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x%ij:il 41
RON
'lli'
(Baflc'0 20tb Centura Scrtc?
elementary
English Grammar
FOR USB IN
CANADIAN SCHOOLS
BY
D. J. GOGOIN. M.A., D.C.L.
Sii/tfriiifnidfltf of E-himtinu in (h> A'f«/A- M'.-^/ '/'< rrltnri- ^, /onif r/i/
I*iinci/Ml of fhf Mmiihiha Xoriint/ Sihool .
IN(I,rhlN<:
Elhmkntary Composition
(Hart VI.)
(tY
\V. J. ALEXANDKR, Pii.I).
Pi-off,.-'snr nf Eitijli^tt in Unii-ty^ilit ('"//';/', Titrmitn.
W. J. GAGH & CO. I.IMITKU
TORONTO.
PItEFAOE.
IK all miWecU conftno yotir taiclilne to the Iciidlng outlines In Iho l.rxt
ln>(«nce. . . . Turn cvcrylhlnic to u«in«yuu teach lU . . . amnmar
hn» to be Bludiod In anil through ncntcnccB, anil to bo txln«-t«( fn.ni
«,nl«nce» bj- Iho pupil H It ta to bo rtatly tAuaht.-lTofo-sor LiUHlli,
Univereity oi Edinburgh.
Three-lourtlu of the pupils %. lo outer our elementary scUooIh do
not proceed beyond tho stage of ailvuncouuuit reprosentod liy a
Fourth Reader. Tho average ago of pupils who enter our High
Schools is fourteen. For such pupils lessons in graninmr should bo
simi>le, should deal with e.Hs.-ntiul», and shouUl lie turned to uso in
readinj; and comiiosition.
For years the child has bee'i thinking thoughts and uttering them
in sentences. He has been studying thoughts ^ they apiiear iti tho
sentences of his reading and literature lessons, and has lieeii giving
the substance of them in his own words ever since ho entered school.
The substance of grammar is implicit in his mind, and tho teacher's
problem, when the grammar stage is reached, is to make this know-
ledge explicit and to cause the child to do in a formal methodical
way what he has been doing in an informal way.
Accordingly the pupil begins with thoughts, their e'-ments, and
their classes, and proceeds to sentences as the forms in which these
thoughts are clothed. In his study of the [.ontence he perceives that
each word has its own work to do in t', expression of thought and
so, from the standiwint of thought, he classifles v o.ds as parts of
spaech and describes their rehitions. Ho observes that a change in
the use or meaning of a won! is freiiueni ly followed by a change in
its form, and so he studies inaeotioii as it affects words used in the
expression of thought Thatgeoeral analysis which brings i.to relief
IV
PHEPACE.
Il'o IiiKiciil BtniclUTO of a cor„i,lir„(„,i
ure irregular in for..,. ""Joot., ts, a.„I verbs tl.at
It hlielieved that the PuMjc School .,„„il ^.
^a^ .ooU founaatio.. for aa.a..«. .„r. »,.„,, ,::-:i~
TABLE OB^ CONTENTS.
PART I.— Thoughts and Sentences '■»
KiiitUof Thuuglita U
KintU of Sentonces liJ
PART Il.-The Parts of Speech in
The Noun 19
Tho Pronoun 20
T ho Verb 22
Tho Adjective . . 2(j
The Phraw . . 27
The Adverb . . 'JO
Adverb* modifying Adjt'rtivt's 80
Ad\orbs modifying Adverbs HI
Adverb PhraseR 32
Tho Clause at
Tho Preposition fti
The Conjunction ;i7
The Interjection 41
Different uses of tlio same wurd 42
Application 42
PART III.— Classification of Parts of Speech Ac,
Thn Noiin 4fi
Concrete and Abstract Nouns 4(;
Common and Proper Nouns 47
Collective Nouna 48
The Verb 60
Notional and Relational Verba BO
Transitive and Intransitive Verbs 61
The Pronoun 53
Personal Pronouns . . . . 63
Conjunctive Prononna 50
Demonstrative Pronouns 69
Interrogative Pronouna 60
Indefinite Pronouna 61
VI
TABLE OF CONTENTS,
The Adjective "'*«'«
Qualitative Adjectives ^
Quantitative Adjective^ ^
Proiiominal Adjectives ^
Attributive Adjectives ^
Predicative Adjectives. ^
Tlie Articles .. .. 64
The Adverb . . . . 65
According to meaning .'.' ^
According to use 66
The Conjunction . . . . 6'
Co-ordinative Conjunctions ^
Subordinative Conjunctions **
Correlative Conjunctions .. •• ■• •^''
Phrasal Conjunctions ''"
Sentences: Classification !! . .' ™
The Simple Sentence .'. '. '''
The Complex Sentence .. '''
The Compound Sentence ^' •
Analysis .... 72
PART iv.-inneetlon.' '.'. 74
Infiection of Nouns ,. 77
Number.. .. .' 77
Gender ' 77
Case .. .. .' " 79
Declension . . 80
Parsing 85
Inflection of Pronouns 85
Personal Pronouns ^
Conjunctive Pronouns ' ' ^
Demonstrative Pronouns ®
Interrogative Pronouns . ®*
Indefinite Pronouns . . " 68
Special uses of " It " ,, ■• 69
Parsing a Pronoun 6P
Inflection of Adjectives .. 69
Comparison of Adjectives ^
Parsing an Adjective *•
Inflection of Verbs 96
94
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
Vll
.. 64
.. 64
.. 65
.. 66
.. 66
. 67
. 68
. 68
. 69
. 70
. 70
. 71
. 71
71 .
72
74
77
77
77
79
80
85
8S
86
90
90
9S
94
PAGiE
Person 94
IS'uiiiIht 95
The Infinitive 91)
fion.n.l< 97
The Partuiplo 98
Aiixiliario!! 100
Vciira 101
Tense 108
Mo.)d 110
Conjugation 11^
Auxiiiar}', Peft'ctivc, iin'l IniporsnnEil Verba .. .. 120
Conjui^atitms : Old and Xt'vv ; Strong and Weak .. 128
Principal P.irts of a Verl 130
Parsing a Verb or Vcrli- Phrase 132
Inflection of Adverl)s 133
Pi-eposition ,. 134
t'oujunction 135
Interjection 135
PART V.-Syntax 130
Sentence — Klemeiits 136
Position of tlio EloTiients . . . 136
Position of tlio Subject 137
'I'ha No\in 138
Tlie Sutijective Case 188
Tlio Objootivo Case 138
The Possessive Case » 140
Tlia Pronoun 110
Rclatitin and Position 140
Tlie Adjective 141
Relation 141
Position Ill
Tlie Verb 112
Relation 112
Sequence of 'I'cn^es . , . , 143
•I'he Adverb 143
Relation 143
Parking the Adverl) . . , , , 144
Peculiar Adverbs 144
Position of Adverbs 146'
viir
TAIifj.;
•ri„
t:„. <;,
• '''■'■i«>>iii„
''"-itioji..
"y CON-TKN-Ts.
iMJIIJHlic,
Rll,-.h„
''"-'l|(lj||;,ti
Pi
F.w.
PART vi,
(
< '>nt.J„„v,. C„„j,„„.„„„,,
"'I'-lM.Kion..
•-Composition.
'"•»''"lH'ivnco,„KlI>,.„,,„,,j.
^:r;;::r^'"^' '^--e«:
""""I ''>m|«.s,tio„
PART VII.
■IV
An<fl,,-.s,-,v,
■MiililloE„f;lKh
M'Hi.-n, K'ri^Mi.l, ■ [
•■ili>,.so„ tliu Kii.rlj,)', 'r
Appendixes.. .. ;
'^I'li'iiilix.V
I''<«ul„- Murals
flMPif-ll I>1,„,;|,
fi''l.l.T N„„„s. .
'iTofriiliir A.lje,.tivos
Sl.w„gV,.,|,s,„„, J,,..
K'"^lyKM>;li»l,(Se,„i:s.u;:
index •"■;'""■ ^-^"-'-
'S.-ixdiii
n fSiwphiien.s „f Kii^lisl,)
'■ «',.„k v^.,!,.
m)
PAOK
■■ .. 14li
■ ■■ lid
■■ ■■ ua
.. 117
•• ..US
■ 148
.. H8
■ UH
• 149
• • . l.W
■ . 162
..161
• KW-213
..170
■ 189
.. Ifll
.. 198
.. 20.'!
.. 2tfs
.. 210
.. 213
.. 214
.. 215
. 218
.. 219
■ . 220
.. 221
■ ■ 222
.. 22(
■ . 225
■ ■ 225
■• 225
. 22(1
. 220
. 227
. 228
■ 282
2.S2
282
2.13
. . 237
TAQE
■ .. ur.
■ .. Mli
■ ■■ Uii
.. 117
■ ■■ UH
■ -148
.148
■ • 14H
• 149
• • l.W
■ . 16a
.. 181
JW-213
.. 170
ISfl
.. ini
• • 198
• ■ 20.')
.. 20S
• . 210
• . 213
.. 214
. . 215
218
. 219
. 220
. 221
PART ONE.
i
THOUGHTS. -SENTENCES.
I.
Tliink of some object. (The dog.)
Think of sometliing to say about tliat object. (Barks.)
Express your thought in a sentence. (The dog barks.)
Think of tlie olijects : cats, the grass, a small Ih)V, T.iondon.
Think of something to say about eacli.
E.xpress these thoughts in sentences.
II.
The bird sings.
Flowers grow in tlie gardens.
The strong liorse carries a lieavy load.
(1) Aljout wluvt are j-ou led to think in tlie first sentence?
(The bird.)
Alxjut what are you led to think in the second sentence ?
(Flowers.)
Al)out what are you led to think in the third sentence ?
{The strong liorse.)
Tlie hinl being the si'bject of thought in the first sentence
may be called the thoUght-SUbject. What are the
thought-subjects in the secoml and third sentences?
(2) What are you led to think about the bird in the first
sentence ! (Bings.)
9
10
KLElIKNTAIiV CilCAJIMAli.
-.-r. ■",=;::,:;::*; > ..■™»,
-"•■"■-. Xw-iJ^dS" ■■'■ ""-"'"-.-.•
.."■:tr "" "•"■<"-<^'"- ". *■ .»„ „
in.
"-undo, ti, to \,r" ':'"'''-^"''^^^^^^
thus: Tl;e«ra™ ij^ "'"' ^"^""^^ "'" ">"%'l.t-p.--.lieate,
The .Mi.nmo;i;;;;,,„,.e come again.
' •^•'° » 'j'a«k cloud iu tlio ^-est.
The woods with music ring.
With many a curve my banks I fret
Down swept the ciull wind from t e n.onnf.n
Wrthhis'l'''"*"""^^ hedgehog
With his sleepy eyes looked at him
%h.m sported on the green
His little grandchild, Wnhelmine
tile sff-ouil
'"■«'■ in tile
' limy |,c
anil tliiriJ
Irinv one
tiiiiij two
aicilieate,
^ trees.
' in the
ELEMENTAKY GKAHMAK. 11
V.
Supply tlioujjlit-sulijectH til tlic folldwiiif; llii.ii(,'lit-
prediuates :-
lltjlllj.
- is the Premier of the Doiiiiiiion of Caiiiulii.
had the value of all lamls written in
the Doomsday Book.
- is the capital of British Columbia.
— ■ revolves around the earth.
is the author of "David Copperdeld."
is made from the wool of the sheep.
vt.
Supply thought-predicatps to tliu followiu),' tliouglit sub-
1
jects : —
Alfred, the Great . •
The Canadian Pacific Eailwiiy .
The claws of the cat .
The song of the lark .
VII.
A complete thought is made up of two iiienilieis, a
thought-subject and a thought-predicate.
A complete thought expressed in words is a sentence.
KINDS OF THOT'flHT.
VIII.
I Think of something to assert (tell) aljout John. Kxpress
"■ it in a sentence. (John w^alks.)
Think of a question you wish to ask. Express it in a
sentence. (Who is he!)
Think of a command you wish to give. Express it in a
^( sentence. (Shut the door.)
12
ELEMENTAKY fiKAMMAIi.
Think a complete thouglit tl.at h n„ assertlnn ^-
it.nas,.„t,.,K.e. (Undon is a city) *^^'*^'"»- "'"1"^'^
Tlunk a o..,„plete thougl.t that is a question l.'v
■t.nas,.„t.„oe. (Where is I.,n,lon ?) ''"*^"°"- '"P"-"'^
^'""'"'•e""'plete thought that is a t.n«,^o«j ...
■t in a sentence. (Come here.) command. Express
About each of the followins think fi. i . .,
tions, q„e.,tio„s, or co,n„,a2 :_ "^"""^ ""'' are asse,
Robert Victoz.ia, Ju^e, Moufreul, Winnipeg
Express these ti.ou.-hts in sentences ^
il"* many kinds of tliou.'lits l,-,v„ i
sentences ? " '" '*''"" '"''P'es.sed in these
Tell which of these kind., ,.f n w .
of the following :_ """«'"" '" "^P'"''*'' i" ''aeh
What is the u.se of delaying?
liie breaking waves da.slied liigh
R>"g out, wild belk, to the wild 'sky
Why does a rolling stone gather no'„,oss?
^o endeavor is in vain •
Its reward is i, the doing.
Be not false, unkind, or cniel •
Banish evil words ai.l strfe-
pop thy heart a temple holV.
Love the lovely, aid the lowly.'
-"ger, etc., it may be ca,l«l 1 T7' '^^'' ""P^"''"'-.
beautiful t ,e flowL «,.«' x "" ^^<=la«ation, e.g., I.,.
-n their glory fade" " '"" "" *^"'*" ' ^^'-"
ELEMENTARY ORAMMAB.
13
H-xjire»s
Give a name for each thought expressed in the following
stanza. Tf any of the thoughts are also exclamations, men-
tion that fact.
Tht fi'8 a merry brown thrush sitting up in
the tree: .
He's singing to me! He's singing to mo !
And what does he say, little girl, little boy!
"Oh, the world's running over with joy!
Don't you hear 1 Don't you see I "
KINDS OF SENTENCES.
XII.
Each kind of thought is cxF-^ase.! in its own kind of
sentence.
A sentence which expresses a thought that is an assertion
is an assertive sertcnce.
A sentence which expresses a thought that is a question is
an interrogative sentence.
A sentence which expresses a thought that is a command
or request is an imperative sentence.
A sentence which expresses a thought that is accompanie.1
by strong feeling may be called an exclamatory sentence.
XIII.
Bead the following sentences and tell whether they are as-
sertive, interrogative, or imperative, and why. M any sen-
tence is also exclamatory, mention the fact. Observe the
marks of punctuation at the close of ea«h sentence.
How beautiful is the rain in summer!
Is he not able to pay the money!
Remember never to be ashamed of domg right.
Brightly shines the morning sun.
14
ELKMENT.AltV OJiAMMAK.
Each „f „.s l.,,s J.i,s own fanlt.s.
roll for the ,n-avoMhe brave that a..o no morel
XIV.
.4:;!;";;ir "™ ^""'■"™^ "•"- -- p>«- in ,„„
'eaves U,efli:,:t,:rb;::r"'-^ ^'^"'"'- "'-t tl. c„,or, of
XV.
.oi,s. ' "*''• '""" ">'«" "liS" » low, .,v„l
F.I.KMF.NTAKV (iUAMMMt. 15
ItiMil the ilii<'f wciiil usud ill cxiiirssin;.' lliu llmu^jlil-
i,if(ii(iitc (Fussfil.) This word iiwy li« cuilwl ilie bare
word-predicate.
HcimI tliu complcto »iiiil-i>mli™i.'s and llll^ liiuv »>ii<l
prrdiralcs in the isi-i-iMid and third wntenn's.
Notk.-TIks word-Huliji'i't in an iiTiiKTiitivu si'nlcncii is
usually "mittrd; wlien exiHvsM'd it is oilhci- ;/.ii( or tlmu.
Thus, (You) .sliut tlie door. (You) coniu here.
XV r.
All tlie words used in exiiri'ssili^' tin' lliouKhl-sul-jPot
inav 1h( talkil the complete word-subject.
All tl c words usimI in i-xprcssin'; thi^ tliought-prrdiuate
inav i« called the complete word-predicate.
The cliief word used in expressing- the thou^lit-subjeet
may he called the bare WOrd-SUbject. The eliief word
use- in expressing the thouj^ht pn^licale may ho called tlic
bare word-predicate.
xvri.
■Read each of the foUowiiif; sentences ami stale (.1) tlie
kind, (/-) the complete word-subject, (.) the bare word-
subject, (■/) the complete word-predicate, (.) the liare word-
predicate. These fue statements constitute the ijeiierid •imdij-
xis of a sentence.
The f right onotl horso dashed dovvii tho street,
A kind deed often drives iiway sorrow.
Forgive my thoughtless act.
Wliat divides us!
II(jw strange are tho freaks of iiiciiiory!
How do wild cherries compare in size with
cultivated ones?
16
REVIEW.
rest ess feRt tu '""' eyes. Pn«i,; ^ "
"o xeet the snow f„ • , ^'^^biDg vntu
lingered. Long y'Z n ''^''" ««d left hi
birch tree J W . ® "^o of vonr i ■
' *^^ ^-^^ing golden-rod f '■''"''•'^"'e
'*« f?' till a" onete"!'* ."'iH
Oood nigh,, ll,tI,°Sle'; »»S...e;
^ntiful han,1» glasses, good ugitj,,
'""S day tliTOiigh,
f
ELIiMENTAltY (illAMMAlt.
17
the
XfX.
Kxpri-ss ill your own wonls tlio tlioiiKlitH coiiliiincd in
eufli of ilir liisl four ixiiiiiiilcH in i'X<-rriMi xviit
Mcmioii llii' lliimgiit-sul)jii-ls tiihl tlio«){lit-iMciliriili's in
eiM-'ii oi lilt' following : -
Tli(! iiiiisclcs of liis liniwiiy ai'iiis art* stroii;^ us
iniii liaiuls. Wdiiiuls madt! l)y wonls arts hanl to
lu'ul. Wonls without llioufilits iif\('i- to licavcii
go. A little iionsciiM! now and thtu Is rolLshfil
by tlio wisest lucii. Unwanued by uuy -iiiusct light
llio ;^niy day darkened into night. Huddciily
from the shore eomes a cleai' crv tliiice ivi)eatod,
"Sweet, sweet, sweet." Open that door.
At liis side in all her beauty
Sat the lovely Slinnehaha,
I'laiting mats of flags and rushes.
On the joyous Christinas morning,
In front of every door,
A tall pole crowned with clustering grain
Is set the birds before.
JJown the street with langliter and shout,
(Had in the freedom of school let out,
Came the boys.
XXI.
Write six imperative sentences telling children tiot tr ' ^
late at school, to lie kind to tlieir playmates, to ht i ;
neetly.
2
»XEMENTAJ.V OKAMMAK.
18
i"fe'« tLo,.e I onJ^Z' l;"'; !"»'V^">'- % «toek!
*■«""-.' .s.u.«-fl„k,i th ; ,^1?' ''■"'" *'- ^^y a.'o
'l'^ 1<"H1 and cJast; Ir* 1*" Jr*"' «'«'' «'-•
XXITI.
Turn to voup Po„ i
--e of euch kind of .ente.eo 2 ."'T'"' '■" '^■''' ""=
PART TWO.
THB PARTS OF SPEECH.
THE NOUN.
I.
John owns a lum.ii! in Viiiii'i>u.iM\
Wliiit work does tlio woiil ,/i,/i« do in ihis sniti'iife I It
giii'H tlio Hiiiiie of till' iKTHon thought of.
^'"'■rtt work dot's the word Inmxr do in this sciiti'iice ! It
^ the tiiiiiii' of till) lliiiij^ t'louyht of.
hilt work dix'S the word rii/i'"»ii<' do in this .sciitenLi !
It gl s thu HtliHt' of tho phioo thouglit of.
Ill the foMowiiiy Neiiteiicus eoiiy the words thiit are iiiiiiiin
of jK;rsoiis, places, or tilings.
CoflEee grows iu Brazil and Arabia.
The earth and moon revolve around the sun.
Tlio King of Enghind is ruler of a va.st. empire.
He sjK)ke of tlio griis.s and flowers and trees,
Of the singing birds atid the humming bees.
A word that is used as the name of a person, place, or thing
is a. Noun.
II.
la tho following pasaage^ piok out the nouu.s. Wliy is
'>ach a uouu ?
20
KLEMENTAKY OBAMMAK.
Alvvay.s ho broad St. Lawreuce soo.ned to be
viudiug from buadlan.l to boadlund amo,,!
l^eputplo hills: ia sunlight a mirror bit
Mi\ci 111 tlie mooii-tract.
(f<), strajigor! track tho dee.,—
Free, tree tho white sail spivad '
.»™:rr-';:=:::-«; •■•-
THE PRONOUN.
III.
John OW11.S hor.so.s and ho is fon<I „f then,.
In tl,e following .sente„e,.., copy tl.e wonls wl.iH, a.e used
."»tea,l of „ou„s an,] .say for wl.at noun each ,,s .J
'"''S'if^^r^^"-"'-^'"''^'"'-"'-'-^
ELEMENTAUY GRAMMAR.
21
Where are tlio licioks! Ooorge nml Joinii.- luul
tlicni aiul tlicy tiM>k tluMii lioni.'.
Eobort knows Willimn's horse mid ho will fiiul
it for liiin.
A word used histewl of a 'l-.»» in a. PrOnOUn.
TV.
William has bought a hieyclo .lud he rides it.
Wiuuipog has wi(ie stro(;ts and thoy are i>avod.
I„ tlioso seiiteiicos read tlic words tl.at m<mc persons,
,,la.vs, „r tilings. (William, liii-yclc, \Viiniii«% strcnts.)
Tn these sentences read tlie words that refer to (designate)
persons, places, or things iiHlwiit m„iilii,i them. (He, it, they.)
Tn tli(^ following sentences copy the words that designate
persons, places, or things without naiTiing them.
Wh owns the hook?
Who stole four eggs I hiid ?
Tell 1110 whieh hook you want and I will get it.
Then spake the chief hutler unto Pharaoh, say-
ing, I do renieinher my faults tliis day.
Pharaoh was wroth with his scrvauls. and
put me in ward iu the house of the captain
of the guard, mo and the chief haker: and
wo dreamed a dream in one night, I and
ho; we dreamed each man according to
the interpretation of his dream.
.Vword used to il.aliiniili
naming it is a ProUOUU.
a person, jilacc, or thing \iitlioul
KI.DllKNTAliV WJAJISIAli.
»'0 'lify areiiro,i„„„„.
)iil.s.s;ij;,..s, imrl s
lay
Ui.it tlioy slioul.l do loni..
. \t tlKy two aio in henvon i" '
L,ko lun-,Kv«u«o tJ.,.y ]ovo £
A Pronoun is a wo,-,I „sod inst,..„l „f .,
vr.
Compose tl.roo ov,.Ia,n.it,„J 7 ™"*''"""S P™nou„s.
<I.<-ya,.e pronouns """ "'"'"'"■»' ■•"'<' '-H why
the^*::;;:,::: "-'^'"-"^i'- -„ .,o,.,ht.p.a.ate. „
^'-oth..na,n„h...,y„„, ..U,.. U,.._,„.„..,„„,,,
THE VERB.
vir.
•Tamos lias f;i,.,„«_
ITiis JaiMos farms*
R"y »i<-r.. farms, James.
ELEMENTAItY OKAMMAK.
23
I say
Mention tl.o kind uf tl.ougl.t exp.-esse.l in the first sen-
tence ■ in the secon.l sentence ; in the thinl sentence.
What is the chief w„.d used in making the assertum
alx)ut James? (Has.)
What is the chief w,.,-.! use.! i-. asking the .,uest,on alK,ut
''"^ItK chief wo... used in giving the eommand to
James 1 (Buy.) ^^^^
In each of tlie following sentences mention the kind of
""Tf :ll ci^tll'following sentences, pick out the ehief word
used in making assertions, asking HUestions, or givmg com-
niands.
Wellington defeated Napoleon.
Hope for the best.
Who leads in that race?
Wliat a noise that boy makes!
The river glideth at its own sweet tviII.
Eemember thy Creator in the days of thy
youth.
The chief word used in, iiahin,, an n.«rti.
or ijifimj a miiiiiiand is a Verb.
IX.
Pick out the verhs in the following passages,
each a verb ?
, <isA-i».'/ a question,
Why is
I
We sit in the warm sha<le, and feel right well
How Ve sap creeps up, and the blossoms swell.
r.o rock the little wood-bird in his nest.
Curl the stiU waters, bright with stars, and rouse
The wide old wood frotu his majestic rest.
24
ELEIIENTAKV ,i,awj,.u;.
O" the gi'ec'i-floljriloij,,;^* "''''' ^""^ d-^vn '
X.
Notice tl,efoll<„vi„„ „„,pH •
"'n assert ,„,i»,u,„„tj„,,n.__
John goes.
Joliii is going.
John has gone.
Jt>liM did go.
Joii" may },;u-e go„e.
Til the fi,-«t spntp,,,,,
'" -ako the as..e..t,-;:,, 'ilrV'"? '"'^ •" ^ "'■" '-i"'-
Tn each of the f„no„.,„„ „.,
-".cI verb-phra.ses . . " ^■^'''^'"' l''^''' "ut ^.H the vorhs J
.see,, ^ '^"^ -'fe'"'" ^^-h'^t I ],ad already
Til * ^
F.LEMKN PAUV (iUAMMAK. -J
a wfijroii witli hay. Tho sh(>op iiibhlo grass
as tlu'V j'o. Tlio sliopliordoss stops and
vosts now and tlioii wliilo slio pi<'ks np
dropped stitches in hor knitting. Tlioro is
stilhiess in tho nir, that calm sileneo wliicli
Millet said was tho gayest thing ho knew
in nature.
XT.
Acccmliii^' to tliiMi- uses i" ii sontoiioo words are divider!
into (•Iiiss,.s." So far wo Inivo dis,-ov.Mv,l tlirco Hasses-tl.c,
„„„„, tho 7.r..H..»", and tlie nil, witli Hs oxpansion tlie vnli-
[lll^iLs^^
Tn tlio f..l1owin<; si'lifonccs cni.y tlio l)iin) Nvord-sul)jcct»
I and bare xvonl lavdi.'atos. >r.Miti..n wl.ifl. class ..f words
oacli sliould 1)0 (ilacod in.
Tho south -wind searches for tht! flowers.
A little child shall h'ad them.
Cast thou tliy l>read upon th(^ waters.
In n>y youth I studied law.
Call my hrother hack to me.
Why should ho forfeit his hard',y-won prize ?
Th'aVd ye not the shrill call of the bugle?
Homo they hrotight him, slain with spears.
Mention too elassos in wliirli .ill tlie bare wonl-subji'cts
lla\<' Itotui placi d.
Mention tlie class in which all the liaro word-pi-odical^'s
have been placed.
liLKJIiiMAliV (iliAMJUK.
THE ADJECTIVE.
XII.
IIojso.s eat.
Black JioiNcs eat
l""iig I,la,.k hoi-ses oat.
They are beautiful.
T" the first .s™fonrotl„.„„„„ , t
«ition. ■ ^'"^^"' '« "" iiriiit to its appli-
to l,ors,.s of ,, „nai„ „,lo,' "iTlu-ahV.,, „f tl,o „„„.,
(affi.ctst^',!!,!;,,-;':,"!^''',,'''' "■"?' ^'.'""^ '"'■""-'• "•"-Jifies
toho..so.ofae.rta->„io "" ''^' '■■"■«"« ''-I'P'.eatio,.
T" t!,e fourth .s,.ni™,.o ll„. ,,„,,, , ,., ,
Tall treo.s from Ilttio aeon,« jnw
J l''T,'^ eold a,Kl „a,.k a.^l Z,,.,. ''
sfatei^i is :r"^'r'"'-^''''^ """•-•
Timt vol.; ;;f ;:!i'3' *«" --t,.! t,.,..
A won! used
Adjective.
to m,„/,ri/
a nonri or
pi'oiioun IS an
EliEMKNTAllY GUAMMAU.
27
XTIT.
C.py tl,o ,ul.ir.-tiv..s in the fo^o^vl,,^' imssasos. VOl ^vl,y
cacli is an luljiictivp.
All that spring with lioniiteous liimil
Scatters <>'or a smiling laml;
All that liberal autumn pours
From her rich o'erllowuig stores.
Above our heads the sullen clouds
Seud, bla<'k and swift, across the sky;
Like silent gliosts in misty shrouils
Stand out the white lighthous»>s liigh.
The plain was a weary flat of loose red sanO,
sparsely covered by dry karroo bushes,
that cracked beneath the tread like tinder,
and showed the red earth everywhere.
Hero and there a milk bush lifted its pale-
c„l<.re<l rods, and in every dire.'ti.m the
ants and beetles ran about in the blazmg
gand.
The Phrase.
XIV.
A gr.,up of wonls «l,i<-l. lias tl.o foreo ..t a sin-l,^ w..r,I is
ralli-.l a Phrase.
The large tree is an oak.
The tree by the path is an oak.
The children climbed the trot! on the lawn.
AVhat word inodiBes tre,^ in tl.o first sont^-nco ? (F-arse.)
Wl.at group of words mwlifi™ /,■,,■ in tl,.. so,-on,l s..nt..noe1
(By the path.)
28
KI.KMF.NTAItV (lliAMMAIi,
Wluit -roui. of w„f,I,s ,n,Hlin..s m, i„ il„. ,|,;,,, , ,
(O.i tl,o I.uvn.) llM (l„Mi s,.„t,.,„.p;
i-.iIS')'VVT "'!''■'' ''"''■'''^'•''^ "•"'•■''''- '•'■-/.
iK'iDiig.sf (Adjcdivo.) •
".»■*"; TiSisr;-' » •■
< J"i-i,ir, '"" "" -'• ■•' ■""'-. " ■" -"'.•
Pick out tlioadjixtive i>lii;is...i Ji, ir... * n ■
Tpllwl„.f..i I •-'"'■''■•'"" tl'u following wnt.Mices.
ipil what euch jilinwe iiKHlilics.
Tlie sound of guns -.vas liojinl
Tho wivok of 11,0 vessd floatod in.
llio .it.dg,, was a ,Mai, witlio„t uuw.y
Want of deocncy is want of sonsc "
Bolun.1 it rose the firs with .ones n^.on ,1,..,„,
His flaxen hair of sunnv Inie,
Curled closely i-o„nd ius l.onnet blue.
XV.
X;,i„g .,„i,a,,,o adjoetives or a,l,i..o,ive j.h.,.,,..,, ,,„„,„„..
MX a.»e.-,ve .sentences de.senbin., tI,o following „1,.k.
Rol.,n redbreast, a„t«„„,, „,„UMtain, prairie, sea '
V.\n^ snitable adjeetives, co„,,«so six exclan.a.orv sen
tences about tbe following objects: Koses, r b „.:.,
infant, sunset, Niagara. ' '
each of tbo following : .Snow, gold, avalan.-i,,. M-illi,.,„ „;
Conqueror, Columbus, Ii„,.sia.
Compose sentences illustrating ti.e uses „f tl,e foll„wi„„
adjectives: Pretty, bandsome, ..auHfnl; eorre,.;; I!! I !"
,/)■./,
ELF.MK.NTAUY OUAMMAU.
29
],l,ca.ljoctivoi.lm«.s.iuatl»!«..Mls«i. }
THE ADVERB.
xvr.
Ileiiry spoiiks.
Hem y f<i>uiiks now.
Hemy speaks lu've.
lloiuV speuks <iuiekly.
1,1 tlie thif<l soMlonee the «"iil
l:l!:i;:u:;;,.Uc..i.....U.eve.,»U,t,.c, ro^
""•■S..„,K, ;!. ,,./.■% "-Hfy(.m.ctU,e.n..a.un«
of) tlio vci-b.
,■1-1 IS oi- verb-iilivii-sf!» ; -
He sees clearly.
The soUliers fought bravely.
She buUisteuea patiently 1.. Ins stoo
Suadenly a poal of tlmu.ler was heard.
We saw a sail plainly.
Robert of Liufiohi is gaily dressed.
A word u^ to ,,..lifi> .. -'•" '"• -'•^-/"-''- '^ "" ^*'*''*-
30
IXEMENTAJtV OUAAIMAB.
XVII.
«"Mftly swiniy fl„„. ,1,0 sliip
O" iimaloiioit bl,.u-. """"—
SilonUy, slowly, sf,.(,.|v nn.l f,,.e
<'!■;« ot <.,„,,1 ,„Hl,.- ,1,0 so- '
Little by ]i„ie ,,,„ ,,„|;;,';f;"
I'orth i„to the forost Mnw-hUviv
P'oudly, ^vuh Li. bows and an-ows.
-■HIU1HIN(; AdjKCTIVES.
XVIII.
The muu ^as ni,g,y
The .„au ,v„., extrouu.Iy an^^y
-eanin,, of the a.ijeeU ;:;;:;;.;;' ""'' ^■'" -"^ - "«-■* the
The m,
Sextrenichj "j
wry
^'^^"""^"'""""''^>"'""(^-^-i«a„ Adverb.
ELEMENTARY OICAMMAIU
XtX.
81
t«]|
I„ tl,o f.-ll.-wi.,;; «..„ti.n.-s pi.k ..ut tl- a.lve.bs llmt
•ii.«lify ailjiH;tiv«'» ; -
It wiis 11 l)itt<n'ly coltl iiifilil.
Juno WHS an imusimlly Wfl inontli.
Sho spent 11 very ploiisunt l.-urwilh tl... .■liiM.vn.
Hu is so hoiu-so tlmt lie can liurtHy si^oiik.
He bus u singularly clvar vi,,-;. of Ins duty.
AllVKUIlS MlPDIKVINIi AllVKKUS.
xx.
Till) man siicaks iiiilisliiiftly.
Tho niiin siioaks voiy iii<iistin<'.lly.
I„ tl.o fir»t «mit..nre in.lUimlhj am-cts tl,.> lh,-i,ni.
v,.|l) M«ii/,», and is tluMvf(irc an wlwrli.
I„ the Bonm.l s.M,lenco ivn, aireds tl.o n.-ai..n
,„lvctl) IwlMiu-tbj, and is tl.eiofoie an advu.-li.
Other words ran In) .sulistitutcl for r, ;v/, as .«",
„„/,,,• and «K-h will "i.»Ufy the adv,.,!. in,l!slh,.tl:i.
„t the
<>? the
iihirliiil,
SO j
The man spea^^sj^^,^,,,,, ^.'Ustinetly.
A word used to vln,U/if -«. ii''i;rh is all Adverb.
xxr.
In the following sentences [.iek out the adverhs that modify
other adverlis : —
She walks su gvaecfiiHy.
Tlie farmer works vi y har.l.
32
ELEMENT.uiV Oli.VMMAIl.
TlK.y a,Tiv..,I .,„i,o ,„.oxiKv(,.,i|v.
--.':» .r::;;;,x*j:^ ' - *.„
-wir.
TJioy wiilk tli.'iv.
Tl'-y WMlk l.y ,|,„ ,iv.,,
^\W «„nl in.Kl,li,.s „„//, i„ ,, ,.
^^■'■"t «.■..„,. .,f „„,,,. „ i ""'''"' :■""■"••■• ■' (TlK.,,..)
(I'y tl.o rivr.) " """■■ '■' 'l'--v...„l .,.,„„„,„ ,
(rn'';::2;:;;rr''''" ""^ «-^-i. ,„:,..,...
^\ liafc sliduld W(. f..ii (I
- '^S;;:::!,:?-'-'^^-^--'---'''^ -
He looked upon ],i.s peo,,lo.
T1.0 slnp ,vill ,u,■i^•o in a fow ,!,„
ti. .,ppo„,,„ „„^ ^,^^ ^^^^_«^ ^^^^^_^^_^_^^ _ ^^^
M.RMEKTABY QRAMMAB.
33
My heart with pleasure flUs and dances with
the daffodils.
Early in the morning a sudden storm drove us
within a mile of laud.
XXIII.
Place in «parate columns the adjective phrane. and wlvrrl.
phr.«« in the following «>nt«nceH. Tell what each phra«.
modiftea : —
I stood aiuoug the fragrant stooks of wheat.
She spins beneath the shade of the old honey-
suckle.
We piled with care our nightly strn-k
Of wood against the chimney back.
In my ear is the moan of the piiifs,
In my heart is the song of the sea,
And I feel his salt breath on my face
As he showers his kisses on me.
Thk Clause.
XXIV.
The ship sailed at sunrise.
The ship sailed when the sm rose.
Compare at mnrUe and when the xin ro>e. They are groups
of words doing the duty of a single word. In meaning they
are alike. They are adverb phrases modifying saUed. lu
form they are unlike. The second phrase contains a word-
™hj.o.t (sun) and a word-predicate (rose). The first phrase
contains neither word-subject nor word-predicate.
34
ELEMENTAKV GRAMJIAB.
these pI„uso. :„ Ji;; ;1 ""' ^-"•''i-"-'-- Mention wl.„t
The man arose at davI)roak.
llie mau arose wheu'day dawi,e<l.
The boy i,i tliat seat is the leader
The boy «-ho sits there is the leader.
The so„g of the lark roused him
Tlie song .vhieh the lark sang nn,sed him.
He lay on the battle-field.
ae Jay whore he fell.
XXV.
give the : d i: :; n™, "r °" '"'^''■•'' '-■''"■-• -^
u ■■^ui.jcct and word i>i-odicato of each.
He b..„ght the horse that won the race.
1 hat house wlnoh ..tands on the hill is mine
re boy cheered wh... ho heard the bu^Je call
T e nno when this happened was six o'cto k
The I.n^s tly south when the leaves be;in to
He isjhe free mau whom the truth makes
Water that is stagnant is unwholesome.
TmI is Zt r, 'r -^ ""' '''' ^"" -"t ^^^■
KLEMENTAKY (iUAM.MVil.
35
phrases
)n wliat
XXVI.
ii iirlvorb
CorapoKe four assort iv.'s<-nt™ci-s<':i' 'i> "t^i I'l'g "
clause.
Compose four i.iterro^'ativo s,Mitenc.-s, v.u-h c-o.,tain.n- a,.
ailjective elauso.
Compose four imp-rativo scute • ■, oa.-li .•oi.taiuiu- an
lulverb clause.
Compose assertive sentences i.. which tlic hare wn-.I-subjcct
is mo(U6ed (1 ) by a phrase ; ('2) by a clause.
Co«,pose assertive sentences in which the verb « modifie.1
(1) by a single vvonl ; (2) by a phrase.
I
i
SlIMMAHY.
XXVTT.
Tlu,s far we have .liscvercl that, a sentence has two
elen.e,.ts_a WOrd-SUbject an,l a word-predlCatC.
The chief word in the wora-subje.-t is a noufl or ,.rom.un.
The chief word in the word predicate is a verb.
The noun or pronoun n.ay have as „.o.li,in. an adjective,
an mljertiir I'hrtm; an ailjectiiv chiiM:
The verb may have as wn,l!,i,-r. a., adverb, an „,h,;-b
pUrme, an mli-cih daus,:
The
Sentence
Noun or Pnmmm
Word-subject -in'^
iiiiv of tlioir Modijicrti
mid
Word-predicate
f Verb
' .and
[ any of its modifiers.
36 ELEMENTARY OEAMMAB.
THE PREPOSITION.
xxvm.
Read the phrases in the following .sentence,
each phrase niorfifies :— ™tence.s.
Tell what
He skated ou the pond
The bird flew over the barn.
The principal of the school governs it.
The horse on the tether fell
He walked across the street
— '",r r,r "zr ™ "- '-.-" •«■■ ... -^
.»r«:::sr:i."r ,5,:' "• '- "••■ •-
What word connects the phrase of ,„, ,,/,„„; with H . ^
pnncipal which it modifies? (Of.) ' """^
What word connects tho phrase ,„, tl,. , „ • , .
which it modifies ? """"''■ "'"^'' "'« ^"■■d
XXIX.
tea'lttTh^rcre::!!''"^ ^" '"^ '""-'"« -— and
The hunter shot at the deer
The broken plate lay on the floor.
bhe was sick unto death
Give me a little home in the country
Are you speaking to me f
The roof of the house is made of shingles
ELF.MKNTAUY C.UAMMAK.
37
I
Far away by tho sea in the south,
The hills of olive and slopes of fern
Whiten and glow in tlio sun's long drouth,
Under the lieavens that beam and burn.
XXX.
Compose Hent^-ncea illu«trali..g tho uses of tho folU^wiriK
prepositions : R^twecn, anions; ; in, into ; in, within ; beside,
licsides ; under, beneath.
THE CONJUNCTION.
XXXI.
Tliink tlie same tliought about hilh and ralUys.
Kxpress this thought in a sentence. (Hills and valleys
were covered with snow.)
What word shows that these two are connecte<i in
thought. (And.)
Give the use of the word and in this sentence. It
connects the words hilh, tcilleys.
Think two thoughts about /«>«■ a stream rum.
Express these in one sentence. (The stream runs silently
and slowly.)
Give the use of tho word and in this sentence. It connects
tlie words dnwbj, silently.
In the following sentences pick out the wonls that connect
words : —
John and James were tliere.
Slowly and sadly we laid him down.
He sang and danced.
She was beautiful and good.
Tho boys or the girls did it.
38
KLKlIKNT.MiY GJiAMJIAIJ.
■i ',
Tho,na. or WiHia,a,„„st have taken it
Tl.ey were jmku- but lionost
^\lMil ..rings l.inlsa.Hl flowers
Mary rs lieat and faithful thougl, slow
,'"•"■"'""'"•'"""■'■'»"■'■'■''--' Conjunction.
N..,H.f„no, e„,mec(i„g wo,,), ^„. j,, ,„,,.,,^^ ^,^ ,_
j;^M,TJa„u.sorJohnmustgo.
lJ.ogro..,.rha,l,..M,vtea,..;-,.offe,.
He purcliasedi.//, cattle „«,n.orses;
XXXII.
"'M=.?3tr„'»™ ■"■" '■■ ->"»>. '«
A w„„r ,1,., „„,„,„„ ,^.„^ .^ _ Conluncttoi,.
xxxriT.
i-. ,:* :; """•'■' '"- ■'*■ K"i.™. 11 (j.,1. .^
ELEMF.NT.MIV GllAMMAlt.
39
I
Coml.ino these relate,! tl.ou^lits i.,t,. m.o tlHmj,'l.t, uml
express it. (Jolin nxJo into town and Imuglit a liat.)
Wliatword indicates the e.mneetim. ..f the th.n.^hts!
(And.)
Tliink a thiiusht ahcmt tlu- ,a,,Ui!n. Express it. (The
captain gave tlie cuniniand.)
Think a thought ahont th. men. Express it. (Tlie mon
fell in.) , ,
Co„,hino these related thoughts into one thought, and
expre.ss it. (The captain gave the cnnnand and the me,i fell
What ^vora shows the conn,.ction of the .senten.^es . ,.\n<l.)
Tliink a thought about the J-"!''''- KM'"'«« i*- ''""^
people rebelled.)
Think a thought which is a reason for this action of tl,.
,,eo,,h: Express it. (The people were abused.)
Combine these related thoughts into one thought, and
express it. (The people rebelled becuse they were abuse.l.)
What >vor.i shows the c- nieetion of the sentences?
(Because.)
When two or more sentences are ,-on,bin,.d t.. n.ake one
longer sentence, each may be called a Clause. ( onjuncUons
cunnect thae eli'uscf. ^
Road the clauses in the following sentences, and give the
conjunctions that connect these groups of words :-
Fear God aiicl keop bis comiiiimdments.
He called them but they made no reply.
She nutst wG(>p or she will die.
They toil not neither do they sphi.
The winds werehiRh and the clouds wore dark,
And the boat returned no more.
40
A word that
Conjunction.
ELEMENTAUY (;1UMMAR.
^7*^1,^ the fl«n Of the lashing hail
And laugh as I pass i,, thunder.
conneetn mirth
xxxrv.
tfroK/)a „/ mmis is
thef Irit'fr"^""""""^ '" ">« f-'^-g. and tel, wW
Honor thy father and thy mother.
Neither a borrower nor a lender be.
"^sib^trir-"-"--
aSo? uttternorth?^''^ "°%"«'^^'
To stir men4 bWd ' P'^'^"'' *** «?«««*>
She look, and her heart is i„ heaven, but they
XXXV.
Construct sentences containing :_
Two nouns connected by ami; by or
Two verbs connected by ««rf,. by „r.
Tv.o adjectives connected by and,- by or
Two adverbs connected by and; by or
ELEMENTAKY GBaMMAB.
41
Two adjective phrases couneeted by and; by or.
Two adverb phrases conn'icted by and; by or.
Adjectives connected by neither— nor.
Two cUiuses connected by hut ; by and.
THE INTERJECTION.
XXXVI.
A word that is used a8 an exclamatory .<m,.l to express
sudden or strong feeling is an Interjection. Str.ctly
speaking it is not a part of a sentence , , ■ , „h i
Examples: Pshaw! hurrah! hark! alas! hush! oh.
''TJ Interjection is usually followed hy an exdamatim.
point (').
SUMMARY.
XXXVII.
The seven classes of "ords, whose uses in a ^^^^^^^^
been described, are, Noun, Pronottn. Vert, Adjec-
tive, Advert, Preposition, and Conjunction
Thes^ cla-s-ses of words are called Parts of Speech. The
Interjection is not a true part of speech.
These parts of speech may be arranged thus :—
The three indep^mlent parts of speech-the Noun the Pro-
noun, and the Verb. These may form sentences without the
"^The two ,«„-i,»«-the Adjective and the Adverb. These
deoend upon other words.
The tw^ conr.ctive,-Ao Preposition and the Conjunction.
These connect words and groups of words.
42
u
ELKMENTAKV OltAMMAIt.
1>IKFKHKNT
I'SKS OF T„K SA,iB AVoKD.
/'"- is six foettt h!::'?"--'^^"' "'--'■'<'*: That
'r.rc/,„,, is a verb.'' ' '" " """"• ''"" "" "^"l^-
iUW; iliS:!^™'^"^''^ "•" -'- J^- "f «P-e,. each
il'o di, ,1 ^v■as m a soiohI slumber
1 lie loavos decay and/,,//.
^"// IS another name for Autumn
Jt\vasaraw/fl!//day.
William runs fast.
William is a fast runner.
The brothers /«*■< on Triday
The boy walked rfo„« the street.
The horso fell ,7o,.« in the street.
Uio cushion was filled with rfom
This is hard icnrk.
They «t-o,-A hard.
APPLICATION.
xxxrx
™Sin;::^r'^::; j;----'! '^ p- to .e in
g.amma, .study may aid' t! 1 7'"^ '""'''''"'^ ''"^ '^e
intelligent oJ„.Hingtj" "^™«'"-»"'-Jy -^ich p^eedes
ELEMENTAltY (lUAMMAlt.
4:;
filt.VMMAK S'lUllY.
I stooil Oil \]\i' liriilj;!^ at iiiiihiiglit
As tlio clcM'ks well! st.ikliiy tlio lumr,
Ami tho iiiooii I'oso o'l'i- tlio city,
Behind tho dark church-tower.
Wliat kind of scntent'o 1
All assertive seiitoiict! cdiitiiiriiii:,' two fliius<>s iDiim'fti'd liy
UHil,
Read tlio woid-suliject of tliu lii-st cliuiso. /.
Read tlio word-preilicato of tliis clause. Ston.l . . hour.
Read tlio phrases and inodifyiii}; clauses and give tlioir
uses.
On the hrilijc, an adverb phrase modifying xtanil.
At wiihu'iht, an adverb phrase incidifyiiig s(i«"/.
Ah t!ic clucks. . . A.iHC, an adverb clause modifying s(<wr/.
Head the word-subject of the second clause. 1'hc vmon.
Read the word-predicate of this clause, lluse. . . .
church-tmccc.
Read the phrases and state their uses.
O'er the citij, an ailverb phrase inodifyjng rose.
Behind the dark church-lotrer, an adverb pliraso modifying
TiiouciiiT Study.
What is the purpose of the first lino ?
To state the action, its place, and the time.
What is the purpose of the second line t
To state this time more definitely.
What is the purpose of the third line?
To state the ne.xt action and its place.
What is the purpose of the fourth line?
To state the place more definitely.
44
k;,kmentaky (ikammaic
church
How many TOiiiplcte HtHK-rueiitM then t
Two : / ulimt 1 ,, n..
tou-cr,
Wliat (i(H's unit show t
OllAL llKADlN(i.
Ere, ill flio noi-tlioni pnle,
T ■'! ^""""'-''•/'•'«««s of the trees aro gone,
The woods of autu.n.K <.ll arouud ouf vale
Have put their gh-ry ,,i, ^'
Read the complete word-subjet-t and the co„,„lete word
predicate of tlie first clause
thU^'ise'."' '"'" ''"''""''^*"' '""' "'^ '"^ -dP-dieate of
Read the phrases in this clause and state the use of each.
Ireat the second clause in the same manner.
TnouoHT-STUDr.
^What kind of thought is exoressed in this sentence? An
What is the puTx,se of the la.,t two lines 1 (Second clause.)
To state what the woods have done
r:::: itirw:!': '--' "- ''- ' <*^'- «'-•>
the^:s £rr :r °^ """"" '"»' ■^'-^^ ^" --pp^«
^^ What el» in the«, two lines helps to show when ■ was
ELEMENTARY OKAMMAE.
4r)
In the second clause what is tlio umi of the phrase " of
autumn," of "all around our vale"?
Where, then, were the woods that had " put their glory
on"?
On the hills.
Where were the trees that still had their " Hummer tresses " ?
Tn the valleys.
Briefly, what outline picture of the place liave you in your
mind?
A valley Burrounde<l hy hills.
Composition.
Give somewhat fully in your own wonis your mental
picture of the landscape descrilied in this stanza.
mm
'•»ap*
PART THREE.
THB PARTS OP SPBBCH: Cl^ASSIlM-
CATION.
THE NOUN.
bS wll T: "™ "'':■ "'"''' "' ""■'-> «-•' - «oo,l and
"f /«"./.,. ap...t f,.o,„ .,.e p.,..,on who performs that aTtiH:
f (n) Ohjeets of sen.se.
Wocanthinkof i ('') ^'""'''ies states, or actions apart
fio.n the objects of sense to wliich
[ tliey ! dlong.
T" the fnll,nving sentences pick out („) words th»f
nan,es of objects of sense; (/) words ti
46
ELEMENTAllY flUAMMAU.
47
The boys fllle<l tlwir puckots with apples.
Think of your wooils iiiid orchiirils without liinls.
His i;h)Vonif!8M pUuisod liis tcaclnT.
The king livod in peaco niid Hiifoty.
A word ust'il im a imimi (if an iilijrrt nf xriisf is a Concrete
Noan.
A word UMeil us a namo of a ifintlity, stntr, or oitiioi ' 'luu^jiit
of apart from the object to wliicli it Ir'Ioii),"* i" "'^ Abstract
Noun.
II.
Mention, with reasons, tlio coniTi-i. nouns and abstract
nouus in the following : —
The girl laments tlicir triumph and liis loss.
My voyage up t1u> Hudson was full of wonder
aud romance.
Oft in sadness and in illin'ss
I h-vp .s''r'liod thy cuni-nt glide!,
Till v.v .... 1.-, of its stilhi.'ss
Ovoriivv.iu UiO like a tide.
Saint Augustino! well linst thou said
That of our vices wo can frame
A ladder, if we will Imt tread
Beneath our feet each deed of shame;.
Common and Pbopkk Nouns.
III.
book, man; Ivanhoe, Cohimbus.
These are all concrete nouns, but there is a diiTei-ence in
their uses.
48
ELEMENTARY OBAMMAB.
The word book is not the name of any particular book but
« a common name for a oW^ of similar Ejects. iT^yt
used to denote any book. ^
The word man is not the name of any partiouiar pe.«,n
but.sa^eommonnameforacIass. It may ^ used to ^^T^
The word Ivanhox is the name of a particular book a8 dis-
tinguished from all other books.
The word CV«„A« is the name of a particular person a,
distinguished from all others. person as
obArracot^otNor" — "^ ^ ■'- ^^ ^-"-
whether tZl"*' "'""''"" """"' '" ""^ *°"°"'"8 and tell
wnether they are common or proper :—
The smoke of their wigwams and the fires of
their councils rose in eve.y vaUey f^m HuK
Bay to the farthest Florida, from the ocean to
the Mississippi and the lakes. ^
likechS; ^ brittle, bright stubble
Ii!!i "a'"n''''P*'"'^'° * dome-spire sprang white
And GaUop," gasped Jons, "for Aix is in siSit.^'
Note that proper nouns begin with a capital letter.
COLLECTIVB NoDHS.
IV.
soldiers
birds
army
flock
lENTARY GRAMMAR.
49
" Soldiers " is a common name for individuals of the same
class.
"Army" is a common name for collections or groups of
individuals of the same class.
In the following sentences pick out the common nouns that
are names of collections of individuals of the same class : —
The crew deserted the ship.
The congregation sang a hymn.
My friend is an officer in tlie navy.
The lowing herd winds slowly o'er the lea.
Nouns that are names of collections of individuals of the
same class may lie called Collective NOUns.
We may think of the collection as one uniUruted vhole ; aa
The jury has considered the matter.
We may think of the collection as composeil of individuals
acting separately ; as
The jury are divided in their opinions.
Give abstract noun ■, suggested by the following : —
A Stone, an orange, trae, free, unjust, grieving,
equal.
Give common nouns suggested by the following : —
Halifax, New York, August, Thames, England,
Mississippi.
Give collective nouns suggested by tlie following : —
Bii-ds, pupils, singei-s, books, listonors, sailors.
4
50
ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR.
Pick out the nouns in the following and state, with reasons
the class to which eiich bclonns :
The Czar of Russia, iiltliongh lie is lord of a
miglity einjiire in Euiope iiiid Asia, besides beiug
master of a htiRe nniiy and a large fleet, does
not live m pence witli his suhjeets, and canuot
leave his palace without some anxiety.
I Concrete
( Common. — ( '.
'oUeftif
Noun *'-■■'- 1 „
J ( Proper.
y Abstract.
THE VERB.
VI.
Differences in their uses divide verbs into classes.
John works.
John has a fann.
John will buy a fann.
In the first sentence the verb i-f.Wrs, in itself, expresses a
distinct idea or notion— that of labor. In the second sentence
the verb haa, in itself, expresses a distinct notion— that of
possession. In the third sentence the verb-pliiase nill buy,
in itself, expresses a distinct notion— that of pujchase.
A verb or verb-phrase tliat in itself expresses a distinct
mtlon is called a Notional Verb.
John is happy.
Carrots are \-egetables.
Robert seems tirtil.
In the first sent<-!ioo there are two ideas, "John" and
"liappy." The relation between these ideas is expressed by
ELEMENTARY GKAMMAE.
51
the verb m. Tlie verb i'«, in itself, does not express a distinct
notion. In the second sentence tliere are two ideas, " carrots"
and "vegetables." Tbe relation between tliese ideas is e.t-
pressed by the verb am. The verb an; in itself, docs not
expres-s a distinct notion. In the tliiril sentence the relation
between the ideas "Rolwrt" and "tired" is expressed by the
verb seemn. This verb, in itself, <loes not express a distinct
notion. In these sentences "John," " cari'ots," and " Holwrt"
are siihjects: "happy," " vegetables," and "tired" are piyili-
cates. The relations of subject and predicate are expressed
by the verbs is, are, and seems.
A verb or verb-phrase that expresses a relation of subject
and predicate is called a Relational Verb.
VII.
Select, with reasons, the notional and relationil verbs in
the following : —
The sun rises.
The house stands on a hill.
The lark at heaven's gate sings.
Dewdrops are the gems of morning.
Henry became captain.
Men must work and women must weep.
Thou had'st a voice whose sound was like the
sea.
Transitive and Intransitivk Verbs.
VITT.
The boy caught a fish.
The farmer tills the soil,
Columbus discovered America.
62
ELEMENTAEY GBAMMAB.
The verb in each sentence is notional. The verb caught is
followed by a noun which is the name of the object caught.
The verb tills is follov ^d by a noun which is the name of the
object tilled. The verb dwiwered is foUowM by an object. In
each case the object is required to complete the meaning of the
sentence.
A notional verb that requires an object is said to be
Transitive.
Observe that in each sentence both the doer and the object
of the action --jcpressed by the vci-b are mentioned.
The boy smiles.
The fanner sleeps.
Columbus rests.
In these sentences the verbs are not followed by objects.
The meaning in eacli is complete without an object.
A notional verb that does not require an object is said to be
Intransitive.
Observe that in each sentence only the doer of the action
expressed by the verb is mentioned.
In the following pick out the notional verbs and say
whether they are transitive or intransitive. Mention the
objects : —
Moses struck the rock.
The baby ci'ied.
The bird spread its wiugs and flew away.
A boy should think I . uOre he speaks.
The meadow is the playground of the black-
bird.
The rain has ceased, and in my room
The sunshine pours an airy flood.
ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. ^^
The birds are glad; the bner rose fills
T' a air with sweetness; all the hills
Stretch gi'een to June's unclouded sky.
IX.
A verb nmybe transitive or intransitive a.eordi..g to iU
use in a sentence.
Transitive.
He spoke the truth.
The mouse steals food.
They hide their faults.
Intransitive.
He spoke slowly.
The mouse steals into its hole.
Bats hiile during the day.
Classify the verbs in the following sentences :-
The janitor opens the door at nine and school
°TetS;d her horse slowly and he walked at
^'ihfman who wrote that letter writes welL
Construct assertive sentences, using each of the following
verbs, first transitively, then intransitively ■-
Speak, eat, run, fill, spread, rest.
1 Transitive.
The Verb Notional ^ j^^^^^gitive.
( Relational
■(•
THE PRONOUN.
X.
T told him that vou had my sleigh and that
he mTght Use it aiterVou had yom. repan-ed.
54
ELEMENXAKY GBAMMAB.
Make a list of tlio Pronouns in this sentence.
Which pronouns designate the pei'son speaking t (I, niy.)
Whicli pronouns designate the person spoken to! (You,
yours.)
Wliicli pronouns designate the person spoken of! (Him
he, it.) '
Pronouns tliat l>y tlieir form distinguish between the
pfi-mn .y„a!dn;,, the ,„rs„n spoken to, and the person or thing
»/»i/,v«./ are called Personal PronouMS.
Tlie pronoun tliat desigimtcs tlie person speaking is said to
be a pronoun of the First Person : that winch designates the
person spoken to is said to be of tlie Seeoml Person; that
whicli designates the person or thing spoken of is said to be
of the Third Person.
Observe that "person" in grammar is not the same as
"person" in ordinary speech. It has reference not to a
human being, but to the form of the pronoun used to dis-
tinguish between those speaking and those addressed.
XT.
Kll In the following blanks with pronouns of the First
Person : —
- know John. William has book
book IS . Tho book belongs to —
That
Fill in the following blanks with pron juns used when the
speaker includes others with himself ;_
love Rocket.
Eocket is —
Eocket is dog. Yes,
-. Eocket loves ■.
Make a list of these pronouns in the First Person.
Observe that 7, ,»;/, mine, and we are used when the .-ipciker
refers to himself, and that n-e, oicr, ours, and t« are used when
the speaker includes others with himselt
ELEIIENTAUY GUAMMAll.
55
XTI.
In the following select the pronouns of tlie Second Person ;—
The oppovtuiiity is yours aii<l your past success
should encourage you.
For thine is the kingdom and the power and
the glory.
I fear thee, ancient Mariner!
1 fear thy skinny hand!
And thou art long and lank and brovm
As is the ribbed sea-sand.
Observe that V"h V"'"; "''<' i/'""''' '" ""Unary style, and
tkou, thy, thin,', and tlu-e in Bil.lical and puc-tical passages
are used when the reference is to the person spoken to.
XIII.
In the following select the pronouns of the Third Person :—
He recited his verses and the teacher praised
him.
She studied her lessons. That book is hers.
It stores its food in hollow trees.
Those books are theirs. They earned them.
Observe that/,,', hh, him; »V, /„■«, h.r : it, fe; th.'y, thrir,
tlwirs, them are used where tl,o reference is to persons or
things spoken of.
Construct sentences containing the forms of the personal
pronoun of the third person.
xrv.
In the following passages select the personal pronouns of
the first, second, or third persons :—
56 ELEMENTARY GBAMMAB.
Come to me, O ye children,
iJor 1 hear you at your play.
Lay on my neck thy tiny hand
With Love's invisible sceptre laden-
I am thme Esther to coi.,mand
TiU thou Shalt find thy queen hand-maiden;
Phihp, my kmg. '
He lives to learn in life's hard school.
How few who pass above him
Lament their triumph and his loss
Like her— because they love him.
Compound Personal Pronouns.
XV.
Myself, yourself, thyself, hi,me{f, herself, itself, ourselves,
yourselves, themselves are called Compound PTSonal
PronomiS. They are fomed by adding " self " or " selves »
to a personal pronoun.
They are used for emphasis, that is, to make the pronoun
more prominent : as, " I Myself will urge him to do it." « He
diZL ^"^ *^" '" ^^' '^*'"" " "^^ ^^ 8'°^ «W/shall
They are also used as reflexives, that is, when the subject
receives Its owi. action: as "I cut myself." "You wn,ng
LTvi" '" "^"°"''" "^^ ^^""^ *"'"''-^ *^ ">"^
Compose sentences illustrating the use of each of the com-
pound personal pronouns for emphasis, as reflexives.
Conjunctive Pronouns.
XVI.
The boy who studies will succeed.
He bought the horse that won the race.
ELEMENTABY OKAMMAH.
57
'boy"!
(Pronoun.)
the word that it
The sun which rises each day shines on the
just and the unjust.
Pick out the modifying claune in the first Hentence. (Who
studies.)
What does the clause »7>o ntuilita imKiify 1 (Boy.)
What word in the clause h used instead of
(Who.)
What part of speech, then, is " who " t
What word eimnerts this clause with
modifies? (Who.)
What part of speech, then, is " who " 1 (Conj unction.)
Then " who" is both pranoun and conjunetion and may be
called a Conjunctive Prononn. Such pronouns are
sometimes called Relative Pronouns.
Pick out the moflifying clauses in the second and third
sentences. Tell what word each clause modifies. Mention
the word that connects the clause with the word that the
clause modifies. What are these words called !
The modified word (Iwy, horse, sun) is called the antecedent
of the Conjunctive Pronoun.
XVII.
The ordinary conjunctive pronouns are : who, uhieh, that,
II hat. To these may be added whose, urhum, and as when it
occurs after smh and same.
Who, whose, whom refer to persons chiefly ; what, that, as
refer to persons or things ; which refers to things only.
WJiat unites in itself the functions of both antecedent and
conjunctive pronoun; as He ''ea'''l|"/,a" „.Ai<,i} y°" ^''^•
Select the Conjunctive Pronouns in the following sentences
and mention the antecedent of each : —
58
ELEMENTAltY GKAMMAR.
I fiiuv II Sold that WHS full of cowslips.
I sfliiil you tlu) money which I have.
I niu he whom yo sock.
That is tho inim whoso house wo occupy.
Ho rcmemboi's what yoii said.
They gave to the traveller such food as they
had.
A pronoun tliat cnnnirtH it.i tiiiune with itn antecedent is a
Conjunctive Pronoun.
CoNJUNTivK Clauses.
XVIII.
Water that is stagnant is unwholesome.
The sun, which shines above, is golden.
They called a policeman, who aiTosted the
culprit.
The flfniso "that is stagnant" reittricts its antecedent to
" water " of ii particular kind. This clause cannot be left out
of the sentence witliout changing the meaning.
Tlio chiuso " wliich shines aliove " descrihes its antecedent
"sun." It does not restrict tlie antecedent and may be
omitted witliout changing the nieaiii'ii' of tho sentence.
The clause " who arreste<l the cu-^^rit " continues what was
said in the previous clause, "who" being equal to "and lie."
This clau.se docs not restrict nor describe its antecedent.
A conjunctive clause that restricts the meaning of its ante
cedent is a Restrictive Conjunctive Clause.
A conjunctive clause that discrihea its antecedent without
restricting its meaning is a Descriptive Co^jUttCtive
Clause.
ELEMENTAUy OUAMMAB.
5!)
A conjunctive clause tlmt niMtluT rostricts nor (IcsiiUks
im anteciHlont but coHliniKii tlio Htiitcnient is ft Coiltinua-
tive Conjunctive Clause.
01«iei-ve tliat dcsciiptivo uml toiitlnuatlve iliiusis iiii^
usually separated from the rest of tlin sentence l.y commas.
Select the conjunctive clauses in the following,' anil tell
whether they ai-e restrictive, descriptive, or coTitinuative :—
Uneasy lies the head that wears a crown.
The boy found a hird which hud fallen from
its nest.
He prayeth best who loveth best.
My father who was there did that.
This is the dog that worried the cat.
Dkmonstkative Phonouits.
XIX.
Examine the italicised pronouns in the following »e i-
tences : —
This is ray horse ; tliaf is John's.
These are my horses ; thoxe are John's.
When contrasted, tim and tluv are used to point out
persona or things nearer; that and (/».« persons or things
farther off.
When two nouns have been mentioned in a jjrevious clause,
this has reference to the latter, that to tlii> former; thus :—
Work and play are both necessary to health;
this (play) gives us rest and that (work) gives us
energy.
60
BXEMENTAKY GKAMMAR.
The pronouns t.'ii'f and that may be uwil aa auUtitutea for a
clauae, thus : —
I am tired ; thin inuki's me cross.
The day ■was storaiy ; that was why I remuiued
at huine.
A pronoun used to /mnt out the object to wh:-;. it i-efeni ia a
Demonstrative Prononn.
The DemonHtrative Pronouns are this, that, tlimr, thote.
When thit, that, thf, thim are followed by nouns they are
adjectives, thus ; —
This book is mini,. That book is yours. These
books are miu>i. Those books are yours.
Intehkouativk Pronouns.
XX.
Examine the italicisal pronouns in the tollowinjj sen-
tences: —
Who spoke f Of whom did he speak T
What did he say! Whose book is that t
Which book do you prefer t
What does eacli pronoun do ?
A pronoun that asks a qiustinn is an IntetTOg'ative
I'ronoun.
Observe that ic/w, whose, and uhom ask for the names of
persons; uhat for the names of things; which for the selection
of a particular individual from a group.
CompLte the following senteu..: V supplying Interro-
gative Pronouns :^
GLEMRNTAKY (tKAHMAR.
61
Hits there t
did you call !
is that photograph t
are you reading t
do you like the hettcr, cricket or hmikoy t
When i(7ii>/i aii<l trluit are followcil by niiutit tliey are
ailjectives, tliuH : — ■
Whioli horse is yours! What game do you
play t
InnKFINITK Pbosouns.
XXI.
Each did his shave of the work.
All have gone.
Another did the work.
Matty a one has suffered through narelessness.
Observe that these are used imtead of names, but they do
not specify particular individuals.
A pronoun that does not indicate <lefinitely the person or
thing mpHnt is an Indefinite Pronoun.
The indefinite pronouns may lie cla.s»ifie<I as follows : —
Dhtributina : Each, everyone, either, neither. These
refer to the individuals of a class considered separately.
Pronoum of Xumhr or Quantity: All, any, one, none,
lx)th, few, many, much, several, some, aught, naught, other,
another, such.
Phraml Pmnimns : Each other, one another, a certain one,
many a one.
62
ELEMENTAKY GHAMMAB.
xxri.
Classify tl,„ pr,.nou„s i„ tl,o following, giving reasons i„
each case : —
He tliat filHiPs from me my good name,
Kobs me ot that whi.-h not enriches him
And makes mo pool- indeed.
^^•J^ t*"!! lue, tell me! speak again,
Ihy soft response renewing—
What makes that ship drive on so fast t
What IS the ocean doing?
Fiirnwell, farewell! but this I tell
lo thee, thou Wedding-Guest!
lie prayeth well who loveth well
Both man and bird and beast.
REVIEW.
XXIII.
The breaking waves dasli'd high
On a stern and rock-bound coast,
Ami tlie woods against a stormy sky,
iheir giant branches tost;
And the lieavy night Imng dark
Ihe hdls and waters o'er,
When a band of exiles moor'd their bark
On the wild New England shore.
Grammak-Studv.
Give a general analysis of the first stanza.
State what part of speech each word in the first stanza is
Head the phrases in the second sta.ua and 3tat« the use of
each.
Classify the nouns, pronouns, and verl« in the second
stanza.
ELEMENTAKY GRAMMAB.
63
TnoufiHT-SruDY.
In the first staiua what is tins |iiirpose of tlio first two
lines; of the second two lines? Why are these connected
by the conjunction "and " 1
In the second stanza reail the lines that (Icscriho («) the
actors, (A) the act, (c) the place, (il) the time. Show the
relation in thought between the first stanza an<l the last line
in the second stanza. What is the differenci between
" coa.st " (stanza i. ) and " shore " (stanza ii. ) 1
COMPOSITIOX
Draw with your pencil, or sketch in words, your picture of
what is described in these stanza^..
THE ADJECTIVE.
XXIV.
In describing an object we may speak of its qttaliti/ or
quantity or both. We may speak of a ijiml boy, a vimleit
table, a ploughed field, a Norwatj pine, fresh milk. These
adjectives express some quality of the object. They tell
" what kind," and .re called Qualitative Adjectives.
We may also speak of two boys, the semml table, no field,
et'ery pine, much milk. These adjectives expre.ss quantity.
They tell " how many, how much, or which," and are called
Quantitative Adjectives.
In studying pronouns we said that some of them could be
used with nouns, as, which man, that hat, each apple, another
story. Such words are called Pronominal A^ectives,
that is, pronouns used as adjectives. Tliese may be separated
into classes corresponding to the pronouns, as Conjunctives,
Demonstratives, Interrogatives, and Distributives.
64
ELEMENTAKY GRAMMAH.
XXV.
The green fields are beautiful.
English books are costly.
All men are mortal.
Six days Shalt thou labor.
Every diligent boy received merited praise.
One story is good tiU another story is told.
I He largest apples are in the third barrel.
^v. ^ fi"^*ta«ve Adjective expresses some quality of
the object named by the noun.
A Gnantltative Adjective expresses some quantity
of the object named by the noun.
Thb Uses op thk Adjrctive.
xxvr.
There are two ways in which an adjective may be used.
It may modify Its noun directly and closely: as, Tlie *«;,;,„
chUdren roam through the fields. Here the relation of the
adjective and its noun is so close that " happy children » is
.considered one idea- This is the Attributive use of the
adjective.
It may modify its noun Mirectly : as, The children are
l^m. Here the relation of the .uljective and its noun is
formally affirmed through the verb. This is the Predica-
tive use of the adjective. '=«"»-»t
Which of the adjectives i„ Exercise XXV. are used as
attributive adjectives, as predicative adjectives J
ELEMENTAKY GBAMMAE.
65
A OR An and Thb.
XXVII.
These words modify nouns, and are therefore adjectives.
"An," shortened to "a" before a consonant sound, is a form
of the word "one." "The" is a form of the word "that."
" A or an " is frequently called the Indefinite Article and "the"
the Definite Article.
Compare the italicised
sentences :
expressions in the following
Boys play ball.
A boy plays ball.
The boy plays ball.
" Boys " applies to all individuals in the class. " A boy "
means any boy selectc I from the cl,-i.ss "boys." " 'J'he boy"
means a particular boy selected from the class "boys."
The indefinite article selects any individual from a class and
makes no distinction between individuals. The dc/iuite article
selects a particular individual as in some way distinct from
others of the same class.
Observe that "an " is used before words beginning with a
silent h or with any vowel sound except U.
xxvin.
Compose assertive sentences containing adjectives used (a)
to describe the sun, a summer morning, a winter evenin",
Manitoba wheat, the Mississippi river; (6) to designate
something near you, some boy in the playground, a pupil's
place in class.
Classify these adjectives ag qualitative, quantitative, or
pronominal ; as attribntiTe or predicative.
5
66
ELEMENTAKY GRAMMAB.
THE ADVERR
XXIX.
In the following sentences examine th« adverbs aa to
meaning : —
He ■wrote fhrii. He wrote their. He wrote
hurriedly. He wrote much. He wrote therefore.
" Then " is an adverb of Tiiin: It answers the quection,
"When?"
" There " is an adverb of I'lare. It answers the question,
** where ? "
" Hurriedly " is an adverb of Manner. It answers the
question, " How 1 " " In what way ? "
" Much " is an adverb of Diyree. It answers the question,
"To what extent?"
"Therefore" is an adverb of Came. It answers the ques-
tion, " AVIiy ?
Adverbs may Iw classified according to meaning, as : —
Time. Examples : Now, formerly, to-day.
Place. Examples : Here, yonder, forward,
far.
Adverbs j Manner. Examples : Fast, well, pivsily, so.
of 1 Degree. Examples : I^ess, enough, almost,
Imrely.
Cause. Examples : Therefore, consequently,
whv.
Classify the adverbs in tiie following sentences according to
meaninif : —
The fir(' was extinguished afterwards.
I am now much better.
The child has almost recovered.
ELEJIENTAU Y ( lUAMM AK.
G7
Her auswof is most foolish.
IIow is he twice lilosscd J
The sailor went bolow whou tlio storm ceased.
John left quite hxtely for tlio Pacific coast,
where he spends liis vacation.
XXX.
In the following stMitciioes cxainino the luivoibs as to hhc : —
He spoke trcll.
How did he speak!
He spoke at noon when the atteudanoo was
large.
" Well" nu'i'fily modifies the verb. Ft is a Shiijilr Adverb.
"IIow" is used to ask a (question. It is an Jiit<fvii,jitlii-e
Adverb.
"When" is used to introilnce a elanse. It is a ( intjtiitrtive
Adverb.
Adverbs may be classified according to ».s,', as : — •
( Simple. Tbesi' merely miMlify.
Adverbs , Interrogative. These ask <[uestions.
' Conjunctive. Tliese introduce clausiw.
Classify tbo adv(?rlis in Kxereiso XXIX. juieonling to iixe.
XXXI.
Observe that with such words as ?<»//.-, fnl, tasli; and saitit:!
we use an adjective if the reference is to the subject, but an
julverb if the reference is to the verb. For example : —
He feels warm. He fccla mumhi on that matter.
I^he looks sad. She /o'ifev xmlhi on the empty
cot.
68
ELEMENTAUY GItAMMAU.
The music s<ounds disthwt, but the trum))et
sounds distiiictli).
Give, with reasons, tlic oiirreot forms in the following
sentences : —
He feels {bad, badly) because liis brother is ill.
The flowers looked (beaiitifid, beautifully) as
they were aiTanged.
How (sweet, sweetly) the flowers smell!
He stood (firm, firmly) in spite of opposition.
Distinguish between :
They found the way (easy, easily).
The waiter appeared (prompt, promptly).
We arrived (safe, safely.)
THE CONJUNCTION.
^ Thr Co-obdinative Comuhction.
XXXII.
Bead the clauses in each of the following sentences :—
Fear God and keep his commandments.
Shall I descend, and will yon give me leave?
He must work or he will stai-ve.
You are strong, but I am weak.
Observe that each clause may be used by itself as a
sentence, and that neither clause can be said to be more
important than the other. Such clauses are said to be of
equal rank and are called co-ordinate dames. The conjunctions
that connect co-ordinate clauses are Co-ordinative Con-
jnnctions.
KF-EMENTAIiV (JIUMMAR.
69
Ci)-orflinativo coiij unctions also connect woiiJs and phraaes
of ci]ual rank ; an,
John and Jamos woro there.
He is tall hilt well proportiont'il.
They crawled ovor the foiices ami through the
gardens.
For- aililitional cxiunplis »uu Kxeiuises XXXI. and XXXII.,
pp. 37-,'i8.
Select the cuMirdinativc conjunctions in Exercises XXXIII.
and XXXIV., pp. .ScS-JO. Tell what they connect in eacli ca.se.
The Co-ordlnative Conjunction connects words,
pliraaes, and clauses, of I'ljiiid rank respectively.
The SunORDINATIVK C0N.rUNCTI0N.
XXXIII.
Read the clauses in each of the following sentences :
I remain if he goes.
I will send it when he ariives.
I will do that because you wish it.
He worked hard before he succeeded.
Observe that in each sentence there is a principal clause
which may be used by itself as a sentence, and a modifying
clause connected therewith. This mixlifying clause is of
lower rank than the clause on which it dejiends, and is said to
be a suhunlinate dame. Tlie conjunction that connects the
subordinate clause with the principal clause is a Subordi-
native Conjunction.
Select the subordinative conjunctions in the following, f^ving
reasons in each case : —
^
70
F.I.F.MF.NTAliY OltAMMAM.
Men will roiijp as tlioy sow.
Ho iironiiscil tliut lio would n<tuiii.
IIo has been voi-y weak siiico lie was ill.
Tlio soldiers fought Wfll, for thov loved thoir
goiicral.
If(( walked with a cane lost ho should stumble.
For ailcliticiMiil cxiiniplcs sro Kxcrciso XXV., jingo 2a.
Tlif Subordinative Conjunction connects the clause
wliiili it intn«luccs with tlie cliuise on which it dciKjniis.
Suburdiuutive conjunctions do not connect words or phrases.
C(1H11KI.,IT1VK CoN.IUNOTIONS.
XXXIV.
Conjunctions arc! .soniotinies used in pairs, as : —
IIo jiurohased both cattle ami horses.
He was )ieHhcr wise iiur just.
Sucii conjunctions are called ( '(imlatii-e Cmijunetiom. The
most common are, "both and," "neither nor,"
"either or," "whether or," "not only but also."
Construct sentences to show the use of these correlative
conjunctions.
In wliich of tlie general classes of conjunctions should the
correlatives be placed ?
PlIHASAL CoNJUN. ilGNS.
The following groups of words are conjunctive in force and
may be conveniently treated as I'lirmal Conjunctions: As if,
as though, as soon ni, as sure as, as long a.s, for ais much as,
provided that, except that, in ca.se that, in order that
»
>
ELEMENTAKY GlIAMMAK.
71
SENTENCES: CLASSIFICATION.
The Simpi.h; Skntknce.
XXXV.
Examine tlio foUowinj; NcntciiccH : —
(a) Ellin fell.
(b) Eiiiii mul hail foil.
((■) John .sung and danced.
((/) Boys and girls laugh and play.
Eacli KL'iiteiice consists of a iiriiicipul clause.
(a) is composed of a sinj^ln subject and a single pretlicate.
(Ji) is composed of a group subji-ct (rain, liail) and a single
predicate.
(c) is composed of a single subject and a group jiredicate
(sang, danced).
((/) is composed of a group subject (iK)ys, girls) and a group
predicate (laugh, play).
Group subjects or ifninp predicates are said to be cumpuuml.
A sentence that contiiins but one subject and one jiredi-
cate, either or both of wiiicli may be comiiound, is a Simple
Sentence. It is the expression of a single complete
thought in one clause.
Note. — When the subject is compound each wubject
lielongs to every verb.
I
The Comple.t Sentence.
XXXVI.
John heard the stori/.
John heard -r/frtJ ivas said.
That he will fail is improbable.
72
ELEMENTAItY (lUAMMAll.
I. iiimn ftiiil tho cLiuso tlwU leplucea it w a, noun
111 tlio (irNt «.iit..nc(> '• story " names wliat John lienrd.
Ill tho sfcond «,.,iti.n<o " what wis sai.I " imiuus whut John
heard.
"Htorj-
llitltMt',
Reoil tlie noun chmse in tlin thinl sontence.
Pick out tlio Nulwrdinato tlauHcs in the folhiwing scntonccs
iiiid tell whether they are adjective cluuws, adverb clauses, ot
noun clauses. U, ui the ,.rincipal clauses in each sentence :-
All thiit glitters i.s not gold.
I saw the town where Shakespeare lived,
lie will succeed because he works hard.
Wlio steals my purse steals trash.
Unless you leave at once I will call a police-
man.
Ho did iKjt know that liis father was dead.
A sentence consisting of a principal clause and one or
more sulmrdinate clauses is called a Complex Sentence.
It is the expression of a single complete thought, the main
statement being modified by some subordinate statement.
The Compound Sentencb.
XXXVII.
Read carefully Exercise XXXIII., pp. 38-40.
In the following selections read eicli of the related thoughts
that have been combined into one larger thought ;—
Life is real, life is earnest,
And the gi'ave is not its goal
The way was long, the wind was coUL
ilio mmstrel was infirm and old.
ELEMENTAKY OUAMMAK.
73
i
(live a name for each claune in tliexe Hidi-vtioiiH.
A Hcnttinco consisting of two or more co-onlinato principal
clauses h a. Compound Sentence.
It in tlio expros«ion of a complete thought mtu.o up 4if two
or more indepeiiilent hul rchited tliouglits. Thcmo related
tiioughta are the mt'ttiht'i-n.
Observe that a connwuiiil scntonco niny ci insist of two or
more simple nicml)orH, or I wo or more complex memlwrs, an : —
The clock struck four mid the children went
home.
Eveiy boy tlmt expocts success must work, iiud
every man that would be respected must live
rightly.
Classify the following stMitences as complex tir compound : —
Listen carefully and observe closely.
lie who plants kiuducss gathers love.
He is a freeman whom the truth makes free.
3[y words fly up, my thoughts remain below.
Ho says what he means and ho means what he
says.
XXXVIII.
Compose an assertive sentence that is gimph' iu form.
Compose an assertive sentence that is romplex iu form.
Compose an assertive sentence that is compound in form.
Construct a simple sentence with a compound subject;
with a compound predicate ; with IkiHi subject and predicate
compound.
Construct a complex sentence with the subject modified by
an adjective clause; with the predicate modified by an
adverb clause ; with a noun clause as subject.
74
ELEMENTAHY OKAMMAK.
in. ml«is ; of twu foniplix iiifiiiU.T»,
XXXIX.
Change tl.o following Hi.nplo Hontcnce, to complex or com
A Hiu,.,.,-., ,„a„ is « vp,y valuable friend.
\\ ith jmtiei.ee he might have succeetlo.1
Can .v.,„ t..ll n.e the meaning of this j.hmse?
^^^Th.3 l,u.Tic.u.lo being foreed the crowd n,she<l
I doubt the wisdom of that step.
Cont,.,„t the following into simple «c„tenuo, by «„b,titut.
Ill- words or iihriwes for clauses :_
pveS:;". '^''' ^"'^""" '■'"'"•"^"' t^'« Vvs received
It WIS summer an.l the heat wis intense
It will show that he is sincere
The sun rose and tlie gi^y mist evaporated
Is there no way by whi,.h it can be improved?
Analysis.
XL.
Analysis reveal, the structure of the sentence In a
;/r,i«-«i analysis it is sufficient to state:-
(a) The fonn and kind of sentence.
('') Th.: kind and relation of clauses.
KI.KMENTAltY OKAMM.Mt. ""i
(<■) Till" (■<.iiiii).'liMiri.l Imi-owiiid ,siil)j(!ct an.l wiilillilcili.'iitr
('/) Till; kind uml i I'lutiim <i? ciicli ]iliiiwe.
llliititraltnits.
Th() friglitcii.Ml l](.i-s.' iIunIh'iI ilown llio sin-'.
(«) A Hiiii]ile ii.vs«iti\u snitonce.
(h) Ori6 ciniisp. Prineiiuil.
('•) The friylitciii'il /„in, j ,/„.,/„•,/ ,)„wii f],,. Ktri^'l.
(il) "Down the struct." An lulvfilj uhiusu ni.W^hiii"
"dashfj."
I know tlie rouk tlint tlio l)lu('bii<l is siiifiing
Out on tlio iipiilo-treo wlioi-o ho is swinging.
(a) A fonijilex nnseitive sentento.
/ 1. I know tlie song. Piimipal.
I i. That tlio bluetiird iipplu tree. Suli'irdi-
('')
< nfite, adjective, niiMlifyin;;
I .'i Wliere he is singiiij;. Sul
\ nuxlifying " ujiplc-trpc."
1. / I hiunr the song.
('•) \ 2. Tliat tlio blueliirU \ is xini/ititj.
3. He I IS sirinijinij wliere.
lordinate, a<ljective,
a[i|>le-tree.
((/) Out on the apple-tree. . Adverb phra.so nuxlifviiig " is
swinging " and " is singing."
The min lias ceased and in mj' room
The sunsliine pours an airy flood.
76 ELEMENTAKY GKAMMAK.
(a) A compound assertive sentence. •
. I The rain lias ceased. Principal "1 Co-ordinate
\ In my room flood. Principal./ clauses.
('•)
( The rain | lias craafd.
\ Tlie mmhiiif \ pnurs an airy HockI in my rixmi.
((() In my room. Adverh phrase niudifyinp; " pours."
XLI.
Give a general analysis of the following :
The sun that brief Doceinber day
Eose cheerless over hills of gray.
I roam the woods that crown
The upland where the mingled sjiieudors grow.
The cow.slips spring in the marshes,
The roses bloom on the hill,
And beside the brook in the pasture
The herds go feeding at will.
For additional examples
XXXVIT. in Part Three.
see Exercises XXX VI. and
mm
'^^
PART FOUR.
lNFI,ECTION.
I.
Observe carefully the forms of tlie italicised words in the
following : —
The hoij is here. The hoifs books are here.
I love books. John loves books.
The ivoman slept. The women slept.
They sing now. They stwy then.
In the first group eacli oliaugo of form was caused hy a
change in the use of the word.
In the second group each cliange (»f form was caused by a
change in the vtcaniufi of tlie woi J.
In the first gijoup each change of form was in the fmUmi
of the word.
In the second group each cliango of form was in the hothj
of the word.
Inflection is a change in the Jorm of a word, caused by
some change in its use o.- its meaning. This change may be
in the body or in the ending of the word, or in both.
INFLECTION OF NOUNS.
NUMBEK.
II.
dog man brash ox
dogs men bnish^s oxen
I" F.r.EMKNTAIiY (!I!AJIMAE.
What number .if olijects is ilciioted l)y each word in the
first line ; in the second line ?
What ehanao of form accompanies the change in meaning
in each example ?
Number !•< a change in the form of a word to express
morr than niw.
A nomi tliat denotes one object is said to be of the
Singular Number, and a noun that denotes wore than
one object is said to lie <if t]n: Plural Number.
I'onmitiioi 1,1' tlir I'lnrol.
The plural of most nouns is fnrmcci by adding "s" to the
singular : as, book, liooks. Wlien the singular ends in a
sound that does not uiiilt; with "s" alone, a.s », sA, ch soft, j-,
;, the plural is formed by adding " es," thus making an
additional syllable; as, miss, misses; brush, brushes; church,
churches ; fox, foxes.
Nouns ending in " y," if the "y" is preceded by a con-
sonant, change "y " into " i " and add "es" : as, lady, ladies;
city, cities. If tlie "y " is preceded by a vowel the plural is
regular : as, s alley, \alleys ; day, days.
If the noun ends in "for "fe"tho plural is generally
formc<l In changing " f ' or " fe " into " ves."
S<jme nouns foi-ni their plural by clianging the vowel or
w-els (rf Ibe singular; as, man, men; foot, feet; mouse.
Some nouns have tlie same form in both numlx^rs : as,
.ki-r sheep, swinf-.voke, brace. Some n.iuns have no singular:
a.-, ni'-asles, ridies, scissors, pincers.
[For plurals of nouns that the pupil has not alrcjidy learned
in his spelling lessons consult the Appendix.]
ELEMENTARY GEAMMAU.
79
gander
gooso
(lENDEB.
III.
inan-servaiit
niaid-sei'vaiit
lion
lioness
Observe that the words gander, iiiiin-serMint, and linn are
names of male beings; the other words of female l)eirii;s.
The distinction between the male and the female being is
called Sex, The distuiction between their names is called
Gender. The former is a natural, the latter a grammatical
distinction.
The name of a J/rt/f IS of the Masculine Gender: as,
bciy, brother, king.
The name of a 7V//m?iis of the Feminine Gender ; as,
girl, sister, queen.
The name of an object that has no sex is of the Neuter
Gender : as, table, box, tree. (Xt'utt'r means ni'Uher.)
Wayx i>f Drnntiinj <irniti'i:
There are three ways of distinguishing gender : —
(o) By different words : as, husband, wife; father, mother.
(h) By adding a word : as, he-goat, she-goal ; land-loril,
land-lady.
(c) By difference of termination : as, patron, patroness ;
hero, heroine.
When an object without life is spoken of as if it were a
person, it is said to be Personified : as, " The Xurth Wiml
breathes his chilling breath on the flowers." Personified
objects noted for strength, power, sternness, or other manly
qualities are referred to as masculine ; those noted for beauty,
grace, gentleness, or other womanly qualities are referred to
I
80
ELEMENTARY (iRAMMAK.
as feminine. Thus sun, ocean, winter, storm, anger, despair,
day are masculine ; while earth, sliips, cities, hope, charity,
spring, nigiil, morning, poetry are feminine.
NoTK. —The Pronoun is of the .same Gender as the Noun
instead of which it is used, or to which it refers.
[For gender-nouns which the pupil has not already learned
through reading and conversation consult the Appendix.]
Cask.
IV.
•Tohn cauglit ii liorse.
Name the bare word-subject in this sentence. (John.)
The relation which this word-subject " John " bears to the
verb " caught " is called the Subjective Relation.
Name the ohj^rt of the action expressed by the verb
" caught." (Horse.)
The rdatiim which this noun "horse" bears to the verl)
"caught" is called the Objective Relation.
In the following .sentences name the relation which each
noun bears to the verb : —
The sokliei' lieanl tlw call.
The stern jiulj^e punished the prisoner severely.
These ample fleld.s nourished their harvests.
That young man speaks uncommonly well.
Shut that door.
Pick out the phra.ses in tlie following sentences. Mention
the preposition in each phra.se uiid the noun used with it : —
The man stood ou the biidge.
The boy with the bat plays first
F.LEMF.NTAIiV GIlAMMAtl.
81
TIio noun, usod uitli th.- pi-ciiositiuii in iw itlirasc, i.-< calif]
its ni,j,'rt and is .saiil la lit' in tlir Objective Relation nhw
the preposition: tlins, " l)ri(i;L,')'" is a noun in the oUj.-ci iv.-
I'clation after the proposition ''on.''
Tn lii»^ foIlr)\vinj,' scntencos name the rrlalion^ whi- h ihr
nouns ln'iir to the vorlw or propositions :
Givo thnt i»ioss;i*ro to your toaclior.
Ill tlio niornini^ s<»\v Ihy seed.
Tim sentinel stni's sot their wutrh in ilio sky.
TliiM-loiitl In-iiijji^ iVosli slmwers i'm* tlio tliirstiii;?
(Ii)\V*'IS.
Fn the scntcnre " Urini; Joiin's liat,"' the i'I<iti"H wliich
thc^ noun ".John " Ix'ais to the noun "liat" is calU'd tin-
Possessive Relation. Tho form 'S dmotos possession
ur owntTsiiip : as, tho ^^irl's fan, tlio, man's farm.
Tlio niatinii of tiie noun (or pronoun) to otiior words in thi-
•-'ntonce is called Case.
A noun (or pronoun) used as the luuy-siil'j'it of a vt^rb is in
th»* Subjective Case. (Tlie suhjoolivo caso is fuMiuently
iiut less i-orreotly called llif^ fttmiinatirc case.)
A noun (or pi'onoun) use'! as tlio *</</,</ of -i \('i-b ur propo-
sition i< in iho Objective Case.
A nun II ((»r pronoun) used to show i>iiNs,'ssi(,n is in I lie
Possessive Case.
/'/((■ S uhjt'ff i I,' i use.
y.
'Iliere uro four uses nf Uio suhjcctive Cftse : —
' ti f Tilt' Snlijt'ftiir. Tlio noun is tiie liare word-subject
of the verb : as, JiJin waiki.
82
KLEMENTABY OEAMMAK.
,';,; Tin- rmUnle SiihjfrHr,: Tim ii"un follows (i rc^Ia-
ti.mal verl), forms jmrt of tlie inclicati', iind
mmm tlic winio iici-sdii or tliini,' lis tlie .sul>ji'<-l :
as, Kihvard is Kliui, Henry U'camo faplohu
(,■) The Suhjfi-liir of A,hhrss. Tlie noun is used incrcly
to name tlie person or tliini? aildrcssoil : as, Arc
you coming, my frirml .' ■h>lin, come liore.
(,1) rif AhsnhiW Suhjertiir. Tlie r.oiin is used indelion-
dently of governing words : as,Thei/.'y l>cing fair,
we drove to town. " Day " is set free from tlie
rest of tlio sentence so far as its grammatical rela-
tion is concerned.
Read the subjective cases in tlie foUowin-, and tell what
kind eaeli is :- -
" O iii.V <-liililr»>ll,
Lil'c is Miiisliiiie, lifo is shadow;
liifo is cliei-kored shade and siiiishiiie.
Kiilo by love, O Hiawatha ! "
All loose hi>r iiofjlifrorit ottivo,
All loose hfi- golden haif,
Hung Margiifet o'evhor slaughtefod sive.
Use the following noun in sentences : (.1) as subjectives ;
(/.) as predicate subjectixes; (.) as subjectives of ad.lress :
(./) as absolute subjectives : —
Colnnihns, o<'eaii, roliiiis, Koeky Mountains,
mother, my ooiiiitry.
Till- <)l>i,rlire ('else.
VT.
TheiT are four uses of the obji'.tivo ease :—
(,i) The I'lmt Ohj.vlh;: The noun that is the receiver
or pnxluct of the aclion exia-cssefl by a tnmsitive
verb is the ;)i>,r« (thj.,t: as, He taught Urarnvmr.
ELEMENTAKV OKAMMAlt.
h:',
(b) The Jnitireit Olijirtivr, Tlie noun tliiit denotes the
person or tliinj^ toward wliicli the netiuii ex-
pressed by tlio verb is directed is the Jiultriit
Oliject: as, IIo taught his soiii Griimniar. John
lent Janii.i his skates. The position of the indi-
rect object is immediately after the verb.
(c) Tlie Coijnate (Vijntiir. The noun that repeats the
idea already implied in the intransitive verl) is
the CiMfttatf Ohjert : as, lie dreams Jri'ams. Jle
wept tftirx.
(il) The Ohjirtire aj'trr a P)v/i(j«iVh<». The noun that
is used as the object of a preposition is in the
OhJHtivf CauL' after a Pr-ep4isition.
Construct sentences illustrating each use of tVio Objective
Case.
Give, with reasons, the cases of the noun« in the follow-
ing :—
H() boro tho Tmiiiier of tlio f foo
And fouglit the fight whoreof our children know.
Build thee more stately inansioiis, O my soul,
As tho Kwit't seasons I'olL
The Pussessire t^axe.
VII.
Tlie Possessive Case, singular number, 5s usually formed l)y
adiling an ajKistioiihe and " s " (s) to the noun : as " book "
"iKxik's." When the plural ends in "s" tho apostrophe only
is adde<l : as, "ladies' fans," "girls' games." When the
plural does not erul in " s " the possessive is formed a.s in the
singular : thus, " men's shoes," " women's hats."
84
FXEMENTAKV GHAMMAK.
li
PoH«-«Hioi, nmv .lis.. 1h' .■xpr.-»».'.i l.y >i l.l."i«<; coiisistin- ..t
thi. ,.n.iM,»it..... "..f " 'i.i.l itsot.j.Tt ; m " Thoy.irs.!/- ».'<" u.e
ft.w," f.,r "....u.-x }■.-...» u.-.. tV.w," Tl.u i...«»i'ssivo cus.! is
usmillv .•.infin.M t.. n.ii.ns .lcn..li.i- liviii.K iioiitm-cs or things
lH.rs.ji;ifi..l. TI.UH, WL. say "l,„y's l,.«.ks," li..rs..s' e,i.-s,
" s,...-» .-..ys " ; l.ut «f Miy " tl.f .'..l..!- o/ h,r hair," " tl.(^ lu'ij-l.t
I,/' III!' Iinnr," " tlie sui-wss .;/' (/.'■ /•'■'".
Til.! ii"**-"*'™ ""••■■ '"»' "'" P'"''""' ''•ri""'"fe' ^*'''| ""*''
,1,-.. ii,.t .ilwavs .•.i.iivulciit ill iiimiii...; ; -is " Green's llistevy
mi.l the " liisUiry of Cireuii." 'J ;r foniicr .lu-.iiis a lnstor>
writtiMi l.v (liTim ; tlm latter, tl.. .istoiy of (iiv.M.'s lif.". H..
,i1ho "The Ijir.r« "lay" "'"' " *''" ''")' "^ "'" ''""''
"Jloth.'r'sl.iv.i" lin.l " l..vi> ..f n...lh.T."
CoiiilKis.- s.-ilene.'s eoiitaiiiiii- the p..ss,.ssiv.! .-.iso, singular
an.l iilunil, ..f .■aeh ..f the f.>ll..win^' ii.i.ii.s :
Miiry, (liiy, sol.li.T, fm-iiiy, moiiiiivli, wife.
Coinposo seiiteiiros eontaiiiing either the possessive of e.i.-h
of the f.ilU.wing n..uMS, or lui ,;/-/./.-■.'«.■ iiist.'.ul .>f the p.iss,-s
sivi\ (iive reasiilis for your elioi.-.' :
I.oiijj:tVll()w, siiiiinifv, inountaiii, fni!i)ilsliii>,
liDVsos, -wisdoiii.
Yiir.
A noun is wii.l to he in apposition «ith aiaither n..un,
or with a pronoun, wh.'ii it ri'fers to the same person or thing :
as MilUm the iu«t was hlin.l. He a.hni.e.l Franklin tl,.'
.■.q<Unr. I, the imm you wi'ie l....king f..r, am h.'re. Th.-
second noun is acMe.l to the oth.T noun to further .feeriU'
the object. Nouns in ai.iK.siti..ii have tho same Case.
V,I,KMr.NT.\l;V (lliAMMMt.
85
A clau^*! inuy in' in apjiusitiuti witli ii iiniin : as, Tin* stoi-y
tliiit Itf liii-i iliinirrirfl fi'ilil is Uiii-. Ilcilrriicil tlic Klali'iiiciit
Hint h,' l,„.ll„il,,l.
Si'liTt till! iiouiis ill apiiositiiMi in llii' t'cpUowiiiy M'litrliri's: —
'My fnt'iKl tlio liiiiitcr carvit'd 'lis woaixni, n, lilln.
And thus .«|iiil<i' on tluit iiirrii'iit iiuui, tlus
Ijiiglit-oyt'il iiiiiriiicr.
No I'udo sound sli.ill rcicli tliino ciir,
Annar's cliiiig and war-steed elianipiiig.
I)Krl,KNSioV.
TX.
TIh^ Declension of a ninm or jironoim is a statiMnniit in
rcyular onlcr of its inHoctions fur iiiinilH'r anil case, thus: —
Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural.
Siihjfftirc : Maw iiuiu lady ladies.
I'tinxrs.sire : iLiti's men's lady's ladies'.
Olijcd'ice : Man men lady ladit's.
Write llie lieulerision of tlio follow irii^ nouns : —
child, fox, woman, wife, mouse, lioness.
P.^KSlV'i.
X.
Parsing is aili'suriiition of llie i/iisi, furm, anil lumlnii--
ti"n of a wortl in a senti-nce. I'sualiy it is sulKcii'iit to state
tlie class and constnii'tion.
The i7(i.s.^ gi\'es tlie p;irt of spi'e.-h ami the suh-elass to wli.'-ti
the woril bi'long.^.
The fiinn gives its infleetions if it has any.
The ciiiixtrnrtiiin or syntax gives its i-elation to other
words in the sentence.
86
ELEMENTAKY (IIIAMMAH.
Piirso the iiounn in tlio itcriteiicr, " William reiiils hoiiks."
Williuiii: Noun, coniivto, piui«i-, Bulijfftivo ciiwi, sulijeil
of the veil) " ri'iuls."
buiih: Noun, concrete, comnion, <il>ji-ctivB caiH!, oliji'ct of
the veil) " rends."
Some pilfer a fuller Htatement, an : -
WilUiiiii : Noun, concrete, proper, siiixuliir, inanculine,
Huhjei-live ease, Mubject of (ho verb "reiuis."
hi»il;n: Noun, concnto, cominoii, i)lural, neuter, objective
ease, object of the verb " reads."
[As it is not proliablo that a pupil will err in stating the
niimlx;r and {{eiicier of such nouns it is not deemed wise to
ask for more than the class and construction.]
Parse (state the class ;itiil cenisiruitiou of) the nouns In the
following sell : ences : -
A dress suit boeomt's a iii;m.
lie gives his pai-oiits no anxiety.
I pray tlio pi-aycr of I'Uito old.
.\.dvei-sity tries ii luiin's friends.
liryaut tlie i)oot Avioto ThiUititopsis.
The sun beiiii,' risen, we dcparledon our journey.
First Person
Stcond Person
Third \f"-
,, [rem.
J'erxiii ., ,
INFLECTION OF PRONOUNS.
Pkkson.vl Pk( nouns.
XI.
Singular.
I, nun J or my,
Thou, lliineorthy,
lie,
She,
It,
liers or lier,
its,
Oltjfrtiiv.
liie.
thee.
him.
Iter,
it.
fev^i t^^iiifV^
ELEMENTAltY OUAMJIAll.
87
Plural
•iil\,J,,tir. /■...... •..•./i-. . Oh;,,-Hir.
I'lisl I'lisiiii AVi', "HI'S or I mr, us.
Sicuml I'lrsuii Voiior ye, youi'soryinir, you.
Third Vir^iDi l''i III. Tlii'v, tlifii-s, tln'iii.
' Xfiil. S
Give tli«' cjiM's lit' tilt' jMTsiiiijil jii-iinmiiis i-niituiiiod in
Kxeivise X I V',, jiii^'n rill.
Tiis4'rt the |)i'o|H'r foi-in (if tlio fiisL prrsoruil pi-nnuuii,
Hiiiguliir, ill I'iU'li bliiiik ; tlii) tliinl ])<'i'siiiiiil |>niiiiiuii, sin;,'ul.ir,
iiiaNCuliiiu ; tlic tliird jitTsuiial jii-otiuuii, |iliiral.
It is . Who st flick ! Wlio will go!
. jriiiy is Hot so olil ns . AVlio is tlio
okk'f, Miiiy of — f That liook is . Willitiiii
WHS kind to you tiiiil . 1 1' \< m wcfc would
you go f John kiii'W it to he . (iivo this for
Mniicl ami . You mid wi-ro there. Johu
is stfoiiirof thiiii . TTow would you like to
he - — .'
Ouisti'uct scntt'iict's Nln)\viiit,'a persoiuil pr'oiioiin iisoil hs v — ■
{,t) Thr KtilijiM-tivr; (/-) tlie Pmlicnte Siilijertivr; (v) tlit'
DinMt 01ijreti\<'; (</) the iTi.liivct Olgcrtivi' ; (, ) tlic Olijcc-
tive iiiWv a Prt'iM'sitioii ; (/') tlie PuHsowHivu ; (//) in A|)jM>si-
tioii.
CoMI'OL'Nl) I'KHSilNAL pRONOUNS.
xir
The f<»miM>unil personal in-oiiouiis aro usol *m\\ in tlic suli
jectiveaiid objective (;ases.
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88
KLEMI X'JAKY (iKAMMAK.
Fii'-^f I'l rsoii. Sri-fiiiit i'lrMHi. Thiril I'trmu.
Siwfular : ^lyself. thyself, ymirseif Iiiiuself, licrsclf, itself
Plural : Ourselves. vourst hes. themselves.
XIH.
Singular and Plural. Singular and Plural.
Si(hic(tirc :
WllO.
AVhifli.
Possrsslrc :
Wliosi".
Wlios...
Olijertirc :
Whom.
Wliit-b.
The eoiijunctive jH'uiiouiis " tliJiI, " uihI 'what" arc not
iiiileeted.
Give the cases (if the conjunctive pronouns ciintained in
Exorcise XV IT , page 5IS.
Insert the proper form of the conjunuti\e pronoun *' wiio'
in each hhuik : —
The >»;irl work plotist'd you is my jsistoi*.
That is a man J know is lionest. Tluit is a
man I know to be honest. She you
adnuro is ill. I n'^'omniciid only those I can
trust.
Dkmonstrativk Pronouns.
XIV.
The demonstrative pronouns ** this" and " that," witli their
plurals "tiiese" and "those," lia\e no inflection lor gender
and case.
IXTEHHOGATIVK PltOVOUNS.
Tlie int<?rrogative pronouns " wiio " and *' whicli " have the
same inflection as the corresp<»n4ling conjunctive pronouns.
" What " is not inflected.
KLEMENTAItY (iliAjniAK.
89
ISDKKIMTK I'llOXOlNS
Till! iiiclfKiiitc iiniriuiiiis luc imt inllccti'il.
Shecial Uses of "It."
XV.
(«) Where tlicsi'x ni the individu.il ism it inipoi'tinit eni>uj,'Ii
to hp niitieeil : iis, /( is a snmll )mhv.
(h) As an Tm|)er-siiiial Suliject ; thus, It lias iieeii laiiiiii;;.
It gntwH dark.
('■) As an Tiiiper.soiial Ohjeet ; thus, Tliey nui^lied it on
tlio jirairie. He will fight it mit alone.
('/) As a suhstitute for a [ihlase or elause : tlius, /« is pro
hablo tliiit III- iiill I/O. I xiiiil so, and he knows //.
P.^KSIXi: A PliOXOUS.
\VF.
The jwnon, tllllnhir, :it\il ,i,iiil,r of a ].ronollii are the same as
those of its anteee<lent.
Parse the proniains in "He inns.' "'riie uoiiian, who
said that, is here."
//('.- Pronoun, third jjerson, singular, niaseuline, subjective,
subject of the ver-b " runs."
IIVio; Pronoun, conjunctive, antecedent "woman," sin-
gular, feminine, subjective, subject of the veil) "said."
That: Pronoun, demonstrative, singular, olijectivc, object
of the \'erb " said. '
Parse the pronouns in the following: -
Kac'li thoiiftlit (if the -womiiu wlm I.iveil liiiu tlicOiost
Ami the I'liildnni stood wiitching them out uf tliu
town.
90
ELEMENTAliY (U{A51>IAU.
Now wlio luis planiK'd out all tliese things J "Who
liliuinod and made tliein all '.
Tho Oin! who coiiiits tho shining stars and suffers
none to fall.
INFLECTION OF ADJECTIVES.
XVII.
Oliserve tlie forms of the adji'ctivos in tlie following seii-
teiict's : —
This is a )i<h man.
This is the richer man.
This is the richest man.
"Iticli," " i-ichi'i-," " rii-lii'st " are forms of the same adjec-
tive. They denote different degrees of the sjime iiuality.
The elianj,'e in the form of an adjeetive to denote different
degrees of niiality is ealled Comparison.
There are three di'^-rei-s <if eomi>arison — the Positive,
the Comparative, and the Superlative.
The Positive Degree denotes the simple quality of
an object : as, "a rich man.'
The Comparative Degree denotes that one object has
a highei- or lower dei;r-ee of a c|iiality than another object has :
,*is, " a ftihri- man.''
Tlie Superlative Degree denotes that an object has
a quality in tlii^ highest degree ; as, the rivliest man."
Oixliuarily the comparative degree is used when twn objects
or groups of objects are compared, and the supei'lative degrei^
when one object is compared with all others of the same kind.
ELEMENTAKY GKAM5IAK.
91
xvin.
Observe tlie folIuwiiiLj fnnns : —
PoHitive : fair. j^imiU. bciiulifiil. fiuiious.
Ciimiiarativc : fuircr. siriall' r, ;yi"/'c I'taiilirul. /'-■-« filiioii .
Superlative: fiiin,^*^ sin,ill(«/. musf tifaiil ifiil. /( (i.s7 i.uinm.-.
A(ijectivt;3 of u/w si/lhil>li'^ umi .somi aii jcctivrs ut" t\\o syl-
lables are compared by nddiiii; '*er'' ami " ot '' to tiit^ (mkI
tive to form the comparativt; and supci'Iatisp ri-;|iiTtlvfly.
Adjectives of .»/;»;;(' ^''(//^ tin) si/Hnl-lrs, and most adji'ftivi";
of two syllables are usually compared by pn-fixiiiji; "mure "
and "most," or "less " and "least," to the positive to form
the comjMirative and suj orlative res|H'ctivelv.
These general rules are nnt strictly adliered to but are
varied according to tlio taste of tiie writer, tluis :
That was the tntevf Avanior tliat ever Imckled
Rword.
It is most true.
Most iiohle Felix.
He "was the noblest IJomau of tliein all.
Write the three degrees of coiniMirison of the following
adjectives : —
Great, brave, proud, careful, tliin, able, luippv unkind,
handsome, hot, magniticent.
lKKK(UL.\lt CuMl'AHISON.
XTX.
Some adjectives have irregLiI;ir fmnis of ectnparison, as : —
Positive.
Good, well,
Bad, evil, ill,
Far,
Little,
Much (quantity), \
Many (number), j
Late,
Comparative.
Superlative.
l)etter,
best.
worse,
worst.
fiirtliPi',
fai-tbest.
less, lesser,
least.
iiu>i-e,
most.
later, latter.
latest, last.
J- i;m:mi:xtai!V (iii.\M>i\i!.
[Fill- coiiiiKirisdii i,t' othiT iirc,i<uliii- iidjectivi-i .(insult the
Aji|>('inlix.]
.\l).rKITlVP;.s fvi-Al'Alll.K UK Ci IMl'AHISOV.
.\,\
Sumo ailji'divcs .niin^ to their lucHiiiny do not uduiil of
any co]n|miis,in. They dcniitc iin absolute degree of a
iiuality : as, peifeet, universal, round, two, straight, exaet.
Yet giM.d wrili'rs use su.-h words in a relative rather tlian
alisoltite sense, and siN'ak of a strai;ilil,i- path, a mure prrfirt
.■xatn(ile. l^sage sanetions sueh exjirossions because they are
convenient.
XXT.
Classify the adjectives in tlie following sentences and gi\e
the degrii! of comparison : —
I said ail ddoi- solcHcf, not a licttci-.
So doth the grciitc'f glory dim the It^ss.
His utmost effoi-ts were fruitless.
Till) wosteni waves of ebbing day
Eolled o'er the glen their level way.
They find in the thick ivaviug grasses
Wheio the scarlet-lipped strawberry grows.
They gather the earliest snowdi-o[is
And the first crimson Imds of the rose.
Ci>nstruct sentences illustrating the uses of the following
luljectives in (<() the positive; (/.) the comimrative ; (c) the
superlative :
Pretty, handsome; correct, accurate; big, large; latent,
lust ; many, much ; mad, angry.
KLEMENT.VJiV (iKAMM.Ui.
j»;{
I'.viisjxii .\v Aii.rKi Tivi:.
xxir.
In parsing nil a<lj iv ./im- its class, parisiui, um-, and
"■oust ruction.
Tlic lpi'i<;lit waters siiarklc.
^fary is taller tliau Jane.
nnii/il: A.ljcclivc, ,|iialilativc, ,.,..iiivc, atlrilmlivc, ni.Kli.
tying "waters."
rail,!-: Adjc'tivc, ,|UMlitativc, paiativc, invilicativc,
nuKlifying " ;Murv.*'
Parse the adjectives in tlje f..ll.,« ini,' senlences : -
Om- sweetest M)ii<rsar(« those that tiOl uf saddest
thought.
-Slow and siuv conies up tho {.'cldoii year.
Every .seventh year was lield saered 1,v the
•lewish people.
He is more jiolite than sin<'(>i-e.
This nnti(iue, yellow, Mooiish-lookinj,' strong-
hold, wLieh modern giinnerv would d(>str(>\- in
ten minutes or le.ss, is pieturesipie to tiie last
degi-ee, with its erunilplin^r, honev-eombed battle-
ments and queer little flanking tower.s.
REVIEW.
XXIir.
(a) Give a general analysis of tlie fiillowing pas.siiges.
{!>) Parse the nduns, pronimns, and adj«'tives.
((■) Classify the \-erb.s.
'Ji ELEMENTAMY (iKAMMAK.
Till' iK'ciiii c.-ij^lo soured
Fidiii liis nest Ijv tli(i wliit(> wave's foiirii.
I sle|if iirnl (liviiiiit lliat life was Beauty,
I woke and t'oiiiid that life was Duty. '
I5y tlie (Ion- i,i' tlie inland river,
W'lii'iice tlie fleets of iron liavo fled,
Where the lilades of the grav(V};rass quiver,
Asl(>ei) are the ranks of the dead.
Never to the bow tliat bends
( ouies the arrow tliat it sends;
Xever conies the ehanee th.it passed:
That one luomeiit was its hist.
Sill lias iiiniiy tools, but a lie is the handle
which flts tilt 111 all.
The book which makes a man think the most
IS the book which strikes the deepest root in his
memory and understanding.
INFLECTION OF VERBS.
XXIV.
Kxiiniiiie the folli™in<,' fciriiis : —
I go. Thou go«7. He goes.
Wlipn the siil)ji'ct is a First Personal Pronoun the form of
the \('rlj is "gii."'
^^ lien the subject is changed to a Second Personal Pronoun
the foiTO of the verb is changed to " gocrf."
When the subject is changed to a Third Personal Pronoun
the form of the verb is changed to "goes."
ELEME.NTAKV ORAMMAK. 95
When tlie fiinn of tlic mtU is oliaiii;i'il iis tlic /.. is../i nf iis
■suiijirt is clmngi'il, tiic mtIi is saiil to n./c.v with its sulijcct
ill Person.
'" '■" \ci-li tonus tlii'iT is MO rriilin^' to indicalo tiic
|»'rson ; as, \Vi' go. Yiai },'o. Tin y ,i;o. In sui-ll ras,.,s tla'
jK'ison ot' tlie voi'b is indirati'd liy tlie prison of its sulijiit.
Ximukk,
xxv.
Tlio still- shims. Tiic Imy plnys. lie is oond.
Tiio stars shine. The tioys piny. They iiri' oood.
The subject "star' is in tlie sin^'iilar niiinlifr ami tlio loi--
l-esiionilin,;,' Vfi-liforni is "sliiiws." Whi'ii the siilijcit Ih'coiiu's
Iiliii-ai tliruii;,'h adding "s" (■ tai-s) the M-jhfoiin is clianj;eil hy
drojijiing "s" (shine). Ohseive what takes jilaee 'vhen the
number of the subjeet is ehanj;ed in the tliiid group of
sentences. The subject " he " being sin;.'ular has the singular
verb "is," but when the subject bei'oini's plural then the verb
is changed to "are.''
A\ hen the form of the veil) is changed as the umiih, r of its
subject is changed, the verb is said to »./,>,. with its subjwt in
Number.
We may now .say tliat a verb ih/m.i iiiih ilx siil,j,rt in T'n-
>iiin ami XiiiHh'r,
Tell the per.son and numlwr of the verbs in the following
sentences :
I am a man in aiitliority.
He .said toat you did that.
They know that she is ill.
Whither thou goest I will go.
It is his misfortune.
»i
F.MCMENTAHY (IKAMMAK.
Thr Inkinitivk.
VXVI,
KMiiiiiric till' itiilirisnl WMiils in ilio CuIIoh iii;;wnt«'iii-i-.s :
Miiry lovi's Jaiic.
Muvy loves to mill.
.Kiiiir is human.
To cir is Imiiiiiii.
In the first Mciiteiic-i' "Jiini'" is tin' cilijiit i,{ tl,,, vn-l)
" lo^cs," and is a noun.
In the spcdiid sentence " to read " is the ..hject nt' the verh
' loves," and is the ei|uivalent of a noun.
In the thii-d sentence "erroi" is the snlijeet of the veil)
is," and is a noun.
In the fourth senton<e " to en- " is the subject of the verb
" is. " and is the ecjuivalent of a noun.
'To read" and " to err " are verb-forms partaking of
the nature of a .loun, and area .sjH-i-i. s .■-' verlial noun. These
verli forms lia.e no subjects, liut tnev niav have objects : a-s,
.Mary loves t.) read /««,/.». Tliey may Ik- miK'itied by adverlw :
as, JIary loves to read xbnrhi.
A \erl)-f(irni which has no subject but which as a noun
expresses action or .state i.s calle<l an Infinitive.
In the following sentences tell why the italieise<l words ait
infinitives:
We aie taught to tort' out' eneiiiit's.
To sec is to bcliire.
To ffire is better than to rcccire.
Leani to Jahor and to ivait.
ELEMLNTAltV (JllAMMAH.
97
hiHrriiii/.
. (iirii.i is lii!t»er
Geblnds.
XXVII.
Examine tlie itoliciscil words .n ti:ef.illowiii;; si>niiiici-s :
To sen is to hi'l'irn'. Sniiif/ in
To n'we is bfttor tliau to rcveifi
tLiiii receiciiit).
In tli(! Rocdtid Kcntpncn " Nc<>inj{ " nnil " U'licvin;,'" liiive
the same use as tlie innnitives "Id »<v " and "to IxOicvo "
liave in the first scntemo. In thn fi>intli smtcnci" "Oivinj;"
and "receiving" h. -e the same use as the infinitives "to
give " and " to receive " have in tlio thinl sciitcncp.
The words "seeing, " "Ix'lieving,' "givinff " and "nwiv-
ing " as used here are infinitives ending in " ing."
Infinitives in " ing " are called Gerunds.
There ai.? tlici. lo forms of the Infinitive : —
(a) The form with "to" expr'-ssed or uoderstoiKl : as,
It is better <o u;ar out than In rust out. Better
wear out than nM(out.
(A) The form in "ing": as, Brrathiiiij is natural to
animals. F.ating hastily injures hejiltli.
In the following sentences .select the infinitives and gerunds
and give the use of each : —
To give early is to give twice.
Giving them money doe-; not sati.sfy rliem.
It i.s Inmian nature *-> take doiij^ht iji exciting
admiration.
He found difficulty in arranging them properly.
He wishes to ktiow wlien you will be ready to
assist him in .soh-ing his problem.
98
IXEMENTAllV (iKAMMAU.
CiiBtniet Brntoii,-,.« n.tiluiiiin^ tho f.,II.,«i„^' infinitive
and geruniln, ..itlicr us Hulij.rls or ..l)j,.,t.s : -
To Study to iii.iniro, to wo, to n-iiK.i,il,oi-, to
roni), to expl^iin, hraviug, puyiiig, imitutiug, i.ick-
iiig, umusiug, living. '
ThK PARTlCIl't.K.
xxvrii.
Kx«min« tlm itnlieis,.,! w„nls in tl„. f„ll,nvin« ».mtoncps:-
Tlio offi(-or iomni<i,),lh,,i tlio cavuliy led tbo iinny.
The toncher Iwighi,,,/ lieartily proceoded with
the lussoii.
" Commanding' " is nn ailji-ctive ni.Klifving tlie niranin.' of
the noun "officer." It is dcriv,.! from tlio verb "con.niand,"
expressing action, and lias a noun in tlie ol)j,K^tive case after
It It tlms partaites of tlie nature of a verb, thougli it haa no
subject. It is a s(«;ies of vorlxil adjective.
"Laughing" is an adjective n,o,lifying the meaning of the
noun "teaclier." It is derived from the v<.rl, "laugh," ex-
presses action, and is moilifiwl by tho adverb " heartily '" It
thus partakes of the iwiture of a verb, though it has no suIk
ject. It is a species of verbal adjective.
A verl>fonn which hns no subject but which as an adjec-
tive expresses action i>i such a w.y as to modify a noun is
called a Participle.
In the following sentences tell why each italicised word is
a participle : —
That boy drawing jMctiirPs is my brother.
I see Jflin amiisim; the ehilcb'eu.
Tlie glass hokcn into fragmoiits lay upon the
He discovered a mro extended across the road.
KLEVKSTAIIV (lliAMMAli.
!HI
)
XXIX.
The partlci[ili>s "ilni«iii);" iiri'l "mniisin^'" n- ciillc'il
Imperfect Participles Utjium' iIk. actidnsfxi.nssni i.v
tlieni ai« r<'|)n's<>iitccl as inniuijilri,-. '[" ,-y arii fiv.|iiiMill\
Cttllwl I'rrarnt l'iirti,ivli» l»rau«n tlicy fv| »s |ircMrit. (iiui-
Imperfect Participles ernl in "iiij,'."
Tlie iiiirticipli-.< "linikcn" ami "extencleil " are e.illi'il
Perfect Participles l«>cans" tho aiii.ni^ .vprvwici iiv
lliem are represented as innijil.i Tliey are freijuently ealleri
I'aHt Partiii'iilii lycause tliev express past time.
In the folliiwi..,' .sentences seli-c^t tlie partieii les, (ell «liii'
they modify, andHtate whether tliey .ire irnpiTfet. <iv perft . t, :
Ho oaught tlicMii clicuiiig f^uiii.
Pead tliis l.-tter wiitti'ii liy iiiyscl .
He heard the bii-d.s siiijfiii;; i.i tlio ti'ecs.
The leader dese'tod hy his followers rod.- iiuay
I lieard tho ripj)!© wasliin;^ in tlio reeds
Aud the uild water laiipiiiy oil the crags.
^
XXX.
Compare the following wonls ending in "in"": —
John is an amiishif/ fellow.
They found John aiiiii.sim/ tho childiei).
They were .Mirjirised at John's unnisliKf the
ehildren .so faithfully.
In the first .sentence "amusing " is an adjective. It men-
tions a quality without .suggesting action.
In the second Hcnlenee "amusing'' is a participle. As an
adjectiteit modifies "John," but it al.so expresses action.
100
ELEMENTARY GHAMMAR.
In the third sentence " amusing " is a gerund. As a ntmn
it is the object of the preposition " at," but it also expresses
action.
The participle is always partly a<ljertire and partly verb;
the gerund is always partly noun and partly verb.
Owing to their verlml nature the two forms of tlie infini-
tive and the participle may be foilowe*! by objects and modi-
fied by adverbs.
In the following sentences pick out the infinitives, gerunds,
and participles, and state the use of each t —
He will teaoh us to draw.
He was fond of chopping down trees.
To waste in youth is to want in age.
Eefuse to listen to evil.
Then came the question of paj-iiig him.
They were afraid of the king's coming.
Seeing a crowd iu the street ho ran to the
door.
Birds blinded by the light dashed themselves
to death against the glass.
Auxiliaries.
XXXI.
I shall buy a horso
" Buy," in the verb-phrase " shall buy," expresses the action,
and "shall" the time of the action. In this cise " buy " is
called the Principal verb and "shall" the Auxiliary or
helping verb.
The Auxiliary helps the Principal verb to express : —
(a) The time of an action : as, He will sing. (Future )
ELEMENTAUY GKAMMAR.
101
(li) The mode or way in which an action is tliought of : as,
He tiiai/ sing. (Possiljility.)
((•) The relation of the subject to the action as doer or
receiver ; as, lie irax punished. (Receiver.)
The Auxiliaries are : —
Be and its forms am, art, is, are, was, were, wert.
Have and its forms hast, has, had, hadst.
Shall and its forms shalt, should, shouldst.
Will and its forms wilt, would, wouldst.
May and its forms inayest, might, mightst.
Do and its forms dot^st, does, <lid, didst.
A verb may Ik* an auxiliary at one time and a principal
verb at another : as. He had a house. He liati bought a house.
The first" had" is a principal verb, the second "liad" an
auxiliary of time.
[The auxiliaries will be treated more fully at a later stage.]
\ OICE.
XXXII.
■William struck Henvy.
Hriiry was struck by William.
In the first sentence " William," the thrr of the action, is
the siiliject of the transitive verb " struck."
In the second sentence " Henry," the receiver of the
action, is the suhjn-t of the transitive verb-phrase " was
struck."
The meaning of these sentences is the same but the form
differs. The object of the verb in the first sentence becomes
102
ELEMENTAHY (.KAMMAK.
li
tlie subject <.f tlic vr'i-1) in tlie sccoiid .seiiteiico, and there \h h
clian^e in tliu vcrUfornt.
A \i'i-l>-fnrni tliiit I'cprcsontM its subject as tlio ilner of an
action is said to !)<> in tljo Active Voice.
A vci-1] foi-m tiiat repn'sents its sul)jc<-t as tbo rm-inrui an
action is said to iio in tlie Passive Voice.
Arraime tb(! followinj^ sentences in two gi'oups accordinj;
as tbo subject is reiiresonted as tlie diu'r of tlie action or the
rcct'iri'f of the action :--
Tlio boys cfuiglit fisli.
Tennis was jilaycd liy tlio girl?.
Tlio mbliit was caught by the dog.
LightiKiig stiui'k the house.
Our troops were oaptured.
He has bought a house.
What is the voice of the verbs in tlie first group! In the
second group! Wiiy!
Tiive, with reasons, the voice of each verb or verb-phrase
in the following : —
By whom was this drawing done ?
Gentle deeds make known a gentle mind.
A tiek(>t will lie given you at the door.
The birds that sing most sweetly are most
loved.
"When llio sled is loaded the jirocession starts
for the woikIs.
That Scene was taken to heart by many boys
before they slept.
ELEMENTAKV GKAMMAK.
103
XXXTTT.
The passive voice of a veil) is formed ]}y plaeinj; some form
of the auxiliary "l>e" Ix'fcM-e the perfect participle of the
principal verb; thus, in tlie first example, "struck" in the
active voice In'came in the jiassive "was struck" — ii vcrl>-
phrase consisting of the auxiliary verh "was," and "struck"
the }>erfect participle of the verb "strike."
Change the following sentences from the active to the
passive form : —
I watched tlio iioisoless work of tho sky.
He committed tho crime in broad <laylight.
These men are playing a game of chess.
He sacrificed everything he liad.
Can storied nrii or animated hnst
Back to its mansion call the fleeting breath ?
The active form enables us to make the actor prominent.
The passive form enables us to call attention to the act
without mentioning the actor : as, The window Wiis broken.
f
Tense.
XXXIA'.
John walks to-day.
Jolm walked j-esterday.
John will walk to-moiTow.
In the first sentent'e the time of the action represented by
the verb is prt'smt ; in the second sentence it is pant ; in the
third sentence it U future.
Every action must be performed eitlier in tlie present, the
pastf or the/M(Mrt;.
^^ IXEMENTAKY GKAMMAK.
John is walking.
JoLu was walking.
John will be walking.
In eacli „f these sentences the acti„n represented by the
verl)-phrase is in,-nmpUt. , that is, unfinished.
John has walked.
John had walked.
John will have walked.
In each of these sentences tlie action represented by the
verb-phrase is complete, that is, finished.
Every action must be incomplete or completed.
We may speak of the time of an action and of its state of
completeness or incompleteness. This (,„„. a.id state are shown
by the verb-forms.
The verb-form tliat .shows the time and state of an action
is called Tense.
As there are three times and two states there may be six
tenses, thus : —
ill
Tetme . .
Ti:ne. State.
Present Incomplete, as ;
Present Complete, aa :
Past Incomplete, as ;
Past Complete, as :
Future Incomplete, as:
. Future Complete, as :
I am writing.
I have written.
I was writing.
I had written.
I shall write.
I shall have written.
The terms " imperfect » and " perfect " are usually employed
in grammar for " incomplete " and " complete."
The Present Imperfect Tense denotes that the
action expressed hy the verb-phrase is incomplete at the
time of speaking : as, He is reading a book.
ELEMENTAKY ORAMMAK.
105
f
The Present Perfect Tense denotes that tlie action
expressed by the verh-plirase is completed at the present or with-
in a period of which the present forms a part : as, I Ikiih inittiii
him thin vrt'k. I ham vritt<n liini thin tji'fir. It is used to
express an action beginning? in the past and continuing in
itself or its consequences up to the present ; as, I hare studied
algebra and I study it now.
The Past Imperfect Tense denotes that the action
expressed by the verb-phrase took place in past time and was
incomplete at the period referred to : as, He van readiiuj a
book.
The Past Perfect Tense <lenofes that the action
expressed by the verb-phrase was comph'ted at or before S(ime
stated time in the past : as, The Ik'U had runii l»fore the pupil
arrived.
The Future Imperfect Tense denotes that the
action expressed by the vei.i-phrase will take place in future
time and \ie incomplete at the period referred to : as, I shall
be readlnij a b<X)k.
The Future Perfect Tense denotes that the action
expressed by the verb-phrase will have been completed at or
before some stated time in the future : as, I shall hare read the
book before ten o'clock to-morrow.
The three imperfect tenses are sometimes called the prorp-es-
sire tenses because the action represented by the verb-phrase
is represented as in ** progress," but not completed.
xxx\.
Compare the verb-forms in the following ; —
I am •writing.
I write.
I was writing.
I wrote.
I sliall be writing.
I shall write.
KW
I
ELEMEKTAKY OIUMMAK.
lu each tl,e time of the action is expressed. In the first
r. r '' M ''T'™ " "''^^ ^'^P^-''^ '" each It;^
in the s,r.„„l h„e the stale of the action is not expressed in
"ny .sentence, but i,, left in.lefmite. expressed m
Thu.s we h,u„ tl,„« a,],liti„,al tense-forms:-
Present Indefinite: as, I write.
Past Indefinite : as, I wrote.
Future Indefinite: as, I shall write.
The relation of the nin. tense,, may be represented thus :_
I Imperfect: f^^'"" <"" state represented as in.
1 complete, that is, in progress.
Pn'sint . Perfect : I '^''°" o"" "'ate represented as com-
' pletcd.
Indefinite: | '«=*'™ or »tato left undetermined.
Past
( Imperfect :
< Perfect :
' Indefinite :
( Imperfect :
Future ^ Perfect :
' Indefinite ;
that is, indefinite.
(As for Present)
(As for Present.)
Formation of the Temet.
XXXVI.
All tenses except the present and past indefinite are
formed by the aid of auxiliary verbs.
Tl.e Present Imperfect and Past Imperfect are formed by
con.b,nmg son.o part of the verb "be" with the imperfect
part.c,ple of the principal verb: as, I am walMng ^t^
"■irt..^'"/-'nr/'"'r'"'' '^ ^-'"^ ty cabining
ELEMENTAKY UIUMMAlt.
107
4
Tlie Present Perfwt rikI Past Pprfixt hih fuinicil by
combining scune pint i)t tlie verb "liiive" with the jiiiffct
piirticiple of tlio piiMcii)iil veil) : as, I biivc wiilkcil ; I,,. l„ul
walked. Tlie Futiiro Perfect is fdnned by eninbiiiinn '•sli.ill
have" or " will Jmvo" with the peifeot imrticiplo : as, I sliall
I ive walked ; he will have walked.
The Present Indefinite is the simple fiipiii i.f tlie infinitive
without "to": as, I walk. The Past Indefinite is for d
from the piesent indefinite by inflection : as, T walked. The
Future Indefinite is formed by combining " sliall " or "will"
with the simple infinitive without "to": as, I sliall walk;
he will walk.
V>ws iif the Inilejinite Times.
XXXVII.
The Present Indefinite Tense is used :
(a) To express an action which is always and necessarily
true : as, Heat ejrjian.h metals. Two and two make four.
(h) To express what is habitual in lite or character : as, He
keepit his promises. She shtijx and plays well. He 1ms good
health.
((■) To express a past action vividly: as, Edward wakes
a truce with Philip, returns to England, and wan-hes against
Wallace. (This is the historic present.)
((/) To express a future action assumed as fixed and near
at hand : as, School chi.ws next Tuesday, and the children
arriee home on Saturday.
(e) To introduce quotations : as, Shakespeare says : •• To
thine own self be true."
The Past Indefinite Tense is used : —
(n) To express some action absi;lutely ]>ast. It excludes
all reference to present time: as, Columlnis I'iscueered
America.
108
IXEMEVTAHl OlfAMMAH.
m
(*) To express an actio,, J,abit„„l i,, tl,e past W„ ; ,
golf and tennis. The utaco r,,// / ' ', I"*"'' He/,;«y«/
morning. *" '""' "' "'« Po-^^offi^e every
The Future Indefinite Tense is used •_
T, ^'^ ^' ^'"^>'''''""P"y<'™'ly for that (threat)
ro express snnple futurity «,o " shall " in tl fi .
and •;«.„■• in the second and thi d ^1 rTr"^"
futurity and deter,nina(ion use " will " i.rtCfl . '"""*'
"shal... in the second and third r^^L: ^ '"' ^^^"^ ""'
helect the verbs and verb-,,h,-ases in th„ f n •
give, with reasons, the tense of eaZl "°"'"« ^"'^
I am enjoying every niomeut.
He has lost his best friend.
I thought of a mound in sweet Auburn.
IsLhT ""^^ ^'=""" "' *^« gloaming
I shall be surpnsed if he succeeds. ^
Truth crushed to eaith shaU rise again.
XXXVIII.
iive the'su^ject If iri- ""■ ^^"°' ""• """"^^ "^ -'^.•
we^MT,^ ''■" P"""'*^ "^^ -d the tinimpets
AU things that love the sun are out of doors.
KLEMENTAHV (IHAMMAK.
I Oil
What wo liavo (IfscrilM'd occupied but a few
minutes.
Tliat tree has been undennined Ijy tlio recent
floods.
Something will bo gained In- delay.
On either side th(> river lie
Long fields of barley aii<l of ryo
That clotho tlm wold and meet tho sky.
The br(!e/o conies whispering in our eor
That dandelions are blossoming near,
Ihat maize has si>routed, that streams are flowing,
Inat the liver is bluer than tlie sky,
That tho robin is plastering his hoiiso hard by.
f
Othfr TetiHi' Forms,
XXXIX.
Present Perfect Progressive ; I have been seeing.
Past Perfect Progressive : I had lieen seeing.
Future Pci-fect Progressive ; I shall have been seeing.
Such forms are called the I'erftct I'rwirniire 'I'nws. They
are used to indicate that an action has Ix'en (had Ix'cn, or will
have been) in progress and that it still is (was, or will con-
tinue to be) in progress.
I do walk. I did walk.
He docs walk. He did walk.
Such forms are called the Fm/ihatie present and past
tenses. They are used (ri) to make assertions more emphatic,
and (b) to ask questions : as. He ,li<l tell me that. Do you
want me ?
Avoid the use of "don't" for "does not." "He don't
know that " should be " He does not know that"
110
ELEMESTAltY flHAJIMAK.
liesfoy, burn, f,„.,nv,, pu.-suo, ,.„il.l, .sk, lo.se
assist, i-wii:, answer. '
(I
I If
Mood.
XL
I aetwl thus whon lio was here.
I would u,,.t thus if ho were here.
Opc!-, the wiiulow.
^^^ ;.> the fi.t »e„te,K.. the t..u«ht is presented to the ^W
a. a":,!::;? ^'""'"™ ""^ """•«'" '^ ^— '«<i '■> «•« .i„.
mmd IS a fact, a supposition, or a ccnmand.
He went with us.
Were he here he would go with us.
Refuse to obey his instructions.
FXEMENTAltY (iUAMMAlt.
Ill
If wo ivfusn to oLcy lii.s iiislnictions wo xlmll
"O punished.
Wo refuso to olioy liis instniciions.
Call my brother liack to iiif.
Goveni well thy ui.i».tito lost sin surprise tli<.o.
A ihanK(. i„ 1... f..riii „f a vrrl, to sl„>w ili,. inaniHr .«•
nifxlo in wliicli „• tlinuKlit is pr..«..rit..(l i.s call..,! Mood.
Tlio fiirm .,f tlio veil, uscl (., jin-wiit ii tlimifrl.t „s „ /■„,,(
18 callwi tlic Indicative Mood.
Tlie form of tlie vitI, us..<I to |,r<'s™t ■• tliouylit 11..I ms ,1
fart but as a mpi^mthn is <-all..,l tli,! Subjunctive Mood.
llic form of tht: vorl) us«l to ,,n .,.,1; a iliou-lit as a nm,-
mand is called tl.u Imperative Moo^.
i V.1 ./ (/«. Mitmh.
xu.
The Indicativfi MikmI is tlu JaH iii,»k1. It is usi'd :_
(a) To state facts : as, That man huwjht thn piano.
(«) To aslc questions <.f fact: as, AVI,,, /„«„,/,« tliat piano?
(c) To express suppositions assunicij to l)e facts : as, If lie
M there (and I assume that ho is) give him this note. If it i»
raining wo cannot go.
The Subjuncti^•o Mood is the ihowiht mmA. It is used to
express : —
(a) A possibility : as, Wo were afraid that we miiht I,.-
late.
(b) A purpose: as, I give you this l„,ok that you »/«,/
»<«<-'>/. I gave you tliia bwlc that you mi.jht stwhj. I kept
your Ixwk lest you shimhl luse it.
(c) A wish : ,-v,, G.Ki s«(v the king. O that I «>•,•,. . .,ian.
Thy kingdom come. Hay you live long.
lU
ELEMENTUIY «lHAMM.\n.
I
III
i-"wZTr:;r7i';,;:i:rr:'7"H--'"
" I .--V y„» J „,,„|,, „„, ^,, '"") K'™ Im." thi, note.
■«M«Pnfe: a«, U l,™ ,.„„„.„ / ' """luvjon or con-
i-iti...; I c.:,,. ':::;::; '" • t'' "^ - '-' •"•"' -"'^
''«-t'.-i<-^c,,i,:/:.:;:,':"S;r:; "''--"''
*"•<• •■ .kkI : „, Ji t.MiioiTow / . , , ' "'" ""''June-
VVl»-n ti,e nut.,,, of ' "" "'"'" "'"^t «-"rlv.
'■"true or ■,,.,"'"''",""'"" .■■""'- "■" eon-lusiJn
«e„S:r: '!' '^°""' *'"' '"^^ "" -h -b '•» the following
They were wat.-hing fh„ di^.I.t ,.f tl^e bir.l^-
Give eveiy ma., i),i„„ e,,,.",,,,. flJ-
If he was guilty ho des.nU'" L L^e^r""
earnSiS """ '""■" ^'^''''•^ "^^ ^'^ -it work
EI.EMENTAIiV (IHAMMAll.
113
I
<lod 1)6 with yoii.
I wish thut lio w..n. as ,.I,.v..r ,.s his l,r.,th.T.
., " ' '""' ' " '■" ''!>< I'l' I w.ml.l ]„.v,. ,,ai,l
tnn money.
<jath..r up tho fni>fi.i,.Mls tl,„t iiotlii,,,; 1„. ]„st
H« th.m familiar l„.t l.y „„ „„,,„s vi.l-ar
C..nsi,l."r tho lili,.s „f tho li,.l.i, h,,w th.^y lt-w
they toil not, n..itli..i' do fli,.y sjiin.
CoSJlJIiATION.
xr.rr.
Tl-e Conjugation of h v,.,), U „„ ,...|..rlv Hnu„«,.„„.nt
..c»d.ffi,m.t form, f,„-v„i,.e,„„».l,t..„s,., ,„.,.„;,,,., ,„„,.,,
The Prcs,.„t I.Hl,.fi„ito, Past I>,.l,.|inil,., „,„| ].•„,„,„ |„
definite T..n»..,.,f,l„.v,.,l,",l,iv,.",.,o ™„juKat.,l i„ t|,„ f.,1.
lowing fuiin ;
AITIVK Voiik: IMIIIATIVK MiMili.
I 'mill Illilrlhliti' Tills,.
Singular. pi„„i.
I (liivo Wo drive
Tliuu drivest Y„u („r jv) drive
Ho (liivcs Tlicy ilriv<;
I'lmt Inilifiniii- 'I'liis,-.
Singular.
I di-tive
'I'llnu (lr(<vt'Ht
He (iro^o
First Vermin
Secoml Perm, II
Third l\rau.i
Firtt Permin
,'^ei;iiiil l',rx,m
Tliii,l PeracH
Plural.
We <lr(i\o
Yuu (Iru'.o
Tliey clrcno
Fii/iiie Iiiile/inile T,ii.v.
... „ Singular. piu„,.
t ir.,t PerwH I sl.ull drive \\\. s!,„!| rJnve
Hecund Perm.n Tl,„u wilt dri,,. Y,m will drive
Ihrd Permn Ho will drive They will drive
114
ELEMENTAKY flRAlIMAK.
except i„ ,K«.fy I, tl„.,V f > ^ ""'*' '■"'''>■ "««d
••-«».v,= VO.C. : ,s„„:at.v„ moo„.
Prewnt Imi.- finite. Tnisp.
Singular. -i .
In 1 ■ Plural.
Ia,„dnv..„ Wo are driven
Thou art c'nven You „,.„ ,,,;,«„
lliej are driven
Piisl I ml,- fi, ill,: T,.„s,:
Singular. »,
T „ 1 ■ Plural.
I«as,l,.,ve„ We «,.re driven
Thou .a^t driven You w»re driven
He Was driven
Fimt Pnviiii,
>i,K,ii,d P,-rmn
Thl.d Persuii
First Person
fyeroml Permu.
Third Person
First Person
Se,:„nd Person
Third Person
Future Indejinit,, _■
Singular.
I sliall Ix) driven
Tliou wilt bo driven
He will be driven
They were driven
Plural.
We sliall be driven
You will Iw driven
They will 1« driven
First Person
Seeond P,-rsi>ii.
Third Person
First Person
Second Person
Third Person
ACTIVK VOI.K : s,-aioxCTIVE Mon„.
Present Indefinite T,n,s,:
Singular. p,„^.,
(It) I drive /fn «- , .
(Tf Thou .Irive (If) You .Irive
(ff) He drive (rf) They drive
Past Imlefinite I'ense.
r drove (If) We drove
(If) Thou drovest (If) You drove
(It) He .Irove (If) They drove
ELEMENTARY GKAjrSIAH.
115
I
" If" ia no part of tlie .sul.junutive ii.Hcetion. It is nhicv,!
before each of ti.ese fonns l>«a„se tl,e .sul,ju„eti,e m .rost
frequently found in clauses Ix-giniiin^' witli "if."
Si'ctmd )
, J- Drivfi or ilrive tin
I t-rsnit \
IMl'ERATIVK M(H)I).
I'reM'Ht 'I'l'iisr.
Singular.
111. Drui
Plural.
Ill- drive Villi (,„• ye).
liave Ihe fl.llowill^'
If we use t!ie transitive "lei'
forms : —
Singular. piural.
l-trst Permn Let me dl■i^•,! Let us drive
Second Permi Let I,ii„ drive Ix;t them drive
XUII.
The various niotxls and tenses of the veri) " Ije '
'onjugatwl in the foilowin;; f,,rm :
INDIOATIVE MOOD.
Prexftlt Tiiijii'if.rt Tnise.
First Person
Singular.
I am
Plural.
\Ve;iro
Secontl Person
Thou art
Yuli ai'O
Third Person
He is
Tlicy jiro
Present Perfert 7V«»,
Singular.
Plural.
First Person
I have heen
W'o liavt' Ix'en
Seconei Person
Thou hast been
You Jiave U'cii
Thirtl Person
He has been
i'dst Tense.
They liave Ik-oi
Singular.
Plural,
First Person
I was
We were
St-contl Person
Thou wast
You were
Third Person
He was
They were
116
ELEMENTARY GHAMMAll.
P'irst Person
Siniinl Person
Third Person
First Person
Second Person
Third Person
First Person
Second Person
Third Person
I'ttst Perfect Tense
Singular.
I had Imh'11
Tliou liadst 1k>i>
He ha(i l«eii
Future Tense.
Singular.
I slmll be
Tliou wilt )«■
He w ill be
Future Perf ■■: Tense
Singular.
I shall liave been
Thou wilt have Ixiun
He will have been
Plural.
\Ve had Ix-en
1 You liad l)cen
They had lieen
Plural.
We shall he
You will be
They will be
Plural.
We shall have been
You will have Ijeen
They will have been
SUEJUNCTIVK MOOD.
(Often preceded by "if.")
First Person
Second Person
Third Person
First Person
Second Person
Third Person ■
First Person
Second J'
7'hinl Person
'U
First Person
Secmid Person
Thinl Person
Present Teitse
Singular.
Ibe
Thou ]k^
Hebe
Singular.
I have been
Thou have Ijeen
He have lx«n
Past Tense.
Singular.
I were
Thou Wert
He were
Singular.
I had been
Thou have been
Ho have been
Present Perfect Tense.
Plural.
We lie
Y'ou be
They he
Plural.
We have been
You have been
They have been
Past Perfect Tense.
Plural.
We were
You were
They were
Plural.
We had been
You liad been
They had been
ELEMENTARY UKAMMAK.
117
J
Phrasal Present : I may be; Phra.sal Past : I might, should, or
wouldbf; Plirasal Past Pcrftct : I might, should or would
have l>een.
IMfKKATIVB MOOD.
Singular. Plural.
Secoitd Person Be or he tliou. Be or be you, or ye.
I).) Ije.
INFINITIVES.
Present : (Tu) !«. Present Perfect : (To) have been.
GKKUNDS.
Present Imi>erfcct : Being. Present Perfect : Having K-en.
rXHTUM VLV.fi.
Present Imj^rfeet : Boini^. Present PtM-feet : ] laviny been.
Past: Been.
XLIV.
These examples illnstrate how the ordinary forms of a verb
are arranged to sliow its conjugation. As a type, and for
convenient reference, the variims forms of the verb "drive"
are grouped together in tlie following table. Only the third
[HM-son singular of each tense is given, and the subject is
omitted : —
Tenw.
( Indbtiiiite
! Iinixirfect
; Perfect
I Perf. Progressive
1 Em phut ic
Iiidctinite
I in lie r feet
Perfect
Perf. Progressive
Kiiipbatic
INDHATIVK MOO-
Arfhr Vo!'-f.
(hives
is driving
hiis driven
li:is lieen driving
tloes drive
drove
w;is driving
h;i<l driven
Iiiid been driving
did drive
/'a-Mf're Voirr..
is driven
is iK'iiit: driven
hiis Ik-mmi driven
was driven
was l)cing driven
liiid Iteen driven
118
ELEJIENTAliY (lliAMMAlt.
Tt nt€.
IiHlelitiiU)
Itii[H'rfei-t
Purf. I'liiyiessivu
Emphatic
Ai'firti Volee,
will ilrive
will Iwdrivinir
will h.ivu cliivwi
Pa.<nrp, Voice.
will Vie driven
will In) lieiiiir driven
willhiive U'eii driven
"ill luvo Isen dnvini;
ill
t:N
I'liulciinito
■S I IrnptTfwt
J -'. I'ecfcct '
2- j P(;rf. i'rf)jTrf'.ssivtj
(.-Emphatic
j^Indt'finite
^ I.'njit'rfcet
^ - iVrfucjt
Perf. Progrossiv.;
I Emphatic
SfaiUNXTIVK MOOD.
Acfh'c Voire.
drive
')e (Irivinjj
Iiavo driven
havo (Mj-n drivin^r
do drivtj
drove
were (h-iviiif;
had driven
liad lieen driviri"
did drive
Pa-HMire Voice,
he driven
{t>e l>eing driven)
have l)eeii driven
were driven
were hcing driven
had J»e*'n driven
I IndeHnite
Imperfect
Kiiiphatic
Indefinite
Im[K'rfect
Perfect)
Perf. Progressive
Imperfect
Perfect
Perf. Progressive
IMPERATIVE MOOD.
Arf ire Voir.. p^^^-^.^ j,^.^^_
f'-'^-^ bo.lriven
»« driving, let ^.nc, let (,„e. you. etc.) be
etc., he driving (],iven
do drive .i^ i i ■
do t>e driven
INFINITIVKS.
Act ire Voin .
(to) drive
(*'>) he driving
(to) have driven
(to) have heen driving
Ptvinii-^ Voire.
(to) l»e driven
(to) have hcen driven
(■EKUNDS,
Active Voice.
driving
having drivf-n
having l>een driving
Pasm'e ^'oicn.
I*eing driven
Ii ing been driven
ELEMENTAUV (il'.AMJIAlt.
119
I
Im|)erfept.
I'erf. I'rojrressi
Past (ijerfeutj
fARTIdHLKM.
Arflre I'oic.
driviiiir
liaviiij; rlrivcn
hiiviiiji I'rrii driving'
In-'ini^ (liivr
Imvin.-l..,-,
Voir,:
(irivcn
.Ir
XLV.
((/) Write out, with a personal pronoun as sul)ject, tlie
third ptM'son siuijular of each tense of the verh "finisli" in
the indicative mood, active voice.
(h) Write out, with a personal pronoun as subject, tlie first
person plural of each tense of the verb " break " in the indica-
tive iuoo<i, passive voice.
((■) Write out in full the present indefinite and past indefi-
nite tenses of the ^•crb " hjve" in the subjunctive ukkhI, active
voice.
((/) Write out the first, second, and third persons lingular
of the verb "plough" in the present, imperative, active.
(/■) Write out the third person plural of the present im-
perfect, the past perfect, tlie perfect progressive, and the
present emphatic of the verb "teach" in theiiidiiative, active.
(/') Nan.e the mood and tense of each of the following
verb phnwes : —
He has called, lie liave cnlleil, you hail })ocn
calling, I did call, he has been called, do call, I
were calling, he will be called, he were called, he
may write, he might have writteii, he should
write, let him write, I niu hciufl; loved, Ileaveu
forgive him !
('/) Construct sentences containing the perfect participle
active of the verb " write," the iin|>erfect participle passive
of the verb " buy," the perfect participle progressive of the
verb " sell."
120
ELEMENT.AHY flB • MMAR.
M.vr.
ne us a ii()tii)mil v,.ili is us..,) t,.
'-" tl.o s„.,i„..t a,,., t,„. p.e„ir : ''Z2A T"" **•
A« an liuxiliai-y „f V„i,.n ;, ; ■ " , ^ '" '""■•
ti"-™ us,.., i„ tons,! ,•':•::',"<""-"■ i^i-o....
T...y «.. fallen. Ti„..se ...l^Z^^ i^T "f " «""«
active v„ice. "-pnrasea in the perfect tense,
JIAVEiHAST, ,US, luu.)
Jlave as H noti„naI verb is iis,.,l f„
He /,„,, a fann, As an auxili- "" T ""T^ '"""'■"'"" ^ '^^■
>-eAnc>.weoiX::;::::r^ He .„,.,„,„
Singular.
i.cat,ve l,ave, J.a.st, l,as
(Subjunctive have,l,ave, I.av
) Indicative )
( Subjunctiv,. J '""'• '""'st. li;i,l
I'nxeiit
I'tlxt
Plural.
Iiave
Iiave
]ia(}
M.tV (MIGHT).
He -«,,,,:.. there ' ' ' "'"" ™°"- ^'-' '"'i"'' •» tLl
quests permission to go. .'C„„ t j™' , '^'•'.>^ «»' re-
go ? " ^ t-an I go ! " asks " Am I able to
ELEMENTAKY GKAMMAK.
121
Singular.
) „ , . ^. ( may, iiiiiyrst, nmv
(• hubjunctivf . ,
J ( "ii;!lit> inifjlitoat, iiii^'lit mif,'lit
Plural.
niav
1
XLVII.
HilAI.l., wrt.l,.
Shall mwint ori;>iiml|y ohli,,,aini,, "\ViII" intfiitUm.
The.fe verbs express a contrast lictwccii ilnin;,' a tiling' from
compulsiun and from clioiec.
"Shall" as an auxiliary in tlic first iicrsoii pxiircssos
futurity : an, I .ihall go. In the second ami third persons it
expresses (/i*nHiH«</on and is nsed.in comuiandin";, threaten-
ing, promising, and prophesying: as, Tlion xlicilt not steal
(command). He shall lie punislierl if he disoheys (tin-eat).
You shall have a hohMay if you work well (promise). He
shall be blessed in all his undertakings (prophecy).
Will as an auxiliary in the first ]K'rson expresses assent
or promise. It is use<l in assenting, promising, anil tln-eaten-
ing where the action depends upon the speaker's own will : as,
I uill do that since you deem it advisable (assent). I irill go
with you (promise). I irlll punish tlie boy who disoUn-s
(threat). In the second and third pi'rsons " will " expresses
futurity only : as. He iiill do that.
Singular. Plural.
Present shall, shalt, shall sliall
Past should, shouldst, should shiaild
Present will, wilt, will will
Pojif wouW, wouidst, would would
Examine the following examples : -
I shall be fifteen my next birthday.
Fimtritij\ You will he fifteen your next birthday.
Ho will be fifteen his next birthday.
^-^ EI,E.MK\TAUV (iHAMMAlt.
|rwill|,nv3„ufiv,.,M|,.r». ,
V.,u»I,al, 1,0 ,„.,,, fi,,,,„„,.^^ Promise.
r will i.uni-l, y„u if v„„ ,li,„i,.,,
v<M. .si,aiii„.,,„„i,,i„„i if „,,,;„, . ,,.,,
nK,v,,i,.in„.,,,,,,,^,,,,ifji,,.^,^,.^,_,^,-,-|''-''t.
i Mil nil s.s,,;;!' / AIhuv.s usu ".Shall T" ;„ „ i ■
<im..st.onsi„tl,„ first ,„.,.«„„. ".asking
-.^^'.™i;:™;::s;nt ^■'■""~-'
.^S^!!^%,iJtr:;^:i;::---^^^^^^
,layt" ' ■ > "'" "e Ih3 fifteon h.s next birtli-
.IH.It'I.O AND MdlT.D.
Should an tlie iiiist tcnsp i.f " d, ii >> j
or ,/»/„• „« V '7/'"- "f xliall" denotes „hli,,ati„n
'"":/ . as, \ „u .s|„a,|,[ ,j„,,,;^ ,„„_.^. distinctly.
Would as till) past ronsp of " i„;?i " i ^
Hon: as, TI. w,„.|d 'not ytL t " T '"'""'"'■''■
wi«h : a.. Would that he :2 l!^] '' "''' '''" "^P'''^'^ "^
^
ELEME.NTAltV GKAMMAli.
123
i
As auxiliaries of Tciisi- tliry I'xprt'ss fiiluiily fnmi tlio
»tttn(liM)iiit nf tlio piLst : as, Slii- said islie kIiouIiI jin. II.- sjiiil
lio wimld go. As auxiliaries of .\lo<j<l tliey Iielp to fn ii suli-
juiictive verlj-plira.ses : us, If lio sljoulil meet me ]n: woiilil
know inc.
XLVIir.
Do as a notional vei'li is useil lo ex|iress i« rfiinmiiiif : as,
He did Ids liutv. I am doini,' what lie lias often doiK-. As
an auxiliary of Tense it is used in foiniin;; a [uesent or past
indefinite . as, t do stiiily my lessons. I did write a letter.
Tliey did eat (They ate). As thus used it is uiiempliatic.
It i.s also used : -
(«) In making assertions iniue emplmtii! : /is, T (A) sludv.
He did say so.
(6) In asking questions: as, Jh, you lielievi' that? J>il
he go!
(c) As a substitute for other veihs ; as, ]Ie plavs well and
sorfo you (play well). He caunlit a worse cold tlian you
(lid (catch).
Siigalar. Plural.
I'ment do, doest, dost, doi-s, do
Past did, didst, did, did
CAS (corr.i;).
Can is a notional verb, meaning " to Ijc able," and is
followed by an infinitive .vithout " to " as its oliject : as, " I
can lift that weight," that is, I "am able" "to lift" that
weight. As it is not used in forming moods or tenses of
verbs it is not an auxiliary. It has neither infinitives nor
participles of its owti and so is soiiie!imes classed as a ilifectice
irrh, that is, a verb -'ri wliich some of the parts are wanting.
In this sense "may," "shall," "will," "must," and "ought"
are defective verbs.
124
KI.F.MKNrAltY (IKAMMAIl.
Ohm ivp tliiit in Miicl, \iM'l>-|ilinis('s iis " 1 can go" (I am aliln
to go), " I iniiy KD " {' ml |HTmitti'il I., gii), " I iiui.it go" (I
am oliliijeil to go), wo ar j now ai'custonioil to tliiiik tli« vcrli-
|>iiras(t as a whole, and not as a |>riiit'i(ial verb t'ollowt-d by an
infinitive witliout *' to."
SlDgulM. Plural.
Vn'Ufttt can, canst, can ran
Pttitt couM, couldst, could could
Mun.
Must is a notional vci'li, nu'anin<? " to bo obligwl," am] is
followed by an intinitivo without *' to " as its object. It has
no change of form. It expresses :--
(rt) Obligation : as, We must olx^y our teuclier.
(Ii) Necessity : as. All men must die.
('■) Inference: as. He must have arrived by this time.
(iroiiT.
Oug^ht is a notional verb expressing "duty "and is fi I-
lowed by an infinitive as its object. It implies moral obliga-
ti(m : as, You ought to go to church. (It is your <luty to go.)
You ought to have d(nie that.
Singular. Plural.
Prrtti^tit or Pti)<t ought, oughtest, ought t)ught
IMI'KRSONAL VEKKS.
It rains. It snows. It grew iliirk. It is lini'
weatht'i'.
In each of these examples that for which the subject " it "
stands is undefined. The cause of the action or state
expres.sed by the verb is not |)resent to the mind. The
subject is Impersonal (page 89), and the verb admits of no
variation of person. Such verbs are called Impersonal
Verbs.
ELEMENTAltY (IBAMMAK.
1 •_>.')
WAX.
Fill tlie follnwins liliiiik-t with "hIiiiU" of " will," iis tin
sense requires. Give reasons in eueli euse.
We
W.»
I
— 1)0 glml to sec yim.
— give you whiit you m'cd.
slioot lit least ouo j;oosn it' I ifiiiaiii
11 week.
I 1»( eighteen in July.
He fears that lio ■ uot bo iil)lo to iilay-
They say that they ue'.ei foi-jret his ki-id-
uess.
The iiiau who interuled to coinniit siiiciile siml,
"1 fall into the water ami iiohixly
pull mo out and I ho drowiieil."
Give the meaning of ea.-h of the followin- >.entene.-s, :,s
"shall" or "will" is used; —
I will (shall) go.
You shall (will) go.
He will (shall) go.
She shall (will) not speak to nio.
Shall (will) I buy you that l.ookf
Will (shall) he read to you!
Shall (will) we see you at the lecture?
If Johu does wroug he ^llall (will) ho punished.
Fill the blanks with "shoulil" or "w.mlil" as the sense
requires. Give rea.,ons.
I like to win the medal.
■^liat we do without railways t
Oue
always do one's best.
KLEMKNTAIiY OIIAMMAH.
fall ]>.'
)w killed.
you liclp iiic if I full!
Till')' doclurod tlu'V iiovcr forgot liis
kiuiliii'ss.
iLOl.
Kriiirs HIT fi(M|\iriitly nmili" in tin- iisi' iif /iV iinil Aiy, nit
uMi] /t'-t^ r'lHt^ Hill) ntisf.
1.1 K (lulrnimlil-r).
I'r'sriit r lie on my Ixil.
J'nufiU J'irf'ri-i I liuvi) liiiii on my 1m«I.
/*'"*' r Iiiy (111 my Im'iI.
I'liKt l','rf,i-l \ Imd lain on my IkiI.
Fiiliire. \ sliiill liii (111 my l„.,l.
Fiiliiri' Per/ill \ sliiill liiivo lain on my bcil.
l.AV (Tmn-<ilin ),
rriMiit T liiy the iKMik on tlm desk.
I'mriil I'l-rJfH I luive laid tlic tmiik on tliii desk.
f't'l 1 laid tlio Ixiok on thodesk.
I'nMt PerjWl I liiul laid tlie liook on tlie desk.
Fiitiirn I .shall lay the Imok on the desk.
Future V,'rf,H [ shall liavo laid the book on the desk.
SIT (Iitfiflji-'iiliivj,
Pn'Kfut T sit on a chair.
I'rrn'ul Prrfecl I have sat on a chair.
Pu»t I sat on a ciiair.
Vast Pi'i-firt T had ^at on a chair.
Future I shall sit on a cliair.
Future I'lrfcrt I shall have .sat on a chair.
SKT (TratmtireJ.
Prencnt I set the dishes on the table-
Prenmt Perfert I have set the dishes on tlie table.
i
ELEMENTAKY OltAMMAH.
127
Past
Paul Pirfh't .
Fit t tire
Fiititrf. Pfrfi'ft
Pn-Jffl
Pfifiil Pir/'rt
Ptitit
Pilttt Perftit
Fiilitfft
I si't till' dislii") im tlio tiililc.
T ImiI si't tliH ili'.lics nil ilii- t.'ilili'.
f s]ill\\ t^Vt till' (lislll'S 1)11 till' liihll'.
T .sliiill litix'i' M't till' iliNlies Oil tliu taltlo,
KISK (In/rfiittiliif ),
T I'iso up.
t IiHvi' rist'ii up.
T re ISO up.
[ liuil risen up.
r sliall riso up.
Future Perj'ert \ sliuU have risen up.
RAISK (Ti-nnutirf).
Prenent I raise my liiind.
Preneitt PerfeH I luivo niiseil iiiy liati'l.
Ptvtt I raised my luiiul.
Pmt Per/ret T liad raised my liand.
Fttture T shall raise my liand.
Future Per/eft \ shall have raised my hand.
Fill in the followiii;^ ^ilanks with ])ruper iitniis of t}i<' verbs
" lie " or " lay."
The cap will on liis dc.-ik.
He ■will • his otip on his dosk.
He sliould down for an hour.
He told nie to it down mid I —— it down.
He has ■ his jicn on tlm di'sk wlu'in my
[M'U .
After ho had • down hf bccaino iiuito ill.
He found it ■ in the coriit'r.
Fill in the foUowiiii,' blanks with tlie pii)per forms of the
verbs "sit" or "set": -
Where does she 1
128
II.) -
F.LEMEXTAItY (lUAJI.MAU.
!l tl'ap.
<lii\vu mill jiltiy for us.
your rcx.tii in nnlor.
Last night tl' c'lildri'ii roiind fho flrp.
Slio us a ffooil oxaiiiple.
IIo is near a grate fir(>.
Fill tlip fdlliiwing l)liuik-s witli tli(> proper funns of tliv
verbs "rise" or "riiise."
The sua is .
He • good wheat.
Tlio jtiiee of wheat has .
The bread is .
They up early in the moi-ning.
They will tliut building four feet.
TiiO river has
four feet to-day.
Old and Nf.w Conjiciatioss : Stronh and Weak Verbs.
LI.
Sound (as in " Plionics ") the letter "t" in the word
"tip." Oljserve that tlie "t" sound is made by putting tin-
tip of the ^./«/He against tlie roof of the mouth just behind
tlie teeth and then separating tliem after sluppimj the breath
for an instant. .Sound tlie letter "d" in the won] "dip."
How is the "d" sound made?
From the mode of forming them, "t" and "d" are
called tonfjup-ntopt letters.
Observe the following verb-forms :—
Pre.ieiil. Piui,
love loved
kill killed
dejd dealt
ELEMENTAUY ORAMJIAR.
129
The past inilefinite tense of each vorb is fornicd l)y adding
"d," "cd " or 'it" to the pri'si'iit, that is liy {ir/rlim/ n luni/iii'-
slnpt letter to the prexent. Exan"-1 - : '(itnpai'e, tornparw/ ;
defend, defen(]«/; dwell, dw .. Tliese i.;v . died verhs of
the New Conjugation, a» t \^ in this «ay that verbs
introduetK] into modern EnHliKl ' '"'■'■' tlj'ir p .sb tenses.
Observe the following v
Prtsfiit.
arise
fall
blow
■b-t"ornis : —
Ta't.
arose
fell
blew
The past indefinite tense of eaeh verb is formed l>y an
internal rmrel chnmje. Thus in the first pair " i " is changed
to"o"; in the seeond pair, "a" to "e"; in the third ]«ir,
"o" to "e." These are called verbs <.f the Old Conjuga-
tion, as it was in this w-'v that verbs in English formed tlieir
pasts long ago. Examples: drink, drank; ride, rode J swim,
swam ; run, ran.
Verbs then are divided into two classes the Old Conjuga-
tion and the New Conjugation, according io the way in which
the past indefinite tense is formed.
A verb that forms iis past indefinite tense by ti'lflhuj a
titmjue-atopt letter to its present is a verb of the NcW Con-
jugation. All other verbs are of the Old Conjugation.
The real distinction lies in the addition of the tongue-stopt
letter, and not in the internal vowel change.
Verb-forms like : .sell, sold ; tell, told ; say, said, have an
internal vowel change, but as they add a tongue-stopt letter
("d") to the present to form the past they are verbs of the
New Conjugation.
Verb-forms like : lend, led ; feed, fed ; meet, met, have an
130
ELEMENTAKY GRAMMAIi.
..itcrnal vowel dumgo an.I ,!„ „„t a,.,,,.,u- to ,.,1,1 a tongue-
stoptMter tofonn the past t,.„s,., l,„t tiny are really verbs
of tl.o New Co.ijuyation, tl.e " ,1 " „■• " t " of tl„. a,l.le,l endi„c,
hav,„g been absorlxid into tl.e final "cl " or -t" of the present"
Tims the past t,.nso of "lea<l " (le,Ie) was at one ti.ne "ledde "
but after tl,e disappearance of the final "e " in tl,e past, the
vowel of the present was shorten,',!, ami as the s„un,l of tl.e
past couhl not then be distinguishe,! from the present, the
final "d" was dropped.
Verlvfonns like : set, ee.t, short, put, whieh have the same
form for p,-ese„t an.I past, are v,,.rl« of the New Conjugati,.n.
het had for Its past tense "s.^tte." After the final "e"
disappcan.d, the word "sett" coul,l not be distinguished in
sound from the pr.-sent "set," a„,l the final "t" was ,lroprK-d.
liie history of su,:h verbs must be known Imfore their conju-
gation can be determined.
Verbs of the Old C.njugation are said to I,e Strong
Verbs, Iwcause they seem to be ..Me to form their past
tenses without tlie a.ssistanco of an emling. V,.rl,s of the
New Conjugation arc sai,l to be Weak Verbs, liccause they
seem unable to form th..ir past tenses without the assistance
of the ending "ed," "d," or "t."
[Strong verlw are .s,>metime3 said to I» " irre,«ular " and
weak verbs " regular," but the terms are misleaiiing" for stron"
verbs are truly " regular," since their parts are torme,l accord"
ing to rules. A discu.ssion of these rules lies outside the scope
of this text ] '^
f
Principal Parts of a Vkrb.
LH.
The present, the past, and the perft'ct participle of a verb
are usually called its Principal Parts becau.se when
these are known any required p., t of a verb can be given
KLi; lEXTAIJY (iliAJfMAU.
i;ii
I'UINCII'AI. l-AKTS,
/iirise
- fill 1
llilow
;li'\e
jkill
i.l.^l
Putl.
arose
fell
lilcw
I(,v..,l
killed
dealt
ari'^eii
fallen
lll.AVM
leved
killi'd
dealt
01)»ei-\e that the |«']-feet pai-ticipio of the \er't)s of the Old
Conjugation is formed by ad<ling "n" or "en" to the pre
sent. As we shall see later this ending lias Jjeen dropped in
many verbs.
Observe that the jieit'eet ])artieiple of the verbs of tlie New
Conjugation is formed by adding "d," "ed,' or "t" to the
present.
[.Vs the principal parts of a verb are bi'st learned through
their use in sentences no lists are given here to l)e committed
to memory. Consult the Appendix for verbs whoso piincipaJ
parts tlie pupil has not learned already thrcjugh reailing and
conversation.]
Classify the following \'erbs as Stri
t or Weak : —
Begin, l)end, Iireak, Imy, ciitch, know, sc(!, .sleoi),
heal', biml.
Construct sentences containing (,i) tlio past tense, (//) the
perfect particijile with lutx or /wcf, of each of the foUowinjj
N'erbs : —
Driuk, strike, teaeli, go, see, do, rise, steal, eat,
niu, drive, take, bite, bear.
132
ELEJIENTAUY (JltAMMAR.
m
P.lRSlNr; A VKiill ,„( \'kfUI I'llliASK.
i.iir.
In parsing a lerb we give its : -
(«) Class: /Notional or relational; transitive or in-
I transiti\-e,
i-Strong or Weak ; i.rineii)al parK.
Voice: Active or passive.
Mood: Indicative, subjunctive or im-
(4) Form: J I*™"™.
Tense : Present, past, or future, witli their
nnHlificatious.
Person : first, seconil, or thiril.
iNumlicr: Singular or plural.
((■) Construction: Relation to i:s .subject.
ILLUSTRATIONS.
Parse the verbs or verb-pliras,.s in (be following sen-
tences : —
The .«oklior.s Jiad taken the eity.
Fish liave betiii caiiglit in tliat poud.
If hu be tliei'e ^ive liiin this note.
I can hft that weight.
Hailtakcn: Verb-phrase, notional, transitive j strong(take,
took, taken), active voice, indicative mood, past perfect ten.se'
third person plural, to agree with its subject "soldiers."
Have been cau.jht: Verl>plirase, notional, transitive, weak
(catch, caught, caught), passive voice, indicative ino.Kl, present
perfect tense, third person plural, to agree with its subject
" fish." • '
lie: Verb, relational; si.ong (am, wa.s, been), subjunctive
mood, present tense, tliird person singular, to agree with its
subject "he."
KLEMENTAKY GKAMMAR.
133
Oiri': Verl), imtinnHl ; transitive, stroiij,' (give, pave,
itivi-ii), active voice, imperative niond, sccoiid person singular,
to agree m ith its sulyect " vou " (iiMilorsto.Hl).
Can: Verb, notional, transitive; defective (can, coulil),
active voice, inrlicativo mood, present tenst;, first person
singular, to agree with its subject " 1."
(td) lift: an infinitive, ohjcct of tlie verb "can."
We may parse "can lift " as a verli-plirase, thus :
(an lift: Verl)-phrase, notional, transitive; weak (lift,
lifted, lifted), active voice, indicative mood, present tense,
lirst jKM-son singular, to agree with its subject " I."
Parse the verbs and \(m l>-phrases in the following i_
Roal fi-ioii<Ts]iip is a sldvv grnwtli.
Yes, you limy go to scliool.
Liiy tliy biirileii down.
Are you going to tlio ponccrtl
If I wt'i'o you I would go.
You will lie surprised at tlio result.
They oliey their t(!ncher and are happy.
IIo has been studying his lessons sineH hroak-
f.-tst.
It ■;; raining heavily.
Some of his gootls luive Leen dfiniaged l.y fire.
I hope thtit lie -will deiiionstrate his ability to
INFLECTION OF ADVERBS.
IJV.
Many adverljs are, by reason of their meaning, incapable
of comparison, as : —
now, SO, yonder, here, there, peifectly, thei'efore,
why.
134
i'f: !
i:/,K.Ml;XT.\l!V <il!AM.MAI!.
A f,.«- „.K-,.,.l,s „ t „f , ,,,,,is„„, ,u„l ,l„.s,. „,.., ,,„„
l«i-c(l in tlir siijiiH w.iy UN .iilj<vtiv,.s, thus :
( fust
\ snttn
I Cllsily
( well
( nricli
('"iii/Hirtt/lff,
fast IT
snolUT
liiDi'o easily
iiiiifo rapidly
licttor
IIUH-l!
fastest
siHinest
must easily
most rapiilly
l)est
nit 1st
A-iverbs of one syllal.Io are usually compare,! l,v adding
"or and " est." A.lverl-s ending i„ " ,y " „„„„y ,-,,„, j,,, -^
e<.mi«.,.at,vo and .su,K-,-|ativo l.y prefixing "„„„-e"and "most "
SomoadverKsliavo invgnlar f„rn,s of comparison, but in the
mam tluvse aro identical with the a.ljeetive.s give,, in Exercise
AIX, page 91.
PREPOSITION, CONJUNCTION, INTERJECTION.
I.V.
These parts of speeeli ai-o not inflected.
Pausiso.
THK rKKPOaiTION.
Iti parsing a im;,ovt!on we give the constructi.in of the
phrase which it introduces.
The house at the oross-rotuls was illuminated
in tiio evening.
At: Preposition connecting the adjective phrase "at the
cross-roads " with the noun "house " which it modifies.
.■».• Preposition connecting the adverb j.hrase "in the
evening" wtth the ^erb "was illumij.ated " which it modi-
ELEMENTAltY (iltAMMAB.
135
In jmrsing a nwJHnrtinn wo give its clnss iin.l wli,it it coii-
iiecta
Ho iipolojriscl or lio woul.l lijivo been 1.1111.
wJied. '■
Unless it ruins wo shall all go.
■ siloiK'o sottlcil, wid,. and still,
On the lone wood and niiglify hill.
or: Conjunction, ccvorilinatlvB, eomic'ting tli« tlausis of
which the verhs are "apologi««l " aii.l " w,>ul,l havo been
juinished."
unlrxs: Conjunction, subonlinative, connecting tlie clauses
of which the verhs are " shall go " „„,! " . „i„s."
ami: Conjunction, co-oi,li,iative, connecting the ailjcctivas
" wide "and "still."
aiKl: Conjunction, co-orflinative, connecting the phrases
'■ on the lone wood " anil (on the) mighty hill.'
THE IXTERJKCTION.
As the interjection is not related grannnatically to tlie rest
of the sentence we parse it by giving merely its name.
PART FIVE.
SYNTAX.
Syiitiix tiiata
s<'ntenc('.
.f tl
liu /
flati.niH „i,.l i«mti„„« of wonis i,i a
Skntknce-Klemkn™.
Tl,„ essential elements .f . sentence a.e t.,e .uJ„rct
:"'' '"•'"'" • T'- ™''J-t -'>• '-a , or pronoun, or ..on.e
::^i:::z'"™'""'"'-" ^"-^- ^^^p-^-'-e
Tl,o subordinate elements of ,. .sentence are the
"-';..« of the .uhjeet and ,„.e,licate. T.,e n.o.,ifier of the
sul.ject .,s an «,/,,,„>,. or a group of words doing the .luty of
- "clje.t.ve The n,o<iifier of the verb isan „,,„r6 or a
Sroup of words doing the duty of an ad^erb.
The independent elements of a sentence are those
-,«lsand phras,.s which are not .elated gra .atically to the
St of he sentence. They are interjections, the absolute sul>
,|oct.ve(page m) and expletives hke " there " in • There is
no courage but in innocence.
Position op the Elements.
The subject of an assertive sentence is usually placed tefor,.
.0 predicue because this is the natural order of forming a
thouglit We must have something to think of before we
'-•an tlunk of anything to say about it.
136
ELEMKNTAltV (JKAMMAlt.
137
Eacli iii.Mlifi.T hhoulil Iw |ilait>(l as ii.iir as jwissililo to tlin
won! or wcinis it iii.KliHcs, since tilings wliiuliaii' to !).■ thought
of tot,'i>tlii'r should 1« niciitioiicil to;,'i'tlier. Word niiKliticrs
are generally placed Ix^foro the words they Mio<llfy, while
lihraw and clauso nicslifieis are placed after them.
Till) thought orch'r of the [.arts of a sentence is (») tho suli-
ject with its incKlificrs, (h) the \eili, (.) the object of the verl.
nitli its nrKlitler-s, (./) the niiHlillers of the verh : as, The
general in eo and told the sloiy of the campaign with
evident delight.
The general
I
in command
h
,.
tnl.l
tli(s story
1
of the cuiiiiiiiigii
,/
with evident ilelight.
When any part of a sentence is ]plaeed out of its customarv
position it attracts attention, and the idea it stands for is
given prominence. Generally si«viking the michUe of a
sentence is less enii)hatic than the Ix'girrning and the iH'ginning
less emphatic than the end.
Position of the SiniiK'T.
The subject does not always precede the ]jredicate. It
may follow : as. Here rests liis Inml upcjn the lap of earth.
Then hurst his mighty liiiirt. The last of all the bards was
In: In the first example " here " as a modifier of the verb
" rests " would, in the normal order, ]ie placed after it. The
writer wishing to emphasize the idea of place puts "here"
not in it.s ordinary position but in that of the subject, thus
giving it the prominence that naturally belongs to the
beginning of the sentence. In the third example why is " the
lu.st of all the bards " placed iwfore the verb ?
i:w
i:i.i:.\li:NT.\P:y (ilJAMMAIl.
The s,il,i,.,f,f„l|,,„.„fl,o v,.]l. in
(") Trilc'if,,;r„iiv,. wntcn.-fs: iis
('') IiiiiHTiitivi' M(.iif,.n<i'.>(
piciicli,
MT,,.,.,«|,,,,>,,M,„„„., s:„M,..TnHt.,„.,r.Hi,l,l„. ,„,,„,„,
('').'Mll.Juril-||VUfl,lllscs witll.Mlt "if
"iirn-tli r sli„„I,I ,,,,( NM.it tliiis.
as, (.'(.,„ int.. all tin, w„r|,| ,„i,l
•iH, Unci / a giant's
THE NOUN.
IT.
Till-; Si luKcrivK Cask.
Tl,. nv„ ...;,.,/,.. „.|at.,,,-,Jll.,,,, ,„„„.,,, t,,e subjec-
- "■I-la.at.. s„l,j,.,,iv., tl,„ ..ul.j,...tive „f a,l,|re.,«, the
Hl~h,., M.l,je.t,ve, «„,| thesubjctivein app.,.si,i„„ ar; de-
.scTiU-fl ■„, pp. 8 1, i^-> a,K] page Si.
r.ually ,!,„ j„„iti„„ .,f „„ „„„„^ .^ ^,_^ subjective C8.«t
.'.xcpt tl,e p,c..Ii,.at. .ul,j,.ceive, i.s l.,.f„,„ tl.o verb.
TiiK Ou.>k(;tivk Cask.
' i;latio.v.
ITI.
\\ 1,™ a noun i. a,i,l„l toa n„„„ i„ the objective ease after
. .. s ,vo ^e,.b, ,o describe it and also to con,pletethe n,ean-
'"S "f the verb. ,t ,s called a predicate Objective: a.
i:i.i;mi:\im;v (iii\MM\ii.
I .HI
'I'lli'V rhH.lr .l..l,,i, /.,„,,. '|'l„.y ,. I, .,.!,., I Kiv.lr, i.k, . ,„/.. ,
u.,l.s "n|.|...ir,l," ",.„ll," ",-l„K,„.," ",.i,.,.|,- ••iM,-,l,.-,"„„.l ll„,„.
"f siriiiliii- iiiTOilirii,' HIT fnllownl l.y ll s ih llir |.iv,liialr ..I)
JiclUv.
Whni ;! ,.,.li, w!li,-|i |„ til,, iirliu. v,,i.-,. iMkrs l>ntli ,i. , I,,-,.,!
and MM in.lii..,! ,,l,j,.,.i, is ili,,,,^,.,! iiii,,tli,^ |.,i,vn,. i,,i,.,.^ ,,,1,.
"''j''<'t '"- riirs th,. Mllij,.,! /|,„1 ll Iliri.ivl;,ill.-.|;,,,,l,'i,.,l ;
tlm», "TlM.Vii.n.. MM-a I k" 1m.,,.„m.s "A I k WMs -iwn
""■•" "''ll- '-111''":- .-.iii.-.i ti /,„•,„,/ i,„ii,,.,.|, ,,i,i,.,.i!" 1,1
lll«l»,ssiv,. f..rMl •• I »„si;iv,.„ „ A.,,,/,," " |„„,k ' is ,.„ll,.c| tlie
rt'tilim-'i tUl-rrt ciliji.i-t.
All ir.lniiisiiiv,. m-iI, is s,„,i,.ii„u.s f(,II,i«-...l l,v ii iicrsniml
I"'""""" '" !'"■ "''.ii''-liw. i;, ,.„„ti,i;r ,|„, s,.„„. il„|ivi,lu;,l lis
tin. sulij,.,-! :,is, II,. ,s,,i /,„„.„,;,■ ,i,,„„. K-,,-,. (/„r «,.ll. This
is lulled tl.i. reflexive objective.
Till. :iiilij(.i-t ..f the. iiilliiilivi. is in tli.- oliji.r'i i v,. ,us,. : ,is F
liclii'vo liiiii t.i l«. iin ii.-l.ir. I krii'iv il I,, l„. hi,,,. \V,. saw
hir gi>.
Usually the ]).isiti,,n „f a noun in ilie ulijfi-iiv,. ,-ase is im-
mediately after its m.|.1,, l,ut th,- iiidiiv.-t ohj,.,'! jt, ,l,.s th,.
diiwt cilijeet : as, Me b„u};lit »;, .'i il.,- yesr.Tday. The ,il,j,.et
in appusitiim is plaeed after the ti,,uM «illi which it is in
aii]KJsitiijn ; as, T klle>v Dieken.s, tlie imnlist. The piedieate
iilijeetive fiillows the nnun whieli it (leserilwa : as, Thev eallnd
John a ntiianl.
If the ohjeet iif the verh is a eon juneliv,. iiroinain it is
lilaceil before the veil, : „.s, The d,-sk ll,„t J m-eupy suits me.
The man irl,„m we i,„.t is „iy eou-ill. Tf the ijl.jeet of the
verb is iiiodilied by an interroyativ,- ai!iii-live it is pi*.,.,)
Ix'fore the verb : as, Uhut seat did you ehiwse'/
140
KI.HMKMAIIV (lli\MMAIl.
i
illK IVlMHKMHIVK t'.WK.
hKI.ATlMN.
IV.
■^~::/rr^r;::i;l;;:r;rs--~
It Mi'lNimto o«liri'sl,i|, i,s I,, 1„. ,„,l,„„, 1 ,, ■ .
'-— -' - ^- --;;;:i:':^:!-:;i
I'lisrrrnv.
Tlif n.iiiri in tlii. pcisscssivc ,■.!«,. ;- . i i i .■
itiii„li«,., Ti ■, ""'" I'''"'"'"»''"i'^ till" noun
THE PRONOUN.
V.
KkI.ATIOV AVI, PcMiTKiv.
■ Tl„. Pr„n,,u,. ha-s .1,,. .«„„. ™.. .vkticns as ,l„. „„un (,,. 81)
w;;::;;:'v^^"'''T'™''''''™''''''""''"''^ '/'..<i-
„nn ',""" ■'^"' ■■™f^'-«''g tl'" position of the noun
apphos «on,.,.ally ,o tho position of the p.-onoun which is "
»«hst, tuto for the „oun. v,,,,„ j,„,„^„„^ |^^ -'- '
form the .su ,j™ the o.de.- i.s .second, third, first : a., L .
and yean do that. Politeness ,.,uire.s that the perJn ad!
dressed shall be given the first place. Modestv L^ til
speaker place lamseif last. '
ELEMENTAKV (IKAMMAK.
141
THE ADJECTIVE.
vr.
Hki. \'iiov,
Tlio nttriliutivo mill |iriili™tivt! ri'liitimix .if mljci lins .iic
(li'si'iilii'd on pH^o CI. .\ii acljiTlivu is Miiiiflini.s juiiiiil tuili
noun in a Iik)s<t iind lrs.s diivti way timn nii ..Mi iliutiM'jiiljri-
tive is : lis, For rcusons, i/i «'/ii/ iinil nnjKil.ni^ I,, ilnlinnl l.i
iittcml. Tills ri'latiiin is ciiliiil ii,,' appositive relation
on ni-ciiimt of its ivsi'rrilil;inii> to ilial of a noun in ii|.iiosiiion.
Tlic cli'nionstialivr ailjrrliviM "ilii.!," "tliiil. "tlii'so"
"those " «','«•(• in nurnlK'i- wiih ih. ii- noinis. Tlir ilisiiilmtivc
adjectives "cacli," "every,'' '■ eitln-r." "neither" are sinirular
in construction: as, A,',,,/, i,,,,i, st.'|.|i.il forward in /i/s turn
(not //(!'(> turn).
fore its
e after
Position.
Tlieattrihutive adjective i^ |ilaceil ^'I'tierallv jii-t lie
noun : as. The Inii.i day want's.
The \ iiin idjeetive is ]i!aeed in the |iredicat
the vei : : I - ■ in . i- is mht.
The u|i|iosilive adjectivi. is ]ila I ;.'encnilly after- its noun
as. The sportsrnarr, ici« and /irowcy, hastened horrre
Ohservc the ert'eet of in\'ertin',' th(> order- :
The gate is ^\-i(lp ami tlio way is l.i-oad.
Widti is tlin gnlo iiml Irroad tlio wav.
Tn the first example the rninil ilwells on " ^-ali' " and
as the important ideas. In the second example the p
tivo adjectives are out of their usual positions and, as
scjucnce, tlie cinpha.si.s of llioui;iit falls oa "wide
"broa<l" rather than on "gate" and "way."
" way"
r-(slica-
a (-on-
and
BWj£?«iwj!»-53SMa*f.i.jR»' ixssm
142
ELEMF.NTAUY (lliAMllAl!.
^^
IE VERB.
VIT.
U
KLAIIDV,
T-. ... „.,..e singula,, nou,,/. ^t t n^ll " t T
l«- ...• .noro «i„j,ul„, noun.s cnm-cte,! by "eithor or"
If 1H.W..V.., l''«,-''.l™... are tl,ou.l,t<,f separately.
JNenh. , tl,e teu.her. „„r tl,o ,,,,,,11, ,,„,„ ^
I wo „r more sii^^ular nouns pnre.ieil l,v ",.■„. I, " .<
■ts, Each n,an won.an, an,l ehil.l /,„., „ ,iutv to perform The
«ul>J.'cls are tl.onirl.t of «.parat,.Iy " '"'°""- ^'«'
*";i:;::;;;: :;;:,;:«:;"s''i"'" -*• -< « ™
Tf tl,e s„l,je,.t is a eolle-tive „„„„ the verb is i„ the
u»'':':;;r,7,t';;:;;;,:;" 'r-' ■■■» "-">■
\f„.„l • . ' i^-" •'•'I'Siil.ii . as, No news u mnxi news
Measles (s a troiDIe.someilise-i..., Ar »i • fe"^> "i-ws.
study. Jfathematics m his favorite
The relational verb "to )i.. " f ,i .1
Worrit-.,, /am/ Tl '"'''"'""' ™™« ^-^'^ after it a«
re It . .,,, / am A,, r knew It to be liim.
ELEMKNTAllY (IHAMMAlt.
143
HKyUKNCK |»F TeNSKS.
VIII.
When a principal clause is folldwcil l>y a .suWilinattM-laiiso
the rules for tlio sequence ()f tenses aco ; — ■
A Past tense in tlio principal clause is followed In- a Past
tense in tlie dependent clause: as, He mi'iil tliat \<lhl that.
They wjreid that he should do that. He mmhl do tliat if lie
were allowed.
Exceplinns: The Past tense in tliu principal clause ivin !»■
followed hy a Present Indefinite tense in tlio sulxirdinalc
clause to express some universal truth or Iialiitual fact : as,
The pupils Mwe taught that the earth w round. \ tiM )iini
that all men are raortjil. After the conjunition " tluin " the
verb in the subordinate clause can be in any tense: as. He
liked me better than he liked (likes, is liking', lias liked) you,
A Present or Future tense in the principal clause can \k
followed by any tense in tlie deipendent clause.
THE ADVERB.
IX.
Hel.ation.
An adverb is a word used to modify a verb, an adjective, or
another adverb. (Pafje 32). We shall now sec that an
adverb may modify any part of speech except a noun or
pronoun.
Observe the italicised 'vorils in the followini; sentences:
He threw the ball char over the hon.se.
He threw the ball exadlij ovit tlio chimney.
The work was undertaken vnthdy at his sug-
gestion.
He left immediately before diuuer.
144
ELEltKNTMtv (iKAMMAIi.
These a.lve,-l,.s „u„Ufy th. pr.y^U!„„„ {„„„,,,,
OWrvetheu.«liei,„..l,vo,-,Is i„ „,.. following sentences :-,
I Will tell you ,,;wth, h,m it Impponed
oce^n. "' '"'" """ "•'■'■ *^'""'' ''« «-««ea the
^. They drove away short/,, before the train ar-
Those a,lverl« ,„o,ii,y tl,„ ,■„„;„„,,,•„,„ following them.
It n,ay 1» s,ud that these a,lve,-l« m.Kjify, „„t t|,e p^eposi
■on, and conjunctions, but the phrases Ll e,a„ J X .
these jiarts of speech introduce.
Observe the italicised wo.d.s in the foHowi,,,, sente,.ces :_
Unfortiimteli/ tlie ci-iiniiial esoaped
Prohablii he lias failed.
Evidently they -.vere surprised.
These adverbs mcnlify assertive sentences and „,ay be
called sentence adverbs. ■'
I'aIISINC liu; .VuVEKU.
^"12^" f^"'^^- ^' '' "" '-'"'■y ^"'-i student.
/>"««'%. &unple adverb of manner, positive decree
modifying the verb "siK^ks." " '
"g<l^Z'"' ^"°^'' '^"""^ "^ ■''"'""' "'"'"'^"''' ""' '«'J<»"^<'
Pecumah Adverbs.
X.
" Yes " and " No " are substitutes for entire sentences and
^ve repe ition They were ori.inally adverbs, but as they
take he place of sentences they can hardly be called "parts of
apeech.- It would be better to cla.s then, with the interjCtioJl
ELEMKNTAIiY GBAMMAR.
145
"Rut," iti sucli Rfritt'tici'H as " Wo cati /'j*Mlit'," is oquiva-
Icnt to only ami modirus '"*lii'."
Tlio adverb *' tiuTc "' ordinai'My int'nns '■ iti tliat, jilarc."
"Tiicro" lias no reference to "j»lace" in suc-h sentences as
Thfi'v came to tlie lM'a{!h a jhmh* exile ot* I-j-in. Thiir is no
doubt of tliat. " TfniY was a sliiji."' ijuoth lie. Used tbus it
is an expletivCi and introduces the sentence when the
su})ject follows the verb. Tliis ''expletive" with the verb
"to be" denotes "existonce": as, There is no fireside ]ut\v-
soe'er defended but has <nie vacant chair. That means, Xo
fireside crists, etc.
"Even" intensifies the nieanin;; of t lie word, j)lirase, or
clause which it iniKlilies : as, I would not ask even iion to ,lt>
such work. Even in ln'a iiri'irfist rat/i- he spared women and
children. I would not do so even //* //'"« nrrr to thrcatm mi.
It is an intensifying; ad\erb.
"Like" is historically an adverl) <ir adjective and is fol-
lowtMl by tlie objecti\e case: as, Ho looks like you. Slie is
like him. Like as a father pitietb Iiis cliildren. "Like"
ahouM not l>e used as a eonjunetiim. Instead of "He writes
like I do" sjiv "He writes oh I do."
POSITIOV OF AnVKRBS.
XL
The adverb should lie placed as near to the word it mollifies
as the conditions will ])eriiu't.
The adverb is place'l immediately In-fore llie adjective,
adverb, preposition, or conjuncliuii iliat it miKlifies : as, That
apple is quite ripe. 8he sjieahs i-nj distinctly. His work is
far below the standard. He likes fruit ouhj when it is ripe.
Tlie adverb is generally placed iunnedlately after the
intransitive verb which it mcxlifies : as. Ho spoke si-mihhf.
The adverbs always, lu-ver, oj'teii, .soinrtinu-H, generally^ rarely,
10
14(i
Kr.F.MKN-TAKY ORAMMAI
'«,„,%, ,u„l ../.In,,, ,u;.. as ,t n,I,., |,la,.,.,l l„.f,„-,. ,,,,,1 „„t after
tl,n v,.rl, tl„.y „„„lifv : as ll.ahvavH .|,„kn woll „f l.i.s frien.l^.
lie iifli'ii iiii'ijliiini'il ymir iia
The a,lv,..-l, is „„t ,,la,v,l l„.t «■,.,■„ a t,-a„sitivo verl, a,„I its
object. It .s usually pimv,! aflei- the ol.j.rt, though it n,av
appear Irfcre (he verl, ; as, He p,epare,l ),is less„n.s ,•,„■,/««,;.
lie /;-,(«W// i-(Hlfessi,: his faults.
The mlverl, is geuer.Llly pl.uv,! U-f „ the auxiliary an.l
the pr,„e,pal v,.rl,: „s, I l,a,l „,„ heani „f his arrival.' He
will ,„„« „. here. The a.lverb .shouU „..t. ]u: placed l^.twe,-,,
t.> an,l the i„(l„i,ive: „s, He strove to unrlerstnn.l the
St. .,i..et tl,.,r„„,,/,l,,. .. He strove to (/„„■„,„,/,/,, un,lersta,„l the
subject ,s not in strict u.ronlauc,, with the best usa-o.
\\ hcu , - adverb is inl.„,le,| to nuKlify the whole sentence
It should » ,laced first : as, ;/„/,/,//,, )„. l„„,,,i .,f ;t ;„ ^j,,,^
The adverb "„,dy" shouM Ih, pla.-ed i„nm,liately l«fore
what .t ,s inte„,Ied to ,„odify : a-s, He o„!y ..,,r,r,l to «i„<r the
first so,,!;. }re a^o-ecd o„lv to si,,,, the fi,-st son-
to sing only the yiiW .son^'.
He agreed
THE PREPOSITION.
xir.
IlKI,ATJn\.
The preposition connects its plnase ,vith the wo,'d which
that jihrase modifies (pinjo 3fi).
Special TJ.se.s.
The cor,-ect use of p,-epositions is Ix-st learned through olv
sorvat,on of the usagesof go,Kl writers. Enors a,-e frenuently
made in the use of the following p,x-r,ositio„s :-
„ ."'^*' *"• " '^' " ''"^'^^''^ *" <" •"""« f "tout of tin,e or space •
in to a w.der extent : as. He anived at eight o'clock- ,•„ the
morning. He ar,-ived at Par' .-esterday and will ren,ain in
the city till Saturday.
EI.KMKMAltY CllANnr.Ml.
J47
is nsi'ii ill speaking of
; " is usri! in spcaliin;;
Between, among. "i;,i«r,.i
t«(i. (Fn tlic iiiiilclliMiftMii.) "AiiK
of more than two. (In tliw iniildln of nioio than l«o.) Two
boys a^'reo Inlll n tllcMlsrlvcs. Si'vciiil liovs aL,'ivc aiinni,/
' .emselves
With, by. "Willi " ivlaU's to the inslruiiicril ..r means
(■mplo_vc(liri(loinf,'anylliinj,'; "Ijy '' to the acfoi- oi- a;,'c'iil, : as.
That lianilkcrchicf was lu'inini'il /.y her ;/■///, a lu'cillc. J|,.
was attemlcil //;/ his kniijhls The ^'anl|.n was overgrown
u-ith weeds.
In, into. " In" lienoles j.osilion or iv..t insi.li^ a Ihing ;
"into " (huiotcs ni'ition towaiils tlie inside of anvlhin": as,
John is (H the room. }Iow did lie get iiiln the rinini? It i.s
because .siieh verhs as eome, llv, tlirow, fall, lireak, and (hvip
denote motiiin, that "into" latlier than "in" is used aftiT
them.
Compare to, compare with. < )no i hing is <om|)ared
<o another thing to .show similarity. Though the tilings are of
different natures they have some jioints of similarity : as. Life
is compared ti> a journey ; genius A> a llasli of lightning. One
thing is compaml irllh another to show rliirereiicc, though
sometimes similarity. The things are of the same nature : as,
Compare liis answer irifh mine. Com|iare .lolnis farm irlt/i
Henry's.
Differ from, differ with. One ohjeet differs /r.™
another when there is unlikeness between them. One iierson
differs iiilh another when they disagree in opinion. Thus:
One star differs ym/» another star in magnitude. Two men
differ ivilh each other on tlie<iueslion of free trade.
Position.
The preposition is usually placed lietoro its object : as, lie
stood VII the bridge. Sometimes the oliject is placed In-fore
the erb, and the preposition at the end of the sentenci!: as,
Wnat are you waiting/>r ? (For what are you waiting 1)
^■*''^ ELKMEVTAIIY IlIiAMMAIi.
THE CONJUNCTION.
-XIII.
Hklation.
,- fnrT""'"" """""■" "'"''^ "'"' K'™'f'^ "f -'■'•''» (I>P-
•3- ■ <0). The use, of c,M„,li„«tiv,. ,.,,,1 .sulx.r.liuativo cmunc-
tic.iis are di'»cnl)e<l on j)|,. fiS-TO.
Cn-OIIDINATIVK CONJLXCTIOXS
Since clau.,e. of ociual rank .-an be e„„„,..te,l in four dif-
ferent ways there are four kin.l, of co-or,linative conjunctions :
(«) C„i„dal,.e. By these one staten.ont is connected with
another sta.e,ne..t of e^ual rank to form a con.plete thought :
as, These a^-e Clan-Alpine's warriors true „„,/ .Saxon, I an,
™ler.ckDhu. He »„.« „„,.„„;, g^,,,. ,,,„,,,;
>:d thegu-ls were present. X„t ..„,,, t,,„ j,;,,, f,„^ „;^„ j^
Imys were present.
with V'tr""i •■. ^' "'"' """ '^""""'""^ i-^ ««"»'--ted
vv.th another winch ,s opposed to it in thought : as. He was
contented. _ AH t he n,en,l,ors opposed hin, ; he held h,n„ever
to his opinion. Ho was .sad hut lu.peful.
(-■) ^Z^«-»«,,V.. By these an alternative is offered between
two statements: as, He apologised .,• he would have been
punished. Either this man sinned ,„■ his parents. It wa«
neither a sm nor a crime.
(./) Carnal. These are used when the second elau.so i., an
H.>r™r. or conelusion from the first clause, or when the
.second clause is the r,„.on for the statement in the first
clause : as, He was found guilty and therefore he was hanged
He will die some day, /,„• all men are mortal.
Correlative Co.vjln-ctions. (Page 70.)
The relations tetween clauses are emphasized by correla-
tive conjunctions. ^
r.LKMKNTAUV (ili.VMMAIi.
149
Unlit - - ,iif\. 'riii'MTiirini'ct I wiistiiliMiiciils 1111(1 finpliiifize
their (•(juHlily : a^, Jlu is lj.4li I'iinifst ami fiiitliful. (One as
much as thu othw-.)
.Vo( nnlij - h»l alsii. Tlics(? f<mni-rl, twii stiiti-iucnts and
iniliciite that tho kccimhI is tho more iin|iiij'laiit : as, Ho was
not only act-usi'd 1)ut also eonviuted of ei-inies.
Af udl (K. This phmsal conjunction (pn;,'i' 70) connects
two statements and indicates that the fiivt is thu more
important ; as, He sany as well as playeil.
Correlative conjunctions should have corresponding posi-
tions in a sentence. GiMierally the part of speec-h after the
fii-st correlative should ho tho saint! as that after the second
correlative : as. He was bi'lh deijraded from his class atid sus-
pended from sciHWil.
Tmav '
XIV.
.\s."
Some uses of than and nn may he seen in the following
sentences : —
"Than" is a conjunction of comparison : as, He is taller
Ihdii I (am tall.) 8he was wiser Ihtn he (was wise.) He
would ratlier go thnii (he would) stay. T desire this more
tha'i (I desire) that.
"As" is a conjunction of comparison: as, lam as tall n«
ho (is tall.) Love thy nei;.,dibor n.i (thou lovest) thyself. He
looks an (ho would l(K>k) if he were tired.
" As " when it follows " such "or " .same " is a conjunctive
pronoun : as, He is not such a fool nn ho looks. Tears, such
aa angels weep, burst forth. He diives the same horse aa his
brotlier.
"As" indicates a kind of appositi\e coimection in: He
gained fame aa an orator. He did his duty aa captain,
l.)0
Kl^EMKNIAHV (iltA.MMAU.
PUNCTUATION.
Piin.:tii„ti„n iiuuks Hssist tlio iviuh,- in finnpi,,;- tl,,- M,.-,m-
lli),' .if (I pnssiiL'i'.
Maiiks I'sEn IV Plvctiati.in.
j^*''**"* interrogation Mark 7
Colon : Exclamation Mark |
Semicolon ; Dash _
Comma , Quotation Marks,
dniM; '< >> „,„i siiin/c ' '
Parentheses ( ) Brackets [ ]
The Period is „„.,! „t tl„. ..,,,1 of a.s«.rtiv. «,ul i„nH-,.ative
sentences, „„<1 „fte.. a1.1,r..viati,.„s. i„i,ials, 1,™,!!,,.,, ,„„1 1!„
■iiaiiiinm(Talsusi.(lin numlxTin^'ias, CI.- D \ Smith
Punctuation. ; XXV. ' ' ' ' '
Tlie Colon is iisid Ix'foifi ;
(a) A di,-,...t ,,u.,tation, a,, liacon «tid : .Crafty n.encon-
team «tu,hes ; .snnple men a.lmire the,,,; and wise „,en u»e
('-) Asumman-, as. The kin.ls of cu-o.-clinate conjunctions
are four: copula,,,., alte.-native, adver.aive, and causal.
M A cause that Bee.ns .., b,. a.lded as an afterthouRht,
•as, Stu.ly to a...,u„-c a hahit of accu,.ate expression : no stu.i;
IS ni.d-o nnportant. •'
The Semicolon is used : —
(«) When seve,al in.lepen.Ient clauses are united in one
sen^„cetoexp,...ssa».„„ewhat complex thought, as, In the.
>outh of a state, arms do fl.,urish ; in the middle a.-e of a
state learnm. ; and then both of them together fora time ; in
the dccJuung age ..f a .state, n.echanical arts and n.e^handke.
mark,.d by cm.n„as as : To watch the corn grow, or the bios-
.,oms set ; to draw hard breath over ploughshare or spade ; to
ELEMKNTAltY (lUAM.MAH.
151
rciifl, Icp lliiiik, to Icivc, to pniy, Hii' llii> lliiri','s iliiii niiiko iiii'ii
hiijtjiy.
♦
wIm'ii usiil (»» inlnHliicf lists
ilistiru-I liiit rloNflv rflatt'd
((■) ]tt>foi-(' Its, iimih/ii, i.i ., I-.
of cxaiiiplcs or illustmt lolls.
The Comma !» usi-i ;
(</) GeiuTjilly, to M'parat.'
elementH of a sriilmi-t'.
(/') To Hi'jHiriite ii iiuMili4>r of wonis <(r groups of words of
the siiiiie class wlirii they follow oho aiiolliiT: as, Kwiiliiig,
writlii;f, siM'llIng, and i-oiii|H)sitioii aii^ tiiimlit lifie. Hiiik or
swim, live or di.', survive or |«Tisli, I give my li.iml and my
heart to this vote.
(<•) To separate from the rest of tlie .sentence I in- siilijeetive
of aildre.s.s, the alisoliite sulijeeti\e, and plira.ses In iijiposltion :
as, O my children, life is sunshine. Night having fallen, the
chase ended. Paul, the apostle to the (li'iitiles, was weak in
body.
(d) To separate any jihrase or clause jilaccd out of its
usual position: as. Fie, in his passion, used harsh language.
(i) To mark an ellipsis : as, Caesar came, .saw, I'omiuenHl.
The Interrogation .Mark is used as I he sign of a ijiiestion.
The E.xclaniatlon Jlaik is used after any wonl or group of
words thai/ exjircs-ses strong feeling.
The Dash is used : —
(a) To indicate an abrupt break in the thought, or a
change in the m(«Ie of expression : a.s, I have often told you
that he , but I will not rejieat it. He is very generous
with other people's money.
(b) To eneli
Marn
in his steed.
ose
turned—
i short parenthetical expression ; a.s, ijord
well was his need — and dashed his rowels
15:]
ELEMEVTAUY OHAMMAK.
Tlie I),.„l,|„ Quotation Murk is usikI I„ n,„.l
EXERCISES.
I
('() Classify tlio followiliL' scntfiirps en „, ]■
preS^::; :!:,:"■"-'"" ^"'"'-^'"^-' -"' --p-' wo.^.
1. Unto tlio pure all things are pm-e
joyous and .,..,. „,.., fresC VLuSflf S T
4 (iin storiMl iiiu or animate.1 bust back to
its_inai,s,o„ call tlio (loetiug breath f
i). Hapjiy ho with such a mother!
<>. He laughs best who Innghs last
7. In the workshop, ou the farm, or wherever
ELEMKNTAliV (IHAMMAIl.
1.').!
t
vt
yoii limy lie, from y<>ur fiitui ffi.its, Ikivs, i-onics
a nation's ilcstiny.
8. Hn is tli«( fViM'iiiiiu whom tlu' li-iitli iniikcs
free.
9. Dust tliou art 1o dust ii'tinncst was not
spoken of tlio soul.
10. Not wliut \vi^ tliiiik liiit wliiit we do mnii.'s
saints of us.
11. All that's great and good is .loiio just ))V
patient tiyinjf.
12. A f'hill no coat, liowovcr sloiit, of liomc-
.spiin stuff could (iiiite shut out ; a hard dull l>it-
terness of cold, that ch.'cked, mid-vciii, the circliiif;
race of life-blood in the sliai-iK>ned face, the comiii';
of the storm foretold.
13. Half-a-loaf is better than no bread.
14. Thrice is ho armed that liath his (juai'rel just.
1"). That which should ai'<'onipany old age, as
honor, love, obedience, troojis of friends, I must
not look to have.
10. Beneath those rugged elms, that \. v-tree's
shade, where heaves the turf in manv a"m< uldei--
ing heap, each in his narrow cell for ever laid, the
rude forefathers of the hamlet slee]..
1". Ho who acts ill spite of fear mav be even
more brave than he who has no fear.
18. The face you wear, the thoughts you bring,
a heart may heal or l)reak.
19. Thou hast a tongue, conn', let us hear it •
tune.
20. There's a divinity that shai.es our ends,
rough-hew them as we will.
21. The chastity of honor, which felt a stain like
a wound, which inspii'ed courage while it mitigated
IM
Er-KME\TA1IY illlAMMAit.
«iS;-:i;!r;i.*:;;;,";i,;ii;;ii::;;ir'
(.')n,.»if,.,l„.f„Il.,„.i„.„.,„...„.„^ ■..n,ii„«,.,f„.,„
(') J"™"l„-,-,„,|»,K.li,mS„M,l,„V,„,si,i,„„;.,
sidt^I;;/''''''' ''" '"'^^ '''"^ ••^■'■■- Wst into that
•). Tl;i' .lari'iit wlio ki'imIs Iris noii Ihi., ti. n
titUfu and iRMinwitli.s to it a nuisuu.-e
™~f t- „!:;^ Siis; ir^ij .» N-
<.. Kli„ l,„i t,.l,l T,„„ il,„, ,!,„ „.„„,,, ,n I .
^^^a.Non. p,«u.],.s ...ttorthanth,, ant, who says
KI.EStKNTAIlY (lIlVSUrMi.
155
10. Tlio iiiipniilcMt iii.'iii ivdccis on wh.it Iii> li.is
Hiiiil: tlio wise 1111111,011 wii.it; lie was {^oiiij,' to .say.
11. Olio wlio in coiitoiitc'd wiih uli.it lio Ims
"lolio will novel- Ihm-oiiic fiiiii..;is for wliat lie will
<lo.
12. All! tliiit tliou coiild'-t know tliv jov ..re it
l)asscs, Ijiilefoot-lioy.
l.'l. ITo wlio fi;,'lits ami lUiis invjiv inav live to
fijflit niiotlitT (lay; Imt lio who is in lia'ttlo slain
may never hojio to lii^ht a^raiii.
14. To live ill liciii-ts wo leiivi« lieiiiiiil is not to
I lie.
15. Slijs'lit is tlie stiiiv; of Iiis troiiMe uhose
winnings iiro less than his wmtli; for, he who is
Louost is noble, wluitever Lis foriiine or hirtli.
1(5. A time there was,' ere Kiiirlaiiil's jjrief.;
begun, when every rood of ground iiiainlaiiKMl its
uiun.
iir.
Parsp the iiuuiis itrnt jireiioiiiis in Ihr full. . win" :
1. Coiitentmt!iit is better than f^old.
2. Few shall meet, where many iiail.
■i. A soft answer tiirnelh away wi.nh.
4. The cattle upon a tlnmsand hills are llj^.
5. All that glitters is nf>t gold.
fi. I think of tlK)Sp upon wliose rest he tranipli's.
7. Slow and steady wins the raee.
8. Birds of a feather flock together.
0. Truth crushed to earth shall vise again, the
eternal years of God are hers.
10. Our todays and yesterdays are the blocks
with which we build.
l.-)li
ELEMKNTAKY (1HAMJUH.
11. Neco>s.sity is the motluu- of iiiveution.
native Inml ! » ' ' -""'^ '" '"J" o^^". "'.v
13. Enough i.s as good us ii fcust.
1 ^'^•./l! ^'"''' ""iiisiou used to Iio fr.... liP-i.-tu,l
1(). Little ami often fills the purse
18. Every person should strive to do his best.
1-|. Wlieii she had passed it seemed like flm
ceasing of exquisite musie. ^^ ""*
haJe ^r;!'"'*^" ''""^ "''''""' f"'-fi-"m1.dnj?one
paystJ^!]r;^^'^^^^"••*"^'--^« t'-^viee
22. We supposed it to have Imh-u him
ELEJIENTAKY GRAMMAR.
Lh
25. Sho scut flin dcatliloss imssiou in her oj-os
thro' him, ami nmilo him licrs iiiid laiil her jiiiiid
on him, and ho believed in lier belief.
20. She is a ereatniv not too briglit and fjooil
for human nature's daily food, for transient sor-
row.'*, simple \vile.s, praise, blame, love, ki.sses, tears
and smiles.
27. There was onee a jjrettv cliieken, but his
friends were very few, for he 'tliiMi-iht that there
was nothiuj; in the world but what he knew. So
lie always in the fai-myard had a very forward
way, telling all the heu.s and turkeys what they
ought to do and say.
IV.
Parse the veilis and vcrl) phrasfx, iMliiiitivcs, gpruiids and
participles in the following; :— -
1. The evil that men do lives after them.
2. Into each life some rain must fall, some days
must be dark and dreary.
3. Cheerily then, my Utile man, live and laugh
as boyhood can.
4. Tru" worth is in being, not seeming.
5. To know the beauty of cleanness the heart
must be clean and sweet; we must love our
neighbor to get his love,— as we measure he will
mete.
(>. The gifts that we have, heaven lends for
right using, and not for ignoring, and not for
abusing.
7. Failing in this they set themselves, after their
custom on such occasions, to building a rude fort
of their own in the neighboring forest.
8. If wishes were horses beggars might ride.
158
ELEMENTARY GEAMMAR.
So lioro liiitli Im-ou .liiwiiinj; u.K.tlifr ))lne day ;
think, will thou 1ft it slii> iisrl<>ss nway ♦
10 Early to ImmI jiii,1 ("arly to rise makes a man
lieulthy, wealthy, ami wise.
11. Ah ! tlion and there was liuri-ying to and
rio, and f,'atheiing tears and trtunbliiiirs of dis-
tress.
12. I .saw him ran. after a gilded Imtterfly.
in. Ei'e lio hhnv three notes small feet were
Iiatteiiiig, wooden shoes clattering, little hands
<'lni|i.iMg, and little tongu.'s chattering, and, like
towls 111 a tarniyard wljeii barley is seutteiiug, out
came the cluklreii running.
14. And out again I eun-o and flow to ioin the
brimming river, foi' men may come and men may
go, hut 1 go on forever.
15. Doing nothing is doing ill.
16. Tliey are slaves who will not choose hatred
scoffing, and abuse, rather than in .silence shrink
iroiu tiie truth they needs must think.
17. I would my daughter were dead at my
loot and the jewels in lier ears.
18. (ri-ving is better than receiving.
_ 10. If a line is parallel to a line of a plane, it
IS jiarallel to that phme.
20. If a plane intersect two parallel lines, the
Inies of inteiscction shall be parallel.
21. It is better to fight for the good than to
rail at the ilL
22. Let us be content in work to do the thing
we can, and not presume to fret because it's little!
23. The blue deep thou wingest, and singing still
(lost soar, and soaring, e\er singest.
ELEMENTARY GRAMIIAR.
15!)
24. If ho wei-o my own l)n)lhiT 1 sliould i^oii-
deniu liiiii.
25. Till! p'oatest plcasui-c I know is to do n j^ood
action by stwdth and to liiivc it found out l>y
accident.
26. It is not growing li]«> a tico in hulk doth
make man hettw be; or standing long an o.ik thri'c
hundred years, to fall a log at last, diy, bald, and
sere.
27. Though He slay me yet will I trust in Iliin.
28. To scatter jdcnty o'er a smiling land and
read their history in a nation's eves their lot
forbade.
2!). Get ready, lest occasion call us and show us
to be laggards.
30. The angles at the base of an isosceles
triangle are <(jual, and if the e(|nal sides bo pro-
duced the angles on the oilier side of the base
shall also be equal.
31. Tor good lioth not in pursuing, nor gaining
of great nor of small; but just in tiie doing, and
doing as we would be done by is all.
32. What man would dare to describe the setting
of tho sun t
(a) Give the name iinil relation iif earli phrase in tho fol-
lowing.
('') Parse the ailjeetives and a^lverlis.
1. I never was on the dull, tame shore but I
loved the gi-eat sea more and more.
2. With a slow and noiseless footstop comes that
mes.seiiger divine.
im
P.LKMF.NTAltV onAMMAn.
4. Umtoil w,» st„ii,I, .liviileii wo full.
S. "Voiy few iiKMi, propoi'lv sneakino- 7;,m o+
.i»V%t;SeS,st,j,' «"■• -»■' "-3'. >•••
13. It lie h„t. touch tho luountaius, they smoke.
ELEMENTAllY GRAMMAIl. ](il
.-..V",'^,*'?''-'' ,'■''■''' "^ •^'""""•■••« tlinv, M...kiiiK Ik'I'
httlH l),..l lit iiij-ht, tun.e.l ,.11 til., .lurk stiiir tiiiiiillv
0, inotli.T! tiiko niy Imml," sai.l .slio, "andtlR.i;
till) (iiirk will all 1h> li<rlit."
l.'>. 'Tis hoavcu aloiio that isgivou away 'tis only
(io(l may lio had for tlio asking.
Ifi. Bo not rightooTis oveniiiicli.
17. Bosidos, tliis Duncan Initli Loinc Jiis faculti.'s
so meek, liatli l)ceu so t-lfar in liis great oflici' tlinl
his virttu.s will i.load like angols, trninjict-tongiiod
against the dei'i) dainnatioii of liis taking off.
18. Under Ood wo ai-e determined that whereso-
ever, wheusoev.M-, or liowsoever wo sliall he eallod
to make our exit, wo shall die free iiu'ii.
10. The air is full of farewells to tho dying, and
mournings for tho dead ; tho ]i(>art of Iflichel, for
nor childrou cryiug, will not ho comforted.
20. Yet not nnmoot it was that one, like that
young friend of ours, so gentle and so beautiful,
should perish with the flowers.
PASSAGES FOR ANAI^YSIS.
1. To me the m<!anest flower that blows <'an
giyo thoughts that do often lie too deep for tears.
-'. Beautiful hands are they that do woi-k that
IK noble, good and trao; busy for others the long
day tlirough.
3. Build mo straight, worthy master,- staunch
and strong, a goodly v.'ssel that shall laugh at all
disaster, and with wayo and wliirlwind wrestle.
4. Sunset ! a hush is on the air, their gi-av oI<I
heads the mountains bare as if tho winds w^ero say-
ing prayer. '
U
Ifi2
ELEMENTAKY OllAMMAR.
trom hf.nr t,. liour iu reverence au<l i,i charity
l.'sn.o'Ll!'"' *^'"'' """'"'"' '"^ ''""'^''*'' ^"''^ ^^^'^
7 A juan .sl.ouW never I,o asl,iime.l to own that
1 iia.sl.....,, m tho wroMg:, whi.-h is but saying h,
Tliat save<l slie luifjlit be;
''o;;SJS;:f''^iS:r'- «""«'» the wave.
•J. Thorn at the foot of yon.ler i.oddiug beech
ifif r J''^'"'l"'« Its ol<l fantastic roots so high.
His hs less length at uoou-tido would he
stret<'h,
An.l pore upon the brook that babbles by
'^'""'" smitl', ''"^'"'' ''''"''■° ""™ "'*^ »^i-^«"
'^""' ''^.JJi,}!'""'" """'^ "■ S'""*^"" flower grows
'^'"'"''diSi " ^""^ *°''" '*'"■"'''' t'^'' !''»««
Tlio village jwacher's modest mansion rose
11. But the half of our heavy task was done,
When the clock strack tlie hour for retiring-
Th«'y'H''"7 **^ ""'' '^'•^t*"t ^"^ random^.'
Ihat the foe wore sullenly firing.
And she, kissnig back, could not know
Fol^?j /'' ^"«>^«" to her sister
JJolded close under deepening snow
in.
1
ELEMENTAUY (llt.VMMAH.
Hi:!
13. Ilf) tlmt caiiiiot foi^ivo others hiviiks tli,.
l-n.lgo „vor whi,.li l,o ,i,„.st puss Iiimsclf; i-viv
iiiiiii lias ufod to 1)0 foi-givfii.
, • ^^- ,yi'?^?"''' l'''>i«'lf ^vith liis alms f,M.(ls tlin..':
luinselt, his hungcniij,' iu'ij,'libor, and ,M,..
15. Dry .'laslifd liis hai'iioss in tlie icv caves an.l
ban-on «:luis.ns, and all to loft an.l lif^lit tlio l,aro
black ••lifl <■ ang'd round him, as Im baswl liis fV,.t
oil juts of slii,,,cry craj? that rung sharn-sniittcn
with tho dmt of armed hods.
IC The mayor sent oast, west, north an.l soutii,
to otfor tho i,i].or by word of mouth,— wlnMrver it
was men's lot to find him,— silver an<l m.ld lo his
lioart's content.
17. Onco in an anci<;nt .'itv, whoso name 1 no
longer reinomluM', raised aloft on a column, a brazen
statue of Justico .stood in the jmblio s<,uare, upliold-
mg the scales lu its left hand, and in its ri-dit a
sword, as aii emblem that Justico presided over the
laws of the laud and tlio hearts aud homes of the
people.
18.
19.
— tho nightingale thought, \ have sun
many songs,
But never a oiks so gay.
For he sings of what tlul world will be
When tho years have dit^d away.
Were a star quouehod on Jiigh,
For ages would its light,
Still travelling downward from the skv
Shine on our mortal sight ; " '
So when a great man dies,
For years beyond our ken,
The light he leaves behind him lies
Upon the paths of men.
1G4
ELEMENTAHY GKAMMAH.
20. The summer's flower is to tho suDinier sweet,
Though to itself it only live mid die;
•rt} I "ow-er with base infection meet.
The basest weed outbraves its dignity.
21. 'Tis Dot because the ring they ride,
And Lindesay at the ring rides well.
Hut that my sire tho wine will chide
If 'tis not fill'd by RosabeUo.
22. My hair is gray, but not with yeai-s.
Nor grew it white
In a single night,
As men's have grown from sudden fears:
My limbs are bow'd, though not with toil.
But nisted with a vile repose.
For they have been a dungeon's spoil,
And mine has been the fate of those
lo whom the goodly earth and air
Are bann'd, and bair'd— forbidden fare.
23. If to be absent were to be
Away from thee;
Or that when I am gone
You or I were alone;
Then, my Lucasta, might I crave
l-ity trom blustering wind or swallowing wave
24
Life! I know not what thou art,
But know that thou and I must part:
And when, or how, or where we met
1 own to me's a secret yet.
PART SIX.
BI,EM«NTARY COMPOSITION.
PREFATORY NOTE.
Comiwsitioii IH a sul.ject in whirl,, ,«rl,ft|» „„„o tlinn in otl.iT-
the S|wntjm«ou» co-„|H.-T:iti..n of tl,o pupil i, cssontiul. In the eiiili.-.t
»t,ijr„„, ut least, tiLo tua,,l,e,H work ia more tlmri half done whin
the pupil 1„« Iwoouio inU!,ust«l ami ha» liecn iniluowl frwly m
fspr..s» what is in his ininil. Two i«,iutH n.u»t therefore Iw always
reuieinlH.>red : —
First : The themes ossiguwl should Im such that the pupil may
have ulnnidant niat.^rial u|>ou which to draw. This may 1« seeure.l
('•) by pr,)vi,lii.g the material, e.,,., l,y r«piiring the re|,r.«luetion of
stories (or accounts of concrete things and pnx-osses with w l,i,h the
pupil is alremly familiar, or with whi.,h he has U-cn made nnipiaintod
for the purixjsos of the comiiosition. The jiassajies to Ihj ri.pr-oduccd
should l» short and simple, and of a character lik.ly to interest the
class. The same ol.ject may Ikj secured (h) l,y drawing u,„n the
I>upil's actual ex|>eriences. In this case, it is nee.lful l,y c|ueslioning
to make the child aware of the fact that he do... imsscRs material,
and to indicate the selection he ia to make. Without such assisUincii
his experiences are likely to seem to himself so commonplace, so
much a matter of course, that he feels helpless, and thinks he has
nothing to say. Judicious questioninj,' must reveal what he actually
has in store, and indicate its salient [mints. He shnulrl, finally, lie
rci|uired to express the result of the questioning in a continn'ous
oral sUitement. This method may, indeeil, be cm|.loyed with advan-
tage in all sorts of themes, not merely as a preliminary to writing,
Imt for the purixwe of developing auency and correctness in
utterance. In teaching other subjects, it may be distracting to turn
aside from tlie mnlter of the answer to correction of the form ; but
hero a much-needed opi«rtuaity is afTordetl for drawing attention
to mistakes in pronunciation and grammar, to incoherency, and
other defects of orJinaiy »iieech.
166
](i(i
Er.KMF.NTAItV (lltAMMAU.
Il
Swonfl I Tlio M.„„l„nl .,f »h„t i, p,,..,...,! i „„.,
~li..iil.l U.,M,vr„liy,„l|,„t,.,| I., iho i„„„„i„,.i,y „f ,|,„ ,,,,.,11
'P' '" '''"' '""" "'" '"'"'"" ^ = «'V|-H,„,«I «,ii,.,.» k„„. ,h..,t
>■'•"" "i'..i-ll„.i,.„„„ works i,„..,,„i„al,l,. It >, imtcritiriMn
w.lnu.;i,,w l,el,, ,u„l on m>K<-mr,a timt ll„, l»j;iinior ner.ls. T,.
,«.mt .mt t.VC.Jtl.i„f. ,l,;a ,ui;;l,t. I„, i,„|„„v,..l i„ ,1,0 c,„u,H,Hili.„, .,f H
i'hil.l,«to,.v,.,«l,dinl,i.,i«itl, ll,os,.,i,«„f l,o|«.l..s«iK..H. Fn.,„i|,o
>mts,:t, KiiU'iul lK-;:li,i.,„ „,„1 coiTf<(i„.„ in nmtt.-r!. ci.vore.l ).y Iho
/.■,/,„„„.„•.,/ ol„ii,lcr(|,|,. IWl 170) „l,„„i,l 1„ ri^,i,||y ^„„.,..,| p,„.
1I..T, ,.l,.s,.luloc-n„rs in pmnnmr un,l in the u»o of »„»i,hh„„l,l l«
l"..nto.l ,ut not »ilh LVMMiro, hnt ,iH inniouNuies to l«„>ui,lo,l in
l"tu.o. In Inno.n, ho gains oo, n,-.., his mtontion .nny l«. ,i,„« n
to «nrl, things a, ll.o oxoes,,ivo u« of ",u,.l " a.ul tho nuu.l of moro
IJi-ii.i. ». At a h.ter stnj;,,, ,l,.fo,-ts in tho arranj-onient of hi,
"'""-''•" '"">- ''O I""""''' ""I -Ihat th ,,.s,i„„ of „,.nl,.n™.s
w not the l,o»t, an.1 that h.lo and Ihoio i,l.,« havo )«■,.„ oiniii.Kl
which sl,onia ),avo l*on insntod. Tho oarlier <,Titi,i»m sh,
I« .na.nly ,li,,.,.t«l to tho ,l,o„^l,> ; tho U-j. or Hhonhl not l«
maclo M.|t...on».-ioaH l,y n.urli ,ofo,on„, to -*y/, -to tho fart for
.vaniplo, that tho WMit^ncos are short and jVrky, Again. Iho con-
' "'""" "' "'" "ff-'C'ivo ordoring of tho tl ght in tho wholo
i-Nwy and in tlio paia^jraph shouUl pr,.,,.,io tho consi.loiatioii of tho
Scntonoo Tho h.ttor »l hi conio only in tho lat-st stag,., of tho
I nl.lic S,.h,K.l course, and th.i, tiino should l« lil,.,.ally devoted to
ll.«slr,i,.|nre of tho sentenecs, tho stndy of its laus, tin. aimlvsis of
g.««l sintenecs, tho |K,inling out of tho eomnun, mistakes in s,.nleneo
stniotnie, an,l tho making of h.ngor a, ,ore o plieafnl .s..nton«s
'>■ ";" ' '"'"*"• 'J''" l"^t n.e"tion..d exeroiso may l« p,a..tis,.d
l.y tho synthesis of shorter seolenees, hnt iH.rhaps U.ttei- l,v tho
imraphraso of suitalile |K»-tic |«,.sa.Ts.
PRELIMINARY.
TiiK Aim.
Tlio main aim of tlie teaeliiiij; and prnclice o£ compositioti
1.S to eiialile us to express our tliouyhis so tl.at otliei-s may
witli the least possible diineulty know exaelly v liat we wish
lu siiy. Tills is a power that is very necessary to all, whether
F.LEMENTAIiY (IIIAMMMI. lliT
it Im I'mpliiyi'il iti iMiliiiiiry tiilk, iir in I.miit-i In mii fi i.n.l-.,
or in liiisini'sM ('oniiiiuninttinns nlluT liv uiml nf hjou.Ii m- In
wiiling. It! nil tlii'su cusps, hs wrW n* in wrilinv' I"'"!;-' ■■>■ '1
ill nmkini; spcechoM, it is lilylily drsirililc tliiit »ii si I.I L'
able in tlie fowost wimls to mnko exiictly elixir to otli.Ts » Inil
wo wish to siiy. In nil tliesn msi's llio iilius am nln-uily in
our minils, and tlio prol)lem is |iri>|)iMlv to cyprpss tlifrri in
languago. fn ConijHwilion wi> li'arn to I'nllr.i our- tli.iuu'ln-.
in ri'^nril to a.^no sul)jpi't, l.i arranKi- iImmii in tin- U-st oid. i,
anil to express ihcin in Hear, l.iii'f ami appiLpiiati' liin,i,'iiM^'c'
In C.irn|»)sitl(>n, llicii'forc, two tests slioiiM Is' runiinniillv
nppliisl: l»i»'s my pxprnssion represent my lliouijlils aeeu
ratelyl Will it eonvry tliern with eeriainlv ami i-ii-e t<>
tho niimis of i.iliers? Now, Ixiys and fjiils ofi.^n niaki'
their work in this suhja-t dillieult and disin;ri-e,il.l,- tlirouu'li
supiKwinjj that tho idivis whi.-li tliey should put in theij-
coinjHisitions ounht to Iki soincthini; wiser or inon- unusual
than their ordinary thou;;hts, or slioulil he put into fine
words and phrases. On the contran, the pro|K'r material
for compositions are the th"iii,'hts that come to us most
easily anil naturally in renaid to the snhjeet as- \' I, and
the more simply and direelly these tliouj,'hls are expressed the
l»ater. If a hoy is asl^ed to write alsiufc horses, or expe
riences on a fishing expedition, it is not exi)eeted that lie will
have anything new or inUresiinL' to say on these suhjeets, liut
that ho shall tell what he knows aliout horses, or what
happened to him wlnie fishiii',', in a elear, eorreet and orderly
fashion.
TkhMINAI. PirXf'TUATION.
Turn to p. l.'i and notiee llie marks at the close of eaih of
the sentences in XITl. ; then turn to pp. I.W I.">1 and leain
tho rules for Period, Interrogation Mark, and Ex-
clamation Hark.
im
KI.KMKNrAKV (lltAMMAII.
•^AI'ITAIS.
;V"''""""" f"'i'i'"iHM. ii„. f„ii,.„,„.,.
Kl»..„.,_ ■ "■" '- ■"••l""in...,l wi,|, ,1,..
' O limy my Boiil .,„ -III,.,. if|«,„.
;^,"'' "";>•"••••■'■' -'•••■I' •„y,„.li,l'sol,„,.-
Sliip that Muiy ,„„ ,„„„, vi^^„,„„ ,„,,^^
TowrvoinyOoilwl,,,,, I „„„k,..'
ft. «„., wiitt™ l>v Ili,!,,,,, K,,„ „i,„„. ... ,,
' " ■•••■•'"■ kJ.u,:.:;::l!;z-''^
A capital letter -.Im.uI.i i,.i,in,_
1- Tli- fir,t «„nl „f ,.v..,y s,.„t'.„,.,,
2. Till, first w„„| „f .,v,.,y |i„„ „, |„^.„.^.
of the siM'ukiT s niiiil,,,-,.,! /p „ ■ . ""i-"'i>,(-
"""'• Villi imiv iKil '" of,. 1,,,,
speaker ure not reiK^itol )
ri. Piiijier „„u„,s ,„„1 ,„. .„r adjoctivos
! ^l"' P''""""" I ' "- "''-> .^.iim O (n,.t, however „A)
(Fore ::;!:,ri "^ tiH..s,un.lw..r,i„„s,..l ,. proper J.
(rorojiiimple. Jt wn,s wntten l.y Bishon Ken ir,. i-
the shores of I,«ke Erie), ' ' "" '"'" ""
th« Ji'.ir, but „„< the i,aM,cs of the seaso„s
Slave). A'lveutures of a Faithful
KI.K.MKNTAia (ii;AMM\i;.
It;t)
I'llAI-l'IIK.
U..«,i„. ,1„. follnwi,,. ,.„,|,|„vi„« tl.c ,.,■„,«.,• t,.r...ll„ll
iiiincluuiii.n marks ii:h| n,],it,t[ l.ticrs »!„.„, n.-cilfiil :
clinstiiins (liiycimio on Miiii.luy tliis wl ,(, i-- l,is
lii.Mt words wiTc Mioi'o li«lil -«lio wmt.. .in: novel
j'iille.1 tho mill on tlio (loss- ,li.l von '■■•iv S.'oit--
how absnnl-tho )...st lov..,| of en-..,,,.;,,, rn'or
wus(|no,.n vi.-turiii in tim ii.'ts of t|, . ,K„,sii,.s w..
lire told tiiat tli,< jM.oplo <,f oplu'sus ,;\',] ,,„t I u
tho s|iiici) of two jionrs jjivat i^ ,li ui.-i ,.f ii, ■
e|>licsiiins.
Ok.NKKU, I)niKITI()XS KMI! ('oMr(>.slul,xs.
1. Writ.' noiitly iind lcj,'il>l_v.
•J. !!«' cim'fiil al).Mit s|H.|lirif,'.
3. The title of ,i c„,n,,„siti,.,, s|„„.l,| 1». „t Irnst hi, i,„h
«... a half f„„„ tl„. t,,,. of tl„. page, u„.l shoul.l ,K.cu,.y the
miilillo pait of n line.
I. Tl.e.o «l,..ul,l 1« an ev.i. ina.;;!,,, at le.ist an inch a.id a
l...lf w„le, on the ],.ft ha,„l si.ie of the p,.,K.,.; hut on the
.-.ght han.l the h.ies shoul.l 1« l]]M out. (Only at the close
of a paiajiiaiili ih.. line may Ik.- un/illcHJ. .Sec p. IS3.)
■'■ '^^■'"'" '' i" " ''■<''^v t" l.ieak a wo.-,l bi-tween two
hnos, ,lu„le a,Tor,li„^. to Kvilahles a.,,1 pnmu.ieiation, an.l
....l..-.ite that the «onl is inun,„,,lete hy a hyphen ( - ) at the
..lose ..f the fi,-»t lin,., for e.xa.npl.. : .„„-,7„*, „,„./,„„, „.,.„,„
Do not hiMik monosyllahles or short dissvllahles like ,v„/
Itnn. W !„.„ in .louht, .K, „,.l Imak the wo.d; a little ear^
in spaein;,' will avoid a hlank or umlue crowiling.
fi. The rules for punctuation >,nd for capitals°alrea.ly Kive.i
should he ohserved.
7. Wiite each composition ,U /«,..< twice-the first time
fix.n.iivour all,.,..ion mainly on your thouKht; the second
time on tlio expression.
1"" ELEMENTAUY OHAMMAR.
PliACTICK.
Wi-ilc the f.,ll„winf,' piLsw-u, olwcrvin- all the (iii-ec-tions
wl,R.|, l,„ve l,«.n giv,.„, and making th« firxt plira-se tiio title :
Tho fox and the giapes— have you iievor heard
peoploexc'laim o the gi-apes are sour— the expression
IS used when someone pretends to despise what he
really would hko but cannot get— i will tell a story
to account for tho use of these words— long ago
thci-e was a fox called reynai'd— he Uved among
the beautiful vineyards in france— one day ho was
returning hungry and thiisty from a walk— it was
a hot septeml)er day and the ripe flusters of grapes
hung temptingly from the vines- he thought to
himself o what a delightful supper these giapes
will make me— he juniped to seize them but they
were beyond his reach-ho tried again and again
but in viiin— ;it last he gave up and went away
muttej'iiig the grapes are sour.
COMPOSITIONS: FIRST SERIES.
MODKI, I.
A CLKVKR I'dNY,
On a V>eautifnl estate wliich stretelied along the
banks of a pivtty stream, there lived the little
tlangliter of an English gentleman. She hud many
pliiythings, but of all her possessions she loved
best a tiny iiony. She not only rode upon his
liiick, but, having no brothers or sisters with whom
to pl.-iy, she even made him, in some measure a
companion. He, in return, would follow her about
the park, and when ;slio was amusing herself
111 tlie .nea<low, would linger near to be fed or
caressed. ( )ne <la\- she was gathering flowers on the
FXEMENTAKY (iliAMMAll
171
I)niiks of tlio strcMTti, vliilc tlio pony, as iisufti, wiis
gi-!i/,ii!fr at no jrriNit <listiuice. Siuldciily slie siippfd
(lowii tho liaiik into water deep cnouRli to drown
her. There wiis no one noiir to pull licr out oi' to
give hor a helping hand. But the erics of his litl le
mistress foil upon tho pony's ears. Plunging into
the stream he seized lior frock hetween his teeth,
and drew her ashore with such gentleness that slie
was not hurt by anything woi'se than tho fright,
from whi<'h she soon lecovered.
Questions on the Model: Wiinv did tli.^ littler f^irl
ef wlmm tliisstoiy is tiilil live ! Tell anylliiiii; I'lsc y(.ii know
• if lirr circuinstfiiiccs. ^Wliat was Iicr chief pnssession I
How iliil sill) trout tlio |)i)riy, ami li'iw did ilic [umy treat her?
What lia|iiM'iic(l to tli(! liitlo ;.'irl ; -Wliat <lid (ho jiciiiy de?
- Wiiat woi'(* tho <'(niso(|U(Mi!'os ?
AVitll tlipso (iiiostiiiiis l«'f,ii'oy()ii and withinil li»ikinj; iil tho
Medel, wiiio tlio stoiy of A Clever Pony.
II. Questions on The Fox and the Grapes
(p. 170): What was ilio f.ix c.dlod ? -Whoro ilid ht' livo?
- Whoro di<l lie «<>?— What tiiiio iit Iho yoar was it! — W!iat
did ho soot What did l.o say I.. Iiirnsolf ?_Wliat did ho do?
How did it Olid ?
With these (|uosiioiis hoforo \ou write tho stor\' of The
Fox and the Grapes.
lU. Read carefully tho story .1 C/ulil .s'.nvi/ hi/ n Dutf, on
pji. 01 96 of l\\K Fii'iit Jli'iiilir (a iiiji'h XfirCfiKJuliidi lt'-mi''rH).
Questions on A Child Saved by a Dog : Where
and when did the fire he^'iii ( -Where was tlie cliihl?
Whatdid tlieinotlierdo) -What liappcTiod to her? What
did the do^' do? -What wore the eoiisei|ueneos for thi! eliild?
With those (|uestions liofore you as a L;uido, u rite the st<iry.
17!j
ELEMF.NTAliY GKAMMAH.
Ill till- same way, write .onipositii.ns on tlio folK.wiiK'
the s : "
IV. The Grateful Cat (a™< n^nd<-r, pp. 3!)-40):
Wl.at misfortune happened to the cat?- What did the cat
do, in consequence? -What did tlie laily do?— With what
result ?-Tell how the cat went to the lady's window and
wliat It did. -What was afterwanls tlie practice of the cut
and how did the laily treat it? '
V. The Two Pigs {First Render, pp. 47-51): Where
ihd the two jrirLs live?-What visit did they inake?-What
did they do during tlieir visit ?-What present did they j-et ?
-How di,l tliey treat their pets?-l[ow did they come to
leave them ?-TelI almut the -iris serins; their jH-ts a«ain.
VI. A Night with a Wolf (s,,;,„d Kend^r, pp.
121-12.'?): Deserilw tlie place where the traveller wa.s.—
Describe the sort of night it was.— What did the traveller
do?— Descrilx) under what cireuiiistanees he oneouiitered the
wolf.— What happened ?— How did it all en<l ?
VII. The Crow and the Pox (S,;;md R,'ader, pp.
93 -9S): What pice of luck Ix-fell the erow!-Tn what cir-
eumstaiiees did the fox meet him! -How did the fox act ?—
What did the fox :<ay to the crow? -What impression did it
make on tl,e cr. iw ? Wli.vt rciiuest did the fox make ?— What
was the result!— (Jive the moral.
Vtll. The Foolish Mouse (*mW K^ndn-, pp. 89-
9--'): Where did tin use liv,.? -What did .she do? -What
did she, in eonseipienee, tell her moth.T?— What <lid the
mother reply ? -What is the moral ?
ELEMENTAUY UUAMMAlt.
it:!
COMPOSITIONS: SECOND SERIES.
Lkttkhs.
Letters to friends me usunlly intcinli'd t.. take tliH
pliicu of ililorioursi! liy wmil of iiioulli; so that in sIvIk
ami aiTaiifjeiiK'iit tijiy oiijjlit to ai)pi-oacli \i-ry closely to
the speech of oidinaiy life. Tliey are, of all kiiiils of coiii-
[Kisilioii, the least formal, tlie least siilijei-t to rule. The
writer should say much the sauie thiiif,'K that he woulil say to
hi.s correspondent, were they face to face, and in much the
same language and manner; so that words and ]>h rases may
lie employed which aio not sufficiently waiianted hy ginnl
usage to lie permitted in the more literary sorts of com]M)sition.
Though fiiendly letterH may, accordingly, lie regarded as
the simplest and easiest kiml of writing, the vagueness and
lireadth ..f the suhjis^t will lie felt by the beginner as a ditti-
luity. The choice is .so wiile that he (hn's not know what to
select. In lettei.s written for practice, it is therefore better
to fix on some particular theme: an account of a visit to
11^ cousin ; what I did last Sunday ; « hat I do at school,
elc. In course of time, the learner will allernpl letters of the
I'haracter most usual in a friendly corres|ioiidenie which are
intended to bring the wriier into touch with his corre
spondent, to give an impression of what the writer is doing,
feeling and thinking.
In business letters the chief aims are ali-solute clear-
ness and the utmost brevity compatible with elearne.ss.
Kverything that ilm-s not Ijear upon the object of the letter
must lie rigidly excluded.
The external form "f a letter is exhibited in the fol-
lowin:; in
lodel :
Fit
Model II.*
Jul'u cS^' /go3.
aOd.llUuAcont'^rCo,
I J CmicotdcfUccl:
ClicullottctoLOn:
mcmtim tm JAand Sanrnl": J ('n/ U
i^<haA. (^^ J /ixvvc al'le^cutij Jictd- a
ij.^^0 j'x/d^Ucncc cu> tyiactclLtxl tc Uvc
jV(/nv c^ Q^txvl'keAt "¥ Co;S' /Ouo'i t/ Saixc.tdcjicii,
and rUxutkf
:dJiotcUt ycLv coTuicdc^ mA^ ap-
/aUccttuDx ^imvioM/A/, J ux>ttfd -5c a (/t( fc
toh u/icn niy dtdtu L77i/mxduzU/ '/.
l/ am.
Ijouu U^tuxtf-touy.
( dUjJ) Ja/ru ^a t/ Let .
£-11
' Kl-f :'. lucwU'l nf a fiirrMily h-Ihr, -,. > .,.;„/ tt'Otlrr. p. IIH
o
f,
ELKMENT.MiV (IKAMMAK.
li
li
Notice jiarticulariy in tlie mhmIcI :
1. TIm^ Heading: tin* j'ljir.- an'l (hilr, in the iiji|MT ri,i;lit-
luinci ('i)rin'r.
:•. TIi« Direction: tin- nairi<' uf tiif .orri'^lMHulL'nt ah'l
his a(l<in'.s<. In lottrrs of fiicini-^lilp the hirci-tion is not
insert*'*].
3. The SalutEtion, wliioh varii-s an-oniing to circiim-
Htancos : thf nion! formal jilirasi-s (hi-ncf^ cmiihivnl in business
coiniimnicatioris) aru -S'//-, Ihitt ,Su\ Mmltnii (both to inafrif<i
and uninari'ied ladies), liinr Mnfhtni : in the plural, (t> ntU-
luftt, >Sirn, I>fnr >'<lr'*, Lai/lrs, Mcsffmurs ; in friendly lelU-rs
the tenn which follows tiio /Mf/* should Ui that with whuh
you address your conespomlfnt in talkin;^ to Inin : Mtfthtir
Fafhrr, Jhar T»m, Jhur An tit, /hor J/rx. Smifh, J/y dfur
/Jr. JUnuky ele.
4. The Conclusion, wliiih au'idri varies as the Salu-
tation, fi.'j.,
Ilelieve me, Hear I''atlier,
, Your afVectionale daujjhter
Jane.
^Instead ()f liflurn in'', may 1k' sul)slitiited / nm, I ntnnin.
Tiie rejK'tition of tlie Salutation after lt'li<>-p. tiu; is formal,
and not necessary ; indei'd, this whole line may Ik; omitted
l''or the second line may l)e sultstituted Yours njf't-i'fiumih'hj,
Y'>nr» tifry sim-efeltj, Ytttirs irnhf. Yours r''sju-rff'nl!if. The
ia^t two are esjiedally fitie*! to more formal CDunnutiieations.
The ordinary signature f<)Ilows and sliould Ite written very
liistinetlv. With relati\e,s ami intimate trlr'ids, ilie Chris-
tian name nieiely may U; employed.
The pupil must jtai'tieularly notice and imitate the place
and arran«<ement of these parts of a letler, the use of capitals
and of puni'tuatii>n marks. Do nut crowd the beading, or
direction; leave abunda^^t space (alwmt a third of the page)
176
KI.KMKNTAUY (iUASLMMl.
'"■'"'■'■ '•""•'""'"••*»« tl Hiri U„ly .,( ihe |,.tt,.,.. L..,iv« „„
...arg.n; .1,. „„t us,, n,!,.,! ,,a,K.r. I„ friendly letters ..o.p-
m»-v sliouM l« ,.,n,,l„y...l, alHl tlic civ,.), .sl,„ul,l 1„. ,„„.
...t,. wl,„h tiM, .sl,„..t, ,vl,..„ f„l,l,-,l „v,.r a,T„s, tl,., ,„i,|,||,. (■„,
exactly; ... business letters luti(u,lc i.s all,.w,.,l i„ ,|„.s„
matters.
The -liieetiun up,., tl,e p,.vc1„i« sIi„„|,1 1,, «.,.i,t,,„ ,,.,.,.
li-yiWy in the folli)wing manner :
.Stamp.
I // CorvocyuL e/tuet',
Th,. i,u,„i„atmn at the enils „f the lines,,,, the cnveN.iK.
may !«., ami |,e,-li,i,,,, usually is, i,i„itte,l.
The {„llo«i„g is a,i exa„,|,le of the s,,rl „t i,-i,..,- a l.„y
...iKht natu.ally a,„| ,„.„perly w,ile. Cj.y ,t „n n„te.,,a|.,T
'" V'-'nor /"rill. :
MoiiKr, ITI.
6;i7 B,.a,.„,i Stroet, Quol)o,'. Jmio SCtli I'JO:!
Doat- ]\I„(1k,,--I writ,, tiii.s h'ttm- to-iii-lit u.s T i,r,,-
niiscd but I urn ..o tit..! aiul sloopy timt it will U,
veiy short. Wh,ni y,.i, k-lt tko deck, I did le,.l ,i
ELEMENTARY OIIAMMAU.
177
httlo Ipnosoino and liomesiok; l.ut as soon as we
wero taiily off I got intci-osteil in wliat was Koini?
on an.l in tlie l.eaiitifiil scenery. I struck up an
acquaintance with some boys on board, and tlie
time passed pleasantly onougli. As you tliought,
I grevv tenil)ly hungry and devourcf every bit of
tliat nice lunch. When wo came near the end of
our journey, I began to won<ler if there would be
any one to meet ine, and wliat I shouM do, sup|)os-
ing there were n<.t. But when Cape Diainon.t an.l
yuebe<^ came in view I forgot oveivthingelse. and
never gave a thought to the possibility of uncle'.s
not meeting mc, until I s,-,w him waiting on the
laiKbng-stage.
They are all well here. Good night, dear mother !
(tivo my love to father; T will write to him next,
lour atiectionato .son, Henry.
Write the following letters : ~
rX. To an intimito fricn.I, fjivin- ,m nocount of a vi,|t
wliic-li you Iiavo n^ally made, basinl on the following topics:
When (li>l yon make the visit 1 -Whom cli.l you visit! I'.iiefly
■le.s,-,ib,; the sort of plaee (town, village, ete.) you were in.-
What hail you cxpeeted from your visit, and how wero these
.■.X|».,iathms realized?^ What did you enjoy mo»t!-Tell
some of tlie things whieh you did. Iloiv long di,l the visit
last? Your return. — Remembrances to friends.
X. To one of your parents, deserihing your life during a
particular day, ..r during a typical day. liegin l,y giving a
reason for writing ,m this suhjeet, and th.'n descrilK, the day,
f..llowing the chronoh,gi>:al order.-A wish for your parent's
speeily return.
XI. To an uncle, aunt, or some other cMerlv fri.^nd who
tak.'s special inlcicst in you, telling of y..ur progress at .s,-l„K>i
iluring the past few months. This letter may 1« l»Md on
17H
EI-EMENTAIIY (lUAMJIAli.
the fi>llowiii„-- What jnu iir« Koiiij; to write aUnit, niid why
you write on this subject. Your BulijeclH of study. Which
you prefer and why.— How your favorite stuily is tauHlil.--
What progrcHH you Imvo nuide of late. How you get along
with your Huliool feMow.s. -What speeial friend.siiiiw you
enjoy. 'Conclusion.
Xir. To an intimali^ fr ' ' of your own a;,'" "" various
topics: How you liapijen . write. Some iriliicsiinj; c.\|«-
rienee you have i-ecently ',.'.il.— News of what has liapiicned
in the circle of friends kri-.wn to your lorrespondenl a.s well
as yourself. Invitation to make you a visit, hacked hy your
mother's approval.
XIII. To an intimate friend soon after your return fi i a
vi.sittoher. Pleasant recollections of your visit. DilHculty
in settling down, after the visit, to the ordinary life at home
and schcsil.- Some changes at school. —Something al»mt an
interesting hook you are reading.— Ix'tter cut short hy .some
one coming to see you.
XIV. To Doml)ey A Son, Household Furnishers, I-JCheap.
side, Boston, Mass., United States, ordering from their
catalogue the Arctic Refrigerator, price !?I0.00, and one
Domestic Wringer, SS.oO ; you enclose jiost-otlicn order for
the amount.
XV. To the lioaril of Trustees of your own s<^liool, apply-
ing tor the jiosition of teacher.
AlonKi. IV.
(Miri'l:jril /rt,iu Ciiir/ier'.i /.'■//■nv.)
OlA'KV, All<lilst Hid, JTsa.
My Deau FiiiENii:
It is a sort of iiaviiilox, Imt it i.s ti'uo; we nie
iievnr more in iliiuf'vr limn wIkmi wi^ think oiinseives
most set'Uie; m)r in retility more seciiie than when
ELEMENTAKV ORAMMAB. 1 7<)
we seem to be most in danger. Both sides of this
ai.puieiit contradiction were lately verified in my
experience. Passing from the greenhouse to the
barn, I saw three kittens (for we have so many in
our retinue) looking with fixed attention ou some-
tluug whi<-h lay on the threshold of a door nailed
up. I took but little notice of them at fii'st, but a
loud hiss engaged me to attend more elow-iy, when
behold— a viper! the largest that I remember to
liave seen, rearing it-^-lf, darting its fo.'ked tongue,
and ejaculating the atnresai<l hiss at the nose of a
kitten, almost m contact with his lips. I ran into
the hall for a hoe with a long handle, with which I
intended to assail him, and returning in a few
seconds missed him; he was gone, and I feared had
escaped me. Still, however, the kitten sat watching
immovably on the same spot. I concluded, there-
fore, that, sliding between the door and the thresh-
old, he had found his way out of the garden into
the yard. I went round immediately, and there
found him in close conversation with the old cat
whose curiosity being excited by so novel an'
appearance, inclined her to pat his head repeatedly
with her fore foot, with her claws, howevei-,
sheathed, and not in auger, ))ut in the way of
philijsophic iniiiiiry and examination. To prevent
ht'.v fiilling a victim to so lan(lal)le an exercise of
lier talents, I interposed in a moment with the hoe,
and performed upon him an act of decapitation'
which, thougli not immediately mortal, proved so
in the en<l. Had he slid into the passages where it
IS dark, or had he, when in the yard, met with no
interruption from the cat, and secreted himself in
any of the outhouses, it is hardly possible but that
some of the family must have been bitten ; ho
might have been ti'odden upon without being
180
ELEMEKTABY ORAMMAK.
jM riKivwl, uiiil have nVmml nwiiy iM'f.xo the wifforor
could have diwtiiiguishwl wlmt foe liiul woiiiidt-d
him. Tliree veiirs ago wk discovcied one in the
sttHie phice, which the burWr slow with u trowel.
Yours, W. C.
XVr. Wi ilea letter to a friciiil immitiiig this iiiddont as
happfiiiiiB i" yuur own gnrdpii, .liaiiHiiig delaiU to Kuit, if
you prefer to do so. Fuithcr, sulwtitute a now oppniny
instcivd of the first two sfnteuues, and invent some natural
cont-lusion for the IcltiT.
XVII. XrX. Write the followin- three hollers to a frien.l
or a relative: (I) TelliiiK an inci.leiit which has aetually
U'fallcn yourself ; (J) an ii„i,lent that has U.fallen some
one you know ; (I) something « Ith regard to an animal, or
animals, which you liave yurvlf ohserved. In cuh case
make a plan of what vou i)ro(K>se to sjiy, and submit it to
your ttw-'hcr.
COMPOSITIONS: THIRD SERIES.
MOUEI. \'.
JAeK AMI TIIK IIKASSTAI.K.
LoiiK iigo, when Alfred was kiim, a l.oy immed
Jack, with his widowed mother, inhabited a lonely
eotfage in a remote part of England. All they
possessed in the world was a red cow ; and even
that, they at length con, liidtHl, must be sold to buy
bread. The selling, however, was no easy matter;
the market was distant; the widow, feeble ; so that
to Jack the task must needs be eiitrustetl.
Off ti-.imped the boy, very proud of his ivsponsi-
l)iiil>. with the cow before him. Now, Jack was
neither very old nor very \vi ^o ; and when a stranger
ELEMENTARY (lltAMSIAU. JHl
whom Im OM,.<)uiitoiv.l ,„i flio ron.l, ,ln>w fr,„„ 1,,,
p<..'k.f iv„ nmrvellously houutilul Loans, wl .. e
asserted weio extro.uolv valu.ible, Jm-k Wuseusilv
vemM to a-..opt tlie.n f ,r the rod o nv I o
Hastened joyfully home with his prize; but j ,y "m
Boon ..hundred to sorrow, wl,.,. his moth..ri.st7,^
of a m.huid.njf h,s s,„.,.ess, l.,„-st into toa,-s, tiX
iZ to bod? """"'"^ "'"^ ^""* J""»' ^"Pl''"^
Next inoi'iiing ho was astonished to see that the
r_y tl,ut the stalks seemed to reach the sky. F,-oni
h,s wmdow he cla.nb<M-e.l out upon the leaf'
b,-nneh«s, and delighted with the ease of the as v t
made h,s way upwa,-ds till, p,.ese„tly, the co ta^
^.oked but a speck in the distance. \Still unsatis-
hu'st^l '''"° •«<! onwa,ds, an.l, when ahnorex-
liausted, reached the top.
, IIe,-e st.^otched befo,-e hi,n a gi-assy plain, whore,
in the di.stun,.e, he ,lisce,-nod a caJtla "There^'
hoiight Jack, who had had neither suppe, nor
bieakfast, "I will get something to eat." But. o,
■..■arer v,ew so largo and gloomy di.l it p,-ove, that he
might well have hesitate.! to venture farthe.'. Jack
...weve,-, uuder st,vss of hungo,-, knocked at the
vastdoo,-, wli,.-h was opened by the ugliest crone
y-.u can imagine. Notwithstan.ling, ei.coun god
by 80,uoth,ng kin.Uy in her face, he made *his
request. "A meal," she exclaimed. '"R„n for your
vou " & '*"' '"'"' '^'"' '"'" ">''''« ^ "'«^I of
:, onf /, "^"'' ''"^e^"'^''. «s it tu,-„«l out, was
T.'l V "JT'"/";- compassionate; and i),-esently
dhine? ^ ' "^ '''"'^'"■' ^•'^'^ "l"^'<'»Hng an ample
He had just satisfied his appetite, wlie,,— thud!
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182
ELEMENTAUY GRAMMAR.
tliu.l!— the sound of gigantio footstops stniok his
ear. Ill a trico, tlio tervifietl <'voiio had liiddeu .hu'k
in the oven, wlii<^h was lii.'kily cold. The giaiit
entered, sniffing withliis nose, and loaniig:
Fee! fo! fi! fnm!
I smell the blood of an Englishman !
" Foolish man," said his wife, "'tis but the blood of
the calf you killed for dinner ; here it is, ready tor
you" Still the monster snifl:>;d lu the neigli-
Ijorhood of the oven ; but, finally sitting down,
quickly disposed of the whole calf. The meal over,
tlie woman placed on the table a beautiful live hen.
"Lay," said the giant; and forthwith she laid a
golden egg. "Lay," repeated the giant, and another
eg" appeared, until there was a whole pUitetul ot
gofdeu eggs. " Ah ! " thought Jack, who through
a crack saw everything, "a hen like that would be
better even than the red cow."
Presently, the monster fell asleep; the woman
had gone; Jack, who did not lack daring, crept
towards the table. In a moment the hen was under
his arm, and he darted through the door. At that
instant the hen uttered ."> loud cackle, its master
awoke, and Jack ran for dear life. When the top
of tlio beanstalk was reached, his purs- .:er was at
his heels, but in the descent the nimble lad had the
advantage. Jack reached the ground, and, seizing
an axe, with a few blows severed the stalk, l^own
it crashed; and, falling from a tremendous height,
the giant lay dead at his feet. Alarmed at the
noise, the widow rushed to the door. See, mother
cried Jack, "all our troubles are at an end." Gently
stroking the heu he said "Lay," and a golden egg
fell upoa the ground.
Fr.KMENTAUY (IHAHJIAU.
18:5
P.VK.\<;itAFHS.
Xulico tlifit tliis sldiy is Innkt'ri up into liiirif- r:\\\ri\
Paragraphs. A imrMLfriiph is iiiiliciitt'rl }>y a line bci^'iiininj;
t'ai'thor to tlio ri^'lit tliaii tlio otlu'r lines; tho lilank sjuk-o
{Imhnt'tt'niii.) sliimld in MS. oxton<l alumt li.ilf an inch fnmi
the niai",i,'in. As a s>'nt>tn-f'. is a j^coup of cliLUsos and plu'iises
wliic'h hiivo a iiatuiul conncctinn, so a /)f'/'"_'/r"/>/t is a i^nmp
of sentonces wliirli are conncctfd with one another. Para-
j;rupli.s D'prestMit sucocs-sive steps in ilie trf-atnu-nt of a tlu'ino ;
tlu'V Hghten tlie reader's task by indicating Ijrcatliinj; plares
wliore the attention may be relaxed ; and are particularly
important in treating matters whirh put sotne strain on the
mind. In narratives, sueh as we have have been writing, the
In-eaks Ix'tween tlie paragraphs usunlly mark sueeessivesta;;es
in the story, tt.ij.^ the first paragraph in .hnk ami thf Jtaiu
stalk gives the gc'rieral circumstances of Jaek's life ; the
second, how lie came int<» possession nf the beans, etc. This
is indicale<l in the following plan of the stmy :
1. Introdiiftinn. : "Who was .Tack? -Whi'i'- did lie live?
Siiow how poor he was.
2. Iloa^hc f/of fh> f>e<nfs : What happened on the way to
market ! How did his motlii-r receive him ?
X Ifnay he rrarhrd a /<inni</f' hni'l : What of the U'ans
nrxt morning'? — Wliut did Jack do?
■i. // "T hf ijitt a. iu^'af iti a, ntxtJf ; What did he .see at the
top of the beanstalk ? Wliat riid he do?— What liappened
at the castle ?
n. Thi yiant: Wlu-n and how did the giant api)ear?-
What happen<'d to .lack ? What did the giant do?
ft. Jark's si>rr>'ss: Now did Jaek get tlie hen ?— How did he
escape ? — What did he tell his mother I
184
ELEMENTAKY GKAMMAE.
XX. With this outline Ijcfore you, writo ino story of Jack
and the Beanstalk, •lividin^ it into luirii^iujihs, un till!
subjects iiiilicattxl by the worils in itulics.
In a similar way repr<K]uce in paraj^raplis other fairy
stories with which you are familiar, e.ij. :
XXI. I^ittle Red Riding Hood :
1. IntrodiKtion : Who was she, and why so ciilleil ? — Where
did she live? — What did her mother bid lier do?
2. The. jmtrney : What sort of a path had .she to take 1 -
Whom did she meet ?— What did he say 1 What did he do
when he left her!— What did Red ]{iding Ilootldo!
3. What happened at her gram/moflier'n : What liapjiened
when she knocked?— What did she do in tlie house? — What
conversation did she have? — What was her fate?
XXII. Puss in Boots :
1. Introduction : What will did the miller make? — How
did his youngest son feel ? — What did the cat say ? — What
request did she make ?
2. The huntiiuj : What did the cat do wth the bag! —
What with the game? — How did slie act at the ]'alace? —
What did slie say to the king ?
3. Meeting of the kirn/ atul the miller's son : What did
the miller's son do! — Who passed by ! -Whatdid the cat do!
— What did the king do!— What impression did the miller's
son make ? — How did the cat occupy herself ?
4. What happened at the cantle : Whose castle did the cat
come to! — What did she do? — What request did she make of
the ogre ? -What did the ogre do 1 — What was it he killiil ? —
Who arrive<l at the castle ? — What did the cat say?- What
happened to the miller's son ?
ELEMENTAUY GUAMMAlt.
185
III tlie Olil Ti'sfnmiiit a nuiiilici' (if vi-ry iiiterostiii;,' mil,
pvcn from tlic literaiy pi.iiit of view, ailmiraWc iiairativcs
aro to 1h3 fouii.l, wliicli may l)e with piDfit rcpn»liuc.l. Tlir
fact that tlio hiiiguage is .soincwhat ri'imite anil unUk(! oui-
own, makes thu exercise a little more ilillicult for the pupil
tliaii in the case of narratives in books of our own time.
XXIII. Daniel in the Irion's Den :
Read carefully Onuid, cliap. vi., and write the storj' in
your own words, according to the followiii;; plan: 1. /«-
li-iuhii'li.im : Daniel's position ami the feeling towards him,
and tlie consequent plan of the great men. 2. 7'A-! am,>.'-
mi/iiiiiivs v/ihp law: The action of Daniel, of the great men
and of the king. X Daniel in the Den. 4. Ciindnamn.
XXIV. The Finding of Moses : Rtad E.r,^,ui,
chap. i. vv. 8~L'2 and ii. vv. 1-10, and Imse u|«)n it a narrative
arran','ed on the following plan: 1. Intmrluelmn : Condition
of Israelites in Egypt.* 2. The pliin of Jfmes' mother.
.■). What I'hamoh's daiiijhter did. ^. CoMlimioii.
Write a story on the following .subjects, lia. . each para-
graph on the verses indicated in the following plans. The
pupil will write with the original passages Ijeforc him.
XXV. The Rebellion of Absalom : 1. ^ *««/<»«'«
■/rrejjuriitioiui (II. Samuel, cliiip. .\v. vv. 1-6).— 2. Alim/om
rebels (vv. 7-12).— 3. Darid's relrenl (vv. 13-18, 2.1, .10). -
4. The buttle (chap, xiiii. vv. 1-8).— 5. Darid hears lidinyn
(vv. 2t-1:!). — 6. CiinrliiKioH {cha.p. xix. vv. 1-4).
XXVI. David and Goliath : 1. Who Dmid imx
(I. Mamuel, chap. xvii. vv. 12, U, n, 3.1_37^ 42).— 2. TIte
condition of the coiiiitrij (vv. 1-11).— 3. Dm-id in the camp
(vv. 13, 17-39).— 4. neJI,/lit{vv.M-5]}.-r,. The result (vv.
51-54, chap, xv
, 13).
' i)o nut luako this part ilis|>ro|iortioiiately large.
18<;
F.LEMEXT.MiY OUAMMAK.
XX\'n XXX. (hlicr iiJirr;iti\('s rimy lj<? writ li-n on plans
worked out liv the iiii|>il under sujiervision of tlie tfaclipr,
»■.'/■, Joseph Sold into Slavery ('/- ».«w, clmp. xxxvH.
vv. l-.'i5), The Wooing of Rebekah (f/c/c-tV, clmp.
xxiv.), The Victory of Gideon (./'»/;/<■«, chap, vii),
The Flood {(f>'wsts, chaps. \i., \ii. and viii).
PUNCTUATION.
Compare the two following passai^es .-is to tlio ease with
which you catch the meaning :
{«) Wh(!ii tbo SiKinisli bells stiy.s Frouilo wei'e
about striking twelve iiiiil sii> e the watch on deck
sol(Uoi'.s and seanioii lay stretched in sleej) oevtaiu
dark objects which had been seen dimly drifting in
the tide near wheie the galleons lay thickest sliot
suddenly into pyramids of lighi f1a?nes leai)ing
from ruddy sail to .sail tlii'kering on the ropes anil
forecastles masts and bowsprits a In .id 1 mze of con-
flagration.
(h) "When the Spanish bells," says Fronde,
"were about striking twelve, and, save the watch
on deck, soldiers and seamen lay stretched in sleep,
certain dark oltjects, which had been seen dimly
drifting on tlie tide near where the galleons lay
thickest, shot suddeidy into pyramids of light,
flames leaping from ru(ldy sail to .sail, flickering on
the rojies and foi'ecastles, masts and Ijowsprits, a
lurid blaze of conflagration."
As nmy Im? seen from this example, tiie ol)ject of punctua-
Jon is to group together words that nioi-e closely l)elong to
one another, and to mai'k places wlier-e the construction is not
ELEMENTAnV OKAMMAK.
187
coiitiimoiiH;»ii that, lliinui,>h tlii't'vc, I lie iriiiid iniij- iimii'i-iisily
and cMU't.iiiily calch tlio mcaiiintj. It Kci-vt's a similar |>tii'{Hisr
to tlio ),'''o"riiiK "■ li'Wers iiitu wonis liy leavini^ s,iaiTs
b'twwn till! words. Tf we aie to write su that mil- reader
may liave tlio least [inssililo dillieulty and dipul)t in appre-
lieiiding imr meaning, we must luinetuate.
Fipaniers are prone to tliink punctuation is a very dillieMlt
matti'i', and to shirk the lalior whieli it involves ; and, indeed,
the larf,'e numlMT of rules « hieli an exhaustive tieatineiit of
punctuation ni'eessitatc's, is a real eause of ditlieullv. But
the majority of tlieso are only oi'casionally needful, and
may he left to l)0 gradually aeipiiri'd ; whereas att<'nlii>n to a
few general rules, such as are given on pp. loO i'rl of this
luKik, will enable ordinary vvriteis to make their meaning
apparent, and will free them finm the neei'ssity of .seattering
eommaa and dashes at random, or of not punctuating at all.
It should also bo rememljereil that punctuation is to some
e.xtent a matter not absolutely fixed, but <le])endent upon the
judgment of the wr'iter. Ahniijn <iji/ihi Ihf tr^l : Dfi'n M«
imni-lmiflini vitri'k mitkf- viy vifaitinij mitrr, ra'<itti tiiij>T''h'iifh''/ ?
If it does 'itoi, (fn not pniu-fnutt!. /irftrr it ii'hr jmui'htnh' thiitt
orer-puitctuatf^.
The points most freipiently used, and most likely to be iLiis-
used, are the period, semieolon, and eonnna. Of these the
periiKl marks the strongest, the comma the weakest break.
The period is used between .sentences ; the semicolon between
(Causes (the cases where it is used In'tween pinases, may bo
neglected by the beginner), the eonnna l)ct\veen clauses, or
plira.se.s, or woril.s. A simple aenteneo with llie woids and
phrases in their natural order does not reipnfe internal punc-
tuation. In short sentences, pmictuation which \^•ould be
refiuired in a longer sentence may he dispensed with, l)ecause
188
ELEMENTARY (iUAMMAIl.
the lircvity of tlie st*nti*iire cimlileH tlin ryw to calcli tlie cnn-
iiertioii easily.
TllK ('oMMA.
Witliiii tl'O scnteiico tlie COtnma in the iii.iik iimst
fre<iueiitly einployixl, and the most dilKcult to use cori-et'tly.
(1) It separates tlio principal clauses of a compound sen-
tence, unless these are very short, as : There was not a, ripple
on the water, and the branches of the trees were as motion-
less in the calm as if they hud Imtm ti-aeed upon canvas.
2. Commas are used to enclose phrases and clauses which
are parenthetical, i.e., which may bo omitted without disturl>
ing the sense of the remainder of the sentence. Hen(^e they
are u.sed with words of aildress, absolute phrases, a|>position,
etc. (see p. 151 fij ), as : Oliver Cromwell, a membei from
one of the eastern shires, rose to speak. — Men, they say, ai*e
but children of a larger growth. — I think myself happy,
King Agrippa, because I shall answer for myself this day.^
These logs of wood, kept in their places by mud and stones,
make a dam. — His eyes, which grew lighter with age, were
then of a deep violet.
Compare the last example with : " The eye which was
injured by the explosion, had ultimately to be removed."
There is no comma between "eye" and "which "in the latter
ease, because the clause that follows is not parenthetical, but
is restrictive, i.e., the relative clause is necessary to determine
what eye is spoken of. Restrictive clauses, unless very short,
have a comma at the end.
3. Commas are used between words having the same rela-
tion in a sentence, unless there are conjunctions between
them, as : The greatest, wLsest, meanest of mankind. — T will a
plain, unvarnished tale deliver. —How dull it is to pj use, to
make an end, to rest unburnislied, not to shine in use : — The
field was oblong, twenty rods in length, fifteen in breadth.
EJ.EMKNTAUY (il!.\M>fAI!.
18!)
4. C'limiiiMs lire uscil In scpunili' iitY pliinni ^ hihI iIhusoh
wliiili iliinoi t'oiiio in tlinr iintiinil |x>sitinii in tlic sfiid'iurs,
as: On licr road to silm..), wlien a viiy siiiiill child, she Imd
to J.11S8 a gate where a liorrid tiirki ycnck was guiicriillv
standing. -In what is familiar and near at liand, lie diBcrrns
no coiiiolincss,
5. The comma is uscil to mark an ellipsis, as : To err is
human; to forjiive, di\ ine. My lirotlier went to Manilolrii;
yours, to tlie Klondike.
UNITY, COHERENCE AND PROPORTION.
CoilKUKNCK.
What has U'en said of parngraphin^ indicates that sen-
teiues expressing thoughts naturally Is'longing to om^ another,
should lie grouped together. If we are to express our
thoughts on any .sub;ect so that another person may follow
them with the least possible effort, it is evident wo must not
set down the sentemvs at random. On the contrary, one of
the main requisites in Composition (the word means i>l<iiin<f
tiiijethn) is to arrange our ideas in the Ixist pussihlo order.
In every sjiecies of composition there should !>■■ a reason
why one sentence and not another comes at a certain place.
Tn narratives, of which we liave been treating, the <irder
is nearly always that of the events (for example, in Jitrh
anil tlw llfaiistiill; : the de'erniination to sell tlie cow,
the driving her to market, the sale, etc.). There are,
besides, usually in a narrative, certain things which do
not happen but wi ich do exist, and inHuenee or exgilain
the evenl. These are called thi^ ijt'iternl ctnuillinns,
and should usually come first. So, in the mmhO, lack's
general situation is revealed in the opening .sentiences.
190
ELKMKMAliY (SUAMMAlt.
Niilii'c llmt I slciiy sliiiuld loiisiHl iif a liiikiil N<"rii's ; fur
i'\iiiji|>li', ill ■lurk mill the liittmldlk I'luli fiiit (,'!"«» out
(if tliu |iir(Ciliii!{ : pdvi'ity - wilo of cow Ik-hiis liciin-
utalks— c'liiiibiii;;— iirw touiitiy— fiistlc - {,'miit lien- iiihi».
rNlTY.
But not only imiHt llio tliouj,'lits Ih- iiimiij,'i'il so that tlic
ii'ailcr niiiy piisn ra-*ily from one to imotlii'r, Imt tlifio must
lifl srlrclion in tliosi' llion^lils. Kiim_> . ling tliiit i-onM'« into
llu' iiiiiid wlion Uiinkiri;; of a topic, xlioulil not !»■ set <lo»ii ;
liut wliat really Ixlonuin to llio matter in liand. Even this
liiiiitalion in not sutlicient ; we are not usually at lilM'iiy to
yiiy cmi/llii III) on a tlienie. A\'e must Keli'i't those tlioujihts
wliieh are most ofl'eclivefor our ]iurpose. No 'hounlit should
Ije inserted in a composition unless it is more ctVective for t'le
purposes of the com|«isition than any thought exeludei! ; in
other words, we must liave Unity.
Kor example: the story of Jack, as usually told, is too
long for the limits of this Iwok ; among other things, Jack is
represented as carrying olT a magic harp. This is on interest-
ing cpisidc if there is room for it ; hut as the development of
the St iry tvidently lies in J ick's rising from jKivcrty to afflu-
ence, the jiossession of a hen that lays golilen eggs is inoro
effectivt' tor the coiKlusion than is the possession of a magic
harp. So the former episoile is more fittingly included.
I'nity ought to be regarded to the minutest details : e.ij.,
Jack's going supperloss to lied, makes his boldnes.s in
approaching the castle more natural.
Pkopohtion.
The writer must further rememU'r to give each thought a
part of his theme in such detail as is reijuiied by its imiMirt-
auce in the whole.
.KMKNr.MtV (iltAMMAK.
1'Jl
n
COMPOSITIONS : FOURTH SERIES
llril.| Olictully /■/,.; l>r„lh ,,/ »■,,//-,■ {lliin/ /.'../.A.', |.|).
170 M), 1111(1 1111 tliiOiiisH iif 1 Ills Mii; a ('<>hi|>iisi'i<iii nil r/i,'
ClI/l/Kr-' llf (JnrI,,,' (l.,ltictl tllP llill'clTIlCC ill lillc), IllK.llt thiTi'
fiKilsrii|) |iii;;i's (ilOO wiirils) ill lcii;;il . The rciis|Ki»iiiiiii is tn
consist of 11 scl'ifs tii /Htt-in/rn/JiM on llio lojiirs iii.liciil»>. ! Ih-Iow.
As tlio ai'ticle in tliu Itrailt-i- is iiioi-t^ tliun four tiircs tlii'
li'll;{tll of tl ssiiy, j.'I'™L coliiii'iis.ilioii ami iviri'ful si'iiTLJoii
Hi-e iliijH>l'ati\('.
XXXr. The Capture of Quebec: 1. Tli.^ pvssa«e
clown llio river. ■_'. Uivirliinj^ tlie siiiiunit. .'). Picp. nations
of Iho Fiviicli. I. Th,. Iiallli'. "i. Tll« (lealll of Wolff.
6. Till! (li'alli of MoL'Ic'aliii. 7. Tin' siirii'inli f tlic ritv.
Wlii-n your coinjiositioii is roinplt'tc, I'oiiipjiro it with ihi'
followillj^ ;
Moi.Ki, VI.
Till, . VI-TIKK UK i.'|-i;iiK' .
It WHS (III the evoniii;; (if twi'lfiii (if Si'iitciiiliiM-,
17')!>, tliiit tlio iiliiii f(ir .'III attiick (ni (^iiclicc wji.s
put iiit(j exccutiiiii. 'J'lic iii<;lit was clciir Imt tlioro
was 111) moon, and tiikiiif^ advaiitajfti of tlii> dark-
ness and of tlio elili ticlo Wolfo witli an advaiico
body of sixteen lnindi'(>d iiicii, in tliiity boats,
di-ojiped silently (town the li' :_'i- j)ast (^tielicc. As
the English neared their landing jilace — a tiny liay
now known as Wolfe's Cov — they wer mi<\cv the
noeessity of apin'oaehing the jireciiiitous, wooded
heights whioli t'ovni the liank of the i-ivt^f. Here
tlu!y uttracteil the notice o ' the sentries, Imt ^vcre
able to pass themselves off as French .<iipply-boal.s,
and (>ff(»(?ted a liinding without nioleslatioii.
When Wolfe saw the st(K>p path which they must
take to reach the sunimil, anl the French guards
l!fj
lil.KMKMM.V (.l:\MM M:.
ntlli.i t()|. <>r it, \m .•".illy iviMiirki-.l ti. iiii oIVh'it
l,.-si,l.) liiiii: '• V.iii may iiy it, I'Hi I .l-.n't tluiik yoii
will S1UMM..-.1-' Tho nscfiit ]»-i:i\u. A l""ly "i
lliKhliiM.liMS cticotiiitoivil ) of tilt) sentries, \vIm>
giiv« tho iilaiiii; Imt l.y thy linn- the pmnl lin.l
tiiiin'<l<'iit, Ihoattiickiiij,' i>aity w.tc fairlv iiuiikt-
oiis; ami, aft.T ii sharp <-..iilli.'l, sii(m-.m'i1.'(1 in ov.'i-
i>(>\veriii« their adversaries ami reachiii^ llie sntii-
mit, They were sodii followed l.y the niaiii l""ly,
wholiad liieaiiwhiliM-onie down the rivi'r; and at
dawn, the Enjilish army, five tlioiisantl stronjr, was
iirrayed on the Plains of Ahraham.
Tidinf,'s of what liad liai.iiene<l were not loiin m
reachinj; Qiielie<-; Moiiteahii hastily ponred ins
trooi.s over the St. Charles river, iin.l drew them
ui. iin.ler the ramiiarts of the town. Montealm s
arinv«reatlvoulnumliered the Enj,'lisli, eonsistiu^
of some wven tliousiind live Inindred men, Imt ot
these II consideralile iininliei' were iiiexiierieneed
Canadian militia. Moreover the spirit ol' his troops
was broken by tho hardships they hud uiideigon.^
At uino o'clock, the hostile forces were fa-'in},' one
another : at Ion, tho French iid vaiiced, chargnig im-
petnously in three cohimiis, a.id opening tiro as soon
as they were within range. The Uritisli calmly
waited tho attack; not a shot was tired nntil the
enemv were within forty yards; then, suddenly,
a treinendons volley was delivered all along the
line. Tho French staggered and broke under tho
shock; a panic seized the colonial troojis; and the
regulars, though they held their ground for a time,
were soon overwhelmed by the funons onset.
Tn tho pursuit, tho Highlanders iwrticularly dis-
tin.'uished Lheniselves. Hefore the ]■ reiich had
readied within the city or then- eiK'ainpment, they
hud lost some fifteen hundred men, killed, woumletl
KI.KMr.NTAItV l.l;A>rMAIt.
l!i:!
"!■ tiikiMi jiri-iiiiifis. 'I'lio viclcpiy wiis s|i.'fi|y ami
ili'cMsivc. Tlici |iiiisiic.s wcic ii'ciilli'il, till' liiili.-li
iiiiik^f ri'-fi>riii('il, so lliiit wLcii liniijriiinx illi- willi
IVi'sh fi<M.|iH iiriivf.J on tlieir ivar, ho di'i'iucil it
fx|n>ilieMt to witliilnnv.
Hut tliii joy of virtoiy wiis ovi'icust with j;iii'f,
whi'M tlif iii'wssiirciiil tlii'il Woll'iiliiiiiM'lf hiiilt'iill.'ii.
Ill' li'il 't rliiili;oot' till) LonUlioiilX f;i'' ililii'is; iiiiil,
tlioiij;ii twii'ii woiiimIimI, still pivsscil on ll tlin lll'inl
of liis ciiluiiiii. A thinl Imllct sti-ikiiiu liiiii on lln'
liri'.ist liidUiilit liiiii to the t'ii;tli liioiliilly woiirnli'il.
l!i'iii),'tolil, in iiiiswcrto liis iiii|iiiry, lliiit tin' Ficiirh
niii, 111' siiiil, "(loll lin priiisc' ' f'dii' Imiijiy," niij
tuiiiing on his siiln cnlnily liii-iitlicil liis last.
Ills j;ri':it o|)|ioMi'iit Moiiti'ahn was not long in
following liim. lie, too, hail lii'i'n woimdi'l in thn
liiillli', ami was noiiii' to the hospital in (^ui'licr.
Wlii'M lie hcaiil that hi' hail lint alVw hoi s to livi-,
" I am glail," ho sni'i, "I shall not sooth, iirronilor
of (^lll l)00."
Aftor tho liattlo tho British vigorously imshi il
foiwaiil tlioir i)iupara''ons for a siogo; hut no siogo
Was noi'ossary. On tho eigiitoontli of tho luouth
tho famous citailol of (juolioo surii'iiiloroil.
Heiiil fuix'fully Liiira Sr,;„tl (riiinl /ir,ii/ei; |i]i. '.'■.'9-'j;!.'!)
iiiid write in viuir own wonis a I'oiiijHisitiMii (iilxuit 100 wnrcis
ill li'ii^tli) on llie fiillowiri),' tlieini! in a si'Hrs <if /..mw/ra/</i.-
ini tiie topics inilicHlei].
XXXII. The Heroism of I,aura Secord: 1. In
troductiiin (Lfoiicnii roiiililions)*. 2. Hit ri'soiulioii unit
ilipiiituiT. 3. Hit jouiucy. I. Uir i'.\|iciiciiii' at Heaver
l)aliis. 5. (\)nrIiisioti.
* Till! |til|iil liiil^l loiM.'iiilH.r wliitt lii^ ihi
li«) closely tliu lirst lil^'U iil' his uriyiiiiil.
unit nut fdUuw
IM
EI-EMENTAllY GllAMMAlt.
XXXIII. The White Ship {nird lUad.-,-, pp. -JH
217). Tlio coiiii>.)sition of from 400 to 600 wuicl», with tlie
following ;.«rr»-/nv-A plan ; 1. How tlic Viiiico laii.o to sail in
tlie Whito Ship. 2. What happeiie<i on boaiil. 3. The
shipwreck. 4. Tlio King hears the tidings.
XXXIV. The Taking of I,inlithgow Castle
(7Vii/-.i llimier, pp. 69-72). U-nntli 400 to 600 words. I'um-
graiih plan: 1. Intr.nlu.tory (general conditions and l!in-
nock's res.)lvc). 2. DilHculties in the way. 3. How the
castle was taken.
XXXV. The story of I/Ucy Gray (''.tivf lUader,
pp. 14-16). liCTigth 400 words. i'linii/nv-A plan: 1. Intro-
ductory (who Lucy was, description of the place wtiere she
lived). 2. Her journey. 3. The search. 4. Conclusion.
XXXVI. The Heroine of Castle Dangerous
{t\mrth Reiuler, pp. 226-2.32). I^-ngth 600 w.ir.ls. I'nrn-
ymph plan : 1. Introduction (ba.sed on paragraphs 1 -2 of the
original*. 2. The alarm (paragraphs 3 5). 3. The defence
(paragraphs 6-10). 4. The arrival gf the Fontaine family
(paragraphs 11-12). 5. The defence continued (paragraphs
13-17). 6. Conclusion (paragraphs 18-21).
Skmicolon.
1. The Semicolon is used where a porii«l miijkt have
been employed, but where tlie writer wishes to bring the ideiis
into closer connection. For example, the following passage
giving an account of Marie Antoinett-'s approach to tlie
phice of her execution, might ha e been arranged in four sen-
tences; but the clo.ser connection between the first an.l second,
and the third and fourth memljers, respectively, justifies the
use of semicolons : " The tricolor streamers on the house-tops
occupied her attenti.m ; she also noticed tlie inscriptions on
the house fronts. On reaching the Place .le la lievolution.
ELEMENTARY ORAMMAIi.
105
hfir looks tiirneil towiiril Llie Jaiilin Niiticmal, fiiimoily
Tuillciics; lier fai-e at that moment ga\e .signs of lively
emotion."
2. The .semicolon is used lictween the clauses of a sentence
when one, or both, of these inemlKT.s already contains a
comma.
Compare: " Cow|«'r tells us that lalmr has lieen s()ftene<l
into mercy, and I think I sliould have found out the fact for
myself," and "Cowpir tells us that lalior, though the primal
curse, has Wn .softened into mercy ; and I think that, even
had he not done so, I should have found out the fact for
myself."
For the use of other punctuation marks, the pupil
is referred to pp. 1 .")0- 1 i'>2.
t
COMPOSITIONS: FIFTH SERIES.
Model VII.
I^OROS.SK.
Lacrosse i.s a field gaino, phiyed with a liall and
stick (five or six foot in loiijirth) of liglit liickory,
bent at the top like a bishop's crozier (French
rrosse). Strings of deer-skins aie stretched di-
agonally from the hooked portion of the cro.s.se to
the lower part of the handle so as to form a net-
work — not so tightly as in a battledore or a tennis
racquet, nor so loosely as to make a bag. A single
ball is einployed, made of India rubber and eight
or nine inches in circumference. Four posts or
poles, about six feet in hsngth, with a small flag at
the top of each, complete the equipment. The
playoi-s are usually twelve ou each side, but their
196
ELEMENTARY (iRAMMAll.
niiinber, as well as oxtent of the liolil, is usually
optional.
At ea(!h end of the tit'ld the goals avo marked by
two of the flags, placed sf>me twolvo feet from cue
another, and it is the aim of each party to drive
the ball through their opi)on(!nts' goal. Siwcially
to i)revent this, a player — called the goal-keeper —
is stationed between each pair of flags. The other
players, having been distributed at various iM)ints
over the field, the game opens by two opponents,
who have taken positions iu the middle of the
field, trying to impel the ball, placed between their
crosses, in the desired direction. When the ball is
free, the other players attempt to scoop it up with
the bent end of their crosses, and then, carrying it
horizontally upon the netting, to ran with it
towards the goal. The adverse party seek to
prevent this by striking it from the netting with
their own crosses. When the person iu possession
of the ball .judges that these efforts are likely to. be
successful, iie throws the ball to some friend more
favorably situated, who usually, unless prevented
by adversaries, deftly catches it in his crosso and
bears it on its way. The ball may be struck off
by means of the crosse only, and may iu no case be
KHiched by hand or ft)ot ; nor may any playt^r
intentionally strike, trip up, or lay hold of another.
Notice tlio ordi-r in this description. TJsing it as a model,
descrilw other games with which you are famihar: CfOquet,
Lawn Tennis, Football, Baseball, Hockey,
Basket Ball, Cricket, Draughts, Ping Pong, etc.
In a similar fashion, describe processes with which you
may he familiar, always niakiiif; a plan and submitting to the
teacher Ijefore writing the composition, such as : Thresh-
ing, Butter-making, Making of Maple Sugar,
ELEMENTARY GUASIMAR.
107
1
\
Trout-fishing, Skating, Potato Planting, Hay-
making, Bread-making, Preserving Pniit.
Write an account of
XXXVir. Iron, Uswl on tlie Thiiul Reader, pp. 106-111,
accoiiling to followiiij^ pliiii : General doseription of iron in its
natural state. —How is it obtained ?— For what purpo,ses? —
l)e«eril)e tlie preparation of the ore for tlie manufacturer.*
XXXVIII. The Goat (»eo Third Rea.ler, pp. 65-67),
according to tlio following plan : General description of tlie
goat. — Its habits in a natural state. — Its habits in domestica-
tion. — Its uses to man.
XXXIX. The Peacock (see T/.m/ TJ^rt./,;-, ])p. 12,-)- 126),
acconling to the following plan : Description of the more
striking points in its appearance. —Where it originated and
how it lives there, — How it came thence. — Some of its habits,
its character, and its use.
XIv. The Beaver, (study i;,i,rlh I'.m.ler, pp. 1.-. 20,
and determine the s»l)je<>t of each paragraph ; then, with
these subjects as a plan, write your composition.)
In the ca.se of the four following composition.s, the facts ai-e
to 1)0 obtained from the articles in the Reiulers. As the
arrangement of the originals is opi'ii to criticism, the pupil
.should make his own plan and submit it to the teacher :
XLI.-XLIV. The Dog (Third Header, pp. 39-45); The
Horse (Third Header, i)p. 91- 96) ; The Elephant (Fourth
Header, pp. 39 45); The Tiget (Fiairlh Header, jip. 99-103).
* Tho |iii|)il will notice that lliis essiiy re<iuiifs him to select fioni
and rearrange the mutter of the urtgiaal.
li)8
ELEMENTAUY UUAMMAB.
THE SENTENCE.
The bejjinnpr naturally exprcssps himself in very Hhort and
simple sentences. 15ut as he gr<i\vs more mature, such .sen-
tences ni> lonj^er represent what lie wishes to say. His
thduglits, he fi'els, are not all of the same importance, and
ought not, therefore, to Iw strun;,' out side by side in a .scries
of coordinate clauses. The cliild telling how he met with
an accident on the crowded streets, may begin : " My father
gave mo ten cents. I wanted to buy a tin horse. I went
down town," etc. The purpose of these sentences is to
explain how he came to l)e where the accident occurred. The
last is, then, the important sentence ; the others should be
subordinated to it : " My father having given me ten cents, I
went down town to buy a tin horse." By bringing our asser-
tions thus into larger sentence units, we represent our
thought more accurately. We gain in force, inasmuch as we
put the main idea into the princi|Mil clause ; we gain in clp.nr-
mss, since we indicate more exactly the relation between our
ideas, and save our readers the trouble of inferring theirs ;
finally, we gain in comjnictnpfm.
The art of combining our thoughts into effective compli-
cated sentences may l)e mastered by the study and imitation
of the sentences of gcxid writer.s, and the unsparing criticism
of our own. We should particularly consider each sentence
under certain general aspects :
Unity.
"A well-constructed sentence contains one and but one
leading thought, and presents it from one and but one point
of view." (Hill's Foundations of Rhetoric.) This condition
is evidently fulfilled by the following: "On a bye-street
stands a wooden house." It is not the less fulfilled in the
ELEMENTARY (iUAMMAR.
199
following iiioro ehilHinile si'Mtoiice : " Half-way down a live-
sticet of one of our Ni'w Knglnnd towns stands a rusty
wo.Klen house, with si-vpn acutely peaked gables facing
towards various points of the compass, and a huye, clust«red
ehininey in the midst." Here the assertion is the same;
the a(l(le<l details serve to enrich subject and predicate, but
ilo not ill any way confuse the picture. On the other hand,
consider the .second of the following sentences : " Tillotson
died in this year. lie was exceedingly Ijeloved both by King
William and Queen J[ary, who nominated Dr. Tenison,
I!i»hop of Lincoln, to succeed him." Here the relative clause
introduces something that is not really suliordinate to the
main thought, hence the .sentence is defective in Unity.
Had it, liowever, re;ul, " who had nominated him to the
bishopric of Lincoln," this objection could not have been
made, since the thought of the relative sentence would have
b<!en interpreted as a proof or exemplification of the main
statement. Again, Irving, sf. aking of the capture of an
Indian chief, says : "lieing questione<l by one of the Englisli
wlio first came up with him, and who had not attained his
twenty-second year, the proud-hearted warrior, looking with
proud contempt upon his youthful countenance, replie<l.
"You are a cliild~you cannot unilerstand matters of war."
The numerous detjiils here annexed to the main a.s.sertion
explain or give significance to it. Hence Unity is not
\ iolated. For example, the clause, " who had not attained
his twenty-.second year," explains the maimer and words of
the reply.
In a com/KiMtd sentence, especially in one of those sen-
tences where a semicolon may be , ^-ai-ded as replacing a
comma (see p. 194), the nMiuirenient« of unity are less strin-
gent. .Still, there must be some one point of view which
combines the two aKserti<ins, if the sentence is defensible.
Compare, for example : " It was a smile that had something in
■200
KLEMENTAUY (iUAMMAK.
il hiitli of pjtiii and wi'.-LknoHs a lia^':^anl old itian's sniili* ; liiit
tlic'it^ wiiH, Itc'siilcH that, a pi'aiii of derision, a siiadow of
trp'ifhcry in liis oxpn^ssion, aw lie craftily walrhod ine ut iny
work," with : " Iiistisad of rcfr-esliiiig la'eezes, tlie wiiid^ ditriisj*
a noxious and even deadly vapor : the hillocks of sand wliieh
they alternately raise and seatti'r, seeni lik*^ tlie hillows of the
iH-ean." Tn the former there is real unity; in the lattei', a
marked violation of it.
To maintain unity he eareful -
1. Not to put into the senteiure anvtliin^ that has no Itt'iiv-
ing, or ojdy a very remote Is'ai-in;^, on the main assertion.
Note the irielevancy of the italieise<l portions of the fol-
lowing : —
'riie (liseoveiy of the cii-ciiliitidii <if blooil is,
pet'hiips, the most iiiii)ortimt tliiit lins ever jjocii
made iii tlie science of medicine, thr iii-.it at irliirh
ive will lixik hciiifi rcspirat'Kin.
It is just a yeiiv and a liidf since tlie foniidatioii
stone was hiid, ami the cast nf the hiiildinii inis (ircf
/(till/ thoiimnd dollars.
2. Not to crowd the sentem-e with so many deiiils or to
prolong it so far as to make its purjMirt va^ue or coufusiiLi;.
The flat slopes gradually up, until, at the dis-
tance of half a mil(», it seems to find its level with
the upland, but liei'i tlio south liank liends around
facing the east, and the ravine changes its direction
to the north-west, where it can no loiijcor lie viewed
from the bridge.
Luther was called to the Diet of Worms. He
iield fast to his .statements, ciiiised his name to
lie publisluHl abroad, and died at his birthjdace,
Fel)ruary 18th, l."i4<i.
EI.F.MKXTAliY llliVMMMI.
■Jdl
t
A. Tu put tlu^ itiaiii iilt'ji in tin- |iritiri[wil cIuum', ami tn
si'i' tlmt tin' iilcas pnt in ci* unlitiiilt^ iitiiiiltcrs a:*' rt'iilly vth
<T<lii)ato.
SniiM" tiino jift4'r, Aiit(Hiio ami Biissjinio mot
Shylork ill a imltlic \Ai\ro in tlio city, when it was
ai»i-(MMl that Antonio slionld Imu'ivjw \vn thousand
<lu('ats.
Urn' wliiit i^ cvidi'Mily tin* principiil asscrtiim, is put jis a
siiUxdinate t>*iiipi)r'al rlausc.
1. T() maintain tin- sarni' jinint of view tliniu<;lH»ut tlio
M'ntcncc ; fur t'\ainpU>, llie upcnirii^ pln-aso of tlio fullowini;
scnlcncft is written fntrn tin* point of view of the sp<Ttator,
the mnainih'r fropi tliat of tin; olijort viewed ; Iienee the par-
tieiph; is h'ft (ianj^lin.ijj wiilionfc yrannnatieal roiistrnrtion.
This is a conitnon type of erroi- :
Looking towards tho west from Kosodaln hrldfjc,
Ifoscdalo ravino ajipcai's ^iko an innnonso riviT-
iM'd,
Cr,[:AitNKss.
Tlie ideas oxprersed in a sentence must not only have a
rlose eonnection, Init this eonnectioii must lie indic-ated, or at
least nut negatived, liy the fonn of expression ; otherwise the
sentence will he ohsenre or iiiisleadin.ii. Clearne-^s {•< likely
!o Un violated
1. 3y defective arrangement. In English, almost
tli(i ordy way in which connection may he indicated, is l>y
proximity. Consequently, the followiii<j sentence, "John
Keats, the second of four eliildren, like Chaucer and S])enser,
was a Londoner," is ambiguous. It should read, *' John, the
second (ff four children, was, like ChauiM'r and Sj)eiiser, a
I^indoner.'' The plai-ing of only, at least, evcn i" the
sentence is vei-v likely to Ite fanltv.
LHI'J
ELEMENTAHY (illAMMAR.
\i
2. Ambig:uity In the use of Pronouns. Tim
nuturiil tliiiiK is to take it for grnntt-d tlmt the noun in
the Bontcnco nciircst tho pinnoun is its anteeiilent. Be
ciirpful, thcrcforp, that no noun intervenes between ante-
cclent and pionoun, unU'ss it 1« one to which the pronoun
cannot refer (.(/., a neuter noun cannot l>e the onteccdont of
wA.-) ; for exiuiiph', tliere is a hvck of clearness in tho fol-
lowing :
A pound of flcsli was to be out off by Sbvlock
from wlmtevcf part of bis body he slioiild diwire.
The nionntain stiviim M] into ii basin, vlitch was
bliick fro:n tlin sbadows of tlio iiiountains wbicli
sun-ounde'l H.
3. By improper ellipsis. Words should not be
omitted which are needful for perfret clearness ; for example,
"Matthew Arnold admired Woi-dsworth mu -e than Tenny-
son," might mean either than "did Tenny8on,"or "than he
adnii"-ed Tennyson."
4. By needless change of construction, which,
though it may not mislead, embarrasses the reader, as r
"Tom and East became goinl friends, and tho tyranny of
a certain insolent fellow was sturilily resisted by them
together." "Torn and East" is as much the subj(H-t in the
second statement as of the first ; and the change to the pas-
sive voice merely intrinluces an obstacle, a small one no
doubt, to the comprehensibn of the sentence.
He was resolved to use patience and that he
would often exercise chanty.
Here the infinitive construction should l)e repeated.
■). By neglect of due emphasis.
(«) The chief way to give emphasis i» to put the main
idea in the principal clause, sulwrdinate ideas in subordinate
1
ELEMENTARY (lUAMMAlt.
20:'.
i
clmisos, and Iras important di'tails in phrasoi iir woiils. A
l)<>y wiiling tlio lii.stjiiy of Ills cducati «iys : " Wliiln [ wiis
8till youn^', scarlet fever lieeaine epideinif in our villaj^e, and I
was kept away from seliool for a whole te.in." Tlin writi-r
puts tlin apfioaraneo of scarlet fever anil liii alisence from
school on the same level of importance ; Imt, evidiMitlv, from
the point of view of his theme, the epidemic is only men-
ticmed liecause it livl to alisence from scli<«il. Amend,
" While I was still young, an epidemic of scarlet fever in our
village preventwl my attending school during a whole term."
(b) BmphssiS ia further indicated hy {Hisition. An un-
usual position gi\es emphasis. Compare " I >iana of the
Eph sians is great," and "Great is Diana of the KphcNians."
In general, the imjiortant places in a sentence are the lifijiii-
niiuj aiid endj especially the en<l.
Common Defects is Sentkn(!k .Sthucii-hk.
1. Avoid using relative pronouns which refer not to any
pfirticular word but to a whole clause, as in the follow ing :
^ho kept siieeiiiig all the ovoiiiiifj;, irhich scai-oely
sp'jined consistent with bur roimtution.
-'. Be consistent in the use of tensts; especially avoiil
intermingling Historical Present with Past ti'nses.
3. Sentences in which clauses are connected hy so or
and so are usually defective. The clause following the «>
should, in most cast s, be expressed as a sulsmliiiate, as in :
" Jly father was desirous that I should t«'ach for a time, so I
entered a normal school." Sentences containing the conjunc-
tion for are often open to a similar objection, as in the
following :
The choice of a pi-offissiou is a niattei- of gt'eat
importance, /or on it (lepcuds tlit; success of failuie
of our life.
204
ELEMriNTAKY OltAMMAR.
t. Avoid and lit lilt" li<>j;iiiiiiii^> of a si'iiti'iu'c.
T). Avoid making ii ri'liitivti si'iita'iiccdi'iH'iiil iipoiin ri'liitive
scnh'iiiT ; 11 noun oliiusn upon ii noun eliiuso ; im in(initivi>
U|)on tin infiiiitivi^, etc.
A sliort (listaiifo fnmi tlio shovo is a siiinll liouso
wliicli Ims ft ('iii«>la, tmiii fliir It' may ]m kccii vessels
roniKliiiK llio point irltidi juts out a mile into the
liiiy.
0. Tlio final placo in a sentence is usually the most empha-
tic ; no w<iiil or clnuso should Im placed tl ere wiihout sj)ecial
consideration. Compare tln^ cffi-ctivencss of the following ;
" He k(|>t himself alive wilh the fish lie cauijht and with the
Koats he killed," and " With the fish he caujjht and the goiits
he killed, he kept himself nlive."
7. " Watch for trailin;; relatives, ihinKliu),' participles, and
strat^giing generalities at the end of senUTices " ( ll'.7«(,)).
There is especially a constant temptation to put some thought
which has licen omitted, hut which the writer feils he sh<mld
have inserted, at the close of a sentence in the form "f a parti-
cipial [.hrase ; for xample in : " He lent out money without
inleresfc, thus injuring Sliylock's profits." The main thought
is in the parti.ijiial clause; amend " Hy lending out money
gialis, he inti'rfeied with Sliylock's profits."
K We arc prone to Is'gin a .sentence with the iiiain a.sser-
tion, and to attach the various nuKlifications. Such an
ai iiuigemont is likely to violate the proper eeipliosis, or to
prisluce confusion, or at any rate t<> result in feehle senttmces.
It is better to group the modifiers anniml and not all on one
siili! of the main clause ; a certain amount of balance i.s,
other things U'ing equal, desirable ; for e.Miinplc : " We came
to our journey's end at last with no small difficulty, after
much fatigue, through deep ioads and l)ad weather." liett<>r :
" At last, with no small dilllculty, and after much fatigue, we
came, through deep roads, to our journey's end."
KLEMENTAllY (illAMMAU.
COMPOSITION : SIXTH SERIES.
Xf.V. Writi! an lucnunt c,f The Fight Of the
Revenge (xhmic ">00 wc.nls in Ungtli) ill |iiiiai,'iu|ilis liiixi.,|
uiKiii (Ire follow ill},' I'li^"!?;!"* "f Tciiiiysiiii's l:,r,ii,i,: Introilui'
tioii (SS I il) \Vl.,it Sir Uiiliiiid diil (S III) -Tlio met in;,'
with the Spaniards (SS V-VI) The tifjhl (SS VII IX) TIir
end of the fiKhl (SS M XII) Hcalliof Sir l!ii hard (S X 1 1 1 )
— T!ie end of tlii' llovon(,'e " (;; XIV), and coiii|mie it willi
tho following; :
MoDKi, VI ir.
TIIK KKillT t>K TlIK
(/h«,l,„i Ttuiii,-;,,:-, IMI,„/.J
In the couise nf tlio uiK'cusiiij; conflict whicii,
in the daj's of Hli/.iibctli, wii.s nm''itiiineil at sen
between Enghmd tmd .Sjiain, it hiipponcd tlmt mIx
English ships of tlio line, nndcr the coniniand of
Lord Thomas Howard, wore b ing at FIoivs, in the
Azores Ishmds. Suddenly tidings were hroiiglit
thill a Spanish fleet of lif^y-threo vessels was close
at han<l, bearing down upon the English. Not
only were the Spaniards in overwhelniiiig force,
but the English ships were in bad condition ami
sickness prevalent among the crow.s. Acconliiigly
the English admiral, to avoid a noedh'ss sacrifice,
gave orders to set sail with all sjieed.
A large pai't, however, of the crew of one ship,
called the Revenge," commanded V)y Sir Richarcl
Grenville, lay ill ashore. In this case, to obey the
admiral's order Wiis to leave tliese poor fellows to
the tender mercies of the S[)aiiianl; and Sir Richard
thought himself justified in limning the ireiiieudous
risk involved in embarking his sick,
•J(H>
ELEMENTAUV (IIIAMMAII.
Tim task \nu\ just Imh'ii sui-pcssfully ii >«ii-
plislipil wlioii tlio Spaiiisli flt-et liovo mi sight.
Tlicrt! was still >\ have iKissiliility of cscaiMs but
Ownvillc, (lisilainiiij? t<> fixe, sailed lK>ltlly out to
liieot tlm ciH'iny. Tlii' aiiiiroacli of tlio littlo
"Kovfiim'" was hailfil with mocking lauKhtt'r liy
tins Hpauiarils, who, from their lofty decks, jfaw'il
down with ustoMishiiieut at I ho iiuul teineiity of
the English.
But llie laugliter was not to last long. The
>'oveng" " ennio to closo iiuarters with the " Man
l,uliii,"a ship of l,r)()() tons, and presently found
hoiKtilf ongage<l siinultaueously with four galleons.
Une(iual as the contest was, the "San Philip " first,
and then one vessel after another, had to witlwlraw
seriously disabled. In vain did tlio enemy try
either to sink or to Iward their adversary; whether
manning tho guns or musket and i)ike in Inmd, the
F^nglish proved their superiority. P^veniug eanie ;
the "Kevengo"was still uneomiuereil, and through
tho wliolo night nho maintained the desperate
struggle.
Such ii defence must needs bo at n tornble cost.
Nearly half the crew were tlead; of tho survivors
many were disabled, the powder was spent, and the
commander himself mortally wounded. At length,
when th'^ fight could no longer bo maintained. Sir
Richard, in the spirit of his whole conduct, gave
orders t<> sink the ship. Against this the sailors
protest( 1 as a useless waste of life; their dyinp;
commander could not resi.st, and the " Revenge "
was surrendered.
The remnants of the English wore put aboard
tho hostile fleet, and tlio " Revenge " manned with
a Spanish crow. Sir Richard himso:f was bonio
to tho fittgship, and hoiioralily treated by his
ELEM KNTMl Y ( I II A M M A 11.
•J(»7
cnurtoous ciijitois. II.! iliil licit luiii; Hiirvivi', iiml
tliod hiippy III llm thoiinlit tliut Im hml <1 i lii«
duty ami liiwl falloii for (^iiccii uinl rmmtry.
Soino of tlio spint of ln'f iii<loiiiitul>lt( imhii-
iiituiilor might Im siiiiixi-i'd to liiivo iiiiiiiuiti'd iIk!
"kevoiigo" herself. In a storm which foiiowi-d
tho Imttlis siio wniit to tho liottom, riiiTyiiig along
with hor tilt) ermv of her ulii'ii masliTs.
Writo tlic fnllowiiiK i-uiii|M)sitic>iis luisid ii|n>ri tin' iKieiiin
nu'ritioiH'*! in t'uch ciim?:*
John Gilpin's Ride C"^'' l "" <-""»i"'i'» •'"'"' '"'/"")•
Inchcape Rock (Uwd mi H<mili.-y's \«n-m). The
Pied Piper of Hamelin (1ki-«ih1 .m liiowniTig'^ |).h>ii[).
Herv^ Riel (liased on i!.i.« iiin«'s i>o.Nii). The Wreck
of the Hesperus (iiaswlon l,uii-fi'll.iw's)»«'m). Hora-
ti"*? at the Bridge (iwiswl on ,MttCi"iluy's ll,ii<itiii.i).
The Story of the I,ady Clare (ijiw.! on Ti'nnysoMs
/-«./// Clar,'). Rosabelle ('"i«''l on Si;otfs l»H'm ; Nfo /V/?/.
Jtea.Lr, p. 262). The Story of the I,ady of Shalott
«i«3d on Tennyson's 7V.c ImIij of Sh.iUt). The Death
.f King Arthur 0>-<^fii on Trnnyson's Miirte d'Arihur).
he Ancient Mariner (l>iise<l on Coli-iiilge's i «'in).
l-.e Fight of Pit«-James and Roderick Dhu
(busixl on Scott's /..(./;/ (/(/.-■ /."/.v, Ciiiito V, SS XII— WI).
* The stuilont should fiiiiiiliiiiizo liinisilf with the [nicm, ninku ii
|,luii, uud thun writo his coin|»nition uithcr from ini'inory or with
the original biifore liim. In cliiss, whoii ii sutlicioiit mimlwr of copies
lire wiiiitirig, the iwemshoiiul Iw rcud nloiid luul questions put uiioii
it. This is u most desiralile exercise fiom the |ioint of view Ijotli of
Composition and of Literature.
208
EI.KMKXTAl'iY GliAMMAIi.
THE SENTENCE AND THE PARAGRAPH.
Ill I'liniiHisitionx, as seiiti'iiccs ilci nut stiiiid iiloiic, lir.t mo in
(Mimicctiuri with otlier scntcins ^ ; wliut may In; an excellent
senteneo in and for itself, may Ue luHirly c-unsti-ueteil fnim
the point (if view uf the eunlext. Fuf example, the iiuestidii
which (if the ideas in a sentence oii^-lit to lie put in tlie
principal clause, must lie determined hy tlio line uf thciu,;.'ht
which is lieing fullciwcd tliiougli the .successive sentcni'i-s.
Tn short, ni.t only .sliould there be Unity, Colierence, I'lojior-
tiiin in a, paragraph and in a vihole composition, .so far as
thought or material goes ; but also, in as far as possible, this
Unity, Coherence and Proportion slio-.ild lie indicated in the
foim of expression. Particularly does Coherence depend
upon the sentence structui-e. 77ii" xfiitiHirs iiiK.it he so om-
.itiKi-lid that with the letlst jioxxiUn diliUiiltij the liiiml of the
reiiiler muij jiei-is from one senteiiec to another. Two sentences
may, in thought, l)e closely connected ; and yet the writer,
by putting, at the beginning, .son\o minor idea of the second
sentence which lias no direct lelation to the earlier sentence,
may momentarily give a check to i .uence of thought in
his reader s mind.
As far as form goes, then, the transition from .sentence lo
sentence is maile easy, by the following devices :
1. By sentence connectives : nwreorer, h<or.e,r,
iienmHiiiiIti, on the other hiiiid, etc. Such connecti\es are
most largely used in reasoning and exposition, and are not
.so frecpient in narratives and the simjiler foiins of compo-
sition which beginners write. /"■ sure to stleet the roiineetire
that cejiresxes the real relation e.eiatiioj hetireen the xeiitenees.
See that the eoniieetire reallij heljis (lie transition, It is not,
however, necessary that tliere should always lie a link
iK'twfen successive sentences; especially is this the case when
F.LEMENTARY GEAMMAU.
UOit
iwli siMitfiicc ili«'s ii"t j;ri)W out nf l]\v prccrfliiiK, but lioais
tho siliim ri'liitioil ii« tlio iilreeilili)^, ti) some toiuiiu.ll iileil.
Vny cxJiinpU' ; —
II(! was ii very silent man by t-nstoni. All diiy
li(^ hung round tlio c-ovc, or upon tho cliffs, with a
lirass tolcscojio; uU cveuinj; ho set in a corner ol'
the jiurlor next the lire, and drank rum and watei-
veiy strong. Mostly he would not si)cak when
spoken to; only look up sudden and flerce, and
blow through his nose like a fog-horn; and we
an<l the people who c.inio to the house soon learned
to let him he. Every day, when he camo back from
his stroll, he would" ask if any seafaring men had
gone by along the road. At first, we thought it
was tho want of company, etc.
Here tlic Nurtrssive sciiii'iires give itcnis in tlic description of
tlie clmriii-ter ami lial)its of tlie iiiiiii ; tlio imttler sumciently
indicates tins, and no further connection is necessary.
2. By definite reference i" i'li'^'s or words in tlie
]lrecedin.^' sentence. Tins nic'tliod is particularly applicable
wlien a sentence ;/rmr.s ulit of tlio preicdini,'. Oilier tilings
lieiii},' ecpial, it is well tliat tliis eonneetin;,' link sliould come
at or near the Ix'i^inning. PronounS are particularly use-
ful fo these refcn'iiccs. Notice the links inrlicatcd liy italics
in tli(, following from ilacaulay :--
You cannot depend for literary instruction and
iinuisi'ment on the leisure of nitui occupied in tho
pursuits of active life. Siirh men may occasiomdly
produce compositions of grwit merit. Hut you
nuist not look to ■•iiirli men for works which reipiiro
deei) meditation and long research. Works of thai
kind you can expect only from persons who nuiko
literature the business "of their lives. Of tlirxe
pert
t!oiifi few \vi
11 be found among the rich and
210
ELEMENTAUV GUAMMAK.
ii()l)ln. Till' rich and iiohle aro not impelled to
iiitoUei-tual oxertiou by necessity. Tlii'!/ may be
impelled, ete.
3. By repeated structure. Wlien a series of sen-
tences serve a similar purpcwe, it lielps tiiwarils clearness and
smoothness, if the same (,'erieral atnicturo !» preserved. It
ia well, for example, nut to change needlessly the grammatical
subject of successive sentences. (Compare what is said of
sentences, p. 202, § 4.)
Man is a being of genius, passion, intellect, con-
science, power. He exercises these various gifts in
various ways, in great deeds, in great thoughts, in
heroic acts, in hateful erini!-s. He founds states,
he fights battles, he builds cities, he ploughs the
forests, he subdues the elements, he rales his kind.
He creates vast ideas, etc.
Suppose the second of these sentences read: "These
various gifts are exercised by him in various ways," etc.,
the structure would be changed an<l there would be some
loss in clearness and force.
Practice.
Examine the succession of 'sentences in the following selec-
tions, Fifth Rmuler: The. liattle of M'al,-rl<m (p. 2Hf)), J%»«
Chnria (p. 50), Show nml Ice (p. 61), and determine the
qature and methods of transition,
PARAPHRASING.
It is a helpful exercise in developing our powers of express-
ing complicated thoughts with exactness, to reproduce, in our
own language, the substantial iileas contained in suitable
passages of poetry. In order to do this successfully, certain
general principles must be kept in mind :
ELEMENTAKV (UtAMMAi
211
1. The sliHlf'tit slumld fust ascrrlniri tlui iiieaiiiii;^ of tlio
whole pas.sa>;c In-fttro him, »Iiould tlieii in his own iniii() divrst
it of its purely piH'tic qualities, ami cum-cive tho same idciw
from a prosaic, mattor-of-fact point of view.
2. Tho reijuirementa of rime and nictre, and other con-
siderations lead poets to put their words and ideas in a
different order from that which would Iw natural in prose.
Hence, we must see that the order of the original (hM>s not
lead us to an unnatural arrangement of words, clauses, etc.
3. Certain words are used only in poetry, and w<)rds
may be used in certain senses in poetry not iH'rmissiblo
in prose.
4. Poetry expresses ideas in a figurative and concrete
fashion wide' must often, in prose, bo rendered less striking,
or be wholly shunned.
5. The poet wishes to bring out what is l>eautiful, what
touches the feelings ; but it is the first aim of pi-oso to state
things clearly and accurately, and to waste no words. Clear-
ness may require us, then, to include or expand ideas that the
poet omits, or passes over lightly; to indicate the exact
connections which the poet trusts his reader to make ; to
Cimdense or omit that which is dwelt upon for tlie sake of
its iH'auty or emotional effect, but which is not needful for
understanding the main drift of tho thought.
JIODKL IX.
AtTER THE BATTLE.
Night closeil around the conqu- ''a way
And lightniug;s showed thedioLaiit hill,
Whore those who lost that dreadful day
Stood few and faint, but fearless still !
The soldier's hope, the patriot's zeal,
For over dimmed, for ever crossed, —
O who shall say what heroes feel
When all but life ami liunor's lost 1
212 ELEMENTAKY (iU.VMMAB.
The last sad hour of freedom's ilream,
And valor's teiak, moved slowly by.
While mute they watched, till morning'a Iwani
Should rise luid give them light to die.
There's yet a world where souls are free,
Where tyrants taint not nature's bliss ;
If Death that world's bright opening be,
O who would live a slave in this'?
Pahapiikase.
The appvoai'h of davkiioss pvcvoiilcd tlio victors
from fompletiuj? their work ; an<' still, as the oct-a-
sioual flashes of lightning showed, a scanty ami
exhausted but courageous remnant of the van-
quished occupied a distant hill. All their hopes
were at an end, all then patriotic zeal had proved
unavailinf!. Who can say what their fecaiiigs were,
as, everything lost except life and honor, they
silently watched through the long hours of the
night, waiting till the morning light might give
them the opportunity to crown by death their
heroic work ! Death, indeed, they could not dread,
for it opened the doors to a world where no tyrant
rules, where every spirit is free.
Paraphrase: The British Soldier in China (see
Third Render, pp. 237-2.38). The Water Fowl («-e
Fourth E,'mhr, p. 56). The Eve of Quatre Bras (-ce
Fnurlh Kumh-r, pp. 2,36-237, stanzas 1-.3). Consolation in
Exile (Fifth Reader, pp. 179- ISO).
ELEMENTAIJY GUASIMAU.
•2\:\
BOOKS USEFUL FOR COMPOSITION.
Hart, Essentials of Prosu C"m|insitiim (ospocially vnlualilp
for its treatment of sentences). Hii.i., l!eginnini,'s of Com-
position and Rlietoric. Lewis, First Book in Writing Kiig
lisli. Nesfield, Junior Course in English Conii«wili"n.
SvKEs, Elementary English Composition. Alexandek and
Liiiiiv, ComiKisition from Mixiels.
Tlie last three contain mmleis and other material for com-
positions. This may also bo ohtained from ^fCsnp'n Fttlt/>:<,
MissMul(M^k's Fairy Hunk, (/rlmm'n Fair;/ 'fiileit, MissYonge's
/iddk ofdiililfH Ih'pih and Jlnnk of Wnrllii'-n, and oilier collec-
tions of stories and anecdotes, etc., to 1m» fountl in the
catalogue of almost any reputable eilucational publisher.
PART SEVtN.
GROWTH OT THE LANGXTAGE.
During the nineteenth century the use of the English
language has greatly increased tlinmghout the world. It is
now spoken on the continent of Europe to such an extent
that it liids fair to become the most efiectivo means of com-
munication on which travellers of all nationalities can de-
pend for making their wants known. It is the ordinary
language of the United States as well as the British Empire,
and as each of these is increasing from time to time in area
its use is constantly spreading with them.
At the beginning of the century the English language was
used less extensively than the French, the German, the
Spanish, and probably also the Italian. It was spoken then
by twenty mill.ans of people ; at the close of tho century it
was the ordin.ary means of communication anxmg one hundred
and thirty millions, while German was used by sixty-five,
Spanish by fifty five, French by forty-five, and Italian by
thirty-five millions.
It is interesting and important to ascertain where this
most progressive of all historical languages originated, how it
adapted itself to the growth of civilization, and what changes
it underwent during this long process of evolution. It is im-
possible to do more in this place than furnish a mere outline ;
the studenc who wishes to procure more detailed information
can easily do so by consulting one of tho many available
treatises on the subject. A brief list of these is given at the
close of this section.
214
ELEMENTARY GKAMMAR.
PERIODS OF ENGLISH HISTORY.
•JM
The evolution of tlio Englisli language runs concurrently
with the development of English literature, and lH>th have
kept pace very closely with the progress of English history.
It is necessary, therefore, to define briefly the v-rious stoges
through which the country called " England " passed until
it was merged first in " Great Britain," then in " The
United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland," ami lastly
in that nondescript political organization popularly called
"The British Empire," sending out hy the way cohinial off-
shoots which have sinie lieciinio "The United States of
America," " The Dominion of C'aniuia, ' and " The Common-
wealth of Australia." In each of thes<-, as in the mother
country and in the other colonies not yet so completely
organized, the English language is not merely the otficial but
the popular language of the nation, and steadily if not
always rapidly it is superseding all other means of linguistic
communication. This preeminence of the English tongue ia
due in part to its inherent qualities as an effective mode of
human speech, in part to the high excellence of the liU-ra-
ture of which it is the vehicle, and in part to the adventurous
spirit and adaptive genius which have mode the English-
speaking people the most efficient colonizers known to his-
tory. As these causes are enduring so probably will be the
already achieved pre-eminence of the English language,
which, if any one tongue has a chance to become cosmopoli-
tan, is in the best position to secure that dis unction.
The British.
When the British Islands were visited by Julius Caesar,
5ft B.C., they were occupied chiefly by people of the Keltic
race, s!>eaking various Keltic languages. Their descendants
are to ix! found to this day in Wales, the Scottish Highlands,
•21(1
ELEMr.NTAIlY OHAMMAR.
anil parts of tho south ami west of Irrlanil. The! Ronmiis
know little of tho hittiT coiintiy, liut they brouglit ii very
large iiroiM>rtion of Kngliinil mid Siotliiiid under suhjvclioii
U'fore they aliaiidoiicd the island in the middle of the! fifth
century of the Christian ura. On thi-ir dojiarturc it bucanio
a pny to invaders Itelonging to the Teutonic race.
The English and Danes.
After the departure of tlie Romans alxiut 4r)0 A.D. the
Angles, Saxons, and other tril)os from across the North Si'ii
began to settle in Britain. They gradually spread over the
Bontliern and western jiarts of England, the northern region
being occupie.! largely by Scandinavians from Deiiiiiark and
Norway. The languages spoken by these invadei-s were all
Teutonic, though they differed gi-eatly among tlieniselves.
Ultimately the English language, which included many
dialects used by the Angles, Saxons, Jutes, and Panes, was
spoken over all England outside of Wales, ovi'r all tho Low-
lands of Scotland, and over a great liart of Ireland.
The NoiiMANs.
Early in the middle ages Northmen of the race of those
who, under the name of "Danes," miule their homes in
Britain formed settlements in Italy and in France. After
dwelling for over a century and a half in the northwestern
part of the latter country, and establishing there a powerful
dukedom, which is still called after them, they invaded
England under the name of "Normans" in 10C6 A.D.,
and made themselves masters of the country. By this
time their own Scandinavian language had passed out of
use, and they spoke one that is generally called Norman-
French, to distinguish it from the dialect of the south of
France. It consisted largely of Latin words uswl by the
Komanizcd Gauls, and it ultimately liecamu the modern
elfmf,\tai:y r;K\MM\n.
lM7
FriMirh liingimjun, Tlum^iti tlic roiMiucst of I'n^land, and
uflprwjinl.s of Wales, wjw i-innplctc iind i>t'riMii»«nt, it
wuM for tlio most imrt only n i>oliticiil coiHiucst. TIio
Kii^'lisli iK'oplo wt'w so nnu'li nntro numerous tlian tlio
Nnrmnn-P'rerich that tho lattei oxercised eonii>iirutively
littlo intluence in any ot!n'P wiiy, ami eventmilly tlieip
langiin<;e, never used l>y tlie masses, ceased to Ix- tho
Hpeeeli even of the nohility. Tliis ivsult wjw Iiastenod by
tho AVars of the I [uses, in tlit^ eoui-se of wliieh many tioUe
fainilu's were extiii<,'uishe<l, wiiile no literary work of any
iiniH)rtanee apjM'arecI to enunteruet tho tendency of the Ia!i-
piai'ft to cast oir its <;ranniiaticul jM'euliarities. Dui'iiii^ tlie
whole of tlie Tu<]<)r i«'riod (lisr>-1603) intluenu's were at
work which rapidlv revolutionized tlie religious, soeial, ami
intelltHitual life of the En;rlis!i ami S(!ottisii pe<)ples, and
paved the way for tin-ir union into a singh; kingdom. Tiie
discovery of Ami-.'iea and of tiie Cajwj of Good Hojx; in
tlie last decade of tlie fifteenth century set a host of ml-
venturers of different nationalities at w.irk ex])Ioriny new
reijions and colonizin;^ those most available for that pur-
p<ise. Tiie Protestant K<'fnnnation swept over Ixith Enylanil
and Scotland, and tlnis prevented any reliLjious ol)stacle to
tlieir union in one monarchy, whii^h t»M)k place in l')03. Tho
close relations In'twecn Great F»i'itain and France durinj^ both
the earlier and later jMirtioiis oi theHtuart period (IGO3i-(JS0)
niiule possible a \ery iiii|K)rtant and extensivf^ infusion of
Frencli elements ir.to the Knirlish \ocabulary. From this
time forward tho kin;;ili)m of Great IJritain was much
more self-i-nntained, the parliamentary union with Ireland
in IHGO involving no dynastic or social change. Tlio
colonization of what is now tho United States went on
from 1*)07 tu the beginning of the revolutionary war
wliieb made the I'nited Slates independent in 17H3.
Mcanwhilu tliu Fi^unch culunics which ui'O now included
Jis
KI-FMP.N'."AKT OnAMMAK.
in r,inn.l.i limt U-rn w.m from FrHU-p (l"l.V17fi1), «ii.l
tlipy w.To finally c.nsi.lul.'.t^l with tli« r.>»t of tho n»rtl«.rn
Imlf of tho corititM-nt to form on.' "Dominion" in I8t)7.
(>a tho fust (Uy of the '.wontioth century the gn^at isUii'l-
contincnt of Au«trali.^ -arly anncx.^.! in parUi by BritiKh
naviKaton., Ikh.i „.•, with the mldition of Tu8uuui.a, one
" Commuiiwealth."
PERIODS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
It is in the nature of things irnp.«sil,le to fix a yrrcim
date wh.n 01<1 EnRlish nn.l Norinan-FrLnch Ravo place to
m.Kl.Tn KuKlish in l>opular use, hut tho change ha<l pr-i-rcss...!
so far l.y tho mi(l.llo of the fourU-enth century that in
1.302, in the reign of Klward III., a law wa.s jmssed rc(iuir-
ing all trials in tho King's Courts to bo conduct.Hl in English
inst^wl of French. This change was further promoted by the
popularity of the writings of two men in the la.st quarter of
the fourt.*nth century. These were William l^ngland, who
wrote the " Vision of Piers Plowman," and Oeoffn^y C.uiucer,
whose iH^ t kn<iwn work is his " Canterbury Tales." An imle-
finite amount of influence in tho same direi-tion was exercised
by the first English translati.m of the Bible, which was ma-ie
aix.ut the same time either by John Wyclif or under his per-
sonal sui>erintcndence. Tho ps^try of Filmund HiK-nser
who wrote his "Fairy Queen" in the reign of Queen
ElizaV«th, and tho plays of William Shakespeare whose
literary activity covere.1 parta of tho reigns of Eliza^
beth and James I., show that the English language had
by the end of tho sixteenth century become very much
what it now is in all essential respects. The same kind
of prcH.f is afforde<l by the authoriaxl version of the
Bible, which was OJade early in tho reign of James.
FXF.MF.NTAIIY C.UAMMAn.
Somn clian-'pn liavn «innn tlii\t tiino tiikpii pliiro iti llio «pi«ll-
iiig of woriln, hilt tlicio liiivn l»i'ii ki'iit <liiwn in iiiiiiiljer
by ttio iiitluciu'o of iirinliiii;, wliicli Wiw iiitniduiTil iiiU>
EnKliiiiil from Oprmaiiy in 1477. The griiinniur of the
languBgB xineil in the reign of Queen Elizulwlh wiw for
all priictieal purposes tlmt of the ltinguat,-o used in the
reign of Queen Victoria, ami though there are many more
worils in the English vocahulary in the twentieth century
than there were in tlio Hlxt<H'nth no mmlern Blnglisli writer
has used so many sejtarat*! wonU as Shiikespearo did. Whilo
it is not either easy or stifo to fix definite liniils to iktiikIs
of transition in the history of thu Ei]«li>h liinguaije, the
following stages and dau^s uuiy usefully 1h! taken as
approximately correct :*
Anglo-Saxon . . . 4111 1100
Early English (Somi Saxon) 1100-1250
Mi.mio English . . . viM-irm
Modern English . 15(»-19CK)
I. Anolo-Saxos (4.-)0-U00).
The only means wo have of knowing tlio kind of language
spoken !>y the Teutonic races in England between their
cdvent thire and their aul)jugation by the Norman- Fremli
are the fragments of Anglo-Saxon liteiaturo pnsluced at
various times and places within that long interval. Tlio
inoro imjiortant of tliese are "The Gleeman's Song," supixMcd
to have lx»n written in the fifth century ; fragments of a
metrical paraphrase of liible history by Caedmon, a North-
umbrian monk of the latter part of the seventh century ;
the poem, " Bc<iwulf," prodiieed proluibly in the eighth cen-
tury ; some translations from l«itiii by Alfred the Great
•These eorrcsiioiul. -Aith slijpht rhiiiiK<'H. to Ilie |wrio<Is jfiven by Prof.
Spaldins in liis "I.iifc Vh Lilemtury.' uiiil by I'l-of. Mciklejuhii in his
" English LonKuaffe."
IH)
ELEIIENTAIIY tiUAMMAU.
near tliocliwo of the ninth ci-ntury , nml n Snxim Chronicle,
l»irtly ci)m|)il«><l frmn cmlii^r aiiiiiilH ami |«rtly oiigiiiiil,
written in 8iirii'«»ive ixntiona from tlu> b<-giniiin){ of the
ninth to tlie middle of the twelfth century. The Kngli»h
liiii){uii;;c, OH at present used, defwnda to some extent on
iiillections, ■wliich are cliangcs in the forms of words to
iiiiiicttto chnnsfcH in their use or meaning (see pp. 77-135).
In the earliest stage of the language, called "AngU>
Max<in" ttlsive, such changes were nmch more common.
In fiu:t it W0.1, like Ijitin, a highly infli-ete<l language
which cannot 1)0 reail or understissl exeept liy one who
has learned it ns a foriugn tongue. Tinit it differs from
niislern Kriglish ipiito as nimh in its syntax (see pp. 136
1 111) as ill its iiitleetions, may be seen by reference to the
illustrative extracts given in Apjicndix B.
II. Eakly Encilisii (1100-1250).
Owing partly to Scandinavian inroails, partly to the Nor-
man conquest, and partly to a natural process of decay, the
Anglo-Sax(m droppwl its intloctions and changisl its syntax
to such an ext<'iit that during the century and a half covered
by this jMTiisl it began to rcsiimblo miKlern Knglish, ..liii
retaining so much of its original charocter that it is
often called "Scini-Saxon." Its condition may fairly lie
described as chaotic, and while it served well enough as a
means of spoken communication between those who used
it, there arc few literary remains to show to the modern
student of language what it was like. The most note<l
works exhibiting the language in this stage are the "Brut,"
a metrical chronicle of Britain by a priest named Laya-
mon, and the "Ormuluni," a series of metrical homilies
by an ecclesiastic named Oriiiin. Of these two contem-
iMiraries Layamon used lK>th ullileralioii and rime ; Ormiii
used neither. They wrote late in the twelfth century or
ELEMENTAItY (iltAMMAK.
:.'LM
(»ftriy ill till' tIiirt»n»Mlli. Tim rxtnirls jrivt-n in A{i[N'iii)ix It
will ^i\(! a ^hkI i)lra (if tlic |irtigi't'^.s iiia<lo liy tlii; 1iiii^'uiijl;i'
during tlii^ jM-riix].
in. Jti'i.m.K Kniimsii (1l>.'>0 inoo).
The jinK't"*s <if cliaip.^i' tlH'oui^Ii wliicli t\m laii^^uaiio was
|iiuv<iiig (luring till' |H'i'iaKl (if " Ivirly Kii;.'li''li " went mi willi
tjn'ntiy iiiiri'iiHcil i'a|iiility iliiiiiii,' tliat of "Midiilo Knijlislj."
It I'oiitiiiueil t(i Idso its iiilU'ctiiin.s and it aci|uin'(l nunirrniiH
additions to its vocaliulaiy fnun tlic Fii'iu-li, liut un the
wliolo tlio iu'dj^i-OHS wart from a cliaolit! toward a Hystriiialic
iiinditiun. In grnrral cliararlrr and also in most of its
details it lieeamo so like iikhIitii Kiifjlisli that it may lie
read with eoiiijiarali\o case by one who lias no knowledi;e
of AiikIo Saxon and who ean read Kaily Kii^'lish only with
fjivat dillieully. Aliout the miilille of this jieriiKl of two
and a lialf centuries two prolialily ecinternpor iiy writers
jiriKlueed works which are still famous. The Ies.s known of
tho two, William LinL;land, wrote his " Vision of I'ieis I'low-
tiiaii " in the iangtiage of the i-onimoii jicipjile whose eoudi
tion it deserilies and whose fcelin;;s it expresses. It is ik t
strietly rhylhrnleal like iiiodein Kn(,'lisli verse, and it is not
rimed; instead of Imh riiiii! and rhytl'iii the [iiet ir.;i!i fi-ee
use of the oM Saxon ileviie of alliteration. I>anL;land
wais a jiriest hy eailinj;, and his oecupation liroui^lit him
into close eontaefc with the misery which sul)se<|ueritly
caused the uiirising led by AVat Tyler and John liall ;
Oeoflrey Chaucer w;is a courtier, diplomatist, and scholar,
who had ample opportunity to iH'conie acfjuainted with
Italian literal ure, then risiiif; to a condition of the highest
excellence. He used liotli rhythm and rime with a skill
that has seldom heen surpassed liy nMHl(>rn jioets, and thus
(Titabli.shed the jirus.nlic.-d eh.ir:iclcr of Kiiijllsh vinsi^'. Hi:;
chief work wa.s tho "Canterbury Tales.'* AImiuI half a
J-- ELEMENTAllY GRAMMAR.
century after his drjith Ix-j^aii tlin "Wars of the Jloaos," which
clicckcd the dovrlopinciit of iiiLtional literature but favorcH
tlie (It'vplopment of tlio national hmguage, so that bt-iore
the at'ceasion of Ilcnry VITT. in 1509 tl;e latter had become
in both grammar and vocabulary quite intelUgible to any
ordinary reader of ' -<lry. Tn 1477 William Caxton intro-
duce<l into England the art of printing from movable type,
and afterward gave a great impulse to the development of
English prose by publishing Sir Thomas Malory's " Morte
Darthur," which had been written about 1470. Speci-
mens of the language dunng this period may be found in
Appendix B.
IV. Modern Enolisii (1500-1900).
Tliis period may usefully lie regarded as divided into
four separate centuries. I>uring the first of these thei-c
(K'curred that revival of learning which is known as the
Uenascen<'e, but not till toward its close '''d greiit literary
works began to apiKvir. Early in the century Sir T)u)mas
More distinguished himself as an orator and a proso writer,
but his preoccupied life and untimely death prevented him
from doing all he miglib havo done to add to English prose
that elasticity the want of which w-as its greatest defect.
He was beheaded in 1535. The latter half of the century
was signalized by the publication of Edmund Spenser's
" Fairy Queen " and by sevc al of William Shakespeare's
plays. The language used by Spenser was made designedly
more archaic than the ordinary speech of his day ; that
used by Shakespeare may, with allowance made for his
exceptionally ample vocabulary, \m taken as fairly repre-
sentative ()f contemjMirary speech. Richard Jlooker, Sir
Philip Sidney, and Francis Uacon were contemporary proso
writers.
During the earlier half of the second century prose was
ELEMENTAHY ClliAlIlIAR.
rcpicsrnlrd rliipfly \,y Ffaiicis (then Lord) Bacon, .Icilin
Milton, anil Tlioiniis lloljljus; in the lallcr liiilf of it liy
Jeremy Taylor, John Locke, and John liunyan. Of the
latter three the influence of liuiivan on the form and char-
acter of English prose was -uli '.!:» ^leatost. The Author-
ized Version of the Bib.j wa.; iiuhiiilieu in Ifill. Like
.Sjienser's poetry of a genera, on earlii.T it vas in its own day
somewhat archaic in vocahula. •, '.;■.! ■'• liri;ical and rhetorical
structure it was sinj,'ularly modern and extremely inlluential.
Shakesinare continued to write plays tor the first few years
of tlio century; AVilliam l)ruinmond published his exiiuisito
sonnets during the same jk^i. 1; Milton's earlier poems were
given to the world before 1G40 ; his later and greater works
were publislu'd after the Kestoration. John Dryden, wh,>
was a skilful prose writer as well as a poet, died in the
last year of the century. Samuel liutler's satiric poem,
"Hudibra-s," was published in IOCS, and exerted great in-
fluence on the lanyuagR oji account of its jMipularity.
The interval iK'twi'cn Dryden's death in 1700 and William
Cowp'r's in 1800 is filled up with many distinguished names
in literature. Alexander I'ojk) and James Thomson were the
prominent fK«ts of the fi>riner half of tliO century, and Thomas
Gray, Oliver Goldsmith, IJobert Burns, and Cowper of the
latter lialf. Joseph Addison (1672-1719) w.is by no means
the greatest scholar or thinker among the prose writers,
but he was pre-emii.,iit in his influence on the art of
writing. Since his day f;nglish prose has l«'n completely
modern and free from the stiffness which had previously
characterized it. Daniel DcfiK', Sir liichard Steele, and
Jonathan Swift were his contemjHiraries. The succcediii"
generation produced Samuel Jolnisou, Edmund liurke, Golil-
smitli, iMvid Hunu', and Edward Gibb<in, of whom Gold.smith
alone resembled Addison in his instinctive preference for an
uucuuventional style.
■>->i ELF.llKNTAHY ttUAMMAR.
Tim proat names in lin^lisl. i«H.t.y .lurins H.-^ f";«t K"""
eratinn of tl,. ninotcntl. century, -l.i.l, «.s ..mmaU.ly
aff«-te.l l.y tl.o Kr,M,>l. llevolu.io,.. >v..,o S..mu-1 layW-
CuU-ridge, William Wonlsw.rll.. Lor.l IJyrm,, IVTey Byssl.c
ShcUevrand Jolm Keats; their .n.uo illustrious .ueeesso.s
of tl>r.,.i>Mle of tl,c century ^vero Alfred Tenny.s,.n and
Robert Browning in England an,l ";'"'y W^';^-'";; '. ^^i:^;
fellow, Oliver Wemlell Ilol.nes, and Jan.es Russell I.o«,l
in A,n..ri,a. The cl.ief prose writers of tl,o former ,>er.«
w«re Sir Walter Scott, Walter Savage Lan.lor, Tlu.mas D.
Quincy, Charles I.unh, and Coleridg . ; -f «"' '''tter, Tl.onras
Carlvle, Ix.rd M....aulay, John Ruskin, W dhan. Make,.'-'-'
Thackerav, a,>d Charl..s I.ickens. To their generation ui
time but'to a later one l.y the publication ot bus greate.
u-orks iK.longs Mr. Gol.lwin Snnth, who has never been
surpassc-d as a stvlist in the nse of English prose.
TREATISES ON THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
Cka.k, a Ma..u:il ..f English Literature and uf the
History of the Eii-Ush Lai.guago.
Emeuson, History of tho English l.auguaao.
Kbllnkii, Ilistorioi.l Outlines of Kuglisli Syntax.
LocssBCKV. The English Language.
MmK..uoHS,Tho English Language (riranunar. History,
anil Literature).
.Mouais, Historical Outline of English A.-^aeuee (Ke-
viscd hy Kelliier ami Urudley V
KEATll, Tlie High School English (ira.nii.ar.
.S,AU.iNo, .V History of English Literature (with an .mt-
line a the origin au.l growth of the English
tongiiv).
Sweet, \ Now English (iraniniar.
WBlon™.K, The Functional Elemeuts of th. KagU.h
Rentt-uut).
APPEISTDIX A.
IRRF/JtILAK i'LUUALS FOR REFKRENCR
Siiujuiar.
1 irother
penny
die
6sh
jrenius
Jinrse
index
floth
shut
Phirai.
( brothers (of the mime family).
\ bretliren (of a society),
j pennies {single coins).
\ pence (collectively).
( (lies (used to stamp coins).
\ dice (used in games),
f fishes (singly).
\fish (collectively).
f geniuses ([Kjrsons of great ability).
\ genii (spirits).
( horses (animals).
\ horse (cavalry).
I indexes (in liooks).
\ indices (in algebra).
( elotlis (pieces of clotli).
\ clothes (garments).
/ shots (discharges).
I shot (balls).
Simpihir.
Mr. Brown
Mrs. Robinson
Mias Smith
Muster Taton
man-servant
woman -servant
fatber-ln-law
jnotlierin-law
court-martial
Plnral.
Messrs. Brown,
tlie Mrs. R(il)inson8.
(the Misses Smith
or
the Miss Smiths.
the Masters Paton.
men-servants,
women-servants,
fathers- in-law.
mothers-in-law.
courts- martial.
m
a
7
m'a
a's
7*8
■'lit;
ELEIIENTAIIV (lIUMlIAli.
FORF.IC.N I'UJRALS.
[The Dictionary should be consulted for such words.]
radius
radii.
incmorandum
memoranda.
curriculum
curricula.
iixis
axes.
appendix
appendices.
phenouionon
phenomona.
analysis
analyses.
hyi>othesis
hy I Ki theses.
I>arenthesis
parentheses.
bandit
(" bandits
\ banditti.
oasis
oases.
Btratum
strata.
tableau
tableaux.
GENDER NOUNS FOR REFERENCE.
Different Words.
Mn$niHpe.
fcminui
bachelor
maid
boy
girl
beau
belle
brother
sifter
buck
doe
bull
cow
buUock
heifer
drake
duck
earl
countess
lather
mother
friar
nuD
gander
goose
gentleman
lady
hart
roe
12
yfa.^ruUnc
Frminint
husband
wife
k'^'g
queen
lad
liLSS
landlord
landlady
lord
lady
man
woman
master
mistress
nephew
niece
papa
mamma
ram
ewe
stag
hind
son
daughter
uncle
aunt
wimrd
witch
ELEMENTAKV GHAMMAK.
DlFFKRKNCK ii
p Tkrhinathin.
Masculine.
Fnnininc.
Ma-ictifin''.,
Fetninint.
ablwt
a}»I)ess
hos6
hostess
ac'tor
artreas
hunter
huntress
administrator
administratrix
idolater
idolatress
umhjissjwJor
ambassadress
Jew
Jewess
advtiiturei-
adventuress
lion
lioness
author
authoress
marquis
marchionesa
liiiron
baroness
margrav")
margravine
l)enef actor
benefactress
master
mistress
liridegTooTi
bride
iwtron
patroness
count
countess
I)eer
peeress
czar
czarina
priest
priestess
dauphin
dauphinesa
prince
princess
deacon
deaconess
jireceptor
preceptress
<lon
donna
prophet
prophf-tess
duke
duchess
shepherd
shepherdess
emperor
empress
songster
songstress
enchanter
enchantress
sorcerer
sorceress
executor
executrix
Eultun
sultana
giant
tnantfss
testator
testatrix
god
goddess
tiger
tigress
governor
governess
waiter
waitress
heir
lieiress
widower
widow
hero
heroine
COMPARISON OF IRRECULAR ADJECTIVES,
Posittfe. CumjKiratire.
fore former
forth (adv.) further
near
Pa-iitire.
hind
in (adv.)
up (adv.)
top
south
nearer
( 'om^mrative
hinder
inner
upjier
nether
Super/ative.
( foremost)
\ first
furthest)
(nearest
I next
Superlative.
hindmost
inmost, innermost
uppermost
nethermost
topmost
southmoafa
228 ELEMENTAUY GKAMMAK.
8TR0NO VERBS AND IRREGULAR WEAK VERBS.
Prexnl.
/»<M(.
Ptrft.ct Partkiplit,
abide
abode
uIkhIu
arise
aroee
arisen
am, be
was
been
liear (bring forth)
bore
born
bear (carry)
bore
borne
beat
beat
beaten
begin
began
begun
behold
beheld
beheld
bend
bent
bent
bereave
bereaved, bereft
bereaved, bereft
beseech
besought
l)esought
bet
bet
bet
bid (command)
bade
bidden
bid (oiTer money)
bid
bid
bind
bound
bound
bite
bit
bitten
bleed
bled
bled
blend
blent, blended
blent, blended
blow
blew
blown
break
broke
broken
breed
bred
bred
bring
brought
brought
build
built
built
catch
caught
CLlUght
chide
chid
chidden
choose
chose
chosen
cleave (ail be re)
cleaved
cleuvcd
cleave (split)
clove, cleft
cloven, cleft
cling
clung
clung
come
came
come
cafe
cut
cut
ELEMENTARY OIUMMAU.
22!)
Pnxiu.
Pitxt.
/W/fct Purtieipie.
■Iral
deult
dealt
Ji«
dug, digged
dug, tligged
do
did
done
draw
drew
drawn
dretis
drest, dresHed
drest, dressed
drink
drunk
drunk
drive
drove
driven
dwell
dwelt
dwelt
Ulit
ate
eaten
fall
fell
fallen
f«!d
fed
fed
feel
felt
felt
fling
fiung
dung
fly
flew
fluwn
forbear
forbore
forljorne
forget
forgot
forgotten
forsake
forsook
forsaken
freeze
froze
frozen
give
gave
given
go
went
gone
get
gob
got
grind
ground
ground
grow
grew
grown
luing
hung, huiiged
hung, lianged
liiive
bad,
had
hear
heard
heard
hew
hewed
hewn
liide
hid
hidden
hold
held
held
kneel
knelt, kneeled
knelt, kneeled
know
knew
known
lade
laded
laded, ladea
2'M)
ELEMENTAUY GKAUMAK.
Preaent.
laid
iMve
lend
lie (recline)
lie(fulsehooii)
light ^
lose
make
mean
meet
quit
rend
ride
nw
rive
ran
•ay
see
seek
set
Bhake
shine
show
shrink
sing
sink
sit
slay
bltwp
slide
Paul.
Perfect ParticipU.
luid
kid
U-d
bd
left
Wk
lent
took
by
lain
liud
lied
lighted, lib
lighted, li»
lost
lost
made
made
meant
meant
met
met
iiuit, ijuitted
quit, quitted
rent
rent
rode
ridden
rang
rung
rose
risen
rived
riveu, rived
ran
run
said
said
saw
seen
sought
sought
set
set
shook
shaicen
shone
blione
showed
sliown
shrank
shrunk
sang
sung
tank
sunk
art
sat
al«w
slain
sHE*
slept
did
sUdden, slid
ELEME.NTAJIY OIUMMAU.
-':;i
PrtMtiU,
i'aift.
Per/tct r-irtiriple.
svaxU*.
KTHOte
smittt'it
HOW
bowed
sowt'il, sown
»«[ieuk
8j>uke
HlMjkl'll
si.;:i
Kpun
Rpun
si»oil
8j>oik-d, sjHJtlt
i<IK>ili-(l, s|ioilt)
stay
stayed, staid
staytMl, staid
Hteul
stole, btoleii
stole, stolen
strew
&trev.t'>l
at re w 11
stride
Htrutle
stridden
strike
KlruL-k
struck, Mtricken
Btrivo
strove
striven
swear
swore
sworn
sweep
swept
swept
swell
^wt-'llfd
swelled, Hwullen
swim
(swam
swum
swing
KWiiii;,'
swung
tuke
t(H»k
taken
teach
taught
taught
tear
tore
torn
tell
told
told
think
thought
thought
thrivt^
throve, thrived
thriven, thrived
throw
threw
thrown
treotl
tro<l
trodden
wake
woke, waked
woke, waked
wear
wore
worn
weave
wove
woven
weep
wept
wept
win
won
won
wind
wound
wound
wring
wrung
wrung
write
wrote
written
APPENDIX B.
ANOLO-SAXON vl49.|MO).
The snhjoincd pnwagc* i» taken from Kins AHrr,r« trnnslation
of lli« mythical "tory of Orphous and EurydicB an tol.l ly
Boethiat in his Latin treatise, "On tho Cnnsolation of I'hilo-
«.phy":-
ft-aftnti
lying
parable
harper
We
We
the
tu-thee
gio
tmilon
will
of ealdnm
from old
tale«,
rfr>'an.
tell.
was.
It
I the
g,lnmi,
happL'Ufd
nation
gel,
now,
a-oertain
Ihirlle
formerly, that
Ihe Thmria hultr. Tkm vamn. "»>'f OrJ'nti.
which Thraco was-callid. His nunio w.is Orplieus.
Jh hirfdf an m-i'lie. "■'I'li: »•!/■ Sla "■■>»
He had a very inoocuparable wife. She was
hattn Eurydice.
called Kurydice.
EAEI.Y EXOLISH (1100-1250).
The following passage t from T.ayauion'n "Brut" shows tho
language as it was at the end of tho twelfth century :—
Thiniie cumelh Ihr. wmlf wilde : foini-fird hire u-iiulen:
Then comes the wolf wil.l, toward her tracks:
Theh Ihe mil/ beon tine.: hiUrn a-lc tiiiaiK :
Though tho wolf be one, without all company,
And Ihrr weoren in aiie lohn: fif hiimlrrd tjalen :
And there were in one fold five hundrod goats.
The wvlf heom to iwiltlh: and alh htom ahittth:
The wolf them to oometh, and all them biteth.
rill urial' sis of it sec
• For a longi-r nslriirt .and a ili'tailcd eriil""i''li
Spalding's '•Knglisli Utumturc," I'iirt II.. Cliaplor I
» See Spalding'" " Knirllsh Litcratnn-.'I'iirt II.. Chapter II.. for adetailed
grammatical analysis.
KLEMENTAIIV fWiAMMAB.
MiniH.K KNVJlJsir '1 2:^1. •!()()).
As no groat lihT-iry work api-oaml in tlio English language
during th.t fiiNt c.'Utiiryof thu piTio.1, the following excerpt is
takfu from a. itroclumntion of King Hunry III., U*\uu\ in l'i">H.
As it was int.n.Io.i to !>« nn.I.-r^t.MHl at wi.luly a-! p..HHil.Io it nu
doul>t fairly n-presonts tho prevalent Knglinh uf tho time :—
Thaet witon ye wel alio, tlmt
wo wiiU'n & unnen tliiit thuct
uro riwlesiniMi alio (.thcr tlm
monro dael of heuni, tliii-t beoth
iclioaen thiirg u«, etc. And
thi^ wos idoa ai-t fon-n ure U-
woreno rcd.guM'ii. And al on
tlioilcho wor-lcn ifl iscnd in to
at'urichco othre shciro over all
thaerH kurirricho en Kn^'li.-no-
loau(ii> & pk int.i! Irclanilc.
This know yo woll all, that
wt! will and grant, that what
our councillor* all or the
moro di*al of them, that are
choHi-n liy us. etc. And this
was done Inifure our sworn coun-
cillors. And all in tho samo
wurds is si'nt into evory other
aliiro ovt-r all tho kingilom in
England and tkti into Ireland.
Tho Knglish of a g.^ncratinn lat.T is exhil.itod in tho following
passagfi from I-uugiand'H '♦ Visi.m of Piers Plowman " : —
Ac on a May morwonini^
(>i! Malvorn hills
Mg iH'fel a f( riy,
Of fairy m(^ thought.
I was woary for-w;indorod,
And went mo to rest
Under a brood 1)ank,
By a burn's side;
And as I lay and leaned.
And looked on the waters,
I slotnbered into a sloopiu^-,
It swayed so mury.
Then gan I meten
A fiiarvolloiis swGven,
That I was in a wiMernusH,
Wist I never where.
And on a May morning
On Malvern hills
Me befel a wonder
Of fairy me thought.
I was wi.rn out with wandering
And went mo to rest
Under a broad bank
By a stream's side ;
And, as I lay and leaned
And lonked on the waters,
I altiiiibered into a sleeping
It sounded so pleasant.
Tlien began I to meet
A iriarvellous dream
That I was in a wilderness,
Knew 1 not where.
F.LF.MF.XTAKV (lUAMMAIl.
The rliyihm 'if Chauiwr'n Temn, •hmigh ho wrote almut tho
sunie tiinu a4 l.iinglatid, in ({uitn an ri'gnUr as that of any
tiKMlorn Kn^lixh fxH^try, j>r<>vidi<(l earn in tukt-n in scunniag anil
nuilinjfit to j)rnn..uno,o the final "o" whon it i» intended to be
treated as a «<'|iarate syllalile. In tho (ulluwiug «»cor|>t thoss so
trouti'd are marked by a dinreais. ' ' But " in the third line nieaui
*' unless^* -. —
Ttt dravii folk to hovi'-n by fairness^,
l(y goiiil eu!iaiii|>I(i, wa» his busyuesse i
But it wore eny porsouo o1>tttinat,
\Vhat so he wc>n«, of liigh or lowo e«tnt ;
Ilim wolilo lie suybbti schurply fnr tho nonos.
A bottrij priuAt I tniwo thor nowhcr non is.
llo waytud after no pomp ne roverencc ;
No makiJd him a spioud consoionco.
But Cristi'S !ov»>, and his apostU'S twrlvf,
Iln taught ; and forst he folwOd it tiimselve !
During tho last century of tho prriod, owing to tho depressing
efTi'ot of the " VVars <if tho Ko^im," uo literary work of groat
influence or enduring popularity was produced.
MODERN ENGLISH (1500-11100).
The reign of Henry VIII. would probably, but for the Reforma-
tion struggle lietwoon classes of sciciety, have been marked by the
production of great literary works. As matters stuod during the
fir<t half of tho sixteenth century, the only truly oxcoUeut poetry
in tho English lan^'uago was tkat written by William Dunbar in
Scotland and by the Earl r.f Surrey ami Sir Thomas Wyatt in
England. The following extract is from a letter written by Sir
Thomas More to his children in 1525 : —
But this I admonish you to do; that, whether you write of
serious matters or of trifles, you write with diligence and con-
sideration, premeditating of it teforo. Neither will it be
amiss, it you first indite it in English ; for then it may more
easily be translated into Latin, whilst the mind, free from
inventing, is Rtt.entivo to find apt and elo<iuent words. .\ud,
although 1 put this ;o your choice, whether you » ill do so or
no, yet I enjoin yo.., by all mcaua, that you diligently examine
KI.KMKNTAI:V (;l!\MMAl!. J.;.",
what y.)i h.ivo wriUrn lM.f,.rn you wrifii it, ..viT f.ilr at;. In;
first nouii'liiring ntl"iiliviily tliii wlinlo «i.|ii. n,-,., .lu.l iifhT
«amino ovi'ry part tlmri'iif ; l.y wliich iiu-aVs y,,ii „iuy
oaaily flu.l nut if any nnluiUnw havn ccapuil y.iu ; wlji.li
being putuut, au^l your l.'ttur writti'ii fair, yot thi'H l.a it ni.t
alsotruulilu y.)a t.inxaniinoitov.ir again; for suru.'tinu'i tlio
■amo faultai^ruop in at tlio Hocon.l writing, win. I, y,,u lii.f„r.i
hail lilottcd imt. By this y.iur ililigou.-o you will |ir.)curii, tliat
those your trirtin will smuu sorioun mattorri For. as nothing
U »o pleasing but may iMinailouniavoiiry by prating garrulity,
io nothing is by nature s,i unploasaut, that hy uiJustry niuy
not Ijo made full of grace and pluasautuusi.
To thoEarl of Surrey belongs the credit of in: Lnlucing the sonnet
and blank vorso into modor.. English iKiotry. The sul.joiuod
•onnet is in the spelling of Jie time. ".Soote" is f,,r "sweet."
"make" for •■mate," " lleto " for ■• lloat,' '' siualo ' for " small,"
and "niings" for "mingles".—
The looto iwason, that bud and bloom furth i. rings,
With green huth clad the hill and eke the val.',
The uightingilo with feathers now she sings ;
Tho turtle to her make hath told her laid.
Summer is come for every spray now springs,
The hart h.is hung his old head on the pale ;
Tho buck iu brake his winter coat he lliugs ;
The fishes flete with new-repaired scale ;
Ihe ailder all her sluugh away sho slings ;
Tho swift swallow pursueth tho flies amale ;
"^''.c- li,.;s_,- *eo her honey now she niings ;
\Vi:,t ,r ii > i,rn that w^is tho flowers' halo.
And thas I see ann.ng these pleasant things
Each care decays, and yet my sorrow springs.
Sir Philip Sidney and Edmund Spenser were personal friends as
well as ooutomporaries ; the former died in 15»i and the latter in
1599, so that tha following two sonnets are iu Elizalnithan En"-
lishof the last quarter ul the aist^ofh century. The f,;rmor "f
the tw-o is Spenser's, tho latter Sidney's. "Ilelicii" is tho eon-
Btellatiou of the Great Bear ; —
-li««lttKi.....:«iB:'Ki'.^*K4i. V
-MO
ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR
Like as a ship that through the ocean wide,
By conduct of some star, doth make hor way
When a% a storm hath dimmed hor trusty guide,
Out of lier coarse doth wander far astray, —
So I, whose star, that wont with her bright ray
Me to direct, with clouds is overcast,
Do wander now in darkness and dismay,
Though hidden perils round about me placed ;
Yet hope I well that, when this storm is past,
My Ilelice, the lodestar of my life,
Will shine again, and took on me at last,
With lovely light to clear my cloudy grief j
Till then I wander careful, comfortless,
In secret sorrow and sad pensiveness.
Since Nature^s works bo good, and death doth serve
As Nature's work, why should we fear to die ?
Biuce fear is vain but where it may preserve.
Why should we fear that which we cannot fly ?
Feaj" is more pain than is the pain it foar^i,
Disarming human minds of native might ;
While each conceit an ugly figure bears
Which were not evil, well viewed in reason's light.
Our owly eyes, which dimmed with passions be
And scarce discern the dawn of coming day,
Let them be cleared, and now begin to see
Our life is but a step in dusty way.
Then let us hold the bliss of peaceful mind ;
Since this we feel, great loss wu cannot find.
It is not necessary to insert specimens of the English of the last
three centuries of the j>eriod. The language has not in that interval
undergone any marked change, and its literature iu all stages ia
easily obtainable.
INDPJX.
THE NUMBERS REFER TO PAtiES.
AdJeetiVeS-26, 2K, 41 , chases of, 63; ,|,mlit,.tivc, «3, 61-
quantitative, 63, 61; |>.„hoiniiial, (W ; dcmoiistrative, (iO «:!
141 J interrogHtivc, 61, 63; distril.utive, 6.1, 141; nltriliiitivc
bl; prdicative, 61; u|)|K>sitivo, 141; coiniiarison of, 90-92 ■
IwisinR, 93 ; jiositioii, 141 ; |.hra.He, 28 ; clouse, 83-34 ; articles,
(i.'i ; irrejrulur forms, 227.
Adverbs-29-32, 41, 1 13, 144 ; el,«.,e, of, 6.i, fi7 , com|«ri,oii, 133
131; I»ir»ing, 141; ,,„iti„„, 14.",, 14.1 j peculiur ailveil,,,, 144,
iio ; phrase, 32, 85 ; clauifo, .S3-84, 3,-) ; only, 1 W.
Agreement-mljective.^, 141 ; jironouns, 80, 140; vorl«, 9."., 142.
Analysis- is, 13, 44, 62, ti-tk.
Angrlo-Saxon— 21!). "20, 232.
Antecedent- 57.
Apostrophe-88.
Appendix A.— 225.
Appendix B.-232.
Apposition— 84, 85, 141, 149.
AuXliiarieS-100, 101 ; 1«, 120 ; have, 120 ; may, 120 ; shall 121 .
will, 121 ; do, 123.
Case-8I ; suhjcctive, 80-81 ; ,,re<lieate Mibjective, subjective of
wldrcss, absolute subjective, 82 ; [Kisition, 138. Objective, 80-
Sl ; direct, indirect and cognate objectives, objective after a
preiiosition, 83; objective in ap|«witioii, 84, 138; nrdicate
objective, 138, 139 ; rellexive objective, 1.39; retaincl objects,
139; ,«.sition, 138, 139. Possessive, 81-84, 140 ; |K)sition, 140
Clause-33-31, 39; m^lifying, .34, 35; noun, 72; pri„ci,«l,
co.or,linate, (iS, 73, 7'! ^ sul«rdiimte, 69, 72, 75, restrictive
conjunctive, 58; descriptive conjunctive, RH ; continuative
conjunctive, .59 ; in apiwsition, 8,5.
2.37
2;!H
KLEMKNTAKY CillAMMAR.
Composition ~ I Hn ; prefutcny nute, llij; iireliminary, the iiini,
lOti ; turiiiirml piinc^ .itioii, 1IJ7 ; cupituls, 1118 : gcniTiil
iliructioiis for cc)in|i<)snioiii<, 189; First Series, mcHlel I., 170;
Second Scries, letters, 17«; model ll., 171; liu«lel II!., 176;
model IV,, 178 ; Third Series, imiilel v., 180 ; iMrugrindis, 183 ;
punetuution, 186; the comma, 18S ; colieremw, 189; unity, 190:
proiiortiDTi, 100; Fourth Series, moilelvi., 101 ; the semicolon,
191; Fifth Series, model Vll., 19."i ; the sentence, 198; unity,
198 ; clearness, 201 : common defects in sentence structure.
203; Sixth Series, model vill,, 2 '3 ; the sentence and the
imragraph, 208; |Hiraphrasini,', 210; model IX., 211; hooks
useful for comiMisition, 213.
Conjugation— 113-119; old, strong', 128 130; new, weak, 128-130.
Conjunctions— 37-40; co onlinative. 68-09, copulative adversa-
tive, alternative, cansid, 148; snhordinative, 09-70 ; correla-
tives, 70, 1 18, 149 ; phrasal, 70, 149 ; luirsins;, 135 ; than, 149 ;
as, 149.
Declension— 85 ; nouns, 8.5 ; pronouns, 8ti-88.
Different uses of words— 42, 149.
Early Englisli— 220, 221, 232.
EnKlisIl, growth of, 214-224 ; siKcimens of, 232-236.
Exercises, general— 152-164.
Expletives— there, 130, 145; it, 89.
Gender— 79 ; masculine, feminine, neuter, 79-80 ; irregular gender-
nouns, 226-227.
Gerunds-97, 117, 118.
Growth of the language— 214-224, 232 236.
Inflnitives-9(i, 117, 118 ; subject of, 139 ; |)arsing, 133 ; separating
"to"' and the infinitive, 140.
Inflection— 77.
Intellections— 41, 134, 144 ; imrsing, 135.
Middle Engiish-22i 222, 233-234.
Modern Englisli- 322-224, 234 236.
Modifiers— 20, 29, 35, ISfi : position of, 137.
Mood— 110 112; indicative, HI, 118, 11."), 117; snlijnnctive. 111,
112, 114, 110, 118; imiierutive. 111, 112, 115, 117, 118.
eij;mentai;y (iua.vmau.
L'lJit
111, ir
);<-rjclir
iinoti,
cum:.
i-22i;.
Nouns- 1ft; ,.lu...s,.,, .-^1: ,.,„„-,e.c-, Hl,>lm,-l
pn,|».r, IH; o..n,.,.iiv,., 4fl; .lunilur, 7H
ai W; pillNin;;, 81; cUlM^f, 72.
Number-7Hj f„n>mlioN „f |,l„ral, 7M; .iHjr-forms. *',
Paragraph— l8;i.
Parsing -8;) ; rio.ij,.,, mi ; prninmns, 80 ; vri),s, 132-l;i:i ; a.Ij,..tivo»
n:i; .«1v.t1,s, Ul; ,„.e|„siti„Ns, Iltl ; cmjnnctions, la.". ; in'
turjecticiiis, I.IG.
Parts (if 8|h;i'i 11—41,
Partlclples-!1S; i,„,K.,fcc,, ,„v,,ont, 99. 117, U9; ,«rfe,.t ,„.,,
119, 117, lift; f,.ll„w,.,n,y „),j„.|», 100, '
Person— iironoiuis, .J4 ; verb, 91, ft,">, 142,
Personification- 79 m.
Phrase— 27 ; ndjective, 28, Jl,", ; „,lv,.|l,, 32, 8.1, 43.
Predlcate-tti»"!-'lit-|.rc..li™t,., lO, ll ; c,'„n,,'le,o «o,-,I ,„e,li™,c,
11, 1.1 ; liiuo wonl-piediaitf, M, 13(1; |«.>iliuri, 13ti, 137.
Prepositions-.^, iiO; ,„usi„},-, 1.31 ; |„,s,ti„„, 147.
PronoUnS-20-22. Poonul, r,l; inllo,-lion, 86 87; „,;],,- MO
Coin,x)un.l Person;.!, ,-,(! ; i„|l,.,-tio„, 87 S8. CmjiMKlive, S'-.W
14ft; inflccliuii, 88; |«,siti„n, 1:19, Don.on.stmtiv,., f,ft-(10 ; j„!
flection, 88. Intcrrogutivc, 60; inflection, 88. Lnlelinito '(<liv
tnbutnc, phriisul, „u,„l«r or quantity), 61 ; inflection, 89
Agreement, 140. Position, 140; a.s, 149.
Punctuation- 150-152, ise, 194.
Sentences-11, a.ssertivo, interrogative, i.n,».rative, exekmatorv
13; .simple, complex, 71-72; comiwu.Kl, 72 73; menilKr, of
com,Hi„n,l, 73; ,Kisition of elements of a sentence, 1311-187;
structure of good .sentences, 198-204.
Shall ami will— 108, 121 122.
Subject-thought.suliject, 9 11, complete wonl.snl.ject, 11, 15.
Ijaie word-subject, 14, 15 ; |K)sitioii, 137, 138.
Syntax- 13.5.
TenSes-104; formation, KXi, 1„7 ; present i,„,..ifect and ,«rfeet,
105, T'O, 11.-,, 117; past imi«.rfect and |«.rfe,l, 111,-, Ip; 117.
future iiniK-rfcct and perfect, 1(1,-,, lie, 1|8; present, pasta,,,!
futuie iiidetiiii.es, 100, 1„7, 108, 1|;(, 114; p,.„gres.sive and
emphatic forms, 109; .seipience, 113,
240
ELEMENTARY ORAMMAK.
Is
Thoughts — aHScrtionn, (^uuHtions, comiiitttul^^, excliimatioiiN, 11-12;
thought-Btudy, 48, 4i, 63; thought-order, 13t)-137.
Treatises— on com{>osition, 213 ; on English, 224.
Verbs— verb phrases, 22-24; classes of, 53; notionni, fi() ; relu-
tionnl, 51 ; trtinsitivo uiid intmnfitive, 52 ; princi|>ul, auxiliury.
103-101 ; imperMonul, 124 ; defective, 123 (cnn, 123; must an<l
ought, 124; may, 120; Bhall und will, 121-122) ; princt[»il |iiirtM,
130 131, 228-231; jkorson, 94-95, 142; numljer, 95, 142;
[tarsing, 132-133.
Voice— lOt ; active, 102, iu:i ; iHiMKive, 102, 103, 139.
m
relu
<t an<l
112;
3 3286 02719220 6
^m
i-***.
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