683 ; survey of its kingdoms and states, 686 to 742 i modern discoveries, 707. Agra, city of, 653. Agricola, the Koman general, 175. Ajan, l(ingdoni of, 737. Aivali, rise and ruin of, 565. Aix-la-Chapelle, the old German ca- pital, 385. Albania, a Grecian province, 548. Aleppo, city of, 561. Aleutian islands, 610. Alexander the Great, 38. I', emperor of Russia, 109. Alfred, the best of kings, 176. Algier, city and territory of, 689. Alhambra in Spain, 473. Allah-abad, or the City of God, 653. Amazon river, 841. Amboyna, an oriental island, 679. Amerapoura, city of, 671. America, discovery of, 743; general description of the country, 755 ; the North -American republic, or the United States, 778. Amphictyonic council, 32. Ancoua, city of, 522. Andes, a mountainous chain, 823, 834, 840. Angelos, Puebla de los, 826. Autigua, island of, 820. Antwerp, city of, 357. Arabia, description of, 578 ; history of the Arabian khalifs, 585. Aracan, a British dependency, 669. Archangel, on the ^Vhite Sea, 98. Argouautic expedition, 33. Arts, rise and progress of, 29, 36, 38, 43. Asam, a part of India beyond the Ganges, 669. A^hantee kiugdow, 721, Asia, general description of, 557. Assyrian empire, 29. Astracan, near the Caspian Sea, 608. Astronomy elucidated, 1. Athens, rise of the kingdom of, 32 ; present state of the city, 551. Ava, kingdom of, 670. Augsburg, a city of ancient fame, 385. Australasia, account of, 871. Austrian empire, 409. Ayres, Buenos, 851. Azores, or Western Islands, 742. B. Babylon t kingdom of, 28. Badajoz, a strong town, 466. Baden, grand duchy of, 387. Bagdad, city of, 562. Bahama islands, 822. Bamharra, a kingdom in Africa, 710. Banda isles, 679. Bantam, an eastern kingdom, 682. Barbadoes, island of, 819. Barbary states, 687. Barcelona, account of, 465.* Basil or Basle, iu Switzerland, 446. Bassora, city of, 563. Bath, city of, 138. Batavia, city of, 681. Bavaria, kingdom of, 385. Behring's Strait, 812. Belgium, description of, 357. Beloochistan, iu India, 644. Benares, in India, 65,'t. Bengal, a Britisii dependency, 651. Benin, kingdom of, 725. Berlin, city of, 383. Bermuda isles, 778. Bern, city of, 445. Uirniese empire, 670. Bissago isles, 719. Bogota, Santa Fd de, 837. Bohemia, kingdom of, 413. Bologna, a papal city, 521. Bombay, an island in India, 654.^ Bondou, kingdom of, 709. Borneo, an Indian island, 680. Bornou, an empire in Central Africa, 713. Borodino, battle of. 111. Boshuana territory, 735. Boston, city of, 791. Baurbun, isle of, 738. Bourdeaux, town of, 311. Bvalie, Tycho, the astronomer, 2. iii alimins, priests of India, 648. Brazil, empire of, 855. - i ! I 9-24 Index. iireslau, city of, 409. Brest, a Frcuch port, 311. Bristol, city of, 138. Britain, Great, described 123 to 279; New-Britain in Anier , , 762 ; in Australasia, 877. Bruuu, in Moravia, 41fi. Brunswick, New, colony of, 775. Brussels, city of, 359. Buda, the Hungarian capital, 422. Bul(0vine territory, 429. Burgos, a very old town, 466. Burning phaenomenon in Persia, 596. Burrainpouter, a great river, C35, 646. Bursa, city of, 564. Cadiz, port of, 463. Ciesar, Julius, success of, 42 ; his fall, ibid. Cafraria, or Cafir-Iand, 727. Cagliari, city of, 526. / Cairo, Grand, 697. Calcutta, city of, 652. Caledonia, New, 879. California, in Nortli-America, 826. Calvin, the austere reformer, 395. Cauada described, 768. Canal-navigatiun, state of, in Russia, 91 ; in England, 127 ; in France, 304 ; in Holland, 364 ; in China, 616. Canary islands, 740. Candia, anci-^ntly Crete, 554. Canton, port of, 622. (.;»',;fl-town, in Africa, 730. Capri, isle of, 527. Caracas, a South-American city, 83S. Carintbia and Camiola, duchies of, 410. Caniac, ruins of, 700. (.'arnatic province, 655. Caroline islands, 878. Carthage, history of, 40 ; ruins of its capital, 692. CartI i^ena, in Spain, 465 ; in Colom- bia, 837. Cashmir, an oriental province, 644. Cassel, city of, 387. Cecrops, an ancient legislator, 32, Ceylon, an oriental island, 682. Charlemagne, the glory of the dark ages, 45, 320. Charles I. of England, unfortunate death of, 197. v., the emperor, 399, 483. XII. of Sweden, exploits of, 75 ; his death, 7(i. Charles-town, in North-America, 801. Chilis, anew republic, 817. Chiloe islands, 869. Chimbora(;o, a very lofty mountain, 834. China, empire of, 614 ; its history, 628 ; Chinese Tartary, 630. Christiania, city of, 83. Christianity, rise and jirogress of, 394, Christojpher, island of St., 820. Circassia, description of, 605, Circles, the polar, 11. Clageufort described, 410. Climates, (able of, 12. Cochin-China, kingdom of, 674. Cologne, miserable state ofj 384. Colombia, a new state, 834. Columbns, spirit and success of, 48, 744. Comets, nature of, 5. Commerce, rise of, 30 ; its progress, 46, Congo, kingdom of, 726. Constantinople described, 541, Cook's voyages, 885. Copenhagen described, 52. Copernicus, the reviver and establishrr of the Pythagorean or true system of the universe, 2, Cordova, account of, 464. Corfu, isile of, 555. Cork, city of, 287. Corsica, an Italian island, 5'26. Cortez, the conqueror of Mexico, "46. Coumassi, the Ashantee capital, 721. Cracow, city of, 116. Crimea, or Criin Tartary, described, 99. Croatia, an Austrian province, 430. Croix, Saintc, aUanish island, 8()8. Cruz, Vera, a commercial city, 826. Cuba, a West-Indian island, 865. Curasao, in the West-Indies, 868. Cusco, in Peru, 844. Cyprus, isle of, 578. Cyrus, the Persian, 36. D Dahomi, kingdom of, 720 Ualmatia, a province, 431. Damascus, a fine city, 565. Uaneniura, mines of, 67. Dantzic, city of, 117, Danube, course of the river, 377. Darfour, an African realm, 711 Debretzin, a great trading town, 4C3. Dccan, a province of India, 643, 656, Debli, city of, 654, Demerara, a British colony, 863. Dcndcra, temple of, 699. Denmark, geography of, 50 to 56 ; its )H)litical and military history, 56 to 60. Diarbekir, in Asiatic Turkey, 563. Dominica, in the West-Indies, 821. Drake, Sir I'raiicis, the circum-uavi- gator, 812. Dresden, a school of arts and elegance, 386, Dronthcim, town of, 83. Druses, a remarkable community, S(>6, Dublin, city of, 286. Earth, considered as a planet, 1 ; its figure and motion, ibid. ; its natural divisions, 21. Easter island, 884. Ecclesiastical state, in Italy, 521. Edinburgh, town of, 255. Egypt, early history of, 28 ; description of the country, 692; the pyramids, 699 ; the history continued, 700. Index, FJba, isle of, 527. Elbe, a g^reat river, ^77. Wias, Mount St., 814. hugUnd described. 123 . Wc u: . 174to23U. ' "* '•"tory, Equator, called the Line. 10 Escurial, the pride of Spain'462 LUROPE ffrand divisiouHof J?". ,i„ scr.ptjo^^„ntski„,ao.„s1nd^;',";:; Eustatius, St., 868. 925 I <^"'nea , coast of, 719. "Z ~-f New, in Australasia q?7 «-^«vus.^dolphus,aceirate'dpHnce. ~^~'V., king of Sweden, deposed. Hanibui H F Fahlun, mine); of, 67. i-alkland isles, 868, Feroe islands, 64. I;*'!, i-lty of, 689. fozzan an African region 707 Finnish tribes, 606. ^ ' "'• !• orence, a nne city, 520 flonda. East and VV;,t. 8,1 Formosa, a fine island. 677 • Foiclslands, «n. "»"''• France, description of 101 ♦« im . history, 3iy/ ' -^"^ *» -"^ ; its Frankfort on the Maine IfiH philosopher, 4 {6 "*"""'" «•»» Friendly or Tonga islands, 880. Galileo,_^the astronomer and philoso- ''Sit;';^r'''''''«^^'^»''-be- ''r?;prra!''^''''''*'''"°"''«^«5 Geography, astronomical i . Pliical problems I -f' ' ff^offra- E'Tope.'^ 48 to 5^0 "^ ' ffeography of 6?-^; i-f Africa. 6j;u:'74^""v'^f '" •■ica. 741 t,iQ7n . ; '"'^^»ot Ame- "fF«lyS.'&'''"''^»'''^''^«'i; r.eorgia described, 603. '■7j,""'Vy' J^cription of, 375 to 19fl the old.Germanic body IM. .k ' constitution. 39'> . „,".!.'•. ' "'^ "*"' ,tary history,'3987 '^ "' '*"'' ""•''■ Giants'-Causeway, 283 Gibraltar, a reinarkabVe fortress 4fi7 Wasgow, city of, 257 "'^*'^''' ^''7- Globe, the terrestrial.' 10 Goa, city of, 655 Gondar in Abyssinia, 704. Gothenborg, city of, 69. Government, origin of, 28 Crauada, iuSpar„,4(.i^'*' •'ratz, city of, 410 Gravity, or attraction, law of 1 Greece, early history of V/.' ' , ^Greece, 548, 570 i-f' ' ""•'"" Greenland, West and E^st 75Q Grenada, island of. ft.>| ' ^•'^• «^"atemaln, a new state 811 Gmana described, 863 «5;j". »«. »f the S.M,1... ,.,„j., I "elena, isle of St, 719 Hesse, principality of, 387 • llmdoostan, survey of in -. u • 662 ^ '» ''^^ > »'s history, HispanioIaorHayti, 866 Holland, .lescripiion of ifii -, u- asia, 871.' ^^"^""""ond in Austral- Honoruru, an insular capital 8Sfi Hottentots, a remarkable race 7ii Houssa, kingdom of, 717. ""' ^•^'• Hudson, a bold navigato- 763 "t:!;:^y-"'p'-of.4i8tit,his. HyJerAli, a fortunate adventurer, 641 I Jago, toivnofSt. 849 He, palace of, 93 celnnd described, 60. iniispruck, city of, 412 onianislands, 555. ireJand, description of, '>79. •,„ ,. tory, 290. ' "^ > ''* '»'«• Ispahan, city of, 592 Jstrian peninsula, 411 ltaly,divisionsof,504;i,s history, 529. J •jagarnaut. temple of, 656 Ja'na'ca, island of, 816 Janeiro, city of Rio, 858. Japan islands, r,7r) Java, island of, <;8i. •Jeddo, city of, 675. Jersey and Guernsev, isles of "is Jerusalem, city of, 566. °' "'•'• Joannina, in Albania, 550 Junu-Fernandes, in ,!.« p^..^ g-^ L, 926 Index, K Kamchatka, province of, C07. Kano, city of, 717. Kasaii, Tartars of, COO". Kherson, town of, 91). Kief, city of, 98. Konieh, o Turkish city, 5(i5. Kntzebue's Sound, 814. Kourdistan, province cf, ftfiS. Kurile islands, 610. Ladrone isles, 677. Lama, the grand, 638. Lapland described, 84. Latitude and longitude, 13. Laws, origin of, 28. Laybach, In Cucniola, 411. Leghorn, a trading town, ,''>20. Leipsic, a Saxon town, 386. Leinbcrg, city of, 116. Liege, city of, 360. Lima, in Peru, 842. Lisbon described, 495. Liverpool, town of, 138. Loggoun, kingdom of, 716. Lombardo-Venctian realm, 504, 51.'). London, description of, 1.33 ; etfcct of the great fire, 137 ; modem improve- ments, 137. Loo-Choo isles, 677. Louis XVI. of France, calamitous fate of, 331. Lubeck, a free city of Germany, 387. Lucca, ducliy of, 520. LUcia, isle of St., 821. Lucknow, a city of India, 653. Lugonia, isle of, 678. Luther, the reformer, 395. Lycurgns, the Lacedsmouian legisla* tor, 35. Lyons, city of, 310. M. Macassar, or Celebes, 679. Madras, or Fort St. George, 655. Madrid, city of, 461. Madagascar, island of, 737. Madeira, island of, 741. Magdeburg, town of, 384. Magellan, Strait of, 869 Mahratta state, 642, 656. Malacca, an Indian peninsula, 673. Malaga, a trading town, 465. Malta, island of, 528. Man, isle of, 246. Manilla, city of, 678. Manchester, town of, 139. Mandara, territory of, 716. Mantua, city of, 518. Maps, use of, 25. Marchesas, a groupe of islands, 884. Margaret, daughter of Waldemar, a powerful princess, 73. Mariner's Compass, 26. Marriage, ceremonies and customs of, in Lapland, 88 ; in Russia, 96 ; in Turkey, 539 ; In Persia, 591. Marseilles, city of, 311. Martabnn, in India, 672. Martinifiuc, a flourishing island, 867. Mary, queen of Scotland, misfortunes of, 273. Massaniello, the rebel, 531. Mauritius, or the isle of France, 738. Mecca and Medina, 580. Mclinda, kingdom of, 736. Mendoza, near the Andes, 852. Mont-/,, an ancient and strong town, 385. Meshed, in Khorasan, 593. Messina, in Sicily, 525. Mexico, a new rtpublic, 823 s the city, 825. Milan, cit^of, 514. Miles in different countries, 27. Mines of gold, 855; of diamonds, CAG, 856. Modena, duchy of, 519 Mogul empire, 641, 6fi3. Mohammed, the Arabian impostor, 583. Moldavia, a principality, .'>53. Molucca or Spice Islands, 678. Monghol tribes, 607, 631, Monomotapa, kingdom of, 7.')6. Montenegrins, a remarkable commu- nity, 432. Montreal, town of, 774. Moorish dynasty in Spain, 475. Moravia described, 414. Morea, a part of Greece, h'>2. Mosaic religion, 394. Moscow, city of, 97 ; desfrurtion of tlic greater part of it by tire, ibid, its renovation, 98. Mountains, the Rocky, 810. Mowee, a South-Sea island, 81^.6. Munich, the Bavarian capital, 385. N. Nadir, the Persian usurper, 599. Nankin, in China, 621. Napal, kingdom of, 656. Naples, kingdom and city of, 522. Nations, origin of, 28. Navigators* Islands, 881. Netlu-rlands described, 357. Newfoundland, isle of, 777. Nicolas, the Russian emperor, begins his reign with bloodshed, 112. Nisrer, course of the river, 710. Nishnei-Novgorod, a great commer- cial town, 98. Norman conquest of England, 178. Norway described, 79; its crown added to th.it of IJeiimark, 84; to the Swedish monarchy, ihiil. Novgorod, city and principality of, 98, 103. Nubia described, 706. O. Oahu, isle of, 886. Obituary, general, of men of learning and genius, 914. Oileana, a great tradin? town qo Oporto, city of, 4ye. Orkney Isle, described. 277 171. ^*'n''^iJ|re, universities of, Index. h A 927 ^'"atic Russia, 6"d2''' "" »<> ^12;* Padua, city „r, 5,8.* 1 ak-rino, i„ Sicily, r,2- -"""""'•'.'vtS:-''^ I'nns, city of, 308 « ' 'araous ';ark, journeys of.' 71 1 snl'f*'- '''' '*'""''s 88-1 ^ark, journeys of. 71 1 larma. duchy and chy'of 519 teo,r?j Tk"^- of. A'-. l'a..irtheRus«°a"„*'"'^"'"'-''^'«'«54. J09. "'""" emperor, inurdere.1, iV'lew isles, 877 ■^•f^ itsSorv%5L''^''°'"°'P-la. Pertli, i„,vn of, 257 Pes7h?„T '"'''"''"'=• 840. Peter thlr"^"'^''«22- j,* h- ladelphia, t'ty of, ;yc Jl';l'(.p.ne islands, 678 • Phffinicians, a ere„t \. tion,;ii. ^ *"* commercial na- i'lata, river of La o^n formed in its vicinUv '«,* """^ *'«»« Poland described m^'^^^-. turns of the kingdom lli'Z' P"''" teSoS""-'^"^^ '• «r ''''''^^'' «2; its history, Jlfa&ue, city of, 415 'ro.V,fe'"'"'"^^«-*.«3 5 its iosoK'o ^' ''^Tonomer and p,,;. city, ^ardin^afa^'Z-' "^''* scribed, 518. ' ' ">e duchy d«- ^axony kinjfdom of -?«« ''i.Javonia, an An.fni °* Scotia, Niva descrrer^"''"' «»• ^'•otland described 'ojs'.'^J-,. 267. ' -^0 } Us history, S^^':Kid?an''""-"''^'««»- ^^hetla^nd-isleta'a^'"""'^"^- iS^S^^^o^-. city, 592 |mynu.i;srfi!:r5r'«9- Society, origin of, 28 ' * ^o'-'ety Islands, 883 Solon, the legislator 3", Soudan, territory of Vl? S.'uth.Sea bubble, I'ci '^• ''Pam described, 453 to 4 -J •. u- ^. 4/0 ; thefry,„ie:„rV '"'•'•StO'-V, Sparta, earl'ylisTo^;Vf''3T'^''"- S:;i;'ti;j'^^r^^^^- «•--. the United-, in N„rt,.^„^^.^^^ «. Quebec, city of, ;;7 Japsa, city of, 432' ^^•"""''"""•^''Sious creed of, 510. g^S^i'd^TS'^'P-roU.:,. StKia,ducl,yof,4br Sumatra, island of, 680 Sweden described «-. . i- , J^inffdom, 7.{ to ;./' '"''"''J' "^ f'e System, the feudans;^^'*'**' 8'2. i'able geographical. 88') • ,1 pcal, »03. * ' ""^ > thronolo- ,'j;aljriz, a Persian city, -,93 8^6 ; re.narknKiP''''*''"''"' barbarian 887.' "'""''able voyage of his son Tartarian tribes, 006, 612,633. i-, 928 Index, Tartary, Independent, fit 2. Tea-pUuU, culture of, 617. TeHit, city of, 603. Teheran, the Persian capital, S92. Teueritt'e, iile of, 740. Thalet, the aitronomer, 2. Thames, course of the river, 126. Thebes, iu Egypt, remains of, 7U0. Theseus, a hero and a statesman, 33. Tibboo territory. 712. Tiltet, an Asiatic country, 635. Tides and currents, nature of, 24, 25. Tierra del Fuego, 869. Timbuctoo, kingdom of, 711. Tobavo, ■ West-Indian island, 822. Tobolsk, a Siberian city, 608. Toledo, an ancient city, 466. TQu|(a Isles, 880. Tonquin, a dependency of Cochin- China, 674. Toulon, port of, 311. Transylvania, an Austrian territory, 428. Trent, city of, 412. Trieste, a port, 411. Trinidad, island of, 822. Tripoli, one ui" the states of Barbary, 6V0. Tropics, the two, 11. Tuareks, an African tribe, 708. Tunis, an African sUte, 689. Turin, city of, 518. Turkey, European, 534 ; Asiatic, 560 ; history of the Turks, 569. Tuscany, an Italian duchy, 520. Tyrol, county of, 411. U. Upsal, university of, 69, V. Valencia described, 465. Vasa, GustAvus, the liberator of Sweden, 73. Venice, a renowned but decliuin|C city, 516. Verd, Cape, islands of, 739. Verona, city of, 517. Vesuvius, Mount, 506. Vienna, city of, 380 ; congress of, 407. 53;i. Vincent, island of St., 821. Virgin islands, 822. Volga, course of the river, 91. W. Walachia, a principality, 553. Wales described, 239. — — — , New South, A part of New Holland, 871. Warsaw, city of, 116. Washington, city of, 799. Westminster, See I^ndon, Wight, isle of, 244. Winds, nature of, 24, World, the habitable, 23 ; its extent and population, ibid, Wuriemberg, kingdom of, 387. Y. York, city of, 137. , New, 794. Z. Zealand, New, 878. Zones, the ftve, 11. Zurich, city of, 446, MILLS, JOWETT, AND MILLS, BOLT'COURT, I LEET-STREET. CO •yi )7. «;v» nd i, — .