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1 2 3
1
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6
KSSAY
ON
MIXED LANGUAGES
I.OXIioN ; nilNTKD BV
NIMH ris«c)ciiiK AMI to.. nh:w-stkki;t sgCABlt
AMI rAltl.lAMKNT NTIIKKT
ox
THE EXISTENCE
OF
MIXED LANGUAGES
BKINO
AN KXAMINATION OK THE FUNDAMHNTAL AXIOMS OF TIIH
KOlUCKiN SCHOOL OF .MODHIJN PIIII,OLO(i Y. MOUK
i:sl'i:CIALLV AS Ari'LlED TO THK KN(JLISII
^ti^t ^jSTjeap
BY
JAMES CRESSWELL CLOUGII
I'Kt.r.OW OP TIIK IIOYAL IIIHTOIIICAI, HOCIOTV
klRMnRH OP THM RNQMSIt DIAI.ttCT HOCIKIY ; ASSIBTAST AT IR-DDKnUFIELD COI,LH<)K
I,ATK MODKUN MASTEll AT LlVEltrOOL C0U.KO«
n'oXXal fJLfv 6vr)rols yXcorTai, (jiia 8' ' \6avi'iToi(rip
LONDON
LONGMANS, GREEN, AND CO
1876
All liyhli referred
//:^ ^ '^/
in-
in
ill
1^
ii
roj
Im
an
or
ad
to
tri
(111
foi
rilETACE.
Tills woiiK Imd its oii^'in in an iidvertisoment ofllT'
in^' 11 ])rizc' (or an EsHay im the subject of Mixture
in L:uiguiij.'C8, cs|)C('iiilly in Engliwli, whicli iippcarcd
in (some of the htenuy journals of May and June
1875. The Autlior is aware tliat it possesses not
a few ini[)erfe('tions, and that many pliilologists wjll
regard the wliole of it as a mistake, since they
have expressly declared ' a mixed langiuige to be
an imi)ossibility.' This assertion is called an axiom,
or self-evident truth, but surely it ought not to bo
admitted without proof. The Author has attempted
to show that, in point of fact, its contrary is the
truth, and he therefore throws himself on the in-
dulgence of the public, to whom h(3 oflers hi.s work
for what it may be worth.
STATKMKNTS T(» llll KXAMINKD.
' In tup. coritHK of tli)>i<«> coiiMiilornliuHN wn Imd to Inv down two axioiiii*,
to wliicli wi' ■.hall fr(>f|iii'iiily liavi> to iippi-nl in tin' pro^pnH of our
iiivt'HlijfulioiiH. 'I'lic (irMt (|i'iliin>H Kruiiiimir to hn tlm inoj^t ruHciiliftl
I'li'iiicut, niid tlirri'loro th)> ground of claMHiticiition in nil langiingi'H which
hnvo prodiicuii a dfflnito ^no><iiiaticiil iirtinilutioii ; tin' m'cond donion
th« |ui«ail)ility of u iiiixcd lan^iia^)'.' ■
'Tiikinij: thi< actual number of wordi from n |roo<t Kii^lirdi dictioriiiry,
tho 8uni total will b«> ovor l(K),(K)0. Wordu of chiMi'ical origin ur« calcu-
Intod to bi> about twico ux nutuiToiiM ns |)uri' Iji^li'^h words; hciu'o
Monio writers, who havo only coniidcrod tho ronf«titurnt partn of our
vocnhtilan/, hav) coni« t(» the conclusion tlml lln^diHli i« not only n niixt'd
or compositt) liiii^un);)', but also n Uoniuncc hio^uai^u. Tht^y hnvi<, how-
ever, overlooked the fact that t]\v i/niinmur is not mixed or borrowed,
but in altoguther MngllHli.' '
I'KINCII'AL WORKS CONSULTKI) AND NOT
ACKNOWLEDGED IN THE liODY OF THE K.SSAY.
Max Mii.i.KK : Lrcliiri'* on the fifUnce <>/ lAnii/ii'i</e, iHt and 2iid Scries.
J)IKZ : Griimiiialik <Ur romnnmhiu S/inichen ; Etynitilogitihe WinUrhueh ilir
rvmani.whrn Sprac/u'n.
LKWKti : Extir// on Orit/in and Formation of the liomatict Langiuiffen.
Kaynocaiii) : Lt.riqiie liomnn.
Kaklb : Philiiln<iy of Ihi Kut/Zinh Tongue,
BouRow : GyiisivH in Spain ; lioninno J.nvO'LiI,
Dai. HI : Alhis F,lhniigr(tphi(]ur.
AuKi.DNd : Mithriilolm.
Kbacickt; liisforicd/ (irammur of the French Loiiqitnge,
IfALi.iWRi.i, ■ Dirtionory.
The J'u/t/iciitions nf thr K.Nfii.isii DiAi.r.i r Sociktv.
MoHKiR : lliftorivit/ Outlines of Eiiglinh AiTn/i-mr.
' Max Miiller, Lecturer on the Sciemr of I.nngnoge, l.st Scrits. y. 7t.
* Dr. Morris, /Ii-toricnl Outlines of Englinh Accidence, p. 3».
CONTICNTS.
lNiti>iiir< nniv Ciiai'Iim
rADR
I
NKtri
I.
2.
a,
-1.
IS.
r.,
II.
10.
11.
IL'.
i;i.
u.
I'AIM' I.
;!MNi;i.'AL i:\.\.MiN.\Ti()\ (ir riii; siiumct.
* • • • 1
LlXlIt A I'lMNcA iM Sullll |;m|i>|
inl'l-.
Mam
KHK
ifiNi>r>i.\Ni
(JVI'NV nil KiniAN.VV
'KKMAS
Tr
liA
NKISII
Mgi>;
Ckltu
lv<>.MA.V(K LANiil Ai l> (iK.NKI.AI.I V
Sl'ANI.'^lI AND I'oHTIM.rK.XK
•IIK.NC II
Wai.iacjiia.v
TkI KINIC LA.NfUJAdE'i flENERAI.l.Y
7
II
t3
m
'j»
24
87
20
30
41
44
47
49
viii
♦ OMTKSW.
■!'
I'Ain* ir.
T||K KNUj.lSU L.VNiJl'AUj;.
I, TiiK Kifiiiiiu Lamiii-aum 11 uixKU . ...
'i. TilK A!(iili>*^AXi>X Rl.MNIXt . '. . .
•'I. OtHKN CUllMANir Kl.KMKMTN .....
■I. Thu Nminii Ki>MK»r .....
.V TtIK (Vl 111 I'.IKMKNT ......
II. KlKMUMT* rtHIM DllTANT I'AHT»» ....
7. Tim Latin a.hd Nku-Lati."* Ki.k.mk.nt. Kxdi.ixh in a Tkito
IlilMANOI I.A.V'ir.tilC ....
8. O.v i;."«iii.i-ii ri<i»xix(iAriiiK .....
I'/t'lR
M
bb
M
M
7i
74
7«
111
COXCM .sJl)^■
. \n
or
ti.
C(»r
1"'
I'"
tnii
pi'i
l)iif
(•Mil
)ll(l
^nXKJ) LANCiUAOES.
INTUUDUCTOHV CIlAl'TKU.
Ckiitain pliilitloffistH Imvf stated tluit a mixt'd Intifjimj,'*' Is an
iiii|iiissiMlit y, liiil lli(> t nilli of tlifaxloiii may Will hiMluiilttt'd ;
iiitU'i'd,a>< it \v(»idd, |MTlia|i>-, 1)1' iiii|>i»s,.iil»l»' to find any modiTU
laiij^'iiaj^'t' wlik'li contains no t'orfi;,'n ••U'lnci'.H, it ' i evident
that the |»riiu'i[des involved in th*^ ipieHtion art) t'tindanientul.
iian^nia^'u consistH of three pai'tH — HOtnids, wordn, and
^'ranunai* ; and a niixturu in any one '>f thetto points [)ru(hicert
a ntixed hnij^nia^c.
I'ei'feetly pnru hin{,'najj;os have only exist «^d in vory early
or very rnde staj^es of nofiety. NN'henever there is an excep-
tion, the lan^iia;,'e which vi(»lates this rule must e\(!ntually
conunit nuicide. Few lan^'uanjes have hoen inoro wtrin^ently
protected tlian (freek, yet modern (freek is of no liteniry im-
portance ; atid ''••(.11 I hat, in its colhviuial forms, contaiiiH
much Turkish ; I"*, us these and other impurities are not
pennittt^d in literature, the lateral development of the lan-
f(ua;,'e is crippled. The purity of Latin was jealously j^uarded,
but it is now a dea 1 laiijj;uaj>;e, whilst the Italicisms, the Tus-
cauisms, and vulvar l^^itinisms, jiave been developed into the
m(»ilern Jioniance lanjjfuaf^es.
The evil of measuring out a lan^ua;j;e hy rule and line
may he seen in modern French. There is scarcely vb\) Euro-
peaii lan^'uafjje in which a translation of Siiakspeare looks
HO bald as in this— a result of the meagre list of classical
vocable:; allowed by the pedantic Academy. As, then, in the
physical world with animals, so also in the mental with lan-
1)
.MI\i;i) I.ASUUAOEt".
jjii!l"t;H, mixtiin' of hloo.l liecomus almost ii ueccssiLy of cxist-
oiu'<! ; and, this liciiij^ tlu; ciisc, it is well to kii»»w that as
thoro aio about a thousand lanj^niajjca now spoken, besides an
inlinite number of dialects, the various de^'reos of mixture
are endless. Military, politieal, counnercial, au<l missionary
enterprise, as well as the liekle dictates of fasliion, brinjjf
peoples together, and tlius niw ideas are eiirulated, which re-
(Miire new words to exprc-ss them. New words are either
composed out of liie existin;!;' roots of a lanj,niay;<', or, what id
ninro fre(pient, are adopted from foreii,'ners. Perhaps in this
way every modern lanyua^^e has been mixed, for it seems al-
most impossible to conceive a nation to exist which has
always been so exclusive as to have eHectually withstood tlie
importation of foreign roots.
As these ntnv words so introduced must of necessity bo
communicated orally from one individual to another, th(!y
are, at first at least, pronounced as nearly as possilde as in
tlieir original langiia<(e, and thus foreign sounds are bronght
in with the foreign words, and nothing is commoner than to
find certain letters introduceil to express these mnv sounds.
But mixture in grammar does not take place tso easily. It
always supposes a violent revolution, either political or reli-
gious, or else a great influx of mnv blood by emigration.
Grammar is therefore, on account of its "greater individu-
ality, chosen as the primary classifying principle in philologi-
cal enquiry ; luit tliere is no doultt that its importanci' in
this respect has been much overrated, and it is too often
practically treated as the only priiic'iplti of classification.
(Suppose now, for instance, that (nery gypsy dialect in
the world were swept away except the English variety, and
of this every written particle to be lost. Now, although the
English gypsy language is almost the same in grammar as
English itself — in fact, there are very few if any gypsy points
left in it at all — yet no philologist would for a moment say
that Komanny was a dialect of English ; hut if grammar
alone is to he the classlfyiu;/ principle he would he ohliged
to do so. We, however, all know that in this case we should
hear something about the Komanny roots lieing so entirely
Fn
INl'UOIiUCTOUY CIIAl'TIUl.
8
f cxist-
Lh:it iw
;i(l(>s au
nixturo
isioniiry
1, l.riuK
hicli >•(!-
', cUluT
what ii
s ill tlii.s
jeins al-
ic'li has
,()0d t,lll3
•ssity 1)0
UM-, they
hlc as in
broiij;lit
• than to
oiiuds.
asily. It
or rt-'li-
ion.
udivitlu-
»hil(jloj;i-
[•tiiiR'i' in
oo often
cut Ion.
iiilect in
iety, and
oiij^Ij the
in mar as
sy points
iu(3nt say
fi'diiitiuo'
>(', uhllgcd
e slionld
entirely
ditTfrent from ours tliat it woidd l)o totally inipopsihle to ro-
^'ar(l (ht! lan^'iia^'e of the gypsies as a diah'ct of Knglisli.
Aj^'ain, if grammar is to be acecpted as tlu; only ehissify-
ing principle, we sliall confess onr utter inability to deal with
those languages of whicli Ciiinese is the type, for these are
composed of ' monosyllabic roots withont the capability of
composition, and hence withont organism, witliont grammar'
{liopp). In Chinese there is ' no formal distinction between
a nonn, a verb, an adjective, an adverb, a preposition. The
same root, according to its position in a sentence, may bo em-
ployed to convey the meaning of great, greatness, greatly,
and to be great. Everything, in fact, in Chinese depends on
the proper collocation of words in a sentence '(J/a.« MilUer).
It would be very cumliersome, if not impossible, to
classify such languages as ('iiinese by collocation of words,
thi'ir substitute for grammar ; ]»ut, if taken in conjunction
with roots, it would be a most valuable secondary principle'.
lioots are more duraljle than grammar, and therefore
should have some consideration paid to them, more especially
as all grammatical inflexions are in their origin also roots,
being all tracealde to nouns, verbs, pronouns, &c., in the
oldest forms of Aryan speecli.
This being tlie case, prefixes and affixes are as much en-
titled to be considered as grammar as inflexions; in their
origin they are the same, and in meaning they are often
ideiiticid. And gi'ammarians do so consider them ; for in
most graunuars there i. a chajjter on the formation of words
by their means.
AN'ord-building is, therefore, just as much grammar as
declension, conjugation, syntax, &c.
Tills being the case, let us apply the principle. The
French word fa>/ (foi) is introduced into English, and tinds
a pennanent place in the language. We are told that such
introductions do not make English a mixed language. We
next learn that most Germanic languages form a large class
of abstract and a few concrete nouns l)y the addition of th,
and in English the words earth, birth, breadth, brulh, depth,
dearth, death, Jilth, health, mirth, length, doth, dealth,
MIXKI) l,AN(iUAUt>.
strength, truth or troth, ■w('Adth,ii'orth, iiml ijniith ixw <\no\v\\
as cxanndoa of wonla thus t'onnrd from ruvtH ((Jo. to till),
hear, hrmlan (A.S. to make l.road), tnxw, dip, dear, die,
foul, h<da)i (A.S.)> wa'rc/t (Icelandic to rejoice), lout/, ala-
lulan (A.S. to be slow), steal, atroiu/, treowlan (A.S. cer-
tum esse), well, tveor>ian (A.S. to become), and noun;j. Here,
then, is a definite grammaticid })rinci|»le laid down, viz. tliat
tlie addition of th to an adjective or verl) will make a noun.
The rule is then applied to the stran^n- root fai/, mid the
theme faith is produced ; and yet we are told that there in
no mixture in the grammatical structure of the word. Hut
if *u'ord-J>ulldlug' is a portion of ^'ramniar, then is the
English liinguage mixed, and the process of jiroof may bo
carried on further still by n\cans of tlie worih fallh'n,f((llhM,
falthf id , falthfuUy, falthfulnefiH, faithless, faithless} !j,filth-
lessaoss, unfaithful, vnfalthfally, unfalthfiduess—wW
hybrids. If it lie urged that this is oidy English grammar,
and that therefore there is no mixture according to the defi-
nition of a mixed language, another root may be taken — say,
trust, from A.S. trijwslan. Then the word trusted is formed
on the model of the K(miance, -I'e being the French form of
Latin -atus. Of this form we may mention appellee, devotee,
grandee, legatee, grantee, vendee, &c. — all Jiomance words,
to which the English have made the word trustee as-
similate. This would show a mixture in grammar even
according to t^ ' strictest definition of the terms, for the
ending -t'elias a deiinite granunatical meaning attached to it,
viz. the expression of tlie oliject of an action.
Grammar, then, can be mixed, and is often found so,
though not to any very great extent. Grammatical struc-
ture may be the most essential element of classification, but
it will be seen that the rules on this sijliject must ])e very
elastic, or all philological enquiry will be crippled. Vocabu-
lary must also be fairly taken into consideration.
There is, however, a third principle which should not bo
entirely passed over in classifying langunges. This is pro-
nunciation. In English, for exami)le, we have the words
hour, honour, &.c,, from the Latin hura, honor, <Scc., and yet
m
INTROnrCTOnY CHAPTEH.
fjuotod
till),
ir/, sla-
.S. cer-
^ litre,
iz. that,
ii noun,
md tho
there iH
1. r.ut,
1 i^ the
iniiy he
i/,f<dfh-
a^s — all
rain mar,
the (leli-
Dii— say,
<, forn\e(l
form of
I devott'C,
e words,
istCG as-
lar even
for the
,ed to it,
oimd so,
d st ruc-
tion, hut
, he very
Vocahu-
Id not he
s is pro-
he words
, and yet
did'crin^' tMinsiderahly from tho Latin, 1st, in the suhstitution
of a smo((tli fur a r(iii<4h hrcathiiif]^, and 2nd, in tho addition
of the letter v. lioth thisc arc ex idencos of Homance in-
fluence on our laiip^ua;,'e, and are valualtle for that reason.
It is true that the priiit.Ts are determined to ^ive is honor,
just as they liave already fjfiven us (jouernor instead of r/ooer-
noitr or (jonvernoiii' ; to he consistent tliey sliould jj^ive us
hack the aspirate, and write hor in>tead of hovi\ Pronun-
ciation, then, ciinnot he entirely disrej>;arded ; indeed, in
Enjj^lish it is a n;ost essential point.
Lan^uafjces, therefore, ought to ho classified according to
three })rineiples instead of one, viz ; —
1. Vocaitulary.
2. Grammar.
.3. Pronunciation.
And it can he shown that most modern languages, and cer-
tainly Knglish, are mixed in all three points.
It has heen proved in practice that —
1. We may have mixtures of vocal)ulary and pronim-
ciation almost entirely void of grammatical structure — such,
for example, as the jargons where barharous and civilised
nations meet.
2. We may find these jargons gradually developing them-
selves into lingua-francas by accpiiring a kind of grammatical
structure.
3. M'e may ha\e mixtures of vocabulary and pronun-
ciation with the mixture in granmisir at a minimum, which
is the general character of all modern languages.
4. We may, again, have mixtures where two or more vo-
cabularies, pronunciations, and grammars are joined together
and arranged side by side, such as Turkish of Constantinople,
which is anvthing but tlu^ Turkish of the country clo\vn.
5. And, finally, we may have a language which to its own
vocabulary and pronunciation has added the grammar of
anotlier speech, such as the Komanny of Spain, Hungary, and
England.
In the prosecution of this enquiry the principal difficulty
is the abundance of materials. Wherever one nation has
6 MIXKl) LANOlTAnKS.
cnnqticrt'd aiiotlior, civilisod jiiiotlicr, or converted niiolli(M',
tlioro may wo look for mixturos in laii^iinj^P, and thus tlin
Hiiltject would naturally cnibraco a history of tho world. Tho
points, thcroforc, sclci'tcd for illu>t ration in this ossay must
noc'i's.sarily he few, and perhaps may not he the mo<l, fitlin<j;;
only a ])('rfi'cl, kuowl('d;^c of history and of [thilolo},^y coidd
mako this possil)h'.
Tho illustrations chosen are —
1. .Tarpfons and liuj>iia-francu-!.
2. jNIaltosc, a Semitic lan<,niaji;'('.
3. Hijidusti'ini, an Indian lan/^iiajifo.
4. ]{omanny, or (iypsy, an Indian lanjj^unfjft-'.
5. Persian, an Iranian lan;4uaf,T.
6. Turkish, a Turanian languaj^c.
7. I5asque, a polysynthetie language.
8. Celtic.
9. Komance languages, especially French, Spanish, and
Wallachian.
10. TcMitonio languages, especially Danish, Swedish, Higli
German, and Dutch.
11. English is a mixed lingo, which will be more i)ar-
ticularly considered in the second part of this essay.
Cf
d(
la
n;
JAUaONfi.
TART I.
(IKNI'RAL FA'AMINATION OF THE RUn.IF.OT.
§ 1. Jdi'ijouti.
WitKHKYKii civilisf'd and l)iirl»iu'oiiH nations, or nations of an
entirely (iilVcrcnf cis ilisalion, (intrcncli on each other, their
speech is usually a Jar^'on — that is to say, a mixture of several
lanj^'na^'cs without rejj^anl to any other matter than conve-
nience of communication.
In a jarjj^on the more cultivated lanpia{T;e sutVers more
than the other, for civilised man must suhmit to be governed
})y the simpler ideas of the savage, and condescend to speak
as he does, just as a mother must submit to the ideas and
vocaliulary of her young children. Intricacies of .'grammar are
out of the (|uestion. but their place is snpplicii by an infinile
nundier of small words in the f(jrm of auxiliaries and particles.
The subject of jargons is important, for we may by their
etndy o))tain cb-irer ideas of many v,'cighty points, as, for
example, the I'orniation and origir, of those ICuropean lan-
guages now callevl liora-'V.ice, which were once nothing more
than jargons of various Gothic and Latin dialects.
Tile colonies arc fruitful in jargons. The savage will learn
the roots of the language spoken ))y his European master,
but he cannot nnderstand granmiar, and therefore cannot
arrange these roots correctly. To supply the place of gram-
matical construction the savage multiplies determinative
words, he arranges his sentences in his own way, and he
pronounces the words as much like his own language as he
can. Thus the Canadian French taught the Indians to
despise les Anrihus, \mi the Indians, having no I in their
language, could arrive at no nearer ])ronunciation of the
name of the hated race than Aiigay, from which they easily
arrived at Yankee.
Dr. Wilson, in ' Prehistoric Man,' gives some curious
a
MIXKD I,AN(JUAUKS.
particulars of'tln' liui^nia^'i' of tlio dir^liiut Imntinfjf-stationH iti
North America.
♦ Fort Vajicoiivcr,' ho says, ' is the larfj;ost of nil tlic postsH
in the Hudson's Hay ('ompauy's Tfrritorv, aud lias fnipioatly
upwards of two hundred voya^'curs, with tlnir Indian wivex
and faniilii's, nsidinfj; tlierf, bcsidt's tlio factors and clerks.
A perfect Haltel of Ian{,niaj,'( • is to !)(> lieard ainonn; thc-in, as
thev include a mixture <»f KiiLdish, Catiuiian French, Chinese,
Inxpiois, Sandwich Islanders, Creos, and Chinooks. IJesides
these the fort is visited for Iradinj,' purposes hy Walla-wallaH,
Klickatats, Kalapurfjfas, Klackamuss, ('owlitz, and other In-
dian tribes; and hence the {growth of ii patois hy which all
can hold intercourse toj^ether. The English, as ii sha{)os
itself on the lipa of the natives, forms the Mubstrutum ; but
the French of the voya<j;eurs has also contrilmted its ({uota,
and the remainder is made up of Nootka, Chinook, Cree,
Hawaiian, and miscellaneous words contributecl to the nciieral
stock. The common salutation i>^ C/<i/,-li(>/i-(tli-yt(h.^ which
is believed to have orij^inated from their liearinjj; one of the
residents at the fort, named Clarke, fre([uently addressed ])y
his friends: " Clarke, how are you?" The desii^nation lor
an Englishman is Khi-tshosh, i.e. Kin<,' (ieore;e; while an
American is styled Boston. Talit, i.e. dollar, sif,niities silver
or money ; oluman, i.e. old man, fatho.", &e. The vocal)U-
lary, as written, shows the chanjL,'es the sim])lest worils imder^o
on their lips, e.g. fire, ^:»a/(( ; rmn, luta; waU-r, Wdtiii stur-
geon, stntshln; to-morrow, iainola. And the French in
like manner: la medecino becomes lamenfin', la grasse,
IdJdes; sam-d^e, savash, i.e. Indian; I:i \ivi\h\ I d.iric, S:c.
The formation of the vocaltidary appears to have been de-
termined to a great extent by the simplicity or easy utterance
of a word in any accessible language. As to the grammar,
number and case have (lisai)j)eared, and tense is expressed by
means of adverbs. Nouns and verbs are also constantly em-
ployed as adjectives, or prefixes, modifying other words ;
and are further increased, not only by borrowing from all
available sources, but by the same onomatopoeic process to
which has been assigned the growth in some degree of all
I
1
jAnaoNs.
IlllCSC,
^
liui^Ma^(!fl. Tims we liiivo ?uoo-?/i(W«, an OX, or beef; t'lhVik,
a wilt eh ; titii/liiif/, a bell; /<c7tc, liiii;j;liin' ; tiiDi-funii tlio
heart; tuia-lutnh, ox tum-M'atd^ ii Wiitfrfall ; pah, in Hiiioke;
poo, to nlioiit ; mok-a-mol,., to cat or drink ; Hp-Hp, to lioil.
Nor is tliis patois a mere collcctioii of wonls. .Mr. Kane
iiit'orms IMC llial Ity iiK.'ans of it hi' soon Icanu'il to coiimtsc
with th(! chiefs of most of the tribes iirouiid Fort Vancouver
with tol(>rabl(' case. Tlio coimnon (|iiistion was, Ctichd-
mikhd-chdcha ? Whore did you coinc from? and to this the
answer was, Sfi/-i/an, From a distance; but in this reply the
first syllabic is hiu^tliciicd accordinjj; to the distance implied,
so that in the case of the Canadian traveller he had to dw(;ll
upon it with a [troloni-ed utterance to indicate the remote
point from whence he had come. Miklui is the pronoun
you ; Hi'lki, I ; as, nelld tnok-e-viok ischuck, I drink water.
♦Mr. Hahs, the ])hilolonist of the United States Kx-
plorinj^- Kxpedition, remarks in reference to the Indians and
voya^'curs on the ('oluml»ia river: "The jfencral communi-
cation is maintained chictly by means of tlie jaijuon which
may be s;ud to bi; tlie prevailing' idiom. There luv Cana-
dians and half-lireeds married to Chinook women, who can
only converse with their wives in this speech; and it is the
fact, strange as it may seem, that many young children are
growing up to whom this factitious language is really the
mother-tongue, and who speak it with more readiness and
perfection than any other.'"'
The negro talkce-talkoe of Guiana is another example.
It is a combination of Dutch, tiiough shorn of its grarrmar,
with all kinds of roots — African, American, English, French,
Portuguese, and, since the substitution of coolie for negro
laboiu*, probably Asiatic also.
Tlie Dutch began to colonise Guiana in I n27, having been
preceded ])y Spaniards and English. In 1G67 the state was
recognised as a Dutch colony, and remained such, with occa-
sional short inti'rvals, until 1802, when the English captured
it. At the general peace in 1814 a portion ouly was returned
to the Dutch.
' Wilson, Pnhisiork Man, ii. '130-2,
10
MIXi:i» r.ANdl'AOHM,
Th(* pfovrnmiciit of irtill.nul, rc^'anlin^' its ('olnnicH Hini|»ly
nn go ninny »oir«"» of ^aiii, ticj^h'ctt'cl tlic intcrcHfrt of tlio
nutlvc pojiiiliitioiiH. TliiiM ill (iiiianii no piiins were taken to
rdiu'utf «'V('U till' (niMnii of tli(> wliitfs, and iniiltif ikIc-j f,'r<'\v
lip iinalilc to speak any ollii-r l;in^'iia;,'r than talkct-talkoc.
Till' Moravian niissionaiics found tlicnisi'lvi'H oMif^cd to Irani
tills (l('l»aHi'(l tongiu' or (oj,M\i>ov<'r pri'iicliin;,', and tln-y tlirrc-
fore trnnslati'd llit'ir prayciH and the HiMo into it. 'riicy af
IcnjLjtIi niadt' ri'prrsi-ntations to tlic Mritisli and Fon-i^ni
Uililo .Soi'ioty, tlio result <if wliicli was that their version of
the New Testament, whicli liail loii^r \h'v\\ used in niannscript,
was pnMished under the title \A' * Dn yjoi' TrttUniirnt I'n ir'i
Miisfd oi l/r/pi)iiiiii Jrniii^ i'hi'ishift, translated into the
]SVjfro-Kiif,di>-li laiif^na^'o l)y the ^Missionaries of the I'nitart
Fratrnni, or rnitid I?ritliren. IMintod for the uhp of tlio
Mission l»y the Ilrilish and Forei<j;n Hililo Sot'iety. London:
182!).' TJie Ne^no-Kn-j'.ish and the Ne^ro-Diiteh of St. .lohn
ii. !) is given as an example of this em ions jargon : —
Mil tell ijnnKij'iirtocloi lixi <1r vatni, ili.-!^! In ii I run in'i in',
But when gramlfootboy tOKte that water, this bicii turn wiiu',
l-nl
Ua
a 110 Kit 111
iiii
hncprh da ll'iciii hiViatlo (
via
could lie no know I'loiu wheio tlmt wine come out of (hnt
don fiirliii'lui ih'st<i Inn tthi ifii iralni In u tmhi): ii /.nil
the i'ootlioy this Itiiilake that water well ki;i;vv): he liiil
ila hruidiffvvi.
the b"idcgroom.
In file island of Hayti there is to lie found a similar
jargon, with a foundation of French.
In Jamaica and other English West India colonies the
Negro-English is much more perfect :—
' Peter, Peter wns a black 1)(iy ;
Peter liini j.vJI fool ' one day ;
T.iirhra ^ girl, him ^ Peter's joy ;
Lilly white girl entice liim away.
' To j.iill foot = to floi'O, iiIkcoikI. a Kuropcnn.
^ Thu lU'grots do not nuiko the distinction I.itwicu him and hir.
MNOUA rilANCA OF SOITII Ki'iiorr,. It
' K}(', M\HAy Sully, fyo on yoii !
I'oor niiirky Vcivv wliy iituji) ?
Oil ! I'l'tcr, l\t('t wiiM II liiid liiiy ;
Voter WHH a I'tiiuivviiy. ' '
Tin* Xfjifrn-Kiiylish of tho VwHoA Stiitos is thniilinr to ih
from the tiovfls of Afrn. Stowi' mid oIIkth, as well M from tin-
Hoii^s of tlif (Jlirisfy iMinsln-lM.
Wo must ii(»\v turn to tlic continent of tln^ ()U\ \V«mIiI,
wluTc W(! HJiail also find jarj^ons.
Till) I*i;j;t'on Knj;lisli of Canton is ono of llic most import-
ant, for it is the nn-diiim by wliiidi most of our CIiinrHts trado
is transa<!t<'d. //, c, '/, r, art> citlKT entirely wanting or pro-
nounced willi dinieulty in Cliinese. ' I'i^'con ' I']n'j;lis|i in in
reality ' Ixisincss ' Kn;;lisli, and is as siinpli' as it is absurd.
Tlie eliicf point is to arran^'e tlu^ words as in Cliimvsc. W'il-
Fon, in ' IMeiiisloric Man,' gives a letter to a Cliinanian, and
liis answer thereto, whijh may be taken us an example of the
jargon :—
Litter.—' 3ri/ chin-rhiu i/nu, thin our rrlh/ ganJ jliii IiiIhikj vii;
viy vimti'hli'. yiiii dn plopel jiiijcdu vnj Jliii rimtp thnvn side my
hvwsic, talk ml kd fnKliiim mi hick vp htihhvry ahnig you,'
Aiisii'cr. — * Mi savry vo cai^ivn mnkcry Jlnid \ can secv,rr do
ploj)vl jriyeon long yovjliii all namr faxliion long you.'
European iidluence has in tlu t^ame way corrupted tho
Hindustani language; and in the neighbourhood of Delhi
especially the jargon ia the medium of communication be-
tween the English officers and their uneducated servants.
This <lebased language is called Moorish or Moors, and con-
sists of various Indian dialects with a plcnti. mixture of
English.
§ 2. Lingua Franca of Sou i It Europe.
The Tiingua Franca of the Mediterranean is, according to
Malte Ib-uu, a mixture; of Catalan, Limounin, Sicilian, and
' Journal of a Rtsithucc among the Negroes in the West Indies, p. 64.
12
MiXKi) i.hmvxurjt.
*l
I •!
Anil>ic, with <>tli<>r rnotii, I'xproially TinlviHli. It ori^iitutotl
ill till- hIiivo t-Kfaltllr-liimntK ol'tln> MooM aiitl TiiiI<m.
Tin' (}mtnl Turk wan, with hi^ I'uiifrAn-M, thi> hiiKl»«'iir of
tnf(li<i'\;il l''.iii-o|ii>, thniiti'iiin;; ChriNtiaiiity ami iiii|i<'iliti^
coiiimiii'c. All who tVII into hix hainli vurr fii-lavnl, and
H<
•lili.lii toninl ith'.iH*' cxcrpt in di ath. Kn^'lixh, S|i:iiiiiinl'<,
|'tntnj,'n(',-ti', l*'iincli, ItnlianH, and (»rfck« witc IIu' |iiiiiripal
Knirt'rt'r-,thiin^'h,d">ulilli'H,va-t nninln'rHiifiilhcr natininditirs
wrrc «vcr to Im' Hoen at tin- ^idh vh of AI;j;it'rH and Ihi' !.<•-
vaiit. NN'ith ^n^•h a divt'i-ff I'luiop.'nn rh-iiuiit it is nut,
Htrnnp' that tin- Tink or Moor did not lourn tin* Hpnu'li of
hirt captivfH, ovfii it' lir had oNfrromc Imh reli;;ioMx ntrnplts
on that hnlijrct ; nor wax tin* Christian tnorr willing; to jfani
tin- laii;,'Majj^t' of Iiim opprcHriorn, or, if in' did at'piirt' it, lit!
pnulfiitly ki'i»t hin kuowlcdj^'c to hiinsi-lf. 'i'ht'if was, how-
ever, in Hpitf of the n lif^doiiH and prudential -cruph*-*, a
necessity of conmiiniicalii'n Itlwefn iho master and the
slave. Italian heeanie the hasis of this jar.,'on, and olher
Medit(Mrane:in lanf,'naj,'»s contrihiited wonK. Araliie and
Turkidi roots were als(» not ntdVM|iient in the ndxtiire. As
is usual in si'.cli easr's, fj;rainniar was i;.',nored, and its place
supplied i)y auxiliarii's and (itt<Tininat i\es. As all Kii-
ropeatiH were until lately Franks iu the eyes (.f tlie Malioni-
nu'tans, the lanfjjuage or jarj^^on thus enjupoinided was known
lis LhiffiKt Fi'oiico. In these days it is not employed to the
same extent as formerly, l>ut it is still a reeo^niised nieiliuni
of conununieation on all the Mahoiutnetan shores of the
Medit
English slan;;.
There is only one essential point of ditVerenee between
these jarjjfons and usually recognised lauf/udf/fn of the world.
This point is permanence. It' the jargons of Vancouver,
Canton, or the .Mediterranean become fixed, either by isola-
"come languages, and will soon
erranean. It bus also supplii il a long vocabulary to
tion or by writing, they will be
aerpiirc some sort of a gmmjuaiical structure. .Maltese,
PlindustaMi, the Komanee languages, Turkish, and I'Jiglish
may be taken as examples more or less perfect of this growth
of a jargon into a language.
MAItKHK.
I a
Otiii'i- tui>^nia((ri*, Niit'li an Teutonic niid Mouiuliiinviiin,
nn* «<>tii|iariitivcly |»iir«* troiii forti^n a<liitixtiiri> ; wliiUt u
tliinl I'liiMM, Hiifli a.H iiioiii-tii (iriM'k, iiitiy In> ri'^urt|i'<l iim pmc-
ticiilly pure.
§ a. M,iih-Ht'.,
The Miiltiwc l:i»Kiiaj;i' m;iy li.' t;ikon Of an oxnmplo of ii
Jnr^^tii Nvliicli liy |i>ii^ i-i)|ikti(iit lia^ iM'cotiin fixfil,or, to h|h':iI<
j'oiTfi'lly, as iiciirly lixfd im an minrittra t<m;;iii' vnn lie ; lur
tliiTi' )iciii|i( iiu Malti>.>4c lit«-ratun>, thiTu i-aii Ik- no Htaudaiil
uiitlioiity to appi'al to, except hiicIi rxatupli'M iM arc }{ivfii in
pliiloIo;;u>al tnatiHt-H, wliiirli naturally vary in ortiio^riipliy
ucconlin^' to tli(> writt^rV own nationality.
Many pliilolo^ri^ts liav«' t'laitnt'«l for ^^alt(•x(• a I'lUiic
ori^'in, hut nom* liavr hu('«-«>o<1<'(1 in «'Htal>lisliin;i' tla-ir posi-
tion ; iiKlfctl, I lie wliolf tendency of niodrrn rcNfarch in to
n piidiatc it alfo;;i'tlnT. He this as it may, tlicre is ct'rtainly
a lari^c amount of Anihie in its vocalndary. Kor tho R'«t, it
Hct'ms to ht) mostly Italian or Provencal.
Xothinjjf 'lA known of thi' earlifst lan}i;ua;j;t' spokt-n in the
i-lan<l. iMalta fell into the hands of the (.'arlliaj^'enians, and
waH hucoessively oct'Upied hy (i reeks, Romans, antl Goths.
At lenjj^th, in 870, it was taken hy tiie Arahs, who, imitating
all their predecessors, estahlislied their own langua^^e on
the island, where it remained tliL* Hide speech until tin; Nor-
mans, in lO'JO, hecamo masters, and tried to mako Neo-
Latin supreme. In this they failed, and after a time; the
result in;j;jarjj;on passed into Maltese.
Tho Maltese geo^jraphical names betray tlie origin of the;
people; thus wc; have (Uilu (touiitain), oiUc, (port), cnsdl
(village. It. /vt,s(?, liouse), huld (hill, Lat. adlli^), i/chti (mouu-
tuiu), luis (cape), and luril, ivlet (valley, Ar. luddl^ river).
Tho Arabic element is far from pure, but reseuibled iu a,
m
lU'ked degree the dialect of the Moors; thus : —
Unff.
Ban
moon
Mult.
clicmah
kanunir
kaiiutr
Mor.
8h
'tUllIt
gouivra
Aruti.
situtns
hmiiir
14
MItHi) I.AKilVAUIM.
In*.
M.li.
M'<f.
AnttH
dny
ttUfmr
nith'tf
inntn
flU'til
uri
i>rd
itrdh
wutor
I'lintt
Will
mm
Him
M«ir
nar
iutlior
Ill, aim
a6oM
iitotlMtr
' inn
niiitnuiii
iinmin
vyo
J li'iiiin
mk
aXn
Ih'uiI
rn»
ran
rtu
Udhi)
iimili'khi^r
,„/
n»/
luoutli
hh.,h<
JoM
Jiiiiiii.
toii^il«<
ifnii'lt
liunn
((Hllll
tin Hit
fiiin
liiiiid
it
ill
;,d
foot
nil/,'
riKiilill
riiljl
OHO
niklitit
iiitlii'd
aliinl
two
Ini'i
inHi'ni'in
ilhium
til no
lli'tn
ill<l,,lf,i
t/iufntlnih
louf
fl'hil
mill ill
iii'l'iiiih
fivo
khiiinta
hlnhimt
kliitiiiniih
HIX
tttla
Mfhi
»!ll,ih
Hcven
Mi'hit
HI III ill
unliiia/i
u!ght
tinu'ij nil
illi'iimuiil
thuin iiiiah
nine
dUii
1 Urn Mil h
Umaah
ten
iirlifil
(isrltut
agi'lintiih
Tliiw Himilarity ot' tin; Araltit? flriufiit i»t" .Maltfsi' lo
Moorish is ot'tt'ii vi'ry apiiart'iit, a«< inijjflit Imi expected from
the proximity of the ishirul to Afriea, whieh must natiirajly
iiKhice Himilar intliinifcs of ehaii^^c ; a<iil y*>t it is in soiao
inHtiiiices so much nearer th(! Aral)ie that we eamiot re;^iir(l it
as a Htibdialeet of Moorish, but rather aa an independent
diah-et of Araliie itM-lf.
The Homaiict' rh'inent will just as naturally approxiniafe
towards the Liii;^u,i l''ranca of I lie Mcditfrranean.
Although tli(! island has been Mn;^lish since the warn of
Napoleon, yet the Kn;,di,di laiigiiag*' has proiliierd no appro-
eiablt' ('li;in;;e.
IIIHUi^tfT^Nf.
1.1
Tli«' KittiliMf tiii( likii;;im((n riiuy Ik< tiiktm nn n Kotxt itxitinplo
ot' a jui'jifoii wliicli li.is Im'i'oiiic u IIm'iI l;ili((ilii^n hy it I'oyul
ilci'ifi'. It in M|)<ik«nt \>y till* .M:tli<itiii(ii't;iti |»«>|iulallott ot'
luiliii, fMtitiiati'tl III twiMity-lUt* iitilliuu ^iiiiIm.
'I'ht'i't* liuM* In'I'Ii two ({I'cut ittri'iiiiiM ot' .Maliotiuiii'tiui (•mi-
^rulioii into Iit'liu, tint WrM l>y litii*l, tlm otlh>r liy hcii. 'I'lio
laUcr WU4 diriuit from Aniliiii ti» tint Ni/iinrH tlittuinioiH
iiiid to MyHori'. TIk* tir^t, liowt*vt*r, i:4 thn iiion> iinportuiit.
'I'lio Mii^iiU who foii<liU!ti>(l it wi>ro LJxlM*k TiirtiirK tVuin tlu
iiiM'tli ot' ( aliiil. Tlii-y tii'-«t wfiit into l'(>r<4iii, unii on coiKiucr-
iii^r it («ti(l''iivoiu'iMl to iiitposi' tlii'ir liiti)^uik^i< oii it. Kailiii;;
ill tlii^, |H>rliu|)4 tor rt>iiHoiiriHituiliir to tliost> wliirli ciiiisc'l tin*
tiiiliint of tlio Noi'inaiirt in ii liku attfinjit in K. inland, tlioy
inloptiHl otK'of tlitMiiu'i(>nt l'ur.Hiun dialoetH— iiatiu>ly, that of
ParrtiHttiii — which li«'n<M»forth hu'caim* known uh/c/x/h />(/•/, or
ronit janj^uaj,'!', to distinj^'iiinh it from tho Zfhdti 7*(tr«/, or
the other uiiciiltivalfil tlialccltt of tlut country.
This pi'Kpli', in th<* r«M)j;n ot' Mahomet (!)!>7-l()2H), oun-
(pit'itMl India, and, an wc learn from Mir Aniinan, a native of
Delhi, expurieiiOiMl Homo ditlicnlty in communicating^ with
their new Nitlijects. A linj,'ua franca wa-s composed, connistin;;
principally ef corrupt I'erMian and Hindi, and this wan known
under tho naino of Urdi'i, /efxht, or camp lanij;ua;,'e, to din-
tiiivjiiish it from the court lan;^ua"^fe, hut the poets called it
l{i'l:ltlii,or * Hcatlered,' on account of the variety of elements
compo-.iii;4 it. Wc call it I'ldti <>r Kindu-ilani.
In the year 1.5''.') the Kinperor Akhar delinitely tixed thn
Trdu Zehan according to rule, whereupon it cciwed to be a
jargon.
Under tlie Kn;j;lish, Hindustilni, owing to the very general
prevalence of Mahommetanisnx in India, has been adopted
largely as the otHcial means of communication with the
nal ives.
Originating in a mixture of IN-rsian con([uerors professijig
an Arabic religion, with Hindoos, a people of Sunscritic
in
MI.VKD LANOrAOES.
(Je-*ci.Mit, Mio composition of tli'- Iliudust.'ini langimgc iniL,'lit
almost l)e assumed.
The Sanscrit lanj^uaj^e, on which it is founded, exists in the
Nortli-Weat Provinces, side by side with it, under tlie nanu!
of Hindi, or Jfindui, and from tliis it differs principally by
its lar^'o mixture of Arabic and Persian roots.
Jlindi contains many pur(! Sanscrit words, many jnore an;
only Sanscrit words deprived of their final vowel, and tlu;
rejiiainder can {generally lie shown to be Sanscrit l)y permuta-
tion of certain letters according to almost invaria])le rides.
The irindilstani vocabulary, liow(!ver, contains 50 per
cent, of words introduced by the ^lahomi. etans — namely,
Arabic and Persian, 3.5 per cent, of Hindi, 15 per cent, of
pure Sanscrit, and traces of Englisli and Portuguese.
In the vocabulary attaclied to ' Eastwick's Jfindustani
Grrammar,' by Small, on p. 5 (letter a) we find 18 words
of Arabic origin, 10 of Persian, and 4 of Sanscrit; on p.
42 (letter fj) the Persian words are 13, Arabic 0, Sanscrit 12,
and Hindi 7 ; on p. 45 (letter m) the Arabic words are
29, the Sanscrit 1, the Persian and Hindi 0; on p. 51
(letters n, id) the Persian words are (», tlu; Araliic 13, San-
scrit 4, and Hindi 2; and on p. 53 (letters /<, v/) the Per-
sian number 13, the Arabic 4, the Sanscrit 4, and the Hindi
3. These pages were chosen iiidiscriminately. Examination
tends to show that the abstract Hindustani words are princi-
pally of Arabic and Persian origin. Tlius on p. 5 of the
same book we finfl —
ixhliijnlc, desire, A.
nt<hni~', ac(inuintance, P.
ashdh, loinls, A.
asl, root, A.
itu'ut, sulyeciion, A.
citnlf, sides, A.
(i.tfdl, infants, A.
ifliW, manifesting, A.
hhdr, manifestation, A.
rrinat, succour, A.
I'tibilr, confidence, A.
(7',?a, raombors, A.
a'mul, actions, A.
(l^h'm, beginning, P.
aghlal), superior, P.
I'ifiit, calamity, A.
ilfldJi, sun, P.
afaos, sortow, P.
ikrdr, confession, A.
aJcudm, sorts, A.
Akhar, Akljar, P.
al'mr, most, A.
alceld, alone, S.
nij, iiro, S.
d'jdii, iufoi-med, P.
(iijur, ii; !'.
;
1
iiiNDrsrX.Nf.
17
ini,i;lit
in the
illy l.y
ore uro
nd the
nnuta-
I'lllt'H.
iianu'ly,
cent, of
idusli'mi
S words
; on p.
scMit 12,
ords lire
n p. 51
\:\, Siin-
the Per-
\e Hindi
ininiition
c prini'i-
5 (.f the
r.
afithrnu, scattered, !'.
ajl'ili, the lieavons, A.
ilihril^ prosperity, A.
Words of Arabic origin
Persian
Sanscrit
Hindi
II
II
II
II
II
II
ai/orchl, although, 1*
otjh'i, prior, S.
(IgOf before, S.
. 18
. 10
• • • ^
.
32
If we now take a few common words and compare them
we sliall find tliat tlie affinities of Hindustuni are Indian in
the concrete words and in the nnmbers : —
EngliHk
sun
8aii)icrlt
Rofirya
Iliiull
IlinddstAnI
Arabic i
1
1
Perslon
snraj
suraj, aftab
shams
khourschid
moon
tchandra
chand
chiind,
mall lab
kamar
mail
day 1
divasa
dina
'•OZ
roz, din
ianm
rouz
earth
prithvi
zamin
zamin,
bhum
ardh
zemin
water
apa
pani
pani, jal, ab
ma
ab
five
ngni
"g
bap, pita
nar
atcsch
father 1
pita, tata
hap
abou
pcdcr
mother i
niata, ama
ina
ma
on mm
mader
eyo 1
akchi
tchakchou
ankli
ankh
ain
tchcschm
head
sircha
sar
sir, sar
ras
ser
noso
nasa
nak
nak
auf
biny
mouth
moukham
mukh
munh,
mukh
founi
dehen
tongue
djihva
jihh
jibh
lisan
zaban
tootli
danta
dant
diint
senn
dcndan
head
hasta
hath
hath
ied.
dest
foot
padr
pan
panw
ridjl
pai
1
one
eka
ek
ck"
ahad
iek
i two
dva
do
do
ithnan
dou
three
tri
till
tin
thalathah
j sell 1
i fom-
chatnr
j chhar
char
arbaah
tchehar
■
five
panchan
paneh
panch
khamsah
pendj
; six
shash
chah
chhah
' sittah
schesch
1 seven
saptnn
sat
sat
sabaah
heft
eight
nine
ashtau
ath
ath
themanial
1 hescht
11 a van
nao
nau
tisaah
nonh
ten
di'isan
das
das
aschraah
deh
18
MIXED LANOirAOrX
I;
Tlio first point wliicli shikos iiH in oxaniinino- tliiH tal)lo
is the identity of Hir.di and llindustiini in llie concrete
vocables; and wlicn we remember i\\;\\ iho camp l(infjH(i;/<',
was only invented as a medium of communication wiMi the
peasants, wliose vocabulary was probably very mcaj^re, tl;is,
as well as tlie reason why abstract vocables should be forcij^n,
is at once made clear. ' "V^'e next observe tluit the Hindi and
Hindustani native roots are more nearly related to Sanscrit
than Persian, and very sli<;liily to Arabic. Hindustani ^Mam-
mar is principally of Hiiuh' orij^in. It was easier for tlie
Moguls to teach a peasant a new word tlian to teach liini to
decline or conju^nte tliat word on a new jdan ; and tlius, in
spite of tlie vast proiwrtion of foreign (dement, Hindustani
still remains an Indian language, instead of gravitating to-
wards cither Arabia or Persia. In fact, tlie only important
gr;^ iimatical differences between Hindustani' iid its original
foriii of Hindi are variations in the jiost jiosit ions and in the
inllexions of verbs and pronouns.
Hindustani has 48 consonants, of which 13 are Sanscrit
and 14 are Arabic.
The usual order of the genitive is 'man of shoe ' = man's
shoe, mard hi juti', but this is often inverted, according to
the Persian order, as shoe man of, jiltt manl Id : —
man's shoo
man's son
man's sons
from the man's son
in front of the man
niiuh'i.staiil order,
Diard 111 j nil
marcl Jed le/d
manl Ico hc/o
viard he lic'e sa
ward liii d(jo
rerriiau onlci".
ji'ill viard Id
hctd inard I'd
Icfo hKird I,-i'
It'fo so vuinl Ico
dijc viard Ico
These Persinu forms are sometimes carried so far that the
Persian genitive sign i is used, as shalcr i Buf/hdad, the city
of Bagdad; but after the vowels a, ii, o the sign is c, as^w
e tal-ht, foot of the throne ; rii e jmri, face of the fairy.
The Persian form i or c is also used to connect the ad-
jective with its substantivG when the order is inverted
as
zuhdn i ehirln, is tongue sweet ; ril e sehd, a face beautiful.
In the Hindustani order the adjective precedes.
, There are, besides the above, certain other changes in
Slg^
lanj
it il
as
a \\
ain
■;• I
GYPSY on nOMANNY.
19
lliiidristuni {j^rannnur wliii-li ciiii Ix^ traced to foivij«ii in-
iliK'Uce ; but, as in an essay of tliese limits tlio various points
of HO vast a siiltjeet cannot bo exliatisted, the above will bo
sufficient by way of illustration. Hindustani, therefore, is
mixed in g^rammar.
It is ciu-ions, liowevor, in the case of such a mixed lexi-
con as is presented ])y Hindustani', that Enp;li8h should have
made so little proj>ress in India ; and the Koman letters, as
modified in the missionary alphabet, are, in spite of their
convenience, almost unknown.
There are, however, a few English terms whidi must not
be forgotten, as Jon Kampanl [John Hull + East India
Company~\, a sort of slang expression for the English go-
vernment ; janeval, kort marshal, rijlment, kampanl, aantri,
karnel-sahib, kantdn, and other military terms.
/a;
lal the
le city
as pa
§ 5. Gypsy or Ilomanny.
Scattered throughout Europe and a great portion of Asia
is found ail Indian people calling themselves by the name of
Roma, husbands. The English call them Gypsies, i.e. Egyp-
tians, and the Spanish know them under the same name,
Gitanos. To the French they are Bohemiens, because they
first entered civilised Europe througli Bohemia. To the
Germans, Russians, Hungarians, Italians, Turks, and Per-
sians they are the Black ^leii of Zend or Ind, which is the
signification of the terms Ziijeiiuer, ZUjanl, Ghnifjany,
Zhif/arry, Tchitif/ancn. Their language is properly called
Jiomanny, and is most probably one of the popular Indian
languages wliich were coeval with the Sanscrit. Be this as
it may, there is near the mouth of the Indus a people known
as Tchinganes. The Gypsy numerals are Indian, and also
a very large number of roots. With the Indian numei-als
already given compare the following : —
igcs m
English Gyps.
irangariiiu Gyin,
Spanish Gyps.
one
ych
ieh
yerpie
two
(ha
dui
dui
throe
trill
trill
tnn
four
stor
c i
sclitar
cstar
so
MIXED LANCiL'AGIW.
J';ii;{lUli Uyiw.
lliingikrliiii Qypa.
H|>nnlith Clypn,
fivo
jj(t;y , pansch
2)0/l«(c7t
puiiHcho
six
sJiu
tschuv
Job, 'Ml
Bovon
(lost)
i'fla
lirjU
eight
(lost)
ochlu
vtor
nine
(lost)
efiija
csnia
ton
desk
ilusch
ihqilO
In the dialect of the English Gypny wo find, an. . ,^'
numerous other words cognate with Sanscrit , the following : —
aladge, ashamed, 8ans. laj ; ana, hring, Sans, aui ; atmlsch,
afraid, Sans, ti'aa ; ava, yes. Sans, eca ; bala, hair. Sans.
bala; bauf/o, left, i^iim. j^angu ; bernh, year, Sans, vartiha;
briahen, rain. Sans, vriKh; bucca, liver. Sans, bucca, heart ;
cam, to love, Sans. Caini, Cupid; chin, to cut. Sans, chiia ;
chukkal, dog, Hum. kidkiira; dand, tooth, Sans. daiUa ;
dur, far, Sans, dar ; giominena, thunder. Sans, gaijaua;
giiveno, hull. Sans, gavuv.ya ; haulo, black, Sans, lula ; kaun,
ear, Sans, karna ; lang, lame. Sans, lang ; ina, not. Sans.
md; and 'inek, to leave, with moksh. We also find bovo,
big, cognate with Hindust. bdra ; biite, much, Hindust.
bahut ; choro, poor, Hiudust. ahov; nok, nose, Hindust.
ndk ; also bush (now an English word), fiddle, cognate with
Pars. baZi play ; lollo, red, Pers. ltd ; jjedloer, nuts, Pers.
peleel. Cam, sun, is cognate with Ileb. khama ; and aorlo,
early, with Arab. sohr.
There is, therefore, every reason for believing that the
Roma came from the East, from India; and there is one
reruarkable fact in their language wliich will enalde us to fix
the date of the migration approximately. Although there
are so maviy Persian words in liomanny, and so many Arabic
words in Persian, yet there have been no Persian words of
Arabic origin adopted into the liomanny. The Gypsy mig-
ration must have taken place, therefore, before the year
650. The Gypsies then wandered over all tlie countries be-
tween India and 13ohemia. They must have dwelt a long-
time among the Slavonians, for their poetry has acquired
the wild measure peculiar to Slavonic verse, and they have
besides adopted a very large vocabulary, of which the follow-
ing may be taken as a specimen : —
fJYl'jiy oil IlOSfANNY.
21
Gitalin J)(;})Co, aiiiil, from Hiissiau Ixilxt^ old woman ;
herifjd, Knpf. (iypn. wt-rrii/d^ cliniu, from rct'lf/a ; hohcHy
beans, fruin hohji ; hosiutnslhld, confidence?, from voa moj-
f/ni>.sf ; l)in\ mountain, f '>ni hinyor; rlirh!^ key, from
clootch; ci'((l/lx,i l<i"n» fi«»'n l:i'(tl ; crcjiic, sins, from f/ralhv ;
chin, officer, from c/tiii, rank; dotitd, enouj^li, from dostact ;
fjHilhe, cry, from fjijl ; ulihids, wtockingH, from obnbh; j[j<7(<,
drink, from pifii' ; plaro^ tol)acco, from prak ; plnsfinii', to
pay, fiom platU ; pluco, strange, from plok ; pusea, mnskot,
Mom jJiiHcli I ' ; sit no, strong, from altnoy\ smentlnl, cream,
from siaetunti ; ftilc, lu'low, from .Sclav, dfjly, and nuetl,
people, from liitli. nwetcs.
Amongst the TiiranianH, either in Hnngary or in some
Asiatic region, they also learned many words, of which PiUg.
(iyps. aley, down, from Hung, (dd, and hokra^ sheep, frona
Ifung. Inrhi, may be taken as examples.
On the liower Danid)e they picked up Wallachian and
Jioumelian-Romaic. Thus ajaiv, so, is "NVall. <iaha ; appolif
again, is (tpoi ; hnomi, good, is houn {honvH) ; cJuwoh,
heaven, is rher; rhokiii, whip, is chokni ; droni, road, is
drum; hlanl (Uitano), waistcoat, is blani, fur; kettany,
together*, is kehlba, many; latch, to find, is aphUv, and
mosco, fly, is moiiskie (mu8C(i). Again, buania, pickles, is
Eoraaic /Sao-ai/oi/ ; chlros, time, is Kaipos; kakkarakhl, mag-
pie, is Kopaxa^; fikmnmeii, ahair^iH aKUfivi; suUlbari, hridlc,
ife avWri^npi,; tickno, cliild, is tekivv; and sooml, broth,
soup, is ^ovfii.
Tile (Jypsies then passed into civilised Europe, and in
each country they have lived as heathens and outcasts, asso-
ciating with law-breakers everywhere, so that their language
has not only taken up new words from the slang of all
countries, but has also supplied such in return. St. Giles'
Creek, Thieves' Latin, Pedler's French, flash language, Ger-
raania, Gerjo, Kothwelsch, and Argot are all more or less
dependent on the Gypsy, so that the Roma themselves can-
not draw a sharp line bp.ween that which is pure language
and base jargon.
The real Gypsy language is, however, very scant, scarcely
! I
22
MIXED LANGrAOES.
lil
containing more than 1,400 words ; and tlniH it may, porliaps,
bo urged that it was aliKoltitoly necessary to Hupply its defi-
ciencies with the plunder ofotlier tonguen.
In the Gypsy pronunciation there is also a renjnrkalilo
Indian peculiarity, for, like most uneducated Hindoos, they
can scarcely distinguish the li<iui(ls in speaking. The English
and Spanish Gypsies are especially detieient in this respect.
Komanny grammar has been almost entirely destroyed
in the contact with Eur(»peans. Th.is the English Gypsy
makes feminine and masculine wt»rds to agn'c with one
another indiscriminately, the first step towards the extinc-
tion of grammatical and towards the adoption of natural
gender. 'I "Ugh he uses his own plurals, lie already forms
all his cases by means of English prepositions instead of
Ivomanny inflexions; and in the conjugation of the verbs ho
as often uses the English as the correct system, saying
/ del, I give, instead of delo; I dt-Vd, I gave, instead of
deliom', and // / had deVd, if I had given, instead of
dellomia,
Komanny is, therefore, mixed in vocabulary, pronuncia-
tion, and grammar. On this latter point we can now
judge, as Dr. Paspati has recovered much of the original
Romanny grammar from the tribes of Turkey in Asia, and
from his labours it appears that tlie language of the Gypsies
had formerly ull that elaborate system of conjugation and
declension by post position which is characteristic of the
Indian tongues.
From the example of Romanny we learn that a language,
however perfect in itself, if spoken by an uncultivated poople,
may degenerate into a jargon ; for though 1 ho Gypsies do
not stand alone in the wholesale adoption of foreign words,
yet> as they have for the last three centuries only adopted
refuse from every European capital, their language has been
almost lost in the slang or debris which they have attracted
towards themselves, and is rapidly becoming a thing of the
past.
1 '
rUKMIAN.
23
icy
At'ltT tlic coiKiucsf of I'ci-rtiii in (!4I, liytln' Ariibn, Afaho-
iiiL'tiinisiii l»cciuu«! tli(^ n'li;j[ii»ii of tlu- country, and us a neces-
sary cons(j([ueuc(' of this diauf^e tlio Aral)ic lan^uaj^o took
tlie place of Parsi and the Koran drove out tho Zend Avesta.
Sliortly afterwards the Anibs ^'avo orders for the destruc-
tion of every vesti;,f(* of th(! ancient Persian hiii^uaf»e and
literature, for it was liinted thiil, many found tlio Persian
tales pleasantfi reading; iHan the Koran, S(t tliat this book,
the key of r.i Arabic reli^'ion and power, was threaten(><l
with total nej;lect. Parsi was thus lost as a literary lanj;ua<^e,
and was only heard on the lips of tho vulfj^ar and uneducated.
As a natinal consccpience it split up into many dialects. Hut
there was a new Persian lan^ua<jfo springing up — that is to
say, a Persian largely corrupted with Arabic. As orthodoxy
in tho matter of religion became, under th(! Arabs, tho chief
condition of existence, tlu; Persians hastened to perfect
tli(!ms(^lves in the doctrines and language of tho Koran.
Persian thus became half Arabic, and has re' 'ned much of
this character even to our ovn days. Thenuinuerof vocables
thus increased could not be expressed by the old Persian al-
phabet of twenty-two cliaracters, and then^fore nine others
were introduced from the Arabic — showing that nearly one-
third of tlio Persian sounds are of Arabic origin. Of tho
introduced words, some became so changed as to follow all
the rules of Persian grammar; others were, however, only
altered in a few letters, whicli presented difficulties of pro-
nunciation.
Persian has the simplest grammar of tho Oriental tongues,
and in this respect has been compared to the English. It
has no article, and has a natural gcmder. Its conjugation is
very rich in tense forms and very poor in moods, possessing
only an indicative, all others being expressed by particles.
Compound tenses and the passive voice are formed by means
of auxiliaries. Its syntax is rich and varied, and its voca-
bulary is especially rich in compound words, which are
formed, as in Grerman, by mere agglutination.
M
14
WIXBU I,AN01JA0K.-
Tho pilncipiil Arabic polntn in tlio «tniohiro of Pornlftn
nro the followiuf^ : —
The Anil)io iilplmbot is usjiiilly omploycnl, hut with nddi-
tionH to icprest'iit purely IN'ruiau HomuU. The f<'miniue in
BoraetiincH formed from the masculino l)y mhliiix a, nn in
Anibic ; thus, mashuh-^ friend, miii<es 'i.ianlnihi^ iimiea.
Arabic words may be declined either on the Persian or Ara-
bic method, wliich cannot be re;fard<'d uh a beauty, bceaiise
it i8 confusini; to thoso I'ersians who are not ^^od Arabic
scholars. In tlie conHtruction (»f prosc! tliere an^ a few Arabic
rules, but the entin; system of vcrsilieation has been bor-
rowed from this lan{j;uag(!.
As a general rule most Arabic words in Persian end in /,
fts nimd, benefit.
§ 7. Turkish.
If a considerable amount of Arabic is necessary for the
thorou<»h understanding of Persian, a much greater knowledge
of it, coupled with an ('fpial ac([uaintance with Persian, is
necessary to the Turkish seholar. In much of its granunar
and vocabulary Persian is a double language, but Turkish is
a treble language in all three points of grammar, vocabtdary,
and pronunciation ; and the Turkish of Constantinople is
totally different from the Tiukish of a country town either
of Europe! or Asia.
The Turks arc a Tartar or Turanian family. The Osman-
li Turks took Gallipoli in 1355, and by 11 'i.'i had succeeded
in destroying the Eastern Koman Empire. Their dialect
was known as the ( )smanli, and at the time of their conver-
Bion to Mahometanism was entirely without cultivation,
having neither literature nor science. Their new religion,
however, brought a new language ; for wherever the Koran
has been introduced, Arabic, a Semitic language, has been
introduced with it.
Arabic was for many years the most cultivated language
of the East, and all the best works on mathematics, alchemy,
astronomy, natural history, geography, history, law, rhetoric,
and poetry were either written in it or translated into it.
TnnKisir.
2.^
To jwrHOiirt MO Intimately comu'ctrd nn tlio TiirkH wcic with
tljo Aiiil)s tlironji;h tlu'ir nii^'idii it. liccamt' nccoHHury that all
who wished to cxct'l in any profession, or in pnlitical lite,
Hhoiild Htndy Aral)i(', as KnropraiiM resorted to I^atin in the
dark af^en. Mnt at this time Arable, <>si)eeially in ([Uestions
of pnrn literatnri', was m intimately eonnected with I'er-
hian, an Iranian hin^na^^e. Thns it happened that the nn-
e(hieated and the poor umonpf the Tnrks eontinnod to Hpeak
their own Osmaidi, whilst the ednealed and t\\o powerful
Hpoke Osmaidi, Arahie, or IN'rsian, aeeordinj,' to the Huh-
ject imder discussion. In this way the Turkish of ( Constan-
tinople j;radually became what it iH now ~a treble lanj^ua^o
containing three voeabnlaries, thre(! j^rammars, and tliree
pronunciations, all mixed together in a way more or less
perfect or the reverHo, aH the Bpeaker himself Ih perfect,
or imperfect, in the two foreijjfii lan/j^ua/jjes of Arabic and
Persian. It may well bo supposed that the num])er of per-
Bt»ns able to nse the three languajjes correctly is much Ichs
now than it was when Turkey was a jmwer in European
l)olitics ; but this being the case, it results that, with the
majority of Turks, the OsmanK grammar Ih often used for
c«»nd>iniiig Arabic and Persian.
The genuine Turkish is one of the most perfect examples
«if an agglutinative languag<'. An al)stract root being taken,
particle after particle may be adch-d to it imtil a whole sen-
tence is expressed in one word. Thus »evtt<h(Ur(hnemek is
all l)uilt, syllal)le by syllable, npon the root .ser, the abstract
verl) to lovo ; ne>' + ish + dir +U + 1110 + inch; or lo\o + one
anot]ier + ]»ronght-| bc + not + to = not to l)e brought to love
ono anotlier; and so on with almost any practicable number
of syllables.
The same idea runs through the whole of tlie accidence,
and thus the language appears much as if it had l)een pro-
duced in a ciit and dried form by an Act of Parliament. It
is the very perfection of an artificial language, though of
course it has Ijoen formed in a natural way.
But the foreign element is as large in the grammar as in
the vocabulary.
1:
2(1 Jiixrn L.^MnfAQK.**.
Of tli(> 33 ('oiiMoiiaiit't, 'iH arc tiikrii tVoni Aiiihic, of \Nlii(li
iiiirnlirr 2^ niily lire riM|MliTtl fi>r TurklHli womU, 1 an- I'l-r-
Hiati, aiitl I only irt |ii'oiiliat- to 'I'lirkiHli.
Ill (Ifflfiisloii, cxfv'pt ill an rli'vati'd ntylc, woriln drrivrd
from Araliic and PfiHian may follow tin- j^^.m nil nilf. (itn-
dt-r is ii;itiiral, as in l*!iij,dis|i,imd masfiilinrs may In* I'iiaiijifi'd
into fcininiiifs by |»rclixin;,Mi hcx word; an, <■(• (i///*?/*, mal<>
fliild; hiz lii/hhi, female rliild : i'iirl,iiinfilit^\\i'A\nU ', ili'inhiW
fO«/«f//, hIu'-IIoii. In words di'iisfd from I'crHian tlir fciiil-
nino is formed Ity addin;; ", as liefoie iiU'iitioned, under tliut
laii;^uan;e. Arabic words, liowever, wliieli are natural in
gender, fol'ow tlie mnltitudiiions rules of Aral)ie ^M'ammar in
forming the feminine. In the [dural the 'I'tirkihh wonls add
At; as, f>^, horse; (///r!/', Iiurses. I'ersian wiu'ds follow the
rules of I'ersian j,Maminar, whilst the Arable words introduc»»
a dual number. In thcMleeleiision of the Arabic adjectiveH
tjiero are numorous rules quite forei^^n lo the Turkish |,'ram-
nmr. Tho Turkish numerals are employed, )mt the Arabii-
are used in speaking,' of the Koran, whilst, the I'ersian are by
no means unfre<iuent.
Turkish pronouns are either indejx'ndent words or post-
positional particles; l)ut a great, many foreij^n jtronouns ari.»
used in addition.
The Turkish verb is, as has been mentioned, of very
curious formation; as, Hei\ love; ttevei', lovinj^; sererhn^I
am lovinjj;; nenacl'i to love; nei'tKhiiwIi; to lov(! one another;
seiu»h'llr)nel\ to cause to Ionc one another. The Aral)ie
verbs arc conjuj^'^ated according to tho ponderous rules of
their own grammar.
An adverb is formed by adding *^A(A ti» the n(»un ; as, <(n-
l''l('(jPUih^ foolishly ; but words of Arabic origin add an ; U8,
surct, appearance; suvetan, apparently; whih; Persian words
add aiu'h ; as, dost, friend ; dostuneli, friendly.
A large proport ion of foreign prcjmsit ions are in use in
Turkisli, but these* are mostly in connection with pluases
borrowed from Arabic and Persian.
In Turkish there are few conjunctions, tlie construction
of sentences rendering them almost unnecessary; but here,
TiA«/r«.
27
ii^tiin, n vrry lar^c niiinl'ii' huvu bccu uUoptud tVotu tliu
Aruitlif luid I'lTMiiiii.
Tim nilt's tor the dt'ilvalidn mid coinpositioii of wonlKnrn
vory nitincroiiN, himI iirt' ••(lually lionoweil tVotn nil (hn-o
III tlio nilfs, liowi'Vi'.', for till' const met ion of scntonroH
tli(> Ai°nl)i(* and I'dHJan clt'inciitH ai ' »ul)oriliiiati' to tiioM* of
home growth, and tliiri fi'ntnrc woul.> at one*' tnaik tli)> indi-
viduality of TiirkiHli and di.sHn;(ui,-tli it tVtini tin.' two auxi-
liary tonjjfucs for I lie pnrpow? (»f, claHsilij-ation.
Kroti) this luiHty Hl«>(i'h it will Im^ hitu that it Ih no cnoy
jtrnttiT to af«|uir«' a |n'rft'i*t knowledge (»f Turkish ; for, in
ordt-r to HjM'ak, read, and write it with east', clcjjiance, and
correcfncHM, wo must in reality learn three lanH;ua;;eH, each
liuill on a ditVerent system of ^rauuriar, an<l each heioiij^'ing
to a difTerent class of ton/jjues. Ihit few oven of the most
learned Turks command this full kuowledgo of their lau-
Ijfuago (JAe,/; Mi'illi'r).
One of the oldest liin^uafijeH in Kuro]»e, and certainly tlu;
oldest in the South-West, is the Hastiue, nr Kiiskarian, which
preceded the Celtic in the i'eninsula and Suuth-West Krance,
and, if we may judj^e by the j^eo;;raphieal names, j'specially
thoHo of rivers, in many other parts of Kun»pealso. HascpioiH
now spoken in several dialects on both sides of the Pyrenees,
It is a polysynthetic languaf,'e, and stands alono aH such in
Kurope.
Its pronunciation is in j^eneral much softer than that of
the Hpaiiish, from which, or perhaps more correctly from the
Gt)ths, who formed the Spanish out of the popular Latin, it
Ims adopted ;^utturals and aspirates. In Spanish the letter
z is pronotmced like a very soft dh ; hut the Hascjues, even
ill speakin;j; Spanish, make scarcely any attempt at the
sound. So far as is known Bascpie pronunciation is mixed.
Its vocabulary is also mixed. It has been subject to the
influence of Latin, Gothic, Arabic, Spanish, and French, but
its principal foreign elements are either Latin or Gothic.
MltRD I.ANOPAaRJt.
I
1 1
TIhik from lifttln wv hnsv, evnrtt^u:in'iui,(rou\oM(\mnv),
M\i\ iho IiaM<|iti< ti'iniinutiiiii lorii; (t/rcrt, froiiui'**'; litn'omi,
iViHn nM't ; hmHj/o^ fV<»m nintlfftirt^ ; animti^ aninn, from «ut-
WM* ; 'ifirfoii, (\'>m\ ahifH ; »o*«»i/)''', frtun fiC('//>»'Cf» ; utmihi,
from (tiiKiri' ; iillttdn^ •ili'huhi^ from uIIiih; niii/iiMtltt, from
anifiiMfiii; (t/i«/»t, (tHK/, from iiiij'tim: avuu^at'liif^ hniihtii^
from iWHiiM ; (ii'lutlUf (nm\ nrlnn'; itntturnt^ fr»>m niinfir\
/»/a(/«vi, fr«)in rfnira: haha, from fnhu; l>i>r(cftii, from fot'ti/i;
hiu/in'ti, from /»tt.r; />i7o<f, »//>'»(, »/*•((, from pitiiM ; bo:<i, from
tcMJ; ci>/>r«<«, from iiiitrinu; ointntn^ (torn cantave ; i'ul''<i,
{vom nilltft; (Ifmhot'tu (r»u\ fftnpiiH; rfn, (vum I'f ; tsfunafh
fiou\Hfiinnu)n;/i'iiii(ii, (vnmfniftiiH ; hmiuit, from hulniinii;
hoi'Diiiluf 11^ Uniw I'uttnifiis; bciiit, I'ldi'lmt, lififtili'ii, from
I'ltretim; Ixwliimi, from hncca ; irnia, (vnu\ ntlum ; <ur>''
guea, from mi* ; encquinH, from iw/liia ; f/uiitd, from rvtf/jsrt ;
f/iiittotu^ from t'tiHtaif ; f/eiKlcn^ from //'Wm; hondo^ {roin/iui'
(lua; ii'inu, (unn/nrina; Dudl/a, from IkicuIuh; und wc/Ktnve,
from muiio)'.
Scvi-ral of the al)o\o w^ii'dn nro f'vfdontly Miroiij;li the
Spaiiisli. The It'tti-r/ in almost ciilircly iilwiit in l^isqiu',
IxTomin^ /> or tiilcnt /t, and in Spaninli and i'ortu){ueHu tli(>
jiaino luttor iMK'oincH h niUmt.
Am the/ romains in tlio other Komann' tonjjfncs, it in to
]M^ fonchidcd that thcdillVrcnee in the Peninsula is owin^ to
the inflnent't^ of Hasiiue.
The principal (jrermanio wordn in Ra^cpie arc: rovntort,
from ar/t, ml/rt' ; iiutnn, from <tfic/i<' ; (ds, from aihcm ; Ixint-
zn, iHiiiftti, from ((vt/i: ; jnimcn ; ('il/i(ir, from sllhcr ; il<inh<i,
from fiiiizcii ; etttnifen^ {nmx Hf ruNnc ; errel^ a>', from ei-dc ;
eHpatiiffrom Hpaten; ffard<;fvoini/U(ir(l, hcicdhvca ', jazcKya^
from jdcke; Ittudd, h-oin land; Mendixi, fvoux f/esiiud, &.c.
]\rany of these words will he ii'cognised also as Teutonic
roots in .Spanish.
There is littlo or tio Celtic element in Basque.
Bas([ue grammar is eomplex, especially in declension and
conju{j;ation, having an extraordinary number of forms. Its
syntax is, however, simple, and depends principally on ar-
rangement of the words in a particular order. In these two
CKl.Tlr.
w
|H>iiitM MaMi|un \* MO ontiri'ly dilTfrt'iit frimi otiirr KuroiMun
grumiiiuiri thai it in, porhapit. fri>< from iiiixtiir*'. Do harm-
in«*ii<li, liowcvor, Ntntt'it that liii> .S|)aniMli laii^ua|j;Q Iuim Ih.'CD
formed uu ihv UMotii of tlu) Humi|iiu.
lit'
i U. Cet c,
TliuCoItic Iaii)(MU(;i'ri liuvnfor iimny ccnttuirM Htood iiitlii>
t'i'lution of Hiiltjtrtcd and almoHt forMdilrn ton^iu-H, iiiidvr
l.aliti, Kii^li^li, or Froticli. Ton{;ti(» in tliix poHitioii arc
more likidy to l>iromc anial;;;aiuatf<l with thi^ Hpt'cch <if the
(•oiniiuTors than to lict'oiiu' iiiixctl th<>nist'lvi>N. TIhih Wi-Uh,
Hcotch, and Irish havt> ^rivrii many words to Knp;liHli, imt
linvu adoplt'd trw from I'lnj^linh ; and Hrrton ntandn in tho
name poHilion with rt>;;artl to |''rcnt-h. Srhohirn, owin^ to
tho jfc'iicral n«'gh,rt of tht* Critic t<»nj,Mic>i, an- ni-arcoly ahh'
to Hpcak with any dt'grotf of certainty of the fori'rj,'n rotitH in
<'f|lii'. Thi'ro HjM-ms, liowrver, to Ih' ii very t'onsi(h!rahlo
Latin uh^nicnt ; and if it shouhl provo to ho ho in n-ality,
und not traocahh* to a common parent, an some phih)hi^nHt!)
Htate, ii will he a clear proof that the Celtic lanj;uaj;eH too
art' mixed, in Welnh wo find y"*/"V/''i f''*"'^ npirit}(M ; yf<!HV}/<lf
from Hciitnia', and .V"».7o/, from u<-h(>l(i\ — in Gaelic, (ilrm,
from (iniui; c««/>, from cuspis; co/c, from i/iili'!.s; <•//*, from
censiiH ; r('iii't, from o'i'tits; cill, from celhi; cmrccll, t'voin
ch'ctiH ; ccdid, from rft'.ld ; cai)'^ from certi ; cmrdir, from
Ctlirei'; r^Z/fV^y, from »'«/«.»•; di'lsctuhnl (Ijroton dlskipl)^
from dinclj)ulas ; rqii.lll, from Npolia; /nil villi ucil, from
monile; ijul Id, from (jdleu ; In livdvli, fvom loricd ; menKH,
fmm riuHCco; oi'fcofi, ovfcdijach, from q(fic I ui a; peiccacli,
f\i'm peccatu)' ; tidt'jhedd, from najilfd ; mitjait, from ndcer-
i(uf<; idilia, from ldu)ii\ and some others.
In I'-n^lish wo have many Celtic words, some of which
wo adopted directly from the Welsh, and others which we
have obtained throtigh the French, which derived them in
ita tm*n from the Bretons uud Gauls.
80
MIXED LANaUAQES.
10. Romance Lan{fiiage/i gencmllj.
It will now be convenient to consider the very iinportiint
group of langu;i<>;es known under the nunKt of Koniunce,
under which designution are included tlie various dialects of
Italian, Provencal, French, Hpanish, Portuguese, Rouinansch,
and Wallaeliian, all of which are evidently connected witli
the Latin, tliougli, as will be seen, tlieir peculiiirities depend
on an entirely diflferent chiss of languages altogetlier.
Until lately it has been tlu^ fashion to speak of tlie va-
rious Komance languages simply as corrupt Latin, l>ut this
view does not sufficiently account fur .tlie many shades of
difference in the languages themselves, nor for the presence
in them of many words apparently of Latin origin, but not
found in any of tlio author^.
In such a vast empire as the Koman it is evident that
there must have been many dialects, and that the common
people in those days would use unclassical words just as they
do now. When, therefore, the Gothic barbarians broke up
the Empire, they found tlie upper and educated classes speak-
ing classical Latin ; they found the Italians speaking Italic,
or Tuscan, or Ligurian, or Calabrian ; tluiy found an miedu-
cated soldiery speaking unknown tongues; and they found
the people of the provinces speaking a mixture of Celtic,
or Bas(pie, or Belgic, with unclassical Latin. Whether the
Latin tlu; Goths heard was piu'c or not, it was a sealed lan-
guage ; l)ut they, being comparatively few in number, found
themselves, for the sake of convenience, obliged to learn it
somehow or other. They learned in time a ^•ooabulary more
or less copious, and supplied its deficiencies by their own
invention. Delicacies of construction were entirely lost
upon them. Tlie conquerors of the Caesars could not, be
expected to sit down to the Latin grammar; but, on the
other hand, they must be understood when they condescended
to speak, and therefore croucbing slaves and wily courtiers
would applaud their mistakes as wit and perpetuate them
by imitation.
Prepositions and auxiliary verbs were made to do the
IIOMANCK LANOUAfiKS GENERALLY.
HI
work of inflection, and tlicso cljan^oa at the end of words were
discarded. Thus Bubstantives were formed from the root of
the accusative by droppinj;' the inflection ; e.jjf. we liave abbat,
art, due, elcphnnf, infiint, ton-cat, aqu'don, capon, carbon,
&.C., from ahhatcin, arton, ducem, clephantem, infantcm,
iorrenteiii, aqndonem, caponem, carboneiu, &c. Actlvitat,
facultat, nanctltat, iS:c., from actlvltateia, facultaton, nanc-
iitatoa, &c., lost the sharp dental, and thus wo get words on
the model activUe, facidte, sauctite, &c,, in French, and
activity, facultii, sanctlttj, &c., in English: lience the rule
that Latin -tan gives Vr. -tr. and Eng. -ty. Of eour.<e, when
the process of dropping intlections left an inconvenient com-
l)ination of consonants at the end of the root, an c, for the
sake of euj)hony, was added, and the consonants divided ;
thus arbUruiii gives arb'dr, arbitre; exemplum ^ixes exempt,
exemple; lucrum gives lucr, lucre, and so on; or, again,
euphony might demand the entire suj^pression of a difficult
combination, and lience we find nudreui, fratrem, patrem,
changed into m('rc,frh'i',ph'e.
In the same way most Latin and Low Latin words be-
came French, and afterwards English.
Mistakes in foreign languages are very often according
to fixed rule. An Englishman speaking French will not
make the same mistakes as a German woidd. Thus the
liatin words would become Italian, or Spanish, or Portu-
guese, on a different principle. Hence, in the terminations
of Latin nouns we shoidd find the following ndes : — That
/.c(/. .enliii - Eiicf. [ '""'''=i''r. -iiicti^ Hal, -(.■nzn- Span. -ciicia = 2V<.-tiiciii
'' { -I'lu'y •"
I Mxamplo, roots prml- and clem-]
., -Uulo „ -tuilo --/'V. -tudo -//((/. -tudinc = .S^xiM. -diimbro = !'(/?•/, -cliio
Ll']xami)le, root forti-]
and so on through every termination, whicli the various Teu-
tonic nations that settled on the old Eoman Empire would
change to suit the habits or genius of their own language.
When the con(|uering nation learned the language of the
conquered, besides those peculiarities of pronunciation and
accent which mark the speaking of a foreign language, there
: i
82
MIXED LANQUAORS.
were other and more serious clianges, or rather Imrbarisms,
which soon developed themselves, and tliose were adopted
and perpetuated by sycophantH. Errors of this kind ariso
from depending too much on the natiojial idiom. Thus tlie
language spoken hy the courts and armies of these conquer-
ing Teutons was no more that of Cicero than the French of
a Cockney boarding-scliool is tliat of Paris. When a person's
vocabulary is limited he is always strongly tempted to coin
words. In this way the Ger. mlschen would suggest such
a verb as miaculare^ which would siirvive, as Fr. 8e laelev ih,
Span, mezclar, and It. inisave', Ger. vonveiseu would be
transhitcd into pra'seiitdre, wliich would become Fr. pvhentcr,
Sp. presentar; Ger. dua (lev h d ml viowVX suggest man tin,
whence the Prov. de m<ine.i ; also tlie opposite idea, in dcv
hand^ maud tenen8, wlience Prov. de mantenen, manteueu,
It. mantencnte, immaideuente, and Fr. maintenant. TIio
Ger. expression von nun an became de hora viage, in (). Fr.
d^8 ore luais, whence deaorrnais ; Gei*. alch entfc/nen would
suggest elongare, hence Fr. a'eloifjner de; Ger. zukunft
would become, through advenire, the Fr. Vavenii", Ger.
uuterhaltenwdn translated into 'mtertenere, whence Fr. entve-
tenlr ; from Ger. «o, yes, indeed, arose tlu; use of the Lat.
sic, thus, in the sense of affirmation, in Prov. sic, It. Sp.
Port, and Fr. si; Ger. umstand produced circvmatantia,
whence It. clrcostanza, Fr. clrconstance, Sp. circiuiatancla',
Ger. frlede was changed into fredum, a fine paid for peace-
breaking, wliich became 0. Fr. frait, whence Fr. fraia,
defrayer; Ger. seherr/e was translated into a monte, wlience
Fr. a mo)d, It. a monte, Prov. amon, also the opposite idea
in Prov. tZa'/rto/<, and provincial It. da monte; whilst Ger.
zetal produced ct valle, wlience Fr. a val, and the verb avaler,
Sp. avalar, It. a valle, with its opposite provincial It. d(t
valle, and Prov. aval, with its opposite daval. Again, Ger.
voratadt was translated into foriabiuyua, wliich became 0.
Fr. forbourg, forshourg, now faid>ourg, which words should
be contrasted with the Eng. 8?fc6urbs, Sp. &'u6urbio, which
perhaps recalls Ger. unteratvidt, the lower town ; the Ger.
gegend would suggest te)ra contratat whence Fr. contree
\
cr.
0.
lUl
ch
er.
fee
r.OMANCK LANfiPAni'S (iKSEi:,\I.r,Y.
ss
anil I'iii;;'. ctnnitri/', wliilst male (qittti^, Prov. imdiipte, It.
oudliUlo, and Fr. laalaile, aro formed ou the iiiotlcl of tlio
Gcr. niifHUss.
Ill tliis wiiy the (iotliic conquerors would rciuodol all tlio
inor(! difficult ]tarts of tlio Latin vocabulary, and thus would
ariso uuukm'oiis words of wliicli no Latin author had ever
hoard and wliicli no JiUliii [itvisanl liad ever used.
liut tlu-rt! would 1)0 a ^rojit nuiuhcr of words formed on
tho provincial and vulf>ar Latin which wo know existed, not
only ill the provinces, hut also in Itome itself; for example —
Viilsnr Lati i
Italian
rrovcni,nl
ajutaro
SpniiUh
ayudar
rortiiffuoKo'
iijudar
Froiich
aider
adjutnvc
njutare
baliiiiliii
bnttn}jlia
bataria
batalla
liatallia
bataillo
batiiero
C'liii-batUTO
baltero
batir
batalhnr
battro
ImHinro
bariaro
bacinro
besar
bcijar
baiser
bucca
biicca
bocca
bnca
boca
bouclie
cabftllus
cavallo
cavallo
caballo
cavallo
clievnl
caliis
pat to
gatto
gato
gato
chat
iMirtem
ciirtt!
corto
corto
corto
cour
iliiplain
d(i]i)iio (adj
■)
doblar
dobrar
doubler
direct 11.-^
diiitto
iitlo_
directo
direito
droit
0X11^111111
•sijrgio
sn^jgio
eiisajo
en.«aio
cssai
focus
fuoco
fuoco
fuogo
logo
feu
;h it one in
j^liiotto
gliiotto
glotoa
glotao
gloutoii
_ OCIIS
ijiuoco
juego
leu
laisser
axaro
laaciarc
lasciarc
duxar
deixar
iiiiiiaci!i>
iiiiiiaccia
miuaccia
aiuenaza
ameafa
menace
mniiducarc
iimiii.dai'(.!
iiiaiigiaro
manger
septiiuana
pottiiiiaiui
.scttiiiiaiia
seinaiia
Bcmaiia
semaino
Idrnnro
[toruirc]
[tornire]
1 toriiar
[toriiar]
touriier
viaticum
' viapyio
viatgc
1 viago
viageiu
vovnge
villa
i [villa]
[villa]
i
1 viflo
IJnt there is a third class of words to which attention
must he drawn. The Teutonic nations were still con([Ucrory,
in spite of their inability to learn good Latin, and as such
they would of course think that they had the best right to
fix the names of certain ideas, conditions, and implements.
If there were some matters on which they could pride them-
selves more than others, these were their knowledge of war,
those peculiarities of government, institution, and custom
which were gradually developed into the feudal system, and
also their own national food and implements. Practical men
I
u
jrixi;i) i,ANfjrAfii;s.
113 tlioy wore, they wuiilil imt troiiblo theinsi'lves much with
iibstmt'tions, and th(Mofore it is only in the concrete nouns,
though often the named of the commonest tilings, that wo
must look for Tcnitonic words in the Komance lan<^ua<;es.
The following may he iaken as instances, the Teutonic words,
unless otherwise stated, heing German. Asaj>'eneral rule llio
Portuguese and the I'rovenfal words arc almost tlie same as
the (Spanish and the Italian respectively, and have therefore
been mostly omitted : —
alansa = Fr. alcano, alcnc, Sp. alcKiia, It. Icstiia,
ahd = L. Lnfc. alnJiaiii, Fr. aUrii, aUodlal, Sp. aluiinil, Pr.
allodlo.
(unhacht = Fr. tutihasmdcur, Sp, cinhuxadur, It. amhasct'aluri;
Vv. anibaissndn.
andeu, wandeii, Eng. wend = Fr. ancr (allcr), Sp. andat; It.
uiidarc.
• aiJic = Fr. hamlc, Sp. aiica, It. auca.
bdrcn = Fr. licrv, It. bam.
bald = Fr. baud, It. hddu.
balk = Sp. imlco, It. falco,
ball = Fr. ballc, Sp. bala, Port, bula, It. bulla.
ballcn = Sp. bayhu; It. ballerc.
band = Fr. bande, Sp. baiida, It. bauda.
banli = Fr. banc, Sp. banco, It. banco.
banu = L. Lat. banntun, Fr. ban, Sp. bando, It. bando.
bannen = Fr. bannir, It. bandirc,
bansen, I'hig. imunch = Fr. pansc, Sp. imn::a, It. imncia.
barJcc = Fr. bariiuc, Sp. &rt?-co, Port, barca, It. ia)V(«.
iaro = Fr. &«vti», Sp. baron, Port. Z/ar(7o, It. baivne.
btt'i = Fr. Z/tf*', Z/((A( ', Sp. Z»(M'o, basturdu, It. ?/((.«(», bastard).
bat, bat = Fr. bateai , It. batello.
bcchcr = Fi\ flicker, It. blcchicrc.
beclccn = Fr. 6ac, irtc/io/, Z/ass/vi, Sp. bacino, Port. Z^rtf/*', It.
bcnjcn = Fr. bcryer.
bcrvrit, O.H.G., a watehtowcr; Eng. icZ/V// = M. Lat. Z/o/rf-
i?us, 0. Fr. brffroi, Fr. bclfroi.
bier = Fr. Z/are, It. Z^iVra, Pr. Z/iVrt»,
bindon = It. bcuda, bcndarc.
blanlc = Fr. Z/Zauc, Sp. bianco, It. bianco,
Halt = Fr. iZetZ, It. Z//orZ'.t, Pr. i/ayo.
I
./'"
V/(;
rOMANCE LANfJUAOES GENKHALLY.
85
J
llniiilc = Vr, III, ml, Sp. hlonil; It. Jiiuulo,
hiick — Fr. hditc.
hnJUirrh = Fr. Inmhvanl, Sp. huhtarlc. It. hahuivdo.
h It'll ^ Fr. hnrdnl, Sp. hnnlcl, It. bordello, Pr. horda,
h(ini))'u= Fr. liuifi'i', ixiiitiHct; 8p. Z/oAo-, It, hidfavo,
hrnchra =s Fr. bnchc, Sp. hrccha. It. hrcccAa,
hrid, O.II.O. Z/r/Z/J, JOng. 7>ri(7/<j = Fr. ti/(?c, Sp. ?/m"(7((, It.
hridit,
hriisl = ? Fr, /;».i/(', Sp. hiisti). It, 7/(«.s/().
?^»/<(', Flip. Inihc, = It. Iiamhiiio, Pr. bn)nho,
hurfj = Fr. Iionrij, Sp. hiinjo. It. honjo,
Ittxch = Fr. 6()/.'<, Sp. hosqiiOf It. 6oseo.
/y/t/ = Fr. 7>(^(t/.
//»//, />o//<' = It. /«<//.'.
Iinltci'=¥r. hcimr, It. hiUinOf hutero.
roc ^ Fr. cof.
(7(^(7 = Fr. (/((n/, Sp. durdo, It. dardo.
dunlid = Fr. dcuvo, adouccr, (uhuher, mdouhvi; It. addlhare,
Pr. (/r)(/rf.
(/(V/;';/ = Sp. (?(';/«., It. (7(/7fl.
dochc. Fug. '7",'/ = Fr, dnijiic,
dmiif, drill, Init = Fr. '^vt, It. dvudo, Pr. Jrit/.
diiuicii, Hug. tuiuhlti = Vv. tomher, It. tomare, Pr. tomhohre,
fiilh; Eng./«^?= Sp. /((?(?</, It. /«?(?«.
fdllxluhl, Va\<^. fidKtool =: Fv. fnutenil, Sp. It. Fv, faldlslorio.
faul, Eng./(».i/ = Fr./o/, It. f die.
fehlcii = Fr. /<( ///(V, felon, Sp. fallar, fellon , It. fclloiio, fello.
fctii = Fr.jhi, Sp.fino, Jt.Jhio.
fetr., ]>fcl:: = Fr. jxV'CC, Sj). ^*/t',va, It. pc::::o, pc^rai,
jll::,j'rH=Fr.j'ruire, Si). Jleliro, It. fell ro, Vv. feltm.
jld.il-, fliifche = Fv. jlasune, jlacon, S[). frasco, It. JlcLiCo, Pr.
/('(R'fO.
Jitfsrh = Fr.jleche, B\t.fl('cha, it. freccia.
'foysl = Fv.foret, Sp. ,/7()/r.-7(i, It./«;>T*.7(f.
yVrti/A; = Fr. franc, Sp. franco. It. franco.
freisUch = Fr. ajfrcn.r, frisson,
fri'sch = Fr. /rat's, Sp. fresco, It. fresco.
fnlircn-= Fx. fmrrler, Sp. /(uTO, It. /(jJcro.
fidlti=. Fi'.foide, It. fdia, Vv. follare.
gairdcn, Gotli., fjUrtcii ; (jlrd, Eng. = Fr. (jiurlando, Sp. r/?uV.
Viddii, It. (jhi'rlande.
(ja,< ■ = Pr. i/c"", ;/''.
B 2
no
mim:i) (.ANnuAOKii.
(/(()•, train- = Vv. ijnnr, ijiinrit, Ft. >jii,ir<i, Vv. giitfi', ijnulic
ijarbi' = Vv. (jryh'\ Vv. ijarha.
ijnftv.il =i Fv.janliii, Hp.JimJln, It. (jianliuo.
ijarllo, Frank = Vr. j/ajv;o/i, It. (jarztnie.
ijdnna =s It. i'hiitsso.
iirliif =. Vv. ijcrfitut, S|). ijh'ij'tdli', II. iju'fiih'o.
ijilli =: 0. Vv. Jiinhii', Vv.Jiiiiiir, It. ij'mllo.
ijvliinh = Sp. Uiuh>, It. limh).
,/r)iis('=i Fr. chinnim, Sp. caitiox;:a, It. r/aviirut,
(jl('f= Vv. i/Jdivc.
glochc = Fr. cloche.
gram = 0. Fr. f/m)», It. tjramo,
(jrcif(in=^ Vv. iji'iffi'i It. ^''{/'o.
(jrhlan, Goth. = Fr. rr/cr, Sp. i/rilar, It. fjr'uiarc.
ijrmis ^ Fr. ;/*'{W, Sp. (jntr^n, It. i/msKo,
larl-c = Fr. li<irlii\ Sp. 7/'',v, It. (f.v.vf, Pr. ^^•l■A^
liiiriiKj = Fr. haremj, Sp. dtriiM, Port, areitijiie, It. ariiign, Pr.
art'HC.
hdhhcrijr = Fr. li(vihcrt\ hoiiho'f/con, It. ushcyiju.
liulten = Vv. haUc, Sp. <(//", It. aZ/o.
haltea = It. f.'ZiJ«.
/ifinu'sc/i = Fr. harii,oin, Sp. (tyiirit, It. arncsc, Pr. arucs.
liarpfc = Fr. Inn-pc, Sp. ((^^((f, It. <(jy)a.
hanpi'l ■=■ It. f/.><^i').
hciijro, O.II.CI. (heron) = Fr. a/V/cc.
//t,7;;i = Fr. heanmi', Sp. livlnnt, It. (7i»o.
hiihiihurlo = ¥r. //"//c^dn/c, Sj). lialahanla,Vovi.alahni;hi, ft.
herhrrije z= Fr. anho'ijf, Sp. (dberi/ui', It. albcnjo.
herald = Fr. hrranf, Sp. hernldo, Port, aniuto. It. amhln.
hclzcii, i.e. Frank chcl;:rn = Fr. chasner, Sp. ca::iti; It, cacciarc,
Jiortcii= Fr. henrtet; It. urlmr.
huscii = Fr. hoHseau.r, h<:iinf, It. //(W(y.
/,vi»/ =: Fr. eo///, Sp. cldiIo, It. cdiiln.
l-appc = Fr. chnpr, Sp. Cftjxf, It. raj^pa.
liir = Fv. chart; Sp. farro, It. ctoro.
hiesoif O.H.G. Jciiisen = Fr. chuislr,
Inictf, Eng. 7i-»//(; = Fr. a/H//.
/i-yc/.; = Sp. coreho.
Irriippati = L. Lat. agrappa, 0. Fr. ajrape, Fr. atjra£'i; Pr.
Jcupfer = Sp. C()?;r(.'.
BojiANt i: LA.NGi;Aai;.s (.umjually.
»7
1, Pr.
hi, \L
(•Kirc,
Te, Pr.
hiiid = Fr. luiiih-n, It. liiuiht.
lanxhiin'hl = Fr. Iannqitcnrt, It. Intir.icJuncccc.
hmnfii, = Fr. hiisHi't; Sp. ih'.nu; It. luHuitrc.
hist = Fr. /r.s/, S|), Idstn; Pr. /(»nA),
///.N(/rf, (ioth., /w^= Fr. /(./, It. l(,/',i.
h'clceii « J''r. Jrchoi; It. lei'cnn:
UKihiil =: h. Fjiit. iiiiiUum,Vv, iii'illi; Pr. (//((Ar.
■inamhucait = L. Lat. marimillitfi, Fr. man'rlnil, Sp. vinn'acal,
Pr viiii'iscah'o.
VKtvl-'- = Fr. vuirchi', Sp. minrn, It. marca,
hiast = Fr. ?/ir»/, tSp, tiutstll, It. ;//r(t(/y.
?/?(«//, Kiig. i//(t(i = It. initio.
mniirtlii; (iotli., lOng. iinirt/icf = Vv. mrnHrc,
virt::,;ii= Fr. iiiunsucyci; Sp. maliti; It. ammar.xare.
')nill:: = Sp. iiiflsii, It. inihui.
minno = Fr. vu'gunn, mujnartl.
vii'ni'hrn = Fr. wVcr, Sp. iiirxchn; It. mlnrjiinj'c,
viHi^xi', = Fr. amnsor, Pr. inxiner.
)innl = Fr. »«/'(7, Sp. /io>7<,'.
o.«f =s Fr. (3s/, Sp. cj»/o.
imnzcn = It. ])aii;:u'rn.
2)rrh: = Fr. pec/c, Sp. /)e/7(f, It. peria,
p/i'il)'i^t'= Fv.Jifri', Sp. j)//(tn», It. pi[l^'ci'i>, Pr. /*/y»(r.
jtirlccii = Fr. ]ii'iiu(')', Sp. iHcai', It. jnccarr.
l)hiiz = Fr. place, Sp. phir.'i, It. piazza.
2)iil.i[(;r = Fr. piiltro)), Sp. poltron, It. iioltrhr, fnlfrone.
prUuiul, Goth. = Fr. prlsaml, Sp. iirlslun. It. prlijlone,
rami = It. ruinhi,
raspcii, ■= Fr. nlpcr, Sp. raspar, It. raspare.
ratio = Fr. ra/, rafo», Sp. raA»«, It. j'a/^».
raHhi'ii,= Fr. roZ*t'/', ileruhor, Sp. rahar, It. ruhare.
rclrh = Fr. r/t7/c', Sj). r/Vo, It. r/cco.
reichru = It. yfcan'.
reiho = Sp. rrt//rt, It. ;•/;/<(.
retwi = Sp. v/)»,7, It. 7'/'/«(f.
rl)i(ji'n= Fr. harainjnc, Sp. nrou/a, Pr. arDnjiin, It, nrlngo,
rocl;e = Fr. nKjue, Sp. rticca, It. roceo.
roas = Fr. roiissui, Sp. j'oc/'/i, It. ronxinn, Pr. ?'o.s-.
ro.si = O. Fr. r().--'^(V, It. arrostlre,
siibd = Fr. ft'«/j(r, Sp. .'.•rtZ*L', It. sciahla.
sail = Fr. 6'(t//(', Sp. «((/«, It, S(i/(t.
3H
Mi\i;i> r.ANni'Afn;s.
nrfiaar — 0. Fi cxehUrt', It, nchiom,
Hclialch' -^ It. iiudco,
m'lianm = Vv. I'ciniw, It. nchlinun.
nrlii'iilirl, Miij?. uliin — Tt. nrlihicn,
Mchrrhi', O.II.O., a pnrso hung round a pilj^riui'n neck =3 ().
I'r. c»t'lii'ri>i\ CMi'.hfi r/ii', Fr. I'chnrjw, Dug. mar/,
ffher:: ■■ It. nchino,
nrliifXHcn == I'V. csi/iilssi', It Tlii;:r.<).
schtff^ Vv, CKiiui/, tSp. Cfniiiij); It. nrhi/i).
$ch!nii = Fr. rHcrintcr, Sp. fni/riuih; It, schcnnlrCf achcrnio,
8rhhc:hl, gvxihhicht ^ It. n-hlalta.
Si'lthclit ■= It. srhicllo,
sclnunch =: It. siikicco.
srhiiirhvii = It. unialtiri'.
tchnell ^ It. Riicllo.
schoosn = Fr. (V(7, Sp. ri>t'nti\ It. scollo.
fiuiinfalt = L. Lat. xini-riilhin, Fr. s,'iirchi(J, Sp. scii)'i>i'i(}, Pr,
«(■///! ^ It. «//i«f).
s//,v = I'V. ^/('^«', Pr. «e^7/nr.
sVopcHo, O. Tout. = fj. Lat. firnhiiinn, Fr. I'rlnri'ii, Pr. ncnhinn.
eonni'fi, mH)iii>, O. Tout. = Fr. Aiy///, besuin, It. hixoi/ni', Pr.
gpiihcn ^ Fr. rj^/c/', Sp. ei*}na)\ It. spiare,
sjmiin = It. npninKt.
apcfhrr = Fr. ipcrvi'er, It. ajianu'crc.
sporn = Fr. iprruii, Sp. cxpnda, It. spimmo.
spn'ihcii = It. spriixr.are,
gfnvipfrii = Fr. ('f<n))j)t\ Sp, rshiwpnr, It. sfaiupnrt^.
stcchni = Sp. I'stacar, It, stcccaro,
sti'rfi'l = It. ulinilo.
stiel = It. «<t7o.
fi^;c/i' = Sp. csfoqno, It. sloccn,
straltl = It. ainih'.
stule = Fr. I'tuvc, Sp. ostnfa, It, «/?«/)».
fi//(t7.' = Sp, csturpic, It. stucco.
stun, Eng. = O. Fr. csfonncr, Fr. etomier.
sltirni = It. stuiinn,
slid = Fr. s!<(7, Sp. .iJ^cZ.
«?(;|)2>e = Fr, «07/j)e, Sp. so^j^t, It. r.nppa, Pr. sojia.
/anzeji = Fr, dan/tcr, Sp, dmizar, It, danzarc.
iasche = It, /asc^,
/a?«/e?i = Fr. etoujfer. It. tuffarc.
:i>
t.>
]^
in
IK
iioMAMi; I,/ jiAfiKM oi;m:iiai,i,v.
.'10
: ().
, Vv.
IIIKK
. I'r.
{
fihiii, Colli. ; //f/.v, R, 3s Fl*. tiiiirhfi', Sp. I,<rii,; It. hn'cfirc.
Ilk, til = Kr. iiffiifhrr, Sp. /ii»'(»c, Ik. allitciifo,
tiiillni = Kr. Z/^./'j IV. tiiJiiri',
tniiiii'^ Vr, fDniirtni, Sp. /lu/c/, I'r. Inmi,
iiif/sa Vr, Idiuhc, Sp. tnrha, It. /m/Ak,
( fmiijii ^ Fl', /;•/(•(■, liifriijiii; Sp. fri'iiiiii, Ft, {ni/iifi,
\ Iri'ijijiiit, (lotli,, Hccufity, pcftco = (). Fr. //•/(•(',
(ilnlii'it =: Fr. /n'liijUir^ It, lriii,;i,'\
vnehcn ss Fr. 7»<7, fjiii'lfi r, Tt. iiiinfurr,
viilivi)!. = Fr. ijiinlir, Sp. (jmiiilar, ll. ijiiayilirr.
vaiiiji' ^ It. ijiiitiirlii.
iraiitf =s Fr, ;/"///, Sp. ijttdiifi', It, f/iinn/i'.
vuinKii ■— Fr, ijnvith; ijitriiixon, 8p. ijuarniciott, guaruneer, It.
'jiinriiiri', (juiinn'iilniii',
irrh =: It, 'Jitnjo.
tri'ini' ^ Fr, ijiilut', Sp. ijui'mt, Tt, fjin'm,
vri'xni'u = I'V. anV, (irlsi'r, Sp. nn'na, Tt. arvli^Of nrviMrf,
H'l'rcii = Fr. tjdritntii; It. tju(iri'iili'r<',
ii'i't'va = I'V, ijiirrrn, Sp. (/iirnui, It. ijnn'rit,
v'uh'vthnn = Fr. iinrrilDii, It. yiitdcrdoio.
nalm sb It. p.annn.
Some Imnrlrcds of ntlioi'H might l)o added.
Hut it w!iH not alone the vocaliuliiry of Latin that was
chanfjed, for tli(> t;ramni.i;" also sufTcnMl.
The ve;"l)s were not so com])l('t('ly dismonjhered as raio^ht
have been the ease; but wtill theii' elianji^e was fifreat. The
terminations of the tenses, especially the jirtsent, in all the
Komance ton<,'ues are more or less like the corresponding ter-
minations in Latin, and to note their similarity it is only
necessary to arrange thejn in parallel columns : —
Lat.
Ppaii.
Tort.
cant-o
•
-0
-U3
-as
•as
• at
-a
-a
-nnins
-anioB
-amos
-atis
-ais
-ais
-ant
-an
-ao
Ital.
Walliich.
-o ci'intu
-i c/mto
•a cant a
-iamo c^ntamn
-ato ci'uitatj
-ano canta
Fr.
cliauto
cliantos
c'hanto
eh an ton 3
cliantcz
chantent
to
MiXKn LAynt'Ar.w.
Hut Niii'li <'liiin}j;t>H (.'iiii Hcni'cfly bo nttiihitlcd to TiMttoiiic
iiillin'iur, \n'\\)<i ratlirr flic roHiilt of timt tfiidfin'v in nil
i
1
iiiiKUiij^t'H t«» Mlinplit'y tln'ir t. rniiuiitioj»H. Thin triuh'iicy If",
howincr, Htr))n;;i*Ht iit tlictiin«>oritiiy ^n-iil ili^niptioii, iiiKhli.*
Ti'Utonx no tloiiht liiiHti'iU'tl tliix i'liiiii;;«'. Cominjjf nii»Mi iily
into u Htran^'t' fon^^uf, tlicy would Uh'\ very Mtron;(ly tlit>
niH'is^ily of liiyiii;^ nioi'i< htrcHH on tin* root than on tin' iW'
niinitlioii ; tliinl'irc tlu> on(> was pivsi'i'vod, but tlir utiici wurt
U<t't to take niif uf il.'^tdf.
lit no known [Mrnxt of litfialnr*' lia^ tlir r<atiii verh
Itoi-n H() perfect ad the Greek; tor in certain of itn t»'nse< in
the paMsive V(»ice it wan forced to nne the auxiliary. To tli.--
fin;r'iisli these would In; a new source of ditliciilty to flu?
invader,"*, and they therefore cut the (loidian kntjt l»y conjn-
^'atin;; ((// the passive voice with an anxiliary, jnst an thuy
already did in flieir own npeech.
Decleiisioii v,.;s atl'ecled much the ssanie way as conjuj^a-
tion. It was found that, with cuie form for the sin;^idar and
another for tint plural, all the nlutions could he easily whown
by means of prepo-ilions, a chan^^o which had been already
lie<;un ; f'o." soiuel imes in Latin a cas>' was di«t iii;,nii>l:cd by
relationship to a verli, a noun, or an at'ji'ctive, and souietinn's
tlio reliitionship had to Itu hIiowu by a preposif imi. licit)
aj^ain the Teutons only hastened an inevitable result of Iho
laws of nuifatioii. I'articiples and adjectives were treated in
the same way, as wore idso tim adjective pronouns; but the
personal pronouns, upon which depends so nnich correctness
in the expression of individuality, escaped with nnieli less
dama^?e and with scarcely any actual loss.
There does not, however, seem to be any Teutonic point
iu the purely f:;rammatical formation of all the Konnince lan-
giia<j;es. If the Teutons had l)een more civilised at the time
of their con(iuest, the result might have liei'U difTerent, Imt
as it was they changed the vocabulary and allowed their new
subjects L() change the grammar.
From the al)ove it will be a])parent that 'I'eutonie influence,
direct or indirect, completely remo<lelled the l;:n;;iiage of (lo
liomau Empire; but it must l)e clearly underhloud that the
SPANISH ANn PonTrnrnxr,.
41
liiitin ouwiiicli llicy worktnl ami tli«> h.itiii wliioli tiny tVuiiii! I
wtTO not ri'Co^uiHfd l»y tin- Itiinmil. TIhmk |iu<I H«»t up ricerci,
Kniaco, uiitl Vir^'il aH iiuxIcIh, aii<l in iIiiik iltHMrt'itifj; that no
l^atiii wan ^^ooil «>xf(>|>t that of tho Aii^ii'^taii a}{i<, they pro-
iiomu't'il thi* (h'uth-wanaiit of thfir hiiip;iia)^i<. Hut thi>
\aiioiH <lial«'«'ls nml \ iilj^ai i><tiH whu'h wni' M'uiiti'!! Iiylln'
f^iiiiMiiiariaiH a ' Itailtaroii-*, whilst coiifiiriiiiii^ Iht'tiHrhfs In
thu ut>w unU'r of thiii^n, diil what they coiiM to liatiiiirio llio
Hpoueh of thu ct>ii*|U(trorH, aii<l when that fail"i| uihtpttMl I ho
T<Mitoiii(' wokIh which had liccoiiio indispciiHahh).
C'hiHHieal liatiii was hit to ntaj^natt' with hal" i-diicatud
prii'stH, and ccaMt'd to \n> a spolvcii hiiiji^iiaj,'t', wliilst I he oncn
dcHpiHcd dialects havt! riniMi to tlu; rank of cidtiv sited and
liti'rary lon^nu-H.
So far as wo an» uhlc to jiid;;(', th« niont iinrncdiatt) cfl't'ct
(ibscrvahh! on thoforeihlc introduction of a Teutonic clcmont
into thu Latin was the production of a jar;j;on much of the
Hftin*' charai'ter as that now H[»oken at I''ort N'anconvur, or at
Merhicu, or at Canton, and this lingua franca would vary in
thu same proportion as thu Latin or Teutonic eh incnt (tf
which it is composed. Thus we have some Ij varii'tics
of Italian, 10 varieties of Spanish and l*urtn;^iiese, 17 of
I'rovencal, 1.1 of French, 2 of Churwidsch, and H of Wal-
lachiau. Of course in these numerous dialects it is p(»shililu
in very many cnscs to find words with almost every a|)preci-
ultle shadu of ditreriiiice hetwecn pure Latin on one hide
and pure Teutoinc on the other.
It will now he necessary to j^lance at some of tlicso Ko-
manc(! lanjifuaj^'cs separately, in order to show how their indi-
viduality has arisen.
no
§ H. Spanish and roiiiKjiicse.
First, with regard to the Spanish Peninsula.
Thc! earliest iidiahitunts were Tskarians or Hasqnos.
'I'hese peopl(! ani principally traceable in geo<4'rai)hical names
from St. Ji'an de Luz, in France, southwards. IJnt their lan-
guage is still spoken among the mountains, and lias been
43
NiM'.n UNQi \(i»;^.
iiofli'.'il iil»..vc. Tli«»y wi'ro fintt vUHnl (DCM) (.» 2(M) ii.(.) l.y
tli«> l'liii'iii<-intH of Tyri*, Siilon, tuul (<M|M*oially nt* <'i»itliii){o.
Tin- (il<(l<H t'nilowrd, lint tlll'lr iuflui'tICO WUH HIKlll. NfXt
cniiu* tli<> Uoni.'uiH, wlio it) 21)0 n.c. iMtulc it, it provincn iiniirr
tlii> nuiiii* of Ki.Mpiiiiia. Tlic UuinauH liroii^hl claitHii'iil uud
|)o|»iiliii' I/itin, llii- liiftrr rK|MiialIy; ai»«l h\ tin? ri'if^ii of
Aii;^'UHtiiH I lie MiHijiii' laii/,'iiiij;t' liaij ln-i'n all Imt Hii|n>r>*<'tlt'(|
('X('i'|it ill till' iHHiiiitains. Tin' l{«ttniiin l>rnii^lil tnuiiy Afiirati
l(';;^'ioiiH to Spain, and ilonMlrMH tlif-ic had Hoiiir littlo intliirnoo
on tli(< Fiat in diali'd. In t"!> A.i). canx* tlio Alanif a 'lartiii'
family, \vltli tlio VimhIiiIm, a Sluvoni.'U family, lait liotli undi r
n»'i'man Iradcrn, al:Ho tlio Sucvi, or Mur;jfuiidiajH. Tln' in-
Miiciu'i' of tli('H(< |)<>o|)li< I'onld, Iiowmcr, liavc Ix'cn Imt hiiimII,
for in 412 came the ViHijj;ntliH and fonndi'd a kingdom, al'irr
wliii'li, in -I'J!), tin'v rxpi-llrd the Ahni and N'anial- ; tin I in
jH!) (hey Hnccccdcd in diivinj^ I he Siicsi into {•(nliifj;al.
Tlio HuHf|nt( liad lon^ Hin<M< taken its last n-fii}^'" in tlio
I'yrciit'an district and in I'ortii^jfal. It. m'oins to liavo excrtrd
mi ititlucncc, wliirli '\a principally hIiowii in alibrcviation, on
the popular Lai in of those parts. The (iotliic, mixing' with the
Hiscayan Fiat in, formed the dialect known as Catalan, whil;<t
SiKfvic, mixiii;j; with tliiit of the Wot, forme I I'orliiinu'se.
The (Jolhic, mixing; with the popniar liatin, pure from Fiih-
cayan, formed the Castilian or classical Spanish, in ".vhi<'h
lanjifna^^e tho (lothic inlliu'tico in clearly diHtiiif^iiishiil.le in
the pronnnciation, for this alono of all the Nco-Fiatin Ioh^^'mch
prosorvcB tho Te^itonic fj;uttnral f/ lutforn r or /; also in ihc
chan^'p of n into ?»<?, as in tho Gorman of o into or: thns,
liat. corpus, piqnihis; Sp. rncipo, piuihlo \ (ler. I:i>('i'iifi',
Jinrltt'l.
The pocnlinrity, however, t>f the dialects of the I'enin-
Riila is the presence of Arahic roots. In 713 F{o(lerifi[o was
overtl:rown at Xeres l»y tho AraMan general Tarik (whose
name survives in (iihraltar, the jNIonntain of Tarik), and by
7.55 an independent khalifat, under Ahd-ur-Kahman, was
e8tal)liHhed. IJnt from 77H the Christians hetifan the war of
retaliation, tliou^di it was not imtil 1492 that (iranada, th(«
laj't Arab state, was retaken. The extreme north of the
UfAMimi AND POUTr«llfi:.
4;i
J'tniiiNiila liiul Im'ci) Arnhic liul ii »h<)it timet tlio k nilh wim
|)OHMi<itiiiHl \ty tln» Himn^cr fcr 70() ynwn, Tho iiortltorn «Uu-
lectH liuvt', MuTct'oris very few Araldo woiiIh, Imt they ure
iiiiinenMiM ill the Noiilh. In tli(* literary diulret^ of Spiiiti
luxl I'oitiijjfiil 111) h*NM than 2,n()<) wonlp* liuse hren UHHigiied to
thiM hiii){Uii;^i'. Ni)i' i-4 this tiialtn- of wuiidei, an th)> ArnltH
were Hiipeiioi- to tile ChliHtiaiH ill alliioit exciythii.K, for
under tlieii- rule a^rii*i.ltiir(>, inanufaehire-i, ami cointiit tee
IIoiiri'*hed • whilst tlieir rnpital, Conlova, heeanie celehrateil
thronghont the world for Itn university, iN lilnary, and itN
Hi'ieliee.
The tollowinp; may ]»«* taken nn (•xainpler< of Aiahie rootii,
in atlditioii lo r^onie terrns, hiicIi as al^elna, Koran, and othorH
conimon to ICnrope ^^eiierally : Alfoinln'n, iiieasleK, tiom
linnirnli, ri'dness ; iiJj'injii^ a wallet, tVoni Unii'j; ni'vmitd^
hread iiiaile with bran, from itHsuiiud^ tlu'-whit«!-hread ;
«t:o/(«r, molten copper, from tt»-Mofi'f the-copper; aUnu'da^
a paek-wuMIe, fntm (fi-/>«u'(/»(\(/i, t he-saddle ; nlhof/uf^ a, pipe,
I'ntni itl-hiV:, the-triimpet ; a^'«//«/'', governor of a fort, from
nl~l,(hl!, the-judj^e; niinhht^a Handy plaee, from r(f><(/,Hand ;
hcllohi, aeorn, from htill'if, oak, aeorn ; nlf -"z (also It.
iiljliiT), an ensij;;!!, fr(»m iil-ji/ui'i'n ; (•(ijlln, a ira\an, from
htjiloh ; e!<( (' The Cid '), fr(»m sayc<l, inahter, lord ; fnlaiw^
Hueh a one, from fnldu ; ffiKulUy u fre<|Uf'nt pfeop^raphical
t'oiiiponnd, from wadi, riv«r; liorro^ free, from huir; jau'd^
II jar or pileher, from jait'ah, a waterpot ; narmijd, an
oranee, from nuranj ; td'.d, a enp, from taii ; tdhotKi^ a
horhe-mill, frttm ti.,''hiat; mtifrara^ n wooden rattle, from
viifi'didf, a smith's hammer ; indsntva, a mask, from indsl,--
lidi-'it^ ii hiitVocm; and .rt^fyj/c, lord, from w//c//.7, an old man
or chief.
In Portn^noso we find dl/rlod, molasses, from halwahy
Hwootness ; azafi',)iie^ liusto, uproar, from zahinah ; idmofadd^
jtillow, from iiinhalldh ; tdfantje, a cymc^tar, from khanjdf^
a poniard ; alfdcOy lettuce, from l-lid»s, potherbH ; a<^.0'igue,
shambles, from aasuk, th(^-market,placo; adarmc, ^ ounce,
from ad-dlrlieriii tho-dirhem, a very small coin ; adibo, a
sort of fox, from ad-dlh, t he-wolf ; almoijdj.'dvcs, a vet(!ran,
S'1
44
MIXKD LANnUAfJEH.
from al-Duif/hahb/if tIi(>(liisty-oiiu ; (dinohurl, tlic niiirki't,
clerk, from alintistdivctii ; (uldr.za, sqiuin^ biit-klor of miiall
size covered witli hide, I'rom a<l(ifi'iiq ; alhafor, Uie root of
the water-lily, from aUnul'liur, i\w incense; tdiaofdi'lz, w
mortar, from al-mlvhh, the-<,'rin(Ist,oiie ; mr'tlc, nil, from
azzaif, tlie-olive ; with very many more.
The strong Arabic f^iittural is also traceable in tho
Spunisli, but by some process this has been elian/^ed by the
Portn^iicse into a sibilant.
Before leavin*;' tho lanouag-es of tlie Peninsula we may
notice that the "Eu^. fli/-bo(U was a(loi)t('d by the iSijanish aa
jl'ihote^Jlllhote, and afterwards came back to us w^jiU'dnialer,
§ 12. French.
When the Romans took possession of Gaul (121 to 49
B.C.) they were the third strangers (if not the fourtli) that
had been there, for the aborigines (if not Basques) were
Celts; and then came the Phocreans, who founded a Greek
colony at Massilia about GOO L.c. The Komans introduced
Latin, principally the popular dialects of the legions, which
soon spread over the whole country, so much so that oidy
about 200 roots of tlie original Celtic have survived until
tliese days in French. In the year 407 the Vandals and
8uevi, crossing the Rhine, passed through Gallia to Anda-
lusia, and shortly after were followed by the Burgundi, who
came from the Vistula and succeeded in establishing a
kingdom on the Rhone from Avignon to Basle. In 416
came Athaufus tho Visigoth and founded a kingdom at
Thoulouse, extending from the Pyrenees to the Loire. Another
invasion — tins time of Franks tmder Chlodwig, or Clovis —
soon followed, and about 429 a kingdom was established north
of tho Loire. The Franks became the leading race, with
Paris for a capital.
The language of the Burgundi, uniting with the popular
Latin of the south of France, has produced the Provenfal
dialects ; that of the Visigoths, in a similar way, uniting with
a popular Latin, in which was probably a large Basque
FRENCir.
45
'I
clement, produced the Gascon dialects of the south-cast ;
whilst that of the Franks, iniiting with tlio popular Latin of
the nortli, produced the French dialects.
In the yeav 842 we have already a specimen of French.
It is an oath taken by Kiiijy Louis the Grorman to his brov i. -<•
and army, it is what we now call Old French ; and though
it contained more inflexions than modern French, yet it liad
fewer than the Latin. At this time the language was half-
way betwe>in a synthetic and an analytic form.
.Shortly after another Teutonic element was introduced
by the Scandinavians, who settled in Normandy in the reigu
of Charles the Simple. To these people the French owe a
great many naval terms and very many place-np.mes, besidoj
st)me exprcsssons peculiar to the Xormau dialect.
Altogetlier tliere are about 500 Teutonic roots in French,
specimens of which have already been given, but nut a single
Teutonic grammatical construction.
For some centuries after the Norman invasion the French
languages were left to themselves and their poets, and the
development was still further from Latin ; but with the
Neapolitan expedition of Charles VIII. in 1495 began a
new series of changes in the French language. Hencefor-
ward foreign elements were freely introduced. The French
con(iuered the Italian cities, and the couipiered Italianised
the French language. Louis XII. and Francis I. dazzled
the French with their Italian expeditions. Henry II. married
an Italian princess, Catherine de Medicis, who reigned su-
preme over three kings, her sons, promoted Italian gentle-
men, writers, artists, charlatans, and poisoners to the highest
places, and established an Italian court. \\'e now have many
Italian Avords, such as alerte (all' erta), affuU (afTfidato), agio
(aggio), brave (l)ravo), halcon (balcone), baldaquin (bal-
dacchino), bllaii (bilancia), banque (banco), carabine
(carabina), courtlsan (cortigiano), charlatan (ciarlatano),
cameriste {ciimcvisiix), carrosse (carrozza), costume (costume),
cadence (cadenza), cartouche (cartuccio), cscadre (scadia),
escorte (scorta), escale {scala,), fantass in {fimtaccmo), rjabion
(gabbione), infanterie (infixnioYia.), and parai^et (parapetto).
•4G
MIXKD LANaUAQES.
At the sarae time tliero was a cHqun wliidi seriously
tittemptcd to Latinise the French hiiififiiiiov, a purist move-
ment, in fact, somewhat like tliat we had in l*hi/j;hvu(l ; hut
this was, as in our oAvn case, cured by its own excess, and
the new words were forcibly driven out of tlio hmguage with-
out having effected any notable change.
On the accession of ITenry IV. anotlier movement took
place. This king had suffered so inuc]i from the Italian
queen that lie cast out everything that cotild remind him of
her, and began a Spanisli movement. Of tins time we have
a few mementoes in the words capttaine^vn-pita'i), ciimnradc
(cajnerada), ca^e (casa), davr/ne (duenna), fjuitare (guitara),
haqitcuce (hacanea), ulif/re (negro).
Later on we get more Spaiush words, chocoldde, ei^phi-
nade, estrade, llmouaile, and sdlade.
But all sudden changes are pernicious to the hcaKhy
growth of a language, and so the Fnmch found it. A violent
remedy was resorted to, perhaps worse than the disease. In
1694 was published the Academy Dictionary by a society
of purists, who set up tlieir own taste against popular judg-
ment. Fortunately for the French language tlie Academy
has not been able to fix either the vocabidary or the gram-
mar; but still it must be acknowledged that the restrictions
imposed are imfavoiu'able to a healthy growth, and literary
men even now find themselves to a certain extent crippled
by them. It is never good for a language to be too exclu-
sive. Greek and Latin have committed self-slaughter l)y
this very method, and no one can fail to be struck by the
poverty of the modern French language. ]\Iixture is a con-
dition of existence in a langunge of modern times.
Accordingly, in spite of the restrictions of the Academy,
French litterateiu's, especially novelists and journalists,
seem determined to remedy this defect of their language,
and are beginning to adopt words for this ptu'pose. They
seem as partial to English as we are to French, and it is
curious to notice that they even keep the English form of
Komance words. No less tlian 700 of these foreign terms
are said to be found in the Innguage of fashion, of sport, and
WALLACUIAN,
47
'\
of commerce. Wc may instance accore, aUtf/ator, ballast^
budget^ bill, bol, blftecl; boxe, ba}dedo<jiie, break, boasciiiau,
boulingriii, billet, vohe, aihlae, cllvei\ cotUtgo, couvicf,
comite, club, cheque, cumfovt, chCile, cai'vick, clown, croup,
cabestdii, cachdot, caiuhuse, coaltar, cutler, drainer, drav;-
bach, dogcart, dandy, dock; express, Jliut, festival, f anhiou-
able,flibustier, grog, gin, groom, humour, heler, Interlope,
jockey, jury, lias, lunch, lock, lof, lasting, nudt, meeting,
mess, pudding, pamphlet, punch, plaid, paquehot, poulic,
rail, rosbif, rhuin, redingote, raout, speech, spleen, spencer,
sport, steeplechase, stalle, square, tender (of a locumolivi'),
tunnel, toast, turf\ tilbury, touriste, touage, wagon, vcit/-
rant, whiste, and yacht.
One cannot read over this list without being- struck hy
the fact tluit the ortliograpliy of many of the words has
1)oen made to conform itself to the Gallic pronunciation of
l']nglisli ; and the number of compromises between a genuine
French and a genuine jinglish sound thus rendered last-
ing by being reduced to writing cannot fail eventually to
produce a mixture in the elementary sounds of the lan-
guage.
§ 13. Wallachian.
ISIoldavia, ^Vallacliia, Transylvania, and Eukliovina were
the ancient Dacia, which province was surrendered by the
Komans to the Goths in 272, at which date, therefore, a
Gothic element was introduced into the popular Latin before
spoken. ^NEany of the Roman families, however, emigrated
to the other side of the Danube. In 489 the Slavs began
their invasions. I3y 678 they had completely colonised
jNIoesia, and in 758 founded the province of Slavinia in Mace-
donia. A Slavonic element was thus introduced. Later on
there also appears a JMagyar element.
The language of Dacia was thus composed of a popular
Latin largely altered by Gothic, and to a less degree by
Slavonic and IMagyar. The people themselves call their
language Eoumania (Roman), and speak it in two i)rincipal
dialects separated by the Danube. It is a settled tongue, but
has been little cultivated.
48
MIXIU) I-ANOITAflKS.
There arc three styles of Wnllachiaii — a puri.-t, or liatiii,
a young Uoumanian, or French, and an old Konnianian, or
conservative. Tims the purist would say M'aia tihUi/iirlssrf ;
thoyounfi; Roumanian, M\im ani/dsei'inset ] and tlic old Hou-
manian, M\u)i indatorU.
The foundation of Wallaehiau is Latin, e.g. '/|>p(( = !i(|ua,
aHteptarOj — v\\)OA'\nxo^ />(>?n(!=l)onuH, r/A/^^)i = ('apu', cojil^
coctus, (Z(>jH>Jf> = dom*nus, ^Aj/Vo/'zs doctor, <"^>(Y=r(>(pia, jiiil =
filius, /rf<7^; = frat('r, /(f/>//' = lae, 7>/'^^.s" = lnells;t, 7ati'iti(i =
mater, /a/o = pat('r, 2^<;//C7V'=rpannus, ^/r'^// = peclus, venKt
ssvenatio, and t'e('6a=:verbum. There arc, as will ij(> ww,
some curious consonantal changes; a^', ct intoj^/, ft', <ju<(,
into pd ; p into t ; m into t ; and in the southern dialects,
p into /.• ; and ct into p : tlius, /,r/>^t=: pectus.
The present indicative; has already been given for compa-
rison with l^at in ; and in the same way it ndght he shown
tliat the grammar is in general as much Komance as French,
Italian, Spanish, or Portuguese.
There are some (Slavonic elements in the Wallacliian
vocabulary; thus, one/i^euif', cream, is Kiis. .^mctunt; vcri-
gie, bolt, is Itus. verifjd, chain ; hol)^ bean, is h'us. hofn/, &.c.
The neighbouring I Tungiirians, or Magyars, stand in nuich
the same relation to Austria as tluiWallachiaus do to Turkey;
and, as subjected races always gravitate together, it will be
found that INFagyar literature and thought has not been with-
out its influence on Wallachia. Thus, Wall, ponoso, com-
plaint, is Mag. panasz ; 'inunhe, work, inmunl-a; porunke,
order, is par<incsoloin ; o^d, steel, is aczel; vindilt, host, is
vendeg ; and chokiil, whip, is cz thawj.
Again a foreign element. Ti:e Wnllac' ian Christiai s
have often had to m;ike common cause with the Greek aiiiiinst
the Maliommctar.s, und by this intercourse many Kouiaic
words have crept into Wallacliian. Tluis drum, a road, is
S^<5ju,oj, and sarnie, juice, is ^ou/x.*.
Thunmann, in his ' Kesearclies in tlie Ifistory of tlic
Peoples of Eastern Europe,' sums up the Wallacliian langi'age
as follows : — ' Quite one-half of it is Latio ; ' and of the other
half, ' three-eighths arc Greek, two Gothic, Slavonian, and
TKUruNlC LANClUAGl:;; (JKNEUALLY.
49
Turkish, aiici tin; tlirei? roinaiiiiii}.'; coiae from a l(inji;imp;e
which hiis had much rrscinbhimi' lo tho AUciiiiaii.' This
latter wouhl l)e the Skijictar.
Our goneral conclusion, then, with regard to tlie Romance
languages is tliat tluy are not pure languages, l)ut mixed,
Homo of tliein very much so; and that, it' tliey were not
.nixed, they would not lie Romance languages, hut dialects of
popular Latin.
§ 14. Teutonic Lanijxages (jenenUly.
Perhap;^ no group of moih'rn languages has played so im-
portant a role as those known under the name of Teutonic.
Of these there are two classes, tlie German and the Scandi-
navian. They are readily distii-giiisliable by the latter
having a post-positive article and a form for the passive
voice, which are hotli enti'ely w-mting in thi^ former.
Tho Scandinavian group contains Danisli and Swedish,
with some few others, which are all different developments of
the Old Norse, the nearest representative of which tongue is
the Icelandic. Dainsh has developed on itself — that is, it
difi'ersfrom Old None by being less inflexional and more syn-
thetic — whilst Swedish, in coiiseipience of its long political
count ction with Germany, has imitated Higli German.
Tho principal members of tlie German group are the
Anglo-Saxon and Dutch— both Low German languages — and
literary or Iligli German.
The Englisli language, being almost as mucli Romance aa
Teutonic, must be reserved for separate consideration.
Dutch is very much mixed in vocabulary ; for, owing to
its long political connection with France, the French language
lias become the fashionable medium of communication at the
Hague, so that even the very peasants ape French forms and
phrases. I^csides this, Dutch is spoken over such a limited
area, and is so difficult in jironunciation, that merchants use
it as little as possible in their business, whence it happens
that the whole commercial vocabulary is at best a jargon of
E'glish, French, Italian, Spanish, German, and Dutch. Thus
E
50
MIXKU LANGUAUKS.
in Dutch wo notice pfrcnt imrnlMTsi f»f commercial ferine and
other wonU which fashion has introduced in [dace ot"<^eniiinn
Teiitonio roots. Such are (frahdlirn, /iillliuurn, jiUiri'irn^
frinei't'eu, f/ahtppe/ veu, niunniLreeren, pdi'/uhifatrn, n<dae-
ereu, Ixilcin, hulron, fdcalttut, floret, jhimhou ', frdrnhoos,
imitadoov, jxirapfti, jxissn,;/ !<>)•, and the commercial terms
akkoi'df comi til Hs'io nail', a cosfl, prrtitnfli', fiillllsHernejitf
moiUdiif, 'icflvtt, pnsslva, (li'jicU, prapoiteren, crcillf, vlineS'
8tin, cu'ctildlrr, Sic. &c.
In Hi;4h (uMinan the same lias taken place ; fashion and
commerce have introduced numerous torei<,'n words into th(i
vocahnlary. Thus in one nnmher of the 'Leip/ij^er Anzei<,'er '
we cull the ftdlowinj,' : — ()[fi'iiren, coviptuir,Jh'mfi,fr<tiico,
locallUit, elctjanz, concitrroi:, modeiuslren, falei/ruplilsche
(Irprsfhen, parade, direction, prooliizlal, tar If, journal,
cat)lnd, p}dtHclsllk, dlvldetul, en f/roti, shlrthif/, etahllsne-
racnt, sorthoenf, gardcrohe, lanJ-requln, prclscoarant, and
fjar^'on lu<jls.
In the same way similar lists might bo produced from
Danish and Swedish.
All these terms, however, are so evidently foreijj^n that no
two opinions could exist on tins point, but there are in the
Teutonic languajjfes words whicli have been so lon^ introduced
that many persons at first isijjfht mijj[ht not suspect, them to be
strangers. Thus : —
r
GfrDinii
Dutch
abentlieuer
abricoso
ftlaun
iihuopen
aiilii-r
ariubrust
nrzt
briuf
biicbse
burscli
(linte, tinte
doni
epbeu
avontuur
abrikoos
aliiiii
aalinncs
anker
aniibor.st
ai'ts
'open brief,
bus
donikerk
naniuli
eventyr
aprikos
alun
aliiiisu
aukiH'
arbe-rst
brev
b^sse
domkirke
Swedish
I.iitiii, .M. I.ittin, iic.
iiwentyra ■
M. L. aventiirn,
Fr. avciitiiro
aprilco.s ■
L. iiialmiicpiroti-
ciiiii, Fr. ahricot
all III
li. ahiiiieu
al 11 10,40 r
t}. t\n)jiuilvri
an km
L. ancora
ariuboi'st
\j, arciibali-ita
\u arlitJta
bref j
[i. breve, I'liifr.
'lawvur's briel"
li. pyxis
M.L. bui'.sai'iiis
L. tincta
donikyrka
Tj. donuis Uei
L. apiuiu
TEUTONIC i-AN(iiA(jk;s (Ii:ni;iiai,i,y.
51
Ocnnitn
fackcl
fttxt
IViiflit
kalk
kiiiiiin
kitinpf
kllllllirlltMl
kclcli
kfllui-
klTZO
kJrclio
kruuz
kuirnsa
kiipfor
liiic
nii'islcr
niiiiistur 1
kliiMtor J
iniin/o
orgol
pimr
pnclit
imppd
jtfiintT
l.lVil
pleiler
pfersich
pliii^'tit
pllaiizo
pforto
pt'o.stL'ii
Dnti'ii
r.ikk.a
\ IllNch
ll'»'«t
vntcitt
hulk
kiiiiijii
krIU
rt'l, kiililer
kiiiirH
ki'ik
knii.s
burst-
Imrni'.--', J
luit kii- 1
kopcr
lufk
klooster
niiiiit
orgt.'l
piiiir
pm-lit
popiilicr
DaiiUli
fitkk.-l
('(•St
(riijrt
knlk
Itiiinp
Idiiiiii
luillv
I'elli'.kjulilcr
j kdTte
kirkt)
kor.s
HwuilUlt
pilnar
piTsik
,. .. , III bciu'li- 1
pfuiul
pilger
predi<i:t'ii \
pre in
})i'U!.-ti'r
probo
prunes/,
prol'ot*/., )
probst j
puis
])iilt
piilver
regel
retticli (g) j rndij-i
plant
poort
pOrtt
Lbciirli-
eic]
; pond
pel;rrim
l)ri'ki'i',
pri'iiikant
I I'l'i.i-'
I pi'ii'ster
j proces
provoost
! pols
pocyer
linsthar-
iiLsk, huf
kt leaser
kiibbor
liiostcr
kloMter
niynt
or^'L'l
par
piippul
pil
pillo
forsken
piiitso
plauta
port
post
iirtcbendo
1
piiiid
pilej^riin
pruxliku
pris
prd'st
provo
proccs
provst
pulver
ri'gel
rwddiko
ruckla
l}il.sk
font
fiiikt
kalk
kuiiiniar |
knnin I
Kalk
kallaru |
k\rk
koiH
koppor
It'kiiian
iiitUlaro
kloster
niyiila
ovgol
par
poppel
pil
pularo
pertfika ■!
pingst
plauta
port
post
piebiMido I
puiul
pilgviui
predikan
pris
prust
proce^z
profosz j
puis
pulvor
rpg(4
riidi.''a, riit-
tika
Lutlii, M. Latin, lo.
L. fax
]„ frilsus
F„ t'i'shiiu
!., t'rui tii.s
I-. calv
\j. caniinus, tntii/iurv
L, ('ani|)iis
L. (jiMiiiulus
Ij. calix
It, cellu
iu cera
(iv, k-i'iiiiKt'ii
I J. crux
I''r. cuiraM8e,//'ow4
cuir
],. cuprum
[i. laU'U.s
li. niagisti'r
li. tudiiastoriuiu,
claiistriuu
li. uioncta
L. oi'L'anuui
L. par
L. pactu'u
L. populus
L. paiocluis
Ti. piluui
L. pila
L. porsicuin sc. nia-
I luni
li. ])i'uttn'ostum
I li, plauta
[ L. ])or(a
li. postis
.M.li. pnt'beuda, be-
iioflciuui
Ti. piiudiis
li. peregriuus
I L, priijdicaro
I L. protiuui
I L. })rusbyter
L, probatio
li. proct's.sus
li. pni'positus, Fr.
piovot
li. pulsus
li. piilpitum
j li. pulvis, ¥i: pouJre
L. regula
' Ti. radix
n'i
MIXF.I) f.ANaUAUKS.
0»rtu«n
Oukih
llHIlUll
Hwoillall
, l<attii M. LAtln, he.
rimtl
rotnl
rund
rtiiul
\i. rutiitxtnit
HcllllhlUli
titroipliiiHir
MclialiiD-i
vot'tichnbi'I
{
ll. Ha'cciplwi^im
1,. (iiliiMiiw, I'V. cha-
llllll'UII
L. MI'llllt'lluill
•
HCllDtt'l
L, 8CUtull<l
•
.sciiNzilii
sorviotto
Spiltt'II
servot
8|)iult)
sorviot
Hpiidn
sorvi't
spiido j
Fr. Horvictto
\j. npiitMln, I'V. i'|)^H,
[t. Npmlii
Nlual
fnfcl
tluinii
lulpo
uhr
Hpio^i'l
Htllllt
tiilVI, tnbcl
tort'H
uiir
sp..jl
sua
tiivio
tiiiiin
tnliimii
[iir
Hpcj^t'l
«tat
[tiiltoll]
t'TIl
tulpita
[•"•J
\,. Hpi'ClllllMI
L. Hint us
1,. tabiilii
1.. Iiirris
I'V. tiilipo
I/. Imra
iinzo
(ins
iniso
iiriH
L. viul/i
vfilclicn
vojrt
zuUe
chU
(•«11«
puiiskf!
viiilbloiuiiiii
Cf>lle
piisk
ll. iiiiciii
1,. udviicndis
L. r.'lhi
L. p(»M!lm.««
.•. Th,
i tesiiinoti
y of tli(! liui'i'iiajfj'H c
'losen in tlin pro-
ceding pages for illiisdiition is ecrtiiinly in favour of tim
axiom proposed — naiiiciy, that a very large iiimilicr, if not
all, nioili'rn languages are more or less niix<'d in grammar,
jironnnciation, and vocahnlary ; to which m'ght he added tlio
dogma that the more mixed they are the better adapted will
tliey be to forward the well-being of mankind.
nw. tm.finn i,AN(irAO», im Mixkn.
5S
I'Airr IT.
Tin: r\(ii,isn r.ANoi'AfiK.
§ I. 'J'/ui Enijliufi L(i nifliiii/i: id mixed.
It is tlie |)«'iMiliar I oniity of tlio Ktiglisli litiiniin^'i' tlm,
it Slice osstully uiiile-i tlu; Triitctiiic {Iciiw iifn of Nordinn
Kuio|)t> willi till' N«'t)-Ii!itiii of till' Simlli, and csju'i'iiilly that
its priiit'ipal I'oinjtoiu'iits aiv two rrncli liiiigiiuyjus an Aiiglu-
JSaxoii and Xorman-Fri'iirli.
('♦'It, Hoiiiaii, Saxon, Dane, and Norman have eoiitcndt'd
for thii niantcry of oui ishmd. Not ont; of them came out of
tlu! cuntcst unscatHicd, and each left a mark on the nation.
It, however, took about twelve or thirteen eentiirien to ( iVect
an union of these diverse elements, alul it is to this lon^
struj^j^le — often for very life — that ICii^lish owes a vitality
wiiich leadb it ever onward in an uninterrupted piourossiou,
whose best evidence is its constant extension of vucabuliiry,
in ordiM' to comprehend within its dictionary means of ex-
pressinjj; every idea which the human mind has ever been
capai)le (»f conceivinjj; ; while to this vitality in its turn aro
owiiij,' the two richest and most varied literatures — tho.«e of
I'lu^l.iiid and America — wliich liuve been pruseutud to the
woild by any modern nations.
NVlien it is remendiored that Englisli is Bpoken by more
than 1/50 millions, it will readily bo perceived that to the
energy of our language and the healtliiness of our two lite-
ratures is due much of the well-being and happiness of the
human race.
Thus the cjuestion, What is the jihilological position of
the Knglish language? becomes very im])ortant. Is it Teu-
tonic or liomance? If Teutonic, is it High German, Low
54
MIXIP t.\Niir,\(a;M.
Orriimti, or Ndivc ? It l{(>tiiuiicu, i* it u duiiKliU'r or Kiiiiitl-
Uuit^lttcr of the Latin K
At Hrrtt HJ^lit Mu'MO i|Ui>!«tit)iiM ini;(lit Hcotn mxy ftioit^li to
lu^^^wor. M. 'rii<>rnim'r»'l fiMiml that of tin* i:i,.')tl({ wortU
^^i\v\\ in Wolii'rtHOM ami WfliMtcr i!!>,H')3 wiie rillMr (iirtt'tly
or iiitlii\i:tly ul' clutsical orij,'lii, while only llJ,2:it» wiir to l>«»
<livi<lt'i| anion;; tin' varioim 'I'l iitonic ton;,nii'H, iiiitl odd wi-ni
of C't'lticainl Oriciilal (U-M-i'iit.
It mnst, however, be rt'iiU'inU'rcU timt the ornHNioim of
(liotionaricj, whifli are nnfortmiately too nuinv, are more
likely to 1)0 on tie* hide of the Him|>l(> than of the (litVi"iilt
wohIh, tli(» Teutonic rather than the fluftnical ; iiiid, therefore,
tliut the nnniher l.'l,2.'J() f<honM he «'onsi(|eial>ly inorea-ed.
lint even after the niont Hlieral aMowaneeH on lids ;,Moniid we
»hall, hy aeeeptin^^ niiniet ieal eviih'iiei' alone, discover the |>er-
centay;e to be vastly in favour of a Neo-i<atiii orij^dn. Thin
jnetliMd of eaicnjation must, in oi'der to arrive at the truth,
bo Htill fnrtlier niodilied by takin;;' into considenition the to»ti-
iiiony of (Hir anthovH and of (Mir eonversation — that in, ()f cur-
rent Kii;;li>li as distiii^j^nislicd fi<»ni that Mny^lish which Ih
almost pitrilied in the diet iotiary. We shall tiiid in this
examination that honn'Iy terms like hrdr-lnillltif/, p<nir/ic<ly
iltlrl:-skl)inci(, and Iwinlht^n will he more readily current than
Kucli compounds as oi/ndtrtoiyKwIii/, iii(ii'ttii)tiiil, fuicfii/ili'i'-
matofi.'i, iuul acc)>/iii/oit8 : tl.;; first have been made coin of
the realm, the (»tliers are like pajier, which may be valuable
or worthless aecordin/j; to circumstances. A numerical result
must therefore rest firstly on the perei'iila^ji'e of conversation
jud;,'ed by sucii books as have taken a last iii;^ h(dd on the
En^disb nation — namely, the authorised Milile, the I{t»ok of
Common Prayer, ' I*il;j^rinrs Pi o^rrcss,' and 'b'obinson Crusoe'
— and secondly on tlie percenta;;"e (»f our jjreat authors. We
should tli(!ii ;i;et the following results: — The l<'n<j;lish Hiblo
usert 07 per uent. of Anj^Io-Saxon to 3 per cent, of other
words ; liuiiyan, 90 to 4 ; th(; Prayer Hook, 9.) to 5 ; Do Foe,
94 to d ; Cowley and Swiff, HO to I I : Nhakspere and Thom-
s(Ui, H') to 15; Addison, S3 to 17: Milton and Spenser, SI
to 19; Locke, 80 to 20 ; Vounf<, 79 to 21 ; pope, 7d to 24;
ftIK ASdIO-HAXON Kl.liMK.ST.
dft
lit
\
.Inliiiiioii, 7') to 2.'} : l{i>lifrttit)n, OH to 8U; ilutnot C}5 to 86|
mill (]il)l)oii, r>N to 12.
Siii'li iiri' Mu' iiiiinlti'i'H usually flflvi-n, and tin* (Ifdiu'Moii
drawn tVniii tlit m Ih that Kii^IhIi jh almoHt wliotly Tt'iitoiiic,
Mill, tlir coticliiHion tliiirt drawn tVnni Hliort paHMnij;fN, \vld(*li
may, or jn;iy not, lie Hfli-ctcd willi a |)iir|io-'c, is mo \rr\ ditVii-
rciit. iVoiii i|ii< I'vidi'iifc olViTi'd liy tlif wliolt- dictionary, tliat it
is worth wliilt' asl%infj if tlicri' in not nmno niiHoalcnIation on
one» nidi' of llio <|ni'Htion. To !»»> p»'rft'ctly fair in f}u'H«« ntato-
MicntH no word on;(lit to ]u> counti'd twifi' ovrr in tim Baino
pas-U}.''!'. 'I'liiH would rrdiu'i' tlic Ti'iitonic rli'tin'iit ciiiiHidor-
aldy ; for tlic pri-pmidi'iaiui' in ol'li-n niorc appaiciit tlianri'al
from till' constant repetition of siicli wnrds as of, tin; o, iin^
III, ou, n^toii. Hint, l/Jiiif, /o, IIiIm, ///«/^ \c.
Tliri'o is oiii' more important, point to lifconsidcrcd licforo
loavintr tliis |)ait nf the Hultjcct namely, tlie piimlter of
really iisefiil wordH out «d' tlie 43..*i<i(» in tlie dii-lionary.
Kxt'liidin^ >^cientitic and technical terinn, there are prohaltly
2(),(l()<) words in the laiijj;iiap;e. Of these some are employed
only on the rarest occasiniis; in fiet, nio^it authors manage t()
expresH their ideas with from .'>,(i()(» to (!,()()() words; ,Milt(»n
used S,(l(K), and our ^n'eat national poet had u vocahiilary <d'
l.'>,()()(), standing alone and iiiiapproachahle in this as in
everythitij^ clsi'. What a contrast this to the vocabulary of
a peasant, whiili seldom emhraceH more than 1, ()()() words I
.Iiid;;iti;4 from the aliovi; numbers, from the percentaet-H,
and from the nature of the authors' works, we may safely con-
clude th;.! ;\u;;lo-Sa\on I'jiglish is the lan;;iia^'e of the soul,
whilst the lan^Miaj^'e of reason is Knglish of Norman jj^rowth.
The MiiHli.^h lan;;uii^e, therefore, is mixed. The nature
of the mixture nuist now be considered.
§ 2. The A iHjfo-Sd.ron Element,
If 1.
Tlie venerable Hede, in his History, tells us that three of
t he most powerful nations of (iormany — the .Kites, the SaxonB,
and the A ii<,des- -invaded IJritain.
Till! tliites settled in
M
i<4N(irAi)n<«.
Kt'iit, \Vi|^ht, iitiil oil till' Ilini(>4i>i»ni4(, ill wliicli Itit'cr looiility
llirV Wl'IT ktlirWII U> ,fl|ti*M |>V«'II ti» llii« oWMiliiy. Tlli> HllXOllH,
b«iiiiyii, o.iiii<> fiMiii Old S:i\i»tiy, niitl Ncttlcil in KKit«>x, Mihiu'x,
uiul WfMHi'X, \vliil.4t i|i« Aiij^'tiM I'luiii* troll) Aiittliii, wliicli wut
ill ci)tiNi>i|ii<'tici> I'vcii in lii<4 DWti tiiv Mlill lKir«*(| nt' its popiiln-
fioi), and Hcltlot in V.-.x^i An;^lli). M>'r<'iii, iiiul Nortlmtnliriit.
Till' Saxon Clironiclt' coiitirtri'* n«>r|t>, Imt AllVt>i| rullM tliti
JiitcH (iottaii; oflur writiiH i-all (licni (icutr*, wliiht Akmit cx-
pri'Hcly nny* Wwy wt-ri' (iotlin. Tlio Jutliiixl of t,lioMt» diiyii
WON crtaitdy not DuniHli, and all Wwhv. nain«M may Im> conni-
dcrnl to )m> |iliilolof;icully on<>, |h Mt known to ih uh (jotliit.
I'roi'opitiM, inntcad of SitxoiiK, ^ivoM iim Kiisjaus, wliich
wriM |irol>.il)|y mdy anotlirr iianii> for tlifin ; Imt, wlitthrr it
Im' so or not, it \h crrtain that tin- olilc^t forms of the An^^lo-
Snxi'ii and tli<> Frisian lan^^naj^'rH arc citlicr idi-ntical orcMscn-
tinlly till' r-anic. I''.\<>n in modern dayrt Honnthin^ of this
Bimiiarity lin^'*'rs in the h|ii>i>cIi. TIiiis a Vorkshiiv man
•uyn—
'(Jdoid Idi'iul, hotter, an clirfvn,
Is ^ooid Yorkshire an gooitl FrcONO;'
and in Frit'.slinid tlicy miy—
' Hiiwtrr, liri at, m j^rctMio t/i«'M
Ih ifuiU lii^'hticU un \f\aU Frii'M.'
Tlio Germanic nations, then, that settled in this country
wore the Jiites or Goths, the Aiifvjcs, nnd tlu^ Saxons or
Frisians. It is prohalije that the lan;jfua^'es spuken liy these
tlire(f tiilies wi.-re essentially the same. In fuel, we are no-
where tfdd that interpreters were iieeessaiy Itetween them,
fiom whic'i we may reasonahly eoneliide that tln-re was at
least no {greater ditferenoo than at present exists between
many of our country dialects. It may, however, he as well
to remark that there are many technicalities in MSS. whieh
are usually attrihuted to difTereiice (»f race.
This (lerriianic lan;,Miaj,'e it has loiin^ been the custom to
call Ann;lo.Sax(in, and ri;;litly so, for it ditVers as a lant,'uape
from moch'rn En;;lish. The term An^do-Saxon is here used
to signify the ohlest aud most perfect known form of the
TiiK AMOi,(M>,\to:i r.ir.ur.MT.
b1
Tiiif<»»il<'i«?ptnr«nt of mir liiri^uri;,'!' Ix'fop' mtinixtiiro. A ntittf
iiiixi'il t'oriii i<« I'lilli'il Ati{;ln-|)uiii<«li, wliiUt tlio (liinl rt ';r U^
nwnHiUK'fl (iM <Mil KiikUcIi. Tin* uvxt vnrlwlli'i* an* 'lie*
iMi<MI)' iiimI MuiIiiii Kiigliitlu
\
f 2.
Ill coiiumiicinK tin- Mhidy of Aii^(l<t-Siixi»ii, mi Kiij^UhIi-
inaii i>4 at oiicf ntnick with the tact that it dilViTH tVoni iiiiM|«>rii
Kii){liMh |M'iii(M|ially in licin^j; an iiitl« Ictl laii^iia^<* ; uii«i thin
une (lillii'iilty DViTcoiiie, lie will ilii*l iiu neriuuii uljHtaclu lo liiri
|>r«»Kr«'HH.
Now, ill ICn^'liili nothing; cnii Ih^ more Niiiiplc than tilt
^'(•iiijrr wl' li iioiiM, and thr a|i|)li<'atioii of (Im> iiilit in ho ('i>r-
taiii that lh)r<> an* only Ihr*-** <-X('t>ptionH in the !an^iia^«s
i'M'i'pt hy pi'i'^uiiitiratiun - /"oi anti niuini, which, in Siihhix
'•xci'|ilcij, liikc the Latin and not tht> Tcntoiiiu gentler, and
all kiiulx of nlilits, wiiich, even ti> a man-of-war, have in
modern tiiiieH heeii iHTHonitied iiH feininiiieH. Hilt in oiir
(lialectH the confusion of fender in often ho|M-leHM, cKpecially
in the Saxon (lislrictn. Thun in VVinht they call' eveiythin;^
hf except a tom-cat, whicli is n/h',' and in Devon all lifeless
tliiiij,'s are //«'. TheHe assiniied ^^eiulern havt! their orii^iii in
Aii;,'lo-S;ixoii, in which lanJ<lla^,'e ^'eniler,aH in otluT Teiitonio
toiijjfues, wart (letiTiniiU'd partly l»y natural Hex, partly l»y
termination, and HonietimeH arhitrarily. ThiiH (/rry, <lay ;
heum, tree ; hrorliy mountain ; eenlc, chalk; chuf, cloth ; mond^
moon, were inasciilino : tinii/f, tontj;ue ; Htf/ii, voice ; Hiuine^
mm; //fJ(',hook; /;»//7/,lM>roiifi;li, were femininerand hnrn^ horse;
f()U\ folk ; /'•;/*, wile (iliiK K't'lh) ; cilil, child ; and /n-i/l/irt; ox,
were neuter. As a rule the j;en<lers in A.S. were much the
name as those of the c(»gnate words in o'tt.T 0?ri;mu lutl-
^niaj^es, tli«»iip;li of course there wri<^ Mjvortai.'t ( »;ycjiVit>n»,
The adoption of our modern naturitl g-iui'T ir teud rf '-I'ft
A.S. jjfiammatical gender wa« a resiil' -f tlio "onff" iun rMif.tnl
l»y the introduction of u Koinance eh iaent wit! u^rarr:- r'i
cal njc'uder founded on an entirely difle^'-n rty't'iK.
68
M1M;|) I-AXJIANIIS
f 3.
Subhhmtivos worn infloctcd in A.S. according to (wo prin-
cipal declensions — Himph; and complex, wit li variations, prin-
cipally according; to ^^ender, in each. Tlio nund)er of model
declensions — or rather model words declined- — in grammars is
usually from about nine to twelve, besides anomalous nouns,
all of which, except in various mutilated forms, have been
swept away. In Gothic we find a ^reat number of plurals in
-a: in A.S. they were few. In Latin « is an acetisative, dative,
and ablative plural sij>n, and perhajw from tliis jirominence
was adopted as the plural sign l)y the (Jolhs of France in
their broken French-Lai in, friiu which, under the form of
Noi man-French, it passed into tliis country. Our ref^idar
plimd in -« is tlierefore in reality an exception, wliilst our
exceptions may be sIioavu to be mostly of home growth.
INIodern plurals in -n or -en arc similar to A.S. jdurals in -(tn.
Of these we have siill a goodly proportion left, esp<'cially in
poetical and anti(iualed English, bu.' they were once very
common in O.K. and INI. E., though all that wetiud cannot bo
traced to A.S. Tlius, A.S. ('(({je, earjau ; O.E. and M.E. eye,
eyen, eyne; Scot, and North, een: A.S. en, ey, cyioi ;
North, kye, kyne ; E. coiv, caivs or line : A.S. sufju, mciii ;
^. sivine: A.f>. brother, hrothm, hut V. hirffiycu : A.S. o,nf,
oxmi; E. oa; oxen: A.S. hoe, hosa, but j\I.E. huse, honi:n:
A.S. fyrs, fyrs((s, but M.E. and Dors. fvrze,fvrzen: A.S.
sceo, scemi ; ]\LE. shoo, shoon ; I^anc. ,<<hoo7i ; "i'ork. nhooln :
¥T.o7icle; ^l.E. uncle, linden : A.H. tirewn, (iravan; M.E.
ariveu: A.S. scir, sciran; M.E. shire, shercn: A.S. eyse,
cyseri; West., esjjecially Dors., cheese, cheesen: A.S. dohter,
dohtru,hnt M.E. doghter,dof/hf.ren, daugliter: A.S. sweosier,
siveostru or sweostran ; JNI.E. stister, •ntstren ; Dut. zuster,
zusf even or zusters : A.S. hits, hns; West. ho7ise,housen. In
Wicklitfe we have lamb, lamhren ; in poetical English Vi
have ivelkin without a singular from A.S. ivolcen, wolcenas ;
and lastly we ha\c West, jjcffs, peaseu. In glancing over
this list it will be noticed that some words have in the
Itiddle stages of the language, and in the diahcts, ae(piired
i
Tin; ANGLO-SAXON KLKMENT.
60
'11
ill
5
tills ])liinil. Ain(iii;j^ tliese the word nnclcn^ inHtoiid of onclea,
is es])(!('ially noteworthy, as being a Komanee word formed
on aT<'ut(»nlc model. We have Hmce returned to the original
Komancf" plural, oadc» = \m('\v?'.
The ]jluiid in -r was es|)(eially a Teutonic form, though
not partieularly common in A.S. We find cild, clldru ; cealf,
cealfru ; brother^ hrothru ; lam, lamru ; e(jg cfJfjriL. In
O.II.Gr. we find it -m chalpii\ calves; eir/ir, eggs; huslr^
liouses ; lempir, lamlw ; pldir, blades (of grass). In Ger. there
are about seventy nouns which form this plural, usually with a
weakened vowcl.^ as (/clnhT, iluih'.r\ but in 0. Norse and its
modern representatives the number of these nouns is very
great, as droll niitfjar, rjeiddi; lnii(ju.r. Now, in Phiglish we
have only one, or at most two, of these forms ; but these linger-
ing plurals are so much the more valuable as evidenc<>s of
Teutonic form because they are at present disguised as double
plurals. In A.S. cild made clldru^ in North, and in
Hi])er. child makes childer, whilst in Eng. we have children
— that is, child-cr-en — which is a double Teutonic plural.
Jirt'lhrcn — that is, hro'Srii-oi — is another case in point.
Another favourite Teutonic plural is formed by a weak-
ened vowel either alone or in conjunction with some other
change; as, G. iJnd, thaler; ajifel, dpfel ; O.N. hoiidi,
hcendr''; land^ Hind; A.fi. fat, /('t ; hue, ?;cc, and many others;
but in Eng. we have only men, mice, lice, teeth, feet, and
geese.
f 4.
Adjectives in modern E. have no declension, and never
change except in degree. But in A.S. there were two forms,
as in German, for the declension of adjectives, and these did
not ditler materially from those in other Teutonic tongues.
But, as all these have been swept away, we can obtain no evi-
dence from them of a Teutonic origin.
It is (litTereiit, however, with the degrees of comparison.
The comparative, both definite and indefinite, was formed by
adding masc. -ra, fem. -re, neut. -re, to the positive, as from
Hoearp we have masc. scearpra, fem. and neut. scearpre. The
60
MIXKI) I.ANfJl'AnK.S.
O.H.n. form was -Iro, as alliro, hrlstro, H}iafniro (=lii,nln r,
better, sweeter) ; but the Go. form was -iza, as aldhn,, biUiza,
sutha; but this form, and a correspuiidiufj; supeilative iu -c,
will be noticed further on.
The A.S. sui)erlati\e delinite added -ost or -est, and the
indefinite, masc. -(as/u, -estn; feni. and neut. -os/c, -6s<(;, to
the positive.
After these additions the comparative and superlative
were declined as before; but all these forms are lost even
iu the dialects, except the bald form of the nominative, as
wise, lulser, miseat.
We shall find more Teutonic evidence in the irrofj^idar
adjectives, for ihcy were niostly irre^uhir in A. 8. ; as, old;
older, elder; eldcat, uhlenf, i'ruiu e<dd, yldre, yldest : nifjfi ;
nearer, nlgher, near ; reared, ui(jhest, next, from iieah, nyr ;
'iiearre, near ; nyhst, nehst, next : far, farther, farthest, from
feor ; fyire, fyr ; fyrrest : fore, further, furthest, from fur's ;
furore, fur^or ; ' ; fore, former, foremost, from fore,
forme; — ^; fyrmest, fyrst : good, better, best, Worn god; bet,
bet re ; betest, belst: bad, worse, worst, hvinyfel; wyr8,v:yrse;
ivyrrcst, icyrst (of wliich forms more anon *) : much, m.icJde ;
tiiore ; most, from mlcel ;' mare, 7*/ a ; mast : little, less, least,
from lytel, lyt; lasse, las; hvst : late ; later, latter; latest, last,
irom lait, late ; hetre, lafor, lator ; latemest : upward, up ;
upper, uppermost, upmost, from ufeweard, wp; ufere, ufor ;
yfemest : — ' ; after ; aftermost, from after ; aftre ; after-
onest: out, ovtivard; outer, utter; outmost, uttermost, ut-
oiwst, from ut, uteweard; ^dre, utor; ytemest; and mid,
Viiidward; '; midst, midmost, from mid, mlddeiveard ;
— ^- ' ; midmest.
Eald is the original of several provincialisms. Eld is
poetically used for old age ; in Cumb. a chief is called an
elderly man, and in North, generally an elderly r)ian and
woman are e([uivalent to step- or grand-parents. Better and
tc'si are deriv( ^ from the \eY:h to beat in its colloquial and
provincial signification of to surpass. Worse and ivorst are
' Wnnling. » Sec (Jothic ''undor Part 11. § ■'{, p. fifi).
' O.S. milkulum.
'
\
TIIR ANOLO-SAXON ELKMENT.
fil
1
formiMl on a dini'rcnt Teutonic model, the (ii>tliic, iind are
derived from the verl) to tvear, M'lckk is now archaic except
in North, and iicot. iiiitckel,miU!hel,foraai)iekeU. It is a di-
minutive! of moiv, a heap, which word existed as moe for the
positive (h'f^ree until Elizabeth's reij^n. Etymologists find
the En^. /H/'x7i in the Span, tmtcho^ and the O.N. tnjik/i^ the
same word !is the Span. mw/. The (fotlis conveyed these
words to the Peninsula. Less and least are derived from the
verb to lose. The A.S. ea^, easy ; ed^re, ea'&ost ; and si"5,
since; si'8)'e,si^ost ; sl'6eme8t,VirG both retained in the North,
dialects.
In English we have another form of comparison for adjec-
ti\es in inore and ); )st, of which it will be seen that Anglo-
Saxon offers us very little if any evidence. This is a Romance
form.
t 5.
The A.S. personal pronouns were fully declined, in the
first and second persons, with the addition of a dual number,
which was in use down to the reign of Edward I. Ic was
preserved until the last century in tho dialects, especially in
Kent, Sus., Oxf., and Som. Its pronunciation was, perliaps,
t^ofter than G. ich, and in the Som. forms of iichy, etclnj, we
may have a relic of this ; and in the W. Sax. cham, chave^
chill I, and chill, where the vowel is dropped and the con-
sonant prefixed to the verl), if the pronunciation of ic had
been ik, we should pro})ably have had the harder forms of
koni, kaue, hdl, and kill. Our modern form / first appears
as Ik in the Rushworth Gospels, and is, perhaps, the result
of a partial assimilation of the Old Frencli Jeo.
Tlie North preserved the A.S. ]>«, as thoo or tha, espe-
cially in Lane, and Ches. Tlie exact pronunciation of the
A.S. lico is still preserved in I^anc. and Ches. hoo, she. The
v.. she is the A.S. seo, feminine def. art., pronounced soo by
the A.S.. and soo or shoo by the people of Lane, and Ches.
The neuter pronoun hit has lost its aspirate, perhaps because
the English, since the Norman conquest, have acquired a
looseness in tlie pronunciation of rough breathings which is
thoroughly French. The plural third personal pronoun has
4
)S,
MIXKK LANtllUOKJJ.
be-on lost in I*!i'^'., uinl tlie i»liirul t»f Llic (lifinit»^ iiiticlc lias
taken its jdacc; hut a remnant of it Ih proscrvcd in the dia-
lectic '6)/i or ^iuii, usually ro^anlcd as a contraction of thmi^
but which in reality is A.S. In m, Imom, without the aspirate,
whieli omission may be rc^j^ardod as due to French intluence
on our i)roninu'iation, for otherwise it is not easy to account
for this weaknen^ In aspirates which the Kni,dish evince.
Except in a few peculiar expressions, as in .Mark viii. 4,
we have entirely lost the A.S. iiuletinite personal pronoun
man, O.E. mon (Ger. m(ui), and have adojjted the French
une, from on, a contraction of homo.
Our pronouns, then, with one exception, are Teutonic in
ori<i[in, but in pronunciation (and it will he shown further on
in arrangement also) there are evidences of a Romance in-
fluence.
f G.
The defining words and relatives were all fully declined,
but in Kng. we have very f<nv of the forms l<;ft.
In \V. .Sax. we find two very curious demonstratives, thic
and ihec, or thichey and theckei/; in Som. thtckemvii/ ; in
Wight ihec; in Wilts thdc, with a plural theiniity or thendn.
In O.E. the form was thllk, wlilch is the M. Goth. j;f'/«//'s,
Norse "^vlUhi'. In Iferef. tliese is used as a singular, and
must be regarded as a retention of A.S. ]h's. Instead of
these and those many dialects use they and them, which must
be regarded as the A.S. \a, ^am, of the demonstrative
plural. Scotch retains A.S. ylca in the expressions the ilk,
that ilk.
The Yorkshire pronunciation of ivhat is very nearly tlie
A.S. hwait.
Our defining words are, then, Teutonic in their origin, so
also the relatives.
% 7.
The verb contains some of the most remarkable anticpu-
ties of the English language, the full consideration of which
would require the whole space at command.
Tim ANnLO-SAXON ELMMKST.
(13
1
I
TIio stron^jf vcrl)-), fis iil-to tlu^ iniKod, are tMitinjly <>t' Ti'ii-
toiiu- orij^iii, iiiiil till! wmik verity iirc, ^^mv 'l\'Mt'>n'n% otii ts
ton'i)j;ii, ill root. Tlio vi'rl):il ttiniiiuiitiotiH an* aUo 'IViiitouic,
Itiit, tlio old form in -«/A, as lorcfli, him in later tiinos hccomo
all but olnolt^tc, and a sibilant siibstitiittnl, as loves. Tliis
cliaii;j;o took plac(! as oarly as tlio elevontli cuatury, and is
most probably a softcniiif^ of t.Iio difficult sound ai -th oil tho
tonfifu<!s of our Norniin couiiui-rors, and tlicrcfoni is cvid 'iuh'
of mixture in pronunciation. In tho verbal }j;roup we Hnd
an iiiinieiisi! uuinltcr of nion;4'rLd words, and consc pionlly tliu
amount of mixture iu this part of our language irf very great
indeed.
^ 8.
We have now glanced at tlu^ Anglo-Saxon grammar, and
have found that much of it is still traceable in Knglish, and
more Htill in the; dialects. ]N[any parts would have well
repaid a fuller investigaticni, had the limits of this essay
permitted it.
If, however, tlic only change in A.S. had been to sweep
away inileetions, tho mother-tongue of the present Knglish
would not be a sealed language to most i'^nglishmen. Other
changes havi' taken place; words are pronounced dilfereutly
now, and are conseipiontly spelled differently ; and this
change has been going on so long and so unevenly that
sjx'lling and pronunciation often throw no light one on the
other. There is every reason to believe that A.S. was pho-
neticidly represented by its alphabet, or at least as much so
as (jorman is now. As time advanceil, ov/ing to the natural
chaniro of laii!j:iia''-(;, it would become less so ; but the sudden
introduction of Froncli, whicli contains many un-Teutonie
sounds, would cause a disrujjtion between the spelling and
the sound of the language. If the old spelling were retained
the languagi> would cease to be phoneticilly represented.
There was a feeling that the new pronunciation required a
now system of spelling ; but, in the absence of any fixed
authority on these matters, every writer chose his own
standard, and hence for some centuries English spelling
64
)IIXi;i) l,AN(iirAUUi<.
hiH'iune t'xtrt'incly iiiicort;iiii. In tin* niodi-rn literary pi-riod
the Hystem jidctpti-il l»y the Kast Moiriiin writi'iri Iuih, with
iiiiiuy impoitiuit (•xct'ptioiis, j)nn'uil«!d ; therefore, in spitu of
th(!8t! ccuturied oF iiticcrliiiiity, tluTo iiro a t'nw hioud piiu-
ciplos by wh it'll numy Kiijjflish words may be hhown to be
pure Aii},»'lo-Saxou. TIuih —
1. A.S. a = E. u : «(</•, «o/v<; to, toe; nnh'i'., imn'o, ; hiafy
loaf, baa, bona. The old promiiiciation iw retaiund in Scot,
hiuie, iiKiir, siire.
2. A.S. ed = E. e ; Htredm, tit ream [Ktrcm]; scr/ip, tihrfp.
3. A.S. ea = E. a, 6 : ticearj), sharp ; ea.c, axe ; call, all ;
steare, atarlc ; weax, wax ; eahl, old ; ceald, cold.
4. A.S.cti = E.a,e: (jamt, yuent ; fojut^fant ; /iiuid,tvhale;
crceft, craft.
5. A.S. d = E.e, a, u : sdd, seed ; hdr, hair ; mcist, moat \
compare Scot, maist.
6. A.S. e = E. e, ce : cene, keen ; ivinan, to ween.
7. A.S. I = E. I : sld, Side; luif, wife; wild, wild.
8. A.S. eo, euxv =s E. e; deop, deep; ciwow, knee. Wlieu
final tlu'se lt)se o, and ow ; as, cneow, knee ; Ireoiv, tree ;
at reou', straw ; hleo, lee ; (jearo, yare. The A.S. pronuncia-
tion of CO is retained in Lane, and Ches. A.S. aeo = Lane.
Ches. 8O0 ; A.S. heo — Lane, and Che.s. hoo.
9. A.S. u — E. ou, ow, 00 : cu, cow ; mda, vcouac; riini,
room.
10. A.S. y = E. 1, e : hi/ran, hear; fyr,firc.
11. A.S. g before or after «', e, /, y, had a soft sonnd,
almost like y initial, and it has tlierefore become E. y or
has been omitted : gear, year; gyldan, yield; cage, eye ; ge,
yea; geong, young; gtmc, yea; cccg, key; nigon, nine;
twentig, tiventy ; gyf, if.
12. A.S. c was always hard, but in some words it has
eitlier been softened into E. ch or omitted: cyle, chill; cyld,
child; acip, ship ; cicen, chicken ; ceorl, churl,
13. The hard soimd of c is retained in coc, cock; cn6ow,
knee ; macian, make ; boc, book ; die, dike ; cii, cow.
14. A.S. cw = E. qu : civen, queen; cwy^, quoth; cwa-
cian, quake ; cwic, quick, lience Lane, and Ches. luick.
TllK ANULO-stAXON IJI.UMKM',
(;•>
1.'5. A.S. CO » K. fvh, ck: Hcctdii^ Hole; ntr<'traih atn'tch.
Ki. The A..S. aspiiatfd li(iiiiil.< A/, In; lia, lisi' tli(3 roii^^'h
lut'iil liiiif^s t lintii^li the sdfti'iiin;^ inlliUMic'f of tlio French ; as,
htcnixiu, li'Kit; lilast^ laat ; liiroh, roitjh ; hiluy^ fin;/!
hiiat, nut; linojijMt, fftutf).
17. A.S. Inn Htrotinfly aspirated « K. ^(;//, loMa Htroiijifly
aHpiratcd ; Itiit all I''ii^disli-sp»'akiiii,' Celts retain the old and
inoro correct jironmiciatioii : liivwl, ivhale ; hwil, while.
18. A.S. /if, //cr, a coiitraetion of <l>'Vu\ like = K. ly :
(jritilic, (jrltilij ; c)/rtclU; cIiui'cIi-IUm ; tjUvdlij, (jldilli/.
19. A.S. /, often ■= K. v: wif makes wires; hla/aHf
loavea; leaf, Ibaves ■ Jvaf^ drove ; ic lajii'. I luve.
20. Cninbersoin.' words in A.S. aro j^enerully shortened :
hlafordy hUt/weardifjc, lord, hulij; ncir(/eref(i, sheriff ; eweoa-
ter, sister ; almcsne {iXsfjfioauvyj), alma.
TIk; a))ove lists n»i;;iit readily lie extended so as to em-
brace a lart^e proportion of tiie words in the Isn^lish lau-
guaj;(', and after that an eijnally linj^thy list nu{;ht be pre-
pared of words now existing in onr dialects which are pnre
Anjjflo-Saxon. Knon«;h, however, have been f^iven to prove
that there is a considerable Anglo-Saxon element in the
Knj;lish vocal )ulary.
The pronnnciation of Anglo-Saxon, so far qs we can
judge, nmeli resendiled in ciiaracter that of the German,
or any other Teutonic language*. Much of thia has been
retained in the dialects of the North and of Scotland, aa
baue, hoo, hivicli, a,r, instead of bone, she, which, aak. It
has already been several times mentioned that the intro-
duction of French softened the English so much that
an Knglishman notices as readily as anyone else the hard
pronunciation of German or Dutch, wjiich are certainly not
worse than his own Anglo-Saxon was in this respect. The
vowel ol ilid not exist in A.S., but was commin in French,
and has through this influence been adopted into many of
our Teutonic roots ; qu, instead of A.S. cw, is also of French
origin ; also the soft sound of c, and many other pecuKari-
ties, especially our extraordinary vowel prommciations— but
(li'l
MIXKU L.\NOUA(U;«.
Wt
tlit'Hi' will lie tiotirt'd t'lirlln'r on iit tin flmitli-r nn tltc T'nt-
niinciatioii ut' Kii^li.->li.
§ 3. Of lie r (u'i'nmnlc Kli'inonh.
TluTi' an' iriaiiy iiitcn'sliii;^ points in llic (icniianic B»*.«
ion of the Mii;;lisli lanf^na^c which i-ainiot hi- h.iI i-^lact ily
explaiiifil l)y a Hiinph' retiMTncc ti> Anj;lt»-SaxMn. '''lu't
lij^ht may, however, he tiirown npon them hy a coniMun »
with the (lothii', lli;,'h (ininan, Aleinniinic, liow ( M-tnan,
Olil Saxon, Frisic, and Dnteh. [n very t'rw eases, !■ . er,
can it he said that thes»' t'oiins are ilerlrcjl from these other
Germanic toiijj^neH, for we are not to suppose that every
An);U)-8axon root fonnd its way into literatnre and Ihenco
into onr dictionaries, l)nt we may reasonably sup|»nse that
many Knj^lish words have htjen derived from sonuthin^ in
Anglo-Saxon which is now lost.
The oldest forms of Kn;j;lish words are to he foimd in tin!
Gothic translation of the Hihle, written in M'> \.u. l»y Hishop
Ulphilas. This hook accompanied the (loths when tlioy over-
ran France, Italy, and Spain; hut amidst the ji;eneral con-
fusion all C(tpieH were lost si;j;ht of or doiroyed, A portion
was di.scover(!(l in the sixteenth century, and another in
IHIH. This T(.'utonic speech explains several portions of the
Knglish fi^rammar, and is therefore especially useful in illuH-
tratinj;' the irre;;ularit'c.-. of A.S. From a comparis(tn of A.S.
and Maso-Gotluc we find that tlu'se irre^ularitii-s wore
Teutonic and not forei^^Mi ; and we learn that the A.S., aa
written iu the heathen times, was a perfectly j>ure and un-
mixed tongue.
The principal ^I. (lothic forms are : I. The comparative
and superlative in «; as, had, ivorsr, worsf ; A.S. >//(i,vji/}\sey
xviji'st; M.G. uhih, vairshdf V(l^rf^!sff^, which, thouf,di a
scarce form in Anglo-Saxon, was common in ,M. Ciothic.
2. Which and such are proved to l)'i i.vho-llh; so-like ; M.G.
hveleiks, svaleiks ; and in the same way the earliest forms of
many words may be thus seen in (rothic, analysed in such a
form that their exact moanin<»- and rehitions are at once
OTUKR riKaMAXiC ri.KMKsm
67
kiiou'ii. 3. 'I'lii- iirc^>'iiliii'iti<'H of th«^ Hcivtiul prrn. ^in)^. )»rMt
imlic'.— as nrf, ii<!lf,nhiiU, wanf^ iiLsti'iid of nnrHf^ ir!l»f^ nlnild^
■j/'(Mf'^^ru'ft»r<liiiy; to tIi<'iiHuiil riih'- -iin' hIhivmi to In- M.G.tnM
«/.<«//, A.S. itri'itlt. 'l. Tho wonl did iw wliowii to bo a re-
(iMpliriitivc protcrito l.y the (intliic, In I^atiii wo liiiil hui'Ih
t'oniH (IS <liscit,dlill('l ; in (irock, \t'<u, XiXuAfr/ ; aiul in (Jolli.
ti'iti, I toucli, ti'ilto/:, witii many otluTH; but tlio only one tee
huv'3 lot't Im «/o, ilid, unless Itiff/d, (callfd, was callod), A.H.
fit'ht^ <ii». Iii'iilidlt, 1 have callod, bo takon tn bo another,
fi. Tlu' nuinbois eleven and twebr, which iir(! iiro^'ularitioH
in our notation, aro oxplainod by (lolliio to bo itla-llf, tivd-
lif^ i.e. ouodi'll, two-lot't, wlion wo liavt! counted uj) to ton
on the liii(j;crs. (]. A tew wt>rdH nro said in be derived from
(lotlde, tliouj^di it must bo iiekudwledj^^ed that these are in
many cases dnid)tful. Those which an; usually instanced
nre hill; fn»m hllnlkan; hludf/flon, from bhj;/<jv(iti ; dah, from
di(v))j(in ; (Inch; from d<>k ; drizzle, from driiiHdn ; vuiiia,
from iimitiin; vra/Zw, fr<tm vuihtn; //i/uufT (North. = timber),
from flmv, A.S. /imhri; and some others.
From ( ).![.( f. we ji[et our word clocl,; as apfilied to a cock-
roach, as Var. Dial, tti'itc/i cloc/u lAnc.huzzurd dock. F" ora
German we are said to jj;et many words, but the relntionship
may be rather that of cousinhood than descent. In the i?'iine
way many words are \t\\c\\ as Dutch, but here again the
relationship may be sisterhood. Technical terms of more
modern introduction are of course (>xcepted in both cases.
All our Hea terms are almost pury Dutch, and many terms
in the cloth, wool, pajjor, and other trades are either Dutch,
Flemish, or German.
Frisian can, however, not be passed over so lightly. It
is not a cultivated language, and possesses few literary re-
mains except old laws. It is very probable that we shall,
when Frisian has been more st tidied in this country, find
that many of our provincialisms depart from the Anglo-
Saxon towards this language, especially in East Anglia,
where Fiisians seem to have mixed ranch with tlu; North
and the South Folk. The Y.. Ang. o instead of E. a, as lond,
mov, hand (O. Fris. land, inon, hand, A.S. land, man,
F a
61
I.AN()l'Arik,|l.
hiiiiif), in mil' i»t' lIu'Hc prouliaiitlfH. T! • K. /lari'i'nf^ hni'k,
liiilt (h\iiu>), liiif/,»i)ii;/, tftiui, tfii'rf,j'rft<il(nn, wlik'li iiro loiiiitl
in Ixtth liiiij^iiii^tM, Hit) ui'iiri'r tlioO. Krin. in t'orni thui t'lo
A.M.; mill tlicMo uru iniiiiy wi»r(U iii tlic diiilcfN of wliicli
tlio Htiiiit! iiii^lit \hi Hiiiil. A^iiiii, tliu Hij^n of l\w iiiHnitivc,
^), irt Frin. uImd; uikI in O. Kii^'m f^x >» ()• Fii^M tin* hiuiio
ni^d \V!is UHi'd IIS all iiiti iiHitivc to ti vrili, /»m7.'«'/( iii>f U-iiij^
»»(» ^h•oll{; us to-bi'fkeii, jimt a.s in (Jcr. hn'chi'n and c«r-
Th(»ro irt, tlii'i«'f<ni', u vi-ry inipoitanl, if ni»t ii vn-y
nmn«'n)nH, cLimm of words wl>o«(' nt'tucHt ndativi'H iiniNt Itn
»«>ii;^lit atiioii^ tli«> ('oiitincntal Gci'Miatiic lan^uaj^i'M rallicr
tliaii in flic A.M.
TliUH I lie (Joitnaiiic ulomont in Kiiirli.tli is riiixfd.
§ 4. T/ic, Xorae Lletneuf.
Under tin* year 7H7 of tlic Anglo-Saxon Clironiclc Im tlio
following entry ;—
* 7H7. //<'/• Hem lit'orlifr'ir iv/niurf Ojfiin dn/tfer h'ml-
Inirli;/!'. to wive. An'f o)i his (htyiun cirtnmni ify,;if 3 .s(','y<»t
Noi'tlnniiiUKi of Hdi' I'll ha-h( nth: And \hi. se ifei'i'/ii ]><trrf(>
rail and hie ivalde diifan to \Kf'H ci/nltii/rH tiuto ))// Id' nynte
Itu'tt't hid luwtuni, (tnd imm |>ft«r ofulot/. pttt lorron );a
ui'stan aclpu Deiiisara moniin \><i Hitijelci/n,nr» load ;/<>-
t<l>/lt(HI.*
Tlio people who tlms Po nnceremonioiisly made tln'ir
ap[)earaiice in England were nearly related to tlie Anglo-
S:i.\ons, for tliey iK'lojiged to the pceoiid great liranch of the
Teuto-Gothic nations. They were Seandinavians, and their
religion, habits, and laws, in 7H7 a.d., closely resernhled
those of the Anglo-Saxons at the time of their invasion 300
years before.
The roots of t!;eir language wore mostly the same as
thosi) of A.S., but there were; some iinp()rtant diirenincea
in eonstruction and iiiHection ; and tlitMctore, though their
language produced gr(-.iL changes on its introduction, these
were rather technical than radical. The principal of them
Tlir. NOItHK ri.kMKNT.
r)0
\
I
I
w;iN t)i« Itxrt of iiill«'.xii»ii, tor Piiiiixli iiml Sii .on rontit, lifiii^
MRiMiMitlly Mil* Muiii«>, wliiUt tlio iiiHftxiotiH ilin«*r<>il, pcoplit
woiilil imhiritlly itn|iiiii> ii luihit (»f i'li|i|iiii(; tlii'ir wonU of
that pari Uaxi uii<lirNtoo4l — ri (>liuii;;r wliicli wum ntlU tut t her
carried «»n in Oh* Noiiiumi |i«'riiM|.
Tlu' iiiviiHioii of 7h7 wiiH ot't rfjiiiiti'd, iiitd at Imt i*rarri'ly
a ynir puHHi-d l»y witliout m-i-iti^ a Danish hordr <)n tli«
kIioh's. From H(J(| they M«'i>rn to liu\<' )n'y[Mn a Ky»tt'rnalio
coin|iii',>.t. The ^'r«'at«T part of Nortliiiinl»ria liccarnf Nornc
in H«;7, and tin? rrtnaindrr in Hli!) ; in H7() North M. nia
and Kant Aiij^lia wrro fon(ju«'r«'d, anil in M78 Alfred waM
r)hli^;i'd to coiirMtii the conipn-st. Thr Datirrt hci'anni nomi-
nally vax.xalM, hut w«'r«? ho far indrpeiidont of tho W. Saxon
nionan-h that they introdmu'd tlicir own laws, laiij^niaj^c, anil
hiathunism into thiMr territory, the Diuiila^h. Later on, in
!)44, Kn;^dand aH a whole hecaine a pro\ini'eof Cannte tho
Great 'h Norse empire, which also iiudnded Denmark, Norway,
Sweden, and Scotland. l'ln;,dand remained Nor.-e nntil lOiJ,
when Kdward tlie Coid'eHsor ascended the throne, n«»t hy any
violent connnotioii, hut hy tho cpuet restoration (d' the ohl
family. The N<usemen wert? no*, expilled, hut remainnl in
the possession of tlieir (states, speaking; their own toiij^'iie,
and, eipially with the Saxun, in lOtjG tindiny an oppressor iu
the Norman William.
ThiHifjfh the An;,di)-SaxonH called thes(! Norsemen Denis-
can, it is not to ho tmderstood that thoy were exelnsively
natives of Denmark, for the Norw»';;ians and Swedes cer-
tainly took part in the invasions. They, however, all spoko
the same liniii;Mage, the (dd Norse or [(jilandic, t lien known
as the <l<")iinlc i)r norvivna hUi'/n \ and it became customary to
speak of them all as natives of Denmark, in the same way as
we n"v speak of the K)ij,dish invasion of Abyssinia, thon;j;h
there wer(^ certainly Irish, Scotch, Welsh, Indians, i^c, in
the army. At the time of the Norse invasion the doiislc
hiufjd had not become snbdivided as now, but was one uni-
form lauf;ua;;e, only compiisinf^ one idiom, and now exactly
represented by the njodern Icekuidic.
If we consider that the Norse settlers all spoke tlieir
70
Mi\»:n i.«Mii \uR^.
! I
)iiii};Mii^i> \viili iHoti* III' |i'!4M pMriiv DVi'ii uttitr l(H(({--iii fiiit,
UK Ihii^ UN llic Saxoiirt |iri>M>ivi'tl tlifii' Inii^iiii;;*', lliut it, until
tlii'yriil- 1 l(M)— w«'«liall liinl lliiit the N.»rm' iiillu< lUfH Wi-ii' at
work ill Noitliiiiiiltriii I'oi '2',\'.\ ynxn, t'<iiitttiiij< t'roiii H«)7 ; ami
ill Kaxt Aiijjlin and Noitli Mi'ieiu 2:i(), ••■•uiitinK iVoiti H70.
\\v may, tluTt'lori', t'Xprct ii v«!ry cotmltl* ral»li> |»i.i|i(iil|i»ii of
^•Mi|{ra|iliii'al MaiiicH in tlit* l)aiirla;{li to liuvc lioni tuUfii from
thii ttoniik tiinf/ii. The |iiiiiti|ialuru l!-.> u witli tlif following
i>ii(1!iijj;h s -
(I) ////, Norn. A//, F)aiio-Sa\. /*//, %♦' [ A.S. frim, dor.
hclinl^ M Pfi'ht/, atid iiiaiiy otluTn; (2) ilnlt', Norm. </«>/(/,
Norw. (At/, <i<'r. Ilml, I)iii. '/'/»«/, K ij<. ilulf, i'iili\ North.
iluii'lf^ art ltitvlidiili\ ami many <ttln'rH; (.'i) /»7/, Norn. ./)<«//,
Dun../}''//, ih^r. /flu, Dut. ly/**, an l'ro»»frU, ami many otlnMn;
(-1) /x'c/.', Nors. /W./A, Dan. Ixil,-, Swcd. /»>«'^*, Ucr. Imrfi^ Dut.
A''//,', |)itiM. //>'/,•, (). Sax. /«■/•/, Piino-Sax. Arvf, Norm, hfr.
North. /'<■(•/', Kn;;. Aroo/.', an \\'huhI>icL\ n\](\ Home others; (!i)
fofcf, N iiH. |)an. and S\v«d. /o/,-. an .IZ/V/'Ayo/w, and a frw
otht'iH ; (ti) l/ni'iiilr, aH /iiiHt'iif/iniiltt', and a frw othcru; (7)
A</Y, ft8 Linrc»l')fl, and a tfw "thrr.-t; (H) f/nnfn', thi'o^t^ Norn.
|>yr2>, (i«'r. din'j\ liow (icr. iliii'ii, Diit. iluiji, Uano-Sa\. j"'/'^',
VA\ii, villi 11 /fy an Kiiil/ioriie, i\\u\ many othnn; (U) lut'n^a
cuti.iUun I d natnc tor a monntaiii lake or pool ; (lO) //><//,
NorH. /h)//, i^^ Hfiy/iiilf, AUi] a fi'W othern ; (11) //f«w, Norno
/tc«, us Dun(je<"'sn, and many others ; and ( l'2)jl>'tli, (). Nois.
y}'('>/'J>»n', Ivo, f/i>r<l, as Sohfiiij Firt/i, and sunie others.
The Orkneys, Shellamls, and Caithness are also full <tf
Norse Humes, for in thoHe distrii'ts tlu; Norsemen settled in
j^reat foree, and introduced llieir own laii;;uaj{e, a diah^el il
wliieh was spoken until tlie last century in the island of
North Kdiialdshaw. The additional Norse gcofj^raphieal naim.'ii
ol)taim;d from this area are--(l) nhirk^ Dan. nt<ik\ a pio-
cipilous roek risin^i^ out of the sea; (2) ttherry, a flat, insu-
lated lock not overllowed by the sea (there is a l^lccrrieci'aiu
in Ayrshire); (3) noup, a round-headed hill; (4) voe, a
creek, as liuii.'esi'oc; {')) tiuck^ <in open hay, Nors. rile (us
viliiif/ ss vik + \\h' j)atronyinic iiif/), Wick in ("aitiiiu'SH;
(()) helt/at'., a tidal cavern, Nors. Iiellir ; (7) [/io, a de«'p gully
TMle KORVK i!t»;Sli;$t.
Tl
iitil
at
uml
H70.
Ill of
rnlit
wing
(M) kitint,ti DtUlUli fnrtiflt'fl ntntion ; (0) »rl^ ft lort, iKiti,
viit/i, M Ifoiinif iiriii* l/iiKs, i||i»in;li xninv uny tluit Hitunifc
m\)ii\\, hnj'ml, html, wlii«'li Im iil-o tlif rtumni <>t Ilonf/i,
Itrt'oi'c |i>avitit( tliii* Ni>rM> (liMtrict it inuy Ih> fin well lo point
out tliiit til)' iliali'ot now ^jiokfit tlifn* coiitainH an inirncn<4o
tiiinilM>r of NorM> rootn, ai« may U> Mrm frorii Kilniontotrn
• KtynioloH;i(ii) (iloHsary of flu- Shi'Matnl iiml (hkiH-y Dialn't'
(' IMiilolo-i.'iil SK'i.ty'H TraiiHattioiiM, |H«Ui'), fr.tm which tho
follow ii);» rxatiiph'^ ar«' taken at riiti<|nni : linnuitsfulk^
prawintiy, Shfl. from Noih. Imnili/itl/,; Sw. an<l |)an. howlf'
fidk : ennh, to hiinj^ forth yonnj; (applit-tl only to tho n-al),
Slirt. tVorn l>*\. knhh!, a Hi'iil ; hnftl- pho<'iila,a litth- nral ; /'M-,
to lovr, Shfl. fioin Norn, and Mw. tlnhi^ Dan. #'Mv ; i/nlfl^ u
pi'/, Sln-t. fioin IhI. «/('/// ; ln'i-l,\ a «MUtr!i, Shi-t. from Noi-h.
fidjii ; hooh'itt, iM-ndnl kiu'CH, Shrt. from \nii\. Dan. hoHe,
The .S('ot(li I'onnticrt Hoiith of ('aithn*>HH an<l north of *|io
Forth nrc principally Celtic ; hut from tho Forth to Wii^l'y
anil Ksf^c'X we have another Norni; area. It' the Aii;;lo-Saxou
uccouniH of the Norne invauion are i'nilowetl date hy datw, it
will be found that they wen- mont fretpient round thu
Ilnmber, with (iriniMliy for centre, on the Vaie, with iiowen-
tot't for centre, in Ciimtierland, (ialloway, Man, liancasliire,
(.'he.shiie, and the Welsh Ixuders. Farther houI h we do not
n-ad of them bO fre(|Uenlly. (ieojj;rapliy fully conHtms iii»-
tory in this cant', for in Vi»rkhhire w«' tiiid -UK) NorHe plaeo-
uames, in I-iiieolnshire 300, in Westmoreland 150, in Cum*
herland 1;jO, in lieieeHter 00, in South Scot': ;id 60, in
Northiimlterland .00, in Durham 50, in Lancashire 50, in
N<Mlliaiiipton 50, in Deriiy 50, and in Norfolk 50, whilu
farther otf tlie proportion diminishes.
if tlu" Norse invasion is clearly written in tlu' place-
names, it is much more easily discernible in the people
themselves, in their idioms, and in their folklore.
The Norsemen wore characterised by uu almost inor-
dinate; love of tlu! perils of the deep, l)y their reckb'ss expo-
sun! of life to every danf^er, by personal pride, by individual
72
JIIXKI) LANOrAflKf).
ciitcrjirise, by l<'<,'!il slircwducHs, by Invo of arj^'unioiit, by cold
infiniieis, l>y lovo of ri'veby iind respect for woman — all clm-
rnctoristics of tlui Nortbern KiififHsli and Soiitlwrn Scntcli.
Tlieae people are more indepoiidont and resolute, tlioy or-
ganise more co-operative movements, more strikes, and form
more plans of sclf-fj;overnmrnt tban tlie rest of tbe Kn^dlsb.
In 'Doomsday' we find tbat tliese Norse counties bad tlie
greatest proportion of freeboldi-rs.
Of tlie dialects tliose of tbe Nortli, more especially tbo
Scotcb, are remarkable for tbe fj^reat number of Norse forms.
Tbe list of tbese provincialisms would occupy several
paf^fes alone. Tbe Nortb Countryman's babit of cban^'Inp^ th
into d, as smlddy for smith/, is Norse; po nlso is tbe obango
of c/i or sh into /;, as kura for churn, kli'k for cimrch, nklft
for ahiff,; and it is Norse to cbange / into /i, as Jwosep for
Joseph, lopl i'or loft. No one can bo lon^ atnongst Nortb-
umln'ians witbout remarking bow freipiently tbey insert
tbe letter y before tbe open vowels. Hyem, hyed, hyair^
hyavl, lyuk, pyul, enyuf/h, and (ifjcyn may be instanced as
Tyneside pronunciations of hem, hedd, IkiIv, heart, look,
pidl, enough, and af/(tin. In Yorksbire tbis sound is in-
truded into moft words containing a double vowel, as mnin,
sooin, spuhi, shoeiv, fi>r moon, soon, spoon, shoon (slices).
In Lancasbire it is pronounced like e in 'met,' as keoiv, heow,
leuke, for coiu, hoiv, look, wbile in Cliesbire and Derbysbire
the sound is almost amalgamated witb tbe otber vowel into
a dipbtbong, as beaivt, welde, accaent, relfjht, and leike, for
^hout, ivide, account, right, and like. Tbis inserted vowel
sound is Norse, as hjarfa., fjiir^ur, kji'dr, hjaJpa, sjo, hjor,
hj(dl,jor]y, wbicb are in Lane, he-eart, fe-irth ke-el, he-<d/>,
se-a, he-er, be-el, and yarth. Of pure Norse provincialisms
we may mention, by way of example, Scot, bale, Nors. bcH,
lire ; Nortb. brass, impudence ; Nors. brasta, to be dissolute ;
Scot. Nortb. big, Nors. bygga, to build, to dwell ; Nortb. to
drop upon a person, Nors. drepa, to smite : Scot. Nortb.
greef, to weep, Nor?,, grata ', Nortli. ,s/7/., a young berring,
Dan. sild, Sw. sill, a bening, &.c. &c., to several bundreds.
TUn rF,T,TIC KLF,MENT.
73
Tlicro is also an important Norso rloment in literary Eii<jfli8li,
wliich must not be (lisrcnrurdcd. Tlu^ stilistantivo v(T})al
form (trc, is Norse {i'rinn, i'rit^, i'ni), and was adopted into
En^j^lisli from tlie dialects long after Cliancer wrote, for
Layainon does not nse it ; in ' Ormidun * it comes imder tlio
for- f (irrn, and Chancer only nsea it twice. There are
vt.j .lumerons technicalities in Ca^dmon, the Nortluimbrian
Psalter, the Rnshwortli Clospels, and othtu' works written in
th(! North wliidi are traci'd to Norse influence, but these, for
want of space, must be passed over. In modern Eiifjflisli
there are a great njunluir of words whicli are traceable to the
same source, most of which were adopted from the dialects
before the fifteenth century; e.g. are, busk, hole, hound,
huaklf to, cdJl, ctisf, cut, curl, ddiry, ddzc, die, droop,
dapple, doivdy, flake, flat,fiii, (jasp, (/ait, ill, Inhber, liif/,
muck, pchhle, pikestajf, plough, root, spear, ahy, tarn, trill,
trip, spend, wheeze, wicker, itc. &.Q.
The Teutonic element of English is therefore itself mixed
in vocabulary, pronunciation, and grammar.
i
§ ."). TJie Celtic Element.
The Celts were the occupiers of the British Islands at
the coTnmencement of the liistoricid period. They were of
two tribes, the Gaels or Erse in Ireland, and the Cymri or
Britons in (Jreat Britain. In 503 the Gaels conquered a
great portion of Scotland, driving the Cymri before them,
and thns the Erse tongue was divided into two dialects, the
Irish and the Gaelic. The Manx people originally nsed
Erse, but they experienced bo many changes between Erse
and (jaelic that their dialect occupies an intermediate posi-
tion betsveen the otiier two. The Teutonic invasion severed
the Cymri into several disconnected states, and in process of
time as many dialects resulted from this isolation ; hence the
origin of (1) Welsli ; (2) Cornish, now extinct ; (3) Cumbrian,
now extinct; (4)Pictish, now extinct ; and (5) Armorican or
Breton.
74
?nxEi» i..\X(iLA(ii;s.
II
ill
'! ;,
As H mattur of convenieuco tlu' TLMitDii!- n'tiiined all the
old gc'o^^nipliical names, and tlius it liajipcnH that a very
largo vocal lulary ot" Celtic words is to be found in modern
English. But there are many other vocables which may be
mentioned ; thus, barrow^ clout, civivder, cuck (boat), cirawfy
dainty^ tenter, fleam, Jlav\ ffl/i'e, <jruel,welt, lold'et, wlre^
mesh, mattock; inop, rail, rather, rug, size (glue), banket,
button, bran, coat, car, balderdash, cabin, cobble (boat),
ktibel, crockery, kick, darn, drain, flannel, goivn, 'prank,
%uhiaky, cromlech, usquebaugh, banshee, Sec. &c.
In speaking of the Celtic element we cannot omit to
notice the great number of Cornish mining terms which
Lave been adopted into the nomenclatiue of science. The
list of these words includes groivaii, granite ; kiUas, slatey
schist ; elvan, granite and felspar porphyry ; fleukan, earth
which cuts ott' a lode ; and gossan, iron ochre ; with many
others.
§ fi. Kl emc tit H from Distant Part,'*.
The English Empire has, as we are told l»y politicians,
its centre of gravity Asia, and accordingly, besides the
Hebrew words ki own o us through the Old Testament
Scriptures, we find very many evidences of our communica-
tion with tht! East. The Arabic has contributed, perhaps, a
hundred roots ; Persian about a scojc; Turkish, Chinese, and
Malay about a score in'tween them ; wliilst our books and
newspapers concerning our Indian Emj)in' teem with words
adopted from irindustani and other Indian tongues.
To make this list of elements from distant parts com-
plete, we must also include tlie languages of Polynesia,
America, and Africa as having each contributed to make our
language the most mixed tongue upon the earth.
W'lien our cohtnists return iiome they use a great number
of teiins ;uid forms not acknowledged in curient English;
our soldiers and sailors do the same. Many of tliese will, of
course, be 1 'st after a renewal of their connection with their
mother tongue and country, but very many of them must
8urvi\e in our literature, for works of adventure are con-
EI.KMKXT;* KaOJf DISTANT I'AnTS.
7.)
tlic
cry
cin
y ^^^
Hhiiifly pouriiinr from our press in wliicli these terms iire
freely introdiicccl. An audi books are principally read by
the
) young, who readily retain impressions, especially under
a state of t?xcitement, their intltience on the vooabiiliiry of
]"]nglish must be very great indeed. Words so introduced
Koon find their way into newspapers and literature of a
higher class, as may be seen by glancing over the worka of
Longfellow.
From Hebrew we ha\e sahaofh, fnihhdth, (Uldujah,
amen^ seraph, clienih, levite, adddiiree, phariaee, aabian,
leviathan, ahhuf, cabal, jubilee, shibboleth.
From the Arabic of the Crusaders we get Koran, w linl ral ,
chefin, caravan, iiiaNHijuiore, Kclraltar, turban, «p'd'c)iav(l,
caliph, (i.s.^assin. From the Arabic of 8pain we ol)tain
alchenii/, alcohol, alembic, algebra, alfjorium, ahiorilkiu,
(tlkali, ahaacantar, almanac, amber, azlnudh, nadir, lake
(colour), azure, rjibberinh, crimson, zenith, alcove^ ahjuazil,
barb. From Arabic of other sources we have mohair, altar,
orange, lemon, coffee, minaret, vizier.
From Indian languages we have calico, mvHliu, chintz,
diiiiltii, rupee, ritia, sugar, pagoda, toddy, p(daa(piln,
jungle, paunch, nabob, puvjllt, rajah, rice, cashmlre.
From the Indian peninsula and Malasia we have bramah,
bantam, amuck, gamboge, sago, verandah, ourang-outang,
rattan, caddy, cockatoo,
Vroiu Java we obtain gingham.
PVom Japan we have japan.
From China we get china, tea, mandarin, 'nankeen.
From Persia, perl, dervish, emerald, lac, lilac, pasha,
sash, shawl.
From Turkey we obtain chouse, divan, janissary, caftan.
t lora Polynesia, t(Uto, taboo.
From American Indian, yam, lulgivam, squaw, m,aize,
tobacco, canoe, cocoa, hammock, tomahawk, skunk.
The advances which are now made almost daily in science
demand an exact nomenclature, and for this purpose t|j(^
Greek language seems to bo the most suitable. We liave
some hundreds of Crreek roots, and we have adopted nearly
■■w
:r>
MIXKO I-ANarAGKS.
all the Greek propositions as prefixes, and many Greek end-
in;^'s. .Most of these we have taken direct from the orij^inal
tongue; hut one Greek verbal eliding, -isc, or -Ize, especially
in i'avour now, Ih nndoulttedly introduced from modern
French. Some of our Greek words come to ua in a Romanco
dress, as blame (blaspheme), Jnufotii (fantasm, phantasy),
<tc., which are respectively Frencli hlaincr, fdutumc, &c.
IMany of our Greek nouns have already lost their original
plurals in ordinary conversation, as pheiioDienon, which only
takes phenonie)ia in scientific works, but is thor(»ughly at
liome with us as phcnonuuions ; so also nomads, hyads,
and many others. The case is, however, difTerent with those
W(»rds wliich aln!ady end in s in the (Jreek singular, as axis,
basis, einpsln, (/iinis, Ac, which, in consequence of the susur-
rat ion of the Knglisli form, must retain the Greek plural, as
axes, bases, ellipses, oases, &,c. Axiscs, basisea, &c., would
be instantly condemned.
i
§ 7. The Latin and Neo-Latin Element, Eiu/llsh is a
Teuto- Romance Lanijuafje.
In the preceding chapters of this essay numerous
stances of mixture' in vocabulary have been brought forw :«i,
and several other kinds of mixture have been hinted it;
but nothing short of proofs of mixture in grammar will
satisfy our modern scliool. Tliey will say: 'All tb has
l>fen shown is tliis, that the English of to-day C( it. ins
elements in its vocabulary whicli no Anglo-Saxon would
have Iteen able to comprehend, and that tlu; grammar is
principally remarkable as being the wreck of what it once
was.'
The contest between the German school and their op-
ponents will be fouglit on Romance ground. Tlie langim^es
wliich have been considered nuist be rather regarded as
useful adjuncts to Englisli than as component parts of it.
But it is not so with the group of languages now under
notice, or rather it is not so with one of them — tlie Norman
dialect of French.
ti
Tin; LATIN AND NEO-LATIN KI.KMKNT.
77
If Aiij^'lo-SiiXDii ia to be considered an tlie rni»tlier toii|,nie
of modern Kii^'lisli — the plimsc! is not very corruci, but we
havo become ao used to it that wu do not stop to criticise
it — Noriiian French has •; riylit to bo considered as its
e<iual.
English is not, Teutonic, nor yet Nco-Latin, but it is tlio
product of both, and that in every point — viz. (1) voca-
buhiry, (2) granunar, (3) arrangement, and (4) pronuncia-
tion.
It has been tliouglit most remarkable that Kome, the
greatest nation of anti(iuity, shoidd have exerted such a
small direct influence on onr lati<.Miage after her 200 years'
occuj)atit)n of these islands. We have street, from afrat<i;
cola, an abbreviation of colon! i ; -ciustcr or -clicster, from
CUHtrd; and -ivlck, from vicua, olxof , with, perhaps, -^jm/-/,
from partus. There the list terminates. Some; of thet>e words
have found their way into most languaj^ea, especially strata',
uLhers are very rare out of England.
The infiuenco of Latin in this country was principally
geographical, and was exerted in tluoe distinct lines from
London respt>ctively to South Wale.-', Chester, and York.
That this iniluence was so slight is natural, for very few of
the legions which were introduced into i use islands were
Latr.ns, and conse([uently their Latin language would be
mc-t debased and mixed. Such as this i I'lueuce was it left
a few words in tlio (Jeltic, wliich have been given on a
preceding page. Heathen Rom linguistically ahnost
powerless in liritain ; Christian e has been, on the
contrary, most powerful. It was natural that the priests of
Augustine should desire to reserve native terms for heathen
worsliip, and shoidd endeavour to introduce Latin ones
for the new cultiu'e. Thus we had the A.S. words tnynster,
cluster, portU\ muanc, arcchisceop, bisceop, sanct, martyr,
cdllc, pistel, ivucra, postel, dlacon, clerc. "ireost, almesse,
cariteil, p(dl, re(/(>l,pr<i:d(cait, cdmlel, psalter, mmsse, ahkod,
synod, lenqx'J, ^Itul, lanlr, tor (^turris), sacerd, albe, antefii
or antiphone, bap.ilere, basilica, calead, canon, capitola,
(capitulum). chor, cyric, creda, Cristca, demon, diabul or
•r
'ii !
! ' ' M i
i
7H
MIM.Ii l,AN<irAnF.S.
(/do/(.»/, '((■sripiil, fdrtr. (iiroii), clc (oleum), /ivvh (versus),
nuniuc, <»{)'i'i<tH, oiy(m^ })<i.()n,, jxtpd (pope;, irlUiiiie^ Hcoluy
Hifjel (sinillutn), Sic.
In their inteicourHf wilii tlu< Saxons llie piicstH would
natunillyltc ol/lijrotl to use muiiy vvor(l« not strictly cuiuicftt'd
witjj rflijfious mnttcra, but still new to the coiivt-rtH. Thus
wo p»t Icon, pl}J'*>'i pcf<uwh'i/i'. (pjirsley), Cdnet-e, coorfa,
elpend or /y//>, huujlulc,', p(ditiUi or bullsta.pK i'j)ii re, tdlcnfd^
pot't, poiii/atrfa, ivrull, in'tll, hitJar, ci'nc, piil, piumu'-, IdclKct;
lilie, 'plH-i(., inerdf/reof, (■nliifre, ostre, jjaifi, fn'ihf, liirfle,
puiul, yncCf ciiltci\ DHimuniMiiin, top'U niym't^ curcci'H,
fie, fichc/iin^ fefe.rjuue,, piLViicsfnn, i'tijuf, nicoi'-'" firmui',
jiyrif/c, pfivu, pt'<'>/o8t, pyojian, aainell, Ixdsdm, O' rj lie (cerv-
folimn, clii'vil), radar, ctstenhmni ({'iistuiieus), circiil, crys-
treow ((H'rus'.is), vulphin (i;n]\Kin>), (.'Ipri'iidi', rhhse (chiusii),
corona, crlsfalhi, dise, ilrarn (driico), (jUjiud, gnnitin {^om),
lufuste (ligusticuni), hi ant (ruoiis), /y.(/a/(i^(piil:iHiun), pard
{•jri'tphos), plnnian (pcnsare), fiiniih'<'<)ii' ([jinus), pldid, pias-
ter, plum, pMrleac (jxuru-), popln (populus), post, prhn,
pfirvince (viiutii, p<;ri\viukle), jtylf (puteus), rule (nita),
nvdlce, sencpa (aliijTTi), solera (soliiriuin), and porhiijis or^-
r/f«v^orcliaid = hurl us -\- {,'eurd f)r yard).
The ahnvewen; all introduced ])ufore tlio ('ontpiosf ; hvit
tlie Normans Itrouj^ht the I/.il in Church, with its t'ull (!ore-
raonial and with its Latin service. llencctVirwurd Latin was
adopted boldly, both directly and in the sliajje of Norman
Frencli — not always pure I/itin, but nmidvish or doi»' Latin;
indeed, little pure Latin was adopted before the revival of
learnin<!C, when fashion made it necessary for evovy man to
encumber an<I interlard liis speccli with Latinity. A miller's
daughter at this peiiod became a moll nary damml, to go
waH to itinfirale, li fari\ier was known a** an ajfrh'iUfvrlsf, and
n count ryntan figui\>il as a /•»/'<(/ /yir/vtojj. Tlu' simple (pies-
tion *• Wnat o'clock is it 'f was by tluH Hiiine procesH changed
into 'Will you interrogate time's trausitation ?'
' Love's Labour's Lost,' 'Cynthia's K«'vel, and similar
works soon, however, cured Ibi' language ..f this ' %vord-
mongery,' and many of tlu'se tine terms dinpp' 1 out of (he
31 1 '
i
Tin; I.Al'IN AND NI'.O-I.ATIN KI.KMI'A'T.
70
luxicoii. Tliost' wliicli liM(l III) other rccMiiuiicud.iliiMi than
thiit tlicy were fine t«'rmH were lost ivlttt'^clhcr, hut, thoso
which woYo useful wero rotiiitifd in spite of ull protests to
th(! contniry. Ho miiiiy indoccl riMniiined, or have Im««mi Hiuco
added to tlie liiii^fiiaj^e, thilt with direct I/itin, and with
Mi'o-Latin, it is possible to find some precedent for about u
ilioMsand forms of word from eacii liatin verlial root. Thin
iiiexhauslibh' supply is cliei k.' ' '>y a very limited demand
lit present, but tliere is no wiyiuf,^ how larfjfely it may lio
drawn upon in tli.' future, as it mtist he drawn upon if Kn^-
lish is to become! tlie universal language, or ' WeUspracho,'
which (irimm has declared it will bo,
l?ut if the direct inllueiice of Latin in tlie futuro will bo
great it can scarcely bi> greater than its indirect intlneuce in
th(> past has been. This brings us to consider tlu^ Iiomanco
elenu'Ul of our langua'j^e one scarcely second in importanco
to the Anglo-Saxon itself.
That the indirect Latin is in many points very dilfercMit
fri>m t ho direct may be seon by glancing over this table : —
Normiin.
Liitin.
Nonnan.
Lilt in.
balm
balsam
conceit
conception
caitiir
captive
constraint
construction
chalioo
calyx
coucli
collocate
coy
quit't
construe
construct
paint
depict
defeat
depict
mayor
major
Fc'it
U\v,t
saiiiphu'
oxoiiiplai'
fashion
faction
sir
Hoiiior
esteem
estimate
loyal
legal
lesson
lection
purvey
provide
])nrveyanco
providence
])oor
pauper
frail
fragile
Thus our language is dotdiled, first in having a Teutonic
and a Latin vocabulary ('dissemble,' and 'cloak,' &c.). and
w.'con(lly in having indirect as well as direct Latin. The
advantiigo of the arrangement is in most cases manifest, for
tiiese words have seldom exactly the same meaning now,
thoueh of course I hey originated in the bilingual state of
the luiglif+h when it was necessary to address the learneil and
80
Mt\i;U I.AN(il'A(iKH.
' H
ii!
r
till! iiiilfiinii-il, llir loD-i^iirr ami tin imtivi*, in u dilVcreiit
Wliy ill Ol'tlt'l' to lie UII<l(*rHtoo(l nflMitll.
T\ni iiuliroct inlluctirc (»t' liUtiii, in lli«> tonn ot' |{i)iriuiit;u
or N(!o-liiitiii, on this luiij;ua)j;i' of our TiMitoiiii! ton-tut Ir.-rH
hiiri bt'fii iiiuiu'awunihk'. riuNr it Aii;;lo-Sa.\oii nfcinnu u
(leiul laii/^iia;;*', or, to put it iiii»n' correctly, ilu; union (»t'
An^'lo-Saxon with Norman j-'rcncli |>ro(lucc(| that An^lo-
KoMjancc lauj^naj^c vvc call l^ll;;;li^ll ; licnec tlic |Mo|nitty '>t
resiTvinj,' tlio ti-rin * Olil Kn;;lisli ' to the oldest t'orni of tliirt
mixture, instead of nsinj,' it, with the (Jerinan hcIiooI, as
Bynonyinons with Anelo-Suxon. If it had not heeii tor the
Norinuns wt; nhould have rejnained (ierrnans; if William
tho Con([neror could havo had his way, we should have he-
cumu Frtnchmeii ; but, thanks to the Xorman invasion on
the one hand, and to our Teutonic stuhhornness on tiic other,
we are nuiliier onu nor tho other, hut Kn^^lish.
Thus the greate^t revolution which ever alTi cted tlio
aO'Called Anj^h. -Saxon race — we write Ho-calleil because tho
number of intennurria^'es with Celts ni'ist not be overlooked
— is un(loul)ti'dly the Norman invasion of lOdO, by which a
new bhtoil and a new lan{,'ua{,'i! were introduct'd into this
country.
Thehe Norman invaders were no jiurer in blood than tho
Anglo-Saxons, for it was only a small })and of Norsemen that
landed in Neustria in H7() und( r I{tillo, and obtained from
Charles the Simple a grant of territory in DlU, when tin;
union of Norse bbH)d with 1^'rench— also impure — produced
the Ncjrmaii race.
Nurse place-names c.re very cotnnKtn in Nornnindy. liji
appearti as />?/, hijc, hi(f, harc^ or hocuf ; toft as tot ; wici: as
ville; vic.-s as nez ; (janlr as (janl; tlnu'jx; a.s torp, tmhc,
toui'jj, tuurhc, tonrps ; hcc.ki' as hec ; u as tn or fy ; jlU>t as
fleur, fet, ftd ; hoime as huhiw,, hoxv, lumlme ; ilalr as
dallea^ dala^^ dale, dal, t<d ; an<l liolf us honltlc, oiide.
From the fre(juency of these names in Normandy we might
fiU|>p(>He tluit the settlement was \t ry complete, and that a
Norr«' langu;i;j;v was g»-nerally spoken. This, however, was
not the casjt. The posses.^ion was men ly that of a dcfUiinant
TIIK LATIN AND NK<>-I.ATIN KI.KMKNT.
HI
'. Jin
•id: ;id
Hit ilS
\
riifo, fills liijji all tliiM'Mtiiff'H Into Itn own liaini-', iiiid fulling
tln-ni Itv i(K own n.-inicH. Tin* people were wliiit tliey \ven>
helore—u inixtiire of Celt, Laliii, untl Kmuk- iiiul Hpoko
their own liinj{iiiij;e, a tliiileet of Freiu'li. Hut, as yeiirn
rolled (»n, tlio Norsi' element wiiH iihsorlied, the populace and
tlx'ir hm^'iiagi' ai'tjuiriii"; therelty a distinetive eharaeter.
The di^IloMition of the [)eople waH not adnured l»y the rent ot
l''rance, where the term NomuiiiU liecaine tho synonym of
deeeit, hlyness, and cunning. A i'i'i»(ninr noniiamli' in an arn-
hi^uouH answer; ii I'tcoui'diatUni noniiitiuli', a pretended
rec'oneiliation ; and i\ fin nonnaml, i\ nly fellow.
Of the two lan;,'iia^'OM of France, called Oc and ()i/f, the
Norman helouj^'cd to tlu^ latter, hut there are many instances
of Norman <,'entl<'men whose facility in the former was ho
frronl that they could compose extempor(> scrses in it. Tho
hni'/iif iCdt' has not been without its influence on Kn;^lish
literatiu*!, especially <»n oiu' early poetry.
The LiiiKjnc d'(>//l, or Old l"'rench, (»f which Norman was
a dialect, compared with An^do-Saxon was much sweeter and
jmetical — much more ho than modern French, to which these
(|i!alities can warcely lie naid to appertain. French Ih emi-
nently the lan<,'ua}i;e of a nation of chatterers, Anjflo-Saxon
of doers ; therefore it is prohaMe that if thi' two tongues had
l)(!en jilaced on an (M|uality in this country, French, the lan-
j,niajj[e of the few, would have passed away in one or two
{generations, without any further change heinji; produced tlmn
is to lie found in a !-liort vocahidary. Hut the Normans,
thou<,di few in inimher, eipialled the Saxons in ener{j;y, and
excelled them in enterprise. Indeed, they excelled the rest of
Kurope in this point, and most of that darinj^ spirit which
characterises tlie Knylishman all over tlu^ world comes to
hiiu from this source rather than from the Teutonic. William
the Concpieror's enterprising spirit led him to attempt the
entire annihilation of the An<i;lo-Saxon nationality, and con-
se(iuently of the distinctive feature of that nationality — the
An<;lo-8axon ton<j[ue. He therefore issued his behest that —
1. The court should employ no lantfuage but Norman
French.
HU
MIAKi) l,AM«JlAUKli.
'2. No Hcrvnnt of the Htuto or ('hiirt'li hIhmiIiI nnploy
An^lo-Saxitii ill imy Ii'j,mI ilociimi-nt.
:|. Norman K re noli hlioiilil li«; \\\v. iu«;(liiiMt ut' coiniiiiiiiicu-
tioii at K'liDul.M.
4. Ill tlic law coui'Im jiid^iiii'nt hIidiiM Ih> ^i\t>ti ii;(aitiHt
the Hiiitor who |)l<-iiil«'«l in Aiij^ln-Siixoii, im (hut ur^Micd diti-
atVri'tioii to thr }<()vci'iitnt>iit ; and
."i. All rxlMtinK (liKMiinrntH in An^do-Saxon were (Icflan'd
invalid.
Tims Norman KkihIi Ixcanu! the !aiijj;iia^fi' of (-(Mirl icru,
rhuirhmt-n, law}»Ms, and sclio(tllioyH, as it was ain'ady t Im
lan^'uaf,'r ol" the aiiny. Aiij^lo-Saxon was liunisht-d to the
fi«'ld, tlu! cottaj,'t', and tho farm, and — sat'ost, pjai't' of all —
to tho hearts of the peoph-. ThoM' pcrsonH who w«to of
netTHsity ol»li;4(Ml to cominnnicat,*' with hoth HctiotiH (tf the
commimity soon ae»|Mirfd a donlde vooaltidaiy. At last even
tin? peasants learned t<» call ox, sheep, and pi^ liy the diiintier
luiiiies of ImviiJ\ monloa, and pore when s«'rviii^ their inas-
torH ; — ill their own honses, if they had the eliance, which
WUH but Heldom, they helpe<l tln'inselves to ^reut Htonkn
(A.S. sllnr.) of hcdcil or notltli'a jIchIl-, lint very politely
assisted their fendal superiors in their palaoes aiul castles to
ilfdicdUi }noy»elfH}( vi(iu(ln roiuit and boihid^inureedUf viande^
roll, hoaiUl).
'I'his particnhir Neo-Latin dialect, I In; Norman, was
mixed with Norse roots,and therefore eorriiptt'd An;;lo-Saxon
the more easily, as that lanj;na^'e alri-ady contained many
introdnctions from the sanu* sonrce. Tlnis tho Norman
davre (F. dejeuner) is l(.-v\. dii.tjt'erdr ; Jilde (V\ poclie) in
fickl; /e!(j {V. luorlhund) in felf/r'; f/raude ( F. voinin) is
ffvannl ; (j'dd (F. Iiahife) \h ;/ildi : and haid ( F. cahane)
is hot. in these words the Danish varies, as it does in nnme-
rons others; hence we conclude that the Normans came ori-
ginally not from Denmark, hut from Norway. No donht a
search would be rewarded by the discovery of many Norwe-
gian words which have found their way iiAto our dialects
through this source.
The old Norman preserved many Celtic words which it
TIIH l.vriN AMI NKl)-UTIN r.l.»'.»l>!NT.
N3
•liiriMl
Iiail !ic(|iiii')'il (Voiii tli*> lirrtoiH iiihI (iiiiiN, oi° latlii'i' wliirli it
t'uiiii*! iilrnnly |ir<'H( rvi><l in lln' I'Vciii-li ot NiMiHtriii. Ol'tluwu
very many liuvir Ixun liron^^lit into tliiM fount ry in a Krrnch
•In'HH ; tliUM: />»///, Imrren^ harrafor, Imi'i'i'l, hnnin, fmah'f^
tvo*, Cft/'/, t'lap^n'i'f diKjiji'i', ihinifi'itii^ i/nirfl^ fjinvn, huntfun^
innil,'tulfft'n, iii"fh'!/, oslfi'^ ln>t, fioHiui, roi/in'^ rihhon, w/vw'/t,
fihfiy viiHHiil^ and rfiih'f.
Norman {''rrncli al^'o aotcd as a m«'tliiim tor tlic introtliic-
tion of many Krankic iiml otlirr TiMitonic wonln into niir
laii^i'iij^t'. In I 111:- ss'ny y/i) [i^vi <ii//ifiNf,a.)nhuMHii,ilor, itr)'itiii/fi^
iii(iiif'JjiiM^ ulliii'fi'^ <iiiuiit^ nttlt'c, fnddi'it\ hfilriini/, lni,filt't\
hflfi'if, hlroiiitr, hiish^ hiitf^ 'n'Und^ bi'tind'tHh^ hi'uinc^ Oli'-
ciiiK'f, cliii.tiilH'iloln, fliiiii>i>!on^ rhitU'ti, cr//, dvHi'ry, dauce^
dt'jili; fiiiDiirl, I'sr/n-ir, eiidxli-i'iinH, /i'i% /ifj\ jlnlt«'i\ !/idfop^
.'/".'/''i ijiti'iilsh, i/iiilf^ i/nai'd^ ;/iiidf^ ;/iirrdiiii, Ifudc, i/tilsf,
liaiiilft^ fiiisti', Iniidiril,', haniiiijiu\ hmiiif, In'i'tdd, laiiHiiiin-
nrl, Ifflifi; nuti'vh^ mdvcliet', inarufnd, maMHiwir, itnuvh^
jioh\ iKK'h'l, fiodi'li^ ijiiiiM't', riinge, mtuird^ rilxdd, rljh^
vint/, roasf, roh, roho^ H('h(\ Hvnt'Hchtd^ xliulhtp^ t*ly[(l\ shtfc^
"/'/A fui'ifcf^ t'lre, (tnvi'l^ tnitdde^ taniy viif/i:^ wnit, -imn', wicket^
vuiniilf, and ii'in'ish,
Mnt, liy lar tln^ i;n'ali r portion ot" Norman I'micli was of
Latin i>rij;in. 'I'lir clianjfcs of vowel and consonant distin-
f,Miihliin;4 '' from l-'n-ncli will Ik; pointed out inanollirr place,
and the method in which Latin beeamr French has already
Ikm'U noticed.
ThnK Latin heeanie Noriii;in. whicii, after mi,\in<i[ with
An};lo-Sa\on, helped to mid<e KNcii.isir. The twttllth and
thirteenth centuries are the period of thiw chanjj^i'.
Those forei<j;n words which then became natnralised in
onr country drove out so many Anj^lo-Saxon winds, dismera-
])erod the Anj;lo-Saxon ^raimnar, and dianp'd the whole
spirit as well as the vtsry sound ot tho lan<j;ua};e spoken hy
Alfred. Yet in spite of all this our Teiitonists declare that
it iy th(! same lanji^uaf];e still wliicli W(> now use, and to favour
these views they assert that Alfred did not speak An«>lo-
Haxon, but Ohl Knylisii. Siucly this is the story of the
ij 2
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84
MIXED LANUl'AOUt<.
! 1
iW4
garment, which, after heing continually renovated, so tliat
the original fabric could scarce be (listinguished, remained
the same garment still, in spite of the patches of all colours,
shapes, and sizes.
The foreign words— ^/t(t^ /», ivonls not Anglo-Saxon, — are
as 4 to 1, and yet in the face of this, coupled with the fact
that the Anglo-Saxon inflections of declension, of conjugation,
and of gender are nearly all lost, we find the name of Old
English not only given, but strongly defended too, and every-
body who dares to whisper a word about Anglo-Saxon '3
considered a barbarian. So strong has tliis mania liecome
that a recent grammarian (ipolofjises for speaking of Anglo-
Saxon, though he did so on principle.
The rise, then, of tlie English language must be placed
in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries — tliat is to say, at the
time when our forefatliers began to feel reconciled to the
language of the Conqueror, and to use either Anglo-Saxon or
Anglo-Norman as they thought fit.
English must therefore be regarded as the ofTspring of
two languages, or perhaps as the engrafting of two languages
one on the other, followed by the subsequent lopping otf of
most of the superfluous words and inflections.
This process of adopting Latin began even before the
Norman Conquest in the court of Edward the Confessor.
But between 1066 and 1200 there is a very marked leaning
towards French forms of Latin words. This may be seen
from the following table : —
II
> 9tL4\
Latin
Before Conqueat
After Cnnqnest
career
career, carcern
[j|)J7'.s'«h]
turris
tor
tur
psalterium
psaltere [ps sounded as
Greek i^]
sauter, saltere
psalmus
psalm, salm [do.]
salm, salmes
missa
messe, mresse
messe
magister
moegester
meister
eleemosyna
ffilmesse, ojlmesse
elmesse, almes
caritas
carited
cherite
sanctus
sanct
seinte, seint
clericns
cleric, clero
clerk
THE LATIN AND NEO-LATIN ELEMENT.
85
Latin
noforo Conquest
After Conqncit
moiiachuH
motioo, mutmc
mil nek
turtnr
turtle
turtle
iHonastorium
inynster
munstor, minster
pal ma
palm
palm
ealix
calic, calc
calico, caliz
inarmor
marmanstan
marbreston, -e
opiscopus
biscop
bissopo
alba
albe
albe
corona
t'orona
crime
muTiH
intuit
innnt
noniia
nunna, nnnno
nonno (nonnerie)
eleplias
yip, ylpand
olifanto
pallinm
pael, pel
pal
scliola
scoln
scolo
templum
tempcl
temple
canonicus
canon
canoan
Thus, as a general rule, the Anglo-Saxon before the Con-
quest is seen to be nearer the Latin ; the same word after the
Concpicst is also, as a general rule, nearer the French.
From 1100 the loaning towards PVench was very strong,
certainly much stronger than the leaning towards Anglo-
Saxon.
It wovdd in this place be impossible to give a complete
list of words which have been since that time adopted from a
French source, but the following may be taken as examples
of some wliich became natinalised in the twelfth and
thirteenth centuries, the two centuries of the 7'eal Old Eng-
lish : — Admiral, abbey, annoy, attire, astronomy, baron,
court, count, cotintess, cable, chemise, custom, camp,
change, chattel, chieftain, close, country, cope, croivn, cross,
crnj, dub, delay, duke, onprsss, easy, escape, espy, font,
false, fail, fool, grace, guile, guise, hardily, honour, hostage,
hurt, ire, justice, jugler, large, legion, miracle, master,
mercy, manner, 'messenger, machine, m^ale, mile, mountain,
nun, nunnei'y,pciire, prison, pHvilege, procession, penance,
palfry, poor, passion, poverty, pmde, pilgrim, post, power,
rent, riches, roll, standard, sot, sacrament, sermon, servi ?,
spouse, school, sewn, senator, serve, serving, sire, suffer,
treasure, tower, taper, turn, use, and wait.
8G
MIXKI) LANaUA(JKf>.
Iiiirii!
^^il
m
The a))Ove are only taken fn»in tlic Saxon Clironich; and
Layamon. Other wurks would jjfive other words. TIiuh in
the Lambeth Homilies (1200) wo have about 50 French
words; in the Trinity Colle{,'e Homilies (1200), (U ; in
Layainon's ' Mriit ' (12().>;, 1 11, and in the later text, 167 ; in
' iSeinte Marharrete ' (1220), 29 ; in ' On Ureisun ' (1220), 8 ;
in ' On Lofsonj,' of Ure Letdi ' ( 1 230), 8 ; in ' On God Ureisun '
(1230) ; in the ' Soules VV'arde ' (1230), 19 ; in the ' Wohunge
of Ure I.ouerd' (1230), 41 ; in the ' Hali ISIeidenhad' (1230),
57 ; in the 'Ancren Kiwle ' (1230), 49G; in the ' Bestiary'
( 1 240), 1 8 ; in Genesis and Exodus ( 1 240), 43 ; in ' ( )ld Kentish
Sermons '(1240), 73; in the 'Owl and Ni^'litingale ' (1244),
37 ; in the ' Jesus Poems '< 1244), 81 ; in ' Havelok the Dane '
(1280), IGl ; in ' Kin-,' Horn ' (1300), 82 ; in the ' Assump-
eioun (1300), 19; and in ' Florieeand lUauneheflur ' (1300),'
118. And so the numbers constantly increased, but this in-
crease can scarcely be judged from the above statements,
because of the varyinjif length of the pieces cited. It may,
therefore, be coini)ared with the following statement of
English words which have Ix.'come obsolete. 0{ our poetry
before lOGG, 50 per cent, of the words are now obsolete,
and of Anglo-Saxon prose 24 per cent. ; in Layamon, 20 per
cent.; in ' Ancren Kiwle,' 18 per cent.; in Genesis and
Exodus, IG per cent. ; in the 'Owl and Nightingale,' 14 per
cent. ; in the ' Lofsong,' 8 per cent. ; and in ' Ilavelok,'
8 per cent.
The actual nimiVjer of Romance words thus introduced
amounted to 150 before lOGG ; in 1200 it was 250; in 1300
it had increased to 1050; whilst in Chaucer's ' Canterbary
Tales,' which poem may be considered the centre poinl in the
history of our literature, we find that the number of Romance
words is slightly in excess of the Saxon — just, in fact, as is
the case now.
It was in the age of Chaucer that tlie distinctive character
of English as a speech was first recognised. The old Nor-
man, kept up in the law courts, having been from the time of
John cut off from all communication with its source in
France, had become obsolete and ridiculous. The English
KN0LI8II 18 A TEUTO-UOMANCK LANaUAOB.
87
iind
)< ; in
nation fi'li tliiit the French they Ifiinicd iit school was of no
use to thcin if thoy tnvvolk'd to Paris, though it might liave
passed muster at Stratford-atte-Howe ; and accordingly,
finding that thoy could neither learn good Englisli nor good
French, tliey expressed their ideas on the subject so power-
fully that in 1302 William de Edington, Chancellor to
Edward III., carried through Parliament an Act (Stat. 3()
Ed. III. c. 15) to tliis effect : — ' Item, jnir ce qe monstro est
Houcentfoitz <tu Uttiparprelats, dues, counts, barons, et tout
la cohimurudte les fjrautz meschiefs qe aont adcenuz as
pfusours du realme^ because the laws, iV:c., were admi-
nistered ' cti la laruje Francels, qest tvop disconue en le dlt
realme,^ therefore the king ordered that the executive shoidd
be for the future ' en la lantfe Ewjleise,^ and that law entries
shoidd be made in Latin. Henceforward English had a legal
status, and made sucli rapid progress towards its present form
tliat the works written shortly after can be read with com-
parative ease.
^*^ The year 13G2 is a date to be remembered, just as
mucli as 106(), or 449, and accordingly will present a
fiivouralde opportunity for us to pause, in order to note what
we owe to the Anglo-Haxons, and what to the Normans.
]Most of om* laws being of Norman origin, it is but natural
that law should be a great repository of Norman words.
Thus we have chancellor, chancei^j, puisne, petit and grand
jury, baron, sergeant, mesne, judges in eyre, excliequer, bar ^
assize, attorney, case, cause, court, dower, damages, estate,
felony,fine, r)udct, parliament, plaint iff, plea, plead, statute,
sue, tax, ward, and a host of others more technical than
popidar.
The art of war was never developed in England imtil the
arrival of the Normans, and accordingly all the usual mili-
tray terms are of French origin, though not all ancient. Thus
we have army, general, division, aidc'de-camp, m^arshaly
colonel, lieutenant, adjutant, major, captain, sergeant,
corporal, lance, fuse, rank, file, pensioner, recruit, deserter,
artillery, cannon, inusket, sabre, cartridge, glacis, fascine,
accoutrements, bayonet, rear, guard, sentinel, countersign.
88
MIXKD LANOrAnFift.
!!l
fhr
uud Hfdtidard. On the other Imml, the nivvy (Lat. nav!»)
bein«jf principally (Ifpi'inlciit on tlio scii-lovini^ KiiyjliHhnum,
Ims but few tenns ii(»t Tfiitonii'. Moat of tlic woimIh, ('xcifpt
l!n;/^ qiioen, lovtl, At*///, jin«l fitrl, connected with the court
uud aristocracy are Koniance ; as, cIkihci'IIhi', chdinbeiidln^
cohipfivllei', ituD'dluil, linker, di'pafi/, connfiible, etjiien't/^
page, levee, prince, peer, duke, in(ivqnln, count, viscount,
baron, (/enfle[^im\n'\, tiqiiire, mauler, ne<;rt'f(iri/, treasurer,
councillor, antbasHador, cabimt, ininlslrr, heir, sovereli/n,
emperor, reiyn, &.c. &c.
The terms of chivalry, oxcojit knif/lif (A.S. nii/d), are
Norman too; 0,1^, aid, armour, aHsanlf, baron, battle, buckler,
chivalry, challenf/e,fealti/, f/allant, hauberk, Itomaije, mail,
inarch, wldier, tallai/e, tr" ncheon, vassal, scata,;je, &c.
Field sports were only allowed to the Normans, and
therefore there are few technical terms conned (mI with them
which are not IJomance — ba(/, brace, chase, couple, copue,
course, covert, fidcou, tiercel, venison, forest, leash, leveret,
mews, (fuarri/, re>/nard, and rabbit.
It was \he Normans who established the Papacy tirmly in
this country, and therefore we have altar, bible, baptism,
ceremoiiy, devotion, friar, hoinily, idolatry, interdict, piety,
penance, prayer, preach, relic, reliyion, sermon, scandal,
sacrifice, saint, tonsure, and numerous other Church terms,
of Komance origin.
The culinary art, as such, did not exist in England before
the Norman Conquest, and accordingly most of the old, as
well as nearly all the modern, cooking terms are of French
origin ; •ds,beef, mutton, ve(d, pork, pullet, capun, patty, cafe,
con rve, preserve, plate, table, hippocras, malmsey, claret,
ragout, fricandeau, fricassee, victuals, provender, flour,
lard, grease, butter, roast, boiled, fry, bacon, toast, sausage,
pjte, soiif), sjtirits.
From tlie Anglo-Saxon source we obtain the names of
most of the grand objects of nature, of agriculture, of the
commoner animals, of our bodies and bodily functions, of our
implements and tools, and of our special actions and quali-
ties. The names of our relationships, of our homes and their
KN(JMmi IH A Ti;i;TO-lt()MAN( K I.AN'dUAfiK.
80
i« v!m)
IIDUII,
■XC(fpt
court
Hiirei'j
:
beloiij^iiigs, of our olotliinj^, of our colours, and of our IriuleH
arc about c<|ually divide! I. All words ndatinj; to art, to
intellectual culture, to modern civilisation, and to i>ro|<;resH
are Romance, so also are most terms oi' i^cneralisation. Hut
terms of endearment, pleasantry, invective, and indi>j[natioii,
as well as tlntse wiiicli ^i\c point to proverbs, are, with few
exceptions, «»f home j^rowth.
If all terms of Romance ori}»*ln W(*rc swept out of otu*
lanpfua/j^e, we should lind ouvselves at as yreat a loss for
words as would an American sav.iffe if suddenly brouj^ht
under the iuHuence of our civilisation.
It may, perhaps, be objected that it is only in the hij,dier
and more learned stations of society in which this Romance
iuHuenco is supreme; but it is not so — our dialects contain
much more French than is j^enerally supposed.
Of the countryman Trevisa tells us that '.laek wold be a
gentleman yf he coude spi'ke Frensche,' from which we may
suppose that .lack tried hard to do so ; indued. Piers I'K)wman
speaks of dykersand delvers singing French songs over their
day's work.' This being the case, we must not be surprised
to find French words in our dialects ; they are found therein
great numbers, and with few excejitions are strong evidences
of the thoroughness of the Romanising influences instituted
by the Norman William.
At first no duid)t the countryman thouglit it very hard to
be obliged to speak French to his feudal superior ; but having
once acqiiired the vocabulary, he would begin by using it in
aping and mimicking his lord behind his back and in
flattering him to his face ; then the use would ])ecorae second
nature, and ho would find it as difficvdt to retiu-n to his
Saxon as he had previously found it to leave it off. Thus
Romance words were retained in the dialects long after they
had been discarded from the literary language.
The Sussex peasant, perhaps l)ecause he still wears the
Anglo-Saxon ' round frock,' is often instanced as an English-
man to the backbone ; indeed, he himself calls the native of
any other county a foreigner, but even he uses a surprising
' Prologue, 103.
00
WIXKI) I„VNflITAnR.M.
t
1,
Tiutnlici' of l{<>timiio<> words in his iliiily Hptu'cli, and lio .still
|Moiiounces / iiH in l''r(MH'li ; tlius, ilimssiivem'. Tim diulcctH
of Hovcral otlicr counlics iirc just as projitic in Kn-nch words
and sounds.
Of these Krone)! provincialisms we will in-tiancc tljo
following,' : —
ahUt, VVc'stiM., the hlciik (fisli), N.K, nhh; P. nhlvlte.
(ihn'citt, iihrlciicic, !*'oiin'r., apricot, [•'. iihn'ri)t,
(tj'ir, North., a jado (iiorsc), V. Imrn; tliiii.
itijinf, gitif, ilur, North., to tako catth' in to feed, K. ijrsi'r.
oi/Kc, Aiij^!., Mifhi'iiination tliroaj,di takiiif^ c«)hl, I"', lu'i/n.
(»/(/, North., sour ; cniji'i; Kast., hoih"; tinjn; North., furionR,
F. a /;//(.
aim, York., to intend, N.K. amnif.
(lining uotro, Midi., hou.sc, hearth ; vonlcr, Midi., tho hack of
the chimney, N.F. tn'ftn; mln'.
ahnihnii, York., nt a distance, K. Intntuiu,
allit, n!rli;>t, arhn, V. Dial ; nirlfH, Crav. ; yrorlci^, Wcstld. ; airlo
or C((j7-ponny, Scot., earnest money ; K. Ir.i nn-hin.
atiialxfn; Shrop., to teach, N.F. vntinlrr, F. wnliti:,
iij^plctirrc, Sua.s., orchard, F. tariT.
arrai'iu; North. ; arran, Nortliamj)., spider ; F. analgiu'c.
ari'i'vance, Knt., native place, F. urrli'cr.
addict, Scot., a largo plate for meat, F. ass!ellc.
as8avU\ Sliroi)., assault, N.F. ussdiit.
avi'acil, Suss., awaro of, F. avi'ni't'.
anmct; York., to overshadow, F. oiiihrnffcr.
aniiiri'i; iihnt'ri'e, Scot.; aniuhrij, aniiii'.ri/, aiimrij, North.;
avmrij, Suss., a large chest; N.F. (iiniuilrc ( 'All was made great
books and put in almeries at Sali.shury.' — Siu Til. Mai.ouy, Murt
iV Arthur).
auulcr, North., adventure, fear, N.F. (ituilrc, V. avenlurc.
averil, avrtl, North., Scot., April, N.F. averil, F. avrll.
hnjile, ¥j. Aug., Northamp., to cheat, to entangle, F. hafnucr.
haryaui, 10. Aug., any indefinite quantity, as a cartload, F,
lar(jn!(jncr, to waver.
laatc, North., to mark sh^ep, N.F. hnstonncr, to strike.
hut, Suss., a walking-stick cut out of a hedge, F. Idluu.
hat*er, Midi., to fight one's way, F. htiUrc.
hatter, Suss., to diminish towards the top like a wall which
is thinner above than below, F. ahattre.
KN(JI.I,-(H IS A TinffO-IKOrANCK I,AN(lt'A»lK.
•1
htiHiiii, Norf., n Htnutf^ mil, K. liilfmi.
hiiiiiii)', North., I)aliii, !•'. liininir.
hiitrcr, birrr, Siill". I'Ihs. N()rtliiiin|)., tin tit'toriiDon inciil, (»r
any iticiil at an iiniiHiial tiiiio; in Nliing, hirnj (' llo in noiio of
thoMO ortlinary cators that will duvoiir thoir hrcakfaHtH, and uh
many diniuTH without projiidirti to their ItoavniH, driiikirips, op
Buppur.'- -TllK Woman-IIaiku, i. .'{); Iifurriiijn, V. Dial.; hrri'miji;
Dov., inforior citU'r niadu after thu tli-Mt iu'c.>Hing; N.F. hrou-
vaije,
Jlri'chi/ J frail, N.I''. //'((({ clicf.
Iii'ii, Dov., the truth, V. Iilm.
hrssrti, Leio., to stoojt, V. bdlnHvr.
lii'lli'tYtili:/i, SuHS., game of cup and ball, F. hlUxniiirl.
bliilu, North., to whiten, h\ Unnr.
boco ill', HaHtiiif^M, niiu'h of, e.<^. ' boco de fish,' a pliraso in-
troduced by the Hinugj,'lerH, K. hrdnriniji df.
bunalllif, Scot., a partinj^ glass with a friend, V. b'>n -\- aUer.
bolllf, Lvic, a bnndle of hay oi' straw ( ' liiku a needle in a
bottio of hay.' — ViuvrrJi) ; N.l''. bulil, holiHin, F. hnHlfdiji', &e.
boiitjn, SiiHS., a water cask ; bwljc, Suss., a water cask upoa
wheels ; F. bouijr.
braci', Suss., well in liealtli, prosperous, F. brave.
bniir, bra\ Seot., line, haudsonie, gay, V. brave,
brrac/nj, Suss., also American, incliued to break over fonccB as
cattle are, F. brhhit.
brisH, Suss., an upstart ; Dev., the dry spino of furze, P.
brusque, rude.
branch, Suss., a spit (' Broaolicd witli the steely point of Clif-
ford's lance.'— lIiiNKY VI. ill. ii. 3 ) ; F. broche.
brullivicnt, North., a broil, F. iinmillonoit.
buffer, V. Dial., a fool, N.F. biiffard, F. bujjle.
hunk. North., bush, F. bos<iuct.
butler id bajav, or hcjau, Scut., a fro.shman at St. Andrews or
Aberdeen, F. butor, booby, + bejauue, unfledged bird.
cab, Suss., a cabal, F. cahaler, to plot.
calanyy, Old Glouc, to challenge, N.F. calanger.
carfax, Suss., a i)lace where four roads meet, F. carre/our.
certie, certy, * by my certy,' Scot., certainly, ' by my troth,'
P. ccrtes.
chanter, North., a part of a bagpipe, P. chanter.
choppine, North., a quart, F. chopine.
cloutf V. Dial., to nail, to strike, F. clou. ^
02
MIXKI* IVNOfTAfir-".
(■(XI
mI, Hiihh,, film (>r ('ookcil innil, I'MpiH-iull^ of latiib, N.K.
I'lthhiii'rjit'V. \)'m\.,i\'m\^rvvnhU> ('Mury, Miiry, i|ui(ii(n>iitrAry,'
Ac), K. nnitniirr.
eorr, SuHH., a liiiyHtiu'k lu'iirly (!ut uway, K. nmr.
I'uxe, Hoiith., to convtTHo rmiiiliurly, F. lutiinn:
i-fiitrli, Pfrl)., a |iatiiii('r, Nortli. tim rniiiit>woik |iluri>(l on a
cart, «'H|K'riiilly at hay time, to iiiakt* it larp r, V. criche,
cnili'lir.i, SiiHH , lii'okcii nocki'ry, I'" rvurlir.
I'ulp, KnM.f u hoavy Idow, N.K. I'mtlji, I"', muji.
riiHimrr, /liiiiitur, Sc«tt., a ^oMHip, I"'. r,>iiniiiii',
iliftuilin. Corn., Ibiltiildi'ii, K. iIi'J'i-ihIh.
iHsliiifiill, SiiMM., disortli'i" of uliiii'st any kiml, K. ilrtiliiiliilli'.
ildMH, Nt)rtli., a Ik'»I, N.F. ilun.iil, a Ik»1 i'iiiio|iy,
«/('«r, Scot., olmliiiati', F. tlnr.
dniiin, Kent., rights, (lm',s, F. iholl.
ilullcr, Siill'., to Horrow or iiu)urii with |)uiii, F. (Innlriit.
J'tiuli, Noitli., to troiil)Iu ; funheititti, troiil)l('Ht)iiir, F Jiiclniix.
J'atit, Corn., iniiHt, F. II J'luif ijiw.
JlfCll, SlIHH., llllllll'ltt'(l llog'H Cat, V. jUrhi'.
Jlunlili; V. Dial., u livery Horvunt, O.F. jluiicltirr, a hi>nuh-
maii.
j'riicnir, Scot., fnicafi, V.fiutcnii.
Jrail, liiiic. ,//■(/(/'/, SiiHs., a nisli Itaskct, N.V. fnujiJ.
Ji'Kj'jui', North., a Horl of curvrtl jiokL-r, h\ Ji'iinjan.
(jitrti ijlui) ! Scot., nn l'iMiiiltnrf,'h cry iK'forc tlirowiii^ dirly
watci' out of the window (Smollct) F. ijnrdf:: dr Vfim!
tjasl.lii, SiiHs., a kind of cherry hronghtfroni (iniicinnj hy Joan
of Kent, wife ^f the Ulaek Prince.
,j(n
"In, Si
U88., Derncs, eKoeeia
dly 1
)lack currnii
ts, V
(jrosi'lllvH
ijri'H, Sii.sH., another name for tlie (JaHcony or (luinune clierry.
glhiri/, Sns.s., sh'ppery, F. (jllncer,
fjahhct, SuHS., a hirgo mouthful or lump ; F. (jnhit, a hasty
meal ( ' Into as many f^ohbet.s will I cut.' — HrNUY VI. li. v. 12).
(jnle, Sus.s., a wooden drain ; North., a nmull Ktreani ; O.F.
gull', the gull(;t.
tjnu, Scot., taste, F. (joiU.
gout, goli', V. Dial, a drain, F. gm'ilvr (cp. gittlrr).
yrdiigi;, V. Dial., a gi-aUciry, F. grange.
gndtcn, Snss., a stubble field; tu gratton, Suss., to scratch iu
a stubble field as pigs do ; F. gritttci:
rxoMxft m A TKirro-noMANrK r.ANfiirAOK.
»3
ijt'itiii>r, Ntn'tli. ; i/rmir, ijruoi'il, ijinml, S<'t)t., gnoMolMnry, I''.
tjnrn'', T)«)v., thick, noft, ns tipplii'il In FdoiI, K, ijfii*.
(jriinniirf, ijiidhiI, ('ini|iu< I'nrtM, ii culiiii Ijoy, iiii iiwkwrinl
hoy ( ' Kt ill (|iiulih(>l nuvo xxi hotiiintH ciiiii initt ^uri-iniut i|iii
(liciliir j(r»)int't.'— »S»M(*. -IrcA. Co/., xiii. -17), K. ijrotmt, ii httio
((IMi)lll.
»/U(/»' /*»•///(('(■, Scot., hndhi'r'.in.liiw ; on fhc luoihtl of K ///>/*.
frhw.
hiiiiijirri/, SiiNH,,«)iit of n'|iiiir, I"', rmpiri'.
hnviril, Scot., ii Him|»l«'toti, April f'o(»I, K. nrrll.
hiidijr-jutihji', liiir/iffiiit, li"<J'J''l">ff ^- Diul., Iiol-pof, liivnrpool,
ii iiii.xtiirc of vmiouH HmmIh in the niunc put, K, finrlu'pDl,
liiiiji), Siisrt., II hud Hiiudl, I''. Iiiiitt ijoi'il.
IiukI>\ IhiHtinj^H, II coHtormoiif^cr, a pctllcr, a Htriinj^cr, O.F.
ho$ie, a ^Ml<.<Ht iiH well iiH a hoKt.
fiiifrh, Nortli., to shake, (o ho nmlluHS ; Imli-ln'l, Midi., to hoh-
hlc, to hop; K. Iiiirlirr.
liHi'r, Corn., to call, as the man does who .standsuii tho clink to
direct the pilchaid hoats, V. /iui;r {lo louj)),
JiiIdiDii', Scot., to fliispoct, h\ jllhlHHft.
jlijtil, V. Dial., hip-joint of mutton, F. tjiijuf.
jounirij, Snss., a day's work, l<\ Jnnnn'i', (cp. ' ili;:::lt'k').
jiijii', Scot., a voman's mantle or pclis.sc, V.jiijuu
hevl-iiUi'ij, T)ev., a skittle-alley, V, ijailh' -)- <tH('i<.
hirlixlitiin*, V. Dial., trivial matters, F. <jii.il,fUi''clioM('.
lamhukli ef, Shrop.,all fours, F. IniDKini mf, which is from Oer.
hniih/nirrld,
liitfnn, V. Dial., plate tin, F. hiUmi.
liiilil, Northamp., a tare, F. li'ii.
hint'ct', North., an opening at tho top of a dovecot or chimney,
F. hiiivri',
Itiurtli/, Siiss., dull, shififgish, V. hnniK
nianiitlcr, Snss., to grnmhlo to one's self, F. nuindiiY, to
curse.
vinh'h, North., to snufVa candle, F. mcclir,
vitKltoroii, Suss., a mushroom, F. tiiousscroii.
mnlliplf'jwiuilhig, a Scotch law term, similar to tho English
hill of interpleader in Chancery, F. nndfipJIiv + poliidrc.
vinUure, vioidir, Scot., fee for grinding corn, F. montare.
mward, Dev,, a fool, F. iHusunl.
\
04
MIXr.M I.ANOirAdKH.
1M..
Illljtrn/, SlIHM., lilll'll, tulllo lilK'll, K. llillHU>.
ni, SUMM., lU'Kt of |llu'UNUIltH, O.K. ((/, I'', »(/(/.
niiUithli; Sum,, thiilly (iiIwu)m ii|>|»li«il to fiiimli-H), V. militbh*
l>iuhj, SuMH,, to tiilk uiiititi lli((il)ly, K. puli'f,
pnrimltil, Cmvoii, it wnll in wliicli tint itcmi'M Htntul on tliclr
otl^cH, K. iili'ri'i' i\ jiiiiiif.
jiiiHti'iiif, SuHM., «'m|il<i}rii»'iit, of mmw kiinl to |)iihm nway tlio
titiu<, not ncfCHHiirily luniiHrtiii'iit only, an in Knj^liHh, F. ixitnir +
pcfh, prid; SnHii., to frot !—
• Wtiirv »ii'Vrn riidlitx, iiitii) finn'n nine,
^<llllll liu itHJiulUs liL'iik, uiul |iitii-.' — Mai MKiii, I, t,
V. piiiui'. '
jml, V. Diiil., tlio hIiovoI UHt(i hy hakcrti in pnttinjf brciul Into
the ovfii, V. i>i'll<\
pcrnr, Sumh., a blafkHiiiitirM imiicli, K. in'trir,
jii<tirijrli'vi>ttM, SuH«., frt'tful, V. prllt ijrirf.
jwttlrtial-tiiil, Scot., HMort-ltroacl cakcH, O.K. pfti'ff* (jnttUr^,
F. prflln ijiUi'diir.
piiitrli, SiiNH., to tread IioIvh in moiitt gi'oun<l M onttio do, F.
porhi'f, to tlinist.
piigsliitj, Lane, |)nHliiiij? and kiiockii';^ cnmhiiu'd, F. pou^rn'r.
purl, Norf., to ' ril>' in knittinj;, F. pnrjihi:
i/iiiifihi / SiiHH., wliat «lo yon way ? F. </»(■ diit.fii f
quillet, {ilouc, a wedge, F. fniii.
roff", Knnt., to j)lntidc«r, F. riifn;
Tdlrliil, Deri)., gnivelly Htono ; mfchrr, I^ane., a i-oek ; F.
roclier.
rnclh', lirhlr, Scot., nirl; North., a heap, F. ni'in'il.
ma, SiiHH., a row, F. riif.
srnVloii, Tianc, a kind of wild onion, N.F. hhchIIdii.
urtHf, SuHH., a large Hca-net, F. sn'iic.
gcrvlte, servct, Scot., a tiihlo napkin, F. ifi'rr!rl/i',.
tiivind, Shrop., a kind of cake, A.N. mttn-nvl, from tho
Teutonic.
Kpii'c, SuBfl., a nliglit attack of any HicknchH, F. oKphee.
xtiri;, Somcr., to keep warm, N.F. ttituint; F. I'titvn,
Rtiirdii, Craven, water on the brain, N.F. iMfounli, F. etonrdi.
HulUnje, SuHH., a Hcdimcnt ; F. Si,iiillet; to .soil.
taliri)oil, Subs., wood made into faggots ; F, tulllvr, to cut,
(cp. Tailkhuys).
RNOMMri in A mrTo-iiiMf \Nrt; i,\MMif,\fjK.
0.1
r, Hum., n laml Mtirvry, V. hrti*,
ttvnehi'i', V. Diul., » w«muI».'ii plati*, F. tta»i'hff.
valliinl, HiiMM,, Ntoiit, N(roti((ty luiilt, I'', niilliiiif,
VerUtf (rhitir ij'), Hcot., tlm pulpit, K. la rhniMn iln vfriU^,
Vi'rl, HttHf^., Kn<<tn (iiNfil in place. ihuiu'n), V. Viwl,
vittlti-, Siiriicr., II Nitiiill pnintt'i' nl' w'ww iinoiI in toncliin^f
cliililri'ii to nivl out (tf printctl ItookH, N.K.y'<.«/n'.
I'llWrH, SUNM., tlMJl pdUlil*, V, vil'ltf.
vixxif, Hoot., nn niiu witli ii i^uu, V. I'ini'i;
iniitlitu, viititfii, Hoot,, multllu'hii^'N, K. niliir.
'''luM liht, of Kri'iu'li wonU iinrd liy pfn^an^M wtnl tioi nn-
tonish \\H. 'I'liry also use /WfV, <lri'nM, iiumh, fhmu'i\ r'ti'fi'^
viHt'i\ and a liuiulrfil otlu-r Knniaiico tfiiiH jii^t, mh t'liriiiliuily
iirt \v(> do. Tlin |irovincial \V(u-iU and tlic tarniliar litnary
woiiU alikf prove tho ihorouyliiicnH of tin.' Noiinaii revolu-
tion.
Milt It. was not alono In v»)t'almlary that Anj^lo-Saxon Ih;-
fanic niixi'tl. T/m ffruiunuir lieainu', an'i'iipteil.
If we wen! to compart' a modern (iennan jfiammar with
a ^rammiir .)f Old lli^^li (ierman, we nlioiild llnd soinedilVu-
rencei), it is true, ItiiL in tli<^ main i\\v two would lie the Hame;
(iennan is Htill a Id^ldy inflected laii{riia^'; liiit an An^lo-
Saxon grammar liiiH fuw pointrt of resemlilance with modern
Knirlisli, and yet it cannot he denied that the one is a copy
of the other, lilurred certainly, but still a copy. Hut why
l)lurred ? is it n«)t l»ecaus(! the wh<ilt! spirit of our ^'lammnr
has ceased to Ix^ Teutonic? It has hecome Homaiice in
spirit, and tlu! circumstances of its I'xisteiici! consi<lered, it
could not well he otherwise. From 10(1(5 to \?t(Vl English
was not taught as a branch of education, but was discouraged
in every way. Children learned their Latin through French ;
they construed into l"'rench from Latin, and back again into
French, and if any of them vt'Utured to do otherwise the
pains and penalties of the Cojuiueror's law were held before
them as a warning. When this dis(piaIitication was taken off
Englisli it mad(! rapid strides; but shortly afterwards the
revival of learning took place, and all the influence of edit-
fi
P
lil
90
MIXKP LANOUAOK^i.
cation, of learning, of promotion in CInireli and State, and
in any profession, was thrown into the scale once more against
English studies, and oiir kings, princes, eliurchmen, statesmen,
and soldiers -nay, their wives and daughters too— could ex-
press themselves more elegantly in liatin than in their own
tongue, and it was only with the rise of our stage under
Shakspere and Ids contemporaries that the Knglish language
began to make itself felt as a power in the land.
Norman French was hut little more inflected than modern
French, and it first acted on the Anglo-Saxon grammar by
depreciiiting those changes at tlie end of roots. Prepositions
had been found to answer in French instead of declension,
and auxiliaries did the work of conjugation, while arrangement
and emphasis were depended upon to give clearness.
In French, grammar had l)een much depreciated, and
when this language, so depreciated, was brouglit to bear on
Anglo-Saxon, the result was as might have been expected.
English has less grammatical structure than French ; in fact,
in it grammar has been reduced almost to a minimum.
Words in English are often formed on compoimd models,
a Teutonic and a Romance. Take the words tranship-
rtunt^ ciU-purae, pid-pocket, swaah-hudder. ler/dler, trustee^
enlightenment, rifjhteuus, and wondrovn. Tninship cannot
be exactly expressed in Teutonic ; unship has a diflferent
meaning. In German we meet with the same difficulty;
itndadnnff (imlading) is not exactly tranship, and therefore
' to imload one ship and place the goods on another' is ex-
pressed by ' aus eineiu SchiflFe ins andere laden.' For tran-
shipment the Germans are obliged to rest content with
nmladunfj, for even they shrink from forming a compound
word expressing ' the-action-of-transferring-goods-from-one-
ship-to-another.' How neat are tranship, transhipment, in
comparison ! This word transhipment is also in French
expressed by the liy})rid transbordement.
Similar remarks might be made more or less forcibly
concerning the words cut-purse, pickpocket, swash-buckler,
legatee, trustee, erdightenment, righteous, wondrous, and a
host of others, in which a neat term, mongrel though it be,
EN(il.l8ll IS A TKUTO-llOMANCE LANOUAdK.
07
is found much more aerviccuine than a native word ; and
yet our Teutonic schobirs are every day lamentin<if that
we cannot return to tlie Anglo-Saxon i)rinciplea of form-
ing compounds. The right of using such hreakneckH as .
laadetihanptnmiinscfuift^ koiuf/llchmchntHcherohei'postriieis-
tcr, and zdndlochschnttibmafichiueubauanstdU in an advan-
tage whicli we do not appreciate as we shoukl have done if
after lOGG our hind liad not ceased to be 'eine deutsche
Insel,' as the German school of philology insists that it was
and is.
We tliorefore avoid all these compounds, and we find tliat
the Komance method of expressing such ideas is not only
more conformable to the present spirit of our language, but
is also more practical, because we are not so liable to be
tripped up in the pronunciation. ' County-representation-
amendment-act ' will not find such favour as an 'act for the
amendment of the representation of counties,' though it
must be said that the Teutonists are making strong efforts
to introduce the monstrosity. As, however, the German
language is, for reasons whicli need not be mentioned, just
now in great favour, we have numbers of such words in
general use, but they are still, as it were, strange to us, and
Carlyle, their great advocate and introducer, powerful as he is
as a writer, has in consequence ever been regarded as more
German than English in style.
Tne English shows more inclination to form new words on
a Romance model than to pile word upon word in the Teu-
tonic style. Thus we get tidal wave instead of tlde-^vave^
though we still keep our older tide-ivaiter ; postal regula-
tions instead of post office refjulations ; submarine cable in-
stead of under-sea cable, and so on. This adjectival ending,
though it produces many hybrids, is preferred because it seems
to round the words off and make them flow more readily one
into the other.
The English language has formed many hybrids on the
plan of noun + noun, as lord-lieutenant, earl-marshal, &c. ;
but this, which is strictly a barbarism, is perhaps owing to
the fact that French, though not possessing many compounds
H
^
v.\
.1
If
08
MIXUU LANOUAO£S.
on tlie plan of notm \ noun, still lias a few, hucIi as lieutenant-
colonel^ oistiaii-mohclw, and Muh l»t'forti ]K'0|>lf' (louMod
tht'inaelvcs about ji^rimnuir such coin|>ouii(ls, if ioiuid cun-
ver.ient, would bo adopted.
Undoubtedly when we coin a lu-w word we should first of
all be careful that prefix, root, and suffix are all of one lan-
gua<j;e in their origin ; but practically we disregard the rule,
and tliat not seldom, but very freipieutly.
Thdt our hinf/naf/e, /cS miiuid, and not merely <i. rorahu-
lai'y of several speeches which can never coalesce, is shown hy
the f/reat iinniher of hyl)rl<ls, iuu\ accordiri^^dy the following
additional examples are offered : —
1. Witli Teutonic root: — The iiiajirrlty of plarala in
8-; also, eatable, drinkable, laiif/hahle, readable, un'inist<ik-
able, goddess, shepherdess, murderess, huntress, soni/stress,
hl'UstrouH, burdenous, murderous, wondrous, ravenous, hin-
drance, furtherance, forbearance, boiulaye, cartaye, sfowaye,
tonnaye, poundaye, forebodement, endearment, atonement,
wonderment, knavery, midwifery, oddity, streamlet, srnich't,
talkative, endear, enthral, embolden, disbelief, disburden,
rekindle, reliyht, retake, reseat, clothier, lawyer, collier, &.c.
2. With Romance roots: — Humoursonie, tendsome,
quarrelsome, cumbersome, venturesoine, ireful, fateful,
artful, useful, mercifxd, bountiful, yrateful, causeless,
nerveless, artless, motionless, merciless, useless, yraceless,
harmless, falsehood, priesthood, martyrdom, dukedom, free-
dom, popedom,crudely,firmly, rudely, aptly, closely, strictly,
politely, fixedly, durably, voraciously, fatally, spontane<rush/,
valiantly, presently, sensibly, publicly, spherically, vividly,
servilely, passively, pompously, superflxiously, roundly,
mvayely, immenseness, factiousness, savayeness, irefulness,
fatefulness, artfulness, usefidness, mercifulness, bountiful-
ness, gratefulness, bishopric,appreniiceship, suretiship, nap-
kin, sottish, foolish, feverish, slavish, brutish, besiege, because,
bepoivder, undervalue, underprice, underact, unfortunate,
unstable, ungraceful, unmerciful, unbountiful, ungrateful,
overtuim, ovei'value, overcurious, overmerciful, overbounti-
ful, overgrateful, overvalue, overrate, forfend, forprise.
ii |i
1
EN0LI8II 18 A TKUTO-ROMANCE LANOIIAOK.
99
hdiLlsh^burninky embellish, iJHtiiftli,Jf.onrlHli,pei'iali,fii"uish^
7toui'inh, fi)ttnh, bauishittenf, eni,hdli»/uitenf,, putitHhitient,
nouriahtnent, forfcnd, tifturplece, afterpiiliiA, outface, oat-
prlze, tij)tr<i,!n, tninform, oitHum, iniH<l(if«; 'n, isjohi, inls-
judf/e, uncertain, uncluiste, unohanteli/, nndetevvdned,
unlawfully, unceaslnfjly, v naavoiw^j, flowery, &c. &c.
Whatever reiison there may be for the statement that a
a simple mixture of vocabulary does not in itself constitute a
mixed languaf;(! tluM'o can be no SMch reason brought against
hybrids. The question is not whetlier hybrids are elegancies
or barl)ari,sms, but simply do they prove the existence of
mixed languages/^ To this there can scarcely be any other
answer tlian an affirmative.
English possesses great facilities for composing words by
means of prefix and suffix.
The Teutonic prefixes and suffixes, without counting those
which, like th in faith, have become inseparable from the
root, are fifty in number ; we have sixty-one from Latin and
thirty-six fi ora French. Tlie Greek may be disregarded here
because they are mostly confined to scientific words.
Our facilities for forming words in this way are therefore
greater on the foreign than on the native side of our lan-
guage, and from 'llaldeman's Affixes,' p. 16, we learn that
our commonest prefixes and suffixes, witli one or two excep-
tions, are not Teutonic. Thus : —
, (I
Prcn.xes.
Snftlxca.
un-
5600
-ly
200
co,- con-, coin-
2400
-ion
11)00
in-, im-
2900
-ness
1300
re-
2200
-al
1000
di-, dis-
1800
-fi"
950
e-, ex-
1750
-ous
900
ad.
1600
-ble
800
de-
1600
-ity
650
sub-
700
-ary, &c.
600
pre-
700
-ance, -once
600
pro-
600
-ant, -ent
600
per-
350
-ive
400
22,200
11,600'
H 2
100
MIXED LANOITAOES.
f
.^li
'i;
III i'
Hf I
(I .
An cxaraination of tliiH table will hIiow how miicli we are
iTidebted to foreign Hources tor tlie coniponition of our voca-
btdary ; and aw the formation of words Ih an acknowledged
portion of grammar, the mixed cluvracter of our npeeeh in at
once apparent. Haldeman also gives us the numerical value
of our rootH, thus : —
fAO
give8
('(40 com
pounds
sta
>>
440
'>
pos
»»
300
»)
graph
))
200
i>
log
«?
200
t)
ply
i»
200
»»
cap
))
IIH)
11
drag
))
It 10
11
tain
»)
180
11
mit
))
175
11
speet
)>
175
11
vid
>>
IGO
11
Total 3050 from 12 roots, all foreign ;
which still further shows oin* indebtedness to liomance
nations. We also see that the Romance I'lement of our
language is at least as full of vitality as the Teutonic.
But the English language can be shown to be mixed in
more points of grammar than the formation of words, whether
pure or mongrel.
Many of the grammatical losjses of Anglo-Saxon have
already been noticed in a previous chapter ; here it will only
V)e necessary to state thao these losses were understated rather
than exaggerated.
Almost every portion of the grammar will furnish us with
proofs of mixture, as will also our rules for the collocation of
words, as well as the existence of rliyme in our poetry.
We will now proceed to notice these points, in order to
test the truth of the statements quoted in the introductory
pages of this essay. Professor JNIax Midler denies the possi-
bility of a mixed language, while of English Dr. Morris
says ' the graiwrnar is not mixed or borroived, but is alxo-
!' i
ENOLIMf IH A TKUTO-nOMANrR LANGUAOB.
101
oKTiiKii English.'' \\y Enjj;li8h he of course meanri Anglo-
►Saxon.
1. Th«! Teutonic clianiclor of tlie Anj:;lo-Saxon j?onder liaa
already been noticed. liX'^dHcrihcd — that is, ^ratnumtical —
gender. In Knglisli wo have only tliis aHcri])ed or gram-
matical gender in three or four words, except by personifica-
tion. The exceptions are *t?iri, nioon^ »hip, and, according to
some, countrij. In Teutonic language's 8Uii is feminine,
viouit masculine, nlup and native cuaiUry neuter. In the
Latin languages and in English the swu is masculine ; the
moon, all kinds of ships, and one's native countn/ are
feminine. In sutt and inooii the gender certainly depends on
mythology, as perhaps also in ship and countn/. In these
words, therefore, the English in thus changing the gender
Lave thrown over more than mere grammar.
It was entirely in conse(juence of the Norman invasion
that we lost the grammatical gender of Anglo-Saxon, for,
owing to the introduction of fresh suffixes and the loss of
intlcctions, there arose sueli a confusion between the mas-
culine and feminine endings that natural gender was gradually
adopted instead.
2. Among peculiar ways of marking gender we may no-
tice : —
I. Marrjrave, hind;) rave, Teutonic words taking the Ro-
mance feminine -me, just as does the Romance word
hero — mavfjnivlne, landgvavlne, heroine.
II. The Latin -or becomes -ix, as executor, executrix.
III. The Romance feminine in -a, as sidtana, signora, in-
fanta.
IV. The French feminine -ess (L. Lat. -issa), which took
the place of the Teutonic -ster — baroness, countess,
giantess, mistress, abbess.
V. The Norse masculine and feminine form in he and she,
as he-devil, she-devil, may be mentioned here (though
they do not belong to the Romance), as their use in
this way only arose in the fourteenth century.
3. The Anglo-Saxon way of forming the plural has already
been mentioned. The usual form was in -n or -en, and the
1
1
p
1 vl
i'!
I
I.
lOi
MIXKn I.ANniTAOKX.
pliinil in -dfi was roprcsontcd by iiii irro^jfiilur (IcH-lcnHioii of hut
few wordn. Tlio Kotniincc plural in -s iiroHc fnun tlio cluirac-
teristic cousonimt, iu the Ijatiti plural dafivc, accusative,
and ablative, and tVoin the French has been adopted into
Kn^lish. Thus every word of Saxoii origin in our lan-
guage may be regarded as a hybrid when changed into the
plural in -«, e.g. lailn, l/tlcirn, (iihs.
The plural of row,r^7/l(t/•</a^ and other compound words,
where, after the French method, the substantive precedes the
adjective, must also bo noticed. Thus we have court h-vuiV'
tial, men-of-war, nonH-ln-law, where, as in French, it is
the substantive which takes the plural. Tlie peculiarity of
this will be at once seen when we con>[)areit with (he posses-
sive singular, which is on the Teutonic form ; thus, cottr/-
nxavtiaVH decree, man-of'WuvH boat, aon-^in-liiw^s house.
This peculiarity makes a [uissessive plural an impossibility.
4. It will scarcely be necessary to name the plurals of
fonngn words which are the same as in the original language,
but such plurals as inilcren, rimnorainlinan, &c., must
be noticed, because, though they form these jjlurals in the
English way, it is nitvertludess not Anglo-Saxon in grammar,
and the mixture thereby caused is, as it were, double.
5. Where two substantives come together in a cf)mpound
word we usually add the plural sigti to the second, but there
are a few cases where we imitate the French and add it to
both, as lords-lieitfeiKiiifti, knifjhls-tcnqjhirs, lords-justices.
(). All words of JJomance origin which are in the posses-
sive case must in English be regarded not only as hybrids,
but also as mixtures in grammar.
7. In A.S. the adjective was compared by adding er or
est to the positive, but in the thirteenth century we adopted
the Romance form for most words of more than one syllable,
as eloquent, more eloquent, most eloquent.
8. The ordinal number second is Romance ; the Anirlo-
Saxon form would be other, as we still have it in the phrase
both the one and the other.
9. The indefinite article is also due to Romance influ-
ence, an, a, being developments of the numeral 07ie, which
KNULItill 18 A TEUTO-UUMANCt: LANOUAQII.
103
M
^
took iiliu'o aftt'r the ('on(|U0Ht in imitation of tln' Frrnch tt.',
II III'.
10. Tilt' intliitinitc pronoun o;;^; (♦ niic Hiiyn ') irt j^cnJM'ally
bclicViMl (tlioiij^li l»y Honit! a iw (liMiii'tl) to \iv tlio Fri'iicli
on = homo ; the A.H. tonn wuh liiaii, {men or r>te), Uor.
7rt(/H.
11. Our personal pronouns are now double in tlieir ai
ran;j[('nii!!it ; as, t/uH Is mif pan, tkln pen in mine; n^ain,
(/ii.r. it me, (jive, it to mc. Thus the pronouns may be
(Icelinetl —
I. f, mine, nic ; wr, ours, us.
II. Tlioii, thine, llioo ; you, yoiu's, you.
111. liu, his, him
SIlC. luTS. lioi- > tlicv, tllfU-H, tlifin.
It
I liou, tnirie, iiioo; you, yoiu's, you,
[iu, his, him 1
•ilic, hers, hei- ? they, tlieirs, thei
It, itH, it J
wbieh is i\w Anjjflo-Saxon arranfi;emont ; or they may be de-
clined thus; —
I, r, of tiic, to me, mo ; we, of us, to ns, ns.
II. Tliou, ol tliL'o, to thee, tht;o ; yoii, of yon, to yon, you.
111. He, of liim, to him, him "j
Slie, of her, to her, her > they, of them, to them, them.
It, of it, to it, it J
wbieh is the Uoinanee arrangement —
Je, do moi, a moi, me or moi ; nous, de nous, a nous, nous, <fec.
12. When we say '•the which'' wo imitate the French
use o( Icqnel. This is, besides, a very common vulgarism.
13. The indefinite pronouns divers and carbarn are re-
spectively the O.F. divers and the L. certiis.
14. Verbs are tisiially the most conservative words of a
language, and in Knglish they present no exception to this
general rule. Nevertheless Norman French influence can be
traced even here. Thus every verb of foreign root is not
only a hybrid, but also a mixture of grammar when added
to a Teutonic inflection by way of conjugation ; thus, tran-
scrih-est, transcrib-eth, trmiscHb-es, transcrib-ed, transcribe
edst, transcri,b-in[f.
16. The termination of the third singular of the present
104
MiXFjn i.ANnirAOEs.
1'
hi
\4
tonso iii-N, iiiHfciiil of tlif older -///, Imsalroady ln'on tnoMtiotifd
UH Mi(> result of tlic \or(nim French nmlproiiiinciiitioti of tlio
difficult Homid of-///, mid tli«refor«!, if not exactly u mixture
in granuriiir, it \h at l«*ast one in pronunciation.
Ifi. TliP j^eneral de]»reciatif)n of the f^tronjf vorl> in partly
owinjjf to the nattiral decay of la!i;^U!iji[e, but in Kn|;lish this
proceHs has ^one on much faHter than in Ch-rrnan, Dutch,
Danish, or Swedish, and tliis hecauHe of the introduction
Ity the Norman ('on(|Uest of a numlier of verlts which
necessarily swj'Ued the ranks of tliose which were conjugated
after the weak model. This has increased tho tendency of
our verbs to lose tlieir stronjjf conju^jition.
17. The use of auxiliary verl)s instead of conju^^ation, as,
for examph', in the sidijunctive, is nlso a residt of thcMiatiual
decay of lanpfUiifj;e, wliicli has licen hastened by tint Uoinanco
invasion.
18. The use of the auxiliary do, in imitation offalrc, is
very stronjfly French, for in An^do-Saxon and other Teutonic
lan;^tia{i^es it can oidy 1)6 a principal verb.
19. The formation of verbs by the addition ofF.'Jler,
hat. -Jicarc, -fdci'i't',, e.g. he<iiifi/,hi;(tufl/i/, is driving out tho
Teutonic method, hr.-dlzzcn, ht'-shwar. Anitther favourite
method is the Fr. -Iscr, Gr. -tfw, e.jj;. y/ /</«/< ; also Fr. -ei\
L. -«7V. e.g. pdi'lci/, &c.
20. We have adopted a great number of Romance prepo-
Biti(ms ; as, per, versus, sxnti <siney, ((cross, via, hncduse,
apropos of, !>;/ lueans of, by reason of, fn/ virtue of, in ac-
cordanre inif/i, in addition to, in case of, in comparison to,
in coiiipliance with, in consrrjHence of, in defiance of, in
spile of, in favour of, in front of, in lieu of, in opposition
to, on the point of, in quest of, with rer/ard to, in reply to,
with reference to, in respect of, in search of, on account of,
on the plea of, with a view to, af/reeahly to, exchcsive of, in-
clusive of, viawjre, minus, previous to, relatively to, around,
rov nd, round aliout, durlnf), pendiwj, according to, har-
rinfi, bating, conrerning, considering, excepting, facing,
including, passing, regarding, respecting, aiding, tending,
touching, except, excepted, past, save.
KNflI.I.Sir IH A Ti;iT(!-U(»MAN( K l,AN(lirA(»K.
10.^
21. The UH(! of tlio |»r<'p(»Mitii»M o/ is KrciicJi in nearly
every inntunce, lieinj; notliinjf uumi tliiiii ii tninsliiti«»n of
tlie Krcncli (/>'. Tlio Siixon »>/ is now 'Vo;/i. (ti tlic olilcr
forms of the lanj^iuii^e it was even more tVefjucntly Frciieh
than now, as may be seen fri»mllie Mihleand fn»m Shakspere,
The Haine may \h' said of this preposition in eomhination, an
alonff of (aupres de), which in Saxon Kn|^lish shonld i)o
alow I on.
22. Tho fiifhiu'''» pi't has no diffen^nce in mean inji; from
thC' i>('t of thv, faf/icr. The former is the Saxon nse, the
latter Kreneli. In the same way our dative, accusative, and
aldativo have heen replaced hy an objective witli a preposi-
tion in imitation of the French, and conHeiiuently wo have
no true decltJiision except tlie possessive in 'a.
23. The frecpient nse of the prtfposition before the infi-
nitive irt also French.
24. In th(^ Teutonic lanfjfiiaj^eH the ]»reposltlon attendant
on a neuter verl»can often be placed away fr(nn the verb, and
may even be the last word in a sentence. These separable
compound verba have lost this power of separatinj^ in Kng-
lisli, and we are told never under any circumstances to con-
clude a sentence with a preposition. This is also French ;
tlie contrary was An;jflo-Saxon.
2!}. Of intorjectictns th(! followinjif are Romance: — Ah!
oh! 0! aldM ! (lear me! {^) linifjh ! aha! piigh! haroxv!
silence !
26. The rhythm of Knj^lisli has ceased to be Teutonic, and
it is probable that it i« about halfway between Anglo-Saxon
and Frencli.
27. Khyme has been introduced into English in imita-
tion of the Norman and Pr()ven9al poems; for before our
poets were actpiainted witli these literatures they either con-
tented themselves with alliteration, or, if they did attempt
rhyme, it was notlunj.f but the ingenious putting together of
words. The first true rliyming poems were written about
1100. The front-rhyming or alliteration of the Anglo-
Saxon is still one of the beauties of English verse when
used with j udgment.
i
'«' I
2H. The flouMo tirj^iitivi" o( tin* I.oiKldiirr* Ik hImo rc-
{{nnlnl UH 11 Kri'tK'li innovation.
W. Tims it will Ih> hccii tliiit the l''ri>nc-li fjfniintnrir tiiix
left iln iMiirk oii alinoHt rwry )iortion of oiirn. Miit to tlirnn
f(»r«'i^n \voi(I>', It) tlu'?**' iiyhrid wouIh, iin<l to tlu-Hc ^'rurnnmti-
cal ('liaiiK<<K we will now udd iinotlicr ami nioMi iniportiMit
point, fhfl Ciilhuuitioti of uuu'iIm. With regard to this ii few
■)M>(*iiti«'nH will lie of inori' wrvico (liiin whole )»a;^cH of d«-
noriptions: —
I. From Ihi) Niur 'VnHtnmi'iU {Mallhiw ril. '27).
AiiijIit'Snro)!. — pii lintln liyt aiul )»iM'r (•om Hod, luid hlcowan
winthiN, Mild ahrtiron on |<iu't Iuih : and |MUft Iiiih fooll, and hyM
hr^H' WMN iiiycfl.
Luther.— Da nun cin IMul/rcj^cn flel, and kani iiii> Ocwiirisor,
uiid wclictcn dio Wiiidc, and HticNzcn an das llauH; da lii'l vit,
und that ciiMii (^roH/.cii I'all.
Lfiliirlil. — Kii do Hla^^rcgcn is ncdiT^Tvallcn, en do water-
■ti'i)onu-n /.ijn ^'rkoincn, rn du windcn holihcn ^ewaaid, en /ijii
tt'g( n httzelvu huJH aan^^'Hla^'i n en hut is gi'vullun, on y.ijn val
waH gioot.
Ihitiixli — i)]* K\\ Skyifcj,'!! ni (H'ahit, o;^ \'atidh»l)ono koni, og
Viiidoiio hldOHto ojf Htwilti! un pau Haninu) Haas, og ilot laldl, og
dots Fald var storl.
(}.<ti'iriilif.- Mt la plain ost tonilu'o, ot Ics torrontH st* Knnt di'v
burdoH, ot los vonts out soalllo, ot Hoiit vonas luiidro Hur cctto
inniHon>IA ; olio ost totnht'o, ot sa raino a t'to grando.
U7(7,7//. - And rain oonio down and tloodis oanu'ii aiul windiH
l)lowon and tiioi hnrlidon in to thiil Iiodhu ; and it i'ollo down, and
the lallyng down th( rcol' was groto.
Tijndiil. — And ahandanooof la^iio doHCcndod, aiul tho fladdu8
camo, and tho wyndos hlowc, and hoot upon that Iiuuhhu, and it
foil, and fj;ioat was ilu; fall of it,
AnUtiiilKC'l. — And tho rain dosoondod, and tho tloodn camo,
and tho windH hlow, and hoat upon that huusu ; and it foil : and
groat was tho fall of it. [.\[iiili'ni : and its fall was groat.]
II. Fiuvi Grtdmun (diod OHU ; MS. of 7'.i7).
Nu Hoylun hoigun
Hofaon rioaos uard
niotudios nuooti
end bis mod gidanc
Now wo shall praiHo
hoavon kingdom'H warden
croatoi'H nii^dit
and his niind'H thought
UNni.imi iH A TuiiTo-iioMANrn i,A<<nrAnR.
]()]
nerct uiilihir fiMli*r *
nun hi< iniiiili'ti )^ilitinf>N
iSi'i ili-idtiiti
or iiHtitlitlii', itu.
iiinii'N ((loiy.riitlii'f
llDW lll< III' WOlltll't'S I'dl'tl
t'llTMIll IjIM'll
Ix'^iriniii^ ruriiiftl, At'.
III. liiiril'M I'fiuji'f. l''iiMl(ir lire, |'ii |'u niH «iti licufi-i mn ;
NJ I'ir. iiuiiiii ^tiliiil^oil ; tiilK'i iiiiic |*iii rii'ii ; ^l<vvl'u^^l' jiii willii on
t'or|iiiii, Hwii Nwa on lit'oli>iiiiiii. Urtio go dii'y'liwiiiiiliuuii liluf
N)lu iiH to-ilii>^ ; iiiul for^yt' itH iii'd ^yltiiN, hwu hwu wo tnr^iriin
iiriiiii (^yUi'iiiUiMi ; mid \w ^idii'do |iii iih on (Mmtimn^'r, tu* uI)h uh
of ^ lit'.
IV. VfDiii ' /«■ Livif,- ,1,' UiIm i/(! I'JtiijIiti'fif.' — K toi 1 11 prrH kiiiifc
il iivoit dri tut fitt htijct u lui lu rci dc MmMcit Kinimdic, v iiiitru
vii., d(*H (|iu<iis riii'i'iit. iiiicniiH rt'itidN dt' WiiIcn, il tint iitui ^raiii
curt II Kiirlioiin ft In prist Mrroiiiciit do I'lis tut u mio I'oi/,. K |mi»4
Hu niiHt oil ciiH (>ti lino net', on In livoit; do Olio, coinnio pur jwoi\
il tiioiiiioH HJHb a ^ovoriiiiil n ^uvornii In nut'; o diHt on miuii
(It'diiit kt! li'S rt'i.s Mnyrloton', ki vi iidri'iiit ii pros lui lu'ii so por.
roioiit diro win, pus ko il guvcriui on uiio ml' tuiiz du rui» ki
furoiit alui Hiiguis.
V. ,s7a/. :u;, AW. 11!.,, ',11,. ir. [a.i.. wvvi].
Itoiu, pur <!0 ip^ iiKiiiHtru o.st Hoiivciitloil/ an lloi par prolntH,
It, in, liri-iiiiKi> xliiiii'ii if< iiflf till III i!< III tin: Kiiiij fiy in'i'lali'i^f
duoH, countH, baroiiH, t'k tout la L'otniiiunidtu loH ((rant/ nioH.
(Iiihix, I'liiiiiln, liiiniiiM, i^ all till' cinamnnaltij llm gri'iil inis-
cliiofs (|o Hoiit advoiiiiz as piuNoiiiK du roalmo do oo qo Ioh loyoH,
cliiij'.'^ ii'liii'lt iii'i/iiijii>riiiil lo iiuniij ,)/ llif nuliu hirmixi' llm InwHf
cuHtuuu'H, ot OHtatutz du dit reulinu no Hont piiH conuz commit*
euatditin, mill utaliitig fif llii! Hiial n'aha iti-r mil liiioim covi'
nemoiit on iiio-<!iio lo roalmo, par caiiHo cjils Hoiit plodo/, monstroz,
litoiili/ ill siimii lliii ri'itliii, J'lir mimiii that llti'i/ iirr iili'iuti!il,nhuirc(l,
^•judgozcn la laii;^o FrnnooiH, ijost trop diHcoiiuo en lo dit
^'JHilijed ill tluiliiuijiiiiijo French, vhl,-h is ton unkiiovm in the said
roalmo, issiiit qo lo.s gont/, (jt; plodont on Hoiit omplodoz en loa
realm, ho that Ihr in'ojiti; Uuit jdeitd or are iuii>li'iuh'd iit, the
courtz dol Hoi & lu.s courtz duulruH nont cntendomont no
courts I'/ the Klinj ^' the cntirls of others not have understanding nor
coiiiHHtinco do eo qcst dit pur oulx no coniro eulx par lour
hiiowledije of that whieJi is xnld for them nor aijainut them by their
Borgoantz «& autroH plodours, & qo rosonablement loa ditos loyos
Serjeants and other pleaders, ^* that reasonably the said laws
& cuHtumc8 Horront lo plus toat apris & conuz & mioultz
^' customs shall be the more soou hariied and knoivn JJ' better
if
it<
lOH
UIXKH l„\!«Oir,UiiV.
tmtciKinx t'n In fniiKi) unci* i<ii Ik liit mnltnc, St pnr hint
H)ll
ti'rutiHul lit llii' fiiii'iiiiifii' iiiit'il ill llii' tiilil fiiiliii, »y fiij n
It UtUfi
lllli/Nlllll'
cliONi'iiii «lu (lit ri'ikliiK* H<> |mrniit niiciiUii tfoviM'tu't- Miim
tvi^rij miiH oj' tht^ «nitl rt'iiltu hlmtilf nnin hiH»r iinffrn wlthmtl
fniri* nItitiiHii li Ilk li<yi>, tt In iniiMilt/, ((unit r, Nuiivrr, ti tli*ri>iMlt-i)
tit lilt iffiiii'ii tit till' iitii', .y till' III' III I' Ai'i'/i, *(»/'«', .y iii'fiiiil
HON lu)ritllt(l'N \i po.^MCMniollH ; (t I'll llivtTMCH l'l>((illl|M tV pdiilt
hii> fii'fitiiiji'ii ilj* fuiDDi'iiitiuH* ; If' in ili'i'i'fM riijiitiin \ niHHlrii'it
on lu Kni, It'H iii>l>l«'f4, (I uiiti-i'H (III «lit ri'iiliiiii mit i>nIo citt
irhi'i'i' till' f\i>"i, till' iinlili ii, ,y iilliii'M iij' till' niilil I'liilin liiii'i' lii'i'ii it
hott ((ovxriu'iiK'iit tV ploiii ilniil liiit n clifNiMin, |Hkr ruiiHt) (]o
ijiiitit ijiii'iriiiiiii'i' »y j'lill riijlil iloHif to nvi'fyiiiti'f lin'ttu^it tlmt
lour loyim A, oiiMtumuH Hunt iipris A nHvt i<ii In
t/iit litii'M ly I'lmfniiiM ifi' li'iifiiiil Hf ini'il In till' l<
till |Niiii« : liO Ucii, ih'Hiniiil It) lum i^ovcriii'iiM'iit A (riiii.
iij'lhi' iiiniitrij '. Th*^ k'inij, th'nii'inj llie ijhimI tfniwrnini'iit Sf Intii*
i|iiiliitu (Id Hoti iKMtpli', (i (lit oiiNtcr A ohcIiiiiiu Ii'M iiiniilx & iiifH-
iiiiiiiiiij iij iiiM fti'iijiir, ,y iij' iiiiMtiini ,y I'Mi'itiii'iiiij flu' ii'iiii ,y »»(»'<».
vIiU'Ih i|ii Hoiit ailviiiiii/. A {Mirroiit uvciiir kii roHtc |iiirtio
chii'jH tlmt iiiii Itiijifiiiiiil Hi' tiniij lui/ipm In Huh biluilf
ml put- liM fiiUHi'H HiiS'diloN, ortlt'i^iui A fhtulili, del iiHsciit
In/ till' I'liiiKiH iij'iii'vsiliil ^ itriliii'iH ^' mliihU.'tliiii, iri'lli tin' iinni'lit
avtuil ilit, ip> tiMilt'H pId'H i|u mTi'Diit 11 pliilrri'ii ftH iiiurl/.
bfj'ot'H Hil ill, Hull nil liliilX thitl ullitll III' In jihililln lIllMU CnUI'tt
tpiOCOIUpifH, lll'VUtlt K'S jllhticfHipU'CnnipiCNOIl CM Hl<H niltl'OH pIllCIH
vliiihiii'i'ii', liij'in'i' liix jii.'tl'n'i'i* irlittmiiOii'y in' in liin iillin' jiliu'HM
uu (luvuiit HiH uutiiH iniiiiHtruH ipu'coiitpifH, lilt fii It'H roiiit/. A
ur hi'fiii't) hit* iithi'f iiiiniitti'rH vlKilMin'ii'r,
III,
I'liiti
iM .y
pliiot'H iK'H tiuti't'H Hci^'imrN i|t>c*uii(|iif.s iluin/ Ic ittiilinu hoiciib
jilih i'n I J llii' iiHiir IiiiiIm u'IiiiIkiiii I r in
III
Ui' iiiihn
inn 11
plciltiz, ituiiihtri't/, (li't'iMiilii/., rcHpomhi/, iluhiitii/, (1 jii^'^i*/. fii
, ili'finili'l, iinnii'i'i'iil, ill hiiliil, ^y Jiiiliji'il in
bi^ idi'inh il, fill
h
I
iiiiKf
.n^'lcih
lllH
Hoit'tit viitrocz A fiiroulk'Z nil
///(.' laiajHiiiji' l'!iiijlixli, ,y ///((/ ///('(/ 111(11/ III' viili'i-iil ^y nii'iilli'il in
Laliu & ipi li'H li-yi H A (■ustuiiics ilii tlit rciilnu', ti:niu>H &
Liilin, ly Unit till' laim ^' i'iikIuiiih itf tin', itiiiil I'liiliii, ti'i'iim ^'
procoHSoH, soit'iit tc'iiiiz it f,nu(l( / como ils Hont A <»iit csto
prOd'HHVH, lllillj hi'. Ill III ^' kl fit IIH tlll'IJ tin; ^y llill'l' hl'i'H
avatit CCS Iumiith, A (|o piT Ioh aiinckMis tcriiu'H A foriiU'H ilo
hrfon; Ilium; limiri, ^' llml Inj tin; aiiriviil trims ^' j'nniiH of
counter mil liommi! Hoit pcrdiuit, i^Kiiit t|t; la mat it re en
di'i'lnnitinn mi iiinn nnnj hi' jnrjuiHi'iil, no tlmt Ihr nmltrr in
la domonfitriiiit'o A en le l»ricf. Kt vat atroiilo del iiKseiit
the (lemontitratiuii ^' in the biii'f. And It is accorded with the ag-
KMiii.ixii IK A Ti;t;'ro*iin\iANOK i.\NnirA(iK.
to!)
nviuit dil i|*< ('Kiitt'H <»rili<iKiiftiii'«M A. i>Htutuii ilo |ili'iii<r
tflll n/iii'fUili'l Hull lliiHV ittUi
.V «/ll/«t/f'4 llj' Jlll'ltllilllJ
oumi'iii'iiiil A tii)',iii)iit lii'ii III )|iiiti/.i'iiin Hcint Itiilpr
h
WtftH
»v
h,M
j</.ic«! a///t<' Jl/I>t<iilh Situit llilttf^
(•■nchi'iii itvi'iiir.
tii'j-
Ill'IH'inlrliinii
'I'l
nij.
Kiom tlit'Mf fxIraclM it U very uppurfiit tliat (lu« uniiiiK«'-
iiinit of wokIh ill II Mi'iitt'iiro Im tnon* I»>itimiic«> tliiui 'I'liitMiiio,
iiiorit Norinati lliiiii Miixoii, in tlin Kn^liMli lati^iia^c Tin*
inviTHiini (»r Hi'iitciuTM Ml) cniiunMii in <i«>rtniin can only Im«
iHr<l till' parliciilar |>iir|M)Hi'>< in Kn;;li^li, ami in inintMi inatliT
of rlu'toiic than nt' ^rarnniar ; tlir pnHliin^r nf tlip |)i'i'ilicaii>
to till' mil nt' a Ht'iiti'iu'i' in iiiailiiii<'M;kl)|i' with iih, anti ho iiNo
JH thi> (liNrnption Ix-twrm u ni-nlfi' vcrli and itn uttcmhiiit
prr|M»sition. On th('<)th«>r huml, thi< phtcn of thn ailjt'itivu
an<l tht> UMc ot' th<« prt-scnt, paitii'iph' an* Jiiorc 'I'l'iitmiic.
Thus w<> HIM- that thiin;ifh in th*- main oiir wnrils tuUow the
I'lriich Miih-r in a M'litiiu't', yet wt^ hav«' cnnii^h of tho
'rfiitniiii' (»i(h'r U^t't to warrant iik in Hnyin^ that thr ariaii^'t>-
nirnt of st'utonct'H alone wonhl provt> Miiglinli to Ik- a niixi'd
Hprufh.
In noticing tlic Fn'tioh t'lcinont of Rn^'lish wo inuKt not
forget tht' othi-r UoinaiK*«> ton^^nos.
Italian hascunlrihutrd ahont 100 words, principally terms
of nuiHic and art— rvt/wo, ctitzn'le, ;/n:rfli', jmdff, hirolta^
lava, rolcitnit, confmlxDul^ houf, Imtdi, coii nf>'isi'(ii'jt, car-
pcty tajiefOf tdrantiila, cinfjiifvcnto, Cdwchc, Htoccmlu, rciuwm,
punta rlveiHii^ ntfainazonn, einhrull, stick (wine), punchy
panftilooii., inlll!it('i;foi'k^ nnihrt'l/a, punrhiiii, bvave^bdhiH-
ti'ad(\ bandit, biut, amfo, carnival, rhtiiiatan, domino, ditto,
dilettante, folio, ;/rolto, hade({uin, motto, portico, ncara-
moiicfi, atanza, slilrtlo,>'tHcci), nfudln, tenor, cinta, (Sic.
Tho lingua franca or ha.stard Italian of the Mediter-
ranean has snpplieil a considerabli; number of wordn to the
London dialect, or rather wlanj,'. The costermongeia and
otheiH who have had much intercourrfo with sailors have
adopted many peculiar terms — to /f'/,vtu<, to be ofl' to tho Le-
vant, and Icvanter, a (lefaultinfj; fjambler pme to the Levant to
avoid payment; lin'/o, from llii;/na; madza, a half, from
no
MIXED LANQITAOK!).
mezzOj as vmiha-cafoon, Imlf-ii-crowii ; rtKuhii-poortii, lialf-
a Hovor»'ifj;ii ; laadzd-Hultee^ a liiilt'-pt nny : snJlec, a penny,
from soldo ; unnj saltee, one penny, from una noldu; done
titdh'e, t\V(»peiice, fntiii diia soldi ; Ivai/ stdtce, threepence,
tVoin ti't', soldi ; (iiiatcicr soldi, t'(»urpenee, tVoni (jindl ro soldi ;
chinket' stdtee, rtvepencc;, from citu/iie soldi; sa;/ saltcc, six-
pence, from sol soldi ; settev Sidtee, Hevenpenco, from sette
soldi; of lev sal tec, eif,'htponce, from utto soldi ; nohha sidtee^
ninepence, from nove soldi ; daclui 8(dfee, tenpence, from
died soldi; f^tt7<(t-o/t« «a//w, elevenptmce; }>ut we hnxooiiei/
heonfi, one shilling, from the F. bien. The nnmhers from
seven someliinea, however, run thus: say-ooney, say-dooe^
8(i,y-tr(ty,s<iy-quute)'ei; and s((,y-ch inker. One shilling and
sixpence is heoiuj s(iy s<dtee ; two shillings and sixpence, dooe
beong say saltee, or madza-caroon; and a crown is caroon.
Mani/arly, bread, is from in<i,>i(/iai\ to eat; casa, case,easey^
is from casa, a house ; muii'/aiiy casa is a haker's shop ;
pannem, bread, is from paunen ; iiantee, nothing, from
nicnte; uaiitee palaver is ' hold your tongue,' ptdarer being
a corruption of pavler ; commission, a shirt, and its abbre-
viation tnish is from camicia ; catever, hertever, a (pieer
affair, from cattivo, bad; dinarly, money, from deaaro;
nantee dinarly, penniless, from niente denaro ; scarper, to
elope, from scappare ; to scarper with the feele of the donna
of the casey, is scappare colla fujlia dvlla donna delta
casa ; and foyle, a pocket-handkerchief, is from the Italian
slang fofjlia, a pocket.
Spanish words begun to be introduced in the time of
Philip and INIary. Thus we obtained hifJf\gand>adoe8, r/am-
bol, (/amnion, viol de fjamba, fjanch, ladrone, jalap, shei'i'y,
alert, barracks, stevadore, embarr/o, Imrricane, tornado,
bilboes, desperado, toledo. allirjator, armada, caryo, cigar,
don, flotilla, gala, mosquito, punctilio. In the Sussex
dialect we have gaberdine, and in the Cornish caridad,
benevolence, and fumades, a hogshead of pilcliards, from
fu7nado8.
From Portuguese we have commodore, caste, palaver,
and fetish.
ilillf-
(luoe
ON KSaLlSII I'UONirNCIATlON. Ill
§ H. Oa Euijlixh Proniinclation.
En<i;li.sli liiivin*; beon proved to ])o a iiiixod liin,i^iin<T;e in
vociil)iiliiry and ji;raniin;ir, it now remains to examine the pro-
nimeiation.
Our Teutonic roots usually take a L(tw rather tlian a
Hi^h (Jerman |)roiunu'iiitiou.
Ah our alphabet is Roman and not Saxon, it is be pre-
siuned that the earliest written examples of our lan<i;ua^e
were phonetic, .'ind that therefore An;;lo-Saxon is to be pro-
nounced as written. En<j;lish was always written phonetically,
until the "jfreat writers of the Klizal)ethan era iixed it autho-
ritatively ; but sinc(> this tiuv the orthography and the
pronunciation liave not kept pace with eacli oth(;r.
Jiut Anjiflo-Saxon beinjjj phonetic, the ditferen(!e between
its pronunciation tind that of High German '^wiiich is still
very correctly represented in writing) is at once discernible,
and the Anglo-Saxon will be seen in a vast majority of in-
stances to have followed the same laws of change as other
Low German Languages — Dutch (as being the most culti-
vated), for instance.
But it must be remarked in this comparison that the
resemblance in the case of consonants is much nearer than
with vowels, a fact which will be accounted for further on.
L
VOWKLS.
H
igh
Ger. au.
Oct.
Put.
A.S.
Ens.
ranh
ron w
hruh
rough
treu (traucn)
tronw
treowe
true
schau
schouw
scoaw-ian
show
glaiibe
geloof
gt^b'f
belief
haupt
liuofd
heafod
head
lauf
loop
lilcap
leap, loper
auge
oog
cage
eye
rauch
rook
rec
reek
bmuii
bruin
hrun
brown
laut
luid
Idud
loud
haut
huid
hydo
hide
112
MIXRI) LANnUAnilH.
9m
nut.
A.M.
Knu.
aiiB
uit
at
out
Kiiun
tnin
tan
town
bauiii
boom
beam
boom, beam
fauHt
vuiHt
H
fyst
igh Ger. ex.
filt
bouj,'cn
buigcn
bugaii
bow
[krcnoh]
krioch
kruipou
creopau
creep
tlicuor
dnur
dorian
dear
[luMiorn]
liiiuoru
linnr
hyran
liirc
Bcluiuor
scliimr
Hoyi'-an
Hcour
feuer
vuur
fyr
firo
High Ger. aner.
Bauer
zunr,
sur
sonr
bauor
na-buur
neah-bur
noigli-l)our
High Gor. el.
Bcliweig
7Avijg-en
Hwic-an
treiben
drijven
(hyf-an
drive
glei'jh
golijk
goHc
liko
boil
bijl
bill
bill
eisen
ijsor
isern, iron
iron
reif
rijp
rip
ripe
hoi z- on
hoot
hret
heat
sclivvoisz
zwoot
HWIOt
sweat
geist
goost
gast
ghost
leist
leest
kusto
last
High
Ger. u, (l.
buche
beuk
boo, bc'co
beech
liigen
lengen
logan, loogan
lie
spiiren
spenron
spiriau
speir, Scot.
kiiche, koch
keuchen
coc
cook
fnrclie
vore
fyr-ian
furrow
hund
bond
hund (excej^.)
hound
gesund
gezond
goHund (do.)
sound
sprung
sprong
sprang
sprang, sprung
(excep.)
bund
bond
band
bond
brunn
bron
burue (do.)
burn (excejy.)
ON KNOLISir raONIINC!IAHON.
118
II.
Con
SONANTS.
II
[igh (
h'T. h.
(Icr.
Dnt.
AM,
i:iiK.
8taub
Btof
Btufl"
raiil)
roof
ivaf-ian
roavo
lieb
lief
loof, luf-ian
liol"
trcib
diijf
drif-an
drive
Hi
ghG
er. pf.
stojif
stop
stopp-an
atop
kai'pfou
karpor
carj
kopf
kop
cop
copo, cape
fuHzstapf
fitaj)
stcpppan
stop
pfahl
paal
jml
paio
pfad
pad
pais
path
pfeifo
P'JP
pip
pipe
Higli Ger. /.
Only tlie Wt'si Saxon dialects of Dorset, Somerset, and
Devon follow the rule of Li)\v German.
kot.
sprung
Ocr.
but.
A.S.
EllR.
WCSSCT.
fasz
vat
fict, fat
vat, fat
vat
fahvt
vaart
far-aii
fare
varo
fall
val
fcall-an
fall
▼aU
falsch
valsch
false
false
valse
fudcr
vedcr
fcl'cr
feather
veather
focht
vecht-cn
ft'ohtau
fight
vight
ffind
vijand
feoiid
fiend
viend
fisch,
viscli
flsc
fish
vish
futter
voinlcr
fodro
fodder
vodder
But if not initial, the change is regi
iilar in A.S. and E.
Ger.
Diit,
A.S.
Kngr.
laufon
loopen
leapan
leap
taufen
doopen
dippan
dip
liauf
hoop
heap
heap
reif
rijp
rip
ripe
schlafon
slapen
sloepan
sleep
offen
open
open
open
raffeu
rapen
reatian
rape
114
n'ich
rauchen
MIXKD LANOIUGE.«.
Ilijj;h iter. ch.
Out.
rijk
rooken
A.B.
ric
rccan
Kiig.
rich
rct'k
Hiffh Ger. chi is mon; guttuml in liow Oer., and though
well represented in A.8., is only known in the writing' in
Mod. Eng.
recht ''eKt riht right
leicht liRt l""l't l>f?l't
macht
iiiagt
looht
mihto
niiglit
High Cler. ehs preserves its sound in A.S. iind Eng., but
in Low Ger. is 8.
ncliHo
as
SBX
axe
wachs
ficohs
tlachs
was
HOS
vlaa
wac
six
floax
wax
six
ocliso
fnchfl
OH
vos
oxa
fox
ox
fox
High Ger
. schw.
scliweisz
Kweet
SWK't
Bweat
scliwarz
schwert
zwart
zsvaard
swart
Hweord
Bwart
Hword
schwimmen
zwimnien
Rwiniman
swim
Bchwcster
zuster
swooster
sister
High
Ger. sell.
Rohlitten
Bchmerz
schmied
sledo
sniaart
amid
slocg
Bineprt
HinicS
sledge
smart
smith
High
Ger. s, ss.
Battel
zadel
sadl
saddle
BO
Biinde
BoUen
7.00
aonde
zuUon
swa
synno
sceal
BO
sin
shall
rassel
ratelen
hretliian
(=:rate)
rattle
beissen
wisseu
bijten
wijten
bitan
witan
bite
wit
ON ENOMSII rnONITNt ATION.
llff
High
(icr
. /A, /.
tier.
tm.
A.S.
V.ixu.
theuer
(lunr
door
dour
thnn
(loon
don
<l4>
tliior
dicr
door
<U'cr
tliiir
(Icnr
dom
door
thai
dal
dal
dale
than
dnnw
dcaw
dow
mnth
mood
riKui
mood
roth
roodo
road
red
trinkon
driiikcn
driiioan
tlrink
tag
dag
dK)g
day
Ffigh
G.'i
. :r, «:.
zahn
tand ^
1
t(5|)
tooth
zeho
ta
ta
too
znhl
tal
trt»liaTi
tale
zalim
tarn
tam-iau
fame
zoig
tecken
to-cen
token
zcit
tijd
tid
title
zinn
tin
tin
tin
groHZ
groot
groat
great
grusz
groot
gretan
groot
fasz
vat
fa^t
fat, vat
essen (=e,szcn)
oton
otan
6Uv
High
Ger
. n, h.
alt
Olid
eald
old
kalt
koud
ceald
rold
falto
vonw
foald
fold
schulter
sohouder
sonldor
.slioukler
malz
mont
nioalt
malt
If
The A.S. and K. will bo Poen in most of these example.?
of consonantal ohimf^os to follow the Low German or Dutch,
though there are several exceptions, especially with the letters
/ and s, which are well pronounced by the Enolish, and in a
way which may he regarded as almost peculiar.
Whitney has ^lointed out that our orthography, owing to
our foreign elenusnts, is often very discordant, because of the
different systems we have adopted. The differences in the
ch — church, chlvab'y, Christiati — will serve to illustrate
11
116
MIXED LANliUAOM.
tliis. Tlio It'ttt-r z h not Aii};li)-SiiX(>ii, 1»^!* Kiunaiicc, luul
1ms (Unplaced the w, wliicli vviih Anj,'l(»-Siixon, in siuli words
as d'lzzji {<li/t*!!f)i ii'"l fi'f'Cze. (fiY>tH<in). Tlic Anj^In-Suxiai
hanl ('. lias undrr Norman iiilltu'iif»« liccoinc c/i t, lliiis, A.S.
celf, rest', clii, cilif, arc now ihi/l, clii'fsf, rliln, chihl, Tlic
IctfiT 7 is iKtt a tavonritc ouf with llic Krcntli, and nmlcr
Norman iiiflnciici' it has disappcarrd from mimcrous wohIh —
fjffli', f(t!</fi)', /tH(f»'l, tnw/fii, i^c, liavt> hcconn' liht'.^fii'n\ hail,
twain — or it lias, nndor the same inllncnc«', hem soriincd to
qr, {/!• {=j\ or »7/, as from Idf/n, rr! lu/aii, odi/canl, w/r yfnt
laiv, crhi'f', orrhanl. Tlif letter // lias tlironj,di French
inHnenc(> snlfered mnch misliandlin/^', Itein^ lett out in
ntnnerons places wliere it sliould lie used, n(»t only in tln^
Hp(»ken but in the written lan{,Miayc (see ' Anglo-Saxon Klc-
itient,' f H).
The consonants of A. 8., wit'i the exception of r. Ix-ing
hard, were much tlie same in power as o»irs, but _/',/,•, 7, /■,
and z wore wantin;^. J was introdiici'd to represent I<'rench
sounds ; /.• was introduced to represent the hard soinid of <\
after the native t; had lieeii assimil.ifetl to the softer French
letter ; qv was the French method of representing' the same
sound as Saxon fir: '< was introduced by the French; and
c is still so scarce in English that it, is not found commenc-
in<( any native word except zlin:
iiut the present English vowels are not those (»f the Anglo-
Saxon, in which language a had the power (»f ((//, a; of
(tic, f of ale, i of (')', o of <>, II of <«»//, and // of / short.
The generic change of English vocables dates from the
Norman Conquest, before which time our pntnunciation was
entirely Low German ; at the Concpiest another system was
introduced, and went side by side with the native; tmtil in
the twelfth century they became mixed togc^ther. It will,
therefore, be projicr at this ])oint to exanunc! the Norman
French pronunciation, more especially the vowel scuinds.
('haucer, ridiculing the Anglo-FnMich which was in vogue
in his time, says : —
* And Frei\che she spake ful fctously,
Af^er thfj scule of Stnitfoid-iit-Bowe,
For French of Paris was to her uiiknowe.'
ON I'.NflM.SM l'H(>NI'N( lATlON.
117
nance, luul
Hiich words
n^ld-Saxoii
ill I IS, A.S.
l,;hL Tl.r
iiiid laidcr
MS wohIh —
/(///', /<ft<7,
soft cued to
D'll, we fjf(!t
|,di I''rencli
I'tt (lilt ill
nly ill tli<!
t^uxon EIo
ot' ('. beinj^
it. ./, /.', 7, '•,
cut I'^renoli
sound of c,
tor Fn'ucli
jj; tile same
•ciR'li ; and
t'oMiinenc-
llie An^^lo-
t' a//, a: of
short.
i from flic
'iatioii was
system was
.(! tmtil in
. It will,
le Norman
iounds.
lis in vogue
Hut, with all due deference to the |ioet, it may lie (piestioned
whether Parisian French wan over spoken in this country.
'I'hat proniUKM'ation of I'^rench which is now classical was
in early times merely a dialeet, of the Lanjifiie d'OyI, and
stood in no lietter phihdonfical poHition than Picard, Miir-
^'undiaii, or Norman, lieinj^ simply a vari((t,y peculiar to
the Isle of !•' ranee. This diale(;t has chan<»(M| consideralilv.
Thus, in tln' old [toets we find the diplithoii^al sounds of
fuilnc, rolnc (ri'liii'), nlde, f.niifrc, sc-parated into hn.-liit;,
ro-i lie, K-ltlf, I rii-'ilrc ; frahici' wo. Hnd decomposed into
ti'a-t-iMt\ en, lunl t*fii, into c-n and m-n^ while fnmne was
/«»(.«, pronounced fiunc, and not /(itnc, as now. Very many
similar instances may readily he found, lint the ahovc will
Hut^ice for illustration.
Hut in Normandy i\\v. pronunciation was diflerent afj;ain,
and it certainly varied as nuicli from old Fii'nch as it does
now from modern Parisian -rather more so than otherwise.
Now, (he French introduced into this country was Norman,
and when it wascutolT" from its parent stock liy thesjfverance
of Kn^dand and Normandy it r'lnaiiKMl stationary, hecominji^
what Cliaucer, who was a travelled man, contem[)tuously called
Stratlonl-at-Howe l^'reiich. There can he littledoubt, hut that
we now pronounce our Romance words in much the «ime way
as (lid the comiueroiv of Hastings.
The Anglo-Xonnan svord (Vt,//^/' shows that in lOGfJ, in the
Norman dialect at least, the letter p luul already (lisa|)peare(l
from captiriis (compare It. cattivit); but in modern French
we find ('<tpflf in the sense of cdpfus, whilst in English we
have both captive and cdillj)', the latter in the sense oi' chet if
or cattivo.
This disposition to contract words was early developed iu
tht "^lorman. In tiie 'Livere de Keis' we find <i(ii-'m^ changed
into a'unf ; but perhaps in French the d was not pronounced,
as aviciidrc soon became aviuiir. At the time of the Con-
quest, however, the d was still heard in adventure ; the
Fri'uch lost it, but the stationary Anglo-Norman retained
it, whence its presence in modern English. In the ' Livere
de Keis' we find /«/•((. /'s, /e/vw, fera, ferons, contracted into
frai, fras, frad, fritm. Other more modern Norman con-
l\
11
118
MI.\HI> I.AN(it]A(iU8.
.''(i ' I
tnicHoiH tuny li« sern in Hie rolrsnf the pciisants in Mftlii^ro'H
♦ Don .liiiiii,' Act ii. 'I'lif lu'st iiKtdt'rii rcpifsriitiilivf wt- liiiv(!
of the (lialoct of Williatn IIk; Noriiiiui is |iiol)ul)ly tluit of
the C'iiiinin'l Isluiids, wiiicli in full of ctnitnii'tioiiM.
It must, howovt'r, ii(»t ht? for^ itleii that. tli« NttrmaiiH, in
Hpite of their [u'culiar piduiinfiut ii>n, very often kept nearer
the liutin than did the French. 'I'hiiH in the poets we find
t<U {((UIh), CriNtiiin, Vaiau^ imniitl, cuiiili'lhf, ainchon,{vli(in-
soit,fiiHliiliiH),('(f,ncrt\ti{)UU' of which are so pronounced in
modern Knjj;lish. In modern Norman we still have i^iii Ibr
one of the uses of tel (liat. ita): —
'Jamais premie uii itai rustueni.' — C/innnon.
The Hur;j;uiidian and Nortnan dialects pronounce the
French <i, as dl, that is, as l']ii;;lish a,; thuH /a, <a, Clnun-
jxti/iu', iiioiitiii/n>'y are In!, ttt'i, C/iiiniiHili/u, muiit(il</ii, two
of which words are pure Kn^''lisli. Nor is modern French
entirely free from the tendency to this clian;j;e, for y/v tind
tliut tile old French (imcr is n<»w tihiicr. The old Norman
house of (ii'diii'illa preferred to lie callc^d (fi'iiinnille. In
the 'Tomhel i\v Chat rose ' of the fourteenth century we tind
that dei'ldre is made to rhyme \\it\[ /aire, as it would do if
pronounced in tli«" Kn<j;lisli way. The French (U/c, ti.na;/i',
were in Norman aZ/yc, UHdif/c, which are aj;ain Fn^lish. In
the ' Pattes Ouainte.. ' of the tifteenth century we read : —
' Des mains m'avcH tiro liiHuge,
Qui est niK! oneiice mout ^'riefve,
Si iicHse pas (juo votro glaives,'
where (/ricjve is pronoimccid as lCiij:[lisli r/ntve. In some
parts of Normandy iiuuKjer ami clieiit/er are the prcmuncia-
tioua of maiujer and chaiujer^ which would he the same
aa the English pronunciation of iiuinijer and vhantjei'. In
other parts Fr. an hecame N. aitn, Fr. an8 = N. auiiz ; thus,
maunder for mauder.
Mar'nuje hecomes Norman mdrialf/e^ and in Hasseliu wc
have tV'iiuent instances of this same sound, as riv(il{je, equl-
pai(je, utiiijralfje, voyauje, oraiije^cordaltje, «everal of which
are of exactly the same sound as iu English.
ON KNGLIMH rUUNI'NCIATlON.
110
II .MitJii^ro'B
Vf we liiivo
)ly tliiit lit'
orinaiiH, in
ept iiciirrr
tn we find
/ioa{rfi<in'
iomuohI in
iv«( itdi r(»r
lOllllCC tilt!
lily Chiim-
f(ili/n, two
rii Kn-ni'li
"or we find
1(1 Niiriiiiiii
nuille. Ill
ury we Hnd
would do it'
ii^lihli. In
read : —
. In Home
piduuncia-
! the same
an<j<ii\ In
wuz ; thus,
Hasselln wc
hdye, equi-
al of which
Aj^nin, the Krench tunff, IxicomoH in Norman itntt', pro-
nonneed aH Kurdish niinf.
Near Mont Saint-Miehfl the Frt'iich <•. \h pronounced tilf, ;
thuH, 7/10, /«, Hf, become 7/ift<7, t<iit,H(iit.. The Normans usually
chaii^'o this vowed into i when it preceihs *t ; thuH, cmmre^
cmUinr. Ihi'atre, become cnence^ ci'intum, tfiidtre — whence
viil<j[ar Kii;;llsli creiirhiirfi and tlip-a-ti'v.. In s(»me parts « is
chiinj^ed into /<•, as (7/*^*', cirimsso/ufr, cneve. In others the
French e. becomes Norman eA ; thus, in the * LiviTe de Ueis,'
' e UniclhiM slut a f/onwnail a tjoi'erna In n/'/.' The Krench
h is Norman /«; thus chiirffeeiH ckaiyle. lu the ♦ Roman du
Mont Saint-iMicliel' we have —
* Que il aveit seiiitij//c»!
Kiii/i (juo hi eundru i fu.'* plunj/ic'
On the contrary the French /« became Norman and
Kn;,disli /; {hnn, pnunth'e^pronilre, Gi'mwititmssGennifuuey
bien'essblii'e,bire', and in the 'Tombel de Chatrose' wo read: —
' Do la cite do Cantobinns
FiHt tant qti'il ni)paiHa sa vie.'
The Knj^lish y final is well re[)resented in Norman; thus tu
betif(ii('» (til. dis <l<is betl»en) would rhyme with aanctiJleHf
and the French eicvle, as Norman envdle^ would rhyme with
Enjiflish vh',.
The English i — that is, French (ti — is a very common
Norman sound; thus in * Don Juan' we have chagndne^
chopalae, Piarrot.
There are very few English people who do not find a slight
diflfieulty in sounding the full round t»; Londoners especially
say uiv or iau. The Normans gave us this habit of saying
OIL for o, or eait. Tlius in a ' Chanson' wc have —
' Lo loup y est vomi, ui'a mange Ics plus huiux;
I'uisipio t'cs si goulu, gardo m'en done \a piaUf
VA lo bout do la (juoHe pour mettro a mon chajiiau,
Kt lo bout dos quatre piittos pour faire un chalumiait,
Pour fairo dauscr les fillcs, a co printemps noaviatu,
Les jeuu's, aussi les vicillcs, toutcs dans un mouciau,
Aux goutila tourdlou3 do la foiitaiuo Icz mtt.'
•1
120
MIXKIl I.AM<1I'AU»;M.
I'itiiiini; rniiniif, mininhr, iiri' \>y tlu? NoriimiiM »'liannc«»l
into jto nil nn\ minnim^ fnuiniiiiiY, (itid nmii n.to itifii —
*Mn riiinntiiifi', iii|iiiiiiil jc (IAiik«> tiicii rnlillim luil.i.liu'n ? '
Al
t! vmiiiiunt uiii, iiiii iiiiniihib,rt' ; i vu bii'ii mux i|iio
lu
iiiiun :— •
1 va dc ci, i vu do li\ ;
I VII tort hii'ii, nm ruintnni'ft' \
1 VII fort Itit'ii iiiiihinir i va.' — CUnimnii,
Milt, iiH if ^ovrrni'd by roiitriirit's, tin- l-'rcnrh ?um»/jv' iM'ciinT'H
Nortmui vinri', wliicli is al.mi Kiij^liwli. In .NJ^. Ii<'jj;. H!»
K. viii. \v«' find Hiiiin'timt's /iiitior, l»ut JiihJ as nftrti hiunn'.
Fr«MU'h eo Ih>coiiu>s /o, /« in Noiinan, and thus wo j(««t
I'n'pni'il^ Llrpo/il, ifl(>;/i'nf)lil(\ and hiunte, Tlu' Kri'iicli (»/,
m«tri» t'sp"t'ially when' it n'^nwuts a I^atiti /, wuh elian;>c'd
into Norman el ; tims, nlifcr, nittr, neii' : —
' J'livaiH nil bt'l lial)it t«»ut urn-.' — ('Inliimn.
Als(» plsiis, itniM, fnuH, Kii|^. jx'ii, Var. I)ial. /"t//," iiihiM^
poll, jM'tl, Kii;;. /<//6-vidv»'t ;j'rliji<lun,fr<)iil,fi'eid or /red : —
' (Jiiitiu'iit j'l'iidiir'mlH, poiir tu plliiirt>,
ho fi'fd ot 1' cufid jiMir apivH jour.' — Cliaiin(ni.
Also <lli/itiin, (loif, (Icif ; HifiH, 8ulj\ sfi ; Franc! ^ Fruii{'it!n,
Frttn{r.!s ; Jhini, /)<ino!n, DaneAn', and Anffll, A ui/loin, A it;/-
lei». FruncelH oocnrs in the 'Chanson de Konci'vaiix,' and
in MS. 10, K. viii. we liave —
' Nocfl hey! hioii li via I'IikjIi'ih,
K li (
OIHCOIII,
K I'A
Nool fait i
li /'
ngc'vin
rtiin'ci/H,
eivvn: sou vcimn.
And again : —
iV
>1(
'i rcplcni Ha inaiHon
Do payii, do char o do j>l'/«((«.'
In the same way rol l)ecoinos vi;!, roitdet reifrh't, torrns
which occur friMiucntly in the ' Livcre uo licis.' Tlu^ Lat.
rex is more nearly represcnti'd by rei than by rui, and in
reine we find the old vowel, though in early French this also
UM KMUUMI rUUNL'NLlAVlUN.
121
hnd iK'pn cluinj^fcl iiitci mini'. Wr ]uisv nlno /k/, /«/, wtV,
Tin- OM KiiMicli »'»</"#' wiiK |)|-iitiiiiit)f«M| i<nit/\ or »ray, liy tlic
NormaiiH, Iu-ium' uiir Knj^linli word imif, Ol hwiuiw on in
otlitT wtinln uIho; tliiir*, .7/o»o' for ffl.oii'f^ mh'tmi' tor tniroii't
whifli liith-r JH «>ri'oiirH«' Old Kii;;!!**!! mii'inn'.
Till' liiitiii /' Hi>t>inrt curly to liuvn lont itH protiiiiM'iatioii
und to liiivf a('i|uii'*-d iln prt'sriit Frt'iicli noiitid, tlut rral
r.atiii \o\vi-l liriti^ ifprrst-nft'd l»y o", iihi = nii, tiinUii in =ii)h\
Kri'iicli hioidf. 'I'li(< Kri'iu'li ii lircotiws Norinan <w/, thus
(lif Uivt-r r';v' iM'coiiifs h'lnr. 'I'lit- Normaiir*, Iiow<'V«m', liad it
or o wIh'H! tlu' Fn'iich had on. In tho ' Mvcr*' dc Hcis' wo
have ♦(?(>»( iiiir jwer^'' '« // inehneH nisi a i/ovenidit a
ffODtirmif ta /t/'/,' '• uiut ifiant curt a Kutlioint^ ^ nl inta
tlet'f: ruti'i;'' &c. In IMS. n«'f(. 1<>, K. viii. we have ^ Hftlf/iun'H
Off. t'litnuUz 'V /ntN,' ' jiin' ijinur Xot'l," ' />6W/, ilolnt n tut ivelH
joiv, tl\iiinn'H,,^ ^ jo riiH (llspiif rrli;' Sn.', In th<> Haiiic way
an aimnii' riiakt's anint\ nwoui'tt iiuikeH mvut'f whoiico Kng-
HhIi Ht'cure.
Hut the Frnich *// is chati^'cd iut<i Norman tm, ui-cord-
itjj;ly niilnll)h: is nniiMihlt', ami kiiI/ U hiiiih. In tlu^ saino
way icux hccoiuos (Ix or uu», thus ithuix Ih /j»t««, /y««j; j<»w,
and )iiieux mux ov mnvH,
'NouH airu'niit **//'.'■ ("'tro hattiio
D'un bt'i ({iio buisio |);ir iiii laid.' — Cliaufiiiu,
Th(! Kreiu'h/)/' liccanie Norinan u ; thus bieneur/ie became
hieini)rc.
Hut after the various / sounds the most strikin<> Norman
vowels artMt/t, 0//, pronoun(!od as if French a<ni', thus wm-
lardhecoinea naoulanly i\m\chaud becomes attu^ pronounced
caou : —
'Oaimont j'ond\ir'raiH, pour to pllairc,
Lo frcd ct r luti'iil pav apres jour.' — Chttnmn.
From the various extracts ah'eady given it will be
apparent that the consonants are more strongly marked than
in French; thus we have endt(r''r(i!s, yllaire, jeuri's, &c.
The r of are, the infinitive of the first Latin conjugation, is
. ^
V .
nlinoMt l.ml in tlio KriMu-li <•»', but It U fully r.'|»r.M>nh«l in
the Normim uit\ trotiiuiir. Th« /' inuUo utrmiKly iiiiirk.<l in
the couplet nt* HuMHflin—
' (\)tupui((ii()ii iiiiiriiiittr,
(iriuulu oMt pluinu tmt In ninr,'
Norrimn }>n wiih pr*>noimc«Ml niinply «, »h in Knn[liHli,
pmnhntf iiiul jtMniitlrr Wum dimply nuiilnn' uikI miiitifr. A
common Kii;;lirtlnTror of clmnKinK »' into k; may !»♦• In like
nmniifr tnin'd to tin- Normim , wIiomjiIiI inn uuvji^ iuHtnul of
ma vol^y tinil rviMi now tin* N'uininns proiiiHin«'i«_yV ;»i ''u »'a//f
nit > mVu (mt/n. In MS. Ui-^. Hi, K. viii. wr Imvn tiU)
*MU nil's I'l'llfX U ll'iillH,'
It HiM'rns tilHi» very piultublu fioiu two {MiKxtigi!^ in tliu
' Uomau ill! Uou ' —
• Kn Notih alum, du f/mih vonuni ; '
and —
' Northman mi hoiri (l«t Nodh — co cnt In vi'rito ' — ■
that till- NorrnunH at tlir time of tli<! inviiHJon of Knj;liiii(l liiul
not lo«t their rfinrmltraiK-c of tlii' Teutonic ruin; |'. It in
dillicult ittlu'rwint' to iindrrstmid why the Kti^'li>li, witli hucIi
u larj^e Komunce «'li'jn(Mit in their ianj^na;;"', HJiould \n\ the
only Kurttpcan nati(tn who retain this ditVu-ult leltt'r; th«)
Hpaniardri prt'Herve itw Hoinid to a certain «,'xtont : perhapn
their (iothic occupation will account for this.
In };lancin^ ovt-r the tirnt six dozr-n lines of thf ' liivoro
tie Keis de Hrittaint',' written alioiil the reiyn of Henry III.,
we find the folhtwinj^ An|j[lo-Norman words, all metre or lest*
Himilar to Knj^lish : -(S'w/t/i*/, dmftrt^ cfniHfcl^ ciflf,, de-
manmla, rfinpouiuli, mfuiere^ certein, aniHeil, (mm (one),
piimu't:, benittff, marie, uohh; nmtenir, curt, escitmi, muf/mii',
main (dismayed), cufdf, lettrc, col, arlve, joint (rejoiceil),
coriiamidn, Ixtntdi/c. (haronnj^e), ii'elcomer, conqnei'e,h(irun»,
piiHue, rcHcnt, iiet'oun (nephews), jh'Imouh.
From the abovi? it will perhaps Ix" sufficiently appjiront
that the Enjiflish method of pronouncing Romance words is
Norman. So also our general pronunciation of the vowels,
ON lUKILlMII I'UUNUNL'IATION.
l'i»
i
i«tit<'<l irt
lurkeU lit
Kii{;liMh,
itifW. A
H> in liko
iMtriul of
U'li lUl'lM
iiivt* alxo
!i iu the
,6'—
;l;ili(l )iil<t
|». It in
vitli Huch
(1 lie the
tt-r ; tln!
jM'lllllpH
' liivere
iiry III.,
If or It'Srt
','//<', de-
lit: (one),
ifjoiceU),
wliicli itt nnii|ur iUKJ irriitioniil. If wi< hud hiul no [{nmiuiff
inhiMliii'i'il into Kiii^liMli, it i-. rnuNt prolxiltlf wi> mIidiiIiI Imvu
hhll |tn>ii.iiiiu'i'(| itiir \M\vfls iiM itid till' Aii^lo-SuxoiiN.
It may iN'rliajH not Im> ^«*ii)-rally uiulfrMtoixl lluit llm
Kn>ni'li way of pronouncing many wonlit liikM pri>\ail)'il until
Very lat«* yiMirn. Aocont In utw of tint limt national iliHtino-
tionM wliit'h a man Ioi^cm, iin<l Ikiwimi |)<>rfrct hi' may In' in u
foreign laii^iia^i' h«> \h aImo^t rcrlain to lii> (litcrti-il in that.
(hir MtrnfantK numily pronitiuu'i' inir nnik an niif rank",
thin iri thr P'riiH'li iiirii ii\ ami nut a iirovincinlimn. TinifMnn^
tioifHtnt, rni/Him, witi' old wayn ^A' pronniutriii^ tin- Kii^IihIi
ri*|iri*Hi'ntativt>M of trahituni^ Mtiimnt, rulnon, and ho Htron^;ly
wan thir< Frt-nch Huund iMi^niftt-d on our lan;;ua^i> that wo Hnd
^f//, vluiiff, Hiiif, hah', nif, iiIm)', an<l jihtlHi^ m coitimon pro-
nuiuMatioiiH of d-n, rluuit, mui, liHtit, t'lif, eanf^ and jtlfHHt\ which
i'onstantly occiu' in our puctiJ. I'mntish \h (d" course pini'n';
I'nniit, /^>*/l'', is Hmn ; ohUfifr ih t»hll(/i'i' ; lionoii r i^\'\iU'ni\y
icIaiuH its II lircaum' fortufrly pntnounccd lnmoi'ii", Cluiuccr
]m>^ (iri'iitiii'i; t'onti'/'i^y tiiiiiji'il/H, iim\ Houm dozen more wordrt
with tlif l*'riiiili accent; contiiii'if in in common uso now,
nnd ili'Hitift'i^, I'CHii/fi'i', :ir«' also not ipiite ohsidete, whilst ircord
\H still preserved in our law courtn.
The ahove words are far from exhaustive, hul will he
enoiij^h to |irovelliat there was a very cttusiderahle French
element iu our old Kn;;lish sounds, and to show that to thin
element we owe the present disparity between our vowels as
written and us spoken.
II
apparent
Words is
e vowela,
124
MIXKI) LANOUAOES.
CONCLt'SION.
English, then, is pre-eminently a mixed liinjj;uii^e. It defies
alike the tnulitions of its ohl vocubidaiy, grammar, and
pronuiK'iatidU ; it studies not old theoriea, but modern prac-
tice, and ke<'ps pace with the times. So remarkaole is this
example of English that Grimm, the father of modern
pMloloffy, says of it : —
Was das ^ewiclit uiid erf^ohniss diesor enirtorungen angehfc,
so niiig ich init eiiieui einzigeu ahor ciitHcliiedencn beispiol ihror
boinalie eiitliobeii seiii. Kuinu unter alien neucrcii spnicheii liat
gerado durcli daHaufgebea and zerrutten alter lautgcsetzo, durcli
den wcgfall beiiiahe siiinmtliclier llexioneii, eiiio gWissero kraft
und stjirke empfangen als die engHsclie, uiid von ilirer nicht
ciiuual lehrbavon, iinr lend)arcn fullc freier niiHcltiino ist eino
wescutliche gownlt dos ausdrucks abliilngig geworden, wio sio
vielloicht iiocli uio einor andcron mcnsclilielien zniige zu geboto
stand, lliro gauze iiberans geistige, wundi rbar gcgliickte anbi-
gu und diirelibUdung war liervorgegangen aiis eiiter iiberrascli-
enden vprniiildniig der beiden edolsten spiacla n dcs spiiteron
Euvopas, der gennanisclien und vonianiselieii, und bekannt ist
wie im engliscben sicli bcide zu einander verlialten, indcm jeuo
bei weiteni die sinidiulic grundlage liergab, diese die goistigca
begriflib zufiibrto. Ja, die engliscbe spraclie, von der nicht um-
soust aiieb der griisste und iibcrlegenste diehtcr der neuen zcit
im gegensatze zur classiscben alien pocsie, ieli kann natiirlich
nur Siiakcspeare meinen, gezeugt und getragcn worden ist. Sio
darf mitvollem reebt eine vveltspracbo beisscn, und sebeint gleieh
dem engliscben volk ausorsebn kiinftig noch in biiberem masso
an alien enden der erd'j zu walten. — Gkimm, Uebcr deii ifrnpruiifj
der Sprachc, j). -^2.
The testimony of so distinguished a scholar with regard
to our language is conclusive. English is not only the most
promising modern language, but it owes its excellencies to
its very irregularities, and these in their turn are a result
of that mixture in the language which places it halfway
between Teutonic and Romance.
CONCLUSION.
125
We liavo seen that the Teutonic tOomont of our l.-vnguaffe
in itwclf a mixture of Ansht-Saxon and otlu-r Low (rerraan
tonjjfues witl) Norse and JIif,di German. So also our Ko-
raance element is Norman ; French, ohl and new ; .Spanisli ;
Portuguese ; Italian ; and Lingua Franca ; themselves not
pure, bein{j; mixtures of Jvatin, Low Latin, and all kinds of
German. Then there is the Greek element, the Celtic, the
Asiatic, the African, and the American. All. these lanynagea
hdve contt'lhiitcd to our dictionary, nutiiy of them to our
■pronuncidttoii, dud souie of them to oiur f/rammdv.
The En<^lish lan^^uage, owing to these peculiarities of
formation and of mixture, has become what it is, the most
used lan<.>;uiige in the world; has produced the greatest
modern autliors ; and has the greatest furture before it. In
fine, it owes its very excellencies, all that it is, and all that it
is capable of becoming, to this one fact — that it is just the
contrary to what it would be if the two fundamental axioms
of our foreign school of pliilology were true.
Surely with such an exception before us the axioms pro-
ducing that exception ought to be inverted, or at least con-
siderably modified.
We shoidd read them thus : —
Axiom I.
In classify lug hmguages due attention ought to he
given not only to grdmmar, but also to arrangement,
vocabulary, and pronunciation.
Axiom II.
In the presence of our civilisation, commerce, and cul-
tivation a perfectly pure language is, so far as vocahulai^
and pronunciation are concerned, an impossibilty ; and
with regard to grammar and arrangement, mixtures are by
no means impossible, though perhaps of rare occurrence.
English certainly presents the case of a speech lohich is
mixed in every point of classification, being a Teuto-
llomance language.
I
I
POSTSCEIPT.
Lecturing in the Philharmonic Hall at Liverpool, December 1,
1875, Professor Blackie said that ' the most notable thing about
the English language was its curious mixture, altogether made up
like a plum-pudding, or like a conglomerated rock which they
might see about Oban and other places, made up of fragments of
different rocks. It was not of homogeneous growth, but was
mixty-maxty in its character, and noLliing but hotch-potch.
(Loud laughter.) It was li';o a quilt made by a number of
ladies for a bazaar, each ignr rant of what the other was woH'ing
as a pattern.' — Vide Livmyool Merciwy, December 2, 1875.
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REFERENCE.
Dictionary of the English
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M.A. M.I). Aliri<lt;((l frmn Dr.
Latham's Editiim i)f Joinihdns Knylish
Dictionary. Medium Svo. 2^.1,
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by the Rev. H. J. ToDK, with
. numerous I-imendations and Additions.
4 vols. 4to. jCt.
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<S of
English
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M. KoOET,
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^r£^y lyoatcs puhtttM ^ Longmans ,*. co.
A Practical Dictionary of
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Hy I.».UN i;c.N|AS-,|,.AI , iii.iny yvrtft
French Kvumlnrr for Military arxl
Civil AinhilnlmcnK, \c. |'i«t Hv.».
prict 7>, (>■/.
Contanscau's Pocket
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nliiidjjrd Imiiii the I'l.mlltal hictloniiry
by Ihu Author. Si|uara iMniu. 31. 0./.
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Languages. Ity I . \V, I.mm.sias,
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A Practical Dictionary
of the German Language ; 1 « 1 in.in
l'.ii(;li>li and Iji^lioli-deiinan. Ily
Kev. NV, l„ lli.Af Ki.KV, M.A. nnd Dr.
C. M. !• HIKIU.AMDKK. I'mt Hvo. ^i, M.
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Woodiiii A illii>ii,iti\i' of tlic Arts and
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Fairy-Land ... 20
Higgledy-Piggledy ao
Kuenen's Prophets and Prophecy in Israel 17
Landscapes, Churches, &c 8
Latham's English Dictionaries 8
' Handbook of English Language 8
Lawrence's Eiirly Hanoverians 4
Lecky's History of European Morals 3
Rationalism 3
Le.aders of Public Opinion S
Lefroy's Bermudas 19
Leisure Hours in Town 8
Lessons of Middle Age 8
Max
May'i
MemI
Menm
Merit
Her
0.
NEW WORKS published by LONGMANS &• CO.
a?
I'AGB
Forces ... II
lis 19
icture IS
4
, 10
la
la
onders ... i«
13
la
II
ical Essays S
orland 13
gand 4
,","„, II
".. 13
ly 10
ar Awrvy ... 19
IS
Lssistant ... IS
3
^lusic 13
13
7
ature 7
4
3
19
ai
Its & Martyrs 15
donna i5
nastic Orders iS
iour IS
nelisin la
a
ionary 9
I his Humour 7
18
;; 18
e Bible I7
y 17
s and Kohrig. 16
14
■ 14
ogy ^^
hispers from
Fairy-Land ... 20
ggledy-l'iggledy ao
phccy in Israel 17
8
les "
jlish Language 8
ans 4
n Morals 3
ism 3
•pinion 5
^ 19
8
8
23
II
Letves's niographical History of Philosophy 3
/,rt<i/.t on Authority 7
Lidddl and Scott' i Greek-English Lexicons 9
I.i'idUy AnA Moore's Treasury of Botany
Lloyd's Magnetism
Wave-Theory of Light 11
7
24
4
9
a
London Series of luiglish Classics
Longman's (V. W.) Chess Openings
Krodericlt the ( ireat ,
(iernian Dictionary ,
(W.) Edward tin: Third....
Lectures on History
England
■ Old and New St. Paul's
of
IS
Loudon's lincyclopredia of Agriculture ... 16
(iardening 16
• Plants 13
Lubbock's Origin of Civilisation 13
Ludlow's American War 4
Lyra ticrmanica li*
RLicauLiy's (Ix)rd) (!live, hy Dowcn
Essays
Miscellaneous Writings
Speeches
• Works
Writings, Selections from
.... 7
I
History of I'^ngland ... i
Lays of Ancient Rome 14, 21
I.,ifc and Letters 4
7
7
I
7
McCulloch's Dictionary of Commerce 9
Miic/urrcn on Musical Harmony 15
Mdcleod's Economical Philosophy 6
Theory and Practice of Banking 24
i:iements of Banking 24
Mademoiselle Mori 21
il/.;/tV'j Annals of the Road 22
Manning's Mission of the Holy Spirit 18
i1/i/;-/()7;r'.f Doctor Faustus, hy \V.igucr .., 7
Marshall's Physiology 14
il/rt/-xA;«./M'j Life of Havelock 5
Martineau's C\\x\s\:\a.n Life 19
Hours of Thought 19
Hymns 18
A/jz/Wf/t-z-'j Biographical Treasury 23
Geographical Treasury 23
Historical Treasury 23
.Scientific and Literary Treasury 23
Treasury of Knowledge 23
. Treasury of Natural History ... 23
Maxwells Theory of Heat 12
May's History o'' Democracy 2
History of England 2
Melville's Digby Grand 21
General Bounce 21
21
21
21
21
21
Gladiators
• Good for Nothing
Holmby House
Interpreter ....
— Kate Coventry
■ Queen's Maries 21
Memorials of Ch.irlotte ll'llliams-lVyn/i 4
Mendelssohn's Letters 5
Merivale's Fall of the l^oman Republic ... 3
— General History cT Rome 3
— Roman Triumvirates 4
. Romans under the Empire 3
Herrifield: i Arithmetic and Mensuration... la
Miles on Horse's Foot and Horse .Shoeing
on Horse's Teeth and Stables..,
23
Mill (J.) on the .Mind 6
Dissertations it Discussions 6
I'',ssays on Religion 17
^— Hamilton's Philosophy 6
(J. .S.) Liberty S
— — — ^— Politiciil Economy
■ ■■ Represent.ative Government
System of Logic
Unsettled Questions
Utilitarianism
Autobiogra|)hy
Miller's l';ieiiients of Chemistry 14
Inorganic Chemistry la
Mitchell's Manual of Assaying 16
-l//7/(V/'.t Lycidas, by 7i'/-ri«»/ ai
Paradise Regained, by Jcrrain,,. 7
5
I
5
5
5
Modern Novelist's Library ar
Monsell's Spiritual Songs
Moore's Irish Melodies, Illustrated I'xlition
Lalla Rookh, Illustrated Edition..
Morell's .\Iuntal Philosophy
Morclou on Horsebrcaking
Mozart's Life, by i\ohl
Mailer's {'hi|)s from a German Workshop.
— Science of Language
Science of Religion
18
14
aa
4
8
8
3
A'eison on the Moon 10
Xevile's Horses and Riding aa
New Testament, Illustrated Edition 15
A'icols's I'uzzle of Life 13
Northcott's Lathes &: Turning 15
0'Ci)«o/ J Commentary on Hebrews 18
. Romans t8
St. John 18
Oshorn's Islam 3
Ow(r//'i I'venings widi the Skeptics 7
(Prof.) Comparative An.atomy and
I'hysiology of Vertebrate Animals 12
20
21
21
5
IS
24
Packe's Guide to the Pyrenees
/'.//vt'j Origines Ronianie ._.
'- — Reges et Heroes '.
Pattison's Casaubon
Payen's Industrial Chemistry
Pewtner's Comprehensive Specifier ....
Pierce'^ Chess Problems 24
Pole's Game of Whist 23
Popes Select Poems, by Arnold 7
Powell's Early England 20
Preccc & Sivewright's Telegr.aphy 12
Present-Day Thoughts 8
Proctor's Astronomical Essays 10
Moon 10
— Orbs around Us 10
Other Worlds than Ours 10
—Saturn '. 10
Scientific Essays (Two Scries) ... la
Sun 10
— Transits of Venus 10
Two Star Atlases 10
Universe 1°
Protherds DcUontfoTi 2
Public Schools Atlas of Ancient Geography 9
___. Atlas of Modern Geography 9
s8
NEW WOUKS published by LONGMANS &• CO.
PACP
Xawlinson's Parthi.i 3
— — — Sassanians 3
Recreations of a Country Parson 8
A'^f/^riiir'j Dictionary of Artists 14
Km'e's Residence in Vienna and Herlin ... 19
Reiliy s Map of Mont HIanc 30
Monte Rosa 20
Rcresbys Memoirs 5
Keynardson's Down the Road aa
iP/VA'j Dictionary of Antiquitiea 9
Rivcrs'i Rose Amateur's Guide 13
Rogtrs's Eclipse of Kaith 17
Defence of Eclipse of Faith 17
Essays. 5
Roget's Thesaurus of Ent'lish Words and
Phrases 8
Ronald's Fly-Fisher's Entomoloj^jy 22
^{wrw'.r Outlines of Civil Procedure 6
Rothschild's Israelites 18
/("ciH'/ry-t Rise of llie People 20
SeltU'nu'iU of tlu; ( onstitution ... 20
.Srt/K/ars'j Justinian's Institutes 6
.S'<i«/i<ryj Sparta and 'I'lii'iies 4
Sav He on Apparitions 8
on Primitive Faith 17
SchelUn's Spectnim Analysis....! 10
Scott's Lectures on the Fine Arts 14
Poems 14
Seaside Musing 8
Secbohm's Oxford Reformers of 1498 3
Protestant Revolution 4
5«w<//'j History of France 2
— ■^— Passing Thoughts on Religion ... 18
Preparation for Communion 18
Questions of the Day 18
Self-Examination for Confirmation 18
Stories and Tales 21
Thoughts for the Age 18
Shelley's Workshop A; .pliances 12
5A<jr/' J Church Histor' 3
Smith' s (Sydney) Essays 7
Wit and Wisdom 7
<Dr. R. A.) Air and Rain 10
(R. B.) Rome and Carthage 4
Southey's Poetical Works 21
Stanley's History of British Birds 13
.S/tf/A(r«'j Ecclesiastical Biography 5
Stonehenge on ihcHog ..... 22
on the Greyhound 23
Stoney on Strains 16
^/mWj'j Early Plantagenets 4
Empire under the House of
Hohctistaufen 4
Sunday Afternoons, by A. K. H.H 8
Supernatural Religion 18
Swinbourne's Picture Logic 6
Tancock's England during the Wars,
1778-1820 20
7iy/or'j History of India ^
' Ancient and Modern History ... 4
{Jeremy') Works, edited by .^</c« i3
Text-Books of Science 12
rAG>
Thomi's Botany la
Thomson's Laws of Thought 7
yAor/fr'j Quantitative Analysis la
Thorpe and Miiir's Qualitative Analysis ... la
THdcn's Chemical Philosophy la, 14
Todd on Parliamentary Government a
Trench's Realities of Irish Life 8
Trollope's Harchestcr Towers ai
Warden ax
Twiss's '..aw of Nations 6
TyndaW s Americin Lectures on Light ... 11
Diamagnetism 11
• Fragments of Science 11
— — Heat a Mode of Motion II
Lectures on ••'lectricity II
Lectures on Light 11
— — Lectures on Sound 11
Lessons in Electricity 11
Molecular Physics ii
I'nawares ai
I'liu'iii's .Machine Design la
Urc's Dictionary of Arts, Manufactures,
and Mines 16
I'i! ir^'/iit n' s Trident, Crescent, and Cross... 18
11 '///'(•/■ on Whist 33
ir.;//i''/<'.f History of I'.ngl.iiul 1
VVarbiirton's lulward the Third 4
Watson's (ieometry 13
rKr;//yj Dictionary of Chemistry 14
Webb's Objects for ( 'ommon Telescopes ... 10
Wciiihold's Experimental Physics 11
Wellington's Life, by Gieig 5
Whate'ly's English Synonymcs 8
Logic 6
Rhetoric 6
H^/i/V^'.f l''our (iospels in (Jreek 18
and AV(/(('/<''.f Latin Dictionaries ... 9
Whitworlh Me.isuring ^Iachine (The) 15
H^/Acr/CV.r Sea-Fisherman 2a
Williams's Ar\i\.oX\c's Ethics 6
Willic/i's Popular Tables 34
Wood's {j. Ci.) \iih\e . ni^n\s la
Humes without Hands ... la
— — Insects at Home la
• Insects Abroad 12
Out of Doors 13
Strange Dwellings la
( J. T.) I'^phesus 19
Woodward's Gco\ogy 13
IF)'rf//'j History of Prussia 2
'Vonge's English-Greek Lexicons 9
Horace ai
yV//.:// on the Dog aa
on the Horse aa
Zeller's Plato 3
Socrates '.. 3
Stoics, Epicureans, and Sceptics... 3
Zimmern's Lessing 4
Schopenhauer 4
0.
PAGB
13
7
12
nalysis ... la
13. 14
cnt 3
8
31
31
6
Light ... II
II
II
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!::::::::::::: W
II
' II
II
31
12
inifactures,
i6
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23
I
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12
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L'lescopes ... lo
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5
I 8
1" 6
6
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le(TlK-) 15
33
6
34
13
It Hands ... i8
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12
lings 12
19
13
a
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31
32
33
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'.- 3
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4
4
MODERN HISTORICAL EPOCHS.
In courso nf inihllcalloH, each volume infrp. Sen. com^iJetn in it«rlf,
EPOCHS OF MODERN niSTOPtY:
k SKItlKS OF BOOKS NAUKATINO TUB
HISTORY of ENGLAND and EUROPE
At SUCCi:s.SIVR EPOCHS SUUHKQUHNT to tlie CHRISTIAN ERA.
KDiTun nv
]']. E. :\[OllRrS, M.A. Lincoln Coll. Oxford;
J. S. PII[LLPOTTS, n.C.L. New Coll. Oxford; and
C. COLIiECK, ar.A. Follow of Trin. Coll. Cambridge.
' Tills striking collection of litllo volutiius
is a valurtblo contrilmtion to tlio liteni-
turo pf tho (lay, M-hcthi-r for yonthful or
more mature readers. As an abridgment
of several important plnnsi's of moilern
history it has groat njcrit, and some of its
parts display powers and ([ualitieHoF a high
order. Such writers, indecMl, as Professor
Stuubs, Messrs. Waiuiukton, (iAiitDNKU,
CuEiouTox, and others, could not fail to
give us excellunt work. . . . The stylo
of the series is, as a guneral rule, eorreet
and pure ; in the case of Mr. Sti'iiiis it
more than oneo rises into genuine, simple,
and manly eloquence ; and the composi-
tion of some of the volumes ilisplays no
ordinary historical skill. . . . Tlie Series is
''U(l deserves to bo popular.' Thk Times.
The BEGINNING of the MIDDLE AGES; Cliarloa tho Great and Alfred;
the History of KiiRlancl In connexion with tlmt of Eiirojio In tlio Ninth Century. Ily tlio Very
llev. U. \V. CHI iK.il, .M.A. iic. Ueim of St. I'aul'i). With 3 Coloured Maiw. I'rice 'is. «(/.
The CRUSADES. By the Kev. G. W. Cox, M.A. late Scholar of Trinity
College, Oxford ; Author of the ' Arynn Mythology ' &c. With a Coloured Map. Price is. 6d,
The AGE of ELIZABETH. By
Fellow nnd Tutor of Morton College, Oxford
' Notwlthstiitidlnif the severe emnprc.-gioi. re-
quired, Mr. Ciikuiuton 'nm guccee<le<l In present-
iuK a far from unreadpule Inrnk, which will be of
^oat asslHtanee to tli ■ stm'.ent. AlthonRli pro.
minonce Is K'ven to tlie history of Knvfland, the
contomjiorniieoua history of Kiiropo hiw not iH'en
neglect<xl, nnd the Author hiis shewn, wherever
It WAS pOHSible, the eoiuiexion of events piissinif
in ditforent countrus. .\n inipiirtial view Is
taken of tho causes whiih led to the rise niiil
progress of the Uifornuitlon in Kurope, due
the Rev. M. Crkighton, M.A. late
, With S Maps and 4 Genenloglcftl Tftbles. 'J*, lid.
\vei(fht l)eiiit.' tilven to the political iind social, as
well as to the rollKlous clement, shewing' how by
tho course of events that great inevitable change
WHS led to adopt tho clmnicter which it even-
tually assHuied.. ..After all that has iH'en written
iiliont the reign of EuzAUCTii, .\lr. Ciiicioni'ox
may 1h! congratulated in Inning produced an
epitome which is valuable, not only to the stu-
dent, but to nil wlio are in any degree interested
in the history of thnt period.'
ACAPKMV.
The HOUSES of LANCASTER and
LOSS of FllANCE. By .Tames OAOtDNKii, of
Letters ' kc. With S Coloured Maps. I'rice
' This scries of Epochs of History Is one of the
most iLseful contributions to school liternturo
within our knowledge. The division of our na-
tional history into portions is an ussistanco to
its ncquisltlon ns n whole ; nnd cnch portion
forms p. definite niuount (jf work adapted to a
deflnito portion of the school year. 'I'ho chief
merit of these little vohnnes, however, is to be
found in their authorship. It Is— to liorrow
their title—an eiioeli in the history of seh"oI
histories, when, as in this series, we tind anionj-'st
their Authors a few eminent historians. TIjc
writer of the volume on the Wnrs of the Hoses Is
distinguished by his researches into the close of
the period of which It treats, und by his publica-
tion of Papers illustrative of the reignsof Richard
IIL nnd llenry VH. The treatment which tho
whole of this period receives in this slu)rt volume
YORK; with the CONQUEST and
the Public Record Office ; Editor of ' Tho Paston
■2s. «(/.
Is very ndmirnblc. What is chiefly required In
compiling such n liook is the art of leaving out.
Selretlons nnist Ix; made of tho persons to tx- de-
scrilwd nnd of the events to be narrated, and
this involves a large knowledge besides a dis-
criminating judgment. Mr. GAiunNKU says the
age (if the Wars of t\u) Koses is towards its close
one of tho most obscure in English history. But
it is one tliat n schoolboy thinks he knows best.
The Invasion of France by IIF.XIIY V. and the
struggles of two Kings with Wauwick, havesuch
a dramatic interest, and stand out so promi-
nently, thnt tho social condition of the pcdple is
lost sight of. This Epoch Is i)ublished opjior-
tunoly, as tho subject is. In part at least, pro-
scribed for tho next middlo-clnss examinntion.
It will Ixj found well adapted to cla.ss work, nnd
usefid for its prciMiration. NoNXONFOUMihT.
London, LONGMANS & CO.
[Co7itinucd.
EPOCHS OF MODERN H[STOUY-con.««e^.
Tho THIRTY YEARS' WAR, 1018-1048. By Samiiki, Uawson
OAiitMNKU, Into Student of Ch. Ch. ; Auttuir of ' IIMorv <>f KiniliuHl frum tli« Arcnmlon of
Jaiiieii I. to tho DlHgruco of Clilot Jimtlio Coku' 4tc. With u Colounil Map. I'rlco ii. Oil.
The FIRST TWO STUARTS and tho PUIHTAN RKVOLUTIOX,
KliKl-liino, ny Samiki, ItAWsd.s flAiiuiNKit, Autliur of 'The Thirty Yunr»' War, lfllH-I(H8.'
With 4 Coloured MiipM. Trloo 2,i. Oil,
The FALL of tho STUARTS; and WESTKRN' EUROPK from 1078
tn 1<;!i7. Ily tlin Uov. Edwaiiii IIauc, M.A. Aulatutit-Miutcr at Kton. With Kluvun Mapx itiiil
riiiiiK. I'rlco ■.'*. «J.
Tho NORMANS in EUROPE. By Rov. A. II. Johnson, l^I.A. Into
Fellow of All Souls Colli'tfo, Oxford ; HUtorlcftl Lecturer to Trinity, .St. JolniV, rcnibrokr, ninl
Wmlhiim CoUogos. With 11 .Majia. I'rlcu i.u Oil.
The WAR of AMERICAN INDEPENDENCE, 177ri-178.3. By John
Malcolm Ludi/iW, Burrlstcr-ut-Law. With 4 Coloured Maiw. I'rlec J.<. <!■/.
Tlie AGE of ANNE. By E. E. Moituis, M.A. Linoohi Collego, Oxford ;
Head Mimtcr of the .Mellxiurtic Urnniiuar School, Austriilia; UrlKlnitl Editor of tho Sorlen.
With 7 MapH and rUim. I'rlcc 2*. (id.
' Mr. M<)iim.-i xtilncH In blo),Ti\pliy. His nilidii-
turpportniltHof Qikkn ANNi;,tlie l)ukeiif MAur,-
nonoi iiK.nnil f.ord rirrKiiiKiuonMi arei ^i^eiinlly
good; not proreKxinK iiiiythin^f orlKlniil, liutpre.
RentiuK thepo|inliircoii(e|itloiiof their n'^iieetlvo
chanicters in ii few well-chosen words cBli'ulutcd
to mnko n |>crinunent impresKJoii.
I'Ai.L Mali, fiA/nrric.
' ThcpprlrBl selected Is n good one for the pur-
poKO, and It husi fallen into ahle hiinds. The
Autlioi- dlH<'lalins originality of research, but he
Ims chosen his aiitliorities with gi'eat judgment,
nnd tho result of IiIn labours id very satisfactoty.
'J'ho rauscM wlilcli led to the great War of I lie
Spaidsh Successiori ait! very clearly explained, and
tho carripai».'ns of MAULniiiinidii an' admirably
relatwl. The literature of this relun is very ini-
)>ortant, nnd one of the best eha|itcrs is that
devoted to this interesting subjeit. The social
life of the iialloii Is not for^'olfen, nnd Hu' whole
rel^n Is illustruteil by seven excellent nmps.'
SlIHiOI.MAslKU.
' The plan of the series of Kpochs of Mcslern
History has Uvu In no former volume moi-e
faithfully carried out than in the Ako of
Anne. In not one of the iii'W set liavc> the nil-
vantages of this tno<le of presontlni; history for
study Uhu more happily demonstrateil. This Is
a (food op|)ortunlty for explnlnintf, by means of
tln^ example U'fori' us, for the lienetit of tho'^e
who nro not faudliur with the A';(x7i.t, how these
mlMiaturo histories are eonstrui'tx'il. . . .A little
time spent over this volume Is sulHcli'nt to satisfy
nny teiu-hor of hl-tory that the way In which to
convey an adeipiaU' pietureof the rel»,'nof An.nk
is to combine It with the story of Ihirojie dm-ing
tho tlmo that tho (^uismi occupied tln' throne.
.'^('IKioL lIllAltl) ClinoNRIJ':.
The ERA of tht' PROTESTANT REVOLUTION. By F. Skebohm
Author of 'Tho Oxford lleformers— Colot, Erasmus, More.' With 4 Coloured Maps and 13
Uiuframa on Wooil. I'rlco ia, Od.
The EARLY PLANTAGENETS. By the Rev. W. Sxunns, M.A
HeiJrlus rriifessor of Modern IHutory la tho University ot Oxford.
I'rlco '.'J. Gil.
With 2 coloured Maps.
EDWARD tlio THIRD. By the Rev, W. WAunuitroN, M.A. kte
Fellow of All Soul."! College, Oxford; Ilor Mnjosty's Senior Inspector of Schools. With 3
Coloured Maps and U Genealogical Tables. I'rico 'it. Od.
Volumes in preparation, in continuation of the Scries : —
FREDERICK the GREAT and the SEVEN YEARS' WAR. By F. W.
Lo.NOMAN, of Balliol College, Oxford.
The EARLY HANOVERIANS. By tho Rev. T. J. Lawrence, B.A.
late Follow and Tutor of Downing College, Cambridge.
The FRENCH REVOLUTION to the BATTLE of WATERLOO, 1789-
1815. By Bkiitha M. Coiidkuy, Author of ' Tlie Struggle Against Absolute Monarchy.*
The EMPIRE under the HOUSE of IIOHENSTAUFEN. By the Rev.
W. STUUBH, M.A. lloglus Professor of Modern History In the Vulversity of Oxford.
London, LONGMANS & CO.
iSjiotlituooilc it Co., Priiiltri, JS'eu-ilrttt Square, London,
t
ntinued.
iiiKi- Rawson
m tlir Aoc«i«lon of
. Trlt'o -it. Oil.
IVOUJTIOX,
rt" Wiir, l«in-l«48.'
M'] from 1078
til Kluviin MapH iiml
ON, M.A. Into
iii'«, IVnibroko, aii>l
83.
By Joiix
lUego, Oxford ;
!(Utur ot the Sorlus,
ittoii, nml till' wliolo
xri'llciil IiiiilH.'
SrllcKH.MA.'^l'Klt.
i:iH>oli-i of MiKleni
iniior volmiio iiion'
III ill till' Ak" of
cw Ki't li(iv(> tlii^ ml-
■I'sontiiij; history for
nonNtriitcil. Thin it*
liiiiiiiiff, hy iiioiiiH (if
till' licnrtlt of tho-io
It' Kj'oih.i, how tJH'so
striiclcil A litth-
Hsutllclriit to Hiitlnfy
till' wiiv ill which to
if thi'iviminf ANNK
ry of Kumiifl (luring
lljilt'd the tliiolic.
iilAlU) CunoMeLK.
y F. Skedoiim
loured Mnps and 13
Srunns, M.A.
nil 2 colourwl Maps.
ON, M.A. late
:,t Sch(jol8. With 3
'les : —
v\\. By F. W.
jAWREnce, B.A.
ERLOO, 1780-
te Monarcliy.'
. By the Rev.
)f Oxford.
ri(/on.