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SAN FRANCISCO: A. L. BANCROFT & COMPANY, PUBLISHERS. 188:{ Klil.-n-il ;ii-..,i,|iiis: 1.. \il •■(' ('.iiii.-r.i> iii t h.. \ ..i! 1>^-, liy tui'.Kirr II !'..\N( iioiT 111 111 ■ 1 iltl. .■ ..r t!i.> l.ilir.-iriiui i.f r..ii';ir--. ii t \V^i-liiii;;lnii. AH nhihi- /,'.*,-■.,/. 4 COISTTENTS OF TTTTS YOLUIME. CHArTER I. 8AVAGISM AM) CIVII.I/ATION. rAfjK. Dcliiiiliiiii of tlio 'IVrins -Tin- T'liivcrs.il Soul of I'rofjross — Man flio In- Mtniiiu'iil iiiiil not (lie I'.Ii'iiit'lit of l'ro;^i'c.ss ( hiL'iii of l'ro;;ii'ssi(iniil I'lii'iioinciia Tlic Auriicv of i;\il Is Civiii/atioii Condinivi! to Ila|i|iin«'ss? ()!ijccii\c ami Siilijci-tivc llinnanity -Conditions K.s- Kcnlial 1. 1 l'io;,'i('ss ( 'onlincntal ( 'ctnli;:n rat ions I'ooil and Cliinuli' Wealth ami Lcisnrc Association War, Slavcrv, Kcli^^ion, ami (jOvermuL'iit — The Dt'vtdopniiMit of rroj;rossi()iuil Law 1 CHAl'TEll II. OENKRAT, VIl.W Ol' TlIK ClVII.IZini NATIONS. The Anii'rican Civilization of the Sixteenth t'entnry Its Oisajifiear- ance 'I'iie Past, a New Element Dividing,' line lietween Savajie and < 'ivilized Trihes — IJonmls of .American ("ivili/ation - I'liysical I'"eatnres of theConntry Maya and Nahna llranelies of .Mtori^^i- nal t'nitnre The Nalina Civilization The .Aztecs its lie|iresentii- tives — lainits of the .Aztec Knijiire -.\ncient History of .Anjihuae in <»ntline -The Toltee Kra Tiie Chichinu-c Kra The Aztec I'.ra - Kxtent of the Aztec T,ari,t,'na;.'(' Civilized I'eojiles outside of .Aini- hnae -Central American Nations 'I'he May.-i Culture- The rrinii- tive .Maya l-jnpire Nahini Inllueme in the South — Yucatan and tin- Alayas The Nations of Chia|>as 'I'he <,>nichi'' I'.inpire in (iua- teniala The Nahuas in Nicaragua and Salvador Ely molo;^fy of Names 81 CHAPTER III. GOVERNMENT Or THK NAHl'A NATIONS. System of riOveriiinent-Tho .Aztec Confederacy — Order of Snccession - I'^Iection of Kin;;s ann)njr the Mt^xicans -Royal l*rero;;atives — (tovernment and Laws of Succession ami)ni^ the Tidtecs, and in Michoacan. TIascala, Cholula, Hwe.votzinco, and Oajaca— Ma.i:;nili- cence of the Nahna .ALniarchs Ci'reiniil tlu' Kiii;^- (liiiii ( frriiiiiiiy III' < 'iii'iiiialiiiii Tlic I'rociiriii;,' of Saciiliirs - I)('^i'ri|it loll iif tlir <'ri>\Nii ( iirniiatioii l''(M>t^ ,iiiil I'.iiti'rtaiiiiiu'iil.s - Iliis|iilalit\ cxiciiiliil ID I'.iu'iiiif' < 'unuialiciii S|i('rili nf Niva- lllial|>illi, l\ili;.'iif Tc/rllrii, In MuliU'/llllia il. nf Mcxiiii tllalioll (if a NdMc to a .New ly florli'l Kin;; \.i^ ("IfAlTKlJ IV. T'vi.Acrs \\n Hot siaiui.Ds or nir. NAiirv kinoh. Kxtciit ami liiti'iiiir of tin- (inat I'alacc in Mcvico 'I'lir I'alatc of NC/aliiialco\ otl. Kin;;' of 'I'r/.i-iK o Tlic Zo(ilo;:ical ( 'ollci'lions of tlic Naliiia Moiiaicli> Moiilc/uiiia'^ <>i;iiiir\ llcisal ( ianlciiv mimI rii'a>iin -( iioiiiids 'I'lii' Hill of ( 'iia|iiiltr|ic.- Nc/aiiiialin\oirs ('.iiiiitiv io'^iiiciK'c at 'rc/id/.iiicci I'lijlfc I'alatcs I he lloyal «Iiiaiil Till' KiiiLrV Mral> An A/In- ('iii>iiic Tlic Amliciici! I'liaiiilicr Aflci-iliiiiicr Aiiiii.-ciiiciil> I'lic l.'oyal Waiiliolic 'I'lii! Kill;,' Anion;,' his i'cii|ilc Mciiiii;.' of Muntc/.iima 1 1, ami < 'oili''* • Tlic Kiii;i's Maiciii Kcvciiiics of tlic Koyal lloii>cliol(l i'olic\ of A/.tci' Kiii^is |."iS CHAl'TKl? V. riti; r!:ivn,).iii;ii ( i,\ssi:s amumi tiii: naiii'as. Tilics of the Noliiliiy ami (iciiirv I'iir I'oxnci- of the NoMo Tlic Ari>tocrai y of Tc/ciico The I'olicy of Kill;; I'cc hot lalat/iii l'ri\i- IcLTcs of the NohlcH Monte/imia'N I'olicv I!i\alry hctwceii Nohlcs ainl < 'oiiiiiioii' The Kiiii:liti\ ( 'ithr of 'I'ccuhtli 'erciiiony of Initiation (lri;:iii of the < (rtler 'i'lie Naliiia I'riesih 1 Tlu; I'ricsts of Mexico Heilicatioii of (hihlreii I'riotoses I'lic^t- liood of .Mi/.tcca|iaii 'Ihc roiililV of \'o|»aa- -'I'ra'lit imi of \\'i\i|ic- cocha The < as e of \'o|paa The /.ajiotcc i'riisls Toilec I'ricsts— Toloiiai' l'ric--ts i'ricsts of .Miihoaeaii, i'lielila, ami Tiascaia IsCi (IIAITl'.K VI. PLEUICIANS, SI.WKS, I1;m|[K (11' LANDS, AM> T\XATIii\. Infltn'lice of t he ( '.ilillilolier^ < »]i|ircs^iiiii hy Nolilcs 1 le|iri\C(l of ( lllice liy .Monlc/iiiiia 11. ('lasses cif Slaves i'ciial Slavo \ (iliiiitais Slavery Slave Market at .\/ea|>n/aI('o I'liiiisliiiieiil and l'ii\i- levies of Sla\t's -Itivi~ioii of Lands < rowii I aiil- i.amU of the Noiiles .Miiiiiii|ial l'ro]icrt\ ri-o]perty of the Teiii|de- reiiiirc of Lands ill /ajioteia|ian. Mi/ieca|(aa, M iclioacan, TIaseala, ( Iht- liila, and llucNot/.im o Similaiily to I'eiidal System of l".iiro|>c - System of Taxation .Muiii(i|ial 'J'axes — lace Trihiitc Trihiiie from ("oii'Hiered i'rovim»'.s -Kcvcnnc (Mlici-rs — Injustice of Moiilc- zunia li -1(( CONTKNTS. i'\(;r,. cnArTKii VII. KUrtATIoN, MMUUAiir,, (■((XCI'lUN.Uil'., CllinmimTTI, .WT' r.Al'TIsM. I'jluiiitiiiii 111" till' Naliiiii \'iiiiili .Manner nl" I'lini.Hliiiit'iil Miirriii'/i' I'rtliMiiiiiiiii's Niijitial ('ciL-iiKinj -( Hiscrvancc ai'lrr Mania;;*' Ma,\al('i', Olumi, ( 'liicliinic', ami 'rultcc Mariia;,'(> 1 >i\iric Cmih iiliii:a;,'t'('cr('iii(iiiic.s I'ri'liiiiiiiary In < 'liildltirili 'I'icatniciil of l'ri';^nanl Womi'ii I'lcH'cnliiins oi' Miilwil'c Sii|i('i-stii inns w itli r(';:aiil In Wnnirn wim hied in (Jiiliiipi'd Aluniinn Maiiti-ni SiH'cilii's (if Miilwifc N'ainin;,' uf Cliildicn l'..i|'t' in anion;,' tin- 'J'lascalici's, Miztt'cs, and Zaiititccn— ('in'uinci^i.Mi and Scarilifatinn of Infants iMO ('HAPTi:i{ vrn. XAIIfA IKASTS AM) AMISMMKNTS. T'lvccssivo Fondness fnr I'rasts — Manner of (iivin;.' I'^easts — Sorvin;; tile Meal I'l'tifessional .iv'sters -I'artin;,' I'lesents tn ( iuests Itnyal l>aii(|iiets— 'I'oliaceo Sinnlviii;;- I'lihlie Dance-* Manner lit Sinudn;,' and Daiieiii;; 'I'iie Netcieli/tli Till' Drama aiimn;; tiie Nalnias — Mn^i^•and Mn-ieal Inslrninents Naliiia I'netiy Aimliat ie I'eats 'I'lie Netolnlizlii, ur "llird Danee' I'l'it'es-imial llnnneiv 'I'ln (lanie (if Tlai'tli (iaine^ nf Clianie Tliij I'atnliztli, ur 'lieaii (iaine'— Tololiimiu, .Moiitoziiiiia's J-'avoritc Gaiiio ln;! CHAPTKII IX. I'flil.U' I'r.STlVAI.S, Frei[ni'nt • )t( iirrence rif i'e]i;,'iiius I\'a>t> Unman Saeriliees - Fea>ts (if tlie I'diirtli Vear — Mnntiily l'"estivals Saeriliee nf ('liiidreii I'ea-t n\ .\i|ie -Manner nf Saeriliee l''ea-^(s ni <'ama\t!i, nf the l'"ln\\ er 1 'ealels, nf ( 'en tent 1, nf Te/eal lipnea, and nf 1! Ilitzilnpnilil i i Festival of the Salt Mai of I'oMil - I'.atiit;: III' Ihiiiiaii lli'-li Mamifjiiliin' i>f l'iili|ii(' rri|iai-.ilioii nf ( 'liuinlall ()|lnr UrNcr- fljr,.^..-Iu(,,\icatiii^' DiiiilvN l>niiilu'iiiirss 'I'iinc ami .Maiimr of Takiii- Mcal^ 'MI CnWTVM XI. DRKSS Ol' Tin; N\lll \ NATIONS. 1'ru;j'r('>« ill I)rps'«- On's.-. of tin- I'rc A/irf Natioii"^ (iariiH-iit-^ of tin' ( 'liiiliiiiii'i'.s aiiil 'rt>lti'c> !iilni(liiiiiiiii of CoiioM Till- Maslli • 'I'll.' Tiliiialli Dif'- of till' Ai'o!iuias ( »ri;:iM oi ilic 'I'ara-^iMii Cos- tiiiiii' I)rcx-< of till' Zapoli'i'-i anil 'l'alia>i'aii- i'i'c-<-i of W'oiiifii 'I'Ik' lliiiliil aiiiM'uciil Sainlal^ Manner of WcaiinL'llif Hair - I'aiiitiiiit ami 'I'atlooin;,' i iriiainciit- iimm! Iiv ilir N,ilii!,i- < lor- ^'(■oiis Dress of the Nnlili'-. Hrcss of the lJo\al .\lii'miaiii> Nairn's of tin- Variolic Maiillcs Tlu' IJoyal jtiailcin I'iu- i!o>al Wanliolw L'ostly Decorations. '.tCA CH.VPTKK xir. cv.MMna i; or Tin; nviii v nvtions. 1 111' Main I''L\itin\'-< of Naliiia 'ouiiiii rrr ( 'uimniTri' in, Prc-.V/lrc Times -(Jut rai,'('s Coiumitteil li.\ \/.li'i' .Mrnlianl^ I'lix ili';ii's of tlir MiTi'liaiit-* of 'riatcliili'o -.K-;tIoii.sy Itclwct'ii MiTi'liaiit^ ami Nol'les -Articles iiseil as ('iirreiicy Tlie Markets of Aiiaimac Arraii^'piiioiit luitl ile^'iilatioiis of tin- Maikct-l'Iarc- Nnnil'i'i- of I'liiy.'rs ami Sellers Transiiortatioii of Wares 'I'laM'Iini.' .Mi'r- cliaiiN -('i)niiiiorcial Umites Setti";^ out on a .loiinii-v <'aia\aiis of Trailers Tlic Itchirn ('iistoiii- vinl I'easts of tlie .Meieiiants >.aliua i»i>at- and NaviLjatioii ']'H CHAPTKU Xin. WAR-crsT( iM.s (ii Tin; nmii \s. Iiiiliortance of tlu' Military I'lofes^ion Imliiaiioii> of ilank riim-a- tioii of Warriors newarils for ^'aIo^ .Military »>r,l,is ainl llieir I>r('Ns — (iorj,'eoiis War- Dresses of .Moiite/iima ami ilie .\/iee No- Itiiity — Dress of tlie ('omiiion Soliliers Armor ami |)efen~i\e W eapoiis- Otl'easivc Weajioiis Stamlanls .\iuliasNiilors ainl Couriers l''ortiiiiation^ Tiie Miiiiary ( 'onmil .\ilicle-^ of War - Dei'laratioii of War—Spies dider of Marcli ami iiatlle War Cn>toms of the TIascaltees and Taraseos- Uetiirn of the ( 'om|iier- iii^' Army— Cclclirafiou of I'"eats of Aims 4(HJ CHAPTKU XIV. N.vnr.v i..v\vs and i.wv coiiits. General IJeiiiarks— the Cihiiaeoatl, or Siipreiiie .liidf^e— the Court of tlK'Tlai.alecutl -Jurisdictioiiof theTeeiilu lis tlie ('en tert la Jii Mines cu.\ti:ms. vii mill Ti>|til!is Liiw « dii'ts aiiriiiiki"(ii( ss, N^'i'i l|( rail, AdiiitiTV . Iiui-sl, Sciiidiiiy, I'ciiiiiral imi, mill otiic- »_!inK'M -Story «t" Niv.aliiiultKyull ami iIil- ]Juv j.'l.'i .%» cir.vpTi:ii XV. N.\nr.\ AIM'S AM> MAM lArri'iirs. Mflals Iscil ami MaiiiuT of nliiaiiiiii;.' 'I'ln-iii Work in;; of (ml. I ami Silvi'i- WoiiiliTfiil Skill ill liiiilaliii'j, tiililiii;. Mini I'laliii;; Work- in;,' ill Stone Lapiilary Vt'oik Wnml ('ar\iiij4 liiniuailiin' of I'ollery N'arioiiH Kiiiils of Clotli Maimfarliii" of i'a]irr ami I.eallier I'lejiaraliiiii of Ityes ami I'aiiils I'Ik. Art of I'aiiilimj; - I'eatlier Mosaie Work l.caf-Mats M,i i t m' Iv'iii.llin liro — 'rnrclii's Soa|> ( 'oliucil of Arls in Tr/eiiro ~t (|.;ior\ ..imI i'oet- " Ne/alinalioyoll's Oilcs on llir Miilaliilily of I.: ••. ami llie Ty- rant re/.n/onioe — Aztec Ariilum-tieal S_\ >tciii 17,} 378 4(lli CHAPTKll XV [. THK AZTl'.C CAI.KNDXn. AstHMMHiiifal Know Inl^c of llic A/lees ( 'oiil lailirlions of Alilliors re- speeliiiL; tiic < 'aiinilar - Naliie of tlie Koeanlics of Naiioiis W* Tit- ers Till' I'iisl !!e,::nlar < 'alemlar Tlie Meviran < yrle Tlie<'ivil \'i'ar 'I'lie A/lec .Moiillis Nanus of tlie l!a,\sanil tlieii Si^nilira- lioii The ('oinineiicenieiit of the A/.lec \ ear Tin' llilnal ('ak'iiilar (iania's Arian;,'('ineiit of I lie Mom lis Tin; ( "alcmlar-Sloiie I'lic roiir l»i'striielions of ilie Worlil Tlio ('aK'inlav of .Miilioaeaii - lie. kuiiiii.i; of llic Za|Milees fiicj CHAPTKll XVII. TUf: A/TIOO I'RTl l!l>\Vi;iTlNl(. IIicroj,'lyi(hie T'prnnls Tlie Native Hooks Aalhorities — Destnii'tioii of the Nali\(' Anhi\es liy Xmmina.^a ami liis ( 'onfri'ies — Picture- Writings iiseil after the ( 'oiinnest for < 'iHifession ami l.aw-Siiits— \ alile of the Ueconls -I >oc!iMieiils sent to Snaiii ill the Si\|eent ii <'entiir> I'.nroiiean Collections Lonl Kin;;slioroiiuirs Work — riitiiie Writin;;s retaineil in Mexieo-ColliM-tions of Ixllilxorliill, Si;iiieii/a. (Jeiiielli Careri, lUitiiriiii, Veytiu, liCoiiy (iaina, Pichanlo, Aiil'in, ami the National .Miisi .\ii of .Mexieo— I'roeoss of Hiero- ;;ly])liic Development — lte|iresenlative, Syiiiholic. ami riionetie I'ietiire-Writin;.'- <)ii;.'iii of Moileni Alphaiie. -Tin- A/tee System — Siieeimeii from the ("oilex Meiuloza — Sjiecinieii froiii (ieiiielli Careri Specimen from the Uotnriiii Collection Pmlialile iiitnre Success of Interpitiers — The Ne|iolnialtzit/:n rr_'3 r I vm (MNIi'.N'I'N. r.M.K. cifUTi:!: xvrii. \i;rinTiiTri;r. wp I'wki.i.im.s di' 'iin: N\m \><. An liittctmr «ii' iljr Am inil N.iiiciis (icnciMl I'catiirc- n|' N.iliiia Aii'li- ilciiiir.' 'I'lir \rrli 1 '.\l riinr ami liitninr I )('riiial iun- MninMl 111 liiiiltliii^ Inclined riant ^ Scall'uhN 'i'lic ii-c of Mexico 'riic Market I'laee i'liuntain- ami Ac|neilmt> l.i;j:lit- Imu^e-- a'hl Slliet -\\ nils ( it \ nf Te/eue^i jlwelli.ij^ A/lee (laf- ilen- Tiiniile ul' f |tiit/.ilii|iiielilli 'I'euil'le el' Mexieci ( M InT Teia- lilfs— Teiii alii at < liehil.i ami I'e/eneci (HAi'ir.K X!\. Ml.PI' |\l \M' I'IM.llvl. l;l-n> AMiiNi. Tin; WillAS. ^lesieaa ( 'inl rilinl inn-- I I Me. Ileal Seieiiie 'I'lie IJiilaiiieal (iaiileiH — I,on;,'e\ il> l'ii\aleiit I >i-ea-i's IniriMiiiei inn ni MnalM'cix ainl Syjiliili^ Meclii.il rreatlielit The- Tenia/i alii Al"ili ;inal l'li\-i- eiaii> The A/iee ia'iilty SiaiiilaiU llemeilie- Siir;:er\ — Snper- .-titiiili-. ( 'eieliiiniie-- ill Iji'aliii^ I'lineral l;lli>n'" A/Iee- < rellia- tiiiii Kiiyal < llive.|uie^ laiilialniiii;^ 'I lii' I'uiielal I'vii lliliiiail Saeriliee I)i-|m>al iif tile A>lie-- and nnianient> Mnmner^ i'li- nei'al ( 'ercMlceiie- 111" I lie l'eo]ile I ', i lain t l.i^^e- lllliied I i i!e-- I'.ir till' >lain in Italtle liiirial aiiiniiLr the I'eu-t 'liiehiiiiei - ami 'I'alias- eaiis t'reiiiaiiiiii ( 'eri'inniiies in Mielieaeaii — Uuiial liy the .Mi/.tees ill • lajaea .'I'.ll (■fi\i''n:i; \x. (iuVl.KNMrNT, s()(l\l M.\--l ^. I'leU'l.l; IV, WD T.WVS (iT Tlir. M W \ N VTIdNS. lui !iiiliie|ii;y IJi'iiiark-- — Ndlan'-- I'.miMre - /aiiin;!"-' HeiLrii — Tlii' ieiyal l''lllllilie> 111 ^ llealall. ('iieiiiiie-, TlltuI Xill--, lt/,i^. and ('hele> — Tiller and ( Mder nf Siieee.-^ioil ( 'la----e- iil' Nulile> 'I'lie (^>iiiehe- ('aUelii(|iiel raii|iire in ( iiiatemala The Ahau Aliimjw ami Siiei es- sinll t'l llie 'riliiilH' I'lix ilejed ( 'la^se- ( lii\ einimiil iil' the l'ru\-- iliee~ I he KiiNal ' iiiiiieil The ( Ida jiaiiees I'lie I'il'iles Natiiilis nf Nieara'jiia The Ma\ a I'l ie-lliiiiid I'leheiaii Cla-x > Slaves- leiinie 111 l,and~ inliei-.tame 111 I'lojierty — 'I'axat imi - I (elitms and ( 'ndilm- - Law > and I he Adiiiiiii-tialinii ni .lii-tiee Ci.'U* C'H.UTKi: XXI. ]:iir( \Tiii.N AMI lAMii.v M\iri.i;s sMoMi Tin: M was. I'dnealiiiti 111' N'mitli I'liMie Sehiii,ls,,t' ( lnnicmala lliamheMil' Siinly in ^'ll^atan Mai ryiiiLT- A;^e 1 ii rrees ul" ( niisaiiuniniiy allow ed ill .MaiTia.Lie -rieliiniiiaiie-- ul' .Mairia;:e - Maiiiaue < 'eifimiiiie-- 'riiu M (■(•Ni'r.M'S, IX ('ii-.1iini 111' till' Pniil ilii Sriuiii'iir in \iiMr;ii;iiii -^Vi(^l\^•s- -Minmu- JIIIIV ( oiHiiliillilur l>i\ii|,i' l.;iws ( 'iiliccl nin;^' AilllltclV l''iillli- cMiicHi i;.i|>c I'lo^liniliiiii I iiiuitiiiiil (liiiic- Dc-ir.' I'm- ' hil- illi'li ( hilil-liillll * 'rlcliMillii'^ Kile III' ('ircllllicisiiili Miililiri- (if Naiiiiiiu I'liiMrrii l;.i|iii>in:il ( riri ics ti(il ■1 ciiArrKU xxii. IT.ASTS Wli \Mrs;;Mi:N'rs nl' Till' MAYAS. S|)cii:il < lli^crv;mrcs l"i\.i| l'r;i-l- SaiTilirr of Shivos Mmilhly I'cM.-t-^ of llli' \ lliMli'fs llclicw :ll (if l!l(' liiiil- i'r.l^l iil tin' Ciiai-- lliihtiiiu' l'csli\;il 'I'lir 'I'liiiiik.-ik I'cM^I ,iy I'ca-i- nf tin' II iiiitci-~, l''i-lii'i-. :iiiii Ajiiaii-I- ('ci-ciiKinic- ill Ihiunrdf ( 'ul^iii'-an I'l'asi .if ill,- Mmiili (if Mill l'ca>i-^ ni the ^'(■a^■- Kan, Mulac l\. iind ('aiiar ^ iicatcc Sai-rilicfs 'i'lir I'it nf ('liiclii'M Saiiiliii's nt llic l'i]iil(~ l'Va-1 (if \ i(i(i|-y l"ca>ls ami Saciitico in N icafa.u'iia • rian.nicl^ haiiccs Mn-^ical Inst innicnl^ (iaiiio tiST CH.VPTKII XXIIT. Vddli. IHIKSS, COMMl-Kcr., AMI WAK CISTuMS i il" Till: M \V A.S. Iiiti'o'lnri j.iii (,f A'^iiculiiirc tjMiiclic I'railiiidii nf llic 1 )i-i'ii\ crv (li Mai/c Mai/c t'lilinrr Sn|iii-I it imi- nl I'armci- Ilnntin.i: aid |-'is!iiim- Diiinc^lic Animals, I'nwl, and lice-' ricscrNaiidii ami ( 'iiiiUiiiu' iif l'"ii'iil Meal- Drinks, mil I hiiikinu-lialiits I'annilial- i-m Dress (if ilic Ma.va- M,i\llis, .\l,iiit!c-, .iml Sandals Dn-s (if Kiii;:s and I'licsts Wdincn's Dic-.s Hair and licanl I'cisdnal Dccdiatinii llrad-i'lattcniiiu, rcrfdi.il inn, ■raitimiiiL:', ,aml I'aint- inu I'dsiiiial llaliil- ( 'iimmcrcc t'uricnc\ .Market- Sii|ier-~ti- timi- (if Traveler^ ( 'ami. s ,im| |!als,is War Milit.nv Leaders - lii-iu'iiia Arnmr \\'c,i|iiin~ I '(irt iliiat imis llatlle- 'I'realimnt (if t antives 71") CiltU CHAl'TKU XXIV. AIAVV AKI'S, CVLI'MiAK, VM' 1 1 1 i :;• li .I.VI'HlCs, ."sciii'ity (if Infnrniatidii I'-cdf Mel,iU tinld and rreeidiis Stmies - l!n|ileineiil- (if Stone S(!d|itiire roltery Mamifaeture of Clolli D>ein;: Sysieni (if Niinieratiiiii Ma\a<'alend r in ^'^(•atan Da\ s, \N(ck-, Mdiillis. and N'ears Indict ion- and Kat line- I'ere/" !s\s|eni (if .Miaii KtitiiiU's Statements of l^anda and < 'oudllndo intercalary Da.\s and ^'ears l»a.\s and Mmitlis in ( liiatein.ila. ( liiajias, and .Sni'diiiisCd Maya 1 1 iero^dv pliic System 're-liimniy of I'.arly Writers (111 tlie I'se (if I'ictiire- Writiii.u Desiinctidii of Ddeiinients ,S|ieciniens whicli lia\ c Siir\ i\ cd 'I'lie Dresden ( 'odex - .Mannscri|it Trdaiid 'I'alilet- of l'alem|ii.', * 'ti|ian, and ^'iieal.in — I'li-lmii l,amla's l\es - Urasseiir de rxiiirlioiiru's Inteiiireiatidii ., 7IS CONTENTS. CHAPTER XXV. PAGE. BUlLDlKviS, MEDICINE, UUIUAL, PHYSICAL I'ECUUAUITIES, AND CUABAC- XEH OF TUE MAYAS. Scanty Int.. mint ion {riven hy the Karly Voyn^^ers — Private Houses of the Mav.is Interior Arran;;enient, Decoration, and Furniture — ■ Maya Cities— I )eserii)tion of I'tatlau — ratinuniit, the Cake.hiles, each of which presents some claim for both distinctions. Thus, if the domestication of ruminants, or some knowl- edge of arts and metals, constitute civilization, then are the ingenious but half-torpid Hyperboreans civil- ized, for the Eskimos tame reindeer, and the Thlinkeets are skillful carvers and make use of copper; if the cultivation of the soil, the building of substantial houses of adobe, wood, and stone, with the manufacture t)f cloth and pottery, denote an exodus from savagism, then are the Pueblos of New Mexico no longer savages; yet in both these instances enough may be seen, eitlier of stupidity or brutishness, to forbid our ranking them with the more advanced Aztecs, Mayas, and Quiches. We know what savages are; how, like wild animals, tliey depend for food and raiment upon the spontane- ous products of nature, migrating with the beasts and birds and fishes, burrowing beneath the ground, hiding in caves, or throwing over themselves a shelter of bark or skins or branches or boards, eating or starving as food is abundant or scarce; nevertheless, all of them liave made some advancement from their original naked, helpless condition, and have acquired some aids in the procurement of their poor necessities. Prime- val man, the only real point of departure, and hence the only true savage, nowhere exists on the globe to- day. Be the animal man never so low — lower in skill and wisdom than the brute, less active in obtaining food, less ingenious in building his den — the first step DEFINITION OF THE TEUMS. 8 out of his liouseless, comfc>rtless condition, the fiivt fashionin^j; of a tool, the first attempt to cover naked- ness and wall out the wind, if this endeavor spring' from intellect and not from instinct, is the first step toward civilization. Hence the modern savage is not the j)re-historic or primitive man; n'or is it among the harharous nations of to-day that we must look for the rudest harharism. Often is the question asked, What is civilization ? and the answer comes. The act of civilizing; the state of heiuir civilized. What is the act of civilizing? To reclaim from a savage or barbarous state ; to educate ; to refine. What is a savage or barbarous state? A wild uncultivated state; a state of nature. Thus i'ar the dictionaries. The term civilization, then, poi)ular- ly implies both the transition from a natural to an artifi- cial state, and the artificial condition attained. The derivation of the word civilization, from ciris, citizen, viritas, city, and originally from actus, union, seems to indicate that culture which, in feudal times, distin-* guished the occupants of cities from the ill-mannered boors of the country. The word savage, on the other hand, from silra, a wood, points to man primeval ; si/re.stres homuH's, men of the forest, not necessarily ferocious or brutal, but children of nature. From these simple beginnings both words have gradually ac(]uired a broader significance, until by one is under- stood a state of comfort, intelligence, and refinement; and by the other, humanity wild and bestial. Guizot defines civilization as an "improved condi- tion of man resulting from the establishment of social order in place of the individual independence and lawlessness of the savage or barbarous life;" Buckle as "the triumph of mind over external agents;" A^irey as "the development more or less absolute of the moral and intellectual faculties of man united in society;" Burke as the exponent of two principles, "the spirit of a gentleman and the spirit of religion." "V hatever be the characteristics of what we call savage I* fe," says SAVAGISM AND CIVILIZATION. John Stuart Mill, "the contrary of these, or the quulities which society puts on as it throws off tliose, constitute civilizatioti;" and, remarks Emerson, "a nation that has no clothinj,'*, no iron, no alpha! »et, no marriaj»e, no arts of peace, no abstract thought, wo call barbarous." Men talk of civilization and call it liberty, reliies of the material world with the intellectual or pro<^ressional enerj»-y in man; and of these 1 will mention such only as are currently accepted by latter-day science. Within the confines of the conceivable universe one clement alone is all-})otential, all-perva(lincean heaven and swellH, the eternal hills pulsate, the foundations e*' the deep rise up, and seas dis])lace continents. One other thin«^ wg know, which with the first comprises all our knowledtjfe, — Matter. Now force and matter are interdependent, one cannot exist without the other; as ft)r example, all suhstance, unless held to<,'et]jer — which term obviously implies force — would speedily dissolve into inconceival)le nothinjjfness. But no less force is recpiired to annihilate suhstance than to create it; force, therefore, is alike necessary to tlie ex- istence or non-existence of matter, which reduces the idea of a jiossible absence of either force or matter to an absurdity; or, in other words, it is im|)ossible for the human mind to conceive of a state of thiriijfs where- in there is no matter, and consequently no force. Force has been called the soul of nature, and matter the body, for by force matter lives and moves and has its beiuiyf. Force like matter, is divisible, infinitely so, as far as human experience goes; for, though ultimates may exist, they have never yet been reached; and it would seem that all physical j>henomena, endlessly varied and bewildering as they may api)ear, spring fi-om a few simple incomp- ehen8ii)le forces, the bases of which are attraction and repulsion ; which may yet, indeed, derive tlieir origin from One Only Source. In the morphological and geometrical dis])lays of matter these phenomena assume a multitude of pluises; all are interactive and interdependent, few are original or l»ri!nary, — for example, heat and electricity are tlie offspring of motion which is the result of attractive and repulsive force. 8 SAVAGISM AND CIVILIZATION. Wliat is force and what matter, whether the one is the essence of a self-conscious Creator and the other his handiwork, or whether both are the offsprinj:*- of a bhnd chance or fate — which latter hypothesis is simply unthinkable — it is not my purpose here to consider. I propose in this analysis to take things as I find tliem, to study the operations rattier than the origin of plienomena, to determine what man does rather than what he ought to do, and to drop the subject at the confines of transcendentalism. When, therefore, I speak of force as the life of matter, it no more implies a self-existant materialism in man, than the soul of man implies a pantheistic self-existant soul in nature. Onmijiotence can as easily create and sustain a universe through the media of antagonistic and interdepend- ent forces as throuTh any other means, can as easily j)lace nature and man under the governance of fixed laws as to hold all under varying arbitrary dis])ensa- tions, and can reconcile these laws with man's volition. Wells of bitterness are dug by disputants under mean- ingless words; scientists are charged with materialism and religionists with fanaticism, in their vain attem])ts to fathom the ways of the Almighty and restrict his powers to the limits of our weak understanding. It has been said tliat, in the beginning, the sixty and odd supi)osed several elements of matter were in a chaotic state ; that matter and force were poised in ecpiilibrium or rioted at random throughout space, that out of this condition of things sjirang form and development; regvdar motion and time be fragments, which were sent whirling as suns and planets in every directioJi; that in either case, or in any other conceivable case, matter, whetlier as molecules or masses, was primordially, and is, endowed and actuated l)y a Creative Intelligence, which implanting force, vitality, intellect, soul, pro- gress, is ever acting, moving, mixing, unfolding, and this in every j)art and in all tlie multitudinous cond)i- nations of matter; and tliat all forces and vitalities nuist liavo co-existed in the mass, innate in and around every atom. Thus, in liis great tlieory of the projectile imj)ulse given to lioiivenly bodies in counteraction of the attrac- tive iuij)ulso, Sir Isaac Newton assumes that both im])ulst's wore given from without; that some power foreign to tliemselves projected into space these heav- enly bodies and holds them there. So, too, wlien Lajilace jtromulgated the idea that in j)re-planetary times space was filled witli particles and va])ors, solar systems existing only in a nebulous state and this nebula set revolving in one mass upon its own axis from west to east, and that as the velocity of tliis mai-s inert uised suns and j)lanets were, by centrifugal force, tlirown off and condensed into habitable but still wliirling worlds, some imjudse foreign to the revolvhig mass setting ii in motion is implied. Witli organization and motion, tlie jihases of force, called lieat, light, electricity and magnetism, hitherto 10 SAVAGISM AND CIVILIZATION. lield dormant in molecules are engendered; composi- tion and decomposition ensue; matter assumes new and x'arying forms ; a progressional development, which U nothing but intelligently directed motion, is initiated, and motion becomes eternal. It is a well-established principle of physics that force cannot be created or lost. The conservation of force is not affected by the action or energies of moving bodies. Force is not created to set a body in motion, nor when expended, as we say, is it lost. The sum of all potential energies throughout the universe is always the s.ame, whether matter is at rest or in motion. It is evident that so long as every molecule is charged with attractive force no atom can drop out into the depths of unoccupied and absolute space and become lost or annihilated ; and so long as force is dependent on matter for its perceivable existence, force cannot esca])e beyond the confines of space and become lost in absolute void. Not only are forces interdependent, but they are capable of being metamorphosed one into another. Thus intellectual energy invents a U'lachine which drives a steamship across the ocean. This invention or creation of the mind is nothing else than a vitaliza- tion or setting at liberty of mechanical forces, and without this vitalization or applied intellectual force sucli mechanical force lies dormant as in so-called dead matter. Gravitation is employed to turn a water- wheel, caloric to drive a steam-engine, by means of eitlier of which weights may be raised, heat, electricity, and light })roduced, and these new-created forces husbanded and made to produce still other forces or turned back into their original channels. And so in chemical and capillary action, the correlation of forces everywhere is found. Between mind and matter there exists the most intimate relaticmship. Immateriality, in its various l)hases of force, life, intellect, so far as human con- sciousness can grasp it, is inseparable from materiality. INTIMACY OF MIND AND MATTER. 11 most irious con- lality. J The body is but part of the soil on which it treads, and the mind can receive no impressions exee}>t through the organs of the body. The brain is the seat of thought and the organ of tliought; neither can exist in a normal state apart from the other. As a rule, the power of the intellect is in proportion to tlie size and quality of the brain. Among animals, those of lowest order have the least brains; man, the most intellectual of animals, has relatively, if not absolutely, the largest brain. True, in some of the largest animals the cerebral mass is larger than in man, but, in its chemical comjiosition, its convolutions, shape, and quality, that in man is superior; and it is in tlie quality, rather than in the quantity of the nerv- ous tissues, thft their superiority consists. Intelli- gence enters tlie brain by the organs of the senses, and through the nervous system its subtle influence radiates to every part of the body. All human activities are either mental or mechanical; nor will it be denied tliat mental activity is produced by mechanical means, or, that mechanical activity is the result of mental force. Corporeal motion is mental force distributed to the various parts of the body. The action of immaterial forces on the material suli- stances of the human body manifestly accords witli the action of immaterial forces elsewhere. All the l)hysical and mechanical actions of the human body accord with the physical and mechanical forces else- where displayed. Man, we are told, was the last of all created things, but in the making of man no new matter was emj)loyed; nor in setting the botly in motion can we discover that any new force was in- vented. Thus the heart beats upt)n mechanical princi- l>les; the eye sees, and the voice speaks in accordance with the general laws of optics and acoustics. To the observer, organic activity is but the product of combined inorganic forces. The same processes are at Work, and in the same manner, in living and in so- called dead matter. Life, to all appearance, is but the 12 SAVAGISM AND CIVILIZATION. result of combined chemical and meclianical processes. Assimilation, digestion, secretion, are explainable by chemistry, and by chemistry alone. The stomach is a chemical retort, the body a chemical laboratory. Car- bon, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, combine and separate in the body as out of the body. The blood circulates upon purely mechanical principles; all muscular action is mechanical. In the phenomena of life, the only perceptible difference is in the combinations of funda- mental elements; yet chemistry and mechanics cannot produce a live body. With the foregoing well-recognized principles before us, let us now notice some few parallelisms between mechanical and social energetics. Man, like every other natural substance, is a com- pound of force and matter. ** Respiration," says Liebig, "is the falling weight, the bent spring, which keeps the clock in motion; the inspirations and respirations are the strokes of the pendulum wliich regulates." Atoms of matter, through the instrumentality of liv- ing force, cohere and coalesce under endless complex conditions into endless varieties of form and substance ; so also the activities of man, corporeal and intellectual, result in vast accumulations of experiences, which accu- mulations become the property of the whole society. Society, like matter, is composed of units, each possess- ing certain forces, attractive and repulsive; societies act upon each other, like celestial bodies, in proportion to their volume and proximity, and the power of the unit increases with the increase of the mass. In asso- ciation tliere is a force as silent and as subtle as that which governs atoms and holds worlds in equii)oise; its grosser forms are known as government, worship, fashion, and the like; its finer essence is more delicate than thouglit. It is this social force, attractive and repulsive, that binds men together, tears them asun- der, kneads, and knits, and sliapes, and evolves; it is the origin of every birth, the ultimate of every activity. Mechanical forces are manifest in machines, as the MATERIALITY ACTING ON MIND. 13 lever, the wheel, the inclined plane; pror^ressional force is manifest in intellectual ingenuity, literature, art, science, which are the machines of human i)rogress. How many of all our joys and sorrows, our loves and hates, our good and evil actions, spring from pliysical causes only? Even material substances dis- ])lay moods and affections, as when heated, electrified, decom})osed, or set in motion ; the sea at rest pre- sents a different mood from the sea raging. Jean- Jac(pies Rousseau's idea that the soul might he gov- erned for its good by material things working through tlie media of the senses, is not so extravagant after all. 'The gospel according to Jean- Jacques,' as Carlyle |)uts it, runs as follows on this point — and, indeed, the great Genevan evangelist at one time intended to devote a book to the subject under the title of La Monde Scit.sifire: — "The striking and numerous obser- vations that I had collected were beyond all dispute ; and, in their physical origin, they a])i)eared to me proper for furnishing an exterior regimen, wliich, varied according to circumstances, should be able to })lace or maintain the soul in the state most favorable to virtue. How many wanderings one might save the reason, how manv vices might be hindered birtli, if one could but force the animal economy to favor the moral order that it troubles so often. Climates, seasons, sounds, colors, darkness, light, the elements, food, noise, silence, movement, repose, all act on our bodily frame, and, by conseipience, on our soul; all ofler us a thousand firm holds to govern, in their origin, those sentiments by wliich we allow ourselves to be dominated." In contemplating the numerous activities by which we are surrounded, again and again we are called upon to wonder at the marvelous regularity which charac- terizes all their movements. So remilar are these movements, so sure are certam conditions to accompany certain results, that in physics, in chemistry, in l)hysi- ology, and even in society, facts are collected and classified, and from them laws are discovered as fixed 14 SAVAGISM AND CIVILIZATION. i^- i.' and Irrevocable as the frets themselves, which laws, indeed, are themselves lacts, no less than the facts from which they are deduced. Highly cultivated nations frame laws that pro- vide for many contingencies, but the code of nature has yet finer provisions. There are conditions that neither political nor social laws reach, there are none not reached by physical law ; in society, criminals some- times evade the law; in nature, never. So subtle are the laws of nature, that even thought cannot follow them; when we see that every molecule, by virtue of its own hidden force, attracts every other molecule, up to a certain point, and then from the same inherent influence every atom repels every other atom; when by experiments of physicists it has been proved that in polarization, crystallization, and che^'ical action, there is not the slightest deviation from an almost startling regularity, with many other facts of like im- I)ort, how many natural laws do we feel to be yet un- revealed and, from the exquisite delicacy of their na- ture, unrevealable to our present coarse understanding. It would be indeed strange, if, when all the universe is under the governance of fixed l^ws — laws which regulate the motion of every molecule, no less than the revolutions of suns — laws of such subtle import, as for instance, regulate the transformations of heat, the convertibility and correlation of force ; it would l)e strange, I say, if such laws as these, when they reached the domain of human affairs should pause and leave the world of man alone in purposeless wanderings. To continue our analogies. As, latent in the atom, or in the mass, there are energies releasable only by heat or friction, — as in charcoal, which holds, locked up, muriatic acid gas equivalent to ninety times its vol- ume ; or in spongy platinum, which holds in like manner oxygen, equal to eight hundred times its volume ; so, latent in every individual, are numberless energies, which demand the friction of society to call them out. Force comprises two elements, attraction and repul- ANALOGIES BETWEEN MAN AND NATURE. 15 it pro- nature ns that re none Is some- ) subtle )t follow ^ virtue lolecule, inherent q; when ved that I action, a almost like im- e yet un- their na- standint^. ) universe vs which less than e import, i of heat, would be y reached ind leave jrings. the atom, e only by ds, locked les its vol- e manner (lume; so, energies, Ithem out. ,nd repul- sion, analagous to the principles conmionly called good and evil in the affairs of human society ; take away from mechanical force either of these two oppugnant elements, and there could be neither organism nor life, so without both good and evil in human affairs there could be no progress. If none of the forces of nature are dissipated or lost, and if force can no more be extinguished than matter, and like matter passes from one form into another, we may conclude that intellectual force is never dissi])ated or lost, but that the potential energies of mind and soul perpetually vibrate between man and nature. Or, again, if, as we have seen, energy of every kind is clothed in matter, and when employed and expended returns again to its place in matter ; and if the mind draws its forces from the body, as it a})pears to do, both growing, acting, and declining sinndtaneously ; and if the body draws its energy from the earth, which is no less possible ; then may not intellectual and })ro- gressional force be derived from man's environment, and return thither when expended? Every created being borrows its material from the storehouse of matter, and when uncreated restores it again; so every individual born into society becomes charged with social force, with progressional energy, which, when expended, rests with society. Winslow's 0})inion on this sul)- ject is, that "all electric and magnetic currents origi- nate in — are inducted from — and radiate either di- rectly or indirectly out of the glol)e as tlie fountain of every form and constituency of meelianieal forte, and that abstract inmiaterial mechanical energy, as we have thus far discussed and developed its dual i)rinii- ples, is absolutely convertible through molecular mo- tion into every form and expansion of secondary force, })assing successively from heat through electricity, magnetism, etc., and vice versa, it follows that tiiis same mechanical energy itself, as hypostatical motive power, must proceed out of the globe also." Thus is loaded with potential energy the universe of 16 SAVAGISM AND CIMLIZATION, matter, g-enerating life, mind, civilization, and lience we may conclude that whatever else it is, civilization is a force; that it is the sum of all the forces em})loyed to drive humanity onward ; that it acts on man as me- chanical force acts on matter, attractinjjf, repellinj*-, j)ressing forward yet holding in equilibrium, and all under fixed and determined laws. From all which it would appear that nothin;[f is found in man that has not its counterpart in nature, and that all things that are related to man are related to each other; even immortal mind itself is not unlike that sub- tle force, inherent in, and ^vorking round every atom. In this respect physical science is the precursor of social science. Nature i>roduces man; man in his earlier conception of nature, that is in his ga- hle that the mind, and not the hody, is the instrument and object of the proi»Tessional impulse. Man in the duality of his nature is brought nnder two distinct dominions; materially he is subject to the laws that govern matter, mentally to the laws thato-overn mind; physioloufically he is perfectly made and non-pro«:fressive, |)sychologicaIly he is emhrycjnic and proij^ressive. Between these internal and external i'orces, between moral and material activities there may he, in some instances, an apparent antagonisnu The mind may be developed in excess and to the detri- ment of the body, and the body may be developed in excess and to the detriment of the mind. The animal man is a bundle of organs, with instincts implanted that set them in motion; man intellectual is a bundle of sentiments, with an implanted soul that keeps them effervescent; mankind in the mass, so- <^^it^ty,— we see the fermentations, we mark the transi- tions; is there, then, a soul in aggregated humanity as there is in individual humanity? The instincts of man's animality teach the organs 90 SAVA(JISM AND CIVILIZATION. to porfonii tliuir fuiicti«)ns as neifectly at the first as at tlio last; tlio ir»stiin;ts of man s intcllet'tiialitv iirj^'o liiiii on ill an eternal race tor sonietliin*^ better, in wliicli ]»erfeetion is never attained nor attainable; in socit'ty, ^ve see the constant jj^rowth, the hijj^herantl yet hiylitr development; now in this ever-onward movement are tlusre instincts which orij^inate and <,'overn action in tlie hody social as in the body individual? Is not Hocioty a bundle of orrL'(letermined inarch i Nations are born and die; they appear first in a Htate of infancy or savaufism ; many die in their child- liood, some j^row into manhood and rule for a time tlia destinies of the world; finally, by sudden extinction, or a lin_ijferin<^ decrepitude, they (lisa])pear, and others take their ])lace. J^ut in this ceaseless coming' and jjfoini^ there is somewhere a mysterious ai^ency at woik, makini'' men better, wiser, nol)ler, wliether they will or not. This improvement is not the elTect of volition ; the plant does not will to unfold, nor the immature animal to i;rt)w; neither can the world of human kind cease to advance in mind and in i.ianners. Develop- ment is the inevitable incident of beintif. Nations, under normal conditions, can no more help advaiic- ini*- than they can throw themselves into a state of non-existence; than can the individual stop liis cor- poreal si^rowth, or shut out from the intellect every l)erception of knowledjjfe, iv.id become a living petrifi- cation. And in whatevei- i>ertains to intellectual man this fundamental principle is apparent. It underlies all moralities, governments, and religions, all indus- tries, arts, and commerce; it is the mainsjjring of every action, the consequence of eveiy cause; it is the great central idea toward which all things converge ; it is the object of all efiforts, the end of all successes; it absorbs all forces, and is the combined results of innu- merable agencies, good and evil. Before the th *ry of Dr von ^lartius and his follow- 1 L nurTF.s cannjH' im:(k;im;ss. 91 as at J liini ,vliich ciftv, it are ion in Is not iOlll of istloss t in a chiUl- ne tlio nction, others no- and t work, t'V will i)iition; mature m kind I'Vclo])- [ations, idvano- tate of is cor- every ictriti- il man derlies indus- )f every le u^reat o; it is sses; it f innu- foUow- ;•'.% crs, that thi' sava-^c state is hut a doLTeneratlon fn)ni soMuthiiiLf hi;,'lu'r, laii heionio tonahle, tiie wiiole order of nature nuist he reversed. Kaees may deteriorate, hy!sical or psyciiical indix idual being; it is tl'.e social atmosphere into whicli the man is born, into nhit-h lie brings n(jth- ing and Iroiu \\\m\\ he takes noching. Wliile a mem- ber of stH'iety lie adds liis oiiota to tlie general fund and there leaves it; while acting as a free agent he ^■' forms his part in working out this ])roblem of .social (levelopnient, i)eiforms it unconsciously, willing or unwilling he ])erforms it, his !)aser ]iu>sions being as ]»owerfiil instruments of progress as his iioi)ler; for avarice dri\es or, intellect as effecvualb' as benevolence, 24 SAVAGISM AND CIVILIZATION. ■j|i liate as ove, and selfishness cV^es infinitely more for tho ])rogress of mankind than philanthropy. Thus is hunicinity played upon by this principle of progress, and the music sometimes is wonderful ; green fields as if by magic take the place of wild forests, magnificent cities rise out of the ground, the forces of nature are brought under the dominion of man's intelligence, and senseless substances endowed with speech and action. It is verily as Carlyle says; "under the strangest new vesture, the old great truth (since no vesture can hide it) begins again to be revealed: That man is w'hat we call a miraculous creature, with miraculous power overmen; and, on the whole, with such a Life in him, ruid such a World round him, as victorious Analysis, with her Physiologies, Nervous Systems, Physic and Metai)hysic, will never completely name, to say noth- ing of ex])laining." Thus, to sum up the foregoing premises: in society, between two or more individuals, there is at work a mysterious energy, not unlike that of force lietweeu molecules or life in the organism ; this social energy is under intelligent governance, not fortuitous nor cause- less, buv reducible to fixed law, and capable of being wrought into a science; is, moreover, a vital actuality, not an incident nor an accident, but an entity, as attraction and repulsion are entities; under this agency society, perforce, develois like the plant from a germ. This energy acts ou the intellect, and through the intel- lect on the organism; acts independently of the will, and cannot be created or destroyed by man ; is not found in the brute creation, is not transmittalile by generation tlirough individuals, is wrought out by man as a free-will ao-ent, tliouoh acting unconsciouslv, and is the product alike of g'>od and evil. As to the causes which originate progressional i»]ie- nomena there are differences of opinion. One sees in the intellect the germ of an eternal unfolding; another recognizes in the soul-element the vital principle of /4 CAX'SES OF IRIAN'S DEVELOPMENT. 25 re for iius is gress, ;lds as iticent re are e, and iction. aiigest ire can s what power in him, lalj'sis, sic and y noth- society, work a )utween leroy is cause- hcing tnahty, itity, as aoency a oenn. \e intel- he will, is not table by out by lisciously, onal phe- le sees in ; another niciple of '•$ pro^rress, and attributes to religion all the benefits of cnliglitennient; one builds a theory on the ground-work of a fujidaniental and innate morality ; another dis- c;)vers in the forces of nature the controlling infiuence u])()n man's destiny; while yet others, as we have seen, believe accumulative and inherent nervous force to be the media through which culture is transmitted. Some believe that moral causes create the physical, others that })hysic'al causes create the moral. Thus Mr Buckle attempts to prove that man's development is wholly dependent upon his physical surroundings. Huxley j)()ints to a system of reflex, actions, — mind acting on matter, and matter on mind, — as the i)ossible cultin'e-l)asis. JJarwin advances tlie doctrine of an evolution from vivified matter as the l)rincij)le of progressive development. In the trans- nuition of nerve-element from parents to children, Bagelujt sees "the continuous force which binds ajxe to age, which enables each to bemn with some im- ])r()vemeiit on the last, if the last did itself improve; which makes each civilization not a set of detached dots, but a line of color, surely enhancing shade l)y shiule." Some see in human nroyfress the ever-rulinir hand of a divine providence, others the results of m m's .'-.kii!; witii some it is free will, with others necessity; swuiu believe that intellectual development spi-ings i'ro'.'i better systems of government, others that wealth l.i3^ at the foundation of all culture; every phih>so[)her ! ;';;^r,':es s( ne cause, invents some system, or Itrings Ju..i.;rii actions undjr the dominion of some si)ecies of law. As in animals of the same genus or species, inhab- iting widely ditt'erent localities, we see the results of connnon instincts, so in the evolutions of the human race, divided by time or sjtace, we see the same gen- eral principles at work. So too it would seem, wliether species are one or many, whether nian is a ]>erfectly .'n.'.iied being or an evolution from a lower form, that all the human races of the globe are formed on one 20 SAVAGISM AND CIVILIZATION. model and governed by tlie same laws. In the cus- toms, ]an*(uages, and myths of ages and nations far removed from each other in social, moral, and mental cliaracteristics, innumerable and striking analogies exist. Not only have all nations weapons, but many who are separated from each other by a hemisphere use the same weapon; not only is belief universal, but many relate the same myth; and to suppose the bow and arrow to have had a common origin, or that all ilood-myi; s pnd myths of a future life are but off- shoots froia jhic mid Biblical narratives is scarcely reasonable. 1 1 is easier to tell what civilization is not, and what it does not spring from, than what it is and what its origin. To attribute its rise to any of the principles, ethical, political, or material, that come under the cognizance of man, is fallacy, for it is as nuich an entity as any otlier primeval principle; nor may we, with Arcli bishop Whately, entertain the doctrine that civ- ilization never could have arisen had not the Creator ap})eared upon earth astlie tirst instructor; for, unfor- tunately for this hypothesis, the aboriginals supposedly St) taught, were scarcely civilized at all, and compare unfavoral)ly with the other all-perfect works of crea- tion; so that this sort of reasoning, like innumerable »)ther attemi>ts of man to limit the powers of ()nmij)o- tence, and narrow them down to our weak understand- ings, is little else than puerility. Nor, as we have seen, is this act of civilizing the effect of volition ; nor, as will hereafter more clearly appear, does it arise from an inherent principle of good any more than from an inherent principle of evil. The ultimate result, though difficult of proof, we take for granted to be good, but the agencies em}»loyed for its consammati<^)n numljer among them more of those we call evil tban of those we call good. The isolated individual never, by any i)ossibility, can become civil- ized like the social man; he cannot even speak, and without a flow of words there can be no complete flow Tl SOCIETY ESSENTIAL TO INTELLECT. 27 of tliouglit. Send him fortli away from his fellow-man to r(5am the forest with tlie wild beasts, and he would 1)e almost as wild and heastlike as his coni])anions; it is doubtful if lie would ever fashion a tool, but would not rather with his elaws alone procure his food, and forever leniain as he now is, the most impotent of animals. The intellect, by which means alone man list's above other animals, never could work, because the intellect is quickened only as it comes in contact with intellect. The ^erm of development therein implanted cam.^t unfold simply any more than the organism can bear ihiit sinylv. It is a well-established fact that the mind without lan*^uage cannot fully de- velop; it is likewise estal)lished that lanouaiii'e is not inherent, that it sitrinu^s uj) between men, n t in them. ] ^an<^ua_earance the most Heeting, should be the most continuinijf of all thinj^-s." A. id further, as remarked by Herbert Spen- cer: "Xowthat the transformation and e(|uivalence of ibrces is seen by men of science to hold not only throus^hout all inorn^anic actions, but throughout all orLfanic actions; now that even mental changes are recognized as the correlatives of cerebral chan^-es, which also conform to this prmcple; and now that there nuist be admitted tiie corollary, that all actions «4()in]n^ on in a society are measured by certain aiiteccdent energies, wliich disappear in etlectinn^ them, wliiie they themselves become actual or potential eneryies from wliicli subse(juent actions arise; it is strange tliat there should not have arisen the consciousness that these higher jthenomena are to be studied as lower phe- nomena have been studied— not, of course, after the same i»hysical methods, but in conformity witli the siinie jtrinciples." ^^ e may hold then, a i>riuri, that this progressional 28 SAVA(iISM AND CIVILIZATION. jirinciple exists; that it exists not more in the man than around him; that it requires an atmos})here in which to live, as Hfe in the hody recjuires an atmos- j)here whioli is its vital breath, and that this atmos- l)here is jj^enerated only by the contact of man with man. Under analysis this social atmosphere appears to be com})osed of two opposinjj;' principles — jjfood antl evil — which, like attraction and rei)ulsion, or positive and noiifative electricity, underlie all activities. One is as essential to progress as the other; either, in excess or disj)ro]»ortionately administered, like an excess of oxygen or of hydrogen in the air, becomes pernicious, engenders social disruptions and decay which continue until the equilibrium is restored; yet all the while with tliv progress of humanity the good increases while the evil diminishes. Every impulse incident to hu- manity is born of tlie union of these two opposing j)rinci})les. For example, as 1 have said, and will attemf)t more fully to show further on, association is the tirst re(juisite of progress. But what is to bring about association ? Naked nomads will not voluntarily yield up their freedom, quit their wanderings, hold conventions and pass resolutions concerning the great- est good to the greatest ninnber; patriotism, love, benevolence, brotherly kindness, will not bring savage men together; extrinsic force must be enq)loyed, an iron hand must be laid upon them which will conq)el them to unite, else there can be no civilization; and to acconq)lish this first great good to man, — to compel mankind to take the initial step toward the ameliora- tion of their condition, — it is ordained that an evil, or what to us of these latter times is surely an evil, come forward, — and that evil is War. Primeval man, in his social organization, is })atri- archal, spreading out over vast domains in little bands or families, just large enoi:gh to be able successfidly to cope with wild beasts. And in that state human- ity would forever remain «.lid not some terrible cause force these bands to confederate. War is an evil, EVIL AS A STIMILANT OF I'UlKiHKSS. 29 ut to hu- op})osiii_i:;' and will ociatuni m s to bring oluntarily ngs, hold :he great- i«ni, love, ig savago loyed, an 11 c'onii)el >n; and to )o conipul anieliora- evil, or jvil, (,H)nio m is })atri- ttlc bands coesstidly e luinian- ible causo ; an evil, originating in hateful passions and ending in dire misery; yet without war, without this evil, man would forever remain })rimitive. But something more is necessary. War brings men together for a pur])ose, but it is insufficient to hold them together; for when the cause which comi)acted them no longer exists, they speedily scatter, each going his own way. Then comes in superstition to the aid of progress. A suc- cessful leader is first feare'l as a man, then reverence«l as a supernatural being, and finally himself, or his descendant, in the Hesh or in tradition, is worshiped as a god. Then an unearthly fear comes upon man- kind, and the ruler, perceiving his ])ower, begins to tyiamiize over his fellows. Both superstition and tyramiy are evils; yet, without war superstition and tyranny, dire evils, civilization, which nuniy deem the highest g«)od, never by any pos ibility, as lunnau nature is, could be. But more of the conditions of ]>rogress hereafter; what 1 wish to establish here is, that evil is no less a stimulant <»f d'jvelo])ment than good, and that in this princi])le of progress are mani- fest the same antagonism of forces apparent through- out ])hysical nature; the same op})Ugnant energies, attractive and repulsive, j>ositive and negative, evt-ry- where existing. It is impossible for two or more individuals to be brought into contact with each other, whether through causes or for purposes good or evil, without ultimate improvement to both. 1 say whether through causes or for purposes good or evil, for, to the all-])ervading principle of evil, civilization is as nuich indebted as to the all-j)erva(ling principle of good. Indeed, the beneficial hiHuences of this unwelcome element have never been generally recognized. What- ever be this j)rinci])leof evil, whatever man would le without it, the fact is clearly evident that to it civiliza- tion, whatever that may be, owes its existence. "The whole tendency of political economy and philosojihical history," says Lecky, "which reveal the jihysiology of society, is to show that the happiness and welfare 'A BO SAVAGISM AND CIVILTZATION. of mankind arc evolved nuicli more from our selfisli than what are ten.iod our virtuous acts." No wonder that devil-worship obtains, in certain parts, wlien to Ids demon the savajure tinds liimself indebted for skill not only to overthrow subordinate deities, but to cure diseases, to will an enemy to death, to minister to the welfare of departed friends, as well as to add mate- rially to his earthly store of comfoils. The world, such as it is, man tinds himself destined for a time to inhabit. Within him and aroimd him the involuntary occupant perceives two aijencies at work; agencies a])i)arently o[)pugnant, yet both tending to one end — imju'ovement; and Night or Day, Love or Crime, leads all souls to the CJood, as Emerson sings. The })rinciple of evil acts as a perpetual stimulant, the principle of good as a reward of merit. United in their operation, there is a constant tendency toward a better condition, a higher state; a}>art, the result would be inaction. For, civilization being a progres- sion and not a fixed condition, without incentives, that is without something to escape from and something to escape to, there could be no transition, and hence no civilization. Had man been placed in the world perfected and sinless, obviously there would be no such thing as l)rogress. The absence of evil implies perfect gootl, and perfect good perfect hai>}>iness. Were man sinless and yet capable of increasing knowledge, the incentive would be wanting, for, if perfectly happy, why should he struggle to become happier? The advent of civili- zation is in the appearance of a want, and the first act of civilization springs from the attempt to supj)ly the want. The man or nation that wants nothing remains inactive, and hence does not advance; so that it is not in what we have but in what we have not that civiliz- ation consists. These wants are forced upon us, ini- ])lanted within us, inseparable from our being; they increase with an increasing supply, grow hungry from what they feed on; in quick succession, aspirations, LAROU A CIVILIZING AdKNT. ?1 einuliitioiis, and ainlutions sjn-iiiu: uj) nud cliaso cadi otlior, keei)iny. The healthy body has appetites, in the gratification of which lies its chiefest enjoyment; the healthy mind has proclivities, the healthy soul intuitions, in the exer- cise and activities of which the happiest life is attaina- ble; and in as fai' as the imm;. erial and immoi-tal in our nature is sujjcrioi to the material and mortal, in so far does the education and development of our higher nature contribute in a higher degree to our i)resent benefit and our future well-being. There is another thought in this connection well worthy our attei»tion. In orthodox and popular pai'- lance, labor is a curse entailed on man by vindictive justice; yet viewed as a civilizing agent, labor is inan's greatest blessing. Throughout all nature there is no such thing found as absolute inertness; and, as in matter, so with regard to »)ur faculties, no soo!ier do they l)egiu to rest than they begin to rot, and even in the rotting they can obtain no rest. One of the chief objects of labor is to get gain, and ])r Johnson holds that "men are seldom more innocently enn)loyed than when they are making money." Human experience teaches, that in the effort is greater pleasure than in the end attained ; that labor 82 SAVACISM AND CIVILIZATION. is tile noniuil condition of man; that in acquisition, tliat is ]»roirit of evil, and what would he the result? Total inaction. But hef(L)re inaction can hecome more jdeasurahle than action, man's nature nuist he chanjii'ed. Not to say that evil is a good thing, clearly there is a goodness in things evil; and in as far as the state of escaj>ing from evil is more ])leasurahle than the state of evil escajjod from, in so far is evil conducive to h;q. jtiness. The effect of well-directed lahor is twofold; hy exer- cise our faculties strengthen and ex})and, and at the same time the returns of that lahor give us leisure in which to direct our improved faculties to yet higher aims. By continual ettbrts to increase material com- forts, greater skill is constantly accpiircd, and the min the world in order to rid it of i>toss evil — a doo-ina held hy some — is unnecessary, for accunndative evils ever tend towards reaction. Excessive evils are soonest remedied ; the e(|uilil)rium of the evil nuist he maintained, or the anniliilaticm of the evil ensues. Institutions and principles essentially good at one time are essential evils at another time. The veiy aids and ai^encies of civilization become afterward the greatest drags upon j»r()gress. At one time it would seem that bhnd faith was essential to improvement, at anotlur time skepticism, at one time order and moral- ity, at another time lawlessness and raj)ine; for so it has ever been, and whether peace and smiling plenty, or fierce upheavals and dismend)erments j)redominate, from every social spasm as well as fecund leisure, civilization shoots forward in its endless course. The V(Ty evils which are regarded as infamous by a hiuher culture were the necessary steppmg-stones to that higlier life. As we have seen, no nation ever did or can emerge from barbarism without first ])lacing its neck under the yokes of despotism and su])erstition ; therefore, despotism and superstition, now dire evils, were once essential benefits. No religion ever attained its full development exce])t under persecution. Our present evils are constantly working out for humanity unft)rseen good. All systems of wrongs and fanati- cisms are but preparing us for and urging us on to a liigher state. J f then civilization is a predestined, ineluctable, and eternal march away from things evil toward that which is good, it must be that throui»-hout the world Vol. II. a :i4 SAVACISM AND CIVILIZATIOX. tlio |nIiH'ij)lo of "jfood is ever iiicrenHinjif and tliat riu- tb is '^ etU"u'S in the I is so or Nvluit pain to ajjfciK'ios •ity; wo Is :iUl and loss .i I curso but not tier than laladios, irovitlont his own f.Kid man, ttontion, saro and eiuoncios tod '-'siu ,o onduro upon his ho uuist lUtb itsolt in social wakonod, r«»Mtiinu' thcso siinjtlo iiitrrroi^'atorii's a littli' {'arthir juhI si'i- NvluTo wo Ian«l. Is tlio wild hinl, tbrct'd to lont,' niii^rations tor I'luhn-altk' chnuiti's and food, liap- |>i( r tlian tlu; i-aj^^t'd hird wliicli huys a daily plontiful supply for !i soni,''^ Is the wild heast, ot'ttinies huni,M-y and liunt.'d, happier than its chained hrotlur of tlio nienaLjerie ? Is tlie wild liorst', «;allopin^' with its fel- lows ovir tlu! hroad prairie, happier than the eivilizi'd horse of carriaye. eart, or plow i May we not <|uestion whether the nierehant, deep in his speeulatinjx ven- tures, or the man of law, ])orin«j^ ovor his hrain-tear- ini( hrief, derives a. keener sense of t^njoynu'iit than does the free forest-native, following the war-path or pursuing his game? As I have attempted to show, civilization is not an end attained, for man is never wholly civilized, — hut only the effort to escape from an evil, or ;im imaginary evil -^savagism. I say an evil real or imaginary, for as we have soon, the ne, the result of greater experience, produces music more and yet luore excjuisite. Were man only an animal, this denaturalization and more, would be true. The tamed brute gives up all the lienefits of savagism for few of the blessings of civilization; in a cultured state, as compared to a state of wild freedom, its ills are nund)erless, its ad- vantages infinitesimal. But human nature is two-fold, objective and subjective, the former tyi)ical of the i VA SUBJECTIVE AND OIUKCTIVE Hl'MAXITY. 37 ic rich, )re it is .) (^t* the [y to ho ^sk the id state, ,ed niiiu, • oTcater led one: ioty and ounteous lueriean : til+h and m shirts, n, or boj,^ n the bar- Pvtnisseau 'or this de- imiiished; is a pen- the price nstitutions id maimers attectation, increasinij; \i\ society, :»eoples the )st dehcate jkill, with a e, produces turahzatiou ite gives up le blessings npared to a rless, its ad - . is two-fold, ,i,-al of the I sava^'o state, the latter of the civilized. ^NFan is not wholly animal; and l»y cultivatinL*' the mind, that is, hy civilizing himself, he is no more denaturalized than hy cultivntifig the hody, and thereby aecpiiring greater jtliysieal perfection. We cannot escape onr nature; wo cannot re-create ourselves; we can only submit our- selves to be polished and impi'oved by the eternal spirit of })rogress. The moral and the intellectual are as nuich constituents of human nature fis the i)hysical; civilization, therefore, is as nuich the natural state of man as savagism. vVnother more plausihle and j)artially correct asser- tion is, that by the development of the subjective j)art of our nature, objective humanity becomes hys- ical, nor the i)hysical fully developed without limiting the mental. The etloi'ts of the mind di'aw from the energies of the body; tlie highest and healthiest vigor of the body can only b'.' attained when the mind is at rest, or in .t state of careless activity. In answer to which 1 should say that beyond a certain ]H)int, it is true; one would harle becomes stronger. Civilization in itself can not but l)e beneficial to man; that which makes society more refined, more intellectual, less bestial, more courteous; that which cures physical and mental diseases, increases the com- forts and luxury of life, purifies religions, makes juster governments, nuist surely be beneficial: it is the uni- versal i)rinciple of evil which impregnates all human art'airs, alloying even current coin, which raises the question. That there .are evils attending civilization as all other benefits, none can deny, but civilization itself is no evil. If I liave succeeded in presenting clearly the fore- going thoughts, enough has l)een said as to the nature anil essence of civilization; let us now examine st>me of the conditions essential to intellectual development. For it must not be forgotten that, while every de})art- ment of liunian ]m)gi-ess is but the unfolding of a genu; wliile every tendency of our life, every custom and creed of our civilization finds its rudiment in savagisiii; while, as man devel(»]is, no new elements of human nature are created by the jirocess; wliile, as the organism of tJie child is as conij>lex and cMnijdete as the i»rg!Uiisr. of the man, so is humanity in a savage state tlu' jierfect germ of humanity civilized, — it must not l»e forgotten in all this, that civilization cannot unfold except under favorable conditions. Just as the plant, E 40 SAVAGISM AND CIVILIZATTON. tlioui>h endowed witli life which corresponds to tlie niind-[)rinci[)le in progress, requires for its growth a suitable soil and climate, so this progressional phe- nomenon must have soil and sunshine before it yields fruit; and this is another proof that civilization is not in the man more than around him; for if the principle were inherent in the individual, then the Hyperl)orean, with his half year of light and half year of under- ground darkness, must of necessity become civilized eipially with the man born amidst the sharj)ening jostles of a European capital, for in all those parts that a|»j)ertain solely to the intrinsic individual, the one develo})S as ])erfectly as the other. A people ujidergo- ing the civilizing process need not necessarily, does not indeed, advance in every species of imj)rovement at the same time; in some respects the nation may bo stationary, in otliers even retrograde. Every age and every nation has its special line of march. Literature and the tine arts reached their height in pagan (J recce; monotheism among the Hebrews; science unfolded in Egypt, and government in Ro;ne. In every individual there is some one talent that can be cultivated more advantageously than any other; so it is with nations, every j)eo})le possesses some natural advantage for develojtment in some certain direction over every other people, aiid often the early liistory of a nation, like the precocious proclivities of the cliild, points toward its future; and in such arts and indus- tries as its climate and geograj)hical ])osition best enable it to develop, is discovered the germ t)f national character. Seldom is the commercial sj)irit developed in the interior of a continent, or the despotic spirit on the border of the sea, or the predatory spirit in a country wholly devoid of mountains and fastnesses. It cannot be said tliat one nation or race is inherently better fitted for civilizatit)n than another; all may not be e(|ually fitted for exactly tlie same civilization, but all are alike fitted for that civilization which, if left to itself. each w'ill wor ik out. '^ CONDITIONS ESSKNTIAL TO PROGRKSS. 41 to tlie owth a [il phe- yields 1 is not rineiple ■V)oroan, iinder- 'ivilizod rponin,i>' rts that the one nderi;'()- loos not nent at may l)o a^e and teraturo (J recce; jlded in bliat can thcr; so natural ircctiou ustt)ry le cliild, indus- )n best national vclo[)cd (• spirit lit in a tncssus. icrontly n.iy ii(>fc ion, but f left to ■I ^Nfankind, moreover, advances spasmodically, and in certain directions only at a time, which is the lifreatest drawbMck to })rogress. As Lecky remarks: "S})ecial a_u^encies, such as reliij^ious or jK)litical institutions, y-eotjcrajjliical conditions, traditions, antipathies, and afKuities, exercise a certain retarding, acceleratini*-, or tleHectin^' influence, and somewhat modify the normal ])n)nress." Perfect develoi)ment only is permanent, ami tliat alone is perfect which develops the whole man and the whole society ecpially in all its ])arts; all the activities, mental, moral, and i)hysical, nuist needs grow in unison and simultaneously, and this alone is j)erfect and pennanent develo])ment. Shoul«l all the world become civilized there will still be minor differ- ences; suViW. will advance further in one direction and some in another, all together will form the complete whole. Civilization as an exotic seldom flourishes. Often has the attempt been made by a cultivated ])eoj)le to civilize a barbarous nation, and as often has it failed. True, one nation may force its arts or religion upon another, but to civilize is neither to subjugate nor anni- hilate; foreigners may introduce new in lustries and new i)iiilos()])hies, which the uncultured may do well to acce[)t, but as civilization is an unfolding, and not a creation, he wlu) would advance civilization nmst teach society how to grow, how to enlarge its better self; must teach in what direction its highest inter- ests he. Thus it appears that, while this germ of ]n-ogress is innate in every human society, ceitain conditions are more favorable to its development than others, —con- ditions which act as stimulants or imi)ediments to pro- gress. ( )ften we see nations remain ajtparently sta- tionary, the elements of progress evenly balanced by opjiosing influences, and thus they remain until by internal force, or exterr d pressure, their system exi)ands or explodes, until they absorb or are absorbed i ' " 42 SAVAGISM AND CIVILIZATION. by antagonistic elements. The intrinsic force of the body social appears to demand extrinsic prompting before it will manifest itself Like the grains of wheat ill the hand of Belzoni's mummy, which held life slumbering for three thousand years, and awoke to growth when buried in the ground, so the element of human progress lies dormant until j)lanted in a con- genial soil and surrounded by those influences which ])rovoke development. This stinmlant, which acts upon and unfolds the intellect, can be administered only through the mediuu) of the senses. Nerve force, which precedes intellectual force, is sujiplied by the body ; the cravings of man's corporeal nature, therefore, must be quieted before the mind can fix itself on higher things. The first step toward teaching a savage is to feed him; the stomath satisfied he will listen to instiiiction, not before. Cultivation of at least the most necessary of the industrial arts invariably precedes cultivation of the fine arts ; the intellect nmst be implanted in a satisfied body Ijefore it will take root and grow. The mind must be allowed some resj^ite from its attendance on the body, before culture can commence ; it must abandon its state of servitude, and become master; in other words, leis- ure is an essential of culture. As association is the primal condition of progress, let us see how nature throws societies together or holds them asunder. In some directions there are greater facilities for intercommunication (another essen- tial of improvement) than in other directions. Wher- ever man is most in harmony with nature, there he progresses most rapidly; wlierever nature o:Ters the greatest advantages, such as a sea that invites to com- merce, an elevated plateau lifting its occupants above tlie malaria of a tropical lowland, a sheltering mountain range that wards off inclement winds and bars out hostile neighbors, there culture flourishes best. So that humanity, in its two-fold nature, is depend- 'M. OBJECTIVE AND SUBJECTIVE STIMULANTS. 43 I of the jiiipting »f wheat leld hfe woke to sment of n a con- !s which bids the mediuii) ,ellectual of man's efore tht irst step stomach re. y of the •n of the . satisfied ind must the body, its state ds, leis- irogress, ether or lere are ler essen- Wher- there he iers the to com- its above Qiovmtain bars out t. i depend- ent for its development upon two distinct species of stimulants, objective and subjective. Material causa- tions, or those forces which minister to the requirements of man's material nature but upon which his intellect- ual projrress is de})endent, are configurations of surface, soil, climate, and food. Those physical conditions which, when favorable, give to their possessors wealth and leisure, are the inevitable precursors of culture. 1 nimaterial causations are those forces which act more directly upon man's inuuaterial nature, as association, religion, wealth, leisure, and government. Continuing the analysis, let us first examine i)hysical stinnilants. Athnitting readily two of M. Taine's primordial hu- manity-moving forces, *le milieu' or environment, and his 'le moment' or inherited impulse, we will pass over third force 'la race'; — for inherent dift'erences in race, iu the present stage of science, are i)urely hyi)othetioal ; it remains yet to be proved that one nation is j)rimarily inherently inferior or suj)erior to another nation. That man once created is moulded and modified by his enviroiunent, there can be no doubt. Even a cursory survx'y of the globe presents some indications favorable and unfavoral)le to the unfolding of the diflierent forms of orjranic beinjj. Great continents, for instance, appear to be conge- nial to the development of animal life; islands and lesser continents to the growth of exuberant vegeta- tion. Thus, in the eastern hemisphere, which is a compact oval, essentially continental, with vast areas far removed from the influence of the ocean, flourish the elephant, the hippopotamus, the rhinoceros, the courageous lion, the fierce tiger, the largest and lord- liest of animal kind, while in the more oceanic A\estern hemisphere inferior types- Tevail. Cold and dryness characterize the one ; heat and humidity the other; in one are the greatest deserts, in the other the greatest lakes and rivers. Warm oceanic currents bathe the frosty shores of the northern extremities of the continents and render them habitable; the moist- 44 SAVAfJISM AND CIVILIZATION. urc-l.uloii equiitoriiil atraospliore clotlies the adjacent islaiuls and Hnn land in emerald verdnre. Upon the same parallel of latitude are the i^reat Sahani Desert of Africa, and the wilderness of luxuriant billowy fo- liaL^e of the American Isthmus. In warm, moist climates, such species of animal life attain the fullest development as are dependent upon the aipieous and herhous asj^encies. In tropical Anieri«'a are seen the larijj'est reptiles, the most gorii^eous insects, — there the inhahitants of warm marshes and slui^gish waters assume gigantic proportions, while only upon the hroad inland i)rairies or upon elevated mountain ranges, away from the influences of warm waters and humid atmospheres, are found the buffalo, bear, and elk. The very com})lexion and temperament of man are affected by these vegetative and umbrageous elements. Unj)ro- tected from the perpendicular rays of the sun, the African is black, muscular, and cheerful; under the shadow of primeval forest, man assumes a coppery hue, lacking the endurance of the negro, and becomes in disposition cold and melancholy. And again, if we look for the natural causes which tend to promote or retard association, we find in climates and continental configurations the chief agencies. The continent of the two Americas, in its greatest length, lies north aiul south, the eastern con- tinental group extends east and west. Primitive people naturally would sj)read out in those directions which offered the least change of climate from that of the })riniitive centre. Obviously, variations of climate are greater in following a meridian than along a paral- lel of latitude. Thus, the tropical man jiassing along a meridian is driven back by unendurable cold, wliile a continent may be traversed on any parallel, elevations excepted, with but little variation in temperature. A savage, exposed and inexperienced, not knowing how to protect himself against severe changes of climate, could not travel far in a northerly or southerly direc- tion without suflering severely from the cold or heat; CLIMATE AND MOrNTAIX IIANCJKS. 4S 1 adjacent [T|)()ii tlio ra J^osort illowy fo- 111, moist lio fullest leous and ! seen the -there the >h waters upon the in ranjj^es, lid liuniid elk. Tlie :'e affected . Unj)ro- sun, the under the ipei'Y hue, econies in ises whicli find in the chief [cas, in its stern con- Primitive directions )m that of of cHmate i!f a paral- m\g along I, while a elevations ture. A inu' how to climate, L!rly direc- 1 or heat; hence, otlier thini»'s hcinsf equal, the inhahitants of a countrv whose greatest length lay east and west, would inturminglu more readily tiian those whose territory extended north and south. That the eastern hemi.s])herc attained a higher de- gree of civilization than the western, may he ])artly due to the fact, that the former presents wider sj)aces of uniform climate than the latter. The climatic zones <)fthu New World, hesides heing shorter, are inter- sected hy mountain harriers, which tend to retard the intercourse that would otherwise naturally follow. Thus the Mexican table-land, the seat of Aztec civili- zation, is a ticvi'it friti situated above the insalubrious ttcn-d citVunttc of either coast and the healthful ficrra, t('tii/>/i«ht of the sloj)es, but below the mountain ranges whicli rise from this table-land, forminir a (irrra Jn';/i(f((, a region of perpetual snow. To this day, the natives of the Mexican plateau cannot live on the sea-coast, though less than a day's journey distant. Between the climatic zones which extend through Eurojte and Asia, there are contrasts as marked and changes as sudden, but these differences are between the different zones rather than l>etween longitudinal sections of the same zone. Hence, in the old world, when; climatic zones are separated by mountain ranges which make the transition from one to the other suddei and abrupt, we see a greater diversity of race than ii> America, where the natural barriers extend north and south and intersect the climatic zones, thereby bringing the inhabitants along a meridian in easier communica- tion than those who live in the same latitude but who are separated by mountains, table-lands at- ' large riv- ers. That is, if color and race are dependent on (tlimate, America should offer greater varieties in color and race than Europe, for America traverses the most latitudes; but the mountain barriers of America extend north and south, thereby forcing its peo])le to inter- mingle, if at all, in that direction, while the chief ranges of the eastern continent extend east and west, 4G SAVAGISM AND CIVILIZATION. parallel with climatic zones, thereby forminj^ in them- sulves distinctly marked lines between peoples, forcinjj^ the African to remain under his burning sun, and the northmen in their cooler latitudes; so that in the several climatic zones of the old world, we see the human race distinctly marked, Aryan, Semitic, and Turanian — white, black, and yellow— while throujjfhout the two Americas, from Alaska to Tierra del Fuego, type and color are singularly uniform. Who can picture the mighty tide of humanity, which, while the eastern hemisphere has been develoj)- ing so high a state of culture, in America has ebbed and Howed between barbarisms and civilizations? Tlirough what long and desperate struggles, continuing aue after ajje through the lives of nations, now ad vane- ing, now receding, have these peoj)les passed? Asia, from its central i)osition and favoral)le climate, would seem naturally to encourage a redundant population and a spontaneous civilizaticm ; the waters of the Mediterranean invite connnerce and intercommunica- tion of nations, while the British Isles, from their insular situation and distance from hypothetical prim- itive centres, would seem necessarily to remain longer in a state of barbarism. In the Pacific States of North America we find the densest })opulation north along the shores of the ocean, and south on the Cordil- lera table-land, from the fact that the former ofl^ers the best facilities for food .and locomotion until the latter is reached, when the interior presents the most favorable dwelling-place for man. Climate affects both mental and moral endowments, the temperament of the body, and the texture of the brain; physical energy, and mental vigor. Temperate climates are more conducive to civilization, not for the reason given by Mr Harris, "as developing the higher <|ualities, and not invigorating the baser feelings," for the Hyperborean is as unchaste and as great a slave to passion as the sub-equatorial man — but because a THE INFLI'KNCK OF FOOD. 47 in thcm- s, forein*? ,, and the it in the e Hee the iiitic, and iroufjfhout el Fuego, humanity, n deveU)l>- has eiibed 'ilizations? continuing )W advanc- 3d? Asia, latc, would population 31-8 of the onnnunica- from their tical prini- lain longer ; States of ition north the cordil- iner offers 1 until the ,s the most dowments, :,ure of the Temperate not for the the higher elings," for eat a slave ; because a temperate climate, while it lures to exertion, rewards the laborer. Next, let us consider the agency of food in human develitpment. The ettect of food is to supply the body with caloric, which is essential to its life, and to repair the nuiscular fibres Avhich are constantly undergoing waste in our daily activities. These two etiects are produced by two difftjrent kinds of diet; carbonized Ibod, such as animal Hesh, fish, oils and fats, and oxi- dized food, which consists chieHy of vegetables. Jn hot climates, obviously, less carluMiized food is recpiired to keep uj> the necessary tenij)erature of the body than in cold climates. Hence it is, that hyperborean nations subsist on whale's blubber, oil, and flesh, while the tropical man confines himself almost exclusively to a vegetable diet. 1 1 is not my puqiose here to enter into the relative effects of the different kinds of food on physiological and mental development; I desire, however, to call attention to tlie comparative facility with which car- bonized and oxidized food is j)rocured by man, and to note the effect of this ease or difhcultv in obtaininyf a food suj)}tly, ui)on his ju'ogress. In warm, humid t'limates vegetation is s])ontaneous and abundant; a plentiful suj)ply of food may, therefore, be obtained witli tlie smallest expenditure of labor. The inhabitants of cold climates, however, are obliged to ])ursue, by land and water, wild and powerful animals, to ]>ut forth all their strength and skill in order to secure a ])recarious sui)})ly of the necessary food. Then, again, i)esides being more difficult to obtain, and more uncer- tain as to a steady supply, the (piantity of food con- sumed in a cold climate is nnich greater than that consumed in a hot climate. Now as leisure is essen- tial to cultivation, and as without a surplus of food and clothing there can be no leisure, it would seem to follow naturally that in those countries where food and clothing are most easily obtained culture should 48 SAVAfJISM AND CIVILIZATION. 1 ^if l!:d: ill be tlio hijn^host; Hince, ho littlo time and labor arc iiocL'ssarv to satislV the necessities of the hodv, the mind would have opjjortunitv to expand. It wiadd seem that a fertile soil, an exuberant vegetation, Kof't skies and balmy air, a ecnmtry where raiment was Hcarcely essential to comfort, and where lor food the favored inhabitant had but to pluck and eat, should beccnne the seat of a numerous poi)ulation and a hi^^h development. Is this the fact ^ "Wherever snow I'alls," Emerson remarks, "there is usually civil free- dom. Where the banana jLjrows, the animal system is indolent, and pampered at the cost of hii^her <|ualities; the man is sensual aiul cruel;" and we may add that where wlieat ^rows, thei'e is civilization, where rice is the staple, there mental viijor is relaxed. Heat and moisture beinsjc the jj^ieat veoetativo stimulants, tropical lands in ja-oximity to the sea are covered with eternal verdure. Lit Lie or no lahor is recjuired to sustain life; for food t.iere is the ))eipet- ually ripening- fruit, a few hours' ])lantino-, sometimes, beinijf sufficient to supply a family for months; for shelter, little more than the dense folia L;e is necessary, while scarcely any clothiniif is recpiired. But althoui'h heat and moisture, the oreot vei^-eta- tive stimulants, lie at the root of ])rimitive iiro^ress, these elements in su})eral)undance defeat their own ends, iUid in two wavs: First, excessive heat enervates the hody and prosti'ates the mind, lani>iu)r and inertia becoiue clironic, while cold is invii»oratints to activity. And in tro})ical climates certain hours of the day are too hot for work, and are, cons' uc ly, devoted to sleej). The day is broken int< (I it.^ continuous a})})lication, which alone ])rod nn])or- tant results, is ])revented, and habits of sla u'ss .-i d laxity become the rule of life. Satisfied, nioi*eo er, with the provisions of nature for their support, tlic people live without labor, vejjcetatin<*',]>lant-like,throunli a listless and objectless life. Secondly, vey-etation, stimulated by excessive heat and moisture, grows with '■ Ml UNViANAllKAI'.LKNKSH OK KKPrNDANT NATlUi: li) Uor arc )(ly, the t \\o\\\i\ ion, H«iit iL'llt NVllS lodd tilt' t, shouUl id 11 lii;il» cr sn<»NV •ivil i'lvc- Kystom is (jUulilH's; juUl that Dve vu'o is ,'e<;etativo [Mi fiviv arc o hilior is ic iierpct- ^ioiiictinu's, ,)nths; iov necessary, t vejj^cta- Urc.n'ress, heir own enervates nd inertia id i)roinpts In hours of . wv ly, *ciits; un]>or- rSS •.' il niore( er, Import, the kcthrou.u'h vegetation, <>ro\vs with BUeli strcMiLjtli and rapidity as to doty tlie eflurts of inexi>erien<'ed primitive man; nature Itet-omes domi- neering;, innnanau'eahle, and man sinks into insi^niifi- canee. Indeed the most skillful industry of armed and disciplined civilization is unahle to keej) under control this redundancy of tropical vi-^i-etation. The patli cleared hy the piom-er on peiietratinj; the dense nnderL,M'o\vth, clost.'s alter him like the waters of the sea hehind a ship; hetore the j^-rain has time to sprinjr nj), the plowi'd Held is covered with rank weeds, wild Howers, and poisonous plants no less heautiful than pernicious. 1 have seen the v !ry fence-posts Hproutin^*- up and yrowiny into trees. So destructive is the veiictation of the ( 'entral American lowlands, that in their triumphal march the j)ersistent roots penetrate the crevices of masoni'v, demolish strouj; walls, and ohlit- erate stupendous tunuili. The people whose climate makes caihonized fo(»d a necessitv, are oblit»'ed to call lilt ' action their holder and stronger faculties in order I ) .)Utain their sujiplies, while the vei»'etahle-eater may traiKjuilly rest on hounteous nature. The Eskimo struijfnles manfully with whale, and hear, and ice, and darkness, nntil his capacious stomach is well tilled with heat-j)roducinfi^ food, then he dozes torpidly in his den while the su]»ply lasts; the etjuatorial man jthicks and eats, hasks in the o))en air, and sleejts. , i [ere we have a medley of heteroi;-eneous and an- taarallel, and by these winds deluged on one side with rain, while the otlier is left almost dry, with but little alluvial soil, and that little exceedingly fertile,— at the time of their discovery by Cai)tain Cook ajt})eared to have made no inconsiderable advance' toward feudal- ism. Systems of land tenure and \ assalai>e were in ojH'ration, and some works for the j>ul)lic weal had ^een constructed. Here were the essentials for a low onler of improvement such as was found there, but whicli never, in all probability, would have riben nuich higher. Again, Mr Buckle declares that, "owing to the presence of physical phenomena, the civilization of America was, of nei-essity, conHned to those i)arts wl.ere alone it was found by the discoverers of the New World." An apparently safe postulate; but, upon any conceivable hypothesis, there are very many 1 r-n:! •irl 52 SAVAGISM AND CIVILIZATIOX. places as well adapted to development as those in which it was found. Once more: "The two «^reat conditions of fertility have not been united in any part of the continent north of Mexico." When we consider what it is, namely, heat and humidity, upon which Mr Buckle makes intellectual evolution dependf.'ut, and that not only tlie Mexican plateau lacked both these essentials, in the full meanin<>: of the term, but that both are i'ound in many })laces north waid, as for instance, in some parts of Texas and in Louisiana, a discrepancy in liis theory becomes apparent. "The peculiar contiy'- ui'ation of the land," he continues, "secured a very l:iri;'e amount of coast, and thus <>"ave to the southern part of North America the character of an island." An island, yes, but, as M. Ciuyot terms it, an "aerial island;" bordered on either side by sea-coast, but by such sea-coast as formed an almost imi)assable barrier between the table-land and the ocean. "While, therefore," adds Mr Buckle, "ih • jKosition of Mexico near the equator rostrate the faculties; with a soil of sutlicieiit fei'tility to yield a sui'plus and })rom(»te the accumulation of wealth, without pi'oducing such a ri'dundancy of vegetation as to be umnanageable by unskilled, })rimi- tive man — there it is that we find the hi'diest intel- lectual culture. It sometimes happens that, in those climati>s wliich aiv too vigorous for the unfolding of the tender genu, (•ulti\ation is stinudated into gi'eater activity than in its original seats. It sometimes haj)pens that, wIhii the shell of savagism is once faii'ly I)roken, a ]h'o])1;' may overcome a (lomineerini>' V(!!>etation, and Hourisli in a climate whei'e by no itossibilitv could their (\r (. 1. * velopnient have originated. Even in the frozen regions o fth le north, as in Scandanavia, man, l)y tl le mtensitv of his nature, was enabled to suiniount the difficul- ties of climate and attain a lierce, iMtde culti\atioii, T\w regions of NortJiern iMii'ojte and Xoi'thei'n Anui- ica, notwithstanding their ])osition to man, ASSOCIATION AX ELEMENT OE PROGEESS. tsof Nortll I primitive asis of any attempt to n>ss, wlien^ •1" humanity luls of ages, (f wliom our orived from }, it is witli i-Uisions can 3, tliat uian > peninsulas neaii invites tlie climate so cold as to iUid mind in n enougli to ^ to enervate of sufficient \ccuiPjdation dundancy oi" killed, prim i li^liest intel- imates wliich tender o-orni, tivity than in IS tliiit, when ki'U, a ])eopl' . and flourish )uld their dr- frozen rejj^ioiis • the intensitv t the difficui- le cultivation. )i-thern Aunr- >ition to m:tu, are to-day the most fruitful of all lands in industrial discoNeries and intellectual activities, hut in the j)olar re<(ions, as iu the ecpiatorial, the highest development never can he reached. The conditions which encourage indigenous civiliza- tion ai'(! not always those that encourai>e permanent development, and vice versa. Thus, (jreat Britain in lier insulation, remained harhurous long after (Ireece and Italy had attained a high degree of cultivation, yet when once the seed took root, that very insulation acted as a wall of defense, within which a mighty j)ower germinated and with its inthience overspiead the whole earth. Thus we have seen that a cond)ination of ])hysical conditions is essential to intellectual deyelo])ment. Without leisure, there can he no culture, witliout wealth no leisure, without lahor no wealth, and w ith- out a s:'itahle soil and climate no rennnierative lahor. Now, throughout the nia.tei-ial universe, there is no ohject or element which holds its place, whether at rest or in motion, e\ce})t under fixed laws; no atom of matter nor suhtle mysterious force, no hreath of air, nor cloudy vaj)or nor streak of light, hut in existing- oheys a law. The Almighty fiat: Be fruitful and mul- tiply, fruitful in increase, intellectual as well as physi- cal, was given alike to all mankind; seeds of progress were sown hroads-ast throughout all the races human; .^ome I'ell on stony places, othei's were choked with weeds, others found good soil. When we see a ])eo})lo in the full enjoyment of all these physical essentials to |ii'ogress yet in a state of savagism, we may he sure tJiat elements detrimental to progivss have, at some period of their history, interposed to prevent natui'al i^rowtli. War, famine, jjostdence, convulsions of nature, have nip]»ed in the hud manyati incijiient civilization, whose history lies deep hui'ied in the unrecorded past. TIu> ohvious jiecessity of association as a ])iiniarv condition of deveh)pment leaves little to he said on 56 SAVAGISM AND CIVILIZATION. that subject. To the manifestation of this Soul of Prot^ress a l)ody social is requisite, as without an indi- vidual body there can be no manifestation of an indi- vidual soul. This body social, like the body individual, is composed of numberless organs, each liavino* its special functions to perform, each acting on the others, and all under the general government of the j)rogres- sional idea. Civilization is not an individual attribute, and though the atom, man, may be charged with stored energy, yet progress constitutes no part of individual nature : it is somethinof that lies between men and not within them; it belongs to society and not to tlie indi- vidual; man, the molecule of society, isolate, is inert and forceless. The isolated man, as I have said, never can become cultivated, never can form a language, does not possess in its fullness the faculty of abstrac- tion, nor can his mind enter the realm of hire indi- uiot flow, ue the words the ^stalliza- iian that ip of the aches its coalesce, lor, form- H)sitively u'ieties as s. And iiy law in ult in the f luinian ])urpose we have COOPEKATION AND THE DIVISION OF LAHOR. r>7 ■■'&! seen, nntil war and despotism and superstition and other dire evils come, there is no pro_<,n-ess. Solitnde is insnpportahle, even beasts will not live alone; and men arc moi"e depejident on each otlier than beasts. SoHtudc carries with it a sense of inferiority and iiisufKciency; the faculties are stinted, lacking- com- ])lcteiicss, whereas volume is added to every individual laculty l)y union. Ihit association simj)ly, is not enouj^h; nothinjTf materially yreat can l)e accomplished without union and cooperation. It is only when aj^j^reyations of families interminable with other a^',i,^rero|»erty of his })eople? Why does he Avisli to ,L;ive uj) his wild fi'eedom, his native independ- ence, and jilace uj>on his limhs the fetters of a social and jiolitiral despotism? He does not. The savai^e hates civih/ation as he hates his deadliest foe; its choicest heiiotits he hates more tlian the dii'est ills of his own unfettei'fd life. He is di-iven to it; drivon to it hy extraneous iiiHuences, without his knowled<;e and a_<4"ainst his will; he is les of civilization wiie Well understood, a more liheial manner of teach- ing would prevail. Every civilization has its ]>eculiarities, its idiosyn- crasies. Two individuals attemptino- the same thing differ ill the performance; so civilization evolving uiidei incidental and extrai leous causes takes an indi\i(lualitv Tl m every mstance. Ihis is whv civilizations will not coalesce; this is why the Si)an"iai(ls could make tl Aztecs accept their ne of the first and most important ste])s in association and partition of labor, ai'o but the manifestation of a lin;«i^or- ininary, there can bo no unity, and without unity no protracted warfare. In the first stages of reserve them for HlaveH they kill them. Tho oriu^in of the woi'd, si-ri'iis, from scrrtiiv, to preserve, donote's humane thoui^ht rather than cruelty. Diseijdine is always neeessaiv t(> (leveloi)nient, and slavery is another form of savage discipline. Then, by systems of slaveiy, j^reat woiks wore accomplished, which, in the ahsence of arts and inventions, would not have been j)ossil)le without slavery. And ajL^ain, in early societies wliei'e leisure is so ne'/^- sary to mental cultivation and so difficult to obtain, slavery, by promoting- leisure, aids elevation and refine- ment. Slaves constitute a distinct class, devoted Avholly to labor, thereby cnablinj^ another class to live without labor, or to labor with the intellect rather than with the hands. Primordially, society was an au^oTegation of nomadic families, every head of a faniily havin«>' ecjual rights, and every individual such power and influence as he could accjuirc and maintain. In all the ordinary avo- cations of savage life this was sufficient; there was room for all, and the widest liberty was possessed by each. And in this hai)})y state does mankind ever remain until forced out of it. In unity and coopera- tion alone can great things be accomj)lished; but men will not unite until forced to it. Now in times of war — and with savages war is the rule and not the excep- tion — some closer union is necessary to avoid extinction ; for other things being equal, the j)eoj)le who are most firmly united and most strongly ruled are sure to ])re- vail in war. The idea of unity in order to be effectual must 1)0 embodied in a unit; some one mast be made chief, and the others must obey, as in a bai)d. of wild beasts that follow tho one most conspicuous for its .4 uU as its iilers, and a wo'si! lu'ir juis- tlieiii tor I'd, Kcrriis, B thouj^lit rossarv to of sava^o ■cat works f arts aiul lit slaA cry. i so m.r„'>^i- to obtain, and rctinc- s, du voted lass to live left rather of nomadic ual ri.nlits, lenee as he linarv iivo- there was )ssessed by kind ever (•(iopera- ; but men ines of war the exeei>- extinetion ; lo are iiu)st ure to i)rc- )e etfettual i be made i)d of wild ous for its <;ovi:itNMi:NT loucHi* rroN man. 68 ]»roW(ssai:d csunn'n'j;'. Ihit the military principle aloiu! wonld never la} the foundation of a stronj4';;(>vernment, for with ('Very cessation from hostilities tiiere would bo a corresjiondinu^ relaxation of o'overnment. Another necessity for ^'overnment here arises, but which likewise is not the cause of oovcrnment, for novt innu'iit sjtriiiijfs from force and not from utility. These m-n do not want L''overnment, they do not want iiiltnre; how then is an arm to be found suHiciently stroll^' to bridle their wild passions? In reason they are cliildren, in passion men; to restrain the stroiiLif passions of strong;' non- reasoning- men reijuii'cs a jtower; wlu'nci! is this power to <-ome ? it is in the earlier stan'e of i;'»>vernnient that (lesj)otism assumes its most inti'nse forms. The more j)assionate, and lawKss, ami cruel the ])eople, the more completely do they submit to a passionate, lawless, and cruel pi'inc*'; the moi'e un- yoN-ernable their nature, the more slavish ai'e they in their submission to i^overnnient; tiie stion^'er the element to he •^'overned, the stronger must be the j,^ov- ermneiit. The primitive; man, whoever or whatevei- that may ,be, lives in harmony with nature; that is, he lives as other animals live, drawinjjc his supplies immediately from the general storehouse oi' nature. His Ibod ho plucks from a sheltering' tree, or draws from a spark- liui;- sti'eam, or ca])tures from a })rolifie forest. The remnants of his cajituro, unfit for food, siipj>ly his other wants; with the skin ho clothes Iiimself, and with the bones makes imj)lenients and jioints his weapons, lu this there are noantai^'onisms, noopjtosini^ |)rinciples of i^ood and evil; animals are killed not with a view of extermination, but through necessity, as animals kill animals in order to suj)})ly actual wants, i^ut no sooner does the leaven of j)rogress be^in to work than war is declared between man and nature. To make room for denser ]H)pulations and increasiiii';' com- foits, forests must be hewn down, their ])riineval inhabitants extirpated or domesticated, and the soil 64 SAVAGISM AND CIVILIZATION. laid iMidjr more direct contribution. Union and coop- orati', ii sprini^ uj) for purposes of protection and ai^s^res- sion, for the acconiplislnnent of pur})ose.s beyond the (•a])aLity of tlie individunl (Jradually manufactures and commerc'j increase; the products of one body of laborers are exchanged for the j)roducts of anotliei', and thus the aii'-ettin,u' 10 self-dt'- of wcaltli h alrejtdy i'her g«H)d. ntflleetiial ae([uisitiou if the day, hut when M lands are divided, and the soil cultivated, when wealth iH'n'ins to accumulate and commerce and industry to rtouiMsh, then protection and lawful punishment hccome necessary. Like the wild hoise, leave him free, and he will take care of himself; hut catch him and curh liim, and the wildei" and stntnger he is the sti'ou^er must he the curl) until he is suhdued and trained, and, then he is guided by a light rein. The kind of govern- ment makes little difference so that it he sironyf enouiifh. (jlranted that it is ahsolutely e ..>ential to the first step towai'd culture that society should l)e strongly governed, how is the first govermnent to be aceom- ])lished; how is oik; member of a })assi()nate, unbridled heterogeneous community to obtain d(»minion absolute over all tlie others^ Here coi.ies in another evil to the assistance of tlie former ev'ls, all foi- future trcH^d, — Superstition. Never could j»liysical force alone com- pi'ess and hold the iiccessaiy jiower witli wlilch to burst the shell of savagism. The government is »,';t a reflex (»f the governed. .\ot until one ma)i is ])hysicallv is to l»e governed at all, there ii»wst be no division of governnietital force. The cause for fear arising iioni both the i>hysical and the 8U])er- natural nnist be muted in ojio individu.il In the ab- >i'Urv of the moral sentiment the feai- of legal and tha^ of spiritual punishments are identical, for the s])intual I- feared only as it works temjtoral or corporal evil. Kreedom of thought at this stage is incompatii^le witli j.rogress, for thought without experience is dangerous, tending towards anarchy. Before men can govein themselves they nuist be subjected to the .sternest (lis ei|)liue of governm-nt, and whether this government be just or humane or pleasant is of small eonseuuencu 66 SAVAGIS^I AND CIVILIZATION, so that it be only stronq- enouLjli. As with polity so Avith morality and relii>ion; cunjoiiitly with dos])otisiii there imist he an arbitrary central church novei'nnient, or nio)'ai anarchy is the incvitahle consi'(jncnce. At the outset it is not for man to rule hut to obey; it is not for savaf^es, who a)" children in intellect to think and reason, but to beliex' . And thus W(; se(' how wonderiully man is jtrovided Avitli the essentials of y-rowtli. This tender nerm of ])roi,''ress is [)reserved in hard shells and ])rickly covei'- in^i^s, which, when tliey have served their ]iui'}>ose arc thrown aside as not only useless but detrimental to further de\ elo]>ment. We know not what will come herc^aftei', but up to the present time a state of bondaL;c appears to be the normal state of humanity; bondai,^', ;it tirst severe and ii-rational, then ever looseniny', ;i;id expandiniif into a f'roader freedom. As maidvind I troLTresses, moral anarchy no more follows iVeedom nf th(»UL!"ht timu does |)o]itic:d anarchy follow fieeower has in any measure cut loose from ««ci<-!siastical j#»uer and thrown religion back ujwni * "^le sentii»»<:!nt for support, a moi'al as well ;)^ an ectual ftiMfjlv;inc( ^,^s always followed. What the an-ii^ 'i\ e te.uhin^'s and lax discij)line of the pn-Ment epo«-li would have been to the Chiistians of the f'wrteenth t which civilization owes to the .M.r, ,i M^ teacLiiaffs of both Churrh and State. ( li ^tianity, oy its exalted un-utilitnrian morality and philanthropy, has greatly nid(>d rivilizatiou. In- deed so Tiiarked hms been the ert'oct in Kumpe, so ♦jreat tibe contrast fcetfreen Christianity and Islamish, an', As maiikind < fVoodoin of V tVoedom of lorica, whoi- it looso IVoiii 1 liack u]ion > Well a-^ ail What t)R' discipline of le Cliristians goveniinent o rcpuhlicaii .ritably upon it how iniuli rolcasG from times, let us 3vves to thti tate. ian morality izaticvu. In- •ope, so ixreat slamisiu and Churcbm* u claim civilization as the offspring of their religion. But religion and morality must not be confounded with civilization. All these and many other activities act and react on each other as proximate principles in the social organism, but they do not, any or all of them, constitute the life of the orijanism. Long before mo- rality is religion, and Img after morality religion sends the pious penitent to liis knees. It<'ligious culture is a great assistant to moral culture as intellectual training j)romotes the industrial arts, but morality is no more religion than is industry intellect. When Christi- anity, as in the early settlement of Mexico and Central America, falls into the hands of unprincipled advent- urcis or blind zealots who stand up in deadly an- tagonism to liberty, then Christianity is a drag upon civilization; and therefore we may conclude that in so i'ar as Christ ianlty grafts on its code of j)ure morality die principle of intellectual fieedom,in so far Is civiliza- tion promoted by Christianity, but when Christianity engenders persecution, civilization is retarded thereby. Then Protestantism sets uj) a claim to the authorship of civilization, points to Spain and then to England, compares Italy and Switzerland, Catholic America and Puritan Anierici, declares that the intellect can never attain siij)criority while under the dominion of tlic ('Jiiui'i of pome; in other words, that civilization i- l*rot iitisni. It is true that protestation again.st irratio!,,il dogmas, or any other action that tends toward the emancipation of the intellect, is a great sti'j) i'l advance; but religious belief has nothing what- cvei- to do with intellectual (adture. Religion from its \-'!y nature is beyond the limits of reason; it is emo- tional I'atiier rlian intellectual, an instinct and not an acijuisition. ll'tween reason and religion lies a domain of co]nmon ground upon which both may meet and join hands, but bevo.id the boundaries of which neitln r niiy pass. The moment tin intellect attempts to pene- trate the domain of the Supi'rnatural all intellectuality vanishes, and em )tion and imagination fill its place. - I 'm G8 SAVAGISM AND CIVILIZATIOrC. There can be no real conflict between tlie two, for ii'iither, by any possibility, can pass this neutral ground. Before the mind can receive Christianity, or Mahoni- ctanisni, or any otiier en ed, it nuist be ready to accept doiifnias in the analysis of whicli human reason is ijower- less. Amono' the most brilliant intellects are found i *rotestants, lionianists, Unitarians, Deists, and Athe- ists; judging from the experiences of mankind in a^es l)ast, creeds and fonnulas, orthodoxy and heterodoxy, have no inherent i)()wer to advance or retard the intel- lect. Some claim, indeed, that strong doctrinal bias stifles thou,i»-ht, fosters su})erstition, and fetters the intellect; still reli^'ious tliought, in some form, is inse])- aral)le from the human mind, and it would be veiy ditfit-ult to prove that belief is more debasing' than non-belief. lleligion at first is a gi'oss fetichism, wliich endows every wonder with a concrete i)ersonahtv. Within every appearance is a several personal cause, and to embody tliis personal cause in some material form is the first efibrt of the savage mind. Hence, images arc made in representaion of these imaginary supernatural ))<)wers. ]\Tan, of necessity, must clothe these su})er- natui'al powers in tlie elements of some lower form. The imagination cannot grasp an object or an idea be- yond the realms of human ex})erience. Unlieard-of e(>ml»inations of character may be made, but the con- stituent jiarts must, at some time and in some form, have had an ex.istence in order to be conceivable. It is impossi))le for tiie human mind to array in forms of thought anytliing wliolly and absolutely new. Thi.> state is the fai'thest remove possil)le from a recogni- (iiin of tliose universal laws of causation toward whicli every dej)artment of knowledge is now so rapidly tend- ing, (lods ari! made in the likeness of man and beast, endowed with earthly i)assions, and a sensual poly- tlieism, in which blind fate is a prominent element, be- comes the religious ideal. Ivcligious conceptions arc DKVKLOPMKXT OF THE KF.LIfllOl'S IDEAL. cn le two, for :ral ^niomid. or liliihoin- ly to acfe})t )U is ])owo]'- s are ibuiid , and Atla- ciiid in ai^os heterodoxy, ^d the hitel- K-trinal bias fetters the rni, is inscp- uld 1)0 veiy basing than hich endows ty. Witliiti ause, and to L'rial form is images are suiiernatural these siqter- lower form, an idea he- Unheard-of l)ut the eon- i some form, 'oivahle. It in forms of new. Thi> n a recogni- )ward which apidly tend- n and heast, cnsual poly- eh'ment, he- leeptions arc (ssentially materi;d; all })unishments and rewards are such as L'tK'ct man as a material being; morality, the innate sense of right and wrong, lies stiHed, almost dormant. Thrown wholly npon liimsulf, without experience to guide liini, the sa\age nmst, of necessity, invest nature with his own (jualities, for his niind can grasp uoii(> other. l)ut when exjierience disjtels the neai'er illu- sions, ()l»jects more I'emote are made gods; in the sun and stars he sees his controlling destinies; the nund)er of !iis gods is lessened until at last all mei'ge into one (iod. tlie author of all law, the great and oril}" rule^* of the uiii\erse. In eveiy mvtlioloi'V we see this imiier- Bonation of natural ])lu'nomena; frost and fire, earth and air and water, in their disp«layf of mysterious powirs, are at once' deified and humani/ed. These embodiments of physical force are then natnrall}' formed into families, and their sujt|)osed de.scendants v.orsliipi'd as children of the gods. Thus, in the childhood of so- ciety, when incipi(!nt tliought takes up its lodgment in old men's brains, sliadows of departed lieroes min- gle with shadows i'oduces liimself, as all his concc])ti()iis of supernatural power nuist, of iieeessirx-, be f trnu'd on the skeleton of human power, na.turally it follows tliat the strongest and most cumiing of the tribe, he upon wl)om leadersliip most iianirailv falls, coni's to be I'egarded as s|M.M'iaily fa\oiV(l of the gods. I^)Wers supernatural are joined to powei-s temporal, and eiubodied in the cliieftain of the nation. A ^'ratc- ful postei'ity I'everesand ]iro|titiates departed aiicestoi's. Tlie earlier nders are made' gods, and tlieir descend- ants lesser divinities: tlie foundei- of a dynastv, pei-- Ivips. the s' ;iieine ginl, his progeny subordinate deities. The prii^rhood a-td kiiig-liip thn^ bi'come united; J 70 SAVA(iIS^r AND nVILIZATrOX. ivli^Ion and civil LC'ivcrninoiit join forces to press man- I;iiul t '.;et]ier, and the loose sands of the new sti'ata coliei'e into the firm rock, that sliall one day bear alone the wash of time and tide. 1 f (.'lice arise divine kin^'shij), and tlie divine ri^'ht of'kin;jfs, and with the desire to win the favor of this divine kiiiu', ai'ist! the courtesies of societv, the first step toward ])olisii of manners. Titles of resj)ect and woi'ship an; l^mxi'Ii him, some of which are sMhseipiently ajtplied to the Deity, while others droj) down into the common-j)lac<; compliments of every-day life. Here tlien, we have as one of the tirst essentials of pro'i'ress the union of Church and State, of supersti- tion and desj)otism, a, union still necessarily ke|)t uj) in some of the more backward civilizations. Excessi\ o loyalty and Mind faith ever march hand in hand. The very basis of association is credulity, blind loyalty to ]»olitical })o\\'ers and blind faith in sa<'erdotal terrors. In all mythologies at some stayv temjjoi'al aiul spirit- ual g-overnment are united, the sujiernatural ])ower beiiiL'' incarnated in the tem])oral chief; ])olitieal des- ]>i»tism;nid an awful sauLi'uiiiaryrelii'ion, — ai>'overnment a id a belief, to disobey Avhich \\as never .S(^ much as thought possible. See how every one of these primary essentials of ii\'ili/ation becomes, as man advances, a draTess; see how he now stru^'L^'les to fi'ce himself iVom what, at the outset, he; was led bv wavs he knew not to (nidure so patiently. (Jovermnent, in early sta^'es always stron*,^ aiul despotic, whether monarchi- cal, olis^-ai-chical, or re[»ublican, holding' mankind luukr the dominion of caste, placlni; restrictions u}v>n eoni- merc(3 and manufactures, re^ulatinL'' social custon^. l")od, dress, -how men have fought to break louse ilu'se bonds! lielio'ion, not that natural cultus iii- stineti\e in humanitv, the bond of union as well under its most disn'ustiuij;" form of fetichism, as luidei- \\> latest, loveliest form of ( "hristianity ; but those t'oiiu^ and dogmas of sect and ereed \\hi 1 rho^-c toiiii^ till-' thonu!'^ el •1 and fetter intellect, — how men have lived lives of sac- rifice and sfh'-denial as well as died for the ri<^ht to llee theliisi'lves I'rom unwelcome hcllci'' 1 n jtriiiieval a^es, i;-overnment and reli^^ion lay lii^htly on tile hiniian race; ethnoloj^y, as well as history, discloses the patriarchal as the earliest form of govern- ment, and a rude materialism as the earliest religious ideal ; tliese two simjde elements, under the form of iiion>ttr>, hecame hu^e ahortions, he^'otteu of i_n'noi'ance, that held the intellect in ahject slavery i'or thousands oi" vcars, and from these we, of this generation, more than any other, are (granted emanci[)ation. Even wealth, kind giver of grateful leisnre, in the guise of avarice heconies a hideons thing, which he who would attain the higher intellectual life, must learn to despise. (Jovernment, as we have seen, is not an essential element of coHective humanity. Civilization must tir.st he awakened, must e\en have })assed the pi-inuD'y .stages hefore goveriunent ap])ears. .])es])otisni, feudal- ism, divine kingship, slavery, war, superstition, each niaiks certain stages of development, and as civiliza- tion ad\ances all tend to disappear; and, as in the early histoiy of nations the state antedates the gov- ernment, so the time may come in the })rogres.s of mankind wlieii government will he no longer necessary. (!o\< rnnient always grows out of necessity; tlie inten- sity \>f go\crnmiMit inevitahly following necessitv. The fitrm of ^'ovcrnmeut is a natural sehrtion; its .several j)hases always the survival of the littest. When the fetkialist says to the monarchist, or the monarchist to the federaliNt: ^[y goveinnient is hettei' than yours, it is a- if the Kskimo said to the Kaihr: My coat, my hon^e. my I'ood, is he-tter than yours. The yovenniient is made foi the man, and not the iiu'»u for the government. Uovermneiit is as the prop f.r the ^rowing plant; at first the young shoot stands .loll.., then in its raj)id advancement for a time it ieiuire,> Mii.[>ort, after which it is ahle aj-ain to stand 1!' \'.\ \ illllii 72 SAVACISM AND CrVirjZATIOX. alone. What wo term the evils t)f jrovernnient arc rather its necessities, and are, indeed, no evils at all. Tho lieavy hit which ccjiitrtjls tlie mouth of an un- tamed horse is to that horse an evil, yet to the di'iver a necessity wliich may he laid aside as the temper of the animal is suhdued. So desj)otism, feudalism, slavei'v, are cavils to those under their dominion, yet are they as necessary for the prevention of anardiv, for tlic restraint of nnhridled passions, as the powerful hit to the horse, and will as surely he laid aside when no lonnrer required. Shallow-minded jtoliticians talk of kinuccraft, arhitrary rule, tyrants, the down-trodden masses, the withholdinu;* of just riL^hts; as though the gov(;rnnu!nt was some inde[)endent, adverse element, wholly foreign to the character of the ])eo]»le; as thou^-h one man was sti'ontj;er than ten thousand; a.-> thoii'^li, if these ])hases of society were not the fittest, they would l)e tolerated for a moment. The days of ri'j'orous rule were ever the host days of France and Spain, and so it will he until the ])eople hecome strontjfer than the strem^th of rulers. He])uhlicanism is as unfit for stu})id and unintellectual ])oj)ulations, as desj)otism would he for the advanced ideas and lih- eral institutions of Anglo-Saxon Amei'ica. The suh- ject of a liheral rule sneeringly ciying down to tlu' suhject of an ahsolute rule his form of government, is like the nss crying to the tiger: Leave hlood and meat : feed on grass and tliistles, the only diet fit for civilized heasts! Our federal government is the very hest for our people, when it is not so it will speedily change; it fits the temper of American intelligence, hut hefore it can he planted in Japan or China the traditions and temper of the Asiatics nuist change. We of to-day are undergoing an important epoch in tlie history of civilization. Fi'udalisni, (U'spotism, and fanaticism have had each its day, have; each acconi- ])lished its necessary pur})ose, and are fast fading aAvay. ()urs is the age of democracy, of scientific inxcstiga- ticm. and fivedom of religious thought ; what these mav LATTEUDAV PUOCRKSSION. 78 iiinoiit arc ■vils at all. of an uii- he ) the fittest, riic (lays of Francu and Jllo 1)C'('()11U' puldicanism lopulatioiis, as and lil)- Tho snl.- )\\\\ to tlu' ernnii'nt, is and meat ; or civilized ry best for ily change; )iit belVirc iditions and lilt epoch in )otisin, antl ich acconi- iding aAvay. investiga- t these iiiav acconi{tlisli for the advancing intelU'ct remains to he seen. ( )ur ancestors loved to dwell u})on the jiast, n(»\v we all look toward the future. The sea of ice, over which our forefatliers glided so si'i-ciH'lv in their trustful reliance, is hn-aking up. ( Mie after another traditions evaporate; in their appli- cation to lU'oximato events thev fail us, hi.storv ceases to rej»eat itself as in times past. Old things are \n\sH- ing away, all things are hccoining new; new philoso- jthies, new religions, new sciences; the industrial sjiirit springs uj) and o\erturns time-honored customs; theories of government nuist he reconstructed. Thus, says I'xperience, n-puhlicanism, as a form of govern- ment, can exist only in small states; hut steam and electiicity step in and annihilatt! time and space, 'i'he iJoman repuhlic, from a lack of i-ohesiNe energy, frouj failure of central vital j)ower sufHcient to send the hlood of th(i nation fi'om the heai't to the extremities, died a natural death. The American repuhlic, co\er- iiig nearly twice the teri'itoi-y of repuhlican Home in her palmlt^st days, is eii(h)Wed with a dirt'ereiit species of organism; in its physiological system is found a new series of veins and arteries, the railway, the telegra})h, and the daily })ress, through which imlsates the life's hlood of the nation, millions inhaling and exhaling . intelligence as on(> man. .By means of these inven- tions all the woild, once e\eiy day, are hrought together. By telegraphic wires and railroad iron men are now hound as in times past they were hound by war, desj»otism, and su])erstition. The remotest corners of the largest repuhlit-s of to-day, are bi'ounht into closer communication than wi're the adjoining states of the smallest confederations of anti(|uitv. A united ({ermany, from its past history held to he an |inij.<)ssil)ility, is, with the j. resent iacilities of cu\\\- |lnunication, an accomi)li.shed I'act. Kngland could I as easily liave possessed colonies in the moon, as [have held her present possessions, tliret' hundred years age. Practically, .'^an Francisco is nearer \Vus'hiu<"- 74 SAVAdISM AND ('IVII.IZA l'I()\. toll tli;iii was I'hil;ulc'lj)liia wlicii the louiulatioiis (.f tliu Caj)it()l wcru laid. What is to j)rovent r(.[>iil)liis IVoiii LifowiMii', so l(»iiij' as iiituinuuiici! kee|)s ]),uc with extension? The {general of an army may now sit he- Tore liis maps, and maiHi-nvic hall" a scoi-e of armies a hundred or a thousand miles a[)art, know hourly the situation ot" every division, the sueeess of every Iiattle, order an advance or a retreat, lay }»lots and make eom- hinations, with more exactness than was onee pos.sihle in the conduct of an ordinary cam}>ai,L;i». A few words ahout morals, manners, and fashion, will further illustrate how man is played upon hy his environment, which here takes the sha}>e of hahit. In their heai'inn' on civilization, these [>heiiomena all come under the same category; and this, without re^ai'd to the I'ival theories of iiituition and utility in morals. Experience teaches, blindly at lirst yet daily with cleai'er vision, that rii^ht conduct is henelicial, antl wj'oul;" conduct detrimental ; that the conseipienees of sin invariably rest on the evil-doer; that for an unjust act, though the knowledge of it he forever locked in the bosom of the offender, punishment is wure to follow; yet there are those who ([Uestion the existence of innate moral j)erce})tions, and call it all custom and traininL,^ And if we look alone to ])rimi- tive people for innate ideas of moi'ality and justice 1 fear we shall meet with disa})pointment. Some we iind who value female chastity only before marriage, others oidy after marriage, -that is, after the woman and lier chastity both alike become the tangible propei'ty of somebody. Some kindly kill their aged ])arents, others their female infants; the successful A])ac-lio horse-thief is the darling of his mother, and the heiu of the tril)e; often these American Arabs will remain fi'om home half-starved for weeks, i-ather than sufllr the ignominy of retui'ning em])ty-hande(l. (Jood, in tin; mind of the savage, is when he steals wives; bad,is wln'ii his own wives are stolen. Where it is that inherent Mni;.\|,S, MANXIuHS, AND lASlIIOX. 75 lali*>ns <inu Nve iinutlicient reason wliy we slioidd be aslianii'd of our body any more than of our face. Tlu; wliole man was fasliioned by one Creator, and all jiarts e(|ually are |ieilect and alike hemii-able. \\\' co\er our ]terson with drapery, and think thereby to liide our faults from (lursclvi's and othei's, as tlie ostrich liidis its head under a leaf, and fancies its body concealed fiDin the hmiti'r. What is this cpiality of sliaine if it be not habits \ feiuale savage will stand unbhish- iiiu'ly before you naked, l)ut strij) lier of lier ornaments and she will manifest the same ap|)earance of shame, tliou'^'h not pi'rhaps so ^reat in dei^i'ee, that a I'airo- |)i'an wiiman will manifest if stiM|iped of her clothes. It is Well known liow civili/i'd and semi-ci\ ilizeil nations reijfal*' this (|iia1ity of proi.riety. ( 'ustom, couveutional usa^v, dress and behavior, nvc inllueiices as >ubtle and as stronu;' as any that "^'overn us, weav- in;.;' thi'ir net-W(»i'k round man more and niori' as lie throws otf alleL;'iance to other powers; and wi' know liut little luore ot' their origin and nature than we do of the orinin and nature of time and space, of lil'e and death, of origin and end. I'^N'erv a' e and every society has its own standard of morality, holds nj» some certain conduct or ipiality as a model, sayiiiL,'' to all. Do this, and ii'ceive the much- coM'ted })raisi' of your fellows. ( )ften what one peo- ple deem virtue is to anotlier vice; what to one ai^c is relinioii is to another superstition; but underlyiiiu' all this are livino' firt's, kindled by ( )mnij)otence, and des- tined to bum throuyhout all time. In the Spartan IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-S) A J K, 1.0 I.I 1.25 u 2.0 i.8 1.4 Photographic Sciences Corporation 23 WEST rtiMt* f TREET WEBSTER, N.Y. MSSO (716) 872-4503 A 78 SAVAGISM AND CIVILIZATION. and Roman republics the moral ideal was patriotism ; among mediaeval Churchmen it took the form of ascet- icism ; after the elevation of woman the central idea was female chastity. In tliis national morality, which is the cohesive force of the body social, we find the fundamental prin- ciple of the progressional impulse, and herein is the most hopeful feature of humanity ; mankind nuist pro- gress, and progress in the right direction. There is no lielp for it until God changes the universal order of tilings ; man must become better in spite of himself; it is the good in us that grows and ultimately prevails. As a race we are yet in our nonage; fearful of the freedom given us by progress we cling tenaciously to our leading-strings; hugging our mother, Custom, wo refuse to be left alone. Liberty and high attainments must be meted out to us as we are able to receive them, for social retchings and vomitings inevitably follow over-feedings. Hence it is, that we find our- selves escaped from primeval and mediteval tyrannies only to fall under greater ones ; society is none the less inexorable in her desj)otisms because of the sophistry wliicli gives her victims fancied freedom. For do we not now set up forms and fashions, the works of our own hands, and bow down to them as reverently as ever our heathen ancestors did to their g(jds of wood and stone? Who made us? is not the first question of our catechism, but What will people say ? Of all tyrannies, the tyranny of fashion is the most implacable; of all slaveries the slavery to fasliion is tiie most abject; of all fears the fear of our fellows is the most overwhelming; of all the influences tliat surround and govern man the forms and customs which he encounters in society are the most domineeiing. It is the old st«)ry, only another turn of the wlieel tliat grinds and sharpens and polishes humanity, at the first a benefit, now a drag. Forms and fashions are essential; we cannot live without them. If we ORIGIN' AND SIGNIFICANCE OF DRESS. ( I have worship, government, commerce, or clothes, "vve must have forms; or if we have them not we .still must act and do after some fashion ; costume, which is hut another word for custom, we uuist have, hut is it necessary to make the form the chief concern of our lives while we pay so little heed to the suhstance? and may we not hope while rejoicing over our past eman- cijiations, that we shall some day be free from our j)resent desjjotisms ? Dress has ever exercised a powerful influence on morals and on progress; but this vesture-})henomenon is a thing but imperfectly understood. Clothes serve as a covering to the body of which we are ashamed, and protect it against the weather, and those, we infer, are the reasons of our being clothed. But the fact is, aboriginally, except in extreme cases, dress is not essential to the comfort of man until it becomes a habit, and as for shame, until told of his nakedness, the primitive man has none. The origin of dress lies behind all this; it is found in one of the most deep- rooted elements of our nature, namely, in our love of approbation. Before dress is decoration. The suc- cessful warrior, proud of his achievement, besmears liis face and body with the blood of the slain, and straightway imitators, who also would be thought strong and brave, daub themselves in like manner; and si> j)ainting and tatooing become fashionable, and pig- ments supply the })lace of blood. The n.aked, houseless Californian would undergo every hardsliip, travel a hundred miles, and fight a round with every ojjposing band he met, in order to obtain cinnabar fi'oni the New Ahnaden (juicksilver mine. 80 when the Jumter kills a wild beast, and with the tail or skin decorates his l)ody as a trophy of his ])rowess, others follow his cv;ii,mi>le, and soon it is a shame to that savage who has neither paint, nor belt, nor necklace of l)ears' claws. And so follow head-rtattenings, and nose-piercings, and li[»-cuttings, and, later, chignons, and breast-) taddings, and bustles. Some say that jealousy prompted the 78 SAVAGISM AND CIVILIZATION. first Boncdicks to liide tl>eir wives' charms from their rivals, and so oriij^iiiated female dress, which, from its heiii^'- so common to all ahorit^ines, is usually regarded as the result of innate modesty. But whatever gave us plied only to women of rank. I n place of throwing ourselves u})on the ground, as bef()re a god or prince, we only i)artially prostrate ourselves in bowing, and the hat which we touch to an accpiuintance we take off on entering a church in token of our humility. Again, the captive in war is made a slave, and as such is rf ipiired to do obeisance to his master, which forms of servility are copied by the peo- j»le ill addressing their superiors, and finally become the established usage of ordinary intercourse. Our daily salutations are but modified acts of worship, and our parting word a benediction ; and from blood, toma- hawks, and senseless superstitions we turn and find all the world of humanity, with its still strong passions and subtle cravings, held in restraint by a force of which its victims are almost wholly unconscious, — and this force is Fashion. In tribunals of justice, in court and camp eticpiette, everywhere these relics of barbarism remain with us. Even we of this latter-day American republicanism, elevate one of our fellows to the chieftainship of a federation or state, and call him E.K(;ellency; we set a man uj)on the bench and /tlcad our cause before him; we send a loafer to a legislature, ETIQUETTE, MORALITY. LXVfS. 73 and straij^htway call him Honorable,— such divinity doth hedge all semblance of jKnver. Self-denial and abstinence lie at the bottom of eti- quette and g(M)d manners. If you would be moral, says Kant, you must "act always so that the inune- diate motive of thy will may become a universal rule for all intelligent beings," and Goethe teaches that, "there is no outward sign of courtesy that does not rest on a deep, moral foundation." Fine manners, though but the shell of the individ- ual, are, to society, the best actions of the best men crystallized uito a mode; not only the best thing, but the best way of doing the best thing, (^ood society is, or ought to be, the society of the good ; but fashion is more than good society, or good actir)ns; it is more than wealth, or beauty, or genius, and so arbitiary in its sway that, not unfrequently, the form al)sorbs the substance, and a breach of decorum becomes a deadly sin. Thus we see in every phase of development the result of a social evolution ; we see men coming and go- ing, receiving their leaven from the society into which l)y their destiny they are projected, only to tling it l)ack into the general fund interpenetrated with their own quota of force. ^leanwhile, this aggregati(»n of human experiences, this compounding of age with age, one generation heaping uj) knowledge upon another; tliis In'getting of knowledge by knowledge, the seed so infi)itesimal, the tree now so raj)idly sending forth its brau'hes, whither does it tend ? Kunning the eye aloM^- the line of progress, from the beginning to tlie en I, the measure of our knowledge seems nearly full; resolving the matter, experience assures us that, as compared with those who shall come after us, we are the veriest barbarians. The end is not yet; not until infinity is spanned and eternity brought to an end, will mankind cease to improve. Out of this conglomeration of intenninable relation- 80 SAVAGISM AND CIVlLIZATiOX. ships conroidant and pearin«*' in the surroundin«jf darkness. Althouufh the sava<^e nations were ra])idly annihil- ated, traces of savagism lingered, and yet linger; but the higher American culture, a plant of more deli- cate growth and more sensitive nature, withered at the first rude touch of foreign interference. Instead of being left to its own intuitive unfoldings, or instead of being fostered by the new-comers, who might have elevated by interfusion both their own culture and that of the conquered race, the spirit of ])r()gress was effectually stitied on both sides by fanatical attempts to substitute by force foreign creeds and polities for tliose of indigenous origin and growth. And now be- hold tliem both, the descendants of conijuorors and of contpiored, the one scarcely less denaturalized than t!ie other, the curse inflicted by the invaders on a flourishing empire returning and resting witli crush- ing weight on their own head. Scarce four centuries ago the em})ire of Charles the Fifth, and the emj)ire of Montezuma the Second, were brought by the force of prt)gress most suddenly and unexpectedly face to face; the one then the grandest and strongest of the old world as was the otlier uf the new. Since which time the fierce fanaticism that overwhelmed the New World emj)ire, has i>ressed like an incubus upon the dominant race, and held it fast while all the world around were making the most rapid strides forward. No indigenous civilization exists in America to-dav, yet the ettects of a former cultu;"e are not altogether absent. The descendant of the Vztec, Maya, and Qui- che, is still of superior mind and haughtier s})irit than his roving brother who boasts of none but a savage anccs- THE PAST, A NEW ELEMENT. 8S try. Still, so complete has been the substitution of for- ei<^n civil and ecclesiastical polities, and so f'ar-reachinLj their influence on native character and conduct; so inti- mate the association for three and more centuries with the Spanish element; so closely guarded from foreij^n i^aze lias been every manifestation of the few surviv- iiiLj sparks of abori<(inal modes of thought, that a study of tlie native condition in motlern times yields, by it- self, few satisfactory results. This study, however, as part of an investigation of their original or normal condition, should by no means be neglected, since it mav furnish illustrative material of no little value. Back of all this lies another element which lends to our subject yet grander proportions. Scattered over the southern j)lateaux are heaps of architectural re- uiains and monumental piles. Furthermore, native traditions, both orally transmitted and hieroglyph- ically recorded by means of legible picture-writings, attbrd us a tolerably clear view of the civilized na- tions during a period of several centuries jjreceding the Sj)anish conquest, together with ])assing glances, through momentary clearings in tlie mythologic clouds, at historical epochs much more remote. Here we have as aids to this analysis, — aids almost wholly wanting among the so-called savage tribes, antlcjui- ties, tradition, history, carrying tlie student far back into the mysterious New World j)ast; and hence it is that from its sinudtaneous revelation and eclipse, American civilization would otherwise otter a more limited Held for investiijfation than American savag- ism, yet by the introduction of this new element the field is widely extended. Nor have we even yet reached tlie limits of our re- sources for the investiiration of this New World civil- ization. In these relics of architecture and literature, of mythology and tradition, tiiere are clear indications of an older and higher type of culture than that brouglit immediately to the knowledge of the invaders; of a type tluit had temporarily deteriorated, i»erhaps through the M arXERAL VIEW OF THE CIVIMZEO NATIONS. innuenco of lon'jf-continucd and Idoody conflittH, civil and forc'iirii, bv which the inoro warlike rather than tho more hijjfldy cultured nations had l»een hroujj^ht into prominence and power, liut this anterior and superior civiliziition, restin*,' lari^ely as it d(»es on vajj^ue tradi- tion, and preserved to our knowledvfo in •jceneral allu- sions rather than in detail, maA', like the native con- dition since the concpiest, he utilized to the hest advantai»'e here as illustrative of tlie later and het- ter-known, if somewhat inferior civilization of the sixteenth century, descrihed liy the con«pieror, tho missionary, and the Spanish historian. Anti(jue remains of native skill, wliich have been preserved for our examination, may also bo largely used in illustration of more nuKlern art, whoso products liavo disappeared. These relics of the j)ast are also of tho hii'-hest value as conHrmiuijf tho truth of tho reports made by Spanish writers, very many, or per- haps most, of whoso statements respectini; tho wonder- ful plionomona of tho New World, without this incon- trovf-rtiblo material i)roof, would find few believers aimoni'' tho sceptical students of the jirosont day. These remains of anti(piitv, however, beini^ fully de- scribed in another vohunoof this W()rk, mav bo referred to in very general terms for present purposes. Of civilization in general, tho nature of its phe- nomena, tho causes and processes by which it is evolved from savagism, I have spoken sufficiently in tho foregoing chapter. As for the many theories re- specting tho American civilization in i)articular, its origin and growth, it is not my purpose to discuss them in this volume. No theory on those questions could 1)0 of any practical value in tho elucidation of tho subject, save one tliat should stand out among the rest so proeminently well-founded as to be generally ac- cepted among scientific men, and no one of all the mul- titude pro[)osod has acfpiirod any such preeminence. A complete resume of all the tlieories on the subject, with tho foundations which sujjport them, is given else- OUICJIN OF AMERICAN CIVILIZATION. 85 where in connection with the ancient tratliti.mary his- tory of the alK)ri<^inal nations. It is well, however, to remark that our lack of definite kno\vle(l«jfe alM)ut tlie orij^in of this civilization is not practically so iin- jjortant as iai«^ht a})|)ear at first thou«rht. Irue, we know not for certain whether it is indij^^enous or exotic; and if the former, whether to ascribe its cradle to tlm north or south, to one locality or many; or if the lat- ter, whether contact with the old world was ett'ected at one or many j)oints, on one occasion or at divers epochs, through the agency of migrating peoples or hy the advent of individual civilizers and teachers. Yet the tendency of modern research is to prove the great anti(piity of the American civilization as well as of the American people; and if either was drawn from a foreign source, it was at a time probably so remote as to antedate any old-world culture now ex- isting, and to j>revent any light being thrown on the otfspring by a study of the parent stock; while if in- digenous, little ho])e is afforded of following rationally their development through the politii'al convulsions of the distant past down to even a traditionally historic epoch. 1 may tlien dispense with theories of origin and de- tails of p.'ist history as confusing rather than aiding my present purpose, and as being i'ully treated else- where in this work. Neither am I recpiired in this treatment of the civilized races to make an accurate division between them and their more savajj^e neiyfh- bors, to determine the exact standard by which savag- ism and civilization are to be measured, or to vindicate tlie use of the word civilized as aj)i)lied to the Ameri- can nations in preference to that of semi-civilized, pre- ferred by many writers. We have seen that civilization is at best only a comparative term, apj)lied to some of tlie ever-shifting phases of human progress. In many of the Wild Tribes already described some of its charac- teristics have been observed, and the opposite elements of savagism will not be wanting among what J proceed M (JKXKKAL VIEW OK THE CIVILIZED NATIONS. to tlcHcribc as the Civilized Nations. Thoro is not a aav- aLfo people between Antihuac and Niearajjfua that hiin not neen inHiienced in its institutions by intercourse, warlike, social, or commercial, with neighlKus of hij^her culture, and has not exerted in its turn a reHex influence on the latter. The difficulty of drawinjr division-lines between nations thus mutually acting; on each other is further increased in America by the fact that two or three nati«)ns constitute the central figure of nearly all that has been observed or written by the few that came in actual ctnitact with the natives. This volume will, therefore, deal rather with the native civilization tlian with the nations that j)osscssed it. While, however, details on all the points mentioned, outside of actual institutions found existini^ in the six> toenth century, would tend to confusion rather than to clearness, be«idea leadin<.j in many cases to endless repetition, yet a «jfenend view of the whole subject, of the number, extent, location, and nmtual relations of the nations occuj>yin^ the central portions of the con- tinent at its discovery, as well as of their relations to those of the more immediate past, appears necessiiry to an inteliiijfent perusal of the followin»>^ paj^es. In this jnreneral view I shall avoid all ('scussion of dis- puted (juestions, reservinjjf argument, and details for future volumes on antiquities and aboriginal history. That portion of what we call the Pacific States which was the home of American civilization within historic or tr;^ditionally historic times, extends along the continent from north-west to south-east, between latitudes 22"' and 1 1°. On the Atlantic side the territory stretches from Tamaulipas to Honduras, on the Pacific from Co- 1 ima to Nicaragua. Not that these are definitely drawn boundaries, but outside of these limits, disregarding the New Mexican Pueblo culture, this civilization had left little for Europeans to observe, while within them lived few tribes uninfluenced or unimproved by con- tact with it. No portion of the globe, perhaps, em- HOMK OF TIIK AMERICAN CLLTIRE. m l)raocH witliin cciuiil latitiulinnl limitH ho j^rent a variety of cliiiiatt', Hoil, and ve<;etatioii: a variety whose iui- ]>ortant hearinjif on the native deveU)|)n»ent can he iin- tlenstocKl in some dcyrce, and which would douhtlesrt account satisfactoriy *' . Most of the coinpHcations of |>ro<,'ressional ])henoinena ohserved within the terri- tory, were tlie connection hetwe'.'U environment and ]»roj,m;ss fully within the j^rasp of our knowIed»(e. All the j^radations from a torrid to a temperate clime are here found in a region that lies wholly withii il)o n(»rthern tropic, altitudinal variations taking* the pLir j of and pnMlucitijr all the effects elsewhere attrilmt;il»ie to latitude alone. These variations result friu the topography of the country an determined by tiie con- formation givoTi to the continent hy the central cordil- lora. Tlie rMoira JVIadre enters this territory from the north "•? two principal ranges, one stretching along the coast of the Pacific, while the other and more lofty range trends nearer the Atlantic, the two again unit- ing lu'fore reaching the isthnms of Tehuantepec. This «;astern hranch between 18^' 40' and 20" 30' opens out into a tahle-land of some seventy-five hy two hundred miles area, w ith an altitude of from six to eight thou- sand feet above the sea level. This broad plateau or series of j)latoaux is known as the tierra fria, while the lower valleys, witli a band of the surrounding slopes, at an elevation of from three to five thousand feet, in- cluding large portions of the western lands of Micho- acan, Guerrero, and Oajaca, between the two mountain branches, constitute tlie tierva templada. From tlio surface of the upper table-land rise sierras and isolated peaks of volcanic origin, the highest in North America, their summits covered with eternal snow, which shel- ter, temper, and protect the fertile plateaux lying at their base. Centrally located on this t'd)le-land, sur- rounded by a wall of lofty volcanic cliffs and peaks, is the most famous of all the valley plateaux, somet'.'ing more than one hundred and sixty miles in circuit, the valley of Mexico, Anilhuac, that is to say, 'country by 88 GENERAL VFEVV OF THE CIVILIZED NATIONS. the waters,' taking its name from the hikes that form- erly occupied one tenth of its area. Anilhuac, with an elevation of 7,500 feet, may be taken as representative of the tierra fria. It has a mean temperature of 62° a cHniate much like that of southern Europe, although dryer, and to which the term 'cold' can only be com- paratively applied. The soil is fertile and productive, though now generally presenting a bare and parched surface, by reason of the excessive evaporation on lofty plains exposed to the full force of a tropical sun, its natural forest-covering having been removed since the Spanish conquest, chiefly, it is believed, through arti- ficial agencies. Oak and pine are prominent features of the native forest-growth, while wheat, barley, and all the European cereals and fruits flourish side by side with plantations of the indigenous maize, maguey, and cactus. B^rom May to October of each your, corres- ponding nearly with the hot season of the coast, ruins or showers are frequent, but rarely occur during the remaininof months. Trees retain their foliatje for ten months in the year, and indeed their fading is scarcely noticeable. Southward of 18^, as the continent nar- rows, this eastern table-land contracts into a mountain range proper, presenting a succession of smaller ter- races, valleys, and sierras, in place of the broader plateaux of the region about Anahuac. Trending south-eastward toward the Pacific, and uniting with the western Sierra Madre, the chain crosses the isthnms of Tehuantepec at a diminished altitude, only to rise again and expand laterally into the lofty ( Guatemalan ranges which stretch still south- eastward to Lake Nicaragua, where for the second time a break occurs in the continental cordillera at the southern limit of the territory now under con- sideration. From this central cordillera lateral sub- ordinate branches jut out at right angles north and south toward either ocean. As we go southward the vegetation becomes more dense, and the temperature higher at equal altitudes, but the same gradations of THE TIERRA CALIENTE. 89 *fria' and 'templada' are continued, blendinj^ into each other at a lieight of 5,000 to 6,000 feet. The charac- teristics of the Cordillera south of the Mexican table- land are lofty volcanic peaks whose lower bases are clothed with dense forests, fertile plateaux bounded by- precipitous cliffs, vertical fissures or ravines of iunnense depth torn in the solid rock by volcanic action, and mountain torrents flowing in deep beds of porphyry and forming picturesque lakes in the lower valleys. Indeed, in Guatemala, where more than twenty vol- canoes are in active operation, all these characteristic features appear to unite in their highest degree of perfection. One of the lateral ranges extends north- eastward from the continental chain, forming with a comparatively slight elevation the back-bone of the peninsula of Yucatan. At the bases of the central continental heights, on the shores of either ocean, is the tierra caliente, a name applied to all the coast region with an elevation of less than 1,500 feet, and also by the inhabitants to many interior valleys of high temperature. So abru})t]y do the mountains rise on the Pacific side that tlie western torrid band does not perhaps exceed twenty miles in average width for its whole length, and has exerted comparatively little influence on the history and de- velopment of the native races. But on the Atlantic or gulf coast is a broad tract of level plain and maish, and farther inland a more gradual ascent to the inte- rior heiglits. This remon presents all the features of an extreme tropical climate and vegetation. In the latitude of Vera Cruz barren and sandy tracts are seen; elsewhere the tiern. caliente is covered with the dens- est tropical growth of trees, shrubs, vines, and Howors, forming in their natural state an almost impenetrable thicket. Cocoa, cotton, cacao, sugar-cane, indigo, va- nilla, bananas, and the various palms are prominent anu>ng the flora; while the fauna include birds in infi- nite variety of brilliant plumage, with myriads of tor- menting and deadly insticts and reptiles. The atmos 00 GENERAL VIEW OF THE CIVILIZED NATIONS. phere is deadly to all but natives. The moist soil, en- riched by the decay of vegetable substances, breathes pestilence and malaria from every pore, except during the winter months of incessant winds, which blow from October to March. Southern Vera Cruz and Tabasco, the tierra caliente par excellence, exhibit the most luxu- riant display of nature's prodigality. Of alluvial and comparatively recent fonnation this region is traversed by the Goazacoalco, Alvarado, Usumacinta, and other noble rivers, which rise in the mountains of Guatemala, Chiapas, and Tchuantepec. River-banks are crowded with magnificent forest-trees, and the broad savanas farther back marked off into natural plantations of the valuable dye-woods which abound there, by a network of branch streams and canals, which serve both for irrigation and as a medium of transi)ort for the native products that play no unimportant role in the world's commerce. Each year inundations are expected be- tween June and October, and these transform the whole system of lagoons into a broad lake. Farther up the course of the rivers on the foothills of the Cor- dillera, are extensive forests of cedar, mahogany, za- l>ote, Brazil, and other precious woods, together with a variety of medicinal plants and aromatic resins. Tlie whole of Yucatan may, by reason of its tem- perature and elevation above the sea, be included in the tierra caliente, but its climate is one of the most healthful in all tropical America. The whole north and west of the peninsula are of fossil shell forma- tion, showing that at no very distant date this region was covered by the waters of the sea. There are no rivers that do not dry up in winter, but by a wonder- ful system of small ponds and natural wells the country is supplied with water, the soil being moreover always moist, and supporting a rich and vigorous vegetation. Notwithstanding evident marks of oimilarity in nearly all the manifestatit>ns of the progressional spirit in aboriginal America, in art, thought, and religion, THE NAHUA AND MAYA ELEMENTS. 91 there is much reason for and convenience in referrinj^ all the native civilization to two branches, the Maya and the Nahua, the former the more ancient, the latter the more recent and wide-spread. It is important, however, to understand the nature and extent of this division, and just how far it may be considered real and how far ideal. Of all the languages spoken among these nations, the two named are the most wide-spread, and are likewise entirely distinct. In their traditional history, their material relics, and, above all, in their methods of recording events by hieroglyphics, as well as in their several lesser characteristics, these two stocks show so many and so clear points of difforenco standing prominently out from their many resem- blances, as to indicate either a separate culture from the beginning, or what is more probable and for us j)ractically tlie same thing, a progress in different j)atlis for a long time prior to the coming of the Eu- ropeans. Very many of the nations not clearly affili- ated with either branch show evident traces of both cultures, and may be reasonably supposed to have de- veloped their condition from contact and intermixture of the parent stocks with each other, and with the neigh- boring savage tribes. It is only, however, in a very gen- eral sense that this classification can be accepted, and then only for practical convenience in elucidating the subject; since there are several nations that nuist l)e ranked among our civilized peoples, which, particularly in the matter of language, show no Maya nor Nahua affinities. Nor is too much importance to be attached to the names Maya and Nahua by which I designate these parallel civilizations. The former is adopted for the reason that the Maya people and tongue are com- monly regarded as among tlie most ancient in all the Central American region, a region where formerly flourished the civilization that left such wonderful remains at Palenque, Uxmal, and Copan; the latter as being an older designation than either Aztec or Toltec, both of which stocks the race Nahua includes. 92 GENERAL VIEW OF THE CIVILIZED NATIONS. The civilization of what is now the Mexican Republic, north of Tehiiantepec, belonged to the Nahua branch, both at the time of tlie conquest and thn)ughout the historic period preceding. Very few traces of the Maya element occur north of Chiapas, and these are chiefly linguistic, appearing in two or three nations dwelling along the shores of the Mexican gulf In published works upon the subject the Aztecs are the representatives of the Nahua element; indeed, what is known of the Aztecs has furnished material for nine tenths of all that has been written on the American civilized nations in general. The truth of the matter is that the Aztecs were only the most powerful of a league or confederation of three nations, which in the sixteenth century, from their capitals in the valley, ruled central Mexico. This confederation, moreover, was of compjiratively recent date. These three nations were the Acolhuas, the Aztecs, and the Tepanecs, and tlicir respective capitals, Tezcuco, Mexico, and Tlaco- pan (Tacuba) were located near each other on the lake borders, w'.ere, except Mexico, they still are found in a sad state of dilapidation. Within the valley, in gen- eral terms, the eastern section belonged to Tezcuco, the southern and western to Mexico, and a limited territory in .he north-west to Tlacopan. At the time when the confederation was formed, which was about one hundred years before the advent of the Spaniards, Tezcuco was the most advanced and powerful of the allies, maintaining her precedence nearly to the end of the fifteenth century. Tlacopan was far inferior to the other two. Her possessions were small, and ac- cording to the terms of the compact, which seem always to have been strictly observed, she received but one fifth of the spoils obtained by successful war. While keeping within the boundaries of their respect- ive provinces, so far as the valley of Mexico was con- cerned, these three chief powers united their forces to extend their conquests beyond the limits of the valley in every direction. Thus under the leadership of a line THE AZTECS THE NAHUA REPRESENTATIVES. 93 of warlike kings Mexico extended her domain to the shores of either ocean, and rendered tlie tribes therein tributary to her. During this period of foreign con- quest, the Aztec kings, more energetic, ambitious, war- Hke, and unscrupulous than their allies, ac(|uired a decided preponderance in the confederate councils and possessions; so that, originally but a small tribe, one of the many which had settled in the valley of Anjlhuac, by its valor and success in war, by the comparatively broad extent of its domain, by the magnificence of its ca[)ital, the only aboriginal town in America rebuilt by the conquerors in anything like its }>ristino splen- dor, and especially by being the i)eoj)le that came di- rectly into contact with the invaders in the desj)erate struggles of the conquest, the Aztecs became to Eu- roj)eans, and to the whole modern world, the re})re- sentatives of the American civilized peoples. Plence, in the observations of those who were personally ac- (juainted with these peoi)le, little or no distinction is made between the many different nations of Central Mexico, all being described as Aztecs. Indeed, many of the lesser nations favored this error, being j)roud to claim identity with the brave find powerful peo))!e to wliose valor they had been forced to succumb. While this state of things doubtless creates some confusion by failing to show clearly the slight tribal differences that existed, yet the difficulty is not a serious «>ne, from tlie fact that very many of these nations were unquestionably of the same blood as the Aztecs, and that all dr<3W what civilization they possessed from the sa: Nahua source. I may therefore coiitimie to speak of the Aztecs in their representative character, including directly in this term all the nations perma- nently subjected to the three ruling powers in Anii- huac, due care being taken to point out such differ- ences as may have been noticed and recorded. To fix the limits of the Aztec Empire with any ap- proximation to accuracy is exceedingly difficult, botJi l)y reason of conflicting statements, and because the M GENERAL VIEW OF THE CIVILIZED NATIONS. . boundaries were constantly changing as new tribes were brought under Aztec rule, or by successful revolt threw off the Mexican yoke. Clavigero, followed by Prescott, gives to the empire the territory from 18° to 21° on the Atlantic, and 14° to 19° on the Pacific, exclusive, according to the latter author, of the posses- sions of Tezcuco and Tlacopan. But this extent of territory, estimated at nearly twice that of the state of California, gives an exaggerated idea of Anahuac, even when that term is applied to the conquered ter- ritory of the whole confederacy. The limits men- tioned are in reality the extreme points reached by the allied armies in their successful wars, or rather, raids, during the most palmy days of Aztec rule. Within these bounds were several nations that wore never conquered, even temporarily, by the arms of Anahuac, as for example the Tlascaltecs, the Taras- cos, and the Chiapanecs. Many nations, indeed most of those whose home was far from the central capitals, were simply forced on different occasions by the pres- ence of a conquering army to pay tribute and allegi- ance to the Aztec kinors, an alleofiance which thev were not slow to throw off as soon as the invaders had with- drawn. Such were the nations of northern Guate- mala and Soconusco, whose conquest was in reality but a successful raid for plunder and captives; such the nations of Tehuantepec, such the Miztecs and Za- potecs of Oajaca, the latter having completely regained their independence and driven the Aztecs from their soil before the coming of the Spaniards. Other nations were conquered only in the years immediately preced- ing theSpanish conquest; instance the Matlaltzincas just westof Anahuac, and the Huastecs and Totonacsof Vera Cruz. By their successful raids among these latter peoples, the Aztecs only sealed their own doom, mak- ing inveterate foes of the coast nations, whose services would have been most efficacious in resisting the fatal progress of the Castilian arms. But other tribes less warlike and powerful, or nearer the strongholds of EXTENT OF THE AZTEC EMPIRR M their conquerors, were, by means of frequent military expeditions made to check outbreaking rebellion, kept nominally subject to the Aztecs during fifty years, more or less, preceding the coming of the Spaniards, paying their annual tribute with some regularity. Outside the rocky barriers of their valley, the Mexi- cans maintained their supremacy only by constant war; and even within the valley their sway was far from undisputed, since several tribes, notably the Chal- cas on the southern lake, broke out in open rebellion whenever the imperial irmies were elsewhere occupied. The Aztec empire proper, not restricting it to its original seat in the valley of Mexico, nor including within its limits all the nations which were by the fortunes of war forced at one time or anotlier to pay tribute, may then be said to have extended from the valley of Mexico and its immediate environs, over the territories comprised in the present States of ^lexioo (with its modern subdivisions of Hidalgo and !More- los), Puebla, southern Vera Cruz, and Guerrero, Of all the nations that occupied this territory, most of them, as I have said, were of one blood and language with their masters, and all, by their character and in- stitutions, possessed in greater or less degree the Na- hua culture. Of many of the multitudinous nations occupying the vast territory surrounding the valley of Mexico, nothhig is known beyond their names and their likeness, near or remote, to the Aztecs. For a statement of their names and localities in detail, the reader is referred to the Tribal Boundaries followiniy the chapter on the Central Mexicans in the first vol- ume of this work. Let it be understood, therefore, that the description of Aztec institutions contained in this volume applies to all th<^ nations of the empire as bounded above, except where special limitation is in- dicated ; besides which it has a general application to a much wider region, in fact to the whole country north of the isthm^us of Tehuantepec. In this connection, and before attempting a descrip- M GENERAL VIEW OP THE CIVILIZED NATIONS. tion of the IMcxican nations beyond the Hmits of the empire, nations more or less independent of Aztec sway, a glance at ancient Mexican history seems ne- cessary, as well to throw light on tlio mutual relations of the peoples of Anilhuac, as to partially explain the broad extent of the Nahua civilization and of the Az- tec idiom. The old-time story, how the Toltecs in the sixth century a])peared on the Mexican table-land, how they were driven out and scattered in the elev- enth century, how after a brief interval the Chichimecs followed their footsteps, and how these last were suc- ceeded by the Aztecs who were found in possession, — the last two, and probably the first, migrating in im- mense hordes from the far north-west, — all this is sufficiently familiar to readers of Mexican history, and is furthermore fully set forth in the fifth volume of this work. It is probable, however, that this account, accurate to a certain degree, has been by many writers too literally construed; since the once iH)pular theory of wholesale national migrations of American jteoples within historic times, and i)articularly of such migra- tions from the north-west, may now be regarded as practically unfounded. The sixth century is the most remote })eriod to which we are carried in the annals of Anahuac by traditions sufficiently definite to be con- sidered in any proper sense as historic records. At this period we find the Nahua civilization and insti- tutions established on the table-land, occupied then as at every subsequent time by many tribes more or less distinct from each other. And there this culture re- mained without intermixture of essentially foreign ele- ments down to the sixteenth century; there the suc- cessive phases of its development appeared, and there the progressional spirit continued to ferment for a period of ten centuries, which fermentation constitutes the ancient Mexican history. During the course of these ten centuries we may follow now definitely now vaguely the social, religious, and political convulsions through which these aboriginals were doomed to pass. THE NAIR'AS IX AXAIIUAC. 97 From small l)c»,nnnint;^s we sec miLfhty political poweis evolved, and these overturned and thrown into oh- scurity hy other and rival uni'oldinjL^s. Uelii^ious sects in like manner we see succeed each other, colorini^ their j>roL;ress with fre(|uent persecutions and reforma- tions, not unworthy of old-world medi;eval fanaticism, as })artisans of rival deities shaj)e the popular sujjersti- tion in conformity with their creeds. Wars, loniLf and hloody, are waged for plunder, for territory, and for souls; now, to quell the insurrection of a tributary prince, now to repel the invasion of outer harharian iiordes. Leaders, j)olitical and relij^-ious, rising to ])()wer with their nation, faction, city, or sect, aie 1 irc none can he positively idon- titieil l)y iiaino with any ')f tho hiter peoples found in Anjlhuac, thouji^h there can he little douht that several of the latter were descended directly from the Toltecs and contenijumiry trihea; and indeed it is believed with much reason that the semi-harharous Otomis of Anilhuac, and several nations beyond the limits of the valley, may date their tribal history back to a pe- riod even precedinjj^ the Toltec era. Durinjif the most nourishing period of its traditional five centuries of duration, the Toltec empire was ruled l)y a confed- eracy similar in some respects to the alliance of later ♦late between Mexico, Tezcuco, and TIacopan. The (•aj)itals were C.'ulhuacan, Otonipan, and Tollan, the two former corresponding somewhat in tei'ritory with Mexico and Tezcuco, while the latter was just beyond tho limits of the valley toward the north-west. Each of these capital cities became in turn the leading pow- er in the confederacy. Tollan reached the highest eminence in culture, splendor, and fame, and Culhua- (^an was the only one of the three to survive by name the bloody convulsions by which the empire was at last overthrown, and retain anything of her former greatness. Long-continued civil wars, arising chiefly from dis- sensions between rival religious factions, resulting nat- urally in pestilence and famine, which in the aboriginal annals are attributed to tiie direct interposition of irate deities, gradually undermine the imperial thrones. Cities and nations previtmsly held in subjection or t)vershadowed by the splendor and power of Tollan, take advantage of her civil troubles to enlarge their respective domains and to establish independent pow- ers. Distant tribes, more or less barbarous, but strong and warlike, come and establish themselves in de- sirable localities within the .limits of an empire whose rulers are now powerless to repel invasion. So the kings of Tollan, Culhuacan, and Otompan lose, year by year, their prestige, and finally, in the middle of 100 (;km:i!ai, vir:w of tiik civimzki) nations. tho tilovciiitli tH'ntiirv, ai'<( coinpk'trly oviiitliiowii, K-av- iii^' tluj Moxitan tahlc-laixl to l)o nilcMl l>y iiuw n>inl»i- iiatioiis of ris'm;^ powi'is. 'J'hu.s uiuls tho T»)ltLr pciioil of anciunt An:iluiac history. The popular account pictures tho whole Toltoc pop- ulation, or such |)art of it as had hccii spared hy war, pijstileuce, and famine, as niii;iatin.uf en masse south- ward, and leavinj.^ Analnnu' desolate and un|teopled for nearly a half century, to he settled anew hy trihes that crowded in from the north-west when they learned that this fair land had heen so stran^jcelv ahandoned. 'Phis account, like all (►ther national mij^nat ion-narra- tives ])ertainin;Lif to the Americans, has little founda- tion in fact or in jirohahility. The royal families and leli^'ious leaders of the Tol- tees were douhtless driven into perj»etual exile, and were accompanied hy such of the nohility as pre- ft^rred, rather than ctuiti^nt themselves with suhordi- nato ])ositions at home, to try their fortunes in new lands, some of which were perhaj)S included in the southern jtarts of the emj)ire concerniujL;' which so little is known. That there was any essential or imme- diate chanu^e in the population of the tahle-land he- vond the irruption <»f a ftnv trihes, is hii>hlv im- )>rol)al)le. The exiled princes and priests, as I have said, went southwaid, where douhtless they played an important j)art in the sul)se(|uent histt)ry of the Maya -Quid 10 nations of Central America, a history less fully recorded than that of Anahuai;. That these exiles were the founders of the CV'ntrul Ai lerican civil- ization, a })opular helie ' supported hy many writers, I cannot hut reijfard a atjother phase of that tend- ency ahove-mentioned attrihute all that is undo- fined and ill-understood to the ufreat and wonderful Toltocs; nor do 1 heliev that the evidence warrants su(^h an liyj)othesis. ]{ the pioneer civilizers of the south, the huilders of j^deuijue, (\)j)an, and other < itios of the more ancient type, were iinl)ued with or influenced hy the Nahuu culture, as is not iuiprohable, Tui: ciiicniMF.c KMPiin:. lot ■'t ccrtMiiily was not that cultiiri' as caniod sotith- wanl ill tlic cK'Vc'iith (ciitniv, l>iit a «lt'vi'|(>|(in(iit or jiliast' (A' it loriL,' pn'rcdiiii^r that wliicli took tlin iiai.io f Toltrc (111 t\\v Mt'xii-aii |tlat('aiix. With tlic d stnutioii of the ('iM|tiri' the term Tohi'*', as applied tn an I'xistiiiLj ixMipIc, disapix-arcd. 'I'his disa|>p' aiaiHc of the naiiic while the institutions of thi' nation vou- tinued to tioiirish, may inchcate that the desiicnation of the peopit! or possiMy of the niHiin" t'ainiiy (»t' 'I'ollan, was not apphed conteiniioianeonsly to tlie whole empire, and that in the trapeai's nnu'h more ancient than that of Toltecs, and indeed the .\rexican civilization as a whole minht peihaps as appropriately he terme«l Culhua as Xahua. The new era succt'edini;' the Toltec rule is that of the Chichimec i'm[)ire, which endured with some vari- ations down to the comiiin' of CV)rtL's. The orle, while such j)eople were livinj^. It seems probable that among the Nahua peo})les that ocoin)ied the country iVom the sixth to the eleventh centuries, a lew of tiie leading powers appropriated to themselves the title Toltucs, which had been at first em})loyed by the inhabitants of Tollan, v'hose artistic excellence soon reiidered it a designation of honor. To the other Nahua j)eo- j)les, by whom these leading powers were surrounded, whose institutions were identical but whose j)olish and elegance of mar.ner were deemed by these self-consti- tuted autocrats somewhat inferior, the term C'hichi- mecs, barbarians, etymologically 'dogs,' was applied. After the convulsions that overthrew Tollau and re- versed the condition of the Nahua nations, the 'dogs' ill their turn assumed an air of superiority and re- tained their designation Chichimecs as a title of honor and nobility. *> The names of the tribes represented as entering Ana- huac after the Chichimecs, but respecting the order of whose coming there is little agreement among authors, are the following: ^latlaltzincas, Tepanecs, Acoiiuias, Teo-Chichimecs (Tlascaltecs), ]\Ialinalcas, Cholultecs, Xechimilcas, ( Hialcas, Huexotzincas, Cuitlahuacs, Cui- catecs, Miz(|uicas, TLihuicas, Cohuixcas, and Aztecs. Some of these, as I have said, may have entei'eil the valley from the inimediate north. Which these were 1 shall not attempt to decide, l)ut they were nearly all of the same race ;ind language, all lived imder Xahua institutions, and their descendants were i'ound living on and about the Aztec i)lateau in tiie six- teenth century, speaking, with one or two exceptions, the Aztec tongue. In the new era of prosperity that now dawned on Audhuar, C'ulhuacan, where some I'emnants even of the Toltec nobility i'emained, muU'r C'hicbimec auspi- ces regained to a gre-it extent its old positi(»n as a centre of culture and ])owei'. Among the new na- 104 (JENERAL VIEW OF THE CIVILIZED NATIONS. tions whoso name now first ajipcars in history, tho A"(>llnias and Tepanccs soon rose to political promi- nenco in tho valley. Tho Acolhuas were the Chi- chiniecs par excellence, or, as tradition has it, the (yhichiniec nation was absorhed hy them, j,nvin<>' np its name, lanjj^uaijfe, and institutions. The caiiitals which ruled the destinies of Andhuac down to the iit'teentii century, besides C'ulhuacan, were Tenayo- can, Xaltocan, Ooatlychan, Tezcuco,and Azca})uzalco. These capitals being governed t(art by branches of tho s.amo royal (.'hichimec family, the era was one of civil intrigue for the balance of ])o\ver and for succession to tho throne, rather than one of foreign coiujuest. During the latter part of the i)eri()d, Tez- cuco, the Acolhua caj)ital under the Chichimec kings proper, Azcapuzalco the capital of the Te})anecs, and (Julhuacan held tho country under their sway, some- times allied to meet the forces of foreign foes, but oftener ])lotting against each other, eiwh, by alliance with a, second against the third, aiming at universal dominion. At last in this series of political manani- vres Culhuacan was ptn-manently overthrown, and the Chichimec ruler at Tezcuco was driven from his l)osscssions by the warlike chief of the Te})anecs, who thus for a short time was absolute master of Anahuac. But with tho decadence of the Culhua jiower at (Adhuacan, another of the tribes that camu into notice in tho valley after the fall of the Toltecs, had boon trraduallv L'aining a iiosition amon<» the nations. This rising power was the Aztecs, a ])e*)})lo ti'aditionally from the far north-W(>st, whose wanderings are tie- scribed in ])icture-writings shown in another part of this volume. Their migi-ation is more delinitely de- scril)ed than that of any other of tlie many wlio are said to have come from the same" direction, and has been considered by ditferent writi-rs to be a migra- tion from California, New ]\[exico, or Asia. Later researches indicate that the pictuivd annals are in- THE AZTEC ERA. 105 ten(l("(l simply as a record of the Aztec waiKlorinq-s in the valley of Mexico and its vicinity. AVhatiiver tlieir origin, hy their fierce and warlike natnre and bloody reliiiioiis rites, from the first they made themsclvt-s the ])t'sts of Aniihnac, and later its tyrants. For some cen- tnr L'S tl >ev ac quired no national influence, hut were often coiKjuered, enslaved, and driven from jilace to place, until early in the fourteenth century, when ^Texico or Tenochtitlan was founded, and under a line of ahic warlike kind's started forward in its career of ])rosperity unequaled in the annals of aboriginal Ain(M"i- ca. At the fall of Culhuacan, Mexico ranked next to 'iV'Zcuco and Azcapuzalco, and whei< the armies of the latter prevailed ai>'ainst the former, ^lexico was the most powerful of all the nations that sprang' to arms, and ])ressed forward to hund)le the Te[>anec tyrant, to reinstate the Acolluia monarch on his throne, and to restort; Tezcuco to her former commandiui^' position. 'I'he result was the utter defeat of the Te}>anecs, and the n'lory of Azcapuzalco departed forever. Thus ended in the early part of the fifteenth centu- ry the Chicliimec empire, — that is, it nominally ended, for the C'hichimec kings proper lost nothing" of their l)o\vei-. — and, hv the estahlishnient of the confedci'acv already descrihed, the Aztec empire was inaunuiated. lender the new dis])ensation of affairs, Mexico, hy whose aid chieHy Azca{)Uzalco had heen humhled, received rank and dominion at least etpial to that of Tezcuco, while from motivcss of policy, and in older, so far as ])ossil)le, to conciliate the Lj-ood will of a stronLic thoui^'h conipiered people, 'J'lacopan, under a hranch of the Te])anecs, with a less exteiisivi> domaii w as admitted to the alliance. The terms of the con- fed eracv seiMu, as r 1 lave said, nevei I, to I lave heen ojK'iily violated; hut in the first years of the six- teentli century tfie Aztecs had not only excited the hatred of the most ])owerful nations outsi(K> the hounds of Aniihuac hy their forei^'u raids, hut hy their arrogant overhearing^- s[»irit had made themselves oh- 106 GENERAL VIEW OF THE CIVILIZED NATIONS. noxious at home. Tlicir aim at supremo })ower was ai)i)aroiit, and both Tezcuco and the indej)endent re- j)uhlic of Tlascala beoan to tremble at the dangerous j)ro'uest traditions, does wot reach hack farther than the thirteenth century: nevertheless, as I have said, there is some reason to su[)jK»se that it formed part of the Toltec empire. The theory has even heen advanced that the Tarascos, forminu;- a ]>art of that empire, were not disturhed hy its fall, and were therefore the hest representatives of the oldest Nahua culture. Their reported jthvsical suj)eriority miij:ht favor this view, hut their distinct lan<>ua<>"e on t1 le contrary would renr der it nnpro hahlt care ful study of all that is known of this jx^ople convince^' me that they had Ion*;' heen settled in the lands where they wre found, hut leaves on the mind no deiinite idea of their earlier history. Their later annals are made up of tales, partakinuc largely of the mar^•elous and supernatural, of the doini;-s of certain demi-n'ods in<» or priests, and or wai's waL>"ed a^amst the onnn])resont Chichimecs. Branches of the "^-reat and ])rimitive Otonu' family are mentioned as haviuLT their jioines in the mountains, and there are traditions that fraL^nients of the jVztecs and other trihi's which followed the Chi- chimecs into Aiuihuac, linu'ered on the route of their min'ration and settled in the fertile valleys of ^licho- acan. Between the Tarascos and the Aztecs, speak- a lany'ua<4'e diflerent fi-om either hut alli^'d more or less intimately with the former, were tlie ]\ratlalt- ziiu'as, whose ca])ital was in the jilateau valley of To- luca, ju.'-t outside the hounds of Anahuac. This was (>' J of the trihes that have already heen named as coming- traditionally from the north-west. For a long- time they maintained their independence, hut in the last ([uarter of the fifteenth century were forced to yield to the victorious arms <.)f Axayacatl, the Aztec vv'arrior kinir. MIZTKCS AND ZAPOTF.CS. 1(10 Tmmixllati'ly l)el()w tlic mouth of the ^Toxriila, on the 1)or(.lcr of the Pacitii", woio tlio lands of tlie (,'ui- tlatocs, ami also the j)i\)vim'o or kingdom of Zacatollan, whose capital was the modern Zacatula. ( )f tiiese two |)erovinces that extended south-westward from Aniihuac to tiie ocean, beloni^ini;" chieHy to the modern state of (luerrero aiul inchuled in what 1 have de- scrihetl as the Aztec empire pr<>j)er, were those of tlu; 'riahuicas, wliose capital was Cuernavaca, the Coiuiix- cas, ca])ital at Acapulco, the Yop|>i on tlie coast south f Acaj)ulco, and the province of ^[az.itian fartlicr in- land or north-cast. The name Tlapanecs is also ratlu'r indi'Hnitely applied to the peo])le of a portion of this territory in the south, includin;;- jirohahly the Yoi)])i. ( )f tlie names mentioned we have met those of the Tlahuicas and C'ohuixcas amonj;' the trihes newly sj)riniL;inajaca, when lii'st deilnitely known to history, had exteiuled their ])ower over lu'arly all the tribes of Tehuantepec, besides vn- croachiuL!^ somewhat on the Miztec boundaries. The Miztecs, notwithstandintr the foreisj'n aid of Tluscaltecs 110 GENERAL VIEW OF THE CIVILIZEP NATIONS. and otlior eastern foes of the Aztec kinof, were first (lefeatecl by the allied forces of Anahuac ahout I4^i^] and from that date the conquerors succeeded in hold- inuf their stronger towns and more commandinn^ posi- tiinis down to the con(juest, thus enforciuij^ the pay- ment of tribute and controllin*^ the commerce of the southern coast, which was their primary object. Te- huantej>ec and Soconusco yielded some years after to tlie conquerini:^ Axayacatl, and Zapotecapan still later to his successor Ahuitzotl; but in the closinijf years of the fifteenth century the Zapotecs recovered their country with Tehuantepec, leaving Socunusco, how- ever, permanently in Aztec possesi^ion. The liistory of the two nations takes us no farther back than the fourteenth century, when they first came into contact with tlie peoples of Anahuac; it gives a record of their rulers and their deeds of valor in wars wajifed against each other, against the neighboring tribes, and against the Mexicans. Prior to that time we have a few tra- ditions of the vaguest character i)reserved by Burgoa, the historian of Oajaca. These picture botii IVliztecs and Za})otecs as originally wild, but civilized by the inHuence of teachers, priests, or beings of supernatural powers, who came among them, one from the south, and others from the direction of Anahuac. Their civ- ilization, however received, was surely Nahua, as is shown by the resemblances which their institutions, and particularly their religious rites, bear to those of the Aztecs, Being of the Nahua type, its origin has of course been referred to that inexhaustible source, the dispersion of the Toltecs, or to proselyting teach- ers sent southward by that wonderful people. Indeed, the Miztec and Zapotec royal families claimed a direct Toltec descent. It is very probable, however, that the Naiua element here was at least contem})oraneods in its i 'Production with the same element known as Toltec in Anilhuac, rather than implanted in Oajaca by missionaries, voluntary or involuntary, frini Tol- lan. I have already remarked that the presence of NATIONS OF TEIIUANTKI'nC. Ill IS t it Is Ls Naliua institutions in difTerent reh Tehuantepec in the later aboriijinal times was subject to the kini^s of Zapotecapan, yet within its limits, besides the C-hontales, — a name resemblin«]f in its uncertainty of application that of Chichimecs farther north, -were the renmants of two old nations that still preserved their independence. These were the ^rijes, livinijf chietiy by the chase in the mountain fastnesses of the north, and the Huaves, who held a small territory on the coast and islands of the hiij^oons just east of the city of Tehuantepec. The ^Tijes, so far as the vau^ue traditions of tho country reveal any- thinuf of their past, were once the possessors of Zapo- tecajian and the isthmus of Tehuantepec, antedatinijf the Zapotecs and perhaps the Nahua culture in this reunion, beini>- atHliatetl, as some believe, in institutions and ])ossiblv in lauijfuaife, with the ^Eaya element of Cen- tral America. While this connection nuist be reii^arded as somewhat conjectural, we may nevertheless accept as probably authentic the anticpiity, civilization, and power of this brave j)eo}Ue. The Huaves were tradi- tionally of southern origin, having come to Tehuante- jiec by sea from Nicaragua or a point still farther south. In navigation and in commerce they were enterpris- ing, as were indeed all the tribes of this southern -coast Andhuac, and they took gradually from the Mijes, 112 cnNKRAL VFKW OF THE t'lVIMZKD NATIONS. I wljoiii tlu'V I'ound in possisssiou, a larj^o extent ot'tcrri- torv, Mliich as we have seen they were tinally I'uived to yield uj) to tlieir Zapotee i()n((Uei()is. Crussinn' now to tlie Athmtic or ( Jult' hIioivs we liavo from the past nothinjjc hut a eonfusi-d aieoiint of ( )1- niecs, Xicahincas, and NonoliuaU-as, \vho may liave heen (hstinet peoples, or the same j)eople undi r diller- ent names at dilterent ej»o(hs, and who at some time inhahited the lowlands of Tehuantej)ee and Vera Cruz, as well as those of Tahasco farther south. At the time of the eontjuest we know that this region was thiekly inhahited hy a people seareely loss advanced than tho.se of Anahuac, and dotted with tlouri.shin:j^ towns devoted to eonuneree. But neither in the six- teenth nor inunediately ])recedin' this Anahuac Xicalanco. We know, however, that this country north of the (Joazacoalco lliver formed a portion of the Aztec em[)ire, and that its inhal>itants spoke for the most i)art the .Vztec tongue. These provinces, known as Cuetlachtlan and (Joazacoalco, Avero conipiered, chiefly with a view to the extension of the Aztec connnerce, as early as the middle of the Hfteenth century, notwithstanding the assistance ren- dered hy the armies t>f Tlascala. The plateau east of Anahuac sometimes known as Huitzilaj)an was found hy the Spaniards in the |)os- session of the independent re])ul)lics, or cities, of Tlas- cala, Huexotzinco, and C'holula, The jteople who occupied this part of the tahle-land were the Teo-Chi- chimecs, of the same language and of the same tradi- tional noi-th-western origin as the Aztecs, whom they preceded in Anahuac. Late in the thirteenth century they left the valley of Mexico, and in several detach- ments estahlished themselves on the eastern })lateau, where they successfully maintained their inde))endence of all foreign powers. As allies of the C'hichimec king of Tezcuco they aided in overturning the Tej>anec tyrant of Azcapuzalco; hut after the subsequent dan- Tin: Ti,AS(Ai;ri:i:s. 113 j^'crous (lt'V(I()|nnc!it of A/trc aiiiMtion, the Tlascalti't; armies aidfd in in-arly oncit attempt «)!" otluT nations to aiit'st the jiioyrcss of the Mexicans towaid uni- versal dominion. 'J'heir assistance, as we have seen, was unavaiHiin" except in tlie final successful alliance with thi' foites t>f Cortes; for, although secure in their small domain against I'orei^n invasion, theii- ai'mies. were often defeated ahroad. Tlascala has ntaiued very lu-arly its oriLjinal hounds, and the details of its historv iVom the foundation of the citv are, hy the writings of the native historian ( amart^o, nunc fully known than those of most other nations outside of .Vn;ihuac. Tliis author, howevi-r, i>;i\t's us tiie annals of his own and the surrounding' peoples I'rouj a 'I'las- caltec stand-point only. l>efore the Teo-t "hichimec invasion of Iluit/.ilapan, Cholula had ah'eady acquired jU'reat [irominence as a Toltec city, and as tlu' ixsidence (»f the i;reat Xaluui apostle Quetzalcoatl, of which era, or a pi'ccedinn" one, the famous pyi'amid remains as a memento. Outside of Cholula, however, the ancient history ol' this rei^ion ])resents hut a hlaidi J^ai^e, ov one va^'uely tilled with tales of oiants, its tirst rej)uted in- hahitants, and of the mystei'ious ( )lmecs, from some remaining;' frat^monts of which people the Tlascaltecs are said to have won their nt'W homes. These Olmecs seem to have been a very ancient ])eoj)le who occupied the whole eastern region, horderin^- on or nuAi'd witli tht! Xicalancas in the south; or rathei- the name ( )lmec seems to have heen thi^ designation of a phase or era of the Xahua civilization preceding,' that known as the Toltec. It is imj)ossil)ie to determine accui'ately whether the Xicalancas sln)uld he classed with tht^ Xahua or Mava element, although probahly with the iormer. The coast rct^ion cast of Tlascala, comprising" the northern half of the state of Vera Cruz, was the honu; of the Totonacs, whose capital was the famous Cem- ]>oala. and who were conciuered hy the Aztecs at the close of the liftcenth century. They were probably Vol. n. S HI cKNKKAL vii;w OF Till: riviMzr.o ^;^TI()^•s. I one of tlic iincioiit pro-Tolt(U' peoples Iik«» tlio (^tonifs >ii)( I ol lili;cs, JilH Ion Ml T tillK'S 1 tluy cljiiint'd to \\a\v (iicupiid i II AlKll UKU! am 1 til lo adjoiiiini,^ ti'iritoiy, vvlicic tlii'V erocti'd tho pyramids of the sun and moon at 'I'cotiliiiacan. Their institutions when Hist ohst-rved by Kuropcans seem to have heeii essi-ntially Nahiia, and t\\c alnindant arehiteetural remains found in To- tiniac territory, as at l'aj)arithi, Misantla, and Tusapan, show no well-iletined dillerences from Aztec eonstruc- titiiis ju-oper. Wlustlier tliis Naluia culture was that ()riL,Mnally possi>ssed l»y them or was intro(hiced at a conqiaratively lati; period tliroui,di the iiiHueiu'e of the Teo-Chicliimecs, with whom they hecame largely con- sohdited, is uncertain. The Totonac hmyua^e is, however, distinct from tho A/tec, and is tlioui^lit to hav(! some altinitv witli tho ISFaya. North of the 'I'otonacs on tlio cjulf coast, in tlii^ present state of Tamaulipas, lived the lluastecs, con- (terniuL!^ whose early history nothiniic whatever is known. Their laniruaw is allied to tho Mava dia- lects. They were a bravo [)eo|)le, looked upon hy the Mexicans as semi-harharous, hut were defeated and forced to pay trilmto hy the king of Tozeuco in the middle of tho fifteenth century. Tho difficulties experienced in rendering to any de- gree satisfactory a general view of the northern na- tions, are very greatly augmented now that I come to treat of tho Central American tribes. Tho causes of this increased difficulty are maiiv. I have already noticed the })romincnco of the A/tc« s in most that has been recorded of American civil '/iicion. During the con(piest of the central portions oX the continent fol- lowing that of Mexico, tho Spaniards found an ad- vanced culture, great cities, magnificent temples, a complicated system of religious and ])olitical institu- tions; but all those had been met before in the north, and consequently mere mention in generr.l terms of these later wonders was deemed sufficient by tho con- 1 -1 NATIONS OF CKNTUAL AMKIMCA. ii:> rnKMors, who wcic a class of inoii not disjxjsod to inako iiiiiiutt! olisiTvatioiis or comparisons ivsjicitiiiL,'" what Kccnictl to tlicni uniiuportant details. As to tho j)ri(sts, tlicir ihity was clearly to destroy rather than to closely investigate these institntions of the devil. And in the years t'ollowinL;' the coixjuesi, the associa- tion hetwi-en the natives and the comiuiMors was nuich less intimate than in Analmac. Tlu-se nations in matiy instances lout»ht until nearly aiuiihilated, or alter de- feat retired in national frat, their contents are only vaiL^uely known to the ))ul)lic throuLjh the writinj^s of their owners. Another diliiculty respectinu^ these writing's is that their de- pendence on any original authority more trustworthy than that of orally transmitted traditions, is at least doubtful. The key to the hieroglyphics eni^raved on the stones of l^den(ple and Copan, and painted on the ))aLrcs of the very few ancient manuscripts ])reserved, is now practically lost; that it was possessed by the writers referreil to is, althouij^h not impossible, still far from proven. Ai'-ain, ehronoloucy, so com])licated and uncertain in the aimals of Anahuac, is here, throui^-h the absence of leij^ible written recortls, almost entirely wanting, so that it is in many cases absolutely impos- sible to tix even an approximate date for historical events of uci-eat im])ortance. The attempts of authors to attach some of these events, without sufficient data, 116 GENKRAL VIEW OF THE CIVILIZED NATIONS. to the Naliu.a chronology, have done niucli to compli- cate the matter still further. The only author who has attempted to treat of tlie subject of Central American civilization and anti(juity (•om})rehensively as a whole is the Abbo Brasseur do JJourbourg. The learned abbe, however, with all his research and undoubted knowledge of the subject, and with his well-known enthusiasm and tact in antiquari- an engineering, by which he is wont to level difficul- ties, apparently insurmountable, to a grade which offers no obstruction to his theoretical construction-trains, has been forced to acknowledge at many points his inability to construct a perfect whole from data so meagre and conflicting. Such being the case, the fu- tility must be apparent of attempting liere any outline of history which may throw light on the institutions of the sixteenth century. 1 must be content, for the purposes of this chapter, with a mention of the civil- ized nations found in possession of the country, and a brief statement of such prominent j)oinis in their past as seem well-autlienticated and important. Closely enveloped in the dense forests of Cliiapas. < Guatemala, Yucatan, and Honduras, the ruins of sev- eral ancient cities have been dis(!overed, which are far superior in extent and magnificence to any seen in Aztec territory, and of which a detailed description may be found in the iourth volume of this work. Most of these cities were abandoned and more or less unknown at the time of the coiupiest. They bear hieroglyphic inscrip- tions apparently identical in character; in other respects they resemble each other more than they resemble the Aztec ruins — or even other and apj)arently laler works if) Guatmiala and Honduras. All these remains bear evident marks of great antiquity. Their existence and similarity, in the absence of any evidence to the contrary, would indicate the ociuipation of the whole country at some remote jieriod by nations far advanced in civilization, and closely allied in manners arid cus- toms, if not in blood and language. Furthermore, the THE ANCIENT MAYA EMPIRE. 117 traditions of several of tlie most advanced nations j)()int to a wide-si)read civilization introduced among a numerous and i)o\verful peojjle by Yotan and Zamnd, who, or their successors, built the cities referred to, and founded great allied empires in Chiapas, Yucatan and Guatemala; and moreover, the tradition is con- lirmed by the universality of one family of languages or dialects spoken among the civilized nations, and among their descendants to this day. I deem tlio grounds sufficient, therefore, for accejiting this Central American civilization of the j)ast as a fact, referring it not to an extinct ancient race, but to the direct an- cestors of the peoples still occupying the country witli the Spaniards, and applying to '■ 'le name Maya as that of the language which has ruvinis as strong as any to be considered the mother tongue of the lin- guistic family mentioned. As I have said before, the j)henomena of civilization in North America may be accounted for with tolerable consistency by the friction and mixture of this Maya culture and people with tlie Nahua element of the north; while that either, by migrations northward or southward, can have been the parent of the other within the traditionally his- toric past, I regard as extremely improbable. That the two elements were identical in their orisrin and early develojiment is by no means impossible; all that we can safely presume is that within historic times they have been practically distinct in their workings. There are also some rcit]u;r vague traditions of the fu'st a})pearance of the Nahua civilization in the re- gions of Tabasco and Chiapas, of its <;rowth, the grad- ual establishment of a power rivalling that of the people 1 call Mayas, Jind of a struggle by which the Niih.uas were scattered in different directions, chiefly north wa". *. .o reap})ear in histoiy sonij centuries latei' as the Toltecs of Anahuac. While the positive evi- dence in favor of this migration from the south is very lueagre, it must be admitted that a southoi !i origin of the Nahua culture is far more consistent w ith i'a"'U of those J,a"'uscdiv ro »>'«"■ as ca„ be not ' X't'^''?-"'"''- ""^t'tutfo .^ lu,,sju.:ve, a:,l i-ebVion ' '*"?'« "^ the sauie blood, I'""-'",!,' ..t a ,„„ch later dt^' '' o "'"" ■■','"' <^'l"^^l'.'« ap- !;-"- eras i,. tl,e late, ttorv "7 , ""' ""■''' '"■»'- li'cat™, ,s ,-eprese„ted to c ''^c , "'^l'^'""i«ila „f 7''""f Cuculcau, a,,,;„t^,- •""'"''''"■'••'' ""c appcar- ;^l"»"',y n his teachiuir a ' : T""T ™"--l"'''.ling ;■■"";■ «'t!, the Toltec'QueL c,v il' ^■'{/""'•W "f i'S ■^"■l • : the Cocou,e d,™,; "ii' "^' '"-"""e the tlic ^.,.„.,y ,,^ J- , 1,:"^^ "ty at Mayai,au, a,„l ,„|ed ^-'-^"'^C'.eie.ati.a,^r'^:^,l--n,a.^ 120 GENERAL V;EW OF THE CIVILIZED NATIONS. were overthrown, and Mayapan destroyed l)y a revo- lution of the allies. The Tutul Xius now l)eea]ue the leading power, a position which they held down to the time, not lon<^ before the conquest, when the coun- try was divided by war and civil dissensions into nu- merous petty domains, each nded by its cjiief and independent of the rest, all in a weak and exhausted condition compared with their former state, and un- al)le to resist by united effort the jiro^^ress of the Spanish invaders whom individually tliey fought most bravely. Thre *' ^ comparatively recent events of some importaiK i Yiicatec history may be no- ticed. The Cocomec in tho struggle preceding their fall called in the aid of a large force of Xicalancas, probably a Nahua people, from the Tal)ascan coast region, who after their defeat were permitted l)y the conquerors to settle in .the country. A successful raid by some foreign people, supjiosed with some reason to be tlie Quiches from Guatemala, is reported to have been made against the Mayas with, however, no im- portant permanent results. Finally a portion of the Ttzas migrated southward and settled in the region of Lake Peten, establishing their capital city on an island in the lake. Here they were found, a powerful and advanced nation, by Hernan Cortes in the sixteenth century, and traces of their cities still remain, although it must be noted that another and older cL'ss of ruins are found in the same region, dating back j)erhaps to a time wlien the glory of the Maya ejnpire had not wholly departed. Chiapas, politically a part of the Mexican Republic, but belonging geographically to Central America, was occupied by the Chiapanecs, Tzendales, and Quelenes. The Tzendales lived in the region aliout Palentpie, ..nd were j)resuniably the direct descendants of its builders, their language having nearly an equal claim with tlie Maya to be considered the mother tongue. Tlie Chi- apanecs of the interior were a warlike tribe, and had before the coming of the Spaniards coiKpiered the CHIAPAS ,VSD GUATEMALA. 121 id til uns tlio Mii- liul tlie other nations, forcing tlicra to pay triluito, and ruc- cossfiilly resisting the attacks of tlie Aztec allies. They also are a very old people, liaving been referred even to tho tribes that preceded the establishment of Votan's empire. Statements concerning their history are numerous and irreconcilable; they have some tra- ditions of having come from the south; their linguistic affinity with the Mayas is at least very slight. The Quelenes or Zotziles, whose past is equally mysterious, inhabited the southern or Guatemalan frontier. Guatemala and northern Honduras were found in possession of the IVlc^T^es in the north-west, the ]*oco- manis in the south-east, the Quiches in the interior, and the Cakchiquels in the south. The two latter were the most powerful and ruled the count)-^^ from their capitals of Utatlan and Patinamit, where tuey re- sisted the Spaniards almost to the point of annihila- tion, retiring for the most part after defeat to live by the chase in the distant mountain gorges. Guatema- lan history from the Votan empire down to an indefi- nite date not many centuries before the conquest is a blank. It recommences with tho first traditions of the nations just mentioned. These traditions, as in the case of every American people, hcgin with the innnigration of foreign tribes into the country as the first in the series of events leading to the establish- ment of the Quiche-Cakchiquel emi>ire. Assuming the Toltec dispersion from AnilhujiC in the eleventh century as a well-authenti''ated fiict, most wi'iters have identified the Guatemalan nations, except per- haps the Mames by some considered the descendants of the oriiifinal inhabitants, with the mii^ratinu- To]tc<-s who fied southward to found a new empire. 1 have already made known my scepticism respecting national American miifrations in ii^eneral, and the Toltec mitiTa- tion southward in particular, and there is nutliing in the aimals of Guatemala to modify the views previ ously expressed. The Quiche traditions arc vague and without chronologic order, nuich less definite than 122 GENEIIAL VIEW OF THE CIVILIZED NATIONS. those relatihijf to the mytlilcal Aztec wjuidcilni^. Tlie sum antl substance of tlio Quiclitj and Toltec identity is the traditional statement that tlie former people entered Guatemala at an unknown period in tlie past, while the latter left Anahuac in the elev- entli century. That the Toltecs should have mi- grated en masse southward, taken possession of CUia- temala, established a mighty empire, and yet have abandoned their lanoua;»'c for dialects of the ori<2ri- iial Maya tongue is in the highest degree imi)rob- able. It is s.ii'er to suppose that the mass of the Quiches and other nations of Guatemala, Chiapas, and Honduras, were descended directly froni the Maya builders of Palenque, and from contemporary peoples. Yet the differences between the Quiche- Cakchiquel st ucturcs, and the older architectural re- mains of the ^laya empire indicate a new era of Maya culture, originated not unlikely by the intrcjduction of foreign elements. Moreover, the apparent identity in name and teachings between the early civilizers of the Quiche tradition and the Nahua followers of Quetzal- coatl, together with reported resemblances between actual Quiche and Aztec institutions as ol)served by Eurojieans, indicate farther that the new element was engrafted on ISIaya civilization by contact with the Nahuas, a contact of which the presence of the exiled Toltec nobility may have been a prominent feature. After the overthrow of the original empire we may su})pose the people to have been subdivided during the course of centuries by civil wars and sectarian strug- gles into petty states, the glory of their former great- ness vanished and partially forgotten, the spirit of progress dormant, to be roused again by the j)resence of the Nahua chiefs. These gathered and infused new life into the scattered renmants; they introduced some new institutions, and thus aided the ancient j)eoj)le to ri'build their emj)ire on the old foundations, retaining the dialects of the original lan>>uao. The former arc known anionic different autliorsas Nic- araguans, Nitpiirans, or (^holutecs, and they occuj>ied the coast between lake Nicaragua and the ocean, with tlie lake islands. Their institutions, political and rc- ligicais, were nearly the same as those of the Aztecs of Aiuilmac, and they have left abundant relics in the form of idols and sepulchral deposits, but no archi- tecturjil remains. These relics are moreover hardly less abundant in the territory of the adjoining tribes, nor do they differ essentially in their nature; hence we must conclude that some other Nicaraguan peoples, either by Aztec or other influence, were considerably advanced in civilization. The Nahua hibes of Salva- dt)r, the ancient Cuscatlan, were known as l^ipiles, and their culture appears not to have been of a high order. Both of these nations probably owe their existence to a coK)ny sent soutliward from Anahnac; but whether in Aztec or pre-Aztec times, the native traditions, like their interj)retation by writers on the subject, are in- extricably confused and at variance. For further de- tails on the location of Central American nations I refci* to the stat(3ment of tribal boundaries at the end of Chai)ter VII., Volume I., of this work. I hero close this general view of the subject, and if it is in some respects unsatisfactory, I cannot believe that a diiferent method of treatment would have ren- dered it less so. To have gone more into detail would liave tended to confuse ratlier than elucidate tlu; mat- ter in the reiider's mind, uidess with the sup})ort ctf extensive quotations from ever-contlicting authorities, which would have swollen this general view from a chaj)ter to a volume. As far as antiquity is concerned, the most intricate element of the subject, I shall at- tempt to present — if I cannot reconcile —all the im- portant variations of opinion in another division of this work. 124 GENERAL VIEW OF THE CIVILIZED NATIONS. In the troiitincnt of my subject, truth and ac- curacy aro tlic j)rincij)al aim, and tlieso arc never sacrificed to jjfra})liic stylo f>r t»l()win<>^ diction. As much of inten'st is thrown into the recital as the au- thorities justify, and no more. Often mnv he seen the more striking characteristics of these nations dashed off with a skill and brilliance eijualed only by their distance from the fticts; disputed })oints and unpleas- inuf traits olossed over or thrown aside whenever they interfere with style and eflect. It is my sincere de- sire, above all others, to })resent these j)eople as they were, not to make them as 1 would have them, nor to romance at the expense of truth; nevertheless, it is to be hoped that in the truth cnouriately j)laced here tlian elsewhere, a note on the etymological meaning and derivation, so far as known, of the names of the Civilized Nations. KTYMOI.OCY OF NAMKS. AroMlUAS; — Possibly from rolon, "to Itciiil,' iiicaniii;; with Ihc prefix (itl, 'wiiter-roUinas,' or '|)fo|ilo at the IwihI of the wiitor.' Not from uvolli, ■ >hc)iilili'r,' nor from rolU, 'j^'raiuifather.' Jliisr/iintniii, Ortstiamni, pp. S.">, S'.t. 'I'nioii, oiiconiar, o ciitortar alj;i>, o rodcar yt'inlo (.'amino.' ' Anilli, onihro.' 'Ciillmiti, llouar a otro por rodoos a al^^una parte.' Mo/iiia, Vtnithnhirio. i'ltlU, '<;ranil-father,' plural rolhuan. ('oUnianiii, or Ci(fiiiniii, may then mean "tiic hiuil of our ancestors.' Gallnlin, in Aiiur. Ethiut. Sor., Traiisurt., \ol. i., ]»p. 204-5. 'El uonihre lie ucitlhuan, o «ej;un la orto{;rafia niexica- na, ncitlliuiii[iii\ en plural, y no ((niUitKirmifs, ni oru/hncs.'' lUci-. I'liir., toni. i., p. ;V.>. 'Col, chose eourhe, faisant rtilon, rohiti, on chI/ikii, nom a|i- )>iii|U(5 jilns tan! dans le sens d'aneetre, j)aree que du Col/iiiardii primitif, des ilos de la (\)url»e, vinrent les emi<,'res qui rivili.s^rent les habitants do la valk'c d'Anahuac.' JirtiKSiiir de liniirlioiinf, Qudlir Lfltirx, p. 407. 'Co/- /mil, on riil/iiKi, riihxi, dc coitic, eho.se courbee. Oe lii Ic nom de la rite de I'olliUiiatti, qu'on trailuit inditleremmont, ville de la eourbe, de ehoscs riM-ourboe^ (des scri)euts), et aussi des aieux, de roltzin, aieul.' /(/., Po/kiI Viih, ]). xxix. AzTKCS;— From Azflnii, the name of their uneient liomc, from a root Aztll, which is lost. It has no connection with (tzcutl, 'ant,' but may liaM- some reference to iztar, 'white.' lUischtitatm, Ortsiianini, pp. 5-ti. 'I>e Azflan se deriva el nneional Aztrrntl.' Pimnitrl, Ciiadro, tom. i., )>. l.')S. '.Ic, primitif iVdzrntl, fourmi, est le mot qui desi;,'ne, a la fois, d'uiie ma- nierc ".^enerale, la vajtenr, le {jaz, ou toute chose leg^re, eomnie le vent on lii plnie; c'est I'aile, aztli qui disij;iie aussi la vapenr, c'est le heron dans K.-Jiitl. II se retrouve, avee une leyere varianfe, dans le mot nahnatl com- jiose, tvin-az-cnUi, bain de vai>eur, dans i-z-lU, le sang ou la lave; dans Ics vo;ables quiches atz, bouiree du funu'e, eponvantail, feu-follet. . . . Ainsi Ics fourmis de la trad'tion hai'tienne, comme de la tradition niexicaine, sont ii la fois des ima.geii des feux intcrieurs tie la terre et de leurs exhalaison.s, comme du travail des mines etde raj^riculture. Du meme i)rimitif uz vienl Azilitii "le I'ayssur <»u dans le gaz, nz-tmi, nztlan, la terre .seche, soulevio liar les !_'a/. ou remplie de vapeurs.'" Rni.sinur cehe.' Cfuriifrri), Sforin Aiif. ihl Missim, tom. ii. j>. -IZ^'i. Duschmuuii believes Acosta's delinitiou 'in the mouths' to be niorr 126 ETYMOLOGY OF NAMES. correct. Ortminmrn, p, 83. Thairn, Co qtii est Ic calonire; c'est IVxamen do t(ms IcH vocables nicxicaiiis, coinmcii\:ant en rhal, qui \\\\\. fail di'cou. vrir le sens exact tic ee mot; il so trouvc surtout dan c/ial-c/ii/uiitt, Ic jatle, litteraleiiient ce qui est sort! du fond du calouirc.' Brasscur dc Boitibounj, Qiialrc Lcttirs, pp. 4()S, A(Wy. CllKi.K.s; -*Le Chcl dans la lanfjiie niaya est unc esp^ce d'oi.seaux par- ticulicrs i\ ccttc contrtSc' Brasscur dc Bourbvurg, Hist. Xut. Civ., toui. ii., p. 19. ('IIIAPANKCS; — Chiapan, 'locality of the chia'' (oil-seed). Biisrhmann, Orfsnaincti, p. 187. 'C/iiajinnt^qiif, du naliiiatl rhiitpniirnitl, c'cst-ii-dire hoinnie dc la rivibrc Chiaitan (can douce), n'est pas le noin veritable dc ce peuplc; c'cstceluiquc lui donnbrcnt Ics Mcxicains.' Brasscur dc Bonrbourg, Hist. Nat. Civ., torn, ii., p. 87. CliK-niMKCs;— 'CVu'cAj, pcrro, o pcrra.' Molina, Vocabtdurio. Chichi, '''•^o;' perhaps as inhabitants of Chichimrcan, 'place of doys.' Mccull may mean 'line,' 'row,' 'race,' and Chichimccatl, therefore 'one of the race of dogs.' Bu.frhmann, Ortsuimcn, pp. 79, 81. 'Chichini6quc veut dire, h pro- prenient parler, hommo sauvagc Ce mot designe des hommes ([ui inaii- tjeut de la viaude cruo et succnt le sang des animaux; cur chichilizll! veut dire, en mexicain, sucer; chichinalizlli, la chose que Ton suce, et Chichi- hualli, mamelle. . . .Toutcs les autres nations Ics rcdoutaient ct leur don- liaicnt le noni de Suceurs, en mexicain, 'Chichimccatrrhinfiiii.^ Les Mexi- caius nomment aussi les chicns chichimc, parce qu'ils Ifecheut Ic saii*; des animaux et lesucent.' Camargo, Hist. Tlaxcallan, '\n Nouiclks Anindcs des Voy., 1843, toni. xcviii., p. 140. ' Tcnchichimcras, que quiere decir del todo bnrbados, que por otro nombre se decian Cacachimecas, 6 sea hombres sil- vestres.' Sahagun, Hist. Gen., tom. iii., p. UC. 'Chichiiucc o\\ chichi inetl, Huceur de majj;uey, et dc Ifi lea Chichimbques.' Brasscur dc Bourboiirg, Hist, Nat. Cii\, tom. i., pp. 171, 5G. Other derivations are from Chichcii, a city of Yucatan, and from chichiltic 'red,' referring to the color of all Indians. Id., Popol Vuh, p. Ixiii. 'CAj scion Vetancourt, c'est une preposition, cxprimant ce qui est tout en has, au plus profond, comme aco signilic cc qui est au plus \\a,\\t. .. .Chichi est un petit cliien (c/it-en), dc ceux qu'on appclle dc Chihuahua, qui sc creusent des tanifcres souterraincs. . . .Chichi euouce tout cc qui est amer, aigrc ou Acre tout ce qui fait tache: il a le Bcus de sucer, d'absorber; c'est la salive, c'e it le poumon et la mauiclle. Si inaintcnant. . . .j'ajoutc inc, primitif dc rmtl, aloiis, chose courbJe, vous au- rcz Chichimc, choses courbes, tortueuses, su^antes, absorbantes, amfcres, ficres ou aeides, se cachant, comme les petits chicns terriers, sous Ic sol oil dies se conccntrent, commes des poumons ou des manielles .... Or, puis- qu'il est acquis, d'aprbs ccs pcintures et ces explications, que tout cela doit s'appliqucr ?i unc puissance telluriquc, erraute, d'ordinaire, comme les popu- lations nomades, auxqucllcs on attacha le nom de Chichinicca.' Id., Quatre Lcttrcs, pp. 111-12. CnOLULTKCS;— From clioloa, meaning 'to spring,' 'to run,' 'to flee,' or 'place where water springs up,' 'place of flight,' or 'fugitives.' Bu.ichiuann, Orfsnatncn, p. 100. 'C'est du lieu d'oii ils etaient sortis primitivement, ou plutOt Ii cause dc Icur qualittS actucUc d'cxiles, qu'ils prireni eusuite Ic nom CrVlLf^ED NATIONS. <"'IONTV(KS--'r/ . /, J' "^xt. i\at. Liv., 'Wr/>.A,;,> ^"'''"«"". f>'-Asv,r,;.o,. p. 15 • I// ,/ ""'""'"'• ''"^•"l- IIlvsTi- "LTivation ""> loni. 1., r,|, r, /.. r, , ^ q"e cs inl.il.il 6 tos,.o I.. I ' ' ^""■^"""»», ( 128 ETYMOLOGY OF NAMES. liiif/iii, cosa torcidii.' Molina, Vncaftii/nrin, ' Afalinnl cM lo nom roinirmn t ii<{ua.' Oruzco i/ lUi-nt, (irot/ra/iii, p. "24. 'A until Icii^^ua Hainan Miiiuc, i iiidius iniiincn A los do cista ttiorru, iHtrqiic ordiimri- iiiiu'iito liiiiilau y roHpondc!! con vntu pulaltra man, qiio quiure decir yxxZ/r.' Jiii/noso, ill Piiiiinlii, Viiadro, toiii. i., i>p. 83-4. 'Afiin veiit dire Iti'giu' ot iiiiu't.' * "Mem," iiial i\ propiw di''li;.(iiri5 dans Maiiu; par Ics EMpiijiiiols, servit di!|iiiiH ^emiraleiiient 11 designer les nations (^ui coiiHorvcront lour anciunnt; ]aii;,'uu et deiiiourbront plus ou inoiiis indi'-poiidontCH des unvuiii.sHciirs etraii- y,vr».' Mam 'vcutdircancieii, veillanl.' liraiixciirilc Ihuihonrtj, Ili.st. Nal. ('ii\, loin, ii., If. 111). Mum soniutiiiuis nieans grand-son. /(/., J'njtut Viih, p. 41. M.\TI.AI,TZINCAS;~'E1 uonibrc Matlaldnratl, tomiisc de Matfatl quo es la red con la cual desgranuban el niaiz, y liaiiun otras eosus Taiiibien se llaniati MuUatzincas de hundas que so dicen tlrmatlak; y as! Mathilziiivas jior otni interprt'tauion quiere decir, hoiideros 6 foiidihiilurius; porque los diclius Mdlliilziiiros euaiido niut'liaflios, iisaltan iniiclio truer las liondus, y de ordinario las tniiun consij^o, eonio los Vhir.himecas bus areos, y sieinjjre undalian tirando eon ellas. Taniliien Ics llunialian del noinbre de red por olra ni/on que es la mas prineipal, porque euundo h, su idnio suerillcalian algiina persona, le eehaban dciitro en una red, y alii Ic retoreian y estrujii- lian eon la dieliu red, lia.sta <|iic le liacian eeliar los intestinos. La eaiisa d(! llaiiiarse i'o((^/ (Haniirez dieeiiue "dehe leerse 6V/«?7/ (eabeza). C'oatl si;;- iiiticii eulehra," cuando es uno, y quaquatas euando son muclios es, porque sieiiipre traian la eabeza eenida eon la lionda; por loeuul el vocablo se deeia ijua por abreviatura, ipie quiere deeir quui/l (jue es la calK'za, yfa que (piiere deeir /a/«rt^/«r) qucs es la lionda, y asi quiere deeir, quatlatl liombre . Ml/i;ilfA.s; '.lA/;'/(/(V/, arliol ilc;,'(iiiia paratiiita.' Mnlhin, Viinilnildrio. Mi'zi/iiifl, a ti'Of yicldin;,' tlii- pure yiini araliif, a spfcii'tn of ucaria. Jliisr/i- niniiii, Orl.siiiiiiini, p. 104. , Ml/l'Kcs; 'La palalira niexicaiia Mi.rlrrnll, cs iiiiiii1ir<> narimial, ilt-riva- (In lit! iiii.r/liiii, liij;ar «le iiulii!s ('( lu'lailiiso, loiiipucsto de nii.iili, iiiilic, y do la ItTiiiinaciim llmi.' I'iinriili'l, Ciiiu/ro, toni. i., p. '.\'.). Mi.iilnn, 'pliitc of cliMids.' liiisriniiiiiiii, Ort.siiiniioi, ]i. IS. ' Mi jtiritjiiiii ... .\ti\yH tlva lirouii- lards.' ISrii.s.siiir ilv Iloiirlioiirij, Ifi.il. Xiit. Cir., toiii. i., p. 1l(i. NaiU'AS;- -'TodoH ids (|Ut' lialilan claro la lenj^iia nicxicana (luc Ics lla- inaii iict/iOiis, son dt'sccndiontcs de lo.s Tultfcas.' Sd/nn/mi, lli.st. II, n., toin. iii., lil». X., p. 111. ' \(i/ionll it mihiiiill, Nfj,'uii td dinimiario iK' Miiliiia. mI^'- iiilicaTO.vo f/iieniienii hint, de niiiner. Le mot Xnlnml dans son sens primitif et veritalde, mgniiie done litteralemcnt "(pii suit tout;" eVst la memo chose ahsolnincnt que lo mot anj;lais Kiiuir-all, avec leijuel il a tant d'identite. l.n C^uiche et lo Cakchiquel reni|>loient fr('(|ueinment aussi dans le sens de niysterioux, extraordinaire, niervoilleux.' Brusscitr ile Bum- lioiirr/, Ili.'it. Xal. Cir., torn, i., pp. 101-'2, l!»t. NoNolliAl.cA.s;— The Tutul-Xius, chiefs of a Nahuatl house in Tnlan, seem to have home the uauic ol Nonoiial, which may have };iven rise to Xoiio/iimiro or OiiohiKtli'u. ' Xonoiial ne ^erait-il pas une alteration do Xiiiiiiual on Xanahnatlf^ Bransciir ilc BuurOourij, in Luiula, lid. ilc Iks L'ljsdH lie Yiiciiliin, p. 420. OlmkcS; — (')lmeeatl was the name of their first traditionary leader. Brn.t' .inir ilr Uniirhoiir'j, Hint. Xat. Civ., toin. i., [>. l.VJ. Olincnitl nniy mean an inhaliitaiit of the town of Olitiaii; hut as iiirrd/l is also used for 'shoot.' 'oll'sprin;,',' 'hranch,' tho word prohahly conies from oHi, and means 'peojilo of the j,'um.' Ihisvhinuun, Ort.Hiutiiuii, ji. 1(5. Oto.mI.S; — 'Kl vocahlo OtomitI, que es el nonihre de los O'omiifi, toii;:i- rnnlo do su caudillo, cl eual se llanuiha Oton.'' Suhiifjuii, Ifi.sl. G:n., toin. iii , lib. x., j>. \'1'2. Not a native word, hut Mexican, derived perhaps from oil.', 'road,' and toinitl, 'animal hair,' referring possibly to some peculiar mode of wearing the hair. Biisrlniumn, Orl.snnnini, pp. 18-19. 'Of/io en la mis- ma longua olhonii quiere decir iiui/ii, y mi, quicto, OBCiitado, de luuncraquo Yul. II. U 130 ETYMOLOGY OF NAMEIS. traditrida litoralnicnto la tialahra, sigiiifica nada-quioto, niya idi-a pudic'ra- inos exprcsar . 137-8. So called because they spoke the Mexican language with a childish pronunciation. Juarro.s'' Hint. Gmtl., p. 2-.M. PoKOM.VMS; — 'Pokom, dont la racinc j)ok di^signc uno sorte de tnf blaiic ct sablonneux La ternii.iation ojii est un particijie i)rcsent. De Poloin- vieiit U; noni de Pokoniani et de I'okouK^hi, qui fut i, et de fAe, urbre; ou de ijkccIic^ 'jKerkduh, qcchdah, la foret.' X'.niuirz, in Brasscitr de Poiu-huiirff, Popol Viih, p. cclxv. TAUAStOS; — 'Tarasco vicne de tnrhancnc, que en la lengua de Miihoacan eignifica suegro, 6 yerno segun dice el P. Lagunaseii sn ( UiUiuitica.' I'inicii- tcl, Ciiadro, toni. i., p. 273. ' Tarns en la lengua niexicaiia m' dice Mixroatl, que era el dios dc los Chidiiincva.s.' Sahmjioi, Hist. (!ni., 7. 'ri;i'ANi;t'S; — Tr/inn, 'stony place,' from fetf, or fi'rpan, 'royal palace.' Biisrfihiaini, Ort.sii iiiieii, p. 92. 'Trrpantlan signilie aupres ties palais.' Bru.t.'triir dr Boiirhoiirff, Popol Viih, p. ex. 'Cailloux roules sur la roche, tc-pa-nc-cd, litteralenient ce qui est niele ensemble sur la pierre; «>u bien tc- jHia-r-ed, e'est-a-dire avcc des petites pierres sur la roche ou le soiide, <\ pour ctl, le haricot, frijol, (5tant yiris souveut dans le bciis d'une i>etito pi-rre sur une surface, etc.' Id., Quatrc Lcttirs, p. 408. TLAHUICAS;^From tlahuitl, 'cinnabar,' from this mineral being jilenti- ful in their country. Bu.fchmatiu, Ortstiaiiini, p. 93. Tlitliuilli, 'poudrcs brillantes.' Brasscur dc Boiir/joiinj, Qiiatrc Lctlirs, j). 422. 'Tlouiii, ahini- brar a otros con candelu o hacha.' MoHn \ Vorabiifuno. Tlai'ANKcs; — 'Y Ihlmanlos taini)ien tlaiianccas que quiche decir I'otii- hrc.i (diiKujrados, porquc se ombijaban con color.' Sa/uvfiiii, Hi it. (ini., toni. iii., lib. X., p. 135. From tlnlpnntli, 'ground;' may also come fron. tUdll, 'laud.' Buschmtttin, Orfttnninoi, p. 102, TlapaUdti, 'terre ccdoree.' Brn.'i- sr.urih- Bourtioiii'fj, Pojwl Vnh, p. Ixiii. Tla, 'feu.' /r tortillas,' the past particip'e of ixca, 'to bake or broil.' Buschnuinn, Orfsiianun, p. 93. CIVILIZED NATIONS. 131 Toi.TKCS;— ' 7'o//rcr^//o//, maostriii ilc arto riu'caiiioa. ToUrratl, ofl'irial de arte mccanira. To/frrniiin, faUricar o lia/or alyio ol maestro.' Molina, Voi-nbnhirio. 'Lo.s fii//r.rns toilos se nomhrahaii rhichiiiirnis, y no toiii- nn otro iioinbro particular siiio e.ste quo tointiroii de la euriosiihul, y i>riiiit)r «le liiH oWras que liaeiau, (lue se llainaroii ohra.s tidtcras (, ca oomo si eugloutie, ki c't'st en incine temi>s le pays de la Courbe, Metztli ou le Croissant, ces deux noni.M, vcm(rir(iue/-le, peuvent s'appliquer uii.ssi bien an lieu oii il a <5t« englouti, :«. I'eau qui so courbait le long dea ri- va,i;es du Croissant, soit il riulerieni dvs grande.s golfes du nord et du iiiidi, soil au rivage eonve\e, tourae comme It; genou d<^ la janibe, vers I'Orieut. < "est ainsi qu'oii retronvo I'ldentificution coutiiiuelli^ do I'idt'e m;Uo unco I'iili'e feiiielle, liu c.onteuu ot du contenaiit, d(? talhiii, le pay.s englonti, avec. liiJImi, I'oceai! engloutia,^(!nr, de I'eau qui est contenue et des continents* qui Tcnscrreut dans lenrs limites. Ajoutons, jtour completer cette analyse, qi'o tol, dans la laugne tiuiclice, est im verbe, dout tnlau <'st le jiasse, et qii'aiusi que tiilmi il sigiiilie I'abandon, la nudite, etc. Do tol, taites tor, dans laiiie- nie langue, et vous aurez avec toraii. vi^ qui est tourne ou retourne, comme en niexicain, de meuie que dans liiraii (touran) vous trouverez ce (pii a etc rcu- verse, bonleverse de fond en comble, no; e si.us les eaux, etc. Dans la lan- gue niaya, /(^/signifio remplir, condiler, et an, t-unnie en qiiieho, est Ic jiasse du verbe: niais si a //// on ajoute ha ou a, I'eau, nousavous Tnllia ou Tula, rcin])li, subnu-rgo d'eau. I-Ji derniJ'r*' analyse, tol ou tiil jiarait avoir jiour rorigine ol, ul, eonler, vonir, suivtiut le quiche encore; primitif tVolli, ou bien tVitlli, en langue nahiuitl, la gomnie elastique liquide, \iv boule noire du jeu de i)au:ue, <(ui deviout lo hieroglyphe do I'eau, remplissant los deujr, golfes. Le ]irelixe t pour ti serait iiiio i)repositlou; fai.saut to, il ■'i^iiiiic I'orbite do I'leil, en quiche, imago do Tabime warm.' Ihisrhmfuin, Ortsnamni, p. 13. ' Totoiioro sigiiiHca li la letn<., tres eora/oncs en iin sentido, y tres panales en otro,' from tot», 'three,' and iiari), 'heart,' in the Totonae language. Dumiiif/urz, in Pinirulrl, Cimdro, tom. i., pp. *2'JG-7. ^Tutotiftl, el .'^igno, en iiue uigunu ua.see, o ci alma y espiritu.' Molina, Vombuliirio. Tt'TUL-Xirs; — 'Le nom des Tutul-Xin parait d'origine nahuatl; il serait derive de totol, tototl, oiscan, et de xixi'l, ou j-ihnill, horlte.' limstsiur . 47. XlCALANCAS; — 'Xicidli, vaso de eahibava.' Molinn, Vucatndario. Xi- mill, 'place of this species of eahibasli or drinklng-shell.' Unxrlinniiiii, Ort.'i- vnmfti, J). 17. 'Xicalanco, la Ville des courges ou des tasses faites de la courge et appelee Xicalli dans ces contrees, et dout les Kspaguois out fait Xi(7ira.' linis.srur df lionrljoiirf/, llifst. Nat. ('ir., torn, i., p. 110. Xoi;illMlLC'.VS; — Vvwn xorliill, 'llower,' and /;/////, 'piece of land,' mean- ing 'place of llower-tields.' litinr/niifnin, Oi'tsiutntrii, p. 94. ' Xovhiiiiirijin: c.iptiuoa en guerra.' Molina, Vomhidurin. Worhiniilrn, habitants de Xo- rhiitiili'o, lieu ou '.'on seme tout en has -8. YoPlM; — 'Lh'imanles ijoiics porqiie su tierra se llama Yo/iinzinrn.' S'tihn- ffUH, 11 f. Gen., torn, iii., lib. x., p. l'^'^. 'Infcrimos. . . .cjiie yope, yoi>i, jojie, segnn seencuentni escrita la pahibra en varios lugares, es sinonimo de tlapa- neca.' Orozro i/ Bcrra, Giografia, pj). 'ICt T. Yojiaa, 'Lanilof Tombs.' llrn.s- ■sriir de lionrbvitrg, Ifi.st. Xat. dr., tom. iii., j). *.). '/j\nytVA'»;- ' Tzojmtl, cierta fruta conocida.' Muliiid, Voriihuhn'io. Tzo- jinflan, 'placeof the zapotes, trees or fruits.' Dn-irlimami, Ort-siidinrii, j). 1(>. ' Uerivadode la [talabra mexicana t.:iijit>ll(iii, qiu- si^^nilica "lugar de los znji'i- fi:i," nombre castellanizado de una fruta may conocida.' l'im< itiel, Cniidro, torn, i., p. 310. 'Zdjtoteeajxoi est le nom que les Mexieains a\aient donne a cette contree, a cause de hKiuantite ot de la (|ualifi'' supi'ricure i!e ses . ..its. lirassev^- de liourboiivi], Hist. Xof. Cir., tom. iii., p. 38. ZoTZlLK.s;— 'Zo/i//, murcielago.' I'imriitcl, Cuoilro, tom. ii., p. '21."). /ot/iiha 'signilie la ville des Cliauves-Sonris.' lirtis.niir de Hoiuhoiirij, Hist. Xat. Civ., torn, ii., p. 88, CHAPTER III. GOVERNMENT OF THE NAIIUA NATIONS. System of (Jovernment — The Aztec roxKEnEn.vrY— Orper of Sur- ( KSSKIN- KhErTIOX OK KlMiS AMONO THE MEXICANS— KoVAL I'HE- HOOATIVES - (JoVEUXMEXT AXD LaWS OE SllCESSIOX AMOXO THE Tol.TECS AND IX MUIIOACAX, TLASC?ALA, CHOLULA, HlEXOTZIXlO, AXD OA.IACA— MaOXIIICEXCE ok the NaHIA MOXAUtllS-CEUE- MitXY OK AXOIXTMEXT— ASCEXT TO THE TEMI'LE— THE HoLV TXC- TioN -Address ok the High-Puiest to the Kixg— Pexan'ce and TasTIXI! IX THE IIorSE CALLED TLACATECCO— IIoMAOE OK THE No- IlLES—dENKUAL UeJOKTXO TIIROrOHOlT THE KlXfiDO.M— CEREMOX Y OK CoitKXATiox — The Procirixi; ok Sacrifices— Descrii-tiox of THE CRoWX— COROXATIOXS, FEASTS, AXD KXTERTAINMEXTS— HoSI'l- TAI.ITY EXTEXDEDTO liXEMIES— COROXATlOX-Sl'EECH OK NEZAHIAL- rii.Li, Kixo ov Tezcico, to Moxtezima II. ok Mexico— Oration •jK a Noni.i: to a Newly elected Kixi;. The prevailing- form of government among the civ- ilized nations of Mexico and Central America was nionarcliical and nearly absolute, although some of the !owcrful states, ns for instance, Tlas- c.ila, affected an aristocratic rci)uhlican system. The three great confederated states of ^Fexico, Tezcuco, and Tlat'opan were each governed l>y a king, who had su- juvme authority in his own dominion, and in matters t.)Uiliing it alone. AVhcrc, however, the welfare of the whole alliec' connnunitv was involved, notnie kuvj; could act without the concurrence of the others ; never- theless, the judgment of one who was held to be especially skih'ul and wise in any ^., cap. ccxi.; Ziirita, lia/i/iorf, in Trr- vaux-Coni/Kiiis, Vol/., SL'iie ii., torn, i., j). y.j; Turquv.nuulii, Moitan/. Iiul., toiii. ii.. i>. ;i")4. '•^ I.xtlil.xocliitl, for whose ])iitrii)tisni ilue iillownnc must Itc made, writi's: 'Ivs vi-rdad, ((110 el tie iMe.\.ii'() y Ti-zcin'o fiienm i^nialcs vn di;,Mii(lail wfuirio y ivutas; y t'l ile Tiacoiiaii solo ti'iiia fierta iiaiie coiiio la ([uiii- ta, en lo (|iic era rentas y despues en los otros dos.' llisf. C/iir/iiinrfu, in Kliiifshoroii(ih\-i Mi\v. .Infii/., vol. i.\., p. '2',iS. Znrita also allirnis this: 'Dans eertainos, les trilints elaient repartis en portions ej^ales, et dans d'antres on en faisait ein([ parts: le souverain de ^lexieo et celni de Tez- eiico en prelevaient eiiaeun ueu.x, celni de Tacnt)a nne seule.' jLnjtporf, in I'l riiiniu'-Conijxiii.s, Toy., serie ii., toni. i., j). 1'2. 'Qnodo ]»nes deterniinado (\ne ii los estados de Tlacopan so a^^regase la qiiinta parte de las tierras nue\ainente comjuistadas, yelrestosediviilie.se i;;nalnieiite entre el |)riiM'i]io vel reyde .Mejico.' Vci/fiit, Hist.Aiit. Mij. ,Xwn. iii., p. 1()4. lirassenrdellour- iionr^i agrees with anil takes his information from Ixtlilxocliitl. lli.st. Sal. Cir., toni. iii., p. 11)1. Torijueniada makes a fardilU'rent division: 'Coikmu- rienilo los tres, .se diese la (piinta parte al Hei de 'J'lacnpa, y d Tercio de lo (jne ([uedase, a Ne(,'allinalcoiotl; y los denias, a Itzcoluiat/in, como a ("ahcca iSlaior, y Sn]ireina.' Miniani. IniL, toni. i., p. 14(i. As also does Clavi;:cro: 'Si diede (|iiella Corona (llacopaii) a Toto(iniliuatzin sotto la coiidizioiie *ne triippe al He di Messico, (>;,'ni volta clie il ricliie- di servir con tntte dcssc, si ave assej iscro ;naiido a li dai neinici. inedesiino per cio la tininta iiarte delle spoglic. clie Similniente Nezalinalcojotl fn nies.so in posscsso del trono d'.Vcolhiiacan sotto la condizione di dover soccorrere i Messicaiii iiclla ifiierra, e ])crcio;;li fn assejfnata la terza narte dclla preda, ca\ataiie prima (luella del lie di Tacnha, restaiido I'altre (lue terze ])arti pel lie ^!^■•- .sicano. S/nr/it Aiif. i/rf J/c.v.v/co, toni. i., ]>. '224. I'rcscott says il \va^ !i;,'rr(il that 'one lifth should he assinjiiod to Tlacopan, and tlie remainder he di\ itlcl, in what proiiortion is uncurtain, hetween (he otiier j»owers.' Mix., \u\. i., p. IS. itfinraiii ORDER OF SUCCESSION. 135 altlioiii^^li tlio sons succeeded their fathers, it was not aceordinL*- to birth, hut aceordin;^' to rank; tlie st)iis of the (|ueen, or principal uife, who was Generally a daughter of the royal liouse of ^NTexico, heiny' al- ways })referred to the rest.^ In ^lexico, the eldest survivinif brother of the deceased monarch was g'en- erally elected to the throne, and when there were no more brothers, then the nephews, connnencini;" with the eldest son of the first l)rother that had dii-d; l)ut this order was not necessarily observed, since tlie elec- tors, tliough restricted in their choice to one faniil}-, could set aside the claims of those wliom tlicy con- sidered ini'ompetent to reign; and, indeed, it was their })articular duty to select from among the rela- tives of the deceased kini«f the one l)est fitted to I)ear the dignity .and responsibility of supreme lord.* During the early days of the Mexican mon- "3 TorifiirDiniffi, Motinrq. I.nl., toin. ii., p. S.'tfi; Ziiritn, liii/i/tiir/, in Tcr- vni.r-CoMjiniis, I'oi/., sorio ii., torn, i., i)]). l'J-i;{; ('/nr/i/rru, Sttiv! |[(.'riiiaii() Maior, (lue iiriiuent avia lioiiiailo, la t'amille de Mexico, cllc occu lait ireinicr ran'', et sou lil ucccdait, s 1! etaiUcapalir 'I'i icii, without (Icliiiitcly statin.;^ whether he is speaking' of all lu- part of the three kin;,'- doms ill (|nestioii, the author ;.;oes on to say, that in default of diicrt heirs the succession hecanie collateral; and liiially. spcakin;,' in this instance of Mexico alone, he says, that in the event of tin' kin;;' dyiii;;' wiihout hciis, his successor was elected hv the iirinciiial iiohics. I II a previous p.iraurajili IC writes: 'L'oidre de successiiui vjiiiait sui\aiit les proviuces; les nuMues ii--a.L;('s,' a pen //., surio ii., toni. i., pp. 12-18. M. l'Al)l)i' Uiiv-ssoiir de Roiirlxmry, tak- iiifj; lii.H inf(>nimtii>ii from Ziirita, and, imlcod, almost (niotinj^ literally from the Fri'iicli translation of that author, agrees that tlu' direct line of micccs- sion (il)taiiK'd in Tlaeopan and Te/eueo, hut as.sorts, re;;anlini; Mi'xico, that tiie soverei;,ni was elected hy tlie live principal ministers of the state, who were, however, restricted in their choice to the hrothcrs, nephews, or sons of the ileceased moiiari'h. Hist. \tif. dr., t(nn. iii., pp. .")7() 7. J'inientcl also follows Zurita. Mnunria, p. 2(5. Prescott atlirnis that 'the sovereij;n was selet'ed from the hrothers of the deceased ])rince, or, in default of them, from his nephews.' Ma liherfa a;L,di I'.lettori, e per imjx'diri', (|uanto fosse jiossihile, <;rinconvenieiiti de' nartiti, o fa/ioni, lissarono la I'o- rona nella casa d'.Vcamapitzin; c i>oi stabilirono per lejr;.:(', die al lie morto dovesse suci'edere uno de'suoi fratelli, e mancando i fratelli, uno deVuoi nipoti, e s(! mai non ve ne fossero iiep])ur di (piesti, uno de'suoi cu;;iui res- tando in halia dej;li Klettori lo ,sce;j;liere Ir i fratelli, o tra i nipoti dtd He niortocfdui, che ri<'onoscessi'ro piii idoneo pel ^'overno, schivaiido con si fatta le^i,'e ]iare(;chj iuconvenienti da noi altrove accennati.' ( 'A/c/'/'/v*, Slon'ii, Ant. (Id Mcssivo, tom. ii., p. 112. Leon Cartiajiil nuotcs this almost literally. DLsnifsn, pp. .54-.'). That the eldest son could jiiit forward no claim to the crown by ri;,dit of primo;;eniture, is evident from the following;: '(jluando al;;un Senor nmria y de.vava muchos hijos, si al;^uno se al/.ava en ])alacio y se ([ueria i)referir a los ofros, auni(ue fues(> el mayor, no lo eon- sent la el Senor iupiieu ]ierteneciala coiitirmacion, y menosel pueblo. Antes dexavan i)asar uu afio, (') mas de ofro, en el . X\A. 'Kl Imperio era nionanjuico, jhm'o no hereditario. Muriendo el Kmperador los nefes did Imperii) anti;4'uamente se juntaban v elcLjian eutrc si mismos al (]ue creian mas di;j:no, y ])or el eual la intris^a, el manejo, la super- siicion, eran mas felizmeute reconocidas.' Cuili, ('((rtus, j)t i., p. 114. 'Tambien auia suco.xion ])or sanifre, sucedia el hiio mayor, sii'ndo ]iarii ello, y sino el otro: en defeto de los hijos sucedian nielo>, y en defeto ilellos yua por elecion.' llcrnni, Jli.tt. (Itii., dec. iii., lil». iv,, c.i)i. xv. As the order in which the Mexican kiujjs actually did follow eai'h other should be stron;4-er proof of what was the law than any other evidence, I t;ike from the Codex Mendo/a the following list: .\caniapiclitli, who is us;ially spoken of as the first kin_!_', succe(>(leil Tenuch, althoujjh it is not stated that ho was related to him in any way; then came lluicilyhuitl, son oi' Acaniaiiich- tli; (']iimali)upuca, son o? lluicilyhuitl; ^'zcoaci, sou of .Acaiiiapiclilli; llue- hueiuoteccuma, son of lluicilyhuitl; Axayacaci, .son of 'recocomochtli, and grandson of \'zcoaci; Tivocicat/i, son of Axayaeat'i; ^Ahiiicociu, brother of Tieocicatzi; Moteccuma, sou of .Vxayacaci; thus, acconllML;- to this author, we see. out of nine monarchs, three succeeded directly liy their sons, and three by their brothers. J'Js/i/iriiriiin, in Kiiiiluinnt(jli\'< .Mcr. Anli'i,, vid. v., pp. 42 .").'?. See further, I'ciftiti, Hist. Ant. Mr/., and I'ru.t.trnr ffr l'„)iir- hijin-'f. Hist. \(it. Cii: 'I'hese writers ditl'er slightly from the collection above (quoted, but in no important respect. ELECTION OF KINGS. 137 matter at tliis period.^ Afterwards, tlic duty of elect- ini»' tlie ]\'n\'^ of Mexieo devolved ii])on four or tixe of the eliief luon of the empire. The k\\vj;s of Trzeiu-o and Thu'0})a!i were also electors, hut with merely au honorary rank; they ratified the decision of the others, hut ])i-ol)al)]y took no direct j)art in the election, al- thouij;]i their influence and wishes douhtless carried o-reat weight with the council. As .soon as tlie new kinof had heen chosen the hodv of electors was dis- solved, and others were apjwinted in their j)lace, whose duties also terminated with their first electoral vote." 5 Aftor tlio tloiith of Aciimapirlitli, tho first kiiip of Mexico, a jri'iicral comu'il was licld, ami the pt'ople were addressed as follows: ' Va es fallido inicstro rcy A('aiiia]iielitli, a »iuieii poiidreinus en sii liij;ar, (|iie rija v;;i>liiiiede ilejar de liablar, pties a todos iios iiniiorta ]>ara v\ reparo. y calie/a de imestni patriu Mexieaiia este.' 1'|kiii lliiit/ililiuill lieiiii;- ijro- jiosed, 'toilos jiiiitos, iiiaiK'elHts, viejos y viejas res[K(iidieron a una: (pu' se:i iit'lio de enliiirabueiia, (pie li el (piieren jwr senor y rey.' 7 c:.(i:.ii(iiiii' co- Mix., in J\'/iiiis/)orijii/f/t\s M<\r. Aiitit/., vol. ix., ji. 10. Salia;:iiii's de- si'riptiou of tlieir iiuiiiner of eleetinj,' kiiij,'s, appears also to lie nioie ajipro- piiate to this early jwriod than to a later date: 'Cuamlo nioria id sefioro rev I :ira ele<;ir otrt), jiintalianse los seiiadores iiuo Ilaniahau trrn//(if(i//iii\ y t lien los viejos ilel piieltlo ipie llaniahan iirhniraiihli, y tanihien los capifanes pnel Idados viejos de la ;;;uerra que llanialian IiiKirijKiiturj^iir, v otros eapitani eran ]ii ineipales en las eosas de la ;;uerra, y taniluen ios Sat anas (iiie llaniahan T/rtiiiiiiin'iiziiiir 6 jxi/xioinjiir: todos estos se juntahau en las (■a>as reales, y alii deliheraoau y deterniinahan (piieu hahia de ser si'fior.' Jli.tt. (Int., toni. ii., lih. viii., p. 318; Arostn, Hist. 1 ui ihciV rs de Tezcuco et 'I'aeuhu.' /iirita, Jiiiji/iorf, in Tiriiini.i-t'diKii'inx i/lii III. siiiii r III III. Ill i/i'/i'iKi, p. "Jti: 'Tntti e due i IJe (of Tezcuco and Tlacopan) funmo crcati Klettori onorarj del l!e di Messico, il ipud onore soltanto ridncevasi a rat- 'J'i rie ii., tom. i., pp. l.")-l(). Pimenfel f(dlows this, .1/. ilicare I'ele/ion fatta '/, iiriifiro, ,^'iirit ;i' Klcit. t Aiil. ilrl Mrs.sicu, ti 1' '!> opiies en ticiiipo de l/coatl (piarto Ivey, por eonsejo y orden t i., p. 1 14. 'Four of the principal lioUles, who had Ix'en chosen hy their own hody in the ]U-e- cediui.' reiiru, lilhMl the olliee of electors, to whom were addeil, with merely uii honurar v rank however, the two roval allies of Tezei d Th 138 THE NAIIUA NATIONS. Tills ])ljin of election was not without Its .•nlvaiitaij^es. As the i>ersons to whom the cliolce was entrusted were ^reat iiiinisters or lords who lived at court, they had hotter oi)j)ortunltles of ol)servlnj4' the true character of the future candidates for tlie throne than tlie coinnion ])eo|)le, Avho are e\er too a})t to jud<4e, hy pleasinn' ex- terior rather than hy real merit, those with whose private life tliey can Jiavo no ac(juainta!ice. In the next i)lace, the high private rank of the ^fexican electors [daced them heyond the ordliuiry inllueiuio of brihery or threats; and thus the state was in a meas- ure free from that system of corruption which makes the voice of the peoi)le a mockery in moi'e democratic comnumities, and which would have i)revailed to a far greater extent in a country where feudal lelatlons ex- isted between lord and vassal. Then again, tlie free- dom of choice accorded to electors cnaiiled tluin to prevent imbeciles from assuming the responsibilities of kingship, and thus the most conspicuous evil of an hereditary monarchy was avoideel. The almost absolute authority vested in tlic person Pi-r.fco/r.i Mi\r., vol. i., p. 23. IJrassour do rourlioiirfr iiwo^ (lio stylo imd titlo (if oacli cloi'tor, and says tlioy wore livo in miiiilior, iiiit doos mil stato Jiis autliiirity: 'J-os ]irini'i|iaii\ di;;'iiitairos du loyaiiiiio, lo Cilmacnliuatl mi Wiiiisirc sii|>roiiic do la jiistioo ot »lo la iiiai.son du roi, lo Tlacoi'licaloatl, (ioiKM-alissiiiio oil .Maitri! do la iiiaisoii dos Ariiios, IWtoiiiiiaiioiall, u cliof do la Maismi-Noiro, cotiiposaut oiitio oiix lo cmisoil do la luiiiiairliio, olisaiont oolui <|iii lour paraissait lo |)lus aplo aux all'airo.s ]iulilii|Uos, ot lui doniiaiont la ommmiio. . . . II ost dontoux (pio los lois iXi' 'rotzouco ot do TIai'opau aioiit jamais pris uno jiarto dirooto a oo olmix.' Hist. Nut. ('ir., toiii. iii., wp. 577-8. At tlio foot of tlio samo ]ia;;(' is the follow- iiiLT iioto: 'Si liavia iluda <) diforoiioia <(uioii dobia do sor roy, avcrijiuaso lo mas aiiia ipio podiau, y sino pooo touiaii ipio liaoor (los .sofioros do Ti't/.oiico V Tlacapau). tloimirit, Vrunii'ii dr, Xucrd-E.sjHiiiit, (i/i. Jlitrria, cajt. *M. This (|uotatioii is not to lio found, howovor in tlio plaoo indioatod. 'd'oaititi I'liatro oloi'toros, cu ouya o|)inioii so oonipromotian todos los volos dol roino. luaii a(|nollos fuiioionarios, nia;;iiatos y sonori's do la jirinioia noliloza, co- inunnionto do sanuio roal, y do tanta iinidoncia y ]>roliidad, oiianta so nooo- sitaha |iara iin oarj^'o tan iniportanto.' CiiH/ti/'d Esjiiiidsn, lli.st. M(.i\, toni. i., p. ">7S. ' L'"iio td ([uinto Hoy, Motozuina prinioro dosto niinilni'; y ponpio, ])ava la olooion aiiia tpiatro olotoros, o.in los (pialos intonionian los Uoyos do To/cuco y do Taciilia. So junto oon olios TlaoaoUol oouio Capitan ;;o- noral, y salio oloj,ndo su solirino Motozuina.' Ifmrra, lllsl. (lin., doc. iii., lil). ii., oap. xiii. Aftor llio kiii^^in laiiK, 'oran losiiuatro oloctoros dfl Itoy, ([HO tamliion siicodiaii por olooion, y do ordinario oran lioiiiiaiins, o jiari- o;itos oorcanos dol l!oy, y a ostos llamauaii on su lonjiua, I'rinoipos do hw lauvas arrojadizas, arums nuo olios vsauaii.' Id., oaj*. xix. POWKR OF MEXICAN KINGS. ino of the sovcreijjfii renderefl j^roat discrimijiation nocos- sary in liis solcL'tion. It was ossoiitial tliat the nilt'i* of a pu'oplu surnnmdud by ouuiiiics and continually ])0!it u|)o!i con(iuust, should be an approved and vali- ant warrior; having the personal direction of state affairs, it was necessary that he should be a deep and subtle politician; the gross superstition and theoci'atic tendencies of the governed re(juired the governor to be versed in religion, holding the gods in reverence; and tlie records of the nation }>rove that he was gen- erally a man of culture, and a patron of art and sci- ence. In its first stages the Mexican monarchy partook rather of an aristocratic than of an absolute nature. Though the king w'as ostensibly the suj)reme head of the state, he was expected to confer with his council, which was composed of the royal electors, and other exalted j)ersonages, before deciding u])on any imijor- tant step;'' and though the legislative power rested entirely in his hands, the executive government was entrusted to regularly ai)})ointed officials and courts of justice. As the em})ire, owing to the able administra- tion of a succession of conquering princes, increased in greatness, the royal power gradually increased, al- though 1 find nothing of constitutional amendments or reconstructions until the time of Montezuma 1 1., \\]\vn the authority of all tribunals was reduced almost to a dead letter, if opposed to the desires or conmiands of the king. The neighboring independent and jjowerful king- T Acosta, ITisf. fir hs Y)irJ., p. 411, f;ivos tlip names of tliiro military orders, of wliicli tlio four royal olcctors foi-mi'd oiic; and of a foiirtii, wliicli Mas of a sacerdotal cliaraeti'r. All tlu'se were of the royal I'omnil, and witliiiiit their advice the kiii;^ could do iiothiii;^ of iiii|Mirta; . Ilerrei:i helps himself to this from Acosta almost word for word: ilec. iii., lib. ii., ca|(. xix. Saha;;im implies that this siiiireme council was composed of only four memliers: ' I'lej^ido el sefior, luej^o eleiiiau otros cuatro cjue eran count sciiadores ([ue siempre haliiaii de estar al lado d(> el, y enteinler en toilo> los iie;;(icios f^raves de reino, (estos cuatro ti-nian en diversos lii;:;ire.^ (ii\eiMis iionihres).' ///s7. (Irti., torn, il., lih. viii., |), SIS. Accordin;^; to !\tiil\htv (hjsitots or Mexict), that savors of tlie same material that defied the IV'rsian host at Thermopyhe. Had the Tlaseal- toes steadily o|)j>osed the Spaniards, Cortes never could have <^one forward to look upon the face of Kinjj;' ^fon- tezuma, nor backward to Kinu^ Cha)"les as the con- (jueror of New Sj)ain; the warriors who routed their allied enemi<'s on the hloody ])lains of Poyauhtlan, as- suredly could have ottered the hearts of the invaders an accej)tal)le sacrifice to the ufods of Tlascala. The state ol' Tlascala, thoui^h invariably s})oken of as a republic, was certainly not so in the modern accept- ation of the term. At the time of the coiKjuest it was governed by four supreme lords, each inde- pendent in his own territory, and possessed of equal authority with the others in matters concerning the welfare of all.'" A parliament or senate, composed of these four lords and the rest of the nobility, settled the affiiirs of government, especially those relating to peace and war. The law of suc^cession was nnich the same as in Michoacan. The chief before his death named the son wliom he wished to succeed him, who, however, did not, as in Alichoacan, commence to gov- ern until after his father's death. The old chief's choice was restricted in two ways: in the first place the api)roval of his thi'ee colleagues was necessary; //"/., toiii. ii., pp. .S.'?S, .">'23; Sdhiifjini, Jfisf. Gen., toni. iii., lil). x., ]>. I,'{S; Znritn. Itupitiirt, in Tfnidttx-Coiii/xtii.i, I'n//., sc'rie ii., toiii. i., p. 17; (ro- iiiitni. Coll'/. ,)fij\, f(»l. ;UO-ll; I'imnitcl, Midi. iiiiz(( Jii(/it/rini, y. -JT; Ilrti.i- inir . 8"_'. In ilic \i i.sf-//ii/t.sr/it; ■V/z/'v/Z/r/, pp. •2(i,"»-(), we read: ' Dcsc Stadt cnilc I'rovincic \\ icrdcii vunr de III iistc dt'r Spiienjiii'i'dtMi sno trellt-'lick f;lu'r(';.;('ort, ills ccni;:'!!*' van liic l-an- iliMi, ilacr \v,(s eiMi Caciipie die al).s(iluti'li«'k i'(';.'i'fnii', .stai'iidc oiidciili' ;;li('- iiiiii-saendu'vdt van do jfrixitu Hoere van Tono.xtitlaii.' 'J'iic old rliionicliT i-* niistaki'H Iilmv, liowever, as tiic kin<^doin of Mii'lmacun was never in ii:iy way subject to Mexico. '0 Claviiieni says tliat tlic eity of Tlasealii was divided into four parts, f.i'ii dixision liavin;; its lord, tDwIioni all places dependent on siuli division wore likewise sultject. Storiu Ant. del Mcusico, torn, i., p. lo5. U2 THE NAIIUA NATIONS. and scM'ondly, loL^itiinfito hotis, tliat is the sons of a \vitt! to whom lie hud l)oc;n united accordinu^ to et;it!iin f'oriMs, must take precedence of" his otiier chihh'en. In delanU of sons, tlie hrothers of the deceased cliief suc- ceeded." In any event the jji'operty of the hite ruler was iuheritetl by his hrothers, who also, accordiuij^ to n custom which we shall find to he almost u'liversal anioui,' the civilized ]»eoj)les of the New World, mar- lied his widows.''^ Such inforniation as I tind upo/i the suhject ascribes the same form of j^()Vernment to (.'holula and Huexotzinco, that was found in Tlas- cala.'^ The Miztecs and Zapotocs acknowled'^ed one su[)remo cliief or kin<(; the law of iidieritance with them was similar to that of Tlascala, except that in default of sons a dau,i>;hter could inherit." The Za})o- tecs appear^ at least in the more ancient times, to have heen, if possible, even more priest-ridden than their nei<.(libors; the orders of priests existing among them were, as will be seen elsewhere, numerous, and seem to have po.ssessed great power, secular as well as sacerdotal. Yopaa, one of their principal cities, was ruled absolutely by a pontiff, in whom the Zapotec monarchs had a powerful rival. It is impossible to t)verrate the reverence in which this spiritual king was held. He was looked uj)on as a god, whom the earth was not worthy to hold, nor tlie sun to shine ui)on. He proftmed liis sanctity if he so much as touched the ground with his foot. The officers who bore liis palanquin upon their shoulders were mem- bers of the first Zapotec families; he scarcely deigned to look upon anything about him. He never apj^eared in i)ublic, except with the most extraordinary pom]>. " TorqiiCDimhi, Monnrq. hid., torn, i., pp. 200, 270, toiu. ii., pp. .'?'" Pi'trr Min-fi/r, . 27; Prcscotfs Mcx., vol. i., p. 41 1. li! (hunarijo. Hist. Tlax., in Nouedlcs Annalc-idcs Voy., 1843, torn, xc p. 1<)7. 13 Torqucmada, Monarq. Ind., torn, ii., pp. SiJO-l. u Ifrnrra, Hint. (Irii., dec. iii., lib. iii., cap. xiv. Biassciir tie TJonr- boiir;.; writoa: 'Dans l«;s divorH etats , seemiuif to helonn' neither to heaven nor to eailh, one of thu most heautiful of the viroins consecratetl to the servico t)r he ui'ods was hrouj^ht to him. If the result of thi.. holy dehauch })roved to he a male infant, the child was hrouyht up with ,i;'reat care as a ])i-im'e of tlie I'oyal I'amily, The eldest son of the rei^iiin^' ]K)ntilf inherited the throne of Yo})aa, or in del'ault of chil- dren, the hi_i^h-])riest's nearest relative succeeded. The younger children devoted themselves to the serv- ice o f th (1 le jjous, or married and remamec I d li IV men. according,'' to their inclination or the ]»aternal wish; in either case the most honorable and important i)osition8 usually fell to their lot." The pomp and circumstance which surrounded tlie Aztec monarchs, and the ma^niticence of theij" every- day Hie was most inii)ressive. From the moment of liis corontvtion the Aztec soverciun lived in an atmos- j)here of adulation unknown to the mightiest ])oten- tate of the old world. Reverenced as a god, the 15 Uiinititi, Grog. Dcscrip., cap. 53; Brasscur i/c Bouvboiirg, Ilixt. Nut. Civ., torn, iii., pp. 2y-.30. H 11 i I' ii \ i lU THE NAHTA NATIONS. liauijflitlest nobles, sovcrelowerful nobles of the realm, bearing their ensigns and iisignia of rank, lead the van. Next comes the king elect, naked, exce})ting only the maxtli, or cloth about the loins; following these are the lesser nobles, and after them the conunon people. Silently the pro- cession wends its way along the streets; no l)eat of 0, says tliat Acosta is mistaken, foi-, Ik! nliserves tiiat ' la ( 'orona 4110 lianialia ("oi)illi, no sc daha en esta oca> 'on, ^ilIo (|iie en Iii;,'ar de ella, le [loniau las niantas diciias solne la Calu'va, ni tani- poco era la vncioii la niisma ([ue la de los Idolos; ])ori|ue la I)ivina, one el [Acosta] nonilira. era de I'Ui, y Saii;j;re de Nifios, con i|iie taniliien vn^ianal Siitno Saccnlote;' 'ait T<»r4Ueinadii '.^ere directly contradicts a previous stale- n'cnt of liis own, toni. i., p. 102, where he says that ininiedialtdy after tie.! election, havinj; seated the kinj^ elect U|(on a throne. '1. jjusieron la Coroniv Itcal en su Calteca, y le viitaron todo el ("nerpo, con la \ iicion, (jue despues acostnniliraron, (jne era la niisina con une vno.v /'infrn.s, says that tiie water used at the aiu)intin;; was drawn from the fountaiti To/.iialatl, wl ic.h was held in {ireat veneration, and that it was jirst u.>ed Tor tiiis pur- Jiose a* the anointment of lluitzilihnitl. second kin;; of Mexico. l'' Saha;4'un states that the kiiif; was dresseil upon this occasion in a tunic! of clark ;;rcen <'loth, with Imuics paiuteil upon it; thi> tunic resemhled the liuipil, or chemise of the women, and was usually worn hy the iioliles when they oli'ered incense to thv puis. The veil was also of ^reen <'loth orna- mented with skulls and hones, and in aildition to the articles descriheil hy oilier writers, this author mentions that they placed dark ;rreen sandals upon his feet. Ill' also allirms that the four royal electors were conlirmeil in their ollice at the same time as the kin^', hein;;' similarly dressed, sa\c thai the color of their ccstinne was hlack, anil j.'oin^' throu;,'h the same per ornianccs alter him, except, of course, the tiiiuintmeul. Huliiujuii, llid.Gni., toiii.ii , Vol., II. 10 146 THE NAHUA NATIONS. forms on his knees, amid tlie cheers of the peo])le be- low, and tlie playino^ of musical instruments. He has concluded now, and the his^'h-priest ajj^ain addresses a short s])eech to him. Consider well, Sire, he says, the great honor which your subjects have conferred upon you, and remember now that you are kin<^, that it is your duty to watch over your people with great care, to look u))on them as your children, to preserve them from sufferinj^, and to protect the weak from the op- pression of tlie stronjjc. Behold before you the chiefs of your kingdom together with all your subjects, to whom you are botli father and mother, for it is to you they turn for protection. It is now your place to com- mand and to govern, and most especially is it your duty to bestow great attention upon all nuitters relating' to war, to search out and })unish criminals without re> gard to rank, to put down reliellion, and to chastise the sedicious. Let not tlie strength of religion decline during your reign, see that the tem[)les are well cared for, let there be ever an al)undance of victims for sac- rifice, a!id so will you prosper in all your uiuh^rtakings and be l)eloved of the gods. Gomara affirms that the high-])riest imposed an oath upon the king that during his reio'ii he would niiiintain the reliufion of his ances- tors, and observe their laws; that he would give offence to none, and be valiant in war; that he would make the sun to shine, the clouds to give rain, the rivers to flow, and the earth to bring forth fruits in abundance.*** The allied kings and the nobles next address him to tlic same ])urpose ; to whicli the king aiiswers with thanks and ])r()mises to exert himself to the utmost of his power for the happiness of tlie state. Tlie speeches being i-nded the procession again winds round the temple until, following terrace after terrace, it finally reaches the grouiul in the same order that it went up. The king now receives homage and gifts ]). .^10. (inniara says tlicv Inii^ upon tlic kin^Li's neck 'vtias corroas colom- «1q3 lai;;as y > |iiiijaiitfs.' ('y>////, was in shape like a small mitre, the ftjre part of which stood erect and terminated in a Jioint, while the hinder ])art hn.ngdown ovi'r the neck. Jt was comj)ose(l of difi'erent materials, according to the })leasure of the wearer; sometimes it was of thin plates of gold, sometimes it was woven of golden thread 148 THE NAHUA NATIONS. and !ul()riK!(l witli beautiful featliors.''' Accounts of the ]>vi'ticular coruiiionics used at the coronation are \vant- ii'.g, but all ai^ree that they were of unparalleled (splen- dor. The new kin^^ entertained most sunij)tuously at his own palace all the i^reat nobles of his realm; honors were conferred with a lavish hand, and o'ifts were made ill profusion both by and to the kins^. Splendid ban- ipiets were given in which all the ntjbility of the king- dom partici})ated, and the lower classes were feasted and entertained with the greatest liberality. The fondness of the Aztecs for all kinds of public games and festivals is evidenced in the fretjuency of their feasts, and in no way could a newly elected uionarcli butter secure a place in the affections of his subjects than by inauij-urating his ro'vj-n with a series t)f si)len- did entertainments. The strange fascination which this species of enjoyment possessed for them is shown by the fact that strangers and foi'eigners came from afar to witness the coronation feasts, and it is related that members of hostile nations were frccpiently dis- covered disguised among the ci'owd, and were not only allowed by the clemency of the king to j)ass unmo- lested, but were provided with seats, from which they could obtain a good view t)f the ])roceedings and where they would be secure from insult.'* One of the prin- '^ Tlic crown iisid hy tiiC early (^liicliiiiicc; sovoreij^iis was codiimisciI of a licrl) falloil fi(ir/i.ini/ii//, wliicli . 'JIH. Inananotlier plaee, liiliiriom-fi, in iuezailo- tid(;; in the dry season it was made of a whitisii mo.->s which ;;rew on the ri)d\s, with a iiower at the junction called Icit.nirhill . '" (.'oneerniii;;anointment anil coromition, see Ti>ni(iiitini/)ini\; Vol/., scrie ii., tom. i., pp."2<)-D; Clfiriifiro, Sturin Ant. i/cf Mis- sKUt, tom. ii., pp. 113-1."); Sii/iififini, Hint. Hcii., toni.ii., lili. viii., ])p..'!IS- ■_'l; llirrrrii, I/iif. (!(ii., dec, iii., lih. iv., cap. xv; (lomtiin. Cuii] . .IAm., I'ol . :!r)-l!; Ar,)st,i, Hist. (Ir /n.s Viii/., pp. :{,"!'>, -l.'UMd, -174; ()rlif/!( of the latter to the tlirone of iMexico, will illustrate. The ii^reat ij^ood fortune, most mighty lord, which has hefallen this kinydoni in deservini,'' thee i'or its monarch, is plainly shown hv^ the unanimity with which thou wast elected, and l)y the ij^eneral rejoicini;- of thy peo})le thereat. And they have reason to re- joice; for so ^^reat is the Mexican empire that none ]K)ssessed of less wisdom, prudence, and courage, than thou, were fit to govern it. Truly is this })eo[)le he- loxed of the gods, in that they have given it light to clioose that which is best; for who can doubt that a ])riiice who, before he came to the throne, made the nine heavens Ids study,'^ will, now that he is king, o!»tain tlie good things of the earth for his peopled wiirks (if ju'knf>\vloi!a- tioiis, [lut toji'ether witlioiit rejiaril to aeeiira<'y or eonsisleiiey ; others are wcirks which deal osteusihly with othtT S[»anisii American matters and only refer to the aiii'ieiit civili/ation in passing; their accounts are tisnally co|iicd IpiHJiiy from one or two of the old \vrit"rs; some few profess to exhaust the siiliiect; in these latter, however, the autli ors ha\e faileil to cite th tliorities, or at hest have merv'ly j.'iven a list of them. 'l"o attem])t to note th diU'cr fr he usele: iiiiits on which these v riters have fallen into e rror, or wlien th om my text, would proxcas tiresome to tlie reader as the result wouii d It will therefore he sullicicnt to refer to thi iss (»f hooks at the 1-'J; 'I'liiiran. Hi li-7, '_'.")-!{S; I'mril, Mirir/ur, pp. 'Jd-t-T; //c.v.v/i /vv, /,'/'-' l.Mi s, ■_>_>;»-:?(), -JU; l.iifciiil, y "/'/'■'] .'•-'-.•«: .1/' nfi/n'ii(ir s I rii'/i'i ss n, ii/iiiff, torn. 1., I "/:; .lA toni. III., pp. p. IM», f-/' .1/ I .rii-Klii, p i. ll'.t; I'liiiisi ir.s S'. •_M-I), 41-;<; 11't.s.sr/, Mi\r. Hint., \>. '1\~\ IHIirnrtli, dun/. Mr.r., Ji. 4.' I'rni/I. I'nr/'l-'!, \t\i. KMJ, 17<»; Mniif/i'irr, II (W; Kir f'll/tiir-disr/iif/itr, tom. v., pp. oil-T.'), I' ISC. ',», I I- HI, I'lirli . I mil iirii:<. /"''./■< \>\>- 7-l.'<; C/i (I III Iter's Ji. I.ii.sli/iirf, p. ((7 d. V 2.".;(; ll'r.st mill (M Jiiilisrln ' 't^iie antes de Heiiiar avia invpsti;.rado los uueve didileces de id Ciele '/iniiiiii/ii, .]fniiiiri/. liiil., loin, i., p hU. th'le;,'a, in I'li/liu, Hint. Aiil M'J. lorn, iii., p. soil, «rit ii(d el |Ue sienilo particular siijio pciietiai los sccretos del eielo;' 'that he who lieiii;,^ a private iixlividiial, could jieue- liaie li'c tecrtt;, ef lieavtJ),' wliicli iii»pcai» iiiurv iutclliyihle, 160 THE NAIlLfA NATIONS. Who can doiil)! tliat liis well-triod couraj^-e will be even greater now that it is so much needed? Who can believe that so mighty and ])oweifiil a pi'ince will be found wanting in charity toward the orphan and the widow? Who can doubt that the JMexican peojjle are favored of the gods, in having for a king one to whom the great Creator has imj)arted so much of his own glory tliat by simj)ly looking upon his face we are made to partake of that gloiy? liejoice, O haj)py lantl! for the gods have given thee a prince who will l)e a Hrni pillar for thy sui>[)oi-t, a father and a refuge for thy succor, a more than brother in j)ity and mercy toward his pe()ple. Verily thou hast a king who will not avail himself of his high j)lace to give himsclt' uj) to sloth and ]>leasure, l>ut who, rather, will lie sleepless through the night, pondering thy welfare. Tell me, then, most fortunate land, have I not reason for saying. Rejoice and be happy! And thou most noble and ])ulssant lord, be of good heart, lbi- as the high gods have apj)ointed thee to this office, so will they grant thee strength to fill it; and be well assurcid that the gods who have been so gracious to thee during these many years, will not now fail in theiv goodness; by them bast thou been raised to thy pi'esent exalted i»osition; we Jtray that with their help thou mayest continue to lu)ld it during many happy years to come." It is probable that the orations used upon those oc- casions by the Aztecs were, like their prayers, not spoken ex tem])ore, nor even })repared beforehand by the speaker; most likely they were in the form of a iixed ritual, each being })repared to suit a special occa- sion, such as the coronation or l)urial of a monarch, and repeated as often as such an occasion occurred. Some orations nuist be delivered by particular ])er- sons; others needed only an ehxpient sjieaker. Sa- hagun gives us a speech which was addressed to a newly elected king. It coidd be delivered, he says, '^- Turqiiciiuula, Munani. IinL, toiu. i., pp. l",)4-5. ADDRESS TO THE KIXU. 151 by one of the high-priusts, or l>y a iioblo noted for Ills ulcxjuciico, or by some delegate tVoiu tlie j)roviiu'es wlio was an ehxjuent speaker, or j)ossibly l)y some learned senator, or other ])erson well versed in the art ot* speeeh-makhii;'. The lani>ua^e is constrained and (juaint, and j)ossibly tiresome, bnt as a specimen of Aztec oratory 1 ^'ive it in fnll, adherinjj^ to the sense, and IS clearly as possible to the words of the oii^iiial: () kinj4', most })itiful, most devout, and best bcloNcd, more worthy to be esteemed than precious stones or clioice feathers, thou art here by the will of the Lord our (Jod, who has appointed tliee to rule ovei' us in the place of the kinj^vs thy ancestors, who, dyiui;', have let I'all from their shoulders the burden of <;()vernment under which they labored, even as one who toils up a hill heavy-laden. Perchance these dead ones still re- member and care for the land which they t>overned, now, by the will of God, a desert, in darkness, and desolate without a kin»>'; peradventure they look with j)ity u\)on their country, which is become a place of briiirs and barren, and upon their })oor })eople who are orplians, fatherless and m(>therless, knowing" not nor understandiuL!^ those things which are best; who are unable to s[)eak for duml)ness, who are as a body with- out a head. He who has lately left us was strong and valorous: for a few short days he was lent to us, tlieu like a vision he slip})ed from our midst, and his passing was as a dream, for the Lord our CJod hath called him to rest with the dead kings, his ancestors, who are to-day in a manner shut from our sight in a cotfer. Thus was he gathered to his peo})le, and is even now^ with our fatluir and mother, tlie (lud of Hell, who is called Mictlantecutli. Will he, i)erad- veiiture, return from the place to which he is gone? May it not be that he will come back to us? (lone is he forever, and his kingdom has lost him. Never again, through all coming time, may we see his lace, nor those who come after us. lEe is gone IVoni our sight forever. Our light is put out; we, whom he 152 THE NAIIUA NATIONS. illuniinod, whom he carried, as it were, upon liis shoul- ders, are ahaudoned, and in darkness, and in iji-reat })eril of destruction. Beliokl lie has left his j)eople and the throne and seat whereon our Lord (Jod placed him, and which he made it his constant aim to hold in peace and (piietness. He did not cover his hands and feet with his mantle for laziness, l)ut with diliiL>ence did he work for the ofood of his people. In thee, O most compassionate kinjj^, we have a <»reat solace and iov; hi thee hath the Lord CJod mven us a sun-like •(lory and splendor. God points at thee with his tinu^er, he hath written down thy name in red letters. It is fixed ahove and helow, in heaven and in hell, that thou shalt be king' and possess the throne and seat and diiifuity of this kingdom, the root of which was deep planted long ago hy thine ancestors, they themselves being its first branches. To thee, Sire, is entrusted the care of the seignory. Thou art the suc- cessor of the lords, thy j*. "decessors, and nuist bear the burden they bore; upon thy back nuist thou ])lace the load of this kingdom; to the strength of thy thighs and thine arms does the Lord CJod entrust the government of the connnon people, who ai'e cai)ricious and hard to jdease. For many years nuist tlK)U sup- port and amuse them as though they were young chil- dren ; duriiiiif all thv life must thou dandle them in thine arms, nurse them on thy In]) and soothe them to sleep with a lullaby. O, our lord, nutst serene and estimable, this thing was determined in heaven and in hell; this matter was considered and thou wast signaled out, upon thee fell the choice of the I-,ord our God. Was it ])ossible that thou couldst hide thy- self or escape this decision? In what esteem dost thou hold the Lord (Jod^ AVith what resj)eit dost thou consider the kings and great nobles wlio have been inspired by God to choose thee for our father and iiiotlier, whose election is divine and irrevoi-able ? This being so, ( ) our lord, see that thou girdest thy- self for thy task, that thou puttest thy shoulder to the ADPRKSS TO THE KINO. 158 liurdt'ii Avliicli lias l)oon imposed upon tlioo. Let tlie \vill of ( Mxl l)e oheyed, Pereliuiice thou wilt eany this li)i\(l tor a s[)n('e, or it may ho that death will cut tlun' oil* and thy election l)e as a dream. Take heed, therel'ore, that thou art not uuLcrateful, setting- small store hy the henetits of (jlod. Be assured that he sees all secivt things, and that he will atHiet thee in such manner as niav seem j>ood to him. Peradventui'e he will send thee into the mountains and waste i)laces, or lu- will cast thee u])on dirt and filthincss, or sonie i'earCul and ui^ly thinsj^ will liai)})en to thee; perchance thou shalt he defamed and covered with shame, or discord and revolt shall arise in thy kinu^doni, so that thou shalt fall into contempt and he cast down; pei'hai)s other kings, thine enemies, may rise up against thee and coiKjuer thee; or j)ossihly the Lord may suffer faniint; and want to desolate thy kingdom. What wilt thou do if in thy time thy kingdom should he destroyed, and the wrath of our God should visit thee in a ])esti- lence? Or if the light of thy splendor should l)e turned into utter darkness, and thy dt)niinions laid waste? ( )r if death should ct)me upon thee while ihou art yet young, or the Lord (Jod should set his loot upon thee hefore thou hast fully gathered up the reins of govermnent? What wilt thou do if C^od on a sudden should send forth armies of enemies against thee, from the wilderness or from the sea, from the waste and harren j)laces where men wage war and shed rlood that the thirst of the sun and the earth may he slaked? Manifold are the ])unishments of (led for those that offend him. Wherefore, () our king, it hehoves thee with all thy sti'ength to do that which is right in the fultilment of thine othce, taking care that this be done with tears and sighs, and continual prayer to the Lord our (Jod, the invisi- hle, the impalpable. Draw near to him, Sire, weej)- iiig, and in all sincerity, that he may help thee to goverii in peace. Beware that thou receixest with kindness and humility those that approach thee in IM THE NAHUA NATIONS. )a »! 'I grief and despair. Neitliur spealv nor act rashly, l)ut Ileal" calmly and to the end all coni[iIaints hron^ht he- fore thee; dt) not harshly interrupt the words of the speaker, lor thou art the ima^e of the Lord (Jod, in thee is represented his person, tiiou art his reliance, with thy mouth he speaks, with thine ear he listens. Be no respecter of })ersons, Sire, hut punish all alike, and justly, for thou hast thy power of (Jod, thy riL>ht hand to punish is as the claws and teeth of Uod, Ibr thou art his juds^e and executioner. Do justice, therefore, heediui;' the wrath of none; this is the com- mand of (iod, who hath ^iven the doiii^" of these things into thine hand. Take care that in the hii^h l)laces of the lords and judges there he nothiiii;' done snatch ino'ly nor in haste, that there he no lu)t words nor deeds done in ani»er. Say not now in thine heart, 1 am the lord, my will is law, hut rather let this he an occasion for the humhling of thy valor and the lowering- of thy self-esteem. Look to it that thy new dignities he not the means of putfin*,^ thee uj) with jtride and haughtiness, hut in place thereof jionder often on thy former lowly estate, from which, without desert, thou wast taken and }>laced where thou now art. Say to thine heart, Who was I ? Who am I ? Not hy mine own deserts did I attain this hi<;h })lace, but hy the will of God; verily all this is a dream, and not soher truth. Be watchful, Sire, that thou dost not rest free from care, that thou dost not ij^row heedless ■with pleasure, and hecome a glutton and wiiie-hihher, speiidino- in feasting' and drunkenness that which is earned hy the sweat of thy subjects; let not the ^ra- ciousness wliich God has shown in electimr thee kiiu o' be repaid with profanity, folly, and disturbances. O Kin^' and ^••randcliild of ours, God watches over those that <>overn his kingdoms, and when they do ■wrong he laughs at them; he mocks and is silent; for lie is the Lord our God, he does what he |>leases, he scoffs at whom he })leases; we are the work ol" his hand, in the hollow of his palm he tosses us to and fro APPRESS TO THE KINTi. 155 even Rs l)jills and j)laytliiniTs, lie makes a niockciy of us as we stunil)lu and lall, he uses us for liis ends as we roll tVuni side to side. Strive luiid, O kiiiy-, to do what thou luist to do Httle 1)V httle. Perchance the nunil»er of our sins has rendered us unwortliy, and tliy election will ho to us a vision that passes; or jterchame it ni.iy he the will of the Lord that tliou possess the royal di^iiity for a time; i>erchance he will prove i^ rv, and put thee to the test, and, it' thou art touiul want- iiiL;' will set up another in thy place. Are not the I'riends of the Lord ,i,n'eat in numher? Art thou the only one whom he holds dear? ^Eany are the fiiends (»f the Lord; many are those that call upon him; m;my ai"e those that lift uj) their voices hefore him; many are those that weep hefore him; many are those that tearfully pray to him; many are those that sii^h in his presence; verily all these are uncountahle. There are many <^-enerous and j)rudent men of i^reat ahility and power, who }>ray to the Lord and cry aloud to him ; hehold, therefore, tliere are not lacking- otheis he- side thvself on whom to confer the dii^nity of kinijf. Peradventure as a thing that endures not, as a thiui^ seen in slee}), the Lord j^ives thee this ore'at honor and glory; j)eradventure he gives thee t(j smell of his ten- der sweetness, and passes it (piickly over thy lips. () king, most foi'tunate, how down a?id humhle thyself; wcej) with sadness and sigh; l>ray fervently and do the will of the Lord l>y nit>ht as well as hv dav, during- the time he sees fit to s])aro thee. Act thy ])ait with cahnness, continually })raying on thy throne with kind- ness and softness. Take heed that thou givcst none cause for pain or weariness or soi'row, tlnit thou si'ttest thy foot upon none, that thou frightest none with an- gry words or tierce looks. Refrain also, () our king, IVom all lewd jests and converse, lest thou hring thy person into contemj)t; levity and hutfoonery are not Ht for one of thy dignity, incline not thine ear to rihaldrv, even thouyh it come from a near rela- five, for though as a man thou art mortal, yet in res])ect IM THE NAIIIA NATIONS. to tliiiio offico tilou art as God. Tliouufli thou art our rtHow-crcaturt! and friend, our sou and our hrotlu-r, yet are wv not tliinu ecjuals, nor tlo \vc look upon tlirc as u Uiau, in tliat tliou now art tlio iniaj^-e of the Loi'd (lod; l»e it is tliat speaks witliin thee, instruetinn' us and niakintif liiniself lieard throui^li thy lips; thy mouth is his nioutii, thy t()n;j;ue is his ton<,nic, thy face is his face. Already he has ijfraced thee with his authority, i/ n ft ' he has iriven thee teeth and claws that thou uiayest ho feared and res[»ecte ft' O Upon a narrow path haviui^- a fearfid dei)th sheer down on either side, so that it is imposssihle to swerve to the right or to the left without falling headlong into the ahyss. It also hehoves thee. Sire, to guard thyself against heing cross-grained and fierce and dreaded as a wild heast hy all. Conihine modera- tion with rigor, inclining rather to mercy than to piti- lessness. Never .show all thy teeth nor put forth the full length of thy claws. Never appear startled or in fear, harsh or dangenais; conceal thy teeth and claws; assemble thy chief men together, make thyself accept- ahlo to them with gii'ts and kind word.s. Provide ;d.so for the entertainment of the conunon jieople according to their (pudity and rank; ada])t thyself to the difler- ent classes of the people and ingratiate thy.self witli them. Have a cai"0 and concern th^^self ah(>ut the dance.s, and about the ornaments and instruments used at them, for they are the means of infusing a warlike spir't into men. (lladden the hearts of the common peojile with games and amusements, for thus wilt thou become famous and be beloved, and even after death AnnnRss to the kino. 167 tliy faino will livf and tlio (»1(1 iih'Ii miuI women who kiK'W tlii'i; will slit'd tears of soi-iow lor tliiin' ahst'iu'i'. () most t'oi'tmiute and happy kinijf, most precious treas- ure, hear in mind thai tliou j;<)est hy a eran'yy J"ih dst Vi ■p. !• itl tatliless slopes, where the matted thorn-hushes and lony' yrass hide |)itralls havinj,^ j»ointed stakes set upri,i;'ht in them. Wherefore it hehoves thco to call upon thy (!od with moanin^s and lamentations, to watch constantly, and to shun the harlot, who is a curse aiul a sickn< -i to mail. Sleep not li,i;htly in thy hed, Sire, hut ratlier lie and ponder the affairs of thy kingdom; even in thy slumhers let thy dreams hu of the <,''<)od thing's in thy chart»o, that thou mayest know how best to dis- tribute tlioui amonjjf thy lords and courtiers, for thero aie many who envy the kins4', and would fain eat as hv eats and drink as he drinks, wherefort; is it said that kinos 'cat the hreatl of ^rief.' Think not, Sii'e, that the royal throiie is a soft and pleasant seat, for there is nothinn^ hut trouble and penitence, ( ) blessed and most })recious kiniL;', it is not my wish to cause ]»ain to thine heart nor to excite thy wrath and indignation ; it is sufhi-ient for me that I have many times wtumbied and yli]j})ed, aye, and have even fallen, durinu^ this dis- enoui>h foi- me are the faults of the course ot nune speech which 1 have spoken, .H'oinj^, in a manner, with jumps like a fro^ before our Lord iiod, the invisibU;, the impal})able, who is here and listenini;- to us, who has heard distinctly the sliijhtest of the words which 1 have spoken stannnerinoly and with hesitation, in had order and with unajtt gestures; but in doino- this 1 liave com])lied with the custom which obliges the aii'ed men of the state to address a newly elected kinl,^ In like manner have 1 done my duty to our (»od who hears me, to whom 1 make an otierino' of this my siteech. Lono- mavest thou live and reii>n, () lord and k'u\<^. I have spoken. CHAPTEE IV. PALACES AND HOUSEHOLDS OF THE \AHUA KINGS. ExTKNT ANP Interior of the Greas' Palace ix Mexico— The Pal- ace OK Nkzahcalcovotl, Kin(} of Tezcuco — The Zoological Collections ok the Nahua MrjNARCHS— Montezuma's OitAiouY — Royal Gardens and Plkascre-Grounds — The Hill ok Cha- imltepec— N^jzahualcoyotl's Country Residence at Tezcozinco — Toltec Palaces— the Royal Guard— The KiNf:'s Meals— An Aztec Cuisine— The Audience Chamrek -After-dinner Ami se- ments The Royal Wardrobe— The King Among his Peoi-le— Mketinc! of Montezuma II. and Cortes— the King's Harem- Revenues of the Royal Household— Policy of Aztec Kings. In tlio ])rcceding chajtter we liave seen how tlio nionarclis were cliosen, and anointed, and crowned, and feasted, and lectured; now let us follow them to tlu:ir homes. And here I must confess I am some- what staijf^ered l)y the recitals. It is written tliat as soon as tlie now king wfis fcjrnnilly invested with tlie right of sovereignty, lie took possession of tlie royal palaces and gardens, and that these abodes of royalty were on a scale of magnificence almost unpa, dlcled in the annals of nations. How far we may rcl; on these accounts it is difficult to say; how we are to U'terniinc disunited (questions is yet more difficult. In the testi- mony before us, there are two classes of eviaence: one having as its base selfishness, superstition, and ])atri- otisu) ; the other disaffection, jealousy, and hatred. Between these contending evils, fortunately, we may (158) RELIABILITY OF AUTHORITIES. 159 y cat least approximate to the truth. To illustrate : there oau he no douht that much eoncernino- the Aztec civ- ilization has been f^reatly exaggerated by the old Sj)anish writers, and for obvious reasons, Jt was nianitestly to the advantage of some, both ])riests and adventurers, to magnify the power and conse(iueiu'e of the })eople conquered, and the cities demolished by them, knowing full well that tales of mighty realms, with countless man-eaters and fabulous riches, would S(wncst rouse the zeal and cupidity of i'ao Spaniards, and best secure to them both hon'^'^s laid supplies. Gathered from the lips of illitenic soldiers little jirone to diminish the glory of their n,chievements in the narration, or from the manuscripts of native historians whose patriotic statements rogaixling rival states no longer in existence coidd with difficulty be disproved, these accoun+s passed into the hands of credulous writers of tortile imagination, who drank in with avidity the marvels that were told tliem, and wrote them down with su|.erhuman discrin»'nation — with a discrimination which made every so-cailed fact tally with the writings of the Fathers. Tliese writers possessed in an eminent degree the faculty called by latter-day scholars the imaginative in history-writing. Whatever was told tliem that was contrary to tradi- tion waj* certainly erroneous, a snare of tbt* devil; if any facts were waiititie* n the direction pointcid out hv doctrines or do''inas, it was tlu'ir riLjhteous dutv to till them in. Tl us it was in certain instances But to the truth of tlie greater pai-t <»f these relations, testimony is borne by the UTianimity of the authors, though this is partly owing to tli«;ir eo[)ying each fi'oni the writings of the others, and, more conclusively, by the anliitectural remairis which survived the att;'.,cks of tlu,' iconoclastic concpierors, and the golden and be- jeweled ornaments of such ex(juisite workmansliip as toe((ual if not sur})ass anything o> the kind in Kurope, whicli ornaments were sent to Spain as proofs of tln^ richness of the country. At this distance of time it :P: 1^ THE NAUUA NATIONS. i."; Iinp()ssil)le t.) draw a dufinito line l)etwpen tlie true iiud the false; nor do 1 feel it my dnty to doyinatize in these matters, hut ratlier to tell the tale aw i Hnd it, at the same time laying" every shade of evidence hefore the reader. The princijjal palace in the ^ity of Mexico was an irre'j;nlar pile of low ])uildin!^, enorinons in <;x- tcnit, constructed of huge blocks of fcfzoiifh, a kind of /torous stone common to that country, cemented with mortar. The arrang'ement of the buildings was such that they enclosed three i^reat plazas or ])ul>lic s [iiares, in one of wliicii a l)eautiful foimtain inces- s:uitly })layed. Twenty great doors opened on tlie .s(juar<'S, and on the streets, and over these was scul])tur<:jd in stone the coat of arms of the kings of Afexico. an eagle gripj)iiig in his talons a jaguar.* In th' int' rior wtire many halls, each of innnens(; size, and oi>e in particular i • said hy a writer who accom- |i«B»ied fJortes, kn*mn as the Anonvmous Concpierer, to have been of suflk-ient extent to;. vet (lie r<.,»uiU'r in wliicli l;r ••xprfKiw^ i« lcarv««* «« m m<»iii»' lUiKlit wkwflif-r the ti^'cr riiijriit imt liavc ln-i n Nt;iiidiii;r ••er th* ratil*'. 'Ml »-~< ikU .it' ainiu*!-. (|uc t'stiiii t jh'I Lis )llll'rt;l^ «ii- imtmriu y dfattfrueu laM'\»nii*-nu* «»- Muttt riiinji, \ las ilc sus iiiiiccoson's. «-s vnM apMtU alMrrUiu >• vn ti<9r. la> iit)iiii» \ \iias inicstas coiiki )m<):i lia/t .' ^•rcMti ■ •■''.«■'/, }f>.i\, (n\ HtH. 'M''t Waju'ii 'i.ul, \\:i^ •^^11 iUw'vW 'lit-' nji em lid Siijnor Fcntuiulo Corli-st, in /,'(»/.<«**»>, XtfryftUviii, tuiil iii., I«l. WJ. ROYAL PALACE ^\T MEXICO. it;i and lor thtj ministers and counselors, and tlio cfreat lords and their suites, who constantly resided at the capital. Besides these, the private attendants of tlu^ kin«4' — and their name was legion — had to he provided tor; so that when we consider the other extensive hiiildin^'s, such as the harem, in which, according- to some authorities, were nearly three thousand women; the armory, the j^Tanaries, storehouses, mena;yeries, and aviaries, which either formed part or were in the iuuuediate vicinity of the palace huildinjj^s, we an; pi'epared somewhat to credit the Anonymous Con- (|Ueror aforesaid when he affirms that, although he four times wandered ahout the })alace until he was tired, with no other purpose than to view its interior. yet he never succeeded in seeinij;" the whole of it.' The walls and floors of halls and apartments were many of them faced with jiolished slabs of marhle, j • ')hyry, jasper, ohsidlan, and white tecali;* lofty '•'•I inmsof the same tine .stones supported marhle bal- conies and ])orticoes, every niche and corner of whi<'h w;-; filled with wondrous ornamental carvinij', or held a L;rimrni^" o'i'otiS(juely sculptui'ed head. The bi-ams and casinys were of cedar, cypress, and other valuable woods, prof'u.sely carved and put toij^ether without nails. The roofs of the palace buildinos fbrmev hole <'ity could be obtained. Suj)erb iiiat> of niist ex.(|uisitt; finish wei\' spread upon the iiiarl»le floors; the tapestry that di"aj»ed the walls and the curtains that hunj^- before the w indows wei'c made of a fabric most wonderful for its delicate te.xture, ele- gant deside alto tres estachis.' ^ 'A niuiiera de cstriho,' writes Ixtlilxocliitl. MONTEZUMA'S MENAGERIE. 1G3 wore also storolioiises for tribute, and splendid suites of a})artnients reserved for the use of the kin<^"s of Mexico and '.riacopan wlien they visited Tezcuct). These apartments led into the royal pleasure-jjfardens, wliich were artistically laid out with labyrintluau w.ilks windin*^ tliroui^h the dark foliai^e, where often the uninitiated would lose themselves; then there were si)arkling fountains, and invitiuij; baths, and sha- dy i^roves of cedar and cypress, and ponds well stocked with fish, and aviaries tilled with birtls of every hue and species, besides extensive menai^eries.** The city of ^Mexico, however, furnished tiie lari>-est collection of animals, or at all events it is n)ore fully and be protectee' from the rain; the other half was coveixxl only with a wooden grating, whicth ^ I.rtl/'/j-ochill, .Y/a7. CMc/i-.. in KiiujslioroiKjIi's Mix. Anliij., toiii. ix., 1>1>. 242-3. 104 THE NAHUA NATIONS. juliiiittofl air and suuliu-ht. Five luindrcd tuikcvs were daily killtMl for food for tlieso birds. Allii;'ator,s wore kept in ponds walled round to })rev(!nt their escape, and sejpents in lonu^ cages or vessels, larL>e euougli to allow them to move about freely. These reptiles were also fed on liuman hlood and intestines. Mr Prescott tells us tliat the whole of this menaj^'ei-ie "was placed under the charti^e of nunieroU!+ kee}>ers, who acfpiainted themselves witli the liahits of their prisoners, and provided for their comfort and cleanli- noH8. rhomax Gai]fe, the shrewd old Enuflish Jieretic, takes another view. In his cpiaint thou^ii free and slashinu' style lie writes: "J3nt what was wonderful to hehold, iiornd ti) see, liideous to hear in this house, was the < )rticers' daily occupations about these beasts, the Hoor with blood like a .i>eily, stinkini;' Yika a slauo-hter-house, and the roarinsj;" of the Lions, the fearful hissino- of fclu; STiakes and Adders, tho doleful howlinn" and brii'lduij- of the Wolves, the sorrowbd veiling- of the Ownzes and Ti^'i'es, when they would have meat. And yet in tliis })lace, which in the ni^-ht seasoji seemed a dungeon of hell, and a dNVellins>' place for the Devil, coidd a heathen Prince pi ay unto his (»ods and Idols; iur no;»runto this Hall was another of a hundred and tifiy f )o« lono- and thiity foot broad, where Avas a chapjti 1 with a roof of silver and i>()ld in leaf, wainscotted and decked with o-reat store of ])earl and stone, as Ai;ats, ( *i)rnerines, Emeralds, Ilubies, and divers otlier sorts; and this was the Oratory where Monti'zumu prayed in the nig-ht season, and in that cbapjiel the Devil .lid aj)pear unto him, and gave liim answin- according to his prayers, which as they were uttered among so man\ ui;ly and defoi'med beasts, and with the noise of them which represented Hell itself, were totted for a l)evir^ answer. •' \n another jiart of tlie building was an iinmense liall which served as an aviary, in which were c< llected * 0j<''t Xcir Suriri/, \i. 'X). roiuoiiiiiiy this oialoiy, set- A(*« Cwin^ ZOOLOOICAL COLLKCrrON OF MONTEZUMA. Klf) spociiiicns of all the birds in tlie einpiro, ox('e})tiiiL;' those of prey. Tliey were of iiiHnite variety and spK'udiil ])luiua<(e; inatiy s})et'iuieiis were so dilfieidt to ol)tain that their featliers hr()iii>ht almost fahidoiis pi'ires ill the Mexican market; while some few, either Iteraiise of their extreme rarity or their iiiahility to live in coiitinemeiit, ditl not appear even in the royal aviary, exce})t in imitation, lor we are told that, both in ^^exic•o and Tezcuct>, all kinds of birds and ani- mals that eoiild not be obtained alive were repre- sented in gold and silver so skillfully that they are said to liave served the naturalist Hernandez for models. 1 hit to attain this honor, a bird must indeed have been a vara avis, a very })h(enix, for it is related by 'foicpie iiiada and manv others, on the authoritv of a Spanish eye-witness, that the Emperor Montezuma 1 1. hai)[ten- iii'4 one day to see a sparrow-hawk soaring- throug-h the air, and "takini>- a fancv to its beaut v and mode of flight," ordered his followers to catch it without lU;- lay and bring it alive to his hand; and such were the efforts made and care: used, that in an incrediblv short space of time "they ca})tured that tierce and haughty liawk as though it had been but a gentle doniestit^ pigeon, and l.rMUght it to the king."''' M u-l)le galleries, sup| H)rted upon ]as])er ])illars, a Hi )f one piece, surrounded this building, and looked (»ut ipou a large garden, wherein were groves of i-are trees, liolce Nhrubli rv and flowers, and fountains filled with fish. But the ]>rominent feature of the garden was ti 11 large ])onds for the ust> of water-fowl, some of which Were tilled with fre.sh and some with salt water, accord - iii'^' to the nature of the birds that lVe(iuented them. Kaeli p(»ml was .surroundeil with tessellated marble Ifis/. .[j^'tfi'ifUcd, MS., toin. i. •MP 1. T I'.H). a«.^'rts that tlie y:«>lil and silv..' >n|i|i'iii.i ilatr ■la. ^r■, A-7..t. itil wlli.li lite w; »i| WrJV'i-i mti.l, wciv almost as tliifk as a liiiiiiT. anil that tl:i' lii>l inn i|it(:oi's liM imt si'o this cliaiK'l or oratory, liccaiisc Montcznnia ilwaxs went til till' triii|ilo to iiiav. atiil jiiolialily, as tlic iiativfs tlcilari'i!, 1 nowiii;;' tin- rM\|i|(iu>in.ss of flii> S|iaiiiaiils, lit' |nir|iosi'lv roiiccaliil all this woaitli I'loni tlii'iii; it isiilso siiiil liiat wluMi Mrxii'o was taken tin.' natives dcstniyi'il this «h.i|M'l. mill t\in>\v its treasurer into tlii' lake. ill 7V""«yf(» w4t((/)( Mdii'trij. Jiitf., toiii. i., i>. '2'M. i: I IfiO THE NAIIUA NATION'S. ! ■ ■ t })avcmont and sluulcd by eluinpH of trees. As often us the water be^au to stai^iiate it was drained lAY and I'enewed. Monti'/cunia is said to have passed nuicli of his time lune, alone or witli his women, seated in the «hade, amid the j)hi.sliini>- of fountains and odor of How- (Ts, ninsini>' upon atfairs of state or divertini^ Ins mind from sucli eares by watehiui"' the motions of the strani^e l)irds upon tlu' water. No less than three hundred persons were employed in attendinn' upon the water-fowl and the birds in the aviary; feeding- tlieni and in the moultini^ season care- fully s>at]ierln!>' the <»-or!i'eous idunies, which served as material for tl;e celebrated Aztec feather- work. The hal)its of the birds weie closely studied, and jL^'reat caie was taken that every species should be su})plie(l with tlic food best suited to its taste, whether it consisted of worms, insects, or seeds. The fish with which the water-fowl were supj)lied amounted to one hundrtd and Hfty pounds daily. In another hall a collection of hum.'Ui monstrosities was kept. As we shall ])res- ently see, many (jf these unfoi'tunate crc^atures were trained to j)Iay the part of jesters at the royal table. Yet ant»ther hall contained a number of albinos, or Avhite Indians, who were considered a j^reat curiosity. In addition to these city })alaces the Aztec monarchs had munerous e(pially splendid countiy resideni'es, be- sides whole tracts of country set aj)art as royal huntiuLi- j^'i'ounds. In these ])arts timber was not allowed to be cut noi- ijfame disturbed, which rei>ulations were en- forced with ^reat risj^or. The })rincipal country villa of jSTontezuma H., and tlie oidy one of which any sijLi^ns are yet visible, was situated upon the hill of Cha])ulte])ec, which stood in a westerly dii'ection from the city of ^Fexico. In tlic days of the Aztec kings, the lake of 'JV'Zcuco washed the htihQ of the hill, round which the I'oyal ;l rounds stretched for miles in every direction. The wardens Were laid out in terraces, that wovuid down tlK> hillside amid dense groves of pe}>per-trees, myrtles, ;iiul cy THE HILL OF CILM'ULTEPEC. 167 jirosHCH, iiuiuinemblu fountaius uiul artiiicial cascades. Littlu of the ancient jj;loiy ot" eitlier j)alac-e or t^jardens is now left, exce})t the natural beauty of tlie foliage that clothes the hill, and the nia^nihcent view to be obtained from the summit. Two statues of ^lon- tezuma II. and his father, cut in bas relief on the |)or|)hyry rock, were still to be seen, Gama tells us, in the middle of the last century, but these are now ,n'one, swcj)t away by the same ruthless hands that laid waste the han^i^inijf ji^'ardens and tore down halls and monu- ments until the j.(roves of gigantic cyj)resses are all that is left standing in the gardens of Chapultcpec that ministered to the ])leasure of the ancient owners, l^eter ^lartyr, describing the palace at Iztapalapan, writes, in the language of an early translator: "That house also hath orchardes, iinely planted with diners trees, and herbes, and Hourisliing ihnvers, of a sweete smell. There are also in the same, great standing poolcs of water with many kindes of fish, in the wliich diners kindes of all sortes of waterfoule are swinnninge. To the b(>tti)me of these lakes, a man may desci'ud by marble ste[»pes brought farr of. They report strange tliiiiges of a walke inclosed with nettinges of ('aiies, least any one should freely come within tlie \(iyde ])lattes of grounde, or to tlie Iruiteof tlie trees. Tliose lu'dgcs are made with a thousande ])leasant deuises, as it falleth out in those delicate i)urple crosse alleyis, of miitle, rosemary, or boxe, al very delightfull to be- hold."'^ Nczahualcoyotl, the Tc/cucan Solomon, was no wit beliiiid his royal brothi^r of Mexico in the matter of splendid country residences and gardens. Not i-oiitent willi tlie royal pleasure-grounds calh'd lluertrcpan, writes the Chichiniec historian,'" this great king made others, such as the forest so laninus in Te/cdt/.iiiran history, and those called Caucliiacac, Tzinacaiiioztoe, II I'rfrr }rir/i/>\ iUt. v., lib. ii. '.1-; l.r'/i/.nir/iit/. Hist. Chirk., ill Kinrfslj(jr(illijfi\i Mrj:. Aiiliij., Vol. i\., \)\< I i 1 ■ ; I ■ I 1G8 THE NAIHA NATIONS. Oozcnquaulu'o, Cuetliicliatitlan, or Tlatcitoc, and those of tlu' lako Acatclolco, and 'rt.'j)et/iiico; ho likowiso marki'd out a lari^o tract, wlici'o lie iiiiu'lit jiass liis leisure luoineiits in luuitiiiiif. These Liardens wen; adorned with fountains, drains, sewers, ponds, and lahyi'inths, and were ])lanted with all kinds of llowers and trees, hotli indigenous and I'oreii^n. But Nezahualeoyotl was not one to overlook utility in layini^ out his nj-ounds. Five larLifc^ ])atehes of the most fertile lands lyini'' neai' the capital were hi'ought under cultivation and the ])roducts ajijtropriated ex- clusively to the use of the royal household. Certain towns and provinces in the vicinity of the court furnished attendants and lahorors for the palaces, i^ardens, and ])lantations. Jn return for such service said towns and ])rovinces were exempt IVoin taxation and enjoyed certain ])rivilej>'es. The manner of service was divided; thus twenty-eii*'ht towns su]tj)lied thost; who attended to the deaidiness and order of the royal huildini^s and waited u])on the kiiii*- and his suite; ft)urteen of these towns" did service during' one half of the year and the remainder" during- the other half Five towns provided attendants for the kini^'s cham- 1)er,'' and ei^-ht provinces,^*' with their dependent towns, furnished, each in its turn, foresters, L>ar(h,'ners, and aij^ricultural lahorers for the woods and gardens, orna- mental or otherwise. King Nezahualcoyotl's favorite country residence, •3 'i'licir namos, aw ^ivoii In- Txtlilxorliifl, Hiif. CJdrh., in Kiii;f.s!iorfnif//t'x Mix. All//'/., Mil. ix., p. lT)!, wcic: Iliioxdtla. ( 'uatlicliaii, ('oalajpcc, Clii- iiialliiiacaii. ^'tzta|lal(l(•all, 'l'('|)i'tla(izt(ic, Aciplniaii, 'rc|i('cli|iaii, ('liiiiliiiauli- tlaii, 'I't idiucaii, Cliiaiilitla, l'a|paluanlitlafca, and <,tiiat!atzincc'i. Jh. ''' ■ I'aia la iccaiMara del ly: raljiidalpan. Ma/aapan, ^'alllla■ liiilican, AliMic'ii, and 'l'/ilinin(|iiil(i('an. If). \t is nnrcasdnaMc tn su|ip(is(' fiiat tlu'sc Mi-callcd '(owns' we kini^diinis proper of Mexico. Ti oiilv a lilv more tlian i IICIC \ llla,^l'^ since til md 'riaco|ian, of wliicli tliey fornietl tVadion, were all contained in a vallev not two liiindrcil ndles in cir cnniterence. "' Tolantzinco, (Jiiaulieliinanco, Xicotejiec. Fanliatla, ^'anlitepec, 'l"e|iecli CO, .Mmaeaiocan. ami C^uaiihalinae. //).,• see also 'J'orqiiii/iiii/u, .lA Iiid., tont. 1". 107 SIJ.MMKU rAI.ACi; AT Ti:Z("()ZINCO. ir.9 some rotiiiiins of M'liidi are still visiUlo, was at Tezc (»- /iiico, on a conical hill lyinn" about two Ica^ncs iVoni Ti'/cnco. A liroad road, I'unninL;' Ixftwccn liii^li IicdL^cs, and ](rol)al)ly winding- spirally round the hill, ajipcai's to have led up to the summit, '^ which, however, could he reached in a shorter time hy means of a lli^ht ol' steps, many of which were cut into the living;" rock, and the remainder made of ]»ii'ces of stone iirndy cemented together. J)iivila Padilhi, who wiote in the latter j>art of the sixteenth ciMituiy, says that he coimted Hve hundred and twenty of these stej)s, with- out reckoniuLJC those that hatl already crund>led U) pieces."* He furtheiMnore adds that for the last tweh'e stej»s in the ascent the staircase was tunneled thi'oun'h the solid rock, and became so narrow that only one person could pass at a time. ]);ivila l?adilla in(piired the reason of this of the natives, and was told hy them, as they had heai'd it fi'om their fathei-s, that this nar- row passaij^e enabled the Tezcucan monai'ch to assei't US i-ank hv tak mg pi'ecedencc or Jus royal visitors when they went in a body to worshij) the idol that stood n])on the sunnnit; not a very ])olite iiroceedinii^ certainly.'''* AVater A\'as brouoht o\er hill and d;de to the top of the mountain by means of a solid stone a(pieduct. Here it was received in a lar^e basin, liavini;' in its centre a great rock, upon which weie in- scribed in a circle the liierogly})hics representing the yeais that had elaj)sed since Nezahualcoyotrs birth, with a list of his most noteworthy achievements in each.-" Within this circle the royal coat of arms was sculptured, >' i\ '■^ 'Lii corra fan prandp <|iip tenia ]>ara siiliir li la (•iiinliro dc I'l y aiHJMil todo.' IxtULii, 'li/f, lli.st. ( kii'h., ill A'iiK/thiiriiii'f/i'.s Mi .r. Anlin., \cp|. i\ "^ ' I'ara siihir liasta eata otiiiibrc sc ]ias>iiii iiuiniciilus y \cynti' I'scaloiuv hIii al.;\iiins i|iio ostaii ya (IcsIiccIims, pDr iiiicr siiin ilc iiiciiias siiclliis y imc^ Ins a maim: niio otnis iiuiclins csralciiics ;iv, lalinidiis en \;\ iiiiicliM ciinnsHla la.l. V. alio |iiisa" ///.v/. Friid. .\f(.i:, n. G\9. 'This fij^uie was, no doulit, the oiiilik-iii of Ni'Ziliiialcovotl liiniHelf, whose name Hi<;nilied "liunjfrv fox."' J'lrs- I'otrs M<:i., vol. i., ji. 183, note 42. 22 ' I'll leoii de mas de dos Itrazas de hirjjo con mis alas y pliimas.' Hint. C/iii-fi., ill Khiifsliiiniiiif/i'n Mix. Aiifii/., vol. ix., i>. -ii'I. 2J The^iu iigiu'va were de»truyed by order of hr Juuu de Zumiirruga, firbt ORNAMENTAL GARDENS AT TEZCOZINCO. 171 ein- r the 111 oil litecl- Uist. Is tliat J/i./'., Inltluni i'/r.v- llUt. ili'st crated states of Mexico, Tezcuco, and Tlacojmn.'^* Up- on tlie northern side of the hill was another po'id ; and here upon the rock was carved the coat of arms of the city of Tollan, which was formerly the chief town of the Toltecs; upon the southern slope of the hill was yet another pond, bearing the coat of arms and the name of the city of Tenayuca, which was formerly the head town of the Chichimecs. From this basin a stream of water flowed continually over the precipice, and being dashed into spray upon the rocks, was scat- tered like rain over a garden of odorous tropical plants.'" In the garden were two baths, dug out of IJisliop of Arexieo. Ddvila Padilla, Hist. Fvud. Mcx., p. CM); Ixtliho- iliitl. Hist. Chick., ill Kiiigsboruiinlis Mrx. Aiitia., vol. ix., i>. '2.VJ. Tlio iiijiiry \vroH>jht by tliis holy iconocmst is iiicalciilaldc. Hliiuioil liy tlie mad faiiatiL'ism ot tiie aye, he saw a devil in every Aztec inia;;u and liien»i;lyi)h; Ills Iiaiiiniers did more in u few years to eUace all vestiijes of Aztec art and j^reatuess than time and decay conld have done in as many centuries. It is a few such men as this that tlie world has to thank for the utter extinction iu a few short vears of a mighty civilization. In a letter to the Franciscan ( liapter at Tolowi, dated June 1*2, 1531, we And the old hi^ot exultin<; over his vandalism. 'V'ery reverend Fathers,' he writes: 'he it known to you that we are very busy in the work of convertiiifj; the heathen; of whom, by tiie ;;race of (iod, unwards of one million have been ba]>tized at the hands of llu! brethren of the order of our serajdiic Father Saint Francis; live hun- dred tem|iles have been leveleil to the pouiul, and more than twenty thous- and li;{urcs of the devils they worshiped have been broken to pieces and liiirned.' And it api>ears that the worthy zealot had even succeeded in briuLjin;^ the natives themselves to his way of thinking;, for further on he wriies: 'They watch with^^reat care tosec where their fathers hide the idolw, ••'.iid then with jjreat liilelity they brin;f them to the reIiL;ious of our order tliat they may be tlestroved; and for tiiis many of them nave been brutally mur'lered l»v their parents, or, to speak more jirojierly, have been crowned in ;.'lory witli Christ.' DiiT. l.'nic., Apii., toiu. iii., j). 1131. '' 'I'liere is a sin^^ular confusion aliout this jtassaffe. In Kiiiffshoroiiy/i's ilA'.c. Aiitii/., v(d. ix., p. 'ITvl, I\tlil.\ochitl is made to write 'In pot{uito mas abajo (!st'iban Ires albercas de a;^ua, y en la del medio eMalian eu sus bordits tres dannis csculpidas y labradas en la misnia pena, tiue si^^uilica- lian la ;;nui lai^nna: y las ntiiiis las cabezas del im|ierio.' In rirsrutt's M'.r., Ap/i., vol. iii., pp. 430-'2, Ixtlilxochitl's description of Tezcozinco is nivcu in full; the alntve-ipioted i)assa;ie is exactly the same here except that for viiiits, fro;;s, we read rtunns, branches. FitiuM' of tiicsc wonls would render the description iiu-omprchensibie, and iu my d<'si'ripiion 1 have assumed that they are both misprints for itmiius. Mr I'rescoti, Mtj\, Vol. i., pp. l>S'2-.'{, surmounts the ditru'ulty as follows: 'On u lower level were three other re.servoirs, in an'h (if ir/iirh stniid rock-lmrler of the midtlle basin. ^> I have no doubt that this is the basin known to inoilern travelers as the 'Hatlis of Montezuma,' of which Waril says that it is neither of tlic proper shape, nor larye enuuyh for a bath, but that it more prolmbly 172 THE NAIIUA NATIONS. (' 'geous Howers wore all transplanted from the dis- tant tierra caliente; marble pavilions, supj)orted on slender columns, with tesselated pavements and s})ark- ling fountains, nestled among the shady groves and afforded a cool retreat during the long sunnner davs. At tlie end of the garden, almost hidden by the groups of gigantic cedars and cypresses that surrounded it, 'served to reeeive the waters of a spring, sinre dried up, as its depth is coiisideraltle, while tlie edjje on one side is formed into a spout.' J/c.c- iV'o, Vol. ii., ji. '2\}7. Of late yeaix this exeavatiou has been repeatedly descrilH'il liy men who elaini to have visited it, but whose statements it is )iard to reeoneilc. Itullo. !\ mentions liuvin<{ seen on this spot 'a lieantifid l»a.rpliyry rock with the most math- ematical precision, and iitdished in tlie most Iteautifnl nuiuner.' Mixivn, vid. ii., ]ip. l2.5-(». I.atrobe says there were 'two sin<;ular basins, of per- haps two f(>ct and a half in diameter, not bi^ enou<;h for any monarch w^- ^er than Obcroii to take a duck in.' litnii/i/cr, p. 187; Virtue's Tnirvl.i, v(d. 1., i>. '11. mentions 'the remains ((f a circular stone bath. .. .about a foot derfect level for several yards, around wliich, seats and jj;rooves are carvetl from the adjacent masses, in tlie centre there is a circular sink, abnut a yard and a half in diameter, and n ya"d in de|>tli, and a sipuire pipe, with a small aiiertnre, led the water from an auMcduct, wliich ap|iears to terminate in this basin.' Mc.r. itn it Was, \\. 'J:U. .'{caufoy says that two-thinls up the southern side of the hill was a mass ot line red porphyry, in which was an excavation six feet st|uare, w ilh stens ici.'diii;; down three feet, having; in the centre a circular l»as n four and a hall" feet in diameter ami live deep, also with steps. Mi:r. Illiistr., p. l!>.5. 'On the side of the hill are two little circular baths, cut in the solid roi'k. The lower of the two has a tlijrht of steps down to it; the seal for the bather, an*l the sttuie pipe which briuij^ht the water, are still ijuite perfect.' Tif/ors Aiin/iiiar, \t. 1,V2. ■■"■ 'Tras este jardin se se}recious stones; the hall facing the south was deco- rated with plates of silver and with brilliant-colored sea-shells, which were fitted together with great skill. The walls of the fourth hall, which was o!i the north, were red jasj)er, covered with carving anil ornamented with shells. Another of these pah'ices or temples, for it is not clear which they were, had also four principal '" Diivila Padilla says that some of tlic gateways of lliis palace worr funned of one piece of stone, aixl lie si»\v one Ihniui of cedar tli«'re wliicli was almost ninety teet in Ien;;tli and four in )>reanildin<;s, ;,'ardens, iS:c., of tlie A/tecs, compare l.ii.t Ciisiis, Hist. A/ii)/oifelirii, MS., toni. i., caji. !.; '/'orijiniiiiK/ii, Miniinui. Iiiil., toni. i., pp. I(i7, '29»>-S; I.rl/i/,riti/ii//, lli.il. Chirli., in Kiiiiffihiiroini/i .t Mi:i\ Aiifif/.. vol. ix., pp. l»43-4, 'J.')!---*; Pdrilii I'ik/i/Ih, Hint, f'nid. Mis., pp. (il'.)-"20; liilntioDc Jiittii jirr rii i/nifir/iiii'iiiit i/i-l Sii/nor Ffriniiiilo Cnr- t'sr. in liinuii.sio, Xiviifiitimii, ti)ni. iii., fid. .'UM*; Sn/int/iiii, lli.st. tint., toni. ii., iili. viii., pp. .SO'i-'.h ('iimiirifo. Hist. Tfn.r., in \iii(ri/fis Amndrs ihn I'll/., \SVA, toin. xcviii., p. liMJ; Aro.itfi\i /li.sf. S'uf. lint., p. 4SI; ('Imiifrrn, S'liriii Ant. ifrl Mr.s.siro, toni. i., pp. U7I-4; Oririlo, Hist, (ini., toni. iii., pp. .•{ti.')-7, .")((4; Jliriial I)i; (imiiiirii, <'inii/. Mrx., fol. 107-11; (Jrti'tffi, in Viiitin, Hist. Ant. Mij., tom. iii., pp. III.') Ill; t'nt-lis, I'lirliis, pp. 1 10-11: Hirnrii, Hist. . i\. xi.; Wist- liiili.sriii- S/iii'//irt, pp. '24.")-<), H4.'{; (ini/i's Xiir Suriri/, p|>. '.•7-'.t; I'rti r Mur- Ifir, dec. v., lib. iii., iv., x.; t'hrrnlin; Mrjiinir, pp. 'M>-'2; I'lrsm/t's .Mi.i-., vol, i., pp. 177-.S4, vol. ii., pjt. (J.">, ll."-'21; nrn.s.srnr itr I'limr/ionrif, lli.st. S'lil. Cir., toin. iv., pp. 8-11; I'immlrl, linzii Iniliijriiii, p. 'u\ Tii/iin, Hi- /■irinn, ill Ii'ozhnlrrtii Col. ilf hoc, toin, ii., pp. .").si-.'l. Oilier works of no iiri;.'iiial value, which touch on this suhject. are: Kli'nini, Cnltnr-(ii srhirhii , tiilll. v., pp. 1."), 244, t>.V-(», '2;<4-7; linntinif's Hist. Jir.sriirr/ns, p[>, .'{17 ""I; Hii.s.iirrri', Vl'liapitr Mrxii'uiti, pp. 1M>-4, l(M>; Murifirrfor's I'riii/rr.tsi;/' A nur- i'li, p, '22; Hilirorth's Conq. Mcx., pp. GO, 70; Went und (Jut ludischer Lu.sl- ijirt, j>t i,, p. 1;^. 174 THE XAIH'A NATIONS. halls decorated entirely with feather-work tapestiy. In the eastern division tlie feathers were yellow; in the western they were hhie, taken from a hird called Xiuhtototl; in the southern hall the feathers were white, and in that on the north they were red.* The number of attendants attached to the royal houses was very great. Every day from sunrise until sunset the antechand>ers of Montezuma's palace in Mexico were occupied hy six hundred noblemen and jj^entlemen, who passed the time lounginj^ about and discussinj^ the gossip of the day in low tones, for it was considered disrespectful to speak loudly or make any noise within the palace limits. They were j)ro- vided with apartments in the palace,"'* and took their meals from what remained of the superabundance of the rt)yal table, as did, after them, their own servants, of whom each person of quality was entitled to from one to thirty, according to his rank. These retainers, numbering two or three thousand, filled several outer courts during the day. The king took his meals alone, in one of the largest halls of the palace. If the weather was cold, a tire was kindled with a kind of charcoal mfide of the bark of trees, which emitted no smoke, but threw out a de- licious j)erfume; and that his majesty might suffer no inconvenience from the heat, a screen ornamented with gold and carved with figures of the idols^* was placed between his person and the fire. He was seated ujton a low leather cushion, upon which were thrown Vfiri- ous soft skins, and his table was of a similar descri})- tion, except that it was larger and rather higher, and was covered with white cotton cloths of the finest texture. The dinner-service was of the finest ware of Cholula, and many of the goblets were of gold and 30 Safiiiffiin, Hist. Gen., torn, iii., liK x., pp. 107-S. 3' ("li)se to the greut uudionco hall waw u vtTv larj;o oourt-yanl, 'on nun avift \ncnt aiM)Hcnt<»8 de vcynte ^ i;'\i\v» {\ tre\ nta jtius a of the speed with which these couriers traveled. There were cunning cooks among the Aztecs, and at these cxtravaijcant nieals there was almost as much var! 'v in the cs((l by a Spaiiisli ^'<>iitlciiiaii who roidi'il for many yt'ars in Mcx- iiii. imkI was an ollicor in Maximilian's army, that whiU" tlu? woIncs wonUl fi'cil upon the (U>ad IhkUcs of th<> Frcncli that hiy all wv^hx upon the hattle liiltl, they never toiu'iieil tlie Inidies of the Mexieans, liecause ihi' lle-h of the latter was eoinpletely impregnated with cliile. Whieii, if true, may he thou;rlit to show that wolves do not ohjeet to a «liet seasom-d \\\\\\ j.'arlic. ^'' DeserilK'd t«M» frequently in V(d. i., of this series, to need repetition. "> The tnniale is unothr very favorite modern Mexiean «lish. Tin; na- tives ;renerally make tlijm with iK)rk; tlic Iwrties are ernshed almost to ]Hi\v(ler; the meat is eut up in snudl ])ieees, and the wliole washed; a snuitl tpiautity of mai/c ]Miste, seasoned with einnanion, Hatl'ron, eloves, pimento, ioMiatoes, eoarst! j)en|K'r, salt, red eolorin); nuitter, and Home lard added to it, is plavtfd uii the urc iu u pan; a» houu aa it hats aci^uirud the cuuaiHteney 176 THE NAIIIA NATIONS. aiid many othor curious nienses, such as fr<)<>-spawn, uud stowed ants cooked with chile, hut more loath- some to us than even such as these, and stran«,'est of all the strange compounds that went to make uj> the royal carte, was one highly seasoned, and prohahly savory-smelling dish, so exquisitely prepared that its principal ingredient was completely disguised, yet that ingredient was nothing else than human tiesh.'" Eacli dish was kept warm hy a chafing-dish placed under it. Writers do not agree as to the exact quantity of food .served up at each meal, hut it must have heen iuj- mense, since the lowest nund)er of dishes given is three hundred,"'^ and the highest three thousand.'-' They were hrought into the hall hy four hundred juiges of nohle birth, who placed their hurdens ujvoii the matted floor and retired noiselessly. The king then pointed out such viands as he wished to partake of, or left tlie selection to his steward, who dt)ul)tless took pains to study the likes and dislikes of the royal })alate. This steward was a functionary of the highest rank and imjjortance; he alone was privileged to place the designated delicacies before the king upon the of !i thick pjiiol it is rcniovpd, mixed with tlie meat, some more liird ami salt added, and the mass ierstitiuns of the i>co]de. I do not, however, base the opinion upon Ovietlo's assertion, whieh smacks ftrongly of the 'giant stories' e.f the nur- sery, that certain 'dishes of tender children' graced the monareh's table. Jhnt. Gen., tom. iii., p. I»01 Hermtl Diaz, Jfist. Cum/., fol. (iS, also cannot withstand the temptation 1 1 d'lal in the nutrvelous, aner- ha])s after all Montezuiia was not an ogre. ^s Uniitil Diaz, Hit. C'unlo; he appears to have done duty lK)th as royal tiirver aiitl cuphearer, and, according to Tonpieniada, to luive done it barefooted and on his knees.*" Every- thinj^ ht'injif in readiness, a number of tlie most beauti- ful of the kin«^'s women" entered, bearin«( water in n)und vessels called xicales, for tlie kin«( to wash his hands in, and towels that he mi«rht dry them, other vessels bein<^ placed upon the ground to catch the drip- jtiiijjfs. Two other women at the same time brou«j;ht liim some small loaves of a very delicate kind of i)read made of the finest maize-Hour, beaten up with e«j^}rs. This done, a wotnlen screen, carved and ^ilt, was placed l)efore him, that no one mijj^ht see liim while catino-.*' There were always present five or six a«,a'd lords, who stood near the royal chair barefooted, and with bowed heads. To these, as a special niark of favor, the kinu^ occasionally sent a choice morsel from liis own plate. During the meal the monarch some- times annised himself by watchinijr tlie performances of his juj*'olers and tumblers, whose marvelous feats of stren;;th and dexterity 1 shall describe in anotiier place; at other times there was dancin8, ssiiys tln-rc were foiirof tlieso witinoi; Tiii'c|iiciiiailii, Moimri/. linf., tcmi. i., p. 'J'i'.t, siiys tlicrc witc twenty. ''- 'K va <|iif t'Diiu'iivHiia li comer, eeluiiiaiile ilelaiite vna coino ]iiierta litt niiiilera iiiiiy piiitada deont, ponpie no le viessen conxT.' Itrniti/ hinz, Hist. '''iiii/., fol. (JS. 'Lneijoque so sentaba a la .Mesa, i.-erralia el .Maestre-Saia vna Varanda ile Mauera, (|ue tliviiiia la Sala, para i|iie la NoUleva de lo.s < alialleroH, i/nr (ini(/ia (i rrrlr roiiifi; no eiMlianii,'a.. 221(. 'Tosto die il Ue si nietteva a tavola, cliiiide- \a Id Sealeo la porta ilella Sala, aeeioeelie nesHiino (le<;li altri N'cdiili lt> M'liesse niaii;;iare.' I'lnrhjiro, S/oria Aiit. i/rf Mr.i.s-iro, toni. i., p. 270. *' 'A |Mitation of dioeolate, flavored with vanilla and other spices, and »> jircitared as to lu; reduced to u froth of the cousiutcucy of houcy, wliich Vol. II. IJ 178 THE NAIIUA NATIONS. vidtfd;** it was taken with a s|)(Mm, finely \vr<)u«'lit of gold or shell, from a t,'ohlet of the same niaterial. Havinjjf finished iiis dinner, the kinjjf aufain washed his liands in water hronj^ht to him, as hefore, hy the women. After this, several ])ainted and j,^ilt pipes were hrout^ht, from which he inhaled, throu«^h his nuuith or nose, as suited him best, the smoke of a mi.xture of lire cincmMita jarros {rrundes hechos de huen cacao con su cspuma, y de lo (jiio Iwhia.' lin-nal hinz, Hist. Voiiq., fol. (!S. Ovie(h), as usual, is content with no lunnher less than three thousand: 'E lue en tin dc los manjares sc^ de la hei>ida en el misnut, y servia el un va-so al rey el nuiestresala, de ijue behia hxpie le a<^radava.' Lun Ca.ias, Hl.st. A/iofoffrtirn, MS., cap. ce.xi. *i ' Vnas ycrvas (pie se dize tahaco.' Itrninl Pin:, Hist. Com/., fol. (!S. ** Only hve |>ersons enjoyed the privileffo of looking Montezuma II. in the face: the kings of Tezcuco and TIacopan, and the lords of Quaulititian, ('oyouacan, and Azcapuzalco. Lns Cnsas, Hint. Apo/offt'tirn, ^fS., v.a\h ccxi. Bcriuil Diaz say^s that all who a]>proailied the royal seat made three rev- erences, saying in succession, 'Locd,' 'my lord,' 'sublime lord.' Jlint. Coik/., fol. (i8. *T This custom of speaking through a secretary was adopted hy the other Aztec monurchs us well aa Montezuuiu, uud wua ulau imitutcd by many uf THE UOYAL WAUDU()I5K. 179 (ilroctly to tlie ])erH. 'JO.'). *'^ 'Lo que Ids senores huidahan y lu paiahra que mas ordinarianientc de- eian al tin de las pliitieas y nejjoeios que se les eoniunicalian, eran tleeir eon nuiy l>aja voz tfun, t' ho i,n'oat a |)ilo of u;armonts, k that iustly. Lot thom know*; that Mutoozuma vsod to ^iuo a certoino portion of «^armonts to his familiar friends, or well dosoruinjjf soldiers, in steed of a honeu- oleneo, or stij)end, when thoy j^o to the wars, or re- turne from y" victory, as Au^mstus ( a'sar lord of the world, a mi;L^htier ]'rince than Muteczuma, commadid oidy a poore reward of broad to he i>iueji ouer & aliouc to such as jterformed any notable ixployt, while bciiii;- by Mai'o admonished, that so smal a lar»;eH of bread was an arear anionic their peo- ple,'* thoujjfh we are told that they would sometimes i;() forth in disj^uise to i e that no part of the roli<^ious feasts and ceremonies was omitted, to make sure that the laws wore observed, and probably, as is usual in such cases, to ascertain the true state of i>ublic opinion with roi'-ard to themselves."^ Whenever they did ap- pear abroad, however, it was with a parade that cor- resj)onded with their other observances. U|)on these oc(;asions the kin«jf was seated in a majj;nificent litter, overshadowed by a cano[)y of feather-work, the whoU; being adorned with gold and precious stones, and car- ried upon the shoulders of four noblemen. He was <"' Prtrr Afrirti/r, tlov. v., lil>. iv. '"' 'r«>r(iueiiiiula writow of Mmitoziinia 11.: 'Su trato con Ioh Suios, cm pui'o: rums vci'i's hl' dejiiha vcr, y ostalMi^H! eiicorrado iiiiiclio tieiiipo, puii- s;inilo on el (lovieriio su Itoiiio.' Mitnarq. liid., toin. i., p. 205. ■>' Tui'i/uciiuu/ii, Mo/iai-i/. Iial., torn, i., p. 205. Tin: Kixc oiT OF i)()oi:s. 181 attoiijcd l>y a vast iimltitiulo of courtiers of all ranks, who walked withotit spuakinj,', and with their eves heiit upon the jLfround. The proi-ession was headed l»v an ortieial (•.•irryini' three wands, whose nless with heads hent down, like friars ehantin*'- the (Jloria Patri, savs Father Motoli nia, untu the jiroeession had passe«l. When the inoii arch aliufhted, a carju't was sjtread ti].' m tlit^ y a niunher of cacicpies and distinhty Montezuma, wht> was approaching seated on a splendid litter, and es- corted hy a number of j)owerfid nohles. Wlu'ii W(( arriveii at a place not far from the capital, where wern certain fortifications, ^^ontezuma, descending;' fr(»m his litter, came forward leaning' on the arms of some of the attendant lords, while others hehl over him a can- opy of rich feather-wofk ornamented with silver and ;;"old, havinuf .an emhroidered horder from which hun.;' pearls and chahhihuis stones.'** ^[ontezuma was very suni[>tuously dressed, according to his custom, and •^" Pii-kiiijj np straws, says T.as Casas: 'K iliaii c-^tos oficialcs ilclan'.t^ •iuitaiiilii las pajas del siu'lo jtor Unas (;ac fufsen.' J/i.it. A/io/tHjiiim, MS., (Mil. ci'xi. '"' This was the .\ztco ninnner of salutation, and is douUtlcss what ]U-r- ital Diaz jnrans where Ik; writes: 'Y en senal . 8.">. ^ Jienial Diaz, 11 int. Vonq., fol. G5. THE KOYAL HAREM. 183 5» told on good authority that he had one hundred and til'ty pregnant at one time, all of whom killed their offspring in the womb;" yet notwithstanding this wholesale aboi-tion, he had more than fifty sons and daughters. His father had one hundred and fifty children, of whom Montezuma II. killed all his bro- thers and forced his sisters to marry whom he pleased ; — at least such is the import of Oviedo's statement. ''' Nezahualpilli, of Tezeuco, had between seventy and one hundred children.®* Camargo tells us that Xicotencatl, one of the chiefs of Tlascala had a great number of sons by more than fifty wives or concubines.^ These women were the daughters of the nobles, who thought them- selves honored by having a child in the royal harem. Occasionally the monarch presented one of his concu- l)ines to some great lord or renowned warrior, a mark of favor which thenceforth distinguished the recij)ient as a man whom the king delighted to honor. The ser- aglio was presided over by a number of noble matrons, who kept close watch and ward over the conduct of their charges and made daily reports to the king, who invariably caused the slightest indiscretion to be se- verely punished. Whether eunuchs were employed iu tlie Aztec harems is uncertain; this, however, we read in Motolinia: " Moteuczomatzin had in his palace dwarfs and little huncubacks, who when children were with great ingenuity made crook-backed, ruptured,®* and disjointed, because the lords in this country made the same use of them as at the present day the Grand Turk does of eunuchs.""'' ^' Torqiici/iniln, Monarq. Iiid., toin. i., p. 230; (lomnrn, Conq. M<\r., fol. 107; /Icnrni, Hist. Gen., dec. ii., lib. vii., cap. i.\. ; Ih riiul l)inz, Hist. ( 'miq., fol. (17; West- f nil isrhe Spirghcl, p. 24(). ('liivij,'cro dislu'lievcs t! c report tliat .Moiitc/iiiua had one huiidred and lifty women pre;iiiaiit at (iiicu. Sto- rin Ant. (id Missiro, torn, i., j). 'JOS. Ovicdo makes the number u£ wumun futir tlionsaiid. Hint. Gen., iom. iii., p. r)(ir>. ^■f Orirdo, Hi.sf. Gail., toni. iii., p. .")((">, *'J Turqiifititi'/a, Moiinrq. Iiu/., toni. ii., p. 435. ''" l{i.if. Ttiu., in Xoii relics A II ltd /r.i f/cs Voij., 1843, torn, xcviii.. p. 1G9. •■' 'iicbraltan.' which probably here inean.s 'castrated.' '■'^ 'Tenia Motenczotnat/in en sii |ialaeio enanos y corcobadillos, t|nc do iniliistria siendo ninos los hacian jibosos, y los (|uebral>aii y descoyuiitalian, imriue de estos se Servian los senores en esta tierracoinoahora hace el Grun 184 THE NAHUA NATIONS. The enormous expenditure incurred in tlie mainte- nance of such a household as this, was defrayed l)y the people, who, as we shall see in a future cha}>ter, were sorely oppressed by over-taxation. The management of the whole was entrusted to a head steward or major- domo, who, with the help of his secretaries, kejtt minute hieroglyphic accounts of tlie royal revenue. Bernal Diaz tells us that a whole apartment was filled with these account-books."* In Tezcuco, writes Ixtlil- xochitl, the food consumed by the court was sui)plied by certain districts of the kingdom, in each of which was a gatherer of taxes, who besides collecting the regular tributes, was obliged to furnish the royal household, in his turn, with a certain quantity of spe- cified articles, for a greater or less number of days, according to the wealth and extent of his department. The daily supply amounted to thirty-one and a quarter bushels of grain; nearly three bushels and thiee quar- ters of beans;"* four hundred thousand ready-made tortillas; four Xiquipiles"" of cocoa, making in all thirty-two thousand cocoa-beans;"" one hundred cocks of the country;"^ twenty loaves of salt; twenty great baskets of large chiles, and twenty of small chiles; ten baskets of tomatoes; and ten of seed."^ All this was furnished daily for seventy days by the city of Tezcu- co and its suburbs, and bv tlie districts of Atenco, and Tcpepulco; for sixty-five days l)y the district of Qua- uhtlatzinco; and for forty-five days by the districts of Azapocho and Ahuatepec."® Such, as full in detail as it is handed down to us, was Turro do oiimiros.' Hifif. Tndios, in Irazhafrrfn, f'nj. ih\ Dor., torn, i., pp. 18l-.">. Ti>i(|iiemiuliv, Moimrn. IiuL, ttuii. i., p. '2!)8, uhos iieiuly t lie .saint' words. •i' '(ttitis tros Tlacopintlix de frisidcs.' Tl.o Tliiropiiitlix was one 'fanc- ga,' and tliire 'alniudt-s,' or, oiio IhihIioI and a quarter. C' '.Xiipiipilli, I'ostal, talo^ra, alforia, ») ltol«a.' .]fii/iiiri, Vornhiiliwln. ** 'Trt'inta y dos mil cacao!*,' possil)!y cucua-jtod.s iuNleail of cocoa-beans. C7 '( 'it'll ;jailos.' I'roltahly turkeys. ci I'roltalily piiuiiikin or iiicioii seed. •^'J IxtlilxinhiU, Hist. C/iivh., in Kingshnrouffh's Mrx. Antiq., vol. ix., p. '1A\.. AZTEC KINGS AND THEIR SUBJECTS. 185 the manner in which the Aztec monarclis lived. Tlie j)()hcy tliey pursued toward their sul»jects was to en- force ohedience and suhniis.sion by enactiun" hiws tlsat were calculated rather to excite awe and dreid than t) inspire love and reverence. To this end thoy kei)t thu jteople at a distance by surrounding themselves witli an impassal)le harrier of pomp and courtly etitpiette, and enforced ohedience hy enacting laws that made death the penalty of the most trivial offenses. There was little ill conmion between kiiif' and pe()}>le; as is ever the case between a despot and his subjects. Tlic good that the kings did by their lilierality and love of justice, and the success they nearly all achieved by their courage and generalship, merited the admiration of their subjects. (.)n the other hand, the ojtpression which they made their vassals feel, the heavy burdens they imposed upon them, their t>wn pride and an-o- gance, and their excessive severity in punishments, engendered what we should now call a debasing fear, hut which is none the less an essential element of progress at certain stages.'^" ""> Conrcrnini' the king's manner of living nn|). 84-.">, l(l!t-i;{; Jlrriml hiiK, Hist. CiiiK/., fol. 0(5-8; S(fh(i;/i(ii, Hist. Ucii., U>m. ii., lili. viiL, ]i|i. '-'SO ',V2-; Las Cii.fiis, Ifi'.it. A/ii)ff)i/r/irii, MS., ciij). ecxi.; Tur'/iiriiifii/d, Mmntri. [int., toni. i., i»it. 1()7-S, '-'(>.'Mi, '228-:n, 2S»8, toni. ii., p. 4:VJ; Mutoliiiiii, Hist, /in/ios, ill Iciizli'dirfd, t'l/l. dr Dor., toiii. i., ])|i. 184-"); J'lfrr Mnrfi/r, dec. v., lilt, iii., iv.; Iliiiiinni, t'oii'i. Mix., fol. 1(>,'1~4, l()7-8; Ariistii, lli.if. ilf Ins Yiiil., \\. .")(>7; Uriri/i), Hist, (irii., toin. iii., pp. 807, r»(ll, 5')."); Llin-ifirro, Stnrln Aiit. i/i I .^fr.s.iicii, toiii. i., jti). 'iti8-71; Hirref'2; Citrli, Cnr/os. pt i., p|i. 117-IH. Other works of more or less value hearing on tiiis ^.lll>|ect arc: Titnnni. Hist. Gen., tom. iii., iip. '2."i-'{8, ,S."m-7, H.'i'.i; I'mssiirn', L'Ktii/iire Mix., pp. 10!), ll!»-22, 2."»4-."); Jlinil, Midijw; \>\>. 201-7; /'';/'//. Uisiimr, foiil. i., Jip. l.%-7; Jiroinir/rs liid. Hmrs, pit. 8,'l, '.tl!-.'); li'nii/.iiii/'s Hist. l{:iciirrhrs, jip. 31.')-l(!, 321-3, 342-7, 3.")0; Snihn, Sjiniiiir iii I'n-u, p. I.'JO; ('iirl)iiji(l IC.t/tiiio.iti, Hist. M(\c., tttiii. i., pji. 582-4; Ln/niiil, ]'iii/iii/rs, torn, i., pp. l04-r>; Voii/iir's Jfist. X.Ami'r., p|». 112-13; Diln-nrtli's Cnini. Mr.i\, pp. ti."i-(», 70-1; Huirks, ill HtikliijiVs Voi/., vid. iii., ji. 4<)!»; Minii/Zinr, lir- siiiiK^, pp. 1!(, 82-3; /iiriifr.iits and Skrtrhe.s, \t. (W; K/niiin, Ciiltnr-Hr.srhivlitr, toni. v., pp. «;{-(!, 2()!4-l I. 234, 242; Dillon, Hi J. Mix., p. .'52; West and Ust Jndisf/icr Lmtgurt, pp. 123-5, CHAPTER V. THE PRIVILEGED CLASSES AMONG THE NAIIUAS. Titles of tiik Norii-ity and Okxtrv— The Power of the Noni,Es— The Akistockacy of Tezctco— The Policy of Ki.Nreat licfs," each independent of tlie rest and having several tiels of less importance subjected to it. The greater l»art of these great chi«3fs bore the sovereign title of Tlatoani, or a similar one. They rect)gnized no j>re- rogative of the king except his right to preside at ' Tiin/iirinn(l2. '^ Tori/iirnini/ii, MoiKiri/. Iiid., toiii. i., p. 8S; \ eytia, Hist. Aiil. Mi'j., toni. ii., p. IS-, mukcs iho number twenty -seven. 188 THE XAIIIA NATIONS. tlieir i^rand assomblies, to receive their homaj^c upoti liis accession to the throne, to levy certain trilnites in tlieir provinces, and to call upon them to ap])ear in the field with a continofent of troops in case of war. For the rest, each Tlatoani was perfectly independent in hi.s own domain, which he jjoverned with the same onmipotence as the kino^ of I'ezcuco himself Not- withstanding the precautions taken, it frecpiuntly hap- pened that one of these gre.'it feudatories would fed himself stron<; enouufh to set the authority of the kinir at defiance, but as their private feuds generally j)iv- vented any number of the Tlatoanis from uniting tlieir forces against the crown, the rebels were in most in- stances speedily reduced to subjection; in which event the leaders either suffered death or were degraded from their rank. Thev were an unruly f^imilv, these overofrown vas- sals, and the Aztec monarchs were often at their wit's end in endeavors to conciliate and keep them within bounds. Tonpiemada tells us that Techotlalatzin, king of Tezcuco, Wiis sorely harrassed by the powerful nobles of his realm. He accordinufly set about reme- dying the evil with great prudence and perseverance. His first step was to unite, by strong bonds of interest, the less important nobles to the crown. To this end he heaped favors upon all. The vanity of some he fiattered by conferring the dignity and title of Tlato- ani upon them, to others he gave wealth and lands. By this me.ans he weakened the individual power of the grciat vassals by increasing their numl)er, a j)olicy the efiii'iency of which has been frequently proved in the oUl world as well as in the new. Techotlalatzin next proceeded to summon them one after another to court, and then under pretense of being in constant need of their advice, he formed twentv-six of tlieir number into a council of state, obliging them by this means to reside constantly in the capital. With this council he conferred upon all gr.ave and difificult (pies- tions, whatever "\ight be their nature. It was the OUDEns OF NOniLITY. 18a les were invested witli the hiirhest diirnities. The first, witli the title Tetlahto, was made connnander-in- chief of the army, and [)rt>sident of the military coun- cil. The second was entitled Yobpii; his office was that of ffrand master of ceremonies; it was his dutv t > receive and introduce tlie ambassadors and minis- ters of foreign princes, to conduct them to court, to li»dge them and provide for their comfort, and to offer them the presents appointed by the king. The third lord received the title of Tlami or Cal])ixcontli ; he w;is master of the royal household, and minister of tinance, and was assisted in his functions bv a council of other nobles. It was the duty of this body to keep strict account of all taxes paid by the peoj^le; its inombers were retjuired to be well informed as to the exact condition of each town and province, with the nature of its produce, and the fertility of its soil ; tliey had also to distribute the taxes with e(|uality and justice, and in proportion to the I'esources of the people. The care and management of the interior of thi' palace was also intrusted to them, antl it was their jilacc; to })rovide all the food for the consum])tion of the royal household. The fourth ii^reat officer was styled Amechichi ; he acted as grand chamberlain, and attended to the king's private a})artments. Like t'.ie Tlami, he was assisted by other nobles. A fifth otficer was afterward appointed, who bore the title of ( '.»huatl, and superintended the workers in ])recious nietals, jewels, and feathers, who were employed by 100 THE NAHUA NATIONS. the court. At first sight it may appear that sucli duties as these would be behjw the dignity of a liauglity Aztec grandee, yet we find the no})les of Europe during the middle ages not only filling the same positions, but jealous of their right to do so, and complaining loudly if deprived of them. 8is- mondi tells us that the count of Anjou, under Louis VI., claimed the oflfice of grand seneschal of Franco; that is, to carry dishes to the king's table on state days. The court of Charlemagne was crowded with officers of every rank, some of the most eminent of Avhom exercised functions about the royal person which would have been thought fit only for slaves in the palace of Augustus or Antonine. The free-born Franks saw nothing menial in the titles of cup-bearer, steward, marshal, and master of the horse, which are still borne by some of the noblest families in many parts of Europe. As soon as habits of submission and an appreciation of the honors showered upon them had taken root among his great vassals, Techotlalatzin subdivided the twenty-six provinces of his kingdom into sixty-five departments. The ancient lords were not by tliis measure despoiled of all their authority, nor of those estates which were their private property; but the jurisdiction they exercised in person or throujrh their officials was greatly diminished by the nomination of tliirty-five new governors, chosen by the king, and of whose fidelity he was well assured. This was a mortal blow to the great aristocrats, and a preliminary step toward the total abolition of feudal power. But the master-stroke was yet to come. The inha,bitants of each province were carefully counted and divided into sections. They were then changed about from place to place, in numbers proportioned to the size and i)op- ulation of the territory. For example, from a division containing six thousand people, two thousand were taken and transported into the territory of another lord, from the number of whose vassals two thousand PRIVILEGES OF THE NOBLES. 191 this , those it the their Ion of ocl of iiortal step \t the its of into iphice pop- nsiou were lother isuikI were also taken and placed upon the vacated land in the Hrst lord's possessions; each nohle, however, re- tained his authority over that portion of his vassals which had heen removed. By this means, althouifh the numher of each lord's suhjects remained the same, yet as a larsj^e portion of each territory was occupied hy the vassals of another, a revolt would he ditiicult. Nor could two nohles unite their forces ag-ainst the crown, as care was taken that the interchange of de- pendents should not be effected between two estates adjoining each other. Tliese measures, despotic as they were, were never- theless executed without opposition from either nobles or ])eople, — such was the awe in Avhich the sovereijj^n was held and his complete ascendancy over his sub- jects.=* The privileo^es of the nobles were numerous. They alone were allowed to wear ornaments of i^'old and y^ems upon their clothes, and, indeed, in their entire dress, as we shall presently see, they were distin- ij^uished from the lower classes. The exact limits of the ])ower they possessed over their vassals is not known, but it was doubtless nearly absolute. Fuen- leal, bishop of Santo Domini^o, writes to C.'harles V. of tlie lower orders, that "they were, and still are, so submissive that they allow themselves to be killed or sold into slavery without complainincr,"* In Mexico tlieir ])ower and privilej^es were jjcreatly aui^mented by Montezuma 1 1., who we are told ousted every plebeian tliat held a position of hii,di rank, and would allow none who were not of noble birth to be employed in his palace or about his person. At the time of this monarch's accession there were many mend)ers of the royal council who were men of low extraction; all 5 Tnrnuemnda, Monnrq. Tnd., torn, i., p. 8S, etsrq.: sec also Vcyfln, Hist. Ant. Mrj., tdin. ii., p. 182, ft srq.; JSnisficiir (/c liourlmiirff, Hist. N 't. Civ., tiim. ii., pp. 4'28, et srq.; Ixtlil.vorhitl, Rdarionefi, in Kiiiffshoroitijl 's Mex. AiUiij., vol. ix., p. 35.% etseq.; Ooicdo, Hist. Gen., toiii. iii., ^i. .'502; jloTcrUf dec. li., lil>. vii., cap. xii. * Lcltrc, in Ternaux-Compam, Voy., s^rie i,, torn, x., p. 251. 192 THR NAIITA NATIONS, those ho (lismi.ssed and Huppliod their places with creatures of liis own. It is rehited that an old man who had formerly heen his j,>uardian or tutor had the holdness to remonstrate with him a;i^ainst such a course; tellinjj hiin with firm- ness that he acted contrary to his own interests, and advisin«r him to weijjfh well the (lonsequences of tlie measures he was adoptiiijuf. To banish the ]>lel>eians from the palace, added tlie old man, was to estran^^e them forever from the kin**"; and the time would come when the common people would no lonjjrer either wisli or (hire to look ';pon him. Montezuma haui^litily made answer, that this was precisely what he wished; it was a hurninj^ shame, he said, that the low and conmion j)eople should be allowed to mix with the nobles in the royal service; he was astonished and in- di^-nant that his royal predecessors had so long suf- fered such a state of thinjjfs to be." By these measures the services of many brave sol- diers, promoted, as a reward for their irallantry, from tile ranks of the i)e()])le, were lost to the crown ; nor wei' • such men likely to be slow to show their discon- tent. The new i)olicy, incited by a proud aristocracy, struck exactly those men who had the best ri<)[ht to u share in the jjjovernment. It was the officers pro- moted for their merits from the ranks who had con- tributed most to the success of the Mexican arms; it was the great merchants who, by their extended connuorce, had made the wealth of the country. A spiiit of rivalry had long existed between the poor well-born nobles, and the wealthy base-born mer- chants. During many successive reigns the import- ance of the latter class had been steadily increasing, owing to the valuable services they had rendered tlie state. From the earliest times they were permitted ;i certain degree of familiarity with the kings, who tool; great delight in hearing them recount the wonderful adventures they had met with while on their long i Tor(j[uoinailu, Monarq. I ml., toiu. i., p. 190. CLASS CONFLICTS. l'J3 expeditions into Htmnjife purts. Dtmhtle.ss tlie royal efir (lid not always meet the truth unenihellished, any more than did that of Haroun Alraschid upon Himilar occasions, hut prohahly the nionarcliH learned many little secrets in this way that they could never know hy other means. Afterward these merchants were admitted to the royal councils, and durinjLf the latter years of the rei<(n of Ahuitzotl we find them enjoying" many of the exclusive j)rivileges hitherto reserved to tlie warrior aristocracy. The n»erchants aj)pear to have partly brought upon themselves the misfortunes which suhsecjuently over- took them, hy agt^ravatin*,' the envious feelings with which they were already reij^arded. Not content with \)L'\u*f admitted to equal |)rivile«^es with the iH)l>les, and vexed at not heinjjf ahle to vie with them in hril- liant titles and lon<^ lines of illustrious ancestry, they (lid their utmost to sur}»ass them in the mari(lt! ho |)rtn)are(l tho way for diHatfection and rovoh ; lio furnished liis cnoniios with weapons wliich tliiy wore not slow to use; ho ahonated tho atibctions of his snl)jo('ts, so that when aid was most needed tlierc was none to help him, and when, fettered and a ])ris- oner in tlio liand of the Spaniards, lie eaUed upon liis peopU', tho oidy rophes were hoots and missiles. Tho Lfenerals of the army and military ottioors of the hiifher ranks, nuist of course he included amont^^ tho privilej^ed classes; usually, indeed, they were nohlo hy hirth as well as influential hy iK)sition, an years before he was admitted, tho candi- date and ■} parents busied themselves about making ready for I ) grand ceremony, and collecting rich gar- ments, Jew J, and golden ornaments, for presents to tho guests. When the time ajiproachod, tho auguries were consv bed, and a lucky day having boon fixed upon, tho relations and friends of tho candidate, as well as all the great nobles and Tecuhtlis that could be brought together, wore invited to a sumptuous bancjuot. On the morning of the all- important day rKKKMOXY OF INITIATINCJ A TKCCIITLI. 11)5 tlio roinpany Hot out in a Ixxly fur tlio temple of f'u- maxtli,* followed hy a inultitude r>f eurious sjtectators, rhieHy of the lower orders, intent upon seeinj^'all there is to nee. Arrived at the Huuunit of the pyramid conse- crated to Camaxtli, the asj)irant to knii,ditly honors hows down reverently before the altar of the j;»k1. The liii^h-priest now approaches him, and with a pointed tiirer's Inme or an eayrle's claw perforates the cartila\' his nose in two places, insertinjj into the holes thus made small pieces of jet or obsidian,^ which remain there until the year of j)rol)atit)n is passed, when they are exchanged for heatls of gold and i)recious stones. This piercing the nose with an eagle's claw or a tiger's hone, signifies, says Torquenuula, that he who aspires to the dignity of Tecuhtli must he as swift to over- take an enemy as the eagle, as strong in fight as the tiger. The high-priest, speaking in a loud voice, now licgins to heap insults and injurious epitliets uj)on the man standin;^ meekly before him. His voice grows louder ancl louder; ho brandishes his arms aloft, he waxes furious. The assistant j)riests are catcb.ing his mood; they gather closer about the ob- ject of the pontitf's wrath; they jostle him, they l>:)int their fingers sneeringly at him, and call him coward. For a moment the dark eyes of the victim gloani savagely, his hands close involuntarily, he seems about to spring upon his tormentors; then with an effort he calms himself and is passive as ever. That look made the taunters draw back, but it was only for a moment; they are upon him again; they know now that he is strong to endure, and they will j>rove him to the uttermost. Screaming insults in his ears, they tear his garments piece l)y piece from his body until nothing but the maxtli is left, and the man * faniaxtli was the Tlasoaltcc pod of war, corresponding with and proh- ahly the sanjc as the Mexican Huitzilopochtli The onlerof Teculitli Iwing lield in hii;hcr esteem in Thiscala than elsewhere, tlie ceremony of initiation is jjenerally dea(!rilKHl as it took place in that Htate. ' Tna-s pjedraa clavjuitas de i)iedra nej^ra, y creo eran de hv piedra de que hucen la« navajas.' Las Caswi, hint. Apologitiat, M^., cap. Ixvii. 1% THE NAHUA NATIONS. stands bruised and naked in their midst. But all is useless, tlieir victim is immovable, so at lenj^th they leave him in peace. He has passed safely through one of the severest ordeals of the day, but that fierce look a while ago was a narrow escai)e; had he lifted a Hnger in resistance, he must have gone down from the temple to l)e scorned and jeered at by the crowd below as one who had asj)ired to the dignity of Tecuhtli, yet who could restrain his temper no better than a woman. The long months of careful preparation would have l»een all in vain, his parents would have si)at upon him for vexation and shame, perchance he would have been punished for sacrilege. But he is by no meaufs a member of the coveted order yet. He is next con- ducted to another hall of the temjde,^ where he coni- Miences his noviciate, which is to last from one to two years, by four day.s of penance, prayer, and fasting. As soon as he is conducted to this hall the banquet wliich has been prepared for the guests commences, and after a few hours of conviviality each returns to liis home. During these first four days the candidate's powers of (;ndurance are sorely taxed. The only articles of furni- ture allowed him are a coarse mat and a low stool; his garments are of the coarsest description. When night comes, the priests bring him a black i)reparation with which to besmear his face, some spines of the maguey- ])lant to draw blood from his body with, a censer aiul some incense. His only companions are three veteran warriors, who instruct him in his duties and keep him awake, for during the foiu* days he is only allowed to sleep for a few minutes at a time, and then it nuist ''c sitting upon his stool. If, overcome by drowsiness, ho exceed this time, his guardians thrust the maijuev- * 'So ihn 11 vna do las Salas, h AjMwcntos do los Miiiistros quo son inn al DoiiioTiio, a T!ainanizt;al('(».' Torqiiriiim/a, Moiiarq. luii, torn, ii., i>. S02. It sooiiis iiiilikoly, lii>wovor, that the oandiilate would l>o takon to auotlicr tonii)lc at tins juueturc. llraHsour oxjilaiiis the name of 'III' liall to which he was taken as Me laeu lies' habitations de» MiniiritieM, lfictiv»de (."auia.\tli." Hint. 2\'ut. L'ic, tuiit. iii., i>. 587. FINAL CEREMONIES. 197 tliorns into his flesh, crying: Awake, awake! learn to be vigilant and watchful ; keep your eyes oi)en that you may look to the interests of" your vassals. At midnight he goes to burn incense before the idol, and to draw blood from different parts of his body as a isiicrifice. He then walks round the tcniide, and as he goes he burns paper and copal in four holes in tlie ground, v»^hich he makes at the four sides of the build- ing, facing the cardinal j)oints; upon each of these fires he lets fall a few drops of blood drawn from his body. These ceremonies he repeats at dawn and sun- set. He breaks his fast only once in twenty-four hours, at midnight : and then his repast consists merely of four little dumplings of maize-meal, each about the size of a nut, and a small quantity of water; but even this he leaves untastcd if he wishes to evince extraor- dinary powers of endurance. The four days having cla})sed, lie obtains permission from the high-j)riest to eoniidete his time of probation in some temple of his own district or parish; but he is not allowed to gt» lionie, nor, if married, to see his wife during this jieriod. For two or three months preceding his formal ad- mission into the order, the home of the postulant is in a bustle of pre])aration for the coming ceremony. A grand disjday is made of rich stuffs and dresses, and costly jewels, for the use of the new knight when lie shall cast oft* Jiis present chrysalis-husk of coarse nequen and emerge a full-blown Tccuhtli. A great number of presents are provided for the guests; a sumptuous banquet is pre})ared, and the whole house is decorated for the occasion. The oracles are aj^ain consulted, and upon the lucky day a})})ointed tlie com- l)aiiv assemble once more at the house of the candi- date, in the same manner as at the connnencenient of his noviciate. In the morning the new knight is con- ducted to a bath, and after having undergone a good scrubbiniif, he is a<>ain carried, in the midst of music and dancing, to the temple of Camaxtli. Accompa- 108 THE NAHUA NATIONS. nied by liis brother Tccuhtlis he ascends the steps of the teocalH. After he has respectfully saluted the idol, the mean tjannents he has worn so loivj; are taken off, and his hair is bound up iu a knot on the top of his head with a red cord, from the ends of which lian<( some fine feathers; he is next clad in garments of rich and fine materials, the princii)al of which is a kind of tunic, ornamented with a delicately embroidered de- vice, which is the insignia of his new rank; in his riijht hand he receives some arrows and in his left a bow. The high-priest completes the ceremony with a discourse, in which he instructs the new knight in his duties, tells him the names which he is to add to his own, as a member of the order; describes to him the signs and devices which he must emblazon on his escutcheon, and im})resses upon his memory the ad- vantages of being liberal and just, of loving his coun- try and his gods. As soon as the newly made Tecuhtli has descended into the court of the temple, the music and dancing recommence, and are kept up until it is time to begin the banquet. This is served with great magnificence and liberality, and, to the guests at least, is probably the most interesting feature of the day. In front of each person at table are l)laced the presents intended for him, consisting of costly stuffs and ornaments in such quantity that each bundle was carried with difficiilty by two slaves; each guest is also given a new garment, which he wears at table. The value of the gifts was proportioned to the rank of the receiver, and such distinctions nmst be made with great care, for the Aztec nobility were very jeal- ous of their rights of precedence. The places of such nobles as had been invited to the feast but were from illness or other cause unable to attend were left vacant, and their share of presents and food was placed upon the table exactly as if they had been present; Tor- (juenijula tells us, moreover, that the same courtesy was extended to the empty seat as to the actual ORIGIN OF THE ORDER. 199 puost." Upon these occasions the absent noble gen- erally sent a substitute, whose seat was placed next to tiiat of the person he represented. On the following day the servants and followers of the guests were feasted and presented with gifts, according to the means and liberality of the donor. The privileges of the Tecuhtlis were important and numerous. In council they took the first j)laLes, and their votes outweighed all others ; in the same man- ner at all feasts and ceremonies, in peace or in war, they were always granted preeminence. As before remarked, the vast expenses entailed upon a Tecuhtli debarred the honor from uif.ny who w^ere really worthy of it. In some instances, however, when a noble had greatly distinguished himself in war, but was too poor to bear the expen»es of initiation, these were defrayed by the governor of his province, or by the other Te- cuhtlis.*'" The orijrin of the order of Tecuhtli is not known. Both the Toltecs and the Tlascaltecs claim to have established it. Veytia, however, asserts that this was not the case, but that it was first instituted by Xolotl, king of the Chichiniecs." M. I'Abbe Brasseur do Bourbourg infers from ancient Toltec history that the ceremony of initiation and the probation of the can- didate derive their origin from the mysterious rites of whicli traces are still found among the nations of ]\Iexit'o and Central America. The traditions relating to Votan and Quetzalcoatl, or Gucumatz, evidently alliidu to it. The birth of Ceacatl-Quetzalcoatl is cele- hrated by his father, Mixcohua-Camaxtli, at Culhua- can, with great rejoicings and the creation of a great ' ' V a las SilliiH solas que re]»rcseiita1)iui las Porsniiiis ansctitcs, liaciau taiitu I'orti'sia, vie eaptahaii IJenevoleiieia, coiiio si ivulineiite t'slnvieiaii |iicsi"ii(os los Sefiures (£ue faltubaii.' Torqucmuda, Muitanj. IikL, toiii. ii., p. :m. '" Coiicerniiij; the ceremony of initiation see: TorqiiriiKiiln, Mnnnri/. I'lil., torn, ii., |i)t. 3t»l-(»; Lus Ctisd.s; Hist. A/Kifoift^/int, MS., cai). Iwii.; (fi)iniirit, ('(Hill Mr.r., fol. 3(Hi-8; (7(iri;firn, S/orid. Ant. (hi Mr.s.sini, toni. ii-, pp. rjl»-l; t'(iiii(ir;/(i, IIM. Tliu\, \\\ Nuin'cllcn Aunalcs dcs Voy., 1813, turn, xcviii., ])p. 147-'.t. " Wijtia, Hint. Ant. McJ., torn, ii., pp. 58-00. 200 THE NAUUA NATIONS. number of knights; it is these same kniglits who are afterwards sent to avenge his death upon his assassins at Cuitlahuae, a town which appears, since tliat time, to have been always the principal place of residence of the order. After the separation of Cholula from the rest of the Toltec empire by Ceacatl-QuetzalcDatI, that town, together with Huexotzinco and Tlascala, a])pears to have had special privileges in this particular. It is in these phices that after the conquest of the Aztec j>lateau by the Teo-Chichimecs, we find most of tlieir chiefs bearing the title of Tecuhtli; it may be that the priests were forced into confirming their warlike con- (juerors in the honor, or it may be that they did ho voluntarily, hoping by this means to submit the war- riors to their spiritual power. This, however, is cer- tain, that the rank, of Tecuhtii remained to the last the highest honor that a prince or soldier could accjuirt? in the states of Tlascala, Cholula, and Huexotzinco.'^ The priesthood filled a very important place among the privileged classes, but as a succeeding volume has been set apart for all matters relating to religion, I will confine myself here to such an outline of the sacerdotal system as is necessary to make our view of Aztec social distinctions complete. The learned Abbe, M. Brasseur de Bourbourg, gives us a very correct and concise account of the Mexican priesthood, a par- tial translation of which will answer the present pur- I)ose. Among the nations of Mexico and Central America, whose civilization is identical, the priesthood always t)ccupied a high rank in the state, and uj) to the last moment its :iend)ers continued to exercise a ])owcrful influence in both public and ])rivate affairs. In Ana- huac the jiriestly offices do not appear to have been api)ropriated exclusively by an hereditary caste; all had an equal right to fill them, with the excej^tion of the offices about the tem]>le of Huitzilopochtli, at Mexico, which were granted to some families dwelling 1* llnisscuv lie Buurbourg, Hist. Nat. Cir., toiu. iii., i». oSG. THE MEXICAN PRIESTHOOD. 201 in certain quarters of that city." Tlie ministers of the various temples, to be fitted for an ecch'siastieal career, must be graduates of the Cahnecac, eoUeijes or seminaries to wliicli they had been sent by their parents in their iiiftincy. The dignities of their orck'r were conferred by vote; but it is evident that the priests of noble birth obtained almost invariably tlie liighest honors. The quarrels between the ])riest and warrior classes, which, in former times, had brought F ) much harm to the Mexican nation, had taught the kings to do their best to effect a balance of jiower be- tween the rival bodies; to this end they appropriated to tliemselves the privilege of electing priests, and j)laced at the head of the clergy a priest or a warrioi- of higli rank, as they saw fit; this could be all the more easily done, as both classes received the same education in the same schools. Tlie august title of Topiltzin, which in ancient times expressed the supremo military and priestly power, came to mean, in after years, a j)urely ecclesiastical authority. In Tezcuco and Tlacopan, where the crown was inherited in a direct line by one of the sons of the deceased monarch, the supreme ])ontiff was usually selected from among the members of the royal family ; but in Mexico, where it involved, almost always, tlie duties of Tlacochcalcatl, or commandcr-Iii-chief of the army, and, eventually, succession to tlie throne, the otKce of high-priest, like that of king, was elective. The election of the spiritual kino, for so we may '"all him, generally followed ch)se u] on tliat of the tem- ])(»ral monarch, and such was tiu honor in wliicli tlie former was held, that he w.is consecrated with the same sacred unafuent with which the kiuLT was anointed. In this manner Axayacatl, Montezuma 11., and Qua- uliteiiioc, were each made pontiff befoie. the loyal crown was placed upon their head. The title of him who held this dignity was ^Mexicatl-Teojmatzin, that is to say, the 'Mexican lord of sacred things;' he '' Ilirnm, Hint. Gen., dec. iii., lib. ii., cap. xv. 202 THE NAHUA NATIONS. \J aS'!! added also, l)osides o great number of other titles, that of Teoteeuhtli, or 'divine master,' and he was, by rij^ht, hijjfh-priest of Huitzilopochtli ; he was the 'head of the church,' and of all its branches, not only at Mexico, but in all the provinces of the Mexican em- pire; he had absolute authority over all priests, of whatever rank, and the colleges and monasteries of every class were under his control. He was elected by the two dignitaries ranking next to himself in the aboriginal hierarchy. The Mexicatl-Teohuatzin was looked upon as the right arm of the king, particularly in all matters of war and religion, and it rarely haj)- pened that any important enterj)rise was set on foot without his advice. At the same time it is evident that the liigh-])riest was, after all, on'' the vicar and lieutenant of the king, for on certain solenui occasions the monarch himself performed the functions of grand sacrificer. The Quetzalcoatl, that is, the high-priest of the god of that name, was almost equal in rank to the Mexi- catl-Teohuatzin ; but his political influence was far inferior. The ordinary title of the priests was Teo- pixqui, or 'sacred guardian;' those who were clothed with a higher dignity were called Huey-Teopixqui, or 'great sacred guardian.' The Huitznahuac-Telic» uf guilti uiiil heruusi. SACERDOTAL OFFICES. 203 schools, an assistant stylod Tla})itzcatzin ; it was this latter officer's duty to instruct his pupils in the hymns which were chanted at the principal solemnities. Tiie Tlamacazcatlotl, or 'divine minister' overlooked the studies in the schools; another priest discharged the duties of grand master of the pontifical ceremonies; another was archdeacon and judge of the ecclesias- tical courts; the latter had power to employ and dis- charge the attendants in the temj)les; besides these there was a crowd of other dignitaries, following each other rank below rank in ])erfect order. In Mexico and the other towns of the empire, there were as many comjjlete sets of })riests as there were temples. Besides the seventy eight sanctuaries ded- icated to Huitzilopochtli, which were in ])art directed by the priests we have already enumerated, tlie capi- tal contained many others. Eacli had jurisdiction in its own section, which corresponded to our parish ; the priests and their pupils dwelling in a school or col- lege which adjoined the temple. It was the province of the i)riests to attend to all matters relating to religion and the instruction of vouth. Some took charire of the sacrifices, others were skilled in tlie art of divination; certain of them were entrusted with the arrangement of the festivals and the care of the temple and sacred vessels, others applied themselves to the composition of hynms and attended to the singing and music. Tlie priests who were learned in science suj)erintended the schools and colleges, made the calculations for the annual calendar, and fixed the feast-days; those who possessed literary talent compiled the historical works, and collected ma- terial for the libraries. To each temple was attached a monastery, or we might call it a chapter, the mem- bers of which enjoyed privileges similar to those of our canons, The Tlamacazqui, 'deacons' or 'ministers' niid the Quaijuacuiltin, 'herb-eaters,' were those who dedi- cated themselves to the service of the Liods for life. 204 THE NAHUA NATIONS. They lo(l a very ascetic life; continence was strictly imposed upon tlieni, and they niortitied the flesh hy deeds of j)enance in imitation of Quetzalcoatl, who was tlieir patron deity. The name of Tlaniacazcayotl, signifying 'government of the religious,' wjis given to these orders, and they had monasteries for the recej)- tion of both sexes. The high-priest of the god Quet- zalcoatl was their supreme lord; he was a man of great authority, and never deigned to put his foot out of d(Kjrs unless it was to confer with the king. AVhen a father of a family wished to dedicate one of his chil- dren to the service of Quetzalcoatl, he with great humility advised the high-priest of his intention. That dignitary deputed a Tlamacazqui to represent liim at the feast which was given in his honor, and to bring away the child. If at this time the infant was under four years of age, p slight incision was made on his chest, and a few drops of blood were drawn as a token of liis future position. Four years Avas the age ^'equisite for admission into the monastery. Some remained there until they were of an age to enter the world, some dedicated their whole lives to the service of the gods; others vowed themselves to perpetual continence. All were poorly clothed, wore their hair long, lived upon coarse and scanty fare, and did ail kinds of work. At midnight they arose and went to the bath; after washing, they drew blood from their bodies with spines of the maguey- plant; then they watched and chanted praises of tlie gods until two in the morning. Notwithstandinii: this austerity, however, these monks could betake them- selves alone to the woods, or wander through the mountains and deserts, there in solitude to spend tlie time in holy contemplation. Females were consecrated to the service of the gods in several ways. When a girl was forty days old, the father carried her to the neighboring temple; he })laced in her little hands a broom and a censer, and thus presented her to the Teopixqui, or priest; who by MEXICAN pitii:sTEssi:s. 205 accoptin;:^ these symbols of his future state, bound him- sulf to porfonu his part of tlio engagement. As soon us tlie httle one was able to do so in person, she carried a broom and a censer to the tem})le, witli some i)res- ciits R)r the j)riest; at the recjuired age slie entered tlic monastery. Some of the girls took an oatli of perpetual continence; others, on account of some vow wliiih they had made during sickness, or that the gods might send them a good husband, entered the monastery for one, two, tliree, or four years. They wcie called Cihuatlamacas<|ue, 'deaconesses,' orCihua- (|ua(iuilli, 'eaters of vegetables.' They were under the surveillance of a number of staid matrons of good iliaracter; upon entering tlie monastery eacli girl had her liair cut short. ^^ They all slept in one dormitory, and were not Jillowed to disrobe before retiring to rest, ill order that they miglit always be ready when tlie signal was given to rise. They occupied themselves witli the usual labors of their sex; weaving and em- l)roi(lering tlie tapestry and ornamental work for the tt'm])le. Tliree times during the night they rose to leiiew the incense in the braziers, at ten o'clock, at niiihiight, and at dawn.*" On these occasions a matron led the procession ; with eyes modestly bent upon the ground, and without daring to cast a glance to one side or the other, the maidens filed up one side of the temple, while the priests did the same on the other, so that all met before the altar. In returning to the dormitory the same order was observed. They spent j)art of the morning in preparing bread and confec- tionery, which tliey placed, while warm, in the tem- ple, where the priests partook of it after sacritice." '' riavijrcrn asserts that the hair of such only as entered the service on uci'oimt of some i)rivato vow, was cut. "< ('i;ivij{ero says that only a jiart of thcni rose upon oa<'h occasion. 'S'iilzavano aicune due ore iiuirca innaii/.i ulla niezzanotle, altre alia niczza iMittc, cd aitre alio spuntar del ill per attiz/ar, e nianteiier vivo il fuoco, e Jut incciisare seri('s (|u'elles prcsentaicnt, toutcs chaudes, dans le tcnijilc, oil K'.-< iiiitiL's allaicut Ics prendre ainlia I'oblatiou.' Brusscur dc Bourboimj, 200 Tin: NAIIUA NATIONS. The younLf women, for their part, fuHtod strictly; tliey first broke their fast at noon, aiul with the exception of a scanty meal in the evening, this was all they ate duriniuf the twenty-four hours. On feast-days they were i)ermitted to taste meat, but at all other times their diet was extremely mea<»'re. While sweepini,' the temple they took «^reat care never to turn their back to the idol, lest the god should be insulted. If one of these young women unhapi)ily violated her vows of chastity she redoubled her fasting and severitv, in the fear that her flesh would rot, and in order to appease the gods and induce them to conceal lier crime, for death was the punishment inflicted on the Mexican vestal who was convicted of such a tres- j)ass. The maiden who entered the service of the gods ior a certain period only, and not for life, did not usually leave the monastery until she was about to be married. At that time the parents, having chosen a husl)a!id for the girl, and gotten everything in readi- ness, repaired to the monastery, taking care flrst to ])rovi(le themselves with quails, copal, hollow canes flUed with perfume, which Torquemada says they called poiiuietl, a brasier for incense, and some flowers. The girl was then clothed in a new dress, and the party went up to the temple; the altar was covered with a cloth, upon which were placed the presents tliey had brought with them, accompanied by sundry d' .liCS of meats and pastry. A complimentary speecli was next made by the parents to the Tequaquilli, or chief priest of the temple, and when this was con- cluded tlie girl was taken away to her father's house. But of those young men and maidens who stayed in the temple-schools for a time only, and received a regular course of instruction at the hands of the priests, it is my intention to speak further when treat- ing of the education of the Mexican youth. The Hist. Naf. Ctv., torn, iii., p. 556. Clavigero says tliey prepared the offcr- in<^ of provisions wliicli was presented to tiie iclols: 'Tutte Ic niattine ])ra- paravaiio I'obblazioni di conimestibili da prcsentarsi agridoli.' Storia Ant. del Mcsnico, torn, ii., p. 42. DRESS OF THE MEXICAN PRIESTS. 207 oriL»iniil acroimts aro ratlier confuscil on tliis ])<)int, so that it is (lilKcult to separate witli an-uracy those wlio iMitered witli the intention of heeoniinjjf jiernuineiit priests tVoin tliose wlio were merely temporary sdiolars. The ordinary dress of tlie Mexican priests dillered little from tiiat of other citizens; the only distinctive feature beinsjf a black cotton mantle, which thev wore in the manner of a veil thrown back upon the head. Those, however, who professed a more austere life, such as the Quaquacjuiltin and Tlamacaz(|ui before mentioned, wore lonj^ black robes; many amon. IW. Tiic most iiiilioitaiit worlds that can lie consulted concernin;^ the Mexican ])riesth(io(i are: llntsiivur <',. Ilourhoiirff, Hist. A^at. Ch:, tiini. iii., jip. r)4!l-.">!t; fmni winch I liavc ))rinei|ially taken my account; TorqiiriiKK/a, Moiiarq. Intl., titin. ii., pp. I('i3-.'), 17">-91; Las dasns. Hist. A/w/offcfini. caps. exx.\iii., cxxxix., cxl.; .SV^/nm/Hw, Hist. Gen., toni. i., lib. ii., p;.. ll"2etse; Acosta, Hist, dc lus Yiid., pp. 3;r)-42; Herrrrn, Hist. Gen., dec iii., lib. ii., cap. xv-xvii. ; Clurir/iro, Sliiria Ant. ilcl Mcs,tions were made. Up to the time of com- mencinriests, tak- ing' care of the altars, sweeping,' the temple, and j;athering wood for the tires. When four years after his admission to the priest- hood had elapsed, durinjj^ which time he seems to have served a sort of ap[)renticeship, he was j)ermitted to marry if he saw tit, and at the same time to j)erforin his priestly functions. If he did not marry he entered one of the monasteries wliicli were dependent on tin; teniples, and while performin<»' his re<:fular tluties, in- creased the austerity of his life. Those priests who were entrusted with the hij,dier and more important ortices, such as the instruction of youth or a seat in tlio royal council, were selected from the latter class. The king, or the no ties, each in his own state, pro- vided for their wii is, and certain women, sworn to chastity, preparcJ. their food. They never left tlu; monastery except on special occasions, to assist at some feast, to play at ball in the court of their sov- ereiiii-n lord, to o<> on a pilf^rimage for the accomj)lisli- ment of Ji vow made by the king or by themselves, or to take their place at the head of the army, which, on from tatj, a nitin, ami finraa, a priest. Vocabiil. en laif/ua MUiern, r/r., ttccoidiiiy to Uranntur tie liourbounj, Uibt. Nat. Cic, torn, iii., p. 17, «if tunic, with full sleeves, adorned with tassels and em- broidered in various colors with representations of l)irds and animals. On his head he wore a mitre of feather-work, ornamented with a very rich crown of gold; his neck, arms, and wrists were laden with costly necklaces and bracelets; upon his feet were golden sandals, bound to his legs with cords of gold and bright-colored thread.* The Toltec sacerdotal system so closely resembled the Mexican already described that it needs no further description in this volume. Their priests wore a long 2" See this vol., pp. 142-3. *" linrijiKi, ffi'oif. M'.vrr///., torn ii., cap. liii. Of the Miztec lu'^li-i)riost Tor- i|'ifi iMilv write ■ 'Se v-.'stia, para colobrar sus Fiestas, dc I'liiitilicai, dc csta iiiii" I. Unas luantas nuii variadas de ooiores, iiiatii,'adas, y piiitadas do nlj.fiirias acaet'idas a aljjii'ios de siis Dioses: ])oniase viias '.•oiiio Caiiiisas, it KiH^iH'tes, sill iuaii;^as (a difereiiria di; los .Mexicaims) ((tie ii('j.'al>aii mas aliijit lie la rodilla, y ci» las pieriias viias eoiiiit aiitiparas, ([iie le eiiliriaii la ]i;iiiti>rrilla; y era esto easi eoiimii a todns los Saeenlotes Siimos, y ealeado, tM;i i(iie adiiniahau las Kstatuas de los Dioses; yen el liraeo izcpiierdo, vn iK'ihii'K de niaiita lalirada, a nianera de listoii, coino sneleii atarse al;;unos al Unieo, (piando salen ii Fiestas, d ('anas, eon viia liorla asida de ella, (jiie pareiia maiiipulo. Vestiaeneiiiia de todo vna ('a]»ii, eoiiio la iiiiestra de Cirn, eon vna liorla eol^ando a las espaldas, y vna ^raii Mitrii en la laliecu, lii'ilia de pliiinas verdes, eon ninelio artilieio, y toda seniWrada, y lalirada 'le iiM mas )iriiieii)ales Dioses, <|ne tenian. (jnando bailahan, en otras oea- si'iues, y patios de los Teinplos ((pie era (d iiiodo onlinario de eaiilar siis lioi.is, y reear sn Olieio) se vestian de ropa lilanea pintada, y vnas ropetas, C( HID eaniiso'as dc (ja'eote.' Mviiitrq. JiuL, toiii. li., p. 217. 214 THE NAHUA NATIONS. l)lack robe reaching" to the ground; their lieads were covered with a liood, and their hair fell down over their shoulders and was braided. They rarely put sandals on their feet, except when about to start on a loiv^ journey.'* Among- the Totonacs six great ecclesiastics were elected, one as high-priest, one next to him in rank, and so on with the other four. When the high-priest died, the second priest succeeded him. He was anointed and consecrated with great cere- mony; the unction used upon the occasion was a mixt'ue of a fliiid called in the Totonac tongue olc, and ; i " drawn at the circumcision of children.''^ There e jd also among these i)eople an order of monks devuted to their goddess Centeotl. They lived a very austere and retired life, and their character, according to the Totonac standard, was irreproachable. None but men above sixty years of age, who were widowers of virtuous life and estranged from the so- ciety of women, were admitted into this order. Their number was fixed, and when one of them died another was received in his stead. They were so much re- spected that they were not only consulted by the conunon jieople, but likewise by the great nobles and the high-}>riest. They listened to those who consulted them, sitting upon their heels, with their eyes fixed upon the ground, and their answers were received as oracles even by the kings of Mexico. They were em- ployed in making historical paintings, which they gave to the high-priest that he might exhibit them to the people. The common Totonac priests wore long black cotton robes with hoods; their hair was braided like the other common priests of Mexico, and anointid Avith the bloo*^' of human sacrifices, but those who served the goddess Centeotl were always dressed in the skins of foxes or coyotes.'^ At Izacapu, in !Mi- 327 31 IxtlUxorhitl, Rclaeioncs, in KingsborougKs Mcx, Aiitiq., torn, ix., \\ ■'2 Laa Ciisax, Ifisl. Afioloffr/irn, MS., cap. oxxxiii. 33 Las Lams, Hist. Apoloht be written concerning the priests of these countries, but as it does not strictly come within the province of this volume, it is omitted liere.^ Iiid., torn, ii., p. 181; Clttvigfro, Storia Ant. del Messtco, torn, ii., p. 44; Jlirirni, Hist. Gen., dec. ii., lib. v., cap. xiv. 31 Bi.iiumoiif, Urdu. Mcc.houcan, MS., i)p. 52-3; Hcrrera savs of the jtrii'st.s of Mcf'lioacaii, 'traliiau los cahellos lar;;os, y coroiia.s ahicrtas en la cabeya, coiiio Ids ile la Yfjlesia Catoliea, y gulriialdas de liuecos eolorados.' Hint. (Ifii., Dec. iii., lib. iii., caj). x. 35 TorqnoiKufn, MoiKirq. Intl., torn, i., p. 438. ^'' Cditiiifffo, Hint. Tlax., in Nouvellcs Annalcs des Voy., 1843, toni. xcviii., p. nil. 37 Less important, or more modern, anthoiities that treat of the priv- ileged classes aniou}^ the Aztecs, are: I'iiiirntcl, Mem. svire la litiza Iii- t/iifc/Ki, pp. l()-2iJ; Carhiijul Espiiiosn, Hint. Mex., toin. i., pj). 4',t.")-r)()4; '''(/•//, C((rla,% pt i., pp. 114-15; Ctirbajid, Di-iciir-w, ])p. 108-14; C/uire.i, Ji'iji/)orf, in Tenifi iix-Com/inii.% Voi/., serie ii., toni. v., j)]*. 303-(>, 3;17; Hihntrtli'n ('oiiij. Mr.c, p. 3(J; Afoiif/liirr, RrsKiiif, pp. 14-19, 32 .">; J/xziirf, Kiirhcn-Gr.irhiehte, toni, ii., pp. .5()3-.5; Afoiitaiiii.i, Xiciii'r Wn-rrld, ])p. 74, •J.S.l-G, 204-5; IFc.s< und Usl I)uli.ieh:r Liinfffurt, pt i., ]>p. 73-7, 98- 100; Cortes, Aeetitiiras, pref., p. (5; Hard, Mrxiqiir, pp. 201-2; Klritim, ('idtiir-Crfschiehte, torn, v., pp. 59-70, 88-98, 2m)-10; iSw/<«, Sjutiiier ia I'i'ru, toni. ii., pp. 12-13, 19; Chevalier, Mex, Ancien ct Mod., pp. IIG- 120. CHAPTER VI. PLEBEIANS, SLAVES, TENURE OF LANDS, AND TAXATION. Influexce of the Commoners — Oppression by Nobles— DnrmvED OF Office by Montezuma II.— Classes of Slaves — Penal Slaves - Voluntary Slavery— Slave Market at Azcapuzalco— Pun- ishment and Privileges of Slaves— Division of Lands— Crown Lands— Lands of the Nobles— Municipal Property— Property of the Temples— Tenure of Lands in Zapotecapan, Mizteca- pan, Michoacan, Tlascala, Cholula, and Huexotzinco— Simi- larity TO Feudal System of Europe — System of Taxation- Municipal Taxes — Lice Tribute — Tribute from Conquered Provinces— Revenue Officers— Injustice of Montezuma II. No writer seems to have thought it worth while to define the exact condition of the lower orders of free citizens among the Aztecs. In Mexico, under the earlier kings, they appear to have enjoyed considerable privileges. They were represented in the royal coun- cils, they held high offices at court and about the king's person, their wishes were consulted in all affairs of moment, and they were generally recognized as an important part of the community. Gradually, how- ever, their power lessened as that of the nobles increased, until, in the time of Montezuma 1 1., they were, as we have seen, deprived of all offices that were not absolutely menial, and driven from the j)alace. Still, there is no doubt that from the earliest times tlie plebeians were always much oppressed by the nobles, or that, as the Bishop of Santo Domingo, (818) ^^ PLEBEIANS AND SLAVES. 217 before quoted,* remarks, ''they were, and still are, so submissive that they allow themselves to be killed or sold into slavery without complaining-." Father Aeosta, also, writes that "so great is the authority which the caciques have assumed over their vassals that these latter dare not o[)en their lips to complain of any order giv^en them, no matter how difficult or disagreeaV)le it may be to fulfill ; indeed, they would rather die and perish than incur the wrath of their lord ; for this rea- son the nobles frequently abuse their power, and are often guilty of extortion, robbery, and violence towards their vassals."'' Caraargo tells us that the plebeians were content to work without pay for the nobles, if they could only insure their protection by so doing. ^ Of those who stood below the macehuales, as the plebeians were called, and lowest of all in the social scale, the slaves, we have more definite information. Slavery was enforced and recognized by law and usage throughout the entire country inhabited by the Nahua nations. There were in ancient Mexico three classes of slaves; namely, prisoners of war, persons con- demned for crime to lose their freedom, and those who sold themselves, or children sold by their parents. The captor of a prisoner of war had an undisputed right to doom his jirize to be sacrificed to the gods; this power he almost invariably exerted, and it was held a punishable crime for another to deprive him of it by rescuing the prisoner or setting him free.* Sa- liagun tells us that the captor could, if he chose, either sell or hold his prisoners as slaves; and if among them any man or woman showed unusual ability in music, embroidering, weaving, or other do- mestic occupation, he or she was fre({uently purchased by the king or some noble or wealthy man, and em- ' Sec page 191 of this volume. 2 Afosfa, De procuranda indorum salute; quoted in Puncntcl, Man. sobic III liazn Indtt/cnn, p. 81. ^ ffist. Tlnx., m Noiivcllen Annnles des Voy., 1843, toni. xiix., p. l.W. * (.'/iii'iffrro, Sforiit Aiit. (hi 3fr.mco, torn, ii., ])p. 1.34-ti; Curies, Carta hied., iu icuzOulceta, Col. de Due., torn, i., p. 474. 218 THE NAHUA NATIONS. ployed 111 his liousc, and thus saved from the sacrifice." Tiie offences wliicli the Aztecs jmnished with shivery were tlie following: firstly, failure on the part of any relation of a person convicted of hij^h treason, to give timely information of the plot to the proper authori- ties, provided he or she had knowledge of it, the wives and children of the traitor being also enslaved; secondly, the unauthorized sale of a free man or woman or of a free child kidna})ped or found astray, the kidnapper fraudulently asserting such person to be a slave, or such child to be his own; thirdly, the sale or disposal, by a tenant or depositary, of another's property, without the permission of the owner or his representative, or of a proper legal authority; fourthly, hindering a collared slave from reaching the asylum of the sovereign's palace, provided it was the act of one who was not the owner or the owner's son ; fiftldy, stealing things of value, or being an inveterate thief; sixthly, stealing from a field a certain number of ears of corn or of useful plants, exception being made to this law when the act was committed by a child under ten years of age, or when the stolen property was paid for; sev^enthly, the impregnating, by a free man, of another's female slave, if the woman died during her pregnancy, or in consequence of it. This latter statement is contradicted by Torquemada, upon the strength of information given him, as he alleges, by Aztecs well acquainted with the laws of their country." 5 lllst. Gen., torn, i., lib. 1., pp. 32-3; sec also, toin. ii., lib. vii., iip. 253-9, lib. ix., jip. 353, 370. The Anouyinous Coiunieror agrees with .Siili.i- {;un: 'Tutti iiufi che si pigliauano iiella guerra, 6 eiaiio inagiati L «,sto„ IL , '^v T<"-ui ^>-'V put up for 'sale, but U^is'nln '''"^ *'"^"' ^'"'<-'« <|uci-o,i provinces. Penal ^l.vj''; '"'''■"'•'■'-■'' "' «-n- sold to jirivate nertoi,., „ • ' ''"* were publiclv ;vIh™ th'ey had i^jur^S'' Z T?"''^ ,*" *''« I™' - to he slaves, or tl/eir pin LTnTe ff '"'■'! ,<'fl"'"I'='-s lield eon.n.enced until they had t"? V ""?,''''''-«l to have tlie hew owner. ^ '*"'" fwmally delivered to fro^^iit:siIe;:ti::^btTc;e^ 'T"'"^^ "-"• l'>"W not trist to «,en- own °' ""T **" ""•»'«"' wl"" S"".pste.s, oo obtain ZweSr'r f" -^ '^■^■'"'-''. •Ksion for saniblino.,. ai?d InZ ' '"'•"''^ ""''''• tor c asses were not oblted fa, ! '^'l ^ ''« '»" '"t- aftcrti,ee.Kpiratio„ofaySarf, ",^? in o serviee until tlie consideration for whM t ."S ",»««'' fooeivin!.' ,. Slaves were contiUa v off ^/"J'' them.,elve.s. " '- ."arket-plaee of evify Wn t ft "' '''" I'"'- » »ve-mart in the Mexican „,nn"' "' *'"^ I"'"''!'"' lie town of AEcapuziko wh 1 '™'"". '" ''"^'•^ I'oen t"-" leagues from tie cUrofif •"'*' •'''""''-■<' "''""t »"-: of the ancient ca&,,fH"'"'i; " «""l'ied the «-l". viii., ]). S((3. Iirass(Mir do Hourlxmrg assortH timt tlicise I'oii- tiai'ts rt'iiiaiiii'd in fon'c down to the time of the Spanish concjuest. Hist. Nat. Cic, toiii. iii., p. GU. CONDITION AND TKKATMENT OF SLAVKS. 221 ii moderate . ulyection, consistin*^ merely of an oMij^^a- tioii to render personal service, nor could that 1)0 (.xacted without alK)win«^ the slave a certain amount of time to labor for his own advantage. Slaves were Iviiully treated and were allowed far greater ])rivileges than any in the old world; they could marry and hiing up families, hold property, including other slaves to serve tliem, and their children were invariai)ly horn free. There is, however, some obscurity on this point, as Sahagun tells us that in the year Ce Tochtli, which came round every fifty-two years, there was generally a great famine in the land, and at that time many persons, driven to it by hunger, sold not only them- selves as slaves, but also their children and descend- ants tor countless generations." Very young or poor sliiNes lived at the home of their master, and were treated almost as members of the familv: the other slaves lived independently, either on their owner's laiid, or upon their own. It fre(piently haj)pened that a master succumbed to the charms of one of his female slaves and made her his wife, or that a comely bond- man found favor in the sight of his mistress, and liecame her lord; nor was this so strange as it may at lirst appear, there being no difterence of race or color to make such alliances repugnant t)r shameful. Feelings of affection and respect existed, as a rule, hetween master and servant. A slave who had served long and faithfully was often entrusted with the stew- ardsliip of his owner's household and property, and, on the other hand, if the master through misfortune sliould become poor, his bondmen would cheerfully lal)or for his support. No well-behaved slav -•( uld " 'V cuaiulo iicoiitecia ladiiha liainbre, cntonces sovcmlian por csclavo.s niiuluw ]>iil)res hoiiibres y imij^oros, y i-(iiii|iral>aiil<)s los ricos ein«^ jirisoncrs of war or criminals, as well as servants, dwarfs, or deformed persons, and })nr('hased children, were ])ut to death at religious feasts and royal I'unerals." The hands were divided hetween the crown, the iiohility, the various trihes or chins of the pe<)})le, and the temples. The division, howe\ 'r, was hy no means oiiual, hy far the greater portion being appropriated " ' Vfiidiiin nifios rcoion nacidos, y de dos afins, pnra niniitlir stis ]iri»- incsas, y ofrecer cii los tfin|il(iM, ooiiio iiosotros las caiiilolas, y Hacrilicarlos ])ara ali-aiivar siis prottMirtimios,' Ilrnrni, Ilist. Ucn., dec. ii., lilt, vi., can. .\vi. ' I'onjue conio aiidal>aii todos los UciiioH, (."(in >iis merraiicias, trahiii do tndos cllos iniurhoH csi'lavos, lo.s tpiales, si no craii todos, a loinciios, los mas, sacrilicaliaii.' Turtfiiriii'iifti, Moiiurq. Iiiil., toiii. ii., p. 127-. 'I'onjiii' ca^i tddos los ([ue sacriticaban a los idolos eraii los (jiio prciidian on las j;iu'rra.H niiii pot|iiitos oraii los otros que saoriKcavau.' Motolinin, Ciir/ti itt Km- jirnti/iir Carlos V., Jan. "2, l.").").'), in Iruzba/ccfa, Col. ^o projionian iiii parlaniento A los esolavos, cnanos y corco- liudos, ilii'icndo: liijos niios, id li la bitena ventnracon vnestrosufior .Axayari* fi la otra vida. . . .Luof^o le ahrieron el pecho, tcniendolo sois o siett' saccr- (li)tes, y el mayoral Ic saoalia el corazon, y todo el dia y toda la noclieardia el fiicrpo del rey, con los cora/ones de los niiserahles esclal>os (pie moriau sin culpa.' Ti'zozmor, Crdnini Mrx., in Kiiir/shoroiKfli's Mr.r. Aiitiq., vid. ix., ]>p. ".to, 14'2. '.Saorilicando en sua honras dosciontos esilavos, y eieii csilavas.' Ixtlilxorhitl, Ilist. Chichi iiicca, in I<1., lip. -S2, 'J.")(>. H^uando moiia al;,'un principal, matavan juntaniente con 61 iin esclavo, y entcrra- Viiii con el para que le fucse ti servir.' Cmlrx Trllvridiiii-Hiiitinsis, in Id., Viil. v., p. 130. 'Avec lui, de jeuncs (illes, des esrlaves ct dcs l>ossiis.' Vnmiirr/o, Hint. Tlux., in Nouvdlcs Annuhs ilea Vol/., 1HH5, torn, xcviii., ]). 202. 'Se queniaha junto con sus cuerpos y con los corazoues de los cau- tivos y e.sdavos que matal)an.' Leon »i Gama, Dos I'icilrns, p. .'{"); lir<(ssnir ilj'_ liiiitrhoiirg, Ilist. Nat. Civ., torn, lii., pp. 4.')3, 573-4; ]'i >/fi(i, Hist. Ant. M'J., toin. iii., pp. 6, 8; Pimcntcl, Man. sobrc la Razn Indiijcnti, p. fi.") Aiiionj; those who in later times have trcp.tcd of slavery amon<; the Nalun Uil nations are the following: Montaniis, Nicnwe Weerdtl, p. 201; iJa/i/icr. Sciic, Wilt, p. 294; Cheralii'r, Mix., Ancien ct Mod.,\>. (S2; Ihissicnr, L'lJm/iire Mcx., pp. 1.55-6; Miillrr, A nu'riknnische Urnligionen, p. 541; Klcniin, Cut- tnr-drsf-hirhte, j)p. 69-70; Soclen, Spanier in Peru, tom. ii., pp. 14-15; Simon's Ten Tribal, p. 273. 224 THE NAHUA NATIONS. ))y the kiiij:^ and tlie aristocrary." All landed prop- erty w;vs duly surveyed, and each estate was accurately marked out on maps, or paintinj»'s, kept on file by a competent officer in the district where they were sit- uated. The crown lands were painted in puri)le, those of the nobility in scarlet, and those of the cal- pnUis, or wards, in light yellow. Certain portions of the crown property called feepaiitlalli, or 'lands of the palace,' were granted to nobles of the rank of of Tecuhtli, who were called tccjjaiiponJKjiie or tec- paiitlaca, 'people of the palace.' They had the free use and enjoyment of such lands, and in return cer- tain services were expected of them. It was their duty to attend to the repairs and proper airangement of the royal residences, and to cultivate and keep in oivkr the royal gurdens, for all of which they had to l)rovide the necessary number of workmen; besides this they were obliged to wait on the king and accom- pany him whenever he appeared iii public. Althougli in consideration of these services t'te 'people of the j)alace' paid no rent, yet the eminent domain of their lands was vested in the sovereign. When one of them died his eldest son inherited his privileges, subject to the same oblioations, but if he chani^'ed his residence to another part of the country, or died without male issue, the usufruct was forfeited and tlie land reverted to the sovereign, who transferred it to another usufruc- tuary, or left the choice of one to tlie connnunity in whose district the property was situated." The jiro- liuce of other lands belonging to the crown was set apart for the support of the royal household, and for 1 )enevolent purposes. In coiKiuered provinces, the habits ,ind customs and established form of government of the vanquished were usually res})ected. The sovereigns of Antlhuac retained the native princes in power, and allowed the '^ Toi'ibio and Olarfe, ill Tcrnaux-Compnus, Vo)/., werie i., toin. \., |). 40.5. '1 Toi'f/iiriiiinfn, Moiiorq. Iirf., toiii, ii., pp. 545-G; Clavi(jcro, S/oric Anl. del Mc^ako, toiu, ii.,. p. \i2. O Jf^ LANDED PROPERTY OF THE NOBLES. Of) liJ people to keep their property; but they iuvtirialjly set apart a certain })art of the territory, pro[)orti()ned U> the coiKjuest, vv^liich became the propert}' of the cu.Kjuerini^ monarch. Tliese hinds, called i/iiot/d/ll, which means 'war lands,' were cultivated by the con- (jiiercd pec )] tie for the benefit of their con<|Ueror. If tlicy belong'ed to Mexico their name was mcrica- . flal/i; if to Acolhuacan, acolhua-tlalli, and so on." The lands of the nobility wei'e called jtUJalli, and were either ancient possessions of the nobles trans- mitted by inheritance from father to son, or were rewards of valor granted by the king. They \vere held hy various tenures; some of them could he aHen- ated at the will of the owner, sul)ject only to the restriction that they should not pass into the hands of a [>leheian; others were entailed u])on the tildest male issue and could not be otherwise disposed of. ^lany of the Aztec estates were of very ancient origin. After the Cliichimecs obtained undisputed j)ossessiou of the valley of Mexico, their chief or sovereign Xolotl made grants of land to his own people, and to othci's who acknowledged him as their supreme lordj under the coiidition that the grantees should render service to the crown with their ])ersons, vassals, and estates, whenever lie should require it of them, and tlie same j)olii-y was adopted by his successors.'" Sons y'l'iu'ially inherited their father's estates by right of jtrimogeniture, but if the eldest son was judgc;d inca- nahle t)f taking pro})er care of the pro])erty, the lather left it to whichever son he j)leased, stipulating, how- ever, that the heir should insure a competency to him lie had suj)planted." In the republic of Tlascala ^'' Ziirtld, Riipport, in Tcrnaux-Cnnijuiii.t, J'ni/., st'rio ii., toiu. i.. ]>. (iT; Ih'iissi HI (If Hintrhtiiirij, llisf. Xitt. ''ir., torn, iii., p. (iUlt; Ciir'j.ijii/, /'/.s- '■'irsii. |i, (11; Tizozomur, Cr6ni':a Mr.i'., in Kiitijshuruinjh's Mi\i:. Aiili'j., I'lm. ix., jt. 4(». ''' Hii/iiriiii, hii'd, p. 1(5'); Ix'lihnriilii, Hisi. Cliirli., ill I\'iiii/.s/iiiriiiiii!i'.'i M'r. Aiili/., vol. ix.. i)p. l>(tS, •_M(;, '2_M-."), iMl; Id., Ilrliiri„i'i>s, ill /./., Pp. :i:{;t w, .'Uii, '.\y,\, ;{S(i-7, ;w."), 4.")i, ^y.\\ il'miin // Stu-miinhi. Sn-nnhi, NJS., |i|i. ."»I-2; I'fiffiit, Jl/'s/. Ant. MiJ., toiil. iii., \). I8;t; Vihtnn-rt, T'lt/rii. Mr.i., |it ii., pp. J3-14. 1' llcrn'ia, /f/.sf. Lien., due. ii., lib. vi., cap. xvii., suv,i i'lat brutlicra Vol. a. 15 226 THE NAIIUA NATIONS. (laughters could not inherit an estate, the ohject heiriL: to j)revent landed property from going into tlie hands of strangers. In the kingdoms of Mexico, Tezcuco, and Tlacopan it is prohable that the law was the same in this respect, hut the authorities give us no informa- tion concerning the matter. ^^ These feudatories jiaid no rent for their lands, but were hound to assist tlieii- suzerain, the king, with their persons, vassals, and fortunes in all cases of foreign or civil war, Eacli king, on his accession, confirmed the investitu -e of estates derived from the crown.*" The lands o;' tin- people were called calpnUi, and every city was divided into as many of these as there were wards in it, and the whole number of calpulli being collectively named alfcpaflafU. The calpulli, as well as the tl<(.vic(i//i, or streets, were all measured out and their boundaries marked, so that the ihhal)itants of one ward or stieet could not invade the possessions of another. Eacli of these divisions beU)nged to its respective comnumity, and was of greater or less extent and importance according to the partition whicli had been made by the first settlers in Anahuac. The owners of a calpulli were all mend)ers of the same clan or tribe, and their district bore their name. The right of tenure Mas ])erpetual and inalienable, .and was the common prop- erty of the conmiunity .and not of individuals. Any member of the community not ]K)ssessed of any land, had the right to ask for a portion suitable to his ]>osi- tion and requirements, which was granted him. This portion he was entitled to hold as long as he culti- vated and improved it, and he could transmit it to his itiliiM-iti'il estates and not sous; but this assertion is not lionie nut liy any other autiiority. '■■' Tiiri/iii'mHi/i(, Miniimi. Iii<(., toni. ii., p. 348; t'l(iri;/(ro, S/oriii Aiil. dvl Missico, toni. ii., p. V2\\. '■' i'linilcid, Lcf/ir, in T<'nifni.r-('oiii/>ivis, Voi/., serie i., toin. x., p]'. -">-• 4; Ciir/v.i, Vartiix, p. (IS; l\'iff, l,i//rr, in Trrtun.. ''iiin/nnin, I'c//., si'iic ii., tinu. v., p. '287; L'arhdjnl, lUsmrno, p. (i.S; (h-iiiln, Hist. Ilni., tiiiii. Hi., p. 5;}."); 'lorqiirniiiilii, Mmiiiri. Iiitf., toni. i., p. •2'A\; Znrilit, J,''i/i/ii,rl, in j'rni(ni.i'-<'i)iii/)(iii.i, !'«//., serie ii.. toni. i., ](p. 4S-^^^^^ \ tlioir prop- Any ,- land, lis p»)si- Tbis i cuUi- to bis [(. out ^'y [iric '!"'• .. rv' -^-• I'..'/., S>'1'1^' i:<'ir"''- heirs; he had no autliority to sell his portion, but lie could let it to another for a nundier of years. If he nu^'leeted to cultivate it for two years the head niati of the ealpulli remonstrated with liim; if he })aid no lieed to this warnin'jf he was ousted the followiuLif year in favor of some otlier j)erson; a reasonable excuse for such nei^lect was, however, always acce})ted. If thi; land assigned to anyone i)roved unfruitful and liarren, he was at liberty to al)andon it and another portion was granted him. Under no })retext whatever could any ])erson settle upon the land lawfully occupied by another, nor could the authorities of the ealpulli dc- ])rive the latter of his right. If a land-owner died without heirs, his portion was considered vacant and assigned to the first applicant for it. If a ealpulli was in great need the authorities were allowed to lease its lands, but under no circumstances were the inhabitants permitted to work on the lands of another district. The elders of the tribe formed the council of the cal}>ulli; this body elected a principal, called vdlpuUcc, whose dutv is was to watch over the hiterests of the com- numity; he acted only with the advice and consent of the council. Each city set apart a piece of land in the suburbs wherefrom to sup})ly the needs of th ; army in time of war. These portions were called inilcliiimtlli, or cacalomilli, according to the kind of grain they j)roduced, and were cultivated jointly i»y all the calpullis. It was not unusual for the kings to make a life-grant of a portion of the ])eople's i»roj>- erty to svniie favorite noble, for though there is no doubt that the ealpulli lands of I'iglit belonged to the people, yet in this respect as in othei's, the kings were wt)nt to usurp a power not their own.'" Every tem- 5" To nVst. pas qn'ils oiisscnt ros torrrs on propro; car, ocinitiio los s('i;,'iiours oxorvaii'iit 111! pitiiviiir tyramiiiiiio, ils (lis|M>siiiont ilos terrain-* »r ill's \;is iiix siiivaiit lour lion plaisir. Los indioiis n'ctaiont done, |)rip|ii(- iMi'iit (lit. iii propriotairos ni niaitros do oos villaj;os; ils n'otaioiit i|uc Ion laliiiiirours (111 Jos aiiKidiateiirs dos soi).'iiours lorriors, do telle fa<,'iiii (pie I'mi piiiiriait dire (pi(' tmit le lorritdiro, suit des plaiiies. suit dcs iiiiintaunos. di''- lii'iiiiait (ill caprice des sei^tiiours et (pTil lour aiiparteiiait. piiisiprils y ixi T' aient uii pousoir tyrauiii(|ue, et (pic les Imlieiis visaieiU an jour lo 228 THE NAHUA NATIONS. pie, groat and insignificant, had its own lands and country estates, tlie produce of which was appHed to the support of the priests and of puhhc worship; tlio tenants wiio occupied tliesc lands were looked upon as vassals of the tenijjles. The chief ])riests, who, on the temple lands, exercised a jMnver similar to that of the royal governors, fretpiently visited these estates to inspect their condition and to administer justice to their tenants. Tiie temple of Huitzilopochtli was considered the wealthiest in Mexico. Torqueniada says that in Tezcuco fifteen large cities furnished the temples of that kingdom with wood, provisions, and other necessaries.^* Clavigero makes the number (jf towns twenty-nine.'^ Throughout Zapotecapan and Miztecapan landed pro[)erty was invariably transmitted from male to male, females being excluded from the succession. No one had the right to sell his land in per})etuity; tlie law forbade its transfer out of a family either by mai- riage or otherwise; and if a ])ro|)rietor was com])el]etl by tlie force of necessity to dispose of his real estate, it returned after the lapse of some years to his sou or his nearest relative, who paid to the holder tlie consideration for whicli it had been pledged or its equivalent.^^ In IVtiztecapan the first-born son, before taking possession of his inheritance, had to do pen- ance for a year; he was confined in a religious house, clothed in rags, daubed with India-rubber juice, and jiiiir; los soi}];neiirR partappaiit cntrc oiix tons Iciirs ])ro(luits.' Siinrnirn>i, Df rtfn/m/r Siirir.ssioii, in 'J'iriiin(jr-('i)jiij)iiii.i, Vo/f., Kcric i., toiii. x., pii. '_*'JI .">; Ziiriht, Jid/tjiorf, in /. r>l-7; Fiiciilrtd, Lithr, in /'/., toni. v., p. 'J'Jl; lir't.i.siiir (Ic, liitiirhintrii. Hint. Nut. Cn\, toni iii., \i\'. (il)S-7; Carliiijdf Esniiii>s(t, Ifisf. Mc.r., t(»ni. i., j). .')!)(); Vunc(/(i(lrs Cii\. tiini. i., ])]). ir)S-lt; I'ininitrl, Mnti. nobrc la Ituui Iiidiijctni, [ip. 35-0; lius- airi'ir, l/Liii/iiir .M<\r., ])p. 15;} 5. 2' Motion/. IikL, toni. ii., p. 1(14. 2'' Cl' • lUiiirlKiiivij, Ills'. Nut. Civ., t(»in. iii., pp. 558-'.t; Curliajdl, Jtisnir.so, y.'M'i; Soiliii, SjniHii r I, Hist. J[rx., p. 4.'J; C/nrulicr, Mi'x. Aiifiin et Moil., pp. II 7-1 S. »■/ /'»'/'«, torn, ii., p i;{; IHIIuti, *■' llurifiKi, (lioff. Drurrip., toin. i., jit ii., fol. 188; llrnascur dc Ikmr- boiirij, Iltxt. Nat. Vii\, ton». iii., pp. 3'J 40. ESTATES IN MICIIOACAN. 229 ;tatc, IS sou the )Y its )etbrc pen- muse, •e, and Lltn; ill I iii., I'i'- Mi; /.'"•-- hcv. /."•< |,,,, Ills!. I S/iinici' liis fiico and body rubbed with fetid lierbs; durini^ that time he had to draw blood repeatedly iroiii his body and limbs, and was subjected to hard labor and pri- vation. At the expiration of the year he was washed with odorous water by four j^irls, and then conducted by friends to his house with great pomp and fes- tivity.'* Early writers say nothing about the tenure of lands among the Tarascos of Michoacan, but merely state in general terms that the sovereign's power over the lives and property of his subjects was unlimited.^ The tenure of lands in the republic of Tlascala had its origin in the division made at the time when the country was first settled; which was as follows: Any Tecuhtli who established an entail, called tecca/li, or pilcaUi, took for his own use the best and largest part of the lands that fell to his lot or were awarded to him in the partition, including woods, springs, rivers, and lakes; of the remainder a fair division was made among his servitors and vassals, or, in other words, his soldiers, friends, and kinsmen. All were bound to keep the manor-house in repair and to sup- ply their lord with game, flowers, and other comforts, and he in his turn, was expected to entertain, protect, and feed them in his house. To these kinsmen, friends, and servitors, was given the name of tc'ix- hni/utaii, meaniuij the *i>Tand-children of the manor- house.' In this manner all the nobles divided their land. All were greatly respected by their vassals. They derived their income from the taxes that their tenants paid them out of what they obtained from the chase, from the soil, and by raising domestic ani- mals.-''' No information has reached us respecting the pro- visions under which land was held in Cholula and 2< Claviffcro, Slorin Aut. del MciHiro, torn, ii., p. 54; Klcinm, Cullur- (ic.sr/iir/ifc, toin. v., ])[). JKVO. >!' Ikiininont, <'i-(i,i . Mrrhofimn, MS. n. H2. *> ('(iniarifo, Hist. TIkx., "l A'oiircllt.i Aiuicdr.; (fr.f Vaii., 1843, toilJ. xcviii., p. 170; Torqitciuai.la, Monarq. IniL, torn, i., pp. 270-7. 2:50 THE NAIIIA NATIONS. Huoxotzinco, or among the Totonaes. Tn tlio proviiieo of Ptinuco, the eldest sou was tlie sole inheritor (»f land and, therefore, the only one that paid tribute; tlie otlier sons had to rent land i'roui those who were in ])ossession of it.'^' There can he no doubt that in all this there is, as so many writers have observed, a strong- resend)lan(e to the feudal systems of Europe. The obligation of military service, and other relations of lord and vas- sal smack strongly of the institutions of the Middle Ages, but, as Mr Prescott says, the minor })oints of resemblance "fall far short of that harmonious system of reciprocal service and protection, which embraced, in nice gradation, every order of a feudal monarchy. The ]jects })roduced by their industry. Journeymen mechanics, such as car})enters, masons, workers in feathers and j)recious metals, and nmsicians, were, acconling to ()viedo, exempt from such tax, and in lieu tliereof rendered i)ersonal service to the sovereign without remuneration.-^ Merchants ]>aid their taxes with siu'h articles as they traded in. Tiie last class of tribute-})ayers were the thoiiaitl, tenants attached to a nobleman's land, who tilled ^he same for tiieir own l>enefit. Thoy were obliged to do a ci-rtain amount of work every year for the landlord, and to render mili- '^'^ I.vtlil.ritrhitl, Hist. C/iir/i., ill KinifsfioroiKjh'n Mix. Antiq., vol. ix., p. '" Hint. Urn., torn, iii., pp. 535, 305-6. 232 THE NAIIUA NATIONS. tary service when it was required of them hy the soverciL*'!!. Brasseur says tliat tliese tenants paid im tribute to the kinuc, ^*^*t, his statement is contradicted hy Clavii^'ero.*' Taxes paid in fruit and ijcrain were collected innnediately alter harvest; »)ther tributes were collected at ditl'erent times throu ' T^ I" '^''"^'''"^ ^""' ^^f- f ^^foxieo, wind, h'rst onfovll ^'' •''^'*'- ^'''^^ ^-nls ^" P'-'y tribute, and to Smv,. T "^ '''''• ^ilu loo, ^^•"lt» of liouid ;,!.i, ''" ' '•y*'-'' <'"K on,. "'■■"■'■•■'I"", Acatzinco and oE', ' *^"*-^;:''"l"'-. 'J'"oa- ' """"ly. eacli contril, ,t : f '"*'"" "' "'"* '■•■■"ion 2.34 THE NAIIUA NATIONS. aromatic suhstaneoH. Mallnaltopcc, TlalcozaulitltUui, < )linallaM, Jchcatlaii, Qualac, and other southorii towns situated in the warm region, paid each six huiidnMl measures of lioney, forty hirs^e jars of yellow oelui' for })aint, one hundred and sixty copj)er shields, foity lound ])lates of gold of fixed dimensions, ten small measures of tine tunjuoises, and one load of smalh;)- tunpioises. Quauhnahuac, Panchimalco, Atlaeholo- ayan, Xiuhtepec, Huitzilae, and other towns of tin; Tlahuicas, paid each sixteen thousand lari^e leaves of i)aper, and four thousand xiailll, or gourds, of dif- ferent sizes. Quauhtitlan, Tehuilloyoean, and other iieiuflihoriniif towns, each j^'ave eiLflit thousand mats and eight thousand ici>al/i, or stools. Some cities ]).ii(l their taxes with tire- wood, stone, and beams for build ing; others with (;opal-gum; others sent to the royal houses and forests a certain number of birds and animals, such as Xilotepec, Michmaloyan, and other cities of the Otonn's, which were each compelled to furnish yearly forty live eagles to the king. After the j\[atlaltzincas were made subject to the INIexicaii crown by King Axayacatl, they were required not onlv to pay a heavy tax in kind, but also to keep untler cultivation a tield of seven hundred toes<^s^^''^ by three hundred and fifty, for the benefit of the army. As the Saxon king imposed a tax of wolves' heads u])()ii his subjects for the jmrpose of ridding his kingdom of those ravenous animals, so did the Mexican monarclis exact from those who were too poor to pay the regulai' taxes a certain quantity of snakes, scorpions, centi- j>edes and other obnoxious creatures. Lice, especially, were contributed in large nund)ers in Mexico.^ It is related that soon after Cortes arrived in the city of jVIexico, certain cavjiliers of his force, among whom ^' Tlio toesa is the same tliin>;f as the Freiiih toise, which is 0.3915 Vavj,- lish feet, or seven ("astilian feet. ^^ Trzozonioc, Cronicu Mr.r., in Kuip. 17-18; Torque mai/n, Monarq. Ind., toni. i., ]». 'IWv, Vlariijcro, Stori'i Ant. del Mcssico, toni. i., p. "275; Zikizo, Ciirld, in Icazbaketa, Vol. (A' Doc, torn, i., p. 366; Cortts, Hist. X. Efijitnlo, p. 173. TAXKS PAID IN VEIIMIX 23S :, onlv lUuU r til ret; As U]H)M om of uarclis •cu'uliir centi- )ciiillv, It Is •ity ot" whom om. IN.. V, Stori'i Col. liuidi'r, whon thoy caiiio across hoiuo hai,^s, tillod with soiuo soft, Hno, and woi^rhty matorial; novor douhtiiii'' hut that it must ho valuahlo, thoy hastonod t.i initio tho mouth of orio of tho sacks, wliou to thoir disgust and disa})poiiitmont thoy found its ooiitoiits to consist of nothiuLf hut lioo, which, as thov aftorwards iistcrtaiuod, had hoon paid as trihuto hy tho poor.''"'* Dutios were loviod upon })ro[)erty, manufacturos, and Mitirlos ox})osod for sale in tho markot-j)lacos, in ])ro- pnrtion to tho wealth of tho person ta.voil or tho value of the mercliandizo sold. J^roduce and merchandize of every description, carried into tho city of Mexico, was suhject to toll duties, which wore paid into the roval treasurv. The proj)orti()n in which taxes were paid is stated at from thirty to thirty-thi'oo per cent., or ahout one third of everytliin_<»" made and |)roduced. ( )viedo alhrnis that each taxpayer, in addition to one third of his property, delivered one out of every three of his chil- dren, or in lieu thereof a slave, for tho sacritico; if he liiilcil to do this ho forfeited his own life.'"' riie <>overnmont had in the head town of each j)ro\ince lar^o warehouses for tho storage of hread- stulls and merchandize received hy the tax-<»'atherers ; ■•'' Torqncmaila adds; 'Ai 'iiiieii iliira, quo iiooraii Piojos, Hinotiiisaiiillo.s; jicni .Mciii.so (1(! Ojeda en siis Mt'iiiDriales, lo ccililR'a tyrannous ahiisc of it, led t I ahiiost the .same n;sults. In Michoacan: ''I'riliutauan al Itcy (|uanti» li'iiian y A queria, liasta las niu;^(!res y liijos, si los (|neija; de niancia que •■ran mas (jue esclauos, y viuiau cu terrilile seriiidiiinltre.' I/rrn rii. Hist. '•' II., dec. iii., Iil». Iii., ea]>. x., dee. ii., lih. vii., caj*. .xiii. ' Si liieii todas las ii'eiiiMinu's deilicadas ii los decorosos inii^'eriles ]irivile;,'ios destniiaii la sii- jci'ina del triliuto li siis Monarcas, sirvieiidolos en la ce>;iie(lad de ofrecerle^ iiK ^oli) la hacienda, y la vida, sinoasns pnqirias imi^^eres, en easo de disciir- lir are|)tai(le el ver-^oiizuso obsequio.' ^(ditr.ar y (Jlaiic, Hist. Cviiq. Mvx., tuiii. ii., pii. C'J-70. 23G Tin: NAIMA NATIONS. also ,'uuHtinjif officos to wliicli the <'t(f/)i,r(jnes, or stew- ards of tlio ruvoimc, woro ru(iuiri,il to render a verv strict an('ount of tluMr colluctions, and such as wiic convicted of embezzlement, were immediately |»iit to (U'atli and their property confiscated."'^ In the royal treasniy were paintini^s hy which were recorded the tril)utary towns, and the jiW y, and who ^T Snharfiin, Hist. Grn., tern, ii., lib, viii., p. 307. ^^ Votlr.r Me.iidozn, in I'lirrhtis hi.t I'ilorintrs, vol. iv., pp. 1080-1101; Id., in KuiffshnroufjICs Mr.v. Aiifi>/., vol. v., |))t. 54-,S!), vol. i., plates .\ix- Iviij Corlds, Jlist. N. Espuiut, p. 170; Coricn, Curiun, p. 110. TAXATION UNDi:U MONTKZUMA II. 237 liosi(l(!S rccovoriiii^ tlio tributes forced men to cultivjito land, ami women to spin, weave, and embroider for their private benefit; indeed, so jjfieat was their tyranny, tliat whatever tiiey eoveted tliey were sure to ohtain l)y fair means oi f«)id. The kinos of Tezeuco and Thu'opan, and other sovereign lords, aUies of the kin^' of ATexieo, shared these tributes if they aided in the (O Kpiest.^" The sovereii,nis selected the calpixques from anionic the Aztec /'////, or nobles of inferior rank. They \\vr^ under the supervision of the chief treasurers or Iikci/- c(('j)l,rilit('s, wiio resided at the several capitals, and it was ^heir duty to <»athcr the tributes or taxes, and to s(;e that the lands belonijj'inn' to the numicipalities or to jirivate persons were kejjt under cultivation. The duties of these ealpixcpies were not very arduous at first, as the ])eo[)le j(>;'enerally hastened to j>ay their taxes before l)einj4' called uj)on; but during the reii^ii of Mo!itezunui n. tlie taxes increased so enormously, owin^f to the j^reat extrava<^anceof the court, that this conunendable zeal cooled down very considerably. The hulk of the immense wealth which the conquerors saw with so much admiration at AEontezuma's court wah the result of this excessive taxation, and it was ono of tlie main causes of that alienation of the jieoplo from their sovereign which rendered the con(juest a possible achievement. Notwithstanding the easy dis- position of the taxpayers, they could not submit patiently to a yoke so onerous. The merchants, wliose trading expeditions had been so useful to the state in former times, were no less overwhelmed by the taxes than the inhabitants of con(|uered prov- inci's by the tributes. It was among that powerful class that the first symptoms of defection were noticed. To the main grievance was added the tyranny and harslniess exhibited by the revenue officers in ((tllect- ing the taxes. They carried a small rod in one hand ^' Tupi(t, Hclaciou, in Icazbalccla, Col. dc Doc, toiu. ii., p. 592. 238 THE NAIIUA NATIONS. and a feather fan in the other, and, accompanied by a Liri^e retinue of understrappers, went through cities and fields, unmercifully maltreating the unfortunate beings who could not promptly comply with their demands, and even selling them into slavery; at least it is certain that such sales occurred in conquered provinces. From the first years of his reign Montezuma II. began to oppress the merchants with heavy taxation, even upon the most trifling things. The greatest suf- ferers were the retail dealers, who had to pay excess- ive duties upon the merchandise they introduced into the principal tianguez, or market-place, from whicji such merchandise was taken to the lesser market-places. But the king and his creatures finding that this did not directly injure the wholesale traders, among wJioni were the judges of the mercantile court, — that is to say, the consuls and syndics, so to name them, of tlio company of Tlatelulco, — witnesses were soon found to trump up charges of high treason against them, wiiieh ended in their being put to death, and their goods and chattels confiscated and distributed among the ]»eople of the royal household. A very large jior- tion of the taxes and tributes was expended in sup- jiorting the army, the public employees, the poor and destitute, such as widows, orphans, and the aged, and also in providing food for the people in times of gieat scarcity, but almost as large a portion was appio})ri- ated by the king to his own uses.*" It was by sucli <" Torqurmnda, Monarq. hid., tcm. i., pp. 147, 206, 231, 401, tom.ii., pp. .'54.")-7, mH); (r'inara, Conq. Mex.,io\. 111-13; Lns L'usas, Hist. Ajw/oi/r/ira, MS., cap. cxli.; Toribio and Olarfe, in Tcrranx-ComjHuis, Voi/., .scrio i., loin. X., pp. 401-8; Fuciilral, in Id., pp. 244-.54; Chaves, Jiiipiiort, in Id., seiic ii., toiii. v., p. 301; Sinimirn.s; in Id., serie i., toni. x., pp. '221K11; di- vianfo, Hist. Tlitx., in Nouvetlcs Aniiales des Voy., 1843, toiii. xcviij., l)p. 180, I!»8-0; Witt, Lettre in Tcrnaux-Compaxs, Voi/., soiic ii., tnin. v., pp. 284-93; /.rnsta. Hist, dc las Yiid., jip. 491-2; licnird Diaz, lli-l. Conq., fol. f)8; Vriffia, Hist. Ant. Mrj., toin. iii., pp. 189-«l(), liKKS; I'rf.sroff's Mcx., vol. i., pp. 38-40; Solis, Hist. Conq. Mrx., torn, i., iip. 417-19; Pimrntd, Mem. svbre la Razn ludigena, p]i. 3fi-7; Carlmjul K-yi- iios-a. Hist. Mex., Unn. i., \>\\ 99. 101, 437, 495, .')89-9.3, (iSI, toi.i. ii., p. 2():(; Laet, Nnrus Orhis, j). 240; Diee. Unii\, toni. x., p. (>.37; lir(i.', n:», ()8-72, 211; liaril, Mcxique, pp. 200-8; liusKierre, L'Jimjiire Mtx., (ij). l').'}- S; Sodcn, Spauicr in Peru, tarn, i'l., p. 13; Luik/s I\Jyiicsinn Nat., ], ft!>; liro-.cHcirs Ind. Races, p. 83; TouroH, Hist. Gen., torn, iii., p;». 25-9, 38; MoHjlave, Bisumi, pp. 23, 65. CHAPTER VII. EDUCATION, MARRIAGE, CONCUBINAGE, CHILDBIRTH, AND BAPTISM. Education of the Nahua Youth— Manner of Punishment— Mar- io ack PUKLIMINAUIKS— NUI'TIAL CEREMONY— OUSKUVANCE AITKIl MAKl{IA(iE -MAZATEC, OTOMf, ClIICHIMEC, ANDToi.TEt* MAIUilAtWCS — DiVOKCE— CONI TIlINACiE— CeUHMONIES PrELIMINAKY TO ClI 11.11- niRTH— Treatment ok Pregnant ^V'omen— Proieedinos ok Mid- AVIFE — Sri'ERSTlTIOXS WITH REGARD TO WOMEN WHO DlKI) IN Chiediieu- -AuoRTiox — Baptism— Si'EECHES ok Miu\y)ke— Namini^ OK (MllEDREN -IJAPTISM AMONG THE TLA.Sf ALTEC'S. MlZTECS, AND Zatotecs- Circumcision and Scarification ok Infants. In examining' the domestic customs of the Naliiui nations it will be as well to first inquire how their children were reared and instructed. The education of a child was commenced by its parents as soon as it was able to walk, and was finished by the })riests. Aside from tlie superstitious and idolatrous flavor with whicli evervthino" Aztec was more or less tainted, tlie care taken to mold aright the minds of the youth of both sexes is worthy of admiration. Both ])arents and [triests strenuously endeavored to insiiire their jHipils with a horror of vice and a love of truth. Ke- spect for tlieir elders and modesty in their atttions was one of their first lessons, and lying was sevei'ely pun- ished. In a series of ancient Aztec paintings, which give a hieroglvjtliical history of the Aztecs, are represented " (2*0) EDUCATION OF YOUTH. 241 the manner in which children were brought up, the portion, of tbod allowed them, the laborn they were employed in, and the punishments resorted to by parents for purposes of correction. Purchas relates that the book containing this picture-history with in- teipretations made by natives, was obtained by the Spanish governor, who intended it for a present to the' emperor Charles V. The ship on wlych it was carried was captured by a French man-of-war, and the book fell into the lifvuds of the French king's geographer, Andrew Thevet. At his death it was purchased for twenty French crowns by Richard Hakluyt, then chaplain to the English ambassador at the Frencli court, and was left by him in his last will and testa- ment to Samuel Purchas, who had woodcut copies made from the original and published them, with explanatory text, for the benefit of science and learning. In that part of the work which relates to the bringing up and education of children, — a •specimen page of which is given in the chapter of this volume which treats of hieroglyphics, — a boy and girl with their father and mother are depict- ed; three small circles, each of w^iich represents one year, show that the children are three years of age, while the good counsel they are receiving issues vis- i!)ly from the father's lips; half an oval divided in its breadth shows that at this age they were allowed half a cake of bread at each meal. During their fourth and fifth years the boys are accustomed to light hodily labor, such as carrying light burdens, while the ,i>iil is shown a distaff by her mother, and instructed ill its use. At this ajjfe their ration of bread is a whole cake. During their sixth and seventh years the j)ietures show how the parents begin to make theii* children useful. The boy f()lh)ws his father to the market-place, carrying a light load, and while there occupies himself in gathering up grains of corn or other trifles that happen to be spilt about the stalls. The girl is represented as spinning, under the close Vol. II. 16 242 THE NAilUA NATIONS. surveillance of her mother, who lectures and directs her at the same time. The allowance of bread is now a cake and a half, and continues to be so until tlie children have reached their thirteenth year. Wc are next shown the various modes of punishing un- ruly children. When eight years old they are merely shown the instruments of punishment as a warning. At ten, boys who were disobedient or rebellious wero bound liand and foot and pricked in different parts of the body with thorns of the maguey; girls were only pricked in the hands and wrists ; if this did not suffice they were beaten with sticks. If they were uiu'uly when eleven years old they were held over a pile of burning chile, and forced to inhale the smoke, which caused great pain.^ At twelve years of age a bad boy was bound hand and foot and exposed naked in a damp place during an entire day; the naughty girl of the same age was obliged to rise in the night and sweep the whole house.* From the age of thirteen years the allowance of bread was increased to two cakes. Between the ages of thirteen and fifteen the boys were employed in bringing wood from the mount- ains by land or in canoes, or in catching fish; the girls spent tiieir time in grinding corn, cooking, and weav- ing. At fifteen, the boys were delivered to the priests to receive religious instruction, or were educated as soldiors by an officer called Achcauhtli.^ The schools and seminaries were annexed to the temples, and the instruction of the young of both 1 Clavigcro writes: 'Nella dipintura ciiu|naiitcsiniasccoiifla si rapproson- tano due rajfazzi d'lindici aniii, ai iiiiali per iioii eissersi eiiu'inlati con aitii gastif^hi, faiino i lor I'adri rieevero ncl iiuso il fiinio d(,'l Chilli, o sia pi'vc- rone.' Clarigrro, Storia Ant. ihl Mrssiro, torn, ii., p. 103. IJut tlii.s is a inistalve; in tliis picture we see a {jirl hcing punished i)y lier niotiier in the manner (U^serihed, and a hoy by liis father. » (;iavi!)-G2; Coilr.r, Mrndozu, in IiL, vol. i., and vol. v., pp. 92-7; Carhnjnl Espinom, Hist. 3fr.v., torn, i., pp. 500-575; Cluvigero, iiloria Ant. del Measico, tou». ii., i»p. 102-3. SCHOOLS FOR YOUTHS. 243 sexes was a monopoly in the hands of the priests. In general boys were sent to the colleges between the ages of six and nine years; they were dressed in black, their hair was left uncut,* and they were placed under the charge of priests specially appointed for that purpose, who instructed them in the branches most suitable to their future calling. All were in- structed in religion and particular attention was given to good behavior and morals. No women were per- mitted to enter the college, nor could the youths on any account have communication with the other sex. At certain seasons they were required to abstain from various kinds of food. The schools, or colleges, were of two distinct classes. Those attended by the common people were called ielpochcaUi, or 'houses of the youths;' there was one ot Luose in each quarter of the city, after the manner of our public schools, and the parents of the district were required to enter their children at the age of four or five years. The telpochtlato, or 'chief of youth,' instructed them how to sweep the sanctuary, to replen- ish the fire in the sacred censers, to clean the school- house, to do penance, more or less severe according to their age, and to go in parties to the forest to gather wood for the temple. Each pupil took his meals at tlie liouse of his parents, but all were obliged to sleep ill the seminary. At nightfall all assembled in the cuicacalco, or 'house of song,' and were there taught the arts of singing and dancing, wliich formed ])art of a Mexican education; they were also exercised here < 'Tenian cstas pentes tambien por ley que todos los ninos llc^ailos h ln;< scis afio.s hanta loa iiiieve liabian de enviar los jiadres .\ Iks T('in[>los para SIT iiistruidos en la doctrina y noticia de sus leycs la« ciiak's coiitenian cji-si fiMliifi las virtudc'sesplicadas la eii ley natural.' Las Ckshh, Hist. Apoloi/ctirn, Ms , cai). clxxv., ccxv. 'Todos estos ruligiosos visten de ne;,'ro y nunca ('(irtaii el cabello y todoa los liijos de las personas prineipales, asi senores coiiii) ciudadanos lionrados, estan en aqucllas iclijfioncs y liabito dcsde edad ill' siete u oolio afios fasta que los sacan para los casar.' Cortis, Cartas, p. ill.'). 'Cuando el uifio lle;,'alia d diez 6 doee afios, nietiaiile en la casa oe oihii^acioii o Cahncrar..^ Sahaifuii, Ifi.sf. Gen., tonj. ii., lib. viii., j). WHS; Orirdo, Hist, Gen., torn, iii., p. 302; Torquemaila, Monarq. Iiul., torn, ii., p. 1S7. 244 THE NAHUA NATIONS. in the use of arms." At the age of fifteen or sixteen, or sometimes earlier, it was customary for the parents to withdraw their children from the tel[)ochcalli that they might follow a trade or profession, but this was never done without first making a present to the tel- pochtlato. The schools at which the sons of the nobility and those destined to be priests were educated, were called calnwcac, which means a college, or mon- astery. The jmpils did not do as much manual labor as those educated in the telpochcalli, nor did they take their meals at home, but in the building. They were under the supervision of priests of the Tlania- cazqui order, who instructed them in all that the ple- beians learned, besides many of the arts and sciences, such as the study of heroic songs and sacred hymns, which they had to learn by heart, history, religion, philosophy, law, astronomy, astrology', and the writing and interpreting of hieroglyphics. If not quick and tliligent, they were given less food and more work; they were admonished to be virtuous and chaste, and were not allowed to leave the temple, until with their father's permission they went out from it to be mar- ried, or, in the case of a youth of strength and courage, ti) go to the wars; those who showed qualities fitted for a military life were exercised in gynmastics and trained to the use of weapons, to shoot with the bow, manage the shield, and to cast darts at a mark. Their courage, strength, and endurance underwent severe tests; they were early afforded opportunities of real- izing the hardships of camp life, and, while boys, were sent to carry provisions to the soldiers, upon wliiili occasions their behavior was closely watched, and a display of courage met with suitable promotion and reward." •^ A native author asserts that this 'house of song' was frequently llic scene of debauch and liucntiouitiiess. lirwisnir t/e liourbmirg. Hist, \iil- i'iv., toni. iii., p. .553. 8 'Los hijos de los nohles no .se librahan tanipoeo do faonas eori)oralis, pues haeian zaujas, construian parech'sy (h'seniiM-naUan otnis trahajossciiu- j4iilus, ttuu(^uc taiubiua »u lus uuscfiubu u Uublur bicu, suludur, hucer rover- FEMALE SEMINARIES. 245 irents L that s was le tel- )f the icatcil, • iiuni- . lal)()r I tliev They rhiiiui- .'ieiicos, hynms, wvitin,!;' ick aiul 3 work; sto, and th their )c luar- ouva.!4e, >s titteil ics and le how, Their severe )t' real- rs, were whieh and a Ion and lipntly the liist. A'"'- lijosM'iiii'- Vol- icvir- Annexed to the temples were hirge buildings used as setninaries for girls. Tiie maidens who were edu- ( atetl in them were i)rinci[)ally the daughters of lords and princes. They were jiresided over by matrons or vestal priestesses, brought up in the tem[)le, who watched over those committed to their care with <;ieat vigilance. Day and night the exterior of the building was strictly guarded by old men, to prevent any intercourse between the sexes from taking })lace; the maidens could not even leave their apartments without a guard; if any one broke this rule and went out alone, her feet were pricked with thorns till the blood flowed. When they went out, it was together and accompanied by the matrons ; upon such occasions tliey were not allowed to raise their eyes, or in any way take notice of anyone; any infringement of these rules was visited w'ith severe punishment. The maid- ens had to sweep those i)recincts of the temide occu- pied by' them, and attend to the sacred fire; they were taught the tenets of their religion and shown how to draw blood from their bodies when oflerini; sacrifice to the gods. They also learned 1k)W to make feather- work, and to spin, and weave mantles; particular at- tention was given to their i)ersonal cleanliness; they were obliged to bathe frequently, and to be skil- ful and diligent in all household aftairs. They were taught to s})eak with reverence, and to luunble them- selves in the presence of their elders, and to observe a modest and bashful demeanor at all times. Thoy rose at day-break, and whenever they showed them- selves idle or rude, punishment was inflicted. At night the |)upils slept in large rooms in sight of the matrons, who watched them closely. The daughters of nobles, wdio entered the seminai'ies at an early age, remained there until taken away by their parents to lie married.' ciicias y, lo que es mas importantc, aprcniliiin In astroiiniiiin, la Iiistoria y ili'iiia-* (■(iiiociinicntos ([iu> aiiiiellas jjciitt's alcanzalian.' I'iiiirnfrf, Mcin. mbrr. lit It'i-ji IiiiliijfiKi, |t. (i(i; Ac'istii, Hist, di' /lis Viif/., ])]). 444-(). " ■ Ibua tail huiic^jta^ tj^ue uo al/aljuu los ojos del suclo, y si so desciiiJa- in SM6 THE NAHUA NATIONS. Children brought up in tlie house of their parents were taught the worship) of the gods, and were fre- quently conducted to the temple in order that thoy might witness the religious performances. Military men instructed their sons in the use of weapons and the art of war, and lost no opportunity of inurinn- them to danger, always endeavoring to inspire cour- age and daring. Laborers and artizans usually taught their children their own trade. The sons of the nobles who were placed in the seminaries were never j)ermitted to go out unless accompanied by one of the superiors of the temple; their food was brougjit to them by their parents. The punishments inflicted were excessively severe. Liars had thorns thrust into their lips; and sometimes, if the fault was frequent, their lips were slightly split. Those who were negli- gent or disobedient were bound hand and foot, and pricked with thorns or badly pinched. A girl wlio was detected looking at or speaking to a man was severely punished; and if addicted to walking the streets, her feet were tied together, and pricked with sharp thorns.® There was in Tezcuco, durinnf the reiofn of Ncza- hualcoyotl, a large seminary, built upon the west side of the temple, which consisted of several spacious halls and rooms, with a courtyard, and was called the tlacotco. Here the king's sons were brought uj) and instructed. The guardians and tutors who had charge of them took much pains to instruct them in ban, luego les haoian soiinl que recoj^icscn la vista. . . .las niiijcres cstaban T)()r si en piezas apartailas, no salian las donccllas de hus aposciitos a la luicria o verji'lcs sin ir acouipanadas con .sus j,'iiardas. . . .Siendo las nifuis flu ciiii'o auos las eomenzaban il ensenar il hilar, tejer y labrar, y no las di-jabaii audar oi-iosas, y a la »iucso Icvantalta do labor hiera do tienipo, aUiimiili- Ins jjit's, jionjuo asontase y ostuvioso qiicda.' MeiKh'i'td, Hist. Erics., ]>]). 121--'. 8 Soc further, for information on the education of the Mexicans: So- li'.f, Hist. Coiiq. Mcx., toni. i., pp. 421-3; Voridjul, Disrurso, jiii. 17-KS; Jinissciir <((• Bonrboiir;/, Illst. Sat. Cir., toni. lii., pp. r)()3-4; Ilii-'i.\iinr, L'Eiii/iire Mix., pp. 144-5; Hcrrcra, Hist. (Irii., dec. lii., lib. ii., cap. xix.; Minituiius, Nintwc Wccfclil, \m. 2(>7-8; Fwulcul, in Trr/iatu--Cuiii/ii(ii toni. X., p. 2r>i; Peter Marli/r, doc. v., u^rii lib. iv. ; Laet, S'onis Vol/., 8(irie 1. Orliis, J). 231); A7(7«//i, Cult ur-Gesc/uchtc, torn, y., pp. 3S— 17; Chcculiii; Mix. Ancien et Mod., pp. 119-20. A PAUENT'S DISCOURSE TO HIS SONS. 247 overytliin*:^ becoming their liigli estate. Besides the use of anus, they were taught all the arts and sciences a.s far as then known, and were uiade fully acquainted with the practical working of precious metals and stones. Separate rooms were devoted to the use of the king's daughters, where they were given an edu- cation fitting their station. In accordance with a law of the realm, the king, his children and relatives, with their guardians and masters, and the grandees of the kingdom, came together every eighty days, in a large hall of the tlacoteo; all were seated according to rank; the males on one side, and the females on the other. All the men, even those of royal blood, were dressed in coarse garments o^ neqaen, or maguey-fibre. An orator ascended a sort of pul})it and connnenced a discourse, in which he censured those who had done l)ad]y during the last eighty days, and jiraised those who had done well; this he did without favor, not even hesitatiuf; to blame the kin^jf if he saw fit. The discourse was delivered with such eloquence and feel- ing as generally to move the audience to tears." Sahagun, Motolinia, Mendieta, and other early wri- ters, who were well acquainted with the Mexican language, give us specimens of the exhortations deliv- ered by parents to their children. I select one from the first-mentioned author, as an example: "Give ear unto mo and hearken, O my sons," says the Mexican parent, "because I am your father; and I, though unworthy, am chosen by the gods to rule and govern this city. Thou who art my first-born and the eldest of til}'' brothers; and thou the second, and thou the third, and thou the last and least — know that I am anxious and concerned, lest some of you shoidd prove worthless in after life; lest, perad venture, not one among you should prove worthy to bear my dignities and honors after me; perha[)s it is the will of the gods that the house which I have with so great labor built ^ I ffh'Ix.ochitl, Hist. Chich., in KinashorouglCs Mcx. Aiitiq., vol. ix., pp. 244-5. 218 THE NAIIUA NATIONS. up, HJiall fall to the ground and remain a ruin ai.d a dung-hill; that my name shall be no more remenihend among men; that after my death no man nhall Kpcak well of me. Hear now the words that I sluill spcak unto you, that you may learn how to be of use in tlif world, and how to draw near unto the gods that tlav may sliow favor to you; for this I say unto you, tliat those who weej:) and are grieved; those who sigli, j)ray and ponder; those who are watchful at night, and wakeful in the morning; those who diligently k(>( p the temples cleanly and in order; those who are rev- erent and prayerful — all these find favor with the gods; to all such the gods give riches, honor, and })rosperity, even as they give them to those wlio arc strong in battle. It is by such deeds the gods know their friends, and to such they give high rank and military distinctions; success in battle, and an hon- orable place in the hall of justice; making them par- ents of the sun, that they may give meat and drink not only to the gods of heaven, but also to the gods of hell; and such as are thus honored are revei'cd liy all brave men and warriors: all men look on them as their parents, because the gods have shown tlieni fa- vor; and have rendered them tit to liold high offices and dignities and to govern with justice; they are i)la('t'd near the cfod of fire, the father of all tlie <>()ds, whoso dwelling is in the water surrounded by turreted walls of flowers, and who is called Ayamictlan and Xiiili- tecutli; or they are made lords of the rank of Tla- catecutli or Tlacochtecutli, or they are given sonic lower i)ost of honor. Perchance they are given some such office as I now hold, not through any merit of my own, but because the gods know not my unworthiness. I am not what 1 am by my own asking; never did I say, 1 Avish to be so and so, I desire this or that lionor; the gods have done me this honor of their own will, for surely all is theirs, and all that is given comes i'roni their Iiand; nor shall any one say, I desire tliis or that honor, for the gods give as they please and to whom A FATHER'S ADVICE TO HIS SONS. tlioy please, and stand in need of counsel from none. l[arken, niy sons, to another sorrow that alHicts nie when I arise at niidniL,'ht to l)ray and do pcnanre. Then I })onder many tilings, and my heart rises and sinks even as one who goes up and down mountains, for I am satisfied with no one of you. Thou, my eld- est son, dost not give any sign of im})rovement, I see ill thee notliing manly, thou remainest ever a hoy, thy conduct does not become an elder brother. And thou, my second son, and thou, my third, J see in you no discretion or manliness; perad venture it is because yuu are second and third that you have become care- less. What will become of you in the world? Lo, now, are you m^t the children of noble parents? Your j)ai'ents are not tillers of the soil or woodcutters. What, I say again, will become of you? Do you wish to bo nothing but merchants, to < .irry a staff ill your hands and a load on your backs? AVill you become laborers and work Avith your hands? Harken, my sons, and give heed unto my words, and I will point out to you those things which you shall do. See to the proper observance of the dances, and the nuisic, and the singing, for thus will you please liotli the people and the gods; for with music and singing are favors and riches gained. Endeavor to li'arn some honorable trade or profession, such as work- ing in feathers or precious metals; for by such means hread can be obtained in time of necessit}'. Pay atten- tion to every branch of agriculture, for the eartli dosii-es not food or drink, but only to bring forth and pioduce. Your fathers sought to understand these thin with pride, that you are neither obstinate, nor of a weak, vacillatin»>' mind, but take heed to be meek and hum- ble and to put your trust in the yods, lest they visit your transiji'ressions upon you, for from them iiotliiiiL;' can be hidden, they punish how and whom they please. Secondly, my sons, endeavor to live at peace with your fellow-men. Treat all with deference and resi)ect; if any speak ill of you answer them not ai^ain; be kind and aftabie to all, yet converse not too freely with any; slander no man; be patient, return- in^'' i^'ood lor evil, and the gods will amply avenge your wrongs. Lastly, my children, be not wasteful of your goods nor of your time, for both are precious; at all seasons pray to the gods and take counsel with them; be diligent about those things which are useful. I have spoken enough, my duty is done. Peradveii- ture you will forget or take no heed of my words. An »rAnnrA(iK. to 7!^" ^vfll. T have ,l.,no ,ny dutv U 1 • ''' f..tl,c.,lc«..» wi,o» ,, .,, , "'"';' '"Wilt not |„ >;.» ox,,«,.te,l to al,iclo I ' 'f ,' " ™ "' J'"* "»"- I'"* »"»,'-'>l to cl„Je ,„• ,",'.:■""''•'""' I'" «l,o pro. '-•'"H.sc i.i, 'o;,;;;;;;':"'"' """ ':« «i.o ,„o. }';;■'-' "l>"r. ■■« u,,.n,,t,.'',l i?;',..!''',''''"™. ""-1 w,..s 111 •^'^'»^' parts tho hi.-h ,;.,/"''' '"'^ apostate. 7'"^ throt,o.h life, u uf do ,^ ' '7r ^' ''•"''•^'" '-^^"t''- •VP^;.'\t a,ul desire to a.-'n T. ^^^'•^" '' ^^^ '^'-t-^nvurd ^"^fnends and publidv ?' f'" ^"'•^l^''^^'^i ''J all '-^•S a.,d unable to la^ep " ' L V , ' '^'^^ ^^^' ^^'•'"■ J'^' ''ad voluntarily h.Zl hi,. .'^ '^'^''^^'y t" uliich ^1'-; aMo woman after ^.j?!^^ ^^ ^'""'^^ ^^"3^ ^•- J" 1 aseala, if any one' "vi; ^ //"" ''l'^ ^^ ^^"'^''^'"I. 1>'-^ '>y without t4in^a^-rtd -r^ *'" ^^'"^ *- o ifc, oi decuhno- upon a Jife ' i II 252 THE NAHUA NATIONS. of cliastity, his hair was cut short and lie was driven out from the company of the youths with whom he '-/ai! educated. Cuttint,^ the hair formed a part of the marriage cer- etnonv, l)ut the mode of cuttinijf was different from tli.it of tlie penalty. ^^ When the time came for the parents to choose a wife for their son, all the relations were called together and informed by the father that the youtli had now reached an age when he should be j)rovided with a wife; for that he was now a man, and must learn how to perform the duties of a man, and refrain from boyish tricks and promiscuous intercourse with women. The youtli was then summoned before his parents, and his father addressed him, saying: "My son, thou art now a man, and it seems to us proper to search among the maidens for a wife for thee. Ask thy tutors for permission to separate thy- self from thy friends, the youths with wl.om thou hast been educated. Make known our wishes to those called Telpuchtlatocpie, who have the charge of thee." The youth in answer expressed his willing- ness and desire to enter into their plans. The parents then set a1)out preparing a quantity of food, such as tamales, chocolate, and other dishes; and also provided a sm.ill axe, which was to bear a part in the next })ro- ceeding. The repast being prepared, an invitation was sent to the priests who were instructors of the youth, accorap;>nie(i with presents of food and jtipcs of tobacco; all the relations were also invited. AVhcn tlie meal was finished, the relations, 'tnd guardians of the ward in v'hich the parents of the pair lived, seated themselves. Then one of the youth's relatit>ns, ad- dressing the priestly instructc rs of the youth said ; 13 '1'or otro rpsppcto no ora pona tr.isquil ir los talos niniicclKx. siim cci-c- iiioniii (Ic sns ciisamicntos: cslo era, ]M)r (jih 'ejai'do la calit'lliTa sij^iiilicalm (li'jar la lo/aiiia y liviaiidail dc manccho; y asi coiiio de.sdi' adflaiitc lial)i:i ilo criar iiucva ftirina d(! calu'llos, tnvipsi' iituna seso y cordura para ri^^^r sii )iniij;i'r ■' casa. Hieii crco (|iu' d('l)ia dv liahcr al<;una difcrciiciu en eston tras'iuilados riests then took their leave, bearing the axe with them, and the young man remained in liis father's house. Soon after tliis the ])arents called the relatiouM together once more to consult u[)on the selection of a maiden sui d)ie to l»e the wife of their son. Their lirst a<'t, and one* that was of paramount im|tofrMiv'e, was (u ascertain the day and sign of his but I., if they were unable to remember or cah-ulate the ;^ign thiy called in the aid of astiologer-. or so'resents to offer to the girl's parents. T'poii their arrival they commenced a suitable address, in M'hich they formally solicited the hand of the girl in marriage. The firwt overture was invariably rejected and some frivolous excu»« given, even tliough the girl's relatives might Ix- more desirous of the niat
  • i suitor, his (pialilications and riches. npo-M this n*'< tnd interview the negotiations assumed a moTf business-like aspect; the convei'sation turned "'•«>ii the jiffTtum that <^ach would bring to the other, inally the r'- : > of the girl consented to con- tlie al^ir; yet they Htill maintained a semblance ♦4 relnetaij'". iiisi.-tinu: that the mil was not worth v to b("'>n;f rl wij'e »»f so estimable a young man; hut ad', iig tli;!t, as the matter was urgetl with so nuuh im[M>rtu! ity, tl»*^y would on tlie ii.i»rro\v axwemble all tke relatMms (»f tiie young w-uian, that the' might con.sult Ur^tlmr about the affair fhey then closed MARRIAGE CEREMONIES. 255 the conference by invitinijc tlioir visitors to be present (*)i that occasion and receive tlieir Hnal drcision. The next day the j)arents of the ^irl ciilKd a nu'etiiiL*" of all her relatives, at which the pi-oj)osed alliance was discussed with due deliberation; and the anie. 2.S!). ' l.a <'elctiniciiin ciu (|ue la desposada la Ilevalta li ciiestas li jn-iiiia nofli(> una amiinteca. niic i •* nu'diea, e iiilian eon ellas euatro niujeies con sns acluiH de iiino resinadd i n- cendidas, con <|ne la liihan alnnihrundo, y lleffada a casa »lel dcsposado, Ins padres del dt^sposado la salian it n'ciliir al patio de la casa. y la niefian (ii una sala donile el ilesposado la cslyva a;,'uardaudo.' Coik.c Miialuzn, ia Kiiiijs/.K>roii(/h'ii Mcx. Antiq., vol, v., p 'J'J, MARRIAGE CEREMONIES. 257 J)()t]i were exhorted to be faithful to one another, to niaiiit;uii peace and liarniony between themselves, to oveilook each other's failings, and to helj) one another, L'ver Ijearinj^ in mind that they were united for life l)y a tie Avhieli only death could sever. The rites of marriage were always conducted with much solem- nity, and during the ceremony nothing was said or done contrary to the rules of modesty and decoruns. At the conclusion of the address the couple stood uj), and the priest tied the end of the man's mantle to tlie di-ess of the woman; they then walked seven times round the tire, casting therein copal and incense, and giving ])resents to each other, while their friends and relatives thi'ew chains of tlowers alxiut their ne capa uel juM'll." V^irtmjul KsjiiiKi.m, Hint. Mcx., Iiiin. i., ]i. ■").")7. ' Al tii'm|i»t i|ir' Ios nnvios so a\ iaii do acostar o dnniiir cu iiiiii, tdiaaliaii la luilda dolaiitera dc la caiiiisa di' la novia, ('atahanlua la iiiiiiila dc al;,f<)d()ii (|ue toiiia I'liliierta A mtvin.' (>n'(4S, 'I'lias viejas ijia' se llaiuaii fltiri, ataliaii lu i'si|iiiiia de la inaiita did iiKi/o. ('(Ill la falda did vipil air to(dv no }>art; they had now to enter upon a season of fasting and penance, which lasted four days, in tlio strict retirement of their room, where they were closely guarded by old women; on no account were they permitted to leave their room except for the n(^c(!ssary calls of nature, or to offer sacrifice to tlie gods; the time wa,;! to be passed in ]>rayer, and on no account were they to allow their passions to get the better of them or Indulge in carnal intercoui'se. Such weakness on their part would, they believed, bring discord or death or some other dire misfortune Ivt \vei>n tliem. The close corifinenient, tlie watchful guard and imposed ])enances were iutended to calm tlieir passions and purify their mmds, whereby they would be nK>i\! fitted to undertake the duties before them, and not bo led astray by unruly desires. What small supply of sustenaTice they received in the four days t>i tlieir retirement was carried to them by the old women who had charge of them, and during tliis time they neitlur washed nor bathed themselves; they were dressed in new garments and wore i-ertain charms and regali.i pertaining to tlieir ])atron idol. .Vt mitlnight tlieV r CON'SL'MMATION OF MAURIAGE. 259 came forth to ofTer sacrifice and burn incense on the altar in tlioir house, in front of which they also left food offcrin^-s for their god; this they did during the four days of abstinence, Avhile their friends and rela- tives continued their rejoicings, festivities, and danc- Upon the fourth night, when the marriage was nig, 17 to be consummated, two priests of the temple pre- pared a couch of two mats, between which were placed some feathers and a stone somewhat the color of an emerald, called chalcJuuite; underneath tliey put a piece of tiger-skin, and on top of all they spread some cotton cloths. At the four corners of the bed were ])laced green reeds perfumed, and thorns of the ma- guey with which the ]»air were to draw blood from tlieir tongues and ears when they sacrificed to the gods.^** The following morning the bridal pair took the bed on which they had lain, with the cloths, reeds, and food they had ofifered to their god during the four days of penance, to the temple and left tliem as a thanks- giving offering.^" If any charcoal or ashes were found '7 'CJuodiindo los csposos on aquellii cstnuria durante Ins puatro dias sifjiiieiiti's, sill salir do ellii, siiiod iiiodia iioi'lie jiara iiii-i'iisar a los idolos y liai'i'rli's ()l)!aL'i()iies tie diviTsas, ','s]K'cit's iiiaiijarcs.' Ciir/xijdl Ksjiiiinait, Ilist. }fi\r., tDiii. i., p. ">57. 'A li' media ikicIic y al medio dia salian de sii aii'isento a poiier eiicienso sobre uii altar (pie en sii casa teiiiaii.' Mrin/irtti, ihsl. Effcu., )). r28. 'Los ])adrinos llevalian ii los novios a ofra piezu sejia- raila, donde los dejalian solos, ciiccrraiidolos por la parte de afuera, liasta la laafiaiia si;,'uiente, ((uc veniau ii al)rirles, y todo el eoncurso v^petia las enlio- ralpiii'iias, siipoiiiendo ya ronsiimado el mutrimoiiio.' Vii/tia, lli.st. Anf. Mi'j., toni. ii., p. '2(>. i'* Tile ]tositioii of the tijj;er-skin is doiil)tfiiI: 'Poiiiaii tamliien vn pe(la(,'<) do cuen. do 'i'i.'re, deliajo de las esteras.' 1 tirijiifiiiinlii, .]fiiiiiiri/. fin/., toui. p. 415. 'I'oniaiMiu peda/.o de enero de ti;,'re eiicima tie las esteras.' ' La estera solire ipie lialiian doniiido, (]uo iicilio del patio, v alii la sacndiaii eon eicrta Mi'iiiliitn, Hist. Krlcx., p Vis. si> llaiiiaha yj<'/(»'/, la saialtan a louerla en el luu •uioma, y despnes tornaoan a ponerla en el luirar ( , S.ikoiimi, Hist, (till., toni. li., lil). vi., ]). ].")«. donde lialiian de dor- cereuioma, iiiir, .s'.»*'<7/^«, /Itsf. iiiii., toni. ii., Ill), vi., ji " 'Otra eeremoiiia, easi eonm esta, vsaliaii los del Piielilo de Israbl, aeerea del a! da, la ponian en cierto ln;j;ar, dii)utado pa-a e-to, donde ijiiedMlia jjiiar- (lada. en iiieinoria de la limpie(;a, y pnridail, i-ci ([ue la diidia [(oiieella \eiiiii ;i pudcr de su Marido. Seria posildc, (pie (piir-iese si;,'iiilicar entn" eslos lii- d.iis lo niisino, este cnidado de los vii;jos, de traer niaiita, ('i saliaiia, y teii- durla sobrc la cuiua de lus de»pu::}udu!i, puru loy priiueros uutus mutriiiiutiiule:;; 11! i i'' 'i" 2G0 THE NAHUA NATIONS. in tlio l)ricl;il cliiinibor tlicy considered it an evil oino!i, hut if, on tlic other liand, a omin of corn or otlii;r seed was found, they considered it a f;i<^n of a lon^' and prosperous life and a ha})}»y union. A l)a[»tisin;il ccivnioiiy was next j)erfonned, the wedded pair huiii^ placed on ^reen reed mats, while the ju'iests })oure(l water over them. Nohles received four ahlutions with water in honor of Chalc/uhtiith'ciic, the o-oddess of waters, and four of wine, in reverence to T<-.c-ods. At thr conclusion of these ceremonies a fuither disti'ihutioii of di'esscs and presents was made, and the company partook of food and wine, while the scene was enliv- ened with sonu's and dances. Some more ifood ad\ice, of which the Aztecs seem to have had a nevei'-failiii^' stor(?, was then j^'iven to the wedded ])air hy the mothers-in-law or nearest relativi's, and thus ended the nu[)tial ceremonies, whi(;Ii weie conducted in accordance with the means of the princi[)al jiarties concerned.^ In some places, proof of the maiden's vir;j;'inity was required on the mornino' followin*^- the consummation of the marriage. In such case the sj)onsors entered the room where the wedded j)air had ]iassed the nijrht and demanded the bride's chemise; if they found it stained with blood they brought it out, placed it on a stick, and exhibited it to all })resent as an evidence that the bride was a virgin; then a dance was formed and the procession went through all the place, carrving the chemise on a stick, dancin!>' and y CM ('roil)Ic, one spriii pste ol intoiito, piics la ropa, y ostoras, que sir\ iomii en esti' 8a<'rilii'iii, se Uevabaii al Teiiiiilo, y iiii sciviaii mas en casa, coiim iii mas, ui iiKMitis la ceroniiiiiia anti;iiia (k- j;iiar, ilisf. dni., (oiii. iii., ])]). .548-!); Salniijiiii, Hist. Ucn., toui. ii., lib. \i., pp. 1j8-(JU; VarOaJal, JJiicumo, p. ID. DAXCIXCi THE CIIEMISK. 2G1 (.'XjircssiiiL;' tlicir joy, and tliis wiis c.-illc'd '(InTu-ini,' t.lic chemise.' It' it happened that tlie clu'iuisi! was un- stained, tears and lamentations took tht; jihice o[' re- jdicinn', ahuse and insults were lieaj)ed upon the hridc, and her hushand was at liberty to repudiate her.'-' In the kiiiLii'dom t)f Miztecajtan, heioi'e the ceivmony of tyiuL;" their mantles together wtis performed it was customary to cut a lock of hair from the hridegronms head and from the hride's, after whicli they took each otlier l»y the hand and their dresses were tied hy the tiids. The man then took the yirl (»n his hack ami (11 t dist ance ; \v hieh pr oeeet linu- t ermi- i-ari'ied lier a snor nated the miptial.'- In Ixcatlan, he who desired to get mari'ied })ie- sented himself before the [»riests, and they took liini to the temple, where in presence of the idols he wor- shiped they cut otf some o\' his hail', and showing it to the peo})le, shouted "This man wishes to get mai'- lied. " From thence he was ohliged to descend and take tlie first lumiarried woman he met, in the belief that she was especially destined for him by the gods. Tliey were then married according to the customaiy ^lexican rites. The JNIazatec bridegroom abstained Cor the first tifteen days of his wedded life from ivirnal knowledge of his wife, and both spent the tin»e in fasting and penance. Among the ( )tonn's it was not considered an offence for an unmarried man to dt - iioiu" a single woman. The husband was ])e;'m!tte(l to ri'i)udiate the woman the dav followiuL!- his mar- riage if she did not phase him; but if he remained satisfied upon that occasion he was not afterwards allowed to send her away. They had then to uiulrrgo a period of penance and abstinence and remain se- cluded for twenty or thirty days, during wliich time tlay were to abstain from all sexual interi'ourse, to (haw blood from themselves as a sacritice, and to bathe fiV(|Uently. The Chichimecs, although they contracted marriage at a very early age, could not have legitimate '■^' Viijliii, lli.-it. Ant. Mij., torn, ii., jip. ".'ti-?. ■j11 if ■«■ w f : 2C2 Tin; NAIITA NATIONS. connection witli tlu'if wives until tlie woman was foi-tv years old. After their intercourse with the Toltecs this custom l»ei,''an to be aholished, althoui;li the j)i'inces and nohles observed it rigorously ibr soiue time loM_ii;er. ^^arriaL,'e with near relatives was never permitted among them, und polygamy was strictly prohibited." Amonijf the Mexicans divorce was pernntted, but as a t'l'eneral rule was discouraged. In the event of ^\\s- cord arisiuL;" between man and wife so that they could not live toi^ether j)eacefull\', or where one or (jther of the parties had just cause of comj)laint, they applied to a judn'e for [iermissi(»n to se])arate. Such ]>erniis- sion was not ijci'anted unless ;J, I8(), 41l'--J(), 4".Ni-7; Sii/iii(/iiii, Hist. Geii., torn, i,, lili. ii., pp. M 'A, tiiiii. ii., Ill), vi., pp. I'vJ (J-J, toiii. iii., lil). x., jip. lUJ-lT; J'ri//i(i, Hist. All/, MrJ., toill. il., pp. "i.'i-T, 178; f.'is Cusns, Hist. A/)it/ii(ir/irii, MS., cap. c.xxxi.x, cl.wv; l.itlll.iiirliill, lli.sf. C/u'r/i., in Kiinislnirniiiili's Mi.i. Aiitiq., vol. i.\., p. 1214; /'/., Jirfurionrs, in I(/., y]>. :V27, ;«■'),' .'yO, IIHI; Ai'ostd, Ifisf, dr. /(I.I YikL, pp. 374-">; Jirnssriir (/<' noiir/innri/, llitil. Sut. Civ., toni. ii., ]). IS!*, toni. lii., pp. 70, r)(i.')-7; Khnim, Viiltiif-dfsrhirhlc, toiii. v., pp. .'?3-r); (iiijiiKrc, Cdiiq. Mr.r., fid. 'J'.tS, .SU-Ki; llrnrrn, lUxl- 'ii., dec. ii., lil>. vi., cap. .\vi., dec. iii., lilt, ii., ca]). xvii; t'/idirs, Ituji- jmrl, \\i Trnifiii.r.Coiii/iKii.f, I /., scrie ii., toin. v.. pp. 3()H-0; MinitKnii'i, XiiKii'f Wnrclil, p. "Jf)."); (Irnic/fi C'inrri, in C/iiirc/ti/r.-i Cnl. ]'iii/tiifr.s; \iil. iv., p. 481; A/ii/ir, llisf. Com/i. ii(i.^-fi, Ifisf, Xfr.r., tiini. i., pp. r).")."!-',), 577; H'lrif. }ri.iii/iir, pp. ■JO.'-.'!; Tniiron, llisf. (rill., toni. iii., pp. 1I-P2; Smiiiii'.i Tin Ti'ihis, ])p. 271-"'; Jliis.iirrrr, fj' Km pi re Mi.r., jip. 14.") 7; Cur/in/ii/, J)i.srnr.su, pp. li't-liO; L'lurijiru, iSturiii Ant. ihl Mcssiro, toni. ii., pp.y',l-'.i;i, 111. DIVOKCE AND DIVISION «)K I'UOPDUTV, 203 a|»!>t!rtiiiiilii.!4' to tlio iiiiin'IiiL''o contriict, jiiul warned tlaia not to lniii,n' (lisi^racc upon tlitiiistilvus and their jiari.'iits l)y l)i'».'akiii_<4' tlie hoiids hy which they were united, therehy ereatiiii;" a tseandal in the eoniminiity. It" his endeavors to ell'eet a rei'uneiliation were of no avail, and he I'ouiul tliat one or other of the })arties had Just cause of eonijihiint, a license to separate could he issued, hut more fre(|uently the judL;u refused to iiiterfeie iu the niattei', ai id d isnnssei I tl leni with a th htei'ii reproval. Marria^^'o was looked upon as a sol- emn and l)inding tie only to he dissolved hy tleath, and any attempt or desire to annul the contract was deemed a disgrace and a had example. Under these circumstances divorce was always disi-oura^ed hoth hy the magistrates and the community. A jud;4e was oenerally unwillinj^ to sanction with the authority of the law the annulment of so hlndiiiL;' an enn'a.u'ement; tliei'efore only a tacit consent was ^iven l»y the court, hy which the whole onus of the tlis^race atteiulinn' a Si'paration was tlirt)wn u\ion the parties themselves. When a dissolution took place between man and wife, tlicy could not again under any circumstances be uniti'd.; the divorce once ett'ected, no subsecpient con- donation could authorize their livin*>" toi>ether.-'' We have no information how or on what terms a division of pro})erty was made in tlie event of a dis- solution of marriage, or to which of the j)arties the iiistody of the children belonj^ed. The ancient his- turians throw no light vn)on the subject. As much 2^ •Nunra sciit(Mi('ia1)im cii disfavor del Matriinmiid, iii cDiisciitiaii, rnic ]iiir aiildiidad ili,' .Jiistit'i.i, idlos sc apaitasi'ii; |m)1i|iu' ilciiaii >fv iioa ilicita, V lie iiiiuluM'scaiidalo ])ani el I'ludilo, laMiriccr, cum aiilinidad |>iil)lira, insa (uiiiraria a la ra(,'(iii; piro ellits fsc ajiaitaliaii de lu'clm, y csli' ticclio si- lole- nili.i, auiii|iH' 11(1 (Ml todos, si'jfuii (d mas, o iiiciuis I'scaiidalo, i|iii' si' t'ii;;i'ii- ilratiM cii el I'ludilo. Dtros diccii, (|iU' |iiir Si'iitcmia diliiiiliva, sc liaci.i (•>li' l!i'|mdii(, y Divorcio. . . .los .1 iicci's si'iitt'iiiialiaii (si acaso I'ldiccdciiins, i|Uc lia\ ia sciiti'iiiia) i[\K) sc apai'tasi'ii, y i|iifda>iii lilircs, y sin ((lili;:aciiiii li viio, al iitni; iicro no dc la nuniiiuiacioii del I'lii'Mo, (nic luudlo coiitia t'lius, dcciaii s('i(li;;nos dc j,'iaiidisiiiia |it'iia, [lor iiavcr niadiiado la I'i' i; iiiti'uiidail did Madinionio, y liaverdado tan uial cxcMiido ii la la'|)uiiliia.' Tur'/iiiinaild, Moiiar'/. Intl., toni. ii., ji. 442; ('(irlidjul, hisi'iirsn, ]i|). 'JO 1 ; M'l.illkivc, llcHHinc, \i. 'i\; Vlucitjcro, Slorin Ant. ikl Mv.s.siru, toni. ii., ji. '. U IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) 1.0 I.I 1.25 :: m 112.0 1.8 U 11.6 I V V] W °% ^,>^ r^' Hiotographic Sciences Corporation 'i:^ WCS^ MAiN STRUT WEBSTM.N.Y. 14SI0 (716) 872-4503 ^ 264 THE NAHUA NATIONS. deference and respect was shown to old age, it is probable that the decision of such matters was left to the influence and wisdom of the friends and relatives, and that through their intervention equitable arrange- ments were made. Concubinage, of which there were three classes, was permitted throughout the Mexican empire. The first class was the union of young men with unmarried women, before they arrived at the age when they were expected to marry. All young men, with the excep- tion of those who were consecrated to a perpetual chastity, were allowed to have concubines. The youth usually asked his parents to select a girl for him, and the one upon whom their choice fell cohabited with him. Such women were calhid tlacacavili No con- tract was made nor any ceremony performed; the connection was a simple private arrangement of the relatives on both sides. When a girl lived with an unmarried man as his concubine without the consent of her parents she was called temcrauh, which had a more general signification. It does not appear, how- ever, that concubinage among the unmarried men was common ; on the contrary, the manner in which parents are reputed to have brought up their children, and tlie care taken by the priests in their education would seem to show that such a practice was discouraged, or rather tolerated than allowed, and it is probable the custom was chiefly confined to the sons of nt)l)les and wealthy men. When a young man arrived at tlie age when he should marry, he was expected to dis- pense with his concubine that he might marry the girl selected by his parents to be his lawful wife. He could, however, legitimatize the connection between his concubine and himself by notifying his parents of his wishes and having the usual marriaare ceremonies performed; she then became his lawful wife and was called ciuathtntU. If while they bved together in concubinage the woman had a child, her parents then required that he should at once restore her to them, CONCUBINES IN MEXICO. 2G5 or make her his wife, as they considered it proper that having a child she should also have a husband as a legal protector. Young women were not dishonored hy living in a state of concubinage, nor were their chances of contracting advantageous marriages in any degree lessened. The second order of concubines miifht rather be termed, perhaps, the less legitimate wives of married men; with them the tying of garments constituted tlie entire marriage ceremony; the husband could not repudiate them without just cause and the sanction of the courts, but neither they nor their children coultl inherit property; in this respect they were treated as concul)ines, but nevertheless they were called Ciiia- (laiifU, which corresponds with the latin word uxor, and was the title borne by the first and legitimate wife. The third class of concubines were merely kei)t mistresses; with them no marriage rite of any kind was performed. They were kept usually by the nobles and chief men who could afford to maintain large establishments; they occupied a third rank in the domestic circle after the principal wife and less legitini;ite ones, and were called cittaiH'iaactU, or tht- cinaiifli, if their master had obtained them from their parents; those whom he took without such permission were called tlaciuaantin?^ The Toltec kings could only marry one woman, and in case of her death could not marry again oi live in concubinage with any woman; the same rule held 24 'Tt'iigono moltc moglio, & tante quantc ne possono miiutenero cotijc i inori, pcro conic si 6 ilt>t,to, viia h la priiicipale \' patroiia (.V i ti/liuuli di i|alo fan no ah-nne liiinio- iiii', il clio noil si osserna nellc nozze cloiraltn'.' It'lutiniii; fulln iitr ni, (jniHrhiiitiiin ilcl Signor Frrnnnito Corti'Hf, in R'tmnsin, Ninuijdtintn, toni, lii., fol. 310. See further, Tdn/witiinia, Momirn. Iir/., .oni. ii., ji. 37<); Lti.'i Cutri.s, Ifist. Apolofji^tir.d, cap. ccxiii., ccxiv., in Kniif.\'iiiriiiii)h'.s Mi .r. An/i'i/., vol. viii., pp. 127-S; Ciirhnptl, Ih'uriir.so, pp. '20-7; Viu.ninjit. Hist. Tlii.r., in Xoiifr/l'S Annnlrs lira I'oif., 1813, toni. xcviii., i>p. !(>!), I'.t7; ''"- tiKirn, I'oiK/. i\fir., fi}\. 107; Carhitjiil Ki/tinosn, flisf. .Ui.r., tout, i., J>p. 430-1; On'rdo, Hist. Gen., torn, iii., p. 260; Peter ifurtyr, dec. iv., lib. iv., dec. v., lib. X. 2CC THE NAHUA NATIONS. m good with their queens in the event of the king dying ttrst. Prostitution among the Mexicans was tolerated, but at the same time was restrained within certain bounds; that is, the law took cognizance of the prae- iice as regarded the women engaged in such traffic. It was looked upon as a necessary evil, and the law did not interfere with men who consorted with prosti- tutes; but the latter, if they plied their traffic too openly, or with too great frequency, so as to create a l)ublic scandal and become a nuisance, were punished according to the extent of the ofFence.*" We may suppose that, the marriage ceremonies being concluded, the young couple were left in peace, and that for a time there was a truce to the speech- making and ever-ready advice of anxious parents and meddling relatives. But this respite was generally of brief duration. As soon as the woman found herself to be p.egnant, all her friends and relations were immediately upon the tiptoe of expectation and interest again. The parents were at once informed of the interesting event, and a feast was prepared, of which all who had been present at the wedding par- took. After the repast the inevitable speeches c; Car/xtjiil, Discurso, \t\}. 27-8; S<(h'i;/iiii, Hist. Gen., turn, iii., lib. x., pp. 37-8; Clavigero, Storia Ant. del Mcusico, toiu. ii., pp. 132-3. PREGNANCY AND CHILDBIRTH. 267 elderly relatives then seized the opportunity to ad- monish and instruct the young woman, to which she made a suitable answer, thanking them for their soli- citude on her behalf.'" During the months of her pregnancy the mother was very careful to insure the safety and health of the child, though many of the rules observed for this pur- pose were of a partly superstitious nature. Thus, sleeping in the day-time would contort the child's face ; ap[)roaching too near the fire or standing in the hot sun would parch the foetus; hard and continued work, lifting weights, running, mental excitement, such as grief, anger, or alarm, were particularly avoided; in case of an earthquake all the pots in the house were covered up or broken to stop the shaking; eating f-jcf/i, or chicle, was thought to harden the palate of the unborn child, and to make its gums thick so that it would be unable to suck, and also to comnmnicate to it a disease called netetdzzoponiztU; neither must the edi- ble earth, of which, as we shall see in a future chajjter, the Mexicans were very fond, be eaten by the mother, lest the child should prove weak and sickly; but everything else the woman fancied was to be given lur, because any interference with her caprices might be hurtful to her offspring.'" Moderation in sexual connection with her husband was recommended to a woman from one to three months advanced in preg- natuy, but total abstinence in this resj)ect was thought to bo injurious to the unborn child; during the later stages of the woman's pregnancy, however, the hus- band abstained entirely from having intercourse with her.-" When the time for the confinement drew near 2'' I hiivp thought it iinnccessarytogivo thcHospcoches in full, but the ri-ader can liiid thcniall together in .Vri/(«(/(/«, Hitit. Gni., torn, ij., lil>, vi., pp. Kil-TIt. 2^ Suliiigun adds: ' niandaha iiue il la prenada la diescn de t-iinar Mili- cii'iilciiu'nte y buenos nianjaies, ealientcs y liien guJHatloH, i-on e^iiicialidad cuaiidi) A la prcnada le vicne m\ purgueion, «i i-oino dicen la rt-gla, y exto Ihiiiiaii <|iic la criatiira He laba los pics, iM)rnue no hc halle dsta en vacio, o luiya al;;iina vai'icdad 6 falta de Bangrc 6 luinior neceHurio, y asi rei:ilia nlj,'iiii dafio.' Hist. Gen., toni. ii., lib. vi., p. 182. '^ Salia;,'uii's original MS. contaiuH twenty-four additional lines on this Hubjcct, but these hit) editor deuuid tuu iiidelieuto tu priut. Id., p. Ibl. 268 THE NAHUA NATIONS. another feast was prepared and the usual invitations were issued. When all were gathered an old man was the first to speak, on behalf of the married couple. Bj virtue of his long experience in these matters he recommended that the pregnant woman be placed in the xucfdcaUi, or bath, under the protectior; of Xuchi- caltzin, the god of the bath, and of Yoalticitl, goddess of the bath and of childbirth. He further advised the parents to select a competent ticiti, or midwife. This functionary having been named, a female relative of the husband addressed her, asking her to acce))t the trust, praising her qualifications, and exhorting her to exert her utmost skill and care. The mother and relatives of the wife also made brief speeches to the same purpose. The midwife-elect then expressed her wish and intention to do all in her power.^ Wealtliy people frequently employed several mid wives, who i'or some days prior to the birth busied themselves in waiting on their patient and putting everything in readiness for the important hour. Zuazo states that some of these acted merely as witnesses to the fact of the birth.=» The 'hour of death,' as the time of confinement was named, having arrived, the patient was carried to a room previously set in order for the pur]>ose; here her hair was soaped and she was placed in a bath to be washed. Care was taken that the water should not be too hot, lest the foetus should be scalded ; in some cases the woman was beaten on the back with maize leaves which had been boiled in the water used for the bath. The midwife next proceeded to rub and press the abdomen of the patient in order to set tlie child in place. If the pain grew worse, soothini; remedies were administered. A decoction of cihoajxifH IS For these addresacasce.Sfrt/ta^wrt, Hi.it. Gen., tom.ii., lih.vi., pp. 171-SS. 30 'Se lle;?an al^uiiOH mujeres coino piirteriis, y otras conio tcsti^ios piiiii ver si el parto es niipucHto 6 natural ; y al ticnipo del iiacer no perinitcii ijin' la eriatiira llefpio A la tiorra eon la vi»ia; <5 antcR que se la eortenfe liaieii tiir- tan Henales en el corpezuelo.' Zuazo, Carta, in Icazbalceta, Col. Ue Due, toni. i., j)p. 3GH-4. GHASTLY TALISMANS. 989 h«,'il>s was given to promote the delivery; should this not prove eftective, however, a small piece, about an inch and a half long, of the tail of the thujuatzin, or t/a- (jxatl, was given, which is a very powerful emetic. If jifter all the woman got no ease, it was concluded that she would die. In cases of great danger prayers were addressed to Cioacoatl, Quilaztli, Yoalticitl, and other (k'ities. Should the child die in the womb it was removed piecemeal, unless the parents objected, in wliit'h case the mother was left to die. Mocioaquezqui, 'brave woman,' was the name yJN en to her who died in childbed. After death the ImkIv was washed, dressed in good, new clothes, and Imried with great ceremony in the courtyard of the tuniplc dedicated to the 'celestial women.'"" Talis- iiianic virtues were supposed to reside in the corpse; thus, the middle fingers of the left hand, and the hair, wore thought to make their possessor irresistible in Iiattle; soldiers, therefore, sought by every means, fair or foul, to procure them. Thieves believed that the left hand and arm of the corpse would strike ter- ror into their victims, and they therefore engaged sor- cerers to procure it. The birth of twins was believed' to foretell the death of one of the parents at the hands of their child; to prevent this, one of the in- fants was killed.** Abortion was not unusual, and was |)rocured by taking a decoction of certain herbs; the crime was nevertheless punished with death.** I f everything went well, and the woman was easily de- livered, the midwife gave a loud cry of triumph. She next addressed some words of counsel to the child, and ■" Cihunpipiltin, or CuiapipiUi. A lonp description of the huriiil ritcH 1IM01I tiiese ociuHioiiH in A'a/w»,7M;«, //*a7. ^/t/t., torn, ii., lib. vi., pp. 180-1(1. These will, however, be de8cril)ed in a future chapter. ^' Mofolinin, Hist. Inifios, in Icuzhnleeta, Col. ile Doc, torn, i., p. 1.10, iiiiil Tor(]ucina(lii, Moiiarq. lad., toni. ii., p. 84, who Hccms to have copied Iroiri liini, are the authontir, for this, Imt the c»ntoin could not have Inen very frcnnral, for it is said that in Tlascala the mother a-ssigned a breast to cacli of the twins. " Tiie principal authority on the matter of pregnancy and childbirth, ami the one whom I have titun far followed, ia Salmgun, Jlint, Gen., toiu. ii , lib. vi., pp. lCO-92. 870 THE NAHUA NATIONS. then proceeded to wash it. Turning to the water, she addressed the goddess of waters, Chalchihuitlicue, ask- ing her favor and protection for the child. Then taking some water, the midwife breathed upon it, gave some to the infant to taste, and then touched its liead and chest therewith: saying, Come, my son (or daughter) to ChalchihuitHcue ; it is for her to bear you on tlie back and in her arms throughout this hie! Then, placing the infant in the water, she continuep. 445-6; Vlamgero, Storin Ant. . S(i; Iinisnnir ill' hiiiirbuurg. Hist. Nat. Cie., torn, iii., pp. .'>(((>; ('nrhiijnl Esjiiiio.sii, Hist. Mi'r., Unn. I., pp. 551-2, 67.S, etc. Tiie utensils whieh served at the birth of the ehihl were, according; to Law Casjis, Jfi.st. A/io/oi/rtini, MS., enp. tlxxi\., otlered at the fountain or river where the mother washed herself. " Hy Suhiiuun, Hint. Gen., torn, i., lib. iv., pp. 2.S'2-3"2S, and Dm an, Hisf. Indian, MS., toni. iii., cap. ii., the si;;ns of the calendar anil their wilidivisions are deRcril)cd at lenj^h. Each sign had thirteen sub-si;,nis, representing the same nunil)er of dava, hy whom its good or bud im|M)rt was moderated to a certoin ext«nt. Under certain signs the child was liable to Itccouie a drunkard, under another a jester, under a third a warrior, and so on. Ikasscur de Bourl)uurg, Hist. Nnt. Civ., toin. iii., p. 5. 449. 39 A loni' description of this feast, the table, attendance, etc., iaftiveii by Saliagiin, Hist. Gen., torn, i., lib. iv., pp. 332-C, and by Torqiienuula, ^lo- iiarq. Ind., torn, ii., pp. 457-8. I shall have occasion to describe it in ii future cliaptor of this volume, devoted to such matters. <» The poorer classes contented tlieniselves with an interchange of flowers and food. BAPTISM OF INFANTS. 378 little weapons, a spindle and distaff, and some articles of girl's clothing. When the sun rises the midwife .sets her face and the face of the child toward the west, and addressing the infant, says: "() eagle, () tiger, () hrave little man and grandson of mine, thou hast been i)rought into the world by thy father and uir^her, thj great lord and the great lady. Thou wast created in that house which is the abode of the supreme gods that are above the nine heavens. Thou art a gift irom our son Quetzalcoatl, the omnipresent; be joined to tliy mother, Chalchihuitlicue, the goddess of water." Then placing her dripping fingers on the lips of the child, she continues: "Take this, for uj)on it thou hast to live, to wax strong, and flourish; by it we obtain all necessary things; take it!" Then touching the child on the breast with her moistened fingers, she says: "Take this holy and pure water that tliine heart may be cleansed." Then the midwife j)ours water on the ciiild's head, saying: "Receive, O my son, the water of the Lord of the World, which is our life, with which we wash and are clean; may this celestial light- lilue water enter into thy body, and there remain; may it destroy and remove from thee all evil and ad- verse things that were given thee before the beginning of the world; behold, all of us are in the hands of Chalchihuitlicue, our mother." She now washes the body of the child, exclaiming: "Evil, wheresoever tliou art, begone, avaunt; for the child liveth anew and is born again; once more it is purified; a second time is it renewed of our mother, Chalchihuitlicue. ' Then lifting up the little one toward heaven, she ad- dresses Ometochtli and Omecioatl:" "Behold, O Lord, the creature which thou hast sent to this ])lace of sor- row, affliction, and anguish, to this world; give it, () Lord, of thy gifts and inspiration, for thou art the j,Teat god and the great goddess," Then stooping as if to set the child down, she raises it a second time, *^ A dual iloitv, uniting both sexes in one person. Vol. II.' 18 274 THE NAHUA NATIONS. crying upon the goddess of the waters:*' "O lady goddess, mother of the gods, inspire this child with thy virtue." A third time she st lords celestial, and gods who dwell ia heaven, hehold this creature whom ye have sent among men, fill it with your spirit and mercy, that it may live." A fourtli time she sets down and raises the babe, and callin},' now upon the sun and the earth she says:** *M) our Lord, Sun, father of all, and thou, () Earth, our mother, take ye this child for your own, and, as it is born for war,** so let it die defending the cause »»f the gods, and be permitted to enjoy the delights pre- pared in heaven for the brave," The midwife now takes the implements and prays to the patron deity of the trade or j)rofession thoy represent on belialf of the child ; then she places the mantle upon the shoulders of the infant, girds on tlie little maxtli, and asks the boys present to give the child a name. This was, however, merely a matter of forn.; the parents really had the choosing of tlie name and told it to the boys. It was usually taken either from the sign of ^ le day, or from a bird or ani- mal, in the case of a bo} ; the girls Mere named from flowers, and this rule was especially observed by the Toltecs and Miztecs. Sometimes a child took its name from some important event which occurred at the time of its birth; as when the Tlascaltec chief Cit- lalpopoca, 'smoking star,' was so named because at his birth a flaming comet was seen in the sky. Sometimes children were named after the feast held at the time of their nativity; thus, boys born during the festival of the renewal of the sacred fire, called toxilmolpilm, <» Sahajyim, Hist. Gen., torn, ii., lib. vi., p. 220, makes the midwife, in this iiiHtance, call upon Citlalatonac. This goddess was, however, idcntiial with Oinetochtli and Omecioatl (see, more especially, Cnrbajal Esfuminit, Hist. Mex., torn, i., p. 472), to whom the preceding prayer was directcil. Clavi;^cro and Torquemada assert that the prayer was addressed to the water-goddess. « Siihagun addresses the Sim-God only. ** We may presume that the midwife is here addressing the child of a warrior. HAPTISM OF INFANTS. ITS were named molpUfi, *a tied object,' and girls xiuhne- hcti, 'little doll of the year of tire.' Owasionally a cliiid was nauud I'Ster some renowned ancestor. A second name .fuiu be ac(juired by valiant deeds in battle. Motolinia adds tbat sons of prominent men took a surname fnjm the dignity or office held by the father, either in youth or manhood ; or they inherited it with the estate at the death of the i)arent. Chil- dren born during the last five days of the y )r, called iicitiontemi, 'unlucky days,' were considered unfortun- ate; boys born under such circumstances were often named nemoquivhtU, 'unlucky man,' ai'. girls nem'i- htintl, 'unlucky woman.'" Th<^ ii'ldwife, having baptized the child, now calls upon it tliree timos by its new name; admonishing it to I lake good use of the implements or ^veaJ)ons ])laced in its hands.** It is thereupon carried into the house, preceded by torchbearei*s, and placed in the cradle, before which the midwife offers prayers to Yot.lticitl, 'ifoddess of the cradle,' commending the child to her care, and beseeching her to nourish and protect it ; then, turning to the cradle, she adds: "O thou, the mother of the child, receive this babe with gentleness, taking heed not to injure it." Then she places the child in the cradle, the parents meanwhile calling upon Yoalticitl to protect it, and upon Yoaltecutli, 'the god of night,' to lull it to sleep." During this cere- <' riavigero, Storia Ant. del Memco, torn, ii., p. 84, Trrqiicmada, Mo- vnn/. /nil., toin. ii., p. 287, and Brasseur de Bourhourjj, Hist. A«/. dr., toin. iii., p. 287, traimlate NciiioqHiclitli and NencihuatI ' usi'less man ' antl 'iwi'less woman. Turqucmada, Jloniirq. Inil., toni. ii., p. 454-<5, di.>. IH), it is stated that the name was given by three boys who sat by eating 1/JCi'iie. *^ Boturini states that the infant is thereupon passed four times through the fire. Clmngero, Storia Ant. del Messico, tom. ii., p. 88; but this cere- mony is described elsewhere in this volume as taking place in the temple. 276 THE NAHUA NATIONS. mony, which is termed thtcocufaquiio, or 'the act o*" ] (lacing the child in the cradle,' the boys of the village, dressed to imitate soldiers, enter the house, seize cur tain food previously prepared for them, called the 'child's navel,' scatter the rest, and rush forth, muneli- '\nix and shoutinjr the child's nanie and future dts- tinics. The lights, called oco^t', which have been used lace where a battle may be expected to take jilacu on a future day. The girl's instruments and navcl- Ntrinof are buried under a metate. The afterbirth is interred in a corner of the house. After the cradlinj; t.eremony the guests proceed to the banqueting-rooni, where thev seat themselves accorvith ashes, thinking that this wouUl strengthen them and prevent the bones from becoming loose. The same was done to the children who accompanied theni.*^ In some parts the baptismal ceremony cot:- sisted in putting some quicklime upon the child's knee, and savino- to it: "O thou little one, that hast come into the world to suffer, suffer and be silent. Thou livest, but thou shalt die; much pain and anguish shall come upon thee; thou shalt become dust, even as this lime, which was once stone."*" If a boy, an arrow or dart was then placed in the child's left liand, to indicate that he must be brave and defend his country; if a girl, she was given a distaff, as a amx tliat she must become industrious in all womanly I»ur.suits.™ In Tlascala and Miztecapan the infxmt was bathed in a sacred spring, which, it was thought, would avert misfortune. Mendieta says that tlie mid- wife merely sprinkled the child a certain number of times, first with wine and then with water." Among flit! Zapotecs both mother and child were washed in a river, and invocations were addressed to all land and a(|uatic animals, entreating their favor and deprecating their anger;" it was als.> customary to assign sonitt animal or bird to a child, as its uarjual, or tutelaiy <(enius, and with the fortune of such creature its fate was supposed to be so intimately coimet ted, that the death of one involved the death of the other." Burgoa adds further that this was assigned by lot, but it is stated elsewhere, and with greater pnibability if we may judge by similar superstitions in the old wurld, that the first bird or beast that appeared after *' It was Mievt^d, says Torquenmda, that tliis rulihin;:; of tlieir own limlw liiul u streiigthcHiiiy ettcct upon the new-born. Munuiq. liuL, toni. ii , p. l.">7. *' mara, Cotiq. Mex., fol. 312. ^" liiirild. Tmtro Er/cs., toni. i., p. 18. ;'' ili.sl. Erlrs., p. 107. '-' r.iinina, Grng. lAxcriu., tom. ii., pt ii., fol. 329. ^' /(/ fol. 3'J5.' 278 THE NAIIUA NATIONS. the birth of the child was appointed its spiritual i)ro- tector." Whetlier the custom of circumcision, which has been the great prop of argument in favor of the Jew- ish origin of tlic Aztecs, really obtained among those people, has been doubted by numerous authors. Al- though circumcision was certainly not by any moans general, yet sufficient proof exists to show that it was in use in mmie form among certain tribes. Las Casas and Mendieta state that the Aztecs and Totoiiacs practiced it, and Brasseur do Bourbourg has discov- ered traces of it among the Mijes. Las Casas affirms that the child was carried to the temple on the twon- ty-eighth or twenty-ninth day after birth; there tlio high-priest and his assistant i)laced it upon a stone, and cutoff the prepuce at the root; the part anijui- tated they afterward burned to ashes. Girls of tlio ^* Tlio f()lIowinatli, and tlicas^tinhlLMl ^rucsts were feauted uii zaniorra, a disli made from mai/e and tlie t1e»h of licii:^, deer, etc. Three day« after, the mother carried tlic child to the adjoiiiin;: ward, accompanied hy a'lx little hoys, if it was a male child, utherwisr >i\ };irls went witli her, to carry the implements or insi<;nia of the fiitlici's trade. Hero she washed the child in a stream, and tlien returned liniiio. Two years after a feast was served in the house of the most intimate iici;;li- hor, who was asked to name the child, and with him it remained and vas held as a memhor of his family. Chares, Rapport, in Trriiaiix-Coiii/Hins, Voy., serie ii., torn, v., pp. 3(H}-8. The infant was carried to the t('iii|)li', where the priest made an oration on the miseries to he endured in this world, and jdaccd a sword in the rij;ht hand of the child and a hm klcr in tlio left; or, if it was destincfl to he a mechanic, an art izan's tool; if a ^'iil it received a distaff. Theiiriest then took the child to the altar and drew ;i few drojjs of blood from its iiody with a .iia};ucy-tliorn or knife, after wliicli lie threw water over it, deliveriii}? certain imprecations the while. Tintriin, lli-l. Hi'it., toni. iii., j)]!. 1'2-13. The implenients wore jdaced in the hand; of tlic child by the priest before the idfil. Acosta, Hist, (fr fas Ynd., p. 374. .ANo Jlrrnra, Hist, (ini., dec. iii., lib. ii., cap. .xvii. The child underwent tline biiptisms or baths. Ziiazn, Carta, in Icazhalrrtn, Col. i/r Por., toiii. i.. p. 3t»4. On the seventh day the baptism took iilacc, an• Kiiiif.sfiomuif/i's Mt:,r. A)itii/.. vol. v., p. ISl, it is stated that tlie child was s|irinkl(d with a bunch of licille dipped in water, and fiimipited with incense before receiving its iiuinc. (Mrerinp* were made at the temple which the priest divided aiiionj; tlic school children. Tylor, in \ii» A iia/iiiar, p. 27'.), and J'rimitire Cidtun. vul ii., pp. 42S>-30 gives short reviews of the baptismal ceremony and its iiionil import. CIIICUMCISION AND SCAllIFICATION. 279 pro- ;lieso lits same acfe were defloured by tlie finj^er of the priest, who ordered the mother to repeat tlie operation at the sixtli year. Zuazo adds that tiiese rites were oidy perforined upon the children of great men, and that there was no compulsion in the matter, the parents having the option of having their children deHoured or circumcised at any time within five years/'"^ In the fifth month, at Huitzilopochtli's festival, all children born during the year were scarified on the hreast, stomach, or arms, and by this means received as followers of their god.^ At the festival in honor of Teteionan or Toci, 'mother of the gods,' in the elev- enth month, the women delivered during the year underwent purification and presented their children. In the evening a signal was sounded from the temple, and the mothers, dressed in their best, accomj)anied by friends, and preceded by torch-bearers and serv- ants carrying the babes, made the tour of the town or (juarter; a halt was made at every temple to leave an otfcring and a lighted torch for the i)residing goddess. At the temple of Toci extra offerings were made, in- cluding tzocoijotly cakes of fiour and honey; and here the i)riest performed the ceremony of purification by })ronouncing certain jirayers over the women." In 5'> I.disCnxax, TTi.if. Apologfficn, Mf>.,ca\\. clxxv. ; Torqur.mmln, Monarq. Ii(il.,U)\\\. ii., ]»p. 8S-4; Mviidieta, Hist. Ecks., pp. 107-8; Zuazo, Vartii, iii Irnzhiihrtii, Col. i/r l)ov., toiii. i., p. 3U4; Jini.i.seiir dr. JioiiflniKn/, llist. Xnt. I'ir., tciiii. iii., p. 35. ("luvi^eri), Storiit Aiit. ilrl Mr.s.iico, toin. ii., p. 7.'<, re- viuws tlic .sultjet't of circunu'isiou ami (Iciiies tliiit it was ever prai-ticetl. Ter- iiaiix-Cdiupiiiis, Vol/., Miirio i., p. 4."), toiii. x., it'fi'irin<;t<» Dia/'statciufiit tliat ail Iiidiim.s of tlic V'ora Cni/ Islands are cirfuinci/cd, savs tiiat lie must Ikivo ciiufduiidcd the oiistoiii of drawing,' Idmid from tiie .secret or;;aiiS with circuiiicision. ("ojfolliido, Jfist. l'«c., p. I'.M, says firt'umcisioii was iiiikiiowii to the Indians of Yucatan. Duran and Hras.seiir evidently con- ^illcr the sli;rht iiicisionn made for the piirpo.se of drawing Idood from the pri'imcc or ear, in the eleventh month, as the act. Carhajal Kspinosa, Ifisf. .^fi.r., toni. i., ]). ."k'W, foUowiiif? Clavij^i-ro, holds the scarilieation of hreast, siiiinuch and arms to he the eircumeision referred to hy other authors, llcrrcra, Ifi.sf. (Irii,, de<'. iii., lih. ii., cap. xvii.. and especially .\costa, llixf. (/'■ hus Vtiif., p. 374, consider the incision on the prepuce and ear to have lifcii mistukeii for circumcision, and state that it was chielly performed ii|Min sons of ;^reat men; they do not state when the ceremony took place. '■''^ Ton/iiriiiu'lft, Monarq. hid., toni. ii., p. 'iOG; t'tirlxijul Esjiiiiosit, llist, .l/ir.. join, i., p. .^IS. " Tliis rite was followed hy another, which usually took iilacn in the toiiiple of lhiitzilo|)uehtli. The priest made u »liijlit iiiulMiuu uu the ear uf 280 THE NAHUA NATIONS. the eighteenth month of every fourth year, the chil- (h'en born since the last corresponding feast, wore taken to the temple, where their ears were pierced with a sharp bone, and macaw-feathers, tlachcatjofl, in- serted; the god-father and god-mother, or, as they are termed, uncles and aunts, whose duty it was to •nitiate the children into the service of the gods, holding them during the operation.** An offering of flour of the chian seed was made, and the godfather was presented with a red robe, the godmother with a huipil. Each child was then passed through the flames of a fire prepared for the purpose; the priest next took its head between his hands, and in that manner lifted it bodily from tlie ground. Everyone thereupon went home to feast, but at noon the godfather and godmother returned to the temple and executed a dance, holding the children on their backs, and giving them pulque to drink, in very small cups. This went on till dusk, w^hen they retired to their houses to continue tlie dancing and drinking. This feast and month, Itzcalli, •growth,' obtained its name from the ceremony of squeezing the heads of children, which, it was thought, would make them grow; but it was also called the 'feast of the intoxication of boys and girls.'^' Among the Miztecs, the mother took hot i)aths for twenty days after delivery, at the end of which time a feast was held in honor of the goddess of the batli, the child sharing in the honors of the occasion."" the female cliilil, and on the ear and prepiiec of the male, with a new nl- sidian knife iiandcd to him by the motlier, tlien, thro\viii}{ the knife iit tlic feet of tlie idol, he f^ave a name to the infant, at the letjnest of the paiTiit, after duly consideriiij; the horoseopc and si^^ns of the tinie. Ihiraii, JlisK Iiiiliaii, MS., toni. iii., cap. iii., ([noted by Brtisscurdc liuiirltoiirtj, Hist. Nut. Cir., torn, iii., pp. ii'iS-O. Duran reall;^ states that thei^c eeremonies took ]ilaee in the fourth month, hut as Toei's festival oeeurs in tlie eleventii month, Hrasseur alters the evident mistake. The namin;; of the infant Wiay liave been a mere eonlirnuition of the name j^iven l»y the midwife. ** Torqiirmaria, Motiarq. In» (loiinnii, Coiiq. Mix., fol. 318. "^ Tlio iiiitiiorities ou childbirtii, Imptism, ami circumrision arc: Snfi((- gun. Hist, (ini., torn, i., lib. ii., np. 1S7-1K), lib. iv., i)p. '281-3.S7, toin. ii., lili. vi., i»p. l(!0-'2'2'2, toni. iii., lili. x., pp. ll!)-2t); t'ltiri(jrri>, Sforiit Ant. (Id M.s.sim, toin, ii., pp. 2-7.3, 80-89; Torqurmada, Monnrq. Intl., toni. ii , pp. S:{-4. 2(>fi, 28<), 44.'»-()l; Iferrcra, Hist Geti., dec. iii., lib. ii., cap. .wii., lil). ill., rap. xii., lib. iv., cap. xvi.; Las Cnsas, Hisf^ A/iofngr/irii, Ms., cap. clxxv., dxxix. ; Codex Meiidozti, pp. {M)-l, in Kiiii/slinroiti/h's .Vlu Aiitiq. vol. v.; Motolinia, Hist. Indios, u\ Icuzbakela, Col. de Hoc, THE NAHUA NATIONS. torn, i., i)p. 37-8, 77, 108; Zunzo, dtrta, in Id., pp. .103-4; MrniUctn, IHst. Edes., |i|>. 107-8, 13!t; liitrt/on, Oeoif. JJcucri/t., toin. ii., jit ii., fol. 3'JSt, S'J"); Jhivila, Ti. 538, 551-5, 673; Brusseiir de Bourbourn, Jli.if. A'«<. Civ., toni. i., p. '240, tiini. iii., pn. 35, 5'25-0, 560-3; Acostii, Ilixl. dc l(i.s Ytid., J). .374; (Jiniiitnt, Coiiq. Mi.r., fol. 312, 317-18; Tuiiroii, Hist. Gen., Umi. lii., pp. 12-13; C/iuir.i, Jiapport, in Tcraaux-Companji, Voy., wi'rie ii., toni. v., pp. 3lK) -8; Moutuitits, Aifuire Wccreld, pp. 32, 2(i5; Khiiiiii, (.'id- tiir-Gcsr/in/itr, toni. v., pp. ,30-9; Jimsirrre, V Empire Mcjr., |»p. 14(1 1; IfAvitji, L'AnuviqHC, toni. ii., p. 73; Jiaril, Mexiijiie, |»p. iyiV-2(H); Jiilos Aiitif/iiDS jip. 22-.3, in Kiiitj.sburitugh''s Mvx. Antiii., vol. ix. ; Luct, Xovks Orltis, J). 231t; Ailair^s Atnn: Iiid., p. 217; Midler, Jiri.icn, toin. iii., pji. 118-20; I'lirrlifin liin ]'ilffriiuc.H, vol. iv., pp. 1102-3, 1140; Vinii, Carliis, ]»ti., p. 101; Diiritn, Hint. Indin.t, MS., toni. iii., cap. iii.; Dinz, Itiiiemiir, 111 TcrHaii.c-C(>iiij)iiii.i, Vot/., serici., torn, x., p. 45; Humboldt., E.wai Pol., toni. i., p. UO; Morion's Crania Arner,, p. 147; Ddajield's Antin. Amcr., p. 19. CHAPTER VIII. NAHUA FEASTS AND AMUSEMENTS. Excessive Fondness for Feasts— Makneu of Giving Feasts— Serv- ing THE Meal— Professional Jesters— Parting Presents to OiKSTs— Royal Banquets— Tobacco Smoking— Piblic Dances- Manner OF Singing and Dancing- The Neteteliztli -The Drama among the Nahuas— Music and Musical Instruments — Nahua Poetry— Acrobatic Feats— The Netololiztli, or 'Bird Dance'— Professional Runners— The Game of Tlactli— Games OF Chance— The Patoliztli, or 'IJean Game'— Totoloque, Mon- tezuma's Favorite Game. The excessive fondness of the Aztecs for feasts and anuisenients of every kind seems to have extended throueasant, considered it incumbent upon him to be second to none among his equals in the giving of banquets and entertainments, and as these involved the distribution of costly presents among his guests, it often ha}ti)ened that the host ruined himself by his hospitality; in- deed, it is said that many sold themselves into slav(;ry that they might be able to prepare at least one feast that would immortalize their memory.^ !More- 1 Bitot Atifiguos, p. 20, in Kingsborough's Mex. Antiq., vol. ix. (283) 284 THE NAHUA NATIONS. over the priests, wltli the subtle policy characteristic of their class, took advantai^e of this disi)osition to ordain long and frequent celebrations in honor of in- numerable gods; in short, it is difficult to conceive what part of the year could have been saved for busi ness from what seems to have been a continual round of merry-making. The grandeur of the feast depended, of course, upon the wealth of the host, the rank of the guests, and the importance of the event celebrated. For many days before a noble or wealthy man entertained his friends, an army of servants were employed in swecj)- ing the approaches to the house, decorating the halls and courts with branches and garl.ands, erecting chi- nainas, or arbors, and strewing the floors with flowers and sweet herbs; others prei)ared the table service, killed and dressed dogs, plucked fowls, cooked taniu- les, baked bread, ground cacao, brewed drinks, and manufactured perfumed cigarettes. Invitations were in tlie meantime sent to the guests. These on theii- arrival were presented with flowers as a token of welcome. Those of a superior condition to the host were saluted after the Aztec fashion by touching the liand to the earth and then carrying it to the lii)s. On some occasions garlands were placed upon the heads of the guests and strings of roses about their necks, while copal was burnt before those whom the host delighted specially to honor. While waiting for tlie meal the guests employed their time in walking freely al)out the place, complimenting their host on the tasteful manner in which the house was decorated, or ad- miring the fine shrubbery, green grass plats, well-kej)! flower-beds, and sparkling fountains in the gardens. Dinner being announced, all took their seats, accord- ing to rank and age, upon mats or icpalU, stools, Servants then entereil I'anjifed close along the walls." ' Tlic highest in rank or consideration sat on the rij^ht side, and tlmsc of inferior (leaiiy with the attendants of the guests.* Vessels t ailed teutecomat/s, filled with chocolate, each provided with a spoon to stir the fluid with, were then brought oil, together with water for washing the hands and rinsing the mouth. The women who were present on these occasions, although they sat apart from the men, it'ceived a kind of spiced gruel instead of cacao. The old people, however, were j)lied with octli, a very potent l)everage, until they became drunk, and this was held to be an indispensable part of the ceremony. The smoking-canes were now once more produced, and while the guests reclined luxuriously upon their mats enjoying the grateful influence of the fragrant kaf which we are told by Bernal Diaz they called 'tobacco,' and sipping their drinks, the music suddenly struck up, and the young folks, or perhaps some pro- fessionals, executed a dance, singing at the same time; an ode ])repared for the occasion, as well as other songs. Dwarfs, deformed beings, and curious objects were ' Speiilving of this Xiuhtecutli, Torqucnmdn says: ' hnnrabanlo conio u Mios, jM)r(|UL> loH oalcntalm, cucia el Pan y ;iiiisalm hi CariiL', y por osto I'li laila Casa Ic vcnerahau; y en el niisnio Fiifiim, 6 Hojfar, qiieriaii I'omcr, lo (lal)a!i el primer honulo tie la viaiuhi, para que alii iso queinase; y li> que avian de In-her, lo avia de f^ustar priuiero, hochanp. -8; Sahagun, Hist, Gen., toiu. i., lib. iv., pp. 332-6, torn, ii., lib. ix., TODACCO IN THE NEW WOULD. vt To the tohacco-lovincf reader it will be interesting to learn how the weed was smoked in the New World before it was hitroduced into tiie Old by the immortal Jean Nieot, whose name be forever blessed. The habit of smoking did not possess among the Nahiias the peculiar character attached to it by the North Ameri- can natives, as an indispensable accessory to treaties, the cementing of friendship, and so forth, but was in- dulged in chierty by the sick, as a pastime and for its stimulating effect. The origin of the custom among the Nahuas may be traced to the use of reed-grass, tilled with aromatic herbs, which was lighted and given to guests that they might diffuse the perfume about them; gradually they cj'fne to j)ufi* the -reeds and swallow the smoke, pretendmj" to find therein a remedy against headache, fatigue, phlegm, sleepless- ness, etc. Three kinds of tobacco were used, the ijf'tl, sigiiitying tobacco in general, obtained from a large loavt'd plant, ^he plcyetl, from a small but stronger species, and qmmijetl, a less esteemed kind known later on as wild tobacco. Clavigero asserts that the picyetl and i(V.iijetl were the only species known among the Mexicans. It was generally smoked after dinner in the form of paper, reed, or maize-leaf cigarettes, called poci/cf/, 'smoking tobacco,' or ucayetl, 'tobacco-reed,* the leaf being mixed in a paste, says Veytia, with xorhiocofzotl, liquid amber, aromatic herbs, and pulver- ized charcoal, so as to keep smouldering wlien once lighted, and shed a perfume. The picyetl tobacco was sin )ked later in the day, without admixture, and some- what in the shape of cigars. The smoke was inlialed, and the nose closed, in order that none of the grateful quiilities should be lost. Wooden, metal, or bamboo tubes were sometimes used instead of cigarettes. Snuff- l>p. ."^oO-OO, .164-5; Brasseur de Bourboitrij, Hint. Nat. Civ., torn, iii., pp. (U'Hi; fit., in N'oiimlle.s Annate.^ de.i Voif., 1858, torn, clix., j)p. 74-(»; f/o- iimm, Conq. Afex., fol. 318; Prescotfs Mex., vol. i., pp. 152-7; Ihimierre, I'Kinpirr Mc.v., p. 178; Baril, Mexique, pp. 210-11; Ritos Antiguos, p. 20, vxKiitijsboruu'jh's Mex, Antiq., vol. ix. I #1 ass THE NAIILTA NATIONS. iii<^ the pulvorizod leaf is an ancient custom wliich wo owe to them.' Duiicinjjf was the favorite Aztec amusemont, and tlic fanciful arrangement of their dances, as well as the peculiar grace of their motions, is highly praised hy all the old chroniclers. Dancing, and especially reli- gious dances, formed an im{)ortant part of an Aztec youth's education, and nuieh trouble was taken by the ])riests to instruct them in it. The preparations for the great public dances, when the performers munbered thousands,* were on an im- mense scale. The choirs and bands attached to the service of the various temples were })laced under the supervision of a leader, usually a priest, who composed tiie ode of tlie day, set it to nmsic, instructed the mu- sicians, appointed the leaders of the dance, perfected the arrangements generally, observed that all did their duty, and caused every fault or negligence to be se- verely punished.* The NeteteVrJli dance took i)lact' either in the plaza or in the courtyard of the temple, in the centre of which mats were spread for the musicians. The nobles and aged men formed a circle nearest to the drums, the i>eople of less importance formed another erfect ac )rd. Each verse or couplet was repeated "< Vrytin, ist. Ant. Mej., Unn. iii., pp. 4!)-.51; Clavigero, ftfnrin Anf. ili'l Missico, 111. ii., p. '227. Hrninnrfrz, Nova Plant., y. 17S; Uvinhi, Hi.st. (ifn., tiiin, i., p. .'ii,'); Iira,s.sPiir dr Bourbon rr/. Hist. Nat. Civ., Unw. iii., 1). ()4(>; Carhajal Enpinosa, Hist. Mex., torn, i., p. 684; Klcmm, Culliii- (tcsr/iirhte, toin. v., pj). 12-1.3. " ' luiitnuaiisc a cste bayle, no mil hombres, conio dize Ooniara, pero mas do oc'lio mil.' Hi'rrera. Hist. Gun., dec. ii., lib. vii., rap. viii. 9 Salia^iin, /fiV. Gin., Um\. ii., lib. viii., p. .^l."), ever prepared with capital pnniHhnicnt, .states that 'el ttcftur les manduba prendcr, y otro diu lo.s iiiundabu mutar.' THE MITOTE AND RIBBON DANCE. tlii'oo or four times, tliu dancers keej>iii<( time with tlu'ir ni/Kcochf/i, <»r rattles. Kaeh must keej> his rehi- tive position in the circle, and complete the circuit at tlu' same time; the inner circle, therefore, moveil at a slow, dii^nitied pace, suited to the rank and a^e of the men composin«j it; the second j»roceeiled somewhat lastir, while the dancers in the outer circle aj)proached 11 run as the dance hecame livelier. The motions were varied; at one time the dancers held one another hy the hand, at another, round the waist; now they took tile left hand neij^hhor for })artner,, now the ri^ht, sometimes facing one way, sonietimes anothi-r. The first song ended, which referred to the event (►f the (lay, a po[)ular ode, treating of their gods, kings, or heroes, was taken up and sung in a higher scale and to a livelier measure, the dance meanwhile constantly increasing in animation. This was the case with all the succeeding songs, each one becoming higher and shriller as it ])roceeded; flutes, trumpets, and sharj) whistles were sometimes added to the band to increase the effect. When one set of dancers became tired, another to(>k its place, and so the dance continued through the whole day, each song taking about an hour. Jesters and clowns in vari<.)us disguises circu- lated between the lines, cutting capers, cracking jokes, and servinjif refreshments. Heri'era states that the solenui mifotew'iis danced by twos in the outer circle.^" At })rivate dances, two j)arallel lines were usually formed, the dancers turning in various directions, changing partners, and crossing from line to line.'^ Sometimes one stepped from each line, and perfoiined a j)as de deux while the others looked on. The 'rib- bon dance,' resembled the English may-pole dance to a certain extent. A pole, fifteen to twenty feet high, was erected on a smooth piece of ground, and twenty or moie persons, each seizing the end of a coloied rib- bon attached to its summit, began to dance about the '" Hint. Gv)i., tlec. iii., lib. ii., cap. xix. " Clari'i' 1(1, Stiiriu Ant. del Mcssku, torn, ii., p. ISO. Vol. II. 19 290 THE XAIIUA NATIONS. mast, crossing each other and winding in apparent con- fusion, until the polo was covered witli a motley text- ure of a certain design. When the band became too short, the plaiting was unwound by reversing the order of the dance. They had a number of other mitotos, or dances, varying chiefly in the colors worn by the (Umcers, the finery, painting, and disguises, and con- i'orming to the text of the songs, such as the huexot- zincaiutl, anaoacaiufi, cuextecaiutl, tocofin, and others to be described under religious festivals." Children froiTi four to eight years of age, the sons of nobles, took part in some dances and sang the soprano, and the priests joined in the solenm performances. Certain dances, as the netecuitotoU,^^ could only ho l)erformed by the king and nobles," a space bijing always set apart for the sovereign when he danceil. Women joined the zizi\ in scmie dances, but generally danced apart. Certain dancing-houses of bad rei)uti' termed cuicotjnn, 'great joy of women,' were o})en to females ;it night, and were then scenes of unmitigated debauch.^'' Great pains was taken to ai)pear as fine as ])ossible at the dances; noted warriors appeared mag- nificently dressed, and occasionally bearing shields set with feathers; nobles in court dress of rich mantles knotted at the shoulders, fanciful maxtlis round tliu loins, tassels of feathers and gold in the hair, liji- orname!its of gold and precious stones, gold rings in the ears, bracelets of the same metal set with })lunies, or strings of chalchiuites and turquoises round tlu> wrists and other parts of the arms, and some had gold bells attached to the ankles; the ijfaiiy colored dresses of the lower class were decorated with feathers and embroidery; garlands and flowers encircled the head, necklaces of shells and beans hung about the neck, '^^ Snfiiiiyini, Wsf. Gen., toin. ii., lib. viii., up. 308-i); Cluviijrrn, Sluri'i Aiif. . n Sii/iiiffiiii, Ilisf. Grii., toin. i., lilt, ii., p, i89. '•* Tizozoinuc, Hist. Miu., to»i. i., p. 87 THE ABORICINAL DRAMA. 291 l)r;icck'ts clasped the arms and lei^s, and all carried iu)sei^ays. The women also slione in hui})iles, gaily coli»rod, fancifully embroidered, and set with fringes.'" The drama scarcely ecjualed in excellence the cho- ral dance, yet in this respect, as in others, the Nahuas showed considerable advancement. Thalia presided more frequently than Melpomene over the play, which generally took the character of a burlesque. 'J'iie per- ionners mostly wore masks of wood, or were disguised as aniu) ds. No special building was devoted to the (hama, but the lower porch of a tenq)le usually served as the stage; some large towns, however, boasted of a. jtermanent stage, erected in the centre Cff the plaza. The ])rincipal of these was at Tlatelulco, and consisted of a terrace of stone and lime, thirteen feet high, by thirty in breadth. When in use it was decorated with i'oliage, and mats of various colors, whereon was end)la- zoned the coat of arms of the city, Avere hung all round it. At Cholula the porch of the temple of Quetzalcoatl served as a staije: this was whitewashed and adorne«l with arches of branches, feathers, and Howers, from wliich hung birds, rabbits, and other curious objects. Here the peo})le congregated after dinner on gala-days to witness the }>erformance, in which deaf, lame, bliniti fill fi ill carta, c di pciiiic, <> di pflli' no iloulit to ilistin^'nisli tlicni Ironi tlic ^it-ntrv >vlu'n tlicv joiiu'il in tiio dan'c. C/iirii/rru, Shiri'n Ant. t/i / .Mi \.sini, toin. ii., j>^i. 1 7!)-Sl, anil otiuTs who follow liiin. In Su/iiiifiin, Hixf. ., toin. i., lili. ii., |i|). i;Ut-:?, is a Ion;; dcscriiilion of fcasl-ilay dress. For d<'s(-ri|ition ol dances sec /(/., toni. ii.. lib. viii. yy. '{((H-!), .■U4-l.">; Tunjinniiiild, Mn- ii'in/. fill/., toin. ii., pi). .5t")()-'2; DWritii, 1/ .iniirii/iir, toni. ii., j). (IS; .Mini- liiiins; Xirinri' Wrrrrfi/, i>p. '2()7-{<; Arn.stii, Ifist. i/r fits Viii/., pp. 44(i-'.t; I'lirr/iii.t /lis I'i/ifriiiiis. vol. iv., jip. l(Mil-.">; ('iirliiijiil K.\/iiiiiisii, llisf. Mr.r., toiii. i., pp. (»4U .'); I!ni...'iriir ili' Isiiurliiiiir(j, Hist. \iit. I'ir., toni. iii., pp. <>'>!t-71; Miiidiito, Hist. /vV/r.v., pp. 1 K>-;V; Trzozoiiim; Hist. .Mr.r., toni. 1., pp. til, 87; (toiiuirn, t'niiq. Mr.r., fol. ItM! 7; Klrnnii, <'iiftiir-(ir.ir/iirhlr, tyiii. v., pp. .^(t-S; Ifmrrii, Hist. Grii., dec. ii., lili. vii., cap. viii., dec. iii., lili. ii., cap. u'c ., uud Traiislutiou, Loud. 17-C, vol. iii., p. 'I'll, with cut 292 THE NAHUA NATIONS. sieal answers to questions put to him ; the sick man depicted the eft'ects of pain, and so forth. When these liad exhausted tlieir stock of jokes, others entered as ])eetles, frogs, or lizards, croaking, whisthng, and skij)- j)ing about the stage after the manner of the creatures tlicy represented. The boys from the temples also appeared as birds and butterflies, and flocked into the trees in the courtyard. Each performer rehearsed his part before appearing in public, and great care wiva taken that no blunder should mar the beauty of the j)lot. The priests added to the fun by blowing nuid- balls at the actors through wooden tubes, and praising or censuring the performance in a jocular manner. The entertainment concluded with a ball, which was attended l)y all the actors." Some authors have spoken very favorably of the dramatic skill of the Nahuas. Clavisjcro is not in- dined to indorse this opinion, although he thinks a great advance would have been made in this diiCction had the Mexican Empire survived another century; a very natural conclusion, certainly. The ceremonies at the religious festivals often partook of a dramatic character, as will be seen presently.*^ Music, a principal attraction at our theatrical enter- tainments, did not play an important part on the Nahua stage, and, though we hear of singers appear- ing, instrumental concert is not mentioned. Asidi) from this, the high importance attached to music is evident from the myth of its origin. According to this myth no less a personage than Tezc.atlipoca''^ brought, or sent for, music from the sun, and con- structed a bridge of whales and turtles, symbols of strength, by which to convey it to the earth. Drums, horns, shells, trumpets, and shrill whistles " Ktrmm, Cultur-Gcschkhtc, torn, v., pp. 144-5, has it thiittlic nudirncc also attended thi.s hall. '>• Arosfd, jrisf. pcar- t\sulo sic i:'' Ins ^'^ cou- jls of listlos r/.)-C.O; made from cleft bones were the instruinents most used. The drum was the favorite, and the beating of several in nice accord sufficed alone for an accompaniment to the song and the dance. Two kinds of drum are men- tioned; of these, the /iMf'/i<olized by the instrument itself" The tetzilacafl was a kind of gong made of copi>er and struck with a liammer of the same material. The atjacachtli was a lattle of copper, perforated and tilled with pebbles, used by dancers. The ancient writers unite in praising the perfect unison and good time observed by the singers, both in solo and (piartette, with chorus and responses, and they mention particularly the little boys of from four '" Called tlnpnnhuehuetl l»v Tczozonioe and Rrassctir do nourbourg. " C/ttrit/ero, Stnria Ant. (}cl Mcnitico, toiu. ii., p. 179, etc. « Quuti-e Lctlrci, j). 94. 204 THE NAHUA NATIONS. to eight years of age, who rendered the soprano in a manner that reflected great credit ou the training of their priestly tutors. Each temple, and many nohle- men kept clioirs and bands of professional musicians, usually led hy a priest, who composed odes appropri- ate to every occasion, and set tliem to music. Bass singers were rare, and were i)rized in projmrtion to their rarity. They had a great number of popular sonixs or ballads, which were well known in all classes. Young people were obliged to learn by heart long ei»ics, in which were recounted the glorious deeds of hei'oes ill battle and the chase; or didactic pieces, pointing some moral and inculcating a useful lesson; or liynnis of praise and a})peal for sacred festivals, (^lavigero, Pimentel, and other authors uvtol the aboriginal nuisc highly, and describe the language used as pure, bril- liant, tigurative, and interwoven witli allusions to the beauties of nature; unmeaning ijiterjections scattered here and there to assist the metre, evince a lack of finish, however, and the long, comi)ound words, a sin- gle one of which often f()rmt;d a whole verse, certainly • lid not add co the harmony, yet they observed good metre and cadence. ^^ The art of music was u!ider royal protection, and singers as well as nmsicians were exempt from taxa- tion. Nezahualcoyotl, the great Tezcucan patron of iU't, himself composed a number of odes and elegies, and founded an academy of sciences and nuisic, wliert; the allied kings of Mexi(u», Tezcuco, and Tlaco})an }>resided, and distributed j)rizes to the successful com- ])etitors. Toltec songs are highly })raised for their beauty and variety. The Totonacs and Tepanecs are said to have been as far advanced in music and sing- ing as the Aztecs;** but concerning tliese arts I shall speak more at length in a future chai)tei'. " Gnmnrn, foiiq. Mix., ful. lOfi, states, 'yosto vii toilo on cnpla ])or siis 1 Misoiiiinti's,' Imt it 's not likoly tliat tlu'y were auytliiiii,' else tliaii blank wrsi', for siifli a tliin;,' as rliynie is not nunitioniMi by any otlier writer. '■'M'onrernin},' niiisio and sinj,'inf? see: Clni-iiirm\ Stnriii Anf. dil Mis- si-o, tuiii. ii., pp. 174-9; Torqiicmuifn, Monan/. liuf., toui. i., p. 229, toni. GYMNASTIC PEIIFOUMANCES. 29r> The acrobatic feats performed by tlie Nahuas ex- cited the surj)rise and admiration of the conquerors, iiiul the court of Si)ain, before whicli some of these iitliletes were introduced, was no less astounded at the ^lace, daring, and strength disj)layed by tliem. Some of these gynmastic performances have only of late become known to us; thus, the so-called Chinese toot-balancing trick, in which a man lying on his back spins a heavy pole on the soles of his raised feet, throws it up, catches it, and twirls it in every dii'ec- tion, was a common feat with the Nahua acrobat, who, indeed, excelled the circus-man of to-day, in that he twirled the pole while a man sat at each end of it. Another feat was performed by three. One having hraced himself firmly, another mounted on his should- ers, wliile the third climbed up and stood upon the liead of the second. In this position the human col- umn moved slowly about, the man on the top perform- ing a kind of dance at the same time. Again, a man would dance on the top of a beam, the lower end of which was forked and rested upon tlie shoulders of two other dancers. Some raised a stick from the ground while a man balanced at the end of it; others lea{)ed upon a stick set upright in the ground, or danced \i[)on the tight-rope. Another game involving an c(|ual disj)lay of grace and daring was the nctofo/izfli, or 'bird dance,' known to the S})aniards as the 'tlying- game,' and performed especially during the laymen's toast. In the centre of an open place, generally a public scpiare, a lofty pole was erected. On the top of this pole was placed a wooden, moveable cap, re- scuibling an inverted mortar; to this were fastened 'i., pp. r>.")l-2; Arosta, Hi^^t. dc his YinL, \i. 447; Mrndicto. Hist. Erfrs., jip- 140-1; Gdiiiurn, Couq. Mrx., fol. I(H>; I'iiiiriitff, Mnii. snfnr la Jiiizn In- i/ii/inii, pp. .">7-0; liriissi-ur ifc Jionrhoiifi/, Hist. Xtif. Cir., toiii. i., p. '2H'2, ti'in. iii., pp. '2~[), fiCtit, (i7--74; Varhnjal E.sjiiiiom, Hist. Mu:, toiii. i., pp. tUI-'J; I'lirr/i'is his Pih/riincs, \u\. \v., my UMJ4-5; Tfzozoiiior, Ifist. M'\i:, t'>\n. i.,p.(i1; K/nniti, CKlfiir-(r)'sc/iic/ifr,U>ii\.\.,i)U. 14.')-5(); Miillrr, Anur- th'iiii.srlir rriTfiifiuiint, j». !\4!i; R(tuki)i(fs Hist. Jirsiarc/ies, ii. .'{44; J'rrs- '-off's .]fr.r,, vol. "i., pi». 170-.'), 194; Lrii'oir, I'nndlrlf. p. 04; Ihii,iii.i\ Il' delectation of the masses AHh! *• "''"'y '"''' "'-•• '■..mpeted for prizes in shooting •.*,"'"'f *''" «*"«i--^ ""■owing the dart." On ,rr™> ""?' "'« «"■"* m- ;vl>ic.h stron.,;S ,,>^ '^^f'"" ""'^ "'« ""••''^''; f "tball, and was quite J li^ ^ ''"1"'^ "»'■ ff""e «f It >va« comn,o„ amon.7a,rth': ^ ""'' '''" of muffle '^"uilar to the Toltec" J J ''"'f **'''»»« «'lt was !";f-tion, though wl^t: is "'l^''-'- ^""•■■'" d-^ >t ''ad ..s not dear. IndeSfil !'=?*"■" »'>'"«'^^a„ee "ory game enjoyed div „e "vtmn. " "f ""•• """-'y t»o rabbits,' the g«I of „?; f ■^"<'' '""' <>M,'fo .,1 lar, y of the game rtlacMi S". '"«'■■">-'« "C the 'i"»«l that a cerrain numbit f 'f " '""■>' ''« •»«!- "'""■■'"/ ^'-^teen ti.ouCd tils • "7"" ^•o"f"'"to,l "»•„ of any size had a st^cixi L ' *"""■> """ «"■'■ '■^ S-ame, and that EiX tlr'-' «;''""."'' ''«^voted to I'-fore the„_ "ecasiona^KTe, j£ , '."•"'«»«"'».-'l» to plav ff"m« l«side.s. The g „Ld 1 "T-T "?*''' ""'«'■ » a , '' «aliagu„ call' A-,;'^^;,. ^ ' ' ^'' ^''^^ajal Espino.n ^P ^"1., ^/«cA■ 298 THE NAHUA NATIONS. in the cut; one hundred feet long^' and half as wide, except at each end where there wore rectangular nooks, which doubtless served as Jesting-places for the players. The whole was enclosed hy smooth whitewashed walls, from nine to twelve feet high on the sides, and somewhat lower at the ends, with battlements and turrets, and decreasing in thick- ness toward the top.** At midnight, previous to tlie day fixed for the game, which was «,hvays fixed favor- ably l)y the augurs, the priests with much ceremony j)laced two idols — one representing the god of play, tlie other the god of the tlachtli'"- — upon the sidu walls, blessed the edifice, and consecrated the game by throwing the ball four times round the ground, mut- tering the while a formula. The owner of the tlachco, usually the lord of the place, also perfonned certain ceremonies and presented offerings, before opening tlie game. The balls, called aUaimdoni, were of solid India-rubber, three to four inches in diameter. The J (layers were simply attired in the maxtli, or breech- clout, and sometimes wore a skin to protect the parts coming in contact with the ball, and gloves; they j>layed in parties, usually two or three on each side. The rule was to hit the ball only with knee, elbow, shoulder, or buttock, as agreed ui)on, the latter was however the favorite way, and to touch the wall of the opposite side with the ball, or to send it over, either of which counted a point. He who struck the ball with his hand or foot, or witli any part of his body not previously agreed upon, lost a point; to set- tle such matters without dispute a priest acted as leferee. On each side-wall, equidistant from the ends, f. '1 Diiran makes it one hundred to two hundred feet, Espinosa fifty \ aras, l!ra,sseur, llixt. Xnf. t'iv., vol. iii., p. 6(57, sixty to eighty feet. '^ Carhajal Kspinosa, Hi.st. Mix., toni. i., p. C47, says that tlie side waIN are lowe.st, 'de iiieiios altiira los laterales (jue los dos Je los extrenios," Imt tliis afjrees neither with other statements, nor with the requirements of llir play. Saliaj^un's deseriptioii of the tlaohoo /waa two walls, forty to liiiy feet lonj,', t\yenty to thirty feet ai)ait, and ahov.t nine feet liij,di. 33 Carbajal Espinosa thinks that one of them was Oiiieacatl, 'the god of joy.' BALL rLAVIX(; AND GAMIILING. aro wiis a large stone, carved with images of idols, pierce47, states that the stoIlo^^ were ill till' t'l'iitrc of the f,'roiiiul, 'eii el espaeioque iiiedialia eutre los jiijra- iliiivs," but IK) otlier aiithur eoiitiriiis this. It is imt unlikely tliat tlu>e ^luMcs are tlie idols (tiaeed upon the wails by the priests, for they are de- >iili(Ml as lieiu;.; decorated witli figures of idols. I*or deseriptioii and tMits "I till' ruins of what seem to have i)een similar structures in Vueatan, see Vnl. IV., ]^Y,. 172, '230-1, of this work. '' \ Cytia, Hkt. Aid. Moj., torn, ii., p. 107, savH that the ball had to be ki|pi iiji in the air a lonj; time, and he who let it drojilost, whicli i.s unlikely, ^iiiif the point was to drive it a;,'ainst the opponent's wall; it is possiidc, liowiver, that this trial of skill formed a jiart of the jday, at times. Ho .lUu .-lati's that in the centre of the jilay-^'round was a hole tilled with water, iiiiil the player who sent tiie ball into it lost his clothes and had opprobiom i'|iiiiifl> hurled at him, among which 'great adulterer' was the most frc- ijirMt : moreover, it was believed that he would ilie by the hand of an iiijiircil husband. A hole tilled with water docs not, however, seem appni- I'lialc to a nice i)lay -ground; besides, the ball would lie very liktdy to roll i:iti> the jiocd, tor the opiioiients would not jjrevent it. (.'amargo, Ili.sl. Tlii.i:, ill Xoinrllr.s Atuiiift's ifes Voi/., 1843, tom. xcviii., p. IIMJ, and IJras- Miu dc IJourbourg, Jlist. Nat. Cir., torn, i., p. l'2\i, say that nobles only »i'n> allowed to |)lay the game, which can only refer to certain nlay-grounds 'T •:i>ioiis, for the number of the balls jtaid in ta.xes proves tiic game too i'l'ueial to have been reserved for nobles. 800 THE NAIIUA NATIONS. went from house to house with dice and play mats, seeking fresh victims. All gambling tools were H.r- mally charmed, and this charm was renewed and strengthened at intervals by presenting the instru- ments in the temple, with prayers that the blesbino of the idol might descend upon them. Patoliztlit which somewhat resembled our backgam- mon, appears to have been the most popular game ot' chance. Patolli, or large beans marked with ddts, like dice, were shaken in the hand and thrown upon a mat, uj)on which was traced a square marked witii certain transverse and diagonal lines. The thrower ui' the beans marked his points on these lines accordinj,' to the number of spots which fell upward. He who first gained a certain score won the game. Tlic players were usually surrounded by a crowd of iiitir- ested spectators, who betted heavily on the result, and called loudly for the favor of Macuilxochitl, tlie I)atron deity of the game. Golden and jewelled dice were often used instead of beans by the rich.'** TIk y had another game in which reeds took the place o( dice. Two players, each with ten pebbles by his side, shot split reeds in turn towards small holes made in tlie groimd, by bending them between the fingers ; if a reed fell over a hole a marker was placed on a square; this continued until the markers were all ex- hausted by the winner.^'' Montezuma's favorite game '•' fiomara, Conq. Mex., fol. 105, is' the authority for the names (if tlic game and beans. Torquemada affirms, liowever, 'y dicenle Jnei,'o ratolli, ]ior(iueest()8 dados, 86 llaman asi.' Monarq. /«f/., tom. ii., p. 5.")4. Clavi- Hero, on tiie other hand, says: 'Patolli fe un nomegenericosijjnilicauto oi.'iii Horta di {{inoeo.' Carhajal Espinosa translates him. Referring to the diii', tSaliagun hays that they were 'euatro frisoles grandes, y cada uno tienc im ahiigero;' afterwards lie eontradicts this by savin;' that they consistcii nf tliree large beans with ' ciertos pnntos en ellos.' Hist. Gen., toni. ii., lil' viii., jip. 2!V2, 317. Brasseur de llourbourg descrilies the playing jirotcss ;is follows: 'lis jetaient les d6s en I'air avec les deux mains, mai. viii., pp. '.'(il-:i, ;n(M7; (foimmi, Coikj.Mc'x., fol. l()4-; C'lirliiijdl E.s)iiiiii.sit, Hist. Mix., toiii. i., pji. (i-I.VK; Klniiiu, l'iilfiir-l,'isr/iir/ifi\ t(»lll. v., i)p. .^I-O; Arostii, Ifist. di' lils Yllil., pp. .'W7-S; Mniiliitd, Hist. Evlis., p. 407; L1S., <'ap. (»4; Wist mill Out Iiiiiisr/ier Lusfgitrt, pt i., j»|). 1(M)-I; I'ortt'.'i, Aim. i/ Cuiiij., p. ;fOii; Vii/Hii, Hi.st. Ant. Mfj., toiii. ii., |)p. 107-S; Dilworth's Vomi. Mcj:, II. SO; Lenoir, ParalUle, pp. 47-8, quutiuj; Picart, Ceremonies Kelig., tola. li., p. 8i. liincs (if till' v^o Vatolli, 154. <'l:ivi; Iticantf (ipii Ito tlie (lii'f, lio tienc un loiisistcil iif 1.II1. ii., Ii''' pnii't'ss 11^ larqiiaiit V* Ijtoiiriulit li' Irqut-'iii'''''' " ly con una'* lo, y tii'itii'^ 1 adelauliiliii CHArTER IX. PUBLIC FESTIVALS. FUKQT'ENT OcCT-nnENrE OF llEMOIOl'S FEASTS— HtTMAN SACRIFFfK^- - Feasts of the Fourth Year— Monthly Festivals— Saciuhik OF Childken — Feast of Xite— Manner of Sacrifice — Fkasin OF Camaxtli, of the Flower-Dealers, of (Jenteotl, ok I'i:/.- CATLIl'OCA, AND OF HllTZILOPOCIITLI — FESTIVAL OF THE S.\l,l- Makers The Sa<'rifice hv Fire — Feast of the Dead Tiik CoMiNci OF the fJoKs— The Footprints on the Mat— Hintim; Feast— The Month of Love -Hard Times— Nahua LupKiifAi.iA —Feasts of the Sin, of the Winter Solstice— Harvest anu EuiiiT-YEAR Festivals— The Binding of the Sheaf. Tlie amusements described in the preceding' chap- ter were cliiefly indulged in during the great religious festivals, when the people flocked t(^gether from all (juarters to proi)itiate or offer up thanks to some iiar- ticular god. These festivals were of very frequent occurreiue, The Nahuas were close observers of nature; but like other nations '.m a similar or even more advanced stayc of culture, the Greeks and Northmen for exann>k', they entirely misunderstood the laws which govtiii the phenomena of nature, and looked upon every nat- ural occurrence as the direct act of some particular divinity. The coming of the rains was held to be tlu coming of the rain-gods, with their heralds tin thunder and lightning; the varying condition of the crops was ascribed to their Ceres; drought, storms, (3031 UELKJIOIS FIvSTIVALS. no3 -SACUIKII'K ie—Fkast'* ■1,, OK '\'v:/.- THK SaI.V Dkad Tiik -_Hl-NTINi: A TKUt'Al.lV KVEST AM' tcllpst's, all wore considored tliu ui'ts of special dcitit's. The relij^ious uuiehiiieiy rei)itiate tho jiiiLrir, inmior tho wliiiuH, and be.seirh the lavor of sucli a vast imml)er of eaprieiuUH divinities, was us intricate as it was })onderous. Besides the daily ser- vices held in the various temples, j)rayerH were offered several times durin<^ each day in that «)f the sun, special rites attended every undertaking;, from thi! departure of a private traveler to the settinjj^ forth of a!i army for war, and fixed as well as movahlo leasts were held, the numher of which was continually iiicie.ised as oj)portunity offered. The pi'iests observed fists amonj^ themselves, attended with penance, scari- fications, and mutilations sometimes so severe as to result fatally. Thus, at the festival in honor of Ca- inaxtli, the priests fasted one hundred and sixty days, and passed several hundred sticks, varyin*,^ in thick- ness from half an inch to an inch and a half through a hole freshly made in the toneo[)le imi- tated these penances in a less den'ree, and scarified the members of their bodies that had been the means of committiii!^ a sin. Blood was drawn from the cars for inattention, or for conveyini( evil utterances to the mind; from the toiif^ue for givinj^ ex])ression to had words; the eyes, the arms, the legs, all suffered for any rej)rehensible act or neglect. The people of each ])rovince, says Las Casas, had a manner of draw- ing blood peculiar to themselves.* At the public festivals each private person brought such offerihuf to the god as his means allowed. The l)oor had often nothing to give but a ffower, a cake, ' Sec tlio Totonac daily temple service, in A^frs- Ciiftan, ni.\f. .1/ri?ofjrfii'(i, Ms., cap. clxxv. ' Lue^o a(|iu'l vicjo iiia.-i |iriii('i|)al iiietia y sacalia jxtr su lt.'ii;,'iiii en as de aiiiri'llos. . . .otros no tan vicjos saca1>an tresi-ieiitos. . . .Kstos palos (|iic iiu'tiau y :ia('a1>aii ]i()r Ills ii'ii;;iias erau tan j^ordos coino cl dedo iMil;;ar de la iiian()....y otni.s tantd ^iiiczos coiiKt Ian diw dedow de la niano piilyar y el eon (jue tsefiala- incis piidian abrazar.' Iii.,va\t. elx.xii. ' ' Kn cada proviiieia tenian diferente co.stunibre jiorqiic unos de liw brazds y ..tros de los peclios y (»tro.s de li»s niuslo.s, &e. Y en est() .se coijrnDs- I'ian tanihieii de (|iie I'roviucia erau.' Xrt.s t'ltnas, Hint. A^juUnjclicu, MS., cap. clxx. ■ If 304 THE NAHUA NATIONS. I i' I or personal service, but the wealthy gave rich robes, jewels, gold, and slaves. But no great feast seems to have been complete without human sacrifice. This Avas always the great event of the day, to which tlu; people looked eagerly forward, and for which victims were carefully preserved. Most of these miserablu beings were captives taken in war, and it was rarely that the supply failed to be sufficient to the occasion, especially among the Mexicans, since, as I have be- fore said, there was nearly always trouble in some part of the empire, if not, a lack of victims for sacri- fice was held good cause for picking a quarrel with a neighboring nation; besides, if the number of war pris- oners was not sufficient there were never wanting re- fractory slaves to swell the number. We have it uj)on good authority that upon almost every monthly feast, and upon numerous other grand celebrations, several hundred human hearts were torn hot from living breasts as an acceptable offering to the Nahua gods and a pleasant sight to the people.' The grandest festivals were celebrated during the fourth year, called Teoxihuitl, or ' divine year,' and at the commencement of ev^ery thirteenth year. On these occasions a greater number of victims bled and the penances were more severe than at other times. The Nahuas also observed a grand fes^^ival every iiiuiith in the year; but, as these feasts were closely connected with their religion, and therefore will bu necessarily described at length in the next volume. I will confine myself here to such an outline description of them as will suffice to give the reader an idea of what they were.* 3 ' En esta Fiesta, y en todos las denials, donde no se liiciere menoion « '-■««« or t'i.dsofrainsandwater^ Atai^r',"'^ *''« ^lalocs, of suokmg infante were saTrifi^S T " ^'"'' ""'"''er Ml. mountains, others S a wWH '?''• "P"" ""^''^ Mexico. The little ones wer.^^*fr' '"*'><' '"ke of mothers, though somelinTe, *h "^ """«^''* fr™' U'eir rented by parfnts Tho wishe/r'""? ^'•'"'"ily pr^! fovor of the god. Thosronlv ,thoT. *?« l^^rtVular tlie head, and who had been L j *™ ^^s on were thought acceptable to tt f'^'"'rJ' '"'-■ky sig" "ore not all made in Te clao. ^'t'' ^^''^ ''"'"^L mountains and in the "ake Th "P°" ^''^ ^''<"^l after another by a ereat „.!; • T""" "'"'ted one k- the musiV of flutes 'dT''"""/'^?"^''*^ ""end^ ;', V'"' n-ultitude of IodIp v"P*- ''' '""' followed by l;l"»J; nay, mom litSl\ "'"''•"*'' ^<"- "•« «'ght of the babes: 'if we u^l'^^^itj^"'^ for the flfs, ^f '""r. that the b'I't. Gladiatoriafc^nbttsaifd'' ^^T'''''^ "' ™^'l' * '" ->■ at the temple >::l::t::ftZtZ »"'■ ''™""'^- : "'Sr ffi^^^e^^x;^ K ^-' M ™^ .» Vol. ii, 20 "'-' "' Quetzttlfotttl; but tl i»k" | ' ■/" « ■'/•^^'•■Kofl- ""It It iin|ri,t have 306 THE NAHUA NATIONS. The next feast, that in the month of Tlacaxipchu- ah'.tli, 'the flaying of me-",' was held in honor of Xipe, who was especially the patron deity of the gold- smiths.* This god was thought to inflict sore eyes, itch, and other diseases upon those who offended him, and they were therefore careful to observe his feast with all due regularity and honor. On this occasion thieves convicted for the second time of stealing gold or jewels'' were sacrificed, besides the usual number of prisoners of war. The vigil of the feast, on the last day of the preceding month, began with solemn dances. At midnight the victims were taken from the chapel, where they had been compelled to watcl., and brought before the sacred fire. Here tbo hai Avas shaven from the top of their heads, the cuj^r iv>. at the same time drawing blood from their own eai> in honor of the idol; the severed topknot of each war prisoner was afterwards hung up at the house of liis captor as a token and memorial of the father's bravery. Towards daybreak some of the prisoners were taken up to the great temple to be sacrificed. But befur^ we proceed farther it will be necessary to see how these human offerings were made. k'acrifices varied in number, place, and manner, accoiding to the circumstances of the festival. In general the victims suffered death by having the breast opensd, and the heart torn out; but others were drowned, others were shut up in caves and istarved to death, others fell in the gladiatorial saeri flee, which will be described elsewhere. Tlie cus- been in honor of all these deities, namely, the Tlalops, Chahhihui licne, and Qiiotzalcoatl. Snhaifuii, Hist. Gen., toni. i., lil>. ii., pp. 49-50, 83-7. .See also Tortjueinnria, Moiiarq. Intl., toni. ii., pp. '2r>0-'2, 2J(5, * Although Hahagiin states that Hiiit/ilopochtii also received hont^rs "this niontli, yet no direct ceremonies were observed hefore his image. Tlii' large numlier o* captives sacrilircd, however, the universality and 1imi^;|1i of the festivities, the royal dance, ei.^., would certainly jioint to a celobva- .tion in honorof a greater deity than Xip^;. He also says: 'En esta liistu inatahau todos los cautivos, hoinhres, inngeres, y ninos,' which is not very probable. JIi.st. Gen., torn, i., lib. ii., ji.-SS. 1 Thi(!ve8 convicted the second time of stealing gold articles were .sac- j'ificed. Braaseur de Bourbourij, Hist. Nat. Civ., torn, iii., p. 5U3. i SACEIFICIAL RITES. •807 ipe, jld- yes, lim, 'east isioii gold »er of I last ►lemn from /atcl .. i hal apt"ii*'' \ rt ccU'l>v;>- L'sttt t'lrstu not wry tomary place was the temple, on the topmost plat- loriii of which stood the altar used for ordinary sacri- fices. The altar of the great temple at Mexico, says Clavigero, was a green stone, probably jasper, convex above, and about three feet high and as many broad, and more than five feet long. The usual ministers of the sacrifice were six priests, the chief of whom was the Topiltzin, whose dignity was preeminent and hereditary; but at every sacrifice he assumed the name of that god to whom it was made. When sac- riHcing he was clothed in a red habit, similar in shape to a modern scapulary, fringed with cotton; on his liead he wore a crown of green and yellow feathers, from his ears hung golden ear-ornaments and green jewels, and from his under lip a pendant of turquoise. His five assistants were dressed in white habits of the same make, but embroidered with black; their hair was plaited and bound with leather thongs, upon their foreheads were little patches of various-colored paper; their entire bodies were dyed black. The victim was carried naked up to the temple, where the assisting priests seized him and threw him prostrate on his back upon the altar, two holding his legs, two his feet, and the fifth his head ; the high-priest then approached, :i\\f\ with a heavy knife of obsidian cut open the inis- e-al))e man's breast; then with a dexterity acquired liy long practice the sacrificer tore forth the yet ]tc, Imitating heart, which he first offered to the sun i'.)(l then threw at the foot of the idol; taking it up h a3l, addressed to the general chapter of his order, that in that c.ipital alone twenty thousiind human victims were annuallv saeriliccil. Snmc authors, quoted by (.ioinara, affirm, that the numl>cr of tlie sturillcol amounted to hftv thousand. Acosta writes, that there was a certain day of the year on which five thousand were sacrificed in diflferent places of the empire; and another day on which they sacrificed twenty thousand. Sonui authors Itelieve, that on the mountain Tepeyacac alone, twenty thoiisaml were sacrificed to the goddess Tonantzin. Torouemada, in quoting, tliiiii;;li nufaithfully, the letter of Zumarraga, says, that tlic.c were twenty tlioii- N.iiid infants annually sacrificed. But, on the contrary, Las Casas, in iii-* refutation of the bloody Ixwk, wrote by Dr. Sepulvcda, reduces the sat • rifices to so small a number, that we are left to lielieve, they aniouiitiil ii'it to fifty, or at most not to a hundred. We are strongly of opinion lliat ii!l these authors have erred in the number. Las Casas by dimituitinn. tlie rest by exaggeration of the truth.' Id., Translation, Lonii. 1807, vol. i., p. «9l* SACRIFICES IX HOXOR OF XIPE. muttering of thp Iii'«.i, • . tl- -uok'Jng hear ''iteLr'^J''^ '" »'> '- holds ;' '">>' ,''""• of admiration fr"^'>"» '*»''••'"> co.„.» turned faces. ""'^ ™e thousands of m,. were not taken away unW thev T ^" "•"""*'■"■> ""•y ;vlneh reason these v cti,„s\ '' ^'1? ""y")' ''"^ Ihe remains were then deWrfi " ^°"°'' "fToteeJ ?' certain priests, at the cW? T' V" *'"* ^^Ptor iis vow of .fl-erim., a vow wT k'*-'"^'''; ''^ '""' n'ade t»enty days /.rcviJustl U,e fr ^ '",""' ''^^'^ " f»«t of «;" to the ting's table,and the em:'- ^^ ""«>''' *»» ithma„e and served up at th!T"'''"' '""^ "^^t^'-l tlie captors, to wiiieh the ?fKenl ''•''"• ^"■<"' "'>' A.sh was called tlacatlaom 2t ^"'' '"J"'^- '^''« »>ys Sahagun, did not taste the fl ^7% f- **"= '"'"'«', :ar-- ^e.., m a mlt «t hL'ZTutT -™^«;ThlfTopTat h^^*± f ""--. called '"o^i-ht out for sailriSce l^ then "V^'^^'"^' *«'« of young men also termed l^i.^T''""* "»»■»'>«■• tona game, a burlesque on th»r'' S'"" * S'adiu- ; '■"s^.ng themselves Tlhesfc?. >"""«"'"' '" f""""'-- tl'cy were teased to fi<.I t bv 1 "" -^"'^ ""'""*' '■">cs; these theypui^'u^ aL .'.''*/. "'^ '^eir com- "I'l"; f'med against one anl"? '''°'"' ""^ «'-'o- 'l!"f>ed to the' guard-house 'wh'' ''''"¥"^' ""^ ^an- was carried round to all the idols in the temples and ' This farce differcil from the regular gladiatorial coinbut which will lie described elsewhere. GHASTLY DEGGARS, 311 cliapols, before whom another blood-filled tube was held up as if to give thera a taste of the contents; this ceremony performed, the cup was left at the pal- ace. The corpse was taken to the chapel where the cai)tive had watclied and there flayed, the flesh being consumed at a banquet as before.^" The skin was <;ivcn to cert.ain priests, or college youths, who went from house to house dressed in the ghastly garb, with the arms swinging, singing, dancing, and asking for contributions ; those who refused to give anything received a stroke in the face from the dangling arm. The money collected was at the disposal of tlie cap- tor, who gave it to the performers, and, no doubt, it eventually found its way to the temple or school treasury." After the sacrifice, the priests, chiefs, and owners of the captives commenced to dance the mot- zonteconialtotia, circling round the stone of combat, weeping and lamenting as if going to their death, the captors holding the heads of the dead men by the hair in their right hands, and the priests swinging the cords which had held them toward the four quarters of the conqjass, amid many ceremonies. The next morn- ing solemn dances were held everywhere, beginning at the royal palaces, at which everybody appeared in his best finery, holding tamales or cakes in his hands in lieu of flowers, and wearing dry maize, in- stead of garlands, as appropriate to the season. They also carried imitations of amaranths made of feathers and maize-stalks with the ears. At noon the priests retired from the dance, whereupon the lords and no- '" 'Qiiedanan las cabe^as corayones paralos sacerdotes.' Gomara, Conq, Mi'.T., f(.l. '.\il. " '(Juiinlahan alguno que fuese i)rinciiial sefuir ])ara este dia; el cnnl t of the palace l>y threes, with the king at their head, holding the lord of Tezcueo by the right hand and the lord of Tlaco- pan by the left, and danced solemnly till sunset. Other dances by warriors, and women, chiefly prosti- tutes, followed at the temple and lasted till midnight, the motions consisting of swinging of arms and inter- winding. The festivities were varied by military reviews, sports, and concerts, and extended over the whole month. It was held incumbent upon everyone at this time to eat a kind of uncooked cake called huilocpaUi. The Tlascaltecs called this month Cohuail- huitl, 'feast of the snake,' a name which truly indi- cates rejoicings, such as carnivals, sports, and banquets, participated in by all classes. Celebrations in honor of Camaxtli were also held at this time here as well as in Huexotzinco and many other places, for which the priests prepared themselves by a severe fast. Tlie ceremonies when they took place in the fourth year, called 'God's year,' were especially imposing. When the time came for the long fast which preceded the feast to begin, those of the priests who had sufficient courage to undergo the severe penance then exacted from the devout were called upon to assemble at tlie temple. Here the eldest arose and exhorted them to be faithful to their vows, giving notice to those who were faint-hearted to leave the company of penance- doers within five days, for, if they failed, after that time by the rules of the fast they would be disgraced and deprived of their estates. On the fifth day tliey again met to the number of two or three hundred, although many had already deserted, fearing the severity of the rules, and repaired to Mount Mat- lalcueje, stopping half-way up to pray, while the high-priest ascended alone to the top, where stood a temple devoted to the divinity of this name. Here he offered chalchiuite-stones and quetzal -feathers, paper and incense, praying to Matlalcueje and Ca- maxtli to give his servants strength and courage to THE FEAST OF CAMAXTLI. 313 keep the fast. Other priests belonginf,^ to various teiii- j)lcs in the meantime gathered loads of sticks, two feet long and as thick as the wrist, which they piled up in the chief temple of Camaxtli. These were fash- ioned to the required form and size and polished by carpenters who had undergone a five days' fast, and were, in return for their services, fed outside the tem- ple. Flint-cutters, who had also undergone a fast to ensure the success of their work, were now summoned to prei)are knives, which were placed upon clean cloths, e.vi)C)sed to the sun and perfumed; a broken blade was held as a sign of bad fasting, and the one who broke it was reprimanded. At sunset, on the day of the great |)enance, the achcauhtli, 'eldest brothers,' began chant- ing in a solemn tone and playing upon their drums." On the termination of the last hymn, which was of a very lugubrious character and delivered without accompaniment, the self-torture commenced. Certain penance-doers seized each a knife and cut a hole in the tongue of each man, through which the prepared sticks were inserted, he smaller first and then the stouter, th J number varying according to the piety and endurance of the penitent. The chief set the example by passing four hundred and fifty through his tongue,^' singing a hymn at the same time in spite of all. This was repeated every twenty days during the fast, the sticks decreasing in size and number as the time for the feast drew near. The sticks which had been used were thrown as an offering to the idol within a circle formed in the courtyard of the temple with a number of poles, six fathoms in height, and were afterwards l)urnt. After the lapse of eighty days, c branch was l)laced in the temple-yard, as a sign that all the \)eo- ple had to join in the fast for the remaining eighty '2 'Cnatro'de ellos cantahan A Ins navajas,' MotoUnia, Hist. Indion, in laizhiilvctit. Col. de Doc, torn, i., p. 57. " ' Kstos palos que metiaii y sncaban por las Icn^i^itas eran tan fronlos ciinio cl (ledo pulgar de la niano, y otros como el dedo nulj^ar del pie: y otrds tanto {jruezos como los do.^ dedos de la niano pnljrar y el con que iunahmiuH uodiau abruzar.' Las Casus, Hist. Apologetica, MS., cap. clxxii. 314 THE NAHUA NATIONS. Ill ! m days, during which nothing hut maizc-cjikcs, wii^out chile— a severe infliction, indeed, for this peojjle — were to be eaten, no baths taken and no counnuuion with women indulged in." Fires were to be keiit alight the whole time, and so strict was this rule that the life of the slaves in great houses depended upon the proper attention paid to it. The chief achcauhtli went once more to the Matlalcueje mountain*' escorted by four others, where, alone and at night, he offered copal, paper, and quails; he also made a tour round the province, carrying a green branch in his hand, and exhorting all to observe the fast. The devout seized this opportunity to make him presents of clothes and other valuables. Shortly before the end of tlie fast all the temples were repaired and adorned, and three days previous to the festival the achcauhtlis painted themselves with figures of animals in various colors, and danced solemnly the whole day in the temple- yard. Afterwards they adorned the image of Ca- maxtli, which stood about seventeen feet high, and dressed the small idol by his side in the raiments of the god Quetzal coatl, who was held to be the son uf Camaxtli. This idol was said to have been brought to the country by the first settlers. The raiment was borrowed from the Cholultecs, who asked the same favor when they celebrated Camaxtli's feast. Ca- maxtli was adorned with a mask of turquoise mosaic,'" green and red plumes waved upon his head, a shield of gold and rich feathers was fastened to his left arm, and in his right hand he held a dart of fine workman- ship pointed with flint. He was dressed in several 1* Mntolinia conveys the idea that the people also pcrformeil tlie inflic- tion on the tongue: 'aquclla tlevota gente. . . . sacabun j)or sus iengiiuf« otms palillos (Ic il jcnie y del gordor de iiu canou de pato.' Ilint. Indios, in Imz- bulceta. Col. de Doc, torn, i., p. 58. •^ ' Cada dia de estos iba el viejo de noche d la sierra ya dicha y of rcria al denionio niucho papel, y copalli, y cordouices.' Motofinia, Hist. Indium, iu Jcazhalcetii, Col. de Doc, torn, i., p. 58. "> 'La Glial decian que habia venido con el idolo pequefio, de un puelilo que se dice Tollan, y de otro que se dice Poyauhtlan, de don(le sc alirniii que fue natural el niisnio idolo.' Motolinia, Hint. Jndios, iu Icazbakctit, Col. dc Doc, torn, i., pp. 58-9. FEAST OF THE FLOVVERDEALEUS. 816 robes and a tecncxicolU, like a j)riest'8 vestment, open in front and finely bordered with cotton and rabbit- Imir, which was spun and dyed like silk. A number of birds, reptiles, and insects were killed before him, uiul Howers offered. At midnight, a priest dressed in the vestments of the idol lighted a new fire, which was consecrated with the blood of the princijial caj)- tive, called the Son of the Sun. All the other tem- ]>ics were supplied from this flame. A great number of captives were thereupon sacrificed to Camaxtli as well as to other gods, and the bodies consumed at the banquets that followed. The number killed in the various towns of the province amounted to over one thousand, a number greatly increased by the numer- ous sacrifices offered at the same time in other places where Camaxtli was worshiped." The next feast, which was that of the month called Tozoztontli, or 'short vigil,' was characterized by a constant night watch observed by the priests in the various temples, where they kept fires burning and sounded the gongs to prevent napping. More of the children bought in the first month were now sacrificed, and offerinfjs of fruit and flowers were made to induce the Tlalocs to send rain.^^ The chief event, however, of this month, was a fast given in honor of Cohuatlicue, or Coatlantona, by the xochimanqaes, or flower-dealers, of Mexico. The celebration took place in the temple of Yopico, which was under the special care and pro- tection of the people of Xochimilco and Quauhnahuac, whose la!ids were renowned for the beauty and abun- dance of their flowers. Here were offered the f. .t flow- ers of the season, of which hitherto none mi^;.t. inhale the perfume, and here the people sat down and clianted hynuis of praise to the goddess. Cakes made of wild " See also Torquemada, Monarq. Inrl., torn, ii., pp. 288-90, 252-3, 296. "* 'F,('lini)iiii por el pueblo cierto pec^ho 6 (leiTiiniiirceo^^ieiidolaiito liuher que ]>uilie»eii coiunrar cuatro iiifios esclavos de ciueo li seis afios. Estos t'liiiprados poiiiaulos eii U!ia cueva y cerrahania hasta otro afio q^ue haciaii otro tanto.' Lus Casun, Hist. Apulogetica, MS., cap. clxx. 310 THE NAHUA NATIONS. amaranth or savory, called tzatzfipcdtamale, were also ortbrod. In this temple of Yopieo was a grotto in which the skins of the victims sacrificed at the fuast of the preceding month were now deposited by the priests who had worn them continuously until this time. These marched in solemn procession to tlic grotto, accompanied by a number of people whom the angered Xipe had smitten with itch, or eye dis- eases; this act of devotion would, it was thought, induce the god to relent and remove the curse. Tlic owners of the captives to whom the skins had belonged, and their families, of whom none was per- mitted to wash his head during the month, in token of sorrow for the slain, followed the procession. Tliu priests doffed their strange and filthy attire and depos- ited it in the grotto; they were then washed in water mixed with flour, their bodies at the same time being belabored and slapped with the moist hands of their assistants, to bring out the unhealthy matter ' by the rotting skins. This was followed by a lustr in pure water. The diseased underwent the same washing and slapping. On returning home feasting and anmse- mento broke out anew. Among other sports the owners of the late prisoners gave the paper ornaments whidi had been worn by them to certain young men, who, having put them on, took each a shield in one hand and a bludgeon in the other; thus armed they ran about threatening to maltreat those whom they met. Everybody fled before them, calling out "here comes the tetzonpac." Those who were caught forfeited their mantles, which were taken to the house of the war- rior, to be redeemed, perhaps, after the cc:. elusion of the game. The paper ornaments were afterwards wrapped in a mat and placed upon a tripod in front of the wearer's house. By the side of the tripod a wooden pillar was erected, to which the thigh-bone of a victim, adorned with gaudy papers, was attached amid many ceremonies, and in the presence of the captor's friends. Both these trophies commemorated FEAST OF CENTEOTL. 317 tlio bravery of the owner. This lasted six dayn. AI)out this time, says Duran, certain old diviners went about provided with talismans, generally small jtlols, which they hunj.^ round the necks of boys by means of colored thread, as a security against evil, and for this service received presents from the parents." The following month, which was called Huey-To- zoztli, 'great vigil,'** a feast was celebrated in honor of ( 'cnteotl, the god of cereals, and Chicomecoatl, god- (Ici^s of provisions. At this time both people and jiriest fasted four days. Offerings of various kinds were made to the gods of the feast, and afterwards a j)roce8sion of virgins strangely and gaudily attired carried ears of corn to be used as seed, to the temple tu be blessed.''* The first half of the succeeding month, called Toxcatl, was, among the Mexicans, taken up with a continuous series of festivals in honor of Tezcat- lipoca; the latter half of the month was devoted to the worship of his brother-god Huitzilopochtli. Ten (lays before the feast began, a priest, arrayed in the vestments of Tezcatlipoca, and holding a nosegay in one hand and a clay flute in the other, came out fiom the temple, and turning first to the east and then to the other three quarters, blew a shrill note on his instrument; then, stooping, he gathered some dust on '" Duran a«ld» that all male children under twelve years of age were ]iuiii'tui-ed in the cars, tonj^ue, and leg, and kept on Hhort allowance on the (1 ly itf festival, hut this is not very prohahic, for other authors name the tilth mouth fur the scariKcation of infants. ULst. Jtnlius, MS., torn, iii., uiipondix, cap. iii. For particulars of the feast «ee SuIkhjuh, Hist. Gen., turn, i., lih. ii., pp. 52-4, 95-7; Tori/uemadu, Monarq. Ind., toni. ii., pp. I*.).'*-'), i'JC); Boturini, Idea, pp. 51-2. '■^0 IJoturini, Idea, n. 52, truuslatas this name as 'the great bleeding,' nfciiiiig to the scarincations in expiation of sins. '■" Tor/Hcmada, Monarq. Iiid., ti'oidered margin, covered his body; white cock-feathers, fastened with gun), and a garland of >:qiiix!!i;'ii[l fiowers, encircled the helmet of sea- shells which covered his head; strings of fi()wers crossed his breast; gold rings hung from his ears, and from a necklace of i)recious stones about his neck dan- gled a valuable stone; upon his shoulders were ]K)Uch- lilvc ornaments of white linen with fringes and tassels; golden bracelets encircled the u])j)er ])art of his arms, while tlie lower part was almost covered with othc"-. of ]>recious stones, called maciuwfli; upon iiis ancles golden bells jingled a.:> he walked, and prettily painted slippers covered his feet. Twenty days before the feast he was bathed, and his dress changed ; the hair being cut in the style used by 320 THE NAHUA NATIONS. I captains, and tied with a curious fringe which formed a tassel falhng from the top of the liead, from which two other tassels, made of feathers, gold, and tochornifl, and called aztaxelli, were suspended. He was then mariied to four accomplished damsels, to whom the names of four goddesses, Xochiquetzal, Xilonen, Atlatonaii, and Huixtocioatl were given, and these remained witli him until his death, endeavoring to render him as haj)py as possible. The last five days the divine honors paid to him became still more imposing, and celebrations were held in his honor, the first day in the Tecanman district, the second in the ward where the imago of Tezcatlipoca stood, the third in the woods of the waid of Tepetzinco, and the fourth in the woods of Te])c- pulco; the lords and nobles gave, besides, solenm ban- (piets followed by I'ecreations of all kinds. At tliu end of the fourth feast, the victim was placed >vitli his wives in one of the finest awning-covered canoes belonging to the king, and sent from Tepepulco to Tlapitzaoayan, where he was left alone villi tlu; eiglit i)ages who attended him during the year. These conducted him to the Tlacochcalco, a small and ])laiii temi)le standing near the road, about a league from Mexico,** which he ascended, breaking a flute against every step of the staircase. At the summit he was received by the sacrificing ministers, who served liiiii after their manner, and held up his heart exultingly to the sun; the body was carried down to tlie court- yard on the arms of priests, and tlie head having beiu i'ut oflf was spitted at the Tzompantli, or 'place of skulls;' the legs and arms were set apart as sacrtd food for the lords and people of the temple. This ^ 'liP Tluonrhcaloo, on maison (ramies, j^tait un arsenal, oonsacrr i Huit/ilo|ii)i'litli, ilanM ronceinte ri>i Ant. ilil. Missicu, torn, ii., p. 70, siiysi 'coiiducevuiilo al tem[iii) di Tezcatlipoca.' FEAST OF HUITZILorOCIITLI. 321 eiul, so terrible, signified that riclies and pleasures may turn into poverty and sorrow; a pretty moral, truly, to adorn so gentle a tale. After the sacrifiee, the college youths, nohles, and priests commenced a grand ball for whidi the older priests suj)plied the music; and at sunset tlie vir- j>iiis brought another offering of bread made witli honey. This was placed ui)on clay plates, covered with skulls and dead men's bones, carried in pro- cession to the altar of Tezcatlipoca, and destined for tlio winners in the race up the temple steps, who Were dressed in robes of honor, and, after undergo- iiiij a lustration, were invited to a bantjuet by the teiiii»le dignitaries. The feast was closed by giving Jill op])ortunity to boys and girls in the college, of a suitable age, to marry. Their remaining comrades took advantage of this to joke and make sport of tlieni, pelting them with soft balls and reproving them for leaving the service of the god for the ])leas- ines of matrimony.^^ Tezcatlipoca's representative was the only victim sacrificed at this festival, but every leap-year the blood fiowed in torrents. Alter this celebration commenced the festiv.al in honor of the younger brother of Tezcatlipoca, Huit- zilopoehtli, the Mexican god of war. The j)riests of the god prepared a life-size statue like his original image, the bones of which were composed of mez- ([uite-wood, tlie fiesh of tzoalli, a dough made from aiuarunth and other seeds. This they dressetl in the rainiento of the idol, viz: a coat decorated with huiian bones, and a net-like mantle of cotton and ne- (liUMi, covered by another mantle, the t/<«jii<(er painting was then rolled up in front of it, and the darts made into a bundle. After a presentation of offerings consistintj of tamales and otlier food, the idol was left in cliaroe of its priests. At davvn the next morning siniihu' offerings, accompanied with incense, were made to the family image of the god at every house. Tliat day tlie king himself appeared in the sacerdotal chai acter. Taking four quails, he wrenched their heads off one after another, and threw the quivering l)odies before the idol; the priests did the same, and then tlie j>eo- ple. Some of the birds were prepared and eaten l>y the king, priest, and ])rincipal men at the feast, tlie rest were preserved for another occasicm. Eacli min- ister then placed coals and chapopofll incense^" in his ** Contrary to the atatcniPiit of others, nrassour
  • iii/i. 2,3. In Oajaca, 'Maxtles conque se enbrian sus ver;ciieiizii>.' Sa/iaijHii, Hist. Gen., toni. iii., lib.x., pp. 130, 12.3, 131. The Mi/tecs '\»\t caragiielles trahian nuitzles, que los CastcUanos dizen nijistiles.' Ilrrnvn, lUsf. Gen., dee. iii., lib. iii., cap. xii. ; Claeigcro, Storia Ant. del Messieo, torn, ii., p. 223. GARMENTS OF THE TARASCOS. 88r The ctlijos wore scolloped or frin«:fed with tufts of cot- ton Jiiul sometimes with ,1,'oid. Rich people hud, l)e- si(Ks these, mantles made of rabhit or other skins, or of hL'aiitiful feathers, and others of tine cotton into which was woven rabbit-hair, which latter were used in cold weather.'" In only one instance j^arments with sleeves are iiieiitioned. Ixtlilxochitl, in describinjr the dress of tht' Acolhuas, says that they wore a kind of long coat reachinjjf to the heels with lon<»' sleeves." The dress of the Tarascos dittered considerably from that of the other Nahua nations. This diti'erence '" 11 Tilinatli era un iimntcllo qimdrn, lun;;o qimttro piedi in circft; duo ostri'iiiitii d'esso aiinodavtiiio siil iiotto, it snjira iiiiii H|ialla. . . .(ili ('oiiiiiii niltviiiio |iiirtar due, o tro luautolli.' Cftirii/rro, Storitt Aiif. ilil Mrs-tiro, toiii. ii., ]). 'J'J.S, and |>late, p. '224. 'I vi-stiuuuiti loro himi c-t-rti luaiiti di lKtiiil>at.'ia ciiuK' liMt/iuda, iiui iiou cosi ;,'rande, laiuirati>ri di ^'ontili luuori di diiK'i'sc niaiiitMT, e con lu lor frauzc e urU'tti, edi iim^Hti riasi'uu n 'lia diioi h tic c sc }.'li li^ii I't'r dauanti ui petto.' Hflnfiom; fu/tn per un ijrntil '/iiiuitio il>l SiijiiDi- FmiuDilit t'oitcKC, in Hamusio, Soriijntiuiii, toni. iii., fol. S()r>; CinKiinio, lli.it. T/iiu:., in Xoii relict A II ii(il<-ii(/fs I'vj/., 1S43, toni. xcviii., p. i;il. ' Todos tracii al)Kiruoce.s euciiua de la otru ropa, aun(|ue son diferen- ciaijiis dc U»* do Africa, pori|ue tieneu nuineras; pero on la hecliura y tela y In-i rapaccjoM son niuy seuiejables.' Curtis, Vartn.i, pp. ".'), -H. 'Leur veto- iiiciit cousistait ancieuncnient dans deu.K on trois inauteau.x d'nne vare et ficiiii en carre, noucs par en liaut, le no>ud so niettant pour les uns sur la |H.itiiiic, |iour les autres ii I'epaule gauche, et souvent purderriere.' C/iiire.f, Jiiji/iurl, in Teriniii.r-t'oiiijiitii.s, Vol/., serie ii., toni. v., pp. Sl.'i-lO. 'Nin- ;;iiii jilciicyo vestia de al^'odoii, con franju, ni guarnicion, ni ro])a roxa- piiitc, siiio senziiia, liana, corta, y sin riliete, y a.ssi era eonocido cada vno cii d tni^'e.' I/erirrii, lli.st. Gen., dee. ii., lih. vi., cap. .wii; Jiru.s.ieur ile /liiirhiiiiri/, Hint. Silt. Cir., toin. iv., p. 174. 'Otnis liacjan de pelo do Cimcjii, entretexido dc hilo de Alyodon. . . .con mie se dcleiidiau del frio." T'li- jii' iii'i'lii, Moiiiirq. Ind., toni. ii., j). 4SH; IHaz, Itiiiernriu, in /enz- liiilr,'ii_ I'ol. lie J),),;, toni. i., p. 2!)8. The T.'); Sii/iiiifiin, Ili.it. (fen., toni. iii., lih. .\., p. l.'il. Iluas- ti'c-i •aiidan hien vestith>s: y siis ropas y niantas son iiiiiy pulidasy curiosa.s cdii JiiiiiaH lahores, por<|ue en su tierra liaceii las niantas i|iic Ihiiiiaii rent- ziiiililiniilli, reiizoni/uii^/itli, (|ue <[iii«'rc dczir, niantas ile mil ealdn.s: dc alia Fic tracii las ninntas (|uc tieneii iiiias cal>e/as di; inonstruos piiitaiii iiiaii;.;as, y con una sola ahertiira en la suniida jiara cntrar la ca- lic/a. y (los ii los ladospara loshra/os, y con el se cnhriuii liasta his luuslos.* Vi'llliti, Hi.ll. Ant. Mej., toni. i., p. l!r>3; Zuazo, Carta, in leuzbale.ctu, Cul. dc Hoe., toni., i., p. .StiO. " 'Vcstian.se unas ti'inica» hirpas de pcllejos curtidos ha.sta los carcaila- les. aliit^rtas (lor delantc y iitadas con nna.s li inanera de a};ii;;etas, y suh maims (|iic llej;alian hasta las inunecas, y las nuiiios.' Ixtlilxochitl, liela- cioiies, in Kinijsburouijlis Mcx. Aiiiiq., vol. ix., p. 341. 868 TIIK XAIIIA NATIONS. is waul to liavo oriij^iiiiitt'd in ancient times, wlien tli( \' t<)<^otlier witliothor triln's, an tlio lti<^enil relates, iniini- j(rateil into Mexico, Wliile on tlieir wan{lenn«,rs !.< - 'u\*r oliljnft'd to cross a river, and havin;^ no ropes with which to t'onstruct rafts, tiiey used for this purpose their maxtlis and mantles. Not i)ein;(ahle toprocun- otiier dothinsj^ immediately, they were under the ih cessity of puttiiiLj on the hnijkilc'*, or chemises, of tin- women, leavin;^ to the latter only their h«t(/iias, or petticoats. Jn commemoration of this event, they later adoj)ted this as their national costume, disciiid in<( the maxtli and wearing' the huipil and a niiiMtlf.' The tilmatli, or ayatl, was by the Tarascos ciilli.! thiiHit-J. It was worn over one shoulder and was knotted under the other arm. They freipiently triniiiK d it with hare-skins and painted it gaudily. The youn.; wore it coiisicU'rahly shorter than old people. The manufac'tuie of feather jj-arnients seems to have heiii a specialty of the Tarascos." The Zain)tecs chieHy dressed in skins, while others in Oajaca are said to have worn small jackets, and Cortes n'p(»rts these people to have heen better tlnsst d than any \\v. had previously seen." In Tabasco Imt little covi rino' was used, the greater j u*t of the pojui- lation n'tiin^- almost naked." There was no difi'erence in the dress of the women throughout Anilhuac. The huipil and cuciti were thr the chief articles, and were universally used. I'x- sides these, mantles of various shapes and materials were wi)ni. The huipil was a kind of chemise, with '* Cuniitrijit, Ill.if. Tlnr., in Nourrllrs Annalcs dcs Vuif., 1S43, tcmi. xcviii., p. i:{.'; Uni.s.sriir i^. W-HO; JIi III I'l, Hill. (Irii., (!(•,•. iii., lili. iii., mp. ix. '^ 'Ml tni;»' lit- I'lliis era dc divcrsas iDtiiieras, iiiios traian inaiitas, otnis I'oiiio uiia.s xai|ii('tilla«.' Sn/iiujini, Hist, (ini., torn, iii., lib. x., |>. l.'i'' ' Era mas vostiila (iiu! estotra i\\\v: lialioimts viwto.' Cor/is, Cnr/ns, \\. 'XX 'La mayor parte auiiuuaii I'll ciu'ros.' Hn-nnt, Hist, (im., ilcc. iii.. Ill), iii. ca]>. xiv. The .Mi/.tccs 'vestiaii iiiaiitas lilaiicas do aljfodoii, tcxidaH, |iiiii;i' das, y matizadas (^mi lloro.s, rosas, y aves do diforeiitt's (-(dores: no tralii.iii camisas.' /»/., cait. xii. '* 'Aiidau ca.-ii dusaudos,' Gunutra, Conq. Mex., fol. 3C. DKESS OF WOMKX. fitlicr no sleeves at all or very short ones; it oov- iivtl tlio upper part of the hotly to a Httle helow till' thiy:hs. The lower part of tlie he to that ust'd hy the men, white and ])ainted in various tlt'siiriis on the out^i.M . was also used hy the feniales. To the upper edge of this, on that portion which was 111 the hack oi the neck, a capuchin, like that worn hy the Dominican and other monks, was fastened, witli which they covered their head.'* To protect their feet they used sandals, hy the Az- tecs called cactll, which were nuide of deer or otlur skins, and frecpiently also of nequen and cotton. The stiings or strajis used to fasten them were of the same iiiatirial." i do not find any description of the manner ill which they were fastened, hut in an oUl Mexican lujuiiisciipt on maguey paper, in which some of the "' 'Trai'ii caniiHnsilo ii)c« ninnpiH.' (loniftrti, Cont/. .^fl^.r., fol. .117; /i«'- hili'iiir fiittii fiir nil (tnidriiiiiniin ilrl Siifiinr /-'i rii(iii(/o I'urfisf, in Iliiiiiiisiii, .\iiiiiiiitii,iu\ toin. iii., fol. :)().'); l.rlHlxiirliitl, Jifliiriniiix, in Kiii llanian Ixtincniitl, o foapxulotoii.' Ton/iK itiin/n, Mmniri/. IikI., Unn. i., p. 339. 'I'nasopravvi-sta. . .con nianiclic|)iii hinj;lic.' I Inriijin), Sforin Ant. ilil Mrsxiro, toin. ii., |). "J'JS; Viijlia, llisr. Aiif. M'J-, tiiiii. ii., |). (■(, toni. i., \>\t. •J.')3-4; Jims.ii'iir ilr liinivhiiinuj, Ilisf. Xdt. Cn., Imii. i., p. "JSIl. In Micli-mcan 'notraian vipiics.' Sii/iii, Hist. (Icii., toni. iii., lilt. X., 111). 1,'VS, I'J.S; SjiiffinzioHr ilillr Ttiiuli' ihl ('m/irr Ali.rirtnm {\t\- tii'aiml. in kiniisliormidfin Mr.r. Aiiti'j., vol. v., pp. '2(13-4; llrrrcra, lli.st. (jin., (Ice. iii., iih. iii., cap. -xii. '" Sii/iminH, Hist. (Int., toin. iii., lil>. .\., \<\\. 112, 1'23; IxtliUnrh'l, llrln- •■iiiiii:i, ill h'iiit/shorniiijh'n Mrx. Aiitiq., vol. IX., jiji. .3,30, 341; llrrrrnt, llitl. Hill., (Ice. ii., iili. vi., cap. xvii. ; /*,1; iln- miin(, t'liiiq. Mcx., fol. 317; Vharrs, Hiifiport, in Tenia lU'-Coiiiptnix, Vni/., ncriu ii. , tiiiii. v., II. 31G; Vlavimrv, Sluria Ant. dd Mcumcv, torn, ii., p. -23. YuL. II. 21 Pili! s^i 870 THE NAIIUA NATIONS. natives are painted in various colors, I find tliat tlio sandals were fastened in three i>laees; first by a stiaji runnin*^ across the toot immediately behind the tois, then another over the instep and runnin<^ toward tlie heel, and lastly by a strap from the heel round tliu ankle. As a njeneral thing Mexicans wore the hair loutjf, and in many parts of the em})ire it was consideiid a disgrace to cut the hair of a free man or woman.'*' Unlike most of the American natives they wore mous- taches, but in other parts of the body they eradi- cated all hair very carefully.'® There were public barber-shops and baths in all the })rincipal cities.-" The Aztecs had various wavs of dressinyf the hair, dittcring according to rank and office. Generally it was left hanijfing loose down the back. The women also freipiently wore it in this way, but oftener had it done up or trinuned after various fashions; thus .some wore it long on the temples and had the rest of tlu- head shaved, others twisted it with dark cotton thread, others again had almost the whole head shaved. Among them it was also fashionable to dyo the hair with a species of black clay, or with an herb called xiuhpiHitl, the latter giving it a vit)let shade. Unmarried ijirls wore the hair aiwavs loose; thev con- sidered it as esi)ecially graceful to wear the hair low" " 'Aveano a (lisonorc I'esscr tosati.' Claviijrro, Storin Aiit. del jl/l.v.v/c/, toin. ii. , i>. '2"24. ^^ Jirii.ssciir lie lioitrhoin-if, Hist. Nat. Cii\, toni. i., p. 3.">(). 'Ni l)itMi 1)ania(l(>s, porniio se arraiicaii v viitaii los jii'los iiara i\\u'. iii» iiazfun.' Hn- 'iiiiini, I'onij. Slra:, io\. 317. Tlie Mistocs 'las tmrbas w arraiicaiiaii imi tciia/iliaH (fe or. iii., caii. xii. «o V„rfi% Cartas, pp. (i8, 104; Ovieilo, Hi.if. Gn,., toiii. iii., p. :«)(). *' ' Hazel) lo nt'}irt> con ticrra por jjeiitiioza y jjoniuo les matt' l. x., ])p. 113, l'20, lib. xi., ]>. 3(M»; I'lnriifiro, S/nrin Aiif. ild Mi'.isiro, toin. ii., p. 'i'24; Chairs, Rii/iport, in 'rrriiini.r-Ciiiii/iaiis, I'c//., eerie ii., toin. v., p. 316. The Cliicliinieeswore it, 'larfjoliasfa iasespiildas, y |M(r (lelante sc \» cortan.' Jxliilxorhitl, Jiiiavioius, iit Kiiigsburuiiijli's Mcx. Antiij., vol. L\., p. 335. HAIll-DUESSIXG AND PAINTING. 371 t tllO strap toi'S, a the a tho kk'ivd mail." inoiis- eradi- public •ities.-" hair, ally it en also it aono \ some of tlu' fottdll head to live n lu'i-h shade. V <'<»n- ;• loNV^' 1/ Mis.\-ic(i, 'Ni liifii Iciiii.' ''"- luuaii fill l«)0. |(is piojiw. ■ viitaii so Lr litMiiMi- i. :«»•.»• 10. A lit. 'I' I MIS, Vi'll-. lospaltlas, Iburuiiijli'i on the forehoaa. Tlio vir<»ins wlio served in the teni- jiits luul their hair cut short.*^ The Otoniis shavea the fore part of the heads of cliihhen, leavin*^ oidy a tuft behind, which they calka plin'lit/i, while the men wore the hair cut short as far as tlie miaaie of the back of the heaa, but left it to i^row long behina; ana these long locks they called l»iorlit'(i(«'. Girls did not have their hair cut until after marriage, when it was worn in the same style as l»y the men.'^ Tho Tarascos, or as they were also calloa Quaochpanme, derived this last name from an old fashion of having their heads shaved, both men and wonien.'^* Later they wore the hair long, the I'oniinon people simply letting it hang down the back, while the rich braided it with cotton threads of vari- ous colors.^' The ^[iztecs wt)re the hair braided, and ornamented with many feathers.*' The Nahua women used paint freely to beautify tlieir j)erson, and among some nations they also tatt()0(!d. Among the Aztecs they painted their faces with a red, yellow, or black color, made, as Sahagun tells us, of burnt incense mixed with dye. They also dyed their feet black with the same mixture. Their teeth they cleaned and painted with roiliineal; hands, neck, and breast were also })ainted.-^ Among the Tlascaltecs the men paintvd their faces with a dye made of the xatjua and hijcu."^ The Oto- mi's tattooed their breasts and arms by making in- cisions with a knife and rubbing a blue powder therein. They also covered the body with a spe- 5-2 2.1 51 r:»iiai allies HiM. tVc, •It 21 r, Siih'i CUiviffcro, Sfnrin Ant. ih'l Mcssico, torn, ii., p. 224. Sii/iiii/iiii, Hint. (Irii., tdiii. iii., lilt x., p. 124. 'Milmase taiiihioii Quaorhpiiiiiiu', (jiic (iiiiore diM'ir homl»ros ile caliozii la <) raiila, poniuc aiitij^uaiiieiito estos taU's no traiaii calicllos larj,'os, sc rapahaii la caltoza asi los lii>iiil>r.'s, vdino las iiiujj;t'res.' Sahtiipiv, Hill., tuiii, iii., lilt. X,, p. 1H7; Urti.s.iciir dr ISourhuunj, Hint. Aiif. toiii. iii., p. 57. Iliinimont, Crdn. Mcrhoi>r of tlicni. '/'• zizoiiioc, i'niiu'ri) Mr.r., in hiiiffshoruii(f/i\s Mtx. Aiitiq., vol., ix. pp. 7'.'- S:>; J'nrrfi<, I'xle i-afia.' Sa/inguii, Hist (Ini., tuiu. iii., lib. X., p. 124. ^^ fi/., ]). 137. Tbc Totonacs 'traian vnos >ji'anil('saf;ni<''.»seM los Imth-i til! abaxo, y on cllos vnas lodajaM do pie(Iia« pintadilla.stlc a/.iil, y otms rem Mias liojaH dc oro dfl^iadas, yon la.s orojas niny i^rando-s aKiijoro.s, y t'li clln-i |)lll'^*t,as otras roilajan de oro, y piedras.' licriiul Dia.z, I/isl. Comi., fol. iS; < 'orli'n, Cartas, p. 123, DUESS OF THE NOBLES. 873 wlien he landed at Vera Cruz, Peter ^fartyr tells us tlmt ill the "hole of the lippes, they weare a hroad plate withhi fastened to another on the outside of the li[)[te, and the iewell they hanj^ thereat is as great as a sihier Caroline doller and as tliicke as a mans hii.ner. In Oajaca more ornaments were \vorn tiian in any other part of tlie country, owing, j)erha|)s, as the Al h '• IJiasseur de Bourhourg remarks, to the plentil'ul sup- ply of })reeious metals in tliat state.*' The dress of the nobles and memhers of the royal li(tusuliold differed from that of the lower classes only in Hneiiess of material and profusion of ornaments. 'fho kings appear to have worn garments of the same shape as those of their suhjeots, Init, in otlier respects, a particular style of dress was reserved for royalty, and he who presumed to imitate it was i)ut to death. ( )ii occasions, however, when the monarch wished to hestow a special mark of favor upon a hrave soldier or distinguished statesman, he would graciously bestow upon him one of his garments, which, even though the reci})ient were a great noble, was received with joy, and the wearer respected as a man whom the king (leliohted to hi^nor.^" in Tlascala ditferences of rank anioiig the nobles were easily recognized by the stylo of dress. The connnon j)eople were strictly Ibr- hiddi'U to wear cotton dotlies M'ith fringes or other ti-ininiings, unless with special permission, granted in consideration of services rendered. ^^ The court laws of etiquette jtrescribed the dress to he Worn by the royal attendants, wlio could only a]i[»ear without sandals, barefooted, and in coarse mantles 14 Pitcr Miirit/r, dec. iv., lib. vii. '' 'I'lu' Mi/ti'i's 'tnuMi iiiii'iii, axoicasiniiy iiiK'liasdcoro, y sartalfs dc ]>!('- •Ira ii las itiiifii'cas. y joyolt's dc c'stas y dc oni al nudlo.' Sn/iiiiiiui, lli.\f. , so iM'iia dc la vida.' Turf/iicniin/ii, Mniifinj. Iiul., Ut\\\. ii., p. "il'J; Iha-ni, Jli.tl. li/ifiti.\\ MS., tiiiii. i., i-ap. xxvi. ^'' I'liiniiri/o, Jlist. Tlttx., in Auiifilloi Amitiks (hs Voy., 1843, lorn. xi'viii., p. 198. 374 THE NAIIUA NATIONS. f: before the kiiiij, and even the apparel of the soveri'ii;ii was in like manner fixed l>y custom, if not by law. Tlie different kinds of tilmatlis, or mantles, had eadi its appropriate name, and varied in material as well as in ornament and color. The cotton mantles aro described as beinyf of exceedinyf fineness of texture, so much so that it required an expert to deterniiiiu whether they were cotton or silk.'* The mantle worn as every-day dress in the ])alace was white and Id no and called the xmhtUnmfJi^ There were many otliir kinds of mantles, of which the following are the principal: A yellowish, heavily friui^ed mantle, on which monstrous heads were painted, was calitd coazaijdcidotibniitli; another, blue, ornamented with red shells, with three borders, one light, .'mother dark blue, and a third of white feather-work, and fringed with the same kind of shells, was nanud fjrncu'iotihiuif/i; another, dark yellow, with alteinatc black and white circles j)ainted on it, and a border representing eyes, was the tonalcitatiofilmaflifcitisin; a simihir one, differing only in the figures and shape of the ornaments, was the itzcdijotUinatli; a very gaudy one, worked in many colors, was the iniicfrrli- fccoitudofi/mitfli; another, with a yellow ground, <»ii which were butterflies made of feathers, and with si'olloped edges, was called jxt/Kfloiofilniatlifciiisio; the XdonlquaN/iioflhiKtthfrnisio, was embroidered with de- signs representing the flower called ccitctitcafl, and further ornamented with white feather- work and featli- er edges; the ocelot ('nflopadiuifici/ctwocclof I was an imitation of a tiger-skin, also oinamented Avith an lidge t)f white feathers; the irni'xtlavinlolli was worked in many colors, and had a sun j)ainted on it.*" Other mantles, differing mainly in their style of orna- '" 'Tan (Irlfiixlas y l)ipti toxidas que ncrcsifabaii ilcl tacto ]>aia (lifcnii- ciursc (Ic la f*f Cfiin'i/no, Stitriii Aiif. fA7 JA'.v.sv'fo, timi. ii., j)]). lir)-l(5; Turquniiin/i', Moiifiri/., /hi/., foin. ii., p. M'2. *" Sa/itiijiiii, Hint. Urn., torn, ii., lib. viii., pp. 280-8. DKESS OF THE KINGS. 375 inintation, were the coaxactfi/o and tI(icaUniaztilhi ii he of ix.. AVhenever the sovereign aftpeared in ]>ul)lic wore the royal crow'n, called vvplUl^ which was <• Trzozomnr, Crdnirn Mcx., in KhigshorouijJi's Mrx. Atitiq., vkI. <■■* 'Para salir de I'alaciit low Hoit's .'i visitar Ins Teiiiplos, se vcstiaii do lilaiu'o; [uTo para t'litrar t'li Kw ('iinst'jdn, y asistireii citros Actos iiiiMirns, .se vi'stiaii 4.'{. 'Los rois .s'liabillait'iit taiitot tic ItlaiM-, taiiti'it il'f- tiill'cs (I'liii jaiiiit* (ihsriir (»riu''t's «le fraii^rus dt' iiiille coidciii's.' linissnir ilf. }iiiiifli(iiirfi, /list. X. "JSI, toiii. iv., |ip. '210-11. '.Maiila.s avos, tan siiavcs, (nic Iray- imhIii la iiiaiio por oiiciiiia a polo y a pospolo, iioora iiiaH<(iu> una niarta roliol- liiia niuy Mon adtdtada: iiico posar una dolla.s, no ]ics(i mas do sris mi/as.' Ziiiizo, ('iirtd, in Irnzlmlirln, (Jul. (If l>iii\, toni. i., |t. 'M'A\. N'oslidos do jiolo do conojo y do al^odon de innolia onriosidad, y oslas oran vostidmas lU; <'ai'ii[iios y «lo ;;onto niuy prinoipal ' in Mioiioaoan. liiiimniml, CkU,. Milm- Oiiniii, MS., pp. 4'.>-.')0; l.rllil.ntrhitl, Hist. C/u'r/i., in Kiiii/slKiriiiiij/i'.s Mr.,-. Ailtiij., V(d. ix., Jip. ;{.'{(>, '240, 'Jd.'); Iif., Uiliirioiiis, in hi., |i. '.V,\i\\ (h-inhi, llisl. (Int., tola, iii., p. '2!KS. Dosoription of Monlo/nina'sdross whon nn'otini; ("nr- ti's, in S(i/i.s, Hint. Coiiq. Mix., toni. i., ]». ',W.>\ ('Inriijini, Sturin Anl. ilil ,l/(.v.s7. 77; \'('i//iii. Hist. Aiil. M'j-, tnni. iii., |>. .'tSd; I'n .-.iiiU's M'.r.. vol. ii., ]). 'Ml. Ko|ii'osoritations of tin drossos of tlio .Mosicaii kiiijxs and noliles are ulsi ' 'he t'udix Mvmhizit, in KiiKislninniiili's Mix. Antiq., vol. i. ^ ^ ■•'' 'Traia oal(,'iidos vnos oonio ootaras, quo assi so di/.o loqno so oaloan. las suolas do oro, y niny prooiadii jiodroria onoiina on ollas.' lirniii/ J>iiiz, Hist. ('i)iiil., fol. ()."). 'I'oi'toit niu' ohaussnro th' poan do olu-vrouil.' Xnini/tis Aiiiiiifis i/is Volt., 18'J4, toni. .\xiv., ]>. 1^7. '(,'apatos do oro, qiu' olios llaniaii xa^dos, y son a In inanora anti^^ua ; J'tiri/Hi'iiKiiln, MoiKirii. Iinf., toni. i., )». M'v, /Sriis.i-in )/r /{iiiirhi.iirit. Hist. Xnl. Cii:, toni. iv., jip. '210-1I; Cnrlis, <'iir/iis, p. S,"); I'lifliii, Hist. Aiit. .1/';/., toni. iii., p. 'ASi'r, Ixllilxnrliill, H'lu- •'i'liiis, in KiiiifsliiirniKjIi'ii Mix. Aiiliij., vol. ix., p. 327; I'rrsrott'ti Mix., Vol. ii., pp. 73-4, ai7. 876 THE NAIIUA NATIONS. solid gold, and is described by most wiiters as havim; been shaped like a bisho})'H mitre; but in the hiero- glyphical paintings, in which the Mexican kings arc re}>resented, it is simply a golden band, wider in front than at the back, the front running up to a i)oint; on some occasions it was ornamented with long feathers." The following descrii)tion of ornaments, worn by the Mexican kings and nobles, I extract from Sahagun: — The quetzalalpitoai consisted of two tassels of iiiR- feathers garnished with gold, which they wore bound to the hair on the crown of the head, and hanginaciode la Corona Clerical: cstos I'lnniajcs |ircii(li- an y atabaii con vna corroa colorada, y do ella colfrabaii con siis iiinjaiitcs t\i- Oro, (pic jjcndian il nianera do chiaH de Mitra de (Miispo.' lori/iniiiiK/fi, Moiiarq. Iik/., toni. ii., itj). 54'2-3. 'Era di varie matcric ^'iiista il piarcrc dei Ue, or di lame sottili d'oro or tessnta di filo d'oro, c li^^nrata con va;.'lic j)cnMe. Cliiriffrro, Storin Ant. del Mrssiro, torn, ii., p. Il.">, toni. iii., ]). 77. 'IJefore liivc a .Myter, ami hehinde it waw cut, so a.s it was not round, for tiic forepart was lii^xliPi") "ud did rise like a point.' Ptnrfins, /(/.v l'i/ifriiiir.\, torn. iy., p. 1(K»2; Vci/tiit, Hist. Ant. Mrj., ton\. iii., jt. H8(J; I'nsroft's .lA.c, v. ii., pji. 28.S-00; Tczozomor, Crduirn .)fix., ill KuKjslioriUKjIis Mex. Autiq., vol. ix., jip. 57, 7'.*; Ixtlil.ntfliHI, Jli.sl. Cliiili., ill M., j). 3'.'7; Torqitemadii, Motiitrq. Im/., U>u\. i., |>. 5i!.'»; I'll/fill, Hist. Aiif. MiJ., toin. i., i>. "i.")!), torn, iii., p. WXl; ('(iiiiiiniii, Hist. Tlii.f., ill Xoiiirlh'H AniKilfs t/es Voij., 1843, toiii. xcix., )>. ITS. i-'iir- tlicf iiiciitioii of oriiiimeiits in the oiiuiiitM'tition of ]iiTsciits ^'ivt-ii l)y Moiiti'- ziiiiiii to Cortt'.s ill t'ltirigcro, Storin Ant. del Mcnniro, toiii. iii., jip. 0."), 80; Hrrnra, llisl. (!<'»., dec. ii., lib. v., cap. v.; Oriri/a, Hist, (lin., toiii. iii., ].)). -JTit, '-'S;!, 'iS.'i, Sft-i, 208; Soils, Hist. Voiiq. Mr.i:, toiii. i., i)p. \-l\ l:{2-3; l'>nr/,tis, fiis J'i/iiriiws, vol. iv., pp. 1118-i), Il'-M; CortAi, Ciirttts, pp. (i't. 8.'>; llnissriir , 84, 214, 2(>3-l; I'irsi-iitt's Mix., vol. ii., p. 8.*?. Ainong the inodern authors who In'.ve writ- ten upon the subject of aress may be mentioned: ('avhujol Ksjiinosii, Hist. JA.j'., toiii. i., pp. S2(!, 080 2, torn, ii., pp. 91, 224-.">, witli iiiiiiicroiis iii»s; Jtiissirrrr. L'Eitipiiv Mc.r.., p. 14.'>; C/irrntirr, Mi:r., Aiirini rt Moil., pp. .')7-H; IHIl'iii, Hist. Mix., p. 47; Kkiiim, Cultur-trfsrhichti:, tom. v., pp. 13-14, 22, ■JS, ISit; Mniifilinr, llfsumf, p. 3(5; BnnnuIVs Iiiil. Rnris, pp. (>.'>, 7'J; Jiaril, Mcxiquc, p. 209; Fiithentd, Mem. sobrc la Raza Indigcnu, p. (51. :i. Vi CHAPTER XII. COMMERCE OF THE NAIIUA NATIONS. The Main Fkaturks of Nahua Commerce— Commerce in Pre-Aztec Times— OtTRAGEs Committed uy Aztec Merchants— ri;ivii.i:(;i;s OF the Merchants of ThATELULCo— Jealousy ketween Mku- CHANTS AND NoilI.ES — ARTICLES ISED AS CURRENCY - THE M AH- KETS OF AnAHLAC — ARRANOEMENT AND llEtJULATIONS OK THE MARKET-PLAriCS — NLMIIER OF BUYERS AND SELLERS— TRANSI'Olt- TATioN OK Wares— Traveling Merchants— Commercial IJoi ti:.s — Setting out on a Journey- Caravans of Traders - Tin: Return — Customs and Feasts of the Merchants— Nahia HoATS and Navigation. ill ! , .1 ■ Tmditional history tells us but little rospcctiiif,' Anioricau coniineree jn'ovious to the formation of the j^reat Aztec alliance, or empire, but the faint light thrown on the subject would indicate little or no chau'^e in the wystem within the limits of Nahua his- tory. The main features of the connnercial system in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, were: markets in one or more of the public scjuares of every town, where eatables and other articles of immediate neces- sity were daily sold — shops proper being unknown: fre(juently recurring fairs in each of the large towns, where the j>roducts of agriculture, manufacture, and art in the surrounding country were disi)layed before consumers and merchants from home and from abro.ul; similar fairs but on a o'rander scale in the ti^reat com- mercial centres, where home products were exchangcu COMMERCE IN PUE-AZTEC TIMES. 379 for foroit^n merchandise, or sold for export to mer- cliiiiits from distant nations who attended these fairs ill lari^'e nunihers; itinerant traders ct)ntimially tra- versiiiij^ the country in companies, or caravans ; and tlie existence of a separate class exclusively devoted to foiiunerce. From the earliest times the two southern Anahuacs of Ayotlan and Xicalanco, correspoiidini^ to what are now tlie southern coast of Oajaca and the tierracaliente of Tabasco and southern Vera Cruz, were inhaltited by commercial peoples, and were noted for their fairs and the rich wares therein exposed for sale. These nations, the Xicalancas, Mijes, Huaves, and Zapotecs even eniraiburouijlC)s Mi x. Aiiliij., \iA. ix., p. 3;{'2. 880 THE NAIIUA NATIONS. I . ■; extent scpamto. But the Aztoos iiitroducotl a now onki" of thinijfs. Their nicri'liants, instuatl of }»eati - fill, industrious, unassuniinjjf travelers, became insolent and overbearinj^, nieddlint; without seruple in the |>ul) lie attiiirs of the nations throu«^h whose territory tiiey liad to }>ass, and tristin*^ to the dread of the arniiis of Mexico for their own safety; caravans became litt!< less than armed bodies of rol>bers. The confederate kini^s were ever ready to extend by war the Held of their commerce, and to avenge by the hands of thi'ii' warriors any insult, real or ima«,nnary, ottered to their merchants. The travelinijr bandir' A' traders were in- Btructed to prepare maps of countries traversed, to ob.serve carefully their condition for defence, and their resources. If any province was reported rich and de- Hirable, its peojtle were easily ajj^jj^ravated to commit some act of insolence which served as a pretext to lay waste their lands, and make them tributary to tlie l(H-/it(ras, dwellers in the aristocratic quarter of Pochtlan, had privileges fully equal to those of the nol)les. They had tribunals of their own, to which alone they were res])onsible, for the regulation of all matters of trade. They formed indeed, to all intents TIIF-: TLATKLIUAN COMPANV 881 ;iii(l [>iirj)()sos, a coininL'n'ijil forporatioii conti'oliniLj tlio wliole tnulo of tho country, «t' wliicli nil the K-adiiiL^ iiKrclmnts of other ritios wero in ii Heiisr Huhordiimto iiit'inlK'is. Jealousy lietwceii this honored elass of iiuiiliauts and tho nohility ])roper, hron«,dit ahout tho iiianv eonndioations durini'" the last years of the Az- tic empire, to which I have referred in a i>re('edini»' tliaitter. Throughout the Nahua dominion commeni' was in the hands of a distinct elass, educated for their (ailing, and eveiywhere honored hoth hy people and liy kinu^s; in many rej^ions the hii>hest nohles t]u)Ught it no disgrace to en^aije in oonunercial pursuits. Besides the ])ochtecas, two other classes of mercli- aiits are nientioney toiint up to ui«^ht thouHand, whidi con- stituted a ju'tjiiljtilli In larjj^e transactions sarks containinj^ three xirpiipilli were used to save lal)or in countiiijjf. J'atc]ied on one of their politico-commercial expedi- tions, sixteen hundred quauhtli, or eagles, to trade with. Bustamante, Sahagun's editor, su])[)oses tluso to have been the cop})er pieces already mentioned, Imt Brasseur believes, from the suudl value of the cojipcr and the large amount of rich fabrics purchased with the eagles, that they were of gold. The same au- thority believes that the golden quoits with wliitli Montezuma paid his losses at gambling also served us money.* Tile Nahuas bought and sold their merchandise by count and by measures both of length and ca})acity, but not by weight; at lepst, such is the ge.\eral o]iin- * TlicToltccs 'usftbandeunaoin vmonedaclecnhrcdc largo dcdosdcdds y do aiicl»() uno A innncra deaehihu ^qiiefias, y de griieso, coiiui iiii ri-al ili; A iK'lin. Ksta muiieda no lia iinicli' 'ciiipu que la lian dcjado Ins t\e I'miii- I)e; ClnHgero, Storin Ant. del Messieo, tom. ii, I'- ()(!(}. Salt used as money. Chaves, in Ternnux-Compans, Vvy., S(''rif ii., tom. v., p. 328. I omit a long list of references to authors who merely mention cacuo uud the other urticlvii u» ubc-d fur money. THE MAKKKTS OF ANAIirAC. n8:j Ion <>r the nutluiritii'S. Saluij,nni, lioWL'Vor, says of the skillful iMorclmnt that lie knows "tlu; value of uoUl ;i)i^ards this as anijile proof that scales were used. ('lavi«iccro thinks »»ei_niits may liiivi' heen employed and mention of the fact omitted in the narratives." The market, funnjiiiztli, of 'I'late- liilco \va.s the jjfrandest in the country and may he taken as a representative of all. Its ^raruleur con- sisted, however, in the abundance and variety of the iiicrchandise offered for sale and in the crowd of huy- cis and sellers, not in the maj^nificence of the huildinnj^s coiiiiected with it; for the market-place was simply an ojicn ])l}iza, surnmnded as all the authorities say with '[lurticoes' where merchandise was exhihited. What tlu su })orticoes were we are left to conjecture. Proh- altly they were nothinjjf more than simple hootlis anaiined in streets and coverinj^ the whole plaza, wliciv merchants and their wares were sheltered I'rom the lays of a tropical sun. Whatever may have heen till- nature and arranirement of these shelters, we know^ that the space was systematically apportioned anionic the aiiiters from Tezcuco, the shoe-makers from Tenayo- • aii, the huntsmen from Xilotej)ec, the fishermen from C'uitlahuac, the fruit-growers of the tierra caliente, the 5 'X(i tcnian peso (que yo sepn) los Mcxicanos, fulta f^randissinia jmra 111 contnitacidii. l^uieii tlize que no lo vMiiiaii itoresciisar low en;,'afi<>M, qiiicii I"ir (|iin no lo auiiin nienester, quien por ipioranc-ia, que es lo tierto. I'or iliMiili- paret'C que no auian oido couio liizo DioH totios la8 coHtis eii cueuto, peso, y nietliiia.' Gnmnra, t'ouq. Mvx., fol. .34'2; Cluriacro, Storid Ant. (/el i!i.s.iin,, torn, ii., p. 100; Sfthnifun, Hist. Gen., toni. iii., lib. x., pp. 42, 40; Jirunmiir Ue Bourhourg, Hist. Aat. Civ., torn, iii., pp. 02tf-30. 384 THE jNAHL A NATIONS. mat-makers of Quauhtitlan, tlie flower-dealers of Xo- rhimilco, and yet so ji^reat was the market that to eadi nf these was afforded an opportunity to display liis wares. All kinds of food, animal and vegetable, cooked and uncooked, were arranged in the most attractive man- ner; eating-houses were also attached to the tian- (juiztli and much patronized by the poorer classes. !iere were to be found all the native cloths and fal)- rics, in the piece and made up into garments coarse and fine, plain and elaborately embroidered, to suit tlie taste and means of purchasers; precious stones, and ornaments of metal, feathers, or shells- implements and weapons of metal, stone, and wood; building ma- terial, lime, stone, wood, and brick; articles of house- hold furniture; matting of various degrees of fineness; medicinal herbs and prepared medicines; wood and coal ; incense and censers; cotton u-.J cochineal; tanned skins ; numerous beverages ; and an infinite variety ef pottery; but to enumerate all the articles noticed in the market-place l>y the conquerors would make a very long list, and would involve, beside, the repetition of many names which have been or will be mentit)ned elsewhere. Cortes speaks of this market as being twice as largi^ as that of Salamanca, and all the conquistadores are en- thusiastic in their expressions of wonder not only at the variety of products offered for sale, but at the jter- fect order and system which jjrevailed, notwithstand- ing the crowd of buyers and sellers. The judges o\' the commercial tribunal, twelve in number according" to Torquemada, four, according to Zuazo, held their couit in connection with the market buildings, where they regulated prices and measures, and settled dis- putes. Watchmen acting under their authority, con- stantly patrol ed the tianipiiztli to [)revent disordei'. Any attempt at extortionate charges, or at i)as^;ing nW injured or inferior goods, or any infringement on anuth- ir's rights W'^sinnnediately reported and severely pun- BUYERS AND SELLERS. 385 Uhed. The judges had even the right to enforce the death penalty. Other markets in the Nahua regions were on a similar plan, those of Tlascala and Tezcuco coming next to that of Tlatelulco in importance.® Trade was carried on daily in the tiancjuiztli, chiefly for the convenience of the inhabitants of the city, but every fifth day was set apart as a special market-day, on which a fair was held, crowded not only by local customers, but by buyers and sellers from all the country round, and from foreign lands. In Tlatelulco these special market-dr„ys were those that fell under the signs calli, tochtli, acatl, and tecpatl. In other large cities, days with other signs were chosen, in order that the fairs might not occur on the same day ill neighboring towns. Las Casas says that each of the two market-places in the city of Mexico would contain 200,000 persons, 100,000 being j)resent each fifth day; a,nd Cortes tells us that more than 60,000 ijersons assemlled dailv in the Tlatelulco market. According to the same authority 30,000 was the number of daily visitors to the market of Tlascala. rer]iaj)s, however, he refers to the fair-days, on which occasion at Tlatelulco, the Anonymous Contjueror })uts the number at 50,000 limiting the daily concourse to uhoiit 25,000.^ Considering the population of the cities and surrounding country, together with the limited facilities for transportation, these accounts of the daily attendance at the ujurkets, as al'jo of the ahundance and variety of the merchandise, need not he regarded as exaggerations. * On the Nalinn nmrki-ts niul tlio articles oH'onMl for sale, spo: Car/es, Ciir/iiM, pp. (18, l()S-r»; Ikiiml Ihuz, Ulsf. C., fol. 70; RiIhUihiv ftilta ]iir I'll ijnitil ItiKiiim (Id Sii/iior t'iriKiiiiln t'ltrlisr, in Jimini.sii), Xariifn- ti'iiii, turn, iii., fol. 301); Sa/ifit/iin, Hist. (u-h.. toiii. ii., lilt, viii., pp. ;{_';j-5, lili. i\., ji. ;{.')7; Lxs Cii.ias, Hist, A/io/fii^t/irfi, MS., cai). l.\x; '/'ori/iitiiKit/ti, Miiiiiirij. fill/., loni. ii., pj). r)r)4-(iO; Oriiifn, Hist, (liii., toni. iii., pp. 'J72, •J'.t;i-:iiil; (Ionium, CoiKj. Mix., fol. 87 8, IKi-lS; llrnrm, Ifist. Uiii., (Ice. ii., Iil>. vii., cap. xv., xvi.; I'ctir Miirtijf, dec. v., lili. iii., iv. ; Xiin:it, Ciir/ii, ill Ifiizlin/irtd, Vol. ilr Dor., (oni. i., jip. .'i.'ilMil. 'I'lirli's, Citrtds, ]ip. ion, . lO.'J-TO, and the same is traiisiiit. 4.")-r>8. See also //'//- v' Sjinii. Conii., vol. 'i., pp. .'V2!) 31; (r'tiijr\'< Xrir Siirrrif, pp. 10!(-1'J; Miilir, A iiirrilcinii.ir/ir Crrrfiif(//irf, jip. 247-8; liii.s.sirrir, l.'Kiniiiri' Mi.f., pp. ICG-Tl; Toiiru/i, Hint. Ucit., toiii. iii., pp. 43-1). Sec altio Nutc 1-. m 1 SETTING-OUT OF THE MERCHANTS. 889 latter ixrial »k' ; they lent of Bimiliir in the without IS was of the eparate )ast re- ! towns i aeross n limit t U ini- lants of dertake naps of of Pa- to have lala; it eaelied |en prc- exec'i^t lieree, a ['0, eni- Istitioiis ituin of [y other iinz llUf. lloviiji-ro, jtraiisiati'i I poor house," that is, to bo present at a most sumptu- ous banquet. Papers were then cut and at midnij^lit offered with ulH, much after the manner already de- scril)ed, to the gods as a thank-offering for their j)r()- tection. The feast that took place next day, when all the guests were assembled, was accompanied by addi- tional offerings to the gods of fire and trade, and, of course, by speeches of the returned travelers and their guests, but presented no particularly noticeable con- trasts with the many feasts that have been described. Not only was the traveler obliged, according to the Nahua superstition, to abstain from baths during his absence, but even his family during the same period, while allowed to bathe the body, nmst not wash the head or face oftener than once in eighty days; thus were the gods propitiated to watch kindly over theii* absent relative wandering in distant lands. If a mer- chant died while on a journey, his body, at least if he belonged to the highest rank, was neither buried nor burned, but, clad in fine apparel, and decorated with certain mystical papers and painted devices, it was put in a wooden cage, or cacaxtli, and secured to a tree on the top of a high mountain. Advice of tlio death was forwarded to the old merchants, who in turn informed the family of the deceased, and regu- lar funeral ceremonies were performed either immedi- ately or on the return of the caravan. If the deceased met his death at the hands of an enemy, a wooden image was prepared, dressed in the clothing of the dead merchant, and made the subject of the usual funeral rites. Besides the regular feasts attending the departure and return of caravans, many others took place under the auspices of the mercantile class. We have noticed the fondness of the Nahua people for entertainments of this kind, and it is natural that the merchants, as the richest class in the community, should have been foremost ii contributing to this popular taste. Each merchant, when he had acquired great wealth by I kit. FEASTS OF THE MERCHANTS. 393 ffood fortune in his trading ventures, deemed it, as Sahaijfun tells us, a most disj^raceful thinjr "to die without having made some splendid expenditure" by entertaining his friends and fellow-merchants in a hanquet, which should be remembered as the event of Jiis career. A lonjjf time was devoted to making roiuly for the feast, to the purcliase of provisions and decorations, and to engajjinuf dancers and siny^crs, that no item might be neglected, nor any oversight be allowed to mar the perfect enjoyment of the invited ^•iiests. All being ready, a propitious sign was se- lected, and invitations issued. The object of the dis- play of hospitality being not only the entertainment of friends, but a thanksgiving to the gods for favors shown to the host, the first ceremonies were naturally in honor of the deities. These bejjan in the night preceding the feast-day, with offerings of flowers in the shrine of Huitzilopochtli, in the chapels of other gods, and finally in the courtyard of the host, where wore placed drums and two plates, on which perfumed canes were burning. Those officiating whistled in a peculiar manner, and all, stooping, put some earth m their mouth, crying "our lord has sounded." Then all burned perfumed copal, and a priest beheaded a quail before the drum, throwing it on the ground and watching in what direction it mijjht flutter. If north- ward, it was a bad omen, foretelling sickness, or per- haps death. But the west and south were fortunate directions, indicating a peaceful and friendly disposi- tion on the part of the gods. Jncense was burned toward the cardinal points, the burning coals were thrown from the censer into the fire, and then the jjerformers engaged for the areito, including, it would seein, soldiers of several classes, led by the tlacatecatl, began to dance and sing. Neither the host nor mer- chant guests joined in the dance, but remained in the house to receive the company and present them with bouquets of flowers. At midnight ulli-marked paper was offered to the gods, and its ashes buried to pro- i:m ■iiil u <■! 1.:! I' ien- sive in their rooms dreaming drctams and seeing visions of horrid import, whose narration at a hiter hour, when the effects of the drug had passed away, formed a prominent feature of the entertainment. At the aj)- pearance of the morning star all the ashes of tlie sacrifices, the flowers, the burning canes, and all the implements used in the foregoing ceremonies, were huried, that they might not be seen by any visitor j>olluted by any kind of vice or uncleanness. Tlie rising sun was greeted with songs, dancing, and heut- ing of the tei>onaztli. The day was passed in feust- ing and music, and at the close of the day's bancpiet food was distributed to the common people. The lianquet was often continued more than one day, and if after the first day's feast the provision of food was exhausted, it was regarded by the guests as a bad sign — a very sensible superstition truly. There was another merchant's feast in the month of Panquetzaliztli, in which a number of slaves were killed and eaten. The victims were purchased sometime he- forehand at the slave mart in Azcapuzalco, kept clean, — being therefore called tlaaltilzin, 'washed' — and fat- tened for the occasion. The male slaves meantime had no work but to dance daily on the housetop, hut the women had to spin. The articles collected for this feast embraced large numbers of rich mantles, maxtlis, and huipiles, which were to be presented tersonally to many towns, especially to Toch tepee, to issue invitations and distribute gifts. On his arrival he went first to the shrine of lyacatecutli, before whose ima^e he performed certain ceremonies and left some offerings. Then he went to the house of the Tlate- SACRIFICE OF SLaVFS I /'c, of the. l,e«t sneakers K'" "'™"'"-' '""■"■-'1 "f tl't.ir visitor tok 1 a 1„ ' '"""'}"";^-■ - te,- resting awinle the Xc .' "t''?"''' '" ^l'^^''"- ^'twl those of ],is own <-ilJ i ^'uroinoi,,,, |y ;„. :""' "- latter, aftj 'n.Irf- tee.,''r™'.''' "-' •^™ • ".;i-t,o„ hy the oldcT^eh '''';""' ""■'"''"'^' »» "■l^es that food enoind, 1,11 *" •""""'y tl'wi.- • '-; "ffi.i.- could not % a 1 i":',' T""''"'' «>'d «."t ;|l l."..J,'h they ,va,-ned the wo. ' i'^'^'^ '» "'''^''Pt. !"' .osponsihility he woiddTn" ." '",'f "*^ "«■ f™'- X..ol.itI, and' O^'clrtlf r:^!'- ,^'« Calli; ol; '^'''«t. *''"' ^^t,ie ^ood signs for tJiis '-"!^^'ztt:z:!':S'rfy ««-> -d ""■y...- 2ra,-Ia„ds of flower", ,i I ^ "'■""" ""^ "■■'-■it". ;." "!"Hiiy .-ich attirc^C in?'," f ""^ '■•■■"'•■■'-. ;""l '" »"e of the roonrwh, "' ","'' l''""ty o f """"■ The eatin,. d" kin ,"' ■ ""''^ 'oadily see "-■« koi't «p all';, ;,' """I, ,;"" ; '«t,;ilH,tio„ ofl,i,i ;;•■'■;■•' repetitfon of thofirst . ,d t' '""■'''-, ''j'y's least "'■" '>f the third day was edhd 7T 'f "' ""<■""■■'■!": m,ng on wigs of n,a>,y 5,k ed^r 'I'"'' "*^ '.''o ■^'^"■-^. "•'PN stone "ose-ornanfents i;i. r''"' ''■•''"'«<' oa.- MM THE NAHUA NATIONS. i M :.H i ca.rfli, on the arinn, stained Handals, and girdles callrd irinhf/afpilll. From tliis tinio forward ntrii-t <,niard was kojit over tliein day and nij,dit until tlieir death. On yet a fourth occasion, apparently some days, cir perhaps weeks, later, the merchant asseml)led liis quests, and then just before sunset the victims were made drunk with trnvctii, and carried to Huitzilu- juH'htli's temjde, wliere they were made to dance and sinuf, and kej)t awake all night. At midnitiht thiy were placed on a mat before the fire, and the mastir of the bancjuet, dressed nmch like the slaves them- selves, put out the fire, and in the darkness «^ave to each four mouthfuls of a doujjfh moistened witli hoiicv, called tzoalli. Then a man dancing before thoiii ])layed upon an instrument called chichfH, hairs were j)ulled out of the top of each slave's head and j)ut in a plate, qmtcaxiti, held by the dancer, and the master threw incense toward the east, west, north, and south. Tlie slaves were oftered food, but could not be in- duced to eat, expecting each moment the mt'ss«;iigc'r of deatli. They were first taken to the ward of Co- atlan, and in the courtyard of the teni})le of Huitz- calco were forced to fight against certain j)ersons, tlio most valiant of whom were called tktamaviqucs. It' by force of arms these persons captured any of tlio slaves, they were entitled to receive their full value from the owner, or in default of such payment to take the bodies after the sacrifice and eat the same. After the contest the victimis vvcrc sacrificed on tho shrine of Huitzilopochtli, the cora'/licated details of the ceremonies which followed aiffering only very slightly from those of similar sacrifices already several times described. The bodies were thrown down tlie steps as usual, carried home by the owner, cooked with maize, seasoned with salt without chile, and were finally eaten by the guests. With this horriI)le repast the great feast of the month of Panquetzaliztli ended; but he who had given it carefully jjreserved the clothing, and other relics of the slaughtered slaves. BOATS AND NAVIGATION. 397 ;^U!inlin<^ thoni in n luiskot as most jn'trious and j)k'as- aiit souvoiiirs all tlio tlavs of Ins lilb: and al'ttr liis (If.itli the basket and its contents were l)urned at his ()Iisi'((uies. Acosta tells us that in Cholula the nierohants, es- jitciMlly tliose that dealt in slaves, furnislicd each year ii slave of tine |)hysi(jue to refU'esent tlu'ir i^od Quet- zalcoatl, in whose lunior he was sacrificed, with appro- jiiiate and complicated ceremonies, his Hesh beiny; afterwards eaten in a bancjiiet." Tlie little to be said of Nahua watorcraft may be as appropriately inserted luie as elsewhere. I have already referred to the important use made of canoes in the transportation of mercliandise upon the lakes (if Aiuliuuic. In the art of navioation, however, no jiroi^ress was made by the Nahuas at all in projmrtion to their advr'icement in other respects. As navi- gators they were altogether inferior to their savage lircthrcn of the Cokunbian and Hyperborean grouj>s on the north-west coasts, whose skill in tlie manu- facture and management of boats has been described ill a preceding volume of this work. Tlic reason is tiltvioiis: tiieir progress in agriculture enabled tliem to obtain a food supply without risking their lives habitually on the sea; their suimy clime obviated tlie necessity of wlude-blubber and seal-skins. In tlie culler stages of civilization men make ])rooress oidv Aviieu impelled by some actual necessity; consiMpiently among the Nahuas, when means were su}>plied of < Tossing streams, and of transporting goods on the lakes and for short distances along tlie coast at the niouth of larofe river.^, iiroufress in this direction ceased. Clavigero's investigations led him to believe that tlie use of sails was unknown, and although Brasseur '-On iiu'rcli.ints' feasts, cereiiionios, ami siiiu'r.stitioiiH, st'i- S(i/iii;/iin, Hist. (Ini., toiii. ii., lih. ix., jij). 3;i.^>-S(), toin. i., lih. iv., jip. .'U(f-I."); Arii.sfii, Hist, (/f /it.s Yiiil., i»p. SSH-lhJ; TorqiiiDiiii/i', Mondri/. liia.. toiii. ii., li|i, .'iS.V;, See also account of ii feast of IIo\vcr-ili ;ilcrs in tills voliiiiic, y. "il"', iii-'i account of tile Cliolultcc feast in hunuruf Ciuctzulcoatl, in vol. iii., \>\h L'SC-T of this work. 308 THE NAHUA NATIONS. de Bourbourg in one place speaks of such aids to nav- igation, yet he gives no authority for his statement."' Rafts and * dug-out' canoes were the vessels em- ployed; the former were used for the most part in crossing streams and were of various material and construction. Those of the ruder kind were simply a number of poles tied together with strings." Thonu called by the Spaniards balsas were of superior con- struction, made of otlatl reeds, or tides, and rushes of different kinds in bundles. The best balsas were about five feet square, made of bamboos and supported by hollow gourds closed by a water and air tight cov- ering. The rafts were propelled by swimmers, one in front and another behind.^' The canoes — acalli, 'water-houses' among the Az- tecs, called also tahucup in Tabasco — were holloAved out from the trunk of a single tree, were generally flat-bottomed and without keel, somewhat narrower at the bow than at the stern as Las Casas says, and Avould carry from two to sixty persons. As to the in- struments employed in hollowing out and finish in«j^ the acalli we have no information, neither do we know whether fire was one of the agents made use of.^" " Clavif^oro's description of Naliua boats and navigation is in his Sinritt Ant. ilcl Mcssivo, toin. ii., pp. 1(58-1>. 'Lenrs barques, dont les i)his {.'ran- (les niesiii'iiient juc^u'ii .luinbus sonic distance out at sea. Bruxsi'ur us avons pass6 ainsi idus d'unerivitre.' liraascttr dc ISoiirl/oiini, }I'.,f. Nat. dr., torn, ii., p. 295. 'c f.it.s C«.f(i.i, Hist. Afioluffvtica, MS., cap. Ixx. 'En cada vna caliiaii sescnta Hombres.' 2'orqvcmado, Moiiorq. Ind., tom. i., p. 4()0, aii' |passa^';;ii'r'. litis. 'I'm Liis rAme- tSoiirlioiini, 1,-na caliiiiii ami //'/•• Itlo Imiki's, I' loiiforiiir al iiact'ii. y Mutvliiiio, Tlie use of boats was not altogether confined to tiaffic, but extended to war and the transportation of tioops. Fierce conflicts on the waters of the lakes are recorded in the ancient annals of Andhuac; canoe Heets of armed natives came out to meet the Span- iards at various points along the coast ; and we read of the vain efforts to defend the approaches to the Aztec capital, by thousands of boats which could offer little resistance to the advance of Cortes' brigantines." These fleets, so inefficient against Si:)anish vessels and arms, must have been of great service to the Az- tecs ill maintaining their domination over the many towns on the lake shores. To increase the efficiency of boats and boatmen, races and sham fights Avere es- tablished, which, besides affording useful training t»j paddlers and warriors, furnished an additional means of entertainment to the people who gathered in crowds to watch the struggles of the competitois, ai>plaud the ducking of each vanquished boat's crew, and to reward the victors with honors and prizes 18 '1^ 'Tho sides of the Iniliiin hoats were fortified with hulwarks.' Prrs- mtl's Mcx., vol. iii., p. 100; Berttal Diaz, Hist. Conq., fol. 140; Cortes, C(iii((s, \). 'ill. i* 'Spcsso s'esercitavano in <]uesto geiiere di comhattiineiiti.' Clnrixjrm, Stori/i A lit. del Mcssico, torn. ii. , p. 151; Wcst-Iiidische Spicijhrl, p. 251. •JOO.OIM) canoes on the lake about Mexico. Goiiiiim, Cum/. Mcj:, fol. Il">. Set; iilsti note 8 of this chanter. Additional notes on Nalina boats. 'Hal/ia CM Mexico nuichas acallis o barcas i)ara ^:ii ion, since no paid troops were employed. liul, [ ivjmotion was sure to follow brilliant exploits peifuiiiied by even the humblest soldier, while with- out such daring deeds the sons of the highest nobles could hope for no advancement. Dress and orna- ments were the indications of rank, and were changed in some detail for every new achievement. To escape l'i',:r! the coarse nequen garments of the common .soldier, and to put on successively the decorative man ties of the higher grades, was deemed a sufficient reward and incentive. The costume of each warrior indicated the exact number of prisoners ca})tured by the wearer. Especial onv \\ 's taken, however, with the sons of lords intenfleil 1' >r the profession of arms. At an early age their hc.ui vv^;lt^ shaved, except a tuft on the back vtf the lioad CcJIe • ;)7'\'<('.fy>r(///(f, a designation changed to cii<',rpi(tchicu('pul when the boy wiiS fifteen years old. At this age he was sent to war in charge of veteran warriors, and if with their aid he took a prisoner^ the tuft was cut off and anotlior giv»3n to be worn over the car with feather i)hnncs; on his return he was addressed n^ter the following maimer by his grand - |tarents o! "ncles: "My child, the Sun and the Kartli hav ^ ashed and renewed thy face, because thou didst d.i. ! to attempt the capture of an enemy in company with others. Lo, now it were better to Vol. II. 20 III 402 THE NAHUA NATIONS. i i abandon thee to the mercies of the enemy than tliat thou shouldst again take a prisoner with tlie aid of others, because, should it so happen, they will j)]ace another tuft over thine other ear and thou wilt appear like a girl; truly, it were better thou shouldst die than that this should happen to thee." If after a fair trial the youth failed to take a captive, he was disgrjiccd, and ceased to be a warrior in the eyes of his com- rades: but if, unaided, he was successful, he ^vas called a warlike youth, t^lpuchtlitaquitlamani, and was presented l^ ^"^^ ^ ^'ing; whose stewards dyed his face red, his temp. nd body yellow, and bestowed upon him mantles a.. J maxtlis of the colors and de- signs which his achievements gave him the right to wear. If he took two captives, the honors were of course greater; three entitled him to a connnand over others; four made him a captain who might wear long lip-ornaments, leathern ear-rings, and gaudy tassels, Witli five prisoners the young man became a qunuh- iacatl, 'eagle that guides,' with corresponding insignia, a head-plume with silver threads, the mantle called cuechintli, another called chicoapahiacazm'uiqui of two colors, and still another decorated with straps. The prisoners must, however, be from nations of ac- knowledged prowess, such as those of Atlixco, the Huexotzhicas, or Tlascaltecs; double or tri}>le tlio number of Cuextecas or Tenimes must be captured, and no number of these could entitle a youth to the highest honors.^ In the Mexican picture-writings are delineated the successive grades by which a graduate from the tem- ple school advanced, with the costumes and defensive armor he was permitted to wear. First we see him leaving for the war, carrying the impeclrmenfa of the- chief priest, who goes into the field to embolden the troops, enforce orders, and perform other duties. Tlie pictures that follow portray the devices on the shields, manner of painting, armor, head-dresses, and orna- ^ Sahagun, Hist. Gen., torn, ii., lib. viii., pp. 329-32. TIIUEE MILITARY ORDr.RS. 403 ments they were allowed to assume, according to the number of captives each had taken. The warrior- priests were rewarded, in like manner, with accoiitrc- designs, and with ments and insignia of peculiar important commands in the army. Three military orders were established by the Aztec monarchs, the members of which were granted cer- tain privileges, and entitled to wear badges of distinc- tion; they also had apartments allotted to them in the royal palace and formed the royal guard. Promotion to the order was open to ai^ , but could only be won hy some notable feat of arms, ihe members of the first of these three orders were called Achcauhtin,or Princes, of the second, Quauhtin, or Eagles, of tlie third, Oce- lome, or Tigers. The distinctive mark of the Princes was their manner of dressing the hair, which was tied on the erown of the head with a red thong, and worked into as many braids, each terminating in a cotton tas- sel, as were the deeds of valor performed by the wearer; the Eagles wore a kind of casque, in the form of an eagle's head; the Tigers wore a particular armor, s})otted like the skin of the animal whose name they bore. These insignia were only used in war; at court all military officers wore the tlachquanhi/o, a dress of many colors. The members of these three military orders had the privilege of wearing garments of much liner texture than the common people, as well as such feathers and jewels as they could afford to buy. An inferior order of knighthood appears also to have ex- isted, the members of which had their hair crop[)ed close about their ears, and wore skull-caps and split collars; these were only armed for defence from the girdle upwards, whereas their superiors fought in com- J Codex Mendoza, in Kinqshorouijfi^s Mcx. And'o., v,,!. i., pi. Ixiv- K'vi. Ill cx|)Iiiii»tioii of plate Ixv., No. 19, it is stated that tlie warrior wan culliilQuaehic by reawon of having taken five prisoners in war. 'llaluT cir.itivailo en la gnerra cineo, denias csto.s, los qualcs tenian vnas eolotas r.))-tadas por encinui de la oreia en redondo.' Aro.f(a, Hist, rir las Ymf., pp. 4 13-4; llrrrrnt, Hist. Gen., (fee. iii., lib. ii., ca]). xix; West niiil (Ml In- iHsr.ker Litstffart, pt i., p. 99; Montnuus, Nicnwe Wcereld, pp. '2(i7-!S; I 'mritir.ro, Storia Ant. dd Mrssir.o, toni. ii., p. 140. * The greaves were called cozchnntl, tlie brachials matcmccntl, flic bracelets malzopetzfli, the lip urnanient trntetl, the ear-rings iirifor/illi, :m:I the collar or necklace cozrapctlatl. Tehind, and decorated with feathers et' whatever colors the uniform of the company to which AllMOll AND DEFENSIVE WEAPONS. 407 ;lis; tlie \ of til ill v^ a ricli ; to }>ni- ' wooden ids tliuy iting the 'roin tlic iricgatfd Biiotu tlio e Nuluia firciirms 3re adini- is in use m shield, srs fornis; ometinie;^ ;omnu)iily jid linuly .•e of* the and taste covered hs in the tortoise- ere com- or iie- ;o protect wore of ;over the leii not in inder the ler oTudes M (juilted jd iclicii- ., which ill one lathers of Ito which the wearer belonged might be. Tliis cotton armor was completely arrow-proof, and was of great service to the Spanish Conquerors, who lost no time in adopt- ing it in [)lace of their heavy steel armor. Arm and leg guards made of wood covered with leather or gold plates and trimmed with feathers, and morions of the same material sha[)ed and painted to rei)resent the head of a tiger, ser})ent, or monster, with mouth open and teeth bared, complete the defensive ixpiipment. Over a cuirass of gold and silver plates some lords wore a garment of feathers which is said to have been proof against arrows and javelins. Nobles and otti- cers also wore lofty [dumes so as to present the appear- ance of increased stature.* The shields used by the Toltecs were made of skins ornamented with feathers of various colors; on their heads they wore lielmets of gold, silver, or skins. The body-armor worn by the jjrincipal warriors was made of double cloth padded with cot^')n; it differed from that of the Aztecs imisnmch as it reached down to the ankles and was worn over a thin white tunic. The })rivate soldiers, like thcjse of the Aztec army, also painted the u})per part of the body to re})resont ar- mor, l)ut from the waist to the thighs they w»)re slu)rt drawers and over them, fastened round the waist, a kind of kilt that reached to the knees and availed them somewhat for defence. Across the body was a sash made of feathers that passed from the right shoulder to the left side of the waist. They wore sandals on their feet and had feather-ornaments u})on their heads, more or less rich accoi'ding to the quality of the warrior. When going to battle they adorned their necks, breasts, arms, and legs \vith their most valuable trinkets of gold or precious stones," Tezozo- moc mentions that the Tarascos wore steel helmets, hut, as 1 have already stated, none of these nations * C/nrii/rrn, S/oria Ant. del Mrsniv.o, Uiiii. ii., ]ip. 141-.3; Rdutionr fdtln perm tjciiliriiitniito ilrl Si8-l!»; Wcst-In(li.i('Iie. Spirrj/irl, p. '-'IC); Moiitainis, XiridiT Wccrcld, p. 207; Klcmm, Cullitr-Gr.sc/iir/itr, toin. v., ])p. 81-3; M:\ii'jU(\ Etiidrs Hist., p. 8; Leon y Gama, J)os Pinlrus, ]it ii., ]). 28; J!ii.ssii;-r>; I/Empirr Mex., p. Ifil; Caitiari/o, Hist. Tlax., in Xnii- relics Aiuiales (tes Vojj., 1843, ton>. xcviii., i>. 133; Mullet; Amerikaiiisihe Unrlif/iniien, ]>. .542. '2 Ifrrrrra, Hist. Gen., dec. ii., lib. vii., cap. xi. ; Gage's New Siinrij, pp. 99-100. OFFENSIVl'; W^LVPOXS. 409 s Ullist uhuli i(|Ut' of B knocK icets of id pre- ifli tilt' md tl\c asses of afficiciit stcd of avuliiis, soldiers ' tougli, .•th; Vor V sta<;'s' s, Avitli nscrted as fast- sccured Soiiie- niiuals o luivo ny dif- of the reapoiis |ol. ix., p. Itoiu. i.. p. -•., p. 14. \/itl />;"- p. '->lCi; toiii. v., I'.v, pt ii., ill Xoii- \kuiiiiiche Siiriri/, Avoiild have defeated tlio olijcct for which they often eiiiiii^ed ill war, namely that of takin*,^ their enemies alive for the purpose of immolating them upon the nltars of their gods. Tt is reasonahio to helieve that iiiaiiy of them attained to great accuracy in shooting with tlie how, hut there is room to d<»ul)t the asser- tion tliat some of them were ahle to shoot with three or four arrows at a time; or to throw an ear of corn into the air and pierce every kernel hefore it reached the ground; or to throw up a coin of the si/e of half a dollar, and keep it in the air as long as they pleased with tlieir arrows." The sling was a 1)raid of pita- tliread or other fihre, hroader in the middle than at the ends, with which stones were thrown with much force and accuracy; the missiles were carried in a ])ouch filled with stones and suspended from the waist ill front. The maza was a cluh similar to the IJoman t7(//v^ tapering from the handle towards the end and terniinating in a knotty head, filled with pohits of iztli or temi)ered copper." The macaita, or macaa- hulf/, called hy the Spaniards, efipada, a sword, was iiKule of touiifh wood, ahout three and a half fe(.;t lcon vn maii<;a nofattoili vn'altro hastone. Iirlationc/ii//ii /nr m fli ii/i/'/ini)iiio (frl Sii/iior Fcriinni'o Cortcsc, in Ramv.slo, Xui-if/atiuiii, torn. iii., fol. 'M'); Lrassciir ik JJvitrOouif/, Hist. Nut. Cic, torn, iii., pp. o'Jl-J. THE nLOW-PIPE AND STANDARDS. 4U ■d and 111 tlio two (ir tliO fil- Wiis so liaiilly rs WL'ii! ! Zaiio- hfli, or f otlatl tilt' tiro (1 tliroo ey ^vero L'liL'd, so aiidthcr .ii_o- used not tiiid of usiii},' rent vc- ist fiiriniil- liiv;;iis, (In iia ciicliil- /, Jiidinn, in;,' a lint- I liiul liw on 1-1 I'l'^- , , f..l. 41. 11 d'l, tlic'li; ■o coll rlii iiicdutiiii- iltnitiiuiil- ijniHrhiii- II. iii-, fill- lit till', liiit to the I'll- foft. 'I." M'la iU; li' II ciilito lie nut! iuril''» xvi.; -"'■'■ ll-».l. lit to tliat Dartli il'c illn jirr '•» iviii, toin. pp. 5'Jl-J. Idtlty, if it 1)0 true, an asserted, that tlioy would pass thidu^h a inau's body; they were mueh dreaded by the Sjtniiisli Con(|ueror.s. AVhen the Chiehiniecs first settled in the valley of Aiiilhuao the only weajions were the how and arrow and hlow-pijie, in the useof uhieh they uere wry ex- pert. The l)low-j)i})e was a lon<^ hollow tuhe through wliich flay pellets Avere projected, and it is aflinned that with them the Chichiinecs could kill a man (»r wild heast at a moderate distance; afterwards this Weapon came to bo generally used by other nations, hut was only employed for shooting small birds. Among other things, Cortes was presented by Mon- tczuma with a dozen blow-j»ipes beautifully orna- uuuted and painted with figures of birds and animals; the mouth-iiiece of each was made of gold, five or six inches lotig; they were also ornamented in the centre svith gold, and accompanying them were gold net-work niches to carry the jiellets.'^ The Matlaltzincas and fahascans used weapons similar to those of tlu na- tions of the Aniihuac valley ; the former were especially dexterous in their practice with the sling, which, when not ill actual use, was carried wound about the head.'''' Tlic Hghting men among the Jaliscans, were similarly armed, but the lords and captains carried only long staves with whicli to urge their men to fight and pun- ish any who were disorderly or showed symptoms of cowai-dice.^ Each nation had its own particular standard on which were painted or embroidered the armorial hearings of the state. That of the ]\[exican emjiire, as We have seen, bore an eagle in the act . 2!)!); Toviinrninila, Mitiiani. Ind., toiii. i., p. 4(J0, ^'> Sii/i(i. x., jip. 128-9. ''U Tur'^initiuila, Monanj. Ind., torn, i., p. 339. ill 412 TIIK .SATITA NATIONS. Ji 'pul)lic' had Jilso its a] (propria to ensiiicn; Tizatlan had ;i crane upon a rock, Tcj)otit'])ac a M'olf Avitli a hunch of arrows in his paws, Ocotchik'o a jjcrcen hird upon a rock, and Quialuiizthin a parasol :nade of L»'rcon Icatli- ors.^' Each company or conunand liad also a distinct standard, the colors of wliich corrcsjuaidcd to that of the armor and jtlunies of the chief The great stand- ard of tlie Tlascaltec army was carried h}^ the general commanding, and the smaller hanners of the compa- nies hy their res[)ective captains; they were carried on the back and were so iirndy tied there that they could not he detached without jj^reat difiicultv.^' AVhcn upon a march and not in presence of the enemy the standard of the Tlascaltecs was carried in the van, hut in action it was alwa\'s ])laced in th* rejii. The \Iex- ican standard was borne in the centre of the army. Instruments of nnisic, consisting of drums, horns, and lari>e sea-shells, were sounded while fi<»htini>' to en- courage and animate the men. The office of and)assador was one of nuich conse- quence, and i)ersons of the highest rank, selected lui- their courteous ]nanners and oratorical jmwers, were appointed to tlie position. Their })ersons were held sacred and they were usually received by those to 21 Tn rotrard to tlio armorial Oiisi^ru <>f flio Tlascaltecs, nutliors did'cr It is admit lc(l tliat tlic f.'ciicnii-'''.-c!iicf carried the standard of tlie rc|iuiii'c, and im|i(irlaiit aiitlioiitics say liiat (he one liorne hy Xicotencati in In^ halth- with Cortes had emidazoned iiitoii it a white hinl resemliiin;: an ostrich or heron, but Clavij^'cro and I'rescolt iui-Iine tti the opinion that the cMilih-in was ail ea;rle. In rc^jard to this Me Innethe followin;^ acconMl>. IJernal Diaz, an actor in the iiattie, says tiie Tlascaltec arjiiv Via: ranu'cd iiniU-r the lianner of .Xicotencati, '(|ua er:i \ u aiie hhn^ca teiididas his ii!;i>, coino (|iie c|neria holar, (iiie ])arece como aneslniz.' Hist. Cum:., fol. I."i. 'Id»'iiaiiae!estaiidiirte de iaciinhid, tine es vna ;r|-||a de oro con lasahis tciidi das.' ii'iiiiiiirii. CoiK/. Mr,r., fol. 7o. ' I''sta handi'ra di 'I'ascaltccle es una .;;r;ui ([lie trae ])or divisa, 6 annas al natural, de oro, e I 'iididas las alas.' cr. f/.i, Jlisf. (Irii., tom. iii., [1. ■^!t!>. '.Xicotencati. ..llevaha A Kstaiidarte (!<• la l»e[)iil)lic.i. line ira vn .\;;nihi \, \>. '2'M. ''' 'lla o;,qii coin](a;,'nia il siio Alliere con la sua iiise(.'na inha>.tata, v^ i^i tal modo li;:ata sopra Ic siialle, die non j^di da alcnn dislnrho di polcr i'< iii- hatlere lie far cio che viiole. iV' la porta cosi li^^ala hene al I'orpo, clie ^■l• iii>ii did inno del siio I'orpo pc/zi, non sej;li piio s li''aic, ne tornliida mai.' Il.laliu llli: fii r I'll ifi'i an, . ,lrl N, tom. iii., fol. 30'). iO, A( AMBASSADORS AND COl'KIKRS. 413 had a lU'll of ipon ii l"e:itli- listiiu't that of stand- vcncral I'oiiqia- licd oil y could .AVlu'i". iny tlio •an, hut u :nkx- e army, nis, aud ; to (.'U- i t'onso- ctod lor ■s, WtiV ro hi.' id hose to Idinvr It l('|iulil'l', all ill lii-< |iil)liii;-' iiii t\ tliiii til"' accoiiiiN. lii; raii.^t'il las i^hiN , una ur.ia lute ill- lii 1/ iniiiiii'". toiii. n , .. 1.. •::u. jata. iV I'l Idtrr II in- lla- M' 1"'!' \io, Ac'i- wliom they were sent with lionor and respect, per- fumed witli incense, presented witli Howers, and well lodged and entertahied; in case any insult or indio- iiity was oliered them, it constituted a suflicient ^ ause of war, Such an instance occurred when the T(.'j)a- uecs, duriui^ the I'eioii of their kinjj^ !Maxtlaton, in- vited the ]\lexican monarch Itzcoatl and liis chiefs to Aisit their province and partake of their hos]»itality. Itzcoatl declined at the advice of his chieis, hut the latter went, carryino- presents. They were accejtted ly the Tepanecs and the chiefs sent hack in wt)men's apparel, whicli they were coni})elled to Avear; the* indignity hrouo-ht ahout a war hi'tween the two na- tions. The proper courtesy and protection due to their position was, however, only accordetl them when on the hio'h road that led to their destination; if they deviated from it they lost their rii>hts and i)rivilei>es as amhassadors. When on duty they wore a special i;arh that denoted their office; it cotisisted of a <»reen liahit resend)lin_ij^ a scapulary, or small cloak; handsome feathers were twisted in the Iniir with tults of divers colois; in the rioht hand thev carried an arrow with the |)oint towards the jy^round, and i>i the left a shield; a small net containino- provisioiis liuno- from the left aim. .V comjdete courier-system was estahli.shed tlu'ouoh- out the em[)ire; t'lese couriers were employed to cany laessao-es in peace and war, and fresh provisions lor the kind's tahle; as we have seen in a former chajiter, it is asserted that Montezuma had fresh tish hr(»u_oht to his palace daily from the m'ulf coast. They were exceed- iiiijiy swift runners, heino' exercised from childhood and ciK'ourao-ed hy rewards to excel in speed. Stations were tixed at distances of ahout si\ miles ajiait, Aviiere small towers were huilt, in which dwelt one or more iiniriers readv at all times to set out with disi)atches. As soon as a ct)urier arrived at t)ne of these towers, one of those waitino- received from him the message he hoiv, usually expressed in paintings, and at once i r! i''|. km 414 THE NAHIJA WTIONS. ■.!■ : ii started for the next stage, and thus the tidings \veic conveyed to the capital in an incredibly short time. Wlien the dispatches were of an important natiuv, the courier wore some badge or was dressed in a man- ner indicative of the intelligence entrusted to hiiii. For instance, if it related to a defeat in battle, liu traveled with hair dishevelled, preserving a strut silence until the message was delivered to the person to whom it was directed; on the other hand, if lie ])r()ught news of a victory, his hair was neatly tied with a colored string, about his body was wrapped a wliite cotton cloth, on his left arm he carried a shield and in his right hand a sword which he brandished as if in combat, singing at the some time the glorious deeds of the victors.^ The Mexicans and other Nahua nations, favored by the general features of the country, adopted a sysstcin of fortifications and entrenchments admirably ada})te(l to secure them from the attacks of internal enemies, though insufficient as a defense against the superior tactics and indomitable perseverance of Cortt's. The position of the city of Tenochtitlan, or Mexico, gave it tall the advantajjes of a fortified town. There was no avenue of ai)proach to it but the causeways, which w'ere defended by towers and ditches s})anned liy draw-bridges; it was the untimely raising of one of these draw-bridges that caused such destruction to tlio S])aniards and their allies on the 'noche triste.' Bo- sides this, the inhabitants prepared themselves to defend their city by means of boats, and were frc- ({uently exercised in sham naval engagements. The temples of Mexico served all the purposes of citadels, esjtecially the great temple built by the Emi)eror Tizoc. It occupied the centre of the city and was ^ 'Rc's]icin1>an h los Enilmxndoros do sur THortales cDcmigo.s, coino ii I)ioscs, tiMiiiMido por iiiejor violar ()iiulnnier rito dc sii Hi'lij;is after IVIontezuma's death, five hundred Mexican nobles took possession of this summit, whence they hurled darts, arrows, and stones against the Spaniards, many of whom lost their li\es during the assault before the position was taken l)y Cortes in person. In his dispatcli to the Em})eror ('hiirles the Fifth he says: "so arduous was the at- tempt to take this tower that if God had not broken their spirits, twenty of them Avould have been suffi- cient to resist the ascent of a thousand n)en, although tliev fought with the greatest valor even unto death.""" Besides the arsenal and general rendezvous there were many turreted towers and strong buildings throughout the city, from the top of which men could shoot their arrows and hurl darts and stones with <»Teiit effect. Tl'.e lofty teocalli served as watch- towers, whence the movements of the ei'emy could bo ohserved. Naturally im}>regnable localities, such as tlio vicinity of impassai)le rivers or ravines were se- lected as sites for cities, which they further strength- *' 'A ciula parte y |mcrt,i do las los pueblos ticiicu eii olios toda su nimiicion.' Lus Ciisas, Hist. A/t(i/t)i/i tint, MS., eap. li. " 'Si Dios no les qucbrnrn las alas.' Corffs, Cartas, p. IH'2 See also Cliii'ii/rro, Sliiria Ant. del Mensico, toni. ii., pp. 151-2; Ortega lu Vcytin, Jlint.'Ant. MiJ., toiu. iii., p. 31». 416 THE NAHUA NATIONS. oned with forts or siuTounded witli stone walls. The city of Guacachula, taken by Cortes shortly after his retreat from Mexico on the 'noche triste,' is thus described by him in his letter to Chaiks the Fifth: "This city of Guacachula is situated upon a plain bounded upon one side by some very lofty and craggy hills; encircling the plain, on the other sides, about two cross-bow shots apart, arc two rivers that run through large and deej) raviiits. There are but few means of entrance to the city, and those extremely difficult both in the ascent and descent so that they can hardly be passed on liorse- back. The whole city is surrounded by a very stroiiir Avail of stone and lime about twenty-two feet high un the outside and almost level with the ground upon the inside. Around the whole wall runs a battle- ment, half the height of a man, as a protection when tjiifhtinof; it has four entrances of sufficient width to admit a man on horse'back, and in each entrance aie three or four curves in the wall that lap one over the other and in the course of the curves, on the top of the wall are parapets for fighting. In tlie whole cir- cuit of the wall is a large quantity of stones large and small and of different shapes for use in action." Four leagues distant from Guacachula was anotlicr <'ity called Izucan, also strongly fortified with breast- works, towers, and a deep river that encircled a great part of the city.^" One of the most celebrated structures built for de- fence was the stone wall erected l)y the Tlascaltccs to secure themselves from the incursions of the Mexicans. This wall was six miles long, extending acro.ss a val- ley from one mountain to another; it was nearly nino feet high and twenty feet thick, surmounted along its whole length by a breastwork that enabled its defend- ers to fight in comparative security from the t.'ji. There was only one entrance, about ten paces wide, where one jjart of the wall overlapped the other in 26 Curtis, Cartas, pp. 150, 152. NAHUA F0UTIFICATI0M8. 417 curvilinear form in the inanner of a ravelin for a dis- tiiiice of forty paces. Bernal Diaz and Cortes differ as to the materials of Avliicli the wall was built. The former affirms that it was built of stones cemented together with lime and a bitumen so strongly that it was necessary to use })ick-axes to se])arate them, while the latter says it was built of dry stone. Coi't ;s, describing the residence of the cacique of Iztacniaxtitlan, a garrison of the !^[exicans, says it was situated on a lofty eminence, with a l>etter fort- ress than there was in half 8i)ain, defended by a wall, larbican, and moats. ''^ In many other })arts of the country were stone fortifications, wooden stockades and intrenchments. A short distance from the vil- lage of Molcaxac stood a strony" fortress built on the toj) of a mountain; it was surrounded by four walls, erected at certain intervals l)etween the base of the mountain and the top. T\,enty-five miles from Cor- dova was the fortress of Quauhtochco, now Guatusco, encircled by high stone walls in which were no en- trance gates; the interior could only be gained by means of steep narrow steps, a method commonly adooted in the country.^** The nations of ^Fichoacan and Jalisco employed heavy tree-trunks in fortifying their positicms against the Spanish invaders, or cut dec]) intrenchments in which they fixed s]iarj)ened irtalvcs. Previous to an attack led by Pedro Alvarado a^^•linst the inhabitants . '>\^-(]{). ' I'lia fiK'iru liii'ii fiicrtc lu'clia lie cal y raiito, y tni lictiiii tan re/in, ; J'c/tr Mitrhfr, dt'c. v.. lil). i.; i'litriiji m, S/o- rin .[lit. ilrl Mf.s.sii-u, toiu. ii., I). l.V); Siilis, Hist. Lotni. Mij\, tuni. i., p. i!4l '•'' Cfdri'irri). Sforid A lit. (f'.l J/t',M/co, toni. ii., i). 150. Vol. II. 27 l lit;; i ■■<:. I'; 418 THE NAIIUA NATIONS. horse with such violence that he died two days after- wards.^ Under the tripartite treaty made })y the kingdoms of Mexico, Tezcuco, and Thicopan, a niihtary couiitil was established consistiiif^ of a president and twenty- one members. During the reign of the emperor Ne- zahualcvoyotl their deliberations were held in a hall of his palace in Tezcuco. The president belonged to the highest rank of the nobility and commanders of tho army, the other members were composed of six of the princijml men of Tezcuco, three nobles and three com- moners, and fifteen selected from the other chief prov- inces. Ail were veteran offic( s of recognized couram; and good conduct. To this court were referred all mat- ters relating to war. The council assembled when re- quired, to discuss and decide all affairs of the service, whether for the punishment of offenses subversive of military discipline, or to transact the business relative; to a declaration of war against other powers. In the latter case the consultation always took place in ])ivs- ence of the sovereisjfn, or of the three heads of tlie empire. All aml)assadors and soldiers were su1>jcct to this tribunal, which meted out reward as well us punishment. The following were the articles of war: First: any general or other military ofTic-ec wlio, accompanying the king on a campaign, should orsakc him, or leave him in the power of the enemy, t'lurchy failing in his dutv, which was to briniif back iiis sov- ereign dead or alive, suffered death by decapitation. Second: any officer who formed the ])riiice's guard and deserted his trust, suffered death by deca])itati()ii. Third: any soldier who disobeyed his su])erior offi- cer, or al)andoned his post, or turned his back upon the enemy, or showed them favor, suffered death by decapitation. s" TiriKoni, ITist. Mnuiln Nunrn, p. 107; Orinfo, Ifisf. Gni., tmii. iii., p. ."id?; CiuiKirijn, Hist. Thix., in XouvclUs Annuhs dr.s Vnij., ISi:!, tniii. xcviii., p. 133. ARTICLES OF WAR. 419 Fourth: any officer or soldier who usurped tlic captive or spoil of Jinother, or who ceded to another tlic prisoner he himself had taken, sutt'ered death hy lliUlL''"lJ,^ Fifth: any soldier who in war caused injury to the enemy without permission of his officer, or who at- tacked before the siiiiial was mven, or who abandoned the standard or headquarters, or broke or violated any Older issued by his captain, suffered death by decapi- tation. Sixth: the traitor who revealed to the enemy the secrets of the army or orders communicated for the success thereof, sufi'ered death by bein*,'' torn to ])ieces; liis ])roperty was forfeited to the crown and all his children and relations were made slaves in jterpetuity. Seventh: any person who })rotected or concealed an enemy in time of war, whether noble or plebeian, hiuffered death by beinif torn to j)ieces in the middle of the jtublic square, and his limbs were _oiven to the pojtulace to be treated as objects of derision and con- tenijtt. Eighth: any noble or })er^^on of distinction who, in action, or at any dance or festival, exhibited the in- signia or bado'os of the kings of Mexico, Tezcuco, or Tlacopan, suffered death and forfeiture of property. Ninth: any nobleman who, being ca})tured by the enemy fled from i)rison and returned to his country suH'ered death by decapitation ; but, if he fought and vancjuished seven soldiers in gladiatorial comliat })re- vious to return, he was free and was rewarded as a brave man. The private soldier who Hed Irom an enemy's prison and returned to his country was well received. Tenth: any ambassador who failed to disctiarge his trust in accordance with the ordei's and instructions given to him or who returned without an answer, suf- fered death by decapitation.* 30 ""' Vnf/>(t, Jfisf. A)it. Mij., tmn. iii.. jip. 203-4. 422-.3; Tor>/iirt)i,i(/(i, Mmnirr/. I ml., torn, ii., [ip. 3S4-5, r)40; Las Casus, Ilisl. A/iolui/cdnx, MS., 120 THE NAIIUA NATIONS. ill As T have already stated, the piiinary ohjoct of most wars was to j)roL'ure victims for sacritices to Huitzilopoc'litli and otlier j^ods, and tlio Mexitaiis were never at a loss for an excuse to pick a <|uarrLl. Tlie refusal of a nei,o"hborin<^ power to receive in its temple one of the Mexican j^^'ods, nei^lect to i)ay tiih- iite demanded, insults ottered to am])assadors or trav- elin<^' merchants, or synn)toms of rebellion in a city or a i)rovince, i'urnished sufficient pretext to take u}> arms. The rulers of Mexico, however, always en- deavored to justify their conduct before they made Avar, and never connnenced hostilities without send- 'mresents was made, and if the message was from one friendly })ower to iinother, a refusal of such gifts was a serious affront. If, however, it was to an enemy, the ambassador could not receive a present without express orders from his master. When the three powers of Mexico, Tezcuco, and Tlacopan acted in unison, in the exent of a diffi- cidty with another nation, the first and)assadors sent were of the Mexican nation and were called qiKHjtiaaJi- iioi'htzin. Upon arriving at the capital of the king- dom or province they })roceeded at once to the public sjuare and summoned before them the ministers and aged men, to whom they made known the several cir- cumstances of the case, warning them that, in case their lord refused to accede to their propositions, upon them and their families would fall the evils and hard- shi[)s produced by war, and exliorting them to counsel and persuade their lord to maintain the good will and protection of the empire ; for this purpose they granted twenty days, within which time they would expect an answer, and in order that there might be no com- plaint of being surprised and taken unprepared tliey a 422 THE NAHUA NATIONS. loft a sni)i)ly of weapons and tlion rotind outside the town to await the answer. If within tlie twenty (lays it was decided to accept the terms of the anihas sadors, the ministers went to the j)lace where thiy were in waitintivtt' al |iuetdi>, \ sin niuciio conscjo de Um iiiiis ancianos y caballeros ejcrcitados en la j^ucrra, al cual conscjo so ad- iiiiliaa las ninjeres niuy virjas coinii persoiias i|n(> lialiian visto y oido iMiiclias cDsas y awi esperinii'iitadas dn io pasado." J.iin Cusiis, lli.st. A/mttt- iji /"•'!, MS., cap. Ixvi. According.; to tiic ( 'lu-valier ISotiirini the tir.st anilias- sadurs were accredited to the kin^' or lord of the jirovince, the .second wcrs (lisputclu'd to the n(diilitv refe and advised tlieni of the motives their monarcli liail for \va;. U>"2-.'{. See also IV//- ti'i, llinf. A)it. Mi'j., ttii, who weic selected for their knowledge of the language and customs of the enemy's country, were sent thitlui-, dressed after the manner of the inhahitants. These 8]>ies were directed to pre[)are maps of the districts they passed through, showing the plains, rivers, mount- ains, and dangerous passes as well as the most practi- cahle routes, and were to take notice of all means of defense possessed hy the enemy. The sketches and information thus ohtained were yfiven to the chiefs of the army to guide them in their march and enal)le them to make the hest disposition of their forces. Such spies as hrought valuahle news were reward- ed with the grant of a piece of land, and if one came over from the enemy's side and gave advice of their preparations and force, he was well paid and giv^en presents of mantles.** When a war was to \>c conducted jointly hy the three allied powers, procl;i- maticm was made hy heralds in the public thorou'.'i fiires of the capital cities. Commissariat oft called caJjyixqiies collected the necessary stores provisions for the campaign, and distributed weapm 32 Torqucmnda, Monarq. Ltd., toin. i., p. 42.*}; Gomara, Conq. Mex., M- 75; Ilrrrcm, Hisf. Grn., dec. ii., IH). vi., «i|t. vi. 3' 'A estiis EH])ias, que emltitiluiii delaiitc, Ilaiiiabim Ratones, one uihImu dc nofhe, 6 cscundidus, y il liurtudillus.' Torqucmada, Monarq. lud., tuiu. ii., p. 538. I Also sjx'lt qitiahtlalc, jaotlnlU, meaiiin}? ii place for war. Cltirifffro, fjldriii Aut. dd Mf.sniro, tinii. ii., 1>J). 147-S; Ooitttiia, Vuntj. Mcx., fol. 322; TuripiciitaiUi, Monarq. lad., toin. ii., p. 538. i if n 42G THE N.*iirA NATIONS. attack was j^iven by him. The Mexican moiuucli iKSSued his orders to conimence the action by sound! ni> on a lary^c sliell making a noise ^'ke a trumpet; thu lords of Tezcuco beat upon a small drum, and lords of (^ther provinces struck two bones together. The sio-- nals for retreat were given upon similar instruments. When the battle connnenced, the shrieking of musical instrum«;nts, the clashing of swords against bucklers, and shoutiuij: of the combatants made a noise so <>icat as to strike terror into those unused to it. AVliilc tiohtino' the warriors shouted the names of their re- s})ective towns or districts to enable them to recognize each other and prevent confusion.*' In lighting there appears to have been no special tactics; the commanders of divisions and the captains used every effort to keep their men together, and were very careful to j>r«)tect the standard, as, if that was taken, the battle was considered lost and all Hed. They observed the wise policy of keeping a nuniher of nien in reserve to replace any who were wearied ttr had exhausted their weapons. The archers, slingers, and javelin men commenced the action at a distance and gradually drew nearer, until they came to cKise tpiarters, when they took to their swords and s})ears. All movements, both in advance and retreat, were rapidly executed; sometimes a retreat was feigned in order to draw the enemy into an ambuscade wliidi had been prepared beforehand. The chief object was to take prisoners and not to slay; when an enemy re- fu.sed to surrender, they endeavored to wound tlKin in the foot or leg so as to prevent escape, but tliey never accei)ted a ransom for a prisoner. Certain men were attachetl to the army whose duty it was to re- move the killed and wounded during the action, mi that the enemy might not know the losses and take fresh heart.^'' '6 Tczozomor, Crdirira lifex., in Kiiigsborongh's Mix. Antiq., vol. ix., pp. 31, 41, mi, 147. '" For fiirtlier iioi'ount of tlieir niaiiiicr i)f »'t)H(luctiii^' ii war, sec: clan- ijrro, .s7o;/f( Aiil. del Mcnaicu, twin, ii., pii. 1 IT-'J; ^iiImijiih, Hint. G't/r, tmii. TLASCALTECS AND TARASCOS, 427 Tlie Tlascaltecs formed their army into battalions, t'iU'li liaviui'' its appointed cliief, tlie whole being under the command of a general-in-chief, who was elected from among those of the four seigniories into wliich the republic was divided. Their mode of fighting (lillirod little from thoc of the Mexicans, with the ex- ivjttion of a certain practice wliich they observed iij»Mii first 'oniing in contact with the enemy. This roiisisted in '-arrying with them two darts which thev lielieved would })resage victory or tlefeat according to tlic result of their delivery into the hostile ranks. According to Motolinia the tradition among them in regard to this belief was, that their ancestors came t'loiu the north-west, and that in order to reach the land they navigated eiyhc or ten days: from the >ldcr'olors. Tlieir skill and valor is best ]n<)ven by the I'act that the ^[exicans were never able to sul)due them. They sJiDwed esi)ecial strategy in luring the foe into ambu.sh, bike the Mexicans their chief ol)ject in l)attle was t.) take iirisonei's to saci-itice to their gods.'*' ii, 'ill. viii., |i|(. .'Ul-l-i; f.(i\ ('(imi.i. IIImI. A/)ii/ii(irfirii, MS., cap. Ixvii ; -ir,<, ;,/,,, y/,\7. /•;,/,•,<.. pi,. I-JD ;{|; (liumini, ('i>ii>/. .U-',;-., fill. :{■_'_' M; /Irif.s- ^niiiriiiiii/ii. Mn- ""/■/. //»/., tiilii. ii , ji]!. .")l$7-40; ('/iiiciM, I'li/i/nir/, \li 7'i riiiiii.r-Ciiiii/tfiiis, \ oif., >irii' i., toll', v., iip. ;U.S-I4: Klinnii, <'it/li(r-(i'i.sr/iirfifi, tniii. v., pp. 8ti S. '■^ Mdliiliniii, lli.sf. fiii/iits, Ul Jriizlitllrr/ii, Ciil. ilr /tor., timi. i., p. II; /[■rrrni, lli.it. (irii., iloc. ii., lib. vi., ca|). .wii.; (loiinnui, <.'i)ii'/. Mij\, fol. ■*i; Tiii'/Hioiiifiii, .)fi)tiitri/. 1)1(1., torn, i., p. 34; G'uijc'.s XticSiinn/, p. 77; lli'isirrrc, I/Einiiirr Mr.i., p. '2M). ''J IlrauiJiDiit, ('run Mrr/ionrnii, MS., |ip. ol, CO-1. 428 THE XAHUA NATIONS. Among the Mexicans, when the battle was over, the first prisoners taken were given to the i)riL'st,s tu he sacrificed before tlie idols they carried with tlitin. An account was taken of the losses sustained and of tiie number of prisoners and other booty gained. lie- wards were distributed to all who had distinguislnd themselves and punishment inflicted on any wlio liad misbeliaved. All disputes relative to the capture of prisoners were inquired into and adjusted. If a cuse arose where neither of the disputants could })r(»ve their title, the prisoner was taken from them and given to the priests to be sacrificed. Those inhal»i- tants of the concjuered province who could prove that they had taken no active i)art in the war were ])im- ished at the discretion of their conqueror; usually they wer3 condemned to pay a certain annual trihute, or to construct public works; meantime, the vaii- (piislied province v/as supplied with a governor and otticers, appt)inted from among the con(juerors.*'' Wiien tlie king or a feudatory lord ca}>tured a ])iis- oner for the first time, his success was made the oi't'a- sion of much rejoicing. The captive, dressed in siiowy apparel and mounted on a litter, was borne to the town in great triunq>h, accompanied by a liost of v.ai- riors shouting and singing; at the outskirts of the city the procession was met by the inhabitants, some i^laviniif on musical instruments, others danciuiif and singing songs composed for the occasion. Tlie jnis- oner was saluted with mimic hon(»rs, and his cajitor greatly extolled and congratulated. Numbers of peo- ple arrived from the adjoining towns and village's to assist in the general hilarity, Ijringing with tlniii ]>resents of gtdd, jewels, and rich dresses. Upon the , wliere was H\c(l a huge round stone, three feet high, smooth, and adorned with figures. This stone was called tlie tr- hi1I '1; Clurifimi, Shiriii An/, drl Mrssiin. Imn. ii., |i. ll'.t. ^•' < 'aiiiiir;;o says tlio priMiiuT was ^'ixcn liis cliuirf of every kiml of (illfiisive and defensive weajioiis. Ilisl. T/ii.r., in \itiirillt.s Aiiimlrs t/i.s I".'/. IS4,S, tout, xeviii., \)\>. ISS-<,», Itut ail otiier aiitiiorn state tiiat lie was tiiilv ;,'iveii a short swoid and sliield. Itotiirini :a>s a ser\aMl wlio was midir liie stone drew the rord and so eontndled the prisoner tiiat iu uid Mill luove. li/iii, ]>. Kit. Diiran says: 'el niodo i|iie en eelelirarlo teiiian; i|U;' era atar li los I'resos con nna sii;:a al ide jior nn aiiu;^( ro (lue a(|ntdla ]>ii'dra tenia por medio, y desnndo en eneros le dahan una rodela y una r^lNnla (le solo palo enipluinado en las inanos, y Unas jielotasile |>alo eon ipiti si' diiciidimi de los tjiie salian a ronitiatir eon el, i[ue crau eiiatro niuy liii.li iiiinadus.' Jli.sl. Iiidiii.s, MS., toni. i., eap. 30. 430 THE NAHIA NATIONS. 'm W "'\ (|i!M'ccl, a priest, called chcdchiiihtopclnia, inimedi- utely seized him, hurried him dead or alive te the sacrificial stone and tore out his heart. The victor was then publicly congratulated and rewarded witli military honors. If, however, the prisoner vaii- (juished his tirst opponent and six others, by whom, in succession, he was attacked, he was granted his IVct - dom, all spoil taken from him in battle was restored to him, and he returned to his country covered witli ijflorv. A notable violatitm of this law is recorded of the Huexotzincas. In a battle between them and the Cholultecs, the leader of the latter nation became separated from his own people during the heat of battle, and was, after a gallant resistance, made ] iris- oner and conducted to the capital. Being placed on the gladiatorial stone he contpiered the seven ad^el•- saries that were brought against him, but the Huex- otzincas, dreading to lil)erate so famous a waii'ior, contrary to their imiversal law, put him to death, and thereby covered themselves with ignominy.*^ if the prisoner was a person of very high rank, lie was takeit before the king, who ordered that he sliould be sum})tuously fed and lodged for forty da^s. At the end of that time he was accorded the riglit of coml)at, and if conquered, after the usual sacriticial ceremonies the Um\y was cut into small pieces; these were sent to the relations and friends of the deceased, who received them as relics of great value and nc knowledged the favor by returning gold, jewels, and rich plumes." If we are to believe (Honiara and others, the number of victims, chiefly prisoneis of war, sacrificed at some of the festivals, Avas eiioi- mous. The historians relate that in front of tlie princij)al gate of the temjde there was a mound built of stone and linie \\\i\\ innumerable skulls of prisoners inserted l)etween the stones. At the *' Urhitionr fntta per vti (frulir/iiiot/io del Si'ipifir Firuiiiido ('arfcr. in I'miiiisiu, \an)iit(iuiu, ti)in. ili., M. 30."); i'lavig-ro, Sioria Aid. ikl M ^■^ii'", toni. ii., |i|>. 47 8. si!ig ei' ])ris- oners of war, and kept them to be saci'ificed at their festivals. The first prisoner taken in battle by the Tlasoaltecs was flayed alive and he who ca})tured liini dressed himself in the horrid trophy, and so cov- ered served the god of battles during a certain nuni- l)er of days. He paraded frtan one temjde to anotiier followed by a crowd that shrieked for joy; but had, however, to run from his jiursuers, for if they caught him they beat him till he was nearly dead. This cere- mony was called ejrquinan, and was sometimes observed hv two or three at the same time.*'"' At one of their festivals they bound their prisoners to high crosses and shot them to death with arrows; at other times they killed them with the bastinado. They had also solemn haiKjuets, at which they ate the flesh of their prisoiieis. At tlie taking of Mexico, the Tlascaltec soldieiy feasted upon the bodies of the slain Mexicans, and < oi'tes, although shocked at the revolting practice, was unable to prevent it.*^ Tlie Mexicans, Tlascaltecs, and neighboring nations *■' C'nmnrn, Conq. Mi\r., fol. 121 2; Ariista, Hist, d, Ins Yml., \,\\. :i?,^-'i; JliiTii-'i, Hint, lieu,, tloi'. ii., lib. viL, fii|i. xviii.; Mon/nmis, Siriare ]\'nir/il, |i. 242. *'• I'dinor;/!), llisf. Tlitx., ill Xoiirr/lrs Anitiilrs i/rs Vojl., I8i;{, tnin. xeix., j). i;{4'. *^ ( fiirii/rri), S/o>'i'i A lit. ilrf ,}fissii-i), tmii. ii., p. ,'»! ; 'run/Ill iiiiii/ii. Mil- viirij. IikL, torn, i., p. A'lX For fiii'tinT rcfori'iicc to treatment of jirisoii- ers, M'c: LrtliLvdihill, Hist, t'hirh., in Kiiiffs/idroHij/i's .Mir. Aiitii/., vol. i.\., ]>\y '.'."lO-l ; Tizuzoinor, I'rdm'fi .M'j:., in lit., p. Iti4; Klrniin, t'lilliir-Hr- ■v''/()V/,/., toni. v., ])p. 102 ;{; }fii/f'r, Ann rihiiiiisclii I'm l/i/aiiicii, p. (134; i'fv.v- y, Mcxium, pp. 215-10; I'dir Murti/r, dt-c. v., lib. viii. ''■urn 432 THE NAHUA NATIONS. always made tlie ruturii of a successful army tlie occa- siuu of j^reat Icstivity and rojoicinj^; the loud sound of drums and musical instruments jj^reeted the entry of the victorious troo})s into tiie capital; triunijilial arches were erected in the streets and the lictuscis decorated with tlowers; an abundance of copal was burned and sumptuous bantjuets were pre})arcil; all were dressed in their gayest attire, and the warriors put on all the insignia of their rank; gifts were distributed to tliose who had performed any deed of gallantry, and minstrels sung or recited poems in their j)rui,'5t'. Many went to the temples to observe especial acts of devotion to the gods, and numbers of the prisoners Were then sacrificed. All these ceremonies tended to insjjire the youths with courage and make them am- bitious to gain distinction in war.*" ** Tnstaiicps of lidw the Mi-xicaiiH rot'civeil their victorums armies nra •riven ill 'J'rziiziiiiior, (Jninini Mv.e., in Kiii(/slit)n)iiij/i\s Mi.r. Aiifii/., vol. ix., ]i|>. 'A'.), (51, 177-8; JiniHsctir . 13(5; Ifcrrrra, Hist, (rcii., dee. ii., lih. vi., cap xvii.; Tiiri/i'riiutdu, Moiuinj. IniL, toui. ii., p. 574; Acuntu, Hint, lie las 1 ml., jip. 489-'J0. CHAPTER XIV. NAHUA LAWS AND LAW COURTS. General Remarks— the Cihuacoatl, or Supreme Judge— the Court OK THE Tlacatecatl— Jurisdiction of the Tecutlis— the Cen- TK(TLAI'IX(iUE.S AND Toi'II.LIS— LaW CoUUTS AND JUDGES OF TEZ- (ICO — Eighty-Day Council — Tribunal of the King — Court I'KOCKEDINGS — LAWYERS — WITNESSES— REML'NERATION OF JUDGES —Justice of King Nezahualpilli— He orders his Son's Execu- tion— Montezuma AND THE Farmer — Jails — Laws against Theft, Murder, Treason, Kidnai'I'INg, Drunkenness, Witch- cuAFT, Adultery, Incest, Sodomy, Fornication, and other Crimes— Story of Nezahualcoyotl and the Boy. Tt has already been stated that among the Naliuas tlie supreme legislative power belonged to the king; the lawful share that he took in the administration of justice we shall see as we examine the system of juris- jjiudonce adopted by them. When treating of the Nahua judiciary the majority of liistorians have preferred to discuss almost exclu- si\ijly tlie system in vogue at Tezcuco, pai-tly, per- liiips, l)ecause it presents a nicer gradation of legal tiiliuuals, and consequently a cltjser resemblance to Einopuan institutions than did the more simple rou- tine of the Mexicans, but mainly because the niiite- rials of information were more accessible and abundant. Many writers, however, have not followed this rule, l>ut throwing all the information tliey could obtain into .1 general fund, they have ai)plied the wliole in- VoL. II.— 28 U33) 434 THE NAHUA NATIONS. ifH: (liscriminately to the 'Mexicans,' by which term tlity mean all the inhabitants of the regions conquered liy Cortes. Las Casas, speaking of the allied kingdoms of Mexico, Tezcuco, and TIacopan, says that "their goverimient and laws scarcely differed, so that wliat- ever may be said of those parts concerning which tin- most information can be obtained, may be understood. and perhaps it is best to say it, as .applying to all."'^ Although the number and jurisdiction of the law- courts of Mexico and Tezcuco differed, there is reason to believe that the laws themselves and the penalties inflicted were the same, or nearly so. In Mexico, and in each of the principal cities of tlie empire, there was a supreme judge, called ciliuacoatl} who was considered second only to the king in rank and authority. He heard appeals in criminal oasis from the court innnediatelv below him, and from Jiis decision no appeal was allowed, not even to the king.' * 'El {jovierno y las Icycs quasi no diferiaii, por maiiera que ]M)r Id (|iii' «lc Unas partes ilijeronios, y adonde tuvinitm mayor noticia, se jM)(lra ciitcii- >/., serie ii., torn. 1., p. 93; Las Casas, Jlist. Ajtohxjftica, MS., cap. cexii.; Torqiirnnnld, Mn- iiarq. IiuL, tom. ii., p. 354. Spealiing of Mexico, Tezcuco, and 'riaci)|iiiii, Znrila says: 'Les lois ct la jiroeednre etaient les meiiies daiiscestrnisc'liils, de sorte qn'cn exposant les nsa;;es etaltlis ^^'^''^ ^^^ authority to reverse the decisions of the latter. The cihuacoatl was appointed by the king, and he in turn appointed Miiiitt'zuina's rei;,'u, the period which the Areiuhiza ])jiiiitiii;;s represent, and I.t'iin Ciirhajal, I)isriir,so, ]>. ilS, totally denies the trnth of tiie stiitenient. ■• 'Dalle scntenze ihi lui proniinziate o nel eivile, o nel eriniinale, non >i [Miteva appellare ad un altro trihunale,' &c. Hturia Ant. del JA.v.wco, tiini, ii , ]>. 127. '■> Ml. I'., v.d. i., p. 20. *■' Hist. Xiit. dr., ton) .u., p. 580. ' Hint. Mix., toni. i., p. fll»3. ^ liisntr.so, )). 97. ' 'Oia de eausas, qne .ie deholvian, y reniitian .^ el, jior npelacion: y f.-itiiK crioi, ,sn/(is la.s crii/iinnfi .f, jion/iti' dr ^^s' riri/r.s- no .vf iijirlalni ifr .v/^v Jiixliiiii.i (ir(liiH(ri«.s.' MuiiKVii. Iiiil., \im\. ii., p. .V>2. It is possihh; that Scfiur ("arhajal may have read only a snl)se(|ut!nt |iassa;L;(,' in the sjinie chap- ti'r, where Tonineniada, upeakinj? of the triluinal of the tlaeuteeatl, says: 'l>e este se apelaha, i>arii el Trihnnal, y Andiencia del Cihnaeohuatl, (pie era .Inez Snpreino, des[nies del I'ei.' From what has^one hefore, it is, how- ever, evident that the anthor here refers oidv to the eriniinal cases that veri' apiiealed from the eonrt of the llaeateeatl. '" Ifixf. A/wlit(/('tirii, MS., eap. eexii. " .W'.c, vol. i., ji. •2',). Clavi^fero, Slarla Ant. del Mr.svim, tom. ii., i)p. 127-S, also atlirms, indirectly, that eas(!s wtTC sometimes laid in the first in- siaiiic hefore the supreme jiulj;e, inasmuch as he first says that the ciliua- ciiail took eo;;nizanee of hoth civil and criminal cases, and afterwards, wiien speakinj; of the court of the tlaeatecatl, he writes: 'Se la causa em iiiirMiiiente civile, non v'eni a|i]iellazione.' The same apj)lies to IJrasseur de Buiirijoury. Hist. A'at. Civ., tom. iii., p. 580. 'I i 480 THE NAIIUA NATIONS. riia tliu inferior judsjces. Ho hold his office for Hfe, and ill addition to hi.s re<,ndar judicial duties had char;4t' of the moat important affairs of government, and of the royal revenues. He was without a colleague, and must administer justice in person. Such was tliu res})ect paid to tliis exalted person.age, that whoe\cr had the audacity to usurp his power or insignia suf- fered death, his property was confiscated and his family enslaved.''* The nex.t court was supreme in civil m.atters and could only he ai)})ealed from to the cihuacoatl in casus of a criminal nature. It was presided over by three judges, the chief of whom was styled tlacatecatl, and from him the court took its name; his colleagues were called qiKHtJiiiochtU and tkinothic}^ Each of these had his deputies and assistants. Affairs of im]M)rt- ance were laid in the first instance before this tri- bunal, but ap})eals from the inferior courts were also heard. Sentence was pronounced by a crier entitled tecpoijotl in the name of the tlacatecatl, and was carried into execution by the quauhnochtli with liis own hands. The office of tecpoyotl was considered '2 Herein lies the only (liffercnre between Las C.isas and Torqiicniiula on tlie subject of tlie (Mliiiueoiitl. Tlie former writes: 'liuabiniera (jue e.stc olicio para si usiirpara, o \n eoncediera a otro, avia tic iiiorir jior eUo, // .sc.v jiKi/rrs >/ (liiidds cnni thxiiittiirdtlos ilil piichlo (loiidc aciuviv.ie himlti la ijiiiirfii (ii/icriirioii. Alleiiile ([Ue todos losbieiies avian de ser coiiliscailos, y ajilicadoH para la re|iulilii'a.' Hist. A/iolui/ctica, MS., cap. ccxii, Toriiutiiiaila says: 'era tan aiitori(,-ado esto oticio, tpie el (lue lo vsurpara ])ara .si, n Ik I'oiiiiiiiicara h otro en ai^'una parte del lleino, nuiriera j)or ello, (/ siis llij'is, y Mmjiirfuvraii rciiditlos, jior pcrpcfiins cicliivun, y eonliscados sus liiciir-, jior Lei, <[ue ))ara esto liavia. Mniuirq. lud., Unn. ii., p. 35'2. Notwiili- Htandin;; all otiier historians distinctly aHirn* that the cihuacoatl \va>. in the exercise of his functions perfectly indejiendent of the kin;;, lJra»fiir de llourbour;,', Ilist. Nut. Cir., toni. iii., \). 580, nnikes the following,' cMia- onlinary statement: 'U ju;j;eait en clernier re.s.sort ct dounait des ordro m Hill ct place (III soHVcrulii, r/utqucfois que ccltii-ci lie lefriisitU pas i/irnii- yiriit etpiir liii-iiieiiir.' This must he from one of the original manusciipls in tlie possession of AL I'Abbe. '3 Las Casas, I fist. Ajiufiti/i'tina, MS., cap. ccxii., spells these names Taia- tecatl, acoahunotl, and tlaylotlat; Tonjuemada, Miiiinrq. Iiiif., toni. ii., I'. 352, tlacateccatl, '" l)»,y dii-ri-tf- luanusciil'l^ lauH'f* Tiiia- Itoiii. ii . r- isUivi'i .!"'• aiii'itlai', "t Itlio^'vapUv, luiloavoniio' one of hiy^h honor because he dechirod the ^vill of tho V\\\)f as represented by liis judj^'es. In each ward of the city there was a mati^istrate called tecuhtU who was annually elected by the in- hal)itants of his district; he judj^ed minor cases in the first instance only, and probably the office some- what resembled that of our police judge. Appeal lay from him to the tlacatecatl." It was the duty of the tecuhtlis to give a daily report of affairs that had been submitted to them, and of the judgments they had rendered thereon, to the tlacatecatl, who reviewed their proceedings. Whether the tlacatecatl could reverse the decision of a teuchtli when no appeal had been made, is uncertain, but it appears iiiil)robable, inasmuch as a failure to exercise tho right of appeal would imply recognition of justice in the judgment passed by the lower tribunal. In each ward, and elected in the same manner as the tecuh- tlis, were officers whose title was ccutectlapixqu(\ wliose province it was to watch over the behavior and Welfare of a certain number of families conmiitted to their charge, and to acijuaint the magistrates with everything that passed. Although the centectla- ]»ix(iues could not exercise judicial authority, yet it is probable that petty disputes were often submitted to them for .arbitration, and that their arbitrament was abided by. In case the parties could not he hroiight to any friendly settlement, however, tho eentectlapixipie immediately reported the matter to tli(j tecuhtli of his district, and a regular trial ensued. Tho tecuhtlis had their bailiffs, who carried their messages and served summonses. In addition to these there were constaldes styled topilU, who ar- rested prisoners and enfoxced order.^ 15 " Clavifjero, Sfnria Ant. del. Mrmtirn, torn, ii., p. 128, writes 'ejrioriial- iiii'iiti- si jH.rtava al L'iluiaroatl, od al Tlucateratl ])or avvertirlo di tutto cio, clu- iiccorrcva, e ricevcr gli ordini da liii;' but it would iirohaMy Ik' only in cases of jfroat imiwrtanco that the rei)oits of the teuchtli would lie fairifd til tin- cihuacoatl. !■* Las Cu.sas, Hist. Ajiolo'jctic(t, MS., cap. cc.\ii. ; Turqueiiutda, Muinmj. m THE NAHUA NATIONS. 1 ^ k III Tuzc'uco, altli<)ui,'li the kinj^doin was divided into many proviiict's/" the higliur courts of justice were j>laced in six of tlie princij)al cities only." Eat'li of these tribunals was presided over hy two judges, who were very high niagnate.s and usually nihitives of llu; king, and from these an a})peal lay to two su}»renic judges who resided at the capital."* These twelvu judges were assisted hy twelve sheriffs,'" whose duty it was to arrest prisoners of exalted rank in tlitir own district, or to go in search of offenders in otiur l)rovinces. The peculiar badge of these ofticurs was a certain ornamented mantle; wherever they went they were held in great awo and respict, as lepresentatives of the king, and seldom entoun- tojod resistance in the exercise of their functions. I'here were also constables in .attendance on the courts, who acted with great diligence in carrying messages or making arrests. Every ten or twelve days all the judges met in council with the king,-' 20 Iiiif., toin. ii., i». .3."); Clamgcro, Slorin Ant. del Mcssico, torn, ii., ])\<. 1-7-8. "" Tonjuomadii, MoiKini. finf., toiii. ii., p. 3.")4, says that there were lif- leeii ])r<)vinceH miliject to tiK! Iciii;; of Tczeueo. '7 Tiie Eii^iisii edition of <"lavi}'ero reads: 'the jndieial power was tli- vided ainoii;;Ht.s7'(r/(, ]iriiieipal eities, p. .3.'>4; ])iit tiie ori<;iiial ajrrees wilii tiu' other authorities: 'iiel Uef^no d'Aeolhiiacan era hi j^itirisdizioiie eoiiiiiarlit;i tra sri Citta priiieiiiali.' Sfaria Aiii. t/cl Mcssiro, tojii. ii., ]). 1'28. •" Las t'limts, llist. Apolixjf/irfi, MS., ea]). eexii. Torcpieniada, however, asserts that tliere were 'en hi Ciudad de Tetzetieo (que era la (Atrte) deiitw de la ("asa Heal dos Salas de Consejo. . . .y en eada Sala dos Jueees. lia- via difereneia eutre los diehos Jueees; ponjue losde la vna Sala eran de iiims aiitoridad, ((ue los dc hi otra; estos se llaniahan Jueees niaiores, y esiitins iiieuores; los niaiores ohm de causas ;;raves, y ([ue jterteneeian a la dclcr- iiiinaeion del Hei; los se, writes: 'Tenia cada S:il:i de estas diehas otro Ministro, que haeia ofieiode Alj?uaeil Maior,\'v.c., wliilo other writei-s assij;u one to eaeh judj^e, of whom there were two in i;uii eiuirt. 5" Clavigero differs on this point from other writers, in making; tliis meeting occur every Mc.\icttu mouth of twenty days. Zuritu, Rainiort, iu k'} THE EICJHTV-DAY COUNCFL. 439 wlien cases of importiiiico wore (.liseussed, and eitlier liiially suttlud, or laid over for derision at a «ifrand council which convened every four Mexican months, iuakin- ceedings with a speech, in which he praised virtue and severely rei)rimanded vice; he reviewed all the events of the past eighty days, and commented very severely even u})on the acts of the king himself. In tliis council all suits were terminated, the sentences i)eiiig carried out on the spot,-^ and ati'airs of state and jtolicy were discussed and transacted; it generally sat (hiring eight or ten days.*^ In addition to these judges there were magistrates of a lower order in all the })rovinces, who took cognizance of cases oi' minor iiiH)(jrtance, and who also heard and considered those of greater consecpience preparatory to laying them helbre the Eighty-Day Council.'" The historian Ix- TiriKiit.r-Cniiinan.'i, Voij., soric ii., toni. i., p. 101, writes: 'Touh los donzo jimis il y aviut line aHweiiiltlee ;,'ent5rale des ju^^os jiresidce jiar le iirincc;' tn this till! eilitor attat'lies tlio fiillowiiii^ note: 'il est evident, comiiie mi le vena ]iiij,'e l(M>, qu'll v a iei line erreiir, et que ees asseinbleeH, dmit les ses- siiiMs diiniient doii/c jours, ne se tenaient (iiu? tuns les (iiiatre-vin;.'ts jours.' It is, however, the learned editor who is mistaken, l»eeaiise, as wc havo M'l'ii ahove, tliere were two distiuet nieetin;'.'ntetiee was indieatcd by a line traeed with an arrow across the portrait of the iirciised.' J'risrotf's Mi. v., vol. i., p. 33. *'^ It is probable that as matters of f^overnment, as well as le^'al ati'airs, were discussed at their Ei2-5; Piinentr/, Mem. .fnlivr la Lazd IiuliijciKt, pj). 28-1); ''(irlnijul Ks- piiio.id, Hist. Mex., toiii. i., p. 5!)"). 2* Thin sentence reads as folliiwH in the ()ri;/iiial: 'd his hido alfonihras unas pieles de tif^rcs y leones, y n^antas hei'has (l< iif^uila real, en donde asiniisnio estaban por su orden cantidadi y jj;revas de oro.' IxtUlxorhitl, Hist. Chich., in KiiKj.sboroiuj/i'.'i serliian lU; pliiiiias ill! ' lira'/elelcs, lex. All Ii'/., 'vas lie oro' i us to uri- tlesi'ri|itiiiii vol. ix., ji. 243. It is difficult to imagine wliy 'liraceletos, y j; sliould he placed upon tiie tloor, hut certainly the historian a'w derstand as nmch. Prescott, wlio utlects to give Ixtlilxodiitl's 'in his own words,' and who, furthermore, encloses tlie extract in (]uoi;'.tii'U marks, gets over this dirticUy by omitting the above-4Uoted sentence en- tirely. MiT., vol. i., p, 34; aiul Voytia, Hist. Ant. M'j., toni. iii . p. 2();i, adopts the same convenient but somewhat unsatisfactory coiirsc. 'YhU latter author's version of the whole matter is, however, like much (itlu r ot Ins work, inextricably confused, when compared witii the origii'al. *5 'Laspjiredcs estaban eutapizadas v adornadas de unos jianos liochns de pelo do couejo, dc todos eolorcs, cou figurua dc divcrsus uves, iiuiniuics y THE TRIBUNAL OF THE KING. 441 lil). viii., ')iij('• [■rliiiin lU; Vaieli'ti'>, i.Aiiti'j.,^ lis (le I lid' lis t" 1111- Iscriiitiiiii Vi(it;'.liiMi leiice I'U- iii , !»• sr. TliiH I Otlll'V I't liccliiiH liiiiali > y a canopy of rich plumage, in the centre of which was a fiflittering ornament of gold and precious stones. The other tribunal was called that of the king; it also had a throne, which was lower than that of the Tribunal of God, and a canopy adorned with the royal coat of arms. Here the kings transacted ordinary business and gave public audience; but when they rendered decisions upon grave and important * <-os, or pronounced sentence of death, they remcvcd to tlio Tribunal of God, placing the right ban 1 upon the skull, and holding in the left the golden arrow wliich served as a sceptre, and on these occasions tliey put on the tiara (tiara) which they used, which i-esemblcd a half mitre. There were on the same stool three of these tiaras; one was of pre»-ious stones set in gold, another of feathers, and tiie third woven sat in three divisions of the hall, according to their rank and seniority. In the Hrst division was the king; in tlie second divisioii were seated wix grandees; tlie Hrst of these six, on the right hand, was the lord of Teotihuacan, tlie second the lord of Acolmar*, tbe thirri the lord of 'I'e[>etlaoztoc ; on the left sidt; wat, tirst, the lord of Huexotla, liucond, the lord of Coat- liclian, third, he of Chinialhuacan. In fhe third di- vision of the hall, wIk; h was the exterior one, sat tight other lords, according to their rank and s.':-ior- ity; on the right side the Hrst was tl)e lord of < )tom- pan, the second was the lord of Tollantzinco, the third tile lord of Quauhchipanco, the fourth the lord of Xi- •'otcpL'e, and on the left side were, Hrst, the lord of Te- jiechpan, second, the lord of Chiauhtla, third, the lord of Chiuhnauhtla, and fourth, he of Teiotocan. Iloii's.' Tliis is rentlercdliy Prescott: 'The walls were huiij» with fapoytry, luiiilf of tlie hair of ditteront wild iiniui: Is, of rich tiiid various coliir-, /'cv- t'lniiid 1)1/ f/ol/f rings, iinii oinhroidcri'd with ti;,;iirfs of birds and tluwcrs. ' A I'fw lines above, 'la silla y isHpaldar era de oro,' is construed into '« tlirmie (if pure fifohl,' It necnis scarcely fair to style the ancient ( hichi- iiiic > (icscviptioii one 'of rathera poetical cast,' at the nanie time niuking sui.il additions as these. U2 THE NAHUA NATIONS. t'x. I '■ *^ " i !■ There followed, also, another hall, which adjoined this on the eastern side, and was divided into two })arts; in the inner and })riih-ipal division, were ei^ht judges, who were nobles and gentlemen, and four oth- ers who were of the citizen class r'" these were followed by fifteen provincial judges, natives of all the cities and chief towns of Tezcuco; the latter took cogni- zance of all suits, civil or criminal, which wei'e em- braced in the eighty laws that Nezahualcoyotl establislied; the duration of the most important of these cases was never more than eighty days. In the other, or extericjr, division of the hall, was a tri- bunal (•(>Tn])osed of four su])refjie judges, who were ]>resi(lunts of the councils; and thei'e was a wicket, througlj wliich they entered and went out to Cv>nnnu- nii-ate witJi the king." Besid>'s these various tribunals for the general nd- niirn'stration of jusl*^ some say, *♦■ TttlilxfloliitI, tt^ s^tprm, writei*: 'E« los jTMiioros puoi-i s n Im jiierts mm»- era* ^ttUlfy ^ i>utHtl»er*M!, y Iwhi irr.w cuatru cran <1l Ui> i'iinl,i |jriiiierrK» i»riiii csilxilWriM ilc Ja iKiMir/a di |iriiinr iinli'ii, Urn ♦TWirtn* MixuienieH <;iudad-iiioM (If Tewucu.' Hi.sf. Aut. M'j tmii. iii.. |). MW i' Ij-tlil,i<^ktt3 JliM. Chfk., lb KiiiffsiMnoiigh's Mcjc. Anttt/ , toI. i\ . p. 242 H. Til' -11 •■,■ ,)t the aUive *»^rrif'ti<>ii Im very dittieult to frniHliitt! litHnillv • tilt' ritiifuMrd iwyle iii whicli it is written: ninl n i'> ■ ' "■ * - * ^ -it«'lli(/ihle, the reader will reeollect thai I ti:iii- "II' iitl tmyn, atnl imt wliat he may, »v nmy ii"t '^« t4i> " ' ' t It .*^ ^ COURT PROCEEDINGS. U3 at (liiybrcak, the judges took their places in court, sijiiatting upon mats spread for the purpose, usually ujiou an elevated platform. Here they administered justice until noon, when they partook of a meal suj)j)lied from the royal kitchen. When tliis was over and they had rested foi a short space, husiness was ixsunied, and carried on durin<^ the ^roater ])art (if the afternoon. Punctuality on the part of the j HI lyes was strictly enforced, and he who absented himself from court without good cause, such as ill- ness, or royal permission, was severely pMiished. Tliis order ,as observed every d^y, except when the jiic'sence of the judges was required at the ])ul)lic sarritices or solemn festivities, at which time the courts of justice remained closed.'" ]\t .101 ;ases were conducted verhally, the parties pixlut iiig their witnesses, who testified under oath tui' the complaint or th<' defence. The testimony, under oath, of the })rincipals was also admitted as rvidence; and one writer even asserts that the de- t'liidant could clear himself by his oath;^ but it is lilaiii that if such were the cast' conviction would be Very , are. In cases of greater importance, especially in civil suits when the possession of real estate was involved, puintin-.-' in which the j>roperty in dispute was re})re.sented, were pr(»duced as authentic docu- ments, and the whole of the proceedings, such as the the tibject of the claim, the evidence, the names of the parties and their respective witnesses, as well as the tlecision or sentence, were recorded in court by notaries, or clerks, appointed Ibr that pi'rpose.'*' A 2' Tiiri/iiniudf'i, Moiinn/. Imf., toni. ii., p. 3r)4; Tjis Cusaf!. ff/'s/. A/iu/n- ;/r//(V(, Ms., fill), ccxii. ; '''.'/'«". //' ' Aiit. M j tinii. iii , ]>. I!t0; Clini- ijirn. Sliirid Ant. i/il Mrn.si'i'o, toiii. ii., p. \'2A; Ziii ii" Rnfifnivl, in Trniinu- I'liiii/iiiiix, I'l'!/., serii' ii., tro fxetiitcii witli ^11 iiiucli acciiracv, tliat, in all suits res|it'ctinj,' icai prnporty, tiicy wcic iilliiwcii to lie |ir<)l;iliiislii'd at Mcxiri) in \'tX\, which lias hni;; since sh.ncd the fiilc nf must t'tiai ; ii)\ision» tor k'arnini; in that uiifoiUiuutc country." li^^turini thu.s M \ SI 411 THE NAHUA NATIONS. h \ I! witness in an Aztec court of law occupied a serious position. In the first place the judges are by all writers said to have been particularly skillful in cross- examination. They seem to have made it an especial study to harass witnesses with pertinent questions and minute details; in the next place the punit^hmuiit for perjury was death, and perjury among these })eo- ple consisted in making a false statement when undtr oath, without the possibility of being saved by a leoal (juibble; in addition to this, superstition attacluJ great weight to the oath which every witness was oblir quieii en su negocio vuelve niucho y a^)ela, tiMiicn>lo jioder, y Uevaii'l'i salario por ello. El buen procurador es vivo y soliciin, osado, diligeiiti', constante, y perscvernntc en los negocios, en los cualcs no se di'ja veneer; sino que alega de su derecho, apela, tacha los t('sti;:, lii se causa hasta veneer li la jiarte contraria y triunfar de ella. El niiil \>'"- curador es intercsabie, gran pedigiieno, y de nialicia suelo dilatar Ins iir.Li- cios: ha<'c aliiaracas, es nuiy negligente y descuidado en el plcito, y fiamlii- lento de tal nuido, que de entranibas partes lleva salario. El solicii;;"!' r nunca jiara, anda Hioni]tre solicito y listo. El buen solicitador es niuy ' i,i- dadosu, deterniinado, y solicito cu todo, y j»or haeer bleu su oiicio, inucli..'* ; .' EXAMINATION OF WITNESSES. 445 fondant were sometimes confronted with each other, and compelled to argue the case before the court, no otlier person being allowed to speak the while. The judges heard and passed sentence by a majority of Aotes,^'^ each giving his decision aloud. If the trial took place in an inferior court, a disagreement sent tlio matter on appeal to a higher court; if it took place in the first instance before a superior tribunal, it was appealed to the great council of the cm})eror. The same writer also says that where a serious pul)lic offense had been committed, the witnesses were ex- amined, and sentence was innnediately luissed without i-ivini; the accused time to defend himself.^'' We jiave already seen that the duration of suits was lim- ited to eighty days, and generally the^^ teruiinated much sooner than this, all ])ossible exj)edition being always used. The better to avoid bribery and cor- ruj)tion, it was expressly forbidden for a judge to receive presents, no matter how trilling, and I'e who violated this rule was deposed from office, and other- wise punished with exceeding rigor. The way in which the judges were paid for their serv- ices was peculiar. A certain portion of land was set apart for their exclusive benefit, which was cultivated and harvested by tenants, who doubtless were allowed to retain a part of the produce in return for their labor. These lauds were not inherited by the son on the death of the father, but passed to the judge ap])ointed vpi'os (Icjii (Ic comer y dc donnir, y amlii de rasa en ciisa sdlicitaiulu Ins iut.'iiciiis, Ids c'lialus trata de Imt'iia tiiita, y i-<'ii tciimr i) rcct'Io, lic (|iic juir Ml dcsciiido 11(1 tt'ii;;aii liial siict'su los iii';^i>cii>>. EI iiial solicitador t's llojo y clt'scuidado, Ii.'rdo, v eiicaiidiladnr jiara ■»;uar diiicriis. y facilmciitc sc drja coliccliar, ]i(ii(]iic' no lialili' nial cI iio;c"''i'i " M'"' "ii<'i''a, y asi siiclc ('cliar a ]iirilcr l()s|iU'itos.' Hist. (A /*., toiu. iii., Iil>. \.. i'|i. •_';{-4. ('lavi;;i'i(i taki s tlio o]iiHisitc side of tlieciuostioii: 'Noi ;;iiidi/j del Mi'^>i(aiii faccvaim la paili da jicr si> stcssc le loro allo;,fa/ioiii: aliiiciio iioii sai)])iaiii(i, ciii' \ i fossero Avvn- ciiti." S/oriii Aiif. i/i / .M<'sxirii^'. aird sii|i|H)i(cd it Ii\ tlu'ir witnesses.' I'n.\- ciit v Ml.,-., vtd. i., ]>. ;)2. !/otlie«' d"i>\oeat etait iinoimii, les jiaities etali- ii^-aieiit elles-iiK'Mii's Vrtir eiiUM', eii se faisant aei(iiiiiiaj:iier do leiiis tiiMiiins.' jlrnssiiir i/i J-i •nrhti'ii-^j, ///>/. Nut, '/'■., toin. iii., v. "iSI, ■■' riie reader will lia\e it'«j.:irk<>i in a ]ire\iinis note that \ ey.ia assi_t,'n« lii'iic jiid;L;('s to eaeli emirt TKfcn aii\ other writer. ■*J Vvijliii, Hint. Ant. Mrj,^ Xvm. iii., p. 208. m 446 THE NAHUA NATIONS. in the place of the Latter.** Yeytia does not mention these lands; he says th.at the judges had no fixtd salory, but were paid accordin; I /arii/i'ru, Sdirin Ant. (hi !\fc.s^ico, toin. ii., pp 128-lt. 35 Vr)/ti(i,^Jlist. Ant. MrJ., toni. iii.. p. 'J(HI. 30 L(t.s- Ciisds, Hist. A/i()/i"trtir(i, MS., cap. tcxv., ccxii.; Sah'i(/ini, Hi-'. Gen., toiii. ii., lib. viii., ])p. IMH, .Tl.S; Mrnt/irta, hist. Krlc.s., j). ISa; \'ij//,i(. Hist. All'. Mij., toiti. iii., j>. 4'2'i; /iirila, R'l/i/iorf, in Trriinn.r-('ii»i/ii>i ■^, Vol/., st'ric ii., toni. i., ])]>. 101-2. 'ror((UiMnii(lii siiys the unjust .)uilf:f «;n warned twice, and shaved at tlie tliird otl'en.se. Monarq. Ind., toni. ii., p 35(!. See also /(/., ]). 385. 3' Ciiiiianjo, Hint. Thix., in NouvcUcs Annalcsdes Voy., 1843, toiu. xcIn., p. 136. ANECDOTES OF NEZAHUALPILLI. 447 were severe in tlie extreme. No favoritism was al- lowed; all, from the highest to the lowest Mere held iimeiiahle to the law. A story, illustrating this, is rci)eated by nearly all the old writers. In the reign of Nezahualpilli, the son of Nezahualcoyotl, who were accounted the two wisest kings of Tezcuco, a suit sprang up between a rich and powerful n(»ble and a ])oor man of the people. The judge decided against the pool man, who thereby lost what little he liad, and was in danger of having to sell himself as a slave to j)rocure subsistence for his family. But suspiti(»n of foul play having been aroused, the king ()rdert}d the matter to be thoroughly investigated, wlien it transpired that the judge had been guilty of collusion with the rich man: so the king commanded that the unjui!it judge should be hanged at once, and that the poor man's projierty should be restored to him. N(nther were the rulers themselfes, nor their fiinii- lies, exempt from observance of the law, and instances are not wanting where fatliers have, Brutus-like, con- demned their cliildren to death, rather than allow the law to be violated, and the offender to go impunished. Xczahualcoyotl caused four of his own sons to be })ub- licly executed because they had sinned with their step-mothers, the wives of their father.'^ A very touching incidi'ut is narrated by Torquemada, show- iii^; to what an extent (his love of imi)artial justice \vas farritnl by a Tezcucan sovereign. Nozahualpilli, king of Tiv.cuco, had mai-ried two sisters, whom he dearly loved, and especially did he ilotc upon the younger, whose name was Xocotzincat- /.iii. By her he had several children, the eldest being a sdii, nanunl Huoxotzincatzin, who was beloved )>y all who knew hiui, <>n account of his amiable disposi- tion and noble (pialities, and who was besides a ve;ry valiant young' man ai\d a great warrior. No wonJer that ho was the king's pride, and beloved even more Nil " Turqunnada, Monarq. TmL, torn, i., j). 1G5. ' 148 THE NAHUA NATIONS. ! 1 thun his In'others und sisters, fur his own and lii.s mothur's sake. So much had Huexotzincatzin dis- tint^uished himself, that, although he was but a youiii,'' iiuui, his fatlier determined to bestow upon him tliu office and title of tlacatecatl, which was a post of the highest honor and imi)ortance.^'' For this purpose tlic king one day ordered that the prince be sent for and brought into his presence. With a light heai't, and mucli elated, Huexotzincatzin, accompanied by bis suite, and the nobles who were his tutors, set out fur the royal palace. As he was about to enter, the ]>rincu met one of his father's concubines, attended by her ladies. This concubine was a very beautiful and proud woman, yet withal of a free and easy carriage, that encouraged Huexotzincatzin, who perhaps did not know wJio she was, to address her in a familial' and disres[)ectfid manner. The woman, who, the his- torian romarks, coifld not have been possessed of much sense, eitiier because she felt offended at his conduct towards her, or because she dreaded the consequence if tlie king should discover what had happened, turned from the prince without a word, and entered the ])al- ace. The king's concubines, as we have seen in a f(jr- mcr chapter, were always accompanied by certain elderly women, whose duty it wns to instruct them in discreet behavior and to watch continually over tlieir actions. One of these women, who had been witli tlie concul)ine at the time of her meeting with Huexot- zincatzin, and had overheard the prince's remarks, went straightway to the king, and informed him of all that had happened. The king immediately sent for his concubine, and inquired of her if the prince had spoken lewdly to her publicly and in the presence of tlie ladies and courtiers, or if he had intended his 39 Torqnomada tmnslates tlacatecatl, Captu'n General, (Cajiitan Ocn- eral). We have already seen that it was the litle of the iiresidiu^' jiwh^c of the second Mexican court of justice, hut it ^^■as jirohahly in (lii-' iii--i' i\ military title, hoth hecause military promotion would he more likclv tn lie conferred n|M)n a renowned warrior than a jud^roNliiii, and hecause tlic ])riii(e is s|iiikcu of as a younji man, while onlv men of luature years ami great e.\iiericnce were entrusted with the higher judicial uilicus. PL'NIhfHMEXT OF THE KING'S SON. m Avords to reacli her ear alone; for Nezalmalpilli would lain liave discovered some excuse for his son, the pun- ishment for speaking lewdly in public to the kind's concubines bein^-, accordiui,'' to law, death; but the hiyhtened woman replied that Huexotzincatzin had sj)()ken openly to her, before all that were present. Then the king dismissed the concultine, and retired, mourning, into certain apartments which were called the 'rooms of sorrow.' When these things came to the ears of the friends and tutors of the })rince, they were much troubled on his account, because the severity of the king, and his strict adherence to the law were as a proverb among the j)eople, and their a}>prehensions increased when, upon arriving at the royal ai)artnients, the i)rince was (lcni(xl admission, although his attendants were or- dered to ap})ear at once before the king. There they were closely questioned by him, and although they would willingly have saved the prince from the conse- (juences of his folly, yet they dared not speak anything hut truth, for he who was convicted of wilfull}' deceiving the king, suffered death. All they could do was to make excuses for the jirince, and ask pardon for his crime, and this they did with many prayers and en- treaties, advancing, as extenuating circumstances, his youtli, his previous good conduct, and his jjossible ig- norance of the fact that the lady was his father's concubine. The king listened patiently to the end, answering nothing, and then he conunanded that Hu- exotzincatzin be forthwith arrested and placed in con- linenient. Later in that same day he })r()nouuced sentence of death against his S(jn. When it became known that Huexotzincatzin was to die, all the jxtw- erful nobles who were at court went in a body to tlu.' king and earnestly conjured him not to insist uj)on carrying out his sentence, telling him that it was bar- barous and unnatural, and that future generations Would hold in horror and hatred the memory of the luan who had condenmed his own son to death. Their Vol. n. 'JU 460 THE NAHUA NATIONS. jM M. l)rfiyt^'r.s and iirtjfunients seemed, however, to render tlio old kin*4" only the more implacalde, and he dismissed them, .sayin<^ that it' the hiw forbade .such thinc- fore her husband, she fell on her knees and besounht him with many tears, to spare the life of her darlino- son, the first i)ledge of love that she, his favorite wile had given him. Finding nil her entreaties fruitless, she then imjdored him for the sake of the love he had once borne her, to slav her and her other sons with Huexotzincatzin, since life without her first-born was nnbearable. But the stern old king still sat to all aj)- pearauce unmoved and innnovable, and coldly directed the attendant ladies to convey the wretched mother to her ai)artments. The execution of the prince was delayed in every possil)le manner by those who had charge of it, in the hojie that the king might even yet relent; but Neza- ]iual})illi having been informed of this, immediately ordered that the sentence should be carried out with- out further delay. So Huexotzincatzin died. As suuii as the news of his son's death was carried to the king, he shut himself up in certain apartments called the 'rooms of sorrow,' and there remained forty days, mourning for his first-born and seeing no one. Tlic liouse of the late prince was then walled up, and none were allowed to enter it, and so all tokens of the unhappy young man were destroyed.*' *" Torqucmada, Monarq. Intl., torn, i., pp. 189-90. MONTEZUMA AND TIIK FAIP.IEU. 461 Another anecdote, which is written in exocrahle Sitanish 1)V tlie native historian, 'IVzozonioc, mjiv not l)u out of j)lace liere. It is told of tlit; emperor Mon- tezuma of ^^ex.ico, and the reader will at once reco«if- iiizc a resemblance between this and many otlui" anec- dotes with which he is familiar, where a bold and iiurited rebnke from a subject to his sovereign is received with res})ect and even favor. It happened one sununer, that the kiny-, bein<^ wearied with the cares of jj^overnment, went foi' rest and recreation to his country palace at Tacubaya. One day, when out shootin*,'- birds, he came to an or- cliard, and havinjr told his attendants to remain out- sid ', be entered alone. He succeeded in killiniic a Iiii'd, and as lie was returnino-, bearinj^^' his jL^anu' in his hand, he turned aside into a Held where a remai'kably line crop of corn was n^rowin^. Havinji^ ])huion the kiiii;''s face, the occupants of the house had Hed, and tliere was no one therein. Now the owner of the Held had seen the kinj*- pluck the corn from afar off, and, notwithstanding it was a<^ainst the law, he ven- tured to approach the monarch in such a way as to make the meeting appear accidental. Making a deep olieisance, he thus addressed the king: "How is it, most high and mighty i)rince, that thou hast thus (stitlen my corn? Didst thou not thyself establish a law that he who should steal one ear of corn, or its value, should suffer death?" And Montezuma an- swered: "Truly I did make such a law." Then said the farmer: "How is it then, that thou breakest thine own law?" And the king replied: "Here is thy corn, take back that which I have stolen from thee." But the owner of the field began to be alarmed at his own boldness, and tried to excuse himself, saying that he had spoken merely in jest, for, said he: "Are not my I 4; V IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-3) 1.0 ;f:i- 1^ I.I J3,2 I 2.2 M 1.8 1.25 1.4 III ''^ < 6" — ► Photographic Sciences Corporation i\ «^ •N? :\ \ [V > <^ ^ k <(^*^ ^ w 33 WEST MAI;4 STREET WEBSTER, N.Y. MSSO (716) 87a-4503 ■'-'!> '" ^ m ) '<^ 4, ^ 458 THE NAHUA NATIONS. fields, and myself, and my wife, and my children, all thine, to do with as thou wilt;" and he refused to take hack the ears of corn. Then the king took oft' his mantle of net-work and precious stones, which was called xiuhayatl and was worth a whole city, and oftered it to the farmer, who at first was afraid to ac- cept so precious a gift, but Montezuma insisted, so lie took the mantle, promising to preserve it with great care as a remembrance of the king. When Monte- zuma returned to his attendants, the precious niaiitlt; was at once missed, and they began to inquire \\\v,\t had become of it; which the king perceiving, he told them that he had been set upon by robbers, wlu ii alone, who had robbed him of his nantle, at the same time he ordered them, upon pain of death, t(^ s;iy nothing more about the matter. The next dav, lia\ - ing arrived at his royal palace in Mexico, when all liis great nobles were about him, he ordered one of his captains to repair to Tacul)aya, and incjuire for a cir- tain Xochitlacotzin, whom they should at once biiiin- to his presence, but under penalty of death they should not injure or abuse him in any way. When the kind's messengers told Xochitlacotzin their errand, he was greatly alarmed, and tried to escape, but they caught him, and telling him to fear nothing, for that the kiiiif was kindly disposed towards him, they brought him before Montezuma. The king, having bidden him wel- come, asked him what had become of his mantle. A t this the nobles who were present became nnieh ex- cited, but Montezuma quieted them, saying: "This poor man has more courage and boldness than any oi' you who are here, for he dared to speak the truth and tell me that I had broken my laws. Of such nun have I greater need, than of those who speak only with honeyed words to me." Then having in(iuiied what principal oftices were vacant, he ordered his at- tendant lords to shelter and take care of Xochitlacot- zin, who was henceforth his relative and one of the chief men of the realm. Afterwards he who had su PUNISHMENT OF CRIMES. 468 his at- itlucdt- of tlif had so lately been a poor fanner was given i principal house . ii., pp. 1.38-9; Tormirmnifa, M oiiin/. Inti., torn, ii., p- iV>^i /'«•'>' Ca-ms, Hist. Apolotj(t'ca, MS., cai». i(\ii.; MciiJicta, Hist. Ecles., p. 138. 464 THE NAHUA NATIONS. charges; for, he writes, in the case of one held to answer on an ordinary charge, "it was sufficient for tlie minister of justice to place the prisoner in a cor- ner with a few light sticks before him; indeed, 1 lie- lieve that to have merely drawn a line and told him not to pass it would have sufficed, even though lie might have reason to believe that there was a heavy punishment in store for him, because to flee from justice, and escape, was an impossibility. At all events, I with my own eyes have seen a prisoner standing entirely unguarded save for the before-men- tioned sticks."" Like most semi -barbarous nations, the Aztecs were more prone to punish crime than to recom- pense virtue, and even when merit was rewarded, it was of the coarser and more material kind, such as valor in war or successful statesmanship. The greater part of their code might, like Drac(>n's, have been written in blood — so severe were the jjenaltics inflicted for crimes that were comparatively slii^ht, and so brutal and bloody were the ways of carrying those punishments into execution. In the stiongest sense of the phrase the Aztecs were ruled with a rod of ir<3n; but that such severity was necessary 1 have no doubt, inasmuch as whatever form of governniLiit exists, be it good or bad, that form of government is the necessary one, or it could have no existence. All young states must adopt harsh laws to secure the peace and well-being of the community, while as yet the laws of habit and usjige are unestablished; and as that community progresses and improves, it will of itself mold its system of government to fit itself The ct)de of Dracon was superseded by that of Solon when the improved state of the Athenian community warranted a mitigation of the severity of the formei-, and in like manner the laws of Montezuma and Neza- hualcoyotl would have given place to others hss harsh had Aztec civilization been allowed to progress. *^ MctuUcta, Hist. L'clra., p. 138. CODE OF LAWS. 455 The laws of the several Aztec kingdoms were essen- tially the same; some slight differences existed, liow- ever, and in these instances the code of Tezcuco proves tliu most rigid and severe, while more of lenience is exhibited in that of Mexico. I have before remarked that the majority of writers treat of the legislation of Tt'zcuco, but, as in other matters, many authorities who should be reliable surmount the difficulty of dis- tinguishing that which belongs to one sj'stem of juris- prudence from that which belongs to another, by !si)uaking generally of the cotle that existed in Nueva Espaiia, or among 'these people.* Most of the sub- jected provinces adopted the laws of the state to wliieh they became subject. But this was by no means obligatory, because as conquered nations were not compelled to speak the language of their concpiorors, neither were they forced to nuike use of their laws." Let us now see what these laws were. Theft was punished in various ways, and, it ap- pears, not at all in proportion to the magnitude of the crime. Thus he who stole a certain number of ears of corn,** suffered death, while he wlio broke into the temples and stole therefrom, was enslaved for the first offence and hanged for the second, and it is distinctly stated*" that in order to merit either of these punishments the theft must be an exten- *^ C/iiri;jrro, Sfnrin Ant. ffel Mrsftim, torn. Si., p. 137. *■* Turqiirinudu, Moixirq., Iinl., toiii. i., |). HM», toiii. ii., p. 381; Orlrgn, in Vii/tiii, Hint. Ant. MiJ., tuiii. iii., p. '2'2'i; llotnrini, liliii, p. 'JT. Tlie iiiiiiiln'r i»f ears of com varies arconliii;; ti> tiie iliflereiit writers from three or four to seven, cxecpt Las Casas, who makes tlu> iiiiiiiIkt tweiit\-i»iie or over, stating, liowever, that tiiis ami some otlier laws tliat iie j,'ives are pos- silily not authentic. Hint. AjMitnifrlifii, MS., eap. ecxv. Tlie Anoiiynious ('iiiii|ueror writes: 'ipiaiiilo altri entrauano iielie possessioni altrui |ier ruli- liarr friitti, it il ^rano che essi haiino, die per entrar in vn camiio, e riiltlxire trc il (juattro nuizzocehe o spi^rjie (lt>(|m'! lon>};rano, lo faceuano schiaiioiiel jiatrone ili quel eain|M»ruhliato.' lirliiliinn- Jnltn i>rr rn ijrntiriniiiiiin i/i f ,^iti- It'll- Fvriiaiiilo (Utrtrnc, in liiniiiisiu, Aiini/ntinni, torn, iii., fol. ."{(Mi. t'iiivi- p'lo a;;iees with the Anonymous ('on(|m'nir, tluit the thief of corn iKM-ame liie clave of the owner (»f the lielil from which lie had stolen, and adds in ti fip.it-iiote: 'Toniueniadu iiy;;iun;te, ehe avea |>ena di morte; niu eiii fii nel it(",'iio d'Aeothuaean, non gill in quello di Messico.' Sturin Ant. tld .VtA- snii, toiil. ii., p. 13.1. *' /,'r.v t'o.siis, Hist. Apolugtlica, MS., cap. ccxiii. ; Mi'.ndiitn, Hint. K'hn., p. 138. 466 THE NAHUA NATIONS. fciive one. Tii cases not specially provided for, it aippears that a petty thief became the slave of the j)eison from whom he had stolen; accordinjj^ to Or- te<^a, however, the injured l)arty had the ]»riviK<^L' of refusinjjf to accept the thief as a slave, in which case the latter was sold by the jud«,'es, and with tlio j)roceeds of the sale the com])lainant was reimbursed. The same writer states that in some cases a compio- mise could be effected by the offended l»arty aj^reeini,f to be indenmiKed by the thief, in which case the lattir jtaid into the treasury a sum e(|ual to the amount stolen. This statement is somewhat obscure, inasmuch as it would be but poor satisfaction to the party robbtd to see the eijuivalent of that robbery ]>aid into the ])ul)lic treasury; but I understand the writer to mean that the loser had his loss made ^ood, and that lor the satisfaction of justice an ecjual amount was im- posed as a line upon the prisoner.** Thel't of a lari^e amount was almost invariably punished with death, which was inflicted in various ways. Usually the culprit was draj^-^rd ii^nominiously through the streets and then hanoed;'^* sometimes he was st^)nc(l tn death."'^ He who robbed on the highway was killed by having his head smashed with a club;'^' he who was caught in the act of pilfering in the market-phuv, no matter how trivial the theft, was beaten to death with sticks on the spot by the assembled nndtitude, for this was considered a m«>st heinous sin; but not- withstanding the fearful risk incurred, it is asserted that many were s*) light-fingered that it was only neces.sary for a market wo.nan to turn her head away, and her stall would be robbed in a trice. 'Jhere was * Orf«'f:irs HtntoiiU'iit rcmls: Tasi Hiomiiri' so ciiMti^'itlxi con ]»('iiii dc nuierfi', li nu'-iios ili'<|iie la |iarti' ofcmlida roiiviiiicso on mt indoinniz hIm ihiI' rl lacli'oii, ('II cuyo caso |)a^al>a csto al lisco una ruiitidatl igiial li la roliinlii.' Vtj/tiii, Hi.sf. A III. Mtj., toni. iii., j». 'J'i.'). i' Villi iii'n-t, Tmliu Mix., pt li., p. SH; Torquematia, Moniiiy. Ind, tflin. i., ]). l(icd special ])en- alties for those who stole certain jtarticular articles. For instance, Ortega tells us that the thief of silver or gold was skinned alive and sacrificed to Xijte, the tutelary divinity of the workers in }>recious nittals, such a theft being considered a direct insult to the ydd.''' In some of these cases tints were imposed. Among a collection of laws given l»y Las C'asas. for the authenticity of which he does not vouch, "he- causi'," he says, "they were taken out of a little In- dian hook of no authority," we fintl the folK)wing relat- ing to theft : I f any one stole the plants, called maguey, fiom which they manufactuietl more than twenty aiticles, and which were used Ibr making syruj), he was compelled to pay as a tine as many cotton cloths IS the judtrcs miirht deer ee, am I if 1 le was una I) le to pay the tine im}>osed, or if he had stolen more tliau twenty plants, he was enslaved. Whoever stole a tislijiig-net or a canoe was j)unished in the same nian- iiif. Whoever stole corn to the amount of twenty ears or upward, died for it, and if he took a less t|iiaiitity, he ])aid that which he was sentenced to pay. J If that plucked the corn before it had tbrmed seed, ■' Miiidiifn, Hist. Evhft., p. 13S; Ortr,/,., in ]',i//;>i, lllsl. Ant. M,j., tmii. iii., I). 'J'i."); Torqiifiiiii(/a, Mniiiin/. Iml., toiii. ii.. p. liSI. I.as Caxiis, ///>'. .i/iii/i,iii'firit, Ms., call. (Txiii. .saystliiit lit" wlioNtolc in tlic iiiai'ki't-|ila('C' «;is liiiii;it'(i fliere ami llit'ii l>v onirr nf tlio juil;.'i'f< <'t' tin- |ila(c, ami in cap. 11 \\.. lu' writes: 'Kl (iiie on v\ nu-icmld al;,'<» iiurtava. cia ley niic lm';:n IMiliiiraniciitu nlli en el niisnio niercailo lo niatasen li i)al(>H.' A>:ain in tlm i'lia]itt'r he j;ives u law, for llie uiitheiiticily of wliicli 1 not ^||||l•tI, iiowever, wliieli reads as follows: 'el i|Me en el inereailo hurtavu iil;:>i, jos misnios del mereado tenian liceneia para lo matar a pedradas.' j' (ii-ivijit, in Veijtia, hint. A t. Mij., toni. iii., p. 'J*J5. 458 THE NAHUA NATIONS. suffered death. Whoever stole a tecomatl, "whicli is a Httle jyfourd tied at the top with strips of red Indr, and liavinjif feather tassels at the end, used by the lords for earryin«]f a j^reen jmwder, from whieh tli«y take in smoke throu«^h the mouth, the powder heiiiL,' called in the island of Espanola 'tabacos' — whoever stole one of these died for it." He that stole preoioiis stones, and more especially the stone called chalchiuito, no matter from whence he took it, was stoned t(t death in the market-] )lace, because no man of thu lower orders was allowed to possess this stone. "^ In Mexico, a distinction seems to have been mado between the thief who reaj>ed the benetit of his ciinic and him who did not; in other words, if the stolon j)roperty was recovered intact from the thief he was only enslaved, but if he had already disposed of liis plunder he suffered death." Whether the ultimate recovery of the property after it had passed from the thief's hands, would answer the same end, we ai"e not told, but if not, then it would aj)pear that accord iiii,' to Aztec jurisprudence the culj)rit was punished not so much in proportion to the actual injury he intHcttd upon others, as in accordance with the actual extent of the crime he committed. In Michoacan, the Hist theft was not severely punished, but for the second offence tiie thief was thrown down a precipice and his carcass left to the l)irds of prey.** The murderer s: ftered death even though he should be a noble and his victim but a slave.™ In Miclioa- ** Las Casa.t, Hist. Apolocfftlea, MS., cap. ocxv. " Tinqnemadd , Monnrq. Ind., toiu. ii., p. 381; Las Cnsas, Hist. A}i<)!o- ffHira, MS., cap. ccxv. *"< llrnrra. Hist. Gen., dec. iii., lib. iii., cap. x.; Beaumont, Cron. Mc- choanui, MS., p. 51. 59 ' Ii'«iMiciiii THE FATE OF TRAITORS AND CONSPIRATORS. 45J can, we are told by Herrera," that there was no pun- islnueiit for niurder, since, throutrh fear, the crime was never conmiittetl. Beauniunt allows that for a time tilt re were no murders, hut says that afterwards tiicy JKCiime frequent, and then the criminal was dra«ifi;cd alonj,^ the ground until ho died."* He who adminis- tered poison to another, thereby causinj^ death, died for it, and the same ])unishment was awarded to }iim who furnished the poison."" Traitors, conspirators, and those who stirred up sedi- tion amont^ the pe. 3S7; Mcmlirln, Hist. I'.i-hs.. ]i. I.'W). I>i»';;<> Dtiniii, in liis iiicilitcd ' History of Now Sjiaiii, ' asMiTM lliat \\w iiiiinli'ifr . x. '■I /liiiniiioiit, Criiii. Mrrfiotirini, MS., ])p. 51-2. " .1/. ;»(//(7(». ///.s7. AV/(.v., 11. ISti; (htnia, in J'li/titi, Hint Aiif. Mij., torn, ill., |i. •J'JCi; Lii.s CiLsa.s, Jlisl. A/Mili>i/i'lirii, MS., <'a|). cexiii. In eap. ci'w., anion;; his iinanthenticatetl lawN, we read that if the victim of poi- HHi was a slave, the person who cansetl his death was made a slave, in the liliicc of Mntl'erini; the extreme penalty, hut the opposite to this is expressly htati'cl hy t"laviy[ero and iin))lied hy Ortepi. '' li'hitiiihi' fiitlii pif ni iitiiHriiiiiiiiio ilrl Sifl)ior Firiirnn/o Corhsr, in Uiiiinisio, Xiirii/iifiiiiii, tom. iii., fol. HOT; Ln.s ('nsn.'i, Ilisf. A/>it/oi/r(irii, Ms., cap. rexiii.; I'l/mirrrf, '/Vv/Zro .lAv., jtt ii., p. .'W; Tori/minKi/ii, Mo- I'ln-i/. liiif., lorn, i., )>. Kiti; Mnii/ii'fii, Jlisl. E. 4"21. Ixtlilxocliitl writesthat theehildren and relations . -I.'). ' 11 traditore del Ite. odello Stato, erashranato, ed i siioi parenti, <-lie •■iiiisniicvoli del tradimento noii lo aveano per teiii]H> wojierto, erano jjrivati dclla lilierta." Clinii/cro, titoiia Aitl. del Mamico, torn, li., p. 130. 460 TIIK NAHIA NATION'S. uiul tlu) other half hccaine tlie property of the jusr- chjiser; if sevenil persons were implieated in the erinie, they were all sold as slaves/"^ ])runkenness was punished with excessive riyor; indeed, intoxicating liijuor was not allowed to Itc drunk, except hy express permission from the jiidi^is, and this license was only jj^ranted to invalids and per- sons over fifty years of ajjfe, who, it was considcrid, needed stroni»- drink in order to warm their blood; .iiid even they were only permitted to partake of a limited i nl;;iino vendia ]ior esclavo al;;un nino |)erilido, qne se hiciese cscjavo al i|iif lo vendia, y sii hacienda se partiese en dos partes, la una era ]iara el iiifin, y la otra al > Zurita writes: 'ils n'avaient droit d'en prendre que trois jtetitcs tiiNscs h chaiiue rei)as.' Jitip/iort, in 'J'rrimiij'-Cdiii/xnis, Voy., st'-rie ii., toni. i., |i. 110; l/rrnrii, Ilixt. (iiii., <' Coilr.r McikIozo, in KiiKjs/wroHi/h's Mix. Aiitiq., vol. i., |il. 7-; Ksjili- I'dritiii. in ftf., vol. v., i>p. 11'2-13; Ilrrrrrti, Hist, (fen., dec. iii., lih. iv., c.p. xvi.; Cliiriijrro, Sforia Ant. drl Mrssii'o, ton». ii.. \i. 134. •■' 'Uaiis Ics noccs pu1ili* Ortepi says that the privile;?e was also extended to private solilicis. Vri/titi, Hint. Ant. Mtj., toni. iii., p. '227. /nrita, however, writc> Ics (juerriers re;j;urdaient coniiiie un deslionnenr d'eu hoire.' Jiiij>2>ort, in Tir- nuux-L'omptvts, Voy., aerie ii., toni. i., p. 111. LAWS ACAINST INTOXICATION. 4(tl J /'"/"■ iws si» ilicrcm I'll t'llx iiiii fii- |iiir:ni- ill i\\w nifiK, y I lilll I. i., 1'. v., fill'- ilu- <1>' '/I'l-ii'i. rill' I'll, lil, till. olllilT^' in Tif- stimulant, luit oiilv diirint' the first tlavs ol' tlicir con- liiit'iiiont. With these exfi-ptions, tlio hiw against (liinkin}; was strlctlv enfnircd. Tl»u vouuyf man who iHMiimo drunk was convevt'd to the jail, and tluro lu'iitcn to death with eluhs; the younjjf woman was stoned to death. In some parts, it' the drunkard was a |)leheian, he was sold tor a slave tor the first otlenci', •,nu\ sutlered e(>ple, and s(» deep was the dei^r.ulation supjiosed to he at- tached to it, that it was dreaded almost equally with death itself. Sluadd a military man, who had uained (listiiH'tion in the wars, hecome drunk, he was tleprived of Ills rank and honors, and considered thenceforth as inramous. Conviction of this crime rendered the cul- ]irit inelijji'ihle for all future emoluments, and especially was he deharred from holdiuLf any puhlic othce. A iiohle was invariahly hammed for the first oflenco, his hody heiui^ afterwards dra«riJ^ed witluait the limits of the town and cast into a stream used for that pur|)ose oiilv. But a niijihtier inHuence than mere tear of the ]>ciial law restrained the Aztec nohility and gentry tVom drinkin«jf to excess; this intluence was social law. It was considered deoradinjjf for a person of (|uality to toiuli wine at all, even in seasons of festivity wlien, as I have said, it was customary and lawful for the lower classes to indulye to a certain extent. Wine- liil»ltinroperty was confiscated." The reader will recollect that the same })enalty was inflicted upon him who should usurp the insignia or office of the Mexican cihuacoatl, or supreme judge. Whoever maltreated an ambassador, minister, or cdii rier, belonging to the king, sutt'ored death; but am- bassadors and couriers were on their part forljidden to leave the high road, under pain of losing their j»rivi- leges." He who by force took ]>ossession of land not belonging to him, suffered death''* He who soM tlie land of another, or that which he hehl in trust, with- out judicial authority, or ])ermissi<)n from sucli as had power to grant it to him, was enslaved.'^ If a piece of land was fraudulently sold twice over, the first pur- chaser held it, and the ve dor was punished.^" Ho who squandered his patrimony suffered death."^ Tlio ^ Lns Casas, Tli'/tf. ApoJnqfticn, MS., cap. rrxiii., crxv ; J'or'/iiniiinl'i, MoiiKrq. Ltd., toin. i., p. KM!, tmii. ii., p. .'<8(!; Vclmirrrf, Tnitni Mrj\, pt ii., )». 3.'{; Voilrx Mcmloza, in Kliiffxhoriniif/i's Mcjr. Aiitiij., vol, i., pi. "-; A'<- ■jtlirwioii, \n Id., vol. v., pp. ll'i-l.H; Ixtliirnrhill, llisf. C/iir/i., in /i/., vdl. i.\., i». 24(5; Id., Rdncionvit, p. 387; Ortrj/a, in Viiftiii, Hist. Ant. MrJ.. tciiii. iii., p|>. 22(5-7; Clnnqrro, Sfon'n Ant. del Jie^siro. toiii. ii.. \t. 134; /.iin/n, Hi/i/iitrf, in Te.rnaiix-Coinpan,s, Vot/., Bcrie ii., toin. i., pp. 110-11; Ilcrnni, Hist. Gen., dec. iii., lih. iv., cup. xvi. "» See tliis vol. np. 3(>0-l. " Lus Ctisas, Hint. Apologi'tica, MS., cap. oexv. ; Torqurmnda. .Miuiiini. Iiid., toni. ii., p. 38(5; Ixtlilxorhitl, Rilarioiirs, in Kiiitfs/toroiitf/i'.s .1/ z. Aiiliq., vol. ix., p. 387; Ortnjit, in Veytiit, Hist. Ant. Mij.', toiii. ill., p -.'li. '* I.rtlilxochitl, Hist. Chich., in Kinfislmront' tluir yrand-parnits. in tin- Haino nmiiiier a {'athur could (Hsinhorit a sou who was o(»wai\;''; .. (TiU'I.'" Ho wlio ivuiovod lM»iiiidarv-inarkH, diod for it.'"' Tho-so who distuilu'd till' poaoo hy on«^aeMalty adjudi(ed to him that would have heen awarded to the accused, if convicted. So <:^reat a lover of truth was kinuf Nezahualcoyotl, that he is said to have made a law prescrihinuf the death penalty to historians who sliould record fictitious events."* Whoever obtained jiiiint. T(» the first, wliicli i'm iunoii<; flic colliM'tiiMi of iiiiinitluMitifutcil liiws, lif lulils: ' V si em |)IcIh>,v. "JMi. 'Si al^riiii |iiiiiri<.;iiacioii (|iu' «'iitiv dlos sc liicicsc por scr solicrliio y iiial iiiirailo, Ic fuescii (|iiitailos siis liicncs v iiia.vora/;;o, y fiicsc jiiu'sto cii (it Minxiro, toiii. ii., jt. \'.i4. '* I'viftiii, Hist. Ant. Mij., toiii. iii., p. A'l'X '■' f.ii.s Citsiis, Ifi.if. Aiio/itffi^tirii, MS., cap. ccxv. ; ""tri/tirmiK/it, Moiitin/. l"'l-. toiii. ii., p. .SSfi; Ixtlilxochitf, Rc/nrioiKu, in Kiiif/sboruiiij/in MiX. All',',/., vol. ix., p. Hm. ■"' l.ti.i Cnsa.^, Hi.it. Apolnfjfticn, ]SfS., oajt. ecxiii. _"•' /.rtfil.ror/tifl, Rrlavinurs, in f\iiifi.il>ori)iiffft'.i Mr.r. Aiitiq., vol. ix., ]). 3S7; L'arbujal Espinusa, Iliitt. Mcx.,Uni\. i., p. 004; L'luviijeru, Storiu Ant. M' 464 THE XAIIUA NATIONS. jjfooils on credit aiul did not j)ay for tlieni, was en- slaved, and tlie delinijiiont taxpayer met with tlu." same punislnnent."'^ C'oiu'ernint"" tlie way in whieh adulterers wiic treated scarcely two of the ancient writers ai^acc,"' and it is prohahle that the hiw on this pdint diifcred more or less in various })arts of the .Az- tec kiuiucdoms; indeed, we have Clavii>ero"s testi- mony that in some jtarts of the Mexican empire the crime of adultery was jiunished with j^n-eatei- se- verity than in others, and Las Casas and ]\renlf surticient proof'^'^ J^as (.'asas and Tonpieniada, however, who aie hoth far older authorities, tell us that no man or woman was punished for adultery nium (Id 3/''.s.|». 'J'JT-!'; CliinrK. Jiiijijifirf, in Trniini.i-Co/ii/iKiis, ]'oj/., si'vic ii., tnin. \., J). 'U'A; '/'(>ri/iii)tii((/. 50"i; Lus Vd.sii.s, Uinf. ApohitjHiiii, MS., flip. ccxv. '*■' ( "»>nrornin. .SST; Cui/r.r Miiiilnzii, ill J\iiiif.s/><>riiiii/li\i Mr.r. Aiiti'/., vol. i., pi. 7'2; I'^.s/iliriiriiiii, in A/., vol. v.. j). 112; ]'ii/fiii, lli.sf. An/. -'A;/., I' hi. iii.. p. 4'2:\; Mniilir/ii, lli.^/. Hr/r.t., jip. 13(i 7; Clnriifn-f), S/itriii An/. //-/ .!/•<• .s'/co, toll), ii., pp. i:{0 -1 ; Bill infill', in Ti'rnini.r-Ciini/iiin.s, Vnjl., Hcrie i.. Iinii \ . p. 'Jll; Xiiri/ii, Jiii/i/inr/, in fi/., si'iic ii., toin. i., pit. 107-10; Or/iiju. in Vi !l- fill lli.t/. All/. M'j.. toin. iii.. ji. •i'24; Vi/iiiirrr/, Trn/ro .Mix., pt ii.. p .'W; Jlnrini. in Kini/.s/iiiriiin/irs Mi.r. Aii/iq., toiii. viii., pp. 242-3; Viilmlis, Ji/c- iori'ni C/irin/iiiiiii, in /'/.. )>. 121), note. '^^ /,«.v /'iisits- 1111(1 Miiii/i'r/ii, lis in preceding,' note. "■' 'I'aiiv la justilicuciou fuesc bubtaiUc lu liciuuieia Jcl niariilo." lljid. ,vas i'i>- ith the s jxiiiit the Az- s tcsti- einj>ut> )at<.'i" sf- ren«litt;i I the nl'- v'hiit call ilulteit IS instaiuts [•e stoiiid the cul- 1 of .u'uilt o hecii lis diliijs dl ul. ' Th. inceitaiii. (I was in jueinada, s, tell lis erv uiHiii Ic/., toin. 111., ii., tdiii. \ . \iis, I'oi/., serie i., toiii. x., ]>. 211. '" This statement is ma(h' liy Jxtlilxochitl and Veytia, iilii .sii/>. '^'' I. on Cii.siis, lli'.s/. Ajivlvivtku, My., cup. '.-cxiii. ; Mcmlktu, ubi sup. Vol II. 30 ■m THE NAHUA NATIONS. i- if- msf liekl admissible, little would have been gained by ex- changing the fate of the adulterer for that of tlie drunkard. The trespass of a married man with a fret- nnma.'-ied woman was not considered to constituto adultery, nor punished as such, so that the Inisbaiul was not bound to so much fidelity as was exacteil from the wife. I have before remarked that althougli the crime of adultery was punished in all parts of the Aztec empire, yet the penalty inflicted differed in point of severity and in maimer of execution. Thus, in the province of Ixcatlan, if we may believe Clavigero, a woman accused of this crime was summoned before the judges, and if the proofs of her guilt were satis- fixctory, she was there and then torn to pieces, and lier limbs were divided among the witnesses, while in Itztepec the guilty woman's husband cut off her ears and nose, thus branding her as infamous for life.*' In some parts of the empire the husband who ccjhabittd witli his wife after it had been proved that she luid violated her fidelity, was severely punislujd.''" Carnal connection with mother, sister, step-motlior or stop -sister, was punished by hanging; Torquemacla says the same penalty was incurred by him who had connection with his mother-in-law, because they consid- ered it a sin for a man to have access to both mothor and daughter. Intercourse between brother-in-law and sister-in-law was, however, not criminal, and, in- deed, it was customary for a man to raise u\) seed to his deceased brother by marrying his widow."-' He who attempted to ravish a maiden, whether in the field, or in her father's house, suffered death,'-'' in Michoacan, the ravisher's mouth was split from ear w Thiihm. Amonjt the Miztccs, wlien extcnuntins circiinistnnrcs could bo j>r«>vt'(l, tlic ]>iiniHhiticiit of death wiis coiiiiinited to iinitilation of lais, nose, and lip!*. Ilfnrra, Hist. Grn., dee. iii., lib. iii.. caj). xii. 91 Torqmmnda, Monarq. Ind., toni. ii., p. 380; Cfnrnfrro, iihi iiip. 9* Lim C'asas, Hist. Apoloq^tirn, MS., en'*, ccxiii., ccxv; Ton/iiniKtilii Monarq. Inii., toni. ii., pp. 377-8, 380; Ortrgn, in Vcytin, Hist. Anl. M. KiO, tttin. ii., j). .'{80; /,"y f'imia, Ui.sf. A/MloijHica, MS., cup. ccxv. ; Vviffin. Hist. Ant. M<[/., tnin. iii.. p. 4'23; Ortajit, in Id., p. '22-4; Vctanrvrt, Tialro Mij:, ]>t ii., p. ',V.\; Miiidicta, Hist. Edvs., p. 137; I.rtlilxnrhitt, Hist. Vhii'h., in Kuujuhoromjli'.i Mi\r. Antiq.,\iA. i.\., pp. '24.'). t'ailuijiil Espiiidsii ilirtcrsfioni tiio.se in say- ii;:: 'al pasivo le arrancaltaii las cntrana.s, se llt'nal)a su vicntiv Je CLMiiza y t'l latlilvcr era «iiieniail(».' Hist. Mix., U*\n. i., p. (i03. S6 Ciiiniifffo, Hist. Tliijr., ill Xouirl/cs Annfih\|i|ia, i'iii per hi testinioniunza di nioltri altri Antori ini]iarziarli, e nie;.Mio informal i' ( 'hivigero does not, however, state who tliese 'more imjiartial and hettn informed writers' are. Tiiat ihe crime of sodomy was |)reva]ent in In- l>asco, we have the testimony of Oviedo, wiio writes tinit among the idols that the Christians saw tiiere 'dixeron i\\\e avian halhiih* eiitre ai|uclliis (,-emis 6 yolos, (his personas iiechas de cojiey («|ne es nn lirlxd assi ihiniiidci). el uno cahallero rt eahalgando sohre el otro, en tignrade aijnel ahoniinahic y iiefando pecailo de sotloniia, e otro de harro qne tenia la natnra asiiiu cun iinil)aH nninos, la qnal tenia como \Mrcnn(;'iso. . . .y no es este jiecado cniii' apiellas nuil aventiiradas}rentesdes|)reR(;iado, ni snnnirinniente aveiigiiailn: antes es innchaverdad qnanto . 5.3,3. Znazo, speaKinjj of the Mexicans, says: 'estiis P'ntes tienen la (rin prrratrin que dccia el Italiano: no creen en I>ios; siui rft.ti foifox .todomitfis: conien came huinano.' Carta, in Icazbalnto, Vol. iln Jhii:, toni. i., p. 3(5.'^. 9" Hist. Ai>oloanderage was committed were of high rank, a greater penalty was iiiHicted upon the pander.'"' This was the law in ^[e\ico; in Tezcuco, according to the historian of the Cliichimecs, the pimp suffered death in all cases."" Simple fornication was not jamished, unless it was committed by a noble lady, or with a maiden conse- crated to the service of the gods, in which cases it was death. Fornication with the concubine of an- other also went unpunished, uidess they had been living a long time together, and were in consecpience, according to custom, considered man and wife. If aiiv one had connection with a slave, and the woman died during her pregnancy, or in giving birth to the child, then the offender became a slave; but if she was safely delivered, the child was free and was taken care of l)y the father."*^ The woniaji who took any drug to procure an abortion, and she who fui-nishetl "*" Liis Casas, amonf^hisuiiautlicntit" laws hasdiie wliidi prcscrilies doatli ill this cuHf. l)ut ill aiuitlior lisi, wliicli lie says is coiiiiioseii of aiitlit'iitic l:nvs ■ 'iiiioiit and oontiscatinn of ])ri>|ti'rty is j;iveii as till- ptMialty. If/xf. A/iiili, ■,:,.. a, MS., cai>. Cfxv.; Tiiriinnniida, Momtn/. IiuL, toiii. ii., p. HSO; Vii/fiii, Hi.it. Ant. Mn., toiii. iii., |). 42,'i. "" Tnr i>ifiMul'i, Mimnrq. Imf., toiii. ii., n. 380; I.n.i Oasn.s, Ili.st. A/iiifa- 'j'tlni, MS., cap. ccxiii.; M-mliiln, /list. Lrlr.i., \t. 1S7. Oiti'j,'a aiiils tiiat t'lcir iiuiiils wore niltluMl witli asli(>s; '.se les uiitalia I'oii ceiii/a calioiitf.' I'll/lid. Hist. Ant. Mj., toin. iii., p. '1'17\. '"^ frtHLrorltitl, Hist. Chich.. in KinysborouglCs Mix. Antiq., vol. ix., ji. •JK!; ViifHit, Hist. Ant. Mrj., p. '224. '"' I.i'lll.roi'hitl, E'lui'iiinrs, in Kiitfjshoroiii}h\t Mrx. Antiq., vol. ix., p. ^■>7; ]'(ijlin. Hist. Ant. MJ., totn. iii., p. 42'i; Jhirnn, in h'in>fsl)or»nii/i's .ire. .{tiliq., vol. viii., pp. •24.3—1; Tnri/nrinfii/'i, Monnri/. Iml., toiii. ii.. p. :!■<•; l.'is t'osa.1. Hist. Aj)o/i-iirtic(i,}ilfi., cap. ci'xv. ; Ortiija, in Vtytin, II. st. A,tt. MJ., toni. iii., pp. '224-5. ' f 470 Tin: XAIRA NATIONS. tlie (Iruijc, l)oth suflferod death.'"* If one woman siiiiud carnally with anotlier, hoth died for it."*''' The ni.iii who went ahout the streets dressed as a woman, or the woman wlio dressed as a man, was shiin."* In tliis account are conijjrlsed nearly all the special laws of the Aztecs which have been })reserved, with the exce})tion of those relatiiii*" to military mattirs, marriage, divorce, and slavery, all of which 1 have already had occasion to consider. That the Aztec code was a severe and hrutal oiio there can be no denial, but that it was more severe and brutal than was necessary, is, as I have befoie remarked, doubtful. We have already seen that a horrible death was the inevitable fate of those de- tected stealing in the market-})lace, yet we are told that did the owner of a stall but turn away his head for a moment, his wares would be i)ilfered. A people accustomed almost daily to see human blood i)oured out like water in sacrifice to their gods, must of necessity have been hardened to the sight of sutfer- iug, and upon such none but an execution of the m,ost revolting descri})tion could create an impression of awe or fear. It appears remarkable that punish- ments involving only disgrace shoukl have been adopted by such a people, yet it is doubtful whether slavery was not considered a lighter punishnieht than having the hair burned off in the public market. Some of the Aztec monarchs evinced a desire to he as lenient as the stubborn nature of their subjects would allow, but the yoke u[)on the people, if it were in any degree to control them, must at best be a heavy one; in short, despotism of the harshest was neces- sary and indispensable to them in their stage of ci\ il- ization. 'M Las Casas, TTist. Ajioloff^tira, MS., cap. coxiii., ocxv. ; Mcudirln, Hisf. Erics., p. i;{(>. >oi Liis (Jdsns, Iliiil.\ Torqiiimmia, 3foiinrq. Iiiif., toni. ii.. j). .'JSO-l . '"*> /,(^s• ('(f.s/f.v, //>/>/, ; 'r<>i(/iin)iiii/ii, MoiKirij. //<>al condition, and some of the adventures he met with on these occasions are as entertaining- as any told hy Sheherezade of the (Jood ("aliph. I select one, not because it is the hest, hut hecause it points more particularly to Nezahualco- ytttl's benevolence and love of justice. Duriiii^' the reiL,Mi of this monarch, owin«i^ to the inunense con- sumption of wood, the use of oil and tallow bein<;' then unknown, the forests beijcau to j*row thin, and tlie kino- foreseeinji^ that unless some precar.tions were taken, there would soon be a scarcity of wood in the kingdom, ordered that within certain limits no wood should be touched. Now it haj^pened one day, when tiie kinijf was abroad in dis;n'uise, and acc(»m|)anied only by his brother Quauhtlehuanitzin, that tliey passed by the skirts of a forest wherein it was ])ro- hihited to cut or gather wood. Here they found a hoy who was engaged in picking up the light chij>s and twii>s that had been carried by the wind outside of the enclosure, because in this locality the udiabit- iuits were very numerous, and had exhausted all the timber that was not reserved by law. Nezahualcoyotl, seeing that under the trees of the forest there lay a gieat (piantity of fallen wood, asked the boy why lie contented himself with dry leaves and scattered twins when so m-eat an abundiince of fuel lay close at liand. The boy answered that the king had forbid- den the j)eople to gather wood in the forest, and \m Ti,rifiinH'ii/- much pleased with the boy's loyalty, and seeing the distress to which the people were reduced by tlu; severity of the forest laws, he afterwards had them altered. >•" '"' Torquemndn, Monarq. Ind., toni. i., p. 16.5. In the followiiif; works more or less inention is made of tlie Hystein of jiirispnuleiR-i' tliat existid tiiiii)ii<; the Nahiiii i)eo|>les. Piinetidi, Mrm. xonrc In Jinzn Iiidnji mi. \\\\. 'M-7t; Ciirbiijiil ICwinosft, Hist. Mcx., tom. i., i)p. .'iD.S-liO^; Aimr. Ktlmti. Sor., Trini.iiirf., vol. i., p. 1.5.3; K/citi>n, Ciiftiir-Oi\ir/iic/i(i; torn, v., pp. .'{."> ti, 5.S-4, (!<)-7.'), !»C-7, 10.5, 205; Corti.i, A rni. y Cotiq. i>n'f., p. 1.3; lhl(n,nrtr. Un sen, tuiii. X., )>n. 2<>4-7; Inrfrfent.iaiid Skitr/ics, pp. (>0-l ; Simnti's Tni Triliin, jip. •2(i;<-70; liiissierir VEmpire Afvj:, j)p. l.'VO-S; L'/iinitiHrs' Jour., IS.S.'i, vol. iv. .p. 2.53; Buril, Mcxiqur, pp. 20.5-/; Tourun, Hist. Gin., torn, iii., pp. 20-31; Sodcn, Spanier in I'eru, torn, ii., p. 14. CHAPTER XV. NAHUA ARTS AND MANUFACTURES. Mktai.s I'sEn ANP Manner of Obtaining Them— Working of Ooi,d AM>Sll,VEK--WoXI»ERKl'I. SkII.MN IMITATING— GIKDIXU AND I'LAT- iN(i AV()HKiN(} IN Stone— LArioAUY Wotjk — Wood ("aijving- Mantfactire of Pottery— Vauiois Kinds of Cloth— Maxi'- FArTiKE OF Pater ani> Leather— Preparation of Dves axi> Paints -The Art of Painting— Feather MosAir Work Leaf- M \TS— Manner of Kindling Fire— Torches- Soap— Council of Arts in TEZtrco— Oratory and Poetry— NKZAiiiALroYOTL's IMiES ox THE MlTARILITY OF LiFE AND THE TYRANT TeZOZOMOC— Aztec Arithmetical System. Gold, silver, copper, tin, and load were the metals known to and used by the Nahuas. The latter, how- t'vor, is merely mentioned, and notliino' is known ahout V litre it was obtained or for what jmrposes it was em- jtloyed. We have only very slight information resj)ect- iiiL( the processes by which any of the metals were ohtained. Gold came to the cities of Amihuac chietly Ironi the southern Nahua provinces, throuoh the agency of traders and tax-o-atherers ; silver and tin Were taken from the mines of Taxco and Tzompanco; 0()j»j)('r was obtained from the mountains of Zacatol- laii, the ])rovince of the Cohuixcas, and from Micho- acaii. Nuijfgets of gold and masses of native cop|)er wurc found on the surface of the ground in certain regions; gold was chiefly obtained, however, from the saiul in the bed of rivers by divers. It was kept, in (473) iU THE NAHUA NATION'S. tho form of dust, in snmll tubes or quills, or was nicltod in siimll ]H)ts, l)y tho aid of hollow liaiulini. l>lo\v-pi))t'S usod instoad of hollows, and oast in small bars. .i*rosoott tolls us that those niotals woiu uIm) niinod from voiiis iu tho solid rook, oxtonsivc; ^al- lorios })oing oponod for tho imrposo. Quioksilvi r, sul- phur, alum, oohro, and othor minerals wore oolitctctl to a certain extent and emi)loyod hy the natives in the preparation of colors and for othor purjtosos.* Tin; use of ii'on, though that metal was abundant in the country, was unknown. Such metals as they had tluv were most skillful in v\orking, ohioHy hy nieltint; and castin<^', and hy carving, but also to some extent liy the use of tho hammer. We have no details of tlic means employed to molt the harder metals, besides tho rude blow-pipe and furnace mentioned in coiiiiui- tion with gold. For cutting implements copper was the only metal used, but it was hardened with an alloy of tin until it sufficed to cut the hardest substances nearly as well as steel.^ The pure and softer metal was nse<'. to mala; kettles and other vessels. Copper tools Avore, however, rare compared with those of stone, and seem to have been usod chiefly in working wood where a sharp and enduring edge was recjuired. Such tools usually took the form of axes and chisels. 1 'Tnnibien Iuh niiniis de plata y oro, cobre, plomo, oropel nutural, cs- tafio y (itros nietiiles, (jiic todos los saciiroii, lulmiroii, y dcjiiroii scnalo y inciiioiiu.' Sii/utt/iiii, Hist, den., toiii. iii., lib. x., ]>]». 1U»-1I. To ulilaiii ^()I(l '.st> inctiaii al fondu del a<^ua y Macaliaii las iiianos Ueiias de ari'iia, pani Imscar hicfjo en olla los graiioH, lo.s . ("lavigerostates that inZacat(dlan two kinds of copper were fmiail, liard and soft, s(» that tliere was no need of any hardening proce;is. .SV'/k* Ant. dd Mcssico, toiu. iv., pp. 21U-11> GOLD AM) SII.VKK SMITHS. 475 Slitks for working,' tlie •^Toiiiul, the nearest Xalnia ii])|»r(>a«'li to the j>lo\v, wi-re also often tii)pe(l with lojipcr, as M'e have ween. Metal uas not niueli iistd ill iiiakiiiif Aveaj)on;^, not l)ein«r found in swords or iinow-heads, liut enij>loyed Avith obsidian in sjn'ar- licids and on the ntnz((, or eluh. Jioth copper and till (iislu's and ]»hites are mentioned hut were not ill conunon use. In tlie nianufaeture of inipK-nu'iitH of copper and tin tlu'se metals were wrought hy means ut" stone hammers and not cast.^ No I»ran<'h of Nahua art was carried to a higher de- ujree of perfection than the ornamental working of i>(»l(l and silver. The coiujueroi's were struck with ii(hiiiration on beholding the work of the native gokl- smiths; they even in some cases frankly acknowledge that they admired the work more than the material, nnd saved the most beautiful specimens from the melt- ing furnace, the greatest compliment these gold-gree«ly adventurers could pay to native art. ^lany of the tiller articles were sen* as ])resents and curiositii's to Kiirojieaii }>rinces, who added their testimony to that of the coiKjuerors, pronouncing the jewelry in many iiistaui'es superior to the work of old-world artists. Azcapuzalco was the headipiarters of the woikeis in gold and silver.* The imitation of natural ()bjects, ' ' rorrns I'lavotcndiiH «le liicrro, cdlire y oro.' I.rtliljcorhill, Iti lariitiiii, ill l\'iiif/s/iiiniiif//i'.s Mi:i\ Aiitif/., vol. ix., ii. Xi'2. ' Noiih avoiis on ciitic Ics iniiiiis (If lii'inix outilsdccuivn' rosi'ttf.' Viollii-lc-llur, in I'lmnnni, Itniiirn I>I>. 8(>- IiuiihIk.' Ihrrrni, Hisf. (In 'lla/cii iniU'liiiM t'osas, i'iuhk Ins inijon's caliii'ii'ins litl •1( lil> Siiiiie liail pliiti's iillicr vi'ssels of tin. Uriri/n, lli.st. (t'ni., toni. iii., |>. 4t)r). '('ontiitto liii >i >a, die iavoravano hone il ran clic |iiat'(jiii'ni itssiii a, ^'li S] i:i;:iiuiiU Dili. II In idi'o sciiri, e Ic loro |)ic<-lu'.' L'lnriiji m, Sluria Anl. dil Mrsslm, t I>. I'.MJ. I'l'ter Martyr s|K'ak.s of lar;;*' ('o|i|K'r stand.s or t-aiHlli'siicks wliii li Mi|i|Mirtc(l |iiii(> torrla's to li^'lit tlic courts of tlif ln'ltcr houses. l)cc. v., lil(. N. ' II cxistait <1»; si {iraiids vases d'ar^'eiit (|iriiii lioniiiie pouvait a peine it's ciitourer (le ses liras." linril, Mrjiijiir, p. 2()!t; JJriiirmll'.'i Iml. llmrs, p. fit; Edinliiiriih llirinr, July 1807. * 'Todo variadizrt, an eii •'iirriii los lieyes, yCapitanes Indianos, cont'essaron (^iie eiaii iiiiiuitaliles eii Kiircppa.' Jiotiiriiii, Jtfra, p. 78. 'Non sarehlu-ro verisiniili le iiiara\ i^^lic di fiiiiil arte, se oltro alia tcstimonian/a di (juaiiti le videro, non fossero statu iiiiiiiilate in Knropa in ;;raii coiiia si falle raritii.' ' Fiiialineiite eiaiio tali si falif o[)eie, clie unche 4ue' Soldati .spaynuoli, clie si sentivanu travaj^liuti r ! I m' An TIIK XAIIIA NATIONS. juirticulaiiy iiiiinials, hlrdH, and fishes, wiiH a favoriti- iit'ld for tlio display of this luaiu'li of Nalma tah lit. Tliu t'oii«[iit'ror Colic's tolls us that jMoiitczuma liad in liis colKc'tion a coiiiiterfuit in ^'old, silver, stoms, or feathers, of every ohjeet under heaven in his dnmiri- ions, so skillfully made, so far as the work in im tiil was concerned, that no smith in the world could »\(t I them. This statement is repeated hy every write ion the subject. Dr Hernandez, the naturalist, in |in'- parin«; a treatise on Mexican zoolou^y for Philip I 1., is said to have supplied his want of real specimens of certain rare sj)ecies hy a resort to these imitations.'* The native artists are said to have fashioned animals and birds with movable heads, lejLfs, win^i-s, and toni^iiLs, an ape with a spindle in its hands in the act of .spin- nin vivo, o lieclio ti^'ura y talle, en ])ie(lraH ile tn'o v l>t'drt'ria.' Jxtlif.mr/iit/. Ilisl. Cliich., in Kiiiffsfjoruii'ih^s Mix. Aiitii/., vol. i.\., p. '244. 'TIiiTc is iiii fourefootod lieast, nofi ;le, no fyslio, wnieh then Artificers liavo once mciic, hut tlicy are able to dr. vc, and entte in iiK'ttall tlic likeiieMHe aiul iirii|iiiiiiiiii thereof, enen to the Ivi ' I'v/rr j'ifiirfifi; dec. v., lih. .\., iv. hi^'lit ;;i'lii HhriinpH of much ])eri( ' on. Oriafo, llist. GV»., torn, iii., p. 285; I'iiiniiUl, Mem. sohre la llaza Ii fcna, p. 50. 6 'Saean uii avc, coi un papa;;ayo que ho le anda la lenjjua ctinio si vivo la inenease y tainh : la caheza y las ala«. Un roHtro de a;;uila In mis- mo, nnaraiia, yun pcse, i>,Hcnalaarczca (pic hila, o vna niaiivjina, •|Mi' eoinc. Ksto tuuicron a niuclio nuestroH E8]>arudes, y lo.s plateros de aca no ah-aiivan el priinor.' Gouiara, Conq. Mix., fol. 117. 'Y lo que nia« ts, i|m' sacalian dc la fundicion vna pie^a, la niitad dc Oro, y la niitail de I'lata.' Torqiicmiiila, MoiKtrq. Iiid., toiii. ii., j). 487; Vctnnrrrt, Tnitrd M'.r.. |it ii.. ]). .")!(; Memlirtn, Hi.if. Eiirs., pp. 403-7. 'Saeaiian al niercado los olirinlis tlestcurtc, platuH, uchuuados de vu quarto dc oru, y otru de platu, uu .solda- (ilLDIXCJ AM) l'LATIN(5. 477 fn vnritt' till. lit. I had in oius. or (loiniii- II IIK till 1(1 ix.vl .liti roll in \>vv- 1» II., is IIU'IIS of itatioiis.' aiiiiiials toii^uts, of spiii- ]»urtitu- was the 4'u\*x the (list i lift loK', and Thus ;()ld and e iiu'tah I A vessels. ii iiialtriii.' (III I'sliivit'-'"' orluti. III si. "lu'iv is nil (IIICI' SCCIU', LI |ii'o|iiiitii>ii I; /'///(( //'•/, |iia ct'iiio s*! tiiilii loinis- Jtii y I (till <1<' l( 'asds, Ui'if. I's y caln'V''! ImViiiii'. '1'"^' lis (If aiii lilt llllUH fS. M'"' 1] do riata.' \\h.i\. I't ii.. Ijos ntirialfs lu, no solda- After tlu^ Spaniards canio, tln^ native artisanH had a iiew and wide Htdd for the; disphiy of their skill, in iiMJtatinjL,' the ininierous pHnlucts of European art. .\ A'vj!^\\i examination, often ohtaiiied hy stealthily luokiiio; into tlio shop windows, enahled them to re- |niidiice and not iinfre(|uently to improve upon the finest artieles of jewelry and plate.'' ( lavijLfero says that vessels of copper or other in- tVrinr metal were «:filded, hy emp'ovinjjr an unknown prncess in which certain herhs were used, and which wdiild have made the fortune of a j^oldsmith in Sj)aiii and Italy. Oviedo also tells us that vaiious orna- niiiital articles were covered with thin },o>ld i>late.*' To (Miumerate the articles manufactured hy the Na- Inia ij<»ld and silver smiths, and included in the lon<; lists of piesents made hy ^lontezuma and other chief- tains to their compUTors is impracticahle; they in- (lutlcd finely modeled j^-ohlets, pitchers, and other Vessels for the tahles of the kinoes and nohility; frames tur stone mirrors and rich settings for various j>recious stuiies; personal ornaments for the wealthy, and es- |iL(ially for wariors, includin*;" rin«^s, bracelets, ear- (iidps, heads, helmets and various other jtortioiis of aiiiior; small tiijfures in human foiin worn as rliarnis or venerated as idols; and finally the most uniMcous and complicated decorations for the larger idols, and their temjdes and altars.' ilo». -.inn fiiii(li(l(i«, y on lii fiiiulicion jn'-^ado, cosa (JificuItoHa de etitondcr. Niianan \ na ralilcrctu (l(> plata, cnii rxcclciitcs lalioifs, y sii assa iiis »!star iiii inilio (•iiviiclto t-n niia inaiita qiie nil •-,. |(. luircfiaii si no los iijos, ntiiio t'llos sc jhhicii iu> iniiy I'orra tic \m\\ liriida lie al;,'uii |>latt'ro i\v !<>h inu'stros ilisiiiiiilailainciit*!, ciimii no jac- ii'iiilia niirar natlii y el ]>liiten> ostar laltrainln ilc iirn y ilc plata al;.'iiiiu jnya " pii'/a ilr inm-lio iirtilicio v iimy ili'liraila, y tic suln vcrU- lia< rr al;;iina I'lirir lii'lJa irso a su casu y liacolln tanfn y mas pcrft'ctn y Iracllo ik'silc li iiiiiip en la iiiaiio jiara lo veiiiler.' Los I'tixus, Illst, .l/mfiit/r/ird, MS., cap. Kiii. /ua/ii, liDWcvcr, ])rniMiunccH Hoinc of flic native wtirk infciiitr to tliu l'.iiiii|)c;iii. • Vo vi ali^niias pic/as y nn nic parecicrnn tan prinianicntc la- liniilii^ riinio las micstras.' Carlo, in Irazltn/rr/n, t'ul. (If I>ik\, toni. i.. p. !Ui'2. * i'liiii(/i,-o, Storiii Ant. del Mcssico, toni. iv., p. '211; Oi'ialo, Hist. Gen., '"111. i., p.';V_»0. ' N iia nic(l:i do liccluira dc Sol, tan ^lande conio ile vna carrcta, con ii.mliii> laliores, todo du uru luuy lino, yran obru de niirur;. . . .otru mayor :i P' i- 478 THE NAHUA NATIONS. Little is known of the methods or imj^lements l)y Avliich the workers in gold accomplished such niarvtji- ous results. The authors tell us that they excelled particularly in working the precious metals by nitans of fire; and the furnaces already mentioned are j»io- tured in several of the Aztec picture-writings as simple vessels, perhaps of earthen ware, various in form, heaped with lumps of metal, and possibly with wood and coal, from which the tongues of flame pro- trude, as the workman sits by his furnace with his bamboo blow-pipe. How they cast or molded the molten gold into numerous graceful and ornamental forms is absolutely unknown. The process by whidi these patient workers carved or engraved ornameiitul figures on gold and silver vessels by means of tlieir implements of stone and hardened copper, althuugh not explained, may in a general way be easily iiiiai^- ined. They worked ilso to some extent with the haunner, but as gold-beaters they were regarded as inferior workmen, using only stone implements. The art of working in the precious metals was deiiwd traditionally from the Toltecs, and the gold and silwi- smiths formed in Mexico a kind of corporation under the divine guidance of the god Xipe.*° rncflii tie plata, fipnirada la Luna, con muchos resplantlorcs, y otras tijiuriis en ella.' Jirriial iJutz, Hist. Coiiq., fol. 20-7. 'Espejos hei'jios dc Miir;;a- jita, 4110 es VII metal hcriiuisissiiiio, conu» plata nuiy resplaiulccieiitc v otn^ jjjrandes I'onio vti pufio retlondos eomo vna hola, en<^astados en oio.' lin-- ririi, Hist, (icii., doc. ii., lili. v., caj». v. 'Doze zebratanas de fusta yjilaia, con (luo Holia el tirar. Las unas ])Uitada8 v niatizadas de aves, aiiiiiiiilt^, rosaH, tiores, yarboles. . . .Law otras eran vanadas, y sinzeladas con ma,- ini- nior y sotiieza que la pintura.' Gontaru, Coiiq. Mc.i\, f. vii.,ca|i. xv. V Li (jnc mas la.s liace admiralties, os (jue las ohran y labran con solo t'iii';.'n y con una piedra o pedernal.' Las Ciisns, Hist. Ajioloffvtira, MS., cap. I\iii. Hammered work inferior to tliat of Enroitean artizans. Cl((ri(/irii, Stnn'i Jut. (Ill Me.ssivo, torn, ii., n. ISKi. 'Los oticiales (jue lalmin oro sou dc ilns nuincras, unos de ellos se llamaii nutrtilladores 6 anuijadores, jioniuc !'-("■* laliran oro de nnirtillo nnijilnero estiiii divididos en dos |iaitr«, porque labruii el oro cada uno de su nianeru.' Suhuyuii, Hist. Clin., ti'in II- WORKING IN STONE. 479 Stone was the material of most Nahiia im})leineiits. For this purpose all tlie harder kinds found in the t'ountry were v^orked, flint, porphyry, hasalt, but espe- ciiilly obsidian, the native iztU. Of this hard material, extensively quarried some distance nortli of Mexico, nearly all the sharp-edged tools were made. Tliese tools, such as knives, razors, lancets, spear and arrow lieads, were simply flakes from an obsidi.in l)lock. The knives were double-edged and the best of them slightly curved at the point. The maker held a i-ound block of iztli between his bare feet, pressed with his chest and hands jn a long wooden instrument, one end of which WHS applied near the edge of the block, and thus split off knife after knife with gn.'at ra[»idity, which required only to be fitted to a wooden handle to be ready for use. The edge thus produced was at first as sharp as one of steel, l)ut became blunted bv slii^ht use, when the instrument nuist be thrown away. Thus Las Casas -tells us that ten or fifteen obsidian razors were retpiired to shave one man's beard. Stone knives seem rarely if ever to have ])een sharpened by grinding." Of obsidian were made the knives used ill tlic sacrifice of human victims, and the lancets used in bleeding for medicinal purposes and in drawing blood in the service of the gods. For bleeding, simi- ii., lili. ix., p. 387, ct scq. For pictures of fnriiaops mid of some" niann- f.ii'tnnil iirticlt's from tlie liioroj^'Iypliic MSS., hi'o En-htiiik', in Si/ion/ir'ift'n Arrli., vol. iv., ]). 448, ct simj. ''I'liey cast, also, vessels of pild ami silver, I'.irviii,' tin III with their nietallie i-hisols in a verv delicate iiiaiiiier.' /Vr.y- O'tl's .][,.,:, vol. i., jij). 139-40. " 'Sii'iitaiise eii el siielo y toiDaii iin pcdazo de amiidla jiiedra iie^fra. . . . .\i|iii'i p(Mlazo ([lie toiiiaii es de iiii paliiio u poco mas lar;,'o, y dc^xniesocomo 111 |iici'iia CI ])oco menos, y rollizo. Tieneii iin palo del ;;rneso de una laii/a y lariro coino trescodos o poeo mas, y al princijiio de este |ialo poiicii pe^'ado y liieii atado un trozo de palo de uii palino, jirueso como el niolledo del Wazii, y al;,'o mas, y este tiene su fienfe liana y tajada, y sirve este tro;:o Jiiirii ijiie pese mas aiiuelia ]iarte. .Iiiiitan anilios ]t'u''s descalzos, y con ellos inniciaM la jiiedra con el jiecho, y con ainhas las manos toman el palo <(ue ilijo era como vara do lanzii ((lue taniliieii cs llano y taja. 60. n'pciitiil in nearly the same words in Tiirqiirinndii, Moiidt-ii. I ml., tom. ii., pp. 4Sii-',t(i; Lax Casus, Hint. Aj)olu(jc(iat, MS., cap. Ixii., l.wi: Wtancrrt, 480 THE NAHUA NATIONS. n f r t lar knives are said to be still used in Mexico." The use of stone in the manufacture of weapons has heeii mentioned in another chapter. Masks and even riiios and cups were sometimes worked from obsidian and (jther kinds of stone. Axes were of flint jado, or l)asalt, and were bound with cords to a handle of liiird wood, tlie end of which was split to receive it." Tor- ;;rii, y viias iiauajas dc axcino, hcclias {'omo |iii'"ial, mas Zinnias en iiii'ilio iiuc i\ Ins lilos, run ((iicse jaHsan v Hanjiraii 4-5. 'In the befiiiiiiiiijf of tliis so rare iiUKii- tioii, I }^()tto oiicdf thorn, wliii'h Cliristophorus ("ohmuN, .Viliiiirallnf llu' Sr.i fiauc iiii'i'. 'I'liis stone was of a "jreeiie thirkislie colour, fasteiicil in iiiii>t lirine ami liarde woode, wliicli was the handle or liehie thereof. I slrnUi' with all mv force vpon Iron harres and dented the Iron with my stnikcs without spoylin^ or hurting of the stone in any part thereof. With tlun' stones therefore they nuike their instritnients, for liewinj,' of stone, orciitiiii;.' of tiini»er, or any workemanship in gohl orsiluer.' I'ckr Mar/yr, dci'. v. lih. iv. n .\foii(trreciou8 stones in the formation of necklaces, bracelets, ear-rings, and other decorations for the noliles or for the idols. Various articles of dress or aiinor were completely studded with gems tastefully "' 'SiMil]tture(l iinnjies were so numerous, tliat tlic foiindiitions of flie cMtli('(lriil ill t\n'p/(tzii iiKti/or, tlie ;;reat sr|iinr(' of Mexico, an' said to iieeii- liiily cnniposeil of tlieiii.' I'rf.sroft's Mi .1 ., vol. !., |>|). I4((-1. 'l'\\o statues ill lil<('n('ss of Moiite/uiiia and his Iti'otlicr I'ut in the clil!' at ('iiapiilteiiee. Ihii'iii. Ili.if. Iiii/iii.s, MS., toiii. !., eap. iii. Tlie idols (h'st roved liy Corti'-s "t'liiii dc iiiauera de dra;;(Uies esjiautaldes, tan j^randes eoiiio lieeenns. y otras li;j:iii'iis dc iiiaiiera de medio homhre, v de jierros fjraiides, y de iiiahis seme- jaiKMs.' Ilmiiil I)i(t.~, Hist. Ciiitii., fo"l. 3."». '.Sa]ievaiio esprimere iiclle loro statue tiitti;rli atte;;;,'iameuti, eposituie, di eiii ecaiiaee il eorpo, osservavaiio I'sittaiiiciite le propor/ioni, e facevaiio, dove si riehiedeva, i jdii iiiiiiuti, e 'liiiiali intaixlj.' Cldi'iijrn), S/iin'n .tut. 1/1/ .Min.sico, toiii. ii., p. I'.l.'i, 'lla- liia (litre ellos },'raiides eseultores de caiiteria, (|iie ialirahau euatito (|ii('iiaii 111 |iii'ilia, eon ;fuijarros o iiedernales, tail jirima y (Miriosameiite ronio en iiiii'-tra Castilla los muy nueiios otieiales eon eseodas y iiieos de aei'io.' Miiiilir/ii^ lILst. Kclfs., ]>. 4(W; Ti)riiiiiiiiii(lit, Miiiiiiri/. Jut'., toni. ii.. pp. Hti-S; I'nrtrait-statiies of the Te/.eiieaii kiii;;s. l.ellil.rovliill. Hist. I'hirh., \n K/iii/xl„trt)iii//i\i .Mr.i: Aiiti'/., vol. ix., p. -M; f(/., Itrliiriniiis. p. 440. Statues of Montezuma and hrother. liitstaitiatile, in L'tivo, Tir.s Siij/i.,.i, toni. iii., p. 4'.t. Vol. U. 31 ', ! 482 THE NAHUA NATIONS. i It w V arranged, and a kind of mosaic, with which wooden masks for the idols were often covered, attnutt'U much attention among the Spaniards. ^lirrors of rock crystal, obsidian, and other stones, brightly pol- ished and encased in rich frames, were said to reHoot the human face as clearly as the best of Euro]iuan manufacture." Trees were felled with copper hatchets, hewn witli the same instruments into beams, and dragged l)y slaves over rollers to the place where they were needed for building. Some of the chief idols, as for instance that of Huitzilopochtli, according to Aeosta, were of wood, but wood-carving was not apparently carried to a high degree of perfection. Some boxes, furnished with lids and hinges, also tables and chairs, were made of wood, which was tlie chief material of weapons and agricultural implements. The authori- ties devote but few words to the workers in wooil, who, however, after the conquest seem to have be- come c[uite skillful under Spanish instruction, and with the aid of European tools. Fire-wood was sold '" 'GH smcmldi erano tnnto coniimi, die non v'cra Sif^ioro, die noii nr avesHc' Clarigiro, Storia Ant. del Mrs.sint, toiii. ii., |»|>. iJlHi-T. 'Ksmaliaii assi mesino, cii<;astau y laUraii e»iiierisliian, turqiiesaH, y otras iiicdriis, y a>j;iijeraii perlas iicro no taiiibieii coiuo por aca.' Gomitra, Cotii/. Mi.i:. fol. 1 17. 'Aiiihar, cristal, y Ian i)ic»lras llaniailas nmnti.ifo porlas, y todo ;;('ii('ni lie ellas, y deinas que traiaii jH)r joyas (jiie aluna se iwaii.' Sn/ini/ini. Hist. Gcii., ti'in. iii., Iil>. x., pp. 109-11, 117-KS. 'I'li encalaild iniiy piilido, i\w era de ver, y piedras cle que estaban hechas, tanihien labradas y pc^railas, que pareda ser eosa de nuisaico.' Jil., j). 107. Shield** adorned with '|piThui nienudas) eonio aljofar, y no hc ]»uede dezir su artiticio, lindeza, y hcriiiosiira.' Saudaiis Iiavin<{ 'pur Huelas vna jtiedra hhinca y a/ul, comi preciosa y iiiiiy del^ada.' JIvrrcra, Hist. Gen., dec. ii., lih. v., cap. v. (luariiiucs of blue Rtones set in jj;old; a stone face surrounded witli K"'d; a striii;; of Ntinic beads. ' I)(i8 mascaras de piedras nienudas, conio tur([uesas, scntadas ^^cll)rl' niadera de otra niusilyca.' (h'irdi), llisf. Gcii., toni. i., pp. i")"Jti-8, toiii. iii., l)p. 28.'), 30.5. Idol covered with mosaic work of nu)tner of pearl, tur- quoises, emeralds, and chalcedonies. Ltis Cii.ins, Hist. Ajinlni/rdfii, y\S.. eai». c.wxii. 'E.xcellent glasses may bee nuiile thereof by sniootliiu;.' and polishing them, so that we all confessed that none of ours did better ^ill we the natnrall and liuely face of a manne.' J'rter Marli/r, dec. v., lili. \. ' lis avaicnt des nuisqucs garnis de pierres precieuses, re])r(''seulant dcs lions, («•., toiii. i., ])j». .301-2. 'I Fale;^iiaiiii lavoravaiio bene i)are('eliie Hpezie di le;;iii I'li'lord stniiiienti di ratne, de'([uali se lie veditim aieiini anrlie <»H;;;idi.' Vlari- ijirii, Sfiiria Ant. ifrl Mcssiro, toiii. ii., pp. '207, lit-4-5. 'J.oh earjiiiiteniis y fiitalladorcs labraban la inadera cmi instrnnientiis de colire, ihto no se da- liaii ii lalirar eosiis curiosas conio Ioh canteros.' Mindii'ta, llist. Eclrs., p. W.\. 'Laltravan la/iis, y aninnileH tun (riiriosns (pie causarou atlniirarion a Ins prinieros Kspafndes.' Vctaiirrrt, Tcalro Mrj-., ](t ii., p. .")<.). 'With their <'ii]i|ii'r Hatchet.s, and Axes, cunnynj^ly tenijiered, they f,'ll tliose trees, and !ii'\v(! them nnnxith, takinjr away tlie ehyppes, tliat tliey may more easily hi' drawne. They hanc also eertayne lu'arhes, witli tlie whicli, in steetl of hriiiiiiit!, and licm])e, they nuike rojies, cordes, and eahh's: an. 143. i 18 1 THE NAIIUA NATIONS. formed from tlie hollow sliel's of gourds. Tliese wciu known as jciatl/i, later jicaras, and tecomat/.^^ Sta- shellis were also used as dislies to some extent.** Tlie finer kinds of cloth were made of cotton, of rabbit-hair, of the two mixed, or of cotton mixed with feathers. Tiie rabbit-hair fabrics were pronounced equal in finish and texture to silk, and cotton dotlis were also fine and white. Fabrics of this better cIjiss wore used for articles of dress by the rich, nobles, and jtriests; they weie botii woven and dyed in varlei^att d colors. The cloths in the manufacture of whidi leath- ers were enn)Ioyed often served for carpets, tapestry, and bed-coverini>s. Ma«;uey-fibre, and that of tlic j>alm-leaves iccotl and iz/iuatl were wt)ven into coarse cloths, tlie ma<4'uey-cloth beinjL*" known as iiri/uni. This necjuen and the coarser kinds of cotton wcic the materials with which the i)oorer classes cloth( d themselves. The palm and mai>uey fibres were juc- pared for use in tlie same manner as fiax in other countries, beintj;' soaked in water, pouiuh'd, and driid. The same material served also for coi'ds, ro])es, and mats. A coarser kind of mattinj^' was, liowexci-. made of different varieties of reeds. A^.\ the work of spinnino- and weavin«^ was performed by the women, '9 Molina, Dirrlovnrin, savH, however tliiit, (lie teeoniatl was an (iiillirii vaHe. See also p. 4.")8 of this volume. ^'o 'Siete sartas . '2(i4. 'I'he jicara was of ^jold, silver, }foniil-sliells, or llsli- sliells. 'Aumiue esti'u <'ieii Afiosen el A;j;ua, nnnca la piutMiase les hor- ra.' /(/., I>. 4S,S. ' Para eo^HT la sauj^re tii'iieu eseudillas de calahaea.' ''"- iiiara, Couq. Mc.r. , fol. ;VJ4-.''). ' Many sorts also of earthen ve>sels arc miM there, as wat<.'r ])ots, j^rt'ate in}i;;s, 4'liar);erH, j;ohhlets, dishes, colciiilci>, liaseuM, fryiii;; ])aus, jiorrinjiers, jiitcliers.' I'rtvr Miir/i/r, dec. v., lil>. i\. • Va.sos que llaman .\icalli, y tecomatl, (pie son de vnos arholcs, (|iic vc iluii c.'i lierras ealientes.' 'Aestas les dau vn harni/ con (lores, y aiiiiiiiilt"- 'ii' diver.sos eic ea el aguu iiiuchos dias.' Vitaucvrt, Tmtiu ^Icx. , pt ii. , p. CO. MAKING OF CLOTH AM) rAPKir. 485 foniiiuijf indoed tlicir cliicf cinployuuMit. Tin; spin- dle used in sj)iniiini»', wlunvii in niany oi' the Aztec inanusc'ri))ts, was like a top, wliieli was set wliirliniic in a sliallow disli, the Hhre hein^- aj)plied to its jxiinted ujt]>er oxtreinity until tlu; iinjtetus \vas t'xhausted. All we know of the native process of weavini,'' is de- lived from the native ]»aintini;s, a sample of which fioiii tlie Mendoza Collection, showing'' a woman en- n-aiied in weaviuij^, may bo seen in chapter xvii. of this volume.'*^ l*a}ter, in Aztec aint the hieroglyphic records to he desci'ihed ill a future chaj)ter, was made for the most j>ait of ]uai»nev-til)re, althou^'h the other fihres used in the manufacture of cloth were occasionalU' mixed with those of this j)lant. The material must have heeti jiivssed toijfether when wet, and the j)ro(luct was jji'en- er.illy very thick, more like a soft jiaste-lioard than our j)ai)er. The surface was smooth and well adajited to the i)aintin, iK^canajtn: iiia snpiili\ai:i> iill.'i \m\;\ ('III cotiiiio, alia si-la cdila iiiimia, c vol pi'lti ilcl ('iiil~ii- liihlli, col ]'iiti, (' coll altl'c spi'zii' (li Mau'iici.' (hiriifiri), S/nriii Ant. ihl Mixtirii, toiii. ii., pii. '2((7-H, '-MO. 'Imi todo cI iiiimkIo nose podia liaccr hi tcjcr otra tal, iii as y natuialcs ccdorcs ni lalpoics.' '«/•/«•<, ('iir/ns, ]>. lOl. ' I'lia \'c>tidiira del ('•riw Sact-niotc Jr/icfiii/n/iiif- ///('(/;/(//•(//(/ sc I'lnliio ii lioiiia en liciiipodc la ( 'oiMini-^ta. ipic ilcxo pasinaila :i'|iirlla Cortt'.' Hiifiin'iii, Ii/i'n, p. 77. 'llic Olimt-s used the liair of do;;s 1111(1 oilier animals. ]'ii/fiti, llisl. Aid. Mij.. toni. i., pp. lol, •_',")•_' ;{. ' lii(rc(lil)le matters of t 'otioii, liousliolde-sliili'c, tapestry or arras Iiaii;;iii;.'s, t-'iiriiicMts, and eouerlets.' I'llcf .}/nrfi/i\ dec. v., Iii>. iii. Iliimlioldt stal(s tiiMt silk made l>y a species of iiidij^cnons vornis was an artitde of com- iiicrcc aiuoiij,' tiie Sli/tecs, in the time of .Monte/uma. K.isni I'nl., loin, ii., p- I'll. 'Ililan teniendo el copo en vna inaiio. y el Iniso en otra. riicrcen a! relics (pie aca. estando v\ liiiso en vna esciidilla. No licne lineea d liiiso, mils ililan a prissa y no mal.' Uomaru, Coiiq, Mi\i:., foi. i'{i8. 48C THE NATIIA NATIONS. iiiliabitiints iu the li'.Jinufacturo of a superior kind of ])ji|>t'r.^'' Tlio .skins of animals killed by the Nahua hunters were tanned both with and without the hair, hy apn)- cess of which the authorities say nothing, although universally praising its results. The leather wa.s used in some eases as a sort of parchment for liicio- glyjthic writings, hut oftener for articles of dress, ornament, or armor.^ In the preparation of dyes and paints, hoth min- eral, animal, and vegetable colors were em})l()ye(l, tin: latter extracted from woods, barks, leaves, Howxrs, and fruits. In the art oi' dyeing they probably i.\- celled the Euro[)eans, and nmny of their dyes have since the con(jUest been introduced throughout the world. Chief among these was the cochineal, uoi'lil:- tll, an insect fed by the Nahuas on the leaves of the nopal, from which they obtained beautiful and i)eniia- nent red and })urple colors for their cotton fabrics. The Hower of the matldlvUiuitl sup[)lied blue shades; iixligo was the sediment of water in which branclus of the :vliihqiuhjn'fzahu(U' had been soaked; seeds of the achiotl boiled in water yielded a red, the French ** ITiimhnldt, Essni Pol., torn, ii., pp. 4r)4-.'>. MaKiiov-jiaiwr 'resoiiililiii;,' soiiiewliat Xhv K}iy\\tmn ftdji/friix.' J'irxrolt's Aff.r., viil. i., pi». <,)i(-HK>. Suinc paiuTof palm-leaf, as tliiii and soft as .silk. Jiotiiriiii, Cidii/oijo, hi Ji/., Ii/m, ]>p. !>")-<>. Native ]ia]K'ri'al!i'(l(7»?///«w."). Tlioy nnnlf paper of a fcrtaiii siiccics of aloe, steept'il to^fctiicr like iienip, and afterwards wasiied, stretelicd, :i smoothed; also of tlie ])a]ni ir.rotl, and thin liarks united and jireparci! m i a eertain gum. Cl(iri(/iTi>, Storia Atif. . IS!', In iv., ]>. *2,S*.). Tor<|uemada s])eaks of a sheet 20 fathoms lon^j;, one wide, a as thiek as the linjjer. Moiinrq. Iiuf., tom. ii., p. '2(!.'<. 25 ' Ilahia oficiales de curtir cueros v muehos de adovarlos maravilln.-.a- mente.' Lns >'ii.s(is, Hist. Ajiolixjvtini, mH., ea|i. I.xii. 'Cueros de Venmln, Tif^res, y leoues. . . ,eoii polo,' y sin jiclo, de todos eolores.' Tonjtiiiiiin/ii. MoiKirq. IikL, tom. ii., i>. 488. 'Tan suuves (pie de ellos se vestian, y r-aia- han forreas.' Vitniirrrf, Teafro Mix., pt ii., p. (id; Sa/iuf/un, llixt. (lii,., tom. iii., lil). x., p. 118. Cortes founlaiii ill hat tie 'tan hien adohados eomo en tudoel mnndolopinlieran haeer.' ' '>" - ^(.v, |i. I8'5. Red skins re.scmhiiug ]iarelnnent. (hu'ri/o, Ili.st. . v., eaj). v. 'Los taraseoseurtian jjerfeetamente his |ii(lrs de los animales.' I'tti/im, in Sor. Mrx. Gcog., liah'tiii, '2n.i epoca, foni. i., p. 721. 'l)es tapis de cuir maro(|uines avee la dernierc perfeeti'ni.' t'lfia- miir duced soniethinj^' like Spanish white; black was obtained from a stinkini;' mineral, tla/iac, or frt)m the soot of a ])ine called ocotl. In mixin*^ paints they used chian-oil, or some- times the glutinous juice of the tzauhtli. The numer- ous dye-woods of the tierra caliente, now the chief exjtorts from that region, were all employed by the native dyers. It is probable that many of the secrets of this branch of Nahua art were never learned by the Spaniards.''* The Nahua paintings showed no great artistic mi^rit, being chieHy noticeable for the excellence of the colors. Very few specimens have been preserved for modern examination, except the hieroglyjdiic jjuintings in which most of the figures are hideously and, as it is supposed, purposely distorted, and con- se(|Uently no criterion of the artist's skill. Jt is not known that the Nahuas ever attempted to })aint natural scenery, except that they prepared ma})s of sections of their territory on which they rudely rej)- resented the mountains, rivers, and forests, indicating the lands of different owners or lords by the use of (liHeient colois. They sometimes made j)ortraits of the kings and nobles, but the S{)anish chroniclers admit that they exhibited much less skill in j)icturing tlic human form and face than in drawing animals, liirds, trees, and llowers. Some modern critics of lively imagination have, however, detected indications of gieat artistic jreiiius in the awkward figures of the 5' ('/(irir/rro, Sforia Ant. (hi Mr.s.tirn,\m\\. ii.,pj). 180-90; Curhnjn/ K.\jii- fio.v", Hi.st. Mix., toiii. i.,l>l). i'h>'2-',i. Mrtlidil of laiKiii^' ('(iiliiiical. /(/., |p|i. (i'_V)-(i. 'Kn ]iaiT(>iiraiit lo jialais lU- Mi>iitt'/iiiiia l<-.s Castillaiis I'lirciit liv^- ctiiiiin's d'y voir artoi»k to a H'reat extent of a hiero<»lv|>hic character, 'i'lic dura- hility of the paintings on cloth and i)a}»er, especially when rubhed occasionally with oil, was remarked liy many ohservers, as was also the skill displayed by the natives later under S})anish instruction.'^"' The mixture of feathers with cotton and other til )r(.s in the manufacture of clothing, tapestry, carpets, aiwl bcd-coverinofs ]ias already been mentioned. For such ftxbrics plain colors from ducks and other .acjuatic l)ii(ls were generally employed, brighter hues l)eing occa- sionally introduced for ornamental })urposes. Feath- ers also played an important part in the decoration of Avarrioi's' armor, the tail-feathers of the bright-luied (pietzul being the favorites. These were formed into brilliant plumes, often tipped with gold and set in ])reci()us stones. Beautiful fans were made of tlie same material. But the art which of all those jirac- ticed by the Nahuas most delii»hted and astonished the Europeans, was the use of feathers in the making of what has been called feather-mosaic. The myriads ^ 'Y jiintoros lia lialiido cntrc olios tan sofialadiw, quo sohrc imicjius ili> los scriiiliidos (loiido (iniera quo se lialiason so iMniian sofiaJar.' Jjm I'lisus, Hist. .l/iii/ii//(^/icri, MS., i'a]>. Ixii. Tiio saiiio author Kpoaks of tlioir sUill in roilui'inir or enlarjiin^' drawiiij^'s. 'Havia I'intoros liucnos, oiif rt'tr.-iiii- liau al natural, on os|K'('ial Avon, Aninialos, Arhoios, Fioros, y Vonlunis, y otras soiMOJantcs, (juo vsahan pintar, on los aposontos do los Itoios. y Sofmn ^; jioro foriiias liuniainis, asi coino rostros, y cucrpos do llonibros, y Mu;:(ri'>, no los pinfalian al natural.' TiirijiiiiiKidd, Mmuirii. JixL, toni. ii.. ji. -\>~, toni. i., p. ;iSS; Mnii/ii/ii, Ilisl. Krlr^.. p. 404. 'bans lour ;,Motosc|ii(' ct lour rai'courci, on trouve onooro oo])ondant uno dolicatosso do pincoaii. tint rcnia dc rois ot do jivincos, ([ui sont ovidonunont faits d'ajiros natnro.' />^v^^•.«»/■ sAic. 480 of tiMpical Itirds in Avliicli tlu; foivsts of tlio tlvvvii caliriiti- iilioiiiKK'd, <'liiet' ainoiiL,'' wliicli \\v\r {\\c (jiict- zal, many varieties of tlie panot kind, and tlic huit- ■jIIn, or liminniii<4-l>ird, supplied fbatliui's, line and coarsf, of every desired color and sluide. it A\as for this use chieHv that the royal and other collections of hinls, already descrihed, were so cai'efully kept. These captive hirds were i)lucketl each year ;it the j)ro])er season, and their jdumau^e sorted accoidiiiy- to color and (piality. 8onio shades only to he ohtained IVoni the rarest hirds, were for ordinary featlur-work aiti- ticially jtroduced hy dyeing the white plumage of more connnon hirds. To prepare for work the nmanfrea, or artist, ar- riiii<'('oints and under different lights, hecame satisfact(»ry to his eye. When a large piece was to he done, many work- men assemhled, a part of the work was given to each, and s(» skillfully was the task perfoi-med that the parts laiely failed at the end to hlend into an harmonious whole; hut if the effect of any i)ait was unsatistac- ti'iy it must be commenced anew, i^y this method a i^Teat variety of graceful patterns were wiought, either fanciful, or taken from natural ohjects, ilowers, ani- mals, and even the human face, which latter the na- tive artists are said to have successfully ]>ortrayed. Las C'asas tells us they made these feather-fahrics so m THE NAIIIA NATIONS. Hkillfiilly tluit tliey a})poiiro(l of dilTorent colors accord - 'm*f to thu tliroctioii from wliich tlioy wero viewed. Tho Spaniards declare that the feathor-picturcs wcic fully ecjual to tho host works of European painters, and are at a Iohh for W(jrd8 to exproHS their admiration of tluH wonderful Nahua invention; specimens of ^rc.it l)eauty have also been j)reserved and are to he seen in the museums. Besides mantles and other «^arments, tapestry, bed-coverin«i^s, and other ornaniental tJihrics for the use of tho noble and wealthy classes, to wliicli this art was a])i)lied, tho foather-mosaio was a favorite coverinj; for tho shields and armor of noted war- riors. By the same process masks wore made repre- senting in a manner true to nature tho faces of fierci' animals; and even tho whole bodies of such animals W'ore sometimes counterfeited, as Zuazo says, s(» faith- fully as to deceive the ignorant observer. The Taras- c'os of Michoacan wore reputed to bo tho most skilH'ul in feather-work.^ The feather-workers were called amantecas from Amantla, tho name of the ward of Mexico in which *6 'La Niitura nd essi Anmniiiiistrnvti qiiniiti colori fa ai1opt>rar I'Artc, o alcuiii aiK-ora, mie es.sa iioii o taiiace iT iiiiitarc' Tlics|iei'iimii« inadiallcr the comiiiest were very inferior. Vhingcru, Sturiit Aiif. lUi Missim, tuiii. ii., pp. 197-9. Hazense law iiicjore« .viiiajjiiies de jtlunia on la iiroiiiiiciii «lc Mc<'hi>ac'aa en el piiehio ile I'ascani.' Aciistn, Hist, lir l'\. 'Vi fiertos follajes, |nijariis, niaripusas, aliejoneH Holire iinas vaias Iciii- Mantes, ne^ras e tan (iel;;a(las, (|iie a)ieiia.H se veian, e ile tal niaiicra i|ii(' realniente se liacian vivas a ios <|iie las niirahan un |i(M|uits e aliejnncs (•iiiic>- jHindia naturalinente ti Uoseaje-s il: js'rltas, ramose (lores de diversis lulci- res e fornias.' /mizo, Ciirfii, in /■tr.lh-'n/'i, Vol. de Dm:, (oni. i., p. 'MM 'Fif^iiras, y inia^enes de I'rintiiies, y de sns idtdos, tan vistosas, y tan aicita- das, (^ue hazian ventaja a las j ntt'.ras Casfelianas.' J/irtrm, llisl. dm., «lcc. ii., lib. vii., cap. xv. 'SIu'Ikk cosasde IMunia, coino Aves, .Aninialo, Honilires, y otras cosas niui tieiicadas, ("a|ias, y Mantas jiara culirirsf, y vestidnras para Ios Sacerdotos de sus Teniplos, Coroiuis, ]NIi(ras, linilrlii.-, y Mosnneadoros.' Torqucnuula, Mouiirq. hid., toni. ii., jiji. 4S8-!t; Vilim- crrf, 'laitro Mcx., pt ii., p. t»9; Mendifta, Hist. Ecli\s., p|i. 40r)-(); l.nn ( ii.mi.s, Jlisf. A/)oloirds whicli furnished hrijjht-colored feathers, licrnal Dinz, llifl. ('nn'i-, fol. ()8-9. ' lis en faisaient des rondaches et d'antres insi^^nes, loiiiprissniis le iioni d' "Ajianecayotl," liont rien n'api)ro(hait pour la richesse it le lini ' JSr(is.srnr dt' Jioiirf)oiir, i., p. 285; Sidiiujiiii. Ili\>- Gill., toni. iii., lib. x., ]». 109. Mention of sonic specimens preserviMl in Europe. Klcmin, Cuf'T-Ocuchichti', tym. v., p. 30. THE COUNCIL OF ARTS IN TEZCL'CO. 401 tilt V cliic'fly livechtecas, uiitl the shrine of the ainaiiteoaH' i^od Ciotlinaliuatl, was alsi) joined to that of the merchants' ^od lyacate- I'utli. The feather- workers an. ■-•^ Tiii-ijiiviiniiht, Moiinni. Iiid., tmii, ii., p. 4S!(; Vftaiirrrf, Trd'vo •V' ' , |it li., p. .5!); Mvudiefd, Hint, licks., p. 405; Las Cams, Hint. Apulw yt^'.((, M.S., cap. 1. 492 THE NAHUA NATIONS. its ;chool of arts is better knov/n tlian others tliat probably existed in other cities. It was called tin- Council of Music, althou<^h taking cognizance of other arts and sciences, chiefly by controlling the education of the young, since no teacher of arts could exeicis;' his profession without a certificate of liis qualifications from the council. Before the same body all pupil;-; must be brought for examination. The greatest ciro was taken that no defective work of lapidary, gold- smith, or worker in feathers should be exposed tor sale in the markets, and that no imperfectly instructed artists should be allowed to vitiate the public taste. But it was above all with literary arts, poetry, oratory, and historical paintings, that this tribunal, composed of the best talent and culture of the kingdom, had to do, and every literary work was subject to its revision. The members, nominated by the emperor of Tezciuo, held daily meetings, and seats of honor were reserved for the kings of the three allied kingdoms, although ii presiding officer was elected from the nobility \v',t!i reference to his literary acquirements. ' At certain sessions of the council, poems and historical essays were read by their authors, and new inventions were exhibited for inspection, rich prizes being awardcel for excellence in any branch of learning.'^ Speech-making is a prominent feature in the life of nu.^t aboriginal tribes, and in their fondness for oratory the Nahuas were no exceptions to the rule. Many and long addresses accompanied the installa- tion of kings and all public officers; all di[)l()niat!(' correspondence between different nations was carried on by orators; prayers to the gods were in al)original as in modern times elaborate elocutionary eflbrts; the departing and returning traveler was dismissed and Avelcomed with a speech; condolence for misfortune and congratulation for success were expressed in jaih- •9 TV////(», Hist. Ant. Mij., torn, iii., pp. 201-3; Torquemndn, Mumn-'i. Ind.. torn, i., p. 147; Ixtlilxochitl, Hist. Chich., in Kiii'jsboroinjli's .1/ .'. Anti:2., vol. ix., p. 244. ORATORY AND POESY. 493 lie and private by tlie friends most skillful in the art ot" speaking; social intercourse in feasts and banijuets was but a succession of speeches; and parents even tnii)loved long discourses to impart to tlieir children jiistruetinn and advice. Consequently children Avere instructed at an early age in the art of public speak- inriz( s. The heroic deeds of warlike ancestors, national ;iiiiials and traditions, praise of the gods, moral les- sons drawn from actual events, allegorical ])rodu('- tioiis with illustrations drawn from the beauties of natiMv, and even love and the charms of woman were the eonnnon tliemes. T]\\i emperor Nezalnialcoyotl, tlie protector and promoter of all the arts and sci- oiu es, was himself a poet of great renown. Several 50 ' \vv,>j,„„,.]„\ j ],,r piii ct'lcliri Ariii;;!it()ii iion .hh'iu) da paraj,'oiiarsi cii^'li Oiatori dollo Na/inni culte di'irKuropa, iiiiii jii'.o poriiltro m';^iusi. clio i liiro ni'^iiiiiaiiKMiti ni>ii fossero }jravi, sodi, cd clcpniti, cihik' si st-oiyc da;.;li :iv»',/.i clu- ci VfHiano «lclla loro tdoinu'iiza.' ('/firii/n-o, Storiii Anf. ilrl .l/cv- >"•", toiii. ii :• 174-5. 'Les raisoiiiu'iiii'iitM y soiit j.'rav«'M, Ii-s aiuiiiiiPiitH siilidcs, ct |ii. '...s d't^lo^riuuro.' Jira/isfiir i/c Jioiirlioiiri), /lis/. A'"/. Cir., toni. iii.. [1.(17-; I'ri'Ki'otfs Mn:, vol. i., p]). 17--3 Montezuma's soctili to dn- ti's, 111 (h-/rJo, llisf. dill., toiii. iii., pp. 285-1). 'Tlie Spaniards ]\\\v ^ivi'ii ii> iniiiiv tine poiishod Indian omfioiiH, but thoy were certainl} i'ali''iuiltd at .Madrid.' Aduii; Aiiia: IniL, p. -'0'2. 404 THE NAHUA NATIONS. of his compositions, or fragments of such, have hcen preserved ; that is, the poems wer*^ written from nieiu- ory in Aztec with Roman letters after the conquest, and tra ^slated into Spanish by Ixtlilxochitl, a lineal descendant of the royal poet. They have also been translated into other languages by various authors. The following will serve as specimens.*^ SONO OF NEZAHUALCOYOTL, KINO OF TEZCUCO; ON THE MUTABILITY OF LIFE. Now will I sing for a moment, Since time and occasion oflfer, And I trust to be heard with favor If my effort proveth deservinj^; Wherefore thus I begin my smging, Or rather my lamentation. thou, my friend, and beloved. Enjoy the sweet Howers I bring thee; Let us y»c jcyful together And banish each care and each sorrow; For although life's pleasures are fleeting, Life's bitterness also must leave us. 1 will strike, to help me in singing, The instrument deep and sonorous; Dance thou, while enjoying tliese Howers, Before the great Lord who is iniglity; Let us grasp the sweet things of the present. For the life of a man is soon over. Fair Acolhuacdn thou hast chosen As thy dwelling-place and thy palace; Thou hast set up thy royal throne there. With thine own hand hast thou enriched it; Wherefore it seems to Ite certain That thy kingdom shall ptosper and flourish. *' Four poems or fragments are given in Spanish in Ktiigshoronfik's Mex. Antiq., vol. viii., pp. 110-15. No. 1 lias for its subject the tvraiit Te- zozomoc; No. 2 is an ode on the mutability of life; No. 3 is an oilc ricitiMl at a feast, comparing the great kings of Anahuac to precious stuiios; No. 4 was composed for the dedication of the author's palace and treats of tlii' un- satisfactory nature of earthly honors. Nos. 2 and .3 are also found in />>"'. Hist. Mcx., serie iii., tom. iv., pp. 286-93. No. 2 is given in I'nsrotl's Mex., vol. iii., pp. 425-30, in Spanish and English verse. A Freiuli tiaiis- lation of No, 1 is given by 'Jrasseur de Bourbourp Hiit. Nat. Cii:, loin. iii., pp. 672-4, wlio also gives an additional £,/ecimen from Caidclii'K grammar, in Aztec and Spanish. Nos. 1, 2, and 4 in I'le.ich, in lUissin-r'; J.^ Empire Mex., pp. 411-17. No. 4 is to be found in Granados y (luln:, Tardcs Amcr., p|). 90-4. Nos. 1 and 4, in German, in Miiller, liii.sni. torn. iii., pp. 138-41, where are also two additional wles. No. 2 is alw) yivtii iii Ucrmau by Klcmm, QtUtur-Gcsehichte, tom. v., pp. 146-51. NEZAHLALCOYOTL'S ODES. 495 And thou, O wise Prince Oyovotzin, Mighty monarch, and Kin^ without equal, Rejoice in the heuuty of Hprin^^-tinie, Be happy while spring abides with thee, For the day creepeth nearer and nearer When thou shalt beck joy and not find it. TABILITY A day when dark Fate, the destroyer. Shall tear from thine hand the proud sceptre, When the moon of thy glory shall lessen. Thy pride and tliy strength be diminished, The spoil from tliy servants be taken. Thy kingdom and honor go from thee. Ah, then in this day of great sorrow The lords of tliy line will l)e mournful, The princes of might will l)e downcast, The pride of hijjh birth will avail not; When thou, their great Head, luist Itcen smitten The pains of grim Want will assail them. Then with bitterness will they remember The glory and fame of thy greatness, Thy triumphs so worthy of envy. Until, while comitaring the present With yeare that are gone now forever. Their tears shall be more than the ocean. The vassals that cluster about thee And are as a crown to thy kingdom, Wiien thine arm doth no longer uphold them, Will suffer the fate of the exile; In strange lands their pride will be humbled. Their rank and their name be forgotten. The fame of the race that is mighty, .^ui' worthy a thousand fair kingdoms, ^^'^ill not in the future lie heeded; Tl e nations will onlv ronicmltcr The justice with winch they were governed }u the years when the kingdom was threefold. til Uexico, proudest of cities. Reigned the mighty and brave Montezuma, Nezahualcoyotl, the just one Of blest CulhuacAn was the monarch. To strong Totoouil fell the portion Of Acatlapdn, tue third kingdoiu. But yet thou shalt not be forgotten. Nor the good thou hast ever accomplished; For, is not the throne that thou lillest The gift of the god without ec^ual. The mighty Creat<>r of all thiiijp^, The maker of Kings and of Priucei! 49G THE NAHUA NATIONS. Nezahnalcoyotl, lie happy V/itii the pleasant tliinuH that thou ki'.oweHt, Kejoice in tlie beautifnl garden, Wreathe thy front with a garland of Howers, (jiivc heed tuld see the sharp sword of the Death-god. For, verily, pleasure is fleeting, All sweetness must change in the future, The ^uud things uf life ure inconstant. ODE ON THE TYRANT TEZOZOMOC BY NEZAIIUALCOYOTL THE KIN(i. (Jive ear unto the lamentation which I, Nezahimlcoyotl the Kiii^', iiiako williin myself far the fate of the Empire, and set forth for uii cxaniiilc iintu otiutrs. (> King, unstable and restless, when thou art dead then sha'.i liiy |)e(i]ilc be overthrown and confounded; thy place shall be no more-, t'.'c I'rciilnr, the All-powerful shall reign. Who could have thought, having seen the palaces and the court, the glory and t lie j>ower of the old King Tezozomoc, that these tliiii;;s could have an end? Vet have they withered and jierishcd. Verily, life nivctli naught but dM-ippoiutment and vexation; all that is, weareth out .iikI |ius.s- clh away. Who will not be sorrowful at the remembrance of the ancient s|ilciiil(ir ussed from hand to hand until it fades, withers, ami i>-7; J'iiiiriitil. Mini, suhte hi Riizd Intliifi'ii; Cur/xijal liipiiiii.sii, Hist. Mcx., torn, i., pp. (!.'{!(-40. 'Cantauan lanientaciones, y iiiileciuis. Tenian pronosticos, especialuiente que se aula de acabar el iimnilo, y los cantauan lastinioHaniente: y tanibicn tenian nienioria de sua t'raiiilezas, en cantares y pinturas.' Hirreni, Hist. Grv., dec. ii., lib. vi., rap. xvi.; Ixflilxochitl, Ilist. Chich., \\\ Kinijaboroityfi's Mcx. Antiq., vol. ix., p. '2"y. Vol. II. 33 488 THE NAIIUA NATIONS. Six, chicn a re. Seven, chic onir. Eij;ht, rhico CI/. Nine, c/iico nahui, — Tlioae names from six to nine are simply Jiosp from one to four, witli a i)rcfix whose meannij,' is iicit nlto^'etlier dear, hut wliii-ii is said to lie coiiiiiumcI hI chivo, 'at one side,' and i/niiin- or hiinii, incaniii;: 'near anotiier,' 'witli,' or sini|)ly 'and.' 'J'hcsc names may eonsecjnently he interpreted |ierlia))s, 'nnc siilc (or liand) witli one,' '(tne hand witli two,' et<'., or diic two, etc., 'with the other side.' Ten, nuitUictU — that is the upper part of the body, or all the linj,'ers of the hands. Eleven, uidlhicfU oc cc, ten and one. Twelve, iiiiillncfti. oin oitic, ten and two. Thirteen, iintf/dcf/i out. ci/, ten and three. Fourteen, luatlactli u iKilnii, ten and four. In these names oc, om, o, or on as Molina jjivcs it, seems to he used as a connective partil■lt^ ciiuivaliMt, to 'and,' hut I am not acciuainted with its cici'iv.itinii. Fifteen, c . l'2S-47; Soc. Mi-x, Gcog., Bolctin, 2da cpot-a, torn, iv., Sept., 187'2; GaUolin, in Amer. Ethno. Soc, Transact., vol. i., pp. 49-57; Ptmentd, Mem. suhrc hi Baza IniHgcna, pp. 45-7; PrescotVs Mex., vol. i., pp. 109-10. AUTIIOUITIES UN NAHUA ARTS. 601 to the Naliua calendar, hioroylyphics, architecture, and medicine.^ '< AIv authorities for the matter in this chapter are: Sahaffun, Ifift. nrii., u\m. ii., iih. ix., pp. •28--'-:<37, 387-lM!, toin. iii., lil). x., i'»i). 107-l-J, 117-lS, ]'2'2, IIU, 137; Lus Cnsus, Jlist. Ajiolor/rdm, MS., nip. 1., Ixii-lxiii., Kv., t'xxi., I'xxxii., clxxii., ccxi.; Meiulifta, ilist. Eclrs., ji p. 403-7; ('crtrs, Cir/'is, i)p. •_".)-34, >)4, lOO-l, 1(M», 183, liW; Aro.stn, Jlist. ,lc Ins Viuf., pp. HIS, 'JS,'», 324; Vvtaiicrrf, Tcdfro Jfc.r., pt ii., pp. r>!(-(>0; lUiDiiiunit, CrOii. Mir/iiiiirdii, AIS., i)p. 48-5(>; liotiiriiii, Lfiu, pj>. 77-8, 9(>-7; J'vfcr Mnrfi/r, lice, iv., nil. iv., uec. v., lilt, i-v., x., doc. viii., lili. iv. ; (iitmiir«, C'oiii/. M'.r., fol. 3!>, 4-2, ()()-2, 7'), lUi-18, 13.-)-0, 318, 324-5, 34'_>-3; J)iiran, lll.sL hitliiii, MS., toin. i., cup. iii.; Lroii >/ (t(ii)ia, l)us I'ii'tlrns, |)t ii., pj). '2(5, li'S-J7; (Jlai'iijvro, Storia Ant. il<:l Mcusicu, torn, i., pp. •23'2, •24r>-7, torn, ii., 11].. 171-8, 18{»-iM), '205-10, 224-8, torn, iv., pp. 210-11, 232. 23<); Toniiir- ■/iiiidii, Miinnri]. Itiif., toiii. i., pp. 37, 72, 140-7, 1()8, 228-31, toiii. ii., pp. '2('>:{, JS(!-!M», .5,")7-8; IxtUl.corhitl, Hi.it. Chich., in KinqslmraiKjIi's M,:r. An- till., vol. ix., i»p. 24.3-4, 2(>4; Id., liilwioncs, y\>. 327, 332,440-1,455; Hmrra, llisl. (Ivn., dec. ii., lib. v., cap. iv., v., lib. vi., cap. xi., xvi., lilt, vii., cai). ii., vii., ix., xv., dec. iii., lib. iii., cajt. ix.; Cdiiinn/o, Hint. Thi.r., u\ .\iiiirrlli:.i All iKi/cs (It's I'oi/., 184.3, toin. x<'viii., p. 1.33; Ti'Ziizoiiior, C/'d. )//(•(( .!/)■.»•., in KiiujsltoroHfili.'i Mex. Atitiq., vol. ix., jtp. 17, 41, 4('>, 49, t!4, 171; Oriiifo, Hist. Gi:ii., toni. i., jtp. .")20-l, .')2(}-8, .533, toin. iii., pp. 25!t, •272, 28,5-02, 208-.300. 305, 4()4-5, 4!»!»; JiiDf/on, (iaxj. Dr.srrip., toni. i., pt ii., fol. 15(i, liiO-l; Bcrnal Diaz, Hist. Vonq., fol. 20-7, «8-0; Vviiliii, Ui.tt. Ant. Mrj., toMi. i., pp. 154, 238, 252-3, toni. iii., pp. 201-.3, 310; Xiinzn, Carfii, in laizlxilrrta, Col. dc Doc, toni. i., J>p. 3()(V-2; Ifiiiz, ftitirnirio, in Id., ]i. 200; Ilr/arion dt; Ahjuiitt-s Co.'ias, in Lf., pp. 378-0; Motnliuin, Hist. Iiii/iiis, in Id., pp. 2()4, 211; Hcrtiaudrz, Nova I'laiit., p. 330; llrniindos y (id/irz, Titrdi's Aincr., pp. iKM; I'rc.irott't. Miw.., vol. i., pp. 00-l(M>, li)S-l(», 138-45, 170-5, vol. lil., -tp. 425-.30; ICwtxttik; in Sr/ioolrrnjTs Atr/i., vol. iv., pp. 44-5(); Midler, livi.srii, torn, iii., jtp. 125-8, 134; ('(irhojnl Esj,i,n,s0, «(>(l-7, 082-.3, toin. ii., pp. (iO, 00-70, 74, l(>3-4, 108. 230-1; ,S'r^'. Mr.r. Gi'ofj., IMi'tin, 2da cj)oca, toiu. i., p. 7-1. tf>in. iv., Sept. 1872; li'hiiii/, '\\\('oniitf dWrch. Aiiifi:, l8()(J-7, pi). 15-lC; Gdllrttiii, in Aiiirr. Kill- nil. Sill-., Tntiisdct., vol. i., pp. 40-57; Tjitors licsvair/ics, pp. 1(>5, 104, 201, •'(17; fd. AiKihuac, pp. 95-101, 107-9; Humholdf, Kfsni I'ol., toni. ii., p|). 4."i4, 4S5; Carli, Cartas, pt ii., i)p. 04-7; Lenoir, Varallile, pp. 48, .5(i, (,2, (14-."); Ilriissi'iir de liourhourif, Itist. Nat. Civ., toin. i., pp. 130,271-2, 285- (1, L'SS, toin. iii., j)p. 648-54, 672-4; Id., in Nonvrllrs Annahsdrs Voif., 18.5.8, •iiiii. clix., pi». 77-85; Piincntcl, Mem. sotire la linza Indidi.iehe S/>ieqhel, pp. 218, 220, 225-6, 2.38-9, 246, 2.5(t.l, .343; (.'/leralir-, Mi-.i:, Aiieie.ii et Mod., pp. 10,28, 36-7; Mill's Hist. Me.r., p. 1,50; Herrediit y Siirniieiito, Serino.i, pp. 73, 83; Gaqe's Xeir Siirrei/, pp. 110-11; Lafoidl, I'lii/iii/rs^ toiii. i., pp. 161-2; Toiiroii, Hist. (Uii., torn, iii., pp. 142, I4ti; Friiii>;/idnrs World ill Miniature, vol. ii., Ji. 0; Mditdiins, Xiedire Weerrld, 1111.221-2; Dd/iper, Neiie Welt, pp. 248-.50; Mdlte-linin, I'reeis de Id lie,,,/., ti'iii. vi., jip, 435, 456; I)iipdi.r, liel., ,Jde K.epal ., pp. 25,28; Soileii, S/idimr ill I'irii, toin. ii., pp. 27-9; Wafi/iiiii.\; (teoij. u. Stat., p. 47; Moiiqlaee, AV- *""(', i)|>. 43, 52, 57; Delaiwrte, liei.sen, tout, x., p. 268; Conioii, Hist. and He,,,/. Mem., p. 76; llelfi.i' tipan. Conq., vol. ii., pp. 268-0, 450; Alz'ite y Ramirez, Mcin. sobrc Grana., MS. I CHAPTER XVI. THE AZTEC CALENDAR. AsTRON'OMif'Ai, Knowledge of the Aztecs— Contradictions of At;. TllOliS liliSPKCTIXO THK CALENDAR— V'AHE OF THE KESEAIMIIKS OK Vahiois Writ Kits— The First Uegulau Calendar— The Mkxi- CAN Cycle— The Civil Year— The Aztec Months— Names ok thk Days and their Signification— The Commencement ok tiik Az- tec Year— The ItiTiAL Calendar— Gama's Arranciemknt ok the ISloNTiis— The Calendar-Stone— The Four Desti!1 ctions of the World— The Calendar of Michoacan— Reckon i.nu ok THE ZAI'OTECS. Perhaps the strongest proof of the advanced civili- zation of the Nahuas was their method of coniputiiio; time, which, for ingenuity and correctness, e(|iiaK'tl, if it did not surpass, the systems adopted by contem- poraneous European and Asiatic nations. The Nahuas were Avell acquainted with the n-ovo- ments of the sun and moon, and even of some of the jihmets, while celestial phenomena, such as ecli]»scs, although attributed to unnatural causes, were never- theless carefully observed and recorded. They luid, moreover, an accurate svstem of dividing the dav into fixed periods, corresponding somewhat to our Jicurs; indeed, as the learned Sr Leon y Gama has sliowii, the Aztec calendar-stone which was found in the jilaza of the city of Mexico, was used not only as a durable register, but also as a sun-dial. (5U2)' THE AZTEC CALENDAR. 503 Althouii^li the .system of tho Aztec calendar as a Avliole is clear and easily understood, yet it is ex- tieuiely diflicult to describe ^vith certainty many of its details, owintr to the contradictory statements of iiearlv^ all the earlier writers, who visiteortion of his ma- terial from Motolinia, contradicts himself too fre- (|uently to be reliable. Leon y Gama, although he spent nuicli labor in trying to clearly exjiound the system, has also ftillen into some errors, attril)utal)le, ])L'rlia})s, to his not having the valuable aid of Saha- U'uu's writings, and to his having ]>laced too nuicli trust ill tlie v;ritings of Tonpiemada and tlie manuscript of the Indian Cristobal del Castillo, as is shown in the review of Gama's work by Sr Jose Antonio Alzate in the (f'acctas dc Litemtura. Baron von Hund)oldt's description, valuable as it is on account of the ex- tended conjparisons which he draws betweeu the Mexican, Asiatic and Egyptian calendars, is on that account too intricate to be easily understood. From all these descriptions Gallatin, McCulloh, and Muller, 604 THE NAIIUA NATIONS. with perhaps a fow others, have eadi {jfivon us a V( rv ji^ood resume, but without attempting to reeoucile uU the contradietions. Tlie first notice we have of any rejjfular calendar is ffiven by Ixtlilxochitl, wlio states that in the year 5097 from the creation t)f tlie world, an assembly of learned men met at the city of Huehuetlapallan, and determined the reckoninif of the years, days, and months, leap years and intercalary days, in the oidci' in which they were found at the time of tlie <'(»ii- quest.^ Previous to this time it is said that the only reckoning kept was regulated by the yearly growtli of the fresh grass and herbs from which the name of the Mexican year xilmitl, 'new grass,' is derived. It is also said that a rough comjaitation of time was made by the moon, from its appearance to its disa))- pearance, and that this period called inct-Jli, 'the moon,' was divided into two equal })arts, named re- spectively mcxtozoVit-Ji, the time when the moon was awake or visible, and iiuroc/iilizt/i, the sleep of tlu; moon, or the time when it was invisible.'^ Of the larger divisions of time, accounts are very conHictiiig. Two, three, four, and five ages are said by various writers to hav'e existed, at the end of each of whicli the world was said to have been destroyed, and re- created at the beijinninjjf of the aije next f(dlowiiiy. The common aboriginal belief was, however, that at the time of the conquest, the Avorld had })asseil through three ages, and was then in the fourth. The first age, or *sun,' as it is also called, was the Sun of Water, (itonatiuh; the second, the Sun of Earth, f!i)it;' and tho second year was C)mo Acatl, 'two, cane;' tho third, YoyTocpatl, 'three, Hint;' the fourth, Nahui Calli, 'four, house;' tho fifth, AEacuilli Tochtli, 'five, rabbit;' the sixth, Chicoaco Acatl, 'six, cane;' Xdin-fflra Aininlr.i rfrs Voj/., 1843, torn, xrix., 11. 132; Tcriiini.r-Cnni/Kii'f, ill /(/., IH-IO, ti)in. Ixxxvi., pp. 5-(>; linliirini, Iifni, p. ',\; t'/(irii/rni, St(n-iii Jill. (Ill Mrs.iiro, tiiiii. ii., j). 57; Ilriissciir li' riliat. Prim., pp. '2(t-7; S/iii'i/iizioin' ilillr Turoli' drl ('oiliri: Mi.iiniiiii (\'ati('aiio), in Khii/.slioroiii//i''s Mr.r. ^lii/ii/., vol. v., jip. l(i4-7; Exiiliniridii ilvl Coilrx Trllcriiiiiu-liniini.sis, in Jil., pp. IIMHJ. 'Ciiini Snlcs (|iio son edailt's. . . .el primer Sol .si- [icnlio por n;iiia .... Kl st';,nin(lo Sol ]ii'iiMio cayenilocl eielosohrt' la tierra. . . . Kl Sol tiTcero falto y sc coiisuinio jiiir fiu';,'o. . . .El (jiiarto Sol iVnecio con aire. . . . i)el <|iiiiito Sol, iiue al iire- si'iitc tienen.' (roiiKiivi, Cdik/. Mr.v., fol. 2!t7. 'Leeiel et la terre s'etaieiit fiiil-', <|natrc fois.' Coi/rx C/iiiiiiil/io/inrii, U\ Ih-ii.s.sriir dr ISiiitrliiuin/, Hist. Nut. dr., toni. i., p. .'■)3. 'Croveron (jnc el Sol liatiia luiierto eiiafro veees, *> i|iii' hiilio cnatro .'loles, quo lialiiau aca))ailo on otros tantos tiempos <> i'(l;icle.-<; y 411c el (|uinto sol era ol «[iio aetnalniente les alnMi!>ralia.' I.foii if (liniiii, Ito.s Picdri's, j»t i., ]). i>4. 'Hulio cinco soles en los tienipos pasa- diiM.' Mnidietd, Hist. Krir.s:, p. 81, rei)oatoil litorally liy Torqiinintihi, Mo- fiiin/. fiifl., toni. ii., ]). 70; Iliiiiiliolilf, Vin:s, toni. ii.. pp. Il8-'ii(; (inllntiii, in .iiinr. Efhtio. Snc, Trunsuct., vol. i., p. 325; Miillcr, Aincrikaitinvhe I'mliijioncn, pp. 510- 12. I p 506 THE NAHUA NATIONS. the seventh, Cliicome Tecpatl, 'seven, flint ;' tlie ol^litli, Chico ey Calli, 'eiij^ht, house;' the ninth, ( 'liico naliui ToclitH, 'nine, rahhit;' the tenth, Matlactli Aoatl, 'tun, cane;' the eleventh, Mathictli occe Tec'[)atl, 'eleven, flint;' the tweltth, Matlactli onionie Calli, 'twelve, house;' and the thirteenth, Matlactli oniey Toclitli, 'thirteen, rahhit.' This numeration continued in tlif same manner, the second tlalpilli connnencino- jinain with 'one, cane,' the third tlalpilli with 'one, flint.' the fourth -vvitii 'one, house,' and so on to the cud of the cycle t)f flfty-two years. It will easily he suin that durinij^ the tifty-two years none of these fonr signs could he accompanied hy the same nuniiHi- twice, and therefore no confusion could arise. Instead, therefore, uf saviui^ an event hai>])ened in the vcar ISoO, as we tlo in our reckoniui^, they sj»oke oi' it as hai)penin'ly[)hic sii^ni. Thus the Toltecs conunenced w'ith the sign tecpatl, 'tlint;' and the jSIexicans, or Aztecs, with tochtii, 'rahhit;' "while some aj>"ain used acatl, 'cane;' and otliei's calli, 'house,' as their first name.® A cycle was re})res('nti'd in their paintii;i^s hy the fli^-ures of tochtii, acatl, tw- patl, an(l calii, repeated each thirteen times j;nd |ilactd in a cin'le, round which was painted a snake lu>l(lin^' its tail in its mouth, and makino- at each of the ihur cardinal i)oints a kink with its own. hody, as shown in the plate on the opposite pJ'-ge, which served to di\ itle •* Gnmiira, Cimq. Mr.v,, fol. 29(5-7, Sttfiritfiill, Hist, (icii., toiii. ii . li'i. vi., ])ii. "J.'Mi-T; Afiis/ii, llisl. (Ir his YiiiL, pp. ;{!t7-H; l.iim ij (Iiuhk, husl'n- dm:, pt i., )i. n> ft si'(|. ; I'ri/tiil, Hist. Allt. .UiJ., toiii. i., p. 4"J ct s('(|. ■'■> ' N'o tiidiis ('(iiiii'iizalian iicontiir el ciilo j)tir iiii iiiisnio iifn): lti> mile- cos Id om|K'zal)an (Icsdo 7'ir/iii//; Ion de 'JVotitiUiiraii tlvsdv ('ii//i: los iiicxi- caiios il.'sili' Torlitll; y los tozcocaiios (Icsdo AriilL' J. run y Hniiin. 1>"S J'ii'ilnis, |it i., p. I(>; \'ii/tiii, Hist. Ant. Mn., torn, i., jt. ."iS. 'So lM';.Miim'ii die A<'iilliiiaH voii Tt'xcoco ilirc rmliiufe nut di'in Zoiclu'ii Ce Tfipail. ilii' Mcxitaiu'r da^icjiou iui to Tocht':.' Midler, llvisen, toiii. iii., i». G.j; JJi'tu- rim, Idea, p. I'Jo. rAIXTINCJ OF THE AZTEC CYCLE. 507 The Aztec Cycle. tlio cvele Into four tlalpillis.*^ Tlieso four sin-ns, rn1)])It, taiio, Hint, uiid house were also, aroordiun' to liotu- riiii, used to desi^'uate the four seasons of tlie year, the four eai'diual [toints, and lastly, the four elements. T'lius, for instanee, teepatl also siyiiiHed south; calli, east; tochtli, north; and aeatl, west. In the same '■' 'Ksto circnlo rcddiulo sc iliviilia oti ciiiitni iiailc^ . . I.ii |iriiiu'iii jiiirto ilMc pcrti'iu'cia ii Orivritc lliininlnuilt' lip.^'rcci- iiMiis dc las ciinas, y asii'ii cai!:! riis;i (1(. l((s ti'cco ti'iiiaii ])iiilacla \ma cana, v el iiuiiicin ilrl aTici liial)aii al sc|ilciiiri(ni, i|iii' I'la •!;• otia^ tii'i'i' casas, ji l:is iiialos llaiiiabaii las tivi'c rasas do! iicdtTiial; y asi icniaii iiiiitadci t-ii iiii'.a casa nil lu'dcrnal . . . . A la tcri't'i-a. . . .jiarli' Ocridfiilal, llatiialiaiilc las tii'i'c casas, y asi vcroinos imi cadii jiarto do las tivcv' iiiia casilla |iiiitada. . . . A I,' ciiarta y ultima jiarto <[iii' cca de ((trostircoafiKs, JlaiiialiaMia lastrcrK "ii'-.is di'l I'oiu'jct; y asi v\\ I'ada casa dc ainudlas vcrt'iims pinlada iiiiacalicica lie cDucju.' iJuiun, Hist. IiHiii(A;Mii., torn, iii., upiK-iidix, cap, i. I 608 THE NAIIUA NATIONS. manner tecpatl was used to desiij^nate fire; calli, earth; tochtli, air; and acatl, water.' The civil year was again divided into eighteen month? and five days. Each month had its particular name, but the five extra days were only designated as nemontemi or 'unlucky days,' and children born at this time, or enterprises undertaken, were considered unlucky. In hieroglyphical paintings these montli.s were also placed in a circle, in the middle of which a face, representing either the sun or moon, was paint- ed. This circle was called a xiuhtlapohualli, or 'count of the year.' Concerning the order in which these months followed one another, and the name of the first month, hardly two authors agree; in the same manner we find three or four \ arious names given to many of the months. It v/ould appear reasonalile to suppose that the month immediately following the ne- montemi, which were always added at the end of the year, would be the first, and the only difficulty here is to know which way the Aztecs wrote; whetlier from ri T eighteen ^M )artioulai' ^m jsig-nated ^B I born at ^m msidered ^H . Oo montli.s ^m .. Avhich a ^m OH pahit- ^m [' jr 'count |H Pa ch these ^m .. . t>c: e of the |H .. . f>cl lie same jH given to ^m mahle to fl| Ocl 1 the ne- ^B Uc id of the ^M ... Ocl ilty here J^M whetlier ^m .... :he circle |H ... I'lM [ to have J^m s are in- ^H PlIC tl md Ate- ^B ... 1' ... is would ^m ... IIll. Id agree ^H Ofll ;her8 de- ^M le other ^M T ideratiou ^M 3r, Avhere ■■ ... Och 'e cleai'ly |H e- I'ac insei'ting U Ol enunier- IH low at a ^M )t')i ^H '" rial llinp; tiii'lilH WM >clitli I'Miili, ^H II.. < Uli irvliill's < III. ^^H B almvi' Mi'c ^^H ind a\M fur ^^H "" NAMES OF MEXICAN MONTHS ACCORD!] AUTHORS. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8, 9. 10. Atlacahualco, or Quuvitlclua. Tlacaxipeoaliztli. . . Tozoztontli Veytocoztli Toxcatl Etzucualiztli Tecuilhultontli .... Veytecuilhuitl Tlaxochimaco Xocohuetzl . MmTOLIMA ACOSTA Tlacaxipeualiztli... Atk-uhualo Xuohitzitzquilo, or IjUHuitlehuii, or Atlinotzaciia^, ur Xilumaiiiztly. AtlcHualo Hueit4)zyuztli Tofoztontli Tozoztontly Tocozintli.. Toxcatl, or Tepuiio- chuiliztli. Hueltofoztontli.. .. Ochpaniztly, or Cu- eytozoztly. Veitozcoztli Hueytoyoztli Hueytocoztll E(aIcoaliztli Tochcatl Tecuilhuicintli .... Etzalcualiztli Etzalcualiztly. ... Iletzalquali/tl Etzalqualiztli Etzaqualiztl! Hueitecuilhuitl . . . Tecuilhultontli TecuUnitoiitly, or Tlaxochiinaco. Tecuilvitontl Tecuhilhuitoiitll. .. Tccuylhuitontli . . . Miccailhulcintll . . . Hueiteucyilhultl... Hueytecuilhuitl. .. Veitecuiluitl HiH-ytcculiilhuitl.. Ilueytccuyilhuitl.. . Yeymiccailhuitl. .. Tluxochimanco Miccailhuitontly. . . Miccailhuitl Tlaxuchiiiiaeo, or Hueyniiccayllniitl. Tlaxochimaco Micaylhuitzintli. Hueyniicailhuitl. V.imiccailhnitl. . . . Exolqualiztli Ezalqualliztii Tlaxochiiuaci Tecuilhuitzintli.... Vchpaniztli, nauatiliztl Xocotlhuetzi Tocotluetz.. Vcymlccailh Xocotlhuetzi Xocotlhuetzi Hueymicayl Ochjianiztli. Vch;)aiiiztli, iiavatiliztl Tci-uilhultzi Tecuilhultzi Xocohuetzl . Hueytecuilh Mmitiv dv Lfi»\* Tlacaxipehualiztli . Tlacnxipchualtztli . Tlacaxipeualiztli. . . Tlacaxii)ehualiztli . Tlacaxipehualiztli . Tovlhuitl Toxcatl ('iiDK\ A ATirXNTH,. Toxcatl TnUl^VKM \I' \ ... Atliicnluialci), or qiiahiiitk'lma. Atlarliualct), or (juiiliuik'luia. Xiloiuatihuitztli... Tlacaxiichui litztli. Tlacaxipcnaliztli.. . TovoztoiitU. Tocoztontli Toxcatl Vl'TKM'VKT Teoxcalt Xw iiaiiii*>-. (Ikmki-i.i ("akukui, . Tozoztli Hueytozoztli Hueitozcuztli Itzealli Toxcatl Etzalcualiztli Ezalioaliztii Cohuailhuitl Cohuailhuitl Toxcatl Ticuyilhultl Tecuilhuicintli .... Tozcotzintli Tozcotzintli Etzalcualiztli Huey Tozoztli Etzalaualitztlt Hueytecuilhuitl .. IluehtecnilhuitI . . . Hueytozcoztii Huey Tozcoztli. . . . Tecuilhuitoutli Toxcatl, or Tepo- liochuiliztli. Micaylhuitl Miccathuicintli. . . . Toxcatl Lakt Toxcatl, or TepuiK)- chuiliztli. Xilomaniztli Xilomanizte Hueitozoztii Tlacaxipehualiztli, or Cohuailhuitl. Hueitozoptli Toxcatl, or Tepopo- chuiliztli. Huey-Tozoztll Hueitozoztii Titltl I.'UIKNZANA AtomoztU Tititl Yzcalll Toxcatl Hueitecuilhuitl . . . Etzalqualiztli Atlacahualco Tititl, orltzcalll... Acaliualco Tlaraxipohiializtli, ur'OjIiiiailhuitl. Atlaealiualco Atlacahualco TlacaxijwhuaUztli . Itzcalli, or Xochil- huitl. Tlacaxipehuttlltztll. Tozoztontli Tlacaxiiwhualtztli . Tlacaxipehualiztli . Tozoztontli Xilonianaliztli, or Atlcahualco, or Quahuitli>hua,or Cibuailhuitl. Tozozontli Iluey Tozoztli Tozoztontli Tozoztontli Gama t Kl.l.MM Mini,.i: Tozoztontli Texcatl .... Etzalqualiztli Toxcatl Tecuilhuitzintli . . . Etzacualiztli Etzalcualiztli Hueytecuilhuitl . . . Tecuilhultontli.... Teucnilhuituntll. . . Tecuiluitontl Miccallhuitzintly, or Tlalxochiniiico. Huey Tecuilhuitl . . Huuituecuilhuit'i... Veyteculluitl Iluey miccailhuitl, or Xolutlhuetzin. Tlaxochimaco Tlaxochimaco Michaylhultl Och|iuiiiztli, naluiatili> Xocohuetzl Xocotlhuetj Hueymicca, t-'AltllA.I \I. K^I'INnSA. Toxcatl, or Coxcatl. Ukmknms. • Boturiol repeati Martin de Leon and QemelU Carreri. fTHS ACCORDING TO VARIOUS AUTHORS. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. Commencement of tlie Jlexicanyeac, aecorili!!;{ ij our reckoning. Tlaxochimaco Xocohuetzi Ochpaniztli Teotleco TepeilhuitI Quecholli Panquetzaliztli 1 .Vtumoztll TititI Yzcalli 2(1 February. Commencement of March. 2Ctli February. Veyniiccailhiiitl . .. Tlaxocliimanco Miccailhuitontly. . . Miccailhuitl TUixucliiiiittco, or IliH-yniicciiylJiiiitl. TIaxuchiniai'i Mieayl)iuit7.iiitli. Hucyniicailhuitl. VcimiccBilhiiitI Kzal.iiiaUiztli Tlaxucliiiiiac( Tecuilhultzinfli.... Vchpaniztli. or Te- nauatiliztli. Xocotlhuetzi Tocotluetz Poirhtli, or Heyoz- tli. Ochpaniztli Ochpanlztly Ochpaniztl Uchpaniztii Ochpaniztli Hueipachtli, or Pa- chtli. Teotleco Pachtontly QuechoUi Tltiflh Ateniuztli .\tenioztli Izcalli Tititi TititI TititI CoBuitlenac, or Ci- uailhuilt. Ytzcali Yzealll.or Xiloma- iilztly, or Queui- lleua. Yzcalli Tei>eilhuitl Vevimclitlv, or I'o- ailhuitl." Quechulli Panquetzaliztli Panquetzaliztly Panquetzaliztli Panquetzaliztli Panquetztiliztli 2tl February. 1st March Onecholli Veyniiccailliuitl . . . Xocotllniit/.i Xucntlhuet/i Huevmicavlhiiitl Quecholi Quecholli 24th February. 1st February. February. Tei)eilhuitl Teitcylhuitl Pachtzintli Atemuztii .\temoztlique TititI Izcalli Izcalli OuecholU Titzotl Ochpaniztli VrhjMiuiztli, or Tu- iiavatiliztli. Tccuilhuitzliifli... TtMUiilhuitzintli. .. Xorohuc'tzi llueytecuilhuitl . . . I'aclitli Hueypachtli Hueiiiachtli Micailhnitziiitli.... .Hictailhutlzititli. . . Checiogli OuecholU Panchetzaliztli .... Panqueca iztli IIueiHiuiztli Ochjianiztli Oiieoholli .\tenioztli Hatcmuztli Pachtzintli Pachtlizintli I'unciuctzjiliztli .... Hueypachtli, or Pachtli, or Tepe- ilhuitI. TititI I/.caB-li Atlacoalo Coavitlcvac Panquetzaliztli Pau(iuetzalliztli . . . Izcalli I'lichtli, or Ilei'oz- tli. llueytecuilhuitl . .. Huey Tecuilhuitl.. Ochimnlztli Miceailhuitzintll.or TlaX' :himavo. Ochpanitztli Pachtli, or Kzoztli, or Teotli'oo. Ochpaniztli Tluchpauallztll Oclipani/.tli TitiU Hueypachtli Hueypachtli Atemoztli Izcalli tury, llith .\pril. March or 2nth of Huevmicailhuitl . . Ilucyniictailhuitl.. Tciwilhuitl Ochimniztii, or Te- uahuatiliztli. Quecholli February. 2d February. Quecholli TititI First year of centu- ry , 2(itli Febniary. 0th January. 2Gth February. HueymiccailhuitI, or Xocotlhuetzi. Puchtli Pachtli, or Ezoztii, or Teotleco. Teix^ilhuitl Quecholli PauquctzaliztU .... TititI Atemoztli Izcalli Ilucymiccaillmitl, or'Xolotlliut'tzin. Tlaxochiiiiaei) TlaxucUiniHcu Michaylhuitl Ochimniztll, or I't- imhiiatiliztli. Xucohnctzi Xocotlhuetzi Ilueyniiccaylhuitl.. Iluevpaohtli, or I'a- clitli, or TeiK'il- huitl. Quecholli Pamiuetzallztli ... Atemoztli Panquetzaliztli Panquetzaliztli Panquetzaliztli. . . . TititI, or Itzcalli. Itzcalli, or Xochil- huitl. TititI TititI TititI Xilomar .liztli, or Atlcahualio, or Qui>liuitleliiia,or C'iliuailhuitl. Izclli 2l)th March. Tejieilhuitl T«iH»llhuitl Veypactii Teotleco I'uctontly Izcalli First vear of cenfu- \t('IUO/tli Yzcatii rv,2ljth February. 24th February. j 1 t Uumboldt and Gallatin repeat Leon y Gama, ( s tl tl ti nil iw nil eu NAMES OF THE AZTEC MONTH. 600 glance the many variations. I also append to it the different dates given for the first day of the year, in which there are as many contradictions as in the names and position of the months. Each month, as before stated, was represented by its proper hieroglyph, having a certain meaning, and generally referring to some feast or natural event, such as the ripening of fruit, or falling of rain, hap- pening during the month, although in this case also tliere are many differences between authors regarding tlie meaning of the names. Tititl, which according to Gama was the first month, is translated by Boturini as 'our mother,' or 'mother of the gods,' while Cabrera calls it 'fire.'* Itzcalli, according to Boturini, means 'regeneration;' the Co- dex Vaticanus translates it 'skill;' and Veytia, 'the sprouting of the grass.'" Atlcahualco means the 'abatinsT of the waters.' The Tlascaltec name of this month, Xilomanaliztli, signifies the 'offering of green maize.' In other localities this month was also known by the name of Quahuitlehua, the 'burning of the mountains,' or rather of the trees on the mountains, previous to sowing.^" Tlacaxipehualiztli means the 'Haying of the people;' the other name of this month, Cohuailhuitl, is the 'feast of the snake.' Tozoztontli, Tozcotzintli, and Hueytozoztli are respectively the small and great fast or vigil; while some translate these words by 'pricking of veins,' ' shedding of blood,' or 'great and small penance.'" Toxcatl is a 'collar* or ' necklace. '^^ Etzalqualiztli is translated by Bo- turini 'bean stew,' or 'the eating of beans,' while Vey- tia calls it 'the eating of maize gruel.' Tecuilhuit- ' 'Itetl, Ititl, barriga o vientre.' Molina, Vocnbnlario. 'Vientre, la iiiadrc, & excepcion del padre.' iS'a/yrt, Niievo Dice. 'T..'. . . ..sij^nifica fuei,'o. Tititl escrito en dos silabaa y seis letras nada significa en el idioina mexicano.' Cabrera, in Ilustracion mex., torn, iv., p. 468. * ' fzcalia, abiuar, tornar en si, o rcsuscitar.' Molina, Vocabulario. '" 'Quiahiiitl-ehua signifiea lalluvia levanta.' Cabrera, in Iltistra- eion Mcx., torn, iv., p. 464. 1' 'Tofoliztli vela, el acto de velar ode no dormir.' Molina, Vocabulario. i> ' Garganta totuzcatlau, tuzquiti.' lb. 610 THE NAHUA NATIONS. zintli and Hueytecuilhuitl mean respectively the small and ji^reat 'feast of the Lord.' Miccailhuitzintli is explained both as 'the feast of dead children,' and 'the small feast of the dead;' another name for tliis month is Tlaxochimaco, meaning 'distribution of flow- The Aztec Year. ers.' Hueymiccailhuitl is either 'the feast of dead adults,' or 'the great feast of the dead.' Xocotlliii- etzin, another name for this month, means 'the ripen- ing of the fruit.' Ochpaniztli is 'the cleaning of streets.' Teotleco, or 'the arrival of the gods,' was the next NAMES OF THE AZTEC DAYS. 511 month, and was also named Paclitli, or Pachtontli, the latter beinj^ translated by 'humiliation,' and the former l)y ' moss hanginj^ from trees.' Hueyj)achtli was 'the ^leat feast of humiliation,' also called Tepeilhuitl, or 'feast of the mountains.' Quecholli means 'peacock,' but the interpreter of the Codex I'elleridno-Jirnioms calls it the 'serpent of the clouds.' Pancpietzaliztli is 'the raising of flags and banners.' Atemoztli, the last month, means the 'drying up of the waters.'" The plate on the preceding page shows the order of the months and the pictures by which they were repre- sented. Each month contained twenty days, which were divided into four groups or weeks, as we may for con- venience call them; and at the end of each group a })uhlic market or fair was held. There is no differ- ence of opinion as to the names of the days or the order in which they follow one another, but it is very difficult, and in many cases impossible, to reconcile one with another the different hieroglyphic signs denoi/ing these days given in the codices or in the various representations of the calendar. The names of the days are: Cipactli, a name of which it is al- most impossible to give the correct meaning, it be- ing variously represented as an animal's head with open mouth armed with long tusks, as a fish with a number of flint knives on its back, as a kind of lizard with a very long tail curled up over its back, and in many other monstrous shapes. It is called the 'sea-animal,' the 'sword-fish,' the 'serpent armed with harpoons,' and other names. Ehecatl is 'wind;' Calli, 'house;' Cuetzpalin, 'lizard;' Coatl,' 'snake;' Mi- quiztli, 'death;' Mazatl, 'deer;' Tochtli, 'rabbit, Atl, " For the various etymologies of the names of months, see: Sjn'fgmioiic iMh Tu role del Cod ire J/crjV'awo (Vatieano), in Kiii,'fri)j,'iilieo ("alii, i>or este se conien/aha li conlar, y a toilos los dias |irinieroH lie eada mes se les dalta este nonihre.' The same method he contends is fi)lio\veil also in those years it each tlal|iilli which commence with Toclitli ami Acatl. For aizriii/iKiii/itli he nses the name fr/iifzf/at/, or nictate. ///.s7. Jilt. M|». 7<>-S(); (loiiKini, Cdtiii. Mc.r., fol. '294-.'). (iemelli Ca- rer! statesthat ("i|iactli was notalwaysthuhrstday of the month. ('/inn/n'//\s ('i)l. ]'iii/iiifcs\ tom. iv., i>. 4S'.(; Diiraii, Hist. Iiitfiiix, MS., tom. iii., a]i|iendi\, cajt. ii.; Jlifus Aiitit/iKis, p. '22, in Kuiiishoroiitfh's Mr.r. Aiitiq., vol. ix.; Mnln- liiiiii, Hist, f Ill/ins, in Irdzlifilrrta, Col. t/r Ihtr., tom. i., p. 'M\. Itotnrini adds ti> Ollin the word Tonatiuh, and translates it 'nnivemcnt of the sun.' lifta, p. 4.'). (Jama jtlaces Ollin iK'twcon Atl and Itzenintli. Do.i Plalrus, jit i., p. '1C\; IhiUutiii. in Aiiiii: tUlnio. Sor., Transact., tom. i., p. T)!*; Jira.\:sfnr(/r lioiir- htiiin/, Hist. Xdt. dr., tom. iii., ji. 4().3. See also hiero^dy]ihicsin t'oi/cr Tel- liriiiiio-li'ctiinisis, pi. ix., in Kinrfslmrouqli's Mex. Aiitii/., vol. i., and Co- lifj- liiiniian., in LI., v(d. iii., pi "24; Tttrqnriiiada, Moiiarq. Iinl., torn. ii., )). S('4. In Nicaraj.;na where the Aztec lanjjna^e was spoken hy u lai'^'c ])ortion of the |)opulation, the calendar and the names of the days were the same as Aztec, with hut some slij,'ht ditlcrences in spelling;. Ovicdi) <;ives the names '2. '■' Sahaj^un, and after him several others, do not ai;ree with this, hut lirctend that one day was added every fourth yea , on which occasion u cfi'tiiin feast was celehrated, hut (iaina has clearly demonstrated that (hin is a mistake. ' Kl ano visiesto, (jue era de cuatro en cuatro anos ' Hist. H'li., tom. i., lih. ii., ]». 75. 'Otra liesta hacian de cuatro en cuati-o afio.s ;l liiiura del fucjio, en la (juc ahufrerahan las orejas il todos los ninos; y la llama- liaii I'llhiliinializtli, y en esta fiesta es verosimil, y hay conjfeturas (jue haciau sii vi.sicstocontandoseisdiasde Hcmonfnui.' lil., lih. iv., p]). ,'i47-<8. ISolurini cxiircsses the sanu' opinion. ' Determinaron eada (piatro anos afiadir nn dia iiias, i|ucreco iiijiiatriiafios.' Leon, L'a itii no dci Cic.lo,M. KH). 'They order d the hissextilc, i>r leap-year, after this manner. The first year of the a tenth of Afiril, were spent in rejoicing.' (!niiclli('t(rcri, mChurchill'st'vl. Vuyaycs,\o\. \\.,\t. 41)0. Veytiu Vol,. II. 3a 51t THE NAHUA NATIONS. to fix accurately the time when the Mexican year connnenced according to our dates, hut tliciu is no au eycleMdeeincinante-denx an«. . .iieliaiiueanneemi Higne ^w/i//,, li's Mexieains perdoient un jour; et, par retl'et de {ivXW vvtrotinuhiliim , I'aniitf cdlli de )u i|uatrienie indiction eoninienvoit le 'J7 deeenihre, et tinissoit im Holwtice d'iiiver, le til deeenihre, en ne faisanl pa.s entrer en iigne de coniiili' les eiii(| jour.1 inutiles on conipienientain's. II en resulte (jue . . . . treizc jours iiitercalaires ranl^nent le eoninieneenient de I'annee an 1) janvi'r.' lliuiihitldt, Vtici, toni, ii., pp. (iO-l. 'Non franiniettevano nn jjiorno o;;iii quattro annl, nia trcdiei Ldorni. . .opii eincpiantadne ainii.' vlarii/int, Slnria A)it. (Id Mrssim, ioni. ii., p. ()2. 'They waited till the expiration of titty- two vaj?ne years, when they interi)osed thirteen days, or rather twelve and n half, this heing the number whieh had fallen in arrear.' J'n:srfill'.s Mi.i-,. vol. i., j>. 11'2; Jiras.sc»r tie Jioiirlumrg, Hist. Xtit. Cir., toni. iii., p. -l(i!). In this connection I also give the remarkable statement of Pedro de Ins llios in his interitrctation of the Codex Vaticanus: 'Itiin, t'. ha da notare, che il loro bisesto andava sth d;iy of January, new style, with the month Titid and the day Cii)aetli." We come now to another mode of reckonintj known as the ritual calendar, which, as its name im]>lies, was used ftr adjusting all relij., toni. i., pp. 74-5. 516 THE NAFJA NATIONS. xiuhtecutli, tied, 'lord of the year, fire;' tecpatJ, 'flint;' xockitl, 'flower;' centeotl, 'goddess of maize;' miquiztli, 'death;' atl, 'water,' represented by tlie goddess Chalchihuitlicue; tiazolteoti, 'goddess of love;' tepeyollotli, a deity supposed to inhabit the centre of the mountains; quiahuitl, 'rain,' represented by the god Tlaloc." As stated above, one of these signs was understood to accompany the regular name of each day, commencing with the first day of the year; but they were never written or mentioned with the first two hundred and sixty days, but only with the last one hundred and five days, to distinguish them from the former.^* For the purpose of making this sys- tem more comprehensible, I insert a few months of the Mexican calendar, showing the solar and lunar system together, as arranged by Gama. Months and days of our era. January . . 9 10 11 12 13 11 15 It! 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 2C 27 28 29 30 31 MonthH f nd days of the .Mexican civil, or solar, ca:endar. Titltl , . 1 . 2 3 . i 6 . C . 7 . 8 . 9 .10 .11 .12 .13 .14 10 .l(i .17 .18 .19 .'.0 Itzcalli . Days and weeks of the Mexican ritual, or lunar, calendar. l..Cipactll.... 2..Kliecatl .... 3..CaUi , 4 . . Cuet/tpaliu , 6. .Coatl (i.-Niiriuiztli ., 7.,Mazatl 8..Tochtli 9. .Atl 10. Itzcuintll. ll..Uzoniatli . 12..Mulinalli. 13..Acatl L.Ocelotl 2..Quauhtli 3 . . C zcaquauhtli . 4 Ollin 5..Tecpatl 6..Quiahiiitl. 7..Xochltl..., 8..ripactli.. 9..Ehecatl . 10..cani .... Accompanying Kigiis, or 'lords of the uiglit.' Tletl 1 Tecpatl 2 Xochitl 3 Centeotl 4 Miquiztli ^ Atl tl Tiazolteoti 7 Tepeyollotli H Quiahuitl 9 Tlrtl 1 'leo|iatl 2 Xochitl 3 Centeotl 4 Mi Tiazolteoti 7 Tepeyoll.itli H Quiahuitl 9 Tletl I Tecpatl 2 Xochitl a Ceuteotl 4 Miquiztli 5 " Boturini gives the rulers oi the night ns foHows: Xitiliteucyoliiiii, Sofior de el Ano; Ytztcueyohiia, Sefior .. <■> 7 8 9 I 'J ... 3 .... 4 5 iiliua, a. Si- Scfiiir ii, i-i- February March . X •a 3 4 S 6 7 3 9 10 11 .^2 13 14 l.-i 16 17 H 19 20 21 22 23 24 26 20 27 28 2 3 4 6 G 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 1« 17 18 19 21) 2t 22 21 2i 2.5 2« 27 28 29 30 31 MonthR and dayB of the .Mexicau civil calendar. . 4 . S . 6 . 7 . 8 . 9 .10 11 .12 .13 .14 It, .16 .17 .18 .19 .20 Atluahnalco 1 2 3 4 , 6 TIacaxipeh\iallztli 1 , 2 . 4 . 6 . 6 . 7 . 8 . 9 .10 .11 .12 .13 . 14 .IT) .16 .17 .18 .10 .'JO ^thlVeliru rUual AccompanyiuR Mgn., calendi "' * ^""^^ "^ ">« »'«*'*•' ll..Cuetzpalin . 12..Coatl 13..MiquiztU... l..Muati. 2..TochtU 3 Atl 4..ItZ(;uiiitU .. . 5..0zoiuatll «..Maliiiam 7..Acatl 8..0celoU 9..Qnttnhtll 10 . . Cozcaquauhtli IL.OlHn 12. .'Ii'cpatl 13..Quiahuitl L.XuchiU 2..rlpactll. ., 3..EhPcatl ... 4 Oalli 5. . CiK'tzpalin. 6..Coatl 7..Mlq«lz«i H..MaziitI.... 9..'f(HhtU .. 10. .Atl ll..Itziiii.itll 12..Uzuiiiatll. 13..MaIiualll- L.Aoatl... 2..0celotl. ,'i..Qnauhtli. . . 4 . . Cozcaquauhtli . . . 3..()llin (L.Tecpiitl 7..yuiHhnitl 8..Xoihitl 9..rinnrtll.. 10..Klifoiitl. 11.. Call! .... i2..v';iietzpBlln. l.l.Coatl l..Mlquiztll Xo.hitl... 2...Ma/atl . 3..Tochtll . . 4.. Atl ... , B.Itzdilnfli , t;, .Ozoiiiiitll. 7..MulinalU . Atl 6 I lazolteotl 7 TepeyoUotli 8 QuiahulU 9 Tletl 1 T. cpatl 2 Xochitl j Ce tpotl 4 Miquiztli 6 Atl 6 Tlazolteutl 7 TepeyoUotli 8 Quiahuitl Tletl 1 et'patl 2 Xochitl 3 Centi^otl 4 Miquiztli 5 Atl ... (! '1 lazolteotl 7 TepeyoUotli 8 guiahuitl 9 Tletl I Tecpatl 2 Xochitl 3 Ceiiteotl 4 Miquiztli 5 Atl Tlazolteotl 7 Tcpevollotli H Quiaituitl 9 Tletl 1 Teipiitl 2 Xoihitl 3 Ceiiteotl 4 .Miol(lt, ])upaix, and others have given correct pictures of tlie stone as is prov^ed by recent photographs; but ill my cut the figures are reversed. It is a co[)y from Charnay, whose photographs were in 1875 the best authority accessible; and I failed to notice that this, unlike Charnay 's other plates, was a photo-lithograph ivvcrscd in printing. Not only tlid I fall into this error, l)ut in my earlier editicms charged other writers with liavinid triangle is the sign of the year !Matlactli Onioy Acatl. Koiiiitl the outer edsjfe are a number of other fiyfures and liiero- CALENDAR OF THE TARASCOS. 521 glyph ics, which have not yet been decii)hored, or whose interpretations by different writers present so many contradictions that they would have no value liere.^® The only information we have of the calendar used ill Michoacan is furnished by Veytia, and this is only fragmentary. Enough is known, however, to show that their system was the same as that of the Aztecs. Instead of the four principal signs of the Aztecs, tec- patl, calli, tochtli, and acatl, in Mechoacan the names iiiodon, inhani, inchon, and intihui were used. Of the eighteen months only fourteen are mentioned by name. These are: Intacaci, Indehuni, Intecamoni, Interunihi, Intamohui, Inizcatolohui, Imatatohui, Itzbachaa, Intoxihui, Intaxihui, Intechaqui, Inte- chotahui, Inteyabchitzin, Intaxitohui. The five in- i" Gallatin, in Amcr. Ethno. Soc, Transact., vol. i., pp. 94-10.3; Leon y Giima, Dos Piedras, ])t i., jtp. 89-114. Fiuther (lesciiptHm, and iiiciition of tlie astronoinical system will 1)C found in Uiitiiholdt, Viivs, toin. i., pp. SHJ-D'i, and toni. ii., pp. 1-99, .336-80; Toni^innaulu, Momuq. Intl., torn. ii,, pp. 295-.305; Las Casus, Hist. Ajmloitfttca, MS., cap. txii; Sa/iat/im, hint. Gen., toni. i., lib. ii., pp. 49-70, HI), iv., i)p. •282-309, 338-49, toiii'. ii., lil>. vii., j)p. 256-00, 204-.5; E.rjdanativn of the Codex Vatieaims, in Kiinjs- hitnnufh's Mex. Antiq., vol. vi., pp. 196, 200; Botitrini, Idea, j)p. 42-ri9, lOOlO, 122-4, 137-40, 153-5; Id., (Jatiiloijo, pp. 57-72; Mololliiia, llist. Iii- (lios, in Irazbalveta, Cul. de Doe., toni. i., m. 35-8; Veytia, llist. Ant. MeJ., Carhajal Esjnnosa, Iii.st. M" JSnisseiir de liotirboiinf, llist. ^'al. L'ir., toni. iii., jip. 457-82; Goiiiara, ioni. i., pp. 30-1.38; Carhajal Esjnnosa, lii.st. Mex., toni. i., pp. 517-31; ('u)H/. Mex., fol. 294-97; GeitielU Careri, in Chiirehiirs Col. ]'oi/fiije.s, toni. iv., pp. 487-90; Leon y Gatiia, Dos I'iedras; Gtdlatin, in A nor. El/mo. Hoc, Tnaisaet., vol. i., i)p. 57-115; Laet, Xonis Orhis, pp. 241-2; I'res- Cdlt's Mex.,\o\. i., pp. 110-27; Piiuentel, Mem. sohre lit liiiza Iiiili. '^yi-A; Id., Anahnae, p. 103; Se/iinderaft's Airli., vol. i., pp. 44-5; Montaniis, Nicnn-e U'eereld, jip. 2(!t)-7; I'elerMar- ','/'•, dec. i v., lib. viii., pp. 5.37-8; liaril, Me.iii/ne, pp. 194-."), 21 1-15; Mor- full's Crania Amcr., p. 1.50; Malte-lirnn, Precis de la G('oif., toni. vi., jip. ■ii'i. '2\)H; Mac.ijrcfj/or's Protjress nf Avar., xol. i., ]>. 22; C/iandiers'J.inr., 183,"i, vol. iv.,*p. 2.54; Lafond, Voyiate.'i, toni. i.,|). 118; Tunron, llist. Gen., toni. iii., pp. 21-2, 24-5; I'oin.ieffs Xotes Mex., jip. Ill, 75-0; Simon's Ten Ti-/I)i:s, pp. 149-57; Kendall's Sar., \()\. ii., p. 328; /'richard's Aat. llist. Mini, vol. ii., p. .507; Cahrera, in Ilnstrio-ion Mex., toni. iv., \>u. 401-70; Miillir. AmerikaniHche Urrcliffionen, jip. 93-4; Hnndioldt, E.s.sai i'ol., toni. '•, ]i. \>'l; Tlioniji.son's Mex., p. 213; Fullies, Eludes Hist, sur les Civilisations, i'aiis, (n. d.) pp. 57-02. 622 THE NAHUA NATIONS. tercalary days were named {ntasiahire.^ Tlie days of the month, divided into four equal parts by the above-mentioned four principal signs, were called: Inodon, Inicebi, Inettuni, Inbeari, Inethaati, Inbani, Tnxichari, Inchini, Inrini, Inpari, Inchon. Inthahui, Intzini, Intzoniabi, Intzimbi, Inthihui, Inixotzini, Inichini, Iniabi, Intaniri.** The Zapotecs in Oajaca, accordinor to the descrip- tion of Burgoa, used the same calendar as the Aztecs, with this difference, that the year always commenced on the twelfth day of March, and tlavt the bissextile year was corrected every fourth year, by adding, in- stead of five, six intercalary days.*" 22 *" 'Los ciiatro mescs que faltan son Icsque corresponden A nucstro cnoro, fcbrero y iiiarzo, porq le al manuscrito le falta la i)riinera lioja, y solo lomi- cnza (Icsde el ilia '22 dc niarzo, y coucluye en 31 dieienibre, confroiiluiido 8US nieses con los nnestros.' Vcyfia, Hist. Ant. McJ., torn, i., p. i;W. '11 est dit que I'annee coninicn^ait au 22 niarsavec le premier jour In Tliiuari.' Jimsspiir (/,-. ISonrhuiirtj, Hint. Nat. Civ., toni. iii., p. 4C7. *' Vcytia, Hist. Ant. Mej., toni. i., pp. 1.37-8; Brasseur de Boiirhoiirfj, Hist. N'at. Civ., torn, iii., pp. 4C3, 467; Gullatin, in Amer. Etluio. Sue, 2'iaiisurt., vol. i., pp. 104-5. ** 'Dabanle diez y oclio meses de h 20. dias, y otro mas de cinco, y este al caho tie quatro afios conio nuestro Bi.siesto lo variaban j\ seis dins, pos las sois horas que Hobrau cada auo.' Burgoa, Ceog. Descrij)., torn, i, pt ii., foL 136. CHAPTER XVII. THE AZTEC PICTURE-WRITING. Hieroglyphic Records — The Native Books — Authorities — De- struction OF THE Native Archives nv ZumArraga and his Confreres — Picture-writings used after the Conquest fob Confession and Law-Suits— Value of the Records — Docu- ments SKNT TO Spain in the Sixteenth Century — European Collections — Lord Kingsborougii's Work— Picture-writings retained in Mexico— Collections of Ixtlilxochitl, Siguenza, CJemelli Careri, Boturini, Veytia, Leon y Gama, Pichardo, aunin, and the national museum of mexico —process of Hieroglyphic Development — Representative, Symbolic, and Phonetic Picture-writing — Origin of Modern Alphabets — THE Aztec System — Specimen from the Codex Mendoza — Specimen from Gemelli Careri— Specimen from the Boturini Collection — Probable future success of Intehpbeters— The Nepohualtzitzin. The Naliua nations possessed an original hiero- gly[)hic system by which tliey were able to record all that they deemed worthy of preservation. ^ The art of picture-writing was one of those most highly prized and most zealously cultivated and protected, being entrusted to a class of men educated for the purpose and much honored. The written records included national, historic, and traditional annals, names and genealogical tables of kings and nobles, lists and tribute-rolls of provinces and cities, land- titles, law codes, court records, the calendar and succession of feasts, religious ceremonies of the tem- 524 THE NAHUA NATIONS. pie service, names and attributes of the gods, the mysteries of augury and sooth-saying, with some de- scription of social customs, mechanical employments, and educational processes. The preparation and guardianship of records of the higher class, such as historical annals and ecclesiastical mysteries, wore under the control of the highest ranks of the priest- hood, and such records, comparatively few in number, were carefully guarded in the temple archives of a few of the larger cities. These writings were a sealed book to the masses, and even to the educated classes, who looked with superstitious reverence on the priest- ly writers and their magic scrolls. It is probable that the art as applied to names of persons and places or to ordinary records was understood by all educated persons, although by no means a popular art, and looked upon as a great laystery by the common people. The hieroglyphics were painted in bright colors on long strips of cotton cloth, prepared skins, or maguey-paper — generally the latter — rolled up or, preferably, folded fan-like into convenient books called amatl, and furnished often with thin wooden coveis. The same characters were also carved on the stones of public buildings, and probably also in some cases on natural cliffs. The early authorities are unanimous in crediting these people wdth the possession of a liie- roglypliic system sufficiently perfect to meet all their requirements.^ 1 i 'Todas Icos cosas mie conferinios me las dieron por pinturas, que nqnella era la eseritura que ellos antiguamcnte usaban: los graindticos las derlava- ron en su leii<^ua, escribieudo la deolaracion al pie de la pintura. Teiijio auu ahora estos originales.' Sohaguii, Hist. Gen., torn, i., p. iv. ' Auuqiie no tenian escritura como nosotros teniun enipero sua fignras y caractercs (]ue todas las cosas qui (juerian, sigiiiHcaban ; y destas sus libros graiules por tan agudo y sutil artifieio, que podrianios decir que nuestras letras en aqui'Uo no les liicicrou mucha ventaja.' Las Casus, Hist. Apologetica, MS., cai). tcxxxv. 'Teuiau sua figuras, y Hieroglyficas con que pintauan las cosas eu csta forma, que las cosas que tenian nguras, las ponian con sus proprias yniagincs, y para las cosas que no aula yniagen propria, tenian otros ca- lacteres signilicatiuos de aquello, y con este modo ligurauan quautoqueriau.' Arosta, Hist, de las Ynd., p. 408. 'Letras Reales de cosas pintadas, ((Hiio orau las pinturas, en que leiJt Eneas la destruiciou de Trova.' ' Y csto que uliraio, es touiado de las niisnias Historias Mexicauas, y ^letzcucaiias, q''c DESTKUCTION OF ABOllItilNAL RECORDS. 525 Unfortunately the picture-writings, particularly those iu the handa of priests — those most highly prized by the native scholar, those which would, if preserved, have been of priceless value to the students of later times — while in common with the products of other arts they excited the admiration of the foreimi invaders, at the same time they aroused the pious fours of the European priesthood. The nature of the writinirs was little understood. Their contents were deemed to be for the most part religious mysteries, painted devices of the devil, the strongest band that held the people to their aboriginal faith, and the most formidable obstacle in the way of their conversion to the true faith. The destruction of the pagan scrolls was deemed essential to the progress of the Church, and was consequently ordered and most successfully cairied out under the direction of the bishops and their subordinates, the most famous of these I'anatical destroyers of a new world's literature being Juan de Zuniilrraga, who made a public bonfire of the native archives. The fact already noticed, that the national sun las que sigo en este discurao, y las que tengo en mi podcr.' Torqiuemri- (lii. MiiiKirq. hid., toin. i., pp. 29, 149, also pp. 30-1, 3(), 253, turn, li., pp. 2liH, r>44-(). ' I liauc heeretoioie sajde, that tliey haiie books whereof they tiiim;,'lit many: but this Ril)era saith, that they are not made for the vse <>f niuliii^re. . . .\Vhat I shouhl thiukc in this variety I knowe not. 1 suopose tluiii to bee bookes.' Peter Murltft; dec. v., lib. x., dec. iii., lib. viii. 'Y en- tri' la barbaridad desto" •laciones (de Oajaca) we hallaron muehos libros a su 1110(1(1, en hojas, b telas de especialcs corte.sas de arboles. . . . Y destos nies- iiKPs iMrstrunieutos he tenido en mis manos, y oydcdos explicar h. algunos viejos roll liastante admiracion.' Burtjoa, Palestra Hist., \>t i., p. 89. Tintabaii I'll viios papelcs de la tierra que dan los arboles pegados vnos con otros con (■ii;,'rti(l()s, que llainaban Texamaltl sus historias, y hatallas.' Vctanevrt, Tea- tin M:i\, pt ii., J). 60. 'Lodicholocomprueban claramcute las Historias do las Naoiones Tiilteca y Chichinieca, rtguradas con jiinturas, y (Joroglificos, t'siHciaiinentccnaquelLibro, queen Tula hicieronde suorigen, y le llamaron Ti'Diiiaxtli, estoes, Lihrodivino.' Lorenzana. in Cortes, Hi.if. X. Ks/xinn, pp. t>, S!». ' It is now proven beyond cavil, that both Mexico and Yucatan had fur cent iiries before Columbus a phonetic system of writing, which insured the |u rpi'tuation of their histories and legends.' Brintoii's Mifths. See also Ijtlil.iiK'hill, [fist. ChicL, in Kingsborouffh's Mex. Antiq., vol. ix., ])]). 203-4, -3.'>, L'ST; Id., Rchiciones,\n Id., p. .325; Ritos Antiauos, p. 4, in Id.\ Oarria, mill., v(d. viii., pp. 190-1; Goinara, Conq. Mex., fol. 299; Motoliiiia, Hist. Imliih'i, in Irazbrtlceta, Col. (/u Doc, torn, i., pp. 186, 209; Fuculeal, in Ter- maijc-Citnipaiis, Voy., serie i., torn, x., p. 250; veytia. Hist. Ant. Mij., torn, i-. ini. C-7, 251-2; Vernal Diaz, Hist. Conq., fol. 68; Purchas his PUgrimcs, Vol. iv., p. 1135. 626 THE NAHUA NATIONS annals were preserved together in a few of the lar
  • . I7'.>. 'Ailcndc dc l;i oasa ha/iaii todo el ])iu'ldo a los Hofioros siis soniontcras, y so las liciicrnia- vaii y ooj^iaii on cantidad qne lo bastava a ol y a sn casa.' Lmnhi. li'l"- ciiiii, ])p. 110-12, 1;{(>-1J. 'Sns niayordonios. . . .; Oviriln, llinf. G>-ii., toni. iv., p. 104; Squirr'.i Xiriir»;iii,i, (Ed. 18.")(>,) vol. ii., p. 341; Mairlrt, Voi/af/r. toin. i.. p. 111."). ^^ Cogolludo, Hint. Vuc, pp. iSO-i; Tcrnuux-Cuhqnvis, in Xmii'iUvs ADMINISTRATION OF JUSTICE. 655 The administration of justice anil the execution of the laws were aniouiif tlie ALavas entrusted to the otKeials that have been mentioned in what lias been said respectinj^ j^overnment. Serious crimes or other important matters arteetinuc the interests of the kino*, of the siate, or of the higher ranks of nohility, were referred directly to the royal council })resided over by the monarch. The kinijf's lieutenants, or lords of royal blood who ruled over provinces, took concnizance (-f the more important cases of provincial interest; while petty local (piestions were decided by subordi- nate judges, one of whom was appointed in each village or hamlet. But even in the case of the local judges the advice of a council was sought on every occasion, and persons were appointed to assist both judges and ])arties to the suit in the character of ad- viK'ates. Although these judges had the right to consult with the lord of their province, and the latter, jirobably, with the royal council, yet after a decision was rendered, there was apparently no right of appeal ill any case whatever; but we are told that in Yuca- tiii at least a royal commissioner travelled through t!io ])rovinces and reported regularly on tlie manner iu which the judges performed their duties, and on other matters of public ini[»ort. Both judges and advocates might receive presents from all the jiarties t ) a suit, according to Cogolludo, and no one thought Di" apj)lying for justice witliout ))ringiiig some gift ]>i'()portioned to his means. In (Juatomala, as Las Cisas states, the judge received liaif the pi'operty of t!u' convicted jiartv; this is prolwibly only to be un- (liTstootl as apjilying to serious crimes, which involved ii confiscation of all ])ropertv. iu Vera Paz tlie tax-collect n's served also as con- sial)les, being empowered to arrest accused ]»arties and witnesses, and to*bring them before tlie judges. All null's lira Voff., 1843, toin. xcvii., p. 4(5; /{rii.i.'fiir ilr ISiHirfioiirff, Ili- 1; dirri/lu, in Sur. Mm. Uio'j., liolrtin, 'Jilii iliiira, toiii. iii., p. '2(JS. 006 THE MAVA NATIONS. Very little is known of the order of prooediire in tlio Maya courts, but j^reat pains was apparently taktii t(» ascertain all the facts hearin*]^ on the case, and to nii- der exact justice to all concerned. Court pnuicil- ino's, testimony, arguments, and decisions are siiid to have been altogether verbal, there being no evidi'iuo that written records were kept as they were by the Nahuas, although the Maya system of hieroglypliic writing cannot l)e supposed to have been in any re- spect inferior to that of the northern nations. Xotli- ing in the nature of an oath was exacted from a ■witness, but to jjuard aijainst false testimonv in Yii- catau a terrible curse was launched against tbe jxr- jurer, and a superstitious fear of conseciuenccs was supposed to render falsehood imj)()ssible. In CJiiatL'- mala so much was the ])erjurer despised that a line and a reprimand from the judge were deemed suffi- cient j)unishment. Torture, if we may credit i.as Casjis, by tying the hands, beating with clubs, and the inhalation of smoke, was resorted to in Vera Paz to extort confession from a person susj)ected of adul- tery or other serious crimes. Great weight seeius to have been attached to material evidence; for in- stance, it was deemed impt)rtant to take the tliief while in actual possession of the stolen property ; and a woman to convict a man of rape must seize and produce in court some })ortion of his wearing-ap]»airl. The announcement of the judge's decision was, as 1 have said, delivered verbally, and sometimes, win a the parties to the suit were numerous, Cogolhido in- forms us that .'Ul were invited to a banquet, tluiiiii;' which the verdict was made known. As there was no appeal to a higher tribunal, so there seems to liave been no pardoning power, and the judge's final deci- sion was always strictly enforced. Except a mention by Herrera that the Nicaragumn ministers of justice bore fans and rods, T find no account of any distin- guisliing insignia in the Maya tribunals. Punishments inflicted on Maya criminals took the MAYA PIXISIIMKNTS. 667 rorin of death, sl.avoiy, and pocimiarv fiuos; iinpris- oMineiit wan of rare orcurrt'iice, and aj»part!nt!y never iiillit^ted as a |)unislinient, but eidy for the retention of jirisoners until their final punislnnent was leji^ally de- trrniined. (J'o'jfolludo states that culprits were never heaten, hut Vilhiijfutierre affirms that, at least anioui'' the Itzas, tiiey were hoth heaten and put in shaekii's; and the same author speaks of imprisonment for nt>n- jtayment of taxes at Cohan. The death penalty wjvs inflicted hy hanifing-, hy heatinjjf with the i^Mrrote, (if ( luh, and hy throwin<:^ the condenmed over a preci- pice. Ximenez mentions hurnini^ in (Juatemala; ( )viedo speaks of im})alements in Yucatan ; those con- demned to death in Nicarc'iijfua seem to have been sac- riticed to the ifods hy having their hearts cut out; and throwini^ the hody from a wall or }>reci]»ice is the only method attributed to the Pipiles. At a town in Yucatan called Cachi, Oviedo men- tions a sharp mast standin*^ in the centre of a sy the early vo3'agers. Three beams or posts were fixed in the ground, to them were attached three cross-beams, and scattered about were blood-stained arrows and spears. This apparatus would indicate, if it was really a place of j)unishment, a method of in- flit'ting the death-penalty not elsewhere mentioned; and a stone structure adjoining, covered with sculp- tured emblems of punishment is sugj;estivo of ceremo- nial rites in connection with executions. The death s 'iitence generally involved the confiscation of the criminal's property and the enslaving of his family. All l)ut the most heinous offemies could be expiated Ity the payment of a fine consisting of slaves or other ■ '! i Vol. II.— « 668 THE MAYA NATIONS. property, and tlio whole or a larjjfe part of tlii.s lino M'unt to tlio judges, tho lords, or the kinjjc. Murder was punished in all the nations hy dtjitli, but in Yucatan and Niearajjua if tliere wore extcii- iiatiuL;" circunistanoes, such as great j)rovocation or al»- sence of malice, the crime was atoned hy tlie i)ayniLiit of a tine. In Yucatan a minor who to«)k human lito became a slave; the kilHng of another's slave called for ])ayment of the value destroyed; the killing of one's ()\vn slave involved a slight penalty or none at all. In Nicaragua no penalty was decided upon lur the murder of a chief, lucIi a crime being deemed iia- ible. Theft was atoned by a return of the stolen projurty and the payment of a fine to the pubHc treasury. In case the criminal could not pay the full value he was sold as a slave until sucli time as lie might be able to redeem his freedom. In some cases tlie amount semis to have been paid with the jirice he brought as a slave, and in others he served the injured })aity. Fines, however, in most cases seem to have been i)ai(l by the i latives and friends of the guilty party, so that the number of persons actually enslaved was perha|)s not very large. In Guatemala stolen articles of trifling value went with the fine to the |)iihlic treasury, since the owner would not receive them. The incorrigible thief, when his friends refused to jmy his fine, was sometimes put to death; and death was also the penalty for stealing articles of value from tho tem})le. In Nicaragua the thief who delayed too loiii,' the i)ayment of his fine was sacrificed to the gods; and in Salvador, banishment was the punishment for trirting theft, death for stealing larger amoinits. Landa informs us that in Yucatan a noble who so far forgot his position as to steal had his face scarified, a great disgrace. Adultery was punished in Yucatan and Guatemala with death; in the latter if the parties were of tlio common people they were thrown from a precipice. nilMINAL roDK. C&9 Fornication was atoned by a fine, or if tlie aftVoiited relatives insisted, by death. A woman who was un- cliaste was at first reprimanded, and finally, if she ])ersevered in her loose conduct, onslaveil. Hape in (.(uatemala was ])unished by death; an imsuccesHful attempt at the same, by slavery. Afarriajjfe witli a slave, as already stated, reduced the freeman to a slave's condition; sexual connection with one's own wlave was not rejjarded as a crime. He who commit- ted incest in Yucatan was put to death. Treason, rebellion, inciting to rebellion, desertion, interference with the payment of royal tribute, and similar offences endangering'' the well-being of the na- tions, were sufficient cause for death. In Guatemala he who kidnapped a free person and sold him into slavery, lost his life. For an assault resulting in wounds a fine was imposed. He who killed the 2; htn t'umn, ill Kiiiijiliuntiiif/i'ii Mix. Aiitii/., vol. viii., pp. i;r>-4«; ('dijoUhiIo, IUhI. Yuc., pp. 17*.>-H.'}; J'nlncio, Carta, pp. m 'l; Ori- rrto, Hint, ifeii., totii. iii., p|>. 22'J-3(), tniii. iv., pp. ry(t-\; I'ltir Murtifr, ilcc. iv., lilt, ii.; Villayutierrr, Hist. Coinj. Itza, p. U»2; Hnrrra, Hist. (In,., l. 2«3-4 - - . 2-4; Snui p. 345; /(/., t'etit. Ainfr., p. 334; 'J'irnaiix-t^o»iinin.i, To//., wric i., lilt. IV., mil. vii.; Jiiarros, tli.it. limit., pp. 101-2; (iuiiiara. Hint. Iiiil., M. 203-4; tiriissnir ilf Hoiirliniini, Hist. NfU int. Cir., torn, ii., pp. BiMil, 572-4; S-7; Jfil/m Span. Com/., vol. iii., jtp. 2.'>rt-7; Fmiroiirt's Hist. Yuc., pp. 110-17; riiiientel, Mem. nobrc la liaza Iniligcnu, pp. 21)-34. CHAPTER .vXI. EDUCATION AND FAMILY MATTERS AMONG THE MAYAS. KoucATroN OF Youth— Prnuc Schools of Guatemai-a — Branches OK STIDY IN YrtATAN — MaKKYINO AuE — DEUKEES OF CONSAN- GUINITY allowed in MaKKIAOE — PllELIMINAItlES OF MaRRIAOE — Maiuuaoe Ceremonies— The Custom ok the Droit du Seion- EUK in Nicaragua— Widows — M()No(;amy - Concuihxacje — Di- vorce — Laws Concerning Adultery — Fornication — Kate- Prostitution — Unnatural Crimes- Desire for Children — Child-iiirth Ceremonies — Kite of Circumcision — Manner ok Naming Children— Baptismal Ceremonies. The Mcaya nations appear to have been quite as ntrict and careful in the education of youth as tlio Naliuas. Parents took great pains to instruct their diildren to respect old age, to reverence the gods, and to honor their father and mother.^ They were, be- ' 'They were taii<;ht, says Lius Cnsns, 'que honrasen A los padres y le» fiiCHCii »>l>edieiitea; (jiic iiara esto desde nifios les ensenavaii eoiuo liavian de liaeer las seuieiiteras y eoino luMU'liciallas v c(>;rellas.' KiiKiahoniiiijIiit ^ft^x. Aiitiq., vol. viii., p. 132. Brasseur de Bourhour^ remarks that the re- wpeetful term of yon instead of tluni, is fretjuently used l>y ehildren when addressinj; tlieir jiarents, in the Popol Vuh. I'o/iol Viih, ji. iM5. The old lii'()|)le 'eran tan estiimidos en esto (pie los ino^os no trata\'an eon viejos, .sino era en <'osas inevitables, y los muyus por casar; cwu los casadoa sino niuy poeo.' f.nnda, liclacioa, p. 178. (OOU 602 THE MAYA NATIONS. sides, encouraged while mere infants to amuse tlieiii- selves witli warlike games, and to practice with the bow and arrow. As they grew older, the children of the poor people were taught to labor and assist tlieir parents. The boys were in their childhood educated by the father, who usually taught them his own trade or calling; the girls were under the especial care of the mother, who, it is said, watched very closely over the conduct of her daughters, scarcely ever permitting them to be out of her sight. Chii- dren of both sexes remained under the immediate control of their parents until they were of an age to be married, and any disobedience or contumacy Mas severely punished, sometimes even with death. The boys in Guatemala slept under the portico of tlie house, as it was thought improper that they sliould observe the conduct and hear the conversation of married people.'' In Yucatan, also, the young ])e()plc were kept separate froi.i their elders. In each vil- lage was an immense white-washed shed, under the shelter of which the youths of the place amused themselves during the day, and slept at night.'* The various little events in a child's life wliicli among all peoples, savage or civilized, are regarded a^ of so great importance by anxious mothers, such as its being weaned, its first step, or its first word, were celebrated with feasts and rejoicing; the anniversaries of its birthday were also occasions of much meny- making. The first article that a child made with its own liands was dedicated to the gods.* In Yucatan children went naked until they were four or five years old, when the boys were given a breech-clout to wear ' 'Doriniiin en los portales no solo cnando liacitm su ayuno, urns ami oasi to(l(» cl aTio, jjorque no les era |)criniti(lo tratar ni saber do los m';,'c)i'iiis (!(! l(»s casados, ni ann Hahian cnanilo liaMan do casarsc, liasta el tie!ii|Hi c|ii(' les (tresentalmn las mnj^'res, porqne eran nniy snjctos y ohedieiites li stis ]iadres. Ciiando aquestos niancebos ilian A siis casas d ver a siis iiadrcs t(>nian su euenta LiiiM;:^ ajjcno, annque la Mujjer liuvicse procedido de sn niisnio Linaw; y era hi ra(;on, porque aquel Parentesco seatribuhi t\ solo los Hoinbres. Por niaiuia, que si al^run Sefior daba su Hija t\ otro de otro Pueblo, aunque no tu\ iiM' otro hereilero este Senor, sino solos los Nietos, Hijos do su liija, no Ins n- conocia por Nietos, ni Pnrientes, en ra^on dc hacerlos licrcdoros, iiorscr !ii- jos del otro Sefior de otroa Pueblos y asi so le buscaba al tal yenor, Miiyi r iiu' fuese de ol DEGREES OF KINDRED. 666 Thus, if a noble lady married an inferior in rank or even a slave, the children belonged to the order of the father, and not of the mother.*' Torquemada adds that they sometimes married their sisters-in-law and step-mothers.*" Among the Pipiles, of Salvador, an ancestral tree, with weven main branches, denoting degrees of kin- dred, was painted upon cloth, and within these seven branches, or degrees, none were allowed to marry, except as a recompense for some great public or war- like service rendered. Within four degrees of con- sanguinity none, under any pretext, might marry." In Yucatan there was a peculiar prejudice against a man marrying a woman who bore the same name as his own, and so far was this fancy carried that he who did this was looked upon as a renegade and an outcast. Here, also, a uian could not marry the sis- ter of his deceased wife, his step-mother, or his mother's sister, but with all other relatives on the maternal side, no matter how close, marriage was j)erfectly legitimate. A Yucatec noble who wedded a woman of inferior degree, descended to her social level, and was dispossessed of a part of his property, :i, m- fucse de otro Pueblo, y no de el proprio. Y nsi sucedia, que los llijns (ic estate Mugeres, no tcuiiiu por I'ariente.s it Iom Deudos de su Miidrc, por I'stiir en otro l*uel»lo, y esto se cutiende, en qniinto k casarse con ellas, qiio 111 tcnian |)or licito, auiique en lo deiniiH ne recoiiocian. Y ponpic la oueiita do sii PartJiitesco era entre S(dos los Honibres, y no por jmrte de las Miii^eres. V por esto no tenian inipediniento, j)ara <'aHarse, con Ion (ales I'urientes; y a-. 419. '' Ilnissnir til', liourhourg, Ifi.sf. Xat. dr., toni. ii., p. 572. "' Moiinrq. Lid., toiu. ii., ]). 419. '" 'Kn lo que tocava al jiarentcseo, tenian un arlxd pintado, i en el sieto niinos que signifaeava slete grados de parentesco. En estos grados no se jHiilia casar nadie, i esto se enteiidia jtor linea recta ni no fucse (|uealguno Imvicse fecbo algun gran feebo en arnuis, i bavia de ser del tercero grado fiicra; i por linea traversa tenia otro arlxd con qnatro rainos (jue sigiiilica- liaii el quarto grado, en estos \w se nodia cnsar nadie (juabpiicra (pie tenia qiuMita carnal con parienta en los grados susodicbos inorian por ciio iimlios.' I'liliirio, Cinfo, p. 80; Ifinrra, Hint. Gen., dec. iv., lib. vili., cap. X.; Squicr'i' Cent. Ainer,, p. 334. _^ G66 THE MAYA NATIONS. and deprived of his rank.^' In Nicaragua no one might marry within the first degree of relations! lip, but beyond that there was no restriction.^® The question of dowry was settled in Guatemala by the relatives of the young couple.^ The Yueatoc son-in-law served his father-in-law for four or five years, and the omission of such service was considered scandalous;''^ while in Nicaragua the dower was usu- ally paid in fruit or land.** Each of the Maya nations seems to have had a method of arranging marriages peculiar to itself. In Guatemala the whole affair was managed by the near- est relatives of the betrothed pair, who were kejit in profound ignorance of the coming event, and did not even know each other until the day of the weddinu;'. It seems incredible that the young men should have quietly submitted to having their wives picked out for them without being allowed any voice or choice in the matter. Yet we are told that so great was tlieir obedience and submission to their parents, tluit there never was any scandal in these things. If this he the case, what a strange phenomenon Guatemalan society must have been, with no love affairs, no woo- ing permitted, and Cupid a banished boy. But, for all that, many a Guatemalan youth may have looked coldly upon his bride as he thought of anotlier and, to him, fairer face, and many a loyal young wile may luive been sometimes troubled with the vision of a comely form that she had admired before she saw her lord. When a man of rank wished to marry his son, lie sent a number of his friends with presents to tlic ^^ Hrrrcra, Hist. Cfen., dec. iv., lib. x., cap. iv. ; Latiilii, Jic/itrion, \i]\ 134-(), 140; Brasscur dc liourbounj, Hist. Nat. Civ., toiii. ii.. |>. (Jl. '■•* Torqufinada, Monarq. IiuL, toiii. ii., p. 419; Si/iiier's Nicariiijini, (Ivl. 185(i,) v(»l. ii., p. 343. >» Jiranseur lie Bourhourq, Hint. Nat. Cir., torn, ii., p. 570. ii Jirnsscnr dc liourhoiirg. Hist. Nat. Cir., toin. ii., p. 53. ' I.os il ilot eran de vcntidoa, y cumis do pi>ca BiiHtnnciu, lo iiiaH hc giistaiia en Ids conilii- tea.' Hcrrera, Hist. Gen., dec. iv., lili, x., cap. iv. ^ Ooiedo, Hist. Gen., toin. iv., p. 50; Sfpiicr's Nicaragua, (Kd. IS.")(i,l vol. ii., p. 343. parents fallen. that the steps we cepted i( able out elapsed, than bef( who wer marriage, this gen( the aftiiir. each othe j)urposes < making pi chisses till I>arents i l^ipiles of having oL the match twelve ye educate an In return of his son, and of a s <'ouple the and gave t if the youi he crossed paid the sa In the arranged b pendent toi from aiuoni PRELIMINARIES OF MARRIAGE. C67 parents of the young girl upon wlioni liis cliolce had t'allen. If the presents wei'e refused it was a sign that the offer of alliance was declined, and no farther steps were taken in the matter; but if they were ac- cepted it showed that tlie match was thought a desir- able one. In the latter case, a few days having elapsed, another embassy, bearing more costly gifts than before, was dispatched to the parents of the girl, who were again asked to give their consent to the marriage. Finally, a tliird deputation was sent, and this generally succeeded in satisfjictorily arranging tlie affair. The two families then connnenced to treat each other as relations, and to visit each other for the purposes of determining the day of the w\)dding and making preparations for the event. Among the lower classes the father usually demanded the bride of her ])arents in person. It was customary among the Pipiles of Salvador for the father of the boy, after liaving obtained the consent of the girl's parents to the match, to take her to his house when she was twelve years of age, and his son fourteen, and there educate and maintain her as if she were his own child. In return he was entitled to her services and those of his son, until they were able to sustain themselves, and of a suitable age to marry. The i)arents of the couple then jointly made them a present of a house and gave them the means to start in life. Thereafter, if the young man met his father-in-law in the street, he crossed to the other side of tlie way, and the girl paid the same courtesy to her mother-in-law.'* In the greater [)art of Nicaragua matches were arranged by the })arents, but there were certain inde- ]>undent towns in which tiie girls chose their husbands iVom among the young men, while the latter were sit- ting at a feast. ^' '^ Xiinencz, Ilist. Iiid. Gnat., pp. 204-C; Brnsscur dc Bourbounj, Hist, Xiit. ('ii\, toni. ii., pp. .5()9-7l. " Pnlurio, Ciirht, p. 78; Si/uier's Catf. Anit-r., p. .Til. "' (r')initra, Ilisf. I mi, M. 'HV.\\ Jlrrrmt, Hist. (Ini., dec. iii., lib. iv., (•a|i. viL; Siinier'a Xicuviujiui, (Ed. 18J(!,) vol. ii., i>. 'AVA. 668 THE MAYA NATIONS. I have already alluded to the fact that if in Gua- temala or Yucatan a young nmn married into a raiilc lower than his own he lost caste in consequence, Ikiuo his parents were the more careful to select for him a bride from among the maidens of his own standing- in society. Among the Mayas of Yucatan when the day appointed for a marriage ceremony arrived, tlio invited friends assembled at the house of the brick's father, where the betrothed couple with their parents and the officiating priest were already waiting. F(»r the joyful occasion a great feast was prepared, as it was customary to incur a large expense in food and wine for the entertainment of invited guests. WIkh all were present, the priest called the bride and bridegroom with their parents before him and deliv- ered to them an address concerning the dut* >s of tlio wedded state. He then offered incense and curtain p.'ayers to the gods, concluding the ceremony l)y ask- ing a blessing from heaven for the newly wuddid couple.** No ceremonies took place when a widow or widower was married; in such case a simple repast or the gfivinjjf of food and drink one to another was 27 deemed sufficient to solemnize the nu])tials, It was customary in Guatemala, wlien all prelimi- naries of a marriage had been settled and the day fixed for tlie weddingr, for the bridegroom's father to send a deputation of old women and principal nun to conduct the bride to his house. One of those sent for this purpose carried her upon his shoulders, and when they arrived at a certain designated point near the bridegroom's home, she was met by other ukii also chosen by her father-in-law, who offered incense four i)r five times before her and sacrificed some (juail or other birds to the gods, at the same time giving- thanks for her safe arrival. As soon as she came to *• ' Haziasc vim pliitica de como se aiiia tratado, y iiiirado a(iuel rnsaini- onto, y one (iiiatlraua: hei'lia la jdatica el Sai'crdote f-iil>iiiiiaiia laf!is:i;y coil orat'ioiios lieii(U>zia a Ion iioiiios, y qucdauaii casudos.' llvrixra, 11 ml. Gen., dt'c. iv., lil). x., i-ap. iv. *' JO.; Landa, lidacion, p. 142. MAURIAGK CEIIEMOXIES. 6G9 the house she was seated with much ceremony uj)on a couch covered with mats or rich carpets; immedi- ately a numher of singers hegan a song suited to tlie occasion; musicians played on their instruments; dancers came forth and danced before her.-" The consent of the cacique had to he obtained to all mai'- ri ages that were celebrated in his territory; before the ceremony the priest desired the young man and his bride to confess to liim all the sins of their past life. No person w.as allowed to marry in Yucatan until the rite of baptism had been administered.'"' In Gua- temala, if the betrothed belony:ed to the hiii'her classes of society, the cacique joined their hands and then tied the end of the man's mantle to a corner of the woman's dress, at the same time advis- ing them to be faithful and loving toward each other. The ceremony ended, all partook of the wedding feast and the bride and bridegroom were carried to the liouse intended for them, u})on the shoulders of some of those who had assisted at the marriage; thev were then conducted to the bridal chamber and, as Xime- nez tells us, received instructions I'rom two of the most honored old women respecting certain marital duties.* The marriage ceremonies of the Pipiles were sim- ple and unique; matches were made by the cacique and carried into effect under liis direction. At the a])p()inted time the kinsfolk of the bride j)roceeded to tlie house of the bridegroom, whence he was borne to tlie river and washed. The relatives of the bride performed the same act of cleansing upon the })erson of the bride. The two parties with their respective *' 'Llegada .i casii, luo<;o la imiiian y asoiitaban en iin tiilaino l>ieii atlo- rcziulo, y coiiieiizabuii f^raiules tiailes y caiitarcs v otros ri'irtii-ijos iiiiiclios, ciiii (jiie la tiesta era iiiuy soleiniio.' A'hiniifz, llisf. Jiid. Giiitt., \). -(Mi; I'lniss'-iir (/(• Jioiirhouri), lliat. Nut. Cii\, toin. ii., pp. 570 1. '■^'i 'Sin el iiiii;,'iiii(> se easaba.' I'ti/fiii, Hist. Atit. Mrj., toin. i., p. 183; CiKinl/iuf)), Ili.st. Yiu:, p. 191; Jiuirros, Hist, (iiifit., p. ISM}. ^" 'A la iioclie, dos imijjeros lionratla.s y vieja.s nietianlos en nna pieza, y enscnaltanlos coino liabiaii de habersu en el niatriniuniu.' Ximi'itcz, Hist, Iiul. Uuat,, p. 200. wm 670 THE MAYA NATIONS. charges then repaired to the house of the bride. The couple were now tied together by the ends of the blankets, in which they were enfolded naked and laid away — married.'^ After the ceremony an inter- change of presents took place between the relatives of the newly married couple and they all feasted to- getlier. Among the civilized nations of Nicaragua, when a match was arranged to the satisfaction of the parents, some fowls were killed, cacao was prepared, and the neighbors were invited to be present. The fatlier, mother, or whoever gave away the bride, was asked in presence of the assembled guests whether or not she came as a virgin; if the answer was in the affirmative, and the husband afterwards found that she had been already seduced, he had the right to return her to lier parents and she was looked upon as a bad woman; l)ut if the parents answered that she was not a virgin, and the man agreed to take her for a wife, the marriaire was valid.*'' When they were to be united the cacique took the parties with his right hand by the little fingers of their left hands and led them into the house set apart for marriages, leaving them, after some words of ad- vice, in a small room, where there was a fire of candle- wood. While the fire lasted they were expected to remain perfectly still, and not until it was burned out did they proceed to consummate the marriage. Tiie following day if the husband made no objection in respect to the girl's virginity, the relations and friends assembled and expressed their gratification with loud cries of joy, and passed the day in feasting and pleasure.^ 31 Pnlacio says they were each wrapped in a new wliite mantle. 'Ain- 1)08 l<»s enbolvian cada qiial en su nianta blanca nueva.' Carta, p. 78. Sie also llerrera, Hist. Gen., dec. iv., lib. viii., cap. x.; Squier's Cent. Aincr., 3* 'Si la tonio por virgen, y la halla corrompida, deseclia la, mas no do otra manera.' Gomara, Hist. Ind., fol. 263; Oviedo, Hist. Gen., tuiii. iv., p. 49. 33 'Los uovios 8e cstdn qucdus, mirando c6mo aquell>\poca tea se quciiia; DROIT DE SEIGNEUR. 671 Notwithstanding" the disgrace attached to a woman who had h)st her virginity before marriage and con- cealed the fact, we are assured by Andagoya that in Nicaragua a custom similar to the European 'droit du , oigneur' was practiced by a priest living in the tem- ple, who slept with the bride during the night pre- ceding her marriage.^ A widow was looked upon as the property of the ftimily of her deceased husband, to whose brother she was invariably married, even though he might have a wife of his own at the time. If she had no brother- in-law, then she was united to the nearest living rela- tive on her husband's side.*^ In Yucatan, the widow could not marry again until after a year from her hus- band's death.^^ Monogamy seems to have been the rule among the Maya nations, and many authors assert positively that polygamy did not exist. It was only in the border ytate of (yhiapas that the custom is mentioned by Remesal. To compensate for this, concubinage was largely indulged in by the wealthy. The punishment for bigamy was severe, and consisted, in Nicaragua, e nealmda, quedan casatlos e ponen en efetto lo demiis.' Ovirtfn, ITiftt. Gen., tiiiu. iv., p. 50. 'liii inurienddise lu luiiibre, qiiedan casados.' Goiiiunt, Hint. Itid., fol. 2(5.3; Sqiticr's Nicaragua, (Ed. 1856,) vol. ii., p. 343; liuyle's llifle, vol. i., p. 273. 3* 'La noidie antes habia de dorniir con la novia uno qne teniun ]>or jnipa.' Amluipiya, in Nararretc, Col. tic Viagcs, toni. iii., p. 414; llmrra. Hist. Gen., dec. iii., lil). v., cap. xii. Oviedo i>eiliap.s alludes to tills cus- tiini when he says: 'Muchos hay que qnieren iniis las corroinpidas que no Lis vir<;enes.' Hist. Gcu., torn, iv., p. 50; MuUe-Bruti, I'rdcis ilc la Geo(j., toiii. vi., p. 472. ^•* ' Coniunniente estas {Rentes coniprahan la niufjer, y acinellos doncs quo llevahan, era el precio, y asi la niu<;er jamas volvia d casa de sus padres aunqiic enviudase; ))orqtic Iuclto el herniano del nnierto la tonialia jtor nin- j,'or antique d fiicsc cusdi/o, y si el herinano no era para ello, un pariento tenia derecho ii ella. Los lii jos de las tales innj^eres no tcnian )»or deudos ii los talcs abuelos, ni ii los denuis deudos de his intidres, ponpie In cnentii (le su parentesco venia |)or linca de varones, y iisi no tenian inipedinientos jiiira casarse con los iiiirientcs de sus niadres, esto se entiende para contnier i; que en lo dentils iiniiiln nrz, Hist. Jnil. Gnat., J). 207; Lus Ca.sas, in Kin<)shnron(fh''s Mrx. Atitiq., iiiatriinonio; one banse y qiierianse unos A otros.' Ximc- vol. viii., p. 14(); Tnrqnrmada, ^fnnarq. Inil.. toni. ii., p. .388; Bras.icnr de lUiiirhonrt), Hist. \at. Cir., toni. ii., p. 571-2. 38 'No se casa van flespues de viudo.s nn afio, por no conocer honil)re a niii^'cr en aquel tieni])o. y a los que esto no j^nanlavan, tenian por poco tcniplados y quo les veudriu por esso uli,'uu nial.' Laiula, Jielacion, p. 15G. 672 THE MAYA NATIONS, of Imiiisliment and confiscation of the entire pr()])rrtv for the benefit of the injured wife or husband, \vli(» was at liberty to marry again, a privilej^e Avliich was not, however, accorded to women who had children. Laiidji tells us that the Chichen Itza kinj^s lived in a state of strict celibacy, and Diaz relates that a tower was pointed out to him on the coast of Yucatan, whicli was occu[)ied by women who had dedicated themsulvus to a single life.^ With their loveless marriages it was fortunate that divorce could be obtained on very slight grounds. I n Yucatan, says Landa, the father would, after a tinal separation, procure one wife after another to suit thi; tastes of his son. If the children were still of teiider age at the time the parents separa'ed, they were left with the mother; if grown up, the boys followed the father, while the girls remained with the mother. It was not unusual for the husband to return to the wife after a while, if she was free, regardless of the fact that she had belonged to another in the meantime.'* In Guatemala the wife could leave her husband ou the same slight grounds as the man, and if she re- fused to return to him after being requested to do so, he was allowed to marrv again: she was then coiisid- ered free, and held of no little consequence. In Nic- 37 Diaz, Itiniraire, in Ternaux-Compniis, Voy., sdrie i., toin. x., ]). II?. 'Toilos toiiiau luuchas nuigeres, enipero vna es la legitiiiui,' says (Idiniini, Hist. IiuL, fol. 203, in speaking of Nicaragua. 'C(»niiininente liula Mini ticne una sola niuj'er, ^ iwcos son los que tienen nids, e.\(;ept(> Ins piimi- ]iales 6 el (iiie pueue dar do comer & nids niugeres; e los tavi'pu's <^ll:llltili <[uieren.' Oi'icdo, Hist. Gen., torn, iv., p. 37. The word 'nni;:er' cvKlciitly means women who lived with the nuin, the wife and conciihini's, fur, mi y. 50, it is stated that only one legitimate wife was allowed. The piiiiisli- ment for bigamy helps to be.ir this out. Villdgtiticrn., Hist, Caii'/. Ilm. pp. 310, 499. 'Nuiica los yucataneses tomaron mas de una.' Landit, Riliin'aii, pp. 142, 341. This view is also taken by Cogolludo, Uist. Yiir., ]>. I'.LS, who adds, however: 'Contradize Aguilar en su informo lo de vim niiiicr sola, dizie?ido, que tenian muchas;' but this may refer to coiictilmics. llrasseur de IJouroourg, Hist. Nat. Civ., torn, ii., p. 55, says: 'l.a pliiiiilito des femmes etant admises par la loi,' and gives Hernra, Hist. Gen., ilii'- iv., lib. X., cap. iv., as his autiiority; but this author merely refers to ciiiicu- binage as being lawful. 38 Lamia, Rdnci(»i , pp. 138-40. 'Tenian grandos pcndencias, y iiiiiiT- tea sobre ello,' says Herrera, Hist, Gen., dec. iv., lib. x., cap. iv., refeiiiii,; to their married life. INTEUCOL'USE OF THE SEXES. 673 uraj^im the husband decided whetlier tlio children were to remain with him or the divorced wife.** Tlie ^layas seem to liave dealt more leniently with iidulterers than the Nahuas. In (luatemala, the married man who committed adultery with a maiden was, upon complaint of the jj^irl's relations, com]>elled to pay as a tine from sixty to one hundred rare feath- ers. It generally happened, however, that the friends of the woman were careful to keep the matter secret, MS such a scandal would cause <»Teat injurv to her future i)rospects. If a married man was known to sin with a married woman or a widow, both were for the first or even the second offence merely warned, Hiid conilemned to pay a tine of feathers; hut if tiiey ]»ersevered in their crime, then their hands were hound behind their backs, and they were forced to inhale the smoke of a certain herb called talHU'oi/ai/, which, althoui>^h very painful, was not a fatal i)unish- nient. The sinjjfle man who connnitted adultery with a married woman was oblijj^ed to pay to the parents of the latter the amount which her husband had i)aid for her; doubtless this fine was handed over to the injured husband, who, in such a case, repudiated his wife. It sometimes happened, however, that the liusband did not report the matter to the authorities, hut gave his unfaithful wife a bird of the kind which Avas used in sacrifices, and told lier to otfer it to the j^^ods, and, with her companion in crime, to confess and be forgiven. Such a husband was regarded as a most virtuous and humane man.*" A noble lady taken in adultery was reprimanded tlie first time, and severely punished or repudiated for the second of- fence. In the latter case she was free to many It was a capital crime to commit adultery a<'am It '9 Ot'icdo, Hist. Gen.. Inm. iv., p. SO; Lns Cafiii.a<;Kr a el la coiideiuu-ioii, dc iiiii- iiora qiic alieiide de hu afrenta, le lleuuua su diiicro.' llrrrera, llist. tlin., «loc. iv., lih. viii., can. viii. 'Cuaiido qiieiia que la inuf^er se liuia y sc ili;i con otro, o por sencillas we volvia en easa de bus padres, re(iueriala ol niarido que volviese, y si no queria, (51 se podia casar luego con otra, porque en cstu caso las niu<;ercs cran poderosas y libres. Algunos sufrian un afio a<.'uar- diindolas; {tero lo eoniun era casa^^e luego, uonpie no podian vivir sin niii- gercs, A causa de no tener quien lis {^".isese ue comer.' Xiinenez, Hint. I ml. (iimf., p. 200. «:• Coijolludo, Hist. Yitc, p. G9!). <• '(iuando las niugercs ernn liViadas en adulterio, la priniera voz crnti corregidas de palabra; y si riu -s.-, euniendalian, repudiiilianlas; y si era Senor, herniaiio o paricntc del Senor ile la tierra, luego en dejandnla, (•« podia Ciusarse con ([uien quisiere. Losvasallos hacian tainbien esto iniichas vfices, pero tcnian un poco de mas paciencia, porque las corregian dns y <'inco veces, y llamabaii li sus parientes para que las rej)rehendiesen. IVm HI eran incorregibles, denuncianan ellas dclantc del Senor, el cual las man- 0. Sqiiior, Xi<'(n-a3; Ikrrcrn, Jli.it. Oen., dec. iii., lib. iv., cap. vii. ; Jioi/lrs Itii/e, vol. i., p. 273. ** Cogollmlo, Hist. Yur., p. 182; Landa, lirfarion, pp. 4S, 170; Ti r- ii'iiix-Conipans, in Nouiriles Aniinlcs itis Voy., )'<13, torn, xcvii., p. 4t;; Jit rrera. Hist. Gen., dec. iv., lib. x., cap. ii. ; FaiuottrVs Hist. Y'uc, p. 117. " Carta, p. 80. « Cent, .^mrr., p. .334. *^ Las Casas, Hist. Apologitira, MS., in KingshoroHijIi's Miw. Antiif., vol. viii., pi). 137, 144; Torqueinada, Monarq. Ind., toni. ii., p. 387. ^ Las Casas, in Kinf)sboron(fh\s Mex. Antiq., vol. viii., p. 144; Torqne- fttnfla, Monarq. Ind., torn, ii., p. 388. " Cogolludo, Hist. Yuc., p. 182. 91! 676 THE MAYA NATIONS. rai)e was enslaved, ^'^ In Nicaraj^ua, the penalty for this crime was not so severe, since he who committed it was only oblioed to compensate pecuniarily tlic parents of his victim; though if he could not do tliis ho l)ecame their slave. He who ravished the dau^iitf r of his employer or lord was, however, always put tt) death."' Incest is said to have been an unknown crime,''* Public prostitution was tolerated, if not encouraiccd, among all the Maya nations. In every Nicaraguan town there were establishments kept by public women, who sold their favors for ten cocoa-nibs, and main- tained professional bullies to protect and accompaiiv them at home and abroad. Parents could prostitute their daughters without shame; and it is said, furtlur, that during a certain annual festival, women, of what- ever condition, could abandon themselves to the em- braee of whomever they pleased, without incuiriuL:" any disgrace."" It was no unusual thing for parents of the lower orders to send their daujjhters on a tnuv through the land, tliat they might earn their marriage portion by prostitution."" All the old writers appear anxious to clear the cin i- lized a fact tlu this un luctant! seems i known, looked Paz, an Chin, h structed deity, asmuch til us it I boy to u this boy less, if a punished woman, ways son In Yuca Diaz whi were at again tlif ^"^ Lax Cnsns, in Kinfinhornurjli's Mrx. Avtiq., vol. viii., p. 144; Torqm'- imiihi, Muttarq. hid., toin. ii., p. .388; Hcrirra, Uisl. Gen., tlcc. iv., lih. ■\iii., cap. X.; PiiUtrio, Carta, p. 82; S'luicr^s (Jent. Aitier., p. ,3.34. M '^ .;,■•?••«, Hist. Intl., fol. 2G.3; Om'rdo, Hist. Gen., torn, iv., ip. .'il; Jfi'rirra, Hi.st. Gen., dec. iii., lib. iv., cap. \n.; Squicr's XicarufiuK, {I'A. 185(1,) vol. il., p. 343. 51 Otiei/n, Hist. Gen., torn, iv., p, 51; Squier's Nicaragua, (VA. 1S,")(), ) vol. ii., 11. 34,3. Si Oi 'I'do, Ili.if. Gen., torn, i., pp. 2,")2, 310, torn, iv., jip. 37, ■")!; (/(•ii'ini. Hist. IniL, fol. 'il^J-l; Il'rrera. If/'sf. Gm,, {\ci\ iii., lib. iv., cap. \ii.; Midler, Anteri/i-anisr/ie Urr::(ii/iunen, p. fi()3; Sqider'n Xieanc/Kn, iVA. 18:>(),) vol. ii., i)p. ,34,3-4; Jioi/l'e'.s Hide, vol. i., p. 273. 'Dado 411c c vi.l.) mu' en otra.s partes de las Indias iisavan del nefando |)eccudo en cstiis titles .-•asas, en e.sta tierra ( Vncatan) no e entendido (ine lii/.iessen tal, ui crci I'l haxian, porqne Ion lla^ados desta peHtilencial inisoria dizen (pie no sun nini- j;os de nui(i.) vol, ii, J). 344; Buiflca Hide, vol. ),, pp. 273-4, "A demo World deifio . is La.^ cas, tin's he write> i^odomia conn iiiliian jl Ids I iiiaiidavanles •■'1 los nifio.s c, lii'il era liltrar citos de casarl viiissinia amif iiiente por aqi ••' <'o,,,:lht,l , «'*'Otroac. .Ii'iva, en cnya iiidicio ii(»f(»i-i,| ''■■■• liiiveriiaili "loins nno tnc '';i.ifi'- . ' diii "'•rarse, <(ind( 'li' He liablar, n '|'ii;ro por ill V, UNNATURAL VICES. 677 lized aborigines fr(3m tlie charge of sodomy, yet the fact that no nation was without strict laws re<''ardinir tliis unnatural vice, combined with the admissions re- luctantly made by the reverend fathers themselves, seems to show that pederasty certainly was not un- known. Thus, Las Casas says that sodomy was looked upon as a great and abominable sin in Vera Paz, and was not known until a god/^ called by some Chin, by others Cavil, and again by others Maran, in- structed them by committing the act with another deity. Hence it was held by many to be no sin, in- asmuch as a god had introduced it amonij them. And ■1 • thus it happened that some fathers gave their sons a boy to use as a woman; and if any other approached this boy he was treated as an adulterer. Neverthe- less, if a man committed a rape upon a boy, he was punished in the same manner as if he had ravished a woman. And, adds the same writer, there were al- ways some who reprehended this abominable custom.''* In Yucatan certain images were found by Bernal Diaz which would lead us to suppose that the natives were at least acquainted with sodomy,®" but here again the good father** takes up the cudgels in be- " .\ demon, Las Casas calls him, hut these monks spoke of all the New Worlil deities as 'demons.' ^^ Ld.i (Jasiis, m Kill !/.s/jor oil (fh'/i Mrx. Aiifiq., vol. viii., p. 138. FJefore lliis he writes: * Y es aijui dc saher, (jue teiiiau ]ior {rrave jiecado t-l de la siidoniia eoino ahajo diremos, y couiunniente los padres lo altorrccian y iiro- liiliian li los hijos. Pero ))or causa de (pie fucseii instruidos en la reli;;ioii, niandavaules dormir cu lt(S tei.M|do.-. donde Inn mozos mavoiescn ai|uel vicio a los nifios eorronipiau. "\' despm ■. walidos de alli null a<-ostnnil>i'ailos, in'i.' /(/., pp. 134-.'j. :>9 Coijiif/iiifo, Hi-ff. IV., p. 18it. *''' '(.hro acerrinio infamador de estas luiciones. que Dios Nnestro Sefmr liaya, en cuya historia creo yo (|,u^ tnvo I>ios liarto poca i>arte, dixo ser iudicio notorio de que jvcjiudlas ;;euteH eran coi'taminadas del vicio ncfando i'-.' haver hallado en cierta i)art(! de aquella tierra, heclios de harro cicrtos iiliilos uiu> cncima de ofro. t'onio si entre nuestros pintores 6 lij;ulos iin se liiijar ,: ' dia li;;uras feas y dedi versos actos, ^ue nohay sopecha i)or nadie I'lirarsc, condenarlos todos por aquello, haciend tins reosde vicio tan iiiili;:no dc se hahlar, no caroce de may culpahle temeriiiail, y asi lo qiu' ariha dije tciijro por la verdad, y In denias por falsos testimoaios diguo- dc; diviim cas- li^M." La.i Casitu, ia Kiiiijsbovouyli's Mcx. Autiq., vol. viii. , p. 147. 678 THE MAYA NATIONS. half of his favorites. In Nicaragua sodomites wore stoned to death.*^ The di sire to possess childroa seems to have bet;n ve.y general, and many were the prayers and otfer- ings inade by disappointed parents to propitiate tin; god whose anger was supposed to have deferred tlitir hopes. To further promote the efficacy of their prayers, the priest enjoined upon man and wife to separate for a month or two, to adhere to a simple diet, and abstain from salt."^ Several superstitious observances were also regarded; thus, among tliu Pipiles, a husband should avoid meeting his father- in-law, or a wife her mother-in-law, lest issue fail them.*^ These observances tend the more to illus- trate their longing to become parents, since the women are said to have been very prolific. The women were delivered with little difficulty or pain,''* yet a midwife w'as called in, who attended to the mother's Avants, and facilitated parturition by placing a heated stone upon the abdomen. In Yucatan iui image of Ixchel, the goddess of cliildbirth, was phueJ beneath the bed. Among the Pipiles and in (Guate- mala, the woman was confessed when any difficulty arose, and it not unfrequently happened that an officer of Justice took advantage of such op})ortii- nities to obtain criminating evidence. If the wife's confession alone did not have the desired effect, the husband was called upon to avow his sins; his maxtli was besides laid ov r the wife, and some- times blood was drawn from his tongue and e;irs, to be scattered towards the four quarters with various invocations.*^ After delivery a turkey hen was im- molated Jiappy i cliild, pi .spindle, so that i The 1 rejoicing feasts tt iimbilica seems t( baptism (iliyih, as for the ri i;iaize to Tile grai the prop ifito grue from the the ahgil to sov/ V make an time a kii a rite wh eral, if iiK asserts tl Laihl I tlii wliicl) tiiG given rist tal;? I^dij '■.h(..'i'r-,elve 6' Oncdn, Hist. Gen., torn, iv., p. 51; Sqnirys Nicaragua, (Ed. 185(1,) vol. ii., p. 343. *2 'Que coiiiiesen cl pun scro <^ solo niiii/, <'» . l','-. oi 'Le liaziau Uezir »us pecadow i si no paria, liazia tine »e confesasc il CIIILDPL.ITII AND CIKCUMCISIOX. G7l» molatocl, and thanks rendered to tlie deity for the liappy issue. The midwife tliereupon washed tlie child, placed a bow and arrow in its hands, if a boy, a spindle, if a girl, and drew a mark upon its right foot, so that it miofht become a jjood mountaineer. The birth of a son was celebrated with especial rejoicings, and extensive invitations issued for the feasts that took place on or about the day when the umbilical cord was to be cut,*^ a ceremony which seems to have borne the same festive character as baptism among the Nahuas and other nations. The aJigih, astrologer, was asked to name a favorable day for the rite. The cord was then laid u})on an ear of laaize to be cut off with a new knife and burned. The grains were removed from the cob and sown at the proper season; one half of the yield to be made iito gruel and form the first food of the child aside from the mother's milk, the other half to be sent to the ahgih, after reserving a few grains for the child to sov/ with his own hands when he grew up, and make an offering thereof to his god. At the same time a kind of circumcision may have been performed, a rite which could not, however, have l)een very gen- eral, if indeed it ever existed, for Cogolludo positively ;;sserts that it never was practiced in Yucatan, au'J Laihl I thinks that the custom of slitting tlie foreskin, whicl; t'le devout })erformed before the idol, may have (.riven rise to the report. Palacio asserts that cer- t;'!;! Indians in Salvador are known to have scariHed rliuii I selves as w<4l as some bovs in the same manner."^ muriilo, 1 s. IK) podiii oou esto, si ituvia ilicho i cinifijsailo t\\w conofiji aI;,'uiio, ivaii ii casii lie ai[ii('l i traian du su casa ia inanta u iiafu'ttis i (u-ifiula a la iprcfiada pani'iiio |>ariose.' J'dtinu'i), Citrtn, p. TO; Iaih L'ltnas, iii Kiinjilm- niiifi'i's Mc.v. Aii/i'i., vol. viii., )>. \'V.). 4 !'<' It wiMill seom tliat tlie cliilil reniainod with the navel-striiij^ jittachcil ti> it until a favorahle day was selectcil fur |)erfiirinin;x the coreiiiiniy iif ciit- tiu;,' it. 'Iv.'lialtaii suertes para viM' niie dia sella Iiiiciik para CDrtar el diii- Itli'j;!).' .\iid further t)n: '.Muihos triluis de iuilios de ('eiitri>-.'\ineri''a enii- servai) liasta hoy al naeiniiento de un iiifio el uso de iiueuiarie el oiiiliii^'o; 'Dstuaihre hariiara de (lue inueroii niuchos uifios.' This would iudi('at(; !.it the cord was liurned while attaehed t • the infant. Xnifin-z, Hist. Iiii/. ■■■>', PI'. l'.K{-4; Tor/ii'ini /ii, Moii'iri). Iml., toin. ii., p. 4tS. lu I'e^uri 'ciertud ludios idolatruruii uii uu niuiitu en sus tcrniiuos, i 680 THE MAYA NATIONS. Tlie iiamiii;^ of the cliild was the next import- ant affair. Anioiiro, i que cinMiiiciilarDii •liiatro iniicliiK'lios (le (lo/o iifms |iai'ii arrilta al usu jiiilaico, i la saiii^rc i|ii,> salio (li'llds la saci'ilicai'Dii a lui itlolo.' I'lihirin, divta, j>. 84. 'Se liarpav.iii el HUpi'i'lluo del iiiieiiiliro ver;{()ue.)S(), (lexaiidolo ('iiiiio las orejas, ile !<> ijikiI HI- eiijiiifioel liisti>riai|i)r jteneraltleias Iiidias, di/.i(;udi)que se ciicumeiiliini.' Liiiiilit, lir/tirioii, pp. W>'2-'.i. 'Ni aijiiellos lleli^iiosds Uiiiiiiiiicos, iii el (>))is|>i> de ('iiia|ia, lia/ieiidii tan ]iartieulai° iiii|uisieiiin. Iia/.en ineiimria >le aiier liallado tal ei»sa. . . .Ins Iiidios, ni e.sti»s tieneii tiiidiciuii ih) ([tie vsa--'^cii tal eosluiulire Hiis aseeiidieiites. Wjr/r;//(r/», His/. )'»/•.,]). I'.H. ''Tliey 'iiii' i'ircuiiieised, but iii>ti all.' I'rfrr Miirfi/r, dec. iv., lil». i. ('ircmneisidn wai 'nil usa,!j;e ;;eiieral daiiM rVueataii, observe de temps iiiinu'iiiorial: elle('l,iir pvatiqiiee sur les petits etifants des les i»remii'rs jours de leiir iiais-iaiici' ' llnissiiir ifc lionrhiinni. His/. Xk/. Cir., toui. ii., p. T)!, 'I'liis )MisiliM' ami isolated a.ssertiou of tlie Ald)e must be founded upon sonie of his .MSS., us usual. u* 'Cortarban ranios verdes en quo itisase.' Pn/ario, Cnr/n, p. 7f!. •''' Itrasseur de Hourbour;^, His/. Xn/. fVc, torn, ii., p. r)(!S, refers o:ily to the fi?'st-born. 'Dabaulo el nonibro del Dia, en <[ue liavia iiacido. n se;ii;nu lo ([ue pre<"odio en su Xaeiniiento.' Torque nuula, Munurq. Iiiro- duce large breasts and an abundant supply of nulk. Otherwise the children received a hardy training, clothing being dispensed with, and tlie bare ground serving for a couch. When working, the motiier car- ried them on her back; in Yucatan, however, they were usually borne across the hii), and for this reason a large number became bow-legged. Landa also mentions another deformity, that produced by head- I ; ■" 'A sua hijoa y hijas sioinprn lliimuvan del iinmliro ilcl ]iiicln' y dc la m.ulro, I'l (K'l ]>a(lr« coiiio ]in>|ii(> y ili' la iiiiiilri' aiicllativo.' 'I'lic prcltaii- lismal name was aUaiiddiu'd wlicii tlic fallicr's iiaiiic aHsuriiiMl. I.inidu, Uhirloii, i>|i. i;{(!, I'.U. (>iily till' ft'w wild were dcsliiu'd In rccfivf tlit! l>:i|iti.sm oiitaiiu'd tlio disiiiictivc iiaiiir. Milrl, in Suiirillrt Aiimihs den l'i>!/., IS4;{, torn, xcvii.. |i|». 41-."); \'ii/ii(/ii/iirir, lllxl. Com/. Ifza. p. 4H!>. ■^ Ti>r>iiirinit(/it, Miinnrq. fiitf., tniii. ii., )>. 448. I'alai'io, Curff, ]>. 7. X., and Sii'iirr.i Cntt. Aiiwr., p. [i\i',i; lirunsrur dc Ikiurhitunj, Hist, Mat. Civ,, toni. ii., p. 508. 682 THE MAYA NATIONS. flattening, which is to be noticed on the sculptures of the Maya ruins. ''^ It is related by all the old Spanish historians, tliat wlien the Spaniards first visited the kin«.jdoni of Yu- catan they found there traces of a baptismal rite; and, stranij^ely enough, the name given to this rite in the language of the inhabitants, was zihil, signifying 'to be born again.' It was the dutv of all to have thtir children baptized, for, by this ablution they beliewd that they received a purer nature, were protected against evil spirits and future misfortunes. 1 have already mentioned that no one could marry unless lie had been baptised according to their customs; they iield, moreover, that an unbaptised person, whetlier man oi woman, could not lead a good life, nor do any- tliing well. The rite was administered to children of both sexes at any time between the ages of three and twelve years. When parents desired to have a child baptised they notified the priest of their intentions. The latter then published a notice throughout the town of the day upon which the ceremony would take place, being first careful to fix upon a day of good t)men. This done, the fathers of the children who were to be bjv)tised, selected five of the most honoivd men of the town to assist the priest during the cere- mony. These were called chacs?^ During the three days preceding the ceremony the fathers {ind assist- ants fasted and abstained from women. When the appointed day arrived, all assembled with the children who were to be baptised, in the house of the giver of the feast, who was usually one of the wealthiest of the parents. In the courtyard fresh leaves weie strewn, and there the boys were ranged in a row in charge of their godfathers, while in another row weru ''^ 'Allivnarlcs las frentcs y calietjas.' 'Coiminniente todos cstevadds, jiDrque . . . . vail alioivajados en los qiiudriles.' Lauda, Eclacioii, pp. ll'--4, ll'2; Jioirros; Hist. HiKit., p. 19.'). '* t'/idr or Vhattr., was tlic title ^ivcn to certain laymen who were elcrti'il to assist the priest in some of his religions dntios. Also the name df t\ divinity, protector of tiie water and harvests. JSee Luniiit, livha-ivii, p. 48^1. rinom, an< HAl'TISMAL CEREMONIES. 683 tlie girls with their godmothers. The priest now pro- ceeded to purify the house with the object of casting out tlie devil. For this purpose four benches were ])laced one in each of the four corners of tlie court- yard, upon which were seated four of the assistants liolding a long cord that passed from one to the other, thus enclosing part of the yard; within this enclosure were the children and those fjithers and officials v.ho had fasted. A bench was placed in the centre, upon which the priest was seated with a brazier, some ground corn, and incense. The children were directed to approach one by one, and the j)riest gave to each a little of the ground corn and incense, which, as they received it, thev cast into the brazier. When this liad been done by all, they took the cord and brazier, with a vessel of wine, and gave them to a man to carry outside the town, with injunctions not to drink any of the wine, and not to look behind him; with .^ucli ceremony the devil was expelled." The yard was then swept clean, and some leaves of a tree called cihom, and of another called copo', were scattered over it. The priest now clothed himself in long gaudy- looking robes, consisting, according to Landa, of a jacket of red feathers with flowers of various colors embroidered thereon; hanging from the ends were other long feathers, and on his head a cor()net of ])lumes. From beneath the jacket long bands of cotton hung down to the ground. In his hand he lield some hyssop fastened to a short stick. The chacs then put white cloths upon the children's heads and asked the elder if thev had committed any sins; such as confessed that they had, were then " Wlio was solcctod to take the wine, 1)razii'r, niid cord oiitsido thi" town, or wliat Im did with it aft('i'\vai some juayers, puritied them Avith the livs- soj) with much solemnity. The ])rincipal otticer who liad heen eleeted hy the fathers, now took a hoiic. and havinif dii)ped it in a certain water, moistiiK d their foreheads, their featnres, and their iino-eis and toes.''" After tliey luul l)een thus spriidvled with water tlie priest arose and removed the cloths IVoiii the heads of the children, and then cut oif with a stone knife a certain head that was attached to the head from childhood; they were then sjfiveij hy one of the assistants some flowers to smell, and a pipt- through whidi they drew sonio smoke, after whi( h they were each })resented with a little food, and a vessel full of wine was hrouu'ht as an oflerini>- to the jj^ods, who were entreated to receive it as a thanks- ^ivin^f from the hoys; it was then handed to oiu; of the officials, who had to drink it at one draught. A similar ceremony took jdace with the female children, at the conclusion of which their mothers divestid them of a cord, which was worn duriiiiic their cliild- hood, fastened round the loins, liaviiii^ a sni.ill ^hdl that hunijf in front. The removal of this sii^iiilied that they could marry as soon as their parents pi,- mitted." The children were then dismissed, and their fathers distributed presents anu)ni*' those win* had assisted at the ceremony. A j^rand han(|n('t called eiitkd, or 'tlie descent of jj^od,' was then hehl, atid diiriiiijf the nine succeedins; davs tho fatheis ol' the children fasted, and were not to approach their wives.''* 76 'Esta nfjna liazian dc ciertas (lores y do cacai) innjado y dcslciiln i'n;i a;;ua virj,'iMi (|U(! olhis dezian traida de los ccincavois do Ins arholi-s o ilf ln> iiumfcs.' Liiii(/(i, ItiliU'ioii, ]». ir>(). ">'' ' Los vartiiu'ilKis iisavanlos sicm|)rc j)om>r jiopida a la oalicca on Im cabi'llos di' la (■oroiiilla una contozut'la olaui'a, y a las iiuii'liai'iisis tniiMii ci'fudas ]ior las riMU's iniiy abaxo coa an cordel (Ud;;ado y t'li «d imii cnn- clnu'la asida nue li's voiiia a dar enciuia sas era oiitie olios ju'ccado y cosa may foa (|uitarlu dc las ino(liiirli;i> antos dol haptisnio.' Liunhi, Rvlacion, -iiy*- 1-H. '•'<•• '" lirassour de Jlourboarg says tlioy toasted nine days; 'Tons onsoiiililr, DOMESTIC IHSCU'LLNK. 08r> Tlie NicamijfUJin liiisUaiuls are saih- hors to he suddenly ealled in to a[)pea8e some unfor tunate mans Xanti IM te. The women of N'ucatan Avert! renowned for their modesty and coni":'.'al faith- ful ness. Land: I, one ot the hrst l)isli(t|)s ol N ucatan relates an aneed(>te illustratinuf this trait. Alonso Lo[)ez de Avila, during' the war ai^'ainst iJacaiar, took prisoner a very lieautiful Indian jrirl. Stiurk hy her heauty the captor endeavored hy all means to iiiduee her to ^ratity his desires, but in vain. She had jtrom- ised her warrior-hushand, who durin;^' those perilous ]irt'tr('H ft parents, fi'stoyaioiit. nI^r^s ccla, |U'nilaiit iiciif jmirs, los |h^ivs itaiil iililiir.'.H, (liiraiit cot inlcrvalU', ili' s'alistfiiir do Icuis t'l'iiiiiK' \'if. (' toiii. ii., p. .'vj. Ilt> a|i|i<'ai' to I lavt' III iHiiiitl oInIiiih 1 ('..-. do. ti « limii 111- refers, siiiee that aiitlior's words are, 'aealiaiido la liesla en haii- 'les, V en los iineve dias si-'iiieiites no liaii de lie; ar a mis iiiU''eres his i-r^ ■ — ' r^ f^ - ' , e los iiinos.' Ilisf. )'iii\, |>. lift. 'Alleiide de los ties dias (|n. avia, ('OHIO pop aviiiio, alisieiiido, si; avia de alisteiier iiiieM' mas y lo lia/iaii iiiviolalileiiiente. I.fiiii/n, Ji' /iifimi, \i. I.")!. See further: \'iiilii(, llisl. Ant. MiJ., toni. i.. pp. lSJ-.'{; Ihiciht, Tnitro h'r/fs., toiii. i., p. 'Jti.'i; /.iir/, Xitriis Orhis, )). 'J7-; 7'iiii((ii.i:-C()iiij»ni.i, iu J\'oiitrlli:s AiihiiIis t/rs lOi/., \Si'.i, toni. xcvii., pp. -14 ."). Ti .1 lii/iiijoifft, ill Xttmnrfi', Ciif. dc Viajvs, toni. iii., ]i. Ill; Ihrirni, Jfi.if. O'lii., dec. iii., lil>. iv.. eap. vii., lih. v., eap. xii. ; (h/n/n, llisl. d'ni., toni. iv., ]»p. ;{'.t, (!1, lt);{; Miil/c-Ilniii, I'ri'ri.s' t/r In Ocni/.. loin, vi., ii. 47- liiDiKini, lli.tf, Jin/., foi. '2ii'.l in (iiiateiiiala ' il est iia II t'si a leinaniner lei oi le feinnies diiiis le disooiirs. 1 <|iiaiid il saijit siiiiiiltaiienient d honinies et i feiiinies out presipie toiijonrs la pivst'ance snr les hoiiiiiies ° •("est pentetiv en iiK-inoire de la mere de llnn-.\li|)n t|ne les feiniiies-eliefs en liien des eon- trees devaieiit lenrs iircroLtalives.' Ihnssriir ilr linurliniiri, I'n/iii/ ]'li/i, pp. !).'{-l. In Viieatan tlie women 'son /.elo.sis y alj,'nnas tanlo ipie poniaii las iiianos a las de <|iiieii tenian /.elos, y tan eolerieas, eiioiad iiiansas, ipie solian dar hnelta dt; pelo al;^'iinas a los iiur '|i liarti 'II as ve/es.' I.miilii, Ji'i/a iilos I'lin lia/ir.o III. I8S, I'.H). The women of \i(alaii IM had, however, th''ir duties to perform. 'Son {.'nindes tra\ a'adoras y \i\i- doras, pori|ne deilas enel^ian los mayores y mas trahajos de la >ii--leiila('ioii de siis easas y educacion de sns liijos, y pa;,'a de sns trilii',tn> y con todoessi* si OS inenester llevan al;;iiiias vezes mayor car^fa, lahrando y .semhiando .-.iih iiiantenimientos. Son a iiiaravilla };ran^reras, velaiido de nnihe el ralot|iie di' servir .sns easas les i|tieda, yendo a los iiiereados a eomprar y xeiuier sus cosillas.'. . . .The women joined and aided oiiiMinotiier in the work, as weav- ini,', etc. 'Klles avaieiit leiirs saillies et lenrs lions mots pmii' liiillei et eonter des aveiitiires et par iiioiiient aiissi pour iiiuniiiirer de lenrs maris.' JU., It. VM. €86 THE MAYA NATIONS. times was constantly face to face with death, that none hut he shouM ever call her wife; how then, while perhaps he yet lived, could she heconie anoth- er's mistress. But such arguments did not ration ap|)i"oachcainst escape each was accom])anied by a guard of throe or four men. Tluy were at liberty to enter any house, whether it was that of tlie supreme lord or of the poorest man, nnd wherever they applied for food or drink it was given thom. The same liberty was accorded to the guard. When the day of sacrifice arrived, the liigh-jtriist attired himself in his finest vestments. These cju- I 'Los luiivcrsalos sacrifii'ios so ofrcciun nnlinariiinioiitc <'iiaTi(lo vpni;iii liiH liestas, la« I'tialt's lialiia en iiiia.s iirovinoias ciiico, y on ntian st is, o m; ofrcciaii ]nn- nocosidail iiarticular. por uni) ilc t'stos dos ri'si)t'clos.' Xiiintnr., Hint. Iitil. Guuf., i». »77; Lus Cunds, Hint. Ajivloijclha, MS., cap. clxxix. SACUIFIC'IAL FI':STIVALS. C8l) s'lstod of c'ortairi cloaks, witli crowiiH of jfolil, silver, or other metal, atlornetl with precious stuius. 'J'he idols were i)lace(l upon a frame ornamented with u'old, silver, and jj^ems, and decked with roses and other llowers. The slaves were then hrou^ht in processio)! to the temple yard amid sonufs, nuisic, and danciui^; and the idols were set upon altars, hefore which were the sacrificial stones. As the hour of sacrifice drew near, the supreme lord, and })rincipal men with him, repaired to the room where the slaves were waitinLf; eacli tlien seized his slave by the hair and cairied him hefore the jjfod, cryinjj with a loud voice: () (lod our Lord, remember thy servants, ifnmi them health, off- spring, and prosperity, so that they may increase and serve thee. Give us rain, Lord, .and seasonable weather to sui)port us, that we may live, hearken to our prayers, aid us aii^ainst our enemies, jj^ive us com- fort and rest. On reachinj.^ the altar the sacrificing^ ]»riest stood ready, and the lord placed the victim in his hands. He then, with his ministers, opened the breast with the sacrificial knife, tore out the heart and offered it to the idol, at the same time aiiointini^ it M'ith the blood. Each idol had its holy tai>le; the Sun, the Moon, the East, the West, the North, and the South had each one. The heads of the sacriliceil were ytut on stakes. The flesh was seasoned, cooked, and partaken of as a holy thino;'. The hi^h-priest and supreme lord were j^iven the hands and feet, as the most delicate morsels, and the body was distrib- uted among' the other priests. All through tlu; jiigabau a la Vol. II. 44 coo THE MAYA NATIONS. Concerning the religious feasts and observances of the Yucatecs, Landa is the best and most coniplett' authority, and I will therefore take from his work such scattered notices as he gives. In the month of Chen they worked in fear and trembling, making new idols. And when these wore finished, those for whom they were made gave pres- ents of the best they had to those who had modeled and carved them. The idols were then carried from the building in which they had been made to a cabin made of leaves, where the priest blessed them witli much solemnity and many fervent prayers, the artists having previously cleansed themselves from the j>rease with which they had been besmeared, as a sign of fasting, during the entire time that they remained at work. Having then driven out the evil spirit, and burned the sacred incense, the newly made images were placed in a basket, enveloped in a linen dotli, and delivered to their owners, who received them with every mark of respect and devotion. The priest then addressed the idol-makers for a few moments on the excellence and importance of their profession, and on the danger they would incur by neglecting tlie rules of abstinence while doing such sacred work. Finally, all partook of an abundant repast, and made amends for their long fast by indulging freely in wine. In one of the two months called Chen ^nd Yax, on a day determined by the priest, they celebrated a feast called ocna, which means the renovation of the tem- ple in honor of tho Chacs. whom they regarded as the gods of the fields. During this? festival, they con- sulted the oracle of the Bacabs.' This feast was cel- ebrated every year. Besides this, the idols of baked clay and the braziers were renewed at this season, because it was customary for each idol to have its own little brazier, in which incense was burned before it ; polota delantc de sns dioses.' Ximenez, Hist. Ind. Gttat., p. 187; Las Casn-i, Hist. Anologdtica, MS., can. clxxvii. 3 The nmnner in which this was done will be described el»?wherc in this chapter. FESTIVALS OF ZAC AND MAC. 691 and, if it v/as necessary, they built the god a new dwelling, or renovated the old one, taking care to [)lace on the walls an inscription commemorating these things, in the characters peculiar to them. In the month of Zac, on a day ap}X)inted by the priest, the hunters held a feast similar to that which, as we shall presently see, took place in the month of Zip. This was for the purpose of averting the anger of the gods from them and the seed they had sown, because of the blood which had been shed in the chase; for they regarded as abominable all spilling of blood, ex- cept in sacrifice.* They never went out to hunt with- out first invoking their gods and burning incense be- fore them; and on their return from a successful hunt they always anointed the grim visages of the idols with the blood of the game. (Jn another day o^ this month a great feast was held, which lasted for three days, attended with incense-burning, sacrifices, and general orgies. But as this was a movable feast, the j)riests took care to give notice of it in advance, in order that all might observe a becoming fast. During the month of Mac, the old people celebrated a feast in honor of the Chacs, gods of the cornfields, and of another deity named Yzamna. Some days before this the following ceremony, called in their lan- guage timpkak,^ was observed. Having brought together all the reptiles and beasts of the field that could be procured in the country, they assembled with them in the court of the temple, in the corners of which were the chacs and the priests, to drive away the evil spirit, each having by his side a jug filled with water. Standing on tni, in the centre, was an enormous bundle of dry and fine wood, which was set on fire after some incense had been burned. As the ♦ 'Ce qui, d'accord avcc divers anlres indices, annoncerait Wen rjne I'cf- fiision dii sang, et surtout dii sang lumiain, dans les sacrifices, etait d'uri- {?inc »5trangere, nahiiatl proltablenicut.' Brasseur de Bvurhounj, in Laiufti, Jielacion, p. 247. * Meaning 'niicnching of fire.' BrasitrHr de Bonrboiirg, in Landa, Br- lacion, p. 254. Vzamua la otberwiiie called Zaiuu4. 692 THE MAYA NATIONS. wood burned, t)ie assembled crowd vied with cacli other in tearing out the hearts of the victims tlu y liad brought with them and casting them into tin; jflames. If it had been impossible to procure siuli large game as jaguars, pumas, or alligators, tiny ty])ified the hearts of these animals by incense, wliicli they threw into the fire; but if they had them, tiny were immolated like the rest. As soon as all tlio hearts were consumed, the chacs" put out tlio tiie with the water contained in their pitchers. The ol) ject of this feast and of that which followed Mas to obtain an abundance of water for their cornfields tlin'- ing the year. Tliis feast was celebrated in a ditKertiit manner from others, liecause no one fasted before it, with the excejition of the beadle (munidor) of tliu oc- casion. On the day of tlie feast called tuj)pkak, tlu; people .and the priests met once more in the coiiit- yard of the temple, where was erected a platlonii of stone, with steps leading u[) to it, the whole tastrl'iilly decorated with foliage. The priest gave some inceiiso to the beadle, who burned in a brazier enough to exorcise the evil spirit. This done, the first step of the platform was with great solemnity smeared witli mud taken from a well or cistern; the other steps Avere stained a blue color. As usual, they eiulrd these ceremonies by eating and drinking and making merry, full of confidence in the eflficacy of their rites and ceremonies for this year. In tlui month of Muan the cacao -planters held a festival in honor of the gods Ekchuah, Chac, and Hobnil, who were their patron deities.' To solciiinize it, they all went to the plantation of one of their number, where they sacrificed a dog having a spot (»ii its skin of the color of cacao. They burned incense * Tliis word rhnr/!, wliii'li hcfore was interpreted as t'- ■. 'gods of tin- cornlields," iirubably liere meaiiH the jtrioHts of those deitie.;.. lii a foiiiui- chajiler we nave seen the word applied to those who asiiisted ut the rite nf Lui)ti.siii. 7 ' Eh-hunh , ecrit ailleuri^ Eclnin/i, ('•tait lo jiatron des niarchands rt ii:i- turolleinent des cacatvH, niarrliaiidise et nionnaie a hi foi«.' lirasscurdc limir- hounj, ill LiiHiia, liduciuii, p. lIOl. WAR-FEAST IN THE MONTH OF PAX. 6i>o to tlicir idols, and made ofForinii^s of blue ii^uaiias, feathers of a particular kind of l)i)d, and ijaine. After this they gave to each of the officials" a hrancli of the cacao-plant. The sacrifice being ended, they all sat down to a repast, at which, it is said, no one was allowed to drink more than three glasses of wine. All then went into the house of him who had given tlie feast, and passed the time pleasantly together. In the month of Pax, a feast was held, called Pacumchac, which was celebrated by the nobles and ])riests of the villages, together with those of the great towns. Having assembled, they })assed five nights in the temple of Cit Chac Coh," ])raying and ()fferin*jf incense. At the beijinninK; indulged were pitiful to see; cuts, bruises, and eyes inflamed with drink were plentiful amongst them; to gratify their passion for drink they cast themselves away. THE MAYA NEW YEAR'S DAY. 695 During the last five days of the month of Cunihu, which were the last days of the year, the people sel- dom went out of their houses, except to place offer- ing's in the temples, with which the priests bought incense to be burned in honor of the gods. They neither combed their hair nor washed themselves dur- ing these five days; neither men nor women cleansed themselves; they did no work of any kind lest some misfortune should befall them. The first day of the month of Pop, the Maya New Year's Day, was a season of rejoicing, in which all the nation took part. To give more importance to the event, they renewed at this time all the articles which they used, such as plates, cups, baskets, clothes, and the dresses of the idols ; they swept their houses and cast everything into the place where they put tlieir rubbish; and no one dared to touch what was cast away, even though greatly in need of it. To prej)are for this feast, princes, priests, and nobles, and all who wished to show their devotion, fasted and abstained from their wives for 'a longer or shorter period, some for three months preceding it, some for two, accord- ing to their ideas of propriety, but none for less than thirteen days. During this season of abstinence, they ate their meat unseasoned, which was considered severe discii)line. At this time, also, they elected the officers who were to assist the priest at the ceremony. The priest prepared a number of little balls of fresh incense on small boards made for the purpose, ft)r those who fasted to burn before the idols. Great caie was taken not to l)rcak the fast after it had been once commenced; for if this were done it was thought that misfortune must inevitably ensue. New Year's Day having arrived, all the men assem- bled in the courtyaid of the te!nj)lo. Women could assist at no feast wliicli was celebrated within tlie temple, e.\ce})t those who went to take part in par- ticular dances; on otlier occasions, however, the women were allowed to b j i)resent. On the day in 69G THE MAYA NATIONS. question the men came alone, adorned with paint, and cleansed from the grease with Avhich they had bctii bedaubed during tiie days of penance. When all were assembled, with offerings of food and newlv fermented wine, the priest purified the temj)le mikI seated himself in the centre of the court, clothed in his robes of office, and having by his side a brazioi- and the balls of incense before mentioned. After tlio evil s})irit had been expelled, all present offeretl up l)rayers, while the assistants kindled the new tire for the year. The priest now cast one of the balls of incense into the brazier, and then distributed tlio remainder among the assembled worshipers. Tlio nobles came first in the order of their rank, iuid as each received a ball fi' m the i)riest, who gave it with great solemnity, he dropped it gently into the brazier and stood still until it was consumed. The inevitable bancpiet and orgies terminated the ceremonies. This was the manner in which they celebrated the birth of the new year. During the month, st)nie of the most devout among them repeated the feast in their own homes, and this was j)articularly done by the nobles and pi-iests, who were ever foremost in religious ol)- servances. During the month of Uo the priests and sorcerers began to prepare for a festival called pocain, which Avas solemnized by the hunters and fishers on the sev- enth day of the next month, which was Zip. Having assembled, clothed in their ornaments, at the house of the prince, they exi)elled the evil sj)irit, and then uncovered their books and ex|)osed them upon a carpet of green leaves and branches, which lui'! been j)re[)ared for this purpose. They next invoked with reverence a deity named Cinchau Yzanma, who had been, they said, the first priest. ^° To him they offered '" ' Cinchnu-Yznmuu est uiie ortliojjmplie errone, si Ton oil iiij^e iipivs locoMs i)rct'eileiite.s; c'cst iirolialtloniuiit uiio iiijiuviuse uliivviatioii di' 10 Ics logons prOceileiites; c'cst p Kitui'.h-Ahni-Ylr.dinnn, i\o\\\w, (raillcurs, coiniiio I'iiivciitciir ilos letlrcs ft cle reiTiturc, raiiteiir de tons les iioiiis imposes uii Yucatan.' ]intssinr in Bonrliuiirij, in Luiidti, liclacioii, i)ii. '2S4-5. FESTIVITIES IN YUCATAN. G97 various gifts, and burned balls of incense in liis honor. In the meantime others took a vessel and a little verdii^ris with some pure water, which had to be i)ro- cured from a wood into whose recesses no woman had ever penetrated. They now cleaned the leaves of their books by moisten i no- them; this done, tlie wisest amono" tliem opened a volume and examined the pros- pects of the coming year, which he declared aloud to all i)resent. He concluded with a brief discourse, in which he advised them how to avoid coming evils. Jollity now reigned and the wine flowed freely — a consummation which many of the old priest's luarers liad doubtless been long looking forward to inipa- tiently. The solemnities on this occasion weie varied at times by performing a dance called okot nil. On the following day the doctors and sorcerers with their wives came together in the house of one of tlicir Dumber. The priests, having driven away the evil spirit, brought to view their medicine-bags, in which they kept a number of charms, some little images of Ixciiel, goddess of medicine, from whom the feast was named ihc'd ixchel, and some small stones called um, wJiich they used in their sorceries. 'J'hen with great devotion the doctors and sorcerers invoke. dcs ivaiix d'ar^'ent et des cuzras, (jui sont leurs enieraudcs, et d'autres ]iiiMn'H precieust ■(, en certain endroits, au kit et oratoires qui se voient encore iImiis les Itras de nier (estuaires) et les lagunes salees qu il y a sur eetfe eote vcri le llio <(g Ldi/drfo.i.'"' (Hist. Yiir., lib. iv., cup. iv.); lirusneiir dc limu'- bounj, in Luiula, Jichicion, pp. 2'J2-3. Fi"AST or Till-: APIAUISTS. 65)9 In the month of Tzoz, the apiarists prepared for a feast which was to take phice in the next month, called Tzec, by a fast, wliich was, however, optiinial with all except the priests who were to officiate, and their assistants. The da}' of celebration havin^' ar- rived, the participants came together in the house of liini who gave the 'east, and performed nearly tlio same ceremonies as the hunters and tishermen, except that they drew no blood from their bodies. The aj)- iarists had for their patron deities the Bacabs, and particularly H(A)nil. They made many i)roi)itiatory offerings at this time, especially to the four gods of abundance, to whom they presented four dishes adorned with Hgures of honey. The usual drunken bout was not omitted. After the mysterious departure of Cukulcan," the ]\[aya Quetzalcoatl, from Yucatan, the people, con- vinced that he had gone to the abode of tiie gods, deified him, and built temples and instituted feasts in his honor. These latter were scrupulously ob- served throughout the entire country u[) to the time of the destruction of IVIayajian; but after that event they were neglected by all the j)rovinces but that of Maui.''' In remembrance, however, of the respect shown of old to Cukulcan, these provinces sunt annu- ally, by turn, to Mani four or five magnificent feather banners, which were used in the ceremonies tliere. On the sixteenth day ui' the month of Xul, all the nobles and priests of Mani, being i)repared by fast •2 ' Ciiriilrnii, ocrit quclqiu'fois /\'/(/i«/f«H. viciit do /r/'/.', oi.scaii ,'iins etait t(ilti^(iiu> on naliiiatl ; Ivs feti-s do Kukiilcuii so Itoriiaiit ii ootto proviiu'o apres la liostriiotioii do Mayapaii, no laissi'iit imiiit do dinito s;ir l'i)ri,i{iiie do oo iiors(iiiiia;,'o, ot (loiiiioiit lion do poiisor (|Uo \v. rosto du ^'ll(■ata^, tout on voiiorant jawpfa iin cortain jioint eo mytho o." o(> pro- jiiioto, avait jjanlo an fond la rolij,'ion (jni avuit jn'ocodo ocilo dos 'I'ldtocpios. Co sorait viii jioint (riiistoiro d'nno le, otltrcd ]>rayers, and .iil'oing into the courtyard spread out their idols upon ^reen leaves and branches; then tiny burned incense in many places, and made ofi'erin^s of meat cooked without pepper or salt, bean-soup, and calabashes. After this, those who had observed the fast did not ersonally the ufifts which were pre- sented to him. This festival was called chic /.(than. DuriuLif the month of Yaxkin it was the custom to prepare for a general festival, called ololr.Kh/i((iiii/th(as lire la descriptidu do ceUe ffitedes Seythes, rappor- h'-e |)ar Henidole, et <]iio M. V'ioliet-Leduc a in.sereo dans ses An/i'/iiifcs iiir.n'riti 111:1, forniant rintroduetion de l'()Hvra;,'e do M. Desire ("liarnay: I'i/rsff Hiiiiifi (iiiK'riraiiicn, page 10?' liranseur ilc Buurboitnj, in Luiula, Jiildcion, pp. '23--3. 702 THE MAYA NATIONS. Jihout it, aiul pasHcd barefooted over the coals, soiip' witliout injury, aiul some witli; this they believed would avert misfortune and ai)i»ease the anger of the {^odfs. It was customary in all the towns of Yucatan to erect at the limits of each of the four quarters, oast, west, north, and south, two heaps of stones, facini,^ each other, and intended to he used durin«( the cele- hration of two solemn festivals, which Avere as fol- lows. In the vear of which the dominical letter was kail, the sij^n was Jtohinl, and, accordinj? to the Yiica- tecs, these both ruled in the south. They made this year, of baked earth, an idol which they called Kami Uayeyab, and having made it they carried it out t(» the heaps of stones which lay towards the south. They then selected a principal man of the place, and in his house they celebrated the feast. For this ptn- ])ose they made another image of the god UoImu Zacab," and })laced it in the chc^en house, in a })roiii- inent place, so that all who arrived might see it. This done, the nobles, priests, and people came to- gether, and set out by a road swe])t clean, ornamented with arches, and strewed with foliage, to the southi in heaps of stones, where they gathered about the idid Kanu Uayeyab. The priest then incensed the god with forty-nine grains of maize, ground up and mixed with copal; the nobles next piaffed incense in tin; brazier, and burned it before the idol. The incense burned by the priest was called zacdh, that used by the nobles, chahalte. When these rites were coni- l»leted the head of a fowl was cut off and oflet d t the idol, which was now placed on a lii t ailed htiite,^^ and upon its shoulders were plac ler little images, as signs of abundance of watei d a "ood '6 Lnnda, Relarion, pp. 2.10-2. " 'Boloii est I'mljectif luinieral nonf, zarnh, clout la raiiiip >t :■"', hlanc, est le nom d'uue sorte de iiiaia iiioiilii, dcnit on fait niic i's|ic(t' d ot- ;{i'at. Cette statue dtait-elle iiiie iiiia<;e aUogoiiijiie
  • pt)site the id<»l whicii they found there, and made many otterinn's of food and drink, which were aftei'wartls divided amonij^ the stranjji'eis who were present, the officiittinuf prii-st receivintif only the le<; of a deer. Some of the devotees drew Mood from their bodies, scarified tlieir ears, and anointed with the blood a stone idol named Kanal Acantun. They modeled a heart of dough of maize and of calabash-seeds, and offered it to the idol Kanu Ua- yeyab. And in this maimer they honored both the idols durin*'' the entire time of the feast, burning'' l)ofore them incense of copal and ground maize, for tliey held it certain that misfortune would overwhelm them if they neglected these rites. Finally, the statue of Bolon Zacab was carried to the tenifde, and the other image to the western entrance of the town, where it remained until the next celebration of the feast. The ceremonies of the new year, under the sign of muhw, were very similar to those just described, though held in honor of other deities. A dance pei'- formed u{)on a higli scatiblding, attended with sac- rifices of turkeys; anotiier executed by tiie old people, liolding little baked-clav images of dogs in th«'ir hands; and the sacrifice of a peculiarly marked dog, we»'e, however, additional features. The same mav be said of the new year under the sign of yx, and of the new year under the sign of cauac, when the rites V .ieh were performed were sufficiently like those which have gone before to need no further description.'* » Landa, Relaciun, in>. 210-32. !i:li 704 THE MAYA NATIONS. The gods r.i the Yucatecs required far fewer lui- man lives at the hands of their worshipers than thuso of the Naliuas. The pages of Yucatec history aio not marred by the constant blood-blots that obsciuu the Nahua record. An jvent which in Mexico would be the death-signal to a hecatomb of human victims, would in Yucatan be celebrated by the death of a spotted dog. The office of sacrificer which in ^lexico was one of the highest honors to which a priest ccnild attain, was in Yucatan regarded as unclean and de- grading,-'' Nevertheless, the Yucatec religion was not free from human sacrifice, and although captives tnkvn in war were used for this purpose, yet it is said that such was their devotion, that should a victim be want- ing they would dedicate their children to the altar rather than let the gods be deprived of their due.'"^ But it seldom happened that more than one victim was sacrificed at a time, at least in earlier days, and even then he was not butchered as by the Naluias, but was shot through the heart with arrows before being laid u[)on the sacrificial stone.'^ At Chichen Itza human sacrifices were made in a peculiar manner. In the centre of the city was an immense pit, containing water, and surrounded on all sides by a dense grove, which served to render the spot silent and solitary, in spite of its position. A circular staircase, rudely cut in tlie rock, descended to the edge of tlie water from the foot of an altar which stood upon the very brink of the pit.^ At first, only *" 'Lii rliiir;j;(> do Xacnn (5t!iit <1oh1>1o: I'lin iUxXi perpL'tnol <-\ \w\\ lionor.i- lile, iiari'iM|ii(' (•'otait liii niii (nivrait la i'Mitriiieaiix victiiui's limiiaiiiL's ((u'cm Kiicriliait. ' L'tm/n, Ri'luriim., p. Kil. ' lil oliciti ili! uhiif el peciio a los sa- cril'u 'ulds, (jiu? eii ^[^!xicl» era ostiniado, vn\vii em poco houroso.' Jlcrrcru, Hift. Gen., dei'. iv., lil). x., cap. iv. 21 Ih. 5'2 Liiiiihi, Rrfnrioii,]). 10(5; Ilrrri'rn, ubi sup. 23 Tiie i)rosciit a])|H'araiic(' of the pit is tliiiH descrlbod by Stei)lieiis: 'Sct- tiii<; out from tlic (V sfillo, at soiiu' distance we asrended a wooded elcvat'oii, which seemed an artilicial <'anseway K'adin^' to tlie senote. The senole was tlie larjrest and wildest wc had seen; in the niiilst of a thick fctrest. an ini- iiiense circular hole, with cra;,fj;ed, nerpeiidicular siiles, trees ;;rn\\ in;,' out of tluMU and overhanLciu;.' t!ie i)rink, and still as if the j^enius of (•■Icmr reigned within. A hawk was sailing around it, looking down into tlio SACRIFICES AT CHICHEN ITZA. 706 animals and incense were offered here, as the teach- ings ot* Cukulcan forbade the sacrifice of human vic- tims, but after the departure of the great ]M!;ya apostle the Yucatecs returned to the evil of their ways," and the pit of Chichen was once more polluted with human bodies. At first one victim sufficed, but the number gradually increased, until, during the later years? «f Mnya independence, hundreds Mere inimo lated at -i time. If some cah mity threatened tlie country, if the crops failed or the requisite supply of rain was wanting, the people hastened to the jtit of horror, to offer prayers and to a])pease the wrath of the gods with gifts of human life. On the day of sacrifice, the victims, who were generally young vir- gins, were taken to the temple, clothed in the gar- ments appropriate to the occasion, and conducted thence to the sacred pit, accompanied by a multitud ) of priests and priestesses of all ratiks. There, while the incense burned on the altar and in the braziers, the officiating priest explained to them the things for whicli they were to implore the gods into whose presence they were al)out to be introduced. A long cord was then fastened round the body of each victim, and the moment tlie smoke ceased to rise from the altar, all were hurled into the gulf The crowd, which liad gathered from every part of the country to see tlie sacrifice, immediately drew back from tlie brink of the pit and continued to }>ray without cessation for some time. The bodies were tiien drawn up and buried in the neighboring grove. 26 water, luit without miro fl,ip]iiii;!; its wiiiifM. Tlio wator was of a prociiisli huo. A mystcTiouti iiithuMice sct'iiicd ti) [Ka-vado it, iu u.iiso!! witli tin; liis- ti>ri('al account that tiio well of ("iiiclii ii was a i)hic(.' of pi'._'riiiiaj.'i', ami that human victims wore thrown into it in sacrilice. In niio ])iari', nn the very hriiiic, were the remains of a stone structure, i)rohahIy coiiiiecieil witii ancient su|terstitioiis rites; luMiiajis the place from which the \i(ti;iis were tlirown iuto the (lark well heneath.' Yiimtitii, vol. ii., \\. .'Vil. '24 We have seen that even the memory of Cukulcan was iiey;liM'.e(l iu all the j)roviiic(>s of Yucatan hut one. *j Itrrii'ii, Jfisf. <{ni., dec. iv., lib. x., cap. i.; Mrdrl, in Xmirrllrn An- vnfi's ifis Viiij., IStS, torn, xcvii., p. 43; Jira.inciir ilc JJourOoiiiy, Ilt.-il. ^,'at, Vh\, torn, ii., p]). 4 1-5. Vol. II. 46 •03 THK MAYA NATIONS. The Pipiles had two idols, one in the fij^ure of ;\ man, called Quetzaleoatl, the other in the shape of ;i woman, called Itzqueye. Certain days of their cal- endar were specially set apart for each of the deities, and on these the sacrifices were made. Two very sol- emn sacrifices were held in each year, one at the com- mencement of summer, the other at the beLicinninjjf of winter. At these, Herrera says, only the lords were present.'^® The sacrifice was made in the interior of the temple, and the victims were boys between the ai^es of six and twelve years, bastards, born anioiin- themselves. For a day and a night previous to the sacrifice, drums and trumpets were sounded and on the day following the people assembled. Four priests then came out from the temple, each bearing a small brazier with burning incense; together they turned in the direction of the sun, and kneeling down ofl^ered uj> incense and prayers; they then did the same towaid the four cardinal points.'-'' Their prayers finished, tliey retired within four small chapels built at the four coi- ners of the temple, and there rested. They next went to the house of the high-priest, and took theiu-e the boy who was to be sacrificed antl conducted him four times ro;ind the court of the te?n[)le, dancing and singing. When this ceremony was finished, the high-priest came out of his house, with the diviner and guardian of the sanctuary, and ascended the steps of the temple, with tiie caci(pie and principal men, who, however, remained at the door of the sanctuary. The four priests now seized the boy by the arms an ol nol, i sc liiiu'uvaii ilc r tdillus aiitc ol, i lo ziiiiiniivaii dicioiido palahraM 6 iiivooacioiios, i ostofoilm so di vidian liaeia (luaf .o ]>aitos, lo^t, oe»t, iiorte, Hur, i predicavuii «ub rictus i ccrcaiouiui*.' I'ulacio, Carta, p. 08. PIPILE FEAST OF VICTOUY. 707 the blood of the victim in four jicaras, or bowls, nuulo iVoiri the shell of a certain fruit, and dt'scendinu;' one after the other to the courtyard, sprinkled the blood with their right hands in the direction of the cardi- nal points. If any blood remained over they returned it to the high-priest, who placed it with the \nu'f>o containing the heart in the body of the victim througl) the wound that had been made, and the body was iMterred in the temple. This was the ceremony of sai'ritice at the beijfinninof of each of the two sea- sons. When information was received from their war chief that he had gained a victory, the diviner ascer- tained to which of the trods sacriKce was to be made. If to Quetzalcoatl, the ceremony lasted Hfteen days; if to Itzqueye, five days; and upon each day they sac- rificed a prisoner. These sacrifices' were made as fol- lows: All those who had been in the battle returned home in procession, singing and dancing, bringing with them the captives who were to l)e sacrificed, their wrists and ankles decorated with featliers and (ihalchiuites, and their necks with strings of cacao- nibs. The high-priests and other ministers went out at the head of the po[)ulace to meet them witli nuisit; atid dancing, and the caci<|ues and captains delivered over those who were to be sacrificed to thehigh-})riest. Then they all went together to the courtyard of their fcupa, or temple, where they continued dancing day and night during the time the sacrifices lasted. In the middle of the court was a stone l)ench on whicli the victim was stretdied, four })riests holding him by the feet and hands. The sacrificing priest then cauK; forward, adorned with many feathers and loaded with little bells, holding in his hand a fiint knife, witli which he opened the breast of the victim, tore out the heart, brandishetl it toward the cardinal points, and finally threw it into the air with sulHcient for< to cause it to fall directly in the middle of the court, saying: "lieceive, Oh God, this thank-offering for the (! 708 THE MAYA NATIONS. victory. "^^ This sacrifice was public and belield hy all the people. The men drew blood from tlieir })ri- vate parts, and the women from their ears, tonmiu, and other parts of the body; as the blood flowed it was taken up with cotton and offered by the men to Qiietzalcoatl, by the women to Itzqueye. When the Pipiles were about to undertake a:iv huntiui^ or fishing expedition, they first made an olKr- ing to their gods. For this purpose they took a liv- ing deer,^' and leading it to the temple yard, thcN- there strangled and afterwards flayed it, saving the blood in a vessel. The liver, lungs, and stomai !i were chopped in small pieces, which were aftorwiiids laid aside with the heart, head, and feet. The iv- mainder of the deer was cooked by itself, and the bloml likewise, and while this was beuig done the people danced. The higlf-priest with his assistant next took the head by the ears, and eacli of the four priests one of the feet, while the guardian of the sanctuary put the heart into a brazier and burnt it with co[)al and uUi to the god who was the protector of hunting After the dance, the head and feet were scorched in the fire before the idol and given to the high-priost to be eaten. The flesh and blood were eaten by the other ministers of the temple before the idol, and the same was done with other animals sacrificed. The entrails of fish were burned before tlie idol.** Among the civilized nations of Nicaragua, it would appear tnere were eightoon distinct festivals, cone spending with the eighteen months in their calendar. '^ ^^ ' Yuii el sacristan v sacaiialo con la nauaja ol cnra?on, y arrojaiialc ;il dlo.s, o a la dlusa, y dezia, Tonia el fruto desta vitoria.' llcrrcm, Hist. Grit., dec. iv., lib. viii., ea}). .\. 2" IJrassetir de Boiirlioiirjj says: 'ccrf blaiic' Hist. Nat. Cir., toni. ii., p. r).-)7. 3" TiO saerifice dii ccrf blaue, d'ahnrd un dos plus au^rustcs, dcvint, phis tard, rollVande comiuune ct extdmive des (diasseiirsipn (li'.siraicnt )]). 47, 52. 32 * For there are two kiiides of hiiniane sacrilices with them: tlie one, of enemies taken in tlie warri-s, tin; other of siii'li as are bronylit vp and main- tained at home.' I'ctcr .fftirti/r, dee. vi., iili. vi. ■■I'' 'And whoHoener should hane no i)arte nor nortion of the .sacriliced eneniie, would tliinke he siioulde hee ill accepted tliat yeere.' //*. 3' 'Imutv Kin;^ nourishetli Ids appointed trees in a lielih' neere vnto him, ohseruin.i,' tlte names of enery hostile country, where they han^'e tin,' heads of their sacrificed enemies taken in the warres.' f/i. •'■'' llerrera j^ives a similar accimnt of the disposal of the hody, hut adds; 'Saluo (jne ponian la calicca cii I >s arholcs.' ifi.sf. (leu., dec. iii., lili. iv., cap. vii. I think it iniproiialile diat flie heads were Ireateil in \\w same manner as those of their enemies. I'eter Martyr says nothing!; distinctly of the disposal of the head, hut, speakin;^ of the sacrilice, says 'they rener- ence all parts tliereof, and partly hnry them heefore tlie (lores of their tem- ]iles, as the feete, handes, and howels, wliicli they cast tojfcther into a j'.inrde. the rest (lon'cllu-r with the hartes, nnikin;,' a j^reat lire within the vii'w of tho.se hostile trees, with shril hyms, and applauses of the Friestes) tlicy hiirne ainon^r the ashes of thefornu'r .sacrilices, neuer thence remooued, 1,. in;^' in that fiehlc.' Dee. vi., lib. vi. 710 THE MAYA NATIONS. When they ate the flesh of foreigners sacrificed, tlioy lield exciting dances, and passed the days in drunkoii revels and smoking, but had no sexual intercouisc with tlieir wives while the festival lasted.'*' At cer- tain feasts they offered blood drawn from tlioir own bodies, with which they rubbed the beard and lips ot' the idol. The priests wore white cotton cloaks, some slioit, and small, others hung from the shoulders to the heels, with bands having bags attached, in which they car- ried sharp stone knives, papers, ground charcoal, fuid certain herbs. The lay brothers bore in their huiuls little flags with the idol they held most in veneration painted thereon, and small purses containing powder and awls; the youths had bows and arrows, darts and shields. The idol, in form and appearance very fright- ful, was set upon a spear and carried by the cidiist priest. The ascetics marched in file, singing, to the j)lace of worship. They spread mantles and strewed roses and flowers, that the standards might not touch the ground. The procession halted ; the singing ceased ; they fell to prayer. The prelate clap])ed his haiid; some drew blood from the tongue, others from the ears, from the privy member, or from whatever ]);ut their devotion led them. They took the blood on paper or on their fingers and smeared the idol's face. In the meantime the youths danced, leaped about, and shook tlieir weapons. Those wlio had gashed them- selves, cured their wounds by an application of i)ow- dered charcoal and herbs that they carried for tlie l)urpose. In these observances they spriidvled maize with the blood from their i)rivy parts, and it was dis- tributed and eaten as blessed bread.^ ^ 'Ell aquellas fiestas no trabaxamos ni entendemos en mila do oinlmr- racliarii«)s; i»cro no dorininios con niiestras nmjjores, e aquellos dius, iinr qiiitar la ociision, dueriiien cllas dentro en easa o nosotros fueni del la: o al '''ra, Hist. Gt'ii., dec. iii., lil). iv., cap. vii.; Pclcr Martyr, dec. vi., lib. vi., vii., tsiittci , iu rulucio, Carta, y. 110. BANQUETS OF THE PEOPLE, 711 Like the Mexicans tlie Mayas had a great predi- lection for entertaining eacli other at banquets, and it is related of them that they often spent on one such occasion a sum that it had taken them many months t(j earn. Seasons of betrothal and marriajje were al- "Nvays eidivened by sumptuous feasts. Whenever any contiact had to be arranged, a feast was ijiven and the act of eating and drinking together in public and be- fore witnesses sufficed to make such contract valid.** The lords and principal men gave feasts to each other, and as it was incumbent upon all the guests to return the compliment, there must have been a continual round of feasting. Cogolludo states tliat meat was eaten at banquets only, and this may in some measure acct)unt for the frequency with wliicli they occurred, and the etiquette that required the invitation to be returned. They observed a certain formality at their enter- tainments, seating themselves either in twos or fours. Each of the guests received a roasted fowl, some bread, and an abundance of cacao. When the meal was finished, presents were distributed to the guests, each being presented with a mantle, a small stool, and a handsome cup. Beautiful women acted as cup- bearers, and when one of these presented a cup of wine to a guest, she turned her back to him while he drank. The feast lasted until all were intoxi- cated, and then the wives led their drunken husbands home. When a marriage banquet, or one in com- memoration of the deeds of their ancestors, was given, no return invitation was exj)octed.''" Their entertjiin- ments were usually enlivened by a com})any of dancers and musicians, who performed dramatic representa- tions under the leadersliip of one who was called hoi pop, or master of the ceremonies; he gave instruc- 3"* 'En las vciitas, y contratoa, no aula csciitos que oltlij;;as.soii, iii cartas •111 i>ai>aj;o, que Hatisfaciesscii; pero qiiodalia el coiitrato valido con <|uc luiUiesscii puftlicaiiioiite ilelaiite do tostigos.' Cutjuiliiilo, Hist. Yuv., jip. 1S(»-I. 3» Lamia, Jiclacioii, pp. 122-4. 712 THE MAYA NATIONS. tions to the cactors, directed the sintjers and musicians, and from him all had to take their cue. Tlie actors were called halzam, a name corresponding to jester or mimic. As women were not permitted to take i)art in tlie mummeries, their places were supplied l)y men. Their movements durinjj the plav were yfrave and monotonous, yet they were clever in .mimicry and caricature, which they frequently made use of as a means of re[)rovin<»; their chief men.*" The plays were qenerally of a historical character, havino- for their subject the great deeds of their ancestors; tluir songs consisted of ballads founded upon local tradi- tions and legendary tales.*' A favorite dance of the Mayas was one called co- lomche; a large number of men took part in it, some- times as many as eight hundred. Tliese fornutl a ring, and were accompanied during their movements by a number of musicians. When the dancing began, two of tlie actors, ..^ill keeping step with tlie rest, came out from the ring, one holding in his hand a bunch of wands and dancing upright, while tlie otlier cowered down, still dancing. Then he who had the wands threw them with all his force at his companion, who with great dexterity parried them with a short stick. When the two had finished, they returned to their former position in the circle, and two others took their place and went through the same perform- ance, the rest following in their turn. They liad also war dances, in which large numbers joined, the jierforiiiers holding small flags in their hands.*^ Thoy had a variety of musical instruments, prom- inent among which was the tunkul, which was almost <" 'Soil fjniciosog cii los motes, y cliistes, que dizcn i\ siis niayoros, y Inezes: si son ri;^unisos, aaihiciosos, aiiarieiitos, rcpreseiitamlo los succssus (iiie eon ellos les passau, y ami lo (jiie veil h sii Miiiistro Doctrinero, lo Uizeii (lelaiitc del, y i\ vezcs con viia .sola palabra.' CuijoUudo, llisl. i'lir., p. 187. ■" See Carrillo, in Soc. Mcx. Gcog., Bolctin, 2ila dpoea, toin. iii., jip. '2."i0, 2()1; Urassciir de liourboitrtj, Ifisf. Nat. Civ., toiii. ii., pp. (j.')-7; llvrrcKi, Hist, lien., dec. iv., lib. x., eaj>. iv. ; Tcrnaux-Comjmns, m Nuavdlcs An- nalcs dcs Voi/., 1843, toni. xevii., j). 47. *2 Laiida, lidacion, pp. 126, 128. MUSIC AND DANCES. 713 i» tlie same tliinfjf as the teponaztli of the ^foxIcanH.^^ Tliey liatl other druins iiiado of a hollow trunk and covered at one end with deer-skin, tortoise shells that they struck with deer's horns, truniju^ts, — some of ma- rine shells and others of hollow canes with a calabash at the end, — wliistles and flutes made from hone and cane, besides various kinds of rattles." l^anda saA's that in every vdlage there was a large house or rather shed, for it was open on all sides, in which the young- men met for anmsenient.*" Oviedo, who witnessed some dances and games among the Nicaraguans, thus describes one he saw at Tecoatcga after the harvest- ing of the cacao. As many as sixty j)ersons, all men, though a number of them represented women, took j)art in a dance. They were painted of various colors and })atterns, and wore uj)on their heads beautiful tufts of feathers, and about their 2)ersons divers orna- m^ints, while some wore masks like birds' heads. They performed the dance going in couples and keep- ing at a distance of three or four steps between pair and pair. In the centre of a square was a high j)ole of more than sixty feet in height driven firmly into the ground; on the top was seated a gaudily painted idol which they called the god of the cacatjuat, or ca- cao; round the top were fixed four other poles in the form of a sipiare, and rolled upon it was a thick grass rope at the ends of which were bound two boys of seven or eight years of age. One of tluin had in one hand a bow and in the other a bunch of arrows; the other boy carried a beautiful feather fan and a mirror. *' ' EI timltal yiicatcco (laiikitl 6 fiiiikid,)cn el in.stnuiieiito mas iiotalile do la iiiiisit'a yucateca, y on <,'eiieral do la iiiuHica aiiiericana, ; at least as those of any other locality to he considered the birth-place of American civilization. Here apparently Votan and Gucumatz, demi-gods or civihzers, won their first triumphs over the ])owers of barbarism. In the most remote times to which we are carried by vaiifue tradition and mythic fable, y-ods with strangely human attributes, or men of wonder- ful supernatural i)owers, newly arrived in this land, took counsel one with another how they might sub- ject to their power and reclaim from barbarism the native bands of savages, or 'animals,' who roamed (715) 710 Tin: MAVA NATIONS. naked tlir()U,i,''li tlio foivsts, and subsisted on roots and wild IViiits. The discussion of tlie tradition with nt- eronce to its liistoric sij^niticatiou, is foreii,ni to my ])reHent jiurpose, hut as the story inehides the tra(h- tional origin of ajjfriculture and tlie diseovery of I'lai/c under the form of a new creation, it is an a|>iU'oj)riati' introihu'tion to the present chajitcr on tlie food, dress, and eonuneree of the Maya nations. The story runs as follows in the al)ori«^inal Quiche aiuuds:^ Behold how they heij^an to think of man, and to seek what nuist enter into the flesh of man. Then spake he who bei^ets, and he wlu) ".jives beinij, Tej)euli, Gucuniat/, the creator and the former, and said: "Al- ready the dawn is nii^li; the work is finished; behold the sui)i)ort, the foster-father, is ennobled; the son of civilization, man, is honored, and humanity on the face of the earth." They came, and in great nuin- bers they asseml)led; in the shadows of the night they joined their Aviso counsel. Then sought they and consulted in sadness, meditating; and thus the wisdom of these men was manifest; they found and were made to see what must enter into the flesh of man; and the dawn was near. In Paxil, or Cayala ('land of divided and stag- nant waters') as it is called, Avere the ears of yellow »naize and of white. These are the names of the bar- barians who went to seek food; the Fox, the Jackal, the Paro(piet, and the Crow, — four barbarians who made known to them the ears of the white maize and of the yellow, who came to Paxil and guided them thither. There it was they obtained at last the food that was to enter into the flesh of man, of man cre- ated and formed ; this it was that was his blood, that 1 This liistorv, writton with RoTii.nn characters, hi;t in tho Qiiii lit- lan- K'laye, ill tlu! early years of tiie (.'oiKiuest, was quoted by IJrasseiir tU- Jjourhour^' as tiie MS. Qiiirkt'. dc Cln<:lnru.slcn<(>ie and small plants, to which the harbarians had yiiided them. 'Wwn they l)e<.jan to j^rind the yellow and white mai/e, and of them did Xmncane make nine drinks, whitli nour- ishment was the hcLfinnini^ of stren«;th, .i^ivinijf \int»> man tlesh and stature. Such were the deeds of the l»e*;etter and giver of l)ein<»', Tepeuh, (Jucumatz. Thereupon they beijfan to speak of creatini;" our first mother and our first father. <>nly yellow maize antl white maize entered into their flesli, and these alone formed the le<>'s and arms of man; and these weie our first fathers, the four men who were formed, into whose tlesh this food entered. And from this time of its traditional discovery hy Gucumatz, or Quetzalcoatl, down to the concpiest hy the Sj)aniards and even down to the present time, the yellow aiul Avhite maize, in their several \arieties, iiave been the chief reliance of the ^laya as of the Nahua nations for daily food. Every year duriui'' the latter months of the dry season, from IVrarch to May, the farmer busied himself in iircpariniji' his mi/pa, ov cornfield, which he did by simply cutting- or u|irootino' the dense growth and burning it. The usIks thus l)roduced were the only fertilizer ever em})loved, and even this was ])robably never needed in this land of tropical fertility. Just before the first rain fell, e(juipped with a sack of seed-maize on his shoulder and a sharpened stick in his hand, he made ]ioli;s at regular intervals among the ashes, and in each os- ited five or six grains, covering it with the same in- 71S THE MAYA NATIONS. stvamcnt, aided perhaps by tlie foot. lu Yucatan the planters united in bands of twenty for nuitual assistance workin**' toLjether until the land of all tli<: dub Y^as properly seeded. It was not customary to p'.i'it very large fields, but rather many in diffeieiit localities, to guard against a possii>le partial failure of the crops from local causes. Hedges, ditches, and fences were constructed to enclose the milpas, so etfective in the Lacandone country that the 8j)aniar(ls' hor.ses were unable to lea]) them. The corn was care- fully kept free from weetls while gi'owing, and watclud l>y boys after it had begun to ripen. In Nicaragua, where, Oviedo tells us, more attention was paid to agriculture than in any other region visited by him, the l)ovs took tlieir station in trees scattered over the field, or sometimes on raised covered scaffolds of wood and reeds, called harlxicoas, where they kept up a coii- tiniud shouting to drive away the birds. Irrigation was practiced when the rains were backward, and if Ave may credit Oviedo, by thus artificially forcing the crop in Nicaragua, well-tilled corn was plucked only Ibrty days after })lanting the seed. Yillagutiene states that the Itzas spent most of their time in wm- sliij), dancing, and getting drunk, trusting to imculti- vated fruits and the fertility of their soil for a suh sistence, and contenting themselves with very small milpas. After maize, cacao was i)erhaps tlie ci-()p to which most attention was paid. It grew in hot and shady localities, and where there was no natural shade, trees wvvc set out for tile purj)ose. It was callxl ri(C(i;/"(if in Nicaragua, and was gathered from '^Ybruaiv to Apii!. Sevei'al varieties, of a somewha inferior (jua'itv, grew wild, and were much used by the natives. Tiie cultivation of beans, pepper, cottoi , and of numemn- native fruits, was carried on extens.vely, but we have no details respecting the methods employed.'- In 2 Litnilii, ll'ldfidu, |i. l.'{0; Ilraxsnir ilr lidiirliiiunf, in /f their M"o[)S. in Yucatan, Co^-olhido states that Jio meat was eaten while cotton was oTowinLf, from i'cui that it would fail to mature. The Nicara^uaiis, atcovd- iii'jf to Davila, it,te no salt or pep[)er, nt>r did they drink any intoxicatini*' heverage, o" sleep with thcii* women durinj^ the time of plantit'.g. Oviedo als » ohserved certain hundles of sticks ])laced at th ^ corners of each field, as well as leaves, stones, and cotton ra.<]fs, scattered over the surface hy UL;ly and deformed old hai^s, for some uidcnown hut douhtUss su])erstitious purpose. Palacio tells us tluit the Pi{)i- les hefore hei^innin^- to plan I gathered in small howls specimens of all the seed' , which, after ]>erfoi'minL,'" certain rites with them hefore the idol, they huried in the fjcround, and hurned copal and idli over them. Blood was drawn iVeely from ditlereni j)arts of the l>ody, with which to aru)int the idol; and, as Ximene/ states, the hlood of slain fowls was s[)ri!dvled over tlu* lund to 1)0 sown. \\i the case of cacao the finest ^•rains of seed were exjK)sed to the moonlin'iit diirin^' four nights; and whatevt r the seed to he phuited, the tillers (^f the soil 'Mu-t sleej) a])art ff.tm their wi\e-< and concuhines for .r'^'eral davs, in order that on the iiiais." Did:. Itii 'fiiirr, in Tmi'mx-Cninnriiis. T'x/., s.'rii' i., Idin. \'.. (t. .S Tlic [/a<'aiiiliiiics iij iilicil llieiiisclves "ai tralmjo lic hu>' .Milpas. y SiMiipiit'Ta'* ill' Maiz, <'liil(', y Kiixolos, (.Mitit' i|Ue sciiilirav.iu T'T' is, I'latamis, natiita- Xiraiiias, Xai'otcs, Zapott'.-*. y (ida-" Fnil.is;' tlicir iiiilpaH wtTf lar;.'i'. ''i' were cli-arcil witli stoiii' liatcUels. I'il'iiiiutiirrr. Hist. <''ni'i. If:nilla , V (ilras lAj;iinil)ri's,' [1., ,i|) !{.">:?. 4'.>'.t. .Mauv vaiii'ties . '_'S.') '\'i innrlid." d'stos iHr.(- ll'^ I'll la iirovinvia do Niiaiavnia. iiucsfus ii niaiiiM'n las lured, nlo ( |ilat'a-* <> assiciitiis dc los indios, I' pur cUks I'ultivadiis. E son tan •.'laiidc- lirliolcH r.iiiiii) nii;xali's alj,MnoH dellos.' Id., ]>. ',\y^. Plantin;.' uf iiiai/c, // , pp. 'J ').')-!); tcim. iv., ]i]i. 104-.'). See also on au'ricnltniv: li'iizinii, Hi.tl. Mmnlti S'iKii-i), p|). l()'2-.'{; Aii(Ik;joi/. -G'J; Gullalin, hi Aiutr. Ellinv. Svc, Trmm i<:., \ol. i., p. S. ^,ili.dMm ;iO THE MAYA NATIONS. iiiijfht before ]>laiitlii<^ tliey ini^-ht IndulLTe tlieii- ]);i>- sioris U) the 1'iille.st extent; cei'taiu persons tuv. lV(:i .said to liave ])een ap})ointe(l to perforiii the suxiial .nt at the very moment wlien the first seeds wci-c (l> j)i (sited in the i;'round. Before hu^-inning tlie opciii- tion of weedinL*", they burned ineense at tlie four corners of the lield, and utti;red fervent ]irayeis t ( the idols. When the corn was ripe tliey ])hi(kfd tlie finest ears and offered them to the .u'ods, to thf |)ri(jsts, and sometimes also to the poor. At harvest time t!u' corn was heaj)ed up in the field, and was not moved until the grain itself gave the signal that it was ready; the signal was, as Brasseur states it, tlie springing u)) (jf a fresli hlade, oi\ ac<-ording to Xi- nie'iiez, the failing of an ea.i" iVom the iiea}).^ The home oi' the Mavas in noarlv eveiv wart abounded in many varieties iA' game, and the aufhois i-eport the natives tn re'll>|^;s tl ml the Tiitul Xius \vh<;r) they first came ti' snares, tivips, and similar 4ij>'' and eyftlien bulle-fs W'*'** Oil ' ometiines us( d to wiioot taken had to !»< yiven t/) tl A jy<^/rtM/»l <>f aH gani< I'S ( / t/fWn and pr (i\' I'l'ji^'x', and also ,i laKge |. fl k Urird,,, llisl. I % nil I'D Eifi'< . ti'iii. i., j>. 'liiA; hfdmiir t/t: fhinrbuafiji ff/:ii J;v///././y^.,l;i>)U. li., |'| tl le USE OF MEAT AS FOOD. Jll ^r-i US, ill (^riiatoinala — must 1)0 olVcn'd to tlu' Lr<> pi'icsts' ta- bles. Fisli and turtles were tlie cliiet' articles of food ill some coast reijcions, and the \ie;ir;>L;"uaiis arc de- scrihed \)y Oviedo as (■\[)t;rt fishermen, wlio took lish from ocean and river by means of rods, lines, and liii's, also in cotton nets, and l)y pens and eml)anknients in the ^ide waters. They are said to have had a plant, the ^x'll'J'Ki, ii decoction of which hciii',;' |>ut in tho water l)roUL;'ht the Hsh senseless to the sui'facc. Tlio Itzas and prol)al)ly others used the liaipooii. ^'oun^• alli'^atoi's just hatclied were esteemed as dclicaciis in Vera Paz, and lar^»'e lleets of canoes were sent at tlie ]ii'opcr season to take them. The tapir \v;is als(» a favorite ai'ticle of iood. Toads and otlior loptilcs seem to have been eaten when other sup})lies \v. re not at hand.* As an article of daily food, meat was comparatively little used; Cog'olludo even ^'oes so far as to say it was iiiA'er eaten in Yucatan except at leasts, lu'sidcs the name-su])j»ly, dogs of a certain species were raised for fo(*d. They were of small size, without hiii-, could t bark, and when castrated becanu.' imnienselv fat. ihj ThiiV were called .ntlos in Nicarai4"iia, and f-.omrs in Yucatan, but were prol)a,l>ly the same as the h'cJitchi.^ already mentioned in ]\[e\ico. 'i'urkeys, duck-, nvest', and otliijr fowl were domesticated: and pii^s. I'abbits, 4 In III corki ]ir(>\ im-c i)f ( ',nu]ii'i :(' I 111' Sii.'iniiirds were iv ^ •I' rl'a!illilt', ji:iil WiitiT, as I'iiti-yilics, <^;iavK's. 'I'liilli's, Dii I'Ktv <; ami liiiu'ctiiDtt liiicl ira--t(': as h I -"*i"*, iru'ti (1 IF /siilrs Wiiii'i's. l,vi>ii>;, 'I'vii'crs, ami I'uxr: M irliii\ (lor. iv. III). II. uias II iiiciiDs. V^asic, V vciii ■1 V hi liiiitaust' .1 taiiili •a ill li." I. (Ml I, ili)s al I cariic del vcnado a--;aii en iiaiillas, |m)|'i|iic no Mlclll li izril stis |ii' •nil si'iii r, vili ui\ I'll riilu'i iiiiiiu'ii.s y el iiicsiiio lia/rii en la iicsca III Vera I'az ' li'i'iuics, imii' ticiicii lniciia caiiic. c hi, n,lu Hi'lii: vciiailillii.H M'liiii'jiis, y utiKS liawis, y iiiiicIids nli-ns rjiu 1 liil. •1. -Ii-il pp. 1 :!((-•_'. Ki. lix'- nicinf ijiic car- flocliaii. y iiiliifii alijiiiiiis iloullailns, (ifii>.-< aluiniailns, y af\>. 3."), 4-i4, 4!t7, torn. Sec also Ofiii/ii, lli.sf. li 03: Ilisl. A/iiifiiiJ<(irit, MS., ( ap. 177; / ,i/i,/fiii/n. Hit/, y iniisriir i Ir 1. >. 1'^T lulii. I., /. r(\ ' 'll- njiiriiuin '/, I'iiiidI I'll/l, Vol. II. 46 722 Till: MAYA NATIONS. and liaros are nicntioiu!!! as liavin*^ boen bred. ATul- titudes of bees were kept for their honey and wnx. and hives are spoken of by J^as Casas without descri])- tion. (ioniara says the bees were small and the hoiuv somewhat bitter. The only metluxls of making' salt that I find particularly mentioned were to bake tide- washed earth, boilin^j down the brine made of tiie ]»rodact, and als(j to boil the lye pn^duced by leeching- the ashes of a palm called .airxdin. The foruK i- method was j)racticed in Guatemala, at great cost of labor and wealth, as Herrera says; the second is re- ferred to Yucatan. Many roots were of cour.se util- ized for food, and a peculiar herb, called //n<(f, was mixinl with lime and carried constantly in the niontli by the Nicaraij^uans on the march or journey, as a ])reventive of fatigue and thirst.® RespectinLC the preservation and cookini'' of food, as well as the habits of the peo])le in taking their daily meals, there are no diti'erences to be recoixled I'rom what has been said of the Nahuas. T'he inevi- table tortillas and tamales were the standard dish, made in the same way as at the nt)rth; meat was dried, salted, roasted, and stewed, with pe[)per for the lavorite seasoning. Fruits were ])erhaps a more])roni- inent article of fo(jd, and were eaten for the most |)art raw." Cogolludo informs us that the Yucatecs eat regularly once a day, just before sunset; and we ai.! also told that they took great pains to keep theii* bright-colored table-cloths and napkins in a state nf ])erfect cleanliness. In Nicaragua, they were accus- 5 Laiidii, Rrliiri(>n, ]). 118; Ln.i Cftsds, in KiiiffxhDr'infi/i'x .}fr.): An/i'/., V(»l. viii., p. 148; <'iiifo//i<(li), Jlis/. Vm:, pp. ISl, 1S7-8, 700; I'l/ldtfii/icrn; Hist. ('(iiii/. Itzii, pp. 41, .Sll; Drinln, Htsl. (,'fii., toiii. i., pp. •JOii 7, III, 4'>7, •")07, tiMii. iii., p. -27; Prdr Murfi/r, ilcc. iv., lil). vi, ii., dec. vi., lili. iii.; Ilrnrni, Hist, f/c//., lU'c. i., lil). v., cap. v., dec. iv., lih. viii., ciip. viii.; (!i)iniirif, Coikj. .1/(X., fol. 2.'1; IiL, Hist. Lit!., foi. (51 -"2; Cartis, I'ar- 'is. p. 44!t; Fflliroiirt's Hist. Viir., ]>. 'A'2. ti Corti's, Cavftis, j>. 2.S, tolls iis tliiit no lnviul was inado in Viicataii, Iml, that maize was eaten roaHted. The Ite.st tni'tillas in Nicaraj^uii were callid tiisra/fiw/ioii. ()ini. iii., p. 227. See also Ldinlit, Jidnrion, \>\). ll()-20, K}."); Jkrtrni, Hist (!i:u., dec. iv., lib, .\., taji. .\iii. PRINKS PUKPAItF'.I) FIIOM MAIZE. r23 tmnod to wasli the hjiiids iirul iiioutli aftiir oafiiii^v; and th(j chit'fs, wlu) sat in a clrclo on Avoodcii lu'iiclit's a!ialm-leaf haskit- work ])latter. Very little food sntticed i»»r tlui Mayas and they could bear hunger for a lon^' time, hut like all the aboriijinal inhahitants of America thev eat jtlentifully when well supplied, takinj^ no heed for a time in the future when food mioht he lacking"/ We have seen that in the heninninjjf, according- to tl le tradition .mucane mven ted were })rej)are(l Irom maize I f. nme druiis, wliKii 'fhe exact composition of these famous boverajj^es of anti(iuity is not i;iven; but Lan'ruel, which was heatetl and thickened over the Hre, and was a favorite djink taken hot in the morniui;-. The third was ]»ai'i-lie(l d with corn ti'round, mixed m water, aiul seasoiiet ]>er or cacao. The fourth was composed of iii-roUTid maize and cacao, and was designed es[)ecially ftir d)li ah the fifth :h lik. festivi butter, was extracted from cacao and mixed with maize. The sixth was ]trej)ared from raw iiiai/.i- ground. The; fermented Thpior, made of nuuze and cacao, which was tlrunk by the Itzas, was calKd :(if(r. Native wines were made of honey fm. Xaf Cii'., torn, ii., 1)]). <>•.»; I.iniiln, III- /acitiii. [t. 12((; Cutjt/lliu/tt, lli.st. Yiu:, \\. 180; (h-irdu, llist '/^ar, ajid water. Pul(pie made from the uuiiicuey is mentioned, but tliis phuit does not seem to liaAe [)Iay(!d so important a role in the south as in the north; at least there is very little said of it. A m rv stron*^'- and stinkinrepar(jd both from wild and cultivated varieties. Oviedo states that in Nicaragua none but the rich and noble could afford to drink it, as it was literally di'inkino' money. He describes the maimer of pi"e[)arin>-raceful and less se\erelv ]»unished by the laws than amono' the Xahuas. it was ([uite essential to the thorough enjoymeiit (»f a feast or wedding t;> become intoxicated; the wife even handed the temjtt in g beverages to her liusband. mo< lestb avel'te her head while he drajik, kindlv guided him liom when the festivities were o\" ind even M>i intoxicated herself occasionally, if l.anda mav ! le r.ATixr; iitman rLEsii. i2.y bulievc'd. The Siuno ntitliority r»'i»i-(>sciits tlu^ nati\i\s of Yucatan us vuiy ln'iital and iiidi-cciit wIk-h drunk, and ()viudo says that ho wlio dropped down senseless from drudv in a haiiquet was allowed to r -main where lie tell, and was regarded l)y his companions with feel- ings of envy/ The custom of eating the flesh of human victims who were sacrificed to the gods, was prohahly prac- ticed more or less in all the Maya regions; hut iieitiier this cannihalisni nor the sa<'rifices that gave I'ise to it were so extensivelv induh-ed in as hv the jNIexicans. Some authors, as (lomara, deny that human flesh was ever eaten in Yucatan, hut others, :«.s Herrera, V^illagutierre, and Peter Martyr, con- tradict this, although admitting that cases of can- nihalisni Were rare, and tlie victims confined to sacrificed enemies. Las Casas states that in (Juate- mala the hands and feet were given to the kin^^ and high-priest, the rest to otlier priests, and that none was left for the peo[)le. In Nicaragua the high- ])riest received the lieart, the king the feet and jiands, he who captured the victim took the thighs, the tri[)e was given to the trumpeters, and the rest ^\■as divided among the people. The head was not e:it(iii. The edihle portions wci'e cut in small ])ieces, hoiled in large pots, seasoned with salt and pe]»per, and eaten together with cakes of maize. At ceitain feasts also maize was sj)rinkle(l with hlood from the genitals. According to Merrei'a some Spaniards were eaien in Yucatan, hut Alhornoz Tells us that the natives of Hondui'as found tlie foreigners ton toU''h and hitter to he eaten.'"* ^ ?^7^r7♦♦V'■'T.■. //■/.7, ;U7-IS, tiilil. iv., ]>. O'l; li'-nziiiii, Ifi.-if. Mniiili) Xiiofii, fill. |ii>-:{, |()i); Liis 'Vrsvrv, [fi.if. A/.iifofjr/i,;!, Ms. .•;ip. clxxvii.; Wuhli 1:, I'll/. I'l'ff.. ]). 40; ('(irti'i' f)c.'i/tii/r/i(:i, [>. 4; Hni'i.si nr '/'■ linitrliuurii, llisl. S'li. Cir., toill. ii.. pp. i")! '2, 4',tl». ■' III Vui-atiin: ''I'lu'sc i$arli:iriuii-i cute finely their ciiciiiicH, nrsiirli strini- ^^••s as eiMiu' viito tlu'iii, (itlitr\vi,-;c tliey alistaiiK finin inaiiH ll('>i|i.' I'flcr Mic'jf, Uef. iv., lib. vi, In CJuatoiiialii the litais and trijiu wciv seaximcil !! Ii 7'2C TMi: MAYA NATIONS. liy rtijison of the warmer clinuite in the soutlnrn 1 uids, or of a diflerence in the j)o|)uls and personal adornment by the Mayas than l)y the Xahnas, or ratlier the Maya (h'ess was mndi niorc simple iind more nnit'orm amonjj^ the ditt'enMit classes of society; and, so far as can he determined fi'om llic vtjrv scanty information extant, there was only a \(i v slight variation in tli t dr CSS o f the ditferiMit natioi IS much less, indeed, than would naturally he expected hetween the tribes of the low Yucatan j)lains and of the (Juatem.dan hiij^hlands. V^ery little of the iiitnr Illation that has been ])resorved, howi^vcn*, relates to tlio people of (JuatrMuala. Men wore almost univeis- tilv th Hi 's, its ends were oft(>ii ahowed to bant*', one in front and tlu; (»ther bc'liiiid, beiii^- in such cases more or less embroidered or otheiwiso decorated.'" In more modern times the niaxtli seems willi wine. T.as Cunns, Uisl. Apu/oi/rfirn, MS., cai). clxxvii.; fJ., in Konis- /i:i/-iiii;//t'.-< M\t. Aiiti'i; vol. viii., p. 117; liZ/niiiifiirrr, /list. Cihk/. //:", |i|i. (JUt, (("il; tlDiii'tni, ffisf. liid., fol. ()2; llrrnrn, llisf. (ini. ,{[vi\ ii., lili i\., <'a|i. vii., (ifc. iii., lili. iv., i-ap. vi., vii., lil). vii., ciiii. iii.,. ol'J-l.'l. 'i'his ;;arment lallrcl iiitii/ii/r. llriiiil Dill.:, His/. Cnnij., fol. 2. Kiids einhroiderecl and divo rated with fe;ither.s. /.urnln. /i /tirinn, ]>. llti. ,(/(/((>//•:'•''''■'>'. <'rsiiii/r/irs, p. t. The Chiapanris ni! the knei's. 'I'liese shirts as well as tlu; mantles were worn lioth white and dyed in hrilliant and varii!i;-ated colors.''' I tind no mention of other material than cotton used for dothinuf, exce|)t in the case of the (,'akchi(piels, who, accoidint,'' to iJrasseur, wore l)oth hark and maLjuey- fil.re.'^ There is nothinir to indicate that th(^ dr ess (»i nohles, priests, or kind's, ditl'ered esscnitially from th.it. of the common peo[)le, except in (ineness of material or richness and profusion of ornaments. it is proi)a- hle, however, that the higher classes Wt^re al\v;iys clad in the garments which have heen dcscrilied, wliile a majority t)f the ple'i)eians wore only the II I'liito slidwiiiL,' tlic costume lit" an Imliini nf tin' interior. Wahlrrh, •M\. I'itl., pi fowsers o f eotton in Salvmli r. .Simr ('■„l. (1 ////, iii'i-i m li'iii,iir-i, ;\ viinl ami a lialt sinare. i 'i(inll mln. Hit/ ''.(vrv, in l\iiH/sh'iriiiii//i'.i .!/■/■. Aiiiij., vol. \iii., |i. I fi y iS7 Maul si, es calliMl :.inir,i. I r lanlai |iinlailas ' I., o < 'ottou n)l)es of liri'^'hl '/ eoliil'S. .^I'lni nii|iies. I rniiiKx-i i>iiii>iii\\ in >1. 11.. 1. 'Sa^ (h-i, /„. 1 1,. if. ( /• 'ii iirinirt\f lli\/. )' l-ii . toni. I., |>. l'.)7. ('. A It r. Illlll/ll l/is 1 .. pp. -JSIo .1 I' fi.-.l. 'Ti lsi:i, to)> '( anil>et: I'lneta-^ ili' .al.uoilon II i' hiit~.. His/, ('nil/., fol. '1. M'aniisette srn/a nianielie." / .)fiiiii/ii Xiinri), |i|). its, 1(U. n'll \till I , H,i/. " His/. .V-i/. Cii:, loni. ii. \: M; ol iiiixtli, wiiii'li was Hoini'tiiiit's only a siir^'lc stii| cloth passiii'^^ oiUH! round tln! waist and l)ut\vi'i'ii lln; l(!;4's. As nilcrs and jn'iosts arc ol'titii spoken of as drcsst'd in 'lar^i; wliiti; niantli;s' or 'llowin^" I'oltcs,' it is |»ro!)al)l(j tliat the mantle worn l»y tlioni was niiicli lai-L(t'r, as well as of liner stuH", than that descrilxd. liinda speaks of a priest in Vueatan who wort; ;iii uppef sj^arnient of colored feathers, with strips of cot- ton hani^inj.^ from its border to tlu; i^roimd. Palacio tolls us of priestly rohes in SaKador of diH'erent col- ors, Mack, hlue, ^'reen, red, and yellow. According;" to Itemesal the priests of (Guatemala. Avere tilthy ahominahle, and ii.U'ly, in fjict very hoi^s in , except that he had his ears and nose piercetl, of which more anon The women universally wore a skirt I'ormed hy Avindinn" a wide })iece of cotton cloth I'ound the hody and fastenini^- it at the waist. This i>-;ii-Mit;nt reachfd from the waist to the knee, as worn hy the pleheian women, hut those of a hii^her class covered with it their lei^s as low as the ankles. In some ]>aits of Nicara;4UM, es])ecially on the islands, Herreia says that (^xcept this skirt, which was so scanty as hai'dly to nK'rit a better name than breech-clout, the women AVeivi naked; but elsewhere they were always pai- ticular to cover their breasts from sii^ht. This tiny accomjdislied in some cases by a piece of cloth round the neck, and fastened under the arms; but they also ^^ f.nndii, E'/di'ioii, pp. 14S .">(); Piihtrio, Carfii, ]>p. (!2-t; It'-iin'sul, JTUt. ('Injiiiia, p. 137; ILrnni, Hi's/, (ira., tlue. iii., lili. iv., cap. vii., dec. iv., lil). viii., flip. X., dec. ii., Iil>. ii.. cap. xvii.; .Viiwiirz, Hist. Jni/, Hiiiit., p. l'J7; Bnissciif (ic lioufbunnj, Hist. Xat. Via., toiu. ii., p. 54. Ditr.ss OK \V(».Mi;\ AND (• 11(111 'li'MliI n Nl I'c'iiitinr I'liiiiini' iiii |ii|miii, (IcscciKlaiit plus (111 I IK tins Ims iiii-dc-^Miilsdu ;;('l|cp|i, NC 1 11 111 \(' I lie (Niirtcliicnt la iiiciiif i|iii' I'dii Yiiit aux iiiiaj;i's d'Kis ct aiix tCiiiliics I'^^x |iticiiiifs dcs 1""1 iit's iiiiaiaiiiiiiMic: /; ;• (/(• lliiiirliiiiiiil, llisl. Xiit. ( tiiiii. II. )i ()7. Skirt fnnii the waist to feet, callccj jnr. iOijiiU mln, llisl. \ m-,, |i| IS7-S, (;'.);l < 'iiiii. ■ l!ii]ias iV' ai;_'iid(iii, i| iiiiiaii iia;.nia> /A il l>,< IUhI. Ilrrn ISI-G, Ki, 111-0, ISO. ii(/iii/ii. 111 .1. '7c, Co/. IMAGE EVALUATION TEST TARGET (MT-S) /. c^ 1.0 I.I 1.25 .. .,. IIIIIM IfflM IIM '- IIM III 1.8 1.4 IIIM.6 V] m d*! F.^'*'' /: * /^ Photographic Sciences Corporation 23 WEST MAIN SlfftST WEBSTER, NY. 14580 (716) S72-4S03 &9 «/ I 730 THE MAYA NATIONS. which were dressed differently according as the own- ers were married or single, and particular care was devoted to the coiffure of a bride. All the autljoii- ties agree that the priests in Yucatan wore the haii- long, uncombed, and often saturated with sacriHcial blood. Plumes of feathers seem to have been theii- usual head-dress. Palacio and Herrera mention a colored head-dress, mitre, or diadem with hanojuo- |>lumes worn by a priest in Salvador. Over the hair a piece of cloth was usually worn by females, in which the Abbd Brasseur finds a resemblance to the Egyptian calantica. A tuft of hair hanging over the face of children often made them cross-eyed; indeed, mothers are said to have arranged it with a view to this very effect, deemed by them a desirable thing, in- to have attached to the forehead a small hanging }»ias- ter for the same purpose. The number of 'bizoos' treated by Dr Cabot, who accompanied Mr Stephens in his excursion through Yucatan, shows that though sojuinting eyes are still conmion in the country, the defect has at least lost its charm to the Maya moth- ers. 17 No beard was worn, and the few hairs that made their appearance on the face were immediately ex- tracted. According to Landa, mothers are said to have burned the faces of voung children with hot cloths to prevent the growth of a beard in later years. After the Conquest many of the natives grew beards, which, though sometimes long, were always thin and 17 'Es lo mils (lificultoso en los Indies el reduzirlos fl cortarles el peU*.' Vill'ifinlicrrr, Hint. Conn. Itzn, pp. 408, .112. In ( Jnateniala sonunvliat li'ss attiMii ion seems to have been paiil to the hair. 'Trayanlo encrespailo, o rc- Imjado en la eahe^a como estopas, h eansa los natnrales.' do- luuru, Hist, liai, ful. 02; /(/., t'w/ij. Mu., fyl. 23; Vuluao, Curia, p. 02. DISFI(;UREMENT OF THE PHYSIQUE. 781 coarse. Somotliinir like a heard is also to be seen on some of the sculptured faces anionic the Ivlaya ruins. ( )viedo met in Nicaragua a man about seventy years of age, who had a long flowing white heard."* The Mayas, when they covered the feet at all, wore a kind of sandal of coarse cloth, or more freijuently of dry deer-skin. These sandals were simply pieces of skin, often double, covering and fltting somewhat the sole, and fastened by cotton strings from the ankle to the toes and perhaps also to the heel. I find no ac- count of hand -coverings except in the Popol Vuh, where gloves are spoken of as being used in the game of ball.'" Having provided for their comfort by the use of the articles of dress already described, the Mayas, like most other American aborigines, deemed it essen- tial to modify and improve their physique by artiticial means. Tiiis they accomplished by head-flattening, teeth-filing, perforation of the ears, nose, and lips, tat- tooing, and painting; yet it is not probable that all these methods of disfigurement were practiced by all the natives. In Nicaragua, the heads of infants were flattened; the people believed that the custom had been origiually introduced by the gods; that the com- pressed forehead was the sign of noble blood and the highest type of beauty; and besides that tiie head was thus better adapted to the canvinsx of burdens. In Yucatan, according to Landa, the same custom ob- tained. Four or five days after birth the diild was laid with the face down on a bed and the head was compressed between two pieces of wood, one on the forehead and the other on the back of the head, the boards being kefjt in place for several days until the " Denzniii, Hist. Mtii'fn Xiioi-n, \t. .S."); ('/innnii/, Riiinrn .inirr., p. 341; I,fiH(f(i, Ilfiii'if)ii,\h 114; Ucrrint. Hist. (Im., doe. iv., Ill), x., caii. iii.; On'iifi), Ui.^f. Urn., toiii. iv., |i. III. '* ''I'raiaii Miiinialiiis (it> cariaiiin i> i-iicro dc voiiado |tiir cm'tirscco.' I.iin- i/ii, Uiliiriini ,\y I l(i. 'J'licy <;i'n<'rall.v went Itarcfoot. t'luiollinln, Ihst. )'//'•., ji. IS7. Sandals in \i('ara'.!;na c'alh'd i/iiftirns. Orin/o, llisf. - .'H-!»; .sV/v/'v'.v Xiriiniii'i", (Kd. 1Sj(5,) vkI. ii., p. .'$47; nntsscur lie liuurbuurij, i'njiul Vuh, p. 77. 732 THE MAYA NATIONS. desired craiiial conformation was effected. So iri'».>iit was tlie pressure that the ciiild's skull was souietiiiius broken. I find no account of foreliead-Hatteniiit^ in (iuateinala and Chiai)as, though Mr Squier, follow- ini^ Fuentos' unpublished history, says that anionic the Quiches, C'akchiquels, and Zutugils the hack of the head was ilattciied by the practice of carrying infants tied closely to a straight board. Yet from the fre(|ueiit occurrence of this cranial type in the sculptured pio- liles in Chiapas, Honduras, and Yucatan, there can be no doubt that in the most ancient times a Hattened forehead was the ideal of manly beauty, and 1 tliink we have sufficient reason to believe that the artificial sha|)ing of the skull was even more universally ]»ra<- ticed in ancient than in modern times. The origin of the custom is a most interesting tt>pic for study and speculation.'^ The practice of filing the teeth prevailed to a cer- tain extent among the women of Yucatan, whose idial of dental charms rendered a saw-teeth arrani>ement dc- sirable. The operation was performed by certain old women, professors of the art, by means (jf sharjt gritty stones and water. ^^ The piercing of ears, nose, and lips was practiced among all the nations by hoth men and women ai)parently, except in Guatemala, where, Ximenez tells us, it was confined to the kings, who perforated the nose and ears as a mark of rank and [)o\ver. We have no authority for supj)osiny that persons of any class in Yucatan and Nicaragua were restrained from this nmtilation of their faces, or from wearing in the perforated features any ornaments they could afford to purchase. Such ornaments were small sticks, bones, shells, and rings of amber or gold. ( )ther ornaments besiiles those inserted in the ears, nose, and lij)s, were bracelets, rings, gold beads, and medals, *" 0(v'(v/o, Hist. Gen., torn. iv. , p. 54; llrrrrn. Hint. Grn., ilec. iii., lib. iv., flip, vii., »lei'. iv., lih. x., cap. ill.; Sqidn-'s Sivunnjiiii.. (Ktl. 185(5,) vol. ii., jt. SJ-j; Id., in I'alacio, Carltt, p. lOG; Landa, Uchtviun, pp. 114, 180. 104. *i Landa, Itdacion, p. 182. TATT()(1IN(! AND PAINTIXd. 733 slioll necklaces, metallic and wooden wands, i,nldcd masks, feathers and pluin«\s, and peails. Bt.'sidos this piercing for ornamental purposes, it should he noted that perforation of cheeks and tongues, and scarifyings of other parts of ho!»!•. 'Sartalt-s de Caractiles colorados,' ; ncii prizoil l»y llic It/as. Villiiijittinrr, lli.sl. Voinj. Jtzu, \i. 4R. Small sti<"ks in tlie ears, and little reeds or anilwr rin;js. or <;rainM of vanilla, 'in the nose. /(/., |i|i. :U-, 4(»L*. A few silver and ;,'old ear-ornaments. /(/., pp. 4(t7-i>. (Ml tne peninsnia of Vneatan, 'trayan las orejas horailadas oara rarcillos. Ldiiifii, Jii/iiriiiii, j». 114. The priest carried 'nn isopo en la niano de nn jialo eorto iiiuy lahrado, y por liarlias o pelos del isopo eiertas eolas de nnas iMilehras (nn- smi eonio caxeaveles.' /»/., j)p. l4*.)-r)((. Women jaerced noM) und ears. Ji/., p. 182. In Nieara^ttni 'traen sajailas las len^'nas por detiaxo, e las orejas. e al<;nnos los niiemliros viriles, e no las mnyeres nni;;iina ensa destas. y ellos y cdlas horadadas las orejas de ^randes af^njeros.' O/vVv/o, Jlist. Grii., toni. iv., np. .'VS-!), torn, i., |>. 4!t7. Kinj; in ^'n<'atan wore 'des liracclefs et des nnineliettes d'nne elej,'anee epile ii la lieante de la niali(Te. Jimssr.iir t/r lioiirliounj, Hint, Sut. ('ii\, toni. ii., p. 54. 'Tirmi/i. nt a la levre interienre mi an eartila;,'e dn nez.' Ii/., j). \)'2. See also t'urfrs, ('nrfn.s, p. .S; ('iiiiiiiniii. Hist. 7'/(i,r., in Noinrllrs Aimti/rs t/r.s ]'oi/., 184;i toni. xei\., p. 144; J/ir- rcra, Hist. Gm., dec. ii., lih. iv., .'an. vii., ,) vol. ii., ii. ;VI7; /'/.. ('nit. Aiiirr., J). TmI; Xiincni'z, Ifist. /int. Gnat., p. 197; /tin:, Iliiirrniir, in '/Vr- vif>i.i--('iiiii/iinis. Vol/., serie i., toin. x., pp. l(>, 2'), 31); /.<».< Cd.in.s, in Kiiiij.s- buriiHfi/i'.t .Ur.f. Aiitiij., vol. viii., ]». 147. *^ 'l.,os oticiales dello lahravan la parte quo tpicrian con tinta. y despiu-s sejavanle delicadanuMite las pintnras, y assi con la sanf^re y tinta ijnrdavan en td cnerpct las senales, y ijue se lahran poco a poco por el tornuMito ^jrande, y tanibien su jiuiiuu dcspue« mulu», pun^uu »« luts cucuuuvau lu.t lahures, y "'f 734 Tin: MAYA XATIOXS. vcrsal, but little can l)e said respoctininf the details (if the custom, save that red and Mack were ap[>areiit]y the favorite colors, and colored earths the most com- mon material of the paints. Bixa was, however, much used for red, and cacao tinted with hixa to a hlood-red hue was dauhed in great profusion on the faces of the Nicar.aguans. In Yucatan young nun generally restricted themselves to Mack until they were married, indulging afterwards in varied and bright-colored figures. Black was also a favorite- color for war-paint. Odoriferous gums were often mixed with the paints, especially by the women, Avhich rendered the decoration durable, sticky, and most disagreeable to foreign olfactories. It appears that in Guatemala, and probably elsewhere, a coat of [)aint was emj)loyed, not only for ornamental pur- ]»ases, but as a protection against heat and cold. At certain Nicaraguan feasts and dances the naked botlics were painted in imitation of the ordinary garnients, cotton-fii)re being mixed with the paint. ^* All were fond of perfumes, and besides the odor- iferous substances mixed by the Ladies in their paint, opal and other gums were burned on miny occasions, not only in honor of the gods, but for the agreeable o lor of the smoke; sweet-smelling barks, herbs, and H;)wers were also habitually carried on the person.-' All the Mayas, especially females, were rather neat li i. I'iO, 182; CnifoNii/lo. Hint. Vilc, pp. 18(), (MV.J; lin,,!- sif, Ifisf. Chifiipa, p. -iiK}; ViUiujiiUcnr, Hist. ('oiiq. Ifzu,\>\}. 402,4i)8; lln- r-ni, Hint, (fr.n., dee. iv., lib. x., eaji. iv. ; Ori' In, llisl. (Jni., toiii. iv., |i. :<<; Ti'ruaiix-Cuinnnii.i, iw Xuinief/rs Auiiiiles . 47; Fmicourf's llixt. Yun., pp. 121, 28."»; Jiiissimr, J/Eiiipirv. Mc.x., p. 2(>.'>. •i^ Jluw'siil, Hist. Vhifajxi, p. .3t>2: Laiit/i(, Jic/uiioii, ]}\h 114-Ui, 178 SO, is;, 1S4; Coijo/liiilo, Uixt. Yiic, pp. 6. 77; ViUiuinticrr, Hist. Cotiq. ll:'i, pp. 107, 402, 41)0, 4l>i); Orici/o, Hist, tfrii., toin. i., pp. 2«>7, 318, 4!».S, toin. r.'., p. Ill; Cortex, Curias, p. 422; Ginnara, Hist. IiuL, fol. G2; Jirnssriir n'r J{ nirltoiinf, Popol Viih, pp. 71-2, 180. '•'' 'Krau aiui. ii., p. C8; Vuluis, Mcxiqnt, \<. 200. PERSONAL HABITS. 786 I) than otlierwise in tlieir personal habits, taUinLC ixvvid pains with tlioir druss anil so-callodilei-orations. I'lioy hathed freciuently in cold water a!id sometimes in- dulged in hot baths, perhaps in steam-baths; but of the latter very little is said, although lirasseur says it was used in Guatemala under the name of tnh. The women were very modest and usually took nunii pains to prevent the exi)osure of their persons, but in bathing and on certain other occasions both sexes ap- pear to have been somewhat careless in this respect. in both Yucatan and Nicaragua mirrors were em- ployed by the men, but the women recpiired or at least employed no such aids,'^" Although such disfigure- ments as have been described, painting, tattooing, and perforation, are reported l)y all the authors, and were all doubtless practiced, vot one can hardlv avoid form- prj ing the idea in reading the narratives of the con<|uer- ors, that such hideous mutilations were confined to certain classes and certain occasions, and that the mass of the people in cvery-day life presented a much less repulsive aspect. I have already spoken of the tenure of landed prop- erty and the laws of inheritance among the Mayas. To the accunudation of wealtli in the form of personul property they do not seem to have attached much im- l)ortance. Tliey were ctintent for the most part with a supply of simple fooil for their tables, the necessary household utensils, and such articles of dress and or- nament as were required by their social rank; with ** 'Se vafiiivivu iniicho, no ounin podia cuhrir la iiiaiio.' Luin/ii, lirliirimi, |>. 114. 'Sc lavaii Lis iiiaiion y la l)oi!a dos]mex de ooinor. ' lro- fessiou was a lucrative one. An active trade was carried on in each town, as also between dirt'ereiit towns, ]trovinces, and nations, in order that the puo- l)le of each locality niiijfht he sui>i)lied with the neccs- sfiry comniodities hoth of home and foreii^n production. Few details have l)een })reserved respectini^ the maniioi- of eonductiiii^ trade, hut what is known on the siil)- ject indicates that the commercial system was identi- cal witii tliat of the Nahuas, to which a prece(hii.,'' cha[»ter has heen devoted. Commodities of every class, fo(Kl, dress, ornaments, weai)ons, and imi>lc'nient ;. were offered for sale in the market-place, or }»laz;>, of every villai»e, where all transactions hetween Imvcis and sellers were reijfulated bv an olHcial who had full authority to correct abuses and ])unish offences ayaiiist the laws of trade. Fairs were held periodically in all the laryer towns, which were crowded by buytis and sellers from abroad. TravelinLf merchants trav- ersed the country in every direction busied in the eN.chan<»*e and transport of varied local products. Yu- catan did a lari»e forei<>fn trade with Tabasco and Hon- duras, from both of which regions lari»'e (piantities of cacao were imported. ( )ther international routesof com- merce doubtle.ss t\\isted in (Liferent directions ; we- have seen that the Nahua merchants crossed the isthnuisof Tehuantepec to traffic in Maya lands, and the soutli- eru merchants were doubtless not unrepresented in the northern fairs. Transportation was effected for the most })art by carriers overland, and in many ]iarts of the country, as in Yucatan, niai»niiicent })aved roads offered every facility to the traveler; quite an exten- sive coasting-trade was also ( ai'ried on by water. The ordinary mercantile transactions were effected by exchaui^e, or barter, of one commodity for another; but where this was inconvenient cacao passed cuncnt as money amonfether, the beverage beinu: urenerally col- ored with certain leaves called max. In tlie Xicar- aguan markets some extraordinary regulations were enforced. Men could not visit the market -jtlace of their own towns, eitiier to buy, sell, or for any other purpose; they even iticurred the I'isk of receiving a sound beating, if they so nuu'li as peeped in to see what was going on. Ail the business was transacted by the women; but boys, into whose minds, by reason of their tender years, carnal thoughts were supposed not to have entered, might bo present to assi.st the women, and even men from other towns or ]»rovinces, were welcome, provided they did not belong to a peo]>lc of different language. No peculiar ceremonies are mentioned as accompa- nying tlie setting-out or return of trading caravans, Vol. U. « 7:w TIIK MAYA NATIONS. but some ciistoius obsorvi'd l»y travelers, a laru'c pro- |Kiiti()ii «tt' wlioiii WL-ru ])r<»l)al»ly HK-rcliants, air ic fordiMl. Ill Vuratan all nuMiibor.s of a IioiisiIk.M i»rav('(l ol'tcii aiul eai'iiestlv tor tliu sat'u rctuni of tlir al)sriit nieinlK^r; and the travoler liiinsuU', wIumi In- I'liaiiced to coinu in ooiitat't with '<\ lav^v stone wliicli had luion moved in openinin' ^'•*-' I'oad, reverently laid U|M>n it a u^reun hraiu-li, hiiishini,'' his icnces with aii- «»ther at the same time as a jnwentive of tatii^iic lie also earrieil incense on liis journey, and at eath nii;littall, wherever he mii^ht he, lie stood on eml three small stones, and on thive other Hat stones jilaced Itel'ore the first he burned ineense and utteinl a prayer to Kkehua, i^od of traveleis, Avhose naiin! sin'nilic'S 'merchant.' When the traveler was helattd, and thouLfht himself hkely to arrive after dark at lii> jtroposed stopping-place, he dej)osited a stone in i ln>llow tree, and pulled out some hairs from liis eyr- hrows, whi<'li he j)roceeded to blow towards tlie stt- tinu;' sun, hopinij^ tliereby to induce that "athered a handful of herhs, rubbed with them his len's, s|»at reverently u|i(iii them, and placed them j)rayerfully upon the altar with a small stone and some triHinh to disturb the sacred token.'' 27 Tlic followiii;; lire my aiitlioritios on flu' Maya ('(tiniiH'icc, many nfci- (MU'cs to siniiile mcntiiMisof articlos lionj^'lit ami sold anti to tiic use of rarao as money lii'in<^ omittiMl. A'iiiinirz, If/'st. Iml. . vii., cap. ix., dec. iv., lil>. viii., c;ip. iii., ix.; Lninla, Itrliiciim, |(p. .'{•_', l'iS-;iii. ir)()-S; Coifiilliiilo, Hist. Viir., pj). ISI, ISS; ]'i//iii/n/irrn\ Hist. I'lnnf. It--.". p. ;m ; Orif(h), Hist, (ini., tofn. i., ji. SKi, torn, iii., \>. '2y,\. toni. iv., pp. .S!i-7, 4!>, .'rt, 104; I'rtn- M'lrti/r, dec. iv., lil.. i. ; Cortr.s, t'urtns, p. 4JJ; Jl'iizoiii, Hist. }f()ii(l(t Xii'iro, fid. 102, 10!); J'nt.f.siiir ilr lliiiirtiniirii, lli-it. X<(t. I'ir., toni. ii., pp. .'.O-l, 71, 504; / NAVIGATION. T.'W OvIchIo st.iti's that ill Xicar-'iLiciiii, «>r at least in <'i>r- taiii parts of that coimtiv, the |)ei»iile had no caiKu s. hut resorted t«) halsas when it l»eeanie neet'ssary t»» cross the water. Tliu halsa in this rei^ion was sini|tly a rait of tivu or six loi^s tiiil together at tlie ends with jLjrass, and et)vered witli eross-stieks. The author re- ferred to saw u fleet of tliese 5ihoii<;inal vessels whi( h l)ore iifteen huntlred warrii»is. On the coast of Vu- eutan and in the lakes of IVten, the natives had many canoes lor use in war and connneice, and wire very skillful in their mana^enient. These canoes Mire 'du;;-outs' made from single trunks, caj)ahle of carry- iiiLj from two to Hfty persons, und projulled hy pad- dles. Co^'oUudo tells us that canoes with sails W( re seen hv C\)rdov<'i tluriii!'" his voyaye u|> the coast, and some modern wviteis speak of the faujous <-anoe met by Columhus ott' the Honduras coast as havini,^ been iitted with sails; hut in the latter case there seems to he no authority for the statement, and that sails went ever employetl may well he considered douhtful. The boat seen by Columbus was eiyht feet wide, "as loni;' Jis ji i,^alley," b(»re twenty-Hve men, and an awniny of mats in the centre })roteeted the women and children. AH the information we have res])ectin^' boats in (Jua- temala is the statement of l*eter ^lartyr that the 'du;;-outs' were also in use there, and of Juarros that the Lacandones had a larye Heet of boats; (Juatemala was a country, however, whoso physical conformation would rarely call for navigation on an extensive scale. Villag'uticrre says that the Chia})anecs used gourd bal- sas, ur ' calabuzat: '•J8 Wars amonff the ISfaya nations were fre. "Jl; /'/., in /'• hdlcfhi, Col. (Ic Ihif., toili. !., |>. 'IKfl; I'ilfiiijii/irrrr, Hist, fiiiiij. Itzu, jip. a.").'}, 301), 489, 7(>; I'rtrr Mur/i/r, dw. viii., lib. v.; Orinin, Hist. the nobility than amonuf the Nabuas. Acccudin*'' to Landa, a certain number of picked men wen; ;ip- pointed in each town, who were called Jtnhno <»t' whom hohl his position Ity inhcritamv, wiiiK; tht- otlu^r was chosen tor a term «»f 'iirtv years. The title of tl 10 hitt er was N acttn, nViu ins ^tH re seems to 1 lave lieen atteiuli'il with some ini-onveiiieJiees, since chirin^^ the three years he couM know no woman, eat no meat, indnlu^o in no intoxication, and have hut little to do with the ))uhlic. Fish and iniiana-tlesh were allowed 1 iim. hut it 4 h lish nmst i>e served on dishes usi'd l»v no one d li lait himself, and must not he served hy women, ht Vera l*!iz the captains were chosen from amonuc tho most distimi^uished hraves, and seem to have lield their ]»osition for life." In Yucatiin .kins and feathers, worn accoidiiiii; to fi.Ked rules, not recorded, werc^ amohi,'' the naist |)r' uii- nent ii ii^nia of waiiiois. The face vas painted in vari(>us colors; and tattooing the hands was a ]>rivi- lego accorded to the hrave. The Itzas fouL,dit naked, hut j)ainted face, hody, and lind)s hlack, the hravo tattooiiii^ the face in stripes. Feather plumes are tho oidy insin'nia meiitiinied in connection with (Juatema- lan warriors; hut the ij^rade of a Pi])ile'.s })rowess was indii'ated hy the numher of holes he had in ears, nose, and other features. All otHcers in the Nicaraufuan armies had distiiiouishinsjf mai'ks, which they won) hoth in time of war and of jteace; tho Tapaliu^ui was allowed to shave his heMl. 2r, t; ,S'/»/V('.v Xlc(triii/iiti, (K(l. 1,S.")(;,) Vdl. ii., p. :{4'J; /!iii//i'.s Iii(/i; vi(l. i., p. 27:.'. 3' l.iiiiihi, Itildciiiii, p. 172; Xiiiivinr., Ili.sf. In J. Uii'it., p. "JK'J. "^i (h-in/i). Hist, (irii,, fniii. iv., p. .'iS; Liniilii, Itiliir ii , p. 17'J; Ili'rrriV, Hint. (-''11., . vii., cap. iii., dec. iv., lili. viii., cap. x. ; f'tifurin, tnr'n, pp. "•)-■-'; I'il/iKjiifiirir, Hist. Citmi. Itzu, pp. .lOI, 4'.tS-!»; S./iiiirs Xit!,) vol. ii., p. ;lates as worn in Nicaragua. Shields were made of s[)lit reeds, were round in form, and were covered generally with skins and decorated with feathers, though a cotton covering was also used in Nicaragua. ^^ Bows and arrows, lances, and darts were used as weapons of war by all the Maya tribes, the projectiles l)eing usually pointed with Hint, but often also witli fish-hone or copper. Arrows were carried in quivers and were never poisoned. The Yucatec bow, as Landa informs us, was a little shorter than the man 33 Cotton nrmor rallod in some ]tlac'os ravdnptlrti. Hcrrrrn, THnt. Clrn., «U*f. iv., lib. iii., c'ii[i. iii. Hotli wliito ami colorrd. f. v., ca]'. X., lib. iv., cap. vi., ilec. ii., lili. ii., cap. xvii., lib. iii., cajt. i. CalliMl by tbo (^MiichcH nc/iPoi/K/ii/cs. Jinixsriir (fr l!i/iir/iiinrff, Ilixt. Nat. Cii'., titiii. ii., |». 1)1; Landa, Jiclarioii, ]>. 1"-; ('iinitihi, Ifixf. Vur., ji. 0, liriinil J>i'(Z, Jfi.sf. C'ini'/., fol. 2; Gomara, Hint. Iiii/.,M. (>2; Las Casas, ii\ Kiinjs- horoiajICs Mrx. Atitiq., vol. viii., ]>. UH; Oricdu, Hist, d'cii., toni. iii , p. 484, toiii. iv.. ]i. o.'J; A/rarai/a, i)i Tenia n.r-( 'nui/xtiis, Vmj., siirie i., tola. X,, p. 140; I'^iqitier'i- Xicara'jiia, (Kd, liS.")0,) vol. ii., p. 347. AROUIGINAL WEAPONS. •43 who carried it, and was made of a very strong native wood; the string was made of the til)res of certain plants. The arrows were hght I'eeds with a piece of hard wood at the end. Oviedo tells us of lances, or pikes, in Nicaragua, which were thii-ty si)aiis long, and others in Yucatan fifteen sjians long; Henera says they were over twenty feet long in (luateniMla, and that their heads Avere poisoned; though Oviedo denies that poison was used. In Nicaragua and Yu- catan heavy wooden swords, called I>y tlie ^lexicans macaahaltl, were used, hut I find no special mention of these weapons in (Juateniala. A line of sharp Hints were finnly set along the two edges, and, wielded with both hands they were a most formidahle wea])on. AValdeck found in modern times the horn of a saw- fish covered with skin and used as a weapon. He thinks the aboriginal wea})on may have been fashioned after this natural model. Slings were extensively used in Yucatan, and also copper axes to some extent, but these are sup}H)sed to have been im})orted I'rom Mexico, as no metals are found in the peninsula.'^* The Quiches, Cakchicpiels, and other tribes inhabit- inof the hiu'li lands of Guatemala, chose the location of their towns in places naturally well nigli inaccessi- ble, strengthening them besides with artificial fortifi- cations in the shape of massive stone walls and deep ditches. RuIjvs of these fortified towns are viuy num- erous and will be described elsewhere; a few AVurds 3< Maciiiias used as weapons in Xicarairn;). Orlnln, Uisf. 'Ini., torn, iv., p]). .").'{, ;{:{, toni. i., J)]). .")! 1 -TJ, tiiiii. iii,, |i|). -I'M. -ISI. ('iystal-]i()intc(l anows used by tlio It/as, and fliiifs liad ^Imit Hint knives, with fcatlicis im tlu^ handles. l'i7/i(ifiifirnT, llisl. I'idi'/. J/:'i, ]i]), VXt, 11, ill'. Ilardcncl rods, or pikes. <'iii/ii//ni/i), Hist. )'(((■., pp. 77, -. I>aits tlirown fiuni a 'tiraili la.' llrirni, lll.st. (irn., dec. ii., lib. ii., cap. xvii., dci". iii., lib. iv., eap. vi., lib. v., cap. X., lib. vii.. cap. iii.. di'c. iv., lib. x., caji. ii, A bat was tlie si;.,Mi of a i'akclii<|ii(d arinorv. Hr'/.^isnir i/r lli>iir/>o"ni. J'd/mf Viih, ]>. "J'J."!. Si'c also Mava weanons. Si/iiirr's Xiriirininti. (IM. I S.">(>. | vol. ii., ](. IVll, 3t7; l'if,rMiirfi/r, dec. vi., lib. v.; J!u;//r's J!,,/.-, vol. !., |). '.'.yS; Sr/,,r;.rr, Wuiitlrriliiifrii, p. (IH; Lfiiir/u, R /iir/iiii, pp. 4S, I7t>; Lus ('ii.sas, in Kiinin- bcriiKif'i's M':r. .liifii/., vol. viii., ]>. MS; \Vi/ii;/i, tonv. !., ])i>. ISii, I'.U; /'/(/-, Ifnirrniir, in 'J't/ihiix- Coinjinii.t, Viiif., si'-rie i., toni. \.. p. -."); /'/., in fiii:liii/rr/,i. Ci,/. ifr lim:, toni. i., p. 'iUJ- Bcrnal Diaz, Hid. t'uiiq., ful. 'J; Xuucinz, Hist. IiuL UttuL, i>. 127. 744 THE MAYA NATIONS. respectiu!^ Utatlan, tlie Quiche capital, and one of the most securely located and guarded cities, will suffice here. Standing on a level plateau, the city was bounded on every side by a deep ravine, believed to have been at some points artificial, and which could only be crossed at one place. Ciuarding this single approach a line of massive stone structures connected by ditches extends a long distance, and within this line of fortifications, at the entrance of the pass, is El Kesguardo, a square-based pyramidical structure, one hundred and twenty feet high, rising in three terraces, and having its summit platform inclosed by a stone wall, covered witli hard cement. A tower also rises from the sunnnit. The Spaniards under Alvarado found their approach obstructed at various [)()ints in GuateniJila by holes in which were pointed stakes fixed in the ground, and carefully concealed by a slight covering of turf; palisades, ditches, and walls of stone, logs, plants, or earth, were thrown across the road at every difficult pass; and large stones were kept ready to hurl or roll down upon the invaders. Numerous short pointed sticks were found on at least one «)cca- sion fixed upright in the ground, apparently a slight defense, but really a most formidable one, since the points were poisoned. Doubtless all these methods of defence had been practiced often before in their inter- national wars against American foes. Strong defen- sive works are also mentioned in Chiapas, and Anda- goya tells us of a town in Nicaragua fortified by a high and impenetrable hedge of cacti. In Yucatan the Si)aniard's progress was frequently opposed, at points favorable for such a purpose, by temporary trenches, barricades of stone, logs, and earth, and pro- tected stations for bowmen and sliniifers; but in the se- lection of sites for their towns, notwithstanding the generally level surface of their country, facilities for defence seem to have been little or not at all consid- ered. One, only, of the many ruined cities which have been explored, Tuloom, on the Eastern coast, DECLARATION OF WAR. 74S stands on an eminence overlooking the ocean, in a very strong natural position; but strangely enougli it is just here, where artificial defenses were least needed, that we find a massive wall surroundinir the chief struct- iires, — the only city wall standing in modern times, though Mayapan was traditi. 174; A/niniifo, in 'J'rniini,r-< 'niii/nuis. Vol/., surie i., toni. x., j»|>. \\'2, 117; Ooi/oi, in fi/., ji. l.">V ''nr/rs, ('nrlna, J)]). 4'J.")-(J; JiiarcDS, Ifis/. Giiiif., p. 87; Ifricf/o, Jlist. Grii., toni. i., ]>. r>34, toiii. iii., pp. 477-S; Fiiriilin, in Kimj'ilniiuiiiiiICiiMrx. Aiitiq., vol. viii., p. 24H; Hrnrr", Uix/. Gcit., dec. iv., lib. iii., cup. iii., lilt, x., can. iii.; 17/- /(tjfiifirrrc, Hist. Cunq. Itzit, p. 41; Aiuhigotja, in Navarntc, Col, dc Viajes, torn, iii., p. 407. 7iG THE MAYA NATIONS. would be made as soon as the fire went out; and also that Alvarado noticed in Guatemala the sacrifice of a woman and a bitch as a preliminary of battle. All fought bravely, with no apparent fear of death, endeavoring to capture the enemy alive, leather than to kill them, and at the same time to avoid bein<»* cap- tured themselves by the sacrifice of life if necessary. In most nations it was deemed im])ortant to teiMi'V the enemv bv shoutint*-, clani>in<>' of drums, sticks, and shells, and blowing' of whistles. Tlie armies of Yu- catan are said to have exhibited somewhat better older in their military movonieiits than those of other na- tions. They formed their forces into two wings, jdac- ing in the centre a s(juadron to guard tlie cai)tain and high-priest. The Nicaraguans fought desj)oratc!y until their leader fell, but then thev alwavs ran awav. He who from cowardice failed to do his duty on the battle-field was by the Nicaraguan code disgraced, abused, ii. lilted, strip|)ed of his wea})ons, and od or cfOfWess; if tlie former, tlie festival Listed, according to Palacio, fifteen days; the ca})tives were ohhoed to niarcli in j>rocession throngh the town, and one was sacrificed eacli day; if the feast was dedicated to a deity of the gentler sex, five days of festivities and blood sufficed. Prisoners of [)lebeian blood were enslaved, or only sacrificed when victims of higher rank were lacking. 'I'hey Mere pi'obably the ])r(j|>erty of the captors. At the close of a campaign in which no cai)tives were taken, the Nicaraguan captains went together to the altar, and tliere wept ceremonial tears of sorrow for their want of success. The authorities record no details of the methods by which peace was ratified; the Yucatecs, however, according to CogoUudo, exj)ressed to the 8[)aniards a desire for a suspension of hostili- ties, bv throwing awav their M'eai)ous, and bv kiss- inii' their fingers, after touching them to the ground.^ llli^ CHAPTER XXIV. MAYA ARTS, CALENDAR, AND HIEROGLYPHICS. ScAuriTY OF Information— Use of Metals— Gold and Preciocs Stones— iMiM-KMENTs of Stone— SruLi'TfRE— Pottery— Manu- FAtTURE OF CLOTII — DYEINO — SYSTEM OF NUMERATION— MaYA Calendar in Yucatan— Days, Weeks, Months, and Years— In- DHTIONS AND KaTUNES— PeREZ' SYSTEM OF AlIAlJ KaTLNES - Statements of Landa and Cogolludo— Intercalary Days and Years— Days and ^Ionths in Guatemala, Chiapas, and Soco- Nusco— Maya Hieroglyphic System— Testimony of Eari,y ^VIMT. KRS ON THE UsE OF PI(TI:RE-\YrITING — DESTRUCTION OF DOCU- MKNTS— Specimens which have Survived— The Dresden Codex — Manuscript Troano-Taulets OF Palenque, Copan, and Yuca- tan— Bishop Landa's Key— Ukasseur de Bourbouru's Interpre- tation. Our knowledge of Maya arts and manuftictures, so far as it depends on the statements of the early Span- ish writers is very slight, and may be expressed in few words; especially as most of these arts seem to have been very nearly identical with those of the Nahuas, although many of them, at the time of the Conquest at least, were not carried to so high a grade of })urfec- tion as in tlie north. Some branches of mechanical art have indeed left material relics, which, examined in modern times, have extended our knowledge on the subject very far beyond what may be gleaned from sixteenth-centurv observations. But a volume of this work is set ai)art for the consideration of material rel- (74S) alio y KNOWLEDGE OF METALS. 7i9 ics with numerous illustrative plates, and altliouj^li the temptation to use both intorniation and pl;)tos from modern sources is particularly stronj^ in some of the topics of this cha})ter and the followin*,', a ruiLjard for the synnuetry of the work, and the necessity of avoid - iiiif all repetition, cause me to conttne myself liero almost exclusively to the old authors, as I have done in describing the Nahua arts. Iron was not known to the Mayas, and it is not quite certain that copper was mined or worked by them. The boat so often mentioned as havinj^ been met by Columbus off the coast, and supj)osed to have come iVom Yucatan, had on board crucibles for melt- ing co[>per, and a large number of copper hatchets. Similar hatchets together with bells, ornaments, and spear and arrow points of the same metal were seen at various points, and were doul)tless used to a consider- able extent throughout Yucatan, Chiapas, and Guate- mala. But there are no metallic deposits on the pen- insula, and the copper instruments used there, or at least the material, must have been brought from the north, as it is indeed stated by several authoi's that they were. No metallic relics whatever have been found among the ruins of Yucatan, and only very few in other jVIaya regions. Copper imj>lements are not mentioned by the early visitors to Nicaragua, and al- though that country abounds in ore of a variety easily worked, yet there is no evidence that it was used, and Squier's statement that the Nicaraguans were skillful workers in this metal, probably rests on no stronger basis than the reported discovery of a copper mask at Ometepec. Godoi speaks of copper in Chiapas, and also of a metallic com[)osition called cacao! Small articles of gold, intended chieHy for ornamen- tal purposes, were found everywhere in greater or less abundance by the Spaniards, the gold being generally described as of a low grade. Cortes speaks of tlie gold in Yucatan as alloyed with copper, and the same alloy is mentioned in Guatemala by Herrera, and in 760 THE MAYA NATIONS. Nicarai^ua by Bcnzoni. The latter author says tliat jjcold was abundant iu Nicarai^ua but was all brous^lit from other provinces. He also states that there wore no mines of any kind, but Uviedo, on the contrary, sj)eaks of 'j^ood mines of gold.' Articles of gold tooU the form of animals, tishes, birds, bells, small kettles and vases, beads, rings, bracelets, hatchets, snuill idols, bars, plates for covering armor, gilding or plating of wooden masks and clay beads, and settings for precious stones. Peter Martyr s[)eaks of gold as foi-med in bars and stam[)ed in Nicaragua, and Villagutierre of silver 'rosillas' in use among the Itzas. We have but slight information respecting the use of precious stones. Oviedo saw in Nicaragua a sun-dial of j)earl set on jasper, and also speaks of wooden masks cov- ered with stone mosaic and gold plates in Tal isco. Martyr tells us that the natives of Yucatan attaclied no value to Spanish counterfeited jewels, because tiiey could take from their mines better ones of genuine worth. ^ The few implements in common use among the IVIayas, such as knives, cJiisels, hatchets, and metates, together with tlie spear and arrow heads already men- tioned, were of flint, porphyry, or other hard stone. Tliere is but little doubt that most of their elaborate sculpture on temples and idols was executed with stom^ implements, since the material employed was for tlio • Two spindles with golden tisane. Cortds, Cartas, pp. 3, 422. Si>c fjiiMeii idols, eiicii one span lon<', in N iciiraj;ua. Urrrcrn, Hist. (}ct>., dec ill., lit), iv., cap. V. 20 golden natchets, 14 carats tine, weighing over •-''( Itis. /(/., lil). iv., cap. vi. Houses of goldsmiths that molded marvellously, III., cap. vii. See also Id., dec. i., lih. v., cap. v. Little fishes and gcoe ol" low gold at Catoche. Cof/olluifo, Hist. Yitc, p. 4. (lolden armor iiii>l t)ruaments at Tabasco River. Id., pp. 12-13. Idols of nnkuowu nutals u'.uoug the Itzas. Villuffiifirrrc, Hist. Coiiq. Itza, pp. 4!(r), 407. (iildcd •wooden mask, gold plates, little golden kettles. Diaz, Itiitrnurc, iu '/'/- inni.K-Cniii/Miis, Voi/., serie i., torn, .x., pp. 10, 25. Vases of chiseled gold in Yucatan. lirassenr do lioiirhoiirij, Hist. Nat. Civ., toni. ii., p. fiO; Id., in Laiida, liclncion, p. 32; Benzoni, Hist. Moiidn Niioro, f(d. 102; Oricdn. Hist. Gcti., toin. iv., pp. .30, Oo, torn, i., p. oiO; refer Marfi/r, dee. iv., Ill), i., dec. vi., lih. ii., vi.; Torquemada, Mniiarq. Iiid., tom. i., p. .3")-l; (iiidoi, iu Tcrnaiix-Cnmnaiis, Voy., serie i., tom. .\., p. 178; Sqiiier's Xirit- rtKjim, (Hd. 1850,) vol. li., p. 340. Itespecting a copper mask from Nicara- gua and two copper niedals from Guatemala, sec vol. iv. of this work. STONK CARVINfJ. most part soft and easily worked. The carviii-^'s in tin- hard Ha])ote-\vood in Yucata;i niiist have [>resuiitt(l j,'reat diHiculties to workmen without iron tools; hut the tact remains that stone implements, with a IVw j)rol)ably of hardened co})per, sutticed with native skill aud patience for all ])urposes. Villay'utierre informs us that the Lacandones cut wood with stone hatchets. Co;L,'"olludo si)eaks of the remarkahle facility which the natives displayed in learning the mechanical arts in- tnxliiced by Spaniards, in using new and strange tools or adapting the native implements to new uses. All impleuients whether of the temi)le or the house- hold, seem to have been ceremonially consecrated to their respective uses. Oviedo s})eaks of deer-bone combs used in Guatemala, aud of another kind of combs the teeth of which were made of b'ack wood and set in a composition like baked clay but which became s(jrt on exposure to heat. The early writei's speak in general terms of idols of various human and animal f(jrms, cut from all kinds of stone, and also from wood; Martyr also mentions an immense serpent in what he su|)p()sed to be a place of punishment in Yucatan, which was 'compacted of bitumen and small stones.' The Itzas constructed of stone and mortar the image of a horse, modeled on an animal left among them by CortJs. The Spanish authors say little or nothing of the sculpture of either idols or architectural decora- tions, except that it Avas elaborate, and often demon- hke; but their observations on the subject would have had but little value, even had they been more extended, and fortunately architectural remains are sufficiently numerous and complete, at least in Yuca- tan, Honduras, and Chia})as, to supply information that, if not entirely satisfactory, is far more so than what we possess respecting other branches of !Maya art. Brasseur de Bourbourg s})eaks of vases ex, .Sr)(), Wl\, toiii. iv., ])|i. X\, ',V\, IOr>-'.); Titrqncmiiilii, Motiiini. Lit/., toin. i., ]). 'i^t-l, toiii. ii., p. 340; Luct, Nocus OrbU, p. 329j L'ogoUuilo, Ilist. Yuc, pp. 4, \'i, 187, SYSTKM or NIMKUATION. T.VT Tho followiiijjf talil(! Avill i^'ivc tlu' iv.uliT a cli'ar iiloji of the Muyji systiMu of iiiimuiatioii as it existod ill YiU'atau; tho (kitiiiititniH of some of th(; nanu's aro takoii from tho Maya «lii'tionarv, and may or may not havo any application to tlio sulyoct: liiin, 'iiapcr' cii, ' rata))iish 3 ox, 'mIicHciI corn' •I ciiii, 'Nt'i|i('iit' «ir 'count ' 5 lio, 'entry' (i inic 7 line 8 uiixiic, 'Honi<>t1iin<{ Htamlin^' ori'ct" 9 liolon, hoi, Mo roll «)r turn' 10 lahun, liili, 'a stone' 11 Inline, 'ilrowneil' 1-' lahcii, (lalinn-ca), 10+2 i:< oxlahnn, \\\-U) 14 eanlalinn, 4-hlO 15 liollinn, (ho-lalinn), ->-\-\o 10 iiaelalinn, fi+10, ete. 20 hunkal, /ivr/, 'neck.'ora nieasurc, I X'-O 21 hiintnkal. I ^-I'O 22 eat nival, 2+20, etc 28 iiaxaetiikal, or limikal eatae naxae, 8 +20, or 20 1-8 raltif, 'and' 30 lahneakal, 2x20 10 (?) 31 bulnrtakal, 1 1 +'20 32 lalieatnkal, I'if '20 33 oxlalnitnkal, 13+'20, ete. 40 cakal, 2x'20 41 linntnyoxkal 42 ealnyoxkal fiO lalinyoxkal 51 bniuutuyoxkul CiO oxkal. 3x'20 (!l linntncankal 70 lalineankal 71 hnlnetneankal m eankal, 4X1'0. SI Iintnyokal 82 eatnyokal iK) lalinxokal ItN) ho-kal, 5v..>o 101 linntn nackal 102 eatn uaekal no lalin uat'kal II. ■) liollni nackal 120 nackal l!x'20 130 lalin nuckal 131 linln<- tn nuckal no uuckal, 7X'20 111 linntu naxackal 100 inixackal, 8x'20, etc, •200 lalinncai, I0X'20 300 lioliiiikal. l5x'J0 400 linnliak, 1x400 500 liotnliak (;iM) lalintnhak 8(H> caltak, 2X400 •HH) liiitu yoxliak 1,000 lalinyoxliak or linn|iic (modern) 1,'2(K» oxi.ak, 3x400 l,'250 oxl>ack catac lalinvox- kal, 3x4(MJ+50 2,000 cajiic (niodein) 8.000 luin|iic (ancient) Ki.ooo ca pie (aiM'ient) KiO.OOO calaU 1.000.000 kincliil or huntzot/ceh (U.OOO.OOO hninilaii lOfi; Tlrrrrrn, Ih'sf. Ctrn., dec. ii., lili. ii., cap. xvii., dec. iv., lili. viii., cap. jx., lil>. X., ••a|>. ii., xiv.; Lkik/h, Uilnriuii, p|i. lid, 120, 128 0; l'i7/iii/ii. (irrrr, Jlisf. C<>,i>/. I/.yi, pp. 100, 3II-I'J, 405, 4!l<.) 501 ; 7;,,//c.syr/, lli.sf. (7ii/(i/)n., ]). 203; /'iter ^fiir/i/r, dec. iv., lili. ii., dec. vi., jil). iii.; Jliii::iiiii, H.'sf. Mninli, Xiiiiro, fol. OS, 102 3; A'ininir.z, lli^t. liiil. (lintt., u. 'HV.X; (liiiiKirii, lli.sf, //(f/,, fol. 2tiS; Ciird'n, Cnr/ns, p. 480, Aii(/iii/tiifii, in S'unrr- ri'lr,('(il. i/r Vinjrs, toni. iii., p. 4111; I.ii.i Cusiis, Hint, ^l/m/iiiji/icii, .MS,, cap. exxiv.; /'/., in Kiiii/sltiiroiii;fi\i Mr.r. Aii/ii/., vid. viii., |>p. 147 8; I'dhwio, farfii, ]). 44; S'/iiirr'.s Slcdrdijim, (Kd. |S5t),) vol. ii., pp. 330, 3 If!; ]'. (iO, 17'2, Sti.'j. Vol. II.— 48 r.-ii THE MAYA NATIONS. TIiUH tliu Mayas Huum to liavo had ini<'0, ami to liavo tbnited all immlfor.s l»y tlu; tidtli lion or miilti|)lii*atioii of tlu-Ho. Tiiu nianiiL'r in whitli till' coinMnatioiiH wuru inado suuiiis cluar up to (ln' iiiiinhcr 40. TIuih wo have 10 and '2, 10 and .'{, «■((., ii|) to 10; 20 is Iniii-kul, '21 is /um-fu-ka/, t'tc, indi- catinif tliat fii, winch 1 rmed from 20, we should have /niii-hi-cd-hil, (•(t-fii-<'<(-k(il, etc., instead of the names <;iven, hnn-tn i/(Kr-/ca/, etc., or, intei'pretinj^' this last name as the former were inter|)reted we should luive (51 instea. ',(:.*!). '101 iiiodo do coiitar tie 1<>« lii- Till; MAYA CAI.KNilAK. T.'o Autlioritit's on tlif >riiNji cultdKlMr of Yiicatjin, tlh3 i;:ily oiio of wliirli miy erleetly t'uniiliar with the Maya hmt^na'.ie, and had in his jtossession or consulted elsewliere many anciidit inainis('ri|tts. There are also a tew seatteicd remarks on the Huhjoot in the works of othei' writers.' The Maya dav was called kiti, or 'sun'; ninHh ocuh /•//( was the time just |)recedin,L;' suni'ise; Inif-.oih was the tinnj from sunrise to noon, v hich was called c/nni- 11 H or 'middle of the day'; fzch-jt kin was the declin- i:ihy of dilfeivnt writers, and the moaning of the names so far as known: K'liii 'lu'ii(M|ucii stiin;,',' 'yellow.' '.scriK-iit.' ( 'liiccliilii r/n'r/iii I wMiilil 1)0 ■.siiiall,' a tliiiij,' that j;ni\vs or iiicrca^cH sliiwly. ("inii '(^uiiiii, Ciiiiijl prcfcrito of vimH, 'to die' -Maiiik |)osNihly ' iia.ssiii;,' wiiiil.' I.aiiiat ])ossil)ly 'aliy.ss of walt'f," fonml as l.inihal in Oajaca calcinlar. Muliio |Hissil>|y 'rcuiiio!!,' aNo in Cliiajias <'ali'ii(lai'. Uc 'what may he lit'ld in the jialiu of the haini.' 'foot,' 'Ic^'.' t'hiU'U ' hoaril,' or iiaiiic of a trci-, \ii-x\\i\.\)^ rlnmiii of (^iiichi- cali'iidar. i;i> 'stairway' or 'ladder.' lien (Heeii) ]ierha|is Tlcen, an ani'ient prince, or 'tosjiend with inoiny.* I\ illi\, (iix) |ios>il)ly ' rou^^hnex-i.' '1 he Cjuiehe itz i.s 'sorcerer.' Men ' hnilder.' CiblQiiih) 'wa.\' or 'copal.' dio!» cs de eiiico on cinco, y ile <|uatro rincos luizen veinte.' Lumhi, I!l((- riiiii, ]i. '2M; Jfrrrrrit, J/isf. /liii.. dee. iv., lih. x.. eiiji. iv. * L'lii'/ii, Ji'fiirifiti, pj), •2ll2-;ni'>; /''■;•'■:, ('/■■iiniinii'n .\ii/i'/">i y*/ir//.v' Yiti'uhtn, vol. i.. iip. -HU-.')'.); ori.uinal S|iani^!i al.-^.i in the Ji'/is'ro Yiii'iitirn; Orozci) _y I'i'rrii. Hf'tiinifiiu Y\i. HW S. Kl.'i-t; \'iiiHn, Jlisl. Ant. M'J., toin. i., \>. I'M; ('fiin'i/rrii, Slurin Ant. il>t M ssint, toni. ii., |)|>. (!.")-(!; Gnlliitin, in Aiiirr. Kt/ino. Sur., Trinisiirt., vol. i., np. 101- I I; I'riis.sriir i/f JioHi-ttoiirif, Hi.st. Xiii. Cir., toni. iii., pj). tiiLl-T; /(/., il.S Troiiiio, toni. i., pp. 73-1)7. 756 THE MAYA NATIONS. Ciihnn Lziiiiiih (Ecnah, Edznab) CiUiiic Alum (Ajau) 'kin;^,' bepuiiiiip of the period of 24 (or 20) ytnrs. Yiiiix Iiuox, ill t^iiiehe culuiulur is the Mexican Cipactli. Il< (Viv) 'wind' or ' l.reath.' Akbal la l^uiche, 'vase.' The liiero<>-lyp]iics by which the names of the days were exi)ressed are shown in the acconij)anying cut in their proper order of succession, — Kan, Chicclian, etc., to Akhal ; hut it is to be noted tliat ahhouoh tliis onUr was invariable, yet the month might be,ofin with any one of tile four days Kan, Muhic, Ix, and Cauac. CHICCHAN. CI Ml. MAN IK, LAMAT. OC. MEN. CAUAC. AHAU. YMIX Days of the Maya Caleiuhi The month, made up as T have said of twenty days, was called u, or 'moon,' indicating' perhaj)s that time was originally computed by lunar calculations. It was also called u'uial, a word whose signification is not satisfactorily given. The year contained eighteen months, whose names with the hieroglyphics by wliich they were written, are shown in the cut on the opposite page, iv their order, Pop, Uo, Zip, etc., to Cumhu. MONTHS OF THE MAYA CALEXDAIf. 767 POP, UO, ZIP. TZOZ. TZEC. PAX. KAYAB. CUMHU. Months of the Maya Calendar. Not only did tlio months succeed eacli other al- ways in the same order, but Pop was always the first month of flie year, wliicli began on a date corres- ponding to July l() of our calendar, a date "which varies only forty-eiglit hours from tlie time when the sun passes the zenith -an a[)proximati<)n as accurate as could be expected from observations made without instruments. The following tahle shows the names of the months, their meaning, and tlie day on which each began, ac- cordinijf to our calendar: Pop (Poop, Po])p) 'mat ' Inly 10 Uo (Woo, \'oo) ' J'ro^' ' An;;. 5 Zip (Clip) name t>f a true, ' ilcfi-ct,' ' swollen ' Aii^. '25 Tzoz (Zoc, Zotz) 'Iiat' Sept. 14 Tzec (Zeee) possibly ' discourse,' ' skull ' < >rt. t Xul 'end' .' (|et. 'J4 Yaxkiu (l)ze-Ya.\kin, Tze Vaxkin) 'beginning of summer' Nov. 13 7r,3 THE MAYA NATIONS. Mill (?.I(i()l) 'to roiiiiitc' Dec. ?, Ciicii (("lieuii) 'well' Dcr. •_':; \iix (^'iiax) 'j^rn't'ii' or 'l)liiL''or 'liist' .Jii:i. IJ /a.' (Za!v) ' ek-ar.' ' wliito ' Fci.. I (Vli (t^■ll, (^icj, C^icli) Mecr' IVU. -JI Mai', 'to dose,' 'lid,' a measure Mar. l;{ KaiiUin, 'yellow sun' \\< laU in the i)lace o if Ki Jll.sf. ) 1' I S,-)-(J. llso L jriis.si III' II If, Ifist. \ii/. Cir., toni. ii., ])[). 4(i(i-7; Wnhlii-k, I'li;/. I'i//., |i. '22. The .\hhL' IJrasseur de I'xnnhour;;. in his attemjiled inter|irelatiiin d" the Manuscriii t '1' ■oano, '' i\es the foil 'curious et vmolo'fies of the niuii of these months. 'Le vocahle y*'(/'. v" aiix Antilh's. an rapport ilii nieiiie aiitt nonce Tidt'e des caracti-res de recriture, en particulier des voye|](v (Vt 1 f> iicronivplie ]>arait assez ' ' ■ " l.h lillicih e a exiiliiiuer. Sa section iiif^ rieiiic rcii riue un caractere (|ni scmhlc, en raccourci, ct ■liii de la let tie A. et la In // tion supi'rieure est ideiitiipie avec le si;,nie ((lU! je erois une variante localitL', lien. < "e tpron pourrait interpreter jiar "le possesseur eiit'cin du li indice du tctard, de rcmhryon dans son »'n\elop]ie. ('.') 1,'ei: >l>!, de I'iih'e t^i'oloHiime, (jui a preside ,i la eoinposition du calendrier maya. iiiois, ainsi <|ue ilans ceux de> jours. .'. pres le chaieiir, apiiarait le tctard, remlu'viui dc lonrsui t dii ins les noins ties niar.'caie, dei.a <'re\ass ■ par ttrenoiii lie, li Ussi; an fond de la honrlie, svinlMde de remhrvi on dn feu vol can icpie convant sons la terie ;,daci'e v.l ipii ne tardera pa>- ii roinpre so oppe, amsi cpi on le verra diins les noins des nuns suivaiits. , . .Ai/i, aiia vsc, donin Xi Kus a hrul r ipii SI! ;jontIe outre niesure, sens intcn'ssant (jui rapjielle le ;^rand arlire dn moiiile. j;i>iilh' outre mesure jar les •in/, ct li teiix \olcaiiii|ues,avaiit d'ei'Iater rinclincrais ,'i pensertpie l.aiida a vz, iion la chauve-souris ci.v, n .'li-- /m/c, la cheveiiire. vocalih' II dans toutes les lauuncs «(h. unijuh cli((h, '! i/dl/ L-iii, II i/nii li, would l)eL;-in with the (lay Muluc. Besides this division of time into years, months, and days, there was another division carried alon^" sinnil- taneously with the tirst, into twenty-ei,L>ht }n'riods of thirteen days each," which may for convenience Ik; termed weeks, althoujjfh the natives did not apj)ly any name to the ]»ei'iod <»f thirteen days, and perha]>s did not regard it as a definite jxM'iod at all, hut nscd the nund)er thirteen as a sacred numher from some su])ei'- stitious moti\es;' yet its use pi'oduces some cnrious comj)licatioiis in the calendar, of which it is a most ]>eculiar feature. The name of each day was jireceded hy a numeral showing' its position in the week, and (lis|)iiritimi do ces incMitau'iit'^ hoiis Ics (>iiii\, nil cllcs (•(•ntiniiiM-cMt a ^'riiii:\- <'iT, dans Ifs ri'i'ifs ct Ics liniijl'-iirs, (•(iiiiiiic cllcs avaicnt fait i^riiiiaccr l.i tllai-e, L'li sc siiiilc\aiit." As it would (iciiiiiy too iniicli space tn ^'ivc llic Alihc's cx|ilaiiatimis of all tlic iiioiitlis, tlic ahovc will siillicc fur specimens. See .!/>'. Tniinin, torn. i.. pp. '.tS-KiS. *> I-anda sa.vs, liii\vc\cr, ' vin^ft-scpt tre/aines ct nenf jours, sans cmnptrr Ics snpnli'nicnlaircs.' Iti lurimt, ji. 'IX1. ■? Tlic niinilici' \'.\ nia.v emnc fmni tlic oriL'inal reekoninj: li.v liinatiniis, 2(i da.vs hciny: almnt the time the nmitn is seen alxivc the hmi/on in cac !i revolution. l:{days of increase, and i:{ of decrease. I'ln:, in I.kikIh, U'- lifion, p|). Hl>(i-S. Or it mav have hccn a sacred nnmlicr hefore the inven- lioii of the calendar, heiii;^ the numher of ;,'ods of higli rank, lirasscnr di'. llonrbounj, lb. il' I rco THE MAYA NATIONS. those niiinerals proceeded regularly from one to tliir- teeii and then began again at one. Thus I Kan meant *Kan, the first day of tlie Aveek'; 12 Cauac, 'Caiiac, the twelfth day of the week,' etc. It is probable also that the days of the month were numbered regularly from I to 20, as events are spoken of as occurring on the 1 8th of Zip, etc., but the numeral relating to the week was the most prominent. The table shows the succession of days and weeks for several months: 1 1 Pop. »». 2 Uo. "3 3 Zii'. I< 4 Tzoz. C — >. l"*. -^ 1 Kail 1 s Kail 1 2 Kan 1 <) Kan 1 O ('Iiic'chiiii . O 10 Cliifilian . .J 3 ("iiiii w 1(1 ("niii 3 4 Ciiiii .-i 11 ("inii ;{ 4 Mimik.... ■1 II .Maiiik.... 4 5 .Manik.... 4 12 Manik .. , 4 r. I.aiii.it r> !•.: I.Miiiat .... 5 (> i.aiiiat .... ;> K! l.ainat .... ,") f) Muliu-.... (1 i:! Muluc... (i 7 Mnliic . . . . ('> 1 .Mnluc... () 7 Of -1 1 1 1 1 »!• 7 8 ( ><• 1 o ( »(• 7 8 ('liiieii .... s k> Cliuoii. . . . 8 1 9 Clincii.... S :t ("iuien. . . . s <» Kl. tt ;{ i:i> <» 10 Kl) Men...,,. .Men .Men 12 \\\ ("il. 1.'$ 1 Cib 1.} 1 ("il> I.S ,s Cil) i:{ 1 Calt.iii .... 14 s Cabiin .... 14 2 Caltaii .... 14 <» Calian .... 14 t> K/.aiial> . . . !.-> .3 K/anal> . . . 1.-. 10 H/anal) . . . !."> '^ < 'aiiac k; 1(1 ("aiiac .... l(i 4 ( 'aiiac 1(1 II Canac .... ii; 4 .Mian 17 II .Miaii 17 5 .Miaii 17 12 .Mian 17 .5 Viiiix Is I'J N'liiix 18 « N'lnix IS \'.\ Vinix IS fl Ik l!l i:i Ik 1<> 7 Ik I'.t \ Ik lit 7 Aklial .... •20 1 .Vkl.al .... 20 8 Akhal .... 20 2 Aklml.. .. 20 Of the twenty days only four, — Kan, Muluc, l.\, and Cauac — could begin either a month or a year. Whatever the name of the iirst day of the first month, every month in th(i year bewail with the same day, accom})anie(l, however, by a different numeral. The numeral of the first day for the first month ln'- ing I, that of the second would be 8, and so on for the other montiis in the following order: 2, 9, 3, 10, 4, 1 I, 5, 12, G, 13, 7, I, 8, 2, !), ;!." To ascertain the numer- al for any montli 7 must be added to tliat of the jire- ^^ SUCCESSION OF Till': YKAHS. 761 cediiiijc niontli, and 13 subtmctod from the sum if it be more than 13. Bv cxtendiiiiTf the table of days and montlis over a period of yoars, — an extension \vlii«'li my s\yn with any lirst day until thirteen years had passed aw;iy;so that r Kan or Kaii alone not only named the year which it began, l)ut also a [)eriod of thirteen years, which is spoken of as a 'week of years' or an 'indiction.' 'I'his first indiction of thirteen yeai's begitming with I K;in, the secou'd began witii I ^[uluc, the third with I Ix, and the fourth with 1 C'auac. After the indiction whose sign was I Cauac, the next would begin again with 1 Ivan; that is ;VJ ycius Would have elapsi-d, and this jteriod of Irl yeais was called a Katun, corres])onding with the Aztec cycle, as explainetl in a ])receding chajiter. Thus we see that the four signs Kan, ^Fuluc, Ix, and Cauac served to name certain days of 7C,-2 THF, MAYA NATIONS. the montli; tlioy also naiiiud the years of the iiuhc- tion, since in eoiiiiectioii vith et'rtaiii nmiierals thi'V were the tirst days of these years; they furtlii i- named the iiidietions of tlie Katun, of wliich with the imnieral 1 they were also the first days; and fi- nally they named, or may have named, the Katun it- self whieh they l)eL!^un, also in connection witli the numeral 1. How the Katuns M'ere actually named we are not informed. The completion of each Katun was reufarded hy the Mavas a.s a most critical and im- ]»ortant e[)och, and was eelehrated with most im])osinn' I'eliLjious ceremonies. Also a monument is said tu have been raised, on which a lar^'e stone was placid ci-()sswise, also called httnii as a memorial of the cycle that had passed. It is unfortunate that some of these monuments caimot be discovered and identified anionn' the I'uins. Thus far the ^Faya calendar is, alter a certain amount of study, sufficiently intelli,i;il)le; and is, except in its system of nomenclature, essentially iilentical with that of the Xahuas. The calendars of the Quiches, C'akchicpiels, C'hiapanecs, and the natives of Socomisco, are also the same so far as their details are known. The names of months and days in some of these calendars will be ,<^iven in this cl.aptei'. Another division of time uot found in the Xahua calendar, was that into the Ahau Katunes. The sys- t'ln accordin'sby a sipiare and calUjd (n/uf///////, 'iiiiKi/fc, or /(tni((i/fiiii ; and the second, of the other four years, was placed as a 'pedestal' to the others, and therefore called click oc hitiiu, or h(th oc hitmi. These four years were considered as intercalary and unfortunate, like the five supplementary days of the year, and were sometimes called a ynil liiuih, 'years of TlIK AHAT KATrNKS. 7,;:) ])ain.' Tliis Katun of 124 ycjirs was callnl Alinn (Vomi its first (lay, and the natives lu'^-an to reckon iVom i;! Allan Katun, hecanse it l»e^-an on the «lay I ■"> Ahau, on whieli (lay .some ijireat (jvent ])rohahly toek |tlact' in* their iiistory. The day Ahau at which thest- jteriods l>e.;"an was the second day ot'sncli yi'arsas hei^an with ('auai-; and \',\ Ahau, the iirst day of th(^ first j»eri»i(l. was the second of the yeai' I "J ('.mac; i* Ahau was the second day of tlie year 1 C'auac, etc If we construct a tahU' of tlie veafs from 12 Cauac in re-'ular ordiT, Ave shall find that if the fii'st period was l;' Ahau Katun because it he^'an with I .". Ahau, the second, 1*4 years later, was I I Ahau Katun, heninninu^ with II Ahau; tlie third was 1) Ahau Katun, vU'. That is, the Ahau Katuni's, instiNid of heinn' nuinhert'd I, '2, .'!, etc., in ri'^'idir order was prciccfded l»y tlu' numerals l.'i, II, 1), 7, f), :?, I, ]'l, 10, H, ('), 4, an'd 2. I;5 of these Ahau Katuiu^s, makin<4" [\\2 years, constituted a o-reat cycle, and we are told that it was l)y means ol" the Ahau Katunes and oreat cycles of 'M'2 years that historical events were i^'enerally recorded. Sr Vcw'A stat(;s that the year ll>!)'J (»f oui* era was the ^faya year 7 C'auac, 'accordinn' to all sources (»f infoiMuation, eontirmed l>y the tiistimony of Don ( 'osnie de liui'i^'os, oneof the con(inerers, and a writer (hut whose ol)servatit)ns have heen lost).' Therelon' the H Ahau Katun he^'an on the second day of that year; the (5 Ahau Katun, 2A ytvirs later, in NIC); the 4 Ahau in 1440; the 2, in I4(;4; the l;{, in 14SS; th;' I I, in \[)\2; the <), iu J5;!C); the 7, in IjCO; the a, in l;")H4; the .'>, in l(»OS, etc. As a. test of t!ie accuracy of his system of Ahau Katunes, the author says that he found in a certain manusciii»t the d(>ath of a distin- guished individual, Ahpuhi, mentioned as having- taki'ii place in the (Jth year of Ahau Katun, when the lii'st day of the year was 4 Kan, on the day of '.) 1.x, the IHth day of the month Zip. Now the I.; Ahau l)e^'an in tlie year 12 Cauac, or 14HS; the Ctlh year from 1488 was 141);?, or 4 Kan; if the month of 7u4 THE MAYA NATIONS. Pop benfan witli 4 Kan, then tlie 3cl moiitli, Zip, lio- ^lui with Kan, and the IHtli of tliat niontli fell on \) Ix, or Si'pt. 11. All this may he readily veritied hy "fillinn" out the table in regular order. On tile other liantl \ve have Landa's statement that the Ahan Katnn was a period ot" 20 years; he t^ives however the same order of the numerals as Perez, — that is i;?, 11, 9, 7, 5, 3, 1, 12, 10, S, 0, 4, 2. I Fe also states that the year 1541 was the beginning- of 1 I Ahau; but if 11 Ahau was the second day of LVM, that year must have been 10 Cauac, and 15(5 1, 20 years later, would have been 4 Cauac, the second dav of which would have been 5 Ahau; which does not a,i*'ree at all with the order of mnnerals. In iact no other number of yeai's than 24 Ibr each Ahau Katun will j)roduce this order of numerals, which I'act is perhaps the stronu^est argument in favor of Sr IVrix' system. Cou'olhulo also says tliat the !Mayas counted their time by periods of 20 years called Katunes, each divided into 5 sub-periods of Ibur years each. Sr Perez admits that other writers reckon the Ahau Ka- tun as 20 years, but claims that they have lalleii into error through disrej^ai'ding' the c/icl: oc kattin, or 4 un- lucky years of the {)eriod. A Maya manuscript I'ur- nished and translated by Perez is published by Stc- {)hens and in Landa's work, and repeatedly s})eaks ol' the Ahau Katun as a period of 20 years. AiL^nin, this is the very mamiscript in which the death of Ali- pulii wjis announced, and the date of that event is given as (> years before the eomplefioii of IJ AJihh, in- stead of the sixth year of that })erio(l as stated in the calculations of Sr Perez; and besides, the date is dis- tinctly given as 153(5, instead of 1403, which dates will in nowise agree with the system explained, or with the date of 1392 given as the begiiming of H Ahau. ]\[oreover, as I have already said, sevei'al of the statements on which Perez bases his computations are unsup))orted by any authority save manuscripts unknown to all but himself Such are thc^ statements BISSKXTILK ADDITION'S. 765 that the Ahaii Kiitnn hoLjan oji the 2(1 day of a year Cauac; that IM Ahaii was ivckoiit'd as the first; aiul that H Aliaii ho^aii in l;5'.)2. These facts, toLi^ether ■with various otlier iiiaeeuraeies in the writings of Sr Perez are sufficient to weaken our faith in liis system of the Ahau Katunes; and since theotiier writeis oive no exphmations, this part of the ^Eaya cak'iidar nuist remain shrouded in doul)t until new sources of infor- mation shall he found/ The following* (luotation made hy Sr Perez from a maiuiscript, contains all that is known respectini^ what was [K>ssihly another mttliod of reckonini"' time. "There svas anotlier mnnht'r which they called id K'nfxn, and whicli served them as a key to find tlie Katunes, accordini;' to the oi'(U'i' of its march, it falls on the days of the iioi/rh IhkiI), and re- volves to the end of certain years: Katunes 13, S), 5, 1, 10, G, 2, 11,7, n, 12, H, 4." AVe have sijen that the Alaya year hy means of in- tercalary days added at the end of the montl\ ( 'undui Avas macUi to include -')()") days. Ifow the additional six hours necessary to make the length of tht' year a^'ree witii the solar movements were intercalated with- out (Hsturhinijf the complicated order already descrihed, is altoLjetlier a matter of conjecture. The most jdaus- ihle theoiy is perhaps that a day was added at the end of every four years, this day heing called hy the same name and numeral as the one precedini;' it, or, in other words, no account beini^' made t)f this day in the " '('<, y ciIikIcs. ihic imiiian on stis lilims dc vcintc en vcintc afios, y jMir liistms dc ([Uiitii) <'ii (|n,itn). . . . Llt'i^'aiido cstns lii^iius ;i eiiici), (|iu' a jiistaii vcintc iu'uis, llaiiialiaii h'n/iiii. y |i ((uicrc de/ir la de mas afids inic estas, cran treee nhiiina (juc ('(Mitenian -(!(• afids. (|ne era |iaia elins un si;;'lii.' IlrZ/rmi ilr Smi/ii llnsn, M.irii>, Arfr, j). "JOJ. Urasscnr de IJonrlponr;,' is Huhjcet. Ill /.(iiiifti, ti'r/(iri„ii, \\]K •H»2-i:{, 4-28. 'I'lic Maya MS. icteirc.l lo in the text is found with its translation in I(/., jip. 4'20-'.), and .Slrji/inis' Yiu-Kldii, vol. ii., PI*. 4t!.')-!). till) THE MAYA NATIONS. iilinjmiic, iiltli<)U;L,Hi it wns ix-rlinps iiidicatofl l)y soini' si;>ii ill the liior(>^ly[)lii('s ottlK'su diiys. Tlie Xicaiji- oiijin ('cilc'iulur wuH priu-tically itlt-iitioal with tiint u\' thu Aztecs, cvuii ill nomenclature although tlieie weie iiatunilly some slight variations in ortlio^rapliy. 'J'lie f'oliowinijc talile sliowstlie names of the months in sev- eral other ^[aya calendars, wliose system so far as known is thu same as that iu Yucatan. Qiiidie.9 rukclii(iuul.9 1 Nalic Tzih '\>l word' •_> I' t'lil. T/.ili '-M word' ;{ Ko\ 'I'zili 'M wold' 4 ('lie 'liv.'' r> Tci'iixfiiiiiii (i Tzilic I'op 'jiiiintcd niiit' 7 Zak 'wliite' 8 Cliali 'liow' •I llmio liix (iili '1st son;,' of »un' 10 Nal)e Mam '1st old mar' 11 U Cab Mam "2d old niau' \'2 Nalu' Li'^iii ()a ''1st soft hand' i:} r Cal. !,i.uiii (Ja '•Jd soft hand' 11 Nahe I'ach ' 1st ;,fen<>ration' 1.-) U Cal) Paih '•Jd generation' 1() Tziiinin (!ili 'lime of liirds' 17 Tzizi I.a^ian 'to sew the standard ' 18 Cakam 'time of reil llowers' 1 ISota 'rolls of mats' (^)atic 'common seed' izcal 'Hprouts' Pariehe ' lirewood ' 'I'oeaxeiMial 'seeding' time' Nahey rniiin/uz ' 1st llyinj,' ants' Itucah 'i'umiiznz '•_M living' ants' Cihixie 'time of smoke' I'ehnin 'resowinj; time' Nahey Mam '1st olil man' Uu Cah Mam "2d old man' Lij^in Ka 'soft hand' Nahey Tojjic '1st harvest' UuCah To;,'ie '2d harvest' Nahey I'aeh '1st generation' UuCahPaeh ''id generation ' Tzi([niu Gih 'time of birds' Cakam ' time of red (lowers' Chiapas and Soeoniisi'o. I" 'I'znn liat/nl Sisac M ni'tasac Moe * Haiti IMol (>i[niiiajual Veh Kleeh NiclKinm Slianvin(|iiil Xehibalvini[uil Yoxihalvimiuil Xehanihal- vlmniil Poiu .^rnx Vaxcinin 9 The (Jniehe year, aeeording to Bassota, began on Derember 24. of onr calendar. Kollowiug an anonymons MS. history of Cnatemala, tlie Cak- ehii|nel year began on .lanuary ;U; and the 1st of I'ariehe in 1707 was rtl-ti«li' 2 I;; spirit or ' liruiitli ' 3 Alvlial 'at • lizard' 5 <'aii ■ snake' (! Camcv 'tlcatli' 7 <^iicli 'dfi-r' 8 (iaiu-l 'ralil>it.' !> Toll ' sliowur' 10 Tzy '.l..^'' 11 Italz 'iiKiiikey' I'J (i or llalaiii, 'broom,' ' tiycr' i:» All '.aiic' 14 \'\/. or Itz ' sorccror ' I.') 'rzic(iiiii 'bird' l(i Aliiiiak ' lisliiT,' 'owl' 17 Noll ' l(>iii|i(>ratiiru ' 15 Tiliax 'olisidiaii' ]>.) ("auk 'rain' '20 llnnalipu 'slnjotor of lilowjiiin' ' liMox or Mox ly;li or ^';;li Nolan Clianan or (llianaii A ball or Abayh 'I'ox Moxic l.aialial Mojo or Mnlii i:ial> or Klali I'.at/. I'.vol) or Knob I'.ccn Ilix 'l'zic|uin ('lial)in or Clialiia Cliii" or < 'liini^ Cliinax ('aiio;;ii or Cabogli A;:lMial I shall treat of tlio ^laya hicr()L;flyi>hic'sl)yi>iviiihabet, a mention of Brasseur de Bourbon rg's atteii;[)ted inter- j)retation of the native writings, and a tew speculations of other modern writers on the subjec t. Tlu! state- ments of the early writers, although conchisi\e, are not numerous, and I Mill conse(|uently translate them literally, Landa says that ''the sciences whicli they taught were — to read and wi'ito with tlieir books ami charac- ters with which they wrote, and with the figures which sigiiitied (ex})laine(l, or took the i)lace of!') Avritiiigs. " Hnissnir . -Kil'-S. 12 liriis.inir (Ir I'.iiniinirii, ul)i sn|>. ; Jioliirini, lilm, p. IIS; Iliiiiilntlilf, Vu's, toni. ii., ])p. 3r>i)-7; linllnliii, in Anur. Elhim. Sue, Trinism/., \uc. Mrj:. (Jlui/., IJulctiii, toiii. iii., p. 344, 7(]H TIIK MAVA NATIONS. Tli!\v wroto tlieir liook.s (Hi a laiiic Ir.'if, doiiMrd in folds, and iiiclostsd ItLitwccii two hoards wlncli tlicv iiiad(! veiy lino (dfcoiatud) ; iiiid tlu'V Avroto on lioth sides incolmims, jiccordiiii;' to the roidsitiu; piipcr tlicv niado of the roi»ts of a troo, and ;^^avc' it a wliito var- nisli on wliidi ono ooultl write well; these scieiicts were; known ]>y certain men (»f lii^li rank (only), wlio Were tiujrefore more esteemed ahhounh thev liitl not use the art in j)uhlic'." *' liiese jteople also used cer- tain characters or letters with which tiiey wrote in their hooks their anticjuities and their sciences; and hy means of these and of figures and of certain sin'Us in their figures they umlerstood their thiuiji's, and ni.idc them understood, and taui^ht them. We found anioni;" them a ^I'eat numherof hooks of these letters of theirs, and hecause thev had nothiny- in w hich there were not su[)erstitions and I'alsities of the devil, we hurned them all, at which they were exceedininly sorrowful and trouhled."^'^ Accordini^ to (^)!4'()lhido, "in the time of their infidelity the Indians of Yucatan had hooks, made of the hark of trees, with a white and dural»le varnish, ten or twelve yards lonj^, which hy foldinn" were reduced to a span. In these they ]>ainted with colors the account of their years, wars, Hoods, hurri- canes, famines, and other events." "The sou ot the only <4'od, of whose existence, as T have sjiid, they ^vere aware, and whom they called Ytzammi, was tiie man, as I helieve, who first ijivented the charactei-s which served the Indians as letters, hecause they called the hitter also Ytzamn;!."" The Itzas, as A"il- hiLfutierre tells us, had "characters and ti<>ures itainted on the l)ark of trees, each lenf, or tal»let, l)einn' nhout a span lon<»', as thick as a real do a ocho (a coin), folded hoth ways like a screen, whivi' they called atinltccs.'"'^'* ^lendieta states that the Mexicans had no letters, "al- ls I.iitiihi, lii/dn'on , pp. 44, .Tlfi. n CiKliilliiili), llist. Viii., pp. 1S.">, 100. Tlio siiiiu' autlmr (|ii(»t('s Fiicn- saliila I" till' t'UV'ct tliiit tlic It/.a jnii'.stH still ki'pt in liis tiiiii! a record nf l)ast ovciits ill a lHn>i< 'like a history wliicli tlicy call .Viialtc.' hi., p. r)(>7. 1' Villdijiilirnr, Ill's/. Citiiq. Ilza, pp. 3'J3-4. 'Analteiies, 6 Ili.storius, i>s Vila iiii»iiia cumu.' Id., p. 352. MAYA IIIEUUIJLYPinc SVSTK^r. 700 thoujfh in tlio land of Chainpoton it is .said tliat Huch Were fuiind, and that they understood eacli otiier \>y nieaiiH of them, aH we do l>y means (»f ours.""' Acosta Kays that in Yucatan "tliero were hooks of leaves, hound or folded after their maimer, in which the learned Indians had their division of tlieir tinu;, knowl- ed«jfe of plants and animals and other natural ohjects, and their anti(]uities; a thinjr of ^reat curiosity and dilijfence."" The Maya priests "were occupied in teachinj^ their sciences and in writiuijf hooks u|»on them."" In Guatemala, according'- to Benzoui, "the thin<^ of all others at which the Indians have heen most surj)rised has heen our readinijf and writinj,^ Nor could they imaij^ine among themselves in what way white paper painted with black, could si)eak."'" Peter Martyr i^ives (juite a lon<( descrij)tion of the native wood-bound l)ooks, which he does not refer particularly to Yucatan, althou^'h J3ras.seur, apparently with much reason, believes they were the Maya wudtes rather than the re«:^ular Aztec I)icture writings. The description is as follows in the quaint English of the translator. "They make not their books square leafe by leafe, but extend the matter and substance thereof into many culjites. They reduce them into square peeces, not loose, but with binding, and flexible Bitumen so conioyned, that be- ing compact of wooden table 1 ookes, they may seeme to haue passed the hands of some curious workman that ioyned them together. AVhich way soeuer the book bee opened, two written sides oflijr themselues to the view, two pages appeare and as many lye vnder, vnlesse you stretch them in length: for there are many Icauos ioyned toirether vnder one leafe. The Characters are very vnlike ours, written after our manner, lyiie after lyne, with characters like small dice, fishookes, snares, 10 Men dicta, Hist. Erics., ji. 14.3. " Amstn, Hist, de las Ynd., p. 407; Clavigero, Storia Ant. del Mcssico, toin. ii., i-. 187. 18 Ilcrrcra, Hist. Grii., dec. iv., lilt, x., cap. ii. 19 Bcnzoni, Hist. Mondo Xuoco, ful. 109-10. Vol. II. 49 THE MAYA NATIONS. filos, stari'GS, & other sucli like formes and sliapos. WliL'rciii tliev iiuinitato almost the EiifV|)tiaii maiim-r ut' uritiiii^", and hotweene the lines they paint the s]ia]»t's of men, & heasts, esj»ecially of their kini^s & nohlcs. .... 'riiey make the former wooden table Ixjokes also with art to content and delii*'ht the beholder. Beiiii^ shut, they seenie to differ nothiriiif from our bookes, in tliese they set downc in writiui*- the rites, and the ous- tomes of their laws, saeritices, ceremonies, their com- l)utations, etc."*' liLsj)ectiny Nunez de la Veij^a in IGDl. All this amounts to little save as indicatin_!:>' the ancient use of hitsro^-lyphics by the followers of \"()- tan, a fact sufHciently ])roven, as we shall see, by tlie eno-raved tablets of Palenque and Copan.^' Tlu- Nicaraguans at the time of the conquest had records 20 /V/(7' M irhir, doc. iv., liU. viii., or Latin edition of ColofjiiP, l">7-t, p. ."ilt; also (HMtcil ill /Irii.iaiiir tii., ]i. 104; Malti'-Jiriin, I'rrvis dr In . lu'lVroiK ,'.. !■• noderii autliors who, t-xropt possil)ly Mt'ilul, have nu other .sdiiri'i's of information than tiioso I have ((uoted, are as foliow.s: ' I >aii-. k' Vncalhan, on ni'a niontri' dcs csja'ces do li'ttrcs ct de earaeti'^res (hint m- scrvent h's hahitants. ... lis enipioyaient au lien (h? ]iapier I'eeoree de cer- taines uriiros, dont ils enlevaieiit des nioreeanx (jui avaient deux aunes (!•! Iiini; et un quart traune de larjfe. ('ette eeorce etait de I'epaisseur d'nui- ]ieau de veau et se pliait eoninie un ]iii;;e. L'usa;;e do ootio eeriture n'etait pas j;eneralonieut rejiandu, et elle n'etait eoniine (ino des pretres et de <|iiel- <[iios caciciuos,' .\ri/i/. in Xdidr/ffn Aiiiin/rs i/r.i Vo//., ISW, toni. .\c\ii., pj). 4!t-50; W'ltldcfk, Voij. I'ift., ji. 4!); S'/uicr's (.'inf. Aiiicr., ]). .">.V2; Mnrr- ( :', V(iiiiiii(',Xi»\\. {., p. l!)l; Faiiroiift's Hist. Viir., )). Hi); Cnrril/ii, ux .^nr. J'Jr.i'. (ii'iuj., lioh'lhi, Uda epoca, torn, iii., pp. l!()0-70; lint.i.sTiir de Jtoiir- li'inni, /fi.it. Xiif. dr., toni. i., ji. 79. •ii Onloilrz, Hist. Cii-/o, etc., MS., and Xiinrz dc In Vc;fa, Constit. /'/- p. 71.71: //.. Poj)!)! Villi, i>. .5; Jiiiino.f, l{isf. Oua(., p. 208; I'incda, in Svc. Mt.c. Gcuij., Buk'tin, toni. iii., i>p. 345-6. MAYA MAMSCItll'TS. "71 painted in colors iipon skin and pa]»or, imdoulttedly identical in their fii^ures with those of the Xahnas, to ^vh<^nl the civilized peo[)le of Nicarai^Hia wore neai'lv related in blood and lan^-uat4'e. No sperimcns of these southern liieroL,dy[)hics have, however, been preserved. Oviedo and Herrera sliyhtly describe the r)aintin!jfs and later writers have followed thein.'-^ Of the aboriij^inal Maya inanuscri])ts three speci- mens only, so far as I know, have been preserved. These are the Mc.rirun Maimxcnpf, No. 2, of the im- perial Library at Paris; The Drt'sdcn Coder; ajul tlie M((iiitscripf Troitno. Concei'niny the first Ave only know of its existence and the similarity of its charac- ters to those of the other two and of the sculptured tablets. The document was photo:L>-rai)hed in 1804 liy order of the French government, but 1 am not aware that the photoi^ra})hs have ever been i^iven to the pub- lic. The Dresden, Codex is ]M'eserved in the Hoyal Library of Dresden. A com})lete copy was ])ublisii"d in Lord Ivini^-sborough's collection of AEexican anticjui- ties, and fragments were also rei)roduced by Hum- boldt. It was purchased in Vieima by the librarian (Jotzin 1731), but beyond tliis nothin. 'JtiS-71, i»l. xvi. Mr I'li-scott, Mr.r., vol. i., ])p. 104-5, savs tliat this ilociiiiiciit hears lint little rivscinblaiu'c to otlu-r .V/.ti'c M.SS., ami that it iiiilicatt's ti imich hiyjluT sta<;e of civili/ation; hut he also fails to deter'- any str(>ii;;er likeness to the has-rt-liefs of I'aieii({ne, of whieli latter, how- ever, he prohahly had a very iin|ierli ct idea. It eaiinot he interjuvteil, for 'oven if a Uosetta stone were discovered in Mexico, there is no Indian ton;;ue to supply the key or interpreter.' Mni/ir, M>.r. nx it Was, yu. •_'.">.S-!t. 'Fie Codex de liresde, et un autre de la HihliothiMiue Nationale a I'aris, Itien (|u'oirrant (juehiue rapport avec les Illtnels, echaupcnt ii toute interiue- tation. lis appartiennent, ainsi que les inscriptions de Chiapjia et du Vu- A \. .^ ' :. . 1.- 'I.I. ...' . :.. ..'. . ..* I l!r. .1....* ».. i!?. trnie, tloiit on I app catan ii nne eeriture plus elahoree, eoninie incrusteeet calci croit trouver des traces dans toutes les jiarties tves-iMiciennetnent policees des doux .\ineri(iues.' Aiihin, in linistinir pears for the most part as a background in some of tl e j)iiges. A few of the pages are slightly damagi'd, and iii! r lie imperfections are, as it is daimeil, faithfully re- }>rofhiCed in the ])ublished copy, which with the edi- tors 'onnnents tills two ([uarto vohmies in the series l>uMislitMl by the C(>mmission mentioned.'** 'i!'. jtiates on tlie following {)ages from the works of Stephens and Waldeck 1 present as specimens of the Maya writing, as it is found carved in st(»ne in Yucatitn, Honduras, and Chiapas. For particulars resjiecting the ruins in connection with which they were discovered, I refer the reader to volume \V. of 2« lirf.iSfKr (fc Bniirhoiirtj, MS. Troniio; J^fiii/rs /^iii" fi' .iifafi^mf tiritji/iiijiic. .( /.( hiiKjiiv (Us Mnjiifi, Paris, IS(»'.t-70, 4', 2 vhIm, 70 coldrtMl iilatt's. j: I 1 i il 774 THE MAYA NATIONS. Page of MaiiiiMiiiit Tnmiio. MAYA IXSCIlll'TlONS IN STONK. I (.> rig. 1. -Altar lii.scrijitioii from C(ii)iiii. l''i<'. 2,— Tablet from C'liklicii. \'i'^. .'{. Ciialtiiiiiiti' fudii IK'nriiigi). 77C TUK yi\\'\ NATIONS. Fig. 4.— Tablet from Palciuiue. r.ISIlol' LAXDA'S AI-rilAIlKT. 777 tliis work. Fh^. I i\>j)rest!iits tlic liioroi^lypliics sculp- tured oil tho top of nu altar at C'opan, in Jloiuluras, the tliirtv-six j>roups covi'r a space uearlv six feet scpiare. Fii>". 2 is a taMi-t set in the interior wall of ;i huildinij;' in Chicheu, Yucatan. The tahlet is ]>laced over the doorways and extends the whole length of the room, fortv-three feet; only a ])art, howevir, is shown in the cut. Fin*. ;> is a full-size representation of the carviiiijc on a jicreen stone, or chalchiuite, found at Ococino'o, Chiapas. I take it from the iuii^lish translation of ^Torelet's Travels. Many of the mon- oliths of Copan, have a line of hitro^lyphics on their side. Plates rej)resentin<;' specimens of these mon- uments will he n'iven in \'()lume I \'. Fi«^-, 4 sh(»ws ;i jtortion of the hieroii'lyphic inscriptions on the famous 'tahlet of the cross' at I'alenijue."' I have i»iven on a ]»recedinn- pa^'e in this cha|)ter, the si^ns hy which the natives of Yucatan expressed the nanies of their days and months, takt-n from the Work of l)ishop Landa. The same author has also jtreserved aMaya al[>lial)et. On account of Landa's faihire to appreciate the imj)ortance of the native hie- roglyphics, or to compi'ehend tin; systt'ui, and also veiy liki'ly (»n account of liiscoj>yist's cari'lessness- for the original manusciMpt of lianda's woi'k has not hei'U found — ^the |»assa.L»"e relatiiii*" to the alj)hahet is very vai>ue, unsatisfactory, and ]»erhaj)s fragmentary ; hut it is of the very highest importance, since the alj)hahet here ui^iven in coimection with the calendai- sinus al- ready spoken of, furnish aj)paivntly the only i^iound for a hope that the veil of mystt'i'v which hanj^s over the Maya inscri|>tioris may one day he lil'ted. 1 tliert'- fore ij^ive Landa's dcscrij)tion as nearly as possiMe in 1 lis own words, copyinin' aist) tne orn^mai r»i»anisn in a th ! i 1 1 note. *' Witfi/rrf:, Pfilni'pir, jil. '21; S/r/)fir>i\i Criif. Aiiiir., vol. i., |i H(t •_»; ///., Yiii-fitoii, vol. li., 1^1. ;{(M)-I; Mon/rl's Tna:, \ pp. 1)1--, l*7-i*, -34, and liiini. vi., of this woik. its : i:«; 778 THE MAYA NATIONS. **0f tlieii' letters T give hero (see alphabet on the lu'xt ])aue) an A, B, 0, since their heaviness (ninnhcr and iiitricary?) permits no more; hecause they use one cliaracter for all the as])irations of the letters, and an- other in the pointing of the parts (punctuation), and thus it goes on to infinity, as may he seen in the fol- lowing exam})le: le means *a snare' or to hunt with it; to write it Avith their characters, we having given them to understand (although we gave, etc.) that they are two letters, they wrote it with three, placing after the asjiiration / the vowel c, which it has before it, and in this they do not err, although they make use, if they wish, of their curious method. Example: '■ ' '■ ^'' Then at the end tliev attach the ad- joined j)art. Ha which means 'water, because the hache (sound of the letter //) has (I, //, before it, they i)ut it ^at the beginning with (f, at the end in this manner : '"' I'boy also Avrite it in ])arts but in both ways. ^^^3"^ 1 woidd not ]>ut (all this) here, nor treat of ^M'^^^j) it, exce])t in ordei' to give a conqjlete account of the tilings of this people. Ma in bffimcim^ '1 will not'; they write it in parts after this u ka manner. '•20 o-ilo 2*' Tlie Spanisli text in as follows: 'De sus letrns porno nqiii un ri, h, r, (iiic no iicniiitf sii ]icsiuliiiiil)re nms porqiie usaii imra tixlas las aspiiacioiuH (Ic las Ictias (Ic iin caiactiT, y (k'spui's, al jmiitar ile las ]>artt> olio, y as>l ^ iciii' a lia/tT in oijiiiitinii, coiiio so |io(lra vi-r on el si;{iiiL'iite cxi'iniilo. J.f, (|iiii'i(' liczir laro y carar t'ou ol; para cscrivirle coii sus carati'vi's, liavicn- (lolcs iiosiitrips lii'dio i'iit('ii(U'r (|ue son dos lotras, lo fscriviaucllos con tres, jiiinit'iulo a la asiiirarioii do la / la vooal c, (juo antes do si Irae, y en csfo no iiicrran. aun>|ne nsonse, si ((nisieren ellos do sn euriitsidad. Kxeni- ]ilo: !■ f r /r. I)es|)nes al <'al)o lo ])e^an la jiarte junta. J/tt (|ne ([nieve de- ■'.\r a;:ua, ]ion|iie la /inrlir liene a, h, antes de si la ponen ellos al jirineipio ron II, y a! calio dcsta nianera: Im. 'J'ambien lo escriven a jiartes ]iero do la una y otia nianera, yo no ]»usieni a<|ni ni tratara dellosino ])or dar enenia enlera de las oosas dcsta ;jente. Mii in knti ([nicro dezir no uniero, ellos lait of the ^ranuscri])t Troaiio. The translation must he pronounced a failure, especially after the confession of the author in a sul)see ^laya nation of Yucatan, the ruins of whose temples and palaces are so well known from the travels of Catherwood and Stc[»hens, not only had a system of })honetic writini,'', l>ut used it for writint^ ordinary words and sentences."-"* Wuttke su<;]L(ests that Landa's al[)habet originated after the C"on(|Uest, a sujjci^cstion, as Schejtpinn" observes, excluded by Mendieta's statement, but "otherwise very probable in consideration of the jdioneticism developed in Mexico shortly after the C\>n(iuest."^ And Hnally Wilson says, "while the recurrence of the same siijns, and the reconstruction of onjups out of the detached members of others, clearly indicate a written language, and not a mere ])ictorial suy<,^estion of associated ideas, like the Mexican jjicture-writinuf." "In the most complicated tablets of African hieroijflyphics, each object is distinct, and its rejiresentaiive siyniti- cance is rai'ely difficult to trace. But the majority of the lueroirlyphics of Palenque or Copan appear as if constructed on the same ])olysynthetic j)rinciple Avhich gives the peculiar and distinctive character to the lan- guaj^-es of the New World. This is still more a))[)areiit when we turn to the highly elaborate inscripti(»ns on s <>• the colossal figures of Cojtan. In these all idea simple plionetic signs utterly disa))pear. Like th* hu)icl' -words, as they have been called, of the Ameri- »8 Ti^fnr'n licsmrrhes, pp. 100-1. 29 Jl^ ii/fkr iiiid Sr/ii'/t/>iiiif, ill S/irnrrr'x Di'si'riiitiix Socioloijy, no. 2., \\", ii., pt 1-lJ, p. 51. Sec note 10 of tliis chapter. 782 THE MAYA NATION'S. can lanjnrua;:^es, tlicy seuiii each to ho compounded (tt'.i lunnhcr of parts of tliu ))i"iniary symbols usuter to the descriptions I'urnished hy the old writers, who saw the houses and towns while they were occupied hy those who huilt them and the tenii)les hei'ore they became ruins, (tr at least were conteni[)oraries of such observers. The accounts given of the dwellings of the ^Fayas are very meagre. The earlv vovaufers on the coast of luoatan, such as Grijalva and Cordova, saw well- 1 See vol. iv., pp. 207, ct. sen. (783) 7S4 THE MAYA NATIONS. built houses of stone and lime, with sloping" roofs thatched with straw or reeds; or, in some instances, with slates of scone;' but this is all they tell us, and, indeed, they had little opportunity for close examina- tion; the natives of those parts were fierce and war- like, and little disposed to submit to invasion, so that the handful of adventurers had barely time to look hastily about them after effecting a landing before they were driven back wounded to their boats. Here, as elsewhere, too, the temples and larger buildings naturally attracted their sole attention, both because of their strangeness and of the treasures which tliey were supposed to or did contain. These men were soldiers, gold-hunters; they did not travel leisuicly; they had no time to examine the architecture of private dwellings ; they risked and lost their lives for other purposes. Bishop Landa, however, has some thing to say on the subject of Maya dwellings. The roof, he says, was covered witli straw, which they had in great abundance, or with palm-leaves, which an- swered the purpose admirably. A consideral)le pitch was given to the roof, that the rain might run off easily. Tlie house was divided in its length, that is, from side to side, by a wall, in whicji several doorwjvys were left as a means of communication with tlie back room where they slept. The front room where guests were received was carefully whitewaslied, or in the hopses of nobles, painted in various colors or designs; it had iio door but was open all the length of thu front *' A todo lo largo toninn Ins vccinos ile nqiicl lnjjar miidiiis casas, hecho ol ciiiiieiito tie iiiuilra y loilo liasta la initail tit; las partMles, y \\iv>^o ciihicr- tas lie itaja. Lsta geiite tiel «lu'lio Itigar, t'u Ins edilicios y eii las casas, ^la- reee Her goiite lie grautlc iiigciiio: y 'i no fiieni |Mii(|iie jiareoia lialier alii algiiiios eiliiiuios iiucvos, se jaiiUera pres'iini! (|ue eraii edilieios li>-i-liii)s jior Kspanoles.' Diaz, Itint'ntrio, in Irtizlmlrrfd, Col. dr Dor., loin. i.. p. 'JSC); sec also Id., \>\\ 281, 2S7. ' Las easas hihi ile piedra, y l.ulrillo Kin la cu- liierta ile j'aja, o raina. Y aim algiiiiu le laiu'lias de ))iedra ' iioDuiro, Coiiq. Mr.c., hA. ;^3. 'The lioUHeH verc (tt stone or brick, and lynie, very artiiicially eoinposed. To tiic H(|iiare Courts or lirst habitations of their liouses tiiey aseeniled by ten or twelue sti ps. The roofe was of Ueeds, or sMilkes of Herbs.' Piir'rhd.i /,is Pilfii'imiiiii:, vol. v., ]t. 8S.'); Jivrinil Jh'dz, Itisf. Coiiq., fol. 2-.*}; JSieinwiiii/ii, in Tvniiiiix-f'oiiip(ni.\; Voy., serie i., torn. p. 230; Mviitutius, 11., |). .Sll; Orivifo, ]li.if. Gen., toni. i., Nknwc }\'circld, p. 72; I'ctcr Martyr, ]i. r)()7, toni. 111. dec. iv., lib. i. NICARAGUAN DWELLINGS. 785 of the house, and was slieltered from sun and rain by the eaves whicli usually descended very low.*^ There was always a doorway in the rear for the use of all the inmates. The fact of there Ijeinij no doors made it a point of honor amonii^ them not to rol) or injure each other's houses. The poor jieople huilt the houses of the rich.* A new dwer'M<»- could not he occupied until it had been formally blessed and purged of the evil spirit.** In Nicaragua, the dwellings were mostly made of canes, and thatched with straw. In the large cities the houses of the nobles wore built u]X)n i)latforms several feet in height, but in the smaller towns the residences of all classes were of the same construction, except that those of tlie chiefs were larger and more connnodious. Some, however, appear to have been built of stone." Of the dwellings in (ituatemala, still less is said. Yillagutieri'e mentions a La'-andone villallliil,i, J fist. )lir., ]). 184. * 'Tlicir lioiiscs of brii'ki; or stone, are conereil with reodes, wiiere tliero is ii scarcitk' of stones, Imt wlien; (i>intrri( s are, they are eoueii'il w iili sliin- tlle or slate. Many houses hane inarlde pillars, iis tliey iiaiie w illi \s.' J'l hr M(irh/r, ilee. iv., lih. iii., dee. vi., iili. v.; Jlcrnnt, Hist, (iiii., dee. iii., lil>, iv., eap. vii. ; limzuin. Hist. Mniu/i) Xiinri), ]>. lO'J. ' Ifinf. Yiir., p. 70<). 'Las<'asas eran eieiito y tres, de {rrue-isos, yfner- tes Maderos, en (|ue se niuntenian los 'i'eeiio^, (pie eran (k> niuclia I'aja, re- ziainente aniarrada, y eon su eorriiMilc!, y deseuliiertos todos los l'"rontispi- eios, y tapados los eostados, y espaldas, de l'".staiada, eon siis .\post,'iitns, donde las Indias eo/inavan, y tenian su.s i.ieiiesteres.' VillnijnliniT, Hist. CoiKi. Ilzit, pp. .'111-12. Vol. II. 50 78G THE MAYA NATIO.JS. upon posts.® In other parts of Guatemala he saw 'large houses with thatched roofs.'® Gage does not give a glowing account of their dwellings. "Their houses," he writes, "are but poor thatched Cottages, without any upper rooms, but commonly one or two only rooms below, in the one they dress their meat in the middle of it, making a compass for fire, with two or three stones, without any other chimney to convey the smoak away, which spreading it self about the room, filleth the thatch and the rafters so with sut, that all the room seemeth to be a chimney. The next unto it, is not free from smoak and blackness, where some- times are four or five beds according to the family. The poorer sort have but one room, where they eat, dress their meat and sleep."*" Las Casas tells us that when the Guatemalans built a new house they were careful to dedicate an apartment to the worship of the household gods; there they burned incense and offered domestic sacrifices upon an altar erected for the purpose." Little is said about the interior appointment and decoration of dwellings. Landa mentions that in Yu- catan they used bedsteads made of cane," and the same is said of Nicaragua by Oviedo, who adds that they used a small four-legged bench of fine wood for a pil- low." In Guatemala, there was in each room a sort of bedstead large enough to accommodate four grown jjorsons, and other small ones for the children." Bras- ^Cortis, Cartas, p. 447. 9/(/., pj). 2(58, 426. ^oXcw Slimy, p. .318. 11 Hisf. Apoloijidra, MS., cap. cxxiv. I'i lirlarioii, p. 110. " ' A la jiurte oriental, li siete I'l ocho j)asso8 debaxo «lestc portal, estd im echo de tres ]>:iltn<)s alto ile lierra, feclio dc las eafias gruessas alnia j^rnensa en(,Mnia, e aolire aoiiella otia.s tres esteras del- ^aduM 6 nmy Itien Ia1>rada!4, y eni^iina tendidn el cai;idon hianco e delpida revuelta mohre ai: e por alnudiada tenia iin lmn(juito peoueno de qiiatro })ieH, ai^o concavo, quell 'llaniau ona»<; y otros TapeHiiuillu8 aparte, en que pouiau laii HOUSEHOLD FURXITUIIE. seur de Bourbourtr gives a description of gorgeous furniture used in the houses of the wealthy in Yuca- tan, but unfortunately the learned Abbe has for his only authority on this point the somewhat apocry- ])hal Ordonez' MS. The stools, he writes, on which tliey seated themselves cross-legged after the Oriental fashion, were of wood and precious metals, and were often made in the shape of some animal or bird ; they were covered with deer-skins, tanned with gi'eat care, and embroidered with gold and precious stones. Tlie interior walls were sometimes hung with similar skins, though they were more frequently decorated with paintings on a red or blue ground. Curtains of fin- est texture and most brilliant colors fell over the door- ways, and the stucco floors were covered with mats made of exquisite workmanship. Rich hued clotlis covered the tables. The plate would have done honor to a Persian satrap. Graceful vases of chased gold, alabaster or agate, worked with exquisite art, delicate j)ainted pottery, excelling that of Etruria, candelabra for the great odorous pine torches, metal braziers dif- fusing sweet perfumes, a multitude of jyetits ricns, sucli as little bells and grotesquely shaped whistles for sum- moning attendants, in fact all the luxuries which aie the result of an advanced civilization, were, according to Brasseur de Bourbourg, to be found in the houses of the Maya nobility.^' Of the interior arrangement of the Yucatec towns we are told nothing except that the temples, palaces, and houses of the nobility were in the centre, with the dwellings v>f the connnon people grouped about them, and that the streets were well kept.^^ Some of them Criaturns.' Viilngutierrf, Hist. Conq. Ifzn,\t. 312. Gape writes: Tlicy hiivo 'four or live licils accord iiij; to the family. ... Few there are that set any hu-ks upon their doors, for they fear no rohhing nor stealing;, neither lia\e they in tiieir iiouses much to hi.>p. iv., lil). i. "* Diaz, Ifhirrtirin, in Tnf.hnh'i tn. Col. cfc Dor., toin. i., p. 287. l» See vol. iv. of this work, pp. 2C7-8. 7 MAYA FOU Til ICATIOXS. 789 Ilcs:^nardo was not inferior to the otlier; it extended 188 paces in front, '2;]0 in depth, and was f) sti)ries lii,i>'h. The grand alcazar, or pahice of tlio kings of Quiche, surpassed every otlier editice, and in the opin- ion of Tonpieniada, it could compete in o])ulence with that of Montezuma in Mexico, or that of the incas in Cuzco. The front of this huildini*' extended from east to west 37 G geometrical paces, and in deptli 728; it was constructed of hewn stone of different colors; its form was elegant, and altogether most magniHcent; there were G jnincipal divisions, the first contained lodgings for a numerous troop of lancers, archers, and other well disciplined troops, constituting the royal body guard; the second was destined to the accommo- dation of the princes, and relations of tlie king, who dwelt in it, and were served with regal splendour, as long as tliey remained unmarried; the third was appro- priated to the use of the king, and cojitained distinct suits of apartmoits, for the mornings, evenings, and nights. In one of the saloons stood the throne, under four canopies of plumage, the ascent to it was hy sev- eral ste})s; in this part of the })alace were;, tlie treas- uiy, the tribunals of the judges, tlie armory, tlie gar- dens, aviaries, and menageries, with all the recpiisite oflices appending to each department. 'J'lie 4th and 5th divisions M'ere occupied l)y the queens and royal concubines ; tlujy were necessarily of great extent, from tlie immense number of apartments reipiisite for tlie accommodation of so manv females, who were all nmintained in a style of suni[)tuoiis niagnilicencci, gar- dens for their recreation, baths, and }>r(»pi'r jdaces for breeding geese, tliat M'ere kei)t for the sole [>uri)ose of furnishing feathers, with wliicli hangings, coverings, and otlier similar ornamental articles, wi're made. (_\)iitiguoiis to this division was the sixth and last; this was the residence of the king's daugliters and other feina,les of the blood roval, where thev were educated and attended in a manner suitable to their rank."-" so Juarros, Hint. Oiiitt., i)|>. 87-8; Las Cams, Hist. Ajioluijctica, MS., 700 THE MAYA NATIONS. Patlnamit, the Cakchiquel capital, was nearly three leagues in circumference. It was situated upon a j)lateau surrounded by deep ravines which could ho crossed at only one point by a narrow causeway which terminated in two gates of stone, one on the outside and the other on the inside of the thick wall of tho city. The streets were broad and straight, and crossed each other at right angles. The town was divided from north to south into two parts by a ditch nine feet deep, with a wall of masonry about three feet high on each side. This ditch served to divide the nobles from the commoners, the former class living in the eastern section, and the latter in the western.^^ Peter Martyr says of the cities of Nicaragua: " Large and great streetes guarde the frontes of the Kinges courts, according U> the disposition and great- nes of their village or towne. If the town consist of many houses, they haue also little ones, in which, the trading neighbours distant from the Court may nieete toirether. The chiefe noble mens houses comi)ussc and inclose the kinges streete on euery side: in the middle site whereof one is erected which the Goldesmithes Inhabite."'*^ The Mayas constructed excellent and desirable roads call over the face of the country. The most remarkable of these were the great highways used by the pilgrims visiting the sacred island of Cozumel; these roads, four in number, traversed the peninsula in different directions, and finally met at a point upon the coast op})osite the island.^^ Diego de Godoi, in a letter to Cortes, states that he and his party came to a place in the mountains of Chiapas, where the smooth and slippery rock sloped down to the edge of a precipito, cap. lii.; lirnsscur dc Bourbourg, Hint. Nat. Civ., torn, ii., p. 49.3; Palavio, Carin, jip. 123-4. 21 Jmiiron, Hint. Ouat., pp. .383-4; Brasseur de Bourbourg, Hist. Nut. dr.. Umi. ii., p. rr20. 2i Doc. vi., lib. vi; Goiiinrn, lliat. Ind., fol. 2(53; Hirrera, Hint. Gi'ii., doc. iii., lib. iv., cap. vii. i' l.izdiHi, in Litndii, RrJdriitti, \t. S.IS; Cognlliiifo, Hist. Yui'., \i. l'J3; Brasneur dc Buurbuurij, Hist. Nat. L'ii'., toiu. ii., pp. 25, 4G-7. I. MAYA TEMPLES. 791 and wliich would have ])een quite impassable had not the Indians made a road with branches and trunks of trees. On the side of the precipice they erected a strong wooden railing, and then made all level with earth.'** Of the Maya temples very little is said. There was one at Chichen Itza which had four great staircases, each being thirty-three feet wide and having ninety- one steps, very difficult of ascent. The steps were of the same height and width as ours. On both sides of each stairway was a low balustrade, two feet wide, made of good stone, like the rest of the building. The edifice was not sharp-cornered, because from the ground U[)vvard between the balustrades the cubic blocks were rounded, ascending by degrees and elegantly narrow- ing the building. There was at the foot of each bal- ustrade a fierce serpent's head very strangely worked. On the top of the edifice there was a platform, on wliich stood a building forty-three feet by forty-nine feet, and about twenty feet high, having only a single doorway in the centre of each front. The doorways on the east, west and south, opened into a corridor six feet wide, wliich extended without partition walls round the three corresponding sides of the edifice; tlie northern doorwjiy gave access to a corridor forty feet long and six and a third feet wide. Througli tlie cen- tre of the rear wall of this corridor a doorway opened into a room twelve feet nine inches bv nineteen feet eight inclies, and seventeen feet liigli; its ceiling was formed by two transverse arches supported by im- mense carved beams of za[)ote-wood, stretched across *< Gotfni, in Tern nn.r-Cnm pans, Vny., si'-rie i., toin. x., pp. 171-2. At till! Laki'of Miisiiyii in Nicanijiiui, Hoyle iiotii'ed a 'cuttiiij,' in tlu; solid rm'i\, u iiiilf ion;,', and ^rradnaliy (Icsi'endin;.; to deptii of at least tiiri-c linndrcd foot! This is claimed as tin; work of a people which was not acMpiainteil with Itlastin;,' or with iron tools. Natn-'* had evitlcntly little ham! in tho matter, liion^ili a cleft in the roek w vhaiis Inive helped the excavators. The nioiuli of this tunnel is ahont half a mile from the town.' lliilr, v(d. ii., p. II. Herrera, Hisf. (mi., dee. iv., lili. viii.,eap. vii.. mentions tho 8aine thin;.' in a very ditl'erent manner: ' La snliida y liaxada. tan dcrecha eonio vna pared, (jne eonio eH do pefia vina, tiene en ella heclios a;,Mijeros, udundu puucii loa dedus dc lu» nianori, y du los pie».' 792 THE MAYA NATIONS. tile room and restinjif, cuch at its centre, on two square ])illurs.'^'' The island of Cozuniel was especially devoted to religious observances, and Avas annually visited hy great numbers of pilgrims; there were tliere- fore more religious edifices here than elsewhere. Among them is mentioned a square tower, with i'our \vindows, and hollow at the to}); at the back was a room in which the sacred implen\ents were kei)t; it 2' For iloscriiitioii of riiiiiH of tliis Itnildiii;; ns tlicv now exist, and cuts of stairciise, <;roiiiiil plan, and ornamentation, see vol. iv., pp. 'J'it! <.). Itislmp i,anda thus deseriltes it: ' K.stu edilieio tiene ([uatro escaleras ipie niiran a las ((uatro partes del niundo: tienen de anelio a .x.wiii pies y a noventa y tin esealones cada una io de cada passaiuano una liera lioca de sierpe de una pie(,'a liieu euriosanuMite lalu'ada. Acal>adas de esta nianera las escaleras, ipieda en lo nito una plaveta liana en la iiual esta nil edilieio edilicadode (piatro <|uarlos. JiOs tres se andan a la redonda sin iiniiediinento y tiene cada uno pueria en nietlio y estan cerrailos do hoveda. Kl i|uarlo del norfe se ainia por si con iin corredor de pilares ;;ruessos. Lo de en medio (|ue avia de scr como el ]iatinico (pie lia/e el orden de los pauosdel edilieio tiene una puer(;i iiue sale al corredor del norto y esta nor arrilia cerrailo de niadera y sei\ ia do (|ue- niar los saunu-rios. Ay en la entrada desta puerta o del corredor un motlo de armas osculpidas en una piedra <|ue int pude liien entendcr. 'I'eiiia este edilieio otros mucluis, v tient? oy en ilia a la redonda de si liien heclios y grandes, y todo en snehxlel a olios encalado ({ue ami ay a partes menioria de los encalados tan fuert(! es »d ar;;amasa de (|U(! alia los liii/en. Tenia de- lante la escalera del norfe al-^'o aparto dos leatros de canleria pei|iM'ric,s ara sola/ del jiueldo. Va desde et patio en frente des- tos tealros una herniosa y anciia calcada liasta un ]io(,'o como dos ti- ros de piedra. K\\ este poco an tenido, y tenian entonces costumlire de cellar liomhres vivos en sacrilicio a los dioses en tienipo do seca, y tenian no morian auiKine no los voyaii mas. ileclniMin tamliieu otros muclias eosas, de ]iiedras do valor y cosas (|uo leiiian dopciada^ Ks poi,'o quo tii'uo larsjtos vii estados de liomlo liasia el ajfiia, hanclio mas de cien pies y rediindo y d(> una pena tajada liasta el a^na quo OS maravilla. I'areco que tiene ai ajjna iniiy verde, y creo lo causaii las ar- Indedas de que esta cercado y es muy liomlo. Tiene en cima del junto a la lioca un edilieio pe(|U(>no donde Inille yo idolos lieclios a lionra de todos los cdilicios principales de la tierra, casi como v\ I'antlieiui do Koma. No se si era esta iiivencion anti;;ua o do los modernos para toparse con sns idolos qiiaudo fuesNou eon ofrendas a a(|Uol |io(,'o. Hallo yo Umuios lalnados do liullo y jarros y otras cosas i|uo no so como iiadic^ dira no tuvicron lierrami- eiito esta ;^euto. Tamliieu lialle dos liiuiilu'es do };raiides estaturas laliratlos de piedra, eado uno do una i)iei,'a en cariios t-iiUierta sii lionostidaU como so culirian los indios. Tenian las caliocas ]ior si, y eon /arcillos on las orojas como lo iisavun los indios, y lioi'lia una ospijiii ])or detras en el pescue(,M) que oncaxava en un )ij;ujero liondo jtara olio lieclio en el inosnio posciie^o y en- cuxatlo tjnodava el bultu cuin])hdu.' lichtrioii, jip. 342-G. NICAUACl'AN TEMPLES. 793 was surrouiulod by an ont'losuro, in the iniddlo of which stood a cross nine feet hi^h, renitsontiiii;- tlio God of rain.*' Other teni|)les so closely rescnihk'd those of Mexico as to need no further description here.'^^ The temples of Nicarajjfua were huilt of wood and thatched; tliey contained many low, dark rooms, where the idols were kei)t and the religious rites per- "* ' Vicron alf^iinos iiilonitorins, y tcmploH, y vri«) en jmrticiiljir, ciiyii for- Diii cm lie viiii tonv i|iia(li'aila, aiiclia ilcl pic, y liiicca cii In alto run niiatni l^raiiilcs vciitaiias, con HUH corrcdoi'cs, yen lo Inicco, ijiu' era la < ii|iilla. cn- lauan Itlolos, y a las cs|)alilas cstaiia vna wacriNtia, aiioiHlc nc ;;nai(lanaii las cosas licl scniicio del teni|ili): y al pic (lestccstana \n cercaiio olrii>i d(; tanta altura ([ue espanta. el (|ual se vera en csta tij;ura v en est:, lazoii dcll.i ■"■ ... .... rieue .\.\ j^'railas dc a mas de dos hneiios palmos de altr y ancho eada tin y tcrna, mas dc cicn jiics de lar;,'o. Son cslas ;;radas dc mny «h's piedras lahradas aun(|uc con el mnclio tiempo, y estar al a;:na. e^lan y;i fcas y maltratadas. 'ricne despues lalnado en torno como senala e-ues a sej^nir la olira liasta y^^nalar eon el altura dc la jiiava ([Uc se liazi^ despnes a primera cscalcra Dc cspues de I ipial piaca haze otra huciia placeta, y en clla aIj;o pcj,'a(' .1 la iiared csta hecho nn pro liicn alto eon sn cscalcra al nu'dio dia, dontic cai'ii las cscaleras •; ramies y ciu'inui esta una hermosa <'apilla de canteria liien laluada. \i> siihi cii lo alto dcsta capilla y como ^'ucalau es ticrra ll.nv.i .sc \cc desde clla licrra pnctle la vista aleanvar a luai-avilla y .se vec la mar. Ilslns cdili- eios dc Vzauial cran jmr todos Xl o Xir, auni|ue es ;.^ie el niaxcir y eslaii nniy cerca unos do otros. No oy mem'iria dc los funiladoi, s, y parccen aver sido los primeros. Kslan Vlll lej,'iias dc la mar en muy hermoso sitio, y l)ucna tieira y eonuirea de yoiite.' lii-furioii, pp. 3'28-30. 701 TIIK MAYA NATIONS. foriiUHl. Boforo ciicli tojuplo was a pyr-unidal luouiul, «m the flat toj) of whirli tho sacriHccH wero made in tlio prosoiu'u «)f' tho wholo luioplo.'^" Ill (Juatomala Cortds saw toinplos like tlioso of Mexico.'^ The toinplo of Tohil, at lUathm, was, acoordinn^ to lirassour do Bourhouri'', a conical odifict^ havinii Ids quo liaii cscapailo de.sto truliajiiso nial (IhiImh'h) i|iit> hayaii tt'iiitlo parti^i- ]>avi'iii t'ariial con las niiii^cros natiirali-s
  • sta la;;a dcHta ticrra, «^ tan UMada ii los iridioH 6 indias t'onio en otras partes otra.s conuines enferinedades.' Orirtfi), Hist, d'cii., toin. i., p. :<(!.'>. '^^ '('(iniien(,^a el iniiierno de aquella tierra des»ie san Francisco, (piando outran los Nortes, ayre frio, y j>lications.*** ( 'acao, after the oil had heen extracted was considered to he a sure j)reventivo ai^ainst poison/' When a rich man or a nohlo fell sick a messenjjfer ^vas dispatched with j^ifts to the doctor, who came at vuvii and staid hy his patient until lu-> eitlu;r j^ot well or died. If the sickness was not serious the jdiysician merely applied the usual remedies, hut it was thought that a severe illness could only he hrou^ht on hy some' crime committeH (>l i'icicti', |ioroti'o Hoiiilirc 'I'aliaco, i|iii> (|iiila dolorcs cauNados do fi'lo, y toiiiado > ('II la I a los Indios, y los iic;;ros, para adoniicccr, y no scii- tir (d traltajo.' Umi-vii. llisl. (hn., dec. iii.. lili. vii., cap. iii. '''* ' lia/.('ii cii el |.\lii|iii/ayal viiii inassa dc ;;iisanos licdioiidos y poiicofio- 80s, i|uc es niaraiiillosa iiicdiciiia para toilo i^rciicro dc frialdadcs, y otras iii- dispoHicioiicH. ' ///., dec. iv., lilt, viii., cap. \. •'■' Oriri/ii, Ili.1t. ationt's body in wliicli tho nuilady hiy/' Li- zana mentions a tom})lo at Izamal to which tlio sick woro carried that thov miijbt bohoalod miraculously." In (Juateniala, as olsowhero, propitiatory otlbrinys of birds and animals woro nnulo in ordinary cases of sick- ness, but if tho patient was wealthy and dangerously ill he would sometimes strive toai)peaso tlioauju'er of tlio jLfods and atone for tho sins which ho was supposed to have committed by sacrilicinGf male or female slaves, or, m extraordinary cases, when tiio sick man was a jirinco or a ^roat noble, he would oven vow to saciitico a son or a daughter in tho event of his recovery; and although the scapoooat was j^onorally chosen IVom ainoni'' his children by female slaves, yet so fearful of death, so fond of life were they, that there wore not wantin. 11H-2; Cui/olliu/u, Hist. Yiir., [i. LSI. *3 Litinfd, Rrfiiciiiii, J). KiO. ** 'Otrii altiir v teinplo solire otro cuyo levnntanm estos iiiy a 'loiihlc ('iif('iipear to have had the same eidiohtened horror of the arts of j^ramaryo, for m (»uatemala, at least, they Iturned witehes and wizards without men y. They had amonijj' them, they said, sorcerers who couierformances of a snake-charmer, says that the ma- gician took u[) the re])tile in his bare hands, as he did so usinsj;" certain mystic words, which he, (Vt^olludo, wrote down at tho time, but finding afterwards that they invoked tho devil, he did not see fit to reproduce them in his work. Tho same writer furtlu'r relates that uj)()n another occasion a diviner cast lots, accord- ing U) custom, with a number of grains of corn, to iind out which direction a strayed child li.id taken. The child Avas eventually found upcjn the rnad indi- cated, and the narrator subsiM^uently endcaxorod to discover wliether tlio devil had been invoked or not, but the magician was a poor simple fool, and ccndd « Cuffollwlo, Uixt. Yhc, i>p. 18:J-4. *7 L. MOURNING FOR THE DEAD. 801 for ca noble. The back part of the head of this ima«ife ■was hollowed out, and a portion of tlie body having been burned, the ashes were placed in this hollow, which was covered witli the skin of the occiput of the corpse. The image was then placed in the temple, among the idols, and was nuicli reverenced, incense being burned before it, almost as though it had been a god. The remainder of the body was buried with great solem- nity. When an ancient Cocome king died, his head »vas cut oft* and boiled. The flesh was then stri])pud off*, and the skull cut in two crosswise. On the front j)art of the skull, whicli included the lower jaw and teeth, an exact likeness of the dead man was molded ill some plastic substance. This was i)laced among tho statues of the gods, and each day edibles of various kinds Avere placed before it, that the s[)irit might want for notliing in the other life, which, by tlie way, nuist have been a poor one to need such terrestiial aliment.''^ When a great lord died in Nicaragua, the l)ody was burned along with a great number of feathers and or- naments of ilitferent kinds, and the ashes were placed in an urn, wliich was buried in front of the palace of the deceased. As usual, the spirit must be sui)plietl with food, which was tied to the body before crema- tioii."-' According to the information we have on the sub- ject, the mourning customs of the IMayas appear to have been i)rotty nmch the same everywhere. For the death of a chief or any of his family the l*ipiles la- mented for ibur days, silently by day, and witli loud cries by night. At daAVii on the tilth day the high- j)riest i)uhli(ly forbade the pe(»ple to make any further demonstration of sorrow, saying that the soul of the •il Ldtiiht, Riltu'loH, J)!). 19G-8; llcrrvni, Hist. Oni., iUm-. iv., liU. x., cap. iv. Hi (iriii/ii, Hist. (!rn.,tt)\i\ iv., pp. 4S-0. In the isiaml of ( (iiiftrpcc iiu' uMfifiit jiriivcs arc imt siiitduikIccI l>y inolatfil stoiios lii, uiid yold ornami'uts. Sicers, Mittcluiiicrikit, vu. I'JS-'J. Vol. II. 61 80i THE MAYA NATIONS. departed was now with the gods. The Guatemalan widower dyed his body yellow, for which reason ho was called malcam. Mothers who lost a sucking child, withheld their milk from all other infants for four days, lest the spirit of the dead babe should be of- iended/*^ The Mayas, like the Nahuas, were mostly well- made, tall, strong, and hardy. Their complexion was tawny. The women were passably good-looking, some of them, it is said, quite pretty, and seem to have been somewhat fairer-skinned than the men. Wliat the features of the Mayas were like, can only be conjectured. Their sculpture would indicate that a large hooked nose and a retreating forehead, if not usual, were at least regarded with favor, and we know that iiead-flattening was almost universal among them. Beards were not worn, and the Yuca- tec mothers bui'ued the faces of their children with hot cloths to prevent the growth of hair. In Landa's time some of the natives allowed their beard to grow, but, says the worthy bishop, it came out as rough as hog's bristles. In Nicaragua it would seem that they did not even understand what a beard was; witness tli(; following 'pretie policy' of ^gidius Gon- salus: "All the Barbarians of those Nations are beardlesse, and aie terribly afraide, and fiuxrefuU of l)earded men: and therefore of 25. beardlesse youthes by reason of their tender yeres, -i^Cgidius made beard- ed men with the powlinges of their heades, tlie hairo l)eing orderly composed, to the end, tliat the numl)er of bearded men might appeare the more, to terrific the if they should be assailed by warre, as afterwarde it fell out.""* Squinting eyes were, as I have said before, thought beautiful in Yucatan."' '^ Lfn>(fn, Rdacion, \t. 19C; Ilrrrrra, Hist. Grn., iloc. iv., lib. x.. cap. iv. ; Id., Wh, viii., i-up. .x. ; Xiiiiriir-, Hist. Iml. Giint., p. 214; Vi/laijii' tierre, Hint. Conq. Itza, p. 313; I'alacio, Carta, pp. 7()-8. M Pctrv Mortyr, dec. vi., lib. v. ^ Amldijuiju, ill Navnrrctc, Col. dc Viacfcs, toin. iii., p. 414; Ucrrera, CHARACTER OF THE MAYAS. 803 Of all the Maya nations, the Yuc.ateos bear the best character. The men were generous, polite, hon- est, truthful, peaceable, brave, ingenious, and partic- ularly hospitable, though, on the other hand, they were great drunkards, and very loose in their morals. The women were modest, very industrious, excellent housewives, and careful mothers, but, though gener- ally of a gentle disposition, they were excessively jealous of their marital rights; indeed, Bishop Landa tells us that upon the barest suspicion of infidelity on the part of their husbands they became perfect furies, and would even beat their unfaithful one.*'*' The Gua- temalans are spoken of as having been exceedingly warlike and valorous, but withal very sim}>lo in their tastes and manner of life."^ Arricivita calls the La- eandones thieves, assassins, cannibals, bloody-minded men, who received the missionaries with great vio- lence."^ The fact that the Lacandones strove to repel invasion, without intuitively knowing that the invad- ers were missionaries, may have helped the worthy padre to come to this decision, however. The Nica- raguans were warlike and brave, but at the same time false, cunning, and deceitful. Their resolute hcatred of the whites was so great that it is said that for two years they abstained from their wives rather than be- get slaves for their conquerors."" Next after the collecting of facts in any one direc- Hist. Gen., dec. iii. , lib. iv., cap. vii., dec. iv., lib. x., can. iii.; Ovivdo, ITisf. Gen., toiii. iv., p. Ill; Goinant, Conq. Max., fol. 23; iMi'ifct, Tcatro Jir/r.f. , Um\. i., p. 170; Cojolliido, Hist. Yuc, p. 7(H); Lnnilti, liclacimi, pp. 112-14; VilliKjufitirc, I'tst. Conq. Jtza, p. 402; De Lact, Novus Orbis, p. 32!). vol. viii., pp. 147-8. 67 Gomarn, Hist. VniL, M. 2G8; Ddrila, Tcntro Erics., torn, i., p. 148; Oviah), Hist. Gen., toiu. iv., p. 33; Las Casus, Hist. Ajwlogdtica, MS., rap. xlvi. '''* Criinicn Srrdfni, pp. 25-0. 09 Jlcrrcra, Jlist. Gen., dec. iii., lib. iv., cap. vii., dec. iv., lib. iii., cap. ii. ; Ovkdo, Hist, Gen., toiu. iv., p. 39. 801 THE MAYA NATIONS. tion comes their comparison with other ascertained facts of the same category, by which means fragments of knowledge coalesce and unfold into science. This fascinating study, however, is no part of my plan. It* in the foregoing pages I have succeeded in collecting and classifying materials in such a manner that others may, with comparative ease and certainty, jilace the multitudinous nations of these Pacific States in all their shades of savagery and progress side by side with the savaofisms and civilizations of other ajjes and na- tions, my work thus far is accomplished. But what a flood of thought, of speculation and imagery rushes in upon the mind at the bare mention of such a study ! Isolated, without the stimulus of a Mediterranean commerce, hidden in umbrageous darkness, walled in by malarious borders, and surrounded ])y wild barbaric hordes, whatever its origin, indigenous or foreign, there was found on Mexican and Central American tal»le- lands an unfolding humanity, unique and individual, yet strikingly similar to human unfoldings under like conditions elsewhere. Europeans, regarding the cul- ture of the conquered race first as diabolical and then contemptible, have not to this day derived that benefit from it that they might have done. It is not neces- sary that American civilization should be as far ad- vanced as European, to make a perfect knowledge of the former as essential in the study of mankind as a knowledge of the latter; nor have I any disposi- tion to advance a claim for the equality of American aboriginal culture with European, or to make of it other than what it is. As in a work of art, it is not a succession of sharply defined and decided colors, but a happy blending of light and shade, that makes the picture pleasing, so in the grand and gorgeous per- spective of human progress the intermediate stages are as necessary to completeness as the dark spectrum of savagism or the brilliant glow of the most ad- vanced culture. This, however, I may safely claim ; if the preceding CONCLUSION. 805 pages inform us aright, then were the Nahuas, tlie Mayas, and the subordinate and lesser civihzations surrounding these, but little lower than the contem- poraneous civilizations of Europe and Asia, and not nearly so low as we have hitherto been led to suppose. Whatever their exact status in the world of nations — and that tliis volume gives in esse and not in posse— they are surely entitled to their place, and a clear and comprehensive delineation of their character and condi- tion fills a gap in the history of humanity. As in every individual, so in every people, there is something dif- ferent from what may be found in any other people ; something better and simiethinj; worse. One civiliza- tion teaches another; if the sujierior teaches most, the inferior nevertheless teaches. It is by the mutual ac- tion and reaction of mind upon mind and nation upon nation that the world of intellect is forced to develo}). Takino' in at one view the vast rantye of humanitv portrayed in this volume and the preceding, with all its infinite variety traced on a background of infinite unity, individuality not more clearly evidenced than a heart and mind and soul relationship to humanity everywhere, the wide differences in intelligence and culture shaded and toned down into a homogeneous whole, we can but arrive at our former conclusion, that civilization is an unexplained phenomenon whose study allures the thoughtful and yields results preg- nant with the welfare of mankind. END OF THE SECOND VOLUME.