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Las diagrammas suivants illustrant la mSthoda. 1 2 3 1 2 3 4 5 6 MICROCOPY RESOlUriON TEST CHART (ANSI and ISO TEST CHART No. 2) 1.0 I.I 1^ 12.8 150 ""^ ^ 11 121 m 1.8 1.25 1.4 J yiPPLIED IM/IGE Inc ^ I65J Eost Mam Stresl '.S Rochester, Ne* York U609 USA = (716) 482 - 0300 ~ Phone ^ (716) 288 - 5989 - Fa» ,•5 -'^ LIGHT AND HEAVY TIMBER FRAMING MADE E ASY BaUoon Framing, Mixed Framing, Heavy lmjberFraming,Hou«e.,Fac»crie«,Bridge«, Ban»«, Rink., Timber-roof., and all other kmds of Tmiber BuUdings : • . . Bcinif a copious troatUo on the mortprn np«,.»i,..i ~ .i. ^ oxecutinar all kinds iif tlii.».«i. V..^il. t '"^•<^V"' mPthods of llDR shed or iPttn to VA »hl '""''"«• '''oni the simple BcaLt- brldKes centers needing Snd Sho^int"'^, complicated timber work, tank frames and Uper"trucm?i/' "°""^ '"? "!'*": BV FRED T. HOBGSON. F. A. I. C. MO«TAH« A>.U 8TUC.OH. .SU M'.^i^^'M^-KjiH'.vJc.STofKS Over Four Hundred and Fifty Illustrations and Diagrams PPBLnHBHS F-REDERicK J. Drake CHICAGO & hi COPTKKIHT 1309 BY FREDERICK J. DRAKE ft CO. Chicaoo Printed in U. S. A. Ii iaii7 INTRODUCTORY JOrXTS IK WOODWORK FRAMING. The jointH shown in the fo' ;wing illustrations are sucli as are mostly emplo; J In framei wood- work, and although they do not cover the whole ground, or show all the styles and methods of framing known to the expert workman, they in- clude nearly ill of the principal joints in general use, both in light and heavy framing; later on I n-.ay show other joints and splices that are not included in the fi^nires shown in this portion of the work. The introduction of steel in the construction of buildings has in a great measure displaced woodwork in the erection of large buildings in towns and cities, yet tiu-'er work" ; is still of sufficient importance to warrant a reful study of the properties of wood -ind it,, uses, hence the following descriptions of vai v.^s woods are of- fered in order that U worker nay have a more or less intelligent idea of the nature of the mate- rials he is manipulating. This short treatise it is hoped will be found useful, interesting and instructive tc the reader, and while it is not intended to be exhaustive it 7 8 INTRODUCTORY may be depended upon to be reliable as far as it goes. All trees aro divided by botanists into three classes ; Exogens, or outward-growers ; Endogens, or inward-growers; and Ecrogens, or summit growers— according to the relative position in which the new material for increasing the sub- stance of the tree is added ; viz., whether towards the outside, the inside or the top. Typical trees of each class would be the oak, the palm, and the tree fern. We have to deal with the exogenous t lass only, as that furnishes the timber in general use for construction, the term "timber" including all varieties of wood which, when felled and seasoned, are suitable for building purposes. If the stem of an exogenous tree be cat across, it will be found to exhibit a number of nearly con- centric rings, more or less distinct ; and, in certain cases, radial lines intersecting them. These rings represent the annual growth of the tree which takes place just under the bark. Each ring con- sists of bundles of woody fibre or vascular tissue, in the form of long tapering tubes, interlaced and breaking joint with each other, having a small portion of cellular tissue at inteiTals. Towards the outer edge of each ring the woody fibre is harder, more compact, and of a darker color than the remaining portion. The radial lines consist of thin, hard, vertical plates formed entirely of cellu- lar tissue, known to botanists as "Medullary '^. "-^ ^^ JOINTS IN WOODWORK FRAMING 9 rays" and to carpenters as "silver grain." Fie 1 shows the woody fibre as seen in a magnified vertical section Fig. 2 the cellular tissue and^Fig 3 a typical section of the stem of a voung tree a rays, and d the bark; the three latter consisting Fig. 1. "is. 2. of cellular tissue and enclosing tlie woody fibre in wedge.sh,ped portions. As the tree advances n age, the rings and rays become more irregular the growth being ™ore vigorous on the sunny ^ide causmg d,.tortion. The strength of wooT^alon; the gram" depends on the tenacity o^the wX 10 INTRODUCTORY of the fibres and cells, while the strength *' across the grain" depends on the adhesion of the sides of the tubes and cells to each other. Tredgold proposed a classification of timber according to its mechanical structure, this, as modified by Professor Rankine which is given in the following table, also by Trantwine and others. Class I. Fme-wood (coniferous trees).— pine, fir, larch, cowrie, yew, cedar, etc. Fig. 3. Class II. Leaf-wood (non-coniferous trees), Division I with distinct large medullary rays. Sub-division I. Annual rings distinct— oak. Sub-division II. Annual rings indistinct, beech, •birch, maple, sycamore, etc. Division II. No distinct large medullar^' rays. Sub-division I. Annual rings distinct— chest- nut, ash, elm, etc. Sub-division II. Annual rings mdistmct— ma- h-^gany, teak, walnut, box, etc. Knowing now the microscopical structure of the wood, we are in a position to understand the JOINTS IN WOODWORK FRAMING 11 process of seasoning, and the shrinking incidental to that operation. Wliile wood is in a growing state there is a constant passage of sap, or nutri- tive fluid, which keeps the whole of the interior of the tree moist and the fibres distended, but more especially towards the outside. When the tree is cut down, and exposed to the air, the moisture gradually evaporates, causing the fibres to shrink according to certain laws ; this is the natural pro- cess of seasoning. There are various methods of seasoning timber artificially, in each case the ob- ject in view is to expedite the process of evapora- tion. The shrinkage in length is very slight, and need not therefore be considered; but the shrink- age transversely is so great that it is necessary to look closely into the nature of it, as the ques- tion of jointing is affected considerably thereby. If Fig. 4 be taken as representing the section of a newly felled tree, it will be seen that the wood is solid throughout, and on comparing Fig. 5 with this the result of the seasoning will be apparent. The action is exaggerated in the diagrams in order to render it more conspicuous. As the moisture evaporates, the bundles of woody fibre shrink and draw closer together; but this contraction cannot take place radially, without crushing or tearing the hard plates forming the medullary rays, which are unaffected in size by the seasoning. These plates are generally sufficiently strong to resist the crushing action, and the contraction is there- 12 INTRODUCTORY ! i fore compelled to take place in the opposite direc- tion, i. e. circumf erentially, the strain finding relief by sj)litting the timber in radial lines, allowing the medullary rays in each partially severed por- tion to approach each other in the same direction Fig. 4. FIO. 5. as the ribs of a lady 's fan when closing. The illus- tration of a closing fan affords the best example of the principle of shrinking during seasoning, every portion of the wood practically retaining Fig. 6. Fig. 7. its original distance from the center. If the tree were sawn down the middle, the cut surfaces, al- though flat at first, would in time become rounded, as in Fig, 6, the outer portion shrinking more than thai nearer the heart on account of the greater '^rmmb''^. im^*mr^:a JOINTS IN WOODWORK FRAMING I3 mass of woody fibre it contains and the larger amount of moisture. If cut into quarters eac i por- hon would present a similar result, as sho^n iL Fig. 7. Figs. 8 1. 12 show the same principle a^ Fig. S. f:?. 10. Fig. 12. V r \i ,/' > Fig. 9. Fig. 13. plied to sawn timber of various fornix th. uwn in j^ ig. ij, It ^iii be fo'unc^, after (iCK.-:.».M''i^^~iS" u INTRODUCTORY allowing due time for seasoning, that tlie planks have altered their shape, as in Fig. 14. Taking the center plank first, it will be observed *hat ths thick- ness at tl e middle remains unaltered, at the edge it is reduced, and both sidps are rounded, while the Fig. J 5. width remains unaltered. The planks on each side of this are rounding on the heart side, hollow on the other, retain their middle thickness, but are re- duced in width in proportion to their distance X U '■it imi Fig. 16. Fig. 17. from the center of the tree; or, in other words, the more nearly the annual rings are parallel to the sides of the planks the greater will be the reduction in width. The most striking result of the shrinkage is shown in Figs. 15-17. Fig. 15 m rj? sji-'w'airi ci* • '-i^Kse?* "rnv.- JOINTS IN WOODWORK FRAMING 15 shows a piece of quartering freshly cut from un- seasoned timber; in Fig. 16 the part colored black shows the portion lost by shrinkage, at i Fig 17 shows the final result. Tliose remarks apply more especiallN to oak, beech and the stronger firs In the softer woods tho medullary rars are more yielding, and this slightly modifies the result- but the same principles must be borne in mind if we wish to avoid the evils of shrinking which may occur from negligence in this respect. The i^eculiar direction which ''shakes," (r natural fractures, sometimes take is due to the unequal adhesion of t'.e woody fibres, the weakest part yielding first. In a "cup shake," which is the separation of a portion of two annual rin-s the medullary rays are deficient u cohesion. This same fault sometimes occurs in white pine and has been attributed to the action of lightnin*- and of severe frosts. So far we have considered the shrinking only as regards the cross section of various pieces. Turning now to the effect pro- duced when we look at the timber in the other direction, Fig. IS represents a piece of timber with the end cut off square; as this shrinks, the end remains square, the width alone being affected If, however, the end bo bevelled as in Fig. 19 we shall find that in shrinking it assumes a more acute angle, and this should be remembered in framing roofs, arranging the joints for struts, etc., esp oially by the carpenters who have to do actual -^SCTKT^-.-i-^'r^' at'* 16 INTRODUCTORY work of fitting the parts. If the angle be an in- ternal one or bird's mouth, it will in the same way , become more acute in seasoning. The transverse shrinkage is here considered to the exclusion of any slight longitudinal alteration which might occur, and which would never be sufficient to affect the angle of the bevel. When seasoned timber is used in position subject to damp, the wood will swell in exactly the reverse direction to the shrink- age, and induce similar difficulties unless this point has also received due attention. Of course it will be seen from a study of the cross sections ii ! II i: i 1;!:! Hi It i Fig. 18. illustrated in the diagrams that the pieces might be seltctcd in such a way that the shrinkage and expansion would take place chieflv in the thick- ness inste^ad of the width, and thus'leave the bevel unaltered} In this consists the chief art of select- mg pieces for framing; but in manv instances motives of economy unfortunately favor the use of pieces on stock, without reference to their suita- bility for the purpose required. We may now leave the question of shrinkage and proceed to a consideration of the more im-' mediate intention of the book. In the following JOINTS IN WOODWORK FRAMING I7 table, which shows the English method of classifi CLASSIFICATION OF TLMBEP TO SIZE (Approximate) CCORDING .vt^T-"": ^2" X 12" to 18" X 18" >V hole Timber 9 v q * ic Half Timber p, ' !♦ " « ' '' G „. ^ X 4i to 18 X 9 f. , . 6 X 4 to 12 xl2 ptr":;: .^rV""^^ T . , ^^ to IS X 3 to 6 Joists ,. . ., fattens .i . ^ , q. . „ , ^ , 4^ to 7 X I to 3 Strips and Laths 2 to 4}x i to li JSr£i--j~:s-« 18 TIMBKU FRAMING ling, and when sawn to equal dimensions each way, are called die-square. The dimensions (width and thickness) of i)arts in a IVaniin*,' are sometimes called the scantlings of the pieces. The term "cut stiiflp" is also used to distinguish wood in the state ready for the joiner, from **timher" which is wood prepared for the use of the carjjenter. A "log" or "stick" is a rough whole timber unsawn. The use of wood may he discussed under the two heads of carpentry and joinery. The former con- ^ FiR. l-i. sists principally of the use of large timbers, either rough, adzed, or sawn, and the latter of smaller pieces, always sawn, and with the exposed surfaces planed. The carpenters' work is chiefly outdoor; it embraces such objects as building timber bridges and gantries, framing roofs and fioorr, '•onstructing centering, .:nd other heavy or rough work. Joiners' work is mostly indoor ;'it includes laying flooring, making and fixing doors, window sashes, frames, linings, partitions, and internal fittings generally. In all cases the proper con- nection of the parts is an essential element, and ill: CL.\SS1FIC.>TI0N OF TIMOBB Ij) in designing or cxon.ting joint, a„,l fastenings in woodworl< ,1,0 foli,.„-in,, „ri„,.ipl,.s. laid ,lown by Professor Tr,.,lg„ ,, ,,,„,„,, ,„ ,j,„„.,„, ,,^ ^.^ J so as J°w!" ;,"""!' "'"' "'■"'"'-" ""• fa»"-'ninBs nect as iittle as i)o.ssil)le. 2nd. To r.I u-o oa.h abuttin^r surface in a joint as near y as possible perpendicular to the pres sure wlueh it has to transmit ^ 3rd. To proportion the area of each surface to be ^":r t''' '■ '"^ ^'^ '^^'^'^ - that th tim? ber max be safe against injury under the heaviest load which occurs in practice and to form and fit distribute tiie stress uniformly " mrbe'^^of^'''"^^'rT '^" ^'^^^^'"^"^-^ '^ tJ^-t thev max be of equal strength with the pieces wh^-h they connect. i '^lus wn.cn 5th. To place tlio fastenings in each piece of tim ber so that tliere sliall be sufficient ilsisLte to he g. vmg way of the joint by the fastening shar- ing or crushing their way through the tin:i3er . ^^ t^^^-^^ "i«y '>^ a*3'ltd a Gtli princinle not In. important than tlie foregoin- vL t! J\ T simplest forms of joints:an.r;;:^;;^:^^tnu' this . tliat the more complicated the joint or fl.l greater the number of bearing surfaces tbp] prnbTbliift- •^i -». •'! ^ sLuiaces, tlie Jess La;,;i.;:— -: - -- s^d and ^MB 20 TI! ,R FRAMINn equal boarinff in a joint which is not (jiiifp true, it is usual, aftor the pieces are put together, to run a saw cut between each bearing surface or abut- ment, the kerf or width of cut being equal in each case, the bearing is then rendered true. This is often done, for instance, with the shoulders of a tenon or the butting ends of a scarf, when careless workmanship has rendered it necessary. When the visible junction of two pieces is required to be r^ s Kig. 20. as close as possible, and no great strain has to be met at the joint, it is usual to slightlv undercut tlie parts, and give clearance on the inside, a., in Fig. 20, which shows an enlarged view of a tongued and rebated heading joint in flooring. In pattern- making the fillets which are j)laced at the internal angle of two meeting surfaces, are made obtuse nngled on the back, in order that when hradded into place the sharp edges may lie close, as shown m Fig. 21. The prints used by pattern-makers for indicating the position of round cored holes are also undercut l)y being turned slightlv hollow on St W" ■•M^MihMi ClaS.SIPICATI(,N OF TIMnKB 21 the bottom, us .shown in Fiir ^'> Ti. • • . IS adopted in nonrlv ..ii »o 7' '" T>'*'"c'pIo joints of fran,i„ff s,,nTZ" """ '''' '" take place, in orlr ," If ' r™ Z,^ "'"■'>• "> the straiu. ' '"" '"''"""'« 'o resist The various strain>i (li.,t •"omberofastruCare '°'"'-' """" ""^ Tension : .Strot,.|,inK or pnllin. Compression: Cru.sl,i„/or"usl,in« Transverse Strair- f •,.,,1, . ."""'■ Torsion :T.is,in'^or ;:;;;, ;:■"-'••'•-•'-«. Shearin-: Cuttin,?. But in woodwork wl.f.n fi ? . alonsf the grain, i, is «c„ "„ 'l ,"',''f /"''^ "'^'^ "le term shearing wL i'''"' *"•"«''>"." "cross the grain. Tlefi^VZe '• ^'" "■''""' l>eams respeotivelv. The rn , ' ' ""' ""'^ must be observed.- is re.'dv be rt'r; ''•''"°' " compression, the former ooenrl " t """" """ ^ide 01 a oaded beqm ^r.r^ .1 ". *"^' convex -- -^- '^e ..ot- g-^.: -- Ztnt-rai 22 TIMBER FRAMING axis or line of no strain. The shearing strain oc- curs principally in beams and is greatest at the point of support, the tendency being to cut the timber through at right angles to the grain; but in nearly nil cases if the timber is strong enough to resist the transverse strain it is amply strong for any possible shearing strain which can occur. Keys and other fastenings are especially subject to shearing strain, and it will be shown in that portion of our subject that there are certain pre- cautions to be adopted to obtain the best results. The following tallies will serve as an introduc- tion to this iDortion of the subject : Ij.s i if ^'1 11 CLASSIFICATIOX OF JOINTS IN CARPENTRY. Joints for lengthening ties, struts and beams; lapping, fishing, scarfing, tabling, building up. Bearing-joints for beams; halving, notching, cogging, dovetailing, tusk-tenoning, housing, chase- mortising. , Joints for posts and beams; tenon, joggle, bri- dle, housing. Joints for struts with ties and posts; oblique tenon, bridle, toe-joint. Miscellaneous; butting, raitering, rebating. i3 CLASSIFICATION OF FASTENINGS IN CARPENTRY. Wedges, v -i Keys ^aiJs, spikes, Pins,' i*'"^' ^^^^^S' bolts, And for joincy must be added glue of timber for igiut: n^^nr '\'"t,'''^ "^'^ -et,„n of two or more I.e^m'Aroltai \'^;:to"r" ^i^m^3 and whenever adopted 24 TIMBER FRAMING the beams should be arranged in three or five pieces in order that the supports at each end may be level and the beams horizontal. This joint is more suitable for a cross strain than for tension and compression. Fig. 25 shows tho common form .£1 -^_ =tfr" .jSi. -4- Fig. 21. '1 B' I r -.SL. -#- -.^^a. J^r^ -'^r 1 • i; '^w 'w- Fig. 25. -^- -^» ^ ^^^^ .A, Mi -^ -^^ Fig. 26. t3^ y of a finished beam adapted for compression. If required to resist tensile strain, keys should be inserted in the top and bottom joints between the bolts. Fig. 26 shows a fished joint adapted for a cross strain, the whole sectional area of '(\\(^ orig- CIJSSIPICATION OF FASTrarMa 25 inal beam takins the CTrnpressivo portion nP ., oross strain, an,I the fishing piec.t'.k!^ 1, . "^ portion. Fig. 27 shows a fis , b,™ ' f^r ' ^"'^^ purpose in wlnVh a wrough on t, "tl n'"-' 7"" at the ends takes the ten 'l,. rain Tn I "" sists of bedding portions of ™ , "*-' '""■ other longitudiLllv ,.,:'; „".';'7 '"''', ■'" pieces are tabled at'the ends no ,, u '^''""« sistthetendeney to.in.nders, "'<','"'''"'' '» '"- is better performed 1 J k " 1 1""' '■"'. "'''^ '^ffi''" is not mneh used. tV tstrn^ i Vi^l.t^'fi'';"! bean,s and soarfed boa,„s is that i^ r^^;^::^ FiSf. 27. beams themselves are -nt in L' ■"""" ""^ strengthen The ornR„'or_r' ^"^?'"" '^ searf adapted to shor, pos^/' ; r.^.f^ ' '™ "^ ™t -,„are and parallel ',„ , e ! , ^t .he' flmed, as in Fig. 29, to allow of /If !".'i^ '"- o^mg retained a, ,l,e shoulder of e.eh' rli^^Hh: 26 TIMBER FRAMING shoulder being kept square. In this joint a con- siderable strain may be thrown on the bolts from the sliding tendency of the scarf, if the shoulders should happen to be badly fitted, as any slipping would virtually increase the thickness of the tim- ber where the bolts pass through. The width of each shoulder should be not less than one-fourth the total thickness. Joints in posts are mostly re- fA/^V vu W\'^ fe rwutyi 51 I ih Fig. 2S. (l: :-s9 Fig. 29. •'*.'' ■\\A^. h4 ,/y^ Fig. 30. quired wlion it is dosired to lengthen piles already driven, to support a superstructure in the manner of columns. Another form of scarf for a post put together without bolts is shown in Fig. 30, the parts being tal)]od and tongnod, and held together by wedges. This is not a satisfactory^ joint, and is moreover, expensive l)ocause of its requiring extra care in fitting; but it may be a suitable joint in some special cases, in which all the sides are re- CLASSIFICATION OF FASTENINGS £7 quired to be flush. Fie •?! «]ia^ *7 wed.. .HvenVo^^4:-rr.^--^^^^^^^^ r ^#===f^— =rr^?=^ FIS. 31. ToZ! S,iih^raTa';T/'r - «>« '^p -d Aov, joo,l fo™, of son r ."''•, ^'"'- ^- '""<' 33 28 TIMBKR FRAMING scarf is made vertically instead of liorizontally, and when this is done a slight modification is made in the position of the projocting tongue, as will be seen from Fig. 34, which .^hows the joint in ele- vation and plan. The only other scarfs to which attention need be called are those shown in Figs. 35 and 36 in which the compression side is made Fig. 36. with a square abutment. These are very strong formSj and at the same time easily made. Many other forms have been designed, and old books on carpentry teem with scarfs of every conceivable CUVSSIPICATION OF FASTENINGS 29 Ti ■ Fig. 37. pattern; but in this, as in many other cases, ihi^ simplest thing is the best, as the whole value de- pends upon the accuracy of the workmanship, and this is rendered excessively difficult with a multi- plicity of parts or abutments. In building up beams to obtain increased strength the most usual method is to lay two to- gether si I— " 4-U < h to -5 L:|, ll. .iL. '»y* i H^^N^. ^J ^ \^ ^ .1 (- .'. CLASSIFICATION OF FASTENINGS 31 the ends, allowance being made for the loss of strength at the joints on tension side. A single piece of timber secured to the underside of a beam at the center, as in Fig. 39 is a simple and effective mode of increasing its strength. If will be ob- served that the straps are bedded into the sides of the beams; they thus form kevs to prevent the pieces from slipping on each other. This weakens the timber much less than cutting out the top or bottom, as the strength of a beam varies not only m direct proportion to the breadth, but as the square of the depth. The addition of a second piece of timber in the middle is a method frequentlv adopted for strengthening shear legs and derrick poles temporarily for lifting heavv weights y^e now come to the consideration of bearing joiph for beams, the term "beam" being taken to include all pieces which carry or receive a load across the grain. The simplest of these is the halv- ing joint, shown at Fig. 40, where two pieces of cross bracing are halved together. This joint is a so shown at Fig. 41, where the ends of two wall plates meet each other. When a joint occurs in the length of a beam, as at Fig. 42, it is generally called a scarf. In each of these examples it will be seen that half the thickness of each piece is cut away so as to make the joint flush top and bottom Sometimes the outer end of the upper piece is made^thickcr, forming a bevelled joinl and acting as a dovetail when loaded on top. This is shown 32 TIMBER FRAMING at Figs. 43 and 44. When one beam crosses an- other at right angles, and is cut on the lower side to fit upon it, the joint is known as single notching, shown in Fig. 45. Wlien both are cut, as in Fig! Fig. 47. 46, it is known as double notching. These forms occur in the bridging and ceiling joists shown on the dmgrnms of double and doubL-framed floor- ing. ^Yhen a cog or solid projecting portion is a.ASSIFICATlON OF FARTENINOS 33 ''t in the lower piece at the middle of the joint it is known as cogging, cocking, or caulking, and is shown in Fig. 47. Figs. 48 and 49 show two forms of the joint occurring between a tie-beam and wall plate in roofing. Dove-tailing is not much Fig. 48. Fig. 49. used in carpentry or house-joinery, owing to the shrinkage of the wood loosening the joint. Two wall plates are shown dovetailed together at Figs. 50 and 51 ; in the latter a wedge is sometimes in- Fig. 50. serted on the straight side to enable the joint to bo tighioned up as the wood shrinks. Tredgold proposed the form shown in Fig. 52 which is known as the "Tredgold notch"; but this is never seen in practice. Tusk-tenoning is the method 34 TIMBER FRAMING adopted for obtaining a Ivarii,.? for one beana meeting another at right angles at the sanu' level. Fig 53 shows a trimmer supported on a trimming Kig. r.i. Kig. r.-. \ Fig. r;:?. riK. 54. ioist m this manner; this occurs ^""f/j^fi;^^' .oislways. ana other openings through floosF.£^ 54 shows the same joint between a wood guder and binding joist, it is also seen ir tbe diagram of CLASSIFICATION OF FASTENINGS 35 double-framed flooring. The advantage of this form is that a good bearing is obtained without weakening the beam to any very great extent, as the principal portion of the material removed is takon from the neutral axis, leaving the remainder disposed somewhat after the form of a flanged girder. When a cross piece of timber has to be framed in betwc : two beams already fixed, a tenon and chase lortise (Fig. 55), is one of the Fig. 55. methods adopted. If the space is very confined, the same kind of mortise is made in both beams, but in opposite directions; the cross piece is then held obliquely, and slid into place. Occasionally it is necessary- to make the ?hasc-mortise vertical, but this is not to be recommended, as the beam is more weakened by so doing — it is shown in Fig. 5G. (Viling joists, fixed by tenons and chase-mor- tises, are shown on the diagram of double flooring. iki^ KP^^^mt 36 TIMBER FRAMING In sorie vrrtoos, a square fillet is nailed on, as shown in the same diagram, to take the weight of the joists without cutting into the beam. "Wliile speak- ing of floors, the process of f urriug-up may be men- tioned ; this consists of laying thin pieces, or strips, of wood on the top of joists, or any surfaces, to bring them up to a level. Furring-pieces are also sometimes nailed underneath the large beams in framed floors, so that the under side may be level with the bottom of the ceiling joists, to give a Fig. 56. bearing for the laths, and at the same time allow sufficient space for the plaster to form a key, Brandering is formed by strips about one inch square, nailed to the under side of the ceiling joists at right angles to them; these strips help to stiffen tlic ceiling, and being narrower than the ceiling joists, do not interrupt the key of the plas- tering so much— this is ako shown on the diagram of double flooring. Housing consists of letting one })iece of wood bodily into another for a short ■ s '•.' '^9Hm^ M ^-n^j' mh-^M"- CLASSIFICATION OF FASTENINGS 37 distance, or as it were, a tenon the full size of the stuff lii;^ h shown in the diagram of stair- ease det ils, where rUe treads and risers are seen housed i 't(> the slri igs, and held by wedges. Hous- ing is likewise aL!c;,)ted for fixing rails to posts, as in Fig. 57, where an arris rail is shown housed into i i\ % /\:\ \r\^Y^'^^^ Fig. 57. „yJ^ Fig. 59. an oak post for fencing. The most common joint, however, between posts and beams, is the tenon and mortise joint, either wedged or fixed by a pin; the former arrangement is shown in Fig. 58, and the latter in Fig. 59. The friction of the wedges, 38 TIMBER FRAMING when tightly driven, aided by the adhesion of the glue or white lead with which they are coated, forms, in effect, a solid dovetail, and the fibres be- ing compressed, do not yield further by the shrink- ing of the wood. In the diagram of a framed door will be seen an example of the application of this joint and in the adjacent diagram will be seen the evils produced by careless fitting, or the use of un- seasoned material. When it is desired to tenon a beam into a post, without allowing the tenon to show through, or where a mortise has to be made N>V / hM f ir-:^ Fig. 60. Fig. 61. in an existing post fixed against a wall, the dove- tail tenon, shown in Fig. 60 is sometimes adopted, a wedge being driven in on the straight side to draw the tenon home and keep it in place. In join- ing small pieces, the foxtail tenon, shown in Fig. 61 has the same advantage as the dovetail tenon, of not showing through; but it is more difficult to fix. The outer wedges are made the longest, and in driving the tenon home, these come into action first, splitting away the sides, and fill- ing up the dovetail mortise, at the same time -.m^^^^M'* CLASSIFICATION OP FASTENINGS 39 compressing the fibres of the tenon. This joint requires no glue, as it cannot draw out; should it work loose at any time, the only way to tighten it up would be to insert a very thin wedge in one end of the mortise. Short tenons, assisted by strap bolts, as shown in Fig. 62 are commonly adopted in connecting large timbers. The post is f^VW Fig. 02. cut to form a shoulder so that the beam takes a bearing for its full width, the tenon preventing any side movement. When a post rests on a beam or sill piece, its movement is prevented by a ''jog- gle," or stub-tenon, as shown in Fig. 63; but too much reliance should not be placed on this tenon, owing to the impossibility of seeing, after the pieces are fixed, whether it has been properly lij mm 40 TIMBER PRAMINQ fitted, and it i? particularly liable to dceny from moisture settling in the joint. For temporary pur- poses, posts are r-ommonly secured to heads and sills by dog-irons, or "dogs," Fig. C4; the pieces Fig. 63. Fig. (!4. in this case simply butt against each other, the object being to avoid cutting the timber, and so depreciating its value, and also for economy of labor. Other forms of tenons are shown in Figs, 65 and 66. The double tenon is used in framing ^H i ■•:S I FlK. 65. Fig. 66. wide pieces, and the haunched tenon when the edge of the piece on which the tenon is formed is re- quired to be flush with the end of the pipce con- taining the mortise. Examples of both these will :}P ^nn^. CLASSIFICATION OP FASTENINGS 41 be found in the diagram of framed door. In Figs. 67 and 68 are shown two forms of bridle joint be- tween a post and a beam. Tredgold and Hatfield recommended a bridle joint wi*h a circular abut- Z '\\ /lyM /VvJ Fig. 67. Fig. 68. ment, but this is not a correct form, as the post is then equivalent to a column with rounded ends, which it is well known is unaljle In that form to Fig. 69. bear so great a load before it commences to yield. A strut meeting a tie, as in the case of the foot of a i)riucipal rafter in a roof truss, is generally tenoned iuto the tie by an oblique tenon, as shown in Fig. 69; and the joint is further strengthened It *, 42 TIMBKU FRAMINO ■t-' v by a toe on the rafter bearing against r sliDuMer in the tie. Tredgold strongly advised iliis jo'.nt being made with a bridge instead of a tenon, as shown in Fig. 70, on account of the abutting sur- faces being fully open to view. A strut mt-eting a post as in Fig. 71, or a strut meeting the princi- pal rafter of a roof-truss (Fig. 72) is usually con- nected by a simple toe-joint. The shoulder should be cut square with the piece «^ontaining it, or it should bisei't the angle formed between the two Fig. TO. pieces. It is sometimes made square with the strut, but this is incorrect, as there would in some cases be a possibility of the pieces lipping out. In bat- toned and braced doors or gates this joint is used, the pieces being so arranged as to form triangles, and so prevent the liability to sag or drop, which is so difficult to guard against in square framed work without struts or braces. AVhen a structure is triangulated, its shape remains constant so long as the fastenings are not torn away, because, with a given length of sides, a triangle can assume only one position; but this is not the case with four- CT-iVSSIFICATION OI' FASTKXIXGS 43 sided fraininj?, as the sides, while remaining con- stant in length may vary in position. The diagram of a mansard roof shows vaiious examples of a toe-joint; it sl-^ws also the principal framing king- post and queen-post roof trusses, each portion be- ing triangulated to insure tlio utmost stability. ni3 - -r i. HZ — r Till. 74. Fig. 73. '■'=• '■*• '^■^- '•"• Among the miscellaneous joints in carpentry not previously mentioned the most common are the butt joint^ Fig. 7."'., where the pieces meet each other with* square ends or sides; the mitre joint, Fig. 74, where the pieces abut against each other with bevelled ends, bisecting the angle between them, as in the case of struts mitered to a corbel piece sup- 1 y^. rt£ 7G. irj:Ts. ■-u< aA^ Fig. 77. Fig. 78. porting the beam of a gantry; and the rabbeted or "rebated" joint. Fig. 75, which is a kind of narrow halving, either transverse or longitudinal. To these must be aG, which m good work is formed generally of hard wood, is made up of short pieces cut diag- onally across the grain of the plank, in order that any movement of the joints mav not split the tongue, which would inevitably occur if it were cut longitudinally from the plank. a.ASSIFICATION OP FASTENINGS 45 With regard to fastenings, the figures already given show several applicatiors. Wedges should be split or torn from the log, so that the grain may be continuous, or if sawn out, a straight-grained piece should be selected. Sufficient taper should be pui on tu give enough compression to the joint, but too much taper would allow the possibility of the wedge working loose. For outside work, wedges should be painted over with white lead be- fore being driven, this not being affected by mois- ture, as glue would be. In scarf-joints the chief use of wedges is to draw the parts together before the bolt-holes are bored. Keys are nearly parallel strips of hard wood or metal; they are usually made with a slight draft to enable them to fi't tightly. If the key is cut lengthwise of the grain, a piece with curled or twisted grain should be se- lected, but if this cannot be done, the key should be cut crossways of the log from which it is taken, and ins( ted in the joint with the grain at right angles to the direction of the strain, so that the shearing stress to which the key is subject may act upon it across the fibres. In timber bridges and other large structures cast iron keys are fre- quentlv used, as there is with them an absence of all .difficulty from shrinkage. Wood pins should be selected in same way as wedges, from straight- grained, hard wood. Square pins are more effif'ipnt than round pins, but are not often used, on account of the difficulty of forming square holes for their 46 TIMBKU FKAMINU reception. Tenons are freiiueutly scoured in mor- tises, as in Fii^. 59, by pins, the pins being driven in sucli a manner as to draw the tenon ti' Fig. 78 gives another example of the use of pins. Nails, and their uses, are too well known to need description; it may, however, be well to call attention to the two kinds of cut and wrought nails, the former being sheared or s-tamped out of plates, and the latter forged out of rods. The cut nails are cheaper, but are rather brittle; they are useful in many kinds of work, as they may be driven without previously boring holes to receive them, being rather blunt pointed and having two par- allel sides, which are placed in the direction of the grain of the wood. The wrought nails do not easily break, and are used where it is desired to clench them on the back to draw and hold the wood together. The following table gives the result of some experiments on the adhesion of uuiis and screws. •L*-^ . CL.VSSUICAT10N OP FASTENINGS Ai)IIKSION OP^ NAILS. DcHcrlptlnii o( No. ti> III)' Ih I Avoir. Fine hrad.s j 456j " I ;{200 Threepenny brads I 618 I Ca«t-Jron nails 380 Sixponny luiils 7;> Inohoii lontf. 0.44 0.53 1.25 1.00 2.50 Hm. Pri-nfurt'! Mic. prt-nsuro InrhcH to force in. | to i-xtract into ' (( Fivepcnny nails i;;y 2.00 wood. .40 .44 .50 .25 .50 .50 1.00 t'Ul. Pry Pine Deal. Ory Kim — 22 — 37 — 58 — 72 24 — 76 — 235 187 end grain 37 400 327 ; :J27 257 610 I " end grain 1.50 — 530 320 n French or wire nails have almost driven the cut and vrrouijjht nails out of the market. Wire nails, ^jwever, are not as lasting as the old fashioned ones, but they are clean, handy to work and can bo clinched whenever necessary. They rust quickly, and should not be used for shingling or where damp is likely to get to them. l*^fmi'^^SuM^'"Qt.. 48 :*p f ■ » TIMBER KRAMINQ 8UMMARV. . ,, Across Grain. With Grain. Adhesion of nails in Pine 2 to I Adhesion of nails in Elm 4 to S Entrance to extraction is as (5 to 5. Common screw .2" diam. ecjuals 3 times the ad- hesive force of a six-penny nail. Spikes are nearly of the ^ame form as nails, but much larger and are mostiv used for heavy timber work. Treenails, so-called, are hard wood pins used in tl>e same way as nails. In particular work, with some woods, such as Oak, thcv are used to prevent the staining of the wood, which would occur if nails were used and any moisture after- wards reached them. ( ompiv^sed treenails are largely used in England for fixing railway chairs to sleepers as they swell on exposure to moisture, and then hold more firmly. Screws are used in situations where the parts may afterwards re- quire to be disconnected. They are more useful than nails, as they not only connect th- parts, but draw them closer together, and are more secure For joiner's work the screws usually have counter- sunk heads; where it is desired to conceal them they are let well into the wood, and the holes plugged wlth_ dowels of the same kind of wood, with the grain in the same direction. For car- penters' work the screws are larger and have often CLASSIFICATION OF FASTENINdS 49 sqnaro heads; those are known as coach-screws. The bolts, nuts, and washers used in carpentry may be of tho proportions given in the following table: — an i-xampje is shown in i-'ig. 80. fi gBO Fig. 80. Thick u.ss of nut 1 diam. of bolt Tliic'kne.ss of head .y^ diam. of bolt Diam. of head or nut over sides.l:;4 diam. of bolt S.de of s.|uare waslicr for fir. ..'U .', diaiii. of holt Side of square washer for oak.2i/- diam. of bolt Thiclaiess of washer xl diam. of bolt The squ/n-e nuts used by carpenters are gener- a]l> much too thin; unlt-ss thoy are equal in thick- ness to the diameter of the bolt, the full advantage of that diameter cannot be obtained, the strength of any connection being measured by its weakest part. The best proportion for nuts is shown in the diagram of a standard hexagon nut. A large square washer is generally put under the nut to prevent it from sinking into the wood and tearing the fibres while being screwed up, but it is also necessary to put on a similar washer under the head to prevent sinking into the wood. This is, however, often improperly omitted. Straps are ■III 50 TIMBER FRAMINO bands of wrought-iron placed over a joint to strengthen it and tie the parts together. When the strap is carried round one piece, and both ends secured to a piece joining it at right angles, as in a king-post and tie-beam, it is known as a stirrup, and is tightened by means of a cotter and gib-keys as shown in Fig. 81. When straps connect more w Fig. 81. than two pieces of timber together, they are made with a branch leading in the direction of each piece ; but they are usually not strong enough at the point of junction, and might often be made shorter than they are without impairing their efficiency. Sockets are generally of cast-iron, and may be described as hollow boxes formed to re- ceive the ends of timber framing. ^ With regard to the use of glue for securing joints, it has been found that the tensile strength of solid glue is about 4,000 lbs. per square inch, while that of a glued joint in damp weather is from 350 to 3G0 lbs. per square inch, and in dry weather about 715 lbs. per square inch. The lat- CLASSIFICATION OP FASTENINGS 51 eral cohesion of pine wood is about 562 lbs. per square inch, and therefore in a good glue joint the solid material will give way before the junction yields. These joints, though quite numerous, do not exhibit all that are used in carpentry and joinery, but are quite sufficient for our present purpose, as others will be illustrated and described as we pro- ceed. In balloon or scantling buildings of all kinds, good solid foundations should in every case be pro- vided, for most of the defects often found in frame buildings such as cracks, breaks, sags, etc. are in a great measure due to the settlement of founda- tion walls, pins, posts or undue shrinkage. When possible, all wood materials such as studding, joists, rafters, collar-beams, trimmers, sills, plates, braces and all other timber or lumber used, should be well seasoned, particularly the joists, as the shrinking of the joists causes the partitions to drop and this makes cracks in the angles of the walls, causes the doors to drag on the floors or to bind at the top and thus disarrange the locks, bolts, catches or other fastenings. Shrinkage of wall studs causes trouble around the windows and outside doors, leaving openings for wind to make its way through into the interior of the house. These things, though apparently of little moment, are quite necessary to be taken into consideration if a good warm and substantial building is de- sired. '■'"■»"''?:t 52 TIMBER FRAMING We are now ready to undertake some examples of real work. The first thing to be consider^ when preparing for a balloon frame after the f oirn- dation wall is ready to put on the frame work, is the sill on which the studding is to stand. Of these there are many kinds and I propose to illustrate a selection from which the builder may choosfthe Fig. 82. °he Zl ""1'''%"' ^" P^P"^^- Fig. 82 is about LnTot!'' ' "^ T ''"<' '^ °»'^»g ^ore or less may be fastened by a wooden pin or nailed to- gether as shown. A sill of this kind should b.' laid in mortar and levelled up to take the joists the sill altogether, as shown in Fig. 83 or they may be cut or 'cheeked" so as to rest both on stone wall and sill Fig. 84 shows another method of forming a sill in the old fashioned way. This SS^^fL, ifcZr^'a^fWrV^.-vil* CLASSIFICATION OP FASTENINGS 53 makes a good strong sill and secures a warm con- nection between sill and wall. Another good plan IS shown at Fig. 85. Figs. 86, 87, 88, 89, 90 and 91 show a number of various methods of forming sills all of which are good. All sills of this kind should be bedded in mortar and levelled up on their top Fig. 83. Pig. 84. flats and when convenient the spaces between the joists on the wall should be filled in with stone or brick-work level with the top of the upper edges of the joists. By doing this, the building is made more comfortable, stronger, and vermin of all kinds will be prevented from getting into the build- 7t«;-Tje-^'^-srQ-§"\' 54 TIMBER FRAMING Fig. 85. Fig. 86. Fig. 87. ;^$;^^■.w.^s...^w■w>^',k^,^s^ fllUtOWiTH! StoHe 1 WM^m^. ^^3" Wp^LL Fig. 88. ''■h fiil ''■ 1 1 t ^ \ 1 ■•-■•*! I I ^^ss^s^ ^K Fig. SS. CLASSIFICATION OP FASTENINGS 55 ing, and the joists are held together solid in their places. Of course the stone or brick work must be laid in mortar and well flushed up. Sometimes balloon frames are built up on timber sills of various dimensions and it may be well to give a few examples here of this method, although the matter of framing and laying the sills is simple enough. Fig. 91. Some timber varies in size, often from one- fourth to one-half an inch, and in framing the cor- ners this fact must be noted and provided for or the studs will be too long or too short as the case may be, and the joists will not be in line on top The sills should be all sized to the same dimension and all joists shoild be sized and made equal in width. Fig. 92 exhibits one method of using a tim- ber sill. This is rather a troublesome method and costly, but is really an excellent wav as it gives a bearing to the edge of the joists both on the sill 56 TIMBER FRAMING and on the stonework. At Fig. 93 we show another method of using a timber sill. Sometimes, in cases of this kind a tenon is worked on the end of the joists and a corresponding mortise is made in the sill to receive it; more frequently, however, the ends of the joists are nailed to the sill by be- Fig. 93. ing toe-nailed to it. This method of using a timber sill is not to be recommended, but when it is em- ployed it is always better to cut in boards tight between the joists and nail the boards solid to the sill. This makes a fair job and insures the joists staying in their places. Another method, with a part of the studded wall— in section— is CLASSIFICATION OP FASTENINGS 57 shown m Fig 94. This illustration also shows the second and t nrd joists and their manner of at aehment to the wall studs. The rafter and scheme lor forming the cornice are shown so that the dia gram may be followed by the workman without r ■ t Fig. 94. rouble. Fig. 95 shows another example of heavy sill with a portion of the wa.l at the cor- ner and at one side of a window opening It wiU ^'e noticed that the comer stud and the jamb stud A^ 58 TIMBER FRAMINQ at the window are made 4x4 inches in section. Where such studs can be obtained it is best to get them solid, but the usual way of forming these comers, is to nail two studs together which answer Fig. 95. the purpose very well. The joists are notched or checked onto a 2"x4" scantling which is spiked to lower edge of the sill to receive the joists. This is not a good way unless the lower edges of the joists rests on the stonework as shown in Figs. 92 ' .«. y«Ki•^«r'^f . ;ic-' .i':'j9&r CLASSinCATION OP FASTENINGS 59 and 93, as tlie joists are apt to split at the corner of the notching if a heavier weight happens to be placed on the floor than was at first intended. Tlie old-fashioned way of framing a heavy sill to receive joists is shown in Fig. 96. This method now is almost obsolete and is only used where joists are to be carried across a large room and Fig. 96. where a beam or bearer is not admissible as noth- ing must show in the room below the ceiling, and where joists are in two lengths. It will be noticed that there are three different methods of framing the joists in the sill. The first shows the mortise too low down on the sill, the second too high up, while the third is in the strongest point where a siugle tenon and mortise are employed. In the top of the sill the stud mortises are shown, with two t'js^-ft i' 60 TIMBER FRAMINa studs in situ and one out to show the tenon. There were various methods of framing the joists into the sills in order to obtain the greatest resistance to pressure, among which was the double tenon, the tusk tenon, such as shown in Fig. 97, the upper example being disengaged and the lower one in place. There are also many other methods of framing joists into heavy timber sills, but I have > Fig. 97. Fig. 9S. exhibited sufficient examples to give an idea of the general methods, and when we get to heavy framing, I will say more on the subject and offer a few extra examples. Fig 98 shows another old- time method of framing a sill. This is called ** Gaining and mortising a sill," and was often miMm^s^Bf^ f.t -''4-i>-"-.'i I'- CLASSIFICATION OP FASTENINGS Ql put in specifications under this term. Fig 99 shows a method of forming a sill called a "box sill," -as a matter of fact it is no sill at all, be- mg formed of two joists. It is simple, however and IS fairly effective. Another box sill is shown' at Fig. 100. This is often used where there is a Fig. 99. good foundation under it, it makes a very good sill, when the studding is cut so as to go down '0 the bottom and occasionally when spiked in the loist as well as the sill it makes job 'ery strong Fig. 101 is another strong way which can be con- .4.. t 62 TIMBER FRAMING '•>'< Kig. lu<<. Fig. 101. ' >«. '% \.. CLASSIFICATION OP FASTENINGS 63 structed a little quicker and is good for acheaD job bu I prefer the other. Fif. 102 is ehearer stUl and used a good deal, just the one piece la d flat on he wall, the ,oist put . , and a 2x4 nailed on he ,01st, and then the studding naile.l to hat O. let the studding run down to the .ill and An away with th.. 2x4 on the joist. ^"^ fig. 102. scan Im bniUmgs much car, is r»q,u,ed in ar- ZfZtj^T'''- '"'^"™^ -I .bo'tthe al^s with 'fT '" ""•'''■ " «^t the best re- tlr ','"' '■''' ""-"'•" "<■ """'-rials and ^.bor as posMble and . . ,r.,er to aid the work- n.an m tli.s d.rec< , 1 have gathered together from ramus sour.*. . .u,„„, „f exampleTthe hem •; th 7'"' ""■ •""' ""'P°^^ and'en>:,odv t^i-... .IE n. "se for instance thp corner pnsts in a ba- o, frame where H has to serve fc receiving th. an, hi„g materials-board! wi; 64 TIMBER FRAMINQ *l .1 i ing and lathing — on both its inner and outer angles. These should be straight, firm and solid, and constructed so as to make a good outside and inside corner. Fig. 103 shows a substantial way, simply by nailing four together strong with a good outside and nice inside corner to lath on. Fig. 104 is another way practically as good and saves one studding. But if the thickness of t«ro was not the width of one it would bother a little. Pig. 103. Fig. 104. Fig. 105. I Fig. 105 is a method of nailing together the cor- ner studding in a way to avoid the difficulty just mentioned and makes a good comer. Fig. 106 shows hofw a good corner for a cheap job can be made with two studding ; if the build- ing is not sheathed a five-inch corner board nailed together at the corner works alright, and cham- fered on the corner looks well, too. Of course, if CLASSIFICATION OP FASTENINGS 65 cross pa?tit7on"^„,ef at sttT '"'^ "'■^" «■« inches root 4) amTl^ f, *'"'^*''» sh»"ld be 3 that the pla terL„ wm 1° '"°" ^'''' " ""'^ ^»™er Fio- ms =1 ' "^ "o ^^cuse to crack in Fig. 108 shows corner of partition where the par-' Fig. 106. Fig. 107. Fig. 108. tition is put up the 2.iuch way, as thev ofto. m closets and light work. If vou wi,h thl 1, -u* 109 shows a good method for plate ^n^-f^* con.er, cut to keep from pr e it ^.^^ r^f °'' -i..ch „>akes the best job for ineral purpose: " TIMBER FRAMINQ At Fig. Ill I show two other corners some- times used. One of these shows the least amount of material that can be used for an outer comer while the other one shows a solid comer formed 4 Fig. 109. Fig. 1X0. Fig. 111. Fig. 112. with four pieces and is similar to Fig. 103, and the other to Fig. 107. At Fig. 112 is shown two examples, the upper one is for the starting point of a partition, the lower one shows the double stud ^yf^: m^^m STUDDING 67 nmg lath behind a pTroL 'T,'' T^""^ "^ ™»- y'«. 113. e.ght. F,g. 120 shows a section of „ floor with Fig. 125. iTo^'',^T r"i°? "."'^ '""' ''"^^"S- This is a all ordta^ ' "' "'"""'"S " S"'"^ ^""d "oo.- for ail ordinary purposes. (* 76 t:mber framing Fig. 126 shows cross hridginf' with floor or ceil- ing and Fig. 127 exhibits the p per way to cut in the joists in a buck wall where it is necessary to run the joists in the brick wall. The joists should rest on a timber which is built in the wall as the bricks are laid. I ei\a«»"» Fig. 12C. rif. 127. ■'I t Flg. 128. A good way to set up second or third-story studs is shown at Fig. 128. Of course, where the stud- ding can be obtained long enough to run the whole height of the building it is better to get them if the cost will admit, if not, the method shown will ^S^IG^^ STUDDINc 77 fl«. 129. 78 If i TIMBER FRAMING framing and brick wall, as shown at Fig. 130. The brickwork is tied every sixth course with proper anchors, as shown, which are about 6 inches long, and which are nailed to the sides of the studs. The studding may be 2x4 or 2x6 inches, and framed in the ordinary manner. It is considered the bet- ter way to rough board the outside of the studding and then cover the boarding with good building Fig. 130. paper, and brick against this. A good warm job h the result if the work is properly done. The bricks are all well laid as ''stretchers" when done this way, and the best bricks should be selected for the work. At this ])oint it may not be out of ])lace to show some of the methods <,{ laying down joists and securing hearth and stair trimmers, and other similar work. As I have shown in Fig. 127, ail W^Mi^^Jm] LAYING JOISTS 79 end? s? th'i?^ ^° ' ^^''l ^'"''^ ^ «"* ^ith bevel ends, so that m case of fire and the joists bein^ torn 1^1"^ ^^. °^ ^^^"* *^- ce'nt:r:,'th f ,ohould they fall down, they would pry out bridging as shoL '•: c i25tdT&r t:i purpose of stiffening tlie joists by teepL them from tw>.tmg, and distributing tlie straT^r a larger number of joists than those on which the i T fr'1- "^^^ ''"<'8« Pi«fB should te 0x2 hS be"""' \1 "^ '"""^""^ »^-^. -d ti^y should be accurately cut to the required angle and bevels of the pieces required for the braces is to snap a chalked line across the top edges of tbe joists, parallel with the side of the wnll all „ Sf a' Jof ■^■" '™'" "'^ «-'• ^-' '™"'^P 'of joists and of course, parallel to the first line The ength and angle of the braces can then ie ob! tamed by aying the piece diagonally on the Mst. with Its edges just touching the chalk lines on hj nner edge of both joists, keeping the thickness of the stuft mside the two lines. In this position mark the un.krside of the bridge piece w ha pencil, and botli the proper anglestnd rightTength are given. Each piece obtained this way answers for the second piece in the same space. Two nai U hould be driven in each end of the bridge pi^e if a g«o.i pei-manent job is desired. rMffii'^M'it^'l '.i 11 80 TIMBER FRAM ma In trimming around a chimney or a stair well- hole, several methods are employed. Sometimes the header and trimmers are made from material twice as thick and the same depths as the ordinary Pig. 131. Fig. 132. joists, and the intermediate joists are tenoned into the heaJer, as shown in Figs. 131 and 132. Here we have T, T, for header, and T, J, T, J, for trim- mers, and h, j, for the ordinary joists. In the western and also some of the central states, the *^.f"Vii>/,''.Wrt»vf FIREPLACE TKlMMiNQ gj trimmers and headers are made up of two thick nesses of the header being mortised to srure the L'l ^^'r'"'- '^^' '"» thicknesseslreVe, ' Sslf '?"',"■" "'^*»<' '^ exhibited at Ffg Hearth, C, C C, C, shows the header with tusk tenons on ends, which pass through the trimmers KIg. 133. At Fig. 134 I show another scheme for trimming TT m ?5^^^^^ '^ ^hich the trimmers and headers T T, are seen, the headers being tenoned through the trimmer joists with tusk tenons ^d Ivejed solid m place. The central line of hearth is seen at X Y, the intermediate Joists at I andthe trimmer, at t j, while the bond timbers are in e^! 82 TIMBER FRAMING dence at iv p. Here there are two flues shown, also the hearth tiling. In this example there are two holding bolts shown by dotted lines on each side of the fireplace anchored into the brick-wall and pass- ing under the hearth and through the header to which It IS secured with a nut and washer A dump grate is shown at s s. This is for the pur- pose of letting ashes down a shute into the cellar where there should \ye an iron receptacle to receive them. v^^'^'.;;"' '''^' "" ^^^tional view of the hearth X\ or V ,g. i;u. This shows a brick aroli turned under tlio hearth to support it, the center for which the carpenter is exported to make. There Is an ;'n^";'; FIREPLACE TRIMMING 83 oak or other suitable hardwood strip mitred around the tiles and of the same thickness as the flooimg. The flooring is shown at h, and the jois s and trimmer are shown at h j and t j, respec tively ; the dump shute is shown at the shaded part and may continue to cellar floor, or cut through the wall at any desirable point convenient to re- move ashes. Fig. 135. In ordinary buildings the brick arch is seldom omployod, the header being placed prettv close to he brick work and the joists tenoned into it, and the tops of the joists being cut down enough to allow a layer of concrete cement and tiles on the top of them without raising the tilc« above the floor. In such cases strips are nailed to the sides 84 TIMBER FRAMINQ I: j ies or jacks, on both sides .*5^es»^ir:?^iK»is'v*xt'^<3^'-i ms^^^sm: ■I a! 1 "^rf^m^m^^w:^:.^: rmi BALLOON FRAMING 91 92 TIMBER FRAMING ''k:MmTim^mi BALLOON FRAMING 93 walls, for the first floor, then a roug, .loor may be laid on these joists, and the string pieces for the partitions may be laid on this floor, or the partition studs may rest on the joists, good solid provision being made for this i)urpose. Before the partitions are built in, the outside walls must be put up and properly plumbed and braced. These walls must rest on sills formed on the lines of some one of schemes or sections shown in the preceding pages. A section of one side of the house showing the bare walls is produced at Fig. U4. This figure shows the openings for win- dows, also ends of porch and kitchen, with two sections of roof on different levels. The lines of joists on the second floor are shown in Fig. 145, also the direction of rafters, ridges ana hips in the various roofs. While the house under discus- sion is a small one, the methods of erection are those that may be applied to the building of all kinds of lialloon structures, large or small. A building of greater ])retensions is shown at Fig. 14(;. The windows and doors show double studding all round. This is always a good plan to adopt, but necessarily uses up quite a lot more material than is actually required; 2x4 blocks nailed on the studs here and there, would answer uld be framed as shown iu the sec- tion drawing, Fig. 147. An opening of the proper size to receive the dormer should be framed in the roof, and the studs of the dormer should be jii»i''iL»??fVR?»?«» ' ^V'i.PiTVJIMr'^J* 96 TIMBER KRAMINO «l notclied out one inch over the roof hoarding anti triiiijiit'r rafter and extended to the floor. Xoteli- ing the stn(hnnij: onto tlie roof prevents the roof from sM^-inn; or hit-aking away from tlie sides of tl'e donncr and thus causing a leak, and tlie stud- ding heing extended to th > floor also stiffens the trimmer and gives a homogeneous surface to lath on, without fear of plaster cracks. An enlarged section througli the dormer sill is also given in Fig. 147 showing the way in which the flashing should be i)Iac.'d. Tlie flashing should he laid over the second shingle and the third shingle laid over it. This keei)s the flashing in j)lace and looks better. The upper edge of the flashing should be securclv nailed to the back of the sill. As soon as the wall's of a frame building are up tliev should l)e covered with hemlock, spruce or pine i)oards, dressed one si<^' m;. I free from shakes and large knot holes. y brace frame is used it is generally eus- t' ^ ••'irath the first story hefore the second stt . tudd: g is set uj). The sheathing or ])oard- ing should he nailed at each bearing with two ten- penny nails, altliough eiglit-penny nails are often used. ]f the building is built with a balloon frame it is necessary to put the boarding on diagonally in order to secure sufficient rigidity in the frame. With tlie braced frame n lay tarred paper over the boarding and under the shingles or shite; this not only better protects the attic space from changes in temperature, but also prevents tine snow fioni sifting in under the slate or shingles. The specitications should distinctly mention whether t^'e boards are to be laid close together or laid open, as well as the kind and quality of the boards. Tinned roofs should be covered with matched boards, dressed one side, and all holes covered wmmtfmm'.m^Dsr^wmm^ma^sj^sm R<)<)FJ\U 99 '■"-l'-«- Tin. ,.,;,,„., 1 '' '"•'"'I !■'«« -'v" mul 1.8 '-"■/■■;•■'"■■ ■'■»'"-'. A. ;r;r\. ''•■'" "^ tills stvC „/• «f,.„„i„.. , '•""•". Ui course root.. „nv,.,, „, ,, ' ;; ' /-"""f -^ "f «.>i>-e.s, ] will. I,„„.,.v,.,- ,,1,1 • '" .'"-o' tinsvohmie. roof, inanv tliinos .,,,. .,, , ""*^«" "f nn ogee -anv of th.se ';:fs / „m ;.:";^r?'' ^^^^ ^^ "'^' "'•"'*' to notice a few ex- aiiiples this jM.,nt I'i'Hl A JJ of the tini'.P euhir tower. The dm plan are ni.nkcd 1, division for the hoar, eated by C D, that fo, , indicated hy (J IT, ^vhile a(IditionaI fixing for boar 8 in the elevation. Some oi omitte,] at discretion. F^^ , and vertical sections of the 'j;. \ i.,() siiows a (luarter ot an ogt^. roof to a cir- ■'•'"'■^ 'Jm) shown in the tlie elevation. Tlie tile outsifJe is ind' '■ inside lx)ards being '■"^*'«liate bearers for - ai ' numbered 4 to ""<' ■ 'I'M- may be ' ''<'^s elevation IJHi it( WJliph 2S lO) TIMUKR FKAMI.N. i w:;ww^: ^^IfeW™ ^H Rv4i , in "'"• ^^"'' -"."''ts .rossc^l, and haviJetot^i r.'. oap an.l ii„,slK.,l will, or„,„„„„i„I un-ned or oehs onal worked fl„ia|. Tl.e o,-,.. ,.„«..■» arc ' t wjde and are made „p of two K/, .. t|,iek„es, "' ! jo.nts are crossed and seeurelv fixe<•■ stretch- ou of he ogee from the back of the ogee (see the oentel TLT '^.l'"?'' '"">- "^"™ « "- " « XX) tT " '''""'^' ™ ""^ """''or (,ee it, J , '" "'^ •'ompas.ses the width of the board eacli way f ron, the center, and transfer these widths on the stretch-out line as Pig. 154 tI "' mould «il| be complete. Let the mould be of the made In the curve of the board, the joints will be slightly wreathed. This wreathing may belccur ately obtained by following for the lowfr th ck ness the same instructions given for 11,1,.,: Jill gne the wreathing necessary. The board, for convenience of bending, may'^consilt ofjwo 104 TIMBKK FK\M1N(J thicknesses of -'.s in. of 7 Ui in. stuff; if 7^ in. that tliickness has been spet'ifietl. In n.\in<,^ let tiieni hij) over the joints by aUowin^ the center lino of the lower hoard to be tlie joint line of the upper board. Fig. 1")") shows the inner edge of the rafters, with 8 1 Fig. 154. Fig. 155. their joints and tenons. C^ircular tower.s in framed construction may he divided into two classes, namely, those which have their foundations on a line connet^ted with the main foundation of the P.3WA' ^mMsmfis^^^^i^^^-^>£:' f~ '^'yifJ . ?rt&;jfti-:3-6T-vaFT*' 110 TIMBER FRAMING I? -. ' or template, marked A, in Fi"^. 157, is made from two thicknesses of 1 inch stuff, and nailed on exactly the size required. The i/osition of the win- dow studs is also marked on it, as represented in Fig. 158. The upiier plate, or which is really the wall plate jjrojwr, and indicated by B in Fig. 157 of the engravings, must also be made, and this will rest on the top ends of the studding and support the rafters. This plate will be a complete circle measuring 7 feet inches in diameter and struck with a .*> foot 9 inch radius rod and laid out upon the floor, as indicated in the roof framin"- ■)lan, Fig. IfiO. The pieces necessary to forai the upper and lower plates may be sawn out of rough 1 inch pine boards from one patterp, which may be any one of those drawn in the i)lan, and a nimiber of which go to make up the whole plate. The stud- ding are cut 11 feet 8 inches, which being added to 4 mches, the thickness of the plates, makes the entire height 12 feet. The window headers, both at the top and bottom are likewise circular and are framed In after the manner represented in Fig. 157 to form the openings and cripple or short stud- ding cut In under them in the center. All studding must be set perfectly plumb and all plates and headers perfectly level. In order to insure this it is well to be certain that the bottom i)late is level by placing a iiarallel straight edge with a spirit level on top of it, across the plate at different points. Then, If the studding be cut in equal length Si ■ r '^ii^^/'mfi^^iip^^m^&r^m- TO VERS 111 Fig. 160. IIL' TIXlbEK KKAMING tho Upper plati' iimst, in coiistMiucncc, he placed in a level position. A mnnl)er of liorizoiUai s\ve<'p.s, "2 inches thick and 4 inches wide, as in''u*ated at (', in Fi^'. l.")?. riMpiire to he cut out to i'oiiii lihhin^ or pieces naiU'd in !(> inches apart, to which the vertical hoarding outsid.- and the lath and plaster inside are i'asttMied. It will he seen that if this construction is followed the whole cylindrical wall can he very stron^Hy and economically huilt u)). To save time and lahoi- and also to e.\j)edite niatti'rs. the sweejjs may he sawed out at the mill witli a hand saw, alt!iou«i:h it can he done in pine with the co2n])ass saw. With regard to the molded roof, it may he said that having a molded outline it will oecessarily re- (juire molded rafters sawn to the curvature cj'uied for in the elevation. As a general thing, architects furnish a full size working detail for roofs of this kind, hut it often happens that it is not forthcom- ing and the carpenter or huilder is ohiiged to strike out a i)attern rafter himself. To do this quickly .nd as accurately as jmssible, it is well to lay out the whole roof on a floor, something after the following manner: Keferring to Fig. 161, draw any hase line 7 feet (> inches in length, as A B, and divide exactly in the center, or at •'' feet 9 inches, as C. From C scpiare nj) the line to 9 feet high, as C D, and divide this line into IS equal divisions, as 1, :!, :■,, 4, 5, (] etc. Tlirough tiiese points draw lines parallel to A ^' - square C D TOWEKS 113 Fig. 161. I 114 TIMHKIl KRAMINO any Irn^rth on oach sulo „f (' I). Now, from fho jH.int I) .livss tlio .Mirvo of tlio rafter, as in of the curves may be very accurately deter- nuned. The 1<; rafters may all be drawn from tlu> one pattern, as they are all alike and should be framed to lit against a .'5 inch wood (boss), as indicated l>y \ in I- ig. lOO, in onh.r to obtain a solid nailin«' at the pealc. In this engraving rafters are shown "1 position in elevation and also in i)la. as well as the way they radiate or are spaced around the eircle Ifi inches ai)art on the plate. A:- it is alwavs best to board such roofs as this verticallv, ribbin«- or horizontal sweeps will have to be cut in be- tween tlie rafters, and as there should be as many ot these as possible for the purpose of giving a stroxig framework to hold the covering boards, it IS advisable to cut in one at each of the divisions marked on the elevation shown in Fig. IGl. The outline plan of this figure represents tlie top lines of tlu-se sweej.s, which are well nailed in between the rafters. Fig. Ib2 of the engravings shows the ix)MrcAr. ROOFS 115 exact size of the head-rs and tlieir positions wlien nailed in. Thoy are struck from different radii, whicli sliortcn as they go upward. It will he noticed that each set of sweeps is consecutively numbered with the lines C 1, 2, 3, etc., from C to D of Fig. IGl. Tliere will be 15 sweeps in each Fig. li;2. course and, thorofore, 13 dilTerent pattern.^ They may l)o conveniently numbered and marked in the following manner: For No. 2, for example, a pattern can be cut and marked ''Pattern for 15 sweeps, Xo. 2." There will, therefore, be 180 altogetber to be cut out, and these should be cut 116 TIMBER FRAMING Fig. 163. Fi£ 1C4. DOMICAL ROOFS 117 At Figs. 163 to 166, I show the construction of a domical roof with a c'rcular opening in the center for a skylight. T.. of the main principal CD and the corresponding one, are framed with a kmg-post c, as sliown in Fig. 165; the others at Pig. 165 vt^'r' ''"'"' ^''' '^"--I-^ts, as seen in Pln'nV 1 i^ '"?'° ''^'' ^^'•^•^■'^Pond to the prin- -ipal.s, and tlie sliortor ribs are framed against curbs l>e ween them, as at . Figs. 163 and I65! 1 igs 16, and ]68 show the framing of an ogee domioa roof on an octagonal plan. The construe^ .on w.ll bo readily un.lerstood hv inspection and he method of finding the arris ribs, shownTn'Fig 3^9 wdl be understood from what mav be .aid when treating of hii)-rafters. ' " .,i 118 TIMBER FRAMING Fig. 166. Fig. 167. DOMICAL ROOFS 119 Figs 170, 171, 172 and 173 show the construe tion of a domical roof with a central post h, Fig 172 into the head of which four pairs of trussed rafters are tenoned; four intermediate trusses t ig. 173, are framed into the same post at a lower Kig. 168. level The collars are in two flitches as shown at c i^ig. 1/2, and are placed at different hei-hts so as to pass each other in the middle of the sj^an The collars of two trusses at right angles to ca-h other may be on the same level, and halved together at 120 TIMBER FRAMING I rl^ Fig. 169. Mt:'.: Fig. 170. DOMICAL ROOFS V/.i fig. 171. Fig. 172. tlioir intersection, as shown at Fig. 173. The cun-ed ribs are supported by stmts from the prin- cipals, as se.-ii iu Figs. 172 and 173. The nUm and elevation Figs. 170 and 171 exhibit the curved 122 TIMBER FRAMING arrises wliidi the sides of the horizontal ribs assume when cut to the curvature of the dome, as at a Fig. 172. ' In connection with these domical or curved roofs It may not be amiss to give a few examples of the metho*.): M^ K ft'v- 132 TIMBER FRAMING ii used for the slating, and furring strips being fixed to receive the phisterer'.s hiths. Another roof, somewhat similar to the one just shown, is exhibited at Fig. 181. This is mure eco- Fig. 182. nomical than the i)revions example so far as labor is concerned, but is l)y no means as good or effi- cient, but will be found quite ellficieut where the span is not more than 30 feet ; where the timbers cross each other they must be either well spiked ^^h f.w Mj^y muk fp^j SILLS AND JOISTS 133 together, or have carriage bolts put tlirough them and well tightened. It often occurs tluit the car- penter is called upon to build a ventilator or belfry on a stable or other building and in order to meet this emergency I submit the sketches Figs. 182 and 18;], which I think will often prove useful. We suppose the roof to be already constructed and the upper work, as shown at 182, built over the ridge with very light timbers ; Fig. 183 shows the venti- lator and a portion of the stable in a finished con- dition. Mc'^iy bay windows are now built without having a foundation from the ground, the whole being projected from the wall of the building and a few hints and suggestions as to the construction of a window of this kind may not be out of place at this point. In Fig. 184, is sho\vn a detail of the manner in which the sills and joists in a house are built. The foundation wall is of cement, the sill of 2x8 inch material. The joists are 2x10 inch material p!aced sixteen inches on centers. On the plan where the bay-window comes the joists should l>e longer and should be extended i)ast the wall eighteen inches, as shown in detail. Fig. 185. These joists support the bay. As a rule a templet is made from jilan and is used to lay out Avindow on joists and they are cut to conform with it. It is customary to spike on the v .ids of the joists pieces of the same material to strengthen the work. I have found .'1 -. .:S1 134 TIMBER FRAMING Fig. 183. bi*' SI1.LS AND JOISTS 135 that by using studs 2x4 inches as plates and spik- ing them on top of the joists, as shown in Fig 185 was al that was necessary to make a good strong job. After plates have been nailed ,n the joists they are cut plumb down from the outside edge of plate, so that the .sheathing may be nailed on. C are must be taken to have the plates true wilh plan The studding being erected in the main huildmg, put up the studding in the bay window There should be two at each angle or a solid piece may be got out to place here. The other studding Flg. 181. should be placed sixteen inches on center. Double plates are used and stay lathed true with templet liie roof plan is shown in Fig. 180. The roof has a raise of one foot above the plate. Rafters are Iramed and put on as in detail Fig. 186. Then they are cut off on plumb eleven inches From sheathing. Lookouts are nailed on rafters and toe- nailed in slieatliing, care being taken to have them all the same distance from the top of i)Iate and mi^^JM^-^^yr-^ 136 TIMBER FRAMING tnio. The niatoiial for lookouts may ha IxCJ inches framed as in T^'j?. 187. The planceer board is fitted and nailoii on h)okouts, facia boards litted 00 to and put on, also crown nu uiding, the top of which should be even with top of roof boards. Shingles being used the hips should be flashed with galva- nized iron, also flashing put on against sheathing ■i.TC-. BAY WINDOWS 137 on house. The window is sheathed up and the window frames set true. Then we can put on the water-table. Friese boards are put on and the bed mould, which finishes between friese and i)Ianceer boards, as in Fig. 187. Sometimes comer boards are used on angles. Of course thev make the work easier, but a better looking job can be done by mitering the clapboards on these angles. Often a small strip of inch and one-eighth material is Fig. 1S7. fitted to use in the angles against main buildin^ This gives good results as the main part or ba\ can be clajiboarded separately as well. We would advise that a miter-box- ])e made and used to cut clapboards at angles, and if care is taken in laying it out and in the way the siding is put on (t to e-'^Pedite the work. * story-rod should be useying„f ,he stories togetl e, " ak-' I"? the whole buiMing very ,„„,.h sTronger Tnd ■endenng u so that the wind would ha/e to be lerrotr""^" •" """ '"-" ""• -'""^ '«'"<"-S I'efore the upper portion wouU hudge -elore leaving balloon or light framing, it will "ot be am.ss to show a few examples of ^ve or eormee framing suitable to both light or heavy ;l IJf I M l^J 142 TIMBER FKA.MINO tiniluT work. P^uitct'ii examples are cxhihltod I'roin Fiirs. 1S!» to 'J();5 inclusive. V'xf;. IS!) shows a very idaiii cornice with the rafter cut so as to jiartly rest on the phite, with a portion running over the phife to form the projection and eave. The method of tinishinuf is also shown. Fi^. 1!)0 exiiihits a so- 'vliat more ehihorate cornice with gut lei- trou'. I?. In this case the phniceer stathN ♦ at .ijiht an^h's fioni the wall. Fig. 101. Fiff. 1!»1 shows a rafter projeetiui'- out and over the wall ahout three and a half feet and dressed and moulded. It will he seen that the projection is of ditTerent pitch to the main roof, and this necessitates the project! n*,^ and heiiii,' a separate piece with, the inside end spiked to the main rafter as sliown. ws C'*KNICES la r "'' "f ' ':""'•' J"i<- play .-.n i.,„.,„ i.nl ,art in e ™n.st,.,,,..,„„ ,,r .1,.. „„,k. Til.. n,n.. ,1 m he <--.l.u« .|.„.fs a,„l i, „„,„|,o,l over the plate .e„,ass,nv,, Ti,eeud,„f,h.j„H,„,,/,>::;,;,^ fii lo slo|it' oi roof. ends of ,altc.rs spikc-d to joists. This is not .^hhI ;~z..''''' '""-^ "^^ "-'' «"- ""• -f '' I-'ijr. IW shows an ol.l time coniiee with -i «ooJe„ suite,-. ThisstvleissH.hMnn.!,!!,;:," insi'; ''''';;'>''^''i'."- I'-Pie liviu« i„ the oou„t,y iiiisiist on ei)) ploying' it. 1^ 144 TIMBER FBAM ma P ^ Fig. 193. Fig. 194. CORNICES 145 Fig. 196 exhibits another cornice on nearJv ih. same lines as Fio- loi t nearly the n guuers could be employed to advantage. Fig. 196. Fig. 197 shows a rafter rp^sfmo. ir. r. ^ ^ style of framing rafters is often us»d i^ ", S T? '"f ."^ •"'"'^' st^irt u : eT F? ,Q^ .' '"'' '"""" structures. i^ig. 198 shows another corBiee which is intended 146 TIMBER FRAMING k I Fig. 197. I I |a»^' TZ ni. j(^:<3inuifl%Si«KHsr'M')^. wir'hmyij,- ^i^r^aiiy f,^ CORNICES 147 to have a wooden gutter. The method of finishing the rafter on the lower end to receive the gutter is shown. Fig. 199 shows a cornice designed for a brick or stone liouse having a curve at the eave The method of finishing is shown and is quite simple P^AT«A«l(( Fig. 199. the furring being the main thing in forming the cun^e for the bed of the shingles or slate. Fig. 200 shows a very good method of formino- a cornice for a balloon frame. It is very simple" easily formed and quite effective. ' i n kx Fir 148 TIMBER FRAMING Fig. 201 shows a cornice where the pitch of the roof suddenly changes at the projection, as is sometimes the case with towers, balconies and over bay windows. The method of construction is shown verj' clearly in the illustration and may readily be followed. Fig. 200. Fig. 202 shows an ornamental cornice which mav be used either on cottage or veranda work. A portion of the rafters shows as brackets below the planceer. '^^mil^BBBS^^^ 'W^yJbXM VERANDA ROOF 149 very low pitch a„a the rafters Z tnT^^Ztt tig. 201. Fig. 202. as shown Tl,p oT, ; c '^ ^""^ ^^ ^^'^ rafter I ^!sm 150 TIMBER FRAMING These examples of cornices are quite sufficient for the f ramer to have by him ; if other designs are required, the workman should experieTice no diffi- culty in forming what he wants, having these de- signs at his command. INTRODUCTION TO PART II. (< 'Heavy Timber Framing- h an art that re- 'i;?o'uT'- tr™'"\^'';" °" '^""^'f • f "- '"- '^^'o work m?,l h «■"■■''• •""'^"^•^ of the fact that this woiK must bfi (-arncd on without "trvin-" how the work coinoid.^, or in other word's, witll,rt b} t e fi-amer, and each piece entering into the atel,. This ,s no easy task, and the person under- tak mg ,t assumes no small responsibihtv and his posmon ,s such as should insure to him a re nun erafon commensurate with tl,.. position and re- tramer receives as pay but very little more than the regular carpentei, something that is no' as U should be, and if he were not ambitious and nrouJ of h.s ability as a framer, he would noi acce t Z position, but rather take a place among the ordi! of ^B^stv' "' "" '^""^ '"^ -spSnsibilitfes 151 l^ •/i^irA ^>-r" PART II. h HEAVY TIMBEU FRAMING. "Is heavy timber framini? a lost art?" This ques^^ion has been asked me many times during the pa 4 twenty years and I have invariably an- swered it in the negative. "IIea\y timber framing is not a lost art." If necessity arose tomorrow in the I'nited States or Canada, for the services of five thousand compe- tent framers they would he forthcoming within a period of sixty days if inducements were suL.- cieiitly attractive. Since the introduction of steel frames into ]>uilding construction, the use of tim- ber frames in roofs, buildings, bridges and trestle work has greatly fallen off, particularly in or near large cities, where timber has become scarce and costly, but in the west, north, and south, timber structures are often made use of, and will be for manv decades yet. Indeed, even when steel is made use of timber has to be fre„ ., i'"'"'tssou In every man Ilonv T.,„ ■ ™"'™"'>" earponter. "P-ator, ;lls;t ' a Ir,: TJ"" ^'•-' "f '"« branches of the tr„ll , ' """ "^ "'o"" process ean ^ am Id 'p! /'"• '■'•"' ""^ «'" whether it be •■rrlrr, ■ . f""™ "^ '""l^r. and «kx.„ iK ,1"! '■ r*'"'','""^' l^' lt with ship 1 ,1, :,'"; rtt'itT'/T" ""' '•^'"''''"- without its\,ei„"C:i Tn , ?°""*"' "'"■' it until all h readv o bf nnt , h' "'"'""■' '""' up solid. \ <.|e. r ,P,d ^""' "■"^ l'''""^<' framcr. Ho must see t„ m f n*' '^ " ^ood small to snugly receive tiie tenons -uid .1 t ri :„'rof "-'"T';' ""^- -"vi"^'-. m in'j:'.^ Jiie tliann of good frannng lies in the fn-.f ff * ev;^-^™or,i.e and .enon .n^st be ' 'driven .n"' m^so t.ght .» to reqn.re wore than ordinary driv- are not numerous, but are heavy and someXJ I-.'-" if" mmmtiK^^E''^^ ^^ 154 TIMUEU FRAMING •H costly. I give a list of most of the tools em- ployod liorowitli : An ortliiiiu y chopping axe. A pood lioavy iK-adod adzo. A heavy S or H> iiu'li l)lado hroad-axe. A carpenter's 4 or 5 inch hatchet. A ten foot pole made of hardwood. A steel square, ordinary size. A bridge builder's scpiare with 3 inch blade. Two or three good scratch awls. Chalk lines, spools and chalks. Several carpenter's heavy lead pencils. One or two pairs of "winding sticks" or battons. One "slick" or slice with 3> ^ or 4 inch blade. A good jack plane and a smoothing plane. A boring machine with four augers. Three or four assorted augers for draw-boring An ordinary sized steel crow-bar. An adjustable cant-hook, medium size. A coui»le of good hickory or ironwood hand- spikes. A half dozen 4 inch maple rollers. Four good framing chisels, 2 in,, V/^- in., 1T4 iu-» and 1 in. A two hand cross-cut saw about 5 feet long, A Aood hand-saw, also a good rip-saw^ T^'-M oil stones, and a good water-of-Ayr-stone. Sometimes a medium weight logging ■ hain will be found veiy useful. An adjustable bevel will come in handy at time.?. HEAVY TIMBER FRAMINf; 155 Thc.,0, witl. a !•<,«• other tools tl.at will surest tl.o.„.sWvo., f,-o.„ ti.ne to ti,„e as th. work pro «r....se.s will bo all that will be necJaV^O frame" u-r^r'T"''"""^^'' ''""'' structure prope to ^a> a few words on the subjVt : The con, J! Fllf. 'JOI to every Ameriean that I need not sav n.uch of it It IS sha.-i,ei,e,i from both fai-e-^ The next i„ order will bo the a.lze, which shonid 1 ve a g„„,l heavy .teel faeed pole ir 1 a Thit > loal, have a well tempered ,.uttinR blade not let t an three .n.-hes wide, and ^Iu,„l,^ha te a lid I 1 aped as shown in Fig. ,.0,. Thi,, is a dan^er^u <"ol for the .nexperienced workman to use Z W- 156 TIMHKK KBAMINO (lifters frrun the axe, as the cutting' (mI^<> is at right angles witli the liniulle. It has been fiained "The IVvil's shin hoc," as it )ias nuule many a serious wound in workmen's shin.^. It is gi uimd from one if Fig. -Hfi. Fie. : ■■*'. face only. At Fig. L'()5 that slioi i be used 1 obtained xii itnv sizes i't'!. he style of chisel liing. These can he half inch to three IIKAVY TIM HER PliA.VirVO 157 "111 la.^t ;i lili'tiriic. TlR. l,aW„.t slu,w„ at Fi». 20fi is a very liandy ■"'1 for the franu-,-, „„,J uuxy bo us<.i for mauy |M.r,.osos ,noro „.rti,.ularly for „,„ki„« .y^^ Fi(f. ■.'07. lo naI,.tsh..wnati.V207i.aoommontvpe ' sels. ],,so rnallets are made in several forms -:me -th .,nare lK.ad. like the one .ho J S ^^^^h round Loads, Fi^ 2071 ... \un'\n>r ii'tliJ! i'li . are often protected on t! ,. .-orHn.r L ^' -y leather. an<^ '^'"^ ^^^^^ to protect Ih. ''*''• '" ^^""^ i'^ifteririir ^\ ' '"^ ^^ lor rciievina- ' '" ^"" '" '^*'^'* insthemeas . e ^ "O^- and mak- .1 .ith f ,, ehisei and iUi t: :f ' 158 TIMBER FRAMING ■J mallet. This machine can be adjusted for angle boring as well as vertical. A loose auger is also shown. Generally four augers of various sizes are sold with each machine. Hand saws will be found very useful, the cross- cut, as shown at Fig. 209, for cutting the shoulders, and the rip-saw for cutting the tenons, and uses for both will be found in much other work about a frame building besides shoulders and tenons. Fil,'. 'JOTJ^;. The long cross-cut saw is an indispensable tool to the framer (Fig. 210) for cutting off timber, cutting shoulders and other work. It is scarcely necessary to show illustrations of the other tools ^^--'^' • "•" ♦"•->^' ^'-^ve occasion requi anier, as we may t to refer and illustrate them later on HEAVY TIMBER FRAMING 159 =1; ' *'i(T. 20.S. m 160 TIMBER FRAMING Thirty years ago it was the custom in most of the States where there was standing timber for the framer to go into the woods, choose tlic tim- ber for his work, fell it, rough hew it, and finally have it hauled to the location, by oxen or horses, FiR. 209. to where the barn, house, or bridge was to be erected. This practice, I am informed, is still continued in Maine and several of the Western States, but owing to the fact that saw-mills are so numerous in wooded districts, capable of cut- Kis;. -no. ting timber to any reasonable length, the prac- tice of hewing has fallen almost into disuse; and because of this fact I deem it inexpedient to show and describe the various methods of manufac- turing sijuare timber from the round. T ■«: ^ ■ i*«J-^er is cut off on the lines of the end o. the pattern, that end will be at right angles with the axis of the timber. 162 TIMBER FRAMING Mortises and tenons may be laid off from the chalk lines by measurements as may readily be seen. Lines drawn across the mortises by aid of the pattern will be at right angles to their sides; the tenons may be laid off in the same manner, and by correct measurement made so as to fit into the mortises snug and tight. If it is desirable to "draw-bore" this work, it may be done by a proper use of the ]iattern by i)inking a hole through it where the draw })in is to pass through the mor- tise and tenon. If a square bearing is required for the shoulders at the tenons, it may be readily done by sfpuuing across the mortise, using the pattern for the i)urpose. This, ixM'haps, is all the information on the subject (if round timhers the ordinary workman will ever reciuire, but should he require more he should have no trouble in getting through with his work, as the foregoing contains the Wiiole princi})le of working round timber. First, tli^ board i)attern as described, then line up the tim- ber with straight chalk lines, and the whole sys- tem is o})ened up, so that any wideawake work- man can nuinage the rest. In working scjuare timber, it is always necessary to have all points of junction square and "out of wind," or out of "twist" as some workmen call it. To take timber out of wind is quite a simple process— when you know liow — and to "know how" is a matter only of a few moments' thought -w^^mssmi^^msi-^fw^j^'^^M ii':ai-:.--^ ^Wrr BEA\Tr TIHBEn P8AMIN0 JM and experience. The tools required to do this twist the timber may liave. If a large nuantitv I'as to be taken oil, as shown at Pig. lis ft w n require an ordinary chopping a.xe and a bro^d all! Fl(f. 212. '» used to finish tl.. timber nicely when good c ean jork IS required. The winding'sticks of" b,*:.- aie placed on the timber as shown at Fig "13 wliidi gives an i.Iea of tlie amount of wood thnt must be removed before the timbei Im 1 Le a f ir P ine surface. The manner of u i 7 Ue 'att.s or winding sticks is shown at Fi/ -^u amount of niiulmg can be easily detected. lie winding -batt-s," which are nar-illel ;„ -Kith, are placed across the wood (see^Fig. 213 ° w:^?^ 164 TIMBER FRAMING and lias tlio elTect of imiltiplyiiij; tlio error to the length of the sticks. For this reason it is as well to make the sticks 1 ft. () in. to 1 ft. S in. lonj?. To insnre accuracy in long pieces of wood, the wind- ing "batts" should in} moved to two or three dif- ferent positions down the length of the wood and the straight -cdLre used lengthwise. Fie. '.'U. It is not necessary to use the winding "batts" on either of the other surfaces of the wood, as the face eiige is made at right angles to the face side, bringing into use the try-square and straight-edge. The other two surfaces are planed true to the gauge lines, which are })ut on parallel to the first two surfac^es. The writer has two of these wind- ing "laths" which he made for himself over fifty years ago; they were made for bridge work and are made of 1/lack cherry, and are as true to-day as when thev were first made. '."JT-T^vyri HEAVY TIMBER PBAMINQ I65 saiy that t c w)i«lo timber be made to line as this often entails a g.-«,t deal of extra labJ; The tmber may be "spotted" or "nlumbed" or '■«inared" at the points where girts brcesst«d» ot 0„s ,s to make a proper surface for the shoul Jiers of tenons to sit against. This, ho^ ver may be very mu,.h assisted by adopting ,he tolloZl rules and making winding .'batti" ,o suit hf Fig. 215. The method in full, may be described as follows- ^t L^^f ' " • '""f "•'"--^. ^'i8- 213. .«l.ows Zt of r li ^""^ ^""- ^" ""^'"8 «'<' ^'"'i out 01 a timber, u.-o wmd batts are required Thi» vmd batt consists of a piece of board .. bv Jin be made parallel to each other. Then a line is side of the line, as shown in the sketch. The brad awl ,s then stuck through the bottom half for the purpose of fastening to the end of the timber ThI wind batts are then stuck on the ends of ,i,e piece W 7h fb'T* ''";" '"''«• -^' "f ""^ sketches, Halt the batt projecting above the timber. The ;f f B >:1 i 16(5 TIMBER FRAMINO operator then sights over the upper edges of the batts and moves either end until the edges coincide. He then takes the scratch awl and marks across the bottom edge of the batts at each end of the tim- ber, as sliown in Fig. 218. Tliis completes one side. The rest is easy, as in the other side the kl or for fraiT^ing from the pen of a pL tical framTr vvlm seems to know pretty well of what he is tTlk- .ng and starts off hy saying: "Tlie first step in tl.e process is to scaffokl your timber so that it w.n he s raight ami as nearly level as .^^^^ and so tha you and your men who follow ma>' ^ ork over it m a comfortahle i>osition. That done pippose. as in Fig. 220, we have a corner post to lay out which is 8^^ by 81^. by IG feet, an from if) ii 168 II' TIMHKR FH.\MIN<1 m. ulionldor to shouMor of tenons is 15 foot. I would sokvt tho two Iwst fa<'os tliat give noarost a straight oornor, taking a corner tliat is hollow rather than ono llial i> full. Thon I s(>t ono stpiare on a('ros> the host face, far enough from Iho orul for a tenon, and inoasuro 1.') f«'.>t towards tiio oint in unwinding timher. If at the first glanci' over the sipiares thoy sliould ho very much in wiiKJ. thon adjust the dilTcronco at oaoh end hv -IV- Tie. 'iM. dividing. But this rule l • i ^t-irt -it one j-nd and measure throu^Hi, makin- at thj prin- cipal points (U i,lus 18 plus U feet) with irregular IH^neii lines, selecting, of course, the best fac4 for the outside. Then I test the timber througii from ond t.) end, looking over the s(iuares before start- ing to unwind. U the squares li„o up well at hist glance, hen I go to work at one end and un- wind through. If not then I try througl, at the o her points. After .le.-idit.g liow and where to start, the process is similar to that of the post, and m like manner would I go about unwinding all the timbers of a frame. ^ From what [ have just said you will observe tliat my rule for spotting timber was, at th.^ sIhmiI- ders ot posts and at }>rincipal bearing of lontr timbers. Following this rule you will have true ;#, II i'.-- m ■■^■s< 170 TIMBER ^HAMINO points where the mo.-i i>artit'ular fnuning is to be done. Soinotini('<. lio\vt\.'r. wlu'n I .'onie to tin slioit posts in the nnder lrat»ie, \vher< sevt'ial wouhl u it be 01 the same length, including tenons, and a man at each end with square and pencil, as in Fig. 222, would unwind them, marking along the square U-^.W7£imTm^.S^ HEAVY TIMWR J-HAMI 171 across tlio c,,,. „f post, allowini^ 'J i„ for fa* • Npuiro from (|,is lir,. on ti,o sanu- hand af .arh i-ml with 2-inH, fa,.. J nn.j^ fn,,,. thos, po.nN '■ Miivc the |M).si.s roa • i"» lay HI ^ out, as shown Some rcamcs think that tinu' is sav.^1 by tliis nictho.l, lu.t I .loiiM it, for usually tl .Te is one skIc extra af eadi t(>non to mzc, ami 1 am inHined to advise thjit >[)ottinft- in the manner first ex- plained is the Ix^itcr way. The two figures liere given exphiin what I have just said about the extra sizing. Fig. 2^^ is the end of a post framed, wliere the plumb'spot was made at the shoulder. Fig. 225 that of a post where the wind was taken out by the last process desenbo.I, ,n whiHi case, unless the timber was exce] ..nally well dresswl, there was overwood and sizing as shown. 172 TIMBER FRAMING I ; In ordinary framing it was not necessary to cut the plumb spot fully across the face of the tim- ber — just far enough for the bearing to steady the square — 2 or 3 inches. If, howev^er, you are re- quired to do a very nice job of framing, and are paid for doing it, then cut your plumb spot fully across the face of the timber and choose the full instead of the hollow side for face. Line the over- wood on both corners and counter hew. If the timber requires two faces, as for a post or wall plate, then turn the new face up, line and counter hew the other side. That done, mark your points, and line for laying out. What do I use for lining? Chalk is good, but chalk washes off, and in the showery spring time, the barn builder's season, I generally used Vene- tian red and water in an old tin, the "boss" hold- ing the tin and line reel with a crotched stick over the line, while one of the "boys" cairied the line to the other end of the timber as it paid out. Under favorable circumstances, with one wetting, I was able to line the timber around on all sides. There is one point worthy of notice, and in favor of the method of locating the plumb spot as given above : It serves as a check against mis- takes in measurements. The process of laying out, as practiced by myself, was to unwind the timber as I have shown. Then starting at one end, scribe the extreme point and lay off the 'I HEAVY TIMBER PRiiMINO 173 work there and work back again on the inter- mediate work. Cr ming out right was almost proof that the work was correct, for, as you will readily see, the timber had then been measured three times." These are excellent directions and are equally applicable to sawn as to hewn timbers. The work man will, now, I trust, be fully able to understand the importance of taking his timber out of wind and the proper way to do it. ' \Igp; w XlMlXu,'^^ /\^^^~^^^ ^^ T-^ m. s. Fig. 226. The next thing to be coiLsidered arc as what are known as -witness marks." These marks are m- lended to inform the men who beat out the mor- tises, saw the tenons and clean up the gains, and nnisu up the work generally after it has been set ra i i 174 TIMBER FRAMING out by the boss framer. There are several meth- ods of witnessing work by aid of the scratch awl wliich I shew lierewith, in Fig. 22G; but, besides these, the work is sometimes witnessed with a pencil — blue, black or red; the black being used for mortises, the blue for tenons, and the red for ,;:;ains or squared surfaces. The end of the mortises and shoulders of tenons may be witnesses in the same manner, as shown in Fig. 226, using the pencil in lieu of scratch awl Fig. 227. In this diagram the letter G represents a gain, ^r is a mortise and T is a tenon, the short diagonal marks w in the u}>per piece being the witness marks. The sketch shows four different methods of witness marking which are employed by most workmen, while numerous combinations of these four methods are also often used. The l)est of these witness marks arp those usftd on the timber marked F, though it has the dj^"- advantage of being cut away when the mortise i* beaten or the tenon cut, so that should a blunder HEAVY TIMBER FRAMING 175 be made in the lencrth of mortise or shoulder of tenon, il will he difheult to place the fault on the right iHMsoii. Fig. Z- Another method of witnessing, and a verv ^ood one too, is shown in Fig. -V. T shows the'tenon, .M a mortise, A a gain, and II a halving. In this ease it will he almost impossible to get astrav if the workmen following the boss framer will only make lnnis(-lf accpiainted with the svstem Fig, 22'J. In Fig. 228 I si low a iiR'thod of witnessi ng a «imee, an.l th.s, I think, will !>e ivadily understood. Another sph.,>, with the manner of making it is shown at Fig. 2-), also tlu- points where holes mav »e bored to receive bohs wlu n surh are to h, .olted together for strength. The direction of the bolts ,s also shown. At Fig. -JO I show how 'ikA'\.s: 176 TIMBER FRAMING to make witness mark to cut a shoulder oii a brace. This brace shows two bevels, simi)ly to indicate that no matter what the bevels may be the marks show the shoulders. The letter C is the shorter bevel. The lines A A marked off the sketch, Fig. 231, show how a line or scratch mjule bv mistake may be marked so that it may be known as a line not to l)e used. Fig. 230. These witness marks are ample to instruct the ■workman in their uses, and though the examples given do not nearly cover the whole ground where such marks arc required, they show the system and the keen workman will apply them in their jiroper places whenever it is necessary. Fig. 231. Mortises and tenons are usually laid out with the steel square, but it is not the best or speediest way, though the square is always at hand and 'wmTm HEAVY TIMBER FRAMING 177 ready for use, and without a knowledge of its use for this puriwse the workman will not be fully equipped for laying out a frame. Following an authority on the subject of laying out work by the steel square ''the ends of the mortise are first struck as indicated at A and B, Fig. 2;J2, and while the square is in the position indicated the mark C is made for the working side of the mor- tise, which is always the narrower side unless the Fig. 232 two are equal. In practir-o it ir: best to mark the cut off at the end of the timber first, or if it dcH's not need cutting off, place the square over the end of the stick, and mark back along the blade the 11 -. 2 or 3 inches re."), fair with the mai'k (' previously made, and taking the same (listance— in this case 2 inches — on the tongue of the s(|uare, as shown at B. Now )iy liolding the sipiare firmly witli the thumb and tingeis of tlie h'ft hand both sides of the tenon can 'i.' uiarked, but great care is necessaiy to pre- Fig. 233. J 1; vent the .^lipping of the sipiare. If there is any wane on tlie stick it is hard to tell when the mark 1) i.> exactly in line with the vertical face of tiu- timber, and this matter nuist be detennined In- sighting down the side of the stick. It is also necessary to drop tlie blade of the Sfpiare a little ftirtlii-r, as at B, when s(|naring across a "wanv stick." In every heavy timber framing a bridge fram- ing steel sq.!:ir<. iuu\h\ be employed. These hav^ HEAVY TIMBER FRAMING 179 a blade throe inches wide and a tongue one anc] a lialf inelies wide. The hhide is used to hiy out mortises and tenons of three-inch dimensions. There is a slot one inch wide cut down the center of the hlade, the slot is twenty-one inches lon^ and it may Ik- used on one inside edi,'e to make a two-inch mortise or tenon; this is done by using one outside edge and one inside edge. These squares are made by Sargent & Co., of New York, and cost from $2.50 to $.j.()() each. The s.juares are very handy for bridge ])uiklers and for fram- ing all kinds of heavv tiinb-r. Fig z:j4 A kind of tciiii.lct or guide i< made um of some- tini.-. fur laying out work, it i> iiiudi liandicr, and easicj- to work with than Ihc .-<|narc. and will aid in laying out work much more rapidly. These tcnii)lets an- made in both wo(k1 ;ind metal. They arc liinged at the aniric a> shr.wii in the sketches licrewitli. -o they may work easily over wanv edires or can lie folded together and stowed away jn a tool ciiesi. fT ^ l^llm^-.M^m'iJM 180 TIMBER FRAMINQ 11 I h "Wiiere there is much framing of a like cliaractor to do, it is always hcst to make a sheet iron templtl, as the rubbing of the seratch awl aijain^t the work- ing etlg(>s •of a wooden l)rass bound one will wear away the surface and the tenons and mortises will not be the correct sizes. Afr. llobart, in ('(irpruti;/ a, id lUiildutg, de- scrilx's these templets — the wooden ones — and adus a fair description of them and the way to use them, and J reproduce in brief a portion of bis article on the subject: "The tool may be seen in two positions on the sijuared timber at Figs. Z\A and 2:5'). The tool is made of well seasoned wood Vi in. thick, three thicknesses being glued up to form a board 8 inches \\'n\i- bv lil inch(\>; lone. The b(jards are then mitred togelher lengtl.'wise, as shown, and a pair of ornamenVal brass liinges put on, these being clearly indicated in the sketches. Each ])art of the board is {iien notched into four steps of (5 inches each, being made l'/^, .'{, and 8 inclies respectively. TJie other side of the tool is di\ided into 4, (! and 8 inch stejis, each G inches long. If much, heavy work is Id l)e laid out it will pay to make one side ] inch wider, thus securing \\U, •^, G and inch step^ on that side. The notched edges of the board are finisucfl with a great deal of e.xactm s, . and after cutting a little scant the edge is !)0';nd with a heavv strip of sheet brass, whicli is shaped and screwed to the marking edge. Tb.e marking edg*% and thf HE.VVY TIMBER FRAHINO 181 end as well, is marked off in inches and quarters, the same as a framing square, and th's proves a great convenience when using the tool. In order to lay out a mortise, slide the tool along until the end comes flush with the lon^. st corner ;^ then mark the end of the mortise, as at E of Fig. 234. At the same lime mark the other ei:d of the mortise, F, Fig. 2;U; then slide back the marker and strike that lino after having first struck the line E. Xext reverse the tool and select Fig. 235. the wi.ltii of shoulder required— 2 inches in thi.^ case— ami mark alongsid,. the board on the tim- ber. This iWcfi one side of tlie mortise or tenon, and a mark alongside the ■ ight width of tool, II,' Fig. 233, finisho.^ Unt mortise in very quick time." Apart fr^.rii thi^; :o.^c-ription. the workman will find in making usr -f thi.s tool many places where it can \x} o-.iployod to ..dvantagc. " If the whole tool wa.s ron:,iructe r^'' the foregoing, and it would be neater, lighter, much more conipaet, and would last for all time. \Miile it is true that this templet is a great help in rapid framing and while in some cases where the timber is waiiy or lacking on the arrises some- thing of the kind is necessary. Where the writer has met with \ any timber he has often tacked a planed board on the side of the timber to be worked keeping the ui)|>er edge even with the top of the timber, then the square can be used for making over as the board forms a good surface to work the square from. "When the templet is used, the necessity of the board is done away with, as the vertical portion of it takes the place of the board. The method of using the square for cutting raft- ers, braces, and other angular work, has been shown and described elsewhere, so I drop the mat- ter of the sfjuare for the present. There is one matter in framing that I do not think has ever been described or properly illus- trated, and that is the (question of "boxing." Xon- framer may not know what the term "boxing" means ; but every "old hand" at the business has, no doubt, a vivid recollection of the term and Its uses. "Boxing" in framing may be described as preparing a true real square with the jaws of the mortise for the shoulders of the tenon to butt solidly against. To accomplish this often requires the removal of portions of the timber 1)efore a flat square surface is found, and this may reduce HEAVY TIMBER FRAMING 183 the thickness of the timber operated upon If we suppose four or five posts on the si.le of a building, and these posts are supposed to he V> x 1- inehes in section and in preparing these posts to receive the tenons it is necessarv to rem. v-e over the face of each mortise one-quarter of an inch or more, and the girts or connecting timbers have l.eir shouhlers cut to suit the 12-inch posts, It will be seen that the length of the building at the line of girts will be less than intended. If forced into mortises made the proper distance apart in the sills, the outside posts will not be P umb and it will be found impossible to make the plates fit in place, as the mortises on the ends will be found too far apart, and this would lead to all sorts of trouble and vexation. In boxing, we sup- pose the posts to be, say IHf. inches instead of 12 inches. This allows half an inch for boxing and this necessitates the girt between each set of posts, to be cut one inch longer between shoulders than if no boxing was prepared. In cases where posts are pierced on both faces and boxed, the post where the tenons enter, if directly opposite, may have to be reduced to 11 inches and must be ac- counted_ for on that basis. The young f ramer must be particular about the boxing and the necessary reduction of timbers when laying off his lengths of girts or bracing timbers, if not he will be sure ' to get into trouble or botcli the job. i: fs MICROCOPY RESOLUTION TEST CHART (ANSI and ISO TEST CHART No. 2) ^ ^PLIED IIVMGE 165J East Mom Streel Rochester, Ne« York 14609 USA '716) 482 -0300 -Phone (716) 288 - 5989 - Fax nr^ 184 TIMBER FRAMINQ .f J, i ^ Pig. 236. HEAVY TIMBEK FRAMING 185 I show, at Fig. 236, how the boxing is done, and how to lengthen the timber between shoulders to meet the requirements of the ease. G shows the girt where it is boxed into the post P, and J !* M .^> F S sliows the sill and plate with the tenons T T relished for the shorter mortises. The brace B shows how it is butted at both ends against tlic boxing in the post and girt. The points, or ' ' toes, ' ' r^ Hi II \ 186 TIMBER FRAMING of the brace are squared off so as to rest against the half inch shoulder which is caused by the boxing. At Fig. 237 I show a post boxed on both sides for oraces; also a scarfing which ties two beams together, the joints of the beams being directly- over the center of the post. It will be noticed the Fig. 238. scarfing block grapples both l)eam.s and is bolted at both ends. The braces and post are draw-bored and pinned as shown by the round dots on the diagram. The scarfing block or bolster, in cases of this kind where there is a heavy weight above to carry, should be of hardwood, oak, maple or other suitable strong wood. The next illustration. Fig. 238, shows a double boxed post with braces carrying a scarfed beam. J^f^^ w* 'T- : HEAVY TIMBER FRAMING 187 The tenon on the top of the post passes through the splice holding the two beams together. It is drawbored and i^Inned together through both splices. Fig. 239 exhibits another boxed post, braces, splice and beams. The post is double pinned to both beams, which are bolted together. These two illustrations. Figs. 238 and 239, are good examples ,< I. ■ig. 2c![». of spliced beam supj^ort, and are often made use of m warehoiHGs, barns and other similar struc- tures. • At F'g. 240 I show the usual manner of framing a barn about 30 x 40 feet, and 16 or 18 feet high. Fig. 241 exhibits a portion of the end of the build- ing, with rafters, purlins and collar beam. The center post shown is supposed to be boxed on 188 TIMBER FRAMING A \ A ^ \ V\ k A K o •J- n so ■WP'i ■1!... Ji • ;i».3_. >;*'^«'" HEAVY TIMBER FRAMING 189 both sides, but the drawing is of too small a -cale to show the Soxing on either post, sill or plate. The timbers for a building like this are usually about the following dimensions : Sills, 12 in. x 12 i ■i I Fig. 241. in. ; posts and large girders, 10 in. x 10 in. ; plates and girder over drive doors, 8 :"n. x 10 in. ; purlin plates?, 6 in. X 6 in. ; purlin posts and small girders 6 in. X 8 in.; braces, 4 in. x 4 in.; rafters, collar 190 TIMBER FRAMINQ beanxs, etc., 2 in. x 6 in. These dimensions may, of course, be changed to suit circumstances and conditions. All mortises in the heavy timber may be three inches and of such length as the sizes of the timber will allow. Draw-bore holes for pine may l)e from 1 in. to li,:.. in. in diameter, but should never exceed the latter size. Two draw pins may be used in mortise and tenons when the tenon is 8 inches or more wide. Less than that width, one pin will be quite enough. In laying out draw-bore holes have them two inches from the side of the mortise, then on the tenons they should be an eighth or a quarter of an inch less than two inches from the shoulder, then if they are just two inches from the boxing or the face of the mortise, the pins, when driven in, will draw the shoulders snug up to the bearing. In making draw-bore holes care must be taken not to make a nnstake and place the hole where, when tli" >'n is driven home, the joint will be forced c drawn closer. A little thought wl laid out will prevent the hole fron. hore instead of a draw-bore. The braces are framed on a regular 3-foot run; that is, the brace mortise in the girder is 3 feet from the shoulder of the girder, and the brace mortise in the post is 3 feet below the girder mor- tise. In this building the roof is designed to have a third pitch; that is, the peak of the roof would be ng :i tead of oks are ush- IIEAn- TIMBER PRAMINQ 191 one-third the width of the building higher tlian the top ot the phates, provided the rafters were closely iitted ito the plates at their outer surfaces In order to give strength to the mortises for the upper end girders, these girders are framed into the corner post several inches below the shoul- ders of the post, say 4 inches; the thickness of the ijlates being 8 inches it will be perceived that the dotted line, AB, drawn from the outer and up])er corner of one plate to the outer and upper corner of the other is just 1 ft. higher than the ui)per surface of tlic girder. The purlin plates should always be placed under the middle of the rafters, and the purlin j.osts l-ing always framed square with the purlin plates' the bevel at the foot of the, , posts will alwavs be the same as the upper end bevel of the rafters- also, the bevel at each end of the gable-end girder will be the same, since the two girders being parallel, and the purlin post intersecting them the length of the gable-end girder will be eciual to half the widMi of the building, less 18 inches; G inches being allowed for half the thickness ( r the purlin posts, and () inches more at each end for briu-incr It down below the shoulders of the posts. ° " In order to obtain the proper length of the pur- Im iwsts, examine Fig. 241. Let the point P rep- resent the middle point of the rafter, and let the dotted line PO be drawn square with AB ■ then will AC be the 14 of AB, or 7y. feet, and PC half J m 192 TIMBER FRAMING ( •the liso of tlic roof, will l>o 5 feet, and PO G feet. Tilt' I'lirlin post beiiia: S(iuare with the rafter, and P() li( inu: siiuare with AP», we can assume that PR wouM 1)0 the rafter of another roof of the same pitoh as this one, provided PO were half its width, and OR its rise. This demonstration determines also till place of the purlin post mortise in the girder; for AC heinic T'-; f^'t't, and 01{ being 4 feet, by adding these together, we find the point R, the middle of the mortise, to be 11 • o feet from 'he out. idi' of the building; and the length of the mortise being 7' 4 inches, the distance of the end of the mortise, next the center of tiie building, is 11 feet 0",s inches from the outside of the building. The brni-e of the purlin i)Ost must next be framed, and also the nu)rtise for it, one in tne jmrlin post and the other in the ginler. The length of the brace d tlie lower end el of it will be tlie same as in a regular three ii.ot run; and the upper end bevel would also l)e the same, I)rovidcd tlie purlin ])ost were to stand perpendicu- lar to the girder; but, being sendicu- lar, as the rafter approaches nearer and nearer towards a i)erpendicular; and the upper end bevel of the ]>race varies accordingly, approaching nearer and nearer to a right angle as the bevels at the foot of the post, or, what is the same tiling, the upper end bevel of the rafter departs further and further from a right angle. Hence, the bevel HEAVY Tf.MUER FRAMINO lO.i at the top of thi. hnu-e is a compound bevel, found "y ad.lin- the lower rnd bevel of the brace to the IIPP'"'" ' nd bevel of the rafter. In fiMuins the n-ortises for the purlin post '"•a(-e.s It i.s to be observed, also, that if the purlin l|Ost was ptrpendieular to the ,dnler, the mor- tises would eaeh of them be ;} fe.t f,om the heel ol the i.o.t; and the sharper the pitch of the roof, the^reater this distance will be. Hence the true tli.stanr.e on the girder for the ,.urlin post brace moHise js iound by addin- to ;j foet the rise of the roof ,n running 3 feet; which, in this pitch of 8 inches to the foot, is two feet more, making 5 feet the true distance of the furthest end of the mortise' f'-om the heel of the purlin post. The place in the purlin i,ost for the mortise fr^r the upper end of the brace mav be found fro^t the ralter table, by assuming ijjat Kx w< -M W the ratter of another roof of the same ■ .teh as this one, if xy were half the wiC at the top of the bract?, at the same bevel ; then set a bevel sfiuare to the bevel of the upper end of the rafter, and add tliat bevel to BC by placing the handle of the square upon f:^Triismsm6mmm^»M llEWlt TIMBER PRAMINO JQi Fig. ?«;! sliows another method of obtainirff the at the X)t of the brace, dr a at an angle of 45 degree«^ Draw BI) „t rig' : ,g|e., with VB and draw BC perpendicular to ..s, n,„king ,wo r ght angled tr.angle.,. Then divide the base of the .ner on, „f ,i,ese trians:!,., into 12 e.|Ual parts for the r,so of tl,. roof. Then place the bevel square npon the bevel AH at B and set it to the figure on the line CD. which corresponds with J,e P-tch of the roof. This will set the square to tie bevel requued for the top of the brace. In thh figure the bevel is not marked upon the brar ^ but he square is properly set for a pitch of 8 .n'ches nil K "?*■ "[ ' °'"''"'''"'' >"'"''■ Tlio square can now be placed upon the top of the brace, and the -.:ii *i| jr*t "f >'i»' ■ ji<tub tenon," which I show at A in the illustration Fig. 244, where it will be seen that at one side of the tenon there is a shoulder. Tlie other side not having a shoulder is thus said to be barefaced. Since it does not jiass right through the post, it is known as a stui) tenon. This form of tenon is used whore one surface of the girt is to be flush with that of a post, the other side of tho girt being set back from that of the post (as shown). I1EA\-Y TIMBER P^RAMINQ 197 In Figs. 245 and 240 1 si „ . , , ^' a couple of examples ot mixed, heavy and light framing. These will Kig. 245. show how tliat style of work is done, and will 1 am sure, prove of value to the learner. ■liaBVnw^n- 198 TIMBER FRAMING It may not be out of place to say a few words on timbering floors, as the framer is often called upon to cut, frame and place all the necessary tim- u4 I ll'il iU l -■tif — » Fig. 246. bcrs for the purpose, and to give him some idea of how the work should be done the following few illustrations and instrjLictions are offered. In the first part of this work I gave a number of illus- HEAVY TIMBER FRAMING 199 trations and methods of preparing timber for floors, so I will not now enter at muck length into this subject, but briefly give a few examples of such work, as I know from experience will prove of the greatest value to the general workman: Fig. 247. A general system of floor framing in timber alone IS shown in Fig. 247, the whole floor being of wood. Fig. 248 exhibits a timber floor intended for a double surface. The upper series carrv the ceiling .loista. At Fig. 249 I show how a framed floor, .% ? i Hi I ir '200 TIMHKK FRAMING jiaitly of wood jiiid pnrlly of iron, is usually ])iit toi^fot'lior in Jiiany localitit's. In Cliica;^!) and otli(»r jihu'os tluTo is ofton a dcpaiiurt' I'roni tins mctliod, Nvlii(.'li is not alwavs for the best. .\ douhlo iron 1 . V^xj^J »*«* ttfto 3 r: IXjubk Timber Tloor -1 ,1 I I r , _3 ._,_« 1 E_J Fig. 24S. and timber floor is shown in Fig. 250, while a coal breeze or concrete floor with necessary steel j?ird.- ers Is shown at Fit?. 2.j1. Fig. 252 chows a strongly reinforced concrete fireproof fioor, capable of bear- ing great weights. HEAVY TIMBEU FRAMING '! iU ••'H 202 TlltBER rPAWINQ A few hints liere regarding imbering floors, over and above Tvhat lins been said, may not be out of place: W ■i -4 rr'irifiir' smmmmfma^ li jT ■ Colte^ircetc ond Inm floor XJcT&nsrsJuTlsirr AMien ceilings are fixed direct to bridging joists that are thicker than 2^/^ in., brandering fillets should be nailed on their bottom edges to fix the lathing to. Ceiling joists in framed floors should be fixed to the binders. Xotdiing or mortising the binder weakens it considerably. HEAVY TIMBER FRAMING 203 Keep the ceiling jo'sts V- in. below the binder and eonntci lath the edge of the latter to afford key for plaster. When tlie height is not sufficient to allow of the use of ceiling joists, notch the bridging joists 1 m'yyfmi^tfyfya Hvnvi and KodgCKi' Sty^em %^ttmtyn^^mti* ^ Fig. 252. in. down on the binders, and lath and plaster direct. Also put in a row of plasterers' nails in the sides of the binder to form a key ff)r the plas- ter, and plane and mould the visible portion of binder. 204 TIMBKU FR.VMINU If,: Every fourtli or fil'tli bridge joist is well made 2 in. deeper than the rest, and the eeiling joints fixed thereto. Pine is better than oak for ceiling joists. To find the depth of ceiling joists, 2 in. thick, for any span, lialve the bearing in feet; the result will be the depth in inclu"^. Ceiling joists should never exceed L*''i in. in thickness, nor he less than 1*^4 in. They should be si^aced not more than IG in. apart, center to cen- ter. Ceiling joists should be thoroughly dry, or they will indicate their position first ])y dark and later by light stripes on the ceiling. A Hitched girder consists of a wrouglit iron plate l>la('ed between two tiniber flitches, and the three bolted together. The plate should be ' \ in. within each edge of the wood, so that the weight shall not be all thrown on it when the wood has shrunk. When pine or si)ruce plates are fixed to the sides of iron girders for the purpose of carrying the ends of joists, they may be secured with straps in jilace of bolts with advantage in points of strength and economy. Scantlings for girders of Baltic fir; distance apart, 10 ft., center to center: and add an inch in each 10 ft. s]);'.-'.= 9 in. X 7 1 . 12 ft. span=:10 in. x S in. direction (breadth and depth) for every addi- tional 2 ft. of span. IIEAVV TIMBER FRAMING 205 I It is worse tliau iisok'ss to truss girders iu their own depth. AVood heanis, when used as girders, sliould be out down tlie middle, one of the Hitches being re- versed and the two then bolted together. This e(|ualizes, if it does not increase, the strength, and at the same time alTords an opportunity of seeing whetiier the heart i< tlefeetive. The bolts should bo i)laeed mainly al)ove tlie center line, and any placed k'low should be near the ends. Wood gir(' for warehouses, factories, and similar buildings, are better unwrought. If it is desired to paint them, the-y slioiTld be cased with worked pine linings, fixed to ' _. in. firring pieces. The formula for the strength of timl)er girders is ^y b d^ Where W = L = b = d = breaking weight in cwts. span in feet breadth in inches ulepth of gir(h*r in inches constant =^5 fur oak, pitch and birch = 4 for southern i)iue. pmo, Load at center and 1)eam supported only. The maximum strength of a timber beam is ob- tained when the breadth is to the depth as 5 is to 7. tmm 2on TIMUKK KKAMING tiV Tlio illustration sliown at Fij]^. 2i)'.\ iiiakos plain tljo iiu'tliotl of constructing a donhlo fl(M)r. The hiiiilor rests on a wall or posts. This makes a fine door, and is in a measure sound ])root'. w ^^s^^/////////m^^-y " &om/man Jotat' ^ I \ niwiriiw'iiwiii««iVMJWrtBM?av//ii rig. 253. Flos. 254, 2'i'), 25G and 237, which are ])orrowed from Aicliifccture (Did DuUding — old series — will convey to the reader a nunil)er of excellent ideas as to the combination of iron and wood in floor framiuir. Fig. 258 shows the manner usually adopted in prei)arini^ the floor timbers around a hearth, chim- ney breast, stair well hole, or openings for trap doors or similar work. The trimmers and headers are made with heavier timbers than the joists, and HEAVY TI.MUKU FRAMING 207 the tail licains nro let into the headers witli either ,»lain or tusk-tenons. Tusk-tenons, of eourse, are the l)est, l)iit entail much lalior and care. A tusk- tenon with a run-over toi>, is shown in Fii;. '27)9. Fig. 254. This makes a g:oo(l clean joint for running over a girt or boariny tinihor, niul c'ln l>e nailed to"-etlier e- J joint as shown, tlius holding the work so ti . cannot spread. Tl' tenon is shown at A. •:.s TIMBER FRAMINO (■■ "{ Tlioro aro various sliapc^ of tusk-tonons, some of whicli aro shown in tiie forojcfoinj; examples. I give Ik'Iow horowith a brief description of what I think makes the best kind of a tenon: The nsual ruh» for cutting a common tenon is to make it one-third the width of tjjo timber and r/itchPlate Girfkr. r^ Fl(f. SfA this rule should be followed as far as possible in designing a tusk-tenon. The projection of the tenon from the beam out of which it is cut is called its root, and the surfaces immediately adjacent to its root on the sides are called the shoulders. HEAVY mitlKIt KHAMI.NQ ?09 I 4'4Ang!e. Fig. 2S7. 210 TIMBER FRAMING The tusk-tenon was devised in order to give the tenon a deep bearing at the root, without greatly increasing the size of the mortise. Making the Fig. 258. mortise unduly large would, of course, weaken the girder. The desired deep bearing is secured by s^isf Fig. ;J59. adding below the tenon a tusk having a shoulder which ill trimmer work penetrates to a depth about one-sixth the thickness of the joist. Above the IIEAVT.' TIMBER FRAMING 211 tenon is formed what is called a "horn," the lower end of which penetrates to the same extent as the tusk. By this arrangement the strength of the tenon is greatly increased as compared with the common form, while the mortise is not made very much larger. In order to hold the i»arts together the tenon is i)rojected through the girder and l)inned on the outside as shown in the sketches. So much for a descrii)tion of the tusk-tenon, as it is theoretically, and as illustrated in Fig. 261. Many times, however, the tusk-tenon is attempted upon the lines shown in Fig. 2G0. For example, if the beams are 10 inches deep, it is placed so as to leave 6 in. beneath. This does not secure the maxi- mum of strength. The tenon is made square on the shoulder, which is not the best that might be done and has below the root the bearing indicated by A in the sketch. The ol)ject in view with this joint, where apjilied to small timbers, as, for examiile, headers in floor beams, as well as in heavy framing, is to secure a perfect bearing at all ])oints. In the application of it to floor beams the special object is to weaken the trimmer as little as possible. It is scarcely necessary to remind the readers that a beam weighed and supported like a trimmer has the fibers on the bottom in tension, while those at the top are in compression. If this is conceded, then it becomes evident that whatever is to l)e cut out of the beam ought to be cut out as near the n 212 TIMBKR FRAMING i't'iitor as ])ossil)lo. Tlio root of llic tenon should jiiorco tlio boani at a j)oint as nearly on the ni'utral axis as may be. The nearer it Is phiced to the bottom of tlie l)eam, that is to be connected witli the trinnner, the less likely the tenon is to split ofT, and as neai the middle of the beam from top to bottom as })ossible, is the ]>roper point for the tenon. There is some liability of t\o tenon s])lit- tini)served in their construetion. The piinciples that are enunciated below aftpiy to most temporary stx-uftures, l»ut are here intended to ajiply chiefly to centerinir. (1 ) Absolute rigidity of tiie struc- Fig. 2fJl. hire is rc.juired. (-2) A wi.ic margin of safety in the re>i>tance of the material aiul fastenings of joints. (;]) Fastenings should be easy of applica- tion and lemoval, and y-l ])erfectly reliable. (4) The structure must be economically designed, which does not mean always to us<' as little mate- rial as i>ossi]»]e, but rather that it shall su.- to allow of re-use for similar purposes when the sizes ajv suitable, or convension into timber for other purposes. (5) Joints must be so 11 ^ 214 TIMBER FRAMING arranged as to transmit stresses directly will; cKie least jiossible tendency to slide when under com- I)ression, and wlicre necessary the fastenings of the joints must be such as to allow of the stresses being severed without movement of such jo'uts during the loading of the center. Thus, when an arch is being erected, if of a semi-circular or semi- elliptical outline, the first few stones or bricks will produce no stress in the center, for the tendency of the l)locks to slide resistctl by the friction l)e- tween the surfai-es until the angk» of repose of the material is reached. After passing this i)oint, the center becomes (piickly loaded and the compression at the ha''.nches is severe, and being loaded sym- metrically from the two sides, produces a strong tendency to lift at the crown, which the center has to resist. AVhat is recpiired is an arrangement of trussing the ribs, or separate vertical frames sup- porting the lagging, that will resist this deforma- tion, and further, that of the continucnl loading up to the insertion of the key clock. To attain re- sistance and rigidity so as to overcome these diflTi- culties recjuires careful consideration in large cen- ters. The center as a whole consists of the sup- ports, the curved trussed ribs, and the cover or lagging which the ribs support. First, as regards the ribs, these should be trussed frames of the reciuired outline placed at 3^ 4 or a feet centers, according to tb^^ weiglit of the arch, strength of lagging and t" 's; each HEAVY TIMBER FHAMING 215 rib or bent receiving direet supiwrt. The con- struption of the rib in.iy be aoeonipli.shed in one of three ways: (a) It may liave tlie cune built up in two or more tliicknesse.s ; (b) it may be of solid material, conncM'tinj? the struts, its outer sur- face cut to the curve; or (c) the frame may be trussed to the outline very approximately, and the curve formed by shaped packings nailed to the other members. The general practice appears to be to use (a) in two thicknesses, for small centers, simply nailing or screwing the sections together; (b) for large civil engineerirg structures ; and (c) also for the latter work and for arclies of" moderate span that are near the semicircular outliuo. We may consider (c) as a irodification of (b). But there is a great advantage in using the built-up curve for centers of comparatively large size, especially where the whole ril) can be l)uilt up and th"n raised into position, because of the fact that if ' e joints between the I-: igths of material are i .1 (normal) to the curve, the rib, ai>art from tri sing, is in a great measure self-sustaininu, its form Ixnng that of an arch, and, therefore, callable of sustaining a I0..J.. The writer knows of some cases where built-up curved ribs (without truss- ing), merely lagged and braced, have been suc- cessfully useorary puvjioses should be designed so as to injure the material as little as p()ssil)!e, with a view to its sulisiMiuent use for other purjioses. This (-(mdithm often necessitates the employ- ment of largi'r timl>ers than are actually re(iuired to meet the stresses occasioned by the load. But it is a good fault in centering to have the timber "too heavy," as in extensive works such as railway arches or huge vaults, stresses some- times develop in miexpected diroetion;-. Everv effort should be made to transmit i\\^ HEAVY TIMBKR f RAMINQ 217 load to the .efroiiiid, dii-ectly. In- vertical supjmrts; and if the (listance is great these shoiiM he hiaced. , Inelined su)))>ort.s, as sometimes used, to i^ive clear way for trsiffic, are ajit to shrink and he- eome 1(X)so, ridinj,' on the doys, and so llirow them- selves out of i.earing if not watclied. The above does not apply to aiche- wlK^-e .ihiit- ments are piers. In tliis ca.ve it is hettei- to ilirow the \veiji:ht of the centfM'ing upon the footiii;:-. or some ])art of the pier, othei-\vise when the <-.'nter is struck, and the exti-a wei;>Iit of tii.- ardjes thro^vn on them, they may setth' un<'oraiely braced and tied with iron rods, being not affected thereby. Centers should also be capable of easy striking and ready readjustment. These re(iuirements are usually met by introducing pairs of folding wedges between the supports and the lower bearings of the center. There is always a danger of these wedges, whilst being driven back, suddenly shoot- ing away and leaving the center unsupjwrted. This may be avoided by using three wedges as shown at Fig. 28(5. Then if either the tip or bot- tom one is driven out, a pair still remain to take the bearing, and "set up" again if requii-ed. An elaboration of this method is shown in Fig. 287, a continuous wedge, used sometimes for heavy centers. It is impossible for this form to slip, and it can be locked in position when set up by a key driven in one of the slots. Screw jacks may also be employed to obtain regular easing in doubtful eases of vaulting or restorative work. Another point to remember in designing cen- ters, is that there may be projections below the springing, such as cap or neck moldings, that will prevent tho lowering of the center if due allow- HEAVY TIMBER FRAMING 219 ance is not made for them; an exami)le of this is given in Figs. 2G8 nnd 277. The tie-piece should be made a littli? .- nier than the clear distance between the proji-ctions, and raised above the springing to a point where it will cut the intrados of the arch. The tail-pieces, completing the center down to tlie s{)ringing, are made up sei)arately and inserted after the body is set up. These taii-piea's would not be required for a masonry arch, as the haunch voussoirs do not take a bearing on the center until their bed joints exceed an angle of .12 s his phniih rule and lines across the face of the woik, and over the openinj-js, so that the ends (tf the la,i!:.ii;in,u: should l»e ke[)t within the line of the finished work. Fig. 263. Tt is a eonvenienco to let the lags run over tlie ril>s about ]i- in., so that they can l»e li'iiuined as required. Lagiiiiigs for 1)rickwork should he spaced not uiore than 1'.. in. apart. For uiasonrv thev can he spaced according to the length of the -'oussoirs usetl. A hearing at each edge is sufficient. Fre- quently wiiere the voussoirs exceed two feet in length, higging is dispensed Avith altogether, the 222 TIMIiKK FKAMINQ t-fi i \i 1 Ktonos Ihmii^ supportt'd hy hhx'ks or wcd^os ar- raugivl UM the work prooet'ds. This methotl is shown in Fi^. 1*77. Mak is often used i'or wed^i'^^, hut niajle is a better wiH>d, heinif much less likely to split; it is also naturally smooth and slips well. If oak is usihI, its surface should he soaped or ithick-li'aded. The wood should he ilry, and if machine cut, a fine tooth saw should he used, or if cut with a coarse saw, the faces should he planed. The thin end sliould not he less than "',s in. thick, and tin- corners of l)oth ends "duhhed" otT, as shown in Fig. ll8G, to prevent sjilitting. Wedges should he dri\'en parallel to the abut- ments, i, e., across the ribs and have a lilock nailed behind ti, in to })ifvent running l>ack. The turning i)iece. Fig. '2C)'2, is cut out of a piece 2 in. by 4 in.; it is used for the outside arches of door and window ojtenings, of sligl rise, and half a brick thick. For thicker w^lls the rib center, Fig. 2(y.), is used. This is formed by shaping two boards, about 1 in. thick, to the curve, koei)ing them at a ])roper distance ai)art by stretchers, S, nailed on their lower edges, and covering the curved edges with lagging pieces, L, about IVi; in. ])y •'• I in., at intervals of % in. for ordinary work. When the rise of a center is small in comparison to its span, it is inconvenient to describe its curve with a radius r< d, and the method sliown in Fig. 264 may be adopted. Take a piece of board of con- HEAVY TIMBER PRAMINO 223 voniont sizf and draw a lim? across it from ean, as at a-c, and the templet jtlaced in tin? position shown in Fig. L'(]4, with a pencil held at point h: if the ^. j-,1. lK)n rd is now moved around towanls a, keeping it ]>ressed against the nails, one-half the curve will be described, and on turning over and rejieating the process the other lialf may 1>e completed. An alternative method is shown in Fig. 204. suit- able for v^ry flat arches. Lay otie the rise, and span, perpendicular to eacli other, as a. b and e, upon any convenient surface; draw the cord line a c, lay tlie board from whicli tlie templet is to ])e cut in a suitable position over these lines, and re- produce the line a e upon it ; also draw the line e d parallel to a b; next cut the board to this triangu- i '.m 224 TIMBER FRAMING t ii «*■■ SI lar shape, as sliown by the shaded portion; th' '' if nails are driven in the board to be cut at poir ;s a and c, and the templet moved aronnd again -1 them, the curve will be described by a pencil held at ]ioint e, as shown by the dotted line. Svhen the rise is more than the width of a board will aeconunodate, a variation of this method may be used. Into the board or boards from which the rib is to be cut tiiree nails are driven, as at a, b, c, Fig. 2(5."), arranged so ihat a-c shall equal the si)an and b the rise, then place two strips of wood against the nails as shown, crossing at the crown, and fix them together; a third piece nailed across to form a triangle will keep them in position, if the nail at the ajK'X is withdrawn and a ])encil sub- stituted: when the triangle is moved around as be- fore described, the curve will be produced. One of the leus of 1he triangle should be twice the length from a to b. A ]»uilt-up center is shown in Figs. 2(50 and 2G7; the ribs in this vai'iety ai'e formed in two thick- nesses, the laminae l)eing nailed together in short lengths, the abutting joints of each layer meeting in the center of the other. These abutment joints vshould not be less than 4 in. long, and should ra- diate from the center of the curve. The length of the segmejits is determined by the amount of the curve that can be cut out of a 9 in. board. The two longer layers of the rib at the springing are cut off at the to]) edge of the tie-pieces, and form with the ^^ii m-w^mm^-^. HEAVY TIMBER FRAAIIXG 225 upper layer, which runs down to its bottom edge, a rebate, in which the tie rests. The hiyer running down is nailed to the tie. The tie-piwe may be from 1 in. I)y 7 in. to VC. in. l)y 9 in., according to the span. The braces, of similar scantling, should radiate from the center, and be shouldered slightly upon the same side of the tie-piece that the ribs '■V I ^f'^mi -«ia-^^^ ^...,.. I. if. I ; f 226 TIMBER FRAMIKG run over ; their upper ends are nailed on the side of the layer of the rib, and take a bearing under the edges of the other. This form of center may be safely used for spans up to 12 ft, but although sometimes used for greater, they are not to be IIEA\-Y TIMBER FBAMI> 227 recommended owing to the numerous joints, and the possibility of splitting the segments in nail- ing. The framed center, Fig. 2G8, is better adapted for spans between 12 ft. and 20 ft. The ribs are solid, out of 2 in. or 3 in. by 9 in., as the span is less or more, and if t!iis is not wide enough to get Fig. 269. the curve out, in four or five lengths, must be made lip to the re(iuire(l widtli, with similar pieces spiked on the back. The ends near the springing are shouldered out i U in. on each side to sit on the tie-pieces, which are in pairs; the upper ends have slot mortises cut in them to receive the tenons on the braces (see Figs. 269 and 270). The lower •>r' j^T^ 228 TIMBEB FRAMING oiuls of the l)ra('os nro sliouUlorod in a manner similar to the ribs. The ends in the ties are fixed with eoncli screws, the npiu'r ends l)y d'Oi?s, A trnssed t -Miter of t'conomical construction is shown in Fi,i>-. -71, consistin,i>' of a triaui^uhited frame of (inartering, used as a support to the ribs. The foundation frame may take the form of either a king- or (|neen i)ost truss, as the span and mmi- hvv of braces rei>lied, will give the depth of the interme- aiate notching. A trusscd_ center lor a large span is illustrated h} 1 1^ 2> . and 28;J. Figs. '2SA and 284 are de- tails ottlio construction. Centers of tlie above -U '.4f- to mark tlio cnrvo, or in sojiiiu'iital an-lios tlio triangle, Fig. 282, may bo used ; the pieces are tiien separated and eut, again laid doM'n with spikes driven temporarily around their periphery to keep them in place; the struts and ties are then laid over them in position, and the lines for the shouldering and notching drawn on; each joint should have a chisel mark made on the pieces to identifv them, and the joints being made, the whole can be iitted together, nailed np and bolted, then taken to pieces ready for re-ere;'ti(m in situ. ^^^'^iiffii Fitf. 'iTS- Fik'. ■^:'.». ^i i close lagged centers fur various purposes are shown in Figs. 278 and 280 and 284. The surface of these is rec^uired to be finished more accurately than in the ordinary center, because the hrick- laver sets out the ])lans of his courses thereon, and thus obtains the shane of the voussoirs. The lagging is nailed closely round the ribs, and brought into the curve afterwards, with the plane. The profile line being obtained either by radius rod or templet. In the case of Dome or Xiche HEAVY TIMBER FRAMING 233 c'cnti rs, a reverse templet affords tlie readiest guide for sliapiiij;^ tin.' surface. A circle on circle center, wlien semi-circular in elevation, may he constructed as shown in FiJ^^s. 1!74 to l78. Two ril)s are cut to the plan cui-ve, and upon each ed^^e of these narrow vertical hi.i,'i,'ings, i-ather closely spaced, and thin enouj,di to hend easily to the curve, are nailed. The b(;ttom ril) is j.laced at the sprin.j^nnj,', the other about half way between it and the crown,, when rig. 280. this side lagging is fixed, a radius rod shaped as in Fig. 277, and set out so that the distance between the pivot A and the middle of the V notch is equal to the radius of the required arch, less the thickness of the soffit lagging; is mounted on a temporary stretcher, C, at the middle of the springing; this is swept round the lagging on each side, a pencil being held loosely in the V notch, thus obtaining the outline of the elevation ^*i^ 2;u TIMUKU KUAMINO ciirvo. (Or o()nrs(» if Hie solTil wiTc s|)I;iy«Hl the intuM- rndiiis wonl«l he shorter, but struck froni the snuio U'vcl ;is \]\v ouliT.) The hdaids ;in' cut S(iuan» thri)Ui::h lo the Hues ;iu«l Ihc cross lauci^in;; uaiU'tl to thi'ir cuds, as shown iu the section. When thi- phni curve is Hat. such as would ix-cur in a uairow ojH'iiiuir iu a larij^e circular wall, the vertical lairginj; may he omitted and the center built as shown iu Fiji's, "JTS and •JSil, itlain viMtical ribs beiuix employed, and the laj^s allowed to ovcr- luiua: sullicitMitl\ to form the i>Ian cuives. They require to be rather stouter than usual to ensure stitTness. There arc two ways iu wliich centeriuii: i'or in- tersei'tiusr vaults may bo constructed: tii-st, when the vault is r.ot of ii:reat »\)im, a "barrel" or con- tinuous center is made for the main vault, long enouirli to run about two feet beyontl each si(h> of the interstx'tini; vault. The centers of the .smaller vaults are then made with the lagging overhang- ing the rib at one end, the two centers are then placed on a level surface and brought together in their <-orivct relative positions, and the loose enils of lagging scrilx'd to lit the contour of the main center, and tlien nailed tliereto. This method, however, is unsuitable for vaults of large s]>an, as the higging would be liable to sink at the intersection through the absence of sujiport. Tiie second method, shown in Figs. 281 and 28.'], is then adopted; a rectangular frame is irKAVY TIMBER PIl..MINa J35 first <>onstnicf(.,l ,.,,uiil it, Icn-tli fo tlio propos.'d cA'utvi; an.l in width to tlic dear span Fx tween tlm walls; this fraiiu' is lialvos are made in two thi<'knosses for conveDieuce of ]>eveling, the angle of the seating being a re-entrant cue. The metiiod of i)roducing (lie lievel is explained elsewhere. Tlie lagging of the cylindric center should be fixed first and workea oil" true with the it •"'J ;■; y W' I •j:{il TIMIlKli FKAMINO aiil of ;i plaiH' ;iii«l st>;ii.i;lit-rtl,i;«'; a tliin straiKl't lath sliDiiKl tlit'ii l»«' l»?i thi'ir onds with a pencil diawn down the suii'ace c'" •.> cyiindei-. A ti-miilel. obtained as desciibt'd below, ajiplied at tlu' fiids will nive the profile at the ex- tremities, an, into a number of pait<, as at 1, 2, .'5, 4, ■> ; draw perpendiculars from these to the springing? line x, and i)roduce tlu' line.- to cut the plan of the center of .ifroiii rib, in a. b, c. d, x: ei-ect perpendiculars at these jioints to the plan line, d-i', and mark olY oil them heiglits t(» . orresponil with the similarly marked heiirhts in the section, Fiir. "JS:!; these will jjive I'oint- in the curve, which may be drawn liy drivinu' in nails at thf ))oints and bendinj,' a thin lath round tliem. The curve may, however, be drawn <- following. ,n,„ner: To tla.r ,.,.•. of hoard r..uu^ ^,,,,, ,,,. om u„l, tl,e s.,m-n.,,or aiid M>i;,i-inir.or a.x.- • j;, ythorwonKtlK-risea.dhali--.pa. oi-the'an-h Ke.,.u.^ these. tux> joints v,.nth.ji..., A, ii,a.d V ^^ ;'n-an^^^^ the ]ath in various j.o^ition; a' >].>wu hy duttecl Jim. in Fi.. J.4. and p.,.inine: i^KuIeatn^ end Will give jM.lnt^ on tn<..urv. V-- J:i- JM ■I To find the ^]:;i},., of the ,-]!.. f,„. th. nuwn ..^nt-r. rjLr. l'nJ. iroM tl-e j.oint- a'. ]/. -•'. d'. n plan, iii- draw lines parallel to the ,.]:.<. ..f ^'.<. .-.'ntlr ' T-rseetinjr tJie seat of th-- end rih in j-oinl^ a"." h y", d", X"; aloiijrtlje.e line- w-t off he]jr},t:. equal *- tiie •'Orre>].,,ij,i;jj;r ordinate* in Fi^. 2*] and draw the outline of tJie rib *hrou-ii then, "a- at^r' t ig. -b4. '' i 238 TIMBER FRAMING mi- To find joint line and direction for braces in elliptic centers, see Fig. 284. First find the focal points, with radius equal to half the span a b. Describe an arc from center c, cutting the major axis a b in f f ; these are the foci. To find the joint line or normal from any point in the curve as n (fixed conveniently for length of stuff), draw straight lines to the foci; bisect the contained angle, as shown by a line drawn through the point n and the center of the constructive arc. This line is a noi-mal or perpendicular to the curve at the point in question, and indicates the direction of joint and braces. FiB. 28.-I, The method of bevelling a groin rib for the pur- pose of obtaining a level seating for the lagging is shown iu Fig. 2813. Let c, d, b represent the plan of one-half of a groin rib similar to II, x. Fig. 281, and C, d', the elevation, which may also represent the mould or templet; a, e, f, g is the piece of board from wliioh tli<^ rib is to be out, on the face side of the board draw the full line, C, d', by aid HEAVY TIMBER FRAMING 239 of the mould, cut the ends square with each other, as a, e. and d, g, then apply the bevel as found at d in iilan from point d' across the bottom edge, square a line across the top end at C, and apply the mould on the other side of the board, as shown by the dotted line with its lower end at the bevel line and its upper end to the level line from point C. If the rib is cut to these two lines, and a simi- lar one made the reverse hand and nailed together as shown in Fig. 281, its edge will lie in the planes' of the directions of the intersecting vaults. Fi(f. 2,S9. _ The methods shown in the following descrip- tions and illustrations further affords very con- venient means of jointing, for the struts can al- ways be made to meet at points such as A or B in Fig. 289, making possible either a mcu'tise-and- tenon or a l)ri({le joint, without cutting into the nb; for taking either of the two positions given, 240 TIMBER FRAMING * .' = the crossing of the sections of the curve provided the necessary entering or receiving portion of the joint, leaving only one-half of the joint to be worked on the strut. In the solid-rib type, the curve is made up of lengths of solid material, with the joints between each part of the strut connections, thereby becoming separate members to the frame. The curve itself has no resistance apart from its connection with the struts. The jointing in this case is more of a permanent na- ture. FiK. 2110. The arrangement of the mer.'vers of the rib, so as to give internal support to the curve, depends on conditions that will be readily noted as the diagrams are perused. If the span and outline be such that the rise is not great, the struts may all be brought directly on to the tie, and concen- trated on the intermediate supports, as shown in Fig. 290. This type should have solid ribs jointed at the points A, B, C, etc., as shown (for details :h' r HEAVY TIMBER FRAMING 241 of which see Figs. 290 and 291). If, however, the rise be great, either a flat member must be bolted across the face of the rib so as to shorten the struts effectively, or, better, the type shown in Fig. 291. Fig. 2'>2. 7ig. 293 can be adopted, which shows the method of arranging the -.embers more suitably. The struts are much shorter, and can therefore be Fis. 293. lighter. A great resistance to lifting at the crown is obtained, and if necessary- the intermediate supports can be dispensed with. Further, the direct supports to the curve may be all normals, 242 TIMBER FKAMINQ ini- or their equivalent, for this latter condition is sat- isfied if a pair of struts meet at an equal incli- nation (Fig. ,'?92). Fig. 293 gives the elevation in line diagram, and Fig. 294 gives the full details of the construction, span 30 ft. The rib is here HEAVY TIMBER FRAMING 243 built up in three one and a half inches stuff. In both Figs. 289 and 293 the tie is double, of 2x9 in. material. Fig. 293 fulfills the requirement of a good center, and therefore this form may with ad- vantage be generally adopted and modified in the internal trussing as the span increases. Elliptical arches of long spans are somewhat more difficult to deal with, and I present the fol- lowing merely to enable workmen to deal with centers of this kind, having a span from 30 to 100 feet. ■<\ f/^ /\ 7^ IX (X / \ / \ / \ A a Fie. 295. Large centers for civil engineering structures, such as bridges crossing rivers in several spans, are scarcely within our scope, these requiring spe- cial treatment according to circumstances. But we may with advantage just note on the general forms of centers that are adopted for compara- tively flat elliptical arches, together with a modi- fication for a greater rise. Fig. 295 is the gen- eral form. It has many points of support, there- 244 TIMBER FRAMING m^h ■^K:m:m. fore little tendency to give at the crown. The whole of the material is of large size, 6 in. by 6 in. being the minimum, and for the platform whole Tie. 2%. p: FiK. 297. timbers 12 in. by 12 in. receive the vertical posts. For heavier work and wider spans, the construc- tion given in Fig. 298 is well adapted. Details in HEAVY TIMBER FRAMING 245 si; Mi 246 TIMBER FRAMING Figs. 296 to ;>(»0 silow the construction of joints which applies throughout. This is built in two tiers, keeping the struts comparatively short, and effectively distributes pressure co the points of support. The secondary horizontal member is large enough to clasp the curved rib at the ends (see Fig. 301), and the whole oi the joints are housed or tenoned and strapped where necessary, and as shown in details. Transverse and longitu- dinal bracing is freely used in the manner pre- .'■ i ^^^mi Fig. 20D. Fig. 300. viously described, and by careful arrangement and sufficient bracing in vertical planes the neces- sity for strap connections can be reduced to a minimum. For heavy arches such as these the centers are struck by the introduction of lifting jacks or sand boxes, the latter being esjiecially suited to the purpose. They are arranged to con- tain fine dry sand, with means of escape for the sand as needed, so that the center may be lowered easily and gradually, and to any required amount within the provided limits. HEAVY TIMBER FRAMING 247 I show at Figs. 302, 303, 304 and 305 four exam- ples of centers in situ, carrying the brick or stone Fiff. 301. work, as the case may bet Fig. 302 shows a cen- ter for a small span. It consists of a trussed frame, of which A is the tie, B the principal, or Fig. 30L'. as its outer edge is curved to the contour of the arch, It is called the felloe, C the post or puncheon, 248 TIMBER FRAMING and F a strut. The center is carried by the piles D, on the top of which is a capping piece E, ex- tending: across the ojicning; and the wedge blocks are interposed betwixt it and the tie-beam. Fig. .'>()3 shows center for a small si)an for an elliptical arch. •ft Fig. 303. h r Fig. 304 shows a center with intermediate sup- ports and sim]ile framing, consisting of two trusses formed on the puncheons over the inter- mediate supports as king-posts, and subsidiary tnis.-es for the haunches, with struts from their center parallel to the main struts. This is an 'ex- cellent design for a center carrying a seg):iental flat arch having a large span. Fig. .30.3 sliows a system of supporting a large semi-elliptical center arch rib from the intenne- diate supports by radiating struts, which, with mmmm HEAVY TIMUm FRAMING 249 mod ifio^it ions to suit tlie ciroumstances of the case, liave been very extensively adopted in many large works connected with railroads in this country n fa n and Europe. Tbi struts abut at their upper end on straining pieces, or apron pieces, as they are sometimes called, which are bolted to the rib, and •.^ .iL'ii \, 250 TIMBKR PRAM I NO serve to strengtlieu it. The ends of the transverse braces are seen at a a. h'^» o to fa The examples and det; ils of oenters ?nren in th.. foregoina: are lui? suffit cut to enable ihe foremai to lay-out. and e; M-iite any job of buildincr a cen- IIKAW TIMBKB FRAMING 251 rae If tcr that inay {'..nrront Iihn; and at this point we leave tlic subjoft of cuutors, and take up another iriifjortant -no, namely, tluit of timber roof fram- ing'. AVliile I i)ropo.so discussing' timber roofs and trusses. in general in this dei» irtment, it is not in- tended to deal witli roof coverings further than may be neceshJir; to make the instruetiouh and suu^fstions gi\ Ml herewith intelligible and so that the ■ nuiy be understood .y every workman wlio can cad. There are a few gener il rules goveriung timber roof Iraniiug the workni i should always have in mind when building (,r ireuK's should be rigorously avoid- er 4 ^ lat-pitched roofs are not so strong as high- It lied ones. Suital)]e j)itchcs of roofs for v:iriroximate wciglit of roofs pt-r square 1 iit imber framing, 51 _. cwt.; Countess slat^ 61 _ c r.; add for 1 in. jtliic or hemlock I'oardin., 252 TIMBER FRAMING 2y- cwt. ; plain tiles, 14 cwt. ; 7 lb. lead, 6 cwt. ; 1-32 in. zinc, V/^ cwt. 6. The construction should be able to with- stand an additional weight of 30 cwt. per square for wind pressure. 7. When the carpentry forming the roof of a building is of great extent, instead of being inju- rious to the stability of the walls or points of sup- port, it should be so designed that it will strength- en and keep them together. 8. Forms of roofs for various spans should couple, up to 11 ft.; couple close, to 14 ft.; collar, to 17 ft. ; king post, to 30 ft. ; queen post, to 46 ft. ; queen and princess, to 75 ft. 9. Roof trusses should be prepared from sound, dry timber, white or red pine, free from large knots, sap, and shakes, all parts to hold sizes shown in figured dimensions, and all joints to be stub-tenoned and to fit square to shoulders. Tie- beam should be cambered % in. in 10 ft., and straps and bolts be of best wrought-iron. No spikes should be used in the construction except for fixing cleats. 10. Tie beams should be supported <^very 15 ft. 11. Struts should be taken as nearly as possi- ble under bearing of purlin. 12. The straining beams in spans of 50 ft. and upwards require support, and a king bolt or post should bo introduced. 13. To find the thickness of king post trusses, HEAVY TIMBER FRAMING 253 divide the span by five and call the quotient inch- es. Assume 9 in. and 5 in. as the standard depth of tie beams and principal rafter respectively for 20 ft. span ; add 1 in. to each for every additional 5 ft. of span. Kinp^ posts and struts to be square. 14. To find the thickness of queen post trusses, divide the span by eight and call tho quotient inches; if odd parts result, add 1 in. for tiles, and for slates take off the fraction. Taking the stand- ard depth of tie beam and principal for 32 ft. span to be 11 in. and H in. respectively, add 1 in. to each for every 5 ft. of additional span. The struts and body of the queens to be made square. 15. Wall plates are used to distribute the weight ol roof timbers, and also to act as ties to the walls. For this reason tie-beams should be cogged to the plates, the latter dove-tail-halved at the angle, and dovo-tail-scarfed in longitudinal joints. "Wall phitos in roofs should be creosoted or otherwise protectcl against rot, and bedded in cement knocked up stiff. 16. Purlins sliould bo cogged or notched on to princijDal rafters and not framed between them. "When cogged or notched they will carry nearly twice as much as when framed. 17. The available strength of tie beams is that of the uncut fibres, and, therefore, mortises should be shallow, and all notching be avoided. 18. Scarfs in tie beams should be made be- tween the points of support, and not directly un- 254 TIMBER FRAMING ''^^ der them, as any mortises or bolt-holes at these points reduce the strength of the beam. 19. Drag-on ties should be provided at the angles of hippeii roofs to take the thrust of the hips and to tie in the ends of wall plates. It is best that the hip should be deep enough to birds- moutli over the angle brace. 20. AViud braces, which are diagonal ties in roofs open at the ends, as iu railway stations, to withstand the overturning or racking pressure of the wind, may be of timber framed between the purlins, or iron rods running from the head of one truss to the foot of the next. 21. Ilip rafters, being deeper than the common rafters, are visible inside when the roof is ceiled, and should be covered with a casing. 22. Hips should stand perfei'tly at an angle of 45 degrees with the plates on plan, as by this ar- rangement the rafters on either side are equal in length, inclination, and bevel at the ends, making the construction both symmetrical and economi- cal. 23. "\\nien the span is of such extent that the end purlin is longer than those of the side bays, a half truss should be introduced at the center of the end, with its tie-beam trimmed into the end trans- verse truss. 24. All the abutment joints in a framed truss should be at right angles with the direction of thrust, and when this is parallel with the edges of HEAVY TIMBER KHAMINO 255 the member, the shoulders, may be cut square with the back of such member. 25. To resist the racking movement in roofs, an effectual plan consists in the emiiloymeut of wind ties of iron. These extend usually from the head of one principal to the foot of the next principal, but one on the same side of the roof, and again from the head of this latter principal to the foot of the first one, so that the tie rods cross one another in the form of an X. It is difficult to esti- mate the stress which will come upon these ties; but very small sections, say from % in. to ;>4 in., will generally suffice for the purpose. 26. The amount of horizontal thrust at the foot of a principal rafter depends partly upon the weight of the truss and the loads or stresses which it has to sustain, and partly upon the inclination of the rafter. The lower the pitch of the roof, the greater is the proportion of thrust to wei<^ht, so that for roofs flatter than quarter pitch stronger tie beams will be necessary. 27. In queen post trusses the position of the queen posts may van,'. Generally, however, wlien there are no rooms in the roof, they are placed at one-third of the span from the wall, 28. ^Tien rooms are formed in queen post roofs, the distance between the queens may con- veniently be half the span or more, but in such in- stances the depth of tie-beam should be increased. 29. The best form of roof truss to be used in 256 TIMBER FRAMING i»:i m m any situation may be determined by the following considoijjtions: (1) The parts of the truss be- tween the points of support should not be so long as to linve any tendency to bend under the thrust — therefore, the lengths of the parts under com- pressio!! should not exceed twenty times their smallest dimensions; (l2) The distance apart of the inulins should not be so great as to necessitate the use of either purlins or rafters too large for convenience or economy; (3) The tie-beam should be supported at such small intervals that it need not be too large for economy. no. I: has been found by experience that these objects can be attained by limiting the distance be- tween the points of support on the principal rafter to S ft., and upon the tie-beam to 15 ft. 31. To determine the form of roof truss for any given span, it is, therefore necessary first to decide the pitch, then roughly to draw the princi- pal rafters in position, ascertain their length, di- vide tlicm into portions 8 ft. long, and place a strut under each point of division. By this it will be seen that a king post truss is adapted for a roof, with principal rafters IG ft. long— i. e., those having a span of 30 ft. 32. A queen post truss would be adapted to a roof with principals 24 ft. long— i. e., about 45 ft. span. For greater spans, with longer principals, compound roofs are required. 33. In the case of a roof with three spans, sub- HEAVY TIMBER FRAMING 257 ject to the effects of lateral wind pressure, when supported on side walls with intermediate col- umns, where the situation does not permit either the addition of buttresses or of anchorage in these side walls, the horizontal reaction of the wind pressure may be taken by bracing the interme- diate columns to a concrete foundation. 34. The shoulders at the foot of king and queen post trusses should be cut short when framed to prevent the tie-beam sagging when the truss has settled, the usual allowance being i/, in. for each 10 ft. of span. 35. Scai-fing requires great accuracy in execu- tion, because if the indents do not bear equally the greater part of the strength will be lost; hence it is improper to use very complicated forms. 36. The simplest form of joint is, as a rule, the strongest; complicated joints are to be admired more for the ingenuity a I skill of the carpenter m contriving and fitting tiian for their strength of construction. 37. In scarfing, when bolts are used, about four times the depth of the timber is the usual length for a scarf. 38. Scarfed tension joints should be fitted with folding wedges, so as to admit of their being tight- ened up. The wedges should be of oak or other suitable hard wood. 39. Galvanized iron bolts do not act upon oak, 258 TIMBER FRAMING either in sea or in fresh water, when care has been taken not to remove the zinc in driving them. 40. In calculating the weight of roof coverings, about 10 per cent should be added to weight of tiles for moisture. 41. Valley boards are used sometimes on small roofs in place of valley rafters. The main roof is continued through in the usual way, and a 1 in. by 9 in. board is nailed up the rafters on each side at the intersection of the two roofs to receive the feet of the jack rafters. 42. To carry ridge boards, the purlins, ridge, and wall-plates should oversail gable ends 12 in. or IS in., and short purlin pieces should be cogged on the principals everj^ 3 ft. for additional fixings when the barges are veiy wide and heaxy. 43. Finals are fixed on the end of the ridge board with stub tenons, drawbore pinned, paint being applied to the tenon. 44. All openings in a roof should be trimmed; that is, cross-pieces should be framed between the two rafters bounding the opening to carry the ends of the intermediate ones cut away. 45. The trimmer, as the cross bearer is called, is fixed square with the pitch of the roof, tusk- tenoned and wedged at the ends, and the stopped rafters are stub-tenoned into it. 46. When the opening is for a chimney, pro- vision must be made for a gutter at the top. Bear- ers, 3 in. by 2 in. are nailed to the sides of the HEAVY TIMBER PBAMINO 259 rafters, level with their ends abutting against the chimney stack; a 1 in. gutter board is nailed on hese, and a 9 in. lear board at the side on the raf- ters. About 3 in. up the slope a % in. tilting fillet IS fixed, and over this the lead is dressed, the other side being taken up the back of the chimney for b in., and covered with an apron flashing. 47. Other openings, such as those for skylicrhts and trapdoors, are trimmed in the same way and covered with wrought linings or stout frames, dove-tailed at the angles, called curbs. 48. Sizes of wall plates for 20 ft. span, 41/. in, by 3 in. ; for 30 ft, 6 in. by 4 in. ; for 40 ft. 71" in by 5 m. » .- • 49. Ground floor wall plates are be. t of oak and a damp course should be put under tiiem. ' 50. The wall plates to upper floors can be kept clear of the walls on 3 in. rough quarried stone corbling built mto the wall and projecting over ■t -m., and supported by two courses of bricl- oversailing, roughly splayed off to the shane of the plaster cornice which will cover them ^ The floor loists are thus kept clear of the wall and can be strengthened by solid strutting between the ends. 51. All wall-plates should be bolted down to the wall, and the bolts should be built into the wall as shown in Fig. 306, and should be fitted with nut on top to bind down the plate. 52. Beams or roof trusses should not rest over 260 TIMBER FRAMING openings. Tliey should be placed with their ends in pockets in the wall, and resting on stone tem- plates. 53. They should frame into girders with stub tusk tenons and oak pins, or, better, should hang in iron stirrups. tlUZi. '__ n^M/i* Fig. 306. . K 54. Binders should not he more than 6 ft., nor girders more than 10 it. apai't. These general rules should be followed as close- ly as poh^siblc in the making of hen^y timber roofs, but of course, must be changed or adapted to suit the many various conditions that are sure to arise. HEAVY TIMBER FBAMINQ 261 There are many kinds or forms of roofs, a few of which I show in the sketches submitted which are original types. When those are crossed, mixed, modified or combined in one building or group of bmldmgs, the results are not only beyond all com- puta ion, but are not unfrequently fearful and wonderful to behold. To diminish the excessive height of roofs, their sharp summit is sometimes suppressed and re- placed by a roof of a lower slope. These roofs have the advantage of giving ample attic space with a smaller height than would be required bv a V-roof. They are variously known as '*cuib"^or gambrel" roofs, and -Mansard" roofs the lat- ter name being usually confined to those roofs in which the lower slopes form angles of not less than 60 degrees with the horizontal plane, while roofs of smaller pitch are known as ''curb" or "gambrel" roofs. The Mansard roof may be described in several ways: (See Fig. 307.) Thetriangle a d b, represents the profile of a high-pitched roof, the height being equal to the base, and the basal angles being therefore 60 de- grees each. At the point e, in the middle of the height c d, draw a line horizontally h e i, parallel to the base a b, to represent the upper side of the tie-beam, and make e f equal to the half of e d- then a h f i b will be the profile of the Mansard roof. 262 TIMBER FRAMINa Make c e, the height of the lower roof, equal to half the width a b, and constniet the two squares a d e e, c e g b; also make d h, e f, aud g i each equal to one-third of the side of either square; then will a h f i b, bo the profile required. i UcUi«i> lif dMkntiiiK Ubiuril Fig. 307. ^ On the base a b draw the semicircle a d b, and divide it into four equal parts, a e, e d, d f, f b; join the points of division, and the resulting semi- oetngon is the profile required. The slopes of the upper roof form angles of only 22 '/o degrees, and this roof is therefore considerably less than "quarter-pitch," and would be unsuitable for cov- ering with slates, tiles, shingles, etc. Whatever be the height of the Mansard c c, or b g, or g i, equal to the half of that height, and the height e f of the false roof equal to the half of 6 i. UEAVy TIMBER FRAMING 263 The^upper roof, therefore, is exactly -quarter. mlV"""^^ 'f ?'' ^^^"°'"'^ '""'^^ '^ ^^" be seen, may be infinitely varied, according to the fancy of the designer, the purposes for which the roof- space IS required, and the nature of the roof-cov- ering. In many cases the lower slope? are made of curved outline, as may be seen later on, or as shown in ^o. 6, in the sketches. It is now in order to give a few examples of a practical nature, and I will endeavor to do this without confusing the workman with a network of figures or mathematical formula: Like floors roofs may be divided into three kinds, according to the arrangement of their timbering, as follows : 1. Single-Rafter Roofs. 2. Double-Rafter Roofs. 3. Triple-Rafter Roofs. 1. Single-Rafter Roofs are such that oAe roof covering is supported upon a single svstem of rafters not jreater than two feet from 'center to center ai>art. Lt should be used onlv when the span IS not greater than 26 feet. A number of ex- amples of this kind of a roof are shown in Fig 308. Other similar examples will be shown later on. Lean-to roofs are found in a ingle slope, as shown at A. the upper end of the rafters being spiked to a wall-plate or bond timber supported r" \ma 264 TIMBER FRAMINQ Pi I on a corbel, aud the lower end bird's-mouthed to a wall-platP on the lower wall. This roof should not be used for a span greater than U feet, unless the rafters are braced or otherwise supported near their centers. When a wall occur^ conven- iently near the center of the building, the roof may'slope down towards tlu' center, where a gut- ter or trough may be placed to carry off the ram or snow water. A double loan-to roof of thi:. kind is sometimes called a V-rouf, on account of the shape of its section. Couple or span roofs are formed as shovMi at B, the upper ends of the raftv rs being abutted against and spiked to a ridge board, while the low- er ends are either bird's-mouth. 1 over and spiked to a wall-plate, or crow-footed ONcr the outside of the plate and left projecting beyond the wall to form an eave for cornice. This form of roof should onlv be used on short spans unless the ^valls are thick and firm, or the rafters arc tied at the bottom to keep from spreading, as an outward thrust is exerted by the feet of the rafters. Couple close roofs are similar to the previous one but have the feet of the rafters tied together by means of tie-beams fastened t • the rafters, as shown at C Fig. 308. The soundest roof is pro- cured by tying the feet of every pair u| rafters, and indeed, this is necessary wben a ceilmg is to be attached to the ties; but when a roof is open a tie is rarely used more frequently than one for H£.\Vy TIMBER FRAMJNQ 265 OaN4 Koo/ witk fUimtnl. rw Srmktnmlar Arrh R.-^' % Frtneh or Itantard Roof. Pj/nmidal Tumt. BIp Roof tnih Broktn Bafttrt. OmamnUH OabI* in tht HMglUK Stylt. i^ I Plate No. 1. r I 266 TIMBER FRAMING Typleal Swit* Boof- Curb or Oambrtl Soot- OabU Boof wUh BorUantat Comie* JMvrM. CaOU. Bip or Puramtdat Roof. Arched T^iitcI. Combined Bip and OabU R:of 0: HEAVY TIMBER PBAMINQ 267 every third or fourth pair of rafters. This roof may bo employed for spans up to 30 ft. At C, a roof is shown over a span of 26 feet, but if larger ^i^'Post at each end and tlie parts pinned together. Con- •f ! 272 TIMBER FRAMING eidering the heavy load liable to be placed on a t^sHf this kind, it would seem doabtful whether this point is strong enough. In * ig. • i i pre- sent a view of a truss in wuich an attempt has been made to improve on Fig. 31U using the same amount of material. It will be seen that the depth has been increased somewhat, which insures greater rigidity, and also gives the rafters less m- " i FlK. 31 clination to tlie liorizontal, thus causing the strain to become less under the same load. It also at- fords better facilities for passing through the space between the members from one portion of the floor to the other. Again, the purlins rest di- rectly on the trusses, thus doing away with the long' 4x5 inch braces and also the short /x7 mch T.ost^ The small 4x4 inch braces shown in 1 ig. 310,'can be dispensed with, as they receive no strains whatever. HEAVY TIMBER FRAMINO 273 The following diagram, Fig. 312, shows the ele- vation of a king-post roof suitable for a span of 35 or 40 feet. By the rules for calculating the sizes of timbers the dimensions will be found to be as follows : A, Tie-beam 13x5 inches. B, Principal rafters gi/oxo inches. ^' St^^uts 4x21/.. inches. D, King-post 71/^x5 inches. Fig. 313 is the design for a king-post roof, for a span of from 40 to 45 feet. The purlins here are shown framed into the principals, a mode of construction to be avoided, unless rendered absolutely necessarj- by particu- lar circumstances. The scantling, as determined by the rules, is as follows : Principal rafters 10x5 inches. "^ie-beam lli/ox6 inches. King-post 734x6 inches. ^^"^ts 4x21 /. inches. ^"^Ji^s 10x6 inches. The principals being 10 feet ai)art. Fig. 314 shows a compound roof for a span of 40 feet. It is composed of a curv-d rib c c, formed of two thicknesses of 2-inch plaiK hoHed together. Its ends are lot into the fie-beani; and it is also firmly braced to the tie-l)eam by tin 'ing-post and i- ^ 274 TIMBER FRAMING «t% .■>^-'. suspending pieces B B, wliir>h are each in two iXesserone on each side of tl- -^ -d^^^^^^ beam, and by the straps a a. A is the raftei , d, 3« ^ !ei~ ■ ■ ■ . ' -a — I the suttor-bearer; c and b, the straps of the king- post The second puvlir s it will be observed, are carried by the ni.per end of the suspending piece. B B. HEAVY TIMBER PRAMINO 275 Fi^. nio shows a (]uecn-i)ust roof for a sfKin of 60 feet. This tru5vs is dosigiied on the same prin- ciple as F\}r. nil. That is, with (lueen-posts B, and additionally strengthent'd j.y suspension i>ost xV. These are strappetl np to the tie-be.ui} by wrouglit- iron straps, made of % by S-inoh iron, bolted to the posts. The pitch of the j>r)uc!|>al nilter is less somewhat than over Fig. :]11. Fig. 311, The scantlings are as follows: Principal raft.^rs 1! x G Inches Tie-beam .12i_. x G Indies Queen-i)ost B S " x G Indies Suspend iug-post A ;{i . x ,31 ., inches Stmts (large) 4>1.. x 3i^ inches Strut;-, (small) 3\ . x 2i^. inches ^Igs. ?,1(] and 31" shovT the use and application of wrought iron in those portlon.-> acting as ties. Thtse trusses are suitable for railroad sheds, or 276 TIMBCK FRAMINa f i '\ ' u : r I1E.VV\' TIMBER FHAMINO 277 Where it is desirable to have tho tie-rods raised from a level line so as to give greater height in the center. The sizes of timber for design 316 are as follows : Principar rafters 12 x8 inches Wlruts Q „Q ., ■D ,. * X s mches ^"^^^^^ •••• 10 x4 inches Common rafters 41/^. ^ o i^.^es ^^'i!: ..''"/^ '"'^^°^'°^' ^^'^••- 1'/:.' i°- diameter. The timbers for design 317 are as follows: ^7^'P^.'^ U x8 inches Co Iar-r>iece.s n ^3 -^^^^^ (Une on each side of rafter.) Purlins in ^4 • 1 rp- , , •^" X 4 inches iie-rods and suspen.Iing-rod. . l.->4 in. diameter. The span of truss, Fig. 31G, is 36, and that of rig. oli, 4o feet. Fig. 318 shows a platfonn roof of 35 feet span. The tie-beam in this example is scarfed at a and ). and the center portion of the truss has counter- braces, c c. The longitudinal pieces, e e, are se- cured to the heads of the queen-posts, and the pieces d carry the platform rafters A. In this connection it may be of importance to the better understanding of the princl].les of strength en- tering into combination roof trusses to give Tred jrold's rules for finding the proper dimensions of the timbers forming king and queen-post trusses, which are quite simple. MICROCOPY RESOLUTION TEST CHART (ANSI and ISO TEST CHART No. 2) 1.0 I.I 1^ ■ i 2.8 3.2 ti. 2.5 1 2.2 2£ 1.8 ^ yIPPLIED IIVA^GE Inc ^^ 165J Ea-it Mam Street ^^S Rochest-r, New York 14609 USA '-^S (716) 482 - 0300 - Phone ^S C6) 288 - f989 - Fa» ?*ir„a!. :i'J;-!*^ «rv™-|~yy-^jr.,^^5j----a| -j;^,^. f 278 TIMBER FRAMING Rule -Multiply the square of the lengtli in feet „v the span in fe'et, a.ul divide the produe by he cube of the thickness in iuches ; then mulUpy the quotient bv 0.96 to obtain the depth m mri,es. Mr. Tredgold gives also the following rule for the rafters, as more general and reliable : SSiT HEAVY TIMBER FRAMING 279 Multiply the square of the span in feet by the distance between the principals in feet, and divide the product by 60 times the rise in feet; the quotient will be the area of the section of the rafter in inches. If the rise is one-fourth of the span, multiply the span by the distance between the principals and divide by 15 for the area of section. !•» '^^^i^'^^i •iM' -t^yif^iP. t'-' 280 TIMBER FEAMINQ men the distance between the princii.^^^ ^_ *««f tliP nrea of section is two-tiiiras oi iu« i^ *"t'o find tto dimensions of the tie-beam, when .t CS^^X.i:Xt/:ur;vedep'th. '" Totod the dimensions of the king-post: E«le-Mnltiply tl>e length of «- post >n eet ,X span - f f ^. """"i^^Le L't-rol e pos'; ;"e"; ov by ti,e thinness f«. the h,.eadth. To find the dimensions of struts «">^--rf"'':cr Ch 7t /st™: in tt. supported in feet b^^ the en ^.^^, ,,,, Ts^;!^ ;rL^tpni:t:i>ieh. mnmpiied by O.C. ^'LtTXpo* -f. To find the dimensions "'t^":;"' mII^II.Iv thrsquare of the length in t«t Eule.-ilultn'iy I _,,'ji,.ije the product by the by ti.e span in feet, and dnide ^ ' ^ j^uiti- rt^d mrt b tb eube'root of the breadth and l^: ;'o«ent multiplied by 1.4/ will give the depth. fm^^!^mm& =*^' =ir:iJEPJS^*3 m HEAVY TIMBER FRAMING 281 eptk. To find the dimensions of the queen-posts: Rule.— Multiply the length in feet of that part of the tie-beam it supports; the product, multi- plied by 0.27, will give the area of the post in inches; and the breadth and thickness can be found as in the king-post. The dimensions of the struts are found as be- fore. To find the dimensions of a straining-beam: Rule. — Multiply the square root of the span in feet by the length of the straining-beam in feet, and extract the square root of the product ; multi- ply the result by 0.9, which will give the depth in inches. The beam, to have the greatest strength, should have its depth to its breadth in the ratio of 10 to 7 ; therefore, to find the breadth, multiplv the depth by 0.7. To find the dimensions of purlins: Rule.— :Multiply the cube of the length of the purlin in feet by the distance the purlins are apart in feet, and the fourth root of the product will give the depth in inches, and the depth multiplied by 0.6 will give the thickness. To find the dimensions of common rafters, when they are placed 12 inches apart: Rule. — Divide the length of bearing in feet by the cube root of the breadth in inches, and the quotient multiplied by 0.72 will give the depth in inches. It may be well to note some practical memor- 1 1 il uf .ft I .%i^m--^^^m^''mt^ -^-w^im^mm^maimk^Tm^r'^r^^mf^^^m^^^i^yt^'^im.. 282 TIMBER FRAMING ' 1 I'll ; ;S ' it ^ !::J anda of construction which cannot he too closely l,».* IIKAVV TrMBEB FRAMING 285 the length of the long one, above the work side of the beam, twice that of the short ones. The length of the rod above the beam is the rise of the rafter, and the distance from the center of the rod to the foot of the rafter is the run of the rafter; the length of the rafter can, therefore, be found by the usual way. To find the length of the straining beam, add the run of the short principal rafter to the lower end bevel of the long one; substract this run from the run of the long principal, and the difference will be half the length of the straining beam Fls. 321 The bolsters under the ends of the tie-l)cams are of the same thickness as that, and about 5 feet long. _ Figs. 321 and 322 exhibit designs of roofs in an improved style, particularly adapted to those of a great span, as they may be safely extended to a very considerable width, with less increase of weight, and less proportionate expense, than any of the older styles. The principle on which they 286 TIMBER FRAMING arc constrnetd U essentially tl.o sair» "s that ot Tn Tlowe BridKo. The braces are s.iuaie at he Td" tie hardwood blocks between thorn tang beve ed and placed as shown in the -Uasrams EachTruss of this frame supports a purlm post %::t:rrrrr,t n>ade „ca.l, flat, and tberr adapted to metallic cverins, by carry ng he wails above the tie beams to «ny des>r«l 1 e.^h , ^Uhout altering the pitch of tlie pnnopal .afters, ii%£fi!: JUf/t. Fig. 32 or^training beam^ ^.^^^ eountor-braccs : and Fig 2 without them. Tl>e countcr-brac.. do not add anything to the m re Bm»rt^ « „„f .md ire cntirclv unnecessary m tiames oi T ' , „T or other puolic buildings, vvhere there ■ Z'- but thev may vcrv properly be used in l^iM fame]; oVoSer holdings designed for heavy machmery. nt'AVY TFMnER Fn.VMTXO 287 Tlio illustrations do not show the whole len-th of the roof, hut enough of the eon.tructiorris shown to enahle the worKman to design the whole Figs. 32n, :J24 and :J25 exhihit three stoop or gothic roofs suitahle for small chun-hes, chm.els or similar l)uildings having from 40 to 4.3 feet Fig-. 3r3. ^PMi. Fig. 323 is built entiro'v ,.f wo,.. 324 IS of wood strengthened with ii„n ^ >olts. Fig. 325 contains less wood than . tlie two preceding examples, hut is suppoi Jinn rods and is decidedly the stronger ' tl'e three. Fig. 323 makes a neat, cheap ard sirup,,, i.lan. and is sufficiently strong enou.- ofhcient service on any ordinary building iiav span of not more than 35 or 45 feet. .ad r of ' by of v 11 i'K !*r 288 TIMBER rR.VMlNO Fig. 324. Fig. 325 HEAVY TIME. r,?.i- 2.S9 loraiea of J-int-h planks from 6 to 10 indies wI.Ip .1 "w'r 1';: ■;,''""•"■ '» » -«••'- "-kneistd' TcliJ '•"' ' ;"-r .'"•■'* »^« '"'J »"« over tiie otlic, 1 . ,;,ni( all joints, and may be in two or more flncknex.os. an.I tl.on s„i|ivJf^m0^. 7^^ !; S 290 TIMBER FRAMING .nediate arches or rite ^il ''^/^'1»''"'eX 7j lath and plaster, same as m Fig 326 E ther ot these roofs will answer quite well tor «; sp^° '""" 65 to 70 feet between the supporting column. Fig. Fig. 328 Fi- 3^8 shows a cheaply made roof, and one that'is snitable for small spans. This is some- toes caHed a scissor roof, because of the two main HEAVY TIMBER FRAMING 291 1 ' 1: I' i> '^^ ">aiip 292 TIMBER FBAMINO 11 braces wUiel. tie the feet, collar beam and ratters toeether, cross in tlie center. '"^ A different root, and a very strong one .£ the workmanship is good, is shown at Fig. ■,.9- In to A A represents the wall plates, wh.oh are 4 by 8 inches. B B is the bottom cord of truss, 6 by Fig. 330. R inches in section. C C are truss ratters, also (i bv 8 inches in section. D is the top cord of trus- o th tme dimensions. E E shows the pos.tio of the second ,,lates, which are G ';>- C '"■ '°/^; and are notched on to the truss ratters. 1 F are UEAVV TIMBER PRAMINO 293 braces framed at the top into C C. G G G are iron rods used in strengtlioning the truss. Each russ rafter ,s bolted at the foot to the cord. The trusses sliould be i,laeed about 10 feet apart The roof^ ..fters should be about - ineuT between „1: Fig-. 331. I show a very -ood truss in Fig. 330. TIii« is not a costly roof, but is very strong if well made. D shows the king-post, A the principal, C the cross-be^m B the brace and R a supporting post Another kmg-post truss is shown at Fig. 331 This truss IS quite easy to make and easv to understand. A is the principal. D the king-post and C the tie beam. This is suitable for a span of from 30 to 35 feet. ^ ffffi IM 294 TIMBER FB^VMINQ HEAVY TIMBER FRAMING 295 Fig. 332 shows a truss that may safely be used where the span does not ex-eed 50 or 55 feet. The truss shown at Fio:. 333 is quite suitable for a light structure of about 30 feet span. The pur- lin posts are dovetailed into the beam and keved. 5 : i:: 296 TIMBKR FRAMING livi ■1 \ This makes it a very solid and stiff roof, and on-> that mav he depended upon to do good service. Fig 334 shows a little more than half of a com- posite roof. The rafters and struts may be made HEAVY TIMBER FRAMING 297 cf pitehpino, and the king-bolt and tics of iron .Jie roof ,s to cany ordinary slating, and tlie trusses will be spaced 10 feet apart. Xo liolen arc 3C5. bored m struts or rafters; and all the ironwork js such as can be forged from the ])ar an.i fitted hy a countn' blacksi.ath. Tlie foot rests ou a stone tern]. /ate. ?^r^'t!l?fSl 'I g- . •- 298 timbf;r framinq The haumior-beam truss is a type of opeu tim- ber roof, and it is shown in Fig. 335, the letters in whicli have tlio following references: P R, prin- cipal rafters; K P, king-post; C, collar; S S, struts; II B, hammer beam; U B, upper bracket or compass piece; L B, lower bracket; S T, stud. A hammer beam truss exerts considerable tlini.^t, and, therefore, substantial walls and also but- tresses must be provided. A thickness of 1« inches is little enough for sound work with a span of 33 feet, but possibly the walls may be somewhat lightened by setting the window openings in 14-in. panels and adding buttresses outside the piers. Fig. 33G shows the finished hammer beam roof. It may be used in public buildings or for small churches or chapels, the trusses being placed 10 or 12 fe. t apart. A A A show the linishing on the timbers and B B the drop ornament. The two details, A and B, show the sections on a large scale. . The example shown at Fig. 337 is an illustra- tion of the hammer beam roof over Westminster Hall, London, and is said to be the finest of its kind in the world. ^ Westminster Hall is sixty-eight feet wide be- tween the walls, and two-hundred and thirty-eight ft t long. It is forty-two feet high to the top of the walls, and ninety feet to the ridge of the roof. It is divided into twelve bays, which will accord- ingly average nineteen feet ten inches each. Con- UEAVy TIMBEK FRAMING L'99 1 *!5 FiK. 3SG. I nt 300 TIMUKK FRAMINQ senuentlv each truss lias to span sixty-cifjlit foot ;n( 1 to eari-y in addition to its own woij^'iit, idit, the weight of shites, tinihers, etc., neot >ssiir\ to roof Fig. 337. m 2 684 foot of flonr. Tlic pitch or angle the slope of the roof makes with the hor, ': -s 52 degrees. The material employed was at one UKAVV TIMUKIJ FRAMINd 301 u he ■ le time iK.l.oved to be ,.|,estm.t, hut is roallv En- iKslioak The apix^araiK-e of the two woods is s"o much alike that some uncertaintv mav wel! b*. pardoned. The date of tlie roof is A. I). K?" that it is now over five hundred Ncars old. timber is in good presentation and of hirge s. I'ng; that is to say, large sectional area, workmanship througliout is of great heautv accuracy, and no extensive repair, so far a ho swn, lias ever been found necessarv pnncipal rafter of each truss is of consid. strength. The collar is placed just half w up the rafter. The hammer beams receive th. foot ot the rafters at their extremity, and each ,»ro .lects rather more than a cpiarter of the s}.-- fro the wall, and has its ends beautifullv car { wit the figure of an angle carrying a crown. ,\ .tron- post IS carried up from the end of the hammer beam to the point where the collar and the prin eipal rafters join. A timber, which mav be called a wall-post, rises from a corbel far down the wall and supi.orts the under side of the hammer beam' at the point where it leaves the wall, and a second post vertically above this supports the principal rafter. There is a strong and rielilv molded rib which acts as a bracket or strut, springing from the corbel just referred to, and framed into the hamnKn- beam, near its free end. A second simi- lar ril . rising from the hammer beam, supports the n,. Idle of the collar. All these piece, except 3, 302 IIMUKK KKAMINO iki tho principal ralt.r, ar. knit together by a nmff- nific-I-nt an.lu.l lih springing i'roni tlu> .crlol Irom whic-li tlK. lowest <-arvea rib starts and frauKM to the hannner k-an., the post on the back of that beam, the eollar, and both the ..nrved ribs. Above the collar a s.-.o.ul <'ollar is intro.lu.-ea, and a post connecting tlu. two is aaW, while at tu. nn.UUe of the truss, a central post, sunictlnng like a shoit Uin.-p„>t <>..-urs. IVtween all these tnnbers there ,s a Miul of a liUing-in of n.ullions or small posts, the spa.'e between having ornaments at the heaUs. These no .lonbt. perform .("ite as much the im- portant structural duty of connecting every mem- ber of the great framework t..gether, as the> do the artistic duty of liHing up the great outline with subwrdinate features which g.ve scale o it, enable its vastuess to be appre<-iated, ^^^^^^ out the variety of its lines by their contrast with the uniformity o\' the liHing-ni. _ The usual l,>ngitudinal ].urlins, ru.nmg from truss to truss, are em,.loyed here, and furni>h sup- port to the roof rafters. The purlins are them- selves suppoited Icugthways from the grea trus.es bv braces. The mhldle purhu is supported l,y a beautiful arched rib springing from .he pose on the hammer beam. The upper purlin has a . urved brace springing from the principal railer. The loNver purlin has a curved brace springing f'ti lu. back of the great cun.nl rib. B^^ p'rlin oecnr the openings of the roof covering, ^ » IIE-W-^' TIMRKR FRAMINU '.mi w.iicli oon-espond with the gioat dormor wijidows, from whii'h tiio hail »v,.oivos a coiisichM-ahh' por-' tion of its lijrht, hut which an. sai.l not to iiavo boon part ol" llu- oriLMiial (h'sii,Mi. Tlic tinenoss of tlu- workrnaiisliip shows that ovoi-y ornainontal i)art is ocpiallx well wrought, and is d^^io^ned with tlic greatest Huii, ;.ud the most Iionest work possible was expended oii its construction. f r 1 ft 004 TIMBER FRAMING A hnmmer beam queen-post truss is shown at Fiff 338 This roof is quite effective, both as to desi-u and construction and wouhl answer admir- Fiff. 330. ablv for anv buiUling^ not more than 45 feet span. \ cheai.Iv formed roof, and one well suited tor eomitry churches, is shown at Fi.^ 339; where the finish also for the Apse of the church is shown. HEAVY TIMBER FRAMING 305 For small cliurelies in the country, having a seat- ing capacity of from 150 to 400, thi? M.rd of a roof and finish is well adapted. AMiiie it shows a hammer heam roof, it is simply neither more nor less than a scissor constructed roof. n uil Fig. 3^0. The examples given, I take it, are quite sufficient to enahle any smart workman to design and con- struct almost any kind of an ordinary roof of the class shown, so I leave the subject of hammer heam roofs, and, as jiromised in earlier pages, to show and exi)lain some forms of Mansard, curb or gamhrel roofs. The roof shown in Fig. 340 is a true Mansard, and one of the best designed roofs of the kind. It is suitable for a span of 35 or 40 feet. t 30(i TIMBER FRAMING J 1 The three sketches, A, B, C, shown at 341, give some idea as to the rule governing the designing of Mansard roofs. It will be seen that in each ease a semi-circlts drawn from the middle of the base line touches the five main {loints of the truss. There are cas< .*, however, where the rule cannot dwavs ])e n])i)lied. A noted authority on timber- work objects to this style of roof as being ungrace- ful in form and causing loss of room as compared Fiu. Ml. with the original roofs of liigh pitch; and fur- ther, on account of the difficulty of freeing the f:utters from snow. It is also dangerous on ac- count of its inflammability. Fiii:. :U2 shows a :Mansard roof, having a par:i- pet Willi. This roof is suitable for a span of ".i' feet, and owing to the setback from the coping on the parapet wall, has a good appearance. For a span of from Ifi to 20 feet, tlie roof shown at Fig. 343 would answer very well and provi- quite economical, ])oth as to material and labor. T HEAVY TIMBER FRAMINQ 307 A self-supporting curb roof is shown at Fig. 344, which is intondeil for a long span extending 50 feet or more. This shows how a flat curl) roof may be constructed. For a less span, a king-post 3* «OLi_ 7>2yi"RiOCC BOARD Fig may be used and tho two (jueen-posts left out. Braces could run from the foot of the king-post to the break in ihe principals at B and shaped with iron as shown. As roller skating rinks are i i t-r (* 308 TIMBER FBAMINO again coming in use, this truss might in some cases be used for covering same. However, I now Ilk x 7 Fig. 343. leave Mansard s and will dve an example ov two of roofs suiuible for «Katlug rinks or lor similar purposes. HEAVY TIMBER PBAMINQ 309 Ti spaee SI •oof shown at Fig. 345 is ( 3d over a rink having a fl( :, and dressing rooms and „ The trusses are placed U feet apartf^The purlins are 2 x G, and are set two feet apart. The rafters over tlie galleries are 2 x 4 inches, set 2 feet apart, and at the upper ends are spiked into the lower purlin which Hes at the foot of the russes. The tie-heam is spliced in the middle by bolting a 2 x 8 timber on each side. The braces ^i^. Fig^. 34 4 n^ the foot of the truss are sj.iked on both sides. ';e roof is sheeted witli 7;.ineh pine boards, nniled on to the purlins ].arallel with the rafters and covered with Xo. 2(] iron roofing. The dimen- Mons of the timl)ors ;ire marked on the sketch. A roof more pretentious i.< shown at Fig 34G which has been in use for som, time. It is a' verv economical structure and not difficult to construct'- The building is SO x 172 feet, outside measure- ments, affording a skating surface of G4 x 154 feet 310 TIMBER FRAMING The sills are of solid timber, 8x8 inches, Norway- pine. The foundation consists of stone piers 14 x 14 inches, 24 inches deep, and 18 inches in the ground. These are in eight rows, extending the if entire length of the building, G feet apart. The piers under the arches are 24 x 24 inches in size, and are 36 inches deep. The joists of the skating floor are 2 x 10 inches in size, placed 16 inches HEAl-Y TIMBER TRAMINa 311 -etwcen centers. They are 14 feet Ion.> ind lapped together and thorough;, spiked The eords running from arch to arebon each side o? principal rafters. From eacli arcl, to the outside studding a 2 k 8 inch tie is spiked. The bu M^ ' ^covered with drop siding, from 6 inel C ips^ The roof projects 6 inches, and is finished with a plam barge board r,nd facia. Ti,e skatino- ur :::d:TJ!iT"'-,-'-'''-o.^oomn.o;pi:e These are boards surfaced and laid diagonallN. ^uc= na.led to the .oists and are covered with felt" The sl^afug floor us of dry, n,atched, ciear „,aple floo" - ^-g, ■/, mch thick and 2K inc'.cs wide, bliml-nailed on hearings and smooth-ph.ned and and-pa°» ej a or aymg. The maple floor was la d w h m tercd joints ,U the corners, and with a rectnngu ar space U feet wide !n the cent.r. The floors in the galleries and of the platforms are of common end'wT'"'!-- i^"" ™<"' '^ '""'-' I'aok f™ '■ : end walls, Tduch arc 26 feet 9 inches hii^li ,„e ■oofing. The building has nine arches, located as shown on plans. These are 33l<. feet h u tnd measure in section 10 x 15 inches ' The a "hes Tre b". t of 1 ,10 inch boards, planed am W ted and fas ened together with Kid. and 2nd. nails! Ihe feet ox the arches are gained 2 inches into i I- r I :u2 TIMBER FRAMING the cross-sills. The opposite cross-sills are con- nected together by 2 x ID tie-joists. A lattice truss may often be used over short spans, or even for greater spans if the timbers and lattice strips are made in proportion. The truss shown at Fig. 347 will do nicely for a 27 feet span. The lattice trusses may have a rise of 3 feet and radius of 3G feet and be placed 7 feet apart. The top and bottom members may be made up by t*ur.'>m$ 3'*?' *t'3jOnfimf fim'hfi i'»r >«»*> d'df '/»!/ 4*'*«' Fig. 317. KiK. 3 IS. two separate thicknesses of 7-in. by IVi-in. break- ing joint. The lattice bars may be about 1\'-y in.. 11 1 hi. and 3 feet aiiart, radiating as shown. The purlins should be 3 in. by 2 in. at 3 feet center^;, and covered with -"s-in- boarding and tarred felt. Cross bracing \^'-z in. by '•'>'■, in. between trusses as shown. The following is the rule for obtainiui,' the radius of roof principals of the wood lattice ])attein. If the rise be made one-tenth of the span, the radius will be thirteen-tenths of the spavi. HEAVY TIMBER FKAMINQ 313 Ihus, 8o-ft. span equals 8-ft. 6-in. rise and 110- tt. 6-in. radius, but this would be a large roof for such a system. The lattices may be arranifed so that center lines through the top and bottom apices are radial to the exteraal curve, ms shown m Fig. 340, or the lattices themselves mav be drawn towards two points equal to span Jpart and half span below tie-beam, as shown in Fig 349. The former has the better appearance, I)ut the If. f - s\ Fig-. 349. latter has more crossings where the lattices can be secured to each other to help in stifTem. them Galvanized corrugated iron forms a good^ cover- ing for these roofs. Sometimes this kind of a truss is used in bridge building, but since steel has become such a factor in structural work, the lattice bridge or roof is very seldom employed. 314 TIMBER FRAMING I: 3 ; . i*:-T> Wooden spires, turrets and towers of various kinds are still erected in many parts of the coun- try, and a book of this kind would scarcely be complete if these framings were not mentioned: Fig. o')0 shows the construclion of a spire 85 feet high above the tie-beam, or cross-timber of the roof. Tills is framed square as far as the top of the second section, above which it is octagonal. It will be found most convenient to frame and raise the scjur.re portion first; then to frame the octag- onal portion, or spire proper, before raising it; in the first place letting the feet of the 8 hip rafters of the spire, each of which is 48 feet long, rest upon the tie-beam and joists of the main building. The top of the spire can, in that situation, bo conveniently finished and painted, after which it may be raised half way to its place, when the lower portion can be finished as far down as the top of the third section. The spire should then be raised and bolted to its jilace, by bolts at the top of the second section at AB, and also at the feet of the hip rafters at CD. The third section can then l)o bui't aroui 1 the base of the spirt- proper; or the spire can be finished, as such, to the top of the second sections, dispensing with the third, just as the taste or ability of the parties shall determine. Xo. 2 prest uts a horizontal view of the top of the first section. '*:r.a»_ HEAVY TIMBKU FUAMINO 315 M ii^ niG TIMIIKR FHAMING H f f ir I »' No. ;{ is a horizontal view of the top of the sec- ond stH'tion, after th- spire is holtt'd to its place. The lateral braces in the spire are halved toffethor at their intersection with each other, and beveled and spiked to the hip raft( at the ends. These braces may be dispensed v.itli on a low spin>. A conical finish can be sjiven to the spire above the sections, by making the outside edges of the cross-timbers circular. The bevels of the hip rafters are obtained in the usual manner for octagonal roofs, as described in other pages. In most cases the side of an ctagon is given as the basis of caiculaticm in Imding tlie width and other late, across the comers, to receive the rafters on the corner sides of the octagon. The b"uees and inirlins are set in 4 inches from 318 TIMBER FRAMING FiK. 351. • W- HEAVY TIMBER FRAMING 319 the outer face of the hips to allow for placing -^ x 4 jack rafters outside of them. These rafters are not shown in the figure; they were placed up and lown, IG inches on centers, and spiked to the pur- lins and braces. As may be seen from Fig. 351, the top of the tower Ls rather light for supporting such a high framework, and is moreover weakened bv hir^e ojDenmgs in each side. It was, therefore; detJ'r- mmed to transfer the thrust due to the wind pres- sure on the spire to the corner of the tower at a point just below the sill of the large openings. The manner in which this was done is shown by Fig. 353, which is a diagonal section through top of tower. The purlins i\ C, Fig. 351, were made 6 X 10 inches, set on edge and securely bolted to the hips. From the center of these purlins on each of the four corner sides 6 x 10-inch posts were carried down into the tower, as shown in Fig. 353. These posts were secured at the bottom to 10 X 10-inch timbers, which were placed across the tower diagonally and solidly built mto the corners. The bracing shown was used merelv to prevent the posts from bucking. Onlv one pair of posts is shown in the figure. The effect of these posts is to transmit the entire wind pressure on the leeward side of the tower from the purlins C, C to the comers of the tower at the bottom of the posts. The tension on the windward side is re- sisted by the hip rafters and the bolts bv which I I! '''^■.] ^20 TIMBER FR AMINO II ' If i Fig. 353. liKAVV TIMBER KKAMINq 321 k f 322 TIMBER FRAMINa is;fc.-. ^ II f W- 1 /■■■ ' ' i ■' £lenitien ef Framvn^ of Tower tftht Town- hail. MiUhrd.. M'Ut Flfi 35t HEAVY TIMBER FBaaiINQ 303 reared in n.\::;X^^^: ^^^^^^^^ The elevation and nians nf fi.^ i? French spire are skoinZV^JT^r'^f " ::.fT;:;fi:r,t'-"-'^"--^^ ilie tower shown if P;^. *>-- • senption unnecessarv '" '^'=- and^FifijOrX "T ''"•^''™ "f « ™-d tower, •^ 3 4 Pf7 "■ ' ^"-'^ '* ^^ supposed that 1 -> '^^ 4, etc., represent the nlin nf Ih * ' M P its rise ^Ifrli-n n , ^^^ ^^^^'^ ^^^ itb use. fetrike the plan full size nr fn o scale as may be most convenient. '" ^ i^ or laymg out the plan or line of fl.o i . draw lines for the rafters as 15 or o?" ^'^It' Directly above the plan IZ t^^l^lt^ be .-mnmg with a straight line, as K to '^^3,^- ;ie plate, and make it the same length T37 of tJ- plan. Raise the center line M P tt kiZ ol m 324 TIMBER FRAMINQ Fig. 356. HE.VVY TIMBER FRAMING 325 Fig:. 357. 326 TIMBER FRAM.NO i iil -J *- - „ 1 ^ i 3 ^gJB the tower and join O P and K P, which will be the length! for all the rafters. To obtain the horizontal pieces A, B, C, D, etc., to which the sheeting is nailed in the manner represented in Figs. 1 and 2, proceed as follows: Divide the height into as many parts as desired — in this case six, which requires five horizontal pieces between each i>air of rafters. The exact length and cut will be given by striking out the sweeps shown on the i)lan. A better idea of the manner in which the roof is constructed will be gained from inspection of Fig. 356, which shows each stud, plate, rafter and sweep in proper position, also the covering boards nailed on half way round. To obtain the exact shape, length and bevel for the covering boards the following method is em- ployed : Take P of Fig. 357 as a center, with K as a radius, and descrilj the arc K R. The dis- tance from K to R represents one-half of the cir- cle or plan of the tower. The distance from K to R may be divided into as many parts as desired. In this case it is divided into fifteen parts, thus giving 15 tapering boards, which cover one-half the tower. Lines drawn from P to the arc K R are the inside lines of the joints. To obtain the bevel of the jointed edges of the boards set a bevel at V, as shown in Fig. 356. In the plan shown the rafters are cut so as to fit against a block, X, shaped to suit the plan of the roof. This manner of butting the rafters against the block X HEAVY TIMBER FRAMING 327 larref ?=5L Fig:. 358. l^tl^Vir """"Vf'' "^ '^'''''^ '^' '''^^ bevels on the rafters which would be necessary if the block was not employed. A turret roof is shown at Fig. 358, and explana- 328 TIMBtUt FRAMING tious are given on the druwiug iu connection with the framing and construction of the wliole work, all of which should be readily understood by the workman. Fit;. 35!). I show two examples of towers in Figs. 359 and 360, and as the timbers shown are figured it would be waste of space to leUo^aen our description. "With these examples I conclude on spires, tow- ers and turrets, and will now endeavor to show and describe some examples of timber bams, and work of a similar kind. The illustrations shown are sufficiently clear to render lengthy description unnecessary. The sketch shown at Fig. 361 is in- tended to represent the end of a barn about 55 feet ■^^^B ■xrim-rffm---90m^gy HEAVY TIMBER FRAMING ft 329 Fig. SfiO. i^r 330 TIMBER FRAMINQ m. i-:l ; ii ;i . 5 1 Ml ^^^^^^^mi M ^H ^^^^^^^BBf !■• M iL^-BftiH wide. The open space under the main floor may bo left as a shelter for cattle, or it may be built in an excavation in a bank, forming what is known as a "bank barn." Fig. 362 shows another sketch of bam which is slightly different from the previous one may be used as a bank barn or otherwise. mi • _ iUio HEAVY TIMDKR FRAMINQ 331 The sketch shown in Fig. tlC/A will answer for a center bent in either of the previous examples, as it forms a pood truss in assisting the swing beam in earrj'ing the upper structure. Fig. 364 shows the side of a bam 65 feet long. This framing will suit any length of barn, and M 332 TIMBER FRAMING may be covered by any kind of a framed roof of the usual style. The openings may be filled m with studs and braces, or may be covered m with heavy rolling doors. The sketches shown at Figs. 365 and 366 are intended to apply to roofs having a span of not more than 40 feet. The roof shown at Fig. 365 is HEAVY TIMBER FRAMING '■V5>ji- 1 — ^ B 1 1 c J ^ i 1 \ i 1 ^ "'''^ li v^<^^ 1 e J P. 333 nicely adapted for using a "hay fork," as the timber in the ridge will accommodate the fork and its appliances. I show a number of designs for framing barns with gambrel roofs at Figs. 367, 368, 369, 370, 371 I 334 TIMBER FRAMING and 372. These will, I think, be ample to meet almost any requirement in this class of roofs. Figs. 369 and 370 appear to be favorites with f ramers in some parts of the west where there are barns that have been built on these lines over thirty years ago, and which are still doing good service after "braving the battle and the breezes and cyclones" so long, and they still give promise of doing business at the old stands for many years yet to come. U\ Fis- 305. Temporary seats, or "grand stands," for fairs, exhibitions, outside conventions or similar occa- sions, are often called for, and the man who knows how best and most economically to build same will be the man to secure the contract for such work. While I do not intend to go deeply into this phase of timber framing, I deem it due to my ■m HEAVY TIMBER FRAMING 335 Figr. 366. in -^ r\ / \\ / \ Figr. 367. 15 St. 336 TIMBER FRAMING // < > ^ 1^ V '%jV Fig. 368. W- t : . ■ i ■ , ^' H /r \ //A //G-^ \ \ 3 //•* II \ - 1> \j m / — y Fig. M9. HEAVY TIMBER FRAMING 337 readers that I should submit something to them that may be of use should they ever be called upon to erect structures of this £ind. kJ. k^ Fig. 370. Fig. 371. To build a temporaiy lot of seats where the space is limited between walls, the proposition is rather a simple one, as the framing may easily be 1 338 TIMBER FRAMING erected and slightly attached to the walls, or, if the walls permit of it, timbers may be laid so that their ends may rest in the walls, and they may be Fig. 37: supported through the center by a triangular framework, such as shown at Fig. 373, and the seating may be built on as shown in Fig. 374. Fig. 373. This shows the principles on which all stands of this kind are built. Sometimes the timber and planking are all spiked or nailed together. This vj- HEAVY TIMBER FRAMING 339 is objectionable as' in that case all the bearing strength of the frame must be on the nails or spikes, something that should not be. A "meh Flgr. 374. better way -would be to put the frame together with large screws or bolts, then the framework can be taken down without much injury to the i'i Fig. 375. material. If the seats are to have benches on them, and to be raised above the ground at the lower end the steps must be made wider to suit 340 TIMBER PBAMINQ these conditions, as shown at Fig. 375. If chairs are to be used on the platform the steps should not be less than 2 feet 4 inches wide, each hav- ing the proper rise. The diagram shows how such steps can be formed with a minimum of both materials and labor. Another manner of constructing these galleries is shown in Fig. 3V6. In this case the upper plat- form is left about 5 feet 4 inches wide, which 'MO.Spikedto Side of Jorat. Fig. 376. leaves room enough for seating on the step and for people to pass to and fro between the wall and the rear of the people on the seat. The dia- gram shown at Fig. 377 has a much steeper pitch, and is built over a series of trusses. This admits of the lower portion of the truss being arched, which gives more headroom to the floor below. The treads or steps in this series are much nar- rower than those shown in previous examples. Fig. 378 shows a portion of a gallery having an HEAVY TIMBER FRAMING 341 Fig. 3-7. Fig. 378. :\i£. ^'•■•#'.*^ 342 TIMDKK FRAMING arched ceiling and an oniamented panel in the angle which relieves the work and makes a good finish. Another scheme is shown in Fig. 379. This is figured on the plan so there is no need of further exi)l:mation. Two other examples are shown at Fig. 380. The principal B is notched on the wall-plate G, and also on the beam F.; the tie is secured on the wall- l)late II and bolted to the principal. F is a beam Fig. 379. serving the office of a purlin to carry the gallery joists ; D is a strut ; bh are the floors of the pews or seats; and ccc t'ne partitions ; C is a hammer- piece or bracket resting on the beam E and bolted to the principal B ; its outer extremity carries the piece I, which supports the gallery front. No. 2, Fig. 380, is another example of the trussed principal A D C E, resting on the wall- J ^' i'miii.iijs»' ^im^ X HEAVY TIMBER (KAMmG 343 plate H, and front hvnm E HUi)[)orts the })eam K, which carries tlie jiijallery joists B; a a and b b are the floors and partitions of the seats. S FlR. 380. In building stands of this kind, or designing same, nothing should be let go as **good enough" if there be anything at hand better. All timbers -should be of the very best and the workmanship beyond suspicion. In no other structure is hon- ill J^' J44 TIMBER FBAMIN(J .« est work and faitiiful adherence to good and «.tron^ construction more needful tlian in the building of UMuporurj^ strucluro. of tlii8 Kind. ri~z? he ^ lai a l.-rribk ihiug it w Id be if, be «8. ot vour carel'.'ssness, ineo^nr.ei .cy. or defect m iia- ' -rials used in the stam: or galUi , the vrh le HEAVY TIMBER FRAMINO ;54.j n structure loiided with younjr cliildren and lady teiu'hers, was to fijive way and throw every one to the ground or n<^xt floor, musing, i)erhni>s, the loss of niany young lives and many hone fractures. See that the tmilKjr is cound, that everj- joint fits snug and tight. Be sure of your foundation . have the building well braced, and your sleep wi!l not be listurbed by fear of tlio tumbling doun of your framed woi . The framing . bridges fur short an«l nutliuni s] ns, particularly in rountry, villages and towns, will generally fall to the iot of the expert franier. Tht lesigning of iheso brid„'es will al.-o be exe- cute ' by the carpenter and franier; and knowing this, I would not be d. ing ray duty to the country cai-penter if 1 did iiot su imit a number of dia- grams herewith for his guidance. The desigi: f^r a simple chcaidy niade briilgo, shown at Fig. liSl, is (piite . aitablc for a road bridge having a span of about 30 ft. The tindjers shown under the main chord tend to streni^then the whole work. 1 e bmg tinil)ers running acro-s the creek will require to be as lontr as the rhori> thr> trass; tluy will rest on f ^fi0uld be bolted down to placed not more than 6 f Tlio deck of the bridge si sound 3 inch plank, TIk' should be not less than st diameter. •IgiJt iS irooti ISS 11 ii! 846 TIMBER PBAMINO HEAVY TIMBER FRAMINQ 347 Another truss bridge is shown at Fig. 382, which is a trifle easier to build than the one just shown. This is for from 18 to 22 feet span. Sizes of timber are figured out on the diagram. The design shown at Fig. 383 is a most excellent one for a span of about 20 feet. This bridge will carry an enormous load if skillfully built. The timbers are all marked with figures, giving sizes of stuff required. This bridge, with plenty of strin- gers in it, would carry a railroad train. For foot bridges, either of the designs shown would answer very well, with about half the timbers in them as described on the diagram. A very strong truss is shown at Fig. 384, that is suitable for a span of 50 feet, or even a little more. A part of the deck floor is shown at B B, and the cross timbers appear at A, A, A. This makes a good substantial bridge for a roadway and is very popular in many country places. The design shown at Fig. 385 is made for a span of 40 feet. This is also a good design for a gen- eral roadway. Another good truss is shown in Fig. 386 and one whidh is intended for a span of 75 feet. The bridge is 12 feet wide between trusses. The stringers rest on the cross-ties or beams A. The floor con- sists of 2-inch plank nailed on the stringers. The braces butt against a block which is bolted to the chord with two bolts %-inrfh in diameter. The heel of the brace is also fastened to the chord with two I i 348 TIMBER FRAMIKQ I Mli^ HEAVY TIMBER FRAMING 349 i i ii 350 TIMBER FRAMING bolts of the same size. At the point B there are two pieces 6x12 inches, notched and bolted with 00 tab fa two bolts at the top and bottom. There is only a common key splice in the center of the chord. I do not think this to be a very strong bridge for HEAVY TIMBER FRAMING 351 this span, but I would suggest that in making use of it, it should be limited to a span of not more than 65 feet. The trussed bridge shown at Fig. 386i/., is heavy enough for a railway bridge, though it is not intended for that purpose, having been de- signed for a roadway where much hea\y traffic passes over it. The illustrations. Figs. 387 and 388, clearly show the construction and sizes of the different parts. Where strength and stability are desired I would not recommend that the parts be made lighter than indicated. In addition to the elevation of the truss, a plan is sh.wn of the road- way, including the cross-braces, floor beams and planking. The cross-braces are 3x12, the floor beams 6x12, and the planking 2x12, laid diagon- ally. Other necessary particulars are furnished by the drawings, as Fig. 338 shows a portion of the decl r platform. Til truss shown at Fig. 388 is for a span of about 72 feet. The illustration showing the con- struction requires no explanation other than to say that the rods and plates should be provided with cast-iron washers of such shape that all the nuts will fit square with the bolts. The washers at the angles of the main braces and upper curves are made to take both rods and to extend over the joint sufficiently to hold the brace. The bridge shown is 72 feet span, or 75 feet extreme length. It has a roadway 14 feet wide. This, on a much- 352 TIMBER PRAMINO tie HEAVY TIMBER FRAMING 353 i traveled highway would be better 16 feet wide. The bridge should be constructed with about 6- inch spring. If oak timber is used in the construc- tion of the bridge, the dimensions of the pieces may be somewhat reduced from what is shown on the drawing. The bridge shown at Fig. 389, is a double strut bridge, and is a very strong one; would answer for a roadway where heavy traffic crossed. The two struts, CC, on each side of the center show how it is braced, as also do the struts DD, which add much to the stiffness of the work. A shows the stringer, while B shows the timber for abutting the long struts against. Another bridge )f nearly the same span is shown at Fig. 390. This is a simple example with one strut on each side of the center of each beam ; A is the chord or beam, B the strut, and C the straining- piece bolted to the beam. The rail above the beam is for protection only, and is not intended to bear any part of the load, although, if properly framed, it will be of service in this respect. Wlien the spans are too great to be bridged in this simple manner, some metliod of trussing must be adopted. With scarcely an exception, the ex- amples of trussed bridges may be resolved into the following groups (391) : 1. Tnisses below the roadway, and exerting a lateral thrust on the abutments. \ SI _. TIMBER FRAMING I- r. tvio rnadwav, and exerting 9 Trusses above the roaaway, only vertical pressure on the supports. o Tru-e. below the roadway, composed of r«r"'^^fW HEAVY TIMBER FRAMING 355 4. Trusses below or above the roadway, com- posed of timber arches with ties and braces, and exerting only vertical pressure on the supports. 5. Lattice trusses above the roadway. I show a bridge at Fig. 392, having a span of over 100 feet, that is not, properly speaking, a truss bridge, and which is not very difficult of construction. This bridge was built more than fifty years ago by the celebrated Thomas Telford, C. E., and it is still doing good service; and may continue to do so for many years yet, if it gets good care. I show at Fig. 393 a 100-feet span trussed bridge constructed on the lines of the Howe Truss. I also give some data for figuring on the strength of this bridge and the loads it will carry. The bridge is, of course, a compound structure of steel rods and timber beams, which will probably be best. The dead load may be taken for trial at 7 cwt. per foot run, and the live load will be, say 7 cwt. per foot run, making a total load of '^-^^1^1^70 tons, or 35 tons on each truss. Assume the elevation to be as shown in No. 1, then the frame diagram will be as shown in No. 2, and the stress diagram as shown in No. 3. It will be necessary also to ascertain the stresses when the first three bays only are loaded, as this puts the fourth bay under a diagonal com- pressive stress when there is no compression mem- 356 TIMBER FRAMING ■ u be fa *:^-^j UEAVV TIMBER FRAMINO 357 ber in the reciuired direction, which is met by the compression member 19-20 undergoing 2.2 tons tension. Tlie frame diagram .for this will be as shown in No. 4, and the stress diagram as shown Fig. 393. in No. 5. The stresses may be measured off the diagrams, and the bridge will then want careful designing to suit the material employed. In the Illustration shown in Fig. 394 is repre- sented an ordinary lattice bridge which may have any ordinary span from 50 to 125 feet. No. 8 is % 358 TIMBKK PR.vMtNO i 1: I I ~ 1 ?■ t f. I I 1 (0 na»r^i >ie taken to cut these to the proi^er length. Trautwine al«o gives a method for finding the length of the braces in cambered trusses, but while the method shown is practically correct, in so far 362 TIMBER FRAMING as lines are concerned, yet it could not be applied verT^ell in a timber trnss, at least, not so well as the method shown previously. It must be remembered, that an calcuUxt.ng strains in trusses, skeleton diagrams are used, and the lines composin? these diagrams are generally taken or drawn turough the axes of the various members, -hese lines usually meet at a common S of intersection as will be seen from the Tttd lines in Fig. 397. But in practice these lines Fib'. 397. do not always thus meet. The metliod shown by Trautwine is that of finding the length o the hy- pothenuse AC of the right angled triangle ABC , and even were these axial lines to meet at a com- mon point of intersection the rule would not apply on account of the angle blocks takmg up part of the distance. The l)est way to get the length would be to lav out one panel full size. I «Ww at Fig, :508. a diagram of a Howe truss complete.' This will give an idea of the way m HEAVY TIMBER FRAMING 363 ■which these trusses are constructed. A theoretical description of these styles of truss would scarcely be in place in this treatise, because of the fact that the carpenter who does the framing has but little to do with the theory, and because of the other fact that there are a number of excellent treatises in the market. Another branch of timber framing is that of "shoring and needling," which may be analyzed as follows : FiR. 398. A system of raking shores. Fig. 309, consists of from one to four inclined timbers ranged vertically over each other, thoir lower ends springing from a stout sole-piece bedded in the ground, and their upper ends abutting partly against a vertical plank secured to the face of the wall and partly against the "needles"— horizontal projections that pene- trate the wall-plate and the wall for a short dis- ^ *i n OP The needles are generally cut out of 3-inch by 4VL^inch stuff, the entering end reduced to 3-iuch 364 TIMBER FRAMING ^^^H- - 1 TJ 1 1 P>: 1 1 HiitfMt Fig. 399. HEAVY TIMBER FRAMING 365 by 3-inch for convenience in entering an aperture formed by removing a header from the wall. The shouldered side is placed upwards, and cleats are fixed above them into the wall-plate to strengthen their resistance to the sliding tendency of the Fig. JOO. shore. They are preferably sunk into the plate at the top end as indicated by the dotted lines in Fig. 400. The head of the raker should be notched slightly over the needle, as shown in the detail sketd), Fig- 400, to prevent its being knocked aside, or moving t'i' 366 TIMBER FRAMING out of position in the event of the wall settling hack The top shore in a system is frequently made in two lengths for convenience of handling, and the upper one is known as the -rider," the supportmg shore being termed the "back shore." The rider is usually set up to its bearing with a pair of folding wedges introduced between the ends of the two shores. (See Fig. 399.) m Fig. 401. Braces are nailed on the sides of the rakers and edges of wall-plate to stiffen the former. TliP sole-piece is bedded slightly out of square with the rakers, so that the latter may iigiiteu as they are driven up. HEAVY TIMBER FRAMING 367 The shores should be secured to the sole-piece with timber dogs; and, when in roadways or other public places, it is wise precaution to fix several turns of hoop-iron around their lower ends, fixing these with wrought nails. A system of flying shores, see Figs. 401 and 402, consists of one or more horizontal timbers, called Fip. 402. **dog shores," wedged tightly between two wall- plates, secured to the surfaces of adjacent walls. The middle of the shore is supported by braces sprinffi! .;• from needles fixed to the lower ends of the pla 's, and are usually counteracted by corre- sponding iTK^lined braces raking from the upper ends of tl- ,iiates. 368 TIMBER FRAMING An angle of 45 degrees is the best for tliese br^s^nd abutments for their ends are supplied by Ttraining or ''cro.n" pieces secured to the "^'wedges are inserted between the straining pieces and the brace to bring all up tight^ When one slwie only is used, the be.t general pos n to fix U is about tl>rec-quart.rs tl,e he.gh of the wall, but much depends upou ^e ^*;'^ »"^ ^ walls, and tlie nature or position of abutment. 'll^feXortunlty offers, a complete system of ZZv considerable differences m lhe>r thru»t or rpsistance to the walls. Tpproxin-tc rules and scantlings tor rakmg shores : Walls 15 ft. to -M) ft. high, 2 shores each system. Walls 30 ft. to 40 ft. high, 3 shores each system. Lib 40 ft. and hi^lu'v, 4 shores each sys er^^^^ The angle of the shores GO degrees to -o dr^^recs not more th:ni than 15 ft. ar-irt. ifZl-o ft. to 20 ft. bigb, i in. .. 4 m. or . m. x 5 in. ^miM^ HEAVY TIMBER FRAMING 369 Walls 20 ft. to 3U ft. high, 9 in. x 41/0 in- or 6 in. X 6 in. Walls 30 ft. to 35 ft. high, 7 in. x 7 in. Wall» 35 ft. to 40 ft. high, C in. x 12 in. or 8 in. X 8 in. Walls 40 ft. to 50 ft. high, 9 in. x 9 in., 50 ft. and upwards. 12 in. x 9 in. HorizoniiK ^-lioiing: Spans not exceeding 15 ft.— principal si rut 6 in. x 4 in. and raking .struts 4 in. X 4 in. Spans from 35 ft. to 33 ft.— principal strut 6 m. X 6 in. to 9 in. x 9 in. ; raking struts from 6 in. x 4 in. to 9 in. X 6 in. The manner of shoring the upi)er part of 1 build- ing is shown in Fig. 403. Particulars are given on the illustration, rendering further explanation unnecessary. Another class of frnming I have not yet touched upor. is that wiiere a timber structure, such as a tank frame or a frame for a windmill, i^ re(iuired, and where the four corners lean in tow^rds the center- and 1 will now endeavor to supply this deficiem : A structuiv of this kind mav be called a "truncated pyramid," that i -. a pyramid with its top end cut aw.sy at soniv v.oint in its li.>ight leaving a platform ieve! with Uu' horizon, but of course less in area than the ba^c. Thus, if we suppose iy timber structure having a base 20x20 feet square, and a deck or plaii'onu 12x12 feet square there will be a difference oi 8 ft. between 37U TIMBER FRAMING fei *!«■ ^^z- dt»e/*t>cn *el9t» Fig. 403. the base and platform, or the platform will be 4 feet less on every side than the base, but the center of the base area must be directly under the center point of the i.h-.tfonn area. If the structure is 15 HEAVY TIMBER rRAMINO 371 feet high, or any other height that may be deter- mined on, the four corner-posts will act as four hips, and will be subject to the same constructional rules as hip rafters, with some modifications and additions to suit changed conditions. Of the many methods employed of obtaining bevels for oblique cuts on the feet and tops of posts having two inclinations, (and there are many), I Fig. 404. Fig. 405. know of none so simple as the one I am about to describe, and which can be applied in nearly every case where timbers meet at or on an angle, as in the case of struts under purlins, or the junction of purlins under hip or valley roofs. It is extremely handy for finding the bevels required for odd shaped tapered structures. Let Figs. 404 and 405, show respectively an elevation and a plan of a raking timber meeting at MICROCOPY RESOLUTION TEST CHART (ANSI and ISO TEST CHART No. 2) 1.0 Ifi- IS I.I IK 2.8 3.2 1 3.6 140 2.2 2.0 1.8 1.25 1.6 A APPLIED INA^GE Inc ^Sr 1653 East Main Street S'.S Rochester. Ne« Vork U609 USA '^^ (7 1 6) 482 - 0300 - Phone aaS (716) 288 - 5989 - Fax .,. ■iE:«^csaEeaK:i:s»ifi0!w..::::^3wsrsff'ffi^^ 372 TIMBER FRAMING an angle .Uh a vertical tl.nber To obtain the S^:roita^et;r.^^%^^-- It tws'ecungle -ith the .Ueh of the raking Um_ t 'mirked F. is the bevel of the b.rd's mouth Fig. 407. with the side To obtain the bevel from the plan Fie 405 draw the line CD, and through B, draw CE.- nual to BC, in Fig. 404; join CF. a„l the required angle, which is the same «« ^^0^° ° ^^^ 404 is obtained. The bevel required for the s de of 1 e strut is the angle made by the pitch of the strut mnvkd C in Fig. 404, which needs no e.plan- at on Figs. 4(K5 and 407, show respectively an ele- vation and a plan -f a raking timber butting at an HEAVY TIMBER FRAMING 373 angle against a plank, tlie section of the rakiug timber being shown by the dotted lines ABCD, in the same figure ; the line AD, being the required bevel, that is, the angle it makes with a line parallel to the edge of the raking part indicated in the fig- ure by the bevel. To obtain the bevel from the plan, draw the dotted line CD, Fig. 406, at right angles to the upright edge of the timber, making the line CG, in the pkm Fig. 407, equal to CD, in Fig. 406; draw the dotted line CD, Fig. 407, and at right angles to it draw X, Y, and project the front G, to E, making the distance of E, from XY, equal to the distance DE, in the elevation. Fig. 406 ; with D as a center, and E as radius, describe the dotted arc until it meets the line XY, and con- tinue it down at right angles to meet a line from G, drawn parallel to XY, in H; then join CHD, and the angle obtained is the bevel required. Fig. 408, and 409, show respectively an elevation and a plan of timbers both meeting angleways, one of them raking. To obtain the bevel from the elevation, draw the line EF, at right angles to the edge DB, and passing through A, making the dis- tance EF equal to one side of the section AB indi- cated by the dotted lines in Fig. 408. Draw the line BF and the angle this line makes with a line parallel to the edge is the required bevel for the top surfaces of the raking part which is indicated in Fig. 408, by J. 374 VIMBER FRAMING 1 I A similar method is adopted in «l't«''»°f "^^ lower bevel, marked K, Fig. 408. The bevels are obtained from the plan Fig. 409, in a similar man- ner to those in Fig. 407. Make the Ime HG, Fig 409 equal to HB in Fig. 408, and contmue it down toE aTright angles to the side. Join EB and draw XY at rilht angles; at right angles to -^^2" the point A to D, making the height of D, above Fig. 408. Fig. 409. XY eqnal to the height of A above HB in Fig. 408 With B as a center, and D as radins, c soribe the lotted arc down to XY, and continue ■* «" «' "S^* angles to meet the line AF drawn parallel to XI , the angle EFB is the bevel for the two "Prer sur- faces, and the same as the bevel J in Fig. 408. To ■I li! HEAVY TIMBER FRAMING 375 avoid confusion, the bevel for the lower surfaces is not shown in Fig. 409, but is found in the man- ner already explained. Fig. 410, is a section of a purlin, showing the pitch of the roof X, and the level line Y. Fig. 411 is a plan of Fig. 410, with a portion of a hip or valley rafter, making an angle of 45 degrees added, which occurs when the pitch of both sides of the roof is the same. When the pitches are different, bevels for the purlin on both sides of the hip or Fig. 411. Fig. 410. valley must be found ; the angle that it makes with the pitch in the roof in plan being the only angular datum required. The method of finding the cuts is as follows : After drawing the purlin as shown in Fig. 410, draw the plan as in Fig. 411, and through the Point A, draw line FG at right angles to the edge of the purlin ; make FG equal in length to AC, Fig. 410, and join CG, wliich will give the bevel for the wide side of the purlin. The bevel for the narrow side is found in a similar manner im^^^^wm^mm ^^^^isSr^ >*■:- '^v^5*}My^ ■■ 376 TIMBER FRAMING t by drawing DE through B, making it equal to AB, Fig. 410, and joining A ^. Fig 411 shows all the lines necessary for ob- taining the bevels in Figs. 410 and 411, the indices correspvmding. The methods shown herewith for obtammg the bevels and cuts for raking timbers of various kinds are quite simple compared with some meth- ods taught. They are not new, nor are they orig- inal, as they have been in use many years among expert frame s and millrights, and have been pub- lished, once before now at all events ; the present method of rendering, however, I am persuaded, will be found simple and easily understood. In connection with obtaining bevels of timbers that are set with an inclination, having one end resting on a floor and the other end cut to fit against a ceiling, the timber lying with two of its angles in the direction of its inclination and the other two Pt right angles to them. In that case the upper end of the timber would require to be cut with the same bevels as the lower end, only reversing the bevels as both top and bottom bevels are alike. If we consider the corner post as a prism, havmg four sides at right angles to each other, then when we cut the foot of it so obliquely a bevel as at ABC, Fig. 412, as to p'tch it at the required inclination, the section resulting will not be square but lozenge shaped, as shown at Fig. 412, and this, of course, ^!WwAP^'»,:s.,Ml#5:«'«® «£ ^ . i-' :::¥;'iaiPl!Fr-a»8»TK^ ai HEAVY TIMBER FRAMING 377 would not stand over a square corner and have its sides to correspond with the face of the sills or plates, so make the post p ^ rism so that its sides will conform to the face of the sills in the ''back- ing" of the post. The lines to shape the post cor- rectly to meet this condition may be obtained in several ways, but by far the simplest is shown at Fig. 413, where the square is employed to show the amount of overwood to Ije removed. Let us sup- Plg. 4i2. FiR. 414. pose the sills to be halved together as shovn at Fig. 414, taking no notice of the tenon and mortise which are shown in this diagram, and this will give us as a ground plan of the sills. Fig. 415, KK, showing the ends of the sills which project past the frame. The point E in Fig. 413 will correspond with the point E Fig. 415 when the post is in posi- tion, and the jioints C and D will correspond with C and D in 1>e same figure. To get the lines for the "backing" draw the diagonal line AB, on Fig. ■■»*i«ali'.-™iY+"»f3l . ■ •c^fW^^m^^'s^mF^^wi^ms'^smx'i^'s^XMisw^ H 378 TIMBER FRAMIN'O ! i i It.- 4i;] then place the heel of the s(iuare on the line AB, near the long corner, and adjust the square on the timber so that the blade just coincides with the comer C, then mark along the blade and tongue of the square, continuing to G and IT, and these pomts will be the gauge points sought, showing the slabs to be removed— l)G and IK^. In laving off the bevels at the foot or top of the post, it must be remembered that the outside cor- ners of the post, AA, Fig. 4i:5 and 415, is the work- ing edge from which the Ix^vels must first be taken, so when the proper bevel is obtained, either by the square or bv an ordinary bevel we must proceed as follows: Bevel over from the corner A, first on one fact of the post, then on the other; then turn the timber over and continue the line across the next face to the corner, and perform the same oi3eration on the fourth face. The lines are now complete for cutting the shoulders, but should there be a tenon on the post and a toed shoulder as shown at Fig. 414, then provision nmst be made for same, a matter the intelligent workman will find no difficulty in dealing with. _ We will now deal with the bevels of the girts that are usuallv framed in between the posts of taper- in- structures. When the post only inclines in one direction, the problem of getting the bevels is a verv simple one, as only the angle of inclmation is re(iuired for the down cut., the cross cuts all bemg square. AVitli posts having two inclinations, how- 1' i :5' • -vi ^* mm!i^^sm^miiM:s^''> HEAVY TIMBEB FRAMING 379 ever, the case is more complex and requires a dif- ferent treatment, as all the cuts are bevels. While it is always — or nearly so — necessary to **back'* the post on the outside, it is hardly ever necessary to perform a similar process on the inside corners of the post, therefore provision must be made on the shoulder of the girt to meet the condition, and this is done by cutting the shoulder on a bevel on both down and cross cuts. Let us suppose EF in Fig. 416 to be the down cut, or the angle of in- clination, marked on the girt ABCl^, just as the Flgr. 415. Fig 416. Fig. 417. line would appear in elevation. Then from E to G, on F, set off a distance e(jual to the width of tim- ber used in the girt, which would be equal to DC. Square down from the point (I as shown to H, con- nect EII, and this line will be the bevel for the face end of the girt. This line being obtained carry a line across the top of the girt corresponding with the inside face of the corner post, and to find this line we must operate as follows: Let Fig. 417 be a reproduction of Fig. 416, then wc lay the blade of the square on the line EF, and supposing the fm,-miii^\ \ 3S0 TIMBER FRAMING i. I i w t '1 l-ii girt to be 8 inchos square, we move the ...ua re Lng until the point S on the tongue ^-;«<-^ «;; -> ^ the corner of the timber, when the heel of the square will define the point G. From G square up obtaining the point K. Square a.ross f^-m K to the point L. which is on the inner corner of the ffirt From L set off a distance back ironi the post equal to the thickness of the slal) that would have been removed from tl-' post, it backed mside, whidi mark off at M, and from this po.n draw a line to E; then ME will be the be-.l of the cross cut over the girt. T have dwelled on this subject at some length be- ,ause of some of the difficulties that surround it, and which in these pages I have endeavored to simplifv and explain. Tapered structures of the kind discussed, whether on a sqimre or p. gou plan, are always troublesome to deal with unle.s the director of the work is well versed in a knowl- edge of the principles that underlie the cons ruc- tion of such structures and this means, almost, an education in itself. I have not touched on the rules for obtaining the lengths and bevels ol diagona braces in structures of this kind, as I am persuaded the sharp workman, who masters the rules given herewith, will be able to wrestle successfully with the diagonal regular tapered work Sometimes an irregular tapered frame is built to serve the purpose cf a regular tank frame, then some changes from the foregoing take place. HE.VN'Y TIMHER FRAMING 381 If we ImiKl two frames same as shown at t ig. 418, and st ml tbem pluinl), with their fa(«'S as the illustratiou sliows, any distance ai»art, there need l)e no trouble in framinji: them or in ticing them together witli girts, as tlic hitter may be framed into tl"^ i^osts square, ami the cuts or bevels for the posts and cross timber may readily be obtained from the di' gran^ of the work. Should the two bents, however, be made to incline towards each other, new conditions arise, that make it more diffi- cult to get the joints for the girts, and backing for 'msums^iJTmmm 382 TIMBER FRAMING 1 = the posts. AVhen the U.itH draw or lean into eacli other the posts have a double bevel or pitch making it take the form of a hip and as the posts are slanted over to fonn the pitch on the other side, v;c find that the face side, No. 2, Fig. 41!) will draw in from the face of the sill on the comer K The PIB. 419. amount the post will draw in can be deteraiined by cutting' the - i^er bevels on bottom of post and placing side So. 1 Fig. 419, flush with the bent sill, then sciuare out B to A on side No. 2. ihe distance AB is the amount the post will draw to- wards the center as tbe bents are slanted towards each other. This distance is notliing more or icss K-'!"^^ m .M HEAVY TIMBER FRAMING 383 thnn the backing of the hip, but the beu*s being framed one side on the princi{)al of a common rafter and tlien leaned towards each other, form- ing hips at the comers, causf he backing to come all on one side as shown in F' . 420. Side Xo. 2 is the side that has to be backed m order to stiuu' flush with sill, and the amount to take off the out side corner is tlie distunee AB. For the bevel across the t p of girts and braces on side Xo. 2, Fig. 4::0. 419, square across the i)ost as AC, set off AB same as is shown at bottom of i)ost, and connect BC. A bevel set with stock on line of post and blade on liiie BC will give the required bevel: blade gives i ^■^'^■'v.5:?j«:?^5!*j^«?:^i«3s?vf^>'.'^« 384 Ti:iBER FBAMINQ cut. Tbe bactog i. ,-baps .no- e-"y -P^^-j I,,, p:„ iW Cut a section of post to reqm>e wfl ™ tu; bottom and place a steel square flush wltb 'kte No 1 and it will show plainly the amount r b. kLg be taken from outside corner as /KrTlfese lines will not do to set the bevel b, fofcnttlg t .e top and bottom sides ot g.rts and lor cuiuug 1 jj^g ^^.g, „f the braoos '^7>'f, :^,*^. ■ ", ferefore is greater than the bottom cut o h.p .md thereto g ^^^ ^^^^^ li'teXLt^ :".>o'" "the racking applied as shown in Fig. 419. ■frw •^T^ »?^^H INDEX TO TIMBER FRAMING ALPHABETICALLY ARRANGED A Adhesion of nails 47 A freneral system of Hoor framing 199 Aufj:ular framing 371 Angular joints 43 Approximate weight of roofs 251 Arched centers 217 Arched roof 275 B Backing tapering corner posts 384 Balloon framing 51 Bare-face stub tenon 196 Barn framing 188 Barn building 330 Barrel centering . . 234 Bay-windows 133 Beams and roof trusses 259 Bolts for walls 260 Bond timber 75 Bow-lattice bridges 359 Boxing 182 Boxing for shoulders 184 Box sills 54 385 i '1 ' 386 °^^ 193 Braces for purlins ^^ Bracing 53 Bracing corner ^g Brick clad wall ^49 Bridge centers ^^^ Bridges g^-y Bridge stresses '^g Bridging 218 Builders' centers ^^ Building 29 Built-up beams 224 Built-up centers C 203 Ceiling joists . . 216 Centers 026 Centers for large spans -;^g Centers for small openings --^ Chalk lining gg Chimney stack '^^5 Circular towers .""^.-"1" ' u.mJ\ '" 17 Classification according to size of timber (table) ... 17 Classification of fastenings in carpen y - Classification of joints in carpentry ^J ,lassification of timbers • ^^ Coach screws 268 Collar-beam roof ,316 Conical spires ' ^q Coniferous trees ' ' ' g^ Corner studs -j^g^ Cornice rrmsffm INDEX 387 Cornices 144 Couple close roofs 264 Cross bridging 76 Cupola roofs 132 Curbed frame barns 335 Curb roofs 261 Curved cornices 147 Curved ^lansard roof 269 Curving a truss bridge 360 Cutting curved rafters 124 Cutting-off marks 176 Cutting ribs for roofs 123 D Detail of centers 229 Detail of timber frame 197 Details of elliptical centers 247 Details of groins 241 Details of heavy centers 242 Diagrams of joists and studs 62 Dome roofs 116 Door trimming 72 Double boxing 186 Double braced 187 Double flooring 206 Double-rake framing 374 Double shoring 366 Double stands 339 Double-tapered framing 383 Dovetailed joints 44 Draw boring 185 388 INDEX E 198 Elevation of frame ^43 Elliptical arches ^^^ Elliptical centers for bridges ^^^ End of barn 2x9 Engineer's centers g Exogens, endogens, ecrogens P 25 Fished beams and scarfed beams ^^ Fishplates and fished joints ^-^ Flat centering '. ". ! . . '. " SO, 208 Floor framing g^^ Flue trimming ^^^ Foot bridges ,,-2 Forms of roofs ~^ Foundations .^^ Fox tail tenons ,^^^ Frame barns ^g Framed sills and joists . ^^ Framed wall '^2 Framing • ' ' ^.^q Framing bay windows ^^^ Framing of dome roofs ^^^ Framing of ogee roof ^^^ Framing on the rake ^^ Framing scantling ^g Furring pieces mammmmmmmmiH'9 tmm INDEX 389 G Gains and scarfs 30 Gambrel roofs 261 General framing 77 General trimming 57 Getting curves 237 Girders 3g Gothic spire 321 Grand stands — for piil)lie occasions .... 340 Groins 236 Gutters j ^1 H Halving joints 52 Hammer-beam roof (for country churcli^ 304 Hammer-beam roofs (ornamented) 299 Hammer-beam roof:: (plain) 297 Haunched tenons 40 He&vv timber bridq:ci5 351 Hip rafters 254 Hip roofs 254 Hip spans 254 House plans 90 House walls 91 Howe framed roofs 286 Introductory 7 Introduction to Part II 151 Iron angles 209 Is heavy timber framing a lost art ? 152 390 INDKX J 258 Jack-rafters ^ Joints, in woodwork ^^ Joist hangers K 212 Keyed tusk tenon ^iq Keyed-up timbers ^^2 King post roof ^ 275 Laminated root ^^g Lantern roof .,f,Q Large centers ^^k Large elliptical center '^^^ Lattice bridges ^^^2 Lattice roofs ^^g Laying out marks ^^^ Laying out round timbers ^^^ Lean-to roofs ^26 Lengthening piles ^^^ Lining-up timber ^,^ List of tools g-g Long lattice bridges ^^^ Long span bridges 140 Look-outs INDEX 391 M Making mortices and tenons 167 Mansard roofs 127, 262 Mansard self-supporting roofs 307 Method of carving curbed roofs 104 M"thod of framing joists 60 Method of framing ogee roofs 101 Method of putting in sill 6 ! Molded roof 112 Mixed framing, iron and * 'mber 200 N Nails 46 Non-coniferous trees 10 Octagon spires and steeples 316 Odd corner 65 Ogee roof 99 One-hundred feet span — truss bridges 355 Ornamental cornices 150 P Plan of tower roof 109 Platform and raking shores 370 Preface 1 h A M. i It 392 INDEX Projecting cornices 1^3 Public stjinds 338 Purlin plates 1^^ Purlins 1^" Q Quality of trees 8 Queen post roofs 275 Queen posts • ^oj Queen post trusses 255 R Rafter ends 1^2 Raking curves 1-^ Raking shores '^^f Road bridges "^^2 Roof coverings 251 Roof framing ^" Roofs 251 Roof trusses '-'^*' Rubbetod joints ^3 Rule for cutting braces 19^ Rules for roofs 280 S Scarfed beams 25 Scarf marks ^'''^ Scissors roof 1^1 Seasoning of timber 1- INDEX 393 Section dome roof 121 Section of centers L»27 Section of dormer window 95 Section of wall 57, 68 Section opee roof 120 Sections — Mansard roofs 128 Sections of corners 66 Sections of timber 1-^ Segments for centers 225 Self-supportinj; roofs 129 Shoring and needling I5G3 Short span bridges '^47 Shrinkage H SilLs— boxed ^^^ Silver grain 9 Single rafter roof 263 Skating rink roofs -^10 Solid sills 55 Spire 97 Squaring over 1" • Stair-hea lers 81 Stair trimming 8'- Steel beams 207 Strains on roofs -•! Strength of timber -0.) Stub tenon 196 Studding Y' Suitable pitches '-f)! Supported arched roofs 289 Suspended roofs -' ° 894 INDEX \U c ' ; T Table for nails and screws 47 THkinj? timber out of wind 163 Taptred framing 382 Templet franiinj? 180 Temporary grandstands 343 Tenoned joists ^^ Tenons 1^1 The various strains on timber -1 Timbered roofs 1^' Timbering floors 202 Timber towers ^ ^29 Toggle joints •^•^ Towers ^"^ Tredgold on joint fasteninus 19 Trimming windows '1 Trussed bridges -^48 Trussed roofs ^29, 282 Tusk tenons ^* IT Use of glue ^^ V Vallev boards 258 Vallev rafters ^-^^ Various scarfs *"' INDEX 895 Vault centering 234 Vortical joints 28 V-roofs 261 W Wall plates 259 Wall section 68 Wedges for centers 222 Well-holes 82 Winding sticks ^64 Window trimiuing ^^ Witness marks ^'^^ Wooden spires, turrets and towers 314 Working square timber 162